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PROCEEDINGS
of the
Indiana Academy
of Science
Founded December 29, 1885
Volume 71
1961
Richard A. Laubengayer, Editor
Wabash College
Crawfordsville, Indiana
Spring Meeting
May 12-13
Turkey Run
State Park
Fall Meeting
October 19-21, 1961
Indiana State College
Published at Indianapolis, Indiana
1962
1. The permanent address of the Academy is the Indiana State Library, 140 N.
Senate Ave., Indianapolis 4, Indiana.
2. Instructions for Authors appear at end of this volume, P. 412.
3. Exchanges. Items sent in exchange for the Proceedings and correspondence
concerning exchange arrangements should be addressed:
John Shepard Wright Memorial Library of the Indiana Academy of Science.
c/o Indiana State Library
Indianapolis 4, Indiana.
4. Proceedings may be purchased through the State Library at $5.00 per volume.
5. Reprints of technical papers can often be secured from the authors. They
cannot be supplied by the State Library nor by the officers of the Academy.
6. The Constitution and By-Laws reprinted from v. 62 and the Membership List
reprinted from v. 67, are available to members upon application to the Secretary.
Necrologies reprinted from the various volumes can be supplied relatives and friends
of deceased members by the Secretary.
7. Officers whose names and addresses are not known to correspondents may
be addressed care the State Library. The address of the editor of the present vol-
ume is Biology Department, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind.
Papers published in the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science are
ibstracted or indexed in appropriate services listed here:
Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology
Bibliography of Agriculture
Bibliography of North American Geology
Biological Abstracts
Chemical Abstracts
Chemisches Zentralblatt
Current Geographical Publications
Geological Abstracts
Mathematics Reviews
Metallurgical Abstracts
Psychological Abstracts
Review of Applied Entomology
The Torrey Bulletin
Zoological Record
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Officers and Committees for 1961 6
Minutes of the Spring Meeting 9
Minutes of the Executive Committee 11
Minutes of the General Session 20
New Members of the Year 1961 22
Junior Academy of Science • 25
Necrology 36
Presidential Address 46
Anthropology
Abstracts of papers not published in full 52
H. W. Neumann — The Identification of a Sample of Unmodified
Faunal Remains from the Angel Site 53
E. A. Herrala — The Incidence of Dental Caries of Pre-Historic and
Historic Indian Groups 57
D. D. Raibourn — The Role of Diffusion in Changing Kinship Systems 61
F. X. Grollig, S. J. — Accelerated Acculturation of the Mayan Indians
of Guatemala 67
L. M. Robbins — An Investigation into the Physical and Cultural
Basis of Personality in College Women 69
Bacteriology
Abstracts of papers not published in full 71
H. M. Powell, C. G. Culbertson, J. O. MacFarlane and F. 0. Gos-
sett — Experimental Use in Dogs of Rabies Vaccine Prepared in
Embryonated Duck Eggs 73
W. A. Zygmunt — Reversal of the Antibacterial Activity of Simple
and Complex Sulfonamides by p-Aminobenzoic Acid 78
Botany
Abstracts of papers not published in full 82
Indiana Plant Distribution Records, XVIII. 1959-1961 88
R. J. Green, Jr. and C. Fordyce, Jr. — Aerial Survey and Control of
Oak Wilt in Indiana 91
A. H. Westing — A Plant Growth Promoting Substance Found in an
Acorn Weevil of the Family Curculionidae 94
D. E. Zimmer, J. F. Schafer and G. A. Gries — Attempts at Germina-
tion of Teliospores of Puccinia coronata var. avenae 96
Chemistry
Abstracts of papers not published in full 100
E. J. Bowers and H. D. Weaver, Jr. — The Hydrolysis of Iron in
Methanol Solutions 101
R. E. Davis — Steric Effects and the Secondary Isotope Effect 105
R. E. Davis — The Oscillator Strength of a Dipole Transition in a
Lorentz-Lorenz Field 109
Entomology
Abstracts of papers not published in full 114
D. W. Hamilton — Periodical Cicadas, Magicicada Spp., as Pests in
Apple Orchards 116
D. L. Schuder and R. L. Giese — Euzophera ostricolorella Hulst
(Lepidoptera, Phycitidae), A Root Collar Borer of Tulip Tree. . . 122
L. Chandler — Light Trap Collections of the Nocturnal Bee, Spheco-
dogastra texana (Cresson) (Hymenoptera, Halictidae) 124
3
4 Indiana Academy of Science
Page
J. V. Osmun — Insects and Other Arthropods of Economic Importance
in Indiana in 1961 r 130
G. H. Dishner and R. T. Everly — Greenhouse Studies on the Resist-
ance of Corn and Barley Varieties of Survival of the Corn Leaf
Aphid 138
S. C. Hershey and R. T. Everly — Effect of X-Ray Radiation on the
Survival of the Corn Leaf Aphid 142
E. V. Walter — Some Factors Associated with Earworm Resistance
in Sweet Corn 146
Geology and Geography
Abstracts of papers not published in full 148
T. F. Barton — Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle 150
C. L. Bieber — Movement of Limestone Blocks by Floodwaters in
Southern Putnam County, Indiana 163
R. V. Kirch — Recent Developments in Underground Gas Storage
Fields in Indiana 166
A. H. Meyer and D. H. Paetz — Manufactural Geography of East
Chicago-Whiting, Indiana (A Study in Geographic Rehabilita-
tion) 169
D. W. Amstutz — Apportionment of Representation in the Indiana
Legislature 187
P. D. Whippo — Distribution of Population Change in Indiana, 1950-
1960 192
R. D. Wright — Bloomington's Industrial Labor-Shed 196
L. Guernsey — Characteristics of the Terre Haute Central Business
District 203
John Fraser Hart — Some Comparisons of Population in the Middle
West in 1950 210
I. B. Thompson — Regional Contrasts in the Characteristics of the
Agricultural Labour Force of the Corn Belt 219
History of Science
C. B. Heiser, Jr. — A Brief History of the Herbarium of Indiana Uni-
versity 226
J. W. Baxter and F. D. Kern — History of the Arthur Herbarium at
Purdue University 228
G. L. Webster — The Kriebel Herbarium at Purdue University 233
R. P. McIntosh — The Greene-Nieuwland Herbarium at the Univer-
sity of Notre Dame 235
W. H. Welch — The DePauw University Herbarium 239
T. G. Yuncker — A Century of Botany and Botanists at DePauw Uni-
versity 242
J. M. McGuire — The Antibiotics — Past, Present, and Future 248
W. E. Edington — Biographical Sketches of Indiana Scientists, II 258
S. S. Visher — Geographic Influences, Changes in Bloomington, In-
diana 265
F. K. Daily — Some Scientific Expeditions to the Southeastern United
States Taken by David Starr Jordan 271
Mathematics
No abstracts or papers received.
Table of Contents 5
Page
Physics
Abstracts of papers not published in full 275
A. W. Manning, T. R. Jeter, and H. Schmuckler — A Method for
Measuring Neutron Flux by a Paraffin Oil Bath Technique 277
J, E. Brock, S. Pursley, M. G. Dunn, and A. Clausen — A Constant
Voltage Supply for a Pressure Transducer 282
Plant Taxonomy
Abstracts of papers not published in full 284
R. A. de Langlade and A. A. Lindsey — A Decade of Oldfield Succes-
sion in an Indiana Biological Reserve 285
P. C. Baker and J. B. Cope — New County Records for Fayette and
Franklin Counties, Indiana 292
C. R. Hall, — Algae of Putnam County, Indiana 293
W. A. Daily — Some Algae of the Cabin Creek Raised Bog, Randolph
County, Indiana 298
H. Starcs — Notes on Vascular Plants of the Cabin Creek Raised Bog. 302
C. W. Reimer — Some Aspects of the Diatom Flora of Cabin Creek
Raised Bog, Randolph County, Indiana 305
R. 0. Petty and A. A. Lindsey — Hoot Woods, A Remnant of Virgin
Timber, Owen County, Indiana 320
Psychology
W, C. Gunther and R. K, Jones — Effect of Non-Optimally High In-
cubation Temperatures on T-Maze Learning in the Chick 327
Soil Science
Astract of paper not published in full 334
H. M. Galloway — Establishing Crop Potentials for Indiana Soil
Types 335
N. Desrosier — The Edge of Hunger 341
D. Wiersma — Increasing Crop Potentials Through Water Availa-
bility 347
V. W. Ruttan — Technological Change and Resource Utilization in
American Agriculture 353
R. K. Stivers, H. F. Hodges, R. F. Dudley and C. F. Dudley — Re-
sponse of Wheat to Nitrogen on Indiana Soils 361
Zoology
Abstract of paper not published in full 367
W. J. Brett — Long Term Cyclic Changes in the Temperature of Man. 370
W. J. Eversole — Adrenal Cortical Accessory Tissue and Azo Dye
Carcinogenesis 374
J. W. Joyner and N. P. Harmon — Burrows and Oscillative Behavior
Therein of Lumbricus terrestris 378
W. C. Gunther and R. K. Jones — Effect of Environmental Stress on
Chick Weight 385
E. C. Williams, Jr. — A Study of the Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina
Carolina (L), Population in Allee Memorial Woods 399
A. E. Reynolds — Evidence of the Mastodon in Hendricks County. . . 407
Appendix
Instructions for Contributors 412
Index to Volume 71 414
Officers and Committees of the Indiana
Academy of Science for 1961
Spring Meeting: May 12-13, Turkey Run State Park, Marshall, Indiana.
Fall Meeting: October 19-21, Indiana State College, Terre Haute, Indiana.
OFFICERS FOR 1961
President Lawrence H. Baldinger, University of Notre Dame
Vice President Harry G. Day, Indiana University
Secretary William W. Bloom, Valparaiso University
Treasurer Kermit H. Carlson, Valparaiso University
Editor Richard A. Laubengayer, Wabash College
Press Secretary Frank N. Young, Indiana University
CHAIRMEN ELECTED BY THE DIVISIONS
Anthropology James H. Keller, Indiana University
Bacteriology Gordon Mallett, Eli Lilly
Botany Joseph Hennen, Indiana State College
Chemistry Arthur Smucker, Goshen College
Entomology R. E. Siverly, Ball State College
Geology and Geography. .Duncan McGregor, Indiana Geological Survey
History of Science T. G. Yuncker, DePauw University
Mathematics Merrill E. Shanks, Purdue University
Physics Howard Black, Indiana State College
Plant Taxonomy Mrs. Helene Starcs, Health and Hospital
Corporation of Marion County
Psychology Nicholas Long, Indiana University
Soil Science Ronald Tukey, Purdue University
Zoology L. E. DeLanney, Wabash College
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
(Past Presidents, Current Officers, Divisional Chairmen,
Committee Chairmen)
L. H. Baldinger J. Hennen C. L. Porter
Howard Black W. B. Hopp H. M. Powell
W. W. Bloom W. H. Johnson W. J. Rice
K. H. Carlson J. H. Keller M. E. Shanks
0. B. Christy P. Klinge R. E. Siverly
R. E. Cleland R. A. Laubengayer A. Smucker
N. M. Coats R. W. Lefler Mrs. H. Starcs
W. A. Daily N. Long R. Tukey
J. J. Davis S. McCoy S. S. Visher
H. G. Day G. Mallett F. N. Wallace
E. F. Degering M. S. Markle P. Weatherwax
L. E. DeLanney D. McGregor Winona H. Welch
W. E. Edington M. G. Mellon F. N. Young
P. D. Edwards A. H. Meyer T. G. Yuncker
A. T. Guard H. H. Michaud
6
Officers and Committees 7
BUDGET COMMITTEE
(Consisting of President, Secretary, Treasurer, Editor, Chairmen of the
Junior Academy, Library, Program, and Relation of Academy to State.)
