Proceedings of the annual convention

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING

ASSOCIATION

CONTENTS, VOLUME 77

(For detailed index, see Bulletin 658, page 713)

Bulletin 654, September-October 1975 Page

Principles and Criteria for the Design of a Railroad Test Track Facility 1
Work Equipment Repair Organizations of North American Railroads
(Advance Report of Connnittee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work

Equipment) 9

Tie Renewals and Costs (Advance Report of Committee 3 — ^Ties and Wood

Preservation ) 13

Statistical Data for Coupled-in-Motion Weighing and Testing (Advance

Report of the Special Committee on Scales ) 25

Summary of Performance of Standard-Carbon and Various Wear-Resistant
Rails in Test Curves on the Chessie System — Second Report (Advance
Report of Committee 4 — Rail ) 55

Bulletin 655, November-December 1975 (Part 1)

Manual Recommendations 87-249

Bulletin 655, November-December 1975 (Part 2 — Reports of Committees)

Highways (9) 255

Engineering Records and Property Accounting ( 11 ) 273

Yards and Terminals ( 14 ) 279

Bulletin 656, January-February 1976 (Reports of Committees)

Scales ( Special Committee ) 287

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance ( 22 ) 299

Environmental Engineering (13) 323

Maintenance of Way Work Equipment (27 ) 333

Clearances ( 28 ) 337

Buildings (6) 341

Timber Structures ( 7 ) , 351

Concrete Structures and Foundations ( 8 ) 353

Steel Structures (15) 359

Roadway and Ballast ( 1 ) 363

Ties and Wood Preservation ( 3 ) 367

Rail (4) 373

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations (16) 383

Engineering Education ( 24 ) 401

Electrical Energy Utihzation (33) 403

Addresses Presented at Vancouver Regional Meeting 415-449

Bulletin 658, June-July 1976 (Technical Conference Report) Page

President's Address 487

Special Features '^91

Installation of Officers 667

AAR Engineering Division Session 673

Report of Executive Director 681

Report of Treasurer 691

AREA Constitution 697

^. c. \^rQ/ttne.yef

/J

American Railway

Engineering Association— Bulletin

RECEIVED
NOV 0 6 197S

t. STALLMEYER

Bullefin 654
Proceedings Volume 77*

September-October 1975

CONTENTS

Principles and Criteria for the Design of a Railroad Test

Track Facility 1

Work Equipment Repair Organizations of North Ameri-
can Railroads (Advance Report of Committee 27 —
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment) 9

Tie Renewals and Costs (Advance Report of Committee

3 — Ties and Wood Preservation) 13

Statistical Data for Coupled- in -Motion Weighing and
Testing (Advance Report of the Special Committee
on Scales) 25

Summary of Performance of Standard-Carbon and Various
Wear-Resistant Rails in Test Curves on the Chessie
System — Second Report (Advance Report of Com-
mittee 4 — Rail) 55

Directory — Consulting Engineers 84—1

•Proceedings Volume 77 (1976) wiU consist of AREA BuUetins 654, September-

BOARD OF DIRECTION

1975-1976

President
J. T. Ward, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, 500 Water
St., Jacksonville, FL 32202

Vice Presidents
John Fox, Assistant Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Windsor Station, Montreal,

PQ H3C 3E4
B. J. WoRLEY, Vice President — Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific

Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606

Past Presidents

D. V. Sartore, Chief Engineer — Design, Burlington Northern, Inc., 176 E. 5th St., St.

Paul, MN 55101
R. F. Bush, Chief Engineer, Erie Lackawanna Railway, Midland Bldg., Cleveland, OH

44115

Directors
R. W. Pember, Chief Engineer — Design and Construction, Louisville & Nashville Rail-
road, P. O. Box 1198, Louisville, KY 40201

E. Q. Johnson, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Chessie Systena, P. O. Box 1800,

Huntington, WV 2S718

W. E. FuHR, Assistant Chief Engineer — Staff, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific
Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606

B. E. Pearson, Chief Engineer, Soo Line Railroad, Soo Line Bldg., Room 1520, Minne-
apolis, MN 55440

P. L. Montgomery, Manager Engineering Systems, Norfolk & Western Railway, 8 N.
Jefferson St., Roanoke, VA 24042

E. C. HoNATH, Assistant General Manager Engineering, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway, 900 Polk St., Amarillo, TX 79171

Mike Roucas, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, P. O. Box 471, Green-
ville, PA 16125

J. W. DeValle, Chief Engineer Bridges, Southern Railway System, 99 Spring St., S. W.,
Atlanta, GA 30303

R. L. Gray, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, P. O. Box 8100, Montreal,
PQ H3C 3N4

E. H. Waring, Chief Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, P. O. Box
5482, Denver, CO 80217

Wm. Glavin, General Manager, Grand Trunk Western Railroad, 131 W. Lafayette
Blvd., Detroit, MI 48226

G. H. Maxwell, System Engineer of Track, Union Pacific Railroad, 1416 Dodge St.,
Omaha, NE 68179

Treasurer

A. B. HiLLMAN, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago, 6900 S. Central Ave.,
Chicago, IL 60638

Executive Director

Earl W. Hodgkins, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605
Assistant to Executive Director

N. V. Engman, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Administrative Assistant

D. F. Fredley, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Published by the American Railway Engineering Association, Bi-Montbly, January-February, April-
May, June-July, September-October and November-December, at
59 East Van Buren Sueet, Chicago, Dl. 6060S
Second class postage at Chicago, III., and at additional mailing offices.
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Copyright © 1975

American Railway Engineering Association

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Principles and Criteria for the Design of a Railroad
Track Test Facility*

By Arnold D. Kerr^

SUMMARY

The paper contains a discussion of principles and criteria for the design of a
railroad track test facility. One such facility is to be built and operated by tlie
Federal Railroad Administration ( FRA ) . The puipose of the tests to be conducted
is to support the various track research programs which aim to improve the design
as well as the maintenance procedures and safety of railroad tracks.

INTRODUCTION

As part of its effort to pro\ide the technology necessary for improving the per-
formance and safety of the railroad tracks in the United States, the Federal Rail-
road Administration ( FRA ) is planning to build and operate a track research labo-
ratory in Pueblo, Colorado. The purpose of the tests to be conducted at this
lalx)ratory is to gain information for impro\ing the design, as well as the main-
tenance procedures, for railroad tracks. The planned program may include tests for:
( 1 ) the determination of stresses in the rails, ties and fasteners due to static and
dynamic loads and various conditions of the ballast; (2) the determination of safe
temperature increases to prevent buckling of an unloaded track; and (3) a study
of the effect of a moving train on the stability of a thermally compressed track. In
these tests special attention should be given to the effect of tamping and traffic
compaction of the ballast on the stability of the welded track, a problem of great
importance for stipulating efficient track maintenance procedures.

The purpose of the following presentation is to establish a number of general
principles and criteria for the design of such a track test facility.

DISCUSSION OF DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA

When planning a test stand for the study of the track response caused by a
variety of forces, it is essential to know the approximate displacement and force
distributions anticipated during the \arious tests. This is necessary for the stipula-
tion of the minimum length of the test track and for estimating the largest antici-
pated forces. This in turn affects the choice of the loading mechanisms and the
accuracy of the measuring devices.

The first task in the planning of such a test stand is the determination of the
minimum length of the test track, L,„,„. From the literature on railroad track tests,
it appears that from the multitude of tests to be conducted, the buckling and
dynamic experiments require the longest track section.

Consider the straight track shown in Fig. 1-(I). A uniform temperature
increase induces in the welded rails, due to constrained thermal expansions, an
axial compression force Ni which does not \ar\- along the track, as shown in Fig.

" Research sponsored bv the Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration,
under contract DOT-FR-400i7.

1 Visiting Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.

1
Bui. 654

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

z

undeformed state

-buckled state
I a

(I) Top view of track

K

K

(I) Axial compression force before buckling

m

n;

N.

-N,

— •-=— — I 1 —

(H) Axial compression force after buckling

Fig. 1

N

l-(II). For a large value of Ni, say N,, the track may buckle out. The resulting
force distribution is shown, schematically, in Fig. l-(III). In the buckled region
of length I, because of the associated deformations, part of the thermal expansions

is released. This results in a reduction of the axial force Nt to Nt. In the adjoining
regions, each of length a, due to ballast resistance to axial displacement of the

track, the constrained thermal expansions vary; so does the axial force A^( < N <
Ni, as shown in Fig. l-(III). According to the above description, track buckling is
a local phenomenon and except for the length (/ + 2c) the track is not affected by
it. Thus

L„,An = l+2a (1)

To realize the possible effect of the adjoining regions of length 2a, the reader
is referred to Ref . ( 1 ) and to Ref . ( 2 ) . The case n = o in Ref . ( 1 ) corresponds
to the elimination of the elfect of the adjoining regions.**

The test tract at the Technical University of Karlsruhe, used for the DB track
research program, consisted of a 46.50-m (153-ft) track confined between two
reinforced concrete piers weighing 624 tons each. For details the reader is referred
to Ref. (3) (4)

The test track of the Civil Engineering Laboratory of the Western Region of
British Railways consisted of a 36.6-m (120-ft) track anchored at both ends to
concrete blocks sunk to ground level. For details the reader is referred to Ref. (5).

The test track of the Central Railroad Research Institute of the Soviet Union
(CNII MPS) consists of a 100-m (328-ft) long straight track, mounted between
two concrete piers. The length of a curved test track was fixed to 200 m (656 ft).
For details the reader is referred to Ref. (6).

"For buckling in the horizontal jilane, the load q in (1) and (2) is to be interpreted as
a resistance against lateral deformations.

Designing a Railroad Test Track Facility

According to the results of many buckling tests conducted on the 100-m test
track by CNII (6), the track buckled in the horizontal plane and the buckled
length (which usually consisted of more than one wave) varied for different tracks.
The largest observed I for a straight track was 42 m. For many tests, I was about
30 m. The values for cui-ved tracks were about the same. These results suggest that
the test tracks of the DB and BR may have been too short. This conjecture is also
confirmed by the buckling mode shown in Fig. 31 of Ref. (5).

If a test track is too short, it will usually yield higher buckling temperatures
than a corresponding track encountered in the field. In view of the larger rigidities
of the rails currently in use in the U.S.A. (and to be tested in the future), it is
proposed that for the planned test track Imtn should be about 60 m. Taking into
consideration the additional lengths 2a, it appears that a reasonable minimum total
length of the new test track should be (for an analysis see footnote below):

L,„,„ ■= 490 m (about 1,600 ft)* (2)

The next task is to decide on tJie type of end restraints. This may be achieved
in several ways:

( 1 ) The track may continue on boUi ends as in an actual railroad track.
The minimum length, h, of these adjoining regions to L is determined
from the largest anticipated track compression force, say NT'"' = 500
tons'"*, and the resistance of the imloaded track to axial displacements
r(x) per unit length of track. Considering the equilibrium of forces
in the horizontal plane on the free body diagram shown in Fig. 2, it
follows that:

b

1

moxM

r /q

N| y^

y

L

"" —

■•"

"" —

rW

y.

■*—

■'—

V

1 — 5 —

'q

Fig. 2

NT

J r{x) dx (3]

* The value of Lmin = 490 m in equation (2) was determined by assuming
that Nt — N, = 150 tons, hence a = {N! ~ Nt) /r„ = 215 m and L,„,„ = Lm +
2a =: 490 m. The r„ value has to be determined experimentally, after the track to
be tested is chosen.

"'At the Karlsruhe test stand ([4], p. 332) a buckling load of as high as 375
tons was observed. At the BR tests ([5], Table 5) the highest load encountered
was about 275 tons. At the CNII ([6], p. 23) in one test no buckling was observed
even at 425 tons.

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

When r(x) is known, the above integral can be evaluated and then
equation (3) solved for h, its only unknown. In the railroad literature
it is often assumed that /• docs not vary with .r. Hence r(x) =z r„ =:
constant. In this case e(|uation (3) reduces to N',""'' = r„ • /? and hence

b-

^,„„.

(4)

For example, accordinj^ to equation (4), if N'""' = 500 tons and the
resistance r„ ^ 7 kg/cm (467 lb/ft), then the required b equals 715 m
(2,350 ft).

In order to simulate the actual conditions in the field, the desired
distribution of axial forces in the buckled track has to be as shown
schematically in Fig. 3.

b

1

L

= 500

m

1

b

r '1'

"-M,

^^

'~-~

k

JiJJ-

L>^

Distribution of axial forces at the onset of buckling

Desired distribution of forces after buckling

Fig. 3

(2) The necessary length b may be shortened considerably by placing
loaded railroad cars or locomotives outside the L region. Once the
weight and geometry of the available loaded cars or locomotives are
known, their position on the track should be determined to insure the
desired conditions in the L region.

(3) The b regions may be eliminated (almost) entirely by using heavy
piers on both track ends. However, because the anticipated axial track
loads may be as high as 500 tons, small displacements of the piers at
the ends of the test track are usually unavoidable. The magnitude of
these displacements will depend, for a fixed temperature increase, upon
the weight and/or foundation of the piers. The desired distribution of
axial forces in the track after buckling, is shown schematically in Fig. 4.
The drop of the axial forces in the outer track regions of length b', is
due to the anticipated yielding of the piers.

Designing a Railroad Test Track Facility

VZA

Pier

Top view of test stand

YTA

Pier

ti

L =

50C

nr

1

-

. i .

■

^J-^

Distribution of axial forces at the onset of buckling

Nt

i

€>0

\\ 1 II II 11^
LSSOOm

77
€^0 i

1

r

Desired distribution of forces after buckling

Fig. 4

The test tracks in Karlsruhe, at the BR Western Region Laboratory, and at
the CNII MPS used end piers, as described above in option (3). The SNCF (7)
and JNR (8) used locomotives, as described in option (2). The choice of either
of the three alternatives described above should depend upon the availability of
space, locomotives or cars, and other economic factors. Also the versatility of a
particular arrangement with regard to various test programs to be conducted,
should be taken into consideration.

For example, one possible aim to ])c achieved using the planned facility is to
determine the effect of traffic compaction of the ballast on the stability of tlie track.
Namely, how many passes (say, in tons) are needed after tamping to reach the
desired stability of a planned track. This proljlem is related to the removal of
imposed speed restrictions after track renovation. Such a compaction could be
achieved in a test stand by moving locomotives and loaded cars back and forth on
the test track (or in one direction if both ends of the test track are connected to a
track loop) before it is subjected to axial compression forces. For such tests, option
(1) or (2) is preferable. In option (2), after completing the compaction runs, the
locomotives and cars can be used to achieve the desired end conditions. Another
advantage of options (1) and (2) is that the length of the test track, L, can be
easily increased, if this should become necessary. If buckling tests of a heated track
subjected to a moving train are contemplated, or a study of axial rail forces in-
duced by a moving train are planned, then option ( 1 ) is necessary. The length
hmin — 500 m should be sufficient also for these purposes.

Tests involving compaction due to traffic also require that proper clearance
should be secured over the test track in order not to hinder the planned movement
of the locomotive or cars.

6

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

The use of locomotives or loaded railroad cars for compaction purposes re-
quires that the test facility be connected to an existing railroad track in order to
facilitate their delivery and movement. This point should be considered when de-
ciding on the location of the track test facility. In order to enable a study of
buckling phenomena caused by a temperature increase and a moving train, or a
study of axial rail forces induced by a moving train, the possibiUty of tying the
test tract to an existing track loop should be considered when deciding on the loca-
tion of the test track.

For various track studies, there is a need to exeii> on the track a lateral load
of several torus. The lateral load may be produced by means of hydraulic or screw
jacks that press against a structure located near the track, as shown in Fig. 5. Such

test track

Fig. 5

a structure may l^e a concrete pier built along the test track. A more versatile
alternative is to use a heavy tractor instead of the pier. The advantages of using
a tractor are that it can be placed in any desired location along the 500-m-long
track, and that it can be used directly for push or pull purposes. In order to in-
crease its resistance against displacements, when necessary, the tractor may be par-
tially dug in.

For some tests it may be necessary to exert a lateral force on the moving
train (7). This may be achieved, economically, by placing the test track near and
parallel to an existing track.

The axial compression force in an actual welded track is often induced by
raising the rail temperatures. To simulate such a situation the test track has to be
heated. The use of mechanical jacks built into the rails to induce axial compression
forces, as described in Ref. (9), is not admissible, as shown in Ref. (1) (10). In
the test stands in Karlsruhe (3) (4) and at the CNII (6) the rails were heated
utilizing electric currents. In the tests at the BR Western Region Laboratory (5)
heating of the rails was achieved by placing, along each rail, parabolic reflectors
fitted with electric heating elements. For the JNR tests (8) the rails were heated
using steam.

The heating method which uses electric currents is to be preferred. In order
to be able to heat each rail to a different temperature level, each of the two rails
should have its own electric circuit. This arrangement is necessary for those tests
whose purpose will be the determination of the effect of different rail temperatures
(i.e. eccentricity of the axial force in the track) on track stabiHty.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

The guiding principle in designing the track test facility should be that the
test track and its mechanical environment should simulate as closely as possible, for
each test, the situation the actual track will encounter in the field.

Designing a Railroad Test Track Facility

It is proposed that for the planned test track, the lent^th of the test section,
L, be about 1,600 ft. To secure versatility, the end constraints should he achieved
as discussed in option (1); namely, the test track should be sufficiently lon^. Both
ends of the test track should be connected to a track loop, as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

This arrangement is needed for tests which require moving trains over the test
section. Proper clearance over the test track should be secured to allow unhindered
movement of the locomotives and cars over the entire test track. The planned test
track should be connected to an existing track, to facilitate the delivery of rolling
stock. If possible, the test track should be located near and parallel to an existing
track. To exert vertical forces on the track, use can be made of available locomo-
tives or cars and in special situations by utilizing cranes. Lateral forces on the
track can be exerted by mechanical jacks. The necessary supporting structure should
be mobile. To simulate thermal stresses in the field, the axial compression forces in
the track should be induced using electric currents. Each rail should have its own
circuit.

In conclusion it should be noted that because of the large variety of tests to
be conducted, which will include the determination of stresses in the rails due to
vertical and horizontal loads, the study of axial rail forces induced by moving
trains, and track buckling caused by temperature stresses and the moving train,
it is suggested that the track test facility be as versatile as possible. Thus, the con-
struction of permanent structures, such as heavy concrete piers, should be avoided
whenever mechanically possible and economically feasible.

REFERENCES

1. Kerr, A. D. "A Model Study for Vertical Track. Buckling", High Speed Ground
Transportation Journal, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1973, (DOT Report, 1971).

2. Kerr, A. D., "On the stability of the railroad track in the vertical plane". Rail
International, Nr. 2, 1974, (DOT Report, 1972).

3. Raab, F. "Tests on the jointless track" ("Versuche am liickenlosen Gleis", in
German), Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau, H. 10, 1956.

4. Birmann, F. and F. Raab, "To the development of the continuously welded
track — Test results of the Karlsruhe test facility; Their analysis and interpreta-
tion" ("Zur Entwicklung durchgehend verschweisster Gleise — Ergebnisse bei
Versuchen auf dem Karlsruher Priifstand; Ihre Auswertung und Deutung", in
German) Eisenbahntechnische Rundschau, H. 8, 1960.

8 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

5. Bartlett, D. L., J- Tuora, and G. R. Smith, "Experiments on the Stability of the
Long-welded Rails", British Transport Commission, London, 1961.

6. Bromberg, E. M. "The Stability of the Jointless Track" ( "Ustoichivost Bessty-
kogo Puti", in Russian), Transport, Moscow, 1966.

7. Private communication to author by M. Janin of the SNCF, (Dec, 1973).

8. "The test on buckling of curved track", The Permanent Way Society of Japan,
Nr. 1, 1958.

9. Ammann, O. and C. V. Gruenewaldt, "Tests on the effect of axial forces in the
track" ("Versuche liber die Wirkung von Langskraften im Gleis," in German),
Organ fiir die Fortschritte des Eisenbahnwesens, 1932.

10. Kerr, A. D., "The lateral buckling of railroad tracks due to constrained thermal
expansions", Proc. Symposium on Railroad Track Mechanics, Princeton Univer-
sity, 1975.

Advance Report of Committee 17 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment

F. H. Smith, Chairman

Work Equipment Repair Organizations of
North American Railroads

Your committee presents, as information, the results of a survey of equipment
repair organizations. The response to our questionnaire was excellent and we wish
to thank all those who contributed data.

ROADS WITH 5,000 TO 24,000 MILES OF LINE

Sixteen roads in this category responded. Of these, only one repairs both auto-
motive and maintenance-of-way (M/W) equipment. This probaljly reflects the
travel and shipping time losses attributable to central vehicle repair as opposed to
outside local shop repair. One road has 90 percent of both automotive and M/W
equipment repair done in outside shops and another has all automotive and 75 per-
cent of M/W overhauls farmed out. As might be expected, tlie one road that re-
pairs both automotive and M/W equipment in company shops also has one of
the closest shop spacings.

Of the 14 roads which repair all M/W equipment in company shops, tliree
have only a single central shop. The others have from five to 20 shops of various
sizes. The following table equates repair facilities and manpower with length of
line:

Number of Miles of Road per:

Central
Shop

All
Shops

Field
Supervisor

Field
Mechanic

Total
Field

Maximum
Minimum
Average

19,459
3,789
8,509

12,521

446

3,909

5,118

600

1,689

736

78

296

736

72

255

ROADS WITH 1000 TO 5000 MILES OF LINE

Six roads responded. All except one repair M/W equipment only and ha\e
only one central shop. One repairs both automotive and M/W equipment and
operates a central shop and eight smaller shops. The entire length of these roads
is less than tlie average miles per shop for the longer roads. Thus, one shop pro-
vides better coverage.

Number of Miles of Road per:

All Field Field Total

Shops Supervisor Mechanic Field

2278 Infinite 759 759

564 928 87 83

1247 — 237 223

ROADS WITH 500 TO 1000 MILES OF LINE

Six roads responded. Two of these roads repair both automotive and M/W
equipment in company shops and three do only M/W equipment. One has all
major work done on the outside.

9

Central
Shop

Maximum

2932

Minimum

1128

Average

1826

Central
Shop

Maximum

988

Minimum

542

Average

821

10 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

Nunil)cr of Miles of Road per:

All Field Field Total

Shops Supervisor Meehunic Field

946 Infinite 692 692

144 247 60 54

541 — 284 258

ROADS WITH 200 TO 500 MILES OF LINE

Twelve roads responded. As line miles become shorter, more roads repair both
automotive and M/W equipment in company shops. Five roads repair both auto-
motive and M/W equipment, the remaining seven repair M/W only. All have a
single central shop except one road which has four shops.

Number of Miles of Road per:

Field Field Total

Supervisor Mechanic Field

Maximum Infinite 393 393

Minimum 67 16 16

Average 292 161 148

ROADS WITH LESS THAN 200 MILES OF LINE

Twenty-three roads responded. Thirteen repair both automotive and M/W
equipment, eight repair only M/W equipment and two have all work done in out-
side shops. Twenty-one roads maintaining a field repair force employ a total of 69
repairmen for 1843 miles of road, an average of 27 miles per man. Obviously, urban
miles are more difficult than rural miles, and miles of track may be several times
the miles of line for these roads.

CONCLUSIONS

In looking at the statistics provided by the responding roads, certain points of
agreement, near agreement and disagreement are obvious:

1. Few of the longer roads repair both automotive and M/W equipment in
company shops; many of the roads under 500 miles in length repair both. This is
probably a matter of geography and logistics. In some cases, the extra automotive
work probably helps to justify the existence of shops and shop equipment.

2. Few of the longer roads rely exclusively on one central shop, again prob-
ably a matter of logistics. Almost all of the roads under 500 miles in length have
only a single central shop. However, in both classes of road, there are outstanding
exceptions to the rule

3. One might think that the various roads had made a decision to balance
their repair forces by choosing between frequent shop facilities and frequent field
people to insure prompt and adequate handling of machine problems. Such does
not appear to be the case. Roads with most closely spaced shops also tend to have
most closely spaced field repairmen. Obviously, the enormity of some central shops
makes up for some lack of closely spaced facilities while increasing logistic prob-
lems. The accompanying table illustrates the wide variation in repair organization
spacings:

Road

Miles per Shop

Low frequency

of s

hops

and field men:

A

4,077

B

2,187

C

7,361

D

12,521

Balanced frequency

E

931

F

10,200

G

676

Frequent

shops

and

field

men:

H

517

I

868

J

446

K

1,145

L

1,450

Work Equipment Repair Organizations 11

Miles per Field Man

453
437
736
224

320
176

287

73
111
76
72
89

The most capable facility is the large, completely equipped shop. In its
ultimate state of perfection, it would be able to build an entire fleet of maintenance
machinery from scratch. Where complete machine rebuilding or major component
rebuilding on the property is required, a major shop is a necessity. Contracting with
outside shops or scrap-early-and-buy-new would be reasonable alternatives.

The key factor in any M/W repair organization is the field repairman, his
equipment and the size of his territory. If his territory is too large, he will spend
more time travelling than in doing repair work. If his territory is small and if he is
well equipped, he will be able to do work that would otherwise go to a shop. In
the foregoing mileage tabulations, average miles of road per field mechanic are
296, 237, 284, 161 and 28, in order from the longest roads to the shortest. Similarly,
average miles of road jjer field person (supervisors and mechanics) are 255, 223,
258, 148 and 27. If heavy reliance is to be placed on field repair, it seems certain
that the average mileage figures should not be exceeded. Indeed, they should be
reduced, perhaps nearing minimum figures shown.

It is true that good, properly trained operators can sulistitute for or minimize
the need for repairmen. Similarly, well equipped and competent field repairmen
can substitute for and minimize the need for shop facilities. With some limitations,
the reverse is also true. Thus, a repair organization can be flexible .

Our survey of field repair vehicles shows a preference for /i-ton utility trucks.
In view of the rough terrain and substantial payloads these trucks must handle, this
is the minimum rating that can be recommended and in many cases may be too
light for tire and suspension economy and safety; particularly when equipped at
the low end of the 6000 to 9000 gross-vehicle- weight (GVW) range. Sample
trucks in the repair fleet should be check weighed. A few roads use very sizcabk'
vans: 12,000 to 30,000 CVW with miniature shops built in. Choice between the
utility truck and the shop-van is one of money and organization. Where major
work is done in the field and a heavy premium is placed on field ability to return
machines to service (juickly, extra cost of the van can be easy to justify. A tabula-
tion of trucks and equipment is shown on page 12.

In developing or altering a repair organization, certain genera] considerations
apply. Both shop and field work have some unique advantages to which the final
scheme should adapt.

12

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

Shop:

Shelter and workinjf environmental control.

Parts inventory and procurement potential.

Specialized personnel.

Specialized and expensive tools and eqtn'pment.

Stenographic, commvmications and other office facilities.

Central control of fleet.

FrELD:

Elimination of shipping effort and time.

Knowledge of recent machine history.

Access to operator diagnosis and assistance.

Communication with local users for best time and effort management.

Since repair facilities always seem to lag behind the growth of the M/W
fleet, roads with better than average organizations are certainly nearer an optimum
condition. Also, the fact that few or none of the roads may follow some certain
course, does not mean that the course is wrong. That course may have been un-
explored or its time may have only just arrived.

VEHICLES FURNISHED TO MAIMTENAMCE OF WAY EQUIPHeWT REPAIR PERSONNEL

ROAD SIZE

MILES OF

LINE

U T

OVER

ONE TON

2i

I L I
ONE
TON

5

T Y

i
TON

6

V A

N

PICK

TOM

UPS

i-

TOM

OTHER

TWO TON
UP

1^

TOM

ONE
TON

i
TOM

TOTAL

OVER $000

16

1000 - 5000

1

1

2i

i

1

6

SOO - 1000

1

2

i

2i

i_

6

200 - 500

7

1

2

10

UNDER 200

6

2

2

I4

5

19

3i

23i

hi

hk

EQUIPMENT FURNISHED ON MAINTENANCE OF WAY REPAIR VEHICLES

ROAD SIZE

MILES OF

LINE

HOIST OR
CRANE

6i

ELECTRIC
WELDER

16

GAS
WELD

16

AIR

COMPRESSOR

3

HYDRAULIC

SYSTEM
ANALYZER

Si

NO
REPLY

0

TOTAL
ROADS

OVER 5000

16

1000 - 5000

2

5

5

1

3

1

6

500 - 1000

0

3

5

0

3

0

6

200 - 500

0

5

7

2

2

1

10*

UNDER 200

1

_9_

11

6

Ji_

0

W»

TOTALS

9i

38

hh

n,

m

2

57

« Additional roads do not furnish a vehicle.

NOTE: Fractions denote equipment furnished to only part of fleet.

Advance Report of Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 5

Service Records

K. C. Edscorn (chairman, subcommittee), L. C. Collister, M. J. Crespo, E. M.
CuMMiNGS, J. K. Gloster, H. E. Richardson, R. H. Savage, G. D. Summers.

TIE RENEWALS AND COSTS

Statistics providintr information on cross tie renewals and average tie costs for
the year 1974, as compiled by the Economics and Finance Department, Associa-
tion of American Railroads, are presented on following pages in Tables A and B.

The 1974 statistics on new tie renewals by Class I U.S. Railroads compared
with 1973 are as follows:

Total New Renewals

Year Tie Renewals Per Mile

1973 17,856,780" 61

1974 IS.SlO.aSS"" 65

" Includes 28,63.5 concrete ties, excludes 819,324 secondhand ties.
*" Includes 28,690 concrete ties, excludes 669,787 secondhand ties.

By geographical districts, the Eastern Roads inserted in replacement 53 ties
per mile, the Southern Roads 97 ties per mile and the Western Roads 65 ties per
mile.

"Indicated" wooden tie life determined by dividing the total number of ties
in track (1967 figures) by the number of new ties inserted in 1974 is as follows:
Eastern Roads 57 years. Southern Roads 32 years. Western Roads 50 years, all U. S.
Class I Roads 47 years.

The most significant change to be noted in the 1974 tables is the average cost
of cross ties in comparison to last year. The inflationary spiral contributed to in-
creases in stumpage prices for timber, labor and fuel. The shortage of fuel oil
resulted in substantial increases in the cost of preservatives. The combination of
all factors provided a dramatic increase in the average cost of 43% over 1973.

Obviously, maintenance budgets were strained under this cost burden which
perhaps accounts for the rather meager 57o increase in tie renewals. Considering
the indicated service life abo\'e, it is apparent that more ties should be replaced
and likely would be if costs were more in line with revenues.

The Western District replacements increased by 17% while the Eastern Dis-
trict and Southern District showed decreases of 67c and 2%, respectively.

The number of concrete ties inserted was almost exactly tlie same as in 1973,
but the average cost of these ties was up alnujst 44'i.

13

14 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

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20 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Tie Renewals and Costs

21

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22 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

Table C

OTHER THAN WOODEN CROSS TIES LAID IN 1974 AND NUMBER OF OTHER THAN WOODEN
CROSS TIES IN MAINTAINED TRACK OCCUPIED BY CROSS TIES AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1974

District and Road

-

Other than
wooden cross
ties laid in
replacement

Other than
wooden cross
ties laid in

additional
tracks , new
lines and ex-
tensions

Number of
other than
wooden cross
ties in main-
tained track
occupied by
cross ties
(12/31/74)

Number

Average
Cost

Number

Average
Cost

EASTERN DISTRICT:

Central R. R. of N. J.
Delaware & Hudson
Norfolk & Western

800

$36.25

-

-

840

57 809

800

Total Eastern District

800

36.25

-

-

59 449

SOUTHERN DISTRICT:
Florida East Coast
Louisville & Nashville
Seaboard Coast Line
Southern System

15 117
205

25.47
14.63

24 365
26 095

16.96
25.01

353 232

808

292 136

68 579

Total Southern District

15 322

25.32

•50 460

17.08

714 755

WESTERN DISTRICT:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Burlington Northern
Duluth, Missabe & Iron Range
Kansas City Southern (I ncl . L&A)
St. Louis-San Francisco
Western Pacific

400
12 168

27.50

14.71

5 254

12.46

6 000

303

530

191 379

74 480

735

Total Western District

12 568

15.12

5 254

12.46

273 427

Total United States

28 690

21.16

•55 714

16.64

1 047 631

Association of American Railroads
Economics and Finance Department
Washington, D. C. 20036

July 7, 1975

Tie Renewals and Costs

23

TYPICAL CROSS TIE PRICES
As of January 1

10 Selected Class I Railroads

District /description
of cross tie

1959

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

EAST:

7'x9"it8'6" oak treated

$5.33

$5.83

$5.83

$6.41

$6.67

$9.02

$12.94

Grades («.5 Latest A.R.E.A.
Spec.) 60/40 Cr/Coal

6.50

6.90

7.45

7.45

7.68

8.23

10.72

Grades 4&5 treated

(latest A.R.E.A. spec.

60/40 Creosoted

6.35

6.90

7.45

7.45

7.68

8.23

10.72

SCUlll:

6"x7', 7"x8" and T'k9" by
8"6" treated oak & mixed
hardwood

3.62

4.63

5.22

5.09

5.67

6.08

9.09

7"x9"x8'6 treated
7"x9"x8'5 oak, creosoted

5.09
5.60

5.13

6.50

5.29

6.00

5.64
6.71

5.71
6.89

6.48
8.63

10.77
11.20

WEST:

7"9"x8'6" red oak, Gr. 5

4.77

5.07

5.24

5.24

5.59

6.53

8.95

7"x9"x9'

5.0 J

5.63

5.63

5.63

6.40

8.95

13.55

7"9"x8' Doug, fir rough -
No. 1 & better

5.00

6.01

6.99

5.77

6.06

7,50

10.90

7"x8"x9' Hardwood treated

4.57

5.09

5.12

5.33

5.05

8.10

10.37

Association of American Railroads
Economics and Finance OepartmenC
Washington, D, C. 20030

February 20, 1975

Advance Report of the Special Committee on Scales
Report on Assignment 3

Statistical Data for Coupled-in-Motion
Weighing and Testing

N. A. Wilson (chairman, subcommittee), O. T. Almarode, B. F. Banks, R. O.
Bradley, Robert Brumbaugh, E. W. Buckles, J. L. Dahlrot, R. H. Damon,
Jr., T. a. DeAlba, O. C. Denz, G. F. Graham, I. M. Hawver, S. Levinson,
L. L. Lowery, B. H. Price, Jr., W. H. Rankin, S. H. Raskins, R. D. Roberts,
A. E. Robinson, K. D. Tidwell, J. L. Finnell.

Your committee submits as information the following interim report on the per-
formance of track scales designed for coupled-in-motion weighing of freight cars. The
committee reviewed tests for tolerance on 18 scales and 27 modes over the scales,
utiUzing 2707 weights. Many railroads participated in the testing program, along
with representatives of tlie AREA, weighing bureaus, cities, states and the National
Bureau of Standards.

Test equipment has now been assembled at Martinsburg, West Virginia, to be
calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards to gather further information for
the study of weighing over coupled-in-motion track scales.

There are presented below and on the next page summaries of the test results,
followed by tlie complete computer printout for each weight.

Summary of Coupled-in-Motion Track Scale Tests

Number of tests 18 Scales ( 27 Modes )

Number of cars weighed 2,707

Average Percent Deviation of Individual Cars

0.00% to 0.20% 0.21% to 0.50% 0.51% to 1.00%

81.42 17.58 1.00

Total weight test trains .^^.*^!;^"':^. 416,770,950 lb

r^ 1 ■ ^ 7 . . Trains (Gross) i.ttooc n

Total weight deviation iz/,oJo lb

Weight deviation per car 8 lb

Cars (Gross) _„ . _ ._ ,,

Total weight deviation 504,745 lb

Weight deviation per car 186 lb

25

26

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

COUPLED-IN-MOTION TRACK SCALE TEST RESULTS

Percent Deviation
Inrtividc.Tl Csrn

UNIT TRAIN DATA

0.007.

To
0.207,

0.217.

To
0.507.

0.517.

To
1 . 007.

TEST #

MODE II

CASS

Test Train

V.'ciiht

Test Train Weight
Devi-ition

Percent Deviation
Test Train

1

1

100

84

11

5

13,703,000

-4,300

.031

2

100

80

15

5

13,703,000

+7,600

.055

2

100 88

12

15,445,400

- 1,360

.003

3

100

76

24 1

10,952,800

-5,590

.051

100

71

29

10,952,000

-6,000

.054

4

100

92

8

19,617.000

+13,200

.067

5

100

94

6

19.511,800

+1,110

.005

6

100

77

20

3

11,797,400

-1,260

.010

7

100

90

10

20.252.000

-5,200

.025

8

100 81

18

1

12,785,800

+ 3.190

.024

100 73

24

3

12,735.800

+3,590

.028

100

82

18

12,710,900

+3,050

.023

9

100

79

21

18,944,100

+ 580

.003

10*

99

80 IS

4

12.852,000

+ 1,800

-014

*rii
11

ssed 1

:ar

100

77

22

1

12,923.000

-1.100

.008

100

71

28

1

12, 923, SCO

+400

.003

100

65

35

12,923,300

+ 20,900

.161

100

82

18

12, 923, £00

+1,200

.009

12

100

85

15

15,084,400

+2,030

.013

100

83

15

2

15,034,400

-1,095

.007

13

100

80

20

13,557,300

-11.130

. 059

14

100

95

5

15,172,400

+4,020

.026

100

86

14

15,172,400

-190

.001

15

100

80

19

1

20.645.520

-9,700

. 046

16

108

75

24

1

22,209.750

-W,150

. 018

17

100

80

20

18.557,300

-5.760

. 032

18

100

93

7

1

1 13,557,800

+8,130

. 043

Test *1

'618 ue

:e IT

ade on s

cales a

: differs

:it locations.

i

1 GROSS TOTAL

127,835

1 1

Tests of Coupled-in-Motion Weighing 27

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Advertist'iiien t

54-1

1^ ^

Do you need

a push car that

can carry

a frog?

Safetran Model-5000 Portable Track Car

All aluminum construction makes the Model-5000 the lightest, extra capacity

push car available.

Transporting loads up to 5000 lbs. is no problem for the all welded heavy duty

deck and frame.

One man can easily handle the lightweight, two section, all aluminum unit.

It can be quickly and easily carried to track, and is easily assembled with

self-locking device that hooks the two sections together. Sockets are located

so that the handle or stakes can be positioned at either end.

The frame of the IVIodel-5000 is made of heavy duty aluminum plate, while

the deck is heavy expandable aluminum.

The fully insulated cast aluminum wheels have sealed, prelubricated roller

bearings for smooth, maintenance-free service.

Safetran M-5000
Specifications

Weight Capacity 5000 lbs.

Frame Construction Heavy duty aluminum plate

Deck Heavy, expandable aluminum

Wheels Cast aluminum- fully insulated

Bearing Ball, pre-greased and sealed

Deck Size 52y2" x 47'

Total Weight 156 lbs. (78 lbs. per section)

Height 7V2" (above rail)

Handles 2 preshaped aluminum - inter-changeable

Construction All welded

Ordering Reference: Model-5000 Track Car
Part No. 140230-X

Safetran Systems Corporation

7721 Nalional Turnpike • LouPSville.KY 40214 • (502)361-1691

54-2

Advertisement

MEMBER

RRI

re ^k.

f

Advertisement 54-3

We've a lot
going for you.

We call it "The Big Green," and it's all go. For you.

It's what we put into every one of our railway products to
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Advance Report of Committee 4 — Rail
Report on Assignment 5

Rail Research and Development

W. J. Cruse (cluiirman, subcommittee), B. G. Anderson, R. M. Brown, E. T.
Franzen, R. E. Gorsuch, R. E. Haacke, V. E. Hall, W. H. Huffman, T. B.
HuTCHESON, K. H. Kannowski, W. S. Lovelace, A. B. Merritt, Jr., J. L.
Merritt, C. O. Penney, I. A. Reiner, W. A. Smith.

Your committee presents, as information, tlie following report on the second
annual inspection of a service test installation of fully heat-treated, induction head-
hardened, intermediate-manganese and standard control-cooled rail on the Chessie
System. The author of the report is K. W. Schoeneberg, senior research engineer.
Research and Test Department, Association of American Railroads.

SUMMARY OF PERFORMANCE OF STANDARD-CARBON AND VARIOUS

WEAR-RESISTANT RAILS IN TEST CURVES ON THE CHESSIE SYSTEM

SECOND REPORT

By K. W. Schoeneberg

I — ABSTRACT

This report summarizes the second annual inspection of a service test installa-
tion of fully heat-treated, induction head-hardened, intermediate-manganese and
standard control-cooled rail on the Chessie System.

The field inspection is part of tlie cooperative effort on rail research of the
American Railway Engineering Association (AREA), the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) and the Association of American Railroads (AAR) to observe and
analyze those rails in curved track that display some potential for improvement in
wear-resistance and retarding the onset of shelling.

Measurements were made and recorded of curvature, superelevation and gage
of four service test curxes located near Oakland, Maryland. General track condi-
tions were observed also. Rail head cross-section contours were taken and recorded
of the 80 test rails contained in these curves. Rail wear has been calculated for the
second year of service for the various types of rail in test.

II — ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Appreciation is hereby acknowledged of the original invitation of J. T. Collin-
son, then general manager-chief engineer, now vice president-operations and main-
tenance, Chessie System; and the continued invitation of J. W. Brent, chief
engineer, and A. L. Maynard, formerly engineer maintenance of way, now director-
engineering administration, Chessie System, for the AAR, AISI and AREA to par-
ticipate with Chessie on the inspection and evaluation of their rail service test in-
stallation. Sincere appreciation is expressed by those of AAR, AISI and AREA for
the time and efforts rendered by Chessie personnel listed below in the preparation
and conduct of this inspection.

55
Bui. 654

56 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

Inspection of the rail in the four service test curves near Oakland, Maryland
was made on July 30, 1974. The following individuals were in the inspection party:

A. L. Maynard — Chessie System

A. J. Kozak — Chessie System

M. Hawtof — Chessie System

D. S. Young — Chessie System

I. A. Reiner — Chessie System

W. H. Chidley — American Iron and Steel Institute

G. G. Knupp — Bethlehem Steel Corporation

J. H. Martens — Bethlehem Steel Corporation

J. L. Giove — U. S. Steel Corporation

D. L. Saxon — U. S. Steel Corporation

G. H. Way — Association of American Railroads

K. W. Schoeneberg — Association of American Railroads

III — INTRODUCTION

As part of the programs on rail research, the AAR Research and Test Depart-
ment is continuing the field study and analysis of those rails that continue in service
which show some potential for improvement in curve wear resistance and ability to
retard the onset of shelling. Rails that are heat-treated, have a variance in chemical
composition from that of standard rail or which are unconventionally produced are
part of this study.

The field inspections are carried out as a cooperative effort of the Rail Research
and Development Subcommittee of AREA Committee 4-Rail, the AISI Technical
Subcommittee on Rail and Accessories, the AAR Research and Test Department and
the railroad on whose property the test rails are installed.

Through this and several other field service tests presently being progressed
by these organizations, rail wear data as well as tonnage, track component, roadbed
and environment data are being generated. The correlation of these data will result
in the development of rail wear rates for various combinations of track and service
conditions. A further correlation of these rail wear rates with other rail metallurgi-
cal and economic studies data can set forth, as an end product, criteria or recom-
mendations establishing the appropriate selection of rail by section (weight) and
kind (standard, alloy or heat-treated) to be used by the railroads at locations of
high wear or short calendar rail life.

IV — DESCRIPTION OF TEST RAILS

The Chessie System established the service test of heat-treated, alloy and
standard rail on July 7, 10 and 11, 1972, when the rails were installed in four
curves on its No. 2 or eastbound main track west of Oakland, Maryland. A total
of 80 rails consisting of 16 each of the five following types were used:

( 1 ) 140 R E fully heat-treated

(2) 140 R E head-hardened

(3) 140 R E intermediate-manganese

(4) 140 R E standard-carbon control-cooled — A

(5) 140 R E standard-carbon control-cooled — B

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System 57

Four rails of each type were laid out for each of the four different curves, two
on the high side and two on the low side of each cur\e. The rails were randomly
welded together in 10 rail strings by the electric-flash Initt method. These continu-
ously welded strings were then installed in the curves, one on the high side and
one opposite on the low side of each of the four curves. The four test curves chosen
for this test are of \arying nominal curvature and superelevation as follows:

Cur\e No. 1, .5° — .50' (299.5 m radius) — VA in (114. .3 mm) superelevation

Curve Xo. 2, 8° — 28' (206.5 m radius) — 5 in (127.0 mm) superelevation

Curve No. 3, 4° — 00' (436.6 m radius) — 2/2 in ( 63.0 mm) superelevation

Curve No. 4, 8° — 08' (214.9 m radius) — 5 in (127.0 mm) superelevation

Figures 1 tiirough 4 show detailed information of location, curve layout and
placement of the various types of rails in each of the four test curves.

V — CONDUCT OF THE INSPECTION

The inspection party examined all test rails in each of the four test curves,
noting the condition of each rail as well as noting line and le^el of the track and
conditions of the other track components. Rail head cross-section contours were
taken at approximately the midpoint of each of the 80 test rails. The wear pattern
of each is shown in Figures 5 through 24. The gage of the track was measured
and recorded at the locations where the rail head contours were taken. Tliese are
also shown in Figures 5 through 24.

Stringlining measvuements were made to check the degree of curvature of
each curve, particularly in the body of the curves where the test rails were located,
as a means of verifying the original degree of curvature and a check for any gross
misahgnment. The curvature measurement taken at each of the test rail locations is
shown in Figures 5 through 24.

Superelevation measurements were also made throughout each curve and these
measurements are also shown for each test rail location in Figures 5 through 24.

VI — RESULTS OF THE INSPECTION

The four curves and the track through this location appear, as was the case at
the first inspection, to be well maintained and in good condition. Drainage of the
roadbed and ballast section was generally good with the exception of one location
on cur\'e No. 2 where a muddy pumping ballast condition existed on the low or
inside of the curve.

The rail luljricators, noted as distributing generally heavy to moderate amounts
of lubricant as of the 1973 inspection, appeared to be inoperative at the time of
this inspection because of the lack of lubricant on the rails of all four test curves.

Specific observations of rail conditions of each curve were noted as follows:
Curve No. 1

Head checks were noted on high side rails 94L143 D20, CT08943 C21 and
CT08943 BIO.

Curve Xo. 2

Rail 81L707 E38 had head checks and light flaking spots. Rail 59R647 C26
showed hght flaking and rail CT08943 C22 had some head checks. Rail 85R812

58 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

E21 had one lipht flakinji; spot on the receiving end. Rail IM19010 D6 had con-
tinuous light flaking 6 ft of leaving (east) end.

Heavy wear was noted in rail IM 19010 B9 and irregular wear pattern in rails
CT07952 D17 and IM19010 D6 from apparent truck hunting, probably induced by
low-side soft, muddy, pumping areas.

High-side rail 181332 G16 was not seated into tie plates.

Curve No. 3

Head checks were noted in rails CT07952 B17 and 94L143 B20. Head checks
and light flaking spots were noted in rails IM19010 Dl and 63M022 E16.

Slightly abnormal batter was noted at welded joints at each end of fully heat-
treated rail CT08943 B16 where it joined standard rails.

There were slight indications of corrugations on high-side rail 181332 D4.

Heavy flow at end, and fin on field side appeared on rail 71R078 C27 in low
side of curve, opposite above-mentioned corrugated rail.

Sliver spots in rail 94L143 D9 and several heavy slivers near middle of rail
94L143 C24 were noted.

Curve No. 4

The "raspy" early feeling of head checks was noted on most rails in high side
of curve.

Intermittent very light flaking spots were noted on rail 59R647 C23 in high
side of curve.

Initial iiidication of high-side corrugations was noted in oblique light in rails
85R812 D20 and 181332 H18.

There was a small sliver on field side of head at middle of rail 94L143 D14,
and a sliver depression 3 ft from west end of rail 94L143 D17.

From visual observation at the time of the inspection and then by study of the
rail head contour tracings of all four curves, more metal flow was noted on almost
all inside or low rails, and more curve wear was noted on the high rails than
there was at the time of the 1973 inspection. In like manner, more metal flow and
curve wear were noted in the intermediate-manganese and standard rails than in
the head-hardened or fully heat-treated rails.

V\i — DISCUSSION

The track containing the test rails carries predominantly eastbound manifest
mixed freight and unit coal trains. During the first year the test rails were in
service, August 1972 through July 1973, tonnage over this territory was 14.6 mil-
lion gross tons. During the second year of test service, from August, 1973 through
July 1974, the tonnage was 16.3 million gross tons. Thus a total of 30.9 million
gross tons of traffic has been over these rails since they were laid in track in July
1972.

Based on a comparison of the rail head contours taken in July 1973 (after one
year of sei-vice) and those taken in July 1974 (after the second year of service)
the change or increase in rail wear, during this second year, was plotted and calcu-
lated by planimeter readings. From these, calculations were made of the amount
(square inches) of rail wear and percent of rail wear. These values representing
rail head metal worn away during the second year of service are thus shown for
each rail head cross-section in Figures 5 through 24.

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System 59

As noted previously, each of the four test curves contained four rails of the
same ty^Je, tvi^o in the low side and two in the high side. From the calculations
made of the amount of rail head metal worn away of each rail, the average of
each type of rail on each curve on the high side and the low side was calculated.

In general, most of the test rails of the five types of rail on the low side of
each of the curves displayed a marked increase of metal flow between the 1973
and the 1974 inspections. They showed increases of from light to medium and
from medium to heavy metal flow to the field side during this second year of
service. It can be noted that in some cases a lip formed, indicating metal flow to
the gage side also. In only three head-hardened rails and two fully heat-treated
rails a stable or non-increase in metal flow was noted.

Because, in this rail study, we are particularly interested in the wear character-
istics of the high rail, the average amount of wear in square inches as well as
the corresponding percent of wear of the two rails of each type in the high rail of
each of the curves is shown in Table I. The average amount (square inches) of
head wear versus the average curvature of these two representative rails of each
type are shown graphically in Figure 25.

It can be noted that, with the exception of the intermediate-manganese rail,
the standard, head-hardened and fully heat-treated rails displayed a trend of even
or very slightly increasing amounts of wear for the nominal 4-, 6- and 8-degree
curves, respectively. The intermediate-manganese rail showed an increase of wear
on the nominal 6-degree curve versus the nominal 4-degree curve with a slight
decrease in wear on the nominal 8-degree cui-ve. All rails display a sharp increase
in wear between the nominal 8 and the nominal 8/2-degree curve with the excep-
tion of one of the standard type rails.

VIII — CONCLUSIONS

In general, low-rail wear and metal flow and high-rail curve wear has con-
formed to a pattern of more wear and flow in the standard and intermediate-
manganese type rails and less wear and flow in the treated products such as head-
hardened and fully heat-treated rails.

The amounts of wear recorded particularly in the high rails did not conform
to a consistent pattern, but were erratic even with an averaging approach. Again,
in general, the treated type rails did perform better than the others with the
exception of the one standard type rail showing slightly less wear on the nominally
8/2-degree curve than the head-hardened and the fully heat-treated rails.

The rather erratic wear pattern was evident also when comparison was made
between the nominal degrees of curvature of the four test cin^ves and the average
wear of each of the five types of rail in test. The raUier constant or slightly increas-
ing average amount of wear calculated for the nominal 4-, 6- and 8-degree curves
in contrast with the sharp increase for the nominal 8/2-degree curve could possibly
have been caused by or resulted from train speeds and the \ariations of curvature
and superelevation as noted and recorded at the individual test rails in each of the
curves.

60 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM RAIL TEST
NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND

High Rail-

D05611 C33
Head-Hardened

59RB47 B26
Standard - A

71R078C26
Standard - A

IM19010 F19 '
Int. Mn .

94L143 D20
Head- Hardened

181332 F4

Standard- B 94L143E11 IM19010 B20 IM19010B18 CT08943 B17

Head-Hardened Int. Mn. Int. Mn. F. H. T.

CT08943 C21
F. H. T.

CT08943 BIO
F.H.T.

IM19010 DU
Int. Mn.

181332 A17
Standard- B

73L669 C.8
Head- Hardened

LAYOUT OF 140 LB. RE TEST RAILS - CURVE NO. 1
NOMINAL 5°-50' CURVE (299. 5 m RADIUS)— 4-1/2 IN. SUPERELEVATION (114.3 mm)NOMINAL

MILE POST 233. 1

CHESSIE SYSTEM RAIL TEST
NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND

High Rail..

81L707 E38
Hoad-H.irdened

59R647 C26
Standard - A

CT08943 C22
F. H. T.

85R812 E21
Standard - A

?647 D2
Standard- A

181332 F20
Standard- B

181332 Uia
Sl;indard - B

181332 F14
Standard- B

CT07952 D17
F. H.T.

181332 Gib-
Standard- B

CT19017 F6
F. H. T.

801,680 E24
Head-Hardened

igh Rail

85R8I2 B20 ' -Low Rail

Standard -A

LAYOUT OF 140 LB. RE TEST RAILS - CURVE NO. 2
NOMINAL 8°-28' CURVE (206.5 m RADIUS) — 5 IN. SUPERELEVATION (127.0 mm) NOMINAL

MILE POST 233. 2

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

CHESSIE SYSTEM RAIL TEST
NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND

61

High Rail

181332 C21
Standard - B

CT19017 E
F. H, T.

59R647 Dl
Standard- A

'CT08943 B16' "Tai332D4 ' ■94L143D9 IM19010F16

jr_ H. T. Standard- B Head- Hardened Int. Mn.

94L143 D21
Head- Hardened

CT08943 C19

94L143 C24 1M19010 AIS

Head-Hardened Int. Mn.

CT07952 B17
F. H. T.

94L143 B20
Head- Hardened

IM19010 Dl
Int. Mn.

63M022 E16
Standard - A

High Rail

LAYOUT OF 140 LB. RE TEST RAILS - CURVE NO. 3
NOMINAL 4«-00' CURVE (436. 6 m'R ADIUS) -2-1/2 IN. SUPERELEVATION (63. 5 mm) NOMINAL

MILE POST 234. 0

FIGURE 3

CHESSIE SYSTEM RAIL TEST
NEAR OAKLAND, MAR^.AND'

High Rail

181332 C28
Standard- B

'1M19010 B14
Int. Mn.

94L143 D17
Head- Hardened

CT19017 C8
F.H.T.

85R812 D20
Standard - A

94L143 D16
Head- Hardened

CTi9017 BIO
F.H.T.

1M19010 D3 CT19017 E8 181110 013 66M022 DIG

Int. Mn, F.H.T. Standard- B Standard- A

Standard- A

CT19017 F8
F. H. T.

-High Rail

LAYOUT OF 140 LB. RE TEST RAILS - CURVE NO. 4
NOMINAL 8°-08' CURVE (214. 9 m RADIUS)— 5 IN. SUPERELEVATION (127. 0 mm)NOMINAL

MILE POST 23^0

62 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 1 - MILE POST 233.1

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.0 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
D05611 C33
Head- Hardened

Low Rail

Gage

57"

(1.448 m)

0.055 sq. in.
(35.49 sq. mm)

1.1%
59R647 D15
Standard -A

High Rail

Location 1
Curvature 6° - 08' (284.9 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in. (117.5 mm)

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
59R647 B26
Standard -A

Low Rail

11

0.07 sq. in.

1/
1/

(45.16 sq. mm)

Gage

1.4%

56-7/8"

181332 G21

(1.445 m)

Standard- B

High Rail

Location 2
Curvature 6° - 08' (284.9 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123. 8 mm)

FIGURE 5

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

63

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CLTIVE NO. 1 - MILE POST 233.1

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.005 sq. in.
(3.23 sq. mm)

0.1%
85R812 C23
Standard - A

Low Rail

Gage

57"
(1.448 m)

0.075 sq. in.
(48.39 sq. mm

1.5%
71R078 C26
Standard - A

High Rail

Location 3
Curvature 6° - 22' (274.4 m radius) - Superelevation 4/78 in. (123.8 mm)

"""=*!>

N

0.05 sq. in.

A

(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
CT08943 B21

Gage

57"

F.H.T.

1 (1.448 m)
^

Low Rail y*""^

High Rail

Location 4
Curvature 6° - 15' (279. 6 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (124. 8 mm)

0.095 sq. in.
(61.29 sq. mm)

1.9%
IM19010 F19
Int. Mn.

FIGURE 6

64

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 1 - MILE POST 233.1

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.045 sq. in.
(29.03 sq. mm)

0.9%
181332 D14
Standard- B

Low Rail

Gage
56-13/16"
(1.443 m)

0.03 sq, in.
(19.36 sq. mm)

0.6%
94L143 D20
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Location 5
Curvature 6° - 15' (279.6 m radius) - Superelevation 5 1/4 in. (133.4 mm)

^H^

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
181332 F4
Standard - B

Low Rail

Gage
56-11/16"
(1.440 m)

0.04 sq. m.
(25.81 sq. mm)

0.8%
CT08943 C21
F. H. T,

High Rail

Location 6
Curvature 6° - 00' (291.2 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4 in. (120.7 mm)

FIGURE 7

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

65

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 1 - MILE POST 233.1

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.00 sq. in.

>.

(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%

Gage

94L143 Ell

56-5/8"

Head- Hardened

1 (1.438 m;

Low Rail /^"^"^

0.04 sq. in.
(25.81 sq. mm)

0.8%
CT08943 BIO
F.H.T.

High Rail

Location 7
Curvature 6*^ - 15' (279.6 m radius) - Superelevation 4 15/16 in. (125.4 mm)

0.015 sq. in.
(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%
IM19010 B20
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

/7

'

Gage

56-3/4"
(1.441 m)

I
1

0. 095 sq. in.
(61.29 sq. mm)

1.9%
IM19010 Dll
Int. Mn.

High Rail

Location 8
Curvature 6° - 00' (291.2 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in, (117.5 mm)

FIGURE 8

66 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 1 - MILE POST 233.1

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.005 sq. in.
(3.23 sq. mm)

0.1%
IM19010 B18
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

0.08 sq. in.
(51.62 sq. mm)

1.6%
181332 A17
Standard - B

High Rail

Location 9
Curvature 6° - 00' (291.2 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in. (117.5 mm)

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. inm)

0.0%
CT08943 B17
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Gage
56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
73L669 G8
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Location 10

Curvature 5° - 45' (303.8 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in (117.5 mm)

FIGURE 9

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

67

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 2 - MILE POST 233.2

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.105 sq. in.
(67.75 sq. mm)

2.1%
81L707 E38
Head- Hardened

/^^"^^^

/

0.00 sq. In.

(0.0 sq. mm)

Gage

0.0%

56-3/4"

59R647 D2

(1.441 m)

Standard- A

V

\ Low Rail /•

High Rail

Location 1
Curvature 9° - 15' (189.0 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123.8 mm)

0. 15 sq. in.
(96.78 sq. mm)

3.0%
59R647 C26
Standard- A

High Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.02 sq. in.
(12.90 sq. mm)

0.4%
IM19010 FIO
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

Location 2
Curvature 8° - 45' (199.8 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123.8 mm)

FIGURE 10

68

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 2 - MILE POST 233,2

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.085 sq. in.
(54.84 sq. mm)

1.7%
CT08943 C22
F.H.T.

High Rail

Gage
56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.015 sq. in.
(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%
CT08943 F17
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Location 3
Curvature 8*^ - 45' (199.8 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4" in. (120.7 ram)

0.17 sq. in.
(109. 68 sq. mm)

3.4%
85R812 E21
Standard - A

High Rail

Gage
56-9/16"
(1.437 m)

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
181332 F20
Standard - B

Low Rail

Location 4
Curvature 8° - 30' (205.6 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in. (117.5 mm)

FIGURE U

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

69

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 2 - MILE POST 233.2

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.08 sq. in.
(51.62 sq. mm)

1.6%
IM19010 B9
Int. Mn.

High Rail

Gage

56-7/8"
(1.445 m)

0.075 sq. in.
(48.39 sq. mm

1.5%
181332 D15
Standard- B

Low Rail

Location 5
Curvature 8° - 30' (205.6 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4 in. (120.7 mm)

0.095 sq. in.
(61.29 sq. mm)

1.9%
181332 F14
Standard - B

High Rail

Gage
56-13/16"
(1.443 m)

0.065 sq. in.
(41.94 sq. mm)

1.3%
CT19017 F6
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Location 6
Curvature 8° - 45' (199.8 m radius) - Superelevation 4 5/8 in. (117.5 mm)

FIGURE 12

70 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineerinji Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 2 - MILE POST 233.2

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

\

0.175 sq. in.

(112.91 sq. mm)

\
\

3.5%

Gage

CT07952 D17

\

56-7/8"

F.H.T.

(1.445 m)

High Rail

0.005 sq. in.
(3.23 sq. mm

0.1%
94L143 B12
Head- Hardened

Low Rail

Location 7
Curvature 8° - 45' (199. 8 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123. 8 mm)

^v ^v

0.29 sq. in. y \

(187.11 sq. mm) N 1
5.8% \ 1

Gage

IM19010 D6 \

57"

Int. Mn. N

(1.448 m

High Rail

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
94L143 B38
Head- Hardened

Low Rail

Location 8
Curvature 8° - 30' (205. 6 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123. 8 mm)

FIGURE 13

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

71

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 2 - MILE POST 233.2

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.08 sq. in.
(51.62 sq. mm)

1.6%
181332 G16
Standard - B

High Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.01 sq. in.
(6.45 sq. mm)

0.2%
IM19010 B4
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

Location 9
Curvature 8° - 45' (199. 8 m radius) - Superelevation 5 1/4 in. (133.4 mm)

0.11 sq. in.
(70.97 sq. mm)

2.2%
80L680 E24
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.02 sq. in.
(12.90 sq. mm)

0.4%
85R812 B20
Standard- A

Low Rail

Location 10
Curvature 8° - 22' (208.9 m radius) - Superelevation 5 1/16 in. (128. 6 mm)

FIGURE 14

72 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 3 - MILE POST 234,0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.03 sq. in.
(19.36 sq. mm)

0.6%
181332 C21
Standard- B

Low Rail

Gage
56-13/16"
(1.443 m)

0.07 sq. in.
(45.16 sq. mm)

1.4%
59R647 Dl
Standard - A

High Rail

Location 1
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 5/8 in. (66.7 mm)

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
CT219017 E5
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Gage

56-3/4"
(1.441 m)

0.035 sq. in.
(22.58 sq. mm)

0.7%
CT08943 B16
F.H.T.

High Rail

Location 2
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 7/8 in. (73.0 mm)

FIGURE 15

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

73

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO, 3 - MILE POST 234.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.03 sq. in.
(19.36 sq. mm

0.6%
71R078 C27
Standard - A

Low Rail

Gage
56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.065 sq. in.
(41.94 sq. mm)

1.3%
181332 D4
Standard- B

High Rail

Location 3
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 5/8 in. (66.7 mm)

- ^^=^

"S

0.02 sq. in.

\

(12.90 sq. mm)

0.4%

Gage

181332 E29

56-1/2"

Standard - B

(1.435 m)

\ Low Rail /"^

0.015 sq. in.
(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%
94H43 D9
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Location 4

Curvature 4° - 22' (400.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 5/8 in. (66.7 mm)

FIGURE 16

74 Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 3 - MILE POST 234.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.015 sq. in.
(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%
IM19010 D7
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

Gage
56-3/4"
(1.441 m)

0.035 sq. in.
(22.58 sq. mm)

0.7%
IM19010 F16
Int. Mn.

High Rail

Location 5

Curvature 4° - 22' (400.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 3/8 in. (60. 3 mm)

0.01 sq. in.
(6.45 sq. mm)

0.2%
94L143 D21
Head-Hardened

Low Rail

Gage
56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.07 sq. in.
(45.16 sq. mm)

1.4%
181107 G27
Standard- B

High Rail

Location 6
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 5/8 in. (66.7 mm)

FIGURE 17

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie Systei

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND. MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 3 - MILE POST 234.0

75

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
CT08943 C19
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Gage
56-7/8"
(1.445 m)

0.045 sq. in.
(29.03 sq. mm)

0.9%
CT07952 B17
F.H.T.

High Rail

Location 7
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 5/8 in. (66.7 mm)

— =t=-Ss

^

0.015 sq. in.

\

(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%

Gage

59R647 Bl

56-3/4"

Standard- A

(1.441 m)

Low Rail z^*^

^

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
94L143 B20
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Location 8
Curvature 4° - 22' (400.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 3/8 in. (60.3 mm)

FIGURE 18

76

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 3 - MILE POSE 234,0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.01 sq. in.

^

(6.45 sq. mrh)

0.2%

Gage

94L143 C24

56-9/16"

Head- Hardened

(1.437 m)

Low Rail ^""^^

Location 9

0.03 sq. in.
(19.36 sq. mm)

0.6%
IM19010 Dl
Int. Mn.

High Rail

Curvature 4 - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 1/2 in. (63. 5 mm)

0.005 sq. in.
(3.23 sq. mm)

0.1%
IM19010 A12
Int. Mn.

Low Rail

Gage
56-9/16"
(1.437 m)

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
63M022 E16
Standard- A

High Rail

Location 10
Curvature 4° - 15' (411.0 m radius) - Superelevation 2 l/2 in. (63. 5 mm)

FIGURE 19

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

77

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 4 - MILE POST 235,0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.035 sq. in.
(22,58 sq. mm)

0.7%
59R647 B23
Standard - A

Low Rail

Gage
56-1/2"
(1.435 m)

0,11 sq. in.
(70.97 sq. mm)

2,2%
IM19010 B14
Int. Mn,

High Rail

Location 1
Cuivature 8° - 08' (214,9 m radius) - Superelevation 5 in. (127,0 mm)

0.025 sq, in.
(16.13 sq. mm)

0,5%
94L143 E38
Head- Hardened

Low Rail

Gage
56-5/8"
(1,438 m)

0.035 sq, in.
(22.58 sq. mm)

0.7%
94L143 D17
Head-Hardened

High Rail

Location 2
Curvature 7° - 52' (222,2 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4" (120 ,7 mm)

FIGURE 20

78

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Associati(

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 4 - MILE POST 235.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.02 sq. in.

~^

(12.90 sq. mm)

0.4%

1 Gage

94L143 D14

I 56-5/8"

Head- Hardened

1 {1.438 m)

V Low Rail /""^^

0.025 sq. in.
(16.13 sq. mm)

0.5%
CT19017 C8
F.H.T.

High Rail

Location 3
Curvature 8° - 00' (218.5 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4 in. (120.7 mm)

0.01 sq. in.

^

(6.45 sq. mm)

0.2%

Gage

IM19010 D22

56-1/2"

Int. Mn.

(1.435 m)

\ Low Rail y""^

^

High Rail

Location 4
Curvature 8° - 30' (205, 6 m radius - Superelevation 5 in. (127.0 mm)

0.055 sq. in.
(35.49 sq. mm)

1.1%
85R812 D20
Standard - A

FIGURE 21

I

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

79

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 4 - MILB POST 235.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.005 sq. in.

^

(3.23 sq. mm)

0.1%

Gage

181332 C28

1 56-5/8"

Standard - B

1 (1.438 m;

\ Low Rail ^^^

0.01 sq. in.
(6. 45 sq. mm)

0.2%
94L143 D16
Head- Hardened

High Rail

Location 5
Curvature 7*^ - 34' (231.0 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123.8 mm)

0.005 sq. in.
(3.23 sq. mm

0.1%
CT19017 BIO
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.075 sq. in.
(48.39 sq. mm)

1.5%
181332 H18
Standard- B

High Rail

Location 6
Curvature 8° - 22' (208.9 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123.8 mm

FIGURE 22

80

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

CHESSIE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 4 - MILE POST 235.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.015 sq. in.
(9.68 sq. mm)

0.3%
IM19010 D8
Int. Mn.

Gage
56-3/4"
(1.441m)

v Low Rail ^^^""""^

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
IM19010 DIO
Int. Mn.

High Rail

Location 7
Curvature 8° - 00' (218.5 m radius) - Superelevation 4 7/8 in. (123.8 mm)

0.00 sq. in.
(0.0 sq. mm)

0.0%
CT19017 E8
F.H.T.

Low Rail

Gage
56-3/4"
(1.441m)

0.07 sq. in.
(45.16 sq. mm)

1.4%
59R647 C23
Standard- A

High Rail

Location 8
Curvature 8° - 00' (218.5 m radius) - Superelevation 5 1/8 in. (130.2 mm)

FIGURE 23

I

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

81

CHESSTE SYSTEM, NEAR OAKLAND, MARYLAND
TEST CURVE NO. 4 - MILE POST 235.0

INSTALLED: July 1972

INSPECTED: July 30, 1974

0.01 sq. in.
(6.45 sq. mm)

0.2%
181110 D13
Standard- B

Low Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.065 sq. in.
(41.94 sq. mm)

1.3%
CT19017 F8
F.H.T.

High Rail

Location 9

Curvature 8°-00' (218.5 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/4 in. (120.7 mm)

0.035 sq. in.
(22.58 sq. mm

0.7%
66M022 D16
Standard - A

Low Rail

Gage

56-5/8"
(1.438 m)

0.05 sq. in.
(32.26 sq. mm)

1.0%
180991 E18
Standard - B

High Rail

Location 10
Curvature 6°-45' (258.9 m radius) - Superelevation 4 3/8 in. (111.1 mm)

FIGURE 24

82

Bulletin 654 — American Railway Engineering Association

(Ba^Dui aa-enbg) -feaAV P^e^H aS^jaAy

Performance of Test Rails on Chessie System

83

<J
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DIRECTORY

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84-2

Directory of Consulting Engineers

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84-4

Directory of Consulting Engineers

SPAULDING ENGINEERING CO.

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American Railway

Engineering Association— Bulletin

Bulletin 655 November-December 1975

Proceedings Volume 77*

CONTENTS

PART 1— MANUAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Yards and Terminals (14) 87

Buildings (6) 162

Electrical Energy Utilization (33) 181

Environmental Engineering (13) 189

Concrete Ties (Special Committee) 193

Roadway and Ballast (1) 237

Steel Structures (15) 249

PART 2^REP0RTS OF COMMITTEES

Highways (9) 255

Engineering Records and Property Accounting (11) 273

Yards and Terminals (14) 279

Directory of Consulting Engineers 286—1

'Proceedings Volume 77 (1976) will consist of ABBA Bulletins 654, September-
October 1975: 655. November-December 1975; 656, January-February 1976; and 658,
June-July 1976 (Technical Conference Report issue). Blue-covered Bulletin 657, .^rll-
May 1976 (the Directory issue), is not a part of the Annual Proceedings of the Aaaociatioa.

BOARD OF DIRECTION
1975-1976

President
J. T. Wakd, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, 500 Water
St., Jacksonville, FL 32202

Vice Presidents
John Fox, Deputy Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Windsor Station, Montreal,

PQ H3C 3E4
B. J. WoRLEY, Vice President— Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific

Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606

Past Presidents

D, V. Sartore, Chief Engineer — Design, Burlington Northern, Inc., 176 E. Sth St., St.

Paul, MN SS 101
R. F. Bush, Chief Engineer, Erie Lackawanna Railway, Midland BIdg., Cleveland, OH

44115

Directors
R, W. Pember, Chief Engineer — Design and Construction, Louisville & Nashville Rail-
road, P. O. Box 1198, Louisville, KY 40201

E. Q. Johnson, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Chessie System, P. O. Box 1800,

Huntington, WV 25718
W. E. FuHR, Assistant Chief Engineer— Staff, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul k Pacific

Raibroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606
B. E. Pearson, Chief Engineer, Soo Line Railroad, Soo Line Bldg., Room 1520, Minne-

apoUs, MN 55440
P. L. Montgomery, Manager Engineering Systems, Norfolk & Western Railway, 8 N.

Jefferson St., Roanoke, VA 24042
E. C HoNATH, Assistant General Manager Engineering, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe

Railway, 900 Polk St., Amarillo, TX 79171
Mike Rougas, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, P. O. Box 471, Green-
ville, PA 16125
J. W. DeVaixe, Chief Engineer Bridges, Southern Railway System, 99 Spring St., S. W.,

Atlanta, GA 30303
R. L. Gray, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, P. O. Box 8100, Montreal,

PQ H3C 3N4
E. H. Waring, Chief Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, P. O. Box

5482, Denver, CO 80217
Wm. Glavin, General Manager, Grand Trunk Western Railroad, 131 W. Lafayette

Blvd., Detroit, MI 48226
G. H. Maxwell, System Engineer of Track, Union Pacific Railroad, 1416 Dodge St.,

Omaha, NE 68179

Treasurer
A. B. HiLLMAN, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago, 6900 S. Central Ave.,

Chicago, IL 60638

Executive Director
Earl W. Hodgkins, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605
Assistant to Executive Director
N. V. Enoman, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Administrative Assistant
D. F. Fredley, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Published by the American Railway Engineering Association, Bi-Monthly, January-February, April-
May, June-July, September-October and November-December, at
59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 01. 60605

Second class postage at Chicago, III., and at additional mailing offices.
Subscription $15 per annum

Copyright © 1975

AuBsicAH Railway Engineesing Association

All rights reserved.

No part of thb publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval

ayatem, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopyins.

ncording, or otherwise — ^without the prior written permisnon of the publisher.

PART 1
MANUAL RECOMMENDATIONS

All the recommendations submitted by committees for adoption and
publication in the 1976 Supplement to the AREA Manual for Railway Engi-
neering are printed in this issue of the Bulletin. These recommendations will
be formally submitted for review and approval to the Board Committee on
Publications and the AREA Board of Direction. Comments or objections by
Members regarding any of these recommendations should be submitted to
the Executive Manager not later than FEBRUARY 16, 1976.

85

Bui. 655

Manual Recommendations
Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals

Report on Assignment B

Revision of Manual

G. H. Chabot (chairman, subcommittee), all members of Committee 14.

Your committee submits for adoption the following recommendations with
respect to Chapter 14 of the Manual:

Delete present Part 1 — ^Terminals, Part 2 — Passenger Terminals, Part 3 — Freight
Terminals, and Part 4 — Locomotive Terminals, substituting therefor the follo\ving
completely re\'ised and reorganized material.

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
MANUAL FOR RAILWAY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 14
YARDS AND TERMINALS

FOREWORD

This chapter deals witli tlie engineering and economic problems of location,
design, construction and operation of yards and terminals used in railway service.
Such problems are substantially the same whether railway's ownership and use is
to be individual or joint. The location and arrangement of the yard or terminal as
a whole should pennit tlie most convenient and economical access to it of the tribu-
tary lines of railway, and the location, design and capacity of the several facilities
or components witliin said yard or terminal should be such as to handle the tributary
traffic expeditiously and economically and to serve tlie public and customer
conveniently.

In the design of new yards and terminals, the retention of existing railway
routes and facilities may seem desirable from the standpoint of initial expenditure
or first cost, but may pro\e to be extra\agant from the standpoint of operating costs
and efficiency. A true economic balance should be achie\ ed, keeping in mind possible
future trends and changes in traffic criteria, as to volume, intensity, direction and
character.

Although tliis chapter contemplates the establishment of entirely new facilities,
the recommendations therein will apply equally in the rearrangement, modernization,
enlargement or consolidation of existing yards and terminals and related facilities.
Parts 1 tlirough 4 incl. formulate specific and detailed recommendations relative

87

88 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

to tlie handling of freight, regardless of the type of commodity or merchandise, at
the originating, intermediate and destination points. Parts 5 and 6 relate to loco-
motive and passenger facilities, respectively, and Part 7 covers miscellaneous items
and facilities which may be found in yards and terminals, necessary for the general
operation and function of railways. Part S — Scales, describes the various weighing
systems used in railway service and is included as a part of this chapter since
the majority of scales are located at yards and terminals.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1 Generalities Page

Foreword 91

1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals 92

1.2 Air Rights 92

1.3 Automatic Car Identification System 92

1.4 Environmental Provisions 92

1.5 Security Requirements 93

Part 2 Freight Yards and Freight Terminals

Foreword 95

2.1 General 96

2.2 Track Arrangement 96

2.3 Yard Components 97

2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design 99

2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design 110

Part 3 Freight Delivery and Transfer

Foreword Ill

3.1 Freight Houses 112

3.2 Team Yards 115

3.3 Driveways 115

Part 4 Specialized Freight Terminals

Foreword 117

4.1 Waterfront 118

4.2 Rail-Truck 119

4.3 Auto and Truck Transport 123

4.4 Bulk, Sohd 129

4.5 Bulk, Liquid 130

4.6 Merchandise 130

Part 5 Locomotive Facilities

Foreword 133

5.1 General 134

5.2 Servicing Facilities 135

5.3 Inspection Pits 136

5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric 137

5.5 Steam 138

Manual Recommendations 89

Part 6 Passenger Facilities

Foreword 141

6.1 General 142

6.2 Site 142

6.3 Track Arrangement 144

6.4 Station Proper 145

6.5 Coach Yard 152

6.6 Modernization 157

Part 7 Other Yard and Terminal Facilities

Foreword 159

7.1 Stores 160

7.2 Storage 160

7.3 Reclamation 161

Manual Recommendations 91

Part 1
Generalities

FOREWORD

This part deals with the general conditions, factors, features and requirements
which may be basically common to or directly related with the planning, design,
construction and function of yards and terminals and their associated facilities.

CONTENTS

Section Page

1.1 Joint Yards and Terminals 92

1.2 Air Rights 92

1.3 Automatic Car Identification System 92

1.4 Environmental Provisions 92

1.5 Security Requirements 93

92 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

1.1 JOINT YARDS AND TERMINALS

1.1.1 Economy

(a) It is not axiomatic that a joint yard or terminal under one management
can be operated more economically and satisfactorily than two or more separately
operated yards or terminals of the same aggregate capacity.

(b) In a joint yard or terminal, a single organization should control all con-
struction, operation, maintenance and other activities within the tenninal zone. All
employees, including those of the participating railways, while functioning within
the yard or terminal zone should be subject to the control of the appropriate oflBcers.

1.1.2 Analyses

(a) A joint yard or terminal should not be undertaken without exhaustive
comparable analyses of what may be attained in expedition, economy and conveni-
ence, under the arrangements to be surrendered and under those proposed.

(b) A joint yard or tenninal may be undertaken where analyses justify antici-
pation of its economy as compared with other available alternatives, or where
governmental authority or popular demand has substantially the force of mandate.

1.1.3 Agreement

A joint terminal agreement should anticipate and definitely cover all relation-
ships between and among the owners, the users and tiie management of the joint
facilities. With a view to discovering weaknesses and omissions which may be
overcome in a new agreement, it will be found helpful, before drafting it, to examine
existing agreements and consult those charged with their administration.

1.2 AIR RIGHTS

At yards and tenninals centrally located in the larger cities, space over the
facilities can often be made available, with advantage and profit, for commercial
purposes such as post offices, office buildings with store frontage on the streets,
hotels, certain manufacturing enterprises, and the like. These will help materially
in carrying the charges on capital investments and tax assessments for the real estate
occupied.

1.3 AUTOMATIC CAR IDENTIFICATION (ACI) SYSTEM

Improved yard and terminal efficiencies and performance, including total termi-
nal control, can be achieved with an automatic car identification (ACI) system.
One report on the subject and its application has been published in the Proceedings,
Vol. 72, 1973, pages 230 and 231.

1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROVISIONS

Any yard and tenninal design must consider the environmental factors and
provide for the minimum controls established and required by federal, state and
local laws, directives and ordinances applicable to land, water, air and noise pollu-
tion. Chapter 13 — Environmental Engineering — deals with tliese features and
requirements.

Manual Recommendations 93

1.5 SECURITY REQUIREMENTS

1.5.1 Fire Protection

(a) Hydrants with hose houses and equipment should be located at various
points within the yard or terminal so as to permit the use of at least two streams of
water on any structure. Such facilities should comply to applicable codes and
regulations.

(b) Water mains and hydrants should be located with due regard to future
yard or terminal expansion.

(c) Water mains should be built in loops, if practicable.

(d) Chemical extinguishers should be conveniently placed to afford protection,
especially against oil and electric fires.

(e) Fire lanes should be provided for access to all buildings by fire fighting
equipment.

1.5.2 Theft and Vandalism

Protective measures must be carefully considered in the design of each indi-
vidual situation. A report on the subject of theft and vandalism is contained in the
Proceedings, Vol. 75, 1974, pages 609 to 611, inch Infonuation on this subject may
be obtained from the Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., report No. 487, Crime and Vandalism in Public Transportation —
5 Reports (1974), ISBN 0-309-02273-8, 64 pp.

Manual Recommendations 95

Part 2
Freight Yards & Freight Terminals

FOREWORD

This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design,
construction and operation of all the facilities provided by a railway company, or
by railway companies in common, or acting jointly, as the case may be, to handle
freight to or from or tlirough and witliin a given district on behalf of such railway
company or companies.

Conditions of demand and feasibiUty vary widely, and generally each case of
constructing an altogether new layout on a large scale, or of remodeling or consoU-
dating an extensive existing layout, constitutes an essentially basic problem.

Each of these features and its appurtenances, with a full knowledge of the
average and maximum demands to be made upon it, must be carefully designed to
fulfill its particular functions expeditiously and economically.

The designation "freight yard" (sometimes called marshaling yard) and "freight
terminal" as used herein are only relative to their location within a railway system,
have similarity in meaning and may perfonn like functions. The use of the term
"yard" as opposed to "terminal" may be used in a certain interpretation or within
a certain geographical area to designate an essential unit, a supplementary adjunct
or a tributary to a terminal.

CONTENTS

Section Page

2.1 General 96

2.2 Track Arrangement 96

2.3 Yard Components 97

2.4 Hump Classification Yard Design 99

2.5 Flat Classification Yard Design 110

96 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

2.1 GENERAL

To meet traffic requirements a yard or terminal should be able, even in peak
periods, to receive trains promptly upon arrival, perform any auxiliary service (such
as weighing, icing, feeding and watering stock, making running repairs, etc.), switch
cars into tlieir proper classification without appreciable delay, and dispatch these
cars in dieir proper position in outgoing trains in minimum time.

The number of yards should be as small as is consistent with the efficient han-
dling of traffic.

An additional yard is warranted only when it will result in greater economy
than the enlargement or reconstruction of, or substitution of a new yard for, an
existing yard or yards.

Yard or terminal layouts should provide for future expansion so that the number
and length of die tracks in diem may be increased as required with niinimmn inter-
ference with operation or minimum relocation of existing trackage.

An existing yard or terminal which is inadequate to handle the current or im-
mediately prospective traffic should be enlarged, or redesigned and rebuilt, or
abandoned in favor of a yard or teniiinal in a different location, according to which
of these alternatives will result in the greatest economy.

Generally in computing car capacity use a minimum of 50 ft per car for all
freight car tracks other than repair tracks and tracks for special equipment.

Yard lighting is desirable. The economical distribution of light over the area
involved, so as to provide proper intensity of illumination, requires careful design.
Recommendations of the AAR Engineering Division Committee on Electrical Facili-
ties— Fixed Property, should be consulted.

An adequate drainage system is essential.

Communication facilities such as teletype, pneumatic tube systems, loud speakers,
ACI, talkback, paging systems, television, telephones and radios should all be con-
sidered to expedite operations.

The AREA Proceedings should be consulted for detailed information.

2.2 TRACK ARRANGEMENT

(a) Main tracks should not pass through a yard.

(b) Connections to die main track from the receiving, classffication or depar-
ture tracks should be as direct as practicable.

(c) Crossovers should be provided as required to facilitate all normal and
regular movements in the yard or between the yard and the main track, and their
location should be such as to cause minimum interference between different move-
ments which it may be desirable to make simultaneously.

(d) In order to keep die distance to clearance to a minimum, the angle be-
tween a ladder track and the body tracks should be as large as possible.

(e) Ladder tracks should be spaced not less than 15 ft center to center from
any parallel track, and when such parallel track is another ladder track, they shoidd
be spaced not less than 18 ft center to center. The requirements of governing bodies
must be observed.

(f) Body tracks should be spaced not less than 14 ft center to center, and
when parallel to a main track or important running track, the first body track should
be spaced not less than 20 ft center to center from such track, subject to state regu-
lations on clearances.

Manual Recommendations 97

2.3 YARD COMPONENTS

2.3.1 Receiving Yard

(a) The number of receiving tracks should be such that tliere will be one
available whenever an arriving train offers to enter the yard.

(b) The length of receiving tracks should be such that each will acconnnodate
a complete train, including assisting locomotive where used. It is desirable in some
yards to have a few short receiving tracks located on the side of the yard near the
rurming track.

(c) It is desirable that the gradient of the receiving tracks be such tliat band
brakes will not have to be set to keep the cars from moving.

(d) Consideration may be given to track indicators and remotely controlled
switches at tlie entrances to the receiving yard.

2.3.2 Classification Yard

(a) The type of yard which should be adopted in any given case depends
upon the volume and character of traffic to be handled through it, and the train
schedules. The decision should be based on a thorough traffic analysis and economic
study.

( 1 ) A single flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total number
of cars is small and the number of switching cuts per train is also small.

(2) A double flat yard is adapted for handling traffic where the total num-
ber of cars is large but the number of switching cuts per train is small.

(3) A gravity yard or a hump yard is adapted for handling traffic where
die total number of cars is large and the number of switching cuts per
train is also large — also in special cases where the total number of cars
is relatively small but normally received in a short period of time, and
the number of switching cuts per train is large.

(4) In special cases, due to the location of the yard, the character of traffic,
or the arrangement of schedules, it may be necessary to provide a dou-
ble flat yard or a hump yard, because of limited time for handling.

(b) The number of classification tracks should be such that there will be at
least one available for each important classification.

(c) The lengtli of classification tracks should be such that each will normally
hold all accumulated cars of the assigned classification until they are to be moved
off tlie classification track under normal operation.

- (d) Where cars of single classification accumulate rapidly enough to permit
fonvarding them in whole trains, it is desirable to make up and dispatch trains from
the classification tracks.

2.3.3 Departure Yard

(a) Departure tracks may be located as part of the classification yard or in
a separate yard, depending upon the type of trains dispatched.

(b) The number of departure tracks should be such that there will be one
available for assembling a departing train whenever necessary.

(c) The length of departure tracks should be such that each will accommodate
a complete train, including assisting locomotives where used.

98 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(d) The gradient of departure tracks should be level, if possible. If adverse
to the forward movement of a train, it should be at least 20 percent less than the
ruling gradient to be encountered by that train during its road trip.

(e) Compressed air at suitable pressure should be piped along the departure
tracks, and sufficient outlets should be provided to permit the testing of the air brake
equipment on die cars of departing trains.

(f) Consideration should be given to the installation of shove indicators located
at clearance point of each departure track.

2.3.4 Repair Yard

(a) The location of the car repair yard should be such that the movement of
bad-order cars will be as direct as practicable, that switching the repair yard will
not interfere with other work, and that repaired cars may be returned readily to the
classification or departure yard, as required.

(b) The capacity of the repair yard depends on the number of cars to be re-
paired daily. Tracks should be as short as possible. In computing capacities, 55 ft
should be allowed for each uncoupled car.

(c) Repair tracks should be connected at both ends where feasible. The tracks
may be alternately spaced on narrow and wide centers, the narrow spacing to be not
less than 18 ft and the wide spacing to be such as to accommodate mechanical
equipment.

(d) A paved driveway should be placed between the repair tracks with wide
centers, and paving is also desirable between the tracks with the narrow centers.
The elevation of the driveway is usually tlie same as the top of rail. Crossings should
be spaced at approximately 8-car intervals.

(e) Consideration should be given to the "one-spot" repair yard, where cars
are moved by mechanical means to tlie repair building, one at a time, repaired and
moved. This system is adaptable to one or more tracks. In computing the capacity
of the track holding the cars, a minimum of 50 ft should be allowed for each car.

2.3.5 Local Yard

( Material being developed ) .

2.3.6 Miscellaneous Yard Tracks and Facilities

2.3.6.1 General

All miscellaneous tracks should be located so that the use of them will cause
minimum interference with other operations in the yard, particularly road trains
entering and leaving the yard.

2.3.6.2 Switching leads

Switching leads should be designed to give the enginemen working on them
a clear view of switchmen passing signals along the ladder track. This may not be
necessary where yard crews are equipped with engine-to-ground radio communi-
cation. Multiple parallel leads with well placed crossovers should be provided where
traffic is heavy.

Manual Recommendations 99

2.3.6.3 Caboose tracks

Caboose tracks should be doul)le-ended and located so as to permit easy access
to departure tracks. In hump yards they should be adjacent to the pull-out lead
tracks or classification tracks.

2.3.6.4 Wrecker equipment track

A double-ended track for the storage of the wreck train should be provided.

2.3.6.5 Other tracks

(a) Advance tracks somewhat longer than the maximum train length, or freight
main tracks extending to or beyond the outside of the yard, in either or both direc-
tions, should be provided as required.

(b) Thorouglifare tracks should provide access to all parts of the yard and
between the locomotive terminal and the yard.

(c) Scale tracks should be so located that weigh cars can be weighed with mini-
mum delay to >ard operation.

(d) Storage ti-acks may be required, particularly in hump yards where a large
number of empty cars are held for supplying local industry and on-line requirements
which may restrict operation of yard.

(e) Tracks may be provided in hump yards for by-passing the hump with certain
cars, or to provide an "escape" route from the retarder area to tire receiving yard
for hvmip engines.

(f) Hold tracks may be required.

2.3.6.6 Allied facilities

Icing, stock pens, LCL transfer, rail-truck handling and other allied facilities
should be located so that cars may be placed with minimum delay after arrival and
be readily accessible for switching or placement in outbound trains.

2.4 HUMP CLASSIFICATION YARD DESIGN

2.4.1 General

A hump classification yard should be designed for the volume and character
of traffic to be handled and should provide for continuous movement while humping
witli minimum loss of time between successive humping operations; also for the
movement of cars by gravity from the crest to their proper tracks in the classification
yard without damaging impacts.

Tracks at the outbound end of the classification yard should be connected to
ladders so that classifications normally assembled in one train may be assigned to
permit gathering from one ladder, thus providing for minimum movement of pull-
down engines. A sufficient number of ladders, with lead connections to departure
tracks, should be provided to permit working at least two pull-down engines with
minimum interference.

The hump end of the receiving yard should be located at sufficient distance
from the crest of tlie hump to provide, if required, hot oil pit, under-car inspection
pit, connection to set-out track for explosives, and for a connection to release road
engines. A second track leading from the receiving yard to the hump will permit
the use of a second hump locomotive for continuous bumping operations. If trains

100 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

from two or more directions are to be humped in one direction over the hump, pro-
vision should be made so that cars can be moved into the end of the receiving yard
next to the hump with minimum interference with humping operations.

It is desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks if
local conditions permit, and such a method of operation usually expedites movements
through the yard and reduces the expense. This requires that a sufficient number
of classification tracks be long enough for each to accommodate a full-length out-
going train, or that lead tracks be provided at the outgoing end such tliat tlie com-
bined length of a classification track and a lead track be sufficient for a full-length
train, thus avoiding unnecessary doubling over or interference with hump operation.
This may involve a temporary reassignment of classification during tlie inspection
and preparatory time of a departing train.

Departure tracks may be required for making up and dispatching trains, de-
pending on local conditions.

Considerable reclassification of cars in a hump yard is an indication of an
insufficient number of classification tracks.

The hump office, hump signal control, and other communication faciilities should
be located at the crest of the hump on the right hand side. ( It is desirable tliat cars
be uncoupled from the right hand side so that the forward knuckle will be open,
as the impact of normal coupling will often close the rear knuckle.)

The average gradient of the brack leading to the crest of the hump should be
such as to permit shoving the longest and heaviest train at humping speeds con-
sistent with available power.

Other desirable appurtenant facilities include intercommunication and paging
systems throughout the classification yard area; telephone, teletype and pnemnatic
tube systems between strategic points, including the general yard office, the hump
office and retarder operator towers, to facilitate handling of waybills, inspection
lists, switch lists, etc. In addition, a multiple-channel radio-telephone communication
system connecting the various offices with hump engines is commonplace. Adequate
yard lighting is particularly necessary in tlie retarder area, supplemented as required
with spotlighting for freight car identification. Journal oiling facilities and inspection
pits, when installed, should be located on the approach side of the hump, suffi-
ciently in advance of the crest, to be in the clear of the pin-pulling operation.

2.4.2 Retarder

Many factors local to each situation affect efficient operation of a retarder yard,
so that each tenninal must be studied individually to produce a proper design.

The classffication tracks at the hump end generally should be connected in
groups, with minimum distance from the first switch of the group to the farthest
clearance point. The leads to these groups should be connected to the hump lead by
sub-leads in the shortest possible distance. Space should be provided for retarders
to be located ahead of each group, on the hump lead, and in some cases on the sub-
leads. Lap switches, short turnouts, curved switch points, and a relatively high
degree of curvature, are of desirable assistance in obtaining the minimum distances.

The number and location of retarders depend upon the number of groups of
tracks and the type of layout. The lengtli of each retarder depends upon the height
of hump and the speed of operation needed. The height of hump depends upon
the climate, direction of prevailing wind, character of traffic (empty or loaded cars),
and to meet definite elevation.

Manual Recommendations 101

A retarder tower or towers should be located so that each operator will have a
clear view of cars under his control. The towers should have sufficient height so that
the operator can obser\e whether tracks are filled or have room for more cars.

Individual switches and retarders may be operated by remote control requiring
one or more tower locations. Where more than on tower is provided tlie work should
be evenly apportioned among the operators so far as practicable. Push buttons or
programmed switching may be used to select route codes from which switches are
operated automaticalh'. Likewise, retarders may be operated by push-button selec-
tion of speeds or through automatic control from computers.

For a completely automatic retarder classification yard, certain measuring sec-
tions with unifonn grades are required in order to determine car-rolling characteristics
on both tangent and curved track.

2.4.3 Gradients

2.4.3.1 Objective

The ideal objective is die design of a series of gradients so that each car will
roll to and stop at the far end of the classification yard, or will roll to coupling at
an acceptable speed. The following objectives are the minimum to be expected:

(a) Deliver cars having a practical maximum rolling resistance to the clearance
point under adverse weather conditions.

(b) Deliver cars of most frequently occurring rolling resistance to the far end
of the yard.

(c) Permit maximum humping rate and acceptable coupling speeds.

The clearance point of a classification track is the point on that track closest to
the hump which will meet clearance requirements as set by the appropriate state
law or by management. Far end of the yard is the point on any classification track
most distant from the hump which it is desired that cars should reach.

2.4.3.2 Rolling resistance

In designing grades for moving railroad cars under gravity, it is necessary to
understand what is meant by rolling resistance. It is caused by many external oppos-
ing factors, such as car construction, track irregularities, turnouts, curves, speed, air
friction, wind, temperature, rain, snow, dirt, etc. The measured rolling resistance
for the same car will show a wide variation depending on whether the car is acceler-
ating or decelerating because of storing kinetic energy in the rotating wheels and
axles or in using it up. In general, rolling resistance can be defined as the summation
of all these factors opposing the free rolUng of the car. Quite obviously the rolling
resistance for any given car will vary depending upon the factors tliat are working
to oppose free rolling.

For gradient design purposes, rolling resistance is expressed in percent of grade
necessary to just overcome the opposing factors. For example, a car is said to be a
0.4 percent resistance car if, when placed on a 0.4 percent uniform tangent grade
and given a small initial velocity, it keeps rolling without accelerating or decelerating.
Recent tests indicate that tlie maximum rolling resistance of hard-roUing, brake-
free cars is 1.4 percent while the minimum rolling resistance of easy- rolling cars is
0.08 percent. Strong head winds may increase minimum rolling resistance of empty
cars to 2.0 percent. The most frequent rolling resistance is about 0.20 percent for
loaded cars and about 0.35 percent for empt>^ cars. For predicting the behavior of
cars in any yard, relevant brake-free data should be used.

102 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

2.4.3.3 Theory

The speed of a car rolUng on a grade can be found at any point by means of the
expression A = 0.0334F* or A = 0.01 SSv*, where V is the speed of the car in miles per
hour, V is the speed of the car in feet per second and h is the velocity head of the car
in feet at the point under consideration and is the vertical distance shown in Fig. 1.

; : /P<?7--4 T/OA/AL

* HEAD

/?OLL/NG /?£S/5TA/\/C£ LOS3

-h = VSLOC/TY
/^£AD

-h^ =£A/£/?Sr

Meao

Fig. 1

The velocity head h can be found from the expression

h = : — — — — he = k he

Awr~ 1

where,

A = Velocity head (translational head), in feet.

he = Energy head, in feet. This quantity is the sum of the car's translational and rota-
tional energy head as shown in Fig. 1.
w = Weight of car's wheels and axles, in pounds.
W = Gross weight of car, in pounds,
r = Radius of gyration of the car's wheels and axles with respect to their axis of rota-
tion, in inches.
D = Car wheel diameter at tread, in inches.

1

I 4^?* 1
'^ D' W

Awr^
Table 1 gives the value of the constant r^o for eight 33-in-nommal-diameter car wheels

and four axles and for eight 36-in-nominal-diameter car wheels and four axles. The

recommended values of k for various design assumptions are as follows:

Mixed empty cars k = 0.92

Mixed loaded cars k=. 0.98

Effect of rotating wheels and axles neglected ^ = l.OQ

Manual Recommendations

103

Table 1

Nominal

Wheel
Diameter

Axle Size

_2
CONSTANT ^^^ , IN POUNDS
d2

Multiple Wear Wheels

One - Wear Wheels |

New

Condemned

for Tread

Wear

New

Condemned

for Tread

Wear

33"

5-1/2 X 10
6 X 11
6-1/2 X 12

'+,120
i+,li+0
1+,170

2,1+10
2,1+30
2,1+60

3,270
3,300
3,330

2,380
2,1+00
2,1+1+0

36"

7 X lii

U,750

2,580

Less Common

When the cars for which a gradient is designed are predominantly empty or pre-
dominantly loaded, are of the same general type and their rolling characteristics are
reliably known, the appropriate value of k can be obtained from Fig. 2a.

Safe throwing of switches, retarding and weighing of cars make it necessary
for the designer to predetermine the spacing of cars as diey roll from crest to clear-
ance. This can be done by computing the time a car takes to roll between given
points using one of the following two methods:

(a) The distance studied is divided into a number of increments depending
on the accuracy desired. The velocity head at the midpoint of each increment is
computed or scaled from a scale profile, and by means of the velocity head expres-
sions or the graph of Fig. 2, the velocity at the midpoint of each increment is ob-

10

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B

/

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f,

/

/

/)

.

y

2

^

y

n

^

^

4 6 8 10 12

Speed in miles per hour
Fig. 2.

14

16

18

104 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

/.OO
.99
.98
.97

.94

.93

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eo 40 60 80 /OO /20 /40 /60 /80 ^00 ZZO 240 260

G/k'O.53 WE/GHT of CAi9 //V /,000 LBL
Fig. 2a

Manual Recommendations 105

tained. The length of the increment is then divided by the velocity corresponding
to its midpoint to gi\e tlie time the car takes to roll through that particulai" increment.
When these increment times are added cumulatively, the time a car takes to roll
between the given points is known.

(b) The time the center of gravity of a car takes to travel between two points
"A" and "B" connected by a constant gradient can be found from the expression

T = 0.249 -T— V hA+ ha — V Aa (provided h^ is not equal to ha)

where,

r = Time to travel from point "A" to point "B", in seconds.

L = Distance from point "A" to point "B ', in feet.
Ha = Velocity head at point "A", in feet.
Ab= Velocity head at point "B", in feet.

When points "A" and "B" are connected by a series of gradients, the time T is computed

for each gradient. If the car is retarded between points "A" and "B", the time T is

computed for each retardation. If Ha = ha, the speed of the car, v, is constant and T

L
can be found from T := — ■ .

V

2.4.3.4 Design factors

(a) Hump height for a classification track is the difference in elevation between
the crest of the hump and its defined clearance point.

(b) The track on the approach side of hump crest should have adequate plus
grade of sufficient length to assure easy separation of single or multiple cuts. The
vertical curve at tlie hmnp should be of minimum lengtli; care should be taken to
make certain that the middle-ordinate for the chord equal in length to tlie distance
between truck centers will provide clearance for the lowest equipment that is ex-
pected to be humped and prevent binding of car knuckles.

(c) For proper operation of a switch the clear space between die rear end of
one car and the front end of the succeeding car should be not less than the length
of the track circuit protecting that switch. Track circuits are usually 55 to 58 ft
long. Cars with iimer axle centers greater than the length of die track circuit will
require special handling.

(d) A track scale of proper length and location when installed on the hmnp
requires a gradient from die crest and over the scale wliich will provide sufficient
time on the scale alone for weighing of cars of maximum lengdi, minimum lengtii,
or a mixture of boUi, with due consideration of variations in rolling resistance.

(e) The trend toward fidl automation in hump yards necessitates the provision
of tangent and curve rolling resistance measuring sections to be located between the
crest of the hump and die group retarder. Recent yard installations have used an
accelerating grade not to exceed 6.0 percent for a distance of 70 ft, more or less,
at the crest of the hump to assist in providing the proper separation of cars. The
resistance measuring section then is provided on an accelerating grade of 2.0 percent,
more or less, to the master retarder, which may also be placed on a grade not to
exceed 6.0 percent. Retarders may be constructed with a \'ertical curve at the lower
end which facilitates placing the first switch beyond the leaving end of both master
and group retarders as close to the retarders as possible.

106 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Assoc i a t i o n

(f) The gradient from the group (last) retarder through the classification tracks
should not produce unacceptable acceleration of easy-rolling cars after leaving the
group retarder. This gradient may result in deceleration of other cars, requiring the
release of such cars from the group retarder at higher speeds. The gradient within
the switching area for a group may be made decelerating for all cars to permit re-
lease at a higher speed for the purpose of clearing ladders quicker and to provide
more space beween cars for operating switches and sending cars to adjacent tracks.
The design of this part of tlie hump profile is important to obtain maxinmm humping
capacity with minimum damage to cars and contents.

(g) The gradient through the group retarder should be sufficient to start most
cars should they be stopped in the retarder and should preferably be at least 0.8
percent.

(h) The gradients between the crest and the track group are regulated by the
hump height, tlie length and location of retarders, the gradient selected through the
group retarder, tlie gradient required for the track scale and tlie desired speed of
cars leaving each of tlie retarders, as follows:

( 1 ) There should be a sufficient lengtli of retarder in each route to stop a
0.15 percent resistance car of maximum gross weight in die group re-
tarder when released from the crest at the design humping speed. If a
pin-puller retarder is used, its retarding efi^ect should not be included in
computing the amount of retardation required between crest and
clearance.

Note: The majority of existing retarder yards handling mixed traffic have been
designed for cars having a maximum gross weight of 100 tons on 4 axles with 33-in-
diameter wheels. Cars of heavier gross weights and having wheels of larger diameter
shoidd be taken into consideration in providing adequate retardation if they are
likely to appear in large numbers at any yard.

(2) The group retarder lengdi should be sufficient to control heavy cars
having normal rolling resistance variation over the length of track on
which cars are classified. For example, a group retarder having a velocity
head rating of 5.5 ft would be sufficient to control heavy cars having a
rolling resistance from 0.12 percent to 0.34 percent over a distance of
2500 ft from the leaving end of die group retarder.

(3) The master retarder should be of sufficient length to insure that a car
of maximum gross weight having a 0.15 percent resistance will move
through it, closed to maximum retardation, and leave it at a speed which
will permit stopping in the group retarder when the car is uncoupled at
the design humping speed. The elevation at the lower end of tlie retarder
should be such that the exit speed (usually 8 to 14 niph) will permit
adequate separation of cars between die master and group retarders.

(i) Compensation for curve resistance may be made by compensating gradients,
by additional speed, or by a combination of both. This factor is of major importance
in the design of gradients between the group retarder and clearance. Curvature
through turnouts should be included with other curvature when calculating curve
resistance.

Manual Recommendations 107

2.4.3.5 Formulas

(a) Hump gradients

The following formulas may be used in designing hmnp yard gradients from
the crest of the hump to the clearance point of a classification track.

H = Hump height = S,i?a* + S.R^^ -\-AC^ + Sw2— (F^)<.
Hi ^ H — Ha

Ha='Diop from leaving end of group retarder to clearance = 5a i22« + ^C. +
Swa + a

Where,

Subscript "1" refers to the section between crest and leaving end of group retarder.

Subscript "2" refers to the section between leaving end of group retarder and clearance.

Subscript "A" refers to hard-rolling cars.

Subscript "e" refers to easy-rolling cars.

Quantities with no subscript refer to the area between crest and clearance.

S =: Distance in feet.

A := Curvature in degrees of central angle.
(yH)o = Humping velocity head in feet.

R =: Car rolling resistance expressed decimally.

C ^ Curve resistance in feet of drop per degree of central angle.
Sw;j = Switch resistance in feet for switches beyond the group retarder. (Resistance of
switches in Section "1" is not included as a separate item since /?i» is made
higher than R2h to include switch resistance.)

a r= Difference in feet between velocity head at clearance and velocity head at leav-
ing end of group retarder for easy-rolling cars. This will be a positive quantity
if car is accelerating and a negative quantity if car is decelerating.

The quantities to be substituted for the various symbols may be determined from tests
at yards now in operation.
Having determined the required vertical drops H and Hz, these drops should be dis-
tributed in their respective areas best to meet the operating requirements. There is no
necessity for the curve compensation included in Ha to be applied entirely to the curve
itself and part or all of it may be put in advance of the curve.

If it is desired to deliver hard-rolling cars under advei'se conditions to a point farther
down in the classification yard than just to the clearance point as defined herein, these
same formulas will apply by using such new point for all calculations instead of the
clearance point.

It will be noted that the expression for H provides a total drop which may be

different for each track, with the sides of the yard lower than the center because of the

greater curvature in the outside tracks. The following are practical methods of application.

( 1 ) Grade the classification tracks so that each track has its proper amount of

curve compensation. This is done by detennining the drop Hi for each

track, which will yield a yard cross section made up of a series of steps.

This is not objectionable, provided the difference in elevation between

adjacent tracks is not prohibitive. This method provides the most uniform

roUing conditions beyond the last retarder.

108 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(2) Grade all tracks of the same group in one plane using the H coiTCspond-
ing to the track having most curvature and Ht corresponding to the
track having the least curvature. This method requires higher releasing
speeds at the group retarder for the tracks having more curvature.

(b) Body track gradients

In yards handling both loads and empties, gradients below the group retarder must
be provided on the basis of the easy-rolling cars unless such cars are so few that the
operation of the yard will not be slowed up appreciably by the necessity for bringing
them practically to a stop in the last retarder. The acceleration of easy-rolling cars after
leaving the group retarder should not be excessive so as to permit higher releasing speeds
at the group retarder.

The gradient of the body tracks should be about 0.08 percent adjusted to meet local
conditions, and any curves that there may be in the body tracks should be compensated
at the rate of 0.025 ft per deg of central angle unless such curvels are so located that there
would be no objection to the cars decelerating.

It is advisable to have an adverse grade in the body tracks just in advance of where
they join the ladders at the far end of the yard, with a rise of not less than the
equivalent of 4 mph.

(c) Retardation

Retardation is obtained from the equation:

(VH) H,o = H^-\- (VH)o — 5ai2i, — Ai C.

Where,

(rfl')H+o = Total retardation for hump and group retarder.

2.4.3.6 Example

To illustrate the aforementioned principles, the following example for northern climates
is worked out analytically and the results shown graphically in Fig. 3.

Layout Data
Si = 81Sft,& = Sl9ft
Ai = 22.65*', Aj=22.6S»
Sx«»= 0.24 ft (0.06 ft per turnout)

Design Data

Rik = 1.4%, R3% = 0.9% 94 ft scale 35 ft from crest.

Ri, =0.15%, (F^)o = 0.21 ft — 2.5 mph o = — 0.67 ft corresponding to a ve-

Ra, = 0.08% lodty of 6.0 mph at leaving

C» = 0.045, C. = 0.025 end of group retarder, and a

A;= 1.0 velocity of 4.0 mph at clear-
ance.

Solution
H = SiRtx -f- S,Rc^ +^Ck + SW»— {VH). = (815) (0.014) -f (519) (0.009)

-f (45.3) (0.045) -\- (0.24) — (0.21) = 18.15 ft, locating point "A" on the

profile
ff,= 5a/2a.-|- AsC.4-Swi-f ffl =(S19) (0.0008) -|- (22.65) (0.025) -|- (0.24)

— (0.67) = 0.55 ft.
ni=H-H»= 18.15— 0.55= 17.60 ft, locating point "B" on the profile.

Manual Recommendations

109

vj ^ (£ <c

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110 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Point C is located by using a 1.2 percent gradient between B and C.
Point E has been located by the 3.0 percent gradient because of scale requirements.
Point D is established after determining the lengths of the group and bump re-
retarders.

{yH)B.o =17.60+ 0.21 — (815) (O.OOIS) — (22.65) (0.025) = 16.02 ft.

Let {yH)o =6.24 ft, then (FF)h = 9.78 ft.

Let the minimum exit velocity be 10 mph from the master retarder.

10 mph = iM ft VH
Elevation of point D = — 9.78— (395) (O.OOIS) —3.34 + 0.21 = — 13.50 ft.

Having completed the ground profile, the resistance line of the unretarded 0.15 and
0.08 per cent car is drawn, as shown in Fig. 3. To obtain the resistance line of
the fully retarded 0.15 percent car, point D' is plotted 3.34 feet above point D,
equal to the velocity head for 10 mph. Points C and B' are then plotted to
yield grades parallel to those of the resistance line of the unretarded car. The
total retardation required is 6.24 ft +9.78 ft =16.02 ft. If, however, the
retardation furnished is greater than 16.02 ft, the hump height may be in-
creased to utilize the full capacity furnished and/or reduce the amount of
grading.

All rolling-resistance values used in tlie example are accepted empirical averages
susceptible of modification after more research data are obtained. In analyzing an
existing yard or in designing a new one, the designer must recognize that the same
car will have a different apparent rolling resistance in Section 1 than it will have in
Section 2 because it is generally accelerating in Section 1 and decelerating in Sec-
tion 2. It is noted that this fact has been considered in the example for both hard-
roUing cars and easy-rolling cars.

2.5 FLAT CLASSIFICATION YARDS DESIGN

2.5.1 General

(Material being developed).

2.5.2 Gradients

(Material being developed).

2.5.3 Design factors

(Material being developed).

Manual Recommendations 111

Part 3
Freight Delivery and Transfer

FOREWORD

This part deals with the engineering aspects of freight (commodities, merchan-
dise, etc.) handling at the points of origin and delivery, in carload lot or less-than-
carload lot, or in the consolidation of LCL freight from a greater to a lesser number
of cars, or vice versa, or where it is desired to transfer packaged freight from foreign
line cars into home line cars for forwarding to destination. The facilities are essen-
tially supplementary units and should be so located, so designed, and so operated
in relation to each other and to the lines tributary to them, as to give the most
economical results for the railway as a whole.

CONTENTS

Section Page

3.1 Freight Houses 112

3.2 Team Yards 115

3.3 Driveways 115

112 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

3.1 FREIGHT HOUSES

3.1.1 General

(a) Where tliere is a choice of sites, the following factors should be considered
in the selection:

( 1 ) highway accessibility,

(2) nearness to city pick-up,

(3) space for future expansion,

(4) proximity to existing switching service,

(5) space for a new yard or proximity to existing supporting yard,

(6) the possible inclusion of rail-truck freight facilities,

(7) economies of location near terminal yards even though remote from city,
and

(8) relative land values.

(b) The ultimate size of the freight house should be determined in advance
from consideration of the type and average amount of traffic to be handled through
it in the first instance, the variation of the peak from average requirements and the
probable growth of requirements during the period in which the cost of the structure
can be amortized. The initial size should be determined by the immediate needs.

(c) One factor in obtaining minimum operating costs will result when house
tracks are placed between inbound and outbound freight houses or platforms with
trucking connections. This factor applies to all large facilities. These connections can
be in the form of tunnels, grade crossings, trucking bridges, or by extending the
trucking platform around the stub ends of tracks.

(d) The factors of design for a freight house, such as car capacity, tailboard
frontage, floor area, width of house, platforms, conveyors, bridges, ramps and road-
ways; and in the case of a two-level house, the capacity of elevators if used, should
be so correlated that no one factor will limit the capacity of the house.

(e) The design and layout of the facilities should be such as to require the
minimum amount of labor to handle freight, and where economically feasible,
mechanization should be exploited to the maximum.

( f ) The economies of protecting the facility and operation from adverse weather
should be considered.

3.1.2 Dimensions

(a) The size and shape of the house should take into consideration the
following:

( 1 ) the number of house tracks,

(2) the number of cars to be set,

(3) total tailboard length,

(4) platform space required,

(5) location of roof columns,

(6) type of operation to be accommodated, such as transfer of freight be-
tween car and car, between car and truck, forwarder, shipping associa-
tion, etc., and

(7) the type of mechanical freight-handling equipment to be used, if any.

(b) Platform widths should be arrived at by allowing from 6 to 8 ft for each
conveyor or motorized travel lane, with sufficient standing space outside of travel

Manual Recommendations 113

lanes for parking freight trucks. Standing space 10 to 15 ft wide adjacent to car
side and tliat much or more at tailboard side is desirable. Larger standing areas may
be required, depending on the amount of freight and length of time it is to be held
on floor.

(c) Space should be provided for offices, toilets, locker and lunch room, warm
and cool rooms, cooperage shop, storage for blocking and bulkhead material, and
maintenance shop for platfonn equipment.

3.1.3 Two-Level Structvire

(a) Conditions under which a two-le\el freight house are required are excep-
tional rather than ordinary. Under certain topographical or other physical conditions,
such as separate track and highway levels, the two-level house may provide die only
economical solution, eliminating teamways, ramps, and avoiding interference between
teaming and switching movements.

(b) A t\\"0-level freight house occupies less land area per ton of capacity than
a one-level freight house, but the cost of construction may be greater, and the build-
ing cannot be altered as readily to meet changing conditions.

(c) Trucking costs in a properly designed two-level freight house are less tlian
in a one-le\el freight house of the same capacity, but this is somewhat offset by
the cost of elevating freight. Although mechanical handling by towing conveyors
has not been applied to two-le\el freight houses, that method should be considered
in planning new or in modernizing existing houses.

(d) Stowing costs may be less in a two-level outbound freight house than in a
one-level outbound freight house if the loading platform is located in the middle
of the outbound setting of cars.

(e) A combination inbound and outbound freight house of the two-level type
is more economical to operate than separate inbound and outbound freight houses
of this type.

(f) A multi-level inbound freight house may prove an economical method of
securing additional storage space for freight.

3.1.4 Mechanized Freight-Handling Facilities

(a) Mechanical equipment in a freight house will usually include one or a com-
bination of the following:

( 1 ) mechanical trucks,

(2) tractors towing platfonn trucks,

(3) fork lifts and

(4) towing conveyors.

(b) Minimum lengths of haul are approximated in a freight-house layout having
a vvddth roughly equal to its length. This is an important factor where hand trucking
is to be employed. It is much less important with tractor towing operation, and least
important with towing conveyors.

(c) When volume justifies their use, con\eyor chains, either overhead or en-
cased in floor, towing four-wheel platform trucks can normally handle 90 to 95
percent of the freight-house tonnage.

(d) Towing conveyors are continuous and tow both loaded and empty trucks
usually spaced 12 to 18 ft apart. Tra\el speeds up to 175 ft per niin are in use. The
conveyor may cross the freight house tracks by means of a trucking bridge or by

114 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

ramping down to a grade crossing or timnel with ramp gradients of preferably not
more than 6 percent. With floor-tyi^e conveyors it is possible to construct grade
crossings so that the chain will not have to be disconnected to allow railroad cars
to cross.

(e) Stop switches should be placed along conveyor routes at about every otlier
car to control the movement of the chain and to be available in case of emergency.

(f) The capacity of a conveyor line is the product of the number of loaded
trucks going by a given point per hour and the net load per truck. The net load
used for the design of a particular house should be determined by test where
possible.

(g) Up to the present time, freight elevators have been the principal means
for vertical transportation of freight; however, with proper ramps, either tractor-
trailer or towing conveyor operations are possible and eliminate the need for elevators
in multi-level facilities.

3.1.5 Appurtenant Facilities

In the design and construction of a freight house, the following must be
considered:

( 1 ) paging and intercommunication systems,

(2) centralized checking,

(3) pneumatic tube systems,

(4) dock offices,

(5) auxiliary toilet facilities,

(6) platform scales,

(7) drinking fountains,

(8) fire protection,

(9) facilities for fuehng, storing and maintaining equipment,

(10) overhead crane for handling heavy loads,

(11) facilities for transfer of tank car contents,

( 12 ) highway truck scales if trucking operation is involved, and

(13) freight house canopies.

3.1.6 House Tracks

(a) The capacity of inbound tracks should be such that no more than one
change in the inbound setting of cars need be made during a shift of freight-house
operations, and this change may be made during the lunch hour.

(b) The capacity of the outbound tracks should be such that the outbound
setting of cars may be left undisturbed during the shift of freight-house operations.

(c) There are operating advantages in having a platform adjacent to each
track; however, overall economies usually dictate trucking through one or more cars.

(d) Spotting cars to permit trucking through them requires approximately 1%
min of switch engine time per car to spot and recouple.

(e) State regulations and type of cars to be set will usually dictate track-
centers, side clearance, and platform heights. Wlien refrigerator cars are to be used,
tracks preferably should be depressed and platform set 8 ft from center line of track.

3.1.7 Freight Transfer Stations

(a) A freight transfer station should be provided where it is desired to consoli-
date LCL freight from a greater into a lesser number of cars, or vice versa, or where

Manual Recommendations 115

it is desired to transfer package freight from foreign line cars into home line cars
for forwarding to destination.

(b) The width of transfer platform should be sufficient to accommodate:

( 1 ) the parking of trucking equipment at track sides, and

(2) lanes for movement of the type of equipment used in moving freight
from car to car.

3.2 TEAM YARDS

3.2.1 General

( a ) Location

The location of a team yard should be such that it will be convenient for use
by shippers and consignees, and also as convenient as possible to a freight house,
so that the receipt and shipment of freight may be easily under control of the freight
agent's force.

(b) Equipment

( 1 ) A crane for handling heavy freight should be provided when required.

(2) A motor truck scale, with office, should be provided near the main en-
trance to the team yard when required.

(c) Tracks

( 1 ) Switching tracks for holding and working cars should be provided in
the immediate vicinity of the team tracks and so arranged as to facili-
tate the switching of these tracks.

(2) The spacing of tracks, where multiple team tracks are built, may be
fixed by regulatory bodies, but it is recommended that the maximum
distance between track centers be 13 ft.

(3) The distance between track centers where the driveway is located be-
tween tracks, should be 10 ft greater than the width of the driveway.

3.3 DRIVEWAYS (FREIGHT HOUSE AND TEAM YARD)

(a) Freight house and team yard dri\eways should be paved and maintained
in good condition.

(b) The widdi of a freight house driveway should allow trucks to be backed
up to die freight house at right angles and leave additional room for two thorough-
fare lanes for moving vehicles.

(c) Team-track driveways normally .should be of sufficient widtli to allow the
longest Single unit trucks using the driveway to stand at right angles to the car,
with sufficient space remaining in front of the truck to allow another truck of maxi-
mum width to pass.

(d) Team yard driveways should be hard-surfaced and liave at least 60 ft
clear width between cars.

(e) Driveways between buildings or between a building and a team track
should ha\'e preferably a clear wadth of 110 to 150 ft, with the latter dimension to
be used if parking is allowed in the center of tire driveway. Driveways at ends of
buildings should be not less than 60 ft in widtii.

(f) Inspection and hold yard two-lane driveways may have a clear width of
22 ft between cars.

116 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(g) Stub-ended driveways serving team tracks should be avoided. Where team
tracks are more than 20 cars long (per single track), intermediate connecting cross
drives should be provided. In large team track developments where exceptionally
long tracks are provided, cross drives should be introduced so that 14 cars per track
is the maximum length between any two drives.

(h) For otlier information and data see Chapter 6 — Buildings.

Manual Recommendations 117

Part 4
Specialized Freight Terminals

FOREWORD

This part deals with the engineering and economic problems of location, design,
construction and operation of freight terminals for the expeditious handling of a
single t>'pe commodity or merchandise as opposed to the handling of several types
of commodity or merchandise as in Part 3.

CONTENTS

Section Page

4.1 Waterfront 118

4.2 Rail-Truck 119

4. .3 Automobile and Truck Transport 123

4.4 Bulk, Solid 129

4.5 Bulk, Liquid 130

4.6 Merchandise 130

Bui. 655

118 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

4.1 WATERFRONT

4.1.1 General

A water-front terminal provides facilities for the transfer of shipments or cargoes
from ship or barge to railway cars or trucks, and from railway cars or trucks to ship
or barge. The facilities consist of docks, wharves, piers and warehouses, with loading
and unloading equipment and necessary railway tracks and roadways for transfer
purposes.

The waterside may be an ocean, lake or river, but is usually a harbor on one
of these. A dock is the facility at which ships are moored. A dock may be parallel
to the shore line, in which case it is called a wharf. If a dock is built at an angle
ranging from acute to right to the shore line, where ships can be moored on both
sides, tlie structure is called a pier. Whai"ves and piers may be open or covered,
depending on tlie protection needed for the commodity handled. Some piers are
used for short-term storage as well as the transfer of goods.

4.1.2 Design

In designing a water-front terminal consideration must be given to the type and
quantity of freight to be handled, and to the trackage and track arrangement required
so that proper switching to and from docks can be provided. The facilities on land
are provided to economically load and unload commodities. Docks should also be
equipped with necessary conveyors, pipelines, car dmnpers, cranes, hoppers and any
other facility necessary to handle special commodities.

4.1.3 Equipment

Large structural cranes may be built over docks to extend over ships to facilitate
the handling of loads. Conveyor systems may be built to move commodities in bulk
or in units. Some important docks specialize in handling one commodity, such as
ores, coal, grain, fruit (bananas), automobiles or equipment, or to transfer railway
cars and certain merchandise.

4.1.4 Track Facilities

(a) Wliarves may be served by tracks parallel to the wharf. Occasionally
wharves are equipped with tracks constructed adjacent to the water's edge, and
goods are handled directly between the ship and railway cars.

(b) Piers are usually provided with tracks running down their center or along
tlie edge. Transfer bridges are used for handling railway cars to and from ships,
car floats or ferries.

(c) Various yards for railway cars are a part of a water-front terminal. A storage
yard is usually necessary for cars held for loading or unloading and to accumulate
special cars for a particular ship. A classification yard, with or without receiving
and departure yards, storage and car repair yard, may be provided, depending upon
the volume of traffic handled.

4.1.5 Storage

Adequate storage space — ground pier or covered warehouse — ^is essential for
commodities awaiting shipment. The arrangement of these yards and storage space
is important so there will be the minimum of interference in handling cars to and
from the yards and unloading spots.

Manual Recommendations 119

4.2 RAIL-TRUCK

4.2.1 Types of Facilities

(a) End loading of railroad cars is accomplished by backing the tractor-trailer
combination on a flat car or string of cars from a platform or ramp constructed to
car-floor height.

(b) Side loading can be accomplished by the use of a fork lift truck, a platform
at car-floor height, or by the use of special equipment which permits separation of
the trailer body from its wheels and transfer of the body to a flat car.

(c) Overhead loading can be accomplished by the use of a traveling, overhead
rail-mounted or tire-mounted crane. Either the entire trailer or the trailer body
without wheels can be handled from the roadway adjacent to the track.

The three types of facilities described above are illustrated by Figs. 4 to 6, incl.

4.2.2 Design factors

Detennining factors relative to the location of the facility depend upon the
potential volume of traffic, its origin and destination within the service area, the
convenience of highway access and the necessity for economical and expeditious
movement of railroad cars. As many as 8 (90-ft) cars in a string can be efficiently
used in end loading operations. A trailer parking area of at least one and one-half
times the ti-ailer capacity of the loading tracks should be planned. Many installations
have a parking area with a capacity two or three times the track capacities.

There may be advantages to have the track area depressed in relation to the
parking area, driveways and ramps. The tracks used to spot cars for loading should
be on tangent. The curvature of approach tracks should be limited to 400-ft radius
(14 deg 20 min).

The larger operations will require an office and locker room at the site. A tiuck
scale may be required. Fencing may be worthwhile to assist policing. Drainage of
track, driveway and parking area must be considered. Communication facilities within
and beyond the operation area should be provided for efficiency. Facilities for repair
of truck and tie-down equipment may be required.

4.2.3 Paving requirements

The type of paving or surfacing of parking area, driveways and ramps should
be selected to suit the intensity of use anticipated. The ramps may be of wood,
concrete or earth-filled crib construction. Platform walkways adjacent to tracks
should be considered to provide easy movement of men from one car to another.
Portable ramps can be used to eliminate need to turn cars. Traffic lines will facilitate
parking and handling of equipment.

4.2.4 Electrical facilities

Lighting and power outlets in the track area should be furnished to facilitate
tie-down operations. Parking areas should be liglited if there is considerable night
operation.

120 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Manual Recommendations

121

122 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Manual Recommendations 123

4.3 AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK TRANSPORT

4.3.1 Automobile Transport

4.3.1.1 General

The loading and unloading of finished automobiles requires equipment and
plant that contribute to the overall expeditious distribution from assembly plants to
local dealers. Automobile companies place a premium upon total time in transit and
do consider all aspects of equipment utilization, interest charges and delivered auto
condition.

Loading is usually accomplished at an assembly plant, on automobile company
property, by tlie automobile company or its contractor. The actual facilities utilized
are similar in nature to the unloading facilities; however, there are exceptions which
must be given consideration on an individual basis. Exceptions can vary from loading
inside tlie plant witli multi-level cars handled by a transfer table to and from a
support yard to simply driving the finished vehicle to a more conventional loading
facility located at some convenient point other than the plant itself.

Unloading, on the otlier hand, is usually accomplished by the rail carrier or its
contractor, on railroad company property, utilizing facilities provided by the railroad
company. The contractor engaged by tlie railroad company to actually perform the
unloading task will more than likely be the same organization engaged by an indi-
vidual automobile company to prepare and deliver units via highway to dealers.
It is, therefore, suggested that close consultation between all entities involved in the
automobile distribution process be maintained during the design phase in order to
assure an efficient and usable facility.

Examination of facilities now in existence discloses a wide variety of sizes,
shapes, equipment, trackage, etc., as dictated by such factors as availability of real
estate, proximity to highway networks and volumes of vehicles handled. A typical
flow diagram of an unloading area is shown as Fig. 7. Certain factors are germane
to most all auto unloading or loading facilities. They are enumerated below from
the unloading viewpoint; however, tlie factors apply equally as well to loading areas,
given appropriate modification for volume.

4.3.1.2 Location

Location of tlie unloading area should be selected for its proximity to dealers
in the area to be distributed to in order to reduce highway mileage to the minimum.
It should, be located with respect to the railroads main trackage so as to minimize
switching, spotting and pulling delays. Consideration should also be given to tlie
potential of vandalism so as to avoid missile damage and theft.

4.3.1.3 Size

The size of the unloading facility, its trackage, ramping and vehicle storage
areas, should be large enough to handle the maximum expected load under the pro-
posed operating conditions. Some of the conditions to be considered are: the average
work week, type and quantity of vehicles handled and the number of agencies using
the same facilities. The auto production and distribution process by its very nature
requires a considerable degree of advance planning including volume predictions.
All of the auto maufacturers can and do make rather good \ olume predictions which
can be utilized for planning purposes.

124 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

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4.3.1.4 Buildings

Office space, washrooms and locker facilities should be adequate to provide for
future needs of the operation. Communication facilities required should be provided
for. Local conditions may require space for maintenance of highway tractors and
predelivery preparation of autos, including washing and undercoating.

4.3.1.5 Surfaces — operating and storage areas

It is recommended that ^ehicular operating and storage areas be paved and
as flat as possible, limiting loading and unloading angles to eliminate bumper dam-
age. The area should be graded to provide proper drainage.

Parking spaces should be clearly marked in an arrangement with ample center
distances, thereby maximizing turning radii and minimizing door contact.

4.3.1.6 Security

The entire area should be fenced and of such a nature as to discourage unau-
thorized entr\- and tlieft. A common solution is barbed-wire-topped chain link fenc-
ing. Gating and fencing should be so arranged as to segregate new car storage from
employee parking. To minimize the possibility of tlieft, one auto manufacturer rec-
ommends that new vehicles can only be driven out of the storage area over a haul-
away dock. Provision for checking employees and visitors in and out should be made.
Locking devices on all gates are recommended.

4.3.1.7 Lighting

Lights should be proxided for tlie entire area of sufficient intensity to be ade-
quate for loading, unloading, inspection and/or security.

4.3.1.8 Multi-level unloading area

This area should be placed as close as possible to the center of operations in
order to minimize travel distances.

(a) Unloading Tracks: The number and length of these tracks will be de-
pendent upon tlie volume of rail cars handled and the availability of
switching ser\ ice. Rail cars and tlience the autos on them may not
always be oriented in the same direction, thereby making it desirable to
provide for unloading multi-le\els from either end. Since the backing of
automobiles from rail cars is not permitted, the alternative to providing
facilities to unload from either end of the rail car is to turn cars on a
wye or turntable prior to unloading. This may not be desirable from an
operating or time standpoint. Track centers and surfacing between tracks
should be sufficient to allow passage of service vehicles for the purpose
of a]le\iating tlie problems of flat tires, missing wheels, dead batteries,
lack of gasoline and others that may occur with the automobiles.

(b) Unloading Equipment: Unloading equipment should allow quick drive-
off of automobiles. Where economically justifiable, the ramp should be
power controlled vertically for adjustment to deck levels as well as hori-
zontally to adjoining tracks. Manufacturers should be consulted regarding
maximum ramp angle permitted. At points where it is considered advis-
able to provide unloading in either direction, one of two methods, otlier
tlian simply turning the car, can be employed. Ramps may be mounted
on flanged wheels and rails perpendicular to the unloading tracks. This
method requires a certain amount of switching to orient the rail cars

126 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

with the appropriate ramp. The second method is to mount the ramps
on rubber tires, pave the unloading track area, and move the ramp to the
cars to be unloaded.

4.3.1.9 Haul-away loading area

The provision of a loading dock where highway trailers can be spotted for
loading is recommended in order to reduce loading angle and decrease loading time.
The preference of the specific contractor should be determined to assure compatabil-
ity with his equipment, the dimensions and extent of, or even the need for, this
feature.

4.3.2 Vertically Loaded Automobiles

4.3.2.1 General

Factors regarding location, size, buildings, surfacing, security and lighting
enumerated for automobiles on conventional tri-Ievels apply equally as well to ver-
tically loaded small autos. The rail car itself differs from multi-level rail equipment
in that automobiles are loaded vertically. Five doors, holding tliree autos each, on
either side of the car, actually serve the combined functions of loading, unloading
and securement devices. The car design requires special consideration, as explained
below, for anyone engaged in planning an unloading area for such cars.

4.3.2.2 Unloading track and area

The number of tracks and their lengths will be dependent upon the predicted
volume of rail cars. A paved area 60 ft wide is recommended on both sides of the
car to provide adequate unloading and maneuvering space. See Fig. 8 for dimensions.

4.3.2.3 Unloading equipment

The car doors themselves serve as ramps for loading and unloading, therefore,
no special fixed equipment will be required. A mobile machine having the reach and
capacity to open and close the doors, must be available.

4.3.3 Truck Transport

4.3.3.1 General

Factors regarding location, size, buildings, surfacing, security and lighting
enumerated above for automobiles apply equally as well to trucks. The rail equip-
ment and the placement of the trucks on the rail equipment differs. Trucks with
cabs, but without bodies, are commonly shipped in "saddleback" fashion on a
specially equipped flat car. Thus, tlie use of a crane is required for loading and
unloading. While the loading may be done at a plant site exclusively devoted to
trucks, the unloading operation can conveniently be incorporated into and made a
part of a typical automobile unloading facility.

4.3.3.2 Unloading track

Truck shipping volumes being considerably less than autos, a single track set
apart from, but adjacent to, auto facilities should suffice. Volume and economic con-
siderations will dictate the degree of separation from, and/or incorporation within,
auto facilities.

4.3.3.3 Unloading facilities

Trucks loaded in "saddelback" fashion must be removed from the truck they
have been set upon and secured to for transport to a level position on the car deck

Manual Recommendations

127

!?C)-0"-

c,0'C;"

I I
I I

QCJ))J Ain-os

Fig. 8 — ^Typical unloading area for autos loaded vertically.

128 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

i A-FRAME RAI L

■" 1 00 LB. OR LESS

CI

SWITLH TIE 1 3 ' -6'

que

4_ CATENARY POLE

CROSS TIE

k ' -0

© r

E

1

2 ' -0

ll

2 ' -0

r

3

CATENARY POLES
MAY BE PLACED
ON EITHER SIDE.

"J

] n

—J

[I

5'-9 1/i

^ TRACK
SYM. ABT. 4

NOTE: A-FRAME CRANE ELECTRICALLY
PROPELLED. HAS DOUBLE
FLANGED WHEELS.
TOTAL WIDTH 15'0.
SPACE REQU I RED FOR THIS
FAC ILITY, 17 '3.

Fig. 9 — Typical layout for "A" frame truck unloading.

Manual Recommendations 129

before being started and driven from the car. The job can be accomplished by a
mobile crane of sufficient capacity operated adjacent to the rail car where volume
is fight and the need only occasional. Where volumes require a greater degree of
specialization, it is recommended that an "A" frame crane, track mounted and
electrically operated with running rails located outside of regular track rails, be
provided. The "A" frame straddles the car to be unloaded and can be positioned
to handle any car spotted within its reach. Fig. 9 details a tie layout to accommo-
date the "A" frame. Access to the unloading ti-ack for pre-starting service should
be given consideration. Air supply sufficient to release truck brakes is a necessity.

4.4 BULK-SOLID
4.4.1 Grain Elevators

4.4.1.1 General

( a ) Track facilities to serve large grain elevators involve special yard design. Co-
operation between the elevator engineer and the railway engineer is essential to
the development of a satisfactory plan.

(b) The location of elevator site, type and capacity of elevator, topography and
local conditions will influence the arrangement of tracks.

(c) When selecting the site consideration should be given to property values,
possible arrangement of connections to plant tracks, local railway operating condi-
tions, and future expansion of elevator plant and of existing railway facilities.

(d) Proposed method of railway operation should be established and approved
by the elevator operating company and operating officials of the railway.

4.4.1.2 Types

There are three general types of grain elevators, viz., (1) rail to rail, (2) rail
to water, and (3) water to rail. Specific plants may be combinations of these types.

4.4.1.3 Tracks

4.4.1.3.1 Loading and unloading

(a) The number and capacity of unloading tracks will depend upon the type,
arrangement and capacity of elevator unloading facilities, but may be limited in
some cases by the space available.

(b) The car capacity of the tracks above and below the loading or unloading
facilities should be the same.

(c) Where the car capacity of the unloading tracks on each side of the unload-
ing facilities is equal to the nonnal daily unloading capacity of tlie elevator plant
during the grain handfing season, and where the car capacity of the loading tracks
on each side of the loading facilities is equal to the normal daily business handled,
the plant switching will be reduced to a minimum.

(d) Double-ended tracks will permit the continuous movement of cars in one
direction and facifitate switching.

(e) Spur unloading tracks may necessitate switching cars through unloading
shed and over unloading facilities, requiring the use of idler cars. Locomotives should
not be permitted to enter the unloading shed.

130 B u lletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(f) Adverse gradients and curvature in tracks will limit the capacity of car haul
and should be avoided. An assisting gradient to and from the loading and unloading
facilities should be provided. A short runoff gradient below the unloading facilities
will speed up die movement of empty cars.

(g) Where car imloaders are used, the track arrangement should provide for
the relative increased capacity of this device. A small plant locomotive or other
special car handhng equipment should be considered in connection with car un-
loaders. Flexibility of track layout in the vicinity of car unloader, to facilitate the
operation of plant locomotive, should be given special attention.

( h ) Loading tracks may be located on the same or opposite side of "workhouse"
from unloading tracks.

(i) Certain unloading ti-acks may be used for loading or to augment the
capacity of the loading tracks.

( j ) Some of the auxiliary buildings, such as storeroom and dust house, may be
served by the loading tracks.

4.4.1.3.2 Other tracks

(a) A running track, located outside of unloading shed, should be provided
where double ended tracks are installed.

(b) A separate track should be provided to serve the power house.
4.4.1.4 Storage yard

(a) The use of a separate storage yard will require additional handling of cars;
therefore careful consideration should be given to the advisability of such a yard.

(b) Where the elevator is located near an existing yard and sufficient capacity
is available, or can be economically provided, a separate storage yard may not be
required.

(c) A separate storage yard may be justified where it can be used to augment
the existing yard during seasonal increases in business, or where the elevator is
located some distance from the main or an auxiliary yard.

(d) The capacity of either the loading or unloading tracks, or both, may in-
fluence the necessity for a separate storage yard, as well as the capacity of such a
yard.

(e) Facilities for inspection of cars and lading should be provided.

4.4.2 Handling systems for granular material

(To be developed).

4.5 BULK-LIQUID

(To be developed).

4.6 MERCHANDISE TERMINAL

4.6.1 Produce terminals
4.6.1.1 General

(a) Produce terminals are designed for expeditious and economical distribution
of fruits, vegetables, and sometimes dairy products, eggs and poultry, meat and meat
products, frozen foods and sea foods, and dry groceries.

(b) Terminals should be located and designed to handle peak business.

Manual Recommendations

131

(c) A union terminal serving the entire trade of a community is preferable.

(d) The location must be convenient for dealers, with easy access over wide
and well improved highways and easy gradients. It should have convenient railway
connections. A location adjoining a railway terminal yard is advantageous.

4.6.1.2 Functions of railway and marketing facilities

A produce terminal should be considered to include (a) railway facilities and
(b) wholesale marketing facilities.

