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PROCEEDINGS
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences
for
Volume 5
Published by the Academy, Gainesville, Florida
August, 1941
PROCEEDINGS.
of the
Florida Academy Bl Mclenecs)
Volume 3
Published by the Academy, Gainesville, Florida
August, 194]
SB os
%
PROCEEDINGS OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Published Annually by the Academy
Editor: L. Y. DyRENFoRTH, St. Luke’s Hospital, Jacksonville
Managing Editor: J. H. Kusner, University of Florida
Associate Editors: G.L. LaFuze, Stetson University
S. A. Stusss, Florida Geological Survey
Editorial assistance in connection with this volume was also rendered by:
M. J. DAvER, University of Florida, U. P. Davis, University of Florida,
Martian GappuM, University of Florida, T. H. Huspetr, University of Florida, and
ErpMAN WEsT, University of Florida.
The Academy makes grateful acknowledgement of the cooperation of the
Florida Writer’s Project of the Work Projects Administration in making available
the services of Mary Pritchett as assistant to the Managing Editor.
A paper-bound copy of the Proceedings is sent to each member of
the Academy, without charge. A cloth-bound copy may be obtained,
instead, upon payment of $1.00.
The sale price of this volume of the Proceedings is:
Paper-bound—$2.50 per copy
Cloth-bound—$3.50 per copy
The Academy will be pleased to enter into exchange arrangements
with other scientific societies in any field and in any country.
Orders for copies of the Proceedings, subscriptions, exchange pub-
lications, inquiries concerning exchange, and general correspondence
concerning Academy matters should be addressed to:
J. H. Kusner, Secretary
FLorIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
GAINESVILLE, FLA.
Beginning with Volume 6, to be published in 1942, the Proceedings
of the Florida Academy of Sciences will be published quarterly, each
number to contain approximately 100 pages. The subscription price is
$3.00 per year.
CONTENTS
PAPERS
Some Observations upon the Use of Mathematics in the
eS TV UIULILATYISON «55.5255 u<chciey seeascereadiaca setae suevesnccesdansesdeschsonearvecscavaendog 1
Notes on the Emergence and Life History of the Dragonfly
PIOMEEIEMESCONS.—C, FLanciS BY €YSic.icecccsssscsvcccesnecssensavesedsoesenseroncesatscnsaess 14
Visual Education in the Biological Sciences —Jay F. W. Pearson.................... 26
Source Materials for Florida Aboriginal Artifacts—J. Clarence Simpson........ . 32
mame tme Vitains.—L. LL. Rusofiisss....ic.c.cscccseccsecsecevecccossocsecesesesoeevesercs 35
A New Species of Hammerhead Shark of the Genus Sphyrna.—
TT TT eos ad Ste da dees at eobiadi Wo eed pssst de an davcnu Sa ghoaunedecevinsya 46
Notes on the Distribution and Habits of the Ferns of Northern
ETN a cn Bay cs a Rane ede tics chavs aes vleahave aes tapeae soe 62
Florida’s Geological Structure and Gravity—Robert B. Campbell.................... We
Chemical Seasoning of Lumber.—H. S. Newins..................cccccccccscccsccesesscncecseeees 85
The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida—William J. K. Harkness
aa OPEN TCO en vo sc eaxderenvaceondbsteeabucnenvatesars vovcnsueclectebaudedchsentesnstydeaves 96
Some Chemical Properties of the Plant Nutrients as Related to
MME HIAALION ——O)0 C2 Br yathe...csic.ce.sscnaseosaccsossodmvsstaccoscbosesedssscsustevensenesedins 117
The Taxonomic Status of Pinus Caribaea Mor.—Wilbur B. De Vall................ 121
Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Oil from Sharks Caught in
Florida Waters.—L. L. Rusoff and Robert M, French...............0000000.... 133
Chemical Integrative Mechanisms in Insect Societies—E. Morton Miller........ 136
Solution A Dominant Factor in the Geomorphology of Peninsular
RMN ONUITRON IIIS SUUID IS 250502252 ' racseunvceessunserses secsaas ohad anGekctcmsvascvevebenvascectoeves 148
Heavy Minerals in the Beach Sands of Florida——Willard B, Phelps................ 168
Petroleum Exploration Mlethods.—Robert B. Campbell.....0.00..0.0cc cue 172
The Function of a Supreme Court in American Constitutional
acovermmenc——pames Willer Leake..........0:.::...ccc.cscsscsscssessssesecestdoeessossconcesdenvends 189
Hemisphere Defense and American Solidarity Sigismond de R. Diettrich.... 196
The Anglo-French Rivalry in Siam, 1902-1904.—G, Leighton LaFuze............ 229
Florida Citrus Market Trends.—Frederick K. Hardy....00..0.00.ccccccecseeeeeeeeees 240
A Re-Examination of Freudian Symbolism.—Raymond F. Bellamy................ 247
Should Banks be Permitted to Fail?—Frank W. Tuttle... 255
A Rust of Florida Pines Caused by Cronartium Quercuum (Berk.)
epee IGE OC ROE UV CICK coco) 2.5. sock Sad arosdcsnunevacabesecebyssouesdacveslessdadavehsonedwnt saves 262
The Role of Loss-Leaders in Retail Competition—Reinhold P. Wolff............ 270
Suggestions in Technique for the Biological Laboratory. —
MTEC ES COULI ee ee ETA esos escbechesseuiccaetvocseseats 278
An Improved Method for Determining Prime Factors—Guy G. Becknell........ 281
Parasites of Fresh-Water Fish of Southern Florida.—Ralph V. Bangham........ 289
A Preliminary List of Florida Hepatics—James B. McFarlin.......00.000000cccc.0. 308
ABSTRACTS
Florida’s Tax Problem.—George P. Hoffman...............cccssccscesseesesesectensenecsesenes 341
Sociology and the Present World Crisis—L. M. Bristol... ee 341
A Study of the City Manager System of Gainesville, Florida—Angus
M. Laird and: Manning J. Daver..i.:.c....0:-c.cicessseceice-ccescesesess ee 343
On Certain Area and Volume Formulas.—N. H. Bullard... cece: 343
Food Composition as it Affects Animal Behavior——E. T. Keenan.................... 344
The Science Curriculum in Florida Schools—Leo L. Boles.............0..cccceee 344
Factors Involved in the Failure of Cyclic Mating Behavior
in the Female Guinea Pig and Rat.—William C. Young.....................0... 345
Economic Aspects of the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill—
Robert BD. IDO WES: snccececcccescssccicocodesvasctecsucesveeceenasecesseaeansees cae teeas ea 346
The Million Volt Electrostatic Generator at the University of
Florida -—Daniel C.. SwanS0t........cccc..ccessccccsresosersencosseceeegnuede ce ee 347
Effects of Solutes on the Intermolecular Structure of Water.—
Water: MGTITeCE: coscceecicscisccccccceasdeeneasacacns seesccaceuapeaees aces acdaue Cecksade sane eee eae 348
A Mathematics Program for Junior College Terminal Students—
William A, Gager....ccccccscsciscsssiescsoosactavestesucdsedenqdendesctesueneclunesse tener 348
Sugar Policy in the Everglades—W. Porter McLendon........0...0....ccccsceseeseees 350
ACADEMY BUSINESS AND PERSONNEL
Report sor the) Secretary./cc..ce0 chs os oeeener reer eee soassedcorseer ne 351
Report of the ‘Treasurer.....:..ccc.....:ssecccsssceaseccestsetecauecencheseaceiicen area eee ee 352
. Program of the Second Annual Meeting of the Junior Academy...............0.000 353
Program: of the Fifth Annual Meeting, ......02.cccc.cccs0-.sseesscceesie ene 354
Olficers of the Academy for 1940... 0......ccccccckrccstececceee ee ee 358
Officers of the Academy for 1941)......c:ccccccscssecessotsntrs aaviesees ee ee 359
Wasty:of Miembers: 1940-41... c.c.ccci..ccccsetuscacdusaneudovavncstaes ozebsceeeva ence donee ane ere =. 360
Index: of Volumes 2=5).c..00) 0. ccccbc ck eee 368
PROCEEDINGS OF
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 5 1940
SOME OBSERVATIONS UPON THE USE OF
MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES*
R. C. WILLIAMSON
University of Florida
Because of the nature of the subject matter, mathematics has
played a greater part in the development of the physical sciences than
in biology and the social sciences. Particularly in the case of astron-
omy and physics, the two sciences have proceded hand in hand with
mathematics almost from the very beginning. Most of the vast body
of theory, however, has grown since the development of the calculus
by Newton and Leibniz about 1670. The use of mathematics to any
appreciable extent in the social sciences dates from the work of A.
Cournot in the year 1838, with a steady development since. In the
biological sciences, owing to the complexity of the task, other than in
statistical methods, no great progress has been made in any appli-
cation of mathematics to fundamental theory until the period since
1900. Within the last few years, some interesting beginnings have
been made in this direction, to which I wish to refer later in the
discussion.
Physics probably may be considered the most fundamental
science (at least by the physicists), in that its principles, ideas and
techniques are necessary in the development of all of the other natural
sciences. The nature of its subject matter has made it peculiarly
susceptible to the application of mathematical methods of analysis.
The ability to simplify experimental conditions in fundamental experi-
ments, thus rendering mathematical analysis possible; and then grad-
ually to build up to more complex situations step by step, with ex-
periment and theory moving along hand in hand, has constituted the
great strength of physics and the advantage it has enjoyed over the
other sciences in establishing satisfactory and accurate theoretical
descriptions of natural phenomena.
For these reasons it may be profitable for us to consider some
illustrations selected to bring out and clarify some of the advantages
*Address of the retiring president.
Zz: PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
resulting from the use of mathematics in the case of physics, and then
to follow with brief mention of some recent interesting applications
of mathematics in biology and the social sciences.
At present the young man entering physics asks himself whether
he wishes to be an experimental or a theoretical physicist. The mathe-
matical and experimental techniques have become so extensive and
complex that it is well-nigh impossible for one individual to encom-
pass both. The experimental physicist must acquire sufficient mathe-
matical readiness to be able to read the output of the theoretician and
make the calculations for his own work, and similarly the theoretical
physicist must acquire sufficient experimental background to be able
to interpret the work of the experimentalist. We speak of “physicists”
and “mathematical physicists”’, and recently the term “mathematical
bio-physicist’”’ has been added to our lexicon.
There always exists the problem of how much of the preliminary
training may be devoted to mathematics as against training in the
methods of the science itself. This is a matter which must be left
to the collective judgment of the scientists concerned. Some students
can profit by more mathematics, and some by less. But whenever
that rare individual appears who exhibits both an aptitude in mathe-
matics and an enthusiasm for the methods and subject matter of the
particular science, he should be cherished with great affection and
encouraged to go ahead with his mathematical preparation,—he has
the possibilities of making rare contributions to his science.
We may note that mathematical methods to a certain extent
are a sort of symbolic shorthand with appropriate rules of manipula-
tion, which render it possible to carry through extemely complicated
chains of reasoning which would otherwise be quite impossible for
the ordinary intellect. They enable one to extract the most from a
set of observations or postulates. As Mark Twain says: “There is
something fascinating about a science; one gets such wholesale re-
turns of conjecture out of such a trifling investment of facts.” Thus
from an investment in Newton’s three laws of motion and his law of
universal gravitation, as expressed in two short equations, one may
proceed by an application of the calculus to reap lordly returns in
achieving the laws by which the celestial bodies swing through space
in their eternal wanderings.
Frequently the decision between two alternative theories rests
upon the outcome of a quantitative experimental check of calculated
predictions by the theories. One classic illustration of this is in the
case of the Rutherford theory of the nuclear atom (resembling the
solar system) as opposed to the Thomson theory of an atom consist-
ing of an extended sphere of positive charge within which the electrons
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 3
vibrate about. The Thomson atom had the advantage of providing a
model which was statically stable, and in those days it was easier to
conceive how the physical and chemical properties of matter could be
accounted for in terms of this type of atom. But Rutherford made
mathematical calculations of the angles through which alpha rays
should be scattered when they were projected through thin metal
foils. He made these calculations both for the nuclear model and for
the Thomson spherical type. Then he carried out experiments, meas-
uring the angles of deflection of the alpha rays, and found that the
measured angles agreed with those predicted by the nuclear theory.
Thomson and the other physicist of the day, being mathematicians
also, recognized the cogency of Rutherford’s calculations and experi-
ments, and from that day the nuclear atom has served as the basis
for all atomic models. Without the calculations and the measure-
ments, the scintillations observed through the microscope upon the
screen of his scattering apparatus were merely a beautifully mystifying
play of flickering green will o’ the wisps. In the hands of the mathe-
matical physicist they established the foundations of one of our most
fundamental conceptions of matter.
Often, as a result of mathematical considerations, a tremendously
useful concept may be defined which has no intuitive counterpart.
Consider for instance the physical concept “work”, which is defined
through the product of force times distance. Force and distance in
themselves are intuitive ideas, but why should their product be especial-
ly important? However, calculations show that for the ideal machine
the work output equals the work input; calculation and experiment
show that when a moving force produces heat, there is always a con-
stant amount of heat evolved for a given amount of work expended.
And thus is evolved the idea of conservation of energy which is the
basis of the whole science of thermodynamics with its tremendous
power in making predictions about phenomena which are too compli-
cated for any detailed mechanistic calculation. The development of
practically all of our physical theory is dependent upon the simplifi-
cations offered by this function.
The calculation of magnitudes assists the imagination in build-
ing up the mind’s pictures of the submicroscopic world of the atom
and the molecule and the supermacroscopic conceptions of the stellar
universe. By a combination of experiment and calculation we arrive
at a picture of helium gas for instance as consisting of atoms resembling
minute solar systems, at the center of each a nucleus whose diameter
is approximately one ten thousandth the diameter of the orbits of
its two electronic satellites. In the gaseous state these atoms are
4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
separated by distances of approximately ten times the atomic diame-
ters. These minute solar systems dart about with the speed of rifle
bullets, colliding with one another and the walls of the containing
vessel. And on the other hand as a result of astronomical measure-
ments and calculations, one is led to visualise stellar systems at such
distances that it may require millions of years for light to reach our
system from them. Thus does mathematical physics constitute both
the microscope and the telescope of the mind.
Frequently in a theoretical prediction, some vital factor has been
completely forgotten or neglected. When a numerical experimental
test is made, a discrepancy is discovered, and then in the resultant re-
examination of the theory the missing factor is discovered. This, of
course, has been the history of most of our theoretical advances. One
simple classical illustration however is that of the discussion of the
velocity of sound in gases. Sir Isaac Newton calculated that the
velocity should be calculable as the square root of the pressure divided
by the density. But this gave results which were about fifteen
percent too low. Then LaPlace re-examined the argument and saw
that Newton had overlooked the fact that as the sound compressions
and rarefactions pass through the air the latter is adiabatically com-
pressed and expanded, resulting in periodic heating and cooling.
When the theory was corrected for this fact, the expression for the
velocity became the square root of gamma times the pressure divided
by the density, where gamma represents the ratio of the two specific
heats of the gas. This formula gives accurate results, and as a
matter of fact serves as a method of measuring gamma, so that from
experiments in sound one measures a fundamental thermal constant.
Sometimes, in the case of very complex phenomena, we find
that a very much simplified model may give us very good results
within reasonable limits. Some of the most striking illustrations may
be taken from the field of the kinetic theory of gases. Consider the
pressure, density and temperature properties of a gas like hydrogen.
If one tries to imagine in detail what is happening in the vessel, one
thinks of each molecule as a pair of heavy positively charged nuclei
with a pair of electrons revolving in some complicated fashion about
the axis of the molecule. As each molecule darts through space it
may be whirling rapidly like a dumb-bell thrown into the air and at the
same time its atoms may be vibrating rapidly to and from each
other. These whirling vibrating molecules collide with one another
and with the walls. They may stick to the walls momentarily, shiver-
ing and vibrating violently, to be thrown off very quickly with a
different motion from that which they approached the wall. Thus
we have a picture of the mechanism of exertion of pressure; but how
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 5
to calculate it? Now, instead of trying to consider in all detail the
behavior of these molecules on collision with the walls, we may try
the assumption that we have a collection of point molecules having
velocity and inertia, which are perfectly reflected from the walls.
We then arrive by quite simple calculations at an equation represent-
ing quite accurately under ordinary conditions the variation of pressure
with density and temperature. From the resulting equations the aver-
age speeds of the molecules can be calculated, and are found to agree
quite accurately with those measured directly.
A training in mathematics inculcates the habit of careful examina-
tion of postulates and meanings of words and symbols used in reason-
ing. Thus frequently one finds that words are used carelessly with
Meanings accepted at an earlier period when the facts were not so
well known or recognized. Or one may finally get a theory with so
many ideas assumed tacitly or otherwise which gives so many results
not in accord with experimental facts that it becomes useless for guid-
ing experiment and needs to be revised. Thus Einstein in examining
the foundations of dynamics was led to question the meaning of sim-
ultaneity and of absolute motion. As a result we have the birth of
his theory of relativity. In the case of the classical quantum theory,
at first the theory predicted many things which classical dynamics
could not account for and was a striking improvement over the lat-
ter. Then after a time it was found that the results were wrong
in many details when experiments were carried out to test the theory.
This led Heisenberg to question whether the models of the theory did
not contain more detail than was necessary to get results which could
be tested by experiment. So he suggested restricting the theory to
the minimum assumptions necessary to give predictions which could
conceivably be tested by experiment and not to worry about trying to
calculate things which we might imagine about atoms but which we
could never hope to measure experimentally. As a result of his
analysis from this viewpoint we have one of the beginnings of the
development of the modern quantum theory which contains the good
results of the old theory, and thus far has predicted accurately those
properties of atoms and molecules for which it has been possible to
carry through the calculations and make the observations. And a
paradoxical result of this work is that with the newer and more ac-
curate theory our conceptions of the atom have not become sharper
and more precise, but have lost detail and become more blurred, much
as when one passes from a painting by Meissonier, finished with al-
most photographic detail, to one of Corot’s misty shimmering land-
scapes.
6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Considering mathematics as affording methods, symbols and
rules for carrying on complex thinking processes, there will be different
branches, each of which is best adapted for a particular type of think-
ing. Thus in any given scientific problem there will arise a need for
the appropriate mathematics or logic. In most cases, as a result of the
natural curiosity and activity of the mathematicians, one can usually
find the necessary mathematical tools already developed. In some cas-
es, however, it will be necessary to work out suitable mathematical
processes and notation for the task in hand. As a classical illustra-
tion of this latter situation, we have the development of the methods
of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. In considering the laws of mo-
tion, Newton found it necessary to investigate continuously variable
physical quantities. In order to be able to predict resultant motions
of bodies from given initial conditions, he developed the methods of
the calculus. Leibniz at about the same time was worrying about simi-
ilar questions and more or less independently worked out similar ideas,
and went ahead and put the methods and notation of the calculus into
practically the forms which are utilized today. One fairly recent illus-
tration of a situation in which the mathematical methods had al-
ready been worked out from purely abstract grounds is found in
quantum mechanics. ‘Heisenberg and Born had been re-examining the
foundations of modern atomic physics, and had encountered situations
which called for what appeared to be rather unorthodox mathematical
arguments. As they proceeded with the development of the logic,
Born recalled a course in the theory of matrix algebra that he had
taken in years past. Upon further investigation, they found that
much of the mathematical material they needed was to be found in
the treatises on matrix algebra.
Passing now to the consideration of the biological sciences, we
note that because of the complexity of biological systems, and also
because of the fact that the physicists and chemists have not complet-
ed the task of working out the laws of the physical and chemical
properties of the substances with which the biologist must deal, any
profitable applications of mathematics in biology, other than statistical,
have been so difficult and offered so little promise that few have
devoted themselves to the field. Passing over various statistical
studies, we may mention the work of A. J. Lotka, of Johns Hopkins.
In his book, “The Elements of Physical Biology,” he presents a study
of the foundations of biological theory from the standpoint of mathe-
matical physics and chemistry. With a substantial training in these
fields, having studied under the celebrated English mathematical
physicist, J. H. Poynting, Lotka has used the methods of the dynamics
of constrained systems, of the thermodynamics of physical and chemi-
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 7
cal systems both in change and in equilibrium, and of the kinetic
theory of collision and capture. He applies these ideas of the dis-
cussion of interactions of species, their growth, population equilibrium,
evolution as a trend towards maximum utilization of energy which is
in process of degradation, etc.
However, I wish more especially to call your attention to some
recent work attacking the problem of setting up the foundations of
mathematical biophysics by a group of men of whom Nicholas Rashev-
sky of Chicago is probably the leading exponent at the present time.
Rashevsky has recently published two books summing up the results
of this work, Mathematical Biophysics and Advances and A ppblications
of Mathematical Biology." Also a journal, The Bulletin of Mathe-
matical Biophysics, carries much of their current work. Rashevsky
is a mathematical physicist who for several years has devoted his at-
tention to biophysics. The theory and techniques necessary are well
developed in classical physics, so that it is mainly a question of assum-
ing simplified models of biological systems, carrying through the neces-
sary calculations which may be more or less tedious, checking predicted
results with observations, revising models, recalculating, rechecking,
etc., continually arriving at a closer approximation to the actual organ-
ism. In the meantime, the analysis serves to guide experimentation in
many directions.
He begins with the cell, since it is the fundamental unit, in much
the same way that the physicist works upon the properties of the atom
in order to shed light on the structure and properties of gross matter. I
should like to consider in some detail a few illustrations from his
work, in order to give a more concrete idea of the kind of results that
may be obtained in this manner.
First considering one of the simplest problems. He assumes a
spherical cell surrounded by a permeable membrane immersed in a
liquid containing various solutes. Also that there is an autocatalytic
reaction of some of the solutes within the cell such that the rate of
formation of a given substance is proportional to the amount of that
substance present at any instant. This gives a straightforward problem
in diffusion, with spherical symmetry. Setting up the differential
equations and working out the results according to standard methods,
he finds that the concentration of the resultant product of the reaction
increases as the radius of the cell increases, and that above a certain
critical radius the concentration becomes infinite, so that the cell
could no longer exist. Using reasonable values for the various con-
centrations of the solutes initially, he finds that the critical radius is
2University of Chicago Press.
8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
approximately one one hundredth of a centimeter, which is a quite sat-
isfactory order of magnitude considering the assumptions.
Next, adding more detail to the picture, he assumes the mem-
brane to be semi-permeable. Within the cell are small colloidal
particles which catalyse reactions within the cell. Examining the
forces involved in the cell, we see that there are forces upon the col-
loidal particles and the molecules of the liquid resulting from diffusion
gradients which produce resultant pressures upon the surface mem-
brane which tend to cause it to expand against the forces of surface
tension. Treating it from the standpoint of energy, he carries the cell
through a process of expansion to infinite size and recondensation into
two half-cells. He thus gets an expression for the change in energy
when the cell divides. He finds that this change is positive for a cell
below a certain critical radius, and negative above. Thus above this
critical radius the cell would be unstable, and would tend to divide.
Taking plausible values for the various quantities involved, he finds
that the critical radius is approximately one one thousandth of a cen-
timeter, which is the average order of magnitude of cells. Thus he
has a model which simulates the process of cellular multiplication.
Following this, he considers several reactions taking place within
the cell, assuming for a particular case a simple splitting of glucose into
lactic acid with subsequent oxidation. The outgoing and incoming
metabolites will have opposing effects on the tendency toward division.
He is able to get an approximate expression for these opposing tenden-
cies in terms of the glycolytic coefficient, or the ratio of the number
of lactic acid molecules produced to the number of oxygen molecules
consumed. This expression shows that the greater the glycolytic coef-
ficient in general the greater is the tendency toward division. He
notes in this connection that the abnormally rapidly dividing cancer
cells have been found to have a high glycolytic coefficient. The divid-
ing factors would be the production of carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
The stabilizing factors would be the inwardly diffusing glucose and
oxygen. His results indicate that a lower sugar such as a pentose
should give a greater stability than a hexose. Under certain condi-
tions it appeared that an increase in the oxygen pressure surrounding
the cell would give greater stability. In this connection he mentions
work in which increased oxygen pressure had been used with some
success in arresting cancer growth.
Time will not permit us to more than mention that he discusses
briefly possible mechanisms of cell mitosis, gives a fairly detailed
mathematical treatment of the various theories of nerve conduction,
excitation, considers models for conditioned reflexes, the gestalt
problem and rational learning and thinking.
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 9
Thus far we have been considering applications of mathematics
in which the benefits derived resulted primarily from the quantitative
aspects. However, in some portions of the various sciences there exist
needs for logical schemes for following out qualitative deductions as to
the relations between individuals and classes. Normally this is done
using the ordinary language facilities augmented by special scientific
terminology. However, because of the ambiguities which occur fre-
quently in the language, and because of the great amount of verbiage
which may be necessary, the following through of a chain of argu-
ments may attain great length and complexity, so that it is difficult
to follow, to say nothing of the danger of going astray because of
ambiguites.
Now there is a branch of mathematics—call it mathematical logic,
or symbolic logic, or the calculus of relations—with which probably
few of us save the logicions or the mathematicians are familiar, even by
hearsay. Quoting freely from Woodger’, it had its beginning in a
dream of Leibniz of a universal symbolic language capable of express-
ing the results of any branch of science, and of a calculus which would
enable reasoning to be conducted in any sciences with the same precis-
ion as has been attained in the mathematical sciences. Developed by
subsequent authors, and reaching its most complete summary in a
monumental work by Russell and Whitehead entitled Principia Mathe-
matica, it has made striking progress toward the goal of Leibniz. It
is an endeavor to find the system of all mathematical systems. Thus,
as an illustration, using only a few postulates, primitive ideas and
propositions taken from logic, Russell and Whitehead are able to
show that all the propositions of arithmetic must follow. A special
notation has been evolved, which to the uninitiated person looks like
a combination of cuneiform, Chinese, Roman and futuristic symbols.
However, as Russell and Whitehead say, words and grammar have
not the unique simplicity necessary to represent the few simple but
exceedingly abstract ideas and processes used in the reasoning follow-
ed. The use of the symbolism in the processes of deduction aids the
intuition in regions too abstract for the imagination readily to pre-
sent to the mind the true relations between the ideas employed. The
mind is led to construct trains of reasoning in regions of thought in
which the imagination would be entirely unable to sustain itself with-
out symbolic help. In a paradoxical play upon the abstractness of the
ideas in which the mathematician frequently deals, Russell says that
“mathematicians are people who never know what they are talking
about, and do not care whether what they say is true.”
2J. H. Woodger, The Axiomatic Method in Biology (Cambridge University
Press, 1937), p. 14. ©
10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Now a biologist, J. H. Woodger, of the University of London, felt
that in biology, as he says, there is a wealth of empirical data with
little system; that many of the chronic controversies are traceable eith-
er to failure to eliminate metaphysical elements from biological topics
or difficulties created by the current biological language; that with a
perfect language there would be no need to dispute, only calculate and
experiment. To him the methods of symbolic logic seemed well fitted
to his purpose, so he took up the study of the work by Russell and
Whitehead with the purpose of adapting it to the needs of biology. He
becomes so enthusiastic about symbolic logic as a tool of investigation
in science, in addition to the ordinary mathematical processes, that he
says: “from the point of view of generality the essentials of the
Principia Mathematica have as good, if not a better, claim to be taught
in schools as the traditional algebra and geometry.” As a result of
his enthusiasm, we have his book “The Axiomatic Method in Biology,”
from which we have been freely quoting, and in which he deals mainly
with the adaptation of symbolic logic to problems of classification and
Mendelian genetics. He first gives an outline of the elements of sym-
bolic logic with its notation. Then he gives thr various axioms to-
gether with resultant theorems necessary for investigation of various
questions along with a suitable symbolic notation. Not all the
theorems are proved, but a few illustrative proofs by symbolic methods
are given.
Quite recently a group of men in this country, led by Clark
L. Hull of Yale, have applied the methods of symbolic logic in psy-
chology. Impressed by Woodger’s work they undertook a study of
the application of these methods to the problem of Rote Learning.
The results of their work are published in a book entitled “The
Mathematico-Deductive Theory of Rote Learning.’ To quote some
of Hull’s remarks as a result of their experience, “The great reason
why qualitative postulates are so unsatisfactory is because they have
so little deductive fertility . . . . One of the most important reasons
for this relative sterility in behavioral situations is that very com-
monly action potentials of opposing sign are operative simultaneously,
and the theoretical outcome is dependent upon which of the op-
posing potentials is dominant. This dominance cannot be determined
until the amount of each separate potential can be represented by
exact symbolism. When the postulates can be written out in equa-
tions .. . . and when in addition the constants making up important
portions of the equations are known from empirical determinations,
the rich store of devices which mathematicians have invented at once
becomes available. Judging from our experience with the present sys-
tem, the change from qualitative to quantitative postulates with
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 11
known constants increases the fertility of the postulate set between ten
and fifty times.” The project was a collaboration of six men, psyscho-
logists and mathematicians, with a procedure somewhat as follows:
the psychologists would hand the mathematicians a tentative set of
theorem propositions, with a request to derive them from a set of
behavioral postulates and definitions previously formulated. The math-
ematicians then, using the methods and symbolism of symbolic logic,
would derive the theorems or send them back when necessary to the
psychologists because the theorems had been found to be inconsistent
with the postulates. In the latter case they would be recast and re-
turned to the mathematicians. In the monograph, after outlining the
experimental procedure in carrying out the tests in Rote Learning,
they give parallel statements in ordinary phraseology and in sym-
bolic notation of the primitive and associated defined terms. Then
follow some eighteen postulates. On the basis of these definitions and
postulates fifty-four theorems and many corrollaries are derived. Hull
closes the work with these remarks: “despite its evident difficulties,
we hope that it will at least serve as a concrete large scale demon-
stration of what we mean when we speak of systematic theory in the
social sciences. It expresses our conviction that only by using the
logical as well as the empirical component of the complete logico-
empirical methodology will the social sciences approach the predictive
power and practical significance now characteristic of the physical
sciences. It is true that behavioral phenomena are more complex and
problems involving them are more difficult of solution. This but
emphasizes the need of the social sciences for the most powerful tools
available.”
Passing now to economics, the use of mathematics to any appre-
ciable extent had its beginning in the work of Augustin Cournot, in a
treatise on the “Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth”
in 1838. He was an able mathematician, having been professor of
mathematics at Lyons, and he published a number of papers in mathe-
matics as well as in economics and logic. As Cournot says, ‘‘this work
sets forth not only theoretical researches, it shows that I also intend
to apply to them the forms ond symbols of mathematical analysis
. a plan likely, I confess, to draw on me at the outset the con-
demnation of theorists of repute. The solution of the general questions
which arise from the theory of wealth depends essentially not on ele-
mentary algebra but on that branch of analysis which comprises ar-
bitrary functions which are merely restricted to satisfying certain
conditions ... . the first principles of differential and integral calculus
suffice for understanding this little treatise.”’ Cournot’s work is classic,
12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and provided the essential basis of much of the work of later
economists.
Closely following Cournot came Jevons and Walras, of England
and France respectively, both using mathematical methods quite in-
dependently of each other, but paralleling in many of their results,
developing the idea of marginal utility and using it as the basis of their
theories. Jevons was quite an ardent crusader in behalf of the use of
mathematics, though Walras seems to have made more extensive use
of it. As Jevons says: “my theory of economics is purely mathematical
in character. Nay, believing that the quantities with which we deal
must be subject to continuous variation, I do not hesitate to use the
appropriate branch of mathematical science, involving as it does the
fearless consideration of infinitely small quantities.” We might inter-
polate here that a certain school of modern governmental economists
seems equally fearless in the contemplation of infinitely large quantities.
Succeeding these men, there have been many following in their
steps in considering fundamental economic theory with a fearless use
of the appropriate branches of mathematics. And of course, in addi-
tion to this theoretical work there is the enormous amount of statistical
work which is carried on continually by private, educational and
governmental agencies.
As a result of all this, we find books written especially for the
economists in which the most frequently used portions of mathematics
have been selected and presented together with illustrative problems
chosen from economic fields. By scanning briefly some of the more
important section headings in a recent book of this type by R. G. D.
Allen, of the London School of Economics, “Mathematical Analysis
for Economists,” we can form an idea of the scope of the mathematics
employed most commonly. We note:—functions and their diagram-
matic representation, analytic geometry, derivatives and integrals,
maxima and minima, differential equations, infinite series, calculus of
variations, and determinants.
I shall not attempt to follow out this question any further, but
I think it may safely be said that as time passes the pages of the
economics journals and texts will continually find a more liberal
sprinkling of mathematical symbols possibly to the point of rivaling
the situation in physics and chemistry.
Before closing, I should like to call attention to the fact that
Rashevsky has been led into the field of social science by a continu-
ance of his work upon biological theory, in that as he passes from
the single cell to aggregates of cells he naturally comes to the question
of the behavior of complex organisms, such as man, in their reactions
to each other and their environment. He argues that in the same man-
THE USE OF MATHEMATICS IN THE SCIENCES 13
ner in which the purely abstract geometries of Euclid, Lobatschevsky
and Riemann have proved to be of utility in applied theories (for
instance much of Einstein’s work would have been impossible without
Riemann’s previous developments), so an abstract theory of possible
human relations is desirable before concrete theories can be fully
developed. On simple assumptions as to influences of individuals on
each other’s activities, he is led through work involving integral equa-
tions to formulae on class stability, etc.
Also, in a more personal sense, I should like to mention that one
of our own members, Dr. M. D. Anderson, has published a number of
papers, making a free use of mathematics, treating the fundamental
theory of Savings and Investments, Distribution of Wealth, Wages,
and Employment. I believe, also, that here we have another happy
illustration of cooperation of the departments of Economics and
Mathematics.
In closing, I should like to acknowledge gratefully my indebted-
ness to our fellow members of the Academy, M. D. Anderson, R. F.
ellamy, J. H. Kusner, for ideas developed in discussion and for sug-
gestions as to reference material.
NOTES ON THE EMERGENCE AND LIFE
HISTORY OF THE DEAGONFE®
PANTALA FLAVESCENS
C. Francis BYERS
Depariment of Biology, University of Florida
During the closing months of the year 1939, an unusual oppor-
tunity arose to study with some precision certain aspects of the
metamorphosis and life history of one of the most omnipresent
dragonflies—Pantala flavescens (Fabricius).
At this time, the cast skins (exuviae) of the larvae (nymphs)
of this dragonfly were appearing in large numbers on the walls of
Glen Springs—a sand-bottom, spring-fed, swimming pool near the
University of Florida Campus. Not only was the location close enough
to visit frequently, but the pool presented an enclosed environment,
limited and exact in area, depth, water volume, etc., that could be
studied with comparative ease. Moreover, the emerging nymphs, rep-
resenting quite a population, were all of this one species. While adults
of quite a number of other species of Odonata were flying over the
pool only P. flavescens, one of the hardiest of known dragonflies,
was using it for breeding purposes.
Some previous work has been done on phases of the natural
history of Pantala. C. B. Wilson” has observations, included along
with other species of Odonata, on the number of cast skins, breeding
habits, etc. Laura Lamb, in 1925° and 1929°, has published the
results of her research on the larval stages of Pantala, including in-
formation on the number of instars, length of nymphal life, etc.
Other writers have contributed also.
It is my desire to supplement and check this work (especially
the work done in the laboratory) from direct field observations made
by means of the favorable conditions existing at Glen Springs, where
some quantitive information seemed to be available.
My chief regret is that my data should have to be published
after only one year of work. Repair activities of the pool, especially
the cementing of the bottom, made it impossible to carry on for
*C. B. Wilson, “Dragonflies and Damselflies in Relation to Pondfish Cul-
ture, With a List of Those Found Near Fairport, Iowa,” Bull. Bureau of Fisheries,
Vol. 36, Document No. 882 (1920), pp. 182-260.
Laura Lamb, “A Tabular Account of the Differences Between the Earlier
Instars of Pantala Flavescens,” Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. 50 (1925), pp.
289-312.
Laura Lamb, “Later Larval Instars of Pantala,” Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.
Vol. 55 (1929), pp. 331-334.
14
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 15
the two or three additional years that would perhaps have succeeded in
bringing facts and figures to answer the many questions still in doubt.
PANTALA FLAVESCENS
Pantala flavescens was described under the name Libellula
flavescens by Fabricius in 1798 and was placed in the genus Pantala
by Hagen in 1861. The nymph was first characterized by Cabot in
1890 and was more fully described by Needham in 1901". The genus
contains one other species, the American P. hymenea (Say).
Pantala belongs to the dragonfly family Libellulidae and together
with such genera as Tramea, Macrodiplax and Miathyria constitutes the
most highly specialized and evolved group within the order Odonata.
P. flavescens is, in general, a cosmopolitan dragonfly generally
rare but occuring sporadically in large numbers; is usually most
abundant in the summer and early fall. It is a diurnal species most
frequently associated with ponds, marshes, or open fields.
Muttkowski° gives the distribution of P. flavescens as follows:
“Cosmopolitan (circumequatorial); all continents, except Europe
(Italy?) ; N. Amer.: Alleghanian to Tropic; Me. & N. Dak. to Cal. &
Fla.; W. Indies; Mex., C. Amer.”
Dr. Needham* writes about this species as follows: “as reported
not only from all parts of the globe but from nearly all varieties of
habitat. Muttkowski has found it flying from July to September near
rivers, lakes, ponds, in woods, and in open places. Davis has seen it
flying in great numbers over an oat field, and has observed a female
Ovipositing in a ditch of brackish water by a roadside.”
F. C. Fraser’, writing on the Odonata of Samoa remarks, “Many
specimens (were) taken principally during September, when the species
indulges in migration.”
Davis and Fluno’, in discussing the Odonata of Winter Park,
Florida, state that P. flavescens is, ‘‘Fairly common at various times,
Apr. to Dec.”
I have captured adult P. flavescens in Alachua County, Gaines-
ville, Florida, from July to December, but until the Glen Springs ma-
“James G. Needham, “Aquatic Insects of the Adirondacks,” Bull. N. Y.
State Museum, No. 47 (1901), pp. 384-596.
5R. A. Muttkowski, “Catalogue of the Odonata of North America,” Bull.
Public Mus. Milwaukee, Vol. 1 (1910), pp. 1-207.
*James G. Needham and H. B. Heywood, A Handbook of the Dragonflies
of North America (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1929).
on C. Fraser, Insects of Samoa: Odonata (London: William Clowes Sons,
°E. M. Davis and J. A. Fluno, “The Odonata of Winter Park, Florida,”
Ent. News, Vol. 49 (1938), pp. 44-47.
16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
terial turned up, have not found either adult or numph in large num-
bers. In addition, I have records for the species from Manatee and Dade
Counties, also ranging from July to December; records from Key
West made in July; and some specimens taken, along with P. hymenea,
at Ware Shoals, South Carolina, as early as the last week in June.
The adults and nymphs of this species are easy to identify,
being conspicuously marked and quite distinct.
GLEN SPRINGS
Glen Springs is a swimming pool located about one mile north,
on U. S. 441, and a half-mile west of Gainesville, Florida. The pool
is fed by a spring, which is a part of it, and is situated in a wooded
ravine. The pool overflow forms a sand-bottom stream meandering
through a magnolia hammock. 7
The swimming pool has an over-all measurement of approximately
40 x 300 feet and contains roughly 500,000 gallons of water, with a
rate of flow of 10,000 gallons an hour. The pool is divided into three
sections, each of which is rectangular in shape and somewhat angled
in relation to the others—thus the three rectangles do not lie in a
straight line. The deep section is 40 x 125 feet and has water 7-10
feet deep. The central section is 40 x 100 feet and has water 3-5 feet
deep. The shallow section is 75 x 40 narrowing to 35 feet and has
water 2-1.5 feet deep. At the end of the shallow portion is the spring.
The walls of the pool are of cement with cross-walls separating
the three portions. The flow of water is uninterrupted between the
three sections. At the time this study was undertaken, the bottom of
the pool was of white sand. During the summer of 1940 a cement
bottom was put in and extensive repairs were made. This work was
started in April and was not completed until August.
Glen Springs is regularly open for swimming from May until
about the middle of September. During the swimming season the
pool is drained once a week and the walls are cleaned. In addition,
‘“Perchloron” a commercial product containing not less than 70%
calcium hypochlorate was used once a week as a water disinfectant.
Thus during the summer the pool was devoid of aquatic life as far as
appearances could be relied upon.
OBSERVATIONS ON EMERGENCE
On September 28, 1939, in search for Protozoa culture for a
Biology laboratory, I visited and first noted the cast skins of Pantala
flavescens clinging to the walls of the Glen Springs swimming pool.
Again, on a like mission, I saw them now quite numerous, in middle
October. However, it was not until the middle of November that
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 17
time and opportunity allowed me to collect these cast skins and begin
the day-by-day observations upon which this paper is based.
On November 11, 1939, all the cast skins on the north walls of
the three sections of the pool were gathered, a total of 150 (see table).
From November 11, until the last skin appeared, almost daily
visits were made to collect the new crop of exuvia. On each visit the
walls would be cleaned of the current crop. On some days as many
as two or three visits were made to check on time as well as rate of
emergence. Data were obtained on: (1) the number of cast skins
appearing daily on the three sections of north wall (2) the number
of nymphs in the process of emergence (3) the number of dead and
alive adults of Pantala around the pool (4) other adult Odonata
in the pool’s environs (5) the accumulating aquatic life within the
pool, which became rapidly more abundant and complicated as the
pool ceased being used (6) the time of day, temperature, and general
weather conditions.
On December 9, as the wave of emergence began to decline, I
gathered the cast skins from the remaining walls of the three sections
of the pool. From the south, east, west walls (there were no skins on
the cross walls separating the pool’s sections) 291 skins were obtained
(see table).
From December 9 to December 23 records of emerging nymphs
were obtained for the east, south and west walls as well as for the
north wall (see table).
The last nymph emerged on December 23. From that date until
January 20 the frequent visits were maintained. After January 20
the number of visits were cut down to one or two a week until repair
work began on the pool in April. During the late spring, the summer
and the fall of 1940, visits continued at the rate of about once a week,
but somewhat irregularly spaced, to check on appearance and possible
mating and egg laying of adult P. flavescens.
The pool was drained for first time since swimming had stopped
in September on February 13, 1940. At this time the bottom and the
accumulated algal mats were carefully examined for Odonata larvae.
No dragonfly larvae of any species were found. The pool was again
drained on March 19. Another examination of the bottom again
failed to reveal any sign of Odonata larvae. On April 10, the pool was
finally drained for the work of cementing the bottom, thus destroying
any chance of repeating my 1939-40 observations in subsequent years.
The following table gives the important data obtained in this
study. Additional data used in this paper are recorded in my field
notes covering the period of the study.
18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 1.—Pantala Record from North Walls of Glen Springs
T |DS |CS | SS |Emerging Adults | Temp. | Days
Date Time Cast skins” Part | Entire |Mx.Mn.|
Nov. 11 [10:30AM] 150 [103] 43] 4 | 84 60 |sun
Leer 2:00PM! ol. oF ol oO 2
aa Ae 82 G4QvANE|. We Si) “Siete ne | $3: 6a
ago (1200 N OL? Olea a ”
ena 5-OOPM |) FO "Ol x0) 6 ”
es iO:00VANT Wt Al OLS 61 59 |rain, wind
24s OZOO AML)! Al” 2/"yZP) 0 75 56 ae
he 2:30 PM 2 2 0 0 sun, wind
eT Ste | LOAd SAM, | Glive Zh WSs 78 59 |sun
EAGT yh |LO:sOANt 41) El hed ‘
POLS 2-30'PME| 50) (Or Gls we 1S Grae
wet, ie 1O:4S AM AGS tt ana D 74 64|”
7h dual 11:00 AM 4 3 1 0 80 63 |heavy rain
Lap 6 (Cj 10:30 AM 4 1 2 0} lalive 75 59 |sun
On TOGO 14 Gly Gln 3dead |73 48] ”
PY bu Ol 10:30 AM| 17 8 5 1| 3 alive 4
LP nosy 2-30.P IM) Sit) Or 7s 1 dead 66> 52.0"
ree 22 tO? S0/AME) JES. Siesihw cee 65 Si”
1 P24 3:00) PM) 43 4 4 3} 2 dead 66 43 |cloudy
eo aS 1:15 PM 2 1 O| O| 1lalive 63 52] ” , wind
a 26 LOS SOLANE|: PS. 4) ale ae 58: 38h “
2 NOLS AM 6S) 6 eS ao |5 teneral| 67 29 |sun
pi2S|10:30:- AM |) 1) Ole s0)) Oly abdead 75 30
a 629 1:30PM} Ss! (1) 2 96) 2abve 76 46) 7
530 110:30 AM) 5|>. 2) 92] Gl a dena 78 Spe
Decay 1 1:30PM| 10 4 4 2 1. 2 12 Cn
” Zi HITS O0; AVE ihe aSt) ede wae 4 62. AO
ae) 3 £0200 ANT, 41" Si OP 10) setera lz 35%
A O30 AME? (vile. Ol) Ole vOhaivdead 690: AD
7 a5), 11 SO0; ANE LE seOleuel o| 76. 47 |e?
sy 62) 1O:30'ANE EP Gon vOut 76: Le?
a 7. | 1O:00'ANE! Ht Uh Weng 75.44%
ry Oi) 5200 PMily 5) Aah a gO) lee 76 Saou
2 10. 1) (11300 AM) \ 6 Siis bi) Ol ea peand 784 S6ul es
avs (3 1:00 PME 3S) 6S ie 72 SAG
hm bd 3:00 PM 1 Mies Pane efi 75 44 |cloudy
sual S 3:00 PM Ly Abel eco 63 37 |sun
wees TT O0 ANT) 0) (Ol Olme 74) WS2 ee
VAG. PLEOOUAM | “219 Glen ret 7S G2
i AF) TE OO ANE! : Ol) SOO 77 A8\ee
LOT 2:00 PM) Oh) BOl, Olen 79) Santee
7 108 111-00 AMT” (0) SO PO ad 65 60|”
720.) 11 O0VANE | 50) SO eOlonee 68° 307) 2
P22. 1A OO sAIVE 1 Lee) 72 ao ae
PO i23y i |hORSO Aue oly 2G 72.50 ee
*Under the column headed “cast skins’: T=total number collected on the
day in question. This included both cast skins and partially emerged adults, but
does not include adults entirely emerged. DS, CS, SS=skins from deep, central
and shadow sections of the pool respectively. The temperature readings were
made at University of Florida Experiment Station by Prof. J. R. Watson.
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 19
TABLE 1.—(Continued)
Date | Time | Cast skins® Emerging Adults | Temp. | Days
fr ps ics | Ss Part | Entire |Mx.Mn.|
» 24 [10:30 AM ° | 4 °
(ee 25-Jan.20 }................. Cheapo. (6 | Fe ees |
Pantala Record from South, East and West Walls
Dec. 9 as above | 291| 163|] 87| 41 as above
p 10 7 4 2 1 0 ig
ad ily is 4 1 2 1 ay
ee i CS ae R
i 13 oF '@) 0 (@) 0 ”»
« 14 ” 0 (0) 0 0 ”
16 “5 0 10) 0 0 ay
" 17 # 2 0 2 0 y '
18 # 1 1 0 0 Be
a 19 ad 2 2 0 0 oy,
bad 20 ae i 1 0 0 a
» 29 ” r@) 0 0 0 ”
ae as 1 1 0 0 »
” 24 ”” 0 0 0 re) ”
eG aa TANZO! | ...0-ceccc-.--. 0 Of. 0 0 ZN BE US
The total number of skins collected during the fall of 1939 (Nov.
11-Dec. 23) was 634, distributed as follows:
Skins on north walls Nov. 11 150
Skins collected from north walls Nov. 11 - Dec 23 171
North walls total= 321
Skins on remaining walls Dec. 9 291
Skins collected from remaining walls Dec. 9 - 23 22
313
Because of the protected nature of the walls of the pool, the above
figures probably are quite accurate. Some few skins undoubtedly were
lost but these could not have been many.
The place of maximum emergence was the deep section of the
pool. Primarily, the shallower waters of the deep section (7-8 ft.) and,
secondarily, the deeper waters of the central section (5 ft.) gave the
largest yield. The distribution in the three sections is as follows:
Skins collected from deep section (DS) 364 (57%)
Skins collected from central section (CS) 193 (29%)
Skins collected from shallow section (SS) 61 (10%)
The flow of water from the shallow to the deep section would in part
account for this distribution, but, I believe, only in part.
20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The daily average rate of emergence was between 4-5 skins’’.
The maximum emergence observed was between November 20-24
and again on December 1.
It is of interest to note here that the nymphs for the next day’s
crop could be seen clinging to the walls a few feet below the water
level. This was particularly true for observations made in the after-
noon. The nymphs would swim close to the bottom and on contacting
the base of the walls begin slowly to climb them, coming to rest as
they neared the water line.
Emergence usually took place either at night or, most probably,
in the early morning. However, an examination of the table will indi-
cate that this was not always true. Thus on:
Nov. 14, 4 skins were collected at 10 AM. and 2 more at 2:30 PM.
Nov. 19, 1 of the four collected was seen emerging at 10:30 AM.
Nov. 21, 3 of the 17 collected were seen emerging at 10:30 AM. and at
2:30 PM. 4 additional skins were collected, one of which con-
tained a partially emerged but dead adult.
Nov. 25, 1 of the 2 collected was seen emerging at 1:15 PM.
Nov. 29, 3 of the 5 collected were seen emerging at 1:30 PM.
Emergence mortality was low. Less than one quarter of one percent
(9) died during the process of transformation and only three dead
tenerals were seen, these floating on the water. Of the 16 partially
emerged adults listed in the table, 6 were collected dead and 3 died
during the next 24 hours. In all cases, nymphs in the process of
transformation were circled with a pencil mark on the wall, dated and
left until either dead or completely emerged. Usually death occured
when the adult had emerged to the point where the top of the head
and thorax were out of the skin, but legs, wings and abdomen were
still in.
The partially emerged adult taken on November 28 was of special
interest because it had begun to emerge about a foot below the water
line and had progressed to the head-thorax point before death overtook
it. On that day the air temperature was colder than the water and no
other skins were found. Usually, of course, the nymph, before
beginning transformation, would crawl well above the water level, a
few inches to a foot or more. At times cast skins would be found
clinging to each other three and four deep.
This low emergence mortality is somewhat at variance with com-
monly accepted notions which stress the great danger to the dragon-
flies at this point in their life history. The nature of the environment
*°Tf this rate prevailed prior to Nov. 11, emergence began about September
11 or some 60 days previous (counting 150 skins from north walls and 142 from
remaining walls for Nov. 11). This date tallies with the time the pool was
closed for swimming.
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 21
in the present case is partially responsible for the low number of
casualties; the lack of a shore fauna and of aquatic predators would
contribute substantially to this result. Also, Pantala flavescens is a
highly successful species of dragonfly and perhaps owes this success in
part to inherent vigor and ability to withstand adverse conditions in
general. Pre-emergence mortality was impossible to determine. How-
ever, no dead nymphs were found which had not at least started to
transform. It would be interesting to make a comparative study with
other species of Odonata under similar conditions to check these
findings.
With the exception of the one nymph just mentioned (which be-
gan emergence under water), temperature and general weather condi-
tions seemed to have no direct correlation with emergence. Tendencies
were noted, always with exception, that cool and cold weather was asso-
ciated with decline in rate of emergence, with late morning and after-
noon emergence, and with increased mortality. The table gives the
maximum and minimum daily air temperatures. No attempt was
made to get water temperature. However, as the pool is spring fed,
the temperature of the water should not vary much; except for the
top few inches, it was probably between 78-80° F.
OBSERVATIONS ON LIFE HISTORY
Emergence is only one of the events in the life history of the
Odonata. Mating, egg-laying, development of the egg and nymph, the
natural history of the nymph and adult, and the length of the life-cycle
are other aspects of the story.
Adult P. flavescens were rarely seen at Glen Springs and its
neighboring territory. During the year or more of observing, no
adults beyond the teneral stage of development were seen flying
around or over the pool. Twice adults were observed along the road
leading to the springs, both times in September, 1940.
In the few instances where transformation was actually watched,
as soon as the teneral (soft) adults were fully hardened they would
fly off toward an open field and disappear. What eventually hap-
pened to the 600 or more that thus left the pool’s environs, I do not
know. One guess, which is only partially satisfactory, is migration.
However, I have no data to support this contention other than sea-
sonal periodicity of the species and the remarks of other authors.
One thing is certain, these adults moved away from the area of the
pool and its surrounding territory, thus mating and ovipositing
were not observed taking place at Glen Springs.
For Odonata nymphs, the more important factors brought about
by the unique nature of the pool were created by the drainage and
22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sterilization of the water during the summer season. and by the source,
nature and amount of food.
The weekly draining and sterilizing could not have been insuper-
able barriers to the existance of very young nymphs of P. flavescens as
many nymphs had completed their development and were ready for
metamorphosis about the time that the pool was closed for the season.
The draining was never so complete as to allow the sand of the bot-
tom to become completely dry and while these nymphs are not sand
burrowers (like Progomphus for example) they could have existed in
the loose wet sand and perhaps have fed on organic material caught in
it. The sterilizing also may not have been fatal to more than a por-
tion of the population. Thus eggs deposited in the pool during July
and August, the most probable time, had, almost certainly, to
survive and hatch in some numbers at least.
The food problem is another matter. During July, August and
early September available food for the later instars must have been
wanting or very rare and even for early instars could not have been
overly abundant. From middle September until the pool was drained
in February the food supply increased in kind and amount until the
environment was more similar to that of a natural pond. There was
therefore no food problem for nymphs coming on toward maturity
during this later period.
C. B. Wilson’, Alfred Warren’ and others have made studies of
the food habits of the Odonata nymphs. Warren found that the nymphs
of P. flavescens would eat practically anything given to them when they
were fed under confined artificial laboratory conditions probably less
rigorous than those prevailing at Glen Springs during the summer
months. To establish the normal food habits, Warren examined the
alimentary canals of 253 Odonata nymphs (Anax junius and Pantala
flavescens) and published an extensive list of aquatic organisms found
therein. His list includes Mollusca (snails), beetles (Dvytiscidae),
chironomid larvae and adults, mosquito larvae and adults, other flies,
bugs, Crustacea (Cypris and shrimps), other Odonata and Protozoa. C.
B. Wilson* published a more detailed list which includes the above and
other aquatic organisms. From these studies the leading articles of
diet seem to be algae, protozoa, snails, and chironomid larvae.
Laura Lamb™ while studying the early larval instars of P. flaves-
cens stated, “During the first instar no food was given; during the sec-
ond and third instars Paramecium and small mosquito larvae formed the
0p. cit.
22Alfred Warren, “A Study of the Food Habits of the Hawaiian Dragonflies or
Oinou,” College of Hawaii Pub., Bull. No. 3 (1915), pp. 1-45.
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 23
food. The remaining stages fed upon mosquito larvae and small
crustaceans until the tenth instar, when pieces of earthworm and may-
fly larvae were supplied. In the eleventh instar a small fish was
eaten.”
These accounts of the food habits indicate the existence of star-
vation conditions at Glen Springs until the middle of September. When
I first visited the pool on September 28 it was for the purpose of
obtaining protozoa material and the water samples taken into the
laboratory were fairly rich in both ciliates and algae (mostly diatomes).
By mid-November, algae were abundant with thick, heavy sub-
merged mats of the filamentous types forming. Adult chironomids
were common on the walls of the pool above the water level. Late in
November and continuing until about December 15 there was a heavy
emergence of may-flies (Callibaetis floridanus), a species which, I am
told, has one of the shortest (5-6 weeks) cycles of the group. In late
November snails (Planorbis) made their appearance and became fairly
plentiful. A few cray-fish (Cambarus clarkie peninsularus) were noted
in December and January as were also some small fish. Gyrinidae
were common on the surface from October on. Spiders were on the
walls most of the time but apparently did no harm to the living
dragonflies.
The 634 cast skins collected at Glen Springs represent that many
successful larval lives which means that at least some 292 (approxi-
mate numbers on the walls on Nov. 11 when daily collecting began)
of them must have started life under extremely adverse conditions,
with only one factor in their favor—the lack of predators. Perhaps
they all started out together, the result of one ovipositing female (the
rarity of adults would suggest this) and the late comers were the less
hardy and slower developing. Thus due to drainage, sterilization and
early lack of food the pre-emergence mortality may have been great.
How many days does P. flavescens require to develop from the egg
to the time of metamorphosis and through how many instars does the
growing nymph pass? The most exact information on this question is
given by Laura Lamb**. Lamb concludes that there are twelve instars
in all. She found that the first batch of material that she worked
with*® took 90 days to reach the 10th instar and pass into the 11th
(at which time they died). The 12th instar’ required 30-32 days—
“which would be one-fourth of the total life of the nymph.”’ She would
thus assign approximately 120 days or four months for the life-cycle.
Op. cit.
Op. cit.
24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Warren** gives the number of instars for his Hawaiian material as
10-12 which were passed on an average of 80 days, or only two-thirds
as long as Lamb’s Pennsylvania specimens.
What effect does temperature and available food have on the
number of instars and the length of time required for the life-cycle?
Lamb believes that there may be some correlation and states, “This
difference in time of year (at which material was collected) might
make some unexplaned differences in the number of days.’ A com-
parison of Lamb’s and Warren’s figures also tends to make one be-
lieve this might be true.
In view of the above, the Florida material would probably have
a shorter cycle. However, it must be remembered that the Glen
Springs water temperature did not fluctuate (except at the surface)
very much, but that the available food supply was lowest in July,
August and September, becoming plentiful from October on.
The first cast skins were seen at Glen Springs on September 28th
(some may have been present a week or so earlier). Thus, some eggs
must have been laid not later than the second week of July—about
the time at which adults are usually first seen in this part of Florida
Assuming this, development must have been going on while the pool
was still being used for swimming.
The last cast skin was collected on December 23rd and when the
pool was drained in February no nymphs were present in the bottom
sands. The eggs from which the December nymphs developed could
have been laid at the same time as those giving rise to the September
crop, providing adverse conditions could retard some individuals that
much; they could not have been laid much later than October Ist
(84 days).
We know, from the fact of its wide geographic distribution, that
P. flavescens is an extremely hardy and ecologically tolerant animal;
also, from the work of Lamb and Warren, that the life-cycle is quite
short (the usual Odonate cycle is given as 18 months). This, along
with these observations made at Glen Springs, indicates, beyond doubt,
that the species has amazing powers of adaptability—it was the only
dragonfly breeding in the pool”.
ASOD. cit.
18O>d. cit.
Op. cit.
Op. cit.
1°The thought was suggested that the eggs of Pantala were not laid in the
pool but were carried in by the springs, by way of underground waters. This
is possible, but my observations of the springs themselves make it hardly probable.
At no time did cast skins appear on the walls surrounding the springs proper, either
last year or this (the cementing of the pool bottom did not affect the springs).
Also, as the water is very clear, nymphs could easily have been seen if they were
present. Again, why one species only, if carried in?
NOTES ON THE DRAGONFLY PANTALA FLAVESCENS 25
OTHER DRAGONFLIES
As already indicated, no larvae of the order Odonata were found
at Glen Springs except those of P. flavescens. However, during the
time I spent at the pool, I observed quite a list of adult dragonflies
and damselflies—usually the common ones that were seasonably abun-
dant such as Anax junius, Tramea carolina, Pachydiplax longipennis,
Mesothemis simplicicollis, Ischnura ramburii, Argia fumipennis, etc.
Among the more interesting adults taken were:
Enallagma cardenium on Dee: 13, 1939,
Hetaerina titia on Dec. 4, 1939.
Somatochlora filosa on Dec..12, 1939.
Cordulegaster maculatus on Aug. 12, 1940.
Progomphus obscurus on Aug. 12, 1940 (an unusually late
date).
These dragonflies represent a stream fauna and were probably breed-
ing in the stream below the pool.
VISUAL EDUCATION IN THE BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Jay F. W. PEARSON
University of Miami
Most workers in the field of biology have been inclined to look
with sympathy upon those interested in the life sciences who are
forced to display their efforts to the public. Such displays have, for
the most part, in America, been handled by our landscape garden-
ers, Our circuses, our zoos, and our natural history museums. Some
biologists have been gifted in the art of writing for the layman, and
the public has thus had some insight into biological studies that it
would otherwise not gain. However, our biologists as a group have
been rather inarticulate, and have confined their efforts to scientific
publications and the satisfactions resulting from a job well done
in the laboratory and suitably reported in some journal or at some
scientific meeting.
The result has been that most Americans confuse the field of
biology with the field of chemistry, and think that the biologist
is either an animal trainer, or someone who works with test tubes,
in accord with the best advertisements which picture scientists at work
demonstrating the value of certain commercial products.
It was my privilege, in 1933, to pioneer the demonstration of
certain biological principles and processes to many millions of peo-
ple, by way of the biological exhibits shown in the Hall of Science
of A Century of Progress at Chicago during that summer and the
summer of 1934. Certain highlights of this work have been reported
- elsewhere.
In February of 1938 I was called to the University of California
at Berkeley, to take charge of the biological exhibits in science which
were to be prepared by the University of California, as part of the
basic science section of the Golden Gate International Exposition,
held on Treasure Island last summer and continuing through this
summer.
Though the time for preparation was limited to one year, and
funds and space were both reduced from the amounts available at
Chicago, it was possible to bring together a visual demonstration of
certain highlights of various biological sciences, which, in many
ways, proved to be an improvement over the initial effort as produced
at Chicago several years earlier.
Sections or exhibits were drawn from the fields of anthropology,
geology and paleontology, zoology and oceanography, evolution and
heredity, botany, and medicine. Exhibits were also prepared in the
26 ©
VISUAL EDUCATION IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 27
physical sciences, but these were not my primary concern, being com-
petently handled by other men.
At Chicago the goal had been to ‘“‘tell a story” selected from each
of the sciences. At Treasure Island, it was possible to tell certain
stories, but more often it was more effective and more feasible to
highlight certain principles or interesting features drawn from the
sciences mentioned, and present them in such a way that the visitor,
through these visual efforts, would gain some knowledge about some
one fact or phenomenon. The visitor then would realize the wealth of
research that has been carried on by the sciences. He would under-
stand clearly that each of the fields of science illustrated could com-
mand the respect of every thinking person, whether he had been
trained in science or whether his life interests had been guided in
other directions.
Insofar as funds and space were available, I made every effort
to provide color, attractiveness, and human interest, making the
exhibits dynamic, and giving the visitor an opportunity to participate
in them if it proved feasible.
Color was handled lavishly, to give variety and interest. So-called
“rules” concerning the legibility of colored letters, as advanced by
some psychologists, were broken at every turn, to give variety to
hand-lettered panels. White letters were used on black, blue and green.
Yellow letters were used on various shades of blue, green, and red.
Black letters were used on any background, as needed.
Painted murals and panels and transparencies were placed against
backgrounds of many different colors. A hundred and forty-five
transparent, colored photographs, properly illuminated, added light
as well as color to the displays.
The exhibit structure itself was handsomely colored, while the
presence of carpet on all floor-space added to the appearance of the
exhibit and to the comfort of visitors. Indirect lighting was the rule,
with most counter exhibits mounted at a height of three feet and
a half for easy viewing.
To better illustrate the type of exhibit presented we may use
the Botany Section as an example. The first unit in Botany dealt
with the reproductive functions of the flowering plants. The major
feature of this exhibit was a large mechanized panel which I had
built for A Century of Progress and was able to rent back from its
purchaser, the Buffalo Museum of Science. This large panel showed a
cluster of three giant gladiolus flowers, with one flower sectioned
to show stamens and pistil, the male and female flower organs. When
the visitor pressed a pushbutton at the rail protecting this exhibit,
a pollen grain moved down from the anther and came to rest on
28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the stigma of the pistil. A lighted slot representing the developing
pollen tube then began to grow down the pistil until it reached an
ovule in the ovary. At this point a transparency in the side of the
panel was lighted, showing an enlarged drawing of the details of the
ovule’s anatomy, with pollen tube entering it.
After a few seconds this panel turned to show a second stage
of nuclear change, then a third, and finally an ovule transformed
into a seed with its developed and resting embryonic plant. Lights of
course then went off and the exhibit returned to its original state.
Surrounding this exhibit were various panels and models of flower
and seed types with various prepared specimens on a narrow counter
below the main panel.
The second Botany unit dealt with photosynthesis. It consisted
of four panels, representing four stages in enlargement of a section
of a leaf of the corn plant, ending with a huge chloroplastid in bas-
relief. The two center panels were mechanized, the first of these
showing a greatly enlarged leaf section under a greatly enlarged hand
lens. Cells were two or more inches in length and were cut away to
permit various pith balls simulating oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor to move in and out of the stomata and move inside the
leaf space. I had constructed this exhibit originally to run under
compressed air but at Buffalo it had been found necessary to mount
many of the simulated molecules on threads, so that they merely
quivered in front of a fan, but did not dash madly about as when
the exhibit was first made.
A cell of the leaf was then enlarged to two feet in height for the
second mechanized panel. Here, by moving tapes, with punched holes
and colored back lights, streams of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
manufactured food could be shown moving into and out of the cell
at the sites of chloroplastids, in a daytime and nighttime sequence.
Thus it was possible to demonstrate that plants breathe as we do, and
that they breathe all the time, but only make food when there is suf-
ficient light.
The third Botany unit showed the circulation of fluids in the
bast and xylem of a trunk or stem, with colored liquid moving in
glass tubes in a plaster model trunk. Stem uses were also illustrated
on panels.
The fourth unit was built for us by the Buffalo Museum and
sent on with the ones we rented from them. It showed by moving
lights the action of the root hairs of a root tip, picking up water con-
taining dissolved minerals and passing it up into the root.
The next unit was highly spectacular. Here in a space rising from
the floor to a height of fourteen feet we presented two groups of
VISUAL EDUCATION IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 29
tomato plants, one group grown in perfect soil, the other in a nu-
trient solution which was constantly aerated. The plants, when moved
in, were ten feet or more in height, supported on giant trellises. They
were in bloom and bore green and ripe tomatoes. They continued to
grow there throughout the fair, through the energy of artifical light,
with one interruption caused by an attack of tobacco mosaic.
When planning this exhibit I had felt that I would be forced to
use Mazda light, with filters and exhaust fans to remove heat. Hear-
ing of the new fluorescent lights I persuaded the General Electric
Company to allow me to try them in growing plants. The results were
spectacular and highly successful. We furnished the light energy
for our indoor plants by building ladders of these new, almost cold,
lights in their 24-inch tubes. Plants could touch them without harm
and by combining tubes colored daylight, white, pink, and blue, we
achieved the nearest thing to sunlight that plants have yet used.
For the growing of plants these new lights proved eighteen times as
effective as Mazda lights, with no heat problem to be controlled. As
an exhibit the plants and their lights were highly effective.
Following them we showed a historical review of early botanical
explorers of California, with paintings depicting them and with glass
mounts showing flowers first collected by each explorer.
A display of desert plants and a comparison of the similarity of
evolution of the Euphorbiaceae and the Cactaceae in different con-
tinents touched on evolution and adaptation.
Then came a display of redwood fossils with a map contrasting
the original world distribution of redwoods with their present restricted
range, followed by a concluding exhibit on the molecular structure of
cellulose and a protein, giving a foundation for the cell structure and
heredity studies that followed.
As the major isolated exhibit in a great circle near the rest of
Botany we displayed twelve units devoted to the demonstration of the
value of various mineral elements in the growth of young tomato
plants. Potassium, calcium, iron, etc., were treated separately, show-
ing the visitor in each case living plants grown with a normal amount
of the element, with a slight deficiency, and with practically com-
plete deficiency. Here all growth was in solution and all light again
came from our new fluorescents.
A final botanical touch was a frieze of giant painted photographs
of typical plant associations or community areas of California, made
up from black and white enlargements, with a color photo guide for
coloring, taken at the same time and spot as the black and white.
Naturally I cannot take equal time to describe the entire display
and will only mention a few others. In Paleontology, the major feature
30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
was a group of six large model-group restorations of ancient animals
of the West, made to 1/6th life size. Each represented a scene
somewhere in the West ranging from hundreds of thousands to hun-
dreds of millions of years ago.
In Anthropology we made a great map showing the continents
and the Pacific Ocean. On this map we traced the major migrations
of seven races of men: Neanderthal, white, black, early Mongolian,
yellow, Australian and Polynesian. The map was illustrated with
over two hundred colored photographs of individuals of these races
or of their restorations. When the visitor pushed the right button the
origin and route of these migrations were slowly unfolded as picture
after picture was lighted and came into view. When the exhibit was
at rest, only the map itself and the colored lines marking routes could
be seen.
In Zoology the feature was the microprojection of living animals
on six large screens in a darkened room that was also soundproofed.
Along with this unit, interesting features were the demonstration of
recent work on the rabbit egg by Dr. Gregory Pincus and the ex-
hibits of living insects including termites, honeybees, and various plant
pests with their control parasites.
In Oceanography I built an ocean, reached by going upstairs,
so that in a darkened chamber the visitor could imagine himself be-
neath the surface of the sea. On a curving, seventy-foot wall, twenty
feet high, I scaled off the ocean colors from surface down, represent-
ing 400 feet to the foot. In this wall transparent colored pictures of
various fishes were shown at their proper depths. Here, too, a sonic
sounder continually sent its echo to the bottom and back to the
ship’s microphones. Curved sound-wave segments were simulated by
segments of red lucite, which lighted in proper sequence on their way
to the bottom and back.
Medicine presented a March of Life. Here highlights of the Uni-
versity of California’s School of Medicine were shown as samples of
medical achievement in various age groups. ‘The visitor learned of
vitamins, human embryology, allergies, calcium deficiency, proper ele-
mentary school medical facilities, thyroid surgery, the differential
growth rates of young boys and young girls, the treatment of arthritis,
the dangers resulting from obesity, the lengthening of human life
through the efforts of medical science, and the hazards of disease that
Man may encounter as he associates with his friends, the animals.
A phonograph record in a Clock of the Ages told of the earth’s
history, as lantern slides presented the changing world epochs and the
minutes and seconds of the clock’s hands illustrated thousands and
millions of years of time.
VISUAL EDUCATION IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES ct
In conclusion I should mention only one of a considerable series
of exhibits in Heredity. This represented the application of principles
of Heredity to Man and was illustrated by ninety-five, twelve-inch
baby dolls, of proper sex, hair color and eye color. Taking dark hair
as a simple dominant to light hair, and brown eyes as a simple dominant
to blue eyes, I made it possible for the visitor to select a wife for one
of the man dolls, a male dihybrid from a cross of a pure dominant male
and a pure recessive female. The four possible wives were phenotypes
of dark hair and brown eyes, dark hair and blue eyes, light hair and
brown eyes, and light hair and blue eyes. When the push-button, cor-
responding in color with the dress of the bride selected, was touched,
they disappeared, the selected bride appeared with the husband, both
in wedding attire, then a suitable row of children appeared, to show
the ratios possible from every possible genotype of the selected
mother.
It was made clear that with the blue-eyed, light-haired mother a
backcross of the hybrid father was made and children of both sexes in
equal numbers of the four phenotypes could be expected. But with
the blue-eyed, brown-haired mother or the dark-eyed, light-haired
mother, two types of women had to be considered in each case, and
hence two different sets of children were shown in each case.
When the dark-haired, dark-eyed mother was selected, she could
be one of four genotypes, including the dihybrid type of her husband.
Forty dolls showed the four possible family combinations of this
cross.
In all, the exhibit at California presented a large number of
contributions by faculties and departments of the university. Many
of these contributions thus became understandable to the public, per-
haps for the first time. It can safely be said that this method of
scientific presentation by exhibits, while expensive, represents one of
the most effective means of bringing scientific contributions and
scientific principles to public attention.
SOURCE MATERIALS FOR FLORIDA
ABORIGINAL ARTIFACTS
J. CLARENCE SIMPSON
Florida Geological Survey
Stone artifacts found in peninsular Florida are of two general
types, those formed by pecking, grinding and rubbing, and those
hammered and chipped by pressure. The first type is usually made
of fine, close-grained, igneous and metamorphic rocks imported from
mountainous regions of Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina, where
the nearest outcrops of such rocks occur. The second type is made of
stone and flint indigenous to the Florida peninsula. Contrary to
the impression entertained by many archeologists, both trained and
amateur, there is an abundance of rock in this part of the state suit-
able for the manufacture of stone implements.
Limestone exposures of Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene rocks
are common along the west coast and central part of the peninsula.
Though the Eocene rocks are commonly a soft, pliable, cream to
white limestone, in places they contain large concretionary boulders
of chert. Where rocks of this age had been eroded the concretions re-
mained as residual boulders and furnished raw material to the early
Floridan Indians. Further to the east and south rocks from the Tampa
and Hawthorn formations of Miocene age furnish large amounts of
silicified fossil material and, in Hillsborough County and other places
in the north-central part of the state, are large fossil coral reefs that
have become extensively chalcedonized. These materials were widely
used in the manufacture of the chipped stone artifacts.
Localities where siliceous rocks occurred were extensively used
with preference for damp areas, since flint and chert chip more easily
when wet. Such quarries existed in Pinellas, Jefferson, Alachua, and
Hillsborough counties. The quarries in Hillsborough county were
the most extensive due possibly to the twofold reason that the ma-
terial was of high quality and because, since it is the southernmost
occurrence of such rocks, it was the source of supply for tribes over
considerable area to the south. These quarries are in the area around
Lake Thonotosassa, a Muscogean word combination meaning “Flint
Place.” One of the largest of these quarries, comprising 60 or 70 acres,
is located on the Ratliffe property in the southeast quarter of section
5 and southeast quarter of section 6, T 28 S, R 30 E. This is a
slightly elevated locality in a generally swampy area, where the rock
is covered by a thin coating of muck and soil, and was quarried by
digging shallow trenches and pits. Evidence remains that fires were
built to help break the stones into rough shapes after which they
32
SOURCE MATERIALS FOR FLORIDA ABORIGINAL ARTIFACTS = 33
were further worked by hammering into blanks that were carried
away to be finished. There is no evidence that any implements were
finished here but the extent of operations is shown by the abundance
of broken spalls and rejects found a half mile in all directions. This
flint material has been so plentiful that individuals have found it
profitable to recover it for use as concrete aggregate.
Smooth stone artifacts usually consist of celts, pendants, cere-
monial stones, polished axes, mortars and pestles but the last three are
seldom found in Florida. The grooved axe was never in general use
and the mortars and pestles were usually made of wood. These smooth
stone artifacts were usually made of materials brought from the
mountainous regions to the north.
Other types of polished articles found are of materials indigenous
to Florida so it may not be argued that the Floridan aborigines had to
use the imported stones. In the area of the Itchatucknee, Santa Fe
and Suwannee rivers are many polished stone club heads made of
badly weathered limestone and better preserved specimens made of
iron sandstone. A few were made of deer antlers and in association
with them numerous highly mineralized bone awls, fish hooks, and
ornaments have been found. In this material the writer found three
awls made of ivory whose grain indicates that it must have come from
a mastodon or elephant. Fossil ivory found in Florida is far too
fragile for use in making rugged instruments such as an awl and the
inference is that the makers of such implements were contemporary
with Pleistocene animals and antedate by many years the tribes that
enjoyed commercial intercourse with tribes further to the north.
The everyday cutting and piercing instruments, consisting of
arrowheads, spearheads, hoes, scrapers, knives, saws, chipped celts and
hammer stones, were made of stone found in peninsular Flor-
ida. In a check of more than three thousand specimens the writer
found only one exception to this, a six inch spearhead of milky quartz
that has been found on the edge of Payne’s Prairie. Chert was the
most commonly used material followed closely by chalcedony and
jasper. These last display beautiful colorations from reds through
brown, yellows, and whites to blue, sometimes with several colors
showing in the same implement.”
The native materials of the peninsula are all of siliceous rock
ranging from flint and chert to sard and opal, the last occurring in
Hillsborough County, chiefly as pseudomorphs after coral. As might
be expected, chert was the most commonly used material.
7In west Florida, however, many chipped artifacts are made of imported
material as native flint is very scarce in that area. In fact, it is almost entirely
absent west of Holmes County.
34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The trade routes of the pre-Columbian Indians of Florida were
obviously the same as those in historic times, a western route through
the watershed of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, and an eastern
route following the route of the present inland waterway, within the
barrier islands and through St. Johns drainage area. Further south,
Lake Okeechobee and the wide expanse of the Everglades furnished
an open road for the Indian with his canoe. Village sites and mounds
along these routes have been found richer in trade articles than those
in the interior sections remote from the water routes. This has given
rise to several postulates, one that the interior sites were only tem-
porary locations for hunting bases and so did not represent the culture
of the permanent ones along the trade routes, or that these interior
sites were in many cases the homes of defeated bands refuged there and
having little intercourse with the coast tribes.
ee
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS
L. L. Rusorr
University of Florida
At present there is some confusion in the identification and the
status of the vitamins. A few years ago six vitamins were recognized
officially as chemical entities, namely: Vitamins A, B,, C, D, E, and Be
or G. To date, four more vitamins can be added to the list, namely:
Vitamin K, Pyridoxine (vitamin B.), Nicotine Acid (pellagra-preven-
tive vitamin) and Pantothenic Acid (rat anti-acrodynia factor). Be-
sides these official vitamins many additional vitamin factors have
been claimed by nutritional investigators of the United States and
Europe. This increase in number has been due to the study of the
vitamin requirements of different species of animals and to the inves-
tigation of the chemical and physical properties of old and new
vitamins.
During early experimental investigations with these vital factors,
letters of the alphabet were used to designate new vitamins because
their chemical identities were unknown at that time. Today chemical
or specific names are used in place of letters of the alphabet whenever
the constitution of a vitamin has been determined. However, there
are many new vitamins that have been discovered for which chemical
identities are obscure for the present and letters of the alphabet are
still used.
In this paper an attempt will be made to present the status of the
vitamins and particularly to point out the recent findings.
I. FAT SOLUBLE GROUP
VITAMIN A— the anti-infective vitamin, the anti-xerophthalmic
(CooH290H) vitamin, the growth-promoting vitamin.
The chief role of vitamin A is to keep the mucous membranes of
the body in a healthy condition. These constitute the first barrier
against invading bacteria, thus aiding the body against infections in
general. However, vitamin A is not specific against colds, influenza
and such infections.
A deficiency of vitamin A results in xerophthalmia, a characteristic
eye disease.
The condition of night blindness (defective vision in dim light)
has been attributed to vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is combined
with a protein in the rods of the retina of the eye forming visual pur-
ple (rhodopsin)*, a photosensitive pigment, which serves to transfer
1G. Wald and A. B. Clark, “Sensory Adaptation and Chemistry of Retinal
Rods,” Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 116 (1936), pp. 157-158.
35
36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the energy of dim light into nerve impulses. The pigment is bleached
in bright light and is regenerated in the dark. When the body stores
of vitamin A are depleted visual purple is not regenerated and vision
in dim light is impaired. The following diagram illustrates the relation-
ship of vitamin A and the perception of vision’.
Pigmented Epithelium
Rod
Blood Stream _____, Protein + vitamin A___, Visual Purple
(rhodopsin)
| dark light
. Visual Yellow
Blood Stream <————Degradation Products——— (retinene)
mm
Nerve Impulse
Nerve Transmission
The increase in the number of automobile accidents at dusk has
been associated with the condition of night blindness. Vitamin A is
specific for night blindness if this condition is of dietary origin, and
therefore, the ingestion of vitamin A by drivers of automobiles who
are suffering from night blindness will diminish the chance of accident
from driving at night.
Vitamin A is also necessary for growth, reproduction and lactation
in higher animals.
The probable daily requirement is 4500 International Units for
children and 6000 International Units for adults. One International
Unit is equal to the growth-promoting activity of 0.6 micrograms
(0.0006 milligrams) of beta carotene.
VITAMIN Az — Vitamin A has been reported to occur naturally in
more than one form.*“’”* Vitamin A» seems to be the principal form
of vitamin A of fresh water fish. It has a spectral band distinguish-
*S. Hecht, “Rods, Cones and the Chemical Basis of Vision,” physiol. Reviews,
Vol. 17 (1937), pp. 239-290.
*A. E. Gillam, I. M. Heilbron, W. E. Jones and E. Lederer, “On the Oc-
currence and Constitution of 693 mu Chromogen (Vitamin A,?) of Fish Liver
Oils,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 32 (1938), pp. 405-416.
*E. Lederer and F. H. Rathmann, “Sur les vitamines, A, et Ag,” Comptes
Rendus Acad. Sci., Vol. 206 (1938), pp. 781-783.
5J. A. Lovern, R. A. Morton and J. Ireland, “The Distribution of Vitamins A
and A.,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 33 (1939), pp. 325-329.
®J. A. Lovern and R. A. Morton, “The Distribution of Vitamins A and Ag,”
Biochem. Jour., Vol. 33 (1939), pp. 330-337.
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS 37
able from vitamin A and it has been suggested that vitamin A has an
additional — CH—CH— group in the molecule.
PROVITAMINS A — Alpha, Beta, Gamma Carotenes and Crypto-
(C4oHse-beta cartoene) xanthin.
These four substances are yellow-red plant pigments which occur
in most green and yellow-green tissues. They are precursors or parent
substances of vitamin A and are converted to vitamin A in the animal
body.””*
Thus we should speak of the vitamin A activity or provitamin A
content of plant tissues and not their vitamin A content.
VITAMIN D— the anti-rachitic vitamin, the bone-build-
(C27H430H)-(Calciferol) ing vitamin, the sunshine vitamin.
Vitamin D along with calcium and phosphorus is required by the
body to build strong and healthy bones and sound teeth in the young,
and to maintain these in the adult. It prevents and cures rickets.
Vitamin D is produced when foods and animal bodies are exposed
to the ultra-violet light of the sunshine or of artificial light. This is
brought about by the irradiation of provitamin D which changes to
vitamin D. Thus irradiated foods are now available which are pro-
tective against rickets.
At least eleven forms of vitamin D of different chemical make-up
have been shown to exist.” Three forms of vitamin D are definitely
recognized:
Vitamin De or calciferol—irradiated or activated ergosterol which
occurs in many irradiated foods and
may occur in nature.
Vitamin D3 — activated 7 dehydrocholesterol. This form has
been shown to be the chief form of
the vitamin found in certain fish oils.
Vitamin D, — activated 22 dihydrocalciferol. This form is found
in irradiated foods or may occur in
nature.
Since vitamin D is not found in appreciable quantities in so
many of our foods, the tendency to fortify these foods with vitamin D
™T. Moore, “Vitamin A and Carotene. V. The Absence of the Liver Oil
Vitamin from Carotene. VI. The Conversion of Carotene to Vitamin A in
Vivo,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 24 (1930), pp. 696-702.
eT. Moore, “The Distribution of Vitamin A and Carotene in the Body of the
Rat,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 25 (1931), pp. 275-286.
°C. I. Reed, H. C. Struck and J. E. Steck, Vitamin D (Chicago: The Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1939).
38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
is in vogue. According to Dr. E. M. Nelson **, of the Food and Drug
Administration, Washington, D. C., ‘‘of the common foods fortified
with vitamin D, only milk needs to receive serious consideration. The
remainder are all too frequently transients and usually emblazoned
with statements of these alleged virtues in a manner that cannot escape
notice.”
In Florida, “Land of Sunshine” and especially in St. Petersburg,
plenty of ultra-violet light is available the year round to insure
sufficient vitamin D for good strong bones and healthy sound teeth
provided we take advantage of this wonderful sunshine.
The probable daily requirement for children and adults is 400
to 500 International Units. One International Unit is equivalent to the
activity of 0.025 micrograms (0.000025 milligrams) of calciferol.
For mammals one unit of vitamin D2 is equal to one unit of vita-
min D3. A vitamin D activity of 50 rat units in irradiated ergosterol
is equivalent to only 1 rat unit of vitamin D activity in cod liver oil
when these substances are used as a source of vitamin D for chicks.
An explanation advanced is that vitamin Dz is less effective than vita-
min D3 in this species.
ALPHA TOCOPHEROL—vitamin E, the anti-sterility vitamin, the
(Co9H5902) reproductive vitamin.
At least 3 substances have been shown to possess vitamin E ac-
tivity, these being alpha, beta and gamma tocopherols. Alpha tocop-
herol is the most potent.
Alpha tocopherol protects against sterility. It is necessary for
reproduction and growth in certain species and probably humans.
Since vitamin E is very common in ordinary foods it is hardly possible
that human sterility results from its deficiency.
It has been reported that some relationship exists between vita-
min E and muscle weakness”. Alpha tocopherol was synthesized a
few years ago’”’ **.
10h. M. Nelson, “The Determination and Sources of Vitamin D,”’ Jour.
Amer. Med. Assoc., Vol. 111 (1938), pp. 528-530.
117. Goettsch and J. Ritzmann, “The Preventive Effect of Wheat Germ
Oils and of Alpha Tocopherol in Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy of Young
Rats,” Jour. Nutrition, Vol. 17 (1939), pp. 371-381.
127, I. Smith, H. E. Ungnade and W. W. Prichard, “The Chemistry of
Vitamin E. I. Structure and Synthesis of Alpha Tocopherol,” Science, Vol. 88
(1938), pp. 37-38.
18P_ Karrer, H. Fritsche, B. H. Ringier and H. Salomon, “Alpha Tocopherol,”
Helvetica Chimica Acta, Vol. 21 (1938), pp. 520 ff.
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS 39
VITAMIN K— the anti-hemorrhagic vitamin, coagulations
(C,;H;O2-R) (phytol) vitamin. This vitamin was discovered
when chicks were used as experimental
animals,"
Vitamin K is essential to the formation of prothrombin, the
substance which functions in the clotting of blood. It was isolated
and synthesized last year’ *’.
There are two forms of vitamin K”:
Vitamin K,—the non-crystalline factor from alfalfa and
Vitamin K,—+the crystalline vitamin from putrefied fish meal.
Recently vitamin K has been used clinically as a pre-operative
and post-operative measure to prevent risk of bleeding in patients
with obstructive jaundice.
II. WATER SOLUBLE GROUP
ASCORBIC ACID—Cevitamic acid, vitamin C, the anti-scorbutic
(CgHsO¢) vitamin, the anti-scurvy vitamin.
Ascorbic acid is required for the correction and prevention of
scurvy. It is necessary for the formation of the substances which
holds cells together. Ascorbic acid keeps the teeth and gums, and the
blood vessels in a healthy condition. It prevents hemorrhages in
the skin and other tissues and keeps the bones from becoming porous
and fragile.
Humans, monkeys and guinea pigs require ascorbic acid in their
diets while ruminants, poultry and rats do not require it in their
rations, apparently being able to synthesize this factor.
The probable daily requirement for children and adults is 1500
to 1800 International Units. One International Unit is equivalent to
the activity of 0.05 milligrams of crystalline ascorbic acid.
VITAMIN B COMPLEX. Approximately 10 or 15 factors have
been separated and isolated from the old vitamin B. Of these only
four factors—Thiamin (vitamin B,), Riboflavin (vitamin G), Nico-
tinic Acid (pellagra-preventive factor) and Pyridoxine (vitamin Be)
have been shown to be necessary for human nutrition.
4H. Dam, “The Anti-Haemorrhagic Vitamin of the Chick,” Biochem. Jour.
Vol. 29 (1935), pp. 1273-1285.
25H, J. Almquist and E. L. R. Stokstad, “Hemorrhagic Chick Disease of
Dietary Origin,” Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 111 (1935), pp. 105-113.
481), W. MacCorquodale, “Constitution and Synthesis of Vitamin K,” Jour.
Biol. Chem., Vol. 131 (1939), pp. 357-370.
177,. F. Fieser, “Synthesis of 2 methyl—3 phytyl—1, 4 naphthoquinone,”
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., Vol. 61 (1939), pp. 2559-2561.
78R. W. McKee, S. B. Binkley, D. W. MacCorquodale, S. A. Thayer and
E. A. Doisy, “The Isolation of Vitamins K, and K.,” Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.
Vol. 61 (1939), p. 295. (Letter to Editor).
40. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1. THIAMIN— Aneurin, vitamin B,, the anti-neuritic vit-
(Cy2Hi7N4OS) amin, the anti-beriberi vitamin, the ape-
tite-stimulating vitamin.
Thiamin is required to keep the nerves in a healthy condition
and is of value in preventing and curing beriberi in man and poly-
neuritis in animals. It is essential for good appetite, normal digestive
functions, reproduction, lactation and growth.
It has been reported that thiamin enters into the composition
of a coenzyme, Cocarboxylase, which is necessary for the breakdown
of pyruvic acid, one of the steps in the oxidation of carbohydrate by
the cell” *” *.
Micro-organisms in the digestive tract of ruminants are able to
synthesize thiamin and thus this species does not require this vitamin
in its feed.
The probable daily requirement for children or adults is 400 to
500 International Units. One International Unit is equivalent to
the activity of 3.0 micrograms (0.003 milligrams) of crystalline
thiamin.
Thiamin has been reported to play a conspicuous role as a factor
for growth of plants, particularly in stimulating root formation in
cuttings”.
2. RIBOFLAVIN—vitamin G, the growth-promoting vitamin.
(Ci7H20N40¢)
Riboflavin is a greenish yellow fluorescent pigment which is pres-
ent in the whey of milk, in liver, eggs and many plants. Riboflavin
is necessary for growth. It has been reported that riboflavin prevents
lesions of the skin and eyes in humans, prevents loss of fur and
dermatitis in rats, and nerve degeneration in dogs and chicks.
Riboflavin also enters into the composition of an enzyme by
combining with special proteins to form Warburg’s “Yellow Oxidation
Ferment.”
This enzyme specific catalyzes certain oxidation-reduction sys-
tems in living tissues.
18K. Lohmann and P. Schuster, “Uber die Co-carboxylase,” Naturwissen-
schaften, Vol. 25 (1837), pp. 25-26.
20K. Lohmann and P. Schuster, “Untersuchungen iiber die Co-carboxylase,”
Biochem. Zeitung, Vol. 294 (1937), pp. 188-214. ; ‘eee
217. Banga, S. Ochoa and R. H. Peters, “The Active Form of Vitamin B,
and the Role of C, Dicarboxylic Acids,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 33, (1939), pp.
1109-1121.
- 22F W. Went, J. Bonner and G. C. Warner, “Aneurin and the Rooting of
Cuttings,” Science, Vol. 87 (1938), pp. 170-171.
2847, Theorell, “Das gelbe Oxydationsferment,” Biochem. Zeitung, Vol. 278
(1935), pp. 263-290.
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS 41
The probable daily requirement is 1 to 2 milligrams of crys-
talline riboflavin per day. No standard unit has been designated.
3. NICOTINIC ACID and NICOTINIC ACID AMIDE — vitamin
(CgH;O2N ) P-P, the anti-pellagric factor.
Nicotinic acid has been known since 1867 but its nutritional im-
portance was not discovered until a few years ago”. Nicotinic acid
is required in the nutrition of dogs, pigs and humans. It is believed
to be the chief factor in the prevention and alleviation of canine black
tongue and of human pellagra, yet in some instances other members
of the vitamin B complex must be present and in chronic cases even
these factors do not cause any response because secondary complica-
tions have set in.
Nicotinic acid has been reported to be part of a co-enzyme,
Cozymase, which is an indispensable agent in biological oxidation-
reduction systems concerned with carbohydrate metabolism”.
The probable daily requirement is 25 milligrams per day. No
standard unit has been designated.
4. PYRIDOXINE—adermin, vitamin Be, factor 1, the anti-acro-
(CgH,,03N) dynia factor, the rat anti-dermatitis vitamin.
Pyridoxine is required by all animals. It has been reported to
prevent a characteristic dermatitis in rats and swine, to be required
for growth by chicks, and to be needed for the alleviation of some
of the symptoms of human pellagra.
The chemical structure of pyridoxine was elucidated in 1939”,
and this substance was synthesized the same year *.
The daily requirement is not known.
5. PANTOTHENIC ACID—the chick filtrate factor, the anti-grey
(CyH,70;N) hair factor, the chick anti-dermatosis
factor.
Pantothenic acid is required by poultry and probably by all
other animals. It protects against a pellagra-like syndrome in chicks.
24C, A. Elvehjem, R. J. Madden, S. M. Strong and D. W. Woolley, “Rela-
tion of Nicotinic Acid and Nicotinic Acid Amide to Canine Black Tongue,”
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., Vol. 59 (1937), pp. 1767-1768.
2547, Von Euler, A. Albers and F. Schlenk, “Chemische Untersuchungen an
hochgereinigter Co-zymase,” Zeitschrift Physiol. Chemie, Vol. 239 (1936), pp.
113-126.
27 A. Harris and K. Folkers, “Synthesis of Vitamin Bg,” Jour. Amer. Chem.
Jour. Amer. Chem: Soc., Vol. 61 (1939), pp. 1242-1244.
27§ A. Harris and K. Folkers, “Synthesis of Vitamin B,”, Jour Amer. Chem.
Soc., Vol. 61 (1939), pp. 3307-3310.
42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Just a few months ago (March, 1940) the chemical structure of panto-
thenic acid was determined and its synthesis achieved."
The daily requirement is not known.
6. OTHER VITAMIN B COMPLEX FACTORS—(Not Well
Known)
Name Experimental Animal Ascribed Functions
Vitamin B3*° — thermostable Pigeon Weight Gain
factor in yeast
Vitamin B.** —heat and alkali Rat Weight Maintenance
labile factor
in yeast Anti-paralysis
Vitamin B;** — heat and alkali Pigeon Weight Gain
stable factor in
yeast and whole
wheat
Vitamin Bc* Chicks Prevents Anemia
Vitamin Bp“ Chicks _Anti-Perosis
Vitamin Bx*° Silver Fox Prevents Graying
of Fur
Vitamin Bw’*° Rat Growth
Vitamin H — (Anti-Egg White Rat Prevents Egg
Pactonjn White njury
**R. J. Williams and R. T. Major, “The Structure of Pantothentic Acid,”
Science, Vol. 91 (1940), p. 246.
*°E. T. Stiller, S. A. Harris, J. Finkelstein, J. C. Keresztesy and K. Folkers,
“Pantothenic Acid. VIII. The Total Synthesis of Pure Pantothenic Acid,” Jour.
Amer. Chem. Soc., Vol. 62 (1940), pp. 1785-1790.
“°C. W. Carter and J. R. O’Brien, “Maintenance Nutrition in the pigeon. The
Effect of Vitamin B,,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 31 (1937), pp. 2264-2269.
“0. L. Kline, C. A. Elvehjem and E. B. Hart, “Further Evidence for the
Existence of Vitamin B,,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 30 (1936), pp. 780-784.
°°C. W. Carter and J. R. O’Brien, “Maintenance Nutrition in the Pigeon.
Vitamin B.,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 31 (1937), pp. 2270-2273.
SSA. G. Hogan and E. M. Parrott, “Anemia in Chicks Caused by a Vitamin
Deficiency,” Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 132 (1940), pp. 507-517.
°*A. G. Hogan, L. R. Richardson and H. Patrick, “Relation of Perosis to Un-
recognized Vitamins,” Jour. Nutrition, Vol. 18 (1940), Supplement 1, p. 14.
°°G. Lunde and H. Kringstad, “Bedarf des Fuches an dem Anti-Grau-Haarfak-
tor Vitamin Bx,” Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 27 (1939), p. 755.
°°H. Kringstad and G. Lunde, “Untersuchungen iiber den Filtratwachstumsfak-
tor Bw,” Zeitschr. physiol. Chem., Vol. 261 (1939), pp. 110-124. ,
87P. Gyorgy, “Attempts to Isolate the Anti-Egg White Injury Factor (Vitamin
H),” Proc. Amer. Soc. Biol. Chem. (1937), pp. XLITI-XLIV.
**Tdentical with Biotin, part of the B complex required by the chick and rat
to prevent skin disease. ;
S°P. Gyorgy, D. B. Melville, D. Burk and V. duVigneaud, “The Possible Iden-
tity of Vitamin H with Biotin and Co-enzyme R,” Science, Vol. 91 (1940), pp.
243-245.
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS 43
Name Experimental Animal _ Ascribed Functions
Factor R — heat labile*® Chicks Growth
Factor S — heat stable
Factor U** Chicks Growth
Factor W** — thermo labile Rat Growth
factor from liver
extract
Pactor Y*’ Rat Growth
Anti-Gizzard Erosion
Pactor’’'** Chick Prevents Gizzard
Erosion
Anti-Gray Hair Factor**‘”** Rat Prevents Graying
and Fading of Hair
in Black, Gray and
Hooded Rats
Anti-Alopecia Factor* Mouse Growth and Main-
tenance of Hair
Chlorine” Rat Growth - Prevents
Development of
Fatty Liver
*°A. E. Schumacher, G. F. Heuser and L. S. Norris, “The Complex Nature of
the Alcohol Precipitate Factor Required by the Chick,” Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 135
(1940), pp. 313-320.
“E. L. Stokstad and P. D. V. Manning, “Evidence of a New Growth Factor
Required by Chicks,” Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 125 (1938), pp. 687-696.
“1D. V. Frost and C. A. Elvenjem, ‘Further Studies on Factor W,” Jour.
Biol. Chem., Vol. 121 (1937), pp. 255-273.
“SH. Chick and A. M. Copping, “The Composite Nature of the Water-Soluble
Vitamin B,. III. Dietary Factors in Addition to the Anti-Neuritic Vitamin B,
and the Anti-Dermatitis Vitamin B,,” Biochem. Jour., Vol. 24 (1930), pp. 1764-
1779.
““H. J. Almquist and E. L. R. Stokstad, “A Nutritional Deficiency Causing
Gizzard Erosion in Chicks,” Nature, Vol. 137 (1936), p. 581.
*°H. R. Bird, O. L. Kline, C. A. Elvehjem, E. B. Hart and J. G. Halpin, “Dis-
tribution and Properties of the Anti-Gizzard Factor Required by Chicks,” Jour.
Nutrition, Vol. 12 (1936), pp. 571-582.
464. F. Morgan, B. B. Cook, and H. G. Davidson, “Vitamin B. Deficiencies
as Affected by Dietary Carbohydrate,” Jour. Nutrition, Vol. 15 (1938), pp. 27-43.
47A_ F. Morgan and H. D. Simms, “Greying of Fur and other Disturbances
in Several Species due to a Vitamin Deficiency,” Jour. Nutrition, Vol. 19 (1940),
pp. 233-250.
4®Possibly identical with pantothenic acid.
491. W. Woolley, “A New Dietary Essential for the Mouse,” Jour. Biol. Chem.,
Vol. 136 (1940), pp. 113-118.
5°C. H. Best and J. H. Ridout, “Choline as a Dietary Factor,’ Ann. Rev.
Biochem., Vol. 8 (1939), pp. 349-370.
44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Name 3 Experimental Animal _— Ascribed Functions
Maintenance and
Growth Factor” Chicks Growth
Chrondroitin Sulfuric Acid® Chicks Growth
Cartilage Growth Factor” Chicks Growth
It is probable that many of these less known vitamins are either
identical or else closely related.
Iii, OTHER VITAMIN FACTORS (Not Well Known)
Name Experimental Animal _— Ascribed Functions
Essential Fatty Acids” Rat Prevents a Dermati-
(VitaminF )°° tis Due to a Fat
Deficiency
Vitamin H** — heat labile Trout Growth
factor from fresh meat
Factor J” Guinea Pig Prevents
Pneumonia
Vitamin L,°* — from beef liver
freed of Bcomplex Rat Reproduction
Vitamin L.°* — from Baker’s Mice Lactation
yeast freed of B
complex
Vitamin M** — from yeast and Monkey Prevents Nutrition-
liver extract al Cytopenia
Vitamin P — (Citrin)*° Guinea Pig Prevents Capillary
Fragility
°*R. Van der Hoorn, H. D. Branion and W. R. Graham, Jr., “Studies in the
Nutrition of the Chick. 3. A Maintenance Factor Present in Wheat Germ and
the Effect of the Addition of a Small Amount of MnO, to the Diet,” Poultry Sci.,
Vol. 17 (1938), pp. 185-192.
°°H. E. Robinson, R. E. Gray, F. F. Chesley and L. A. Crandall, “Chondroitin
Sulfuric Acid as a Growth Factor,” Jour. Nutrition, Vol. 17 (1939), pp. 227-233.
531). M. Hegsted, J. J. Oleson, C. A. Elvehjem and E. B. Hart, “The Cartilage
Growth Factor and Vitamin B, in the Nutrition of Chicks,” Jour. Biol. Chem.,
Vol. 130 (1939), pp. 423-424.
54G_O. Burr, M. M. Burr and E. S. Miller, III, “On the Fatty Acids Essen-
tial in Nutrition,” Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 97 (1932), pp. 1-9.
55>Vitamin F has been dropped by the American Society of Biological Chemists.
56°C. M. McCay, “The Biochemistry of Fish,’ Ann. Rev. Biochem., Vol. 6
(1937), pp. 445-468.
57H. yon Euler, H. SOder and M. Malmberg, “The Action of Nutrient Factor
J on the Development of Pneumonia in Guinea Pigs,” Zeztschretft f. Hygiene u.
Infectionskr., Vol. 116 (1935), p. 672. (from Chem. Abstracts, Vol. 29, p. 5890).
587. Nakahara, F. Inuki and S. Cgami, “Vitamin L and Filtrate Factor,”
Science, Vol. 91 (1940), p. 431.