L. H. Baldinger, W. W. Bloom, K. H. Carlson, R. A. Laubengayer, H. H.
Michaud, Nelle M. Coats, W. B. Hopp, W. A. Daily.
COMMITTEES ELECTED BY THE ACADEMY
Trustees of the Academy Foundation (term 4 years): Chairman, Ward J.
Rice, W. A. Daily.
Bonding of Trustees (elected yearly) : Chairman, Scott McCoy, F. J.
Welcher.
Research Grants (term 5 years): Chairman, T. G. Yuncker, DePauw Uni-
versity; Keith M. Seymour, Paul Weatherwax, A. A. Lindsey, J. F.
Hart; L. H. Baldinger and W. W. Bloom, ex officio.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE PRESIDENT
Auditing: Chairman, C. Krekeler; J. P. Danehy.
Biological Survey: Chairman, C. A. Markle, Earlham College; F. K. Daily,
D. G. Graam, C. J. Goodnight, H. H. Michaud, W. H. Welch, F. N.
Young, J. Webster.
Fellows Committee: Chairman, L. S. McClung, Bacteriology; E. J.
Asher, Psychology; H. Driver, Anthropology; Winona H. Welch,
Botany; K. Seymour, Chemistry; R. T. Everly, Entomology; F.
Hurlburt, Geology and Geography; M. S. Markle, History of Science;
P. D. Edwards, Mathematics; A. C. Mitchell, Physics; A. T. Guard,
Plant Taxonomy; A. R. Bertrand, Soil Science; N. Pearson, Zoology.
Index: Chairman, R. A. Laubengayer; Nelle Coats, Mrs. L. Burton.
Invitations: Chairman, R. E. Siverly, Ball State; Ned Guthrie, Hanover.
Library: Chairman, Nelle Coats, Eli Lilly, G. A. Black.
Membership: Chairman, Louis E. DeLanney, Wabash College; John A.
Buehler, Anderson College; H. M. Dixon, Butler University; M. R.
Garner, Earlham College; E. Niswander, Manchester College; J.
Webster, Hanover College; J. F. Hennen, Indiana State College;
J. J. Nisbet, Ball State College; G. F. Hennion, University of Notre
Dame; R. G. Larson, Valparaiso University; G. R. Miller, Goshen
College; F. J. Zeller, Indiana University; Ralph Green, Purdue Uni-
versity.
Necrologist: W. E. Edington, DePauw University.
Program: Chairman, W. B. Hopp, Indiana State College, William Brett,
Normal Deal, James Guernsey, Joseph Hennen, Eugene Herbst, Wil-
liam Kessel, Jack Munsee, Woodrow Suttle.
Publication of Proceedings: Chairman, R. A. Laubengayer, Wabash Col-
lege; A. A. Lindsey, James Clark.
Publicity: Chairman, F. N. Young; Nelle Coats, K. N. Campbell, C.
Dineen.
Relation of Academy to State: Chairman, W. A. Daily, Eli Lilly Company;
Eli Lilly, J. A. Clark, R. A. Laubengayer.
8 Indiana Academy of Science
Representative on Council of the A.A.A.S.: Willis Johnson, Wabash Col-
lege.
Resolutions: Chairman, Wra, Eberly; H. Youse, M. G. Mellon.
Indiana High School and College Committee on Mathematics: Chairman,
J. C. Polley, Wabash College; G. N. Wollan, G. Vannatta.
Youth Activities of Academy (Administrative Committee): Chairman,
Paul Klinge, Indiana University; W. J. Fullerton, K. Dale, R. Lefler,
W. Smith, R. S. Shulz, H. N. Hardy (University School, Bloomington,
Indiana), L. Poorman (Columbus High School), L. A. Willig, H. H.
Michaud.
Finance Committee: Chairman, W. J. Fullerton.
Junior Academy: Chairman, H. H. Michaud; R. Cooper, P. E. Klinge,
Lola Lemon, R. E. Niswander, R. W. Schulz, J. Cope, D. Webster,
R. Weber.
Science Talent Search: Chairman, R. W. Lefler; L. H. Baldinger, P. D.
Edwards, C. A. Markle, Robert L. Henry, Sears Crowell.
Visiting Scientists: Chairman, H. H. Michaud; K. H. Carlson, E. Lit-
weiler, R. L. Cooper, Mrs. Elizabeth Crider.
Science Fairs: Chairman, L. W. Willig, Karl L. Kaufman, Ralph
Lefler, A. C. Koester.
SPRING MEETING
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Turkey Run State Park
May 12, 1961
4:30 P. M.
The meeting- was called to order by the president, Dr. Lawrence H.
Baldinger. Twenty members were present at the opening of the meeting
and a number of others were able to join the meeting as it progressed.
The treasurer, Dr. Kermit H. Carlson, presented a financial report
through April 30, 1961 :
Receipts :
Bank Balance as of January 1, 1901 $18,844.03
Total Receipts thru April 30, 1961 6,483.85 $25,327.88
Disbursements :
Total Disbursements through April, 1961 11,405.21 11,405.21
Balance on Hand, May 1, 1961 $13,922.67
Account Balances on Hand, May 1, 1961
John Shepard Wright Memorial Library $ 2,426.68
Indiana Science Talent Search 4.84
Science Fair 198.65
Indiana Academy of Science 3,596.61
National Science Foundation Grant G-12417. . . . 5,695.87
National Science Foundation Grant G-17042.... 2,000.00
$13,922.67
The Youth Activities Committee was not ready to report at this
meeting since Dr. Paul Klinge was attending the National Science Fair.
A full committee meeting is planned for June.
The program chairman, Dr. William B. Hopp, reported that plans
for the fall meeting were progressing well. He reported that Indiana State
College would provide an outstanding speaker for the meeting and asked
for suggestions for a suitable speaker. He announced that suitable projec-
tion equipment would be available if divisional chairmen would notify the
program chairman in advance of the fall meeting.
Considerable discussion centered about the emeritus memberships.
The secretary and treasurer were asked to make a study to identify such
members as should be put on emeritus status and to report at the fall
meeting.
The secretary was instructed in a motion to secure the names of
Department Heads of Science Departments in the various colleges through-
out the state and make the information available to the various members
of the academy who need this information.
Dr. Guard reported on Dr. Den Uyl's illness and urged members to
send him greetings.
The meeting adjourned to permit members to join together in small
groups for an informal dinner served in the regular dining room of the Inn.
William W. Bloom, Secretary
Approved 10-19-61
9
SPRING MEETING
DINNER MEETING
Turkey Run State Park
May 12, 1961
The members of the Academy were seated informally in the dining
hall of the Inn for the dinner and assembled in the meeting room at 8:00
P. M. for the general business meeting and program. The members were
welcomed by Dr. Lawrence H. Baldinger, president of the Academy. The
current officers were introduced to the group.
The membership chairman, Dr. Louis E. DeLanney, presented 31
applications for membership in the Senior Academy and one application
for membership in the Junior Academy. The applications were approved.
Marvin Bell of Indiana State College then presented an illustrated
talk on "Nature Photography" in which he showed a number of interest-
ing nature slides, especially of the same object at different magnifications.
Dr. William H. Hopp, the general program chairman, announced the
details concerning the field trips to be held Saturday morning.
A resolution was adopted expressing the appreciation of the Academy
to Mrs. Marcia Murphy and her staff for the kind hospitality and gracious
service extended to the Academy on the occasion of the 77th annual spring
meeting held at Turkey Run State Park.
William W. Bloom, Secretary
Approved 10-19-61
10
FALL MEETING
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Indiana State College, Terre Haute, Indiana
October 19, 1961
The meeting was called to order by President Lawrence H. Baldinger
at 7:30 P.M.
The minutes of the spring meeting of the Executive Committee and
the minutes of the dinner meeting held at Turkey Run State Park on
May 12, 1961 were read by the secretary and approved as read.
Treasurer — iKermit H. Carlson: Financial report of the Indiana Acad-
emy of Science, January 1, 1961 through December 31, 1961.
FINANCIAL REPORT OF THE INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
JANUARY 1, 1961 THRU DECEMBER 31, 1961
Account Balance Jan. 1 Account Balances
Number Account Name plus Receipts Disbursed Surplus Deficit
1 Ind. Acad, of Science $0,005.28 $4,588.20 $1,417.02
2 Jr. Academy of Science. 195.00 53.81 141.19
3 Academy Funds Designated for
Research Grants 900.00 300.00 600.00
4 John Shepard Wright Mem.
Library 3,426.68 2,432.15 994.53
5 Science Fair 2,396.52 2,787.20 $390.68
6 Science Talent Search. 2,067.69 2,316.27 248.58
Sub-totals in Acct. Balances 3,152.74 639.26
—639.26
Totals in State Accounts $14,991.17 $12,477.69 $ 2,513.48
NSF grant G-12417 14,463.65 11,568.43
Returned to Nat. Sci. Found.. . . 2,895.22
NSF Grant G-17042. . . .... 17,150.00 2,249.28 14,900.72
Total in Federal Accounts 31,613.65 16,712.93 14,900.72
Totals $46,604.82 $29,190.62 $17,414.20
Balance Checking Account Dec. 31, 1961 $ 2,801.70
Balance Savings Account, Dec. 31, 1961 14,612.50
Total $17,414.20
Editor — Richard A. Laubengayer: There were 1,200 hard bound and
600 soft bound copies of the Proceedings, Volume 70, printed, giving a
total of 1,800 copies. Thirty-six contributors ordered reprints. A ten-year
index will be prepared and published as a part of the Proceedings for 1961.
Trustees of the Academy Foundation — Chairman Ward J. Rice re-
ported as of September 30, 1961:
Cash income, ending balance $ 742.55
Principal cash, ending balance 619.84
Securities held, carrying value 14,563.92
Research Grants Committee — Dr. T. G. Yuncker, chairman of the
committee: Two grants were made during the year as follows: Mrs. Fay
11
12
Indiana Academy of Science
Daily, Butler University, $100.00 as aid in her studies on fossil charophytes.