(a) Railway facilities include the primary units for handling carload shipments
prior to distribution or reconsigning. Any or all of the following facilities may be
required:

1. Receiving and delivery yard.

2. Hold and inspection yard; with or

without supplemental classification
tracks.

3. Team yard.

4. Buildings for sorting, reconditioning

and transferring of lading.

5. Administration building.

6. Motor truck scales.

7. Buildings for coopering and supplies.

8. Buildings for heaters and supplies.

9. Rest rooms for yard crews, stevedores,
truck operators and laborers.

10. Incinerator.

11. Communication facilities.

12. Yard lighting.

13. Icing facilities.

14. A track system for serving the yards.

15. A system of driveways for movements

to and from the team yard and the
hold and inspection yard.

16. Fire protection facilities.

(b) Wholesale marketing facilities include units for the sale and distribution of
produce and may be situated adjacent to or within easy access of the railway facilities.
In either case certain units should be served directly by railway tracks. Any or all of the
following units may be required:

1. Buildings divided into separate stores.

2. Buildings for display and private sales.

3. Buildings for display and auction.

4. Auction rooms.

5. Offices, restaurants, etc.

6. Cold storage warehouse.

7. Bulk delivery platforms.

8. Ripening facilities.

9. Reconditioning facilities.

10. Motor truck and other scales.

4.6.1.3 Layouts

11. Incinerator.

12. Communication facilities.

13. Fire protection facilities.

14. Farmers' market.

15. A railway track system serving the

buildings.

16. Driveways serving the buildings.

17. Separate buildings for individual large

firms.

18. Adequate parking areas.

4.6.1.3.1 Track

(a) The track layout should be as compact and flexible as possible, and exten-
sive enough to take care of traffic without delay. It is governed by the number of
cars handled at peak periods, the different kinds of produce received, and tlie average
standing time until cars are released.

(b) A receiving and delivery yard is sometimes desirable for receiving transfers
from various roads and for assembling outbound empties and reconsigned cars.

(c) A hold and inspection yard is sometimes provided. This yard should have
two-lane driveways between pairs of tracks to permit access for inspection and icing
from trucks. Inspection platforms are sometimes provided. It may be a separate yard
or combined with the receiving and delivery yard or with a small classification yard.

132 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(d) Team yards should have ample standing capacity. Extremely long tracks
should be avoided.

(e) Track centers should be not less than 13 ft.

4.6.1.3.2 Buildings

(a) Ample floor space should be provided for mechanical handling from cars to
warehouse floor, display of produce and assembly of various lots for delivery to trucks.

( b ) The column spacing should be given careful study and be as wide as possi-
ble, consistent with economic design.

(c) The back-up space for trucks should be as liberal as possible.

4.6.1.3.3 Platforms

(a) Platforms used for inspection or jointly for inspection and handling of
produce should be not less than 12 ft in width, 3 ft 5 in above top of rail when the
center line of tangent track is 5 ft 9 in from the platform, or 4 ft 7 in above top of
rail when tlie center line of tangent track is 8 ft 0 in from the platform. Platforms
should be covered, and light and water should be provided. Roof supports should be
located to minimize interference with handling crates. Space for crate storage and
repairs is usually required.

(b) House platfoniis, when served by both highway vehicles and railway cars,
should be 4 ft 4 in above top of rail and 8 ft from the center line of tangent track.

(c) Clearances must comply with state regulations.

4.6.1.4 Facilities

4.6.1.4.1 Garbage and refuse disposal

Cars should be thoroughly cleaned after unloading, and all refuse and garbage
removed from platforms, buildings, etc. Cleaning of cars may be accomplished on a
one-spot basis with mechanized devices. Special equipment such as sweepers, dump
carts, etc., should be provided in large terminals. Garbage may be handled by city
collection, by contract, or incinerated. An incinerator, if required, should be of
ample capacity to handle each day's collection in 6 to 8 hr, conveniently located,
and designed to burn garbage having a high water content.

4.6.1.4.2 Icing

All cars in team and hold and inspection yards should be accessible for icing,
which is usually done by contract with local dealers. Access may be from narrow
driveways or from icing platforms.

4.6.1.4.3 Miscellaneous

(a) Ample drainage is essential for buildings and yards.

(b) Floodlighting the entire area is desirable in addition to local lighting.

(c) The entire area should be strongly and closely fenced to prevent trespass.

(d) Definitely assigned entrances and exits should be provided.

(e) A cold storage warehouse, if required, should have suitable track service
and convenient means of communication with other buildings.

(f) Adequate parking space should be provided.

(g) Motor truck scales, when required, should be located at a point convenient
for the drivers and near the freight ofiBce. The location should not interfere with
truck movements in the driveways.

Manual Recommendations 133

Part 5
Locomotive Facilities

FOREWORD

In tlie establishment or modification of any large railway terminal it is necessary
to detennine whether separate locomotive facilities should be provided for freight
and passenger equipment, or whether both types should be handled in a single
facility. Convenience, expedition, low unit operating costs and carrying charges in-
volved in these alternatives must be given proper consideration. Usually a single
facility is more efficient and produces lower unit operating costs.

The locomotive facilities must be correlated to all other faciilties for efficient
handling of each locomotive. Servicing facilities required for the various types of
locomotives should be arranged in an efficient sequence.

CONTENTS

Section Page

5.1 General 134

5.2 Servicing Facilities 135

5.3 Inspection Pits 136

5.4 Diesel, Diesel-Electric and Electric 137

5.5 Steam 138

134 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

5.1 GENERAL

5.1.1 Requirements

(a) In the case where only one company is involved which has locomotive
facilities that can be readily enlarged to meet all requirements, economy will favor
the retention of such facilities in service unless it is prohibitively remote from either
the passenger station or the center of freight activities.

(b) In the case of joint freight facilities it may be advisable, as in joint
passenger terminals, to substitute new joint freight locomotive facilities for several
layouts vmless existing separate facilities are merely coordinated and delegated to
joint management where it will be advisable to rely upon the existing facilities.

( c ) New locomotive facilities should be located to minimize ( 1 ) usage of tracks
on which tliere are other movements, (2) reverse or conflicting movements, (3) light
engine mileage in tlie movement of locomotives to and from their trains. In designing
a locomotive terminal layout a thorough study of the traffic and operating require-
ments of the terminal should be made jointly by the engineering, transportation
and mechanical departments. This study should include consideration of the follow-
ing data, keeping future expansion in mind:

Type and size of locomotives to be handled.

Number of locomotives handled in each direction daily, by classes.

Schedule of arrival and departure of locomotives, by classes.

Number of locomotives arriving during peak period.

Time within which locomotives arriving must be hostled, by classes.

Maximum number of locomotives in tenuinal at one time.

Number of locomotives repaired daily, by classes of work.

Number of locomotives under repair at one time, by classes of work.

Amount of fuel (coal, diesel or fuel oil) issued daily.

Amount of water consumed daily.

Amount of sand consumed daily.

Number of men required to operate the terminal.

5.1.2 Site Selection

The selection of a proper site requires a study of all factors affecting costs of
construction and operation, including cost of preparing site; foundation conditions
and drainage; sewage disposal, water supply and electricity; relation to existing or
proposed yards and to passenger and freight stations; labor supply, including housing
facilities and transportation; tax rates; and availability of public fire fighting apparatus
and stations.

5.1.3 Track layout

(a) All locomotives should preferably enter the locomotive facilities from the
same end; a separate exit should be provided for flexibility in movement to insure
that the facilities will not be tied up in case of trouble at tlie entrance.

(b) Entrance tracks should be so located and of such capacity as to permit
the prompt receipt of locomotives immediately on arrival, with space between those
which may have to wait their turn for servicing. Where climatic conditions permit
outside storage sufficient tracks should be provided near tlie exit for holding loco-
motives already prepared for service.

Manual Recommendations 135

(c) The layout should provide at least one runaround track for flexibility.

(d) At the ends of locomotive runs where the operation requires quick turn-
around service, facilities should be provided for standing locomotives, sanding,
fueling and watering with or widiout inspection pits.

5.1.4 Buildings

5.1.4.1 Office

Adequate office facilities should be provided for the officer in charge of the
terminal and his staff.

5.1.4.2 Amenity and service

One or more structures of fire-retardant construction should be provided at a
convenient location to house the following:

(a) Locker, toilet and washrooms for employees.

(b) Storehouse for flagging equipment, supplies, oil, lanterns, etc.

5.1.4.3 Reference

Complete information on the design of shop buildings and other buildings re-
quired in an engine terminal, together with pits and other appurtenances, will be
found in Chapter 6 — Buildings.

5.1.5 Miscellaneous facilities

5.1.5.1 Communications

(a) Telephone

(b) Radio

(c) Paging — Talk-back speakers

(d) Pneumatic tube (if necessary)

5.1.5.2 Lighting

The entire locomotive terminal area should be provided with adequate lighting.

5.2 SERVICING FACILITIES

5.2.1 Fueling Stations

(a) Coaling Stations

Coahng stations should be located to serve as many locomotives as possible on
their regular routes. There are two general locations for coaling stations, those at
enginehouse leads at terminals and those adjacent to main tracks between terminals.
At terminals, coaling stations should be located to serve both inbound and outbound
tracks as recommended for tlie engine terminal layout. Coal stations may be arranged
readily to deliver coal on one or more tracks. Each location should be studied sepa-
rately on the most suitable track arrangement for that particular installation selected.

(b) Fuel Oil Stations

At locations where oil is used as a fuel for locomotives, facilities must be

provided for unloading, storing and delivering such oil. In cases where the fuel oil

used is a heavy type, facilities must be provided for heating such oil while being

unloaded as well as in storage so that pumping may be completed in a minimum
length of time.

136 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

In the design and construction of fueling stations at locomotive facilities pro-
visions should be included to prevent the pollution and contamination of public
waters from spilled fuels and oils through surface and subsurface waters, sewers
and odier conduits.

5.2.2 Watering

Sufficient watering facilities should be provided to serve all locomotives entering
and leaving die terminal.

5.2.3 Sanding

Sanding facihties should be provided to serve all locomotives entering and
leaving the terminal. Usually tiiese facilities are situated adjacent to the fuel and
water facilities so that locomotives can be completely serviced at one location.

5.2.4 Washing

(a) Steam locomotives

Facilities should be provided for washing locomotives between the cinder pit
and the turntable. Either a washing platfonn or pit should be constructed with
adequate drainage and illumination.

(b) Diesel and electric locom.otives

Washing facilities should be placed on the lead track when possible. Brushes
and spray pipes may be so arranged tliat die operation is automatic when the loco-
motive shunts a track circuit at the entrance to the washer. Some hand washing
of a locomotive may be necessary. A washing platform with or widiout a wash pit
to facilitate cleaning the underside of a locomotive may be found desirable.

5.2.5 Boiler Washing

(a) In diesel, diesel-electric, and electric locomotive facilities, boiler- washing
facilities should be provided for heat generating boilers on locomotives used in
passenger, mail and express service.

(b) In steam-locomotive facilities, boiler- washing facilities should be provided
for all locomotives.

5.2.6 Turning Locomotives

Unless the locomotives to be handled are exclusively of the type with operating
controls at both ends, some form of turning facility such as a turntable, a balloon
or loop track, or a wye track must be provided.

5.2.7 Portable Servicing

Portable servicing units consisting of a truck equipped with sand and fueling
facilities may be desirable for servicing diesel switch engines at a large terminal.

5.3 INSPECTION PITS

Inspection pits are usually located on the inbound track near the entrance to
the terminal, except such a pit as described in 5.4.1(g). These pits should have:

(a) Suitable deptii for inspection of the locomotives.

(b) Length not less tiian the longest locomotive to be inspected.

(c) Adequate drainage.

Manual Recommendations 137

(d) Stairway for convenient access and/or tunnel direct to the inspectors'
office.

(e) Fixtures for lighting and service outlets.

(f) Telephone supplemented by a pneimiatic tube system for communication
with the shop supervisor's office.

5.4 DIESEL, DIESEL-ELECTRIC AND ELECTRIC

5.4.1 Shop Building and Appurtenances

(a) The size of the building is determined by the lengtli of units and the
number to be housed simultaneously. A rectangular structure is ideal to serve the
requirements. \Vlien locomotives are pooled, the back shop work will be done at one
or more system shops, and the building for such work \\'ill generally be much larger
and have more facilities than tlie building for running repairs at terminals located
between such system shops. The structure, however, should be so designed as to
provide facilities for either running repairs or heavy repairs as outlined above, and
should include a machine shop, store room, parts cleaning and parts-conditioning
room, wheel supply and storage, lunch and locker room, wash rooms, tool rooms,
toilets and office.

(b) Materials used in construction should be fire-retardant.

(c) The number and length of tracks should be sufficient to accommodate all
of the locomotives to be housed at any one time. Stub-end heavy repair tracks may
have certain economic advantages, and if such a layout is used there should be at
least one through nmning repair track along side of the heavy repair tracks. The
desirable distance between track centers should not be less than 23 ft, which allows
for a 12-ft wide working platform.

(d) The length of pits should accommodate the longest locomotive consists.

(e) Wheel storage facilities adjacent to repair shops should be provided to
assure a convenient supply of wheels, including wheels with their traction motors
attached.

(f) The lubricating oil facilities may be handled in the repair shop proper or
in a separate structure. Fire-retardant construction should be employed. Meters
should be provided to measure accurately the lubricating oil delivered to the units.
The tanks for new lubricating oil should be of sufficient size to handle oil in carload
lots. Facilities may be provided for reclaiming worn and dirty lubricating oil and
should include tanks to collect the reclaimed oil.

(g) When pooled locomotives receive schedule maintenance there will be no
need for them to enter the shop building for days at a time. If such conditions exist
at the tenninal a track with an inspection pit adjacent to the shop building will in
most instances reduce the number of tracks in the shop building by at least one.
Such a pit should be long enough to accommodate several sets of locomotive imits
and should be near enough to the shop building for the shop supervisor to direct
the activities of the employees on this pit. Fueling and sanding facilities could be
located along this track. With such an arrangement it will mean that a locomotive
may be placed on the pit track by tlie road crew, at which point it will be spotted
for the necessary fueling, sanding and other servicing and can remain there until
ordered for departure, at which time tlie road crew may move the locomotive out of

138 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

the engine terminal. This will result in real economy, since hostling required within
the shop building area will be eliminated.

(h) The electric trolley and other wires should be terminated outside of the
shop building handling electric locomotives.
5.4.2 Blow-down Facilities

Standard stone ballast grouted with cement or a concrete slab should be pro-
vided on the outbound track for locomotives used in passenger service on which
there are steam generating units for train heating.

5.5 STEAM

5.5.1 Enginehouse

(a) The circular form of enginehouse is preferable under ordinary conditions
for steam locomotives. The structure should provide facilities for running repairs,
heavy repairs, machine shop, store room, wheel supply and storage, lunch and locker
rooms, wash rooms, tool rooms, toilets and office. The length of stall along center
line of tracks should be at least 20 ft greater than the over-all length of the loco-
motive and tender so as to provide a trucking space 10 ft wide in front of the pilot
and space in which to detach tlie tender and provide a walkway between it and the
engine without opening the door. The stall angle of a circular enginehouse should be
such that when extended beyond a half-circle the pit tracks will line up across the
turntable. Radial stub-end tracks on the side of the turntable opposite the engine-
house and in line with pit tracks are sometimes desirable.

(b) The track layout should be designed so that locomotives which do not
require turning may be serviced without crossing the turntable.

(c) All approach and departure tracks to and from the turntable should line
across the table with enginehouse tracks to permit convenient movement of dead
locomotives or carloads of supplies into or out of the enginehouse.

(d) Sufficient tangent should be provided on aU tiuntable approach tracks to
permit all engine trucks to be on straight track before passing onto turntable.

5.5.2 Blow-off Facilities

If the nmiiber of engines serviced justifies tlie installation of a separate blow-off
pit, it should be furnished. These blow-off pits may be located between the engine
washing facilities and the turntable, or on the outbound engine lead. The blow-off
pit should be of a permanent type of construction and should be provided with
sufficient drainage. The pit should be large enough to prevent overflowing when in

5.5.3 Cinder Handling

Locomotive cinders must be disposed of, and facilities will have to be provided
for handling cinders. There are several types of cinder-handling facilities, including:

(a) Cinders discharged directly on the track and removed by shoveling,

(b) Shallow shoveling pits.

(c) Water pits, where cinders are discharged into pits containing water, from
which they are removed and loaded into cars by either a locomotive or
overhead crane.

Manual Recommendations 139

(d) A depressed track beside or between die incoming tracks, deep enough
to accommodate cars into which cinders are chuted directly from the
locomotives.

(e) Mechanical plant \\here cinders are discharged into hoppers and thence
into buckets or continuous conveyors into cars.

The track arrangement in the cinder-handling facility must be studied to provide
sufficient standing capacity' to accommodate all locomotives which cannot be immedi-
ately serviced, and crossovers and other connections so that locomotives requiring
preferred attention may be dispatched ahead of others with a minimum of inter-
ference.

Manual Recommendations 141

Part 6
Passenger Facilities

FOREWORD

The designation "passenger facilities" as here employed, comprising mass transit
and commuter service, includes all the facilities for the passenger station proper,
mail and express service, track and street approaches, such other auxiliary or acces-
sory features as may be included witliin a prescribed boundary or terminal zone,
and, where desirable and practicable, a locomotive tenninal, a coach yard, and
the appurtenant switching facilities.

CONTENTS
Section Page

6.1 General 142

6.2 Site 142

6.3 Track Arrangement 144

6.4 Station Proper 145

6.5 Coach Yards 152

6.6 Modernization 157

142 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

6.1 GENERAL

(a) Studies for such passenger facilities should be made by a committee, repre-
senting all the parties at interest, composed of engineering, transportation, mechanical,
signal and tiaffic officers. Preferably the officer to be placed in charge of the property
for operating purposes should be made a member of that committee.

(b) Consistent with the magnitude and importance of the task, men having
expert knowledge of tlie various phases of the problem should be employed under
the direction of the committee to study the whole situation. These experts should
determine and report on all necessary requirements of the terminal.

(c) The engineer having charge of the design of the contemplated facilities,
accompanied when practicable by members of the committee or its representatives,
should make investigations by personal inspection of terminal situations somewhat
similar to the one in contemplation; talk with responsible officers of similar terminals;
examine the facilities there provided and see how they function; obtain comments
from the men operatingthe terminals visited; get their suggestions as to improve-
ments which experience has taught them might be made to advantage. He should
also accumulate and study reports that have been written covering particular proper-
ties, and also the books and articles that have been written upon the general subject;
and seek infonnation from all available sources.

(d) The handling of mail and express, and tlie conjunction thereof witli the
handling of baggage, are essential and integral parts of passenger terminal operation.
The necessary facilities should be planned in cooperation with the express and postal
officials concerned.

(e) A passenger terminal project should be so located and designed as to
coordinate as far as reasonably practicable with other civic activities. Frequently
it is found desirable to make general civic improvements at the same time the termi-
nal is being constructed. Modification of street approaches is almost always involved.
The costs should be assumed by the parties benefited. Close cooperation between
the terminal committee, the planning board of the city, executive officers of the
city, and perhaps other civic groups, if necessary in order that such new legislation
as may be necessary shall be fair and equitable to all parties at interest.

(f) The designer must realize that a large passenger terminal is subject to
vicissitudes of weather, to delays and derailments to trains, to late connections, to
power failures, to surges in traffic, to bad-order equipment, to special trains or cars
requiring special handling, to excursion travel, and to jubilees, conventions and
special functions at irregular periods.

(g) The relations which should exist between business handled and the size
of facilities is subject to variation due to local conditions, class of traffic, type of
service rendered, large variation in estimates of normal rush-hour business handled,
and the varying ideas of what constitutes adequate service. Table 2 outlines the
relations. Committee 6 — Buildings, should be consulted in the design of such
facilities.

6.2 SITE

The site for the terminal should have a balanced maximum composed of the
following characteristics:

(a) Accessibility — ^having due regard to modern methods of transportation,
land values, and economic requirements.

Manual Recommendations

143

Table 2

Relations Which Should Exist Between Business Handled and the Size or
Through Passenger Station Facilities

station Facility

Unit

Number or Site of Facility Required for

the Normal Number of Rusk-Hour

Passengers Indicated

250

500

750

10001 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000

1. Area of main waiting

room

2. Seating capacity of

main waiting room.

3. Area of women's wait-

ing room

4- Total area for waiting

purposes

6. Total seats in waiting

areas

6. Total area of lobby,

concourse and all
waiting rooms

7. Area of men's toilet

rooms

8. Number of men's water

closets

9. Number of uriaals...

10. Number of men's lava-

tories

11. Area of women's toilet

rooms

12. Number of women's

water closets

13. Number of women's

lavatories

14. Area of ticket offices

15. Number of ticket

windows

16. Number of telephone

booths

17. Area of telegraph

facilities

18. Total area of dining

and lunch rooms

19. Total number of seats

in dining and liinch
rooms

20. Area of kitchen

21. Area of news stand

22. Number of barber chairs

23. Area of baggage room. .

24. Baggage room tail-

board frontage

100 eq ft
No. of seats
100 sq ft
100 sq ft
No. of seats

100 sq ft

100 sq ft

Number..
Number..

Number..

100 sq ft

Number..

Number..
100 sq ft

Number..

Number. -

Sq ft

100 sq ft

Number..
100 sq ft

Sq ft

Number..

30

143

5

55
190

80

4

6
5

3

3

7

3
4

3

3

100

9

34

5

115

2

53

213

7

88
300

152
6

9

8

5
4
9

5

7

5

4

130

14

53

8

185

3

72

270

9

116

390

208

8

12
10

7

5

12

7
9

7

5

150

19

72

11

240

3

89
315

11
137
470

256

10

15
12

9

6

14

9
11

8

7

170

24

93

14

290

4

112
400
14
167
590

320

13

19
15

11

8

17

11
14

11

10

210

34

129

20

380

4

128
465
17
195
700

376
15

23

17

13

10

19

13
17

13

13

230

43

173

26

450

5

155
570
23
238
880

472

20

29
20

18

13

23

17
21

16

19

280

63

249

38

565

6

178

665

29

275
1050

552

26

35
23

22

16

27

21
26

18

25

310

83

327

50

695

7

Unit

Baggage Facilities Required for the

Indicated Number of Pieces of

Baggage Handled Daily

250

100 sq ft
Lin' ft ...

500 750 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000

87
125

112

150

166
194

219
230

Unit

Parcel Check Room Facilities Required

for the Indicated Number of

Parcels Handled Daily

250

25. Area of parcel check
room

100 sq ft

500 750 1000 1500 2000

10

14

18

Unit

Hand-Baggage Facilities Required for

the Indicated Number of Pieces of

Hand-Baggage Handled Daily

250

26. Area of hand-baggage
facilities

100 sq ft

500

750

1000

1500

2000

3000

200

750

35

306

1200

624

31

41
25

26

18

30

25

21

31

330

102

407

62

820

272
263

144 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(b) Sufficient size and suitable shape to provide for a proper number and
length of tracks, and to provide for future growth of both.

(c) Ease of approach from all the associated rail lines, witliout excessive curva-
ture or gradient, and preferably witliout grade crossings.

(d) Room for proper by-pass tracks and for the spread of ladder tracks, to
provide for free movement and to prevent a tie-up of the yard from derailment at
the throat.

(e) Room for auxiliary facilities conveniently located, such as:

( 1 ) Baggage, mail and express.

(2) Parking space for sleeping, private and business cars.

(3) Locomotive terminal.

(4) Coach yard.

(5) Automobile parking.

6.3 TRACK ARRANGEMENT

(a) The track layout should be such as may be required to accommodate
straight-forwardly and without interference the contemplated schedule movement
of trains and the tributary switching movements to and from the station, with a
proper margin for extra sections or delayed trains, as well as for any predictable
increase in volume of traffic.

(b) The track layout should be designed with length between turnouts as
required for the proper signal indications, and necessary clearances as required for
operation of track circuits so that a system of fixed signals or interlocking may be
installed whenever desired without restricting the use of any of tlie routes or the
necessity of additional track changes.

(c) Station tracks should be provided sufficient in number to accommodate
at one time the contemplated schedule movement of trains, witli a liberal margin
for extra sections and off-schedule arrivals or departures, and should be of such clear
length and lateral spacing as may be required to fit the station platform layout and
to accommodate without congestion the essential functions of tlie station platform
service. While the number of station tracks is largely fixed by the number of trains
to be accommodated at periods of maximum density, it also to some extent may
depend upon the type and size of die station, tlie lengths of the station tracks, the
design of the throat, the proximity of the coach yard and locomotive terminal facili-
ties, the character of traffic, and the method of operation.

(d) Sufficient throat tracks should be provided to permit at least two simul-
taneous parallel movements. The track layout should be sufficiently flexible to provide
for complete interchange of routes. A ratio of from 2.5 to 3.0 station tracks to 1
throat track should be adequate if the tliroat is properly designed.

(e) A sufficient number of station tracks long enough to accommodate the
maximum length trains, and so located as to assure flexibility of operation, should
be provided. Possibility of future increase in length of trains should be considered.

(f) The through and loop types of station are superior to the stub station from
the standpoint of train operation.

(g) Loop tracks for turning bains generally expedite service and effect
economies.

Manual Recommendations 145

(h) The possibilties of using the station tracks for other service, such as freight
interchange, when not in use for their normal purpose, should be studied.

(i) Freight or industry connections on the station approach tracks or on lines
within or adjacent to the terminal zone should be so arranged as to avoid or minimize
interference with passenger train traffic.

6.4 STATION PROPER

6.4.1 General

The station proper includes all the facilities required for the complete accommo-
dation of passengers and their belongings between the public entrances and the
trains; also such facilities as the railway company shall provide for the handling of
mail and express. It comprises:

(a) The main building, which includes all of the facilities directly needed for
the comfort and convenience of passengers prior to their departure or subsequent
to their arrival on trains.

(b) All thoroughfares connecting the main building with the station platforms,
such as fixed or moving stairways, elevators, ramps, and other passageways and
outside concourses.

(c) The station tracks and tlie appurtenant platforms on which passengers,
baggage, mail and express are loaded upon or unloaded from trains, including the
elevators, ramps, or other runways, upon which baggage, express and mail are trucked
to or from the station platform.

(d) All other buildings to accommodate the assembly and the public receipt
and delivery of baggage, express or mail.

(e) All roadways, platforms and parking spaces to accommodate taxicabs and
other public and private vehicles, handling people to and from the station, including
all housing and shelter thereof not embraced in the main building.

6.4.2 Main Building Areas

6.4.2.1 General

(a) The principal floor areas should include a lobby, a waiting room or rooms,
a passenger concourse, and a separate women's powder room, or any combination
of these facilities.

(b) All of the essential functions of the main building should be ser\'ed on a
common floor level, or levels so nearly common as to be connected by moderate
ramps, and so related if possible to the station track level that no stairways shall be
required to reach tlie station platform level in stub end stations or to reach the
thoroughfares over or under the tracks, as the case may be, in through stations.

(c) The lobby should front upon the principal public entrances and exits, and
it, solely or together with the passenger concourse, should be the business area of
the station. The principal station facilities, such as information booths, ticket office,
baggage check counter, parcel check room, telephone and telegraph facilities, parcel
checking lockers, etc., should be located in proper sequence along the line of travel
and clearly indicated to avoid confusion and to reduce the walking distance of
passengers to a minimum.

(d) An adequate and conspicuous train bulletin board and a public announcing
system should be provided.

146 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(e) The general waiting room, if only one is provided separately from the
passenger concourse, may well be placed at one side of the line of travel but as
comenient as practictable to the passenger concourse.

(f ) If the fiuiction of the general waiting room is to be served in common with
that of the passenger concourse, provision must be made for all the requirements of
a waiting room, with seating facilities so situated as not to intrude upon the maxi-
mum areas required for passage of persons to and from the train gates or for those
assembhng thereat.

6.4.2.2 Concourses

(a) Unless its function is combined with tliat of a waiting room, a separate
passenger concourse is essential in a large station. Such a concourse is used effectively
in many stations as a passageway which permits arriving passengers to reach the
street or departing passengers to enter from the street without passing through the
lobby.

(b) It should be possible, and is exceedingly advantageous in the case of sub-
urban service, for passengers to proceed directly to and fro between tlie passenger
concourse and the street without passing through waiting room or blocking its exits.

(c) The elimination of conflicting lines of travel is very desirable and should
receive careful study in the design of the station, particularly as regards the segre-
gation of inbound from outbound passengers, and of commuters from through
passengers.

(d) The required clear width of passenger concourse depends upon the char-
acter and amount of traffic and the number of its entrances and exits. The concourse
should be large enough to permit the gatfiering of a full trainload at a gate without
a blockade, but should be so arranged that it will not be a convenient thoroughfare
for people who are not passengers.

(e) A train concourse is advantageous, as it permits serving one station plat-
form by several gates or, conversely, the serving of several platforms from one train
gate. In stub stations it peniiits trucking from one platform to another without
entering the passenger concourse.

(f) A clear width of 20 ft for a train concourse is adequate if it is not used
extensively for trucking.

6.4.2.3 Ticket offices

(a) Ticket offices should be located adjacent to the direct line of travel, so
arranged that passengers waiting to secure tickets will not interfere with the general
flow of traffic.

(b) Windows, counters, and automatic ticket machines may be provided along
the passenger concourse for the sale of local tickets.

(c) Wliere a large number of commutation tickets are issued during tlie last
2 or 3 days of the month, portable booths located in the passenger concourse may be
desirable.

6.4.2.4 Parcel rooms and parcel checking lockers

The baggage check rooms should be easily accessible to inbound and outbound
passengers and where the amount of business justifies, separate counters should be
provided for leceiving and delivering baggage. Self-service checking lockers should
be installed at convenient locations.

Manual Recommendations 147

6.4.2.5 Toilet and washroom facilities

Pay toilets and pay washroom facilities should be provided. However, there
shoidd be an adequate number of free toilets and lavatories.

6.4.2.6 Leased and rental areas

(a) Concessions

(1) Concessions of proper character have proved profitable in most stations
and are desirable, not only from a revenue-producing standpoint, but
as a facility which adds to the comfort or convenience of the passenger,

(2) The number and character of tliese concessions can be greatly expanded
in tenninals located in cities of large size, with benefit and profit to all
concerned.

(3) Concessions, to be successful, must be so located as to be conspicuous
and easy of access. They must be neat and attractive in appearance and
well lighted, and concessionaires should be experienced, responsible and
progressive.

(4) Booths opening directly on to the corridor, where service is rapid, appeal
more to the commuter, while stores appeal to the through traveler and
particuarly to the transfer passenger who has time to spare.

(h) Office space

( 1 ) The practice of constructing rentable office space in connection with
passenger stations under proper circumstances offers opportunities for
assisting in carrying the interest charge resulting from the construction
of stations.

(2) If the station building is surmounted by an office building, the entrances
to the latter should be independent of the station so tliat office employees
will not be required to pass through the station. Consideration, however,
should be given in tlae design of certain station facilities to the possible
patronage by occupants of tlie office building.

6.4.3 Station Platforms

6.4.3.1 General

In planning a passenger terminal it is important to devise a coordinated arrange-
ment between the track layout and the station proper which will, at reasonable cost,
provide maximum con\enience, expedition, and economy in rendering all the platform
services.

Particularly at heavy duty stations, it is extremely desirable that baggage, mail
and express trucks shall not ordinarily have to traverse or occupy platform space
being used for the accommodation of passengers.

Determination of the type of platform ( i.e., combined or separate trucking and
passenger) best suited to a particular situation is dependent upon the character and
volume of the \'arious kinds of traffic handled, the type of station (i.e., stub, tlirough
or loop), the location and type of approaches to tlie platforms for the various kinds
of traffic, the relation of the various approaches to each otlier, the relative lengths
of platforms and trains, space available for station track and platform development,
and the method of operation. Because there are so many variables involved, final
conclusion as to the best arrangement in any case can hardly be reached without
thorough study. All factors affecting a particular situation must be analyzed liefore
this determination can be made.

148 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

6.4.3.2 Platform arrangement

6.4.3.2.1 Heavy traffic

(a) For a through station, with track level below or above tlie station floor
level (preferably the latter), combined platforms should be installed, sufficient in
lengtli to permit bertliing Uie passenger carrying cars in the center zone leaving the
end zones clear for tiucking. Passengers would reach or leave the platforms via
ramps, stairways or escalators at the middle of the platforms; and trucks would
reach or leave the platfoniis by elevators or ramps, at or near the ends connected
with subway runways and assembly areas. If platforms cannot be built to such
length or if two trains are regularly berthed on the same track simultaneously, inter-
ference between passengers and trucking will result and the installation of separate
platforms may be justified.

(b) For a loop station, the same assembly as above specified for a through
station should be provided, but with truck elevators near only the forward ends of
tlie platfonns.

(c) For a stub station, with tracks at same level as station floor:

( 1 ) If all trains back in, combined platforms should be installed. Provision
should be made for all trucks to reach or leave the station platforms near the outer
ends, via elevators or ramps connecting with subway facilities.

(2) If inbound trains head in, separate platforms should be provided for
passengers and trucks, the latter to reach or leave their platfonns via elevators or
ramps connecting with subway facilities.

The type ( 2 ) layout requires so much more area and platform construction than
type ( 1 ) that type ( 2 ) is preferable only when the backing in of all trains is imprac-
ticable or when the volume of trafiic handled is such that the increased cost of land
and facilities required by type (2) is justified by the elunination of interference
on the platforms.

(d) In all cases where truck elevators or ramps are provided, tmck runways at
grade across the tracks should also be provided to meet demands.

6.4.3.2.2 Light traffic

At stations where both passenger and truck movements will be relatively light
and train arrivals and departures will occur mostly at separate intervals, a careful
predetermination of the balance between investment and advantage may be required
to decide whether or not grade separation is justified, either for passengers or for
trucks, and which method of rendering the platform services is to be selected.

In such situations, and also at some heavy-duty stations where attainment of
the ideal seems impracticable or too costly, there may be warrant for designing the
station platforms for the combined use of trucks and passengers throughout their
length.

In the case of combined platforms on which the loading and unloading of
baggage, mail and express is confined to the end sections tiiereof, and trucking
tiirough the areas devoted to the loading and unloading of passengers is not per-
mitted, platform widths may be the same as for exclusive passenger platforms.

6.4.3.3 Design data

(a) Combined passenger and trucking platforms at heavy duty stations should
be at least 20 ft in width, assuming a row of columns located in tlie center of the
platform.

Manual Recommendations 149

(b) Exclusi\e passenger platforms should have a niiniinuni uidth of 13 ft,
wliich is sufficient to accommodate the passengers froui one arri\ ing train, one line
of travel for passengers to a departiug train, and a row of columns in the center
of the platform. This width will normally meet all requirements for through pas-
senger train operation, ;xs it is seldom necessary to berth two arriving trains sinnil-
taneously at the same platform.

(c) Exclusixe trucking platforms without columns should have a minimum
width of 11 ft to permit 2 tnicks to pass. Where die \olume of trucking is sufficient
to justify 3 lanes, a minimum of 16 ft should be provided to avoid blocking the
platfomi when 2 trucks are serxing cars on opposite sides. If columns are necessary,
platform widths should be increased accordingly and columns located so as not to
interfere with trucking lanes.

(d) In combined passenger and trucking platforms in through stations, it is
desirable to have a clear width of approximately 6 ft on one side of the stairs to
permit trucking operations past the stairs.

(e) In stations where a large number of passengers must be handled quickly,
die relation of platfomi elevation to height of car floor should be considered to
expedite the handling of passengers. However, high platforms interfere to some
extent with the switching and inspection of equipment.

(f) In a through station, the location on the station platform of tlie approach
to the concourse has a bearing on the required capacity of the approach. If it is
located at the end of the platform, die concentration will be but one-half as intense
as if it is located at die middle of the platform, although the duration of the maxi-
mum intensity of congestion will be much less in the latter case than in the former.
If a double approach is located at the center, the intensity of the concentration will
be the same as in die first case, and the duration of the maximum intensit\- of conges-
tion will be die same as in the second case.

(g) In large terminals where a large quantity of U. S. storage mail is handled,
belt con\e>ors should be installed to move die bags of inbound mail from the cars to
a primary sorting platform if not directly to the post office. From a primary sorting
platform belt coii\e>ors can be used to move the mail to secondary sorting platforms.
Electromechanical sorting systems have been installed in metropolitan area stations
to handle the large number of separations fiom a primary sorting platform.

To expedite die handling of mail an ideal arrangement is to locate the Post
Office Department building adjacent to the railroad station or on air rights over rail-
road terminal propert>'. Belt con\e>ors can be used to move the mail sacks and
parcels between the post office building and the station building.

6.4.3.4 Elevators and escalators

(a) Baggage elevators are desirable at both ends of combined passenger and
trucking platforms in large passenger stations where trains operate in both directions
through the station, to reduce the interference between trucking operations and
passengers.

(b) Under normal conditions, passenger ele\'ators are not recommended as
approaches to individual passenger platforms. They may be desirable as a supplement
to stairways for the use of the aged and infirm.

(c) A single elevator or escalator should not be relied upon as the sole means
of approach to a station platform.

Bui. 655

150 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(d) Escalators have a niaxiniuni carrying capacity of approximately 5000 pas-
sengers per hour for 32-in width and 8000 passengers per hour for 48 in. They are
being used successfully in both suburban and dirough passenger service.

6.4.3.5 Ramps

6.4.3.5.1 Passenger

( a ) Ramps provide ideal means for movement of passengers to and from station
platforms if they can be so installed as not to increase materially the distance traveled
by passengers, and do not materially decrease the space on the station platform avail-
able for the accommodation of trains. Good results can be accomplished in many
cases by the use of ho\h. stairways and ramps.

(b) The gradient for passenger ramps preferably should not exceed 7 percent.
The ramp surface should be finished witli an abrasive or non-skid material.

6.4.3.5.2 Trucking

(a) Ramps are a very desirable means of providing vertical transportation for
trucking operations, if the design of the station is such as to pennit their installation
without a material sacrifice in space.

(b) Ramp gradients in excess of 8 percent are not recommended. The ramp
surface should be finished with an abrasive or non-skid material.

(c) In stub terminals where separate passenger and trucking platfonns are used
and the baggage, mail and express facilities are located below the tracks, the utiliza-
tion of the end of the exclusive trucking platforms adjacent to the concourse permits
the installation of trucking ramps without sacrifice of space.

(d) The minimum clear width which should be considered for trucking ramps
designed to accommodate one line of traffic is 6 ft, and for two lines of traffic is 11 ft.

6.4.4 Characteristic Requirements of Passengers
6.4.4.1 Through passengers

(a) Transfer passengers occupy a station for a maximum length of time and
require more extensive facilities per passenger than resident tlii'ough passengers.

(b) Decreasing the time interval between incoming and outgoing trains de-
creases requirements per passenger for waiting room space and for certain other
facilities.

(c) The number of passengers handled during the rush hour does not alone
determine the size or number of facilities required. Local conditions must be studied,
as they aftect requirements for any particular situation.

(d) The size or numl^er of facilities must be modified to make allowance for:

( 1 ) Time of arriving and departing trains, and the span in minutes between
them.

(2) The ratio between passeengers commencing or terminating their journey
and transfer passengers.

(3) Number of hold-over passengers arriving or departing outside of the rush
hour but occupying space and requiring service during a portion of the
rush hour.

(4) Departure from a reasonably uniform spread of passengers entering and
departing within tlie rush hour.

Manual Recommendations 151

6.4.4.2 Suburban or commuter passengers

(a) Suburban passengers occupy a station for a minimum length of time and
move faster than the through passenger, and therefore requirements in the way of
station facilities per passenger are substantially less for a suburban passenger tlian
for a through traveler.

(b) When suburban business is heavy, it is desirable to separate tlie through
and suburban service, as their requirements are not similar. This may be done by
handling the two classes of service at:

1. Different levels. This requires electrification.

2. Different sides or ends of the station.

3. Different stations, one beyond the other.

(c) Indicator boards are the only directional information required, as a rule,
by commuters. They should show track number, scheduled leaving time, and essential
identification of train.

6.4.5 Services and Utilities

6.4.5.1 Communication facilities

Teletype machines, telautographs, pneumatic tubes, audible interconununication
systems, and other electronic devices, may be used to advantage to supplement tele-
phones for the rapid transmission of operating information between train directors,
station master, information booth, bulletin board and other strategic points. A public
address system should be provided for announcing train infonnation.

6.4.5.2 Electrical service outlets at station tracks

Electrical service outlets at station tracks should preferably be located between
adjacent tracks, except in stations having separate trucking platfonns. Direct-current
battery charging outlets, when serving two tracks, should have two receptacles and
should be located at inten'als of two average car lengths along those tracks used
regularly for holding passenger cars for extended periods. Air-conditioning outlets
for 220-v ac, when serving two tracks, should have two receptacles, and should be
located at intervals of one average car length along those tracks used regularly for
holding either direct-mechanical or electro-mechanical air-conditioned passenger
cars.

6.4.5.3 Steam, air, water and telephone connections

(a) Steam connections should be provided at all station tracks on which cars
will stand without locomotive attached. For stub tracks, steam connections should
be located at the ends, one connection for each track. For through tracks, they should
be placed to serve each track at tlie point or points where the rear of a train would
nonnally be placed.

(b) Air connections should be provided at all tracks where the method of op-
eration and servicing requires that an air brake test be made while the train is
standing \\athout locomotive attached. When air connections are installed, they should
be placed at the same locations as steam connections. At stations where equipment
may be watered, hydrants spaced two car lengths apart (preferably serving two
tracks) should be provided.

(c) At the points where air and steam connections are located on station tracks,
a telephone jack may be provided to permit the connecting of the train telephone
line to the main station switchboard.

152 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

6.4,6 Accessibility and Parking

(a) Street approaches should receive particular attention in the overall planning
to pro\ide convenient access and sufRcient capacity but by-passing areas of traffic
congestion. Separate routes should be provided so that pedestrian traffic and vehicular
traffic can be safely and expeditiously handled. Ample accommodation for vehicles
handling mail, baggage and express should be provided in a manner that will not
impede the free movement of public transportation vehicles, private conveyances,
and pedestrian traffic.

(b) The desirability of providing subways for pedestrians to reach the opposite
sidewalks of adjoining streets without crossing at grade should be considered. Subse-
quent installation of service facilities may make it impractical to provide such pas-
sageways in the future.

(c) Ample provision should be made for convenient access to public transpor-
tation services and taxicab service within or adjacent to the station. It is essential
that taxicabs be able to promptly reach an unloading point, move freely to a holding
area, and to reach a loading point for passengers leaving the station without inter-
ference to other vehicular traffic.

(d) Adequate parking space convenient to the station for railroad patrons is
desirable. In some places, pay-parking facilities for private automobiles have been
provided for the accommodation of patrons. See AREA Proceedings, Vol. 60, 1959,
page 294.

6.5 COACH YARDS

6.5.1 General

(a) It is desirable that coach yards and their appurtenant facilities, incidental
to car inspecting, repairing, battery charging, cleaning, icing and watering, and all
servicing of passenger train equipment, should be an integral feature of every large
passenger terminal, whether or not more than one railway is accommodated, and
whether or not the forces so engaged are in die charge of the terminal management.

(b) In some joint terminals each line retains jurisdiction of all such forces
provided for servicing its own equipment. The Pullman Company always does so.
The plan of having all servicing of railway equipment performed with terminal
forces would seem in any case to deserve consideration.

(c) It is definitely preferable to have all coach yard switching performed by
and under full control of the terminal management in all cases of joint operation
where the coach yard is an integral part of the joint terminal, but not otherwise
ordinarily.

( d ) Facilities usually provided in a coach yard will in most cases be satisfactory
for servicing streamline trains of light weight non-articulated equipment. However,
separate and specially equipped tracks are frequently provided for servicing certain
streamline trains, either articulated or non-articulated which, together with the
locomotive, are regularly operated as a unit, usually in quick turn-around service.

(e) Although separate facilities may be provided for particular trains or types
of equipment, the servicing of all passenger train equipment in a single yard is
desirable.

(f) It is common practice to hold trains for cleaning and waiting for less than
24 hr on 1 track.

Manual Recommendations 153

6.5.2 Location

(a) The coach yard should be placed con\enient to the station and mechanical
facilities.

(b) The location of a coach \ard should be determined by the economic balance
among the following factors:

( 1 ) Axailable sites.

(2) Land values.

(3) Cost of construction.

(4) Convenience to the station and other facilities.

(5) Cost of moving equipment between station, coach yard and engine house.

(6) Possible need for future expansion.

6.5.3 Capacity

The capacity required in a coach >'ard depends upon:

(a) Number of cars and trains to be handled.

(b) Class of equipment.

(c) Standard of maintenance.

(d) Schedule of equipment layoxer.

(e) Frequency of cleaning.

6.5.4 Types

There are two general types of coach yard layouts: Stub track and through
track. There is also an intermediate type made up of through tracks, but operated
generally as two systems of stub tracks. Operation is most efficient in a system of
through tracks.

6.5.5 Tracks

(a) Tracks of equal length and equal to the length of the longest trains give
greatest operating efBcienc>'.

(b) A unifonii spacing of not less than 20 ft between track centers is desirable
for tracks on which servicing work is done. Where platforms between them are
obstructed by supports to overhead service lines, brake shoe racks or above-platform
service outlets, such obstructions should be located off center of platforms to provide
a wider passageway on one side. Where there are no above-platform obstructions,
and where other conditions make it necessary, the spacing may be reduced. How-
ever, consideration should be given to the clear platform width required for the
proper performance of servicing work and the clearances required for trucking
equipment.

(c) Coach yard tracks used for storage of extra cars do not require particularly
wide spacing or any special car servicing features other than steam for cold weather
storage and possibly electricity for battery charging and air-conditioning equipment.

(d) Tracks should be arranged in groups at the leads to facilitate switching.
Auxiliary leads and tail tracks of ample length should be provided.

(e) Curvature of tracks should not be less than 457-ft radius (12 deg 34 min)
through turnouts or otherwise.

(f) Coach yard tracks should be placed on as nearly a level gradient as possi-
ble. For equipment with friction bearings, the gradient should not exceed 0.3 percent,
and for roller or anti- friction bearings not more than 0.1 percent.

154 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(g) A wye or loop track should be proxided for turning equipment. Move-
ments on a loop track are more expeditious.

(h) Special tracks for making up or breaking up trains are sometimes required.

(i) Only light or running repairs are made in a coach yard.

(j) The track bed in coach yards should be well drained.

(k) In the interests of cleanliness, sanitation and possible reduced maintenance
expense, consideration should be given to track construction calling for rails supported
by longitudinal concrete slabs with paving between slabs to present a completely
paved area which can be washed. Such construction is especially desirable for tracks
at commissary platforms or on which diners are re-stocked.

6.5.6 Platforms

(a) Platfomis should be placed between all tracks on which cars are to be
serviced.

(b) Platform construction preferably should be of concrete, crowned not less
than uj in to tlie ft. The width will vary with the track centers and the type of
construction supporting adjacent tracks. The edge of a platform adjacent to a track
constructed with ties and ballast usually is placed level with top of rail and approxi-
mately 5 ft 6 in from the center of the track. With this type of construction a combi-
nation curb and gutter should be placed along the edges of platforms with gutters
sloped longitudinally to inlets spaced for proper drainage. The gutter section should
provide for a curtain wall of suitable depth to cut off excessive seepage to the plat-
form bed. If any service lines are to be carried below the surface, the platform or
curb and gutter section should provide for conduits as required.

6.5.7 Supply Lines and Service Outlets

(a) In larger yards having a number of through tracks, and where it is desired
to keep servicing lines below ground, generally it will be found advantageous to
carry the supply lines across the yard in a tunnel or pipe conduit, centrally located
and with outlet boxes to serve each track.

(b) Water hydrants should be spaced at distances apart equivalent to the
average length of cars. Although hydrants are frequently placed in alternate spaces
between tracks, there is substantial advantage in locating them between all tracks.
Frost protection should be provided where necessary. Construction of water hydrant
outlets should comply with requirements prescribed by the United States Public
Health Service and other bodies having jurisdiction over such installations.

( c ) Hot water is usually provided at convenient locations.

(d) Low-pressure air connections for cleaning should be spaced the same as
cold water hydrants. For testing airbrakes, high-pressure air connection should be
provided through a double connection at the center of the track, or through a single
connection at each end of each track.

(e) Electrical service outlets in coach yards having alternately wide and narrow
track centers, preferably should be located in the center of tlie narrow service plat-
form. In coach yards having uniform track centers, outlets preferably should be
located at the edge of the platform, each outlet serving only one track. Direct-current
battery charging outlets when serving two tracks, should have two receptacles and
should be located at intervals of one average car length. When serving only one

Manual Recommendations 155

track, the outlets may be located either at intervals of one average car length, with
one receptacle, or at intervals of two average car lengths, with two receptacles.
Air-conditioning oudet for 220-v ac, when serving two tracks, should have two
receptacles and should be located at intervals of either one or two average car lengths,
preferably one, along those tracks used for servicing either direct-mechanical or
electro-mechanical air-conditioned passenger cars. When serving only one track,
these outlets may be located at intervals of either one average car length, with one
receptacle at each location, or two average car lengths, with two receptacles.

(f) Steam supply connections should be provided in the same manner as air
cormections for testing air brakes.

6.5.8 Inspection and Repair Pits

(a) Where underneadi inspection of standing cars is desired, one or more pits
equal in length to the longest train may be justified. These may be combination
inspection and repair pits depending on their location in the yard. If underneath
inspection of cars in motion is desired, a short pit located on the yard lead or the
mechanical washer track may be used. Where rails are elevated above adjacent
paved areas, inspection and repair work will be facilitated to some extent, especially
under conditions of heavy snow, but such elevation will make ramps in platform
paving necessary at fire and service roadways which cross the yard.

( b ) Pit construction preferably should be of concrete. The rails can rest directly
on the concrete walls, if desired, without plates and cushions, and be anchored in
place by bolted down rail clips; however, better results will generally be experienced
with rails installed on bearing plates and cushions. The pit should be well drained
and equipped with recessed flood lights for general lighting and receptacles for
service lights and small tools.

(c) Where all inbound trains pass over a single pit for inspection, other tracks
should be provided for servicing and repair work. Work performed at such a single
pit should be confined to inspection only and the oiling of bearings while cars are
spotted oxer it should be avoided if possible.

(d) Where servicing and light repair work is done on an inspection pit, several
tracks, each with a full train length pit may be required, the number depending
on tlie number and schedule of the trains to be serviced and the length of time re-
quired to service each train. A multiple-track pit arrangement should provide for
several wheel drop pits with jacking pads so spaced that several wheels can be
dropped simultaneously on any given track with a minimum of car spotting. Each
track should also be provided with the other facilities for the complete servicing
of cars, such as paved platforms, service outlets for water, air, steam and electricity,
and an adequate drainage system.

(e) An average depth of pits for car inspection and light repairs of about 38
in below the top of running rails will provide good working space below cars,
although depths ranging from 25 to 54 in are in use.

(f) Concrete jacking pads should be provided along car repair track pits. The
pads should be built integrally with the track pit walls and extend laterally each
side a minimum of 6 ft, from the center of the track, and for a sufficient distance
along the track each way from the drop pits to provide proper jacking space. On
track pits assigned to repair work only, continuous jacking pads extending the full
lengtii of the pit are desirable.

156 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(g) An inside widtli of 3 ft for repair pits will provide a ledge for jacking or
blocking on the inner side of rails.

(h) A jacking pad, at least one car in length and continuous between rails for
center jacking, is sometimes provided beyond the repair pit on one or more repair
tracks.

(i) Consideration should be given to covering at least a portion of the area
devoted to car servicing and repair work. The protection afforded by a building
with semi-covered sides, preferably of fireproof construction, will reduce the expense
of conditioning trains and expedite repair work under unfavorable weather condi-
tions. Complete housing of pits on tracks assigned to repair work is desirable, but
at repair pits where wheels are changed or truck work is performed the housing
should be at least sufficient to cover a car spotted either way over tlie wheel drop pits
and provide a passageway at end of car. The extent of the enclosure and heating
should depend on the severity of the climate.

( j ) At coach yards where locomotives operating on unit or streamline trains are
handled, special facilities usually are necessary. These facilities depend upon the
types of locomotive equipment and the service required.

6.5.9 Other Facilities

(a) The yard should be sufficiently lighted for night operation. General lighting
can be provided by flood lights on high poles or towers, or by lights suspended well
above top of car level and spaced about a car length apart between tracks. General
lighting at lower levels is less satisfactory than higher level lighting because of
shadows, improper light for top of car work and interference with switching and
other operations due to glare. However, when the general lighting system cannot
be adapted to provide the additional light frequently desired at certain points in
the yard, supplemental lights on low standards, either fixed or portable, may be
used.

(b) Provision should be made for sufficient storage of car wheels. Double wheel
tracks for mounted wheels should be spaced 6 in between track centers. If extra
or replacement power units or trucks are stored on wheel tracks, adequate housing
for tliese units should be provided.

(c) A mechanical train washer is well adapted to washing the sides of trains,
especially streamline trains, including diesel locomotives. Mechanical washing of
train roofs is also desirable, but due to variations in car heights and roof contours,
as well as to numerous roof obstructions on present equipment, mechanical washing
is usually confined to the sides, roofs and ends being washed by hand. The track
served by a mechanical washer should be tangent through the washer and for at
least one car length each way. Wliere possible, the washer should be at a fixed loca-
tion on a track over which all inbound trains to be washed can be moved. Where
conditions make it necessary however, a washer of the portable type, mounted on
cross rails to serve two or more tracks may be used. Separate washing platforms
are usually provided for locomotives which do not lend themselves to mechanical
washing.

( d ) Suitable cleaning facilities should be provided for rugs and carpets which
are removed from cars for cleaning. Air cleaning is usually done on open platforms,
preferably roofed over, but shampooing facilities should be enclosed.

Manual Recommendations 157

(e) Car pullers are frequently provided to reduce switching. The portable,
electric-powered t>pe is flexible and well adapted to this serxice.

(f) In >ards where diners are restocked, c()mniissar\- facilities will be required.

(g) Other facilities, some or all of which may be needed, include:

( 1 ) Service building pro\iding offices, toilet, wash, locker and lunch rooms

( 2 ) Storehouse

(3) Building proxiding space for necessary repair shops

(4) Refuse disposal

(5) Fire protection

(6) Bottling plant for refilling gas c\linders

(7) Locomotive fuel oil storage with lines to distributing points.

6.6 MODERNIZATION

(a) Because of changes in habits and in facilities available for travel to and
from terminals, less waiting time in tlie station is now the rule, but passengers expect
better and more modern, though not necessariK^ bigger accommodations in the con-
course and waiting room, when buying tickets or checking baggage, in the toilet
facilities and in general serxice conxeniences. These should be proxided xxhen
major changes are made.

(b) A single, combined, xxaiting room can be substituted to adxantage for the
old arrangement of txxo separate rooms, but a proper and attractixe poxxder room
for xvomen should be proxided.

(c) Substitution of a closed-in concourse, xvith a tight partition betxxeen it
and the train shed in place of an open grill, xvidi a sufficient supply of heat to make
it comfortable for passengers in winter xxeather is desirable and is becoming a general
practice, as it xvill permit the use of die concourse as an adjunct to die xvaiting
room. Many passengers prefer to xxait xvhere they can see the trains if they can do
so xvithout discomfort.

(d) Care should be taken to make it inconxenient for non-passengers to use
tlie concourse and passages as tlioroughfares, as such use may interfere xvith patrons
of the railroads.

(e) Directional signs should be gixen particular attention. They should be
displayed conspicuously, easy to see but not gaudy, and they should be repeated so
that if a passenger going in die xvrong direction misses one, another farther along
xvill set him right. This is especially important xvhere corridors are long and xvinding
and facilities are at different lexels.

(f) Improvement at the ticket counter by the substitution of larger openings
for the foniier narrow grilled xvindoxvs or, at points xvhere it is feasible to do so,
the replacement of the xvindoxvs and grills by an open counter makes for a more
friendly atmosphere. Provision for protection of the money and the ticket stock
should not be overlooked.

(g) Generally, coin-locked pa>' toilets should be substituted for some of die
former free toilets and, at the larger terminals at least, coin-locked dressing rooms
and baths may be provided xx'here xxarranted.

(h) Substitution of air conditioning (heating and cooling), properly planned,
will often result in a reduced cost for its operation and maintenance, as xxell as pro-
viding better service.

158 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(i) Adequate provision for parking private automobiles while waiting for trains
should be provided if practicable.

(j) During a modernization program, consideration should be given to possi-
bilities of overloading the existing electric, water, and steam facilities. Provisions
should be made to increase the capacity of these facilities to a safe level.

Manual Recommendations 159

Part 7
Other Yard and Terminal Facilities

FOREWORD

Tliis part deals with the several and various components necessary for the
function and operation of railways. Although these components such as store facili-
ties, material yards, etc. are normally located or situated in yards and terminals
they are not intrinsic to them.

CONTENTS

Section Page

7.1 Stores 160

7.2 Storage 160

7.3 Reclamation 161

160 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

7.1 STORES

7.1.1 General

The stores department is responsible for the ordering, care, control and economic
distribution, and in some instances for the accounting of materials and supplies
needed for, or reclaimed from, the constiuction, maintenance and operation of the
railroad. The size and extent of its facilities will vary in accordance with the require-
ments of the road. It is important to consult tlie chief stores officer and receive his
approval concerning any plans for the construction, alteration or elimination of stores
facilities.

7.1.2 Types

There are three types of stores, namely, general, district, and local.

(a) The general store, also known as a system or regional store, is the largest
store umt of the stores department. It should be located on available railroad prop-
erty and usually at a convenient point where large quantities of materials and supplies
can be efficiently received, handled, stored and shipped. The location of tliis store
will also be greatly influenced by the traffic problem created in the handling of these
shipments and by the freight charges involved on off-line items received. The general
store will also operate reclamation and scrap yards where needed.

(b) The district and local stores have the same characteristics and functions
as the general stores, except that they are much smaller. These stores are generally
established on larger railroads at various points to expedite the handling of materials
and supplies. Such stores operate under the jurisdiction of the general store.

Stationary, office supplies and maintenance of way materials are nonually han-
dled by the general store. Maintenance-of-way materials, however, are generally
handled in separate facilities. Dining car service supplies, including foodstuffs, may
be handled by the general store, but in many instances such items are handled
separately at major terminals in a local store, called a commissary.

7.1.3 Buildings and Structures

Storehouse buildings for the handling of all materials requiring inside storage
should be constructed so as to create the most efficient and expeditious material
storage and handling methods. Office space to house the necessary personnel to handle
the records and accounting for the store's operation may be part of a storehouse
building if suitable. Platform, docks, ramps, racks and shelters are erected according
to the needs. All storage buildings and related facilities should be served with tracks
and hard-surface driveways for tlie efficient handling of materials by rail or by
truck. It is often possible to pave the track area so that one platform at car-floor
level can serve both means of handling.

7.2 STORAGE

7.2.1 Material Yards

Theie are numerous items used in maintenance of way and of equipment that
can be stored out of doors; these items are handled in material yards. Whenever
possible, such yards should be located adjacent to the storehouse area so that track-
age can be kept to a minimum. Material is stored on permanent racks and platforms,
and the areas between should be paved to facilitate tlie operation of rubber-tired
handling equipment such as trucks, loaders, cranes, etc.

Manual Recommendations 161

The storage of heavy items in a material yard is usually at a separate loaition
served by at least two tracks and an overhead crane or other types of cranes of
suitable capacity. The material is stored in tlie area between the tracks, one track
being used for recei\ ing, the other for shipping.

The ideal scrap \ard has a receiving and a shipping track w ith the sorting area
in between and serxed by an overhead crane of suitable capacity. The sorting area
should be hard surfaced and the driveways serving it pa\ed to support die heavy
wheel loadings of truck cranes and trailers used to handle scrap within the yard.
All cranes should be equipped with magnets.

7.2.2 Lumber and Timber Yards

Lumber products are not generally kept in large quantities at the general store-
house, but are frequently shipped direct from the dealer to the point of application.
However a certain quantiU' of lumber, cross and switch ties, bridge timber and poles
must be stored. These products require outside storage; unseasoned materials should
be stored on permanent racks in covered storage so they can season properly; treated
timbers should be stored in the manner approved by the stores department to prevent
loss by fire. The areas between the racks should be paved and the piles so arranged
that fork-lift tractors or truck cranes can handle these materials into and out or
onto and off freight equipment on a track serving the storage yard. This track is
usually in the center of the yard unless the area is too large, tlien two or more tracks
serving storage areas on botli sides of each track are required, and tlie tracks, if
possible, are connected at both ends.

7.2.3 Reser\e Oil

The stores department may be called upon to provide large storage reserves for
fuel oils. When the size and location of die facilities have been determined, the tanks
should be installed in accordance with the requirements set forth by the governing
ordinances, building and fire codes.

7.3 RECLAMATION

7.3.1 Plant— General

The reclamation plant is usually located at the same point and adjacent to the
scrap yard to minimize handling of materials. The reclamation shop building sliould
be situated between a receixing and a shipjjing track, the latter depressed to facilitate
the loading of materials coming out of die plant for forwarding to points of applica-
tion or storage. The size of the shop will vary with the amount and type of reclama-
tion to be done. Paved roads parallel to the tracks are needed for the operation of
truck cranes; a large area adjacent to the tracks arjd the shop building should be
paved so that materials can be transported in and out of the building with motorized
equipment.

7.3.2 Rail Plant

Rail requires special handling in general reclamation, and the plant to handle
it should be separate from odier plants. The plant layout should be designed for the
rapid turnover of rail and would consist of receiving and shipping tracks served by
overhead or other types of cranes, with the area between the tracks used for die
straightening presses, the cropping operation, drilling rack, hardening apparatus,
welding and classifying prior to loading.

162 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Manual Recommendations
Committee 6 — Buildings

Report on Assignment 1

Design Criteria for Maintenance of Way
Equipment Repair Shops

J. G. Robertson (chairman suhcommittee), W. F. Armstrong, D. A. Bessey, S. B.
Holt, K. E. Hornung, P. W. Peterson, L. A. Palagi, R. F. Roberts, H. A.
Shannon.

Your committee submits for adoption the following new Part 9 for Chapter 6
of the Manual.

Part 9

Design Criteria for Centralized Maintenance of
Way Equipment Repair Shops

9.1 FOREWORD

9.1.1 A maintenance of way equipment repair complex provides a facility for
the overhauling, rebuilding and modifying of roadway machines, work equipment
and specialized power tools, which are used in maintenance of way operations.

9.2 SCOPE AND PURPOSE

9.2.1 The purpose of these criteria is to provide a description and layout of
facilities for a centralized work equipment shop and to recommend equipment service
areas. Figures 1, 2 and 3 are shown as aids in visualizing a typical repair shop and
tlie layout of equipment and service areas.

9.2.2 Heating, lighting, plumbing and other incidental mechanical items would
be a part of tliese buildings; however, they are not included in tliese criteria.

9.3 OPERATIONS

9.3.1 The major operations perfonned in a centralized maintenance of way
repair complex are dismantling, cleaning, repairing, reassembling and painting.

9.3.2 These operations are supported by other incidental services, such as,
carpentry, steel fabricating, forging, welding, testing, etc., in order to make it pos-
sible to perform minor repairs to small tools, as well as major overhauls to self-
powered equipment.

Manual Recommendations 163

9.4 LOCATION

9.4.1 The location of a centralized work equipment shop should be as close
to the center of tlie railroad as practical, with consideration being given to the avail-
ability of suitable land, rail service, available manpower, housing, etc.

9.4.2 Approximately 25 acres are required for a large complex.

9.4.3 Some railroads have converted existing shop buildings into maintenance
of way equipment repair shops and when tliis is done, the location of the repair
complex may not be at the most desirable location.

9.4.4 If existing buildings are to be used, consideration should be given to the
amount of tra\el time required to bring the equipment into the shop.

9.5 ORGANIZATION

9.5.1 The shop is normally a part of the engineering department and operates
under tlie jurisdiction of the chief engineer, with the superintendent of work equip-
ment as the immediate superxisor.

9.5.2 On a large railroad, the superintendent and staff will operate a shop of
200 employees, more or less, of various crafts.

9.5.3 On a small railroad, fewer employees are required to perform the necessary
operations; howexer, the organization would remain essentially the same.

9.6 TYPICAL FACILITY ARRANGEMENT

9.6.1 The complex, as shown in Figure 1, is comprised of three buildings with
adequate support facilities, such as cleaning vats, storage areas, lead and yard tracks.

9.6.2 Building 1 is the wash area and houses the cleaning vats. Building 2 is
the main shop, which is shown on Figure 2, and building 3 contains the offices.

9.6.3 The main shop building should be constructed to support the overhead
cranes and other smaller cranes throughout the shop.

9.6.4 Buildings 1 and 2 should be adequately equipped with compressed air,
oxyacetyiene and electric arc welding outlets at convenient locations, and they
should have overhead motorized doors of sufficient size so as not to restrict the
movement of large equipment in and out of the buildings.

9.7 MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

9.7.1 Material-handling equipment is a prime necessity since units weighing
up to 150 tons may be handled. The shop buildings should have overhead traveling
cranes, bracket cranes, and post cranes for the movement of material within the
\arious areas. An 8-ton wagon crane is recommended for inaccessible areas. Small
turntables at strategic locations should be placed within the shop to facilitate the
moving of equipment to various tracks.

9.7.2 A three-wheeled cart with flat bed in the back is recommended to trans-
port individual parts. Fork lifts are recommended to move material on pallets. Full
size railroad cars, such as riding cars, flat cars, weed spray cars, and similar track-
mounted equipment may be moved over the shop tracks by use of a heavy duty
rubber tire tractor or shop mule.

9.7.3 Figure 3 lists special siioiDS, equipment rej^air and the material handling
equipment recommended for each area.

164 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

9.8 PAINT SHOP (AREA "A")

9.8.1 Machines, when repaired, are painted and stenciled in this shop. It should
be equipped with a ramp or hoist to allow painting the underside of machines and
have adequate bracket cranes.

9.8.2 The painting should be performed in a booth of sufficient size to accom-
modate the largest piece of equipment expected to be repaired. The shop should
also have air filtration equipment to dissipate the paint fog to prevent its being
exhausted into the atmosphere.

9.8.3 A sprinkler or fire-suppression system, explosion-proof lighting, heating
and ventilation equipment should be provided, as required by local codes and
regulatory agencies.

9.8.4 The paint shop operation should be supported by steam cleaning and
washing facilities. Provide facilities in the drainage system to accumulate sludge and
oil.

9.9 CARPENTER SHOP (AREA "B")

9.9.1 All wooden assemblies for roadway machines and work equipment are
fabricated, or repaired, in this area, including repairs to wooden portions of motor-
car decks.

9.9.2 All boxes and crates are made in this area for items requiring tliem, and
wooden shields installed on windshield glasses to protect them from vandalism
during shipment.

9.9.3 Canopy tops, windshields, electric windshield wipers, and lights are
installed on motor cars after they have been released from Motor Car Repair Area "C".

9.9.4 All replacement of glass and repairs to seats and canvas items are made
in this area, which should contain a canvas rack, large cutting table and an industrial-
type sewing machine.

9.10 MOTOR CAR REPAIR (AREA "C")

9.10.1 In this area motor cars are stripped, repaired and reassembled. Area
should be equipped with a single dry pedestal grinder, solvent vat, test stands, work
bench, hydraulic press and sufficient storage for new and rebuilt engines and trans-
missions.

9.11 SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE (AREA "D")

9.11.1 This area should have adequate work benches and material storage bins
for the maintenance machinist in charge of repairs to shop machines, cranes, power
plant and other terminal facilities.

9.11.2 The area should be equipped for storing and handling of materials needed
by shop electricians in their terminal maintenance work.

9.11.3 All electrical assemblies from light plants and electric welders, electric
power tools, and track maintenance junction boxes are repaired in tliis area.

9.12 PAINT SHOP STORAGE (AREA "E")

9.12.1 This area is used for the storage of non-flammable paint supplies, stencils,
brushes, etc. The flammable materials are stored in a room adjacent to Area "A", on
the outside of the main building.

Manual Recommendations 165

9.12.2 Particular attention should he given to this area with regard to insurance
and local fire regulations.

9.12.3 A sprinkler system or fire-suppression system should be considered.

9.13 ENGINE REBUILD AREA (AREA "F")

9.13.1 All large gasoline and diesel engines are stripped, repaired, reassembled,
and such items as carburetors, fuel pumps, and air cleaners are rebuilt in this area.

9.13.2 Machine work is performed in this shop, such as reboring cylinders, line
boring of main bearings, grinding and fitting of pistons, fitting and applying wrist
pins, facing of \al\e seats, grinding of valves, and reassembling block and internal
engine parts.

9.13.3 One- and two-cylinder air-cooled engines, rail saws, small light plants
and other such items are repaired and tested in this area on an engine test-out stand.

9.13.4 Large gasoline and diesel engines should be tested on engine dynamome-
ter test stands and fine adjustments made before engines are released from the shop.
Engines should be broken in at full operating RPM's for approximately four hours
before being taken off the test stands.

9.13.5 Noise and air pollution are important factors in the design of this area,
which must be in compliance with local codes and regulatory agencies.

9.13.6 Standby and repaired engines should be stored in this area until needed.
All single- and twin-cylinder track motor-car engines are stripped, reworked and
reassembled.

9.13.7 Provide a 25-ton hydraulic press and engine rebuilding stands to facilitate
the handling of engine units while they are undergoing repairs and testing.

9.13.8 Provisions should be made for storage of gas and diesel engine and
transmission assemblies. Repaired assembUes are either used at the facility or
shipped to line of road for installation on out-of-service machines.

9.14 MACHINE SHOP (AREA "G")

9.14.1 This shop should be equipped with various types and sizes of lathes,
boring mills, drill presses, grinders, milling machines, hydraulic press with a capa-
bility of handling any and all types of machine work required by centralized work
equipment shop.

9.15 HYDRAULIC AND ELECTRIC REPAIR (AREA "H")

9.15.1 All hydraulic assemblies and component parts stripped from engines
are placed on pallets and moved to the receiving area of this shop, where all makes
and types of hydraulic equipment, such as pumps, rams, valves and motors are
rebuilt.

9.15.2 This area should be easy to clean so tliat dust will be kept to a minimum.

9.15.3 A complete parts inventory of all hydraulic assemblies and components
are maintained in the shop.

9.15.4 This area should be equipped with a hydraulic test stand on which rebuilt
as.semblies can be tested before they are released for reinstallation on the individual
machines undergoing repair, or placed in the hydraulic unit storage area.

166 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

9.15.5 All hydraulic hoses used in connection with repairs to the equipment
throughout the entire complex are fabricated in this area. The area should be
equipped with adequate hose and fitting storage bins, band saw, hydraulic press,
drill press, grinders, a hose cut-off machine and hose fitting application machine.

9.15.6 Provision should be made for the rebuilding of all electric vibrator motors
and main tamping generators from track maintainers and tamping power jacks. The
area should have an overhead trolley system to allow the motors and generators to
be stripped, reassembled and tested on an "assembly line" basis.

9.15.7 Provision should be made for hydraulic presses strategically placed,
double dry grinders, stator coil cutter and sand blast cabinet for cleaning stator
housings after the coils have been removed.

9.15.8 Vibrator motor test stand should be provided that will permit several
motors to be tested simultaneously.

9.15.9 An approved type furnace for removal of insulation from copper wire
should be provided.

9.15.10 Space should be provided for a large and small insulation cutter, insu-
lation folder, coil winder drives, coil taping machine, stator hold stands and an
approved type furnace for removal of insulation from scrap stator coils.

9.15.11 Large tamping motor generators are tested, and all rewound stators,
armatures and field windings are dipped into insulating varnish and baked in an oven.

9.16 LUNCH AND LOCKER ROOMS (AREA T)

9.16.1 Lunch and locker room facilities should be provided as required by
applicable codes, and provisions should also be made for lunch tables and vending
machines.

9.17 TOILET FACILITIES (AREAS "J" AND "Q")

9.17.1 Toilet facilities and water coolers should be provided for shop forces
at centralized locations to minimize the away-from-work station time.

9.17.2 The number of fixtures required is governed by applicable codes and
will vary depending on the location.

9.18 TOOL ROOM (AREAS "K" AND "P")

9.18.1 Tool room or rooms with required security are to be conveniently located
to the shops they sei^ve, and should stock all power and hand tools used throughout
the various areas.

9.19 STORES OFFICE (AREA "L")

9.19.1 A stores office large enough to accommodate tlie storekeeper and staff
should be provided adjacent to die store area.

9.20 STORE AREA (AREA "M ")

9.20.1 The store area should be located as near as possible to the center of the
complex and should be complete with racks and bins.

9.20.2 Proper attention should be given to providing adequate security.

Manual Recommendations 167

9.21 STEEL FABRICATION AREA (AREA "N")

9.21.1 Space should be provided for use as a repair and test area for all types
of radiators and fuel tanks. A cleaning and test vat should be provided.

9.21.2 Adjustable booths should be provided for steel fabrication or repair of
assemblies made by boilermakers. Individual, 5-ft-high, canvas or plastic shields
should completely surround each booth to protect other employees from the electric
flash created by wire fed welders.

9.21.3 Space should be allocated for storage racks for bar steel, sheet steel,
angle iron and pipe.

9.22 SHEET METAL SHOP (AREA "O")

9.22.1 All sheet-metal fabrication work and repairs to the sheet-metal guards
and shrouds for various machines are performed in this shop. Area should be equipped
with adequate machinery to handle any and all types of sheet-metal work.

9.23 BLACKSMITH SHOP (AREA "R")

9.23.1 An electronic eye semi-automatic shape cutting machine should be
located in tliis shop, complete with steel racks, a large heating furnace and a machin-
ist welding booth, where tamping shoes are reclaimed.

9.23.2 A forge, a large and small hammer, double dry grinder, welding booths,
exliaust ducting, a normalizing furnace, and other equipment and storage areas, as
outlined on Figure 3, should be located in tiiis area.

9.24 CONCLUSION

9.24.1 The maintenance of way equipment repair complex, as outlined in these
criteria, is representative of an entirely new facility. It is realized, however, that
existing facilities may be converted to a repair shop, and the configuration of the
yards and buildings may not be ideally suited for performing the repair work on an
assembly line basis. Some repair facilities are located in smaller shops at outlying
districts, which cannot adequately serve the needs of the entire railroad, but an
attempt should be made to arrange the shop similar to diose in Figures 1 and 2,
to minimize unnecessary movement of material and equipment.

168 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Manual Recommendations

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Figure 2

170 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Figure 3— LEGEND OF DETAILS FOR TYPICAL MAINTENANCE OF WAY
EQUIPMENT REPAIR FACILITIES

A. PAINT SHOP

1. Paint Storage

2. Filter Ducting

B. CARPENTER SHOP

1. Carpenter Shop Storage
2-5. Lumber and Trailers

6. Plywood Rack

7. Work Bench

8. Table Saw

9. Planer

10. Radial Arm Saw
H. Band Saw

12. Glass Rack

13. Upholstery and Canvas Shop

14. Packing and Crating Area

C. MOTOR CAR REPAIR

1. Solvent Vat
2-3. Test Stands

4. Work Bench

5. Engine & Transmission Storage

6. Hydraulic Press

D. SHOP EQUIPMENT REPAIR &

MAINTENANCE

E. PAINT SHOP STORAGE

F. ENGINE REBUILD AREA

1-6. Diesel Engine Rebuild Area

7. Assembly Bench

8. Line Boring Machine

9. Pin Fitter

10. Valve Grinder

11. Cylinder Boring Machine
12-13. Cleaning Solvent Vat

14. Carburetor Repair
15-18. Gas Engine Rebuild Area

19. Dynamometer Storage Area

20. Dynamometer Test Stands

21. Gas Engine Storage Area

22. Diesel Engine Storage Area

G. MACHINE SHOP AREA

1. Storage Area
2-7. Lathe Area

8. Metal Spray Bench

9. Crankshaft Grinder

10. Surface Grinder

11. Horizontal Miller

12. Layout Table

13. Universal Grinder

14. Internal Grinder

15. Universal Miller

16. Machine Shop Storage Area
17-18. Drill Press

19. Layout Bench

20. Double Dry Grinder

21. Boring Mill

22. Band Saw

23. Tubing and Steel Rack

24. Hydraulic Press

25. Tool Grinder

H. HYDRAULIC AND ELECTRICAL
REPAIR AREA

1. Tested Unit Storage Area

2. Test Bench

3. Bench

4-7. Hydraulic Units Repair Area

8. Hydraulic Shop Work Storage
Area

9. Hydraulic Hose Cutting Bench

10. Hydraulic Hose Fabrication
Area

11. Storage Area

12. Hose and Fitting Bins

13. Oven

14. Wire Rack

15. Coil Winders

16. Dip Vat

17. Sandblast Cabinet

18. Battery Room

19. Generator and Motor Repair
Area

20. Sim Test Stand
21-22. Rewind Bench

L LUNCH ROOM
J. TOILET FACILITIES
K. TOOL ROOM
L. STORES OFFICE
M. STOREHOUSE
N. SHEET STEEL FABRICATION
AREA

1. Radiator & Fuel Tank Repair
Area
2-5. Adjustable Booth for Steel
Fabrication

6. Bar Steel & Angle Iron Rack

7. Pipe Rack

Manual Recommendations

171

Figure 3

8. Air Resenoir 6c Fuel Tank
Test Area

9. Hydro Test

10. Oxygraph Table

11. Drill Press

12. Brake

13. Rolls

14. Fonning Table

15. Shear

16. Steel Rack

17. Double Dry Grinder

18. Band Saw
O. SHEETMETAL SHOP

1. Threading Machine

2. Fonning Table

3. Heli-Arc Welder

4. Spot Welder

5. Circle Cutter

6. Band Saw

7. Rotex Punch

8. Brake

9. Rolls

10. Forming Table
11-12. Shears

13. Aluminum Rack

14. Sheet Steel Rack
P. TOOL ROOM
Q. TOILET FACILITIES
R. BLACKSMITH SHOP

1. Oxygraph Machine

2. Steel Plate Storage

3. Forming Table

4. Anvil

5. Forge

6. Quenching Tank

7. Small Hammer

8. Large Hammer

9. Forming Table

10. Pipe Bender
11-12. Benches

13. Double Dry Grinder

14. Vise

15. Furnace

16. Work Storage Area

17. Sheet Steel Fabrication Storage
Area

18. Sheetmetal Shop Work Storage
Area

19. Tamping Shoe Reclaim Area

20. Welding Work Storage Area

(Continued)

21-25. Welding Boodis

26. Exhaust Ducting

27. Normalizing Furnace
S. HEAVY ASSEMBLY REPAIR &

RECLAIM AREA
T. PILE DRIVER REPAIR AREA
U. 150-TON O.H. TRAVELING

CRANE
V. HEA\'Y ROADWAY MACHINE

REPAIR AREA
W. LOADING AREA
X. 30-TON O.H. TRAVELING

CRANE
Y. INTERMEDIATE ROADWAY

MACHINE REPAIR AREA
Z. 15-TON O.H. TRAVELING
CRANE
A-A. RAIL & TIE GANG EQUIP-
MENT REPAIR AREA
B-B. 15-TON O.H. TRAVELING

CRANE
C-C. OFFICE BUILDING
D-D. TRANSFER PIT
E-E. TRANSFER TABLE
F-F. TRANSFER TABLE TRAILER
G-G. 30-TON O.H. TRAVELING

CRANE
H-H. CLEANING VATS
I-I. LYE VAT WASH AREA
J-J. STORAGE AREA
K-K. CAR & EQUIPMENT STORAGE
AREA TRACKS
LEAD IN TRACKS:

1. "Circus" Train, Car Repair
& Paint Shop Lead

2. "Circus" Train Loading &
Paint Shop Lead

3. Loading Track

4. Loading Track

5. Holding Track

6. Test Track & Heavy
Equipment

7. Test Track & Heavy
Equipment

8. Pile Dri\er Test Track

172 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 2

Design Criteria for Elevated Yard Office Buildings

W. C. Humphreys (chairman subcommittee), A. C. Cayou, H. R. Helkeb, R. J.
Martens, G. J. Bleul, L. S. Newman, P. W. Peterson, R. E. Phillips, H. A.
Shannon.

Your committee submits for adoption the following new Part 10 for Chapter 6
of the Manual.

Part 10
Elevated Yardmasters' Towers

10.1 FOREWORD

The elevated yardmasters' tower is a natural development which resulted from
the experience of railroads that located supervisory personnel in elevated structures
at strategic points in modern classification yards. Based on this experience, many
railroads decided to provide elevated towers for yardmasters in all types of yards to
increase their supervisory potential.

The elevated yardmasters' tower permits the yardmaster to visually supervise
yard crews and yard engine operations, and tlius develop greater switching efficiency
through better switch crew utilization. The elevated tower also permits better utili-
zation of yard tracks.

Elevated yardmasters' towers are most effective in yards where more tlian one
yard crew is working at the same time. The towers are generally located at the
switching end or lead end of tlie yard.

10.2 SITE CONSIDERATIONS

Inasmuch as the primary function of the elevated yardmasters' towers is critical
observation, the location is probably the most important consideration. The optimum
height from top of rail to the observation tower floor is generally considered to be
30 to 40 ft. The site location should be determined by tlie track geometry of the
particular yard location. As a rule of thumb, the tower should be 50 ft back from
the switching lead to permit observation of switching operations, and at the center
line of the classification tracks to permit maximum observation down the lines of
classification tracks.

Many yards are located within urban areas, and are crossed by overhead struc-
tures carrying vehicular traffic. These structures often make it quite difficult to
detemiine tlie best height and location for constructing a tower. In these cases, it
is extremely helpful to secure a basket-mounted high-reach mobile crane and have
the local operating supervisor ride the basket, and adjust the height and location
until he determines the position which is most suitable for the tower. The tower
floor can then be located in accordance with these field-determined dimensions.

Manual Recommendations 173

10.3 TYPES

Elevated yardmasters' towers may be constructed as part of the upper story
of a multi-story yard building, as an additional story to an existing yard building, or
as an individual prefabricated metal observation tower supported by a structural
frame.

Inasmuch as individual yardmasters' towers are purely functional structures,
economic considerations generally dictate that they be constructed of structural
steel. Size, height, location, and other considerations, however, may indicate that
they be constructed of reinforced concrete, preformed concrete members, or masonry.

10.3.1 Towers Constructed as Part of Yard Buildings (See Figures 1-4)

An elevated yardmasters' tower may sometimes be constructed as part of the
upper story or on top of a new multi-story yard building. This lias the advantage of
reducing tlie tower construction cost inasmuch as the supporting structure is provided
by tire multi-story building structure, and square-foot job costs will be substantially
reduced. In addition, costs of bringing services and utilities to the tower are virtually
eliminated, as these costs, which can be considerable, would be chargeable to the
main building structure.

The main disadvantage of constructing an elevated tower as part of a multi-
story building is that, generally, operating requirements dictate that a yard trans-
portation building be constructed at a site which is not the most advantageous for
locating a yardmasters' tower.

10.3.2 Towers Constructed as an Addition to an Existing Building

In some instances, elevated yardmasters' towers are constructed on the roof of
an existing building. The generally accepted theory is that this is cheaper than
building a separate tower on a structural steel tower frame. Experience, however,
indicates that in most cases the cost of remodeling and structurally strengthening an
existing building, together with the cost of a new tower cabin, is close to or the
same as the cost of a new separate tower. In addition, constructing a tower on an
existing building has the same disadvantage as constinicting it as part of a new
multi-story building, in that existing buildings are generally not located at a suitable
site for a yardmaster's tower.

10.3.3 Individual Prefabricated Towers (See Figure 5)

Individual prefabricated yardmasters' towers have the advantage of being
almost completely flexible with respect to location. Inasmuch as the location of a
tower has a direct bearing on its main function of observation, this is a prime con-
sideration. A standard elevated yardmasters' tower plan can be developed which
t;ikes advantage of standard components and shop fabrication. A standard 30-ft-high
tower can be varied in height between 30 ft and 40 ft by varying the pedestal height
of the concrete foundation on which the tower is supported.

(Text contimied on page 178)

174 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

ELEVATION

SECOND FLOOR

THIRD FLOOR

CAR If A 1
OFFI -E

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LUNCH ROOM

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FIRST FLOOR
Figure 1

Manual Recommendations

175

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THIRD
FLOOR

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MASTER

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FOURTH
FLOOR

176 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

CONTROL
TOWER

,

1

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FOURTH
FLOOR

STORAGE

-TBn

THIRD
FLOOR

BA ITERY
CHARGING

ELECT
ROOM

CABOOSE

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H.t I

SECOND FLOOR

POWER
ROOM

BATTERY
ROOM

SPEC. I

A&T * LUNCH

ROOM

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ROOM

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Manual Recommendations

177

ELEVATION

Figure 4

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TOWER FLOOR PLAN

UTILITY FLOOR PLAN

TOWER ELEVATION

CROSS SECTION

Figure 5

178 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.4 TOWER CONSTRUCTION

10.4.1 General Construction Materials

The materials used in the construction of a tower which is part of a new building
will, of course, be determined by the construction and aesthetics of the overall
building structure. Lightweight, fire-resistant, standard components should be used
for towers constructed on top of existing buildings, and in the construction of indi-
vidual elevated towers. The types of materials to be considered in the construction
of towers are structural steel or aluminum tube framing, masonry, concrete, standard
window wall components, insulated metal wall components, and metal flooring and
roof decking materials. The finish flooring material may be vinyl, or vinyl asbestos
tile, or some other similar material which is easy to maintain. Consideration may
also be given to carpeting. Acoustical treatment is an important consideration, though
not essential. The installation of adequate insulating materials is of prime importance
due to the extensive exposure of the towers and the large areas of glass required for
observation.

Access to a tower constructed as part of a new building is usually by means
of interior stairs. Access to a tower constructed on top of an existing building may
be by means of interior stairs, or by extending existing stair towers. It is usually
more practical, however, to construct a new access stair on the outside of the build-
ing. Access stairs for individual elevated towers are usually open-metal stairways
constructed around the outside and framed into the structural tower frame.

The inclusion of elevators should be considered in the design of towers, particu-
larly where they are included as part of a multi-story building or where an individual
tower is to be constructed over 30 ft in height.

10.4.2 Mechanical and Electrical Facilities and Equipment

Yardmasters' towers of all types should be provided with easily accessible toilet
facilities. Individual towers should have toilets included as part of the elevated
tower cabin. Towers constructed as part of a new multi-story building or on top of
an existing building, should have toilets located either in the tower, or close by
on an adjacent floor. Water supply lines and drainage lines for individual towers
should be insulated and heat traced to prevent freezing.

Yardmasters' towers should be adequately heated and air-conditioned. Special
consideration must be given to the heating and cooling design due to the exposure
factor and large amounts of exposed glass surface. Although any type fuel and heat-
ing system can be used for heating the tower, electric heating has many advan-
tages. Electric heating is particularly suited to individual elevated towers. The heat-
ing can be either combined with the cooling in through wall units or be individual
base-board units or unit heaters.

Care must be given in the design of the lighting to incorporate the adjustments
and flexibility required to provide the most ideal conditions possible to perform
the outside observance task at all times of the day and night, under various outside
lighting conditions.

Good general lighting must be provided, also spot or individual shielded lighting
for reading panels, consoles, switch lists, etc. Lighting fixture rheostats must be
installed on all general lighting to furnish the required contrast between inside and
outside natural lighting conditions.

Outside yard lighting must be designed and located in conjunction with the
tower design and location, so that it will not blind the tower occupant, but rather
augment his observation task.

Manual Recommendations

179

10.5 SPECIAL FEATURES

10.5.1 Tower Size

The tower should be minimal in size and tlie floor plan developed on the basis
of only the equipment to be installed in die tower, with minimal space around the
equipment for circulation and servicing the equipment. The location of equipment
is important in developing the maximum visibility factor of the tower. A nominal
10 ft X 12 ft size is adequate in most cases for a one-man tower.

10.5.2 Tower Glazing and Glass (See Figure 6)

Glazing should be located only on tlie faces of the tower where observation
will be required. This is usually on three tower walls, with the fourth wall used for
a door, toilet rooms, service panels, etc.

A study should be made with the personnel responsible for the operation to
determine the best orientation of die tower to permit die optimum required
obser\ation.

The lower glass line should be dictated by line of sight, but generally should
be as close to the floor as possible, allowing enough space for radiation, service out-
lets, conduits, etc. The upper glass line should be located approximately 5 ft 6 in
abo\'e the floor, or at the eye line for a man who is standing. As the points of obser-
\ation are all below eye level in the yard, any glass above this point is superfluous.
Elimination of glass above eye level reduces sun glare and sky brightness.

NSULATED
OI_ASS

XOWER FLOOR

l_IIME

VERTICAL GLASS SLOPED GLASS

TYPICAL TOWER GLASS DETAILS

Figure 6

180 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

It is extremely desirable to use double glazing for all windows to reduce heat
loss and elinunate the possibility of condensation and fogging of glass.

The use of heat-reducing and glare-reducing glass is not recommended as it
reduces night visibility, and this is the time when visibility is most critical. The
additional heat gain can be compensated for during tire day by providing more air
conditioning, but there is no way to compensate for the visibility loss.

Tower windows may be installed vertically or sloped. There are proponents
of both schools of thought who will vigorously defend their position. Some studies
have indicated that diere are no advantages in installing sloped windows, and that
there are, in fact, some disadvantages. Sloping windows put additional stress on the
glass and make it more susceptible to cracking. This is especially true of insulating
glass. Sloping glass also tends to increase distortion and reduce vision as the sight
line passes through a greater thickness and density of glass. Each individual will
have to develop his own set of facts and make his own decision of tiiis feature of
the design.

The use of vertical pivoted sash for towers is desirable as it permits washing
windows from inside, and may ehminate the need of an outside catwalk. If fixed
sash is used, a catwalk should be provided for washing windows.

The maximum standard-size sash should be used. Generally, the use of vertical
mullions is not a problem; however, care should be taken not to locate a mullion
in the center of a critical viewing area.

10.5.3 Tower Roof Overhang

Towers should be constructed with adequate roof overhang to reduce sun glare,
sky brightness, and heat transfer. It may be necessary under certain conditions to
install Venetian blinds or transparent colored sun screens.

10.5.4 Tower Relocation

Individual prefabricated yardmasters' towers have tlie added advantage of being
relocatable. They are usually constructed in two main sections. The structural steel
tower frame can be fabricated in one or more sections, and the tower cabin fabricated
in another section. The stairs are also fabricated in sections. When tlie need arises
to relocate a tower to a different location, the tower can be dismantled and relo-
cated to a new location.

Manual Recommendations
Committee 33 — Electrical Energy Utilization

Report on Assignment 1

Electrification Economics

R. J. Berti (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Brodski, W. S. Gordon, M. F.
Cowing, D. T. Jones, H. C. Kendall, K. L. Lawson, M. D. Meeker, A. G.
Raabe, R. p. Reiff, B. a. Ross, L. D. Tufts, K. B. Ullman.

Your committee submits for adoption the following Part 1 for new Chapter 33
of the Manual.

Part 1

Method of Making Electrification

Economic Studies

1.1 GENERAL

1.1.1 Objective

The prime objective of an electrification economic study is to determine if
electric operation of a particular railroad is more advantageous than operation widr
another form of power which may or may not be in actual use. This is written from
the commercial \ie\\'point of a privately operated railroad.

1.1.2 Basic Procedure

Each identifiable cost associated with the diff"erent types of power must be
quantified for economic comparison. Since most electrification studies will cover a
period between 20 and 50 years into the future, costs should be separated into two
basic categories: initial one-time expenses, and annual costs which are subject to
continuing inflation. Separate inflation rates should be specified for each annual
cost to properly compare types of power over a long period of time. Extra care
should be taken in determining inflation rates since they will be compounded over
the life of the study. Intangible costs and benefits or liabilities should be listed for
review at the end of the study, unless they are directly associated with a tangible
cost.

1.1.3 System Operation

Prior to any detailed analysis, the segment(s) of railroad to be studied nuist
be precisely defined as well as the basic parameters of operation. Train size, speed,
frequency, etc., should be made constant for all types of power studied to permit

181
Bui. 655

182 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

a valid initial comparison. The detailed study should include the economic effects
of changing the operating parameters to that most favorable to each type of power
being compared.

1.1.4 Electrical Distribution Systems

A cursory review of the various types of electrical distribution systems: tliird-
rail direct current, 12.5-kv alternating-current catenary, 50-kv alternating-current
catenary, etc., should be made to determine which system or combination of systems
is most applicable for the specific case under study. Detailed analyses can start after
this preliminary determination is made.

1.1.5 Data

A base year should be chosen from which all data can be projected. The data
for this base year must be as reliable as possible, thus considerable effort should be
spent to review all sources of information for their accuracy and completeness.

1.2 TRAFFIC

1.2.1 Gross Ton Miles

Freight Traffic — The most common unit for computing energy and maintenance
costs is the gross-ton-mile. The number of gross-ton-miles operated over the railroad
under study should be thoroughly reviewed to ascertain what percentage of the
total could be hauled electrically. Locals or trains that would travel only a short
distance over electrified territory may be moved more economically using non-
electric locomotives. Total annual gross-ton-miles can then serve as a base for com-
puting energy and maintenance cost for both electric and non-electric systems.

1.2.2 Passenger Trains

Due to the high acceleration and speed required of passenger trains, they are
frequently treated separately from the freight service. If they are present and being
dealt with independently, the gross-ton-miles generated by the passenger trains
should be subtracted from the total being hauled electrically. Since passenger trains
outside the northeast have only minimal impact on electrification studies, their
economics are not covered in this outline.

1.2.3 Train Size and Speed

For proper comparison of energy demands, the size and speed of typical trains
should be specified for operation electrically or with other forms of power. Initially,
this parameter should be the same for any type of power; however, as the study
becomes more detailed, it may become obvious tliat one type of power is more
economical using a different train size and speed. For evaluation purposes, any
changes in train size and speed should be a separate portion of the study.

1.2.4 Traffic Projection

The facts reviewed in the study for traffic projection are very critical. A large
growth rate when compounded over many years can saturate the existing track and
signal system creating a requirement for CTC or additional mainline track. Negative
growth rate can impact the study outcome by causing savings to diminish in the
future.

Manual Recommendations 183

1.2.5 Train Schedules

The average daily traffic must be specified by number of trains, size of trains,
and die timetable schedule of trains. The maximum daily traffic must be specified
in the same manner. The minimum acceptable train performance (train speed, size
and frequency) under emergency conditions (substation outage, excessive train
densit>', etc.) should be specified.

1.3 CAPITAL EQUIPMENT COSTS

1.3.1 Locomotives

Based on tlie traffic, terrain, train size and schedules, the electric locomotives'
weight, wheel configiuation, power and speed capabilities can be selected. This
selection should be carefully coordinated with the builders of electric locomotives
to insure the commercial a\ailability and a valid cost estimate. Locomotives with
prime movers other than standard diesel engines should likewise be selected with
care.

If the electrified system is to be compared to diesel locomoti\es it should be
detennined whether to use existing types of diesel-electrics or for comparison use
a new model not yet manufactured. As with electrics, the various manufacturers
should be consulted to insure reliable cost data.

Extreme care should be taken to insure that enough locomotives of each type
have been pro\ ided to cover peak traffic periods, allow downtime for scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance, and provide for possible future schedule changes which
would require more locomotives with the same traffic. Past experience has shown
the electric locomotive to have a higher availability and utilization than other types.
Computer generated speed-time-distance calculations can be of great assistance.
Energy and power-time-distance calculations made at the same time are invaluable
in computing electric power consumption and cost as well as diesel fuel consumption
and cost.

1.3.2 Locomotive Facilities

The existing mechanical facilities should l^e thoroughly reviewed to determine
what changes will be necessary to maintain electric locomotives. Some of the more
modem diesel facilities can be used for electric locomotive maintenance with virtu-
ally no changes, while old roundhouse operations may be totally unfit for any
maintenance work.

Main-line electrification may segment the remaining diesel service to such a
great extent that new diesel maintenance shops must be built to care for the diesels
running branch lines and locals. Maintenance facilities for both diesels and electrics
should be an important factor in determining the end points for an initial electrifica-
tion project.

High-voltage catenary is not to be recommended inside a maintenance shop
where the risk of employee injury is much greater due to the type of work being
done. If it becomes necessary to have high-voltage inside a shop, special warning
devices should be installed to alert all workers when the high-voltage is energized.
Locomotive cleaning and sanding facilities, which will be used by both diesels and
electrics, should be checked to insure safe operation with the electric locomotives
while the power is on.

184 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

1.3.3 Power Generating Facilities

Railroads still face some locations where it is more economical to build an elec-
tric generating station tlian it is to buy power from the local utility company.
Locations may exist where local power is unavailable. If railroad owned power
generation is to be considered, studies by specialized electric utility engineers will
be required to determine capital, operating and maintenance costs.

1.3.4 Power Distribution Systems

A study should be made to determine the electrical power demand of each
portion of the railroad to be electrified. The utility companies should be consulted
to locate transmission lines in the area suitable for use by the railroad. On a high-
voltage system, it is advisable to try and arrange for adjacent substations to be
served by different transmission lines in order to minimize the possibility of power
failure which would affect more than one substation. For substations located at
the end of an electrified system, consideration should be given to the installation of
two transformers connected to two diflierent transmission lines to minimize the pos-
sibility of power failure. Sizing of the transmission line will be based on maximum
present and future load. It is frequently more economical to put up heavier wire
or a few more insulators for a higher voltage transmission line during initial con-
struction than it is to retrofit after the load demand has increased. Single-phase
unbalance problems may be encountered and could require special substation
connections.

1.3.5 Substations

Substations are used to step the high transmission line voltage down to the
voltage used on the catenary or third rail. The alternating current is also converted
to direct current at a substation when required for third rail.

Equipment used in a substation should be capable of handling high overloads
for relatively short periods of time without failure. Substation transformers can be
sized to permit initial loads with no forced cooling; later, forced cooling can be
added to support the increased traffic at minimal cost. It is common practice to
assume that a substation will be called upon to supply half of an adjacent substa-
tion's load during an emergency. Railway substation transformers should be equipped
with extra bracing to prevent damage during a short circuit. Either manual and/or
remote control should be provided for each substation. Provisions should be made
to have a spare, mobile substation which will serve in an active capacity when not
being used as a replacement. For substations located at the end of an electrified
system, consideration should be given to the installation of two transformers connected
to two different transmission lines to minimize the possibility of power failure.

Phase breaks at or between substations should be equipped with manual or
remote controlled switch gear to permit isolating or energizing adjacent catenary
sections.

If remote control of substation and phase breaks is contemplated the cost of a
central control point and telemetry circuits cannot be overlooked.

1 .3.6 Power Transfer

Two primary methods are used to transfer electrical power to the railway vehicle,
third rail and overhead wire. The cost of third rail includes the special contact rail,
insulators, long ties or special brackets to mount on the short ties, third-rail covers,

Manual Recommendations 185

right-of-way fencing, miscellaneous hardware and installation labor costs. Ice and
heavy snow cause electrical troubles with third-rail systems in many parts of the
world.

Overhead wire comes in several different configurations with vehicle operating
speed being tlie determining factor. Simple trolley wire can be used for yards or
track where the speed of multiple unit consists will not exceed 30 mph. European
tests have shown that stitched trolley wire can sustain speeds of 60 mph with
multiple-unit consists. However, the current capacity of standard trolley wire may
limit trolley wire use to relatively low power situations. The simple sagged catenary
is generally sufficient for speeds up to 120 mph. Compound or stitched catenary is
usually recommended for operation of trains above 120 mph. Virtually all new
catenary construction is of the constant-tension design which has proven able to
minimize trouble. At certain locations where power demand is extremely heavy,
auxiliary parallel feeders hung from the supports may be more economical than
increasing the size of the catenary wire or adding more substations. Catenary con-
struction costs are generally more dependent on terrain than third-rail costs due to
the variation in support distance. Costs for overhead catenary should include wire,
insulators, supports, support foundations, tensioning devices, miscellaneous hardware,
and all the labor to install the system.

Construction of both diird-rail and overhead systems will disrupt railway traffic
and require special material trains. Expenses for special train crews, extra train
crews and items such as flagman protection, should be added to the cost of
construction.

1.3.7 Clearance Modification

Situations will arise with both third-rail and overhead system where the elec-
trical clearance requirements will necessitate the modification of nearby structures
such as platfomis, bridges and tunnels. Extremely high modification costs may
dictate a lower voltage or, in some cases, a short segment of electrically dead catenary
or third-rail.

1.3.8 Signal Modification

Because of electrical interference from the traction power system, electrifica-
tion is not compatible with most types of signals used in the United States. A detailed
analysis should be made by the signal department to determine the best type of
modification to make signals compatible with the particular form of electrification
being considered. Trackside signal lines must be shielded from alternating current
power systems. The cost to upgrade a signal system, such as installing cab signals,
should not be charged to electrification.

1.3.9 Communications

Most open-wire communications circuits near an alternating-current power
source must be either shielded or converted to microwave. Microwave is frequently
used for the long-distance circuits while shielded cable can be used for local dis-
tribution circuits. Modern thyristor locomotives have been known to generate various
forms of signals which radiate beyond the railway property line. Special shielding
of power circuits may be required in urban areas to prevent interference with public
communications systems.

186 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

1.4 ANNUAL OPERATING EXPENSES

1.4.1 General

The annual operating expenses are critical in any electrification study and
should be very carefully derived. The electrification of a railroad has the potential
to affect virtually every cost encountered in daily operations. The diff^erence in oper-
ating expenses bet\veen two or more propulsion systems is what creates a return
on investment and determines which system is the most economical when compared
to the initial capital costs.

1.4.2 Fuel and Energy

The cost of energy or fuel delivered to locomotives must be ascertained for each
system being studied. Fuel costs should include all transportation, pumping and
labor costs. Electric energy bills usually include a demand charge, energy charge,
fuel adjustment and possibly a rental on some fixed equipment. If the cost of fuel
and energy are changing at different rates, separate inflation factors should be de-
veloped for each. Attempts to increase the electrical load factor frequently result in
train rescheduling and a separate option in the final analysis of electrification.

1.4.3 Train Crew Wages

Train crews may be paid on a basis that will change after electrification. Fewer
locomotives with less weight on drivers could reduce the wages earned by the engine
crew. Higher acceleration and top speed could reduce overtime or possibly the
number of crews required to operate a particular section of railroad.

1.4.4 Locomotive Maintenance

The cost of maintaining locomotives using different sources of power is usually
one of the most important aspects of any electrification study and frequently requires
the most time and effort to determine precisely.

All costs associated with maintaining each type of locomotive should be care-
fully derived to insure that a true comparison is given. If possible each cost should
be broken down into labor and material for application of die appropriate inflation
factor. It is essential tliat all subdivisions of locomotive maintenance cost be included
in the total. Some of the more frequent subdivisions include: locomotive repairs,
superintendency, shop machinery, power plant machinery, locomotive servicing, main-
taining power plants, maintaining fueling facilities, maintaining maintenance shops,
insurance, unemployment insurance, hospital insurance, personal injuries, health and
welfare benefits, old age retirement, and supplemental annuities. Recently, it has
become a relatively common practice to capitalize the very heavy repairs or rebuild-
ing of locomotives; these costs should be taken into account. The total maintenance
cost is most easily used when apportioned on a gross ton mile basis.

However, greater accuracy can be achieved if the total cost can be divided
into portions which are predominantly a function of unit miles operated, horsepower-
hours generated, or chronological age.

The cost of maintaining diesel electric locomotives can be easily obtained from
existing records, while costs associated with maintaining a modem electrical loco-
motive are frequently difficult to obtain from experience in North America. Cost
projections by electrical locomotive builders can form the basis for the total cost,
but extensive research should be done to determine the cost being experienced by

Manual Recommendations 187

users of electric locomotives. Electrification studies frequendy refer to electric loco-
moti\e maintenance cost as a per cent of the diesel locomotive maintenance cost on
a gross ton mile basis.

1.4.5 Catenary Maintenance

While modern constant-tensioned simple catenary systems are much cheaper to
maintain than the old \-ariable-tensioned compound systems, a certain amount of
adjushnent, wire replacement and repair after derailments will be required. Catenary
maintenance costs are influenced by terrain, trackwork complexity, climate and rail
traffic. Existing electrified systems should be reviewed to evaluate tlie catenary main-
tenance requirements and costs prior to making projections for a new system.

Third-rail maintenance should be treated in the same manner as catenary
maintenance.

1.4.6 Substations and Transmission Line Maintenance

The cost of periodically inspecting transformer oil, switch gear operation, sub-
station facilities, supervisory control systems, and clearing trees from the vicinity
of transmission lines should be estimated. This is frequently done by taking a small
perc-entage of the initial installation cost as being the annual maintenance cost.

1.4.7 Signal and Communications Maintenance

Eliminating the open line wire on poles frequently associated with the existing
signal system usually means less maintenance of the system.

If cab signals or other signal improvements are separately justified, no effect
will be felt on tlie electrification economics. However, if electrification is the justi-
fication, such as installing CTC in order to reduce the miles of catenary, all savings
should be credited to electrification.

1.4.8 Taxes

The large expenses required for electrification should be thoroughly reviewed by
tax specialists to detennine the effects on taxes paid by the company. The increased
valuation frequently increases property taxes while the savings when translated to
increased income can cause greater income taxes.

The effect on taxes made by various investment tax credits, depreciation reserves,
and possibly existing unused tax credits should be tlioroughly reviewed.

1.5 FINANCING

Top financial officers for the railroad should be consulted to detenuine which
of tlie many financial aiTangements would be best suited to the particular system
being studied. Cash-flow studies of tlie construction period are frequently requested
by both railroad officials and in\estment bankers. Cash-flow projections for a period
of 30 or more years after the project is completed is a necessity for making retmn-on-
investment calculations.

1.6 MAINTENANCE OF WAY CHANGES

Installation of catenary or third rail will cause some changes in maintenance
of way techniques. Third-rail operation will require about 20% of the annual new
ties to be longer than standard. In addition to tlie increased material cost of the long
tie, labor to unfasten and re-attach the third-rail chair and insulator must be in-

188 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

eluded. Care must be exercised by tampers around impedance bonds, ground wires,
and third rails. The size of maintenance equipment is frequently restricted by a
third-rail system.

Cranes and wrecking derrick booms should be equipped with insulated panto-
graphs or shields when working under catenary to avoid a grounding contact with
the wire. Snow plows or spreaders operating with wings will be restricted by cate-
nary supports. All equipment should be grounded to provide a positive electrical
path for accidental contact with energized circuits.

1.7 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS AND LIABILITIES

During an electrification study, many items will appear which have little mone-
tary impact, but which ofl:er distinct benefits or liabilities for electric operation.
Electrification has a positive impact on line-of-road failures, pollution control, noise
and exhaust emissions, performance with overload capability, performance with
superior wheel-slip systems, and the option to use different types of fuel. The catenary
can be tapped at remote locations to provide power for signals, power switches,
switch heaters, lights, and wayside buildings.

Negative aspects of electrification involve additional work when clearing
wrecks, partial or total system shutdown for large power failures, safety problems
with the exposed electrical system, and possible under-utilization of locomotives.
Extra training will be required for those responsible for maintaining both electric
and diesel locomotives.

Manual Recommendations
Committee 13 — Environmental Engineering

Report on Assignment 4

Industrial Hygiene

R. S. Bryan, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Peters (vice chairman, subcom-
mittee), W. H. Melgren, T. a. Tennyson, R. Singer.

Your committee submits for adoption and publication in Part 4, Chapter 13 of
the Manual, tlie following new Section 4.7 Sanitation Requirements for Portable
Housing Units.

4.7 SANITATION REQUIREMENTS FOR PORTABLE HOUSING
UNITS

4.7.1 General

(a) The term "Portable Housing Unit" or "Portable Accommodation Unit"
covers all self-contained hving accommodations which can be readily lifted from
the deck of a flatcar or any other temporary foundation.

(b) Portable housing units should be inspected every six months under a
preventive maintenance schedule. This schedule should include the electrical system,
tlie water and sewage disposal systems, all appliances, heating systems, the general
condition of the unit as well as good housekeeping practices.

4.7.2 Utilization of Units

(a) Units are to be kept clean and tidy, floors are to be washed at regular
inter\'als, particularly around appliances. All washing facihties are to be kept in a
clean and sanitary condition and grating at shower stalls must be cleaned
periodically.

(b) Burning cigarettes ancd matches must not be placed or extinguished on
counter tops or linoleum floors, as damage wfll result. "USE ASH TRAYS."

(c) Under no circumstances must burning matches, cigarettes or ashes be
deposited in recirculating flush-type chemical toilets. These units are constructed
of ABS plastic material and will become easily damaged, causing inefficient opera-
tion of the unit

(d) Do not deposit paper towels, wet-strength tissue paper or other articles in
toilets. Use toilet tissue only. These units are equipped with a self-cleaning filter
and will become clogged if other types of paper are used.

(e) If toilets other than recirculating flush-type chemical toilets are used, fol-
low the instructions issued with the toilet unit.

(f) All refuse must be placed in covered receptacles provided.

(g) Each employee is responsible for maintaining his quarters in a clean and
tidy condition.

189

190 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

4.7.3 Sanitation

4.7.3.1 General

(a) It is imperative that the area around all housing units be kept clear of all
refuse and sewage. In no way is it permissible to drain sewage on the ground
between or adjacent to the tracks.

(b) Cleanliness and sanitary conditions must always be maintained around
toilet and wash facilities.

(c) The person in charge of tlie housing units should be responsible to ensure
that sanitary regulations are strictly adhered to.

(d) Local regulations must be met witli regard to dis^josal of all waste, garbage
and drainage of water and sewer lines.

4.7.3.2 Drinking Water

(a) Water for human consumption must be obtained from a source approved
by health authorities. Water obtained from a doubtful source, such as wells, lakes
and rivers must be chlorinated. A simple method of water purification is as follows:
Add 1 ounce of commercial bleach solution (5.25% sodium hypochlorite) to 5 U.S.
gallons of water or one 5-grain Halazone tablet to 4 U.S. gallons of water. If Hala-
zone tablets are used, allow one-half hour for purification period due to tablet dis-
solving slowly.

(b) Water Containers and Systems for Drinking Water and Culinary Purposes:
All containers used for this purpose shall be tightly covered and provided with a
tap outlet. They shall be sterilized once a week, or more often, if necessary by
filling the container and adding 1 ounce of commercial bleach for a 5-gallon con-
tainer; 10 ounces will sterilize a 50-gallon container. Closed water systems equipped
widi filters require flushing and sterilization annually; systems with no filters require
flushing and sterilization every three months or more often if contamination is
suspected. Individual disposable cups and dispensers shall be provided and used
for drinking water. Common drinking cups or dippers are prohibited.

4.7.3.3 Refrigerators

(a) Ice boxes should not be used unless essential, and when used shall be
emptied and washed out weekly with a sterilizing solution. Electric refrigerators
shall be emptied, defrosted and washed out once a month. (Use 1 teaspoonful of
chlorox to 1 ounce of detergent-bactericide in a IM-gallon pail of hot water.) An
open container of baking soda placed in refrigerators will assist in odor control and
should be replaced each montii. In case of a breakdown, it is essential perishable
foods be obtained on a day-to-day basis, particularly in warm weather.

4.7.3.4 Dishes and Utensils

(a) After each meal, all dishes, utensils and equipment shall be washed and
sterilized using 1 ounce of detergent-bactericide powder to 1 gallon of hot water
in a sink filled with hot water. Change water every 30 minutes. Cracked or chipped
dishes and damaged table utensils shall not be used and are to be replaced. Clean
dishes shall be stored in an enclosed cabinet above floor level.

4.7.3.5 Insect Control

(a) It is essential that all kitchen, dining, food storage and personal wash areas
be kept free of flies, cockroaches and other insects. All doors, windows, and roof
vents shall be properly screened and screen doors kept securely closed. A sufficient

Manual Recommendations 191

supply of insecticide and spray containers shall be kept on hand. Use of vapour
strips is not recommended.

4.7.3.6 Cleaning of Kitchen, Dining, Food Storage and Personal Wash Areas

(a) Floors are to be swept and washed each day. All table tops in food and
dining areas shall be covered with a smooth, seamless, impervious material and
shall be washed following each meal using 1 ounce of chlorox to 1 U.S. gallon of
hot water. Shelving and cupboards shall be maintained in a clean and orderly con-
dition at all times. The use of food and vegetables storage bins shall be eliminated.
Food preparation areas surrounding cook stoves are to be thoroughly cleaned and
kept free from food spills, grease accumulations, etc. Foods shall be removed from
tables following each meal and not replaced until 20 minutes before the next meal
serving time. Any food tJwt is unfit or of a suspicious nature is to be condemned
and replaced. The walls of all kitchen and dining areas shall be washed down a
minimum of every sLx months and more frequently if required, using /2 cup chlorox
to 1 U.S. gallon of hot water.

4.7.3.7 Personal Cleanliness

(a) Cooking and food-handling personnel shall wash their hands thoroughly
with hot water and soap before starting work and after each visit to the toilet.
Signs shall be posted to this effect. Cooks and all food-handling personnel shall wear
clean, white clothing and aprons and shall carry current medical cards.

4.7.3.8 Garbage and Waste Disposal

(a) Polyethylene or plastic bags shall be supplied and used as garbage pail
liners and shall be disposed of in accordance with local regulations, or by burying
in a covered garbage pit where permitted. A garbage pit shall be prepared (where
permitted) and located not less than 100 ft from the kitchen car. When the gang
moves, covers will be removed and pits filled completely with earth. All liquid
waste water shall be removed by approved drainage hoses or pipes to municipal
sewers, where available, or to prepared sump pits, covered, located not less than
50 ft from any gang car or unit. When this method is used, sump pits are to be
completely filled and covered with earth when the gang moves.

4.7.3.9 Toilets

(a) Recirculating Toilets in portable accommodation units and other equip-
ment shall be given a thorough cleaning and recharging every 5 to 8 days, or when
liquid appears in the bottom of tlie bowl. To empty the recirculating toilet: (1)
ensure drainage piping to sewer or sump pit is properly attached to exterior toilet
drains; (2) open the valve after removing the front skirt; (3) allow waste to
thoroughly drain tiirough drainage hose or pipe to sewer, sump pit, or tank truck;
(4) open and close valve as required to rinse thoroughly and flush system several
times using clean water; (5) close valve and replace skirt; (6) pour three meas-
ured gallons of water into toilet bowl, press flush button and add deodorant-bac-
tericide, in accordance with manufacturers instructions, into bowl while it is flushing.
Once recharged, it will operate effectively for approximately 80 usages over a
5- to 8-day period. Care is to be exercised to ensure that overfilling in the recharge
routine above does not occur, causing damage and malfunction of the toilet.
Whether pit privies or sump pits for recirculating toilets are used, extreme caution
is to be exercised to ensure that pollution of any water course or well does not
occur.

192 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(b) If other type toilets are used, they must be in compliance with local health
and sanitary regulations.

4.7.3.10 Bunk Cars and Accommodation Units

(a) All areas shall be kept in a neat and tidy condition at all times. The floors
shall be swept and washed a minimum of once per week or more frequently if
required. All windows shall be screened. All units and bedding shall be aired regu-
larly, preferably once per week. Outside work clothing should not be kept or hung
in sleeping areas, but should be kept in areas provided for this purpose. In portable
accommodation units, tlie summer circulating fan system is to be used at all times
in warm weather. The hanging of washing in rooms or sleeping areas is prohibited.
All washing is to be hung only in areas provided for this purpose. All windows
shall be thoroughly washed inside and out a minimmn of twice yearly.

4.7.4 Shut-Down of Units

(a) If units are to be shut-down for any lengthy period, the following steps
should be taken:

1. Drain all toilets and flush thoroughly.

2. Drain all water systems in all type units.

3. Open all faucets at sinks and showers.

Manual Recommendations
Special Committee on Concrete Ties

J. R. Williams (chairman, committee), R. J. Brueske, K. C. Euscorn, W. E. Fuhr,
C. L. Gattox, M. B. Hansen', D. L. JER^LAN•, T. C. Netherton, E. L. Robin-
son, G. H. Way, J. W. Weber.

Your committee submits for adoption and publication as Part 10 of Chapter 3
of the Manual the following perfomiance specifications for concrete ties and fasten-
ings. These specifications are a revised version of the preliminary specifications
published in Bulletin 644, September-October 1973. The corrections to the prelimi-
nary specifications published in Bulletin 650, November-December 1974, have been
incorporated therein.

Part 10
Concrete Ties (and Fastening's)

CONTENTS

Section Page

Foreword 195

10.1 General Considerations 196

10.1.1 Introduction 196

10.1.2 Vertical Loads 197

10.1.3 Lateral Loads 200

10.1.4 Longitudinal Loads 200

10.1.5 Rail 200

10.2 Material 201

10.2.1 General 201

10.2.2 Concrete 202

10.2.3 Metal Reinforcement 202

10.2.4 Tie Pads 205

10.2.5 Insulation 205

10.2.6 Fastenings 205

10.3 Tie Dimensions, Configuration and Weight 206

10.3.1 Special Considerations 206

10.3.2 Requirements 206

10.4 Fle.xural Strength of Prestressed Monoblock Ties 208

10.4.1 Flexural Performance Requirements for Prestressed Monoblock
Designs 208

10.4.2 Design Considerations 208

10.4.3 Test Requirements for Approving the Design of a Monoblock

Tie 209

193

194 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.5 Flcxural Strength of Two-Block Ties 210

10.5.1 Design Flcwural Requirements for Two-Block Ties 210

10.5.2 Test Requirements for Approving the Design of a Two-Block
Tie 211

10.6 Longitudinal Rail Restraint 211

10.6.1 Requirements 211

10.7 Lateral Rail Restraint 212

10.7.1 Rail Fastening Requirements 212

10.8 Electrical Properties 212

10.8.1 Requirements 212

10.9 Testing of Monoblock Ties 212

10.9.1 Design Tests of Monoblock Ties 212

10.9.2 Production Quality Control of Monoblock Ties 217

10.10 Testing of Two-Block Ties 218

10.10.1 Design Tests of Two-Block Ties 218

10.10.2 Production Quality Control of Two-Block Ties 220

10.11 Recommended Practices for Shipping, Handling, Application and Use.. 221

10.11.1 Shipping 221

10.11.2 Handling 222

10.11.3 Placement and Initial Roadbed Support 222

10.11.4 Placement of Rail and Fastenings in New Construction 222

10.11.5 Tamping 223

10.11.6 Track Geometry 223

10.12 Ballast 223

10.12.1 General Characteristics 223

10.12.2 Quality Requirements 223

10.12.3 Grading Requirements 223

10.12.4 Handling 223

10.12.5 Inspection 223

10.12.6 Testing 224

10.13 Commentary 224

10.13.1 Flexural Strength of Monoblock Ties 224

10.13.2 Fle.xural Strength of Two-Block Ties 225

10.13.3 Longitudinal Rail Restraint 226

10.13.4 Lateral Rail Restraint 227

10.13.5 Electrical Properties 228

Manual Recommendations 195

FOREWORD

This specification is intended to provide necessary guidance in the design, manu-
facture and use of concrete ties and their components for main Hue standard gage
railway track systems. The specification contains minimum performance requirements
of components for concrete tie railway track based on a variety of permissible tie
spacings and ballast depths. Track constructed of tie and fastener components meeting
the specifications applicable to the anticipated usage should be expected to give
satisfactory performance under current AAR-approved maximum axle loads.

The specification covers materials, physical dimensions, and structural strength
of prestressed monoblock and prestressed and conventionally reinforced two-block
concrete ties. In addition, longitudinal and lateral load restraint requirements as
well as the electrical performance requirements of rail fastener and tie combinations
are given. Laboratory tests for tlie determination of the suitability of new designs
are specified, as are necessary quality-control procedures during manufacture. The
specification does not cover techniques nor equipment for the manufacture of
concrete ties or fastenings.

Where current specifications or recommended practices of other technical
societies, such as the American Society for Testing and Materials or the American
Concrete Institute, are appropriate, they are made part of this specification by
reference.

The following definitions are applicable to this specification:

1. Cross Tie — A transverse component of a track system whose functions
are the control of track gage and the transmitting of rail loads to ballast.

2. Fastening — A component or group of components of a track system
which affixes the rail to the cross ties.

3. Flexure Strength — Resistance to bending.

4. Insert — A device for securing an assembly and/or the rail to the tie. It
may be cast in the tie at the time of manufacture or placed in a cored,
cast or drilled hole in the tie.

5. Lateral Load — A load, or vector component of a load, at the gage
corner of the rail parallel to the longitudinal axis of tlie tie, and perpen-
dicular to tlie rail.

6. Longitudinal Load — A load along the longitudinal axis of a rail.

7. Negative Bending — Bending of a concrete tie by application of load
that produces tension in the top surface of the tie.

8. Positive Bending — Bending of a concrete tie by application of a load
that produces tension in the bottom surface of the tie.

9. Prestressing Tendon — A strand, wire or bar, within a concrete member,
which under tension, precompresses the concrete.

10. Prestressed Tie — A tie utilizing precompressed concrete and prestressing
tendons to resist flexure. Under design loads the tensile strength of the
concrete in the tension faces of the tie is not exceeded.

11. Prestressed-Reinforced Tie — A reinforced concrete tie which, in addi-
tion to longitudinal reinforcing steel, uses prestressing tendons to resist
bending but in which tension exceeding the tensile strength of the con-
crete may occur in the precompressed concrete under design loads. If
cracks do occur, the resulting crack widths do not exceed specified values.

196 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

12. Pretensioned Concrete Tie — A prestressed concrete tie using pretension
tendons to precompress concrete.

13. PosTTENSiONED CONCRETE TiE — A prestressed concrete tie using post-
tension tendons to precompress concrete.

14. PosTTENsiONED Tendon — A reinforcing member which adds structural
strength to a prestressed concrete tie by placing it in compression. This
member is tensioned after the setting of concrete.

15. Pretension Tendon (strand or wire) — A reinforcing member which adds
structural strength to a prestressed concrete tie by placing it in compres-
sion. This member is tensioned prior to tlie placement of concrete.

16. Rail Seat — The area of the canted plane of a tie on which rail rests
that lies within the confines of the rail base.

17. Reinforced Concrete Tie — A tie reinforced with deformed steel bars,
welded wire fabric, deformed wire, or bar or rod mats and using non-
precompressed concrete. Under design loads the tensile strength of the
concrete in tlie tension faces of the tie is exceeded; however, tlie resulting
crack widths do not exceed specified values.

18. Reinforcement or Reinforcing Steel — Steel, excluding prestressing
tendons, introduced within a concrete tie to improve its structural
strength.

19. Structural Crack — A crack originating in the tensile face of the tie,
extending to the outermost level of reinforcement or prestressing tendons
and which increases in size under application of increasing load.

20. Vertical Load — A load or vector component of a load, at right angles
to a line joining the two rail seats of the tie and normal to the longitudi-
nal axis of the rail.

10.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
lO.I.l INTRODUCTION

In supporting and guiding railway vehicles, the track structure must restrain
repeated lateral, vertical and longitudinal forces. As elements of the track structure,
individual cross ties receive loads from the rails or fastenings and in turn transmit
loads to the ballast and subgrade. Consequently, the design of a tie affects and is
affected by characteristics of other components of the track structure. The use of
concrete railway ties introduces different considerations into the design and installa-
tion of track systems. When such systems are properly designed and the component
parts properly interrelated, installed and maintained, concrete railway tie systems
can provide track of superior quaHty.

The analysis of requirements for such systems must necessarily involve not only
the tie but all components of the track system, their interdependency and the condi-
tions under which they must be applied. Thus, concrete tie track systems involve:

• The rail, tie, fastenings, ballast, subgrade and base,

• The quality of each component, method of manufacture, installation and
maintenance,

• The direction, magnitude and frequency of traffic-imposed loads; the effect
of environmental factors such as temperature and weather and the overall
economics of installation and maintenance, and

Manual Recommendations 197

• The need to support train weights and guide railway vehicles while restrain-
ing repeated lateral, vertical and longitudinal forces.

The performance specifications which follow provide the basic guidance needed
in the selection, design and application of concrete railroad tie systems. Success in
their application will require careful supervision on the part of the engineer to
ensure that all components meet required standards and that the system is properly
installed and maintained.

10.1.2 VERTICAL LOADS

10.1.2.1 Tie Spacing

The spacing affects rail Hexure stress, compressive stress on ballast and roadbed
and the Hexure stress generated in the ties themselves. For a given set of tie dimen-
sions and wheel loads, the consequences of increasing tie spacing are higher rail
bending moments and stresses within the individual ties. For the case of constant
tie, ballast and subgrade characteristics, wider tie spacings bring about larger
track depression per unit of wheel load, i.e., lowered track modulus. Conversely,
reduction of tie spacing lowers unit stress and increases track modulus.

These specifications cover concrete ties intended for track designs using center-
to-center spacings of cross ties of between 20 and 30 inches.

10.1.2.2 Cross Tie Dimensions

Use of longer, wider, or stiffer ties which increase the tie-to-ballast bearing
area has many of the same effects as reducing tie spacing. There are, however,
limits beyond which an increase in tie size is ineffectual in reducing track stress
and increasing track modulus. The concentration of tie-to-ballast load decreases
with lateral distance from the rail. The rate of decrease of load with distance is
higher for flexible tie materials and designs. There is, therefore, a point beyond
which lengthening tie design will fail to significantly reduce unit liearing load. There
are, in addition, required right-of-way clearances and machinery limitations which
restrict tie length.

Widening tie design has similar benefits to increases in tie length. Widening
tie design, however, beyond the point where it is practical to compact ballast be-
neath the tie is ineffective.

These specifications cover tie designs between 7 ft 5 inches and 9 ft 0 inches
in length and between 8 inches and 13 inches in width at their bottom surface.

10.1.2.3 Load Distribution

The foregoing discussion and the requirements following presume that wheel
loads applied to the rail will be distributed by the rail to several ties. This distri-
bution of loads has been confirmed in field investigations. The distribution of load
is dependent upon tie and axle spacing, ballast and subgrade reaction, and rail
rigidity. The percentage of wheel-to-rail load carried by an individual tie varies
from location to location. A conservative estimate of the distribution is given in
Figure 10.1.2.3.1. While rail stiffness does influence these percentages, its effect
is small compared to other factors. For the sake of simplification, the distribution
factors are shown only as a function of tie spacing. The values chosen are intended
to offset variations resulting from other influences.

10.1.2.4 Impact Factors

The requirements of these specifications are based on calculations including

198 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 10.1.2.3.1 — Approximate percent of axle load carried by individual tie.

22.5 25

CENTER TO CENTER TIE SPACING IN INCHES
(1) Sased on an increase of 10% due to greater mass and stiffness of concrete ties.

Manual Recommendations 199

an assimied impact factor. This factor is a percentage increase over static vertical
loads intended to estimate the dynamic effect of wheel and rail irregularities. An
impact factor of 150 percent has been assumed.

10.1.2.5 Ballast and Subgrade

In addition to tie size and spacing, ballast depth and subgrade modulus are also
significant in the manner a particular track design restrains vertical loading. Increas-
ing ballast depth tends to spread individual tie loads over a wider area of subgrade,
thereby reducing the unit subgrade load and consequent track depression. Thus the
effect of increased ballast depth can be similar, within limits, to that of reduced tie
spacing. Stiffer subgrades do not require as low a ballast pressure as more flexible
subgrades. Consequently, they are better able to tolerate wider tie spacings, smaller
ties, more shallow ballast depths, or all three without failure or excessive track
depression.

10.1.2.5.1 Ballast and Ballast Pressure

The engineer must insure that the design of track does not result in over-stress
of ballast or subgrade. To do so, consideration must be given to wheel loads, dis-
tribution factor, impact factor, unit bearing capacities of the ballast and subgrade,
and to cross tie dimensions and spacing.

10.1.2.5.1.1 Ballast Pressure

While tie-to-ballast pressure is not uniformly distributed across or along the
bottom of a cross tie, an approximate calculation can be made of "average" pressure
at the bottom of the tie. The maximum ballast pressure has been found to occur
several inches below this interface. Consequently, the calculated value of average
ballast pressure at the bottom of the tie understates the maximum ballast pressure.
The average pressure at the tie bottom is equal to axle load, modified by distribution
and impact factors, and di\ided by the bearing area of the tie:

-[^ + ^](-f^)*

Average Ballast Pressure (psi) = -7

where: P ^= wheel load in pounds.

IF = Impact factor in percent.

DF = distribution factor in percent (from Figiu-e 10.1.2.3.1).

A ^= bearing area of cross ties in square inches.

The recoimnended ballast pressiue shovdd not exceed 85 psi for high-quality,
abrasion-resistant ballast. If lower quahty ballast materials are used, the ballast
pressure should be reduced accordingly.

10.1.2.5.1.2 Subgrade Pressure

The pressure exerted by ballast on the subgrade depends upon the tie-to-ballast

° For example: Given 8 ft 6 inches long by 12 inches wide concrete ties, what is the calcu-
lated value of bearing pressure for a locomotive with .30,000-lb wheel load if the ties are to be
spaced at 28 inches?

IF

l_ ' 100
Average Ballast Pressure ( psi ) = 2P

■]{-^)

A

_ 60,000 (2.5) (.57)
~ 102 X 12

= 69.9 psi

200 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

pressure, the load distribution pattern through the ballast, and the depth of ballast.
Refer to Section 10.12.

10.1.3 LATERAL LOADS

The lateral loads generated by moving railway equipment are applied by wheel
treads and flanges to the rails, which in turn must be held in place by fastenings,
ties and ballast.

Lateral stiff^ness of rail distributes lateral loads to fasteners and their ties.
Structural strength of fastenings and ties hold the rail to gage. The mass of ties,
friction between the ties and ballast, lateral bearing area of ties (end surface), and
the mass of ballast all act to restrain lateral tie movement.

Lateral track stability can, therefore, be increased by decreasing tie spacing
of ties of similar dimensions, increasing tie mass, increasing end bearing area of ties
per unit length of track, and by increasing frictional resistance between ties and
ballast. Structural strength of fastenings must be commensurate with the lateral load
individual ties restrain, which in turn is determined by lateral rail stiffness and tie
spacing.

The magnitude of lateral loads which must be restrained depends not only
upon the dimensions, configuration, weight, speed and tracking characteristics of
the equipment, but also upon the geometric characteristics of the track structure.
Both the gross geometry — whether the track is straight, curved or how sharply
curved — ^and the detail geometry — the irregularities and small deviations from de-
sign— influence the magnitude of lateral load.

These specifications cover fasteners capable of restraining individual lateral
wheel-to-rail loads of up to 14,000 pounds per linear foot of track when these lateral
loads are accompanied by vertical loads of a similar magnitude.

10.1.4 LONGITUDINAL LOADS

The longitudinal load developed by the combination of thermal stress in
continuous welded rail and by traffic is transferred by the fastenings to the ties and
ultimately restrained by mass internal friction of ballast. Consequently, the longi-
tudinal bearing area (side area) of ties per unit of track length, friction between
bottom of ties and ballast, and physical properties of ballast ultimately determine
the track resistance to longitudinal movement. Resistance to rail movement with
respect to ties is determined by the characteristics of fasteners. While total restraint
of longitudinal rail movement is generally desirable, there are situations where such
restraint is impractical or undesirable. In conventional track construction, the limiting
factor in longitudinal restraint is most often ballast resistance. These specifications,
therefore, apply to track designs incorporating a minimum of 210 square inches of
side of tie area per linear foot of track and to fasteners for use on such track, ofiFering
1480 lb resistance to longitudinal rail movement per linear foot of rail.

10.1.5 RAIL

10.1.5.1 Flexure Requirement

The interaction of rail and ties has been discussed in Articles 10.1.3 and 10.1.4
with respect to distribution factors, tie spacing, and vertical loads. The flexure stress
generated in rail under load is a function of applied bending moment and the section
modulus of rail. Rail bending moment is in turn determined by wheel load, axle
spacing, and track modulus. Most modern rail sections are capable of bearing current

Manual Recommendations 201

wheel loads on tie spacings of up to 30 inches with normal ballast support without
distress. It is recommended that the engineer calculate the maximum bending stress
for rail sections lighter than 100 lb/yd if their use is anticipated. The following
equation may be used for this purpose:

_ Mc^ _ ?c 4/~E^"
^ - J / t 64a<

Where: S =: maximum fiber stress in rail (psi).

c = distance from neutral axis to outer edge of base or head (inches).

/ = moment of inertia of rail section ( inches* ) .

E = modulus of elasticity of steel (psi).

At = track modulus (pounds/inch/inch).

P = wheel load (pounds).

M

I El
= P a/ ~^ — = bending moment ( inch-pounds ]

10.1.5.2 RaU Joints

(a) To achieve the maximum benefits and economy from the use of concrete
raihoad ties it is recommended that, in main-line track, they be used in conjunction
with continuous welded rail. If concrete ties are used in conventional bolted track
or at the ends of continuous welded rail, care should be exercised to see that the
juncture of two rails does not occur over a concrete tie. The magnitude of impacts
on a tie placed under the juncture of two rails could be destructive to the rail seat
and fastenings in high-speed track.

(b) It is recommended that concrete ties not be installed within the limits
of insulated joints or witliin the limits of special timber dimensions of turnouts and
crossovers.

10.1.5.3 Effect of Mass on Track Stability

(Under development)

10.2 MATERIAL

10.2.1 GENERAL

Because it is impractical at this time to provide a performance test to assure
the durability of concrete ties and their accessories, it is necessary to include specifi-
cations for the materials used in their manufacture. Deviation from the material
specifications may only be made with the prior approval of the engineer.

"Tor example: Given track modulus of 3,000 Ib/inch/inch and 90-lb RA-A rail with
I = 38 7 inches* and c = 2.54 inches, what tensile stress is developed under a 30,000-lb wheel
load?

-w-

EI

64/i

= 30.000 (2.54) y ^30) (10)« (38.7)

-gg^ y 64 (3,000)

1968

9 { /l/ 6046.8 j = 17,362 psi

"'First Progress Report of the Special Committee on Stresses in Track, Vol. 19 AREA
proceedings, p. 887.

202 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.2.2 CONCRETE

The minimum 28-clay-clesign compressive strength of concrete used for concrete
ties shall be 7000 psi as deteniiined by ASTM Method of Test C 39. The test cylin-
ders shall be made and stored as specified in ASTM Specification C 31."*

10.2.2.1 Cement

Cement shall be portland cement and shall meet the requirements of ASTM
Specification C 150. Air-entraining cement, if used, shall also meet the requirements
of ASTM C 150.

10.2.2.2 Aggregates

Both fine and coarse aggregates shall meet the requirements of the AREA
Specifications for Aggregates, Part 1, Section C, Chapter 8 of the AREA Manual.

10.2.2.3 Mixing Water

Mixing water shall meet the requirements of the AREA Specifications for Mixing
Water, Part 1, Section D, Chapter 8 of the AREA Manual. In addition, the mixing
water, including tliat portion of the mixing water contributed in the form of free
moisture on the aggregates, shall not contain deleterious amounts of chloride ion."*

10.2.2.4 Admixtures

Additives containing chlorides shall not be used.

10.2.2.5 Curing

It is recommended that the concrete be cured by a method or procedure such
as set forth in Part 1, Section P, Chapter 8 of tlie AREA Manual.

10.2.3 METAL REINFORCEMENT

10.2.3.1

Wire and strands for tendons in prestressed concrete shall conform to "Specifi-
cations for Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand and Wire for Prestressed
Concrete" (ASTM A 421). Strands or wire not specifically itemized in ASTM A 416 or
A 421, including stiands with constructions other than those listed in A 416, may be
used provided they conform to at least the minimum requirements of these ASTM
specifications and have no properties which make them less satisfactory than those
listed in ASTM A 416 or A 421.

10.2.3.2

High-strength alloy steel bars for posttensioning tendons shall be proof-
stressed during manufacture to 85 percent of the minimum guaranteed tensile
strength. After proof stressing, bars shall be subjected to a stress-relieving heat
treatment to produce the prescribed physical properties. After processing, the
physical properties of the bars when tested on full sections, shall conform to the

d' If the results of performance tests demonstrate satisfactorily to the user that the resistance
to abrasion and weathering of the concrete is adequate in the railway track environment, the pro-
visions of this requirement may be waived.

<2> A chloride ion content greater than 400 ppm might be considered detrimental, and it
is recommended that levels well below this value be maintained if practicable.

Chloride ions contained in the aggregate and in admixtures should be considered in evaluating
the acceptability of total chloride ion content of the mixing water. (From the commentary to
ACI 318-71).

Manual Recommendations 203

following minimum properties: Yield strength (0.2 percent offset): 0.85 f's where
f's is the ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. Elongation at rupture in 20
diameters: 4 percent. Reduction of area at rupture: 20 percent.

10.2.3.3

Reinforcing jjars shall conform to one of the following specifications, except
that yield strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-size bars;
and for reinforcing bars with a specified yield strength of the reinforcing steel, fy,
exceeding 60,000 psi, /,, shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent:

(a) "Specifications for Deformed Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforce-
ment" (ASTM A 615).

(b) "Specifications for Rail-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforce-
ment" (ASTM A 616). If bars meeting these specifications are to be
bent, they shall also meet the bending requirements of ASTM A 615 for
Grade 60.

(c) "Specifications for Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforce-
ment" (ASTM A 617).

10.2.3.4

Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform only to the strength require-
ments and minimum elongation of the appropriate specification prescribed in Art.
10.2.3.3.

10.2.3.5

Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the drawings and the welding
procedure to be used shall be specified. The ASTM specification shall be supple-
mented by requirements assuring satisfactory weldability by this procedure in
conformity with "Recommended Practices for Welding Reinforcing Steel, Metal
Inserts, and Connections in Reinforced Concrete Construction" (AWS D 12.1).
The supplementary specification requirements shall be designated in the order, and
conformance with these requirements shall be confirmed by the supplier at the time
of delivery.