5°W. C. Langston, W. J. Darby, C. F. Shukers and P. L. Day, “Nutritional
Cytopenia (Vitamin M) Deficiency in the Monkey,” Jour. Exp. Med., Vol. 68
(1938), pp. 923-940.
UNSCRAMBLING THE VITAMINS 45
Name Experimental Animal _ Ascribed Functions
Chick Anti-Encephalomalacia
Factor” Chick Prevents Lesions of
Cerebrum and
Cerebellum
“Grass Juice” Factor
or Factors” Rat Growth and
Reproduction
This last decade has been called the “vitamin era.” Vitamins
and vitamin concentrates have been over-emphasized and exaggerated,
and the public exploited. It is estimated that during last year, over
$100,000,000 were spent for vitamin preparations by the people of the
United States.
It is known that foods which are selected and processed have a
reduced vitamin content. At present there is a trend to restore vita-
mins to processed foods because crystalline vitamins are being synthe-
sized in unlimited quantities and at a reasonable price. There is no
doubt that vitamized foods will have their place in your diet. How-
ever, in order to insure good health and optimum nutrition, a varied
diet containing generous amounts of natural foods—milk and milk
products, fresh vegetables, fresh fruits, fresh meat and eggs, and plenty
of sunshine is advocated.
60S. Rusznyak and A. Szent-GyOrgyi, “Vitamin-P Flavonols as Vitamins,”
Nature, Vol. 138 (1936), p. 27.
824A, M. Pappenheim and M. Goettsch, “A Cerebellar Disorder in Chicks Ap-
parently of Nutritional Origin,’ Jour. Exper. Med., Vol. 53 (1931), p. 11.
*2G. O. Kohler, C. A. Elvehjem and E. B. Hart, “Growth-Stimulating Prop-
erties of Grass Juice,” Science, Vol. 83 (1936), p. 445.
A NEW SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARK
OF THE GENUS SPHYRNA
STEWART SPRINGER
Bass Biological Laboratory
My studies of Hammerhead sharks collected from the Gulf of
Mexico in the vicinity of Englewood have shown that certain forms
referable to the Sphyrna zygaena group represent a distinct species.
This paper gives a description of the new species and comparisons with
other known species of the genus Sphyrna.
Genus SPHYRNA Rafinesque
Sphyrna diplana, new species
Sphyrna zygaena Springer, 1939, pp. 31-32, fig. 16.
HOLOTYPE.—A sub-adult male, 1.735 meters in total length, U. S. N.
M. 108451, collected off Englewood, Florida, January 24, 1939.
PARATYPES.—A head and two dry jaws, U. S. N. M. nos. 108452,
110296, and 110297.
DESCRIPTION .—A large species (males mature at about 1.8 meters
and reach a length of at least 2.5 meters); body strongly compressed;
head flattened, hammer-shaped, its front margin between the nasal
apertures four-lobed and a deep notch in the front margin before each
nasal aperture; a deep groove (deeper than wide) in the front margin
of the head originating behind the nasal flap and extending about the
length of the adjacent lobe; mouth moderate, well forward in head,
a line through its angles extending through or in advance of the
posterior edge of the hammer except in some very large individuals;
all teeth with smooth cusps, relatively high in the lower jaw, in
15+ 1+ 15 to 16-++ 2-4 16 vertical rows, typically in 16 + 0+ 16
I9+1+15 I5+2+15 15+1+15
rows; teeth of upper jaw narrowly triangular, strongly inclined to-
ward the angles of the jaws, outer margins (toward the angles of the
jaws) of the cusps usually convex, inner margins often slightly con-
cave toward the tips; lower teeth narrower, more erect, with convex
outer margins and concave inner margins more pronounced; pectoral
fins relatively small; first dorsal large, very high; caudal region
heavy, tail large; second dorsal low, the posterior lobe produced so
that the tip, when lifted upward, will extend for a distance more than
twice as great as the height of the fin; denticles small, imbricate, about
as broad as long, with 5 to 7 ridges; skin thin; preorbital process of
the cranium nearly transverse, with a broad anterior wing, the for-
ward edge of which lies immediately beneath the groove of the front
46
A NEW SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARK 47
Vig. 1—Sphyrna diplana, lower side of head, and typical teeth from upper (or
left), and lower (on right), jaws. Drawn from a 1500 mm male col-
lected at Englewood.
Fig. 2.—Sphyrna diplana, dorsal aspect of cranium. Taken from 1500 mm male
collected at Englewood.
48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
margin of the head, the wing with an inwardly directed point; rostral
cartilage with a median oval hole (present in all of the specimens ex-
amined); labial cartilages reduced or wanting; vertebrae about 200
(196 to 204 in seven specimens), about half in the caudal portion af-
ter the pit; color light gray, whitish below, the pectorals tipped on
their ventral surfaces with black.
PRU ETE " E
COMPARISONS WITH OTHER SPECIES.—Hammerheads of the
zygaena group, to which this species may be referred, may be distin-
guished from other hammerheads and shovel-head sharks by the
presence of a long posterior lobe on the second dorsal fin and by the
presence of a deep groove in the front margin of the head. In this
group, I recognize the existence of three valid species in addition to
the form described here. They are Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus), S.
oceanica (Garman), and S. lewini (Griffith). Sphyrna zygaena is
represented in the material I have seen by specimens from the vicinity
of New York harbor; Woods Hole, Massachusetts; Seaside Park, New
Fig. 3—Sphyrna zygaena, dorsal aspect of cranium from 570 mm male collected at
Sandy Hook Bay, New York.
Jersey; Livorno, Italy; and Terceira, Azores, all 495 to 635 mm in
total length. The species seems ordinarily to be 500 to 550 mm long
at birth. I have seen no adult specimens, but Coles (pl. 3, fig. 3)* gives
a photograph of a female, 11 feet 1 inch (about 3.35 meters) long, taken
at Cape Lookout, North Carolina, on July 1 which appears to be S.
zygaena. At least the photograph shows a specimen with a three lobed
head, although Coles states that the front of the head has a notch
only faintly indicated. This individual was said to have contained
18 or more young 2134 (546 mm) to 26% (673 mm) inches long, a
length greater than many of the new born specimens of zygaena I have
A NEW SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARK 49
seen. Coles reported on two large hammerheads. One of them, which
he regarded as abnormal, is Sphyrna tudes. ‘The specimen which I
refer to S. zygaena is said by Coles to be normal, but he states that
Bess the front of its head was more crescentic in form than usual
in the species... .’ It is evident that Coles thought neither of the
specimens were typical of the species most common to the Atlantic
coast of the United States, yet his records are about the only detailed
ones of adult hammerheads from the United States waters. Radcliffe
(pp. 263-265)* writing of hammerheads from Beaufort, North Carolina,
discussed material which I refer variously to S. tudes, S. zygaena, and S.
diplana. Young specimens of S. diplana from the Carolinas, the coasts
of Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi, as well as from both coasts of
Florida have been available to me for study. The head of a half
Fig. 4—Sphyrna tudes, dorsal aspect of cranium from 930 mm male collected
at Englewood.
grown hammerhead from the African Gold Coast appears the same as
heads of Englewood diflana. An examination of some Mediterranean
specimens in the collection of the British Museum, made for me by
Mr. J. R. Norman, shows that two forms are taken there; one is cer-
tainly S. zygaena, and the second is probably S. diplana. These frag-
mentary data suggest that S. zygaena has a more northerly range than
S. diplana, but that both species may occur in one locality along with
S. tudes. It is quite possible, however, that the breeding ranges of the
three forms are well separated geographically.
*Russell J. Coles, “The Large Sharks of Cape Lookout, North Carolina,”
Copeia, No. 69 (1919), pp. 34-43, pls. 2-3.
"Lewis Radcliffe, “The Sharks and Rays of Beaufort, North Carolina,”
Bulletin U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. 34 (1916), pp. 239-284, pls. 38-49.
SO PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Adult males of S. diplana have been taken at Englewood, and the
young of both sexes have been taken at Englewood and in the north
Gulf. Separation of diplana from zygaena must be made here on the
basis of characters of the young. In diplana, the young of both sexes
have the front margin of the head with four lobes, while in zygaena the
head has three lobes. In dzplana the teeth have smooth cusps, nearly
erect centrally in the lower jaw and having the formula given in the
description. In zygaena the teeth are finely serrate, recumbent in the
lower jaw, and with the typical formula reduced. A series of 10
young zygaena from Sandy Hook Bay, New York, have teeth in
13+ 2+ 13 to 15+ 0+ 15 rows. In all of the diplana specimens
See ia! Mg i
\ ‘
4 /
\ . Uf
\ ° . ‘
\\ nese 0
; De a
% yin wy
‘ BUC ta
‘ “
moa coe mest os
SN EY ee:
"e. ee) USF
Fig. 5.—Sphyrna tudes, dorsal aspect of cranium from 2300 mm female collected
at Englewood.
I have seen, there has been a large hole in the rostral cartilage, and
the wings of the preorbital process have had definite inwardly direct-
ed points. In the zygaena material, only one specimen has shown the
hole of the rostral cartilage (1.25 mm in diameter as compared to 5
mm for diplana of comparable size), and none have shown the points
on the wings of the preorbital processes. The rostral cartilage hole is
probably associated with the central notch in the front margin of the
head, and the distribution of its occurrence in hammerheads generally
suggests independent origins for diplana and zygaena.
In the Pacific there are at least two forms of the common ham-
merhead. The young of one form has the three-lobed head associated
with recumbent teeth in the lower jaw. If it is to be considered distinct
from S. zygaena, the name S. oceanica should be applicable. S. lewim
is best known from several papers by Whitley. He states of this spec-
ies’ “TI think there is one species in Australasia,...... the teeth
which are entire in the young become finely denticulated. Further
A NEW SPECIES OF HAMMERHEAD SHARK 51
study of more specimens of various sizes and both sexes will be neces-
sary to determine whether we have more than one species; ..... i
The cast of a female about 8 feet long (2.43 meters) is in the Los
Angeles Museum of History, Science, and Art and the jaws and skull
of the original specimen have been carefully removed and dried. This
specimen was collected off San Pedro, California, on July 31, 1940,
and apparently agrees in all respects with S. lewini as described by
Whitley. The species differs from diplana in having heavy, serrate
teeth, rostral cartilage hole absent, and points on the wings of the
preorbital processes absent. The head is four-lobed, but the central
notch is less conspicuous than in specimens of diplana from Engle-
wood.
Fig. 6—Sphyrno tiburo, dorsal aspect of cranium from 1070 mm female collected
at Englewood.
I have previously reported (p. 162)*° a slight difference related
to sex in the proportions of the head of Englewood S. tiburo. This
is a scarcely measurable difference, appearing only in averages of meas-
urements of series. I know of no other sex-related dissimilarities re-
ported for the family Sphyrnidae, although sex dimorphism may be
suggested by the available data when very large series cannot be
SGilbert P. Whitley, The Sharks, Rays, Devil-Fish, and other Primitive
Fishes of Australia and New Zealand (‘Australian Zoological Handbook, The
Fishes of Australia”; Sydney: Royal Zool. Soc. of New South Wales, 1940), p.
121.
52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
studied, as a possible explanation for the appearance of males of one
form with females of another in a locality. A fairly extensive collection
of sharks made at Englewood in late winter and early spring would
probably produce adult males of S. diplana and adult females of S.
tudes, with no other large hammerheads represented. I suspect that
some similar condition may be true of the Carolinas with the addi-
tional complication of the presence of S. zygaena.
“Stewart Springer, “Three New Sharks of the genus Sphyrna from the Pacific
Coast of Tropical America,” Stanford Ichthyological Bulletin, Vol. 1, (1940), pp.
161-169.
“uInasnyy Sopesuy
soy Aq ydeisojoyg ‘“emIO;eD ‘“OIpag ues ye BJO “suo, “Wr
jnoqe ojeulay B WOIy SsMel YIM WinTURID JO MOA [eIQUVA “2U21Ma7 DUAKYdS—T 2}e[g
Al) SHARK
=
kk
IGE SORE
SPE
A NEW
ON THE FIRST PLEOPOD OF THE MALE
CAMBARI (DECAPODA, ASTACIDAE)*
Horton H. Hosss, Jr.
University of Florida
It has long been customary in describing the first pleopod of the
male Cambari to refer to the “inner” and “outer” parts. In my work
on the crayfishes of Florida I have encountered considerable difficulty
in understanding and in making descriptions of the first pleopod with
these two terms as a basis of orientation. I wish, therefore, to propose
a terminology which I have found to be more satisfactory.
When this paper was written I was unaware of the work of E. A.
Andrews on the anatomy of the crayfish pleopod,’ and it is noteworthy
that my interpretation of the first pleopod so closely parallels his. I
am retaining my terminology because it more clearly indicates the posi-
tion of these terminal processes. Included in Andrews’ paper is a series
of drawings which illustrate excellently the more detailed internal
structure of the first pleopod. The subgenus Bartonius as used by
Andrews = the subgenus Cambarus; and Cambarus affinis and Cam-
barus virilis = Faxonius affinis and Faxonius virilis respectively. That
further investigation of the first male pleopod should be made is
pointed out by Andrews, p. 90.
In examining the first pleopods of many species of Cambarus and
Faxonius I have been impressed by the basic similarity in the struc-
ture and arrangements of five terminal processes, and I believe that a
terminology which attempts to homologize all of these will provide a
working basis that will be more specific in its designations.
The homologies that I think I can discern between the terminal
processes are admittedly based wholly upon morphological considera-
tions, and presuppose a prototype which possessed a pleopod with five
terminal processes as the type from which all present species of
Ortmannicus, and very probably the entire Cambarid group, have been
derived.
The species, the pleopod of which probably most nearly ap-
proaches that of the prototype appendage, is Cambarus digueti (See
Plate II, figs. 4 and 5). Since the terminal processes of this species
are small and crowded, I have figured a hypothetical pleopod in which
the relationships of these parts are more diagrammatically shown.
1Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida.
2h. A. Andrews, “The Anatomy of the Stylets of Cambarus and of Astacus,”
Biological Bulletin of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachu-
setts, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1910), pp. 79-97, 5 pls.
55
56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
For descriptive purposes the first pleopod is considered to be
directed ventrad. The caudal surface is thus that surface broken by
the longitudinal groove, and the cephalic is that surface which is
generally held against the sternum of the thoracic region. I have
designated the five processes of the hypothetical generalized pleopod
as follows (Plate I, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4): A, the mesial process; B, the
cephalic process; CE, the central projection consisting of two processes
generally somewhat fused; C, the centro-caudal, and E, the centro-
cephalic process; and D, the caudal process.” The term process is
used to indicate any single terminal outgrowth regardless of its nature.
The term projection refers to a terminal outgrowth consisting of a
fusion or partial fusion of two of the terminal processes. In the second
form male these processes are sometimes hardly discernible.
These relationships are made clear if one will imagine the pleopod
to have been formed by the rolling-up of a flat, double sheet of tissue
(Plate I, fig. 3). In many species, if the pleopod be examined under a
binocular, the ‘‘rolled-sheet-of-tissue”’ structure is clearly indicated. If
the pleopod be now visualized as unrolled and viewed from the inner
surface it would present the appearance shown on Pilate I, fig. 4. The
order of the terminal processes on the roll should be noted. From left
to right are: the mesial process, the cephalic process, the centro-caudal
process, the caudal process, and the centro-cephalic process.
In several species the pleopod is so modified as to be almost a
replica of the hypothetical one. Cambarus pubescens, Cambarus luci-
fugus, and Cambarus pallidus may be cited as species which most near-
ly approximate the hypothetical pleopod in their structure.
In several species the cephalic process is lacking, or it is represent-
ed by only a small tubercle. This type of pleopod is exemplified in
Cambarus spiculifer, Cambarus advena, and Cambarus rogerst.
It is not uncommon to find the area from which the caudal pro-
cess arises so accentuated as to practically lose its characteristics as a
process. This condition may be found in the pleopods of Cambarus
advena, Cambarus rogersi and Cambarus alleni.
In certain species extra processes are added between the centro-
caphalic and the centro-caudal processes, and in these cases it is some-
times difficult to decide which is the caudal process and which are
the adventitious processes. All of the latter are outgrowths from the
caudal region, and where there are several of these there is generally
one arising from the central part of the knob while the others are
SCompared with Andrews’ terminology, the mesial process = the spatula; the
cephalic process = the scapula; the central projection = the canula; the caudal
process = the ligula.
ON THE FIRST PLEOPOD OF THE MALE CAMBARI 57
processes from the rim. Such extra processes may be found in Cambarus
pictus, Cambarus spiculifer, Cambarus clarkii paeninsulanus, and many
others.
In the subgenus Cambarellus, of which I have studied only Cam-
barus shufeldtu and Cambarus montezumae, only the cephalic process
is lacking. The caudal process is more spiculiform in this subgenus
than in any of the other subgenera.
The subgenus Procambarus possesses all five of the terminal
processes, though in every case the caudal process is much reduced.
This statement is based on examination of Cambarus cubensis, Cam-
barus digueti, and Cambarus mexicanus. In Cambarus digueti the cau-
dal process is practically obsolete. In Cambarus cubensis and Cam-
barus mexicanus it is represented by a rounded knob on the lateral
margin of the appendage.
I have only one specimen of the single species, Cambarus paradox-
us, belonging to the subgenus Paracambarus, and this specimen is a
male of the second form. As was stated above it is often difficult to
identify the processes in the second form male, and little can be made
out on the specimen I have before me; but I strongly suspect that
this species, and therefore this subgenus, possesses all five of the ter-
minal processes.
Deviations from the generalized type of pleopod consisting of the
loss of one or more of the terminal processes result usually in the
disappearance of either the cephalic process or of the cephalic and the
caudal processes. If only one is lacking it is always the cephalic
process so far as I have observed.
As has been pointed out, though I have only morphological evi-
dence for the suggested homologies in the terminal processes of the
first pleopod of the Cambari, I have found that there is a striking
similarity despite the prodigious variation which occurs in this append-
age throughout the species of this group. Further, as has been
stated above, I believe that this terminology will prove far more satis-
factory than any hitherto used.
58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PLATE |
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
ON THE FIRST PLEOPOD OF THE MALE CAMBARI 59
PLATE I
First Left Pleopods of First Form Males
A—mesial process
B—cephalic process
CE—central projection
C—centro-caudal process
E—centro-cephalic process
D—caudal process
1.—Mesial view of hypothetical generalized pleopod.
2.—Lateral view of hypothetical generalized pleopod.
3.—Cross section through hypothetical generalized pleopod.
4.—Unrolled hypothetical generalized pleopod.
(For reconstruction: Roll to the left and toward the observ-
er the end bearing process E so that the broken line at E
will be superimposed on the broken line at C. Fold A to
the right and toward the observer along broken line in pro-
cess B. The fold along B will be cephalic and D will be
caudal.)
5.—Mesial view, Cambarus pubescens.
6.—Lateral view, Cambarus pubescens.
7.—Mesial view, Cambarus lucifugus alachua.
8.—Lateral view, Cambarus lucifugus alachua.
9.—Lateral view, Cambarus pictus.
10.—Mesial view, Cambarus pictus.
11.—Mesial view, Cambarus pallidus.
12.—Lateral view, Cambarus pallidus.
13.—Mesial view, Cambarus clarkit paeninsulanus.
14.—Lateral view, Cambarus clarkii paeninsulanus.
15.—Mesial view, Cambarus spicultfer.
16.—Lateral view, Cambarus spiculifer. -
17.—Mesial view, Cambarus gracilis.
18.—Lateral view, Cambarus gracilis.
19.—Lateral view, Cambarus allent.
60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PLATE I!
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Hig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
ON THE FIRST PLEOPOD OF THE MALE CAMBARI 61
PLATE II
First Left Pleopods of First Form Males
A—mesial process
B—cephalic process
CE or Z—central projection
C—centro-caudal process
E—centro-cephalic process
D—caudal process
X—a membranous sheath stretched beteween E and C.
1.—Mesial view, Cambarus alleni.
2.—Mesial view, Cambarus barbatus.
3.—Lateral view, Cambarus barbatus.
4.—Mesial view, Cambarus digueti.
5.—Lateral view, Cambarus digueti.
6.—Mesial view, Cambarus montezumae.
7.—Lateral view, Cambarus montezumae.
8.—Caudal view, Cambarus rogersi.
9.—Cephalo-mesial view, Cambarus rogersi.
10.—Lateral view, Cambarus advena.
11.—Mesial view, Cambarus advena.
12.—Mesial view, Cambarus mexicanus.
13.—Mesial view, Faxonius limosus.
14.—Lateral view, Faxonius limosus.
15.—Diagram of “unrolled” appendage of Faxonius limosus.
(For reconstruction: Roll the right margin toward the ob-
server and bring it into contact with the broken line; then
fold the structure toward the observer along the broken
line.)
16.—Mesial view, Cambarus kilbyt.
17.—Lateral view, Cambarus kilbyi.
18.—Mesial view, Cambarus bartoni subspecies.
19.—Lateral view, Cambarus bartoni subspecies.
NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS
OF THE FERNS OF NORTHERN
PENINSULA FLORIDA
STEPHEN H. SpuRR
Harvard Forest
Studies of the distribution and habits of the ferns of the order
Filicales in northern peninsular Florida were made by the author
during the winter of 1938. This paper is based upon the results of
these field studies, supplemented by published information, and by
data obtained from the records of Mr. Edward P. St. John of Floral
City, Florida, and from the herbaria of the Florida Agricultural
Experiment Station and the Department of Botany of the University
of Florida. Mr. St. John, Mr. Erdman West of the Experiment Station,
and Professor Madison D. Cody of the Department of Botany were
liberal in their assistance to the author. Dr. T. H. Hubbell of the
Department of Biology of the University, has generously read and
criticized the manuscript.
From the standpoint of ferns, much of northern peninsular
Florida has been inadequately explored and would repay more intensive
collecting, especially with reference to the numerous minor limestone
exposures. There still remains a great deal of work to be done before
the range, abundance and habits of the ferns of this region are satis-
factorily understood.
The ferns of the order Filicales known to be native to northern
' peninsular Florida can, on the basis of their distribution, be classified
into four rather distinct ecological groups. ‘The first group, herein-
after called the cool-temperate ferns, includes a number of species that
have their centers of distribution north of the region in question, and
southern limits of distribution that fall in that region. Another group,
here called the warm-temperate ferns, is made up of species that
range throughout the area and constitute the dominant fern flora
there. A third group, designated as subtropical, contains species with
northern limits of distribution in the northern part of the Peninsula.
These are, in most instances, increasingly abundant southward, and many
have their centers of distribution in the southern tip of Florida. The
last group, classed as tropical ferns, comprises a number of species
which, in the northern part of the Peninsula, occur only where the
microclimate is more or less tropical in character. Some of these are
restricted to northern peninsular Florida, while others also occur on
the Florida Keys or in the hammocks of the lower Everglades, but are
62
NOTES ON FERNS OF NORTHERN PENINSULA FLORIDA 63
not found in the intervening area. In the northern part of the Peninsula
most of the tropical species inhabit cave-mouths and other protected
limestone outcrops, in contrast to the habits of the subtropical ferns
which are predominantly hammock and swamp plants.
The best general treatment of the ferns of Florida, including full
descriptions of all the species discussed in this paper, will be found in
J. K. Small’s Ferns of the Southeastern States (Lancaster, Pa. Science
Press, 1938). Since Dr. Small did not accept the rules of nomenclature
promulgated by the Botanical Congress of 1930, a few of his names
differ from those accepted by the majority of botanists and used in
the present paper. In Small’s book Thelypteris palustris is called
Thelypteris Thelypteris, Pteridium latiusculum is called Pteris Latius-
cula, and the genus Péeris is called Pycnodoria.
COOL-TEMPERATE FERNS
The six ferns of this group are of uncommon occurrence in north-
ern peninsular Florida. The range of the ebony spleenwort has not
been definitely determined but the species extends at least as far south
as Pasco County. Although the southern limit of occurrence of the
lowland lady fern lies in Alachua County, it is quite common in that
vicinity. The other ferns in this group have been found only at a few
scattered localities. These stations seem to represent isolated outposts
beyond the well-marked southern limit of distribution for these
species.
Trichomanes Peterstt A. Gray. Peters’ filmy fern. This is very
rare throughout its range, being known only from a few stations in
Alabama (where it was first discovered), South Carolina, Tennessee,
Georgia, Mississippi and Illinois. In these states it usually frequents
moist locations on the undersides of dripping rocks, or rocks near water-
falls where the air approaches the saturation point. The species is
known from only one Florida station, near Brooksville, where it was
found by Mr. Edward P. St. John in 1936. Peculiarly enough, it here
inhabits a moderately dry hammock on a rocky hill, and grows on
detached rocks at some distance from water. |
Adiantum Capillus-Veneris L., the rare Venus’ Hair, mingles in
Florida with tropical species on moist lime-rock. In Annuttalagga
Hammock at its southernmost station in the United States, it covers
the walls of a gently sloping fissure leading down into a cave.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Devil’s Mill Hopper. Citrus Co.: Sulfur Springs.
Hernando Co.: Venus’ Hair Sink; Annuttalagga Hammock. Rare northward.
Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes, the ebony spleenwort, is
not as abundant in Florida as in the northern states; but around
Gainesville it is common in most hammocks and along railway em-
64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
bankments. There seem to be two distinct forms of this fern in
Florida. One is a small typical form with dimorphic fronds which grows
only on rocks, and the other a large ground-loving form with all the
fronds fertile.
Athyrium asplenioides (Michx.) Eaton., the lowland lady fern, is
another cool-temperate fern frequently found around Gainesville. It
grows only in moist hammocks and in wet woods, and has not been
found south of Alachua County.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Hammock west of clay tennis courts, University
of Florida; Ft. Clark Church; Sanchez Hammock. Common northward.
Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Schott., the evergreen Christ-
mas fern, has been collected in several rich hammocks in the Peninsula,
but no specimens have been found there that were healthy or overly
well-developed.
Occurrence: Hernando Co.: Annuttalagga Hammock. Citrus Co.: Pineola.
Alachua Co.: Beech Hammock near Santa Fe.
Lygodium palmatum (Bernh.) Sw. Climbing fern. It is yet
undetermined whether the climbing fern is native to northern peninsular
Florida. Two of the three stations for it very likely represent escapes
from cultivation, and its occurrence at a third may have resulted from
migration from one of the others. In this area it is a vine, twining
around broad-leaved trees in fairly moist locations and in abandoned
rock-pits.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Gainesville; northeast of Alachua Sink. Citrus
Co.: Hernando Village.
WARM-TEMPERATE FERNS
All the ferns of this group occur in greater or lesser abundance
throughout the northern part of the Florida peninsula.
Marginaria polypodioides (L) Tidestom., the resurrection fern,
is very abundant in this region. A form altogether restricted to ham-
mocks, it is particularly common on leaning trunks of magnolia,
sweet-gum, live-oak and other broad-leaved trees, although it is found
also on dead stumps, fallen trees, logs, and rarely on the ground or on
rock.
Pteridium latiusculum (Desv.) Hieron., the bracken, is without
doubt the commonest fern in this area. It appears to reach its best
growth in the open flatwoods where it often covers the ground to the
exclusion of other vegetation. Although at home in both moist and
semi-arid plant zones, it evidently demands a rather large amount of
sunlight. Lack of sufficient sunlight seems to account for its relative
scarcity in hammocks.
NOTES ON FERNS OF NORTHERN PENINSULA FLORIDA 65
Anchistea virginica (L.) Presl. and Lorinseria areolata (L.) Presl.,
the two chain-ferns that occur in this state are primarily marsh or
swamp plants. Anchistea is capable of thriving in soil saturated with
water, and is abundant in nearly all wet hammocks, cypress-bays,
swamps, marshes and prairies. Abundant.
Lorinseria, however, is more of a mesophytic form, and does not
thrive in standing water. It is most common in moist but well aerated
locations with markedly acid soils. Abundant.
The two Osmundas in this region are largely hammock plants.
Osmunda cinnamomea L., the cinnamon fern, is the more mesophytic,
and is common in nearly all the mesophytic hammocks.
Osmunda regalis L., the royal fern, on the other hand, grows
luxuriantly in saturated soils. Although it can thrive under conditions
of limited light and excess moisture, it is not as abundant as either of
the chain-ferns, which have similar requirements and habits.
The woodferns are a large group presenting much taxonomic dif-
ficulty. Knowledge concerning the habits and distribution of the
individual species must necessarily be scanty until the component
species have been clearly differentiated. With one exception, the
woodferns are forest-dwellers. The one exception is the common
marshfern, Thelypteris palustris Schott, which demands moisture and
light. Predominantly a northern form, it has established itself
throughout most of Florida, and is common in the upper portion of the
peninsula.
In contrast to the habits of the marshfern, the common wood-
fern of this region, Telypteris normalis (C. Chr.) Moxley, is typically
a hammock form, occurring outside of hammocks only around the
mouths of caves or on other exposed limestone. Practically every ham-
mock is a Thelypteris normalis habitat, although the fern is most abun-
dant on calcareous soils. Sometimes what appear to be stunted light-
green fronds of Thelypteris normalis are found on vertical rock walls.
These cliff woodferns belong to a recently distinguished species,
Thelypteris saxatilis R. St. John. Few.
Thelypteris dentata (Forsk.) E. St. John, the true dentate wood-
fern, is rather rare, but may be found in rocky hammocks within which
are steep slopes. A species recently separated from it, Thelypteris
versicolor R. St. John, also occupies only rich well-shaded hammocks,
but in general thrives on drier ground than the moisture-loving dentate
woodfern. Many of the past records for Thelypteris dentata were
based on what is now recognized as Thelypteris versicolor.
Another recently distinguished woodfern is Thelypieris ovata R.
St. John, intermediate in form between Thelypteris normalis and
66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Thelypteris augescens (Link) Munz & Johnston. This species is com-
mon in the same localities and habitats as Thelypteris normalis, with
which it is easily confused.
Dryopteris ludoviciana (Kunze) Small., the Florida woodfern, is,
next to mormalis, the most common woodfern in northern peninsular
Florida. It is not common north of the Peninsula, however, nor is it
found south of the Okeechobee region.
The commonest Aspleniums in the upper part of the peninsula are
the black-stemmed spleenworts, Asplenium resiliens Kunze and Asplen-
tum heterochroum Kunze. Although quite distinct farther north in
their range, in Florida they are almost inseparable. Both grow only
on exposed rock in protected locations, and one or the other is common
in most rocky hammocks and on most rocky river bluffs throughout the
northern half of Florida.
SUBTROPICAL FERNS
In marked contrast to the members of the preceding group, the
subtropical ferns as a whole are distinctly uncommon in the northern
part of the peninsula, where, by definition, their northern limit of
distribution lies. Several of the species, however, are common in the
southern part of the area under discussion.
The fronds of Acrostichum daneaefolium Langsd. & Fisch., the
leather fern, sometimes reach a height of nearly twelve feet, it being
the largest of our native ferns. The plant is markedly hydrophytic,
and thrives in either fresh or slightly brackish marshes, swamps, low
prairies and wet hammock.
Occurrence: Citrus Co.: Homosassa Springs. Marion Co.: Withlacoochee
River east of Dunnellon. St. Johns Co. Volusia Co. Common southward.
Polypodium pectinatum L., a polypody extends north only as far as
the lake region of central Florida, but is locally abundant there. It
thrives on humus or rotting logs or stumps, a characteristic which aids
one in separating it from its close relative, Polypodium plumula Humb.
& Bonpl., another polypody which is a smaller lime-rock dwelling form.
In favorable locations Polypodium pectinatum may reach considerable
size, a specimen collected by the author in Seminole County measuring
five feet, two inches in length.
Occurrence: Citrus Co. Hernando Co.: Annuttalagga Hammock. Pasco
Co.: Blanton. Lake Co.: Seminole Springs. Putnam Co. St. Johns Co. Com-
mon southward.
One of the few true epiphytes ranging into northern peninsular
Florida is the golden polypody or serpent fern, Phlebodium aureum
(L) J. Smith. It is largely confined to those cabbage palms of which
the crowns are twenty or more feet above the ground. ‘Toward its
NOTES ON FERNS OF NORTHERN PENINSULA FLORIDA 67
northern limit it sometimes forsakes this habit, having been found
growing on live-oak trees ten to fifteen feet from the ground, and in
humus on the hammock floor.
Occurrence: Dixie Co.: on live oak, Cross City. Alachua Co.: Prairie
Creek; Santa Fe River at Camp Oleno. Duval Co.: mouth of St. Johns. Marion
Co.: Juniper Springs. Lake Co.: Seminole Springs. Levy Co.: Gulf Hammock.
St. Johns Co. Common southward.
Another epiphytic species is Campyloneurum Phyllitidis (L)
Presl., the strap-fern. It is a hammock form, rare in the northern
part of the peninsula where it grows most commonly on live-oaks and
similar rough-barked trees. It is, however, sometimes found on the
hammock floor, on logs, and on stumps.
Occurrence: Citrus Co.: Sulfur Springs. Lake Co.: Rock Springs. Duval
Co. Marion Co. St. Johns Co.
Vittaria lineata (L.) Sw., the shoestring fern, is another epiphyte,
one which has very similar habits to the golden polypody. It has not,
though, the marked height requirements that have been noted for the
latter fern. Not only does it hang from the base of the crown of the
cabbage palm but it has also been found growing on the trunk at some
distance (at least eight feet) from the ground. One station is known
in Citrus County where it grows on rock, and another where it grows
on a rotting stump. At neither place are the plants well developed.
It is very abundant along the Econlockhatchee River west of Chuluota,
Seminole County. There it is associated with Phlebodium aureum and
Cheiroglossa palmaia, the handfern.
Blechnum serrulatum L. C. Rich., the swamp fern, is typically an
inhabitant of fresh-water swamp or marsh. Where the water is slightly
brackish, it grows on top of stumps or cypress knees. A line south of
and roughly parallel to the Withlacoochee River marks its northern
limit of distribution.
Cecurrence: Citrus Co.: Crystal River; Homosassa Springs. Hernando Co.:
Brooksville. Putnam Co. St. Johns Co. Abundant southward.
The confusion that has existed concerning the taxonomy of the
woodferns has made many past records of doubtful value. Thelypteris
augescens (Link) Munz & Johnson, until recently known only from
the Everglades, has been found at several stations in the west-cen-
tral part of the peninsula (Alachua, Citrus, Dixie and Sumter Counties),
but its distribution remains to be worked out. It has been found growing
on the hammock floor, in rock pits, and on stony bluffs. Tkelypteris
gongylodes (Schkuhr) Kuntze, a hydrophytic plant occurring in low
hammocks, marshes and swamps, reaches about as far north as the
latitude of Leesburg. It is rather common southward.
68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Occurrence: Citrus Co.: Crystal River (?); Homosassa. Sumter Co.:
Weed’s Landing. Shell Island in Withlacoochee River. Volusia Co.: Lake
Helen. Orange Co. Pasco Co. Seminole Co.
Only three specimens of Thelypteris macilenta E. St. John have
been discovered. These were found growing together in Annuttalagga
Hammock in Hernando County in 1936. Only the one specimen
transplanted and growing in Floral City is known to be still in existence.
Occurrence: Hernando Co.: One colony, northwest portion of Annuttalagga
Hammock,
The determination of certain specimens collected near Brooksville
as Thelypieris unca R. St. John is still dubious, and the occurrence of
this plant in northern peninsular Florida therefore remains question-
able. Thelypteris tetvagona (Link) Small is known only from Marion,
rocky slopes in hammocks. Thelypteris panamensis (Presl.) E. St.
John has been found only at two stations, one near Fort Meade and the
other south of Lakeland, both in “miry hammocks” along the Peace
River.
Dryopteris setigera (Blume) Kuntze has been classified as an
introduced species, but considerable evidence exists that it may be na-
tive. It grows in the Lake Region from Seminole and Orange Counties
south of Polk County, and westward to Citrus and Hernando Counties.
Its preferred habitat is a deep hammock. Individual fronds may ex-
ceed five feet in length.
Occurrence: Hernando Co. Orange Co. St. Johns Co. Seminole Co.
Volusia Co. Polk’ Co. Citrus Co.
Interesting gradations of habit are exhibited by MNephrolepis
exaltata (L.) Schott, the wild Boston fern. In the Everglades ham-
mocks it is most common on trees. As one progresses northward, it is
found to seek lower levels on trees, until, at about the latitude of
Floral City all the stations are on the ground. Still farther north, it
grows mostly in wells in pinewoods below the general ground surface.
The most northern station known is Jenning’s Cave in Marion County.
Occurrence: Marion Co.: Jenning’s Cave. Citrus Co.: Homosassa Springs.
Hernando Co.: Prospecting well, Annuttalagga Hammock. Sumter Co.: Swamp
near Cedar Hammock.
Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott., the sword fern, has been
reported from one station on an island in the river below Homasassa
Springs in Citrus County. The identification is not fully authenticated.
No other station is known north of the Everglades.
TROPICAL FERNS
As the so-called tropical ferns of northern peninsular Florida are
generally quite exacting in their choice of habitat, and as climatic con-
ditions in that region appear to be generally unfavorable to them, these
NOTES ON FERNS OF NORTHERN PENINSULA FLORIDA 69
ferns as a whole are decidedly uncommon and their occurrence is gen-
erally spotty.
The filmy-fern, Trichomanes sphenoides Kunze, has been found
in the West Indies and Central America, but only one station is known
for it in Florida. This is in Sumter County, where it clings to a few
limestone boulders on a dry shaded knoll.
Occurrence: Sumter Co.: 7 miles east of Floral City.
Ceratopteris pteridoides (Hook.) Hieron, the floating fern, is
abundant in the headwaters of the St. Johns River. It is also known
from pools near Pineola Grottoes in Citrus County, and in the upper
waters of the Withlacoochee River. The fern is annually winter-killed,
but vegetative buds sink into the mud in the fall and rise to the surface
early in the sprng to produce a new crop.
In the United States, the Florida anemia, Anemia adiantifolia (L.)
Sw., was until recently known only from the pinelands and hammocks
in the Everglades Keys. It is known now to be quite common in the
lower part of the peninsular lime-sink region in Citrus and Hernando
Counties, where it is generally found growing on rock ledges in deep
and well-shaded ravines.
Occurrence: Citrus Co.: Ravine near road, 2 miles north of Pineola; rock
ledges, Lecanto; Sulfur Springs. Few. Hernando Co.: Few.
Polypodium plumula is similar in appearance to Polypodium pec-
tinatum (discussed above as a subtropical fern), but is distinct in both
habits and distribution. Polypodium plumula is the rarer of the two
species. It has been found only in a few widely separated localities.
Besides growing on the upper Florida Keys and at points along the
lower east coast, it has been recorded from three stations in Alachua
County, from four or five in Citrus County, and from a few more in
neighboring territory. A hammock plant, it prefers lime-rock in the
northern part of the peninsula, but tends to grow in trees or on rotting
logs or humus further south.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Alachua Sink; Devil’s Mill Hopper, on oak;
Buzzard’s Roost. Citrus Co.: Pineola and other grottoes Hernando Co.: An-
nuttalagga Hammock, on rock; Choocochattee Hammock near Brooksville. Mar-
ion Co. Orange Co. St. Johns Co. Seminole Co. Sumter Co. Volusia Co.
Pieris cretica L., the Cretan brake, is typically a tropical fern; it
fas migrated, however, probably with the aid of man, into restricted
localities in western Florida and in southern Georgia. It grows on
exposed lime-rock or on the humus covering exposed lime-rock in deep
rocky hammock, in lime-sinks, and in grottoes in northern peninsular
Florida.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Buzzard’s Roost; Devil’s Mill Hopper; Palisade
Sink. Citrus Co.: Pineola and other grottoes. Columbia Co.: Old Santa Fe
River bed. Hernando Co. Marion Co.
70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Although the Venus’ Hair and the Florida maidenhair, Adiantum
tenerum Sw., grow in the same region, and in at least one station occur
together in the same lime-sink, the Venus’ Hair reaches Florida from
the Appalachian region, while the Florida maidenhair extends north
from the tropics, where it is widely distributed. Adiantum tenerum
Sw. is rather the more common species but is restricted to a much
smaller area in Florida. It grows most abundantly in heavy shade on
honeycombed rock below general land level.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Small sink south-east of Alachua Sink; Devil’s
Mill Hopper. Citrus Co.: Pineola Grottoes; Metz Grotto. Hernando Co.: Vit-
taria Sink, Annuttalagga Hammock; Maidenhair Sink, Annuttalagga Hammock.
Marion Co. St. Johns Co. Volusia Co.
Hypolepis repens (L.) Presl., the spring fern, shows a marked
preference for seepage areas at the heads of ravines. Although discov-
ered in Florida in 1895, it was known only from one or two stations
in central Florida until quite recently, when it was found to be fairly
widely established in eastern Hernando and Polk Counties. Outside
of central Florida it is known from Gold Head Branch in Clay County
about a hundred miles farther north.
Occurrence: Clay Co.: Gold Head Branch State Park. Polk Co.: near
Lakeland. Hernando Co.: Choocochattee Hammock. Pasco Co.: Dade City.
Orange Co. Osceola Co. Putnam Co. Seminole Co.
Blechnum occidentale L. is a West Indian and South American
fern that was not found in Florida until 1916. In addition to the
original station near Brooksville, two other stations have been found
for it in Hernando County and one in Alachua County. In Hernando
County it grows near streams in rocky, shaded places; at the Alachua
County station it covers a perpendicular wall about ten feet below the
ground level in a large cave entrance.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Fern Cave. Hernando Co.: Choocochattee
Hammock; Annuttalagga Hammock; four miles north of Brooksville.
As a group, the tropical spleenworts in northern peninsular Flori-
da are of rare occurrence. The commonest species is perhaps Asplen-
tum abscissum Willd., which is known from upwards of thirty stations.
In general, this fern can withstand more light, steeper walls, and drier
conditions than any others of the group. It reaches its best growth,
however, in the half-shade of overhanging lime-rock walls dripping with
moisture. In some of the deep natural wells of Alachua County it
completely hides the walls.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Coral Snake Wells; Buzzard’s Roost; Abscissum
Sink; Goat Sink; Fern Cave; Grape-vine Sink; several additional. Marion Co.:
Jenning’s Cave; Belleview; Indian Cave; Hayes Cave. Citrus Co.: Pineola. Le-
canto. Hernando Co.: Devil’s Punch Bowl, Annuttalagga Hammock; Venus’
Hair Sink, Annuttalagga Hammock. Sumter Co.: Panasoffkee Outlet.
NOTES ON FERNS OF NORTHERN PENINSULA FLORIDA 71
Asplenium verecundum Chapm., has a wider distribution than
Asplenium abscissum but is less abundant locally. About a dozen sta-
tions have been recorded. It seems to thrive in the pits of sheer lime-
rock walls, only if the walls are well protected by trees. It reaches its
best growth in the Citrus County grottoes and at Buzzard’s Roost in
Alachua County.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Split Rock; Buzzard’s Roost; Devil’s Hole; Jook
Cave. Marion Co.: Bellview Cave; Indian Cave. Columbia Co.: Old Santa
Fe River bed. Sumter Co.: Wahoo. Citrus Co.: Lecanto. Hernando Co.
For the endemic Asflenium Curtissii Underw. only five stations
are known, and only at Pineola Grottoes and at Buzzard’s Roost does
it occur in any abundance. Its habits are very similar to those of
Asplenium verecundum.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Buzzard’s Roost. Marion Co.: Belleview Cave.
Citrus Co.: Lecanto; Pineola Grottoes. Sumter Co.: Indian Field ledges north
of Wahoo. Hernando Co.
Asplenium auritum Sw. has only been found at two places within
two miles of each other along the Hillsborough River south of Zephyr-
hills. Here it is epiphytic on very large live-oak trees. There is also
an extinct station in Cedar Hammock in Sumter County.
A very delicately cut little fern, Asplenium cristatum Lam., has
been found at only six stations in Citrus and Sumter Counties all
within a radius of less than five miles. Around the southern end of
Lake Tsala Apopka, this fern grows on protected rocks in deep ham-
mocks. It seems to grow only upon chert and flint—siliceous—out-
crops.
Occurrence: Citrus Co.: Rock Island; “The Cove’; Craig’s Island. Sum-
ter Co.: Panasoffkee Outlet.
Until 1935, Asplenium pumilum Sw. was known only from Buz-
zard’s Roost in Alachua County, where it grows on scattered siliceous
rocks along the top of the ledges. Since then, two other stations have
been found, at both of which the ferns grow on scattered siliceous
boulders.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Buzzard’s Roost. Citrus Co.: Craig’s Island.
Hernando Co.: Annuttalagga Hammock.
Three spleenworts, Asplenium scalifolium E. St. John, Asplenium
subtile E. St. John, and Asplenium plenum EK. St. John, are not only
among the most recently discovered but also among the rarest of our
ferns. They were found in 1936 in a cave near Lecanto, Florida. The
cave opens off a natural well about forty feet deep. About twenty
feet down, on a narrow ledge, these three ferns eke out a precarious
existence. In 1938, an additional station was found for A. subtle in
Fern Cave in Alachua County. ‘
72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Tectaria heracleifolia (Willd.) Underw., the halberd-fern, is a
striking leaf-like grotto plant that in our range is known only from
Citrus and Hernando Counties. The three stations for it in Citrus
County are the Knight, Metz, and Pineola Grottoes. In Annuttalagga
Hammock it is fairly common in and on the edges of shallow lime-
sinks.
In the Everglades Keys, Goniopteris repians (J. F. Gmel.) Presl.,
the creeping-fern, occurs in all of the high pine-land hammocks. In the
lime-sink region of northern and central Florida it was formerly con-
sidered to be quite rare. In the last few years, however, it has been
found to be a relatively common plant in this region also, there being
over thirty stations for it in Alachua County alone. It prefers perpen-
dicular rock walls, but makes no particular claim for either moisture
or shade.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Buzzard’s Roost; Coral Snake Wells; Jerome
Sink; Quarry Sink; Bat Cave; Grape-vine Sink and others. Citrus Co.: Pineola
Grottoes; Sulfur Springs. Marion Co.: Cave at Shady Hill Dairy Farm, Ocala.
Hernando Co.
INTRODUCED SPECIES
Nephrolepis cordifolia (L) Presl., Boston Fern.
Pieris Muliifida Poir., Spider Brake.
Pteris vittata L., Ladder Brake.
Of the introduced ferns thriving in northern peninsular Florida,
the Boston fern (Nephrolepis cordifolia) is the best known. It originat-
ed as a sport of Nephrolepis exaltata. It is quite common, especially
in abandoned dumps among other habitats.
Only one station is known for Pteris multifida, that being a rock
pit near a one-time commercial nursery in Citrus County, one mile east
of Inverness. The ladder brake, Pieris vittata, may possibly be a
native species. It has been found on brick walls, in cemeteries, and in
mine pits throughout Florida and in several other southern states.
Occurrence: Alachua Co.: Brick wall, Agricultural Building, University of
Florida. Sumter Co.: Mine-pit, north of road, Rutland to Wildwood. Few
throughout region.
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND
GRAVITY
ROBERT B. CAMPBELL
Peninsular Oil and Refining Company
Tampa, Florida
In attempting to arrive at a geological interpretation of gravity
data the usual assumption is that the maxima are indicative of struc-
tural highs. As early as 1890 gravity measurements were used in study-
ing major tectonic features. Hayford and Bowie, geodesists, dis-
cussed the relationship of gravity data with local geologic structure
and made the first isostatic studies in 1909 and 1910. G. K. Gilbert,
a little earlier, concluded that the contoured gravity map of the
entire nation indicates the topography of the basement rocks and
reflects subsurface structure. Though recognizing that under some
conditions this may not be true, most geologists accept Gilbert’s
idea as a good working hypothesis. Woollard has given this conception
expression with the statement that there exists a definite relationship
between gravity and geological structures with the gravity profiles
in general representing the configuration of the crystalline basement.
This relationship is revealed by the relative value rather than by the
sign of the anomalies. The anomalies are determined almost entirely by
the density and thickness of the material adjacent to and underlying
the station. The basement structures may be obscured by the pres-
ence of abnormal- or subnormal-density material overlying it, a con-
dition that must be interpreted by evidence of a geological nature,
either as exposed at the surface or revealed in well logs.”
Geologists accept the idea that peninsular Florida is anticlinal
and that west Florida has a regional dip to the south-southwest.
If the relationship assumed to exist between structure and gravity
were true the gravity values should diminish coastward in any pro-
files drawn in such direction. As a matter of fact, however, they
only do so until the coastline is neared, at which point they suddenly
increase in value, making a gravity trough marginal to the coast. This
occurs at all points on both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts where
there are sufficient data on which to draw profiles. The purpose of
this paper is an attempt to pose rather than to solve the problem.
Frequent contributions are being made to geologic and geodetic lit-
erature in an attempt to learn what gravity anomalies mean in terms
of rock mass and structure, and it is hoped the present paper will
be an addition to this literature.
1G. P. Woollard, “‘An interpretation of gravity in terms of local and re-
gional structures,” American Geophysical Union Transactions (1936).
73
Ro.
Name
Profile #1
356
749
7351
735
164
Capell, Ala.
Megargel, Ala.
Robinsonville, Ala.
Muscogee, Ala.
Pensacola, Fla.
Profile #2
886
885
399
834
835
882
881
4
Eufala, Ala.
Abbeville, Ala.
Dothan, Ala.
Munford, Fla,
Marianna, Fla.
Sink Creck, Fla.
Blowntstown, Fla.
Idlewood, Fla,
Sawmill, Fla.
Appalachicola, Fla.
Profile #5
876
877
878
864
865
856
867
868
92
Tifton, Ga.
Alapaha, Ga.
Pearson, Ga.
Waresboro, Ga.
Ft. Mudge, Ga.
Folkston, Ga.
Hillierd, Fla,
talia, Fla.
Fernandins, Fla.
Profile #4
161
870
495
Cedar Keys, Fla.
York, Fla.
Ocala, Fla.
Profile #5
695
694
692
697
492
St. Petersburg, Fla.
Port Tampa, Fla.
Riverview, Fla.
Homeland, Fla,
Babson Park
Profile #6
3
480
Punta Gorda, Fla.
Ft. Ceden, Fla.
State Hwy.#8, Fla.
State Hwy#8, Pla.
tate Hwy 70, Fla.
State Hwy.#S, Pla.
Kisaimmso R., Fla,
Okeechobdes, Fla.
E. of Okeechobee, Fla.
W. of Ft. Pierce, Fla.
Ft. Pierce, Fla.
Profile #7
438
479
507
687
685
684
663
681
2
Sanibel, Fla. —
E. of Ft. Myers, Fla.
S. of Labelle, Fla,
United Naval Stores,Fla
Clewiston, Fla.
South Bay, Fla.
Brown's farm, Fla.
Platt, Fla.
W. Palm Beach, Fla.
Profile #8
499
478
S00
473
$02
471
470
468
69
Naples, Fla,
Belle Meade, Fla.
Royal Palm Hammock, Fla.
Ochopee, Fla.
Tamiami Trail, Fla.
Tamiami Trail, Fla.
Taniemi Trail, Fla.
Taniemt Trail, Fla.
Tamiemi Trail, Fla.
Coral Gables, Fla.
Latitude
30/39.8
30/465
30/3704
30/26 .3
30/11.3
29/57.7
29/43.5
31/27.9
31/23.0
31/17.6
31/14.2
31/03.9
30/49.6
30/42.1
30/37.0
30/40.2
29/08.3
29/09.1
29/11.9
27/4849
27/51.6
27/52.4
27/50.5
27/5006
26 /56.2
27/06.2
27/12.7
27/12.8
27/12.0
27/12.8
27/14.1
27/14.1
27/18.1
27/22.2
27/2604
26/27 .2
26/356
26/3722
26/46 2
26/45.7
26/39.2
26/33.4
26/4204
26/42.8
26/08.5
26/03.8
26/00.0
25/5401
25/52.0
25/51.0
25/476
25/4529
25/46 2
25/460
Longitufe
87/21.0
87/25.4
87/262
87/2409
87/12.9
85/0804
85/15.8
85/24.2
85/12.6
83/1461
@5/0961
85/02.8
85/11.9
85/10.6
84/58.8
83/30.7
83/12.5
82/49.9
82/26.0
62/11.1
82/00.3
81/55.5
81/43.1
61/2727
83/02.1
82/18.0
82/08.1
82/40.2
82/31.7
82/20.4
81/49.5
81/31.7
82/03.0
81/56 .0
81/39.7
81/28.7
81/20.0
81/11.7
80/59.9
20/5001
80/40.8
@0/30.2
80/20.9
82/00.9
81/44.
81/26 .6
81/14.1
&0/54.9
80/42.9
80/30.8
80/10.7
80/02.8
~j{
Free Air Bouguer
=-.003 =.010
=-,001 -,015
=-.016 =,025
=-.012 -.014
-.004 = 004
+,029 +-012
+2027 +2013
+,002 | -.009
-.010 | -.016
-.015 | =.021
-,039 =-.041
~.026 | -.028
-.015 | -.017
AOL! venOre
+012 1} +2017
+,055 +,042
+,033 +.023
+025 +.018
+.006 000
+,014 +,009
+,008 +, 005
+009 +,007
+,013 +,012
+,024 +.023
-.008 =-.009
-.008 | -.011
000 -.004
+,.025 +024
+.020 +,020
+,018 +017
+,021 +.017
+2006 +,001
+025 +.025
+,007 +.006
+.016 +,014
+033 +2030
+,033 +.029
+,016 +.015
-.014 -.015
-.019 =-.020
=-.005 =-,007
+,009 +008
+2018 +0017
+016 +,016
=-.015 -,015
+011 +,010
+051 +,051
+.054 +9033
+031 +,030
+,034 +,053
+044 +043
+,045 +2045
+,020 +,020
+,014 +0014
+012 +012
-.003 =.005
-,003 -.005
+.005 +,005
+,014 +014
+,.018 +,018
+, 026 +2026
+025 +025
Anomaly
Isostetic
Indirect 56.9 Km. 96 Km.
=-.907 =.907 =-.010
=-,013 =.012 -.016
=-.025 -.024 -.028
=-.020 -,018 = .022
=.012 -.010 -,015
+018 +019 +,015
+,018 +,020 +2016
=-,007 =-.006 =-.010
=-.016 -.915 -.019
-.022 -.021 -.025
=~ 044 = 942 ~,046
=.032 -.031 -.035
-,024 =-,022 =-,028
-.021 -.019 -.024
+002 +2004 -.901
+.046 +.047 + 0043
+2025 +2027 +.022
+.017 +,019 +,015
-.002 -.001 -.905
+,004 +.006 +,002
-.O001 +,001 -.004
oco +,002 -.002
+004 +2006 +.002
+.014 +.016 +012
-.019 -.016 -.021
-.020 -.017 -.022
-.010 -.017
+,014 +,009
+,011 +,005
+.010 +,004
+,010 +003
-.007 -.015
+,015 +.008
-.003 ~-.010
+.005 =.002
+.020 +2013
+.019 +012
+,005 =-,003
-.026 -.033
~-.032 -.039
-.019 -.027
-,003 -,015
+.003 -,005
+,005 =-.002
=.026 -,035
=-.00L -.008
+.019 +012
+021 +2015
+2017 +.009
+019 +,011
+,025 +,.017
+026 +,.018
+,009 +,001
+2002 -,005
000 =.008
@,016 =-,024
-.016 =,025
=.009 =,017
000 -.009
+2003 =.006
+.010 4.001
=.005
113.7 Km.
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GRAVITY 75
Table 1 is abridged from reports of the United Stated Coast and
Geodetic Survey.’ It shows the name, number, latitude and longitude,
and the several gravity anomalies for each station expressed in gals,
These anomalies are called “Free Air”, ““Bouguer” and ‘Isostatic.”
The “Free Air” anomalies are arrived at by taking the theoretical
value at sea level for the latitude of the station, correcting for the
elevation of the station, and subtracting this value from the observed
value of gravity at that point. This method takes no account of the
effects of topography or of isostatic compensation. From a different
point of view it may be said that these two effects balance exactly. The
Bouguer anomaly is computed by correcting not only for latitude and
elevation but also for the effect of topography within a radius of 103.6
miles. Isostasy is not taken into account in these computations.
The isostatic anomalies given in the last four columns are com-
puted by the Hayford-Bowie formula® and are corrected to “depths of
compensation” of 56.9 kilometers, 96 kilometers, and 113.7 kilomet-
ers. An “indirect”? anomaly is also listed for some of the stations.
This takes account of the effect of the matter included between the
spheroid and the isostatic geoid and of its compensation, in addition
to the ordinary effects of topography and isostasy. The profiles are
drawn on the anomalies computed for a depth of isostatic compensation
of 113.7 kilometers, expressed in milligals.
The conception of isostasy is accepted in the earth sciences but
may be restated here. The earth is composed of heterogeneous mater-
ial which, due to the influence of gravity and its own rotation, tends
to become an ellipsoid of revolution. But since the material does not
act as a perfect fluid, at least near the surface, the actual surface of the
earth is characterized by bulges where the density is deficient and hol-
lows where the density is excessive. These features furnish the moun-
tains, continents and oceans of the earth’s surface, the continents
floated because of their comparatively light material, the oceans de-
pressed because of the dense material by which they are underlaid.
By this theory each columnar unit of the earth has approximately the
same mass, whether such unit is in ocean, continent or mountain re-
gions. Such units are conceived as having a radius of not less than
Principal Facts for Gravity Stations in the United States”
Part 1 (Stations 1-457 inc.)
Part 2 (Stations 458-586 inc.)
Part 3 (Stations 587-713 inc.)
Revised Data for Parts 1, 2 and 3
Part 4 (Stations 714-925 inc.)
Part 5 (Stations 926-1081 inc.)
Department of Commerce, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
pic: 3 ay
8See U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Bulletins No. 10, 40 and 99.
76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
10 kilometers. In the actual reductions much smaller areas than this
are taken near the station, but Bowie considered the 10 kilometer rad-
ius as the probable average size of topographic masses independently
in equilibrium. Such a condition of approximate equilibrium is known
as “isostasy’” and adjustment to the condition is known as “isostatic
adjustment.”” ‘The compensation of the excess of matter at the sur-
face by the density deficiency below in the continental areas, and of
the surface deficiency of matter over the excess density below in the
oceanic regions is called the “isostatic compensation” and the depth
at which compensation is complete is called the “depth of compensa-
tion.” For the purposes of comparison, this depth of compensation
is shown in Table 1 as at 56.9 kilometers, 96 kilometers, or 113.7 kilo-
meters. The isostatic anomalies used in the profiles are based on the
113.7 kilometer depth of compensation.
:
: z
}
y
Ree olay a rk
BS See \ aa? acre it 54) mersiets
aN
Svat
2 d ‘a
Profile 2 YX
Profile 2
\)
oY
Profile 5 aaa
Profi fies
A)
Prefiie 7
Figure 1 Profile 3
Sketch map of
FLORIDA
gcerity profiles. 4
Shewing loceticn of
=“
~
oe?
In Profile Number 1, from Capell, Alabama, to Pensacola, Florida,
the gravity values decrease as far as Robinsonville, Alabama (—30
mgals), rise to —24 mgals at Muscogee, a distance of something over
thirty miles, then in the fifteen miles to Pensacola the value rises to
—16 mgals. Though geological information on which to map structure
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GRAVITY 77
is scarce the dip in this area seems to be south-southwest at a rate of
thirty feet per mile.
Profile Number 2, drawn from Eufala, Alabama, to Appalachi-
cola, Florida, shows a flattening for the first ten miles with a value of
+14 meals, followed by a decrease in the next seventy miles to Sink
Creek, Florida, where the value is —48 mgals, then rises coastward until
at Appalachicola the value is —3 mgals. There are no well logs on
which to map geologic structure along the line of this profile but a
well northeast of Marianna started drilling below the top of the
Eocene at an elevation of 124 feet above sea level and the water well
at Port St. Joe had not reached the Eocene when completed at a total
depth of 1035 feet. These wells are about fifty miles apart so the
dip along this profile may be assumed to be southward not less than
23 feet per mile.
Profile Number 3 extends from Tifton, Georgia, to Fernandina,
Florida. Although values west of Tifton are quite low, at Tifton the
anomaly is -+-41 mgals, decreasing irregularly to —6 mgals at Folkston,
from there rising gradually to 0 mgals at Italia, Florida, then at a higher
rate to +10 mgals at Fernandina. On Prettyman and Cave’s struc-
78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tural map on top of the Ocala* the datum at Tifton is +150 feet while
at Fernandina it is —500 feet.
Profile Number 4 is based on three stations only but is here in-
cluded to show a possible marginal gravity trough. The stations are
at Cedar Keys, with a gravity value of —23 mgals, at York with —25
mgals, and at Ocala with —19 mgals. The trend of the profile between
Ocala and York suggests that the decrease in value continues further
west than York and rises again to Cedar Keys. On the other hand it
is possible that there is but little variation in the gravity anomalies
between York and Cedar Keys and that this line represents the
structural strike. Though we do not know the exact top of the Upper
Cretaceous in the York well, it is identified in the Cosden well 10
miles to the north. From the Cosden well to the well now drilling at
Cedar Keys there is a difference of datum of 300 feet or only be-
tween 6 and 7 feet per mile.
Profile Number 5 extends only about half way across the penin-
sula but also shows the rise in gravity toward the west coast. There
is only one station on the east coast to which this profile might be
extended but the gravity locations are considered too few for the
drawing of such a profile. It is interesting to note however that the
—5 mgal value of that station, at Titusville, is relatively high.
The remaining three profiles are based on more gravity readings
but are open to the objection that, especially on the west coast, the
line of reading is not strictly along the plane of the section. Profile
Number 6 is from Punta Gorda to Fort Pierce, which shows rises in
gravity values at both east and west coasts, though a high maximum
appears midway across the peninsula. Profile Number 7 from Sanibel
to West Palm Beach shows a deep trough on the west side of the
peninsula with a plateau on the Atlantic side but at each end the
gravity values rise. Profile Number 8 shows a depressed profile with
the relatively high areas at each coast, at Naples and Coral Gables.
Other data not included in the table show much the same pic-
ture. ‘There are a number of stations between West Palm Beach and
Miami and all have relatively high readings. Ii a profile were drawn
from Miami southwestward through Perrine, Homestead and the south-
west corner of Dade County and across to the vicinity of Key West it
would have the same depressed shape as those in the figures. It may
be noted that from Homestead to Key Largo the isostatic anomaly
rises from —40 mgals to —17 mgals and from Royal Palm State Park
“TM. Prettyman and H. S. Cave, “Petroleum and Natural Gas Possibilities
-in Georgia,” Geological Survey of Georgza, Bulletin No. 40 (1923).
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GRAVITY 79
to another station on Key Largo the values rise from —23 mgals to
—15 meals.
No contour map on these values of the state has been drawn for this
paper because there are still extensive areas without sufficient gravity
control. Unfortunately in south Florida where most of the readings
have been made, there are not enough well data on which to draw
satisfactory structure maps for comparison with a gravity map.
The same conditions exist in other parts of the country. In
the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana in the Houston-Jennings region,
Barton, Ritz and Hickey” postulated a Gulf Coast Geosyncline compar-
able with the Appalachian Geosyncline. This the writers based on
both geologic and geophysical data but the geologic data seems only to
have been used to demonstrate the gulfward dip of the strata and to
indicate their observed and estimated thickness. The northward dip
of the geosyncline is based on the variation of gravity. The major
part of the gravity data used was based on pendulum stations of the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and a map of a submarine
gravity profile of the Gulf of Mexico by Vening Meinesz. Four pos-
sible explanations were offered for this gravity axial position:
(1) a geosyncline on the surface of a basement homogeneous in
character horizontally from the center of the Gulf of Mexi-
co to the center of the continent,
(2) a gulfward regional dip of the surface of the basement in
the Gulf Coast plus a progressive change in the character of
the basement from a granitic composition under the Gulf
of Mexico,
(3) a geosyncline on the basement in the Gulf Coast plus that
progressive gulfward change in the character of the base-
ment,
(4)- Barton himself suggested that the gravity minimum might
be wholly the effect of the buried salt but abandoned the
idea because it did not then seem plausible.
Of the above possible explanations for the gravity minimum in
that area the authors chose the third as probably beng the correct
one. The interest this “Gulf Coast Geosyncline”’ has for the present
paper is that the gravity picture is quite similar to that of Florida
but the geologic information here is not such as to justify the assump-
tion of geosynclinal conditions since the Jurassic in this state. Though
Barton’s rejected suggestion that the answer is in the salt effect might
5Donald C. Barton, C. H. Ritz, and Maude Hickey, “Gulf Coast Geosyncline,”
Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 17, No. 12
(1933) pp. 1446-54, 4 figs.
80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
now be more acceptable to the Texas geophysicists it does not seem ap-
plicable to the Florida problem.
A similar gravity trough is reported to lie axially within the
shoreline from Corpus Christi, Texas, southward’. No explanation
for this has yet been published. The dip of the beds in this area as
mapped on the Heterostegina horizon of the Oligocene is eastward to
the Gulf of Mexico.
About a year ago Woollard’ showed that somewhat similar grav-
ity conditions obtain in both New Jersey and Virginia. On one west-
east profile for each of these states based on both deep well and
seismic data, the gravity values decrease with the structure until the
edge of the continental shelf is neared when the gravity suddenly
increases in value. Woollard gives three possible explanations for
this:
(1) That there exists an actual down-warped section of the crust
resulting either from compressional forces or the load of
sediments or a combination of these in the continental shelf
region.
(2) That the gravity trough represents in part the increased
thickness of light sediments and in part the eastward thin-
ning of the acidic basement rocks (of the Piedmont) toward
the continental shelf.
(3) The third possibility would be that the trough represents a
condition similar to that set forth in the first explanation
only differing by being an inherited effect from perhaps
Paleozoic time rather than a contemporaneous phenomenon.
As a further contribution to explanations for gravity anomalies
mention should be made of a recent paper by Johnston® where he gives
computations which, as he says, “serve only to show that the positive
isostatic anomalies along the Sacramento-Reno (California-Nevada)
section are of the order that accords with assumptions regarding sub-
surface geology that are in general agreement with what we can
actually see at the surface.” In his cross section he pointed out
that gravity readings in Jurassic and Carboniferous sedimentary areas,
whose density is 2.55, are positive, averaging --10 mgals, while in the
sranodiorite area, density 2.73, the values of the stations occupied av-
SJohn F. Imle, Petty Geophysical Engineering Company, Personal communi-
cation, September 25, 1940.
7George P. Woollard, “The Geological Significance of Gravity Investigations
in Virginia,” American Geophysical Union Transactions, Part III (1939) pp.
317-23.
*W. D. Johnston, Jr., “Gravity Section Across the Sierra Nevada,” Bulletin
of the Geological Society of America, Vol. 51 (1940) pp. 1391-96, 2 figs.
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GRAVITY 81
erages —27.5 The interpretation is that the positive values reflect
subsurface gabbro which has a density of 2.95. Gabbro is known to
occur in the area, in fact at Colfax where the highest value, +-16
mgals, occurs, the station lies half a mile south of a gabbro area eight
square miles in extent. The explanation seems adequate except that
the cross section shows an apparently large area of gabbro exposed at
the surface at Yuba Pass on which the gravity reading is only -4
mgals. Johnston’s cross section shows that the free air anomaly has a
high value here but he attributes it to the relation with topographic
relief.
Woollard and the authors of the Gulf Coast Geosyncline agree
in an explanation that a combination of thick sediments and increased
density of basement sediments have influenced the gravity as observed.
Woollard adds a further suggestion that it may be an inherited effect
from possibly Paleozoic time. There remains also the suggestion
that, as far as the Gulf Coast is concerned, it may only be the effect
of the salt known to underlie the area.
It is of course possible that explanations for these coastal gravity
troughs may be as numerous as the areas where they are mapped,
but the fact that the entire Gulf Coastal Plain and much of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain is characterized by an almost continuous grav-
ity trough axial to the coastline spurs the search for a common ex-
planation. In Florida the presence of sediments either as a depressing
load or merely as a segment of lighter rocks might be a factor in Pro-
files 1, 2 and 3, but would not be expected to be a factor in peninsular
Florida where practically all sediments since the beginning of the
Teritary are free of clastic matter. Whatever sediments were laid
down at that time were precipitated from the sea water and would
have no relation to a shoreline, except insofar as depth of water was a
factor. In the southern part of the peninsula this is true to about the
bottom of the Middle Cretaceous. It is not probable that any sedi-
mentary load is a factor in the structure of the Florida peninsula.
The several authors also consider that gravity profiles may be
affected by a decrease of acid rocks from the continental layers to
basic rocks in the Atlantic or Gulf areas. If this were true it might
be a factor in the Florida gravities for Profiles 1, 2, 3, and for the east
ends of 6, 7, and 8 but it could scarcely apply to those readings on the
west coast of the peninsula. Florida as a structural feature extends 100
miles to the west of the present coast so that in this area the gravity
trough is marginal to today’s western shoreline but not to the western
side of the peninsula as a structure. Furthermore such an explanation
is founded on a conception that the earth is composed of two grand
82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
continental segments and two grand oceanic segments, but in a recent
book Gutenberg’ concludes his chapter on the structure of the crust
with the statement that ‘‘All evidence agrees in dividing the surface of
the earth into two areas which are characterized by different structures.
The first of these includes the Pacific basin, possibly with a few out-
lying regions, one of which is in the Arctic basin. The second comprises
the remainder of the surface, with the present continents and continen-
tal seas, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and possibly isolated patches
within the borders of the Pacific area.” He further says, “Gravity ob-
servations are consistent with the general description of structures thus
far outlined. Where the requirements of isostasy are fulfilled (which
is usually the case), the observed gravity is consistent with the con-
tinental structure as described above. Where there are large depar-
tures from isostasy (large gravity anomalies), there is usually high
Ps KOR
GRLG TE a
“ as,
A 0, tanstty BTS”
aA : nan A J)
Fig. 3»
RELATIVE GRAVITY
+ - - - +
SN cies tae ey a area
—x-J =A eee aed ae Ei ut
i 1a Sep errantEs eS a seonawnanras =
Fee re NS ¢ansity 26 tat Ss eoncisy ta, st
Li ® WAST - See BASAL? +* —s iy
ae 3 = ae
* . Geusity 28.95 + carsity 2.9 4 4
> ie os
saay dere ° ¢ + +
>
&¢ +
+
—_ Nae na
tsa 77") (> tame >So 4
= “~
fs i ie dousity 2.72% ~~ EY Reins a?= a
a vod
Pig. ee
nan 7 :
we SNS geneity 2.75 + ~ Sensity 2.2% . ens A
°Beno Gutenberg, Internal Constitution of the Earth. Physicis of the
Earth VII, New York: (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1939) p. 320 and p. 324.
FLORIDA’S GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND GRAVITY 83
seismicity and other evidence of recent tectonic activity.” If Guten-
berg’s idea prevails any hypothesis founded on the basaltic floor of
the Atlantic is open to criticism.”
It does not seem that there is any close connection between grav-
ity and superficial structure in the Florida region. Though it may be
considered that high gravity anomalies indicate the underground pres-
ence of rocks of greater density, it seems that any postulates of seaward
change from acidic to basaltic rocks cannot enter into the explanation.
A possible explanation is that the pre-Cambrian basement of Florida
is composed of rocks of different densities arranged more or less
linearly, with those of greater density paralleling and beyond the pres-
ent shoreline. This might be brought about in several ways:
(1) that the Florida area has been an area of deposition of
lighter sediments on a crystalline basement and later slightly
raised into a geanticline as in Figure 3-a. This might have
occurred at the time of the Appalachian orogeny,
(2) basaltic rocks may have been intruded over a plan of acidic
rocks, then subsequently arched and eroded, as illustrated
in Figure 3-b.
Our knowledge of the underlying rocks is comprised of recogni-
tion of undoubted granite in Pierce County, Georgia, unquestioned basic
rocks from a well in Nassau County, Florida, and the questionable oc-
currence of granite in Lake County, Florida. Though too much im-
portance may not be given to it, it is well to call attention to the fact
that the Nassau County well showing the basic rock (at 4817 feet) is
near a gravity station whose isostatic anomaly is —4 and the reported
granite in the Lake County well (at 6112 feet) is near stations reading
—13 and —21. It should also be noted that the basic rock occurrence is
near the coast while the reported granite is near the center of the
peninsula.
It is possible that the largest gravity anomalies in Florida, as
much as —48 mgals, may represent a lag in isostatic adjustment from
recent tectonics in the Caribbean region. Woollard’s suggestion that it
*°These conclusions of Dr. Gutenberg are not entirely in agreement with
those of James T. Wilson in his article, “The Lone Waves of the South Atlantic
Earthquake of August 28, 1933,” Bull. Seis. Soc. of America, Vol. 30, No. 3 (July,
1940) pp. 273-301. On page 301 of this article is the statement, “The crustal
structure of the Atlantic Ocean region is very similar to that of the Indian and
Pacific regions, and is characterized by having material with a high velocity for
shear waves much nearer the surface than is observed in the continental regions.”
A small number of seismic records from a new station in the Bermudas seem to
agree with this conclusion. But we must wait until there is some agreement on this
subject before explaining our Florida profiles in terms of this condition.
84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
may represent an isostatic heritage dating from Paleozoic does not
seem appropriate for the Florida area.
It is recommended that this problem be formally called to the
attention of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey by the Flori-
da Academy of Sciences with the request for the establishment of
more stations in Florida, especially along the east coast from Jack-
sonville to Fort Pierce and along the west coast from Appalachicola to
Fort Myers. On the results of this several profiles should be made
perpendicular to the coast possibly along U. S. Highways 90 (Jackson-
ville west), and 192 (Melbourne to Orlando), State Highways 30 and
79 (Vero Beach to Clearwater), 19, 16 and 16a (Ormond Beach to
Cedar Keys) and and 220 (Arcadia to Sarasota). Such profiles would
establish whether the so-called troughs are continuous around Florida’s
coast as the data now available indicate.
In the preparation of this paper the writer has been in correspond-
ence with a number of persons interested in the problem who have
made valuable suggestions and criticisms. Included in this are C. W.
Swick, chief of the section of gravity and astronomy for the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, J. E. LaRue, geophysicist with the Humble Oil and
Refining Company, J. F. Imle, of the Petty Geophysical Engineering
Company, Max W. Ball, consulting geologist with Abasand Oils Limit-
ed, and F. B. Plummer, geologist of the University of Texas. The
writer wishes to acknowledge with thanks their interest and helpful
suggestions in the final draft of this paper.
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER
H. S. NEwins
University of Florida
The art of seasoning of lumber has necessarily been known ww
artisans of wood since time immemorial, else we could not have refer-
erence today to Noah’s Ark and to the clear heart cypress mummy
cases which the Egyptians used many centuries ago and such as are
now found in museums all over the world. Not that our subject im-
plies durability alone, but rather that the discussion has to do with
the seasoning or conditioning of lumber from the green stage as cut in
the living tree to the seasoned or dry condition. The Japanese are re-
corded’ as having used submergence of timbers in a mixture of six parts
sea water and one part fresh water for two to five years to partially
condition refractory species and in this manner they may be said to
have used chemical seasoning, but the subject of this paper has refer-
ence to the more specific application of chemicals to wood in order to
reduce any seasoning degrade. In this sense, chemical seasoning of
lumber is most recent in its researches! ‘The United States Forest
Products Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, was the first to enter the
field with the resultant studies published by W. K. Loughborough in
1936° and 1937°. These studies were followed by the investigations
of the West Coast Lumber Manufacturers’ Association as published by
Nelson* in 1939, and by the researches of certain chemical com-
panies’. Beginning in April, 1937, the Burton-Swartz Cypress Com-
pany of Florida at Perry, Florida, and the School of Forestry at the
University of Florida undertook some field studies at the yard of this
company, and this paper deals with these experiments. The discus-
sion is confined to the air-conditioning of urea-treated tidewater red
cypress (including Taxodium distichum and T. ascendens). Later pa-
pers deal with other species and also with the practice of kiln drying of
chemically treated wood. Most of the discussions heretofore have
dealt with douglas fir and hemlock of the west coast, and we are
1H. D. Tiemann, The Kiln Drying of Lumber (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company, 1917), p. 110.
“Loughbrough, W. K., “Chemical Seasoning Douglas Fir,” The Timberman,
Vo. 39, No. 4.
*Loughbroough, W. K., Chemical Seasoning of Douglas Fir (Seattle, Wash.:
West Coast Lumberman’s Association.)
‘L. A. Nelson, “Urea As An Aid in Seasoning Douglas Fir,’’ Chemical Season-
ing (Prog. Report No. 2; Seattle: West Coast Lumberman’s Association.)
°E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware.
85
86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
happy to present here the results of these researches dealing with a
southern wood of much commercial significance.
The Burton-Swartz Cypress Company of Florida, host company
to these field studies, is one of the largest cypress companies in the
world, and carries in the yard an average stock of 35-40 million board
feet of lumber. Therefore, any theories of the school laboratory have
been well tested in the practical sense by this yard study.
At the outset, it is necessary to point out certain characteristics
and precepts dealing with this discussion. All wood is hygroscopic and
has a fiber saturation point of 20 to 30 per cent (based on dry
weight). Moisture retained in wood beyond 30 per cent must then be
free water within the cell cavities and interspaces in excess of the
moisture in the minute particles which make up the cell wall. There-
fore, wood in the living tree containing a green moisture content of
such extremes as 250 percent as in some redwood butts, or like doug-
las fir with a green moisture content of only 40 percent, must neces-
sarily contain some moisture in excess of the fiber saturation point.
This complexity of moisture content adds greatly to the problem, but
the real difficulty in seasoning untreated wood is that in even so small
a product as a toothpick, the surface fibers in drying will give off
moisture in advance of the innermost fibers and will thereby cause
an attempt at shrinkage on the surface which is resisted by the less dry
interior. This condition is, of course, greatly magnified when the size
is increased to, let us say, 4 inch cypress tank stock. This situation
in wood is referred to as “internal stress,” and when aggravated as in
the larger timbers, creates at first a severe tension among the surface
fibers, thereby causing a corresponding compression stress within the
core of the stick, but later these stresses are reversed because the core
upon drying more slowly produces excessive shrinkage, causing the
surface to be in compression and the core in tension. The lantern slides
which have been prepared to accompany this paper will illustrate the
phenomenon.
These internal stresses which are set up in untreated wood when
the wood is drying from the green or unconditioned stage to the
dry stage are so severe as to entirely disrupt the core or interior of
some timbers and render them useless for any purposes requiring much
strength. In many cases the stresses may not be enough to rupture
the fiber but are sufficient to “bind the saw” in the kerf when an at-
tempt is made to work such wood into useful products. Such a con-
cealed defect is called casehardening and the more serious type of
defect just referred to above where the core of the stock is disrupted
is called “honey comb” or “hollow-horn.”
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER 87
In all these hypothetical cases the wood has a more or less even
moisture distribution and is apparently seasoned, but for years may
harbor these internal stresses just like a tightly wound clock spring
could hold its tension until released many years later. Thus, im-
properly dried wood may be severely ruptured by internal stresses or
may show no visible signs of these stresses and yet become unshapely
when sawed into products. In either case, the stress can be permanent
and is a decided deterrent to otherwise good lumber. (The writer well
recalls a manufacturer of office furniture who had thousands of stool
tops stored away, waiting the time when his operators could bore the
four necessary holes in the stool top for the legs without causing the
holes to crack open on the edge grain, but he did not know then that
the wood was casehardened, and, like the wound clock spring, would
hold this tension indefinitely unless relieved by some agency such as,
unfortunately in his case, the removal of the hole plug.) These severe
internal stresses are not necessary and can be relieved by the proper
methods of drying whether by the open air yard method or by the dry
kiln method.
The method heretofore used in relieving these internal stresses has
been to dry the lumber in an atmosphere of higher relative humidity
such as can be controlled in a dry kiln or in the case of yard drying by
closer piling in covered piles or under sheds. This method is entirely
satisfactory but can well be supplemented by the use of chemical sea-
soning for both the dry kiln and seasoning yard in the case of more
exacting needs of wood such as for war time uses and such products as
tank stock. The drying of untreated wood has necessarily required
a moisture gradient of gradual increase from the shell of the lumber
stock to the interior core, and the lumber has therefore been dried
‘“‘from outside in.’’ Now, however, through the researches reviewed in
this paper, it is possible to accomplish the equivalent of a higher rela-
tive humidity in the atmosphere immediately in contact with the sur-
face fibers of the lumber to be air dried or kiln dried. This is accom-
plished by saturating these surface fibers of the wood with water sol-
uble hygroscopic chemical, which chemical has a lower vapor pressure
than the hygroscopic water deeper within the wood. In this manner, a
vapor pressure gradient is established increasing from the shell to the
core of the lumber stock because the chemical as it diffuses into the
wet wood is in greatest concentration at the surface fibers. Thus
chemically treated wood of this character will dry from “inside out”
because of the higher vapor pressure from within the lumber, and
will thereby reduce the internal stresses already referred to above.
A list of some of these water-soluble hygroscopic chemicals with
their respective vapor pressures follows:
88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 1*
Saturated aqueous Relative vapor pressure of the air
solution of — over the solution at 68°F.
Calcium chloride 0.32
Magnesium chloride oe
Calcium nitrate 59
Ammonium nitrite .68
Sodium nitrate -76
Sodium chloride 78
Urea 80
Ammonium sulfate 81
*Data from Peck, E. C., “The Effect of Solutions of Various Chemicals and
Mixtures of Chemicals on Relative Humidity, Equlibrium Moisture Content of
Wood on Shrinkage” (unpublished report).
The original yard tests of tidewater red cypress were made with
sodium chloride in order to determine that the principle involved in
these theories would be applicable. It was thereby determined that
because of the high moisture content of freshly cut cypress and the
soft even quality of the wood that cypress could be treated so easily
and economically as to make it only necessary to apply the water sol-
uble hygroscopic chemical in crystal form. It is important to note here
that these researches indicated a vast difference in the results attained
with different species, and that conclusions arrived at here with tide-
water red cypress cannot be applied per se to other commercial
species.
Having determined upon the success of the principle involved in
the application of chemical seasoning to tidewater red cypress, other
chemicals were reviewed. Sodium chloride had been exceedingly low
in first cost, and therefore satisfactory for experimental purposes, but
from a practical viewpoint was found to be unsatisfactory because of
its corrosiveness and tendency for treated wood products to sweat in
an atmospheric relative humidity of 75 percent.
The set of curves in Fig. 1 shows the moisture content of sitka
spruce (approximately similar to other woods) at equilibrium with
the indicated temperature, partial vapor pressure and relative humidity.
The curves in Fig. 2 are based upon experimental studies made
with sodium chloride, and show the equilibrium moisture content of
natural wood and wood treated with a saturated solution of this chemi-
cal. Both curves are for a temperature of 70°F.
With these two sets of curves, Figs. 1 and 2, it is possible to solve
almost any situation which may arise in the air seasoning or dry kiln
seasoning of chemically-treated wood.
Invert sugar was observed to be excellent in reducing shrinkage,
but was unsatisfactory from a practical viewpoint if for no other rea-
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER 89
(Gee CONTENT GER CENT)
SS NC Seer . ee =
| \ S552 ee
INAS ee
TIAN
TAWA TSE
TIWNOASS OES
NO Se
| Shee
CANIS se
PRN ST i
ah SIN ee
PWR SST aan
mii co. i
COMER CREE
MES
SL RGn one
ea
EHS
Naa:
= “
1) F4YNSSIYS YOSVA nnLeva
s/ ol &/
(Awna¥7w 40 SIHIN
6 CL “i 9/
ee ae
uae
a
eS
melee Ea
y
If OF
fone@Gw ie ‘|
ae H
EECEENEHEEL -
Figure 1.
90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
MOISTURE IN WOOD (PERCENT)
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1,00
RELATIVE VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE A/R
Figure 2.
son than that the chemical attracted insects, and especially bees, which
became a yard nuisance during the experiments. Furthermore, the
full intishrink value of invert sugar cannot be realized during air
seasoning.
Of all the chemicals listed, crystal urea, (NH2)2CO, was found to
have the best chance of wide application because:*
1. It effectively reduced seasoning degrade in both air and kiln drying.
2. It is not corrosive to metals used with wood.
3. It does not dull saws and planer knives.
4. It does not cause “sweating” in treated lumber after the drying period,
even under conditions of high humidity.
5. It does not promote insect or fungus attack, and has been found inhibitory
to certain rot fungi.
6. It has not been found to discolor the woods tested on the yard at normal
kiln temperatures.
7. It adds a certain amount of flame retardance to wood.
8. It is non-poisonous and harmless to the skin.
9. It is stable and can be stored indefinitely without deterioration.
10. It is commercially available and low in cost.
Urea is a white odorless crystalline solid, in appearance resemb-
ling table sugar and is produced synthetically by reacting ammonia
with carbon dioxide at high pressure. It is usually packed in 100
pound 5-ply paper-lined moisture-proof bags, and the price f. o. b.
®Crystal Urea for Chemical Seasoning (Wilmington, Del.: Ammonia Depart-
ment, E. I. du Pont de Nemours Co., Inc.).
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER 91
Atlantic and Gulf ports is $85.00 per ton in minimum lots of 20 tons.
Thus, the cost at tidewater red cypress mills located in the vicinity
of these ports such as at Perry, Florida, is a minimum of 4%4c per
pound, or $1.70 per MBM of treated lumber when applied as recom-
mended at the rate of 40 pounds per MBM.
Investigation at Perry, Florida, has indicated that the best meth-
od of application was to spread the urea crystals (at the rate of 40
pounds per MBM) along the center line or the center-grain line of
flat-grain freshly cut lumber, and the crystals were then diffused suf-
ficiently into the stock. Because of the high moisture content, and
even texture of tidewater red cypress mentioned above, it was found
not to be necessary to turn the timbers nor to bulk-pile them and the
urea crystals would be absorbed within the period of one week, de-
pending upon the size, whether 4/4, 8/4, 12/4 or 16/4 inch stock. In-
teresting experiments were conducted on end treatments whereby pre-
pared paints were used to protect the ends of some of the lumber, but it
was observed that these treatments held the ends too rigidly and creat-
ed some additional internal stress here, whereas instead of paint an
extra handful or two of urea crystals applied along the horizontal sur-
face of the lumber near the edge and followed with 1 inch cleats or
strips to cover these ends was satisfactory protection against checking
during air drying.
The results of tests made upon urea treated 16/4 inch tidewater
red cypress, which was strip-piled in the Burton-Swartz yards in
December, 1939, and next examined 10 months later, in September,
1940, showed that the timber which was originally cut green from the
saw wit ha moisture content of 160 percent had a moisture content in
both cases of approximately the same, namely, 16.6 percent for the
untreated, and 15.4 percent for the treated timbers. Both were dried
under similar strip-pile conditions, and in adjacent yard piles.
TABLE 2*
Date Mean Monthly Temperature
PE CET MO SO a cee ease chatted scccatecc stdsniauas denversseuysusnics: 61.8
PETS HO ee aes esc oseneusessneton tates NRE MUN 52.0
Ee NG RET ROO ee aL cg rcs ha cantsestelecndeuaaretonostesioseee 58.0
AU Ter Op roo eee ectuc sta svetesecorsndccessdsaesencedauiniscanssesnaeeees 64.6
Po TRTL, LOCI canccsouscetsttiee UOIGIIN UIST TIDY Sn IW e tranree sect Sera ceenn Oot 69.4
Ores ON ee ss leccedecacadudeetesontvotenatieesieraes 74.6
Wipe ON eae esc dece asi ve von sense eesoabd co sctenctanedsuvestanstasnstens 81.3
“go>, TNGVGS) acu chee COU ep a em mater noes UNO IOVE cnr nT 83.2
ADEE, SEG) ostaccaed nest ceeancecundd Slee eesdanatos onocheceedér gseecateore aouedaeeeseccr 82.5
ere re UOMO eee cee eee 78.6
—*Data from Monthly Meteorological Summary, Weather Bureau, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Tampa, Florida.
92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The shrinkage percent was normal in both cases, but the stock
when inspected showed for the chemically treated lumber a high quality
of even-textured wood free from any appreciable internal stress. This
was evident not only to the surfaces of the stock, but also to the ends
which had been handled, as mentioned above, only with cleats over
the chemically treated timber. On the other hand, the average stock
taken from the untreated parcel of lumber revealed some degrade from
the original F & S or tank stock down to select, shop and number 1
common, respectively. Furthermore, this untreated stock showed evi-
dence of internal stress, and, when tested, by slotting for caseharden-
ing, the surface pieces broke apart because of deeply penetrating sur-
face checks.
This contrast in treated and untreated 16/4 inch Tidewater Red
cypress shows most strikingly the possible savings in dry spreading
urea upon the flat-grain surface of air-seasoned stock, as per Table 3.
TABLE 3
Savings effected by dry spreading urea upon 16/4 inch cypress for
air-drying at Burton-Swartz Lumber Company, Perry, Florida.
Cost of Labor cost perr MBM Net saving
F.O.B. urea of per
per MBM spreading urea MBM
P&S or “Tank” 146.25 Py [0 a occ
Select 102.75 1.70 41.80
Shop 91.75 1.70 52.80
No. 1 Comm. 54.00 1.70 90.55
Thus 16/4 inch tank stock holding first and second grade after
urea seasoning has saved $41.80 per MBM over stock, which, when
untreated, would have degraded to select; $52.80 over shop grade,
and $90.55 over No. 1 common grade.
In handling certain timber species, notably douglas fir, it is
necessary to bulk-pile the lumber and in some cases to turn the
timbers in orde rto obtain a satisfactory application of crystal urea.
However, in treating tidewater red cypress tank otsck, it is only
necessary to apply the Urea as the lumber is strip-piled, and, there-
fore, there is no additional labor cost other than the application of
the urea, which takes place immediately and only as the parcel of
lumber is piled. The zones of penetration are the basis of the safer
drying accomplished, and vary from saturation at the outermost wood
fibers to less and less amounts toward the core of the stock. (Interest-
ing experiments were conducted by the writer upon sawmill green
blocks of sap pound cypress poles submerged in a bag of crystal
urea for a few days, and later removed for air drying. The vapor
pressure at the core of these small blocks immediately was exerted
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER 93
to such an extent that crystals were formed like icicles and stalactites
during the first twenty-four hours of drying, and thereafter. These
crystal formations were excellent evidence of the released vapor pres-
sure from within which had permitted the drying to progress without
surface checking the blocks. In other words, to review again this
phenomenon, the high concentration of urea at the periphery of the
blocks had sufficiently reduced the vapor pressure so that drying
at the surface could not start until the inside had first dried.)
Flame retardant tests upon urea-treated wood have been made at
the United States Forest Products Laboratory and at the laboratory
of one of the large chemical companies. The Forest’ Products Lab-
oratories determined from fire-tube data that with the exception of
the nitrates, the salts are, to some degree, fire retardants’. The chem-
ical company laboratory reports of flame retardant action show
that urea-treated wood is appreciably less inflamable than untreated
wood. The one test shows that by a modified New York Building Code
crib test for “fire-proofed” wood, the duration of the flame after re-
moval of the burner was determined, and the results are as follows:
TABLE 4*
Fire Retardant | Concentration Duration of Flame
Urea 39.5% No flame
Urea Boh) 60 secs.
Untreated - 100 secs.
*Letter from Mr. J. F. Berliner, Ammonia Department, E. I. du Pont de
Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware, May 3, 1940, p. 1.
The Department of Forest Pathology at the University of Florida
School of Forestry now has under way a series of tests of the fungicid-
al properties of urea-treated wood. The U.S. Forest Products Labora-
tory reports that in the concentration used in chemical seasoning, most
of the salts are somewhat decay resistant for a while, and they note the
presence of urea as no handicap to use in toxicity.
Tests of toxicity of the chemical company referred to above indi-
cated that concentrations of Urea as low as 0.2 percent are completely
inhibitory for all practical purposes and that at no concentration does
urea stimulate growth of wood rotting organisms,” and also showed that
urea treatment of wood did not stimulate attack by termites and that
such wood may be more resistant than untreated wood. Termite tests
are now also in the ground at the Austin Cary Memorial Demonstra-
™W. K. Loughborough, A Primer on the Chemical Seasoning of Douglas
Fir Status November, 1938 (Madison, Wisconsin: U. S. Forest Products Lab-
oratory), chart opp. p. 10.
8Tbid., p. 4.
94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion Forest of the School of Forestry, and thus far show no infesta-
tion nor is there any likelihood that the treated cypress samples will
encourage termites to attack.
(The drying of urea-treated tidewater red cypress is found to
be perhaps the easiest of all commercial woods, and yet like so many
easy things, is fraught with real cautions. Urea will apparently per-
form miracles in the seasoning of wood, but this does not mean that the
drying can proceed without scientific and expert supervision. Tide-
water red cypress is a very valuable wood and is known throughout
all lumber markets of the world as the “Wood Eternal.’’ The-bulk oi
the last remaining stand of this renowned timber is in Florida. Any
savings which can be effected in the seasoning process means just ex-
actly that much more conservation of this timber resource. And
strangely enough, although cypress is so soft and even-textured, it is
really most exacting in ordinary air drying and kiln drying treatment;
and another interesting fact is that, although the wood is so durable as
to be called “Wood Eternal”, and therefore does not require impreg-
nation with preservatives, nevertheless, if pressure treatments were
necessary, it would be found that because of its peculiar lamella cell
structure,’ the wood is one of the most refractory to treat.)
Corrosion tests are necessary on chemically-treated wood because
the cells of the treated wood have imbibed whatever corrosiveness may
be inherent to the chemical used. Thus, any tank stock treated with
sodium chloride will in due time corrode ferrous fastenings and hoops,
and if used in a relative humidity exceeding the vapor pressure of the
salt (75 percent) will drip salty water on any adjacent factory metal
parts. The University of Florida is conducting a series of corrosive
tests in which the treated boards are exposed to the atmospheric ele-
ments at the University Demonstration Forest for a period of six
months. The treated boards have been soaked 72 hours in respective
chemicals, including a 50 percent urea solution, and these boards have
been allowed to air dry several days before placing them in the test.
Nails and screws of various metals were driven into the boards and
metal strips were tied on by cord.
Similar tests carried on by a chemical company show the following
results: (Table 5 on next page).
The U. S. Forest Products Laboratory, after a careful study of
corrosiveness, finds that of all the chemicals employed for this treat-
ment of wood, urea has a very extended use and the presence of this
chemical in wood has practically no handicap.
®George M. Hunt and George A. Garratt, Wood Preservation (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938), p. 229.
CHEMICAL SEASONING OF LUMBER 95
TABLE 5*
% Weight Change per Year
Wood Treatment
Sodium
Metal Chloride Urea Untreated
MP eUPPUMISEANTATIEYY CLOW ..-..-..:..0ccecc.ecosecsvonrossccecssconseenssceve — 4.7 — 0.2 — 0.3
ge SORE A A A — 15 — 0.6 — 0.6
Srromium Plated) Brass Screw. ..............c.ccessscceee-- — 0.6 — 0.2 0.0
PAPE AN ee eo cos seca cconsdosanssnsdosonsansasenoeiceucadeesids — 2.0 — 0.6 — 0.7
MOR RTE ETM UE 2 cos csdecusscasecsscoverssesecesucneddessunieeonce — 33 — 0.5 — 0.8
MePATIIAE EL NEO NAM | ..0\.,-ciencseesanosssocsneoosceseesoarcenscsoees ~ — 3.7 — 0.8 — 04
WM rr coc cssscscoleconsdecosccsodesesedlassese eer OM.) vO
REA TI cc sanscecsceseecesesecscontececoterceioases —_ —1.2 — 0.1 — 03
PEER IALCO) TTOM) SCTEW ....000...c.0cc0ssecesosecseeecsoveecepaoses — 14 — 0.7 — 1.2
PER MECATINIGSS SUCEL SCIEW ..:...0+-.s-0rcecesecesecsssssdconcoaieones — 1.0 0.0 + 0.1
ES A os sveccrcereeccossesssarenaceuceantescnevs —_ —99 — 4.1 — 3.0
aN EM ene ges decaacsevessdneavsaceascdudsetaaiGersbexscees + 2.4 + 0.8 + 0.4
NT is secs easascssjassascncescseyedvassssecsadhvauss —27 —07 —0.7
*Letter from Berliner, May 3, 1940, p. 9.
tIn calculating the average, all increases in weight were taken as equivalent
decreases in weight.
The results of this laboratory and field study of the application of
urea to tidewater red cypress for air seasoning indicate great possi-
bilities for the chemical seasoning of lumber. It has been shown here
that savings as great as $90.00 per MBM can be effected, but chemi-
cal seasoning requires expert supervision and unless handled scientific-
ally may prove to be a boomerang instead of a bonanza. A careful re-
view of these data should indicate the opportunities in this field for
other woods and for the kiln drying of lumber as well as of air season-
ing.
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA
Wittram J. K. Harkness and E. Lowe Pierce
University of Florida
In moderately deep lakes of temperate regions thermal stratifica-
tion is a characteristically normal condition. This stratification is
well marked in the summer; in the winter, although present under the
ice, it is less well defined.
Associated with the thermal stratification there is a stratification
of such gases as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Both the thermal and
gaseous stratifications have a controlling effect upon the welfare and
activities of the inhabitants of the lakes, and so have immense ecologi-
cal importance, as well as being of much interest in themselves.
From midsummer to fall this stratification divides the water of a
lake into three layers: (1) An upper layer, the epilimnion, of warm
water which is light in weight, and which generally contains a high
concentration of dissolved oxygen, and a low concentration of dis-
solved carbon dioxide. (2) A middle or transition layer, the thermo-
cline, in which there is an abrupt temperature change from warm
water at the top to cold water at the bottom. (3) A lower layer, the
hypolimnion, of cold heavier water extending from the lower surface
of the thermocline to the bottom of the lake. The water of the
hypolimnion generally contains a lower concentration of oxygen and a
higher concentration of carbon dioxide than that of the epilimnion.
This condition has been described for many lakes in the north
temperate region, and so is expected and anticipated for fairly deep
lakes where the winter temperature is freezing or at least quite low
and the summer temperature is fairly high.
The state of Florida with its many lakes and its proximity to the
tropics and tropical conditions presents exceptionally promising oppor-
tunities for the extension of knowledge in the field of temperature and
gaseous stratification of the water in lakes.
Most of the Florida lakes are comparatively shallow, and have a
relatively large surface area in relation to their depth. This condition
is unfavourable to any great degree or stability of stratification.
Slight midsummer stratification has been observed by Professor J.
Speed Rogers and the senior author, in different years, in Kingsley Lake,
Florida, which has a maximum depth of fourteen meters (45.9 feet),
by Professor Rogers in Townsend’s Sink, Florida, which has a maxi-
mum depth of four and one-half meters (14.8 feet), and by Mr. O. L.
Meehean in Buck Pond, Ocala National Forest, Florida, with a depth
of eight meters (26.25 feet). On July 18, 1940, a temperature series
at Lake Mize demonstrated a thermal stratification in which the strata
C6
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 97
PLATE 1. Lake Mize, November 9, 1940
=
. 4} vent nS,
= 4 T \ / Ne
ag a 5 ane At at np aiee as
s ey ‘en ba a ia tat ae iy “*
M
ee 2 i Pn
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 99
were well defined and clearly demarked. The subsequent history of
this stratification has been followed.
LAKE MIZE
Lake Mize lies in the Austin Cary Memorial Demonstration For-
est, ten miles northeast of Gainesville, Florida, latitude 29° 44’ north,
longitude 82° 13’ west, at an elevation of 33 meters (approximately 145
feet) above sea level.
It has a surface area of about 1.2 hectares (3 acres), and is rough-
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
(mien 14 16 18 20 22 24° 26 28 30 32
& @ od @ @
ae Beane
HAS
Ooo —_f =o
METERS
uv os
via | Ms ———— SEASONAL TREND OF TEMPERATURE
- IRREGULARITIES IN THE TREND
FIGURE 1. CURVES ILLUSTRATING TEMPERATURE RECORDS
FOR MIZE LAKE, AUGUST 4, 1940 TO FEBRUARY 2 1941 .
100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ly circular in outline, except for a small bay projecting out on one side
and constituting about one quarter of the total area (Plate 1). This
bay is relatively shallow and is partly cut off from the main part of
the lake by a sand tongue.
Disregarding the bay, the circular portion of the lake is a typical
sink-hole formation, increasing in depth rapidly from the shore, and in
a small area near the center reaching a maximum depth of 25 meters
(about 82 feet). There is a fairly extensive level bottom at 10 meters,
and a small flat ledge at 15 meters from which there is an abrupt drop
to the bottom of the deep hole which is relatively small. The bottom
of the deep hole is a thick layer of soft oozy mud, that gives off
bubbles of gas in profusion when penetrated by the sounding lead.
The bottom on the ledge at 15 meters, and the flat bottom at 10 meters
appear to be firmer.