Mr. Charles Hall, DePauw University, $100.00 as aid in a taxonomic study
of the algal flora of Putnam County. The committee has approximately
$800.00 available at the present time for Academy-supported research and
it is suggested that anyone interested in securing a small grant apply to
the committee. It was recommended by the committee that the President
of the Academy in his annual letter call the attention of the membership
of the Academy to this fund.
Biological Survey Committee — Carroll A. Markle, Chairman:
Report of the Biological Survey Committee of the
Indiana Academy of Science
Publications of 1960-1961 Dealing with the Flora and Fauna of Indiana
Bryophyta
Vascular Plants
Insecta
Welch, Winona H., 1960. A Monograph of the Fontinalaceae.
357 pages ; 35 figures. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague.
Adams, William P., 1961. A re-evaluation of the generic status
of As'cyrum and Crookea (Guttiferae) . Rhodora 63: 10-16.
Biology Staff, 1961. A Guide in the Study of Trees on Ball
State Teachers College Campus. 90 pages.
Clewell, Andre F., 1961. Taxonomic Problems in Lespedeza.
Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1960.
70 : 207-208.
Cooper, Robert H., and O. B. Christy, 1960. Christy Woods
Outdoor Laboratories. 46 pages.
Heiser, Charles B. Jr., 1961. Morphological and cytological
variation in Helianthus petiolaris with notes on related spe-
cies. Evolution 15 : 247-258.
Lindsey, A. A., 1961. Vegetation of the Drainage-aeration
Classes of northern Indiana Soils in 1830. Ecology 42 :432-436.
Lindsey, A. A., R. O. Petty, D. K. Sterling, and W. Van Asdall,
1961. Vegetation and Environment along the Wabash and
Tippecanoe Rivers. Ecological Monographs 31 : 105-156.
Chandler, Leland, 1960. A preliminary study of the bees and
wasps of the Hovey Lake (Indiana) area. Proceedings of the
North Central States-E. S. A. 15 : 77.
Chandler, Leland, 1960. Life history of Hal ictus ligatus Say
(Hymenoptera, Halictidae). (prog, abs.) Bulletins Entomo-
logical Society of America 6(3) : 155.
Chandler, Leland, 1960. The nesting habits of Osmia albi
ventris Cresson (Hymenoptera, Megachilidae). (abstract)
Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1959,
69 : 149.
Chandler, Leland, 1961. Differential Predation in Osmia
cordata Robt. O. Ugnaria Say Nesting Associations (Hy-
menoptera, Megachilidae). Proceedings of the Indiana Acad-
emy of Science for 1960, 70 : 138.
Chandler, Leland, Nancy Work, and Fred Shewman, I960
The life history of Pemphredon lethifer letJiifer (Shuckard)
(Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). (abstract) Proceedings of the
Indiana Academy of Science for 1959, 69 : 148.
Dobson, R. C, 1960. Musca autumnalis De Geer, A new Live-
stock Pest in Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy
of Science for 1959, 69 : 165-166.
Minutes of the Executive Committee 13
7. Everly, Ray T., 19GO. Insecticidal control of thrips on corn.
Preceedings of the North Central Branch of the Entomo-
logical Society of America, 15 : 89-91.
8. Everly, Ray T. i960. Loss in corn yield associated with the
abundance of the corn leaf aphid, Bhopalosiphum maiclis
(Fitch), in Indiana. Journal of Economic Entomology 53:
924-932.
9. Everly, Ray T. and R. C. Pickett, 1960. The Effect of phorate
applied to seed on the growth, development and insects
attacking grain sorghums. Journal of Economic Entomology
53(1) : 154-160.
10. Gould, George E., 1960. Problems in the control of mint in-
sects. Journal of Economic Entomology 53 : 526-531.
11. Gould, George E., 1960. The effect of Japanese beetle feeding
on the yield of soybeans. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy
of Science for 1959, 69: 178-181.
12. Gould, George E., 1960. Vegetable Insect Resistance in In-
diana. Proceedings of the North Central Branch of the Ento-
mological Society of America 15 : 113.
13. Schuder, D. L., 1960. The Columbian Timber Beetle, Corthylus
columbhinus Hopk. Proceedings of the North Central Branch
of the Entomological Society of America 15 : 23-24.
14. Schuder, Donald L., 1960. The Zimmerman pine moth. Re-
search Bulletin 698, Purdue University.
15. Siverly, R. E., 1961. Occurrence of Aedes thibaulti Dyar and
Knab in Indiana. ;Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science for 1960. 70: 137. (abstract)
16. Wilson, M. C. and R. L. Davis, 1960. Culver alfalfa, a new
Indiana variety developed with insect resistance. Proceedings
of the North Central Branch of the Entomological Society of
America 15 : 30-31.
17. Wilson, M. C, H. F. Hodges, R. L. Galium, and R. E. Kirk,
1960. The use of phorate to control aphids and the Hessian
fly on winter wheat. Journal of Economic Entomology 53(2) :
197-200.
18. Young, Frank N., 1961. Pseudosibling species in Pvltodyks
(Coleoptera : Haliplidae. Annals of the Entomological So-
ciety of America 54:214-222 (includes Peltodi/ks dunavani
u. sp. in part ex Indiana).
Nemathelminthes : Ferris, J. M., 1960. Effect of storage temperatures on survival
of plant parasitic nematodes, (abstract) Phytopathology
50 : 035.
Work in Progress or Completed in 1960-1961 But Not Yet Published
Algae: 1. Daily, Fay K. Glacial and post-glacial Charophytes from New-
York and Indiana. Micropaleontology.
2. Daily, W. A. Some algae of the Cabin Creek Raised Bog.
3. Reimer, Charles W. Some aspects of the diatom flora of Cabin
Creek Raised Bog, Randolph County, Indiana.
Bryophyta : 1. Welch, Winona H. Bryophytes and Lichens of American Bryo-
logical Society 1961 Foray at High Bridge, Warren Co., In-
diana. Bryologist.
2. Welch, Winona H. History of the DePauw University Herbar-
ium. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science.
3. Welch, Winona H. Hookeriaceae of the United States and
Canada.
Vascular Plants : 1. Clewell, Andre. Lespedeza— taxonomy.
2. Coleman, James. Verbesina — taxonomy.
14 Indiana Academy of Science
3. Davidson, Thomas. Ecological study of a natural area — pri-
marily ecology of the vascular plants.
4. Hall, Gustav. Bklcns — taxonomy and evolution.
5. Ileiser, Charles B. Jr. Magnolia and Liriodendron (floral
ecology).
6. Markle, Carrolle A. Flora of Wayne County, being continued.
7. Montgomery, B. Edwood. Characteristics of Nectar and Pollen
available to Bees in Indiana.
Arachnida : Schuder, D. L. Ecology and control of mites on woody orna-
mentals.
Aves : 1. Cope, James B. Birds of Indiana.
2. Hodson, Margaret. Ecological Study of a natural area.
Insecta : 1. Butts, William L. Comparison of neural response in insecti-
cide-resistant and normal cockroaches.
2. Butts. William L. Comparison of toxicity of diene insecticides
to Reticulitermes spp.
3. Butts, William L. Vapor toxicity of organo-phosphate insecti-
cides.
4. Cartwright, W. B. Entomological aspects in the breeding of
Hessian fly and wheat jointworm resistant wheats and Hes-
sian fly resistant barleys. (W. B. Cartwright and R. L. Gallun)
5. Cartwright. W. B. Screening of foreign wheat and barley
introductions and Indiana breeding material for resistance to
Hessian fly aud wheat jointworm. (W. B. Cartwright and
R. L. Gallun)
6. Cartwright, W. B. Genetics and bionomics of Hessian fly
races. (R. L. Gallun, W. B. Cartwright, and A. E. Bell)
7. Cartwright, W. B. The use of chemical plant inhibitors as a
means of studying the nature of resistance in wheats to Hes-
sian fly.
S. Chandler, Belaud. Biosystematic studies of Indiana bees and
wasps.
a. Factors relating to the distribution of sexes in nests of
Osmia albivetitris Cresson.
b. Records of parasites in the nests of bees and wasps.
c. Orientation of developing stages in inverted nests of Pem-
phredon lethifer (Shuckard).
d. A life table for Pemphredon lethifer (Shuckard).
e. Omalus auratus (L.) — the relationship of pupation site to
host conditions.
f. The species of Psaerythia in Indiana.
g. Life history studies of the following bee species : Colletes
inaequalis, Halictus confusus, Melitoma taurea, Melis-
sodes oimaculata, Prochelostoma ph Had el phi.
9. Chandler, Leland. The attraction of Sphecodogastra texanum
Cresson to light.
10. Chandler, Leland. Interspecific competition in Osmia Ugnaria
Say — O. cordata Robt. nesting associations.
11. Dobson, R. C. Biology and control of the cattle grubs.
12. Dobson, R. C. Biology and control of the Face Fly Musca
autumnalis.
13. Dobson, R. C. Control of Insect Pests of Livestock.
14. Eveiiy, Ray T. Resistance of sorghums and dent corn to the
corn leaf aphid.
15. Everly, Ray T. Insecticidal control of the clover root borer,
meadow spittlebug, lesser clover leaf weevil, and miscella-
neous clover insects.
Minutes of the Executive Committee 15
16. Everly, Ray T. Differential attractiveness of dent corn to the
European corn borer.
17. Everly, Ray T. Inheritance of attractiveness of dent corn to
the European corn borer.
18. Everly, Ray T. Further studies of the damage, location of
larvae in respect to the placement of eggs on corn plants for
the first and second generation of the European corn borer on
attractive and unattractive single cross dent corn.
19. Gallun, R. L. Entomological aspects in the breeding of Hes-
sian fly and wheat jointworm resistant wheats and Hessian
fly resistant barleys. (W. B. Cartwright and R. L. Gallun)
20. Gallun, R. L. Screening of foreign wheat and barley introduc-
tions and Indiana breeding material for resistance to Hessian
fly and wheat jointworm. (W. B. Cartwright and R. L. Gallun)
21. Gallun. R. L. Genetics and bionomics of Hessian fly races.
(R. L. Gallun, W. B. Cartwright, and A. E. Bell)
22. Gallun, R. L. Monosomic analysis of Hessian fly resistant
wheat varieties to determine the chromosomes responsible for
the W38, PI 04587 and Ribeiro types of resistance. (R. L.
Gallun and F. L. Fatterson)
23. Gallun, R. L. Barley translocation studies to locate the
chromosome responsible for the Delta type of resistance to
Hessian fly. (P. L. Patterson and R. L. Gallun)
24. Gallun, R. L. Radioisotope studies to determine the length
and amount of feeding done by Hessian fly larvae on Hessian
fly resistant and susceptible wheats. (R. L. Gallun and Ruble
Langston)
25. Giese, R. L. The impact of insect defoliation on Indiana
hardwoods.
26. Giese, R. L. The European pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer
(Geoff.) sequential sampling: population dynamics.
27. Giese, R. L. The Columbian timber beetle, Corthylus colum-
bianus (Hopk.) : damage losses, spatial distribution, sym-
biotic realationships, survey techniques, development of
market for defected lumber, population dynamics and control.