10.2.3.6

Bar and rod mats for concrete reinforcement shall be the clipped type con-
forming to "Specifications for Fabricated Steel Bar or Rod Mats for Concrete Rein-
forcement" (ASTM A 184).

10.2.3.7

Plain wire for spiral reinforcement shall conform to "Specifications for Cold-
Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 82), except that fy shall
be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield strength specified
in the design exceeds 60,000 psi.

10.2.3.8

Welded plain wire fabric for concrete reinforcement shall conform to "Specifi-
cations for Welded Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 185),
and to the stipulation of Art. 10.2.3.7 regarding measurement of fy, except that
welded intersections shall be spaced not farther apart than 12 inches in the direction
of the principal reinforcement.

204 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.2.3.9

Deformed wire for concrete reinforcement shall conform to "Specifications for
Deformed Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement" (ASTM A 496), except that
wire shall not be smaller than size D-4"* and that fy shall be the stress corresponding
to a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield strength specified in the design exceeds
60,000 psi.

10.2.3.10

Welded deformed wire fabric for concrete reinforcement shall conform to
"Specifications for Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement"
(ASTM A 947) and to the stipulation of Art. 10.2.3.9 regarding measurement of fy,
except that welded intersections shall be spaced not farther apart than 16 inches in
the direction of the principal reinforcement.

10.2.3.11

Steel pipe or tubing for composite members shall conform to one of the
following:

(a) Grade B, ASTM A 53.

(b) ASTM A 500.

(c) ASTM A 501.

(d) Grade specified by the manufacturer and supported by design and test
data subject to the approval of the engineer.

10.2.3.12

Structural steel used in conjunction with reinforcing for composite members
shall conform to one of the following:

(a) ASTM A 36.

(b) ASTM A 242.

(c) ASTM A 440.

(d) ASTM A 441.

(e) ASTM A 588.

(f) Grade specified by manufacturer and supported by design and test data
subject to the approval of the engineer.

10.2.3.13 Reinforcement Placement and Spacing

The placement and spacing of reinforcement, prestressing steel and prestressing 1
ducts shall be in accordance with all applicable requirements of the AREA Manual,
Chapter 8, Part 1, Section H — Metal Reinforcement Placing, as revised in 1970
except that tolerances for placing shall meet the requirements of Art. 10.3.2.12. 1

10.2.3.13a Supports ■

Reinforcement, prestressing steel, and ducts shall be accurately placed and
adequately supported before concrete is placed and shall be secured against dis-
placement within permitted tolerances. Welding of crossing bars shall not be
permitted for assembly of reinforcement unless authorized by the engineer.

<3* Deformed wire is denoted by the letter "D", followed by a number indicating the wire's
cross sectional area in himdredths of a square inch. Thus, the minimum size deformed wire
permitted in this specification must have a cross sectional area of 0.04 square inches.

Manual Recommendations 205

10.2.4 TIE PADS

Abrasion-resistant pads or abrasion-, vibration- and impact-reducing pads shall
be used between the rail and concrete ties on all main-line or other heavy-traffic
tracks to minimize the possibility of abrasive action in the rail bearing area of the
ties. It is recommended tliat such pads also be used on other trackage.

10.2.4.1 Polyethylene Bearing Pads

Polyethylene bearing pads, if used, shall be black high-density plastic, 60 to 65
D-Durometer, meeting current ASTM Specification D 1248, Type III, Grade 3.
Hardness shall be stable between -f 140 F and — 40 F.

10.2.4.2 Elastomeric Bearing Pads

Elastomeric bearing pads, if used, shall be of weather- and petroleum-resistant
materials. Values for the following ASTM Test Method Specifications are under
study:

(a) ASTM Test Method D 573 for aging in air.

(b) ASTM Test Method D 395, Method B, for compression set.

(c) ASTM Test Method D 518, Procedure A and D 518-61, for resistance
to the atmospheric ozone.

(d) ASTM Test Method D 471 for resistance to water.

(e) ASTM Test Method D 471 for resistance to oil.

The hardness of such pads shall be between 60 and 80 A-Durometer as specified
by the purchaser. A tolerance of ± 5 shall be permitted from that specified. Pads
using ridges, grooves or other patterns are permissil^le, providing that such patterns
do not reduce the protection offered by the pad.

10.2.4.3 Other Types of Bearing Pads

Bearing pads may also be made of nylon, laminated fiber, wood or other
abrasion-resistant material. Such pads shall be used only with the approval of the
engineer and shall meet specifications provided by the engineer.

10.2.5 INSULATION

Insulation shall be used where necessary to prevent interference with signal
systems and deterioration of die fastening system through electrical leakage.

10.2.5.1 Nylon Insulators

Nylon insulators, if used, shall meet the requirements of the current ASTM
Specification D 789, Type 1, Grade 2, Specification for Nylon Injection Molding
and Extrusion Materials.

10.2.5.2 Other Insulating Materials

Other insulating materials such as epoxy coatings and fiberglass may be used
if desired as long as they provide sufficient protection against electrical leakage and
meet the approval of the engineer. (See Art. 10.9.1.14).

10.2.6 FASTENINGS

All fastening components, including hardware cast into the tie, shall be suitably
resistant to corrosion and able to withstand repeated loads within the railway track
environment without fatigue failure or excessive maintenance requirements. Use of
metals of widely divergent electrical potential in contact or close pro.ximity to one
another is not recommended.

206 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.2.6.1 Cap Screws and Rail Clips

Cap screws used with rail clips shall be a minimum of % inch in diameter and
of sufficient length to provide a minimum engagement of 1 inch but not to exceed
1/2 inches. They shall have a minimum proof load of 28,400 lb.

10.3 TIE DIMENSIONS, CONFIGURATION AND WEIGHT

10.3.1 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

10.3.1.1 Track Machinery Limitations

In addition to those considerations covered in Section 10.1 General Considera-
tions, the following maximum dimensions will permit tamping with many present-day
ballast tamping machines and will allow other related work to be handled in a
mechanized manner:

(a) Tie width z= 13 inches

(b) Tie depth == 10 inches

(c) Tie length = 9 ft 6 inches

10.3.1.2 Weight

For ease of handling it is recommended tliat the weight of tie not exceed
approximately 800 lb.

10.3.2 REQUIREMENTS

10.3.2.1 Length

The overall nominal length of concrete ties shall not be less than 7 ft 5 inches
nor more than 9 ft 6 inches. A tolerance of plus Jz inch or minus /a inch from
nominal length is permitted.

10.3.2.2 Width

The minimum width of ballast bearing area of tie shall not be less than 8 inches.
Width of tie at top surface from rail seat area to end of tie shall not be less than
6 inches. The maximum width must not exceed 13 inches. Tolerance of ± Ys inch
from nominal width is permitted.

10.3.2.3 Minimum Depth

The minimum design depth of any section of tie shall not be less than 6 inches.
A manufacturing tolerance of -f }i inch and — Ys inch is permitted from design
depth.

10.3.2.4 Maximum Depth

Maximum design depth of any section of the tie shall not be more than 10
inches. A manufacturing tolerance of -f }i and — }a inch is permitted from design
depth.

10.3.2.5 Track Gage

The concrete tie/rail fastening system shall hold track gage to ± 1/16 incli
from that specified, exclusive of mill tolerance in rail. Ties shall normally be manu-
factured for 4 ft 8/2 inches track gage. If track gage other than 4 ft 8/2 inches is
desired, it shall be so specified by the engineer. The center line of the tie shall be
within /4 inch of tlie center line of track gage.

Manual Recommendations 207

10.3.2.6 Rail Cant

The rail seat shall provide for a cant of 1 in 40 ± 2 toward center line of tie
unless otherwise specified.

10.3.2.7 Rail Seat Plane

The rail seat shall be a flat smooth surface, ± 1/32 inch.

10.3.2.8 Differential Tilt of Rail Seats

A differential tilt in the direction of the rail of one rail seat to the other shall
(on a width of 6 inches) not exceed 1/16 inch.

10.3.2.9 Protrusion of Pretensioning Tendons

Strands of wires shall not project more than 1 inch beyond the ends of the ties.

10.3.2.10 End of Posttensioning Tendons

To protect against corrosion, the ends of posttensioning tendons shall not
protrude beyond the ends of the ties and shall be covered to the extent specified
in Art. 10.3.2.11 with concrete, epoxy grout or other material approved by the
engineer.

10.3.2.11 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement Against Corrosion

The following minimum specified cover for reinforcement, prestressing tendons,
ducts, or prestressing end fittings'" shall be as follows:

(a) Prestressed, precast cross ties ( pretensioned or post-
tensioned ) % inch

(b) Reinforced, precast cross ties:

No. 6 bars, /4-inch wire, and smaller % inch

Other bars one bar diameter

10.3.2.12 Tolerances for Placing Reinforcement

(a) The tolerance for clear concrete protection (cover) and for depth, d,^"^
for reinforcing steel shall be ± Ys inch; for prestressing tendons ± 1/16 inch.

(b) The tolerance for longitudinal location of bends in reinforcing bars shall
be ± 2 inches.

(c) The tolerance for the location of ends of reinforcing bars shall be ± '2 inch.

10.3.2.13 Surface Finish

(a) The top and side surfaces of the ties shall present a smooth, uniform
appearance. A random scattering of surface voids will not be cause for rejection.
Heavy concentrations of surface voids or evidence of improper mixing, vibrating
or curing will be cause for rejection.

(b) The ends of the ties need not be flat planes or surfaces, but there shall
be no evidence of tearing of the concrete where the prestressing strands emerge or
of any void in contact with a strand.

(c) Occasional spalling of a small portion of rail seat shoulders may occur
during the stripping operation. Such spalling will not be cause for rejection unless
it involves that portion of a shoulder against which the heel of rail fastening clip
bears.

<*' This does not apply to the ends of pretensioning tendons which may protrude from the
end of the tie. See also Art. 10.3.2.9.

<5) Distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement.

208 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(d) Concrete tics shall be marked with indented or raised letters or numerals
to identify the manufacturer, type of tie and year of manufacture as approved by
the engineer.

10.4 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF PRESTRESSED MONOBLOCK
TIES

10.4.1 FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR PRESTRESSED
MONOBLOCK DESIGNS

Table I

Spacingi ^ )
(Inches)

21

Required Flexural Capacity (Inch- Kips) Without Cracking

Length{ ^ )

Rail Seat -\-

Rail Seat—( ^ )

Center —

Center +

8'-0

220

115

200

90

24

220

115

220

90

27

220

115

240

90

30

220

115

260

90

8'-3

21

225

115

200

90

24

235

115

210

90

27

250

115

220

95

30

260

115

230

100

8'-6

21

225

115

200

90

24

250

115

200

90

27

275

115

200

100

30

300

115

200

110

8'-9

21

250

115

200

95

24

275

115

200

100

27

300

115

200

110

30

325

115

200

120

9'-0

21

275

115

200

100

24

300

115

200

105

27

325

115

200

115

30

350

115

200

125

"' For existing tie designs having reduced bottom width at center of tie: The rail seat and
center positive flexural requirements shall be increased by 10% and the center negative flexural
requirements shall be decreased by 10% (but shall not be less than 150 inch-kips) because of
the redistributed ballast reaction associated with such designs.

<2) For tie spacings other than those shown, flexure requirements shall be determined by
interpolation.

<3) The values shown in the Rail Seat ( — ) column are based on elastic fastenings having
an overall vertical upward spring rate in the range of 200,000 to 350,000 lb per inch. (This
spring rate is not necessarily linear and should be detemiined in the 0.00 to 0.02 inch deflection
range. The Rail Seat negative values may not be adequate for more rigid fastenings.

10.4.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

10.4.2.1

As well as satisfying the criteria in Table I, prestressed concrete monoblock
ties must also comply with other criteria which accord with good design practice
as laid down in ACI Code 318.

Manual Recommendations 209

10.4.2.2

It is reconiiiiended that the maximum precompression after all losses at any
point in the cross ties should not exceed 2,500 psi.

10.4.2.3

Furtliermore, in the case of ties to which the rails are to be fastened by elastic
fastening systems, there should be a minimum pre-compressive stress at any vertical
cross section through the rail seat area of 150 psi after all losses and without any
applied load. Because the precessional wave just ahead of the wheels will create an
uplift force from the rails to the ties and because the magnitude of this force will
depend, among other things, on the weight of the ties and the rigidity of the
fastening system, this minimum pre-compressive stress should be higher for rigid
fastening systems.

10.4.3 TEST REQUIREMENTS FOR APPROVING THE DESIGN OF A MONO-
BLOCK TIE

10.4.3.1

The minimum negative and positive flexural capacity at the rail seats of the tie
shall be as shown in Table I for the tie length and spacing to be used when tested
in accordance with the Rail Seat Vertical Load Test described in Art. 10.9.1.4.

10.4.3.2

The minimum negative flexural capacity at the center of the tie shall be as
shown in Table I for the tie length and spacing to be used when tested in accord-
ance with the Negative Bending Moment Test described in Art. 10.9.1.6.

10.4.3.3

The minimum positive flexural capacity at the center of the tie shall be as shown
in Table I for the tie length and spacing to be used when tested in accordance
with the Positive Bending Moment Test described in Art. 10.9.1.7.

10.4.3.4

The tie must meet the requirements of the Rail Seat Repeated-Load Test
described in Art. 10.9.1.5.

10.4.3.5

The tie must meet the requirements of the Bond Development or Tension
Anchorage Test described in Art. 10.9.1.8.

210 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.5 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF TWO-BLOCK TIES

10.5.1 FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR TWO-BLOCK DE-
SIGNS

Table II
Requibed Flexxtral Capacity (Inch-Kips)'*'

Length Tie

Tie{ 2 )

Railseat —

Positive^ 3 )

Railseat — Negative^ * )

Block

Spacing

Inches

Inches

Reinf. Tie

P/S Tie{ 1 )

Reinf. Tie

P/S Tiei « )

30

21

150

150

105

105

24

150

150

105

105

27

150

150

105

105

30

150

155

105

110

33

21

150

150

105

105

24

150

150

105

105

27

150

155

105

110

30

155

170

110

120

36

21

150

150

105

105

24

150

155

105

110

27

155

170

110

120

30

170

185

120

130

39

21

205

225

145

160

24

225

250

160

175

27

250

275

175

195

30

270

300

190

210

42

21

250

275

175

195

24

270

300

190

210

27

295

325

210

230

30

315

350

225

245

^1' Prestressed or prestressed-reinforced.

'-' For tie spacings other than those shown, the flexure requirements shall be determined by
interpolation.

"' The values shown in the Rail Seat-Postive, P/S Tie column above have been increased
by 10% to allow for long-term losses in prestressed ties. The resulting values and the values
shown in the Rail Seat-Positive, Reinf. Tie column above have been rounded ofiE to the next larger
increment of 5 inch-kips. Where applicable they also have been increased to a minimum of 150
inch-kips.

<*^ 0.7 X Rail Seat-Positive requirement rounded to the next larger increment of 5 inch-kips.

10.5.1.1 Allowable Cracking

(a) Reinforced cross ties when subjected to loads producing flexure in the
blocks must crack in order for the main reinforcement to work. Corrosion of steel
reinforcement is related to crack width and external environment. The maximum
crack width allowed in Art. 10.5. l.le. Table III, should not contribute to corrosion
of steel reinforcement under normal railroad environments.

(b) Cracks shall be measured on the side surfaces of the tie blocks at a level
directly opposite the reinforcement closest to the tension face of the tie. If it is
not possible to measure a crack at this level due to chipping of the concrete or

Manual Recommendations 211

surface imperfections, measurements shall be taken equidistant above and below
this le\el and the two \alues averaged to obtain the width of the crack.

(c) Cracks shall be measured using a hand-held graduated microscope of suffi-
cient power and accuracy to measure crack widdis to the nearest 0.001 inch.

(d) Cracks shall not extend to prestressing tendons or longitudinal reinforcing
steel of less than % inch diameter.

10.5.1. le T.\BLE III

Xo. of Cracks*

Max. Width — Inch

Avg. Width — Inch

1

0.006
0.006
0.006
0.006

2

0.005

3

0.004

4 or more.

0.003

'Per side per tie block

10.5.2 TEST REQUIREMENTS FOR APPROVING THE DESIGN OF A TWO-
BLOCK TIE

10.5.2.1

The minimum positive and negative flexural capacity of the tie blocks shall be
as shown in Table II for the tie block length and tie spacing to be used when
tested in accordance with the Rail Seat Positive and Rail Seat Negative Moment
Tests described in Arts. 10.10.1.4 and 10.10.1.5.

10.5.2.2

The ties must meet the requirements of the Rail Seat Ultimate Load Test
described in Art. 10.10.1.9.

10.5.2.3

The ties must meet the requirements of the Rail Seat Repeated Load Test
described in Art. 10.10.1.8.

10.5.2.4

The ties must meet the requirements of the Center Negative and Center Posi-
tive Bending Moment Tests described in Arts. 10.10.1.6 and 10.10.1.7.

10.6 LONGITUDINAL RAIL RESTRAINT

10.6.1 REQUIREMENTS

Fastenings for concrete ties must have the ability to restrain longitudinal move-
ment of rail as detennined by test procedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.12, as follows:
21-inch tie spacing, 2600 lb per tie per rail.
24-inch tie spacing, 2900 lb per tie per rail.
27-inch tie spacing, 3300 lb per tie per rail.
30-inch tie spacing, 3700 lb per tie per rail.

Welded rail must be laid at the proper temperature range or additional
anchorage provided at the ends of strings.

212 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.7 LATERAL RAIL RESTRAINT

10.7.1 RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS

(a) Track constructed of concrete ties and appropriate fasteners shall not
experience gage widening of more than }i inch when lateral wheel loads of 35,000 lb
are apphed to one rail. (See Art. 10.9.1.13 for design tests.)

(b) If a concrete shoulder is used to restrain the lateral movement of the rail,
a suitable bearing surface shall be provided to transmit the lateral forces to the tie.

(c) Inserts shall be arranged to distribute the load uniformly in the body of
the tie and through the rail bearing area. The rail support insert shall withstand
a pullout force of 12,000 lb. (See Arts. 10.9.1.9.1, 10.9.1.11 and 10.9.1.13 for design
tests. )

10.8 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

10.8.1 REQUIREMENTS

Individual concrete cross ties for use in signal circuit tracks togetlier with their
fastenings should be electrically isolated from the running rails so as to provide a
minimum impedance of 20,000 ohms per tie when a-c energy of 10 volts, 60 Hertz
is applied. (See Art. 10.9.1.14 for test procedure.)

10.9 TESTING OF MONOBLOCK TIES

10.9. 1 DESIGN TESTS OF MONOBLOCK TIES

Prior to approval of concrete tie designs, monoblock concrete ties of the design
under study shall be subjected to testing for compliance with these specifications.
The tests specified herein shall be performed at testing facilities approved by the
engineer within 30 days of casting.

From a lot of not less than ten ties produced in accordance with these specifi-
cations, four ties will be selected at random by the engineer for laboratory testing.
For design testing of fastenings, the manufacturer shall also furnish a section of the
tie or a concrete block with rail seat and rail fastening system identical to the
concrete ties furnished for testing.

The tie block and each of the four ties submitted for testing shall be carefully
measured and examined to determine their compliance with the requirements of
Sections 10.2 and 10.3. Upon satisfactory completion of this examinatin, the tie block
and two ties, which shall be known and identified as Tie "1" and Tie "2", shall be
subjected to performance tests specified in Arts. 10.9.1.4, 10.9.1.5, 10.9.1.6, 10.9.1.7,
10.9.1.8, 10.9.1.9, 10.9.1.10, 10.9.1.11, and 10.9.1.12. The remaining two ties, which
will be known and identified as Ties "3" and "4", will be retained by the engineer
for further test use (Art 10.9.1.14) and as a control for dimensional tolerances and
surface appearance of ties subsequently manufactured.

10.9.1. 1 Sequence of Design Tests (Tie "1")

The sequence of design performance tests using Tie "1" shall be as follows:

(a) Rail Seat Vertical Load Tests (described in Art. 10.9.1.4) — Shall be per-
formed on one rail seat, hereinafter designated rail seat A.

(b) Negative Bending Moment Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.6).

Manual Recommendations 213

(c) Positive Bending Moment Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.7).

(d) Rail Seat Vertical Load Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.4)— Shall be per-
formed on the other rail seat, hereinafter designated rail seat B.

(e) Rail Seat Repeated Load Test (described in Art. lOLQ.l.S)— Shall be
performed on rail seat B.

(f) Bond Development, Tendon Anchorage, and Ultimate Load Test (de-
scribed in Art. 10.9.1.8) — Shall be performed on rail seat A.

10.9.1.2 Sequence of Design Tests (Tie "2")

The sequence of design performance tests using Tie "2" shall be as follows:

(a) Fastening Insert Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.9) — Shall be performed
on all inserts.

(b) Fastening Uplift Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.10)— Shall be performed
on one rail seat.

(c) Electrical Resistance and Impedance Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.14).

10.9.1.3 Sequence of Design Tests (Tie Block)

The sequence of design performance tests using the tie blocks shall be as
follows :

(a) Fastening Repeated Load Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.11).

(b) Fastening Longitudinal Restraint Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.12).

(c) Fastening Lateral Restraint Test (described in Art. 10.9.1.13).

10.9.1.4 Rail Seat Vertical Load Test

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure VII, a load increasing
at a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until tlie load (P)
required to produce the specified rail seat negative moment from Art. 10.4.1, Table I
is obtained. This load shall be held for not less than 3 minutes, during which time
an inspection shall be made to determine if structural cracking occurs. In like man-
ner, the tie shall be supported and loaded as shown in Figure I to produce the rail
seat positive moment from Art. 10.4.1, Table 1. An illuminated 5-power magnifying
glass may be used to locate cracks. If structural cracking does not occur, the require-
ments of each portion of tliis test will have been met.

10.9.1.5 RaU Seat Repeated-Load Test

Following the vertical load test on rail seat B, the load shall be increased at
a rate of 5 kips per minute until the tie is cracked from its bottom surface up to
the level of the lower layer of reinforcement.

After removal of the static rail seat load necessary to produce cracking, and
substitution of /l-inch pads for those shown in Figure I, the tie shall be subjected
to 3 milhon cycles of repeated loading with each cycle varying uniformly from 4 kips
to the value of I.IP. The repeated loading shall not exceed 600 cycles per minute.
If, after the application of 3 million cycles, tlie tie can support the rail seat load
(I.IP), the requirements of this test will have been met.

10.9.1.6 Negative Bending Moment Test

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure II, a load increasing at
a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until the load required
to produce the specified negative center design moment from Table I is obtained.

Bui. 655

214 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

The load shall be held for not less than 3 minutes, during which time an inspection
shall be made to determine if structural cracking occurs. An illuminated, 5-power
magnifying glass may be used to locate cracks. If structural cracking does not occur
the requirements of this test will have been met.

10.9.1.7 Positive Bending Moment Test

With tlie tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure III, a load increasing
at a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until the load required
to produce the specified positive center design moment from Table I is obtained.
The load shall be held for not less than 3 minutes during which time an inspection
shall be made to determine if structural cracking occurs. An illuminated, 5-power
magnifying glass may be used to locate cracks. If structural cracking does not occur,
the requirements of this test will have been met.

10.9.1.8 Bond Development, Tendon Anchorage, and Ultimate Load Test

(a) Pretensioned concrete ties shall be tested for bond development, and
ultimate strength as specified below:

( 1 ) With the tie supported and loaded at rail seat A as shown in
Figure I, a load increasing at a rate not greater than 5 kips per
minute shall be applied as follows:

(i) If initial cracking occurs at or above I.IP, a total load of 1.5P
shall be applied (the load P shall be as determined in "Rail
Seat Vertical Load Test" for positive moment),
(ii) If initial cracking occurs below I.IP, a total load of 1.75P
shall be applied.
If there is no more than 0.001-inch strand slippage determined by an
extensometer reading to 1/10,000 suitably attached to the end of the
tie, the requirements of this test will have been met. The load shall then
be increased until ultimate failure occurs and the maximum load ob-
tained shall be recorded.

(b) Post-tensioned concrete ties shall be tested for tendon anchorage, and
ultimate strength as specified below:

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure I, a load
increasing at a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied
until a total load equal to that specified in Art. 10.9.1.8 (a), (i), or (ii) is
obtained. If the tie can support this load for a period of not less than
5 minutes, the requirements of this test will have been met. The load
shall then be increased imtil ultimate failure of the tie occurs, and the
maximum load obtained shall be recorded.

10.9.1.9 Fastening Insert Tests

(a) Threaded-Type Inserts

To determine the ability of threaded inserts to resist the bolt tension and ability
of the concrete rail seat to carry any differential vertical load between the rail and
tlie concrete tie, the following test shall be performed on each insert as shown on
Figure IV. An axial load of 12 kips shall be applied to each insert separately and
held for not less than 3 minutes, during which time an inspection shall be made to
determine if there is any slippage of the insert or any severe cracking of the concrete.
If such failures occur, then the requirements of this test will not have been met.
Inability of the insert itself to resist the 12-kip load shall also constitute failure of
this test.

Manual Recommendations 215

Following successful completion of the insert pullout test, the following test
shall be performed on each rail fastening insert to determine its ability to resist
turning. A high-strength shoulder bolt of the proper diameter for the insert being
tested and having a threaded length of 1% inches shall be threaded into the insert
and torqued to 150 percent of the torque recommended by the fastener manufacturer
for normal installation. The load shall be held for not less than 3 minutes. Ability
of the insert to resist this torque shall constitute passage of this test.

(b) Other Fastening Inserts

Other fastening inserts shall be subject to the pull-out tests and torque test (if
applicable) in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and as approved
by the engineer.

10.9.1.10 Fastening Uplift Test

An 18- to 20-inch piece of the proper section of rail shall be secured to one
rail seat using a complete rail fastening assembly, including pads, bolts, clips and
associated hardware, as recommended by the manufacturer of the rail fastening
system. In accordance with the loading diagram in Figure V, an incremental load
shall be applied to the rail. The load P (measured load plus unsupported tie weight
plus frame weight) at which separation of tlie rail from pad or pad from rail seat
(whichever occurs first) shall be recorded. The load shall then be completely released.
A load of 2P shall then be applied. The inserts shall not pull out or loosen in the
concrete and no component of fastening system shall fracture nor shall the rail be
released.

10.9.1.11 Fastening Repeated-Load Test

(a) An 18- to 20-inch section of new rail from which loose mill scale has
been removed by wiping with a cloth shall be secured to the rail seat in the tie
block using a complete rail fastening assembly. In accordance with the loading
diagram in Figure V determine the load P that will just cause separation of the rail
from the rail seat pad or the pad from the rail seat whichever occurs first. This
load may be determined during the Fastening Uplift Test described in Article
10.9.1.10 in which case a new set of fastening clips shall be used for the repeated
load test.

(b) An 18- to 20-inch section of new rail from which loose mill scale has been
removed by wiping with a cloth shall be secured to the rail seat in the tie block
using a complete rail fastening assembly. In accordance with the loading diagram
in Figure VI, alternating downward and upward loads shall be applied at an angle
of 20° to the vertical axis of the rail at a rate not to exceed 300 cycles per minute
for 3 million cycles. The rail shall be free to rotate under the applied loads. One cycle
shall consist of both a downward and an upward load. The magnitude of the upward
load shall be 0.6P where P is the load determined in part (a) of this article. If
springs are used to generate the upward load tlie downward load shall be 30 kips
plus 0.6P. If a double-acting hydraulic ram is used to generate both the upward and
the downward load, the downward load shall be 30 kips.

This repeated load test may generate heat in elastomeric rail seat pads. Heat
build-up in such pads must not be allowed to exceed 140 F. Heat build-up can be
controlled by reducing the rate of load application or by providing periods of rest
to allow cooling of the pad to take place.

Rupture failure of any component of the fastening system shall constitute
failure of this test.

216 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

For this test, retorqueing of threaded elements subsequent to the completion
of 500,000 cycles of load shall not be permitted without the written approval of
the engineer.

10.9.1.12 Fastening Longitudinal Restraint Test

Following the performance of the Fastening Repeated Load Test, above, and
without disturbing the rail fastening assembly in any manner other than retorqueing
anchor bolts, the tie and fastening shall be subjected to a longitudinal restraint test.
A longitudinal load shall be applied as shown in Figure X in increments of 500 lb
with readings taken of longitudinal rail displacement after each increment. Readings
of rail displacement shall be the average of the readings of two dial indi-
cators reading to 1/ 1000th of an inch, one placed on each side of tlie rail with
tlieir plungers parallel to the longitudinal axis of the rail. The load shall be applied
in a direction coinciding with the longitudinal axis of the rail. The load shall be
increased incrementally until a load of the value specified in Art. 10.6.1 for the an-
ticipated tie spacing is reached. This load shall be held for not less than 15 minutes.
The rail shall not move more than 0.25 inch during the initial 3-minute period, and
there shall be no further movement of the rail after the initial 3 minutes. The
fastening shall be capable of meeting the requirements of this test in either direction.
If these criteria are met, the tie and fastenings will have successfully passed this test.

10.9.1.13 Lateral Load Restraint Test

With a suitable length of new rail of the size to be used in the track aflBxed
to the tie block in a manner appropriate to the fastening being used, the entire
assembly is supported and loaded as shown in Figure XI. The loading head is to be
fixed against translation and rotation. The wood block shall be 10-in x 10-in x ?i-in
thick, 5 ply, exterior grade plywood.

(a) A preload of 20 kips is to be appUed to the rail to seat the rail in the
fastening. Upon release of the preload, a zero reading is to be taken on the dial
indicators which measure rail translation. Load is to be applied at a rate not to
exceed 5 kips per minute until either 41 kips has been applied or the rail base has
translated Va inch, whichever occurs first. Inability of the fastening to carry the
41 kip load with /8 inch or less of rail translation shall constitute failure of this test.
Complete failure of any component of the tie or fastening is cause for rejection.

(b) With all load removed from the rail, a roller nest is placed between the
fixed loading head and the wood block on the rail head. The roller nest shall not
offer resistance to lateral movement of the rail head. After taking zero readings on
the dial indicators, which measure gage widening and rail translation, a load of
20.5 kips is to be applied at a rate not to exceed 5 kips per minute. Rail rotation,
gage widening less rail translation, greater than Vi inch shall constitute failure of
this test.

10.9.1.14 Electrical Impedance Test

(a) Two short pieces of rail are affixed to the tie, selected from Ties "3" and
"4", using tie pads, insulators and fastenings in a manner appropriate to the fastening
system to be used.

(b) The complete assembly shall be immersed in water for a minimum of 6
hours.

Manual Recommendations 217

(c) Within 1 hour after removal from water an a-c 10-volt 60-Hertz potential
is applied across the two rails for a period of 15 minutes. If the rails are rusty or
contain mill scale, the contact points must be cleaned.

(d) The current flow in amperes is read using an a-c ammeter and the im-
pedance determined by dividing the voltage (10) by the current flow in amperes.

(e) If the ohmic impedance determined in (c) above exceeds 20,000' ohms,
the tie will have passed the test.

10.9.1.15 Electrical Short Test

The two inserts of each rail seat shall be connected together electrically and
the tie checked for an electrical short between the two rail seats. The check shall be
made by connecting one side of a commercial 110 volt a-c potential to one rail seat
and the other side through a 75-watt light bulb to the opposite rail seat. Lighting
of the bulb indicates direct short circuit.

10.9.2 PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL OF MONOBLOCK TIES

After the tie and rail fastening system have passed the tests in Art. 10.9.1 and
have been approved by the engineer, further production of these items may proceed
without further design testing. During production of such an approved design,
quality-control tests must be performed to assure a unifonn, high-quality product.

10.9.2.1 Daily Production Quality-Control Tests

The following production quaHty-control tests shall be performed prior to de-
livery and witliin 30 days of manufacture on one tie selected at random from every
200 ties or fraction thereof produced each day:

(a) The distance from center of track to center of rail seats shall be verified
and, by use of a template, the rail seat configuration and insert location
shall be verified for compliance with the requirements of Art. 10.3.2.

(b) The Rail Seat Vertical Load Test, Art. 10.9.1.4, shall be performed.

(c) The Fastening Insert Test, Art. 10.9.1.9, shall be performed on one insert
per tie.

(d) The Electrical Short Test, Art. 10.9.1.1.5, if applicable, shall be performed.

10.9.2.2 Additional Quality-Control Tests

To assure the production of cross ties and rail fastenings which comply with
these specifications, the manufacturer shall institute whatever additional quality-
control tests, including concrete compressive strength tests (see Art. 10.2.2), he may
deem necessary,

10.9.2.3 Failure to Pass Production Quality-Control Test

Should any test tie fail the tests required by Art. 10.9.2.1, two additional ties
from that same 200-tie lot shall be tested. In the event either of these ties fails, 100
percent of the remainder of the 200-tie lot shall be either tested or rejected.

10.9.2.4 Disposition of Test Ties

Ties that pass the testing requirements and are not cracked or otherwise dam-
aged after testing will be considered acceptable for use in track.

218 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

10.9.2.5 Bond Development or Tendon Anchorage Quality-Control Test

One tie selected at random from every 2,000 ties produced shall be subjected
to tlie Bond Development or Tendonage Anchorage Test described in Art. 10.9.1.8.
If the tie does not meet the requirements of 10.9.1.8, three additional ties shall be
tested, and if any of the three ties do not meet the requirements of 10.9.1.8, the
entire lot may be rejected at the option of the engineer

10.9.2.6 Location for Inspection and Quality-Control Testing

Quality-control testing of production ties may be performed at any test facility,
including such facilities at the manufacturer's plant, provided they meet the approval
of the engineer. Testing may be observed by the engineer or his designated repre-
sentative if he so elects. Two copies of the results of all such tests shall be sub-
mitted to the engineer within 7 days of the performance of the tests.

10.10 TESTING OF TWO-BLOCK TIES

10.10.1 DESIGN TESTS OF TWO-BLOCK TIES

Prior to approval of two-block tie designs, concrete ties of the design under
study shall be subjected to testing for compliance with these specifications. The
tests specified herein shall be performed at testing facilities approved by the engi-
neer within 30 days of casting.

From a lot of not less than ten ties produced in accordance with these specifi-
cations four ties will be selected at random by the engineer for laboratory testing.
For design testing of fasteners the manufacturer shall also furnish a section of the
tie or a concrete block with rail seat and rail fastening system identical to the
concrete ties furnished for testing.

The tie block and each of the four ties submitted for testing shall be carefully
measured and examined to determine their compliance with the requirements of
Sections 10.2 and 10.3. Upon satisfactory completion of this examination, the tie block
and the two ties, which shall be known and identified as Ties "1" and "2", shall
be submitted to performance tests. The remaining two ties, which will be known
and identified as Ties "3" and "4", will be retained for further use and as a control
for dimensional tolerances and surface appearances of ties subsequently manufactured.

10.10.1.1 Sequence of Tests (Tie "1")

The sequence of design tests performed with Tie "1" shall be as follows:

(a) Rail Seat Positive Moment Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.4) shall be
performed on each rail seat.

(b) Rail Seat Negative Moment Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.5) shall be
performed on each rail seat.

(c) Center Negative Bending Moment Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.6).

(d) Center Positive Bending Moment Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.7).

(e) Rail Seat Repeated Load Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.8).

(f) Rail Seat Ultimate Load Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.9).

10.10.1.2 Sequence of Tests (Tie "2")

The sequence of design tests performed with Tie "2" shall be as follows:
(a) Fastening Insert Tests (described in Art. 10.10.1.10) shall be performed
on all inserts.

Manual Recommendations 219

(b) Fastening Uplift Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.11) shall be performed
on one rail seat.

(c) Electrical Resistance and Impedance Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.15).

10.10.1.3 Sequence of Tests (Tie Block)

The sequence of design tests performed with the tie block shall be as follows:

(a) Fastening Repeated Load Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.12).

(b) Fastening Longitudinal Restraint Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.13).

(c) Fastening Lateral Restraint Test (described in Art. 10.10.1.14).

10.10.1.4 Rail Seat Positive Bending Moment Test

With tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure I, a load increasing at a
rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until the load (P) required
to produce the specified rail seat design positive moment from Art. 10.5.2, Design
Flexural Requirements for Two-Block Ties, Table II, is obtained. This load shall
be held for not less than 3 minutes, during which time an inspection shall be made
to determine if structural cracking occurs. An illuminated 5-power magnifying glass
may be used to locate cracks. If structural cracking does not occur or (in the case
of reinforced or partially prestressed ties) crack widths do not exceed the widths
specified in Art. 10.5.1.3 (c), the requir-ements of tliis test will have been met.

10.10.1.5 Rail Seat Negative Bending Moment Test

With tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure VII, a load increasing at a
rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until the load (P) required
to produce the specified rail seat design negative moment from Table II is obtained.
This load shall be held for not less than 3 minutes, during which time an inspection
shall be made to determine if structural cracking occurs. If structural cracking does
not occur, or (in the case of reinforced or partially prestressed ties) crack widths
do not exceed the widths specified in Art. 10.5.1.3 (c), the requirements of this test
will have been met.

10.10.1.6 Center Negative Bending Moment Test

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure VIII, a load increasing
at a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until a load of 7 kips
causing a moment of 35,000 inch-pounds has been reached. If structural cracking
does not occur on the gage faces of the blocks and the deflection at the center of
the ties does not exceed 0.5 inch, the requirements of this test will have been met.

10.10.1.7 Center Positive Bending Moment Test

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure IX, a load increasing
at a rate not greater than 5 kips per minute shall be applied until a load of 7 kips
causing a moment of 35,000 inch-pounds has been reached. If structural cracking
does not occur on the gage faces of the blocks and the deflection at tire center of
the ties does not exceed 0.5 inch, the requirements of this test will have been met.

10.10.1.8 Rail Seat Repeated-Load Test

With the tie supported and loaded as shown in Figure I, one rail seat of the
ties shall be subjected to 3 million cycles of repeated loading with each cycle vary-
ing uniformly from 4 kips to the value (I.IP) required to produce the specified
rail seat positive bending moment from Table II.

220 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

The repeated loading shall not exceed 600 cycles per minute. If, after tlie
application of 3 million cycles, the tie can support the load (I.IP), the requirements
of this test will have been met.

10.10.1.9 Rail Seat Overload and Ultimate Load Test

With the tie supported and the other rail seat loaded as shown in Figure I,
a load increasing at a rate not greater than 5 kijis per minute shall be applied until
a total load of 1.75P is obtained. If the tie can support this load for a period of
not less than 5 minutes, the requirements of this test will have been met. The load
shall then be increased until ultimate failure of the tie occurs, and the maximum
load obtained shall be recorded.

10.10.1.10 Fastening Insert Tests

(a) Threaded-Type Inserts

The test procedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.9 (a) shall be used to determine
the acceptability of threaded-type inserts.

(b) Other Fastening Inserts

Other fastening inserts shall be subject to the pull-out tests and torque tests
(if applicable) in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and as
approved by the engineer.

10.10.1.11 Fastening Uplift Test

An 18- to 20-inch piece of rail of the proper section shall be secured to one
rail seat using a complete rail fastening assembly, including pads, bolts, clips, and
associated hardware, as recommended by the manufacturer of the rail fastening
system. In accordance with the loading diagram in Figure V, an 18-kip load shall
be applied and held for not less than 3 minutes. The inserts shall not pull out or
loosen in the concrete and no component of the rail fastening system shall suffer
any permanent deformation.

10.10.1.12 Fastening Repeated-Load Test

The Fastening Repeated-Load Test shall be performed following the test pro-
cedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.11.

10.10.1.13 Fastening Longitudinal Restraint Test

Following the performance of the Fastening Repeated-Load Test, Art. 10.10.1.12,
and without disturbing the rail fastening assembly in any manner other than re-
torqueing anchor bolts, the Fastening Longitudinal Restraint Test shall be performed
following the test procedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.12.

10.10.1.14 Fastening Lateral Restraint Test

The tie and fastening shall be tested for lateral restraint following the test
procedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.13.

10.10.1.15 Electrical Impedance Test

The tie and fastening shall be tested for electrical conductivity following the
test procedure specified in Art. 10.9.1.14.

10.10.2 PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL OF TWO-BLOCK TIES

After a tie and rail fastening system have passed tlie tests in Art. 10.10.1 and
have been approved by the engineer, further production of these items may proceed

Manual Recommendations 221

without further design testing. During production of such an approved design,
quality-control tests must be performed to assure a uniform high-quality product.

10.10.2.1 Daily Production Quality-Control Tests

The following production quality-control tests shall be performed prior to de-
livery and within 30 days of manufacture on one tie selected at random from every
200 ties or fraction thereof produced each day.

(a) The distance from center of the tie to the center of the rail seats shall

be verified and by use of a template, the rail seat configuration (includ-
ing shoulders and inserts if they are used) shall be verified for com-
pliance with the requirements of Art. 10.3.2.

(b) The Rail Seat Positive Moment Test, Art. 10.10.1.4, shall be performed.

(c) The Fastener Insert Test, Art. 10.9.1.9, shall be performed.

(d) The Electrical Impedance Tests, Art. 10.9.1.14, if applicable, shall be
performed.

10.10.2.2 Additional Quality-Control Tests

To assure the production of cross ties and rail fastenings which comply with
these specifications, the manufacturer shall institute whatever additional quality-
control test, including concrete compressive strength tests (see Art. 10.2.2.1), he
may deem necessary.

10.10.2.3 Failure to Pass Production Quality-Control Test

Should any test tie fail the tests required by Art. 10.10.2.1 above, two additional
ties from that same 200-tie lot shall be tested. In the event either of these ties fails,
100 percent of the remainder of the 200-tie lot shall be either tested or rejected.

10.10.2.4 Disposition of Test Ties

Ties that pass the testing requirements and are not cracked or otherwise
damaged after testing will be considered acceptable for use in track.

10.10.2.5 Rail Seat Overload Quality-Control Test

One tie selected at random from every 2,000 ties produced shall be subjected
to the Rail Seat Overload Load Test described in Art. 10.10.1.9. If the tie does not
meet the requirements of Art. 10.10.1.9, three additional ties shall be selected at
random and tested. If any of the three additional ties do not meet the requirements
of Art. 10.10.1.9, the entire lot may be rejected at the option of the engineer.

10.10.2.6 Location for Inspection and Quality-Control Testing

Quality-control testing and inspection of production ties may be performed
at any test facility, including such facilities at the manufacturer's plant, provided
they meet the approval of the engineer. The engineer shall be notified in advance
of dates scheduled for quality-control tests. Testing may be observed by the engineer
or his designated representative if he so elects. Two copies of all such tests shall
be submitted to the engineer within 7 days of the performance of the tests.

10.11 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SHIPPING, HANDLING,
APPLICATION AND USE

10.11.1 SHIPPING

Concrete ties should be shipped in open-top cars. Ties must be securely braced

222 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

for transportation to prevent any movement that will cause damage. Ties shall be
shipped in a horizontal position and braced with wooden spacer blocks in such a
manner that the top surface or cast-in-place hardware does not contact ties loaded
above. Ties shall not be loaded higher than the top of the cars nor more than six
layers deep. The purchaser shall specify the size of shipments in accordance with
unloading facilities.

10.11.1.1 Protection of Threaded Inserts

If cast-in-place threaded inserts are included in ties, they shall be protected
against entry of water and foreign matter by means of a plastic cap, plug or other
suitable device approved by the engineer. Caps or plugs shall be placed in position
at the time of manufacture, left in place during shipping and not removed until
fastenings are aflBxed to the ties.

10.11.2 HANDLING

Unnecessary handling, redistribution and reloading of concrete ties should be
avoided. To the extent practical, ties should be distributed in proper position for
use without further handling. They shall be unloaded from cars in a manner that
will not damage the ties. In no case shall ties be dropped from a truck or car to
the roadbed.

10.11.3 PLACEMENT AND INITIAL ROADBED SUPPORT

In new construction care must be taken to insure that all concrete cross ties
are uniformly supported on the roadbed and that no center-binding conditions de-
velop prior to ballasting and tamping. If the subgrade condition indicates that there
is inadequate or non-uniform support for the ties before placement of ballast, a
minimum layer of 3 inches of ballast should be placed, leveled and compacted before
placement of ties. Ties shall be installed at right angles to the center line of track
at the designed spacing prior to rail installation.

10.11.4 PLACEMENT OF RAIL AND FASTENINGS IN NEW CONSTRUCTION

10.11.4.1 Tie Pads

It is reconmmended that tie pads be shipped independendy of the ties. Rail seats
should be clean and ties properly positioned prior to placement of pads. Pads should
be accurately positioned and centered on the rail seat. Use of adhesive may be
desirable to hold pads in place until rail is unloaded and fastened.

10.11.4.2 Rail

Rail must not be dropped into place. Where continuous welded rail is to be
used, the use of rollers is recommended to facilitate its unloading and reduce the
risk of dislocating ties and tie pads.

10.11.4.3 Joints

If jointed rail is to be used (see Art. 10.1.5.2) special fastenings may be re-
quired within joint bar limits. Care must be exercised to see that such fastenings
are clearly distinguishable and ordered in the proper amount. Care should also be
taken to see that the actual juncture of two rails does not occur directly over a tie.

10.11.4.4 Fastenings

It is recommended that fastenings be shipped independently of ties. Where
more than one type of fastening, such as gage and field fastenings or special joint

Manual Recommendations 223

fastenings, are to be used they shall be clearly marked to avoid confusion and avoid
difficulties during their distribution and application. Fastenings shall be applied in
the manner appropriate to their design and approved by their manufacturer. If
threaded fasteners are used, the shank at tlie screw shall be dipped in petrolatum
before assembly.

10.11.4.5

In corrosive environments, consideration should be given to protecting the
external components of fastenings.

10.11.5 TAMPING

Tamping of concrete ties should be in accordance with the provisions of Chapter
5 of the Manual.

10.11.6 TRACK GEOMETRY

(a) It is recommended that concrete ties be installed on curves only if the
curves have AREA-recommended, or equal, spiral approach and departure transitions.

(b) It is recommended that concrete ties not be installed in curves designed
for an unbalanced superelevation greater than 3 inches.

10.12 BALLAST

10.12.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Prepared ballast for use with concrete ties shall be of hard, strong, angular,
durable particles, free from injurious amounts of deleterious substances and conform-
ing to tlie requirements of these specifications. The most successful concrete tie
installations to date have used sound granite, trap rock, or similar types of ballast
and such types of ballast are, therefore recommended for use in conjunction with
concrete ties. Current and proposed research may indicate that other ballast mate-
rials also could be satisfactory.

10.12.2 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

(Under study.)

10.12.3 GRADING REQUIREMENTS

Ballast grading requirements shall be in conformity witli Chapter 1 of the
Manual.

10.12.4 HANDLING

Ballast shall be handled at the producing plant in such a manner that it is
kept clean and free from segregation. It shall be loaded only into cars which are
in good order, tight enough to prevent leakage and waste of material, and which
are clean and free from rubbish or any substance which would foul or damage the
ballast. The producer should not store ballast in cone-shape piles or make re-
peated i:)asses of his equipment over the same levels in stock pile area. Tlie supplier's
proposed method of handling ballast shall be subject to the approval of the engineer.

10.12.5 INSPECTION

If material loaded or being loaded does not conform to these specifications,
the inspector shall notify the supplier to stop further loading until tlie fault has

224 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

been corrected and dispose of all of the defective material without cost to the rail-
road. The engineer reserves the right to reject any car of ballast arriving at the
site for unloading that does not conform to the specifications.

10.12.6 TESTING

Prior to installation, the supplier shall provide tlie engineer with certified test
results of ballast classification, quality, and grading as conducted by a testing labo-
ratory accepted by the engineer. If, during ballast installation, the supplier changes
the source of ballast, additional certified test results shall be provided. The supplier
shall receive concurrence of the engineer as to the use of testing laboratory to make
the aforementioned tests.

Samples of the finished product for gradation and other required tests shall
be taken from each 4,000 tons of prepared ballast, unless otherwise ordered by the
engineer. The sample shall be representative and shall weigh not less than 150 lb.

The supplier shall certify that ballast delivered to the railroad is typical of
tliat upon which specified tests have been made.

10.13 COMMENTARY

10.13.1 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF MONOBLOCK TIES

Monoblock ties are stiff structural members that are loaded by the rails from
the top and are supported on the ballast at the bottom. The loads applied at the
top combined with the support reactions at the bottom will produce flexure in the
ties. Maximum flexure occurs at the rail seats and at the center. Flexure is influenced
by a number of factors discussed in Section 10.1 General Considerations.

10.13.1.1 Wheel Loads

In order to give satisfactory service a prestressed monoblock concrete tie should
be capable of withstanding without cracking the maximum loads likely to be found
in service.

10.13.1.2 Rail Seat Load

The rail seat load is that load transmitted by the rail to the rail seat of the tie.

It is the design wheel load modified by the distribution and impact factors. For
various tie spacings the following rail seat loads are used to determine the flexure
requirements in Art. 10.4.2, Table I:

Spacing, Inches Rail Seat Load, Pounds
30 61,500

27 57,050

24 52,600

21 48,150

As rail seat loads are reduced so also are the flexural requirements of ties and
the unit pressures on the ballast and subgrade.

10.13.1.3 Ballast Reaction

The load transmitted to the tie is resisted by the ballast at the interface be-
tween the bottom of the tie and the ballast. Immediately following tamping the
ballast reaction is concentiated under the tamped portions of the tie with little if
any reaction occurring under the center portion of the tie. This condition usually

Manual Recommendations 225

produces positive flexure at the rail seats and the tie center. Over a period of time,
because of repeated loads, vibration and crushing of ballast, the ballast will gradually
compact, moving away from the areas of greatest concentration. The tie, therefore,
settles slightly into the ballast, allowing the center portion of the tie to pick up
a portion of the load thus reducing the amount of load carried by die tie ends.

Redistribution of ballast reaction will continue until eventually a condition of
uniform ballast reaction over the entire length of the tie is approached. This support
condition produces positive flexure at the rail seats and negative flexure at the center
of tie. It also makes possible a simple analysis for flexure in the tie by using the
formulas :

(l)M,=-^

where

Mr = Moment at the rail seat

W = Total vertical load in pounds/inch of tie length.

Li = Distance from center line of rail to end of tie.

(2) Mo = — 5 — ■ — Mr or - — -^^ 5- — ^

where

Mc = Moment at center of tie.
L2 = Distance center to center of rails.

2(Rail Seat Load)

2Li + L2

W = Total vertical load in pounds/inch of tie length =

Mr = Moment at the rail seat
Li = Distance from center line of rail to end of tie.
To insure ties that will not crack under normal service conditions the bending
moments produced by this approach are considered adequate.

10.13.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF TWO-BLOCK TIES

Two-block ties consist of two blocks of concrete connected by a third member.
Under load, flexure will occur in the end blocks, and while flexure does occur in the
connecting element, its flexural resistance is relatively small, thus one block is able
to deflect with respect to the other.

Consideration of distribution factor, impact factor, wheel loads, rail seat loads,
and tie spacings are the same as for monobiock ties.

10.13.2,1 Ballast Reaction

For two-block ties each tie block must distribute a full rail seat load to the
ballast. Assuming this distribution over a period of time will approach uniformity,
the flexural requirements for a tie block may be determined by the formula

where

Mr = Moment at the rail seat

to ^ Rail seat load in pounds/inch of tie block length.
L is assumed to be one-half the lengtli of the tie block.
The magnitude of the terms 10 and L are influenced by tie block length. This
influences the flexural requirements.

Flexural requirements for five lengths of tie blocks and four tie spacings are

226 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

shown in Table II. Flexural requirements for block lengths other than those shown
may be calculated, but in no case should the rail seat positive flexural capacity be
less than 150 inch-kips.

10.13.2.2 Tie Flexibility

The connecting element of two-block ties should be sufficiently stiff to maintain
track gage and tie integrity during handling, track construction and track mainte-
nance. Under load, non-uniform ballast support reactions may cause differential
deflection between the blocks of a tie. The connecting element must therefore be
flexible enough to accept the maximum deflections likely to occur in track without
damage to the element or to the concrete blocks.

Minimiun stiftness and specific deflection without damage requirements have
therefore been made a part of these specifications.

10.13.3 LONGITUDINAL RAIL RESTRAINT

Rail must be restrained to avoid excessive longitudinal movement. Longitudinal
movement of rail can be induced by temperature change and/or traffic.

10.13.3.1 Temperature-Induced Loads

The longitudinal force due to temperature change may be determined using
the formula

(F-jrs ^^

2RAE

Where F c= Total force in poimds required to fully restrain rail against any rail
movement due to temperature variation from the rail temperature at
laying. (Use formula F = As'!>^T, where A := area of rail cross section
in square inches, s = internal temperature stress developed in the rail
by the restraining forces, s = 30,000,000 X 1° X 0.0000065 = 195 psi.
AT = temperature change from mean laying temperature in degrees F)

/ = Joint restraint ( say / =z 0 ) .

S = Average tie spacing in inches.

R =. Average tie resistance in pounds per tie per rail.

A = Area of rail cross section in square inches.

Ecz Modulus of elasticity (30,000,000 psi).

D = Maximum rail end movement (say 0.375 inch).

Solving for R:

„_ F'S __ 35,870,087,2365 _,c,r>-,o
2DAE " 291,375,000 -^^-^-^^

Where F = 75° X 195 X 12.95 = 189,394 lb

D=0'.375 inch

A r= 12.95 sq inches

E = 30,000,000 psi

S = 21 inches, 24 inches, 27 inches, 30 inches.
For 21-inch tie spacing: R = 2585 lb (say 2.6 kips)
For 24-inch tie spacing: Rr=2955 lb (say 2.9 kips)
For 27-inch tie spacing: R=3324 lb (say 3.3 kips)
For 30-inch tie spacing: R = 3693 lb (say 3.7 kips)

Manual Recommendations 227

10.13.3.2 Traffic-Induced Loads

Only the larger of traffic-induced loads due to traction or braking need be con-
sidered as tliey cannot occur together at a single point on a rail. This force is approxi-
mately 10 kips.

10.13.3.3 Tie Spacing

Since only about 50 percent of the load on a rail is carried by the tie directly
under it with the two adjacent ties carrying the remainder, we can arrive at the
maximum force expected for ties spaced as follows:

21-inch spacing, 50% of 10 kips + 2.6 kips = 7.6 kips
24-inch spacing, 50% of 10 kips -f 2.9 kips = 7.9 kips
27-inch spacing, 50% of 10 kips -f 3.3 kips = 8.3 kips
30-inch spacing, 50% of 10 kips + 3.7 kips = 8.7 kips

Since the greater weight of train should provide an increased friction between
rail and tie and bet\veen tie and ballast, it is felt traffic-induced loads can be ig-
nored insofar as longitudinal restraint is concerned.

The restraint provided between rail and tie, howe\er, need not exceed the
abihty of ballast section to restrain the moxement of ties longitudinally in the ballast
section. It may also be assumed that, in continuous welded rail, some of the longi-
tudinal force due to both braking and traction is transmitted ahead and behind and
absorbed by ties not under or adjacent to the load. In studies made by AREA as
reported in Vol. 56, 1955, the maximum individual tie pressure was recorded as
2930 lb. This was in gravel ballast with ties spaced an average of 19.5 inches (24
ties per rail). The study further concluded that, in gravel ballast, the holding power
of such ballast, not frozen, should not be considered to exceed 1200 lb per anchor.
Slag, limestone and granite ballast should be able to provide greater resistance to
tie mo%ement.

Concrete ties should at least equal the restraining ability of timber ties.

10.13.4 LATERAL RAIL RESTRAINT

Truck instability may occur in the wheel-rail interface due to excessive forces
interacting between tlie wheel and rail in the lateral direction. These lateral forces
tend to cause wheel Hanges to climb the gage side of tlie rail when there is excessive
lateral flange pressure in relation to actual vertical loads. These lateral pressures
are caused by one or more of the following conditions:

(a) Nosing or hunting of truck assembhes at a repetitive frequency.

(b) Centrifugal forces on curved track.

(c) Impact due to irregular wheel and/or rail alinement or configuration.

(d) Rotational acceleration of the vehicle body due to curvature changes.

(e) Wheel friction from curve negotiation.

10.13.4.1 Lateral Forces

A rational determination of lateral force requirements on track fastenings would
be to develop lateral and o\erturning reactions in tlie rail base to the degree tliat
the wheel flanges will climb the rail before the rail would overturn. This limit may
be determined by considering the ratio of lateral force to vertical load necessary
to cause flange chmbing.

228 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Studies made"* show that a ratio of vertical loads (Pi) to lateral forces (Pi)
approaching unity will permit the wheel flanges to climb the rail. Therefore, using
vertical wheel loads of 35,000 lb generated l^y a high-horsepower 6-axle locomotive
as design criteria for maximum vertical loading (Pi), then we could expect a maxi-
mum lateral pressure (Pi) to also be in the order of 35,000 lb. Consequently, con-
sideration of the individual lateral forces referred to in Art. 10.13.4 need not be
considered since lateral forces greater than 35,000 lb would cause wheels to climb.

10.13.4.2 Lateral Force Distribution

Reference to Fig. 10.2.3.1 covering the distribution of vertical loads to ties
indicates that the tie directly imder the load will receive from 45 percent (20-inch
centers) to 60 percent (30-inch centers) of the imposed vertical load while adjacent
ties will each receive one-half of tlie balance. This distribution of loading is a func-
tion of the rigidity of the track structure, which is greatest about the horizontal
axis.

However, rail stressed about the vertical axis by pressure induced by a wheel
flange, has increased stability caused by torsional rigidity of the rail and the effect
of the weight from wheels of adjoining trucks. The calculations to compare the two
conditions of loading are complex, but for our purposes the resistance to bending in
the vertical and horizontal axis are in the same order of magnitude under these
conditions. Therefore, lateral loads applied to the tie may be expected to be dis-
tributed in a manner similar to vertical loads.

Based on the foregoing, the tie fastening system accommodates the following
design stresses in combination:

Horizontal Reaction:

Lateral Force X Distribution Factor (DF)
Vertical Reaction:

[( ■^-'^' ^-- X ^i,^^) - ( J^-^fi^)] X OF

10.13.5 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

10.13.5.1 Signal Circuits

The engineer must give consideration to the electrical environment in selecting
concrete tie designs and specifications. While concrete is not a good conductor of
electricity, it does not have sufiicient resistance or impedance, particularly when
steel reinforcement is in close proximity to rail fastening components, to insure
trouble-free operations of signal appliances depending upon electrical isolation of
the rail if the rails are not insulated from the concrete. From the viewpoint of signal
operation, the value of concern is the impedance per 1,000 ft of track rather than
tlie impedance per tie. The former includes electrical leakage through ballast as
well as the ties which can be expected to perform in wet trackage, and under a
variety of voltages, both ac and dc.

10.13.5.2 Electric Traction

Electric propulsion systems most often rely upon ground return through track-
age for circuit completion. Under these circumstances, it is desirable that the
impedance between rails and ground (ballast and subsoil) not exceed certain maxi-
mum values.

<i* British Railways, Japanese National Railways and the Association of American Railroads.

Manual Recommendations

229

<t LOAD

Pk

THE FOLLOWING FORMULA
SHALL BE USED TO
DETERMINE THE
VALUE OF P
P= 2M

30" TO 'L track ^ ,

POSITIVE MOMENT AT THE
RAIL SEAT AS REQUIRED IN
TABLE I FOR PRESTRESSED
MONOBLOCK TIES OR TABLE
ni FOR TWO BLOCK TIES

x'/2xWIDTH OF TIE RUBBER
SUPPORT (50 DUROMET^R
A SCALE)

2"

M

2"x!"xWIDTH OF TIE
RUBBER SUPPORT
f50 DUROMETER
A SCALE)
SUPPORT

FIGURE I POSITIVE RAIL SEAT MOMENT TEST

^ SUPPORT

(t_ TRACK AND LOAD

(^ SUPPORT

30

3"..3'\

Pn

30

2"

lij-

l"x '/2"xWIDTH OF TIE

RUBBER (50 DUR- |^-l4~
OMETER) SUPPOF^jrin

2"

/5*sW

THE FOLLOWING FORMULA
SHALL BE USED TO DETERMINE
THE VALUE OF P

P=2M
27

M = NEGATIVE MOMENT AT THE CENTER
OF THE TIE AS REQUIRED IN TABLE I

2"xl"x WIDTH OF TIE RUBBER
SUPPORT (50 DUROMETER
A SCALE)

TIE CENTER NEGATIVE MOMENT TEST

FIGURE n

230 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(^ SUPPORT

(^ TRACK AND LOAD (£_ SUPPORT

30

Pn

30

l"xl/2"xWlDTH0FTIE
.RUBBER SUPPORT
50 DUROMETER
A SCALE

THE FOLLOWING FORMULA
SHALL BE USED TO DETERMINE
THE VALUE OF P

P= 2M
27

M= POSITIVE MOMENT AT THE CENTER
OF THE TIE AS REaOiRtD iM TaBlE I

TIE CENTER POSITIVE MOMENT TEST

2"xl"x WIDTH OF TIE
RUBBER SUPPORT
50 DUROMETER
A SCALE

FIGURE m

(^ LOAD
'P=I2 KIPS

HIGH STRENGTH ROD
THREADED BOTH ENDS

-CONCRETE TIE

FIGURE rZ

SUPPORT TO BE SEATED IN
HYDROCAL, HYDROSTONE OR
OTHER MATERIAL APPROVED
BY THE ENGINEER

INSERT PULLOUT TEST

Manual Recommendations

231

LOADING FRAME

?. LOAD AND RAIL

(^ SUPPORT
10"

(I SUPPORT

SUPPORT
OPPOSITE
END OF TIE

ELEVATION

MIN

MIN.

SUPPORT TO BE SEATED
IN HYDROCAL, HYDRO-
STONE OR OTHER MAT-
ERIAL APPROVED BY
THE ENGINEER-

CONCRETE TIE

BLOCKING TO PROVIDE
UNIFORM BEARING
UNDER RAIL BASE

END VIEW

FASTENER UPLIFT TEST

FIGURE 3Z:

232' Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

I

t OF RAIL-

FOR DETERMINATION
OF P SEE ARTICLE
10.9. 1. M (a)

-0.6 P FOR DOUBLE ACTING
HYDRAULIC RAM

-30 KIPS FOR DOUBLE ACTING
HYDRAULIC RAM

'30 KIPS + 0.6P FOR SINGLE
ACTING HYDRAULIC RAM AND
SPRING NESTS

GAGE SIDE OF RAIL

TIE BLOCK SECURELY
FASTENED TO SUPPORT

SUPPORT-

FIGURE m FASTENING REPEATED LOAD TEST

Manual Recommendations

233

?. LOAD

30" TO "t TRACK

THE FOLLOWING FORMULA
SHALL BE USED TO
DETERMINE THE
VALUE OF P
P= 2M

M= NEGATIVE MOMENT AT THE
RAIL SEAT AS REQUIRED IN
TABLE I ORTABueH

r'x l/2"xWIDTH OF TIE

RUBBER SUPPORT

(50 DUROMETER,A SCALE)

2x1 xWIDTH OF TIE
I RUBBER SUPPORT
J (50 DUROMETER.ASCAUE)

•L SUPPORT

FIGURE Sn RAIL SEAT NEGATIVE MOMENT TEST

15

w

30"

P = 7K MAX

m

30

S

52

10"

10

TWO BLOCK TIE CENTER NEGATIVE BENDING TEST FIGURE 3ffll

234 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

15

s

30"

P = 7K MAX.

3 0"

^

a

10

10"

TWO BLOCK TIE CENTER POSITIVE BENDING TEST FIGURE K

Manual Recommendations

235

CO

<

I-
liJ

<

z

o

o

UJ

I-
<

M

UJ
(T.

CD

236 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

P (41 ,000 LBS)

DIAL GAGE FOR
READING GAGE
WIDENING-

SUPPORT

TEST BED

DIAL GAGE
FOR READING
TRANSLATION

FIGURE :ZL FASTENING LATERAL RESTRAINT TEST

Manual Recommendations
Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast

Report on Assignment 1

Roadbed

F. L. Peckover (chairman, subcommittee), J. R. Blacklock, D. H. Cook, G. W.
Deblin, W. a. Eshbaugh, J. B. Haegler, H. O. Ireland, H. W. Legro, F. H.
McGuiGAN, W. C. Murphy, J. E. Newby, S. R. Pettit, P. J. Seidel, W. M.
Snow.

Your committee recommends for adoption and publication in the Manual as an
addition to present Manual material in Part 1 — Roadljed, tlie recommended practice
Section 1.4 — Maintenance, as published in Bulletin 651, January-February 1975,
pages 282 to 297, with the following editorial changes:

Page 287, Fig. 1.4.4— change to Fig. 1.4.2.

Page 288, Art. 1.4.2.2, 2nd last sentence — change Fig. 1.4.4 to Fig. 1.4.2.

Page 291, Table 1.4.4— change to Table 1.4.1.

Page 290, Art. 1.4.3.3.3, last sentence— change Table 1.4.4 to Table 1.4.1.

Page 297, References, item 3 — change "To be presented . . ." to: Peckover, F. L.,
Treatment of Rock Falls on Railway Lines, Bui. 653, June-July 1975, p. 471-503.

If Section 1.4 — Maintenance, is approved for publication in Part 1 — Roadbed,
of Chapter 1 of the Manual, the following editorial changes in Section 1.1 — Explora-
tion and Testing, and Section 1.2 — Design, will be necessary:

Art. 1.1.2.3, para. 1, last line (p. 1-1-4): delete "Section 1.4 — Maintenance,"
substitute "Article 1.4.3."

Art. 1.2.1, ]Dara. 3 (p. 1-1-11): delete "(to be prepared)," substitute "softening
and squeezing of subgrade, frost heaving of track, rock falls, failures of earth slopes,
and control of erosion."

Art. 1.2.2.1.4, para. 6, last sentence (p. 1-1-14): delete "(see Section 1.4—
Maintenance)."

Art. 1.2.2.1.7, para. 3, last sentence (p. 1-1-19): delete "under Section 1.4 —
Maintenance, on. . ." Substitute "in Article 1.4.2 on maintenance of . . ."

Art. 1.2.2.2.6, 2nd sentence (p. 1-1-21): delete "Section 1.4 — Maintenance,"
substitute "Articles 1.4.3 and 1.4.5. '

Art. 1.2.3.6, last para. (p. 1-1-26): delete "Section 1.3 — Construction," sub-
stitute "Article 1.3.5."

Art. 1.2.3.7, 3rd para., 2nd .sentence (p. 1-1-26): delete "Section 1.4 — Main-
tenance," substitute "Article 1.4.5."

Table 1.2.5 (p. 1-1-32): increase print size for table number and title, for im-
proved reference purposes.

Art. 1.2.4.3.3, 1st para., 2nd sentence (p. 1-1-28): delete "Culverts," substitute
"Culverts and Drainage Pipe."

References (p. 1-1-30), item (2): delete: "Chicago," substitute "New York."

Art. 1.2.5.3, 3rd para., 2nd line) (p. 1-1-31): after "sub-ballast" add "(see
Article 1.4.1.2.)."

Art. 1.2.5.5, 5th para., last line (p. 1-1-35): delete "Section 1.4 — Maintenance,"
substitute "Article 1.4.1.4."

237

238 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 9

Vegetation Control

H. C. Archdeacon (chairman, subcommittee), H. E. Bartlett, R. H. Bogle, Jr.,
E. B. Grant, T. J. Hernandez, P. R. Houghton, D. N. Johnston, H. E.
McQueen, J. M. Nunn, G. D. Santolla, W. H. Stumm.

Your committee submits for adoption and publication in Part 9 — Vegetation
Control, Chapter 1 of the Manual, the accompanying Table 3 — Susceptibility of
Woody Species to Herbicide Treatments.

TABLE 3 - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

The followlriR treatments are typical of those frequently used. This list Is
not intended to be exhaustive. Additional Information on other chemicals is available
through federal and state agencies, university extension services and suppliers. The letter
code for treatments is not intended to jlmply anV order of preference, but is used solely
to conserve space on the following table:

STEM FOLIAr.E SPRAYS

A. 2, A-DP plus 2, 4-D. 2 lb. plus 2 lb. per 100 gal. wateri

B. Ester amine and oil soluble amine of 2, A-D plus 2, 4, 5-T. 2 lb. olus

2 lb. per 100 g^l. water.

C. 10 gal. Ammonium Sulfamate solution plus 1 qt. surfactant per 100 gal. water.

D. Plcloram plus 2, 4-D. H lb. plus 2 lb. per 100 gal. water.

E. Dlcamba plus 2, 4, 5-T (or 2. 4-D), 1 lb, plus 2 lbs. per 100 gal. water.

DORMANT CANE SPRAYS

F. Ester of 2, 4-D plus 2, 4, 5-T. 3 lb. plus 3 Ih . per 100 gal. oil.
STUMP OR BASAL SPRAY

G. Ester of 2, 4-U plus 2, 4, 5-T. 8 lb. plus 8 lb. per 100 gal. oil.
AERIAL SPRAY

H. Ester of 2, 4-D plus 2, 4, 5-T. 6 lb. plus 6 lb. as Invert emulsion

or as conventional through ralcrofoil or other drift control devices or additives.

DRY PELLET APPLICATIONS

I. Plcloram lOZ pellets. 60 to 85 lbs. per acre.
SUSCEPTIBILITY CODE

S - Susceptible (over 90X rootkill)

S-I - Susceptible to Intermediate (70Z to 90Z rootkill)

I - Intermediate (50% to 70Z rootkill)

I-P - Intermediate to Resistant (30% to 50% rootkill)

R - Resistant (less than 30% rootkill)

Manual Recommendations

239

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

1 SPECIES

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

II

I

Acacia farneslana hulsache
Alder (Alnus spp. )

I

I

I-R

S-I

S-I

s

Common (A. serrulata)
j Red (A. rubra)
j Speckled (A. Incana)
Apple (Malus spp. )

S
S
S

s
s
s

I
I
I

s
s
s

S
S
S

s
s
s

s
s
s

s
s
s

S-I

I

S-I

Common (M. pumlla)

I

I-R

R

I

S-I

I

s

I
s

S

Crab (M. ionesls)
Arborvltae, eastern

I

S

I-R

s

S-I

s

s

(Thuja occidentalls)

S-I

R

I-R

s

s

s

I-R

s

Ash (Fraxinus spp.)

Blue (F. quadrangulata)

s

S

I

S-I

s

s

s

R

S-I

Red (F. Pennsylvanlca)

I

I-R

I-R

R

s

s

s

R

Oregon (F. latlfolla)

S

S-I

s

s
s

s
s

R
R

R

I

White (F. amerlcana)

I-R

I-R

I-R

R

s

Black (F. nigra)

I

I-R

s

s

s

Aspen, quaking

(Populus tremuloldes)

S

S-I

S

S

s

S-I

s

s

Azalea (Rhododendron spp.)

Piedmont (R. conescens)

I-R

I

I

I

S-I

S-I

R

Western (R. occldentale)
Barberry, Allegheny

S

I

S

S-I

R

(Berberis canadensis)

S

I-R

s

I

S-I

S
S

s

R

Basswood (Tllla amerlcana)

I-R

I-R

1-R

s

s

Bayberry, north

(Myrica Pennsylvania)

S

S

S-I

S

I

s

s

s

Bearberry

(Arctostaphylos uvaursl)

I

I

I

I

s

s

Beech, American

(Fagus grandlfolla)

I-R

I-R

I

S-I

S-I

S-I

S-I

R

s

Birch (Betula spp.)

Yellow (B. lutea)

s

S

S-I

S

S

s

s

s

s
s

River (B. nigra)

s

s

S-I

S

S

s

S

s

Gray (B. popull folia)

s

s

S-I

s

s

s

s

s

s

Paper (B. alba var. papyrifera)

s

s

S-I

s

s

s

s

s

s
s
s

Black (B. lenta)

s

s

S-I

s

s

s

s

s

Blackberry (Rubus spp.)

S-I

s

S-I

s

s

s

s

s

240 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

u

I

Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatlca)

I

I-R

S-I

s

s

s

s

s

Blueberry (Vaccinlum spp.)
Boxelder (Acer negundo)

S-I

S-I

I-R
S

S-I

s
s

S-1
S-I

s

K

R

I

s

S-I

Broom scotch (Gytlsum scoparius)

I-R

I

s

s

Buckbrush, coral berry

(symphoricarpus orbiculatus)

S

I

s

I

S

S-I

I-R

s

Buckeye (Aesculus spp.)

Ohio (A. glabra)

Sweet, yellow (A. octandra)
Buckthorn (Rhamnus spp.)

California (R. California)

I-R

S-I

R
R

R

I

s
s

S-I

s
s

s

I-R
I-R

I

Common (R. Cathartica)
Hollyleaf, redberry (R. Crocea

var. lliclfolla)

R
R

I
I

S-I
S-I

s
s

I
I

Butternut (juglans clnerea)
Button bush, common (Cophalanthus

occidentalis )

I-R
S-I

I-R
R

S-I

I

S-I
S-I

s

s

I-R
I-R

s

s

Cascara, buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana)

I-R

1-R

S-I

S-I

s

R

Catalpa (Cacalpa spp.)

Eastern (C. bignoniodes)

S

I

S-I

s

I-R

s

Western (C. speclosa)

I

S-I

s

I-R

Ceanothus (Ceonothus spp-.)

Blue blossom (C. thy rsl f lorus )
Chapparal white thorn(C. leucodermis)

S

s

S-I

S

I
I

s
s

s
s

S
S

Varnlshleaf (C. velutinus var.

laevigatus )

S-I

s

I

s

s

S

Deerbush (C. Integer rimus )
Wedgeleaf (C. cuneatus)

S-I

s
s

s

I

s
s

s
s

S
S

Mountain whitethorn (C. Cordulatus)

s

s

s

s

S

Jersey tea (C. americanus)
Jimbrush (C. sorediatus)

s

s

s
s

s
s

S
S

1 Cedar (Juniperus spp.)

Eastern red (J. Virginiana)
Southern red (J. silicicola)

I
I

R
R

S
S

S-I
S-I

s
s

S-I
S-I

S-I
S-I

R
R

s

s

Chamise, greasewood(Adenostoma

Fasciculatum)

S-I

R

S-I

I

s

S

s

Cherry (Prunus spp.)
Black (P. serotina)

S-I

S

S

S

s

S-I

S-I

I

s

Sweet (P. avium)

s

S

S

s

s

s

s

I

s

Choke (P. virginiana)

1

s

S

S

s

s

s

s

S-I

s

Manual Recommendations

241

TABLE 3 CCONTINUED] - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

II

I

Chestnut (Castenea dentata)

S

S

S-I

s

S

s

s

S

Chinkapin, Allegheny (Castenea pumlla)

s

I

s

s

I-R

Chlnaberry (mella azedarach)

I-R

I-R

I

s

R

Coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus)

S-I

s

s

S-I

Condulla, lotewood (Condulla obtus-

IfoXia)

s

S-I

Cottonwood (Populus spp.)

Plains (P. sargentll)

S-I

s

s

S-I

s

S-I

s

Rio Grande (P. Hlallzenl)

I

s

S-I

s

Eastern (P. deltoides)

S

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

s

s

s

Downy, black (P. het erophy 11a)

S-I

s

s

s

Coyote brush (Baccharls pilularlis)

s

R

I

s

I

Creosotebush (Larrea dlvarlcata)

I

R

S-I

S-I

I

s

Chrlstnasberry , toyon (Photlnla

arbutlfolla)

S-I

I

I

s

I

Currant (Rlbes spp.)

Gooseberry (R. montlgenum)

s

S

S

s

S-I

s

Nutmeg (R. glutinasum)

s

s

s

S-I

Prlckley (R. lacustre)

s

s

s

S-I

Sierra (R. nevadense)

s

s

s

s

S-I

Sticky (R. vlscosisslmun )

s

s

s

S-I

Stink (R. bracteosum)

s

s

s

s

S-I

Trailing black (R. laxlflorum)

s

s

s

S-I

Wax (R. cereura)

s

s

s

S-I

Western black (R. petlolare) |

s

s

s

s

S-I

Winter (R. sangulneum)

s

s

s

S-I

Cypress (Taxodlum spp.)

Common baldcypress (T. distichum)

I-R

R

s

I

I

1

I

R

s

Pond baldcypress (T. ascendens)

R

s

I

I

I

I

R

s

Dangleberry (Raylussacla Frondosa)

I

I

R

s

Deervetch, broom (Lotus scoparlus)

s

I

s

S-I

Devll-s - walkingstick(Aralia splnosa)

I

S-I

s

I

s

s

s

Dewberry (Rubus spp.)

I

I

R

S-I

s

I-R

s

Dogwood (Cornus spp.)

Pacific (C. nuttalll)

S-I

s

S

s

s

s

I

Flowering (C. Florida)

s

S

s

s

s

s

I

Elder (Sambucus spp.)

Pacific red (S. calllcarpa)

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

I

s

Blueberry (S. cerulea)

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

I

s

Common (S. Canadensis)

i

S-I

S-I

R

1

s

S-I

S-I

I
1

s

242 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENT!

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

II

I_

Elm (Ulmus spp.)

American (U. Americana)

I

I

R

S

S

S-I

s

I

S

Slippery (U. Fulva)

I

I

R

S-I

s

S-I

s

I

s

Winged (U. alata)

I

I

R

S-I

s

S-I

s

I

S

Evergreenchlnkapln (Castanopsls spp.)

Sierra (C. Sempe rvlrens )

I

I

S-I

s

I

Golden (C. Chrysophylla var. minor)

S-I

I

S-I

s

I

Filbert beaked; hazel (Corylus cornuta)

S

S

S-1

S

I-R

s

s

s

s

Fir (Abies spp.)

White (A. concolor)

I

R

S

S

s

S-I

S-I

R

s

Balsam (A. bulsamea)

I

I-R

S

S^I

S

S-I

S-I

R

s

Grand (A. grandls)

1-R

R

S

s

S

S-I

S-I

R

s

Noble (A. procera)

I-R

R

S

s

S

S-I

S-I

R

s

Gallberry, inkberry (Ilex glabra)

S-I

I-R

S-I

S-I

I

Goldenweed, f leece (Haplopappus arbor-

escens)

S

s

Gooseberry (Ribes spp.)

California (R. Calif ornlcum)

S

s

I

S

S-I

Canada (R. oxyacanthoides )

S

I

s

S-I

Desert (R. velutlnum)

S

I-R

s

S-I

Hupa (R. marshallli)

S

s

S-I

Sierra (R. roezlii)

S

s

I-R

s

S-I

Siskiyou (R. binominatum)

S

s

R

s

S-I

Tulare (R. tularense)

s

s

S-I

Whltestem (R. Inerme)

S

s

S-I

Gorse, common (Ulex europeus)

S

I

s

S-I

s

Granjeno (Celtis pulllda)

S-I

s

S-I

s

Grape, riverbank (vltls riparia)

S

R

S-I

S-1

s

S-I

s

N. fox grape (V, labrusca)

s

S-I

s

Greasewood, black (Sarcobatus

vermlculatls)

s

R

I

s

I

Greenbrier, catbrler (Smllax rotundlfol-

ia)

I-R

R

I

I

R

Hackberry (Celtis occldentalis)

S-I

R

S-I

I

s

S-I

I

s

Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.)

Cockspur thorn (C. crus-galll)

I

I

R

S

I

I

S-I

I-R

s

Scarlet (C. coccinea)

I

S-I

Flestry (C. succulenta)

Manual Recommendations

243

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

E

F

r.

H

I

Hazel (Corylus spp.)

California (C. Callfornlca)
American (see filbert)

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)

Hickory (Carya spp.)

Bitternut (C. cordlformls)
Hockernut (C. tonentosa)

I

S-I
S-I

s
s

R

S-I
S-I

s
s
s

S-I
S-I

S
S
S

S-I
S-I

S

s
s

s
s

S

S

S-I

S-I
S-I

s

S-I

s

s
s

R
S-I

s
s

S-I
S-I

Pecan (C. pecan)
Pignut (C. glabra)
Shagbark (C. orata)
Shellbark (C. laclnlosa)

S-I
S-I
S-I
S-I

S-I
S-I
S-I
S-I

S-I

S-I
S-I

S-I
S-I

s
s

S-I
S-I
S-I

S-I

s
s
s

Holly (Ilex amerlcana)

Honeylocust (Cledltsla trlacanthos)

I

I

S-I

I

s

S-I
S-I

s
s

S-I
S-I

s

S-I

I-R
S-I

S-I

s

Honeysuckle (Lonlecra Japonlca)

S-I

S-I

R

S

s

s

s

S-I

s

Hophornbeam (Ostrya vlrglnlana)

s

I

S

s

s

s

I-R

s

Hornbeam, America (Carplnus carolinlana)
llorsebrush, llttleaf (Tetradymla glabrata
llorsechestnut (see Buckeye)

s

I-R

s

s

s

s

s

S-I

I-R
I-R

s

Hydrangea, smooth (Hydrangea aborescens)

s

s

s

s

s

s

Juniper (Junlperus spp.)
Alligator (J. deppeana)
One-seeded (J. monasperma)

I

R
R

I

I
I

S-I
S-I

I-R

R

S-I
S-I

Utah (J. osteosperma)
Western (J. Occident alls )

Kalmla (Kalmla spp.)

Lambkill (K. angus 1 1 folia)
Mountalnlaurel (K. latlfolla)

Larch (Larlx spp.)

Eastern (L. decldua)

I

I-R
I-R

R
R

I-R
R

R

R
R

R

I

I-R
I-R

S-1
S-I

R
I-R

I-R

I-R
S-I

R

I-R

S-I

I
I

Western (L. Occident alls )
Leatherwood, Atlantic (Dlrea palustrls)
Lilac (Syrlnga vulgaris)
Locust (Roblnla pse udoac ac la)

S-I

I-R

S
S-I
S-I

S
S

S

I-R

I-R

I-R

S

s
s
;-i

S

S-I

S

Hadrome, Pacific (Arbutls raenzlesll)

s

s

s

s

s

Manzanlta ( Arct os t apy los spp.)
Howell (A. hlspldula)

s

S

r.reenleaf (A. patula)
Hairy (A. Columbiana)
Whlteleaf (A. vlsclda)

s

s
s
s

R

S

I-R

s
s
s

s
s

s

244 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

F.

F

G

II

1 1

Magnolia (Map.nolla spp.)

Cucumbertree (M. acuminata)

I

S-I

s

I-R

S

s

S-I

S-I

Sweetbay (M. virp.lnlana)

R

R

R

I

I-H

I

Maple (Acer spp.)

Red (A. rubrum)

R

I

R

S-I

S-I

s

I-R

s

Silver (A. saccharlnum)

I-R

S

s

S

S-I

s

Sugar (A. saccarophorum)

S-I

I-R

I

I

S-I

S-I

s

Vine (A. circlnatum)

R

I-R

R

I

S-I

S-I

s

Blgleaf (A. macrophy 11a)

R

R

I

S-I

S-I

s

Mesquite, honey (P ros op is jullflora var.

glandulosa)

R

S

R

S-I

I-R

s

s

Velvet (Prosopis jullflora var.

velutlna)

S

R

I-R

s

Mockorange (Phlladelphus vlrginalus)

S-I

S-I

s

s

Mount ainmahogany (Cerocarpus spp.)

I

I

Mountain misery, bear clover

(Chamaebatla follolosa)

I

I

s

Mulberry, red (Morus rubra)

I-R

R

I-R

S-I

I-R

s

Oak (quercus spp.)

Black (q. nigra)

S-I

S-I

S

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

Blackjack (Q. marllandica)

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

S-I

S-I

Bur (Q. macrocarpa)

S

S

s

S-I

s

S-I

Canyon live (0. chrysolepls)

S-I

s

S-I

California scrub (Q. dumosa

I

s

California white (Q. lobata)

s

s

Chestnut (Q. prinus)

S-I

s

S-I

I

S-I

s

Live (Q. virginlana)

S-I

S-I

S-I

S-I

s

Pin (Q. palustrls)

S

S-I

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

Post (Q. stellata)

S

S

s

S-I

S-I

s

Laurel (Q. laurifolia)

S-I

S-I

S-I

s

Red (Q. rubra var. borealis)

S

S-I

S-I

I

S-I

S-I

S-I

Scarlet (Q. coccinea)

S

S-I

I

I

S-I

S-I

Swamp white (Q, bicolor)

s

S

S-I

s

Oregon white (Q. garryana)

s

s

s

White (Q. alba)

S

s

s

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

Ocean spray (Halodlscus discolor)

S-I

S-I

s

Oregongrape (Mahonia aquifolla)

I

I

S-I

I-R

Osageorange (Madura pomifera)

s

R

I

S

s

S-I

s

Palmetto (Saval palmetto)

S-I

R

I-R

s

S-I

Pecan (Carya illinocnsis)

I

I

I

S-I

s

S-I

Manual Recommendations

245

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

Persimmon (Ulospvros virglniana)

I

R

s

s

I

S-I

S-I

s

Pine (Pine spp.)

E. White (P. strobus)

S-I

R

S

S

s

S

S-I

I-R

s

Loblolly (P. caeda)

S-I

R

S

s

s

s

s

Lodgepole (P. contarta)

S-I

R

S

s

s

s

s

Longlcaf (P. palustrls)

S-I

R

s

s

s

s

s

Pitch (P. rigida)

S-I

R

S

s

s

s

s

Ponderosa (P. ponderosa)

S-I

R

s

s

s

Red (P. resionsa)

I

s

s

s

s

s

Shortlcaf (P. echlnata)

I

R

s

s

s

s

s

Slash (P. caribaea)

S-I

I

s

s

s

s

s

Sugar (P. lambertlana)

I

s

s

s

Table mountain (P. pugens)

S-I

I

s

s

Virginia (P. virglniana)

S-I

R

I

s

S-I

s

s

Western white (P. monticola)

I

s

S

s

s

Jack (P. bankslona)

S-I

I

s

s

s

s

s

Plum (Prunus spp.)

Chickasaw (P. angus tl folia)

S

s

I

s

s

S

American (P. amerlcana)

S-I

S-I

s

I

s

Allegheny (P. alleghenlensls )

s

I

s

s

Poison ivy (Rhus radlcans)

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

Poison oak (Rhus spp.)

Common (R. toxicodendron)

S-I

s

s

S-I

I

S-I

s

Pacific (R. dlverslloba)

s

s

I

1

Poplar, balsam (Populus balsamlfera)

s

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

S-I

S

s

s

White (P. alba)

S-I

S-I

Prlcklyash, common (Zanthoxylum

americanun)

S-I

I

I-R

S-I

S-I

s

s

Pricklypear (Opuntia spp.)

Fragile (0. fragills)

I

R

s

I-R

S

I

s

Mission (0. megacantha)

I

s

Plains (0. polyacantha)

I

s

Spreading (0. humlfusa)

I

Privet, swamp (Forestlera acuminata)

R

I-R

R

I

S

s

s

Rabbltbrush ( Ch rysoth aranus spp.)

Douglas (C. viscldiflorus)

I-R

R

s

Greene (C. greenci)

I

s

I

Southwest (C. pulchellus)

I-R

I

Bui. 655

246 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

11

I

Raspberry (Rubus spp.)

Red (R. Idaeus)

S-I

I

S

s

s

Black (R. occldencalls)

S-I

I

S

s

s

Redbus (Cercis spp.)

Eastern (C. Canadensis)

S-1

I

s

s

S-I

S-I

S

S-I

s

Western (C. Occident alls )

I

s

s

S-I

S-I

s

Redwood (Sequoia sempe rvlrens )

I

I

s

S

S

I

Redcedar, western (Thuja pllcata)

I

R

s

S-I

S-I

I

I

R

s

Rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.)

Canadian (R. Canadense)

R

R

I

I

I-R

R

Pacific (R. macrophy Hum)

R

I

Rosebay (R. maximum)

R

R

R

I

I

I

Rose (Rose spp.)

Arkansas (R. arkansana)

I

R

S-I

California (R. Californica)

I

Cherokee (R. laevigata)

I

R

s

McCartney (R. bracteata)

S-I

S-I

R

s

S

s

Multiflora (R. multlflora)

S-1

•I

R

s

S-I

s

Sweetbrlar (R. eglanterla)

I

R

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)

Big (A. tridentata)

s

S

R

s

I-R

S

Black (A. nova)

s

s

I-R

California (A. Californica)

s

s

I-R

Sand (A. fllifolia)

s

s

s

I-R

Silver (A. cana)

s

s

I-R

Salal (Gaultherla shallon)

I-R

1-R

R

I-R

Salmonberry (Rubus spectabllis)

S-I

S-I

R

S-I

I

Saltbush, fourwlng (Atrlplex canescens)

S

S

R

S-I

Saltcedar (Tamarlx pentendra)

I

I

I

S-I

I-R

S-I

S-I

s

Sassafras, common (Sassafras albldun)

S-I

S-I

S-I

s

S-I

I

s

s

Serviceberry (Amalanchler spp.)

Allegheny (A. laevis)

I

S-I

s

I

s

Pacific (A. florida)

S-I

s

Saskatoon (A. alnlfolia)

S

S-I

S-I

s

Shadblow (A. Canadensis)

s

S-I

s

Snowberry (Symphorlcarpos spp.)

Common (S. alba)

s

s

I

I

Western (S. Occident alls)

s

I

Manual Recommendations

247

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

c

D

E

F

G

H

I

Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreun)

I

I-R

R

I

I

S

S-I

I

s

Splcebush, common (Llndera benzoin)

S

S

S

S

I

S

S

S-I

s

Spire a (Spiraea spp.)

Hardback (S. tomentosa)

I

X

I

I-R

s

S-I

s

Meadowsweet (S. alba)

s

I

I-R

Spruce (Plcea spp.)

Black (P. marlana)

1

R

R

I

S-I

S-I

S-I

R

s

Engclnann (P. engelmanni)

I-R

R

R

S-I

S-I

s

Norway (P. abies)

I

R

R

I

S-I

S-I

s

Red (P. rubens)

I

R

R

S-I

I

s

Sitka (P. sitchensis)

1-R

R

R

S-I

I

s

White (P. glauca)

I

R

R

S-I

I

s

Sumac (Rhus spp.)

Fragrant (R. aromatlca)

S

S-I

R

s

S

S-I

S-I

s

s

Laurel (R. laurlna)

S

R

s

S-I

s

Poison (R. vernix)

s

R

S-I

s

Smooth (R. glabra)

S-I

S-I

s

s

S-I

s

Staghorn (R. typhina)

S

S-I

S-I

s

S

S-I

s

Sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina)

S-I

I

I

I-R

Sweetgum (Liquidambor styraciflua)

S-I

S

S

I

I

s

s

s

s

Sycamore (Platanus occi den talis )

s

s

S

s

S-I

s

s

s

s

Tamarack (Larix laricina)

S-I

I

I

S-I

s

S-I

I-R

s

Tamarisk (See Saltcedar)

Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)

s

I-R

s

s

S-I

Tarbush (Flourensia cernua)

I

R

R

I

Tassajillo (See Pricklypear)

Thiinbleberry , western (Rubus parviflorus)

I

I

I-R

s

Titi (Cliftonia monophylla)

s

R

S-I

S-I

S-I

s

Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima)

s

S-I

I

R

s

s

I

s

Trumpetvine (Campsis radlcans)

I

I

R

S-I

S

I-R

S-I

Tulip tree (Li riodendron styraciflua)

s

S-I

I

s

S-I

s

s

S-I

s

Viburnum (Viburnum spp.)

Arrowwood (V. dentatum)

s

I

I

I

S-I

s

I-R

s

Mapleleaf (V. ace rlf ollum)

I

I

I

S-I

s

Nannvberry (V. lentago)

I

I

I

S-I

s

Blackhaw (V. rufidulum)

I

I

S-I

I

S-I

s

Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus

quinque folia)

I

I

R

I-R

I-R

248 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) - SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WOODY SPECIES TO HERBICIDE TREATMENTS

SPECIES

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

1

Wahoo, eastern (Euonymus at ropurpureus )

S-I

I-R

S

S

I

Walnut (Juglans nigra)

S

s

S

I-R

S

S

S-I

S

Waxmyrtle (Myrica spp.)

Pacific (M. californica)

I

I

R

R

S-I

s

I-R

s

Southern (M. cerifera)

I

I

R

R

S-I

1

s

Whltebrush (Aloysia lycloldes)

I

R

I

Willow (Sallx spp.)

Black (S. nigra)

S-I

S-I

s

S

S

I

s

s

s

Ditchbank (S. interior)

S-1

S-I

s

I

s

s

Pacific (S. lasiandra)

s

s

Red (S. laevigata)

S-I

I

s

Sandbar (S, exlgua)

S-I

s

s

White (S. alba)

S-I

Yellow (S. lutea)

S-I

Witchhazel (Hamamells spp.)

Common (H. vlrglnlana)

S

s

s

S

s

s

s

s

Southern (H. macrophylla)

S

Yaupon (Ilex vomitorla)

I

I

S-I

R

I-R

Yerbasanta (Eriodictyon spp.)

California (E. Californicum)

S-I

I-R

I

Narrowleaf (E. angusti folium)

S-I

I-R

Woolly (E. crassifolium)

S-I

Yellowwood (Cladrast is lutea)

S-I

I-R

's

s

I

Yew (Taxus spp.)

Florida (T. floridana)

S-I

R

S-I

S-I

S-I

R

s

Pacific (T. brevifolia)

I-R

S-I

S-I

s

Yucca (Yucca elata)

S-I

I

R

I-R

s

S-I

s

Manual Recommendations
Committee 15 — Steel Structures

Report on Assignment B

Revision of Manual

D. L. NoRD (chairman, Subcommittee on Revision of Manual), J. G. Clark (chairm.an.
Subcommittee on Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Require-
ments in AREA Specifications Relating to Steel Structures), R. I. Simkins (cfmir-
man, Subcommittee on Continuous Welded Rail on Bridges), A. J. Wood
(chairman, Subcommittee on Welded Steel Railway Bridges), D. S. Bechly,
A. B. Belfield, Jr., E. S. Buxkenwald, E. Bond, T. J. Boyle, J. C. Bridge-
farmer, H. L. Chamberlain, H. B. Cundiff, L. F. Currier, E. J. Daily, A. C.
Danks, J. W. Davidson, F. P. Drew, J. L. Durkee, G. F. Fox, J. W. Hart-
MANN, J. M. Hayes, G. E. Henry, C. A. Hughes, L. R. Hurd, M. L. Koehler,
R. C. McMaster, D. V. Messman, W. H. Munse, G. E. Morris, R. D.
Nordstrom, A. L. Piepmeier, M. Schifilacqua, A. E. Schmidt, F. D. Sears,
H. Solarte, a. p. Sousa, J. E. Stallmeyer, Z. L. Szeliski, J. D. Tapp, Jr.,
W. M. Thatcher, R. N. Wagnon, C. R. Wahlen, R. H. Wengenroth,
W. Wilbur.

Your committee submits for adoption the following revisions to the SPECIFI-
CATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES, Chapter 15 of the Manual:

Page 15-1-15, Art. 1.3.14.3 — Unit stresses for combinations of loads, and
page 1.5-2-7, Art. 2.3.2.3 — Unit stresses for combinations of loads, revise as follows:

Change title of Articles by adding the words "or wind forces only."

Redesignate subarticle 2.3.2.3 (c) as 2.3.2.3 (d).

Redesignate subarticles 1.3.14.3 (b) and 2.3.2.3 (b) as 1.3.14.3 (c) and 2.3.2.3
(c), respectively.

Revise the last lines in present articles 1.3.14.3 (b) and 2.3.2.3 (b) to read
". . . provisions of (a) or (b) alone," and delete the word "other" in the .second
line.

Subai-ticles 1.3.14.3 (a) and 2.3.2.3 (a) to remain as written.

Add new subarticles 1.3.14.3 (b) and 2.3.2.3 (b) to read:

"(b) The basic allowable unit stresses of Section 1.4 shall be used in the
proportioning of members subject to stresses resulting from wind force only, as
specified in Art. 1.3.8."

On page 15-1-18, change Art. 1.4.2 to read as follows:

1.4.2 Weld Metal

( a ) Groove Welds

Tension or compression 20,000 psi

Shear 12,500

(b) Fillet Welds

Shear, regardless of direction of applied force.

Electrodes or electrode-flux combinations with:

60,000 psi Tensile Strength "* 16,500

70,000 psi Tensile Strength * 19,000

°but not to exceed 12,500 psi shear stress on base metal.

249

250 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

On page 15-2-10, change Art. 2.4.2 to read as follow.s:

2.4.2 Weld Metal

In the formulas, F„ =r yield point of l)ase metal as specified in Art. 2.2.1

(a) Groove Welds

Tension or compression 55 F„

Shear 35 F„

(b) Fillet Welds

Shear, regardless of direction of applied force.
Electrodes or electrode-flux combinations with:

70,000 psi Tensile Strength "19,000 psi

80,000 psi Tensile Strengtli '22,000

"but not to exceed 0.35 Fy shear stress on base metal.
On page 15-1-34, delete subarticle (e) of Art. 1.11.4 and redesignate sub-
articles (f), (g), (h) and (i) of Art. 1.11.4 as (e), (f), (g) and (h), respectively.
On page 15-9-19, delete reference to Paragraph (e) in Art. 9.1.11.4 and
redesignate the references to Paragraphs (f), (g), (h) and (i) in Art. 9.1.11.4 as
(e), (f), (g) and (h), respectively. Cliange the word "paragraph" to "subarticle"
wherever it appears in Art. 9.1.11.4.

On page 15-3-5, delete Art. 3.1.12 (b).

Revise, as follows, proposed new Section 8.3 — Anchorage of Decks and Rails on
Steel Bridges, as published in Bulletin 650, November-December 1974, pages 242-
245:

Art. 8.3.4.1 Movable spans: Add new paragraph as follows:
"(b) Deck and rails shall be anchored to the movable span as specified by tlie
engineer to prevent movement during opening and closing."

Delete all of Art. 8.3.5 and change designation of Art. 8.3.6 to 8.3.5.

Your committee also submits for adoption tlie following editorial changes in
the SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES, Chapter 15 of the
Manual:

On page 15-2-2, Art. 2.2.1 (c): change the requirements for forged steel from
A 235 or A 237 to A 668.

On page 15-2-2, Art. 2.2.1 (c): change the table for high-strength structural
steel as follows:

1. The thickness limitation column for A 572, Grade 60, be changed from
"To 1, incl." to "To 1/4, inch".

2. The thickness limitation column for A 572, Grade 50, be changed from
"To 1/2, incl." to "To 2, incl.".

3. The applicable to shape colvunn for A 588, Fy 50,000 be changed to "All."

4. The applicable to shape column for A 588, Fy 46,000 be changed to "None."

5. The applicable to shape column for A 572, Grade 50, be changed to
"Groups 1, 2, 3 and 4."

6. The applicable to shape column for A 572, Grade 42, be changed to
"Group 5."

On page 15-1-11, revise Art. 1.3.8 to read:

"(a) The wind force on the imloaded bridge shall be taken at 50 lb per sq ft
of surface as defined in Art. 1.3.7."

Manual Recommendations 251

On page 15-1-3, revise Art. 1.2.1 as follows:

1. Change the requirement for forged steel from A 235, Class E, to A 688,
Class D.

2. Delete wrought iron.

On page 15-1-3, Art. 1.2.1 (a): change "Specifications" to "Designations" and
move "current" to modify requirements.

On page 15-2-2, make the following changes:

1. In Art. 2.2.1 (a), change "Specifications" to "Designations" and move
"ciurrent ' to modify requirements.

2. In Art. 2.2.1 (c), add footnote 4 at bottom of table: ("4" to be added
to all but first column at left)

"4 These data are for infonnation only and are current as of May, 1975."
On page 15-9-4, delete the last sentence of the first paragraph and insert the
bibliography reference (2) between the words "tests" and "were" in the next to
last sentence of the first paragraph.

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PART 2

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES

Nofe: Discussion on subcommittee reports herein closes on January
20, 1976.

253

Bui. 655

Report of Committee 9 — Highways

C. A. Christensen,

Chairman
L. T. Cerny,

Vice Chairman
G. U. Mentjes,

Secretary

J. E. Spaxgleh
J. R. Summers
P. A. Shuster
H. L. Michael
C. Shoemaker
A. O. Kruse
T. P. Cunningham
C. W. Smith
R. E. Skinner
J. L. Whitmeyer
P. J. McCuE
W. W. Allen
H. J. Barnes
J. M. Bates

J. P. BOLLING

W. B. Calder
A. L. Cabpenter
J. W. Cruikshank
F. Daugherty
R. A. Downey
L. L. George
R. V. Gilbert
H. D. Hahn
C. I. Hartsell (E]

WxM. J. Hedley (E)

D. P. Insana

P. G. Jefferis, Jr.

M. D. Ken yon

R. V. Loftus

R. F. MacDonald

R. A. Mather

J. C. Miller

H. G. Morgan (E)

G. S. MUNRO

R. D. Pamperl

R. H. Patterson

W. C. Pinschmidt (E)

J. E. Reynolds

H. A. Richards

F. E. Rosencranz

P. L. Sehnert

M. R. S PROLES

D. Veitch

W. E. Webster

H. J. WiLKINS
H. L. WOLTMAN
C. H. WORBOYS

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman
and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your Committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Progress report submitted as information page 256

1. Grade Crossing Inventory and Accident Report Forms, Records and
practices.

Information is being gathered and the committee expects to develop
recommendations for new report forms and signs in the coming year.

2. Merits and Economics of Types of Grade Crossing Surfaces.
Report on performance of railbound concrete slab crossing on EJ&E in
Griffith, Ind • Page 257

3. Summary Reporting of Significant Piil)Iications on Grade Crossing
Safety.

Summarized reports furnished as information page 258

4. Evaluation of Developments in Passive and Xon-Train-Actuated Grade
Crossing Warnings.

No report for past year's acti\ ity.

5. Study of Motor Vehicle Codes and Drivers' Licensing Practices.

Progress report submitted as information page 263

255

Bui. 655

256 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

6. Air Rights for Highways Over Railroad Property.

No report for past year's activity. Highway Researcli Board's Report
No. 142 has recently been released and it will be reviewed by tlie
committee.

7. Evaluation of Developments in Train-Actuated Grade Crossing Warn-
ings, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Communication and
Signal Section, AAR.

No report for past year's activity.

8. Investigate Uses and Types of Rumble Strips and Their Adaptability
for Approaches to Highway-Railway Grade Crossings.

Progress report submitted as information page 264

9. Study of Public Pedestrian Crossings.

Progress report submitted as information page 266

10. Summary Reporting of Administration of State Crossing Safety
Programs.
A new subject. No report for past year's activity.

The CoMMrrxEE on Highways,

C. A. Christensen, Chairman.

Report on Assignment B

Revision of Manual

J. E. Spangler (chairman, subcommittee), J. M. Bates, C. A. Christensen, L. T.
Cerny, J. W. Cruikshank, F. Daugherty, R. V. Gilbert, H. D. Hahn, C. I.
Hartsell, D. p. Insana, P. G. Jefferis, R. V. Loftus, R. F. MacDonald,
G. U. Mentjes, J. C. Miller, G. S. Munro, R, E. Skinner, David Veitch,
W. E. Webster, Jr., C. H. Worboys.

Consideration is now being given to revisions in portions of the miscellaneous
section of Chapter 9 of the Manual. Proposals include the substitution of the DOT-
AAR Crossing Inventory Form for the Highway Grade Crossing Record now shown
on pages 9-M-6 and 9-M-7, changes in the Accident Report on pages 9-M-4 and
9-M-5, revision of the type of barriers used in closing grade crossings and at dead-
end streets on pages 9-M-2 and 9-M-3, and deletion of sample sheets showing record
of delays at grade crossings (pages 9-M-8 and 9-M-9).

Highways 257

Report on Assignment 2

Merits and Economics of Types of Grade Crossing Surfaces

p. A. Shuster (chairman, subcommittee), W. B. Calder, L. T. Cernv, C. A.
Christensen, J. W. Crudcshank, T. P. Cunningham, R. A. Downey, R. V.
Gilbert, H. D. Hahn, C. I. Hartsell, Wm. J. Hedley, A. O. Kruse, R. V.
LoFTus, G. S. MuNRo, R. D. Pamperl, R. H. Patterson, F. E. Rosencranz,
G. Shoemaker, W. E. Webster, Jr., C. H. Worboys.

On page 159 of Volume 74 of the AREA Proceedings, there is a report on an
inspection of a new design concrete slab crossing in the vicinity of Diisseldorf,
Germany, by a committee member.

In October of 1973, the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway installed four of these
crossings at Broad Street in Griffith, Indiana, at the request of the city. The city
contributed tlie additional cost of these slabs over the cost of the solid timber crossing
that the railroad had intended to install at its own cost. The initial reaction to the
crossing by the city was very favorable, with smootli riding qualities evident to the
motorists. However, within five months of the time of installation, various problems
started to occur, especially the breaking of the hardware holding the rail to the steel
rod which runs under the rail (in this design crossing there is no direct attachment
of the crossing slabs to the cross ties, only attachment to the bar running under
the rail). The washers and bolts and spring clips experienced breakage and the
concrete-filled bags supporting the slabs on top of the tie experienced an approximate
15% failure rate. An additional problem was the fact that the insulation, which is
required if this crossing is used with track circuits, did not hold up and numerous
calls of the signal maintainer were necessary on overtime. Considerable bridge and
building time was also required for maintenance of the crossings.

At present, maintenance is stabilized at approximately one gang day (four men
per gang) every two months. The manufacturer has been working with the railroad,
and at various times redesigned hardware and insulation were substituted for that
already in the crossing. The manufacturer has now proposed a new type insulation
for the two crossings which are in signal territory and a new reactive spring washer
to absorb some of the stresses in the hold-down hardware.

In view of the above it is the opinion of this committee that this crossing should
still be regarded as in the developmental stage, especially if use on heavy-duty track-
age is involved. During all tliis time the highway riding qualities have remained
smooth, but this has been only with considerable maintenance on die railroad's part.
The opinion of the railway is that it would have been better to install the railroad's
standard full-depth timber crossing, as this design can often go with no maintenance
for ten or more years under similar conditions. The subcommittee intends to report
further on additional developments on this particular crossing.

This is a progress report submitted as information.

258 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 3

Summary Reporting of Significant Publications on
Grade Crossing Safety

H. L. Michael (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. George (vice chairman, subcom-
mittee), W. W. Allen, J. P. Bolling, A. L. Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. A.
Christensen, M. D. Kenyon, A. O. Kruse, R. V. Loftus, P. J. McCue, R. A.
Mather, R. D. Pamperl, R. H. Patterson, H. A. Richards, R. E. Skinner,
C. W. Sauth, J. R. Summers, David Veitch, J. L. Whitmeyer, H. J. Wilkins,

H. L. WOLTMAN.

INTRODUCTION

The Subcommittee assignment continues to be the reporting in summary format
of significant publications or developments in grade crossing safety. This year four
publications and progress on several significant research projects in grade crossing
protection are reported.

"The Effectiveness of Automatic Protection in Reducing AccroENT Frequency

AND Severity at Public Grade Crossings in California/' California

Public Utilities Commission, Transportation Division, and

Railroad Operation and Safety Branch, Traffic

Engineering Section, San Francisco, California,

June 30, 1974.

This report is more comprehensive than were previous annual studies of this
same title. The executive summary of the report, slightly modified in the opening
paragraph, summarizes the content very well and follows.

This study was sponsored by the Office of Trafiic Safety of California to assist
the California Public Utilities Commission in performing its duties related to grade
crossing regulation, to determine the scope of the vehicle-train accident problem
in California, to gauge the effectiveness of various types of warning devices being
currently advocated by the Commission, and to critically investigate tlie possible
use of warrants or criteria to assist in recommending wliere monies should be spent
on railroad-highway grade crossing warning improvements. The study provides infor-
mation regarding the installation of various warning devices and the cost to the
public.

The project was segregated into four separate studies based upon: (1) a ques-
tionnaire mailed to all cities and counties in California; (2) an examination of the
before-and-after accident histories of 1,552 grade crossings currently protected by
automatic devices; (3) a summary of the actual and estimated costs of installing
automatic warning devices at 1,296 locations; and (4) an examination of the feasi-
bility of using warrants or criteria to assist in placing grade crossing warning devices.

The questionnaire designed to appraise local concern and awareness of the
vehicle-train accident problem in California was mailed to 380 cities and counties.
The local governmental agencies were requested to describe their decision-making
processes, including whether or not they used specific warrants or criteria, how
they rated the relative importance of several physical conditions common to many
pre-existing hazard indices, sufficiency rating and regression equations and how

Highways 259

they specifically felt about the j^racle crossing pio,i;iam as handled by the Public
Utilities Commission.

The effectiveness analysis was designed to assess the capacity of various warn-
ing devices in reducing the number of vehicle-train accidents and their related
deaths and injuries. In all, 1,552 locations were chosen where automatic warning
was installed between January 1, 1960, and December 31, 1970. Compared, for
each crossing, were the number of accidents, deaths and injuries per year, and the
number of deaths and injuries per accident.

In order to gauge the installation costs of automatic warning, 1,296 locations
were chosen where automatic warning was proposed or installed between January 1,
1966, and December 31, 1973. In addition to listing the actual or estimated in-
stallation cost at each location, each crossing's previous warning devices, number
of tracks, railroad, type of device installed and the proposed year of installation
were documented.

To examine the possible use of warrants or criteria in the installation of auto-
matic signals, 115 locations were chosen at random from the 1,552 crossings used
as input locations for the effectiveness analysis. Only crossings presently protected
by automatic devices were chosen for the purpose of examining past policies of the
Commission as it concerns warning improvement to try to pinpoint any discernible
patterns. The detailed information on each crossing was used to: (1) develop a
regression equation to predict accident rates; (2) compare several hazard indices
and sufficiency rating equations; and (3) explore the use of joint study or a limited
diagnostic approach.

The four separate studies included in this project have shown or at least indi-
cated the following:

( 1 ) There is little concern among local governmental agencies regarding
the grade crossing situation in California as it exists today.

(2) Many agencies feel the financial responsibility for installation of auto-
matic warning should be borne by the State or Federal government.

(3) The use of warrants or criteria to assist in the installation of auto-
matic warning is not widespread, although many agencies feel the State
should adopt criteria or warrants in some form.

(4) Local agency engineers responded that average daily vehicular traffic,
daily train traffic, comer visibility, vehicular and train speed, in that
order, are the most important physical characteristics to be considered
when contemplating a grade crossing warning improvement.

(5) Responses to the questionnaire ranged between criticism of the "dicta-
torial and seemingly arbitrary way in which the Commission staff
administers the program" to praise for the grade crossing program and
a desire for the retention of the informal manner as presently pursued
by the Commission staff.

(6) Vehicle-train accidents and casualties between 1965 and 1972 were
reduced by 41%.

(7) The 1,552 locations examined experienced a 69% reduction in the
number of vehicle-train accidents per year, an 86% reduction in deaths
and an 80% reduction in the number of injuries per crossing year after
the installation of automatic warning devices.

260 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

(8) Due to their ability to seize the attention of approaching motorists,
both flashing-light signals and flashing lights with automatic gates
ofi^er the ability to drastically reduce the number of vehicle-train acci-
dents and related casualties.

(9) Keeping in mind severely limited functional definitions, urban grade
crossings bear significantly higher vehicle-train accident rates than
rural crossings do, and are less affected by the installation of auto-
matic signals in terms of accident reduction.

( 10 ) Automatic warning has its limitations, but will go a long way toward
the elimination of vehicle-train accidents if combined with good driver
judgment.

(11) The benefits enjoyed from the installation of automatic warning come
at the expense of significant public and private investment, the cost of
installing flashing lights averaging $8,919 and automatic gates $18,682
over the 1966 to 1973 period.

( 12 ) By 1973, the average cost of installing flashing lights and automatic
gates had risen to $10,671 and $23,534, respectively.

(13) Some factors which appear to affect the installation cost of automatic
warning include the geometries and physical conditions of the cross-
ing, the type of device installed, the proximity of adjacent grade cross-
ings protected by automatic devices, the complexity and sophistication
of track circuitry required, and finally, the railroad involved.

(14) In addition to the installation cost, automatic warning requires signifi-
cant periodic maintenance. For the year 1972, using a $30 per relative
unit cost, this amounted to $456 average at crossings protected by
flashing lights and $949 at crossings protected by automatic gates.

( 15 ) Large volumes of research material are presently available concerning
methods of determining urgency or priority of warning improvement
of railroad crossings.

( 16 ) No universal agreement has been reached between the interested
parties on the conclusions of the past studies, and the actual methods
of approach from hazard index equations and sufficiency ratings to
predictive equations resulting from regression analyses have come
under attack.

(17) The attempt to design a regression analysis approach to predict future
accident rates from simultaneous combinations of several independent
variables did not prove fruitful. It is the staff's opinion that this is due
to the lack of accurate data over the study period and the small
sample size because of the low incidence of vehicle-train accidents.

(18) Hazard index and sufficiency rating equations generally address them-
selves to improvement priorities and not to the most efficient type of
warning device.

( 19 ) Due to the multiplicity of characteristics found in California's trans-
portation network, it is the Commission staff's position that single equa-
tions cannot be adopted with good conscience on a statewide basis.

(20) The method favored by the study staff incorporates the expertise of all
parties involved, and is based upon the joint recommendations of rail-
road, local agency, and Commission engineers. The limited diagnostic

Highways 261

method is dependent upon accurate, complete, up-to-date information
on each crossing within a jurisdiction and is adaptable to any number
of computational priority detemiinations.
(21) The key word is cooperation backed by a genuine realization of the
needs and constraints of the parties involved. Any method or set of
warrants, or criteria, used to assist in determining grade crossing
warning improvements will run into difficulty for the simple reason
that three separate and distinct organizations are involved, each with
its own needs, constraints and responsibilities. To encourage participa-
tion, any method adopted must remain flexible and receptive to all
parties concerned.

Proceedings, 1974 National Conference on Railroad-Highway Crossing
Safety, Sponsored by U.S. Deft, of Transportation, August 19-22, 1974.

The report contains many brief articles on railroad-highway crossing safety by
practitioners from all parts of the United States. The contents are best summarized
briefly by a listing of the tides of these articles.

Partners in Railroad-Highway Grade Crossing Improxement Programs

Estabhshing a Grade Crossing Safety Program

Partners in Improvement and Establishing a Crossing Safety Program

New Approaches to Program Management

Establishing the Program Mix

Urban Railroad Relocation

Research and New Developments

National Crossing Inventory and Numbering

Proposed National Railroad-Highway Crossing Inventory

Accident and Accident Severity Prediction Equations

New Passive Devices (Pooled Fund Research Project)

In-\'ehicle Warning Systems for Railroad Grade Crossing Applications

Model for Evaluation of Alternative Grade Crossing Resources

Rail Safety/Grade Crossing Warning Research Program

"Railroad-Highway Vehicular Movement Warning Devices at Grade

Crossings," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol.

IA-11, No. 2, March-April 1975, Paul Longrigg.

The abstract of this paper is as follows:

"Railroad operations have for many years been plagued with poor safety per-
formance at grade crossings. Many lives are lost each year in accidents at crossings,
to say nothing of costly injuries and property damage sustained. The situation has
gotten worse with the adxent of soundproofed cars, being driven at high speed in
c-onditions of poor visibility. Clearly, then, some improved method of warning
motorists as they approach a grade crossing is needed. Analysis of a critical en-
counter between a road veliicle and a locomotive reveal that the presently used
equipment is inadequate to meet the needs of present-day high-speed vehicles. A
system of vehicular mo\ement warning devices is described in this paper that might
improve to some extent die safety of grade crossing operations. Two methods are
detailed. One involves static directional sonic devices positioned at the crossing;

262 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

warning activation is made on a real-time closing velocity determination. The other
system employs a special variety of cattle-guard in the roadway, to issue a tactile
warning. Both systems are designed to give adequate warning to a motorist in a
critical encounter situation as he approaches the crossing with a convergent loco-
motive on the track(s). A bonus feature in die use of selectively activated static
directional sound warning sources would be the curtailment of urban noise levels,
where trains presently use the mobile audible source to issue warnings."

FrasT Year Review: Protection and Advance Warning Signs at Railroad-
Highway Grade Crossings, Minnesota Highway Department,
St. Paul, Minnesota, December 1974

This brief report summarizes the condition of the signs and the accidents at
grade crossings on two Burlington Northern lines where new or improved existing
protection signs and advance warning signs were installed in 1973. The findings
were that 7.4% of the signs had been vandalized (gunshot damage) in tlie first
year although some of these were still satisfactory for use. Thirteen of 580 signs
were missing and seven others were in need of replacement or re-erection.

A comparison of accidents during the year with accidents during previous pe-
riods is also made. No conclusions, however, could be reached as the after-period
number of accidents were so few.

RESEARCH IN PROGRESS

Considerable research and implementation continued in the area of railroad-
highway grade crossing safety. The Norfolk & Western Railway reports two new
studies on passive signing in Ohio using yellow crossbucks with black border with
an auxiliary information sign, "Look for Train," also being used in one of the
studies.

The State of Florida is carrying out the mandate of legislation effective July 1,
1972, which placed regulatory authority over public rail-highway crossings in the
Department of Transportation and directed that a program be adopted which would
eliminate hazards at such crossings. A five-year program for warning devices has
been adopted with completion in 1980. A total of 2,991 crossings are to be
signalized.

The Lieutenant Governor's Conference at its meeting in 1974 adopted the
following Resolution:

WHEREAS, the rail-highway grade crossing is one of the most critical areas
of traffic accidents in the nation, involving 7,000 injuries and 1,500 deaths
annually on our streets, roads and highways; and,

WHEREAS, accidents at dangerous crossings can be completely eliminated;
and,

WHEREAS, there is an urgent need to afford relief to the environment and
to avoid the economic loss to society from traffic delays at rail-highway grade
crossings in boda urban and rural areas;

BE IT RESOLVED, that the Congress is requested to appropriate sufficient
funds for mandatory use to eliminate hazardous rail-highway grade crossings
both on and off the Federal-aid system by constructing overpasses and under-
passes, relocating streets or highways to eliminate grade crossings and clos-
ing unnecessary grade crossings.

Highways 263

CONCLUSION

The availabiUty of funds under the 1973 Safety Act passed by Congress em-
phasized the importance of impro\ing safety at railroad-highway grade crossings
and provided funds for initiation of such improvements. Although the State high-
way departments appeared to be slow in initiating such a program, there are clear
indications that effective programs are being developed and that many improve-
ments will be made. It should be emphasized, however, that, as Georgia officials
recently pointed out, the funds allocated for 1974-75-76 will only permit improve-
ment of about 5% of the total grade crossings in that State. Obviously much addi-
tional work is required.

In \ie\v of these facts and the growing activity in the grade crossing field, it
is recommended that the assignment of this subcommittee be continued as it cur-
rently e.xists.

Report on Assignment 5

Study of Motor Vehicle Codes and
Drivers' Licensing Practices

A. O. Kruse (chairman, subcommitiee), H. W. Barnes, J. M. Bates, J. P. Bolling,
W. B. Calder, a. L. Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, M. D.
Kenyox, R. A. Mather, G. U. Mentjes, J. E. Reynolds, P. L. Sehnert, P. A.
Shuster, J. R. Summers, R. F. Spars, H. J. Wilkins, H. L. Woltman.

In January of 1975 >our committee sent letters to the Governor's safety repre-
sentatives of all of tlie States and Territories forwarding a copy of a model section
entitled, "Railroad Grade Crossing Information for Driver License Manuals."

Replies were recei\ed from 19 States, the District of Columbia and three Terri-
tories. All replies indicated tliat faxorable consideration \\ould be given to including
the information in future editions of the States' drivers' manuals wliere this infor-
mation is not now a part of the manual.

The committee plans to make furtlier contact with those States \\ hich have not
responded.

This is a progress report submitted as infonnation.

264 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association
Report on Assignment 8

Investigate Uses and Types of Rumble Strips and Their

Adaptability for Approaches to Highway-Railway

Grade Crossings

R. E. Skinnek {chairman, subcommittee), W. B. Caldeh, L. T. Cerny, C. A.
Christensen, R. a. Downey, L. L. George, C. I. Hahtsell, J. C. Miller,
G. S. MuNRO, R. H. Patterson, F. E. Rosencranz, P. L. Sehnert, P. A.
Shuster, W. E. Webster, Jr., H. J. Wilkins, C. H. Worboys.

The use of "rumble strips" as a traffic control device continues to be a subject
of interest to many people in the highway, academic and railroad fields. As evidence
of this interest, tlie following is a partial list of a number of publications related
to this subject.

1. "Effect of Rumble Strips on Traffic Control and Driver Behavior," M. L.
Kermit and T. C. Hein, Highway Research Board Proceedings, Vol. 41,
1962, pp 469-482.

2. "Rumble Strips at Hazardous Locations," Better Roads, Vol. 35, No. 1,
Jan. 1964, pp 16-21.

3. "Effect of Rumble Strips at Rural Stop Locations on Traffic Operation,"
R. D. Owens, Highway Research Record, 170, 1967, pp 35-55.

A comprehensive investigation of the influence of rumble strips on traffic
operations at rural stop locations showed that a reduction in traffic speed,
better stop sign observance and a decreasing trend in accidents were
obtained.

4. "Rumble Strips Used as a Traffic Control Device," Highway Focus,
Vol. 4, No. 3, 1972, pp 35^1.

Twenty-Three experimental rumble strips used on approaches to nine
intersections to give audible warning of dangers ahead. Three different
Rumble Strip configurations were used and a before and after accident
survey showed tliat rumble strips can be used as a temporary method
of warning motorists. They are of little value as permanent installations.

5. "Use of a Rumble Strip to Reduce Maintenance and Increase Driving
Safety," R. Gaboon, Highway Research Board, Special Report 107, 1970,
pp 89-98.

An experiment to design recessed rumble strips to give the same effect
as raised markers. These recessed rumble strips can be used in areas
where snow plows are operated.

6. "Use of Rumble Strips to Reduce Maintenance and Increase Driving
Safety," K. D. Fairmont, Utah State Department of Highways, Interim
Report 1968.

7. "Development of an Effective Rumble Strip Pattern," W. R. Belles,
Traffic Engineering, Vol. 37, No. 7, 1969, pp 22-25.

The type, purpose and action of various itimble strips installed in the
various states are described. The problems associated with an experimental
rumble installation on durability and eftectivness in reducing accidents
are also discussed.

Highways 265

8. "Rumble Ships Revisited," M. L. Kemiit, Traffic Engineering, Vol. 38,
No. 5, 1968, pp 26-30L

Accident figures before and after the installation of rumble strips.

9. "In Further Support of Rumble Strips," D. W. Hoyt, Traffic Engineering.
Discusses accident reduction at nine rumble strip installations in Illinois
and presents pertinent data in support of this highway feature as an
effective safety device.

10. "Rumble Strips for Safety," G. J. Lindman, Highway Focus.

Some traffic control devices become so familiar tliat they do not register
in a driver's mind, while monotonous roads can lead a driver into a semi-
conscious state. Rumble strips can correct this problem by alerting a
driver tlirough an audible noise and vibration through the steering wheel.
Accident data before and after installation are presented.

11. "Grooved Rumble Strips as a Traffic Control Device in Pennsylvania,"
R. W. Taylor, A Thesis in Civil Engineering, November, 1974, Pennsyl-
vania State University, Graduate School, Department of Civil Engineering.
A conclusion is drawn that grooved rumble strips are effective in reducing
accidents, especially in concrete pavements. The writer, however, sug-
gests rumble strips be used as an interim measure (three years) until
a more lasting design change can be incorporated, for example, traffic
signal installation.

This is a progress report submitted as information with tlie recommendation
that this assignment be continued in order that further information can be developed
and reported to the Association.

266 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 9

Study of Public Pedestrian Crossings

J. L. Whitmeyer (chairman, subcommittee), W. W. Allen, W. B. Calder, A. L.
Carpenter, L. T. Cerny, C. A. Christensen, J. W. Cruikshank, T. P. Cun-
ningham, F. Daugherty, H. D. Hahn, C. I. Hartsell, Wm. J. Hedley, D. P.
Insana, R. F. MacDonald, G. U. Mentjes, J. C. Miller, J. E. Spangler,
R. F. Spars, D. Veitch, C. H. Worboys.

Pedestrian grade crossings are an important safety issue to both the railroads
and public jurisdictions. Although relatively few such crossings exist as compared to
vehicular grade crossings, which pedestrians also use, increasing attention is being
directed to improve site conditions and warnings for pedestrian use.

Unique signs and automatic warning signals for pedestrian crossings have been
developed in three states (see accompanying appendices). These signs and devices
closely follow the pattern of standards found in die Manual on Uniform Traffic Con-
trol Devices relating to at-grade railroad crossings. Although standard railroad type
flashing signals, gates and bells are in use at some crossings, variations range from
a single flashing-light signal with one red light in each direction to a vertical pair
of flashing yellow lights and sign. A few signals are fitted with the larger 12-inch
roundels for maximum light distribution. The automatic bell continues to be an
eftective audible warning to pedestrians, whetiier used alone or in conjunction with
lights. Railroads favor signs and signal devices which are stock items for simplified
maintenance and economic reasons.

Of growing importance and concern are the "bikeway" crossing proposals
resulting from recent legislation. A California city is actively considering the adop-
tion of standards to cover at-grade bicycle crossings and pathways on railroad prop-
erty. Their proposal calls for the use of one red flashing-light signal with back
light and bell at each crossing to include a sign to read "BICYCLES ONLY," similar
to the State's standard pedestrian sign.

Railroad opposition to pedestrian and bicycle crossings is often overruled by
State authority. A recent Wisconsin order specified a crossing should be 8 ft wide,
composed of black top widi a flange plank, provided with cross bucks, arterial
"STOP" signs and advance warning signs. The city was obligated to remove vege-
tation in the immediate vicinity of the crossing. Subsequently, the railroad granted
an easement to the city for the public bicycle trail crossing cross its right-of-way.

Conversely, cooperation between a railroad and a public agency often results in
a negotiated license agreement, and can result in a private crossing under control
of the railroad with the city indemnifying the railroad through public liability and
property damage insurance naming the city and railroad as co-insured.

A California committee composed of representatives from the railroads, cities.
State and Commission is actively engaged in a study of bicycle crossings with par-
ticular emphasis on probable need for bikeway crossings of railroads separate from
highway crossing, the type of crossing construction which should be considered,
possible use of dismount barriers and need for automatic warning devices. The report
is expected to be available in late 1976.

This report is submitted as information with recommendation that the subject
be continued.

Highways

267

Appendix A

California Public Utilities Commission

PEDESTRIAN RAILROAD GRADE CROSSING SIGN

-

* 18" *

■

r r

RAILROAD

2"

R> /r

3"
t

30"

/xx\

1

\y x/

1

CROSSING

T
2"

PEDESTRIANS

iV

'

ONLY

t }

Black Lettering on Whit
Reflectorized Silver Ea

e or
ckground

268 Bulletin 655— American Railway Engineering Association

Appendix B

PEDESTRIAN CROSSING PROTECTION
Flashing-light Type

Approximately
8 feet

&

Crossing Bell

Pedestrian Railroad
Grade Crossing Sign

4 inch Pipe Post

Highways

269

Appendix C

RECOMMENDED BY TRAFFIC ENGINEERING DIVISION,
CITY OF CHESAPEAKE, VIRGINIA

Pedesti'ian Railroad Grade Crosslnp; Sign

Yellow
Black -

Standard Va. Depv.
of Hwy. Sign W-$2-A

?" Red" Lenses
Flasher

\ I

PEDESTRIANS
ONLY "

STOPIZ^

WHEN FLASHING

U2'

Red Letteiing on White Background

270 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Appendix D

7^

^SIDEWALK

V^

Public Utility Commissioner of Oregon, Railroad Division, Standard No. 2P
Pedestrian Flashing Light Signal (Preliminary).

Highways

271

Appendix E

OlirAR^fr-ENT or PUBLIC WORKS

BUREAU OF ENGINEERING

CITY OF DE3 MCuNES, IOWA

Project: BICYCLE TRAILS

-J

WHITE
ON R£0

BLACK
ON WHITE V

■^

r

PRIVATE

RJtR

CROSSING
V J

Report of Committee 11 — Engineering Records and
Property Accounting

R. D. Igou, Chairman
L. F. Grabowski,

Vice Chairman
G. R. Gallagher,

Secretary

M. F. McCORCLE

p.

G. McDermott

w

, C. Kanan

R.

L. Ealy

A.

P. Hammond, Jr,

C.

J. McDonald

C.

E. Bynane

J.

C. KiRCHEN

F.

B. Baldwin (E)

P.

J. Beyer, Jr.

J.

M. Bourne

W

. F. Burt

R.

H. Campbell

J.

R. Cressman

R.

M. Davis

C.

R. DOLAN

W

. V. Eller

L.

D. Farrar

J.

R. Geary

C.

C. Haire (E)

M

. J. Hebert

P.

J. Hendricksen

E.

H. Hofmann

P.

R. Holmes

J.

J. Hoolahan

L.

W. Howard

x\. J. Hull, Jr.
G. F. Ingraham
J. W. Kelly
W. F. Liszewski
R. W. Lively
J. G. Maker
J. L. Manthey

D. C. Maris

J. C. McKeague
S. Miller, Jr.
G. L. MuCHOW
R. F. Nelson
J. J. O'Hara
C. F. Olson
A. H. Patterson
H. L. Rest all (E)
J. M. Randles
P. W. Roberts
R. S. Shaw, Jr.
V. E. Smith

E. E. Strickland
J. B. Styles

T. A. Valacak
H. R. Williams

Committee

( E ) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman
and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.
No revisions to report.

2. Bibliography.

Progress report, submitted as infonnation piige 274

3. Office and Drafting Practices.

No report. AFE field inventory reports and as-built plans under study.

4. Special Studies.

No report. Methods for preparing standard form AFE estimates by
mechanized process under study.

5. Application of Data Processing.

Final report on simplified methods of allocating recorded cost of

reported units, submitted as information page 274

6. Valuation and Depreciation.

Progress report, submitted as infonnation page 276

7. Revision and Interpretation of ICC Accounting Classifications.

Progress report, submitted as information page 277

The Committee on Engineering Records and Property Accounting,

R. D. Icou, Chairman

273

274 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association
Report on Assignment 2

Bibliography

p. G. McDermott (chairman, subcommittee), P. J. Beyer, Jr., J. R. Chessman,
C. R. DoLAN, L. D. Farrar, A. P. Hammond, R. D. Igou, J, L. Manthey,
J. J. O'Hara, E. E. Strickland, T. A. Valacak.

Your committee submits the following report of progress, presenting additional
references with annotations.

OFFICE PROCEDURE

Reprographics, September 1974, page 13, "Pre-printed Overlay Film Saves
Drafting Time."

A forward-looking manager will always look for new techniques that elimi-
nate repetitive drafting chores.

Modern Office Procedures, June 1974, "Calculators: More for the Money;"
"Jackets: A Compact Way to Dress Up a File System."

Reprographics, October 1974, page 4, "Reprographics Techniques — Basic Pho-
tofabrication Terminology."

A new concept involving the production of parts through the use of chemical
rather than physical action.

Reprographics, October 1974, page 11, "Quantity Production of Computerized
Engineering Drawings."

Substitution of keyboards and lightpens for pencils and straightedges.

Modern Railroads, February 1975, pages 51-53. "What Price Money."

This article focuses on the problem of how can railroads carry and finance debt
at 12% when they are only earning 4%.

Progressive Railroading, March 1975, pages 31-34. "The Future of Engineer-
ing— M/W Management."

The key to understanding our present position and future expectations is to
acknowledge that certain management techniques will be needed.

Report on Assignment 5

Application of Data Processing

A. P. Hammond, Jr. (co-chairman. Subcommittee on Accounting Phases), C. J.
McDonald (co-chairman. Subcommittee on Engineering Phases), C. E. Bynane,
R. H. Campbell, C. R. Dolan, R. L. Ealy, W. V. Eller, G. R. Gallagher,
J. G. KmcHEN, W. F. LiszEWSKi, J, B. Styles, H. R. Willl^ms.

METHODS OF ALLOCATING RECORDED COSTS TO
REPORTED UNITS IN THE TRACK ACCOUNTS

The compilation of ledger values for the track accounts is becoming increas-
ingly burdensome. It is recognized throughout the industry, particularly by those
in valuation and property accounting work, that steps must be taken to develop a
less complicated, yet acceptable, method of compiling these ledger values.

Engineering Records and Property Accounting 275

A simplified method of allocating costs recorded in the books of accounts to
the reported track account units, or so-called "average pricing," is considered to
be the best solution to the problem. In selection of a system, the units to be used
and the method of developing the unit cost to be applied will vary for different
carriers depending upon the type and condition of the basic record and the detail
reflected therein.

This report is presented as a brief summary of the answers to a questionnaire
submitted to members of the full committee.

1. The valuation section was selected as die primary segment for balancing
costs and averaging unit costs.

2. Most members recommend allocating average unit costs on a weighted
basis to main tracks, branch lines and side tracks by valuation sections
to units in the track accounts.

3. Nearly all the members responding would compile actual units of Ac-
count 3, Grading, for ledger \alue puiposes and several would do the
same for Account 11, Ballast, due to the wide variation used in con-
struction. The majority of the members would consolidate units by rail
pattern weights or by homogenous rail groups for the other track ac-
counts. Most carriers who maintain detailed track records would continue
to use actual recorded quantities in allocating average unit costs to de-
velop ledger values.

4. Establishing units for controlling averages in the track accounts other
than Account 10, Other Track Material, poses little difficulty. The same
results can be obtained whether units such as cubic yard, each, mbm.,
cwt., gross ton, net ton, track foot, track mile, etc. . . . , or combinations
such as gross ton per track mile are used. Account 10, Otlier Track Ma-
terial, has numerous minor units currently recorded in the property rec-
ords, and most members recommend consolidating these units into a few
major units for controlling averages. Three possible units are:

(a) Rail displacement materials . . . unit each or cwt (includes frogs,
swatches, crossing frogs, etc.).

(b) Track fastenings . . . unit each or cwt (includes joints, tie plates,

anchors, etc.).

(c) Other items . . . unit each or cwt (includes bumping posts, rail
flange lubricators, etc.).

In conclusion the committee believes that tiiere is a need for a pricing system
to be developed entailing the restructuring of valuation, field and accounting re-
porting. These reports must interface with the computer in order to produce the
required records, controls and reports.

276 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 6

Valuation and Depreciation

C. E. Bynane (cluiirnuin, subcommittee), J. R. Chessman, W. V. Eller, G. R.
Gallagher, L. F. Grabowski, M. J. Hebert, P. J. Hendricksen, E. H.
HoFMANN, P. R. Holmes, N. J. Hull, Jr., R. D. Igou, J. G. Maher, D. C.
Maris, P. G. McDermott, C. J. McDonald, S. Miller, Jr., J. B. Styles,
H. R. Williams.

(A) CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CONNECTION WITH
REGULATORY BODIES AND COURTS

ICC Bureau of Accounts

During the fiscal year 1975 the Commission continued its five-year cyclical
review of equipment depreciation and the Accounting and Valuation Board issued
32 railroad equipment depreciation orders. Depreciation analyses of all road property
accounts for all eligible Class I railroads were completed during fiscal 1975 and 51
railroad road property depreciation orders were issued.

The road property depreciation analyses of all eligible Class I railroads reinforced
the tentative findings of tlie fiscal 1974 study for 14 Class I carriers in that the
results were in line with expectations, and tlie anticipated large deficiency in past
accrued depreciation has not developed. As mentioned in last year's report of this
subcommittee, problems witli salvage determination and experience were particularly
troublesome in the deprication analysis and the chief of tlie Depreciation Branch has
advised the chairman of this subcommittee that he would welcome input from Com-
mittee 11 members on their views with respect to a more satisfactory method of
accounting for salvage proceeds.

As information, an Interim Coordinator's report on Ex Parte 271, Net Investment
— Railroad Rate Base and Rate of Return, by Commissioner Dale W. Hardin was
issued on March 3, 1975, 345 ICC 410, and summarizes the findings of the prelimi-
nary analysis of the 1974 road property depreciation study for the 14 Class I railroads.
The report is well wordi reading, particularly with respect to the discussion about
Accounts 3, 5 and 39 (grading, tunnels and subways, and public improvements —
construction ) .

Internal Revenue Service

Closely related to the discussion about Accounts 3 and 5 in the above-mentioned
Coordinator's report to the ICC is one of the issues decided in favor of the taxpayer,
Chesapeake & Ohio Railway and affiliated companies versus the Commissioner of
Internal Revenue, Docket Nos. 5904-70, 5646-71.64 TC-No. 35, filed June 2, 1975,
wherein it was decided that petitioner's (C&O) investment in grading and tunnel
bores had, as a result of obsolescence foreseeable in 1954, reasonably determinable
useful lives such as to entitle petitioner to depreciation deductions for such invest-
ment in tax years 1954 through 1963.

In the same decision there are two other subjects treated and decided, one being
ratable depreciation of track structures based on obsolescence foreseeable in 1954
wherein the taxpayer's petition for such deduction was denied, the other subject
being the determination of the fair market value of petitioner's recovered reusable

Engineering Records and Property Accounting 277

rail wherein the court developed its version of a compromise between the IRS and
petitioner's versions which produced an interesting and apparently favorable result
for die petitioner.

The abo\e-nientioned decision in full is reconunended reading for everybody
interested in \aluation and depreciation.

Report on Assignment 7

Revisions and Interpretations of ICC Accounting
Classifications

J, G. KmCHEN (chairman, subcommittee), J. M. Boubne, T- R- Geaky, N. J. Hull,
G. F. Ingraham, J. W. Kelly, W. F. Lisze\\'ski, J. G. Maher, D. C. Maris,
P. G. McDermott, J. McKeague, S. Mu-ler, P. W. Roberts, T. A. Valacak.