The lake lies in a flatwoods, a sandy plain with poor drainage,
on which long leaf and slash pine, saw-palmetto and gallberry predomi-
nate. About two thirds of the lake is closely bordered by shrubs some
of which overhang the water. The predominating shrubs are gall-
AMOUNTS OF GASES MEASURED IN PARTS PER MILLION
0 2.4 6 8 0 2 14 16 18 20 22 i224 eee
°
Ds
2
2) Nw > Jenene
etek TT
6
pat EC HEE
E a ee
Lo ea
fiprentesevere zs
VERE EeR oa
FIGURE 2. CURVES ILLUSTRATING AMOUNTS OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN
AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN MIZE LAKE . AUGUST 7,1940 TO
JANUARY 27, 1941.
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 101
berry, wax-myrtle and saw-palmetto. The remainder of the shore line
is more open and bears a few typical semi-aquatic herbs which are
treated more fully in the section dealing with plants.
The lake appears to receive all of its water supply from the sur-
face drainage of about 32 hectares (80 acres) of the adjoining forest.
There is no outlet excepting for a temporary stream which carries away
the overflow at high water. At suvh times the stream flows southeast
emptying into a branch of Hatchet Creek. From September 27 to
November 13, 1940, the recorded rainfall at Gainesville was only 2 mm.
(0.14 inch), and during this period the surface level of the water fell
about one meter. During December, 1940, and January and Febru-
ary, 1941, the rainfall as recorded at Gainesville was 39.34 cm.
(15.49 inches) which produced a water level higher than that on July
18 when the investigation began.
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION
foe ae 49 SO 5) 52° 55 54 55 56 57 56 59
JULY S | AUG -T-
@)
2
eee rT
ja
oe
nn
ae eee
ia
FIGURE 3. HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION , BY COLORIMETRIC
METHOD. LAKE MIZE . JULY TO DEC EMBER , 1940.
102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
METHODS
Temperatures of the water were taken by lowering a recording
thermometer to known depths, and after hauling it up reading the
recorded temperatures. This gave a series of readings showing the
temperatures at regular intervals from the surface to the bottom. Such
series were made at fairly regular time intervals from July 18, 1940, to
March 2, 1941. A Taylor maximum and minimum registering ther-
mometer, calibrated at two degree intervals in the Fahrenheit scale was
used. The readings were corrected by checking the thermometer against
one certified by the U. S. Bureau of Standards. All temperatures have
been converted into centigrade equivalents, and are given in intervals
of one tenth of a degree.
The chemical analyses were made by the junior author in con-
junction with his work at the University Conservation Reserve at We-
laka, using the excellent facilities available there.
Other members of the staff and graduate students at the Depart-
ment of Biology, University of Florida, have assisted with various
aspects of the study. Our sincere thanks are expressed for the
cooperation of the School of Forestry, and in particular to Director H.
S. Newins, who made it possible for us to have free access to Lake Mize
at all times and who provided the use of a boat for the investigation.
Mr. J. R. Watson, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
Florida, made available for our use the meteorological records taken at
Gainesville from which the data on air temperatures and precipitation
have been compiled. The authors wish to express their personal grati-
tude to Professor T. H. Hubbell, Acting Head of the Department of
Biology, for his advice and assistance which were generously given
throughout the course of the work.
RESULTS
Temperature Records:
The series of water temperatures taken from July 18 to March 2,
present a clear picture of the stratification of the lake at the date of
each series, and also show the trend of the stratification throughout
the period.
During midsummer and early fall there was a well established
stratification. The epilimnion varied in depth from one to four meters;
the thermocline varied in thickness from four to seven meters, with a
change in temperature of as much as 37°C. on August 1; and the
hypolimnion extended from approximately eight meters to the bottom
of the lake.
The cool windy weather of the fall cooled and stirred the surface
water so that the epilimnion became cooler and thicker, the thermo-
103
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA
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104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cline less clearly demarked, and the cold water of the hypolimnion
warmed slowly.
During December stratification disappeared and the thermocline
was destroyed. The temperature in the hypolimnion rose considerably
and by January 14 the water of the lake was homothermous. This
homothermous condition persisted until March 2, the date of the last
series, with the water becoming gradually colder during the winter.
The temperature series are given in Table 1, and characteristic series
are graphically shown in Figure 1.
The sun warms the land, water and air differentially, but with-
in certain limits the temperature of exposed natural waters is cor-
related with atmospheric temperatures. The daily air temperatures
and the average temperature of the atmosphere over a long period
of time affect the temperature of the surface water and to a lesser
extent the deep water of a lake. The daily maximum and minimum
temperatures from July 1, 1940, to March 31, 1941, are given in
Table 2, and the mean monthly temperatures for 1939, 1940 and
ture and the wind velocity all have a deciding influence on the tem-
The time of day, the intensity of the sunshine, the air tempera-
ture and the wind velocity all have a deciding nifluence on the tem-
perature of the surface and near surface water, and may even affect
the temperature of deeper strata. The time and atmospheric condi-
tions when each temperature series was taken are summarily presented.
Dissolved Gases:
Oxygen: In Lake Mize, from midsummer through fall, the dis-
solved oxygen is confined almost wholly to the epilimnion, the sur-
face stratum of water. As the cooling effects of the late fall weather
impose themselves upon the lake, there is a progressively deeper mix-
ing of surface waters with those of the underlying strata, and the dis-
solved oxygen is carried deeper. By mid-fall the upper portion of the
thermocline contains dissolved oxygen in small amounts, but the low- —
er part of the thermocline and the hypolimnion are entirely devoid of
dissolved oxygen. With the breaking down of the thermocline in De-
cember the dissolved oxygen is carried into deeper water in ever in-
creasing amounts. When the water of the lake finally becomes homo-
thermous the amount of oxygen at twenty meters, the greatest depth
from which a sample was taken, was almost at the same concentration
as it was in the surface water. These oxygen relations and changes
in concentration are shown in Table 4, and are represented graphically
in Figure 2.
Carbon Dioxide: The amount of carbon dioxide varies inversely
with the amount of oxygen in the epilimnion and thermocline. The
105
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA
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106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 3.
MrEAn MAaxAMumM AND MEAN MintmuM TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE,
BY MONTHS FoR 1939, 1940 AND 1941 UP TO THE END OF MARCH, AT GAINESVILLE,
FLORIDA.
DATE TEMPERATURES
1939 Mean Mean Maximum Mean Minimum
eras ANd) see ee PO) 21.6 8.5
Bebruary) (28 co 18 6 24.4 12.6
War hiahek. teks eet OS 26.4 pea
1/2) a gh AN cee Oe ene Se || KS: 26.8 14.8
WIR in ET DI, AE Ane Soci /457,5 29.7 17.6
lft ig (<7 eee iar a RU Gee CN vA 0 ganz 21.6
JOS AA RAS NR SEER |X 32.3 21.8
PI OUISG) 2 a ee 31.9 20.9
DEPLEMpEer hen a ee 266 32.3 21.0
@MCLODEN hee ee ee 28.8 16.9
INovembers 2222 eee 161 22.4 9.9
December 222 aS 20.7 7.8
1940
feta obey) gee cakes NA Me eee Sige) 14.0 ie
February eee ree OG 18.8 6.9
3 AG Thao) o MESS ATM iva imeltline PRED U5 85) 22.8 10.2
April’ 19.2 PAS P| 12.8
Way) 22.2 Pe ay D5; 29.7 15.2
CURVE fe Fe te SE a eh ge SO 31.7 ZL
UL ya et oe ae a LL OGD 32.4 21.5
PUES eee 2 eae ee ee ae 32.5 21.9
september tec2 ene ga 29.3 18.9
October 22.0) Si eae ZS 28.1 13.8
November 22202 eee) 20 24.1 11.4
December aE EGOS a) Le! Pape ?A 11.9
1941
ARUN THY) ea ee 18.8 ees
Mebruary (ie ees Pe 17.2 5.6
iene: cee Le Sete nee 20.7 8.4
July
July
August
August
August
September
September
September
October
October
October
October
November
November
November
December
December
December
January
January
January
January
February
March
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA
18,
4,
2;
107
DATA FOR TEMPERATURE SERIES
7:30 A.M.
7:30 A.M.
4:00 P.M.
10:00 A.M.
8:00 A.M.
1:00 P.M.
3:45 P.M.
2:15 P.M.
3:00 P.M.
3:00 P.M.
8:45 A.M.
2:00 P.M.
2:00 P.M.
8:45 A.M.
10:00 A.M.
9:45 A.M.
1:45 P.M.
2:50 P.M.
1:30 P.M.
1:00 P.M.
4:00 P.M.
9:00 A.M.
9:45 A.M.
10:00 A.M.
air 29.5°C.
air 27.3°C.
air) 20!5°.C.
33:00G:
S5.1yG:
26.7 1G:
Mle Se, Oe
26.7°C.
U7. 3G:
air
air
clear, sunny, calm.
clear, sunny, calm.
partly cloudy, rainy.
clear, sunny, calm. Temperature re-
corded by thermometer lying in the
Sun at 100) PM. 52:2 C.
clear, sunny, calm.
clear, sunny, calm.
clear, sunny, calm.
cloudy, cool, breeze. Following a five
day period of cloudy, cool, rainy
weather.
clear, sunny, breeze. Waves on water.
The previous week had been cool
with nights at approximately 10.0°
C. and approximately 27.0°C.
clear, sunny, breeze. Waves on water.
Nights of preceding days cool,—
11V0; GtoulsO5 Ce
clear, sunny, calm. This series fol-
lowed two nights of low tempera-
tures and days of clear, calm weath-
er with only moderately high tem-
peratures.
clear, sunny, high breeze. Waves on
water.
clear, sunny, cool breeze. Waves on
water, high north wind.
clear, sunny, cool. Waves on water,
high wind. Following two nights of
low temperature, 5.5°C. and 7.5°C.
clear, sunny, calm, cool. Following
two cold nights with temperatures
at -1.0°C. and -4.5°C.
cloudy, light breeze. The water level
is about 1.5 meters lower than on
July 18.
clear, calm, warm.
cloudy, windy. Waves on water.
cloudy, calm. There have been heavy
rains and the water level has risen
above that of July 18 or any subse-
quent date.
clear, sunny, warm. Light north
wind making ripples on the water.
clear, sunny, warm. Light wind mak-
ing small ripples on the water.
clear, sunny, calm.
clear, sunny. Brisk north wind mak-
ing waves on the water.
clear, sunny, very light northwest
wind. Following two cold days and
nights with high wind.
108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA; ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
water at the surface contains a relatively small amount of carbon diox-
ide; the amount increases rapidly with depth in the summer and early
fall reaching a surprisingly high maximum towards the bottom of the
thermocline. At this time of year there is also a high concentration
of carbon dioxide in the hypolimnion but it decreases with depth. In
the late fall and winter, when the cooling of the surface water causes it
to mix with the water of the deeper strata, the thermocline is de-
stroyed and the stagnation of the hypolimnion is overcome by the in-
creasingly deep circulation of surface water. The high concentration
of carbon dioxide in the water of the hypolimnion is greatly reduced
when this circulation carries the deep water to the surface, allowing
the carbon dioxide to escape into the air. These relations are sum-
marized in Table 4, and illustrated in Figure 2.
The decrease in dissolved carbon dioxide and the increase in dis-
solved oxygen accompanying the mixing of the homothermous water
of a lake is sometimes spoken of as “breathing of the lake.”
Additional Physico-chemical Data:
Hydrogen Ion Concentration: ‘The hydrogen ion concentrations
were determined colorimetrically for water samples from different
depths on July 30, August 7, September 22, and December 7. The
water is slightly acid, the pH at all times, with one exception, lying
within the limits of 5.3 to 5.9. These results are given in Table 5 and
are shown in Figure 3.
On September 22 the pH fell outside the limits of 5.3 to 5.9,
reaching the record low of 4.6. This is associated with the high
value for carbon dioxide noted on this date. The low pH and high
concentration of carbon dioxide coincide and occur in the thermocline
just at that depth at which the dissolved oxygen becomes negligible or
disappears. It is also worthy of note that in general the pH varies
TABLE 5
GIVING THE PH VALUES FOR WATER AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS ON DIFFERENT DATES
FOR LAKE Mize, 1940.
Dates
Depth July 30 August 7 September 22 December 7
Surface 5.5 5
1 M. 5.9 5.6 Dall
2 M. 5.6
3 M. 5.4
4M. 5.6 4.6
5 M. 5.6 5.6
6 M. 5.3
10 M. ao 5.4 5.5
15 M. 5.7 5.4
23 M. 5.4
109
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA
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110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA, ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
with the amount of carbon dioxide in the water. As the amount of
carbon dioxide increases the value of the pH decreases.
Transparency: ‘The measurements for transparency were made
by lowering a Secchi disc into the lake on two dates. The readings for
these observations were,—August 7, 2.3 meters, and October 25, 2.5
meters.
General Water Analysis: The analysis of a sample of water from
a depth of two meters, taken on August 7, gave the following results —
Ja\iWoyopostborey (al MiNi s CAM roads ce rauteg ie 0.144 p.p.m. Expressed as Nitrogen.
The alkalinity in this water is due entirely to the presence of
bicarbonates in solution, there are no carbonates present.
Ghloridese ee koe Oct eels hate 8.0 p.p.m.
EOS Ndi) et scse cone ects ce lan al: No trace
Puealinityee eh dct tet taceeccre seas ns. Med (pea: Expressed as CaCO..
ICUS 9 (CSIP fee SBMS es A SU DM 0.001 p.p.m. Just a trace present.
INTEra LES cores ee tone ela eee 0.000 No detectable amount.
Total dissolved solids .................. $5.0, ppm:
The water in the epilimnion is soft, unpolluted, and contains
small amounts of organic and inorganic materials in solution.
Biology:
The distinction between animals and plants which are purely
aquatic and those which are semi-aquatic is so ill-defined that both
groups have been considered here. There is a profuse flora and fauna
in the epilimnion associated with the high temperature and presence
of dissolved oxygen.
Botanical Relations: The flora from the banks of the lake shows
a zonation of plants ranging from those which are semi-aquatic in
nature to those which are normally submerged. This zonation has
been observed in the following categorical classification of the plants.
The lake contains two semi-floating islands, a small one near the
shore at one side of the main part of the lake and a larger one in the
projecting bay. These islands are composed wholly of the plants in-
dicated below as being found there.
PLANTS BORDERING LAKE MIZE
Trees
Red-maple Acer rubrum L.
Water-tupelo Nyssa Biflora Walt.
Shrubs
Gallberry Ilex Glabra (L.) A. Gray Common
Wax-myrtle Cerothamnus ceriferus (L.) Small Common
Saw-palmetto Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small Common
Fetter-bush Desmothamnus lucidus (Lam.) Small Few
Herbs
Bunch-grass Andropogon capillipes Nash Common
Beak-rushes Rynchospora spp. Few
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 111
Bugle-weed Lycopus pubens Britton Few
Dog-fennel Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small Few
Marsh-fleabane Pluchea foetida (L.) DC. Fairly common
—- —_- — Ludwigiantha arcuata (Walt.) Small Common
Sundew Drosera capillaris Plain Scarce
Bog-bottom Lachnocaulon minus (Chapm.) Small Scarce
Yellow-eyed grass Xyris communis Kunth Fairly common
EMERGENT PLANTS
Shrubs
Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Few
Sand-weed Hypericum fasciculatum Lam. Common
Herbs
- —_—- — Sacciolepis striata (L.) Nash Common
Cut-grass Leersia hexandra Swartz Common
St. John’s wort Triadenum virginicum (L.) Raf. Common
Smartweed Persicaria hirsuta (Walf.) Small Common
Umbrella-grass Fuirena scirpoidea Michx. Common
—- =_- Ludwigia sp. Fairly common
Marsh-pennywort Hydrocotyle sp. Fairly common
Mermaid-weed Proserpinaca pectinata Lam. Few
Pipewort Eriocaulon compressum Lam. Common
SUBMERGED OR FLOATING PLANTS
Bog-moss Mayaca fluviatilis Michx. Abundant
Rush Juncus repens Michx. Scarce
Pond-grass Hydrochloa caroliniensis Beauv. Scarce
Spike-rush Eleocharis prolifera Torr. Common
Water-hyacinth Piaropus crassipes (Mart.) Britton Few
SEMI-FLOATING ISLAND PLANTS
- -_—- =— Sacciolepis striata (L.) Nash
Cut-grass Leersia hexandra Swartz
St. John’s wort Triadenum virginicum (L.) Raf.
Water-hyacinth Piaropus crassipes (Mart.) Britton
Lake Mize has a variable water level, the variation probably ex-
ceeding a meter from season to season and year to year. The result of
this is that at certain times, plants which are considered to be normal-
ly emergent or submerged are found growing successfully on the moist
shore completely emerged, or in the case of the submerged plants they
may be emergent at times. On the other hand some of those which nor-
mally grow out of the water will for a time grow successfully as emerg-
ents.
The study and identification of the plants has been carried out
by Mr. A. M. Laessle, of the Department of Biology, University of
Florida.
Zoological Relations: The fauna of Lake Mize has not been
investigated thoroughly. The list of cold-blooded vertebrates, which
is the result of studies carried out by Dr. A. F. Carr, the two species
112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA; ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of mayllies listed by Mr. Lewis Berner, and the two decapods reported
by Dr. Horton Hobbs probably include all of the species of these
three groups which occur here. The list of aquatic beetles as reported
by Mr. Frank Young is probably almost complete, but may be added
to as the study extends over a longer period of time. The determina-
tions of the zooplankton, which has been examined by Dr. Hobbs,
Mr. Dickinson and the junior author, are not complete and will be
extended as the result of continued investigation.
COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES
Fishes
Eastern Lake Chub-sucker Evimyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépéde)
Florida Golden Shiner Notemigonus chrysoleucas bosci Valenciennes
Marbled Brown Bullhead Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook)
Yellow Bullhead Ameiurus natalis (LeSueur)
Tadpole Madtom Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchill)
Red-finned Killifish Chriopeops goodei (Jordan)
Ocellated Killifish Leptolucania ommata (Jordan)
Golden Topminnow Fundulus chrysotus (Giinther)
Eastern Star-headed
Topminnow Fundulus notti lineolatus (Agassiz)
Least Killifish Heterandria formosa (Agassiz)
Eastern Mosquito-fish Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard)
Pirate Perch Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams)
Florida Swamp Darter Hololepis barrattii (Holbrook)
Blue-spotted Sunfish Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook)
Warmouth Bass Chaenobryttus gulosus (Cuvier)
Bluegill Helioperca macrochira (Rafinesque)
Florida Long-eared Sunfish Xenotis megalotis marginatus (Holbrook)
Large-mouthed Bass Micropterus salmoides (Lacépéde)
Everglades Pigmy Sunfish Elassoma evergladei Jordan
Salamanders
Louisiana Newt Triturus louisianensis Wolterstoff
Mud-eel Siren lacertina Linnaeus
Frogs
Cricket Frog Acris gryllus (LeConte)
Common Bull-frog Rana catesbeiana Shaw
Southern Bull-frog Rana grylio Stejneger
Leopard Frog Rana sphenocephala (Cope)
Snakes
Florida Banded Water-snake Natrix sipedon pictiventris (Cope)
Turtles
Florida Snapping-turtle Chelydra serpentina osceola (Stejneger)
Florida Cooter Pseudemys floridana peninsularis Carr
Nelson’s Terrapin Pseudemys nelsoni Carr
Chicken-turtle Deirochelys reticularia (Latreille)
Southeastern Soft-shelled
Turtle Amyda ferox (Schneider)
LARGER CRUSTACEANS (DECAPODS)
Cambarus fallax WHagen
Palaemonetes paludosa (Gibbes)
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 113
INSECTS
Predaceous Water Beetles, Family Dytiscidae
Canthydrus gibbulus (Aubé) Rare, in vegetation around edge.
Laccophilus proximus Say Common, in vegetation around edge.
Hydrovatus compressus Sharp Rare, in vegetation around edge.
Desmopachria granum (LeConte) Common, in mud around edge.
Bidessus exiguus (Aubé) Common, in mud around edge.
Bidessus floridanus Fall Rare, around edge.
Hydroporus hebes Fall Scarce, around edge.
Copelatus chevrolati Aubé Rare, in vegetation around edge.
Coptotomus interrogatus obscurus
Sharp Rare to common, around edge.
Thermonectes basilaris (Harris) Rare, around edge.
Cybister fimbriolatus (Say) Rare to common, around edge, and
sometimes in deeper water.
Whirligig Beetles, Family Gyrinidae
Dineutes carolinus LeConte Extremely common, on surface.
Gyrinus elevatus LeConte Rare, on surface.
Creeping Water Beetles, Family Haliplidae
Peltodytes floridensis Matheson Common, in vegetation.
Water Scavenger Beetles, Family Hydrophilidae
Tropisternus blatchleyi d’Orchy Rare to common, in vegetation.
Tropisternus striolatus LeConte Rare, in vegetation.
Tropisternus lateralis (Fabr.) Rare, in vegetation.
Hydrocharis castus (Say) Rare, in vegetation.
Helocharis maculicollis Mulsant Rare, in vegetation.
Enochrus ochraceus Mulsant Rare, in vegetation.
Paracymus nanus Fall Common, in vegetation and debris.
Hydrochus inaequalis LeConte Common, in vegetation and debris.
Hydraena marginicollis (Kies) Rare, in vegetation and debris.
Maryflies
Callibaetis floridanus Banks On vegetation.
Caenis diminuta Walker On vegetation and sprawling on the
bottom.
PLANKTON
The plankton was obtained by filling a Kemmerer water bottle
at desired depths and straining the water through plankton silk of ap-
proximately one hundred meshes to the inch.
On August 7, 1940, twelve litres of water were taken from
depths of two and ten meters and strained to obtain plankton
samples.
On October 25, 1940, ten litres of water were taken from depths
of three and ten meters and strained to obtain plankton samples.
On both occasions the crustacean plankton from the epilimnion
was rich in quantity but from the hypolimnion it was poor. The
predominating forms collected were:
114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Copepods
Diaptomus floridanus March Most abundant.
Cyclops leuckarti Claus Fairly abundant.
Cladocera
Daphnia longispina (Muller) With helmet of moderate size and with
eggs.
Bosmina lingispina Leydig
The cladocerans were about equal in abundance to the Cyclops.
In addition to these Crustacea there were Copepod nauplii,
rotifers and a considerable amount of phytoplankton, mostly green al-
gae, none of which were identified.
The plankton samples also contained a few insect larvae, mostly
Corethra. One small Corethra larva was taken in the epilimnion,
and eighteen were taken in the hypolimnion. On August 7, a twelve
liter sample from the hypolimnion contained seven Corethra larvae,
and on October 25, a ten liter sample from the hypolimnion contained
eleven Corethra larvae.
During the summer and fall the cold, non-oxygenated water of
the hypolimnion contains a relatively large population of Corethra
larvae but probably supports very little other life.
DISCUSSION
In spring or early summer the surface water of the lake warms
rapidly, and as it warms it becomes lighter so that it does not mix
with the cold heavier water below. This brings about a stratification
of the water in the lake, so that the cold, deep water is isolated from
the air and remains stagnant throughout the summer and early fall.
As a result of this stagnation it remains cold, cannot replace its oxy-
gen lost through respiration of aquatic animals and_ bacteriological
metabolism, and accumulates large quantities of carbon dioxide
which cannot be thrown off. This precludes the possibility of any
forms of life existing in the hypolimnion during the summer excepting
those which can persist in the almost total absence of free oxygen and
in the presence of large quantities of carbon dioxide.
During late fall, with the onset of cold weather and in particular
of the cold nights, there is a progressive cooling of the water in the
lake. This cooling takes place from the surface. As the surface is
cooled convection currents set up by the cool surface water, and by
some associated wind action, carry and stir this cooled water into the
water just below, which being warmer is cooled by contact, mixing and
some conduction, or it rises to the surface to replace the cool water
which has sunk and it is in turn cooled.
THE LIMNOLOGY OF LAKE MIZE, FLORIDA 115
As the cooling thus proceeds, the effects are forced deeper, until
finally the water in the whole lake becomes homothermous. From
this time on, as winter progresses, the temperature of the lake water
as a whole becomes colder, until the cooling is finally arrested by the
onset of warmer spring weather. Examination of the groph, Figure 1
will show the upper stratum of water gradually cooling during the fall
and the deep water of the lake gradually warming, until the lake be-
comes homothermous, after which the lake as a whole continues to
become colder.
As fall and winter cooling progress the stagnation of the
hypolimnion is destroyed, and there is progressively deeper stirring
of the water until, when it becomes homothermous, it may be stirred
all the way to the bottom. This stirring of the deep water and mix-
ing it with the near surface water carries oxygen into the depths
of the lake and allows the carbon dioxide to escape.
The result of this is to make the deeper strata of water tempor-
arily inhabitable for animals which require a high concentration of
free oxygen.
In spite of the small area of Lake Mize and the limitations im-
posed by the thin summer epilimnion of some four meters in depth,
the fish population is particularly worthy of note. Not only is there
a large number of fish present, but the nineteen species reported rep-
resent seventeen genera.
A phenomenon typical of conditions in Florida lakes, is the rapid
warming of a thin layer of surface water as the result of a few warm
days or even one extremely warm, sunny day. This is especially strik-
ing when it occurs during the winter, as it did on January 27, 1941,
which was a clear warm day with an air temperature of 25.6°C., at
four o’clock in the afternoon. In Lake Mize the temperature of the
water at a depth of one meter was 16.4°C., and at the surface it had
warmed to 20.3°C. There was an immediate biological response to
this sudden rise in temperature displayed by Rana sphenocephala,
when at four twenty in the afternoon these frogs burst into a wild
chorus which persisted for about ten minutes.
The summer stratification has great significance in the ecology
of lakes, limiting most of the aquatic organisms to that part of the
lake which contains the requisite amounts of oxygen. When, as is
often the case, an aquatic organism requires both cool water and a
high oxygen content, the hypolimnion must be of such a size and na-
ture that even during the most unfavorable year it will maintain an
abundant supply of oxygen, otherwise the lake becomes uninhabitable
for that species of organism.
116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
This condition of thermal stratification, with its ssociated
phenomenon of gaseous stratification, and fall and spring, or winter
stirring, has the utmost significance in the economy of the lake and
constitutes an integral part of the subject of limnology.
SOME CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PLANT
NUTRIENTS AS RELATED TO
THEIR UTILIZATION
O. C. BRYAN
Soil Science Cooperative, Lakeland
Although the percentage of the mineral nutrients utilized by
plants is relatively small, their functions are vital, constituting one of
the fundamentals of the life process. The discovery of the essential
nature of the secondary or trace elements in plant and animal life
within recent years will go down in history as a major milestone in
biological science. ‘The trend is toward adding more to the list of
mineral nutrients, and it is doubtful if sufficient information is avail-
able to enable one to separate the essential from the non-essential
elements in the life process. Space will not permit a discussion of
these developments here. The object of this paper is to explain in a
general way the relation between the chemical properties of the
known plant nutrients and their utilization by plants.
In general, the mineral elements absorbed by plants may be
classified under two major divisions, namely, those which enter into
the vital portions of the plant, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and sul-
phur and those which serve as catalysts, such as copper, manganese
and zinc.
The cycle of minerals—from the soil to the plant and animal and
back to the soil—is an ever interesting process which many accept
without question as a law of nature. Yet, were it not for the fact that
calcium phosphate is insoluble in water, this mineral could hardly be
used for the bony skeleton of animals. This does not mean that
bones consist of calcium phosphate. The simple chemical properties
of these elements serve as a basis for bone formation.
The exact part played by the mineral nutrients in the plant is
still more or less a puzzle, especially in regard to the proportion, kind
and amounts utilized. Why some minerals are used in large amounts
and others in small amounts may well become the object of much
study. It is only natural to ask why potassium is utilized by plants to
a greater extent than is calcium, when the soil generally contains
much more available (replaceable) calcium than potassium. This
might be explained on the basis that calcium compounds are more in-
soluble than similar compounds of potassium, and to the fact that
potassium is a stronger base and somewhat radioactive. This how-
ever does not account for the specific function of each element in
117
118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA, ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the plant, as is clearly shown by the fact that sodium, though very
similar to potassium in chemical properties, cannot substitute for it in
the plant.
In a general way, the amounts of minerals absorbed from the
soil or media are in proportion to the amounts surrounding the roots
or absorbing units, providing due allowance is made for solubilities,
affinities, and repelling forces. Assuming that the mineral content of
plants was more or less fixed in proportion to the amounts available
during the evolutionary or developing stages, then it would be logical
to assume that the soil forming processes had undergone considerable
changes from those of former ages. Pedological studies indicate that
this is not necessarily the case. Furthermore, data show that the
soil complex (clay, a product of decomposition of rocks) has a much
stronger affinity for potassium than for sodium. This apparently ac-
counts for the greater content of potassium in the soil than sodium,
whereas just the opposite is true for ocean water. And this may offer
an explanation for the differences in plant and animal requirements of
these two nutrients.
It is interesting to note that nitrogen and phosphorus are both
acid forming and that both occur in the same periodic group of chem-
ical elements. Yet, the nitrogen utilized by plants is three to four
times that of the phorphorus. One might ask if this were accidental,
or just another of nature’s laws. Since these nutrients are absorbed
almost entirely from the soil, except in the case of legumes, as inor-
ganic salts, these differences might be accounted for by the fact that
nitrates are all soluble in water, are negatively held by the soil, and
are easily shifted by the soil moisture, whereas the phosphates are all
insoluble in water except sodium, potassium and ammonium, and are
not easily moved or shifted by soil moisture. Moreover, it is a well
established fact that active iron and aluminum in the soil will lower
the solubility of phosphates to such a degree that plants are unable to
secure the needed amounts of these salts. Other factors being equal,
phosphates are absorbed by the plant in proportion to the concentra-
tion of the phosphate ion, which is greatly influenced by precipitating
agents and reaction, as well as by the kind and amount of other ele-
ments or ions present. Taking all the data into consideration, the low
phosphorus ultilization of plants compared to that of nitrogen is par-
tially explained by differences in chemical properties of the nutrients
making for solubility.
One might well ask the question why the ever abundant element
silicon does not play a more vital rdle in the nutrition of plants than
is apparent. This may be explained by lack of solubility of the
silicates, all of which are either insoluble or too viscid ofr free move-
SOME CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PLANT NUTRIENTS 119
ment, whereas carbon, a closely related element forms less complex
compounds that are generally more soluble. This, however, does not
explain the specific functions of the two elements. But it is possible
that the specific functions in the plant are the results of the specific
properties of the elements themselves.
Two other similar elements, calcium and magnesium, occurring
in the same periodic group, may be mentioned. Here calcium is util-
ized by plants in much larger amounts than magnesium, but the exact
reason is not definitely known. However, data from many sources
show that the soil complex contains several times as much calcium as
magnesium, thereby making calcium constantly more accessible to the
absorbing units. Moreover, magnesium forms more insoluble com-
pounds with silicates which are so generally present, than does cal-
cium. Thus the utilization of these two similar elements is in a
measure dependent on their simple chemical properties making for
solubility.
Similar questions may be asked regarding the utilization of iron
and cobalt as well as other heavy metals. Assuming that the heavy
metals exert catalytic influences in the plant (oxidation and reduc-
tion) one cannot ignore the fact that each is specific regarding the
function or part played. Yet, why is iron required in greater amounts
than cobalt and manganese? And, furthermore, why are only small
amounts of iron utilized in the life process when there is such an
abundance of this element in nature? These questions are partially
answered by the fact that the soil contains relatively small amounts
of replaceable or available iron, and still less amounts of cobalt and
manganese. This is particularly true in view of the large amounts of
iron in the soil system. These elements have a low solubility in water
and during the weathering process of granite and other basic rocks,
the alkaline condition produced further reduces their solubility.
This principle of the dependence of utilization upon those fac-
tors which make for solubility appears to prevail among most
nutrients, and it would seem logical to assume that this principle has
held during the development of the plant kingdom. It is probable
that from the composite of minerals varying in degrees of solubilities
and properties that plants utilized those which were most constant
and ever present, partially in the order of simple solubility. Strange
as it may appear, the chemical properties of an individual element per-
sist whether inside or outside of the plant cell, unless removed from
solution by the laws of solubility or biological processes.
In this connection it is of major interest to note that the known
mineral nutrients are fairly well distributed throughout the periodic
table of the elements. For example, group J with a combining rela-
120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion of one, has potassium, sodium and copper, and in like manner
group JZ has calcium, magnesium and zinc, group J/J boron, alumi-
num and possibly gallium, group JV carbon, silicon and possibly tin,
group V nitrogen, phosphorus and possibly vanadium, group VJ oxy-
gen, sulphur and molybdenum, group VJJ chlorine, manganese, fluor-
ine and iodine, and group VIJI iron, cobalt and possibly others yet to
be determined.
Just why the plant nutrients originated from such a variety of
elements, and wide range of chemical properties is puzzling and not
completely understood. But it appears that the elements function
specifically, whatever that may be, and simultaneously to maintain
the plant and possibly the “Spark’’ of life itself. Who knows but that
this range of chemical properties of different elements, manifested by
varied degrees of solubilities and consequent availabilities, electrical
properties, etc., may not be the basic starting points of plant life, and
that the utilization of the minerals: from the soil is merely a filling of
the gap, or the needs of this eternal cycle of plant and animal life?
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF Pinus caribaea
MOR.
WitsBur B. DE VALL
University of Florida
The purpose of this paper is to present in detailed form such
taxonomic characters of the species slash pine, Pinus caribaea Mor. as
have been used in some of the tree manuals and to add new charac-
ters of identification that will help in separating taxonomically the
previous species from its closely related species, swamp pine, Pinus
palustris Mill.
The above specific names for slash and swamp pine respectively
are used by Small." Since this classification is new to most of us, a
brief explanation should be made concerning the nomenclature used
in other manuals. Most publications have in the immediate past rec-
ognized only longleaf pine, Pznus palustris Mill, and slash pine, Pinus
cartbara Mor., as being the major turpentine species in the south-
eastern United States. Small uses a similar classification with a
somewhat different meaning.” His classification is as follows: long-
leaf pine, Pinus australis Michx. f., swamp pine, Pinus palustris Mill.,
and slash pine, Pinus caribaea Mor.
The discussion which follows uses this latter classification, show-
ing in detail such taxonomic characters as will substantiate the classi-
fication as well as those that will not. Previous to this study no one
had felt justified in upholding the characters in the manual because a
thorough study had not been made of the swamp and slash pine. With
this complex problem at hand and demanding solution if possible, the
investigation materialized through the cooperation of the School of
Forestry and the Herbarium of the Florida Experiment Station, both
located at the University of Florida.
Areas Investigated
The study covered a distance of some twelve hundred miles into
central Florida, the eastern Atlantic coast from Vero Beach south-
ward to Big Pine Key and the Gulf coast from Naples northward to
Aripeka, thence inland to Brooksville and return to Gainesville. This
route was decided upon after much consideration as to where the bor-
ders of the species range might be encountered as well as where varia-
tions might occur due to soil type, nearness to salt water and topo-
graphy of the land.
17. K. Small, Manual of the Southeastern Flora (New York, Published by
the Author, 1933) p. 4.
*Tbid.
122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Study Methods
The intentions in making the study were to collect suitable her-
barium material over the range of the species that might be filed for
future reference, and also to record variations in the species due to en-
vironmental influences. As the investigation proceeded, much more
detailed observations became necessary. Briefly, the data were ob-
tained in the following manner.
A sample of the foliage, including twig, needles and bud as well
as the cones from the same tree were collected from each county and
from several places within each county as was deemed advisable. Each
sample was placed in a large paper bag and labeled in detail, giving
the county, nearest town, date, species, and characteristics peculiar to
the tree from which the sample was taken. In nearly all cases ma-
terial was obtained from second-growth or mature trees rather than
small trees and from branches well up on the crown of the tree.
In addition to the main collecting, other data were obtained on
distribution, measurements on cones, fascicle sheaths and the number
of needles per fascicle. Seedlings were collected from the vicinity in
which the sampling was done when such were present so that the pic-
ture regarding the species should not be lacking in any respect.
Observational Approach to the Study
Investigations of a research nature are not to be conducted for
the purpose of proving a theory. They are to be made with a theory
or hypothesis in mind which is to be proven false in every way unless
it is impossible to do so. In the event that the theory remains with-
out a falacy at the end of the investigation, it may be considered de-
pendable and superior in rank.
This was the attitude behind the study. As a hypothesis the
classification of P. caribaea as mentioned previously was accepted and
all characters used in it were tested and tried under various condi-
tions of environment.
Before further consideration is given to the findings of the in-
vestigation, some of the key factors that were influential in guiding
the study will be mentioned. First of all, the manual states that slash
pine is “The only pine growing naturally on the Florida keys.” This
statement was responsible for continuing the study onto the Keys so
that a “type” species might be observed.
Another important statement in the key refers to swamp pine as
“Tnhabiting the lower or wet situations with the range of P. austral-
is....” This was used as a key to distribution of the species and
as an index as to where P. caribaea might be found. As will be
brought out later, each species of pine considered in this paper is
characterized by a particular type of habitat.
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PINUS CARIBAEA MOR. 123
TAXONOMIC OBSERVATIONS
The data obtained in this study will be presented in the follow-
ing order: cone characters, needle characters, seedling characters,
growth habit and distribution, using the manual characters as the
hypothesis.
Cones
Hypothesis: Pinus caribaea cones exhibit the following charac-
teristics: “cones elongate of a conic type and over twice as long as
thick when closed, slightly unbonate . . . .8-15 cm. long, recurving
when young, cylindric-conic when closed, cylindric or ovoid-cylindric
when open ... . the scale appendages flat or slightly elevated, with
recurved or hooked prickles . . . . cone scales thick-edged.”
According to the hypothesis, cones must of necessity be elongate
and somewhat cylindrical to meet the requirement of being twice as
long as thick when closed. An open cone which is of the ovoid type
cannot be cylindric when closed. As this character is used as super-
ior in rank to any others, it was deemed advisable to check the con-
sistency of it so that it would or would not be possible to say that it
is a distinguishing character.
In order to differentiate between slash and swamp pine when
only open cones are available, one must soak a cone to a closed con-
dition to be sure that the dimensions of the long axis are more than
twice those of the short axis to class it as P. caribaea. This is a ted-
ious process and it would seem that such a character is not worthy
of ranking first in any key unless it is the most accurate and depend-
able. Certain cones that are definitely cylindrical when open will be
cylindrical when closed.
From a thorough study on the relative shrinkage of cones from
an open to a closed condition it was found that certain sized cones
within a given range of widths would close up to be well within the
limits stated for slash pine. Others that appeared to have a possibility
of closing up to give the length equal to more than twice the width,
did not prove to do so. The cone dimensions given in Table 1 show
the ranges within which slash pine cones will and will not substantiate
the characters in the key. These data were obtained from a series
of measurements on forty cones and summarize the data on open
measurements and the corresponding closed measurements on the
same cone. As the length of a cone is altered very little in closing, all
data were grouped by one-centimeter length classes and analyzed, giv-
ing the data occuring in the table.
The tabulation represents data taken over several counties in
south Florida including Big Pine Key and shows that the length of a
cone being twice its width when closed, cannot be generally used as a
124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA) ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
taxonomic character for slash pine because many cones collected well
within the species range were less than twice as long as wide when
closed.
The hypothesis states that cones for the species range from 8-15
cm. in length. Again a check was made on this character to see
which samples would be eliminated.
Careful check measurements were made on an average cone from
each sample and the following exceptions noted, that is, having cones
not within the limits of the species. Cones from Pasco, Pinellas, Hills-
TABLE 1.—Conversion TABLE FOR REDUCING OPEN-CONE DIMENSIONS TO CLOSED-
CONE DIMENSIONS FoR P. Caribaea
1. Cones that measure 5.0-5.5 cm. in length when open and not less than 4.5
cm. in width, will be less than twice as long as broad when closed.
2. A cone measuring 5.6-6.5 cm. in length and not more than 5.0 cm. in width
will be twice as long as wide when closed; above 5.0 cm. in width it will be
less.
3. Cones measuring 6.6-6.9 cm. in length and not more than 4.7 cm. in width will
be twice as long as broad when closed.
4. Cones 7.0 cm. long and 6.0 cm. or more in width will be less than twice as
long as broad when closed.
5. Cones ranging from 7.2-7.9 cm. in length and not exceeding 5.7 cm. in width
will be twice as long as broad when closed.
6. Cones 8.0 cm. long and more than 5.0 cm. in width will be less than twice as
long as broad when closed.
7. Cones measuring 8.5 cm. in length and not exceeding 6.7 cm. in width, will
be more than twice as long as broad when closed.
8. Cones measuring 9.0-9.9 cm. in length and not exceeding 7.5 cm. in width
will be twice as long as broad when closed.
9. Cones measuring 10.0-10.9 cm. in length and not exceeding 7.7 cm. in width
will be more than twice as long as broad when closed.
10. Cones measuring 11.0-11.9 cm. in length and not exceeding 7.7 cm. in width
will be twice as long as broad when closed.
11. All cones over 12.0 cm. in length regardless of width will be twice the width
when closed.
borough, Sarasota, Lee, Monroe (Big Pine Key), Dade, Broward, and
Palm Beach counties were found less than 8.0 cm. in length. From
the above observations and by using the characters in the key, these
cones could not have come from slash pine, yet were collected only
within the range of the species. Furthermore, eight centimeters was
found to be the obvious dividing line between the cylindrical type of
cone and the ovoid type, when closed. However, this minimum length
limit is not to be accepted because several cones that measured 7.0
cm. in length did not have proportional width to make them less than
twice as long as wide. It was noted that cone length and width might
be sufficient to cause the length to be twice the width but did not
place the cone within the specified limits of 8-15 cm. One cone meas-
ured only 6.5 cm. in length, yet was twice as long as wide when
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PINUS CARIBAEA MOR. 125
closed. Another cone measuring 8.0 cm. in length was less than twice
as long as wide when closed.
The hypothesis states that slash pine cones have recurved or
hooked prickles on the scale appendages. This character was studied
while collections were being made in the field and again when the ma-
terials were being analyzed in the office to see if such could be relied
upon as a stable character.
The data obtained from forty cones, examined expressly to deter-
mine the curvature of the prickles, showed it to be unreliable. A sum-
mary of this analysis is given in Table 2.
TABLE 2—SummMary OF DATA ON PRICKLE CURVATURE ON Cones oF P. caribaea.
County Recurved Straight Decurved
Hernando x x
Pasco x x
Pinellas x xX x
Hillsborough xX xX
Manatee xX x
Sarasota xX x
Lee xX x
Monroe (Big Pine Key) x
Dade ».4 x x
Broward xX x xX
Palm Beach x
Martin xX
St. Lucie xX x
Mention should be made at this time of an observation in Col-
lier county just north of Naples. Two trees were growing side by side
and one had cones on which the prickles were decidedly decurved
whereas the other had distinctly recurved prickles. As a taxonomic
character, this is variable and cannot be used freely in a diagnosis of
the species.
Cone scales, according to the manual, are thick-edged as compared
with the thin-edged scales of longleaf pine. Several instances were
noted in the field where the edge of the scale, due to its exposed por-
tion being compressed laterally, had the appearance of being thin.
Even though the scale was thin the edge was rounded instead of be-
ing acute which may be the interpretation meant in the key. This
character, however, has not been found adequate to separate slash
from swamp pine.
Although no mention is made of color in the hypothesis, slash
pine has a brown cone when fresh which is shiny, giving it a varnished
appearance. Had this character been included in the key, much un-
certainty could have been prevented. Swamp pine cones have a brown,
shiny appearance very similar to those of slash.
126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The cones of slash pine are stalked. The stalk was found to
vary in length reaching a maximum of one-half inch. Some of the
manuals refer to this species as having short-stalked cones but a stalk
of the above length could hardly be called short.* The stalks were
found to be both persistent on the twig with a few basal cone scales
when the cone falls as well as deciduous with the cone. No apparent
difference was found in the length or nature of the stalk in the slash
and swamp pine.
Needles
Hypothesis: Pinus caribaea needles show the following charac-
teristics, “‘.... leaves in 2’5 and 3’s, 18-30 cm. long (rarely shorter),
)
bright green on twigs about 5 mm. in diameter... .
Observations throughout the study revealed that needle length
is variable and only in a comparative way can it be used taxonomical-
ly. The specimens collected on Big Pine Key indicate that the
common number of needles to be found in a fascicle is two. The
number of needles per fascicle for swamp pine is inconsistent, both
two and three-needle fascicles, with a slight tendency toward three
per fascicle. Color of needles is again a comparative character and
is considered here as being of little taxonomic significance. Samples
taken two miles west of West Palm Beach revealed needles of two dif-
ferent colors on two adjacent trees. These were undoubtedly of the
same species, slash pine. One tree had needles blue-green in color
whereas the other had needles that were dark-green.
A taxonomic character, though not included in the hypothesis
should be mentioned here for comparison. The length of the fascicle
sheath is often of diagnostic value in separating species of hard pine.’
As this character was studied in the present investigation for slash
pine and in a previous investigation for longleaf and swamp pine, a
summary of the data will be given here. The range of sheath meas-
urements for the three species of southern pines is as follows:
1) P. australis, .60"-1.50", 2) P. palustris, .30”-.50” and 3) P.
caribaea, .40”-.55”.
Another diagnostic character, the number of resin ducts in the
cross-section of the needle has been given special attention by Harlow.”
As resin ducts are a part of the needle anatomy they should be re-
SWilliam M. Harlow and Ellwood S. Harrar, Textbook of Dendrology (New
York and London: McGraw-Hill Co., 1937), p. 92.
“W. B. De Vall, “A Diagnostic Taxonomic Constant for Separating Slash and
Longleaf Pines,” Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences, Vol. 4, 1939,
Davis.
5W. M. Harlow, The Identification of the Pines of the United States, by
Needle Structure (Syracuse, N. Y.: 1931).
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PINUS CARIBAEA MOR. 127
liable and consistent. He shows slash pine by means of a photomicro-
graph as having two resin ducts, occasionally with a third duct medial
in position.
At the termination of the field work, microtome sections were
made on all needle samples and the results are shown in Table 3. This
gives the number or frequency of resin ducts according to the county
in which collected. All sections were made at one-half the length of
the needle so that the resin duct count would not be in error due to
selection of the place of sectioning. In all cases sections were made
from two-needle fascicles.
TABLE 3.—FREQUENCY OF Resin Ducts In Pinus caribaea NEEDLES.
Sample County No. ducts per
No. cross-section Notes
69 Monroe Big Pine Key
50 Dade S. Coral Gables
12 Dade S. Coral Gables
66 Broward
48 Broward
56 Broward
3 mi. W. Deerfield
3 mi. W. Deerfield
W. of Pompano
28 Pinellas N. Tarpon Springs
33 Lee S. Fort Myers
64 Broward W. of Deerfield
63 Broward W. of Dixie
65. Palm Beach
52 Palm Beach
60 Palm Beach
2 mi. W. Palm Beach
2 mi. W. Palm Beach
3 mi. S. Delray
61 Palm Beach Lake Worth
53 Martin Stuart
51 St. Lucie W. Fort Pierce
23 Collier N. of Naples
15 Collier N. of Naples
8 Lee N. of Estero
20 Hernando Aripeka Road 15
32 Pasco Hudson-Aripeka
17 Pasco New Port Richey
24 Pasco Hudson-Aripeka
6 Pasco Hudson-Aripeka
39 Pasco N. of Aripeka
22 Pinellas N. edge Clearwater
16 Pinellas N. of Dunedin
18 Hillsborough W. of Tampa, Rd. 17
21 Hillsborough S. edge of county
10 Manatee N. of Parish
36 Manatee N. of Parish
25 Sarasota
9 Sarasota
1 Sarasota
2 Sarasota
37 Charlotte
3 Lee
19 Lee
14 Pinellas
58 St. Lucie
North of city
S. edge of county
S. edge of county
S. of Venice
N. of Punta Gorda
N. of Bonita Springs
N. of Bonita Springs
N. of Tarpon Springs
Inside the bay
WKMITOARDAMOADUAW OOMUNAWOMOAAIAOWUTIOWAPWOAAWMALHUNUN
128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
In the table it is interesting to note that in all but two cases the
number of resin ducts per needle ranged from four to nine. One of
the exceptions was found on road No. 19 north of Tarpon Springs,
Pinellas county, and the other at Vero Beach just inside the bay, St.
Lucie county. As was observed at the time of collection, both of
these locations are in the northern part of the range’of slash pine where
it becomes limited to only a narrow belt adjacent to the coast. There
is a possibility that the species sampled and recorded as slash pine
may have been swamp pine because of the nearness to the transition
of the ranges of the two species.
Seedlings
Information is not given in the key as to the type of seedling pro-
duced by slash pine. Based upon common knowledge and what has
long been known to exist regarding types of seedlings, the following
brief review is included.
The longleaf pine is known to have a seedling which passes
through a grass stage. The needles are long, three per fascicle and the
main stem is large in diameter and remains unbranched until it passes
the grass stage which is often at a height of from two to five feet. It
has a terminal bud with white bud scales situated in the center of the
needle cluster.
The typical seedling of swamp pine is found around flatwoods
ponds and on other low ground within the range of longleaf pine. It
is spindly in appearance and does not pass through a grass stage. It
has medium-lengthed needles, occuring two and three per fascicle. The
stem of the seedling is rarely larger than a pencil until about the
second or third year of growth when it enlarges and immediately pro-
duces lateral branches.
The typical slash pine seedling found in southern Florida and ob-
served as far north on the east coast as Fort Pierce, south to Big Pine
Key and as far north on the west Florida coast as Aripeka in Hernan-
do county, could be described as having the general appearance of
both of the above mentioned species. The needles are of medium
length and occur two and three per fascicle. This seedling like the
longleaf seedling passes through a definite grass stage. The stem on
a seedling measuring eight inches in height has a diameter of 14%” at
the ground level. Seedlings which are coming out of the grass stage
have lateral branches developed at not more than one foot above the
ground.
It is interesting to note in this connection that the Florida State
Forest Nursery planted in their seed beds, two lots of pine seed, one
collected in the vicinity of Lake City, Florida, and the other collected
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PINUS CARIBAEA MOR. 129
in the southern part of the state below Sebring, Florida. As a result
of this planting the following quotation from Mr. T. W. Young is
included.°
“During the past spring, (1934) Mr. D. J. Weddell, of the Florida
Forest Service noted that the seedlings in certain beds at the State Nursery
were markedly different from those about them; even though they were
on identical soil and had received the same care, records showed the seed
used in these particular beds were collected in the vicinity of Highlands
Hammock by boys of the C.C.C. camp at Sebring.
“Measurements taken on August 28, 1934, by the present nursery-
man, Mr. T. W. Young, show that the average height of the trees grown
from south Florida seed is about three and one-third inches as compared
with more than seven and one-half inches for those grown from seed
collected in north Florida. In addition, the seedlings grown from seed
collected in the southern part of the state had developed a stem of only
about three inches, terminating in a cluster of needles very similar to
those of the longleaf pine seedling. The north Florida seedlings have
needles from near the ground to the tip of the stem, growing in a well
distributed manner without bunching.”
The seedlings referred to above were distributed by the nursery to
various parts of the state to test them out. One shipment went to Mr.
D. Howell, of Lake City, Florida, who planted them on his own land;
one plantation of northern seedlings and one of southern stock. A re-
cent interview with him revealed that nearly 100% mortality was ex-
perienced with the stock grown from southern seed, whereas the
seedlings grown from northern seed have grown nicely with only about
a 20% mortality.”
Whether or not a definite, visible, taxonomic character can be
found that will supplement those in the key, the fact remains that
some inherent character is present in slash pine to produce a seedling
of the type described above.
Growth Habit
In addition to the previous description of slash pine seedlings,
much is to be said concerning the growth habit of the species in stages
advanced from that of the seedling. The seedlings, of a type inter-
mediate between longleaf and swamp pine, were found in various
habitats. In an old field grown up to wire grass (Aristida sp.) which
had not been burned for at least five years, seedlings of slash pine
were found in the grass stage. On Big Pine Key, slash seedlings were
found on limestone rock with only accumulated soil on the surface
for their roots to penetrate. Very little ground vegetation is present
under such conditions.
*Letter from Mr. T. W. Young, Nurseryman with the Florida Forest Ser-
vice, 1934.
7Statement of Mr. D. Howell, personal interview.
130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Various observations were made throughout the entire study to
note any characteristics of the crown peculiar to the species. Slash
trees observed along the east and west Florida coasts had much
smaller crowns in proportion to their diameter than their north Florida
relative, the swamp pine.
Increment cores were not taken to determine age or growth but
Dr. Gifford, of the University of Miami, reports that trees in that
vicinity have been proven to put on forty-five growth rings in a per-
iod of fifteen years.° This would mean the addition of three rings of
growth a year instead of the normal one. The reason for this has not
been determined unless it is the effect of a continuous growing season
combined with frequent and alternate wet and dry periods.
A typical stand of mature slash pine on Big Pine Key exhibited
a characteristic sweep in the trunk due to frequent high winds of hur-
ricane velocity.
The type of bark found on slash trees on Big Pine Key is differ-
ent than that commonly found on swamp pine in northern Florida.
Slash pine has thinner bark plates, orange-purple in color, than swamp
pine which has a gray bark until over twelve inches in diameter when
it starts to become orange. The bark plates also show a tendency to
scale off on trees approaching twelve-inches in diameter. This charac-
teristic is not evident in swamp pine for corresponding diameters.
This difference may be in part influenced by environment but should
be included here as a characteristic of the species. The type of bark
found on swamp pine for the same diameter of tree, has a long, rough,
gray bark plate which remains in this condition until the tree reaches
a larger diameter than that referred to for the slash pine above.
Distribution
Hypothesis: Pinus caribaea is found on “dry sandy or rocky
soils, often calcareous, peninsula of Florida and the lower Keys, ex-
tending near the coast to Mississippi and Georgia. The only pine
growing naturally on the Florida Keys.”
Using the above notes on distribution of slash pine, the investi-
gation into its distribution was one of determining the exactness of
this range. The key note regarding distribution is that the species is
the only pine found naturally on the Florida Keys. The species was
found along the Florida east coast in a narrow belt as far north as
Fort Pierce. This is not the northern limit of the species but is the
most northern point on the coast where it was observed. In all of the
collecting done along this portion of the coast, a short trip of from
two to five miles was made inland from the coastal U. S. Highway No.
®Statement of Dr. J. C. Gifford, personal interview.
THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF PINUS CARIBAEA MOR. 131
1 at various points, to obtain samples from trees in their inland habi-
tat and so that some note could be made on the extent of its distribu-
tion inland from the coast. A very interesting point brought out in
this connection is that slash pine is not found on the sand-bar island
off the mainland from Vero Beach to Miami.
In the Homestead region of Dade county, slash pine was observed
to extend southward nearly to the edge of the mainland. There are
no pines growing on the upper Florida Keys between the mainland and
Big Pine Key. The long Over-Seas Bridge reaching its terminus on
Big Pine Key brings one into an entirely different vegetation and soil
type than that found on the upper Keys. It is on this Key that a
fine stand of slash pine was observed and the major part of the de-
tailed taxonomic work completed. This Key was used to furnish
typical material for checking all characteristics in the hypothesis and
it is with reference to these samples, supplemented by other samples
within the range of the species, that the previous discussion was made.
Slash pine inhabits the major portion of Big Pine Key. The distribu-
tion of the species south and west of this point on the Keys was not
included in the study. Slash pine was found to inhabit only the
islands in the Everglades region and no collecting was done or obser-
vations made in this portion of the state.
In extending the study up the Gulf coast north from Naples, some
very interesting observations were made on distribution of slash pine.
It was found to be the only species of pine inhabiting the flatwoods
type of land. Also in this region, slash pine is not used for naval
stores because it does not produce the flow of gum that is characteristic
of the more northern swamp and longleaf pines.
A short distance north of Bradenton on Highway No. 41 longleaf
pine was encountered at the south boundary of Hillsborough county,
extending into Manatee county only in the extreme northern part. It
was at this location that the first trees of P. palustris were observed.
They were growing on the edge of a hammock with the slender type
of seedling scattered in the vicinity. Theoretically, this should demar-
cate the transition zone separating slash pine from the other two as-
sociated species namely, swamp and longleaf pines.
Progressing westward on Route No. 17 between Tampa and
Clearwater an abrupt change in topography was noted and observation
revealed the typical slash seedlings of the type found on Big Pine Key.
A little farther west in the vicinity of Clearwater, slash and longleaf
pine were found very close to salt water. The slash trees were only
few in number and limited to the immediate shoreline. The typical
seedling of slash pine was again found north of Tarpon Springs in
Pinellas county and also in two localities where samples were taken
132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
near Aripeka in Hernando county. In each case the needles were two
and three per fascicle and possessed buds with brown scales. As this
was the most northern point studied near the coast, the records are
incomplete north of road No. 15 from Aripeka to Brooksville. Only a
few miles inland towards Brooksville, longleaf pine inhabits the rolling
land along with various species of scrub oak.
Thus it can be seen, that the range of P. caribaea becomes limit-
ed in its more northern distribution to a very narrow strip or belt
near the coast. This belt did not appear to be continuous but rather
to form small strips and islands of pine separated by either open or
marsh-grass areas. On the western side of the peninsula the range
swings inland just north of Parish and is again represented on the
east coast in the vicinity of Fort Pierce. Data is lacking on the inland
distribution of the species and on the distribution northward on both
the east and west Florida coasts.
The distribution of the species was thought, perhaps, to be cor-
related with soil type. However, this was not found to be the case
as the major soil types of the state are not continuous with the range of
the species. It is evident that the species range is in the form of a
widely-spread Y coinciding in part with the calcareous soils found
along each coast.
TESTS AND STANDARDS FOR SHARK LIVER
OIL FROM SHARKS CAUGHT IN
FLORIDA WATERS
L. L. RuUSOFF
University of Florida
and
RoBert M. FRENCH
Shark Industries, Inc., Hollywood
Shark liver oil, known commercially as ‘“Elbrol” and “Shark
Liver Oil—Shark Industries” is a Florida product. The oil is obtained
from livers of sharks found in the tropical waters off the coast of
Florida, mainly of the variety Hypoprion brevirostrus (lemon), but
any or all of the following varieties may be included: Odontaspis
littocalis (sand), Isurus punctatus (mackerel), Triakis semifasciatum
(leopard), Sphyrna zygaena (hammerhead), Carcharias milberti
(white) and Carcharias limbatus (black tip). It is extracted from the
liver with live steam, washed with dilute sodium hydroxide and fil-
tered. The oil is valued particularly for its high vitamin A content.
“Elbrol” is used extensively in poultry nutrition. Tests with grow-
ing birds at the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station have shown
“Elbrol” to be three times as potent as U.S.P. XI reference cod liver
oil which contains 3,000 units of vitamin A per gram.’ It is also
being used in the nutrition of dogs, mink and other animals. Recently,
shark liver oil in capsule form has been placed on the market for
human consumption. It is biologically assayed to have a potency of
not less than 16,500 U.S.P. XI units of vitamin A per gram and of
not less than 40 units of vitamin D (U.S.P. XI) per gram. “Shark
Liver Oil-Shark Industries” has been approved recently by the Coun-
cil on chemistry and Pharmacy of the American Medical Association.’
Some tests and standards are available for shark live oils from
sharks caught in other parts of the world, particularly Japan,”*** but
*L. L. Rusoff and N. R. Mehrhof, “Shark Liver Oil—A Potent Source of
Vitamin A for Poultry,” Poultry Science, Vol. 18 (1939), pp. 339-344.
*“Report of Council on Chemistry and Pharmacy,” Jour. Amer. Med. ace
Vol. 115 (1940), p. 683.
8J. Lewkowitsch, Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and Wares
(Vol. II, London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1914).
*M. Tsujimoto, “Squalene: A Highly Unsaturated Hydrocarbon in Shark
Liver Oil.” Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 12 (1920), pp. 63-72.
5M. Tsujimoto, “Man-Eating Shark Liver Oil.” Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.,
Japan, Vol. 39 (1936), pp. 82-83. (suppl. binding) (from Chem. Abstracts, Vol.
30, p. 5438).
®°M. Tsujimoto, “Marine Animal Oils,” Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., Japan, Vol.
40 ERE pp. 184-186. (suppl. binding) (from Chem. Abstracts, Vol. 31,
p. 6492).
133
134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
none have been reported for liver oils from sharks caught in Florida
waters. Since the shark liver oil industry has been making rapid strides
in the last few years, it seemed desirable to have some tests and stand-
ards for the identification of Florida shark liver oil. Also, these tests
and standards will become more significant since World War II has
presented difficulties in procuring cod liver oil from foreign markets.
It is probable that there will be a shortage of cod liver oil in the
United States this winter. Prior to the war about 70 percent of the
imported cod liver oil came from the Scandinavian area and the re-
mainder from Japan and Iceland. Thus, the Florida shark liver oil
industry is due to prosper this winter.
The following tests and standards are reported for Florida shark
liver oils as determined by the methods in the United States Pharma-
copeia XI."
Shark liver oil is an amber to brown oily liquid, possessing a
fishy odor and taste. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in al-
cohol, and soluble in chloroform, ether, benzene, ethyl acetate and
carbon disulfide.
A solution of one drop of the oil in 1 cc. of chloroform, when
shaken with one drop of sulphuric acid, acquires a light violet color,
changing to purple and finally violet blue or brown.
When equal parts of benzene and oil are centrifuged for 25
minutes at 25°C. no precipitate forms and a clear solution remains.
Table I presents the specific gravity, refractive index, cold test,
free acid, non-saponifiable matter, saponification value and iodine
value for the liver oils of sand shark, lemon shark, dusky shark, and
fo r“Shark Liver Oil—Shark Industries’ (blended oil).
TABLE I.—TeEsts aNp STANDARDS FOR SHARK Liver Ons As DETERMINED BY
METHODS IN THE UNITED STATES PHARMACOPEIA XI.
Sand Lemon Dusky “Shark Liver Oil—Shark ;
Shark Shark Shark Industries” (blended oils)
Specific Gravity 25° C. 0.918 0.921 0.919 0.917-0.923
Refractive Index 20° C. 1.4758 1.4769 1.4759 1.475-1.480
Cold Test
Clear 85° C2" 35°16) ssc: 45°C.
Cloudy 10°C) ‘WOVE -107€: 15° C.
Free Acid GCice: O2e¢, Occ, 0.1 c.c,-0.3 c.c,
Non-Saponifiable Matter 3.13% 2.94% 3.13% 3.00%-6.00%
Saponification Value 172 172 171 170-187
Iodine Value 145 143 125 125-145
™Pharmacophia of the United States of America. Eleventh Decennial Revision.
(Prepared by the committee of revision and published by the board of trustees,
Mack Printing Co., Easton, Pa., 1930-1940).
TESTS AND STANDARDS FOR SHARK LIVER OIL 135
It is observed from the table that the specific gravity of the
oils ranges from 0.917 to 0.923 at 25°C. The refractive index is from
1.475 to 1.480 at 20°C. The cold test shows that the oil becomes
turbid at about 15°C., but becomes fluid and clear at 45°C.
Free acid test. Florida shark liver oil requires 0.1-0.3 cc. of
tenth-normal sodium hydroxide for neutralization. The amount of
unsaponifiable matter is not less than 2.94 per cent nor more than
6.00 per cent. The saponification value is not less than 170 nor more
than 187. The iodine value is not less than 125 nor more than 145.
SUMMARY
Tests and standards by the methods in the U.S.P. XI for shark
liver oil from sharks caught in Florida waters are presented.
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN
INSECT SOCIETIES
E. Morton MILLER
University of Miami
In the maintenance of any organism a basic problem is that of
communication among its parts and the coordination of the responses
of those parts to provide a unified, adaptive behavior of the whole.
‘The same problem exists to some extent for populations of organisms,
particularly those which we designate as social.
The manners in which this problem of integration is solved by
both single organisms and social populations show certain parallels.
In fact, the remarkable similarities existing between the coordina-
tion phenomena in a single organism and those within a population
of social animals have led various authors to the concept of the supra-
organism or epiorganism (Wheeler, 1911; Gerard, 1940; Emerson,
1939). It is now possible, in the case of vertebrate animals, for us
to describe to some extent the mechanisms which regulate growth
and interaction among the body tissues, but less progress has been
made in the analysis of integration within such supraorganisms as
ant, bee, and termite colonies.
The purpose of this paper is not to expand upon the concept of
supraorganism. The main attempt is to review knowledge and hy-
potheses regarding chemical exchanges among the members of insect
colonies and to suggest the importance of these contacts as integrative
stimuli which weld into a supraorganismic unit the many smaller
units of the colony.
As pointed out by Child (1940) the organization of either cel-
lular or organismic units into larger categories may involve two types
of transmission of stimuli: one type is the transmission of energy and
the other the transmission of materials. The present review is con-
cerned with the latter mode of integration. Great gaps in knowledge
will be obvious, but it is hoped that calling attention to these de-
ficiencies may encourage investigation in the field.
An ant or a bee colony acts as an organized machine, exhibiting
some efficiency in locating food, defending itself against unfavorable
factors, and in maintaining its size by reproduction of needed units.
Part of this organization apparently revolves around a communication
system in which chemical materials are transmitted.
In ant colonies a consideration of chemical coordination naturally
falls under two headings: first, the part played by recognition odors
in regulating the behavior of the units of the colony and in maintain-
136
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN INSECT SOCIETIES 137
ing the closed society; second, the possible influence of special food-
stuffs on polymorphism. Both of these aspects obviously are concerned
in the pattern of division of labor which must exist in the colony if
it is to act as a supraorganism.
Wheeler (1928) has summarized most of the observations in
this group, drawing largely on others for experimental data. In spite
of the difficulties of analyzing animal sensations through observations
of reactions, Fielde (1904, 1905) came to the conclusion that
besides discerning the aura of the nest and other local scents and the
track laid down by its feet, an ant perceives in other ants: 1) the incurred
or incidental odor which appears with changing conditions and disappears
in course of time; 2) the inherited odor derived from the queen-mother
and apparent in the eggs, larvae, pupae, and newly hatched young, and
probably strengthening as size increases through the three inert stages
of development; 3) the progressive odor that distinguishes the worker
and changes or intensifies with her advancing age; and 4) the specific
odor which pertains to the species or tribe.
This system of odors was inferred after a series of experiments in
which individuals were transplanted from one group to another of
known species and group experience. In connection with this hypo-
thesis it was necessary to assume a considerable conditioning or
memory ability for the ants.
The system described by Miss Fielde meets the communication
requirements within each colony and automatically differentiates with
age from that in other colonies—even groups of the same species.
The dependence of ants on this integrative system was demonstrated
by Fielde (1903) by amputation of certain antennal segments and
their perceptors. Ants usually antagonistic may thus be made to live
together by destroying the loci of colony odor sense, or by isolating
individuals as callows before they were conditioned to a specific colony
odor. The location of perceptor organs was as follows in Fielde’s work:
MOEMIGSE “AUF SENSE 6. ...seccacesccveccntecesssvecesessessouvovcececrees 11th segment of funicle
DMECOLOMY—OGOL SENSE ....:.:.c..c.cc.cecsseseceescscsscencsssenceaoes 10th i ie ”
Se INGIVIGUWal-track SENSE) oii. ...cileccsccsseecsecdeneceees Oth # ” ie
A MPANETESVOUNE, OGOL .oinc...cessisssdecessceesaee: 7th and 8th a v
SeOGOE Of ENEMIES. «.......2.....c....ccecseceseeesess 5th and 6th ” i K
Since Fielde’s study, Schneirla (1938) has shown that the
rhythmical integrated activities of Eciton hamatum colonies are reg-
ulated by a chain of factors among which chemical stimuli play an
important part. Chemical and tactual stimulation from full-term
pupae and callows within the bivouac excite a general movement
eventually leading to the raiding system and to nomadism. A new
developing brood of larvae is an excitatory factor in maintenance of
138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA! ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the raiding system once it is underway. Later work by the same
author (1940) shows that in EZ. burchelli
the form of communication which prevails is markedly dependent upon
the workers’ topo-chemical sensitivity . . . . In a setting of Eciton chem-
ical the activities of one individual tactually influence other individuals
and give rise to liaison devices which underlie group coordination. In the
Ecitons such influences are “releasers” and definitely not language sym-
bols, since any effects upon other individuals are incidental so far as
the originator is concerned.
The characteristic differences in raiding pattern (hence integra-
tive behavior) between the two species seem to depend on differences
in amount and nature of the chemical released by the raiding workers,
or on differences in chemical acuity in the two species. Hamatum
shows more precise following of trails than burchelli. In addition to
the chemical differences there may be, of course, other factors such
as differences in rebound reaction and in general excitation thresh-
hold.
The exchange of secretions and exudates further organizes and
regulates the activities within the ant colony. These materials, un-
fortunately, have not been analyzed, but numerous students of ants
seem to agree on the importance of such substances in group economy.
Most interest centers about the possible influence of secretions and
regurgitations on polymorphism and caste differentiation. Wheeler’s
(1928) term “trophallaxis” is applied to this system, in which the
materials are exchanged by licking.
Numerous ant larvae possess large salivary glands and exuda-
tory appendages—particularly in early stages—and all larvae seem to
exude through their thin chitin fatty or lipoid films. Adult nurses
apparently utilize these substances; furthermore, much mutual licking
seems to go on among the adults of a colony. Direct evidence on the
regulatory effect of this trophallaxis is largely lacking, but assuming,
with Wheeler, that in many ant societies hunger is an imminent factor
and that every source of nutriment must be exploited to preserve a
rather precarious economy, then the possible bearing of trophallactic
activities on caste differentiation may be surmised. This idea, coupled
with recent emphasis on the concepts of threshold and of excitatory
substances in development, provides a framework on which to con-
struct various hypotheses (Whiting, 1938).
The intimate dependence of the differentiation of queen and worker
castes on food is beautifully shown in the growth of Aculeate colonies that
are established by single queens. The first brood always consists of
small workers, those of succeeding broods gradually increase in size,
and only after the larger workers have appeared are queens produced
(Wheeler, 1928).
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN INSECT SOCIETIES 139
Pricer (1908) followed such a sequence in Camponotus penn-
sylvannicus. Furthermore, any disturbance of the trophic balance by
parasites within the colony (Lomechusini, for example) may, in cer-
tain types, produce pseudogynes and mermithergates as abnormal de-
partures from the typical caste pattern. The insertion of these social
parasites into the ant colony and their exploitation of a part of the
nutritive juices seems analogous, according to Wheeler, to the absorp-
tion of body juices by internal parasites of single metazoan animals
and their effects on life history seem similar (Wasmann, per Wheeler,
1928). On the contrary, certain intermediate forms like macrergates
are produced under exceptionally favorable conditions of nutrition.
Myrmecologists have been much confused over the problem of
caste regulation and differentiation, noting the sort of facts just men-
tioned, and yet feeling that most ants are so omnivorous in their food
habits that any sort of regularity of caste differentiation based on a
quantitative or qualitative nutrition basis is difficult to conceive. It
remained for Pickens (1932), Heath (1931), and Castle (1934) to
suggest the idea of inhibiting hormone secretion as an effective factor
in caste regulation. This was done for termites and will be described
later, but Robert Gregg (MSS., thesis) has used the concept in ex-
plaining results obtained in experimental colonies of the ant, Phezdole.
In colonies composed only of soldiers and larvae, the development of
further soldier forms was inhibited, while in controls composed of nor-
mal ratios or of workers only, soldiers continued to develop from the
undifferentiated brood. This type of observation and the hypothesis of
inhibiting hormone it implies helps to correlate some of the phenomena
of caste regulation and trophallactic behavior and is, of course, a per-
fect example of integration of supraorganismic structures through
chemically specific materials.
Among the circumstantial evidences for chemical integration one
of the best examples is in connection with the symphiles, or true
guests, which exist not only within ant colonies but also among ter-
mites. These guests, far removed taxonomically from their hosts, de-
pend for their continued existence on the integration of their chemical
exudates and odors with those of the social insect group. The species
specific relationships and the special structures such as trichomes, ex-
udatoria, or physogastric abdomens which are developed in many are
morphological indications of the importance of secretions in adapting
the guests to host tolerance and thus making the trophic and larval
resources of the colony available to them (Warren, 1919; Wheeler,
1928). It is important to note, too, that according to Wheeler, the
most specialized and numerous symphiles are to be encountered
among the most highly socialized species of ants and termites.
140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Among social insects the honey bee, Apis mellifera, appears to be
unique in its manner of colony founding and structure, new colonies
being started by a single fecundated queen and a number of her worker
daughters. The integrative mechanisms within the colony, however—
like those of ants—deal with recognition, communication, and caste
regulation.
Von Frisch (1927, 1938) seems to have the most complete de-
scriptions of the communicative systems in the colony and has con-
ducted numerous series of experiments which verify his observations.
In brief the system works like this: when scout bees, flying from the
hive and searching the surrounding area, locate nectar or pollen
sources, they return to the hive and stimulate other workers by the
so-called “dance” behavior; the nectar source is indicated by the
flower scent adhering to the scout bee’s body and also by scent-gland
odor left on the flower at the original visit by the scout bees. The
scent of dorsal glands of the worker bee is said to have an important
orienting effect in the field. The numbers of collecting bees partici-
pating at a given time is automatically regulated by the amount of
nectar available; as it diminishes the “dancing” stimulus decreases.
If different plants are blooming, the flowers with the sweetest nectar
cause the most vigorous “dancing.” In this food collecting activity
the essential factors in the integrative system are: 1) properties of the
bee’s body in absorbing specific odors; 2) the dorsal scent-gland; 3)
the ability of the bee to become conditioned to colors and odors; 4)
the nervous reaction which attracts attention in the hive.
Within the colony there are additional instances of the import-
ance of chemicals in the form of odors. According to Phillips (1928)
“every colony has a distinctive odor by which the bees recognize in-
dividuals from their own group, normally resenting the entrance to their
hive of those from other colonies.” Beekeepers in practice circumvent
this specific colony recognition and unite small colonies by obscuring
both colony odors with smoke. During egg laying, as the queen pro-
gresses over the comb, workers turn toward her when she gets within
about half an inch, and hence she is always surrounded by a crude
circle of workers facing inward. “This is probably a response to the
stimulus of odor.”
During cluster formation at swarming time the first bees to alight
expose the dorsal scent-gland and “it seems probable that the odor
which is emitted and dispersed attracts the flying bees to the cluster.”
In a large apiary where swarms are issuing frequently many swarms will
settle on one particular support. The .... explanation for this... is
that the support retains an odor acquired from contact with the swarm
which acts as an attraction to other bees in act of swarming. (Phillips)
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN INSECT SOCIETIES 141
But other authors suggest that sight and the convenience of the
support’s location may be playing a part in this phenomenon.
Von Buttel-Reepen (1900) ... . concludes that there are seven normal
odors which influence behavior in a colony: 1) an individual odor; 2)
an odor common to the offspring of one queen; 3) brood and larval food
odor; 4) drone odor; 5) wax odor; 6) honey odor; 7) hive odor, which
is part or combination of all the other odors. (Phillips)
McIndoo adds queen odor and pollen-carrier odor. It is com-
monly understood that a new queen cannot be safely liberated within
a colony until she has acquired the colony odor. These authors do not
mention any progressive alteration of the individual odors with age, as
was assumed for ants, but no doubt some changes could result through
changes in quantity of brood, honey, etc. The workings of such a
system within the bee and ant supraorganism remind one of the
phenomena of tissue specificities and immunity reactions in the or-
ganism.
In the regulation of castes within the colony, chemical materials
seem to be concerned. While the drone bee in its development seems
directed largely by genetic factors, the differentiation between fertile
queens and sterile workers appears to be environmentally induced. Bee
naturalists have long maintained that larvae which were fed royal
jelly throughout life became queens, whereas those deprived of the
jelly and fed only pollen and honey after the second day became
workers. Klein (1904) showed experimentally that the lability of
the larvae is lost as time proceeds. If a larva one and a half days old is
transferred from a worker cell to a queen cell (where it gets royal jelly
only) it becomes a “perfect queen.” Larvae transferred a day later are
‘not quite typical queens in structure. With larvae fed in worker cells
. four and one-half days a distinct approach to worker type was
obtained.
Royal jelly is said to be a salivary secretion (Nelson and Stute-
vant, 1924; Lineburg, 1924) although King (1933) maintains that the
evidence for this belief is incomplete; other glands, mandibular, thorac-
ic and post-cerebral may function during the time of larval feeding.
King, furthermore, failed to note any true trophallaxis between work-
ers and larvae; food and secretions were placed beside the larvae and
not given directly. But Lineburg indicates that with older larvae, at
least, the usual method of feeding is mouth to mouth and that reci-
procal feeding is not an impossibility. Recently, various biochemical
studies have been made on royal jelly in an effort to discover the
essential factor in production of queen characters. Haydak and Palm-
er (1940) state that royal jelly exhibits “vitamin B, activity .. . equal
to about nine gamma of thiamin chloride per gram of dry matter.”
142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
This is about one-third more than that found in “bee bread.” Hill
and Burdett (1932) suggested the presence of vitamin E in royal
jelly but Mason and Melampy (1936) could not confirm this. Heyl
(1939) advances the possibility that there is a gonadotropic hormone
present, as a result of the precocious development he saw in graafian
follicles of young mice which had received extracts of royal jelly. This
is an interesting suggestion in view of the recent discoveries of the
part played in insect physiology by hormones from corpora allata and
other cerebral tissues (Wigglesworth, 1939).
Some agent stimulating ovarian hypertrophy is clearly indicated
in the situation; the queen develops more rapidly after the third day
and emerges with well-developed ovaries, but morphologically more
degenerate than the worker in respect to head and tongue, wing, hind
leg, and salivary gland development. Ovaries of many social insects
(ants, bees, termites) are plastic organs which react with acceleration
or retardation to trophic stimuli early in larval life (Ezhikov, 1923).
The secretions of workers in the honey bee hive appear to have a
still further adaptive effect in connection with swarming. According to
Morland (1930) the production of brood food by recently emerged
nurse bees in excess of hive requirements stimulates building of queen
cells and subsequent swarming. Morland analogized the case to that
of excess “endocrine” in altering behavior of the organism. The brood-
food excess naturally occurs soon after the peak of spring egg laying
and, while it may be an important factor, numerous beekeepers have
found it necessary to consider also factors of temperature and crowd-
ing within the colony in an attempt to solve the problem of colony
budding.
Thus, among the bees, differential feeding appears to be an im-
portant regulatory and coordinating mechanism, although we cannot
yet specify in precise chemical terms the nature of the materials in-
volved.
The important coordinative effect of chemical materials in the
termite supraorganism may be encountered as one reviews the general
ontogeny and maintenance of colonies.
Soon after the alates swarm from a colony in their dispersal flight
they shed their wings, and an assorting of males and females into
pairs may be observed. The males are apparently attracted to fe-
males by odor. In Reticulitermes the sense organs for detecting the
odor seem to be located in the eighth to the tenth antennal segments
and the termite’s behavior depends on symmetrical stimulation of
these regions. Abnormal results (asymmetrical following) may be
produced by injury to these segments on one side of the male. Males
of Coptotermes appear to be able to orient to females three feet away
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN INSECT SOCIETIES 143
(Emerson, 1933). With Kalotermes tectonae the tandem behavior
seems not to have been observed; instead, when alighting the sexes
separately seek entrances in dead branches, there shed the wings, and
then take up a “typical calling attitude in which obviously a perfume is
spread . . . . Specimens of the other sex approaching the spot are
strongly attracted” (Kalshoven, 1930).
Such integration of behavior via odors extends from this early
beginning throughout the life of the colony. The medium of odor,
here as among ants, is a recognition and communication mechanism.
The chemical response can best be seen along trails of some of the
foraging species, where each individual “follows the one in front
through all the devious curves of the course, no matter whether several
feet of space may separate them” (Emerson, 1929). Furthermore,
in a migrating colony of Nasutitermes costalis the termites were ac-
companied by seven species of termitophiles, apparently responding to
odor factors within the colony. Andrews (1911) in observing Exter-
mes ripperti (?) in Jamaica, noted certain reactions that indicated
the existence of special colony odors. The movements of a single
termite on a floor were random, but when several were present they
soon followed in trailing fashion. Old trails were not followed as rapid-
ly as recent ones. New objects, such as a sheet of paper across an
established trail, caused interruption of the termite traffic. Likewise,
the scraping-off of the surface of a board—along which a trail ran—
stopped for a time the stream of termite travelers.
Individuals removed from one colony and introduced into another
were usually killed or mutilated, although very young individuals were
said to be an exception to this practice. Termites washed in water
were given an abnormal reception by their own colonies and also by
alien colonies, but were not always attacked. Specimens dipped in
washings from many alien termites were apparently received as aliens
in their home communities and as fellows in the alien colonies! An-
drews noted considerable variation in the response between alien col-
onies; he does not state quite clearly whether he was comparing other
species with E. ripperti or just different colonies of the one type. Nev-
ertheless, there seems to be ample evidence of the part played by vol-
atile chemicals in binding together individuals of each colony. But the
colony odors seem to be easily obscured; Victor Dropkin and others
have been able to mix different species and genera of Kalotermitidae
by treating both with anesthetic or by introducing both to new, neu-
tral substrata.
_ The young nymphs which first hatch in the incipent colony are
unable to utilize wood at once and must be fed by secretions from
the parents (Pickens, in Kofoid et al., 1934). Neither wood par-
144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ticles nor protozoa are present until the second or third instar; in
Prorhinotermes simplex occasional second instar individuals are found
with protozoa in the hind gut, but these do not seem to be common.
Even after utilization of wood begins on the part of young nymphs
the reception of various secretions from the reproductives continues
and the reciprocation in secretions begins, so that a tightly con-
structed system of trophallaxis is established. The theoretical and
actual effects of this exchange of secretions seem quite numerous.
On the one hand, the feeding of the reproductives by the nymphs
(“workers”) facilitates especially the general nutrition of the queen,
aids hyperthrophy of her ovaries, and reduces her to complete de-
pendence on her offspring because of the gradual degeneration of her
mandibular muscles. According to Kalshoven the number of eggs
laid by the queen increases with the growth (and presumably the
nutritive contributions) of the colony. (This is in line with Pricer’s
observations on the ant, (Camponotus.)
On the other hand, certain secretions from the reproductives
influence the development of nymphs of the colony. This idea was
first specifically verbalized by Heath( 1907, 1931) and Pickens
(1932) although practically implied years ago in the findings of
Grassi and Sandias (1896-97) and in the studies by Jucci (1926).
Satisfactory experimental evidence was then collected by Castle
(1934). Welding together the pertinent contributions of these var-
ious workers we seem to have the following picture: the presence of
functional reproductives of either frist, second, or third forms inhibits
the reproductive potentialities of all nymphs which receive in ef-
fective dose certain secretions from the reproductives. The secre-
tions are sex specific, see mto be of the nature of hormones, may be
extracted from the reproductives by alcohol or ether, and are effective
when fed orally via filter paper (in Zootermopsis at least). It is
possible that the hormones originate in the corpora allata and are
transferred, via the haemolymph, to the fat bodies and hypodermis,
where they are picked up by nymphs grooming the reproductives
(Light, Hartman, O. H. Emerson, unpublished MSS). Obviously,
as the population of the colony grows larger the grooming opportuni-
ties by each nymph (hence hormone dosages) grow less, and so some
nymphs may push on to reproductive, and sometimes winged, develop-
ment. Not only does the removal of functional reproductives from
experimental colonies allow the development of supplementary re-
productives, but in nature large colonies may possess more than one
pair of functional reproductives (Grassi; Heath, Harvey, in Kofoid
et al., 1934). Frequently the extra supplemental pairs are at some
CHEMICAL INTEGRATIVE MECHANISMS IN INSECT SOCIETIES 145
distance from the heart of the original colony and the original re-
productives.
This situation reminds one of that noted by Witchi (in E. Allen,
1932) in his studies on parabiotically-twinned frogs. A “sphere of
influence” decreasing in effect with distance from the center ap-
peared to exist around the developing gonads, and if the gonads of the
sex slower in development (female) lay within this sphere of in-
fluence their normal direction of development was altered or in-
hibited.
But this regulative effect is not confined to the reproductives.
There are indications in Castle’s work that soldiers, likewise, exert an
inhibiting effect on the development of soldier potentialities in the
undifferentiated nymphs. The evidence for this is not yet as clean-
cut, however. Soldiers continue to develop in the new colony, even
after the appearance of the first, and in small laboratory groups of
Prorhinotermes the presence of a few soldiers does not absolutely
inhibit the development of others. In the latter care, however, it may
be that the original ratio of soldiers to nymphs was too low to obtain
observable inhibition. A tendency towards regulation of soldier-
worker ratio seems to exist in various species: in Kalotermes flavicollis
the ratio was about 1:5-6; in K. tectonae about 1:10, in Prorhino-
termes simplex about 1:3.5-4. But the “sphere of inhibition” exerted
by soldiers would seem to be more restricted than in case of reproduc-
tives, or else there are other factors involved. Grassi noted that if
too large a number of soldiers were added to a nest many were
killed or eaten. In my observation, they simply may be neglected
and starve. !
Thus there appears in the literature ample suggestion of a
chemical integrative system as important in the ontogeny and be-
havior of the social insect colony (the supraorganism) as is the
hormone system to a vertebrate individual, and having in some cases,
perhaps, certain analogous characteristics. Now the most necessary
observations that need tob e made center around chemical analysis of
the regulative substances that seem to exist. It is of interest, also,
to know whether such hormones as postulated by Castle are species
specific.
Further study of coordination mechanisms in all animal group-
ings should be encouraged in order to enlarge our philosophical un-
derstanding and to suggest principles for human social organization.
An understanding of insect social organization is of interest to us
humans who have just begun our evolutionary history, comparatively
speaking, and who have a long way to go in the matter of group in-
tegration.
146 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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‘SOLUTION A DOMINANT FACTOR IN THE
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR
FLORIDA
SIDNEY A. STUBBS
Florida Geological Survey
Through the eyes of the geomorphologist, Florida is nearly level
when compared with many other sections of the United States. The
highest measured elevation in Peninsular Florida, Iron Mountain on
the property of the Mountain Lake Corporation, near Lake Wales, is
only 324.3 feet above sea level. Higher elevations are claimed for
some nearby hills but no accurate figures are available. By the stand-
ards of many parts of the country this is indeed a very low hill. This
stress on slight elevations and flat topography has been carried through
various text books and popular publications into all parts of the coun-
try. Even today there are millions of people who picture Florida as a
flat plain broken by swamps and lakes that are teeming with alliga-
tors, exotic birds and a profusion of tropical plants. To those who
live in Florida, or have visited it, the above is an entirely erroneous
picture.
Cooke* has designated five main physiographic divisions for the
State: the Coastal Lowlands, the Central Highlands, the Tallahassee
Hills, the Marianna Lowlands, and the Western Highlands.
The Coastal Lowlands border the entire state as a belt around the
coast from the Georgia line at the St. Mary’s River to the Alabama
line at the Perdido River. For the most part elevations in this division
are well below 100 feet and Cooke’ states that the inner edge generally
lies at the 100 foot contour. The Central Highlands is that part of
the State familiarly known as “The Ridge.” It is a conspicuous fea-
ture from the Georgia line south to just below Lake Istokpoga where
it drops abruptly into the Coastal Lowlands. The Tallahassee Hills
adjoins the Central Highlands to the west and extends to the Apalachi-
cola River. ‘The Marianna Lowlands extends westward from the
Apalachicola River in a roughly quadrilateral area in Holmes, Jack-
son and Washington Counties. The Western Highlands division bor-
ders the western edge of the Marianna Lowlands and extends west-
ward to the Perdido River. A narrow belt bordering the Marianna
Lowlands to the Apalachicola River is also referred to the Western
Highlands. The Central Highlands and the Tallahassee Hills are sim-
*C. Wythe Cooke, Scenery of Florida (Fla. Geological Survey, Bull. No. 17,
1939), p. 14.
*Ibid., p. 15.
148
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 149
ilar geologically and topographically. In this paper the discussion will
largely be confined to these two areas.
Anyone driving south from Lake City to the southern tip of the
Central Highlands through Gainesville, Ocala, Leesburg, Groveland or
Orlando and Polk County is impressed by the dissected topography
and the large number of lakes. Yet streams, which are usually the
foremost agent in producing such dissected topography, are conspicu-
ously absent. If one goes south through Orlando he crosses only one
stream of any consequence, the Santa Fe River just north of High
Springs. In going south through Groveland toward Lakeland, the
Santa Fe River and the upper reaches of the Withlacoochee just north
of Eva are crossed. Since it is obvious that surface streams are play-
ing small part in shaping the landscape, we must wonder, then, what
forces have carved the numerous valleys we traverse.
TABLE 1
GEOLOGIC FoRMATIONS OF FLORIDA
Age Formation Lithologic Character
Terrace Deposits Sands, pure and argillaceous,
non-calcareous.
Melbourne Bone Bed Sands, clays, carbonaceous
material.
Pleistocene Ft. Thompson Indurated shell marl, quite
Formation sandy.
Probably
Anastasia time {Coquina.
Formation equiva-
Miami Oolite lents | Very sandy, oolitic limestone.
Key Largo
Limestone Almost entirely coral.
Pliocene (?) Charlton Formation Sandy marls, impure lime-
stone, and clays. Known only
along the St. Mary’s River.
Alachua Hard rock phosphate, sand,
clay.
Bone Valley Gravel Pebble phosphate.
Citronelle Formation Sands, gravels and very
argillaceous sands.
Pliocene Caloosahatchee Probably} Highly fossiliferous, sandy,
Marl time j|shell marl.
equiva-
Tamiami lents |Sandy, impure limestone
Limestone (indurated marl).
150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Age
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Alum Bluff Group
=
TABLE 1—(Continued)
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF FLORIDA
Formation
Buckingham
Limestone Probably
time
Choctawhatchee equiva-
Marl lents
Shoal River Formation
Oak Grove Sand
Chipola Formation
Hawthorn Formation (In part
equivalent to Oak Grove and
Chipola Formation)
Tampa Limestone
Suwannee Limestone
Byram Marl
Glendon Limestone
Marianna Limestone
Ocala Limestone
Coskinolina Zone*,t
Dictyoconus Zone*
Borelis Zone*
Lithologic Character
Impure limestone known only
from the vicinity of Buck-
ingham, Lee County.
Highly fossiliferous marls
and clay; in places quite
sandy.
Sandy shell marls.
Sandy shell marls.
Shell marl, indurated marl
and impure limestone.
Highly phosphatic sands,
clays, marls and sandy lime-
stone.
Limestone, very irregular and
nodular in character; in
places containing much silica.
Limestone very similar to the
Tampa Limestone but high in
magnesium in places.
Cream colored to _ yellow
sandy limestone.
Yellow, impure, fossiliferous
limestone.
Usually pure, white, soft
limestone.
Pure, cream to white lime-
stone. Texture variable, very
hard to very soft. Almost
never crystalline.
Cream to brown, often dolo-
mitic, in places hard and
crystalline limestone. Gypsum
crystals present.
Like the Coskinolina Zone
but more dolomitic and large-
ly recrystallized by solution.
Gypsum crystals common.
White, buff, and brown, us-
ually hard, fine grained lime-
stone. Sometimes chalky; of-
ten recrystallized; frequently
gypsiferous; some anhydrite.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 151
TABLE 1.—(Continued)
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF FLORIDA
Age
Upper
Cretaceous*
Formation Lithologic Character
Ripley/Selma White to gray, fossiliferous
chalk. Lower part marl,
shales and sands.
Eutaw Clays, sandstones, micaceous
shales.
Tuscaloosa Clays, shales, sandstone.
Shales reddish to very dark.
Middle
Cretaceous*
Older Forma-
tions*
Reported in two wells in Florida. See:
Robert B. Campbell, “Deep Test in Florida Everglades,”
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., Vol. 23, (1939) pp.
1713-1714.
— “Outline of the Geological History of Peninsular
Florida,” Proc. Florida Academy of Sciences, Vol. 4, (1940)
pp. 95-97.
Black shale, metamorphic and igneous rocks. The age of
these has not been settled. See:
Herman Gunter, “Basement Rocks Encountered in a Well in
Florida,” Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., Vol. 12,
(1928) pp. 1107-1108.
C. Wythe Cooke and Stuart Mossom, ‘Geology of Florida,”
Florida Geological Survey Twentieth Annual Report, (1929)
pp. 44-45.
Robert B. Campbell, Op. Cit. pp. 91-96
— — — “Paleozoic under Florida?” Amer. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists Bull., Vol. 23, (1939) pp. 1712-1713.
Not recognized in Peninsular Florida.
*Not exposed at surface in Florida.
tIn this paper the term Coskinolina Zone is retained although
the author realizes that revision of the name applied to this
zone is necessary. At present, however, there are not sufficient
data available to satisfactorily revise this terminology and it
seems desirable to retain the old name rather than clutter the
literature with new names.
A brief review of the geologic formations of Florida will make
the following discussion clearer. During the geologic past Florida has
152. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stood below the level of the sea many times and during those periods
the sediments making up the various formations were accumulated.
Table 1 has been compiled from recent literature and_ rec-
ords in the office of the Florida Geological Survey. This
table brings up to date all information on the geologic formations
known to be present in Florida. From the table it can be seen that
throughout much of pre-Tertiary and all early Tertiary history, the
sediments deposited were high in calcium carbonate, the mineral con-
stituent of pure limestone. Two factors largely account for this condi-
tion. The source material for sedimentary rocks was far to the north
and only those materials held in solution by the sea water would be
carried as far south as Florida to be deposited. Calcium, which is
precipitated as calcium carbonate, is the most plentiful mineral carried
in that manner. The early Tertiary seas of Florida being warm and
shallow were conducive to the deposition of lime. This lime with the
addition of millions of tests of various marine invertebrates, which
are also of calcium carbonate, formed hundreds of feet of almost pure
limestone. During later Tertiary times the sediments were less cal-
careous but still contained a high percentage of lime. It is only in the
last geologic period, the Pleistocene, that we find an absence of calcium
in the sediments of the central part of the state. These sediments are
largely unconsolidated sands that freely absorb all the rain that falls
on them.
The thickness of the limestone deposits of Florida has been de-
termined in a number of deep wells that have been drilled as tests for
oil in various parts of the state. In a well drilled to a depth of
6,180 feet near York in Marion County, there are 3,370 feet of lime-
stones. In Nassau County there is a 3,170 foot section of limestones
shown in a well drilled there. In a recently completed well carried to
a depth of 10,006 feet in northeast Monroe County, 9,550 feet of
limestones were encountered and the drill was still in a calcareous for-
mation when the well was abandoned.
All limestones are soluble to some degree in ordinary ground wat-
ers. The solubility depends upon the hardness of the limestone, the
permeability of the rock and the degree to which the ground water is
charged with acids. The various acids present in the ground water
that tend to dissolve the limestone are largely derived from the de-
composition of organic matter, principally vegetable. In a warm, damp
climate, organic matter decomposes rapidly. The profuse flora of
Florida, part of which is dying at all times, thus daily liberates an
enormous amount of acid-forming gases. Carbonic acid (H2COs3) is
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 153
the most active agent in the solution of limestone. This acid forms
and reacts as follows:
H,O + CO, oe H,CO2
Water Carbon Dioxide Carbonic Acid
H,CO. + CaCO. = Ca(HCO.)o
Carbonic Acid Calcium Calcium Bicarbonate
Carbonate
(Limestone)
Pure water dissolves calcium carbonate in a ratio of about 1 part in
30,000 by weight. In waters carrying dissolved COs, however, the
carbonate is changed to the bicarbonate as shown in the above formu-
la. The bicarbonate is about 7 times as soluble as the carbonate. In
addition ground waters probably contain small amounts of acetic acid
and propionic acid derived from the decomposition of certain plants.
Acetic is a particularly active acid and may play an important part in
the solution process. Decaying organic matter also yields considerable
hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Since this gas is slightly soluble in water,
large quantities eventually reach the underground formations. These
same waters carry varying amounts of free oxygen and this may oxidize
the HS thus forming sulphurous acid (H2SO3), which would act as a
solvent for the limestone in the following manner:
Hydrogen Sulphurous
Sulphide Acid
2 H,SO. + CaCO. = Ca(HSO,), + HCO,
Sulphurous Calcium Calcium Carbonic
Acid Carbonate Bisulphite Acid
(Limestone)
Acid-charged ground waters are therefore continuously entering
our limestones, and part of the limestone is being carried away by
these same waters which are eventually discharged through springs.
These springs are found both on the land and in the ocean at varying
distances from the coast. One of the best known submarine springs
along the Florida coast is the large spring just off shore from Crescent
Beach, St. Johns County. It has been reported that in the days of
sailing vessels boats would put in at some of these marine springs to
replenish their fresh water supply. The Florida Geological Survey
has, however, been unable to obtain a sample of fresh water from
these springs.
The importance of solution was recognized by Sellards* in the first
bulletin published by the Florida Geological Survey. He listed seven
°E. H. Sellards, A Preliminary Report on the Underground Water Supply of
Central Florida, (Fla. Geological Survey Bull. No. 1, 1908), pp. 46-57.
154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
springs and gave the amounts of solids removed by each per day. On
the basis of an estimated annual intake and outflow of waters in the
limestone formations, he estimated that the general surface of Florida
was being lowered at the rate of about one foot each five or six
thousand years.
The chemical load carried by various springs in the State reaches
a staggering figure. It is true that such data are more qualitative than
quantitative because of the many variables involved; but the figures il-
lustrate the erosional force of percolating ground waters. In
Table 2, the chemical load of various Florida springs or
spring systems has been computed from the figures collected
by the United States Geological Survey and the Florida Geological Sur-
vey. All of this chemical load was picked up by ground waters from
the rock and soil through which it passed, and nearly all of this mate-
rial is being carried directly into the ocean. The load shown by these
figures is based entirely upon solids carried in solution. In addition,
underground waters carry a load of undissolved solids that are directly
resultant from solution activity. Limestones dissolve unevenly and
produce a honeycombed rock. In places the solid portions of such rocks
are very thin, and in underground streams and near spring outlets
portions of undissolved rock are carried away by the freely moving
waters. This action adds considerably to the erosion effects of solu-
tion. It is therefore evident that even though no other processes were
involved, the degradation action of percolating ground waters would
alone be sufficient to greatly modify the surface of the earth.
Reference has previously been made to the fact that all present
land surfaces of peninsular Florida were at one time the ocean floor,
which was essentially flat. When this floor was elevated above sea
level the land surface formed was a flat one. This surface has since
been modified by weathering processes and structural deformation.
Ordinarily we think of weathering as a phenomenon taking place on
the surface of the earth. Normal topography is developed by, the ac-
tion of surface streams, winds, ice and waves tearing down and carry-
ing away the surface material. All of these have played their part in
shaping the surface of Florida; but these factors have been subordinate
to underground solution. The entire region designated as the Central
Highlands is a striking example of solution topography.
The first step in the modification of the landscape by solution
activity is the formation of a sinkhole. In an area where the limestone
is exposed, this is evidenced on the surface by a straight-sided, round,
chimney-like depression. In a region where the limestone is covered
by a thickness of sand and other unconsolidated sediments the sink-
hole assumes the shape of a large funnel with rather steeply sloping
155
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA
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156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sides. The mechanics of sinkhole formation is simple. As mentioned
above, moving ground waters are continuously carrying away a small
portion of the limestone. This solution activity is most pronounced
in the softer rock because the soft rocks are much more permeable
and therefore a greater volume of water is moving through the rock.
The hard rocks may contain more pore spaces but the transmissibility
is low and solution is slower. Inasmuch as no limestone bed is uniform
in hardness and density, certain portions are more susceptible to solu-
tion than others and these portions are dissolved more rapidly. In
time an underground cave or channel is formed. For a long time the
roof of this underground channel or cavern is strong enough to sup-
port the overlying load; eventually however, the roof is dissolved
away to such an extent that it becomes too weak to carry the load and
collapses. This is evidenced on the surface by a sinkhole.
If the sink is deep enough to reach below the zone of saturation, it
will be water-filled and in time it may be enlarged to lake size. All
the lakes through the ridge section of peninsular Florida are of sink-
hole origin. Even the largest lakes such as Orange Lake in Alachua
County, Lake Apopka in Orange County, Lake Iamonia in Leon
County, Lake Weir in Marion County and Alligator Lake in Columbia
County, are essentially of sinkhole origin.
The formation of these lakes was complex, many weathering
agents contributing, but there is no doubt that underground solution
was the dominant factor. Each of these lakes originally consisted of
one or more sinkholes. Surface waters flowed into these sinks and in
time a surface stream probably formed. This stream may have event-
ually connected with another sink or a stream leading into another
sink. After a long time these two streams, or one stream as the case
may have been, cut down to a depth where the two sinks were con-
nected and an elongated lake was formed. This might conceivably in-
volve a number of sinks situated rather closely together thus form-
ing a large lake with several arms. At the same time, the increased
flow of surface waters into the sink would accelerate the solution of
the limestone into which they were flowing. This increased solution
activity would cause the formation of many sinkholes in that limited
area and greatly extend the size of the original lake.
The famous disappearing lakes of Florida were formed in such a
manner. These disappearing lakes are all without surface drainage,
but drain through one or more sinks directly into the underlying
limestone. The mechanics of the disappearance of these large bodies
of water is of interest. The bottoms of the lakes stand below the
ground water table during normal and rainy seasons. In excessively dry
seasons the permanent ground water level drops perceptibly. At first
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 7
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 159
FIG. 2 STAGES 1 THE FORMATION OF A SOLUTION LAKE BASIN
160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the lowering of the lake level is not noticeable. As the lakes become
contracted in size, however, the drop in the lake level becomes in-
creasingly more noticeable until in the last stages it seems to dis-
appear overnight. One of the best known of these capricious lakes is
Lake Iamonia north of Tallahassee.