28. Giese, R. L. The walkingstick, Diapheromera sp. : taxonomy,
physiology (diapause) and population dynamics.
20. Giese, R. L. and J. D. Paschke, The parasite and predator
complex of Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.), the European pine
sawfly, in Indiana.
30. Giese, R. L. and D. L. Schuder. Host preference and survival
potential of Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.), the European pine
sawfly, on native and introduced trees in the genus Pinus,
with particular reference to the selection of elite trees.
31. Gould, George E. Control of the cucumber beetle.
32. Gould, George E. Control of insects attacking peppermint and
spearmint.
33. Gould, George E. The Japanese beetle, its potential danger to
agricultural crops in Indiana.
34. Gould, George E. The control of wireworms and other soil
insects.
35. Grothaus, Roger. Comparative ecology of the three species of
Geratina in Indiana.
36. McCoy, C. Edward. Biology and ecology of nine species of
Drosophila (Diptera, Drosophilidae), common in Indiana. A
comparative study.
37. McMillan, Harlan. Progressive changes in natural and labora-
tory populations of Culex pipiens Linnaeus.
16
Indiana Academy of Science
Mammalia :
Nemathelminthes
Nemathelminthes
and Insecta :
38. Montgomery, B. Elwood. Odonta of Indiana.
39. Montgomery, B. Elwood. Catalogue of New World Odonta.
40. Montgomery, B. Elwood. Anthophilous Insects of Indiana.
(Continuation of two papers previously published.)
41. Montgomery, B. Elwood. Distribution Patterns of New World
Odonta. Proc. Xlth International Congress of Entomology,
Vienna.
42. Munsee, Jack. The strip mine spoil bank ecosystem with espe-
cial reference to the role of ants.
43. Paschke, J. D. Virus complexes as pathogens of insects, espe-
cially loopers associated with mint.
44. Paschke, J. D. Control of Japanese beetle with microbial
agents.
45. Paschke, J. D. Fungus diseases of insects.
46. Taschke, J. D. Survey and collection of parasites and preda-
tors associated with hosts found in major agricultural crops.
47. Paschke, J. D. and J. J. Hamm. A nuclear polyhedrosis virus
disease of Rachipcusia ou (Guenee). Journal of Insect Path-
ology.
48. Schuder, D. L. Biology of the Zimmerman Pine Moth.
49. Schuder, D. L. Borers of woody ornamentals.
50. Schuder, D. L. Ecology and control of scale insects attacking
ornamentals.
51. Siverly, R. E. Ecology of mosquitoes, Delaware County, In-
diana.
52. Ward, Gertrude L. Insects of Indiana.
53. Wilson, M. C. Development of the spotted alfalfa aphid in
Indiana.
54. Wilson, M. C. Insect resistance in alfalfa to the spotted
alfalfa aphid, meadow spittlebug, and potato leafhopper.
55. Wilson, M. C. Studies on control of aphid vectors of virus
diseases.
56. Wilson, M. C. Low dosage rates of phorate and the influence
granular particle numbers on hessian fly control.
57. Wilson, M. C, R. L. Gallun, G. F. Florentine, and R. E. Kirk.
Toxicity of phorate and other systematic insecticides to
Phytophaga destructor (Say). Proceedings of the Xlth Inter-
national Congress of Entomology, Vienna.
58. Wilson, Nixon. A systematic study of the ectoparasites of
Indiana mammals.
59. Wood, Vida G. The Effect of X-Radiation on Longevity of
Drosoph ila melanogaster.
Cope, James B. Bats of Indiana.
1. Ferris, J. M. Indiana nematode survey and collection.
2. Ferris, J. M. Study of the effect of plant parasitic nematodes
on the growth of blue spruce.
3. Ferris, .7. M. Investigations of ecological relationships and
factors affecting the population dynamics of the nematode
Pratylenchus penetrans Cobb.
4. Ferris, J. M. Nematode physiology.
5. Ferris, J. M. Greenhouse culture of plant parasitic nematodes.
Ferris, J. M., M. C. Wilson, and D. Wiersma. The effects of
interactions of nematodes, insects, soil fertility, and mois-
ture on alfalfa stands and yields.
Carrolle Markle, Chairman
Biological Survey Committee
Minutes of the Executive Committee 17
Fellows Committee — L. S. McClung: The following members were
recommended for fellows in the Indiana Academy of Sciences and their
nominations approved: John H. Billman, Dept. of Chemistry, Indiana
University; W. W. Brown, Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Indiana
University; Howard B. Burkett, Dept. of Chemistry, DePauw University;
Kermit H. Carlson, Dept. of Mathematics, Valparaiso University; Leland
Chandler, Dept. of Entomology, Purdue University; Martin Dworkin,
Dept. of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Indiana University; M. K.
Hine, Dean, School of Dentistry, Indiana University; Herschel Hunt,
Dept. of Chemistry, Purdue University; II. M. James, Dept. of Physics,
Purdue University; James H. Kellar, Dept. of Anthropology, Indiana
University; C. S. Morris, Dept. of Physics, Manchester College; John B.
Patton, Dept. of Geology, Indiana University; S. N. Postlethwait, Dept.
of Botany, Purdue University; Donald L. Schuder, Dept. of Entomology,
Purdue University; R. E. Siverly, Dept. of Biology, Ball State College.
Invitations Committee — R. E. Siverly, chairman: Invitations have been
received from three institutions for the fall meeting in 1962. A motion
carried to accept the invitation of Evansville College to hold the fall
meeting of 1962 on their campus.
Library Committee — Nelle Coats, chairman, submitted the following
report for the John Shepard Wright Memorial Library :
Supplying labor and wrappings, the Indiana State Library has mailed
copies of volume 70, 1960, published Aug. 2, 1961, to members using labels
prepared by the secretary of the Academy. Checking the Wright Library
holdings of serial titles has been completed for inclusion in the Union List
of Serials, 3rd edition.
Mrs. Lois Burton has prepared two groups of binding, one for the
sum of $1,000.00 allotted in the Academy budget, the second for the sum
of $1,432.15, an amount provided for by the Lilly Endowment, Inc. gift.
Certain pamphlets have been encased by the Indiana State Library staff,
other materials have been variously cared for.
During the fiscal year 21 new titles have been added including further
publications from Bucharest; Porto Alegre, Brazil; Guatemala City; Mel-
bourne; Nairobi; Karachi; Mexico City; Seville; Quito and Tromso.
Attention is called to the fact that copies of the following references
issued by the Academy are available: Index Proc. volumes 1-50; Index
Proc. volumes 51-60 in Proc. volume 61; Indiana Scientists 1951, compiled
by S. S. Visher; Periodical Literature Currently Received by the Wright
Library, 1959.
Press Secretary — Frank N. Young: Notices of the 77th Annual Meet-
ing were sent to all Indianapolis papers, the Associated Press, United
Press International, and to larger papers throughout the state. Releases
were also prepared on a number of individual papers. An attempt was
made this year to obtain publicity in local newspapers of each individual
on the program. Excellent cooperation was obtained from the news bureaus
of various institutions.
Program Committee — William B. Hopp. The chairman reported that
everything was in readiness for the sectional meetings and for the Junior
Academy on Saturday and expressed his appreciation to all who helped
18 Indiana Academy of Science
make the arrangements for the meetings and for the assistance of the
previous program chairman.
Nominations Committee — W. A. Daily, chairman of the committee:
The following nominations were submitted to the executive committee and
approved:
A. Trustee of the Academy Foundation, second member: W. A. Daily.
B. Bonding Trustees: Scott McCoy, chairman, and Frank Welcher.
C. Research Grants Committee: Dr. Paul Weatherwax.
Relation of Academy to State — F. N. Wallace and W. A. Daily, co-
chairmen of the committee: Mr. Daily reported that the legislature had
appropriated the sum of $4,000.00 per annum for the fiscal year 1961-62
and 1962-63 for the Academy to assist in the publication of the pro-
ceedings.
Visiting Scientists — Howard H. Michaud, chairman of the committee,
reported the following for the 1960-61 academic year:
1. A total of 83 scientists representing 20 Indiana colleges partici-
pated in the program.
2. 211 visits were made, a 20% increase over the previous year; 77 in
biology, 23 in physics, 41 in chemistry, 46 in mathematics, 9 in
entomology, 4 in geology, 1 in general science, 4 in radiology, 3 in
astronomy, 3 in bacteriology.
3. $2,667.38 in 49 individual research grants were made to High
School students.
4. The program appears to be successful in improving the quality of
science teaching and student accomplishments.
5. A similar grant for $17,150.00 has been approved for 1961-62 and
an application for 1962-63 has been made.
Indiana School and College Committee on Mathematics — J. C. Polley:
The chairman reported that the N. S. F. had granted an extension of the
termination date on the 1960-61 grant to August 1962 so that the program
will be continued during the 1961-62 academic year. A new proposal for
$11,500.00 has been submitted for the year 1962-63.
The committee sponsored and supported various kinds of meetings for
mathematics teachers and school administrators to promote interest in
the improvement of mathematics programs in Indiana schools and colleges.
Local meetings were helH in 10 locations. Six larger-scale meetings were
also conducted.
The committee has assumed responsibility in organizing the partici-
pation of Indiana High Schools in the Annual National Mathematics Con-
test. They are assisted in this work by the Indianapolis Actuarial Club.
Youth Activities of the Academy — Paul Klinge, chairman. The Youth
Activities Committee is concerned at present with three major activities
in the state.
A. Science Fairs — L. A. Willig, Tri-State College, director. At pres-
ent the state is divided into 11 regions and each regional fair is registered
in the National Science Fair and eligible to exhibit at the National Fair.
B. Science Talent Search — Sears Crowell, Indiana University, direc-
tor. This is a well-established program for High School seniors on a
Minutes of the Executive Committee 19
national basis but in which Indiana also judges the entrants from Indiana
and promotes a Junior Scientist Assembly held in March in which Indiana
entrants exhibit their projects.
C. Junior Academy — Howard H. Michaud, Purdue University, state
sponsor. The 28th annual meeting was held Saturday, October 8, 1960 at
Manchester College. Two hundred fifty students, club sponsors, and guests
registered. Fifteen exhibits were displayed, 21 papers were read, and
conferences with staff members of the host institution were held. Richard
Ferrell of Central Junior-Senior High School, South Bend, received the
"best boy" award and Diane Osting of Washington High School, Indian-
apolis, received the "best girl" award. Paul Everman of Arsenal Technical
High School, Indianapolis, received the American Society of Bacteriology
Award for the best paper in bacteriology. There are currently 52 clubs in
the Junior Academy. The 29th annual meeting will be held October 21,
1961 here at Indiana State College, Terre Haute, Indiana.
Dr. Klinge announced that Mr. W. J. Fullerton, General Science
Manager of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Indianapolis, has consented
to serve as chairman of the subcommittee on finance. This committee hopes
to raise $25,000.00 to support the youth activities of the Academy for the
1961-62 academic year.