This is a progress report, presented as information, on changes affecting engi-
neering records and property accounting only.

ICC Order No. 32153 (Sub. No. 5) with a service date of January 22, 1975,
Accounting for Accumulated Depreciation on Improvements to Leased Property,
establishes a new and separate Account 733, Accrued Depreciation; Improvements
on Leased Propert>', and transfers these amounts from Account 785 which now is
Accrued Liability-; Leased Property, and will include only the lessee's unsetded liabili-
ties to the lessor. Eftecti\e January 1, 1975.

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order No. 36125 with a service date of
April 11, 1975, Reporting E.xtraordinary, Unusual or Infrequently Occurring Events
and Transaction; Prior Period Adjustments; the Effects of Disposal of a Segment of
a Business. These include instructions for clarifying the criteria for extraordinary
items, for prior period adjustments and reporting rules for certain accounting changes
and provides new guidelines for detennining materiality. Also, definitions for a
segment of a business and related accounting terms and instructions for reporting
the operating results and gain or loss on disposal of a segment.

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order No. 36137 with a service date of May
20, 1975, Revision of Rules on Classification of Carriers. This proposal would in-
crease the minimum railway operating rexenue from $5 to $10-million for Class I
carriers and establish time period for qualifying and changing classifications.

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Order No. 36141 with a service date of
April 1, 1975, Corporate Disclosure Regidations, would require carriers to re\eal
in their annual reports details of their parents and subsidiaries, who votes dieir
common stock, business affiliations of the company's principal officers and executi\ es
and details of long- and short-term debt and financing lease arrangements.

i

I

Report of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals

B. H. Price, Chairman

P. C. White,
Vice Chairman

G. H. Chabot, Secretary

R. F. Beck

H. L. Bishop

J. F. Chandler

H. B. Christiansox

A. W. NiEMEYER

C. E. Stoecker

p. E. Van Cleve

C. F. Intlekofer

J. Zaenger

J. B. Kerby

R. P. AiNSLIE

A. S. Krefting (E)

M. J. Anderson

W. L. Krestinski

J. K. AusT

C. J. Lapinski

R. O. Balsters

J. A. LeMaire

A. E. Blermann

S. J. Levy

\V. O. Boessneck (E)

E. T. LucEY

R. O. Bradley

S. N. MacIsaac

R. E. Bredberg

J. G. Martin

H. E. Buchanan

A. Matthews, Jr.

C. M. Burnette

H. J. McNally

H. P. Clapp

R. E. Metzger

M. K. Clahk

C. H. Mottier (E)

D. y. Clayton

F. J. Olsen

E. H. Cook

W. L. Patterson

A. Y. Dasburg

J. C. Pinkston

F. D. Day

W. P. Rybinski

D. J. DeIvernois, Jr.

W. A. Schoelwer

P. P. Dunavant, Jr.

J. G. Skeen

R. D. D\TfMAN

W. D. Slater

V. H. Freygang

E. SZAKS

M. R. Gruber, Jr.

L. G. TiEMAN

H. L. Haanes

J. N. Todd (E)

J. N. Hagen

A. J. Trzeciak

D. C. Hastings

H. Watts, Jr.

I. M. Hawver

J. C. Weiser

Wm. J. Hedley

C. C. Yespelkis

L. J. Held

J. R. Zebrowski

F. A. Hess (E)

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman
and secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

The committee has completed its work on the revision of Chapter 14
of the Manual, and properly voted on and approved the revision by
letter ballot. The revised material is published in Part I of this Bulletin.
Revision of tlie glossary, as it pertains to Chapter 14, is now in progress.

1. Classification Yards:

(a) Gradients for Flat and Saucer Yards.

Final report, submitted as information, with the recommendation

that it be considered as possible future Manual material page 280

(b) Yard and Terminal Design Criteria to Decrease Car Detention.

Final report, submitted as information page 283

2. Bulk Material Handling System, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable
witli Committees 6, 8 and 15.

279

280 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

Work is progressing on this subject but no report will be available for
at least a year. The committee has expressed willingness to present an
illustrated feature on this subject at the Annual Technical Conference
in March.

3. Terminal Facilities for Handling Solid Waste Material from an Ecology
Standpoint, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committee
13.

No progress has been made on this subject since it was assigned.
However, a new subcommittee chairman has been appointed and it is
anticipated tliat substantial progress will be made in the next year.

4. Car Rollability Research.

There has been no activity concerning this subject pending further ad-
vice and direction from the Association.

5. Trends in Intermodal Facilities.

Progress is being made on this subject and it is anticipated that the
subcommittee will make its report in 1976.

6. Facilities for Line Repair and Servicing of Diesel Locomotives, Col-
laborating as Necessary or Desirable witli Committees 6 and 13.

A preliminary report has been written and is being revised. The report
on this subject should be submitted to the Association in 1976.

7. Yard System Design for Two-Stage Switching.
No progress to report on this subject at this time.

The Committee on Yards and Terminals,

B. H. Price, Chairman.

Report on Assignment la

Gradients For Flat and Saucer Yards

p. E. Van Cleve (chairman, subcommittee), R. O. Balsters, R. F. Beck, R. E.
Bredberg, C. M. Burnette, G. H. Chabot, D. V. Clayton, A. V. Dasburg,
F. D. Day, P. J. DeIvernois, Jr., R. D. Dykman, J. N. Hagan, D. C. Hastings,
L. J. Held, F. A. Hess, J. B. Kerby, J. A. LeMaire, B. H. Price, Jr., R. J.
Samoska, p. C. White.

This progress report is submitted as infonnation, for possible future Manual
material.

This report is confined primarily to the "flat" or "saucer" yard, where cars are
classified by the shuttling movement of the switch engine, with the cars being "drilled"
or "kicked" to roll freely into the classification tracks. Not included in the scope of
this report are the retarder-less low hump yard or the flat yard where cars are
shoved to rest.

While the flat and saucer yards (hereafter referred to collectively as flat yards)
far outnumber any other type of yard in use, apparently only a few were constructed

Yards and Terminals 281

with gradient design as a primary consideration. In most cases, the apparent over-
riding factors were such things as topographical restraints, grading costs, space
limitations, and conformance with fixed elevations, such as adjoining main-line profile
and public grade crossings.

An analysis of subcommittee member responses to this assignment indicates
tliat during the past decade or two greater emphasis has been placed on designing
and building flat yards with optimmn gradients for switching.

A review of flat yards where gradient has been a major design factor indicates
the following preference for gradients in the direction of switching ( see Figure 1 ) :

-4— E-

^

KI

•DIRECTION OF SWITCHING

FIGURE I. Flat Yard for Single Direction Switching

Segment A — Switching Lead (or Drill Track). Gradient here is not critical since
cars are nomially released on or close to the ladder ( Segment B ) . However, since
this segment accommodates constant bi-directional movement, the gradient should
be relatively flat, with 0.00 percent preferred.

Segments B and C — Ladder and Switch to Clearance Point. The preferred
gradient is "slightly" accelerating, which means that the grade must descend suffi-
ciently to overcome rolling resistances, including switch and curve resistance. The
preferred gradients for these segments range from -0.20 percent to -0.30 percent,
although one railroad used a 0 percent grade for die ladder, probably on the premise
that cars would be released near the switch of their classification track.

Segment D — Clearance Point to Clearance Point. The preferred design gradient
for tliis segment is "slightly" decelerating, ranging from -0.10 percent to 0.00 percent.

Segments E, F, G — "Leaving" End of Yard. Segments E and F should have
sufficient plus gradient to prevent roll-outs, and thus minimize the need for retarders
or skates. The percent gradient selected is not too important if the yard is to be used
only for single-direction switching.

However, when conditions permit, it is highly desirable to design a flat yard
for switching at both ends, even when current operations might not require double-
end switching. Thus, the flat yard for double-end switching would have gradients
G, F, and E, the same as A, B, and C, respectively, and gradient D would be eitlier
level or slightly descending from each end toward the center. The yard profile would
resemble a saucer.

Wliile the Manual for Railway Engineering contains virtually no design infor-
mation for flat yards, the engineer can and should review the section of the Manual
on hump classification yard design, as much of this material can be applied to flat
yard design. Having done this, a summary of the primary considerations for flat
yard design is as follows:

282 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

1. Objective

The ideal objective is tlie design of a series of gradients so that each car will
roll to and stop at the far end of the classification yard, or will roll to coupling at
an acceptable speed. The following objectives are the minimum to be expected:

(a) Deliver cars having a practical maximum rolling resistance to the
clearance point under adverse weather conditions.

(b) Deliver cars of most frequently occurring rolling resistance to tire far
end of the yard, or to some desired intermediate point, if block size does
not require filling the track.

(c) Permit maximum switching rate and acceptable coupling speeds.

2. Rolling Resistance

The designer must be familiar with car rollability and the factors which con-
tribute to rolling resistance. The yard gradients must be tailored for the prevailing
climatic conditions, including wind speed, wind direction, temperature, rain and
snow. Gradients must be compensated for resistances from turnouts, curves, gage,
and possible track irregularities.

3. Equipment and Commodities

The designer should be familiar witli the type of equipment to be used and com-
modities to be handled. A predominance of roller-bearing or non-roller-bearing cars
will affect gradient selection. In a yard where mostly empty cars or bulk commodi-
ties are handled, it is possible that gradients can be increased, thus creating higher
impacts, but increasing the percentage of cars tliat will couple.

4. Yard Configuration

If possible, a track should be designated for each classification to be made.
However, it should be remembered that a flat yard is best suited to a situation
where the number of switching cuts is small. While fairly large volmiies of cars
can be handled in a flat yard, a large number of cuts reduces its effectiveness.

Body tracks should preferably be on tangent and of sufficient capacity to hold
the volumes of each classification under normal circumstances.

Ladders should be designed to minimize distance to clearance point, and pro-
vide maximum yard capacity. Switches should be as close together as possible for
efficient hand throwing. Multiple frog angle ladders allow the designer to provide
a compact layout; however, when hand tlirow switches are used, the layout must
be such that all switch stands are on the outside of tlie ladder. Inside switch stands
should be used only when push-button power switching is provided.

5. Gradients

In a flat-yard drilling operation, the car when it is uncoupled is not unlike tlie
car leaving a group retarder in a hump yard, in that each car has just departed from
its last point of human control. Hence the basic design formula for the hump yard
from group retarder to clearance point could be applied to flat yard design, as
follows:

Drop from uncoupling point to clearance point = SRe + ^ C-{-SW + a
where

Yards and Terminals 283

S = Distance in feet
fl, = Rolling resistance for easy rolling car expressed decimally

A z:^ Curvature in degrees of central angle

C = Curve resistance in feet of drop per degree of central angle
Sti; = S\vitch resistance in feet

a — Difference in \elocity head at clearance and velocity head at uncoupHng
point for easy rolling cars.

The gradients in the body tracks must not produce unacceptable acceleration of
easy-rolling cars.

6. Drainage

The flat yard will have a natural tendency to contain water, since its profile
will usually take the shape of a saucer. Good drainage is imperative to maintain
good track grade, ahgrmient and structure. In most cases, a subsurface drainage
system will be required, unless the subgrade is very porous.

Report on Assignment lb

Yard and Terminal Design Criteria to
Decrease Car Detention

R. F. Beck (chairman, subcommittee), R. P. Aixslie, C. M. Burnette, C. H. Cil\bot,
H. B. Christiansox, D. X. Claytox, A. \'. Dasburg, F. D. Day, P. J. DeIv^er-
xois, Jr., J. X. Hagax, D. C. Hastings, F. A. Hess, C. F. Ixtlekofer, J. B.
Kerry, J. A. LeMauie, S. J. Levy, E. T. Lucey, J. G. Martix, H. J. McNally,
W. L. Patterson-, B. H. Price, W. A. Schoelwer, J. G. Skeex, W. D. Slater,
C. E. Stoecker, L. G. Tiemax, H. Watts, P. C. White, J. R. Zebrowski.

This report is submitted as information, with the recommendation that the
subject be discontinued.

The basic fundamentals of good yard and terminal design have not changed
throughout the years. Newer operating and organization concepts, together with the
introduction of sophisticated equipment, pro\ide us with an opportunity to increase
operating efficiency, thus decreasing car detention time. Howexer, the basic funda-
mentals of yarding the train, classifxing tlie cars and departing die train in the
minimum amount of time and at the least cost have not changed. Therefore, the
criteria for yard and terminal design cannot concern itself solely with the physical
plant, but must also include the design of the organization and die operating plan.
In other words, the design criteria must be viewed as a major system with both the
designer and operator playing an integral part. Failure of any one of the many sub-
systems can increase car detention time, and tiiis important concept must be recog-
nized by all concerned.

Continuous new developments in the data processing field, together with newer
organization concepts have made possible computerized, real-time car moxement
and information systems. Railway operations are a fertile field for this new technology
and substantial progress can be made in operating efficiency, thus reducing cost and
at the same time iiiipro\ing customer ser%ice. Mo\enient of cars through the receiv-
ing, classification, and departure functions is an integral part of such a system. Such

284 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

a system maintains a perpetual inventory of cars by track location in which all cars
are under the constant sui-veillance of the system, thus providinji for maximum car
utilization. Car infonnation and location on a real-time and exception basis are
immediately available via an increasing variety of output devices which are an
indispensable aid to the planning process. Such systems also permit the exercise
of overall control of yard and terminal operations and can be made an integral part
of a railroad-wide management information system. The key to the success of such
systems is the development of a complete and dependable car record as soon as
possible. This is of paramount importance because such information is vital to the
financial, statistical, cost, traffic, accounting and other staff functions.

The computer and related interface equipment have made possible the virtual
complete automation of the entire classification operation. Automatic car identification
coupled with mini-computers and other devices can automatically input car infor-
mation into the system. Thus the complete control of receiving, classification and
departure operations becomes but a subsystem of the overall car movement and
information system.

The following overall and specific criteria should be considered when attempting
to reduce car detention time. All of the items listed may or may not bear on any
particular installation depending upon the type of facility being studied. The follow-
ing information also directly relates to flat yards although some modification of the
criteria may be required.

I. Determine Workload for the Terminal

A. Forecast rail network transport demand.

B. Estimate demands on the terminal:

1. Number and size of car blocks.

2. Train schedules.

3. Interchange, industry, intermodal and other services.

II. Overall Design Considerations Relating to Terminal Operations

A. Avoid interference between movements, minimize total car movement, and
optimize all transportation operations:

1. Track and related facilities:

(a) strategically located crossovers, connections, leads, and tracks,

(b) ample running tracks and escape routes for arriving, switching,
classification, departure, and other movements,

(c) dual hump tracks and scissor crossovers,

(d) remote control power operated switches, route control, shove indi-
cators, and signaling,

(e) track facilities for special transportation functions including auxiliary,
local, through yards, etc.,

(f) sufficient space between tracks for yard lighting, specialized equip-
ment, car inspection, and running repairs,

(g) space for expansion,

(h) dragging equipment and broken flange detectors, journal and track

oilers,
(i) movement sensors, automatic car identification and blue flag systems,
( j ) yard cleaning equipment, switch heaters, snow blowers, and related

snow removal equipment.

Yards and Terminals 285

2. Ancillary facilities:

(a) lighting for safe and optiiniiin night operations,

(b) towers and control facilities to monitor and manage operations,
combined where possible, to avoid duplication,

(c) comnumication systems including radio, loudspeakers, pneumatic
tube systems, digital displays and printouts, television and teletype,

(d) roadways, parking areas, drainage, noise and pollution control,
sewage disposal, water supply, fire protection, etc.,

(e) engine and caboose servicing, car repair, car cleaning, piggyback,
refrigerator servicing and other facilities at strategic locations,

(f) crew, office, and miscellaneous buildings,

(g) noise level and other environmental considerations.

3. Speed the movement of cars through receiving, classification, departure
and other terminal yards and tracks:

(a) computerized automatic humping, switching, speed control, weighing,
distance to go, etc.,

(b) real time and historical digital print and readouts of all car move-
ment information required by transportation operation,

(c) all car movement information required by other departments,

(d) automatic trouble-shooting information.

4. Reliable facilities:

(a) easy to maintain facilities, holding down time to a mininunn,

(b) level of maintenance to limit derailment and program downtime
of facilities based upon an overall sound preventive maintenance
program,

(c) backup systems in important areas such as power supply, com-
nmnications, and computer systems,

(d) safety and security of operation.

5. Trained personnel and the simplest operating procedures and equipment.

B. Use two stage or other forms of nudtiple pass sorting wherever:

1. The desired number of blocks greatly exceeds the number of available
classification tracks, or

2. Numerous blocks are desired for a train.

III. Specific Design Considerations Relating to Car Movement

A. Receive cars quickly with minimum interference:

1. Track design to avoid interference between moves.

2. Sufficient trackage for near-peak requirements.

3. Tracks of sufficient capacity to avoid doubling.

4. Alignment and gradients to eliminate derailments and runouts.

B. Classify cars at a maximum practical rate consistent with the overall trans-
portation operations:

1. Weigh cars accurately and economically without slowing the humping
rate.

2. Avoid catchups in the classification area:

(a) bleed cars thoroughly to avoid sticking brakes,

(b) speed movement throughout all classification tracks as much as
possible,

(c) multiple cuts, where permissible.

286 Bulletin 655 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. Utilize the best economical track arrangements, gradients, and control
systems based upon AREA recommendations taking into account:

(a) wind, temperature, snow, sleet, fog, moisture, storms,

(b) type of tiaific including long, short, empty and loaded cars,

(c) range of rolling resistance,

(d) predominance of resistance for type of cars handled,

(e) easy separation of cuts,

(f) minimum distances between crest and clearance points, utilizing
lap switches,

(g) capacity of retarders to handle design parameters,
(h) capacity of control system and components,

(i) track cmvature,

(]) starting cars that have been stopped in the retarders.

4. Release cars from retarders at speeds consistent with minimum car and
lading damage:

(a) use of decelerating gradients immediately beyond the group re-
tarders with as short a switching length as possible with maximum
turnout speeds,

(b) design for as low a curvature as possible togetlier with the optimum
number of tracks per group consistent with the foregoing,

(c) provide non-accelerating gradients on tangent track for preponderance
of cars humped,

(d) provide devices to assist cars around curves to help reduce the
range of rolling resistance,

(e) deliver cars to clearance point at the most advantageous speed,

(f) design for optimum track length in classification yard consistent
with operating requirement keeping in mind the range of rolling
resistance.

C. Provide for as continuous a classification operation as practical by considering:

1. Interference between road, yard, and hump engines.

2. Travel time between receiving yards and the hmiip lead.

3. Time between successive cuts on the hump lead.

4. Escape routes for trimmers and other moves from the hump end.

5. Caboosing time tlirough efficient track layout and servicing facilities.

D. Reduce hump engine trimming time to an absolute minimum:

1. Classify cars to die correct track.

2. Minimize catchups by correct design and control systems.

3. Assign classifications to serve tlie maximum spread of cars being humped.

4. Provide an optimum number of classification tracks.

E. Remove cars and trains from the classification yard promptly:

1. Skates, retarders, uphill gradients or otiier means of avoiding runouts.

2. Recoupling aids to keep couplers open.

3. Long leads to interior of groups to speed up operation and reduce travel
time. Design leads to minimize travel time in pull down operations.

4. Coordinate all mechanical and transportation departure functions, prefer-
ably from one location.

5. Track centers as wide as possible to permit mechanized inspections.

6. Sufficient yard air.

7. Efficient waybill procedures.

8. Track facilities similar to tliose recommended for receiving yards.

DIRECTORY

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

FRANK R. WOOLFORD

Enginaering Consultant — Railroadi

24 Josepho Ave.

San Francisco, Co. 94132

(415) 587-1569

246 Seodrift Rd.

Stinson Beach, Co. 94970

(415) 868-1555

mj|M Westenhoff & Novick, Inc.
■Ta Consulting Engineers

Civil — Mechanical — Electrical

Fixed & Movable Bridges

Soils, Foundations, Buildings

Slrvctural & Underwater Investigations

Planning, Feasibility, Design, Inspection

222 W. Adams St., Chicago, III. 60606
New Yoric Washington Ponamo

HAZELET & ERDAL

Consulting Engineers

Design Investigations Reports
Fixed and Movable Bridges

150 So. Wocker Dr., Chicago, III. 60606
Louisville Cincinnati Washington

HIMTB

Feasibility studies and design services for

Bus and rail transit Terminals

Regional and urt>an planning Parking

Soils and foundations Tunnels

Structures Utilities
Environmental Impact studies

Offices in 28 cities 816 474-4900

1805 Grand Avenue. Kansas City, Missouri 64108

MODJESKi AND MASTERS

Consw/ffng Enginowa

Design, Inspection of Construction !■ In-
spection of Physical Condition of Hxed
& Movable Railroad Bridges

P.O. Box 2345, Horrisburg, Pa. 17105
1055 St. Charles Avn., New Orleans, La.

CLARK, DIETZ AND
ASSOCIATES-ENGINEERS, INC.

Consulting Eng/neers

Bridges Structures, Foundations, Indus-
trial Wastes and Railroad Relocotion

211 No. Race St., Urbona, III.

Sanford, Fla. Momphit, Twin.

lockson. Miss. St. Louis, Me.

Chicago, III.

286-1

286-2

Directory of Consulting Engineers

(I)

Engineers
Designers Planners

PARSONS

BRINCKERHOFF

QUADE

DOUGLAS

Route location. Shop
Facilities, Container/
Bulk Cargo, Handling
Utllltlei, Bridget, Tun-
nels, Evaluotlont, Ap-
praisals, Supervision

ONE PENN PLAZA, NEW YORK, NY 10001

Boston , Denver
San Francisco

, Honolulu
Trenton

HARDESTY & HANOVER

Contu/fing Engln»»n

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING

Highways • Railways

Bridges — Fixed and Movable

Design • Resident Inspection

Studies • Appraisals

101 Park Ave., New York, N. Y. 10017

THOAAAS K. DYER, INC.

Consulting Engineers

Railroads — Transit Systems
Track, Signals, Structures

Investisationt and Feasibility Reports
Planning, Design, Contract Documents

1762 Massachusetts Avenue
Lexington, Mass. 02173

SUBWAYS • RAILROADS • PUBLIC TRANSIT

TRAFFIC . PARKING • HIGHWAYS
BRIDGES . PORT DEVELOPMENT • AIRPORTS
COMMUNITY PLANNING • URBAN RENEWAL
MUNICIPAL WORKS • INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

IEC0

RAILROAD
DESIGN & ELECTRIFICATION

Planning • Design
Construction Management

INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING
COMPANY, INC.

220 MONTGOMERY STREET
SAN FRANCISCO. CALIFORNIA 94104

RILEY, PARK, HAYDEN &
ASSOCIATES, INC.

Consulting Engineers

Survey Services, Photogrammetry, Gen-
eral Civil, Bridges, Railroads & Indus-
trial Parle Design.

136 Marietta St., N. W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30303

(404) 577-5600

Directory of Consulting Engineers

28&-3

SVERDRUP & PARCEL AND ASSOCIATES, INC.

800 No. Twelfth Blvd. • St. Louis. Mo. 63101

Boston • Charleston • Gainesville • Jacksonville
Nashville • New York • Phoenix • San Francisco
Seattle • Silver Spring • Washington. D.C.

design

planning

construction
management

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

IHiV PORTER AND RIPA
ASSOCIATES, INC

ENGINEERING PL.AMNING ARCHITECTURE

Design Inspections Reports

Planning Structures

Environmental Studies

20« Madison Av*nu*. Marrislewn, New Jrrsty (TtU

SPAULDING ENGINEERING CO.

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

MEMBER

AMERICAN CONSULTING ENGINEERS COUNCIL

1821 UNIVERSITY AVENUE

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 55104

PHONE 612/644-5676

SOROS ASSOCIATES

Consulting Engineers

Transfer T«rniInaU & Ports For Dry Bulk*,

Liquids & Contoinars — Wot«rfront Strvcturwt

Materials Hondltna Systems

575 Lexington Ave.

New York, N. Y. 10022

(212) 421-0400

Rio de Janeiro Santiago, Chilo

Sydney, Australia

BAKKE & KOPP, INC.

Consulting Engineers

RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY BRIDGES

SPECIAL AND HEAVY STRUCTURES

INVESTIGATIONS AND REPORTS

4915 W. 35th St. Minneapolis, MN 55416

(612) 920-^383

A. J. HENDRY, INC.

>

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

SIGNALS • CONIMUNICATIONS • AUTOMATION • ataRlflCATION
RAILROADS • RAIL TRANSIT

SUITE 810 OSBORN BUILOINS
ST. PAUL. ^AINNESOTA 55102

»12) 222 2717

286-4

Directory of Consulting Engineers

TURNER ENGINEERING
COMPANY

(SAWYER-PIEPMEIER)

RAILROAD ENGINEERING

306 GAY ST.
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 37201

615-244-2144
ALBANY, NY 518-456-1994

HOWARD J. BELLOWS

ESTIMATING CONSULTANT
FOR TRACKWORK

Railroads A Rapid Transit Systems

725 DALRYMPLE ROAD

Apt. 8-E

ATLANTA, GA. 30328

404-393-0390

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THROUGHOUT THE CONTINENT

FRANK SPEND RAILROAD BALLAST CLEANING COMPANY, INC.

306 North Cayuga St., Ittiaca, New York 14850
Clark Street. Box 219, East Syracuse, New York 13057

SPENO INTERNATIONAL, S.A. lEC-HOLDEN, LTD.

22 Pare Chateau Banquet, Geneva, Switzerland 8180 Cote de Liesse Road

(For Ra.l G-^ndrg Outside the Ncth RPI Montreal, Canada H4T1G8

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RECEIVED

MAR 0 4 1976

American Railway j. l sTAujira

Engineering Association— Bulletin

Bulletin 656 January-February 1976

Proceedings Volume 77*

CONTENTS

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES

Scales (Special Committee) 2*'

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance (22) 299

Environmental Engineering (13) 323

Maintenance of Way Work Equipment (27) 333

Clearances (28) 337

Buildings (6) 341

Timber Structures (7) 351

Concrete Structures and Foundations (8) 353

Steel Structures (15) 359

Roadway and Ballast (1) 363

Ties and Wood Preservation (3) 367

Rail (4) 373

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations (16) 383

Engineering Education (24) 401

Electrical Energy Utilization (33) 403

VANCOUVER REGIONAL MEETING

Luncheon Address by A. F. Joplin 415

Address — Railway Signaling, by H. W. Trawick 419

Address — Railway Bridges on Canadian National's Mountain Region, by

L. R. Morris 425

Address — Investigation into Causes of Rail Corrugations, by J. Kalousek,

R. Klein 429

Address — Rock Slope Stability on Railway Projects, by C. O. Browner,

Duncan Wyllie 449

Directory of Consulting Engineers 474—1

•Proceedings Volume 77 (1976) will consist of AREA Bulletins 654, Septembei^
October 1975; 655, November-December 1975; 656, January-February 1976; and 858,
June-July 1976 (Technical Conference Report issue). Blue-covered Bulletin 657, April-
May 1976 (the Directory issue), is not a part of the Annual Proceedings of the Association.

BOARD OF DIRECTION

1975-1976

President
J. T. Ward, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, 500 Water
St., Jacksonville, FL 32202

Vice Presidents
John Fox, Deputy Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Windsor Station, Montreal,

PQ H3C 3E4
B. J. WORLEY, Vice President— Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific

Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606

Past Presidents

D. V. Sartore, Chief Engineer — Design, Burlington Northern, Inc., 176 E. Sth St., St.

Paul, MN SS 101
R. F. Bush, Chief Engineer, Erie Lackawanna Railway, Midland Bldg., Cleveland, OH
441 IS

Directors
R. W. PEifBER, Chief Engineer — Design and Construction, Louisville & Nashville Rail-
road, P. O. Box 1198, Louisville, KY 40201

E. Q. Johnson, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Chessie System, P. O. Box 1800,

Huntington, WV 2S718

W. E. FuHR, Assistant Chief Engineer— Staff, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacilic
Railroad, Union Station, Room 898, Chicago, IL 60606

B. E. Pearson, Chief Engineer, Soo Line Raikoad, Soo Line Bldg., Room 1520, Minne-
apolis, MN 55440

P. L. Montgomery, Manager Engineering Systems, Norfolk & Western Railway, 8 N.
Jefferson St., Roanoke, VA 24042

E. C. HoNATH, Assistant General Manager Engineering, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway, 900 Polk St., Amarillo, TX 79171

Mike Rovgas, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, P. O. Box 471, Green-
ville, PA 16125

J. W. DeValle, Chief Engineer Bridges, Southern Railway System, 99 Spring St., S. W.,
Atlanta, GA 30303

R. L. Gray, Chief Engineer, Canadian National Railways, P. O. Box 8100, Montreal,
PQ H3C 3N4

E. H. Waring, Chief Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Raikoad, P. 0. Box
5482, Denver, CO 80217

Wm. Glavin, General Manager, Grand Trunk Western Railroad, 131 W. Lafayette
Blvd., Detroit, MI 48226

G. H. Maxwell, System Engineer of Track, Union Pacific Railroad, 1416 Dodge St.,
Omaha, NE 68179

Treasurer

A. B. HiLLMAN, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago, 6900 S. Central Ave.,
Chicago, IL 60638

Executive Director

Earl W. Hodgkins, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Assistant to Executive Director
N. V. Engman, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Administrative Assistant
D. F. Fredley, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Published by the American Railway Engineering Association, Bi-Monthly, Januaiy-Febniary, April-
May, June-July, September-October and November-December, at
S9 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111. 60605
Second class postage at Chicago, 111., and at additional mailing offices.
Subscription $15 per annum
Copyright © 1976
American Railway Engineering Association
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Report of the Special Committee on Scales

F. D. Day, Chairman
V. H. Freygang,

Vice Chairman
M. R. Gruber, Jr.,

Secretary

l. l. lowehy
Emil Szaks
B. F. Banks
N. A. Wilson
O. T. Almarode
R. F. Beck
R. T. Brumbaugh
H. E. Buchanan
E. W. Buckles
G. H. Chabot
J. L. Dahlrot
R. H. Damon, Jr.
T. A. DeAlba

0. C. Denz

J. L. FiNNELL

J. E. Foreman, Jr.
G. F. Graham
J. A. Hawley

1. M. Hawvek
L. J. Held

A. L. Hunter

D. K. Johnstone

D. E. Keeper
S. H. Levinson

V. L. LOWERY

P. J. McCoNVILLE

E. J. MicoNO
R. E. Park
N. S. Patel
B. H. Price
W. H. Rankin
S. H. Raskin
A. E. Robinson
J. J. Robinson
K. D. Tidwell
J. N. Todd

L. J. Walker
P. C. White
J. Zaenger

Committee

Those whose names are shown hi boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Proposed Belt Conveyor Scale Rules, submitted as information

page 288

1. Location of Scales for Coupled-in-Motion Weighing.

Progress report, presented as information page 295

2. Survey of All Scales in America Used for Weighing Railroad Cars.

No report.

3. Statistical Data for Coupled-in-Motion Weighing and Testing.

An advance report on this assignment was published in Bulletin 654,
September-October 1975.

4. NBS Handbook 44 Joint Study with State Weights and Measures
Officials.

No report.

The Special Committee on Scales,

F. D. Day, Chairman.

287

Bui. 656

288 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association
Report on Assignment B

Revision of Manual

L. L. LowERY (chairman, stihcommittee), all members of the Special Committee on
Scales.

Your committee presents, as infomiation only, the following belt conveyor scale
rules. These rules, with possible minor revisions, will be submitted for adoption and
publication in the Manual in 1976, following letter ballot approval by the committee.

PROPOSED BELT CONVEYOR SCALE RULES
S.2.28 BELT CONVEYOR SCALES

5.2.28.1 Definition

The following is intended to apply to devices installed on belt conveyors for
the purpose of weighing bulk materials carried by conveyors to ascertain weights,
and to the system to which they are applied and become part of.

5.2.28.2 Capacity

The system should be designed and rated so that material flowing over the scale
will remain within 50% to 98% of scale capacity and should be adequate and constant.

5.2.25.3 Conveyors

(a) Each conveyor on which a belt scale is located should be rigid in design
and so constructed that it is free from vibration and is not subject to stress that
would cause any deflection. It should not exceed 1,000 ft in length from center of
head pulley to center of tail pulley.

(b) Each conveyor on which a belt scale is located should be equipped with a
gravity take-up that is of adequate weight so as not to allow slippage of the belt
on the drive pulley. With such weight properly weighted, the belt should remain in
contact with all troughing idlers in the weight-sensing element area at all times.

(c) The conveyor on which the scale is located should be free from interference
from all other operations.

(d) The system should be so designed that the complete contents of each indi-
vidual car may be guaranteed to pass over the scale.

(e) Incline of the conveyor belt should not be in excess of 18 to 20 degrees.

5.2.28.4 Infeeds

(a) Sufficient impact idlers should be provided in the conveyor imder each infeed
so as not to cause a deflection of the belt during the time material is being introduced.

(b) All infeed gates, feeders, etc., should be positive in action and so designed
that material will flow freely through them when opened or placed in operation.
They should also be positive in their closing action so that leakage does not occur.

5.2.28.5 Instrumentation

(a) A rate-of-flow indicator should be installed and correctly calibrated. The
indicator should also be equipped with a 24-hour disc or strip chart to serve as a

Scales 289

permanent record, along with a high and low cut-off alarm system. This is to help
prevent under or overloading of the scale. The alann should be operational at not
lower than 35^ or greater than 98% of scale capacity. The type of alarm used (i.e.,
audio or visual) should be determined by the merits of each individual application.
Such system should not be outfitted with a switch to disconnect either the chart or
alarm system. Any exceptions to this rule will be at the discretion of the serving rail
carrier or its agent.

(b) A fast-count totalizer should be installed and should register in units of
1/10 of a ton, or as determined by the serving rail carrier.

(c) A ticket or tape printer (detemiined by each individual application) and
printing to the equivalent numerals as indicated in (b), should be installed. It is
essential that the printer mounting will guarantee vibration-free operation.

5.2.28.6 Cabinets

(a) Scale and instrumentation cabinets should be purged witli clean, dry air.

(b) Where scales and component parts are subject to a rapid or extreme change
in temperature, heaters should be installed as suggested by manufacturer.

(c) Scales located near large bodies of water, operations that require use of
quantities of water, or any area of high humidity, should have heaters installed in
scales and/or instrumentation as suggested by manufacturer.

5. 2.28.7 Protection of Scales and Instrumentation

(a) Scales and especially instrumentation should be protected from the elements
by weather-proof structures. Control rooms that house instruments should be air
purged with air conditioning, fans with filters, heaters, etc., so that a dust-free area of
greater density will be created on the inside than is outside. Such system is required
to preserve all electronic instnunents.

(b) Scale housing and instrumentation should be securely locked.

5.2.28.8 Wind Screens

Wind screens should be erected around the entire weighing element.

5.2.28.9 Guards

(a) Sufficient guards should be erected around "live" scale parts located near
walk-ways so that persons will not touch such parts or deposit equipment in their
vicinity.

(b) In some cases, "live" parts of scales should be painted in contrasting colors
so as to warn persons against touching them. The application of this Rule will be at
the discretion of the serving carrier or its agent.

5.2.28.10 Interference

Hydraulic machinery, large motors, or any equipment which will cause excessive
vibration or noise should not be placed in, or affixed to, the control room.

5.2.28.11 Access to Scale

Adequate access to scale should be provided. This includes a walk-way, step,
etc., so that servicing can be accomplished with ease.

290 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

5.2.28.12 Simulated Load Testing Equipment

Adequate simulated load testing equipment, to be applied on the belt over the
weight-sensing element, approximating 80% of the rated capacity of the weighing
system, is required. A suitable storage area should be provided so tliat such equipment
does not rust or deteriorate from abrasive or coating action. See S.2.28.15.

Note: The following suggested practices, if followed, will greatly facilitate testing
and operation of the system.

1. At least two persons or more on location should be thoroughly familiar
with the scale and its operation.

2. Control over entire system should be exercised by the scale operator to
insure adequate loading of the weighing device.

3. Unautliorized personnel should be discouraged from loitering in the scale
and instrumentation areas.

4. Where test chains are used, adequate cables, bridles, hooks, etc., should be
provided to hold the chains in place on the belt as recommended by tlie
scale manufacturer.

5.2.28.13 Tolerance Values

(a) Material Test Tolerance

All belt scales should be material-tested and adjusted to within 0.25% with
repeatability. The spread between plus or minus figures should not exceed 0.25%.

(h) Maintenance Tolerance

All belt scales should maintain a 0.5% tolerance between material used. The
spread between plus or minus figures should not exceed 0.5%.

(c) Zero Tolerance

All belt scales should maintain a zero balance of 0.1% for 10 minutes before use,
and after sufficient warm-up of the belt.

(d) Repeatability Tolerance

All belt conveyor scales using simulated load testing equipment should be tested
for a repeatability of not greater than 0.1% for at least 5 consecutive tests. The
spread between plus or minus figures should not exceed 0.1%.

5.2.28.14 Types of Tests Defined

(a) Material Testing

All belt conveyor scales should be material-tested before acceptance. Three to
five such tests are required, with 10 to 15 car (or in some cases heavy truck) loads
per test. If the weighing system is designed for individual car weights, the weight
of each individual car should be in tolerance.

(b) Maintenance Testing

All belt conveyor scales should be maintained within a 0.5% tolerance between
material tests, by using a simulated load test. Such tests should be conducted on a
weekly basis, preferably as soon after actual use of die belt as possible.

(c) Repeatability Test

All belt conveyor scales should be tested for repeatability each time a Main-
tenance Test is made and before Material Tests are run.

Scales 291

S.2.28.15 Standard Procedure for Tests

(a) Scale and entire installation should be checked for confomiity with the
above-listed rules and regulations. The scale and all component parts should be com-
pletely installed and in good operating condition before any tests will be made.

(b) The belt length and weight of chains per foot should be accurately measured
so as to determine tons per foot of belt travel during chain tests.

(c) The belt should be run at least 20 minutes before test begins in order to
warm it up. At temperatures below 40 F, the wann-up time should be of longer
duration.

(d) Following warm-up, belt should be run for at least 10 minutes to detennine
zero of scale. During this time, the zero reading should be constant.

(e) After establishing that tlie scale holds its zero, 10 circuits of the belt should
be run with the simulated load testing equipment in place on belt. In some instances,
where the belt is long, only three circuits of the belt are required.

If test chains are used, they should be held securely in place on the belt as the
scale manufacturer recommends.

If tests utilizing other than the above methods are contemplated, tlie approval
of the serving rail carrier or its agent should be secured.

Note: When other than test chains are used, onhj idlers of the highest quality
and requiring lubrication daily should he used. Such idlers should he insialled on the
iceighing element and for at least jive idler spaces before, and for at least five idler
spaces after, the weighing element. Further, each week correct idler level should he
determined with a string level. If any one, or more, of the above named idlers are
out of level, the scale shotdd not be used until correction is made. Idlers with loorn
bearings should be replaced.

(f) Five more simulated load tests should then be run, with results of each test
reading within 0.1% of the first test outlined in paragraph (e) above. This will
establish repeatability.

(g) If the scale has repeatability, 15 loads should tlien be weighed over the scale,
at 50% to 98% capacity. A load is construed as a rail car load or truck load of high
capacity.

Note: In instances where procurement of rail cars proves difficult, 10 loads per
test may be substituted. This is a calibration test and may have to be made several
times in order to bring the iceighing device within the acceptable tolerance of 0.25%.

(h) After the scale has been properly calibrated, three separate material tests,
all within 0.25% with material being loaded at 50% to 98% of capacity, should then be
made. Each test should consist of 15 loads. (Here again 10 loads per test may be
substituted in the event rail cars are difficult to obtain.)

(i) Following three successful material tests, five simulated load tests should
again be made in order to establish a calibration factor, if needed.

( j ) On successful completion of all tests, the scale should again be checked for
zero. At this time, it will also be established that a service contract has been con-
summated with a qualified belt scale service organization.

(k) Material scale tests should be made once every six months, or as directed
by the serving rail carrier or its agent.

292 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(1) The material acceptance tolerance of 0.25^ should be maintained for 30
days, and at any time the scale is overhauled or material tested by an authorized
scale man.

(m) A maintenance tolerance of 0.5% should be maintained by the user at all
times after the scale is accepted. This may be assured by conducting tests at least
once a week as outlined in paragraph (i) above, using the established calibration
factor.

(n) The rail carrier should be contacted at least two weeks before material
tests are made to insure that sufficient cars are available.

(o) Copies of weekly tests should be made available to the serving rail carrier
or its agent.

(p) Proof of weight for belt conveyor scales should be in the form of a printed
weight ticket and rate-of-flow chart showing the scale was utilized between 50%
and 98% of its capacity. The rate-of-flow chart should be dated corresponding widi
cars in loading or unloading sequence. All of these records should be preserved
together.

(q) In instances where material testing can be satisfactorily performed weekly.
Simulated Load Tests are not required. Copies of weekly tests, however, should be
made available to the serving rail carrier or its agent. (See S.2.28.12)

Definition of Terms Used in Connection with Belt Conveyor Scales

Air Purge: The act of creating an atmosphere greater on the inside than outside,
using clean, dry air, to discourage dust and other foreign matter.

Belt Conveyor: An endless moving belt for transporting material from place to
place.*

Belt Conveyor Scale; ( Belt Scale ) ; ( Conveyor Scale ) : A device installed
on a belt conveyor to measure the weight of bulk material being conveyed."

Bend Pulley: A roller placed on the return side (underside) of a conveyor belt
to turn its direction or to measure speed of belt.

Cable Conveyor: A belt conveyor utilizing cable or rope as the supporting member
for the conveyor on which the idlers are mounted.

Calibrated Plate: A suitable metal plate, provided by the scale manufacturer,
determined to have the same effect on a nuclear scale as a specified load or
bulk material on the belt conveyor. A calibrated plate is the equivalent of a test
chain or test weights used with other types of belt conveyor scales.*

Chain: See Test Chain.

Chart Recorder: A device used with a belt conveyor scale which records the rate-
of-flow of bulk material over the scale at any given time. A recorded chart
together with a record of weight constitutes proof of weight.

Concave Curve: A change in the angle of inclination of a belt conveyor where
the center of the curve is above the conveyor.*

Convex Curve: A change in the angle of inclination of a belt conveyor where tlie
center of the curve is below the conveyor.*

Conveyor Stringers: Support members for the conveyor on which the idlers are
mounted.

* Taken from National Bureau of Standards Handbook 44.

Scales 293

Counter ( Remote ) : A numerical display in a location remote from the scale
showing the tons (or pounds) of material that have been conveyed over the
scale.

Disc Chart: See Chart Recorder.

Drive: The device or apparatus used to transmit energy from a motor to move the
conveyor belt.

Feeders: See Infeed.

Gate: See Infeed.

Gravity Type Wipers: A scraping or wiping device used to clean residue from the
belt on the return side ( underside ) of the belt in the vicinity of the head pulley.
The \\'iper is affixed to one end of an ann which has a weight hanging from the
other end. The weight is such that the wiper is held against the belt.

Head Pulley: The pulley at tlie discharge end of the belt conveyor. The power
drive to drive the belt is generally applied to the head pulley."

Idler Space: The center-to-center distance between idler rollers measured parallel
to the belt."

Idler Fr.\me: The frame or device which holds the idler rollers, affixed to the
conveyor stringers.

Idler or Idler Rollers: Freely turning cylinders mounted on a frame to support
the conveyor belt. For a flat belt the idlers may consist of one or more horizontal
cylinders transverse to the direction of belt travel. For a troughed belt, the
idler will consist of one or more horizontal cylinders and one or more cylinders
at an angle to the horizontal to lift the sides of the belt to fonn a trough.*

Infeed: The gate, short belt, vibrator feeder, stroker feeder, etc., that deposits
material on the belt conveyor to be weighed.

Integrator: The "heart" of the belt conveyor scale. A device which integrates tlie
speed of the belt with the weight of the material to produce tons (or pounds)
per hour. The integrator may be electronic or mechanical and may be one of
numerous patented designs.

Lagged Pulley: See Swedged Pulley.

L0.A.DING Point: The location at which material to be conveyed is applied to the
conveyor.

Master Totalizer: See Totalizer.

Nuclear Type (non-contract) Scale: A device consisting of a source of nuclear
radiation and a detector for that radiation. Absorption of radiation determines
the mass of the material passing between the source and the detector."

Printer: A device used to imprint on tickets, tape, or other papers, tlie tons (or
pounds) of material Uiat have passed over the scale in a given time. (Such as
per car or per train weights.)

Pulley: A cylindrical roller over which the belt passes to change direction, such as
the head pulley or tail pulley or bend pulley.

Rate-of-Speed Detector: A device usually operated in conjunction with electronic
load cell belt conveyor scales which transmits the speed of tlie belt to tlie
integrator. Several types are in use, the most popular being eitlier a small
generator whose voltage output is in direct relationship to the speed of the belt;

' Taken from National Bureau of Standards Handbook 44.

294 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

or a slotted disc mounted between a photo electric cell and light source which
converts each pulse of light to an electronic signal to the integrator.

Rated Capacity: That value representing the weight tliat can be delivered by
the device in one hour.*

Registration: The unit of weight in which the scale is calibrated, such as 5,000 lb,
tons, long tons, metric tons, etc.

Rope Conveyor: See Cable Conveyor.

Simulated Weight Test: A test using artificial means of loading the scale to deter-
mine the perfonnance of a belt conveyor scale.*

Skirting: Stationary side boards or sections of belt conveyor attached to the con-
veyor support frame or otlier stationary support to prevent tlie bulk material
from falling off the side of the belt* Usually used at infeeds.

Snubbed Pulley: See S wedged Pulley.

Stringer: See Conveyor Stringer,

Strip Chart: See Chart Recorder.

Strip Heater: A thermostatically controlled heading strip (usually of the Calrod
type) used to heat the scale or component parts sufficiently to prevent
condensation.

S wedged Pulley: A drive pulley with a vulcanized rubber coating molded in a high
friction pattern to prevent slippage of the belt under load.

Swivel Idler: An idler frame pivoted in its center to the idler stringers so tliat it
may change position. Tracking idlers are mounted beside the troughing idlers
so that if the belt rides off center the pressure on the tracking idler forces the
swivel idler to turn, thus realigning the belt on the conveying idlers.

Tail Pulley: The pulley at tlie opposite end of the conveyor from the head pulley.*

Take-up: A device to assure sufficient tension in a conveyor belt that the belt will
be positively driven by the drive pulley. A gravity take-up consists of a hori-
zontal pulley free to move in either tlie vertical or horizontal direction with
the dead weights applied to the pulley shaft to provide the tension required.
A jack or screw take-up consists of a device that must be manually adjusted
to move the tail pulley to increase or decrease tension. A hydrauUc take-up
consists of hydraulic cylinders mounted on either side of both ends of the tail
pulley. Wlien properly activated, the hydraulic cylinders will move tlie tail
pulley to increase or decrease tension on the belt.

Take-up Guides: Guides or tracks on either side of the gravity take-up weight to
prevent horizontal movement of that weight.

Test Chain: A device consisting of a series of rollers or wheels linked together in
such a manner as to assure uniformity of weight and freedom of motion to
reduce wear, with consequent loss of weight to a minimum.*

Totalizer: A device used witli a belt conveyor scale to indicate the weight of ma-
terial which has been conveyed over the scale. The master weight totalizer is
the primary indicating element of the belt conveyor scale. An auxiliary vernier
counter used for scale calibration is not (necessarily) part of tlie master weight
totalizer. Auxiliary remote totahzers may be provided. The totalizer shows the
accumulated weight and may be non-resettable or may be reset to zero to
measure a definite amount of material conveyed.

* Taken from National Bureau of Standards Handbook 44.

Scales 295

Tracking Idlers: Usually small c>linders vertically mounted on shafts affixed to
a swivel idler frame. The purpose is to allow the side of the belt to rub against
the tracking idler, forcing the swi\el idler frame to turn, thus realigning the belt.

Training Idlers: Idlers of special design or mounting intended to shift the belt
sideways on the conveyor to assure the belt is centered on the conveying idlers.*

Tripper: A device for unloading a belt conveyor at a point between the loading
point and die head pulley.**

Wing Pulley: A pulley usually used as tire tail pulley, made of widely spaced
metal bars in order to set up a vibration to shake loose material off the under-
side (return side) of tlie belt. The use of such a pulley is definitely not recom-
mended unless the conveyor stringers under the scale are thoroughly braced
with their own support.

Wiper: See Gravity Type Wiper.

' Taken from National Bureau of Standards Handbook 44.

Report on Assignment 1

Location of Scales for Railroad
Coupled-in-Motion Weighing

E. SzAKS (chairman, subcommittee), R. F. Beck, H. E. Buchanan, J. L. Dahlrot,
O. C. Denz, J. L. FiNNELL, J. A. Hawley, I. M. Hawver, V. L. Lovitery,
E. J. MicoNo, N. S. Patel, K. D. Tidwell.

A SUGGESTED GUIDE FOR SELECTING
A COUPLED-IN-MOTION WEIGHING SYSTEM SITE

The prerequisites in selecting a site for installation of a coupled-in-motion
weighing system are those which will permit the entire train to be weighed to move
over the predetermined point in such a manner that the effects upon weight transfer
from car to car will be minimized in weighing functions. The train must approach
the facility and move over the weighing device at a constant, steady speed of be-
tween 3 to 5 mph, but not to exceed 6 mph. The train should be moved over the
facility in a slow, steady movement, that is, one in which the train is not being pulled
with tlie ( diesel ) locomotive throttle in more than the first or second position, gener-
ating about 200 amp of power, so as to prevent the train being stretched severely.
At the same time, tlie train should not be bunched, or shoved by its rear end, as a
result of using either the independent or dynamic brakes. The train handling must
be such as to prevent all slack action. All automatic air brakes and hand brakes
on cars must be fully released.

The number of cars to be handled at a given time over the weighing device
should be given careful consideration. The maximum number of cars to be handled
in a single train may dictate the grade and curvature which can be tolerated to
maintain the proper weighing speed, and at the same time cause cars to move over
the device in such a manner as to produce acceptable results. Generally, die site
selection should be such that the existing grade and curvature will so compensate
for each other that cars will move over the device in a non-accelerating mode.

296 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Additionally, the device should be located so tliat a train originating and having
cars to be weighed would pass over the weighing device without change of consist
or train-order standing. The foregoing condition is one requiring special consideration
where car identification may become a concern. Bi-directional use of the device,
eitlier pushing or pulling, should be an item to be recognized.

The coupled-in-motion type of weighing requires a high standard of mainte-
nance, in fact, a standard approaching perfection of maintenance work. The high
standard of maintenance is necessary to insure that the approach and retreat, the
ballasted track on either end of the device, and tlie weight or load-receiving elements
will be stable in that the dynamics of moving cars will be minimized.

Before a site is definitely selected, a test train or trains having the proposed
consist to be weighed should be run over the site. Observers on both the engine
and on the ground should carefully check tlie actual train handling requirements at
the proposed site.

It is desirable to prepare a questionnaire which might point out a number of
items necessary to be considered for the proposed location of the weighing device.
Questions contained in tlie evaluation are oriented to stimulate interest in planning
for operating or transportation conditions, construction, maintenance and other
factors which may have an effect upon the location of the weighing system. There
are seven general scopes listed as items to be followed. These seven scopes are out-
lined as follows:

1. Train Handling

1.1. What will be the maximum number of cars handled in a train or cut of
cars at one time?

1.2. What will be the minimum number of cars handled in a train or cut of
cars at one time?

1.3. Can the train speed be reduced without use of the automatic air brake
as the train approaches the scale site?

1.4. Must train be stopped before being weighed?

1.5. If stopped, can a speed of 5 mph be attained before reaching the scale
site without slack action?

1.6. Will train brakes be fully released?

1.7. Can train speed be controlled using diesel dynamic brake?

1.8. Can train speed be controlled using diesel independent brake?

1.9. Will train be shoved by its rear end moving over scale?

1.10. Will train be bunched moving over track scale?

1.11. Will engineer use throttle to pull train over track scale?

1.12. Will engineer use more than throttle position No. 2 or about 200 amp
power to pull train over scale?

1.13. Will train be stretched moving over scale?

1.14. If stretched, can vertical movement of couplers be observed?

1.15. Can slack action be prevented?

1.16. Will train drift over the scale site?

1.17. If the train is stopped on the scale for any reason, can it be started again
without slack action?

Scales 297

1.18. If stop is made on scale, can the train be started witliout taking slack?

2. Train Operation

2.1. Will train be delayed approaching track scale due to train handling
characteristics?

2.2. Will following trains be critically delayed?

2.3. WiU opposing trains be critically delayed?

2.4. Does the track scale location permit holding a train to be weighed?

2.5. Does the track scale location pennit holding a train that has been weighed?

2.6. Must all trains pulling over the track, pull over track scale? (Maximum
speed 10 mph)

2.7. Will difficulty be encountered in train handling account of slack action,
the result of grade conditions?

2.8. Will difficulty be encountered in train handling because of over-speed?

2.9. Will train stall on scale?

2.10. Is scale location desirable for bi-directional weighing?

2.11. Is scale location desirable for westbound weighing only?

2.12. Is scale location desirable for eastbound weighing only?

2.13. Will train consist be changed due to set-off westbound?

2.14. Will train consist be changed due to pickup westbound?

2.15. Will train consist be changed due to set-off eastbound?

2.16. Will train consist be changed due to pickup eastbound?

2.17. WiU scale location adversely affect train operation beyond the scale site?

2.18. Will train operation leaving scale be adversely affected critically account
of wet rail conditions otherwise not encountered?

3. Physical Characteristics

(Witliin 200 car lengths maximum cut or train length in botli directions from
track scale location)

3.1. Is grade satisfactory approaching scale? To satisfy 1.9 and 1.12.

3.2. Is grade satisfactory leaving scale? To satisfy 1.9 and 1.12.

3.3. Is track alignment less than 4" approaching the scale site?

3.4. Is track alignment less than 4° leaving the scale site?

3.5. Can a train or cut of cars move over the scale without the use of sand
under the locomotive?

4. Easy Accessibility to Scale

4.1. During construction?

4.2. For daily maintenance?

4.3. For supervising operations?

4.4. To prevent vandalism?

5. Local Operations

5.1. Will scale location interfere with local or mine run operations?

5.2. Will scale location adversely afifect local operations?

5.3. Does scale location require dead or running rail design?

298 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

6. Scale Geography

6.1. Will scale location interfere with operations during construction period?

6.2. Will scale be located so as to be affected by high water conditions?

6.3. Will snow conditions affect operation of scale?

6.4. Will winter snow and ice accumulation be controlled?

6.5. Can scale location be adapted to bi-directional weighing?

6.6. Will scale location permit push and pull weighing in both directions?

6.7. Is scale attendant required? Will remote ACI be used?

6.8. Is the use of a spring switch at tlie exit end of scale pullout track objection-
able?

6.9. Will the scale be located within yard limits?

6.9.1. Will the location of the device reflect delay to switching operations?

6.10. WiU the scale be outside of yard limits?

6.11. Will operating, transportation or maintenance agreements enter into the
selection of a scale site?

6.12. When the weighing system fails, what course of action will be followed?
(Load Cells) (Cabling)

6.12.1. Take trains to another location for weighing?

6.12.2. Back train over the scale installation and attempt to rerun or
re weigh?

6.12.3. Hold train for scale to be repaired?

6.13. Is the location of the proposed scale proper from an operating standpoint?

6.14. Would another location of the proposed scale be preferred from an oper-
ating standpoint?

6.15. If another location should be considered, please explain.

6.16. What types of freight will be weighed on the proposed device?

6.17. What types of cars will be weighed?

6.18. Can weight, rate, freight charges and other infomiation be applied to
"waybill" witliout delay to the train?

6.19. Must a completed "waybill" document accompany the car after it has
been weighed, or may it travel with another type of document?

7. Testing Requirements

7.1. Will device location permit testing at the required intervals without undue
delay?

7.2. Are rail cars readily available for testing purposes?

7.3. Are crews readily available for testing?

7.4. Is a static scale readily available for coupled-in-motion testing procedures,
if it be necessary?

7.5. Does the static scale used for comparison purposes meet a strain test of
zero error?

7.6. Refer to AREA Manual, Chapter 14, Part S— Scales (1973), Items S.1.1
and S.1.1.2.

Report of Committee 22 — Economics of Railway-
Construction and Maintenance

R. W. Bailey

.^Kl^m^

F. S. Barkeh

/^^^

A. S. Barr

/ " .^sSitll

L

C. D. Barton

A. BORXHOFT

J. W. Brent
R. G. Brohaugh

^jM

i

J. S. Busby

r

L. B. Cann, Jr.

^'^iml^^M

1

A. W. Carlson
J. R. Clark
W. H. Clark
S. A. Cooper
M. H. Dick

H. B. DuRRANT

L. C. Gilbert
Wm. Glavin
C. R. Harrell

H. C. MiNTEER,

Chairm

an

W. H. Hoar

John Fox, Vice

Chairman

B. G. Hudson

P. A. COSGROVE,

Secretary

|. C. Hunsberger

J. A. Caywood

J. T. Hunter

J. T. Sullivan

R. D. Johnson

J. A. Naylor

C. Johnston

Mike Rougas

H. W. Kellogg (E

T. P. Woll

H. W. Kimble

W. J. Jones

W. E. Laird

A. E. Shaw, Jr

G. LiLJEBLAD

H. B. Berkshire

L. A. Loggins (E)

R. J. ASCHMEYER

J. M. LO-WTIY

A. L. Maynard
J. R. Miller

E. T. Myers

G. M. O'Rourke (E)

M. E. Paisley

R. W. Pember

G. G. Phillips

C. T. PoPMA

R. W. Preisendefer

F. L. Rees
M. S. Reid

C. L. Robinson

G. E. SCHOLZE

H. W. Seeley
R. G. Simmons
N. E. Smith
W. B. Stackhouse
J. St.\ng

J. E. Sunderland
W. A. Swartz
S. W. Sweet

D. D. Thomas
H. J. Umberger
J. D. Vaughan
I. T. Ward

"G. E. Warfel
G. H. Winter

F. R. WOOLFORD (E)
B. J. WORLEY

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretar>-, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

A complete revision of Chapter 22 of the Manual was published in
Bulletin 645, November-December 1973. Portions of the new material
were reviewed and revised during the past year, and the entire new
chapter, as revised, has been approxed by the Board of Direction. It
will be issued in the 1975 Manual Supplement.

1. Analysis of Operations of Railways That Ha\e Substantially Reduced
the Cost of Construction and Maintenance of Way Work.

Progress report, submitted as information page 301

2. Study to Establish New Equated Mileage Parameters.
Study is in progress and will be continued.

3. Economics of Producing Continuous Welded Rail by In-Track Welding.
Study has been made and a report on this subject will be submitted
in the committee's next report.

299

300 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

4. Use of Track Analyzer Car in Inspection of Track and Maintenance
Planning.

A progress report is being prepared.

5. Comparative Costs of Cleaning Ballast Vs. Ballast Replacement in
Track Rehabilitation.

Final report, submitted as information page 312

6. Economics of Installing Bonded Insulated Joints in Field Vs. Shop
Fabrication, and Economics of Bonded Joints Vs. Field Welds to
Connect CWR.

Final report, submitted as information page 318

7. Determine the Economics of Work Equipment Vs. Small Machines or
Hand Labor on High-Density Lines with Limited Track Time.

No report.

The Committee on Economics of Railway
Construction and Maintenance,

H. C. MiNTEER, chairman.

Cljarles! 3^ap Mvigfyt

1885=1974

Charles Ray Wright, retired assistant chief engineer of the former New York,
Chicago & St. Louis Railroad (now part of the Norfolk & Western Railway), passed
away at his home in Cleveland, Ohio, on September 4, 1974, at the age of 89.

Mr. Wright was born at Ravenna, Ohio, on June 10, 1885. He was educated in
the public schools and the Case Institute of Applied Science and entered the service
of the NYC & St L in the engineering department on April 16, 1906. After serving
in various positions in the engineering department, he was appointed division
engineer on September 15, 1919, serving in that capacity on several divisions until
his appointment as assistant chief engineer on September 1, 1940. He retired on
July 1, 1955, after more than 49 years of continuous railroad service.

Mr. Wright joined the AREA in 1920 and was for many years an active and
valuable member of Committee 22. After his retirement, he was elected a Member
Emeritus.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 301

Report on Assignment 1

Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have

Substantially Reduced the Cost of Construction

and Maintenance of Way Work

J. T. Sullivan (chairman, subcommittee), Arlie Bornhoft, L. B. Cann, Jr., A. W.
Carlson, W. H. Hoar, B. G. Hudson, R. W. Preisendefer, W. B. Stackhouse,
D. D. Thomas, J. T. Ward, H. E. Wilson.

This report is submitted as information. It deals with the Canadian Pacific
Limited, Weston Frog and Switch Manufacturing Shop at Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. This report further deals with the double-tracking of the Canadian National
Railways' Prairie Region utilizing concrete crossties and welded rail. Information
for this report was obtained in conjunction with a meeting of Committee 22 held
on June 9 and 10, 1975, at Winnipeg.

The CP's Weston Frog and Switch Manufacturing Shop fabricates all types
of special trackwork products for exclusive use on the CP system. Research, develop-
ment, and engineering is performed by the office of the chief engineer with all
trackwork production under the supervision of the motive power and rolling stock
department in accordance with CP and AREA specifications.

The present shop is the outgrowth of two separate system shops now integrated
into one shop centrally located at the mid-point of the CP system. Research for the
modernization of this shop started in 1969 with complete investigation into each
manufacturing phase to facilitate use of existing machinery and select die most
modern equipment to meet present and future trackwork production requirements.
Originally, the former shops, located at Winnipeg and Montreal, employed approxi-
mately 145, but with modernization and improved manufacturing techniques, this
force has been reduced to 75, including supervision. Shop construction commenced
in 1971 in conjunction with machinery procurements, etc., and trackwork production
continued on a reduced scale. Completion of the shop was in late 1972, although
the CP is continually upgrading with small machines, tooling, jigs, fixtures to con-
stantly improve techniques and productivity.

This shop manufactures parts for a complete turnout, including heel-block
assemblies, guard rails, switch stand assemblies, plates, switch points, frogs, and bolts.
Also, special rail assemblies, rail-bound manganese and diamond crossings, and
double-slip switches are fabricated. Insulated gage plates, riser slide plates, turnout
plates, special flat seat tie plates, and miscellaneous cut seat plates are produced.

The rail required for trackwork products is brought into the shop area via rail
where it is ofl:-loaded by overhead gantry cranes. The cranes then handle the rail
into a cropping saw where it is cut to various lengths for product manufacture. From
tliis location, the precut sections are moved into tlie main shop building by means of
a conveyor which passes through the wall of the building. Once inside, the sections
are handled by overhead cranes to the various product manufacturing locations.

When manufacturing switch points, the necessary straps are fastened to the
precut rail sections, the clamped assembly is placed into a drill wlicre all holes are
drilled simultaneously, and from there, the drilled section is passed to milling
machines which are programmed for final machining of the appropriate point. The

302 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

two mainline rail sections for the CP are 132 RE and 115 RE with considerable
maintenance requirements for existing 130 RE-HF and 100 RE-HF sections. Switch
point production in these sections consists of 11 ft, 16 ft 6 in., and 22 ft lengths
with limited quantities of 13 ft and 39 ft cun'ed points for use in No. 20 turnouts.

The CP uses the built-up design guard rail with adjustable blocks with all
132-lb and 115-lb rails produced in special chrome rail. Guard rail lengths are 8 ft
3 in., 11 ft 6 in., 13 ft 8 in., and 18 ft. Manganese steel guard rails are no longer
used on the CP.

Complete heelblock assemblies for four-hole design, fixed position, with no
sliding heel are fabricated. The assemblies consist of block, joint bars and shoulder
bolts, complete.

Switch stands are complete assemblies for use as ground, low intermediate and
high position complete with eye bolts, masts, and targets.

Rail-bound manganese steel frogs are machined and assembled. In addition,
some spring frogs are manufactured for specific locations. To supplement new frog
requirements, the CP has two reclamation frog shops located at Montreal and Leth-
bridge. The rebuilds are primarily rail-bound manganese with some built-up and
solid manganese.

All new frog construction utilizes special chrome rail M'ith explosive depth
hardening of the manganese steel insert castings. Approximately 15 miles from the
shop area, the CP has an area for perfonnance of depth hardening. At this location,
there is a work platform approximately 5 ft in height, 10 to 12 ft in width, and
approximately 30 ft long. This structure is built with wooden timber sidewalls
witli the center filled with sand. Transport to this site is by specially equipped truck
with a bed and boom for handling the steel inserts. The truck is also equipped with
a special box for movement of explosives from the storage magazine to the work
platform.

The casting is placed on the sand bed of the platform, thoroughly cleaned, and
adhesive added to the clean casting before applying sheet type explosive. The ex-
plosion is then set off from a remote position by a detonator, with each casting

immJ

i£^^

I

xm « -

'""^^gmj

Fig. 1 — Preparing frog casting for depth hardening.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 303

Fig. 2 — Frog casting ready for explosii

304 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

receiving three blasts. Tlie first shock results in approximately 300 Brinell hardness,
the second 340 to 350, and the third 375. Depth hardening by this process has proven
able to proN'ide a service life of 100,000,000 to 120,000,000 tons where previously
60,000,000 tons was normal for a frog casting on the CP line. At the present time,
this method of depth hardening costs approximately $250 per casting.

Weston Fhog and SwrrcH Manufacturing Shop
1974 Production

Switch points (varying lengths) 1,663 each

Guard rail assembly 492 each

Heelblock assembly 294 each

Switch stand assembly 484 each

Plates ( various types ) 23,000 each

Frogs ( new ) 454 each

Frogs ( reclaimed ) 600 each

Special rail assemblies 2,641 tons

This modern shop is well equipped to supply the needs of the CP.
The CP is well pleased with the results of their operation and feel that the
expenditures for construction have been economically justified by results to date.

DOUBLE-TRACKING ON THE CANADIAN NATIONAL

On June 10, Committee 22 inspected new mainline hack construction being
performed by the Canadian National Railways on its Prairie Region. The CN is
constructing a second mainline from Winnipeg to Portage on the Rivers subdivision,
Mile 6.87 to Mile 52.17. The project calls for the installation of two-directional
double-track CTC with intermediate signals for following moves. Track will be
signalled for 80 mph operation. Double high-speed crossovers will be installed at
Mile 14.3 and a passing track will be constructed at Mile 32 to Mile 33.5 which
is to be situated between the two main tracks where it may be used as a crossover
as well as for overtake in both directions by trains on either track. At the Assiniboine
River bridge. Mile 50.5, single track will be maintained wih No. 20 equilateral
turnouts placed at both ends wliich will give additional capabilities. The new aline-
ment will have a paralleling track on 15-ft track centers with the existing line.

The track section is to be built using concrete crossties on 24-in. centers carrying
132 RE rail in 1,170-ft strings. Project calls for 496,566 lin ft of 132-lb continuous
welded rail. The strings are being joined by thermite welding in the field. Approxi-
mately 121,000 concrete crossties will be installed. New turnouts will include four
No. 20 equilaterals, eight No. 20 turnouts, eighteen No. 12 turnouts and one 132-lb
manganese diamond. Three prestressed bridges are to be located at Mile 17.3, Mile
30.8 and Mile 49.3. This project will include 12 power switches, 34 CTC signals,
approximately 250,000 ft of underground cable, 750,000 ft of line wire, 170 DC
track circuits, and 12 compressed air snow removal systems at four sites.

Grading is being performed by a contractor, and it is estimated that 450,000
cu yd of material will be moved when constructing the subgrade. Approximately
392,000 cu yd of sub-ballast is to be brought by air-dump cars from River Manitoba,
a 200-mile round trip. The subgrade cross-section is to have no less than 21 in. of
pit-run sub-ballast topped with 12 in. of crushed rock ballast under the tie, giving
full depth of crushed rock of 18 in. once the cribs have been filled. Approximately

(Text continued on page 309)

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 305

Fig. 3 — Concrete ties and welded rail on the CN.

306 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

' " ^ ^>?- '' i.

Fig. 4 — Thermite welding on the CN.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 307

Fig. 5 — No. 20 turnout under construction.

308 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 6 — Unloading concrete crossties onto the roadbed.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 309

Fig. 7 — Distributing and spacing concrete crossties.

238,000 cu yd of crushed-rock ballast will be brought in by work train from Wat-
comb, a 600-mile round trip.

Concrete crossties are transported on special tie cars with each car having six
bundles of 30 ties each, or 180 ties per car. The ties are off-loaded tlirough use of
an off-track mobile crane driving on compacted subgrade and utilizing a specially
manufactured steel tie-handling rack. The rack is placed under the bundle, lifted
from the car, and placed at intervals on two wooden ties positioned on the subgrade.
Unloading of ties is dependent upon the amount of track time; however, the operation
is capable of unloading as many as eight carloads per worktrain day.

Once the ties are unloaded on the roadbed, they are distributed tlirough the use
of a rubber-tired straddle-axled crane and anodier special lifting device. The ties
are handled six at a time from the bundles and placed at tlie proper spacing. Proper
alinement of ties is controlled by a specially made gage which runs on the near rail
of the adjacent track. The concrete crossties are manufactured to CN specifications,
rail fasteners are applied by a six-man gang using sledge hammers; however, this
process is to be mechanized in the near future.

Once ties are unloaded and properly spaced, welded rail is unloaded from a rail
train to tlie ties. The rail is off-loaded from tlie end of a rail car of the worktrain
occupying the dead track to specially designed rollers. This eliminates delays incurred
by heavy mainline traffic. Once the rail is placed on tlie tie seat, the tie pad is
applied, after which the rail is fastened to the tie.

In summary, the project which started in 1973 is scheduled for completion
in 1976 and will result in a double-track mainline track structure consisting of
concrete crossties and 132-lb welded rail. In 1974 this section of tlie CN's track
handled 40 trains per day with 43.8 million gross tons. Annual tonnage is expected
to increase to 80 million gross tons in 1980 and 85 million gross tons in 1985.

310 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 8 — Applying rail fasteners.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 311

Fig. 9 — Portable roller used in unloading welded rail from worktrain to concrete

ties on roadbed.

312 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 5

Comparative Costs of Cleaning Ballast Versus Ballast
Replacement In Track Rehabilitation

W. J. Jones (chairman, subcommittee), A. S. Barr, J. S. Busby, J. R. Claiuc, H. W.
Kellogg, Guy Liljeblad, E. T. Myers, Mike Rougas, G. E. Scholze, J. E.
Sunderland.

Yovir subcommittee submits the following reiJort as information. Comments and
criticisms are welcome.

Cutbacks in rail and tie renewals are commonplace during periods of depressed
business activity because of tlie large amount of money involved in such items. To
a lesser extent, retrenchments also occur in reballasting programs. However, by and
large, a certain amount of maintenance money is expended for ballast in tlie day-to-
day maintenance of track.

In the aggregate, the value of ballast that is consumed annually represents a
sizeable sum. The AAR reported that Class I carriers spent $36,837,000 for ballast
in 1973 and $45,183,000 in 1974, excluding transportation costs.

Ballast Is Indispensable to the Safety of Track

Unless a full ballast section (of quality material) is maintained at all times,
track will develop irregularities in surface, line, and gage. The nmnber of slow orders
required will rise. Joint pumping will increase, accelerating joint wear and rail-end
batter. Partially exposed ties are more vulnerable to destruction by a derailed wheel.
Threat of sun-kinks will multiply. The overall result will be a sharp increase in the
cost of ordinary track maintenance or a reduction in maintenance standards. Thus,
it is apparent that a relatively substantial quantity of ballast must be provided almost
daily, on almost all roads.

There are 330,000 miles of railroad track in this country. Assuming an average
of 2,500 cu yd of ballast per mile and a cost of $4.00 per yard for ballast in place
(conservative at today's prices), we find that ballast represents an asset worth $3.3
biUion. Accordingly, everything practical should be done to protect this investment
and, concurrendy, to economize in ballast expenditures, wherever possible.

An adequate ballast section is indispensable to the efficient maintenance of
every class of track. Basically, ballast consists of selected materials placed on the
roadbed for the purpose of holding the track to the desired line and surface. For
ballast to be considered "adequate," it must possess specific physical properties and
it must meet fixed functional requirements.

Requirements of Good Ballast

Good ballast should be sound, hard, tough, clean, heavy, sharp-faced and
nonconductive. Desirably, ballast should be available in abundant supply, close to
the point of use, and at an economical price per cubic yard. Ballast gradation between
minimum and maximum allowable sizes should be such as to pennit ballast to com-
pact readdy in the track.

To be functionally satisfactory, ballast should:

1. Provide a firm bearing for the ties and distribute the wheel loads uniformly
over the roadbed.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 313

2. Provide propei- drainage.

3. Afford a means for the elimination or reduction of capillary action.

4. FiU the spaces behveen the ties and form a shoulder from tie ends to sub-
grade, thereby holding the ties in the proper position, while resisting
lateral forces exerted by the wheel against the rail.

5. Retard vegetal growth within tlie track area.

6. Facilitate track work, particularly during periods of rainy weather.

7. Provide resilient and elastic support of ties and rail.

Foul Ballast Adversely Affects Maintenance

With respect to the physical properties of good ballast, aU of them are relatively
permanent by nature, except one — cleanliness. Ballast commences to get dirty soon
after it is put in track and subjected to traffic. Fine particles of dirt and other foreign
matter enter the ballast from spilled lading, locomotive sanding, wind- and water-
carried soils, subgrade material working into the ballast, and attrition of the ballast
itself.

Water enters the ballast from above as rainfall and from below by capillary
action. When water and dirt combine, drainage is impaired. Vegetal growth is en-
couraged; ties pump; line and surface deteriorate; and wear of rail, fastenings and
ties accelerates. Ballast loses its resiliency and is no longer capable of properly
distributing loads from the track to the subgrade. Moreover, as determined recently
in the Track-Train Dynamics studies, increased lateral forces are encountered in
track with frozen ballast, or tightly consolidated ballast polluted by sand.

As the ballast becomes fouled, track maintenance becomes more difficult and
more expensive. The condition soon reaches the point that something must be done.
The maintenance manager must decide whether to clean part or all of the ballast
section, plow out the dirty ballast and provide an entire new section of fresh ballast,
or make a nominal surfacing raise on existing ballast and fill in the voids surrounding
the ties with fresh ballast.

Source of Information

In order to learn what is being done in this regard and to develop the cost
associated with current practices, a questionnaire was sent to representatives of 30
railroads. Twelve written replies were received and verbal infonnation was supplied
from four others. The answers were tabulated and unweighted averages computed
without regard for miles of lines maintained, tonnages carried, etc.

The replies were quite similar and are summarized as follows:

1. Quality ballast is preferred over inferior . grades, even though first cost
is greater and longer haul involved.

2. Ballast supply is adequate for all needs for all responding roads.

3. Ballast cars are in short supply on two-thirds of the roads responding to
questionnaire.

4. Average cost of ballast is $2.70 per cubic yard, FOB car.^

5. Ballast is hauled an average of 155 miles from source to point of use.

6. Ballast moves on, and is unloaded by, through freight in the majority
of cases. When not unloaded by through freight, cars are set out for
pick-up and dmnping by work train.

7. Average cost of work train is $525 for a 12-hour day.

1 All prices, wages, rates, etc., are based on 1974 figures.

314 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

8. In retimbering ahead of surfacing operation, an average of 611 cross
ties per mile are installed by the tie gang at an average labor cost per tie
of 0.65 man-hour.^ This compares to 0.19 man-hour per tie where ties
are installed in conjunction with operation of undertrack plow. (Cost
figure for ties renewed while undercutting-cleaning was not available.)

9. An average of 414 cu yd of ballast per mile are required for 2-in. sur-
facing raise and 700 cu yd for 3-in. raise, compared to 2,528 cu yd
behind plow and 525 cu yd with undercutter-cleaner.

10. An average of 420 track feet per hour are undercut and cleaned, 6 in.
below bottom of ties. Daily production with undertrack plow is 3,660 ft.

11. Surfacing raises are made every 4 to 5 years. Interval between under-
cutting-cleaning is 9 years. Customarily, the undertrack plow is used
only once at a given location, to dispose of an inferior quality or heavily
polluted ballast.

12. The majority of the respondents advised that their interest in under-
cutting-cleaning would heighten if they could be assured of 1,000 ft per
hour production.

Advantages of Undercutting-Cleaning

1. Removing all the ballast from the track to a specified depth below the
bottom of tie, screening out the dirt, sand and otlier undesirable material,
and returning tlie clean ballast to the track for making an appropriate
raise is the only sure way of restoring resiliency and drainage to the track.

2. Established grades are preserved. This is particularly important with
respect to meeting existing track crossings and road crossings at grade,
bridge ends, station platforms and turnouts. Also, established grade rela-
tionship with adjoining tracks is not disturbed, thus precluding the need
for reworking or raising walkways and inner track areas.

3. Vertical clearances in tunnels and beneath overhead structures are not ad-
versely afi^ected. Occasionally, oppoitunity exists to improve upon tlie
clearance.

4. Subgrade widths remain unaltered, thereby avoiding the expense involved
in restoring or widening embankments to adequately support the track or
to prevent loss of ballast.

5. It helps to preserve dwindling resources of ballast material.

Disadvantages

1. Rate of progress with present equipment is relatively slow. Usually a
minimum of three to four hours undisturbed track occupancy is necessary
to justify the expense of set-up and making run-off. Excessive train delays
are frequent. (Improvements are being made in the design and method
of operation of the equipment aimed at speeding up undercutting-
cleaning. )

2. A substantial portion of ballast is wasted. For efiiciency of cleaning opera-
ation, screen openings must be large enough for pollutants to pass freely,
at an acceptable rate of production. Too large a screen opening results
in an increase in ballast wastage. Too small an opening causes the screen
to overload or results in a less than satisfactory job of cleaning.

2 Average hourly rate for laborer is $4,624, and for foreman $5,565.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 315

3. During periods of restricted maintenance allowances, there may not be
sufficient allowance to support the operation.

4. To be economically feasible, there must be enough work for the under-
cutter-cleaner to justify the cost of the equipment.

5. The cleaning operation produces a lot of dust which is drawing more and
more attention by ecologists. Some incorporated areas prohibit the use
of ballast cleaning equipment and issue citations when the equipment is
operated.

Shoulder Ballast Cleaning

Shoulder ballast cleaning produces worthwhile benefits. However, this operation
is not to be performed in lieu of undercutting-cleaning nor is shoulder ballast
cleaning considered as a substitute for a surfacing raise.

The ballast in the shoulders makes up 35% to 40% of the total ballast section.
It is essential for the shoulders to be kept open so that water will not impound in
the track. Keeping the shoulders clean will aid in preventing the formation of
"mud-socks" at tie ends. Additionally, clean shoulders will permit some leaching out
of dirt and sand from the "cribs" and "eyes." Unfortunately, however, once the
ballast under the ties is fouled and consolidated to tire point that it has lost its
cushion, and drainage is impaired, shoulder cleaning cannot materially mitigate the
problem.

Application of Undertrack Plow

It is not economical to contend with an inferior grade of ballast. For years
native materials, gravels, cinders, soft sedimentary rock and other materials —
locally available — were frequently used as ballast on branch lines, secondary mains
and — in some cases — on primary mains, due to the ease of accessibility and cost of
such ballast. However, the increase in axle loads and die increase in train speeds
soon proved the inadequacy of subquality ballast. The sooner it is replaced with
quality ballast, the better, from all standpoints.

The quickest and most economical way to dispose of unwanted ballast is by
use of the undertrack plow. There are locations, however, where, due to physical
restrictions and clearances, it is not feasible to plow, e.g., through station platforms,
in tunnels and beneath overhead structures with tight vertical clearance.

The principal advantage of the imdertrack plow in skeletonizing track is its
high-production capacity. Other advantages are: ( 1 ) Ties are renewed at very low
unit cost, (2) Selection of ties for renewal is facilitated and a better job of marking
is possible since the whole tie is visible, and (3) Where necessary, track realignment
is performed with minimum efl^ort.

Disadvantages are: (1) Track must be occupied by maintenance crew for a
relatively long period of time before track is readied for resumption of traflBc; (2)
The operation usually results in heavy tie renewals, which could represent too large
a percentage of the available tie program; (3) Adjustments must be made in grade
at crossings, bridge ends and switches, else other methods must be employed to
remove ballast in approach to such fixed grade points; ( 4 ) A large quantity of ballast
must be available on a daily basis to fill in the skeletonized track. This requires an
adequate supply of ballast cars to keep the program moving forward (two-thirds
of the respondents to questionnaire advised that ballast cars were in short supply);
and (5) Slow orders are usually extensive in length and duration and involve
comparatively low speeds.

316 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Pros and Cons in Making Surfacing Raises

Historically, it has been the practice on the majority of railroads in this country
for tracks to be gi\'en periodic surfacing raises to improve the riding quality. Except
for special locations, such as on mountain grades where locomotive sanding occurs,
and in isolated locations, e.g., where ballast section has been fouled with silt from
Hooding, very little out-of-face cleaning of ballast is done. The majority of returns
to questionnaire indicates that ballast cleaning has never been performed on those
properties. Instead, whenever ballast fails to function as intended, a nominal track
raise is made on the old ballast and fresh ballast is brought in to fill the voids
around the ties.

With modern machinery, supported by a relatively small crew, it is possible
to surface track quickly and economically. Other advantages are: (1) Maintenance
of existing tie bed compaction, (2) Does not require taking track out of service
very long, and (3) Does not require a large quantity of ballast at any one time, nor
a large number of ballast cars.

Disadvantages are considerable. Principal ones are: (1) Benefits are short-lived
and value of new ballast is not fully realized since track is raised on existing ballast
(with vaiying degrees of contamination) and new ballast is spread as top-coat on
top of die ballast section; (2) What clean ballast there is in the cribs that finds its
way beneath the ties is subject to rapid contamination from the dirty ballast below;
(3) Frequent raising of track surface, coupled with normal deterioration of embank-
ments, results in placing track on a pinnacle. To correct this condition requires
restoration and/or widening of the subgrade to prevent loss of ballast and creation
of centerbound track; (4) Bridge structures and crossings must be raised compatible
to raise in track grade. This involves extra expense.

SUMMARY

1. A clean ballast section is essential to the economical maintenance of track.

2. When ballast fouls to the point of losing its resiliency and cushion, the cost
of track maintenance rises, or the track standard must be reduced.

3. Ballast in track represents a sizeable investment.

4. Average cost of high-speed primary main line ballast is $2.70 per cubic yard,
FOB car, at loading site. Cost of transporting and placing ballast, including
ownership, operation and maintenance of equipment expense plus maintenance of
way labor, etc., brings the cost of ballast in place to $4.00, or more, per cubic yard.

5. There is approximately one-half (0.5) cubic yard of ballast per lineal foot
of track, where standard ballast section calls for 8 in. of ballast under the tie. This
equates to a ballast value in excess of $2.00 per foot of track.

6. Thus, if track can be undercut to a depth of 8 in. and the ballast screened
at a cost of less than $1.60 per foot, then undercutting-cleaning is the economical
method to adopt. (It is assumed that 20% of the ballast will be lost in the cleaning
process when much of the minus %-m. material passes through the screen with the
dirt and sand. ) From Appendix A we find that cost to clean ballast computes to
$1.06 per track foot.

7. Undercutting-cleaning provides the most positive and practical method of
restoring ballast to its original condition. However, it is recognized that there can

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 317

be local considerations precluding the use of die undercutter-cleaner. In such cases,
of necessity, other methods must be employed to reinstate those properties and
functions inherent in good ballast, so that ballast will fulfill all of its intended
functions.

APPENDIX A

ESTIMATED COST TO CLEAN BALLAST WITH
THE UNDERCUTTER-CLEANER

ASSUMPTIONS

New machine cost — $500,000

Machine life — 12 years

Interest at 8? on undepreciated value

ANNUAL COST

Depreciation $ 41,670

Interest 21,600

Maintenance 50,000

Fuel and supplies 25,000

Mechanic (including additives) 19,500 $157,770

Labor: (Including additives)

Operators (2) 39,000

Laborers (Foreman -f 8 men) 115,080 154,080

TOTAL $311,850

PRODUCTION

An average of 420 ft/hour, 3 hours daily,
working 90% of the time.'

420 X 3 X 5 X 52 (.90) = 294,840 track feet

COST TO UNDERCUT AND CLEAN PER TRACK FOOT $1.06

' The new equipment being manufactured offers increased production and efficiency with
almost 100% assurance of further economies.

318 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 6

Economics of Installing Bonded Insulated Joints in

Field Vs. Shop Fabrication and Economics of

Bonded Joints Vs. Field Welds to

Connect CWR

A. E. Shaw, Jr. (chairman, subcommittee}, R. J. Aschmeyer, A. Bornhoft,
W. Glavin, C. R. Harrell, J. R. Miller, G. G. Phillips, D. D. Thomas,
H. J. Umberger, J. T. Ward.

ECONOMICS OF INSTALLING BONDED INSULATED JOINTS IN
FIELD VS. SHOP FABRICATION

The bonded insulated joint has been in production and available to the industry
for about 5 years. Presently, they are manufactured by at least 3 companies and
in appearance and construction, they are very similar. The joint consists of a special
steel joint bar with a permanently bonded insulation material on the side of the bar
toward the rail. This bar is bonded to the rail joint by epoxy material and held in
place by either high-strength bolts or fasteners.

The procedure for installation in the field is fairly complex and must be ad-
hered to or failures will result. A typical instruction for instaUing, broken into
functions, is as follows:

1. Cut and Drill

(a) Rail is cut with rail saw if necessary. Care must be taken to ensure a
vertical cut.

(b) Rail holes are located using templet.

(c) Rail holes are drilled with single rail drill using flat-head drill bits,
1-5/16 in.

(d) Grinder deburrs and hones holes carefully. Rail brand and any burrs on
rail ends are ground off.

(e) Rail ends are flame-hardened with oxyacetylene torch.

2. Sandblasting

(a) Sand-blast rail ends about 19 in. from each end to remove all scale and
rust.

3. Apply Bars

(a) Rail ends are examined to see if they are in tension or compression.

(b) In compression, a hydraulic jack opens the ends, the end post is inserted,
and the jack removed.

(c) In light tension, sufficient anchors are removed and rails are pulled
with railpuUer to tlie end post, and anchors are replaced. If gap remains,
it is closed by heating.

(d) Blast-cleaned areas of rails are washed with special solvent.

(e) Heat is directed to the sides of the rail until the top of the head reaches
200 F.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 319

(f) At temperature, the blast-cleaned area is lighdy washed widi solvent,
the rail hole bushings are installed and the joint bars, which have been
spread with epoxy cement during die preparation of the rails, are put
in place.

(g) High-strength bolts or fasteners are used. They are put through one
bar and the bar is moved into position against the rail. This allows a
visible check to see that they do not push out the rail hole bushings.
The odier bar (flange side) is mounted on the protruding bolts or
fasteners.

(h) The bolts or fasteners are pulled up from the center alternately to each

end.
(i) Heat is applied and bars are brought to 200 F. At 200 F, heat is cut

back and bars maintained at 200 F for 10 minutes.

4. In Service

(a) If rail traffic is expected, the joint is cooled to 150 F with water spray
from a garden sprayer.

(b) Because elapsed time of all fimctions is approximately one hour, however,
because advance joints are in preparation, the average time is much
lower.

Some railroads feel, to ensure quality control, they cannot use field-installed
joints; therefore, they have the bonded insulated joint made up in a piece of rail
at a shop and dien this section of rail is installed in track by field welding the two
ends or the use of standard joint bars. An analysis has been made of various railroads
and transit companies comparing the installation of bonded insulated joints, which
are fabricated at a shop, shipped to the field, and then installed in track vs. bonded
insulated joints installed directly in track.

A questionnaire was sent to 32 railroads and 6 transit companies representative
of the industry. Twenty-six railroads and five transit companies responded. Of these
companies, all but three railroads are using bonded insulated joints to varying
degrees. Three transit companies use them, one does not, and one could supply no
information. Ten railroads and two transit companies use only shop fabrication.
Four railroads and one transit company use field application only. The remainder
of the respondents use both shop and field installations.

For shop fabrication, five railroads and one transit company reported using
39-ft lengths of rail including the insulated joint. Four railroads reported using 13-ft
lengths. The remaining railroads and transit companies use rail lengths varying from
11 to 26 ft, including the joints. Ele\en companies stated they did not offset the
joint in the rail for balance in handling and eight reported they did. In general,
the companies using longer lengths of rail offset the joint.

All respondents reported either using fully heat-treated rail, mill end-hardened
or field end-hardened rail in both shop and field installation of joints. Eighteen re-
spondents reported AREA specifications for end squareness to be satisfactory for
installation of bonded insulated joints. Four reported squareness to be unsatisfactory
and recut each piece, placing the end post between the mating cut ends.

Failure rate, defined as a joint which had epoxy cement bond failure within
30 days after being installed in track, has been negligible. Most companies reported
no failures, and those that reported failures indicated they were less than 1% with
the exception of one railroad which indicated it had 75% failure in field-applied

Bui. 656

320 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

joints. However, this same railroad reported no failures in shop-fabricated joints.
One railroad with over 7,000 shop-fabricated joints installed within the last five
years reported no failures.

The number of bonded insulated joints in track as reported by the different
companies varied greatly from 2-7,000 but, of course, this is to be expected as the
length of time they have been in use varied from one to five years. The railroad
reporting 7,000 joints in track also reported using tliem the longest. Also, the various
railroads and transit companies surveyed had vastly different mileages and operating
conditions.

All of the companies surveyed indicated they were well satisfied with the
success of this type of joint and most indicated they intended to use more of them
in the future. Several were awaiting results of their tests before moving further.
One railroad reported using standard joint bars to fasten shop-fabricated joints to
adjacent rails, one reported using both joint bars and field welding. The remainder
of respondents reported field welding of the joint assembly.

The cost of shop fabrication of bonded insulated joints varied so greatly, as
reported by the respondents, that an average figure would be meaningless. Various
manufacturers report they charge $20 to $35 for installation of a joint on rail received
at their shop. Material costs of joint and shipping of rail to and from shop are
additional. One large railroad, which reported having over 7,000 bonded joints in
track, indicated the cost to fabricate in their shop to be $35 per joint. The average
cost of installing the section of rail, including bonded insulated joints by respondents
who field weld them in track, was $210 each.

The average cost of field installation of bonded insulated joints was reported
to be $120 each. The question was asked as to the estimate of aimual savings by
using bonded joints vs. other types. All reported not enough experience as yet to
compare. A number of companies felt the savings would be substantial as time
went on.

The bonded insulated joint has been around for a relatively short time; however,
judging from the response and answers to the questionnaires sent out, its acceptance
and use is certainly reducing the labor cost of maintaining the many thousands
of insulated joints in use over the country. It appears the field installation is more
economical.

ECONOMICS OF BONDED JOINTS VS. FIELD WELDS TO CONNECT CWR

The laying of continuous welded rail has markedly reduced maintenance by
eliminating nearly all of the bolted joints, but on those remaining, connecting tlie
strings together, maintenance has increased greatly because of stresses they are
subjected to in cold weather with resulting excessive end gaps, broken and damaged
bolts, and in severe cases, pull-aparts. In addition, the large end gaps cause excessive
normal batter with more than normal surfacing required.

In order to detemiine the economics of connecting strings of CWR together
with field welds vs. bonded joints, an analysis has been made of various railroads
and transit companies as to tlieir practice. A questionnaire was sent to 32 railroads
and 6 transit companies representative of the industry.

Five transit companies returned the questionnaire; three reported they used
thermite type field welds for connecting strings of CWR, and tlie other two did not
or had no information. The cost of installation, including material, ranged from $80
to $400 per joint with an average of $240. No transit companies reported using
bonded joints. Failure of field welds was reported very low, less than 2 percent.

Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance 321

Twenty-six railroads responded and of them, two ha\e no welded rail, and two
have welded rail but use standard joint bars for connecting the strings. The remaining
lines use thermite type field welds for connecting strings of CWR. Two lines also
use bonded joints, three railroads either use bars which have been ground at the
center to fit over the upset material of the weld, or a "safety strap." One hne uses
these only on high side of curves 2° and over.

Costs of installing field welds ranged from $60 to $150 with the average being
894 each. The a\erage cost of installing bars or "safety straps" was reported to be
$33 a joint.

Failure rate was reported \ery low on both field welds and bonded joints —
less than 2 percent.

The results of the sur\e>' indicate there are few railroads using bonded joints
to comiect strings of CWR and there appears to be no economic savings by so doing.

Report of Committee 13 — Environmental Engineering

C. E. DeGeer, Chairman
W. H. Melgren,
Vice Chairman
A. J. Dolby, Secretary

R. C. Brownlee
R. R. Holmes
T. W. ZWICK
R. S. Bryan, Jr.

L. R. BURDGE

D. S. Krieter
Barbara J. Rust
W. F. Arksey
A. F. BuTCosK

W. M. CUMMINGS

W. p. Cunningham

J. C. DiETZ

J. H. Flett

J. W. GWYN

W. M. Harrison
T. L. Hendrlx
K. K. Hersey
J. D. HoFF, H
D. J. Inman
F. O. Klemstine

R. M. LiNDENMUTH

F. L. Manganaro

W. D. Mason, Jr.
R. G. Michael

C. F. Muelder
E. T. Myers
G. H. Nick

M. F. Obrecht
L. W. Pepple
W. D. Peters
Robert Singer
R. J. Spence
T. A. Tennyson

L. R. TiERNY

J. W. Webb, Jr.

D. R. York

M. L. Williams
R. G. Bielenberg

E. S. Johnson
R. J. Thompson

J. J. DWYER (E)

H. L. McMuLLiN (E)
Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the Anwrican Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Under way is the continual updating of "Glossary of Terms" and "Di-
rectories of Pollution Control Agencies."

1. Water Pollution Control.

Progress report on "Box and Hopper Car Cleaning," presented as
infonnation page 325

2. Air Pollution Control.

The assignment to "Investigate Guide Standards, Including Instrumenta-
tion for Preliminary Measurements of Stationary Stack Emissions,"
will be continued to include latest government requirements.

3. Land Pollution Control.
No report.

4. Industrial Hygiene.

Section 4.7 "Sanitation Requirements for Portable Housing Units," was
published in Part 1 of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975, with
the recommendation that it be adopted and published in the Manual.

5. Plant Utilities.
No report.

323

324 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

6. Corrosion Control.

Progress report, "Use of Plastic Pipe," presented as information .... page 327

7. Noise Pollution Control.
No report.

The Committee on ENvmoNMENTAL Engineering,

C. E. DeGeer, Chairman.

1915=1975

John L. Engler, construction engineer for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway at Topeka, Kansas, died on February 5, 1975, at Topeka.

Mr. Engler was born on June 16, 1915, at Chapman, Kansas, and was graduated
from Chapman High School. He received his degree in civil engineering from Kansas
State University, Manhattan, Kansas, and joined the Santa Fe Railway in 1937 as
a chainman at Topeka. During 1938 and 1939 he worked for the Kansas State High-
way Commission, returning to the Santa Fe Railway in June 1939.

Mr. Engler entered military service in 1941, and following World War II he
worked as an admeasurer for the Panama Canal and as a design engineer for the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in Nebraska before returning to the Santa Fe in 1953 at
Topeka. Mr. Engler was promoted to assistant engineer in 1956 and construction
engineer with headquarters in Topeka in 1971.

We of Committee 13 knew John as dedicated engineer who contributed much
to the work of our committee.

Environmental Engineering 325

Report on Assignment 1

Water Pollution Control

R. C. Brownlee (chairman, subcommittee), R. G. Bielenberg, L. R. Burdge, C. E.
DeGeer, J. W. GwYN, D. J. Inman, E. S. Johnson, R. M. Lindenmuth,
P. M. Miller, R. J. Thompson, D. R. York.

PROBLEMS IN THE DISPOSAL OF WASTE FROM BOX CAR AND
HOPPER CAR CLEANING

Your committee submits as information the following report pertaining to the
disposal of wastes from box car and hopper car washing, with the intention of
developing furtiier information and data for eventual submission for publication
in die Manual.

General

As with other railroad pollution problems, in order to reduce the initial pollution,
and to obtain the most economical and efficient control, it is essential to have the
cooperation of all departments of the railroad. To insure this cooperation, it is most
desirable to have pollution control administered by the chief executive officer of the
railroad.

Waste from box car and hopper car washing facilities presents a most difficult
problem for treatment and disposal. Large facilities present little chance for inven-
tory or pre-inspection of the cars, and the logistics involved in switching the cars
to avoid shock loadings on the treating facilities make this practice unfeasible. Treat-
ment facilities must therefore be designed on the basis that concentrations of pollutant
constituents in wastewater will be variable and impossible to anticipate. Technology
is available for the treatment of practically all organic compounds; however, removal
of high concentrations of dissolved solids common to washwaters is difficult and
expensive.

Precleaning Cars

Dissolved salts and otlier solids cannot be treated biologically and cannot be
filtered. A logical approach to die problem of high concentrations of dissolved solids
in the wastewater is to remove the soluble solids from the cars in a dry form rather
than attempting to remove them from solution in the wastewater.

Box cars can be hand-swept or vacuumed, provided that consideration be given
to health hazards, control of air pollution, and collection and disposal of the dry
material. Precleaning of hopper cars can be accomplished to varying degrees by
opening the hopper doors ahead of the washer facility. The cars may be vibrated
with mechanical vibrators or shaken with an engine to facilitate removal of dry
material. Sand or grit blasting of hopper cars has been considered by some railroads.
Pollution control, health hazards and disposal of dry materials must be given
proper consideration.

Washwater Characteristics

Commodities commonly carried by box and hopper cars and which find their
way into the wastewaters from washing facilities can generally be classified as
"organic" or "inorganic." Organic materials such as grains, sugar, cereals, oils, and
meals contribute high concentrations of BOD and suspended solids to the wastewater.

326 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Inorganics common to car washer wastewaters include: potash which contributes
liigh concentrations of chlorides and potassium in dissolved forms; cement and lime
which raise the pH of the wastewater and combine with insolubles to form deposits
in tile drain lines; fertilizers which are soluble in water and contribute nutrients
such as sulphates, nitrogen compounds and phosphates; borates which are somewhat
soluble in water and toxic to many plants; sand, coal and ores which are slightly
soluble and may contribute heavy metals to the wastewater.

Common problems associated witli treatment of car washer wastewater include
the removal of suspended solids, reduction of BOD, identification and containment
of toxic compounds, the adjustment of pH, and the difficult problem of excessive
concentrations of dissolved solids. Removal of nutrients must also be considered.

Treatment Methods

Generally, primary treatment of wastewater from car washer facilities should
accomplish the removal of floating and settleable solids. Primary treatment should
include ponding of the wastewater in order to bufi^er shock loads resulting from
washing cars containing the same type of commodity.

Primary treatment facilities should include a sloping pad on the washer facility
to retain heavy settleable solids, a small grit chamber at the edge of the pad with a
solids dragout device for removal of floating and settleable solids, and a settling
pond sized to buffer shock loads and afford retention time for clarification of smaller
floating and settleable solids.

Secondary treatment of wastewater may include lagoons, aeration equipment or
trickhng filters. In favorable climates reasonably efficient BOD removal can be
accomplished by floculative and aerobic lagoons. Additional biological treatment
is accomplished by surface aerators in lagoons, diffused aeration in lagoons, spray
ponds, activated sludge facilities and trickling filters. Activated sludge plants are
available from vendors as packaged plants ready to set on foundations.

Tertiary treatment for removal of suspended solids and nutrients can be accom-
plished by floculation-sedimentation, air floatation systems and various other methods
for stripping nutrients.

Receiving Waters

The degree of treatment required will vary according to the pollutant contents
of tlie wastewater and die effluent criteria that are required for discharge into streams
or municipal sewers, based on the economics involved. Generally, tlie allowable
limitation on concentrations of dissolved solids and nutrients make the discharge
of wastewater into storm sewers or other open waterways and lakes impossible even
with extensive pretreabiient of the wastewater. Evaporation ponds and irrigation offer
alternatives in certain areas which have favorable climatic conditions and where suffi-
cient property is available to accommodate tliese methods. Gonsideration must be given
to suppression of odors and the prevention of percolation of wastewater into ground-
water strata. Generally, it is more economical to discharge the wastes into municipal
sanitary sewers as it requires less treatment.

Summary

Remember — clear water is not necessarily clean water. Wastewater which has
been conventionally treated for the removal of BOD, suspended solids and other
objectionable constituents may still contain extremely high concentrations of dissolved

Environmental Engineering 327

salts. This treated wastewater, although it may appear clean, can actually be unfit
for discharge into waterways or even municipal sanitary sewers.

The major problems associated with the disposal of wastewater from box car
and hopper car washing lies not in con\entional treatment of the effluent, but in
the reduction of the concentration of dissoKed solids. From the standpoint of waste
disposal, it is infinitely easier to handle soluble solids in tlieir dry form than to
dissolve them in the washwater and then try to remoxe them from the wastewater.

Report on Assignment 6

Corrosion Control

D. S. Krieter (chairman, subcommittee), J. H. Flett, F. O. Klemstine, W. D.
Mason", Jr., R. G. Michael.

Your committee submits the following report on the Use of Plastic Pipe as
information.

USE OF PLASTIC PIPE
GENERAL

Plastic pipe can be used in a variety of piping applications in the railroad
industry' where strength, chemical resistance and ease of installation play important
roles. Plastic pipe is found in such railroad applications as water mains, chemical
feed lines for cooling towers and waste treatment facilities, drainage lines and loco-
motive wash racks. It is the intent of this committee report to serve as a guide in
selecting the proper type of plastic pipe based on tlie material to be handled. Since
plastic pipe in many cases is competitive in cost with steel, it is important to check
the operating conditions for such parameters as high temperature and/or pressure
since the use of plastic pipe under these conditions is largely restricted.

By far the most commonly used types of plastic pipe are polyethylene and
polyvinyl chloride ( P^'C ) . Certain \'ariations of these exist in the form of high- and
low-density polyethylene and chlorinated poly\inyl chloride (CP\'C). In addition,
there is axailable a polypropylene pipe which, altliough less common than PVC and
polyetliylene, has certain desirable characteristics. There is also a widespread use
of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polyester and epoxy glass reinforced
pipe. The application for each type of pipe depends not only on the operating
temperature and pressure of the material to be transported, but on the chemistry
of the material and in some cases, location. The general physical and chemical charac-
teristics of each t\pe of pipe are briefly outlined in the following sections, and care
should be taken to avoid selecting a plastic pipe which may be wholly unsuitable
for the intended application.

The polyethylene pipes generally have the lowest operating temperatures and
pressure ranges followed by PVC, ABS, CPVC and glass fiber reinforced epoxy in
that order. Among the most common uses for polyetliylene pipe include low-pressure
water systems; small above-ground drainage lines; natural gas lines; distilled,
demineralized, and zeolite water hues; corrosive liquids and gases.

Polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC) finds widespread use in pressure piping and
drainage systems, water service, drain, waste and vent systems, gas service, chemical

328 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

feed piping and water well casings. This type of pipe is definitely not suitable for
piping certain petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil).

Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) pipe is used mainly for hot- and cold-
water distribution systems and hot and cold chemical piping.

Acrylonitrile butadiene stryene pipe (ABS) is used in many railroad applications
involving drain, waste and vent systems, pressure piping and drainage systems, water
service and gas service.

Glass fiber reinforced epoxy, being one of tlie most durable types of plastic pipe,
is usually used for severe piping conditions where the other types are not suitable.
One of the most prominent railroad uses is in locomotive wash rack piping where
hot corrosive chemicals are piped under high pressure.

POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PIPE

Properties

Generally, they are insoluble below 50 C, but at higher temperatures high-
and low-density polyethylenes are soluble in hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydro-
carbons. The polyethylene pipes are decomposed by strong oxidizing agents (fuming
HNOs and H2SO1), slowly attacked by halogens and chlorinating agents (chlorosul-
phonic acid, phosgene, thionyl chloride). Solvents at elevated temperatures include:
toluene, xylene, tetralin, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene.
They are relatively insoluble and unaffected by polar solvents (alcohols, esters,
ketones), vegetable oils, water, alkalis, most concentrated acids (including HF)
and at room tempera tiu'e, ozone (in absence of ultra-violet light).

Moisture

Polyethylene pipe is very resistant to water witli an increase in weight after
immersion at 20 C (68 F) for a year, of less tlian 0.2%. Higher temperatures could
bring about a chemical change with an increase in water absorption. As previously
mentioned, polyediylene is widely used for chemical feed lines under ambient tem-
perature conditions.

Permeability

Transmission of gases and vapors would be least in high-density polyethylene
pipe. Permeability with organic vapors is lowest with strongly polar materials and
rises according to the following general order: alcohols, acids, nitroderivatives, alde-
hydes and ketones, esters, ethers, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons.

Melting Point

For low-density polyethylene pipe this range would be 109-125 C (228-257 F),
and for high-density pipe, 130-135 C (266-275 F).

Mechanical and Physical Properties

It is difficult to correlate tlie stress-strain properties of polyethylene pipe with
basic characteristics such as density, crytallinity and melt flow index, since the
conditions of preparation of the specimen and the test itself greatly affect the results.
In general, however, properties involving small defonnations (e.g., modulus, creep)
depend upon crystallinity and thus upon density; for large deformations (e.g., tensile
strength, creep rupture), molecular weight and branching appear to be determining
factors.

Environmental Engineering 329

POLYPROPYLENE PLASTIC PIPE

Properties

Polypropylene pipe can be decomposed by strong oxidizing agents (e.g., HNOa,
bromine, oleum), especially when warm (i.e., very readily attacked by hot con-
centrated H2SO4). It is dissolved only at elevated temperatures by aromatic hydro-
carbons (e.g., xylene, tetralin, decalin), and chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
chlorofonn, trichloroethylene ) above 80 C (176 F). It is swollen by aromatic
hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons at room temperature, also by esters,
etliers and by various aqueous oxidizing agents (e.g., 10% HNO3, 10% KMnOj, dilute
H2O2). It is relatively unaffected by many organic liquids at room temperature
(e.g., alcohols, glycols), and aqueous solutions including moderately concentrated
acids and alkalis but less satisfactorily above 60 C ( 140 F ) . In brief, polypropylene
pipe is more readily oxidized than polyethylene, the rate of attack and range of
reagents increasing with temperature use, and may not be suitable for use in certain
types of chemical feeding applications.

Moisture

The increase of weight of polypropylene pipe after six months submergence
in aqueous environment at 20 C (68 F) is under 0.5%; at 60 C ( 140 F) it is under 2%.

Mechanical and Physical Properties

Tensile strength of general-purpose polypropylene pipe is 2.8 to 3.5 kg/mm^
(4,126 to 5,426 psi).

Impact strength of general-purpose grade is 0.4 to 2.2 ft-lb/in. of notch; of
high-impact grade, 1.5 to 12 ft-lb/in. of notch. Polypropylene pipe has poor impact
strength at sub-zero temperatvires, as the glass temperature lies between 4 and — 12 C
(39 and 10 F), and its use under tliese circumstances should be avoided.

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PIPE

Properties

Polyvinyl chloride pipe can be dissolved by tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexanone,
methyl ethyl ketone and dimethylformamide, also by mixtures of solvents such as
acetone with carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride or benzene and etliyl acetate
with carbon tetrachloride. PVC pipe can become swollen by aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons, nitroparaffins, acetic anhydride, aniline and acetone. It is, however,
relatively unaffected by water, concentrated alkalis, non-oxidizing acids, hypochlorite
solutions, aliphatic hydrocarbons, oils and ozone. Decomposition can occur, however,
by concentrated oxidizing acids (HoSOi, HNO3, HsCrOi) which slowly attack the
polymer. The particular rate of decomposition may be increased in the presence of
lime or iron or their compounds.

Generally for PVC pipe, chemical stability is good and weatherability is excellent,
but it is adversely affected by ultra-violet light. Rigid PVC surface absorption of
water after 32 days immersion at 20 C (68 F) was 5 g/nr (0.001 Ib/ft^), for the
plasticized PVC this is as high as 200 g/nr (0.04 lb/ft"). Absorption increases
greatly with temperature. Rigid PVC pipe is brittle below —40 C (—40 F), hard
and tough at room temperature and softens at 80 to 85 C ( 176 to 185 F). Plasticized
PVC is flexible down to —50 C (—58 F) and serviceable up to 75 C (167 F). In
air above 100 C (212 F) both rigid and plasticized PVC decompose, and full de-
composition occurs above 180 C (356 F). This pipe finds widespread use as
underground water mains.

330 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Mechanical Properties

Tensile strength of rigid PVC = 4.25 to 5.6 kg/mnr (6044.8 to 7964.9 psi)
and falls with a rise of temperature.

Compression strength of rigid PVC is 5.6 to 6.7 kg/mm'' (7964.8 to 9529.4 psi).

Impact strength of rigid PVC is 0.8 ft-lb/in. of notch; the elastic modulus
(Young's) of rigid PVC is about 280 kg/mnr (394,244 psi).

POLYESTER AND EPOXY PIPE
(GLASS REINFORCED)

Properties

The properties given relate to the general-purpose grades of polyester and
epoxy pipes available. These pipes are relatively unaffected by aliphatic hydrocarbons
(petrol, mineral oils, non-polar chlorinated hydrocarbons (carbon tetrachloride,
tetrachloroethylene ) , alcohol, non-o.\idizing acids, organic acids and salt solutions.
Polyester pipe can be decomposed by polar chlorinated hydrocarbons (chloroform,
trichloroetliylene ) , ketones, phenol, aniline, esters (ethyl acetate), alkalis and
oxidizing acids.

Water resistance for polyester pipe is generally very good with an average weight
increase after one year in water at 25 C (77 F) of approximately 1.1%.

Mechanical Properties

At low-temperatures, glass-reinforced polyester pipe exhibits increases in certain
properties due to stiffening. Among these are the tensile, flexural and compression
strengths which are reported to rise to values as much as 50 to 100% higher than
at 25 C (77 F). Due to the many kinds of polyester and epoxy reinforced pipes
cxurently on the market, it becomes very difficult to accurately summarize such
parameters as tensile and compression strengths of this class, and it is suggested that
the user contact tlie manufacturer for specifications on a particular application. The
liber glass reinforced pipes seem to be a popular choice for locomotive wash rack
piping and condensate return lines to boilers. This is due not only to ease of installa-
tion and cost, but long-run serviceability under extreme pH and pressure conditions.
Certain grades of epoxy fiber glass pipe have successfully been used in chemical feed
lines for locomotive wash rack at pressure of 400 psi and temperature of 60 C (140 F).

REFERENCES

1. The Chemist's Companion, John W^iley and Sons, Inc., New York; 1972, pp.
414-416.

2. Handbook of Common Polymers, Chemical Rubber Company, Cleveland, Ohio,
1971, pp. 3-13, 22-27, 110-119, 258, 268-271.

3. Textbook of Polymer Science, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1971, pp.
4, 124, 215, 386-388, 419-i22, 506-507.

4. W. J. Engle, Atr Force Civil Engineer, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1969, pp. 32-r

5. M. F. Obrecht and J. R. Myers, Heating /Piping/ Air Conditioning, August 1973,
p. 59.

6. I. C. Brown et al. Plastic Pipe and Its Uses on Railroads, AREA Proceedings, Vol.
61, 1960, pp. 303-306.

Environmental Engineering

331

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Report of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way
Work Equipment

F. H. Smith, Chairman

C. H. Olds,
Vice Chairman

D. E. Crawford,
Secretary

W, A. MacDonald

J. P. ZOLLMAN

V. R, Ehquiaga

W. F. Cogdill
M. L. Stone
P. V. Divine
E. T. Daley

W. J. GOTTSABEND

L. J. Calloway
L. E. Conner
R. E. Dove
R. P. Drew
J. M. Driehuis
H. F. Dully
y. O. Elliott
"E. H. Fisher
W. D. Gilbert
R. E. GoRSucH
O. T. Harmon, Jr.
S. R. Horn

N. W. HUTCHESON (E)

C. Q. Jeffords
R. M. Johnson
J. Kelly

M. E. Kerns (E)
C. F. King
W. F. Kohl
W. E. Kropp (E)
H. F. Longhelt

R. L. Matthews
C. E. McEntee
A. E. MoRRiss, Jr.
R. E. Murbock
T. J. O'Donnell

C. A. Peebles

J. R. Pollard, Jr.

A. G. Pronovost
J. E. Quirk

R. S. Radspinner

D. F. Richardson

B. F. RiEGEL

T. R. RiGSBV
J. W. Risk (E)

R. T. RUCKMAN
D. R. SCHENCK
D. SCHULZ

J. R. Smith, Jr.

J. T. Smith

"S. E. Tracy (E)

C. R. Turner

J. L. Van Meter
S. W. Walker
N. White
J. W. Winger

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.
No report.

1. Reliability Engineering as Applicable to Work Equipment Design and
Manufacture.

No report.

2. Machine Design — Hydraulic and Electrical Systems.

Progress report, presented as information P'lge 334

3. Machine Design — Engines.
No report.

4. Machine Design — Drive Train, Including Clutch, Transmission, Final
Drive and Power Take-Offs.

No report.

5. Machine Design — Bearings, Suspension, Frame and Brakes.
No report.

333

334 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

6. Study Design of Cars Used by Maintenance of Way Department, Such
as Ballast Cars, Equipment Transport, Tie Cars, Rail Cars, Etc.

No report.

7. Temperature Compensated Stress-Adjustment Equipment for Use During
or After Laying CWR, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with
Committee 4.

No report.

8. Applied Metallurgy — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment.
No report.

9. Data Processing for Work Equipment Evaluation, Information and
Control, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committee 32.
No report.

The Committee on Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,

F. H. Smith, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 2

Machine Design^ — Hydraulic and Electrical Systems

J. p. ZoLLMAN {chairman, subcommittee), L. E. Conner, D. C. Johnson, M. E.
Kerns, A. E. Morriss, Jr., Dave Schulz, C. R. Turner, J. L. Van Meter.

Your committee submits tlie following report as information for guidance of
equipment manufacturers and railway maintenance personnel in the design, con-
struction and evaluation of hydraulic systems.

Hydraulic systems shall conform to the specifications of the National Fluid
Power Association (NFPA), American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and
International Standards Organization (ISO), except that where a conflict occurs, the
following will apply:

1. Upon completion of manufacture and before any operation shall begin, all
parts of the hydraulic system shall be clean and free from scale, rust, dirt and any
other contaminant. Threads, flares, holes, cuts and machining must be deburred
and cleaned.

2. Hydraulic reservoirs of 10-gal capacity or larger shall be designed with the
following considerations :

a. Place the bafile(s) in the reservoir so as to separate the pump inlet port
from the settling part of the reservoir. The baffle(s) should direct the flow
toward the reservoir walls for maximum cooling capacity and maximum
lay-over time.

b. Provide sufficiently large access panels for complete periodic cleaning,
maintenance and inspection.

c. Provide an air inlet large enough to maintain conditions of Item 12. The
air inlet shall be equipped with a 25 micron or liner filter, A cartridge type
is preferred.

Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 335

d. Provide a filler with at least a 100-mesh screen protected from external
damage with a minimum capacity of 5 gal per minute with 500 SSU fluid
viscosity and with a filler cap that can be locked with a large railroad
padlock.

e. Provide thermometer to indicate reservoir operating temperature at the
add-point fluid level and protected from damage.

f. Provide a static fluid level gage to show full-point and add-point pro-
tected from damage.

g. When immersion heaters are provided to control fluid viscosity during
cold weatlier start-up, place the heater(s) so removal is possible without
draining reservoir.

h. A non-integral reservoir is preferred.

3. Fluid temperature shall not exceed 180 F maximum in the reservoir outlets
while operating in a 110 F ambient temperature. The minimum fluid temperature
after 45 minutes operation shall be 85 F with ambient temperature of 20 F.

4. A full-flow testing tee(s) shall be provided adjacent to the pressure side
of hydraulic pump(s). A return-line full-flow tee shall be placed ahead of return
line filter.

5. Where failure of power plant or pump can immobilize components in a
position which could prevent moving the machine, an emergency hand pump shall
be provided in the circuit. Large machines shall be equipped with battery-operated
emergency pump where more than 5 minutes are required to move all components
within the clearance diagram of the track occupied, by means of a hand pump.

6. The total return and/or pressure line flow shall pass through filters rated
at 25 microns or finer equipped with a condition indicator.

a. In closed loop systems, filtration as recommended by pump manufacturer
will apply.

b. Magnetic particle attraction shall be provided in the filters or reservoir.

c. Filtration of the return flow from the pilot section of pilot-operated valves
is not required.

7. All hydraulic hose assemblies exposed to the below-listed pressures, or less
pressure, must have reusable screw-together hose fittings. On all metallic wire-
reinforced hose using reusable hose fittings, the outermost layer of wire reinforce-
ment must be braided for fitting retention.

Pressure

Hose I.D. Size

PSI

(Inches)

5500

}i

4500

%

4000

^

3250

%

3000

%

2500

1

2250

m

1750

m

1250

2

a. Hoses must be protected from abrasion, excessive bending and excessive
heat.

336 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

b. Hose and fluid conductors must have a bursting pressure safety factor of
four.

c. Hose is preferred. Where tubing is used, 37-degree flared ends are required.

8. Tubing and piping shall be mounted to minimize vibration, and tubing
shall have only gentle bends to change direction or compensate for thermal expan-
sion. Tube bend radii shall not be less than three times the inside diameter.

9. Wherever practicable, valves shall be manifold mounted.

10. Complete circuit diagram shall be provided. Only NFPA, ANSI and ISO
symbols shall be used in graphical diagrams. Pictorial and cutaway diagrams are
also permissible where they add to the ease of understanding tlie circuit. Diagrams
shall be large enough to be easily followed for trouble shooting.

11. Galvanized pipe and fittings shall not be used.

12. The vacuum at the pump inlet(s) shall not be more tlian 60% of pump
manufacturer's recommendations or 4 inches mercury, whichever is less at standard
conditions. Test opening shall be provided.

L. ScHMiTZ, Chairman
L. R. Beattie,

Vice Chairman
J. E. Beran, Secretary

Committee 28~

-Clearances

R. R. Snyder

C. F. Intlekofer

D. W. LaPorte

E. W. Jantz

E. E. Kessler

R. G. Klouda

W. S. TUSTIN

A. J. KOZAK

F. A. SvEc

E. C. Lawson

M. L. Power

G. W. Martyn

P. T. Sarris

A. Mooney

E. Berenot

J. R. Moore

E. S. BlRKENWALD (E)

W. E. MORGUS

A. V. Bodnar

F. B. Persels

G. M. Buck

C. E. Peterson (E)

R. P. Christman

R. T. Pritchett

J. E. COSKY

W. P. SiLCOX

J. A. Crawford

E. C. Smith

S. M. Dahl (E)

C. H. Stephenson

M. E. Dust

J. E. Teall

C. W. Farrel

W. J. Trezise

G. E. Henry

M. Van Kuixen

J. C. HOBBS

M. E. Vosseller

G. P. HUHLEIN

L. R. HuRD

Cotnmittee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.
No report.

1. Investigate the Practicability of Using Disposable Coded Placards for
Identifying Shipments of Excessive Dimension and/or Weight that
Could Be Used in Conjunction with the Automatic Car Identification
System.

The title and purpose of this subcommittee has been revised to "Investi-
gate the Practicability of Using Disposable Placards or Other Appro-
priate Marking for Identifying Shipments of Excessive Dimensions
and/or Weight." This change was felt necessary due to tlie Automatic
Car Identification System not being fully developed as intended and
a standard, easily recognized placard being more practical and better
serving die purpose of identifying these loads. Current placards of
various railroads are now being studied as a possible basis for a new
common design.

2. Compilation of the Railroad Clearance Requirements of the Various
States.

State clearance law changes are continuing to be compiled and a revised
tabulation will be published when a significant revision or revisions
are accumulated.

337

338 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. Investigate New Methods and Development of Equipment for Recording
Measurements of Clearance of Structures Along Right-of-Way and
Overall Dimensions of Cars and Loads.

Progress report, submitted as information page 339

4. Restudy and Possibly Revise "Clearance Diagrams — Fixed Obstruc-
tions," Now in the Manual.

No report.

5. Revise "Suggested Methods of Presenting Published Clearances," Now
in the Manual.

A suggested new format has been developed for presenting clearance
information in Railway Line Clearances. However, it was felt that a
canvas of subscribers by questionnaire, using the suggested format as
a basis, could coordinate the needs and desires of all concerned in a
final design that would be the most acceptable and usable by the
greater majority if not all who use the publication. This will be done
in the near future.

9. Investigate the Possibility of Including the Truck Center Dimension of
All Cars in the Official Railway Equipment Register, Collaborating
as Necessary or Desirable with the Mechanical Division, AAR.
This investigation has just been completed and it was found to be
possible to include this additional information in the publication by
action of the individual railroads and car owners. A formal report is
now being prepared.

The Committee on Clearances,

L. ScHMiTZ, Chairman.

Clearances 339

Report on Assignment 3

Investigate New Methods and Development of

Equipment for Recording Measurements of

Clearances of Structures Along Right-of-

Way and Overall Dimensions of

Cars and Loads

W. S. TusTiN (chairman, subcommittee), E. Berendt, C. W. Parrel, G. P. Huhlein,
R. G. Klouda, W. E. Morgus, R. R. Snyder.

A questionnaire submitted to all members of Committee 28 requesting infor-
mation on their metliods of obtaining clearances and clearing shipments resulted in
replies from 20 raihoads. Of this representative 20, 11 railroads reported obtaining
their field clearance measurements manually with a survey party, three reported a
combination of the manual method and the use of a "feeler" type clearance car,
three reported use of the "feeler" type clearance car only, and the remaining three
reported use of a photographic "scope" car. Two new methods mentioned were
stereoscopic photography used by the Swiss Federal Railways and a system using
photoelectric cells. However, these methods are not currently being used in this
country and there was not enough information available for proper evaluation.

Five railroads of the representative 20 reported using computers in clearing
oversize sliipments on tlieir lines, the remaining 15 using the old clearance chart
method, however, three of these indicated they were currently developing computer
programs.

Investigation on this subcommittee assignment has been completed and a final
report now being prepared detailing the various current methods of obtaining
clearance infonnation in this country. This will be submitted for possible inclusion
in tlie Manual when completed.

Report of Committee 6 — Buildings

W. C. Sturm, Chairman

E. P. BOHN,

Vice Chairman
O. C. Denz, Secretary

T. H. Seep
J. G. Robertson
W. C. Humphreys
Richard Hale
j. a. comeau
D. A. Bessey
W. F. Abmstkong
S. D. Arndt

F. R. Bartlett

G. J. Bleul
G. T- Ghamraz

F. b. Day

C. M. DiEHL

G. W. Fabrin

C. S. Graves (E)
A. R. Gualtieri
W. G. Harding (E)
J. W. Hayes
H. R. Helker
S. B. Holt

K. E. HORNUNG

C. R. Madeley
R. J. Martens
R. W. Milbauer
L. S. Newman
John Norman
L. A. Palagi
T. F. Peel
P. W. Peterson
R. E. Phillips

R. D. POWRIE

R. F. Roberts
J. H. Rump

J. E. SCHAUB (E)

H. A. Shannon, Jr.

J. S. Smith

S. G. Urban

W. M. Wehner

T. S. Williams (E)

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Raitway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Subcommittee assisted on Assignments 1 and 2 in placing report in
decimal format for publication as Manual material. Subcommittee to
review Chapter 6 of the Manual for possible revision and upgrading.

1. Design Criteria for Maintenance of Way Equipment Repair Shops.
Final report, submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual,
was printed in Part 1 of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975.

2. Design Criteria for Elevated Yard Office Buildings.

Final report, submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual,
was printed in Part 1 of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975.

3. Design Criteria for Freight Forwarding Facilities.
Outline for proposed report reviewed at summer meeting.

4. Inspection and Maintenance of Railway Buildings.

A series of reports on various components of railway buildings will
be submitted under this assignment. The first report, which will cover
inspection and maintenance of roofs, will be published in 1976.

5. Architectural Design Competition.

Report on progress of tlie Competition and the Competition Problem
submitted as information page 342

The Committee on Buildings,
Walter Carson Sturm, Chairman.

341

342 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 5

Architectural Design Competition

D. A. Bessey (chairman, subcommittee), E. P. Bohn, J. A. Comeau, F. D. Day,
G. W. Fabrin, R. Hale, J. W. Hayes, S. B. Holt, K. E. Hornung, W. C.
Humphreys, C. R. Madeley, R. J. Martens, R. W. Milbauer, L. S. Newman,
L. A. Palagi, p. W. Peterson, R. E. Phillips, R. D. Powrie, J. G. Robertson,
J. H. Rump, H. A. Shannon, W. C. Sturm, S. G. Urban.

Your committee submits the following report, as information, on tlie direction
of an Architectural Design Competition for college and University students:

GENERAL STATEMENT

The AREA Board of Direction at its meeting on March 25, 1975, approved
the funding of an Architectural Design Competition for college and university
students during the Fall of 1975.

In staffing the architectural or building departments of railway companies it
is necessary to familiarize tlie architectural students throughout the United States
and Canada with railroad architecture and to bring about an awareness of employ-
ment opportunities in the railroad industry. There is a definite need to improve
communications between the railroad industry and colleges and universities having
architectural programs.

The idea of conducting an Architectural Design Competition was originally
proposed in 1971 which resulted in the fonnation of a special subcommittee to
contact various universities and to prepare a preliminary draft of the program. Upon
receiving favorable response from the universities, the subcommittee proceeded
to develop the program.

The building selected by the committee for the competition was a control
tower and service building for a railroad classification yard. It was felt by the
committee that this type of building would offer the participating student a challeng-
ing and informative project.

The preliminary draft of the Competition was sent to 79 colleges and universities
in the United States and 10 in Canada; as of October 1, 1975, 27 universities, 24 in
the United States and 3 in Canada, have elected to participate. Approximately 800
students will be involved in the Competition. A representative of Committee 6 has
been assigned to each school participating. He will act as an advisor, who will assist
the school's architectural staff in matters dealing with the Competition. D. A. Bessey,
a former chairman of Committee 6, has been appointed director of the Competition
and will administer the Competition for the committee.

The entries will be judged by a panel of seven railroad architects who are
members of Committee 6 and who represent a general cross section throughout the
United States and Canada. All entries are to be submitted to the director of the
Competition by January 31, 1976, and will be judged in mid-February.

Cash awards of $500 for first prize, $250 for second prize and 5 honorable
mentions of $50 each have been authorized by the Association. The winning student
will be invited to appear at the Annual Technical Meeting of the AREA to be held
at the Palmer House in Chicago, and will give a presentation of his winning entry
on March 23 as part of a special feature to be presented by Committee 6.

Buildings

343

The members of Committee 6 have devoted considerable time and effort in the
preparation and implementation of the Competition. The committee is looking for-
ward to an interesting and worthwhile relationship between the railroad industry
and the architectural students in colleges and universities throughout the United
States and Canada.

LIST OF PARTICIPATLXG UNIVERSITIES

University of Arkansas
Fayetteville, Arkansas
E. F. Jones, Chairman

University of .Arizona

Tucson, Arizona

Robert E. McConnell, Dean

Arizona State University

Tempe, .Arizona

Robert G. Hershberger, Dean

Ball State University

Muncie, Indiana

Anthony J. Costello, Dean

Boston Architectural Center

Boston, Massachusetts

Sanford R. Greenfield, Director

University of California

Berkeley, California

Richard C. Peters, Chairman

Catholic Universit>' of America
\Va.shington, D. C.
Forrest Wilson, Chaimian

Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina
Harlan E. McClure, Dean

University of Colorado

Boulder, Colorado

Robert C. Utzinger, Director

University of Detroit
Detroit, Michigan
Brvmo Leon, Dean

Georgia Institute of Technology

Atlanta, Georgia

Paul M. Hefternan, Director

Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
George Anselevicius, Chairman

University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
G. Day Ding, Head

University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Anthony Eardley, Dean

University' of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Ralph Rapson, Head

University of Nebraska

Lincoln, Nebraska

W. Cecil Steward, Dean

University of Notre Dame

South Bend, Indiana

.Ambrose M. Richardson, Chairman

Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Mark T. Jaroszewicz, Head

University of Oregon

Eugene, Oregon

Wilmot G. Gilland, Head

Pratt Institute
Brooklyn, New York
Alan J. Forrest, Director

Rhode Island School of Design
Providence, Rhode Island
Derek Bradford, Dean

University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California
Gerald G. Weisbach, Asso. Dean

Texas Tech University

Lubbock, Texas

Nolan E. Barrick, Chairman

Tuskegee Institute
Tuskegee, Alabama
Charles C. Hight, Head

University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
James McKeller, Head

Nova Scotia Technical College
HaUfax, Nova Scotia, Canada
P. Manning, Director

University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Fraser Watts, Director

344 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association
RULES OF THE COMPETITION AND PROGRAM

ARCHITECTlim
COMPETITION

CONTROL TOWER

AND

SERVICE BUILDING

FOR

RAILROAD
CLASSIFICATION YARD

I liMERICAN
I llAILWAY
I HNGINEERING
m ttsSOCIATION

COMMITTEE

6

BUILDINGS

Buildings 345

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION

The American Railway Engineering Association is a non-profit organization
whose objective is the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the scientific and
economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of railways. Founded
in 1899, its membership is primarily composed of employees of the Engineering
Departments of Railway Companies. Committee 6, which is sponsoring this Compe-
tition, is the Buildings Committee of the American Railway Engineering Association,
whose membership consists of Architects, Building Engineers and Designers.

Rules of the Competition

Judging of the Competition

The entries in tlie Competition will be impartially judged based on aptness of
tlie solution and originality of design. The judges will be

R. Hale, Architect, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Los Angeles, Calif.

AA in Architecture, Los Angeles City College and BA in Architecture, University
of Southern California. License: California & Arizona. Certified: NCARB.

K. E. Hornung, Assistant Chief Engineer — Structures, The Milwaukee Road, Chicago.
Architectural Engineering, Iowa State, and BA, University of Minnesota. License:
Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin.

W. C. Humphreys, Architect, Penn Central Transportation Company, Philadelphia, Pa.
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, and Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.
License: Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Connecticut and New
Jersey.

L. S. Newman, General Architect, St. Louis-San Francisco Railway, Springfield, Mo.
BA in Architecture, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Okla. License:
Missouri and Tennessee.

L. A. Palagi, Architect, Ellington Miller Co., Chicago.
Illinois Institute of Technology. License: Illinois.

R. D. Powrie, Senior Architect, Canadian Pacific Rail, Montreal, Que.

BA, University of Toronto. License: Order of Architects of Quebec,

S. G. Urban, Architect (Retired), Missouri Pacific Railroad.

Master of Architecture, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. License: Missouri
and Texas.

Method of Submission

Entries shall be submitted on two white illustration boards measuring 30 inches
by 40 inches securely fastened together. No name or school affiliation shall appear
on the face of the board. Name and address of entrant together with school affiliation
shall be placed on the reverse side of each board in an area 3 inches by 5 inches and
shall be covered by an opaque white index card securely taped so name, address
and affiliation cannot be seen. Boards shall be shipped together so that both parts
of each entry may be numbered vipon arrival. Boards shall be titled as shown in
Exhibit 1.

Date of Submission

Entries shall be sent to the Director of the Competition:

346 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

D. A. Bessey, Architect

Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad

Room 809, 516 W. Jackson Blvd.

Chicago, Illinois 60606 (Telephone: 312-236-7600)

Entries must be received prior to midnight, January 31, 1976, to be con-
sidered. Winners will be notified no later than February 20, 1976.

Awards

The following awards will be made:

First Prize $500
Second Prize $250
Honorable Mention (5) $ 50 each

Drawings to Become Property of AREA

All drawings entered will become the property of the American Railway
Engineering Association. Drawings may be published in the Proceedings of tlie
Association and in industry trade publications at the discretion of the Association.

Winner to Appear at Annual Technical Conference

The first-place winner will be invited to appear at the Annual Technical Con-
ference of the Association to be held at the Palmer House, Chicago, on March 23,
1976. Winner shall be prepared to give a 10-minute oral presentation of his entry.
Travel, lodging and food for the winner shall be arranged and paid for by the
Association.

Presentation Requirements

The "Design Presentation" should be considered as the presentation normally
given by an architect to a client. It should be executed in a professional manner.
Presentation requirements are as follows:

1. Site plan at 1/16" = I'-O"

2. All floor plans at Js" = I'-O" with indication of furniture and equipment

3. Two elevations at %" = I'-O" indicating finish materials

4. Cross section at M" = I'-O" indicating materials used in consruction

5. Perspective of building

Note: Site plan, floor plans, elevation and section to be done in black and
white. Color may be used on perspective only.

Inquiries

Inquiries shall be made to the director of the Competition and his decisions
shall be final and binding.

Note: A draft of a report on Elevated Yardmaster's Towers prepared by AREA
Committee 6 and containing recommendations for the design of this type of structure
is attached. It is to be noted that information included in this report is of recom-
mendatory nature and is not binding upon the railroads or participants in the compe-
tition but is submitted as information only.

W. C. Sturm, Chairman E. P. Bohn, Vice Chairman

Senior Project Engineer Engineer Buildings

Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway Louisville & Nashville Railroad

Joliet, 111. Louisville, Ky.

Buildings

347

Exhibit 1

CONTROL TOWER AND SERVICE BUILDING
^4 FO» RAILROAD CLASSIFICATION YARD

AREA COMMITTEE 6
COMPETITION

coja

'Mm.

zo'

40

(REAR Of BOARD )

348 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

The Problem

General Scope

The problem consists of a design for a Control and Service Bulding for a
railroad classification yard. A classification yard is a railroad facility that receives
freight trains and individual freight cars that are uncoupled and classified into
nuinerous yard tracks where trains are made up and dispatched to various desti-
nations. The particular type of classification yard in this problem is commonly called
a "hump yard. " The operation of the hump yard involves the uncoupling of cars
at the top of an incline allowing tlie cars to move by gravity down the incline and
be automatically switched into various yard tracks. There are devices called retarders
tliat apply pressure against the wheels of the freight cars as they move down the
incline which regulate their speed. The Building in the problem is the central control
point for the entire hump yard operation.

The Building will house air compressors which produce compressed air to
operate the retarding equipment. There will also be shop facilities to maintain the
equipment, welfare and washroom facilities for employees, electronic equipment,
computer room and the operators control station.

Site Information

The Building will be located south of tire classification yard tracks as indicated
on the site plan (Exhibit 2).

Provide parking facilities for 30 automobiles which shall be located soutli of
the building and separated from the railroad yard operation.

The railroad property line is parallel to tlie main hump track and is located
200 ft south of the proposed building location. Parallel to the railroad right-of-way
line is a frontage road widi a 100-ft right-of-way. Beyond the frontage road is a
four-lane interstate highway with a residential development located south of the
interstate highway.

There is a mass transit bus line operating on the frontage road.

Zoning Ordinances

A nearby airport restricts the total height of buildings to 45 ft.

Building Code

Current edition of Uniform Building Code or National Building Code of Canada.

Fire Limits

Building shall be of fire-resistant construction.

Building Design Criteria

1. Compressor room widi a minimmn of 600 sq ft containing two air compres-
sors. The compressors measure 5 ft x 10 ft x 6 ft high, weigh 8,000 lb each and are
mounted on vibration absorption pads. The electric control cabinet for the compres-
sors will be wall-mounted with a dimension of 2 ft deep x 18 ft long x 6 ft high.

2. Small elevator — maximum four passengers.

3. Mechanical room for heating and air-conditioning equipment.

4. Shop and storage room for moderately heavy bench work. Area shall be a
minimum of 500 sq ft and shall be used for repauing "car retarding equipment."
The largest component of this equipment weighs 300 lb.

Buildings 349

5. Washroom facilities for yard switching crews and maintenance personnel,
consisting of locker room, toilet room and lunch room area. The vending machines
are to be located in the lunch room area. Locker room to accommodate seventy
18- X 18- X 72-in. lockers. Lockers may be back to back. A maximum of 30 personnel
will occupy this space at any one time.

6. Electronic equipment room witli minimum of 800 sq ft. The equipment
which controls tlie operation of the car retarders and switching is mounted on shelf
type racks 2 ft wide x 4 ft long and 8 ft 6 in. high. The equipment racks are installed
in rows with a minimum of 4-ft aisles between racks with access to both sides of
racks.

7. Storage room of a minimum of 200 sq ft for electronic parts which shall be
adjacent to electronic equipment room.

8. An area for light bench work to repair electronic component. The largest
of these components weighs 20 lb. This repair function is a one-person operation.

9. Communication equipment area with a minimum of 200 sq ft.

10. Operators control room with a minimum of 200 sq ft. The room shall contain
a control console which is an 8 ft long x 3 f t wide table. The operator sitting at the
table shall have a clear view to the east, north and west and shall be able to view
the ground at a point 70 ft nortli of the building and beyond. The top of the table
shall be 35 ft above ground level.

11. Computer room with a minimum of 500 sq ft, which shall contain a raised
floor 12 in. above the structural floor which shall contain power and control cables
for the computer equipment.

12. Office for computer room supendsor and two clerks.

13. Toilet facilities for control room operator and computer room personnel.
There will be a maximum of four people of each sex at any one time and tliere shall
be separate toilet facilities for men and women.

General Information

The railroad yard and the general site in the vicinity of die building shall be
restricted to railroad employees only.

The hump yard operation is carried out 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

The building shall he air-conditioned.

There shall be two air reservoir tanks located east or west of the building and
relatively close to the compressor room. Tank size is 8 ft in diameter and 30 ft long.

The car retarder system produces a high-frequency sound of 120 decibels at
100 ft.