In times past Payne’s Prairie just south of Gainesville was such a
lake. Until 1891 a river steamer did a thriving business carrying
freight on Alachua Lake from Gainesville to Orange Lake. Disappear-
ing lakes such as this operate somewhat differently from lakes such
as Iamonia. The floor of this type of lake is above the permanent
ground-water table. If the sink through which the area is drained
becomes plugged, the waters back up and form a lake until such a
time as the plug may break and allow the water to be drained nor-
mally. In the beginning, however, these lakes probably operated in
the same manner as Lake Iamonia, but a permanent lowering of the
ground-water table has brought about the present condition.
We ordinarily think of solution as taking place at and above the
permanent ground-water table. Whether or not this is true is subject to
some debate. Davis* has written a rather extensive paper attempting to
point out that the very nature of vadose waters is not conducive to
extensive solution of limestone to form caverns. The majority of
writers have, however, held to the first mentioned premise. In truth
it would seem that caverns are formed both above and within the
zone of saturation. Percolating waters move downward rapidly above
the zone of saturation and then are slowed and diverted laterally at
that point. This being true the most active solution should be at this
point. We must remember, however, that in Florida our underground
waters are in motion, even though this motion is slow, and that the
water will dissolve the rock through which it is passing. It is there-
fore reasonable to believe that solution is taking place throughout
the limestone section to the depth, if such depth exists, at which the
waters are stagnant. It is even reasonable to believe that the solu-
tion by volume is greater within the zone of saturation than above,
because the waters are moving slowly and therefore act more com-
pletely on the limestone.
When considering the action of underground waters as an agent
in shaping and lowering the general surface level, we must also re-
member that the surface formation in Florida during the geologic
past has been different at various times. It is known that the Ocala
limestone was raised above water and extensively eroded before the
deposition of the younger formations. The same may be said of almost
4W. M. Davis, “Origin of Limestone Caverns,’ Bull. Geol. Soc. of Amer.,
Vol. 41 (1930), pp. 475-628.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 161
all the formations of different ages now exposed in the State and in
my opinion the same is true for older buried deposits. During these
periods of emergence the limestone formations were being acted upon
by surface waters and solution was taking place. In the case of the
Ocala limestone a much larger area was exposed above sea level
than is exposed now. Large limestone springs and sinks developed.
Solution channels were formed. During the time of the next submer-
gence and emergence cycle the surface sinks and perhaps some of
the superficial underground channels were filled, but the deeper of
these remained open and their development continued throughout
the succeeding geologic ages.
The Pleistocene period is considered a period of greatly accel-
erated solution activity in Florida. With the formation of the great
polar ice sheets enormous volumes of water were withdrawn from
the sea and the sea level dropped several hundred feet
below the present level. In contrast the highest exposed land stood
far above the present maximum elevation. This condition allowed the
formation of extensive systems of solution channels and caves in the
limestone. When the sea again rose, these channels and caves were
flooded by an elevated ground-water table and became underground
rivers.
Unfortunately the entire peninsula of Florida has not been
mapped topographically. Topographic sheets are available, however,
for most of the area in which the Ocala limestone is exposed. A critical
examination of these sheets will show many interesting solution
features and some of these deserve special mention. On the Arredonda
sheet, which includes Gainesville and vicinity, a number of lakes and
prairies are shown. Payne’s Prairie is the most conspicuous feature on
the sheet. The history of this prairie has already been discussed.
Sanchez Prairie, which is very similar to Payne’s Prairie, is partially
shown in the northwest corner of the sheet. This prairie stands about
forty feet higher than Payne’s Prairie and may be somewhat older. Its
floor is largely sandy loam and for many years much of it has been
farmed. Muck soils are absent. This would indicate that Sanchez,
unlike Payne’s Prairie, was never a lake, at least for any length of
time. The lowering of the area was accomplished in a like manner but
drainage underground has been continuous.
Hogtown Creek draining into a sink at the southwest corner of
Hogtown Prairie very clearly illustrates the manner in which a
stream will develop from a sink. Hogtown Prairie with Lake Kanapaha
adjoining it to the south is a sinkhole basin. The sink into which Hog-
town Creek drains also drains Hogtown Prairie and Lake Kanapaha.
Hogtown Creek is the largest stream that has developed from the
162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
sink, but there is a short unnamed creek cutting almost due north,
and wet-weather drainage is developed into the sink from the west.
That last-mentioned arm is cutting toward a sink about three miles
away and will probably eventually connect the two basins. Hogtown
Creek has developed a rather steep valley to the northeast and a trib-
utary of the creek has cut a similar valley northwestward. This arm
is working toward the headwaters of Blues Creek which drains into
a sink in Sanchez Prairie. In time this arm will probably capture the
headwaters of Blues Creek and ultimately divert the drainage of
that higher area into Hogtown Prairie. Hogtown Creek proper has
now worked back to the vicinity of Paradise.
The Ocala and Williston sheets both show the extent to which
small sinkholes have influenced the topography in regions of exposed
limestones in the State. With the exception of very short streams
draining into sinks, the Williston sheet shows no surface drainage.
The terrain, however, is rugged, having elevations ranging from 170
feet above sea level to less than 60 feet above sea level. The Ocala
sheet shows a similar condition. The famous Silver Springs in the ex-
treme eastern portion of the area has given rise to the only large sur-
face stream. Elevations in the area covered by the Ocala sheet range
from 180 feet above sea level to less than 60 feet above sea level. A
total of 397 sinkhole basins is shown on the Ocala sheet. These basins
range from very small, typical sinkholes to large depressions formed
by the connection of several sinks.
The famous limestone springs of the State, of which Silver Springs
is the largest, if not the largest of its kind in the world, are solution
phenomena. The flow of these springs usually issues from a number
of sinkholes of the round chimney type. Cooke® has explained these
springs as being sinkholes of rather recent origin the mouths of which
lie below the present artesian water level or piezometric surface.
The Tsala Apopka and Panasoffkee sheets illustrate a peculiar
type of solution topography. In the vicinity of Tsala Apopka and
Panasoffkee lakes, the piezometric or artesian water level stands be-
tween 30:and 40 feet above sea level. The Withlacoochee River drains
the surface waters of that area, and has cut down to below 40 feet on
the eastern side of Tsala Apopka Lake. This necessarily means that
springs have developed in the river and that in that area underground
solution has been greatly accelerated. This has led to the formation of
a chain of sinkhole depressions of various sizes, all of which reach
below permanent water level. The myriad of islands noted in Tsala
Apopka Lake are portions of the old land surface left standing as the
surrounding land has been lowered by underground solution.
°Op. cit., pp. 88-89.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 163
FIG. 2. PORTION OF THE INTERLAT HE HOW
© QUADRANGLE ‘5
LARGE NUMBER OF SINKHOLE SAKES "
164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Interlachen Quadrangle illustrates the nature of sink de-
pressions in a region where the limestone is covered by a considerable
thickness of sands and clays. The surface formations in the Interlachen
area are sands and slightly argillaceous sands. These are underlain by
the clays, marls and limestones of the Hawthorn Formation. Under
such conditions the ground-water level lies near the surface of the
ground and is above the artesian water beds which are confined be-
low the clays and marls of the Hawthorn Formation. This water line
conforms roughly to the general contour of the land. We therefore
find that nearly all the sinkhole depressions of such an area will
form a lake. On the western half of the Interlachen sheet 298 lakes
of all sizes are shown that are definitely of sinkhole origin. These
lakes and the conditions shown on that portion of the Interlachen
sheet are very similar to those of Orange, Polk, Lake, Highlands,
and the southern part of Marion Counties.
Striking examples of the effectiveness of underground solution
as an agency in shaping the surface features are to be noted in other
parts of the State. Between Greenville and Madison and to a lesser
degree from Madison to the Suwannee River the land is predomi-
nantly rolling. The valleys are relatively deep with sloping sides and
the hill tops are usually quite flat. This same character of topo-
graphy extends northward for some distance and southward to the
Gulf Coastal lowlands near Perry. A few small surface streams have
been developed, but most of the area is drained underground. Appar-
ently this whole area has been shaped by underground streams that
empty into the Suwannee and Aucilla Rivers.
Similar topographic features are to be seen between Wellborn
and Lake City. There are numerous steep-sided sinkholes, lakes and
round bowl-shaped valleys in this vicinity. A particularly noticeable
feature is a rather large dry lake about 5 miles west of Lake City. This
is part of a solution basin that extends over a rather large area and is
roughly elongate north and south. In times of very high water in the
Suwannee River this area has been known to be flooded by waters
backing up from the river.
The Santa Fe River which rises in Santa Fe Lake and empties
into the Suwannee River south of Branford traverses an area that has
been greatly modified by the action of underground waters. At Alachua
Sink this river leaves its surface channel and continues for some
distance through a tortuous underground course. The path of this
stream underground can be clearly traced by a series of natural
bridges shown on aerial photographs by a succession of sinkholes.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 165
There are numerous large springs feeding into the river from Santa Fe
Sink until it empties into the Suwannee River.
Many of these springs have developed channels and now form
short streams. The Itchatucknee River emptying into the Santa Fe
River just south of Hildreth is entirely a spring-fed river. Its head is
Itchatucknee Springs, the third largest measured spring in Florida.
All along the course of the stream, however, there are large and small
springs feeding into it. This river is probably the surface expression
of a longer underground stream. It has developed by a successive
cutting back through the formation of sinkholes and large springs
along its course. There is some evidence that at one time the Itchatuck-
nee may have extended farther north, and that this northward ex-
tension went underground some distance above the present spring.
If this is true the drying up of this more northern stream may be ac-
counted for by a drop in the permanent artesian head of the waters in
that area. There is considerable evidence that such must have occurred
in the case of some short tributaries of the Santa Fe just west of High
Springs. There are two very distinct stream channels, now dry, in that
area. These were spring-fed and the old spring mouths are still clearly
evident, but the artesian head has now dropped too low for these
springs to flow.
The surface features of Lake County, the western half of Orange
County, and much of Seminole County are the result of underground
drainage and solution. This part of Florida is justly proud of its
numerous lakes. These lakes are apparently all of sinkhole origin.
Numerous round sinkhole basins are to be noted. One of the most strik-
ing of these is passed through just east of Mount Dora on the road
leading to Sanford. The floor of this basin is almost flat. In general
outline it is almost circular and its sides are quite abrupt. The de-
velopment of a similar basin may be noted on the southern outskirts
of Apopka. Here there are two sinkholes so closely adjacent that
they have coalesced to form one large circular depression. One of the
sinks extends slightly deeper than the other and is a very small per-
manent lake. The other is a lake only during wet weather. Lake
Jessup, now an arm of the St. Johns River in Seminole County is
one of the most eastern of the large sinkhole lakes in this area. The
sink character of this lake has been determined by a study of deep
wells along its shore. The amount of casing necessary to penetrate the
Ocala limestone abruptly increases very greatly around the shores
of the lake. A dry basin that was in the past a similar lake is the
Slavia drainage district just south of Oviedo in Seminole County.
166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The lake region of Polk and Highlands Counties is similar to that
of Orange, Lake and Seminole Counties, but here the covering of sandy
materials is greater and the sinkholes seem to be much deeper. Some
of these sinks extend to almost incredible depths below the surface.
In one well drilled just north of Haines City, casing was carried to
a depth of 900 feet without penetrating limestone. Ordinarily the
wells in that area have less than 400 feet of casing. The ground ele-
vation at the well probably does not exceed 175 feet. The sinkhole,
therefore, extends to at least 725 feet below sea level and perhaps to
a much greater depth.
Many of the sinks in the Polk County section are not evident
on the surface. This is due to the fact that there is a much greater
covering of loose material and the sides of the sinks have rapidly
caved. This coupled with the fact that these sediments are easily
transported by weak winds has tended to cover many of the smaller
sinks in a short time. One of the most striking of these deep, funnel-
shaped, sinkhole lakes of this area is situated at the southern out-
skirts of Haines City. From a rather high elevation, the sides slope
very abruptly down for over 100 feet. The road from Haines City
to Lake Wales goes through this sink.
In the coastal areas the effect of solution upon the topography
is not as pronounced as in the higher lands. These areas have only
recently been elevated, and the effect of the planing action of waves,
to which they have recently been subjected, is the most pronounced
surface feature. The nature of the sediments, however, is conducive
to very rapid solution and the results of such action are already evi-
dent. This is particularly true in the region from Brevard County
northward. The surface formation is usually unconsolidated sands
and immediately below these sands there is a considerable thickness
of sandy, highly fossiliferous shell marls. Rain water is readily ab-
sorbed by these sands and marls and as readily given up wherever the
marls outcrop, particularly along the St. Johns River. This means
that there is a free movement of water through the formations and that
the shell material is being carried away rapidly. In some places shell
material constitutes as much as 75 per cent of the formation. Where
this is true sinkholes are likely to form frequently. Many sinkhole
lakes and depressions are to be seen between Sanford and Palatka
and much of the relief in Volusia and Putnam counties is attribut-
able to solution. Relic dunes and bars are the only other conspicuous
surface features. Surface erosion has as yet played little part in shap-
ing the land of this area.
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF PENINSULAR FLORIDA 167
From Lake Okeechobee southward through the Everglades and
along the East Coast from Ft. Lauderdale into the Keys, pot holes
are a conspicuous surface feature. A pot hole is a solution feature, but
differs from a sinkhole in that the solution action is taking place on
the surface. These are usually rounded, sharp-sided depressions varying
in size. The formation of pot holes depends upon the formation ex-
posed on the surface. In the Everglades this formation is the Tami-
ami limestone or the Caloosahatchee marl which in that area is usu-
ally indurated and very similar to the Tamiami limestone. Along the
East Coast, the exposed formation is the Miami Oolite and in the
Keys the Key Largo limestone. These formations are all irregular in
character and present an uneven surface. Rainwater that is not imme-
diately absorbed by the rocks accumulates in the depressions. These
small pools of water take minute amounts of the rock into solution and
when the water is finally absorbed by the formation the depression
has been deepened by that amount. The extremely high rainfall of
southern Florida and the rank vegetation combine to hasten the form-
ation of these depressions. A counterpart of these pot holes can be
seen in the quarries in Central Florida where the Ocala limestone is
being mined. The pot holes in these quarries formed during some
past geologic age and have since filled with sand and clay. This clay
must be cleaned out ahead of quarry operations, and in some places
the number of such clay pockets has been so great that the expense
of cleaning these pockets has forced the operators to abandon the
quarry.
From the preceding it is evident that in humid regions where
the geologic formations are predominantly calcareous, many of the
surface features are attributable to solution activity. This is strikingly
true in Florida. Other physiographic features have received more
detailed treatment by the various workers who have written on the
geomorphology of the State. They are, however, more evident to the
trained than to the average observer. Those features that strike the
layman are almost entirely the result of ie action of percolating
waters and underground solution.
HEAVY MINERALS IN THE BEACH SANDS OF
: FLORIDA
WILLARD B. PHELPS
University of Tampa
The work of analyzing the beach sands of Florida for their heavy
mineral content has been undertaken by the Department of Geology
at the University of Tampa as a part of their research program. This
project is a continuation of J. H. C. Martens’ work on heavy minerals
of Florida (which appeared in the Nineteenth Annual Report of the
Florida State Geological Survey in 1928). Our study includes many
new localities on the beaches of peninsular Florida, as well as the
localities studied by Martens. Our object is to determine the distri-
bution, relative amount, approximate size, and source of these aie
minerals.
Selected samples of beach sands containing heavy minerals were
taken from thirty-five localities and carefully analyzed and studied.
The heavy minerals were separated from the sand samples by using
a heavy liquid such as bromoform or Thoulet’s solution (potassium
mercuric iodide), which has a specific gravity slightly over 3. These
minerals are called “heavy minerals”, because they have a greater
specific gravity than quartz, the predominant constituent of sand.
The heavy minerals under consideration have specific gravities well
above 4, while quartz has a specific gravity of 2.65. Thus, the heavy
ihinerals sink to the bottom of the solution, while quartz and other
lighter minerals float on the top.
The heavy minerals include ilmenite, a titanium iron oxide; rutile,
a titanium oxide; zircon, a zirconium silicate: and monazite, a phos-
phate of the cerium metals, and usually includes some thorium oxide.
Some other minor heavy minerals found in the beach sands are
garnet, epidote, tourmaline, and staurolite. It has been found that
ilmenite, a black mineral, is the most abundant of the heavy mineral
group and therefore, the name “black sands” has been given to these
concentrations. The heavy minerals in the order of their abundance in
the beach sands of Florida are shown in Table I.
TABLE I
PERCENTAGE OF HEAvy MINERALS AFTER DEDUCTING QUARTZ
Mineral West Coast East Coast
Ilmenite 44 42
Zircon 26 13
Rutile 10 26
Monazite 15 14
168
HEAVY MINERALS IN THE BEACH SANDS OF FLORIDA 169
The heaviest concentrates found were at Jacksonville Beach on
the East Coast and at Venice, Indian Rocks, and Dunedin beaches on
the West Coast, as shown by Table II.
TABLE II
PERCENTAGE OF HrAvy MINERALS IN SAND
Localities
Fernandina 25
Jacksonville Beach (concentrate) 25.0
St. Augustine 2.0
Daytona Beach 1.5
Ft. Pierce 2.5
Miami 1.8
Dunedin 7.0
Clearwater ASO
Indian Rocks Beach 10.0
Anna Maria ; 4.0
Venice 13.0
Most of the concentrations are of small areal extent and shallow
depth and therefore are not of commercial importance at the present
time. All of the beach localities sampled, however, showed a small
amount of all four of the heavy minerals.
Relatively simple and rapid means can be used in identifying
these minerals in most cases. Ilmenite is usually equidimensional -and
shows a moderate degree of rounding. It is easily identified by its
black color and its brilliant luster. Zircon is generally colorless and is
slightly elongated showing its prismatic habit. Many of the zircon
crystals are vertically striated. Rutile is dark reddish-brown to light
brown in color, with a tendency toward slight elongation with rounded
ends. Monazite is pale greenish-yellow and is very well rounded. It
is somewhat softer than the other heavy minerals and is worn down
much easier. The degree of rounding is indicative. of the distance
that the minerals have been transported. Thus, these minerals seem
to have been transported from moderate distances, only a few hundred
miles. Many of the mineral grains are frosted, which means that they
have been subjected to wind abrasion.
It was noted in studying the heavy manera from Jacksonville to
Miami, that the concentrates in the northern part of the east coast
were much smaller in diameter than those to the south. The minerals
averaged 0.1 millimeter in diameter in the Jacksonville area and grad-
ually increased in size southward to Miami, where they averaged 0.2
millimeters in diameter. It is possible that the waves washed the
finer materials further up on the beach during severe storm periods
170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and therefore, out of reach of the ordinary waves and longshore cur-
rents. The larger minerals, due to their greater weight, were not car-
ried so far up on the beach and thus could easily be moved southward
by normal waves and longshore currents.
Many people think of heavy minerals as being rare, but actually
they are common constituents of most sands. Many analyses of beach
sands and sandstones show the presence of heavy minerals in small
amounts. Large commercial concentrations of these minerals are
rare, however, and Florida is one of the few places where they are
found in even moderate concentrations. ‘These minerals are foreign
to this State. They are found originally in igneous rocks such as
granite, syenite, and diorite. The rocks of Florida are entirely sedi-
mentary, which means that they were formed from pre-existing rocks.
The source of these heavy minerals is the crystalline rocks of the
Piedmont in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The rocks of the Piedmont are known to contain many localities of
these particular minerals. For example, ilmenite is particularly abund-
ant at Ashland, Virginia, and in Ashe, Caldwell, and Mitchell Coun-
ties of North Carolina and parts of South Carolina; zircon is found
at Ashland, Virginia, and in Henderson and Madison Counties of
North Carolina; rutile is particularly abundant in Amherst and Nelson
Counties of Virginia, Alexander and Clay Counties of North Carolina,
and Graves Mountain in Georgia; and monazite from Amelia Court-
house in Virginia and a score of counties in North and South Carolina.
These minerals are weathered out of the rocks by atmospheric
agencies and are removed by the action of streams flowing from the
Piedmont down across the coastal plains to the ocean. Such streams as
the James River in Virginia, the Roanoke and the Neuse Rivers in
North Carolina, the Peedee and the Santee Rivers in South Carolina,
the Savannah and the Altamaha Rivers in Georgia, and the Chat-
tahoochee River in Florida are instrumental in bringing these min-
erals to the ocean. Then through the continued action of longshore
currents, tides, and storm waves the minerals have worked their way
slowly southward. This method of transportation has taken thousands
of years, probably millions of years, to bring these heavy minerals to
the shores of Florida. Nevertheless, this same method of transporta-
tion is still in active operation today.
Then through the agency of storm waves and, to a slight de-
gree, wind, the heavy minerals are concentrated in the sands of the
beach in layers or strips. This method is quite similar to the concen-
trating of gold, tin, and platinum in the gravels and sands of streams.
These deposits are known as placers, and therefore, the heavy minerals
of Florida can be called “beach placers”’. The concentrations are
HEAVY MINERALS IN THE BEACH SANDS OF FLORIDA 171
more pronounced on shores which are being actively eroded, such as
Jacksonville Beach and Venice. Whereas, the shores which are being
built up have only slight concentrations.
Heavy minerals are also found in the sands of the central ridge
section of Florida and around the shores of many of Florida’s lakes.
Two outstanding examples are worthy of note: (1) heavy minerals
were found in the Haines City well samples down to a depth of 140
feet, which is definitely within the Pliocene epoch; (2) and heavy min-
erals were also found in the well samples of the Peninsular Oil and Re-
fining Company’s J. W. Cory No. 1 well in Monroe County near Pine-
crest down to the depth of 400 feet, which according to paleontologi-
cal evidence is well within the Miocene. This latter information was
obtained while studying the sedimentary petrology of the samples,
which were kindly given to the University of Tampa by Mr. Robert
B. Campbell, President of the Peninsular Oil and Refining Company.
The heavy minerals were well scattered in the two wells, there being
no concentrations. This evidence merely shows that the heavy miner-
als of the Piedmont were being brought into Florida by streams and
ocean currents millions of years ago, just as they are today.
The uses of ilemite and rutile, both compounds of titanium, are
in alloys such as titanium bronze and steel, white pigment in paint,
and in the manufacture of titanium tetrachloride which is vital in war-
fare for such purposes as smoke screens, tracer bullets, and gas of-
fense. Zircon is used in refractories, in making opaque white enamels,
special alloys, zirconium-nickel cutting tools, optical glass, aeroplane
motor spark plugs, and electrical resistance units. Monazite is of
minor importance, being one of the sources of rare earths, of which
cerium and thorium are used for gas lighters and cigar lighters.
- The emergency use of these minerals is possible in the manufact-
uring of certain defense materials. The heavy minerals of Jackson-
ville Beach, which is the heaviest concentrate known in Florida, have
been successfully worked in the past. Therefore, it is possible that
impending conditions and new methods of recovery might make these
beach sands of Florida profitable and useful. The work on this pro-
ject has not been. fully completed as yet. There are many more locali-
ties in peninsular and northwest. Florida to be sampled and studied.
Larger concentrations, more economical methods of recovery, and in-
creased demands can make the heavy minerals of Florida commercially
important to the State.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS
Rosert B. CAMPBELL
Tampa, Florida
References in the Bible and in scattered works of other ancient
authors show that oil, gas, asphalt, etc., have been used by man since
the earliest days of his history. Oil was discovered in Baku in the tenth
century, the Chinese were drilling oil and brine wells 2000 feet deep
hundreds of years ago, and by the middle of last century many coun-
tries—Poland, Roumania, Russia, France, Burma, Argentina, Venezuela,
Colombia,—had had petroleum activities of one sort or another. On
the southern margin of the Wietze field the State of Hannover com-
pleted a successful well in 1858 which is producing periodically to-
day. Nevertheless, the petroleum industry may be said to date from
the completion of the Drake well at Titusville, Pennsylvania, when
Colonel Edwin L. Drake, a former railroad conductor, brought in his
well August 29, 1859, at a depth of sixty-nine feet. It was completed
as a twenty barrel pumper and is generally regarded as the starting
point of the industry.
The story of the modern oil industry may be divided into three
periods, the first, from 1860 until 1900, during which petroleum was
used principally as a source of illuminating oil; the second, beginning
with the advent of the automobile and ending with the World War
when, as Lord Curzon put it, “The Allies floated to victory on a sea
of oil”; and third, from that date to the present.
During the first period shallow wells in the eastern part of the
United States and in Europe produced enough oil for the illumination
and lubrication needs of the world, with the price of oil remaining
rather uniform at about 90 cents per barrel. Exploration was carried
on by following creek courses, apparent trends of production, and
topographic features similar, real or fancied, to those in some produc-
ing area. It was during this period, however, that the anticlinal theory
was developed by T. Sperry Hunt and E. B. Andrews independently,
though many of the fundamental facts had been pointed out earlier by
Henry D. Rogers, a professor of Natural History at the University of
Glasgow. But although Hunt first propounded this theory in 1861
it seems not to have been put to practical use until about 1884 when
I. C. White used it in exploratory work. Hunt, White, and Rogers
had all been employed on the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania where
they and their colleagues first enunciated many of the fundamental
theories of petroleum geology.
During the second period, when the total crude oil production
rose from 63,620,000 barrels per year in 1900 to 265,763,000 in 1914,
172
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS | 173
the dominant method used in oil exploration was the search for favor-
able surface structure. The use of this method began about 1910
and reached its maximum between 1920 and 1925, since when it has
declined steadily until today it represents a small part of the effort
expended in oil exploration.
The third period, from the time of the First World War to the
present, saw production mount to 770,874,000 barrels in 1926 and to
about 1,250,000,000 for this year. In contrast to the first period when
the principal demand was for kerosene, at present the yield of kero-
sene from crude oil is only about 5.6%. ‘The yield of gasoline today
is about 44.1%, of fuel oil 25.3% and of gas-oil 13.0%. Other fig-
ures concerning the petroleum industry are of interest. The percent-
age of total water and mineral fuel power in the United States supplied
by petroleum has increased from 7.7% in 1899 to between 40% and
50% today. This last statement is based on the fact that, though
86% of the total installed horsepower, including automotive units, is
dependent on petroleum fuel, the mobile units are in operation only
part of the time, therefore it is estimated that somewhat less than
half the nation’s power sources are supplied by oil as a fuel. Another’
figure-fact of interest is that the petroleum reserves in sight today
amount to about eighteen billion (18,000,000,000) barrels or fifteen’
years’ supply. This is in contrast to the coal reserve of two and a’
half trillion (2,500,000,000,000) tons or about five thousand years”
supply at the present rate of consumption, which is slightly less than
Ese hundred million (500,000,000) tons a year.
‘During this period the demands on the petroleum industry have’
been met by the exploration groups with the introduction of new’
methods as each earlier method exhausted its possibilities. About’
1920, when all the surface structures apparently had been discovered,
structure hunting began to be based on the myriad data supplied by’
existing bore-holes with contour maps drawn on datum points in wells.'
About 1923 physical measurement of earth characters, generally called’
“Geophysics”, was first applied to exploration for oil in America when’
the torsion balance was introduced into the Gulf Coast Area, its first
success being the location of the salt dome at Nash, Texas, in 1924.
Since that time geophysical exploration has grown in method and
technique until today it is the most favored of exploration methods.
About the same time the study of well cuttings expanded in scope until
it is possible to postulate what have come to be known as “stratigraphic |
traps.” The newest developrient in oil discovery is “geochemical sur-
veying” or “soil-gas analysis” which, although at present it can count
only two discoveries to its credit, promises much for the future of ex-
ploration for petroleum.
174. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Nevertheless, it should not be inferred from the foregoing that
oil is discovered only by the means listed above. Random drilling
based on hunches, local pride, dreams, even astrology, or for no dis-
cernible reason whatever, has each had its share of success. F. H.
Lahee has addressed his attention to this for the last few years and
has published some interesting statistics. Defining a wildcat as any
well drilled outside the boundaries of developed production he shows
that in 1939 there were 1563 wells drilled in the United States on
such geological techniques as mentioned above, of which number 217
were successful and 1,446 dry, or a record of about 13% successes.
Of 872 wells drilled without benefit of professional advice only 43
were completed as producers, and of the remaining 217 classified as
“for reasons unknown” only 10 were successful. These last two classi-
fications grouped together show a record of about 6% successful.
Other figures by Lahee are of interest. He shows that 10.43% of
all holes drilled and 12.87% of the footage drilled was productive.
The average depth for wells for 1939 was 3,331 feet, although the
record drilling depth i is 15,004 feet in a California well and the record
depth of production is 13,266 feet in a south Louisiana well.
_, Concerning the numer of geologists giving their attention to oil
exploration the following figures are of interest. The American Asso-
ciation of Petroleum Geologists has nearly 3500 members and the
American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers lists about
2000 members in its petroleum division. Though these membership
lists overlap to a great extent, the duplication is probably offset by the
number of geologists who are not registered in either organization, and
it seems safe to estimate that at present over 5000 men and women
are applying. themselves to petroleum geology in this country. In
American universities this year more than 2500 students are majoring
in geology.. Figures for the last few years indicate that about 250
geologists enter the petroleum field each year. This is approximately
ane half of the total number of geology students leaving school each
year.
THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
_. Theories concerning the origin of petroleum are divided into two
groups, inorganic and organic theories. In the first the formation of
oil is believed to be due to the reaction of inorganic substances in the.
earth at depth. Such theories were formerly widely held by both
chemists and geologists, but with the growth of knowledge of the
geological conditions under which oil fields are found geologists have
now practically abandoned the inorganic theories. These theories,
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 175
now almost exclusively the property of chemists, may be listed as fol-
lows:
1. Reaction of water containing carbon dioxide in solution with
alkali metals under great heat and pressure.
2. Action of water or dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids on
metallic carbides.
3. Action of volcanic gases on limestone.
4. From original hydrocarbons present in atmosphere early in
earth history, stored in the core and later transferred to the
outer layers.
To this group of theories is opposed the general idea that all im-
portant deposits of petroleum are found in unaltered sedimentary
rocks, and that rare occurrences in igneous and metamorphic rocks
are so associated with the sedimentaries that these latter must be reas-
onably regarded as the source. There are many different organic
theories concerning the method of transformation of original source
material into petroleum, but they may all be grouped into one broad
theory that petroleum is derived from organic material buried in sedi-
ments. That there are many different theories based on this concep-
tion may be explained by the fact that there are many different sub-
stances under the name “petroleum.”
ACCUMULATION OF OIL
The real problem for the petroleum geologist is to determine the
location of oil pools, so his professional attention has been directed
more to the problem of the accumulation of petroleum than to its
origin. In the search for new petroleum provinces the matter of the
origin of oil is of concern to the explorer, but once the existence of
such a province is determined the geologist takes the presence of oil
strata as established and bends his efforts to finding where the petrol-
eum has been trapped.
Geologists divide rocks into three classes, igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic. The names indicate their origin, the igneous, in-
cluding all rocks hardened from a previous molten state, the sedimen-
tary, those transported and deposited by and in air or water, and the
metamorphic, including rocks of the first two classifications altered by
heat or pressure. Examples of the first are granite, lava, etc., of the
second, limestone, sandstone and shale, and of the third, gneisses, mar-
bles, quartzites, schists, etc. Oil only rarely and exceptionally occurs
in the igneous and metamorphic rocks, leaving the petroleum geologist
to confine his attention to sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are originally laid down in approximately hor-
izontal strata which are later warped into various attitudes due either
176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to tangential stresses or the differential settling of the upper layers
over deep seated positive points. The first may be illustrated by the
crumpling of a piece of paper, the second by the behavior of the upper
crust on a green apple pie. For each structural area a regional slope
ANTICLINE
Burv€o ftr11
Soneous Flue:
TERRACE
—— Det ~ zs -
SwIeESTRING Sawa
—
eae tly . es
Fig. 1—Diagrammatic Petroleum Traps
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 177
or dip, as the geologist terms it, is recognized and is known as the
“normal dip” and variations from it as the “local dips.” A dip in a
direction opposite to the regional dip is known as a “reverse dip’’ or
a “reversal.” The direction at right angles to the maximum dip is
known as the strike. Dip and strike are usually represented by a
T-shaped symbol, the perpendicular line indicating the direction of the
dip, the horizontal line representing the direction of strike. It is ob-
vious that the strike is always horizontal and should coincide with the
contour line at that point. A figure on the symbol represents the
amount of the dip. Once the regional dip is established the geologist’s
task is to find variations from it.
An anticline is a structure in which the beds are so deformed
that the strata are inclined against each other, the resultant structure
being similar to an “A”-tent. For oil accumulation it is necessary
that this structure be closed at the ends. If this closed structure is
elongate it is termed an anticline and if it approaches a circle in
ground plan it is known as a dome. The association of such struc-
tures with the occurrence of brine and oil was early observed in the
field but the anticlinal theory as such rests on the recognition that most
porous rocks are water-saturated at depth and that associated gas, oil,
and water tend to separate according to their different densities. The
separation of cream from milk is sometimes given as an illustration
but the explanation is over simplified. Probably most geologists in-
clude some idea of flushing and in some quarters it is held that move-
ment is involved wherein the grating of the sand grains liberates the
oil film on the grain faces permitting its flushing, so that ‘cream
separation” illustration seems inadequate. A better illustration is fur-
nished by the methods pursued by the firty-niner “panning” for gold:
In this process the prospector agitates his mixture of gold, sand and
water until the gold, being heaviest, is concentrated in the bottom of
the pan. By a similar method, but inverted and on a much grander
scale in both time and space, Nature has segregated the oil and gas
from the associated water and trapped them, the pans she uses being
anticlinal structures. The accumulation of oil is not restricted to
anticlines, however, but is apt to occur anywhere a porous horizon lies
between two impervious layers, where some structural or textural con-
dition halts the up-dip migration of the gas and oil buoyed up by the
water. Such trapping may be accomplished by faulting, lensing,
stratigraphic traps, differential cementation, or any combination of
them.
The gas associated with oil in the underground reservoir occurs
both as a free gas cap and as gas in solution in the oil. The amount
178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of gas in solution depends on the character of the oil and reservoir pres-
sure and temperatures. In general, the pressure may be determined by
assuming a pressure of 50 lbs. per square inch for each 100 feet of
depth. Thus a well 10,000 feet deep would normally have a reservoir
pressure of 5000 lbs. per square inch. This is termed rock pressure
and has been assumed to indicate the weight of the overlying rock, but
in most cases is due to the hydrostatic head of the water contained in
the reservoir formation. This gas pressure is the dominant factor in
efficient operation of oil properties and in the preservation of oil and
gas resources. The dissolved gas performs a varied function in that
it decreases the viscosity of the oil, reduces the surface tension on the
faces of the sand grains, and furnishes the motive power to force the
oil from the formation into the well and to the surface in flowing wells.
All the efforts of petroleum engineers, either for oil operators or for
state conservation administrators, are with the purpose of maintaining
this gas pressure. To this end they use various devices, such as regu-
lating well spacing, completion of wells, rates of withdrawal, and the
amount of gas that may be expended to produce a given amount of oil.
The last is what is known as the gas/oil ratio, and is held to as lowa
value as possible.
GEOLOGICAL METHODS
The attention of the geologist may be drawn to a new area because
of paleogeographic studies or simply because of the known or suspected
presence of beds that are productive elsewhere. If he has come be-
cause of non-geological reasons, such as at the behest of the land own-
ers, promoters, or only out of curiosity, he must develop some theories
for the area concerning its paleogeography or the possible existence of
buried source and accumulation beds. His immediate work in the
field is to determine the sequence of the strata and map them, not-
ing the attitude of the beds. In hard rock country the dip may be
everywhere visible, but in soft rock country his observations may be
confined to railroad and highway cuts. Sometimes he resorts to dig-
ging test-pits or hand-augering in critical locations. His tools are a
Brunton compass with clinometer, to measure dip and strike, a hand
level, a pedometer if making a foot traverse or speedometer if work-
ing from an automobile, and frequently an aneroid barometer.
Shortly after the beginning of the second period as oil explora-
tion moved into the mid-Continent area where many of the struc-
tures are of comparatively little relief, it was found necessary to im-
prove on the work of the reconnaissance geologist. This was done by
adopting the plane table as a more accurate means of mapping struc-
tures. The instrument man with his alidade mapped the location and
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 179
elevation of certain beds pointed out by the geologist acting as the
rod man. One or more beds were used in this mapping and, when
all were reduced to a common datum, contours were drawn to indicate
the structure.
By the time of the World War it seemed that structures discover-
able at the surface were becoming rarer andrarer. This, together with
development of the idea that the closer the contoured horizon to the
producing level the better the chance of accuracy and success, led to the
use of data revealed in the drillers logs, of thousands of wells and,
during the lustrum beginning in 1925, this method enjoyed consider-
able vogue and many wildcats were drilled on structures outlined by
this means. Though today many such regional and field maps are
kept up in a routine manner it is questionable if any significant num-
ber of wildcats is located by this means. However interest grew in
the information yielded by bore-hole samples of the material drilled be-
ing examined until today the collecting of samples plays an important
part in the drilling of all wildcats and many wells in proven fields.
Such samples of formations come in the form of both cuttings
and cores. Although all early drilling was done with cable tools much
of the world’s drilling today is done with a rotary rig, especially when
soft formations are encountered. In the first method the bit, sus-
pended on a cable, is repeatedly lifted and dropped in the hole and
pounds its way downward. Every five feet or so it must be with-
drawn and a bailer lowered to clean out the hole and bring the cut-
tings to the surface. Though this method is not as efficient as may be
desired from the operator’s point of view, it does have the advantage
of yielding plentiful samples from accurate depths and as the casing in
such wells is usually closer to the bottom of the hole the samples are
comparatively free from contamination with those from higher forma-
tions.
On the other hand the rotary type of drilling is more efficient
from the point of view of the well driller but furnishes cuttings of less
value than those from a cable tool hole. The rotary method consists
of rotating a bit on the bottom of a long hollow drill stem through
which muddy water is introduced under pressure to the bit where it is
debouched, and then returns to the surface outside the drillstem. This
mud stream serves several purposes in the drilling, such as washing
the bit clean, cooling it, plastering the walls of the hole, holding back
water or gas pressures, but the function that interests the geologist most
is that it carries the cuttings to the surface. There the mud stream is
poured through sluices or other devices to remove the cuttings and
the mud is again forced down the hole. It is obvious that there are
two disadvantages to this method of securing samples, first that there
180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
must be considerable contamination of samples, and second that there
is a difference between the time of cutting the samples and the time
when they are recovered at the surface, so that the depth of the bit at
that time is greater than when the samples were cut. Both of these
disadvantages may be more or less satisfactorily corrected, but the
most accurate method consists of taking cores. In this a special core
bit is used cutting samples up to 20 feet or more in length from the
bottom of the hole. When desirable these cores may be oriented as in
their original positions. These cores furnish a clean sample from a
precise depth but are rather expensive and since in deep wells it may
take a full 24-hour day to recover a core, the cost may be $1,000 or
more. A geologist demanding such cores must justify his curiosity
with real results. There are also methods of taking cores from the
sidewalls of the hole when such are needed after the bit has passed a
critical horizon. The most spectacular of these consists of shooting a
small core-barrel from a 45 calibre cartridge horizontally into the wall
and retracting it with a spring. These cartridges are detonated elec-
trically from the surface where through the calibration of the suspend-
ing cable an accurate control of depth is obtained.
These cores and cuttings are analyzed in the laboratory for char-
acters that might prove critical for any reason but most important for
those indicating a precise point in the stratigraphic column. Here they
undergo a microscopic examination for fossils and minerals. There are
today between three and four hundred men and women employed in
such studies by the oil companies at an estimated annual cost of more
than one million dollars. It is estimated that each worker requires an
average investment of $2,000 in equipment.
Of the fossils studied the most important are the foraminifera, be-
cause their abundance and small size makes specimens plentiful in
spite of the grinding and pounding of the bit, but other small fossils
are sometimes used. At the risk of launching a controversy with par-
tisans it may be stated that the relative importance of different types
of fossils by eras is as follows:
PALEOZOIC — foraminifera, radiolaria, holothuria, mollusks
echinoid spines; |
MESOZOIC — foraminifera, holothuria, radiolaria, ostracods;
CENOZOIC — foraminifera, ostracoda, mollusks, diatoms, fish
remains, radiolaria. ;
Of course local conditions may make forms of fossils here regarded as
less important more practical for use in particular districts. The main
object of the paleontologist is to date the strata and correlate them
' PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 181
with others. This is a relatively simple matter for restricted areas but
correlation on an inter-regional scale involves many variable factors.
Practical paleontologists who, as indeed all explorers for oil, must be
oriented to the area of their activities, may be very accurate in their
work from well-to-well correlations but correlations over great dis-
tances can be Biempted only by workers with broad training and ex-
perience.
_ Cores and cuttings are also examined for lithologic and mineralog-
ic characters. Of course crushing, faulting, dip, unconformities or
other such characteristics give evidence of the structure. Lithologic
examination is interested in the type of rock, its texture, grain size and
shape, banding, porosity, permeability, etc. In addition correlations
are made on the basis of heavy mineral content. In this, heavy min-
erals are isolated in a bromoform solution and the grains examined
for size, shape and by ordinary petrographic methods for mineral
identification. Though there are definite geologic and geographic
limits to this method it is of considerable value in formations barren of
fossils or as a check where fossil evidence is unsatisfactory.
In the examination of cores from producing strata the emphasis
is on the determination of porosity, permeability, and oil, gas or water
content. These features indicate the nature of the reservoir. and its
probable yield. The porosity of commercial oil sands varies from
20% to 35%, making for a pore space of 1600 to 2700 barrels per
acre foot. Due to the fact that water is always present in oil sands,
and that dissolved gases and elevated temperatures at depth increase
the specific volume of oil as measured at the surface, the oil content
limit is reduced to about 1000 to 1800 barrels per acre foot. To the
influence of the reservoir ‘characteristics are added those of the oils
themselves, the most important of which is viscosity, all of which
control the recovery of oil. This recovery of oil ranges from 200 to
more than 1100 barrels per acre foot, representing from 10% to 85%
of the oil originally present in the reservoir. Figures for limestone res-
ervoirs are less satisfactory than for those ‘of sand, but may be said to
vary within wider limits. With data such as-these for a background,
such examination of cores gives expectation figures for new fields.
Another method. of- determining the consistency or extent of in-
duration of strata drilled is with a time log. ‘This merely records the
time necessary to drill short intervals... Such logs are simple and are
easy to understand. Within limited areas such as a single oil pool
ey may be used i in correlations with electric or sample logs.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
In many cases indications of structure at the surface are lacking
182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
or do not truly reflect the structure at the expected oil horizons. Two
striking examples of this condition. are furnished in the Gulf Coast
where young and little disturbed formations obscure the location of
the salt domes around which the oil is accumulated and in Michi-
gan and Illinois where several hundred feet of glacial till blankets the
Paleozoic rocks which supply the oil reservoirs. Under some conditions
core holes are drilled to determine structure by mapping key horizons,
but usually such drilling is used as a means of checking areas already
indicated as favorable by some geophysical survey.
Exploratory geophysics, employing sufficiently sensitive instru-
ments, determine the variations of some physical properties presumed
to indicate subsurface conditions and structure. The most important
of these properties, magnetism, gravity, elasticity and electrical resis-
tivity, form the basis of four major geophysical methods employed in
geophysical exploration. While these methods may reveal the pres-
ence of specific minerals, in oil exploration such methods are confined
to the search for suitable structure. It is important to note that
neither geological nor geophysical methods furnish a direct means of
discovering oil but search rather for conditions favorable for its ac-
cumulation. This statement should be qualified, however, by recogni-
tion that direct prospecting for oil may be accomplished through the
more recently developed soil analysis or electrical resistivity methods.
But though partisans claim much for these methods it cannot yet be
said that they are established techniques.
The methods above mentioned may be divided into two classes:
1, gravitational and magnetic; 2, seismic and electric. In the first
group the characteristics are inherent in the geologic bodies them-
selves and the operator is without depth control. This has been called
geophysical “mapping”. The second class where the energy is sup-
plied artificially —in seismic procedures by dynamite explosions, and
in electrical methods where the energy is supplied galvanically or in-
ductively—may be termed geophysical “sounding”, since the operator
has a depth factor that may be read.
The magnetic methods, where applicable, are most useful for
rapid reconnaissance. Although both horizontal and vertical magneto-
meters are used, the instrument most commonly used in America is the
Schmidt-Askania which consists of a magnetic needle balanced hori-
zontally on a knife edge and set at right angles to the magnetic meri-
dian. The variation is measured in “gammas” and is presented for
geological interpretation in various forms but most frequently in pro-
files and contour maps. In the latter the contour lines connect points
of equal magnetic anomalies and are known as magnetic iso-anomalies.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 183
The magnetic method was applied to the location of ore bodies
as early as 1640 and is one of the oldest of geophysical methods, but in
oil exploration in America its history dates back less than twenty
years. Experience during that time shows it to be the fastest, simplest
and least expensive of the geophysical methods. Since geologic bodies
are usually strongly or weakly magnetic coinciding, for all practical
purpose, exactly with the division of igneous and sedimentary rocks,
magnetic surveys in oil exploration comprise mainly the mapping of
buried hills of igneous or metamorphic rocks, or areas where magnetic
sedimentary layers are uplifted. Another important application is the
mapping of igneous plugs around which oil may have been trapped. This
last is probably the only condition where locations are made on mag-
netic mapping. Usually the magnetometer is used for rapid recon-
naissance to be checked or supplemented later by other geophysical
methods. As accumulations about igneous intrusions represent a very
small part of the earth’s petroleum supplies it is obvious that the
magnetometer of itself can not be credited with any substantial number
of oil discoveries. .
Another earth character that may be mapped is gravity. Its value
in exploration is dependent on the differences in gravity between var-
ious geologic bodies. The most accurate method of measuring gravity
is with pendulum instruments such as are used by the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Survey has occupied over a thousand
pendulum stations, of which 106 are located in Florida. However,
though accurate, these pendulum instruments are unwieldly and are
slow to set up and read and others of the same type designed for field
work are impractical for exploration work. To meet such need more
portable instruments—the torsion balance and the gravity meter or
gravimeter—have been developed for commercial exploration. The
torsion balance consists of a beam revolving in a horizontal plane and as
read gives the results of the horizontal forces acting on it and shows
the gradient of the change of gravity. However in the last five or six
years it has been superseded by the gravimeter. This instrument in its
simplest form consists of a mass suspended directly from a spring with
arrangement for magnifying the displacement and means for reading.
These instruments measure the pull of gravity in gals, a word which
is a contraction, not an abbreviation, of Galileo, invented to honor his
memory. The practical unit used in field measurements is a milligal.
The claimed accuracy of these instruments is within .0002 gals. Anom-
alies of .002 or even less are enough to excite interest and some struc-
tures are many times greater than this. The usefulness of the gravity
meter in oil exploration depends on the fact that density usually in-
creases with depth. The figures supplied for a survey are usually pre-
sented graphically on maps by lines of equal gravimetric force known
184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
as “gravity contours.” Such contours are usually regarded as repre-
senting the topography and structure of the basement beds and con-
sequently the overlying structure, except where special geological con-
ditions are known to exist. The most important of these special con-
ditions is in the area of salt domes, as in the Gulf Coast of Texas and
Louisiana. There the oil is trapped around salt plugs surrounded by
denser material, consequently the gravity picture compelling the inter-
est of the prospector is one of comparative gravity minima rather than
one of maxima figures.
Due to the activities of newspaper and magazine articles devoted
to the popularization of science nearly every one is familiar with the
principle of sonic sounding now used on ship board. In this a sound
wave, usually of audible frequency, is transmitted from one part of a
ship’s hull and reflected back to another from the ocean bottom. Since
the speed of sound in water is known the depth to the bottom may be
readily calculated. No such ideal result is possible in subterranean
soundings but the principle is utilized in seismic surveys for oil ex-
ploration. The instrument used is a seismograph, an instrument used
to detect and record earthquakes. In geophysical exploration the
portable type records earth disturbances caused by the explosion of
dynamite at or near the surface. There are difficulties in subterranean
sounding not found in submarine work since the various beds in the
earth’s surface have velocities varying in depth and horizontal dis-
tance. The dynamite shots creating the earth disturbance are picked
up in the detectors, usually five to ten or more, located in line with
the recording truck at distances of from 100 to 300 feet apart and
about 1000 feet from the shot hole. The average depth of a shot hole
is between 50 and 75 feet and the size of the charge around 10 pounds.
However they may be as small as the detonating cap only or many
times greater. Twelve or fifteen men using at least seven cars of trucks
make up a typical reflection seismograph crew. The data available in
a seismic survey are the distances between the shot-point and detec-
tors, the mean velocity of sound through the earth strata overlying
the reflecting bed and the information fro mthe seismograms, that is,
travel time between the detonation and recording points by way of the
reflecting horizon. For use by the operator these quantities are con-
verted into depths to the horizons mapped and a contour map is pre-
pared, frequently supported by cross sections. This map is harmon-
ized as far as possible with the known geological factors present and
location for a test well is made. The reflection seismograph is most in
favor with oil operators at present. It has been termed the “most
definitive” of geophysical methods used in oil exploration.
The seismograph has also been used in the refraction method,
wherein the seismic wave is refracted as it passes from the overlying
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 185
shales and sands to a high-speed layer of hard rock strata below and its
travel time determined by detectors set several miles away. ‘This
method was introduced in 1923 and was very satisfactory in locating
salt domes in the Gulf Coast and other structures of high relief, but
since most oil field structures have a relief of less than 100 feet, the
refraction method soon served its purpose and was superseded by re-
flection mapping. Another great disadvantage lies in its greater cost,
usually due to greater shot demands, but somewhat of an offset is the
advantage that a single shot maps a greater territory making it pos-
sible to map areas otherwise inaccessible.
In addition to these geophysical methods used there are many
electrical methods employed. Though they have been successful in
Roumania and Russia, American geophysicists have not given them
much place in petroleum exploration, due to the feeling that their ef-
ficiency and cost do not compare favorably with those of seismic and
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gravity methods. Though electrical methods: have their enthusiastic
proponents it is safe to say that these methods are viewed askance by
most American authorities so they will be only briefly mentioned here.
The method consists in studying the electrical or magnetic fields pro-
duced by an energizing circuit, either direct, alternating, or one of the
many types of transient currents made to flow directly into the ground
by electrodes or inductively with an ungrounded loop. The voltage
produced between electrodes is measured and the result is a purely
qualitative picture of the electric anomalies or computations of resis-
tivity give figures that may be translated into depth figures on which
a contour map may be drawn.
186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Approximate costs of the different methods run as follows: mag-
netometer, $1,000 - $1,500 per month; gravimeter survey, $4,000 per
month; reflection seismograph, about $10,000 per month. Electrical
Porosity Fresistivity
methods cost about the same as the reflection seismograph and the
refraction crew costs several times that per month. Of course it will
be recognized that figures may depart widely from these estimates due
to local conditions at the time of survey.
In subsurface work with geophysical instruments the outstanding
development is the use of an electric logging device. The two most
commonly used in the Gulf Coast are the Schlumberger apparatus and
the Halliburton “Jeep.”’ In this method three electrodes are lowered
into the well and through one an electric current is introduced
into the geologic formation. This creates a difference in potential
from which the resistivity may be computed. Through one of the
electrodes connected with a potentiometer at the surface, the natural
potential may be computed. This is interpreted as indicating the
porosity of the formation. In practice these effects are recorded auto-
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 187
matically at the surface furnishing a log strip as in Fig. 3. In these
logs the porosity is compared with the resistivity at equal depths and
when an increase in one coincides with an increase in the other it is
presumed that oil is present at that depth. This procedure has caught
the imagination of the public and frequently gives rise to unjustified
optimism, but the industry has found that there are electrochemical
characters other than oil in the formations or water that will give a
seemingly favorable record. As a consequence, though there are con-
spicuous discoveries of oil by the electric log where the oil was not in-
dicated by any other means, geologists today use these logs as a sup-
plement to or a substitute for lithologic logs. The usefulness of the
electric log is limited by the fact that it will not register in cased por-
tions of a well. To meet this difficulty a later device has appeared in
the oil fields, a well logging apparatus indicating the radio activity of
formations, frequently known as the “gamma ray”. Since the radia-
tions can penetrate many inches of iron a survey may be made of
cased holes.
Many other surveys of bore holes are made, for temperature, pres-
sure deviation, etc. Not only are the characters observable in a bore
hole of value to the geologist in his correlation of wells but furnish
data to the petroleum engineer for the efficient completion and opera-
tion of the well.
GEOCHEMICAL METHODS
The latest development in petroleum exploration is “geochemis-
try’’ or “soil-gas analysis’. Its thesis is that the geologic column above
an accumulation of oil differs in its chemical properties from those of
adjacent sediments. Since the so-called impervious formations above
oil fields are not absolutely so it is postulated that small amounts of
gases escape from an oil pool and ascend to the surface of the earth
and indicate the location of the pool. The presence of these gases is
determined by the chemical analysis of the soils near the surface but
as yet no satisfactory explanation of the mechanism involved in this
migration has been advanced. The last annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Association of Petroleum Geologists devoted much of its time to
the presentation and criticism of this method. The proponents of
geochemical prospecting revealed many significant data, the critics at-
tacking the method because, as they contended, explanations were in-
adequate for the formulation of an embracing theory. Though only
two discoveries by this method are claimed by its supporters, the sig-
nificance of these, as was there pointed out, surpassed the commercial
importance of any production established in them. The prospects are
that geochemical exploration will play an important part in the search
for oil reserves in the future.
188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The chemists are active in other ways in the drilling and com-
pletion of wells. The cuttings are examined chemically for their hydro-
carbon content to indicate the presence of oil or gas, and also to be
used in correlation with nearby wells. Also, mud has to be controlled
for viscosity and weight by conditioning with various chemicals, bento-
nite, sodium silicate, sodium carbonate, solidified naphthalene and sil-
con tetrachloride, to name only a few. In addition wells producing from
calcareous horizons are regularly completed by the introduction of
acid to the producing horizon to dissolve the lime and permit freer en-
try of the oil into the well. Sometimes the acid used amounts to as
much as 15,000 gallons per well.
MAPS AND CROSS-SECTIONS
Data obtained by the above means are presented to the oil indus-
try in the form of maps, cross sections, models, block diagrams, etc.,
but more frequently as maps and cross sections. These maps may be
grouped in three classes: surface, subsurface and geophysical (and
geochemical). Surface maps may be topographic or aerial photograph-
ic maps, maps showing structure by contours or simply by dip and
strike symbols, or maps showing the geological formations exposed or
inferred to be present. Subsurface maps may be drawn to show the
geology exposed at any particular time. Such maps are termed “sub-
areal maps’,’ “paleogelogic maps” or simply “‘pre-” any given horizon.
Subsurface contour maps showing structure are drawn on datum points
found by simply subtracting the elevation at the surface from the
depth to the key horizon. Contour maps are also drawn to show
the thicknesses of various formations and are known as “‘isopach” or
“convergence” maps. When such maps are drawn on the producing
horizon they may be known as “sand maps” or “sand thickness maps.”
Geophysical data are usually represented by contour maps drawn
either on the quantity of the character mapped as in magnetic or grav-
ity surveys, or upon a depth deduced from some physical character as
in seismic or some electrical surveys. Miscellaneous maps are made
for the purpose of graphic presentation, with any character that can
be reduced to quantitive values serving as a basis for contouring such
as gasoline content, carbon ratio, salinity of the oil field waters, etc.
Conditions existing in oil fields or inferred to exist in prospects are
frequently depicted in cross sections normal to the plane of the map.
As in the case of maps they are drawn to illustrate one or several fea-
tures of the subsurface. |
Most of the material in this paper is drawn from the experience of
_the writer. When necessary to refer to the literature the publications of
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, the American In-
stitute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and the American Pe-
troleum Institute have been consulted.
THE FUNCTION OF A SUPREME COURT IN
AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL
GOVERNMENT
James MILLER LEAKE
University of Florida
In 1783 Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris recognized thirteen
of her former American colonies as independent states. These colonies
by July, 1776, had banded themselves together; had adopted a declara-
tion announcing themselves to the world as free, sovereign and inde-
pendent states; and each had made provision for carrying on its own
government. To prosecute the war by which they hoped to win their
freedom from British control, they had taken steps to organize a loose-
ly-linked union under the Articles of Confederation.
Long before the successful conclusion of the seven years’ strug-
gle, the weaknesses of this Confederation government had become
amply apparent. Without any real executive; with only the most
rudimentary judicial machinery and no common citizenship; without
any power of taxation and dependent upon requisitions on the individ-
ual states which Congress was without power to enforce; with a uni-
cameral legislature, often weak and vacillating and sometimes supinely
impotent, those who suffered most from the Continental Congress’s
lack of effectiveness realized most keenly the need for a stronger and
more efficient general government.
Noteworthy among these were General Washington and two young
men who had been closely associated with him since the dark days at
Valley Forge, Alexander Hamilton of New York and John Marshall of
Virginia. All three would be leaders in the fight for a better govern-
ment, under a stronger constitution. In its formulation and adoption
each would play an important part. In the interpretation of that
constitution Marshall’s influence would be definitive.
The need for a stronger and more effective general government,
so apparent in 1783, became more and more evident during the fol-
lowing early years of peace. These years John Fiske has well-named
the “Critical Period of American History.”
How could a government without the power of raising sufficient
revenue to meet its current operating expenses and annually defaulting
on its domestic and foreign debt, long endure? How could the con-
cerns of the general government be looked after by a Congress with
only the mere semblance of any real power or authority?
This ever-increasing realization of the inadequacy of the Articles
of Confederation, together with a growing recognition of the make-
189
1909 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
shift character of the general government under them, led inevitably
to the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787 and to the drafting
and ratification of our Federal Constitution.
The members of this Convention, although they had specific in-
structions only to amend the Articles, very wisely exceeded their in-
structions and, discarding the all-but-worthless Articles, devoted their
time and energies to the framing of a real Constitution with provisions
for a workable and practical governmental system. Unlike the French
National Assembly, which two years later would begin work on a
French Constitution, based largely on abstract theory, a constitution
which was destined barely to outlive its making, our “Founding Fath-
ers’, although many of them were well-versed in political and govern-
mental theory, drafted our constitution on the intensely practical
basis of compromise and adjustment, and on the lessons learned in the
hard school of colonial and state governmental experience.
Their approach was far more realistic than theoretical and the con-
stitution which they drafted during their labors in Philadelphia, with
the changes of twenty-one amendments, still remains the basis of our
governmental system and the guardian of our liberties. For more than
153 years it has stood, the living and working proof that a large
measure of self-government and personal liberty under law is possible;
and that largely autonomous states, with wide economic, geographical
and social differences, can federate under a representative republic.
These delegates were confronted with some very baffling prob-
lems. They had to hammer out conflicting views on the anvil of debate
and iron out conflicting interests by conciliation and counsel. Turn-
ing from the weak Confederation, which some still vainly hoped might
be amended into a workable form of government, they had the wisdom
to stop far short of the centralized national system which Hamilton
desired and planned. Compromising between the Randolph or Large
State plan, which had been offered by the Virginia delegation, and the
Paterson or New Jersey plan, which was supported by the smaller
states, they formulated a federal type of government, with a definitely
marked-out field of central authority and a carefully reserved sphere
of state action.
No close student of the records of this Federal Constitutional Con-
vention, and of the conventions of ratification in the several states, can
fail to note that the idea of constitutional limitations held a
dominant place in the political thought of this period. The Constitution
enumerated expressly the powers of the Congress and, in the “necessary
and proper” clause, made provision for the “implied” powers.” It fur-
1Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 8.
THE FUNCTION OF A SUPREME COURT 191
ther laid certain prohibitions or limitations on the Federal government’
and on the states.*
Not only did the Constitution thus define and delimit the spheres
of Federal and state authority; but it marked out very definitely the
powers and duties of each of the three coordinate branches, legislative,
executive and judicial, of the general government, and provided for the
basal organization of each branch.
Thus was established a system of ‘‘checks and balances” in which,
so far as was possible in a workable system, Montesquieu’s doctrine
of the separation of governmental powers was carried into effect.
Finally, to win sufficient votes for ratification in the various state
conventions, in some of which decided opposition to ratification had de-
veloped," it was agreed between the opposing leaders that the first
Congress under the new Constitution should submit to the states amend-
ments constituting a bill of rights and safe-guarding specifically the
reserved powers of the states. This gentlemen’s agreement was
scrupulously kept, with the result that in 1791, the first ten amend-
ments became a part of the fundamental law.
With this hasty summarizing of our constitutional system and its
background, let us now proceed to a brief consideration of the place of
a Supreme Court in that system.
Whether the power of the Supreme Court to pass on the constitu-
tionality of statutory enactment, even on acts of Congress, is derived
from the Constitution; or whether it be viewed as usurpation, the other
alternative point of view, is too lengthy, intricate and unfruitful a
subject to be gone into fully in a paper of this length. The earlier and
more generally accepted view, and the one held by the writer of this
paper, is that any careful reading of Article III of the Constitution
along with the Federal Supremacy clause of Article VI, would seem
not only to justify the exercise of this power by the Court, but even to
make it mandatory upon the Court as a judicial duty.” Whether this
power is express or implied is debatable.“ Eminent authority could
be cited in support of either view.’
Even were all constitutional basis for the exercise of this power
waived, it does not seem to the writer that a power claimed for the
court from its early existence, and used without very serious question
2Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 9.
2Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 10.
“This opposition to ratification was especially strong in New York, Massa-
chusetts, Virginia, North Carolina and Rhode Island.
®Constitution of the United States, Article III and Article VI.
°W. W. Willoughby, Consiztutional Law of the United States (2d ed.; New
York: Baker, Voorhis and Co., 1929), Vol. I, p. 7 and footnote.
"Idem.
192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
since the decision in Marbury v. Madison® in 1803, can at this late
date seriously be questioned.
As early as the ratification of the Constitution, the principle of
the state courts passing on the constitutionality of statutes, was not
unknown. Patrick Henry, leading spokesman of the opposition to
ratification in the Virginia Convention, expressed the fear that the
Federal Judiciary would not be sufficiently independent to declare acts
of the Congress unconstitutional.
Yes sir, said the famous Virginia orator, our judges opposed the
acts of the legislature. .. . They had the fortitude to declare that they
were the judiciary and would oppose unconstitutional acts. Are you sure
your federal judiciary will act thus? Is that judiciary as well constructed
and as independent as the other branches, as our state judiciary? . ok
take it as the highest encomium on [Virginia] that the acts of the legisla-
ture, if unconstitutional, are liable to be opposed by the judiciary.
Much of the criticism of those who oppose “judicial review”
would seem to rest on the assumption that in no other constitutional
system is such power vested in the judiciary. ‘The answer to this
criticism is obvious. Our Constitution and the governmental system
it set up were not copied from any existing system. Our forbears
had suffered too many evils under the British principle of parliamen-
tary omnipotence during the pre-Revolutionary period, to trust their
hard-won liberties to an unrestrained legislature. It was to safeguard
these liberties that definite limitations were imposed on legislative
power. If these limitations were to be effective, since the Congress and
the President, through his message and veto power, participate in
legislation, how could these constitutional inhibitions be applied to
legislation except by an independent and fearless judiciary?
That is the legislative branch of government which Madison,
himself a member of the Congress, feared and was viewed as the more
likely to overstep its constitutional bounds, will be clear to anyone who
reads his forty-eighth number of The Federalist.”
Nothing speaks more eloquently for the claim that the framers of
the Constitution wished an independent, fearless and non-political
judiciary than that provision of Article III of the Constitution, which
states that:
The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their
offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their
services, a compensation which shall not be diminished during their
continuance in office.
It was the attempt by the President in his “Court-Packing” plan
to violate this principle that did much to mobilize opposition to that
proposed legislation. Calling it a “voluntary retirement” measure did
®Marbury v. Madison. 1 Cranch 137.
®A. J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall (Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co., 1916), Vol. I, p. 430.
neue "Federalist, Number XLVIII. This number was written by Madison.
THE FUNCTION OF A SUPREME COURT 193
not obscure its real purpose, the removal or neutralization of those
justices who would not bend to the executive will.
Without claiming that the justices of the Supreme Court have
been supermen, or that they have always been completely right in all
of their decisions, the writer dares to maintain that they compare very
favorably with members of either the legislative or executive branches
of government. Possibly, their general average might be higher. Cer-
tainly, they have been more independent and less susceptible to politi-
cal influences. Save when they have allowed political, economic and
social questions or considerations to influence their decisions on con-
stitutional matters, properly decided on the basis of constitutional
power, when one considers the vast number of intricate and complex
cases in which they have had to pass judgment, their interpretations of
the Constitution have, in the long run, been remarkably consistent.
Strange to say, those who have been most severe in their criticism of
decisions in which they claim the justices have been influenced by
economic, social or political factors, would probably have been most
lavish in their praise had the court’s consideration of such factors car-
ried it the other way. The same persons who pilloried Taney for his
majority opinion in the Dred Scott case, loudly acclaimed Curtis whose
dissenting opinion was certainly quite as political in some of its impli-
cations. Neither praise of the one nor blame of the other settled the
questions at issue. The final answer, and the proper one to decide such
political questions finally, was the adoption of the thirteenth and four-
teenth amendments.
If our theory of constitutional limitations on legislative power is
not to prove a fantastic dream; if it is to remain the most distinctive
American contribution in the field of government,’ then we must re-
turn to the idea, so far as it is humanly possible to do so, of looking
to independent and non-political courts to test the constitutionality
of law.
Since February 5, 1937, many of the time-honored landmarks
of American constitutional interpretation have been profoundly alter-
ed, if not temporarily entirely abandoned.” Changes, far more sweep-
ing than some of those brought about in the past by the adoption of
Constitutional Amendments, have recently come through executive
pressure and Presidential attack on the courts. Well-established judi-
cial precedents and traditions have been brushed aside entirely, or
have been modified beyond recognition. The theory of a Supreme
Court to go with the President, threatens to replace the long-held ideal
of a Supreme Court to go with the Constitution.
MUWilloughby, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 2.
1247, Arthur Steiner, Significant Supreme Court Decisions, 1934-1937, (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1937), pp. 1-3.
194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
On May 27, 1935, nine Supreme Court justices, conservatives and
liberals alike, concurred in the decision in the case of the Schechter
Corporation v. United States.* In this decision the Court declared
unconstitutional certain parts of the National Industrial Recovery Act.
The unanimous opinion of the Court was read by Mr. Chief Justice
Hughes. Its interpretation of the commerce clause, its ruling on the
delegation of legislative power, its differentiation between inter- and
intra-state commerce, its refusal to pass upon the economic soundness
of the “chicken-killing’’ code, caused no surprise to those conversant
with the precedents and with court decisions on similar legal ques-
tions. Up to 1937 any close student of Constitutional Law might
have safely predicted the decision and the legal reasoning upon which
it was based. Even the unanimity of the Court was of little surprise.
Almost a year later came the decision in Carter v. Carter Coal
Company et Al.,” handed down by the Supreme Court on May 18,
1936, with six justices concurring in the majority opinion read by Mr.
Justice Sutherland. In this decision the Bituminous Coal Conservation
Act, an unusually carelessly drafted piece of legislation, was held un-
constitutional. Not only was the general welfare clause as a source of
congressional power distinctly rejected; but the decision pointed out
the fact that it had always, when previously urged on the Court, been
“definitely rejected.” This decision, too, followed closely well-estab-
lished precedents.
In dealing with the labor provisions of this Act, the decision de-
clares:
The Government’s contentions in defense of the labor provisions
are really disposed of adversely by our decision in the Schechter case.
The only perceptible difference between that case and this is that in the
Schechter case the federal power was asserted with respect to commodi-
ties which had come to rest after their interstate transportation; while
here, the case deals with commodities at rest before interstate commerce
has begun. That difference is without significance. The federal regula-
tory power ceases when interstate commercial intercourse ends; and cor-
relatively, the power does not attach until interstate commercial inter-
course begins. There is no basis in law or reason for applying different
rules to the two situations.......
It is only necessary to point out that the position taken by the
Supreme Court in these cases can be supported by ample precedents,
early established and followed with remarkable consistency throughout
our Constitutional history. Since the threat of “court-packing” the
position taken by the Court in these cases has been materially changed.
In such cases as National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laugh-
lin,’ upholding the constitutionality of the Wagner Act, decided on
134. L.A. Schechter Poultry Corporation et Al. v. United States, 295 U. S.
AOS SSS Gb Sse
4Carter v. Carter Coal Company et Al., 298 U. S. 238; 56 S. Ct. 855.
THE FUNCTION OF A SUPREME COURT 195
April 12, 1937, and in Stewart Machine Company v. Davis’ and in
Helvering v. Davis," upholding the constitutionality of the Social Se-
curity Act on May 24, 1937, the Supreme Court’s majority swung away
from principles clearly and unequivocally enunciated in the Schechter
and in the Carter decisions. In the interim between these conflicting
opinions came the President’s attack on the Court and the introduction
of his ‘‘Court-Packing”’ measure.
Did the Justices who “switched” from the Court’s majority in the
Carter case to the dissenting minority of that case, thereby transform-
ing this dissenting minority into a majority in the cases upholding the
constitutionality of Wagner and Social Security Acts, make this
“switch” on honest legal reasoning and sincere conviction; or were
they changed by executive pressure and the fear of the threatened
“Court-Packing”’ bill? Were they testing statutory enactment by the
yard-stick of the Constitution; or were they playing a smooth game
of politics to circumvent the schemes of the President and thereby save
the Court? ‘This is a question that time alone may answer, if it be ever
answered; yet it is an important question, involving as it does a peo-
ple’s faith in the independence of our highest Court.
As one who sincerely and deeply believes in Constitutional limita-
tions made vital through a politically independent and fearless judi-
ciary, the writer ardently hopes that the United States Supreme Court
may remain a law-interpreting and not a policy-forming body and
that it will continue to test all statutes in terms of the powers granted
in the Constitution. That it may long continue a coordinate branch of
our government, fearlessly and impartially testing the acts of authority
by that Constitution from which all legal Federal authority is derived;
that it may continue to dispense equal justice within the law; and
that it may continue to function as the great arbiter in the determina-
tion of governmental power under the Constitution, should be the
prayer of those who value, and would pass on to posterity, our priceless
heritage of representative institutions.
So to interpret the law of the land that our Federal system may
operate, each branch keeping within the bounds meted out by the
Constitution, this is the main function of our Supreme Court. Only by
independence from executive or legislative interference can it remain a
real Supreme Court and keep its rightful place in our governmental
system.
15National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation,
mou. U.S. 1; 57 S. Ct. 615.
18Charles C. Stewart Machine Company v. Harwell G. Davis, 301 U. S. 548;
57 S. Ct. 883.
‘"Helvering v. George P. (Davis, 301 U.S. 619; 57 S. Ct. 904.
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN
SOLIDARITY
SIGISMOND DE R. DIETTRICH
University of Florida
Our country strives for peace, fair dealing among nations, and
the welfare of human beings.—Franklin D. Roosevelt.’
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the outbreak cf the present European hostilities, the car-
dinal foreign policy of the government of the United States has been
to provide security to the free peoples of the Western Hemisphere.
The ever-increasing military supremacy of the axis powers, their un-
veiled desires for world domination, necessitated a revaluation of our
policy of neutrality. Today we feel that the forces liberated by the
present conflagration are not merely European in their scope. Im-
bued by their military successes, the rulers of the axis powers are
not only rearranging the map of Europe, but are speaking of a “new
order” in that war-torn continent—a “new order” which challenges
every single principle of our way of life.
Under these conditions the nations of the Western Hemisphere
felt the necessity of full development of an American solidarity, a
spirit of unselfish cooperation. Fully realizing the significance of the
magnitude of this problem, our government did its utmost in order
to establish and maintain friendly economic and political relationships
between the Anglo-Saxon and Ibero-American countries. The general
public, too, became aware of this problem and Pan-Americanism and
Inter-American solidarity have become ie most popular catch-words
of our day.
II. AMERICAN SOLIDARITY
Pan-Americanism has meant, in a vague fashion, certain economic
and political cooperation among the American republics. Certainly,
it meant something different for the business men of the United
States than for the masses of Ibero-America. Not only does the mean-
ing of Pan-Americanism change with location, but it changes with
time. Like all living ideas it undergoes great changes during its pro-
cess of evolution.
1Samuel Guy Inman, “Introduction” quoting President Roosevelt’s letter to
the conference of Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania “The Lima
Conférence and the Future of Pan-Americanism. March 10-11, 1940.” The Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. (later referred to as
The Annals), Vol. 204 (July, 1939), p. 129.
196
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 197
Pan-Americanism today means the policy of the Western Hemis-
phere countries to establish American solidarity in the face of the
common danger. This, however, is only a temporary interpretation.
We have to think and plan not only for the immediate future. The
present war, the common danger, no matter how long it is going to
last, is going to be terminated sometime in the future. What then?
The common danger gone, shall we depart from our common policy?
Shall we shelve American solidarity? Doing that would be retrogres-
sion; thus we have to evolve a long range policy and Pan-American-
ism must become the corner stone of the policy of all American
countries. This Pan-Americanism then shall mean the fullest economic
cooperation and political solidarity between all of the sovereign
_ American countries for the maintenance of peace and liberty in the
Western Hemisphere. Even more than this, it should mean an un-
questionable guarantee of peace and liberty to the whole world.
Pan-Americanism aspires to build up a hemisphere policy of
solidarity based upon our common will for peace and our belief in
freedom and democracy. Common desire for cultural and _ political
solidarity is an important factor, but unless substantiated by economic
cooperation it is a fragile motive which could be shattered by the on-
slaught of hostile economic forces. Only through the fullest economic
cooperation between the Western Hemisphere countries can we estab-
lish American solidarity permanently.
III. ECONOMIC COOPERATION
Economic cooperation, whether from the point of view of the day
as hemisphere defense or from the long range point of view of
American solidarity, is the firm, enduring foundation upon which the
Western Hemisphere countries have to build their mansions of political
and cultural life. It is useless to talk about hemisphere affairs if some
hostile outsider could force any one of the Western Hemisphere coun-
tries to its knees by an economic “blitzkrieg.” This is too apparent to
need any further explanation.
From an economic point of view, there are several aspects of
American cooperation. First there is the immediate problem of hemis-
phere defense. There the main questions are: (1) how much of the
essential food stuffs, raw materials, and manufactured goods is pro-
duced within the geographic area of the Western Hemisphere? (2) to
what extent could American resources replace the raw materials
which have been secured from non-hemisphere regions? (3) what
actions shall be taken in view of these considerations? Let this be
called the short range economic program.
198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
There is, however, another set of problems—the question of the
future of the Americas. We are increasingly living closer together
today than yesterday, and tomorrow than today. Under such conditions
it would be a great mistake not to look beyond the troubled horizons
of today and not to try to see the future. If we are satisfied with
American solidarity as a temporary measure only, then, let us plan
for today; but if we desire to formulate a new guiding principle not
only for our selfish selves but for all of the desperately hoping hu-
manity, we must lay solid foundations, and we have to think in terms
of long range plans, in which we see not only America, but the rest
of the world as well.
The third problem complex deals with the economic relations
between the western hemisphere and the rest of the world, especially
Europe. In these problems we cannot neglect and overlook the rest of
the world; we are bound to reckon with the rest of humanity.
To understand fully the ramifications of these complicated prob-
lems we have to examine the economic resources and life of Ibero-
America. The vast southern area of the western hemisphere is pre-
dominantly a food and raw material producing region of the world.
Although it is rather sparsely populated, yet it is a productive region;
thus Ibero-Americans can export large quantities of food stuffs and
raw materials. Caribbean and Central America account for more than
34 of the total banana exports of the world. Argentina alone supplies
over %% of the beef and veal exports of the world; including the
other producing areas Ibero-America produces %4 of the same. Sim-
ilarly, Brazil dominates the world’s coffee market, Argentina the
corn and flax seed exports of the world, and Chile the natural nitrate
exports. Almost half of the world’s sugar and hides exports originate
in Ibero-America. In cacao, copper, and petroleum the southern re-
publics account for about 44 of the total world exports, and a smaller
proportion of cotton, tin, wheat, and wool. Besides these chief arti-
cles of international trade, Ibero-America provides important quanti-
ties of minerals, forest products, and fruits.
The wide variety of resources and products denotes a great
variety of environment. For our purposes we can divide Ibero-
America into two sections. One comprises the lands near the equator,
‘mostly hot humid lowlands or pleasant but isolated highlands and
plateaus. The other section (by far the more important but much the
smaller) is the subtropical and temperate lands of southern South
America, predominately lowlands. The three leading republics, Ar-
gentina, Brazil (the part that counts), and Chile are located in this
latter region. The other republics occupy the tropical lands.
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE. AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 199
The United States itself being a temperate country, most of Ibero-
America forms a complementary geographic area; thus the trade
relations should be active between the two regions. Southern South
America presents a different picture. In stages of economic develop-
ment, the United States and temperate South America would appear
to be complementary, because the first is predominately manufactur-
ing and industrial, the second a raw material and food producer. But
the geographic affinity between the two areas counteracts the eco-
nomic factor. The United States itself is still an important producer
and to a certain extent an exporter of the very same crops that con-
stitute the economic backbone, especially, of Argentina’ to wit, corn,
wheat, beef, cotton, and pork. These conditions greatly handicap our
economic relations and form the weakest link of our political solid-
arity.
From the economic point of view the main South and Central
American products can be classified (in relation to United States
economy) in three major groups: (1) non-competitive complementary
products like antimony, balata, bananas, cacao, carnauba wax, castor
beans, chicle, coffee, diamonds, divi-divi, flax seed, manganese, plati-
num, quebracho, quinine, rubber, tin, toquilla fibre; (2) semi-compe-
titive products—for instance, hides and skins, iron ore, long staple
cotton, nitrates, sugar and wool; (3) competitive products such as
beef, citrus fruit, copper, corn, petroleum, pork, short staple cotton,
vegetable oils, and wheat.
The geographic conditions which govern the various types of pro-
duction are responsible for the actual distribution of the diverse pro-
ducing areas. After close scrutiny it becomes apparent that the
Central American, Caribbean West Coast and Tropical South American
regions produce, with the exception of flax seed, all the complementary
and most of the semi-competitive products, whereas the non-mineral
competitive products are raised in the southern part of South America
in Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (cotton). Naturally, mineral produc-
tion does not follow climatic variations; thus petroleum and copper
appear in many complementary regions.
The closely knit economic organization of the extracting indus-
tries, the overwhelming dominance of the United States’ capital in the
copper, and its strong position in the petroleum industry reduces much
of the actual competitive character of these two. Furthermore, we are
not only chief producers, but also chief consumers of these products.
As long as the United States is going to maintain its supremacy in
the manufacture of copper and refining of petroleum, there will be
little direct competition between Ibero-America and United ae
production of these two minerals.
200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
As a result of this distribution of chief export commodities, inter-
American trade relationships follow a concordant pattern. In the
complementary areas the United States dominates the foreign trade of
the republics. This dominance is the strongest in Central and Carib-
bean America.
The second group consists of the mountainous west coast re-
publics of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. In these countries our trade
position is strong but not dominant. In these countries we take ap-
proximately “4 of their exports and supply their imports in the same
proportions.
The east coast republics form the last group of countries con-
sisting of Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. The United
States is firmly entrenched in Brazil. We are the greatest consumers
of coffee; we prefer the Brazilian strong coffee to the other mild
varieties. Thus we take a higher percentage of their exports than
the three next best customers combined. Similarly we supply them
with 23% of their imports.
Paraguay is a small republic. Hemmed in on all sides by other
countries most of her trade is with Argentina. Only during the last
few years has there been a definite tendency to trade directly with
other countries instead of trading through Argentina. With Paraguay
our direct trade is negligible. In 1937 we supplied and purchased
slightly over 7% of her imports and exports, cash value about $650,000.
Uruguay is another small country, but considerably more sig-
nificant than Paraguay. Her imports are four times and exports five
times as great as those of Paraguay. The per capita trade of Uruguay
is among the highest in Ibero-America. The republic is predominantly
a stock raising country; only 10% of the exports are not animal pro-
ducts. Hides and skins constitute slightly more than half of the total
exports. We take about 15% of the exports and supply 13% of the
imports of Uruguay.
The great republic of Argentina presents the most difficult
problem in South America. It is the second largest country, with an
almost pure white population located mostly in the temperate low-
lands of the continent. The similarity of production makes the United
States and Argentina competitors in domestic and world markets. As
a result, our trade with Argentina is small in comparison to that of
Great Britain or even that of Germany. We have taken slightly over
16% of the Argentine exports and supplied 14% of their imports. Ex-
pressed in percentages these figures are low indeed. However, if we
look at absolute figures we get a different picture. In 1937 our ex-
ports to Argentina amounted to $76,800,000, representing 16.4%
of the total Argentine imports. This equalled the value of all the
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 201
Cuban imports and has exceeded the total import values of all but three
Ibero-American countries. Similar was the situation with Argentine
exports to us. They amounted to $96,600,000 or 12.8% of the total
exports. Only five countries showed higher values of their total
exports, while one equalled it, and the rest of the republics did not
reach anywhere near this figure. This clearly illustrates the great
economic significance of Argentina. In 1938 Argentine exports rep-
resented 24% of all the Ibero-American exports, and her imports ac-
counted for almost 30% of all Ibero-American imports! *
We have reviewed our position in the foreign trade of Ibero-
America. Except for Argentina and Uruguay there is no cause to
worry; we are strongly entrenched in the Ibero-American external
trade relations. Yet, especially in recent years, there have developed
a number of challenges to our predominant position in relation to the
southern republics. New methods of approach have been devised,
new theories advanced to bring about a redistribution of the Ibero-
American trade. Let us briefly examine these theories and practices
in the light of the present economic and political conditions.
IV. OBSTACLES OF INTER-AMERICAN TRADE
Since the great depression of 1929, the seemingly solid founda-
tions of our economic life suffered a great number of shocks which
played havoc with many of our “orthodox” economic ideas and in-
stitutions. In the cataclysmic collapse of our economy, agriculture
and mineral production suffered the worst price depreciations. These
conditions affected profoundly the trade relations of Ibero-America.
The southern republics produced a large share of the world’s food
and raw material export commodities—goods which suffered most due
to the depressions. The value of Argentina’s exports, which amounted
to $1,016,936,000 in 1928, has shrunk to $282,100,000 in 1932, show-
ing a decrease of 74.2%. If this decrease had been accompanied by
a similar decrease in the volume of exports, conditions would have
been serious, but not tragic. As it has happened, the quantum of
exports was reduced by only 10%. ‘The peak of Argentina’s imports
came in 1929 with $819,509,000; the bottom was reached in 1933
with $222,300,000. This represented a 73.1% decrease in value,
whereas, the decrease in quantum during the same period amounted to
49.3%. Thus, while the reduction in values was approximately the
same, in quantum there was a difference of 39.3%, clearly indicat-
ing a reduction of Argentina’s purchasing power by over ¥% of its
*The Foreign Trade of Latin America, Part II, Section I. Argentina (United
States Tariff Commission, Washington, D. C., 1940), p. 12.
202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
value of 1929. This example, with certain modifications due to local
conditions, could be repeated for each one of the Ibero-American
republics. As a matter of fact, it is true not only in Ibero-America
and in our internal economy, but all the world over. The collapse of
the purchasing power of the world’s primary producers is one of the
cardinal defects of our economic world.
What is the character of our trade with Ibero-America? Our
import trade does not involve great difficulties. We import mainly
raw materials and tropical foodstuffs. The amount of our imports does
not vary greatly with the price, since most of our demands are more
or less inelastic, as in the case of coffee, bananas, and other food-
stuffs. The importation of industrial raw materials varies more in
volume than is the case with foodstuffs, as the former depend more
on industrial production and not so much on prices. Falling prices cer-
tainly did not increase anywhere the consumption of the major ex-
port commodities of Ibero-America. Another important point is that
the amount of mineral production, either through voluntary action
of the mining companies or by the force of international combines,
like the tin cartel, has been kept more synchronized to consumption
than has the volume of agricultural production. Yet action usually
was taken after the damage had been done, and the reduction of
mineral production was more a means of reducing already accumulated
stocks than a preventive move to avoid such accumulations.
Facing this steady demand of foodstuffs and decreasing demand
for minerals, stood our export trade. Chief items of our exports to
Ibero-America were automobiles, parts and accessories, gasoline and
oil, rubber products (especially tires), mining machinery, agricul-
tural machinery, iron and other metal products, electrical equipment,
typewriters, calculating machines, pharmaceutical products, chemicals,
paints and varnishes, temperate food products (mostly to the Carib-
bean countries), textile manufactures (especially cotton yarn and
goods), and other high quality consumption goods. We can safely assert
that all these were the best that we could offer. They were high qual-
ity and rather high priced commodities.
Great Britain supplies, usually, the bulk of staple products, such
as cotton and woolen goods, coal, railway equipment, other iron and
steel products, and machinery. Germany was strong in iron and steel
products, kitchen utensils, cutlery, cheap tools and hardware, ma-
chinery, airplanes, railroad equipment, chemicals and pharmaceuticals,
optical goods and photographic equipment, scientific instruments, and
some textiles. Belgium sold most of the fine glassware, pottery, iron
and steel and tin products, rolling stock, arms, laces and fine textiles.
France dominated in styles, perfumes and cosmetics, high grade textiles
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 203
(especially silk and rayon goods), and pig iron. Italy mostly furnished
textiles, cotton, silk and rayon, pottery, olive oil, and other Mediter-
ranean products. Japan invaded the cotton and later the rayon mar-
ket with both yarn and piece goods; however, most of the Japanese
textiles are low grade, cheap products. Besides these the Island King-
dom sold large quantities of “five and ten” articles. All competitors,
except Japan, sold some automobiles, but our dominance was never
seriously threatened by them. The only serious competitor in agricul-
tural machinery was Canada. European agriculture is not highly
mechanized, and thus the European farm machinery production can-
not successfully compete with the North American agricultural im-
plements. (Table I)
TABLE 1*
PRINCIPAL UNITED STATES Exports TO LATIN AMERICA IN 19387
(in millions of dollars)
Percent Percent of
Commodity tee taken total exports
by L. A. to L. A.
Automobiles, parts and accessories........ 67.6 25.0 13.8
MMGUSEMAL MACHINETY © .........0....c.scccceceeeceeeee 53.1 19.7 10.8
Petroleum and products............................ 33.3 8.6 6.8
Electrical machinery and apparatus........ 31.4 30.7 6.4
Chemicals and related products.............. 28.8 22.3 5.9
Steel mill manufacturers ....................006 24.1 46.0 4.9
Agricultural machinery and implements 21.9 29.0 4.5
Ba rOM MANMLACEUTES ..............ecceseeseesene hehe Sad. SES
Iron and steel semi-manufactures............ 16.0 12.1 33
Advanced manufactures ....................0. 14.8 34.2 3.0
PUBOHANPNAIIG MOATES! oe cc....gccssseisctaenscssseesecee 12.0 17.6 2.5
Lumber and wood manufactures ......... 11.5 20.6 2.3
RUE UE eee code cct.ceedcoeceesccvcsessonsoetes 10.0 43.1 2.0
Rubber and manufactures........................ 8.4 30.9 7)
AperNAnG MANULACCUTES................0...0006 7.5 28.9 1.5
Pete ko i iiacecdcnegecsesncnncedess 5.9 KAR) 12
MBRIGE MATOOIIATCES fe c2l.ec.ioc.eccclessidecsesccebescooss 5.9 20.4 1.2
PRAMOD MMANULACEUTES ..........0.c..cseseceesceseees 4.0 36.4 0.8
COLL, COLUCERTE Gea hth IR 116.4 Sua ah 23.9
“IDOLE, ol see RI Ie ne 489.7 16.0 100.0
*Howard J. Trueblood, “War and the United States — Latin Amercian
Trade,” Foreign Policy Reports, Vol. 15 (Dec. 1, 1939), p. 223.
*Based on Department of Commerce data.
In millions.
During the depression our Ibero-American trade suffered more
than our competitors. We sold luxury goods. It is hard for us to real-
204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ize that most of the commodities we consider as essentials are looked
upon as luxuries outside of North America. Automobiles are essential
in the United States. In Ibero-America, with few exceptions, there
are no roads. The roughness of the Andean lands, the wet equatorial
climate of Amazonia and the low density of population over most of
Central and South America would make road building and mainte-
nance very expensive. Thus only Argentina, Uruguay, southeastern
Brazil, parts of Mexico, and the Central Valley of Chile have what
we could call highway nets passable at all times for automobiles. The
total road mileage of Ibero-America barely surpasses the half million
mark, almost %3 of which is in Argentina and Uruguay. The little
islands of Japan have 20% more roads than all the Ibero-Americas.
Under these conditions cars are luxuries, and it is not essential to buy
a new model while the old one is still running. It was only natural
that car sales and automobile exports declined rapidly, and with that
our share of Ibero-American imports contracted.
We have to begin to realize that other people have different
standards of evaluation than we have. If our exporters cannot real-
ize this difference it will only do harm. Intensive research and study
and an effective dispersion of the results among the exporters and
general public would certainly pay big dividends in trade returns as
well as in good will and solidarity.
Similar is the situation with respect to a number of other im-
portant export articles, such as electrical appliances, adding machines,
typewriters, and other office equipment. These, too, are luxury goods.
When business contracts, could one expect a trade expansion in these
commodities? When agricultural prices collapse, which farmers can
buy farm machinery? When people are getting poorer from day to day,
who will buy expensive consumption goods, even if they are of first
class quality? During depressions the price demand becomes more
decisive than quality. It is the cheap, low quality goods that will gain
in the volume of sales, barter or no barter. The high quality of our
goods and the resultant high prices, coupled with our determination
to maintain the gold standard which put us in the adverse exchange
position, were the real causes of our shrunken trade with the southern
republics.
Another important contributing factor to our trade losses was
the increased industrialization of the most progressive countries. This
industrialization increased rapidly during the depression. A few
figures may well illustrate this movement. In 1930 there were five
spinning mills in Argentina employing 4000 laborers, in 1937 the
number of textile mills and allied establishments rose to 4,727 em-
ploying 77,683 workers. The total number of manufacturing estab-
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 205
lishments was 40,613 employing 472,152 laborers.” These figures, as
significant as they are, do not show a rapid increase in large scale
manufacturing; the average number of laborers being less than 12
per factory. Nevertheless, the increase in absolute numbers is sig-
nificant as an indicator of this new trend toward industrialization.
Similar is the situation in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico.
Now, under the strain of war economy in the northern hemis-
phere, South America is going to be forced to produce an even
larger share of her manufactured commodities than during the de-
pression. We may, therefore, expect a further rapid decrease in the
industrial growth of the chief Ibero-American republics. This de-
velopment may mean the loss of markets of certain types. On the other
hand it means the necessity of importing capital for the purchase of
capital goods and for the running of the industry. That means profits
to us, markets for machinery, higher purchasing power to the newly
industrialized nation, and ultimately, better conditions all around.
Furthermore, unless we would assume super-dictatorial powers, this
process could not be stopped any more than a tree could be kept from
growing. Thus, temporary losses of markets should not obscure our
understandings of basic principles; on the contrary let us extend fi-
nancial and moral help to our southern neighbors in their struggle of
coming of age.
The third obstacle standing in the way of the full realization
of our economic and political aims as well, is our great lack of under-
standing and appreciation of the Ibero-American way of living. Their
standards may be strange and unfamiliar to us, but they are theirs
and we have to accept this fact on its face value. We cannot remake
them to our liking—at least not within a short decade or two. Thus
we have to learn to know them, and to understand their way of life
and why they live as they do.
The next problem in the discussion of obstacles to trade is the
problem of trade rivalries. If we were the only nation trading with
Tbero-America much of the problem facing us would become in-
significant. We, however, are only one of the many nations who share
the trade of the southern republics. (Table 2).
®Frank E. Williams, “Economics Diversification in Latin America,” The
Annals, Vol. 211 (September, 1940), pp. 151-152.
206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 2%
IBERO-AMERICAN TRADE IN 1938
AREAS EXPORTS IMPORTS
In millions of In millions of
U.S. Dollars % U. S. Dollars %
Tha Ce I ne a eee 1,834 100 1,488 100
Burcope. (excl. U-.S:S.R.)........2;. 997 54.4 650 43.6
Geet TErilain” ©... 0..0.cclecccoseceeee 308 16.8 174 nb ee
AUT ES ES A ee Les 193 10.5 241 16.2
Ua rol ok ya bea (nl |: 573 Sule 520 35.0
TINA SI EAUES: 2 ocdensxc cont oeesenes 554 30.2 504 33.9
PREEOSAMETICAT oii...2:6+i,<0-cecvece costes 109 5.9 148 10.0
JS 2S RSs oa RE SBR le 26 1.4 71 4.8
Ge TS ee ya 2S ee ee lll 126 y fe | 99 6.6
*After U. S. Ttariff Commission, The Foreign Trade of Latin America,
Part I. (Washington, 1940), and U. S. T. Commission, Graphic Analysis of Latin
America (Washington, 1940).
It can readily be seen that, as a whole, our economic position in
Ibero-America is strong, and it has been since 1914. Yet just be-
fore the outbreak of the present war in Europe there was a great deal
of nervousness about our losing our predominance, especially in
southern South America. No one can deny that there were certain
changes and shifts in the trade position of the important commercial
nations of the world. Expressed in percentage increases, some coun-
tries showed staggering gains in their trade relations; but, reduced to
terms of values these lost much of their significance.
The years of 1935-37 marked the greatest expansion of German
trade during the last decade. Comparing on percentage basis Ger-
many’s share of the big four’s Ibero-American import trade increased
from 14.8% in 1929 to 23.6% in 1936; whereas during the same
period our share decreased from 60.3% to 49.6%. Thus, against
8.8% German increase in the share of the Ibero-American trade, we
registered a loss of 10.9%.° The matter, however, is not
quite this simple. 1929 marked the top of prosperity, our luxury
goods found ready markets in Central and South America. Our in-
vestments had just reached an unprecedented peak. These conditions
made 1928 and 1929 exceptionally favorable to us. When the collapse
came, our trade suffered more than Germany’s or Great Britain’s.
As a matter of fact, during the first part of the depression, the United
Kingdom forged ahead of us and increased her percentage share,
whereas Germany held her position with a slight increase by 1933.
*Howard J. Trueblood, “Trade Rivalries in Latin America,” Foreign Policy
Report, Vol. 13 (Sept. 15, 1937), p. 156.
- HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 207
During the rapid expansion of German trade the United States in-
creased her share also. Germany expanded more at the expense of
the British than at ours.
TABLE 3*
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE Bic Four’s Ipero-AMERICAN ImporT TRADE
COUNTRY 1929 1933 1936 1938
United States | 60.3 48.0 49.6 51.5
United Kingdom 24.0 32.2 23:1 17.8
Germany 14.8 17.5 23.6 24.6
Japan 0.9 2.3 Sell 6.1
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Big four’s share of the total imports. 59.5 51.1 59.1 65.7
Value of total Imports
millions of U. S. $ 2,425 638.7 1,380 1,488
*Trueblood, op. cit., p. 157.
Lew B. Clark, “Competing for Latin American Markets,” The Annals, Vol.
211 (Sept., 1940), p. 167.
U. S. Tariff Commission, op. cit., p. 3.
League of Nations, Statistical Yearbook of the League of Nations 1938-39
(Geneva, 1939), pp. 209-214.
The reason for this fact is twofold. First, the types of export
commodities with which Germany supplies Ibero-America are more in
the line of British than United States goods. Second, Germany’s com-
mercial relations are most closely linked with her geographic and econ-
omic complementary countries, i.e. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uru-
guay, which in 1930 took 72.1% of the German exports to Ibero-
America: In 1938, by an interesting coincidence, the value in dollars
of German exports.” The-same four republics took 80% of the Ibero-
at the later date it represented only 63.4%, showing a diversification
of German exports.” The same four republics took 80% fo the Ibero-
American exports of Great Britain in 1930. 83% of the $159,000,000
decline of British exports to Ibero-America from 1930 to 1938 was
caused by the decline of the imports of the four republics from the
United Kingdom. This British loss was caused partly by the in-
creased sales of Germany, United States, Japan and Italy, and partly
by the industrialization, especially, of Argentina, Chile, and Brazil.
Another rather important reason for the British decline was the pur-
chase of two English railways by the Argentine government resulting
jin a reduced purchase of English-made rolling stock and equipment.
Furthermore, there is a distinct tendency to use Diesel engines, which
®Clark, op. cit., pp. 167-168.
208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
replace the old steam locomotives and cut down the necessity of im-
porting British coal. From 1935 to 1937 Great Britain actually lost
$10,000,000 worth of trade, mainly in Venezuela and Chile. (Table 4).
TABLE 4*
GAINS AND LOSSES IN THE IBERO-AMERICAN Import TRADE OF THE Five Major Com-
MERCIAL PoWERS BETWEEN 1935 AND 1937.
(Value in thousands of dollars)
ne = re row
> e gf 2s g
rE 28 6 », 4@ 22 320)
° aS o a ag oP 4 ee
O Dn oO = =» PM BS | eee
1. Argentina 30265 19387 11754 1885 19669 82960 62023 144983
2. Bolivia 1847 -—1060 510 104 1401 3008 4409
a. orazil 24082 32390 1796 16702 12086 87056 18702 105758
4. Chile 8762 10528 794 —-5 -2444 17635 8177 25812
5. Colombia 21588 1650 736 -3109 8056 27449 8603 36052
6. Costa Rica 1385 766 143 322 278 2894 588 3482
7. Cuba 33161 1417 —~430 -1812 2216 34552 —-445 34107
8. Dom. Rep. 1350 300 4 320 110 2084 -182 1902
9. Ecuador 1925 1516 79 —1321 —32 2167 102 2269
10. Guatemala 3638 3268 62 -381 341 6928 216 7144
11. Haiti rg le 153 1 -810 887 944 39 983
12. Honduras -—160 665 68 502 —265 679 127 801
13. Mexico 34311 13918 16> A? 1542 51504 10377 61881
14. Nicaragua 507 2 4 -81 -116 316 232 548
15. Panama 1579 245 55 102 108 2089 749 2838
16. Paraguay 62 819 93 57 164 1195 -333 862
17. Peru 6736 5284 359 203 212 11670 4327 15997
18. El Salvador 550 881 95 6 -—112 1230 -311 919
19. Uruguay 297 = 2594 465 870 2994 7220 10775 17995
20. Venezuela 23011 6862 1032 1688 ~—7370 32223 6359 28582
Total 192611 101585 14608 16959 38428 364191 133133 497324
Percent of
total gain 38.72 2042 2:93 ZBA4l 7.722 73.20 2680 I@0G0™
Percent of 5 major
countries gain 52.88 27.89 404 4.65 10.56 100.00
*U. S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Yearbook 1936, 1937,
1398 (Washington, 1937, 1938, 1939).
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 209
TABLE 5*
DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTS OF SELECTED IBERO-AMERICAN REPUBLICS BY COUNTRIES:
3 Year Av. %.
COUNTRY Was. U. K. Germany France Italy Japan
Argentina
1910/12 13 27 15 9 8
1921/23 23 23 12 6 6 snot
1927/29 25 18 11 6.8 8.5 1
1932/34 13 22 11 5 8 2
1935/37 15 20 9.5 4 5 3.5
Brazil
1910/12 14 i 17 9 4
1921/23 26 24 9 6 4
1927/29 27 20 12 5.5 3:5
1932/34 25 18 12 4.5 4.0 ae
1935/37 23 12 23 3 2 1
Chile
1910/12 13 32 26 6 2
1922/24 25 23 14 5 3
1927/29 oll 18 14
1932/34 24.5 16 12 ae i se
1935/37 27.2 14.3 24.9 2 1.7 Bek
Columbia
1911/13 29 28 16 12 3
1923/24 48 Ze 9 5 5 a2
1927/29 45 22 14 F 35 sayy
1932/34 42 19 16 5. 2 2
1935/37 43 18 19 4
Mexico
1910/12 are ih
1921/23 e re ne ul ,
1927/29 68 6.5 9.0 5.5 1 pa
1932/34 61 10 1l 6 1 0.5
1935/37 63 5.5 13 4 0.4 2
Peru
1910/12 22 31 17 7 4
1921/23 44 17 8 4 3 babs
1927/29 38 14 10 wee Sue
1932/34 28 18.5 9 5 3 a
1935/37 33 12 18 2 zZ 4
Venezuela i
1910/12 3) 26 16 11 3
1921/23 52 22 7 a) z
1927/29 55 12 9 a Z
1932/34 46 19 11 5 2 pea
1935/37 48.2 15.4 12.4 4.5 1.6 2.9
*Based on Clarence F, Jones, Commerce of South America (Boston, 1928);
U. S. Department of Commerce, Commerce Yearbook, Vol. 2 (Washington, 1928,
1929, 1930, 1932); and U. S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Year-
book, 1933, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938 (Washington, 1934, 1936, 1937, 1983, 1939).