William W. Bloom, Secretary
Approved 10-20-61
FALL MEETING
GENERAL SESSION
Friday, October 19, 1961
9:00 A. M.
The regular annual meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was
held in the auditorium of the Student Union Building of Indiana State
College, Terre Haute, Indiana, on October 20, 1961 at 9:00 A. M. The
meeting was called to order by President Lawrence H. Baldinger. Dr.
Raleigh W. Holmstedt, President of Indiana State College, welcomed the
Academy to the campus. The minutes of the Executive Committee meeting
of Thursday, October 19, were read by the secretary and approved as
read.
The necrologist, Dr. Will E. Edington, presented his report in which
he gave a brief biographical sketch of the following members who had
died since the last annual meeting:
Herman T. Briscoe
Daniel DenUyl
Henry B. Froning
John A. Molter
Harry J. Reed
Mary Louise Stork
As the main speaker at the general sessions, Dr. Fritz W. Went,
director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri, and presi-
dent elect of the American Institute of Biological Sciences for 1962, spoke
on "The Relation between the Plant and Its Environment." Dr. Went
discussed the role of the environment in the development of plants and the
need to carefully control every aspect of the environment in plant re-
searches. He pointed out the dual role of the Missouri Botanical Garden
in bringing plant science to the public, and through the financial support
secured from the public, in carrying on research.
Following Dr. Went's stimulating presentation a panel discussion on
the Visiting Scientist Program was conducted. The panel consisted of
H. H. Michaud, Purdue University, Director of the program, Paul Klinge,
W. G. Kessel, P. D. Edwards, and Kenneth Robinson. It was obvious from
the discussion that considerable work needs to be done to improve science
education in the high schools of Indiana and that the Visiting Scientist
Program was achieving its goals in assisting in upgrading science
teaching.
The meeting adjourned at 11:15 for the beginning of the section
meetings.
William W. Bloom, Secretary
20
FALL MEETING
DINNER MEETING
October 20, 1961
The annual dinner meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science was
held in the East Ballroom of the Student Union Building, Indiana State
College. Dr. Harry G. Day, Vice-President of the Academy, presided.
He introduced the guests at the speaker's table and gave special recogni-
tion to the out-of-state guests, Mr. and Mrs. Arch Addington of Fresno,
Calif., and Mr. Charles Reimer of Philadelphia, Pa.
Dr. L. E. DeLanney, Chairman of the membership committee, pre-
sented the applications of 60 individuals for membership in the Academy.
The applications were approved.
Dr. William Eberly read the report of the resolutions committee and
the resolutions were approved. The first resolution expressed the thanks
of the entire membership of the Academy to Dr. Raleigh W. Holmstedt,
president of Indiana State College, Dr. William B. Hopp, chairman of the
program, and all the members of the staff of Indiana State College for
their kind hospitality and the excellent arrangements for this, the 77th
annual meeting of the Academy. The second resolution expressed the
approval of the Academy and our deep appreciation of the Nature Con-
servancy group for their part in having the Pine Hills Area adjacent to
the Shades State Park set aside as a natural area. Their further work in
the area of nature conservancy was strongly encouraged.
Mr. William A. Daily, as chairman of the Nominating Committee, pre-
sented the following names of division chairmen elected by the divisions
at their sessions: Anthropology, Mr. Downey D. Raibourn, Gary Exten-
sion of Indiana University; Bacteriology, Dr. Gordon Mallet, Eli Lilly and
Indiana University; Botany, Dr. Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University
and Franklin College; Chemistry, Dr. Frederic Schmidt, Indiana Univer-
sity; Entomology, Dr. B. Elwood Montgomery, Purdue University; Geog-
raphy and Geology, Dr. Lowell Dillon, Ball State College; History of
Science, Prof. Ned Guthrie, Hanover College; Mathematics, Dr. John
Yarnelle, Hanover College; Physics, Prof. R. T. Duffard, Evansville Col-
lege; Plant Taxonomy, Dr. Grady Webster, Purdue University; Psychol-
ogy, Dr. S. M. Gerger, Indiana University; Soil Science, Dr. Dan Wiersma,
Purdue University; Zoology, Dr. James B. Cope, Earlham College.
Mr. Daily then presented the slate of officers to be elected by the
Academy as follows: President, Dr. Harry G. Day, Indiana University;
Vice-President, Dr. Howard H. Michaud, Purdue University; Secretary,
Dr. William W. Bloom, Valparaiso University; Treasurer, Dr. Kermit H.
Carlson, Valparaiso University; Editor, Dr. Richard A. Laubengayer,
Wabash College; Press Secretary, Dr. Frank N. Young, Indiana Univer-
sity; Trustee of the Academy Foundation, Mr. W. A. Daily, Eli Lilly;
Bonding of Trustees, Mr. Scott McCoy, chairman, Dr. Frank Welcher;
Research Grants Committee, Dr. Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University
and Franklin College. A motion carried instructing the secretary to cast
a unanimous ballot for the slate.
Following the conclusion of the business session President Baldinger
presented a thought-provoking and informative address on "The Genesis
of a Drug" in which he traced the steps in developing and marketing a
new drug.
William W. Bloom, Secretary
21
NEW MEMBERS
Adams, Dr. William Preston, Dept. of Botany and Bacteriology,
DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana PT
Anderson, Mr. Charles E., Dept. of Bio. Science, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana BO
Baker, Mr. Phil C, Botany Department, University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina PT
Barrett, Gary Wayne, R. R. 2, Glezen, Indiana BO
Baxter, Dr. John W., University of Wisconsin — Milwaukee, 3203
N. Downer Ave., Milwaukee 11, Wisconsin BO
Benda, Gerd T. A., 618 Park Avenue, South Bend 16, Indiana BO
Bender, Prof. Harvey A., Dept. of Biology, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Indiana Z
Berger, Seymour M., Dept. of Psychology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana PS
Bick, George H., St. Mary's College, Notre Dame, Indiana Z
Bowers, Elmer J., Goshen High School, Lincolnway East, Goshen,
Indiana E
Bready, John Kerr, 22-10 Ross Ade Dr., West Lafayette, Indiana E
Brittingham, Joe Nolan, R. R. 1, Francisco, Indiana BO-Z
Burger, Prof. W. Leslie, Department of Biology, Franklin College,
Franklin, Indiana Z
Burton, Prof. Milton, Radiation Laboratory, University of Notre
Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana C
Campbell, Miss Marilyn F., 2420 Liberty, Terre Haute, Indiana BO-Z
Carr, Dr. Lloyd G. K., Dept. of Biology, Franklin College, Franklin,
Indiana BA-BO-Z
Carr, Miss Rebecca Ann, 2712 College Ave., Terre Haute, Indiana BO
Chapman, Mrs. Florence E., 612-N 3rd Street, Vincennes, Indiana Z
Coleman, Dr. Ralph H., 529 S. Spring St., Evansville, Indiana M
Connell, Gerald Michael, Zoology Dept., Indiana University, Bloom-
ington, Indiana Z
Crider, Miss Kathryn, 1404 W. 58th Street, Indianapolis, Indiana BO-Z
D'Alelio, Prof. G. F., 2011 E. Cedar Street, South Bend 17, Indiana C
Decker, R. Dean, 136-11 Nimitz Dr., West Lafayette, Indiana BO
Dial, Dr. Norman A., Indiana State Teachers College, Terre Haute,
Indiana Z
Dishner, Miss Gayla, 308 Mecca Avenue, Birmingham 9, Alabama E
Douglas, Dr. Charles F., Fertilizer Distribution Branch, Tenn. Valley
Authority, Wilson Dam, Alabama SS
Dudley, Richard F., SW Great Plains Field Station, Bushland, Texas SS
Dupree, Miss Deanna M., 1249 Catherwood Dr., South Bend 14, Indiana BA
Edmonds, Nuel F., 730 Leopold, Rensselaer, Indiana G-SS
Egar, Dr. Joseph M., Mathematics Dept., Ball State College,
Muncie, Indiana M
Eiler, Galen C, Box 103, Roann, Indiana BO
Evans, Samuel D., Agronomy Dept., Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana SS
22
New Members 23
Eversole, Prof. Wilburn J., Dept. Science, Indiana State Teachers
College, Terre Haute, Indiana Z
Gifford, Prof. Cameron E., Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana Z
Green, Thomas Justin, 625 S. Fess Ave., Bloomington, Indiana Z
Hale, Prof. Robert E., 901 Ray Street, Huntington, Indiana PH
Hallerberg, Prof. Arthur E., Dept. of Mathematics, Valparaiso
University, Valparaiso, Indiana M
Harmon, N. Paul, Box 535, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana Z
Hayat, M. Arif, Dept. of Botany, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana BO
Hendrix, Jon Richard, Highland High School, Munster,
Indiana BA-BO-E-Z
Henson, Miss Janet, Room 204A, Reeve Hall, Terre Haute, Indiana BO
Hershey, Stephen C, 612 Ingleside, Flint 7, Michigan E
Hessler, Miss Ruth H., Dept. of Biological Sciences, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana BO
Hinton, Prof. Henry D., 412 Tonti Ave., South Bend, Indiana C
Hiratsuka, Yasuyuki, Dept. Botany & Plant Pathology, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana BO
Hodges, Harry F., R. R. 10, Lafayette, Indiana BO
Howald, Prof. James C, Huntington College, Huntington, Indiana C
Kaney, Anthony Rolland, 515 Jennison St., Crawfordsville, Indiana BA
Karpinski, Prof. Zygmunt, Box 303, South Bend, Indiana M-C-PH
Keim, William A., 426 East Wayne St., Ft. Wayne, Indiana C
Kelley, Alden G., Dept. of Biological Sciences, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana BO
Kordes, Joseph A., R. R. 1, Hazleton, Indiana BO
Lane, Rev. Thomas James, Chemistry Department, Notre Dame,
Indiana C
Langhammer, James K., Zoology Department, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana Z
Lavy, Terry L., 208-12 Airport Road, West Lafayette, Indiana SS
Long, Prof. Nicholas, F109 Hoosier Cts., Bloomington, Michigan PS
McCoy, Scott, Jr., Geology Dept., University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona G
McGregor, Dr. Duncan J., Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana G
Mcintosh, Dr. Robert P., University of Notre Dame, South Bend,
Indiana BO
Mahoney, Donald L., Dept. of Horticulture, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana BO
Marina, Sister, 3200 Cold Springs Rd., Indianapolis, Indiana PH
Mehall, Andrew G., 226 S. McKinley Avenue, Rensselaer, Indiana Z
Merritt, Prof. Clair, Dept. Forestry & Conservation, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana BO
Metzger, Miss Mary Jo, Single Student Dorm, Room 307, 1300 West
Michigan Street, Indianapolis 2, Indiana Z
Miles, C. Donald, 699 E. Main Street, Greenwood, Indiana BO
Moe, Dr. Paul G., Agronomy Dept., Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana SS
Riley, David Lee, 322 S. 6th Street, New Castle, Indiana Z
24 Indiana Academy of Science
Reich, Robert J., 3721 N. Lakewood Avenue, Chicago, Illinois PT-BO
Robbins, John M., Jr., Soil Conservation Service, Federal Bldg.,
Shelbyville, Indiana SS
Robbins, Miss Louise M., Dept. Anthropology, Indiana Universcity,
Bloomington, Indiana A
Rossini, Dr. Frederick D., University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame,
Indiana C
Sanders, Dr. Rosaltha H., Indiana Central College, 4001 Otterbein,
Indianapolis, Indiana Z
Scheffe, Charles E., 360 South Spencer Avenue, Indianapolis, Indiana Z
Sever, Stephan Grant, R. R. 1, Waldron, Indiana BO
Slabaugh, Eugene J., Dept. Anthropology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana A
Smucker, Prof. Arthur A., Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana C
Tihen, Dr. Joseph A., Dept. of Biology, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Indiana Z
Tjwan, Kang Biauw, Agron. Dept., Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana SS
Trealer, Prof. P. C, Lobund, Notre Dame, Indiana BA
Trinler, Dr. W. A., Science Dept., Indiana State College, Terre
Haute, Indiana C
Utley, Clarence C, R. R. 3, Owensville, Indiana BO
Waynick, Quincy L., Indiana Central College, Indianapolis 27,
Indiana M-PS
White, Miss Rebecca Jane, 1227 S. Sixth Street, Terre Haute, Indiana Z
Webster, Dr. Grady L., Jr., Dept. Biological Sciences, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana PT
Weist, Barney Lester, 323 E. State St., Princeton, Indiana BO
Wert, Prof. William G., 68 Home Avenue, Terre Haute, Indiana BO-Z
West, Larry Jack, R. R, 1, Glezen, Indiana BO
Williams, Robert D., Stone City Bank Building, Bedford, Indiana BO
Wostmann, Dr. Bernard S., Lobund Lab., Dept. of Bio., U. of Notre
Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana C
Zassenhaus, Prof. Hans J., 1154 Helmen Dr., South Bend 15, Indiana M
Zimmer, David E., 23-3 Ross Ade Dr., Lafayette, Indiana BO
Officers of the Junior Academy : 1. to rt., Secretary, Margaret Weir, John Adams Hig]
School, South Bend ; President. Stephen Ridgway, Central Junior-Senior High School,
South Bend: Vlce-rresident, Mark Schafer, Central Catholic High School, Fort Wayne,
was absent.