350 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report of Committee 7 — Timber Structures

W. S. Stokely,
Chairman

J. A. GlSTAFSON,

Vice Chairman
J. W. Chambers,
Secretary

J. BUDZILENI

J. M. Helm

j. H. HuzY

G. X. Sells

R. C. Moody

H. R. Stokes

B. T. King

G. K. Clem

M. J. Marlow

R. E. Anderson

T. E. Brassel

F. H. Cramer (E)

M. J. Crespo

A. R. Dahlberg

B. E. Daniels
H. E. Dearing

K. L. DeBlois (E]
D. J. Engle
S. L. Goldberg
D. C. Gould
R. W. Gunther
J. A. Hawley

W. C. Kirkland
D. I. Kjellman
H. G. Kriegel

L. R. KUBACKI
R. E. KUEHNER

C. V. Lund (E)

D. H. McKibben

C. H. Newlin
W. A. Oliver
\. I. Pinson
R. P. Rasho

J. J. Ridgeway

D. y. Sahtore

F. E. Schneider (E)

J. W. Storer

R. W. Thompson, JR-

W. A. Thompson

J. B. WeRxNer

N. E. Whitney

A. Youhanaie

S. J. Zajchowski

Committee

( E ) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chainnan and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Re\ision of Manual.
Xo report.

2. Grading Rules and Classification of Luml>er for Railway Use; Speci-
fications for Structural Timber, Collaborating with Other Organizations
Interested.

Xo report.

3. Specification for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles.
No report.

4. Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles, Including Fire-
Retardant Paints.

Final report, submitted as information page 352

5. Design of Structural Glued-Laminated W'ood Bridges and Trestles.
Xo report.

7. Repeated Loading of Timber Structures.
Xo report.

8. Protection of Pile Cut-Offs; Protection of Piling Against Marine
Organisms by Means Other Than Preservative.

No report.

Bui. 656

351

352 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

9. Stud>- of In-PIace Presei-vative Treabiient of Timber Trestles.
No report.

10. Non-Destructive Testing of Wood.
No report.

The Committee on Timber SxRUCTtrRES,

W. S. Stokely, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 4

Methods of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles,
Including Fire-Retardant Paints

G. N. Sells (chairman, subcommittee), B. J. King, M. J. Marlow, B. E. Daniels,
D. H. McKiBBEN, N. E. Whitney, J. B. Werner, J. W. Stoker, H. G. Kriegel.

Your committee submits the following report as information. Due to the
inactivity of research in this field, the committee recommends tliat the subject be
discontinued until such time as new products are available and warrant the re-
creation of a subcommittee.

The reader is directed to reports on this topic in the reports of Committee 7
contained in AREA Proceedings, Volumes 40, 42, 51, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62
and 64.

Currently there are two products being actively marketed in die area of timber
fireproofing. Both are known by proprietary names. One of the products is designed
to be applied to a completed structure, the second is applied to the timber members
by a plant process prior to assembly to a structiu-e.

A member road reports the following experience with an applied type product
placed in service in July of 1974.

The material was applied to twenty 6-pile bents averaging 8 ft in height with
one pair of sway braces ( no sash brace ) and the exposed sides of caps, stringers and
decking.

An estimated 9300 sq ft of surface in tlie bents and decking was coated with
approximately 345 gal of the material to a thickness of 45 mils. Spraying time was
approximately 1200 sq ft per hour.

The installation was made very closely following the manufacturer's recom-
mendations and guidelines with one exception. The pump was placed directly in
the drum and, in the other bung, a pressure relief valve and gage were inserted,
making the drum a pressure pot instead of using the prescribed pressvire pot. This
eliminated tiie labor of transferring the material as well as cleaning up tlie pressure
pot.

Sufficient time has not yet elapsed to fully evaluate the durability of the material;
however, one inspection, at age 7 months, showed no change in the appearance
or features of the material as applied.

Reporf of Committee 8 — Concrete
Structures and Foundations

T. L. Fuller, Chairman
J. W. DeValle,
Vice Chairman
R. J. Brueske
T. R. Moore
G. W. Cooke
J. M. Williams
J. R. Williams
T. R. Kealey
W. F. Baker
E. R. Blewitt
W. E. Brakenstek
X. D. Bryant

G. F. Dalquist
M. T. Davisson

J. T. DOHERTY

B. M. DORNBLATT

R. A. DoRscH

D. H. DowE (E)
M. E. Dust

F. C. Edmonds
J. A. Erskine
Benard Fast

G. W. Gabert
W. L. Gamble

E. F. Grecco

R. J. Hallawell
W. A. Hamilton, Jr.

C. W. Harman
P. Haven, U
W. P. Hendrix

J. O. HOLLADAY

A. K. Howe
W. R. Hyma

J. R. IWINSKI

T. F. Jacobs

F. a. Kempe
R. H. Kendall

F. W. Klaiber
Louis Lange, Jr.
R. H. Lee

G. F. Leyh
J. K. Lynch
E. F. Manley

E. C. Mardorf
J. F. Marsh
R. J. McFarlin
L. M. Morris (E)
E. S. Neely, Sr.
David No\ick
R. E. Pearson
J. A. Peterson
J. E. Peterson
M. Pekarsky
H. D. Reilly
E. D. Ripple

E. E. RUNDE

H. R. Sandberg

J. H. Sawyer, Jr.

M. P. Schindler

J. E. Scroggs

J. R. Shafer

J. P. Shedd

L. F. Spaine

C. H. Splitstone (E)

W. B. Stanczyk

R. G. Stilling

Anton Tedesko

M. FUAT TiGRAK

W. J. VENxm
J. W. Weber
J. O. Whitlock
W. R. Wilson (E)

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chainnan and vice chairman
are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

No manual recommendations made this year.

1. Design of Masonry Structures, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable
with Committees 1, 5, 6, 7, 15 and 28.

Brief status statement page 354

2. Foundations and Earth Pressures, Collaborating as Necessary or Desir-
able with Committees 1, 6, 7 and 15.

Brief progress report, submitted as information page 355

3. Waterproofing for Railway Structures, Collaborating as Necessary or
Desirable with Committees 6, 7 and 15.

Brief progress report, submitted as information page 355

353

354 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

4. Concrete Components for Timber Trestles, Collaborating as Necessary
or Desirable with Committee 7.

Brief progres report, including drawing, submitted as information . . page 355

5. Pier Protection (Fender Systems) at Spans on Navigable Streams, Col-
laborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committees 7 and 15.

Brief progress report, submitted as information page 357

The Committee on Concrete Structures and Foundations,

T. L. Fuller, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 1

Design of Masonry Structures

J. R. Moore (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Baker, W. E. Brakensiek, J. "W.
DeValle, J. T. Doherty, R. A. Dorsch, M. E. Dust, F. C. Edmonds, J. A.
Erskine, T. L. Fuller, G. W. Gabert, W. L. Gamble, E. F. Grecco, W. A.
Hamilton, C. W. Harman, W. R. Hyma, F. A. Kempe, F. W. Klaiber,
R. H. Lee, G. F. Leyh, J. K. Lynch, J. F. Marsh, R. E. Pearson, J. E. Peter-
son, E. D. Ripple, J. H. Sawyer, J. E. Scroggs, R. K. Shortt, L. F. Spaine,
A. Tedesko, M. Fuat Tigrak, W. J. Venuti, J. W. Weber, J. O. Whitlock,
J. R. Williams, W. R. Wilson.

The subcommittee is continuing work on changing design loading to E-80
from E-72 and other upgrading of tlie design portions of Chapter 8 of the Manual.

Work has continued on ultimate strength load factor design as a possible
alternate to working stress design for concrete bridges. Standard concrete spans
(designed by working stress method) are being analyzed by load factor design and
ultimate strength methods to develop correlations between the methods.

Concrete Structures and Foundations 355

Report on Assignment 2

Foundations and Earth Pressures

G. W. Cooke (cliairman, subcommittee), G. F. Dalquist, M. T. Davisson, B. M.

DORNBLATT, B. FaST, P. HaVEN, II, R. J. HalLAWELL, J. D. HOLLADAY,

T. R. Kealey, R. H. Kendall, E. F. Manley, E. C. Mardorf, D. Novick,
M. P. ScHiNDLER, J. R. Shafer, W. B. Stanczyk.

Revisions to Manual material submitted for adoption were published in Bulletin
650. This included entire new Part 3 — Specifications for Design of Spread Footings.

Work is in progress on revisions to Part 4 — Pile Foundations, and to Drilled
Shafts and Caissons, originally published as information in Bulletin 641, January-
February 1973.

Work is in progress to discover reasons for inconsistencies in the results obtained
using the Coulomb and Boussinesq fonnula in Part 20 for point, line and strip
surcharge loadings.

Report on Assignment 3

Waterproofing for Railway Structures

J. M. Williams (chairman, sxih committee), E. R. Blewitt, W. P. Hendrix, A. K.
Howe, J. R. Iwinski, L. Lange, M. Pdcarsky, H. D. Reilly, E. E. Runde,
R. G. Stilling.

Work is in progress for possible inclusion of ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer
(EPDM) as an alternate to butyl membrane or rubberized asphalt and plastic film
membrane.

Report on Assignment 4

Concrete Components for Timber Trestles

J. R. Williams (cJiairman, subcommittee), W. F. Baker, J. W. DeValle, G. W.
Harman, J. R. Iwinski, E. E. Runde, J. E. Scroggs.

The subcommittee has completed plans for a precast, prestressed concrete cap/
sill for usage in timber trestles. This was developed to meet tlie various requirements
of railroads presently using concrete caps in conjunction with suppliers of those
caps. Standardization on the recommended cap should benefit both users and
suppliers. Typical connection details were not developed, as it is felt that these
details come under the jurisdiction of Conunittee 7 — Timber Structures.

Details of cap/sill are shown as information in the accompanying drawing.
(See page 356).

356 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR SILL
FOR TIMBER PILE TRESTLE

0" TO 8" "X" SPACES AT. 8" EACH

VARIES

A '' (li '' ill '' iTi '' iT) 1'^

1 1 1 1 1 lYl^HOLE 1 [ 1 1

PLAN VIEW

0" TO 8" 4" "X" SPACES AT 8" EACH

il>HOLE

M

>

ELEVATION

GENERAL NOTES

1. CAP TO BE MANUFACTURED IN ACCORDANCE
WITH A.R.E.A. SPECIFICATION 8-17.

2. CONCRETE = 6,000 RSI AT 28 DAYS

3. CEMENT = A. S.T.M. CI50 UNLESS NOTED

4. AGGREGATES' 3/4" MAX.

5. STRAND = A. S.T.M. A4I6

6. REINFORCING = A. S.T.M. A82

7. FINISH = AS FORMED, FREE FROM HONEYCOMBS

OR VOIDS

8 ALL HOLES TO BE OPEN, FULL SIZE AND
TRUE. CLOSED OR MISALIGNED HOLES MUST
BE REAMED OUT TO FULL SIZE BEFORE
LEAVING PLANT.

9. TAPERED CAP WEIGHS 222 LBS. PER LIN. FT.
RECTANGULAR CAP I4i/2"x 15", WEIGHS 226 LBS.
PER LIN. FT.

lO IT IS INTENDED THAT THE UNIT WILL BE CAST
IN THE UP-SIDE DOWN MANNER SO THAT THE
BEARING SURFACE FOR THE STRINGERS WILL
BE SMOOTH AND FLAT. THE TAPER SHOWN IS
FOR EASE OF REMOVAL FROM FORMS. THE
UNIT MAY BE CAST IN THE RECTANGULAR
SHAPE WITHOUT TAPER AT THE OPTION OF THE
MANUFACTURER.

II. FOR DETAILS OF HARDWARE AND FASTENINGS
REFER TO CHAPTER 7 OF THE MANUAL.

.250 SPIRAL
AT 31/2 IN. PITCH

I2-I/2IN,DIA,
250X STRANDS
AT 24,600 LBS
EACH

TYPICAL SECTION

TOLERANCES
OVERALL DIMENSIONS:

LENGTH -2 IN.

WIDTH +1/4 IN.

DEPTH +1/8 IN.

ALIGNMENT:
VARIATION FROM STRAIGHT LINE

HORIZONTALLY + 1/4 IN.

VERTICALLY ±'/eiN.

HOLE SPACING: 8 IN ±1/2 IN.

THE 3/4" CHAMFER AT THE TOP CORNERS
SHALL BE SPECIFIED AS A MAXIMUM.

Concrete Structures and Foundations 357

Report on Assignment 5

Pier Protection (Fender Systems) at Spans on
Navigable Streams

T. R. Kealey (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Baker, R. J. Brueske, J. W.
De\'alle, T. L. Fuller, C. W. Harman, W. R. Hv^L'^, J. R. Iwinski, E. E.

RUNDE, J. E. SCROGGS, J. O. WhITLOCK, J- R- WiLLIAMS.

This is die first year of this subcommittee. Work is in progress in preparation
of design factors for fender systems, exposure conditions, study of forces exerted
by moving \essels and t\-pes of fender systems presently being utiHzed.

Report of Committee 15 — Steel Structures

L. F. Currier, Chairman
D. S. Bechly,
Vice Chairman

D. L. NoRD
W. D. Wood
F. P. Drew
C. A. Hughes
J. G. Clark

R. I. SiMKINS

H. A. Balke
J. E. Barrett
Jan Berger

L. N. BiGELOW

E. S. BiRKENWALD (E)

Edward Bond
T. J. Boyle
J. C. Bridgefarmer
C. J- Burroughs
H. L. Chamberlain
R. W. Christie

H. B. CUNDIFF

E. J. Daily

A. C. Danks

T. W. Davidson

L. D. Davis

E. B. Dobranetski

J. L. DURKEE

N. E. Ekrem
T. W. Fisher
"G. F. Fox

G. K. GiLLAN
C. E. GiLLEY

J. W. Hartmann
J. M. Hayes (E)
G. E. Henry
L. R. HuRD
R. D. Hutton
m. l. koehler
l. r. kubacki
Andrew Lally
E. M. Laytham
K. H. Lenzen
A. D. M. Lewis
H. B. Lewis
H. M. Mandel
R. C. McMaster

James Michalos

D. V. Messman ( E )
G. E. Morris, Jr.
Fred Moses

r. h. moulton
v. v. mudholkar

W. H. MUNSE

R. D. Nordstrom
W. H. Pahl, Jr.

A. L. PlEPMEIER
R. G. PlERRJES

F. a. Reickert
W. W. Sanders, Jr.

M. SCHIFALACgUA

A. E. Schmidt

F. D. Sears

G. R. Shay
Hernan Solarte
A. P. SOUSA

J. E. Stallmeyer
Z. L. Szeliski

E. S. Thoden

W. M. Thatcher

R. N. Wagnon

C. R. Wahlen

R. H. Wengenroth

W. Wilbur

E. N. Wilson

A. J. Wood

J. A. Zeleznikar

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman and vice chairman,
are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Revisions to Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges submitted for adoption
were published in Part 1 of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975.

1. Develop Criteria for the Design of Unloading Pits, Collaborating with Com-
mittees 7 and 8.

No report.

2. Obtain Data From Wliich the Frequency of Occurrence of Maximum Stress
in Steel Railway Bridges May Be Detennined Under Service Loading.

No report.

3. Protection of Steel Surfaces.
No report.

359

360 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

7. Bibliography and Technical Explanation of Various Requirements in AREA
Specifications Relating to Iron and Steel Structures.

No report.

10. Continuous Welded Rail on Bridges, Collaborating as Necessary or Desirable
\\'ith Committee 4.

Revisions to Specifications submitted for adoption were published in Part 1
of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975.

The Committee on Steel Structures,

L. F. Currier, Chairman.

Iron and Steel structures 361

3Rolanb barker Babisf
1884=1974

Roland Parker Davis, Life Member of the American Railway Engineering
Association and Member Emeritus of Committee 15 — Steel Structures, died on
December 11, 1974, at his home in Morgantovvn, West Virginia.

He became a Member of AREA in 1914 and a Life Member in 1949. He had
been a member of Committee 15 for many years and became Member Emeritus
upon his retirement from West Virginia University in 1955. He is well remembered
for his wise counsel during his tenure on Committee 15. He contributed much to
the development of specifications for the design of steel bridges.

He was bom on August 2, 1884, at Beverly, Massachusetts, the son of Parker
Stephen and Julia Andrews Davis. Upon completing his education in the public
schools at Be\erly, he entered die Massachusetts Institute of Technology from which
he received the S. B. degree in 1906. After working as a draftsman for the American
Bridge Company for one year, he resumed his education, entering Cornell University
from which he was graduated with tiie M.C.E. degree in 1908. He was married
to Bessie Belle Strantzch of Springfield, Missouri, on June 16, 1910.

Dr. Davis continued at Cornell University, serving as an instructor in engineering
while pursuing studies and research leading to his doctorate, which was awarded
in 1914. He joined the faculty of West Virginia University in 1911, as associate
professor in the Department of Civil Engineering. He subsequently served as pro-
fessor and head of structural engineering, associate dean of the college of engineering,
and in 1932 was elevated to tlie position of dean of the College of Engineering
which he held until his retirement in 1955.

In addition to his teaching appointments at West Virginia University, he also
served the State of West Virginia as bridge engineer beginning in 1914. He was
infiuential in organizing the State Road Commission of West Virginia, which was
formed in 1919. When its headquarters were moved from Morgantown to Charleston,
he continued to serve as a consultant to the Commission's bridge department.

Although his services were largely devoted to the State of West Virginia, he
served as a consultant in connection witii the design and construction of the
Thatcher Ferry Bridge over the Panama Canal, completed in 1962.

He was active in several professional and technical organizations. He served
as a director of the American Society of Civil Engineers from 1937 to 1939. He was
vice president of ASCE in 1940. He was made an Honorary Member of ASCE in
1968. He was a member of Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi, and a National Honor Member
of Chi Epsilon. He had been a member of the Kiwanis for over 50 years.

He was the co-author of two major l)ooks, both written in coHaboration with
the late Professor H. S. Jacoby of Cornell University: Foundations of Bridges and
Buildings, 1914 and 1925, and Timber Design and Construction, 1929.

He is survived by his wife, Bessie Belle Strantzch Davis; a nephew who grew
up in his home, J. A. W. Davis; a brother, Clifford Davis of Massachusetts; a sister,
Mrs. Elsie Davis Upton of Beverly, Massachusetts; and several other nieces and
nephews.

E. S. BlRKENWALD

J. M. Hayes

Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast

E. L. Robinson,
Chairman

N. E. Whitney,
Vice Chairman

W. J. Sponseller,
Secretary

M. B. Hansen

F. L. Peckover
C. E. Webb

J. L. ViCKERS

W. M. Dowdy
R. L. Williams
J. B. Farris
H. C. Archdeacon

A. G. Altschaeffl
R. D. Baldwin

H. E. Bartlett
C. W. Bean
R. H. Beeder (E)
R. J. Bennett

C. R. Bergman
T. R. Blacklock
R. H. Bogle, Jr.

E. W. BURKHARDT

B. E. Butterbaugh
R. M. Clementson

D. H. Cook
M. W. Cox
G. W. Deblin
H. K. Eggleston
G. E. Ellis

W. P. Eshbaugh (E)

E. E. Farris
T. J. Faucett
G. C. Fenton
J. S. Fluke

F. B. Grant

J. B. Haegler, Jr.
R. T. Haggerstrom
W. T. Hammond
R. D. Hellweg
T, J. Hernandez
P. R. Houghton
H. O. Ireland

G. Jess

B. J. Johnson

D. N. Johnston
J. A. KUHN

H. W. Legro (E)
W. S. Lovelace

K. J. LUDWIG

J. K. Lynch

F. H. McGuigan

H. E. McQueen

B. C. MOHL

W. G. Murphy
J. E. Newby

F. P. Nichols, Jr.

J. M. NUNN

R. V. Perrone
R. H. Peterson
W. B. Peterson
S. R. Pettit
H. E. Richards

G. D. Santolla
P. J. Seidel

W. M. Snow

E. H. Steel
W. H. Stumm

F. A. Tijan, Jr.
R. H. Uhrich

S. S. Vinton (E)
M. E. Vosseller
J. B. Wackenhut
A. J. Wegmann (E)

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretar>', are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

1. Roadbed.

Publication in the Manual of Section 1.4 — Maintenance, was recom-
mended in Part 1 of the November-December 1975 Bulletin. This
completes revision of the entire Part 1 — Roadbed, of the Manual.

2. Ballast.

Progress report on ballast research presented as information page 364

3. Natural Waterways.

A draft of a proposed revision to Part 3, Section 34, has been com-
pleted and will be ready for publication in the November-December
1976 Bulletin.

4. Culverts and Drainage Pipe.

A study is vmderway to investigate the need for test specifications for
aluminum pipe and its application in the railroad roadway.

363

364 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

5. Pipelines.

Consideration is being given to provide recommendations for use of
casing pipe larger than 42-inch diameter.

6. Fences.
No report.

8. Tunnels.
No report.

9. Vegetation Control.

A Manual addition, Table 3 — Susceptibility of Woody Species has
been published in Part 1 of the November-December 1975 Bulletin.
Part 9 of the Manual requires constant review due to environmental
control laws concerning the use of some chemicals. This is a con-
tinuous task for your committee.

The Committee on Roadway and Ballast,

E. L. Robinson, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 2

Ballast

C. E. Webb (chairman, subcommittee), R. H. Beeder, R. J. Bennett, E. W. Burk-
HARDT, H. K. Eggleston, G. E. Ellis, R. D. Hellweg, J. K. Lynch, F. P.
Nichols, R. H. Peterson, W. B. Peterson, R. H. Uhrich.

The following report on ballast research is presented as information.

BALLAST AND FOUNDATION MATERIALS
RESEARCH PROGRAM

The Department of Civil Engineering of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign is currently conducting a broadbased research program in the areas of
ballast and subgrade materials, via a contract with tlie Association of American
Railroads. This AAR-U of I contract is part of a larger project sponsored by the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration.

A review committee consisting of W. S. Autrey, chief engineer System, Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe, R. M. Browai, chief engineer. Union Pacific, C. E. Webb, assistant
vice president, Southern Railway, and F. L. Peckover, engineer of geotechnical
services, Canadian National, was established for this program.

The general extent of the research is to conduct an investigation of die physical
properties, behavioral characteristics, and associated economics of commonly em-
ployed railroad ballast and foundation (subgrade) materials.

The nature of the six phases of activity of tlie project as well as their status
are as follows.

Phase I: Technical Data Bases

The relevant literature pertaining to the pertinent properties of granular
materials and fine-grained soils, ballast materials, and analytical structural models.

Roadway and Ballast 365

has reen reviewed. A report entitled, "Technical Data Bases Report," has been
completed.

Phase II: Development of a Structural Model and Materials
Evaluation Procedures

A "mechanistic structural analysis model" has been developed and testing
procedures established for evaluating the properties of tlie ballast and foundation
materials needed as inputs to the structural model. The finite element structural
analysis model considers the stress-dependent behavior of the ballast and founda-
tion materials. The structural model output includes stresses and displacements in
tlie ballast and foundation materials, tie plate reactions, rail moments and deflec-
tions, and tie moments and deflection. A report entitled, "Development of a
Structural Model and Materials Evaluation Procedures," has been completed.

Pil\se III: Parameter Studies and Sensitivity Analyses

The structural model was utilized to establish tlie eftects of major design
parameters on the response of the track support system. The parameters considered
included: 1) subgrade soil resilience properties, 2) ballast and sub-ballast material
resihence properties, 3) ballast and sub-ballast diicknesses, 4) ballast-tie parameters,
and 5) rail-tie parameters. A summary report for Phase III is being prepared for
submission to AAR.

Phase IV: Materials Evaluation Study

A series of laboratory tests are being conducted with selected foundation soils
and ballast and sub-ballast materials to determine their pertinent engineering
properties. The ballast, sub-ballast, and foundation materials selected for inclusion
in the laboratory study represent a range in both engineering properties and t\'pes
and sources of materials. In addition to the standard AREA specification tests,
repeated-load triaxial tests (elastic and permanent deformation measurements),
particle index tests, crushing value tests, lateral restraint capability tests, and ballast
degradation tests (1 X 10" load repetitions) are being conducted. Phase I\' activities
have not yet been completed.

Phase V: Economic Evaluation

Costs associated with the use of various types of ballast material w ill be identi-
fied and the cost eftectiveness of the ballast materials ranked both as to transportation
costs and stabilitv'. Phase V has not >et been completed.

Phase M: Prepar.\tion of Conclusions, Summary and Recommendations

Data and information obtained from the technical literature and that developed
in the project will be summarized and analyzed. Appropriate conclusions and rec-
ommendations will be developed and areas of technological need will be identified.

The principal project investigators are Dr. Q. L. Robnett, Dr. M. R. Thompson,
and Dr. W. W. Hay of tlie University of IlHnois. The principal investigator on the
entire contract is Dr. Gregory C. Martin from the Association of American Raiboads.

The availabilit> of completed reports can be obtained by writing to the Asso-
ciation of American Raflroads Technical Center, 3140 S. Federal St., Chicago, IL
60616.

Report of Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation

C. p. Bird, Chairman

E. M. ClMMINGS,

Vice Chairman
J. E. HiNSON, Secretary

F. J. Fudge

J. T, Skerczak
R. J. Shelton'

L. C. COLLISTER

K. C. Edscorn
G. H. Way

J. \V. A. Acer

H. C. Archdeacon

W. F. .Arksey

A. B. Baker
S. L. Barkley
W. W. Barnette
R. S. Belcher (E)
G. W. Brenton

C. A. Burdell

C. S. Burt (E)

D. Carter
M. J. Crespo
D. L. Davies

R. F. Dreitzler
I. A. Eatox
D. E. Embling
W. E. FUHR

B. J. Gordon

J. K. Gloster
D. C. Gould
R. D. Hellweg
R. P. Hughes (E)

G. P. HUHLEIN

R. G. Huston
R. E. Kleist
L. W. Kistler (E)
M. A. Lane

D. B. Mabry
G. H. Xash

T. J. O'DONNELL

R. B. Radkey

H. E. Richardson

R. H. Savage

K. W. Schoeneberg

G. D. Summers

R. C. Weller

F. M. Whitmore

J. L. Williams

E. L. Woods
R. G. Zeitlow

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman
and secretary', are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Raihvatj Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

Revision of Manual Parts 1 to 9 \\as completed in 1973, submitted for
re\ae\v and approxal to tlie Board Committee on Publications and the
AREA Board of Direction and has now been approved for publication.
Further revisions to Part 10, Specification for Concrete Ties (and
Fastenings), have been proposed and the revised specification was
published in Part 1 of the November-December 1975 Bulletin, for
reconsideration.

2. Cross and Switch Ties.

Report on 1975 treating plant inspection page 368

3. Wood Presenatixes.

Brief progress report on investigation of 3 APR6 preservative is pre-
sented as information P^ige 368

4. Preser\ative Treatment of Forest Products.
No report.

5. Service Records of Forest Products.

(a) Aimual Tie Renewal Statistics as Compiled by the Economics and
Finance Department, AAR.

These statistics were published as an advance report in Bulletin
654, September-October 1975.

367

368 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(b) Investigate Suitability of Imported Cross Ties.

A brief progress report is presented as information page 369

6. Collaborate with AAR Research Departinent and Otlier Organizations
in Research and Other Matters of Mutual Interest.
No report.

The Committee on Ties and Wood Preservation,

C. P. Bird, Chairman.

Reporf on Assignment 2

Cross and Switch Ties

J. T. Skerczak (chairman, subcommittee), H. C. Archdeacon, W. W. Barnette,
C. P. Bird, C. A. Burdell, M. J. Crespo, E. M. Cumnungs, F. J. Fudge,
J. K. Gloster, J. E. HiNsoN, M. A. Lane, G. H. Nash, H. A. Richardson,
R. H. Savage, K. W. Schoeneberg, R. C. Weller, R. G. Zietlow.

Extent of Adherence to Specifications for Cross and Switch
Ties as Observed on Field Inspection

On May 21st, 1975, 12 members of Committee 3 inspected cross and switch
ties at a treating plant in Muncy, Pa. The plant was found to be neat and clean
with very good drainage and generally excellent housekeeping. Ties were stacked
9x2 for the Reading Company and 9x1 for the Penn Central to a height of 17
rows.

Ties in storage were predominantly mixed oak with lesser amounts of mixed
hardwoods. Ties were inspected visually at unloader-separator-trimmer. Quality was
generally good, selective dowelling being used for anti-splitting control. Tie sizes
were in accordance with AREA specifications.

The plant treats approximately 1,200,000 ties annually with 60/40 and 80/20
creosote-coal tar solutions, to net retentions of 6 and 7 lb per cu ft, using vapor
drying and Rueping metliods, adhering to AREA specifications.

Report on Assignment 3

Wood Preservatives

R. J. Shelton (chairman, suhcommittee), C. P. Bird, C. A. Burdell, L. C.
CoLLiSTER, D. L. Davies, F. J. FuDGE, J. E. HiNSON, G. H. Way.

Your committee submits the following progress report as information, pertaining
to the evaluation of "3APR6" as a wood preservative.

In 1974, Subcommittee 3 was approached by an eastern manufacturer of wood
preservatives to evaluate for approval its preservative, "3APR6."

The preservative and process were described as a water-soluble monomer intro-
duced into the wood cells in a closed cylinder by first applying a high vacuum for
one-half hour followed by introduction of the liquid monomer into the cylinder under

Ties and Wood Preservation 369

pressure for one-half hour to help increase penetration. Polymerization of the
monomer then takes place in tlie wood.

Upon visiting the plant, the subcommittee decided that the preservative may
have some merit and should be evaluated. It was verified tliat 21 ties which had
been treated with "3APR6" had been in service at Easton, Pennsylvania for over
seven years. A visit to this site was scheduled for the joint field trip of the AREA
Committee and RTA Research Group for May 22, 1975. Three of the 21 ties were
marked for removal for furdier testing. One-half of each of these ties was shipped
to the Forest Utilization Lab at Mississippi State University for soil block and
strength tests. These ties have been removed and tlie tests at Mississippi State
University are now under way.

The manufacturer is also having several independent laboratories evaluate
its "3APR6." Plate wear tests will be run, but plans for this test have not been
finalized.

At present, the subcommittee is not trying to draw any conclusions as to the
merit of the product, but is collecting as much data from as many different sources
as possible. After these data are collected, it will be reviewed by Subcommittee 3,
at which time we will make recommendations to Committee 3 as to the acceptance
of "3APR6" as a preservative for ties and wood products.

Report on Assignment 5

Service Records of Forest Products

K. C. Edscorn (chairman, subcomtnittee), L. C. Collister, M. J. Crespo, E. M.
CuMMiNGs, J. K. Closter, H. E. Richardson, R. H. Savage, G. D. Summers.

Your committee submits the following report, as information, on the beginning
of its investigation to determine the suitability of various woods which have been
imported into the United States for use as cross ties.

In order that it might be determined which railroads have foreign species of
wood in use as cross ties, a letter was sent to the 17 largest Class I roads asking
them to list the number and species in track as well as date of installation, location,
type of preservative treatment and class of track. Replies were received from 10
railroads only 4 of which indicated they have installations of foreign woods. These
are shown in the accompanying table. (See pages 370-371).

We will continue to gather infomiation about the service and durability of
the cmTent installations so that progress on this assignment can be reported in
subsequent Bulletins. It is obvious that several years of service will be required
before a sound evaluation can be made.

370 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Report of Committee 4 — Rail

R. M. Brown, Chairman

H. F. LONGHELT,

Vice Chairman
A. B. Merritt, Jr.,

Secretary
R. F. Bush

R. C. POSTELS

W. J. Cruse
E. T. Franzen
G. H. Maxwell
R. E. GoRsucH
E. H. Waring
D, H. Stone

L. A. LOGSDON

V. R. Terrill

J. I. Adams

B. C Anderson

S. H. Barlow

D. A. Bell

R. E. Catlett, Jr.

L. S. Crane

P. K. Cruckshank

Daniel Danyluk

A. R. DeRosa
Emil Eskengren
R. C. Faulkner
M. A. Ferguson

B. R. Forcier
W. H. Freeman
A. H. Galbraith
R. G. Garland
G. H. Geiger
W. J. Gilbert

R. L. Gray
J. H. Greason, Jr.
R. E. Haacke
V. E. Hall

C. C. Herrick
W. H. Huffman
T. B. Hutcheson
A. V. Johnston
K. H. Kannowski
R. R. Lawton
W. S. Lovelace
J. F. Lyle

T. C. Mackenzie

Ray McBrian (E)

T. L. Merritt

"B. R. Meyers (E)

F. W. Michael

C. E. Morgan (E)

G. L. MUHDOCK

B. J. Murphy

B. F. Overbey

C. F. Parvin
C. O. Penney

G. L. P. Plow (E)

T. M. Rankin

"M. S. Reid

I. A. Reiner

R. B. Rhode

H. L. Rose

C. N. Scott

A. E. Shaw, Jr.
L. H. Shisler
W. A. Smith

B. D. Sorrels

C. L. Stanford
R. K. Steele
Erich Thomsen
G. S. Triebel
M. S. Wakely
G. H. Way

C. E. Weller

S. T. WiECEK

H. M. Williamson

M. J. WiSNOWSKI

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman, and
secretan.', are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects;

B. Revision of Manual.
No report.

1. Collaborate witli AISI Technical Subcommittee, Welding Contrac-
tors, Suppliers of Field Wielding, Rail Grinding and Rail Testing
Conhactors on Matters of Mutual Interest.

No report.

2. Collaborate with AISI Technical Committee on Rail and Joint Bars in
Research and Otlier Matters of Mutual Interest.

(a) Study the subject of obtaining rails longer tlian 39 ft., looking
to developing die optimum length of rail that will be acceptable,
based on handling metliods, supply of cars for shipping, the
number of rails which can be obtained from steel company ingot
molds, and other necessary considerations.

No report.

373

374 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. Rail Failure Statistics.

Brief status statement, included in Commentary.

4. Up-date Data on Methods and Equipment for Making Welding Repairs
to Rail and Turnouts.

No report.

5. Rail Research and Development.

Progress report, submitted as information page 376

6. Joint bars: Design, Specifications, Service Tests, Including Insulated
Joints and Compromise Joints.

No report.

7. Laying of Continuous Welded Rail.

Statistics showing track miles of CWR laid by years since 1933, sub-
mitted as information page 376

8. Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail.

Brief status statement, included in Commentary.

9. Standardization of Rail Sections.

Progress report, submitted as information page 382

10. Effect of Heavy Wheel Loads on Rail.
No report.

11. Field Welding.
No report.

12. CWR Field Handbook.

Brief status statement, included in Commentary.

COMMENTARY

On September 27, 1975, recommendation was submitted by Chairman Brown
of Committee 4 to the Board of Direction for approval to consolidate Assignment 3,
"Rail Failure Statistics," and Assignment 9, "Standardization of Rail Sections," into
one revised Assignment 3, "Rail Statistics."

In the past, reports on both Assigmnents 3 and 9 of Committee 4 have been
confined to rail statistics. Assignment 3 covering a compilation of data on rail failures
illustrated by numerous statistics and graphs, and Assignment 9, a brief statistical
summary of the annual tonnage rolled and shipped from Canadian and United States
rail mills in each individual rail section.

In connection with Assignment 3, the last report of rail failure statistics was
made in Bulletin 641 of January-February 1973. These statistics were discontinued
in 1973 as it was recognized that the statistics being assembled had little or no value
as efforts were being made to compile these numbers from all railroads in the country
and the majority of the roads that were attempting to report did not maintain the
records that were necessary to furnish Committee 4 with reliable statistics; conse-
quently, the statistics tliat were published weren't realistic.

Since that time, however, the FRA and Congress have become deeply involved
in the problem of upgrading railroads throughout the country and in so doing have

Rai_l 375

been attempting to develop numbers from any source to support the effort. The
condition of raU in tracks of the American Railroads is, of course, one of the primary
problems within the industry and one of the largest items of expense required to
upgrade the properties that are in trouble. Consequently, the FRA has been attempt-
ing to assemble data for its own use and for presentation before congressional
committees on these rail conditions, and both FRA and congressional conuuittees
have been critical of the fact that the AREA, representing the engineering arm of
the industry, doesn't have any statistics such as those we attempted to assemble on
rail failures to further their study of our problems.

When this matter was brought up at the last Rail Committee meeting in Chicago
on June 16-17, 1975, it was discussed thoroughly and it was the consensus of all
present that we should attempt to assemble such statistics to the extent that they
are available from major roads which do maintain reliable records on rail defects.
Consequently, it was concluded that we would again attempt to assemble such
statistics only from those roads who can furnish reliable numbers and at least have
these available for future reference within the industry and a\ailable to Government
agencies for their use as required.

As stated above, both of these assignments are primarily confined to rail sta-
tistics which are very beneficial and worthwhile; however, compilation of rail
statistical data does not require or justify the assignment of two separate subcom-
mittees presently represented by 27 different members of Committee 4 and it was
therefore recommended assignments 3 and 9 be consoHdated into one revised Assign-
ment 3, "Rail Statistics." This recommendation was appro\'ed by the Board of
Direction at its meeting November 13, 1975.

It also has been apparent Committee 4 has an area of conflict with Committee
5 — Track, as Chapter 5-5-4, "Laying Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)," and
Chapter 5-5-4.1, "Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail," are also the same
subjects of Committee 4 — Rail, Assignments 7 and 8, respectively.

In view of this conflict, Committee 4 presented tliis matter to the Board of
Direction and on November 13, 1975, the Board transferred Assignments 7 (Laying
of Continuous Welded Rail), 8 (Maintenance of Continuous Welded Rail) and 12
(CWR Field Handbook) from Committee 4 — Rail to Committee 5 — Track.

The Committee on Rail,

R. M. Brown, Chairman.

376 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 5
Rail Research and Development

W. J. Cruse (chairman, subcommittee), B. C. Anderson, R. M. Brown, Daniel
Danyluk, a. R. DeRosa, G. H. Geiger, R. E. Gorsuch, R. E. Haacke, W. H.
Huffman, T. B. Hutcheson, H. F. Longhelt, W. S. Lovelace, T. C.
Mackenzie, A. B. Merritt, Jr., J. L. Merritt, C. O. Penney, J. M. Rankin,
W. A. Smith, R. K. Steele, D. H. Stone, G. H. Way, M. J. Wisnowski.

Advance progress report was published in Bulletin 654, September-October
1975.

Field inspections were carried out as a cooperative effort of die Rail Research
and Development Subcommittee of AREA Gommittee 4 — Rail, the AISI Technical
Subcommittee on Rail and Accessories and the AAR Research and Test Department.

On July 30, 1975, an inspection was made of a service test installation of fully
heat-treated, induction head-hardened, intermediate manganese and standard control-
cooled rail on the Ghessie System in the vicinity of Oakland, Maryland. On August
19, 20 and 21 inspections of service test installation of fully heat-treated, induction
head-hardened, high silicon and standard control-cooled rail on the Burlington
Northern in Montana and Washington were made. The report of their findings will
be made available in 1976.

As information, the Ad Hoc Committee on Rail Research, made up of representa-
tives of AREA, AAR and AISI, have contacted a number of railroads throughout
this country and Canada and, with their cooperation, established a number of new
rail test sites for gathering rail defect statistics. This effort is part of the ongoing
cooperative research work having to do with the study of rail defects and the
metallurgy of rail steels.

Report on Assignment 7

Laying of Continuous Welded Rail

G. H. Maxwell (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Brown, Daniel Danylxik,
A. R. DeRosa, Emil Eskengren, A. H. Galbraith, R. G. Garland, W. J.
Gilbert, R. L. Gray, R. E. Haacke, L. A. Logsdon, H. F. Longhelt, A. B.
Merritt, Jr., B. J. Murphy, R. C. Postels, R. B. Rhode, H. L. Rose,
A. E. Shaw, Jr., B. D. Sorrels, E. H. Waring, C. E. Weller.

Your committee submits as information the following statistics showing tlie
number of track miles of CWR laid by years for the period 1933 to 1974, inclusive.

Rail

377

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380 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Rail 381

Track Miles of Continuous Welded Rail Laid By Years, 1933-1974

1933

0.16

1934

0.95

1935

4.06

1936

1.52

1937

31.23

1939

6.04

1942

5.48

1943

6.29

1944

12.88

1945

4.8]

1946

3.91

1947

18.70

1948

29.93

1949

33.05

1950

50.25

1951

37.25

1952

40.00

1953

80.00

19.54

87.00

Oxy- Electric

acetylene Flash Total

1955 194.50 72.0 266.50

1956 372.33 89.10 461.43

1957 390.47 159.65 550.12

1958 148.11 312.13 460.24

1959 378.65 691.92 1070.57

1960 299.42 961.20 1260.62

1961 94.13 926.50 1020.63

1962 310.59 1183.34 1493.93

1963 497.52 1360.48 1858.00

1964 586.76 1796.74 2383.50

1965 700.59 1655.74 2356.33

1966 746.61 1984.71 2731.32

1967 784.28 1800.27 2584.55

1968 643.10 2543.61 3186.71

1969 674.35 2930.01 3604.36

1970 800.30 5378.32 6178.62

1971 504.28 3604.72 4109.00

1972 422.91 4011.29 4434.20

1973 465.68 4084.27 4767.37"

1974 273.79 4183.48 4457.27

49688.78'

Bre.'Vk-Down of Continuous Welded Rail Laid in 1974 — Track Miles

Main Track

Sidings & Yard Tracks

Total includes 217.42 miles reported by Norfolk & Western in 1973, but breakdown
not available.

Oxyacetylene

Electric

Flash

New

Secondhand

New

Secondhand

Totals

113.03

147.64

2437.76

1542.39

4240.82

.31

12.81

6.47

196.86

216.45

113.34

160.45

2444.23

1739.25

4457.27

382 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Report on Assignment 9

Standardization of Rail Sections

E. H. Waring (chairman, subcommittee), R. M. Brown, R. F. Bush, P. K. Cruck-
SHANK, W. J. Gilbert, W. H. Huffman, H. F. Longfelt, A. B. Merritt, Jr.,
F. W. Michael, B. J. Murphy, B. F. Ovehbey, R. C. Postels, J. M. Rankin,
I. A. Reiner, G. S. Triebel, G. H. Way, M. J. Wisnowski.

During the past year, Subcommittee 9 has secured from the American Iron
and Steel Institute Technical Committee on Railroad Materials a summary of the
tonnage of rail shipped from Canadian and United States steel mills to North Ameri-
can Railroads. A tabulation of this information is included herewith.

It is noted that 891,382 tons or 87.52% of tlie total rail shipped was in sections
to which it is recommended that purchases of new rail be limited.

Consolidated Report of Rail Shipped to North American Railroads from
North American Rail Producing Mills in 1974 by Weight and Section

Tons

Weight

Section

% Total

Shipped

140'

AREA

6.11

62,203

136*

AREA

14.43

147,033

133

AREA

8.30

84,514

132*

AREA

36.24

369,176

131

AREA

0.01

60

130

AREA

0.05

559

130

PS

0.03

286

122

CB

2.59

26,398

60 KG/M

UIC

0.01

89

119*

AREA

6.08

61,920

115*

AREA

17.19

175,094

112

AREA

0.09

872

100*

AREA

5.61

57,101

100

ARA-A

0.96

9,792

90*

ARA-A

1.86

18,855

85

CP

0.18

1,821

75

BS-11

0.26

2,673

* Recommended section

TOTAL

100.00

1,018,446

Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Plant, Equipment

and Operations

M. B. Miller,

Chairman
L. A. Durham, Jr.,

Vice Chairman
M. J. Shearer, Jr.,

Secretary

G. RUGGE

J. R. WiLMOT

T. C. NORDQUIST

R. p. Hoffman

D. H. Noble

T. D. Kern

R. D. Penhallegon'

J. C. Martin

"R. E. .\hlf

C. Bach

J. W. Barriger (E)

J. \\'. Barriger

K. W. Bradley

W. G. Byers

R. L. Carstens

J. B. Clark

R. P. Corxwell

L. P. Dl\mond

W. T. Dlxon

R. H. Dunn

G. B. DuTTON, Jr.

J. J. Eash

S. Fog ARTY

J. A. Forbes

B. G. Gallagher

G. R. Gaspard

A. J. Gellman

A. M. Handwerker

G. E. Hartsoe

W. W. Hay

L. W. Haydon

J. P. Holland

M. C. Holowaty

E. C. HONATH

G. R. Janosko
H. C. Kendall
T. J. Lamphier
R. J. Lane
A. S. Lang
K. L. Lawson
J. H. Marino
R. G. Maughan

R. McCann

R. L. McMurtrie

C. J. Meyer

R. L. Milner (E)

J. Neben

J. F. Pabtridge

W. L. Paul

J. S. Reed

F. J. Richter

V. J. Roggeveen

A. L. Sams

R. J. Schiefelbein

J. H. Seamon

T. C. Shedd

L. K. SiLLCOx (E)

M. L. Silver

T. H. Sjostrand

J. J. Stark, Jr.

J. M. Suss MAN

G. M. Tabor

J. E. Teal (E)

C. L. TowLE (E)
R. Turner

D. E. Turney, Jr.
K. B. Ullman

H. Wanaselja

L. E. Ward

F. Wascoe

D. M. Weinroth

D. B. Weinstein

P. B. Wilson

T. D. WoFFORD, Jr.

Committee

( E ) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman, and
secretar>-, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.
No report.

2. Engineering Methods and Economic Considerations Involved in
Improving the Quality of Transportation Service.

Final report, presented as information page 384

3. Determination of Factors, Including Various Traffic Volumes, Af-
fecting Maintenance of Way E.\pense and Effect of Using Such
Factors, in Terms of Equated Mileage or Other Derived Factors,
for Allocation of Available Funds to Maintenance of Way, Col-
laborating as Necessary or Desirable with Committees 11 and 22.

Bui. 656

383

384 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(a) Additional Maintenance Cost Due to Operating 100-Ton

Unit Trains.
No report.

4. Economic Evaluation of Methods for Reducing the Probability
of Derailments.

No report.

5. Economics of Freight Cars with Characteristics Approaching the
Limits of Accepted Designs.

No report.

6. Factors Involved in Rationalization of Railway Systems.
No report.

7. Applications of Industrial Engineering Functions to the Railroad
Industry.

No report.

8. Economics of Systems for Control of Train Operation,
No report.

The Committee on Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations,

M. B. Miller, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 2

Engineering Methods and Economic Considerations

Involved in Improving the Quality of

Transportation Service

J. R. WiLMOT (chairman, subcommittee), D. B. Weinstein (vice chairman, sub-
committee), J. W. Barriger, W. J. Dixon, G. R. Gaspard, A. J, Gellman,
J. P. Holland, J. H. Marino, J. S. Reed, T. C. Shedd, M. L. Silver, J. M.
SussMAN, H. Wanaselja, L. E. Ward, F. Wascoe, D. M. Weinroth.

This is a final report, presented as information.

Quality is an intangible which is not readily susceptible to exact definition
or measurement. As anyone who watches TV commercials knows, it means differ-
ent things to different people and it may mean different things to the same person
at different times and in different places.

The scope of this report is confined to quality in railroad freight service. The
principal elements of quality in the order of their probable awareness to most cus-
tomers are:

1. Rehabihty

a. In arrival at destination

b. In elapsed time

c. In equipment availability

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 385

2. Schedule Compatibility with Customer's Requirements

a. In departure and arrixal times

b. In elapsed time

3. F"reedom from loss and damage

Loss and damage, the last item on the preceding list, is different from die
others. Both its extent and its cost can be measured, and the railroad industry has
long been aware of the desirabihty of minimizing them. There is a voluminous
record of the efforts towards that objective and of occasional accomplishments. This
aspect of quality will not be covered in this report.

The proper, or acceptable, level of quality will vary with commodities and with
customers. On traffic for which there is intermodal competition the railroads must
at least match the quality of the other mode (usually truck) or offer a rate at a
discount below the truck rate, or accept the alternative of foregoing the traffic.
Here, an economic equation must answer whether the costs to the railroads of
bringing their quality- of service up to the truck level can be accomplished without
increasing rates above those of the truckers. On traffic which is captive to tlie
railroads an vmacceptable level of quality will in the short run put the railroad
and the customer in an adversary stance both in day-to-day operations and in
regulatory proceedings and in the long run will lead the customer to seek pro-
duction and distribution methods and locations which minimize rail transportation.
Normally, improvements in railroad methods and procedures — sometimes in con-
junction with modifications in the customer's practices — should be the means of
bringing substandard service up to the level required by the customer. Tradeoffs
between functions should be sought to hold the rate or the customer's total costs
to existing levels. There will be occasions when substandard service reflects a de-
pressed rate, and an improvement in service quality will be contingent upon an
upward adjustment of the rate.

At the time when the railroads provided virtually the only intercity freight
transportation the quality of service produced by conventional railroad operating
practices was the quality expected by customers. These conventional practices
were — and frequently still are — oriented toward operating convenience rather than
customer service. The growth of other transport modes has been paralleled by
changes in industrial production and distribution patterns. A large part of the goods
in today's economy are in the hands of companies of national scope with control of,
or an overview interest in, their product from raw material source through process-
ing or component production to manufacture or assembly to distribution center.
Long hauls may be required between each step, requiring an integration of trans-
portation with production. In this scheme, in order to optimize production schedules,
the reliability, or predictability, of transportation movements has taken on much
greater importance. Concurrently, centralization of industrial planning has brought
a greater sophistication in the treatment of the time value of money, which ap-
pears in efforts to minimize investment in goods flowing through the production
and distribution process, with resulting lower inventory margins to protect against
irregularities in transportation schedule performance. The railroads, as well as
industrial companies, have become aware of the time value of money, as is evident
from the fact that every car in the railroad-owned fleet is no longer priced for off-
line rental at one dollar per day.

386 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

For the customer who has a traffic movement tied to a particular railroad,
sei'vice failures or car shortages may stop his production line or leave his dealers
out of stock. While this railroad may be the customer's only railroad, this customer
is not the railroad's only customer. The railroad's objective is to integrate this cus-
tomer's traffic into its network in a manner that will produce a profit over a year's
time. Satisfying the customer's requirements calls for more accommodation on the
part of the railroad than of the customer. For example, railroad schedules and the
records by which performance is usually measured are nomially in terms of tenninal-
to-terminal time, but the customer's reliability requirements are in tenns of dock-
to-dock time.

There must be a meeting of the minds on the level of quality required and
the acceptable attainment level. Railroad line-haul service cannot be performed
under exactly identical conditions from day to day, and unlike a product, units
that do not meet the quality standard cannot be rejected by either a quality-control
inspector or the customer.

The association between quality and productivity was pointed out in the re-
port of the Task Force on Railroad Productivity in 1973.^ This report highlights
some of the impediments to greater productivity which must be overcome. One
of these is the diffusion of proprietary responsibility among a large niunber of
companies, while at the same time each company, on the average, must share
about one-half of its traffic with other companies. The result has been that invest-
ments and methods directed at upgrading the quality of service have been more
frequent when applied to the half of the traffic which is single-hne than to the
half which is interline. The interline traffic tends toward longer hauls of higher-
rated commodities, but agreement between companies on the costs and benefits
of service improvement has not been easy.

The Productivity report brings out that most railroad mergers have been paral-
lel ones, emphasizing cost reductions by avoiding duplications of plant and service.
Savings in costs and improvements in service are not mutually exclusive, but, as
the report states, trucking company mergers are usually end-to-end, with improve-
ments in service the primary objective. For this reason and others, not all readily
adaptable to the railroad industry, a single-line strategy in the trucking industry
has resulted in interline hauls with their divided responsibility being exceptional,
a feature which should be recognized in railroad service.

The authors of Improving Railroad Productivity found five particularly promis-
ing areas for innovation, which are: (1) the development of a containerization
strategy; (2) a freight car management system; (3) revised train scheduling and
operations (especially, shorter, more frequent trains); (4) costing, pricing and
profit analysis; and (5) improved management planning. These areas in the context
of the report are associated with improved productivity. Throughout the report,
however, there is a very clearly implied association between improvement in pro-
ductivity and improvement in quality of service, revenue and profit.

A recent dialogue on productivity and its association with quality in transporta-
tion appeared with the fuel crisis. Several tabulations from neutral sources were
published showing energy consumption per ton-mile for various transport modes,
with highly favorable rankings for the rail mode. Some trucking industry spokes-
men have protested, however, that a truck ton-mile and rail ton-mile are not equal.

I Improving Railroad Productivity, Final Report of the Task Force on Railroad Productivity;
National Commission on Productivity and the Council of Economic Advisers, November 1973.

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 387

because they contend that the former contains a higher quahty component, for
such factors as speed, reliabiUty and unified control from dock to dock.

The MIT/Southem Railway Study

Probably the most fully documented study on the quality of railroad service —
specifically, on the key aspect of rehability — \\as performed by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology for the Federal Railroad Administration during 1971 and
1972. Following the report of its investigation and research, from November 1972
to January 1974, MIT with FRA funding made a case study on tlie Southern Rail-
way to implement and apply its findings under actual operating conditions. The
results of this case study were published in Miirch 1974."

One region of the Southern was selected for the stud>', and the first-phase
activity was the collection of data on current performance at the levels of origin-
destination, corridor, yard, and train, with which reliability was measured. The
ability of the Southern's management information system to measure reliability be-
fore and after implementation of recommended changes was critical to the success
of the case study and such an ability should be a part of any service improvement
program.

Sample pages of two regular reliability reports produced by the Southern are
illustrated. Figure 1 is a reproduction of one page (for one origin) of a monthly
summary of transit time between major terminal pairs on the system. For example,
from Origin CIXCI (Cincinnati) to Destination NO LA (New Orleans) 785 cars
moved during the month, on 639 of which sufficient data were captured for proc-
essing in the report. The mean time of the 639 cars was 91 hours. The greatest
concentration of traffic in four consecutive 12-hour periods of trip time was 75
percent (see "Four Period" column), the sum of the percentages in frequency dis-
tribution columns 6, 7, 8 and 9, by period, with a difference of 1 percentage point
due to rounding.

Figure 2 is a reproduction of a page of tlie supporting detail for Figure 1. The
first four lines of data show for the 639 cars measured in Figure 1 the origin and des-
tination tenninal times bracketed in 4-hour periods and the total transit time ex-
cluding origin and destination terminal time bracketed in 12-hour periods. The
following blocks of data show for the cars moving between die origin-and-destina-
tion pair by each of several alternate routes the origin and destination time as in
the summary block, with the additional breakdown of the total transit time into
hue-haul time between each terminal in 6-hour brackets and intermediate terminal
time in 4-hour brackets.

The Southern is continuing to develop its perfonnance measurement reporting
and is using an improved version of the reports illustrated here. Reference is now
made to standard trip times, together with other measures which facilitate identi-
fication of variations from acceptable performance.

The study team selected situations on the Southern for testing strategies for
rehabilit>- improvement, based on its prior investigation and research. Any such
strategy, it concluded, must achieve one or more of the following results : ( 1 ) im-
prove reliability of local service at origin or destination; (2) improve reliability of
train connections at intermediate yards; (3) improve the consistency of routing

- MIT Report No. R74-28, Improving Railroad Reliability: A Case Study of the Southern
Railway; Studies in Railroad Operations and Economics, Volume 10, by Carl D. Martland.

388 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

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390 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

between origin and destination; (4) reduce the number of times cars are switched;
or (5) reduce the number of extraordinary delays caused by no-bills, misroutes
and mechanical failures.

Five distinct tests were made in the case study. These will be described briefly
to show the diversity of approaches to the improvement of reliability.

1. The first test situation involved the irregular performance of Trains 93
and 4 between D and A, resulting in very poor service between those
points. The implemented recommendations were to operate tlie trains
on a daily schedule rather than irregularly, to operate them beyond A to
E with stops only to pick up and set off cars at A, to assign tsvo sets of
power exclusively to these trains, and to use the trains for A — E traffic
as well as D — E traffic.

2. The problem for which the second test sought a solution was one of long
delays on high-cost empty cars between the time they were released by
the industry, passed through a satellite yard and departed on an out-
bound train from the classification yard, A. The trouble was traced to
the satellite yard, and the implemented recommendation was that per-
formance standards be set for the satellite yard to the end that all empties
in the yard at midnight would arrive at Yard A by 10:00 am and that
empties should not remain in the satellite yard more than 20 hours.

3. The third test revolved around poor origin and destination performance
on an agricultural commodity originating at local stations and assembled
at Yard K for movement on through trains. Investigation disclosed that
much of the traffic was humped at two or more classification yards and
that connections at Yard K from local trains to 96, the tlirough train
handling the traffic, required more than 25 hours on the average. The
recommended strategy, which was tested, was to operate Train 96 on a
scheduled daily basis rather than irregularly from Yard K to Yard C, to
move all traffic for C and beyond in a single block to Yard C, and when-
ever possible to block cars for C and beyond prior to their arrival at K
and thus bypass classification at K.

4. For the fourth test, the problem was that more than 20 percent of the
cars from Yard F to Yard E instead of moving direct on Train 34 moved
on Train 15 to Yard A, an intermediate point, where they were humped
and dispatched on one of several trains, with added transit time of 10
to 40 hours. The recommendations made effective were to move traffic
from Yard F to Yard E on Train 34 whenever possible, but, in default,
to hold for Train 34 the next day (4 pm) rather than for Train 15 (next
day, 8 am), and as a last resort to move traffic on Train 15 only if Yard
F is congested or Train 34 will be unable to handle the traffic.

5. The fifth test was directed to the problem at Yard D, which was not
unique. Inbound to outbound train connections were unreliable, with ap-
proximately 15 percent of the cars humped missing their proper connec-
tion, and the time for more than 20 percent of actual connections was in
excess of 24 hours. Average scheduled and available yard times were both
13 hours, but average actual yard time was 20 hours. The implemented
recommendations were to reschedule one train to depart from Yard D 3
hours later and another train to arrive 2 hours earlier. This was the only

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations

391

TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF THE TEST PROGRAM

Test Implemented
No. Recommendation

Cars/Day

Increase in
Pel labi 1 1 ty

Decrease in
Trip Times

Decrease
In Cost

1. Operate run-through trains
between D and E_

Predicted
Actual

200
180

21%
14i

16 hours
19 hours

$15,000
$15,000

2. Monitor industrial switch-
ing near A

Predicted
Actual

60
40

lO'i
15-

18 hours
21 hours

$ 5.000
$ 6,000

3. Allocate more power and re-
vise local operating pro-
cedures for agricultural
traffic from K

Predicted
Actual

68
72

25%
14?

18 hours
18 hours

1
$ 4,000
$ 6.000

4. Move through cars only on
the runthrough train from
L t-o L *

Predicted
Actual

40
40

10"
2",*

12 hours
10 hours*

$ 2,500
S 2.00C*

5. Revise train schedules to
reduce unreliable connec-
tions at D

Predicted
Actual

200
210

\QX

4 hours

**

$ 4,000

* This improvement did not result from the test program.
** rompirablp result's ire not available

Source: MIT Report No. R7A-23, Table 5-1.

one of the test programs for which the results could not be measured.
During the implementation period major network changes on the Southern
(significant schedule revisions for six other trains as a result of the open-
ing of the new Sheffield Yard and major roadway work on one of the
lines converging on Yard D) obscured the impact of the two schedule
changes of the test program.

As depicted in Table 1, the four test programs for which results could be
measured were successful in showing improvements in reliability, decreases in transit
times, and, in three cases, decreases in costs.

This case study vdth its three diverse sponsors was unique in its approach to
the problem of railroad reliability, and, more important for the railroad industry,
in the depth of the reporting of the study, with quantitative results.

The report states that the problem-solving approach and procedure of the test
program consisted of the seven following steps: (1) define the objective; (2) meas-

392 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

lire current performance; (3) identify a manageable set of problems; (4) identify
potential solutions; (5) evaluate potential solutions; (6) select and implement the
best policies for a trial period; and (7) monitor and record the impacts.

The recommendations which were implemented in the test program evolved
under consideration of the following criteria: (1) Feasihility of implementation by
the Southern on short notice; (2) Measurahility of predicted and actual impacts;
(3) Effectiveness, in tenns of a substantial improvement in Southern service with a
minimal increase in costs; and (4) Impact, in terms of important, high-volume traf-
fic movements.

Other Research and Applications

The fully-documented case study on the Southern Railway involved several
tests directed at improving service directly, or indirectly through better car utiliza-
tion, by making localized changes in road and yard schedules, traffic assignment
to trains and power assignments.

The subject of quality of service and the need for its improvement is such a
broad one that research and applications have been diverse. Local changes with
service objectives are, of course, being made somewhere almost every day, but
without the benefit to the industry of recorded research and measurement of re-
sults. Reported activity is frequently on the development of systemwide concepts
or procedures. A brief review of a selection of endeavors on quality improvement
follows.

CP Rail.^ The MINDISC total distribution cost model was developed for use in
conjunction with the FRATE operating cost model. Factors considered include the
level of reliability customers are willing to pay for, the fact that most trains carry
cars with varying levels of customer reliability requirements, and the tradeoffs be-
tween advertising faster schedules and seeking maximum reliability with existing
schedules. In a test of the model for a train with a specific consumer product,
locomotive units were assigned through a range of 2 to 8, and costs were deter-
mined for door-to-door transit times from 2.5 to 5 days with 99 percent reliability.
For theoretical perfect service total distribution cost was reduced by $2.50 per ton
but railroad costs were increased by $5.00 per ton. This illustration was not given
to demonstrate that improved service is uneconomic but to show the capability of
the model in simulating an idealized level of service, at some level below which
it would find the economic optimum level.

Denver 6- Rio Grande Western.* Following research and simulation, the first broad
application of a policy of running shorter, faster and more frequent trains was in-
stituted in 1964. Several characteristics of the railroad made it a favorable site for
a test of the policy. Perhaps the most significant was the opportunity to eliminate
a substantial amount of main-line helper service. A "before and after" comparison
of system statistics — in which the effects of the short, fast train policy are reflected
— for the years 1963 and 1966 is summarized below:

* "Some Thoughts on the Reliability of Railroading" by Peter J. Detinold, Special Assistant,
Research; in Transporting Research Forum Proceedings, 1972, Page 505.

* Company documentation.

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Op

lerations

; 393

1963

1966

Percent Change
Actual Adjusted'*

Trailing Gross Ton-Miles
( Millions )

11,600

14,811

-f-27.7

Crew Costsf (Thousands)

$6,324

$8,772

+38.7

+ 11.3

Gross Tons per Train

3,481

2,876

-17.4

—

Average Speed (MPH)

22.3

25.4

+ 13.9

—

Train-Miles ( Thousands )

3,333

5,150

+54.5

+26.9

Horsepower per Unit

1,600

2,017

+26.1

—

Unit-Miles (Thousands)

15,223

20,009

+31.4

—

Horsepower-Miles ( Millions )

24,357

40,3.58

+ 65.7

+38.0

No. of Units

187

187

0

- 1.1

Car-Miles per Car-Day

44.4

53.7

+20.9

—

Car-Days (Thousands)

4,788

4,515

- 5.7

-17.4

Adjusted Increase in Operating

Costs

$2,373,000

Adjusted Savings: Locomotive

Ownership

60,000

Car Hire

3,080,000

Net Potential Saving $ 767,000

' Adjusted to eliminate changes due to increases in wage rates and fringe

benefits and in traffic volume.
t Wages and fringe benefits.

Frisco/' The Quality Control Section was established in 1964. Among its accom-
plishments are the TSE Report (Terminal Service Evaluation), measuring elapsed
time between pairs of events (e.g., arrival until movement) at 12 terminals, with
a summary analysis of missed per diem situations, and train performance sum-
maries of selected trains with exception comparisons of actual movement with
schedules in the computer file. These reports influenced decisions to revise priorities
in capital improvements because more delays than had been thought were occur-
ring on the road and fewer in terminals, and led to development of a computer-
generated train-meet calculator to determine where passing tracks should be ex-
tended and to substituting advance sections for second sections whenever possible.
Illinois Central Gulf/ A comprehensive study was made of the Memphis terminal,
as a test case, to identify proposed rule changes which would enable the railroad
to improve the quality of service as a result of more efficient yard operations and
better car utilization. The changes are in five categories: labor rules applying to
yard crews (e.g., crews to report daily to regular assignments in lieu of calls);
labor rules applying to road crews (e.g., crews to put away trains at any number
of yards in terminal as directed by yardmaster); labor rules applying to both yard
and road crews (e.g., abolish yard limit rules); rules applying to customers {e.g.,
customers to be charged for rejecting cars which meet their specifications; demur-
rage charges to be increased); interchange rules (ICG could change designated
interchange tracks for deliveries by other railroads on an hour-to-hour basis; per
diem to be calculated and prorated on an hourly basis).
Missouri Pacific.' TCS (Transportation Control System) was developed with design

^ RaUway Age, July 31, 1972, page 24.

' "A Proposal to Iniprove Railroad Terminal Performance Through Changes in Present Rules"
by Larry A. Hemdon, Manager, Operating Data Planning; in Transportation Research Forum
Proceedings, 1973, Page 213.

|^"Mopac's Transportation Control System — A System's Approach to Achieving Service Relia-
bility" by Guerdon Sines, Director, Information and Controls Systems; in Transportation Research
Forum Proceedings. 1972, Page 513,

394 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

objectives to: Increase service reliability through more consistent availability of
empties and more consistent movement of loads and empties; reduce transportation
costs and maintain them at levels permitting competitive pricing by controlling
commitments of cars, power, crews and plant; reduce clerical costs in information
generation by reducing the association between peaking in yard and road car
activity at terminals and peaking in the accompanying billing and data processing
work; improve communication with customers by eliminating redundant fonns and
messages; improve the quality of management reports by moving from reports of
statistical averages toward ones with greater sensitivity to significant variations.
Rock Island.^ In 1971, with the objective of improving the utilization of covered
hopper cars which were in short supply, novel rates were published on com and
soybeans from the Midwest to Gulf ports for export. A series of at least five ship-
ments of not less than 5,000 tons each must be made in not more than 54 cars
(up to 64 in light-rail origin territory), which must be committed to a series of
consecutive trips, vdth hmited loading and unloading times. The rates are lowest
when all the cars are loaded at one elevator, with options for two elevators ( a mini-
mum of 15 cars from one elevator) and for any number of elevators in a group
(a minimum of 5 cars per elevator). Lower rates are provided in lieu of a mileage
allowance when private cars are used. Successive shipments need not be from the
same origins. Examples demonstrated rate reductions ranging from 13 to 17 percent
and a 22 percent reduction in variable costs. During the first year, while various
elevators were in the process of gearing up to take advantage of the rates, 45
trains moved under the provisions of the new tariffs, with an average round-trip
tumaroiuid per car of 8.9 days, an improvement over the 10 days estimated when
the rates were proposed. Not only was service thus improved, but when compared
with average times for single-car shipments in this traffic of 21 days without
transit and 28 days when transited, the 21,832 car-days required to move 2,449
carloads represented a saving equivalent to the addition to the fleet of 81 new
cars if the traffic had moved in single cars without transit or 128 new cars if the
single-car shipments had been transited.

Santa Fe. A new pattern of long-distance freight train scheduling was initiated in
1973. Instead of fleeting trains, which causes congestion on both line of road and
in terminals, schedules were adjusted to achieve evenly spaced departures for
Chicago-Southern California trains, Chicago-Northern California trains, Chicago-
Texas trains, and Chicago-Denver trains. Similar scheduhng was done for trains
out of Kansas City to the same destinations. A corresponding pattern of east and
northbound departures from California, Texas and Denver is in effect. Also, RHF
(Regular High Frequency) schedules are in effect between California and Texas.
The annulling of trains in the light-traffic direction is prohibited. The results of
this type of operation have been more reliable service and better car, locomotive,
caboose and facilities utilization.

Southern Pacific." TMIS (Terminal Management Information System) was devel-

8 Corn and Soybeans Midwest to Gulf Ports, for Export, 339 ICC 595 (1971), and com-
pany documentation.

* "Use of Computers in Measuring and Evaluating Terminal Operations" by T. A. Lewis,
Special Assistant, Operating and Terminal Systems; in Transportation Research Forum Proceed-
ings, 1973, page 229.

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 395

oped, which produces reports of car movements completed, cost per car movement,
car movements completed on schedule and average hours per car movement. Fur-
ther, from a 100^ sample of the data, a summary of condensed significant informa-
tion is produced. An analysis of the results of the system at one terminal disclosed
that the cost per car movement was reduced from $10.83 to $9.01, that schedule
performance increased from 74 percent to 83 percent, and that the average hours
per car movement were reduced from 2.3.3 to 21.0.

"Studies in Railroad Operations and Economics." A series of reports under the
above title has reached 17 volumes, of which the first 15 deal with railroad freight
service reliabihty. The reports cover research performed by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, with funding for the most part by the Federal Railroad
Administration. One-paragraph abstracts of most of the \'olumes follow.

Volume 1: Railroad Car Movement Reliability: A Preliminary Study of
Line-Haul Operations. Authors: A. S. Lang and R. M. Reid. Date:
October 1970. MIT Report No. R70-74. Sponsoring Agency: Union
Pacific Foundation.

Data on road train delays due to various types of mechanical failures and
derailments and on the duration of these delays were collected for a total
of 1,065 trains operating over a single main-line division during a two-
month period. These delays were classified by major type (brake, coupler,
and other type of failures, not including engine failures) and by causal
factors (train length, trailing tonnage, and track profile) operative at the
time of the failure.

Volume 2: Rail Trip Time Reliability: Evaluation of Performance Measures
and Analysis of Trip Time Data. Author: Carl D. Martland. Date:
June 1972. MIT Report No. R72-37. Sponsoring Agency: Federal Rail-
road Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation.
After evaluating alternative measures within a logistics framework, this
report recommends two measures of reliability, the maximum percentage of
cars whose trip times fall in a consecutive two or three day period of the
trip time distribution (the 2- or 3-day %) and the percentage of cars arriv-
ing after this period (the %-late). Nevertheless, a dialogue with shippers is
necessary before the most appropriate measures can be determined for a
specific situation. Using these measures, origin-to-destination (O-D) data
for three railroads are analyzed to discover the nature of O-D relialiility.
The typical trip time distribution was found to be unimodal with extreme
value concentrated on the high side, with a 3-day-% between 60 and 95,
and with a %-late less than 25. There is no simple cause of unreliability.
Although yard classifications are found to affect rehability much more than
does distance, detailed train information is necessary to predict the nature
of this impact for a particular O-D pair. In general, however, reducing the
number of classifications or improving yard operations will impro\'e both
reliability and mean trip times.

Volume 3: Determinants of Line Haul Reliability. Authors: Kenneth Bclo-

varac and James T. Kneafsey. Date: June 1972. MIT Report No. R72-

38. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.

This work examines in detail the variance in arrival time and its components

for a total of 1197 trains operating over three different runs (of a single

396 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

railroad) varying from 150 to 270 miles in length. Their data showed
standard deviations of arrival times which typically ranged from one to
three-and-a-half hours for trains operating on a half dozen different sched-
ules. More important, the analysis of their data showed that the variability
in departure time, in running time (excluding stops and delays), and in
intemiediate yard time were the major contributors to arrival time variance.
Standard deviations of departure times (from the initial terminal) were on
the order of 45 minutes to an hour-and-a-half, of running times from 45
minutes to two-and-a-half hours, and of intermediate yard times from one-
half an hour to an hour.

Volume 4: The Impact of Classification Yard Performance on Rail Trip Time
Reliability. Authors: Robert M. Reid, John D. O'Doherty, Joseph M.
Sussman and A. Scheffer Lang. Date: June 1972. MIT Report No.
R72-39. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.

Yard reliability emerges as a problem of central importance to overall move-
ment reliability. Detailed studies of three yards suggest that 10 to 20% of
all cars miss their most appropriate outbound train connections, although
performance varies not only between yards, but between inbound-outbound
train pairs at the same yard. It is possible to express the probability of
making a connection as an increasing function of the time available to make
the connection, since the extra time offsets both arrival delays and conges-
tion delays. The greatest cause of delay, however, is the cancellation of out-
bound trains or blocks. Extraordinary delays caused by rips and no-bills
appear to be a relatively small problem.

Volume 5: Models for Investigating Rail Trip Time Reliabilittj. Author:
Joseph F. Folk. Date: June 1972. MIT Report No. R72-40. Sponsoring
Agency: FRA.

The unreliability of the trip time of railroad freight shipments is often
given as the reason for the railroads' loss of traffic to competing modes of
transport. This report investigates various operating pohcies and practices
affecting reliability through the use of two simulation models. A network
model is developed which simulates the day-to-day movement of cars through
a portion of a rail network, while another model simulates the journey of a
single car moving through a series of yards. The objectives of these models
are similar; namely, to study the network effects on reliability of operating
policies such as a) holding outbound trains for more traffic, b) cancelling
outbound trains, c) altering scheduled connection times at yards, and
d) running shorter, more frequent trains between yards. Major conclusions
of this report include the result that railroad operating policies do have a
substantial effect on car movement reliability. Also, improvements in re-
liability might not necessarily require increases in operating costs, and
could lead to improvements in other performance measures as well, such
as a decrease in mean transit time.

Volume 6: Some Analijses of Railroad Data. Author: Joseph F. Folk. Date:

June 1972. MIT Report No. R72-41. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.
This report presents data from several railroads on yard, link, and total
origin-to-destination performance. Topics analyzed include train arrivals as
functions of train length and the day of the week, line haul times, de-

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 397

parture times, receiving yard delays, total yard times, missed connections,
and trip time standard deviations. Such data analysis is necessary to insure
a realistic choice of parameter xalues and modelling concepts in conjunction
with the simulation models discussed in Volume 5, Models for Investigating,
Rail Trip Time Reliability. The data and results given in this report can also
be helpful to future work on railroad reliability.

Volume 7: A Brief Review of Various Network Models. Author: Joseph F.

Folk. Date: June 1972. MIT Report No. R72-42. Sponsoring Agency:

FRA.
In the past decade, the railroad industiy has developed various types of
models to investigate different operating problems and policies, as well as
proposed changes in the physical plant of a railroad. This report presents
a review, as opposed to an evaluation of a subset of these models which
could be called railroad network models. Two basic types of network models
are reviewed: simtdation models and optimization models. In the network
simulation models re\'iewed, car movements through a network are simu-
lated for a fixed set of train schedules and route structures. Changes in
operating policies are tested by making appropriate changes in either the
input data deck or the internal logic of the simulation program. "Optimal"
operating policies are foimd through trial-and-error methods. The network
optimization models reviewed optimize train schedules (or in one case, a
railroad network) for a fixed traffic demand. Quantities one might vary in
an optimization model include traffic levels, network configuration, cost
indexes, and parameters such as train speeds and processing rates at yards.

Volume 8: Reliability in Railroad Operations. Authors: A. Scheffer Lang
and Carl D. Martland. Date: October 1972. MIT Report No. R72-74.
Sponsoring Agency: FRA.

As a first step, the project staff analyzed yard, line-haul, and trip time data
from eight railroads and found that unreliability is evident in all phases of
rail operations. Yard delays, many of which are caused by unreliable train
operations, are the greatest cause of trip time unreliability. Changes in oper-
ations, capital improvements, and institutional changes can all help improve
reliability. Moreover, capital investment, especially in improved mechanical
reliability of equipment, will have a less significant and immediate impact
than operating changes such as through-blocked trains and increased sched-
ule adherence. A dialogue between shippers, railroads, labor, and manage-
ment is critical to the success of a program for improving reliability.

Volume 9: Reliability in Railroad Operations: Executive Summary. Authors:
Joseph M. Sussman, Carl D. Martland and A. Scheffer Lang. Date:
December 1972. MIT Report No. R73-4. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.

As a first step, the project staff analyzed yard, line-haul, and trip time data
from eight railroads and found that unreliability is evident in all phases of
rail operations. Yard delays, many of which are caused by unreliable train
operations, are the greatest cause of trip time unreliability. Changes in
operations, capital improvements, and institutional changes can all help
improve reliability. Moreover, capital investment, especially in improved
mechanical reliability of equipment, will have a less significant and imme-

398 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

diate impact than operating changes such as through-blocked trains and
increased schedule adherence. A dialogue between shippers, railroads, labor,
and management is critical to the success of a program for improving
reliability.

Volume 10: Improving Railroad Reliability: A Case Stttcly of the Southern
Raihvay. Author: Carl D. Martland. Date: March 1974. MIT Report
No. R74-28. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.
This report serves three major functions: it analyzes O-D, yard, and line-
haul performance over a large portion of the Southern system; it sum-
marizes a set of procedures for improving reliabihty on any railroad, and
it describes in detail the test program carried out on the Southern. The
major product of this research, this test program demonstrated that re-
liability can be improved in the short run, that tliis need not initially involve
added capital or operating expense, and that this will also result in lower
trip times. By changing train schedules and operating procedures for three
traffic flows, involving 300 cars/day. Southern improved rehability about
15%, reduced trip times by nearly a day, and saved approximately $25,000/
month in car utilization expense.

Volume 11: Improving Railroad Reliability: A Case Study of the Southern
Railway, Executive Summary. Authors: Joseph M. Sussman and Carl D.
Mardand. Date: March 1974. MIT Report No. R74-29. Sponsoring
Agency: FRA.
This report presents the major results and basic conclusions of this research
project. The major product of the project was the test program, which
demonstrated that reliability can be improved in the short run, that this
need not initially involve added capital or operating expense, and that this
will also result in lower trip times. By changing train schedules and operat-
ing procedures for three traffic Hows involving 300 cars/day. Southern im-
proved reliability about 15%, reduced trip times by nearly a day, and saved
approximately $25,000/month in car utilization expense.

Volume 12: Procedures for Improving Railroad Reliability. Author: Carl D.

Martland. Date: March 1974. MIT Report No. R74-30. Sponsoring

Agency: FRA.
This report defines an experimental procedure with which any railroad can
start to improve reliability. The success of the test program implemented by
the Southern Railway (see Volume 10) demonstrates that the procedure
not only works, but ofi^ers potential operating and economic benefits to rail-
roads that adopt it. In addition to describing the basic procedure, this re-
port discusses data processing capabilities, alternatives for improving reliabil-
ity, and methods for evaluating these alternatives. The report closes with
recommendations to the government and to the industry for improving rail-
road reliability.

Volvune 15: A Model of Rail/Truck Competition in. the Intercity Freight

Market. Author: Brian C. Kullman. Date: December 1973. MIT Report

No. R74-35. Sponsoring Agency: FRA.

This report proposes a model based on the logit function to predict the rail

and truck market share for specific city pairs and commodity groups. Effort

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations 399

was devoted to the problem of introducing both transport service variables
and shipper's logistic variables into the model. The model was calibrated
with data from the 1967 Census of Transportation and from various carriers.
Significant regressions were obtained from linear logit models once the proper
variables were identified. Theoretical monetary values of carriers' services
were compared to the empirical values in the model, indicating that shippers
pay more for quality service than predicted; this result may be due to bias
in the model introduced by use of aggregated and unreliable data. It is con-
cluded that further research using this model form with more disaggregate
data could yield significant improvements in results and provide valuable
information for public and private transportation planning.

Summary

Quahty is not measurable in exact terms, certainly if the subject is a service
and not a product. For railroad freight service it is a composite of several elements,
varying in relative importance from case to case, which individually are measurable
in terms of time or of cars available for loading.

QuaUty has taken on new significance in the railroad industry with the loss
of traffic to other common carrier modes and private carriage, with not-wholly-
unrelated increases in railroad costs.

Fortunately, but with a time lag, it has become apparent that computers provide
a means of collecting and organizing the masses of data with which individual
elements of quality or the inputs to those elements can be measured. With measure-
ment, problem areas can be identified. The results of a corrective change, or tests
of alternates, can be measured. Policy concepts can be simulated and their effective-
ness measured.

Applications of the quality improvement process have been in some cases
localized, directed at spot operating situations, and in other cases of system-wide
extent, directed at operating policies or at broad concepts of carrier-customer
interface in operations, costs and pricing.

Reports on the cost effectiveness of quality improvement policies have not been
frequent, but some of the cases cited in this report show that better service has
reduced costs. With proper control, in other cases a net gain may come from the
revenue side through added or retained traffic. While traffic was still at near-peak
levels in 1974, there was evidence that improving car control procedures in the
industry were bringing increases in car utilization with consequent reductions in
car shortages and lost traffic.

Economic considerations and a strategy for survival dictate that the proper
level of quality of service is the highest level that the railroad can provide at a
reasonable profit and which has a perceived value which the customer is willing
to pay for. Engineering methods and management controls are the means by which
these criteria can be brought into balance for the greatest number of traffic
movements.

I

Report of Committee 2A — Engineering Education

B. M. Davidson,
Chairman

C. T. POPMA,

Vice Chairman
T. G. ScHULTz, Secretary
W. R. Catching
W. A. Oliver
C. T. Yahbhough

C. D. Chambers
R. M. Brown

E. Y. Huang

D. N. CORTRIGHT

J. F. Pearce

V. J. ROGGEVEEN

T. M. Adams

W. S. AUTREY

J. B. Babcock (E)
J. A. Barnes
R. H. Beeder (E)
D. R. Bergmann
J. R. Blacklock

D. M. Brinker
A. M. Gary
A. W. Cooper

T. P. Cunningham
J. F. Davison
L. A. Durham, Jr.
J. T. Evans
J. Fox

E. T. Franzen
L. C. Gilbert
W. W. Hay

P. L. Heineman
W. P. Houwen, Jr.

W. H. Huffman

H. E. Hurst

T. B. Hutcheson

E. Q. Johnson

F. O. Johnson

A. V. Johnston
C. Johnston

T. D. Kern

C. E. Law
R. H. Lee

K. H. Lenzen

B. B. Lewis (E)
R. H. Michael
S. H. Raskin

D. V. Sartore
P. S. Settle
W. D. Smoak

R. M. SOBERMAN

D. M. Tate

G. H. Way

G. E, Weller

H. M. Williamson

D. L. Wilson

B. J. WORLEY

Committee

(E) Member Emeritus.

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
secretary, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

1. Recruiting.
No report.

2. Summer Employment.

Progress report, presented as infomiation page 402

3. Student Cooperative Programs.
No report.

4. Student Affiliates.
No report.

5. Continuing Education.
No report.

6. Speakers.
No report.

7. Project Case Studies.
No report.

401

402 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

8. Exchange of Professional Staifs.
No report.

9. Research Resource Availability.
No report.

The Committee on Engineering Education,

Dr. B. M. Davidson, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 2

Summer Employment

W. A. Oliver (chairman, subcommittee), A. M. Gary, A. W. Cooper, J. F. Davison,
E. T. Franzen, a. V. Johnston, D. V. Sartore, D. L. Wilson.

In accordance with its practice, established in 1959, Committee 24 canvassed
the railroads during December 1974 concerning their 1975 summer employment
needs for engineering students. A brief but formal questionnaire was sent to the
chief engineering and maintenance officers and chief personnel officers of the rail-
roads of the United States and Canada requesting information about their require-
ments for the summer of 1975.

Herewith is a summary of Subcommittee 2 Summer Employment Survey results
for 1975. There was a total of 41 of the questionnaires that went to some 125
major railroads requesting information concerning their summer employment needs.
Four indicated that they wanted their offerings listed in the Subcommittee 2 letter
that goes to 125 engineering colleges.

Such a poor return of questiormaires by the railroads, which return has been
decreasing for the past several years, raised a question concerning the value to the
railroads of the annual summer employment program carried on by Subcommittee 2
of Committee 24. Consequently, at the meeting of the committee on March 26,
1975, it was decided to discontinue the program temporarily.

The offerings of employment by the four railroads returning favorable ques-
tionnaires were tabulated and sent out to the engineering colleges following the
regular practice. This tabulation and accompanying letter was placed in the mail
on February 26, 1975.

Report of Committee 33 — Electrical Energy Utilization

R. U. Cogswell,

Chairman
L. D. Tufts,

Vice Chairman
B. A. Ross,

Special Assistant

H. Rappaport

R, J. Berti

E. C. Anderson

E. K. Farhelly
C. G. Nelson

F. T. Snider

R. A. Senffner

B. Anderhous
J. A. Angold
A. R. Babker
T. B. Bamford
R. F. Breese
W. H. Brodsky

C. A. Bunker
N. P. Cain

R. F. Carter
W. J. Clarke
A. B. CosTic
A. G. Craig, Jr.
L. L. Earley
R. A. Falcon
H. T. FoY
W. S. Gordon
M. F. Cowing

E. M. Hastings, Jr.
R. L. Henderson

D. T. Jones
H. C. Kendall

E. W. Koch
K. L. Lawson
A. W. Lewis

K. LOEBL

R. W. McKnight
H. S. March
M. D. Meeker, Jr.
K. S. Niemond
A. G. Raabe

R. P. RiEFF

E. B. Shew
J. J. Schmidt
M. J. Shearer
W. H. Siemens
J. L. Sinclair

D. M. Twine
K. B. Ullman

E. F. Weitz

Committee

Those whose names are shown in boldface, in addition to the chairman, vice chairman and
special assistant, are the subcommittee chairmen.

To the American Railway Engineering Association:

Your committee reports on the following subjects:

B. Revision of Manual.

A determination has been made on which portions of the old AAR
Electrical Manual should come under this committee's responsibility.
The technical content of these sections are under review.

1. Electrification Economics.

A complete revision to the Electrification Economics Section of the

Manual was submitted for adoption and was published in Part 1 of

Bulletin 655, November-December 1975. Work is now focusing on

techniques to reduce electrification construction costs.

Paper entitled "Railroad Electrification — A Status Report" is submitted

as information page 404

2. Electrical Clearances.

Report of committee in regard to clearances under structures on lines
that are or may be electrified, along with drawing entitled "Proposed
Clearance Specifications to Provide for Electrification," was submitted
to letter ballot vote of the Voting Members of the AAR Engineering
Division and was overwhelmingly adopted, effective December 12,
1975. Work has commenced on producing an electrified railroad profile
diagram.

403

404 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. Voltage Standards.
No report.

4. Catenary/Pantograph Systems.
No report.

5. Signal and Communications Protection in Electrified Territory.
No report.

6. Power Supply and Distribution.
No report.

7. Contact Rails.
No report.

8. Wire and Cable.
No report.

9. Illumination.
No report.

The Committee on Electrical Energy Utilization,

R. U. Cogswell, Chairman.

Report on Assignment 1

Electrification Economics

R. J. Berti (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Brodski, W. S. Gordon, M. F. Cowing,
D. T. Jones, H. C. Kendall, K. L. Lawson, M. D. Meeker, A. G. Raahe,
R. P. Reiff, B. a. Ross, L. D. Tufts, K. B. Ullman.

Your committee presents as information the following status report on railway
electrification. It was originally presented at a Western Sectional Meeting of the
AAR Communication and Signal Section.

RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION— A STATUS REPORT
By Hugh C. Kendall

Senior Consultant

Technical Marketing

General Railway Signal Company

A Unit of General Signal

At a recent conference on railroad electrification sponsored by the Railway
Systems and Management Association, Keith Campbell, senior executive officer of
CP Rail, observed: "The relationship between the American railroad industry and
electrification is the history of a flirtation which has been going on for some 70
years. There have been cases, it is true, where the flirtation has led to some tangible
results; but where this has happened, the offspring have not been able to carry on
the line. The question today is whether the old lady is more attractive than in her
youth, and if so, whether the flirtation should be brought to an end by a general
application of matrimony and all that goes with it."

I

Electrical Energy Utilization 405

There are many who believe that the old lady is indeed more attractive today
than she has ever been before. The passage of time has brought about many changes
in the electrification picture which bring decision makers once again to the con-
sideration of railroad electrification. All-electric motive power has continued to
improve as a result of general technological advances and of specific efforts in other
countries with electrified railroads. In addition, the trends in competing modes of
transportation show continued problems of congestion and fuel consumption. New
knowledge and sensitivity to the depletion of natural and environmental resources,
particularly fuels and air quality, also motivate a further evaluation of all-electric
motive power as an alternative to diesel-electric operations. These developments
heighten the need to review the assumptions, data and results of past studies and to
evaluate the current possibilities in a comprehensive and systematic fashion.

In the following paragraphs, I will take up a number of questions which are
frequently asked about railroad electrification.

(1) What is meant by high-voltage commercial frequency electrification?
The Association of American Railroads and the American Railway Engineering

Association have recommended 25 or 50 kv at 60 Hz for high-voltage electrification.
At the present time, two captive coal-hauling railroads in this country have been
electrified at high-voltage commercial frequency. Both of these railroads represent
new trackage and went into service as electrified operations. The Muskingham
Electric Railroad in southeastern Ohio serves the Muskingham River Plant of the
Ohio Power Company. This railroad is 15 miles long and is electrified at 25 kv 60
Hz. Two trains are involved in the coal-hauling operation; however, only one train
is permitted on the mainline at any given time. On this basis, train separation prob-
lems do not exist, and the railroad operates without benefit of a signal system.
Provisions for automatic train operation have been incorporated in the system using
intermittent wayside devices to control the speed of the trains.

The Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad serving the Navajo Electric Gener-
ating Station of the Salt River project near Page, Arizona, is electrified at 50 kv 60
Hz. This railroad is 78 miles long. Only one train is involved in the coal-hauling
operation, and the railroad operates without benefit of a signal system.

The remaining railroads in this country which have electrified operations use
"special power" which is derived from the commercial frequency utility power grid.
Portions of the Penn Central, for instance, are electrified at 11 kv, 25 Hz. Conversion
equipment is required to supply the "special power" used in these systems. The
cost of maintaining and/or replacing conversion equipment as it wears out has
become a major factor in the cost of energy used in these operations. The primary
reason for the railroads' using "special power" can be traced to insunnountable
technical problems in electric motive power design at the time these properties
were electrified, making it impractical to use commercial power directly from the
utility power grid to feed the catenary.

(2) Why are railroads in this country so far behind foreign railroads in their
conversion to electrified operation?

The question is largely one of economics. Railroads in this country are private
corporations run for the benefit of stockholders interested in good earnings and long-
term corporate growth. American railroads in general, due to government regulations,
have been unable to generate sufficient cash from railroad operations to take advan-
tage of the long-term conservation of capital which would be possible by utilizing

406 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

all-electric as compared to diesel-electric motive power. Capital expenditures by the
railroads have been limited, by and large, to those improvements which could be
clearly justified on the basis of acceptable rates of return on the capital invested.
Wliile electrification has been shown to have a positive rate of return on the projected
investment, electrification of high density lines has not been widely adopted by
American railroads thus far because of more pressing capital requirements.

Unlike American railroads, foreign railroads are nationalized. Railroad improve-
ments are financed by the federal treasury, with the main purpose being to provide
the required transportation services in the best possible manner, with particular
emphasis being placed on the conservation of energy and the use of indigenous
sources of energy wherever possible. Losses incurred by foreign railroads in providing
the overall transportation required run into millions of dollars, but are offset by
direct federal subsidies. On this basis, foreign countries, particularly Europe, have
rebuilt many of their railroads since World War II by converting directly from steam
motive power to all-electric motive power, bypassing the diesel-electric phase. The
quantum jump in efficiency between steam and all-electric motive power is only
slightly more tlian tlie jump from steam to diesel-electric power. The abihty of
all-electric motive power to utilize a wide range of indigenous energy sources has
been an important factor favoring electrification of foreign railroads.

(3) Wliat has created the rebirth of interest in U.S. railroads toward
electrification?

The transportation demands placed on U.S. railroads by World War II left the
properties in need of large capital expenditures for plant restoration and improve-
ments. The diesel-electric locomotive proved itself during the war as being a quantum
jump ahead of the steam locomotive in efficiency and cost of operation. Electrification
received a minor rebirth of interest among the railroads immediately after the war
as an alternate to diesel-electric motive power. The large amount of capital required
for the electrified fixed plant, however, was not available to the railroads. In addition,
the promotion of diesel-electric locomotives by their manufacturers was not matched
by the manufacturers of all-electric locomotives or by the electric utility industry.

Following the wholesale conversion of railroad motive power from steam to
diesel-electric after the war, electrification remained in the background until the
mid-60's, at which time it became apparent to railroad managements that diesel-
electric motive power purchased in tlie early 50's was becoming worn out and would
shortly require replacement. In reahty the longevity of diesel-electric motive power
turned out to be much less than what had originally been expected. The interest
in electrification at that time, however, was short-lived since many railroads were
so heavily committed to keeping their diesel-electric fleet going through a rebuilding
program that few managements could be swayed away from short-term thinking.

A major breakthrough in all-electric locomotive design occurred in the mid-60's
with the application of thyristors and silicon diodes for locomotive power conversion
and control. The dramatic savings in cost and freedom of maintenance of the new
solid-state power package as compared to prior technology made headlines in the
motive power fraternity.

By the end of the 60's the subject of electrification could no longer be ignored
since the second generation of diesel-electric locomotives bought since the war were
beginning to wear out. This, coupled with a promotion program on the part of the
electric utility industries to sell electricity to the railroads, led to the present rebirth
of interest in railroad electrification. The energy crisis has strengthened the cause

Electrical Energy Utilization 407

of electrification since all-electric motive power is the only means by which railroad
inter-city freight can be hauled by indigenous fuel other than oil.

(4) What are the primary benefits of electrification to railroad operations?
The perfonnance of an all-electric locomotive is vastly superior to a diesel-

electric of the same weight, the reason being the ability of the all-electric locomotive
to be operated for short periods of time at a horsepower rating at the rail which
greatly exceeds that of the largest diesel-electric locomoti\es which can be built.
Because of sophisticated wheel-slip control, the effective adhesion of an all-electric
locomotive can be as much as 50^ higher than a diesel-electric. High adhesion per-
fonnanc-e, coupled with tlie short-tenn overload capabilities of all-electric locomotives,
has the effect of substantially reducing tlie number of locomotives required in the
motive power fleet.

All-electric locomotive maintenance has been demonstrated to be less than
305e of that required for a diesel-electric, resulting in much greater availability of
all-electric motive power. Finally, the life of an all-electric locomoti\e is generally
considered to be well in excess of 30 years as compared to the life of a diesel-
electric which is between 12 and 15 years. From a capital conservation standpoint,
the longevity of all-electric moti\e power strongly favors electrification.

(5) What are some of tlie disadvantges of electrified operations as compared to
diesel-electric?

a. The diesel-electric locomotive is an extremely versatile source of motive
power, capable of running coast to coast o\'er a number of different railroads merely
by serx'icing it at terminals. Substantial shifts of motive power from one railroad
to another to meet seasonal traffic demands is being practiced on a number of U.S.
railroads. A typical example of this is the shift in motive power between the Union
Pacific and Norfolk & Western whose seasonal traffic peaks occur several months
out of phase. The ad\ent of electrification would not end such practices, but would
limit the amount of moti\e power which could be shifted, inasmuch as an electric
locomotixe fleet would need to remain under a catenary. It can truthfully be said,
therefore, that the flexibility' of the diesel-electric locomotive as it is presently being
exploited by U.S. railroads would be difficult to match by all-electric motive power.

b. The fleeting of trains is a common practice on many railroads. Under such
operations a number of trains are dispatched o\er a relatively short period of time.
With diesel-electric locomotives, all that is required to implement such an operation
is a sufficient number of locomotivs ser\iced and ready to go. Using all-electric
motive power, however, fleeting practices might need to be curtailed on the basis
of the high electric demand charges which might be incurred. The electric bill is
usually made up of three distinct parts, namely: demand charge, energy charge and
special facihties charge. The demand charge frequently is based on the highest
15- or 30-minute kw load as seen by the electric utility at a gi\'en substation. The
demand charge frequently accounts for 50% to 70% of the total electric bill. Because
of this, effective demand control becomes an important element in minimizing oper-
ating costs. The train dispatcher on an electrified railroad for economic reasons must
work closel>- with the power dispatcher. The duties of each dispatcher are clear and
well defined; however, they do not necessarily complement one another. For instance,
heavy movements of freight at night might be attractive to the power dispatcher
because of the availability of power at off-peak rates. Such operations, however,
could well be quite unattractive to the train dispatcher.

408 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

c. The hazards to personnel posed by a catenary energized at 25-50 kv and
located a mere 25 ft off the ground need not be emphasized. The hazards, of course,
are great. All employees nuist be thoroughly trained in proper safety measures. The
overhead power system poses additional problems in clearing wrecks, but experience
has shown that the catenary can usually be repaired before the track is returned to
service.

d. The reliability of high-voltage primary transmission systems is very good;
but when a power outage does occur, it could mean that operations must be reduced,
or in the extreme case terminated, until power is restored.

(6) What is meant by "modern electrification technology?"

Heavy emphasis on electrification by foreign railroads over the past 20 years
has led to a number of technological breakthroughs in the design of all-electric
locomotives, catenary structures, substations and communication and signal equip-
ment. Some of these developments are:

a. The successful application of thyristors and silicon diodes to all-electric
locomotive power conversion and control packages has made obsolete
the use of mercury arc rectifiers and tap changing transformers.

b. "Hie adhesion performance of all-electric locomotives has been substan-
tially enhanced by the development of highly sophisticated wheel-slip
control packages as an adjunct to the main solid-state conversion and
control packages.

c. Due to the lightweight catenaries involved in high-voltage electrification,
low-cost catenary structures have been designed whose material and in-
stallation costs are substantially less than for lower voltage catenary systems.

d. Substantial advances have been made in the signal field through the de-
velopment of ac-immune dc track appliances such as relays, signal
mechanisms and switch machines.

Foreign developments have been made largely by commercial firms involved
in the supply of electrification material. Some government money has been avail-
able to offset development expenditures. Considerable government money has been
available to government agencies engaged in electrification research. With the re-
newed interest in railroad electrification in this country, many U.S. firms have
undertaken equipment development programs specifically geared to the electrifica-
tion needs of North American railroads, which differ in many respects from foreign
railroads.

(7) What changes would he required to existing signal facilities to make them
compatible with electrification?

The proximity of a high-voltage catenary to open-wire signal and communica-
tion lines paralleling the railroad would expose these circuits to the effects of electro-
magnetic and electrostatic induction. High voltages would be induced into these
circuits, creating hazards to personnel as well as introducing the possibility of mal-
function of apparatus which is connected to these circuits. In addition, harmonics
of the 60-Hz propulsion energy as well as noise would be induced into communica-
tion circuits, causing the signal-to-noise ratio to be degraded. Finally, the common
use of the track for propulsion current return as well as train detection purposes
poses special problems in the track circuit area.

Present signal systems would require modification as follows:

Electrical Energy Utilization 409

a. Double-rail dc track circuits would require replacement with either single-
rail dc track circuits using ac-immune track relays or with double-rail ac
track circuits operating at a frequency which is not harmonically related
to 60 Hz.

b. Open-wire line circuits must be eliminated or placed in grounded shielded
cable, preferably buried along the right-of-way.

c. Instrument housings and all wayside equipment must be properly
grounded, and cables interconnecting wayside equipment with instrument
housings must be either shielded or kept within specified lengths.

d. Protective devices must be installed to protect personnel and equipment
during traction system fault conditions.

e. Open-wire signal power lines carried on catenary supports must be high
voltage and suitably insulated in view of the induction effects of the
catenary.

f. Rail bonding and cross bonding must be adequate.

g. Switch circuit controllers must be heavy-duty types.

h. Signal heads may have to be relocated for proper sighting due to the
catenary supports.

i. The immunity of line relays, switch machines and signal heads used in
present signal systems to th© effects of electromagnetic and electrostatic
induction at 60 Hz is quite high. It is essential, however, that the im-
munity level of this equipment not be exceeded even under traction
system fault conditions. This requirement necessitates an examination of
all presently used wayside apparatus to ensure that adequate immunity
levels exist. Equipment which cannot measure up must not be used.

(8) How many railroads are actively considering high-voltage electrification at
the preseiU time?

Ten railroad systems have electrification studies in progress.

(9) What typical cost figures and assumptions have been used in these studies?

(a) Based upon 1975 constant dollars, the following typical cost figures have
been used:

Description Typical Figure

Substations (50KV) $12,000-$20,000/Track Mile"

Catenary (50KV) $65,000-$95,000/Track Mile*
Signal and Communication Conversion $28,000/Track Mile

Annual Catenary Maintenance $1,000/Track Mile

All-Electric Locomotives $125/HP

Diesel-Electric Locomotives $150/HP

All-Electric Locomotive Maintenance $.22/Unit Mile

Diesel-Electric Locomotive Maintenance $.60/Unit Mile

Electric Energy $.027/KWH

Diesel Fuel $.27/Gal.

(b) The following assumptions have been made:

Electric Energy Requirements 25 KWH/1000 GTM

Diesel Fuel Requirements 1.9 gal/1000 GTM

410 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

All-Electric Locomotives Required 3.4-4. 5/Million GTM"

Diesel-Electric Locomotives Required 6.8/Million GTM

All-Electric Locomotive Adhesion 28%

Diesel-Electric Locomotive Adhesion 18%

All-Electric Locomotive Life 30 Years

Diesel-Electric Locomotive Life 15 Years

Annual Interest Rate 8.5%

Annual Traffic Growth Rate 3%

Annual Inflation Rate 5%

Annual Electric Energy Inflation Rate 5%

Annual Diesel Fuel Inflation Rate 5%

Electrification Cost Payback Period 12 Years

Electrification Study 2,000 Track Miles

* Dependent upon terrain.

(10) With shortages of electricity and "brown-outs" in certain sections of the
country, will there be enough power available to enable railroads to elec-
trify their operations?

If the proposed 20,000 route miles of high-density mainlines in this country
were to be electrified by 1990, the electric energy required would be less than 3%
of the national supply. New power-plant construction, principally nuclear plants,
has been seriously curtailed in recent years due to environmental considerations.
The long-range plans of the electric utility industry, however, are adequate to
cover the railroad power requirements in the event of future wide-scale electrifica-
tion. Since considerable electrification is planned to take place in areas which are
remote from present generating facilities, it is expected that new generating facili-
ties would be built specifically to serve these areas in the event of electrification.
The present limited shortage of electric energy is not expected to be permanent if
the electric utility industry is permitted to expand in accordance with present plans.

(11) What is the energy effectiveness of all-electric versus diesel-electric mo-
tive power?

The movement of one ton of freight a distance of one mile on level track re-
quires approximately 700 Btu's of energy. It makes little diff^erence whether the
freight is moved by all-electric or diesel-electric motive power, from an energy-
effectiveness standpoint, since there are inefficiencies associated with each form of
motive power. It has been stated that one ton of freight can be moved by rail on
level track an equal distance, whether a given amount of fuel oil is consumed by
a diesel-electric locomotive or consumed in a boiler at a stationary electric gen-
erating plant and utilized by an all-electric-locomotive.

(12) What about the energy cost of using all-electric versus diesel-electric mo-
tive power?

A given amount of energy has a price tag which is a function of the form in
which the energy is purchased. The price of diesel fuel, for instance, reflects the
costs of fuel storage and transportation to where it is needed, over and above the
basic cost of the oil itself. The cost of electric energy reflects the costs of storage
and transportation of the coal used to produce it, the inefficiencies of stationary
generating plants, and the costs of the distribution system, including catenary
required to deliver electric energy to its point of use on a railroad. Whereas elec-
tric energy over the years has been slowly climbing in price, the cost of diesel

Electrical Energy Utilization 411

fuel has been rising rapidly. Taking all factors into consideration, the energy costs
of diesel vs. electric operations on railroads would be approximately the same if
diesel fuel cost 27 cents a gallon, electricity cost 2 cents per kwh. For many years,
diesel fuel could be purchased by the railroads for approximately 14 cents a gal-
lon, with electric rates at approximately 1.2 cents per kwh. On this basis, electric
operations were at a disadvantage as compared to diesel operations from an energy-
cost standpoint. During this past year, however, the costs of diesel fuel have sky-
rocketed in comparison to the present cost of electricity. Under these conditions,
electrification has more to offer.

(13) What timetable is foreseen for the electrification of the major Jugh-density
mainlines in this country?

There is a wide difference of opinion as to the timetable for railroad electrifi-
cation in this country'; however, it is generally felt that major electrification projects
will not take place much before the end of this decade, when sufficient time will
ha\e elapsed to iron out the raihoad crisis in the northeast, enabling the Federal
Government to implement its position with regard to aid to railroads in other
parts of the coimtry. Prior to the 80's, however, a number of small electrification
projects should be in e\idence. These projects will, for the most part, be captive
railroad operations involved in hauling coal and ore.

(14) What is the position of the Federal Government toward railroad electrifi-
cation?

The Federal Railroad Administration stongly favors the electrification of high-
density mainlines in this country as a vital step in preserving and strengthening
this country's railroads. Legislation which is pending in Congress could be influ-
enced by the position of the FRA in this regard. The FRA has also recommended
that funds be made available to the Department of Transportation for research on
electrification and the implementation of test trackage for evaluation purposes.
The energy crisis has heightened government interest toward railroad electrification
as one obvious means to conserve our dwindling supplies of indigenous oil. Rail-
road electrification is the only means by which inter-city freight could be moved
by the railroads using coal or nuclear energy soiu^ces.

(15) From an economic standpoint, how much mainline can he justified for
electrification?

The recently completed study by the Pan-Technology Consulting Corporation
for the Federal Railroad Administration based its conclusions on the economic
climate prior to 1973. On this basis electrified operation of mainlines in this coun-
try appeared to be warranted if annual traffic densities were above 39 million
gross ton miles per mile of track. Under this criterion, approximately 15,000 miles
of mainline were considered economically justified. The report further concluded
that based on the projected growth of traffic by the year 2000 that 30,000 miles
of mainline probably could justify electrification. At that time electrified mainhnes
were projected to be carrying approximately 805? of the annual traffic tonnage.

(16) What is the single most important reason why railroads in this country
are actively looking toward electrification at this time?

Worldwide experience with electrification has pointed out that under practi-
cally all conditions, electric motive power off^ers by far the most efficient and eco-
nomical means available for the movement of rail traffic.

412 Bulletin 656-

-American

Railway Engineering Association

Foreign Railroad Electrification

Route Miles

Percent of

Cotiutnj

Electrified

Total Route Miles

Russia

22,780

27

France

5,520

24

West Germany

5,160

28

Italy

4,950

48

Sweden

4,350

61

Japan

3,860

29

Poland

2,180

15

England

2,070

17

Spain

1,970

23

Switzerland

1,790

99

Norway

1,420

54

Austria

1,320

39

Czechoslovakia

1,210

10

Netherlands

1,010

52

Belgium

700

24

Portugal

470

27

U.S. Railroad Electrification

Route

Propulsion

Railroad

Location

Miles

Power

Illinois Central Gulf

Chicago-Richton, 111.

37 1,500 Volts DC

Chicago South Shore &

South Bend

Chicago-S

outh Bend, Ind.

76 1,500 Volts DC

Erie Lackawanna

Hoboken-Dover, N.J.

80 3,000 Volts DC

Penn Central

New Haven-Washington, D.C.

762 11

KV, 25 Hz

AC

Philadelph

ia-Harrisburg, Pa.

Reading

Philadelph

ia. Pa.

88 12

KV, 25 Hz

AC

Muskingum Electric

Zanesville,

Ohio

15 25

KV, 60 Hz

AC

Black Mesa & Lake

Powell

Page, Arizona

78 50

KV, 60 Hz

AC

TOTAL

1136

Electrical Energy Utilization

413

U.S. Rapid Transit Systems

Route

Propulsion

System

Location

Miles

Power

CTA

Chicago, 111.

89

600 Volts DC

Long Island

New York-Mineola, N.Y.

150

600 Volts DC

MBTA

Boston, Mass.

65

600 Volts DC

NYCTA

New York, N.Y.

251

600 Volts DC

Penn Central

New York-Harmon-White Plains

69

600 Volts DC

Philadelphia

Transportation Co.

Philadelphia, Pa.

27

600 Volts DC

PATH

New York-Newark, N.J.

14

600 Volts DC

WMATA

Washington, D.C.
(Under Construction)

97

600 Volts DC

PATCO

Philadelphia-Lindenwold, N.J.

15

650 Volts DC

CTS

Cleveland, Ohio

20

650 Volts DC

BART

San Francisco, Calif.

75

1,000 Volts DC

TOTAL

872

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End Door Enclosure —

Multi-Level Racks

Other Equipment

Frame Cars

Cable Reel Cars

Ingot Mold Cars

Special Equipment Components

Railway Products Division

Rail Anchors
Improved Fair®
XL-1 Fair®

Insulated Rail Joints

Poly-Insulated

Portec-Bond

Continuous

Armored Continuous

Components for Insulated Rail Joints

Poly Plates

Double-Filament-Wound Bushings

Blue Ribbon Nylon Epoxy End Posts

Non-Insulated Rail Joints
Portec-Bond
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Rail Joint Renewal Insulation Kits
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Rail and Flange Lubricators
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Double Rail
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Rail Joint Heater
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Ties

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Track Machines

Anchor Adjusting Machine

AnchorMaster

Auto-Spiker

Ballast Distributor —

Distributor/ Cleaner
BoltMaster
Bridge Tool Machine
Brush Cutter
Clip Tightener
Compressor Cart
LineMaster

Rail and Joint Straightener
Rail Saw-Drill Combination
SpikeMaster
Spiker-Spacer
TieMaster
Tie Plate Broom
Tie Unloader
Track Broom
Tampers

Hydramatic-16

Hydraulic-16

Multi-Purpose 8

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Switch Spot

Spot Switch

Snow Blower

Typhoons

Hurricane Jets

Rail Laying Equipment

Dual Welded Rail Laying Equipment

Gauging Machine

Plug Setter

Rail End Hardening Machine

Rail Oiler

Rail-Laying Auto-Spiker

Rail Anchor Cart

Scrap Loader

Spike Distributor Cart

Tie Plate Gauger

Spot Systems

Car and Locomotive Pullers

Jacks, Jib Cranes

Retarders

Shipping Systems Division

Rail Car Tie-Down Systems and
Components for:

Vehicles

Automobiles, Trucks, Other Vehicles

Tractors, Farm Implements

Heavy Construction Equipment

Materials

Automobile and Truck Frames

Lumber

Cable Reels

Steel, Steel Plate, Steel Coil,
Aluminum Ingot

Containers

Fixed and Retractable Locks

Special Components for Freight Cars

Bridge Plates

Hardened Brake Pins

Center Plates

Other Equipment

Special Tie Down Systems for Flat
Bed Trailers — fixed and
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for trailers and container chassis

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REGIONAL MEETING

OCTOBER 30, 1975

HOTEL VANCOUVER, VANCOUVER, B.C., CANADA

Luncheon Address

By A. F. Joplin

Vice President Operation and Maintenance
CP Rail

This is the time of the year when most of us who are involved in maintenance
of way and structures on our various properties are looking back at what we under-
took to do during the summer months and are looking forward to what we propose
to do in the coming year. In other words, this is budget preparation time. It is also
a time when all of us have to give some thought to just exactly where we have
been, where we might be going.

I am sure by now you are more than tired of hearing about transportation
problems. In both Canada and the United States, there is no lack of "solutions" to
the perceived problems of transportation. In Canada and the United States many
are certain that the only true way to handle any problem is to nationalize everything
in sight or if you don't nationalize it, subsidize it. Many see our economy as a horn
of plenty without depth from which pours forth an endless stream of goodies, simply
because they say so. Everyone knows how to run a railroad! If you haven't got any
ideas and haven't expressed them, then you are in a minority — everyone else has.

Where is the engineer in all this? Mostly he is silent, just busy trying to be part
of the solution rather than part of the problem. As a result, his advice and counsel
for the most part are just not heard.

It seems to me that in many of the significant undertakings, in both our coun-
tries, we are not paying much heed to die lessons to be learned in the development
of our economy. We seem to be ignoring the large base of practical common sense
developed in our railroad technology in the last 150 years.

I am sure many of you read the August issue of Fortune, in which the debacle
of BART was detailed. Now you and I know that sooner or later the BART system
will be put into acceptable running order. But at what cost? Here is a case where
practical down-to-earth philosophy was deserted. Lessons learned elsewhere in our
industry were ignored. Any new system as complex as BART is bound to have trou-
bles— these are to be expected — they certainly should be planned for. The stunning
fact that escaped the planners was the very simple maxim — which all practicing
engineers are familiar with — that if more than 10% of project is new technology,
it is going to have serious problems in working out the differences between the
drawing board and the real live practical world of meeting the day-to-day require-
ments effectively and on time.

A very amateurish approach. I chose BART because of its recent emergence,
but there are many other areas where tiie same results can be anticipated. It seems

415
Bui. 656

416 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

to me that a knowledge of Murphy's Law, which all engineers learn early in
their career, would have prevented some of these fiascos.

In both our countries we have large, uninformed groups, extremely critical of
railroads, who want to take over our rights-of-way and fill them with passenger
trains — all of them travelling at 120 mph. They overlook the most important job we
do — carrying our nation's commerce. Just to put this in perspective: last year in
the United States some 200,000 route miles of freight railroads grossed $8.5 billion
of freight revenue; in the same year Amtrak on 23,941 miles of operating route miles
grossed $256.9 million.

In Canada, Canadian National and CP Rail operated 24,000 route miles in
freight service for a gross of $2.0 billion and 16,000 route miles of passenger service
for a gross revenue of $211 million. You will note I said "gross revenue" — in both
of our countries passenger services require a considerable infusion of outside money
to keep them alive. Included in the gross revenue of passenger services mentioned
above ($211 million), are Government payments amounting to some $113 million.
In the Canadian Government's recent paper on Transportation in Canada, it was
pointed out that it would have been cheaper in many cases to have purchased bus
or air tickets for the train travellers rather than keep the rail passenger services
running.

There are many who will say both the railways and the public generally have
their priorities all wrong. In seeking to find what services the public will pay for
and what services they reject by not using and paying for them, we are missing
the big picture of the public good. They say the only answer is to nationalize the
services and in some mysterious way this will produce savings and improvements
in service. They naively ignore the lessons that can be learned simply by observation
of the results in those nations that have experienced the "benefits" of nationalization.

Railroading in Canada and the United States is facing serious problems. Most
of these problems arise from the shackles that well meaning but misguided govern-
ment agencies apply. The justification for this interference, advocated by the amateur
meddlers, is that it is supposed to result in more "equitable" rates — a more "respon-
sive" transportation system — claiming that competition can lead to inefficiency and
higher costs — yet at the same time holding that railways do not have enough compe-
tition and so must be regulated because the marketplace cannot operate freely.

I sometimes get the impression that we have to recognize the presence of a
new development which might be called the "bureaucratic empire-building syn-
drome." Its appeal is subtle and, in my view, Canadians and Americans must be alert
to avoid the pitfalls and costs inherent in this trend.

It works this way: A public servant says that "the public wants this or that,"
or "there is a great need to protect the public from this." In almost every case what
is prescribed as the remedy is a larger government role in our business economy.
It will be axiomatic, of course, that a whole new apparatus of government will have
to be set up to achieve the remedy. Whether it be transport, or oil, or dairy farming,
or uranium mining, or whatever, the theme is the same — the government must do
something because the people want it. But do they? Do the great majority of the
free souls who live on the North American continent really believe a government-
operated economy would meet their needs better? Are they really ready to surrender
their private initiatives to the politically-oriented activities of the bureaucratic
empire builders? I think not. But in our world of instant communications where the
most ill-informed can be heard, read, seen and believed, we run a great risk that

Regional Meeting Address by A. F. Joplin 417

we will be conned into an economic way of life completely foreign to our needs and
instincts — and at great costs.

Governments are not a substitute for informed and well directed market-
oriented enterprise. There may be room for governments to set guidelines and
policies, and these can be accepted — especially if tliey have done their homework.
But to substitute bureaucrats for trained managers is just plain suicide.

I would not want you to think that I am saying everything we do is perfect —
that we have nothing to learn from other cultures from other people — far from
it. I recently had the opportunity to visit with the railways in the Soviet Union. I
must say I was impressed. We were told they were run at a profit — and they well
might be — even using our capitalistic standards. I must say I was impressed by their
operating statistics. Nearly half of all freight traffic carried by railways in the world
mo\'es on So\iet railways. This is accompfished on 138,000 route-kilometers (equiva-
lent to 82,000 miles) of rail fine, one-third of which is two-track and in some cases
three-track. With about 2)2 times the route miles, the North American railroads
produced less than one-third the gross-tonne-kilometers of freight service. The
Soviets do not have much of an unprofitable branch line problem. I was also im-
pressed by tlie four hours to load and tlie four hours to unload that the Russian
shipper achieves. They seem to be able to manage the demurrage question quite
well.

In the Soviet Union, a full crew consists of a mechanic and a helper in the
engine, and a red flag tied on behind. W. L. Thornton of the Florida East Coast
recently wrote a letter to U.S. Congress on archaic work rules. One certainly cannot
say that the Soviet railways are at any disadvantage when it comes to full-crew
laws.

Despite all our handicaps, the management of our railways on this continent
have produced a transportation system which is universally acknowledged as the best
in the world. Not only do our railways provide faster and more reliable service, but
they do so at charges to the user considerably less than anywhere else in the world.
I think if you are going to criticize our railway managers, you also have to give them
the credit that is their due for what are, undoubtedly, their successes.

I know it is going to take more than the few voices that are now raised by
those working our industry to have any significant impact on the clamor that can
be raised by the amateurs. We should not, however, let this stop us from having
our say. To this end I have written an editorial — if you cannot beat them, join
them. Now this is a pretty amateur editorial. I doubt whether Luther S. Miller
[Railway Age] or Tom Shedd [Modern Railroads] will lose much sleep over my
entry into the editorial writing field. It may just point up the kind of difficulty an
amateur can get into when he steps out of his field — maybe there is a lesson here.
There is only one difficulty with all this: the editorial probably won't get published;
thus I am pleased that you provided me with a platform so that my editorial at
least gets a hearing. I head it with the title, "Mr. Wellington's Engineer."

MR. WELLINGTON'S ENGINEER

The developing crises of scarce resources and the forecasted demands on all
segments of economy, in particular transportation, are occupying considerable public
thought and debate. Wlien you add to this the impact of inflation, tight money,
public participation as external constraints, the ability of engineering organizations

418 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

to function effectively is reduced. In searching for answers to ameliorate these ex-
ternal problems, insufficient attention has been given to the many ways engineers
can effectively perform their work.

A. M. Wellington wrote the pre-emptive work on railroad construction, "The
Economic Theory of Railway Location," at the turn of the century. When defining
engineering, he said: "To define it rudely but not inaptly, it is the art of doing that
well with one dollar which any bungler can do widi two after a fashion," and he
added, "and yet there is no field of professional labor in which a limited amount
of modest incompetency, at $150 per month, can set so many picks and shovels and
locomotives at work to no purpose whatever." Much has been said — and most of it
in a derogatory nature — regarding tlie lack of the ability to see the big picture in
planning rail facilities, the reluctance to accept the new "space age" technology or
the acknowledgement of human values and social impact in developing transpor-
tation systems — in particular, rail systems for freight and passengers.

Some writers enjoy emphasizing negative things. They enjoy being critical. We
can accept that as part of the job and can live with it. We have to make correct
decisions even if they are unpopular.

Not all engineering has been developed with the imagination that it should
have had. In many cases it is possible to improve the aesthetic and human values
at little or no cost. There is surely one matter in which engineers could do more.
Certainly we should attempt to inform politicians and persuade them to tell tlie
public truthfully what are the real costs of things being demanded, whether this be
some exotic form of passenger transport or artificially constructed freight rates to
foster the development of one region of the country over another.

In some instances, leaders of public thought, attributing Talleyrand's remarks
regarding war and professionals to either Winston Churchill or Abraham Lincoln,
will say that these are much too important matters to be dealt with by generals.
As a result a veritable babble of opinions and recommendations are spewed forth or
are proposed as simple solutions to the difficult choices which we must make in
meeting the demands for transportation. These "solutions" are for the most part
ill-informed or not informed at all, or very thoughtful and comprehensive — depend-
ing on which side of the argument you are. One thing for certain — they are loudly
stated.

At no time has the need for making tlie right decisions been more necessary.
The creation of capital in the next decade both in Canada and in the United States
is likely to fall far short of the "demands" that are being created in our society by
expectations raised by those who advocate the "free lunch" theory of nationalized
industries or who say "business can afford it." This is no time to ignore the lessons
painfully learned by the diligent and professional application of our particular craft
and art. This is no time for the armchair generals to learn the basic truths about
applying science and technology in sorting out the dilemma we face in matching
our demands to our ability to produce — now is the time to pay heed to Mr. Welling-
ton's definition of "engineering."

Railway Signalling

By H. W. Trawick

Engineer of Signals
CP Rail

It's a pleasure for me to participate in this AREA Regional Meeting. Even
though signals are a part of the maintenance of way department on our railway,
and many other railways have a similar type of organization, there seems to be
insufficient interplay between signals people and other maintenance of way staff.

One of our regional engineers, some years ago, used to refer to his signal staff
as the "mystery boys." He wasn't quite sure what they did, nor why, as long as
there were no train delays at signals and tliey stayed within tlieir budget. On the
otiier hand the "mystery boys" were never too eager to share their problems and
experiences with others. A strange attitude — and while it is not so prevalent these
days it still exists. Perhaps gatlaerings such as this will help to change it even
further.

So for the next few minutes I will talk a little about some of the history of
signals and control systems and about some of the things we do in signals and why
we do them the way we do. Hopefully diis will dispel, if it exists, some of the
"mystery."

Tlie purpose of a railway signal department is to provide safe and efficient
train operation — of course at a reasonable cost. The emphasis is on safety but over
the years it has developed that signal systems have much to offer the railway in
the way of efficiency and expedition of train movements. In tlie early days of rail-
roading as soon as a railway could afford a second engine, the problem of keeping
them apart had to be considered. So railway operations developed a simple system
of time spacing by timetable. However, if one train lost time train crews had to
rely on sight to maintain safety. A meet with two trains was often a problem
especially if they did not sight one another in the vicinity of a siding. When the
trains met one another on-line, violent arguments occurred as to which train was
to back up.

One solution that was developed was to erect a post, a "block post," along-
side the track, and the first train to arrive at the post had the right-of-way and
the otiier had to back to the siding. This system, however, had its problems when
the race for the post ended in a tie.

As traffic and train speeds increased, more reliable systems had to be developed.
One system, about 1830, used a ball or a basket hoisted on a mast. When the track
was clear the ball was hoisted to the top of the mast. When an operator at one
station sighted the ball at the next station, through his telescope, he hoisted the
ball to the top of the mast as a signal for his train to proceed. This was the first
"high ball." Some of these ball signals remained in use for many years and eventually
the telegraph message replaced the telescope.

One time, on a railway using ball signals, when a train arrived at a station
considerably behind schedule, the conductor received a scathing message from his
superintendent enquiring as to tlie reason for the delay. The conductor's somewhat
colorful message in reply read: "Held by the balls at Bellow's Falls."

However, the common metliod of controlling trains was the timetable. This
was fine as long as trains all ran on time; however, delays were inevitable, some-
times of course they were of very long duration.

419
Uul. 656

420 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

One day in about 1856 a railway superintendent was riding a train operating
under timetable scheduling and was forced to wait at Station "D" for a train that
was considerably late. Eventually the irritated superintendent sent a telegram to
Station "B" to hold the opposing train until the arrival of his train. The engineman
in the superintendent's train did not want to proceed because this was against the
rules. Finally, the superintendent put the instructions to move in writing and gave
it to the engineman. Thus, the first train order was born, and this is the basis for
timetable and train order operation still much in use today.

Some other concerns in operating trains were how to control them at junctions
and at crossings witli other lines. Systems were developed using wires or rods and
pipes connected to signals which by now were of the semaphore type, and oper-
ated by levers. Eventually the mechanical interlocking machine was developed
and an ingenious arrangement of dogs and latches assured that signals were dis-
played in proper sequence to trains. These were the early "solid state" systems.

In 1872 Dr. William Robinson invented the track circuit and his invention
led to the automatic operation of signals by the train itself. Modern signalling has
evolved from this development and the basis of signalling on this continent is still
the track circuit.

Since this is the basis of our modern signal system let's briefly see how it
operates. The rails form the conductors for the circuit. At one end a battery is
connected across the rails and a relay is connected across the other end. The cur-
rent flows dovm one rail through the relay and back to the battery; holding the
relay energized. Note that this closes a relay contact which holds the signal clear.
When a train arrives on tliis section of track the signal must assume the "stop"
position. The wheels and axles are conductors of electrical energy and now cun-ent
flows through them instead of the relay. This causes the contact to open and the
signal goes to stop. This is an oversimplified illustration of a track circuit and
signal system but it illustrates the basic principles.

Now there are many types of track circuits employing fairly sophisticated
equipment, and they may vary in length from 50 ft long to 15,000 ft long or more.
Some are straight dc, some use ac. There are coded track circuits which operate
on a basis of several pulses or cycles per minute, such as code rates of 75, 120 and
180 per minute. These can be used to convey information between signals, as well
as merely detecting the presence of a train. Other types of track circuits operate
at higher frequencies in the audio frequency range. These may be superimposed
on top of a dc circuit for certain purposes, such as control of highway crossing
signals, and may reduce the need for insulated joints. Other systems are in use
which detect the motion of a train. At a highway crossing when the system detects
that a train has stopped or reversed and is no longer moving toward the crossing,
it may cause the crossing signals to stop operating.

If I spent considerable time discussing the track circuit it is because it is the
basic element of all modern signal systems, particularly on this continent. Other
systems without track circuits have occasionally been used, usually where track
circuits may be difficult to operate — for example where steel ties are used. Such
systems cannot detect broken rails and obstructions on the track. Detecting switch
point position may also be complex. Because of the deficiencies in systems that do
not continuously detect the presence of a train, they have not been acceptable on
North American railways.

Regional Meeting Address by H. W. Trawick 421

As was said earlier safety is a prime factor in signalling. You have seen how
the track circuit contributes: when the circuit is unoccupied the relay is energized;
if the circuit is interfered with for any reason it causes the relay to de-energize
and this creates the safe condition.

Let's look a little further at how safety is provided in a system. Everyone has
heard the tenn "Fail-Safe." AAR defines it this way: "A term used to designate
a signaUing design principle, the objective of which is to eliminate tlie hazardous
effects of a failure of a component or system." Additionally, General Order E-14
of the Railway Transport Committee contains this clause: "The apparatus shall,
so far as possible, be installed and circuits so arranged that failure of any part of
the system affecting the safety of train operation will cause all signals affected to
give the most restrictive indications which conditions require." The Federal Rail-
road Administration in the United States has a similar regulation.

In order to meet these regulations and principles all elements of a system
must be considered. It is necessary then to consider the following:

Design

Installation

Apparatus

Inspection

Testing

Maintenance

In designing a system, as far as possible, the "closed circuit" principle must be fol-
lowed. This principle provides a normally energized control function which, when
energy is interrupted, causes the control function to assume its most restrictive
condition. Where possible, relay contacts are inserted in both positive and nega-
tive sides of vital circuits. Standby power systems are provided in the event of
failure of primary power supplies. Changed conditions in one control circuit must
not adversely affect another circuit. Installation of equipment must be strictly in
accordance with approved plans, procedures and practices.

Apparatus used in signal systems is built to extremely rugged and reliable
standards. For example, relays used in circuits aftecting safety are constructed such
tliat gravity will force contacts from the energized position when no current is
available at the relay coils. Relay contacts are manufactured of materials that will
not weld together when subjected to surges or overloads. They are sealed in rugged,
weather-resistant, transparent covers.

Before signal systems are placed in service, inspections and tests are made to
assure that the system is installed according to approved plans and that it does
function as intended. It must not only be known that plans and installations are
correct, but they must be observed to be correct by operational tests that verify
that all signals display proper aspects for all conditions of train operation.

Of course, after systems are placed in operation they must be adequately main-
tained. Signal maintainers and other signal staff must be vigilant to determine that
all systems will operate as intended. There are many rules which detail frequency
and types of tests that must be carried out on signal systems to assure Uiey are in
proper operating condition. This also requires alertness on the part of others in the
maintenance of way department to assure that insulated joints are properly main-
tained, that connections to the track are not broken or disturbed, that switches are
properly adjusted.

422 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

In addition to railway or block signals, there are many other systems and de-
vices on a railway whose purpose is to provide safe operations. Everyone is of
course familiar with the highway crossing signal. All the principles outlined above,
so far as possible, are used in these systems. It is discouraging to tlie signalmen
that in spite of the best efforts of many people, so many motorists are so careless
at crossings.

Some other safety items on the railway are slide and falling-rock detectors,
dragging-eqnipment detectors, hot-box detectors and others. CP Rail is presently
in the process of installing a cracked-wheel detector on a developmental basis. This
system uses high-frequency soundwaves to examine a car or locomotive wheel while
a train moves over a special rail section. When the system detects a wheel flaw it
provides an automatic alarm in addition to recording the defect on an event
recorder.

We have essentially been discussing the safety of systems, now let us see how
they can improve efficiency and expedite train operations.

Eventually, to improve safety automatic block signals were added to the time-
table and train order system. However, unless operators are readily available to
deliver orders to trains, changes to meets and passes cannot be easily made. In
heavier traffic territories where there is a delay to one train, there may be a snow-
ball effect and several delays may occur to many trains.

Suppose we could devise a means of combining our automatic block systems
and the delivery of train orders or operating instructions to a station. We might
have the dispatcher located at a control console which would be coimected to each
station to which he would dispatch orders, and the control console could auto-
matically receive reports on train location and field conditions.

Well, if we do that, we come up with a CTC system. Instead of getting re-
ports and issuing instructions only at the stations we can do these things at every
siding end. All operating instructions to the train can be conveyed by the signals.
Additionally, reports of track condition, train location and signal position is re-
ported to the dispatcher at his console.

If we want to further improve our operations we can easily add power switch
machines so that now the dispatcher can control all the switches.

Now let's look at a typical console. By means of lights the dispatcher knows
the position of every train on his territory, and the position of signals and switches.

CTC is really a combination of two systems. One is the safety system using
all vital components which are located in the field. The other system is a commu-
nicating link that connects the dispatcher to the locations in the field, such as
switches and signals at siding ends. The field or vital system determines the loca-
tion of trains; it interlocks signals and switches so that dangerous situations will
not occur, even in the event of a dispatcher error. For example, it will not allow
signals to be displayed for conflicting movements or for movement over an open
switch. It is the field or vital system that reacts to broken rails, snow slides or
other events that may cause unsafe conditions. The communication link merely
provides a connection from field to dispatcher and in operation the dispatcher uses
it to request actions in the field and it informs the dispatcher of field conditions.
It is not a vital system and it may use microwave, radio, open line wire or cable.
Frequently electronic or solid-state equipment is used in this link.

Here are some of the benefits of CTC:

Regional Meeting Address by H. W. Trawick 423

1. Increases safety.

2. Reduces delays due to meets and passes.

3. Provides operating flexibility to handle delays or emergencies.

4. Eliminates unnecessary stops.

5. Permits better use of personnel.

In our comparisons on CP Rail of territories where CTC has replaced time-
table and train order operation we have found average time savings of 30 minutes
to 1 hour for freight trains per subdivision, depending upon the type of territory.

Operationally, CTC is a very simple system and engineman needs only watch
the signals — green for go, red for stop, with certain other signals conveying other
types of information.

CTC also provides a real benefit in large and congested terminals. In com-
plex areas with the dispatcher coordinating all movements, efficiency is increased
for both through trains and switching movements.

Some railways are now considering the use of a digital computer in the dis-
patcher's office to further assist tlie dispatcher in doing his job better. Train
graphs can be replaced by automatic printouts. Many meets can be made auto-
matically. A dispatcher may test out on the computer various alternatives for
meets and passes to determine how it may be done most advantageously. This
may well be useful in scheduling time for work gangs to provide more on-track
time.

Information concerning trains, such as consist, length of train, times at vari-
ous points may be displayed on cathode ray tubes. If required, information can be
displayed for use of the superintendent, transportation department and others on
CRT's located at remote points.

The computer may be used to make certain system checks and provide infor-
mation useful to the signal maintenance staff concerning equipment condition.

We are now in the early stages of such a study at one control office on CP
Rail.

On CP Rail the signal department has been involved with automatic car
identification since its inception. As you know this is an optical system using a
high-intensity light source directed to a reflective label on rolling stock. The system
detects reflected light from the labels and translates it into car number and owner-
ship.

ACI is now a controversial matter and is under special study by the AAR Re-
search and Test Department. Some railways have not made use of ACI, and even
those that have to date have not been too diligent in label maintenance. The result
is that the i^ercentage of good label readability is only about 85^.

The Operating-Transportation General Committee of AAR is now considering
the Research Department report and will make a recommendation to the AAR
Board of Directors as to whether the present optical system should be scrapped
and some new system introduced.

A personal opinion is tliat tlie present system should be retained and improved
along with a reasonable eftort by railways to maintain labels. That opinion is
based on the fact the ACI is a useful railway tool, tliat 50-75 million dollars have
been invested in it, and that if a new system could be chosen today, it is likely not
to find ready acceptance and railway would probably not have an ACI system for
about 10 years.

424 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Another aspect of the signalman's work is in the hump yard. Our most modern
yard is Alyth Yard in Calgary. Many new developments of equipment and ideas
went into Alyth and e\'en after 4 years much of it still serves as a model for new
yards being built today.

The basic requirement at Alyth was how to design a yard capable of handling
large volumes of traffic and fit it into a confined area. The basic objective was to
supply tools that would permit supervisors to do a better job. This meant the sys-
tem would perform all routine, repetitive tasks, provide meaningful information in
a form and at a time convenient to the user. He then has the means to make deci-
sions required.

There must also be means to improve communications so that decisions can
be acted upon. The central device to achieve tlie objectives is the digital computer.
Other devices include CRT's, teleprinters, ACI scanners, an electronic scale, loco-
motive speed control, radar and many others.

Just about every aspect of railway signalling is used at Alyth Yard.

I have attempted to teU you some of the things we do as signalmen. I hope
I have created a little interest in the work of signalmen toward improving our
railway operations.

Because the track circuit is the basic element of signalling, I discussed it at
some length. Another reason was that tliis is in an area where your people are
very much involved. Remember the design of this element is such that interference
or improper conditions cause it to drop out. Therefore we rely on you to maintain
switches in proper adjustment, to provide clean ballast, to avoid damage to bonds
and track connections by track machinery, to maintain insulated joints. If these
are not properly done, the result may be train delays and in some cases create
unsafe conditions.

I hold you earlier the story of the regional engineer who referred to his
signal people as "mystery boys." The reason for that reference is because he didn't
understand their work and he really didn't care to understand — but just keep
things running smoothly.

Unfortunately that is the attitude of many maintenance of way engineers.
They are preoccupied with their major sphere, their own area of experience; and
so they should be, because nothing is more basic to a railway than the ballast, the
ties, the rails, the bridges, the buildings. Signals are an adjunct but they are an
operations adjunct, and in your signal engineer you have an operating man on
your staff. Encourage him to communicate and deal directly with operations officers.
Involve him in your planning as early as possible. Signal requirements may have a
major influence on your plan. He can give you the operations viewpoint. He has
to be in on early planning because he is faced with long lead times in obtaining
equipment. Signal equipment does not come oif the shelf, it must be tailor-made
to suit operating requirements.

In conclusion, use your signal engineer, give him the responsibility and also
the authority to achieve his purpose, and the purpose of all of us — to provide safe
and efficient train operation.

Railway Bridges on Canadian National's
Mountain Region

By L. R. Morris

Regional Engineer, Bridges & Structures
Canadian National Railways

Introduction

The main routes of Canadian National's Mountain Region generally speaking
were built in the period 1912 to 1914. The Region consists of Alberta, British
Columbia, a small portion of Saskatchewan, and a line into tlie Northwest Terri-
tories, and presently has about 5,000 miles of trackage. The major bridges were
built with steel superstructures and concrete substructures, while the smaller
bridges were of wood trestle constiaiction.

Through tlie years, barring fires, floods, derailments, collisions and similar
disasters, bridge problems have been relatively minor. The original designers may
have been overly cautious from our present-day point of view, but praise God
they were. We still are blessed with excellent bridges, many of which have carried
traffic for over 60 years.

Permanent Bridges

There are about 400 permanent bridges on CN's Mountain Region, many of
which were built at the time of original construction. In general they consisted of
tvvo major types. One was the familiar viaduct on concrete pedestals, the other
consisted of steel girders or trusses on concrete piers. Many of them had wood
trestle approaches, and the bridge extended from bank to bank of the river. De-
sign in those early days was very simple. The design data sheets for a girder, for
instance, consisted of no more than a few lines. They were all riveted construction,
of course, and usually the details were kept quite simple. The piers were mostly
of concrete construction and even though very little was known about the design
of concrete mixes, many of our piers are still in good condition. The decks of
the steel bridges almost invariably consisted of timber ties supporting the rails.

Today, many of the bridges built 60 years ago are still carrying traffic and
performing very well. It is a tribute to the original designers that maintenance
costs have been low. Painting has been carried out on a more or less regular cycle
— ranging from 5 years in the damp, coastal climates, to 20 years in the dry, windy
prairies. Timber decks, which were untreated in the early days, had to be replaced
on about a 10-year cycle in the warm, damp areas and a 20-year cycle in the dry,
cold areas.

In 1929 creosoted ties were first used, but only on a selected basis. Being the
cautious lot railway bridge engineers are, it was not until the mid-50's that it was
finally proven to us that treatment was always a good thing and from then on all
new decks were fully creosoted. It is interesting to note that some 1929 treated
ties are still in service on our main line.

In 1970, thanks to an idea gleaned from the Rock Island Railroad, we started
a program of replacing some timber decks with pre-tensioned concrete slabs sup-
porting a ballasted track and we now have about 20 such decks. There are limita-
tions to this application, of course, because on through truss bridges the clearance
is restrictive, and on many girders the cost of strengthening to take tlie extra
weight is prohibitive.

425

426 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Wood Trestles

Up until just a few years ago, the standard bridge for small crossings was the
wood trestle. In fact it still is the standard bridge for our branch lines. At the
present time, we have about 700 wood trestles on tlie Region.

The original timber was always untreated, but in 1929 our first fully treated
ballasted-deck wood trestle was built and today many are still in existence. How-
ever, that old cautious nature prevented the full-scale use of treated timber until
the mid-50's. The intervening 25 years saw some fully treated structures, some par-
tially treated, and some untreated.