210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Investigating the percentage distribution of import trade and the
actual dollar value of the increases in imports, we find that almost %4
of the increase was caused by the five major Commercial powers.
(Tables 4 and 5) Over half of this increase was due to increased sales
of the United States and only 28% was caused by German trade
expansion. The German increase was only by 1.45% more than
exactly half of the gains by the United States. Only in six countries
did Germany’s gain exceed those of the United States. In these six
republics her gain over us amounted to $14,284,000, mostly in Brazil
and Chile. Our lead over Germany was many times this figure. Our
net plus over the German gains reached $91,026,000. In considering
the actual dollar values rather than the percentage of value, a truer
picture of the actual situation is given and the German trade menace
does not seem to have been so dangerous.
As far as Germany’s relative share in the import trade of Ibero-
America is concerned, there again, with the exceptions of Brazil, Colom-
bia, and Peru, she did not reach her pre-World War position by 1939.
Compared with the same date Great Britain lost very heavily, and the
United States gained considerably. Japan is a newcomer who has
made some headway. Italy and France both have lost considerably in
their relative importance as suppliers of Ibero-America. (Table 5).
The big five (see Table 4) dominates the trade of Ibero-America.
Within the group the United States is the strongest single nation.
With the exception of Argentina and Uruguay, we control from ¥% to
%4 of the imports of the republics. Our position is not quite as strong
in terms of exports. In Argentina, Bolivia, the Dominican Republic,
Haiti, and Venezuela our position is weak;.Cuba, Colombia, and Mexi-
co compensate us for this weakness of position. In the latter republics
we dominate the export trade. In the rest of the countries our posi-
tion is strong. Germany and Great Britain vie for the second posi-
tion. The other two nations are weak in comparison with the ee
three countries discussed.
As a matter of fact the German, and to a certain extent the
British, trade rivalry caused less concern to us on account of the
amount of money involved than on account of the methods pursued.
As a result of the burden of reparation and war debts payments, the
foreign exchange position of Germany became critical. This led to the
Hoover moratorium in 1931, but by that time Germany had lost most
of her gold reserves. Seeking to find some new arrangements whereby
she could purchase foreign goods essential to her existence, she estab-
lished the amazingly complicated exchange control, quota system, bar-
ter trade and all the regulations pertaining to these. Germany, by
purchasing heavily in Ibero-America, created large debts in blocked
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 211
marks which could be used only to buy German goods. In this way
Ibero-America became the creditor of Germany and all that they could
do was to enter into clearing agreements and take what Germany of-
fered to sell, so as to get some of their loans paid back.
The German exporter, in lieu of the extensive restriction and
bureaucratic red tape, received financial aid from the government and,
through currency manipulation and long credit terms, would offer more
attractive terms than could either the English or United States Firms.”
On the other hand, these better terms are really not better.
As a matter of fact the conditions of trade are worse than those
offered by the free exchange countries, because, after paying higher
prices for Ibero-American products, these countries have to take what
they can get at the prices they can get. Often Germany has resold
some of the imported raw materials in free exchange countries, and
thus she has competed in the best markets with the Ibero-American
republics.
Barter trade is in direct contradiction with our trade principles
and practices. It bilateralizes trade, whereas our reciprocal trade
agreements liberate trade and tend to build up equal treatment and
thus aid the revival of international trade. Barter trade ultimately
has to lead to state trade monopoly, and to extreme regulation of
movements of goods, capital, and even people. Thus, like the other
manifestations of the present German system, their foreign trade prac-
tices contradict and oppose our way of doing business. In the process
of competition, however, the barter trade system lost its original force
after the initial successes, and by 1938-39 Germany not only slowed
down her expansion, but, in a few instances lost some of her advantages.
Naturally, the present war has greatly reduced the effectiveness of
German competition, and, for the time being, the Reich does not
count as a serious rival in South and Central America.
The British trade policy of late years is subject to some critical
remarks too. The outstanding example of these is the Roca-Runci-
man Agreement of May, 1933, between the United Kingdom and
Argentina which canalized the Argentine trade with Great Britain by
blocking sterling exchange for the use in Great Britain after some
“reasonable deductions’ have been made for debt service of other
_ ®W. T. Monan, “Our Latin American Trade Faces Financial Difficulties,”
The Annals, Vol. 211 (Sept., 1940), pp. 174-175.
Clark, op. cit., pp. 167-169.
Trueblood, op. cit., p. 127.
Max Winkler, ‘America looks Southward,” The Annals, Vol. 204 (July, 1939),
pp. 38-39.
Eugene P. Thomas, “Inter-American Trade Problems,” The Annals, Vol. 204
(July, 1939), pp. 151-153.
212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
nations. This agreement was renewed in 1936.** This, like the German
barter system, had no permanent effect in giving the British a lasting
advantage. In both Argentina and Chile, the British, like the Ger-
mans, lost trade from 1937 to 1938. The British position, like the
German, only to a lesser degree, was weakened by the war and Ger-
man sinking of shipping. Thus another of our serious competitors
was restrained by the war.
In the last group of trade barriers belong the foreign exchange
control schemes and tariff walls. Of this latter it should suffice to
say that, since the depression, most Ibero-American countries have
built up protective tariff walls for their infant industries. This develop-
ment certainly marked a new epoch in Ibero-America. Before the
depression, customs served as a basic tax, aimed mostly at the rich who
used imported consumers’ goods and at the foreign capitalists who im-
ported capital goods. Import duties provided for anywhere from 25
to 60 percent of the total revenues of the Ibero-American countries.
Their relative significance increased, since most governments had to
abolish export duties levied against certain monopolistic products like
nitrates, coffee, and others.
The reason for the establishment of the exchange control schemes
in Ibero-America were manifold. Some of them arose from world
conditions; for others, our rather short-sighted commercial policy is
responsible. Our uncritical and too optimistic lending policy helped
to overburden the economic life of Ibero-America. Then, in addition
to lending them capital, we maintained a “favorable” balance of visi-
ble trade and competed with some of the republics in world markets.
The exchange control does not aim to maintain the value of
currency at a pegged price. It is more stringent than that, it aims
at regulations of the volume and flow of foreign exchange at an “offi-
cial” rate. By the use of exchange control the various governments
hope to ameliorate those financial difficulties which have come in the
wake of the depression. Eleven Ibero-American republics have estab-
lished exchange controls. These are: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay,
and Venezuela. In addition to these, Cuba has a nominal control, and
Ecuador a very mild partial control. In this last mentioned republic
the only regulation pertains to the compulsory sale of export drafts
which have to be and can be sold only to the Central Bank to provide
the government with the necessary exchange in order to enable them
to discharge external financial obligations.**
™Herbert M. Bratter, “Foreign Exchange Control in Latin America,” Foreign
Policy Reports, Vol. 14, No. 33 (Feb. 15, 1939), pp. 279-281.
®Bratter, op. cit., pp. 274-276.
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 213
Naturally, foreign trade had to come under strict government
supervision. Only if supervised by the governments can decisions be
made about the feasibility and advisability of certain exports or, espec-
ially, import transactions. These considerations have led to the im-
port and export licensing system.
To facilitate trading under these circumstances, barter trade and
clearing agreements emerged on the one side, and “exchange under-
standings” on the other. The clearing agreements are the financial
manifestation of barter trade by the aid of which trade is kept balanced
and non-negotiable barter credits become negotiable within the same
nation.
Exchange understandings are somewhat liberalized clearing agree-
ments. One of the best examples of these is found in the aforemen-
tioned Roca-Runciman Agreement between Argentina and the United
Kingdom. This agreement stipulated that Argentine importers should
receive pound exchange proportionately to the British purchases of
Argentine commodities. On the other hand, Argentina assured Great
Britain that the accumulated Argentine credits, after the deduction of
“reasonable sums” for financial services on non-British investments,
would be used either for the purchases of British merchandise and/or
for payments on British investments in Argentina. Similar agree-
ments were made with Belgium, Netherlands and Spain. Britain also
has a special clearing agreement with Colombia. Germany has con-
cluded clearing agreements with Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
and Uruguay.
These regulations worked hardships on our trade. First, our
whole foreign trade policy is the antithesis of canalization of trade
and of the resultant inequality of treatment. Second, as pointed out
before, a large proportion of our trade is luxury trade. Finally, our
insistence upon a “favorable” balance of visible trade and our de-
mand of the payment of service charges upon our investments in a
world of canalized trade have brought almost unbearable financial
burdens on most of the republics. As a result, sometimes the govern-
ments used these regulations to discriminate against us.
The final word should be said about the foreign investments in
Ibero-America. It is estimated that our direct investments amounted
to $3,261,000,000 representing 45% of our entire direct foreign in-
vestment. These investments, even if they are temporarily unproduc-
tive, may in time become again profitable. Loans floated on the secur-
ity of markets for Ibero-American governments, provinces and munic-
ipalities make up the other group of our investments totaling to over
$1,289,000,000."* These fared even worse than the direct investments,
°Otto T. Kreuser, “Some Inter-American Financial Problems,” The Annals,
Vol. 204 (July, 1939), pp. 165-166.
214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
since they were based upon estimates of national incomes made dur-
ing high commodity prices. Only Peru and the Argentina federal
governments were able to maintain payments throughout the depres-
sion. Venezuela had no external debts. The others suspended pay-
ments. A few receiving new “reorganization” loans have resumed pay-
ments, notably Brazil.”
Let us summarize briefly the obstacles of Inter-American trade:
(1) The southern republics produced a large share of the world’s
food products and industrial raw materials which suffered greater
price depreciations than manufactured commodities; thus the Ibero-
American purchasing power contracted disproportionately.
(2) Our Ibero-American import trade consists of mostly tropical
foodstuffs and industrial raw materials. In both cases price deprecia-
tion does not stimulate consumption to any great extent. Thus, there
is no compensating increase in the volume of our imports when Ibero-
American purchasing power is reduced by falling prices.
(3) Our exports to Ibero-America are mostly luxury goods or
capital goods which suffer a reduction before essential consumption
goods do; thus, much of our trade losses following the depression were
the result of the character of our exports.
(4) Our competitors, especially Great Britain and Germany, dom-
inate the cheaper commodity categories, consumption goods or spec-
ialties; thus their losses were relatively smaller than ours. Great
Britain even expanded her share during the depression.
(5) Increased industrialization of Ibero-America has reduced their
demands for various simple manufactured products, especially, for
textiles. On the other hand machinery sales increased. Industrializa-
tion ultimately will tend to increase Inter-American trade.
(6) Lack of understanding and appreciation of the Ibero-Ameri-
can way of living made us commit blunders; thus, some losses can be
explained by our carelessness in selecting personnel. |
(7) Ruthless competition, especially of Germany. Through bar-
ter trade and clearing agreements, Germany increased her share of
Ibero-American trade. This competition against the United States was
over-emphasized, because
(a) Germany had not reached her pre-World War level,
whereas the United States surpassed it;
(b) the two countries cater to different groups of people; di-
rect competition is restricted to a few groups of commodi-
ties in which we have the edge on quality, Germany on
price;
10James S. Carson, “New Approaches in Inter-American Commercial Rela-
tions,” The Annals, Vol. 204 (July, 1939), p. 69.
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 215
(c) the absolute gains of Germany were less than those of the
United States;
(d) Germany actually expanded at the expense of Great Brit-
tain; thus it was not the actual rivalry but the way in
which the competition has been conducted that was ob-
jectionable. Barter trade and clearing agreements confer
special privileges and contradict the principles of equality
of treatment, the cardinal tenet of our trade policy.
(8) Great Britain and other lesser European powers succeeded
in canalizing their trade; thus we were maneuvered into unfavorable
positions by the bilateralizing of British and other European trade,
especially in the case of Argentina and Uruguay.
(9) In Ibero-American countries, exchange controls were estab-
lished on account of
(a) depreciation of export values;
(b) price differential between primary products and manufac-
tured commodities;
(c) heavy foreign debt service;
(d) European exchange regulations;
(e) European efforts towards self-sufficiency;
(f{) imperial and colonial preferences;
(g) cessation of foreign loans;
in order to
(a) minimize depreciation of home currency;
(b) conserve gold reserves;
(c) save credits resulting from export trade
(1) to meet the nation’s foreign obligations;
(2) to confine imports to essential goods and services;
(d) free internal price levels from external fluctuations;
(e) prevent speculation and flight of capital.
To carry out this plan effectively foreign trade had to be brought un-
der strict government supervision; thus the various governments can
and do
(a) regulate the amount of exchange available for trade;
(b) prescribe the type of imports and exports;
(c) direct the flow of trade;
(d) select the merchants to carry out the transactions;
thus the governments of the exchange controlled republics have tre-
mendous economic power which they wield occasionally against our
best interests.
(10) In the face of all these obstacles, our steady gain in the
share of the Ibero-American trade becomes still more remarkable,
bearing testimony of our natural leadership in the Western Hemis-
phere, that shall never perish.
216 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
V. ECONOMIC DEFENSE
The present war has already altered the trade relations of Ibero-
America. Germany has fallen out of the picture. Great Britain still
carries on a part of her trade, but, in spite of the heroic efforts on
her part, she is unable to maintain her regular trade relations. With
the spreading of war to the whole continent of Europe, with the tight-
ening of blockades on both sides, American supplies accumulate at an
increasing rate. The United States, under the stimulus of war orders
from Great Britain, does not feel the increasing pressure of stock ac-
cumulations. It is different in Ibero-America.
The present war differs greatly from the first World War. Then
the belligerents were not well prepared for a long war. When it had
become apparent that it was going to be a lasting war, the warring
nations turned to the new world for food supplies and armaments.
There came a great boom, prices soared and all types of production ex-
panded at a rapid rate. Not until the last year of the war did the
allies make really effective their threat of the blockade and succeed in
stopping the flow of contraband.
In 1939 conditions were entirely different. First, before and dur-
ing the depression, large surpluses of primary products have been
accumulated. Second, since 1932 the great European powers had been
gearing themselves for war. Led by Germany, Europe underwent an
armament race unparalleled in history. However, not only did Europe
arm, but every effort was made to accumulate surpluses of all kinds
of materials for use during the coming war. Especially was this true
in the case of Germany; but Great Britain and France acted similarly.
Even we were establishing war reserves. ‘The United States-British
cotton-tin exchange had been one of the outstanding efforts in this
direction. Not only did nations accumulate reserve stocks, but, on an
ever increasing scale, they developed substitute products made from
easily accessible and available raw materials, replacing goods depend-
ing on foreign raw materials. This increased self-sufficiency certainly
had its effect upon the new world. Except for an initial flurry, there at
present are no signs of a war boom. It is true, however, that our nat-
ional defense program has not come into full force as yet. Let us hope
that, aside from a welcome stimulus to business conditions, it is not
going to lead into a war boom.
As far as Inter-American trade relations are concerned there have
been a number of significant changes. Our share of the trade increased
considerably both in percentage and in value. On the other hand, the
continental trade has been lost. Of the European countries, only Great
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 217
Britain is able to maintain a fair proportion of her normal trade. This
presents an extremely important problem.
Hitherto we looked upon Ibero-America as a market; now we have
to see it as a source of goods.
TABLE 6*
DIsTRIBUTION OF EXPORTS OF SELECTED IBERO-AMERICAN COUNTRIES
1935/37 average
Other Cont.
COUNTRY U.S. U.K. Japan Germany Europe Europe Others
Argentina 12.4 32.8 eZ 6.5 26.6 aan 10.5
Bolivia 6.4 73.6 es, 2 12.1 1323 6.7
Brazil 38.1 10.0 4.6 TMAST 16.0 38.7 8.6
Chile 21.6 17.8 13 8.7 14.1 22.8 Sales)
Colombia 61.6 1.2 Co 2E2 10.0 Aone 15.0
Costa Rica 44.7 23.0 0.3 11.9 8.2 20.1 jE
Cuba 79.3 11.5 ae 1:7 3.6 S18) 3.9
Guatemala 58.6 1.0 0.2 19.4 2.8 22.2 8.0
Mexico 59.9 8.1 Laz 9.0 11.9 20.6 9.7
Peru 20.7 Dene 7ae¢ f 12.3 1235 24.8 29.6
Uruguay 13.6 24.9 6.2 13-1 5.6 18.7 36.6
*U. S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Yearbook, 1938
(Washington, 1939).
For practical purposes we can assume that the trade of all conti-
nental Europe has stopped. That leaves from 1/5 to % of the normal
exports unsold during the war. Only in the case of Cuba and Bolivia
is the ratio of continental trade considerably lower. Venezuela is an-
other exception. However, her export statistics are absolutely mis-
leading, since over 70% of the exports (all petroleum) goes to the
Dutch West Indies to be refined — a fact which distorts the true dis-
tribution picture. Most of the oil was used in Britain and on the
Continent. |
218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 7*
Imports OF LATIN AMERICAN RAW MATERIALS IN 19377
(in thousands of metric tons)
United United
COMMODITY States Kingdom Germany France
Cacao
Volume 129.9 G2 19.2 3.0
% of total imports 46.3 (ps3 21.4 Be
Cattle Hides
Volume 42.8 30.1 88.1 6.2
% of total imports 72.3 34.5 60.5 18.5
Coffee
Volume 727.0 8.9 184.6 123.6
% of total imports 94.4 46.8 95.1 66.7
Copper
Volume 155.3t pasa | 36.0 37.6
% of total imports 85.5 29.7 11.1 28.2
Corn
Volume 2,065.0 3,267.0 1,582.0 71.0
% of total imports 94.2 89.6 61.5 9.5
Nitrates
Volume 635.8 47.5 105.2 83.1
% of total imports 85.4 88.3 100.0 65.4
Sugar
Volume 2,020.3 1242.5 3.6 224.3
% of total imports 69.7 52.4 37.5 57.9
Cotton
VG TUIE Ce HON ee en ee ee sae § gba Ue 110.9 22.4
Tas Ob CGtAl WMPOTPS) |) Yeas: § 14.3 25.2 7.6
Wheat
Wiolemetne eG) iF 0 0 eee 801.0 550.0 16.0
% of totalimports ............ 16.3 8734 3.5
Wool
Volume Sent 46.6 33.3 25.8
% of total imports 24.1 13.1 26.3 16.9
*H. J. Trueblood, ‘‘War and the United States Latin American Trade,” op.
cit., p. 220.
*Computed from League of Nations, International Trade in Certain Raw Ma-
terials and Foodstuffs, 1937.
tLargely re-exported.
§Since the United States is a heavy exporter of raw cotton, small imports
from Latin America are of no significance.
That leaves the question: Could we absorb all these surpluses?
There is no all-inclusive answer. Wheat, corn, cotton, meats, petrol-
eum, bananas, and sugar are important commodities which we either
cannot import at all, or can import only in small quantities, or of
which we are already buying all we use from Ibero-American sources.
(Table 7). This affects Argentina, Brazil, the Central American Re-
publics, Colombia, Cuba, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Chile and
Bolivia could increase the export of their present chief commodities,
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 219
since there is an increased demand by the United States for copper
and a moderately increased one for nitrates. The staples of the other
republics could hardly be sold in our market in any increased quanti-
ties. There the solution lies in the diversification of their production.
There are large resources which at present are not utilized at all, or
which are utilized only to a rather small degree. If trade levels are to
be maintained under the present circumstances, a diversification of
Ibero-American production is absolutely essential.
This diversification, however, cannot take place immediately, but
the needs are immediate. Our external trade for the period of Septem-
ber, 1939, through August, 1940, reached a “favorable” balance of
almost $1,400,000,000, its highest peak since 1921. Exports rose above
4 billion dollars, showing a gain of 37% over the like period a year
before. Imports rose to $2,600,000,000, representing an increase of
23%. This was an interesting deviation from our experience of the
first year of the World War when we lost 13% of our imports. The
increases in both instances ard caused by our sales of war materials to
Great Britain; thus it did not materially help the situation of the ac-
cumulation of non-war supplies in Ibero-America.
These accumulations may further react unfavorably upon the
price structure of the leading non-mineral exports of Ibero-America,
causing a retrogression of their purchasing power. This is especially
true in the case of Argentina, Uruguay, and, to a lesser extent, Brazil
—in which countries agricultural products dominate their foreign
trade.
Tin producing Bolivia is going to face difficulties similar to those
of the agricultural countries. In this respect it would be highly advis-
able to establish a tin smelting industry in the United States, especially
if we take into consideration the rather doubtful political situation of
the Orient. It certainly would ease the difficulties of Bolivia which
country could probably supply us with 4% of our present demand.
As far as Cuban sugar is concerned, the situation is not too critical.
The United States takes 80% of her exports, while almost all of the
rest goes to Great Britain. Even if the German blockade were success-
ful, we could take over the surplus of the island republic’s exports
without serious damage to anybody, including our various sugar inter-
ests.
Our imports of cacao could be increased, since Ilbero-America sup-
plies less than half of our imports. Similarly, we could buy more
wool from there. However, we have to remember that there are quality
and price differences which complicate the matter considerably. The
11Gainesville Daily Sun, Nov. 20, 1940, p. 1.
220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
bulk of our cheap grade cacao comes from the Gold Coast, while only
the finest qualities come from South America and Trinidad. In the
same way, quality variation makes it necessary to import many kinds
of wool which South America alone cannot produce.
For the rest of the commodities other methods have to be de-
vised during the present emergency. The fact is that the continental
trade which absorbed 37.6% of the Ibero-American exports has been
temporarily lost; even Great Britain may not be able to maintain her
16.8% share of Ibero-American exports. Some of this has turned to
us, but, even under very favorable conditions, between 25 and 33
percent of the exports of the southern continent have lost their
markets. It is true that this loss is temporary, yet the emergency
of the present moment is little alleviated by the hope that peace
finally will come to the world.
Peace, nevertheless, will come; and, when that happens, the hun-
gry millions of war torn Europe are going to need the food and other
products of the Western Hemisphere. Consequently, our policy should
be formulated according to this outlook. The situation is that the
United States, Canada, and Great Britain are unable to absorb all
the Western Hemisphere production. After the war there will be a
great demand for all we have. There is, however, the gap between to-
day and the peace to come, a gap that has to be bridged. Why not
store today’s surpluses for tomorrow’s use?
There are only two immediate possibilities. One would be the
curtailment of the production of wheat, coffee, cotton, and other non-
war demand commodities. Such a policy would be distinctly unsocial,
inadvisable, and not enforceable. The other possibility is the creation
of a Hemisphere Surplus Commodity Cartel, which would take over
somewhat below current prices that share of the countries’ normal
production which could not be sold on account of the lost European
market. Or if the actual purchase of these goods would be impractical,
then the cartel would lend against the unsold commodities 10% to
25% below their current market price. Whenever the commodities
became saleable then the cartel would effect the sales, charging a min-
imum interest, about 142 to 2% per annum against the sale price of
the commodity, and, would turn over to the producer the balance be-
tween the sale price on one hand and the interest and original price
on the other. If the cartel did not actually take over the commodities
but advanced loans against them, then, at the sale of these commodities,
the loans, with small interest, would become due and would be repaid.
The capital of the cartel would have to be calculated with great
care. The period of its existence would naturally depend upon the
magnitude of its task. Studying the figures of export trade would
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 221
give an idea of the amount of capital needed. Taking the 1938 figures
as a base for a rough calculation, we find that $691,000,000 worth of
goods were exported from Ibero-America to Europe, excluding the
United Kingdom and Russia. Naturally, some of these commodities
will find markets in North America; some shifts are going to occur in
production which will actually reduce this figure. On the other hand
certain types of North American export commodities are going to
lose their European markets. These changes will compensate one an-
other, so that it would be possible to count on about 350 million dol-
lars’ worth of unsaleable commodities.
Another question is the probable life span of the cartel. Here
we deal with unknown quantities, but, even if the war were to come
to an unexpectedly early termination, we can safely assume that the
complete liquidation of the cartel would not come before 1945/46.
Since over-capitalization would unnecessarily increase the cost of the
whole plan an initial capital of $500,000,000 should be ample. If this
proved insufficient in the future, further capital could be made avail-
able to the cartel.
Each Western Hemisphere country, including Canada, would
participate in the cartel. The capital would be raised in proportion to
the population and to the share in the hemisphere trade of the respec-
tive countries. Since the cartel would be a non-profit organization, no
more than one-half of one percent annual interest would be given to
the participants. The interest charged against the producer might not
pay the expenses. In this case, a tax could be levied against those
commodities which find ready markets and which enjoy war time
prosperity. This tax, however, should be levied according to the total
cost and not the cost of the individual country. It may well be that
in our unity we should help each other in an unselfish way, fully real-
izing that whatever helps our neighbor is ultimately helping us.
Through the good offices of the cartel, a great disparity of com-
modity prices could be eliminated. Food producers would be saved
from great losses resulting from speculative price manipulations. By
careful selling or buying as the occasion demanded, unnecessary and
dangerous price inflation or deflation could be avoided. Naturally, it
should be the policy of the cartel to do everything possible to prevent
the accumulation of too large stocks. To achieve this end, a plan
would have to be devised, based on the production data of the last
twenty years, which will guide the cartel and the governments of the
participating countries in establishing a quota system for the produc-
tion of the commodities which come under the protection of the cartel.
By no means should it be permissible to use the loans for the ex-
pansion of the production of the protected commodities. On the con-
222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
trary, the cartel, that is its local, national or regional branches, should
study the possibilities of diverting some of the productive efforts of
the people from the protected commodity towards the production of
the other types which would find ready markets in the Western Hemis-
phere at present, and which would later expand into the rest of the
world. Thus, with the aid of the cartel, we would be able not only to
remedy the loss of the continental markets but also aid and direct the
much-needed diversification of Ibero-America.
Another step in this direction would be the establishment of a
permanent Inter-American economic council. This council should be
constituted of the representatives of the various branches of busi-
ness, as well as trained research workers in the various fields of eco-
nomics and related sciences, of each of the western hemisphere coun-
tries. The council through its affiliated national organizations should
study the economic needs and possibilities of the various countries.
The results of these studies and investigations should be published
and made available to all interested. It should be the duty of the
council to make recommendations for desirable economic legislation.
The various governments should consult the council before recommend-
ing or endorsing important legislation, especially, if it is going to
affect infra-hemisphere economic relations. The council should be in
charge of an integrated economic educational program. It should
sponsor conferences and forums, and use any other means for the
dissemination of objective economic information.
With the aid of the council, and possibly through the services
of the cartel, a new investment policy should be inaugurated. Since our
direct investments represent working capital, some of which is idle
and unproductive on account of the depression, it could reasonably
be expected that, with the improvement of general economic condi-
tions, most of them would become active and profitable once more.
If, however, on account of overcapitalization or for some other reason,
a reorganization seemed advisable, it should be effected with the fi-
nancial aid of a Hemisphere Bank. The bank should be in charge of
(1) liquidating or reissuing defaulted governmental and municipal
bonds, (2) giving long term credit to assist the various governments
in eliminating exchange control measures, (3) giving any financial
assistance which is beyond the scope of the national banking systems
of the republic. )
The capital of the bank would be furnished by all countries of the
Western Hemisphere. Since we are the richest nation in the Western
Hemisphere, since we have carefully hidden 75% of the world’s mone-
tary gold under the ground, it would be advisable to dig up some of
it and use it for some productive purpose; thus we should subscribe
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 223
to % of the one billion dollar capital of the bank. The other % should
be divided between the other countries in proportion to their popula-
tion, wealth and resources. If any of these countries were unable to
provide its share of the capital, we should lend as much as needed to
the country at not more than % of 1% interest. The interest rate on
the capital stock limited to a maximum of 3%.
It is highly desirable that the Ibero-American republics should
participate to a considerably higher degree than at the present in the
development of their latent resources by increasing their own share
of the capital invested in their respective countries. To bring about
an active participation in the economic development of the republics,
and thus to forestall the accusation of foreign exploitation and pre-
vent the danger of expropriation of foreign investments, it is proposed
that the interest rate on the capital invested in the Hemisphere Bank
should be kept at 1% for fifteen years. The difference between the
maximum interest rate and the actual one, plus other profits that
may occur should be divided between the participants, except the
United States, in proportion to their capital investments. This sur-
plus dividend should be used first to repay the original loans of the
United States, if there had been any, and second, it should be funded
as capital stock in proportion to the original capital of the participant
countries, save the United States, until their capital investments
might reach a level proportionate to their population, wealth, and
resources. After such a balance has been reached all differential pay-
ments should be discontinued.
The Hemisphere Bank, like the cartel, should be not primarily
a profit making enterprise but a service institution. Its main aim should
be to facilitate the economic development of the hemisphere, to ov-
ercome financial obstacles and difficulties hampering the full develop-
ment of the countries involved, to guide and regulate investment
policies, to inaugurate and aid the evolution of a sane exchange policy
in the Americas.
Unwise lending and investments bring only temporary relief and
a false boom. Thus a lending policy is not sufficient by itself. We have
to change our commercial policy. Unless we buy more from the world
at large than we sell them, our investments will remain barren. We
must increase our purchases from Ibero-America if we hope to collect
profits on our investments. The more we invest the more we have to
buy. We must discard our “debtor nation’? psychology. We must
realize that only by buying more from them can we sell more to them.
Through increased purchases, and by the establishment of the cartel
and the bank, we can face the war time emergency and prepare for
peace. However, there is the question of the peace. There are three
224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
possibilities: (1) the axis is defeated; (2) the war ends in a stalemate;
(3) the axis defeats and subordinates Great Britain. The first possi-
bility simplifies our problem. The second would signify a concentrated
effort by the axis and the democracies to gain economic control and
the ensuing political dominance of Ibero-America. In this case our
position is strong. In the past the United States and the British Em-
pire held an overwhelming economic dominance in Ibero-America.
Unless the British trade with Europe were shattered the problem
boils down to an economic co-operation between the democracies and
the establishment of a co-ordinated trade policy. If, however, the axis
were to dominate European economy to the exclusion of Great Brit-
ain then the survival of the British would not safeguard our position
in Ibero-America, since most of the British trade was either purely
of the entrepot type or meant the importation of raw materials and
the export of British manufactured goods. If Germany would be able
to assume this role, then our economic position would be greatly al-
tered, and the problem would become synonymous with the last po-
tentiality.
The third possibility presents the real problem. Not only the
economic significance of Europe, but the psychological effect of an
axis victory, may change the present setup in its entirety. To prevent
such an emergency we have to (1) continue our co-ordinated defense
system with the rest of the hemisphere, and temporarily assume the
protection of all the hemisphere; (2) continue to give sufficient fi-
nancial assistance to the other countries to enable them to build up
their defenses; (3) maintain through the cartel the close economic
unity whereby Europe has to deal with the Western Hemisphere as
one body and not with the single individual countries.
Before we can continue further we have to re-examine our eco-
nomic position in its world relationship. First, we notice that the
seven chief Ibero-American countries (exclusive of Mexico) purchase
slightly less from us than the ten erstwhile small democracies of
Europe. Our relative position is much stronger in the Ibero American
countries than with the small countries of Europe. The three conti-
nental powers combined almost equal the first two groups, and our
relative strength is about the same as in the case of the small European
countries. The United Kingdom is by far our best customer, followed
by Canada and Japan. The first two buying more from us than any
other group, and Japan buying more than France, Germany and Italy
put together. Our exports to Canada and the Ibero-American group
with Mexico are about equal. As far as our relative strength is con-
cerned in the European countries and the United Kingdom, we supply
about 10% of their imports. In that respect Argentina resembles
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 225
Europe. In the Caribbean republics and Canada our predominance is
unquestionable. In Japan, the West Coast republics and Brazil we
supply ¥% of their imports.
TABLE 8*
VALUE AND PERCENTAGE OF THE IMPORTS FROM UNITED STATES OF SELECTED
COUNTRIES, 1937
Ibero-Ameri- Percent of Others Percent of
Name of Country can in $1,000 total imports in $1,000 ___ total imports
Argentina 76.829 16.9
Belgium 80.527 8.8
Belgium 80.527 8.8
Netherlands 75.052 8.8
Chile 25.711 29.1
Norway 27.399 85
Columbia 46.394 48.3
Czechoslovakia 33.576 8.8
Hungary 6.314 4.5
Cuba 88.847 68.6
Sweden 75.728 14.0
Ireland 14.359 6.6
Peru 20.976 SIS:
Denmark 20.490 Bye
Venezuela 45.452 52.8
Finland 18.253
Switzerland 28.944 7.0
Seven Chief Ibero-
American Republics 380.619
Mexico 109.850 62.7
Small democracies
of Europe 380.789
France 160.713 9.5
Germany 113.506 5.2
Italy 79.496 10.9
Total European Powers 353.715
United Kingdom 564.847 11.1
Canada 489.997 60.6
Japan 365.502 33.6
China 55.291 9.5
Total 420.793
U.S. S. R. 47.819
*U. S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Yearbook 1938 (Wash-
ington, 1939).
Thus there are six groups of nations or individual nations, which
take about equal shares of our exports—roughly, about 15% each. Of
these, in two groups and one individual country, our relative position
in trade is weak. Of special importance to us are our continental cus-
tomers, purchasing about 30% of our exports. This is the trade we
226 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
lost on account of the war. This is the trade which will be hard to re-
gain if the axis powers win, especially if Great Britain were to fall—
an event which would increase our loss to 45%. It is a disturbing
picture. If we add to it Canada’s and Ibero-America’s share, it looks
even worse.
Looking at it from another angle, we find that the democracies
control half of the world’s imports and more than half of the exports.
TABLE 9*
PERCENT OF WoRLD TRADE: IMPORTS AND Exports OF SELECTED COUNTRIES.
1935-1937 AVERAGES
NON-TOTALITARIAN TOTALITARIAN
Countries Imports Exports Countries Imports Exports
United States 11.0 12.0 Germany 7.9 9.2
Argentina 1.8 2.8 Italy 2.9 3.3
Brazil 1 1.5 Japan Bui 3.7
Canada 2.8 4.2 ——
Chile 0.3 0.6 TOTALITARIAN 14.5 16.2
Colombia 0.3 .4—_—_——
Cuba 0.5 0.7 Belgium 3.3 3.3
Mexico 0.6 1.0 Czechoslovakia 1.4 1.6
Uruguay 0.2 0.2 Denmark 1.4 1.5
Venezuela 2.7 1.0 France 6.6 4.6
Netherlands
United Kingdom 18.5 12.0 N. Indies 3.7 4.1
Australia 1.9 2.4 Norway 1.0 0.8
Canada 2.8 4.2 Poland 0.9 0.9
India 22 3.2 —_ ——
British Malaya ES: 2.9 TOTALITARIAN
Union of Controlled Europe 18.3 16.8
South Africa 1.7 Of,
New Zealand 0.8 1.0 TOTALITARIAN 14.5 16.2
APT ae TOTALITARIAN
BRITISH EMPIRE 29.2 26.5 are
EURO ; F
North America 16.3 20.0 UEOrr ee i
South America 4.5 42 ALL
WESTERN _ TOTADT AR ae
HEMISPHERE 20.8 Zhe
BRITISH EMPIRE 29.2 26.5 USS. R 1.0 1.5
—— China ilps: 1.0
DEMOCRACIES 50:0, 53.0 Others 14.3 10.8
*U. S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Yearbook 1938 (Wash-
ington, 1939).
Except for Great Britain they are all young countries,
rich, under-populated, and controlling the major share of the world
resources badly needed by all Europe, whether free or oppressed. This
HEMISPHERE DEFENSE AND AMERICAN SOLIDARITY 227
is an important factor in our favor. The axis dominated world is
poorly endowed; it is using every last scrap of resources; it cannot
feed itself. On the other hand, the democracies kill baby pigs, plow
under almost anything, burn coffee, destroy rubber trees, restrict the
mining of copper, tin, and nitrates. There is no question that we have
the upper hand. Even if the many predictions about the collapse of
the German economic system were mistaken, ultimately Europe can-
not stand isolated. There is a limit even to the endurance of the Ger-
mans. The key is in the hands of the U. S. S. R., for only with the
aid of the Russians can Europe continue fighting for a long time to
come, and even this is possible only if the U. S. S. R. can be organized
effectively. The past purges and sabotage trials seem to indicate the
opposite.
Since the economic position of Britain is at least partly European,
even the fall of Britain would not alter the material distribution of
resources. If the Empire remains independent, we still retain the upper
hand. The fall of Malaya and Netherlands India, and, as a matter of
fact, of India itself, would not alter the situation greatly. The loss of
tin and rubber would cause temporary inconvenience, but, after all,
the axis could not hoard them indefinitely if it wants to profits by its
conquest. Furthermore, neither rubber nor tin are absolutely essential.
Synthetic rubber and Brazilian production could replace Malay rub-
ber. Bolivia could supply the essential amount of tin; for the rest,
substitutes could be used.
The real strength of the democracies lies in the Western Hemis-
phere. That we must defend. Only through the domination of South
and Central America could the axis powers really harm us. It is our
own selfish interest that motivates us to become unselfish. Only
through sacrificing some of our egoism can we save our way of living,
can we show the road to that future life which should be the reward
of “the pursuit of happiness.”
This is not intended to mean that we should not do everything
in our power to help the British in their valiant stand of self defense.
We may have disagreed on many points of policy, but they are now
defending their way of life and their home against the invasion of
hostile forces. Their way of living is kin to ours. If they fall, it may
become our undoing. So help we must. Yet our strongest line of de-
fense is at home.
We have to build up American solidarity now. We have to gain
the favor of all the peoples of the western hemisphere. We have to
be ready for any eventuality. If Britain is meant to fall, or even if
she comes out alive but greatly weakened, we have to be ready to face
228 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Europe, help them to get peace, but at the same time jealously guard
our institutions, and help and encourage our friends.
The rivalry could become extreme. After all even we cannot afford
to waste precious resources indefinitely. When peace comes, our re-
sponsibilities will become tremendous. It is in our power to make or
break the peace. Once we did not make it. Now we shall have to make
amends. Against the axis we have to defend ourselves and our neigh-
bors to the north and south. Because of reopened competition, it is
going to be a harder task in peace than it is now.
Our economic assistance and collaboration has to be extended. All
of us have to cooperate to the fullest to present a common economic
front against the regimented front of axis dominated Europe. The
scope of the Hemisphere Surplus Commodity Cartel has to be en-
larged to include all commodities. This will establish a central brok-
erage house through which we can trade with the axis powers without
exposing any one of us alone to the dangers of economic exploitation.
This sounds pessimistic, but in reality, it is not. We have to de-
fend ourselves; thus, we must be prepared. If we are prepared we
can face the future on equal terms with any hostile combination. That
is why we need the strong economic cooperation in the Western Hem-
isphere. That is why we need the cartel, the bank. That is why we have
to buy more from the world; only by buying more can we sell more.
Increased trade means increased profits; increased profits mean in-
creased purchasing power; increased purchasing power brings forth
higher standards of living; that means prosperity, and prosperity is
peace.
We need, furthermore, a better understanding of each other. We
need more contacts between our peoples. We have to expand our
plans for the exchange of students, professors, businessmen and in-
tellectuals. We should travel more in Central and South America.
Travel to see how they live, to study their economic and political con-
ditions, meanwhile refraining from freely-given, unsolicited advice and
criticism. To know is to understand, to understand is to appreciate.
We badly need more knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of
Ibero-America, and, as a matter of fact, of the whole world. If we can
achieve all these, we need not worry. No -ism will be strong enough
to undermine the solid foundations of a true and sincere American
solidarity.
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM,
1902-1904
G. LEIGHTON LAFUZzE
Stetson University
The Anglo-French rivalry in Siam developed as a result of French
and British expansion in Indo-China and the Malay peninsula during
the latter half of the nineteenth century. Situated in the heart of
southeastern Asia, the Siamese kingdom was, after 1885, a solitary
and helpless country confronted by French Indo-China on the east
and by British Malaya and British Burma on the south and west.
In 1885 the British conquest of Theebaw’s kingdom, Upper Burma,
and France’s completion of her occupation of Tonkin and Annam
heralded a more acute period of imperialistic rivalry.
The British, however, were able to maintain their position of
dominant influence in Siam. They controlled most of the trade, ship-
ping, industry, and capital and anticipated a profitable exploitation
of the kingdom’s largely undeveloped resources, which included fertile
land for rice culture, valuable teak forests, and minerals. Of the
latter, tin was to prove the most important. Moreover, Siam offered
an approach to southwestern China, with which British and French
alike hoped to develop a valuable trade. British political and cultural
forces also predominated. Most of the numerous foreign advisers in
the Siamese administration were British subjects, many Siamese
princes and noblemen were educated under British tutelage, and Eng-
lish became the language of society and government in Bangkok, the
capital and principal city. In addition to these varied interests, Brit-
ish statesmen valued Siam as a buffer state of the Indian empire: an
eastern counterpart of Afghanistan. At the same time they were
prepared to deprive Siam of valuable territory bordering Burma and
British Malaya.
With less significant economic and political stakes in Siam, the
French were nonetheless attracted by her great wealth. In 1893 their
attempt to occupy Siamese territories east of the Mekong River
resulted in an undeclared war with Siam and in effective diplomatic
intervention on the part of Great Britain. France had to content her-
self with limited territorial and other concessions. On January 15,
1896, was concluded an Anglo-French agreement by which the two
countries recognized the Upper Mekong as the boundary between
Burma and Tonkin and guaranteed the neutrality of the Menam bas-
in, the most valuable part of Siam. By implication the remaining por-
229
230 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tions were to become effective spheres of influence. Great Britain,
however, refused to interpret the agreement in this light. She further
safeguarded her interests in the Siamese Malay states by forcing upon
Siam the secret treaty of April 6, 1897, forbidding the granting to a
third power of any territory or concession affecting the regions south
of Bang Tapan.
During the interval between the signing of the declaration of
January 15, 1896, and the conclusion of the Entente Cordiale on April
8, 1904, old and new forces were shaping the Siamese question in ways
somewhat strange to historic Anglo-French rivalry. Certain develop-
ments in Siam and in outside interests added new factors to the situa-
tion. Nor were the older imperialistic influences by any means dor-
mant. In 1902 the colonial authorities of Singapore initiated an ag-
gressive action against Siamese Malaya which the British Foreign Of-
fice was prevailed upon to support. Almost simultaneously the dis-
content of powerful British teak companies and British Asiatic sub-
jects helped to instigate and prolong a revolt in the northern provinces
which gravely threatened both the internal and the external security
of Siam. Between that kingdom and France, acute tension still con-
tinued; and the French government undertook the difficult task of
realizing in some measure the demands of French Indo-China without
arousing dangerously the susceptibilities of Great Britain. Finally, the
controversy over Siam, like other imperialistic issues, was subordinated
to the exigencies of general policy; and the declaration of 1904 “set-
tled” the question by the familiar method of compromise, satisfying in
realistic fashion the most impelling desires of the powers.
NEW FACTORS IN THE SIAMESE QUESTION
At the turn of the century British economic enterprise in Siam was
encountering a formidable and growing competition from the Ger-
mans. Great Britain’s share in the shipping trade of Bangkok fell
from 357,048 tons or 78.8 per cent of the total in 1898, to 65,511 tons
or 11.2 per cent of the total in 1903.
Energetic German industrial and commercial firms, supported by
tactful but effective aid from their government, gained an increasing
allotment of the good things offered in Siam to western business men.
The Germans, moreover, were second only to the British in the num-
ber and importance of the posts they enjoyed in the Siamese adminis-
tration.
Although this appearance of Germany on the scene was important,
the results were confined to a limited field. Yet British interests were
aroused. To them Germany appeared more dangerous as an economic
rival than France was ever likely to become. The French were
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM, 1902-1904 231
concerned mainly with the comparatively unproductive Mekong val-
ley; and as the British began to think of a general entente with
France, it seemed quite appropriate to include a program of Anglo-
French cooperation in Siam against Germany.
Unless, however, a satisfactory solution could be reached with
France, the British had grounds for fearing that Siam’s independence
might be imperiled by action of the French colonials, who had not
renounced their long cherished designs, and who were ready to ignore
with impunity the prohibitions of the declaration of 1896. British
interests feared that the Bangkok-Korat railway, completed in 1901,
might serve to facilitate the execution of the French colonial pro-
gram. As Rivett-Carnac, the British financial adviser to the Siamese
government, cogently expounded the theory in his minute of February
13, 1902, if the French should seize Korat, which lay within their
sphere of influence, they might use the new railway to occupy Bang-
kok itself.
Another new factor was the virtual abandonment by Great Brit-
ain of the historic quest for the trade of Yunnan and South China
from the direction of Burma and Siam. In 1901 Burma completed a
railway to Kunlong on the upper Salween River near the Chinese
frontier; but formidable physical obstacles would hinder its extension,
and Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, in a speech at Rangoon on De-
cember 10, 1901, took occasion to denounce the still popular idea of
developing a lucrative trade by rail with the provinces of South China.
Thus the Upper Mekong region became still less important to the
British. Curzon’s announcement pleased the French; henceforth they
were free to carry out in a clear field Governor-General Doumer’s far-
reaching plan for the extension of the Hanoi-Laokai railway to Yun-
nan-fu. China finally awarded the contract for this line on October
29, 1903.
Another novel factor in the Siamese question was the role assumed
by the Japanese government, which had concluded a treaty of friend-
ship and trade with Siam on February 25, 1898. Naturally desirous of
advancing friendly foreign interests, Siam was especially attracted to
this Oriental power, capable of dealing on even terms with the forces
of European imperialism. By 1901 Japanese influence in Siam had
to be reckoned with: several Japanese enjoyed posts in the Siamese
administration, and the Japanese were sponsoring a plan to establish
sericulture in the Mekong valley. In 1902 Siam was strengthening her
military forces with the aid of Japanese officers and equipment.
This entire development was regarded by the French with keen
anxiety. On September 28, 1901, and again on May 15, 1902, Klobuk-
232 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
owski, the French minister in Bangkok, warned the Siamese govern-
ment that France would consider as an unfriendly act any attempt to
carry out public enterprises under foreign management in the Mekong
valley. After the announcement of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Treaty of January 30, 1902, Klobukowski was convinced that the
signatory powers had already been cooperating successfully to pre-
vent him from making a settlement with Siam. French predominance
in the Mekong valley appeared to be threatened, and Klobukowski
feared that if Japan’s policy should be logically developed, the secur-
ity of French Indo-China would be endangered. Before the potent
influence of the Anglo-Japanese combination, to which Siam willingly
resigned herself, France might be obliged to abandon completely her
contemplated role as an equal partner in a condominium over Siam.
In fact Lord Lansdowne, the British foreign secretary, prompted
by several members of the Salisbury cabinet, had made every effort
to include India, Siam, and British Malaya in the scope of the alliance;
but although Hayashi, the Japanese ambassador, appeared to favor such
a stipulation, the Japanese government declined to undertake so burd-
ensome a responsibility. Klobukowski was nonetheless correct in as-
serting that the alliance was directed against France and her ally,
Russia, in Asia. Its existence impelled the French government to seek
a speedy settlement with Siam; while colonial officials, to whom the
danger appeared more real, took the precaution of increasing the
military forces in French Indo-China, a measure which the outbreak
of the Russo-Japanese War in February, 1904, seemed to justify.
THE AFFAIR OF KELANTAN
For years the enterprisers and officials of British Malaya had been
discontented because the British government refused to sanction any
attempt to obtain political control of the adjoining Siamese states.
Possessing much gold, tin, and rich land, these regions also offered suit-
able railway routes. Especially desirable were the states of Kelantan
and Trengganu located north of Pahang on the east side of the penin-
sula.
The Kelantan affair originated with the activities of R. W. Duff,
an ardent promoter of British enterprise. Having organized a com-
pany in 1900, he entered Kelantan in defiance of Siamese authority
and later obtained from the frightened native sultan a concession
involving administrative powers and exclusive commercial rights over
some three thousand square miles of the state’s richest land. During
1901 and 1902 the British government sought to obtain Siam’s recog-
nition of this amazing contract and further demanded that British
subjects be appointed as residents or advisers in Kelantan and Treng-
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM, 1902-1904 233
ganu. Such residents, although nominally in Siamese service, were to
possess full powers and were to be appointed and removed only with
Great Britain’s approval.
Siam vainly sought to temporize or compromise, and in the sum-
mer of 1902 the situation became critical. Confronted by the open
hostility of British Malaya, in danger of losing control over Patani
and other border states, the Siamese government sent a special envoy
to Europe. In August a clash occurred between Siamese sailors and
some of Duff’s men in Kelantan, promptly followed by the arrival of a
force of British Sikhs allegedly sent to protect the sultan. On August
22 Siam received an ultimatum. Obligated to capitulate, she conclud-
ed a secret agreement in October embodying the British terms. Al-
though she asked that it remain unpublished, its substance soon be-
came known.
By her policy in the Kelantan affair, Great Britain estranged
Siam at a time when the latter was anticipating another crisis with
France. Rivett-Carnac, who saw the coveted post of general adviser
go to Edward Strobel, a faculty member of the Harvard Law School,
told the American minister in Bangkok “that not for a generation had
the interests of Great Britain received such a set-back in Siam.” As
anticipated, French organs raised a furor, rejoicing that at last Siam
could recognize the hypocritical nature of Great Britain’s friendship,
and calling upon their government to follow the British example. In
short, the British had abandoned their role as protectors of Siam,
had invited the French to renew their aggressive tactics, and had made
desirable a closer understanding between the two powers regarding
their interests in that kingdom.
THE SHAN REVOLT IN NORTHERN SIAM
Perhaps it is something more than merely a coincidence that an
uprising of the Shans almost paralyzed Siamese authority in the re-
gions of Pre, Lakon, and Nan, during the last six months of 1902.
Although the background is not clear, it appears that the revolt was
instigated by British Burmese Shans, supported by powerful British
companies engaged in the teak industry, and furnished with munitions
and supplies from British sources. During the revolt, which Siam
curbed with difficulty, the persons and property of British and French
Asiatics suffered injuries, sometimes at the hands of Siamese soldiers.
Many fleeing Shans crossed into French Indo-China. French and
British interests loudly clamored for intervention, charging that Siam
was incapable of maintaining order in her northern provinces.
Despite Siam’s well-reasoned misgivings on this score, matters
did not come to such a pass; although the American minister has re-
234 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
corded his mature opinion that the revolt “very nearly cost Siam the
greater part of her northern territory.” The affair served to intensify
Siam’s distrust of the British, afforded an occasion for something like
Anglo-French cooperation in Siam, and pointed toward further colla-
boration of the two powers. In view of British conduct in the affairs
of Kelantan and the Shan uprising, it is not surprising that Lansdowne
answered the Siamese envoys’ plea for a joint guarantee of Siam’s integ-
rity with the observation that there appeared “to be considerable ob-
jections” to the conclusion of such an arrangement.
THE FRENCH SETTLEMENT WITH SIAM
The persistence of France in maintaining her absurd interpreta-
tion of the agreements of 1893, the aggressive and outspoken views of
French colonials, and the refusal of Siam to compromise with a govern-
ment whose intentions she rightly distrusted, maintained a state of
acute but barren friction between France and Siam. The chief sub-
jects of controversy were protégés, the neutral zone, that part of Luang
Prabang lying on the right bank of the Mekong, and the continued oc-
cupation of Chantabun by French troops.
During 1901 and the first half of 1902, Delcassé, the French
foreign secretary, and Klobukowski sought unsuccessfully to settle
these and other issues in a manner wholly favorable to France.
Alarmed at the Anglo-Japanese alliance, Klobukowski, in June, 1902,
urged immediate occupation of the Mekong valley. Recalled to Paris,
he asserted in September that the British so controlled the Siamese
administration that they could easily establish a protectorate over the
kingdom.
Delcassé now changed his policy. He determined to sacrifice
colonial interests and the agreements of 1893 in order to effect a
rapprochement with both Siam and Great Britain. In July the semi-
official Temps expounded this new policy. France, it declared, must
adopt the part of a good neighbor in order to share with Great Britain
in the development of the Menam valley, a region of far greater con-
sequence than the unfertile districts of the Mekong basin. Only by
gaining the confidence of Siam could France expect to attain her role
as an equal partner under the Anglo-French agreement of 1896; only
in that way could British domination be altered.
Being as yet unable to count on Great Britain’s good will,
Delcassé found it expedient to be remarkably generous with Siam.
Hence, the convention of October 7, 1902, accorded advantages to
Siam as well as France.
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM, 1902-1904 235
Toward this settlement the British government at first adopted
an attitude of reserve. On October 22, however, Lansdowne formally
protested that the treaty encroached on British rights in certain re-
spects, and that it placed “France in a privileged position,” enabling
“her to dominate by her influence the central portion of the Siamese
Kingdom.”” Great Britain therefore might have to consider her own
interests and modify existing treaties, with special reference to the
Malay Peninsula. Lansdowne did not conceal the fact that both he
and the Siamese government really desired the speedy ratification of
Delcassé’s treaty; until that should be accomplished, he would not
consumate any new arrangements with either France or Siam.
This last statement was a great blunder on Lansdowne’s part, for
it put Delcassé on his guard and helped to insure the abandonment of
his treaty. In his dispatch of November 6th Delcassé remarked that
Lansdowne had not divulged his intentions regarding Malaya and that
he evidently desired to keep France in the dark; for if his plans were
known, France would be impelled to seek greater concessions from
Siam. Lansdowne must understand that France could not accept an
Anglo-Siamese treaty more advantageous than her own.
On November 19, Cambon, the French ambassador, frankly told
Lansdowne that the treaty should satisfy Great Britain, since it would
contribute greatly to Siam’s stability. If the British subsequently
should wrest greater concessions from Siam than Delcassé had ob-
tained, the latter would be exposed to embarrassing attacks from
French colonials and nationalists. But Lansdowne was not to be
moved. He still contested the claim that France might make the
Mekong valley her sphere of influence; as for British intentions re-
garding Malaya, he intimated that they were not a matter with which
France had any concern. Delcassé therefore was driven to reconsider
his treaty.
Two other factors dictated the same policy. For one thing the
French parliamentary and press opposition proved unexpectedly form-
idable. The colonials raised a tremendous furor, applying to the
convention such term as “a second Fashoda”’; some apparently thought
it the most disgraceful treaty since that of Frankfort in 1871.
The Siamese, moreover, still under the speli of traditional French
policy, and constantly reminded that their French colonial neighbors
had lost none of their immoderately aggressive spirit, failed to meet
Delcassé in a friendly manner. Consequently, after reaching a pre-
liminary entente with Great Britain, Delcassé insisted upon a new set-
tlement with Siam. Now completely deserted by the British, and
deeply perturbed at the changed attitude of Delcassé, Siam reluctant-
ly accepted his new terms.
236 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The resulting treaty of February 13, 1904, signed in Paris, was
less harsh than might have been expected by Siam. She was obliged to
yield the district of Krat and the remainder of Luang Prabang. She
consented to the building of a railway from Battambang to Pnom-
Penh, the capital of Cambodia; only local police were to be used in
Angkor and Battambang, and they must be commanded by French
officers. The article regarding French economic domination of the
(Mekong was fortified; and France obtained slightly better terms than
in the convention of 1902 for her protégés. In most other respects the
terms of that convention were maintained.
THE ENTENTE CORDIALE
The Entente Cordiale of 1904 was concluded chiefly because of
the general desirability of Anglo-French cooperation regarding Moroc-
co, Egypt, and Siam. Its chief architects were Delcassé and his able
ambassador in London, Paul Cambon. By the summer of 1902 they
were prepared to open negotiations in earnest.
On August 6, 1902, Cambon took up the subject with Lansdowne
in his own inimitable way. Having first observed that France was no
real political, commercial, or naval rival of Great Britain, he affirmed
that she now desired to maintain the status quo in her colonial em-
pire. Morocco and Siam were the only points which needed atten-
tion. With respect to Siam, it was necessary merely that the rights
of both parties under the declaration of 1896, which had divided the
kingdom into spheres of influence, should be more explicitly defined;
and that arrangements should be made to prevent the Germans from
profiting by existing Anglo-French friction to secure a possible basis
for intervention in the Menam valley.
Lansdowne immediately asserted the validity of Salisbury’s inter-
pretation of the 1896 agreement. In reply to his question, Cambon
said that in her sphere of influence, France must have a free hand in
regard to police protection, control of railway construction, priority in
mining, and other concessions, and the right to appoint such officials
as she might find expedient. Actual occupation was not called for;
Siam might remain the nominal sovereign and collect the revenues.
Great Britain should enjoy similar privileges in western Siam and in
the Malay Peninsula.
It may be observed how subtly Cambon played on British anxiety
about German competition. France really feared Japan, not Germany.
While minimizing and misrepresenting the problems involved, the
French ambassador frankly admitted the scope of France’s ultimate
demands. He thus allowed Lansdowne to perceive the final objec-
tives of French policy, which far transcended the rather prosaic terms
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM, 1902-1904 237
of Delcassé’s first convention with Siam. Realizing that in this game
over Siam the advantage was all on his side, Lansdowne made the most
of his opportunity by hindering Delcassé and by concealing his in-
tentions regarding Malaya.
For France, in fact, the question of Siam was admittedly second
in importance only to that of Morocco. Curiously enough, the most
compelling demand for an entente came from clear-sighted French
colonials, whom Delcassé was obliged to heed. Before Delcassé be-
gan his conversations with Phya Sri Sahadeb, Robert de Caix, a lead-
ing member of the Comité de l’Asie francaise, wrote:
Our policy must be to work ceaselessly to open the eyes of the English to
the profound solidarity of the interests of the two countries in Siam. It is a
matter for them, as for us, of preventing the third robber—Japan, a Far Eastern
nation, excited by Pan-Asiatic ideas, the least feared today because she is their
ally, but the most formidable—from slipping through the fissure left open by the
rivalry of the two western powers. Possessing neighboring empires, they would
have everything to gain by coming to an understanding to close the door by a
mutual agreement, we will say even a sincere and loyal condominium over the
valley of the Menam.
Not until he felt reasonably assured of a favorable outcome did
Lansdowne consent to take up the Siamese question. On March 4,
1903, he apprised Cambon of his arrangement for Kelantan and Treng-
ganu. On July 2 Etienne, a parliamentary spokesman for the French
colonial group, acting as a herald of the Loubet party’s visit to Eng-
land, conversed informally and frankly with the British foreign secre-
tary. He affirmed that France no longer desired to annex Siam, that
the conduct of both powers had demonstrated their acceptance of the
principle of spheres of influence, and that there no longer existed any
cause for disagreement between them. Five days later Lansdowne
talked with Delcassé and affirmed that Great Britain had no desire to
obstruct French railway development in the Mekong valley. Both
men were really convinced of the practicality and desirability of an
understanding. Lord Cromer of Egypt considered that Great Britain
could very easily accept Delcassé’s proposals regarding Siam.
On July 27 Delcassé prepared a rough draft for a general entente.
He pointed out that the British sphere of influence in Siam, although
smaller than France’s zone, would be far more valuable because of its
great resources and its strategic position. Not until October 1 was
Lansdowne ready with a lengthy “unofficial” statement of Great Brit-
ain’s views, previously agreed upon by the cabinet. In this formidable
document, the stipulations suggested by Delcassé regarding Siam were
elaborated, evidencing complete agreement on the question. On No-
vember 20 Lansdowne told Cambon that no further discussion on Siam
was required. Ne
238 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The three paragraphs devoted to Siam in the declaration of
April 8, 1904, were identical with Delcassé’s draft submitted to Lans-
downe on March 21, 1904, and based essentially on the latter’s state-
ment of October 1, 1903. Articles I and II of the 1896 agreement,
defining the neutralized area of Siam and affirming the intention of the
signatories to uphold her independence against a third power, were
confirmed. All Siamese territories east and southeast of the Menam
basin were recognized as lying within France’s sphere of influence;
all territories to the west of this basin and of the Gulf of Siam, includ-
ing the Malay Peninsula, were to constitute Great Britain’s sphere.
Within these regions the dominating powers were to enjoy complete
liberty of action.
Although the customary disavowal of any intention to annex ter-
ritory was included, a fact stressed by Lord Lansdowne for publicity
purposes, the declaration really proclaimed the partition of Siam and
the determination of the powers to do as they pleased with the Menam
basin. The Menam basin, as defined in this agreement, did not include
all the neutralized area specified in the declaration of 1896; important
sections in northern Siam were excluded. A contemporary critic has
accurately, if somewhat flippantly, characterized as follows the plight
of Siam as set forth in the Entente Cordiale:
England says to France, “You strip him on one side, I will strip him on the
_ other. As to the middle, we may leave that alone for the present.”
CONCLUSION
The Entente Cordiale settled the Siamese question in its late
nineteenth-century form. In British and French circles, the settlement
was generally welcomed. One French deputy, however, indulged in the
startling prediction that France inevitably would lose her influence in
Indo-China through a revolt of the natives, the expansion of China,
or the conquest by Japan.
Several years elapsed before the territorial fruits were gathered.
By the treaty of March 23, 1907, Siam ceded to France the valuable
provinces of Angkor and Battambang. Great Britain’s exactions were
more severe. By the treaty of March 10, 1909, she acquired the
rich states of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah, and Perlis, and other
concessions in Siamese Malaya.
In the Entente Cordiale, as in earlier phases of Anglo-French riv-
alry, Great Britain gained the most advantages. France proved unable
even to develop her sphere of influence in the Mekong valley. The
British, however, not only annexed desirable areas and acquired an un-
shakable hold on western Siam, including the whole Malay Peninsula,
but they continued to dominate Siam proper. The Siamese were de-
THE ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN SIAM, 1902-1904 239
termined, though helpless. Whether they would be able to keep what
remained of their territories, only the future could tell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
British and Foreign State Papers. London, 1812-
British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898-1914, G. P. Gooch and Harold
Temperley, eds. London, 1926-
Clercq, A. J. H., and Jules de, eds. Recueil des traités de la France. 23 vols.
Paris, 1864-1917.
Comité de l’Asie francaise. Bulletin. Paris, 1901-1910.
Documents diplomatiques, Affaires de Siam. 1893-1902. Paris, 1902.
Documents diplomatiques francais (1871-1914), Paris, 1929-
Journal officiel de la République francaise. Paris, 1868-
Parliamentary Debates. London, 1803-
Sessional Papers, House of Commons. London, 1801-
Siam Free Press. Bangkok, 1900-1904.
Le Temps. Paris, 1902-1904.
The Times. London, 1884-1904, 1909,
United States. Department of State. Despatches, Siam. 9 vols. 1882-1906.
FLORIDA CITRUS MARKETING TRENDS
FREDERICK K. Harpy
Florida Southern College
Gigantic and lusty, the citrus industry is exceeded only by tour-
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rise from household and family production for purely personal and
private needs, and citrus fruit was grown in Florida in that way be-
fore the American Revolution. It was not until after the war between
the states, however, that considerable commercial volume developed,
which has risen more or less regularly to a pre-freeze U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture crop estimate last year of 53,000,000 boxes, of
which 81% was actually harvested.’
VOLUME OF CITRUS PRODUCTION
The volume of citrus production seems likely to grow larger and
larger. Citrus is not an annually planted crop; it grows on trees,
which require five or ten years to come into production, and which
bear more and more fruit as they grow larger. The effect on produc-
tion of one unprofitable season, therefore, would not be reflected in
a reduction of supply next year or in five years or ten years, if indeed,
ever. If tree plantings were to stop altogether, the upward trend in
the supply of fruit would be unchanged for five years and only slight-
ly diminished for five more years. Even then, the supply would con-
tinue to increase, with only the rate of increase perhaps moderated.
Tangerines offer an example of this phenomenon in actual practice.
Plantings of citrus as a whole, however, have not stopped—far from
it. Hundreds of acres have been planted in the past few years.”
In fact, plantings continue regardless of profit. Northern oldsters
retire to a Florida orange grove in much the same romantic innocence
that they might sail to the South Sea Isles. There ought to be a law
to protect such senior citizen babes in the wood from the citrus slickers;
1Florida Citrus Producers Trade Association, Special Bidlletin, June 19,
1940, p. 3.
2Growers Administrative Committee, Annual Report, 1939-40, p. 3.
240
FLORIDA CITRUS MARKETING TRENDS 241
and conversely to protect the citrus market from their production re-
gardless of cost.*
Florida oldsters, finding that they get for their citrus a declining
percentage of a declining price, increase their production to make up
for income reduction caused by the decline, which causes further de-
cline and so on and so on and so on—a vicious spiral of deflation.
The trend of citrus production in Florida, then, is upwards; and
the future production estimates are also upwards, even to the point of
apprehension of ruin, or of riches.
Without development of adequate markets, the prospective flood
of citrus production means ruin for the price structure and the Florida
growers—black ruin.
With development of markets to keep pace with or surpass ex-
pected production increases, the citrus grower’s future can be as golden
as a grapefruit.
This, to the economist, looks like the development of large scale
production, which is limited only by the extent of the market.
In order to permit full growth to an industry, the extent of the
market must cover, first, the nation and the world; second, the entire
year’s market demand; and third, prices must be low enough to serve
the two-thirds of America’s families with incomes below $1500 a year,
in the aggregate, the mightiest of all mass markets.
PRICES OF CITRUS FRUIT
If mass consumption is to match mass production of citrus fruit,
consumer prices must come down, or the national income must be
raised. Since the national income cannot be controlled upwards by the
citrus growers, it follows that citrus costs of production must be low-
ered more and faster than the consumer price if grower profit is to
survive, and that is being done by some leading growers. The lowest
cost that I have heard of is sixteen cents to grow a box of grapefruit.
The possibilities of economies in large scale production must more
than offset the increase in cost of wider marketing, and the decline in
consumer price if growers’ profit is to increase and growth continue.
As the volume of citrus production rises, the price of citrus fruit
to the consumer is coming down, and since the tree to auction costs are
relatively stable, the decline comes out of the return to the growers.*
*Statement of Marvin H. Walker, Florida Citrus Producers Trade Associa-
tion, personal interview.
*U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics,
“Orange Production & Farm Price,” and “Grapefruit Production & Farm Price.”
Graphs from The Citrus Industry, etc., A. R. Mead, (N. Y. A. Publication,
1940), p. 100.
242 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE 1
Preliminary estimates of returns received by citrus growers all states,
for interstate commercial shipments, 1936-40°
1936-37 "37-738 "38-39 ’39-40°
ORANGES
Florida
Auction Average (10 markets)..........00.00.... $3.21 $2.24 $2.09 $2.34
Tree to Auction Costs per box. ................ 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60-1.657
INet ta, Grower ‘per Dok... ise ees 1.61 .64 49 43-1.26°
California-Arizona
Auction Average (10 markets)...................— $4.07 $3.34 $2.85 $2.98
Tree to Auction Costs per box.....:)...::..::. 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80
Net toy Grower pier (HO) ce.) crdedi coer 2.27 1.54 1.05 1.18
GRAPEFRUIT
Florida
Auction Average (10 markets).................... $2.23 $2.16 $1.71 $2.14
‘Tree jto. Auction Casts per box-:.1.....4-2.2 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
Net’ to) ‘Grower per ‘DOK. fk ticcsacceentees agi .66 21 .64
Texas
Auction Average (10 markets)..........0.00.0... $2.10 $2.08 $1.87 $2.03
Free to Auction Costs per box../.4..-...-.... 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60
INGE “to; (Grower “per DGx..7.04.0.ctee os cases 50 48 7 43
TANGERINES
Florida
Auction Average (10 markets) (Std. Bx.) $2.21 $2.48 $2.00 $2.74
Tree. to Auction ‘Casts. per’ box.-.......:..--..-: 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75
Wet to: Grower DEF (DOXsi5.2...c ce 46 73 .25 .99
°Table adapted from Florida Citrus Producers Trade Association, Bulletin,
June 19, 1940, p. 5.
®Season 1939-40 figures cover shipments to June 8 only.
™Pre-freeze cost $1.60 per box; post freeze $1.65.
®Pre-freeze return $.43; post-freeze $1.26; season $.72Y.
High cost producers cannot regard this prospect of falling prices
with equanimity; but progressive low cost producers see a multiplied
prospect of profit in the multiplied extent of the market at lower
prices. Even at a narrower margin for profit these trends are not un-
profitable nor unwelcome to the efficient leaders in lowering produc-
tion costs in Florida.
Low cost vitamin C is, of course, in the interest of the public
generally, so that even the children of the poor may grow up strong,
tall and healthy; and research under the Florida Citrus Commission
and the Kudner Advertising Agency has discovered that even at
present prices, grapefruit juice is cheaper than any other source of
anti-scorbutic acid except raw cabbage.
FLORIDA CITRUS MARKETING TRENDS 243
RESTRICTION OF SUPPLY OF CITRUS FRUIT
TO MAINTAIN HIGH PRICES
The great numerical majority of small high cost growers in
Florida, however, fear low prices, and cannot survive them. Knowing a
bare minimum about economics,—the law of supply and demand, they
have promoted politically a restriction of supply to raise the price.
One after another, laws have been passed to restrict supply, turn back
the clock, and repeal economic law, and they failed. The present re-
striction calls for the prohibition of shipment from the State of cer-
tain grades of citrus under a U. S. federal marketing agreement. For
example, of the expected 30,000,000 boxes of Florida oranges for the
1940-41 season, only an estimated 23,775,000 boxes will be permitted
to move to market.’
Of the expected 22,000,000 boxes of Florida grapefruit, only 10,-
000,000 will be permitted to move to markets in fresh form. The United
States is doing this, regardless of our constitutional guarantee of free
trade between the states, and regardless of rights to healthful food at
the lowest possible price of the one third of our population, ill fed,
intending to protect thereby about fifteen thousand small, old style,
high cost Florida growers. Such a policy could not survive in a democ-
racy, if it were generally understood.
In the 1938-39 season, 25,759,000 boxes were shipped, which re-
sulted in the lowest recorded price; so this season, it is planned to pro-
hibit enough grades from shipment to allow only 23,775,000 boxes to
move in the hope of a better price.
Last January’s freeze affected fifty-five per cent of the oranges
on the trees at that time, and raised the growers’ price 300%—a ter-
rible catastrophe or a gift of God depending upon whether your crop
froze or survived. Similar hardship on individual growers is worked
by the shipment restrictions.
Restriction of supply works in the short run to raise price; but
in the long run it is sheer suicide. Other citrus areas benefit from our
restriction and other fruits and even other goods competing for the
consumer’s dollar. In the long run, no production restriction plan has
ever succeeded, though many have been tried.
The effects of this restriction may be seen in the declining share
of the crop sold in auction markets.”
*Report of the Growers Administrative Committee and the Shippers Advisory
Committee, Oct. 16, 1940.
1°G. E. Copeland, “Protecting the Citrus Markets,” The Citrus Industry,
May, 1940, p. 6.
244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1934-35 45%
1935-36 43%
1936-37 41%
1937-38 40%
1938-39 38%
LOW PRICE PROMOTION METHODS
A far sounder long term policy, alternative to the restriction of
supply, is the creation and expansion of demand. Creation of multi-
plied demand at a low price is far more difficult than restriction of
supply; but prospects for profits are infinitely greater. Consider
Henry Ford’s fortune or the Woolworth fortune or the Hartford’s
income from A & P stores and then try to remember any comparable
present fortunes based on restriction; there are none.
Certain trends are evident in this direction already. Sunkist
directors have just voted an increase of two cents per package box on
lemons and on navel oranges for the 1940-41 season, which brings
the lemon assessment to twelve cents a box, but that is in California.”
A small sample beginning in advertising Florida citrus is the
pathetic penny for advertising oranges, which we use to compete with
California’s seven cents a box. The trend here is obviously up—from
nothing to one penny. It should be at least two or three per cent of
the consumer’s price, to compete with other products for the con-
sumer’s dollar. We can compete if we will, for the Florida tangerine
campaign of last year was one of the finest and most successful that
I have ever seen.
INCREASE IN TRUCKING AND JOBBING COMBINED
Shipments of Florida citrus fruits by truck represent a romantic
and fascinating new growth. The gypsy truck is to the highways what
the tramp steamer is to the seven seas, an independent contract carrier
who may carry anything anywhere, anytime. Frequently he owns his
truck, or is making payments on it, and lives in it more than anywhere
else in particular. Frequently, he owns his cargo, operating as a com-
bination of merchant and transport, like Sinbad the Sailor. Since
he combines two stages of distribution and eliminates at least two
handlings of the fruit, he can sell Florida citrus fruit as far north as
the Canadian border and as far west as Oklahoma more cheaply than
The Citrus Grower, Sept. 27, 1940, p. 3.
FLORIDA CITRUS MARKETING TRENDS 245
others can. The share of total shipments going by truck has there-
fore increased as follows:
1936-37 14.2%
1937-38 15.9%
1938-39 19.3%
1939-40 24.1%
The trucker is the gentleman of the highway, and a substantial
citizen; but his truck is not always insulated. Fruit cannot be shipped
frozen from Florida; but it may arrive in Milwaukee frozen.”
INCREASE IN CITRUS CANNING
The share of Florida citrus fruit to be canned shows a rising
trend, which will accelerate as the flavor of canned juice and fruit im-
proves, and as increasing production surpluses provide low cost fruit.
TABLE 2
PERCENTAGE OF FLORIDA AND TEXAS CITRUS CROPS CANNED, 1936-407"
1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40
Florida Oranges
Per cent 3.2% 5.1% 3.9% 15.1%
Florida Grapefruit
Per cent 37.1% 414% 35.9% 55.5%
Texas Grapefruit
Per cent 26.8% 43.3% 30.6% 49.0%
*8Table adapted from Florida Citrus Producers Trade Association, Bulletin,
June 19, 1940, p. 4.
Fruit, which cannot be shipped because our grading system is
mostly concerned with the size and color of what goes in the garbage
can, may be perfectly good or even superior for juicing and canning.
Frozen fruit, which cannot be shipped because it might spoil or
dry out, is distinctly superior for juicing and canning, for the flavor is
concentrated by the cold, and it can be bought by the canner very
cheaply.
Canned fruit cures some of the most glaring defects in the mar-
keting of Florida citrus fruits. It can be shipped all over the world
without deteriorating and it can be sold throughout the year, even in
the summer when Florida has no fresh oranges to ship.
Florida Citrus Producers Trade Association, Bulletin, June 19, 1940, p. 3.
246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
GRADING
Our grading system is almost amusing. California citrus fruit
has a better external appearance than much Florida fruit, owing to
circumstances beyond our control; but Florida citrus has usually about
thirty per cent more juice and tastier juice; so we grade the husk.
I am reminded of the countryman who reported of his first banana,
that he didn’t like it much, that it was mostly cob and the rest was
tough and stringy. There is a movement which may take effect the
year after this coming year to establish permissive grading of juice.
It is interesting to note parenthetically, that California shipments
of fresh fruit are centrally controlled to continue throughout the year
with little variation from month to month as market needs require.
Florida jilts the fresh fruit market every spring, and then tries to woo
it away from California again in December—a high cost and low effic-
iency inconstancy which permits California to dominate markets which
would otherwise belong to Florida.
Trends are unmistakable, to summarize, upwards in the volume
of citrus fruit production, downwards in price to the consumer and
even more sharply downward in the price received by the grower;
downwards in the share of fresh fruit moving at high prices to auc-
tions; upwards in the share of shipments moving economically by
truck; and upwards in the share of the crop going cheaply to canners.
What, then, of the future? These trends will continue; and there
should also appear something more, something new—trade promotion
in the modern manner will replace dumping. Citrus fruit is no longer
competing only with apples or other fruit. Citrus production and use
has increased 25% while other fruits increased 5%. That competi-
tion is outstripped and that market is saturated. Orange juice is com-
peting now with other soft drinks. It is healthier and tastier; but it
is costlier, and it shouldn’t be. Other soft drinks are better packaged,
for display, for preservation, and for convenience; and other soft
drinks are infinitely more advertised and better merchandised. Citrus
fruit juices can be better packaged, advertised, and merchandised;
and in time they will be better packaged, advertised, and merchandised.
A RE-EXAMINATION OF FREUDIAN
SYMBOLISM
RAYMOND F. BELLAMY
Florida State College for Women
On September 23, 1939, a harassed, bewildered, old man, a re-
fugee from Nazi persecution, died in London, England. Sigmund
Freud, the center of the greatest controversy since the days of Charles
Darwin, had come to the end. It is probable that Freud has affected
the thinking of the world more than any man since Darwin. His
work was of such a nature that he attracted a group of disciples who
followed him, at least for a time, with fanatical devotion. With equal
zeal, but with bitterness instead of devotion, another and larger group
attacked him as an utterly false prophet. And, as is always the case,
the great mass of laymen and scholars alike came to some snap judg-
ment without much more information than the way to pronounce his
name. A very few refused to be swept off of their feet in either direc-
tion but made a careful study of his system, evaluating his theories, re-
jecting what they considered unsound, and accepting the wheat out of
the chaff. Among these the most outstanding was G. Stanley Hall,
who not only read everything he could find which was written by and
about Freud, but went back and read it a second time and in addition
brought Freud and a few of his disciples to this country in 1909 for
an institute at Clark University.
The modern world has little concept of how much its thinking
differs from that of pre-Freudian days. Today psychologists typically
announce that they reject Freudian concepts, almost in their entirety,
but they accept an amazing number of them under other names with-
out realizing that they do so.
One of the fundamental concepts of Freud’s system was what he
called “symbolism.’”’ He pointed out that when one dreamed of some
innocent object, such as a hat or a tree, it symbolized something else,
usually something with pointed sexual significance. This particular
theory has been laughed to scorn, labelled as rank superstition or mys-
ticism, and treated as a childish phantasy. But almost never today do
we find anyone who fully comprehends the meaning of the Freudian
symbol.
In attempting to arrive at the true significance of Freudian sym-
bolism, we must realize first of all that Freud really had a little com-
mon sense. It is inconceivable that a man not confined in an institu-
247
248 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion for some kind of mental defectives should hold any such beliefs as
so many think Freud did on this point. As is always the case, if a world
renowned scholar makes some perfectly commonplace remark, it will
be taken up, analysed, and made to have some deep underlying signifi-
cance which was never intended.
Cases of this kind are legion. Perhaps the best known of all is
Agassiz’s well remembered statement that fish is a good brain food.
The morning after he said this it was repeated as a newspaper head-
line. He spent much of the remainder of his life explaining that he
did not mean that fish was any better brain food than beef or chicken
or onions and potatoes, but he never was able to live it down. We
still hear at frequent intervals that fish is a good brain food. Darwin
said that there is in nature a struggle for existence, and some hundred
thousand times since then he has been quoted as saying that man is
always naturally at war with other men. Actually Darwin quite spec-
ifically insisted that man is naturally social, gregarious, and inclined
to cooperate. Malthus used a strong figure of speech and said that
population tends to increase in geometric ratio and food supply only
in arithmetic ratio. Unless we rule completely out the possibility that
Malthus had a modicum of common sense, we can not conclude that
he meant this to be a statement of mathematical accuracy. Yet many
people do make just such a conclusion and even neglect to include the
word ‘‘tends” when they quote Malthus. Ricardo’s “iron law of
wages” is another case in point. We could find thousands of such in-
stances if we tried. Even the most hard-boiled exacting physical
scientist will occasionally lapse into everyday terminology and say
that the sun has gone down and the stars have come out.
Let us remember then that Freud had a little common sense and
not try to read some weird mystical meaning into his statements. He
used the term “symbolism” to mean nothing more nor less than the
fact that one thing becomes associated in our minds with another
and hence stands for it. To be sure, he usually discusses his symbolism
in connection with dreams, but he points out the fact that the same
rules work for ordinary day time experiences. This point is generally
missed by superficial students of Freud but becomes thoroughly fam-
iliar after one has lived with his theories for years and gotten what
might be called the feel of them. Freud’s disciples do not always
show this as clearly as Freud himself. But even Stekel, who was
considered to be about the most extreme of all Freudians, points out
that wholly different sets of symbols obtain for people in different
walks of life and that in all cases, one gets his symbols from his asso-
ciations.
A RE-EXAMINATION OF FREUDIAN SYMBOLISM 249
When we realize the true meaning of the Freudian symbol, then
we recognize the fact that we have accepted it all along. Our lives
are a perfect welter of symbols. Some symbols, as Freud pointed out,
are for all practical purposes universal. The flag symbolizes the
country. The swastika today symbolizes Hitler and his rule to practic-
ally the entire world. With almost equal universality, the dove sym-
bolizes peace, the cross Christianity, a white lily purity, and a donkey
the Democratic Party. On the other hand, there are individualized
symbols. To the writer, the smell of sage brings a quick nostalgic
memory of damp mornings in the Rocky Mountains where blue colum-
bines bloomed, the cut-throat trout rose viciously to the fly, and
black-tailed deer hid in the quaking asps. To others the smell of sage
may symbolize roast turkey dressing on Thanksgiving. To one, a blue
bead may symbolize a little brother who died years ago. To another,
it may symbolize a sweetheart whom one expects to see at the week-
end.
Sometimes these symbols are so highly colored by emotional as-
sociations that they become pathological. The finest college athlete I
ever knew, a young man who apparently did not know what fear
meant, ran and jumped into bed and covered his head when a harm-
less little bird got into the room. When he was a child an old gander
had beaten him soundly and ever since anything which had feathers
was a symbol of peril and destruction to him. Church bells may
bring back the memory of a mother’s funeral and become so hateful
that one can not go to church. In one of Freud’s earliest cases, a
young girl could drink no water and had to substitute juicy fruits.
Analysis showed that a glass of water symbolized a little dog which she
had seen drinking from a glass and consequently caused nausea. Al-
most unbelievably far-fetched symbolism of this kind may be built up.
It should be remembered that Freud was a physician. He worked
with sick neurotic people. His technique was developed for the pur-
pose of curing or helping these people. Hence it is natural that the
bulk of his writing about symbols should be concerned with such path-
ological and abnormal examples. But the very heart of his theory was
that the same sort of thing went on constantly in a perfectly natural,
normal, and not at all surprising way for each one of us.
Another feature of Freud’s symbols is that they so frequently
had a sexual significance. In a dream, one would substitute something
far removed for a sexual object or experience. This, of course, is
nothing more than what we do everyday. A group of men may dis-
cuss sexual matters very freely, but in a mixed audience they will
substitute other terms. Some years ago, this was more pronounced.
250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
At that time, even the word “leg” was not used in polite society. When
absolutely necessary to refer to this useful and ornamental portion of
the body it was called a “limb.” Just some four or five years ago,
the management of WSB—and presumably other broadcasting stations
—absolutely refused to allow lecturers to use the terms syphilis and
gonorrhea over the air. Other terms had to be substituted.
If we analyse our daily practices a bit we can easily see that we
use symbols regularly and constantly in referring to sexual matters.
Dreams, of course, differ from waking life in many ways. But fun-
damentally the symbolism employed in dreams is no different from
that used when one friend turns to another and says, “Hello, old
mullet-head, how you feeling? Are all your cylinders hitting today?”
To read a paper on Freudian psychology and not give a dream
analysis would be rank heresy. The writer could use any one of two
hundred and ten of his own dreams which have been studied and
analysed, but instead we will use a dream of some one else. As it so
happens I received a letter from an old university classmate some
two years ago which contained a description of a suitable dream. He
had been impressed by this dream and remembering our mutual in-
terest, he wrote me about it. He was very frank in his discussion. Those
who have studied Freudian psychology together are quite apt to be
frank—at least with each other.
This friend, now well along in middle life, is a teacher in one of
the Western States. The institution with which he is connected re-
cently put on an expansion program and moved its plant to a sub-
urban section. As a result of this, he found it necessary to move his
residence. This was a cause of considerable perturbation to him and
he worried quite a bit over the impending move. It was during this
period of emotional tension that he had the following dream.
He dreamed that he had given up his position and accepted one, apparently
not nearly so good in St. Louis. He realized he had made a mistake and was
miserable about it, but it was too late to change. He had moved to St. Louis
and gone to a boarding house with his wife and baby. His wife was utterly
worn out and half sick, the baby fretful and not well, and he had only a few
paper dollars in his wallet. To add to his consternation, the landlady told him
she could not take children and he would have to find some other place to go.
She did, however, grant him the privilege of staying a few days until he could
find some other location. Making his wife and baby as comfortable as possible,
he went out to get some few groceries and medicines. On his return, the wife
and baby were both worse. But to add to the dismal picture his wife had or-
dered a whole cord of wood and it was all stacked up in their room. Shocked
by the appearance of the room and the cost of the wood, he went out again
this time to hunt for another apartment. He was directed from one place to an-
other and finally entered a large building which he took to be an apartment
house. But once inside he discovered a number of disquieting things. It was not -
an apartment house but a store building; it was dark inside, and he could not
A RE-EXAMINATION OF FREUDIAN SYMBOLISM 251
find his way out. Moreover a policeman entered and thinking him a burglar,
carted him off to jail. He was a total stranger in that city and the case looked
bad against him. As a final stroke, he realized he had neglected to get the ad-
dress of the rooming house where he had left his wife and baby and had no
way of communicating with them. He realized they were without money, were
sick and helpless, strangers in St. Louis, and he had no way of helping them
in the least. Mercifully at this point he woke up.
Of course, this dream had been subjected to what Freud calls
secondary elaboration or considerable modification after he awoke,
but we are giving it as it was told, since that is what is important for
our purpose.
This dream is saturated with symbolism. It symbolized many
immediate things in his experience and also many experiences of his
earlier life. This is strictly in accord with the Freudian insistence
that the casual influences in a dream can be traced farther and farth-
er back until they reach childhood. In other words, a dream, just like
any other subjective experience we may have, is the product of all
the experiences of one’s life.
Of course, the primary significance of the dream was that it
symbolized the move just ahead of him which he dreaded so much.
But more deeply it symbolized the feeling of frustration which he had
always experienced and which just at that time was unusually acute.
Each element of the dream was a symbolic reproduction of some
experience he had actually had. Some of them were almost duplicates.
Once on moving to a Texas school his family had encountered an un-
expected cold snap on their arrival. Also his wife and baby were sick
at that time. His difficulty in finding a suitable apartment was really
an old story, as was his rather desperate economic condition. Through
mistaken identity he had once been in considerable danger of arrest
on a rather serious charge. While on a geological collecting trip in
the Black Hills of Dakota he had once become lost for a short time.
This did not prove to be serious, but for a time it had caused him
great distress, because he knew his family would be worrying greatly
and he had no way of assuring them that he was all right. These are
true examples of Freudian symbolism, though they are hardly the
type usually quoted. They are merely the more plainly evident forms.
More subtle symbolism can also be found in this dream. The cord
of wood in their room symbolized secret and hidden feelings of shame
that their home had never been as attractive as it might have been.
This, he explained was not due to any slovenliness on the part of his
wife, but was the result of her delicate health and his own financial
inability to furnish sufficient domestic help and labor saving devices.
During his worries over the change of location, he had naturally
thought back over the moves they had made in earlier life. He re-
252 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
membered various times when he had been embarrassed by having
visitors drop in and find a badly disordered house. Hence his dream
of the cord of wood in the bedroom. This wood—or rather his wife’s
act of purchasing it—had still further symbolic meaning. Somewhat
habitually he had been caused considerable trouble by unwise and
somewhat extravagant purchases which his wife made. Hence in his
dream she ordered a whole cord of wood and they were to stay there
only a few days.
Another interesting bit of symbolism was his getting lost in the
dark building and his subsequent arrest. In writing about his experi-
ences he said, ‘‘When I discovered I would have to move, I felt as if
I were trapped, and did not know which way to turn.” The symbol-
ism here is clear.
It is probable that there were still more subtle examples of sym-
bolism in this dream, but he did not mention them. There are some
things which even hardened students of Freudian psychology will not
disclose to each other. But the examples given are sufficient.
There was a minimum of repression shown in this dream. This
is typical of the dreams and even waking thoughts of students of
Freud. They arrive at the place where they can not cover up their
unconventional, ungentlemanly, or selfish wishes from their own un-
derstanding eyes. In plainer language, they can no longer kid them-
selves. Moreover, they come to realize that such wishes are really
natural and universal and there is no reason why they should be
ashamed of them. Hence the element of repression is all but absent.
There is also absent from this dream any elements which are
overtly sexual. We should hardly expect a man closely approaching
sixty who was worried half to death about finding a decent place
to live and about accompanying financial difficulties to have much
violently sexual coloring to his dreams. But in the true Freudian
sense, this was a real sexual dream for all that. It must be remem-
bered that the German word, especially as it was used by Freud,
which we have translated “‘sex’” has a meaning which differs widely
from that which we give it. It is really synonymous with “love”. Freud
includes in the concept not only sexual love, but the affection between
parents and children, brothers and sisters. And the very core of this
dream was a deep concern for his wife and child.
It will be seen from the description given that the Freudian sym-
bol is not something weird, something fantastic, magical, or mystic.
It is a perfectly natural way in which we associate two objects or
ideas in such a fashion that one stands for the other—as baked beans
remind us of Boston, blue grass of Kentucky and Jello of Jack Benny.
A RE-EXAMINATION OF FREUDIAN SYMBOLISM 253
Of course more startling and extreme examples of symbolism
could easily be found. They are encountered every day, some of
them pronouncedly sexual and some originating in other fields. One
of the most interesting I have ever encountered lacked the sexual
element entirely. A young woman, under the stress of undue emotional
pressure had made a solemn vow to devote her life to foreign mission-
ary service. Some years later she realized that she did not want to go,
that the idea was horrifying to her. But she fought against what
she considered the temptation to stay at home. In discussing the
matter, she always referred to any possible decision to stay at home as
a fall or as falling from a high purpose. Repeatedly she would awake
screaming and would explain that she had dreamed she was falling. It
is exceedingly probable that her dream of a fall symbolized her un-
acknowledged desire to fall from her pledge. Freud found many quite
similar cases.
A very legitimate criticism of Freudian psychology is that we
assume these elements of dreams are symbols but can not prove it.
This fact was noted by Morton Prince who said that the situation was
similar to the first phase of discovering the germ which causes some
disease. First, he said, we learn that the germ is present whenever
one has the disease. But this alone does not constitute proof. Before
a final conclusion can be drawn, the disease must be produced by im-
planting the suspected germ. Dr. Prince attempted this type of thing
with Freudian symbols. He told one of his patients under hypnosis
that she would dream she was a great psychologist, but he did not
tell her what form the dream would take. That night she dreamed
that she saw many people working on a great temple which was in
process of construction. Some of them were building it up and others
were tearing it down, so that it was going up very slowly. And
William James said to her, ‘Some of these have done much to erect
this temple, but you have done more than all the rest.” Prince felt
justified in concluding that this was a clear case of symbolism, in-
duced by his suggestion.
We do not have to go to dreams to get far-fetched symbols. We
meet such exaggerated forms in waking life every day that we would
be inclined to reject them if they were in dreams. My son, whose name
happened to be R. Edward, announced when he was a young child,
“Tm a red-headed woodpecker.” When asked why, he said, “Well,
my name begins with R, and my name’s Ed—that makes Red—I’m
a red-headed woodpecker.’ Since this happened in waking life it
can not be disputed. But if one dreamed of a woodpecker and by
process of analysis and association decided it symbolized such a name,
there are many who would pooh-hoo it.
254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
We do not think it strange when a bragging man says, “I tell
you, I’m a regular horse.’ Therefore we should not be surprised if
such symbolism appears in a dream. Similarly, we may use such
symbolism as a snake in the grass, a faithful old watchdog, a skunk,
a greedy pig, a crowing rooster, an unfortunate goat, a sly fox, a
strong ox, a cold fish, a gentle lamb, or even a white elephant. And
waking or dreaming we may employ such symbols as a tall pine, a
strong oak, a weeping willow, a graceful elm, a clinging vine—per-
haps even poison ivy—bright-faced daisies, modest violets, retiring
ferns, aristocratic orchids, common dandelions, obnoxious thistles,
beautiful roses, peaches and cream, or sour lemons. We may call our
friends or enemies any of those names.
We speak in terms of symbols, we think in terms of symbols and
we dream in terms of symbols. Reduced to its elements that is all
Freud meant. The fact that he gave pathological and extreme cases is
what we should normally expect. There was no occasion for him to
keep talking about the ordinary cases. What he was attacking was the
pathological, the diseased, the warped, twisted, abnormal and unusual.
Of course wherever there are great billows of smoke there must
be some small amount of fire. It is quite true that Freud’s disciples
did make some wild statements. Coriat, for example, carried the idea
of symbolism to ridiculous extremes. And, no doubt, Freud himself
made many statements which were overdrawn. No man yet has had
a perfect record.
The object of this paper is not to advance the theory that Freud
was always right, even about the one concept of symbolism. The attempt
has been to show that when properly understood, Freudian symbolism
is not the wild phantasy of an erratic mystic, but is really something
quite tame, quite everyday and quite in line with common sense and
good psychology.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
Any attempt to give bibliographic references for the statements in this pa-
per would involve a mass of references so extensive that it could not be handled.
Any one of the general statements made could be referred to at least a score of
sources. Moreover many points were secured from oral rendition of papers and
talks, as well as from published reports—as for example, Morton Prince’s ex-
periment. However, the American Journal of Sociology for November, 1939, is
devoted to a discussion of Freudian concepts and gives a good review of the
present day attitude.
SHOULD BANKS BE PERMITTED TO FAIL?
FRANK W. TUTTLE
University of Florida
There is a distinction between a bank failing and a bank closing.
A bank fails when its demand deposits are no longer available to the
depositors. A bank closes when it ceases to function as such. A bank
may close when it merges with another bank, but the activities are
carried on continuously and the depositors are not deprived of the
use of their deposits.
One of the characteristics of the development of commercial
banking in the United States has been the recurrence of periods of
bank failures. Independent unit banking has long been championed,
and still is, by many bankers and others, as that system best suited
to the industrial and agricultural development of a democracy. Indi-
vidual initiative and competition have brought about a rapid develop-
ment of banking in the United States in the financing of industries
organized for the purpose of exploiting land and other natural resources,
including innocent investors.
The post World War period was one of inflation, industrial ex-
pansion, stock market speculation and agricultural depression. A false
feeling of economic security was fostered by a self induced credit fi-
nanced expansion of foreign markets, together with the philosophy of
our political leaders who preached the doctrine of perpetually rising
prices accompanied by a condition of perpetual prosperity. Install-
ment buying was almost universal and persons were living far beyond
their money incomes. Banks were failing in increasingly large numbers
and unemployment was prevalent, although few persons heeded these
danger signals. ‘The stock market crash occurred in October, 1929,
and in 1932 and 1933 the banking system utterly collapsed, culminat-
ing in the banking holiday on March 4, 1933, at the inception of the
Roosevelt administration. Deposits shrank thirty per cent and thous-
ands of depositors were deprived of all or part of their purchasing
power. A deposit insurance plan, more properly one of guaranteeing
deposits, was incorporated permanently into the Bank Act of 1935,
since which time few banks have failed, but in those instances in
which insured banks have been forced to close their doors, the Federal
Deposit Insurance Corporation has functioned to make the deposits
available to the depositors only after a delay and interruption of ser-
vice amounting to several months in many cases.
BS
256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Federal Reserve Banks have emphasized liquidity of assets
in their relationships with member banks. The Federal Deposit Insur-
ance Corporation emphasizes solvency in its examination of the books
of insured banks. This difference in emphasis is really one of point of
view and is justifiable under the existing set-up.
In spite of several and sundry suggestions that have been propos-
ed to strengthen the banking system, none of them seem to recognize
that in size there is strength and that competition among banks may
be a source of weakness which may lead to the failure of a few banks
or even of the entire system as occured in 1933.
Is there any more reason why a bank should be permitted to fail
than that a public utility should be permitted to close down or to re-
fuse to render service to a customer? Is an institution that furnishes
the principal circulating medium of the country in the form of bank
notes and bank deposits of any less importance than one that furnishes
water, light or transportation?
It is true that the principal reason for not permitting a public
utility to close is that it renders a monopoly service to the members
of a given community. Denied the services of a public utility the
entire community suffers the loss of the service rendered by it. Some
residences may not be wired for electricity or piped for water or gas,
yet their occupants derive a benefit from these utilities and they
would suffer from the lack of them. Some persons may not have in-
dividual bank deposits, but they suffer along with those who do have
them when banks fail. At present if a bank fails, the entire commun-
ity may not be without the services of a bank. Competition has de-
creed that, even in many small towns, there be two or more banks in
operation the year round when one bank could handle all of the busi-
ness adequately and probably more efficiently. Even so, since the banks
have been permitted to engage in deposit banking maintaining fractional
reserves, they should not be permitted to fail unless their depositors
are protected in full and at once. It is true that when one bank fails
its depositors may open new accounts in another bank, but in so
doing the purchasing power represented by the demand deposits of the
failed bank is not released. This purchasing power is not available
to the depositors until final settlement has been effected. Not only do
the depositors suffer from the loss of their purchasing power but
others who do not have any direct contacts with the closed bank are
sometimes vitally affected. Members of society are so interdependent,
the one upon the other, that a breakdown in the credit system has
far-reaching economic and social effects. It is this fact that gives
justification to this paper.
SHOULD BANKS BE PERMITTED TO FAIL? 257
Banks are required by law to open for business every legal
business day and to remain open throughout the whole period of the
day until closing time, notice of which is always publicly displayed.
While banks have the privilege of selecting their depositors, they
have no more control over who receives their depositors’ checks in the
course of business than they have over the selection of the holders of
their notes. Holders of bank notes and of bank checks are both credi-
tors of a bank. The fact that the holder of a check may have recourse
to the person whose name appears as an endorser, or to the maker,
is of little importance in this connection since their ability to pay when
their banks are closed is impaired.
Obviously it was the intention of the framers of the Constitution
to provide a stable currency that would always circulate at par. Since
a large portion of the circulating medium is in the form of bank de-
posits, why not give official and legal recognition of this fact and
provide for a more stable volume of deposits, at least as far as bank
causation is concerned?
The United States Government is far more stable and permanent
than is the life of any individual or corporation. It is interested in
social conditions as they affect the welfare and well being of its citi-
zens. Banks fail because they do not have sufficient cash to meet the
demands of their depositors, even though they have assets that have
value at their maturity but are not liquid. Why not let the Govern-
ment meet this short run problem of insufficiency of cash as long as
the banks have securities that have adequate maturity values?
At the present time, 1940, it is extremely doubtful if gold, as
such, will ever circulate actively again as money. It is much more ef-
ficient when serving as a basis of credit. People are not inconvenienced
by the lack of gold in circulation, and they have come to prefer the
use of paper money and deposit currency as long as they are “as good
as gold,” that is, as long as they have the purchasing power of gold.
This being the case, let Congress provide for a Board of Monetary
Management which shall be entirely free and apart from any political
or governmental organization and which shall have the sole right to
issue paper money. When a bank is about to fail, let it appeal to this
Board which shall immediately take charge of the bank and determine
the maturity values of the assets in the bank’s investment portfolio.
On the basis of these maturity values the Board will issue notes to the
bank for use in meeting the claims of the depositors, who by this
means will have constant and continuous use of their purchasing pow-
er. These notes will have full legal tender privileges and will be free-
258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ly exchangeable for all other kinds of money at all times. These pro-
visions should insure circulation of these notes at par.
Under present conditions there would be no point in providing
for the redemption of these notes, as none of our monies are readily
redeemable at the present time. Should the time ever come when our
currencies are redeemable on demand in gold, it is doubtful if these
notes would have to be given that privilege in order for them to cir-
culate at par. There would never be a very large volume of these
notes outstanding at any one time in proportion to the total volume of
currency and they would be in constant process of retirement by the
Board.
As the assets of the banks in the possession of the Board mature,
notes that it has issued will be withdrawn from circulation, thus pre-
venting monetary inflation.
Should the United States return to a free gold coin standard
these notes should circulate at par as long as they have full legal
tender privileges and are exchangeable for all other monies. However,
gold redemption may be provided for in one of two ways.
Congress may appropriate a portion of the gold hoard now held
at Fort Knox as a redemption fund to be held by the Treasury De-
partment. The Treasury would redeem all notes turned in to it for
that purpose and would hold them until retired by the Board of Mone-
tary Management.
An alternative plan to provide for the redemption of these notes
would be for the Board to sell gold bonds to establish a redemption
fund to be used solely for the purpose of redeeming United States
notes issued to depositors of failed banks. The interest on these
bonds would be part of the operating expenses of the Board and
would be appropriated by Congress out of tax receipts. Once estab-
lished this fund would be perpetuated out of the receipts of the assets
of the Board as they mature.
Even in case of fraud or embezzlement of funds, the Board will
assume control of the assets of a bank since it is representative of the
Government and the people as a whole, and is better able to withstand
losses than are the unfortunate depositors who are entirely innocent
of any wrongdoing, but who are made to suffer for the wrongdoings of
those in whom they had put their trust. Sentencing an embezzler to
prison may serve as a deterrent to others in the same or similar posi-
tion but it does not restore purchasing power to those who have lost,
nor does it instill confidence in the system in any person.
In order for the Board of Monetary Management to function to
protect the depositors of all banks, the Federal Reserve System will
SHOULD BANKS BE PERMITTED TO FAIL? 259
have to enlarge upon the scope of its activities to include all of the
commercial banks, State and National. In effecting the transition
from the present system to the new one, all State banks in operation
at the time would be given Federal charters provided they could meet
the requirements of the Federal banking laws in effect at the- time.
No attempt would be made at this time to reduce the number of banks
or to consolidate them, except as may be necessary to prevent some
State banks from closing because of their inability to meet the new
conditions imposed upon them. Should the directors of State banks
desire to cease to operate rather than to enter the new system, they
would be permitted to do so provided their creditors could be paid in
full and without delay.