INDIANA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OFFICERS FOR 1961
President: Stephen Ridgway, Central Junior-Senior High School, South
Bend.
Vice-President: Mark Schafer, Central Catholic High School, Fort
Wayne.
Secretary: Margaret Weir, John Adams High School, South Bend.
Members of the Council: Mrs. Elizabeth Crider, Indianapolis (1957-1961) ;
Robert Weber, Fort Wayne (1958-1962) ; Sister Suzanne, Vincennes
(1959-1963) ; V. C. Cripe, South Bend (1960-1964) ; Don R. Winslow,
Bloomington (1961-1965).
PROGRAM OF THE TWENTY-NINTH ANNUAL MEETING
October 21, 1961
Science Building, Indiana State College, Terre Haute, Indiana
8:30-10:00 A. M. Registration and Placement of Exhibits, Room 203.
10:00-11:00 A. M. Conferences in Science and Mathematics by faculty
representatives of Indiana State College.
11:00-12:00 Noon. Visits to Instructional Facilities and Laboratories of
Indiana State College.
12:00 Noon. Luncheon, Cafeteria, Student Union Building.
1:15 P. M. General Assembly, Auditorium, Student Union Building.
Greetings, Dr. R. W. Holmstedt, President, Indiana State
College.
25
26 Indiana Academy of Science
Business Meeting. Election of Officers and Presentation of
Awards.
1:45-4:30 P. M. Program of Papers, President Stephen Ridgway, pre-
siding.
The following papers were read by members of the Junior Academy :
1. Growth Curves in Nature — Logarithmic Spirals on Geometric
Progressions, Margaret Weir, Adams Walton Science Club, John
Adams High School, South Bend.
2. Reactions of Animals at High Altitude, Bruce Greenberg, West-
lane Science Club, Westlane Junior High School, Indianapolis.
3. Hydrolysis of Starch by Salivary Amylase, Dennis Panarisi,
George Washington High School Science Club, George Washing-
ton High School, Indianapolis.
4. Image of a Scientist, Pam Parker, MSE Academy Club, Univer-
sity Junior High School, Bloomington.
5. A Study of the Protolytic Enzymes in the A. Caninum Hookworm,
John Reuthe, Central Jets, Central High School, South Bend.
6. Mathematical Approach to Geotropism, Gordon Clark, George
Washington High School Science Club, George Washington High
School, Indianapolis.
7. Developing a Variety of Stajjhylococcus aureus that is Resistant
to Penicillin, Janet Holscher, Sigma Tau Science Club, St. Rose
Academy, Vincennes.
8. Radio Telescopes, Stephen Ridgway, Central Jets, Central High
School, South Bend.
9. Identifying Pollen from Peat and Spores from Coal of Indiana,
Thomas Bose, Westlane Science Club, Westlane Junior High
School, Indianapolis.
10. The Effect of Temperature Variations on the Frog's Pulse Rate,
Frank Steiner, Central Jets, Central High School, South Bend.
11. Optical Illusions, Patricia Jones, Aquinas Science Club, Washing-
ton Catholic High School, Washington.
12. The Effects of Ultra-Violet Light on the Amino Acid Require-
ments of Colpidium, Paul Everman II, Natural Science Club,
Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis.
13. Some Behavioral Patterns of Baby Chicks, Elizabeth Johnson,
MSE Academy Club, University Junior High School, Bloom-
ington.
14. A Study of Digital Computers, Dennis Henry, Up-N-Atom, Craw-
fordsville High School, Crawfordsville.
15. Uptake of Radioactive Elements in Coleus Plants, Patricia Kira,
George Washington High School Science Club, George Washing-
ton High School, Indianapolis.
16. The Effects of Nutrition of Light on Euglena, Annette McMullen,
Sigma Tau Science Club, St. Rose Academy, Vincennes.
17. The Diesel Engine, Mike Bullock, Aquinas Science Club, Wash-
ington Catholic High School, Washington.
Junior Academy of Science 27
18. Effect of Temperature on the Ventricular Beat of the Frog Heart,
Kathryn Crider, North Central High School, Indianapolis.
19. The Design, Construction, and Testing of a Liquid Propellant
Laboratory Rocket, John Gaiser, Junior Academy Science Club,
The University School, Bloomington.
20. The Effects of Gibberellin on the Growth of Dodder, Pat Nowas-
kie, Sigma Tau Science Club, St. Rose Academy, Vincennes.
21. Resolution of Octyl Alcohol Secondary into its Optically Active
Components, Frank Starkey, Science Club, George Washington
High School, Indianapolis.
22. Cloud Formations, Mary Jo Hooten, Aquinas Science Club,
Washington Catholic High School, Washington.
23. Endpoint Titration of T2 Bacteriophage, Craig Johnson, Science
Club, George Washington High School, Indianapolis.
24. The Yeast Cell, Rosemary DeBeeze and Lauranne Lanning,
Heterogeneous Geniuses, Academy of Immaculate Conception,
Oldenburg.
Minutes
The twenty-ninth annual meeting of the Indiana Junior Academy of
Science was held Saturday, October 21, 1961 in the Science building and
the Auditorium of the Student Union Building of Indiana State College,
Terre Haute, Indiana.
Sixteen exhibits of science projects by high school students were
displayed in Room 203, Science Building. Exhibits included the following:
A Study of Digital Computers; An Electronically Controlled, Self-con-
tained Robot; Insect Collections; Rocks, Minerals and Fossils; Paths of
Pendulums; Growth Curves in Nature; Spectroscopy; Identifying Pollen
from Peat and Spores from Coal in Indiana; Foreign Languages of
Mathematics; A Mathematical Approach to Geotropism; The Effect of
Temperature on the Ventricular Beat of the Frog's Heart; A Fork Type
Equatorial Telescope Mount; Design, Construction and Testing of a
Liquid Propellant; Uptake of Trace Elements in Coleus Plants; Deter-
mination of the End-point Titration of T, Bacteriophage; Hydrolization
of Starch by Salivary Amylase.
Conferences in science and mathematics were held at 10:00 a.m. by
members of the faculty of Indiana State College. The science areas rep-
resented included biology, chemistry, geography and geology, mathe-
matics, medicine, physics and psychology. Following the science confer-
ences the Junior Academy Club members were conducted through the
science laboratories of the college. The cooperation of the science faculty
of Indiana State College in this program was greatly appreciated by club
sponsors and members of the Junior Academy.
The afternoon general session was held in the auditorium of the
Student Union Building beginning at 1:45 p.m. President Stephen Ridg-
way, Central Junior-Senior High School, South Bend, opened the meeting
by introducing the Secretary, Margaret Weir, John Adams High School,
South Bend. Vice-President Mark Schafer, Central Catholic High School,
Fort Wayne, was not present.
28 Indiana Academy of Science
Following the introductions, President Ridgway called upon Dr.
R. W. Holmstedt, President of Indiana State College, to welcome the
Junior Academy on the occasion of its twenty-ninth annual meeting.
President Holmstedt extended the greetings of the college to those present
and he particularly emphasized the advantages to young students of
getting an early start in education to become adequately prepared for
scientific as well as other careers.
Mr. Harry McDaniel, Kroger Grocery Company, Indianapolis, was
called upon next to present the annual Kroger Awards. The first place
award of $50 and a plaque was presented to Garfield High School, Terre
Haute. Miss Grace DeVaney, Principal, accepted the award for the
school. Two runner-up awards of $25 and a plaque were presented to
both Schulte High School, Terre Haute, and Washington Township School,
Logansport. Sister Thomas Mary accepted the award for Schulte High
School and Washington Township School received the award in absentia.
The Kroger awards are presented annually to the three top-ranking high
schools for outstanding school science programs judged from self -evaluat-
ing questionnaires sent to all Indiana high schools.
The first item of business was the election of officers. A new system
of balloting by mail was employed for the first time. A list of nominees
submitted by club sponsors was prepared by the Junior Academy Council
and sent to all Junior Academy Clubs. A brief outline of personal qualifi-
cations of each candidate was included with the ballot. The ballots were
mailed to the Council or could be delivered by a club representative at the
meeting. The results of the election of officers for 1962 were as follows:
President, Craig Johnson, Washington High School, Indianapolis; Vice-
President, Janet Holscher, Saint Rose Academy, Vincennes; and Secre-
tary, Kathryn Crider, North Central High School, Indianapolis.
Mrs. Elizabeth Crider, Washington High School, Indianapolis, report-
ing for the Council, announced that Miss Helen Reed, club sponsor, Junior
Explorers of Science, Lebanon High School, Lebanon, was named the new
council member to replace Mrs. Crider, Indianapolis, whose term expired
this year.