The ballasted-deck, fully treated timber trestle has been the finest, most eco-
nomical structure for railway bridges ever devised and would still be if conditions
were the same as in the past. However, times change, and whether we like it or
not, and whether we call it progress or not, we have to face it.

First of all, traffic volumes, car weights and speeds increased significantly. This
in itself would not necessarily have changed the picture regarding wood trestles.
If a wood trestle is perfectly built and by that I mean timbers well-seasoned, straight
and true, cut-offs dead level, connections perfectly fitting, piles straight and un-
checked, then it can still stand a fair amount of modern traffic. However, within
the last 20 or 25 years, many other things started to change. It became harder
and harder to get sound, seasoned timber and piling. We received poorer materials,
experienced carelessness in construction and there wasn't time for the old pride in
craftsmanship. As a result, we have many wood trestles with twisted caps and
stringers, poor cut-offs, small diameter and crooked piles and other assorted ills.

With the onslaught of modern rail traffic — 130-ton cars, unit trains, higher
speeds — the wood trestle hterally started to fall apart. Splitting and checking of
piles and caps accelerated; ties actually started to break up before their expected
life-span was over; bolts would loosen up excessively and in some instances piles
were driven down under the dynamic forces of unit trains.

There is the possibility of a perfectly fitting wood trestle, built of sound tim-
ber and piling, being able to stand up to a certain amount of modern rail traffic.
However, another culprit entered the picture, or rather finally became significant.
Through the years trestle fires would occur from time to time, and they were pretty
well accepted. After the panic of a bridge burn-out was over, the statistics would
be dragged out and the overall losses due to bridge fires would be assessed against
the cost of eliminating wood bridges; and the conclusion would be that it would
not pay to take any major steps to change the situation. As a trestle on the main
line came up for rebuild, it sometimes would be built with pennanent materials,
but very often a new wood trestle would be the replacement. This policy resulted
in very little reduction in the total number of wood trestles.

However, it is one thing to look at statistics on a sheet of paper and quite
another to be faced with your main line cut because of a bridge fire, for two or
three weeks. At a time like that the statistics don't seem to impress your executive
management. And when you get two such fires just one day apart, then a major
change in thinking results.

This then, was our situation late in 1969. There was a total of about 800 wood
trestles on the Region, 350 of them on main, critical routes, and 100 of these on
heavy-traffic, unit-train territory. And the projections for traffic volume in the future
were staggering. As a result, a large program of elimination of wood trestles was

Regional Meeting Address by L. R. Morris 427

started in 1970 and since then o\er 100 ha\'e been replaced, with the program
continuing.

As an additional and in a sense an interim measure towards reducing losses
due to trestle and deck fires, a program of spraying a fire retardant coating on all
open-deck trestles and steel bridges on our main routes, was begun in 1971 and is
nearly completed.

Wood Trestle Replacements

Replacements of wood trestles have taken several forms. Where\'er possible,
we will install cuKerts and fill. Culverts almost always are corrugated steel. Many
things prevent the installation of culverts and fill, of course. Soil conditions may
be poor; hydraulics may dictate against the practice; the provision for fish passage
may be too costly; source of fill material may be too far away; property problems
may be impossible to solve.

Permanent bridges have taken several forms. For longer spans, welded plate
girders are used, with either concrete or steel decks, and ballasted track. Shorter
spans, up to about 45 ft, consist of pre-tensioned concrete box beams, post-
tensioned trans\ ersely, or steel beams with concrete slab decks, or steel beams
with steel deck plates. Substructures consist of conventional piers, steel H-piles, or
steel pipe piles filled with concrete, with concrete caps, or steel H-piles \\'ith steel
beam caps.

Xew bridges are sometimes constructed on a pennanent line diversion, espe-
cially a large structure, but many of the smaller bridges are built on the existing
aligmnent. The need to keep interference with traffic to a minimum accounts for
the rather odd appearance of many of our piers. Piles are driven outside the exist-
ing trestle, on either side, and they then require a much longer cap than normal.
Howe\'er, this enables the entire substructure to be built \\'ith very little inter-
ference to rail traffic. The spans are then placed with a one-day shut-down of the
line. We naturally try to keep the track closures to a minimum and replace as many
spans in one day as possible. Our biggest single project of diis nature was a
44-hour closure in which 14 wood bridges were replaced with permanent structures.
Generally, however, we work the projects in smaller groups of 3 or 4 replacements
in a closure of about 12 hours. A very cooperative and patient transportation
department makes this program possible.

Inspections

Our programs of replacements and repairs are based on various inspections
made on a continual basis. Steel bridges are inspected in detail annually. Concrete
substructures are inspected in detail on a much longer cycle, depending on condi-
tion. River bed soundings are taken in varying cycles depending on stream bed
and flow conditions. Timber trestles are inspected at least annually but in many
cases much more frequently. As a timber bridge reaches a point where decay could
be starting, borings are taken to assess the incidence of loss of sound material. In
spite of our fairly rapid replacement of wood trestles on main routes, we still have
a total of about 700 left on the Region, and of these over 400 are on branch lines,
the replacement of which are made with new wood trestles if they cannot be filled.

Naturally these trestles are kept going for as long as possible and we have
carried out a good deal of in-place treatment. Piling is dug out and wrapped with
a preservative-coated bandage and backfilled. Above-ground piling and timber is

Bui. 656

428 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

bored and filled with preservative. This operation is coupled with a full-scale in-
spection by boring, the holes being filled with preservative before being plugged.
A good deal of our inspection and in-place treatment is carried out by contract
rather than with our own crews.

An area with which we have not so far been troubled is that of metal fatigue.
Thanks to the conservative designs in the beginning, and the fact that 1912 is not
really old compared with some railway bridges in other parts of the continent, our
steel bridges have given no trouble along these lines. We have under extensive
study, however, a bridge built in 1905, to quite a light design, by the Federal
Government. This bridge is used by three railways and since CN is the major user,
we have been charged with the responsibility of inspection and assessment of
structural sufficiency. The results of the current study will serve the dual purpose
of evaluation of the bridge itself, as well as establish a pattern of future studies
of otiier bridges.

Disasters

One of the things we try to avoid in all areas of life, and the field of railway
bridges is no exception, is that of accidents and disasters. However, they do happen.
And in spite of the financial losses to the company, and the headaches and heart-
aches of all those involved, they are very often extremely interesting and certainly
are the items that make the news. Therefore a dissertation on CN's Mountain
Region bridges would not be complete without stating that we are not immune to
such happenings.

Fires have already been mentioned. We have had ships destroy portions of
bridges; ice rise up suddenly above the pedestals of a viaduct and push it over;
major piers scoured out and collapse taking their spans with them; flood waters
take out 2 pedestals of a 4-legged tower and do no further damage (the tower
remained upright! ) ; derailments destroy decks and truss spans; rock slides, and
snow slides take out spans (one steel span was never found!). We have survived
all of tliese disasters and learned a good deal from them.

New Lines

Not all of CN's Mountain Region was built in the period 1912-1914. Several
new lines have been built since tliat time, notably the Kitimat branch in Northern
British Columbia, the Great Slave Lake Railway in Northern Alberta and the
Northwest Territories, and the Alberta Resources Railway in Northern Alberta.
These have included a considerable number of bridges.

The new structures on these lines are of several types, generally following
the old pattern of steel viaducts, or girders and trusses on concrete substructures.
The steel structures are all-welded, with field connections of high-strength bolts.
Generally decks have been of treated timber, but I believe we will be looking at
all ballasted decks in the future.

The total inventory of bridges presently on the Region is over 1100. With the
program of replacement of wood trestles only one-third along the way, and the
possibility of new lines being built in the near future, the subject of railway bridges
will be with us for many years to come.

Investigation into Causes of Rail Corrugations

By J. Kalousek, R. Klein

CP Raii

1. INTRODUCTION

During the last decade, CP Rail has experienced a substantial increase in
traffic density accompanied by the introduction of 100- ton-capacity cars and in-
creased loconioti\e horsepower. These advances increased the productivity of our
rail transportation network and improved the competitiveness of our operations.
On the other hand, these changes have been associated with increased wear and
tear of tlie permanent way. Substantial wear and abrasion \A'as first experienced
on the high rail. To combat this problem, cur\e lubricators were introduced with
a great deal of success. Ho\\e\er, reduced flange abrasion resulted in an increase
in the incidence of rail corrugation.

Rail corrugations we experience most are those with a wavelength (pitch) in
the range of 8 to 28 inches. In order to avoid any confusion, it should be men-
tioned that two other types of rail corrugations are known to railroaders. One type
has a wa\elength in the range of 2 to 3 inches and is often referred to as "wash-
board rail" or "roaring rail." It is the t\pe of rail cornigation which has recently
received most of the attention in railroading and scientific literature" "■''. The other
type of rail corrugation, mentioned in current literature'"', has a wa\elength in the
range of 72 to 108 inches, but it may also be categorized by some railroaders as
track irregularities. In this paper, we are solely concerned with the observations,
formation mechanics and possible cures for rail corrugations with a wa^•elength
of 8 to 28 inches <*'".

2. OBSERVATIONS

Rail corrugations predominantly appear on the nmning surface of the low rail
in a curse as seen in Figure 1. These rail corrugations are always associated with
flaking of rail metal as may be observed at the center of focus. They usually appear
opposite the location where wheel flanges contact the high rail. They also are
deeper toward the field side of the rail.

Rail corrugations may also occur on the high rail as shown in Figure 2. The
characteristic flaked or slightly shelled pattern may be obser\'ed on the high rail
illustrated in this figure. The cornigations valleys are at the locations of most in-
tense flaking and they are deepest at the gauge comer of the rail.

Occasionally, we find corrugations on tangent track as shown in Figure 3 but
this is not too common. In this particular location, the growth of corrugations has
been accentviated by over-lubrication of the track and the absence of grinding.
This section of track is located on a bridge and grinding was not carried out be-
cause of the risk of fire. The occurrence of rail corrugations on the high rail and
tangent track is rather infrequent on CP Rail lines. The rail corrugations forming
on low rails are predominant and, therefore, we will devote most of our attention
to them.

Figure 4 shows the field side of the low rail where the rail corrugations are
in the initial stage of their de\elopment. The areas on tlie railhead which are not
hatched point to the increased rate of plastic flow of metal in the surface layer

429

430 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

of the railhead. These locations may be classified as the "low spots" or "valleys"
of rail corrugations. Plastic flow may be also observed in the neighboring hatched
areas, but this flow is uniform over large sections of rail and is not of concern.
The reason for the diflcrence between these two modes of plastic flow can be
found in a closer examination of surface cracks.

Figure 5 shows that the top surface of the rail is flaked. Closer examination
of the flakes and associated crack pattern reveals more intense flaking and the
occurrence of more critical cracks in the corrugation valleys. This suggests tliat the
formation of corrugation valleys is associated with increased plastic flow of metal
which has been accentuated by an increased incidence of cracks and depletion of
metal from the railroad through flaking.

This trend may be already observed on rails not yet corrugated. Figure 6
shows a low rail, which has accumulated approximately 8 MGT of traffic. To
reveal the initial stages of crack development on the rail surface, grease was wiped
away in two locations. The location on the right-hand side, the close-up of which
is shown in Figure 7, exhibits a single longitudinal crack. The location on the
left-hand side of the same rail (Figure 8) exhibits two longitudinal cracks. This
spontaneous non-imiformity in crack initiation indicates that these cracks are of a
surface fatigue origin and that corrugation formation mechanics might be related
to surface fatigue. For this reason, we have investigated the cracks in more detail
with a Scanning Electron Microscope and discovered a large incidence of spherical
particles as shown in Figure 9. The magnification is approximately 1,250 diameters.
These spherical particles are typical of surface fatigue failures of lubricated ma-
chine components such as roller bearings, gears and also rails, thus confirming the
surface fatigue nature of rail flaking.

The question now arises as to how we can relate the surface fatigue and
plastic flow of metal to formation of rail corrugations. The answer to this question
is ratlier complex since additional factors such as tlie distribution and magnitude
of contact stresses, tangential forces, dynamical loadings, strength of rail material,
lubrication and wear play a significant role in corrugation formation mechanics.

3. FORMATION MECHANICS OF RAIL CORRUGATIONS

The explanation of rail corrugation formation may be simplified, if we con-
sider first the plastic flow of railhead metal and then surface fatigue. Other factors
influencing corrugation formation mechanics will be dealt with within these two
subsections.

3.1 Plastic Flow

Perhaps the best way to start the explanation of jjlastic flow is to consider the
basic aspects of Hertzian theory of contact stresses. The contact stresses may be
assessed if the wheel and rail are represented by two cylinders crossing each other,
as shown in Figure lOA.

The area of contact between these two cylinders is usually ellipitical. A knowl-
edge of mechanical properties of wheel and rail materials together witii the
knowledge of contact geometry enable us to calculate the contact stresses. Their
distribution is shown graphically in Figure lOB. The maximum value of vertical
stress fz can be designated as maximum pressure Pmai since all contact stresses are
compressive. It is convenient to use Pmax as a basic parameter describing the dis-
(Text continued on page 439)

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein 431

1 i.Ulll

432 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Figure 2

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein

433

Figure '■>

434 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

-.\^jL

w .CTWwmii .M

<l

Figure 5

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek. R. Klein 435

Figure (i

Figure 7

436 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Figure 8

Figure 9

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein 437

(A) IDEALIZED CONTACT BETWEEN RAIL HEAD AND WHEEL.

^ ^g VALUES OF PRINCIPLE STRESSES (T^ ' <^y '

y y' tfz AND SHEARING STRESS r (Ib/inch^j

DEPTH |z

(B) DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES IN CONTACT ZONE,

FIGURE 10

438 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(A)

3/4" FLANGEWAY CLEARANCE

1/4" WIDE GAUGE (INSTALLED)

r" TOTAL (NEW WHEELS, NEW RAILS)

= 1"
1/4"
1/4 "

AS IN (A)

WHEEL FLANGE WEAR

RAIL SIDE WEAR

1-1/2" TOTAL (WORN WHEELS, WORN RAILS)

// // •

(C) D = 1" AS IN (A)

3/8" WHEEL FLANGE WEAR

3/8" RAIL SIDE WEAR

1/4" DYNAMIC GAUGE WIDENING

2"

TOTAL (BADLY WORN WHEELS AND RAILS,
HIGH DYNAMICAL LOADINGS)

FIGURE 11: CONTACT GEOMETRY BETWEEN WHEEL AND LOW RAIL IN CURVES,

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein

439

tribution of contact stresses because for any value of F,„„x, the distribution of
principle stresses Oi, <J,j, <Jt and shearing stress f resembles that shown in this figure.
The stress considered most critical in development of subsurface cracks is the
maximum shearing stress Tm«r which occurs between 0.1-0.3 inch below the run-
ning surface of the rail.

This distribution of contact stresses is valid only in the case of static contact
between two elastic bodies of perfect shape and smooth surface. Additional factors,
which may significantly influence the Hertzian distribution of contact stresses,
such as work hardening of wheel/rail materials, presence of surface frictional forces
in the zone of contact, lubrication and wear, must be considered if the actual
wheel/rail interaction is to be understood.

Three examples of the possible relative positions between wheel and low rail
are depicted in Figure 11 for 9°-12° cur\'es. Assuming that the wheelset is in
flange contact witli the high rail, the relative position of wheel and low rail may
be represented for convenience by the distance, D, between the wheel flange and
gauge side of the rail. With no wear, this distance is comprised of the flange way
clearance /i-inch plus a preset wide gauge of /4 inch totalling 1 inch as shown in
Figure 11 A. If both the high rail and wheels are worn by M inch the distance, D,
between the wheel and low rail is increased to 1/2 inches as shown in the second
sketch. If we consider severe wear, and add to this the magnitude of dynamical
gauge widening /4 inch, the reversed curvature of the wheel rim (often referred to
as the false flange) may be brought very close to the center of the low rail. The
contact stresses in terms of Pmox experienced by wheel and rail under these and
other possible conditions are presented in Table 1.

The pressure P,„oi is calculated according to a simplified formula for 36-inch-
diameter wheel carrying a 33,000-lb load (which corresponds to a 100-ton capacity

SIMPLIFIED CONTACT STRESS FORMULA FOR P„^„: P„,^ = \ (\f ^? ' " ' W' WHERE

ITiaA maA \\ £. 1 ±~ » J

G = 11.5 X 10' psi; v= .29 R^ = 18" , R'^ = =« , R'j^ = lO" , R^ = » , W = 33,000 lb.

/ariable (psi) Remarks

«'w

Variable (psi) Remarks

10

215,800

New rail, new wheel

"

215,800

New wheel, new rail

15

133,700

Flattened rail, new
wheel

-10

108,600

Worn hollow wheel on top
of new rail

5

300,400_

Edge of rail, new wheel

10

J00,400

False flange on top of
new rail

3

397,400

Edge of rail, new wheel

5

338,400

False flange on top of
new rail

2

504,400

Edge of rail, new wheel

5

773,300

False flange on edge of
new rail (Rj^ = 1.25")

1.25

672,300

Edge of new rail,
inflection point of worn
wheel

5

436,000

Same as above but empty
car W = 5,600 lb.

TABLE 1: CONTACT STRESSES FOR VARIOUS WHEEL RAIL GEOMETRIES.

440 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

car). The effect of cross-sectional curvature of railhead on the magnitude of con-
tact stresses is illustrated in the first colunni, whilst the effect of wheel profile
cur\atures is presented in the second column. As the effective crown radius of the
rail decreases toward the edge of the rail, the magnitude of contact stresses in-
creases. Similarly, as the false flange curvature decreases, the contact stresses
increase substantially. No doubt, some of these values exceed the yield stress of the
rail material.

It was mentioned previously that the most critical stress in the theory of con-
tact stresses is the maximum shear stress. Therefore, it is desirable to know the
yield of material in shear rather than in tension. The yield in shear may be con-
veniently obtained from a hardness test since the resistance of material to shear
is directly proportional to its hardness. From a practical sense, the higher the
hardness of rail steel, the better it can withstand the contact stresses. The actual
value of the contact stresses above which the rail material will always yield is
termed the plasticity limit. The plasticity limits of carbon and chromium rails are
approximately 250,000 psi and 320,000 psi, respectively, assuming that the surface
layer of rail material has been already work-hardened, say, after the passage of
the first train over those rails.

It should be pointed out that the theory of Hertzian stresses is applicable
only witliin the elastic limits of a material and should not be employed to explain
plastic flow. When yield occurs, no pressures significantly above the yield can
develop within the rail material. Although the stress cannot be built up significantly
above the plastic limit, parameter P»u/j may still give the indication of the rate of
plastic flow. As Pmax increases above the plastic limit, so does the rate of plastic
flow. Hence, the underlined values in Table 1 illustrate situations where both
carbon and chromium rail will yield and exhibit sustained plastic deformation. The
numbers underlined by a dashed line refer to situations in which only carbon rail
will yield.

Our examination of contact stresses is not over yet since the above mentioned
plasticity limits may be applied with reasonable accuracy to tangent track only.
In the case of curves, the continuing presence of lateral friction forces must be
taken into account. These are shown in Figure 12.

To simplify our analysis, it is assumed that the wheelsets negotiate curves at
an equilibrium speed and that die rolling radii of both wheels are the same. When
the wheelset rolls forward a distance d, it is displaced laterally a distance ^c? due
to flanging. Since the wheelset slides rather than rolls in the lateral direction, the
amount of force required to laterally displace each wheel is equal to the product
of the coefficient of friction, M, and normal force, W.

It can be shown that the orientation of the lateral components of wheel/low-
rail forces are such that tlie low rail is pushed toward the field side and the
wheelset is pushed toward the high rail. On the high rail, the frictional tread
force and flange force act simultaneously. The flange force is the sum of the two-
wheel frictional forces. The net result is that the high rail is pushed toward the
field and the wheelset is pushed toward the center of the curve. It must be empha-
sized that the frictional tread forces and flange force are directly responsible for
increased wear and tear of track in curves. For example, they contribute to "cut-
ting in" of both tie plates on the field side.

At the wheel/rail interface, the tread forces significantly modify the distribu-
tion of contact stresses. The higher the coefficient of friction, the closer the maxi-

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein 441

FIGURE 12: LATERAL COMPONENTS OF FORCE VECTOR
IN THE WHEEL/RAIL CONTACT ZONE

442 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Type of rail

Carbon

P fpsi]
max \-^ J

Chromium

P fpsi]
max >-'^ ■*

Case of pure rolling
(tangent track)

250,000

320,000

Case of rolling with
frictional lateral
forces (curves)
ji = ,26

185,000

240,000

TABLE 2;

MAXIMUM CONTACT STRESSES THE RAIL MATERIAL CAN
WITHSTAND WITHOUT SUSTAINED PLASTIC FLOW.

mum shear stress is brought to the surface. This results in a proportionate reduc-
tion of tlie carrying capability of rail material. The extent to which the plasticity
limit can be lowered by the tread forces in terms of Pmax is shown in Table 2.
With a coefficient of friction of 0.26, the carbon rail can tolerate only 185,000 psi
in curves without sustained plastic flow. For coefiicient of friction values lower than
0.26, the plasticity limit increases and at coefficient of friction 0.0, the plasticity
limit is maximum. It may be interesting to note tliat the plasticity limit of chromium
rail in curves, approximately 240,000 psi, is somewhat less than the plasticity limit
of carbon rail in tangent track. In a practical sense, the values of plasticity limit
suggest that each time the false flange runs close to the edge or over the top sur-
face of the rail, both carbon and chromium rail will plastically deform.

Due to tile dynamic nature of the track/train interaction, vertical loads, lateral
tread forces, dynamic (and static) wide gauge as well as the coefficient of fric-
tion in the zone of contact are continuously varying along the rail paths in curves.
Hence, the magnitude of contact stresses and the plasticity limit are subject to
random fluctuations. However, more experimental work is needed to determine
whether the intennittent pounding of peak dynamical forces at exactly the same
location on rail produce the corrugation valleys or whetlier other parameters, such
as localized wide gauge and/or development of fatigue cracks governs the initial
location of corrugation valleys. It is the opinion of the authors tliat the random
nature of frictional tread force and random initiation of fatigue cracks are most
conducive to the formation of rail corrugations.

3.2 Surface Fatigue

Based on the observations described at the beginning of this presentation, it
was suggested that plastic flow in combination with surface fatigue are predomi-
nantly responsible for the formation of rail corrugation. Plastic flow of rail material
was briefly dealt with in the first portion of this presentation and it now remains
to cover the subject of surface fatigue.

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein 443

5x10^

< 10

5x10'

I , . , , I , I ,

5x10' 10° 5x10' 10'

NUMBER OF CYCLES - N
FIGURE 13: SURFACE FATIGUE S-N DIAGRAM

Surface fatigue, sometimes referred to as contact fatigue, deals with surface
or subsurface failure of material which is repeatedly in contact with some loading
member. Due to the large xariety of possible wheel/rail contact geometries and
the effect of frictional forces and other parameters on the distribution of contact
stresses, contact fatigue failure of rail material can take any of the following
forms: pitting, flaking, spalling and shelling. Each of these contact fatigue mani-
festations can be analyzed in two stages. The first stage is crack initiation and the
second is crack propagation. A crack may initiate at two locations: at or very near
the surface and a short distance below.

Cracks originating at the surface later develop into flaking and are therefore
subject to further analysis. The first stage of crack development arises from a
number of loading cycles at a specified load or contact stress. Figure 13 shows a
typical surface fatigue "Stress — Number of Cycles" diagram. The number of
cycles or number of passages of wheel over a small section of rail are plotted on
the horizontal axis. The contact stresses in terms of P,„„r, which take into account
the magnitude of load and geometry of contact, are plotted on the vertical axis.
The experimental points plotted in tliis S-N diagram were obtained under full
lubrication conditions in the zone of contact and exhibit large scatter which is
rather typical of surface fatigue. The surface fatigue diagram shown in Figure 13
describes surface fatigue behavior of plain carbon steel and indicates that the
crack dexelops after accumulation of approximately M million cycles at P „,,,.,■ =
250,000 psi and after accumulation of 1 million cycles at Pm„x =: 150,000 psi.
Utilizing this information, it has been calculated that on lines with an annual traffic
density of 45—50 MCT, surface cracks develop 30 to 40 days after new carbon rail
is placed in service. With chromium rail, this period is extended by 10 to 20 days.

Bui. 656

444 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

In fact, Fij^uit's 6 to 8 show cracks already initiated on the surface of chroniimu
rail which was in service for approximately two months.

If full lubrication is not satisfied and some natural wear occurs, crack initiation
and development of flakes may be delayed. Ultimately where there is sufficient
wear, fatigue crack initiation may never occur.

Accumulation of lubricant on the rail surfaces plays a significant role in the
development of surface fatigue. This is illustrated in more detail in Figure 14. The
primary role of the lubricant is to reduce flange wear on the gauge side of the
high rail. Nevertheless, the lubricant is gradually squeezed out of the flange con-
tact zone and to insure adequate lubrication in the flange contact zone, the lubri-
cant must be continuously replenished by track-side lubricators. Lubricant "squeezed
from" the zone of contact is then deposited on the edge of the wheel flange as
well as on the wheel false flange. From the wheel false flange, excess lubricant
deposits on the top running surface of the low rail, where it promotes surface
fatigue crack development and flaking.

The manner in which lubricant contributes to crack propagation and subse-
quent flaking is shown in Figure 15. A passing wheel first closes the crack and
"locks in" the lubricant (Figure 15A, Section 1-1). During further travel of the
wheel (Figure 15A, Section 2-2), the pressure of the lubricant layer within the
contacting surface is hydro-dynamically transmitted to the lubricant located at the
root of the crack where a maximum pressure, P,„„j-- and maximum tangential
stress, T,,,,,,,, act simultaneously. Whilst this mechanism uniformly enhances the
growth of a crack in the case of longitudinally oriented cracks (Figrue 15B), it
usually results in formation of rail corrugations and more severe defects such as
transverse fissures with oblique and intersecting cracks ( Figure 15C ) .

The presence of surface cracks and flaking contributes to deterioration of rail
life in two ways. Firstly, they disrupt the homogenity of rail metal at the surface
and significantly redistribute contact stresses which results in a reduction of
resistance to plastic flow. Secondly, the cracks, in combination with the presence
of frictional tread force, enhance the depletion of metal from the surface layer of
rail metal through flaking.

In summary, the amount of plastic flow and flaking are functions of the verti-
cal load, contact geometry, frictional tread force, initiation and propagation of
surface cracks, all of which are random functions in time and/or spatial position.
As a consequence, the rate of plastic flow and the rate of flaking are also random
functions with time and/or spatial position and are therefore most conducive to
the growth of rail corrugations. As the dynamical loads become more severe, the
rate of corrugation formation and propagation accelerates.

4. METHODS TO REDUCE OR ELIMINATE RAIL CORRUGATIONS

Perhaps the best way to prevent or reduce the formation of rail corrugations
is to eliminate or alleviate the principle contributing factors. These factors may be
categorized as follows:

a) Wheel Rail Contact Geometry

In this area, it is desirable to eliminate high contact stresses which contribute
to plastic flow and early development of surface fatigue cracks. Possible measures
to accomplish the above involve:

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein

445

DISCHARGE
DIRECTION
OF FLAKED
METAL

FIGURE 14: RELATIVE POSITIONS OF WHEEL ON RAIL DURING CURVE
NEGOTIATION

(A) HIGH RAIL

(B) LOW RAIL

446 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

ij 2J 3i

WHEEL

LOW RAIL

SECTION 1-1

(A)

SECTION 2-2

FIGURE 15: SIMPLIFIED MECHANICS OF CRACK PROPAGATION

Regional Meeting Address by J. Kalousek, R. Klein 447

i) Elimination of Wide Gauge in Track

Alle\iati()n of wide gauge may be achiexed by installation of longer tie

plates, gauge rods, hardwood ties, concrete ties, and/or other possible

measures,
ii) Elimination of False Flanges on Wheels

Improvement may be accomplished by changing the condemning limits

on wheels, relocation of brake shoes into "overhang" position and/or

other measures,
iii) Reduction of Railhead Curvature

Reduced stresses would result if the field side of the low rail was ground

to a shallower radius immediately after being placed in track,
iv) Modification of AAR Wheel Profile

Appropriate changes in wheel profile may decrease the level of contact

stresses and flange wear.

b) Lateral Frictional Force

Flange contact may be minimized by installation of self-steering trucks into
unit trains. A few experimental designs of self-steering trucks were recently devel-
oped and tested. The results of test programs are encouraging; however, the full
utilization of self-steering trucks is hampered by high cost.

c) Surface Fatigue and Plastic Flow

Improvements with respect to surface fatigue and plastic flow may best be
achieved through improvements in rail metallurgy. The objective of such improve-
ments would be to increase rail strength and hardness while maintaining ductility
and fracture toughness.

d) Friction, Lubrication and Wear (Trihology)

In tliis area, an improved lubrication policy should be developed, which would
ensure proper lubrication in the zone of flange contact and prevent, at the same
time, accumulation of grease on the top surface of the low rail. The resulting in-
creased natural wear on the running surface of low rail would delay development
of surface fatigue defects and thus decrease the need for grinding. An optimized
lubrication practice would provide an additional benefit of improved adhesion for
traction.

e) Dynamic Loadings

Any measures aimed at reduction of the magnitude of dynamical loadings
through improvements in the design of rolling stock and track maintenance will
considerably alleviate the pace of corrugation formation and propagation.

It is certain that a combination of the above changes will have to be imple-
mented, in the ne.xt few years, by those railways in Nortli America that are at or
approaching traffic levels of 40 MGT per year on sections of their lines.

REFERENCES

1. P. R. Nayak: "Contact Vibrations of a Wheel on a Rail", Journal of Sound and
Vibration (1973) 23(2) 277-392.

2. K. Werner: "Corrugation and Pitting of Rolling Surfaces — Are They Contingent
Upon Ultrasonics?" Wear 32, (1975) 233-248. (Originally appeared in German
in "Eisenbahntechnische Rundschan" 22(1973) 142-149).

1

448 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. M. Srini\asan: "Prevention and Cure of Rail Corrugation", Railway Gazette
International, March 1975.

4. R. G. Read: "The Rail for High Intensity Mineral Traffic", AREA Bulletin No.
639 (1974) 38-59.

5. F. E. King: "Tests on B.C. South Line Clearwater Subdivision", CNR Technical
Research Report, February 28, 1975.

6. J. Kalousek: "Track/Train Dynamics Report No. 4 — Rail Corrugations", CP
Department of Research, Report No. S488-75, February 1975.

7. "Effective Correction of Long-Wave Rail-Surface Corrugation Wear on Finnish
State Railways". Rail Engineering International, February-March 1975, 74-75.

Rock Slope Stability on Railway Projects

by

C. O. Browner, P. Eng.

Principal,

and

Duncan Wyllie, P. Eng.
Senior Engineer

Colder Associates
Consulting Geotechnical Engineers

INTRODUCTION

There has been a general increase in rail traffic through the western mountain
regions of Canada and the United States in recent years; for example, traffic on the
Canadian Pacific in the Pacific Region has almost doubled since 1968. With much
of the rail lines constructed in tortuous mountain terrain, numerous high soil and
rock cuts result.

It has been a common concept that because most of these cuts are over 50
to over 100 years old the slopes have become stabilized vdth time. In actual fact the
increase in frequency, weight and length of trains in the past decade is increasing
stress in the trackside slopes. As a result, unless stabilization programs are devel-
oped, an increase in rock fall and slope failures can be expected as the volume of
traffic continues to increase.

A number of failures have occurred recently that have caused derailments and
loss of life. In addition, the courts in Canada no longer accept slides as an "Act of
God."

Fortunately our knowledge of rock mechanics and rock slope stability has
increased greatly in the past decade. (Brawner 1966, 1967, Brawner and Milligan,
1971, Hoek and Bray 1974.) Based on this knowledge and experience it is now
possible to define most of the potential areas of rock instability and to develop a
rational and practical program to improve stability.

This paper defines the factors which contribute to instability of rock slopes
and outlines procedures to improve stability. Specific recommendations are sug-
gested for new construction. To illustrate an effective approach, the recent program
developed for the Canadian Pacific is described.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE ROCK SLOPE STABILITY

Rock slope staliility is influenced by many factors. In order to assess potential
problems it is necessary to be familiar with these factors. In addition the program
of stabilization selected must take into consideration the cause of instability.

One of the basic concepts is that the assessment of stability must be based on
the geologic, hydrologic, climatic, topographic, rail traffic and environmental con-
ditions at the specific site. Most important of all are the geologic conditions. Since
the structural geology conditions frequently differ greatly over short distances, each
rock slope must be investigated individually. The more important factors which
influence stability are summarized below.

449

450 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

a. Geologic Conditions

Rock which is sound or has joints which are discontinuous over short distances
and which are randomly oriented will stand vertically for great heights. The
theoretical height for a vertical slope is given by:

Qu Where He is the vertical height of the slope in feet

^r Q„ is the unconfined compressive strength in Ib/scj ft

W, is the unit weight of the rock in pounds.

For example for a soft rock with a strength of 3000 psi the vertical height
computed is about 2600 ft.

In nature, vertical slopes of this magnitude are unusual. Consequently it is
apparent that weaknesses in tlie rock dicLate the maximum height and angle at which
the slope will be stable. These weaknesses include faults, shears, joints, bedding
planes, zones of weathering or hydrothermal alteration.

When these weaknesses exist the most important factor is the orientation and
dip of the weakness relative to the slope. Figure 1 illustrates various orientations
of weaknesses. The most critical conditions are weaknesses or combinations of weak-
ness which dip out of the slope. In these instances if tlie shear strength along the
discontinuity is exceeded, failure will occur. The shear strength is influenced by the
roughness along the discontinuity and presence of weak material, such as fault gauge,
altered infill, calcite stringers, etc.

b. Groundwater

The frictional force developed along a discontinuity is proportional to the nor-
mal force acting on the failure plane. If water exists in the discontinuity the normal
force is reduced by the buoyant force exerted by the water. With a water table
near ground surface the factor of safety of a rock slope is about 35 per cent less
than that if the slope were drained.

In areas where freezing temperatures occur stability can be reduced as a result
of freezing of the surface of the slope. This restricts drainage and may result in the
build up of cleft water pressures in the slope.

c. Climatic Conditions

The seasonal variations range from cold winters with heavy snowfall to hot
summers with occasional heavy rainstorms. The major effects of the weather on
slope stability other than changes in ground-water levels, are the combination of
freeze-thaw, wet-dry and chemical alteration. When water accumulates in cracks
and freezes, the forces of expansion can be sufficient to move considerable masses
of rocks and stability can deteriorate with time. Conditions are normally most critical
during freeze/thaw and snow melt periods in the spring.

In tropical climates severe weathering effects are likely to have a great influence
on staliility.

d. Vibration

Vibration stress due to train traffic can lead to rock fall or slope failure. The
frequency and length of the vibration influences the stability. Unit trains provide a
more uniform frequency, and the great length of these trains increases the length of
time the vibration occurs. Both factors tend to reduce stability.

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 451

e. Blasting

Excavation techniques used in railway construction up until about 5 to 10
years ago gave little consideration to the effect upon the rock. Figure 2 (a) shows
the general relationship between weight of explosive, distance from the blast point
and particle velocity, which can be related to rock damage. It should be readily
apparent that the amount of explosives detonated at one time should be limited.
This can be done readily by using delays.

Great advances have lieen made, particularly in Sweden, to develop controlled
blasting (Langefors and Kihlstrom, 1967). Preshear and cushion techniques now
allow many rock slopes to be excavated steeper and with lower maintenance re-
quirements. Figure 2 (b).

f. Earthquakes

Much of the west coast of North America is in an earthquake active zone. The
present state of the art does not yet allow prediction or warning of earthquakes.
Large earthquakes can cause major slides in rock, e.g., the major slide on the Madison
River in West Yellowstone, Montana, caused by an earthquake with a magnitude of
7.5 to 7.8 on the Richter scale. Lesser earthquakes will frequently result in localized
rock fall.

Types of Rock Instability

In order to assess the potential of rock instability it is essential to define the
types of failure that present the greatest hazard to the operation of a railway.
Different types of failure and different causes of failure require different methods
of stabilization. The most frequent types of instability and the most common asso-
ciated causes are summarized in Figure 3.

The great influence that geology and water have on stability must be recognized.

Evaluation of Stability

The evaluation of rock stability is frequently best considered in two stages.
Stage 1 is the gathering of relevant geological, topographic, climatic, hydrologic and
train operating data incorporating a site inspection and site mapping. Air photo
interpretation is frequently very useful at this stage. Frequently evaluation of data
obtained from this program will be sufficient to assess stability and if a potentially
dangerous situation is believed to exist, a program to improve stability can be
developed. Where the potential of instability is primarily a danger of local rockfall,
a Stage 1 program is usually adequate.

When the initial study reveals the potential of large-scale failure or failure
which could have serious consequences, a more extensive investigation may be
necessary. This may include the necessity to drill boreholes, and orient the core
by down-the-hole photography, borehole periscope or other means. The performance
of shear tests on joints or infill material, detennination of water pressure in the
joints using piezometers and the performance of stability computations. These tech-
niques are reasonably well developed. (Hoek, 1975).

Figure 4 shows typical equipment used for such studies.

Very few engineers have extensive experience in rock mechanics so that advisors
or consultants should be selected only after a thorough assessment of thei;r
qualifications.

452 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Methods of Control

Three major approaches may be used separately, or in combination in the
development of a realistic program to control stability.

1. Stabilization.

2. Protection.

3. Warning Systems.

The prime purpose is to provide a reasonably practical degree of safety within
the limits of a justifiable expenditure of dollars. However, it must be recognized
that it is physically impossible to protect the railway against all possible failures.
While our kowledge in the field of rock mechanics is advancing rapidly it is not
economically or practically possible to locate or predict all of the potentially unstable
areas, and secondly, that the money required to provide nearly 100 per cent safety
is extremely high.

1. Stabilization — Stabilization of rock slopes is justified where the cause and
extent of failures or potential failures can be defined and where the cost of the
stabilization can be justified.

The method and extent of the stabilization program must be based on a definitive
site investigation.

Stabilization procedures include the following:

• Excavation or resloping.

• Drainage (surface and subsurface).

• Surface stabilization.

• Support systems.

Details and comments for stabilization procedures are shown in Figures 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9.

2. Protection — ^Protection involves the prevention of rock from falling on the
track. The type of protection depends on the volume, size and frequency of potential
falling rock, the geometry of the slope (rolling or free falling rock potential) and
the frequency and type of train traffic.

Where large volumes of falling rock occur very expensive procedures such as
tunnels or rock sheds can be justified. At other areas, slope or ditch treatment will
frequently be eftective.

One of the most eftective procedures is to develop deep catchment ditches on
the inner side of the track. Alternatively, catch walls can be constructed. One of
the most efficient and economical types is the gabion wall which can be varied in
height and is flexible under impact.

Where rock slopes exist at sidings, consideration should be given to using the
outer track for the mainline traffic.

Details and comments of protection procedures are given in Figures 10, 11
12 and 13.

3. Warning Systems — Warning systems are used where occasional falls are
expected but it is believed the cost of protection or stabilization would be extremely
difficult and expensive.

The most common warning system comprises electric fences. These are usually

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 453

connected into the signal system. Witli this method there is less than 100 per cent
probability of providing sufficient warning to the locomoti\e engineer so he can
stop. For example, if the slide or fall occurs while die train is in the block the engi-
neer will not be warned. In addition some slides are caused by train vibration. In
these instances the slide ma\' hit the train behind the locomotive. The Japanese have
transmitters connected to fences which improve the probability of warning.

Ice and snow in the winter frequently cause the wires to break. A combined
heating and signal cable is suggested as a solution.

In many locations single wire warning systems would be inadequate.

One point of caution is made. Whenever a warning fence is installed it will
probably become a permanent installation. Even if stabilization is carried out later,
transport commissions or unions may oppose its removid.

Prior to the installation of warning fences any obvious precarious rock on the
slope should be removed or scaled.

Considerable research is being carried out to improve warning systems. Such
program includes vibration meters, robot patrols, TV monitoring, guided radar, laser
detection, etc. None of these as yet has been developed to a state of economical
acceptability.

Details and comments for warning procedures are given in Figure 14 and 15.

New Construction

New railway construction, particularly for resource development and recon-
struction to provide double trackage, reduced grades or curvature may require rock
exca\ation. The past practice has generally been to specify that new slopes in rock
be cut to }i to 1 and that shallow "V" type ditches be used. These slopes were not
designed according to the strength or quality of the rock. With the knowledge that
now exists in rock mechanics, the stable slope angle can be determined with reason-
able success and at reasonable cost.

Where the rock strength or where the geologic structiue is favorable rock
slopes can be cut vertical. This will reduce quantities, allow wider ditches to be
used and result in rock falls dropping vertically into the inner ditch instead of
bouncing or rolling onto the track. (See Figure 16).

Where geologic structural weaknesses dip out of the slope at a steep angle
the slope should be cut to this angle. Figure 1 (c).

Controlled blasting using preshear or cushion blasting should be specified for
the excavation of all rock slopes where the geologic structure is oriented favorably
for stability. The rock in the slope will be subjected to less damage due to seismic
acceleration forces which can break rock and open joints for tens of feet back from
the slope. As a result steeper slopes can be excavated and the slopes will ravel less,
requiring much less maintenance over the years. Figure 17 shows cut slopes de-
veloped using controlled blasting.

A Typical Rock Stability Program

To illustrate a working approach to the development of a rock stability program
with the \iew to reduce the risk of slides and rock falls and to reduce maintenance
costs, the program developed with the Canadian Pacific on over 1500 miles of track
is described.

For Stage 1, a review of air photograplis, topographic maps, climatic data and
railway plans was performed. This was followed by an inspection of cut slopes
along the track by motor car with a division engineer, a roadmaster or an assistant
roadmaster. The stability of the slopes was rated into five categories ( Table 1 )

454 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

according to an estimate of the probability of failure. This took into account the
geology and rock conditions, slope geometry, ditch dimensions, hydrology and slope
seepage and past experience with slides or falls at the site.

A program was instituted to record all slides and rock falls of a size that could
be dangerous to train traffic. This form included data on time, location, size, sight
visibility, weather conditions preceding movement, type and size of movement,
estimated cause of movement, problem created, action taken. Forms such as this
lend themselves to computer punch cards and computer retrieval at a later date.
Areas of more frequent occurrences should be investigated in detail on a priority
basis to assess the need and method of improving stability.

A lecture and site inspection workshop was prepared and attended by engi-
neering staff, roadmasters and foremen. This program described the influence of
geology, groundwater, vibration and climatic conditions on stability, outlined
methods of assessing stability and described procedures for stabilizing the rock slopes.
Numerous case examples were reviewed.

For the Stage 2 program, priority areas where stabilization was considered
to be the most urgent were established, a detailed inspection was made of each,
stabilization requirements were defined (Figure 18), and specifications were pre-
pared. Construction commenced on these priority areas and continues until the
annual budget allocation is expended. At this time further priority areas are being
defined to establish next year's program.

REFERENCES

Brawner, C. O., 1966, "Slope Stability in Open Pit Mines," Western Miner, October
1966.

Brawner, C. O., 1967, "Rock Slope Stability in Highway Construction," 48th Con-
ference, Canadian Good Roads Association, 1967.

Brawner, C. O. and Milligan, V., 1971, editors, "Stability in Open Pit Mining," The
American Institute of Mining Engineers, New York.

Hoek, E. and Bray, J. W., 1974, "Rock Slope Engineering," The Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy, London.

Langefors, V. and Kihlstrom, B., 1967, "The Modern Technique of Rock Blasting,"
John Wiley and Sons.

Ritchie, A. M., 1963, "The Evaluation of Rockfall and its Control," Highway Record,
Vol. 17.

{

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 455

(a) Massive granite rock. Joints
have random orientation. This
slope can be cut vertically
with controlled blasting.

') Bedded slate with joints dipping out
of the slope at 55*^. This dip angle
contro;iled the allowable slope angle.

(b) Horizontally bedded soft

sedimentary rock. Favorable
structural orientation will
allow vertical slope.

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{d) Bedded rock dipping into slope.

Ravelling will occur due to cantilever
type toppling failure. Slope angle of
70°-75° suggested.

Figure 1 - Rock slopes with different orientations of structural geologic
weaknesses, each of which influences stability and stable allowable slope
angle.

456 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 457

TYPE OF INSTABILITY

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

MOST COMMON FACTORS
CONTRIBUTING TO INSTABILITY

Rock Slides
(100 cu. yds. or
more)

Very infrequent

Geological weaknesses bounding large
rock volumes which dip out of the
slope. Weak and weathered rock.
High water pressures. Vibrations
from trains. Earthquakes.

Block or Wedge
Failures

Infrequent

Geological weakness bounding blocks
or wedges of rock. High water
pressures. Adverse climatic
conditions or variations. Vibrations
from trains. Earthquakes.

Rock Falls

Ranges from high
frequency in steep
blocky rock to
Infrequent in massive
rock.

Weathering, temperature change,
freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying, water pressures in joints,
root prying, joints dipping out of
the slope, vibration of trains,
presence of weak gouge in faults and
shear zones which dip out of slope.
Some falls originate well above
right-of-way. Poor blasting control
on new projects.

Running Slopes -
Boulders and Talus

Frequent in areas of Slopes originally cut steeper than
talus, till slopes the angle of repose, erosion under-
and coarse gravel cutting boulders or more resistant
slopes. rock.

Debris Avalances

Infrequent

Slides and trees falling into and
carrier' by water in gullies and by
snowslides.

Slope Erosion

Frequent in areas of
high precipitation.
More probable on new
construction.

Heavy to very heavy precipitation
or snow melt on exposed slopes.
Frequently more of a problem on
slopes on new construction.

FIGURE 3 - TYPES AND CAUSES OF INSTABILITY

458 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie

459

(a) EXCAVATION

(1) Scaling

See Fig. 6(d) (b)

(11) Trimming

See Fig. 6(c)

(ill) Slope Flattening

(b) DRAIKAGE

(1) Runoff Diversion
See Fig. 7(c)

(il)

Slope Drainage
See Fig. 7 (a) (b)

(ill) Ice Glacier
Reduction

Most applicable to rock faces with Infrequent
randon oriented geologic discontinuities.
Generally required at least once every tvo
years in areas of extreme climatic conditions
(Rain, snow, numerous freeze-thaw cycles).

A geologic appraisal can successfully locate
most rocks that should be scaled. Normally
not recommended where much of the rock joints
dip out of the slope or where very blocky rock
exists. Perforned by hand from ropes or boons.
Use explosives with care as vibration may loosen
other rocks.

Develop hydraulic scaling tools.
A basic stabilization technique.

Rock promontories or larger blocks nay require
removal. Usually by drilling and blasting.
Use parallel drill holes wherever possible and
drill parallel to required face line.

Where excessive rock falls occur or where the
Joints or bedding dips out of slope the slope
can be flattened. A uniform slope may be
used or the cut can be benched. The bench
should be wide enough to clean out since
falling rock from above may bounce from a
debris filled bench onto the track. The sane
procedure can be used for gravel, till and
boulder slopes.

Ifliere water runs over the face of the slope
attempts should be made to intercept and
divert the water behind the crest. Ditches
may require lining.

The most common method is to drill horizontal
drain holes into the slope on 10 to 25 ft.
centers to distances of at least 20 ft. and
not more than 0.25 times the slope height.
If the holes collapse perforated plastic pipe
should be installed. If ice glaciers
develop the drains oust be Insulated or
heated with heating cables. A track mounted
percussion unit could be designed for rapid
Installation. The drains are particularly
effective in soft rock.
A basic stabilization technique.

Some of the slope face seepage which freezes
can usually be intercepted in the slope with
horizontal drain holes. They nay require a
steep inclination or installation under the
track. The concept is to lower the water
level in the slope. At bad locations
electric or propane radiant heaters
installed on poles and directed at the
glacier area could control the freezing.

Figure 5 — Summary of stabilization procedures for rock slopes.

460 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(c) SURFACE STABILIZATION

(1) Shotcrete
See Fig. e

(ii) Shotcrete plus
vlre mesh

(ill) Dry rock walls
on slope.

(d) SUPPORT SYSTEMS

(1) Buttresses

See Fig. 9 (a) (b)

(11) Rock Bolts and
Cables
See Fig. 9 (d)

(111) Rock Douells

(Iv) Anchor BeaBs and
Kails

(v) Bolted Wire Mesh
See Fig. 9 (c)

Sprayed on concrete to minimize further slope
face deterioration and to seal exposed Joints.
Particularly applicable to blocky slopes.
Surface must be cleaned and wetted prior to
application. Thickness of 14-2 Inches normally
adequate. Not necessary to cover massive
faces - only 8-10 Inches beyond Joints.
Frequent drain openings must be left so water
pressure does not build up. Can use pipes or
leave occasional joints unshotcreted.
A basic stabilization technique.

Where the rock is very blocky and the blocks
are small the shotcrete may require reinforce-
ment. Wire mesh can be pegged to the face and
shotcreted over. The wire mesh size depends on
rock conditions and slope height.

Where shallow rock or soil slopes, are ravelling
•a dry rock wall face can provide support and will
be free draining. The base rocks must be on a
firm foundation.

Used to support large volumes of rock which would
otherwise have to be excavated or where key rocks
retain large volumes above. Ensure the
buttress is designed to take the line of thrust.
May require reinforcing or anchor grouting to
the rock mass. Can be built up with shotcrete.
For smaller volumes may consist of dry rock
packing.

Used to tie key rocks which if removed would
undermine support for other rocks. For smaller
blocks use bolts for large blocks, consider
cables. To develop maximum stability they
should be tensioned and then grouted full length.

This Increases shear strength of the joint,
prevents stress relaxation, and minimizes
corrosion. Rock bolt installations should
be properly designed to develop a conputed
load. Special bolt head design may be
necessary in soft rock. May be used in
conjunction with shotcrete. A basic
stabilization technique.

Dowells conprising reinforcing steel or scrap
rail can be grouted into drill holes located
at the toe of rock blocks to prevent then fron
sliding. The size, depth and spacing of the
dowells depends on the rock block size and
slope angle of the joint.

Anchored beams can be used to support larger
areas of rock face. May be used in conjunction
with shotcrete and wire mesh. Usually very
expensive.

May be used where large areas of a rock face
contains blocky Jointed rock. Use corrosion-
resistant mesh. Mesh size depends on rock
size and bolt spacing.

Figure 5 (continued)

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 461

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Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie

463

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464 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(a) Concrete buttress placed to

support massive rock slab above
the road bed.

(b) Anchored reinforced concrete
buttresses placed to support
foliated granite rock high up
on a slope.

(c) Anchor bolts with wire mesh to
positively control rockfall.

(d) Anchor bolt used to stabilize
rock block. All bolts should
be tensioned and grouted.

Figure 9 - Support Systems.

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 465

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Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, P. Wyllie

467

(a)

(b)

Figure 12 - Ditch Catclimcnt Control.
One of the most underated rockfall
control techniques is the vise of deep
catcliment ditches. V/here possible
ditches should be wide enough for
equipment to clean out.

(a) Ravelling slope containing large
boulders which can be caught with
adequate ditch.

(b) Large rock (20 cu.
by shallow ditch.

yds.) caught

(c) Highway catch ditch developed to
catch erosion wash and rockfall.

(c)

468 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 13 - Catchment Techniques.

(a) Wire mesh fences - only suitable
to catch small rock.

(b) Dry rock walls - Suitable to
reduce slope gradient.

(c) Concrete catch walls - effective
but expensive and subject to
breakage due to rigidity.

(d) Gabion walls - effective and resilient
Variable heights are possible.
Vertical back face is essential.

(e) Metal binwalls - efficient retaining
structures, adjust to foundation
condit ions.

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie

469

(a) Visual Inspection

(b) Air Photo

Interpretation

(c) Review of Records

(d) Track Patrols

(e) Instrumentation

(f) Electric Warning
Fences.
See Fig. 15

(g) Vibration Meter
Instnl latlons

Periodic inspection of rock faces and slopes will
frequently indicate locations of potential slide
conditions. The most important features are
adversely dipping weaknesses in the rock on which
falls will slip and the presence of water pressure
often indicated by seepage.

Large scale features relating to slides and avalanches
often indicate potentially unstable conditions
developing. Air photographs are of limited use in
rock fall assessment due to scale llnitations.

Records should be kept of all rock fall occurrences,
slides and avalanches. Annual review of this data
will pinpoint areas where more frequent falls, etc.
occur.

In some hazardous areas, during very adverse climatic
conditions or during spring melt periods track patrols
prior to train movement have been used.

The major stability concern on the railway is the
occurrence and potential of rock falls. Usually the
volumes are less than 10 cu. yds. Vfarning instrument-
ation used on rock slope stability programs in mining
are generally not applicable due to the high cost of
the great number of installations that would be
required. The most practical program is to observe
movement across cracks.

(a) Driving wooden plugs and observing plug
behaviour.

(b) Painting across cracks and observe paint.

(c) Put plaster in cracks and observe plaster.

The most common warning system used in Canada.
Fences are of two general types - tension trip and
broken wire trip. When rock or other falls or
debris fall and hit the fence the block signals are
automatically changed. For maximum statistical
warning coverage, electric fences should be connected
also to the dispatchers office. For consideration,
suggest also that a radio signal be activated from
the area of the fence to be picked up in all train
cabs when they come within 3-5 miles.

The greatest application for fences if for very high
slopes where the cost of stabilization would be
extreme. Slopes less than about 100 feet high can
generally have the surface stabilized for less
cost than installing and maintaining a fence.

Snow and ice cause severe maintenance problems in
winter. It Is suggested for consideration that
heating cable be tried as the fence wire.

There are some areas where surface stabilization could
be sufficiently successful to allow removal of the
warning fence. It should be resolved whether this
could psychologically be done.

Experimental at this stage,
being monitored.

A test install;

FIGURE K - SUMMARY OF WARJJING METHODS

470 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

Figure 15 — Electric warning fence below high, steep rock slope which is connected
into track signal system.

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, D. Wyllie 471

Rock will generally be reLained
on slopes flatter than 1-1/2:1,
the approximate angle of repose.

Ditch

Figure 16 - Provided the rock strength and geologic structure is favourable
and controlled blasting is used, vertical slopes should be
considered. This will reduce quantities to allow a wider
ditch and reduce maintenance. Ditches should be wide and deen
enough to act as a catchment.

472 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

(a) Comparison of rock slope using uncontrolled and controlled
blasting.

(b) Rock slope developed using preshear blasting.
Close control over drill hole alignment is
necessary.

Figure 17 - Controlled blasting to develop
uniform slopes in competent granite.

Regional Meeting Address by C. O. Brawner, P. Wyllie 473

Figure 18 - DETAILED APPRAISAL
STABILITY ASSESSMENT

STABILITY ASSESSMENT

Region Pacif
Mileage 2A.9

PRIORITY RATINC;

i-'ui- ivision

Date Apr. 10/75

Train Traffic Very Heavy

Alignment slight curve

Sight Visibility AOO ft. West; 800 ft. East

Average Climatic Conditions High winter snowfall, hot dry summers
Past Stability Record Several local blocks

DESCRIPTION OF SITE

Cut CSJ Fill HD Other CZl

Height 50 ft. Length

Rock cm Soil IZD Other CD

Geologic Description Blocky faulted granite - 3 major faults. Random joints.

Evidence of Water Slight seepage

Ifork Space Available Limited

DESCRIPTION OF POTENTIAL INSTABILITY - (TYPE, tlAGMITUDE, SERIOUSNESS)

Very large block could fail at east tunnel portal. Also - second block 60 ft. east
of portal.

Tunnel has thin roof - some rockfalls will cause daylight

DETAILS OF RECOMMENDED STABILIZATION

Put in 8 - 1-1/4" dowels at lower edge of rock - shotcrete fault around dowels

A - 1-1/4" dowels at second block.

Shotcrete entire tunnel roof and side and tunnel portal

PHOTOGRAPH OF SITE

^•^^^

474 Bulletin 656 — American Railway Engineering Association

TABLE 1

TABLE OF PRIORITY RATINGS

A - Moderate probability of failure of sufficent volume to result in derailment
if failure undetected.

B - Some probability of failure of sufficient volume to result in derailment
if failure undetected.

C - Moderate probability of failure of small volumes which might reach the
track.

D - Moderate probability of localized rocks or rockfalls occurring during
extreme climatic conditions - Very heavy rainfall or runoff, extreme
freeze-thaw cycles, etc.

E - Slight possibility of localized failures under extreme climatic conditions.
Generally shallow cuts.

DIRECTORY

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

FRANK R. WOOLFORD

Engineering Consultant — Railroadt

24 Josepha Ave.

San Francisco, Ca. 94132

(415) 587-1569

246 Seadrift Rd.

Stinson Beach, Ca. 94970

(415) 868-1555

Vkf

WestenhofF & Novick, Inc.
Consulting Engineers

Civil — Mechanical — Electrical

Fixed & Movable Bridges

Soils, Foundations, Buildings

Structural & Underwater Investigations

Planning, Feasibility, Design, Inspection

222 W. Adams St., Chicago, III. 60606
New Yoric Washington Panama

HAZELET & ERDAL

Consulting Engineers

Design Investigations Reports
Fixed and Movable Bridges

150 So. Wacker Dr., Chicago, III. 60606
LeulsvilU Cincinnati Washington

HIMTB

Feasibility studies and design services for

Bus and rail transit Terminals

Regional and urban planning Pailcing

Soils and foundations Tunnels

Stnictures Utilities
Environmental Impact studies

Offices in 28 cities 816 474-4900

1805 Grand Avenue, Kansas City, Missouri 64108

MODJESKI AND MASTERS

Cen*«fffn0 EogtiioMi

Design, inspection of Construction !> In-
spection of Physical Condition of Fixed
& Movable Railroad Bridges

P.O. Box 2345, Harrisburg, Pa. 17105
1055 St. Charles Ave., New Orleans, La.

CLARK, DIETZ AND

ASSOCIATES-ENGINEERS, INC.

Consulting Engineers

Bridges Structures, Foundations, Indus-
trial Wastes and Railroad Relocattoe

211 No. Race St., Urfcana, III.

Sanford, Fla. Memphis, Tenn.

Jackson, Miss. St. Louis, Mo.

Chicago, III.

474-1

474-2

Directory of Consulting Engineers

ih

Engineers
Designers Planners

PARSONS Route Locotion, Shop

»»... .^.^.-rNi i/^F-.- Facilities, Container/

BRINCKERHOFF BuIIc Cargo, Handling

nilAHF Utilities, Bridget, Tun-

yvj/AL/c ^^,j Evaluations, Ap-

DOUGLAS, Inc. pralsals. Supervision

ONE PENN PLAZA, NEW YORK, NY 10001

Boston • Denver
San Francisco

, Honolulu
Trenton

HARDESTY & HANOVER

Conaulting Cnglnrntt

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING

Highways • Railways

Bridges — Fixed and Movable

Design • Resident Inspection

Studies • Appraisals

101 Parle Ave., New York, N. Y. 10017

THOMAS K. DYER, INC.

Consulting Bnginews

Railroads — ^Transit Systems
Track, Signals, Structures

Invettlgolieni and Feasibility R*|Mrts
ffonnlng. Design, Cenlract Decumenls

1762 MotMclNitetl* Avmhm
LMiingten, Mom. 02173

npnil]eDe[euw,Cdtl]e[D[ganizdtion

UUU CONSULTING ENGIMEERS

165 W. WACKER DRIVE • CHICAGO 60601

SUBWAYS . RAILROADS • PUBLIC TRANSIT

TRAFFIC . PARKING • HIGHWAYS
BRIDGES • PORT DEVELOPMENT • AIRPORTS
COMMUNITY PLANNING • URBAN RENEWAL
MUNICIPAL WORKS . INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

IEC0^

RAILROAD
DESIGN & ELECTRIFICATION

Planning • Design
Construction Management

INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING
COMPANY, INC.

220 MONTGOMERY STREET
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 94104

RILEY, PARK, HAYDEN &
ASSOCIATES, INC.

Centwff/ng Englifwt

Survey Services, Photogrammetry, Gen-
eral Civil, Bridges, Railroads ft Indus-
trial Park Design.

136 Marietta St., N. W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30303

(404) 577-5600

Directory of Consulting Engineers

474-3

SVEROROP & PARCa AND ASSOaATES. INC

800 No. Twelfth Blvd. • St. Louis, Mo. 63101

Boston • Oiarleston • Gainesville • Jacksonville
Nashville • New YorV • Phoenix • San Francisco
Seaille • Silver Spring • Washington, D.C.

• design

• planning

• construction
management

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

I Mir PORTER AND mPA
ASSOCIATES, INC

Consulting Engineers — Planners

Design ' Inspections - Reports

Planning • Structures

Environmental Studies

20« Madison Avcnu*, Morristown, New Jersey 079tO

SPAULOING ENGINEERING CO.

CONSULTING ENGINEERS

MEMBER

AMERICAN CONSULTING ENGINEERS COUNCIL

1821 UNIVERSITY AVENUE

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 55104

PHONE 612/644-5676

SOROS ASSOCIATES

Consulting Engineers

Transfer Termlnati & Ports For Dry Bulks,

Liquids & CentaiiMrs — Waterfront Structure*

Materials Hondltng Systems

575 L«xington Ave.

New York, N. Y. 10022

(212) 421-0400

Rio de Janeiro Santiago, Chil*

Sydney, Australia

BAKKE & KOPP, INC.

Consulting Engineer*

RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY BRIDGES

SPECIAL AND HEAVY STRUCTURES

INVESTIGATIONS AND REPORTS

4915 W. 35lh St. Mlnnecpolis, MN 55416

(612) 920-93*3

A. J. HENDRY, INC.

>

CONSULTING ENCDSERS

SIGNALS • COMMUNICATIONS • AUTOMATION • EliaRIFICATlON

ItAILROADS • RAIL TRANSIT

SUITE SIO OSSORN BUILDING

ST. PAUL. MINNESOTA isi02 <61Z) 222 2787

474-4

Directory of Consulting Engineers

TURNER ENGINEERING
COMPANY

(SAWYER-PIEPMEIER)

RAILROAD ENGINEERING

306 GAY ST.
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 37201

615-244-2144
ALBANY, NY 518-456-1994

Railroads • Rapid Transit

Electric Traction Power

Signals and Train Control

Communications • Substations .

Operations Analysis and Simulation

Power Generation • Urban Planning

Gibbs Si Hill, Inc.

ENGINEERS, DESIGNERS. CONSTRUCTORS

393 Seventh Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10001

A Subsidiary of Dravo Corporation

GENTEG CENTRAL TECHNOLOGY, INC

Railroad Consultants

OPERATION ENGINEERING

RESEARCH ROUTE LOCATION

MANAGEMENT CONSTRUCTION

Dulles International Airport
P.O. Box 17411
Washington, O.C. 20041

(703) 471-7070
Cable: CENTEC
Telex: 89-9493

WOLCHUK and MAYRBAURL
CONSULTING ENGINEERS

RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY BRIDGES

SPECIAL STRUCTURES

DESIGN— INVESTIGATIONS— REPORTS

432 PARK AVE. S., NEW YORK, NY 1 001 6
(212) 689-0220

MORE TON MILES

of SERVICE

and LESS MAINTENANCE

wHh

PENO
ERVICES

BALLAST
CLEANING

RAIL

GRINDING

SoutK*m Pacific

, - * J®!^ ^; «™" KjiAi

Discover how yoa can get more ton miles of
■JE service at less maintenance cost by using Speno

,,:' Ballast Cleaning and Rait Grinding.

THROUGHOUT THE CONTINENT

FRANK SPENO RAILROAD BALLAST CLEANING COMPANY, INC.

306 North Cayuga St , Ithaca, New York 14850
Clark Street. Box 219, East Syracuse, New York 13057

SPENO INTERNATIONAL S.A. lEC-HOLDEN, LTD.

22 Pare Chateau Banquet. Geneva, Switzerland 8180 Cote de Liesse Road

(For Rail Gr ndmg Ou',.-3c !he Nor'h RPI Montreal, Canada H4T1G8

TRASCO Track Skates

Preferred by skatemen

Light

Tough

Balanced hand hold

No curl tongue

TRACK SPECIALTIES

COMPANY
Box 729 Westport,Conn.

(

*•. C kjj-eLtim^ytc

JZL

RECEIVED"
AU

American Railway ^^^,^,,,^^

Engineering Association— Bulletin

Bulletin 658 June-July 1976

Proceedings Vol. 77*

TECHNICAL CONFERENCE REPORT ISSUE

CONTENTS

President's Address 487

Special Features 491

Installation of Oflficers 667

AAR Engineering Division Session 673

Report of Executive Director 681

Report of Treasurer 691

AREA Constitution 697

Directory — Consulting Engineers 717

•Proceedings Volume 77 (1976) will consist of AREA Bulletins 634, September-
October 1975: 655, November-December 1973; 656, January-Febraary 1976; and 658.
June-July 1976 (Technical Conference Report issue). Blue-covered Bulletin 857, April-
May 1976 (the Directory issue), is not a part of the Annual Proceedings of the Association

BOARD OF DIRECTION
1976-1977

President
JoHK Fox, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Windsor Station, MonUcal, PQ
H3C 3E4

Vice Presidents
B. J. WoKJLEY, Vice President— Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific

Railroad, Union Station, Roona 898, Chicago, IL 60606
W. S. AuTREY, Chief Engineer System, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, 80 E.

Jackson Blvd., Chicago, IL 60604

Past Presidents
R. F. Bush, Chief Engineer— Special Projects, Consolidated Rail Corporation, 6 Penn

Center Plaza, Room 1640, Philadelphia, PA 19104
J. T. Wakd, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, 500 Water

St., Jacksonville, FL 32202

Directors
P. L. Montgomery, Manager Engineering Systems, Norfolk & Western Railway, 8 N.

Jefferson St., Roanoke, VA 24042
E. C. HoNATH, Assistant General Manager Engineering, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe

Railway, 900 Polk St., Amarillo, TX 79171
Mike Rougas, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, P. O. Box 471, Green-
ville, PA 16125
J. W. DeVaixe, Chief Engineer Bridges, Southern Railway System, 99 Spring St., S. W.,

Atlanta, GA 30303
E. H. Waring, Chief Engineer, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, P. O. Box

5482, Denver, CO 80217
Wm. Glavin, General Manager, Grand Trunk Western Railroad, 131 W. Lafayette

Blvd., Detroit, MI 48226
G. H. Maxwell, System Engineer of Track, Union Pacific Railroad, 1416 Dodge St.,

Omaha, NE 68179
J. W. Brent, Chief Engineer, Chessie System, P. 0. Box 6419, Cleveland, OH 44101
L. F. Ctjrrier, Engineer — Structures, Louisville & Nashville Railroad, P. O. Box 1198,

Louisville, KY 40201
T. L, FxnxER, Engineer of Bridges, Southern Pacific Transportation Company, One

Market St., San Francisco, CA 94105
J. A. Barnes, Assistant Vice President & Chief Engineer, Chicago & North Western

Transportation Company, 500 W. Madison St., Chicago, IL 60606

Treasurer
A. B. EIillman, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago, 6900 S. Central Ave.,
Chicago, IL 60638

Executive Director
Earl W. Hodgkins, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Assistant to Executive Director
N. V. Engman, 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Administrative Assistant
D. F. Fredley, 59 E, Van Buren St., Chicago, IL 60605

Published by the American Railway Engineering Association, Bi-Monthly, January-FetMTiary, AjMil-

May, June-July, September-October and November-December, at

59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago, 111. 60605

Second class postage at Chicago, 111., and at additional mailing offices.

Subscription $15 per annum

Copyright © 1976

.\uxKicAN Rail WAY Encineesino Associatiom

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying

recording, or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher.

PROCEEDINGS

SEVENTY-FIFTH TECHNICAL CONFERENCE

American Railway Engineering
Association

March 22-24, 1976
PALMER HOUSE, CHICAGO

VOLUME 77

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION

59 Easf Van Buren Street

Chicago, Illinois 60605

475

Bui. 65S

OFFICERS, 1975-1976

J. T. Ward
President

St. Asst. Chf. Engr., S.C.L. RR.

John Fox
Sr. Vice President

Chief Engr.
C. P. Ltd.

R. F. Bush
Past President

Chf. Engr.-Spec. Proj.
ConRail

B. J. WORLEY

Jr. Vice President

Vice Pres
C. M. St.

;.-Chf. Engr.
P. & P. RR.

....'^

Hi^^'-"'-

K

«*9»«>r?-.

'^t^

Ib^

A. B. HiLLMAN, Ja
Treasurer

Chief Engr.
Belt Ry. of Chicago

476

D. V. Sartore
Past President

Chf. Engr. Design
B. N., Inc.

Earl W. Hodgkins

Executive Director

and Secretary

AREA

DIRECTORS, 1975-1976

R. W. Pember

1973-76

Chf. Engr.-
Des. & Const.
L. & X. RR.

E. Q. Johnson
1973-76

Sr. Asst. Chf. Engr.
Chessie Sys.

W. E. FuHR

1973-76

Asst. Chf. Engr.-Staff
C. M. St. P. & P. RR.

B. E. Pe.^rson
1973-76

Chief Engr.
Soo Line RR.

^

fa

1^'

: W

]

p. L. Montgomery

1974-77

Mgr. Engrg. Sys.
X.&\V. R\ .

E. C. HONATH

1974-77

Asst. Gen. Mgr. Engrg.
A. T. & S. F. Ry.

Mike Rougas

1974-77

Chief Engr.
B.&L. E. RR.

J. W. De Valle

1974-77

Chf. Enirr. Bridges
Sou. Rv. Svs.

R. L. Gray
1975-76

Spec. Advisor

Toronto Area Tran.

Oper. Auth.

E. H. Waring

197.5-78

Chief Engr.
D.&R.G.W. RR.

Bui. C58

Wm. Glavin

1975-78

Gen. Mgr.
G.T.W. RR.

477

3. H. Maxwell

1975-78

Sys. Engr. Track
U.P. RR.

CONTENTS

Page

Officers, 1975-1976 476

Directors, 1975-1976 477

Technical Conference Program 479

Nominating Committee and Tellers Committee, 1976 Election 482

Successful Canciidates in 1976 Election 483

Address by President John T. Ward 487

Special Features:

Address — Description of Architectural Competition Sponsored by AREA Committee

6 — Buildings, by D. A. Bessey 493

Address — Track Maintenance for High-Speed Trains, by Harold H. Jenkins 499

Address — Hot Box Detector Data Analyzer System, by W. Friesen 521

Address — "The Quiet One," Burlington Northern's Northtown Yard, by M. B.

Walker 555

Address — The Load Spectrum for the Fraser River Bridge at New Westminister,

B. C, by R. A. P. Sweeney 561

Address — An Investigation of the Estimated Fatigue Damage in Members of the
380-Ft Main Span, Fraser River Bridge, by John W. Fisher and J. Hartley
Daniels 577

Address — Data Bases: Help or Harassment for Engineering Management, by

Charles F. Wiza 597

Address — Rail Wear and Corrugation Studies, by F. E. King and J. Kalousek __ 601

Address — High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails, by Y. E. Smith, J. M. Sawhill,

Jr., W. W. Cias and G. T. Eldis 621

Address — Innovations in Frog and Switch Design, by E. H. Taylor 652

Address — C&NW's "BUC" (Ballast Undercutter-Cleaner) , by R. W. Bailey 665

Installation of Officers 669

AAR Engineering Division Session:

Remarks by Division Chairman John T. Ward 675

Address — A Time for Challenge, by D. C. Hastings 677

Report of Executive Director Earl W. Hodgkins 683

Report of Treasurer A. B. Hillman, Jr. 693

AREA Constitution 699

478

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
75th ANNUAL TECHNICAL CONFERENCE

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN RAILROADS
ENGINEERING DIVISION

1976 ANNUAL MEETING

MARCH 22-24, 1976
Palmer House, Chicago

PROGRAM
Monday, March 22

Opening Session — Red Lacquer Room (4th Floor) — 9:30 am

Invocation — Dr. Kenneth Hildebrand, Pastor Emeritus, Central Church of Chicago

Recognition of speakers table guests

Presidential Address — John T. Ward, Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard
Coast Line Railroad

Report of Treasurer — Arthur B. Hillman, Jr., Chief Engineer, Belt Railway of Chicago

Report of Executive Director — Earl W. Hodgkins, AREA

Greetings from Railway Engineering-Maintenance Suppliers Association — Harry D.
Campbell, President

Description of Architectural Competition Sponsored by AREA Committee 6 — Build-
ings (Illustrated) and Presentation of Award to Student Winner — D. A. Bessey,
Architect, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad
Description of Winning Entry by Student Winner

Maintaining Track for High-Speed Trains — Harold Jenkins, Permanent Way Engi-
neer, British Rail

479

480 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Engineering Division Session — Red Lacquer Room — 1:30 pm

Recognition of speakers table guests

Remarks by Chairman John T. Ward

Remarks by R. R. Manion, Vice President, Operations and Maintenance Department,
AAR

Remarks by Dr. W. J. Harris, Jr., Vice President, Research and Test Department,
AAR

Address by D. C. Hastings, Chairman, AAR Operating-Transportation Division;
Executive Vice President, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad

Up Date on IFAST at Pueblo, Colorado (Illustrated)— Dr. G. C. Martin, Director
of Dynamics Research, AAR, and Dr. R. M. McCafferty, Program Manager,
Improved Track Performance Research, Federal Railroad Administration

Ballast and Foimdation Materials Research Program (Illustrated) (Committee 1 —
Roadway and Ballast) — Dr. G. C. Martin, AAR, and Dr. M. R. Thompson,
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois

Developments in Timber Ties (Illustrated) (Committee 3 — Ties and Wood Preser-
vation)— H. M, Williamson, Consulting Engineer; Retired Chief Engineer,
System, Southern Pacific Transportation Company

REMSA RECEPTION — Grand Ballroom — 6:30 pm-8:00 pm

TUESDAY, MARCH 23

Technical Session — Red Lacquer Room — 8:30 am

Computer Analysis of Hot Box Detector Signals (Illustrated) — Walter Friesen,
Senior Design Engineer — Signals, Canadian National Railways

The Quiet One — Noise Abatement Dealing with Retarders in the New Northtovra
Yard (Illustrated) (Committee 13 — Environmental Engineering) — M. B.
Walker, Assistant Director — Signal Engineering, Bvulington Northern, Inc.

Fatigue Study of New Westminster Bridge (Illustrated) (Committee 15 — Steel
Structures) — Dr. J. W. Fisher, Professor of Civil Engineering, Fritz Engineer-
ing Laboratory, Lehigh University, and R. A. P. Sweeney, Structural Engineer,
Canadian National Railways

Solving a DiflBcult Foimdation Problem ( Illustrated ) ( Committee 8 — Concrete Struc-
tures and Foundations) — Dr. W. L, Gamble and Dr. M. T. Davisson, Professors
of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois

Conference Program 481

ANNUAL LUNCHEON— GRAND BALLROOM— 12:00 NOON

Presentation of guests at speakers table

Presentation of newly elected officers

Address by W. T. Rice, Chairman of the Board, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad

Technical Session — Red Lacquer Room — 2:00 pm

Motion Picture on Northern Alberta Railways

Snow Control by Model Analysis (Illustrated) — F. H. Theakston, Partner, Morrison,
Hershfield, Theakston and Rowan

Laminated Wood Materials for Bridge Decking ( Illustrated ) ( Committee 7 — Timber
Structures) — T. E. Brassell, Director of Technical Services, American Institute
of Timber Construction

Precast Concrete (Illustrated) (Committee 8 — Concrete Structures and Foundations)
— J. G. White, Vice President and General Manager, Con-Force Costain Concrete
Tie Co. Ltd.

Data Bases: Help or Harassment for Engineering Management (Committee 32 —
Systems Engineering) — C. F. Wiza, Manager — Methods and Planning, Illinois
Central Gulf Railroad

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 24

Technical Session — Red Lacquer Room — 8:30 am

Rail Flow and Corrugation Studies (Illustrated) (Committee 4 — Rail) — Dr. Joseph
Kalousek, Research Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, and F. E. King, Senior
Technical Advisor, Canadian National Railways

High-Strength Chrome Molybdenum Rail Steel (Illustrated) — Y. E. Smith, Research
Supervisor, Climax Molybdenum Company of Michigan

Iimovations in Frog and Switch Design (Illustrated) (Committee 5 — Track) — E. H.
Taylor, Supervisor of Track Development, Canadian Pacific Rail

C&NW's BUG (Ballast Undercutter Cleaner) (Illustrated) (Committee 27 — Mainte-
nance of Way Work Equipment) — R. W. Bailey, Director of Maintenance Plan-
ning, Chicago & North Western Transportation Company

Installation of Officers

Adjournment

482

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Nominating Committee, 1976 Election

Past Presidents
Q. Johnson, Chairman

Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Ches-
sie System

A. L. Sams

Vice President, DeLeuw, Gather 6c
Company

R. M. Brown

Chief Engineer, Union Pacific Rail-
road
D. V. Sartore

Chief Engineer — Design, Burlington
Northern, Inc.

R. F. Bush

Chief Engineer — ^Special Projects, Con-
solidated Rail Corporation

Elected Members
J. E. Sunderland (East)

Director Engineering Programs, Ches-

sie System
D. S. Bechly (South)

Engineer — Structures, Illinois Central
Gulf Railroad
L. G. Collister (West)

Manager Tie & Timber Department,
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail-
way
Bernard Fast (Canada)

Assistant Regional Engineer, Canadian
Pacific Rail
C. L. Gatton (At Large)

Assistant Clijief Engineer — Mainte-
nance of Way, Louisville & Nash-
ville Railroad

Committee of Tellers, 1976 Election

The following committee was appointed to canvass the ballots for Officers and
Directors and for Members of the Nominating Committee, the count being made on
February 20, 1976.

W. S. Stokely, Chairman W. F. Burt

N. E. Whitney, Jr.,

Vice Chairman
L. R. Beattie
J. E. Beran
D. E. BucHKO

J. BUDZILENI

J. L. HODSON

G. H. Hogue
R. W. Janssen
D. C. Knuth
C. R. Lund
G. W. Mahn, Jr.

W. B. Stanczyk
P. H. Swanson
R. Urbano
R. A. Vollrath
R. L. Williams
D. R. York

Successful Candidates in ]976 Election

For President
John Fox, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, Montreal, Que.

For Senior Vice President*

B. J. Worley, Vice President — C^hief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul &
Pacific Railroad, Chicago

For Junior Vice President

W. S. Autrey, Chief Engineer System, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway,
Chicago

For Directors

East:

J. W. Brent, Chief Engineer, Chessie System, Cleveland, Ohio

Smith:

L. F. Currier, Engineer — Structures, Louisville & Nashville Railroad, Louis-
ville, Ky.

West:

T. L. Fuller, Engineer of Bridges, Soutliern Pacific Transportation Company,

San Francisco, Calif.
J. A. Barnes, Assistant Vice President & Chief Engineer, Chicago & North

Western Transportation Company, Chicago

For Members of 1976 Nominating Committee

East:

J. J. Ridgeway, Director — Engineering Services, Bessemer & Lake Erie Rail-
road, Greenville, Pa.

South:

C. E. Webb, Assistant Vice President — Engineering & Research, Southern
Railway, Washington, D. C.

West:

R. E. Frame, District Engineer, Southern Pacific Transportation Company, San
Francisco, Calif.

Canada:

A. E. Speers, Regional Engineer Administration, Canadian National Railways,
Toronto, Ont.

At Large:

R. E Haacke. District Engineer, Union Pacific Railroad, Portland, Ore.

* Under the provisions of the AREA Constitution, B. J. Worley advances automatically from
Junior Vice President to Senior Vice President.

483

Bui. 058

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS

485

Bui. 058

Address by President John T. Ward*

Welcome to the 75th Annual Technical Conference of the American Railway
Engineering Association. This welcome is directed to all memljers and guests of
the Association, but I wish to add a special or particular welcome to the ladies
who are gathered near the front of the meeting room. It is always a pleasure to
have you attend this opening session, and I trust you will remain for as much of
the program as you desire.

Somewhere along the way, I heard the story of an elderly black preacher who
expounded Sunday after Sunday on the "Status Quo." This went on for some time,
when finally one of his parishioners got up nerve enough to ask him, "What is
dis Status Quo?" The pastor's response was, "That's Latin for the mess we's in."

This is said to point up the fact that the rail industry, with which all of us
are associated in one way or another, has been in somewhat of a mess during the
year just ending. Possibly a better choice of words would be unstable or unsettled.
Regardless of which descriptive word is used for the state of the industry, it has
been a rather trying year for the group seated in this room today.

The year began with less rail traffic, resulting in reduced revenues. This caused
a chain reaction towards lesser maintenance appropriations and restrictions on
travel for most railroad employees, and particularly for maintenance employees, with
the result that AREA has, likewise, felt the brunt of all of this in its activities.

Additionally, the Association's executive director. Earl W. Hodgkins, was away
from the office for approximately four months as a result of bypass heart surgery.
This slowed down somewhat the activities of AREA, although the yeoman job done
by Don Fredley and Norris Engman, as well as others on the staff, plus the support
of the Board of Direction, allowed the work to be accomplished as necessary. The
special thanks of the Association are expressed to Don and Norry for their very able
assistance while Earl was unavailable. It must he reported, however, that Earl con-
tinued to undertake considerable work of your Association at home while recuper-
ating, including the many details of this Technical Conference which fall within
his bailiwick.

What has been accomplished during the year? Your Association had a very
excellent Technical Conference last March here at the Palmer House, headed up
by immediate Past President Bob Bush. The program was excellent, as evidenced
by the large attendance at each of the presentations. Very able assistance was
offered by many members of AREA in suggesting track components and configura-
tions which might be incorporated in the accelerated service testing loop under
construction by the Federal Railroad Administration at Pueblo, Colo. This facility
is scheduled to l>e in service by mid-year. In October, there was the annual Regional
Meeting in Vancouver, B. C, attended by approximately 225 members and guests.
The program for this latter meeting was developed by Vice President John Fox,
and it was a good one. In between the Technical Conference and Regional Meet-
ing, as well as before and after, the work of the 19 standing committees and one
special committee of your Association was progressed — some quite actively, while
certain other committees reacted in just a mediocre manner.

It is this latter phase of the work of AREA to which it is desirable that I
address myself at the moment. The objectives of your Association are advanced

' Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, Jacksonville, Fla.

487

488 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

through tlie work of its committees in two ways, and these certainly are the heart
and soul of the organization. First, the development of informaMon pertinent to
their assignments which may be presented to the membership as a whole "as
information" and, secondly, the formulation of recommended practices to be sub-
mitted for adoption and publication in the Manual for Railway Engineering or
Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.

It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that the work of AREA committees
be pursued with vigor and dispatch in order that the aforementioned results will
be completely fulfilled. There are many ways this may be accomplished. Member-
ship attendance at all committee meetings is, of course, highly desirable, but in
this day of suppressed travel, because of decline in revenues, may not be entirely
possible. It is important, however, that the membership be selective in the meet-
ings attended and certainly be cognizant of the ongoing activity of committee work
by fully reading all correspondence, participating in same to the extent necessary
to progress a given assignment, and, particularly, to respond to all questionnaires
submitted by committees.

Additionally, all committee chairmen have been urged to recommend only
those assignments which can be pursued to an early conclusion, to set completion
schedules on authorized assignments and to check with subcommittee chairmen
from time to time to insure that each assignment is being progressed accordingly.
Only in this manner can the desired results of committee activity be accomplished.

The AREA Board of Direction and, particularly its Committee on Technical
Activity, chairmanned by Director Mike Rougas, has urged each of the commit-
tees to progress their work accordingly. As stated above, I am happy to report
that many have reacted favorably in this regard, but there are some whose work
leaves something to be desired. It is in this latter area that improvement must be
accomplished. This of course, is no different from any other organization, wherein
it appears difficult always to obtain a full 100% participation.

Your Association's membership has continued to increase during the year under
the leadership of the Committee on Membership, chairmanned by Director Doc
Pember. AREA is also financially stable. Further detailed reports in this regard will
fellow from the Executive Director, Earl Hodgkins, and Treasurer Art Hillman.
A number of the new memljers are consultants and others are from the supply
industry. We need to concentrate our efforts in interesting some of our associates
in the rail industry in membership in AREA, and particularly any new engineers
who may be working with us. The expertise of these rail employees is very vitally
needed in the work of your Association.

This year, there have been a number of requests for purchase of AREA Man-
uals for Railway Engineering and Portfolios of Trackwork Plans. These requests
have come principally from consultants and foreign countries, but it bears out the
fact your Association is well-thought-of worldwide. These sales have, of course,
aided the financial condition of the organization. Additionally, in this day of rising
costs, your Board of Direction found it necessary to increase the cost of registra-
tion at this Technical Conference to $10. Checking l:)ills against receipts for these fine
facilities at the Palmer House for the past couple of years, it was determined that
your Association was running in the red in this item of the budget, and die in-
crease in registration cost was, therefore, inevitable. These are just two areas of
finance which I elected to lift up and comment on at this time. There are others,
of course, and these are being watched very carefully on a continuing basis by
the Committee on Finance, headed by Past President Bob Bush.

Address by President Ward 489

During this past year, a Manual chapter was assigned to the Committee on
Electrical Energy Utilization. This group has been designated as Committee 33.
This is particularly important in light of present-day activity in electrification.

This is just a thumb-nail sketch of some of the activities of your Association
during the year just closing. M>- personal thanks are expressed to Earl Hodgkins,
Don Fredley and Norry Engman for their able assistance in all phases of the work
this year. A particular note of appreciation is directed to the entire Board of
Direction who tra\'eled many miles upon call for meetings, lx)th regular and
special, in order to participate in and further tlie ongoing work of AREA. Witliout
such support, the desired results could certainly not have been obtained.

Certainly, the Conference Operating Committee, headed by Bruce Miller, and
who was ably assisted by many, must be praised for the excellent arrangements
in respect to these meetings. It must be realized there are many hours spent
behind the scenes by this fine committee, and the smoothness of the operations
simply does not come into being without such dedication.

The Association expresses appreciation for the cooperation during the year
of its many friends in the supph' industry and for their help in advancing the
cause of the rail industry, as a whole, and AREA. It is through such associations
diat our jobs are made easier. Thank you, also, for your excellent attendance at
this Technical Conference.

It would be an error in judgment to close without saluting tlie nation on its
200tli birthday. I am particularK' pleased to l>e a part of it and it is always thrill-
ing to hear and/or see the action in respect to the bicentennial celebration on
radio, tele%ision, the beautiful presentation at Disney World, and the like. These
will continue throughout the year and will certainly add to the efforts of all in
the celebration.

Business boomed during the mid- 18th century war with France. American
merchants traded freely with the enemy at the same time they supplied the British
army. At the close of the war, howe\ er, there followed a traditional postwar letdown
and this was America's first depression. This was a shock to Americans, and they
really never got over it, even when prosperity returned.

There were many causes for the American Re\olution 200 years ago. The most
important, however, was the threat to the dream of an economically comfortable
life which had brought most Americans to these shores initially, along with the
desire to be independent and free from oppression.

Does this not strike a parallel with conditions as they exist today? As stated
in my opening remarks, the year just closing has been a rather tr>'ing one. Possibly
it was not a depression, as such, but it was bordering close thereon for whatever
it may be called. The economy, however, is now on the way up and, hopefully,
it will continue. This will make the job easier for all of us. As was noted in the
January issue of Railway Tracks and Structures, "The next ten years are going to
be the most exciting period ever experienced by maintenance of way men every-
where in the United States." Let's get going.

Thank you for the honor I ha\e had this year in serving as President of AREA.
It has been a pleasure, and certainly has been a high point in my career in the
rail transportation field.

SPECIAL FEATURES

491

Description of Architectural Competition Sponsored
by AREA Committee 6^Buiidings

77-658-1

By D. A. BESSEY

Architect
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad

Article I, Sections 1 and 2, of the American Railway Engineering Association
Constitution reads as follows:

"The name of this Association shall be the American Railway
Engineering Association. The objective of the Association shall
be the advancement of knowledge pertaining to the scientific
and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance
of Railways."

I am assuming that the purpose of the Association, therefore, is to assist the
engineers, architects and all other people involved in the engineering asiject of
our industry. So — it appears this is our purpose for being here. This very definitely
justifies our existence.

Now, we of Committee 6, with a membership comprised of architects and
engineers direcdy engaged in the design, construction and maintenance of our
buildings, ha\e, over a number of years, discussed a problem that not only seems
unique to us, but possibly is unique to all engineering staffs on the American
railroads. And that is in our particular case, in the staffing of architecture or build-
ing departments, we find it is definitely necessary to familiarize the architectural
students throughout the U. S. and Canada with radroad architecture and to bring
about an awareness of emplojTnent opportunity in the railroad industr\'. We feel
that tliere has been a definite need to improxe tlie communication between the
railroad industry' and the colleges and universities which offer an architectural
program in their curriculum. During the process of attaining a degree in architec-
ture, the architectural student has numerous design classes which involve the
solution of problems, and in many cases, the architectural problems are obtained
from corporations or associations, and the process of solving tlie problem is part
of the class procedure.

It was with knowledge of this process that the AREA Committee 6 Archi-
tectural Competition idea came to life.

In December of 1971 the idea of an Architectural Competition sponsored
by AREA was submitted to Committee 6 by W. C. Stunn who is presently chair-
man of the committee. The proposal was generally accepted by the committee
and we pursued it further. We made inquiries of architectural schools throughout
the country. We even contacted the American Institute of Architects to get a feel
for the proposal. The reaction of uni\ersities that were contacted was favorable, so
in 1974 a committee was appointed to further pursue die proposed Architectural
Competition. At this time the special committee composed a preliminary draft of
an Architectural Competition Problem. The Problem that was chosen was the
design of a control tower and service building for a railroad classification yard.
Committee 6 had just cx)mpleted a report on elevated yardniasters towers which

Note: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

493

494 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

has l)een submitted for information and will eventually become a part of Chap-
ter 6 and, it seemed like a logical type building to use for this Competition.

I would like to present a short pictorial story of the Architectural Competi-
tion project. [The slides presented are not reproduced herein.]

"What does a railroad architect do — design box cars?" I've heard that ques-
tion for the last 25 years. But now I'm sure that there are hundreds of architectural
students throughout the United States and Canada that have a much clearer
understanding of railroad architecture.

On March 25, 1975, the Board of Direction of AREA approved the project
and allocated the necessary funding to carry out the Architectural Design
Competition.

A prehminary draft of the Architectural Competition Problem was sent to
79 colleges and universities in the U. S. and 10 in Canada, for a total of 89 schools
of architecture. A total of 26 universities responded positively and indicated that
they wished to consider participation in the Competition.

At the June meeting of Committee 6 the final draft of the Architectural
Problem was completed by the membership at large. A representative from the
membership of Committee 6 was appointed to each school taking part in the Com-
petition. This representative kept in close contact with the college or university
and assisted the school's Architectural staff in all matters dealing with the Compe-
tition. In many cases, the representative arranged for the students involved in tlie
project to visit railroad installations. At this same meeting a panel of 7 judges,
all members of Committee 6, were appointed. Included on the panel were 7 archi-
tects with excellent credentials holding registration in 13 States and 1 Province
in Canada.

The Competition Problem was typed and copies of the Problem were printed,
thanks to the EJ&E Print Shop. Approximately 900 copies of the Competition were
mailed out to the 26 universities which indicated an interest in taking part in
the Architectural Competition. We only worked with the university and did not
work directly with the students in conducting the Competition.

[A list of the participating universities may be found in the report of Com-
mittee 6 as published in Bulletin 656, January-Febmary 1976.]

The entries were mailed to my office and I received most of them by Janu-
ary 31. The Competition was judged in Chicago on February 9 and 10. A total
of 96 entries was received from 14 schools.

All entries that were received were pre-judged prior to the 9th and 10th of
February to determine if there were any great deviations from the rules of the
Competition. All entries were numbered and the name of the architectural student
was concealed.

The judging took place on February 9 and 10. On the first day of judging, the
judges reviewed all the 96 entries and graded them on the basis of 1 to 9. At the
close of the day, the judges had narrowed the 96 entries down to 23. As the judges
finished grading the entries the tally clerks calculated the scores. On the second
day of judging the remaining entries were reduced to 7. From the 7, the 1st place,
2nd place and 5 Honorable Mentions were chosen.

Now I would like to announce the winners of the AREA Committee 6 Architec-
tural Competition. The 5 students receiving Honorable Mention and who will be
awarded a $50 prize are as follows: Allen L. Brown — Oklahoma State University;

Remarks by Don McGee 495

Glenn Philips — Oklahoma State Uni\'ersity; Christopher M. Conley — University
of Illinois; Gary Westfall — University of Illinois; and Dennis L. Norton, Georgia
Institute of Technology.

The second place winner, who will receive a $250 prize, is Robert Mease —
Texas Tech University. It now gives us great pleasure to introduce the architectural
student winning 1st place — Don McGee of Texas Tech University.

REMARKS BY DON McGEE, TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY

Mr. Bessey and members of the American Railway Engineering Association,
thank you for the opportunity of representing my school and myself here in Chi-
cago. I consider this award a great honor and asset not only for myself but also
for Texas Tech University. The students and faculty are honored that your first
and second place awards went to Texas Tech students.

Before I begin the explanation of my design, I thought you might enjoy hear-
ing some general information concerning Texas Tech.

Texas Tech University is located in Lubbock on the South Plains of Texas.
Approximately 22,000 students and 5,000 faculty members are accommodated on
one of the largest campuses in America which is in excess of 1,800 acres. Students
have their choice of studying in six colleges and three schools. There are cur-
rently in excess of 800 students enrolled in architecture which is a department of
the College of Engineering. The department offers a Bachelor of Architecture degree
with options in design, structures, history, and urban design. The department is
housed in a modern 12-level facility which is connectetl with the art department
by a sub-level courtyard.

Approximately 70 senior architecture students and four faculty members were
involved with the AREA Architectural Competition. I would like to take this time
to thank Professor Burran and the senior design faculty and fellow students for
their assistance and constructive criticism in the development of my project.

Since I had never been exposed to railroad control towers, service buildings,
and classification yards, I had to almost totally rely on the problem statement for
all my information. The people responsible for writing the problem statement
deserve some special recognition for providing such clear and concise design criteria.
This excellent conmiunication was definitely a controlling factor in the result of
my work.

After reading and studying the problem statement, my major objectives were to
soke the specific problems posed in the program: to design an economically fea-
sible facility that could easily be implemented, and to design an aesthetically
pleasing facility' that would express its function. The major problems to be solved
that I isolated out of the problem statement are:

1. The problem of controlling noise generated from yard operations and that
noise generated from within the facility itself.

2. The problem of separating various work areas.

3. The problem of insufficient views from the facility.

4. The problem of coordinating the various functions of the facility in a logi-
cal order.

5. The problem of creating an aesthetically pleasing facility.

6. The problem of selecting mechanical and structural systems which could
accommodate the various environmental demands of the facility.

496 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

The next step was to use the information made available to me and additional
research to find the solutions to the isolated problems.

One of my major concerns is to protect employees and highly sensitive equip-
ment from the intense sound generated by the retarders located in the hump yard.
This problem is handled in several ways:

1. Lowering a portion of the building below grade.

2. Building berms around the facility to reflect sound waves.

3. By using as few windows as possible and locating only the vdndows in the
control tower facing the tracks. All exterior windows are also double glazed.

4. No doors are allowed to open directly into the yard.

5. All skylights are double glazed.

6. The selections of building materials are chosen for their mass to restrict
sovmd waves. These materials include concrete block, concrete panels, rigid
insulation, and river rock.

7. Using spaces seldom used by employees as buffer zones adjacent to the
tracks.

The solution to the problem of noise generated from within the facility is to
simply concentrate and isolate these noise generators from the rest of the facility.
As a result, the shop, mechanical equipment room, and compressor room are
actually contained in a separate building and then located next to the locker rooms
so that any escaping noise does not disturb sensitive equipment and employees.

It is very important to separate the various facilities and work areas with
as few physical elements as possible.

Due to the nature of the surrounding areas, which contain railroad tracks, an
interstate highway, and a nearby airport, I felt that there weren't any significant
visual attractions to capitalize on. So without any available views, the facility is
designed to look inward instead of outwards. An environment has to be created
since an appropriate one is not available. As one enters the facihty he must pass
through some transitional areas. These transitional areas act as buffers between the
harsh exterior environment and the "new" environment. The "new" environment is
achieved through the use of a large space at a human scale. The space is given an
indoor-outdoor relationship by:

1. Using the same materials that are used on the exterior.

2. Introducing vegetation through the use of planters.

3. Placing a large window wall adjacent to the enclosed landscaped court-
yard.

4. Introducing natural light through the skylights and from the window wall.

The space not only accommodates many functions, but serves as an interior
courtyard which is viewed from other spaces, such as the office area.

The diffierent functions of the facility are located so that they can operate
efficiently. The electronic equipment room, electronic storage room, electronic equip-
ment repair area all rely on each other, so they are located accordingly. The
office, computer room, and communication room also have complementing func-
tions and are located accordingly. This area is located near to the vertical access
to control tower because of their electronic and coiiununication relationship. The
control tower location is a result of obtaining the best possible views in order to
maintain control over yard operations. The control tower's form also expresses this.

Address by D. A. Bessey 497

The service corridor in die control tower is designed to keep the service func-
tions (rest room and vertical transportation) to the control room from interfering
with its function. All rest rooms and locker rooms are off the interior courtyard for
convenience. This courtyard becomes the heart of the facility. It controls all of
the traffic to and from the different spaces. The rest rooms and locker rooms are
designed for efficiency in flow. The shop, mechanical equipment room, and com-
pressor room are located near each other, not only to concentrate noise, but due
to their interdependence on each other through their function and maintenance.

An attempt is made to improve the surrounding environment by creating
an aesthetically pleasing facility. The equipment, such as the air reservoir tank and
cooling tower, that must be outside are concentrated in one area and screened.
This area becomes part of the overall architectural statement. The parking area
is not located directly in front of the facility, but located to the side and bermed
and landscaped to de-emphasize it. This also keeps the parking facilities from
becoming just a sea of concrete and asphalt. All elevations were studied with
composition and human scale considerations.

Due to the diverse activities that take place in the facility each activity re-
quires a different environment, for instance, the computer equipment must remain
at a constant temperature. This is achieved through the use of a zoned mechani-
cal system. Each zone can l)e controlled independently of the other zones. Load-
bearing walls and open-web steel joists are used to provide spaces with clear spans
for flexibility.

Thank you again for this honor. This will certainly be an asset in my career.
I hope that I have fulfilled my job of proxiding you with a functional, economically
feasible, and implementable facility.

CONCLUDING REMARKS BY MR. BESSEY

At this time I would like to ask Mr. Ward if he would make the presenta-
tion of the 1st place award to Don McGee.

[President Ward presented to Don McGee a placque and a check for $500.]

Thank you, Mr. Ward. Once again I would like to congratulate you, Don
McGee, for your first place award and assign you the responsibility of representing
the some 800 to 850 students throughout the U. S. and Canada who were
involved in this Architectural Competition.

In addition to the placque and certificate that was awarded to Mr. McGee,
similar certificates were awarded to Mr. Mease, and the 5 Honorable Mention
students. Certificates of Merit will be mailed to each of the 96 students who
submitted an entiy.

It is our hope to maintain correspondence with not only these universities
that entered the Competition, but all universities throughout the U. S. and
Canada. This has been an extremely rewarding undertaking and I am pleased to
have been a part of it. On behalf of Committee 6 and all those people on the
Committee that worked on the Competition and all the students who took part
in it, I would certainly like to thank the Association for sponsoring and funding
this Competition.

I guess at this point I could thank a lot of people.

I certainly must recognize Wally Sturm in the part he played in this Com-
petition helping to write the program, printing and mailing the Competition to
the Universities.

498 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Dick Milbaucr arraiij^ed tor all the awards, placqncs and certificates.

The Judges — who not only put in a full two days, but spent considerable
time preparing for the judging process.

The 15 representatives of Committee 6 who went to the imiversities, worked
with the students and with the professors.

All the rest of the meml>ers of Committee 6 who have, for the past three or
four years, worked on this project either by contacting universities initially, helping
write the program, helping write the judging process and all the other numerous
things that had to be done to make tliis project a great success.

All in all, of the 36 members of Committee 6, approximately 30 were in-
volved in the Competition in one way or the other — as a judge, as a representative,
writing the program and making the initial contacts with the universities.

As director of the Competition, I am a past chairman of Committee 6; Wally
Sturm is the present chairman of Committee 6; and of the judges, Ken Hornung,
past chairman of Committee 6; Bill Humphreys, past chairman of Committee 6;
Stan Urban, past chairman of Committee 6, and the only other past chairman,
John Hayes, retired architect, Burlington Northern, made some initial contacts
with universities. So — past chairmen of Committee 6 — don't fade away!

In my conversations with numerous imiversities over a period of the last year,
and especially the last few weeks of the Competition, I received feedback from
these schools that not only are they interested in remaining closely affiliated with
the railroad industry in the school of Architecture, but other schools on the uni-
versity campuses are considering re-installing railroad-oriented courses tliroughout
their engineering school. So if this Competition has done anything, it has re-
created an interest among the universities throughout the U. S. and Canada to
develop and maintain a closer relationship between the civil and structural engi-
neers, mechanical engineers, architectural and all other engineering-based schools
with the railroad industry.

The first few lines of our Constitution describe our purpose. But, we cannot
carry out the engineering functions of our railroad without the ability to staff
our offices with the civil and structural engineers, mechanical and general engi-
neering people and the architects from the campuses from the colleges and univer-
sities throughout the U. S. and Canada. I am pleased diat this project has opened
some doors and has created some interest among the students who will some day
become a part of our industry and will some day be a part of this organization —
and will help us live up to the first three or four lines of our Constitution.

I am very pleased to have been a part of this project. I am very proud to be
a member of Committee 6 and I am very proud to be a member of American Rail-
way Engineering Association.

I think we have taken a giant step forward.

Track Maintenance for High-Speed Trains

77-658-2

By HAROLD H. JENKINS, C.E., M.I.C.E.

Permanent Way Engineer
British Railways Board

In order to understand British Railways' readiness to accept on its main lines
high-speed trains, it is necessary to explain very briefly changes that have already
taken place in BR's track structure.

Immediately after the war, the railway system was in a relatively poor state
of maintenance, with an overall speed limit of 75 mph, due to shortages of material
and labor throughout the war period. The methods of maintenance were almost
entirely manual. Labor, especially of the right quality, was difficult to obtain, and
to hold. Railway track jobs offered lieavy work, in all weathers, and relatively low
wages, and compared with jobs on offer in the expanding motor trade were
unattractive.

BR's track at this time was mainly bull-head rail, 95 lb/yd, on chaired,
creosoted softwood sleepers. Its life in the main line was between 17 and 25
years. (Photograph 1) The standard sleeper spacing was 2 ft 6 in. and depth of
ballast under sleeper 5 or 6 in. Ballast was mainly limestone. The day-to-day
maintenance was carried out by small gangs (5, 6 or 8 men including the Ganger).
The manning for daily maintenance was approximately 1 man per track mile.
The track renewals were usually carried out in /2-mile or /i-mile, occasionally
1-mile, lengths. This work was normally carried out on Sundays and preparation
and finishing work on weekdays. The relaying gang (18 to 21 men) supplemented
on the Sunday by maintenance men carried out this work. In addition there were
extra gangs for drain and earth-work maintenance. This system \\'as highly labor
intensive.

The first priority was to restore the tracks for 90 mph running. Trials just
prior to the war with flat-bottom rails 109 and 113 indicated economies especially
in the displacement of the cast iron "chair" and its wooden or steel key.

The need for more ballast under tlie sleepers was apparent. BR then pro-
duced a desired standard of flat-bottom rails on baseplates with "Elastic" or
"McBeth" spikes and increased required ballast depth below sleeper bottom to
8 in., with shoulders 12 in. wide from sleeper ends. (Also shown in Photograph 1)

The scarcity of timber during the war period encouraged the development of
concrete sleepers. The earliest type, known as a "pot" sleeper, consisted of two
concrete blocks, one under each rail, and connected by steel angle tie-bars to
hold gauge. Cast iron chairs (baseplates) for bull-head rail were fixed by bolts set
into tlie concrete. Although tlie concrete blocks did not crack or breakup under
traffic, considerable difficulty was experienced in trying to maintain the track
gauge. The blocks were apt to tilt either inwards or out\\'ards and produced unac-
ceptable gauge variations. After a year or so their use was restricted to sidings;
those in nmning lines were removed and used as drainage channel block walls, and
even small retaining walls. Finally the use even in sidings was banned.

Experiments with monoblock prestressed concrete sleepers continued and the
El type using CI chairs and bull-head rail were proving successful. (Photograph 2)

Note: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

499

500

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Photograph 1 — (Foreground) BS 95-lb bull-head rail, softwood sleepers, cast-iron
chairs, steel keys. (Background) BS 109-lb flat-bottom rail, softwood sleepers, base
plates, Elastic Spikes.

-^l|S5rT%'**^

Photograph 2 — Early "El" type concrete sleepers for bull-head rail.

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 501

About this time, timber sleepers were increasing rapidly in price. The life of
a wooden sleeper varied considerably, depending not only on differences in spe-
cies, but also on differences in climatic conditions, and in resistance to decay.
Differences in life were apparent even with sleepers cut from the same species in
the same forest Init from different trees.

Trials were made with specially selected hardwoods (Australian Jarrah). The
results of the trials showed that the Jarrah sleeper had a significantly increased
life compared with softwood and the behavior of the Jarrah was much more
consistent. However even without the need to treat with creosote, the Jarrah sleeper
was much more expensive.

Development of concrete sleepers proceeded fairly rapidly and it became
obvious that it was feasible to design a concrete sleeper for any type of loading,
any type of rail and any type of gauge. Furthermore the sleeper life could be
extended well beyond that of any wooden sleeper.

The increasing costs of labor indicated the need for a track assembly with
minimum maintenance. A concrete sleeper with long life was the obvious solution,
but the rail fastenings then available required considerable maintenance attention.
Developments and trials with all known and many new types of fastenings were
tried; at one time BR had under trial in the running lines, over 30 different types
of fastenings, including the best of those used in Europe.

It soon became apparent that the assembly requiring minimum maintenance
was that which did not require:

(a) Any screw or nut.

(b) Any plug in the sleeper to take another metal insert of any kind.

(c) Any reliance of a cast concrete shoulder to hold gauge.

The reasons being:

Screws and nuts require regular attention; tightening as they work loose, and
oiling to prevent rusting and seizing up.

Plugs (wood, rubber, plastic, etc.) in concrete sleepers eventually work loose
and cause serious problems in correction, and on BR's main lines, within 10 years of
installation, all such assemblies will have to be removed or provided with expen-
sive temporary maintenance fastenings until complete replacement can be car-
ried out.

Similarly, evidence indicates that concrete shoulders cannot alone be relied
upon to keep gauge. In time the vibration and repetitive lateral loadings will
almost certainly cause the concrete shoulder to deteriorate and crumble, well within
the expected life of modem concrete sleepers of the F23, F27 types. (Photograph 3)

In these modern types, the problem has been overcome by casting hoops or
metal inserts in the sleeper for use not only as part of the fastening fixing but
also as the gauge stop. After the completion of many years of testing, BR has
standardized on the F27 prestressed concrete sleeper with the Pandrol fastening.
The rail is seated on a rail pad ( niliber-bonded cork or similar) specially designed
to provide in the assembly sufficient elasticity to cushion the effects of dynamic
loadings — in particular to absorb the rail deflection due to the procession and
recession waves caused by each axle, and at the same time to retain with the
Pandrol fastening, adequate toe-load, resistance to rail creep and torsional move-
ment of the rail.

502

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Photograph 3 — Latest concrete sleepers, F27.

The malleable-iron insert designed to hold the Pandrol fastening is fixed
into the mold when casting the sleeper and provides a positive gauge stop which
enables accurate gauge to be guaranteed. The Pandrol clip is driven into the in-
sert and onto the rail foot (on BR an insulator, preferably with a metal cover plate,
is used for track circuiting purposes).

The assembly has no nuts and no screws to work loose, nor to be tightened
nor oiled; it has no baseplates with fastenings requiring additional tolerances so
that it has an accurate initial and lasting gauge. In other words it is virtually a
maintenance-free fastening assembly.

Meanwliile further developments in welding techniques enabled the change-
over to continuous welded rail and tlie elimination of joints in the track. This meant
that greater thermal forces had to be resisted by the sleepers, i.e., in the lateral
direction to prevent buckling of the track in hot weather and in tlie longitudinal
direction in all weathers to prevent sleepers moving forwards or backwards with

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 503

the changing rail temperatines, and finally vertically to prevent upwards distortion.
For all these puiposcs the hea\y concrete sleeper was ideal — and although some
lengths were installed on baseplated wooden sleepers, at least 25% more sleepers
were necessary per mile than if concrete sleepers were used.

At this time BR were installing about 500 miles each year of continuous
wielded rail (CWR) with concrete sleepers, at 2-ft. 6-in. spacings and some lengths
with hardwood sleepers at 2-ft spacings.

With the "Beeching" cuts in the total mileage of the BR system, some lines
containing the bull-head rtiils and earlier concrete sleepers were taken up after
20 years or more in the track. The condition of these concrete sleepers was so good
that it was decided to take off the bull-head chairs and replate them for use with
Hat-bottom rail. Several hundreds of thousands have been so modified and put
back into the tracks for a further long life.

It should be noted that the prestressed concrete sleeper is designed to carry
the specified dynamic loadings foreseen for the life of the sleeper. The design can
be modified to suit any other type of dynamic loadings — heavier (or lighter axles).
Prestressed sleepers (of the BR type) have been made suitable for the 33-ton
axles on the Canadian National Railways and iron ore lines in Australia, whilst
on BR special types have been made for use at heavily worked joints, for single-
and double-checked curve, and shallower types for use in places with restricted
headroom, e.g., in tunnels of small diameter, under overhead electric wires where
it is not practicable to lower out, under bridges, etc.

So far BR have laid in nearly 20 million concrete sleepers (equivalent to
approximately 8500 miles) and for the last eight years have averaged 1.2 million
per annum, with a similar rate programmed for the next 5 years. The number of
failures is exceedingly small, and when they have occurred have always been
associated with poor track maintenance, epecially insufficient ballast on temporary
jointed track — awaiting the installation of continuous welded rails.

Meanwhile labor was becoming more and more expensive and difficult to
obtain, and it was essential that the existing labor force be used more efficiently,
and the requirement for labor had to be reduced. This led to the need for mechani-
zation, to the need for track reciuiring less attention and more planning of the work.
It was the introduction of Work Study (work measurement and method study)
that for the first time provided accurate infomiation of the actual work involved
in each and every task; e.g., it indicated nearly 50% of all the labor used was spent
on joint maintenance. The method study indicated better ways of doing the job.
With the unions' cooperation. Work Study coupled with a bonus incentive scheme
was introduced. It took approximately four yejxrs to introduce it all over BR and
the results were outstanding — the labor requirement was reduced by about 30%.
The output per man increased by 50%. Abortive and umiecessary work was elimi-
nated and more essential work was carried out.

From the data and information obtained, the actual cost of any operation
was available. These facts enabled financial justifications to be correctly assessed
for continuous welded rail instead of jointed, for concrete sleepers instead of hard-
wood or softwood sleepers and last but by no means least for the purchase of
heavy relaying and maintenance machines to reduce still furtlier the labor rec^uire-
ments. So around about 1963-64 my then chief civil engineer, A. N. Rutland,
put all these developments together and formulated new plans for BR's future track
maintenance and renewals.

504 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

With the BR Board's approval mechanization proceeded apace and purchases
were made of automatic tamping machines, lining machines, ballast cleaners, etc, etc.,
all fully financially and technically justified. Standardization of the main-line track
structure was introduced. FB llOA (later FB 113) rails (53 tons (short) sq. in.
tensile steel) in continuous welded rail with F27 prestressed concrete sleepers,
Pandrol clips, rubber-bonded cork rail pads, plastic insulators and minimum depth
of ballast, minimum width of ballast shoulders. (Also shown in Photograph 3)

The "Butland" plan included "premature" renewals (instead of replacing only
life-expired track) which enabled tlie 10 selected major routes of the system to be
relayed to the new standard within approximately 5 years. It is on these routes that
the high-speed trains are scheduled to run, and will commence this year.

During the same period of development, studies with freight vehicles at
28-ton (short) axles proceeded, and accepted for running at 60 mph (100 km/h),
and experience since indicates no increase in rail failures, although the rate of
track settlement has increased indicating a need for marginally earlier tamping.

The 28-ton axle is about the Hmit for the class of rail steel with tensile strength
of 53 short tons/sq. in. (70 kg mm") which exists throughout BR. It should
be noted that none of the continental railways, even with the steel 70 kg mm" and
90 kg mnr tensile strength has accepted 22 tonne (24/2 short tons) axles.

The demand for higher speeds has been universal and with the Japanese com-
mencing services at 200 km/h the demand in Europe increased.

Numerous studies were in hand on BR and on the Continent. In Europe high
speed is usually regarded as 160 km/h (100 mph) up to 300 km/h (186 mph)
and very high speed above 300 km/h (186 mph). Experts consider that 400 km/h
(250 mph) is likely to be the maximum for the steel wheel on steel rail witli
present knowledge of adhesion, braking and acceleration.

The BR studies covered first the running of conventional type trains at speeds
of 125 mph (200 km/h) on existing tracks witii tlie possibilities of speeds up to
186 mph (300 km/h) on new tracks, and secondly the running of "tilting" trains —
the APT (Advanced Passenger Train) on existing tracks with high cant deficiencies
at speeds up to 155 mph (250 km/h).

The track problems arising from increasing the speeds of conventional trains
on the main lines to 125 mph were easy to pin-point but more difficult to assess
in work load. The increased speed would produce increased dynamic loadings,
and increased lateral loadings, but no real data was available. Numerous tests
were carried out with different locomotives running at speeds from 20 mph in
steps of 10 mph to 130 mph and the vertical forces recorded at the axle-boxes and
on load-measuring baseplates on the sleepers, including a preformed vertical
irregularity ("dip"), and from all these tests it was possible to derive a formula
linking tlie speed, axle-loading, unsprung mass, track irregularity, etc., to the
vertical forces.

Although this formula does not provide the absolute forces it does provide an
indication of relative vertical forces which would be experienced. It was decided
to accept the vertical forces produced by the Deltic locomotive running at 100 mph
as the maximum reference limit. This type of locomotive had been in regular
service for many years and its effects on track maintenance fairly well established.

The vertical forces considered to be most important are those (known as
the P2 forces) that are transmitted to the rail and through to the ballast and the
impact forces (known as PI forces) at the joint or irregularity which are experi-

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 505

enced only by the rail. It was agreed to accept a "dip" of 0.2 radians (Vz in. dip
over 20-ft) as the "fixed" maximum irregularity for all future comparative meas-
urements of vertical forces, and therefore the Deltic Locomotive nmning at 100 mph
over such an irregularity would produce the maximum acceptable vertical forces,
and these have been calciJated and checked by measurements to be

PI 52 tons per wheel (58)2 short tons)
P2 34 tons per wheel (38J2 short tons)

The formulas are shown in Fig. 1.

It can be seen tliat the PI force is related to speed and size of imegularity,
and insignificandy relative to unsprung mass. It is the PI force that causes rail
batter but is of such short duration that whilst it contributes to forces in the rail,
and at bolt holes it has practically no effect on the sleepers nor on the ballast.

The P2 force is the vertical force which contributes to the rail stresses includ-
ing bolt holes and is then transmitted through the rail to the sleepers and to the
ballast. It must be noted that the formulas are considered satisfactory for compari-
son of vehicles \\ith modem suspension systems. They are not completely satisfac-
tory for evaluating the forces produced by older type freight vehicles with single
suspension systems as the "sprung mass" in these older vehicles does have an
increasing effect with speed.

For all vehicles the "wheel flat" is a very important factor and on BR per-
missible maximum hmits are laid down for each type of vehicle and speed band.
The high-speed conventional trains (HST's) for service running have axle
loads of I8J2 short tons (16)3 Imperial tons) and unsprung mass of 2?i short tons,
and the relative PI forces would be 67 short tons per wheel and the critical P2
force 35 short tons (33 Imperial tons). (Photograph 4)

It is true that with continuous welded rail and main-hne standards the
irregularity used as a basis is most unlikely to be present in practice so that the
PI force excess has been accepted and the P2 force is actually less than that
produced by the Deltic. This means that provided the lateral forces are no greater
than tliose of the Deltic today then there is no increase in the rate of track
deterioration.

The lateriU forces are mainly comprised of guiding forces tlirough curved
track and centrifugal forces due to cant deficiency. Obviously, increasing the
speed on existing cant and curves will increase the lateral forces. BR's standard for-
mulas for cant and curvature are fairly well kTiown and only recently a working
party of UIC was set up to examine all the limits fixed by its members and set out
recommended limits for every i^arameter. BR is the only member administration
which at present meets every one of the recommendations.

The principle BR limits concerning high speed nmning are:

Maximum actual cant 6 in. ( 150mm)

Maximum deficiency 4/4 in. ( 110mm)

Desirable rate of change of cant or deficiency .... l/s in. ( 35mm) per sec
Maximum permitted rate of change of cant

or deficiency 2/8 in. ( 55mm) per sec

(a) The maximum actual cant of 6 in. is very similar to that adopted by
most major railway administrations with standard gauge. It is so limited

506

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

6 8 10 12

TIME (milusecs)

DYNAMIC INCREMENT OF PI

DYNAMIC

INCREMENT OF P2

DEPENDS MAINLY UPON !

DEPENDS MAINLY UPON :

SPEED

V

SPEED

V

JOINT ANGLE

a

JOINT ANGLE

0(

CONTACT STIFFNESS

Kh

UNSPRUNG VEHICLE MASS

Mu

EFFECTIVE TRACK MASS

Me

TRACK BALLAST STIFFNESS

Ks

UNSPRUNG VEHICLE MASS

Mu

TRACK BALLAST DAMPING

Cs

EQUIVALENT TRACK MASS

Mt

•• STIFFNESS

Kt

•• DAMPING

1

Ct

P2= P0 + 2OCV.

Mu

2

1 - Ct.TT

yKT.Hu

Mu + Mt

4Kt.{Mu+Mt)

Fig. 1

Address by Harold H. Jenkins

507

BRs high-speed train (H.S.T.

because of the possibiUty of overturning if a van is left standing on
6 in. canted track (1 in 10) in high winds or gales,
(b) After numerous trials the ma.ximum deficiency and the rate of change
of cant (or rate of change of deficiency) were all selected as the limits
for reasonable passenger comfort (including walking in the train cor-
ridors or eating in the restaurant car). They are therefore arbitrary
limits and not factors of safety — so that if means can be found to
maintain passenger comfort then higher deHciences and rates of change
of cant will be possible. This is the idea behind "tilting body" trains
and BR's APT's. The limit will then have to be set by the track
resistance to lateral forces arising from higher deficiencies and higher
speeds.

In order that the existing tracks could be made suitable for higher speeds
(125 mph) considerable re-canting, re-lining and more difficult re-transisioning
has had to be carried out. There were many problems; in a few instances
re-lining meant virtually re-routing, and in others the full requirement was virtually
impracticable and some speed restrictions l>elow 125 mph will remain. The
increased speeds have necessitated the removal of all unmanned le\el crossings
in the majority of cases.

Thus the problems of vertical forces and lateral forces were contained, but
whilst the track tolerances at installation laid down for today's main-line speeds
are acceptable for 125 mph, the minimum maintenance tolerances need tightening
up. High-speed trains are much more susceptible to track irregularities, and there-
fore the rate of deterioration of line and level must be halted earlier than with
present line speeds. This has meant laying down a more frequent cycle of main-
tenance attention.

508

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Tolerances for High-Speed Lines
100 mph (160 km/h) Lines 125 mph (200 km/h) Lines

Installation Mtce Installation Mtce

( mm )

in. mm

in. ( mm )

in. mm

in.

Gauge

(-1)

1/16 (-1)

1/16 (-1)

1/16 (-1)

1/16

(+4)

3/16 (-f?)

5/16 (-f3)

1/8 (+6)

1/4

Cant

(±2)

1/8 (±6)

1/4 (±2)

1/8 (±5)

3/16

Twist

(over 3 metres)

I in 600

1 in 400

1 in 750

1 in 500

Alignment

over

20 metres

over-

(±4)

3/16 (±5)

4/16 (±3)

1/8 (±4)

3/16

lapping chords

Gauge

: (1432 mm) 4 ft 8-3/8 in.

It is true these tolerances are tight and difficult to obtain, but before they
were fixed a detailed survey was made of the actual gauge and cant on many
curves and it was found:

Gauge

100 mph lines: Worst wide (+4mm) 3/16 in.
Worst tight (— 6nun) 1/4 in.
90 mph lines: Worst wide (-|-8mm) 3/8 in.
Worst tight (0.) 0 in.

Cant

1 8mm over 10 metres
r5/16 in. over 10 ft

1 9mm over 3 metres
j 3/8 in. over 10 ft

Whilst by far the majority of readings fell within the specified tolerances.

The best results came from the F27/F23 type concrete sleepers.
The minimum radii for vertical curves are:

(.Olg)

100 mph
125 mph
250 mph

Recommended

Radius
12.6 miles
19.5 miles
78.2 miles

(.03g) Minimum permissible

Radius

4.2 miles

6.5 miles

26.1 miles

Ballast

It is most important that tracks for high-speed lines have adequate depth of
good ballast. The rate of deterioration of line and level depends to a large extent
on the quality of ballasting. BR's new specification states that the ballast shall be
good natural hard stone, angular in shape with all dimensions nearly equal, and
meet the following requirements:

1. Wet Attrition Value. Not exceeding 6% for main- and high-speed lines (8%

is permitted for secondaiy lines where
Crushing Value. Not to exceed 30%.
Impact Value. Not to exceed 25%.
Flakiness Index. Not to exceed 50%.

1% is not readily obtainable).

5. Elongation Index. Not to exceed 50%.

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 509

Ballast Size — Square Mesh Sieve.
50 mm (2m.) all to pass.
28 mm (1-1/8 in.) Not less than 80% retained.
14 mm ( 9/16 in.) None to pass.

The 80% to be general graduation in sizes between 50 mm and 28 mm (2 in.
to 1-1/8 in.).

E.\perience with available stone on BR indicates that the wet attrition value
is critical, and that nearly all stone with low attrition values usually satisfied the
other limits, and if not is seen easily. Basalts and granites usually have wet attri-
tion values of 2% to 5%, although a few exceed 6% and are not used. Limestones,
which are abundantly a\ailable, usuall>- ha\e wet attrition values exceeding 8%,
and only a few sources are satisfactory.

It is found tliat stones with high wet attrition values form fine particles which
combine with rain water to form a slurry which finds its way under the sleepers
to start "pumping" of the sleeper. This creates voids under the sleeper and if not
attended to, the '"pumping" spreads to adjacent sleepers and line and level deterio-
rate rapidly. Briefly, the wet attrition value is obtained by taking a .30-lb sample,
washing and drying (100°-110° C), cooHng and weighing, and then placing
in a cylinder to which is added equal weight of water. The cylinder is rotated
10,000 times at 30-.33 revolutions per minute. The amount retained on a BSh 07
sieve, approximately 1/10 in. mesh, is washed and dried and the loss of weight
as a percentage of the original is the wet attrition \alue.

Many of you will have seen BR's proposed 16 track categories (published in
1971). Experience and more reliable information of actual tonnages passing and
actual maintenance work necessary ha\e necessitated a change in the tonnage
bands. Attention was drawn to this by the wide variation of work-load in Cate-
gory (1) track 0 to 6 million, as compared with Category (2) 6 to 12 million.
The new categories which are proposed for introduction this year are as follows:

Tormage Annual Tonnage ( Millions Old Annual Tonnages ( Millions

Short Tons ) Short Tons )

(23^) 0-6 million

(2!4-5M) 6-12 million ( 6?i-13J4)

(5M-13M) 12-18 milhon ( 13/'^20JO

(over 13J^) 18 and over (over 20«)

The speed bands remain unaltered:

A 100 mph to 125 mph

B 75 mph to 99 mph

C 50 mph to 74 mph

D Below 50 mph

It transpires that at present there are no New Category A lines carrying less
than 5/2 million short tons so the categories concerned with high-speed services
are Categories A3 and A4 only.

The recommended maintenance cycles for these two liigh-speed category
lines are:

1. Patrolling — .3 times a week (safety union requirement).

2. Track geometry recording car runs — .3 times a year.

and

per Year

1

0- 2 million

2

2- 5 million

3

5-12 million

4

12 and over

510 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

3. Rail flaw detection car runs — twice a year (plain line).

4. Manual ultrasonic testing — 3 times a year (switches and frogs).

5. Tamping/lining machines — Every 9 months (category A4) Every 12
months (category A3). Intermediate manual packing of adjustment
switches and insulated joints, etc.

6. Kango, or machine or manual packing — 3 times a year (switches and
frogs).

The fixed manning on site (excluding machine workers) per mile of track:

Cat. A4 Cat. A3
man man

1. Allow for attention to fastenings, chps,

pads, insulators, etc., etc 0.012 0.008

2. Allow for attention to adjustment switches 0.006 0.004

3. Allow for attention to ballast 0.090 0.063

4. Miscellaneous 0.003 0.002

0.111 0.077

5. Patrolling ( per mile of inspection ) 0.079 0.075

6. Off-track work, grass-cutting, weeds, fences, drains,

etc 0.110

(per geographical mile) (per mile if 2-track railway) 0.055 0.055

0.134 0.130

The Tamping/Lining Service

Tamping machines have developed rapidly. BR issues its own specification
(about 100 pages) for each machine. It may be of interest to follow some of the
reasons for these changes.

If you assume you require a track maintenance machine to run on BR:

1. It must satisfy the signal engineers minimum requirements for safety
of track circuit working which means it must have not less than 3 axles
each with 9 short ton minimum loading.

2. It must satisfy Movement Departments "punctuality" requirement which
means it must be able to run into/and out of Section at not less than
55 mph.

3. It must satisfy chief mechanical engineers anti-derailment requirement
of a specified ride index (lateral and vertical forces).

These tliree conditions can only be met with a vehicle with bogies, and
weighing at least 27 tons (short).

Agreements with Unions stipulate:

4. Operator must have direct visibility immediately in front of vehicle
when travelling and working. This means either a tall central control
position (impossible with BR's low headroom) or a cab at each end
fully fitted with all rvmning and operating controls.

5. Cabs must be waterproof, soundproof and air-conditioned. The noise
levels have to be reduced to meet "Health and Safety at Work," a
recent Parliamentary Act.

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 511

6. Because it may work under overhead electric wires, there is danger for
a man standing on the vehicle floor, and raising a hammer/spanner
within arcing distance of the live wires, so that the vehicle must be
fully covered by a roof.

7. These conditions are essential for all machines required to move on or
adjacent to any lines open to traffic. The "Union" requirements are
enforceable for all such equipment, but the "ride index" and track
circuiting requirements (which together eliminate the possibilities of
2-axle machines) do not apply to lines completely under engineer's
occupation, if they can be conveyed to the site on a wagon or by road.

These basic requirements are fully satisfied by die latest types of track
maintenance machines.

Recent investigations have proved that the accuracy of the finished level
and finished line increases as the measuring base increases, and investigations
continue into the use of low-powered laser beams as a means of extending the
measuring bases, without creating any safety hazard for men working on or near
the tracks.

Obviously in a complete on-track mechanization system adequate occupa-
tions of the line are essential. On some of the high-speed routes "reversible" (or
two-way) signalling is being introduced. On others, "gaps" are being provided
in the time tables; in some cases these will still only be available during the
nights or Sundays. A computerized program is already in use for optimization of
line occupations, maintenance and renewal items and available resources. Other
noteworthy introductions are:

1. Rail Flaw Detection Service (Photograph 5)

BR, in conjvmction with Wells Krautkramer developed a 2-car ultrasonic
rail inspecting unit, which came into service in 1971. This 2-car set has basically one
"instrument" car and one "staff amenity" car — including sleeping accommodation
for the crew. The standard type ultrasonic probes are used, sliding on the rail
surface.

Probes at 1, 30° and 70° to the vertical enable defects to be located through
the whole of the head and web of the rail and in particular at and under bolt
holes. The ultrasonic information is transformed and recorded on 35-mm film
which at the end of a run (usually representing 100 miles of track per night) is
dispatched for processing and returned to an evaluation center where it is manually
inspected and interpreted. The evaluation is time-consuming, tedious and exact-
ing. In conjunction with the Atomic Energy Authority at Harwell an Automatic
Scanning Device coupled with computerized evaluation has now been installed
at the evaluating center. It has completed its trials and as expected produces
results even more accurate than the most expert of evaluators, and of course in a
small fraction of the time.

The next development already being studied and found to be feasible is the
elimination of the filming process, and to transform the ultrasonic information
suitable for immediate scanning and evaluation either by a computerized system
on the train itself, or by recording direct to a "floppy disc" which is then scanned
and evaluated at the existing evaluation center.

When the divisional engineer receives the rejiort of a run, he arranges for a
manual ultrasonic inspection of each fault reported, and ensures the necessary
action is taken and reports back accordingly to tlie center.

512

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Jm

CHIEF CIVIL ENGlNEEft
BRITISH RAIU\A#VYS BOARD

ULTRASONIC tlEST

mmmmm^^ms-

photograph 5 — Ultrasonic rail flaw detection car.

2. Track Geometry Recording Car

The difficulty of obtaining a passage on the main lines for slow-moving record-
ing cars has become more and more difficult as speeds and densities of traffic
increase. BR decided to construct its own car capable of rurming as part of the
high-speed trains or with its own locomotive at 125 mph, or as part of any other
train including existing 90 mph and 100 mph services.

The basic parameters are:

1. Vertical profile (left and right).

2. Horizontal profile (alignment).

3. Cross level.

4. Curvature.

5. Gauge.

6. Vertical slope.

7. Ride index.

and the following derivations:

8. Vertical slope.

9. Horizontal slope.

10. Equilibrium speed.

11. Dynamic cross level.

12. Twist (2 different wheel bases).

The measuring systems had to be all non-oontact ones to enable accuracy
of recordings at 125 mph. This has been achieved by the use of inertial sensors,
accelerometers, transducers, gyroscopes and optical scanners. The data produced

Address by Harold H. Jenkins 513

are then electronically processed to produce print-outs as required. The major
faults are marked on the track by automatically fired "paint bullets." It is
intended to obtain a true record of every- section of BR track from which future
maintenance standards will be set for each parameter.

Information of the traffic carried over each section will be fed into the com-
puter and after successive runs the rate of actual deterioration will be calculated
for each of the important parameters, and this will enable the next periods of main-
tenance attention to be forecast, reasonably accurately. Linking this information
with possible line occupations, available machines and odier resources will enable
the maintenance requirements to be scheduled at least 12 months ahead using the
computerized program already mentioned. The greatest task is feeding in accurate
track component details, t>pc, age, condition, etc., for the whole system, but
this work is in hand.

There ha\e been many other developments but due to the need to limit the
length of this paper they can only be mentioned briefly, e.g.:

(a) Track Circuits

Glued insulated joints are in regular use on electrified lines. These are of 2
types, 1. The Edilon glued joint (polyester resin), and 2. The "BR" type (epoxy
resin) with "Huck type" fastenings.

These joints are tested to 115 tons longitudinal force before acceptance. After
4 years, failures recorded are less than 2 per 1000 joints.

On non-electrified lines joindess track circuits (Aster ty-pe) are being installed
as rapidly as possible. Recent dexelopnients indicate that possibilities now exist for
a reasonably priced jointless track circuit suitable for electrified lines.

(b) Welding

Flashbutt welding is carried out at six depots spread throughout BR; each depot
has only one main welding machine. SLxty-foot lengdis are welded into lengths up to
1320 ft. Developments have taken place in the straightening and finishing of the
welds. The equipment used is supplied by "A.I." Welders Ltd., of Inverness, Scot-
land. Failures of flashbutt welds in tlie track are rare.

Considerable eftort has been made to improve the thennite welds. The main
problems were lack of straightness, cupping at the weld, and lack of fusion. Every
failed weld is sent to the laboratory for detailed investigation. The results have
shown that in e\'ery case quality of workmanship has been the cause. This is under-
standable as the work has to be carried out in all weatliers and usually during
darkness and under pressure to restore the lines to traffic. Development has been,
in conjunction with the Elecktro-Thermit Co., to produce a method less susceptible
to workmanship and this has been achieved by using a system where the pre-heating
time is far less critical.

(c) Manual Packing

It is important to ensure that local pumping of tiie sleepers is prevented,
especially on high speed or heavily used lines. Instances occur at the introduction
of a replacement rail, a replacement insulated joint or weld that the track bed is
disturbed at that point, perhaps only one or two sleepers, but left unconsolidated.
This creates bad spots which if left imtreated develop rapidly and extend. It is
generally impracticable to bring in the large tamping machines, and BR use portable
equipment — Kango Generators and Kango Electric Hammers. Some of these are

514 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

2-man sets, others 4-man sets. The hammers are equipped with specially designed
ballast tools. Their use enables the troublesome spots to be dealt with quickly and
the track kept to the high standard and left until the next on-track machine sched-
uled tamping. The Kango equipment is used even more frequently for tamping
regularly switches and frogs. BR has in regular use over 1000 sets of Kango
Equipment.

(d) Rail Drilling and Rail Sawing

The problems associated with drilling holes in rails without creating starting
points for a crack have been largely overcome by re-thinking the process of drilling.
As a result the best combination of speed, pressure and angle of cutting edge of the
drill has been found. These are incorporated in all new rail drilling equipment and
BR has now standardized on the "Stumec" equipment for rail drilling and sawing.
Since their introduction the number of bolt hole failures has fallen steadily.

(e) Destressing and Restressing

BR adopted several years ago tlie policy of stretching a rail to its required
calculated "stress free" length. The equipment used has to be capable of pulling
with a force of 100 tons (22,400 lb). Two makes of machine are in use: the "Green-
side" equipment and the "Permaquip" machine; both give equally satisfactory
results.

(f) On-Track Maintenance Machines

BR's detailed specifications already mentioned are regarded by manufacturers
as the strictest and most demanding of all administrations — ^but these specifications
have been compiled on actual service experience, actual safety requirements and
the need for maximum utilization and minimum interruption to work on restricted
availability of line occupations.

BR's present on track maintenance equipment is shown in Fig. 2. (Photographs
6 and 7 are examples)

(g) On-Track Relatjing Machines
Two types are in regular use:

1. The Twin Jib Crane — this can only be used where two lines run along-
side each other, as the equipment runs on one road and relays the other.
As most of BR is double (or quadruple) track this is a very useful piece
of equipment and can be used for "panel" laying (60-ft rails wdth sleepers
attached) or direct sleeper laying (up to 60 concrete sleepers correctly
spaced at each lift). (Photograph 8) The continuous welded rail is placed
in both methods, after the panels of sleepers have been placed. BR has
47 such machines, some self-propelled, others requiring a locomotive.
(Photograph 8) Rate of working averages 10 each 60-ft sections out and
10 new 60-ft stretches in per hour. In good circumstances 13 sections
in and out are obtained.

2. Gantry Type Equipment — The difficulties of obtaining possession of two
tracks simultaneously led to the development of single-line gantries of
the Portal type. The new long welded rails are laid out alongside the outer
ends of the sleepers of the track to be relayed. The Gantries running on
the long welded rails (gauge 10 ft 6 in.) lift out the old track in panels
and bring in the new sleepers — either on their own or with second-hand
60-ft rails. The rate of working is on average 10 sections in and out per

Address by Harold H. Jenkins

515

ON TRACK MACHINES

1976

TAMPERS

PLASSER

05E

13

••

06

50

JOINT

1

TAMPER-LINERS

PLASSER

SLC

20

07-16

38

TAMPER-LINER-CONSOLIDATORS

PLASSER

CTH

22

P & C TAMPERS

PLASSER

07-275

6

••

07-16-275

3

LINING MACHINES

PLASSER

AL 203

35

AL 250

13

BALLAST CONSOLIDATORS

ROBEL

5

PLASSER

VDH 800

24

HATISA

D8

16

BALLAST REGULATORS

PLASSER

US P. 3/4000

lO

••

.. 5000

12

HATISA

R 7

lO

BALLAST CLEANERS

PLASSER

RH 62

20

HATISA

(OLD TYPES)

23

••

C 311

2

TRACK RECORDERS

HATISA

PV6

12

RELAYING MACHINES

BRITISH

TWIN JIB

47

SECHAFER

ISIMCLE irXE)

(H(,H8.H9)

16

(ON order;

6EISHAR

SINGLE LINE

3

Fig. 2

516

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Photograph 6 — Plasser ballast cleaner.

Photograph 7 — Long-chord leveling, lining and tamping machine.

Address by Harold H. Jenkins

517

Photograph 8 — BR's twin jib self-propelled track layer.

Bui. 058

518

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Photograph 9 — Secmafer gantry track layer with sleeper beam.

hour but frequently rates of 13 sections in and out are achieved for lengths
of 50 chains (3300 ft) in one Sunday occupation.