The monetary functions of the Comptroller of the Currency would
be assumed by the Board of Monetary Management, while the Board
of Governors of the Federal Reserve System would absorb the bank-
ing functions of this dignitary. This action is in no way a reflection
upon the manner in which the office of the Comptroller of the Cur-
rency has been or is being conducted. It is in recognition of the fact
that there would be no vaison d’etre of this division of the Treasury
Department with the Board of Monetary Management assuming con-
trol over the issuance of money. Not only would the Board supervise
the issuance of paper money; it would also administer the laws rela-
tive to the issuance of certificates, both gold and silver, greenbacks,
subsidiary and token money.
The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System would
exercise full supervisory powers over all member banks. It would
be the principal bank examining body and would enforce the Federal
banking laws.
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation would be liquidated
since the new Board of Monetary Management would, in effect,
guarantee bank deposits without limit without placing any financial
burden upon the banks. The Board would call for occasional reports
from the banks to enable it to influence the investment policies of the
banks, looking toward maturity values of securities and collateral
rather than to their liquidity.
Banks will continue to fail as long as they depend upon human
judgments and valuations for their soundness. No person, banker or
otherwise, is infallible in his estimates placed upon the value of
wealth and of property rights. Society will shoulder the burden caused
by the failure to judge correctly and no group of depositors will be
deprived of its purchasing power. The monetary cost of administering
the system will likewise be borne by society, the expenses involved
260 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
being cared for in the collection of taxes by the Federal Government
rather than by assessments, regular or special, against the banks,
themselves. ‘This is justified on the grounds that bank currency is
for the use of everyone and is not confined to any particular monied
group. Once granted, bank deposits become almost as widely dissemi-
nated as do bank notes and Government money, and even those per-
sons who do not handle them directly are affected by their use or by
their disappearance.
The above outlined plan has several advantages, the principal one
of which is its simplicity. It is easy for everybody to understand and
it will result in the simplification of the machinery establshed to regu-
late money and currency, incidentally banking.
It will permit the use of fractional reserves in support of bank de-
posits and will make them more efficient and more adequate. There
will be no new banking system to establish and become accustomed to
as far as fundamentals are concerned.
There will be fewer regulatory bodies issuing orders to the banks
and interpreting and enforcing Congressional measures. This will
benefit the bankers who are sometimes badly confused by conflicting
and contradictory orders emanating from a multiplicity of regulato
agencies. )
The operation of the banks will be more uniform since all banks
will be members of the Federal Reserve System and the several states
will no longer have control over commercial banks.
The administration of the banks and the determination of the
monetary policy of the United States will be removed from political
domination. The Board of Monetary Management and the Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System will still be able to cooper-
ate with a particular administration in carrying out a policy for the
good of the entire country, but the Treasury Department will no long-
er dominate the policies of these two boards for the benefit of the
political party in power.
Fewer banks will fail and monetary panics resulting from the
collapse of the banking system will be a thing of the past. There
will still be fluctations in the volume of bank deposits, but these
variations will be the result of factors lying outside the monetary and
banking systems of the country.
Changes in the volume of money and currency will be in re-
sponse to variations in the economic need for them and will be less of
a causal factor in the periodicity of the business cycle. The dangers
of monetary inflation or deflation initiated by the Treasury Depart-
ment will be removed.
SHOULD BANKS BE PERMITTED TO FAIL? 261
Some persons may raise the same objections to this plan that
have been raised against deposit insurance or guarantee plans in the
past. It is true that State deposit insurance or guarantee laws did not
prevent banks from failing; in fact, they may have brought on some
failures resulting from loose banking practices. The facts are very
clear, however, that since the organization of the Federal Deposit In-
surance Corporation bank failures have been reduced to a minimum.
Under the plan proposed here, as banks close their doors new ones
will be opened only after their organizers can establish good and
sufficient reasons why additional banking facilities are required. In
this manner, competition between banks will be reduced and as merg-
ers and combinations are effected, banks will operate on a much larger
scale than is now the case. The alternative to the successful operation
of banks competitively under private ownership and management is
complete Government control. If private capital is not attracted to the
field of banking when the banks are under Government control, the
alternatives are (1) Government ownership and operation of the banks;
(2) abolition of deposit banking using fractional reserves; (3) branch
banking, without reference to priority.
If the banks are owned and operated by the Government, all of
the principles of a public utility will apply to the banks. If deposit
banking using fractional reserves is done away with, deposit currency
as we know it will no longer present any difficulties. If branch bank-
ing is permitted, it may solve many of the present difficulties in the
realm of banking, at the same time presenting new ones in the guise
of monopoly control of banking. In this case, public utility principles
may have to be applied to banking. It seems clear that there should
be larger banks and fewer of them and that competition between banks
may be inherently unsound from the standpoint of sound banking
principles.
It is assumed that when the Congress of the United States is ready
to adopt a plan similar to this one that the proper legal framework
will be provided. |
Banks are so fundamentally important to the success of our
economic system that all efforts should be made to remove the ele-
ment of banking from the list of possible causes that may lead to a
change in this system. Individual initiative and opportunity are re-
tained and private property is not destroyed as much as under the
present system of banking. If the present generation should be
called upon to shoulder the burdens caused by another breakdown of
the banking structure, the repercussions may be far more penetrating
than they were following the collapse of 1933.
A RUST OF FLORIDA PINES CAUSED BY
CRONARTIUM QUERCUUM (BERK.) MIYA.*
GEORGE F. WEBER
University of Florida
INTRODUCTION
Probably from the dawn of knowledge and at least from the be-
ginning of recorded accounts, as early as 1300 B. C., there exist
references to the effects of rusts upon man’s crop plants.
“Rubigo” and the festival dedicated to this rust god reputedly
originated about 700 B. C. The importance of rusts can thus be
readily imagined as they existed with the early Romans. Pliny (23-79
A. D.) calls rusts the greatest pest of the crops (robigo maxima
segetum pestis). From the time of Pliny through the pompous days
of Rome and its fall, followed by the dark ages and Renaissance per-
iod, no great change was manifest, or at least recorded regarding this
early knowledge of the rusts, until about 1700 A. D. At this time
the invention and partial perfection of the microscope brought about
an extension of the field of vision and brought to the sight of man
the individual spore forms produced by the rust fungi.
It was in 1660 that a law enforcing the eradication of the bar-
berry was put into effect in Rouen, France. Five years later the
first illustrations of the rust fungi were given to the public. A hundred
years after the enforcement of the eradication law at Rouen, a similar
law was passed in some of the New England States.
Persoon in 1794 is given credit for recognizing rusts as a separate
group of fungi. Unger in 1833 saw, with the aid of the microscope, and
illustrated in definite form the germination of a column of teliospores
of a Cronartium sp., but further than this observation and record,
he knew nothing of its parasitic role or its position as a plant, little
of its relationship to the rust galls or how this portion may have fitted
into the life cycle of this rust. The complete life history of a parasitic
rust was first thoroughly investigated and published by De Bary in
1853. He not only observed the various stages of the complete life his-
tory, but reproduced them experimentally and illustrated them to the
satisfaction of scientists at that time. Following this learned publica-
tion of De Bary the knowledge of rusts has continually developed. In
1854 Tulane reclassified the rusts and this reclassification has appar-
ently been the primary basis for our present arrangement. He used
The writer produces no evidence that C. quercuum (Berk.) Miya. is prefer-
red to C. fusiforme H. & H. or C. cerebrum H. & L. as the correct binomial for
the casual parasite.
262
A RUST OF FLORIDA PINES 263
the genus name Cronartium for the first time as it is known today.
Since these original offerings concerning the rusts during the middle
of the past century, studies of life histories have been begun, special
technical knowledge has been acquired, and the origin, relationship and
classification of rusts has been studied and tested. By means of ex-
perimental investigation of the physiology and morphology of rusts,
and through studies of their dissemination, distribution, host range
and specialization our present knowledge of the rusts has been placed
on an exceedingly high plane.
The rust with which we are concerned at this time is confined en-
tirely to the pines and the alternate host oaks which are of considerable
economic importance and of wide distribution in Florida. The aecial
stage of a dozen or more rusts is recognized as occurring on pines.
Cronartium sp. attack several species of pines in Florida, developing in
the bark of branches, twigs and trunks of trees of all ages. The
fungous mycelium is perennial in these parts. Certain Cronartium sp.
are capable of reinfecting pine trees through aeciospores, but none
of these occur in Florida.
Rust fungi consist of vegetative and reproductive parts and are
characterized as obligate parasites. Their spores are microscopic as
individuals, of various sizes and shapes and yellowish brown en masse.
Infections usually stimulate development of galls or proliferations of
the host. The mycelium is separate and intercellular and haustoria are
produced. One to several kinds of spores are usually produced on
hosts and alternate hosts, hence the name heteroecious rusts.
The life cycle, beginning with the aecium, wherein cell fusion
takes place inaugurating the sporophyte and 2X chromosome condi-
tion, indicated by the production of aeciospores, is found on one host,
the pine. These aeciospores cause infection only on the oak wherein
uredinia and unrediniospores are produced. These spores reinfect the
same host and are thus capable of producing epidemics under favor-
able conditions. Telia develop and in the teliospore therein pro-
duced occurs fusion and reduction division. This concludes the
sporophytic stage and the basidiospore formation marks the first de-
velopment of the gametophyte. These spores cause infection and the
pycnia, pycniospores and aecia are produced as a result. These de-
velopments close the gametophytic stage as cell fusion takes place and
the aeciospores are produced. This life cycle of Cronartium quercuum,
with possible wide variations according to local conditions, as it occurs
in Florida is diagramatically illustrated as follows:
264 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Summer basidioppores Fall
teliospore
Pine infection
Urediniospore@ Svorophyte Gametovhyte
(2X) (X)
urediniospore
Oak Infection
Spring aeciospore bycniospore Winter
aecium
Cronartium quercuum is an obligate parasite unresponsive to arti-
ficial culture and is separated from Coleosporium sp., the needle rust
of pines by the fact that the aecia of Colesporium sp. are found on
pine foliage and the aecia of Cronartium quercuum are found on the
bark of trunk and branches of pine. Cronartium sp. also develop their
urediniospores and teliospores on oak foilage whereas the Coleospor
tum sp. develop similar spore stages on various herbaceous plants.
They are keyed as follows:
(1) Telia hairlike. Spores; 0, I. of pine stems. II, III, on oaks—
Cronartium. (2) Telia cushion-like. Spores; 0; I, on pine needles.
II, III, on herbs—Coleos porium.
Cronartium quercuum causing yellow pine blister rust in Florida is
very common in the state wherever the host plants exist and its wide
distribution is probably accounted for by the fact that it attacks four
of the widely distributed species of pine, namely, loblolly, Pinus taeda,
sand pine, Pinus clausa, slash, Pinus palustris, and longleaf, Pinus
australis. The first named is most frequently attacked. It is possible
that the other Florida pines may be attacked but we do not have
available authentic records of its occuring on Pinus caribaea, P. serotina
or P. glabra.
A RUST OF FLORIDA PINES 265
Outside of Florida rusts caused by this fungus or closely related
species on at least five species of pines are plentiful and of consider-
able importance and have been designated by many local common
names such as gall rust, fusiform rust, pine rust, pine gall and blister
rust. Extensive cross inoculation experiments have been conducted
by investigators who have found that most of the yellow pines become
infected by one species of the rust. The fungus is heteroecious and
this is of particular interest because the alternate hosts are about 25
species of oaks, Quercus sp. The oaks are widely distributed in Flori-
da; in fact they are coexistent with the pines which clothe the state.
The oaks are probably the most extensively used local ornamental and
shade tree and include introduced as well as indigenous species. For
the complete development of the rust disease it is necessary for the
pines and oaks to grow in the same vicinity, at least within one-half
mile of each other so that when the spores are produced on either
host, they can be readily transmitted to and infect the alternate host.
The fungus is a strict parasite and must pass all of its life time or
complete its life cycle on living pine and oak trees. To do this it is
necessary for the fungus: (a) to infect the pine, produce spores on the
diseased areas on the pine, which (b) infect the oak, produce spores
on the diseased areas on the oak, which (c) in turn infect the pine.
Thus spores produced on the pine infect the oak and spores pro-
duced on the oak infect the pine. Since the spores of Florida species
of the rust fungus produced on the pine cannot reinfect the pine they
will die if there are no oaks in the vicinity. The spores produced on
the oak are of two kinds, one known as the summer spore, or uredinios-
pore the other as the winter or teliospore. The urediniospore is pro-
duced after 10-14 days following infection by the spores from the
pines. The sori that produce urediniospores are at first subepidermal,
later become raised in hemispherical to oval shapes, rupturing the epi-
dermal covering and freeing the spores. The urediniospores produced
on the oak can reinfect only the oak and thus a close cycle of infec-
tion and spore production continues under favorable conditions and
frequently produces epidemics in which all leaves on oak trees become
heavily infected and often become noticeably yellow. Some may shed
early but heavy premature shedding is not frequent. Telia sori which
produce the winter spores or teliospores may appear on the oak leaves
two or three weeks after the production of urediniospores has begun.
The sori that produce most of the teliospores are subepidermal and
produce a tube-like structure similar to coarse hair on the lower sur-
face of leaves. These structures vary in diameter and length, possibly
being constant to the oak species upon which they are produced. They
may be so large and dense as to cover the entire leaf surface; then, in
266 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
contrast, one frequently needs some magnification to ascertain their
presence. These spores are more resistant to unfavorable environmen-
tal conditions than the urediniospores and they are particularly char-
acterized by the fact that they are not capable of reinfecting the oak
host upon which they are produced but must infect the pine or perish.
The teliospores germinate on the oak leaves during the summer
and fall. Each spore produces a basidium which is divided into four
cells each of which develops a single tender, delicate short-lived basidio-
spore. These spores are disseminated by the air currents and must
necessarily come in contact with the pine to cause any infection. Their
range is limited because of their delicate nature. They infect the pine
needles and the mycelium grows down into the bark and cambium
where a gall is initiated that develops during the following season,
and produces spores over its surface when 1—3 years old depending
on factors surrounding infection and subsequent growth.
The fungus lives as a parasite on living pine and oak trees
throughout the entire year. The disease is most conspicuous and
probably of most economic importance on the pine trees although oaks
of highly ornamental value may be heavily infected. Fortunately, the
loblolly pine which is most severely attacked is not as valuable a tree
as the slash or longleaf and the latter two have not generally been
seriously affected. Some infection occurs on them in nature involving
the twigs, larger branches and frequently the trunk but the most ser-
ious losses have been encountered in nurseries where, in a certain in-
stance, a 10 per cent loss of seedlings resulted the first year and a 20
per cent infection persisted in 6 year old forests set from this nursery.
Complete loss of trees occurs when the main trunks of the 1 year old
seedlings become infected. Infection in the nursery is frequent and
when it occurs careful culling at transplanting time is necessary. In a
certain area of wet, grassy, open oak wood-land near P. taeda seed
trees in the vicinity of Gainesville, Florida, thousands of 1 to 2 year
old seedlings were growing as volunteers. Counts of the 2 year old
seedlings made in measured areas selected at random showed 43 per
cent dead and remaining upright in position and an additional 21 per
cent infected, showing swellings on the stem. Another area in which
only one-year old seedlings were counted showed 7 per cent dead
plants and 14 per cent infection, indicating possibly that the critical
stages were generally predominatingly near the end or slightly after
the first year.
The disease as manifest by the galls on the branches and trunks
of trees is perennial and the period of spore production by these galls
appears in the forest annually at about the same season of the year,
varying a few weeks in response to weather conditions. Casual obser-
A RUST OF FLORIDA PINES 267
vations lead one to believe that these galls produce spores every
year; however, there are indications that some of them, at least,
may skip certain years or possibly sporulate in alternate years. Fur-
ther studies of this matter are being made. The production of spores
on the galls on pines is noticeable most frequently in the Gainesville
area in March although an occasional gall may be producing mature
spores in February. These fine, powdery, orange-colored spores are
carried by air currents, as indicated by infections following prevailing
wind direction, and infect oak leaves that grow within a radius of
about one-half mile of the diseased pine. Infections on the oaks pro-
duce two kinds of spores as previously stated: the summer spores that
reinfect oak and the winter spores that must infect pine. The pine
becomes infected through the needles during the summer and fall
and the fungus grows down the needles into the woody tissue of the
twigs where swellings are formed. These swellings develop rapidly
during the late winter and spring, usually attaining noticeable size by
late summer or fall about a year from the time of infection. Pycnia
may appear in the late winter followed by aecia in March. This is the
usual seasonal development of the disease on forest trees past the
seedling state under average to favorable conditions whereas under
adverse conditions no spores may be produced for another year. In-
fected seedlings between 1 and 2 years old are usually killed before
spore production of any kind.
The disease, according to Arthur’’’ is caused by the fungus Cronar-
tium quercuum (Berk.) Miya. This parasite, according to him, causes
the formation of short, round, thick and also long, slender aecial galls
on branches and trunks of pines in general and also the hypertro-
phied cones of P. australis and P. palustris. On the other hand Hedg-
cock and Long’, Hedgcock and Hahn", Rhoads, et al.’, agree that the
more or less spherical galls on the branches and trunks are caused by
Cronartium cerebrum, H. & L.; that the long slender galls are caused
by C. fusiforme H. & H.; and that the galls on the cones are caused by
C. strobiinum ‘A. & H. Although there is lacking entire accord in
the nomenclature, it may be acceptable at this time, if a compromise
17. C. Arthur, The Plant Rusts (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1929), pp. 1-437.
27. C. Arthur, Manual of the rusts of the United States and Canada (Indiana:
Purdue Res. Found., 1934), pp. 1-442.
3G. G. Hedgcocock and W. H. Long, “Identity of Peridermium fusiforme with
Peridermium cerebrum,” Journal Agricultural Research, Vol. 2 (1912), pp. 247-
ah *G. G. Hedgcock and G. G. Hahn, “Two important pine cone rusts and their
cronartial stages,” Phytopathology, Vol. 12 (1922), pp. 109-122.
5A. S. Rhoads and others, “Host relationship of the North American rusts
other than Gymnosporangium, which attack conifers,’ Phytopathology, Vol. 8
(1918), pp. 309-352.
268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
could be possible since no additional evidence is to be presented, to use
C. quercuum (Berk.) Miya., as the binomial for the fungus causing
the galls on branches of several species of Florida pines with alter-
nate hosts including a wide range of southern oaks, and C. strobilinum
H. & H. as the binomial for the fungus causing galls on the cones of
at least two species of Florida pines which exclude Pinus taeda, the
most common host of the previous species of rust.
The yellow pine blister rust appears characteristically on the
trunks and large branches of pine trees in the form of spherical, ob-
long, or linear gall-like swellings, which may completely surround the
twigs, branches or trunk. In March yellow-orange blisters appear on
the surface of the galls which upon rupturing release quantities of dust-
like spores. After the spores are shed, which may be over a period of
several weeks, the surface of the galls becomes smoother as the old
margins of the now empty blisters weather away and the gall remains
inactive, except it may enlarge somewhat during the ensuing season
until the following year when spores are again produced. The pycnia
producing pycniospores, mostly insignificant in size and otherwise ob-
scure unless especially sought, usually appear in the winter or spring
just previous to the time the aecia become promiscuous. There cer-
tainly exists the possibility of sex entering into the life cycle of the
pathogene at this stage as has been found in many of the other rusts
that have been studied in more detail. There is the chance that the
taxonomy of the parasites might be straightened out satisfactorily in
that forms might be discovered which would account for the present
confusion. Until much more detailed and thorough investigations are
concluded, however, this solution is only a conjecture.
Infections are less conspicuous on nursery seedlings; in fact they
are usually found only by individual inspection because the seedlings
are grown in dense populations, their rate of growth is very uniform
and, at least until the last stages before the seedlings are killed, infec-
tions show only a swelling of the stem as a symptom, occurring any-
where from the soil line to the growing tip. Slight enlargements of the
small stem of an exceedingly filiform nature due to infection by the
fungus cannot be easily detected even at transplanting time and con-
sequently this early infection on the main stem is carried to the
planted forest and will frequently cause the seedling to die after a short
period; or at least it will never produce a profitable tree. Severely in-
fected seedlings may become yellow and die in the nursery beds.
Those killed in this manner usually appear one in a place because the
disease cannot spread from one pine seedling to another. Epidemics
may occur however, when seedbed locations are not thoughtfully chos-
A RUST OF FLORIDA PINES 269
en in respect to surrounding pine and oak trees or when certain pos-
sible preventive precautions are not exercised.
The leaves are the only parts of oak trees that become infected
and the disease can be detected on them by the presence of yellowish
blotches with or without small brown specks in the centers on the up-
per surface of the green leaves. On the lower surface of these blotches
there appear numerous small blister-like yellow-orange pustules that
bear the summer spores which reinfect oak leaves. Also in these spots
are found scattered brown hair-like structures of the fungus. Some
of them are barely visible while others are thick and up to one-fourth
inch long and produce the spores that cannot reinfect oak leaves but
eventually produce secondary spores, basidiospores, which can only
infect pines. These spore producing hair-like structures can be found
on oaks in March and thereafter throughout the summer. No galls
similar in any way to those produced on pine trees are produced on
oak trees by this fungus.
The control of yellow pine blister rust in Florida is difficult be-
cause the host trees, namely pines and the alternate hosts, some
score or more species of oaks, are forest trees well distributed over the
state. The galls on the pine branches can be removed annually by
pruning, which will reduce the spore production and consequently the
infection on oaks. ‘This process in planted forests would eventually
reduce infection to a minimum easily within commercial control, if. it
were carefully carried out over a wide area, but insurmountable diffi-
culties arise when extensive areas of thick woods or cut-over tracts are
encountered. Infected pine trees in planted forests can be removed
during the thinning operations so that unless infection is severe an al-
most perfect stand of timber can be produced. In nurseries the appli-
cation of fungicides has not proven entirely beneficial probably because
the applications were not properly timed with the spore production
period. Several applications of 2-4-50 bordeaux mixture or some oth-
er effective fungicide during February and March in Florida should
be beneficial.
The disease can be almost entirely prevented in the seedbed by
locating the seedbed more than one-half mile from the closest oaks. Ii
the above distance cannot be obtained, it would be desirable to remove
all infection from pine trees for a considerable distance around the
seedbeds so as to reduce the infection of oak trees in the vicinity.
LOSS LEADERS AS WEAPONS OF
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION*
REINHOLD P. WoLFF
University of Miami
The nature and effects of loss-leaders form one of the most
controversial problems in retail distribution. Loss-leaders are articles
priced close to or below replacement cost, in order to attract custom-
ers to stores in which they appear. It has been alleged on the part of
independent merchants that loss-leaders used by chains have been in-
strumental in driving smaller competitors out of business. On the oth-
er hand, large-scale operators deny the monopolistic nature of price
leaders and defend the practice as a device to pass on to the consumer
savings originating in their larger efficiency as distributors.
Between these conflicting theories the economist is faced with the
difficulty of scrutinizing complicated merchandizing and pricing prac-
tices as to their effect on a competitive situation that is “imperfect” by
its very nature. A customary method of ascertaining the role of chain
competition has been to compare retail prices between chain and inde-
pendent stores.” This method, however, has become impractical be-
cause supermarkets—both chains and independents—have become an
additional factor in food retailing and the difference in pricing meth-
ods runs rather between large and small stores than between chain and
independent stores.”
To ascertain the nature and effects of loss-leaders in food retail-
ing a survey was made in Spring, 1940, on prices of two hundred nat-
ionally advertised grocery items in Miami. Prices were checked about
six times a month. Twenty stores in the Greater Miami area were
included in the survey representing, in addition to typical independent
retail stores, chain outlets, supermarkets, and neighborhood stores be-
longing to chains. The results of the survey emphasize the difficulties
of defining the loss-leaders.* We found few price leaders of which it
can be said that they incur a definite loss on the wholesale price (Sée
Table 3). The characteristic feature of the modern price leaders is
rather the fact that it is handled at an unsatisfactory profit margin:
*This study was made possible by a grant-in-aid received from the Social
Science Research Council.
2Theodore N. Beckman and Herman C. Nolen, The Chain Store Problem
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1938); Jessie V. Coles, The Consumer-Buy-
er and the Market (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1938), pp. 207-218.
’Reinhold P. Wolff, “The Rise of the Supermarket and Some Marketing
Consequences,” Dun’s Review, September, 1940, pp. 8-11.
‘Ewald T. Grether, “Leaders and Loss-Leaders,” Price Control Under Fair
Trade Legislation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938).
270
LOSS LEADERS AS WEAPONS OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION 271
i. €., a profit not large enough to include an appropriate share in the
store’s general overhead.
Taken in this broader sense “loss-leaders’” were found in all
types of stores. But we discovered that price leaders play a different
role in the various outlets. They are most numerous in supermarkets
and large stores and less numerous in the neighborhood outlets of
chains and in small independent stores. From Table 1, tabulating
frequency of the use of deeply cut loss-leaders, it also appears that the
frequency of loss-leader use is largest in the super stores and is smallest
in the neighborhood stores.
TABLE 1.—79 ArTICLES FREQUENTLY USED As Loss-LEALERS IN MIAmI
Number of Survey Price
Number of Articles Checks at Deeply Cut
Used as Loss-Leaders Total Prices
Percent Percent
Number of Total Number of Total
By
Supermarkets 43 54 3935 345 8.7
Chains (Neighbor-
hood Units) 24 30 2961 126 4.2
Large Independents 29 37 3049 115 4.9
Small Independents 17 21 8337 115 13
Smaller stores have occasional weekend specials while supermarkets
use the same low quotations all over the week. From Table 2 it ap-
pears that generally the larger stores cut prices deepest, although in
some instances smaller outlets carry spectacularly cut bargains for lim-
ited periods of time.
The supermarket has the longest bargain list. We found that
hundreds of items of nationally advertised food items were carried at
very narrow quotations close to the wholesale prices and in some in-
stances below the price at which the independent retailer buys the
commodity. About fifty percent of typical supermarket prices are
carrying a gross margin of less than ten percent over cash and carry
wholesale quotations. Even if it is realized that supermarkets, as mass
buyers, purchase, on the average, one to five percent below the cash
and carry wholesale quotations, we find that their mark-up on standard
groceries is close to or below their average overhead expense, which is
at least thirteen percent.
Chain stores may be clearly divided in two categories. One
group, the neighborhood store unit, carries prices on advertised items
272 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
that are not very different from those of independent retailers (See
Tables 2 and 3). Another group, the chain store supermarket, has a
long list of aggressive price leaders and may outdo independent
super stores both as to the number of loss items carried and as to the
depth of the price cut. We have tabulated these stores along with
the independent super stores.
The large independent stores, not qualifying as super stores,
were found not to use price leaders to the same extent as supermarkets
but more aggressively than chain neighborhood stores. But they are
certainly far ahead of their smaller competitors both in number of
bargains and in depth of price cutting activities, although they fre-
quently extend credit and delivery services. The smaller independent
stores were found to use loss-leaders sparingly (See Tables 2 and 3).
Their relatively high mark-ups in standard groceries have to be ex-
plained by the insulation from price competition, which location and
extra services secure.
To evaluate these findings in the light of economic theory is not
an easy undertaking. It has to be brought to mind that standard
articles with a definite known price to the consumer are not the only
items which are passed over retail counters. Such nationally adver-
tised items form the backbone of profits of the old-time grocery corner
store. They represent only a portion of the modern combination
store’s inventory, which contains, in addition to nationally advertised
dry groceries, fruit, vegetables, dairies, meats, and delicatessen. Still
more limited is the role of the nationally advertised grocery product in
large supermarkets. Super stores stock about three thousand to four
thousand various articles, brands, sizes, and qualities. They have come
to look for profits more in private brands or lesser known national
brands, than in the nationally known best sellers.
Yet emphasis of price competition is on the national brand, be-
cause these items are the only ones sufficiently standardized to afford
exact price comparisons by the consumer. At this point the monopolis-
tic effect of the price leader comes in. Supermarkets and large inde-
pendent stores carry thousands of different items. They are able to
use the advertised best seller to beat their smaller competitors. Cut-
ting the well-known consumer prices on two hundred to three hundred
best selling national items gives the stores a reputation of reason-
ableness. The consumer is unable to ascertain to what degree the
same reasonableness prevails as to the puzzling variety of private
brands, off-sizes, and many other items on which she is unable to com-
pare quotations. Thus the price cutting of standard articles throws
a smoke screen over the large store’s price structure and makes it un-
comparable with their competitor’s mark-ups.
LOSS LEADERS AS WEAPONS OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION 273
The smaller unit cannot follow suit. It has to carry the best
sellers and is unable to stock thousands of other items to make up for
the loss. Using all best sellers as bargains would depress the smaller
unit’s margins to the point of unprofitability of the whole grocery de-
partment. In fact, competition has had this effect on many independ-
ent stores (see Table 2) and on neighborhood units of chain systems
as well. The effects of the loss leader are comparable to local price
discriminations against smaller competitors. The larger stores may
operate at higher than average profit margins even if locally applying
loss-leaders; the smaller competitor has to operate at average mark-
ups. Forced to adopt their price structure to considerable price
cutting of national items, the smaller stores have seen their grocery
departments moving from the center of store profitability to the
periphery. The grocery business has been lost to the large operators
and small stores are gradually shifting to meat and specialties.
We are thus confronted with a situation which is quite typical,
for it is the form that competition assumes in modern society.” Large
and small enterprises do not fight with equal weapons on the plane of
competition. The price cut, which is a deadly weapon in the hand of
the large competitor, is a clumsy tool in the hands of the small inde-
pendent. By the force of price competition the large operator is not
only able to drive smaller competitors out of the field of his opera-
tion but he is also in a position to build up behind the walls of this
price leadership large areas where price competition is less active.
Such areas of lessened competition exist in the field of off-brands,
private brands, and lesser advertised brands of which supermarkets
stock tremendous quantities. The competition here is “imperfect”
because buyers are not able to make exact comparisons of prices.
“Perfect” competition presupposes information of the buyers as to the
prices quoted. That does not mean that there is no competition at all,
because buyers compare quotations on non-advertised items to the
price leaders. But they are unable to make exact measurements which
gives the seller an opportunity of handling the goods at mark-ups
which are ten to fifteen percent higher than nationally advertised
items.
In conclusion it appears that as in producing industries, competi-
tion in the retail trade is growing more complex through the appear-
ance of large-scale operators. The loss-leader practice has invigorated
price competition in some fields, but has lessened it in others. Like
production, modern distribution is operating in the twilight zone of
competition and monopoly.
°E. H. Chamberlin, The Theory of Monopolistic Competition, 1933; A. R.
Burns, The Decline of Competition (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1936).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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LOSS LEADERS AS WEAPONS OF MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION 277
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SUGGESTIONS IN TECHNIQUE FOR THE
BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.
GEorRGE G. Scott
Rollins College
1. Mounting of Demonstration Dissections.
After the dissection is completed it is set aside to harden in a
preservative such as 5% formaldehyde. The width and length of the
inside front wall of the museum jar to be used should be determined,
and a shallow tray about 0.5 inch deep and the same width and
length as above noted should now be found or made.
Melt enough hard paraffin to make a slab or plate about 1 cm.
thick when the bottom of the tray is covered with melted paraffin.
Before putting it in the tray, add to the melted paraffin a liberal
amount of lamp-black and a lump of beeswax and mix thoroughly.
Pour the melted black mass into the tray and allow it to cool partially,
especially the surface. On the thin hardened surface place the dis-
section and arrange it as it is to appear finally. Press the thicker
parts of the dissection down into the soft paraffin and secure it at
essential points by pins extending into the paraffin plate. Harden the
paraffin with ice water. Attach labels or numbers to significant
parts by means of pins, or better, small brass nails. The trimmed
and cleaned preparation can now be placed in the museum jar against
the back wall. Fill the jar with preservative and put on the cover.
It is easier to attach dissections to such a paraffin plate than to a
sheet of glass, and white tissues show to good advantage against the
black background. An explanation of numbered parts may be posted
on the outer back wall of the jar. Such preparations are useful in class
room work and teachers can easily determine what the student knows
by using unlabelled, but numbered, preparations in practical exami-
nations.
2. Containers for Paraffin Blocks.
After tissues have been fixed, washed, dehydrated and infiltrated
with paraffin, they are often placed in Syracuse dishes filled with
melted paraffin which, after hardening makes a disk containing the
embedded tissue. However, the containers or boxes described have
been found superior to glass dishes.
Obtain a sheet of very thin metal such as aluminum or copper.
Roofers carry a material called “copper skin” which is not only inex-
pensive but suitable for this purpose. The “skin” consists of very
thin copper sheeting covered with coarse paper infiltrated with
asphaltum, and most of the paper coat can be torn off. If the pat-
278
SUGGESTIONS IN TECHNIQUE FOR THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY 279
tern indicated by Figure 1 is used, the container or “boat”? may be
easily cut out with scissors and then folded into the desired shape. The
long end is a tab on which data can be recorded with a hard pencil.
These metal “boats” are sturdy, stable upon being filled with melted
paraffin, are easily lowered into ice water. The preparation hardens
quickly because of the metal walls of the container. When ready for
section cutting the walls may be easily unfolded from the paraffin
block, the label can be erased, the tab smoothed out with a flat piece of
metal. The walls are then re-folded into a box ready for further use.
3. A Substitute for Cover Glasses.
Because of the war in Europe the price of cover glasses used in
completing the preparation of stained material for microscopic exam-
ination has so increased that attempts have been made to find a satis-
factory substitute for the usual imported cover glasses. Within the
last few months notes have appeared in Science’ relative to the use of
isobutyl methacrylate polymer as a substitute for balsam and cover
glasses. This substance is easily soluble in xylene, in which stained
sections are cleared and made ready for balsam and the cover glass.
A syrupy solution of the isobutyl compound is made with xylene and
this is easily drawn up into a dry medicine dropper. The stained slide is
taken from the xylene bath and fleeded with the isobutyl-xylene mix-
ture. After some hours a glass-like coating is formed. The refractive
index of the polymer is about the same as that of glass. Sections pre-
pared in this way by the present writer in April of year show no sign of
cracks in the covering. One writer in Science found that the stain
was affected, and that the preparation was less clear and somewhat
faded. To test this, four slides of a variety of mammalian organs were
stained in a similar manner. Two of each set were covered with
balsam and cover glasses and the other two slides were flooded with
isobutyl-xylene mixture. In a few days the latter were faded and
280 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
distinctly inferior to those of the first lot. Further experimentation
toward finding a satisfactory substitute for cover glasses is indicated.
However, in an emergency, slides could be completed by this method,
immediately studied, stored and later restrained and covered as usual,
when cover glasses were again available.
4. A Home-made Constant Temperature Oven. ;
An apparatus, heated by electricity and provided with a thermostat
so that a constant temperature may be attained is very useful in every
biological laboratory, especially if there is considerable work being done
in making slides of embryological or histological material. However,
such constant temperature ovens are high in price. Because of this
fact, the writer planned the following experiment. A metal box of
stiff galvanized sheeting, lined throughout with one quarter inch
thick asbestos sheet was made by a local roofing company. The box
was 14 inches long by 11 inches wide by 11 inches high, with metal
legs two inches long at each corner. A small hole in the center of the
top was made for the insertion of a chemical thermometer. Metal
doors on hinges were made for the front opening of the box. An
old heating coil of about the right size was found for the floor of the
oven. A temperature gauge and thermostat from an old electric range
made a very successful installation in the ‘‘oven”. The result was that
the feed cord could be plugged into a wall socket, and although the
temperature gauge is in degrees Fahrenheit, when in use the operator
actually observes temperatures by the centigrade thermometer, the bulk
of which is within the oven. And after a short time the temperature
can be properly adjusted. To illustrate, a commonly employed tem-
perature in paraffin embedding is 55°C. Starting with a cold oven
this may be arrived at in less than an hour, and once obtained, the
bath temperature remains constant indefinitely. The oven operates at
other temperatures also.
The total cost of this very useful apparatus is very small as com-
pared with those of laboratory supply houses.
*H. C. O’Brien and Robert Hance, Science, Vol. 91 (1940), p. 412. Suntzeff
and Smith, Science, Vol. 92 (1940), p. 17. R.A. Groat, Science, Vol. 92, (1940),
p. 268.
AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR DETERMINING
PRIME FACTORS
Guy G. BECKNELL
University of Tampa
In a previous paper’ the writer has discussed in detail a method
for finding several prime factors of a number at a single operation.
Four methods for carrying out rapid division also were introduced
for cases in which there was known to be no remainder. These four
methods corresponded to divisors with terminal digits 1,3,7 and 9.
In the general method for determining prime factors the number
to be factored was used as the dividend and a second number made
up as the product of known primes, and designated as the test-product,
was used as a sort of divisor. The only hindrance to the power and
usefulness of this method lies in the fact that the magnitude of the
number to be factored, when used as the dividend, sets a limit to the
magnitude of the divisor and thus, also, sets a limit to the number of
prime factors for which trial may be made at one operation.
In the revised method, here to be discussed, the roles of the
number to be factored and the test-product are interchanged so as to
make the product of known primes the dividend. This allows trial to
be made for any number of primes at a single operation, the number
of them selected being merely a matter of convenience. Justification
for this reversal of the process is found in the following theorem proved
in the introductory paper.
Theorem 5. If a composite whole number, 10¢ + u, contains any
factor of 10” + 1, where all the symbols are integers, then the number
t - nu will contain every factor common to the other two.
At no place in this theorem, or in its proof, is any assumption made
as to the identity of either number as the one being tested for prime
factors. The only proviso implied is that the divisor shall have a
terminal digit of 1. In the process suggested by this theorem the
function ¢ - nu is formed repeatedly, deleting one or more end-digits
of the dividend at each stage of the process, and this method is con-
tinued until a mimum residue is obtained.
Another theorem very similar to the one just given is equally
convenient, and it will now be stated and proved.
*G. G. Becknell, “Tests for Determining Prime Factors,” Proceedings of the
Florida Academy of Sciences, Vol. 4 (1939), pp. 231-45.
281
282 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Theorem 6. If a composite whole number, 10¢ +- u, contains any
factor of 10” + 9, then the number ¢ + (m” + 1)z will contain every
factor common to the other two.
For, let 10” + 9 have two or more prime factors, and let any
one of these be 10g + 1, g being integral and r being the digit 1, 3, 7 or
9. The other factor, whether prime or composite, then must end in
the digit 9, 3, 7 or 1 respectively. Hence,
10” + 9 = s(10g + 7), where s is integral. Now let
10¢ + u = m(10g + 1), where m is integral. Then,
(10¢+ u) (n+ 1) +t=m (n+1) (10¢g+7r) + #; and
tt(n+1)u=m (n+ 1) (10¢g+7) —t(10xn4+ 9) =
(10g + 7) [m (n+ 1) —St.]
Therefore, since the quantity in brackets is integral, the number
¢ ++ (n -++1)u contains the factor 10q + 7, and the theorem is proved.
For the purpose of division, where there is known to be no re-
mainder, two theorems from the introductory* paper will be employed.
These will be restated here for clearness in the work that follows.
Theorem 1. If any whole number, 10¢ + 4, is divisible by
10x + 1, then the number ¢ — nw is also divisible by 10n + 1.
Under this theorem the reduction process is identical with that of
Theorem 5, except that the minimum residue is 0. Then, the quotient
of 10¢ + u by 10m + 1 is found as follows:
Rule for Quotient (Theorem 1). Form the number consisting of
the deleted end-digits in reverse order. This is the quotient.
Theorem 2. If any whole number, 10¢ + 4, is divisible by
10” + 9, then the number ¢ + (nm + 1) is also divisible by 10” + 9.
In this case the reduction process is like that of Theorem 6, the
minimum residue being 10” + 9 itself.
Rule for Quotient (Theorem 2). Starting at the last end-digit
in the reduction process substract each in order from 9, except the
first which is to be substracted from 10.
It will be noticed that these theorems deal only with numbers
having terminal digits 1 and 9. But numbers ending in 3 and 7 may
be multiplied by 3 to bring them under the rules without introducing
any difficulties whatever.
By the use of a large test-product as dividend, limited here to 18
digits, the three tables of the former paper, which employed 84 separate
operations, are replaced by a single table of only 25 operations. In the
revised table the primes occur in precise order of magnitude, and so a
convenient list of primes is presented for inspection. These test-
products contain all the primes from 7 to 1013 inclusive, and the
"Ibid.
AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR DETERMINING PRIME FACTORS 283
number of factors included in a single product varies from twelve, in
the case of the smallest factors, down to six with the largest.
As the first example of the method suggested let us find the prime
factors of 45,692,081. Inspection shows that there are no factors be-
low 7. So, setting down the first test-product from the table as
dividend and the given number as divisor we have: test-number = ” =
4,569,208; and the reduction process follows.
20496326086283047 (4569208). Divisor = 45,692,081.
31984456
576643848
36553664
3221110720
9138416 In this case our minimum residue
623072691 from the reduction process is 23,281,-
4569208 809; but this being a multiple of 3 it
= reduces to 7,760,603. By Theorem 5
97738061 this number must contain every factor
4569208 common to the original number and the
491204598 first test-product. So, substracting it
36553664 from our original number and dividing
7012566795 by two we obtain 18,965,739. Since
99846040 this ends in the digit 9 we may add it to
2 Tania our original number and delete the final
178410639 cipher. Again dividing by 2 we get
41122872 3,232,891. Subtracting this from the
-3)-23281809 original number again we delete the
MGO6Os, cipher; and since the difference ends
45692081 in 9 we may add it to the original num-
ec ber and delete the three terminal ci-
2)37931478 phers. Then, by dividing by 2 and by
18965739 3 we get 8323 as the smallest number
45692081 yet obtained which contains all the
2)6465782 factors common to the original number
3232891 and the first test-product.
45692081
4245919
45692081
2)49938
3)24969
8323
284
Dy eek VS t 7 19°23: 29°30 34741 Asa 7 =
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
number still lower.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
TABLE OF TEST-PRODUCTS
53:99:OL 67771: 73: 79-8589
97 LOU: 103-107-100 fis 312 7-131
137°139-149-151-157-1635'- 167-1735
179-181-191-193-197-199-211
225:221 229-2935 299° 241-251
291 7206-209°24 1-27 722812283
293° 307-511 -S13°317 35k: 537
347:349-353-359-367-373-379
383 -389-397:401:409-419
421-431-433-439-443-449
457-461-463 467-479-487
491-499-503-509:521-523
541:547-557:563:569:571
577°587:593-599 601-607
613:617-619-631-641-643
647-653-659:661-673-677
683-691-701-709-719:727
133° 139: 743.792" 7597-101
769:°773:787:789:797:-809
811-821-:823-827-829-839
853-857:859: 863-877-881
883 -887-907-911-919-929
937-941-947-953-967-971
977-983 -991-997-1009-1013
20,496,326,086,283,047
38,655,288,426,304,091
22,125,549,654,501,673
316,773,187,163,046,517
9,879,251,463,499,721
39,049,078,408,188,253
108,538,288,030,848,139
309,619,196,508,457,007
796 ,229,312,542,859,009
4,064,625,951,224,869
6,860,596,063,872,959
10,626,236,358,872,441
17,092,564,102,090,369
30,150,641,449,095,443
43,889,293,834,596,251
60,888,412,234,461,547
83,850,965,748,659,689
122,610,116,602,749,401
174,123,625,045,688,707
237,993,125,379,536,343
315,199,737,746,363,081
418,706,125 ,428,900,509
552,511,361,260,261,967
747,167,199,075,879,979
= 969,878,888,197,165,169
It still remains to be seen whether it is possible to reduce this
We may combine it with any of the numbers
AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR DETERMINING PRIME FACTORS 285
previously obtained. Since it ends in digit 3 it will be found advisable
to substract it from 7,760,603. The reduction, then, proceeds as fol-
lows:
7760603 Finally, the number 1189 is found. Combin-
8323 ing this again with 8323 by subtraction and then
4)775228 dividing by 6 we obtain 1189 once more. This
“193807. + Shows that 1189 is our absolute minimum, so that
8323 we must seek its factors from the group in the first
70213 test-product; namely: 7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,
43, and 47. Inspection shows that 29(41)=1189.
8323 Hence 29 and 41 are the first two prime factors of
1189 45,692,081, and this must now be divided by 1189.
8323 The process is that under Theorem 2 and it is car-
6)7134 ried out as shown. Our divisor being 1189, n =
“1189 118, andn + 1= 119.
45692081 (119)
eu? Since our reduction process ends with the
69327 divisor, 1189, we obtain the quotient by sub-
833 tracting the terminal digits from 9, except for
57765 the first which is subtracted from 10. Hence,
595 the quotient is 38,429. This must be tested
6371 again for divisibility by 29 and 41; so we must
119 divide once more by 1189. This may be done
“4756. by ordinary division, or we may use the same
714 method as before; thus:
1189
38429 (119) Divisor 1189.
1071
i The reduction process produces the prime
— 53, so we conclude that 38429 does not contain
4)848 29 or 41 as a factor.
4)212
53
286 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The next stage in the search for prime factors of 38429 is to test
it against the second test-product. For this we use the process of
Theorem 6. Then, 7 = 3842, andn + 1 = 3843.
38655288426304091 (3843) Divisor = 38429.
3843
634252
7686
271111
3843
430954
15372
8858467
26901 Here, the minimum residue under the
2912747 reduction process is 50,796, which may be
26901 factored _down by inspection to 1411.
me Since this number ends in digit 1, it is
318175 an advantage to add our original num-
Z 19215 ber, 38,429, and delete the final cipher.
551032 This produces an even number which fac-
7686 tors down by inspection to 83. This,
562789 then, is the third factor of 45,692,081,
since 83 is among the primes in the second
Uehser test-product.
690865 Next, we must divide 38,429 by 83.
19215 To do this we multiply each by 3 to bring
3888301 them under the process of Theorem 2.
3843 Then, the divisor being 249, n= 24, and
300673 n+ 1 = 25. The dividend is 3(38429).
11529
6)50796
6) 8466
1411
38429
4)3984
12)996
83.
AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR DETERMINING PRIME FACTORS 287
115287..(25). Divisor = 249.
175 This process reduces to the divisor, 249, as it
1703 should, and so the quotient, under the rule of
W500) Lheorem’ 2, is’ 4632" Inspection jot the table of
1245 primes shows 463 to be prime. Hence,
125 45,692,081 = 29 (41) (83) (463).
740 This example illustrates most of the arithme-
tical devices that may be used to reduce the pro-
duct of primes to a minimum. However, there is another quite obvious
one that appears several times in the following example.
Find the prime factors of 2,793,813,151 contained in the first
fest-product. Here, our test-number = 2 = 279,381,315. The re-
duction process, then, is as follows:
20496326086283047 (279381315). Divisor = 2793813151.
1955669205
30652959099 2793813151 Here, the minimum
2514431835 220011 ou residue is 91,111,004,
60550864074 516038051 which factors down to
1117525260 22777751 a ae
ates Ted) uy, an
met! IN ead subtracted from the
1955669205 182689 original number, deletes
47538086909 1081 the initial digit; and
2514431835 18377 when we subtract 22,-
202239376855 1081 ee any ra we
es eliminate the two term-
1396906575 16) 17296 y :
les eae inal ciphers.
18827031110 7081 P
279381315 The remainder is factorable by 3
-4)-91111004
three times, reducing our key number to
182,689.
a When the latter is multiplied by 100
begeeel and subtracted from 22,777,751 we elimi-
4508851 nate the initial digit again, and the dif-
182689 ference, ending in digit 1, may be added
2)469154 to 182,689 to eliminate the final cipher.
334577 Thus, the sum, factored by 2, reduces to
126 234,577. When 182,689 is subtracted
= from this the difference factors down to
8)51 1081, which may be an absolute mini-
Sai a mum. To decide this we add it to our
1081 next smallest reduction number, 182,689,
288 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
eliminating the terminal cipher. Again substracting from this 1081,
we find that the difference reduces once more, by factoring to 1081,
showing it to be an absolute minimum.
Finally, inspection of the first test-product shows that 1081 =
23(47). Hence, these are the factors sought in the first test-product.
Other test-products may be added to the table for primes above
1013. However, if these products are not to exceed 18 digits the
number of factors used must be less than six, the minimum number now
in the table. It should clearly be kept in mind that the methods here
illustrated are applicable in factoring any number, however large, the
factors being of any magnitude, and tests to be made for any number
of them at a single operation.
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF
SOUTHERN FLORIDA
RatpH V. BANGHAM
College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio
Collections and preliminary studies of the fish parasites were
made from February to June, 1938, while the writer was on a semester’s
leave from the College of Wooster. The staff of the Bass Biological
Laboratory furnished laboratory facilities where much of the prelim-
inary work of examination and identification of parasites was done,
and also assisted in the collection of fish. During this investigation
1380 fish belonging to sixteen families and forty-five species were
examined. Of this number 1,218 or 88.2 per cent were found to harbor
at least one species of parasite. The report on the parasites of eight
species of the family Centrarchidae has already been published (Bang-
ham, 1939).
There is very little literature available for fish parasites of this
region. Mueller (1936, 1937) gave the results of his studies on gill
flukes and parasitic copepods collected chiefly from fish secured at the
Myakka River near Sarasota. Dr. H. W. Manter and other workers
have made extensive studies on the trematodes of marine fishes in
the vicinity of the Tortugas Biological Laboratory of the Carnegie In-
stitution. The forms carried by marine fish, in most cases, belong to
different species from those in freshwater fish. Manter (1938) reported
on the parasites of a collection of trematodes from amphibian hosts
of Florida. Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) was the only trematode
taken which is also found in fish. In the report on the parasites of the
Centrarchidae (Bangham, 1939) the large number of larval, en-
cysted nematodes and strigeid metacercariae encountered were men-
tioned. The same condition is true for most of the other Florida fish
included in this report. Many more larval parasites were taken in the
Florida fish than during the Lake Erie survey (Bangham and Hunter
1939). Most of these larval parasites had fish-eating birds as their
definitive hosts. A similar situation was encountered in fish examined
from lakes in Algonquin Park, Ontario (Bangham, in press). In these
Canadian lakes many of the same species of birds found in Florida
have their nesting sites and carry parasites from one locality to the
other. Contracaecum spiculigerum Rud. was secured from mesentery
cysts of 28 species of Florida fish. It has also been reported from
fish in other areas. Venard (1940) took it from many-species of fish.
The life cycle of this form was determined by Thomas (1937. C. spicu-
ligerum was not taken from Algonquin Park or Lake Erie fish. The
289
290 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
bass cestode, Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Leidy), found as encysted
larvae in great numbers in the fish of Algonquin Park lakes containing
smallmouth bass was not taken from Florida fish. There were not as
many different species of parasites obtained from the Florida fish as
from those farther north but the degree of infection was often heavier.
Fish used in this survey were obtained chiefly by seine hauls.
Representatives of most of the species examined were taken from the
many ponds and roadside ditches in the vicinity of Englewood where
the Bass Biological Laboratory is located. Near the end of the working
period many of the areas became dry and large numbers of fish died.
On the first visit to Lake Okeechobee fish were taken by seines from
shallow water along canals in the lake. Others were obtained from
canals outside of Lake Okeechobee. On three subsequent trips to this
area fish were purchased from commercial fishermen. On two visits
many species of larger fish were taken from the Myakka River within
the area of the State Park south-east of Sarasota. One series of collec-
tions was made from the Everglades canals. In many regions of this
canal system the water was too brackish for fresh-water fish, but a
small number were taken near Deep Lake and a larger sample includ-
ing ten species of fish were secured from the canal along the Tamiami
Trail south of Naples. Fish were seined from Horst Creek, Joshua
Creek and smaller tributaries in Hardee County. Twenty-one species
of fish were secured as a result of this collecting trip. A few fish are
included in this report of parasitism which came from areas outside
the regions already mentioned. A small number of fish were taken
from Silver Springs and Mr. Nelson Marshall furnished a few speci-
mens belonging to four species of minnows taken from streams near
Gainesville. In most of the locations where fish were collected the
water was quiet or slow moving and usually choked with vegetation.
Almost all of the fish were preserved in formalin prior to exam-
ination. This hampered the identification of certain species of para-
sites, but as many fish were collected some distance from the laboratory
it seemed the most practical means of handling the hosts. In this
study special attention was paid to the helminth parasites. The Argu-
lidae were identified by Dr. O. Lloyd Meehean of the Bureau of
Fisheries, Welaka, Florida, while the remainder of the parasitic
copepods were identified by Dr. Wilbur M. Tidd of the Department of
Zoology and Entomology, Ohio State University. Gill flukes were
submitted to Dr. John Mizelle of Oklahoma A. & M. College for identi-
fication to species. The report for those on the warmouth bass has
already appeared (Mizelle and Seamster, 1939). Because of the nu-
merous new species included the identifications of this group are
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 291
not completed. Carr’s (1936) key was followed in the identification
of fish.
In the comparison of parasitism by families of fish which follows,
parasites are listed for each species in order of frequency of occurence.
The number in parenthesis indicates the number of individuals carry-
ing the designated parasite. The asterisk preceding the name of the
parasite signifies immature stages.
LEPISOSTEIDAE
Lepisosteus platyrhincus De Kay—Florida Spotted Gar
Examined, 82. Parasitized, 77.
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (64)
Macroderoides spiniferus Pearse (47)
*Agamonema sp (10)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (9)
Argulus lepidostii Kellicott (9)
Proteocephalus singularis La Rue (3)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (2)
*Lernaea sp. (2)
Dichelyne sp. (2)
*Camallanus sp. (1)
*Eustrongylides sp. (1)
Gyrodactylidae (1)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
This species of predator fish was the most abundant of all of the
larger forms encountered. In the Myakka River, certain of the Ever-
glades canals and in other canals near Lake Okeechobee, from 500 to
2,000 gars weere taken in single hauls of the fifty foot seine. Speci-
mens were examined for parasites from the following locations: twenty-
seven from Englewood ditches, ten from the Myakka River, three from
Horse Creek, fifteen from Lake Okeechobee and twenty-seven from
the Everglades Canal near Naples. A majority of the gars from all
locations carried C. spiculigerum and M. spiniferus, while gars from
the Englewood region alone had P. singularis, Camallanus sp., Dichelyne
and L. thecatus. Those from Englewood and Naples yielded A. lepidos-
ta and Agamonema sp. WN. vancleavei cysts were found in seven
Englewood and three Lake Okeechobee gars. C. marginatum cysts were
found in single hosts from Myakka and Lake Okeechobee.
AMIIDAE
Amica calva Linnaeus — Bowfin
Examined, 21. Parasitized, 21.
Macroderoides typicus (Winfield) (15)
Proteocephalus perplexus La Rue (14)
292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (9)
Macroderoides parvus (Hunter) (5)
Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (3)
Haplonema immutatum Ward and Magath (2)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
*Camallanus sp. (1)
*Fustrongylides sp. (1)
Haplobothrium globuliforme Cooper (1)
Argulus flavescens Wilson (1)
*Sebekia oxycephala (Diesing) (1)
*Neascus sp. (1)
Six, six, seven and two bowfins were taken from Englewood
ponds, Myakka River, Lake Okeechobee and Horse Creek, respective-
ly. From each of these location P. perplexus and M. typicus were ob-
tained. C. spiculigerum was taken from bowfins in all locations except
Lake Okeechobee. M. parvus and L. thecatus were secured in a few
fish from Lake Okeechobee and Myakka River. H. globuliforme and
H. immutatum were taken from a single bowfin from Lake Okeechobee.
A. flavescens, Camallanus sp., Eustrongylides sp. and S. oxycephala
were obtained from single Horse Creek bowfins. The other forms in
the above list were taken only from the Myakka River bowfins.
CLUPEIDAE
Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur) — Northern Gizzard Shad
Examined, 7. Parasitized, 4.
Gyrodactylidae (4)
Flukes (1) (unidentified)
All of the gizzard shad were seined from the Myakka River.
CATOSTOMIDAE
Erimyson sucetta sucetta (Lacepede) Eastern Lake Chub-Sucker
Examined, 70. Parasitized, 66.
*Spiroxy sp. (60)
Triganodistomum simeri Mueller and Van Cleave (8)
* Neascus sp. (8)
Biacetabulum meridianum Hunter (5)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (5)
Ergasilus caeruleus Wilson (3)
Ergasilus megaceros (Wilson (2)
Octospinifer macilentus Van Cleave (2)
Argulus flavescens Wilson (2)
Dorylaimus sp. (2)
*Dichelyne sp. (2)
*Neascus ambloplitis Hughes (2)
Gyrodactylidae (1)
Capillaria Sp. (1)
Argulus maculosus Wilson (1)
Leptorhynchoides thecatus Linton (1)
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 293
Thirteen chub suckers were examined from Myakka River,
thirteen from Englewood, seventeen from Lake Okeechobee, twenty-
three from Horse and Joshua Creeks and four from the vicinity of
Naples. B. meridianum was secured from two, one and two chub
suckers from Myakka River, Lake Okeechobee and Naples, respective-
ly. Six of these fish from Englewood and single specimens from Lake
Okeechobee and Horse Creek yielded 7. simert. EE. megaceros, E.
caeruleus and N. ambloplitis were taken only from the Horse and
Joshua Creek forms. The two species of Argulus came from Engle-
wood chub suckers. According to Dr. Meehean the specimen of A.
maculosus is a new record for Florida.
CYPRINIDAE
Notemigonus crysoleucas bosct Valenciennes—Florida golden
us shiner Examined, 43. Parasitized, 27.
*Neascus ambloplitis Hughes (23)
*Agamonema sp. (5)
Gyrodactylidae (5)
Plagiocirrus primus Van Cleave and Mueller (1)
*Camallanus sp. (1)
Ergasilus megaceros Wilson (1)
Fourteen golden shiners from the Myakka River contained one
form infected with a larval Camallanus sp. No other parasites were
found in these fish. Twelve golden shiners from Englewood were
examined and eight had cysts of NV. ambloplitis, and one a species of
gill fluke and a larval nematode. Seven hosts from Lake Okeechobee
yielded three with NV. ambloplitis, and one with a gill fluke. The re-
maining forms listed were taken from ten fish from Hardee County.
All of these were infected with integumental NV. ambloplitis cysts.
Notropis hypseopierus (Ginther)—Big-finned shiner
Examined, 3. Parasitized, 0.
These fish were collected from the Sante Fe River at Poe Springs,
near High Springs.
Opsopoedus emiliae Hay—Pug-nosed minnow
Examined, 25. Parasitized, 23.
Gyrodactylidae (9)
_*Neascus vancleavei: (Agersborg) (9)
*Bucephalus sp. (8)
*A gamonema sp. (8)
*Dichelyne sp. (2)
*Neascus ambloplitis Hughes (1)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
All of the pug-nosed minnows were taken from a small stream
flowing into Joshua Creek near Arcadia. The larval Bucephalus sp.
were taken from cysts in the livers of the minnows.
Notropis roseus Jordan—Coastal shiner
Examined, 6. Parasitized, 0.
These shiners were secured from Hogtown Creek near Gaines-
ville by Nelson Marshall.
Erimystax harperi subterraneus
Examined, 6. Parasitized, 1.
*Agamonema sp. (1)
These specimens were collected from Cow Sink, near Newberry.
Notropis chalybaeus (Cope)—Iron-colored shiner
Examined, 12. Parasitized, 0.
Six of these shiners were collected by Dr. C. F. Walker and
Nelson Marshall from Hatchet Creek, near Gainesville. Six were
secured from Hogtown Creek, near Gainesville by N. Marshall.
AMEIURIDAE
A total of 89 fish belonging to five species were examined from
this family. All but two of these fish were parasitized. In the Lake
Erie survey Bangham and Hunter (1939) found 73.3 per cent of 75
catfish of 7 species infected.
Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Raf.)—Southern Channel Catfish
Examined, 13. Parasitized, 13.
Gyrodactylidae (13)
Alloglossidium corti (Lamont) (12)
Corallobothrium fimbriatum Essex (10)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (10)
Corallobothrium giganteum Essex (4)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (2)
Ergasilus elegans Wilson (2)
Argulus flavescens Wilson (2)
Capillaria catenata Van Cleave and Mueller (2)
*Proteocephalus sp. (2)
Achtheres pimelodi Kryer (1)
Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
Seven channel catfish were examined from the Myakka River
and six from Lake Okeechobee. The A. flavescens and E. elegans
came from the latter fish, otherwise the forms were secured in about
equal numbers from fish of the two locations.
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 295
Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus)—White Catfish
Examined, 8. Parasitized, 8.
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (8)
Corallobothrium giganteum Essex (6)
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli Linkins (1)
*A gamonema sp. (1)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (1)
Gyrodactylidae (1)
All of the white catfish were taken in two collecting trips to the
Myakka River.
Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook)—Marbled Brown
Bullhead
Examined, 22. Parasitized, 22.
Macroderoides spiniferus Pearse (11)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (10)
Gyrodactylidae (9)
Corallobothrium fimbriatum Essex (4)
*Agamonema sp. (4)
Alloglossidium geminus (Mueller) (3)
Ergasilus versicolor Wilson (3)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (2)
Argulus flavescens Wilson (2)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
Dichelyne robusta (Van Cleave and Mueller) (1)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
All of the M. spiniferus, A. geminus and Proteocephalus sp. came
from Englewood brown bullheads. C. spiculigerum, C. fimbriatum
and gill flukes were secured from the two bullheads from the Myakka
River and two from Naples; those from the former also carried N.
cylindratus and one from the latter region, D. robusta. The single
specimen from Lake Okeechobee was found to have C. spiculigerum,
A. flavescens and gill flukes.
Ameiurus natilis (Le Sueur )—Yellow Bullhead.
Examined, 45. Parasitized, 43.
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rid.) (34)
Alloglossidium corti (Lamont) (25)
Gyrodactylidae (14)
*Proteocephalus sp. (12)
Ergasilus versicolor Wilson (5)
Argulus flavescens Wilson (5)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (5)
Alloglossidium geminus (Mueller) (3)
*Agamonema sp. (5)
Dichelyne robusta (Van Cleave and Mueller) (3)
*Camallanus sp. (2)
*Neascus vancleavez (Agersborg) (2)
Crepidostomum. ictaluri Surbar (2)
Allocreadium ictaluri Pearse (1)
296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Corallobothrium fimbriatum Essex (1)
Phyllodistomum staffordi Pearse (1)
*Paramphistomum stunkardi Holl (1)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (1)
*Fustrongylides sp. (1)
*Neoechinorhynchus sp. (1)
About half of the yellow bullheads were taken in the vicinity of
Englewood, thirteen from the Myakka River, six from Lake Okeecho-
bee and five from Horse Creek. Van Cleave and Mueller (1934)
report ten species as occasional parasites of yellow bullheads in
Oneida Lake, New York. Seven of the species they list were also
found in yellow bullheads from Florida. The three most abundant
Florida species were taken from fish in each location. The remaining
forms showed a scattered distribution with the exception that all of
the EF. versicolor came from the Horse Creek region.
Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchill)—Tadpole Madtom
Examined, 1. Parasitized (1).
Gyrodactylidae (1)
*Neascus sp. (1)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (1)
*Agamonema sp. (1)
This fish came from the Hardee County collection.
ESOCIDAE
Esox niger Le Sueur—Chain Pickerel
Examined, 10. Parasitized, 10.
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (10)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (5)
*Agamonema sp. (3)
Macroderoides flavus Van Cleave and Mueller (2)
Protoecephalus pinguis La Rue (2)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (1)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (1)
Illinobdella sp. (1)
The chain pickerel was the only member of this family taken in
the course of the survey and all specimens came from Lake Okee-
chobee.
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Ten species belonging to this family of small fishes were ex-
ceedingly numerous in the ditches and ponds about Englewood and
the majority of the forms were collected from this area. Of the 232
fish collected comprising the cyrinodont fauna, 192 bore parasites,
and most of these were immature stages. Several were not recognized
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 297
by the writer. One larval cestode with a rostellum bearing a circle
of hooks was secured from mesentery cysts of members of this fish
family. Certain larval nematodes and immature flukes were un-
identified.
Fundulus similis (Baird and Girard)—Long-nosed Killifish
Examined, 24. Parasitized, 18.
*Leptorhinchoides thecatus (Linton) (8)
*Agamonema sp. (8)
Flukes (4)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (2)
*Contracaecum spiculigerwm (Rud.) (1)
*Cestode (1)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
*Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
Two of the eight long-nosed killifish from a small pool near Horse
Creek carried Agamonema sp. and N. vancleavei; one had the cestode
cyst and another bore larval L. thecatus cysts. One specimen from the
Myakka River carried a larval nematode within the intestine and a
mesentery cyst with C. spiculigerum. The remaining fish of this
species were taken at Silver Springs.
Fundulus seminolis Girard—Seminole Killifish
Examined, 14. Parasitized, 11.
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (10)
Gyrodactylidae (5)
*Dorylaimus sp. (5)
*Agamonema sp. (3)
*Bothriocephalus sp. (2)
*Fluke (1)
All of the Seminole killifish were secured from the same pond
near Horse Creek where some of the previous fish species were taken.
Fundulus majalis (Walbaum)—Striped Killifish
Examined, 10. Parasitized, 10.
*Neascus vancleavez (Agersborg) (10)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (3)
*Agamonema sp. (2)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
*Bothriocephalus sp. (1)
Striped killifish were taken from ponds in the Englewood area.
Fundlus grandis Baird and Girard—Gulf Killifish
Examined, 8. Parasitized, 8.
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (5)
*Agamonema sp. (3)
*Bothriocephalus sp. (2)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (1)
These fish were all taken in the Englewood area.
298 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fundulus chrysotus (Gunther)—Golden Topminnow
Examined, 84. Parasitized, 76.
*Agamonema sp. (49)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (24)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (7)
Creptotrema funduli Mueller (7)
*Cestode (5)
Ergasilus caeruleus Wilson (5)
*Proteocephalus sp. (2)
*Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) (2)
Neoechinorhynchus sp. (1)
*Fluke (1)
Fluke (1)
Fifty-six golden topminnows from Englewood yielded forty-five
with Agamonema sp., ten with NV. voncleavei and one with C. spiculig-
erum. ‘Two of four from Myakka carried NV. vancleavei cysts. Nine
golden topminnows were taken from a pond on the Englewood-Punta
Gorda road just east of El Jobean. These fish carried the C. funduli
and E. caeruleus listed above; two had Agamonema sp., and one a
specimen of Neoechinorhynchus sp. The remaining golden topmin-
nows were obtained from a pond near Lake Okeechobee.
Fundulus cingulatus (Valenciennes)—Banded Topminnow
Examined, 16. Parasitized, 12.
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (7)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (5)
*Cestode (5)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
*A gamonema sp. (1)
*Fluke (1)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
All of these banded topminnows came from a pond near Lake
Okeechobee.
Fundulus notatus (Raf.)—Streaked Topminnow
Examined, 2. Parasitized, 2.
*Agamonema sp. (2)
These two fish came from the E] Jobean pond.
Jordanella floridae Goode and Bean—Flagfish
Examined, 70. Parasitized, 51.
*Agamonema sp. (23)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (17)
*Cestode (8)
*Neascus sp. (7)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (5)
Ergasilus sp. (5)
Neoechinorhynchus sp. (3)
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
Paramphistomum stunkardi Holl (1)
Fluke (1)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 299
Three flagfish from Horse Creek were without parasites. Nine
from the Myakka River had two with C. spiculigerum, three with
Agemonema sp., two with N. vincleavet and one with Neascus sp.
Ten flagfish from near Lake Okeechobee yielded seven with the larval
cestode having the hooked rostellum, one with an encysted Proteo-
cephalus sp., one with a larval nematode. The remaining flagfish
came from the Englewood area.
Floridichthys carpio carpio (Ginther)—Florida Gold-spotted
Killifish
Examined, 3. Parasitized, 2.
Argulus flavescens Wilson (1)
Ergasilus sp. (1)
Fluke (1)
These fish came from the El Jobean pond.
Cyprinodon variegatus variegatus Lacépéde—Southern Sheepshead
Killifish
Examined, 6. Parasitized, 2.
*Agamonema sp. (1)
*Neascus sp. (1)
These killifish came from the El Jobean pond.
POECILIIDAE
Heterandria formosa (Agassiz)—Least Killifish
Examined, 21. Parasitized, 10.
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (3)
*Proteocephalus sp. (3)
*Fluke (2)
*Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (1)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (1)
*Eustrongylides sp. (1)
Fluke (1)
One of the four least killifish from Englewood contained ancysted
N. cylindratus. Three of five from El Jobean had cysts of Proteoce-
phalus sp., while three of five from Horse Creek yielded the three N.
vancleavei and the Eustrongylides sp. The three remaining parasites
listed came from seven least killifish examined from Silver Springs.
Mollienisia latipinno Le Sueur—Sailfin
Examined, 93. Parasitized, 79.
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (53)
*Neascus sp. (23)
Gyrodactylidae (18)
Ergasilus sp. (8)
*Agamonema sp. (4)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (3)
*Clinostomum marginatum (Rud.) (3)
Fluke (1)
300 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Seven of eight flagfish from the Myakka River had only J.
vancleavei cysts. Sixteen flagfish were examined from Horse Creek
and the following parasites were encountered: eight with V. vancleavei;
three with Neascus sp.; four with gill flukes; and one with C. spicu-
ligerum. Eleven flagfish from Silver Springs had two carrying C.
spiculigerum and Agamonema sp., one with gill flukes and one with
C. marginatum. All of the remaining infected flagfish came from the
fifty-eight examined near Englewood.
Gambusia affinis holbrookti (Gerard)—Eastern Mosquito-fish
Examined, 79. Parasitized, 61.
*Neascus vancleavi (Agersborg) (44)
*Agamonema sp. (25)
Acanthocephala (11)
Fluke (5)
*Neascus sp. (4)
Ergasilus sp. (3)
*Cestode (3)
*Leptorhinchoides thecatus (Linton) (3)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (2)
*Bothriocephalus sp. (1)
*Sebekia oxycephala (Diesing) (1)
*Dernaea sp. (1)
*Neoechinorhynchus sp. (1)
Fourteen of twenty mosquito-fish from Silver Springs were free
of parasites. Five of those remaining had unidentified intestinal
flukes, two carried larval nimatodes, one an encysted L. thecatus.
Eleven of twenty mosquito-fish from El Jobean had an unidentified
acanthocephan form, four had N. vancleavet, five larval nematodes,
two L. thecatus cysts, and one an encysted Neochinorhynchus sp.
Another mosquito-fish from El Jobean carried an encysted linguatu-
lid parasite, S. oxycephala. This larval form lives as an adult in the
lungs, trachea and pharynx of alligators. The larval stage of this
parasite was taken from the bowfin, warmouth bass, stump-knocker,
black-spotted sunfish and black crappie during the Florida survey.
S. oxycephala is discussed in a report now in press, (Bangham and
Venard). All of eleven mosquito-fish from Horse Creek carried N.
vancleavei, two had Neascus sp. and three yielded the same encysted
cestode found in other related fish. The remaining listed forms were
secured from the Englewood mosquito-fish.
SERRANIDAE
Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch)—Northern Robalo (Snook)
Examined, 4. Parasitized, 4.
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (3)
Gyrodactylidae (2)
Fluke (2)
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 301
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave) (2)
*Neascus sp. (1)
*Agamonema sp. (1)
Ergasilus sp. (1)
The robalo is one of those marine fish are often found to ascend
fresh-water streams. Two of these fish were taken at Myakka River
and two at a location in the Everglades Canal, four miles north of
Everglades City. The robalo from Myakka had two fish with C.
spiculigerum and one with gill flukes and NV. cylindratus.
ELASSEMIDAE
Elassoma evergladei Jordan—Everglades Pigmy Sunfish
Examined, 1. Parasitized, 1.
*Neascus ps. AVQ
*Agamonema sp. (1)
*Proteocephalus sp. (1)
This pigmy sunfish came from a pond in the Englewood region.
ATHERINIDAE
Menidia beryllina atrimentis Kendall—Freshwater Glass-minnow
Examined, 10. Parasitized, 5.
*Bucephalus sp. (3)
Fluke (3)
*Neascus sp. (1)
These fish were taken at the El Jobean pond.
Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid—Florida Brook
Silversides
Examined, 17. Parasitized, 16.
Creptotrema funduli Mueller (13)
*Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) (5)
*Agamonema sp. (4)
*Bothriocephalus sp. (2)
*Neascus ambloplitis Hughes (2)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (1)
Paramphistomum stunkardi Holl (1)
The brook silversides came from a small stream flowing into
Joshua Creek in Hardee County.
MUGILIDAE
Mugil cephalus Linnaeus — Striped Mullet
Examined, 6. Parasitized, 6.
*Agamonema sp. (3)
Bomolochus sp. (2)
Gyrodactylidae (2)
Microcotyle sp. (1)
Fluke (1)
These fish were taken in the pond below El Jobean.
302. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ELEOTRIDAE
Dormitator maculatus (Bloch) — Fat Sleeper
Examined, 14. Parasitized, 10.
*Agamonema sp. (7)
*Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) (4)
*Paramphistomum stunkardi Holl (1)
*Fluke (1)
*Neascus sp. (1)
*Acanthocephala (1)
Fat sleepers were taken from three ponds in the Englewood area.
ARCHIRIDAE
Trinectus maculatus (Rafinesque) — Northern Round Sole
Examined, 4. Parasitized, 0.
GERRIDAE
Eucinostomus gula (Cuvier and Valenciennes) — Silver Jenny
Examined, 13. Parasitized, 5.
Gyrodactylidae (3)
*Neascus sp. (1)
Fluke (1)
All of these fish came from the El Jobean pool.
CHECK LIST OF PARASITES AND THEIR FISH HOSTS
The parasites of the members of the family Centrarchidae are
included in the following list which gives the host-parasite relation-
ships of the Florida forms. Many of these species are able to infect a
large number of different fish. This is especially true of the larval
stages of the parasites. P
TREMATODA
Urocleidus grandis Mizelle and Seamster —- Warmouth bass
Urocelidus chaenobryttus Mizelle and Seamster — Warmouth bass
Actinocleidus okeechobeensis Mizelle and Seamster — Warmouth bass
Actinocleidus flagellatus Mizelle and Seamster — Warmouth bass
Gyrodactylidae (unidentified) —- Spotted gar, Gizzard shad, Chub
sucker, Golden shiner, Pug-nosed minnow, Channel catfish,
White catfish, Brown bullhead, Yellow bullhead, Tadpole madtom,
Seminole killifish, Sailfin, Robalo, Large-mouthed bass, Stump-
knocker, Bluegil, Black crappie, Black-spotted sunfish, Florida
long-eared Bluegill, Black crappie, Black-spotted sunfish, Florida
long-eared sunfish, Silver jenny, Striped mullet.
Microcotyle sp. — Striped mullet
Bucephalus sp. — Glass minnow, Pug-nosed minnow
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 303
Paramphistomum stunkardi Holl — Yellow bulihead, Flagfish Florida
brook, silversides, Black crappie, Warmouth bass, Bluegill, Stump-
knocker, Black-spotted sunfish, Large-mouthed black bass, Fat
sleeper.
Phyllodistomum stafford: Pearse — Yellow bullhead
Allocreadium ictaluri Pearse — Yellow bullhead
Anallocreadium sp. —- Warmouth bass, Bluegill, Black-spotted sun-
fish, Stump-knocker
Crepidostomum cornutum (Osborn) — Warmouth bass, Large-
mouthed black bass.
Crepidostomum sp. — Black crappie
Crepidostomum ictaluri (Surber) — Yellow bullhead
Plagiocirrus primus Van Cleave and Mueller — Florida golden shiner
Creptotrema funduli Mueller — Florida brook silversides, Golden
topminnow
Triganodistomum simeri Mueller and Van Cleave — Chub sucker
Macroderoides spiniferus Pearse — Spotted gar, Marbled brown bull-
head
Macroderoides typicus (Winfield) — Bowfin
Macroderoides parvus (Hunter) — Bowfin
Macroderoides flavus Van Cleave and Mueller — Chain pickerel
Alloglossidium corti (Lamont)—Channel catfish. Yellow bullhead,
Stump-knocker, Warmouth bass
Alloglossidium geminus (Mueller) — Marbled brown bullhead, Yellow
bullhead
Clinostomum marginatum (Rudolphi) — Spotted gar, Channel cat-
fish, White catfish, Yellow bullhead, Chain pickerel, Sailfin,
Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Bluegill, Stump-
knocker
Neascus vancleavei (Agersborg) — Spotted gar, Pug-nosed minnow,
Yellow bullhead, Chain pickerel, Long-nosed killifish, Seminole
killifish, Stripped killifish, Gulf killifish, Golden topminnow, Band-
ed topminnow, Flagfish, Least killifish, Mosquito-fish, Florida
brook silversides, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass,
Bluegill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish,
Blue-spotted sunfish, Florida long-eared sunfish.
Neascus ambloplitis ‘Hughes — Chub sucker, Florida golden shiner,
Pug-nosed minnow, Florida brook silversides, Large-mouthed
black bass, Bluegill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spot-
ted sunfish
Neascus sp. — Bowfin, Chub sucker, Tadpole madtom, Flagfish,
Southern sheepshead killifish, Sailfin, Mosquito-fish, Robalo,
Everglades pigmy sunfish, Freshwater glass minnow, Fat sleeper
304 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fluke (mature, unidentified) — Gizzard shad, Long-nosed killifish,
Golden topminnow, Banded topminnow, Least killifish, Sailfin,
Warmouth bass, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish, Fat
sleeper.
CESTODA
Biacetabulum meridianum Hunter — Lake chub sucker
Bothriocephalus claviceps (Goeze) —— Large-mouthed black bass
Bothriocephalus sp. (larval) — Seminole killifish, Striped killifish,
Gulf killifish, Mosquito-fish, Florida brook silversides, Large-
mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Bluegill, Black-spotted
sunfish
Haplobothrium globuliforme Cooper — Bowfin
Proteocephalus pinguis La Rue — Chain pickerel
Protoecephalus perplexus La Rue — Bowfin
Proteocephalus singularis La Rue — Spotted gar
Proteocephalus sp. (larval cysts) —- Channel catfish, Brown bull-
head, Yellow bullhead, Long-nosed killifish, Gulf killifish, Gold-
en topminnow, Banded topminnow, Flagfish, Least killifish, Ev-
erglades pigmy sunfish, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth
bass, Bluegill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sun-
fish, Blue-spotted sunfish
Corallobothrium fimbriatum Essex — Channel catfish, Brown bull-
head, Yellow bullhead
Corallobothrium giganteum Essex — Channel catfish, White catfish
Cestode (larval, encysted form with hooked rostellum and heavy in-
tegument) — Long-nosed killifish, Banded topminnow, Golden
topminnow, Flagfish, Mosquito-fish
NEMATODA
Capillaria catenata Van Cleave and Mueller — Channel catfish
Capillaria sp. —- Chub sucker, Stump-knocker
Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.) — Spotted gar, Bowfin, Chub
sucker, Channel catfish, White catfish, Brown bullhead, Yellow
_bullhead, Tadpole madtom, Chain pickerel, Long-nosed killifish,
Striped killifish, Golden topminnow, Banded topminnow, Flag-
fish, Least killifish, Sailfin, Mosquito-fish, Robalo, Florida
brook silversides, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass,
Bluegill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish,
Blue spotted sunfish, Florida long-eared sunfish, Fat sleeper
Spinitectus carolini Holl — Large-mouthed black bass, Bluegill
Camallanus oxycephalus Ward and Magath — Warmouth bass, Blue-
gill |
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 305
Camallanus sp. (larval) — Spotted gar, Bowfin, Golden shiner, Yel-
low bullhead, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Blue-
gill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish
Dichelyne cotylophora (Ward and Magath) — Bluegill
Dichelyne robusta (Van Cleave and Mueller)—Marbled brown bull-
head, Yellow bullhead
Dichelyne sp. — Spotted gar, Chub sucker, Large-mouthed black bass,
Warmouth bass, Stump-knocker
Haplonema immutatum Ward and Magath — Bowfin
Philometra cylindracea (Ward and Magath) — Bluegill
Spiroxys sp. — Chub sucker
Eustrongylides sp. — Spotted gar, Bowfin, Yellow bullhead, Least
killifish, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Bluegill
Agamonema sp. — Spotted gar, Florida golden shiner, Pug-nosed min-
now, Erimystax harpert subkwaneus, White catfish, Marbled
brown bullhead, Yellow bullhead, Tadpole madtom, Chain pick-
erel, Long-nosed killifish, Seminole killifish, Striped killifish,
Gulf killifish, Golden topminnow, Banded topminnow, Streaked
topminnow, Flagfish, Southern sheepshead killifish, Sailfin, Mos-
quito-fish, Robalo, Everglades pigmy sunfish, Florida brook
silversides, Large-mouthed black bass, Bluegill, Black crappie,
Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish, Blue-spotted sunfish,
Florida long-eared sunfish, Striped mullet, Fat sleeper
Dorylaimus sp. — Chub sucker, Seminole killifish
ACANTHOCEPHALA
Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave)—Bowfin, Channel cat-
fish, Brown bullhead, Yellow bullhead, Chain pickerel, Long-
nosed killifish, Banded topminnow, Flagfish, Least killifish,
Robalo, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Bluegill,
Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sun-fish
Neoechinorhynchus sp. — Yellow bullhead, Golden topminnow, Flag-
fish, Mosquito-fish
Octospinifer macilentus Van Cleave — Chub sucker
Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton) — Spotted gar, Bowfin, Chub
sucker, Pug-nosed minnow, Channel catfish, Brown bullhead,
Long-nosed killifish, Striped killifish, Gulf killifish, Golden top-
minnow, Mosquito-fish, Large-mouthed black bass, Warmouth
bass, Bluegill, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black spotted sun-
fish, Blue-spotted sunfish, Florida long-eared sunfish.
Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli Linkins — White catfish
Acanthocephala (Unidentified) —- Mosquito-fish, Fat sleeper
306 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PARASITIC COPEPODS
Argulus flavescens Wilson — Bowfin, Chub sucker, Channel catfish,
Yellow bullhead, Florida gold-spotted killifish, Large-mouthed
black bass, Warmouth bass, Stump-knocker
Argulus lepidoste: Kellicott — Spotted gar
Argulus maculosus Wilson—Chub sucker
Achtheres microptert Wright—Warmouth bass
Achtheres pimelodi Kroyer—Channel catfish
Ergastlus caeruleus Wilson — Chub sucker, Golden topminnow, Large-
mouthed black bass, Warmouth bass, Bluegill, Stumpknocker,
Black-spotted sunfish
Ergasilus megaceros Wilson —- Chub sucker, Florida golden shiner
Ergasilus elegans Wilson — Channel catfish.
Ergasilus versicolor Wilson — Marbled brown bullhead, Yellow bull-
head
Ergasilus centrarchidarum Wright — Large-mouthed black bass
Ergasilus sp. — Flagfish, Florida gold-spotted killifish, Sailfin, Mos-
quito-fish
Bomolochus sp. — Striped mullet
Lernaea sp. — Spotted gar, Mosquito-fish, Large-mouthed black bass.
LINGAUTULIDAE
Sebekia oxycephala (Diesing) — Bowfin, Mosquito-fish, Warmouth
bass, Black crappie, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish, Flor-
ida long-eared sunfish.
HIRUDINEA
Illinobdella sp. — Chain pickerel, Large-mouthed black bass, War-
mouth bass, Bluegill, Stump-knocker, Black-spotted sunfish.
PARASITES OF FRESH-WATER FISH OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA 307
LITERATURE CITED
Bangham, R. V.: “Parasites of Centrarchidae from southern Florida,” Trans.
Am. Fish. Soc., Vol. 68, (1938), pp. 263-268. “Parasites of fish of Algonquin
Park Lakes,” Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., Vol. 70, (1940). (in press).
Bangham, R. V., and G. W. Hunter, III: “Studies on fish parasites of Lake
Erie. Distribution studies,” Zoologica, Vol. 24, (1939), pp. 385-448.
Carr, A. F.; “A key to the fresh-water fishes of Florida,” Proc. Fla. Acad.
Sci., Vol. 1, (1936), pp. 72-86.
Manter, H. W.: “A collection of trematodes from Florida amphibia,” Trans.
Am. Micros. Soc., Vol. 57, (1938), pp. 26-37.
Mizelle, J. D. and A. Seamster: “Studies on monogentic trematodes. I. New
species from the warmouth bass.” Jour. Parasitol., Vol. 25, (1939), pp. 501-505.
Mueller, J. F.: “Notes on some parasitic copepods and a mite, chiefly from
Florida fresh water fishes,” Am. Midland Nat., Vol. 17, (1936), pp. 807-815.
“Further studies on North American Gyrodactyloidea,” Jbid., Vol. 18, (1937), pp.
207-219.
Thomas, L. J.:“On the life cycle of Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud.),”
Jour. Parasitol., Vol. 23, (1937), 429-431.
Van Cleave, H. J. and J. F. Mueller: “Parasites of Oneida Lake fishes. Part
III. A biological and ecological survey of the worm parasites,” Roosevelt Wild
Life Annals, Vol. 3, (1934), pp. 161-334.
Venard, C. E.: “Studies on parasites of Reelfoot Lake fish. I. Parasites of
the large-mouthed black bass, Huro salmoides (Lacepede),” Rept. Reelfoot Lake
Biol. Sta., Vol. 4, (1940), pp. 43-63.
Venard, C. E. and R. V. Bangham. “Sebekia oxycephala (Pentastomida)
from Florida fishes and some notes on the morphology of the larvae,” Ohio
Jour. Sci. (in press).
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS
James B. McFartin
Florida Botanical Gardens & Arboretum
Sebring, Florida
The following list of the hepatic flora of Florida is based largely
upon the numerous collections made by the author. Much additional
information has been gained from herbarium records, especially those
found at Duke University, which were kindly communicated to the
writer through the courtesy of Dr. D. C. Correll and Dr. H. L. Blom-
quist. Supplementing the field and herbarium work a thorough search
has revealed many records scattered through the botanical literature of
the past quarter century.
Most noteworthy are the numerous papers of Dr. Alexander W.
Evans in which are found many of the original records of Florida
hepatics. A list of liverworts collected by Mr. Severin Rapp, mainly
in the vicinity of Sanford, in Seminole County, was published in the
Bryologist in 1915 by Miss Caroline C. Haynes. A more recent paper,
“Liverworts of North and Central Florida,” by Dr. Herman Kurz
and Mr. Thomas Little, was published by the Florida State College for
Women at Tallahassee in 1933. This last paper deals for the most
part with the region about Marianna, Jackson County; Bristol, Lib-
erty County; and Gainesville in Alachua County. The information
contained in these papers has been freely drawn upon.
Furthermore, it should be noted that this paper is not merely a
list of Florida’s hepatic flora, but that the author has attempted to
suggest the trend of distribution of the species found within our
range, by listing under each species the counties in which it is known
to occur. For convenience this county distribution has been arranged
alphabetically. It will be noted that in some cases the stations are
widely separated, this should not be interpreted as indicating that the
species does not occur elsewhere in our state, but rather that it has
not been definitely recorded from the intermediate localities at
the present time, and that further collecting is necessary to definitely
outline the range of the species in Florida. The present paper lists a
total of 136 species and 5 varieties divided among 51 genera, which
are now known to occur in Florida.
In closing, the author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to
Dr. Lois Clark for making the determinations of the writer’s collec-
308
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 309
tions cited in this paper. Furthermore, he also wishes to express his
appreciation for the many pleasant hours spent in the field with Dr.
A. J. Grout; for his encouragement, criticisms, and many helpful
suggestions.
Note: The thalloid hepatics are arranged according to Frye and Clark
as set forth in the “Hepatice of North America,” Univ. Washing-
ton Publ. Biol. 6 (1): 1-62, 1937., while the arrangement of
the foliose species follows the arrangement as set forth by Dr.
Alexander W. Evans, “‘A List of Hepatice Found in the United
States, Canada, and Arctic America,” Bryologist 43: 133-138,
1940.
SPHAEROCARPACAE
SPHAEROCARPUS (Micheli) Boehm. Ludwig. Def. Gen. Pl., Ed.
2, 501, 1760.
Sphaerocarpos Micheli Nov. Pl. Gen. 4 pl. 3, 1729.
Symphoricarpus Adans. Fam. Pl. 2: 14, 1763.
Sphaerocarpus Donnellii Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 157, 1877.
ALACHUA County: Little: Payne’s Prairie 4 miles south of Gainesville.
Citrus County: McFarlin, 226, and 243: In an old field near Pineola.
Duvat County: J. Donnell Smith: Near Jacksonville, in 1877.
JEFFERSON County: Schornherst: Recorded without definite locality.
Leon County: Kurz: At Silver Lake about 3 miles south of Tallahassee.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 359: Near Fort Meade, and 380: In the flatwoods
east of Brewster.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 17: In an old field, Sanford. Specimen in the
Duke University herbarium.
Sphaerocarpus texanus Aust. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 158, 1877.
ALACHUA County: Little: Payne’s Prairie, 4 miles south of Gainesville
HIGHLANDS CounTy: McFarlin, 1291: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebring.
Leon County: Kurz: In a corn field about 3 miles from Tallahassee, along
the Quincy road.
MANATEE County: A. J. Grout: Reported as common about Manatee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 21: Along walks mixed with Riccia crystallina L.,
and in old fields, Sanford. Specimen in the herbarium of Duke Uni-
versity.
RICCIACEAE
RICCIA L. Sp. Pl. 1138, 1753.
Ricciella A. Br., Flora 4: 756. 1821.
Cryptocarpus Aust., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 21 (1869): 231, 1870.
Thallocarpus Lindb. Not. Saellsk. Fauna, et Fl. Fennica 13: 377, 1874.
Angiocarpus Trev. Mem. Istit. Lomb. 13: 444, 1877.
Riccia beyrichiana Hampe, Lehm. Stirp, Pugill. 7: 1. 1838.
ALACHUA County: Little: On the campus at Gainesville, and by a pond about
3 miles west of that city.
UNRECORDED Counties: In 1884 L. M. Underwood records this species from
cultivated fields and rocky ground, in the Hepaticae of North Ameri-
ca. In 1917, Marshall A. Howe, in a paper, “Notes on North Ameri-
can Species of Riccia” credits this species to Florida.
310 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Riccia crystallina L. Sp. Pl. 1138. 1753.
AvLacHua County: Little: About a pond 3 miles west of Gainesville.
MANATEE County: Grout: Muddy shores of small pond east of Oneco.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: On sidewalks between bricks, Sanford, April 6,
1912. In the herbarium of Duke University.
Riccia Curtisii James, Aust., in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 21 (1869):
231, as synonym.
ALACHUA County: Little: Along Hatchet Creek about eight miles east of
Gainesville.
HIcHLANDS County: McFarlin, 1288; and 1337: In Highland Hammock State
Park near Sebring, and 1924: In Vaughn’s hammock near Crewville.
Leon County: Kurz: Silver Lake about three miles south of Tallahassee.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 318: In a hammock about six miles west of Lakeland,
and 267: About two miles northeast of Homeland.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 12: On rich soil in ditches, Sanford. Specimen
in the herbarium of Duke University.
Riccia Donnellii Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 157; 1877:
ALacHuA County: Little: About a pond three miles west of Gainesville.
Duvat County: J. Donnell Smith: Near Jacksonville in 1877 (type coll.).
HarvEee County: McFarlin, 1239: On ditch banks near Zolfo, October 1, 1934.
HicHLAND County: 10282: On moist sand in the flatwoods at the Florida
Botanical Gardens near Sebring.
PoLk ee McFarlin, 27: On moist ground in the flatwoods near Winter
aven.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 9: On sandy ditch banks, Sanford. Specimen in
the Duke Universtiy herbarium.
UnrecorDED Counties: L. M. Underwood records this species as being col-
lected by J. Donnell Smith from gardens and cattle ranges.
Riccia fluitans L. Sp. Pl. 1139, 1753.
ALtacHuA County: Recorded by William A. Murrill in a preliminary check
list of Bryophytes of Alachua County.
Citrus County: H. L. Blomquist, 8884: Floating on water in the fern grot-
toes near Pineola. Specimen in the Duke University herbarium. Mc-
Farlin, 234: In the Withlacoochee River near Pineola.
CoLLiER County: McFarlin, 1564: Ina Pop Ash swamp in Billey-Kissimmee
Swamp about twenty miles east of Immokalee.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 1392: In pots at the nursery of the Florida
Botanical Garden near Sebring.
Leon County: Kurz, records this species in his paper on “Liverworts of
North and Central Florida” without definite locality, as “common
all over our region.”
Manatee County: McFarlin, 412: In low swamp places. A. J. Grout reports
this species as frequent.
Potk County: McFarlin, 23: Common in Saddle Creek swamp near Bartow,
and 545: In a low hammock east of Hesperides, also 578: In a swamp
near Kathleen.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 4: Common in wet ditches and creeks, Sanford.
Specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
Riccia sorocarpa Bisch., Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol, Nat.
Cur 17: 1053,-p)- 71 f-11,71835:
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee along the Quincy road.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 311
Riccia Sullivantii Aust., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 21 (1869): 233. 1870.
Leon County: Kurz: At Silver Lake about 3 miles south of Tallahassee.
Potx County: McFarlin, 267: About 2 miles northeast of Homeland.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 58: In a ditch, January 1916 at Sanford. Speci-
men in the herbarium of Duke University.
RICCIOCARPUS Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 651, 1829.
Ricciocarpus natans (L.) Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 651. 1829.
Avacuua County: Recorded in “A Check List of Hepatics of Alachua County”
by W. A. Murrill.
Leon County: Kurz and Little: Recorded in “Liverworts of North and Cen-
tral Florida” as more or less common in ponds in North Florida.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 8: On the sides of ditches, Sanford.
UNRECORDED Counties: Reported by L. M. Underwood, as occurring in exsi-
cated pools and ditches in Florida.
REBOULIACEAE
REBOULIA G. L. & N. Syn. Hep. 547, 1846.
Asterella Beauv., Lam. Encycl. Meth. Suppl. 1: 502, 1810, in part.
Rebouillia Raddi, Opusc. Sci. Bologna 2: 357, 1818.
Strozzia S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 682, 1821
Rhakiocarpon Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 648. 1829.
Achiton Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 649. 1829.
Otiona Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 649, 1829.
Reboulia hemisphaerica (L.) Raddi in Opusc. scient. di Bologna 2:
357, 1818.
GapspEN County: Kurz & Little: Aspalaga.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1404 and 1405: On _ limestone outcrops at
Caverns near Marianna.
Leon County: Kurz: Along ditch on college farm, Tallahassee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 88: Sanford.
Votusia County: H. L. Blomquist: On moist rocks, New Smyma. Specimen
in the herbarium of Duke University.
MARCHANTIACEAE
CONOCEPHALUM Wiggers, Prim. Fl. Holsat. 82. 1780.
Fegatella Raddi, Opusc. Sci. Bologna 2: 356, 1818.
Conocephalum conicum (L.) Wiggers Prim. Fl. Holsat. 82, 1780.
Jackson County: Kurz: On limestone cliffs along the Chipola River at
Marianna. McFarlin, 1403, 1406 and 1413: On rocky limestone out-
crops at caverns near Marianna.
DUMORTIERA Reinw. Bl. & Nees, Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop.-
Carol. Nat. Cur. 7: 410, 1812.
Hygropyla Tayl., Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 390 #1. 15, 1835.
Hygrophila Tayl., Mackay Fl. Hibern. 2: 53, 1836.
Askepos Griffith Not Pl. Asiat. 2: 340, 1849.
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Reinw. Bl. & Nees, Nova Acta Acad.
Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 12: 410. 1812.
AtacHua County: Little: South of the Athletic field, Gainesville; also at the
Devil’s Millhopper about six miles northwest of Gainesville. H. L.
Bloomquist, 8810: Devil’s Millhopper. Specimen in the herbarium of
Duke University.
312 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
CatHoun County: D. S. Correll, 8576: On a wet limestone ledge near As-
palaga along the Apalachicola River.
Citrus County:.. McFarlin, 231: On rocky limestone walls of the fern
grottoes near Pineola.
Jackson County: McFarlin. 1393: On limestone outcrops at the caverns
north of Marianna.
Leon County: Kurz: About four miles from Tallahassee along the road to
Quincy.
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Reinw. var. nepalensis (Tayl.) Frye &
Clark. Univ. Wash. Publ. 6°: 93, 1937.
AtacHua County: R. M. Harper, 13: Gainesville and vicinity. N. L. T.
Nelson, 100: from the same locality.
Cirrus County: Dr. J. K. Small: Pineola.
MARCHANTIA L. Sp. Pl. 1137, 1753.
Chlamidium Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 647, 1829.
Marchantia domingensis Lehm. & Lindenb., Lehm. Stirp. Pugil.
6: 22, 1834.
AtacHua County: H. L. Blomquist, 8866: On moist soil, south side of the
Devil’s Millhopper about 6 miles northwest of Gainesville. D. S.
Correll, 8580: On moist dirt on limestone rocks in the Devil’s Mill-
hopper, also D. S. & H. B. Correll, 8906; same locality. Little, (with-
out no.) Devil’s Millhopper.
CatHouNn County: D. S. Correll, 8579: On a wet limestone ledge along the
Apalachicola River near Aspalaga. Specimen in the herbarium of
Duke University.
GADSDEN County: Kurz: Aspalaga.
Marchantia polymorpha L. Sp. Pl. 1137, 1753.
Leon County: Kurz: About 10 miles east of Tallahassee.
SEMINLE County: S. Rapp, 7: On grounds and on bricks, Sanford.
RICCARDIACEAE
METZGERIA Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. Modena 18: 45, 1818.
Jungermannia L., Sp. Pl., Ed. 1, 1136, 1753, in part.
Rhizophyllum Beauv., Fl. d’Ow. Ben. 1; 21, 1804, in part.
Papa S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 679, 1821.
Hervera S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 685, 1821.
Fasciola Dum., Comm. Bot. 114, 1822.
Echinogyna Dum., Sylloge Jung. Eur. 83, 1831.
Echinomitrium Corda, Sturm Deutschl. Fl. 2: 77, 1832.
Metzgeria ciliifera Schweinitz Musc. Hep. Amer. Sept. 20, 1821.
AtacHua County: Little: Along run at northern edge of Gainesville. H. L.
Blomquist, 8874: On base of trees, Devil’s Millhopper about 6 miles
northwest of Gainesville.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee, along the Quincy
road.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 29: On bark and exposed roots of Magnolia
grandiflora, in a high hammock near Sanford. Specimen in the her-
barium of Duke University.
Metzgeria uncigera Evans Ann. Bot. 24: 276, figs. 1-3, 1910.
Escampia County: McFarlin, 1250 and 1542: In a low hammock along
the Escambia River.
GapspEN County: Kurz and Little: In a ravine on the trunk of Magnolia
. near the Apalachicola River, Aspalaga.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 313
Hormes County: McFarlin, 1512 and 1516:. In a low hammock along
Holmes Creek near Bonifay.
Potk County: McFarlin, 1736 and 1737: On the bark of Magnolia grandi-
flora, in a high hammock near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 73: On the trunk of trees at Robinson Springs,
eight miles south of Sanford.
PALLAVICINIA S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 775, 1821.
Wilaena Dum. Comm. Bot. 114, 1822.
Diplomitrion Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 1: 653, 1829.
Diplolaena Dum., Syll. Jung. 82, pl. 2, fig. 21, 1831. Not of R. Br.
1814.
Gymnomitrion Hueben. Hep. Germ. 45, 1834. Not of Corda, Opiz. Beitr.
1: 651, 1830.
Symphyogyna Mont. & Nees, Ann. Sci. Nat., Ser. 2, 5: 66, 1836.
Blyttia Endl. Gen. Pl. 1339, 1839. Not of Arnott. 1838; not of Fries,
1839.
Hollia Endl. Gen. Pl. Suppl. 2: 103, 1842. Not of Sieber. 1836.
Steetzia Lehm., Plantae Preissianae 2: 129, 1846.
Systasts Griffith, Notulae ad Plantas Asiaticus, - 2. On the higher
Cryptogamous plants. 1849. Calcutta.
Mittenia Gottsche, Triana et Planchon in Ann. Sci. Nat., Ser. 5, 1: 77,
1864. Not of Lindb., 1863.
Pallavicinia Lindb., Not. Sellsk. Fennica 9: 14, 1868.
Pallavicinia Lyellii (Hook.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 755,
1821.
AracHuaA County: Recorded in “Bryophytes of Alachua County” by W. A.
Murrill, without definite locality.
EscaMpia County: McFarlan, 1449: In a low hammock along the Escambia
River.
Hicuianps County: D. S. Correll, 8578: On rotten logs and mud in a swamp
about 5 miles east of Childs, also McFarlin, 310; 1100; and 1292:
In Highlands Hammock State Park near Sebring.
Hortmes County: McFarlin, 1513: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek
near Bonifay.
Leon County: Kurz: Listed in “Liverworts of North and Central Florida”
as common throughout Florida.
Lierty County: McFarlin, 1550: In a ravine along State road 18, near Bris-
tol; and 1445: Rock Bluff; also 1682; 1663: In Johnson’s juniper
swamp, about 8 miles south of Bristol.
MANATEE County: A. J. Grout: Reports this species as common throughout
the county. H. L. Blomquist: On the edge of a small stream about
6 miles northeast of Manatee. McFarlin, 415: In a low hammock
near Manatee. ;
OxatoosA County: McFarlin, 1470. In a low hammock near Galiver.