Award for the 'best boy" in science was received by Stephen Ridgway,
Central Junior-Senior High School, South Bend. Patricia Kira, George
Washington High School, Indianapolis, and Margaret Weir, John Adams
High School, South Bend, tied for the "best girl" in science award. A cer-
tificate of merit and a year's membership in the American Association for
the Advancement of Science were presented to each of the above students.
Dennis Henry, Crawfordsville High School, Crawfordsville, and Frances
Walker, Washington Catholic High School, Washington, received honor-
able mention and each was given a certificate of merit.
Miss Rachel Mason, Pfizer Company, and Dr. D. F. Johnson, Indiana
State College, served as judges for the best paper on bacteriology or
microbiology. Since the judges were unable to attend the afternoon ses-
sion, the papers were collected and mailed to them. An award of $25 is
presented by the American Society of Bacteriologists to the student pre-
senting the best paper.
Professor H. H. Michaud, State Sponsor, Purdue University, ex-
pressed appreciation on behalf of the Junior Academy of Science for the
Junior Academy of Science 29
excellent cooperation of Indiana State College in providing facilities for
the meeting. Special recognition was given to Dr. William B. Hopp,
Chairman, Department of Science of the College, for his efforts as local
program chairman in making the program a success. Professor Michaud
announced that the thirtieth annual fall meeting of the Junior Academy
would be held at Evansville College, Evansville, on Saturday, October
20, 1962.
The 29th annual meeting of the Junior Academy of Science was
attended by 230 registered members, sponsors and guests. A total of
nineteen high schools were represented with club sponsors present from
seventeen schools. Several visitors were present from Illinois.
Twenty-one papers as listed on the program were read at the meeting.
A brief review of each paper follows:
"Growth Curves in Nature" was presented by Margaret Weir, John
Adams High School, South Bend. In this project an experiment was made
to discover if the growth curves of the common land snail, Helix Albo-
labris, and the large sunflower, Helianthus Annuus, could be represented
by mathematical equations. The equations used were the following:
logarithmic equation, loger = aO, the Spiral of Archimedes, r = aO, the
parabolic spiral, r2 = a2©, the law of natural growth, dx/x = kd&, and
the geometric progression, tn = arn-1.
Through this experiment it may be concluded that these natural
growth curves in nature, within the limits of reasonable error, can be
represented by certain mathematical formulas, and that these mathemati-
cal formulas can be graphed as spirals on the polar coordinate system.
"Hydrolysis of Starch by Salivary Amylase," read by Dennis Panarisi,
George Washington High School, Indianapolis, explained that hydrolysis
is a process through which compounds are decomposed through removal
of water. Salivary amylase is a substance of protein nature presented in
saliva. It was concluded that salivary amylase does hydrolize starch much
better than hydrochloric acid.
In the "Image of a Scientist" Pam Parker, University Junior High
School, Bloomington, was interested in how the average student pictures
a scientist. She circulated a twenty question poll to 500 students. Some
of the opinions found were as follows : (a) one-half thought that scientists
were indifferent; (b) three out of every four students thought scientists
were Republicans; (c) many thought scientists believed in God, but were
not religious; and (d) most thought scientists should marry although they
make poor husbands and fathers.
"A Study of the Protolytic Enzymes in the A. Caninum Hookworm"
was presented by John Reuthe, Central High School, South Bend. The
hypothesis made was that nematodes must excrete enzymes into the intes-
tines of their hosts. He studied these enzymes after adding phenolphtha-
lein indicator. He extracted the matter from the intestines, diluted it, and
titrated it. A two percent casing was described.
In the report on "Mathematical Approach to Geotropism" Gordon
Clark, George Washington High School, Indianapolis, explained that
geotropism is a living thing's reaction to gravity. In 1805 the theory was
stated that gravity is the strongest tropism to plants. Roots respond to
gravity by growing downward; leaves and stems respond by growing
30 Indiana Academy of Science
upward. The purpose of this experiment was to prove the following :
(a) if plants are grown under specified conditions, the results can be
predicted; and (b) this predication can be made from Einstein's Principle.
Coleus, periwinkle, and rye grass were grown in a container on a
turntable. The stems bent toward the center, especially at first. These
g
results could also be determined with Knight's formula, tan © = — .
"Developing a Variety of Staphylococcus aureus that is Resistant to
Penicillin" was the topic presented by Janet Holscher, St. Rose Academy,
Vincennes. She said that one Staphylococcus aureus cell is about one
micron in diameter. The cells are non-spore forming, extremely hardy,
and can be frozen, dehydrated, and stored for future use. Thus, Staphy-
lococcus aureus seemed to be a good bacteria to work with. The bacteria
cultures were grown in test tubes with a Triptas Phosphate broth as the
medium. Various concentrations of penicillin were added a little at a time.
In those tubes where a diluted form of penicillin was added, the culture
continued to grow. These resistant strains may represent a genetic muta-
tion. Thus it may be concluded that these forms of bacteria in the human
body may also become resistant to antibiotics.
"Radio Telescopes" were discussed by Stephen Ridgway, Central
High School, South Bend. For his project he planned to construct a radio
telescope to receive radio transmissions from the sun and to study solar
radiations. A converter will lower the number of megacycles from 1,000
to fourteen. He plans to measure the intensity of output from the sun with
the radio telescope while photographing eruptions simultaneously on the
sun's surface with his regular telescope. By examining the intensity of
radio output as measured on a graph with the sequence of photographs of
the solar surface, he hopes to learn more about the nature of solar radiation.
"Identifying Pollen from Peat and Spores from Coal of Indiana" was
the title of the paper read by Thomas Bose, Westlane Junior High School,
Indianapolis. Peat samples were taken from the Fox Ferry Bog. The peat
was oxidized with a concentrated form of nitric acid to break it down.
However, the coal was not oxidized. Samples of all nine types of coal in
Indiana were examined. The coal and peat were examined under the
microscope, and the numbers of spores were counted and recorded.
In coal, oak pollen grains were most abundant. However, in the fourth
level coal, pine pollen grains seemed to be the most common. The presence
of walnut, maple and elm pollen grains indicated that the climate was
getting warmer.
"The Effect of Temperature Variations on the Frog's Pulse Rate"
was the research study reported by Frank Steiner, Central High School,
South Bend. The hypothesis made was that the rate of the frog's heart
beat varies directly with the temperature, except at those temperatures
when the frog naturally hibernates or estevates. The brain and spinal cord
were destroyed and the chest was cut open. Various compounds were used
to stimulate the heart. The temperature and heartbeat rate were taken
every two minutes. A metal drum with a pen attached recorded the results
on a sheet of graph paper. The original hypothesis was found to be true.
Patricia Jones, Washington Catholic High School, Washington, re-
ported on "Optical Illusions." She said that normal illusions are experi-
enced by people with normal eyes such as things further away looking
Junior Academy of Science 31
smaller and darker objects looking smaller than light objects. However,
some illusions are merely mistakes. Thus, scientists make several tests
and tabulate the results in order to account for optical illusions.
"Some Behavioral Patterns of Baby Chicks" was discussed by Eliza-
beth Johnson, University High School, Bloomington. The hypothesis
stated was that chicks hatched in a dark incubator would still react nor-
mally when they heard and saw the mother hen. A wooden duck was placed
a few feet from the chickens. If the baby chicks advanced toward the
duck they were given a " + ", and if they did not advance they were given
a " — ". The chicks were given three minutes to respond. Next the same
type of experiment was made to see what reaction the chicks had to the
clucking of a hen. The following data were collected: (a) Wooden duck,
(1) 90% given "+", (2) 10% advanced slightly; (b) Clucking, (1) 50%
given a " + " rating, (2) 45% failed to react, (3) 5% given a " — " rating.
The difference of a few hours of the age of the chicks might have caused
the variations in the reactions.
"A Study of Digital Computers" was the topic read by Dennis Henry,
Crawfordsville High School, Crawfordsville. He found that an analog
computer is more exact but that it takes longer to give answers, while the
digital computer gives its answers in seconds. The answer is fed into the
computer through a telephone dial, a photoelectric relay, and a magnetic
tape recorder. The maximum number the computer can accommodate is
99. The panel lights on the front tell what is going on inside the computer.
The answers are given in binary code. Dennis said that he made an elec-
tronic decimal computer which cost about $300. The Junior Academy paid
$85.00 of this expense. Electronic computers are fast, light weight, easy
to carry, but not as accurate as a mechanical computer.
"Uptake of Radioactive Elements in Coleus Plants" was discussed by
Patricia Kira, George Washington High School, Indianapolis. In this
experiment Patricia wanted to learn more about the trace elements and
some other elements in plants. She said that about sixty different elements
have been identified in plants: Zinc 65, Iron 55, Sulfur 35, and phosphorus
32, were some of the radioactive elements used in this experiment. The
elements were introduced into the roots of seven Coleus plants. An eighth
Coleus plant was used as a control and received no trace elements. The
plants were put on aluminum foil in glass jars and left for 48 hours. Then
the plants were tested with a geiger counter to see where the trace elements
had settled. The following discoveries were made : the phosphorus settled
throughout the entire plant; only a trace of iron is necessary in plants;
and zinc is related to the formation of chlorophyll in some unknown way.
From her experiment Patricia concluded that trace elements are necessary
for the growth and development of plants, and that certain elements are
found in the roots while other elements are found only in the stems and
leaves.
"The Effects of Nutrition of Light on Euglena" was the subject re-
ported by Annette McMullen, St. Rose Academy, Vincennes. She described
Euglena as one celled organisms which contain chlorophyll and are half-
way between a plant and an animal. Four cultures were placed under an
ultraviolet light for forty days and then under regular light. The cultures
under ultraviolet light were not as dark and did not increase as fast.
32 Indiana Academy of Science
However, these cultures became green again and grew quickly when they
were returned to normal light. The cultures that were grown in darkness
died. Also, lights of different colors affected the Euglena cultures in
various ways. Under red light the cultures reproduced faster, but had
water formations. Under blue-green light growth was retarded and the
cultures were gray. Blue light seemed to destroy the chlorophyll.
"The Diesel Engine" was the next paper read by Mike Bullock, Wash-
ington Catholic High School, Washington. He explained that in a diesel
engine air is admitted or sucked into the starting piston where it is com-
pressed to 500 pounds per square inch under an increased temperature of
800 to 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Oil is forced into the chamber which
pushes the piston down and the power stroke starts.
In the "Effect of Temperature on the Ventricular Beat of the Frog
Heart" Kathryn Crider, North Central High School, Indianapolis, said
that in this experiment the frog was dissected and various fluids were
introduced into the ventricular muscle to raise or lower the temperature
of the heart. The temperature was varied from 2 to 62 degrees Fahren-
heit. At 2 degrees the heart beat was sluggish and at 42 degrees it was
irregular. The most activity occurred between 12 and 32 degrees. The
heart beat stopped at low temperatures because of the formation of ice
crystals. It was concluded that the heart beat rate was directly propor-
tional to temperature, and the length of each beat was inversely propor-
tional to the temperature.