BR has 12 Secmafer M6 and M8 Gantries capable of taking up and
laying panels only, and 3 sets of M9 Gantries with an automatic pick-up
sleeper beam. Those machines with the beam can carry up to 60 concrete
sleepers, (2 rail lengths of sleepers correctly spaced and "interleaved").
The machines remove 4 lengths of old, then the ballast machine moves
in and scarifies the old sleeper beds and reprofiles the ballast ready for
the new sleepers. The beam tlaen places its alternative sleepers and moves
ahead to place the remainder so that two complete rail lengths of sleepers
are laid. (Photograph 9)

BR takes dehvery this month of three sets of Geismar "Pluto Mark
lU" gantries. These are built to BR's specification and can be used either
for panel laying or with the automatic beam sleepers only. The specified
rate of working is not less than 13 such 60-ft sections per hour. (Photo-
graph 10)

Rail Changing Machine

In the early 1980's BR can expect to be required to re-rail about 200 miles of
CWR a year increasing in the late 1980's to 500 miles. Experiments are being carried
out to find the best equipment. One machine now on trial is a Plasser machine

Address by Harold H. Jenkins

519

Photograph 10 — Geismar gantry track layer with sleeper beam.

(Photograph 11) which is expected to work at walking pace, i.e., 3 to 4 miles of
changing both rails.

The changes in BR's track structure including the improved alignments, transi-
tion curves and canting as described, together with the maintenance procedures
outlined explain BR's abiUty to introduce 125 mph services this year. Full evaluation
of the effects of high-speed tiains on the wear and safety of the track has been
made and it can be seen that these high speeds can be obtained at only marginally
increased costs of track maintenance.

The first of the conventional type high-speed trains (HST) from the batch pro-
duction was delivered this montli and is shown in Photograph 4.

Further work is still in hand concerning the effects of lateral forces by the APT
tilting train running with cant deficiencies up to 12 in. The work is not complete
but tests indicate that with deficiencies exceeding 8 in. that small lateral movement
of the track (1/25 in.) can be expected after passage of each high-speed train on
track with unconsohdated ballast (i.e., after tamping, or ballast cleaning, relaying
etc.). Indications are that stability is not restored until some 200,000 tons of traffic
have passed. (The APT train is shown in Photograph 12)

Load measuring wheels are used to measure lateral forces, and it seems that
recent measurements indicate a correlation between the flange forces and the forces
at the axle-box. The measurement of track resistance is even more difficult, and
special on-track vehicles are being constructed to measure the forces required to
shift the track laterally. It is hoped these experiments will be completed within
the next 12 months. The lateral forces comprise (a -f b) forces where (a) =
Quasi-Static Forces arising from —

1. Cant deficiency.

2. The asymmetry between leading and traihng wheelsets of bogies.

3. Aligrmient of wheelsets in bogie frame.

520 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Photograph 11 — Plasser rail changing machine.

Photograph 12 — BR's Advanced Passenger Train (APT).

Address by W. Friesen 521

and (b) = Dynamic Forces.

4. From body and primary sprung masses due to track irregularities.

5. From repose to the unsprung masses due to track irregularities.

With tests at 6°, 7°, 8°, 9°, 10° and 12°, measurements of peak lateral forces
exceeding 10 tons (22,400 lb) at slight track irregularities have already been
measured. Nevertheless present indications are that deficencies up to 9° will prove
to be acceptable on concrete-sleepered track. It is unlikely that such deficiencies
will be permissible on wooden-sleepered track.

The tests so far on lateral resistance of track indicate that over 90% of the
resistance is pro\ ided by the friction between the base of the .sleeper and tlie ballast.
Heavy concrete sleepers therefore ha\e a distinct advantage.

Hot Box Detector Data Analyzer System

77-658-3

By W. FRIESEN

Senior Design Engineer— Signals
Canadian National Railways

Synopsis

Irrfrai-ed detectors are now being used to scan train wheel bearings for abnormal
lieat. In these hot box detector (H.B.D.) systems the most unpredictable factor
in the production of consistent, reliable results has been the method of interpreting
the data. At present, the detector readings are recorded on paper tape and the
resulting ti-ain heat profile is manually analyzed. Unfortunately, however, this method
of analysis is only accurate if the tape reader is intimately familiar witii all the pulse
patterns that the H.B.D. system may generate. An effort to provide consistent accu-
rate analysis of the H.B.D. data is resulting in the de\elopment of a computerized
analysis system. Fig. 1 is a map of the Canadian National's H.B.D. installations.

Fig. 2 shows both the physical plant layout and tlie data processing system
block diagram for a typical hot box detector field installation. In this configuration,
detectors 1 and 4 are used to initialize the system and to establish tlie direction of
train mo\ement; east or west, respectively. The infrared sensor itself produces a
voltage related to the intensity of the heat radiation incident widiin its solid angle
of sight. Nomially oH^, this sensor is gated on with wheel detector 2 or 3, depending
upon the established direction of train travel, to ensure the generation of heat infor-
mation only when the bearing itself is over the scanner.

A train coming to the H.B.D. location from wheel detector 1 estabhshes direc-
tion of travel when detector 2 is activated. At that point the infrared sensor is gated
on and, with the wheel now over its line of sight, scans the overhead wheel bearing.
The moment the wheel arrives at wheel detector 3, the sensor is turned off to avoid
scanning the rest of the train. This sequence of operation of wheel detectors 2 and
3 is repeated for every wheel on a train. The gating of senor 1 is only effective for
the first wheel at the beginning of the train as direction needs to be established only
once. Activation of any wheel sensor keeps the "Train Present" signal on.

Xote: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

522 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

After each heat pulse is generated, it is sent to the pulse processor where it is
peak detected, then amplified and buffered to drive the carrier transmitter. The
carrier transmitter relays the peak value to a central receiving office.

A typical H.B.D. Scanner is shown in Fig. 3.

The overall block diagram of the typical data handling system for a H.B.D.
location is shown in Fig. 4. Each field location has two infrared detectors, one for
each side of the train, and information coming from each is separately transmitted
and received. Whenever a train enters a detector location, the output of the data
control unit activates a relay which is used to key "ON" the two carrier transmitters
for that location. At the central office, where all H.B.D. outputs are read, the heat
data from each side of the tiain is received on separate channels and each channel
is fed to one pen of a two-pen recorder. Each of the two receivers per location
also has a carrier presence indication to provide location status. Train presence
over the H.B.D. site is generated by AND'ing the two carrier presence outputs
while, between trains, the two carrier channels are alternately gated on for the
verification of each. The pen recorder, normally off, is started with tlie appearance
of the train presence indication. An audible and visual alarm device is used to alert
the tape reader of predefined heat alarm levels.

Fig. 5 shows a typical output and the interaction between train present and
the recorder data output. Note tlie first car shows characteristically high pulses.
This is because it is a roller-bearing car and appears to be hot, but in actual fact
only more of the generated heat is visible.

In Fig. 6 we can see that on a car equipped with roller bearings there is no
journal oil box to impede the line of sight of the infrared sensor. This causes the
higher characteristic pulse seen on Fig. 5.

Reasons for Automated Analysis

Considering the type of system described it can be seen that there are several
factors which influence the ability of the system to detect hot boxes. They are:

1. Interpretation of the data on the paper recordings depends on people
and thus is not consistent.

2. Emotional state of mind of the tape reader greatly influences the system
performance.

3. Eriiployee mobility makes it difficult to maintain a good data evaluation
standard.

4. It is a full stereo system and as such each rail could have a different
system gain factor, thus generating false alarms on the fixed alarm system.

5. Noise generated by electrical storms sets off alarms and tends to make
tape readers disgusted with the system, thereby reducing their ability to
effectively read the tapes.

Fig. 7 shows how electrical interference can generate many false outputs in an
unfiltered system and how (channel 2) filtering can greatly reduce this problem.

Benefits from Automated Data Evaluation

Fig. 8 lists the benefits of an automated evaluation system to the user of hot
box detector data (Transportation Department).

Fig. 9 hsts the benefits of an automated evaluation system to the hot box
detector maintainers and technicians. Better maintenance is made possible by closer
system observation using statistical evaluation made possible by the computerized
system.

Address by W. Friesen 523

Configuration of automated systems can be as different as the people designing
them. Shown in Fig. 10 is one possibiHty and the uses for the various in/output
devices.

The CN Data Analysis System

On the block diagram shown in Fig. 11 it can be seen that the main element
is Computer Automation LSI2/20, mini computer with 32K core and a 4.2M word
DISC. This provides the ability (intelligence) to control the various interfaces and
I/O devices as well as evaluate the data and detect hot boxes.

As can be seen on Fig. 12 the hardware (with complete spares) is mounted in
three 19-in. racks. The I/O devices, shown beside the computers, may be mounted
any reasonable distance away. This allows operators/dispatchers to have a cathode
ray tube (C.R.T. ) on their desks.

In Fig. 13 we can see the full complement of output devices used. One printer,
C.R.T. and analogue recorder are actually located in the tape readers/dispatchers
office. The tape reader may recall any train (presently programmed for close to 24
hours storage) for re-evaluation, viewing of the digitized data or output on the
analogue recorder. Additionally an analogue recording is automatically produced if
the computer is not able to evaluate the train. Control of the system is achieved
with the maintainers C.R.T., where such things as: I/O device assignment, data
evaluation parameters, noise filtering parameters, etc., may be changed. The main-
tainers devices also act as back up units (spares) in tlie event of a failure. In addi-
tion to the previously mentioned recordings tlie maintainers' recorder is automatically
switched to the carrier output of any location not sending in good data, thus
providing a direct analogue recording of the signals so that all symptoms can be
seen. If this were not done only the filtered/ digitized data would be available from
the computer memory.

Training of personnel is greatly simplified by the use of a "HELP" command.
This results in an output listing of all the system commands and shows the function
of each one. The commands listed in Fig. 14 are only those available on that par-
ticular C.R.T. and are ob\'iously different for the maintainer and the tape reader.

The alarm panel shown in Fig. 15 is used by the tape readers to call attention
to the fact that an abnormality has occurred. The alarm must then be acknowledged
on the C.R.T. before it is turned off. The computer fails and self check alarms are
activated whenever there is a failure of the system hardware or software. The quality
of this check system is quite high but only experience will indicate if it is adequate.

A listing of all the trains past a particular location can be obtained by keying
in the appropriate command on the C.R.T. Shown in Fig. 16 is the list of messages
from one location ( Newtonsville North "NVN"). The one line messages show all
the important data associated with the train.

An example of the command format used in the system to request stored data
can be seen in Fig. 17. All data requests are based on train sequence number and
location.

The list of numbers on Fig. 18 shows in hexadecimal code what data is in
memory for the train. All data including pulses is stored so that re-evaluation with
different parameters is made possible. (An explanation of the hst is given.)

An overview of the system can be seen in the block diagram. Fig. 11. The data
enters the computer through CN designed interfacing. Peak detection of the heat

524 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

infoiTiiation is accomplished external to the computer because I/O speeds are not
fast enough to collect accurate values from the 24 locations in the system.

An item of particular importance is the self checking system. This system
outputs information from the computer which is routed back to the input for verifi-
cation. If any channel or other part of the system becomes defective an alarm
message is generated and the tape reader is alerted via the alarm panel.

System Outputs

The outputs shown in Figs. 19 through 23 are from the engineering model
which was tested in 1974. These examples were selected because they exemplify the
main points of interest very well and show the reasons for certain design parameters.

Fig. 19 shows a typical output for a train with no problem. The top portion
shows the normal paper recording and the bottom shows the computer print-out.
An important thing to note here is that on tlie average one side of the output
(Rail 1) is 1.2 mm higher than the other. The effect of this difference is minimized
by the use of ratios relating only to one side of the car. This can be seen in tlie
fact that the maximum train side ratios (NMTSR and SMSTR) are almost the same
even tliough the actual values are considerably different.

Figs. 20, 21 and 22 show how the use of ratios normalizes tlie data in spite
of some rather large differences in absolute pulse values. These differences in value
are due to different system gain settings in the scanners. In spite of variations be-
tween 8.3 mm and 11.3 mm on the analogue recording the car side ratios (CSR)
varied by only 0.02 (1.96 to 1.98). This consistency in evaluation is made possible
in spite of absolute values.

Fig. 23 is an actual hot box graph and computer printout. The order of magni-
tude of ratios (bodi car side ratio (CSR) and train side ratio TSR) can be seen
when a single wheel is hot. If two wheels were hot the T.S.R. would be much tlie
same but C.S.R. woud be smaller. (Maybe even in a non-alarm zone).

The train graph, Fig. 24, shows a string of pulses at the end of the train, which
are actually pedestal pulses generated at the hot box detector field location. Use of
this information allows data to be normalized so tliat heat evaluation is done only
on heat information, not on heat plus pedestal as is being done in the manual sys-
tems. If noniialized data is not used the weighting factor of high pedestals will
result in small ratios and thus, potentially, a hot box may be missed.

Digital Transmission System

Analogue carrier systems, which are being used to transfer infonnation from
the field sites to the central office, are subject to many types of noise interference.
This noise may be generated by lighting, line cross talk, carrier drop out, etc., and
usually results in either spurious data or a loss of data, thus making it very difficult
to correctly recognize and evaluate the heat information.

A digitizer/transmitter has been developed by the Canadian National Technical
Research Department for use at tlie hot box detector field sites. The "digital trans-
mission system" peak detects the information from the bolometer and converts it
into an 8 bit digital "Word". These words, together with wheel spacing information,
are stored in a 2,024 word (8 bits each) memory for later transmission. When the
train present signal goes away the entire message is transmitted to the oflBce using
a standard FSK carrier system. To eliminate the problem of noise destroying the
message it has both parity and block checks as well as being transmitted five times.

Address by W. Friesen 525

Self enhancement of the five transmission results in a very secure system which
can reproduce a good message even tliough portions of tlie individual transmissions
are destroyed.

Because the above-mentioned system is in the final development stages its actual
performance record cannot be discussed, but it is fairly obvious that a much better
quality of data will be made available to the tape re<tders or the computerized
analysis system. Along with this improvement there should be considerable savings
in maintenance since no calibration or adjustments of the carrier is required (aside
from line level settings). This calibration (and linearity check) procedure should
be done about twice a year in order to guarantee good performance on the analogue
carrier.

Fig. 25 (not reproduced herein) is the field digitizer unit showing the front
panel (test and display) and the shielded electronics cage. The unit is 5)2-in. high
and fits onto a 19-in. communications rack.

In Figs. 26 and 27 the cover of the electronics shield has been removed to ex-
pose the hardware which accomplishes peak detection, D/A conversion, memory and
control logic. As can be seen in these pictures it is not a monumental task to build
a system which will greatly enliance the performance of the data transmission system
and as technology advances the digitizing system will become even simpler.

General

Some fringe benefits of the automated analysis system are such things as:

• train speed checks

• trains aren't lost due to out-of-ink or out-of-paper situations

• lightning generally will not set off the alarms and thus the tape reader is
not annoyed

• statistical evaluation of data base allows trends and anomalies to be recog-
nized and handled

• better overall system calibration and consistency of data input made possi-
ble by a common standard (data analyzer)

• no paper tape is required for system operation and therefore recorder
maintenance is minimized.

Figs. 28 to 34 show various views of the hardware used to implement the
analyzer system in an office with up to 32 hot box detector systems reporting. These
pictures show tlie system installed on the Canadian National at Belleville, Ontario,
and operates 24 hot box detector locations. Although an engineering model of the
system working with 4 hot box detectors was installed at Belleville in 1974, tlie
present 24-location system has just been installed in February of tliis year.

Thank you for your attention. I hope that this brief description of our effort
to improve the hot box detection system has been informative and interesting.

526 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 1

Address by W. Friesen

527

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O-HOI BOX DET. '7707
0-. 1- „ - 'M09

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X =9EA0 OUT POINTS

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HOT BOX CtTECTOl LOCATIONS
ENTIRE SYSTEM

S-DG-5

528

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

WHEtL SEASINS

n- •*■ — S r— — — -I f— — — — 1

l^i^c I— leoLOMrrts'— lAMFUFiEBt-
I '^'^^ II II I

L..^ -i I- -I (__ I

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PEAK DfTECTcO HEAT ?V.

CASRIER KEY

Fig. 2 — Field equipment.

Address by W. Friesen

529

Fig. 3

HUD OAIA PROCESSING SVSIEH PEH LOCAKON

Fig. 4

530

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

TYPICAL KBO. RECOROER OUTPUT

1 — I — I — I —I — I — I — 1 — I — I — I — < — I — I — I — I — I — H— I — I — I — I — 1 — I — y

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S-MmSEC/

EXPMttEO TIME SCALE
OP A SINGLE PULSE

1 Q-PIRST HEAT PULSE ARRIVES

fpTRAIN PRESENCE
^ INOICATION BESINS

LAST HEAT PULSE ARRIVES T\

(~S TRAIN PRESENCE
\J INOICATION ENDS

Fig. 5 — ^H.B.D. receiver outputs, heat data and train presence.

Address by W. Friesen

531

Fig. 6

Fig. 7 — Train presence detection on:

1. Servo (manual system),

2. H.B.D. analyzer.

532 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

POTEMTIAL BENEFITS g COlVg^lfMCCS

<USER)

1) C0N5ISTAWT Df PENDABLE RWL TIME EVALUATION).

2) RELIABLE DATA EVALUATION.

• MO'OUT OF INJC'PROBLEM.

•WO 'system shut down* because of woise.

•FALSE ALARMS DOE TO WOISE REDUCED
•CROSS TALIC ON OATA EFFECTIVELY HAWDLED.

3) IMPROVED DATA EVALUATION PERFORMANCE.

•HIGHER MO. OF TRAINS STOPPED ARE FOUKD HOT.

4) DATA STORED FOR LATER REFEREWCE IF WEEDED.
5)REDUCT|0M IN AMOUNT OF PAPER TAPE USE:D.

•PRESENT COST APPROXIMATIVELV $5000-» PER YEAI^.

6) TRAIN SPEED ONI OUTPUT.

• PRESET MAXIMUM ALARM.

7) STATISTICAL [VALUATIOW OF ALARMS. DATA. TRAINS,5P£ED,ECT.

8) A COMPUTER GENERATfD SEMI MONTHLY HBO PERFORMANCE K[PORI

• HBD-I FORMS

9) HANDS OFF DATA ANALYSIS.

Fig. 8

Address by W. Friesen 533

POTENTIAL BENEFITS g CQMVEMENCfS

(MAINTENANCE)

1) REAL TIME SYSTEM ALARM.

•POWER FAILURE^LINE BREAK, TRAIN BUT NO DATA,®TC..,
•COMPUTER FAILURE

2)5CANMER PERFORMAMCE MOWITOR,

•AVERAGE PULSE AMPLITUDE
•SCAWMER GAIN VARIATION

3) SITE TO SITE CALIBRATION DIFF, CAW BE
ELIMINATED DUE TO REFINED STATISTICS.

4) RECORD OF ALL NOISY OR ABNORMAL OUTPUTS
STORED FOR REFERENCE,

5) COMPONENT FAILURE STATISTICS t RECORDS.

• Eg: teNSES, PUISE PROCESSOR, ere...

Fig. 9

534

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

POS!iei£ (VISUALIZED) J^ DEVICES

Mt^JtOM

(cr. k

•POSSIBLf TO HAVf MORE THAN ONF*

• USED FOR IMMEDIATE OUTPUT OF ALARMS
STATISTICAL DATA .ere...

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• POSSIBLE TO HAVE MORE THAN ONE.

• USED FOR HARP COPY RECORD OF AIL TRAINS.

• WIU PRINT OPPERATORS RESP0W5f TO AURMSi

• PRIMTS RECORD OF ALL RECALL AaiVITY

•R«tRTAPE(«,M«. OUTPUT OF TRAIN.

• PRODUCED IF REQUESTED 8Y DISPATCHER

• REPRODUaiON or TRAIN IN ORIGINAL
PULSE PATTERN.

Fig. 10

Address by W. Friesen

535

536

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Address by W. Friesen

537

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538 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

TaOALARM PANEL ^

Fig. 15

Address by W. Friesen

539

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540

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Address by W. Friesen

541

TAPE ANALYSIS REPORT

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TAPE ANALYSIS REPORT

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Fig. 20

Address by W. Friesen

543

TAPE ANALYSIS REPORT

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Fig. 21

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Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

TAPE ANALYSIS REPORT

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Fig. 22

Address by W. Friesen

545

TAPE ANALYSIS REPORT

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Fig. 23

546

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Address by W. Friesen

547

Fig. 20

548

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 27

Address by W. Friesen

549

Fig. 28

Uul. G58

550

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 29

Address by W. Friesen

551

Fig. 30

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Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 32

Address by W. Friesen

553

Fig. 33

554

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

I I

B.D.

Data Acquisit

ANALYZER T

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Fig. 34

"The Quiet One," Burlington Northern's Northtown
Yard, Minneapolis, Minn.

By M. B. WALKER

Assistant Director— Signal Engineering
Burlington Northern, Inc.

Burlington Northern is justifiably proud of the results of efforts to quiet the
noise of retardation of cars on the hump at Northtown Yard. Not all retarder
screeching is gone and we still ha\e the low-frequency rumbling created by retarder
action on the cars, but what screeching now exists is very tolerable and occurs only
occasionally with the heaviest cars.

This situation owes a debt to the efforts of many men who spent hours searching
for an answer — to the signal supply companies. General Railway Signal Company
(GRS), and Union Switch and Signal Division, WABCO — and to a number of rail-
way companies which participated heavily in the research.

I wish also to acknowledge the source of some of the material presented here
today:

"Noise Problem Involving Retarders," September 2.5, 1972, by \^ K. South-
worth, Burlington Northern, Inc.

"Retarder Noise Abatement," October 1, 1973, by D. E. Turner, General
Railway Signal Company.

"Noise Reduction in Classification Yards," October 1, 1973, by R. M. Karovv,
WABCO, Union Switch and Signal Division.

Before we look at what was actually done at Burlington Northern's Northtown
Yard to abate the retarder noise, let's review very briefly what Nortlitown Yard is
and where located. This yard — 3.2 miles in length — was constructed on top of three
existing yards, required extensive excavation, relocation of city utilities, erection
of a four-lane overhead bridge to eliminate a busy grade crossing in the vicinity of
the new hump, and is primarily for classification of eashvard trains. Our Gavin
Yard in Minot, North Dakota, classifies most westward trains. We expect to classify
3000 cars per day over the hump, terminate 16 trains, originate 19 trains, and handle
10 through trains together with 28 transfer trains within the Twin Cities area.

The yard is oriented in a north-south direction; the southern portion lies in
northeast Minneapolis, the northern portion lies in Fridley, and immediately to the
east of the hump and bowl tracks is the community of Columbia Heights. You see,
then, we are contending with noise ordinances from three separate cities.

A brief history of efl^orts concerning retarder noise abatement is in order. Any-
one who has ever been in the close proximity of a retarder in action knows that
the emitted sound is deafening and many times crosses the threshold of pain. Because
the human ear is most sensitive to frequencies in the range 500 to 5000 cycles and
because a retarder in action creates extremely high sound lev els in the 2000 to 4000
cycle range, all within hearing range of such retarders become very annoyed. It is
the abatement of sounds in the 2000 to 4000 cycle range that concerns us today
since the low frequency, grating, rattling, or rumbling noises do not carry far and
give no particular trouble.

Note: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

555

556 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Some of the earliest attempts to suppress retarder screeching involved changing
brake shoe hardness, composition or configuration. Softer shoes, that is shoes with
a hardness of Brinell 200 instead of Brinell 290, were installed; however, no appre-
ciable reduction in noise was obtained and shoe wear was considerably accelerated.

Next, ductile iron shoes were tested. Ductile iron is produced by a casting
process and contains a fair amount of free graphite dispersed throughout the metal
and has a hardness approximately equal to that of the original brake shoes. The
incidence of screech was reduced about 30 percent over the standard steel shoe
while shoe wear was four to five time that of standard shoes.

Another innovation was tested by WABCO engineers who machined a mitered
slot lengthwise in the face of a retarder brake shoe into which was pressed Cobra
brake shoe fibre. This shoe lasted for 86 cars under test, at which time the force
caused by the wedging action of the wheel destroyed the lower edge of the shoe.

Abex Corporation fabricated cast shoes to fit its retarders and tests indicated
good noise abatement properties if car speeds are held below 6 mph. WABCO tried
Fabreka pads in its brake-shoe mounting to provide resiliency but couldn't keep
the shoe bolts tight. Inert retarders have been sprayed with various coatings but
they either didn't adhere well or did little to eUminate noise. Vertical grooves were
cut in the brake rail, /4-in. wide every 4 in. along the rail with no screech elimina-
tion. Diesel oil was sprayed on inert retarder rails as cars were pulled through with
reduction in screech, but the continuous oil spray was objectionable due to ground
contamination and reduction in retardation.

Brake shoes were prepared having I-in.-diameter holes drilled into the face
of the shoe, as many as could be accommodated by the shoe face, and for the full
length of the shoe. These holes were then plugged with lead. This did reduce the
screech some but also reduced the retarding effort.

One of the more successful attempts to eliminate wheel screech was made in
1965 by Iron Ore Company of Canada on a WABCO inert retarder. The face of
the shoe was slotted the entire length, /s-in. wide and 1-in. deep and packed with
a lubricant. The last report stated screeching reduced approximately 75% with no
extensive loss of shoe life.

Shoes with inserts of molydisulfide and with inserts of graphite were tried with
Uttle or no results. It is to be noted that in these tests involving shoe composition
or inserts the shoe had a very high rate of wear, eliminated only a small percentage
of screeching and when a car did screech it did so at the same sound pressure levels
as before tiie test.

WABCO tried interrupting retarder beam and shoe arrangements since obser-
vations seemed to suggest a correlation between the shoe length and time taken
to induce screeching. At one yard they tapered the ends of the shoes with a cutting
torch all through the retarder while at other yards they installed entering and leav-
ing beams every three cylinders. The results were negligible.

All the foregoing is a sort of prehistory. When Burlington Northern began
planning Northtown Yard one of tlie obstacles that had to be overcome was restric-
tive sound pressure ordinances, that is, noise ordinances. For example, one com-
munity bordering the proposed yard passed an ordinance liiniting pressure levels in
the octave band 1200 to 2400 cycles to 33 db and in the octave band 2400 to 4800
cycles to 20 db.

Here are some typical decibel values encountered in daily life:

Address by M. B. Walker 557

Rustling leaves — 20 db (Note this is tlie maximum level we were allowed for

the 2400-4800 cycle octave band.)
Soft whisper at 5 ft — 34 db (Note tliis is the maximum level we were allowed

for the 1200-2400 cycle octave band.)
Normal suburban residential area — 43 db.
Typical office — 70 db.
Car wheels in rctarder at 15 ft — 100 to 134 db.

It is interesting to note that the community which set tlie low noise levels of
20 and 30 db mentioned above is very likely in violation of its own ordinance. Cer-
tainly Burlington Northern was facing a potential problem with retarder noise.

In 1970 Burlington Northern engaged the consulting firm of Bolt, Beranek and
Nev^Tnan (BBN), sound specialists, to study the problem of retarder noise and
invited General Railway Signal Company and WABCO to cooperate in a joint effort
to find a solution. WABCO decided to work independently with its own consultant
and GRS began work with Burlington Northern and BBN.

As a result of studies made by BBN it was concluded diat tlie car wheel was
the sound generator and was set into vibration by tlie slip-stick phenomena between
wheels and brake shoes called spragging. As a wheel is squeezed in the retarder
betsveen the brake shoes it tends to be gripped and then to slip somewhat like a
piece of chalk chattering on a black board. The screech is the audible e\ddence of
the wheel vibration.

The race was on to find a way to abate the wheel screech of retarders so
Northtown Yard could use its humping operation. At Pasco Yard, Burlington North-
ern, BBN and GRS conducted tests on:

1. Vertical sound barriers.

2. Sand damping of retarder members.

3. Wheel damping.

4. Water saturation of retarder shoes and car wheels.

5. Lubricants apphed to retarder shoes and car wheels.

At North Kansas City Yaid, Burlington Northern and WABCO conducted
tests on:

1. Soimd barriers.

2. Lubricants applied to retarder shoes and car wheels.

3. Pulsating air supply to retarders.

Theoretical calculations on sound barriers indicated we could expect a 20 to
30 db reduction in sound pressure levels along a line perpendicular to the center of
the barrier wall. The Pasco barrier was of temporary construction, 96 ft long, of
^-in. pl>'^vood faced with 6J2 in. of fiberglass insulation. The main wall was 12 ft
above ground level and approximately 9 ft above top of rail. At the top, a 2-ft
hinged section of wall was arranged so it could be in the vertical position or any
desired angle toward tlie track to form a deflecting baffle. The absorption coefiicient
of the fiberglass wool was 0.8, a relatively good factor. Measurements indicated
the barrier provided between 20 and 23 db attenuation. No significant difference in
attenuation was noted with the adjustable portion positioned at 45° above the
horizontal.

558 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

The sound barrier at BN's North Kansas City Yard was designed by WABCO
and is of a more pennanent nature. The base and foundations are 10x10 in. timbers,
the framework 2x6 in. fir and the panels are corrugated transite to which an acous-
tical lining was glued. All wood work is creosote treated and the panels are slanted
about 30° from vertical toward the retarders. Sound level readings taken at a point
100 ft from and pci"pendicular to the center of the retarder indicated a 25 decibel
reduction in noise level.

Sound damping of tlie retarder shoe beams was achieved by adapting frames
to the inside and outside beams to hold sand bags. The arrangement was applied
to the first section of a group retarder; however, limited clearance above the beams
restricted the amount of sand that could be applied. Sand bags were placed in the
frames and loose sand packed around the bags and over tlie top of the beams for
a total weight of approximately 6000 lb. The beams were obser\'ed to be canted
outward from the rail due to the outboard weight and there was apprehension that
the retarder would respond too slowly; however, functioning was correct. Impact-
excited vibrations were significantly reduced but diere was very little effect on wheel
screech.

Wheel damping tests were scheduled involving rubber-like pads cemented to
both the inside and outside surfaces of car wheels. Due to the difficulty of applying
damping pads to the wheels, to the inconclusive results and to the improbability
that all cars could be so treated, these tests were never repeated. An alternate
damping test was carried out at Pasco Yard by fitting six sections of a group retarder
witli wooden members consisting of 2x6 in. planks supported on steel frames bolted
to the shoe beams. The damping bars were spring-loaded to provide about 50 lbs
pressure against the side of die wheels. There was insufficient clearance between
truck sides and damper frames which caused enough damage to prompt abandon-
ment of this test.

A water test was conceived because it has been recognized that retarder
squeal is often absent under certain moist conditions. In an attempt, and again
at Pasco Yard, to simulate tliese conditions, we applied a water spray to a group
retarder, completely drenching tlie shoes and the wheels of tlie test cars. The test
result was negative.

The next logical test seemed to be lubrication of the retarder shoes. Mathe-
matical calculations by BBN indicated the lubricant must have a stick-slip ratio
of less than 1.0. The first lubricant tried had a ratio of 0.78 and was initially brushed
on the faces of shoes in a group retarder. Extra-heavy cars were humped into this
group as single car cuts and maximum retardation was applied in an attempt to
produce screeching. None of the cars emitted screech.

The same cars were retrieved and again humped into tlie previously treated
group, with no screech generated in either the master or group retarder. Enough
residual oil remained on the wheels to cause loss of retardation in the master
retarder. The same cars were again retrieved and were then humped into a diflFerent,
untreated group. The cars were again difficult to control in the master; however,
they were stopped easily in the untreated group retarder. Again, no screech was
emitted by either the master nor untreated group retarder.

Direct lubrication of brake shoes eliminated screeching but is laborious of
application and difficult to control, so the next stop was to carry the lubricant in
a water solution which is the way Burlington Northern went at Northtov^m Yard.
A test was conducted at Pasco Yard using a 55-gal drum for mixing and storage,

Address by M. B. Walker 559

and a small motor-driven irrigation pump was used to deliver tlie solution to lengths
of perforated garden soaker hoses layed along the retarder shoe beams.

The arrangement produced a fine spray mist which enveloped the car wheel as
it passed dirough the retarder. The dramatic results demonstrated clearly for the
first time that screeching could be eliminated during passage of a car Uirough a
retarder. Continued experimentation with a variety of water-soluble oils produced
a combination which virtually eliminated the screech from all cars with loss of
retardation estimated at approximately 10%.

The oil used is Texaco No. 1609, soluble, heavy-duty, having a high extreme
pressure property, which is formulated to mix readily with water and have a stable
emulsion widi good rust protection characteristics. The results of all experiments
indicated that a 2% mixture of this oil with water either eliminated all screeching or,
in worst cases, drastically reduced the sound pressure level of those cars that did
screech. Since Northtown Yard lies adjacent to communities with very restrictive
noise ordinances it was necessary to use a retarder noise abatement system that is
100% effective so the decision was made to use the spray concept together with sound
barriers.

At Northtown tlie emulsified oil and water mixture is delivered to the retarder
shoes and car wheels in a spray fog at 30 psi at the nozzles. A /i-in.-diameter mani-
fold runs the entire length of the retarder on the outside of each side with the
manifolds controlled in two sections. The entering section extends for two-thirds
the length of the retarder and the leaving section extends through tlie bottom 1/3
of the retarder. The spray nozzles are set into the manifolds on 3 ft 8 in. centers
thus creating a very fine spray for die entire length of retardation. Each of these
manifold sections is individually controlled either by the computer when in humping
mode or manually by push button on the control console.

Cars are sprayed according to their weight so that every extra heavy and heavy
car is sprayed, with medium and light cars having approximately every third or
fourth car sprayed. The actual sequence of spraying is calculated by the computer
on the basis of car weights and the mixture of cars.

The retarders are mounted on concrete foundations constructed so as to return
the residual mixture to sumps located at the downhill end of the retarders from
whence it is pumped to a reclaiming plant housed in a nearby building. The collect-
ing sumps consist of a section of concrete pipe 4 ft in diameter with a poured
concrete floor into which is placed a submersible pump controlled by a high-low
limit switch. A cycle tinier is provided to limit frequency of operation of the pump.
This allows the sump to be pumped dry once after the start of a heavy rainfall after
which the sump is allowed to overflow the relatively clear water into an industrial
sewer. The amount of oil remaining in the collection system under these conditions
is small and can easily be handled by the sewer with no problem. This insures at
the .same time diat excess water does not get into the noise control system and dilute
the mixture l>eyond a useful level.

In the reclaiming plant the incoming mixture is settled in a receiving tank,
right, where large particulate and scum are removed. After this, the mixture is pumped
through in-line filters, which remove small particulate, to a 2000-gal mixing tank,
left, where metered oil and water is added to reconstitute as required. The supply
of water is direct from commercial lines and the supply of oil is pumped from a
15,000-gal below-ground storage tank. In winter ethylene glycol is metered into the
mixing tank in proper amounts to prevent freezing at the expected low temperatures
for the next 24 hours. This antifreeze is stored in a below-ground 30,000-gal tank.

560 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

After agitation into a homogeneous solution the refreshened mixture is pumped
into a 2000-gal supply tiink from whence it is delivered at 90 psi back to the
retarders for pressure reduction to tlie spray manifolds.

The receiving tank, mixing tank, and supply tank are located in the reclaim
building for ease of operation and maintenance. Sizing of tanks was calculated to
hold a 24 hour supply of material.

Eight-foot-high sound-absorbing barriers extending 6 ft above top of rail and
overhanging both ends of the retarders by approximately 11 ft were installed on
both sides of all retarders. These barriers are supported by the above-mentioned
concrete retarder foundations and are made up of panels 4 ft high and 8 ft long
held in vertical I-beam members so that sections may be removed to gain access to
the retarder for maintenance. Doors are provided in front of each retarder operating
mechanism for the same reason. A wind loading of 30 lb per sq ft was used in the
design.

The efiFectiveness of the noise abatement e£Fort related to the hump retarders
may readily be judged by actual observation. With the spray system operating with
the correct mixture of oil and water, car after car passes through the retarders
without a screech. Occasionally, an extra-heavy car will just start to screech as the
car reaches exit speed and will have the screech chopped off as the retarder opens.
With the sound barriers doing their part, this brief and occasional screech goes
urmoticed.

The sound barriers at Northtown are performing at a sound level attenuation
of about 20 dbA in accordance with the manufacturer's published performance
capabilities. One must keep in mind that these measurements are taken at a point
50 ft from and perpendicular to the center of the barrier and at rail height. The
figure also represents the maximum capabilities, and as one moves away from this
center line position of the barrier towards the ends of the barrier or travels vertically
in relation to the barrier, the attenuation capabilities decrease.

Loss of oil and water mixture due to evaporation and carry down into the yard
is much less than expected and what is tracked down into the bowl acts, together
with rail surface lubricators, to reduce curve resistance.

Associated with the noise abatement efforts at the hump was the consideration
given to the elimination of wheel screech associated with the skate retarders located
at the puUout end of the bowl tracks. Traditionally, these skate retarders have been
inert, and cars were simply pulled through giving rise to intolerable sound pressure
levels. Since Burlington Northern was faced with such stringent restrictions con-
cerning sound levels at Northtown, the decision was made to provide releasable
skate retarders. Those installed at NorthtowTi are GRS Model F-4 operable weight
responsive, powered by Bellows-Valvair hydraulic units. Each hydraulic unit powers
four skate retarders, thus there are 16 such units involved.

When the pullout yardmaster desires to pull a bowl track he requests the hump
yardmaster to release the associated skate retarder. After necessary blocking is per-
formed at the hump end of the track to prevent humping cars into tracks with
released skate retarders, the computer sends a command to tlie field enabling the
release circuit at the skate retarder where a trainman must operate a key switch
before the retarder will open. After passage of the car movement the trainman
removes his key from the key switch and the retarder will automatically reclose.

As previously pointed out, lying to the east, between the yard and residential
areas, is a 65-ft bluff created by excavations for the yard. On top of this bluff was
constructed a 10- to 15-ft mound so that the combination of the bluff and the mound

Address by R. A. P. Sweeney 561

would also act as a sound barrier shielding tiie concerned residents from yard noises.
By eliminating retarder squeal at both ends of the \ard, b>- use of sound barriers at
the hump retarders, and by having a convenient bluff to the east where there are
residential areas, Burlington Northern has been able to create an exceptionally quiet
yard.

The Load Spectrum for the Fraser River Bridge
at New Westminster, B.C.

77-65 8-S

By R. A. P. SWEENEY

Structural Engineer
Canadian National Railways

INTRODUCTION

"The thought of a steel member suddenly faihng after years of service brings
a chill to any engineer. This possibility turned to reality on December 15, 1967,
with the collapse of the Point Pleasant Bridge connecting Point Pleasant, West
Virginia and Kanauga, Ohio. Forty-six persons were carried to their deaths when an
eyebar failed and the bridge suddenly collapsed into the Ohio River carrying 31
of the 37 vehicles on the bridge with it. This tragic event 'which occurred' during
the evening rush hour has focused the attention of bridge engineers throughout the
world on the safety of existing steel bridges." (1), (2), (3)^

In late 1971 the writer was asked to investigate the fatigue problem in a general
way in order to determine what procedures should be used to evaluate Canadian
National's over 3500 steel bridges. This study is still continuing.

In order to avoid a calamity of the magnitude of the Point Pleasant failure, the
heavily tra\elled east-west main lines carrjing more than 10 million gross tons annu-
ally were examined. Of the bridges evaluated, by far the weakest from the point
of view of absolute strength and gross tonnage was the Fraser River Bridge at Mile
118.5 of CN's Yale Subdivision.

The Fraser River bridge is one of the largest rail-water crossings in Canada.
It has a total length of about 2000 ft with additional extensive timber pile ap-
proaches. The bridge is owned by the Public Works Department of Canada and
is used by three railways, namely: Canadian National, Burlington Northern and
British Colmnbia Hydro. Canadian National Railways is the main user and has the
responsibihty for inspection.

Since the bridge was built in 1904 (see Figure 1), is of rather weak design
(Cooper E40 at today's stresses) and carries all CN trafiSc to Vancouver, Canada's
third largest city, with a heavy percentage of unit trains, Canadian National arranged
for an investigation of its remaining useful life. (4), (5).

A firm maximmn life could not be established witliout precise data on the loads
to which the bridge has been and will be subjected. This paper describes the load
spectrum used to analyze the bridge with particular reference to the useful life of
the hangers of the main 380-ft span (Figure 2).

''■ Numbers in parenthesis indicate references listed at the end of this report.
Note: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

562

Bulletin 658 — ^American Railway Engineering Association

Figure 1

Figure 2

Address by R. A. P. Sweeney 563

I. TRAFFIC DENSITIES AND PROJECTIONS

Figure 3 shows the actual and projected gross tonnages in miUion gross tons
per mile for the period 1930 to 1980. The upsurge in traffic from 1970 is tlie result
of the introduction of unit trains. During tlris study reasonably accurate carload
data from 1967 to the present, and odd snapshot type studies before that year were
available. The study showed tliat tlie fatigue analysis was not sensitive to relatively
large errors in the predicted car cycles before 1967.

Annual tonnages (Figure 3) across the bridge did not exceed 10 million gross
tons before 1963, but by 1970, 18 million gross tons were recorded. The marketing
projection anticipates 60 million gross tons or full line capacity by 1980.

Sources of Data

The most reliable source of historical data is the conductor's train journals.
These were not available for the full period and when available are extremely
unwieldy. Two independent computerized data bases were a\ailable. The first is
the CN car file which is made from the journals, and the second is the waybill file
made from the waybills. These togetlier with the bridge tender's annual car counts
and a number of short-term studies done in the past based on conductor's journals
were used to set up die historical data.

The projection used for future traffic was based on then current ( 1974) company
forecasts by a special group set up to study traffic density problems in the Vancouver
area. Two alternative forecasts were also investigated, but are not reported (4).

II. RASIC CAR CYCLE DATA

Past Traffic

As a sample the 1973 distribution based on the CN car file data base is as
shown:

1973 Frequency Distribution

Range
Tons

Tons

Cars
Per Annum

7c of
Total

7c of
Loaded

0-20

10

20,445

4.9

N/A

20-40

30

234,117

55.9

N/A

40-60

50

23,876

5.7

N/A

60-80

70

33,582

8.0

23.9

80-100

90

32,878

7.8

23.5

100-120

110

9,418

2.2

6.7

120-131. .5

125.75

64,152

15.3

45.8

131.5-140

135.75

329

0.1

> 140

2

0.0

Total Cars

418,799

Gross

Tonn

age: 22,545,392

Average

Gross

; Per Car: 54 tons

The AAR average for this same period was 56.9 tons.
Similar tables were made for all previous years (4).

564

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

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565

In order to complete the picture an assumption had to be made with regard
to locomotives, since except for unit trains the number of locomotives is not precisely
known. It was assumed that on the average, except for unit trains, there was one
locomotive for every 30 cars. The table below summarizes tlie relevant CN traffic
to the end of 1973. Since car loads weighing less than 80 tons gross do not influence
the fatigue life of this bridge, they are ignored in the following tabulation.

Summary of Car Cycles to 1973

Range

1967 to

1961 to

1940 to

1904 to

Total

Total

Tons

1973, inc.

1966

1960

1940

CN

All Roads

80-100

161,703

174,000

445,000

80,000

860,000

1,169,000

100-120

74,977

31,200

102,000

—

208,000

282,000

120-131.5

106,620*

780

—

—

107,000

145,000

131.5-140

329

20

—

—

300

407

>140

2

—

—

—

2

3

Locomotives

370,000

503,000

Unit Trains

112,000

—

—

—

112,000

—

Their Locos.

4,200

—

—

—

4,200

—

* Unit trains excluded.

To obtain the total for all roads, i.e., CiN, BN and BCH, CN traffic has been
multiphed by 1.36. Tlie figure 1.36 is the mean value over the last decade based
on the bridge tender's car count (4). The assumption here is that the traffic pattern
for these roads is the same as CN's for heavy traffic with the exception of unit
trains.

Future Traffic

Using the figures supplied by the co-ordinator of the Vancouver Terminal
Study (see Figure 4) and using average car types for each major commodity (4),
the following table was derived:

1974-1980
Includes CN, BN & BCH

Range

%of

Line

G.T.

Cars'

Total

1

100-120

447,600

7.9

2

120-131.5

925,600

16.3

3

Locos.

178,000

3.1

Total

5,681,000

Line 1 consists of predicted grain moves only.

Line 2 consists of predicted coal, sulphur, potash, phosroc and 5% of remaining

loaded cars less express and passenger cars (6, p. 108).
Line 3 consists of three locomotives per unit train as per unit train specffications,

two units per passenger train and one unit per each remaining 40 car group.

^ For the entire period.

566

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Address by R. A. P. Sweeney 567

The above is referred to as the Full Market Analysis prediction. Two other
market projections, not detailed here, were also carried out.

Summary, Car-Cycle Data

The most important traffic insofar as the life of this bridge is concerned is that
occurring between 1970 and 1980. More tonnage will cross tlie structure in tliis
decade than in its entire previous history. The annual gross million tons will go
from roughly 18 in 1970 to 60 in 1980.

III. LOAD SPECTRUM FROM TRAINS

Analytical Study

The basic train and car crossing data outlined above were used to define the
probable load spectrum that the Fraser River Bridge was subjected to from 1904 to
1973 and projected to 1980, at which time the traffic was assumed to have reached
saturation. Each year after 1980 was assumed to carry the same traffic as that for
the year 1980.

1. Cijcles per Vehicle

Available field data show that the passage of trains over a bridge produces
major stress cycles for axle and truck loaded members such as hangers and floor-
beams, with superimposed vibrational cycles (6), (7), (12). For most structures
the superimposed vibrational cycles are small enough to be neglected as the AASHO
Road Test Studies confirmed (8).

Strain measurements on hanger. Mi Li of the 380-ft through truss span of the
Fraser River Bridge confirmed the theoretically calculated cyclic variation of stress
range and showed that there is essentially one cycle per car with very little super-
imposed vibrational cycles. Figure 3.1 compares a portion of a record of a unit
coal train witli the theoretically calculated variation assuming space frame behavior.
The comparison is within experimental error. Random samples of all other car types
using die bridge compared as favorably with their theoretical force-time plots.

2. Probability Density in Each Weight Group

The field data from many previous studies of highway and railroad traffic also
indicates that the frequency-of-occurrence data can often be idealized reasonably
well by use of the Rayleigh curves, which defines a family of skewed probabihty-
density curves. This approximation is currently being used to develop stress-cycle
criteria for AREA Committee 15.

The nondimensional mathematical expression defining a truncated Rayleigh
curve is given by (9).

p' = 1.011 X e''^'-^'* (3.1)

where

^ Pr — Prmin „
^ - P^d— ^ ^

Prmin is the minimum force in the spectrum

Prd is a parameter which is a measure of the dispersion of the data
The root-mean-square force range for the distribution is given by
PrRMS = Prmin + Prd (3.2)

A Rayleigh distribution was not used for the load spectrum since the actual
spectrum was available. The use of the actual spectrum is preferable when it is

568

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Address by R. A. P. Sweeney

569

40

30

20

10

K^

\\

■; \

Mi

mM

steam
Locomotives

K

55 65 75 85 95

HANGER FORCE , kips

105

115

Figure 3.2 — Load frequency (simple truss analysis) up to 1973.

available. The FHWA nationwide load spectrum used to derive the AASHTO fatigue
provisions is bimodal (10). A similar traffic pattern exists over the Eraser River
Bridge. The two peaks can be seen in Fig. 3.2. This reflects the effect of the heavy
unit train traffic over the Fraser River Bridge (see Fig. 3.2). The obvious conclusion
is that if any one commodity represents a substantial proportion of the traffic, it
must be considered independently. A pure Rayleigh approximation with only one
peak can be in substantial error.

Examining the distribution of loaded unit train vehicles from tests on the
Fraser River Bridge and the far more exhaustive data on cars loaded over 110 tons
on a line which feeds traffic to the bridge (11), it is quite evident that 100-ton-
capacity cars used in bulk service are loaded close to their rated capacity.

Since most of the cars in the 120- to 131. 5- ton range crossing the Eraser River
Bridge are carrying bulk commodities, and since the 110- to 120-ton cars are put
in the next lower class interval, these cars are assumed to be loaded to their rated
capacity. Test measurements on the Fraser River Bridge made in June 1975 confirmed
this assumption. Cars in lower weight ranges follow a Rayleigh distribution (5).
Thus, except for the 120 to 131.5 group, each car or locomotive in an interval of
car or locomotive loadings was assumed to result in a force range Rayleigh frequency
distribution as shown in Fig. 3.3. As an example, this results in a RMS load for
the load interval 80-100 tons of 89.2 tons as illustrated.

3. Frequency Distribution up to 1973

The force range P acting on a hanger was evaluated from force-time plots
assuming plane truss behavior. The resulting value is adjusted to account for actual
behavior. These provided the hanger force for several locomotive-car combinations.

570

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineerinj^ Association

1.378

Prd

,,. 1

— 1~-

3

Prd

^ 0.6

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80

90
CAR WEIGHT , tons

Figure 3.3 — Assumed car weight distribution in 80-100 ton car load interval.

100

Of the 76,500 steam units, 80% were assumed to be transfer units as the bridge
is in a terminal area. The balance was assumed to be Northern Class units. The
remaining 293,500 diesel units were assumed to be composed of 235,000 single
unit trains with the remaining units in trains with 2 or 3 units per train.

The cars in each weight class were assumed to be placed, in proportion to their
frequency, after the diesel locomotive units. All stress cycles, except for unit trains,
were increased by the factor 1.36 to account for other roads using the structure.
These assumptions resulted in the following force range distribution for the cars and
locomotives crossing the bridge (Tables 1 and 2) up through 1973.

The results in Tables 1 and 2 were used to evaluate the effective range of force
under the random variable cycles of load that were applied to the hangers. Both
the RMS and the Miner's equivalent force range were evaluated, as recent studies
have shown that both provide reasonable estimates of the cumulative effects of
variable cycle loading (9).

The root-mean-square force range corresponding to the 2,217,810 force cycles
in Tables 1 and 2 was detennined as:

PrRMS = [2 (a.Pr)]'
= 71.7 kips

(3.3)

Address by R. A. P. Sweeney

571

Table 1 — Stress Cycles Up to 1973 From Cars

RMS

Frequency

Force on

Type (tons) PRMS (tons)

After Loco.

After Car

Hanger, kips"

80 -100 89.2

262,970

—

61.8

—

906,630

58.3

100 -120 109.2

63,602

—

75.6

—

219,278

71.4

120 -131.5 131.5

32,717

—

91.0

—

112,802

86.1

131.5-140 134.0

90

—

92.8

—

321

87.7

Unit train

131.5 131.5

1,400

—

91.0

ior.

110,600

86.1

• Assuming plane truss behavi

Table 2 — Stress

Cycles Up to

1973

From Locomoti>
Frequency X

,ES

RMS
Force on

Tijpe

Frequency

1.36

Hanger kips'

Single Unit-Northern

15,300

20,808

121.0

Single Unit-Transfer

61,200

82,232

111.2

Single Unit Diesel

235,000

319,600

78.0

2 or 3 Unit Diesel

29,250

39,780

78.0

29,250

39,780

94.0

Unit Trains

1,400

1,400

78.0

2,800

2,800

94.0

" Assuming plane truss behavior.
The Miner's equivalent force range is defined by:
PrMINER = [ ^ aiPi" ]'"
= 73.4 kips

(3.4)

It is readily apparent that both methods >ield about the same effective force
range.

4. Frequency Distribution Up to 1980

For the period 1974-1980, the protection indicates tliat there will be 101,988
trains with 178,000 locomoti\'es. Unit trains will number 19,534. Of the remaining
82,454 trains, 36,944 were assumed to have 2 locomotives and 45,510 trains were
assumed to have a single locomotive.

Cars in each weight class were treated as in the 1904-1973 period. The follow-
ing Table 3 summarizes the force cycles for this period.

572

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Table 3 — Force Cycles From 1974-1980

Type

PRMS (to

Locomotives

—

Cars (tons)

80-100

89.2

100-120

109.2

120-131.5

131.5

frequency

Force, kips' "

101,988

78.0

76,012

94.0

93,215"

61.8

321,374

58.3

16,624*

75.6

430,976

71.4

34,376*

91

891,224

86.1

" Adjacent to locomotive.
°" Assuming plane truss behavior.

When the variable force cycles in Tables 1, 2 and 3 are combined, the effective
force range for the 4,183,599 cycles becomes

PrRMS = 74.7 kips

PrMINER = 75.9 kips
5. Frequency Distribution After 1980

The traffic pattern for each year after 1980 was assumed to be at saturation
which results in the following:

Table 4 — Force Cycles Per Annum After 1980

Type

PRMS (to

Locomotives

Cars

80-110

89.2

100-120

109.2

120-131.5

131.5

Frequency

Force, kips*

16,330

87.9

12,170

83.2

16,100

61.8

55,400

58.3

2,300

75.6

59,500

71.4

6,290

87.9

163,060

83.2

331,150 cycles per annum

" Assuming plane truss behavior.

6. Summary of Field Test Results

Three series of field measurement were taken; a series in June 1975 and two
series in August referred to as the T and S series. The maximum amount of life used
by cyclic variation was calculated for Hanger Mi Li for the three series of tests.
Figure 3.4 shows a plot with the measured cycles scaled by 10* indicating how this
was done for the June series of tests.

A least life occurs when the root-mean-square stress range is nearest to tlie
failure curve as derived from laboratory fatigue tests. The least life occurs in this
case when all cars greater than 80 tons gross are included. Nevertheless, it is readily

Address by R. A. P. Sweeney

573

<

cr 5

•Category E

Minimum -'''^459"

Sr = ^RMS ^ 0-55 X 30 X 10^ x 23.09 x 0.735/8.65

Seeled by 10'*

Pf,f^,3= 152.4 X 10"^ X 0.55 x 30 x lo' x 23.09 = 58.0 kips at 422 cycles

CYCLES
Figure 3.4 — Frequency vs. effective stress range.

10'

80

60 —

I 8 Series

Record S-4

VVinniondy Coal £ Locos S-2

n =393

. ^RMS

161.1

40

20

Mean ^

60.6 ll

\h\ ..

Mean

60.6

J

T Series
^MS Record T-17

62.9 Luscar
Coal
n = 380

tih.

40 60 80 40 60 80

AXLE LOAD , kips AXLE LOAD , kips

Figure 3.5 — Unit train axle loads — August tests.

574

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

apparent from Fig. 3.4 tliat not much difference in life results by including all cars
over 60 tons or only over 100 tons gross, as all points are about equi-distant from
the fiiilure curve. Hence, tlie use of cars weighing in excess of 80 tons provides a
reasonable means of assessing the fatigue damage.

It is known tliat the unit train in test T and the one in test S were underloaded.
A.\le loads were recorded during the S and T test series. The results of these measure-
ments are summarized in Fig. 3.5. The mean axle load is seen to equal 60.6 kips
which is about 8% less than the anticipated mean of 64.8 kips. The theoretical value
after correcting for this underloading is 64.3 kips for unit trains.

Table 5 shows the RMS force values and the number of cycles considered for
the three test groups. Also shown is the 1975 RMS value corrected for space frame
action. The data summarized in Table 5 show that unit trains result in stress cycles
that are in very good agreement with the stress cycles estimated from 1975 traffic
projections. The effective stress cycles for all train traffic was measured to be shghtly
less than predicted from the traffic projections. This difference varied from 7 to 10%
on the conservative side. The frequency of occurrence of the measured stress cycles
was in good agreement witii the projected frequency for the 1974-80 time period
(36.8% measured vs. 34.6^ projected).

The experimental field measurements have confirmed the applicability of apply-
ing the traffic projections to evaluate the stress cycles in the members of the Fraser
River Bridge. An accurate assessment of the member forces can be made using an
appropriate analysis procedure. Hence, the equivalent static force range for the
intervals 1904 to 1973, 1974 to 1980 and from 1980 onward can be used to deter-
mine the eftective stress range for these intervals.

Table

5— Measured Member

Force

All Trains

Unit Trains

Test

PRMS, kips

Effective Cycles
Over
Total Cycles

PRMS, ki

ps

Effective
Cycles

June '75

58.1

422/984

70.6

182

T

56.1

178/568

64.1

95

T

56.3

172/568

63.9

95

S

Average

55.2

183/605

36.8%

61.7

95
51.8%

Predicted
projected

(1975)
traffic)

62.6

34.6%

69.8'

51.7%

" For T & S series the estimated member force is 64.3 kips if underloading is considered
for the 120-131.5 ton vehicles.

7, Impact and Roll Effects

Impact and roll effects increase the static force by an indeterminate dynamic
interval. The influence of this variable on the stress cycle response is completely
random and seldom if ever produces the full design stress range. In this study it
was assumed that the dynamic increment was also distributed in a skewed manner.
The assimied distribution is shown in Fig. 3.6. The maximum value was assumed
to be the full 17.7% provided by the AREA specification for 10 mph. The minimum
combined eftect of impact and roll was taken as 0.95. This is reasonably compatible

Address by R. A. P. Sweeney

575

0.6 r—

!^ 0.4

■a:

DYNAMIC FACTOR
Figure 3.6 — Assumed variation of dynamic increment.

witlt available studies which indicate that at times the member sees less than the
static stress range. The root-mean-square of the skewed dynamic increment was
detemiined to be 1.054.

A calculation of the static increment for an SD-40 locomotixe produces an
effective unsprung axle weight of roughly 15% X 65.75 = 9.86 kips which when
compared to the static calclulated force in the hanger gives an impact of 1.054.

Field Tests on the Fraser River Bridge

All the field measurements except for a few of the S series were made with
signal filters with roll-off frequencies from 10 to 14.2 Hertz (Hz). This did elimi-
nate certain impact effects at 10 mph and upwards. For this reason a special series
of impact tests were conducted using three locomotives.

Impacts increased witli train speed as expected. The a\'erage impact at 20 mph
in the loaded direction was 1.12. This is very close to the RMS value calculated as
follows :

Vertical impact:
Rolling impact:

Speed correction:

38.9%
20.0

58.9%
0.6 20 mph

35.4%

The RMS value between 0.95 and 1.34 is 1.136 for 20 mph. The minimum
measured impact coefficient was 0.956 which is very close to the assumed minimum
of 0.95. The average measured impact at 10 mph in the loaded direction was 1.054.

576 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

In the pin plate the measured values were somewhat higher presumably due to
a certain amount of ringing in the plate. At 20 mph the impact was 1.17 in the
loaded direction with some evident ringing at 28 Hz. At 10 mph the impact in
the pin plate was 1.071. Since the slow order on the bridge is set at 8 mph the
average impact for tlie hanger was taken as 1.054.

Sensitivity of the Analysis

The calculations show that a 5% change in the predicted number of loaded 131.5
gross ton cars had a negligible effect on the calculated life, as the difference between
the full market analysis prediction and alternate one is less than a year. Only a
significant change would make a difference.

CONCLUSION

Historical data were scanned to produce a load spectrum for past traffic.

Future traffic was estimated based on marketing projections. The years 1974
and 1975 were used to check these projections and the comparison was favorable.

The effect of ignoring cars less than 80 tons was shown to be negligible. Strain
measurements indicated that there was essentially one cycle per car, and confirmed
the assumed impact percentage based on an RMS value of a Rayleigh distribution.

On this bridge bulk commodities in unit trains represent a substantial proportion
of die traffic. Cars over 80 tons gross represented more than 25% of the traflBc in
1975, with 16% of the total traffic in the 120 to 131.5 ton range.

Figures reported by Drew (6) in 1968 that no more than 5% of all loads are
near the maximum appears to be valid only in cases where unit trains are not
significant and furthennore appears only valid for the past decade. As time goes on
and railroads become more efiBcient, this figure will creep upwards. On CN's main
line through the Rockies a 25% figure for the 120-131.5 ton group is anticipated
within the next decade. Further studies on other CN lines are being conducted to
see if this increase can be expected elsewhere.

Finally, the experimental field measurements confirmed the applicability of
applying the traffic projections to evaluate the stress cycles in the members of the
Fraser River Bridge.

REFERENCES

1. W. J. Cain and C. Seim, "Carquinez West Bridge Eyebar Investigation — Phase
I," May 1974, Toll Bridge Administration, Department of Transportation, State
of California, San Francisco, Calif.

2. Charles F. Scheffey, "Point Pleasant Bridge Collapse — Conclusions of the Federal
Study," Civil Engineering, ASCE, July 1971, pp. 41-45.

3. Daniel Dicker, "Point Pleasant Bridge Collapse Mechanism Analyzed," Civil
Engineering, ASCE, July 1971, pp. 61-66.

4. R. A. P. Sweeney, "Investigation of the Remaining Useful Life of the Fraser
River Bridge, New Westminster, B.C.," Phase I, Jan. 31, 1975, Canadian National
Railways, Montreal, Quebec.

5. J. W. Fisher and J. Hartley Daniels, "Report on Investigation of the Estimated
Fatigue Damage in Components of the Fraser River Bridge, New Westminster,
B.C.," for Canadian National Railways, Montreal, Quebec, February 1976.

6. W. H. Munse, J. E. Stallmeyer and F. P. Drew, "Structural Fatigue and Steel
Railroad Bridges," Proceedings of AREA Seminar, 1968, AREA Chicago.

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 577

7. Association of American Railroads, "Field Investigation of Two Truss Spans
on the Southern Pacific Company," May 1968, Report ER-82, AAR Research
Center, Chicago.

8. J. W. Fisher and I. M. Viest, "Fatigue Life of Bridge Beams Subjected to Con-
trolled Truck Traffic," Proceedings, Seventh Congress, lABSE, 1964.

9. C. G. Schilling, K. H. Klippstein, J. M. Barsom and G. T. Blake, "Fatigue of
Welded Steel Bridge Members under Variable-Amplitude Loadings," NCHRP
Research Results Digest No. 60, April 1974.

10. J. W. Fisher, "Guide to 1974 AASHTO Fatigue Specifications," AISC, 1974,
AISC, New York.

11. F. E. King, "Tests on B. C. Soutli Line Clearwater Subdivision," CN Technical
Research Center, Montreal, Quebec, February 28, 1975.

12. F. P. Drew, "Recorded Stress Histories in Railroad Bridges," Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, ST 12, Dec. 1968.

An Investigation of the Estimated Fatigue Damage in
Members of the 380-ft Main Span, Fraser River Bridge

By
JOHN W. FISHER

Professor of Civil Engineering

Fritz Engineering Laboratory

Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.

and

J. HARTLEY DANIELS

Associate Professor of Civil Engineering

Fritz Engineering Laboratory

Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.

INTRODUCTION

Older railroad bridges which have accumulated or are projected to accumulate
large numbers of stiess cycles may experience fatigue crack growth from their riveted
connections or other structural details such as pin plates and weldments. This is
particularly true of those structures built to carry loads that are not much greater
than most of the traffic using the bridge.

The Fraser River Bridge at New Westminster, British Columbia, is typical of
this type of structure, as it was built in 1904 to a weak design and presently carries
most of Canadian National Railways' traffic to Vancouver. A large percentage of
the current and projected traffic is of unit trains. Sweeney in a companion paper ( 1 ) *
has examined the load spectrum for past traffic and for future traffic based on
marketing projections.

In this paper the load spectrum defined in Ref. 1 is used to assess the actual
stress spectrum developed in the members of the structure in the most highly
stressed regions so that an evaluation of their fatigue life can be made.

" Numbers in parenthesis indicate references listed at the end of this report.
Note: Discussion open luitU October 16, 1976.

578 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Canadian National arranged for strain-gage measurements of certain bridge
members to assist with the analytical determination of tlie stress resultants and to
verify the applicability of applying tiaffic projections to evaluate stress cycles. Earlier
tests had demonstrated, for example, that hangers could be expected to exhibit
erratic behavior and unpredictable stresses adjacent to a floorbeam (2).

This paper summarizes Uie evaluation of the most critical hangers and tlie
stringers of the main 380-ft fixed span.

STRESS RESULTANTS IN HANGER MXi AND PIN-PLATES AT Mi

Hanger MiLi and the floorbeam and stringers are shown in Fig. 1 for tlie 380-ft
fixed span. The hanger above the floorbeam connection consists of four angles 6 x
SJa x % plus two fill plates 332 x ii riveted to a ITJz x 7/16 web plate as shown.
Additional % fill and splice plates make up the cross-section near the floorbeam
connection. The original hanger in 1904 consisted of four angles 6 x 3/2 x ^ plus a
system of 2J2 x % lattice bars. The lattice bars were removed in 1923 and replaced
with a solid web plate. As a result the web plate is discontinuous near the top of
the connection between the hanger and floorbeam as shown by the dashed line in
Fig. 1. The connection at Mi consists of two 11/16 pin plates bearing on a 5.41-in.-
diameter steel pin.

The riveted built-up floorbeam which is bent upwards and partly haunched
between the stiingers and the truss is attached to hanger MiLi above Li using a
pair of 6 x 4 X /8 connection angles. Between stringers the floorbeam consists of
pairs of 6 X 6 X 9/16 angles top- and bottom-riveted to a 51 x % web plate.

Wheel loads are transmitted to the floorbeam and thus to hanger MiLi dirough
a rail and tie system bearing on a pair of built-up stringers placed symmetrically
48 in. either side of the bridge centerline. The stringers consists of pairs of 6 x 6 x
7/16 angles top- and bottom-riveted to a 42 x fs web plate. The stringers are attached
to the floorbeams using a pair of connection angles as shown in Fig. 1. The floor-
beam reaction is theoretically carried by hanger MiLi between the floorbeam con-
nection and Ml.

Two different analytical models were used for tlie stress analyses of the main
380-ft span. The first was a plane simple truss model. This is tlie usual analytical
model assumed in the linear stress analysis of a trussed bridge span as it normally
provides an upper bound to overall member stress resultants. In this study, one
380-ft plane truss was isolated, in which all joints were assumed pin-connected.

The second was a three-dimensional model, developed specifically for this
study to closely simulate die behavior of the entire 380-ft span including both trusses
and all major load-carrying intennediate members. The model used in the computer
solution is shown in Fig. 2. Due to symmetry about the bridge centerline, only one
truss is shown. Since the analysis was concerned primarily with stress resultants
in hanger MiLi only major load-carrying members believed to have a significant
influence on MXi stress resultants were retained in the vicinity of hanger MiLi.
The influence of the structure beyond nodes 29, 30 and 31 was included by specify-
ing displacement conditions obtained from a separate plane frame truss analysis.
The stringer at node 29 was assumed continuous. Nodes midway between the trusses
were constrained to displace only vertically and horizontally because of symmetry.
Pin joints were assumed pinned in the analysis. Gussetted joints were assumed
continuous.

J

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels

579

Fill 3/1 X '/4

Fig. 1 — Hanger MiLi, floorbeam at Li and pin-plates at Mi.

580

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 2 — Member and node numbering for three-dimensional framed truss model.

Stresses in the Hanger

(a) Plane Simple Truss Model

The plane simple truss model would imply that only axial force exists in
hanger MiLi. This is a result of considering only a plane simple truss and assuming
that the load is directly applied at panel point Li. In reality, the load is applied
through the floorbeam. The actual stress resultants in hanger MiLi can be approxi-
mated by considering the hanger-floorbeam frame action.

Fig. 3 shows a simplified floorbeam-to-hanger frame model often used in
conjunction with a plane simple truss analysis to obtain stress resultants in the
hanger (3).

By superposition, the combined axial and flexural stress, cr (ksi), at a cross
section of the hanger between Mi and the top of the connection to the floorbeam
can be computed as:

0.0178Phy

(tension positive)

(1)

where A = gross or net section area (in.^)

Ix = gross or net section moment of inertia about the major axis (in.*)
h = distance from Mi to cross section under consideration (in.)
y = distance from hanger centroid to point in the cross section (in.)
P = hanger axial force in kips

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels

581

Floorbeam - Hanger
Frame

Fig. 3 — Floorbeam-hanger frame model.

Bui. 658

582 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

(b) Three-Dimensional Model

The three-dimensional model reasonably approximates the continuity con-
ditions in the actual bridge span. In terms of a load P at tlie stringer-floorbeam
connection, the combined axial and flexural stress, <t (ksi), in the hanger between
Ml and the top of tlie hanger to floorbeam connection is computed as follows :

„ _ 0.8194P ^ (0.0169h-0.0086)Py ^ (0.0007h-0.1221)Px, , ,„,

'^ T ± -^ z —^ ± = — (tension pos.) (2)

A Ix ly

where A, L, L and y are as defined above, P is the concentrated load in kips at
node 5 (Fig. 2), and

ly = gross or net section moment of inertia about the minor axis (in.*)
X = distance from hanger centroid to point in the cross section (in.)

The coefficient 0.8194 is the axial force in the hanger which results from a
unit load at tlie stringer-floorbeam connection.

For normal downward loading P, the first tenn produces axial tension; the
second term produces axial tension on the face of the hanger towards node 5 except
near M; the third term produces tension in the lower part of tlie hanger on the
side of the hanger towards node 3 (Fig. 2) and on the opposite side in the upper
part of the hanger.

Analysis of Stress Resultants in Pin-Plates at Mi

The plane simple truss model assumed a pin connection at Mi. The three-
dimensional model assumed continuity at Mi. The boundary conditions at Mi will
have negUgible influence on the calculation of stress resultants near the hanger
to floorbeam connection because of the flexibility of tiie hanger relative to the
floorbeam. However, the boundary condition assumed at Mi will have a pronounced
eflect on tlie distribution of hanger stress resultants to each of the two pin-plates
at Ml.

If only axial force exists in the hanger, and both pin-plates share tlie force
equally, then tlie change in pin-plate forces due to frame action of the hanger-
floorbeam can be calculated in both the simple truss or three-dimensional models.

For the plane simple truss model, the results of the frame analysis (Fig. 3)
can be used to estimate the pin-plate forces. Assuming tliat both plates are in
bearing under the hanger stress resultants, the rotation of the hanger at Mi will
be essentially zero. The moment at Mi is resisted by the couple 17.875 5F where 5F
is the increment of pin-plate force in kips and the distance between pin-plates is
17.875 in. Superimposing this result with the hanger axial force P the individual
pin-plate forces F can be calculated from,

F = -^-± 0.12P kips (3)

where the trackside pin-plate will carry the smaller force.

The three-dimensional model yields individual pin-plate forces equal to:

F = _0:^9P _^ 0.00048P kips (4)

Finite Element Analysis of Pin-Plate

To assist in evaluating the fatigue strength of the pin-plates, a finite element
analysis was carried out. Since the pin-plate was essentially symmetric, only one-half

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 583

of the pin-plate was modeled and used for tlie finite element analysis. The finite
element model is shown in Figure 4. The loads showTi at the end of the plate
provided an average net section stress of 10 ksi. The finite element program SAP
IV was used to perform the finite element analyses. (4)

The bearing of the pin-plate on the pin was modeled by connecting radial and
tangential elastic supports to nodes at the pin interface. The radial and tangential
support stiffness was taken as:

Kr = AE/D

Kt = 0.3 Kr (5)

where Kr := radial stiffness, Kx = tangential stiffness, A = bearing area, D — pin
diameter and E =: modulus of elasticity.

Fig. 5 shows the principal tensile stress contour plot that results when the
average net section stress is 10 ksi. Only the region near the pin hole is shown.

Since strain measurements were obtained on the inside pin-plate of tlie west
hanger MiLi, these measurements were compared with the predicted strains. The
force going into the pin-plate was measured to be about 43 kips. This would result
in an average net section stress of 5 ksi. Fig. 6 shows the predicted stress gradient
across the net section and compares it mth tlie measured stresses. The results are
in good agreement.

Correlation of Predicted Stresses with Field Measurements

The results of static load tests conducted by the CNR were compared to tlie
predicted stresses using the results of the three-dimensional model.

Table 1 shows the correlation in the west hanger between predicted stress, a^p,
and measured stress, ff„,, (ksi). The predicted stresses are computed separately from
each of the three tenns of Eq. 2. The gages on the west hanger were located so
that the gross cross section is effective.

Table 1 Correlation of Predicted and Measured Stresses:

West

Hanger (ksi)

Major Axis

Minor Axis

Gages

Section

A>:ial Stress

Bending Stress

Bending Stress

O
0 0 m
P m —

P

a
O 0 rn
P m ^
P

a
a o m
P m —

P

2-6 Gross 3.25 3.11 0.96 2.08 2.55 1.22 0.02 0.22 11.0

7-11 Gross 3.25 3.15 0.97 0.94 2.55 2.71 -0.27 0.22 -0.81

The correlation between predicted and measured axial stresses at both cross
sections is quite good. Fig. 7 shows the measured and predicted axial force response
for a portion of a unit train which confirms tlie applicability of the spac-e frame
analysis.

Table 1 shows that the correlation between predicted and measured major
and minor axis bending stresses at both cross sections of the west hanger is poor.

Obser\ations of strains in the pin-plates near Mi of the west hanger during
passage of trains over the bridge indicated that the pin-plates are not both initially
in contact with the pin at Mi. It was observed that when the bridge was unloaded

584

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

—

IX)

■CO
N
3;

-^

-X

r

Fig. 4 — Finite element model of pin-plate.

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels

585

Fig. 5 — Principal tensile stress contour plot for pin-plate.

586

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

20

5 I5|—
o

UJ
V)

UJ 10 —

in

(E

0 12 3 4 5 6 7

DISTANCE FROM HOLE EDGE , in.

Fig. 6 — Comparison of predicted and measured stresses on net section of pin-plate.

the waterside pin-plate did not bear on the pin. As loading increased the trackside
pin-plate initially carried the hanger force as shown in Fig. 8. The exterior pin-plate
did not bear until the hanger was subjected to high loads. An analysis showed that
if the correlation at both gaged cross sections is assumed to be unity in Table 1,
this implies that the axial force in the west hanger is shared between the trackside
and waterside pin-plates in the ratio 70 to 30 percent, respectively.

Table 2 shows the correlation in the east hanger between predicted stress, <Tp,
and measured stress, or,,,^ in ksi, for the same loading.

Table 2 Correlation of Predicted and Measured Stresses;

\

Avero9« Ntt Section Stress = 5 ksi

— \

\^^ r-Finite Element Analysis

1

^^"^--....^^#20A

^^"^"*^-^^_^_^ #21

i 1 1 1

#20

East Hanger (v^i^

Major Axis

Minor Axis

Ga^es

Section Axial Stress

Bending Stress

Bending Stress

a
o o m
p n, —

P

a
a a m
p m —

P

a
o o m
p m —

P

22-26 Gross 3.25 3.33 1.02 2.08 2.02 0.97 0.02 0.2A 12.0

27-31 Gross 3.25 3.26 1.00 0.94 1.01 1.07 -0.27 0.22 0.81

Except for the minor-axis bending stresses, the correlation of axial stresses and
major-axis bending stresses is quite good for the east hanger. The latter indicates
that both pin-plates at Mi are in nearly equal bearing. This condition was also
observed during passage of trains over the bridge. Since the minor axis bending
stresses are low, correlation was not expected to be good.

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels

587

Calrnlated = Simple Truss
Space Frame

UN=X I L'NFX UNPX lUNPX 100924

CN5I24 CN5I24 CN 5001

Fig. 7 — Comparison of unit train response with predicted axial strain.

Trackslde

-V

tension

Waterside

Fig. 8 — Strain in pin-plates of west hanger.

ESTIMATED FATIGUE STRENGTH OF RIVETED
MEMBERS AND PIN-PLATES

Fatigue Strength of Riveted Members

Tests of riveted joints have demonstrated that crack growth usually originates
at the rivet hole in a region of high stress concentration (5). Almost all fatigue
data on riveted joints has been acquired on small butt joints (5), (6), (7), (8),
(9). This work was performed at the University of Illinois, Northwestern University,
Purdue University and in Germany. Investigators examined the influence of the
bearing ratio, the effect of rivet clamping force, the rivet pattern and other variables.
Most of the data was obtained from tests on A 7 steel joints.

The test results from all of the available sources are plotted in Fig. 9. The stress
range on the net area is plotted as a function of cycle life. There is substantial scatter
in the test data which mainly reflects the influence of clamping force and probable
variation in the initial flaw condition. When extreme bearing ratios are ignored,
especially with reduced clamping force, the cttcct of bearing does not appear as

588

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

*^ »

> fe S •"• '^ ®

b _• I: OJ CM K)

3 3

u. u.

Ijj

3

D • o X < -4-

!«M ' 39NVd SS3aiS N0I103S 13N

Q O Q O

iS ^ k5 cm

Q

(/)

UJ

_l

w

o

V

a>

o

s

in

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 589

critical a variable. The bearing ratios of 2.74 and 3.8 far exceed pennissible and
recommended levels. No tests were included in Fig. 9 when the specimens were
subjected to stresses which far exceeded die yield point on the net section. In many
of these tests when the R ratio was taken as M, the stress approached the tensile
strength. As was noted in Ref. 10, the data from specimens that exceed the yield
point are not representative of the conditions that occur in actual stnictures. Also
shown in Fig. 9 are recent tests on large scale specimens which simulated joints
in an ore bridge (11). The points that are indicated as small cracks were subse-
quently fitted with high-strength bolts and showed substantial improvements in
fatigue strength.

For design purposes the data on riveted joints are compared with the fatigue
relationship defined by Category D of the AASHTO specification (12). This cate-
gory has been used to define the strength of riveted joints in the design recom-
mendations now being developed by Subcommittee 4, AREA Committee 15 — Steel
Structures. It is visually evident that Category D provides a lower confidence limit
to the available test data on riveted joints. Category D will be used in this report
to define die fatigue behavior of the riveted memljers of the Fraser River Bridge.

Fatigue Strength of Pin-Plates

Since test data are not available on pin-plates, it is necessary to estimate their
fatigue strength. Tlie fracture mechanics approach to crack propagation is the most
rational method currently available for predicting the fatigue life. It has been used
to provide an explanation of the fatigue crack growth of a number of welded steel
details (13), (14), (15). These studies have shown that the crack growth rate of
structural steels can be taken as:

^^-= 2 X 10-^" ^r (6)

dX

for all details, where -^K is the range of tlie stress-intensity factor K. Basic crack
growth studies have provided similar results.

To permit evaluation of the stress intensity factor on the axis of the pin-plate
holes, the finite element analysis was made to define the state of stress. The pin-
plate stress results showed that the highest stress location is at the surface of the
pin-plate hole (see Fig. 6). The stress gradient on the net section of the pin-plate
is produced by the geometric condition of the detail and its loading configuration.

Closed form analytical solutions for K do not exist for the pin-plate geometry
showTi. The finite element solution showed the stress concentration eifect was 4.16
at the hole edge and decayed rapidly away from the hole edge.

The stress field in the plate near the hole was observed to be defined by the
stress concentration decay function defined in Ref. 13 for crack sizes less than the
plate thickness in length.

If the stress distribution is given in function form, die geometric correction
factor for the stress intensity factor can be determined from the relationship (16)

K = V-a^ i ^-—- (7)

This is similar to the influence function method used in Ref. 17. The redistribution
of the non-uniform stress field is accounted for as a crack grows. This yields a
relationship Fg equal to

590

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

40
30

'■20 —

h- 10-

1 ' 1 /I/I

y-Oj = 0.002"

^01 = 0.004"
Ji^^^ ^a\ = 0.010"

. o

1 1 1 1 1

\ ^^^"^^-..^

1 , . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 il

10=

10*

CYCLE LIFE
Fig. 10 — ^Predicted fatigue strength of pin-plates.

10^

Fo = 4.16 j 1 _ 3.215 (4)1 + X ^'-'''^ (1)^ -

Hence, the stress intensity factor for the pin-plate is given by

K z= Fg q or V"^ (9)

where q is a crack shape factor that varies from 2/t to 1. For the pin-plates being
examined, the holes were drilled and hence tlie initial flaw condition expected at
such a hole should not exceed the small discontinuities expected at such edges
(i.e., 0.001 to 0.004 in.).

The stress range-cycle life relationship for the pin-plates was estimated from
Eqs. 5 and 8. The results of this evaluation are plotted in Fig. 10 and compared
with fatigue strength Categories D and E (12). Fig. 10 shows that for the expected
comer crack at the hole edge (q v— , 2/7r), the fatigue strength of tlie pin-plate
is between Category D and E. Since the crack shape factor q may be shghtly
greater than 2/t, it appears reasonable to use Category E to define tlie fatigue
strength of the pin-plates. This would also allow for an above-average-size initial
discontinuity at the hole edge (up to 0.010 in.).

EVALUATION OF FATIGUE DAMAGE

The predicted nominal forces in the hanger for the random load spectrum
defined by Sweeney in Ref. 1 was used to estimate the cumulative damage in the
hanger and pin-plates of the 380-ft fixed span. The experimental studies carried out

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 591

by CN Research showed tliat tlie structure was acting more nearly like a space
frame than a pin-ended truss structure ( see Fig. 7 ) . However, measurements under
static loading indicated some variability depending on the location of the test load.
It appeared that the full stringer continuity was not always available. The analysis
indicated that the predicted nominal axial forces assuming plane simple truss
behavior should be adjusted by a factor of 0.82 to reflect the joint fixity of the truss
and the continuity of the stringers.

An impact factor of 1.054 was applied to the predicted hanger forces to account
for uncertainties in the analysis, provide a margin for unaccounted variables, and
because impact effects were filtered out above 10 to 14 Hz.

Estimated Damage in Hanger MXi

Since the floorbeam hanger connections had been strengthened in 1923 by the
removal of the hanger lacing and the addition of a solid web plate and spfice plates,
it was necessary to examine the hanger at two locations. At the hanger-floorbeam
connection, the gross section was provided by four angles 6 x 3/2 x %, two plates
16/2 x %, one plate 10^ x % and one plate 10^ x 11/16 in. This provided much higher
cross-section area and moments of inertia Ixx and lyy at the hanger section sub-
jected to tlie largest moments from floorbeam end rotation and twist.

The space frame analysis indicated that the highest stressed cross-section in
the hanger MiLi at the floorbeam-hanger connection is located just at the hanger
web splice where five rivet holes occur. Using net section properties, the critical
stress range at the most highly stressed rivet hole was derived from Eq. 2. The
coefficient for weak axis bending was increased to reflect the actual measured
response at the hanger connection. Variability in stringer continuity is believed to
be the cause for the variation in strain across the inside face of the hanger.

, _ 0.82 P 35.00 P 0.80 P ^ nft^^'^R p nn^

+ mnn + ,.0 = 0.06536 P ( 10)

29.42 ' 1099 ' 143
where P is the force assuming plane truss behavior defined in Chapter HI of Ref. 1.
Both the RMS and Miners equivalent force range were evaluated and found to
be less than 2% different. These values are summarized in Table 3.

Table

3 Nomiaal

Hanger Fore

e*

Time Interval

No. of Cycles

p
RMS

^MINER

up to 1973

2,217,810

71.7

kips

73.4 kips

up to 1980

4,183,600

74.7

75.9

up to 1985

5,839,350

75.3

76.3

up to 1990

7,A95,100

75.6

76.6

*Assuraing plane sinple truss behavior; see Reference 1 for detailed
description of load spectrun

The coefficients in Eq. 10 have been adjusted to account for space frame
behavior. The resulting efi^ective stress ranges at the hanger-floorbeam connection,
including the impact factor 1.054, are shown in Fig. 11 and compared with Gate-

592

Bulletin 658 — .\ineiican Railway Engineering Association

(A

w
O
Q>

>»

in

CM

10 —

tf>

o

z
<

in
ifi

Ld

q:

5-

-^

L

—

1973 •

1

1980 •© A

A^Cat. D

***

2> 5? g

•

Hanger at floor beam connection

0

Hanger at most

critical section

A.

Stringers - 25 years old

1

1 1 t

1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1

2-

10'

10^

Fig. 11 — Comparison of effective stress range in hanger and stringers of 380-ft fixed
span with fatigue strength of riveted joints. (See Fig. 12 for pin-plates.)

gory D. It is readily apparent that no difficulty should be encountered with the
hanger near the floorbeam until after 2000.

Under nonnal circumstances the moment along the hanger lengtii would be
expected to vary from a maximum at tlie hanger-floorbeam connection to a minimum
at the pin-plate end. This was observed for the east hanger but was not the case
at the west hanger. The field measurements showed that the west hanger pin-plates
were not carrying the same load. Initially only the inside pin-plate was in bearing.
The outside pin-plate picked up load only after it seated and came into bearing
(see Fig. 8). This end eccentricity meant that the moment along the west hanger

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 593

length was nearly constant. The moment about tlie hanger weak axis was very
small away from the hanger-floorbeam connection and was ignored.

The most highly stressed rivet hole was at the angle-web connection. The
stress at tliis location is given by

„_ 0.82 P 3.916 X 8.148 P_ , .

~ 20.39 + 1073 - ""^^ ^ ^ ^

The effective stress ranges adjusted for an impact factor of 1.054 are also
plotted in Fig. 11. The results demonstrate tliat hanger MiLi is not in danger of
failure before the year 2000. Since the unequal distribution of load in the pin-plates
was most severe in the west hanger, it represents the worst condition.

Estimated Damage in Pin-Plates (MXi)

The maximum expected force to be carried by the most highly stressed pin-
plate was 40 to 50% of the nominal hanger force. However, field measurements
demonstrated clearly that the pin-plates of the west hanger were not sharing the
load as expected (see Fig. 8). As a result, the inside pin-plate was observed to
carry 73.5% of the load. Hence for purposes of evaluation, the effective force acting
on the most highly loaded pin was

P ^ 0.735 X 1.054 X 0.82 P — 0.635 P (12)

where P is defined in Table 3. Since the net .section area was used to define the
details fatigue strength (see Fig. 10) the resulting nominal net section stress on
the pin-plate is P/8.656.

These results are plotted in Fig. 12 and compared with Category E. This
shows that a critical condition develops as 1985 is approached. The probability
for failure of this highly stressed pin-plate is great thereafter. Since the design line
is based on the lower bound fatigue strength, failure will depend greatly on the
condition of the pin-plate. When the pin plates are sharing the load about equally
as was the case for the east hanger, the effective force is P — 0.44P. This results
in effective stress ranges between 3.7 and 4 ksi as shown in Fig. 12. This shows
that the fatigue strength of the east hanger pin-plates are adequate well beyond
the year 2000.

Estimated Damage in Stringers

Strain measurements were made near midspan on a bottom flange angle of the
west stringer between LiL-. These measurements confirmed that the stiinger was
subjected to some strain reversal and acted with some degree of continuity. An
examination of the strain response indicated that the stringer was subjected to about
the same number of stress cycles as was experienced by the hanger MiLj. Fig. 13
shows the measured stress spectrum which was used to assess the fatigue resistance
of the stringers. This results in measured effective stress ranges of S,i!.m.s = 7.43
ksi and S,.mim:r = 7.54 ksi.

These measured values of effective stress range were made on the top surface
of the bottom flange angle. When adjusted to the bottom edge of the rivet holes at
tlie web-angle connection, which is the critical location, these stress ranges are
reduced by about 8%. However, the stress range should be increased by several
other factors when estimating damage over the full life of the structure. Since the
records were filtered for roll-oft' frequencies above 10 to 14 Hz, the full effect of
impact was not taken into account. Records were acquired with the filters removed

594

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Cat. E

• Pin Plate M, L| (west)
o Pin Plate M, L, (east)

I I I I l—L

J I I I I l_

I0«

4 S 6 7

10'

10"

CUMULATIVE CYCLE LIFE

Fig. 12 — Comparison of effective stress range in pin-plates with their
predicted fatigue strength.

0.5-

0.4-

>-
t
en

iiJ 0.3
o

>■

g 0.2

CD
O

q:

Q.

0.1

ro

K

to

J2

tm

6 7 8 9 10

STRESS range; Ksi
Fig. 13 — Measured stress distribution in the stringers.

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 595

and suggest that higher peak stresses were probable. Based on the relative differ-
ence between the response, a factor of 1.04 appears appropriate. The second factor
is the underloading that was observed for the unit trains of the T and S series.
These suggested a correction of 1.085 should be applied to the strain cycles of unit-
train car loading. The other trains crossing the bridge were not affected. This was
found to increase the effective stress range by a factor of 1.035.

One other factor should be considered when estimating fatigue damage in
the stringers. The measured strains were obtained for the gross section. To adjust
to the net section stress, an additional increase of 10% is necessary.

As a result of the adjustments for the point of crack initiation, maximum
moment, greater impact and heavier axle loads, tlie adjusted values of effective
stress range are increased by 1.04 X 1035 X 1-10 H- 1.08 ^ 1.10. Hence the
effective stress range becomes: Sihms = 8.17 ksi and S,. miner = 8.29 ksi. These
\'alues are also plotted in Fig. 11. This shows that fatigue cracking could be
expected in the stringers about 1979.

Since the stringers are predicted to reach their lower bound fatigue strength
in 1979 it is appropriate to discuss the significance of this observation. This does
not mean that large numbers of stringers will immediately crack. The lower bound
fatigue strength defines the worst condition. As the fatigue test data plotted in
Fig. 9 shows, large variation in life can be expected. Also, since tlie riveted stringers
have two tension flange angles and a web plate, failure of one element will not
result in immediate collapse of the member. It should be possible to detect a failed
component before a severe collapse occurs.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of tlie most highly stressed hangers and the stringers of the main
380-ft fixed span of the Fraser River Bridge has indicated that fatigue cracking can
be expected. The stringers were predicted to reach their lower bound fatigue
strength in 1979 based on the traffic defined by Sweeney in Ref. 1. The hanger pin-
plates which had unequal distribution of load were predicted to reach their lower
bound fatigue strength in 1985. The RMS and Miners rule assessment of fatigue
damage provided comparable results.

The method used to assess tlie fatigue damage in the hangers and stringers of
the Fraser River Bridge can be used on other bridge structures as well. The frequency
and magnitude of force or moment can be estimated from traffic using the structure.
Only cars 80 tons or heavier and locomotives will normally need to be considered
on comparable structures. The effect of lighter cars should be examined on weaker
structures.

In order to accurately assess die significance of the applied loads, a space
frame analysis will normally be required for all structures. The behavior of truss
spans can range from plane truss to space frame behavior with full continuity.
Hence only field measurements of tlie stress in critical components can determine
the actual behavior and the applicable analysis. In the case of the hangers of the
Fraser River Bridge this was found to make a 15 to 20% difference in the actual
stress range. In fatigue life evaluation, a 10% variation in stress range can mean a
36% variation in permissible stress range cycles. For the Fraser River Bridge this
means a difference in life of about six years at the current rate of loading.

Care should be exercised in evaluating tlie fatigue damage of hanger connections
at Hoorbeams. Here the high bending stresses from the end rotation and twist of

596 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

the floorbeani must he properly assessed. These stresses arc particularly sensitive
to stiffness and geometry of the connection. Care should also be taken when inter-
preting field measurements. The possibility for unequal distribution of force to
various components as was the case with the pin-plates on the west hanger MiLi,
should be carefully examined.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance provided throughout this
study by various staff members of the Canadian National Railways.

Thanks are due to Z. L. Szeliski, engineer of bridges and structures, for his
assistance and suggestions. R. A. P. Sweeney, structural engineer, provided invalu-
able assistance at all stages, including the field inspection, acquisition of the field
test data, and assistance with the data analysis.

The strain gage test series were carried out under tlie supervision of Dr. W. N.
Caldwell, senior research engineer, and J. F. Scott, research engineer. This included
the pilot studies carried out by Dr. Caldwell and Mr. Sweeney and the more
extensive measurement acquired by R. M. Hardy and Associates, Ltd. under die
supervision of Mr. Scott.

REFERENCES

1. R. A. P. Sweeney, "Load Spectrum for Eraser River Bridge at New Westminster,
B.C.," Proceedings AREA, Vol. 77, 1976.

2. Association of American Railroads, "Field Investigation of Two Truss Spans
on the Southern Pacific Company," May 1968, Report ER-82, AAR Research
Center, Chicago.

3. James Michalos and J. M. Louw, "Properties for Numerical Analyses of Gusseted
Frameworks," Proceedings, AREA, Vol. 58, p. 7.

4. K. J. Bathe, E. L. Wilson and F. E. Peterson, "SAP IV — A Structural Analysis
Program for Static and Dynamic Response of Linear Systems," Report EERC
73-11, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California at
Berkeley, June 1973, Rev. April 1974.

5. J. F. Parola, E. Chesson, Jr. and W. H. Munse, "Effect of Bearing Pressure
on Fatigue Strength of Riveted Connections," Bulletin 481, Engr. Exp. Station,
Univ. of Illinois, Vol. 63, No. 27, Oct. 1965.

6. K. H. Lenzen, "The Effect of Various Fasteners on the Fatigue Strength of a
Structural Joint," AREA Bulletin 481, Vol. 51, June-July 1949.

7. W. M. Wilson and F. P. Thomas, "Fatigue Tests of Riveted Joints," Bulletin
302, Univ. of 111., 1938.

8. F. Baron and E. W. Larson, Jr., "The Effect of Grip upon Fatigue Strength
of Riveted and Bolted Joints," 2nd Progress Report, Proj. 5, Nortihwestern Univ.,
1951.

9. F. Baron, E. W. Larson, Jr., and K. J. Kenworthy, "The Effect of Rivet Pattern
on the Fatigue Strength of Structural Joints," Prog. Report Proj. 6 and 7, North-
western Univ., 1953.

10. J. W. Fisher and J. H. A. Struik, "Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and
Riveted Joints," Wiley Interscience, 1974,

11. H. S. Reemsnyder, "Fatigue Life Extension of Riveted Structural Connections,"
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol. 101, ST 12, Dec. 1975,

Report by John W. Fisher, J. Hartley Daniels 597

12. AASHTO, 1974 Interim AASHTO Specifications, Art. 1.7.3.

13. J. W. Fisher, P. A. Albrecht, B. T. Yen, D. J. Klingerman and B. M. McNamee,
"Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams with Transverse StifFeners and Attachments,"
NCHRP Report 147, Transportation Research Board, 1974.

14. M. A. Hirt and J. W. Fisher, "Fatigue Crack Growth in Welded Beams," Engi-
neering Fracture Mechanics, \'ol. 5, 1973.

15. S. J. Maddox, "Assessing the Significance of Flaws in Welds Subject to Fatigue,"
Welding Research Supplement, September 1974, \'ol. 53, No. 9.

16. P. Albrecht and K. Yamada, "Rapid Calculation of Stress Intensity Factors,"
paper submitted for publication in the Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE,
1975.

17. T. A. Cruse and P. M. Besumer, "Residual Life Prediction for Surface Cracks
in Complex Structural Details," Journal of Aircraft, Vo}. 12, No. 4, pp. 369-
375, April 1975.

Data Bases: Help or Harassment for
Engineering Management

77-658-7

By CHARLES F. WIZA

Production Control Engineer
Illinois Central Gulf Railroad

\\Tiat would happen if upon your return to your respective offices you would
find a Federal Railroad Administration official, and he said that by tomorrow he
needs to know: How many ties did you install on line segment A in tlie last five
years?

Your responses would probably fall into three basic categories. First, total chaos
— ha\ing \ery little ability to recount tie installation information. Second, controlled
chaos — sending a task force pouring through manual records to find the tie installa-
tion information. And third — a relaxed attitude for sure — we'll punch that request
right into our black box known as a computer, watch tlie lights blink awhile, and
have the results first thing in tlie morning.

This last response is the one I am here to discuss today — Data Bases: Help,
or Harassment for Engineering Management. Hopefully, you will see that they are
a help and will be using this concept in the future.

First, what is a data base? Simply put, it is an inventory of information. This
infomiation can be stored as simply as on index cards, more sophisticatedly on
punched cards for mechanical sorting, or in computers for electionic data processing.

Although the temi "data base" may be new, the concept certainly is not. Bridge
lists and track profiles have been in existence as long as railroads. Mechanized data
bases arrived in the early 1960's when se\'eral roads computerized their work equip-
ment imentories. Presentations at previous Technical Conferences have dealt with
indi\idual data bases, specifically structures inventories.

Why the big push for data bases now? There are two big reasons: First, the
needs of railroads, and of engineering departments have changed. No longer are
vast sums of money axailable for maintenance and improvements. Today's economic

Note: Discussion open until October 15, 1976.

598 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

conditions dictate that the greatest possible rate of return be attained for the main-
tenance dollar. The information in data bases can provide quantifiable answers for
maintenance planning, increase productivity, and optimize equipment utilization.

Second, as far as data bases are concerned, the wheel has been invented. Much
like pocket calculators, their availability has increased while costs have decreased.
Each road need not go off independently trying to blaze a new trail. Some railroads,
as well as commercial concerns, have already swept a fairly wide path in the con-
cepts, designs and implementation of data bases. With the advent of this technology
more and more people in all levels of management are realizing the need for fast,
accurate data retrieval and manipulation.

What then is tlie state of the art of data bases with respect to maintenance of
way, and more important, what are the benefits of such data bases?

One road maintains a partial rail inventory of its traditional new rail territory
— those h-acks having the highest traffic densities, carrying the most profitable
commodities, and being located in the most severe curvature /gradient terrain. This
inventory is used to determine the priority of rail replacement and to select the
most economical rail type.

An extension of this limited rail inventory is exhibited by another road which
inventories all rail and turnouts, including main line, branch line, industry spurs,
and yard tracks. In addition to the rail data, information regarding surfacing, tie
installation, rail testing, and weed spraying is being collected. When completed,
tliis data base will provide a basic track characteristics file \^'hich will greatly aid
in developing all rencwel and maintenance programs.

These two cases are examples of independent data bases which are very fine
for particular data recall. They fit in very well for line segment analysis where the
question to be answered is "What do we have out there?" Instead of paging through
rail charts and condensed profiles to manually retrieve the desired information, the
data could be obtained much quicker and more accurately if a computerized data
base were available.

Now suppose upon returning to your office, you find that your budget for the
remainder of the year was being reduced by 20 percent. The question now is not
only one of data recall — what do I have that needs to be replaced, but what are
the benefits — which lines have the greatest traffic density and must be maintained,
and where can money be saved by reducing derailments?

What you need now is an integrated data base system; that is, for each segment
not only is engineering information needed, but operating and traffic data as well.
One road has taken a step forward in data base development and installed such a
system. For each milepost, six independent inventories or files, dealing with track
characteristics, derailments, track defects, bridges, track profiles and traffic densities
are kept up. By being able to concurrently search each file for certain characteristics
or milepost information, much more data are available at a single time and much
"cross-indexing" can be done.

The benefits of such an integrated system are very great. The previous question
can be quantifiably answered. Quickly and accurately, the exact location of sub-
standard track sections can be pinpointed on the most economically justifiable line
segments. From this listing, repair priorities can be set.

Such an integrated data base system also embraces research for behavioral
patterns. Example, rail wear can be pinpointed as to curve, grade, traffic density,
and tie and surface conditions.

Address by Charles F. Wiza 599

The track characteristic file points out another new tool in information process-
ing— that of the track geometry car. Such cars, now in use on several different
roads, pro\ ide information on such things as cross level, surface, gauge and align-
ment, thus pro\ iding an excellent condition inventory of the property. This condition
in\entory is a must, since it is of litde use to know exactly what is sitting out there
without knowing what condition it is in.

One further extension of tlie integrated data base concept is currently being
developed. Under this system, a mile-by-mile record of physical characteristics and
descriptions will be built plus a similar record of dollar accounting information.
This system will be dri\en by a single, all-purpose reporting form which will provide
all the necessary engineering and expense data.

Existing data bases are exclusively by and for maintenance of way departments.
They are maintained through separate engineering department fomis with other
paperwork being necessary to maintain accounting department needs.

There are many testimonials and bouquets for data bases and data processing
in general, some of which already have been alluded to. More and more are forth-
coming every day, especially from the Northeast Conidor. Existing data bases are
providing infomiation and answers to questions which would take many man-mondis
to otherwise research. If these data were not readily accessible, I shudder to think
where that problem would be now.

So far I have shown what data bases are and can do. They are and can be a
tremendous help, only if properly designed, implemented, and maintained. If not
so, they can indeed be a harassment.

There are several ground rules which must be laid down before any system
can be designed. First, there must be a definite commitment from management for
such a system. This means you. You must want the system, use it and ensure that
it is properly maintained. If \ou are not enthusiastic about it and do not instill
this feehng to your subordinates, then regardless of how technically sound the
system is, it will falter and become another white elephant.

The second ground rule is to make sure of a definite purpose or intent in tlie
design of the system. Information must be provided to meet specific ends such as
to prevent derailments, minimize slow orders, or provide a satisfactory quality of
ride.

With these ground rules met, what next? There are three things to consider:
what type of data is needed, how to obtain it, and how to design and maintain
the data base to ensure current, accurate data at minimum cost.

Decisions as to the types of data to be contained in the data base must be made
by you, those directly concerned. There is no golden rule, nor necessarily rule of
diumb for the data base contents. Each one can be custom-made to the user's
purposes.

There are several schemes available for obtaining the necessary physical infor-
mation. The most precise, but most costly and time consuming way would be to
physically inventory the property. The most practical and economical way is to
transcribe as much existing data as possible. It is amazing how much information
will already be available from condensed profiles, bridge lists, signal lists and the
like. Once the transcription is complete, it can be field verified, and any incorrect
or missing information compiled. Another approach is to estabhsh a bench mark
work date, start from zero, and proceed to build the data base as material is installed.

600 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Besides defining and initializing die data base, some consideration must be
given to die retrieval and manipulation routines necessary to fully utilize the systems.
These routines can be custom-built, as has been the case in most instances, or a
"canned" report generating system could be installed to produce tlie desired outputs.

Maintaining the system is a must. The railroad is a dynamic entity and die data
base must reflect these changes. After all, how good is a month-old newspaper. The
key to the maintenance of the data base is the source document, ideally one all-
purpose fomi to provide engineering and accounting data. Regardless if multiple
forms are used, they shovdd be simple, straightforward, with as much pre-printed
data as possible. Such forms reduce paperwork and provide one set of figures for
purposes of maintenance planning and expense monitoring. It must be remembered
diat diese source documents are not meant to be harassments, rather means to ob-
taining the required answers for management questions.

Today I have attempted to whet your whistle so-to-speak for data bases and
tried to show that the information explosion should be a help, not a harassment
to engineering management. I have been fortunate in that I have been able to visit
some of the various railroads throughout this continent and observe what they are
doing \vitii regard to infonnation processing. When I graduated from college a
handful of years ago, I thought that I had a prety good appreciation for what a
computer could do in terms of pure "number cnmching." Here, I hope I have
conveyed the added appreciation I have recently learned for data base processing.

I am by no means an expert in the field of data bases nor maintenance of way.
The Board of Direction of the AREA has charged Committee 32 — Systems Engi-
neering, widi presenting a symposium on data bases for maintenance of way. This
symposium tentatively scheduled to be held along with the Regional Meeting m
Pittsburgh this fall, will be given by the experts in railroad engineering data bases.
Within the next few days, each chief engineer will receive a letter informing him
of Committee 32's intentions for the symposium, and requesting comments. I hope
you will support the idea, and that you will attend the symposium. See you there.

Rail Wear and Corrugation Studies

77-658-B

By
F. E. KING

Senior Technical Advisor
Canadian National Railways

and

J. KALOUSEK

Research Engineer
Canadian Pacific Rail

These are case shidies of rail wear problems occurring on two Canadian railways'
main lines in the Rocky Mountains. The problem arose about 1969 with the intro-
duction of unit trains for hauling coal, potash and sulfur. These unit trains consisted
of identical, full\- loaded 100-ton-capacity \ehicles having a gross weight on rail
of 263,000 lb.

Table I shows for the Canadian National Railways' line a traffic split by vehicle
type, excluding tonnage generated by empty cars, passenger trains, and locomotives.
Note that on the average 100-ton cars are loaded to 94% of their rated capacity,
while 50- and 70-ton cars are loaded to 74% of their rated capacity.

Fig. 1 shows a frequency histogram of gross car weights tlirough a section
of Canadian Pacific Rail line. Note that the heaxy loaded movement is in the west-
ward direction and is in die 130-140 ton range. The column in the 20-30 ton range
shows tliat empty car return mo\ement is in the eastbound direction. The inter-
mediate columns represent mixed freight.

In the mountainous territory sharp curves are frequently encountered. The
combination of heavy vehicles, large annual tonnages and curved track resulted in
greatly accelerated rail wear in curves. The rail wear was much greater than would
be anticipated based only on increased annual tonnage.

Examination of the train consists confirmed that nearly all of the 100-ton cars
moved in unit ti^ains. Since the basic design of all capacities of freight car trucks
is die same, the rail wear problems are more accurately attributable to 100-ton
carloadings. It is apparent diat in going to 100-ton carloadings we ha\'e unwittingly
stepped over a threshold and are now sufl^ering puniti\e rail damages on lines where
sharp curves are frequently encountered. The role of tiie unit train has been to
bring this problem into sharper focus. The need for a program of remedial action
to improve existing services and for the exercise of caution in designing new services
is now apparent.

UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

For any remedial action to be effectixe, the causes of the problem and the
nature of the remedial action must be understood. We will, dierefore, attempt to
deal with the subject by posing the following questions, and then attempting to
answer them in a manner that can be understood by people of xarying educational
backgrounds and work experience:

How Severe Is the Problem?

What Are the Causes of Accelerated Rail Wear?

What Remedial Action Is Required and by Whom?

Xote: Discussion open until October 16, 1976.

601

602

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

1972 Traffic Carried by Vehicles of 50, 70 and 100 Ton Capacity

Car Capacity
(Nominal)

Number of Cars

Gross Tonnage

Gross Tons/Car

% Car 1
Capacic-..

Actual

Gross
Limit

40-50 tons

126,487

8,257,315

65.3

88.5

74

70 tons

41,595

3,374,630

81.1

110.0

74

100 tons

59,261

7,306,415

123.3

131.5

94

TOTAL

227,343

18,938,360

.35-

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z
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WESTWARD DIRECTION
EASTWARD DIRECTION

Iz

zz

V,

■ /,

/

77]rr7-\' /;

0 10.20 30 -10 50 60 70 60 90 100110 120 130140
GROSS TONS/CARS

Fig. 1 — ^Frequency histogram of gross car weight through Shuswap Subdivision.

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek 603

HOW SEVERE IS THE PROBLEM?

The problem occurs to some extent on all curxes but seems to be more trouble-
some on the shaiper curves of 4° and up. CN has made rather extensive analyses
deriving data from traffic splits by gross carloadings from 1967 to 1974, from rail
replacement data from 1964 to 1974, and from annual gross tonnages back to 1960.
There is a clearly discernible trend of severely escalating replacement rates as the
percentage of fully loaded 100-ton cars increases. It appears that we can anticipate
replacing about one-third of track in these curves annually if the present traffic
patterns and replacement rates are sustained.

On Canadian Pacific trackage, these problems coincided witli the dramatic
increase in freight traffic which nearly doubled in the period between 1964 and 1969.
On CP Rail, the gross tonnages are higher and the curvatures are sharper, therefore
the problem is even more serious. This problem also occurs in other locations where
substantial numbers of heavy xehicles operate on curved track.

Curve wear, head flow and rail corrugations also occur on other railways in
Canada and elsewhere in tlie world. In planning new unit-train movements, it is
important to consider the percentage of curved trackage over which the trains will
operate. Otherwise, greatly accelerated rail wear may occur and the rates charged
by the railroad may not be fully compensatory.

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF ACCELERATED RAIL WEAR?

The accelerated rail wear, although closely linked with unit-train operation
is, in fact, a direct consequence of overloading of the rail by the fully loaded 100-
ton cars used in these trains. The rail wear takes three forms:

(a) Gauge face wear on the high rail.

(b) Head flow on the low rail.

(c) Corrugations of wavelengths of 8 to 30 in.

Each of these is caused by a different mechanism or mechanisms and will
be treated separately, although head flow and corrugation often occur on the same
rail. Before discussing these causes, I would like to point out again that this accel-
erated wear is much greater tlian would be expected due to tonnage increases alone.
Neither is overspeeding or underspeeding in curves a necessary condition, since
this wear will take place when the vehicles are passing through the curve at tlie
designed speed. However, overspeeding or underspeeding does aggravate the con-
dition and should not be permitted.

Gauge Face Wear

The rate of gauge face wear on the rail is obviously affected by the rail
properties, for example, the harder the rail, the lower the expected rate of wear.
However, for any given rail steel, gauge face wear on the side of the high rail in
curved track is caused by vehicle tracking problems. Existing vehicles, both loco-
motives and cars, do not track very well in curves. A brief exposition of this tracking
problem is given here.

Gauge face wear is a function of the four parameters listed below:
Mf = The coefficient of friction between the flange and the gauge face of the
rail at the point B as shown in Fig. 2.

604

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

POINT OF CONTACT
ON TREAD

POINT OF CONTACT/
ON FLANGE-^

ANGLE ';^'

Fig. 2 — Wheel-rail contact.

j8 , = The angle of the tangent to the flange at tlie contact point between the

wheel and the rail, measured from the horizontal position also as shown

in Fig. 2.
a z= The angle of attack between the flange of the wheel and the gauge face

of the rail as shown in Fig. 3.
Ff ^= Flange force which is equal to the sum of two components as given in

the equation:

Ff c= 2 /^e N + H

The term "2 Me N" is the lateral component of the tread creep force
required to slide the wheels laterally in the curve. The tenii "H" is the
lateral thrust due to unbalanced centrifugal forces, alignment irregulari-
ties, dynamic efl^ects such as vehicle rocking and the interaxle forces on
the truck. The forces are illustrated in Fig. 4.

It is apparent that reduction in gauge face wear as well as wheel flange wear
can be effected by reducing the magnitude of tliese four parameters Mr, /3, a and Fr.
Increasing the hardness of the rail will also decrease the rate of rail wear. There-

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek

605

Fig. 3 — Angle of attack between wheel flange and rail.

Ff = 2/^eN*H

Fig. 4 — Lateral forces on curves.

fore, the maximum benefits will be achieved if the use of harder rail steel in curves
is accompanied by measures designed to reduce the four parameters listed above.
The value of die coefficient of friction Mf, can be reduced by judicious use of
track-mounted wheel flange oilers. The angle j3 cannot readily be changed since this
angle should not be appreciably less than 70° because of the danger of the wheel
flange climbing the rail. Also, it should not be greater than about 80° because of the
danger of derailment at switch points. The angle of attack a and the flange force

606

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 5 — New AAR wheel profile.

can be reduced by proper combination of sufficient wheel tread conicity and flange-
way clearance to help the wheelset to steer itself around the curve. The interaction
of these two parameters is quite complex and requires further explanation.

The standard Association of American Railroads (AAR) new wheel profile has
two major defects in its curving capability. These are insufficient conicity and two-
point contact in curves. The conicity of 1 in 20 or 0.05 limits the ability of a single
wheelset to negotiate curves without flanging to those curves which are less than
2.4°. The two-point contact allows the flange of the wheel to scrub the side of the
rail in curves. Both tlie defects can be minimized by special profiles having conicities
3 to 5 times greater than the new AAR profile and shaped to avoid two-point contact.
Fig. 5 shows a new AAR wheel profile with contact at both the flange and crown
of a new 132-lb rail. Fig. 6 shows a special experimental profile designed to give
sufficient conicity to allow a single wheelset to pass through most main line curves
without flanging and two point contact.

Special wheel profiles alone on standard freight car trucks will not make the
wheelsets negotiate curves in a flange-free condition because this truck does not have
the ability to align the wheelsets radially in the curve. The special profile will,
however, reduce wheel flange and rail gauge face wear. Canadian National is pres-
ently testing and evaluating the comparative wear characteristics of new AAR
profiles against the experimental profile shown in Fig. 6.

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek

607

Fig. 6 — Experimental wheel profile.

Since the flange force Ft = 2Me N + H, as shown in Fig. 4, it can be reduced
by diminishing either or both tliese components. The term 2 /^eN is the lateral
component of the tread creep forces required to slide the wheels laterally in a curve,
where Me is the effective lateral tread coefficient of adhesion and N is the wheel
load normal to the rail. The coefficient Me depends on the angle of attack a; and can
vary from zero at zero angle of attack to M the limit of wheel rail adhesion at an
angle of attack of about 1° as shown in Fig. 7. Thus, if the wheelset has sufficient
tread conicity and the ability to align itself radially in the curve, this term MeN,
will become zero. With existing AAR profiles and standard three-piece trucks, the
angle of attack a often exceeds 1° and the value Me approaches M, the limit of
wheel-rail adhesion. This gives rise to very high values of tread creep force which
can range from 9,800 to 23,000 lb for typical values of M between 0.15 and 0.35
and a wheel-load of 32,875 lb ( 100- ton vehicle). This can be considered to be a
major component of flange force and the importance of achieving a minimized angle
of attack a through the combined use of profiled wheels and improved truck design
with radial curving ability can hardly be overemphasized.

The other component of flange force H, the lateral tiirust, is due to unbalanced
centrifugal forces, alignment and cross level irregularities, dynamic eftects such as
car rocking and interaxle forces on the trucks. This component can be reduced by

608

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

EFFECTIVE
LATERAL
COEFFICIENT
OF ADHESION

y(A LIMIT OF WHEEL-RAIL ADHESION

C< ANGLE OF ATTACK
Fig. 7 — Effective lateral coefficient of adhesion versus angle of attack.

LOZENGED
CONFIGURATION

SQUARE
CONFIGURATION

RADIAL
CONFIGURATION

MAX
POSITIVE
ANGLE OF
ATTACK

POSITIVE
ANGLE OF
ATTACK

ZERO
ANGLE OF
ATTACK

Fig. 8 — Angle of attack of leading wheel in curves.

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek 609

diminishing or eliminating tliese conditions. Interaxle forces arise because the
existing freight car truck does not permit the axles to align themselves radially
in a ciu^e, pre\enting the wheel flange from assuming a zero angle of attack. In
addition, the clearances between the miijor components of the truck permit tiie truck
side frames to lozenge fiurther increasing tlie angle of attack. Fig. 8 shows the angle
of attack of the leading wheel in curves for the three configurations, lozenged,
square and radial.

From tlie abo\e discussion, it can be seen that there will be minimal lateral
force in cur\es if four conditions are met simultaneously:

1. The vehicles pass tlirough die cur\e at the exact speed for which die cur\'e
is banked.

2. The curve has no alignment and cross-le\el irregularities.

3. The wheel treads have sufficient conicity and flangeway clearance to steer
the w^heelsets in the curve without flanging.

4. Vehicle trucks allow the axles to align radially under the action of tread
creep forces.

Since the forc-e on tlie flange increases with increasing angle of attack and since
flange wear on the wheel, gauge face wear on die rail, and curxing resistance all
increase directly with the angle of attack, the benefits to be derixed from a truck
design which permits radial action are ob\ious. A prototype truck with radial cuning
capability' is currently under test at the Canadian National Technical Research Center.

Rail Head Flow

Rail head flow is found on the low rail in curves in British Columbia and is
caused by excessive pressure at the point of contact between tlie wheel and the rail.
The mechanism which is believed responsible for this excessive contact pressure
is described in this section.

Both the wheel and the rail ha\'e curved surfaces at their point of contact.
The first satisfactory solution for contact stresses occurring between t\\'0 elastic
bodies having curved surfaces was provided by Hertz in 1881.

For a steel wheel on a steel rail, the maximum compressive stress qo can be
approximated using the following formula:

qo = 2.36 XlO^ - {^y (P)'

where qo = the maximum compressive stress in pounds per square inch.
P = tlie imposed wheel load in pounds.

R - Ri R'l R. ^ R'.

Ri = the radius transverse to the tread in inches.

R'l =1 the radius of the wheel in inches.

Ro z= the crown radius of the rail head in inches.

R'o = the track curvature in the \ertical direction.

Since there is virtually no vertical curvature, R'2 approaches 00. There-
fore, can be assessed to be always equal to zero and this term

R'.
can be eliminated from the calculation of maximum contact stress.

610

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

effect of n(-;:i<ji) i>.aviinfLi-i s on ci^

, " 2.36 X lo'' ,:,?., ''' (..) '/-^

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N.B. (1) Hl.iiik r.pacor. in dorjiijn p.ir.ir;rj|.or£; coluiMif;

CI Kill 'JO SO.

(2) V.iliK-:; of q„ .'-.lioi/n for c)i;i:iij.>:; ?6 onri S7
o.xccoa the ela.-aic lii.iit of rail ;;lccl.
T'ao iiiii Loria. 1 will yioUi arui flow at i;oir.o
lov;cr valuo.

The above fomiula can be used to assess the relative importance of these
variables in generating the maximum contact stress, Qo. Table 2 shows tlie effect
of varying the design parameters, P, Ri, R'l and Rj. In this table, the standard for
comparison (change mmiber 0) is a fully loaded, 100-ton-capacity vehicle mounted
on new AAR profile wheels of 36-in. diameter. The wheels run on a new 132-lb
rail section with a head radius of 10 in. Under these conditions, the maximum con-
tact stress is estimated to be 219,000 psi.

Table 2 shows that changes in the radius transverse to the wheel tread are
responsible for the head flow conditions found on the low rail in curves.

Figure 9 shows the value Ri, the radius across the tread, may be infinitely
large, negative or positive, depending on the wear condition of the wheel. When
the wheel is new, the coned surface is a straight line in the contact plane and Ri

becomes infinite and — becomes zero. This is the comparison case: change No.
Ri

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek

611

219,000 psi

iD

570,000 psi

qo - 151,000 psi

NEW V'/hlEEL
1 IN 20 TAPER ACROSS
TREAD

WORN WHEEL
TREAD WORN HOLLOW
WITH REVERSE CURVATURE

Fig. 9 — Transverse tread radius, Ri.

zero and q„ equals 219,000 psi as shown in the table. When the wheel is worn,
the central portion of the tread hollows out to approximately 15 in. radius. By
convention, tliis radius is considered negative for purposes of calculation. This
condition is shown as change No. 5, giving a value of qo equal to 151,000 psi, or
a reduction of 31% over the standard for comparison.

At the edge of the worn tread, a reverse curvature of 2 in. to 6 in. may develop
as shown in Fig. 9. With reverse curvatures of 6.0 in. and 2.0 in. values of qo of
355,000 and 570,000 psi, respectively, would be developed if the material did not
yield, giving increases of 62 and 160%. These are shown in the table as change Nos.
6 and 7. These values of maximum compressive stress exceed the elastic limit of
steel and the material will yield and flow at some lower value. It is this reverse
curvature on the edge of the wheel tread which is responsible for the head flow
problems encountered on our lines.

Fig. 10 shows that, provided sufficient flangeway clearance exists between the
wheels and the rails, the outer convex portion of tlie wheel tread can ride up on
the rail head. It can be shown that under conditions which are not considered con-
demnable the outside edge of the wheel can be 0.6 in. inside the field side of the
rail and the center of the reverse curvature may therefore contact the rail 1 in. or
more from the field side. This condition is essentially point loading and generates
maximum contact stresses several times that developed for a new coned wheel. This
point loading is illustrated in Fig. 10 for actual sections of worn wheel and rail.

Fig. 11 shows graphically the effect of transverse tread radius on maximum
wheel rail contact stresses for a fully loaded 100-ton car on 36-in. -diameter wheels
and a fully loaded 70-ton car on 33-in. -diameter wheels. Note that the effect of
reduction of gross rail load on the maximum contact stress is rather small, being

612

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

'fTl

•|f.':

rr^'^v

I-?.'

m'^^

-06

Maximum Compressive Stress
Approximately 500,000 PSI or at
least 4 times the stress necessary
to cause permanent surface deformation

Fig. 10 — Contact between wheel and rail in curves.

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek

613

iHHF

hUXLMUM U'HEEL RAIL CONTACT STRESSES - q^
Effect of Transverse Tread Radius - R,

-800

700

— 600

-o 500 —

— w «0C

■-■! -

- r

:i:

— ioo

IJ-

0.0

!':;

LHir:.::

-300

-200

Fig. 11 — Maximum wheel rail contact stresses.

Bui. 058

614

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 12 — Rail wear examples.

about 3%. Even if the 70-ton car were fitted with 36-in.-diameter wheels, the reduc-
tion would not exceed 6%. Thus, the remedial action to eliminate head flow must
involve tlie elimination of this reverse curvature condition on tlie worn wheel tread.

RAIL CORRUGATIONS

Rail corrugations present one of the most challenging problems of our day
to the railway engineer. The problem is rather complex and has been experienced
for a considerable length of time. Perhaps, the first difiBculty in coming to grips
with the problem lies in the fact that the term corrugation in North American rail-
road terminology is used to describe a short wavelength form, 1 in. to 3 in., as well
as a long wavelength form 8 in. to 24 in.

Short wavelength corrugations, often referred to as "washboard rail" or "roaring
rail," occur most frequently on mass transit lines. These corrugations are primarily
a source of noise pollution, disturbing both passengers and residents living near the
track. This "roaring rail" results in accelerated deterioration of rolling stock and
track components, but does not constitute a serious operating hazard.

Long wavelength corrugations appear most often on routes with large annual
tonnages (20 MGT or more) and high axle loadings (30 tons typically). Unlike
the short wavelength form, long wavelength corrugations present an operating hazard.
If these corrugations are allowed to grow deeper with time, derailments may occur
either as a result of wheel lift or rail failure due to an increased level of dynamic
loadings. To avoid this failure risk, the growth of corrugations must be controlled
by periodic grinding. Apart from the potential derailment hazard, rail corrugations
create substantial operating difficulties for railroads due to temporary slow orders
which have to be imposed from time to time and because of the track occupancy
time required for rail grinding and rail replacement. The total costs incurred by a
railroad due to rail corrugations have never been accurately quantified. The annual
rental cost of the specialized grinding equipment and operators can easily amount

Report by F. E. King, J. Kaloiisek 615

to $0.75 million. Costs incurred as a result of rail replacements, additional wear
and tear on rolling stock, and lading damage are appreciable, but are difficult to
quantify. A fundamental understanding of the factors which contribute to the forma-
tion and propagation of long wavelengtli corrugations is necessary to formulate
proper remedial action and thereby achieve appreciable savings to the railroad.

Where Do Rail Corrugations Occur?

In general, rail corrugations appear on the running surface of low and high
rails in curves, on tangent track, and on frogs.

The occurrence of rail corrugations on tangent track is very infrequent and
we will, therefore, devote our attention only to rail corrugations on curves. CP and
CN experience corrugations on the low rail, where tliey are usually most prevalent,
before they appear on the high rail.

In contrast, on railways exclusively hauling mineral traffic, rail corrugations
appear first and are predominant on the high rail. In both cases, corrugations are
usually deeper on the inner side of the curved rail, that is, on the field side of the
low rail and on the gauge side of the high rail.

To determine the longitudinal characteristics of rail corrugations, we have
measured corrugation profiles on a point by point basis along the centerline of the
railhead. These profiles were completely random in shape, depth and length. Subse-
quently, we measured the depth, and length of the corrugations on a low rail through-
out the entire curve. Fig. 13 shows tlie resulting frequency histogram of corrugation
wavelength or pitch. The mean length was calculated as approximately ISii in. and
the mode at 12 in.

What Are the Possible Causes of Rail Corrugations?

The periodicity of the corrugation pitch correlates reasonably well with some
of the reasonant frequencies of the track-train system, but no distinct correlation
peak could be found between track-train harmonics, operational speeds, and corru-
gation pitch. The variables in car design, loadings, and track substructure make it
quite unlikely that dynamical peaks repeat exactly at tlie same locations on un-
corrugated rail. These two aspects of dynamical loadings reinforce the opinion that
the presence of dynamical loadings alone is not sufficient to initiate formation of
corrugations.

If corrugations are not "initiated" by dynamical loads, what other mechanisms
are involved? Several other mechanisms have been suggested to explain the initiation
of rail corrugations. One school of thought believes corrugations are related to contact
vibrations. Contact vibration theory states that a small volume of wheel/rail material
in the zone of contact can be excited by the roughness of the wheel and rail surfaces
to vibrate at its natural frequency. The compressive dynamical contact vibration
peaks accelerate wear and contribute to plastic deformation of rail metal which
may initiate fonnation of corrugations. Whilst this tlieory correlates well with forma-
tion of "roaring rail," there is no experimental data as yet available which may be
used to test this theory and its applicability to long wavelength corrugation
formation.

Many railroaders and researchers have suggested that corrugations are initiated
by a "stick-slip" effect of the wheelset during curve negotiation. The stick-slip effect
results from the fact that the wheelset acts as one piece and the wheel on the high
rail must travel further than the one on the low rail during curve negotiation.
Assuming that the effective radius is the same for both wheels, the wheel on the

616

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

>-
U

z
u

o

LlI
01

Ll

50

f4
u
u

z

UJ

q:
O

Ll

O

30

20-

10-

0

t

4 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 2S 30 32 34
LENGTH OF CORRUGATION (INCH)

MEAN: 15.4 in. STANDARD DEVIATION; 4.6
MODE: 12.0 in. SKEWNESS; 1.4

MEDIAN: 14.4 in, CURTOSIS : 3.25

Fig. 13 — Frequency histogram of corrugation length.

high rail would be forced to rotate more tlian the wheel on the low rail. This differ-
ential in wheel revolutions places the axle in torque until the adhesion forces at the
wheel/rail interface become insufficient on eitlier the high or low rail resulting in
a "shp" effect. Once slip occurs, tlie adhesion forces are restored, and the wheels
"stick." The entire process occurs in a very short period of time and is repeated
over and over again. If the "stick-slip" occurs on uncornigated rails, it may initiate
formation of corrugations.

Experimental data are needed to understand the role which any "stick-slip"
effect might have in corrugation formation. Canadian Pacific and the National
Research Council of Canada will, at the request of the AAR, carry out field testing
later this year to record the behavior of wheelsets during curve negotiation.

Other theories and suggestions have been proposed to account for initiation
of rail corrugations. We have limited our discussion only to those which are most
frequently mentioned in connection with corrugation formation. It is quite possible
that any one or combination of all three mechanisms mentioned above may be a
contributing factor in corrugation formation. We believe, however, that plastic flow
and surface fatigue in the top layer of rail head material are the most significant
factors contributing to formation of long wavelength corrugations.

i

Report by F. E. King, J. Kaloiisek 617

Surface Fatigue and Plastic Flow

In the first portion of this presentation, tlie presence of high contact stresses
was demonstrated, namely, in the case of wheels with a reverse curvature running
on top of the low rail. The yield stress of the rail material is exceeded and metal
flow results. During the first few loading cycles by passing wheels, the surface layer
of rail material is plastically compressed and a residual stress acting parallel to tlie
surface is introduced. During subsequent passages of wheels, the rail material is
subjected to the combined action of residual and contact stresses and further
yielding becomes less likely. This process is referred to by metallurgists as cold-
working of material and when it is confined to rolling contact, it is referred to as
"shakedown." The maximum load for which the rail material can still be cold-
worked is called shakedown limit or plasticity limit. In other words, if the magnitude
of contact stresses falls bet\veen the elastic and plastic limits, the rail material
cold-works and the system "shakes down" to the elastic cycle of stress. Overstressing
of rail material above the plastic limit results in continuous and cumulative plastic
deformation of rail material.

Under the conditions of pure rolling such as in the case of rolling wheelsets
on tangent track without braking or traction, the plasticity limit is proportional
to hardness of rail metal:

qpi ;:=i -^DPH (after K. L. Johnson)

where DPH is the Vickers diamond pyramid hardness. Under the presence of tractive
forces in the zone of contact, caused by traction, braking or lateral curving forces,
the plasticity limit decreases with increasing effective coefficient of friction as shown
in Fig. 14. In this figure, the eftective coefficient of friction is presented as the
ratio of tractive force to normal load Ft/P. In reality, this means that the beneficial
effects of cold-working of rail materials in curves is lost when the efl^ective coefficient
of friction reaches a value of 0.26.

Table 3 indicates the plasticity limits q,,i for various rail materials in terms
of maximum Hertzian contact pressure. In calculating the plasticity limits, a value
of 0.16 was considered as typical for wheel/rail adliesion in lubricated curves. These
values are approximate and may vary somewhat with metallurgical properties of
rail material. The rail head hardness range of 250-270 BHN corresponds to plain
carbon rail, 310-330 BHN to manganese-vanadium or chromium rails and 360-380
BHN to fully heat-treated or curvemaster rails. The increase in plasticity limit and
resulting reduction in head flow with increasing rail head hardness is self-evident
in this table. The table also indicates that installation of premium rails in curves
is advantageous on lines where 100- ton-capacity cars are used extensively.

During initial cold-working and homogeneous plastic flow, conditions are being
formed within the rail material which will lead to localized failure. Cracks may
develop at, or very near, the rail surface or a short distance below it. The large
variation in possible wheel/rail contact geometries and the effect of frictional forces
and other parameters on the distribution of contact stresses, may cause the railhead
material to fail due to flaking, pitting, spalling or subsurface shelling. These failures
fall under the common category of surface fatigue or contact fatigue. Each of these
contact fatigue manifestations develops in hvo stages. The first stage is crack initia-
tion and the second is crack propagation. The cracks which initiate at the surface
give rise to flaking on the low rail or spalling on the high rail and contribute sig-
nificantly to the initiation of corrugations.

618

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

2.0

1.5-

<

Q

1.0

<

u

t—
cr

>

.5-

■

N^^^ CONTINUOUSLY PLASTIC
- SHAKEDOWN ^X^'^'V;^

-=.£tdsr(c_

.-..OyV^^^

ELASTIC

1^^

1 1

1 .11 . 1

.1 .2 .3 A .i

RATIO OF TRACTIVE FORCE TO NORMAL LOAD

Fig. 14 — The effect of tangential force on the elastic and plasticity limits.

The mechanics of surface crack initiation and growth have been dealt with in
detail at the AREA Regional Meeting held in Vancouver in 1975 and are published
in AREA Bulletin No. 656. To avoid repetition, only tlie main points concerning
the role which cracks play in corrugation formation will be summarized here. Once
the cracks form:

(a) they disrupt the homogenity of the surface layer of rail metal and signifi-
cantly redistribute contact stresses, which results in a reduction of rail
metal resistance to plastic flow;

(b) in combination with lateral tractive force, cracks enhance the depletion
of metal from the surface layer through flaking or gauge corner spalling;

(c) inside the cracks, a significant amount of wear debris may form which can
lead to accelerated depletion of metal from within the crack.

In locations where cracks are more numerous or where they grow at an accel-
erated pace, head flow is more rapid, depletion of metal from the head is greater
than in the neighboring locations and corrugation valleys are thus formed.

Report by F. E. King, J. Kalousek

619

TABLE III

Plasticity Limits for Various Rail
Materials and Rolling Conditions

Plasticity limits q ,

psi) for

rail hardness ranges of: |

250-270

310-330

360-380

BHN

BHN

BHN

Case of pure rolling

(tangent track)

250,000

305,000

365,000

Case of rolling with

lateral tractive forces

(curves)

185,000

225,000

275,000

Remedial Action

Remedial action required to correct both gauge face wear and corrugations must
be optimized in such a way that the maxinuun service Hfe of rails and \\heels is
realized.

Gauge face wear may be best alle\ iated by correcting \ehicle tracking deficien-
cies. The first deficiency arises from the fact that wheel profiles do not ha\e sufficient
conicit\' to steer the wheelset around most curves without flanging. The second
tracking deficiency is that vehicle trucks are not designed to allow the axles to align
themselves radially in curves. To correct for head flow and corrugations, it is
necessary to prevent reverse curvature on the outside of the wheel tread from
running on the top of the rail. This can be done by reducing or eliminating the
reverse curvature on the tread of the wheel and by close control of excessive
flangeway clearance whether due to gauge face wear, wide gauge or wheel flange
wear.

The experience of the two major Canadian railways indicates that the following
remedial measures also have considerable merit and should be incorporated into
the remedial action program. These are:

(a) Judicious use of flange oilers to reduce wear. Under- and over-lubrication
of track has a negative eftect on rail life. Under-lubrication leads to
excessive gauge face wear and o\er-luI)rication leads to early occurrence
of rail corrugations.

(b) The use of rail steel with higher yield point to reduce gauge face wear,
head flow and effects of surface fatigue. The wear rate of steel is indirectly
proportional to hardness, the load required to produce yield is proportional
to the cube of rail yield strengdi and the resistance to surface fatigue is
approximately proportional to second power of rail hardness.

(c) Timely grinding of the rail head to remove existing cornigations before
these become so deep that grinding becomes inefi^ective.

620

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

(d) Avoidance of overspeed or underspeed in curves as this aggravates all wear
conditions.

For convenience, recommended remedial actions are given in the accompanying
tabulation.

Function Responsible
For Applying Action

Equipment

Remedial Action
Buy and maintain all
wheels to a special profile
with increased conicity.

2. Eliminate reverse curva-
ture on outside of wheel
tread.

3. Develop and use a truck
with improved curving
properties.

4. Maintain close control of
wide gauge in curves.

5. Maintain and optimize
the use of existing flange
oilers.

6. Use rail steel with higher
yield point and hardness.

7. Grind rail corrugations.

8. Avoid overspeed or un-
derspeed in curves.

Purpose of Action
To reduce gauge face wear
on high rail in curves. Also
increases wheel life and re-
duces head flow and corru-
gations on low rail.
To reduce or eliminate head
flow and corrugation on the
low rail in curves.
Eliminate or reduce gauge
face wear. Also reduces head
flow and corrugation.
Eliminate or reduce head
flow and corrugation.
Reduce gauge face wear.

Reduces gauge face wear,
head flow and effects of sur-
face fatigue.

Remove existing corruga-
tions.
Aggravates all conditions.

Equipment

Equipment (with
technical research )

Engineering

Engineering

Engineering

Engineering
Transportation

CONCLUSION

The mechanisms causing rail wear and tear have been described. Effective
remedial action is possible but requires a concerted effort by the engineering, equip-
ment and transportation functions. There is no "quick fix" that can be bought and
applied. Moreover, it must be realized that although effective action can be initiated
almost immediately, it may be some time before the full benefits can be assessed.
However, if no action is taken, the situation will not improve or go away, it can
only deteriorate. If we wish to move bulk commodities economically in unit trains,
we must attack the problem in an organized manner.

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

77-658-9

By Y. E. SMITH, J. M. SAWMILL, JR.,
W. W. CIAS, G. T. ELDIS

ABSTRACT

A laboratory study was conducted with tlie aim of developing an as-rolled
rail of over 100 ksi (689 N/mm") yield strength. A series of compositions providing
both pearHtic and bainitic microstructures was evaluated. A fine pearlitic structure
was developed in a 0.73% C — 0.83% Mn — 0.16% Si — 0.75% Cr — 0.21% Mo steel
by simulating the mill cooling rate of 132-lb/yd (65.5-kg/m) rail.

Two 100-ton commercial heats were made of tliis approximate composition and
processed into 132-lb/yd (65.5-kg/m) rail. Samples tested in the laboratory ranged
from 109 to 125 ksi (750 to 860 N/mnr) in yield strength. The chromium-
molybdenum rails also exhibited excellent fracture toughness and fatigue properties.
Sections of the rail were joined by both flash-butt welding and thermite welding.
The hardness peaks produced in the flash-butt welds could be reduced by applying
either a postweld current or an induction heating cycle. The high-strengtli chromium-
molybdenum rails have been in service for over eight months in curved sections of
an ore railway that carries over 55 million gross long tons per year.

INTRODUCTION

One of the outstanding problems for heavily traveled railroads throughout the
world is an excessively high rate of rail deterioration, especially in curved sections
of track. The problem is particularly acute on ore railroads, where every car is heavily
loaded, and on main lines, which are also subjected to high gross annual tonnages.
Axle loadings now often exceed 30 tons, and a high traffic volume at high axle
loadings can result in the annual tonnage being in the range of 30 to 55 million
gross tons. At lower levels of loading, rails deteriorate by the classical mechanism
of surface wear and abrasion. However, with a combination of high loading and
high gross tonnage, rails deteriorate at a much faster rate by undergoing plastic
flow and surface fatigue.^ In general, these two modes of failure are best resisted
by increases in rail yield strength and tensile strength, respectively.^

As this study was initiated, most of the commercially available alloy rails were
below 100 ksi (689 N/mm") yield strength.^ It was the objective of this work to
develop an alloy rail steel over 100 ksi (689 N/mm^) yield strength and around
160 ksi (100 N/mm") tensile strength. These improved properties were to be
achieved by balancing the alloy composition to obtain transformation to a fine micro-
structure, with the strength possibly being supplemented by carbide precipitation.

An additional objective of this work was to develop commercially feasible
welding procedures for joining the high-strength rails.

LABORATORY DEVELOPMENT OF RAIL STEEL

It was recognized at the beginning of this effort that processing a steel on the
very small scale tliat is available in the laboratory would have serious scale-up
problems when the results were ultimately applied to the production of a commercial

Note: Discussion open until October 16, 1976.

621

622 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

heat of I32-lb/yd (65.5-kg/m) rail. Much consideration was given to taking these
scale-up problems into account and making the appropriate adjustments in the
experimental techniques.

Experimental Procedures

Laboratory steels were made from liigli-purity charge materials. Most of the
heats (those with a "P" in the heat number) were argon-melted to prevent exces-
sively high nitrogen contents that occur as a result of melting in a small induction
furnace. It was later decided that this precaution was not necessary. The heats
ranged in size from 55 to 75 lb (25 to 34 kg). They were poured into copper
chilled tubular steel molds. The compositions are presented in Table 1. The ingots
were forged and rolled in order to produce bar stock for tensile specimen blanks.
The specimen blanks were reheated to 1850 F (1010 C) and cooled at rates to
simulate the cooling of 132-lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) rail on a mill cooling bed. The
cooling rate was controlled by making bundles of bars to increase tlie thermal inertia
accordingly. The specific cooling schedules employed are described in Table 2.
The cooling schedules included relatively slow cooling at lower temperatures to
simulate the box-cooling treatment normally given to rails to avoid hydrogen-induced
cracking. The tensile specimen had a M-in. (13-mm) diameter reduced section with
a 2-in. (51-mm) gauge length. The strain rates were 18 and 120%/hour in the elastic
and plastic ranges, respectively. Hardness tests and microstructual examinations
were made on the broken halves of tensile specimens.

Laboratory Results and Discussion

The tensile testing and hardness results that were obtained on the control-
cooled specimens are presented in Table 2. The microstrucures are presented in
Figures 1 through 6. Steel A was included as a base composition, representative of
commercial carbon steel rail. The 62 ksi (427 N/mm") yield strength shown in
Table 2 is typical for such a product. The pearlitic microstructure of Figure 1(a)
is also typical for rails of this composition in the as-rolled condition.