PinELLas County: L. Miiler and J. K. Reeves: In swampy soil near St.
Petersburg. Specimen deposited in the Duke University herbarium.
PoL_K County: O. E., G. K., & B. E. Jennings, 12030: On firm sand humus
bottom of rapidly flowing stream near Lake Buffum. Specimen in the
Duke University herbarium. McFarlin, 73: Homeland; 52: In
Reedy Creep swamp near Loughman; 86, 104, and 110: In a low
hammock in Highlands Gully south of Lakeland, 149: Ina low
hammock about Lake Marion; 204; Winter Haven; 47: Tiger Lake
swamp; 383: Deen’s; 364: Loughman.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 10: On sandy banks and rotten stumps near
Sanford.
314 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Watton County: D. S. & H. B. Correll, 8465: Growing on the base of cy-
press trees. Mossy Head. Specimen in the Duke University herbar-
ium.
RICCARDIA S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 683, 1821.
Romeria Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. Modena 18: 48, 1820; not of Medic.
772:
Aneura Dum. Comm. Bot. 115, 1822.
Trichostylium Corda, Opiz, Beitr. 1: 1829.
Acrostolia Dum. Rec. d’Obs. 1835.
Sarcomitrium Corda, Sturm Deutschl. Fl. 2: 120, 1836.
Pseudomeura Gottsche, Mex. Leberm. 259, 1863.
Spinella Schiffn., Exped. Gazelle 42, 1889.
Riccardia latifrons Lindb., Not. pro Fauna et Fl. 13: 372, 1874.
AtacHvua County: Little: In the Devil’s Millhopper about six miles north-
west of Gainesville.
GaApSspDEN CounTy: Kurz. Ina ravine at Chattachoochee.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 1365 and 1371: In a low hammock about
Lake Istokpoga.
PoLk County: McFarlin, 540: On a rotten log in Highlands Gully south of
Lakeland; 575: In Bettes hammock near Auburndale.
WAKULLA County: McFarlin, 1422: On an old rotten log in a low hammock
near Sopchoppy.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1529: In a low hammock near Mossy Head.
Riccardia multifida (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 683, 1821.
ALACHUA County: Recorded by William A. Murrill in his paper “Bryophytes
of Alachua County”.
HoitMes County: McFarlin, 1473: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek
near Bonifay.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1440, 1669, 1672, and 1689: In Johnson’s jun-
iper swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: On logs in wet places, Sanford.
Riccardia palmata (Hedw.) Carruth., in Seem. Jour. Bot. 3: 302,
1865.
AvacHua County: Little: Along creek south of the Athletic Field, Gaines-
ville.
Lreon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee.
PotkK County: McFarlin, 53: Along mucky banks of Reedy Creek near
Loughman; 153: On base of live oak in a low hammock on Lake
Marion.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 27: On a cypress log in a swamp at Sanford.
Riccardia pinguis (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 683, 1821.
AtacHua County: Little: Along run on the north side of Gainesville.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 1000: In hammocks about Lake Trafford;
1702: In a hammock near Naples.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1937: On old logs in the Timmes Hammock near
Silver Palm.
Hormes County: McFarlin, 1471: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek
near Bonifay.
HicHianps County: McFarlin. 1107; and 1433: In Highlands Hammock
State Park near Sebring.
Jerrerson County: Kurz: About 4 miles southwest of Flint Rock; also
about 4 miles from Tallahassee on the Old Spanish Trail.
Pork County: McFarlin, 15: Ona rotten log at Kissengen Spring south
of Bartow.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 28: On rotten log in swamp, Sanford.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 315
Riccardia sinuata (Dicks.) Trev., Schema Nuov. Class. Epat. 431,
1877.
ALACHUA County: H. L. Blomquist, 8849: On wet decaying wood in the
Devil’s Millhopper west of Gainesville. Specimen in the herbarium of
Duke University.
PELLIACEAE
FOSSOMBRONIA Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. Modena 18: 29,
1818.
Codonia Dum., Comm. Bot. 111, 1922.
Jungermannia L., Sp. Pl. Ed. 1, 1136. 1753.
Fossombronia angulosa (Dicks.) Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. Mo-
dena 18: 29, 1818.
Lake County: Underwood & Cook, 118: In the vicinity of Eustis in 1891.
Fossombronia braziliensis Steph., Mem. Herb. Boissier 16: 28,
1900; also Sp. Hep. 1: 382, 1900.
ALACHUA County: Reported in “Bryophytes of Alachua County” by William
A. Murrill.
CatHoun County: McFarlin, 1420: On soil near Altha.
JEFFERSON County: Kurz: About 4 miles southwest of Flint Rock.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 80; On sandy banks, Sanford.
Fossombronia foveolata Lindb., Soc. Fauna et FI. Fennica, Dec. 6,
1873.
Hormes County: McFarlin, 1658: Collected in a low hammock along Holmes
Creek near Bonifay, November 8, 1937.
Fossombronia lamellata Steph. Hedwigia 33: 9, 1894.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 80: Collected on moist sandy bank near Sanford,
specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
Fossombronia Wondraczekii (Corda) Dum., Rec. d’Obs. 11, 1835.
Potk County: McFarlin, 215 and 218: In the Gadsen Hammock near Bar-
tow. 371: In the flat woods along the Lakeland-Winter Haven road 3
miles west of Winter Haven.
Fossombronia sp.
Note: The material collected at the following localities was sterile and could
not be determined specifically.
Hoitmes County: McFarlin, 1472: In a low hammock near Bonifay.
Pork County: McFarlin, 343: Along roadside near Kathleen. McFarlin, 369:
In the Gadsen Hammock near Bartow.
PELLIA Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci. Modena 18: 38, 1818.
Jungermannia L., Sp. Pl., Ed. 1, 1135. 1753, in part.
Papa S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 686. 1821,
Scopulina Dum., Comm. Bot. 115, 1822.
Blasia Fries, Stirp. Fremson. 31, 1825.
Gymnomitrion Hueben., Hep. Germ. 42. 1834.
Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda, Opiz. Beitr. 654, 1829.
Hotmes County: McFarlin, 1659: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek
near Bonifay.
Lrerty County: McFarlin, 1474: In Torreya State Park.
Note: The above collections were sterile and could not be determined speci-
fically with certainty.
316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LEPIDOZIACEAE
BAZZANIA S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 704, 1821.
Bazzanius S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 704, 1821.
Herpetium Nees, Eur. Leb. 1: 96, 1833.
Pleuroschisma Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 19, 1835.
Mastigobyrum G.L.N., Syn. Hep. 214, 1845.
Bazziania trilobata (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 704, 1821.
Liserty County: Kurz: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of
Bristol. This is the southern limit for the species.
MICROLEPIDOZIA Joerg., Bergens Museums Skrifter 16: 303,
1934.
Lepidozia subgen. Micro-Lepidozia Spruce, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 15:
359, 1885.
Lepidozia subgen. Microlepidozia Schifin., Engler & Prantl. Nat. Pflanz. 1.
(32103, 1895:
Micrelepidozia setacea (Web.) Joerg., Bergens Museums Skrifter
16: 303, 1934.
Potk County: McFarlin, 39: Lakeland.
Microlepidozia sylvatica (Evans) Joerg., Bergens Museum Skrift-
er 16: 304, 1934.
ALACHUA County: Little: About 5 miles south of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
JEFFERSON County: Kurz: About 4 miles southwest of Flint Rock, also about
one and a half miles from Drifton.
SEMINOLE County: L. M. Underwood: Collected at Enterprise. S. Rapp, 25:
On sandy banks, Sanford.
Votusta County: Grout: Near Orange City.
TELARANEA Spruce, Trans. and Proc. Bot. Soc. (Edinb.)
15: 365, 1885. (As a synonym.) Schiffn., Engl. & Prantl.
Wat. Pilanz; 1(3)- 103, 189%.
Telaranea nematodes (Gottsche) M. A. Howe. Notes on American
Hepaticae, Bull. Torrey Bot Club, 29: 1902.
AracHua County: Little: In a bog 5 miles south of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: At Kingsley Lake.
Corrier County: McFarlin, 990a: in the Big Cypress swamp west of Deep
Lake.
GapspEN County: Schornherst, 8x: Jenkin’s Spring.
Leon County: Kurz: About 4 miles from Tallahassee, along the Old Spanish
Trail.
Licerty County: McFarlin, 1934, 1492, 1664, 1682, 1687, and 1961: In
Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 47: Tiger Lake swamp; 175: Scot Lake; 258: About
10 miles east of Hesperides.
WALtTon County: McFarlin, 1526, and 1527: Mossy Head.
Telaranea nematodes (Gottsche) var. longifolia Howe Bull. Tor-
rey Bot. Club 29: 284, 1902.
MANATEE County: Grout: On mucky soil with Leucobryum, Flying Baek
Scout Camp about 15 miles east of Manatee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 22: On sandy banks, Sanford.
Note: The following collections were made in Florida without definite
records as to counties:—John Donnell Smith, 1877; C. F. Austin, March, 1878;
and F. C. Straub, March, 1895.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 317
CALY POGEIACEAE
CALYPOGEIA Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Mod. 18: 421, 1820.
Kantius S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl, 1: 706, 1821,
Cincinnulus Dum., Comm. Bot. 113, 1822.
Calypogeia fissa (L.) Raddi, Mem. Soc. Ital. Mod. 18: 44, pl. 5,
fig. 3, 1820.
AtacHuUA County: Recorded as frequent in William A. Murrill’s paper “Bryo-
phytes of Alachua County.” N. L. T. Nelson: Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: Green Cove Springs.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles west of Tallahassee along the Old Spanish
Trail.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1482: In Torreya State Park.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 93: Collected in the vicinity of Sanford, March
1924.
Calypogeia Sullivanti Aust. Hep. Bor. Amer. 74b, 1873.
ALACHUA County: Little: At the outskirts of Gainesville along the Newberry
road.
Leon County: Kurz: Along wood in a rocky brook on the Meridian road
six miles north of Tallahassee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 53: On ditch banks, Sanford.
Calypogeia Trichomanes (L.) Corda Opiz. Beitr. 653, 1829.
ALAcHUA County: Recorded as rare in William A. Murrill’s paper, ‘“Bryophytes
of Alachua County”’.
Leon County: Kurz: Along Harvey’s Creek, about 18 miles southwest of
Tallahassee.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1488: In Torreya State Park.
Marion County: D. 5S. & H. B. Correll, 8871: On wet swampy soil about 1.5
miles east of Blichton.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 54: On sandy banks, Sanford.
CEPHALOZIACEAE
CEPHALOZIA Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 18, 1835.
Jungermannia sect. Cephalozia Dum., Syll. Jung. 60, 1831.
Trigonanthus Spruce, Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. 3: 207, 1850.
Cephalozia subgen. Eucephalozia Spruce, On Cephalozia 30, 1882.
Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 18, 1935.
GADSDEN County: Little: Along the Chattahoochee Ravine at Chattahoochee.
Grout: On wet log by creek 5% miles south of River Junction.
Lrserty County: McFarlin, 1550: In a ravine along state road 13, near Bristol.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: In the vicinity of Sanford.
Cephalozia catenulata (Hub.) Spruce, On Cephalozia 33, 1882.
Cray County: Little: Kingsley Lake.
Liserty County: Kurz: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of
Bristol.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 35: On rotten logs in a hammock near Sanford.
WAUKULA County: McFarlin. 1421: On old rotten wood in hammocks near
Sopchoppy.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1525 to 1527 inclusive: Mossy Head.
Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.) Lindb. Proc. Linn. Soc. 13: 190,
1872.
AtacHUA County: Little: In a bog 5 miles south of Gainesville.
Hicuianps County: McFarlin, 606: Sebring.
318 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
LAKE County: L. M. Underwood: Collected in January 1891 near Lisbon and
distributed from the U. S. National Herbarium as number 1217.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1550: In a ravine along state road 18, near Bristol.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 360 and 361: In Reedy Creek swamp near Lough-
man: 39; 40; and 45: collected near Lakeland; 175 and 176; col-
lected in a high hammock near Scott Lake; 300 and 301: collected
in the vicinity of Winter Haven.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 32: On swampy ground in vicinity of Sanford.
Votusia County: F. C. Straub, 207: Collected near Port Orange in February
23, 1895. Specimen in the Underwood herbarium.
WakKvuLria County: McFarlin, 1422: On old rotten wood in a low hammock
near Sopchoppy.
Cephalozia macrostachya Kaal., Rev. Bryol. 29: 8, 1902.; Steph.,
Spec. Hep. 3: 297, 1908; Nicholson, Hast. and East Sus-
sex Nat. 1(6): 274, 1911.
JEFFERSON County: Schornherst, 19x: Along creek beyond Capitola; 33x:
Along the Jackson Bluff road. Specimens are in the herbarium of the
Florida State College for Women.
Cephalozia media Lindb., Medd. Soc. F. et Fl. Fenn. 6: 242, 1881.
Cray County: Little: Kingsley Lake and Green Cove Springs.
HicuHrianps County: McFarlin, 1146: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebring.
Hoimes County: McFarlin, 1662: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek near
Bonifay.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 34: On sandy banks, Sanford.
ODONTOSCHISMA Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 19, 1835.
Pleuroschisma sect. Odontoschisma Dumortier, Syll. Jungerm. Europ. 68,
1831.
Sphagnocetis G. L. N., Syn. Hep. 148, 1844.
Cephalozia subgen. Odontoschisma Spruce, On Cephalozia 59, 1882.
Odontoschisma denudatum (Mart.) Dum., Rec. d’obs. 19, 1835.
Cray County: Little: Kingsley Lake.
Gapsp—EN County: Kurz: Pronto Springs.
JeFFerson County: Lighthipe: Monticello.
WAKULLA County: McFarlin, 1422: On old rotten wood in a low hammock
near Sopchoppy.
Odontoschisma prostratum (Swartz) Trevis Mem. Istit. Lomb. 4:
419, 1877.
AtacHuA County: Little: In a bog about 5. miles south of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: In vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
CotumsiA County: Straub: In the vicinity of Lake City.
Duvat County: D. S. & H. B. Correll, 8804; On rotten wood and mud in a
cypress swamp about 1 mile north of Duval.
HicHranps County: McFarlin, 1132; 1135; 1138; 1146; 1147; and 1174;
Common in Highlands Hammock State Park near Sebring.
Lake County: L. M. Underwood: Grand Island; Lisbon; and Eustis.
Liserty County: Kurz: Collected in Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles
south of Bristol. McFarlin, 1550: In a ravine along state road 18 in
the vicinity of Bristol; 1434, 1435, 1436, 1442, 1492, 1493, 1495, 1497,
1498, 1499, 1501, 1664, 1673, 1674, 1676, 1678, 1682, 1685, and 1687:
Common in Johnson’s juniper swamp, 8 miles south of Bristol.
Manatee County: Grout: On soil at Flying Eagle Scout Camp.
Nassau County: Eaton: Collected on Amelia Island.
Pasco County: Underwood: Collected in the vicinity of Blanton.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 319
Potk County: McFarlin, 39 and 45: Lakeland; 120 and 126: collected in
Highlands Gully south of Lakeland; 362 and 365: in a low ham-
mock near Loughman; 175: In a hammock about Scott Lake; 21:
On the ground in Bartow swamp; 548: In a low hammock about
Lake Rosalie; 257: In a hammock east of Hesperides.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 36: Growing over roots and on sandy banks in
the vicinity of Sanford.
Votusta County: Straub: Collected in the vicinity of Port Orange. Grout: On
soil, Orange City.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1525 and 1526: In a ravine in the vicinity of
Mossy Head.
CEPHALOZIELLACEAE
CEPHALOZIELLA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl. Nat.
Pflanz.1(3): 98, 1895. K. Mull., omend., Rabh. Krypt.
Mla: 786, 1916.
Cephalozia subgen. Cephaloziella Spruce, On Cephalozia 62, 1882.
Cephaloziella floridae Douin, Bull. Bot. Soc. France 28: 312, 1916.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1343: In hammocks on Key Largo.
HIcHLANDS County: McFarlin, 1119: In Highlands Hammock State Park
near Sebring.
Cephaloziella hylina Douin. Soc. Bot. France, Mem. 29: 77, 1920.
SEMINOLE County: S. Happ, 78: On a ditch bank, Sanford, specimen in the
herbarium of Duke University.
Cephaloziella obliqua Douin Revue Gen. Bot. 28: 319. 346, 1916.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: Sanford.
Cephaloziella obliqua Douin var. dentata Douin, Soc. Bot. de
France. Mem. 29: 59, 1920.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: Collected near Sanford in March, 1924.
Cephaloziella Rappii Douin, Soc. Bot. France, Mem. 29: 77, 1920.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 60: Collected on a ditch bank, Sanford, April
1921; specimen in the herbarium of Duke University. Another col-
lection was made by Rapp, without number, in March, 1924.
Cephaloziella Rappii Douin var. laevis Douin.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: Collected without number at Sanford, March,
1924.
HARPANTHACEAE
LOPHOCOLEA Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 17, 1835.
Jungermannia sect. Lophocolea Dum., Syll. Jung. 59, 1831.
Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 17,
1835.
AracHua County: Little: Along a run at the northern edge of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: Kingsley Lake.
Leon County: Kurz: “Echo Nook,” Lake Bradford.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 13: On bark and sandy banks, Sanford.
Lophocolea Martiana Nees, in G. L. & N. Syn. Hep. 152, 1845.
Avacnua County: Little: In a run along the northern edge of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: Green Cove Springs.
320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Dave County: Small & Nash, 480: In the Everglades west of Miami. Small
& Carter, 1355; 1371; and 1396: In hammocks near Homestead trail
between Cutler and Camp Longview.
GADSDEN County: Kurz: Aspalaga.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1476; 1477; and 1488: Torreya State Park.
Pasco County: L. M. Underwood, 288: Blanton.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 1: On rotten logs in hammock near Sanford.
CLASMATOCOLEA Spruce, Hep. of Amaz. et Andes 440, 1885.
Clasmatocolea Doellingeri (Nees) Steph., Spec. Hep. 3: 28, 1889.
Potk County: McFarlin, 366: On the trunk of a cabbage palm in Reedy
Creek swamp near Loughman.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 33: On palmetto roots and logs, Sanford; speci-
men in the Duke University herbarium.
JUNGERMANNIACEAE
LOPHOZIA Dum. Rec. d’obs. Jung. fasc. 1. 17, 1835
Jungermannia, L., Sp. Pl. 1131, 1753, pro parte.
Jungermannia sect. Lophozia Dum., Syll. Jung. 53, 1831.
Jungermannia Dum. Hep. Eur. 68, 1874.
Lophozia subgen. Dilophozia K. Mill., Rabh. Krypt. Fl. 6 (1): 659, 1911
pro max. parte.
Lophozia Arnell, Die schwed. Jung. Arten 77, 1925, pro max. parte.
Lophozia Mildeana (Gottsche) Schiffn., Kritisch. Bemerk. Eur.
Leb. 3: 54, 1903.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 94: On moist clayey banks about fifteen miles
southwest of Sanford.
PLECTOCOLEA Mitt., in Seemann, FI. Vitiensis 405, 1871
Jungermannia L., Sp. Pl. 1753, pro parte.
Nardia S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 694, 1821, pro parte.
Alicularia Corda, Opiz, Beitr. 652, 1829, pro parte.
Solenostoma Mitt., Jour Linn. Soc. Bot. 8: 51, 1865, pro parte.
Nardia sect. 1 Eucalyx Lindb., Bot. Notis. 167, 1872.
Aplozia Dum., Hep. Eur. 55, 1874.
Southbya Husnot, Hep. Gall. 15, 1875.
Eucalyx Breidl., Mitt. Nat. Ver. Steierm. 30: 291, 1894.
Mesophylla Dum., sensu Corbiere Rev. bryol. 31: 13, 1964.
Haplozia K. Muell., Rabh. Krypt. Fl. 1 (3): 535, 1909.
Plectecolea crenulata (Sm.) Evans Ann. Bryol. 10: 42, 1937.
WakKUuLia County: Kurz: Collected between Crawfordville and Arran on Lost
Creek. Apparently the first record for the species in Florida and the
southern limit of its range.
PLAGIOCHILACEAE
PLAGIOCHILA Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 14, 1835.
Jungermannia Mich., Nov. Pl. Gen. 7, 1729.
Martinellia sect. S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit, Pl. 1: 692, 1821.
Radula sect. Plagiochila Dum., Syll. Jung. 42, 1831.
Plagiochila floridana Evans Bot. Gaz. 21: 190, pl. 15, figs. 11-17,
1896.
AtacHua County: Nelson: Gainesville. H. L. Blomquist, 8855: On base of
trees and on rocks in the Devil’s Millhopper west of Gainesville,
specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 321
Cotter County: McFarlin, 1563: In a pop-ash swamp, (Billy-Kissimmee
swamp) about 20 miles east of Immokalee; 493: Deep Lake.
Dave County: McFarlin, 528: In the Royal Palm State Park. D. S. Correll,
6025 A: On the walls of lime sinks in the Hattie Bauer Hammock
near Naranja, specimen in herbarium of Duke University. McFarlin,
1577, 1578, 1582, 1744, and 1749: On the ground and about limestone
sinks in the Costello Hammock near Silver Palm; 1905; 1916; and
1917: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Jackson County: Little: Along the Chipola River at Marianna. McFarlin,
1395; 1400; and 1415: in limestone caverns near Marianna.
JEFFERSON County: Kurz: Nuttall Rise.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1425; and 1426: Rock Bluff; 1542: In a ravine
along State Road 18, near Bristol.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 30: On exposed roots, Sanford, specimen in the
herbarium of Duke University.
WaAKuLta County: Grout: Wakulla Springs.
Plagiochila ludoviciana Sull., Musc. Allegh. No. 223, 1845.
Aracaua County: L. E. Anderson, 5271: On limestone in the Devil’s Mill-
hopper northwest of Gainesville, specimen in the herbarium of Duke
University. Little: In the Devil’s Millhopper. Kurz: About one mile
east of Hickory Sink which is approximately 13 miles south of
Gainesville.
CoLiieR County: McFarlin, 990; 994; 1056 a; and 1070: In the Big Cypress;
1065: In the Royal Palm Hammock.
Dave County: McFarlin. 510; and 527: In Royal Palm State Park; 1569,
and 1583: In Costello Hammock near Silver Palm. Grout and Mc-
Farlin, 1912: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
EscamsBia County: McFarlin, 1454, and 1455: In a low hammock along the
Escambia River.
Hoitmes County: McFarlin, 1510, and 1516: In a low hammock along Holmes
Creek near Bonifay.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1444, and 1446: Rock Bluff; 1483, and 1484: In
Torreya State Park.
Mapison County: McFarlin, 1034a: In the vicinity of Madison.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 33: On the trunk of Maples in a hammock near
Lakeland; 1731: In hammock near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 31: On tree trunks and exposed roots, Sanford,
specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
Plagiochila Smallii Evans, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32: 180-182, p/. 5,
1905.
Dave County: Smuh & Carter, 1376 and 1411: In hammocks near the Home-
sted trail, between Cutler and Camp Longview. Number 1411 has
been taken as the type. Small & Carter, 1388: In the Everglades be-
tween Coconut Grove and Cutler. E. G. Britton, 87: In Brickell
Hammock near Miami. Small & Wilson, 1520: In the Everglades
near Camp Longview. McFarlin, 513: In the Warwick Hammock near
Coral Gables (on rocky outcrops). Grout & McFarlin, 1906, and 1908a:
In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Plagiochila Sullivantii Gottsche.
Bay County: Baurbor: On the trunk of Magnolia, Lynn Haven.
Bay County: Baurbor: On the trunk of Magnolia, Lunn Haven.
DapE County: Grout: On limestone in the Hattie Bauer Hammock near
Modella. McFarlin, 1940; 1949; and 1967: In the Timmes Hammock
near Silver Palm.
GApsDEN County: Little: Collected in the vicinity of Aspalaga.
322 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Plagiochila undata Sull., Musc. Alleg. no. 222, 1845: American
Jour. Sc. & Arts 73, 1846.
AvacHua County: Little: On the Experiment Station grounds of the University
of Florida at Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: At Kingsley Lake near Gainesville.
Cirrus County: Grout: Near Floral City.
HicHLANDs County: McFarlin, 1194: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebring.
Pork County: McFarlin. 1739: On the bark of trees in hammocks near Fort
Meade.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1531: Alum Bluff.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 14: On exposed roots, Sanford.
SCAPANIACEAE
SCAPANIA Dum, Rec. d’obs. Jung. 14, 1835.
Martinelkus Sect. a. p.p. S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 691, 1821,
Radwa Dum. Comm. Bot. 112, 1823.
Radula Sect. Scapania Dum. Syll. Jung. 38, 1831.
Plagiochila sect. Il Scapania Nees und Montagne in Nees, Naturg. europ.
Leberm. 3: 515, 1838.
Martinellia Lindb., Acta Soc. Sci. Fenn. 70: 518, 1875.
Scapania nemorosa (L.) Durmort., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 14, 1835.
WAKULLA County: Kurz: Lost Creek, between Crawfordville and Arran.
Scapania undulata (L.) Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 14, 1835.
Oxatoosa County: McFarlin, 463: Along stream in low hammock near Galli-
ver.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1521; and 1525: Along ditch bank near Argyle.
PORELLACEAE
PORELLA (Dillenius) L. Sp. Pl.-ed. 2, 1106, F752:
Porella Dill., Hist. Musc. 459, 1741.
Bellincinia Raddi, Atti Soc. Ital. Mod. 18: 18, 1820.
Antoiria Raddi, Atti Soc. Ital. Mod. 18: 19, 1820.
Cavendishia S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 689, 1821.
Madotheca Dum., Comm. Bot. 111, 1822.
Porella platyphylla (L.) Lindb., Acta Soc. Fenn. 9: 339, 1869.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1394; 1407; 1411; 1412; 1414; and 1415: Col-
lected on rocky limestone outcrops about the caverns north of Mari-
anna.
Porella platyphylloidea (Schwein.) Lindb. Hep. Utveckl. 20. 1877.
9, 1821.
Jackson County: Kurz: On limestone cliffs along the Chipola River at
Marianna.
UnrecoRDED Counties: A. W. Chapman: In west Florida without definite
locality.
Porella pinnata L. Sp. Pl. 1106, 1753.
AracHua County: Little: About Lake Wauberg 6 miles south of Gainesville.
GapspEN County: Kurz: Near Aspalaga.
HarpEeeE County: McFarlin, 1391: Along Little Charlie Bowlegs Creek.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1417: Along the Chipola River near Marianna.
Lee County: McFarlin, 1043: In a cypress swamp near Naples.
Leon County: Schornherst 17x: On the south side of Lake Lafayette.
MANATEE County: McFarlin, 414: In the vicinity of Manatee.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 323
PoLtK County: McFarlin, 338: In a low hammock near Kathleen.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 3: On tree trunks near base and on exposed
roots, Sanford, specimen in the herbarium of Duke University.
RADULACEAE
RADULA Dum. p.p. Comm. Bot. Be 2 1s22 Recs dans.) jung:
13, 1835; Naturgesch, europ. Lebern. 1: 96, 1833.
Martinellius S. F. Gray p.p., Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. 1: 691, 1821.
Stephania O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 839, 1891; Schiffn. in Engl. & Prantl,
Nat. Pflanz. I(3): 113, 1895.
Radula andicola Steph. Hedwigia 23: 114, 1884.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 1558; and 1560: Frequent on trunks of the pop
ash in the Billie-Kissimmee swamp about 20 miles east of Immokalee.
McFarlin, 1071: In the Royal Palm Hammock. McFarlin, 1374: In
the Big Cypress.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1902: In the Nixon Hammock near Homested.
Hotmes County: McFarlin, 1506; 1507; 1508; and 1520: In hammocks along
Holmes Creek near Bonifay.
Lee County: McFarlin, 999: In a hammock near Lake Trafford.
Liserty County: Kurz: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of
Bristol. McFarlin, 1448; and 1494: In Johnson’s juniper swamp; 1425:
On tree trunks about Rock Bluff.
Radula australis Austin. Bot. Gaz. I: 32, 1876.
ALacHUA County: Wade & Robinson: Gainesville. Little: In the Devil’s Mill-
hopper about 6 miles northwest of Gainesville.
Dave County: D. S. Correll, 6102A: In the Costello Hammock near Silver
Palm. J. K. Small and associates: 1377; 1403; 1414; 1432; 1530; 1538;
2elvimezect: | S089; 5234; 5238; 5239: 5249; 5265; 5288; 5296;
5300; 5302; 6145; 6147; 6154; 6156; 6157; 6177; 6183; 6212;
6213; 6224; 6225; 6231; 6237; 7010; 7022; 7023; 7028; 7032;
anl 7040. Grout: On shrubs, Timmes Hammock.
Monroe County: Small & associates: 1524; 1526; 1535; 1548; 1554; 3663;
and 7819: Collected on Florida Keys.
Pork County: McFarlin, 16: On tree trunks, Kissengen Springs.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 4; 24; and 40: On trees in hammocks near
Sanford.
WAKULLA County: Kurz: At “Swirl” 3 miles south of Crawfordville.
Note: Collected by Underwood near Blandton (no county record).
Radula caloosiensis Austin, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 6: 301, 1879.
AvacHua County: H. L. Blomquist, 8851: On bark of trees at the Devil’s
Millhopper northwest of Gainesville.
CoLimr County: McFarlin, 991: In hammocks in the Big Cypress.
Dave County: Grout: On twigs, Hattie Bauer Hammock. McFarlin, 1947
and 1949: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
EscaAMBIA County: McFarlin, 1458: On trunks of trees at Gull Point near
Pensacola.
HicHLANnps County: McFarlin, 694: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebrings.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1398; 1399: In Caverns State Park north of
Marianna. Kurz & Little: On limestone cliffs along the Chipola River
at Marianna.
LEE County: Austin: Collected at Caloosa in 1878, the type locality.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8930A: On bark of trees at the Flying
Eagle Boy Scout Camp about 15 miles north of Manatee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 72; and 86: In the vicinity of Sanford.
UNRECORDED Counties: Underwood: Collected near Blandton.
324 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Radula complanata (L.) Dumort. Comm. Bot. 112, 1822.
Dave County: Grout & McFarlin, 1904 and 1911: In the Hattie Bauer
Hammock near Modella. McFarlin, 510: In Royal Palm State Park.
Radula flaccida Lindenb. & Gottsche; G. L. N. Syn. Hep. 726, 1847.
DADE County: J. K. Small & C. A. Mosier: Collected on the fronds of
Trichomanes sphenoides Kunze, in the Hattie Bauer Hammock in
March, 1915.
Radula Langloisii Castle, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 52: 435-438,
jig. 9, 1925.
Cirrus County: H. L. Blomquist. 8883: On trees and rocks in the Fern
Grottoes, near Pineola.
Cortier County: McFarlin, 1055; 1056; and 1066: In the Big Cypress;
1052: In the Royal Palm Hammock.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1571; 1583; 1585; 1586; and 1587: In the Costello
Hammock near Silver Palm; 1914, and 1919: In the Hattie Bauer
Hammock near Modella; 1929; and 1950:. In the Timmes Hammock
near Silver Palm.
Mapison County: McFarlin, 1034: Collected in the vicinity of Madison.
Waxkvutia County: Kurz: Collected near Wakulla Springs.
Radula Sullivanti Austin. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 6: 19, 1875.
ALACHUA County: L. E. Anderson, 5279: On rotten wood in the Devil’s
Millhopper northwest of Gainesville.
CaLtHouN County: D. S. Correll, 8577: On wet limestone ledge, near As-
palaga, along the Apalachicola River, specimen in the herbarium of
Duke University.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1572; and 1573: In the Costello Hammock near
Silver Palm.
GApDSDEN County: Little: In the vicinity of Aspalaga.
Liserty County: Kurz: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south
of Bristol. McFarlin, 1437; 1438; 1671; and 1677: In Johnson’s
juniper swamp south of Bristol.
Potx County: McFarlin, 1740: On the bark of trees in hammocks near
Fort Meade.
FRULLANCIACEAE
FRULLANIA Raddi Atti Soc. Ital. Sc. Mod. 1818; Mem. Mat.
Soc. Ital. Sc. Mod. 18 p. 20, 1820; Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et
And. p. 3, 1884.
Frullania arietina Tayl., in G. L. et N. Syn. Hep. 413, 1845.
CottmR County: McFarlin, 439; 581; and 582: Collected on twigs of small
trees and bushes in the vicinity of Deep Lake, March 31, 1931. Speci-
mens determined by A. W. Evans.
Dave County: A. J. Grout & McFarlin: Collected in Timmes Hammock
Feb. 1940.
Frullania Asagrayana Mont., Ann. Sc. Nat. 2: 14, 1842.
CoLiieR County: McFarlin, 997: In the Big Cypress west of Deep Lake.
Frullania Brittoniae Evans. Trans, Conn. Acad. 10: 15-16, 1897.
Povx County: McFarlin, 157: In a low hammock about Lake Marion, west
of Haines City.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 77: On Magnolia glauca, in the vicinity of San-
ford.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 325
Frullania cobrensis Gottsche; C. Wright, Hep. Cubenses (nomen
nudum) Stephani, Hedwigia 33: 142, 1894.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 57: Collected in the vicinity of Sanford,
April, 1912.
Frullania cucullata Lindenb. & Gottsche. G. L. & N. Syn. Hep. 782,
1847.
CoiitieR County: A. A. Eaton: Collected near Everglades in March, 1905.
Lee County: C. F. Austin: Collected at Caloosa, March 1878.
Frullania Donellii Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 301, 1879.
JEFFERSON County: Austin ? On trees in the vicinity of Monticello.
Lake County: Austin ? On trees in the vicinity of Eustis.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 75: On the bark of various trees near Sanford.
Note: Also recorded without definite locality as collected by Capt. J. Donnell
Smith in East Florida. March 1877.
Frullania eboracensis Gottsche, in Lehmann, Pugillus 8:-14, 1844.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1944; 1848; 1952; 1953; and 1955: In the Timmes
Hammock near Silver Palm.
GapspEN County: Kurz: At Flat Creek about 4 miles south of River Junc-
tion.
HicHLANps County: McFarlin, 1118; 1122; 1123; and 1159: In Highlands
Hammock State Park near Sebring.
Lrperty County: McFarlin, 1534; and 1536: On the bark of trees at Alum
Bluff; 1667: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of
Bristol.
MANATEE County: McFarlin, 1728: On the trunk of mastic on Long Boat Key
northwest of Sarasota.
Frullania inflata Gottsche, G. L. et N. Syn. Hep., 424, 1845.
ALACHUA County: Little: About Newman’s Lake, six miles east of Gaines-
ville.
JEFFERSON County: Kurz: About seven miles south of Lamont toward
Walker Springs.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 18; 21; and 44: On tree trunks and branches
in the vicinity of Sanford. No. 18 represents the type of Frullania
Rappiit Evans.
Frullania Kunzei Lehm. & Lindb. G. L. et N. Syn., 449, 1845.
ALtacHUA County: Little: Devil’s Millhopper about six miles northwest of
Gainesville.
Cray County: About Kingsley’s Lake.
CortreR County: McFarlin, 988: In hammocks about Lake Trafford.
EscaMBiA County: McFarlin, 1456; 1457; and 1461: In woods near Gull
Point, Pensacola.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 556; 767; 769; 998; 1055; 1077; 1118; 1123;
1125; 1131; 1156; 1157; 1163; 1168; 1172; and 1184: In Highlands
Hammock State Park near Sebring.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee on the road to Quincy.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1540; 1546; 1549; and 1551: Collected in a deep
ravine along state road 18, near Bristol; 1479; and 1481: Collected
on bark of trees in Torreya State Park; 1428 and 1429: Collected in
a high hammock near Rock Bluff; 1535; and 1537: Collected near
Alum Bluff.
OKALOOSA COUNTY: McFarlin, 1465; 1466;: In a low hammock along
stream near Galliver.
Potk County: McFarlin, 333; and 334: In a low hammock about six miles
west of Lakeland; 1730; 1732; and 1733: In a high hammock near
Fort Meade.
326 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
MANATEE CountTy: McFarlin, 404; and 440: In hammocks about Manatee.
H. L. Blomquist, 8925 A: On the bark of trees at the Flying Eagle
Boy Scout Camp, about 15 miles north of Manatee, specimens in the
Duke University herbarium.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 42: On shrubs, trunks of trees and branches.
Sanford.
Frullania obcordata Lehm. & Lindenb. in G. L. & N. Syn. Hep.
447, 1845.
AtacHua County: Little: On trees, along the streets of Gainesville.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 1059: In the Big Cypress west of Deep Lake.
EscaMBIA County: McFarlin, 1459: On trees, near Gull Point, Pensacola.
Hormes County: McFarlin, 1660: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek
near Bonifay.
LEON coun: Kurz: Along the Quincy road about 3 miles from Talla-
assee.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1535: Alum Bluff; 1543; 1544; 1545; 1547;
and 1548: In a ravine along state road 18, near Bristol; 1480; 1481;
1487; and 1490: In Torreya State Park.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8917: At Flying Eagle Boy Scout
Camp, about 15 miles north of Manatee, specimen in the herbarium of
Duke University. McFarlin, 1725; and 1727: On bark of trees on
Long Boat Key north of Sarasota.
OKALOOSA County: McFarlin, 1468: In a low hammock near Galliver.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 43: On tree trunks and branches, in the vicinity
of Sanford.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1522: Argyle.
Frullania plana Sull., Mem. Amer. Acad., New Ser., 4: 175, 1849.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 991; and 995: In the Big Cypress west of Deep
Lake.
Frullania riparia Hampe in Lehmann. Pugillus 7: 14, 1838.
Martin County: McFarlin, 1590; and 1591: In a hammock bordering on
the Connor’s Highway near Port Myacca.
Pork County: McFarlin, 1729: On the bark of an oak in a high ham-
mock near Fort Meade.
Frullania riojaneirensis (Raddi) Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And. 23,
1884.
Dave County: J. K. Small, 5273: Collected in March 1915 at the Brickell
Hammock, Miami. (This is the first record for the United States.
See Bryologist 28: 91, 1915).
Frullania squarrosa (Nees) Dum., Rec. d’obs. Jung. 13. 1835.
Atacuua County: Little: Near Lake Wauberg, 6 miles south of Gainesville,
and at Newnan’s Lake east of Gainesville.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 1556; and 1557: In a pop-ash slough in the
Billy-Kissimmee swamp about 20 miles east of Immokalee.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1960;: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver
Palm.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 556; 587; 600; 694; 766; 1054; 1055; 1057;
1126; 1128; 1130; 1131; 1134; 1156; 1163; 1164; 1171; and
1173: Collected in Highlands Hammock State Park near Sebring;
1350; 1355; 1357; 1364; 1367; and 1368: In a low hammock border-
ing Lake Istokpoga.
Leon County: On the campus at Tallahassee.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1428: Rock Bluff; 1431: In Johnson’s juniper
swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol; 1549: Ina ravine along state
road 18 near Bristol.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 327
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8888: On the base of trees, Manatee,
specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
Monroe County: Grout & McFarlin, 1887; 1888; and 1893: In a Button-
wood hammock about 2 miles north of Flamingo, Cape Sable re-
gion.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 45: On tree trunks, Sanford.
LEJEUNEACEAE
BRACHIOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl., Nat
Pflanzenfam. 1(3) 128, 1893.
Brachiolejeunea Spruce p. subg. Hep. Amaz. et And. 131, 1884.
Frullanoides p. p. Raddi Mem. Soc. Ital. Modena Fis 19: 38. 1823.
Jungermanniae sp. L. et L. 1832, N. ab E. 1838.
Lejeuniae sp. Mont. 1839.
Ptychocoleus Trevis p. p. maj. Trevis. 1877.
Brachiolejeunea bahamensis Evans Bull. Tolley Bot. 35: 383,
pl. 28. f. 1-14, 1908.
Dave County: J. K. Small & Geo. Nash, 464: On Old Rhodes Key south of
Miami.
Brachiolejeunea corticalis (Lehm. & Lindb.) Schiffn. Hedwigia 33:
180, 1894. Evans, Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 8: 131, pl. 18 f.
1-11, 1902.
HicHLANps County: McFarlin, 313: In Highlands Hammock State Park, Se-
bring. Collected Feb. 5, 1931.
Patm BracH County: Underwood, 293: On trees. Lake Worth. This was
the first record of the species for the United States.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 38: On trunk of live oak in the vicinity of
Sanford.
PTYCHOCOLEUS Trevis, Mem. r Ist. Lomb. III 4: 405, 1877.
Ptychocoleus heterophyllus Evans, Am. Jour. Bot. 5: 144-150,
fig. 5, March, 1918.
SEMINOLE CouUNTY: S. Rapp, 38: Robinson’s Spring, eight miles south of
Sanford, collected in May 1917 (Type): Collected in the vicinity of
Sanford in March 1911 and again in May 1912.
MASTIGOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl., Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3) 129, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Wils., L. et L. 1934.
Ptychanthi sp. N. ab E. 1838.
Phragmicoma p. p. Syn. Hep 1845.
Lejeuniae sp. Tayl. 1846.
Ptychocoleus p. p. min., Marchesiniae sp. et Thysanathi sp. Trevis 1877.
Trigono-Lejeunea Spruce 1885.
Lejeunea subg. Mastigo-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And. 102, 1884.
Mastigolejeunea auriculata (Wils. & Hook.) Schiffn. Engler &
Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 129, 1893.
AtacHua County:. Little: In a run along the northern edge of Gainesville.
Cray County: About Kingley’s Lake.
Cirrus County: H.L. Blomquist. 8886: On the base of rocks in the Fern
Grottoes at Pineola.
Cotter County: McFarlin, 1554; 1555; 1561; and 1562: In a pop-ash
slough in Billey-Kissimmee swamp about 20 miles east of Immokalee;
996; 1001a; 1375; 1377; 1378; 1379; 1380; and 1381: In the Big
Cypress.
328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Dave County: McFarlin, 1338; and 1341: In hammocks on Key Largo;
1342; 1347: In hammocks in the Cape Sable region; 1571; 1575; 1576;
1580; and 1584: In the Costello Hammock near Silver Palm. Grout:
Timmes Hammock.
HIGHLANDS County: McFarlin, 1117: In Highlands Hammock State Park
near Sebring; 1369: In a low hammock about Lake Istokpoga.
Hotrmes County: McFarlin, 1511; 1517; and 1519: In a low hammock
along Holmes Creek, near Bonifay.
Jackson County: McFarlin 1402; 1408; and 1409: In Cavern’s State Park
north of Marianna; 1416: On bark of trees near the “Locks” at
Marianna.
Lee County: McFarlin, 987; 1045; and 1047: In a cypress swamp near
Naples.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles west of Tallahassee, on the Old Span-
ish Trail.
Levy County: D. S. and H. B. Correll, 8891: On a tree in a low swampy
woods near Rosewood.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1496; and 1502: In Johnson’s juniper swamp,
about 8 miles south of Bristol; 1423; 1424; 1430; 1447; 1665; and
1668: In woods about Rock Bluff; 1483: In Torreya State Park.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8926: In hammocks about the Flying
Eagle Boy Scout Camp, about 15 miles north of Manatee.
Marion County: Grout: Near Orange Lake.
Monro—E County: Grout & McFarlin, 1903: In a buttonwood hammock
about 2 miles north of Flamingo, Cape Sable Region.
OKALoosA CounTy: McFarlin, 1462: In a low hammock near Galliver.
PoLtk County: McFarlin, 150: In a low hammock on Lake Marion west of
Haines City; 166: On Sweet Gum in high hammock on Scott Lake,
Lakeland; 233: In the Bartow swamp near Bartow; 352: On the
trunk of Fraxinus, on the west side of Lake Hancock; 1731; 1736;
1738: In hammocks near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 19: On the trunks of trees in hammocks about
Sanford.
LOPHOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl. Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3) 129, 1893.
Jungermannia Sect. III Tamariscineae a°° p. p. Reinw. B. et N. ab E.
1824.
Phragmicomae sp. Mont. 1845. Schiffn. 1889.
Symbiezidium p. p. Trevis 1877.
Lejeunea subg. Lopho-Lejeunea Spruce Hep. Amaz. et And. 129, 1884.
Lopholejeunea Muelleriana (Gottsche) Schiffn. Bot. Jahrb. 23:
599, 1897.
Cray County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
CoLtuieER County: McFarlin, 989: In hammocks about Lake Trafford; 1001a;
and 1001b: In the Big Cypress.
Cotumpia County: Kurz: About five miles east of Fort White.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1930: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
1913: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella. Grout: In
low hammocks about Lake Istokpoga.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 1173: In Highlands Hammock State Park, near
Sebring; 1351; 1356; 1358; and 1362. In low hammocks about Lake
Istokpoga.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1425: Rock Bluff; 1686; and 1690: In John-
son’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol.
~ Oxatoosa County: McFarlin, 1467: In a low hammock along a small stream
near Galliver.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 329
Potk County: McFarlin, 1729: On the bark of an oak in a high hammock
near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 3; 14; and 40: On the bark of trees in the
vicinity of Sanford.
Lopholejeunea Sagraeana (Mont.) Schiffn. in Engler & Prantl.
Nat. Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 129, 1893.
ALACHUA County: Reported by William A. Murrill in his paper “Bryophytes
of Alachua County” as being frequent.
Dave County: J. K. Small & Carter, 1370: In hammocks near the Home-
stead trial between Cutler and Camp Longview. E. G. Britton, 479:
In the Snapper Creek Hammock (Miami); 84: Brickell Hammock,
(Miami). Marshall A. Howe, 88: Brickell Hammock. Small &
Wilson, 1529: Miami. Small & Wilson, 1503; 1521; and 1533: from
the Long Key mainland. Small, 2348: In hammocks on Elliott’s key.
McFarlin, 1964: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
CAUDALEJEUNA (Steph.) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl., Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3) 129, 1893.
Phragmicomae sp. Schiffn. 1886.
Thysananthi sp. Steph. 1887.
Odontolejeunea Mitt. 1887. nec Spruce.
Cauda-Lejeunea Steph. subg. Hedwigia 29: 18, 1890.
Callistolejeunea Spruce Christiania Videns.- Selsk, Ferhandl. 1892.
Caudalejeunea Lehmanniana (Gottsche) Evans Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club 34: 554-557, pl. 33 f. 1-12, 1908.
DapE County: J. K. Small & J. J. Carter, 2812: October 1906 in Long
Prairie south of Miami. McFarlin, 1746; 1747; and 1748a: _—Collect-
ed on the bark of various trees in the Costello Hammock near Silver
Palm on Feb. 4, 1939. McFarlin, 1931; 1962; and 1965: On small
twigs and on the rachis of Nephrolepis in the Timmes Hammock near
Silver Palm. McFarlin, 1923: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near
Modella.
LEUCOLEJEUNEA Evans. Torreya 7: 225-227, 1907.
Lejeunea p. p. G. L. & N. Syn. Hep. 1845.
Lejeunea subgenus Archi-Lejeunea p. p. Spruce Hep. Amaz. et And. 1884.
Archilejeunea p. p. Schiffn. in Engler & Prantl., Nat. Pflanzenfam. I (3)
130, 1893.
Leucolejeunea clypeata (Schwein.) Evans. Torreya 7: 227, 1909.
AracHua County: Little: Collected at Newnan’s Lake, 6 miles east of
Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: Near Kingley’s Lake.
Escambia County: McFarlin, 1450; and 1451: In a low hammock along the
Escambia River.
Hormes County: McFarlin, 1503; 1504; 1509; 1514; 1517; and 1518: In
hammocks along Holmes Creek near Bonifay.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1401: In Caverns State Park near Marianna.
JEFFERSON County: E. Nelson, 1: Monticello. This was the first record
for the species in Florida.
Leon County: Kurz: Along the Ocklochnee River on State road 1.
Liperty County: McFarlin, 1443; 1494; and 1500: In Johnson’s juniper
swamp, about 8 miles south of Bristol; 1541; 1544; 1545; 1547; and
1548: In a ravine along State Road 18, near Bristol; 1479, 1481;
1485; 1487; and 1489: On trees in Torreya State Park; 1533: On
trees near Alum Bluff.
Oxa.Loosa County: McFarlin, 1464; 1465; 1466; 1468; and 1469: In hammocks
along a little stream near Galliver.
330 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pork County: McFarlin. 333; and 334: In a hammock about six miles
west of Lakeland.
Watton County: McFarlin, 1523: In the vicinity of Argyle.
Leucolejeunea conchifolia Evans. Torreya 7: 229, Dec. 1907.
AtacHua County: Little: Along run on the northern edge of Gainesville.
EscamBia County: McFarlin, 1457; and 1459: On trees near Gull Point
near Pensacola.
Leon County: Kurz: About Orchard Pond.
HicHitanps County: McFarlin, 767; 1055; and 113la: In Highlands Ham-
mock State Park, near Sebring.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8925 B: At Flying Eagle Boy Scout
Camp, about 15 miles north of Manatee, specimen in the Duke Uni-
versity herbarium.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 39: On living trees near Sanford.
Leucolejeunea unciloba (Lindenb.) Evans, Torreya 7: 228-229,
1907.
AracHua County: H. L. Blomquist, 8860: On the bark of trees at the
Devil’s Millhopper northwest of Gainesville, specimens in the herbarium
of Duke University. Little: Devil’s Millhopper.
CoLiieER County: Grout: On bark, near Deep Lake.
Cray County: Little: Green Cove Springs.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1581: In the Costello Hammock near Silver Palm;
1926; growing on the fronds of Tectaria heracleifolia in the Timmes
Hammock near Silver Palm. Grout: Timmes Hammock.
Hotmes County: McFarlin, 1505; 1660; and 1661: In a low hammock
along Holmes Creek near Bonifay.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee along the Qunicy
road.
Luerty County: McFarlin, 1535; and 1536: Near Alum Bluff; 1666; 1684;
and 1688: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of Bris-
tol.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 41: On trees in the vicinity of Sanford.
Leucolejeunea xanthocarpa (Lehm. & Lindb.) Evans, Torreya 7:
229, 1907. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 35: 172-173, pl. 7, figs.
12-23, 1908.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 49: On the bark of trees in hammocks, San-
ford.
Votusta County: S. Rapp, 66: In hammocks at DeLeon Springs.
CERATOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl., Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1:(3): 125, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Lindenb. Nova Acta Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol 14, suppl.
23, 1829.
Colura Dum. Recueil d’Obs. sur les Jung. 12, 1835.
Lejeunea Nees von Esenbeck Naturg. der europ. Leberm. 3: 265, 1838.
Symbiezidit sp. Trevis Mem. r. Ist. Lomb. III 4: 401, 1877.
Ceratolejeunea Spruce p. subg. Hep. Amaz. et And. 198, 1884.
Ceratolejeunea integrifolia Evans Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38: 213-
215, pl. 9, fig. 13-19, 1911.
Aracuva County: Little: Along a run at the northern edge of Gainesville.
Cray County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1937: On old logs in the Timmes Hammock near
Silver Palm.
Duvat County: Kennedy: In the vicinity of Bayard.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 331
Pork County: McFarlin, 54: At the base of a hardwood tree in Reedy
Creek swamp.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 37: On the trunks of trees and exposed roots,
Sanford, April 12, 1903.
TAXLILEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl. Nat. Pflanz-
enfam. 1(3): 125, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Sw. 1788 et al.
Lejeunea sp. Dum. 1835. et al.
Lejeunea subg. Taxi-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And. 221, 1884.
Taxilejeunea obtusangula (Spruce) Evans. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 38:
215-218, fig. 1-17, 1911.
Cray County: Little: About Kingsley Lake.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 992; 993; 994; 100la; and 1054: In the big
Cypress.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1964: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
HicHLtanps County: McFarlin, 1156; 1161; 1168; 1169; 1172; and 1173: In
Highlands Hammock State Park, near Sebring.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1415: In Caverns State Park near Marianna.
Lee County: McFarlin. 1044: In hammocks near Naples.
SEMINOLE CounTy: S. Rapp, 37: On logs and trunks of trees near their base,
Sanford. Also, Rapp. 70: Collected at Robinson Spring about eight
miles south of Sanford.
WAKULLA County: Kurz. Along the St. Mark’s River about 2 miles south
of Newport.
EUOSMOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiff. Engler & Prantl., Nat. Pflan-
zenfam. 1(3): 124, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Reinw. BI. et N. ab E. 1824.
Frullaniae sp. Dum. 1835.
Ptychanthi Sp. N. ab E. 1838.
Lejeunea subg. 29 Eusomo-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And. 244, 1884.
Euosmolejeunea clausa (Nees & Mont.) Evans Bryologist 11: 69,
1908.
AvacHua County: Little: Along creek south of the Athletic Field at Gaines-
ville.
Citrus County: H. L. Blomquist, 8885: On bark of trees in the Fern Grot-
toes at Pineola, specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
CottmR County: McFarlin, 1001: In the Big Cypress swamp; 1557; 1558;
and 1559: In a pop-ash slough in Billey-Kissimmee swamp about 20
miles east of Immokalee.
Dave County: McFarlin, 527: In the Royal Palm State Park. Grout &
McFarlin, 1911: Inthe Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Hotmes County: McFarlin, 1507: In hammocks along Holmes Creek near
Bonifay.
Leon County: Schornherst, 23x: At base of tree near Natural Bridge.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1427; 1429; and 1447: Rock Bluff; 1433; and
1553: In Johnson’s juniper swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol;
1538; 1670; 1681; 1688: Alum Bluff; 1491: In Torreya State Park.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8935: On base of tree at the Flying
Eagle Boy Scout Camp about 15 miles north of Manatee.
PotK County: McFarlin, 51; and 54; On the base of hardwood trees in the
Reedy Creek swamp; 153: In a low hammock on Lake Marion east
of Haines City; 115: In Highlands Gully south of Lakeland.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 20: On trees in the vicinity of Sanford, speci-
men in the Duke University herbarium.
WAKULLA County: Kurz, “The Swirl” about 3 miles south of Crawfordville.
332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Euosmolejeunea duriuscula (Nees) Evans. Mem. Torrey Bot Club
$2 1555.0) 18) fi 12-25, 1.902.
ALACHUA County: Little: In the Devil’s Millhopper, about 6 miles north-
west of Gainesville. N.L. T. Nelson: Collected in 1916 in the vicin-
ity of Gainesville. H. L. Blomquist, 8861: On the base of trees in
the Devil’s Millhopper, specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
Cray County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley’s Lake.
Cottier County: McFarlin, 1556; and 1560: In a pop-ash swamp in the
Billey Kissimmee Swamp about 20 miles east of Immokalee.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1340: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Grout & McFarlin, 1907; 1922; and 1923: Hattie Bauer Hammock.
EscampiA County: McFarlin, 1452; and 1453: In a low hammock along the
Escambia River, 1460: On trunks of trees near Gull Point, Pensa-
cola.
HicHitanps County: McFarlin, 1349; 1350; 1355; 1362; 1363; 1367; and
1368: In a low hammock on Lake Istokpoga; 1055; 1157; 1165;
1166; 1167; 1187; 1188; 11884; 1191; 1201; 1222; 1223; and 1228:
Collected in Highlands Hammock State Park near Sebring.
Hotmes County: McFarlin, 1510: In a low hammock along Holmes Creek,
near Bonifay.
Liserty County: Kurz: Collected in Johnson’s juniper swamp, about 8 miles
south of Bristol. McFarlin, 1446: on trunk of trees near Rock Bluff;
1532: collected in the vicinity of Alum Bluff; 1539; 1546; and 1552:
In a ravine along state road No. 18, in the vicinity of Bristol; 1478;
1483; 1486; and 1487: In Torreya State Park; 1432; 1438; 1439;
1441; 1675; 1679; 1680; and 1683: collected in Johnson’s juniper
swamp about 8 miles south of Bristol.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8917: On bark of trees at the Flying
Eagle Boy Scout Camp about 15 miles north of Manatee. McFarlin,
404: In the vicinity of Manatee; 454; and 455: In a hammock in
the vicinity of Myakka.
Pasco County: McFarlin, 235: In the Fern Grottoes, in the vicinity of
Pineola. .
Pork County: McFarlin, 121: On trunks of trees in Highlands Gully west
of Lakeland; 13: On an old rotten stump in Bartow swamp. O. E.,
G. K. & B. E. Jennings, 12,010: On roots of Liguidambar where
it is flooded during the summer, in the Peace River Swamp in the
vicinity of Fort Meade, specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
McFarlin, 1735; and 1739: In hammocks near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 23: On bark of trees in the vicinity of Sanford.
Taytor County: McFarlin, 1419: In a low hammock near Eridu.
Warton County: McFarlin, 1528: In the vicinity of Mossy Head.
Euosmolejeunea parvula Evans. Am. Journ. Bot. 5: 141-144, f. 4.
March 1918.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 86: On bark of trees, January 1917, in the
vicinity of Sanford. This collection has been designated as the type.
Also collected by S. Rapp, 86a, in the vicinity of Robinson’s Spring
about 8 miles south of Sanford. May. 1917.
CHEILOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn., Engler & Prantl., Pflanzen-
fam. 1(3): 124, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Lindenb. in Lehm. Pupill. IV, 1832.
Lejeuniae sp. Mont. 1940.
Cheilolejeunea Spruce subg. Hep. Amaz. et And. 1884.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 333
Cheilolejeunea decidua (Spruce) Evans, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32:
188-189, 1905.
Dave County: Small & Carter, 1370 and 1408: In hammocks near the
Homestead trail, between Camp Longview and Cutler; Marshall A.
Howe, 81: In the Brickell Hammock (near Miami); Small & Wilson,
1550: In the Everglades near Camp Longview; Small & Wilson,
1551: On Long Key Mainland; McFarlin, 1574: In the Costello
Hammock near Silver Palm, April 23, 1838; and 1935; 1939; 1954:
In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
Cheilolejeunea polyantha Evans, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 8: 141-
143,pl. 19. figs. 12-21, 1902.
Lake County: Underwood, 1380 p.p.: On bark, Eustis. (type locality).
Pork County: O. E., G. K. & B. E. Jennings, 12018: Collected in the Peace
River swamp near Fort Meade, Dec. 24, 1916, specimen in the Duke
University herbarium.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 61: On trees in the vicinity of Sanford.
RECTOLEJEUNEA Stephani, Species Hepaticarum 5: pp. 678-
701, 1914.
Rectolejeunea Berteroana (Gottsche) Evans Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club 33: 12, 1906.
Patm BeacH County: Underwood: On trees, Lake Worth, Florida.
Rectolejeunea Brittoniae Evans Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 38: 209-212,
pl. 9, fig. 1-12, No. 5, Ma. 1911.
AracHuaA County: Little: On trees along creek south of the Athletic Field,
Gainesville. N. L. T. Nelson: collected at Gainesville in 1916.
Dave County: McFarlin, 523; and 1345: On trees in hammocks on Key
Largo; 1747: On bark of trees in the Costello Hammock near Silver
Palm.
Hicuranps County: McFarlin, 1328: In Highlands Hammock State Park
near Sebring.
Pork County: O. E., G. K. & B. E. Jennings, 12068: On the bark of Taxodium
near the base of tree along Charlie Bowlegs Creek south of Fort
Meade in 1916, specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 63: On bark anl on exposed roots, in the vicinity
of Sanford, specimen in the herbarium of Duke University.
Rectolejeunea Maxonii Evans Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 39: 609, i.
45, fig. 17-27, 1912.
ALAcHUA County: N.L. T. Nelson: 79; and 92: On bark of tree in the vi-
cinity of Gainesville. H. L. Blomquist, 8852: On bark of trees at
the Devil’s Millhopper northwest of Gainesville.
SEMINOLE County: S. Sapp, 87: At Robinson’s Spring eight miles south of
Sanford.
Rectolejeunea phyllobola (Nees & Mont.) Evans Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club 35: 15, 1906.
Reported as collected on trees in Florida by Underwood without definite
locality.
CROSSOTOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffin. Engler & Prantl., Planz-
enfam. I (3): 127, 1893.
Lejeuniae sp. Lehm., Mont., N. ab E. Naturg. der erurop. Leberm. 3: 265,
1838.
Crossotolejeunea Spruce subg. Hep. Amaz. et And. 1884.
334 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Crossotolejeunea bermudiana Evans. Bull Torr. Bot. Club 33: 132,
pl. 6, 1906.
AracHua County: Little: In the Devil’s Millhopper about 6 miles northwest
of Gainesville.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 65: On the bark of trees in Upsala Swamp, San-
ford. S. Rapp, 67: On cypress in the vicinity of Sanford, specimen in
the Duke University herbarium.
WAKULIA County: Kurz: “The Swirl” about 3 miles south of Crawfordville.
UnrRECORDED County: S. C. Hood, 37 & 43: Collected near New Hawkinsville in
May 1912.
DREPANOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn., Engler & Prantl.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 126, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Hook. 1816.
Pandulphinius p.p. S. F. Gray 1821.
Lejeuniae sp. Dum. 1822.
Lejeuniea Sect. 2. Lejeuniotypus p.p. Dum. 1831.
Lejeunea b Lejeuneotypus a, p._p S. O. Lindb. 1875.
Lejeunea subg. Drepano-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And., 186, 1884.
Drepanolejeunea bidens (Steph.) Evans Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 30:
29, 1903.
Dane County: McFarlin, 1741: On the fronds of Dryopteris reptans, in the
Costello Hammock near Silver Palm; 1742: On the fronds of Tectaria
heracleifolia, also 1743: On the fronds of Campyloneuron Phyllitidis,
both in the Costello Hammock, Feb. 4, 1939.
LEPTOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn., Engler & Prantl., Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 126, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. N. ab E. 1830 et al.
Lejeunia sp. (Neesii), Mont. 1836.
Colura p.p min Trevis 1877.
Leptolejeunea elliptica (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Schiffn. Pflanzenfam.
PS) 126, 1893.
Dave County: J. K. Small & R. L. Lowe. 7024; 7036; 7041; and 7042: On
the leaves of various plants in the Royal Palm Hammock in Jan.
1916; Small, 7045; 7047; 7058; 7060; and 7062: In the same lo-
cality in January 1916; Small, 7063: Long Key Hammock. This was
the first record of this species for the United States.
LEJEUNEA Libert, Ann. Gen. Sci. Phys. 6: 372, 1820.
Lejeunea subgen. Eu-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Amaz. et And. 260, 1884.
Eulejeunea Schiffn., Eng. Prantl. Nat. Pflanz. 1(3): 122, 1893.
Eulejeunea subg. Architypica Massalongo, Jubul. Fl. Ital. 6, 1912.
Lejeunea cladogyna Evans, Am. Jour. Bot. 5: 134-137, fig. 2, 1918.
AtacHua County: Little: In the Devil’s Millhopper about 6 miles northwest
~ of Gainesville. N. L. T. Nelson, 104: In the vicinity of Gainesville in
1916.
Cottrer County: McFarlin, 989: In hammocks about Lake Trafford; 1071:
In the Royal Palm Hammock.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1343: In hammocks on Key Largo; 1745; and
1748: On the bark of various trees in the Costello Hammock near
Silver Palm; 1945; 1946; and 1951: In the Timmes Hammock near
Silver Palm.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 1190; 1200; and 1334: In Highlands Ham-
mack State Park near Sebring; 1348; 1358; and 1370: In low ham-
mocks about Lake Istokpoga.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 335
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1397; and 1399: In Caverns State Park north
of Marianna.
Lee County: C. F. Austin: Near Caloosa without date.
Leon County: Kurz: Near the Ocklochnee River bridge on State Road No. 1.
Marion County: Grout: Near Bellview; in the vicinity of Rainbow Sprnigs;
near Orange Lake on limestone.
Martin County: McFarlin, 1592: In a hammock bordering on the Connor’s
Highway near Port Myacca.
MANATEE County: Grout: Near Rye bridge.
PotkK County: McFarlin, 1732; and 1740: On bark of trees and old logs in
high hammock near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 6; 19; 64; 64a; and 69: Collected in the vicinity
of Sanford. No. 64 has been designated as the type collection.
Lejeunea flava (Swartz) Nees Eur. Leb. 3: 277, 1838.
AtacHUA County: N. L. T. Nelson: In the vicinity of Gainesville. H. L.
Blomquist; 8848: At the base of trees on the south side of Devil’s
Millhopper about 6 miles northwest of Gainesville, specimen in the
herbarium of Duke University.
Cray County: Little: Near Kingsley Lake.
Citrus County: Grout: On bark of trees near Floral City.
Dave County: D. S. Correll; 6102 A: On rotton logs in the Costello Ham-
mock near Silver Palm, specimen in the Duke University herbarium.
McFarlin, 1743: On fronds of Campyloneuron Phyllitides, in the Cost-
ello Hammock. Grout & McFarlin, 1899 and 1900: In a low hammock
about 4 to 6 miles south of Paradise Key on the road to Cape Sable;
1968: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm. Grout: In the
Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Duvat County: Schornherst, 12 x: Near Fort George ruins, Jacksonville.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 313; 1202; and 1333: In Highlands Hammock
State Park near Sebring.
Lrg County: McFarlin, 987: In a hammock near Naples.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee. Schornherst, 4 x: Near
Silver Lake.
LiperTty County: McFarlin, 1480; and 1490: In Torreya State Park.
MANATEE County: McFarlin, 399: In hammocks in the vicinity of Manatee.
Marion County: Grout: Near Bellview.
Pasco County: McFarlin, 235: In the vicinity of Pineola.
Potk County: McFarlin, 33; and 35: On the trunks of red maples in a low
hammock near Lakeland; 6; and 13: In low hammocks about Kissen-
gen Springs; 152: At the base of a live oak on Lake Marion; 260:
About 10 miles east of Hesperides; 584: On trunks of citrus trees
in Winter Haven; 552: In a low hammock about Lake Rosalie;
1734: On the bark of trees in a low hammock near Fort Meade.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 18: On trees near the base and on roots in the
vicinity of Sanford.
VotusiA County: Grout: On Palmetto about Lake Beresferd.
WAKULLA County: Schornherst, 1 x; 2 x: Newport.
Lejeunea floridana Evans, Bull. Porsey Bot. Club 32: 185-188, i.
BS 211905.
ALACHUA County: N. L. T. Nelson: In the vicinity of Gainesville.
Crtay County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
DapE County: Small & Carter; 1355 and 1356: In hammocks near the Home-
stead trail between Cutler and Camp Longview. The type has been
designated as No. 1355.
HicHLanps County: McFarlin, 1321: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebring.
336 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Potx County: McFarlin, 101: In Highlands Gully south of Lakeland; 171: In
a high hammock about Scott Lake south of Lakeland.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 11: On logs in the vicinity of Sanford.
Lejeunea glaucescens Gottsche, G. L. & N. Syn. Hep. 378, 1845.
AtacHuA County: Little: At the Devil’s Millhopper northwest of Gainesville.
CoLLieR County: McFarlin, 1038; 1053; and 1060: In the Big Cypress west
of Deep Lake.
Dave County: E. G. Britton; 32: In the Brickell Hammock.
GADSDEN CouNTy: Kurz: In the vicinity of Pronto Springs.
HicHranps County: McFarlin, 1318: In Highlands Hammock State Park
near Sebring.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 55: On logs at Sanford.
Lejeunea longifissa Steph., Sp. Hep. 5: 747, fig. 3, 1915, “Note-
worthy Lejeuneae from Florida” in Am. Jour. Bot. 5:
137-140, fig. 3, 1918.
Cray County: Little: In the vicinity of Kingsley Lake.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 83: In the vicinity of Sanford in 1917.
STYLOLEJEUNEA Sim. Roy. Soc. So. Africa, Trans. 15: 67, 1926.
Stylolejeunea pililoba (Spruce) Evans Bryologist 43: 3, 1940.
Brevarp County: Austin: On bark or on the ground along the Indian River,
specimen in the Austin herbarium.
Levy County: Austin: On bark or on the ground at Cedar Keys, specimen in
Austin herbarium.
Potk County: Jennings: In the vicinity of Fort Meade in 1916.
Stylolejeunea spiniloba (Lindenb. & Gottsche) Evans Bry
43: 4, 1940.
CHARLOTTE Coun: M. S. Taylor: Near Alva in 1930.
HixtsporoucH County: S. Rapp: In the vicinity of Tampa in 1916.
Jackson County: Kurz: Near Marianna and also, in the vicinity of Blue Spring
in 1927. Little: Along the Chipola River at Marianna.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 71: Near Sanford in 1913, also, Rapp, on the
trunk of a cypress near Sanford in 1917.
WAKULLA County: Kurz: About 3 miles south of Newport on the St. Marks
River in 1927.
MICROLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Jack et Steph., Bot. Central. 60: 11,
1894.
Lejeunea subg. Micro-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. et And. 286, 1884.
Eulejeunea subgen. Microlejeunea Schiffn., in Eng. & Prantl. Nat. Pflan-
zenfam. 1(3): 124, 1893.
Microlejeunea bullata (Tayl.) Evans, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 8:
164-165, pl. 21, figs. 20-29, 1902.
AtacHua County: N. L. T. Nelson: In 1916 at Gainesville.
CoLtumBiIA County: Kurz: About 5 miles east of Fort White.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1920: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Mo-
della; 1939: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
HicHLtanps County: McFarlin, 1356: In a low hammock on Lake Istokpoga;
694; 695; 1054; and 1173: In Highlands Hammock State Park near
Sebring.
Limerty County: McFarlin, 1486: In Torreya State Park.
ManaTEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8925: On bark of trees at the Flying
Eagle Boy Scout Camp, 15 miles north of Manatee.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 19: On roots and trunks of trees in the vicinity
of Sanford.
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS S37
Microlejeunea late-virens (Nees & Mont.) Evans. Bryologist 11:
67-69, 1908.
AtacHua County: N. L. T. Nelson: In 1916 in the vicinity of Gainesville.
H. L. Blomquist, 8877: On the bark of trees in the Devil’s Mill-
hopper northwest of Gainesville, specimen in the herbarium of Duke
University.
CoLuieR County: McFarlin, 1071a: In the Royal Palm Hammock; 1558; and
1559: In a pop-ash slough in the Billey-Kissimmee swamp about 20
miles east of Immokolee.
Dave County: McFarlin, 1346: In hammocks about the Cape Sable Region;
510: In the Royal Palm State Park. D. S. Correll, 6102 A: on rotten
logs in the Costello Hammock’ near Silver Palm, specimen in the
herbarium of Duke University. McFarlin, 1566; 1567; 1568; 1570;
1579; and 1588: In the Costello Hammock near Silver Palm; 1927:
1941; 1950; and 1966: In the Timmes Hammock near Silver Palm.
Grout & McFarlin, 1904: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
EscaMpiA County: McFarlin, 1458: On the bark of trees near Gull Point,
Pensacola.
GADSDEN County: Kurz: Aspalaga.
Hicuitanps County: McFarlin, 1184; and 1201: In Highlands Hammock
State Park, near Sebring.
Jackson County: McFarlin, 1409; and 1410: In Caverns State Park north of
Marianna.
Liperty County. McFarlin, 1538: Alum Bluff.
Manatee County: H. L. Blomquist, 8930A: On the bark of trees about the
Flying Eagle Boy Scout Camp, 15 miles north of Manatee, specimen
in the Duke University herbarium. McFarlin, 458: In a low ham-
mock along the Myakka River; 1726: On the trunk of red cedar on
Long Boat Key.
Monroe County: Grout & McFarlin, 1887; 1889; and 1898: In a buttonwood
hammock about 2 miles north of Flamingo, Cape Sable region.
Pork County: McFarlin, 17; and 20: In a low hammock about Kissengen
Springs; 154; and 157: In a low hammock east of Haines City on
Lake Marion; 583: In the vicinity of Winter Haven.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 15: On the bark of various trees in the vicinity
of Sanford.
Votusia County: Grout: Orange City.
Microlejeunea ulicina (Tayl.) Evans. Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 8:
176, 1902.
Potx County: McFarlin, 16: On the bark of Celtis, in a low hammock at
Kissengen Springs.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, (without number) Sanford.
DIPLASIOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn., Engler. & Prantl.,
Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 121, 1893.
Jungermanniae sp. Meifsn. in Spreng. 1827.
Lejeuniae sp. Mont. et N. ab E. 1843.
Diplasiolejeunea Spruce subg. Hep. Amaz. et And. 301, 1884.
Diplasiolejeunea Rudolphiana Steph., Hedwigia 35: 79, 1896.
DapE County: Small & Wilson, 2058: Collected in hammocks along the
Homestead trail, near Camp Longview. This specimen was first erron-
eously reported as Diplasiolejeunea unidentata (Lehm. & Lindenb.)
Schiffn., but belongs to the above species.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 68: On rotten logs in a swamp in the vicinity
of Sanford.
338 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
COLOLEJEUNEA (Spruce) Schiffn., Engler & Prantl., Pflanzenfam.
HS): 121, 1898.
Jungermanniae sp. Sm. Engl. Bot. 1806, Hook. 1816.
Lejeunia Sect. 2 Lejeuniotypus p.p. Dum. 1831.
Lejeunea a Gompholobus et b. Lejeuneotypus B, p.p S. O. Lindb. 1875.
Lejeuneae et Symbiezidii sp. Trevis, 1877.
Lejeunea subg. Colo-Lejeunea Spruce, Hep. Omaz. et And. 291, 1884.
_ololejeunea biddlecomiae (Aust.) Evans, Mem. Torrey Bot. Club
8: 168, 1902.
Dave County: Grout & McFarlin, 1901: In a low hammock about 4 to 6
miles south of Paradise Key on the road to Cape Sable. Specimen
growing on the bark of Ficus aurea.
Cololejeunea contractiloba Evans, Amer. Jour. Bot. 5: 131, fig. 1.
1918.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 76: On bark of trees in the vicinity of San-
ford. According to Evans this is the only known locality for this
species. Cololejeunea Biddlecomiae (Aust.) Evans was erroneously re-
ported from Florida but this collection is referable to the above species.
Specimen in the herbarium of Duke University.
Cololejeunea diaphana Evans Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 32: 184, pl. 5.
fig. 9-14, 1905.
Physocolea diaphana Steph. Sp. Hepat. 5: 913, 1916.
ALacHuaA County: N. L. T. Nelson: Collected in the vicinity of Gainesville
in 1916 without number. Also Little, (without number) Along a
run on the northern edge of Gainesville.
Dave County: Small & Carter, 1365; and 1370: In hammocks near the
Homestead trail between Cutler and Camp Longview. Number 1365
may be taken as the type.
Hicuianps County: McFarlin, “A”: Collected on the bark of an oak in
Highlands Hammock State Park near Sebring July 5, 1939.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp: In the vicinity of Sanford.
Cololejeunea minutissima (Sw.) Schiffn. Engler & Prantl. Nat.
Pilanzentam. ©: 122.1893.
Avracnua County: Little: About Newnan’s Lake, 6 miles east of Gainesville.
HicHianps County: McFarlin, 1354 and 1366: In a low hammock about
Lake Istokpoga.
Lee County: McFarlin, 1046: In a Cypress swamp near Naples.
Leon County: Kurz: In the vicinity of Lake Munson.
Potx County: McFarlin, 5: In the vicinity of Kissengen Springs.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 15, and 75: On the trunk of trees in the vicinity
of Sanford, specimen in the herbarium of Duke University.
Cololejeunea ornata Evans. Bryologist 41: 73-79, figs. 1-20, 1938.
Jackson County: Kurz and Kennedy, 145: ‘Collected on xerophytic lime-
stone cliffs along the Chipola River, March 27, 1927.” Kurz, 269;
On limestone along the Dothan Highway about eight mile snorthwest
of Marianna, Feb. 5, 1938.
Cololejeunea setiloba Evans. Bryologist 16: 51-54, fig. 1-7, 1913.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 12: The type was collected on the trunk of
Myrica, Jan. 28, 1906. S. Rapp. 27; and 59: On the bark of Ilex
glabra. All collections made in the vicinity of Sanford .
A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FLORIDA HEPATICS 339
Cololejeunea subcristata Evans. Bryologist 20: 24, f. 5-14, 1917.
Dave County: Small & Mosier, 5327: Collected on the leaves of Tectaria
minima Underw. in the Hattie Bauer Hammock; 6008: On the fronds
of Trichomanes Krausii Hook. & Grev. in the Nixon-Lewis Hammock;
McFarlin, 1915: In the Hattie Bauer Hammock near Modella.
Cololejeunea tuberculata Evans. Bryologist 18: 84, f. 1-9, 1915.
AtacHua County: Little: Along creek south of the Athletic Field, Gaines-
ville. McFarlin, 1866: In the Devil’s Millhopper about 6 miles north-
west of Gainesville.
Dave County: Small, Small,and Mosier: 5250: On the fronds of Trichoman-
es Krausti; Hook. & Grev. during March, 1915 in the Nixon-Lewis
Hammock; 5257: In the Sykes Hammock, and about the pinelands
near Timmes Hammock; In the Hattie Bauer Hammock on the fronds
of Trichomanes sphenoides, Kunze.
LEPTOCOLEA (Spruce) Evans, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38: 260-
poe LOL).
Lejeunea, subgenus Colo-lejeunea, section Leptocolea, Spruce, Hep. Amaz.
et And. 292, 1884.
Cololejeunea subgenus Leptocolea Schiffn., in Engler & Prantl., Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 1(3): 122, 1893.
ALAcHUA County: Little: In the vicinity of a creek south of the Athletic
Field at Gainesville.
CoLtumBIA County: Kurz: About 2 miles east of Fort White along the road
to Lake City. ;
LAKE County: lL. M. Underwood; 100: At Lisbon.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 5; 92; and 93: Collected in the vicinity of
Sanford.
APHANOLEJEUNEA Evans, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38: 272-273,
1911.
Aphanolejeunea sicaefolia (Gottsche) Evans, Bull. Torrey. Bot.
Club 38: 277, pl. 12, f. 18-26, 1911.
DavDE County: Small & Moiser, 5287: In the Timmes Hammock, and in the
pinelands about Nixon-Lewis Hammock, on the leaves of Trichomanes
Krausii in March 1915.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 69: Vicinity of Sanford, in March 1924.
ANTHOCEROTACEAE
ANTHOCEROS (Micheli) L., Sp. Pl. 1139, 1753.
Anthoceros Mich., Gen. Pl. 10, 1729.
Anthoceros carolinianus Michx., Fl. Bor. Americ.: 280, 1803-
AtacHua County: Little: Along creek south of the Athletic Field at Gaines-
ville D. S. & H. B. Correll, 8909; also, H. L. Blomquist, 8862: From
the Devil’s Millhopper northwest of Gainesvile, specimen in the her-
barium of Duke University.
HicHLanps County: McFarlin, 1336: In Highlands Hammock State Park,
near Sebring.
Marion County: D.S. & H. B. Correll, 8868: On muddy soil along a small
wooded stream 114 miles east of Blichton.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee, along Route 1, to-
wards Quincy.
Liserty County: McFarlin, 1475: In muddy places in Torreya State Park.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 46: On earth and logs in the vicinity of Sanford.
340 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Anthoceros Donnellii Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 304, 1875.
MANATEE County: McFarlin, 400: Near the town of Manatee.
UNRECORDED Counties: Along the Caloosahatchee River in southwest Florida
by Coe F. Austin without definite locality and reported by L .M. Un-
derwood in 1884.
Anthoceros laevis L., Sp. Pl. 1139, 1753.
ALACHUA County: Little: Along creek south of the Athletic Field, Gaines-
ville.
Leon County: Kurz: On the campus of the Florida State College for Wom-
en at Tallahassee.
Potk County: McFarlin, 216: On soil in Gadsen Hammock near Bartow;
258: About 10 miles east of Hesperides; 319: West of Lakeland;
360: On mucky banks in the flatwoods near Loughman; 1076: In
Faulkner Hammock near Bartow.
MANATEE County: H. L. Blomquist, 8907: On soil at edge of small stream
about 6 miles east of Manatee. McFarlin, 422: Manatee.
Anthoceros Olneyi Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 29, 1875.
UNRECORDED CouNTIES: Reported by L. M. Underwood in his “Hepatics of
North America”, as collected in Florida by Chapman without definite
locality. Communicated by Stephen T. Olney.
Anthoceros punctatus L., Sp. Pl. 1139, 1753.
ALACHUA County: Little: Along creek south of Athletic Field, Gainesville.
Leon County: Kurz: About 3 miles from Tallahassee, along route 1, to-
wards Quincy.
Potx County: McFarlin, 139: On wet muddy soil about Kissengen Springs,
4 miles south of Bartow; 266: About 2 miles east of Homeland.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 47: On sandy banks, earth and logs near San-
ford.
Anthoceros punctatus L. var Eatoni Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6:
Zi LS oe
UNRECORDED Counties: It was collected on the St. John’s and Indian Rivers by
J. Donnell Smith, and listed by L. M. Underwood in “Hepatics of
North America.”
Anthoceros Ravenellii Aust., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 6: 28, 1875.
Potx County: McFarlin, 359: Fort Meade; 378: Kissengen Springs; 379:
East of Brewster.
SEMINOLE County: S. Rapp, 82: Collected in Sanford, March 1924.
UNRECORDED Counties: Listed by L. M. Underwood in his paper “Hepatics of
North America,” as on moist earth, Florida, collected by Austin in
1884.
NOTATHYLAS Sull., Musci Alleg. exs. Nr. 288-290, 1846; Mem.
Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sci. New Ser., 3: 65, 1848.
Carpobulus Schwein., Jour. Acad. Phila. 2: 367, 1821.
Chamaeceros Milde, Nova Acta Acad. Leop-Carol. 26: 167. 1856.
Notothylas orbicularis (Schwein.) Sull., Musci and Hep. of United
States 685, 1856.
Potk County: McFarlin, 14: On an old log at Kissengen Springs about 4
miles south of Bartow.
FLORIDA’S TAX PROBLEM
GrorcE P. HorrmMan
Florida Southern College
The paper opens with a brief description of the common sources
of public revenue in Florida, with an analysis of the conflict of authority
which arises from the existence of over-lapping fields of taxation in
the various governmental divisions of the state.
This is followed by a discussion of the modern trends in taxation
practice, together with their present or prospective adaptation to condi-
tions in Florida. A critical study is made of the proposal to abolish
all ad valorem taxes in the state, with the substitution of a general
sales tax and other excise taxes.
An analysis is made of the practice of ear-marking the proceeds
from particular tax sources for the purpose of supporting selected
governmental activities. The paper recommends that a one-fund
system of accounting be used as the basis for sound budgeting of
strictly state revenues.
The problem of fair and equitable assessment of property for
purposes of taxation is attacked and suggestions made looking toward
the establishment of a central state-wide authority designed to bring
about uniformity in the ideals of property assessment, yet at the
same time preserve and safeguard the principle of home rule in the
determination of the local rate of taxation.
The allocation of sources of taxation among the various levels of
government is advocated; the aim being to make it possible for the peo-
ple to fix the responsibility for unnecessarily high taxes and extrava-
gance in spending public money. Emphasis is given to the primary
responsibility of the central state government for the support of edu-
cation, the public health, and the highways.
The paper closes with a summation of conclusions and of pro-
posed remedies.
SOCIOLOGY AND THE PRESENT WORLD CRISIS
L. M. Bristou
University of Florida
The sociologist has peculiar advantages in diagnosing the present
world crisis in the conflict between democracy in government and a
dictatorship; (1) over the sentimentalist in that he has, along with all
scientists, the scientific attitude, and uses, so far as possible, the
methods of the exact sciences; (2) over the “irrational optimist’’ in
his knowledge of cultural development which gives him perspective
341
342 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to see the long road ahead that leads to social organization—if such
ever comes; (3) over the student of the specialized social sciences in
that he studies man and groups in the totality of their activities, rela-
tions and interrelations rather than one aspect.
The sociologist who is accurate and consistent in his use of con-
cepts demands, first, that such terms as “democracy in government”
and “democracy as a way of life” be defined and brought into working
relation, and that the phrase “the American way of life” that is used
so glibly in almost every field, be explained and justified.
The sociologist sees the present crisis as a specially acute form of
social disorganization, due to multiplicity of interacting causes that
have been at work for thousands of years. He gives names to these
causes or processes as interaction, competition, conflict, combination
and cooperation and to the processes involved in the solution of con-
flict as withdrawal, destruction of opposition, conciliation, compromise,
domination. Moreover, the sociologists, knowing the possibilities of
the process called “interpenetration” or “creative accommodation”,
sees also the possibility—eventually—of working out a solution. But
he realizes the difficulties of dealing with a man such as Hitler and a
nation such as present-day Germany, and knows that whatever the
outcome of the present “blitzkrieg”, the final solution lies in the dis-
tant future.
Those sociologists have a peculiar advantage in dealing with the
present world crisis who, in addition to the scientific attitude and pro-
cedure, have worked out a scientifically-grounded social philosophy
which enables them to see not only life in association as one—but all
life as one with certain discernible trends that give hope that man may
yet so control himself, social groups and the material universe as to
bring about social organization to take the place of the present social
disorganization.
The sociologist who is interested in the application of sociological
principles to the attainment of a socially-formulated goal, is able to
point out the application of several principles to the solution of the
present world crisis. Among these may be mentioned the principles
suggested by the terms social self-preservation, social self-advancement
and adaptive functioning, and that suggested by the phrase strain
toward consistency in the mores.
The sociologist may well conclude from his study that there can
be no ultimate solution of the present world crisis between democracy
as a form of government and as a way of life, on the one hand, and
dictatorship with regimentation on the other, until some nation can
demonstrate just what is involved in “efficient democracy” and can
show the possibility of making democracy so challenging and so satis-
ABSTRACTS 343
fying that there will be no desire among the people living in this
democracy for any other form of government or way of life; so satisfy-
ing, in fact, that it will spread by reflective imitation. The attain-
ment of such a goal, in the thought of the applied sociologist, calls for
the democratization of the family, of the community, of education, of
religion, of industry—and the cooperation of the great mass of individ-
uals and the coordination of a vast number of agencies in the attainment
of the goal of efficient democracy.
A STUDY OF THE CITY MANAGER SYSTEM
OF GAINESVILLE, FLORIDA
Ancus M. Larrp AND MANNING J. DAUER
University of Florida
A historical survey introduces the study of the city manager
system of Gainesville, Florida. An attempt is made to place the city
in its setting from the standpoint of its social, economic, and political
organization prior to the adoption of the city manager charter in 1925.
The forces which favored and opposed the adoption of the charter
are analyzed.
The organization of the new government instituted after the ac-
ceptance of this charter is described fully. A chart of the organiza-_
tion is presented, based on charter provisions, ordinances, and ad-
ministrative regulations. Thereupon a detailed study of the operation
of staff departments is given, followed by the same treatment for the
line departments.
The study includes evaluations of the financial procedures of the
administrative techniques employed in the city government and
closes with an evaluation of the operation of the system as a whole.
ON CERTAIN AREA AND VOLUME FORMULAS
N. H. BULLARD
St. Lucie County Schools
The author describes geometric and trigonometric processes for
deriving formulas for the surface areas and volumes of rings, spheres,
segments and sectors of spheres and ellipsoids, cunes (a cune is the
portion of a cylinder intercepted between two planes which intersect
within the cylinder—from Latin cuneus, a wedge), polycunes (a poly-
cune is composed of three or more cunes of the same cylinder or of
equal cylinders), segments and sectors of cunes and polycunes, cunoids
344 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(a cunoid is the portion of a cylindroid intercepted between two planes
which intersect within the cylindroid), polycunoids, and segments and
sectors of cunoids and polycunoids.
FOOD COMPOSITION AS IT AFFECTS
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
E. T. KEENAN
Keenan Soil Laboratory, Frostproof
This paper presents the thesis that to develop a normal physical,
emotional, and rational race of people requires that the masses of the
population be provided with foods containing the vital elements neces-
sary for the building and maintenance of normal human beings. Live-
stock breeders and handlers know how foods influence the disposition,
intelligence, and temperament of animals. Soil conditions that produce
feeds that produce superior farm and range cattle should also produce
superior human beings. However, much of our food is grown in soil
which is deficient in certain important elements. These deficiencies
are an important factor in causing much of the disease and abnormal-
ity prevalent in the world today.
THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN FLORIDA
SCHOOLS
Leo L. BoLeEs
Groveland Schools
In a previous paper’, the author has discussed the science needs
and interests of Florida school children. In order to develop a tech-
nique of curriculum construction in science, the author sent a list
of twenty-five to one hundred true statements in each of seven science
fields to the state executive under whom activities lying in that field
are administered. Each executive was requested to indicate the ten to
fifteen statements he considered most significant to the children in
Florida schools. ‘The author then supplemented the statements so
chosen with enough additional statements which he deemed important
in order to provide twenty facts in each of the seven fields.
A questionnaire was constructed with these 120 items and mem-
bers of the Florida Academy of Sciences in attendance at the 1939
11. L. Boles, “What Science Should be Taught Children of Florida? Methods
of Investigating This Problem,” Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences,
Vol. 4, (1939), pp. 246-51.
ABSTRACTS 345
Annual Meeting were asked to indicate on a five-point rating scale
their estimates of the importance of each statement for inclusion in the
science curriculum of Florida schools. On the basis of the sixty-three
completely checked lists which were returned the seven subject mat-
ter fields were considered important in the following order (starting
with the most important): health and medicine, fishing, agriculture,
wildlife, meteorology, geology.
The author believes that this type of procedure may offer a clue
as to a desirable method of curriculum construction.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE FAILURE OF
CYCLIC MATING BEHAVIOR IN THE FEMALE
GUINEA PIG AND RAT
Witt1aAm C. YOUNG
Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park
When any randomly selected group of guinea pigs or albino rats
is placed under observation for the display of cyclic mating behavior
a small percentage of animals is found in which the period of sexual
receptivity is of short duration or irregular occurrence if it occurs at
all.
In guinea pigs which came under observation the failure of heat
seemed attributable to some deficiency of pituitary gland stimula-
tion, or, in animals in which pituitary stimulation was normal, to a
high threshold to the conditioning action of estrogen, the hormone
produced in the developing graafian follicle of the ovary (Young,
Dempsey, Myers and Hagquist, Am. J. Anat., vol. 63, 1938).
Rats of this type have been studied in order to determine to what
extent the same factors are responsible for the failure of cyclic mating
activity in this species, if the types of pituitary failure which were
encountered were transitory or likely to be permanent, if any con-
nection exists between such pituitary deficiencies and the sensitivity
to estrogen, and if larger quantities of estrogen than those used in the
guinea pig would condition the most unresponsive rats for that. The
character of pituitary stimulation was evident from the microscopic
structure of the ovary and the sensitivity to estrogen was ascertained
by means of injections of different quantities of this hormone followed
by the corpus luteum hormone, progresserone.
In 11 of 21 animals which had displayed heat only irregularly if
at all prior to ovariectomy, the ovarian condition was normal. In the
remaining 10 a variety of ovarian abnormalities are seen all of which
suggest a deficiency of pituitary stimulation. These abnormalities
346 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
which will be described were not necessarily permanent. Indications
are that variation in the extent of the abnormality occurs frequently,
sometimes in the direction of normality and sometimes in the direction
of greater abnormality.
All the rats displayed a low sensitivity to estrogen, but inasmuch
as other rats were found in which heat occurred despite the failure
of ovulation and normal follicular development, it is concluded that in
the animals studied, the basic factor in the failure of heat was the
low sensitivity to estrogen.
The significance of this result for the problem of sexual behavior
in the female mammal will be discussed.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE
BURKE-WADSWORTH CONSCRIPTION BILL
Rospert D. Downes
University of Miami
In Europe, almost every country has adopted the method of
maintaining an army by use of the conscription, or draft method.
This applies to times of peace as well as war. Until the adoption of
the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill, there has never been a
peace-time draft of man power for military purposes in the United
States.
The history of conscription in our country has been one of vig-
orous reaction on the part of the conscript. It was so in the War of
Independence; it was true in the Civil War; and there were many
opponents of the Selective Service Act in 1917-1918. The conscientious
objector; the draft dodger; the bounty seeker; and the fraudulent re-
enlistment are all manifestations of the unwillingness of our citizens
to serve in the armed forces under compulsion.
Conscription cannot be solved by so-called “volunteer” con-
scription, nor can volunteer enlistment and conscription go hand in
hand. There has never been a successful volunteer system in this
country.
When five million men are transferred from private life to the life
of a “private,” as in the World War, it creates a tremendous economic
upheaval. The buying power of millions of soldiers with a greatly de-
creased income is certain to cause a disturbance in the business cycle.
The bulk of the burden falls on the small business man. There are
certain compensation through such factors as the relief of unemploy-
ment, but this is not a vital force.
The removal from the consumer goods market of the purchasing
ABSTRACTS 347
power of two million men from the ages of 21 to 35 is of great con-
sequence to the retail trade. The effect on credit would be one of
importance. Small establishments will find it difficult to replace the
business lost by drafting of their clientele. The loss in marriage ranks
will be a vital force effecting the durable home goods market. How-
ever, a peace-time draft will not be as drastic in its effect as will a
war-time draft. Installment payments by the drafted soldier will
present the problem of repossession. Industry will have much to say
about the draft.
The return to private life of the soldier presented a problem that
was a vital matter in 1918. Will it be so again?
THE MILLION VOLT ELECTROSTATIC GENER-
ATOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
DANIEL C. SWANSON
University of Florida
A Van de Graaff electrostatic generator designed to operate at a
potential as high as a million volts is being developed by the Physics
Department at the University of Florida. This generator is enclosed in
a cylindrical tank, 8 feet long and 4 feet in diameter, and is to be
operated at pressures up to 100 pounds per square inch. The tank
is mounted horizontally one end of which is firmly attached to a con-
crete pier. The rest of the tank is supported by an under-carriage on
rails and can be unbolted from the rigid end and rolled back out of the
way. The high potential spherical electrode, 28° in diameter, is
suspended from the fixed end of the tank by a horizontal tripod. This
tripod is made from three textolite tubes each 52” in length. An
endless belt 128” in length and 13” wide carries the electric charge to
the high potential electrode. The charge is sprayed onto this belt by a
10,000 volt rectifying unit. A series of aluminum hoops circling the
belt system, concentric with the tripod and sphere and equally spaced
extends from the high potential electrode to the end of the tank. These
aid in splitting up the potential difference between the sphere and
ground in such a way as to keep the potential gradient sensibly con-
stant in this region. The ion accelerating tube which has not yet been
constructed will extend from the high potential electrode to an opening
in the end of the tank and parallel to the belt system. The ion source
and its auxiliary equipment will be located in the high potential
electrode. :
Some preliminary tests have been made on the operation of the
generator without placing it in the tank and these tests were highly
348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
satisfactory. We have yet to complete the apparatus for drying the air
to be used in the tank, and certain other details before the generator
can be operated in the tank under pressure.
This generator is to be used as an aid in instruction in the various
Physics courses and as a means of producing high speed ions to be
used in the study of artificial radio-active materials and their applica-
tions in Biology and Chemistry and also in the study of other nuclear
reactions.
EFFECTS OF SOLUTES ON THE INTERMOLE-
CULAR STRUCTURE OF WATER
WALTER MILLETT
University of Florida
The infra-red spectra of concentrated aqueous solutions of
twenty-seven salts, two halogen acids, and two strong bases have been
studied in the frequency range from 5000 cm-* to 1500 cm-’ with the
hope of gaining information on the effects of solutes on the associational
water bands. In the case of the strong combination frequency near
2100 cm-’, it was found that KF, NH,F, LiCl, LiBr, HgClo, PbCle,
CaClo, and Ba(OH)2 produced increases in frequency; NaCl, KCl,
PbCl, KBr, KI, MgCl, BaCle, ZnCl., NH4Cl, NH,Br, and
NHaglI produced decreases in frequency; while CdCle, NiCle, SrCle, and
CuCl, caused no observable variations. Hydrolysis effects prevented
the drawing of any definite conclusions concerning the effects of
FeCl, AlCl3, SnCl4, and NH,F on the associational water bands. The
experimental results are discussed in the light of the Bernal-Fowler
theory of the quasi-crystalline structure of liquid water. Interpretation
on the basis of definite hydro] polymers is suggested.
A MATHEMATICS PROGRAM FOR JUNIOR
COLLEGE TERMINAL STUDENTS
WILLIAM A. GAGER
St. Petersburg Junior College
The paper opens with a general discussion of the primary purposes
of a junior college. It is shown that the junior college started out as a
preparatory institution for further university work and is still giving too
much emphasis to this function. Two-thirds of the junior college
students never go to the senior colleges, yet the junior college curriculum
is mainly preparatory.
ABSTRACTS 349
In the field of mathematics the offerings are still chiefly tradi-
tional in nature. Many junior college students are not prepared to pro-
gress satisfactorily in the traditional mathematics courses, A dual cur-
riculum is therefore proposed: One for the technically-minded students
and one of a more useful nature for those who want some collegiate
training in mathematical thinking but who do not plan to pursue
mathematics beyond the junior college.
The paper presents experimental data that indicate what eight
different groups feel should be in a business mathematics course for
junior college terminal students. The groups include 829 consumers,
mathematics teachers, students, etc., from all parts of the United
States.
A general mathematics program for terminal students in junior
colleges is suggested.
SUGAR POLICY IN THE EVERGLADES
W. PorteR McLENpDoN
University of Tampa
Organization of cane sugar production for the United States
market is characterized by a high degree of integration whereby cor-
porations control the cane output in a “‘one-crop” region. The chief
purpose of this production control is to effect an economical coordina-
tion between grinding and planting operations. The large fixed capital
outlay in plantations and centrales or grinding plants challenges the
initiative of corporate management in developing maximum returns.
This normally consists of seeking the most economically-sized plant
and securing the fullest use of entrepreneurship. Dynamics of tech-
nology, human wants and political strategy have directed capital in-
vestment. Too little attention has been given the long-run effects of
capitalistic sugar expansion in lands of tropical self-sufficiency. Such
neglect in the case of Puerto Rico imposes limitations of the immedi-
ate exploitation of opportunities in the low-cost sugar bowl of South
Florida.
In Puerto Rico, sugar investments changed a self sufficient eco-
nomy into a specialized capitalistic economy. Dynamics of technology,
profits and tariff policy consistently guided the firms toward mechan-
ization and large-scale output. Increased subsistence accorded the
natives, still possessed of feudal customs and living standards, re-
sulted in a marked population growth. Chronic unemployment has
been the inevitable consequence.
$50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Since 1929, technical advance and corporate initiative have made
the Florida Everglades a low-cost cane producer. A single firm, the
United States Sugar Corporation, is responsible for approximately
95% of the total output. Since the Everglades was one of America’s
unsettled frontiers, the social conditions of a native population did
not emerge as a problem. In a short period, the corporation has used
scientific research and mechanization to attain a high degree of pro-
ficiency. While less than one per cent of the nation’s sugar is yet pro-
duced in Florida, expansion is blocked, at least temporarily, by a
protective quota system. The corporation urges that its low costs of
production entitle it to a larger quota at the expense of Puerto Rico
and other areas where low standards of living prevail. This proposal
is expedient from the standpoint of the corporation and its immediate
profits but it overlooks the economic and social effects that its adop-
tion would entail.
It is here proposed that intelligent sugar policy from the national
standpoint requires more than merely seeking the most effective use of
our scarce resources. Limitations of past capitalistic errors and their
gradual adjustment may temporarily justify qualification of what
would be expected in a regime of free competitive prices.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY
During the year 1940 the membership of the Academy has again
shown a small increase, as it has in every year since the Academy was
founded. The membership today stands at 383; a year ago it was
321. It should be noted that only members in good standing are
included in the figures; no person who has resigned or been dropped
from membership for non-payment of dues is included.
In addition to its sessions held in connection with the Annual
Meeting, the Council has held two meetings during the year—one in the
spring at St. Petersburg and one in the fall at Gainesville. Each of these
meetings lasted all day and was attended by practically all the mem-
bers of the Council.
The $50 Research Grant for 1940 has been awarded by the Coun-
cil to E. M. Miller, University of Miami, for use in connection with his
study of the distribution of termite types in Florida, with emphasis on
ecological aspects.
Academy members have no doubt noticed that Volume 4 of the
Proceedings shows further improvements in format over previous
volumes. Much of the credit for this excellent work belongs to Mr.
Crawford Solomon of the Convention Press, Jacksonville, who are now
our printers. The publication of a volume of scientific papers involves
many difficulties of which those who have not participated in such a
task may not be aware. Mr. Solomon and the staff of the Convention
Press have been patient and untiring and have cooperated to the fullest
degree with the Editorial Board in its efforts to produce an attractive
publication.
The volume of material which has become available for publica-
tion in the Proceedings has increased considerably. Although Volumes
1, 2, and 3 had only 170, 100, and 156 pages, respectively, Volume
4 jumped to 310 pages and the indications are that Volume 5 will be
even larger. Perhaps the Academy should begin to take under con-
sideration the possibility of converting the Proceedings from an annual
into a quarterly. There are certain simplifications in the editorial
task which are possible in a quarterly but which involve considerable
difficulty in an annual when it has grown to the present size of the
Proceedings. There are other obvious advantages, as well as some dis-
advantages to such a change. All of these will, of course, need careful
consideration before a change is made.
J. H. Kusner, Secretary.
Soil
352. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
REPORT OF THE TREASURER
(As of November 15, 1940)
INCOME:
I. Balance carried forward from November 15, 1939........ $586.22
II. Dues Received:
A O37.) Tmembership? 66.2 iach sieeve 2.00
1938i, 1. memberships: £4-00....cee seco 10.00
1039: } (7O:sFOCMIDEFSHIPS) i.e oe eee tees 152.00
19040) 203" MEMPELSDIPS + .2/csess ce ceteess veces 406.00
OAT PeO Mem DEFSHIpsi ese eee eee 12.00
1941 1 membership part payment.......... 1.00
583.00
B. 1939 4 associate memberships ................ 4.00
1940 8 associate memberships ................ 8.00
1941 2 associate memberships ................ 2.00
14.00
III. Institutional Sustaining Memberships........
IV. Receipts from Sale of Proceedings ............
V. Receipts from Authors:
D2 Nie 2s) 09 gh | HR ae re as ed A Rear sre 283.48
Be TIP TAVARES 6 credence ence eee 16.90
Cv Bostate ae ener Mek enna 1.25
301.63
TOTAL. s..060.00
DISBURSEMENTS:
I. Publication of Proceedings Vol. 3:
YN El ch 1 ot Ae OUR Pe ape ER SGI bin PEL 685.08
BS? WRG PA EIINES U8 os ett Ma et et and ue 101.00
GICHMPEAVINES) se gots ene eee ee 66.78
II. Administrative Expense:
AS Office ott Sectetary. 2. er ee 160.69
IB). Office Mek iPreasurerae. 20.228 fe 38.39
C. Printing of programs (1939 meeting) 29.50
III. Miscellaneous:
ApoiBank: cehaTgesi. sx.) eo4- pesos ee ee 1.10
B. Sketches in preparation of seal... 7.50
C. Refund to Mr. Robert, St. John... 1.00
TOTAL, » vicslcccetacnig he
TOTAL RECEIBUS) ee 1528.35
TOTAL DISBURSEMENTS ............. 1090.94
BALANCE hescn te Ie ok ena 437.41
586.22
597.00
35.00
8.50
301.63
1528.35
852.86
228.58
9.60
1090.94
JUNIOR ACADEMY 353
ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE:
TPPATOCCEGINGS! SOL | ooo. led se oeccoccccsceecessescsacboces 5.50
II. Reimbursements from Authors .................... 142.65
III. Institutional Memberships .........0..0..00.0000.00.... 275.00
IV. Regular Memberships:
PA. TIGIYE cS ER SORT ee ra eo 32.00
Lely HINGIS) 1 CAG i Ac ETSI) a ate ce 72.00
(Con TSG) ae Sea ROA aT 240.00
344.00
ROTO AT an see stan OA eae ee ETC LI 767.05
ACCOUNTS PAYABLE:
PO MACCMEME AINE COMPANY f..c.::..ccccssecosssercseceosecsssensgceesecvecdoaeclecdaghesvslaccvessseseh 74.60
AEE TPE IITUUNT HCC OIMIPAIY © 22.:cc.c.0csccsecesercossvcssvascesesiebvaysevsevermeeedessenescensdaducseeosec 34.00
108.60
12.
13.
BuRTON Faust, Treasurer.
PROGRAM OF THE
SECOND ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE
JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fellowship Room, First Avenue Methodist Church
St. Petersburg, Fla—Nov. 23, 1940, at 9 o’clock
Address of Welcome, G. V. Fuguitt, Superintendent of Public Instruction,
Pinellas County.
Message from the Florida Academy of Sciences, W. L. MacGowan, Chairman
Junior Academy Committee, Supervisor of Biology, Jacksonville.
“Orchidaceae of West Central Florida,” William Amick, Jr., St. Peters-
burg High School.
“The Use of Petroleum in Modern Warfare”, Norman Allen, Plant High
School, Tampa.
“Chemistry and Cosmetics’, Orsell Meredith, St. Petersburgh High School.
een a Great Industry of the Future”, Charles Nulter, Plant City High
School.
“The Central American Boa”, Craig Phillips, St. Petersburg High School.
“Equipment for a Home Dark Room”, Horace Lazo, West Junior High
School, Tampa.
“The High School Camera Club”, Martha Teeter, Winter Haven High
School,
“Infra-red Photography”, Earl Boozer, Winter Haven High School.
“The Use of Filters in Photography”, Russell Thompson, Winter Haven High
School.
“The Development of Modern Methods of Resuscitation”, Joe Johnson, Bruce
Fisher, John Nodine, Clearwater High School.
Business Session.
354
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PROGRAM OF THE FIFTH ANNUAL
MEETING
ST. PETERSBURG JUNIOR COLLEGE
NOVEMBER 22 AND 23, 1940
FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 22
9:30-10:30 A.M.—1st GENERAL SESSION—Dining Room
4.
President R. C. Williamson presiding
Sociology and the Present World Crisis—L. M. Bristol, Professor of Sociology,
University of Florida. 15 min.
Unscrambling the Vitamins—L. L. Rusoff, Assistant Professor of Animal Nu-
trition, University of Florida. 20 min.
Food Composition as it Affects Animal Behavior—E. T. Keenan, Keenan Soil
Laboratory, Frostproof. 10 min.
Florida’s Tax Problem—George P. Hoffman, Assistant Professor of Mathe-
matics, Florida Southern College. 20 min.
10:30-10:45 A. M—INTERMISSION
10:45 A. M.-12:15 P. M—BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Dining Room
10.
de
Chairman Frances L. West presiding
A New Species of Hammerhead Shark of the Genus Sphyrna—Stewart Spring-
er, Bass Biological Laboratory, Englewood. 10 min.
Factors Involved in the Failure of Cyclic Mating Behavior in the Female
Guinea Pig and Rat—William C. Young, Yale Laboratories of Primate Bi-
ology, Orange Park. 20 min.
Taxonomy and Distribution of Florida Spongillidae—Margaret C. Johnson,
Graduate Student, University of Florida. 15 min.
Notes on the Emergence and Life History of the Dragonfly Pantala
Flavescens—C. Francis Byers, Assistant Professor of Biology, University of
Florida. 10 min.
Parasites of Fresh-Water Fish of Southern Florida—Ralph V. Bangham,
Professor of Biology, College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio. By title.
On the First Pleopod of the Male Cambari—Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Instruc-
tor in Biological Sciences, University of Florida. By title.
Notes on the Distribution and Habits of the Ferns of Northern Peninsular
Florida—Stephen H. Spurr, Technical Assistant, Harvard Forest, Harvard
University. By title.
10:45 A. M.-12:15 P. M—PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Music Room.
Chairman Guy Waddington presiding
12—An Improved Method for Determining Prime Factors—Guy G. Becknell,
Ase
Professor of Physics, University of Tampa. 15 min.
Florida’s Geological Structure and Gravity—Robert B. Campbell, President
Peninsular Oil and Refining Company, Tampa. 12 min.
PROGRAM OF THE FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 355
14. The Million Volt Electrostatic Generator at the University of Florida—D. C.
Swanson, Instructor in Physics, University of Florida. 20 min.
15. The Chemical Seasoning of Lumber—H. S. Newins, Director, School of For-
estry, University of Florida. 15 min.
10:45 A. M.-12:15—P. M.—SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION—Fellowship Hall,
Methodist Sunday School Building
(Across Street from Suwanee Hotel)
Chairman R. F. Bellamy presiding
16. Citrus Marketing Trends—Frederick K. Hurdy, Professor of Economics,
Florida Southern College. 15 min.
17. Loss Leaders as Weapons of Monopolistic Competition—Renhold P. Wolff,
Assistant Professor of Economics, University of Miami. 15 min.
18. A Re-examination of Freudian Symbolism—Raymond F. Bellamy, Professor of
Sociology, Florida State College for Women. 20 min.
19. A Study of the City Manager System of Gainesville, Florida—Angus M.
Laird, Assistant Professor of Social Sciences, and Manning J. Dauer, Assistant
Professor of History and Political Science, University of Florida. 15 min.
20. Population Changes and Social-Economic Adjustments in Florida, 1880-1940
—John M. Maclachlan, Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Flori-
da. By title.
1:30-3:00 P. M—2nd GENERAL SESSION—Dining Room
President R. C. Williamson presiding
21. Petroleum Exploration Methods—Robert B. Campbell, President, Peninsular
Oil and Refining Company, Tampa. 20 min.
22. Economic Aspects of the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill—Robert B.
Downes, Instructor in History, University of Miami. 10 min.
23. Discussion: Florida and the National Defense Program. Led by Carl D.
Brorein, Chairman, Florida Survey Committee for National Defense. 30 min.
3:00-3:15 P. M—INTERMISSION
3:15-4:30 P. M—SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION—Music Room
Chairman R. F. Bellamy presiding
24. Sugar Policy in the Everglades—W. Porter McLendon, Associate Professor
of Economics, University of Tampa. 15 min.
25. Early Railroad and Banking Projects in Florida—J. G. Eldridge, Professor of
Economics, University of Florida. 20 min.
26. Should Banks Be Permitted to Fail?—F. W. Tuttle, Assistant Professor of
Economics, University of Florida. 20 min.
3:15-4:30 P. M.—Joint Meeting, BIOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES
SECTIONS—Dining Room
Chairman Frances L. West, Biological Sciences Section, presiding
27. The Limnology of a Small Deep Florida Lake—W. J. Harkness, Professor of
Biology; E. Lowe Pierce, Graduate Student, University of Florida. 10 min.
28. The Relation Between the Chemical Properties and Availability of Plant Nu-
trients—O. C. Bryan, Technical Director, Soil Science Cooperative, Florida
Southern College. 10 min.
356 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
29. Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Oil from Sharks Caught in Florida
Waters—L. L. Rusoff, Assistant Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of
Florida ; Robert M. French, President, Shark Industries, Inc., Hollywood. 5
min.
30. Source Material—Florida Aboriginal Artifacts—J. Clarence Simpson, Florida
Geological Survey, Tallahassee. 15 min.
31. What Science Should Be Taught the Children of Florida? Part II.—Leo L.
Boles, Supervising Principal, Groveland Public Schools. 10 min.
4:30-6:00 P. M.—Swimming in the Gulf of Mexico and the pool of the Bath
Club, Redington Beach
(Admission: 25c)
(Directions for reaching the Bath Club are on page 4)
6:00-6:30 P. M.—Water Sports Program. Bath Club Pool
7:00 P. M—BANQUET—(Informal)—Bath Club
Toastmaster: B. R. Reinsch, Florida Southern College, Past President of the
Academy.
Address of Welcome: Robert B. Reed, President, St. Petersburg Junior College.
Retiring Presidential Address: R. C. Williamson, University of Florida, President
of the Academy.
Presentation of the Achievement Medal for 1939: L. Y. Dyrenforth, St. Luke’s
Hospital, Jacksonville, Chairman of the Medal Committee.
8:30-9:30 P. M.—Motion Pictures. Bath Club
Shown by L. L. Rusoff, Assistant Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of
Florida
Rickets in Calves—A silent film on the Vitamin D requirements of calves and the
comparative effectiveness of irradiated yeast and cod liver oil concentrate.
Vitamins on Parade—A color-sound film on vitamins and the part they play in
the health and growth of poultry.
9:30 P. M—ARCHEOLOGICAL GROUP—Tides Hotel (next to Bath Club)
W. W. Ehrmann, Assistant Professor of Physical Sciences, University of Florida,
presiding
A meeting of those interested in archeology to discuss plans for the development of
Florida archeology.
SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 23
8:30-9:55 A. M.—BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Dining Room
Chairman Frances L. West presiding
32. The Taxonomic Status of Pinus Caribaea Mor.—Wilbur B. DeVall, Teaching
Fellow in Forestry, University of Florida. 12 min.
33. Suggestions in Technique for the Biological Laboratory (with Demonstrations)
—George G. Scott, Emeritus Professor of Biology, College of the City of
New York. 10 min.
34. Visual Education in the Biological Sciences—Jay F. W. Pearson, Professor of
Zoology, University of Miami. 15 min.
35.
36.
PROGRAM OF THE FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING 357
A Rust of Florida Pines Caused by Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miya—
George F. Weber, Plant Pathologist, Agricultural Experiment Station, Uni-
versity of Florida. 5 min.
Discussion: Biological Sciences Aspects of the National Defense Program.
25 min.
8:30-9:55 A. M.—PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Music Room
oie
38.
39.
40.
Chairman Guy Waddington presiding
Heavy Minerals in the Beach Sands of Florida—Williard B. Phelps, Asso-
ciate Professor of Geology, University of Tampa. 20 min.
Effect of Solutes on the Intermolecular Structure of Water—Walter Millett,
Student, University of Florida. 10 min.
On Certain Area and Volume Formulas—N. H. Bullard, Superintendent of
Public Instruction, St. Lucie County. 20 min.
Discussion: Physical Sciences Aspects of the National Defense Program. 20
min.
8:30-9:55 A. M.—SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION—Ballroom
41.
42.
43.
Chairman R. F. Bellamy presiding
The Anglo-French Rivalry in Siam, 1902-04—G. Leighton LaFuze, Professor
of History and Political Science, Stetson University. 25 min.
Hemisphere Defense and Inter-American Cooperation—Sigismond deR. Diet-
trich, Assistant Professor of Economic Geography, University of Florida.
20 min.
Discussion: Social Sciences Aspects of the National Defense Program. 20
min.
10:00-11:40 A. M—3rd GENERAL SESSION—Ballroom
44,
45.
46.
47.
President R..C. Williamson presiding
The Function of a Supreme Court in American Constitutional Government—
James Miller Leake, Professor of History and Political Science, University
of Florida. 15 min.
Chemical Integrative Mechanism in Social Insect Society—E. M. Miller,
Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Miami. 25 min.
Solution, A Dominant Factor in Shaping the Physiography of Peninsular
Florida—Sidney A. Stubbs, Assistant State Geologist, Florida Geological Sur-
vey, Tallahassee. 20 min.
A Mathematical Program for Junior College Terminal Students—William A.
Gager, Professor of Mathematics, St. Petersburg Junior College. 20 min.
11:45 A. M.-12:15 P. M.—BUSINESS SESSION—Ballroom
12:15-1:00 P. M—MEETING OF 1941 COUNCIL—Flamingo Room
1:15 P. M—Tarpon Springs Trip
1:30 P. M.—St. Petersburg Trip
6:30 P. M.—Dinner—Florida Section, American Chemistry Society
(Academy members are invited to attend.) Nikko Inn, 19 First Street North.
358 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
7:30 P. M—Business Meeting—Florida Section, American Chemical Society,
Nikko Inn.
8:30 P. M—JOINT MEETING—Biological and Physical Sciences Sections of the
Academy and Florida Section of the American Chemical Society.
Auditorium, St. Petersburg Junior College.
President Fred H. Heath, Florida Section, American Chemical Society, presiding
Address: Some Studies of Insect Physiology—Frank H. Babers, Associate Bio-
chemist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Beltsville, Md.
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1940
PRESIDENT—R. C. Williamson, University of Florida.
VicE-PRESIDENT—C. P. Heinlein, Florida State College for Women.
SECRETARY—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida.
TREASURER—Burton Faust, 815 Olympia Building, Miami.
CHAIRMAN OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Miss Frances L. West,
St. Petersburg Junior College.
CHAIRMAN OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Guy Waddington, Rollins
College.
CHAIRMAN OF SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION—R. F. Bellamy, Florida
State Coliege for Women.
ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL
Past-PRESIDENT—(1938)—R. I. Allen, Stetson University.
PasT-PRESIDENT—(1939)—-B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College.
EDITOR OF THE PROCEEDINGS—L. Y. Dyrenforth, St. Luke’s Hospital,
Jacksonville.
CHAIRMAN OF CONSERVATION COMMITTEE—S. A. Stubbs, Florida
Geological Survey.
CHAIRMAN OF COMMITTEE ON SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP AND
ENDOWMENTS—R. B. Campbell, Peninsular Refining Company,
Tampa.
CHAIRMAN OF COMMITTEE ON LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS—Miss Helen F.
Story, St. Petersburg Junior College.
CHAIRMAN OF COMMITTEE ON JUNIOR AcADEMy—W. L. MacGowan,
Lee High School, Jacksonville.
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1941
PRESIDENT—J. F. W. Pearson, University of Miami.
VicE-PRESIDENT—Frances L. West, St. Petersburg Junior College.
SECRETARY—J. H. Kusner, University of Florida
TREASURER—Burton Faust, 815 Olympia Building, Miami.
CHAIRMAN, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION—L. L. Rusoff, University
of Florida.
CHAIRMAN, PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION—Harold F. Richards, Florida
State College for Women.
CHAIRMAN, SOCIAL SCIENCES SECTION—Kathryn Abbey, Florida State
College for Women.
ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL
Past PRESIDENT, 1940—R. C. Williamson, University of Florida.
Past PRESIDENT, 1939—-B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College.
EDITOR OF THE PROCEEDINGS—L. Y. Dyrenforth, St. Luke’s Hospital,
Jacksonville
CHAIRMAN OF COMMITTEE ON SUSTAINING MEMBERSHIP AND
ENDOWMENTS—Robert B. Campbell, Peninsular Oil and
Refining Co., Tampa.
CHAIRMAN OF CONSERVATION COMMITTEE—S. A. Stubbs, State Geolo-
gical Survey.
CHAIRMAN OF JUNIOR ACADEMY COMMITTEE—Mrs. Marie B. Gager,
St. Petersburg High School.
CHAIRMAN OF LocaL ARRANGEMENTS—R. V. Sowers, Florida South-
ern College.
359
MEMBERS - 1940 ie
Abbey, Kathryn T., Florida Medical Center, Care of Dr. A. J. Hanna, Rollins
College (History)
Albee, Fred H., 49 West Duval Street, Venice (Medicine)
Albert, Franklin E., Jacksonville (Social Sciences)
Alexander, T. R., University of Miami (Botany)
Allen, E. Ross, Florida Reptile Institute, Silver Springs (Herpetology)
Anderson, Arthur, Florida Southern College (Economics)
Anderson, George W., 31 W. Park Place, Stanford, Conn. (Chemistry)
Anderson, Richard J., 2322 Herschell Street, Jacksonville (Mathematics)
Anderson, W. S., Rollins College (Chemistry)
Annis, E. R., Florida State College for Women (Medicine, Surgery)
Applin, Esther R., 2317 West Magnolia Avenue, Fort Worth, Texas (Geology)
Armstrong, J. D., Bryceville (Chemistry)
Arnold, Lilian E., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Taxonomic Botany)
Atwood, Rollin S., University of Florida (Geography)
Babcock, L. L., M. & T. Building, Buffalo, N. Y. (Ichthyology)
Bacon, Milton E., Jr., Wakulla (Archeology, Aeology)
Bangham, Ralph V, College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio (Parasitology)
Barbour, R. B., 656 Interlachen Avenue, Winter Park (Organic Chemistry)
Barbour, Thomas, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Mass. (Zoology)
Beatty, I. Croom, III, Rollins College (Chemistry)
Beck, Dow G., 2618 Algonquin Avenue, Jacksonville (Physics)
Becker, R. B., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Agriculture)
Becker, H. F., Florida State College for Women (Geography)
Becknell, Elizabeth A., 6900 Dixon Avenue, Tampa (Psychology)
Becknell, G. G., University of Tampa (Physics, Mathematics)
Belcher, Vera, Leon High School, Tallahassee (Biology)
Bell, C. E., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Chemistry)
Bellamy, R. E., 9 Hardeman Bldg., Macon, Ga. (Biology)
Bellamy, R. F., Florida State College for Women (Sociology)
Benn, Donald G., St. Petersburg Junior College (Economics)
Bentley, George R., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. (History)
Berger, E. W., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Entomology)
Best, Albert H., University of Florida (Chemistry)
Blackmon, G. H., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Horticulture)
Blair, W. Frank, Laboratory of Vertebrate Genetics, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich. (Genetics)
Blake, Robert G., Brooksville High School (Mathematics)
Bless, A. A., University of Florida (Physics)
Blount, Mildred, 2245 Eighteenth Street North, St. Petersburg (General Science)
Bly, R. S., Florida Southern College (Chemistry)
Bode, Donald D., University of Tampa (Chemistry)
Boles, Leo L., 4100 Granny White Road, Nashville, Tenn. (Chemistry)
360
LIST OF MEMBERS 361
Boleik, Irene, Florida State College for Women (Zoology)
Boyd, M. F., State Board of Health, Tallahassee (Epidermiology)
Brackett, Alice W., St. Petersburg Senior High School (Chemistry)
Brannon, Melvin A., University of Florida (Algology)
Breder, C. M., Jr., New York Aquarium, Battery Park, N. Y. (Ichthyology)
Briley, ‘Beulah B., Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Bristol, Margaret C., Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Bristol, L. M., University of Florida (Sociology)
Bruce, Malcolm, Thomas Hotel, Auburn, Ala.
Bryan, O. C., Florida Southern College (Pedology)
Buckland, Charlotte B., Landon High School, Jacksonville (Biology)
Bullard, N. H., Supt. of Public Instruction, Ft. Pierce (Mathematics)
Burlingham, Gertrude S., 818 Antionette Avenue, Winter Park (Mycology)
Buswell, W. M., University of Miami (Botany)
Butler, P. A., Medical Detachment, Station Hospital, Camp Blanding (Curator)
Byers, C. F., University of Florida (Biology)
Calaway, Wilson T., 1674 S. W. 23rd Street, Miami (Chemistry)
Campbell, Robert B., 603 Wallace S. Building, Tampa (Geology)
Cantral, Irving J.. Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
(Zoology)
Carleton, W. G., University of Florida (History, Political Science)
Carrigan, R. A., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Chemistry)
Cartwright, George H. C., 626 Chase Avenue, Winter Park (Acoustics)
Case, Shirley Jackson, Florida Southern College (Religion)
Chace, James Edward, Jr., Tallahassee (Labor, Personnel)
Chandler, H. W., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Chase, Randall, Box 291, Sanford (Agricultural Sciences)
Clouse, J. H., University of Miami (Physics)
Coe, Samuel G., Florida Southern College (Social Sciences)
Conn, John F., Stetson University (Chemistry)
Connor, Ruth, Florida State College for Women (Home Economics)
Conradi, Edward, Florida State College for Women (Psychology)
Cooper, W. C., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Orlando (Plant Physiology)
Cooper, Hilton H., Jr., Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee (Hydrology)
Corse, Carita Doggett, 1801 Goodwin Street, Jacksonville, (History)
Dauer, Manning J., University of Florida (History, Political Science)
Davis, Barbara, Apopka, or 22 Harris Sreet, Greenville, S. C. (Mathematics,
Physics)
Davis, E. M., Baker Museum, Rollins College (Ornithology, Entomology)
Davis, Katherine, P. O. Box 402, Homestead (Psychology, Botany)
Davis, U. P., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Dell, Mrs. R. G., Bronson, (Zoology)
Demaree, Dilzie, A. & M. College, Monticello, Ark. (Plant Ecology)
DeMelt, W. E., Florida Southern College (Psychology)
DeVall, Wilbur B., University of Florida (Forestry)
362 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Deviney, Ezda, Florida State College for Women (Zoology)
Dickenson, J. C., Jr., University of Florida (Biology)
Diettrich, S. deR., University of Florida (Geography)
Disher, Dorothy R., Florida State College for Women (Psychology)
Dolbeare, H. B., University of Florida (Economics)
Dostal, B. F., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Downes, R. B., University of Miami (History)
Drosdoff, Matthew, 146 Florida Court, Gainesville (Soil Science)
Dumas, Vera M., St. Petersburg Junior College (Education)
Durham, W. Clarence, P. O. Box 739, Gainesville (Science, Mathematics)
Dyrenforth, L. Y., St. Lukes Hospital, Jacksonville (Medicine)
Eddy, Paul, State Dept. of Education, Tallahassee (Education)
Edwards, Richard A., University of Florida (Geology)
Ehrmann, W. W., University of Florida (Sociology)
Eldridge, J. G., University of Florida (Economics)
Elliott, John E., 3404 Yoakum Blvd., Houston, Texas (Petroleum Geology)
Emersen, Mary P., St. Petersburg High School (Ornithology)
Erck, G. H., Weirsdale (Agriculture) \
Everett, Helen, Florida Southern College (Biological Sciences)
Fairchild, David, University of Miami (Agriculture)
Fargo, W. G., Dec. through April: P. O. Box 874, Pass-a-Grille Beach; May
through Dec., 506 Union Street, Jackson, Mich. (Ornithology)
Faust, Burton, 815 Olympia Building, Miami (Physics, Mathematics)
Fernald, H. T., 1128 Oxford R., Winter Park (Entomology)
Fifield, W. M., University of Florida (Agriculture)
Fike, Ruth, Florida Southern College (Mathematics)
Finner, Paul F., Florida State College for Women (Psychology)
Floyd, B. F., Davenport (Horticulture)
Floyd, W. L., University of Florida (Agriculture)
Foote, P. A., University of Florida (Pharmacy)
Fraser, Morris, Englewood (Histology)
Frash, Edwin S., University of Florida (Engineering)
Freeman, Ellis, University of Tampa (Psychology)
French, Robert M., Shark Industries, Inc., Hollywood (Biology)
Frink, Inez, Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Funk, Arthur L., St. Petersburg Junior College (Social Sciences, History)
Gaddum, L. W., University of Florida (Biochemistry)
Gager, Marie B., St. Petersburg High School (Biology)
Gager, William A., St. Petersburg Junior College (Mathematics, Psychology)
Garvin, Carolyn F., Florida Southern College (Biological Sciences)
Gay, Arthur W., St. Petersburg Junior College (Chemistry)
Gay, Marjorie Anderson, St. Petersburg High School (Chemistry, Physics)
Gaylord, Richard, University of N. C., Chapel Hill (Psychology)
Gentry, V. S., Florida Southern College (Zoology)
LIST OF MEMBERS 363
Germond, H. H., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Gifford, John C., University of Miami (Forestry)
Gist, M. N., Box 7, McIntosh, (Natural History)
Goin, Coleman, University of Florida (Biology)
Goldstein, Robert C., 405 Dryden Rd., Ithaca, N. Y. (Herpetology)
Graham, Viola, Florida State College for Women (Physiology)
Gratz, L. O., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Plant Pathology)
Griffin, John Wallace, 309 N. Grandview Avenue, Daytona Beach (Anthropology)
Grout, A. J., New Fane, Vermont (Bryology)
Gunter, Herman, Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee (Geology)
Gut, H. James, P. O. Box 700, Sanford (Paleontology)
Hadley, A. H., 136 Arlington Way, Ormond Beach (Omithology)
Hall, Lydia Sue B., 1235 Challen Avenue, Jacksonville (Chemistry, Biology)
Hamilton, H. G., University of Florida (Social Sciences)
Hanna, A. J., Rollins College (History, Social Science)
Hanover, F. J., Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Hardy, Fredrick K., Florida Southern College (Economics, Social Sciences)
Harkness, William J. K., University of Florida (Biology)
Harper, Roland M., University Alabama (Plant Geography)
Harrison, R. W., 2337 N. W. Flagler Terrace, Miami
Hart, Sister Mary Jane, O. P., Barry College, P. O. Box B, Little River Station,
Miami (Chemistry)
Hawkins, J. E., University of Florida (Chemistry)
Hayward, Wyndham, Winter Park (Horticulture)
Heinlein, C. P., University of California, Los Angeles, Cal. (Psychology)
Heinlein, Julia H., University of California, Los Angeles, Cal. (Psychology)
Hinckley, E. D., University of Florida (Psychology)
Hjort, E. V., University of Miami (Chemistry)
Hobbs, H. H., Jr., University of Florida (Biology)
Hoffman, George P., Florida Southern College (Mathematics, Physical Sciences)
Holdsworth, J. T., University of Miami (Economics, Finance)
Hood, Mary Noka, Florida State College for Women (Bacteriology)
Hopkins, A. E., Fisheries Biological Station, Pensacola (Biology)
Hubbell, T. H., University of Florida (Biology)
Hull, F. H., University of Florida (Genetics)
Hume, H. H., University of Florida (Botany)
Imeson, C. V., P. O. Box 393, Chattahoochee (Chronology)
Irish, Marian Doris, Florida State College for Women (Political, Social Sciences)
Jackson, Elizabeth S., Florida Southern College (Sociology)
Jacobs, M. Louise, Holt Junior High School (Botany)
Johnson, A. L. P., University of Tampa (Political, Social Sciences)
Johnson, Margaret C., 300 N. 7th Street, Gainesville (Biology)
Johnson, Richard S., University of Florida (Education)
364 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Keenan, E. T., Frostproof (Soil Chemistry)
Keene, Jesse L., University of Tampa (Political, Social Sciences)
Kelly, Howard A., 1406 Eutaw Place, Baltimore, Md. (Medicine)
Kew, Theodore J., Rollins College (Chemistry)
Kinser, B. M., Eustis (Geology, Astronomy, Zoology)
Kinsler, L. E., Rollins College (Physics)
Knorr, J. Francis, Jr., Stetson University (Astronomy)
Kurz, Herman, Florida State College for Women (Botany)
Kusner, J. H., University of Florida (Mathematics, Astronomy)
La Fuze, G. L., Stetson University (History, Political, Social Sciences)
Lagassee, Felix S., Tung Oil Lab., University of Florida
Larson, Olga, Florida State College for Women (Mathematics)
Leake, J. M., University of Florida (History, Political Sciences)
Lehner, George, University of Miami (Psychology, Biology)
Leigh, T. R., University of Florida (Chemistry)
Lewis, Kenneth, St. Petersburg High School (Physics)
Long, Winifred O., 2030 43rd Street South, St. Petersburg (Botany, Zoology,
Geology, Ornithology)
Longstreet, Rupert J., 610 Braddock Avenue, Daytona Beach (Psychology, Orni-
thology)
Lutz, Nancy E., San Jose Blvd., Jacksonville (Botany)
Lyerly, J. G., 516 Greenleaf Building, Jacksonville (Neurological Surgery)
Lynch, S. J., Sub-Tropical Exp. Station, Homestead (Sub-Tropical Horticulture)
Lynn, Edith E., Florida State College for Women (Physics)
McBride, Arthur, Marine Studios, Marineland (Biology)
McCallister, Martha E., Child’s Park Elementary Schools, Pinellas Park (Biological
Social Sciences)
McCracken, E. M., University of Miami (Government, Social Sciences)
McDonald, Walter H., 4324 Notter Street, Jacksonville (Social Sciences )
McFarlin, J. B., Florida Botanical Garden and Arboretum, Sebring, (Taxonomic
Botany, Bryology, Horticulture)
McFerrin, J. B., University of Florida (Social Sciences)
MacGowan, W. LeRoy, Robert E. Lee High School, Jacksonville (Biology)
McKellar, P. D., Jackson, Minnesota (Vertebrate Paleontology)
McKinnel, Isabel, Florida State College for Women (Chemistry)
McKinney, Robert S., Tung Oil Laboratory, West Main South, Gainesville
McLendon, W. Porter, University of Tampa (Economics, Social Sciences)
Maier, Eugene, Florida Medical Center, Venice (Bacteriology, Biology, Chemistry)
Manchester, James G., 216 Sixteenth Avenue Northeast, St. Petersburg (Mineral-
ogy)
Manley, Louis K., University of Miami (Political Sciences)
Marquis, Sister Patricia Ann, O. P., Rosarian Academy, West Palm Beach (Bi-
ology)
LIST OF MEMBERS 365
Matherly, W. J., University of Florida (Economics)
Mattice, Royal, Florida State College for Women (Economics)
Meehean, O. L., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Welaka (Zoology, Conservation)
Mendenhall, H. D., Florida State College for Women (Engineering)
Menneken, Carl E., Miami Beach Senior High School (Physics)
Meyer, Max F., University of Miami (Psychology)
Miller, Dorothy B., University of Miami (Zoology)
Miller, E..Morton, University of Miami (Zoology)
Miller, J. Kyle, St. Petersburg High School (Botany)
Millett, Walter, Univ. of Fla. (Physics)
Mills, Herbert R., Tampa
Modesitt, James B., Florida Southern College (Social Sciences, Sociology, Physical
Education )
Mowry, Harold, Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Horticulture)
Mull, L. E., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Dairy Science)
Mulvania, Maurice, Florida Southern College (Botany)
Murray, Mary Ruth, Robert E. Lee Junior High School, Miami
Newell, Wilmon, University of Florida (Agriculture)
Newins, H. S., University of Florida (Forestry)
Nissen, Henry W., Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park (Biology)
Noble, C. V., University of Florida (Agricultural Economics, Social Sciences)
Norris, H. W., Grinnell College, Grinnell, Iowa (Zoology)
Nutter, H. E., U. of F. (Curriculum Development)
Osborn, Herbert, Rollins College (Zoology, Entomology)
Parker, Gerald G., 234 E. 14th St., Hialeah (Geology)
Parker, Horatio N., 2777 Park St., Jacksonville (Public Health)
Pearson, Hazel M., 223 Avenue Calabria, Coral Gables (Ecology)
Pearson, J. F. W., University of Miami (Zoology)
Pearson, Walter M., University of Tampa (Protozoology)
Penningroth, Paul W., St. Petersburg Junior College (Psychology)
Perry, Louise M., Sanibel (Marine Biology, Ornithology)
Perry, W. S., University of Florida (Physics)
Phelps, Willard B., University of Tampa (Geologist)
Phipps, Cecil G., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Ponton, G. M., 271% St. George St., St. Augustine (Geology)
Popper, Annie Marie Therese, Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Price, J. E., University of Florida (Personnel & Guidance, Politics, Social Sciences)
Raa, Ida, Leon High School, Tallahassee, (Chemistry)
Reed, J. Paul, University of Miami (Sociology)
Reed, Robert B., St. Petersburg Junior College (History, Social Sciences)
Reeves, Gordon C., P. O. Box 441, Jacksonville (History, Social Sciences)
Reinsch, B. P., Florida Southern College (Mathematics, Physics)
Rense, W. A., University of Miami (Physics)
366 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Richards, Harold F., Florida State College for Women (Physics)
Robinson, Dana F., Florida Southern College (Religion, Sociology)
Robinson, Winnifred J., 818 Antionette Ave., Winter Park (Botany)
Robinson, T. Ralph, P. O. Box 1058, Orlando
Rogers, J. Speed, University of Florida (Biology)
Rolfs, P. H., 1422 West Arlington St., Gainesville (Botany)
Rusoff, L. L., Agr. Exp. Station, U of F. (Biochemistry)
Sadler, G. G., 315 N. Highland St., Mount Dora (Zoology)
Sandels, Margaret R., Florida State College for Women (Home Economics)
Sanford, Daniel S., University of Tampa (Psychology, Social Sciences)
Savely, Harvey E., Stetson University (Ecology, Physiology, Geology)
Scarborough, Christine, Florida State College for Women (Psychology)
Schmidt, Arthur H., Marine Studios, Marineland (Biology)
Schornherst, Ruth, Florida State College for Women (Botany)
Scott, George Franklin, Florida Southern College (History, Social Sciences)
Scott, George G., 480 Henkel Circle, Winter Park (Biology)
Sell, Harold M., 309 N. Oak St., Gainesville
Senn, P. H., University of Florida (Agronomy)
Shankweiler, P. W., Florida State College for Women (Social Sciences)
Shealy, A. L., Univ. of Fla. (Animal Husbandry)
Sherman, H. B., Univ. of Fla. (Biology)
Sherman, John H., Webber College, Babson Park (Social Sciences)
Shippy, William B., Celery Investigations Laboratory, Sanford (Plant Pathology)
Shores, Venila L., F. S. C. W. (Social Sciences)
Simpson, J. Clarence, Caverns State Park, Marianna
Simpson, T. M., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Smith, Carleton, Madison (History)
Smith, Frank, 2219 7th St. N., St. Petersburg (Zoology, Ornithology)
Smith, F. B., U. of F. (Microbiology)
Smith, Maxwell, Lantana (Biology)
Smith, Richard M., 537 Oakland Ave., Country Club Estate, Tallahassee (Chem-
istry)
Snider, Eulah Mae, State Library, Tallahassee (Social Sciences)
Sowers, R. V., Florida Southern College (Sociology)
Spivey, Ludd M., Florida Southern College (Sociology)
Springer, Stewart, Florida Marine Products Co., Islamorada (Zoology)
Spurr, J. E., Rollins College (Geology)
Spurr, Stephen H., Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass. (Forestry)
Stevens, H. E., 224 Annie St., Orlando (Horticulture)
Stiles, C. Wardell, Rollins College, (Zoology)
St. John, Edward P., Floral City (Botany)
St. John, Robert P., Floral City (Crytogamie Botany)
Stokes, W. E., Agr. Exp. Station, U. of F. (Agronomy)
Story, Helen F., St. Petersburg Junior College (Astronomy, Mathematics)
Stubbs, Sidney A., Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee (Geology)
LIST OF MEMBERS 367
Summitt, John W., Monticello
Swanson, D. C., University of Florida (Physics)
Tallant, W. M., 1005 Manatee Ave., Manatee (Archeology)
Tanner, W. Lee, 732 N. W. 36th St., Miami (Chemistry)
Tebeau, C. W., University of Miami (History, Social Sciences)
Therrell, J. H., Florida State Hospital, Chattahoochee (Hospital Administration)
Thomas, R. H., 37 South Hogan St., Jacksonville (Electricity)
Tilden, Josephine E., Lake Wales (Botany)
Tilt, Jennie, Florida State College for Women (Chemistry)
Tisdale, W. B., Agr. Exp. Station, U. of F. (Plant Pathology)
Tissot, A. N., Agr. Exp. Station, U. of F. (Entomology)
Tracy, Anna M., F. S. C. W. (Nutrition)
Tryon, Florence, F. S. C. W. (History, Social Sciences)
Tuttle, F. W., U. of F. (Economics, Social Sciences)
Van Brunt, W. E., Telephone Building, Tallahassee (Dentistry)
Van Dusen, A. C., Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois (Psychology)
Vance, Charles B., Stetson University (Geology)
Vance, Earl L., F. S. C. W. (Journalism)
Vermillion, Gertrude, F. S. C. W. (Chemistry)
Waddington, Guy, Rollins College (Chemistry)
Waite, Alexander, Rollins College, (Psychology)
Walker, Seth S., 1145 E. Cass St., Tampa (Chemistry, Physics)
Wallace, Madge, 3725 Lydia St., Jacksonville (Botany)
Wallace, Howard K., U. of F. (Biology)
Waskom, H. L., F. S. C. W. (Psychology)
Watson, J. R., Agr. Exp. Station, University of Florida (Entomology)
Weber, George F., Agr. Exp. Station, U. of F. (Plant Pathology)
Weil, Joseph, U. of F.
Weir, Marie Catherine, St. Petersburg High School (Biology)
Weltch, Clara, Andrew Jackson High School, Jacksonville (History)
West, Erdman, Agr. Exp. Station, U. of F. (Botany)
West, Frances L., St. Petersburg Junior College (Biology)
White, Sara Parker, F. S. C. W. (Medicine)
Williams, F. D., U. of F. (Physics)
Williams, H. F., University of Miami (History)
Williams, Henry W., Drawer C, Umatilla (Herpetology)
Williams, Osborne, U. of F. (Psychology)
Williamson, B. F., 129 E. Main St., North, Gainesville (Tung Production &
Manufacture)
Williamson, R. C., U. of F. (Physics)
Willoughby, C. H., U. of F. (Animal Husbandry)
Wilson, W. H., University of Florida (Mathematics)
Wimberly, Stan. E., U. of F. (Psychology)
368 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Wise, Louis E., Rollins College (Chemistry)
Witmer, Louise R., F. S. C. W. (Psychology)
Wilff, Reinhold P., University of Miami (Economics)
Yothers, W. W., 457 Boone St., Orlando
Young, John W. 720 Glen Ridge Drive, West Palm Beach (Mathematics, Physics)
Young, Sadie G., Florida State College for Women (Economics)
Young, William C., Yale Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park (Biology)
Zandstra, Thomas, F. S. W. C., Tallahassee (Physics)
Ziegler, E. A., University of Tampa (Forestry)
Zielonka, David L., U. of Tampa (Sociology)
INDEX OF VOLUMES 1-5
(Bold face number indicates volume)
Abbey, Kathryn T., The Historical Method in the Social Studies (abs.), 4, 277
Abbott, O. D. and Ahmann, C. F., Effect of a Lack of Vitamin A on the Blood
Picture of Rats and Adult Humans (abs.), 1, 149
Absorption Spectrophotometry and its Applications (abs.), L. H. Rogers, 1, 147
Academy During 1936, The, J. H. Kusner, 1, 1
Academy During 1937, The, J. H. Kusner, 2, 1
Achievement Medal, The, 1, 3; 3, 8
Achievement Medal for 1939, The, 4, 289
Addenda to the List of Birds of Alachua County, Florida, J. C. Dickinson, Jr.,
4, 106
Additions to the Recorded Pleistocene Mammals from Ocala, Florida, H. J. Gut,
3, 54
Advancing Knowledge of Florida’s Vast Plant Life, H. H. Hume, 2, 5
AGRICULTURE
Bless, A. A., Effects of X-rays on Corn (abs.), 1, 157
Carver, W. A., The Effects of Certain Environmental Factors on the Develop-
ment of Cotton Seed, Germination Ability and Resultant Yield of Cotton
(abs.), 1, 150
Keenan, E. T., A New Concept of Florida Soils (abs.), 3, 148
Weber, G. F., A Brief History of Tomato Production in Florida, 4, 167
Ahmann, C. F. and Abbott, O.D., Effect of a Lack.of Vitamin A on the Blood
Picture of Rats and Adult Humans (abs.), 1, 149
Albert, Franklin E., Mechanics and Sponsorship of W.P.A. Projects, 4, 263
Allen, E. Ross, Florida Snake Venom Experiments, 2, 70
Notes on the Feeding and Egg-Laying Habits of the Pseudemys, 3, 105
Notes on Florida Water Snakes, 3, 101
Allen, R. I., Certification Requirements for Teaching Science in the High Schools
(abs.), 4, 276
Some Recent Developments in High-Fidelity Sound Reproduction (abs.),
1, 148
Allergic Hypersensitivity and the Four Blood Groups, L. Y. Dyrenforth, 2, 76
Amplifier for Small Thermal Currents, An, F. D. Williams and Richard Taschek
2, 79
Analysis of Plant Ash in the Light of the Law of Definite Proportions, The:
An Apparently Forgotten Chemical Principle, L..W. Gaddum, 1, 128
Anglo-French Rivalry in Siam, 1902-1904, The., G. L. LaFuze, 5, 229
Annotated List of the Birds of Alachua County, Florida, R. C. McClanahan, 1, 91
Application of Helley’s Theorem to Sequences of Jordan Curves (abs.), Donald
Faulkner, 1, 145
Application of Infra-red Spectroscopy to Rubber Chemistry, An (abs.), F. D.
Williams, 1, 147
ARCHEOLOGY
Bellamy, R. F., A Cubic Foot of Evidence (abs.), 4, 279
369
370 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Simpson, J. C., Source Materials for Florida Aboriginal Artifacts, 5, 32
Stubbs, S. A., The Future of Florida Archeological Research, 4, 266
Are Women Clairvoyant?, Julia H. Heinlein and C. P. Heinlein, 3, 115
Arnold, Lillian E., Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees in Florida, 2, 52
ASTRONOMY
Knorr, J. F., Jr. and Hayes, A. E., The Sun—A Component of a Binary
System (abs.), 4, 285
Atwood, R. S., Geography and the Social Sciences, 4, 218
Austin Cary Memorial Demonstration Forest, The (abs.), H. S. Newins, 3, 138
Banana Waterlilies (abs.), Erdman West, 2, 86
Bangham, R. V., Parasites of Fresh-Water Fish of Southern Florida, 5, 289
Barrows, W. M., Jr., A New Automatic Respiration Calorimeter (abs.), 2, 90
Basal Metabolism of College Women as Influenced by Race and Degree of
Activity, The (abs.) Lola Schmidt and Jennie Tilt, 3, 141
Becknell, Elizabeth, Variations Within Successive Categories of an Extended
Series of Extra-Sensory Discriminations, 3, 42
Becknell, G. G., Cyclo-Geometric Series (abs.), 4, 280
An Improved Method for Determining Prime Factors, 5, 281
Tests for Determining Prime Factors, 4, 231
Bell, C. E., Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops (abs.), 2, 87
Bellamy, R. F., A Cubic Foot of Evidence (abs.), 4, 279
The Nature of Scientific Papers, 1, 17
A Re-examination of Freudian Symbolism, 5, 247
Berner, Lewis, Ovoviviparous Mayflies in Florida (abs.), 4, 280
Biological Effects of Radiations of Different Wave-lengths, A. A. Bless, 4, 179
BIOLOGY (See also BOTANY, GENETICS, PARASITOLOGY, PALEONT-
OLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY.)
Bless, A. A., Biological Effects of Radiations of Different Wave-lengths, 4, 179
Hopkins, A. E., A Marine Biological Laboratory on the Gulf Coast of
Florida, 4, 175
Harkness, W. J. K. and Pierce, E. L., The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida,
5, 96
Pearson, J. F. W., Visual Education in the Biological Sciences, 5, 26
Scott, G. G., Suggestions Concerning The Teaching of Biology (abs.), 3, 142
Suggestions in Technique for the Biological Laboratory, 5, 278
Bless, A. A., Biological Effects of Radiations of Different Wave-lengths, 4, 179
Effects of X-rays on Corn (abs.), 1, 157
Boles, L. L., The Science Curriculum in Florida Schools (abs.), 5, 344
What Science Should be Taught Children of Florida? Methods of In-
vestigating This Problem, 4, 246
BOTANY (See also AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY.)
Arnold, Lillian E., Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees in Florida
2, 52
Bryan, O. C., Relation Between the Chemical Properties and Availability of
Plant Nutrients, 5, 117
INDEX OF VOLUMES 371
Cooper, W. C., The Role of Hormones in the Development of Higher Plants,
3, 56
DeVall, W. B., The Taxonomic Status of Pinus Caribaea, MOR., 5, 121
Diddell, Mary (Mrs. W. D.), The Flora of Fort George Island (abs.), 2, 86
The Pteridophytes of Florida (abs.), 4, 275
Hume, H. H., Advancing Knowledge of Florida’s Vast Plant Life, 2, 5
Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants, 1, 48
The Genus Haylockia (abs.), 2, 91
Kurz, Herman, The Effect of Cold Storage on Certain Native American
Perennial Herbs. Part I, 2, 36; Part II (abs.), 4, 276
A Physiographic Study of the Tree Associations of the Apalachicola
River, 3, 78
The Reaction of Magnolia, Scrub Live-Oak, Slash-Pine, Palmetto and
Other Plants to Dune Activity on the Western Florida Coast, 4, 195
Torreya West of the Apalachicola River (abs.), 2, 85; 3, 66
MacGowan, W. L., Growth-Ring Studies of Trees of Northern Florida, 1, 57
McFarlin, J. B., A Preliminary List of Florida Hepatics, 5, 308
Schornherst, Ruth, A Preliminary Report on Studies of Moss Habitats and
Distribution in North Central Florida, 3, 109
Spurr, S. H., Notes on the Distribution and Habits of the Ferns of Northern
Peninsular Florida, 5, 62
West, Erdman, Banana Waterlilies (abs,), 2, 86
Preliminary List of Myxomycetes from Alachua County, 4, 212
Brief History of Tomato Production in Florida, A, G. F. Weber, 4, 167
Bristol, L. M., Sociology and the Present World Crisis (abs.), 5, 341
Bryan, O. C., The Relation Between the Chemical Properties and Availability of
Plant Nutrients, 5, 117
Buckland, Charlotte B., Taxonomic Characters and Habitats of Some of the Most
Common Florida Mycetozoa, 2, 67
Bullard, N. H., On Certain Area and Volume Formulas (abs.), 5, 343
BUSINESS OF THE ACADEMY
The Achievement Medal, 1, 3; 3, 8
The Achievement Medal for 1939, 4, 289
By-Laws, 1, 168; 2, 92; 4, 308
Changes in the By-Laws, 3, 8
Charter of the Florida Academy of Sciences, 1, 168; 2, 91; 4, 307
Committees for the 1938 Annual Meeting, 3, 7
Geographical Distribution of Members—1939, 4, 305
Kusner, J. H., The Academy During 1936, 1, 1
The Academy During 1937, 2,1
Report of the Secretary, 4, 287
Secretary’s Report, 3, 1
List of Members, 1, 159 |
List of Members—1937, 2, 94
List of Members—1938 3, 150
List of Members—1939, 4, 298
372 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Miller, E. M., Report of the Acting Treasurer, 3, 3
Report of the Treasurer, 4, 288
Officers for 1936, 1, 159
Officers for 1937, 1, 159; 2, 94
Officers for 1938, 2, 94
Officers of the Academy for 1938, 3, 150
Officers of the Academy for 1939, 3, 150; 4, 297
Officers of the Academy for 1940, 4, 297
Officers of the Junior Academy of Sciences for 1940, 4, 296
Program of the First Annual Meeting at DeLand, 1, 5
Program of the Fourth Annual Meeting, 4, 291
Program of the Second Annual Meeting, 2, 3
Program of the Third Annual Meeting—Rollins College, 3, 4
Program of the Inaugural Meeting at Gainesville, 1, 3
Research Grant, 3, 8
Resolution Concerning the Social Sciences, 4, 290
Summary .of High School Students and Teachers Attending Organization
Meeting of the Junior Academy of Sciences of Florida, 4, 296
Pearson, J. F. W., Treasurer’s Report, 1, 3
Treasurer’s Report, 2, 2
Byers, C. F., Notes on the Emergence and Life History of the Dragonfly Pantala
Flavescens, 5, 14
A Study of the Dragonflies of the Genus Progomphus (Gomphoides with a
Description of a New Species, 4, 19
By-Laws, 1, 168; 2, 92; 4, 308
CALENDAR
Phipps, C. G., Our Calendar and its Reform (abs.), 2, 88
Camp, J. P., The Division of Labor in the Natural Sciences (abs.), 2, 85
Campbell, Nelle, Organigraphy of Sixteen Millimeter Ameriurus (abs.), 1, 150
Campbell, R. B., Florida’s Geological Structure and Gravity, 5, 73
Outline of the Geological History of Peninsular Florida, 4, 87
Petroleum Exploration Methods, 5, 172
Carr, A. F., Jr., The Gulf-Island Cottonmouths, 1, 86
A Key to the Fresh-Water Fishes of Florida, 1, 72
Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Warmouth Bass, 4, 108
Carver, W. A., The Effect of Certain Environmental Factors on the Development
of Cotton Seed, Germinating Ability, and the Resultant Yield of Cotton
(abs.), 1, 150
Catalytic Hydrogenation of Oleo-Resin from the Slash Pine (Pinus Caribaea),
C. R. Stearns, Jr., and J. E. Hawkins, 4, 120
Cellulose of Spanish Moss, The, L. E. Wise and A. Meer, 1, 131
Certification of Requirements for Teaching Science in the High Schools (abs.),
R. I. Allen, 4, 276.
Changes in the By-Laws, 3, 8
Charter of the Florida Academy of Sciences, 1, 168; 2, 91; 4, 307
Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees in Florida, Lillian E. Arnold, 2, 52
INDEX OF VOLUMES 373
Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops (abs.), C. E. Bell, 2, 87
Chemical Integrative Mechanisms in Insect Societies, E. M. Miller, 5, 136
Chemical Seasoning of Lumber, The, H. S. Newins, 5, 85
CHEMISTRY
Bell, C. E., Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops (abs.), 2, 87
Clark, C. K. and Hawkins, J. E., The Vapor Phase Oxidation of Alpha Pinene,
4,116
Gaddum, L. W., The Analysis of Plant Ash in the Light of the Law of Definite
Proportions: An Apparently Forgotten Chemical Principle, 1, 128
Hawkins, J. E., Clark, C. K., Stallcup, W. D., and Stearns, C. R., Jr., Some
Aspects of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.) 4, 271
Phelps, W B., Heavy Minerals in the Beach Sands of Florida, 5, 168
Rogers, L. H., Absorption Spectrophotometry and its Applications (abs.), 1,
147
Rogers, L. H. and Gall, O. E., Results of Some Further Studies of the Determ-
ination of Zinc (abs.), 1, 147
Rusoff, L. L., Recent Advances in the Field of Vitamin Chemistry, 1, 42
Rusoff, L. L., and French, R. M., Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Oil
from Sharks Caught in Florida Waters, 5, 133
Rusoff, L. L., and Gaddum, L. W., A Quantitative Method for the Determina-
tion of Minute Amounts of Copper in Biological Materials (abs.), 1, 146
Stallcup, W. D., and Hawkins, J. E., Dehydroabietic Acid and Certain of its
Derivatives, 4, 124
Stearns, C. R., Jr., and Hawkins, J. E., Catalytic Hydrogenation of Oleo-
Resin from the Slash Pine (Pinus Caribaea) 4, 120
Williams, F. D., An Application of Infra-red Spectroscopy to Rubber Chem-
istry (abs.), 1, 147
Wise, L. E., and Meer, A., The Cellulose of Spanish Moss, 1, 131
Clark, C. K., and Hawkins, J. E., The Vapor Phase Oxidation of Alpha Pinene, 4,
116
Clark, C. K., Stallcup, W. D., Stearns, C. R., Jr., and Hawkins, J. E., Some
Aspects of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.), 4, 271
Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants, H. H. Hume, 1, 48
Comments on Problems in Mammals of Florida (abs.), E. V. Komarek, 1, 156
Comments on the Recent Mammals of Florida (abs.), E. V. Komarek, 1, 155
Committees for the 1938 Annual Meeting, 3, 7
Conditions for Algebraic Solutions of Certain Ordinary Differential Equations of
First Order and First Degree (abs.), Barbara Davis, 3, 145
Cooperation of Work Projects Administration with University and College Re-
search Programs, M. C. Forster, 4, 255
Cooper, W. C., The Role of Hormones in the Development of Higher Plants, 3,
56
Cubic Foot of Evidence, A (abs.), R. F. Bellamy, 4, 279
Cyclo-Geometric Series (abs.), G. G. Becknell, 4, 280
Dauer, M. J., and Laird, A. M., A Study of the City Manager System of Gaines-
ville, Florida (abs.), 5, 343
374 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Davis, Barbara, Conditions for Algebraic Solutions of Certain Ordinary \Differen-
tial Equations of First Order and First Degree (abs.), 3, 145
Has the Study of Mathematics a Place in Modern Socialized Education?
(abs.), 1, 157
Dehydroabietic Acid and Certain of its Derivatives, W. D. Stallcup and J. E.
Hawkins, 4, 124
Deichmann, Elizabeth, Holothurians from Biscayne Bay, Florida, 3, 128
Design of Numerical Problems for Instructional Efficiency, The (abs.), H. H.
Germond, 3, 147
DeVall, W. B., A Diagnostic Taxonomic Constant for Separating Slash and Long-
leaf Pines, 4, 113
The Taxonomic Status of Pinus Caribaea, MOR., 5, 121
Development of the Social Sciences in the Southeast, The, J. M. Maclachlan, 4, 204
Diagnostic Taxonomic Constant for Separating Slash and Longleaf Pines, A, W. B.
DeVall, 4, 113
Dickinson, J. C., Jr., Addenda to the List of Birds of Alachua County, Florida, 4,
106
Diddell, Mary (Mrs. W. D.), The Flora of Fort George Island (abs.), 2, 86
Natural Phenomena (abs.), 3, 148
The Pteridophytes of Florida (abs.), 4, 275
Diettrich, S. deR., Hemisphere Defense and American Solidarity, 5, 196
Disher, Dorothy R., Masculinity-Femininity Responses of Florida State College for
Women and University of Florida Students, 4, 11
Division of Labor in the Natural Sciences, The (abs.), J. P. Camp, 2, 85
Downes, R. B., Economics Aspects of the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill
(abs.), 5, 346
Dyrenforth, L. Y., Allergic Hypersensivity and the Four Blood Groups, 2, 76
The Effects of Immersion on the Hemograms of Swimmers, 4, 186
Economics Aspects of the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill (abs.), R. B.
Downes, 5, 346
Downes, R. B., Economic Aspects of the Burke-Wadsworth Conscription Bill,
5, 346
Hardy, F. K., Florida Citrus Marketing Trends, 5, 240
McLendon, W. P., Sugar Policy in the Everglades, (abs.), 5, 350
Tuttle, F. W., Should Banks be Permitted to Fail?, 5, 255
Wolff, R. P., The Role of Loss-Leaders in Retail Competition, 5, 270
EDUCATION
Allen, R. I., Certification Requirements for Teaching Science in the High
Schools (abs.), 4, 276
Boles, L. L., The Science Curriculum in Florida Schools (abs.), 5, 344
What Science Should be Taught Children of Florida? Methods of In-
vestigating This Problem, 4, 246
Davis, Barbara, Has the Study of Mathematics a Place in Modern Socialized
Education? (abs.), 1, 157
Gager, W. A., A Mathematical Program for Junior College Terminal Students
(abs.), 5, 348
INDEX OF VOLUMES 375
Heinlein, C. P., Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-Meas-
urement in Psychometrics, Education, and the Social Sciences, 1, 33
MacGowan, W. L., Mental Hygiene in Secondary Education (abs.), 3, 143
The National Survey of Science Teaching (abs)., 4, 285
Pearson, J. F. W., Visual Education in the Biological Sciences, 5, 26
Richards, H. F., Philosophical Integrity in Science Teaching (abs.), 2, 84
Scott, G. G., Suggestions Concerning the Teaching of Biology (abs.), 3, 142
Effect of Certain Environmental Factors on the Development of Cotton Seed,
Germinating Ability, and the Resultant Yield of Cotton, The (abs.), W.
A. Carver, 1, 150
Effect of Cold Storage on Certain Native American Perennial Herbs, The, Part I,
Herman Kurz, 2, 36; Part II (abs.), 4, 276
Effect of a Lack of Vitamin A on the Blood Picture of Rats and Adult Humans
(abs)., O. D. Abbott and C. F. Ahmann, 1, 149
Effects of Elastic Stretch on the Infra-red Spectrum of Rubber, The (abs.), Rich-
ard Taschek, 2, 89
Effects of Immersion on the Hemograms of Swimmers, The, L. Y. Dyrenforth,
4,186
Effect of Solutes on the Iniermolescular Structure of Water (abs.), Walter Millett,
5, 348
Effects of X-rays on Corn (abs.), A. A. Bless, 1, 157
Elder, J. H., Ovulation Time in Primates, 3, 123
Example of the Quantitative Method in Social Psychology, An, C. I. Mosier, 2, 17
Experimental Techniques of Scientific Psychology Versus the Speculative Dogmas
of Educational Psychosophy, The (abs.), C. P. Heinlein, 3, 139
Experiment to Determine the Effect of Severe Atmospheric Disturbances on the
Ozone Content of the Upper Atmosphere, An (abs.), W. S. Perry and R.
G. Larrick, 2, 89 :
Factors Involved in the Failure of Cyclic Mating Behavior in the Female Guinea
Pig and Rat, (abs.), W. C. Young, 5, 345.
Faulkner, Donald, Application of Helley’s Theorem to Sequences of Jordan Curves
(abs.), 1, 145
Fernald, H. T., The Monarch Butterfly (Danaus Menippe Hub.) in Florida, 4, 252
Finner, P. F., The Interrelation of Motor Abilities (abs.), 1, 149
Flat-Tailed Water Snake, The, Craig Phillips, 4, 210
Flora of Fort George Island, The (abs.), Mary Diddell (Mrs. W. D.), 2, 86
Florida Citrus Marketing Trends, F. K. Hardy, 5, 240
Florida Pocket-Gopher Burrows and their Arthropod Inhabitants, T. H. Hubbell
and C. C. Goff, 4, 127
Florida’s Geological Structure and Gravity, R. B. Campbell, 5, 73
Florida Snake Venom Experiments, E. Ross Allen, 2, 70
_ Florida’s Tax Problem (abs.), G. P. Hoffman, 5, 341
Food Composition as it Affects Animal Behavior, E. T. Keenan (abs.), 5, 344
Long-Leaf Pines, 4, 113
Forest Land Income from Naval, Stores in Alachua County, Florida, in 1937 (abs.),
E. A. Ziegler, 4, 283
376 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
FORESTRY
DeVall, W. B., A Diagnostic Taxonomic Constant for Separating Slash and
Lonf-Leaf Pines, 4, 113
Newins, H. S., The Austin Cary Memorial Demonstration Forest (abs.), 3, 138
The Chemical Seasoning of Lumber, 5, 85
Weber, G. F., A Rust of Florida Pines Caused By Cronartium quercuum
(Berk.) Miya 5, 262
Zeigler, E. A., Forest Land Income from Naval Stores in Alachua County,
Florida, in 1937 (abs.), 4, 283
Forster, M. C., Cooperation of Work Projects Administration with University and
College Research Programs, 4, 255
Freeze of 1934, The, Gray Singleton, 1, 23
French, R. M., and Rusoff, L. L., Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Oil from
Sharks Caught in Florida Waters, 5, 133
Function of a Supreme Court in American Constitutional Government, The, J. M.
Leake, 5, 189
Future of Florida Archeological Research, The, S. A. Stubbs, 4, 266
Gaddum, L. W., The Analysis of Plant Ash in the Light of the Law of Definite
Proportions: An Apparently Forgotten Chemical Principle, 1, 128
Gaddum, L. W., and Rusoff, L. L., A Quantitative Method for the Determination
of Minute Amounts of Copper in Biological Materials (abs.), 1, 146
Gager, W. A., A Mathematical Program for Junior College Terminal Students
(abs.), 5, 348
Gall, O. E., and Rogers, L. H., Results of Some Further Studies of the Determina-
tion of Zinc (abs.), 1, 147
GENETICS
Hull, F. H., Genetics in the Taxonomy of Arachis Hypogaea, L. (abs.), 1, 152
Inheritance of the Rest Period in Peanut Seeds (abs.), 1, 151
Non-Effective Gene Frequencies (abs.), 1, 153
Physiological and Evolutionary Theories of Non-Additive Gene
Interactions (abs.), 2, 89
Genetics in the Taxonomy of Archis Hypogaea, L., F. H. Hull, (abs.), 1, 152
Genus Haylockia, The (abs.), H. H. Hume, 2, 91
Geographical Distribution of Members—1939, 4, 305
GEOGRAPHY
Atwood, R. S., Geography and the Social Sciences, 4, 218
Geography and the Social Sciences, R. S. Atwood, 4, 218
GEOLOGY
Campbell, R. B., Florida’s Geological Structure and Gravity, 5, 73
Outline of the Geological History of Peninsular Florida, 4, 87
Petroleum Exploration Methods, 5, 172
Stubbs, S. A., The Necessity for Artesian Water Conservation in the Florida
Peninsula, 3, 97
Solution a Dominant Factor in the Geomorphology of Penin-
sular Florida, 5, 148
INDEX OF VOLUMES 377
A Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County,
Florida, 2, 24
Germond, H. H., The Design of Numerical Problems for Instructional Efficiency
(abs.), 3, 147
A Suggested New Notation for Logarithms (abs.), 2, 90
Suggestions for an Improved Notation in Trigonometry (abs.), 3, 145
Goff, C. C., and Hubbell, T. H., Florida Pocket-Gopher Burrows and their Arthro-
pod Inhabitants, 4, 127
Growth-Ring Studies of Trees of Northern Florida, W. L. MacGowan, 1, 57
Gulf-Island Cottonmouths, The, A. F. Carr, Jr., 1, 86
Gut, H. J., Additions to the Recorded Pleistocene Mammals from Ocala, Florida, 3,
54
Hitherto Unrecorded Vertebrate Fossil Localities in South-Central Florida,
3, 50
Hadley, A. H., The Past and Present Status of Some Rare and Threatened Florida
Birds, (abs.), 1, 155
Hardy, F. K., Florida Citrus Marketing Trends, 5, 240
Harkness, W. J. K., and Pierce, E. L., The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida, 5,
96
Harrison, R. V., The Vitamin C Content of Grapefruit Under Retail Marketing
Conditions (abs.), 3, 138
Has the Study of Mathematics a Place in Modern Socialized Education? (abs.),
Barbara Davis, 1, 157
Hawkins, J. E., and Clark, C. K., The Vapor Phase Oxidation of Alpha Pinene, 4,
116
Hawkins, J. E., Clark, C. K., Stallcup, W. D., and Stearns, C. R., Jr., Some Aspects
of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.), 4, 271
Hawkins, J. E., and Stallcup, W. D., Dehydroabietic Acid and Certain of its De-
rivatives, 4, 124
Hawkins, J. E., and Stearns, C. R., Jr., Catalytic Hydrogenation of Oleo-Resin
from the Slash Pine (Pinus Caribaea), 4, 120
Hayes, A. E., and Knorr, J. F., Jr.. The Sun—A Component of a Binary System
(abs.), 4, 285
Heavy Minerals in the Beach Sands of Florida, W. B. Phelps, 5, 168
Heinlein, C. P., The Experimental Techniques of Scientific Psychology Versus the
Speculative Dogmas of Educational Psychosophy (abs.), 3, 139
Limitations of the Probable Error of Estimate in Predicting the Course of
Human Behavior, 2, 12
Sample Applications of Rectilinear Correlational Techniques and Psycho-
physical Methods of Concomitant Variation to the Concepts of In-
cidental Communality and Casual Efficacy (abs.), 4, 279
Semantic Analysis: A Basic Step in Scientific Method (abs.), 3, 147
Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-Measurement in
Psychometrics, Education and the Social Sciences, 1, 33
Heinlein, C. P., and Heinlein, Julia H., Are Women Clairvoyant?, 3, 115
Heinlein, Julia H., and Heinlein, C. P., Are Women Clairvoyant?, 3, 115
378 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Hemisphere \Defense and American Solidarity, S. deR. Diettrich, 5, 196
Historical Method in the Social Studies, The, (abs.), Kathryn T. Abbey, 4, 277
HISTORY
Abbey, Kathryn T., The Historical Method in the Social Studies (abs.), 4,
277
LaFuze, G. L., The Anglo-French Rivalry in Siam, 1902-1904, 5, 229
Hitherto Unrecorded Vertebrate Fossil Localities in South-Central Florida, H. J.
Gut, 3, 50
Hobbs, H. H., On the First Pleopod of the Male Cambari, 5, 55
Some Florida Crawfishes and their Habitat Distribution (abs.), 1, 154
Two New Crawfishes from Florida (abs.), 2, 90
Hoffman, G. P., Florida’s Tax Problem (abs.), 5, 341
Holothurians from Biscayne Bay, Florida, Elizabeth Deichmann, 3, 128
Hopkins, A. E., A Marine Biological Laboratory on the Gulf Coast of Florida, 4,
175
Hubbell, T. H., and Goff, C. C., Florida Pocket-Gopher Burrows and their Arth-
ropod Inhabitants, 4, 127
Hull, F. H., Genetics in the Taxonomy of Arachis Hypogaea, L. (abs.), 1, 152
Inheritance of Rest Period in Peanut Seeds (abs.), 1, 151
Non-Effective Gene Frequencies (abs.), 1, 153
Physiological and Evolutionary Theories of Non-Additive Gene Interactions
(abs.), 2, 89
Hume, H. H., Advancing Knowledge of Florida’s Vast Plant Life, 2, 5
Cohering Keels in Amaryllids and Related Plants, 1, 48
The Genus Haylockia (abs.), 2, 91
Improved Method for Determining Prime Factors, An, G. G. Becknell, 5, 281
Infra-red Absorption of Vitamins C and D (abs.), L. H. Rogers, 2, 83
Infra-red Study of Several Liquid Crystals, An (abs.), Richard Taschek and F.
D. Williams, 3, 147
Inheritance of Rest Period in Peanut Seeds (abs.), F. H. Hull, 1, 151
Interrelation of Motor Abilities, The, (abs.), P. F. Finner, 1, 149
Keenan, E. T., A New Concept of Florida Soils (abs.), 3, 148
Food Composition as it Affects Animal Behavior 5, 344
Key to the Fresh-Water Fishes of Florida, A, A. F. Carr, Jr., 1, 72
Knorr, J. F., Jr., and Hayes, A. E., The Sun—A Component of a Binary System
(abs.), 4, 285
Komarek, E. V., Comments on Problems in Mammals of Florida (abs.), 1, 156
Comments on the Recent Mammals of Florida (abs.), 1, 155
Kurz, Herman, The Effect of Cold Storage on Certain Native American Perennial
Herbs. Part I, 2, 36; Part II, 4, 276
Opportunities for Research in Florida, 1, 7
A Physiographic Study of the Tree Associations of the Apalachicola eee 3,
78
The Reaction of Magnolia, Scrub Live-Oak, Slash-Pine, Palmetto and Other
Plants to Dune Activity on the Western Florida Coast, 4, 195
INDEX OF VOLUMES 379
Torreya West of the Apalavhicola River (abs.), 2, 85; 3, 66
Kusner, J. H., The Academy During 1936, 1, 1
The Academy During 1937, 2,1
Report of the Secretary, 4, 287
Secretary’s Report, 3, 1
LaFuze, G. L., The Anglo-French Rivalry in Siam, 1902-1904, 5, 229
Laird, A. M., and Dauer, M. J., A Study of the City Manager System of Gaines-
ville, Florida (abs.), 5, 343
Lake Management in Florida and Scientific Status of Fish Culture, The, O. L.
Meehean, 4, 182
Larrick, R. G., and Perry, W. S., An Experiment to Determine the Effect of
Severe Atmospheric Disturbances on the Ozone Content of the Upper
Atmosphere (abs.), 2, 89
Leake, J. M., The Function of a Supreme Court in American Constitutional Gov-
ernment, 5, 189
Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida, The, W. J. K. Harkness and E, L. Pierce, 5, 96
Limitations of the Probable Error of Estimate in Predicting the Course of Human
Behavior, C. P. Heinlein, 2, 12
List of Members—1937, 2, 94
List of Members—1938, 3, 150
List of Members—1939, 4, 298
List of the Recent Wild Land Mammals of Florida, H. B. Sherman, 1, 102
LITERATURE
Smith, Cornelia M., Proverbs in Browning’s The Ring and the Book: The
Scientific Method Applied to a Problem in English Literature (abs.), 1,
158
MacGowan, W. L., Growth-Ring Studies of Trees of Northern Florida, 1, 57
Mental Hygiene in Secondary Education (abs.), 3, 143
The National Survey of Science Teaching (abs.), 4, 285
Maclachlan, J. M., The Development of the Social Science in the Southeast, 4, 204
McBride, A. F., Observations on Captive Porpoises (abs.), 4, 282
McClanahan, R.C., Annotated List of the Birds of Alachua County, Florida, 1, 91
McFarlin, J. B., A Preliminary List of Florida Hebatics, 5, 308
McLendon, W. P., Sugar Policy in the Everglades (abs.), 5, 350
Marine Biological Laboratory on the Gulf Coast of ee A, A. E. Hopkins, 4,
175
Masculinity-Femininity Responses of Florida State College for Women and Uni-
versity of Florida Students, Dorothy R. Disher, 4, 11
Mathematical Program for Junior College Terminal Students, A Sia, W. A.
Gager, 5, 348
MATHEMATICS
Becknell, G. G., Cyclo-Geometric Series (abs.), 4, 280
Improved Method for Determining Prime Factors, 5, 281
Tests for Determining Prime Factors, 4, 231
Bullard, N. H., On Certain Area and Volume Formulas (ane) 5, 343
380 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Davis, Barbara, Conditions for Algebraic Solutions of Certain Ordinary Dif-
ferential Equations of First Order and First Degree (abs.), 3, 145
Has the Study of Mathematics a Place in Modern Socialized Education?
(abs.), 1, 157
Faulkner, Donald, Application of Helley’s Theorem to Sequences of Jordan
Curves (abs.), 1, 145
Gager, W. A., A Mathematical Program for Junior College Terminal Students
(abs.), 5, 348
Germond, H. H., The Design of Numerical Problems for Instructional Effic-
iency (abs.), 3, 147
A Suggested New Notation for Logarithms (abs.), 2, 90
Suggestions for an Improved Notation in Trigonometry (abs.), 3, 145
Mosier, C. I., The Methods of Multiple Factor Analysis (abs.), 1, 145
Reinsch, B. P., Pretended Accuracies in Computations, 3, 91
Williamson, R. C., Some Observations Upon the Use of Mathematics in the
Sciences, 5, 1
Mechanics and Sponsorship of W. P. A. Projects, Franklin E. Albert, 4, 263
Meehean, O. L., The Scientific Status of Fish Culture and Lake Management in
Florida, 4, 182
Meer, A., and Wise, L. E., The Cellulose of Spanish Moss, 1, 131
Mental Hygiene in Secondary Education (abs.), W. L. MacGowan, 3, 143
METEOROLOGY
Perry, W. S., and Larrick, R. G., An Experiment to Determine the Effect of
Severe Atmospheric Disturbances on the Ozone Content of the Upper
Atmosphere (abs.), 2, 89
Singleton, Gray, The Freeze of 1934, 1, 23
Methods of Multiple Factor Analysis, The (abs.), C. I. Mosier, 1, 145
Meyer, M. F., Resonance in the Telephone and in the Cochlea (abs.), 3, 140
Scientific Theory and Possible Practice of the Bichromatic Scale (abs.), 2, 87
Miller, E. M., Chemical Integrative Mechanism in Insect Societies, 5, 136
Report of the Acting Treasurer, 3, 3
Report of the Treasurer, 4, 288
Millett, Walter, Effect of Solutes on the Intermolecular Structure of Water (abs.),
5, 348
Million Volt Electrostatic Generator at the University of Florida, The (abs.), D.
C. Swanson, 5, 347
Monarch Butterfly (Danaus Menippe Hub.) in Florida, The, F. T. Fernald, 4, 252
Mosier, C. I., An Example of the Quantitative Method in Social Psychology, 2, 17
The Methods of Multiple Factor Analysis, (abs.), 1, 145
Traits in the Neurotic Inventory (abs.), 2, 84
MUSIC
Meyer, M. F., Scientific Theory and Possible Practice of the Bichromatic
Scale (abs.), 2, 87
National Survey of Science Teaching, The (abs.), W. L. MacGowan, 4, 285
Natural Phenomena (abs.), Mary Diddell (Mrs. W. D.), 3, 148
INDEX OF VOLUMES 381
NATURAL SCIENCES
Camp, J. P., The Division of Labor in the Natural Sciences (abs.), 2, 85
Diddell, Mary (Mrs. W. D.), Natural Phenomena (abs.), 3, 148
Nature of Scientific Papers, The, R. F. Bellamy, 1, 17
Necessity for Artesian Water Conservation in the Florida Peninsula, The, S. A.
Stubbs, 3, 97
Neutron, The (abs.), D. C. Swanson, 3, 146
New Automatic Respiration Calorimeter, A (abs.), W. M. Barrows, Jr., 2, 90
New Concept of Florida Soils, A, (abs.), E. T. Keenan, 3, 148
Newins, H. S., The Austin Cary Memorial (Demonstration Forest (abs.), 3, 138
The Chemical Seasoning of Lumber, 5, "85
New Species of Hammerhead Shark of the Genus Sphyrna, A, Stewart Springer,
5, 46
Non-Effective Gene Frequencies (abs.), F. H. Hull, 1, 153
Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Warmouth Bass, A. F. Carr, Jr., 4, 108
Notes on the Distribution and Habits of the Ferns of Northern Peninsular Florida,
S. H. Spurr, 5, 62
Notes on the Emergence and Life History of the Dragonfly Pantala Flavescens, C.
F. Byers, 5, 14
Notes on the Feeding and Egg-Laying Habits of the Pseudemys, E. Ross Allen, 3,
105
Notes on Florida Water Snakes, E. Ross Allen, 3, 101
Notes on the Histology of Siren (abs.), G. G. Scott, 3, 139
Notes on the Sharks of Florida, Stewart Springer, 3, 9
NUTRITION
Abbott, O. D., and Ahmann, C. F., Effect of a Lack of Vitamin A on the
Blood Picture of Rats and Adult Humans (abs.), 1, 149
Bell, C. E., Chemical Analysis of Some North Carolina Scallops (abs.), 2, 87
Harrison, R. V., The Vitamin C Content of Grapefruit Under Retail Market-
ing Conditions (abs.), 3, 138
Keenan, E. T., Food Composition as it Affects Animal Behavior (abs.), 3, 44
Rusoff, L. L., Preliminary Note on the Vitamin A Content of the Liver Oil of
the Florida Lemon Shark (Hypoprion Brevirostris Poey), 4, 193
Unscrambling the Vitamins, 5, 35
Observations on Cabtive Porpoises (abs.), A. F. McBride, 4, 282
Officers for 1937, 2, 94
Officers for 1938, 2, 94
Officers of the Academy for 1938, 3, 150
Officers of the Academy for 1939, 3, 150, 4, 297 - 4
Officers of the Academy for 1940, 4, 297 {
Officers of the Junior Academy of Sciences for 1940, 4, 296
On Certain Area and Volume Formulas (abs.), N. H. Bullard, 5, 343
On the First Pleotod of the Male Cambari, H. H. Hobbs, 5, 55
Opportunities for Research in Florida, Herman Kurz, 1, 7
Organography of Sixteen Millimeter Ameriurus (abs.), Nelle Campbell, 1, 150:
Our Calendar and its Reform (abs.), C. G. Phipps, 2, 88
382 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Outline of the Geological History of Peninsular Florida, R. B. Campbell, 4, 87
Ovoviviparous Mayflies in Florida (abs.), Lewis Berner, 4, 280
Ovulation Time in Primates, J. H. Elder, 3, 123
Ovum and Spermatozoon Age and the Course of Development and Gestation in
the Guinea Pig (abs.), W. C. Young, 4, 271
PALEONTOLOGY
Gut, H. J., Additions to the Recorded Pleistocene Mammals from Ocala, Flor-
ida, 3, 54
Hitherto Unrecorded Vertebrate Fossil Localities in South-Central Flori-
da, 3, 50
Stubbs, S. A., Studies of Foraminifera from Seven Stations in the Vicinity of
Biscayne Bay, 4, 225
Parasites of Fresh-Water Fish of Southern Florida, R. V. Bangham, 5, 289
PARASITOLOGY
Bangham, R. V., Parasites of Fresh-Water Fish of Southern Florida, 5, 289
Past and Present Status of Some Rare and Threatened Florida Birds, The (abs.),
A. H. Hadley, 1, 155
Pearson, J. F. W:, Studies on the Life Zones of Marine Waters Adjacent to Miami:
I. The Distribution of the Ophiuroidea, 1, 66
Treasurer's Report, 1, 3; 2, 2.
Visual Education in the Biological Sciences, 5, 26
Perry, W. S., and Larrick, R. G., An Experiment to Determine the Effect of
Severe Atmospheric Disturbances on the Ozone Content of the Upper
Atmosphere (abs.), 2, 89
Petroleum Exploration Methods, R. B. Campbell, 5, 172
Phelps, W. B., Heavy Minerals in the Beach Sands of Florida, 5, 168
Phillips, Craig, The Flat-Tailed Water Snake, 4, 210
Philosophical Integrity in Science Teaching (abs.), H. F. Richards, 2, 84
Phipps, C. G., Our Calendar and its Reform (abs.), 2, 88
PHYSICS :
Allen, R. I., Some Recent Developments in High-Fidelity Sound Reproduction
(abs.), 1, 148
Barrows, W. M., Jr., A New Automatic Respiration Calorimeter (abs.), 2, 90
Bless, A. A., Biological Effects of Radiations of Different Wave-Lengths, 4, 179
Effects of X-rays on Corn (abs.), 1, 157
Millett, Walter, Effect of Solutes on the Intermolecular Structure of Water
(abs.), 5, 348
Rogers, L. H., Absorption Spectrophotometry and its Application (abs.), 1,
147
Infra-red Absorption of Vitamins C and D (abs.), 2, 83
Swanson, D. C., The Million Volt Electrostatic Generator at the University of
Florida (abs)., 5, 347 .
The Neutron (abs.), 3, 146
Taschek, Richard, The Effects of Elastic Stretch on the Infra-red Spectrum
of Rubber (abs.), 2, 89
INDEX OF VOLUMES 383
Taschek, Richard, and Williams, F. D., An Infra-red Study of Several Liquid
Crystals (abs.), 3, 147
Williams, F. D., An Application of Infra-red Spectroscopy to Rubber Chem-
istry (abs.), 1, 147
The S-H Frequency of the Mercaptans (abs.), 3, 145
Williams, F. D., and Taschek, Richard, An Amplifier for Small Thermal Cur-
rents, 2,79
Williamson, R. C., Raman Spectra of Acetone-Water Solution (abs.), 1, 147
Raman Spectra of Dimethylenechlorhydrin and Nonamethylenechlorhydrin
(abs.), 4, 273
Raman Spectra of Water Solutions of Methanol, Ethanol, Acetone, Acetic
Acid, and Dioxane (abs.), 2, 88
Physiographic Study of the Tree Associations of the Apalachicola River, A, Her-
man Kurz, 3, 78
Physiological and Evolutionary Theories of Non-Additive Gene Interactions (abs.),
F. H. Hull, 2, 89
PHYSIOLOGY
Dyrenforth, L. Y., Allergic Hypersensitivity and the Four Blood Groups, 2, 16
Effects of Immersion on the Hemograms of Swimmers, 4, 186
Schmidt, Lola, and Tilt, Jennie, The Basal Metabolism of College Women as
Influenced by Race and Degree of Activity, (abs.), 3, 141
Pierce, E. L., and Harkness, W. J. K., The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida, 5, 96
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Diettrich, S. deR., Hemisphere Defense and American Solidarity, 5, 196
Hoffman, G. P., Florida’s Tax Problem, 5, 341
Laird, A. M., and Dauer, M. J., A Study of the City Manager System of
Gainesville, Florida (abs.), 5, 343
Leake, J. M., The Function of a Supreme Court in American Constitutional
Government, 5, 189.
Preliminary List of Florida Hepatics, A, J. B. McFarlin, 5, 308
Preliminary List of Myxomycetes from Alachua County, Erdman West, 4, 212
Preliminary Note on the Vitamin A Content of the Liver Oil of the Florida Lemon
Shark (Hypoprion Brevirostris Poey), L. L. Rusoff, 4, 193
Preliminary Report on Studies of Moss Habitats and Distribution in North Cen-
tral Florida, A, Ruth Schornherst, 3, 109
Pretended Accuracies in Computations, B. P. Reinsch, 3, 91
Program of the First Annual Meeting, 1, 5
Program of the Second Annual Meeting, 2, 3
Program of the Third Annual Meeting—Rollins College, 3, 4
Program of the Fourth Annual Meeting, 4, 291
Program of the Inaugural Meeting, 1, 3
Proverbs in Browning’s The Ring and the Book: The Scientific Method Applied
to a Problem in English Literature (abs.), Cornelia M. Smith, 1, 158
PSYCHOLOGY
Becknell, Elizabeth A., Variations Within Successive Categories of an Extended
Series of Extra-Sensory Discriminations, 3, 42
Bellamy, R. F., Re-examination of Freudian Symbolism, 5, 247
384. PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Disher, Dorothy R., Masculinity-Feminity Responses of Florida State College
for Women and University of Florida Students, 4, 11
Finner, P. F., The Interrelation of Motor Abilities (abs.), 1, 149
Heinlein, C. P., Experimental Techniques of Scientific Psychology Versus the
Speculative Dogmas of Educational Psychosophy (abs.), 3, 139
Limitations of the Probable Error of Estimate in Predicting the Course
of Human Behavior, 2, 12
Sample Applications of Rectilinear Correlational Techniques and Psycho-
physical Methods of Concomitant Variation to the Concepts of In-
cidental Communality and Causal Efficacy (abs.), 4, 279
Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics, Quasi-Measurement in Psy-
chometrics, Education and the Social Sciences, 1, 33
Heinlein, Julia H., and Heinlein, C. P., Are Women Clairvoyant? 3, 115
Meyer, M. F., Resonance in the Telephone and in the Cochlea (abs.), 3, 140
Mosier, C. I., An Example of the Quantitative Method in Social Psychology,
Ce AY
Traits in the Neurotic Inventory (abs.), 2, 84
Worchel, Philip, Psychometric Results and Notes on Behavior Before and
After a Prefrontal Labotomy on a Mental Patient (abs.), 3, 144
Superstition and Science in the Field of Mental Illness (abs.), 4, 273
Psychometric Results and Notes on Behavior Before and After a Prefrontal
Lobotomy on a Mental Patient (abs.), Philip Worchel, 3, 144
Pterdophytes of Florida, The (abs.), Mary Diddell (Mrs. W. D.), 4, 275
Quantitative Method for the Determination of Minute Amounts of Copper in'
Biological Materials, A (abs.), L. L. Rusoff and L. W. Gaddum, 1, 146
Raman Sbectra of Acetone-Water Solutions (abs.), R. C. Williamson, 1, 147
Raman Spectra of Dimethylenechlorhydrin and Nonamethylenechlorhydrin (abs),
R. C. Williamson, 4, 273 |
Raman Spectra of Water Solutions of Methanol, Ethanol, Acetone, Acetic Acid, and
Dioxane (abs), R. C. Williamson, 2, 88
Reaction of Magnolia, Scrub Live-Oak, Slash-Pine, Palmetto, and Other Plants
to Dune Activity on the Western Florida Coast, The, Herman Kurz, 4, 195
Recent Advances in the Field of Vitamin Chemistry, L. L. Rusoff, 1, 42
Re-examination of Freudian Symbolism, R. F. Bellamy, 5, 247
Reinsch, B. P., Pretended Accuracies in Computations, 3, 91
Scientists and Social Progress, 4, 1
Relation Between the Chemical Properties and Avaliability of Plant Nutrients,
Lhe, O. C. Bryan, 5, 117
Report of the Acting Treasurer, E. M. Miller, 3, 3
Report of the Secretary, J. H. Kusner, 4, 287
Report of the Treasurer, E. M. Miller, 4, 288
Research Grant, 3, 8
RESEARCH
Albert, Franklin E., Mechanics and Sponsorship of W. P. A. Projects, 4, 263
INDEX OF VOLUMES 385
Forster, M. C., Cooperation of Work Projects Administration with University
and College Research Programs, 4, 255
Kurz, Herman, Opportunities for Research in Florida, 1, 7
Reinsch, B. P., Scientists and Social Progress, 4, 1
Resolution Concerning the Social Sciences, 4, 290
Resonance in the Telephone and in the Cochlea (abs.), M. F. Meyer, 3, 140
Results of Some Further Studies of the Determination of Zinc (abs.), L. H. Rogers
and O. E. Gall, 1, 147
Richards, H. F., Philosophical Integrity in the Science Teaching (abs), 2, 84
Rogers, J. S., Two Larval Crane-Fly Members of the Neuston Fauna (abs.), 1, 154
Rogers, L. H., Absorption Spectrophotometry and its Applications (abs.), 1, 147
Infra-red Absorption of Vitamins C and D (abs.), 2, 83
Rogers, L. H., and Gall, O. E., Results of Some Further Studies of the Determin-
ation of Zinc (abs.), 1, 147
Role of Hormones in the Development of Higher Plants, The, W. C. Cooper, 3, 56
Role of Loss-Leaders in Retail Competition, The, R. P. Wolff, 5, 270
Rusoff, L. L., Preliminary Note on the Vitamin A Content of the Liver Oil of the
Florida Lemon Shark (Hypoprion Brevirostris Poey), 4, 193
Recent Advances in the Field of Vitamin Chemistry, 1, 42
The Shark Fishing Industry of Florida, 4, 189
Unscrambling the Vitamins, 5, 35
Rusoff, L. L., and French, R. M., Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Ow from
Sharks Caught in Florida Waters, 5, 133
Rusoff, L. L., and Gaddum, L. W., A Quantitative Method for Determination of
Minute Amounts of Copper in Biological Materials (abs.), 1, 146
Rust of Florida Pines Caused by Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miya, A, G. F.
Weber, 5, 262
Sample Applications of Rectilinear Correlational Techniques and Psychophysical
Methods of Concomitant Variation to the Concepts of Incidental Commun-
ality and Casual Efficacy (abs.), C. P. Heinlein, 4, 279
Schmidt, Lola, and Tilt, Jennie, The Basal Metabolism of College Women as In-
fluenced by Race and Degree of Activity (abs.), 3, 141
Schornherst, Ruth, A Preliminary Report on Studies of Moss Habitats ee Dis-
tribution in North Central Florida, 3, 109
Science Curriculum in Florida Schools, The (abs.), L. L. Boles, 5, 344
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
Bellamy, R. F., The Nature of Scientific Papers, 1, 17
Scientific Status of Fish Culture and Lake Management in Florida, The, O. L.
Meehean, 4, 182
Scientific Theory and Possible Practice of the Bichromatic Scale (abs.), M. F.
Meyer, 2, 87
Scientists and Social Progress, B. P. Reinsch, 4, 1
Scott, G. G., Notes on the Histology of Siren (abs.), 3, 139
Suggestions Concerning the Teaching of Biology (abs.), 3, 142
Suggestions in Technique for the Biological Laboratory 5, 278
Secretary’s Report, J. H. Kusner, 3, 1
386 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Semantic Analysis; A Basic Step in Scientific Method (abs.), C. P. Heinlein, 3, 147
SEMANTICS
Heinlein, C. P., Semantic Analysis: A Basic Step in Scientific Method (abs.),
3, 147
Vance, E. L., Word Dangers in Scientific Thinking (abs.), 4, 283
Shark Fishing Industry of Florida, The, L. L. Rusoff 4, 189,
Sherman, H. B., List of the Recent Wild Land Mammals of Florida, 1, 102
S-H Frequency of the Mercaptans, The (abs.), F. D. Williams, 3, 145
Should Banks Be Permitted to Fail? F. W. Tuttle, 5, 255
Simpson, J. C., Source Materials for Florida Aboriginal Artifacts, 5, 32
Singleton, Gray, The Freeze of 1934, 1, 23
Smith, Cornelia M., Proverbs in Browning’s The Ring and the Book: The Scientific
Method Applied to a Problem in English Literature (abs.), 1, 158
SOCIAL SCIENCES
Heinlein, C. P., Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-
Measurement in Psychometrics, Education and the Social Sciences, 1, 33
Maclachlan, J. M., Development of the Social Sciences in the Southeast, 4, 204
SOCIOLOGY
Bristol, L. M., Sociology and the Present World Crisis (abs.), 5, 341
Sociology and the Present World Crisis (abs.), L. M. Bristol, 5, 341
Solution a Dominant Factor in the Geomorphology of Peninsular Florida, S. A.
Stubbs, 5, 148
Some Aspects of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.), J. E. Hawkins, C. K. Clark,
W. D. Stallcup, and C. R. Stearns, Jr, 4, 271
Some Consequences of Pseudo-Mathematics and Quasi-Measurement in Psycho-
metrics, Education and the Social Sciences, C. P. Heinlein, 1, 33
Some Florida Crawfishes and their Habitat Distribution (abs.), H. H. Hobbs,
1, 54
Some Observations Upon the Use of Mathematics in the Sciences, R. C. William-
son, 5, 1
Some Recent Developments in High-Fidelity Sound Reproduction (abs.), R. I.
Allen, 1, 148
Source Materials for Florida Aboriginal Artifacts, J. C. Simnson, 5, 32
Springer, Stewart, A New Species of Hammerhead Shark of the Genus Sphyrna,
5, 46
Notes on the Sharks of Florida, 3, 9
Spurr, S. H., Notes on the Distribution and Habits of the Ferns of Northern
Peninsular Florida, 5, 62
Stallcup, W. D., and Hawkins, J. E., Dehydroabietic Acid and Certain of its
Derivatives, 4, 124
Stallcup, W. D., Stearns, C. R., Hawkins, J. E., and Clark, C. K., Some Aspects
of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.), 4, 271
Stearns, C. R., and Hawkins, J. E., Catalytic Bee Seg of Oleo-Resin from
the Slash Pine (Pinus Caribaea), 4, 120
Stearns, C. R., Hawkins, J. E., Clark, C. K., and Stallcup, W. D., Some Aspects
of the Naval Stores Problem (abs.), 4, 271
INDEX OF VOLUMES 387
Stubbs, S. A., The Future of Archeological Florida Research, 4, 266
The Necessity for Artesian Water Conservation in the Florida Peninsula,
3, 97
Solution a Dominant Factor in the Geomorphology of Peninsular Florida,
5, 148
Studies of Foraminifera from Seven Stations in the Vicinity of Biscayne Bay,
4, 225
A Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County, Florida, 2, 24
Studies of Foraminifera from Seven Stations in the Vicinity of Biscayne Bay,
S. A. Stubbs, 4, 225
Studies on the Life Zones of Marine Waters Adjacent to Miami: I. The Distribu-
tion of the Ophiuroidea, J. F. W. Pearson, 1, 66
Study of the Artesian Water Supply of Seminole County, Florida, A, S. A. Stubbs,
2, 24
Study of the City Manager System of Gainesville, Florida, A, (abs.), A. M. Laird
and M. J. Dauer, 5, 343
Study of the Dragonflies of the Genus Progomphus (Gomphoides) with a Descrip-
tion of a New Species, A, C. F. Byers, 4, 19
Sugar Policy in the Everglades (abs.), W. P. McLendon, 5, 350
Suggested New Notation for Logarithms, A (abs.), H. H. Germond, 2, 90
Suggestions Concerning the Teaching of Biology (abs.), G. G. Scott, 3, 142
Suggestions for an Improved Notation in Trigonometry (abs.), H. H. Germond,
3, 145
Suggestions in Technique for the Biological Laboratory, G. G. Scott, 5, 278
Summary of High School Students and Teachers Attending Organization Meeting
of the Junior Academy of Sciences of Florida, 4, 296
Sun, The—A Component of a Binary System (abs.), J. F. Knorr, Jr., and A. E.
Hayes, 4, 285
Superstition and Science in the Field of Mental Illness (abs.), Philip Worchel,
4, 273
Swanson, D. C., The Million Volt Electrostatic Generator at the University of
Florida (abs.), 5, 347
The Neutron (abs.), 3, 146
Taschek, Richard, The Effects of Elastic Stretch on the Infra-red Spectrum of
Rubber (abs.), 2, 89
Taschek, Richard, and Williams, F. D., An Ampblifier for Small Thermal Currents,
2, 79
Infra-red Study of Several Liquid Crystals (abs.), 3, 147
Taxonomic Characters and Habitats of Some of the Most Common Florida Myce-
tozoa, Charlotte B. Buckland, 2, 67
Taxonomic Status of Pinus Caribaea, MOR., The, W. B. DeVall, 5, 121
Tests and Standards for Shark Liver Oil from Sharks Caught in Florida Waters,
L. L. Rusoff and R. M. French, 5, 133
Tests for Determining Prime Factors, G. G. Becknell, 4, 231
Tilt, Jennie, and Schmidt, Lola, The Basal Metabolism of College Women as In-
fluenced by Race and Degree of Activity (abs.), 3, 141
388 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Torreya West of the Apalachicola River (abs.), Herman Kurz, 2, 85; 3, 66
| Traits in the Neurotic Inventory (abs.), C. I. Mosier, 2, 84
Treasurer’s Report, J. F. W. Pearson, eondace
Tuttle, F. W., Should Banks Be Permitted to Fail?, 5, 255
Two Larval Crane-Fly Members of the Neuston Fauna (abs.), J. S. Rogers, 1, 154
Two New Crawfishes from Florida (abs.), H. H. Hobbs, 2, 90
Unscrambling the Vitamins, L. L. Rusoff, 5, 35.
Vance, E. L., Word Dangers in Scientific Thinking (abs.), 4, 283
Vapor Phase Oxidation of Alpha Pinene, The, C. K. Clark and J. E. Hawkins,
4,116
Variations Within Successive Categories of an Extended Series of Extra-Sensory
Discriminations, Elizabeth A. Becknell, 3, 42
Visual Education in the Biological Sciences, J. F. W. Pearson, 5, 26
Vitamin C Content of Grapefruit Under Retail Marketing Conditions, The (abs.),
R. V. Harrison, 3, 138
Weber, G. F., A Brief History of Tomato Production in Florida, 4, 167
A Rust of Florida Pines Caused by Cronartium quercuum (Berk.) Miya, 5,
262
West, Erdman, Banana Waterlilies (abs.), 2, 86
Preliminary List of Myxomycetes from Alachua County, 4, 212
What Science Should Be Taught Children of Florida? Methods of Investigating
This Problem, L. L. Boles, 4, 246
Williams, F. D., An Application of Infra-red Spectroscopy to Rubber Chemistry
(abs.), 1, 147 ;
The S-H Frequency of the Mercaptans (abs.), 3, 145
Williams, F. D., and Taschek, Richard, An Amplifier for Small Thermal Currents,
2, 19
An Infra-red Study of Several Liquid Crystals (abs.), 3, 147
Williamson, R. C., Raman Spectra of Acetone-Water Solutions (abs.), 1, 147
Raman Spectra of Dimethylenechlorhydrin and Nonethylenechlorhydrin (abs.),
4, 273
Raman Spectra of Water Solutions. of Menthanol, Ethanol, Acetone, Acetic
Acid, and Dioxane (abs.), 2, 88
Some Observations Upon the Use of Mathematics in the Sciences, 5, 1
Wise, L. E., and Meer, A., The Cellulose of Spanish Moss, 1, 131
Wolff, R. P., The Role of Loss-Leaders in Retail Competitions, 5, 270
Worchel, Philip, Psychometric Results and Notes on Behavior Before and After
a Prefrontal Lobotomy on a Mental Patient (abs.), 3, 144
Superstition and Science in the Field of Mental Illness (abs.), 4, 273
Word Dangers in Scientific Thinking (abs.), E. L. Vance, 4, 283
Young, W. C., Factors Involved in the Failure of Cyclic Mating Behavior in the
Female Guinea Pig and Rat (abs.), 5, 345
INDEX OF VOLUMES 389
Ovum and Spermatozoon Age and the Course of Development and Gestation
in the Guinea Pig (abs.), 4, 271
Ziegler, E. A., Forest Land Income from Naval Stores in Alachua County, Florida,
in 1937 (abs.), 4, 283
ZOOLOGY
Allen, E. Ross, Florida Snake Venom Experiments, 2, 70
Notes on Feeding and Egg-Laying Habits of the Pseudemys, 3, 105
Notes on Florida Water Snakes, 3, 101
Berner, Lewis, Ovoviviparous Mayflies in Florida (abs.), 4, 280
Buckland, Charlotte B., Taxonomic Characters and Habitats of Some of the
Most Common Florida Mycetozoa, 2, 67
Byers, C. F., Notes on the Emergence and Life History of the Dragonfly
Pantala Flavescens, 5, 14
A Study of the Dragonflies of the Genus Progomphus (Gomphoides) with a
Description of a New Species, 4, 19
Campbell, Nelle, Organagraphy of Sixteen Millimeter Ameiurus (abs.), 1, 150
Carr, A. F., Jr., The Gulf-Island Cottonmouths, 1, 86
A Key to the Fresh-Water Fishes of Florida, 1, 72
Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Warmouth Bass, 4, 108
Deichmann, Elizabeth, Holothurians from Biscayne Bay, Florida, 3, 128
Dickinson, J. C., Jr., Addenda to the List of Birds of Alachua County, 4, 106
Elder, J. H., Ovulation Time in Primates, 3, 123
Fernald, H. T., Monarch Butterfly (Danaus Menippe Hub.) in Florida, 4, 252
Hadley, A. H., The Past and Present Status of Some Rare and Threatened
Florida Birds (abs.), 1, 155
Hobbs, H. H., On the First Pleopod of the Male Cambari 5, 55
Some Florida Crawfishes and their Habitat Distribution (abs.), 1, 154
Two New Crawfishes from Florida (abs.), 2, 90
Hubbell, T. H., and Goff, C. C., Florida Pocket-Gopher Burrows and their
Arthropod Inhabitants, 4, 127
Komarek, E. V., Comments on Problems in Mammals of Florida (abs.), 1, 156
Comments on the Recent Mammals of Florida (abs.), 1, 155
McBride, A. F., Observations on Cabtive Porboises (abs.), 4, 282
McClanahan, R. C., Annotated List of the Birds of Alachua County, Florida,
1, 91
Meehean, O. L., The Scientific Status of Fish Culture and Lake Management
in Florida, 4, 182
Miller, E. M., Chemical Integrative Mechanisms in Insect Societies, 5, 136
Pearson, J. F. W., Studies on the Life Zones of Marine Waters Adjacent to
Miami: I. The Distribution of the Ophiuroidea, 1, 66
Phillips, Craig, The Flat-Tailed Water Snake, 4, 210
Rogers, J. S., Two Larval Crane-Fly Members of the Neuston Fauna (abs.),
1, 154
Rusoif, L. L., The Shark Fishing Industry of Florida, 4, 189
Scott, G. G., Notes on the Histology of Siren (abs.), 3, 139
Sherman, H. B., List of the Recent Wild Land Mammals of Florida, 1, 102
390 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Springer, Stewart, A New Species of Hammerhead Shark of the Genus Sphyrna’
5, 46
Notes on the Sharks of Florida, 3, 9
Young, W. C., Factors in the Failure of Cyclic Mating Behavior in the
Female Guinea Pig and Rat (abs.), 5, 345
Ovum and Spermatozoon Age and the Course of Development and Ges-
tation in the Guinea Pig (abs.), 4, 271
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