The first experimental steels that were made were designed to increase yield
strengdi by developing a bainitic microstructure. Steels C and E represent different
approaches in developing this microstructure by using silicon-molybdenum and
chromium-molybdenum combinations, respectively. Vanadium was included in the
former, with the aim of obtaining some precipitation strengthening. Upon employing
the conventional rail cooling cycle for 132-lb/yd (65.5-kg/m) rails, which involved
slowing the cooling rate at 1000 F (535 C), yield strengths of 106 to 119 ksi (731
to 820 N/mm^) were produced. The microstructure of Steel C, in Figure 1(b),
is completely bainitic, while that of Steel E, in Figure 2(a), is largely bainite with
some fine pearlite. An attempt was made to adjust the cooling schedule of Steel C
to increase the probability of attaining precipitation strengthening. A pair of speci-
mens were subjected to the same initial cooling rate, but the slower cooling rate
(to simulate box cooling) was begun at 1100 F (595 C). The resulting yield strength
of 140 ksi (965 N/mm") suggests that some precipitation strengthening may have
been developed. The microstructure, shown in Figures 2(b) and 5(a), is a mixture
of fine pearlite and bainite.

In general, the bainitic compositions offer promising yield strengths, but there
was much concern regarding tlie relatively low transformation temperatures involved.
Since rails are normally transferred to the cooling box by a magnetic crane, trans-
formation must be substantially complete around 1000 F (535 C). As a result of

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails 623

this requirement, further efforts were directed toward developing pearlitic micro-
structures that would form at higher temperatures.

A pearlitic microstructure was attained by reducing the molybdenum content
of Steel E. It may be recalled [Figure 2(a)] tliat Steel E exhibited a partially
pearlitic microstructure. In general, of the alloying elements in Steel E, molybdenum
is the strongest in its influence on shifting the pearlite nose to the right in the
continuous-cooling transformation diagram. Reducing the molybdenum to 0.31%,
and cooling according to the established schedule, produced the very fine pearlitic
microstructure of Steel J showoi in Figures 3(a) and 5(b). It is unresolvable at
a magnification of XIOOO, but clearly defined by the carbon replica at X5000. The
steel has a yield strength of 126 ksi (869 N/mm^) and a hardness of 388 HE.

As this study was being performed, tliere was conflicting information from
various sources as to the actual cooling rate of 132-lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) rail, in the
high temperature range prior to box cooling. At one point, the availability of new
information resulted in a change from cooling schedule 1, in Table 2, to cooling
schedule 2. One group of experimental steels was processed using this slower cooling
rate. It was subsequently determined that cooling schedule 1 was closer to the
actual mill coohng rate.

The investigation of the sensitivity of Steel J to variations in molybdenum
content involved several compositions, including Steel M. The lower molybdenum
content of Steel M, combined with the slower cooling rate of cooling schedule 2,
resulted in tlie coarser pearlite of Figures 3(b) and 5(c). The yield strength of
87 ksi (600 N/mm^) is consistent with the coarser pearlite spacing. It was ultimately
concluded that as molybdenum is reduced in this C-Mn-Cr-Mo rail steel, at a fixed
cooling rate, bainite disappears leaving a very fine pearlite. As molybdenum is
reduced further, the pearlite becomes more coarse. Therefore, the finest and highest-
strengtli pearlite is obtained by employing the amount of molybdenum that is just
less than that required to produce bainite. This effect is demonstrated by tiie speci-
men of Steel M that was cooled according to cooling schedule IB in Table 2. The
hardness is 415 HB, while the microstructure (not shown) is almost completely
fine pearlite, with a small amount of bainite. The fact that this specimen was not
slow-cooled in the low temperature range is not considered important, because
most of the microstructure was transformed by the time the specimen reached
1000 F (535 C).

Steels Q and R were made at 0.28% Mo to allow sufficient hardenability to
obtain the finest pearlite at the slower cooling rate involved. Vanadium was included
in Steel R in an attempt to precipitation strengthen the pearlite. The optical micro-
structures of the two steels were identical. That of Steel R is shown in Figure 4(a).
The replica electron micrographs of Steels Q and R are presented in Figures 6(a)
and 6(b), respectively. The hardness of the steels was similar at 418 to 430 HB;
however, there was a notable difference in yield strength. The higher yield strength
of Steel R (Table 2) is apparently attributable to the vanadium, possibly due to
some precipitation strengthening.

In the course of planning for die melting of a commercial heat, it was reaffirmed
that the faster cooling rate of cooling schedule 1 in Table 2 was more realistic for
132-lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) rail. Steels S and T were prepared with die goal of finalizing
the molybdenum content for the commercial heat, aiming for a minimum yield
strength of 100 ksi (758 N/ninr) in an as-rolled rail. Steels S and T, with 0.21

624 Bulletin 658 — ^American Railway Engineering Association

and 0.24% Mo, respectively, satisfied the yield strength requirement. The fine
pearlitic microstructure of Steel S is shown in Figures 4(b) and 6(c). On the basis
of these results, it was decided to proceed with a commercial mill trial.

COMMERCIALLY PRODUCED CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM RAIL

Production and Evaluation Procedures

The first trial production heat of tlie newly designed composition of chromium-
molybdenum rail was made at CF&I Steel Corporation. The 100-ton BOF heat
(Heat 11406) was aluminum-killed and poured into twenty-one 5-ton ingot molds
with hot tops. Six of the ingots, Numbers 3, 5, 7, 13, 15, and 17, were treated with
Hypercal, a Ca-Si-Al deoxidation agent, added in the amount of 6 lb/ton (2.7 kg/
ton) in an effort to improve fracture toughness by affecting the type, amount, and
distribution of nonmetallic inclusions. The ingots were soaked and then directly
rolled into 132-lb/yd (65.5-kg/m) rail in 31 passes. Five rails, designated A through
E in sequence from the top to the bottom of the ingot, were obtained from each
ingot. The hot-rolled rails were hot-sawed and deposited on the cooling bed until
they were placed in a cooling box in the usual manner to prevent flake cracking.

Samples of the chromium-molybdenum rail were subjected to a thorough labo-
ratory evaluation, including metallography, tensile testing, hardness, and fracture
toughness testing. The laboratory techniques were the same as those employed in
tlie above-described evaluation of laboratory steels. The fracture toughness test
specimens were taken from the web section of the rails. Compact tensile specimens
were prepared so that the direction of crack propagation was perpendicular to tlie
rolling direction.

On the basis of the satisfactory properties of tlie first heat, a second heat of
similar size was melted. The second heat (Heat 12547) was the same as the first
in both composition and melting practice. However, no Hypercal treatment was
used, as it was not considered necessary for obtaining satisfactory properties.

Commercial Product Results and Discussion

The composition of two commercial heats of chromium-molybdenum rail is
showTi in Table 1. The mechanical property results presented in Table 3 confirm
that the desired level of strength was attained. The rail head hardness is about 340
to 360 HB, and the yield strength is in the range of 109 to 125 ksi (751 to 865
N/mm"). It was initially suspected that a difference in prior austenite grain size
was the reason for a lower molybdenum level being sufficient for producing the
desired properties in the commercial heat. If tlie commercial heat had a larger
austenite grain size than the laboratory heats, this would account for an increment
of hardenability. Most of the laboratory steels had austenite grain sizes of ASTM
6 or 7, with the average being ASTM 6.5, as determined by the fracture grain size
technique. A specimen from Heat 11406 was tested the same way and found to
be ASTM 6. This grain size is consistent with the fact that the heat was aluminum
deoxidized, but it leaves unexplained the apparent difference in hardenability be-
tween the laboratory and commercial steels. Another possible explanation for the
difference is that the laboratory specimens are cooled from a reheat, while the
commercial rails are cooled directly from hot-rolling.

A Hypercal inoculation treatment was given to several ingots of tlie first com-
mercial heat. This calcium-silicon-aluminum deoxidation agent, which was added
in the amount of 6 lb (2.7 kg) per ton, had a significant effect on the shape of

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails 625

sulfide inclusions, as shown in Figure 7. However, the fracture toughness results
for Rails 4B and 5C in Table 3 show that the fracture toughness was not affected
by the change in inclusion shape. This is presumably because the fracture direction
was perpendicular to the elongated inclusions. Tests were conducted in this direc-
tion because it is die direction of crack propagation for rail failure.

It should be noted that the fracture toughness of Rail IOC of Heat 12547 is
notably higher than the fracture toughness measured on the rails from Heat 11406.
This Kie value of 43.5 ksiViny (47.8 MN/m'''=) for Rail IOC is at the level of
fracture toughness normally found in lower strength carbon-manganese rails tliat
are vacuum degassed. Rail IOC also has higher elongation and reduction in area
values than were observed on the first heat. It may be observed that the elongation
and reduction in area values obtained for the first commercial heat. Heat 11406,
are low relative to the test results on the laboratory steels. On the basis of the
laboratory results, it is suggested that the higher ductility and fracture toughness
values exhibited by Rail IOC from Heat 12547 are more representative of what should
be expected of the chromium-molybdenum rail. Additional commercial product
tiiat was produced as this paper was being reviewed confirmed this conclusion.

Representative microstructures of the chromium-molybdenum rail are presented
in Figures 8 and 9. The rail head is very fine pearlite, as were tlie laboratory steels.
The web and flange (not shown) are both predominantly fine pearlite, with some
bainite. Also, near the center of the web, occasional tliin, light streaks may be
observed in the microstructure, as marked in Figure 10. These streaks were found
to be cross sections of very thin martensitic regions that lie in the plane of the web.
It was established by electron probe microanalysis tliat these martensitic regions are
rich in chromium and manganese. They are apparently regions of interdendritic
segregation in the ingot. It should be noted that the compact tensile specimens
that were employed for the fractvire toughness determination were taken from the
web of Rail IOC, from which the sample shown in Figure 10 was cut. The
martensite probably did not aftect the Kic value because of tlie small amount present
and its anisotrojjic distribution in the plane of the web. For the same reasons, these
thin regions of martensite are believed to have a negligible influence on the otlier
mechanical properties of the rail.

The distribution of the hardness over a rail cross section is shown in Figure 11.

A short section of chromium-molybdenum rail was subjected to a rolling contact
fatigue (cradle rolling load) test at the AAR Technical Center. The test employs
a single, full-size wheel under a 50,000-lb (22,400-kg) load that is intended to
simulate a 50% overload condition. The test normally produces shelling in standard
carbon-manganese rails in 3-million cycles. The test on the chromium-molybdenum
rail was discontinued after 5-million cycles, with no significant deterioration of the
rail, as determined by ultrasonically testing each week during the test.

The abrasive wear resistance of the head of a chromium-molybdenmn rail was
evaluated by a pin abrasion test.* The weight loss was 0.095 gram, which was 88%
of the weight loss sustained by the head of a standard AREA carbon steel rail.

WELDING OF CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM RAILS

Flash-Butt Welding

To evaluate the weldability of the chromium-molybdenum rail, several 132-lb/yd
(65.5 kg/m) sections were flash-butt welded by Chemetron Corporation. One weld
was subjected to a postweld current that slowed the cooling rate after flashing, in

626 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

orcU-r to promote thf formation of higher temperature transformation products and
thereby limit the presence of martcnsite. As an additional effort to improve weld-
zone properties, one of the welds that was made according to the standard flash
cycle was sent to Teleweld, Inc., for an induction tempering treatment. Preliminary
laboratory tests defined the time-temperature parameters required for tempering.
The welds tliat were produced by the above three procedures were sectioned and
evaluated by hardness traverses, metallographic methods, and bend testing.

Tempering would normally be perfonned after the weld had cooled to tem-
peratures near ambient, but induction heating could be used earlier in the operation
to interrupt cooling. This procedure was evaluated by laboratory simulations.

A Schlatter flash-welding unit with an NCG Sciaky control was employed in
performing the flash-butt welding operations at Chemetron. Preheating was accom-
plished by 10 current impulses of about 95,000 amperes and 3 to 3.5 seconds
duration, separated by 0.5 second. Flashing took place in 24 to 37 seconds followed
by application of the upset force that produced the weld. A current of 95,000
amperes was held for 2.5 to 3.0 seconds after the initiation of upset, with the upset
force being held for 9 seconds. Up to this point, the procedure was typical of that
normally used to weld 132-lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) rail. After shearing off the flash,
the electrodes were put back in place, in the case of the weld that was to receive
the postweld current. A current of 95,000 amperes was applied for a 5-second
duration exactly 60 seconds after the beginning of upset.

To define an appropriate tempering heat treatment, sections were cut from
the head of a flash-butt weld performed by the normal procedure, and short-time
tempering treatments were performed on the sections in a lead bath. It was deter-
mined from a Larson-Miller plot that, for a 15-second hold time, a tempering
temperature of 1230 F (665 C) would be required to reduce the maximum weld
hardness to 41 HRC and a tempering temperature of 1280 F (690 C) would be
required to reduce the maximum hardness to 40 HRC.

Having defined the desirable tempering temperature, another flash-butt weld
that was performed by die standard procedure was sent to Teleweld for a full-scale
tempering experiment. Two induction heating coils were constructed and connected
in series, at Teleweld, to simulate induction tempering at two adjacent stations in
a flash- welding operation. The 16- turn coils were wrapped around the entire rail
cross section, separated by % in. ( 13 mm ) from the head and edges of the flange.
One coil was centered on the weld. The 35-kva power supply was capable of
delivering an AC current of 300 amperes at 120 volts and 1000 Hertz. The first
application of power, for 2.5 minutes, heated the rail to 780 F (415 C), as measured
by a thermocouple on top of the head. The power was then turned off for 1 minute
to simulate cooling of the rail as it was moved to the second induction heating
station. The power was then applied for 2.5 minutes more to develop a peak tem-
perature of 1260 F (680 C). The weld was then air-cooled to room temperature.

Evaluation of Flash-Butt Welds

A weld hardness profile that was obtained by making a traverse across a flash-
butt weld on a cross section of the rail head is presented in Figure 12. This hard-
ness profile is for the standard welding procedure, which is shown to produce a
hardness peak of about 8 to 10 HRC points above the base-metal hardness and a
hardness trough of about 6 to 7 HRC points in the heat- affected zone (HAZ) of
the weld.

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails 627

The variation in carbon content near the fusion line was determined from slices
approximately 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) thick that were sectioned from near tlie weld
line of the head. These results are also presented in Figure 12 and show that
decarburization occurs during flashing. The lower carbon content of this center
region prevents the formation of martcnsite, allowing the hardness at the center
of the weld to be about eciual to the original rail liardness. Within less than an
inch from the weld centerline, the hardness is unaffected by the welding operation.
The hardness peak just outside the weld line is caused by partial transformation
to martensite. The adjoining hardness trough is a manifestation of the spheroidization
of pearlite in the region that was heated to a peak temperature just short of
austenitization. The full cross section of the web of the weld made by the standard
procedure is shown in Figure 13(a). The white streaks highlight tlie martensite
that forms upon cooling from welding. One of the martensite streaks is shown at
higher magnification in Figure 14(a). The eff^ects of a postweld current on the
hardness profiles through the weld in various parts of the rail are shown in Table 4.
The maximum hardness is somewhat reduced by this treatment. The cross section
of the web of the weld subjected to the postweld current is shown in Figure 13(b).
The cooling delay introduced by this additional heating step reduced the martensite
at the hardness peak to about 5%.

The weld hardness profile that results from postweld tempering is presented
in Figure 15. The corresponding profile for the untempered weld is also shown
in tliis figure for reference. The induction tempering treatment was successful in
lowering the hardness peaks. The structure of the weld was similar to that of the
standard flash-butt weld [Figure 13(a)] except that tlie streaks which had appeared
white in the untempered weld [Figure 14(a)] were gray in the tempered weld
[Figure 14(b)].

Brinell tests were performed in the above three welds on top of the head where
the Rockwell traverses had indicated that the hardness was at a maximum. The
flash-butt welds that received standard, postweld current, and tempering treatments
exhibited maximum Brinell hardness values of 415, 371, and 368 HB at distances
from the weld line of 0.35, 0.25, and 0.38 in. (9, 6, and 10 mm), respectively.
Thus, Brinell tests performed on top of the head could be used as a check on the
welding operation.

Bend specimens, of rectangular cross section, were cut from the rails at the
junction of the web and the flange, with each of the three types of welds, (a)
standard weld, (b) postweld current, and (c) tempered weld. The specimens were
cut longitudinal to the rails, with the weld lines at the centers of the specimens.
The specimens were tested in three-point bending at slow strain rates, with the
maximum load being used to calculate the fracture stress, by the formula that
describes the bending of a simple rectangular beam. The fractvire stresses are pre-
sented in Table 5.

Laboratory Simulation of Interrupted Cooling by Induction Heating

Induction tempering would be performed on welds that had cooled below tlie
martensite transformation temperature. This temperature is normally not reached
until at least 20 minutes after upset. If induction heating is used earlier in tlie
flash-butt welding operation, martensite will not form becau.se cooling can be inter-
rupted to force nearly complete transformation to fine pearlite. In a laboratory
experiment to evaluate the feasibility of tliis approach, chromium-molybdenum rail
sections were heat-treated using programs that approximated the thermal cycle of

628 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

the high-temperature region of a flash-butt weld, plus several heating cycles obtain-
able with postweld induction heating equipment. Examples of the thermal cycles
used are shown in Figure 16 and listed in Table 6. Since flash-butt welds are
normally performed at a rate of about 2.5 to 6 minutes per weld, these heat
treatments cover the range of anticipated production conditions if induction heating
is applied at tlie fourth station (flash welding being the first station). The results
shown in Table 6 show that all specimens heated above 1100 F (595 C), regardless
of the time at which heating was initiated, exhibited a hardness of less tlian 37
HRC or 370 HB. The levels of hardness and martensite content measured in the
normal weld thermal cycle ( No. 1 ) are higher than the maximum levels measured
in the actual flash-butt welding of chromium-molybdenum rail because, during
simulation, plastic deformation and decarburization were not operative; thus, the
hardness and martensite levels presented in Table 6 are probably higher than the
levels anticipated in actual flash-butt welds that are induction heated at the fourth
station. The results of Table 6 also show that there is a wide range of times ( between
5 and 15 minutes after upset) at which induction heating could be initiated to
significantly reduce the hardness and amount of martensite in a flash-butt weld.
Of course, if induction heating is applied later in the operation, any martensite that
formed would be tempered, as discussed previously.

In general, the postweld current and induction heating treatments, used either to
interrupt cooling or temper the weld, appear to be technically feasible means of
lowering the hardness peaks in chormium-molybdenum rail flash-butt welds. The
postweld current treatment could be performed on existing welding units without
modification. However, this treatment lengthens the welding cycle by as much as
3 minutes, depending upon tlie specific procedure used, and would therefore reduce
flash-butt welding productivity accordingly. On the other hand, induction heating
would require the addition of heating coils at other stations downstream from the
flash-welding operation, but would allow maintaining welding productivity.

THERMITE WELDING

Welding Procedure

Several chromium-molybdenum rails of Heat 12547 were welded by the Perm
Central Transportation Company using the Boutet thermite welding process. The
ends to be welded were aligned with a 1-in. (25-mm) gap between them. Ceramic
mold sections were placed on both sides of the rail ends, and a third base section
covered the bottom of the gap. Clamps held the mold together, and a sealant was
apphed to eliminate the possibility of hot metal flow between mold sections or
between the mold and the rail. The rail ends were then preheated for 20 to 25
minutes by directing a flame down through the top of the mold. A crucible containing
the thermite mix was put in place over the mold after the torch was removed. The
thermite mix was ignited, and, after a reaction time of about 22 to 28 seconds, the
metal ran into the mold through self- tapping plugs. After a period to allow solidifi-
cation of the weld metal, the mold was removed and the risers knocked off.

Evaluation of Thermite Weld

The thermite welds were evaluated by hardness traverses and metallographic
inspection, as were the flash-butt welds. In addition, the fusion zone was analyzed
for carbon, and spectrographic analyses were conducted for alloying elements. A
sample of the ferrous portion of the thermite mix was also analyzed to detect the
presence of alloying elements,

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails 629

The hardness profile of one of the dierniite welds is shown in Figure 17. The
relatively flat hardness peaks in die HAZ adjacent to die fusion zone are only about
40 HRC, somewhat lower than those developed by flash-butt welding. The lower
peak hardness and larger heat-affected zones are indicative of the higher heat input
and, thus, slower cooling rate of tlie thermite weld. The soft region in the fusion
zone is about VA in. (31 mm) wide, notably larger than the soft spots developed
in the HAZ regions of flash-butt welds.

Replica electron micrographs of four representative points on the hardness
traverse are presented in Figure 18. These four locations are marked on the hardness
profile of Figure 17 by the letters a, b, c, and d. The fine pearlite of the unaffected
base metal is shown in Figure 18(a). The spheroidized, softened region of minimum
hardness in the HAZ is shown in Figure 18(b). The reaustenitized region of the
HAZ that transformed back into fine pearlite is shown in Figure 18(c). Figure
18(d) shows tlie coarse pearlite of the fusion zone that is of somewhat lower
hardness.

The fusion zone of the thermite weld is softer primarily because of the lower
carbon and alloy contents, as shown in Table 7. This region is intermediate in alloy
composition between the base metal and Uie thermite mixture, which contained no
alloy except for a small amount of manganese. The hardness of this region could
be brought up to the level of the base metal by using a similarly alloyed thermite
mixture.

INSTALLATION OF CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM RAIL

The chromium-molybdenum rails from the two CF&I heats have been placed
in service as part of a high-strength rail test program by the Mt. Newman Mining
Company in Australia. The rails were installed, along with other types of high-
strength rail, in specifically selected curved sections of track. This 265-mile (490-km)
long rail line is regularly traversed by 130-car trains of iron ore cars, with a gross
weight of 120 long tons each, divided among four axles. Ten trains per day provide
an annual loading of about 55 million gross long tons. The chromium-molybdenum
rails have thus far experienced eight months of trouble-free service.

SUMMARY

A series of steels was prepared in the laboratory, processed to simulate rail
cooling, and evaluated for mechanical properties. Yield strengths of up to 162 ksi
(1117 N/nim^) were obtained, with both pearlitic and bainitic steels being investi-
gated. A 0.73% C — 0.83% Mn — 0.16% Si — 0.75% Cr — 0.21% Mo steel, with a fine
pearlitic microstructure, exhibited a 100 ksi (689 N/nim") yield strength.

Two 100-ton commercial heats were made of this approximate composition
and processed into 132-lb/yd (65.5 kg/m) rail. The yield strengths ranged from
109 to 125 ksi (750 to 860 N/nim"), and the fracture toughness (Ku- value) ranged
from 36 to 44 ksi \/ in. (40 to 48 MN/n^'^). The microstructure of this product
was predominantly fine pearlite, with small amounts of bainite in the web and
flange. An accelerated (high load) rolling contact fatigue test showed no significant
deterioration after 5-million cycles.

Test welds were made in commercial rail in both flash-butt welding and
thermite welding processes, and laboratory simulations demonstrated the effective-
ness of induction heating the chromium-molybdenum flash-butt welds to control
the microstructure. Standard fl^sh-butt welding produced weld hardness peaks of

630 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

about 10 HRC abo\e the 35 HRC rail head hardness and martensite bands near the
weld line. Either a postvveld current in the flash-welding machine or heating at
another station could be used to significantly reduce the maximum hardness and
practically eliminate the martensite bands. Induction tempering of a weld that was
flash-butt welded using normal procedures also reduced the maximum weld hardness.
Somewhat lower hardness peaks resulted from welding by the Boutet thermite
process, and tlie fusion zone was relatively soft. The weld-metal hardness could
be increased by alloying the thermite mixture. The high-strength chromium-
molybdenmn rails have been welded into curved sections of a high gross tonnage
ore railroad.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to recognize tlie eflorts of several other organizations
tliat contributed to this work, including CF&I Steel Corporation, which produced the
commercial rail, Chemetron Corporation, Teleweld, Inc., and Penn Central Trans-
portation Company, which performed the various welding operations, and the
Technical Center of the Association of American Railroads, which conducted a
rolling contact fatigue test.

Witliin the Climax Research Laboratory, the authors appreciate the efforts of
Dr. D. E. Diesburg for providing the fracture toughness measurements and V. Biss
for electron microscopy.

REFERENCES

1. R. G. Read, "Rail for High Intensity Mineral Traffic," Rail Track Materials
Seminar, B.H.P. Melbourne Research Laboratories, Clayton, Victoria, Australia,
October 1971.

2. I. Mair, "Material Aspects of Rail Design," Rail Track Materials Seminar, B.H.P.
Melbourne Research Laboratories, Clayton, Victoria, Australia, October 1971.

3. S. Marich, "Overseas and Future Developments of Rail Steels," Rail Track
Materials Seminar, B.H.P. Melbourne Research Laboratories, Clayton, Victoria,
Australia, October 1971.

4. J. Muscara and M. J. Sinnott, "Construction and Evaluation of a Versatile Abra-
sive Wear Testing Apparatus," Metals Engineering Quarterly, May 1972.

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

631

Table 1
Conipos it ions of Experimental and Coniniercial Kail Steels

Steel

Heat

Element, 7

Ingot

C

Mn

Si

Cr

Mo

V

Al

N

P

S

A

P924

0.75

0.81

0.15

0.05

0.007

(0.015)'

(0.015)

C

P928B

0.74

0.80

1.04

--

0.40

0.09

0.04

0.006

(0.015)

(0.015)

E

P925

0.75

0.81

0.17

0.73

0.40

--

0.04

0.007

(0.015)

(0.015)

J

P974

0.78

0.82

0.14

0.75

0.31

--

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

M

P994B

0.76

0.81

0.14

0.74

0.23

--

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

Q

P995C

0.76

0.92

0.14

0.81

0.28

--

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

R

P995D

0.76

0.92

0.13

0.80

0.28

0.056

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

S

1095A

0.78

0.88

0.17

0.79

0.24

--

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

T

1096A

0.73

0.83

0.16

0.75

0.21

--

(0.04)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

Commercial

11406

0.78

0.84

0.22

0.72

0.18

--

ND*'

ND

0.026

0.022

Commercial

12547

0.77

0.89

0.20

0.76

0.16

--

ND

ND

0.014

0.034

Numbers in parentheses are aim compositions, not analyzed.

ND

not determined,

Table 2

Mechanical Propertits of l^xpcr imental Steels Subjected to Simulnti'd
Rail Cooling for 132-lb/yd (65.5-k.g/m) Rails

Steel

Cooling
Schedule^

Hardness,
HB

0.27, Offsrt

Yield

Stren>;th,

ksi (N/mni^)

Tensi Ic
Strength,
ksi (N/mm^)

I'.longat ion,

7,

Reduction
in Area,

7

A

1

--

62 (427)

129 (889)

12.2

22

C

1

--

106 (731)

153 (1055)

10.6

29

C

lA

--

140 (965)

184 (1269)

10.8

25

E

1

--

119 (820)

165 (1138)

11.6

31

J

1

388

126 (869)

181 (1248)

13.5

42

M

2

325

87 (600)

152 (1048)

12.8

33

M

IB

415

--

--

--

--

Q

2

418

136 (938)

190 (1310)

12.6

41

R

2

430

162 (1117)

211 (1455)

11.5

37

S

1

361

120 (827)

190 (1310)

12.5

37

T

1

330

100 (689)

163 (1124)

13.0

39

Cooling Schedules:

1 Cooled from 1600 F (870 C) to 1000 V (535 C) in 18 minutes,
followed by furnace cooling from 1000 F (535 C) .

lA Same cooling curve as above, with furnace cooling from 1100 F (595 C)
IB Same cooling curve as (1) continutd to room tempt rntiirt .

2 Cooled from 1600 F (870 C) to 1000 F (535 C) in 22 minutes, followed
by furnace cooling from 1000 F (535 C) .

632

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

XI

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High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

633

Table 4

Maximum and Minimum Hardness Measured in the
Region of the Flash-Butt Weld

Location
of Traverse

Maximum/Minimum Hardness, HRC

Welded with
Standard Method

Welded with
Postweld Current

Top of Head
Center of Head
Web
Flange

43.6/31.8
46.5/29.63

48.3/29.9
46.3/29.8

42.4/26.5
44.0/25.7
45.0/29.9
40.2/28.5

Average of four traverses.

Table 5

Bend Test Results for Chromium-Molybdenum
Flash-Butt Welds

Type Weld

Average Fracture Stress,
ksi (N/mm^)

Standard
Method

Current Applied
after Upset

Induction
Tempered

216 (1490)
237 (1630)
228 (1571)

634

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Table 6

Results of Hardness Tests Pcrfomed on Chronium-Molybdenur.i Rail Specimens

Hint TrL-atid to Sinulatc a I'lash-U'e Id Thc-rrial CycK' nnd '.>i :'l\ri.nt

Hcatini; Cycles I'sed to Interrupt i:oolin^

Peak Temperature

Average

Speciircn

Cool in*; Tine between

I'pset and Interruption

of Coolini;, rain

Temperature at
Initiation of Second
Heating Cycle, F (C)

during Second
Heating Cvcle,
F (C)

Hardness

.Martens itv ,

HB

"-

HRC

(3000 kg)

1

Simulation of

'.s'eld Therral Cycle

55." 1 578

■5 5

2

15

390 (200)

1250 (575)

34.7

341

10

3

10

535 (280)

1280 (695)

34.1

326

10

■i

10

535 (280)

1150 (620)

37.6

366

5

5

10

525 (275)

1100 (595)

39.4

363

3

6^

5

885 (475)

1255 (680)

35. S j 331

5

-a

5

880 (470)

1255 (uSO)

35.2 1 331

5

8

5

890 (475)

1035 (555)

40.7 1 409

15

Specimens 6 and 7 were given approxiraately the same heat tre

Table 7

Chemical Compositions of Chromium-Molybdenum

Rail, Thermite Mixture, and Weld Zone

of Thermite Weld

Sample

Element, 7,

C

.Mn

Si

P

S

Cr

Mo

Ni

Rail

0.77

0.89

0.20

0,014

0.034

0.7 6

0.16

na'^

Thermite Mixture

NA

0.35

NA

NA

NA

Nil

Nil

0.029

Weld Zonp

0.59

0.87

0.32

NA

NA

0.17

0.09

NA

NA = not analyzed

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

635

TL Nital XIOOO

(a) Steel A--0.75C-0.8lMn-0.15Si (Base Composition)

2% Nital

XIOOO

(b) Steel C--0.74C-0.80Mn-l.04Si-0.40Mo-0.09V
Cooling Schedule 1

Figure 1 Experimental Alloy Rail Steels--I

636

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

27c Nital XIOOO

(a) Steel E--0.75C-0.8lMn-0.17Si-0.73Cr-0.40Mo

27o Nital

XIOOO

(b) Steel C--0.74C-0.80Mn-l.04Si-0.40Mo-0.09V
Cooling Schedule lA

Figure 2 Experimental Alloy Rail Steels--II

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

637

2% Nital XIOOO

(a) Steel J--0.78C-0.82Mn-0.14Si-0.75Cr-0.3lMo

(b) Steel M--0.76C-0.8lMn-0.14Si-0.74Cr-0.23Mo

Figure 3 Experimental Alloy Rail Steels--III

638

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

2% Nital XIOOO

(a) Steel R--0.76C-0.92Mri-0.13SL-0.80Cr-0.28Mo-0.056V

27o Nital XIOOO

(b) Steel S--0.78C-0.88Mn-0.17Si-0.79Cr-0.24Mo

Figure 4 Experimental Alloy Rail Steels--IV

High-Stxength Chromiiim-Molybdemim Rails

639

%!.rf^if:»*'*rf^/r-*»" .^:-5'*fcak*P^*>s^?^.-. -:.

'^'jTV.

X5000

(a) Steel C--0.74C-0.80Mn-l.04Si-
0.40MO-0.09V
Cooling Schedule lA

V.

X5000

(b) Steel J--0.78C-0.82Mn-0.14Si-
0.74Cr-0.3lMo

-A\i.'>i'\V*S\V%vit .-

X5000

(c) Steel M--0.76C-0.8lMn-0.14Si-
0.74Cr-0.23Mo

Figure 5 Replica Electron Micrographs of Experimental

Alloy Rail Steels--I

640

Bulletin 658— American Railway Engineering Association

'^f^^^^^'^'^!^!^^

■'i^mMMMmm

X5000

(a) Steel Q--0.76C-0.92Mn-0.14Si-
0.8lCr-0.28Mo

X5000

(b) Steel R--0.76C-0.92Mn-0.13Si-
0.80Cr-0.28Mo-0.056V

;,

^S

X5000

(c) Steel S--0.78C-0.88Mn-0.17Si-
0.79Cr-0.24Mo

Figure 6 Replica Electron Micrographs of Experimental

Alloy Rail Steels--II

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

641

XIOOO

(a) Rail 4b

>§•

XIOOO

(b) Hypercal-Treated Rail 13A

Figure 7 Typical Nonmetallic Inclusions in the
Longitudinal Web Sections of
Chromium-Molybdenum Rails
from Heat 11406

642

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

X500

47o Picral
(b)

X5000

Figure 8 Optical and Replica Electron Micrographs of
the Longitudinal Head Section of
Chromium-Molybdenum Rail 4b
from Heat 11406

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

643

X5000

(b)

Figure 9 Optical and Replica Electron Micrographs
the Longitudinal Web Section of

Chromium-Molybdenum Rail 4b
from Heat 11406

644

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

47o Picral

X500

Figure 10 Optical Micrograph of Longitudinal Web Section
of Chromium-Molybdenum Rail IOC from
Heat 12547 Shoving Isolated
Martensite Streaks

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

645

388

415

415

363

406 393 363 352 363 388 393

Figure 11 Brlnell Hardness Survey of the Cross Section
of Chromium-Molybdenum Rail lOC
of Heat 12547

Bill. 058

646

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

25

20

DISTANCE FROM THE WELD LINE, MM
15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25

-I \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 r

45

40

-^-~

•Q

HARDNESS

S 35

_ O — ■(

30

25

\ /
\ /

/
/
/
/

/
/

.-■or'

,^.

CARBON
CONTENT-

I I I I I I L

1.0

^

o

V

' I ' I L

0.9

0.8

- 0,7

1.0

0.5 0 0.5

DISTANCE FROM THE WELD LINE, IN.

Figure 12 Hardness Traverse on Sections Cut from the Head of Flash-Butt Welded
Chromium-Molybdenum Rail 5C from Heat 11406

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

647

47o Nital X3.3

(a) Welded Using Standard Procedure

4% Nital
(b) Welded Using Postweld Current

X3,3

Figure 13 Macrographs of the Web Section in Flash-
Butt Welds Performed in Chromium-
Molybdenum Rail

648

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

10% Potassium meta-Bisulf ite X500
(a) Welded Using Standard Procedure

10% Potassium meta-Bisulf ite X500

(b) Welded Using Standard Procedure
and Induction Tempering

Figure 14 Micrographs of Martens ite Bands in The Web
Section of Flash-Butt Welds Performed
in Chromium-Molybdenum Rail

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

649

25

20

DISTANCE FROM THE WELD LINE, MM
15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20

25

1 1 1—

TEMPERED

--A AT 1260 F

(680 C)

40

35

30 -

25 -

STANDARD
PROCEDURE

J I I L

J I L

III' I I I L

1.0

0.5 0 0.5

DISTANCE FROM THE WELD LINE, IN.

1.0

Figure 15 Hardness Traverses Located 0.2 Inch (5 mm) from the Top of the Head in Both
As-Welded and Tempered Flash-Butt Welds in Chromium-Molybdenum
Rail 4B of Heat 11406

2000

1500

9z 1000 -

500

I I 'I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I

NORMAL WELD THERMAL CYCLE (NO. 1)

-NO. 6

1200

1100

1000

900

son

700
600
500

400
300
200
100

5 10 15 20 25
TIME FROM START OF COOLING, MIN

30

35

Figure 16 Thermal Cycles of Specimens Heat Treated to Simulate a Flash-Butt Weld (No. 1) and
a Flash-Butt Weld plus Different Postweld Heat Treatments (Nos. 3, 5, and 6)

The numbers refer to the specimens listed in Table 6.

650

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

CENTIMETERS

6 8 10 12

T

16 24 32 40

EIGHTHS OF AN INCH

48

56

Figure 17 Hardness Profile of Thermite Weld in Chromium-Molybdenum Rail

High-Strength Chromium-Molybdenum Rails

651

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X5000
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(b)

X5000

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X5000

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Figure 18

Replica Electron Micrographs of Selected
Areas along Hardness Profile
(Figure 17) of Thermite
Weld in Chromium-
Molybdenum Rail

652 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Innovations in Frog and Switch Design

77-658-10

By E. H. TAYLOR

Supervisor Track Design and Development
Canadian Pacific Rail

Acknowledgment

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to the following men for tlieir
cooperation and assistance in the development and design of many aspects of the
special trackwork discussed herein: J. Fox, chief engineer, CP Rail; G. Sinclair,
engineer of tests, CP Rail; C. N. King, retired senior engineer, CP Rail; and E. Frank,
chief engineer, Abex Corp., Trackwork Products.

I wish to express my appreciation for tlie invitation to speak on behalf of CP
Rail and to elaborate on tliis progressive project — "Innovations in Frog and Switch
Design."

The purpose of this paper is to outline the continuing development of CP Rail
in frog and switch design. This development is dictated by our requirement to
handle single-track trafiBc in CTC territory of approximately 50 million gross tons,
per mile, per annum on our main line west of Golden to Vancouver which traverses
the Rocky Mountains, Selkirk and Cascade mountain ranges with grades up to 2.2%
and curvature up to 12°. In addition to the usual type freight trains, this route
also handles our unit coal trains.

At present tliere are a number of frog designs constructed in a variety of
manufacturing methods and materials with a preference by many railroads for a
certain type design. However, it is generally accepted that either rigid or spring
railbound manganese steel frogs are the most desirable frog type for use in single-
track, heavy-tonnage main lines.

CP Rail's investigation commenced in 1968 and was prefaced witli the following
criteria: frog design, material, and construction. Our existing frog design was to a
modified AREA heavy-wall insert casting with the 7-in. heel spread. This design
had been in service for some 10 years superseding the AREA light-wall design with
4?4-in. heel spread. This heavy wall designed frog in 115-lb and 132-lb rail sections
had proven to be adequate in most locations. However, with the increased wheel
loads and higher speeds, serious casting problems were becoming more apparent.
This initially was considered a material problem.

It is acknowledged that the use of high manganese steel will provide the best
wearing surface and resistance to abrasion and deformation from heavy impact than
any otlier type materials for frog insert castings. In addition it has been substantiated
that some form of depth hardening in a manganese steel casting will substantially
increase its initial life. Initial life is defined as from the first installation until
sufficient wear occurs to require rebuilding by welding. Laboratory tests conducted
by the AAR Technical Center on manganese track work castings, hardened by the
explosive process, have shown that hardened castings will resist wear and batter
in a superior manner to unhardened castings.

The two graphs on Fig. 1 show the progressive wear results throughout the test
in the critcial areas on the point and wing opposite the point area. Average values
for three castings were plotted in each category. It will be noted tliat the rate of

Note: Discussion oijen until October 15, 1976.

Address by E. H. Taylor

653

70

60

50

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20

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30

20

X.

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UNHARDENED casting (Ave. 3 )

EXPLOSIVELY HARDENED CASTING (Ave. 3) —

200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000
CYCLES OF ROLLING LOAD MACHINE
AVERAGE WEAR ON POINT

UNHARDENED casting (Ave. a)

200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000
CYCLES OF ROLLING LOAD MACHINE

AVERAGE WEAR ON WING-OPPOSITE POINT

Fig. 1 — Rolling-load wear results on manganese insert castings.

654 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

wear increased in a manner approaching a straight line between 200,000 and
1,000,000 cycles.

These test results were produced on a rolling-load machine which operated with
a 30,000-lb wheel load for 1,000,000 cycles. This produced 30,000,000 tons of
rolling load on each specimen, divided equally as to direction, which is equivalent
to a frog insert casting having 60,000,000 gross tons of traffic. These results repre-
sent an expected initial frog insert service life of approximately 3 to 1 — hardened
versus unhardened manganese insert castings.

On CP Rail all aspects of frog manufacture were tlioroughly investigated and
the initial change was in the adoption of the elastic stop nuts in place of the
conventional spring washer and square nut with heavier designed rail headlock and
rail washers. Laboratory and in- track tests were conducted and it was substantiated
that this lock nut under all track conditions provides the best type locking device to
resist back-off and reduce maintenance. All special trackwork components, i.e. frogs,
diamond crossings, switches, etc., are now equipped with the heavy series elastic
stop nuts.

Based on the results obtained from tliese investigations a series of in-track
frog tests were made using standard No. 13, 132-lb RE railbound manganese frogs.
Our first test frogs were installed on the Mountain and Shuswap Subdivisions in
April 1970. These frogs were equipped with explosive-hardened and unhardened
manganese inserts with standard carbon rail. Regular field inspections were carried
out and profilometer readings were taken. After approximately 18 months of service
and 60 million gross tons of traffic, the standard frogs with unliardened inserts at
certain locations were removed from track due to excessive wear, primarily in the
point area of wheel transfer.

I would like to draw your attention to sections in B-B and C-C on Fig. 2.
These two areas of wheel transfer are invariably subjected to excessive wear. Please
note in section C-C the collapse in the casting in the point area — standard unhard-
ened insert right-hand side. In general the explosive-hardened frogs provided ap-
proximately 40 months of service and 115 million gross tons of traffic. A number
of explosive-hardened frogs were removed from track due to manganese batter and
flow — specifically in the area of wheel transition from the wing to the point
approximately 20 in. to 22 in. from the M-in. point. This depression is tlie result of
the wheels with a false flange running on the wing of the casting, and on cross over
dropping into the flangeway resulting in heavy impact in a very locafized area.
Excessive rail flow developed in areas of wheel run-off from tlie manganese insert,
point rail junction and heel extension easer.

Conclusive results obtained from the first series of frog test installations indi-
cated that standard railbound manganese frogs with explosive-hardened inserts had
twice the initial service life expectancy over frogs with unhardened manganese
inserts.

The magnitude of the possible savings involved provided the incentive to
continue this investigation. Sample test frogs that were removed from track due to
service failures were completely examined. Rail flow on point rails and wing rails,
also rail end batter, indicated that improved rail steel properties were positively
required. Investigation into the availability of improved rail steel that would suflBce
for special trackwork manufacture indicated that two alternatives existed — fully
heat-treated or chromium alloy rails.

Address by E. H. Taylor

655

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656

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

AREA CONTROL
COOLED CARBON

CHROMIUM

(ALGOMA CANADA)

FULLY
HEAT-TREATED

(BETHLEHEM STEEL)

YIELD

STRENGTH

(KSI)

66-88

100

114

ULTIMATE TENSILE

STRENGTH

(KSI)

100-138

160

172

ELONGATION

%

9-20

12

13

REDUCTION
AREA %

15

15

35

HARDNESS
BHN

235-260

295-325

315-370

Fig. 3 — Mechanical properties of commercial rail steels.

Fig. 3 shows the comparison of mechanical properties for standard carbon,
fully heat-treated and chrome rails. The mechanical properties for chrome rail are
not quite as good as fully heat-treated rail. However, chrome rail is available from
the steel mill in Canada whereas fully heat-treated rail is not available at present.
Subsequent tests with frogs and switches fabricated with fully heat-treated and
chrome rails substantiated the research recommendations. Rail flow characteristics
in all areas were greatly reduced. At present, on CP Rail, all special trackwork,
i.e., switch points, stock rails, guard rails, frogs, etc., are manufactured exclusively
with chrome rail.

A number of defective unhardened frog inserts were sectioned and shape-
measured with confirming results that the center point section of the casting in
the wheel transition area had partially collapsed. This was due to the previously
mentioned localized repeated wheel impacts. Wheel jump produced by casting wear
and longitudinal flexing in tlie point area of the insert produced wheel bounce with
related high impact and repeated localized spot failures.

Defective explosive-hardened frog inserts were also sectioned and found to have
a number of crack proi^agations developing in tlie underside of the castings in the
point area. These were considered tensile failures due to excessive stresses.

Research has shown that merely increasing the thickness of casting sections
where weaknesses develop is not necessarily the answer. Mass does not always
ensure added strength. In fact, heavy mass will reduce the strength of manganese
castings because of internal defects inherent in tlie manufacturing process usually
employed — for example, limited amount of feeders, etc.

Address by E. H. Taylor 657

An example of one type of defect resulting from improper design is the shrink
cavity resulting from too great a mass. The thinner sections and outer walls chill
and set quickly after pouring, while the heavy mass in the interior is still molten.
As the outer surface solidifies, it draws on the molten mass to fill the shrinkage
and the result is a ca\ity in the interior of the large mass.

In addition to the danger of shrink cavities in the regions of unequal sections,
it has been found that thick sections, even though made uniform, may develop
internal defects during the heat-treatment of die casting. During the quench, the
chill from the water on the outer surfaces will produce total shrinkage while the
interior of die casting is still at a high temperature. Subsequent cooling and shrink-
ing of the interior is likely to produce a concealed inner crack, or what is known as
"inner check." In service, due to repeated alternating stresses from wheels loads,
diis check develops until it progresses to die surface of the casting.

The conclusions resulting from many aspects of research in frog casting design
indicated that an improved t>"pe of manganese insert was a prime requirement. The
frog insert was redesigned and is shown on Hg. 4.

Fig. 4 shows t\vo types of manganese insert cross sections. The original test
frog inserts were constructed to the CP Rail modified AREA heaxy-wall design,
shown on the left-hand side. The cross section shown on the right hand side is a
modified integral-base design with a structure of near-uniform thickness. The
\ertical rib in the point area reduces casting flexing and assists in transmitting the
wheel load to the base. Greater structural strength is desirable for explosive depth
hardening, and inserts to this design will offer longer life in tlie rebuilt condition.

Diamond crossings with diis general casting design configuration and depdi
hardening ha\e proxided substantially increased serxice life over the current AREA
open-t>pe design and are presently used by many American railroads. CP Rail has
used this diamond crossing design for some 15 years and acquired extremely good
crossing life.

Fig. 5 depicts die new design of depressed and shortened heel tail section for
the insert casting. Numerous problems haxe occurred in this area, especially with
the 4?4-in. heel design. Investigation and subsequent design has iiroduced die
following:

• The depressed tail is ideally suited for the casting design with a 7-in. heel
spread only, and the false flange easer is relocated into the insert body with
the vertical rib located under the easer slope.

• Top of casting tail is reduced in height by approximately M-in. below top of
rail and eliminates false flange contact.

The merits of this design are as follows:

• Insert casting tail fracture at heel junction is practically eliminated.

• Castings are shortened with reduced costs for insert and shop fitting.

• Reclamation by welding and mamtenance by slotting in the tail section are
eliminated.

• Wheel easer transitions occur on manganese insert surfaces and this further
reduces wear and maintenance on die point rails etc.

658

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

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Address by E. H. Taylor

659

PLAN VIEW

SLOPE Vj JN 9

Vo-

r'6

SECTION A-A

^

J2l-»RE 132'-Bre

SECTION B-B

DEPRESSED TAIL NQ13- 132^-^RE R.B.M. FROG
CP Rail DESIGN

Fig. 5

Figs. 6 and 7 are photos of frogs in service with depressed tails showing the
false flange contact on the easer. To date, excellent results have been obtained with
this design.

Fig. 8 is a typical cross section of a manganese insert tliat was explosive depth-
hardened showing the hardness transitions and contour pattern. Extensive explosive
depth-hardening tests were conducted with the following results.

1. Depth of hardening increases with the number of explosions, at least up to
a number of three.

2. The depth of hardness raised above Re 20, doubled between the first and
second explosions.

3. The depth of hardening is not the same for differently shaped portion of
the insert because of reflection of shock waves.

4. The maximum surface hardness was found to be sHghtly in excess of 400
BHN with the tliree-shot application using Du Pont Detasheet "C" Flexible
Explosive, weight 2 gm/in.*

5. Hardness values in excess of 400 BHN are not considered to be any more
effective at increasing frog insert life.

660 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Fig. 6 — Photo of depressed tail.

Fig. 7 — Photo of depressed tail.

Address by E. H. Taylor

661

388

401

388

HARDNESS LEGEND BHN
EIj] 331-401
r i 285-331

250-285
220-250
200-220

TYPICAL INSERT SECTION

EXPLOSIVE DEPTH HARDENED

FLEXIBLE SHEET EXPLOSIVE

3 SHOT APPLICATION

2 gm/in^

Fig. 8

6. As the major weakness of a manganese steel insert is the softer metal
beneath the work-hardened surface, a good depth of hardening is considered
the prime factor.

Conclusive results have shown that light wheel loads tend to produce die
surface hardening while heavy loads cause deeper hardening and more extensive
flow.

The complete explosive depth-hardening process has been instituted in con-
junction witli our frog shop manufacturing and all manganese steel castings used in
CP Rail system are explosive depth-hardened.

A complete study has been conducted on the wheel action through frogs and
guard rails also the effects of truck skewing. Numerous field conditions of fractured
bolts in bolted guard rails, hooks or kinks in main line stock rails, lateral movement
of frogs, excessi\e wear in the frog throat and many more problems have all been
experienced. A number of metliods ha\e been devised and a summary of recom-
mendations is as follows;

Rigid Frog — For a facing-point moxement, a guard rail should l>e so located
that the guard rail flare is directly adjacent to the frog throat so tiiat both throat
flare and guard rail flare exert almost simultaneous wheel flange pickup. Conversely,
during the trailing point movement guard rail flare and frog wing rail flare should
be directly opposite. The combination of wide gauge or tight guard rail flangeway
in conjunction with incorrect lateral guard rail settings are generally responsible for
lateral motion in both the frog and stock rails, also excessive wear on the frog point,
throat and guard rail. Special through insulated gauge plates are recommended to
reduce or eliminate these conditions.

662

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

13 8 GUARD RAIL ,^ FLAT HOOK TWIN TIE FLATK

G R^H^H a M.ii^l5,.H &_ a

FLAT TIE PLATE

N013-132'^RE INSTALLATION

^INSULATED THROUGH
\ GAUGE PLATE

SECTION A-A SECTION BB

TYPICAL INSTALLATION

GUARD RAILS AND GAUGE PLATES
Fig. 9

Fig. 9 shows tlie recommended guard rail location relative to the frog previously
described; also shows the installation of the through insulated gauge plates in the
toe and heel areas of tlie frog. Note in section view the use of the Pandrol Clip
which is an ideal fastener for rail and plate in special applications. At present all
guard rail lengths are designed to suit the specific frog parameters described above.

In Fig. 10 — Guard rail flare at toe of frog, and Fig. 11 — Guard rail flare at
heel of frog, note wheel flange pick-up. In-track installations with through insulated
gauge plates have substantiated this approach. After approximately one year of
service both main and turnout tracks have been maintained vdthin 1/16-in. of
gauge and related wear conditions have been greatly reduced.

CP Rail switch design parallels AREA design recommendations in many aspects.
Straight and curved switches with uniform risers in 39-ft and 13-ft curved; 22-ft,
16-ft 6-in. and 11-ft straight, are used with switch point planing to AREA design
detail 4,000 and 5,100. All power switches are equipped with vertical switch rods,
offset fixed heel blocks to AREA design 2125 and adjustable rail braces.

Address by E. H. Taylor

663

Fig. 10 — Photo of toe end of guard rail.

Fig. 11 — Photo of heel end of guard rail.

664 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Areas of \'ariation are as follows: all switch point top cut planing is contoured
to the original rail head shape ratlier than the conventional flat cut with a /B-in.
radius. This design has reduced the gauge line rail flow and required maintenance
grinding. All reinforcing straps and rail stops are bolted to the switch points with
hexagonal head cap screws and elastic stop nuts. This provides for adjustment when
fretting of mating parts has stabilized. During reclamation the removal of straps,
bolts, etc., which represent approximately 40% of the cost of a new switch point,
is greatly facilitated.

Field investigation of chipped or scalloped switch points has indicated that in
the straight tlirough position the stock rail bending has not been sufficient and the
normally protected point has been exposed to wheel contact. All stock rails are now
shop bent where tlie vertex location and bend is more precise and switch point tip
is protected. In addition, the complete assembly consisting of the bent stock rail,
switch point and heel block assembly is considered tlie ideal metliod of shop manu-
facture and this greatly facilitates field installation. This practice is presently being
carried out on CP Rail.

Field investigation of gauge throughout tlie switch area has generally indicated
that the point of switch is held to gauge witli the insulated gauge plates, but wide
variations in gauge have been experienced from the third rod through the heel
tvirnout area. To rectify tiiis gauge problem, which is detrimental to switch point
alignment and adjustment, resulting in increased wear and maintenance, all main-
line power switches are being equipped with insulated gauge plates at the third rod
and heel locations. These plates also assist during the installation of new svdtches.

Special flat seat double shoulder tie plates are used tliroughout the turnout
in order to eliminate the gauge alignment transitions at the heel of switch and toe
and heel of frog. Specially developed track bolts witii extruded shank, cold-rolled
threads, are used with elastic stop nuts in standard rail joints within tlie turnout
area. Chrome rails are used throughout the turnout area and this has resulted in
reduced rail end batter and flow at new rail cuts; also reduced flow over standard
carbon rails when used in die vertical position.

The cumulative efl^ect of many aspects of design have produced a main line
turnout that has provided a significant improvement in service life with reduced
maintenance and corresponding costs.

Conclusion

I have attempted to illustrate some of the more interesting innovations in
special trackwork design and development which are presently ongoing in CP Rail.
We are currently involved in the evaluation and development of special switch
designs, new designs of railbound manganese spring frogs and investigation into
the design and use of swing-nose frogs. These are a few of the challenging problems
which railroads must cope with in the ever-increasing demands for low-cost and
reliable transportation service

C&NW's ''BUG" (Ballast Undercutter-Cleaner)

77-658-1 J

By R. W. BAILEY

Director of Maintenance Planning
Chicago & North Western Transportation Company

The Chicago & North Western Transportation Company began using a quartzite
ballast 20 years ago on our 3900 track miles of primary main line. This ballast is
classified in between No. 4 and No. 5 in the AREA Ballast Specifications in sizes
from 1/4-in. to /2-in. During this period ballast rehabilitation consisted of plowing
out the fouled slag, limestone or gravel ballast to build up tlie shoulder and then to
surface with 30 to 40 cars of new ballast per mile. After an initial life of 5 to 10
years with spot surfacing only, the track was maintained by dumping 10 to 12 cars
of ballast per mile and raising approximately 1-in. to give a new surface. This
process had a short life, often only a year or two in muddy areas, and had to be
repeated to maintain an acceptable operating speed.

We reasoned that the original material, a hard quartzite, was still under the
tie and could be salvaged if the contamination could be removed. We tlierefore
began a study on what we felt was taking place and the following movie illustrates
our findings.

( Movie was shown. )

The process just illustrated had to be justified financially to our management
for them to provide funds for its purchase and operation.

To cite some general considerations, we calculated that raising the track 3-in.
and undercutting 12-in. would result in the cleaning of 55 cars of compacted mate-
rial per mile. If our recovery of this material was to be 70%, we would salvage 38 cars
per mile. Based on today's ballast cost from our own pit of $140 per car, the
undercutting-cleaning would save an "out of pocket" ballast cost of $5300 per mile.
However, it must be recognized that the ballast in place has a value two times the
pit cost when the transportation charges and equipment costs are included. On
our railroad if the average ballast mileage is 250 miles, the value of ballast per mile
in place is 1.7 times the pit cost or $9100.

To salvage tlais material we must have machine and labor costs. Annual
charges for depreciation of tiie equipment, interest on investment, maintenance at
16% of investment, fuel, lubricants, salaries and additions for four men, their
expenses, insurance and miscellaneous contingencies, indicated that to salvage $5300
of ballast would cost 55 to 60% of tlie material cost. The net savings would be
approximately $6000 in ballast per mile.

In 1975 our program work was sharply reduced to conform with economic
conditions and it was decided to lease "BUG" to other railroads.

In tlie 4th quarter, die economic picture changed and on November 4tli we
began operating tlie equipment in a problem area in Iowa for 13 days before we
froze up. We averaged 5 hours undercutting daily, due to train operations, and 584
track feet per hour.

These limited operating statistics neither confirm nor deny our assumptions
on savings but do indicate the machine's productive capabilities to clean ballast at
a rapid rate.

665

INSTALLATION OF OFFICERS

667

Installation of OfRcers

PREsroEXT W.vrd: I would like to install the newly elected officers of the
Association at this tiine. This is a short but important and impressive ceremony
and will let each of you become more acquainted with the officers you have elected.
So, with your permission, I will proceed with the installation ceremony.

To make room for new officers and directors a certain number of them com-
plete their service on the Board of Direction each year. It is with mLxed feelings
that we see these changes take place.

I w ant to thank each member of die Board for his counsel, advice and support,
and especially those members who, having completed their temi of office, are
retiring from the go\eming body of die Association. The close of this technical
conference completes the services on the Board of Past President D. V. Sartore,
chief engineer — design, BurUngton Xordiern. The AREA Constitution provides that
past presidents will remain on the Board for two years after completion of their
term as president. We are deeply indebted to Mr. Sartore for his long and outstanding
service to our Association — both in an official and an unofficial capacity — and,
although he will be off the Board, I am sure he still will be called upon for counsel
and advice as important matters come up.

Don, will you please stand so we may give you the applause you so richly
deserve.

( Applause )

President Ward (continuing): Other members of the AREA Board of Direc-
tion completing their term of service are these directors: R. W. Pember, chief
engineer, design and construction, Louisville and Nashville Railroad; E. Q. Johnson,
senior assistant chief engineer, Chessie System; W. E. Fuhr, assistant chief engineer —
staff, Cliicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad; and B. E. Pearson, chief
engineer, Soo Line Railroad.

These men have served our Association well in their official capacity on the
Board and I want to express our deep appreciation to each of them.

Will Messrs. Pember, Johnson, Fuhr, and Pearson please stand and permit us to
show our appreciation for their service.

( Applause )

President Ward (continuing): It is now my privilege and pleasure to install
the new directors you have elected for tlie ensuing year. As I read your name, please
come to the speaker's table through the walkway adjacent to the podium, and take
a place at my right.

J. W. Brent, chief engineer, Chessie System — from the East District.

L. F. Currier, engineer-structures, Louisville & Nashville Railroad — from the
South District.

T. L. Fuller, engineer of bridges, Southern Pacific Transportation Company —
from the West District.

J. A. Barnes, assistant vice president and chief engineer, Chicago & North
Western Transportation Company — from the West District.

Gentlemen, I welcome \ou as directors of the American Railway Engineering
Association. These are offices of high honor and responsibility you are assuming.
I hope you will enjoy your service on the Board of Direction and will bring much
value to its deUberations. Congratulations. You may be seated.

669

670 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Our newly elected junior vice president is W. S. Autrey, chief engineer system,
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.

Mr. Autrey, will you please come to the platform.

Mr. Autrey, I congratulate you upon your election as junior vice president
and return to our Board of Direction.

The new senior vice president is B. J. Worley, vice president and chief engi-
neer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad.

Mr. Worley, will you please come to the platform.

Mr. Worley, I congratulate you on your advancement to senior vice president
and continued service on the governing body of our Association. I know that you
will discharge this greater responsibility with distinction.

You and Mr. Autrey will make a splendid team of vice presidents. Please be
seated.

Our new president is John Fox, chief engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail.

Mr. Fox, I congratulate you upon your election to tlie highest position of honor
in the American Railway Engineering Association. I share tlie confidence which has
been placed in you by our membership and it is with pleasure and satisfaction that
I turn over the responsibility of AREA President to you at the end of this meeting.

President Ward: We have now completed the scheduled program for the
75th Annual Technical Conference of tlie American Railway Engineering Association
and the 1976 Annual Meeting of the Engineering Division, Association of American
Railroads.

You will be interested to know that the registration for our 1976 meetings is:
railroad men 470; non-railroad men 510; total registration 980.

It is now time to turn over the Association to our new president and to adjourn
these meetings. Before doing so, however, I want to take this opportunity to thank
all who contributed to the work of our Association during the past year and to the
success of this Conference. The AREA has had a successful and productive year in
spite of difficult conditions. This has happened because so many of you gave so
generously of your time and effort, which I assure you, has been greatly appreciated.

There are so many to whom I am personally indebted that I cannot possibly
name them all here, but I do want to express my personal appreciation for the
splendid cooperation of our officers and directors, our committee chairmen and
the active committee members, and all others who contributed in any way to the
success of the 1975-1976 Association year. I especially want to express my sincere
appreciation, and the appreciation of the Association, to our headquarters staff for
the manner in which they have conducted the affairs of the AREA during the past
year. Their attention to the multitude of details in the planning and execution of
the many Association activities and programs, and their efforts in connection with
the important, world-wide-used AREA publications, many times under most
difficult circumstances, has been invaluable to the Association, the Board of Direction,
and to me. They deserve the maximum extent of our support, patience and under-
standing.

The Conference Operating Committee, under the direction of its manager,
Bruce Miller, Penn Central, did its usual outstanding job in connection with operating
this conference in accordance with the plans and arrangements made by the Asso-
ciation's stafF. These well-planned and well-operated conferences do not just happen.

Installation of Officers 671

Other than our past presidents, few members are in a position to know the multitude
of details handled by this committee during our conferences and how easily things
could go awry if it were not for tlieir diligence.

I join Mrs. Ward in tlianking all of those ladies who, witli Mrs. Fox, Mrs.
Worley and Mrs. Hodgkins, ga\'e so generously of their time in assisting with tlie
functions of our conference planned expressly for our wives. You have our grateful
appreciation.

Is there any further business to come before this meeting?

(At this point, Past President T. B. Hutcheson asked for the privilege of the
floor and presented President Ward with the AREA plaque.)

President Ward ( continuing ) : It now gives me great pleasure to formally
install oxir new president, and I request him to join me at this podium.

Mr. Fox, I congratulate you upon your election to the highest position of honor
in the American Railway Engineering Association, and I now proclaim you President.
In taking this action, I also proclaim Mrs. Fox as tlie unofficial "First Lady" of the
Association.

I share the confidence which has been placed in you by our membership and
it is with pleasure and satisfaction that I turn over the responsibility of President
to you.

In doing this, I want to present you with this gold pin, which bears the words
engraved on the back:

JOHN FOX

PRESIDENT

1976-1977

This is the official emblem of the AREA and I am sure you will wear it with
equal pleasure to yourself and honor to the Association.

(President Fox responded and then continued as follows):

PREsroENT Fox: Before I adjourn this conference, I would like to remind all
members of the Board of Direction, including the former members and new mem-
bers, and all the members of the Conference Operating Committee, that we will
have a joint luncheon together in the Wabash Parlor on the tliird floor of this hotel
immediately following the adjournment of this meeting.

The luncheon will be followed by the post-conference meeting of tlie AREA
Board of Direction in Private Dining Room 9.

Before closing this Technical Conference of AREA, is there any further business
to come before the meeting?

(At this point A. F. Joplin, vice president, operation and maintenance, Canadian
Pacific Rail, asked for the privilege of the floor and spoke as follows ) :

A. F. Joplin: It is my pleasure to express to John Fox on behalf of his colleagues
in Canadian Pacific our great pride and admiration in the high honor he has
attained. I am sure that this feeling is shared by all Canadians. Many Canadians
from CP Rail serve in this Association, and we feel that his elevation to this office
reflects the great hand of friendship and cooperation that exists between our two
countries.

Mr. Fox, as you may know, has worked his way through each level of our
railway and on February 1 of this year was appointed chief engineer of Canadian
Pacific. Similarly he has worked — you notice my emphasis on work, because that is

672 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

what it takes — he has worked his way through the various committees and service
offices of this Association, and is signally honored this day.

Mr. President, on behalf of your associates in Canadian Pacific may I present
to you this gavel to wield during your tcnn of office in tliis Association. It is made
from a tie from our, your, railway from the Newport subdivision at M4.1 Quebec
Central Railway installed in 1956. This tie has served us well in its first life — may
it serve you well in your term of office — and later serve as a happy memento of this
occasion and an expression of our confidence in your ability to discharge the duties
of this high office so as to reflect greatly to the credit of yourself and this Association.

President Fox: Thank you very much Mr. Joplin. It is my pleasure to accept
this gavel in the friendly spirit in which it has been presented. I appreciate this
gift, coming as it does from my friends and associates in CP Rail Engineering
Department. This gavel will greatly assist me in carrying out my duties as presiding
officer at meetings of this Association during the next year.

I should like to thank Mr. Ward for his kind remarks and would like to take
tliis opportunity to say to John, congratulations on a job well done during his tenure
as President.

Members of the American Railway Engineering Association, it is indeed an
honor to be chosen by you to be president of this fine and progressive Association.
I greatly appreciate the confidence tliat you have shown in me and consider that
the election of a Canadian railway engineer to head this Association during this,
your Bi-Centennial year, to be a signal honor for Canadians. With the help of all
the officers, directors, committees, members and staff which has always been fully
given, I know that the coming year will be a successful one for the Association and
myself.

I should now like to introduce to you my devoted life partner who will be
the Association's First Lady for the next year — my wife Janet; with Janet is my
eldest son, John.

If there is no further business, the 75th Annual Technical Conference of the
American Railway Engineering Association will adjourn sine die.

AAR ENGINEERING DIVISION SESSION

673

Remarks by Division Chairman John T. Ward*

This morning, most of you were present when I welcomed you to tlie opening
session of the AREA Technical Conference. Now it gives me great pleasure to
welcome you to tlie 1976 Annual Meeting of the Association of American Railroads,
Engineering Division of its Operations and Maintenance Department.

What is the relationship between tlie AAR Engineering Division and the AREA?
The governing body of AREA consists of a Board of Direction totaling 17 elected
by the membership. The governing body of the Engineering Division is a General
Committee appointed by die vice president of the Operations and Maintenance
Department, and consists of the same 17 members forming the AREA Board of
Direction, plus an additional group, making the total on the ED General Committee
a maximum of 21. In the latter instance, tliere is only one member from any family
of lines, making it necessaiy on occasions to substitute for one or more of the Board
of Direction, thereby distributing tlie membership among as many member lines
as possible.

The AREA is a private organization, and while it has considerable technical
expertise among its membership, permitting the furUiering of its objectives in the
advancement of knowledge pertaining to tlie scientific and economic location, con-
struction, operation and maintenance of railways, tliere is no opportunity for any
action which would be binding upon a particular carrier. On the other hand, the
AAR Engineering Division, through its General Committee, as described previously,
may do so with proper approvals.

A few remarks are now in order to acquaint you with the work of the Engi-
neering Division for the year just closing. The Division has been an aid to the rail
industry and will continue to be so in the future as engineering problems arise
requiring consideration or recommendations for possible solutions.

The ED General Committee met four times during the year to discuss and
progress various matters relating to the work of the committee. The first such meeting
was held following die 1975 annual meeting of the Engineering Division held at the
Palmer House in Chicago last March.

During the year, a liaison committee was appointed from the membership of
the ED General Committee to provide direction and close relations with the Federal
Railroad Administration on problems and other matters of mutual interest. This
committee has reviewed many suggested changes in the ERA Track Safety Standards
and is, at the moment, handling for possible revisions.

This same liaison committee formed the nucleus of a new task force charged
with the responsibility of developing the costs to the rail industry of government
regulations associated with fixed property engineering and maintenance of way.
Hopefully, this will result in the industry recovering all, or certainly a part, of such
costs. This is particularly in regard to costs associated with inspections, etc., related
to the ERA Track Safety Standards, with which we are all familiar.

Still another task force of the Engineering Division reviewed in detail the
Occupational Safety and Health Standards, following which recommendations were
made to the AAR on certain changes that might be considered should the standards
be adopted by the ERA.

• Senior Assistant Chief Engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad.

675

676 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

The General Committee reviewed the FRA's plans to install a test loop track
at Pueblo, Colo., and made recommendations to the AAR Research and Test
Department relative to general layout, specific track geometry and certain support
facilities.

In response to a request from tlie Federal Highway Administration to the AAR
for a recommendation for appropriate clearances for highway grade separation
structures over railroads either electrified or expected to be electrified, the Engi-
neering Division's Committee on Electrical Facilities (Fixed Properties) submitted
a report and drawing recommending clearances. The ED General Committee
approved tlie report and drawing, with some modifications, with same subsequently
having been approved by the ED voting representatives of the AAR member roads.

The above is just a brief outline of what has taken place this year in the
Engineering Division, and I sincerely trust it has aided in clearing any question in
your minds of what may have been accomplished.

A Time for Challenge

By D. C. HASTINGS

Executive Vice President, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad;
Chairman, AAR Operating— Transportation Division

Almost 200 years ago when the United States of .\merica had its beginning as
a new government, a new concept of government — a government which had as its
foundation the highest Christian principles — one of its founders or authors, Benjamin
Frankhn, said, "He who would incorporate in public affairs the principles of
Christianity would revolutionize the world." That's exactly what they did! Basically
they provided for the freedom of man. They provided for the preservation of the
dignity and the worth of every single individual. And predicated on this they
brought hope to the world. And this system of government still brings hope to the
world.

This hope though is based on the concept that man can be free and live free.
And that concept has been tlie basis of what we call today our free enterprise
system. With such a system our nation has grown into one that has been the envy
of the world. But our nation and its system is under attack. It is under attack both
directly and indirectly, even by those who don't realize they are attacking it. Our
free enterprise system is facing its greatest test in its entire history, and when people
say this is a young, new country, don't be fooled by that statement. Our country
as now constituted is one of the oldest forms of government now in existence.

There are practically no countries in the world today that have the same fonn
of government they had 200 years ago — but we still have ours — and when people
seek to attack the free enterprise system I think we ought to remember three
characteristics of our American way of life.

One of them is our great resources. I refer to, in addition to our natural
resources — our people. The people of America are the greatest. They rise to the
occasion. They have always risen to the occasion. They, as a people, sometimes do
some stupid things, but when the real crisis comes you can count on the people
of America to come up with the solutions.

The second is our capacity to do anything that is required when the time comes.
America has great capacity. With only 6% of the world's population, we produce
over 37% of the world's goods.

The third is that the America we know has heart. We feed more people, take
care of more hungry people and more disabled people than any other country in
tire world. We have compassion and have demonstrated it over the years. What
otlier country in the history of the world has ever been brutally attacked by another
and after a bloody war has beaten it and then turned right around and spent
hundreds of millions of dollars in its rehabilitation?

This is the American way and regardless of what people in the world might
say about it — accusing us of decadence, with inabihty to meet the test of the times
and anything else you can think of — most of them would give their right arm to
live here.

Yes, we are under attack and there is no question about it. One of the most
vicious attacks on our free enterprise system is posed by the situation confronting
die railroads today. In order to look at that problem properly and in the right
perspective, we need to look at transportation in general.

677

Rill. G5S

678 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

Transportation, as we all know, is a vital part of our free enterprise system.
You remember in your courses in economics in college you were taught that if you
had a raw material, plenty of capital and adequate labor you could start up a
commercial or industrial enterprise. One big factor, however, was left out and tliat
is transportation.

No raw material is worth anything until it has transportation applied to it to
get it where it is needed — and no refined or manufactured product has any appre-
ciable value until it is transported to the point of consumption. So transportation
is the fourth ingredient — raw material, capital, labor and transportation — and when
any one of tliese four things loses its characteristic of freedom it becomes national-
ized— then the whole ball begins to unravel.

Now when we consider the transportation system in America today the railroads
become the major factor. They are, first of all, the only true or real common carrier.
They take — in fact they have to take — anything everywhere. They are the principal
carrier in our transportation system and as such they are a vital part of our free
enterprise system.

If the railroads are vmable to continue as a free enterprise the whole transpor-
tation business falls apart and it is high time that everyone in America understands
this. Every report to the Congress, of which the have been six, beginning in 1934
and ending with the Smadiers' Report in 1959, has concluded with the fact that if
the railroads are nationalized the whole agricultural, industrial and commercial life
of America would be at the mercy of the Govermiient. And if that happens, dowoi
the drain would go the whole free enterprise system. So we should accept the fact
that unless the railroads can make it, our very way of life is in jeopardy.

Now as we all know, our nation's railroads are in trouble. The year 1975 was
one of the worst in tlie history of the nation when the industry is looked at on a
national basis. Earnings were down, maintenance was deferred, capital was getting
harder to acquire and in general the situation was not good. The recently passed
Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 may be of some benefit —
but it is not the answer to the maiden's dream!

While things may look bad, there are three things about the railroad industry
that we should always remember:

First of all they have to have us! America cannot survive without the railroad
industry. We are essential to the American way of life.

Secondly, if die energy crisis is ever to be solved, the answer lies in the
transportation of materials by rail, since we are not only the most efficient mode
of transportation in energy consumption, but also we are tlie only mode that can
move coal in the quantities and to all the places tliat will be required. Barges and
pipelines may be talked about but they can never do tlie total job.

Thirdly, if the railroads were nationalized the problems would still exist. None
of our present problems would be solved. Therefore, what we need is to solve the
problems and if we do — we then have a viable segment of the free enterprise
system.

Our problems are many and are as well known to each of you as they are to
me. The RR & RR Act of 1976 is only a "Birdie Hop" in the game of " 'May I' be
an equally treated industry." I will not attempt to enumerate all the things that
confront us except to say that added to all the regulations and restrictions that
began with the Interstate Commerce Act in 1886, we have the new regulations
that have come along in the late 60's and early 70's: (1) Mechanical Safety
Standards, (2) Track Safety Standards, (3) Hours of Service Act Revisions, (4)

Address by D. C. Hastings 679

Pollution control regulations (noise included), (5) E.E.O.C. requirements, (6)
Invasion of OSHA into the railroad world, (7) The myriad of FRA regulations
running from how we switch, etc., to how we word and even apply our transporta-
tion operating rules, and (8) die dozens of recommendations that emanate from
the National Transportation Safety Board — which agency seems to think that every
railroad accident could have been avoided if management had just done something
that to diose of us who have been in this racket a few years know borders on being
absurd.

While we need freedom from many of these shackles, we must also take a look
at ourselves too and see what we can do from witiiin to improve our position. We
may diink that tlie diesel locomotive, the mechanization of track maintenance, CTC,
die computer, etc., ha\e exhausted our efforts to be more efficient; however, the fact
remains that we nui.st find ways of being more efficient, and I know of no better
group to do something in diis area dian you! We all have management objectives
and they vary from railroad to railroad, but I think that today's managements have
one common objective and that is SURVIVAL! I don't mean to sound discouraged —
for I am not! I mean that we all should be challenged to preserve our great
industry as a free enterprise, because in so doing we will preserve the free enterprise
system in America, we will preserve our way of life — and I know that you, along
with all other railroaders, are equal to this task.

Reflect for a moment on our history — the problems that faced our forefatliers
and how they came out when times were so tough as to seem unsolvable.

Remember in 1776 when the entire military might of America was gathered at
Valley Forge — they were ill-housed, ill-clothed, ill-fed — but they were never dis-
couraged. They were challenged by their great leader and they had the spirit to win!
They did.

In 1812 this little nation of ours with such great ideals was attacked by the
greatest power in the world and our Capitol was burned to the ground. But we
came out of that because we were challenged by our leader and we won.

In 1865 we were faced with rebuilding a country torn apart by the worst Civil
War any nation had ever endured and we came out of that crisis.

In 1917, after desperately trying to stay out of a war, we found ourselves
again plunged into a conflict that we were ill-prepared to fight, but we rose to the
occasion and we won.

In the 1930's we found a situation only a little worse than the depression of
1975 and we came out of that.

In 1941 we again engaged in a World Conflict that we were hardly prepared
to fight, but we rose to the occasion and we won diat one!

I think we will come out of tiiis too — because we are challenged to preserve
that which we love — our country, our way of life, and our industry — and it is the
very least we can do to improve it and pass it on as a viable free enterprise to those
who come after us. I close with a poem tiiat expresses this quite well:

An old man, traveling a lone highway.
Came at the evening cold and gray.
To a chasm vast and deep and wide,
Through which was fltmg a sullen tide.

The old man crossed in the twilight dim.
The sullen stream held no fears for him.
But he turned when safe on the other side,
And built a bridge to span the tide.

680 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

"Old man," cried a fellow pilgrim near;
"You're wasting your time in building here;
Your journey will end the closing day.
You never again will pass this way.

"You've crossed the chasm deep and wide.

Why build you this bridge at eventide?"

The builder lifted his old gray head:

"Good friend, on the path I've come," he said,

"There followeth after me this day

A youth whose feet must pass this way.

"This stream, which has been as naught to me.
To that fair-haired youth may a pitfall he;
He, too, must cross in the twilight dim —
Good friend, I'm building this bridge for him."

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REPORT OF EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

681

BnL 6S8

1

Report of the Executive Director

March 24, 1976

To THE Members:

The 1975 Association year w as a success from most aspects. Membership remains
high, with a loss of only five members during the year, a good showing in view of
the economic difficulties experienced by tlie railroads. Financially, the AREA had
an adequate year. While our financial statement for the year shows a deficit of
$9814, this was due to the necessity of replacing our stock of Manual binders and
will be recaptured over a two- to three-year period from the sale of Manuals.
Otherwise, actual receipts closel> matched actual expenditures. To maintain receipts
at the highest possible level, the Board of Direction and staff of the Association
solicit the active cooperation and support of AREA members by interesting others
in becoming members, by paying their annual dues early in the year, and by bringing
the AREA Bulletin to the attention of supply companies, contractors and consulting
engineers as a prime advertising medium.

Major Meetings During 1975 Association Year

The 11th Regional Meeting of the Association was held at the Hotel Vancouver,
Vancouver, B. C, Canada, on October 30, 1975. It was attended by 221 AREA
members and guests. The meeting was organized and directed by John Fox, then
assistant chief engineer, now chief engineer, Canadian Pacific Rail, and chairman of
the AREA Board Committee on Regional Meetings. It was presided over by AREA
President John T. Ward, senior assistant chief engineer. Seaboard Coast Line
Railroad.

The 75th Technical Conference of the AREA and the 1975 Annual Meeting
of the Engineering Division, Association of American Railroads, was held at the
Palmer House, Chicago, on March 22-24, 1976. Total registration was 980, comprised
of 470 railroad men and 510 non-railroad men, and, in addition, 156 ladies. The
program of the Conference consisted entirely of features — some general, others
.sponsored by our technical committees. No committee reports were given since all
of them had been published in tlie various issues of tlie Bulletin prior to the
Conference. The Engineering Division Session was held on Monday afternoon,
March 24, and consisted of reports on the activities of the Division during 1975
and a number of timely and informative addresses and illustrated presentations.

The 1976 meetings were presided over by John T. Ward, senior assistant chief
engineer, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad, president of the AREA and chainnan of
the AAR Engineering Division. The address at the Annual Luncheon was given by
W. T. Rice, chairman of the Board, Seaboard Coast Line Railroad.

MEMBERSHIP

As mentioned above, the membership statistics show a loss of five members
during the year, a warning to AREA members not to relax their efforts to interest
their friends and associates both inside and outside the railroad industry, and allied
to it, in AREA membership. Approximately 250 new members are needed each year
simply to overcome normal attrition. A wide range of people are qualified for AREA
membership, and would benefit by it, as would the Association. These qualifications

683

684

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

are given in Article II, Sections A, B, E and F, of the AREA Constitution ( see pages
699 to 701 in this Bulletin.) Yovu help is earnestly solicited in this vital area of
Association efforts.

Membership

Membership Years

1974

1975

(Cor-
rected)

Membership as of January 1

Nevv' Members during year 210

Reinstatements during year 12

Gain or Loss in Junior Members +24

3391

3328

175

5

— 14

246

166

Deceased during year
Resigned during year .
Dropped during year .

.30
48
90

43
32
96

168

171

Net Gain or Loss + 78

- 5

3469

3323

Membership Classification by Years

The year 1968 begins on February 1 and ends on December 31. Each succeed-
ing year begins on January 1 and ends on December 31.

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

Life 433 437

Member ... 2659 2577

Associate ... 258 264

Junior 56 55

Honorary . .

Totals 3406

3333

443

451

560

562

472

474

2579

2502

2549

2492

2500

2509

257

244

247

232

238

241

62

67

96

105

111

93

3352

6

6

3341

3264

3391*

3328"*

3326

*• Adjusted from 3310 to match carryover numbers with existing records.
*" Corrected from 3469 by actual count of membership cards on 12—31—74.

Deaths During 1975 Association Year

From May 1, 1975 to March 24, 1976, notice was received at Association Head-
quarters of the deaths of 36 members, 4 more than the previous year and 6 fewer
than 2 years ago.

One of the deceased was a past president (1966-1967) of the Association —
J. M. Trissal (M '33, L '70), retired vice president — real estate, Ilhnois Central
Railroad. He was also a member of Committee 9 — Highways, 1942 to 1969, serving
as chainiian, 1959-1961; and a member of former Committee 18 — Electricity, for
some 10 years. Another was a past director (1941-1943)— C. E. Smith (M '09, L '45),
retired vice president. New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. Mr. Smith
was a member of Committee 15 — Steel Structures, 1911-1921; Committee 14 — Yards
and Terminals, 1922-1926; and Committee 21 — Economics of Railway Location,
1930-1938.

Report of Executive Director

685

COMMITTEES OF 1975 BOARD OF DIRECTION

Executive

J. T. Ward, Chairman
John Fox
b. j. worley

D. V. Sartore
R. F. Bush

Membership

R. W. Pember, Chairman

B. E. Pearson

P. L. Montgomery

Mike Rougas

R. L. Gray

Finance
R. F. Bush, Chairman

B. H. WORLEY

E. Q. Johnson
J. W. DeValle
E. H. Waring

Research

R. M. Brown, Chairman

D. V. Sartore

E. Q. Johnson
Mike Rougas
R. L. Gray

G. H. Maxwell

Technical Activity
Mike Rougas, Chairman
R. W. Pember
W. E. Fuhr
J. W. DeValle
E. H. Waring

Publications

John Fox, Chairman

D. V. Sartore

P. L. Montgomery

E. C. HONATH

J. W. DeValle

Regional Meetings
John Fox, Chairman
E. Q. Johnson

E. C. HoNATH

William Glavin
G. H. Maxwell

Conference Programs
R. L. Gray, Chairman
B. J. Worley
B. E. Pearson
P. L. Montgomery
William Glavin

Advertising (Special)
E. G. Honath, Chairman
R. F. Bush
W. E. Fuhr
E. H. Waring
G. H. Maxwell

A number of other deceased meml:)ers are worth> of note, either for the promi-
nent positions they had attained or for the many years they had devoted to committee
service. They are: N. V. Back (M '51), retired chief engineer, Toronto, Hamilton &
Buffalo Railway; Edgar Bennett (M '20, L '55), retired assistant chief engineer,
Southern Railway, member of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equip-
ment, 1940-1956, serving as chairman 194&-1948; O. C. Benson (M '28, L '66),
retired director of budgets, Boston & Maine Corporation, member of Committees
9— Highways, 1948-1953, 5— Track, 1956-1958, 27— Maintenance of Way Work
Equipment, 1958—1961, and 22 — Economics of Railway Construction and Mainte-
nance, 1961-1968; H. M. Booth (M '24, L '60), retired division engineer, St. Louis-
San Francisco Railway, member of Committees 6 — Buildings, 1949-1961, and

Bui. G58

686 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

14 — Yards and Terminals, 1961-1965; L. B. Cann (M '48), chief engineer, Richmond,
Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, member of Committees 27 — Maintenance of
Way Work Equipment, 1951-1963, and 22 — Economics of Railway Construction
and Maintenance, 1964 until time of his death; R. P. Davis (M '14, L '49), dean
emeritus. College of Engineering, West Virginia University, member of Committees
15 — Steel Structures, 1923 until the time of his death, having been elected Member
Emeritus in 1955, and 24 — Engineering Education, 1942 until the time of his death,
having been elected Member Emeritus in 1959; R. P. Hughes (M '22, L '57), member
of former Committee 17 — Wood Preservation, 1934-1960, and of Committee 3 —
Ties and Wood Preservation, 1953 until the time of his death, having been elected
Member Emeritus in 1963; L. S. Jeffords (M '20, L '63), retired vice president
operations, Atlantic Coast Line; A. S. Krefting (M '35, L '70), retired chief engineer,
Soo Line Railroad, member of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals, 1945 until the
time of his death, having served as chairman, 1956-1958, and having been elected
Member Emeritus in 1974; W. B. Leaf (M '39, L '64), retired research physicist,
Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, member of Committees 13 — Environmental
Engineering, 1943-1949, and 4— Rail, 1949-1959; J. P. Morrissey (M '44, L '69),
retired engineer — staff, Erie Lackawanna Railway, member of Committees 22 —
Economics of Railway Construction and Maintenance, 1951-1959, and 31 — Continu-
ous Welded Rail, 1966-1973; R. A. Shier (M '49), director of engineering, Canadian
Transport Commission; M. M. Stansbury (M '47, L '72), retired engineer roadway
equipment, Norfolk & Western Railway, 1948-1973; L. J. Sverdrup (M '39, L '75),
chairman of the board and chief executive officer, Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates,
Inc.

ACTIVITIES OF TECHNICAL COMMITTEES

Assignments

During 1975 the 20 technical committees of the Association, including the
Special Committee on Scales, worked on 165 assignments, 10 of which were new.
The work of the Special Committee on Concrete Ties involved the revamping of
the preliminary Specification for Concrete Ties and Fastenings it had developed and
published in Bulletin 644, September-October 1973; and pubhshing the revised
version in Part 1 of Bulletin 655, November-December 1975, with the recom-
mendation that it be adopted and published in the Manual as Part 10, Chaper 3.
During the year the Board of Direction assigned a number to the Committee on
Electrical Energy Utilization — No. 33.

AREA committee work is directed toward the preparation of reports for infor-
mation, toward revising material appearing in the AREA Manual for Railway
Engineering and the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans, and toward carrying out .special
projects related to their assigrunents.

The 1975 statistics show that our 20 standing committees produced one or
more information reports on 40 of their 165 assignments (not including Assign-
ment A). In addition, the standing committees submitted 8 reports containing
Manual recommendations, and the Special Committee on Concrete Ties one such
report, all of which were published in Part 1 of the November-December Bulletin,
separate from the committee reports. Furthermore, most committees presented brief
status statements with respect to assignments on which they made no formal report.

During 1976 the technical committees as a whole will work on 155 assignments,
12 of them new.

Report of Executive Director 687

Classification of Material

The work of AREA committees during 1975 was so diversified tliat, as in other
years, it is impossible to do other tlian refer to it in general terms in a report such
as tliis. However, tlie following is a general categorical classification of the results of
this work as published in the technical Bulletins of the Association.

Recommendations pertaining to the development, revision or deletion of 19
different specifications and recommended practices for inclusion in the AREA
Manual; 30 reports on current developments in engineering practice and design;

I report on current developments in systems engineering, data processing and the
use of computers to solve problems in railway construction, operation and main-
tenance; 1 report dealing with pollution control; 2 reports dealing with the training
and recruitment of employees; 3 economic and analytical studies; 4 reports on
relations with public authorities; 4 reports dealing witli statistics; and 1 bibliography.

Committee work affecting the AREA Manual included the presentation of 1
specification for adoption; the revision of 1 specification; the presentation of 2
tentative specifications; the presentation of 5 recommended practices for adoption;
and the revision or rewriting of 10 recommended practices.

Discussion Section

During the 1975 Association year, subcommittee reports, papers and addresses
published in the technical issues of tlie Bulletin were again advertised as open for
discussion.

Personnel of Committees

At tlie beginning of die 1975 Association year 1072 members were assigned to
1166 places on the Association's 20 technical committees. This compares with 1090
members assigned to 1186 places at the beginning of tlie previous year. In addition,

II members were assigned to the Special Committee on Concrete Ties.

AREA committees again were limited to a maximum membership of 70 and to
the number from each railroad depending on the total number of AREA members
on the railroad.

In the 1975 Handbook of Committee Activity the names of committee chair-
men, vice chairmen, secretaries and subcommittee chairmen were again shown in
boldface type at the head of each committee roster.

The number of members so far assigned to committees for 1976 ( as of April 1 )
is somewhat higher than a year ago; specifically 1080 members assigned to 1178
places.

Committee Meetings

To progress work on their assigmiients the 20 standing AREA technical com-
mittees held a total of 42 meetings during the 1975 Association year, 4 fewer tlian
during the previous year. In addition, the Special Committee on Concrete Ties held
1 meeting in 1975. As is usually the case, the majority of these meetings were held
at Chicago or at points cential to the largest number of committee members. The
exceptions were scheduled to permit inspections of facilities, operations or projects
which could be seen only by going to those points.

Of the 42 meetings held during the 1975 Association year, 18 were held at
Chicago; 2 each were held at Memphis, Tenn., St. Louis, Mo., and St. Paul, Minn.,
and 18 were held at as many other cities.

688 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

The number of meetings held during the year by each committee was dictated
by the scope of tlieir work and odier considerations. Accordingly, 1 committee held
4 meetings, 5 committees each held 3 meetings, 10 committees each held 2 meetings,
2 committees each held 1 meeting, and 1 committee held no meeting.

ASSOCIATION PUBLICATIONS

In 1975 the AREA Bulletin was again published on the scheduled five-time
basis. The Bulletin Issues in Proceedings Volume 77, 1976, are Nos. 654, September-
October 1975; 655, November-December 1975; 656, January-February 1976; and
658, June-July 1976. Bulletin 657 is the blue-covered April-May Directory Issue,
which is not a part of the Annual Proceedings of die Association.

The 1975 Handbook of Committee Activity was published in April and
distributed to all committee members at that time.

The Manual recommendations of committees as published in Part 1 of Bulletin
645, November-December 1973, and Part 1 of Bulletin 650, November-December
1974, were approved, with certain exceptions, by the Board of Direction at its
meeting on August 13, 1975. The approved material in both Bulletins was com-
bined and issued in a single Supplement, known as the 1974-1975 Supplement.
The Supplement consists of 349 sheets (698 pages) and includes three complete
Manual chapters: 3 — Ties and Wood Preservation, 22 — Economics of Railway
Construction and Maintenance, and 28 — Clearances. The revised sheets for Chapter
15 include a completely rewritten Specification for Movable Railway Bridges.

No Supplement to the AREA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans was issued in 1974
or 1975.

A letter dated January 9, 1976, was sent to AREA members in regard to the
availability of the Volume 76 (1975) Bulletin Binder. Attached to this letter was
a simple order form for the use of members desiring to purchase one or more copies
of these binders. The member price of the Volume 76 binder was established at
$5.00 each, including handling and shipping ( $5.50 each, including shipping and
handling, for members in Central and South America and overseas countries). Each
of these hard-cover book-type binders is designed to house all the Bulletins in a
publication year, which starts with the September-October issue and ends witli the
June-July issue, widi the exception of die blue-covered April-May Directory issue
which is not punched for binding.

The June-July 1975 Bulletin contained all material presented at the March
1975 Technical Conference having technical and historic interest — the president's
address, reports of the executive director and treasurer, features and committee
reports not previously published in die committee report Bulletins.

The January-February 1976 Bulletin contained, in addition to committee
reports, five of the addresses presented at the Regional Meeting held at Vancouver,
B. C, on October 30, 1975.

LOOKING AHEAD

The next Annual Technical Conference of the AREA will be held at the Palmer
House, Chicago, on March 29-31, 1977. In conjunction therewith. Railway Engi-
neering-Maintenance Suppliers Association, Inc. (REMSA) will stage, at McCormick
Place, Chicago, an exhibit by more than 100 companies showing their latest develop-
ments in machines, equipment and materials used in railway engineering and
maintenance operations.

Report of Executive Director 689

The next Regional Meeting will be held at Pittsburgh, Pa., on October 21,
1976. Arrangements and planning for the meeting are under the direction of AREA
Director Mike Rougas, chief engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad. In 1977 the
Regional Meeting will be held at New Orleans, La.

As reported, our membership le\el remains high, considering die reduction of
engineering employees on the railroads, die imfa\orable economic situation that
has prevailed, and other factors which pre\ented participation in Association activi-
ties, and our financial situation remains sound — the Association is still going strong.
Keeping it strong will require that the Association accomplish its professional
responsibilities in behalf of the engineering profession and tiie raihoad industry
expeditiously and efficiently, and this it can do with the active support of its officers,
directors and members, and all railroad engineering and maintenance officers.

Respectfully submitted.

Earl W. Hodgkins,
Executive Director and Secretary

Beceageb jHcmbersi

N. V. Back (M '51)
Retired Chief Engineer, Toronto, Hamilton & Buffalo Railway, Hamilton, Ont.

A. L. Bartlett (M '20, L '49)
Laguna Hills, Calif.

B. A. Bates (M '28, L '63)
Retired Industrial Engineer, Southern Railway System, McAdenville, N. C.

Edgar Bennett (M '20, L '55)
Retired Assistant Chief Engineer, Southern Railway System, Knoxville, Tenn.

O. C. Benson (M '28, L '66)
Retired Director of Budgets, Boston & Maine Corporation, Concord, N. H.

H. M. Booth (M '24, L '60)
Retired Division Engineer, St. Louis-San Francisco Railway, Greenville, N. C.

D. C. Bowman (M '28, L '60)
Retired Engineer and Contractor, St. Louis, Mo.

L. B. Cann, Jr. (M '48)
Chief Engineer, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, Richmond, Va.

R. P. Davis (M '14, L '49)
Dean Emeritus, College of Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

J. M. Farris (M '64)
Assistant Engineer, Southern Railway System, Atlanta, Ga.

T. W. Fatherson (M '10, L '40)
Retired General Superintendent, Treraont & Gulf Railway, Denver, Colo.

F. P. Funda (M '20, L '55)
Retired Division Engineer, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad, Peoria, 111.

C. D. HoRTON (M '27, L '52)
Retired Clearance Engineer, Erie Railroad, St. Petersburg, Fla.

R. P. Hughes (M '22, L '57)
Retired Inspector, Tie and Timber Treating Department, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway,

San Jose, Calif.

A. C. J.ACK (A '27, L '65)
Consultant, Lock Spikes, Pittsburgh, Pa.

690 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

L. S. Jeffords (M '20, L '63)
Retired Vice President Operations, Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, Jacksonville, Fla.

A. S. Krefting (M '35, L '70)
Retired Chief Engineer, Soo Line Railroad, Minneapolis, Minn.

B. J. Lampert (M '73)

Resident Engineer, Bechtel Associates, Iowa City, Iowa

W. B. Leaf (M '39, L '64)
Retired Research Physicist, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, Denver, Colo.

C. W. Meyer (M '58)
Retired Assistant to Valuation Engineer, System, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Topeka, Kans.

J. P. MoRRissEY, Jr. (M '44, L '69)
Retired Engineer — Staff, Erie Lackawanna Railway, Bay Village, Ohio

C. W. Murdaugh (A '43, L '74)
Portsmouth, Va.

C. W. Murphy (M '56)

Assistant Supervisor of Track, Patapsco & Back Rivers Railroad, Sparrows Point, Md.

T. H. Patrick (M '57)
Retired Supervisor Tie Bureau, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Modesto, Calif.

C. B. Patterson (A '11, L '46)
Retired Assistant Engineer, Ohio State Department of Highways, Toledo, Ohio

R. H. Peterson (M '62)
Railroad Safety Specialist, National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D. C.

R. B. Shepard, Jr. (M '15, L '50)
Retired, Southern Services, Inc., Birmingham, Ala.

R. A. Shier (M '49)
Director of Engineering, Canadian Transport Commission, Ottawa, Ont.

C. E. Smith (M '09, L '45)
Retired Vice President, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, New Haven, Conn.

M. M. Stansbury (M '47, L '72)
Retired Engineer Roadway Equipment, Norfolk & Western Railway, Bellevue, Ohio

J. H. Stinebaugh (M '59)
Supervisor Water Service and Roadway Machines, Illinois Central Gulf Railroad, Carbondale, 111.

L. J. Sverdrup (M '39, L '75)
Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer, Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.,

St. Louis, Mo.

J. M. Trissal (M '33, L '70)
Retired Vice President — Real Estate, Illinois Central Railroad, Flossmoor, 111.

R. W. Webb (M '50)
Division Engineer, Canadian Pacific Limited, Montreal, Que.

D. W. Wessells (A '66)
Streeter-Amet, Grayslake, 111.

J. W. Westwood (M '44, L '69)
Retired Division Engineer, New York Central System, Kansas City, Mo.

REPORT OF TREASURER

691

Report of the Treasurer

December 31, 1975

To THE Members:

The year 1975 was a good year financially for your Association in that our
actual receipts very closely matched our actual expenditures, which were under our
budgeted expenditures.

Last year I reported that our approved budget for 1975 anticipated that
expenditures would exceed receipts by more than $11,000. This was due to replacing
the inventory of Manual binders and is to be recaptured over a 2- to 3-year period
from the sale of Manuals.

We estimated receipts of $138,350 compared with actual receipts of $138,432.
Total expenditures amounted to $148,246 compared with our budget of $150,000.
The net result is a deficit of $9,814 instead of the $11,000 that was estimated by
Executive Director Earl Hodgkins. Earl and his able assistants, Nome Engman and
Don Fredley, are to be congratulated for keeping such a tight rein on expenditures.

In past years I have talked about tlie high esteem our publications receive in
and about the industry. This was especially evident in 1975 when publication sales
amounted to $56,830 as compared with $30,429 in 1974.

We can maintain our healthy financial situation if our members and associates
will promote use of the Manual and Portfolio of Trackwork Plans as well as use of
the Bulletin as an advertising medium.

Following is the General Balance Sheet for December 31, 1975; the Statement
of Receipts and Expenditures for Calendar Year 1975; the Comparative Statement
of Receipts and Expenditures for the Last 20 Years; and the Comparative Statement
of Association Equity as of December 31, 1974 and 1975.

A. B. HiLLMAN, Jr., Treasurer

693

694 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

GENERAL BALANCE SHEET

DECEMBER 31, 1975

Assets :
Cash:

Checking Account $ 2,611.48

Special Deposit 75,324.07

Petty Cash 50.00

Total Cash $77,985.55

Accounts Receivable 221.13

Inventory of Publications:

Manual For Railway Engineering $ 10,997.05

Portfolio of Trackwork Plans 450.00

Bulletins 300.00

Proceedings 100.00

Newsletter

Other Publications 120.00

Total Inventory of Publications $11,967.05

Other Assets:
^•Prepaid Postage $ 833.57

Furniture and Fixtures 1,000.00

Investments 42,000.00

Total Other Assets 43,833.57

Total Assets $134,007.30

Liabilities and Association Equity:

Member Dues Paid in Advance $

Association Equity 134,007.30

Total Liabilities and Association Equity .... $134,007.30

Prepaid Postage:

Second Class deposit — Madison $ 150.00

Postage Meter 613.57

Postal Stamps 70.00

Total Prepaid Postage $ 833.57

Report of Treasurer 695

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
CALENDAR YEAR 1975

Receipts
Current Receipts:

Membership Accounts:

Member and Associate Dues $55,498.27

Student Affiliate Dues 155.00

Entrance Fees 1,960.00

Total Membership Accounts $57,613.27

Publications :

Manual For Railway Engineering $34,586.75

Portfolio of Trackwork Plans 11,300.10

Bulletins 4,375.75

Proceedings 1,894.50

Specifications 4,673.15

Handling and Shipping 4,768.41

Total from Publications $61,598.66

Other Sources:

Advertising in Pubhcations $ 8,204.99

Annual Conference Registration Fees 6,637.06

Interest on Investments 2,599.65

Miscellaneous 1,778.03

Total Other Sources $19,219.73

Total Receipts $138,431.66

Expenditures
Ciu^rent Expenses:

Salaries and Wages $42,109.64

Soc. Security, Ins., and Unempl. Tax 3,396.21

Retirement Benefit 3,152.28

Manual For Railway Engineering 26,581.39

Portfolio of Trackwork Plans 276.10

Bulletins and Proceedings 43,237.22

Newsletter 1,296.36

Shipping Charges 5,594.51

Stationery and Printing 3,378.91

Supplies 412.09

Refunds and Miscellaneous 1,683.31

Rent 1,045.00

Telephone 374.25

Committee and Traveling Expenses 2,232.12

Professors Expenses 5,256.47

.Annual Conference 8,220.20

Extraordinary

Total Expenditures $148,246.06

Excess of Receipts over Expenditures $ (9,814.40)

696

Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
FOR THE LAST 20 YEARS

Receipts Expenditures

1956 $79,351.11 $70,336.17

1957 85,429.31 89,830.57

1958 81,454.56 77,348.92

1959 80,407.16 80,297.48

1960 81,138.79 83,978.29

1961 83,461.73 73,410.20

1962 76,097.28 87,344.12

1963 73,653.48 66,156.99

1964 74,834.81 78,118.66

1965 81,336.73 73,895.90

1966 84,590.91 80,454.00

1967 78,724.17 101,087.51

1968 97,639.94 111,054.20

1969 109,893.16 112,741.62

1970 113,245.85 108,305.33

1971 113,756.51 116,003.93

1972 128,208.01 125,534.70

1973 110,193.20 108,148.33

1974 112,549.90 112,153.50

1975 138,431.66 148,246.06

Increase

or

(Decrease)

$ 9,014.94

(4,401.26)

4,105.64

109.68

(2,839.50)

10,051.53

(11,246.84)

7,496.49

(3,283.85)

7,440.83

4,136.91

(22,363.34)

(13,414.26)

(2,848.46)

4,940.52

(2,247.42)

2,673.31

2,044.87

396.40

(9,814.40)

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF ASSOCIATION EQUITY
AS OF DECEMBER 31, 1974 AND 1975

1975

Assets:

Cash $ 77,985.55

Accounts Receivable 221.13

Inventory of Publications 11,967.75

Other Assets 43,832.87

Total Assets $134,007.30

Liabilities and Association Equity:

Member Dues Paid in Advance . . $

Association Equity 134,007.30

Total Liabilities and Association Equity . $134,007.30

1974

$ 84,385.33

974.65

13,910.00

44,551.72

Increase

or

(Decrease)

(6,399.78)
(753.52)

(1,942.25)
(718.85)

$143,281.70

(9,814.40)

$

143,821.70

(9,814.40)

$143,821.70

(9,814.40)

CONSTITUTION

697

American Railway Engineering
Association

CONSTITUTION

Revised to February 8, 1974

Article I

Name, Object and Location

1. Name

The name of this Association shaU be the AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING
ASSOCIATION.

2. Object

The object of the Association shall be the advancement of knowledge pertaining
to the scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of
railways.

3. Means to be Used

The means to be used for this purpose shall be:

(a) The investigation of matters pertaining to the object of the Association through
Study and Research Committees.

(b) Meeting for the presentation and discussion of papers, and for action on the
recommendations of committees.

(c) The publication of papers, reports and discussions.

4. Conclusions

The conclusions adopted by the Association shall be recommendatory.

5. Location

The office of the Association shall be located in Chicago, 111.

Article II

Membership

1. Classes

The membership of this Association shall be divided into five classes: Members,
Life Members, Honorary Members, Associates and Junior Members.

2. Qualifications

A. General

(a) An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class other than that of
Junior Member shall be not less than 25 years of age.

699

700 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

(b) To be eligible for membership in any class, or for retention of membership as a
Member, an Associate or a Junior Member, a person shall not be engaged directly or
primarily in the sale to the railways of appliances, supplies, patents or patented services.

(c) The right to membership shall not be terminated by retirement from active
service.

(d) In determining the eligibility for membership in any class, graduation in engineer-
ing from a school of recognized standing shall be considered as equivalent to three years
of active practice, and satisfactory completion of each year of work in such school,
without graduation, shall be considered as equivalent to one-half year of active practice.

(e) In determining the eligibility for Member under Section B (a) of this Article,
each year of practical experience in engineering, or in science related thereof, prior to
employment on a railway, if such experience were of the same specialized character as
the current work of the applicant, shall be considered as equivalent to one year of
railway service.

B. Member

A Member shall be:

(a) A railway engineer or officer who has had not less than five years' experience
in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of railways and who is employed
by a common-carrier railway corporation, by an approved association of railroads or
railway engineers or officers, or by a non-common-carrier railway if primary duties
consist entirely or primarily of the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
a railway plant and facilities.

(b) A dean, professor, assistant professor, or equivalent in engineering in a university
or college of recognized standing, or an instructor or equivalent in such university or
college, who, with an engineering degree, has had at least two years' experience in
teaching engineering.

(c) An engineer or member of a public board, commission or other official agency
who, in the discharge of regular duties, deals with railway problems,

(d) An editor of a trade or technical magazine who, in the discharge of regular
duties, deals with railway problems, and who has had the equivalent of five years'
engineering or railway experience.

(e) A consulting engineer or contractor, or an engineer in their employ, engaged in
the engineering, construction and maintenance of railroad-related facilities or an engineer
employed by a technical service or research and development organization who has had
the equivalent of five years' engineering experience.

(f) An officer or engineer of an engineering or scientific society or association
whose aims and objectives are compatible with the aims and objectives of this
association.

C. Life Member

A Life Member shall be a Past President of the Association who has been retired
under a recognized retirement plan, or a Member or an Associate who has paid dues
for 35 years or who has been retired under a recognized retirement plan and has paid
dues for not less than 25 years.

D. Honorary Member

(a) An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged eminence in railways
engineering or management.

(b) The number of Honorary Members shall be limited to ten.

Constitution 701

E. Associate

An Associate shall be:

(a) A member of a railway supply company or association who meets the qualifica-
tions of Section 2, Paragraph A (a) and (b).

(b) A person qualified by training and experience to cooperate with Members in the
object of this Association, but who is not qualified to become a Member.

F. Junior Member

(a) A Junior Member shall be not less than 21 years of age, shall have had not
less than three years' experience in the location, construction, operation or maintenance
of railways, and shall be an employee of a railway corporation, or one of the organiza-
tions or institutions listed under Section B of this Article, or a railway supply company
if qualified under Section 2, Paragraph A (b) of this Article.

(b) Membership in this classification in the Association shall terminate at the end
of the calendar year in which individual becomes 30 years of age.

(c) A Junior Member may make application for membership in another grade at
any time when eligible to do so.

3. Transfers

The Board of Direction shall transfer from one class of membership to another,
or may remove from membership, any person whose qualifications so change as to
warrant such action.

4. Rights

(a) Members, and Life Members who were formerly Members, shall have all the
rights and privileges of the Association. Life Members who were formerly Associates
shall continue to have all the rights and privileges of Associates.

(b) Honorarj' Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the Association
except those of holding elective office, provided, however, that Members or Life Members
who are elected Honorary Members shall retain all the rights and privileges of the
Association.

(c) Associates and Junior Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association except those of voting and holding elective office.

Article III
Admission, Resignation, Expulsion and Reinstatement

1. Charter Membership

The Charter Membership of this Association consisted of all persons elected to
membership before March IS, 1900.

2. Application for Membership

(a) A person desirous of membership in this Association shall make application
upon the form provided by the Board of Direction. In the event that Junior Membership
is desired, the applicant shall so state.

(b) The applicant shall give the names of at least three Members of this Asso-
ciation to whom personally known. Each of these Members shall be requested to certify
to a personal knowledge of the applicant with an opinion of the applicant's qualifications
for membership.

702 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

(c) If an applicant is not personally known to as many as three Members of this
Association, the names of well-known persons engaged in railway or allied professional
work to whom the applicant is personally known shall be substituted, as necessary, to
provide a total of at least three references. Each of these persons shall be requested
to certify to a personal knowledge of the applicant, with an opinion of the applicant's
qualifications for membership.

(d) No further action shall be taken upon the application until replies have been
received from at least three of the persons named by the applicant as references.

3. Election to Membership

(a) Upon completion of the application in accordance with Section 2 of ihis Article
the Board of Direction through its Membership Committee shall consider the application
and make such investigation as it may consider desirable or necessary.

(b) Upon completion of such consideration and investigation, each member of the
Board of Direction shall be supplied with the required information, together with the
recommendation of the Membership Committee as to the class of membership, if any,
to which the applicant is eligible, and the admission of the applicant shall be canvassed by
ballot among the members of the Board of Direction.

(c) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section
2, Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article, a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire
Board of Direction shall be required for election.

(d) In the event that an application has been made under the provision of Section
2, Paragraphs (a) and (c) of the Article, a unanimous affirmative vote of the entire
Board of Direction shall be required for election.

4. Subscription to the Constitution

An applicant for any class of membership in this Association shall declare willing-
ness to abide by the Constitution of the Association in the application for membership.

5. Honorary Member

A proposal for Honorary Membership shall be endorsed by ten or more Members
of the Association and a copy furnished each member of the Board of Direction. The
nominee shall be declared an Honorary Member upon receiving a unanimous vote of the
entire Board of Direction.

6. Resignation

The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in writing, of any
person holding membership in the Association whose obligations to the Association have
been fulfilled.

7. Expulsion

Charges of misconduct on the part of anyone holding membership in this Association,
if in writing and signed by ten or more Members, may be submitted to the Board of
Direction for examination and action. If, in the opinion of the Board action is war-
ranted, the person complained of shall be served with a copy of such charges and shal)
be given an opportunity to answer them to the Board of Direction. After such oppor-
tunity has been given, the Board of Direction shall take final action. A two-thirds
affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction shall be reauired for expulsion.

Constitution 703

8. Reinstatement

(a) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of tiiis
Association and having resigned such membership while in good standing may be
reinstated by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.

(b) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Association and having forfeited membership under the provisions of Article IV, Section
3, may, upon such conditions as may be fixed by the Board, be reinstated by a two-thirds
affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.

Article IV

Dues

1. Entrance Fee

(a) An entrance fee of $10 shall be payable to the Association with each application
for membership other than Junior Membership. This sum shall be returned to an applicant
not elected.

(b) An entrance fee of $S shall be payable to the Association with each appUcation
for Junior Member, which sum shall be returned to an applicant not elected. When a
Junior Member transfers to the Member or Associate Member class the previously paid
$S entrance fee shall be credited towards the entrance fee for the class to which trans-
ferring. However, the Junior Member entrance fee shall not be returnable should the
individual resign from the Association or allow membership to lapse. Neither shall
it be applicable to the dues for any year.

2. Annual Dues

(a) The annual dues for each Member and each Associate shall be $20.

(b) The annual dues for each Junior Member shall be $7.50.

(c) Life Members and Honorary Members shall be exempt from the payment ot
dues. Life Members desiring to continue to receive the Bulletins and Proceedings of the
Association may do so by paying a subscription fee prescribed by the Board of Direction

3. Arrears

A person whose dues are not paid before April 1 of the current year shall be notified
by the Executive Officer-Secretary. If the dues are still unpaid on July 1, further notice
shall be given, informing the person that he or she is not in good standing in the
Association. If the dues remain unpaid by October 1, the person shall be notified that
he or she will no longer receive the publications of the Association. If the dues are not
paid by December 31, the person shall forfeit membership without further action or
notice, except as provided for in Section 4 of this Article.

4. Remission of Dues

The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of dues, and may remit
the dues of any Member, Associate or Junior Member who, for good reason, is unable
to pay them.

Article V
Officers
1. Officers

(a) The officers of the Association shall be a President, two Vice Presidents,
two Past Presidents, twelve Directors, an Executive Officer-Secretary, and a Treasurer.

704 Bulletin 658 — ^American Railway Engineering Association

(b) The President, the Vice Presidents, the Directors and the two Past Presidents
on the Board of Direction shall be Members and shall act as the trustees and have the
custody of all property belonging to the Association.

(c) The Executive Officer-Secretary and the Treasurer shall be appointed by the
Board of Direction.

2. Term of Office

The term of office of the President shall be one year, of the Vice Presidents two
years and of the Directors three years. The term of each shall begin at the close of
the annual technical conference at which elected and continue until a successor is
qualified. All other officers and employees shall hold office or position at the pleasure
of the Board of Direction.

3. Officers Elected Annually

(a) There shall be elected prior to or at each annual technical conference a Presi-
dent, one Vice President and four Directors.

(b) The candidates for President and for Vice President shall be selected from
the members or past members of the Board of Direction

4. Conditions of Re-election of Officers

A President shall be ineligible for re-election, except as provided for in Section S (e)
of this Article. Vice Presidents and Directors shall be ineligible for re-election to the same
office, except as provided for in Section 5 (e) of this Article, until, at least one full
term has elapsed after the end of their respective terms.

5. Vacancies in Offices

(a) If a vacancy should occur in the office of President, as set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the senior Vice President shall immediately and automatically become
President for the unexpired term.

(b) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the senior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section S (a) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the junior Vice President shall automatically become senior Vice President
for the unexpired term.

(c) If a vacancy should occur in the office of the junior Vice President, due to
advancement under Section 5 (b) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, the Board of Direction shall by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its
entire membership, select a junior Vice President from the members or past members
of the Board of Direction

(d) A vacancy in the office of Director, due to advancement of a Director to junior
Vice President under Section S (c) of this Article, or for reasons set forth in Section 6
of this Article, shall be filled by the Board of Direction by the affirmative vote of
two-thirds of its entire membership,

(e) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be eligible for re-election
to the office held; provided, however, that anyone selected to fill a vacancy as Director
shall be eligible for election to that office, excepting that such appointee filling out an
unexpired term of two years or more shall be considered as coming within the provisions
of Section 4 of this Article.

Constitution 705

6. Vacation of Office

(a) In the event of the death of an elected officer, or resignation from office, or
if the officer should cease to be a Member of the Association as provided in Section 2
(B), Article II; Section 6 or 7, Article III; or Section 3, Article IV, the office shall be
considered as vacated.

(b) In the event of the disability of an officer or neglect in the performance of duty
by an officer, the Board of Direction, by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of its entire
membership shall have the power to declare the office vacant.

Article VI
Nomination and Election of Officers

1. Nominating Committee

(a) There shall be a Nominating Committee composed of the five latest living Past
Presidents of the Association, who are Members, and five Members who are not
officers.

(b) The five Members who are not Past Presidents shall be elected annually for a
term of one year, when the officers of the Association are elected.

(c) The senior Past President who is a member of the committee shall be the
chairman of the committee. In the absence of the senior Past President from a meeting
of the committee the Past President next in seniority present shall act as chairman.

(d) If one or more Past Presidents are unable to act as members of the committee
through disability, the President shall have the authority to appoint an equivalent num-
ber of eligible next senior Past Presidents to the committee as ordinary members.

(e) If one or more elected members of the committee are unable to act, through
death or disability, the President shall have the authority to appoint as replacements an
equivalent number of the senior unsuccessful candidates for election to the committee.

2. Method of Nominating

(a) At least three months prior to the annual technical conference, the Chairman
shall call a meeting of the committee at a convenient place, at which nominees for the
several elective offices shall be selected as follows:

Number of Candt-

Number of Candi- dates to be

dates to be named elected at the

by the Nominating Annual Election

Office to be Filled Committee of Officers

President 1 1

Vice President 1 1

Directors 8 4

Nominating Committee 10 S

(b) The nominations for Director shall maintain the territorial balance prescribed
in Article VII, Section 1, Paragraph (b), to the maximum extent practicable. In this
connection, the nominations for Director shall be predicated, insofar as practicable, on
the following three-year repeating pattern of Director positions to ensure adequate
territorial distribution:

706 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

First Year Second Year Third Year

East— 2 East— 1 East— 1

South— 1 West— 2 South— 1

West— 1 Canada— 1 West— 2

Nominations in any one year shall be double the number of positions available for
each district that year, with the nominations listed separately by districts.

(c) The elected members of the Nominating Committee each year shall include
one from each district represented on the Board of Direction and one at-large member.
Nominations in any year shall be double the number of positions available for each
district, with the nominations listed separately by districts.

(d) The Chairman of the Nominating Committee shall send the names of the
nominees to the President and Executive Officer-Secretary within IS days after the
meeting of the Nominating Committee, and the Executive Officer-Secretary shall report
the names of these nominees to the members of the Association not less than 60 days
prior to the annual technical conference.

(e) At any time prior to 30 days before the annual meeting of the Nominating Com-
mittee, any ten or more Members may send to the Executive Officer-Secretary nomina-
tions for any elective office for the ensuing year for consideration by the Nominating
Committee, signed by such Members.

(f) If any person nominated shall be found by the Board of Direction to be
ineligible for the office for which nominated, or should a nominee decline such nomina-
tion, the name shall be withdrawn. The Board of Direction may fill any vacancies that
may occur in the list of nominees up to the time the ballots are sent out.

3. Ballots Issued

Not less than 60 days prior to each annual technical conference, the Executive
Officer-Secretary shall issue a ballot to each voting Member of record who has paid
dues to or beyond December 31 of the previous year, listing by districts the several
candidates to be voted upon. When there is more than one candidate for any oiffice,
the names shall be arranged on the ballot in the order within each district that shall
be determined by lot by the Nominating Committee. The ballot shall be accompanied
by a statement giving for each candidate his or her record of membership and activities
in the Association.

4. Substitution of Names

Members may remove names from the printed ballot Hst and may substitute the name
or names of any other person or persons eligible for any office, but the number of names
voted for each office on the ballot must not exceed the number to be elected at that
time to such office.

5. Ballots

(a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed with the name of
the voter, and mailed to or deposited with the Executive Officer-Secretary at any time
previous to the closure of the polla

(b) A voter may have the privilege of withdrawing his ballot, for the purposes
of casting another, or otherwise, at any time up to ten working days prior to the
closure of the polls. After that date, no ballot shall be subject to withdrawal or
revision.

(c) Ballots received in unendorsed envelopes, or from persons not qualified to vote,
shall not be counted.

Constitution 707

(d) The ballots and envelopes shall be preserved for not less than ten days after
the vote is canvassed.

5. Closure of Polls

The polls shall be closed at 12 o'clock noon at least 30 days, but not more than
45 days, prior to the first day of the annual technical conference. The ballots shall be
counted soon thereafter by tellers appointed by the President of the Association.

7. Election

(a) The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for the offices for
which they are candidates shall be declared elected.

(b) In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same office, the
Members present at the annual technical conference shall elect the officer by ballot from
the candidates so tied

(c) The presiding officer shall announce at the annual technical conference the
names of the officers elected in accordance with this Article,

Article VII
Management
1. Board of Direction

(a) The Board of Direction shall be the governing body of the Association and
shall manage the affairs of the Association in accordance with the Constitution of
the Association, and shall have full power to control and regulate all matters not other-
wise provided for in the Constitution. It shall be composed of seventeen Members of
the Association, and shall include the President and two Vice Presidents of the Asso-
ciation, the two living junior Past Presidents, and twelve elected Directors. The nomina-
tion and election of the Officers and Directors shall be in accordance with the procedures
set forth in Article VI herein.

(b) Furthermore, the membership shall, insofar as possible, include proportional
representation from the territorial divisions contained in the "List of Principal Railroads
Showing Allocation to Geographical Groups" (published in the current issue of The
Official Railway Equipment Register).

Accordingly, the twelve Directors shall be elected in accordance with Article VI,
Section 2, to fit, insofar as possible, the following general plan for territorial
representation:

Four from the Eastern District; two from the Southern District; five from the
Western District, including the Northwestern, Central Western and Southwestern Dis-
tricts; and one from Canada.

(c) The President and two Vice Presidents of the Association and the two Past
Presidents on the Board of Direction shall be at-large members of the Board.

(d) Vacancies occurring in Director positions prior to normal expiration of term
of office shall be filled by the Board, insofar as possible, from the district represented
by the previous incumbent,

(e) The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each annual tech-
nical conference, and at such other times as the President may direct. Special meetings
shall be called on request, in writing, of five members of the Board of Direction.

(f) Seven members of the Board of Direction shall constitute a quorum.

708 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

2. Executive Committee

(a) An Executive Committee of the Board of Direction shall be constituted
annually and shall consist of the President and two Vice Presidents of the Association
and the two Past Presidents on the Board of Direction. The Executive Committee shall
be subject to confirmation of the Board of Direction each year at the first meeting of
the Board following the Convention. The President of the Association shall be the
chairman of the Executive Committee.

(b) The Executive Committee shall possess and may exercise during intervals
between meetings of the Board, all of the powers of the Board on matters which in the
judgment of a majority of the Executive Committee cannot properly be delayed until
the next meeting of the Board. Actions of the Executive Committee shall be authorized
by a concurring majority of its full membership and shall be reported to the Board of
Direction at its next meeting,

(c) The Executive Committee may be dissolved at any time by action of a majority
of the full membership of the Board of Direction. Following such dissolution, the Execu-
tive Committee may be re-created with personnel different than prescribed in Paragraph
(a) herein at any time prior to the annual technical conference by action of a majority
of the full membership of the Board. However, if the Executive Committee is not
re-created prior to the next annual technical conference it automatically shall come
under the provision of Paragraph (a) herein unless the Board of Direction decrees
otherwise.

3. President

The President shall have general supervision of the affairs of the Association, shall
preside at meetings of the Association, the Board of Direction and the Executive Com-
mittee of the Board of Direction, and, by virtue of his office, shall be a member of all
committees, except the Nominating Committee.

4. Vice Presidents

The Vice Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at meetings in the absence
of the President.

5. Treasurer

The Treasurer shall pay all bills of the Association when properly certified by the
Executive Officer-Secretary and approved by the Finance Committee. He shall make
an annual report as to the financial condition of the Association and such other reports
as may be called for by the Board of Direction.

6. Executive Officer-Secretary

The Executive Officer-Secretary of the Association shall be appointed by the Board
of Direction to manage the affairs of the Association under the direction of the Presi-
dent and the Board of Direction. This officer shall use the title "Executive Director,"
or such other title as the Board of Direction may direct, except that on legal papers or
on other documents, at his or her discretion, the title "Secretary" shall be used. This
officer shall serve as secretary of the Board of Direction and of the Executive Committee
of the Board of Direction.

The Executive Officer-Secretary shall attend the meetings of the Association, the
Board of Direction, and the Executive Committee of the Board of Direction, prepare
the business therefor, and record the proceedings thereof. Furthermore, this officer shall
see that all money due the Association is collected, is credited to the proper accounts,
and is deposited in the designated depository of the Association, with receipt to the

Constitution 709

Treasurer therefor. This officer shall personally certify to the accuracy of all bills and
vouchers on which money is to be paid. In addition, shall invest all funds of the Asso-
ciation not needed for current disbursements, as shall be recommended by the Finance
Committee of the Board of Direction and approved by the Board of Direction, with
notification to the Treasurer of such investments.

The Executive Officer-Secretary shall be responsible for the handling of the cor-
respondence of the Association, shall make an annual report to the Association, shall
have direct charge of the property and quarters of the Association, shall direct the work
of the secretaries, assistant secretaries and other employees of the Association, and shall
perform such other duties as the Board of Direction may prescribe.

7. Auditing of Accounts

The financial accounts of the Association shall be audited annually by an accountant
or accountants approved by and under the direction of the Finance Committee.

8. Administrative Committees

At the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the annual technical conference,
the following Administrative Committees, each consisting of not less than three members,
shall be appointed by the President. The personnel of these committees shall be subject
to approval by the Board of Direction.

Finance
Membership
Publications
Research

Technical Activity
Conference Program

Other special Administrative Committees may be appointed by the President at
any time, and reappointed annually, if necessary, their personnel being subject to
approval by the Board of Direction

Membership on Administrative Committees shall be restricted to members of the
Board of Direction, except that one or two members of the Administrative Committee
on Research may be past members of the Board of Direction.

9. Study and Research Committees

The Board of Direction may establish continuing or special Study and Research
Committees to investigate, consider, and report upon subjects appropriate to the object
of the Association, as set forth in Art. I.

10. Duties of Administrative Committees

(a) Finance

The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the accounts and
financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills before payment, and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction as to the investment of funds and
other financial matters. The Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur
debts or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of the Association,
except by authority of the Board of Direction.

(b) Membership

The Membership Committee shall investigate applicants for membership and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction with reference thereto.

710 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

(c) Publications

The Publications Committee shall have general supervision over the publications
of the Association, including the Manual and the Portfolio. The Publications Commit-
tee shall not have the power to incur debts or other obligations binding the Associa-
tion, nor authorize the payment of money except by authority of the Board of
Direction,

(d) Research

The Research Committee shall encourage and coordinate the research activities of
the Association, in the course of accomplishment of which it shall review and pass
upon the recommendations of Study and Research Committees for research projects and
shall report thereon to the Board of Direction, recommending for approval specific
projects initiated by these committees or by the Research Committee and recommending
allotments of funds for these projects in the research budget of the Association of
American Railroads or from other sources compatible therewith; shall collaborate closely
with the research staff of the Association of American Railroads and other organiza-
tions; and when called upon by the Vice President — Research or the Vice President-
Operations and Maintenance of that association, members of the Research Committee
shall engage in the activities of advisory committees or groups of that organization and
shall report from time to time to the Board of Direction on those activities.

(e) Technical Activity

The Technical Activity Committee shall monitor and give direction to the activities
of Association Study and Research Committees, and review the activity of the person-
nel assigned thereto. It shall review and pass upon the recommendations of those com-
mittees for subjects to be investigated, considered, and reported on by those commit-
tees during the ensuing Association year, and shall report thereon to the Board of Direc-
tion for its approval. The Technical Activity Committee shall have authority to assign
additional subjects or change the scope of any existing subjects at any time during the
year, reporting its action thereon to the Board at its next regular meeting.

This Committee also shall review and pass upon applications of members for
appointment to Study and Research Committees, and shall appoint the chairman and
vice chairman of each such committee and make a report thereon to the Board of
Direction for its approval. Should an unexpected vacancy in the chairmanship or vice
chairmanship of any such committee occur, the Technical Activity Committee shall have
authority to fill such vacancy immediately, reporting its action thereon to the Board
at its next regular meeting.

(f) Conference Program

The Conference Program Committee shall develop the program of the annual tech-
nical conference with the assistance of the Study and Research Committees, the Board
of Direction, the Executive Officer-Secretary, and others.

11. Special Committees

The Board of Direction may appoint special committees to examine into and report
upon any subject connected with the objects of this Association.

12. Discussion by Non-Members

The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from persons not members
of the Association.

13. Sanction of Act of Board of Direction

An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the expressed or implied

Constitution 711

sanction of the membership at the next annual technical conference of the Association
shall be deemed to be the act of the Association,

ArUcIe VIII
Meetings

1. Annual Technical Conference

(a) The Annual Technical Conference of the Association shall be held in the City
of Chicago, 111., or in such other city as may be determined by the affirmative vote
of two-thirds of the entire membership of the Board of Direction. The technical con-
ference in any year shall be held on dates determined by the affirmative vote of two-
thirds of the entire membership of the Board of Direction.

(b) The Executive Officer-Secretary shall notify all members of the Association
of the time and place of the annual technical conference at least 30 days in advance
thereof.

(c) The order of business at the annual technical conference of the Association
shall be:

.■\ddress of the President

Reports of the Executive Officer-Secretary and the Treasurer

Committee and other presentations

Unfinished business

N'ew business

Installation of officers

.Adjournment

(d) This order of business may be changed by the presiding officer.

(e) The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order" except as
otherwise herein pro\ided.

(f) Discussions shall be limited to Members and to those others invited by the
presiding officer to speak.

2. Special Meetings

Special meetings of the Associations may be called by the Board of Directions on its
own initiative, and may be so called by the Board of Direction upon written request
of 100 Members. The request shall state the purpose of such meeting.

The call for such special meeting shall be issued not less than ten days in advance
of the propyosed date of such meeting and shall state the purpose and place of the
meeting. No other business shall be taken up at such meeting.

3. Quorum

Twenty-five Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings of the .Association

Article IX
Amendment
1. Amendment

Amendment of this Constitution may be proposed by written petition signed by
not less than ten Members of the Association, and shall be acted upon in the following
manner:

The proposed amendment shall be presented to the Executive Officer-Secretary who

712 Bulletin 658 — American Railway Engineering Association

shall send a copy to each member of the Board of Direction as soon as received. If a
majority of the entire Board of Direction so votes, the matter shall be submitted to
the voting members of the Association by letter ballot.

Amendment to the Constitution also may be proposed by majority affirmative vote
of the entire Board of Direction, and the proposed amendment then submitted to the
voting members of the Association by letter ballot.

Sixty days after the date of issue of the letter ballot, the Board of Direction shall
canvass the ballots which have been received, and if two-thirds of such ballots are in
the affirmative the amendment shall be declared adopted and shall become effective
immediately. The result of the letter ballot shall be announced to members of the
Association.

Index to Proceedings, Vol. 77, 1976

— A —

Annual Technical Conference, president's ad-
dress, 487

— program, 479

Architectural Competition, descriiition of b\
D. A. Bessey, 493

• — participating universities, 343

— rules for, 345

Association of American Railroads (see Engi-
neering Division, AAR)

— B —

Bailey, R. W., address, "C&NW's Ballast Un-
dercutter-Cleaner," 665

Ballast, cost of cleaning versus replacement in
track rehabilitation, 312

— research program, 364

— undercutter-cleaner on C&X^^', 665

Bessey, D. A., address, "Description of Archi-
tectural Competition Sponsored by AREA
Committee 6 — Buildings," 493

Brawner, C. O., address, "Rock Slope Stability
on Railway Projects," presented at Van-
couver Regional Meeting, 449

Bridges, steel railway, specifications for. Man-
ual recommendations, 249

Bridges, timber, concrete components for, 355

— -iuethods of fireproofing, 352

British Railways, track maintenance for high-
speed trains, address by H. H. Jenkins,
499

Buildings, committee report, 341

— Architectural Design Competition, 342

— elevated yardmasters' towers. Manual recom-
mendations, 172

Burlington Northern, Inc., noise abatement at
Northtown Yard, address by M. B. ^^'alker,
555

— c —

Canadian National Railways, bridges on Moun-
tain Region, 425

— double tracking on, 304

■ — -Eraser River Bridge, investigation of, 561,
577

Canadian Pacific Rail, innovations in frog and
switch design, address by E. H. Taylor,
652

— frog and switch manufacturing shop, 301

Cars, freight, disposal of waste from, 325

Chessie System, service test of standard carbon
steel rail and various wear resistant rails,
55

Chicago & North Western Transportation Com-
pany, ballast undercutter-cleaner, 665

Cias, W. W., address, "High-Strength Chro-
mium-Molybdenum Rails," 621

Clearances, committee rei^ort, 337

— new methods and equipment for recording,
339

College students, summer enip!o>ment of, 402

Concrete components for timber trestles, 355

Concrete Structures and Foundations, commit-
tee report, 353

Concrete ties (see Ties, concrete)

Continuous welded rail, statistics on track miles

laid, 376
Crossings, highway-railway grade^jconcrete slab,

performance of on EJ&E, 257
— motor vehicle codes and drivers' licensmg

Ijractices relating to, 263
— public i^edestrian, 266
— rumble strips for approaches to, 264
— safety at, summary reporting of significant

developments, 258

— D —

Data bases, address on by C. F. Wiza
Data processing, application in allocating re-
corded costs to reported units in the track
accounts, 274
D.ivis, R. P., memoir, 361

— E —

Economics of Plant, Equipment and Operations,
committee report, 383

Economics of Railway Construction and Main-
tenance, committee report, 299

Eldis, G. T., address, "High-Strength Chro-
mium-Molybdenum Rails," 621

Election of officers, nominating committee, 482

— successful candidates, 483

— tellers committee, 482

Electrical Energy Utilization, committee report,
403

Electrification, method of making economic
studies. Manual reconunendations, 181

Electrification, railroad, status report on, by
H. C. Kendall, 404

Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Railway, performance of
concrete slab crossings, 257

Engineering Division, AAR, annual meeting
session, 673

— remarks bv D. C. Hastings, 677

—remarks by J. T. Ward, 675

Engineering Education, committee report, 401

Engineering Records and Property Accounting,
committee report, 273

— bibliography on, 274

Engler, J. L., memoir, 324

Environmental Engineering, committee report,
323

Executive director, report of, 683

— F —

Eraser River Bridge, investigation of, 561, 577

Freight, delivery and transfer. Manual recom-
mendations, 111

Freight terminals (see Terminals, freight)

Freight yards (see Yards, freight)

Friesen, W., address, "Hot Box Detector Ana-
Kzer System," 521

Frogs, design innovations, address by E. H.
Taylor,^ 652

— riilbound manganese steel, explosive harden-
ing of on Canadian Pacific, 302

713

714

Index

— H —

Hastings, D. C, address, "A Time for Chal-
lenge," 677
Highways, committee report, 255
Hilhnan, Jr., A. B., report of treasurer, 693
Hodgkins, E. W., executive director, report of,
683

Hot box detector, data analyzer system for,

address by W. Friesen 521
Housing, portable, sanitation requirements for.

Manual recommendations, 189

Installation of oflBcers, 669

Interstate Commerce Commission, Bureau of
Accounts, activities in valuation and de-
preciation, 276

— accounting classifications, revisions and in-
terpretations of, 277

Jenkins, H. H., address, "Track Maintenance

for High-Speed Trains," 499
Joint bars, bonded, economics of versus field

welds to connect CWR, 320
— bonded, insulated, economics of installing in

field versus shop fabrication, 318
Joplin, A. F., luncheon address at Vancouver

Regional Meeting, 415

— K —

Kalousek, J., address, "Investigation into Causes
of Rail Corrugations," presented at Van-
couver Regional Meeting, 429

— address, "Rail Wear and Corrugation Stud-
ies," 601

Kendall, H. C, status report on railroad elec-
trification, 404

Kerr, Arnold D., report, "Principles and Cri-
teria for the Design of a Railroad Track
Test Facility," 1

King, F. E., address, 'TRail Wear and Corru-
gation Studies," 601

Klein, R., address, "Investigation into Causes
of Rail Corrugations," presented at Van-
couver Regional Meeting, 429

— L —

Locomotive facilities. Manual recommendations,
133

— M —

Maintenance of Way Work Equipment, com-
mittee report, 9, 333

Morris, L. R., address, "Railway Bridges on
Canadian National's Mountain Region,"
presented at Vancouver Regional Meeting,
425

— N —

Nominating committee (see Election of officers)

o

Officers, election of (see also Election of offi-
cers)
—installation of, 669

— P —

Passenger facilities. Manual recommendations,

141
Piers, protection of at spans on navigable

streams, 357
Pipe, plastic, types and applications, 327
Plastic pipe (see Pipe, plastic)

— R —

Rail, committee report, 373

— continuous welded (See Continuous welded
raU)

■ — corrugations, causes of, 429

— high-strength chromium-molybdenum, 621

■ — ^research and development, 376

■ — -standard carbon steel, summary of perform-
ance of in test curves on Chessie System,
55

■ — tonnages shipped by weight and section in
1974, 382

— wear and corrugation studies, address on by
F. E. King and J. Kalousek, 601

— wear resistant, summary of performance of
in test curves on Chessie System, 55

Reclamation, Manual recommendations, 161

Regional Meeting, Vancouver

— address, "Investigation into Causes of Rail
Corrugations," by J. Kalousek, R. Klein,
429

— address, "Railway Bridges on Canadian Na-
tional's Mountain Region," by L. R. Mor-
ris, 425

— address, "Railway Signalling," by H. W.
Trawick, 419

— address, "Rock Slope Stability on Railway
Projects," by C. O. Brawner and Duncan
Wyllie, 449

— ^luncheon address by A. F. Joplin, 415

Roadway and Ballast, committee report, 363

Rock slope stability on railway projects, 449

— s —

Sawhill, Jr., J. M., address, "High-Strength
Chromium-Molybdenum Rails," 621

Scales, belt conveyor, proposed rules for, 288

Scales, Special Committee on, committee re-
port, 25, 287

Scales, track, location of for coupled-in-motion
weighing, 295

- — statistical data for coupled-in-motion weigh-
ing and testing, 25

Signalling, railway, address presented by H. W.
Trawick at Vancouver Regional Meeting,
419

Smith, Y. E., address, "High-Strength Chro-
mium-Molybdenimi Rails," 621

Steel Structures, committee report, 359

Stores, Manual recommendations, 160

Sweeney, R. A. P., address, "The Load Spec-
trum for the Fraser River Bridge at New
Westminster, B. C," 561

Switches, design innovations, address by E. H.
Taylor, 652

Index

715

__T —

Taylor, E. H., address, "Innovations in Frog

and Switch Design," 652
Tellers committee (see Election of officers)
Terminals, freight, Manual recommendations,

95
— specialized, Manual reconmiendations, 117
Ties, concrete, specifications for. Manual rec-
ommendations, 193
Ties and Wood Preservation, committee rei^ort,

13, 367
Ties, wood cross
— annual renewal statistics, 13
- — extent of adherence to specifications for, 368
— foreign species, suitability of, 369
Timber Structures, committee report, 351
Track maintenance, for high-speed trains, ad-
dress on by H. H. Jenkins, 499
Track Scales (see Scales, track)
Track test facility, design of, report by Arnold

D. Kerr, 1
Trains, high-speed, track maintenance for, ad-
dress by H. H. Jenkins, 499
Transportation, improving quality of, 384
Trawick, H. W., address, "Railway Signalling,"
presented at Vancouver Regional Meeting,
419
Treasurer, report of, 693

— u —

University students (see College students)

— V —

Vegetation control, Manual recommendations,
238

— w —

Walker, M. B., address, "The Quiet One— ^
Burlington Northern's Northtown Yard,"
555

Ward, J. T., president's address, 487

— remarks at Engineering Division, AAR, an-
nual meeting session, 675

Waste disposal, 325

Waterproofing, for railway structures, 355

Wiza, C. F., address, "Data Bases: Help or
Harassment for Engineering Management,"
597

Wood preservatives, evaluation of "3APR6,"
368

Work equipment, maintenance of way, repair
organizations, 9

— repair shops, design criteria. Manual recom-
mendations, 162

Wright, C. R., memoir, 300

Wyllie, Duncan, address, "Rock Slope Stability
on Railway Projects," presented at Van-
couver Regional Meeting, 449

— Y —

Yards, design criteria to decrease car detention,

283
— flat and saucer, gradients for, 280
— freight. Manual recommendations, 95
— noise abatement at on Burlington Northern,

address by M. B. Walker, 555
Yards and Terminals, committee report, 279
■ — Manual recommendations, 87

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Directory of Consulting Engineers

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