A paper on "The Design, Construction and Testing of a Liquid Pro-
pellant Laboratory Rocket" was read by John Gaiser, University School,
Bloomington. He said when liquid oxygen passes through ethanol, it
condenses. Thus he had to use certain compressors. He changed the design
of the rocket three times because he could not obtain certain compressors.
In a research project on "The Effects of Gibberellin on the Growth of
Dodder" Pat Nowaskie, St. Rose Academy, Vincennes, reported that dodder
is a parasitic flowering plant which entwines itself about its host. One
plant produces about 300 black seeds a year. Dodder infests plants such
as wheat and clover. Some dodder seeds were soaked in a growth stimulus
while others were not. All these seeds were planted with clover. The
following observations were made: (a) Dodder seeds soaked in a growth
stimulus germinated immediately and stopped growth after three weeks,
but later resumed growth; and (b) Dodder seeds not soaked in the growth
stimulus took longer to germinate, but eventually grew better.
The next topic discussed was "Resolution of Octyl Alcohol Secondary
into Its Optically Active Components" by Frank Starkey, George Wash-
ington High School, Indianapolis. Using a material which has no effect
upon a beam of polarized light he separated it into two substances. One
of the substances rotated a beam of polarized light to the left and was
referred to as the levorotary. The other substance rotated a beam of
polarized light to the right and it is known as the dextrorotary. Octyl
alcohol secondary was the optically inactive substance, dextrorotary and
levorotary form by fractional crystallization. Diffuse salts were usually
used to yield dextrorotary octyl alchol and levorotary octyl alcohol.
"Cloud Formations" were discussed by Mary Jo Hooten, Washington
Catholic High School, Washington. She said that clouds, which are made
Junior Academy of Science
33
up of water particles smaller than those in fog, never form in the strato-
sphere because of the lack of water vapor. She described the four types
of clouds as follows: (a) Cirrus clouds, often transparent, are composed
of slender crystals of ice and often predict fair weather; (b) Cumulus are
massive, low hanging clouds that develop locally, but rise to great heights.
They are most common and also indicate fair weather; (c) Stratus clouds
are grey, flat, and low hanging; and (d) Nimbus are dark grey clouds
from which rain or snow is falling.
The last paper on "Endpoint Titration of T, Bacteriophage" by Craig
Johnson, George Washington High School, Indianapolis, explained that
T2 is a virus which eats bacteria. A phage is an organism that eats bac-
teria. T2 is protein coated and hexagonally shaped. This bacteriophage
has a hollow tail and DNA inside. If scientists could discover what DNA
is, they would know the secret of life. In destroyed bacteria T2 attaches
its tail to the cell wall, then the enzymes in the tail destroy the cell wall
and DNA destroys the cell nucleus.
In his experiment, Craig tried to concentrate the bacteriophage into
the smallest amount of liquid possible. He used Escherichia coli for the
bacteria because T2 does not attack it. Escherichia coli in liquid form was
added to different dilutions of the phage, and the mixture was filtered.
The virus particles remained on the filter. On the sixth day the end point
of titration was reached; that is, a certain amount of liquid held the
maximum number of virus particles that it could.
In the future, Craig said he hopes to inject the phage into a rabbit
and study the effect of the injection.
Following the reading of papers, the meeting was adjourned at 4:30
p.m.
INDIANA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CLUBS
1960-1961
Town School and Club
Acton Franklin Central, Sigma Mu (1958)
Bloomington H. S., National Scientific Honor
Society (1931)
Bloomington M.S.E. Club, University Jr. H. S.
(1960)
Bloomington University H. S. Jr. Academy
(1938)
Chesterton H. S. Science (1954)
Clarksville Our Lady of Providence H. S.,
Phy-Chem (1956)
Clayton H. S., Jr. Academy (1951)
Connersville Alquina H. S., Science Club (1960)
Columbus Junior H. S., Science Club (1959)
Crawfordsville H. S., Up-N-Atom (1950)
Edinburg H. S., The Alchemists (1954)
Elkhart H. S., Jr. Academy (1940)
Evansville Reitz Memorial H. S., Phi Chi Mu
(1958)
Sponsor
Jerry Colglazier
Merril L. Crisler
Chas. Souers
Don R. Winslow
Robert McCord
John Chilks
Howard C. Leslie
Walter Gronning
Albert Sheets, Jr.
David Wells
S. C. Harrell
Robert Mahan
Sr. Francetta
Sr. Peter
34
Indiana Academy of Science
Town
School and Club
Sponsor
Fort Wayne
Central H. S., Biology (1940)
Iva Spangler
Fort Wayne
Central Catholic H. S,, Albertus
Sr. M. Magdelen, S. P.
Magnus Science Club (1952)
Sr. J. Margaret S. P.
Fort Wayne
Elmhurst H. S., Phy-Chem (1935)
Ruth Wimmer
Fort Wayne
North Side H. S., Nature (1936)
Vesta Thompson
Fort Wayne
South Side H. S., Jr. Academy of
Robert Weber
Science (1956)
Don Weaver
Gary
Lew Wallace H. S., Biology (1935)
Lola Lemon
Gary
Lew Wallace H. S., Klub Kern
(1941)
Mrs. Helen McKenzie
Gary
Tolleston H. S., Biology (1952)
John Reidel
Gary
Tolleston H. S. Future Scientists
of America (1949)
Arthur Kline
Gary
Wirt H. S., Biology (1945)
Mrs. F. Huddleston
Gas City
Mississinewa Joint H. S. Science
(1936)
Roy McKee
Griffith
H. S., Science (1953)
George M. Bunce
Hamlet
H. S., Science (1954)
Lawrence Cushman
Hobart
H. S., Science (1952)
Lola Stewart
Indianapolis
Ladywood School, Guerin Science
Sr. Pauline Marie
Club (1957)
Sr. Louise
Indianapolis
St. Agnes Academy, Science (1959) Sr. Amelia
Indianapolis
Shortridge H. S., Naturalists' Club Robert A. Weaver
(1947)
Indianapolis
Shortridge H. S., Science (1931)
Mrs. H. A. Parker
Indianapolis
Technical H. S., Nature (1932)
Chas. E. Russell
Indianapolis
Howe H. S., Science (1949)
Jerry Motley
Indianapolis
Washington H. S., Science (1931)
Mrs. E. H. Crider
Indianapolis
Westlane Jr. H. S., Science (1959)
John Van Sickle
Jeffersonville
Clark & Floyd County Seminar
Harold E. Cook
(1959)
1019 Springdale Dr.
Jeffersonville, Ind.
LaPorte
H. S., Bi-Phi-Chem (1958)
Francis M. Gourley
Byron Bernard
Lebanon
H. S., Jr. Explorers of Science
(1953)
Helen Reed
Loogootee
St. John H. S., Science (1959)
Sr. Mary Ellen
Madison
Fr. Michael Shawe Memorial High
School, Shawe Science Club
(1957)
T. A. Winkel
Mishawaka
H. S., Science (1936)
New Albany
H. S., Science (1935)
Erwin Steinkamp
New Castle
H. S., Science (1947)
Betty Jo Montag
New Haven
H. S., Phi-Chi (1954)
Keith Hunnings
Oldenburg
Imm. Conception Academy,
Heterogeneous Geniuses (1958)
Sr. M. Constance
Richmond
H. S., Science (1950)
Von Alexander
Rossville
H. S., Science (1954)
Martin Silverthorn
Sandborn
H. S., Up and Atom (1954)
Paul Carter
Junior Academy of Science
35
South Bend Central H. S., JETS (1939) V. C. Cripe
South Bend John Adams H. S., Adams Walton Ernest Litweiler
(1953)
Terre Haute Schulte H. S., Pius X Science Sr. Thomas Mary
Teens (1961)
Vincennes St. Rose Academy, Sigma Tau Sister Suzanne
(1959)
Washington Washington Catholic H. S., Sr. Marian Francis
Aquinas Science (1958)
NECROLOGY
Will E. Edington, DePauw University
Herman Thompson Briscoe
Shoals, Indiana Indianapolis, Indiana
November 6, 1893 October 8, 1960
Every college or university in the course of time has staff members
who acquire outstanding reputations on a national or more limited basis
as teachers, researchers or administrators, but seldom is such a member
recognized as superior in all three fields of academic endeavor. Herman T.
Briscoe was such a man at Indiana University where he rendered 38 years
of service. He was an excellent teacher, author or joint author of 35
research papers and three college textbooks, honored by the University
student body twice through the award of the Leather Medal for the
greatest contribution to the University and the Brown Derby as the most
popular Faculty member, and finally, called by President Herman B Wells
"The wisest educational university administrator in America."
Herman Thompson Briscoe was born in Shoals, Indiana, on Novem-
ber 6, 1893, and he received his elementary and high school education there.
Following his graduation from Shoals High School he entered Indiana
University and received the A.B. degree in 1917. Before receiving the
degree he had taught some in Shoals High School and following the degree
he was Superintendent of the Shoals Public Schools until he entered the
army in 1918. He served as a private in the 84th Division, U. S. Infantry,
but he was given an assignment as a research chemist with the Hercules
Powder Co.
Following his discharge from the army in 1919 he was a teacher in
Stark's Military Academy in Montgomery, Alabama, for a brief time and
then spent the school year 1919-1920 as Austin Teaching Fellow at Har-
vard University. He served the next two years as an instructor in chem-
istry at Colby College in Maine. In the Fall of 1922 he returned to Indiana
University as a graduate student and instructor in chemistry and received
the M.A. degree in 1923 and the Ph.D. degree in 1924. From then on he
served Indiana University until his death in the Robert W. Long Hospital
in Indianapolis on October 8, 1960, following a heart attack on Septem-
ber 30.
He was appointed Assistant Professor of Chemistry at Indiana Uni-
versity in 1924, promoted to Associate Professor two years later and made
Professor in 1928. He became Chairman of the Department of Chemistry
in 1938, following the appointment of Dean Herman B Wells as President
of Indiana University in March, 1938. President Wells appointed Dr.
Briscoe to the University's Self-Survey Committee and made him his
special Administrative Assistant in charge of the "newly established stu-
dent guidance program" that later became the Junior Division. In 1939
he was appointed Dean of Faculties, a newly established office, and in
1940 he was also made Vice President of the University. He gave up the
chairmanship of the Department of Chemistry in 1941 and devoted his
36
Necrology 37
time to administrative work as Dean of Faculties and Vice President
until his retirement at the age of 65 in June, 1959.
He had established a home in Sarasota, Florida, several years before
his retirement where he spent the summer of 1959 before returning to
Indiana University that Fall as consultant to the President and to retain
his title of Professor of Chemistry and occasionally to teach a freshman
chemistry course until he reached the teaching retirement age of 70.
Before his retirement, through the urgent requests of alumni of the
College of Arts and Sciences and the Graduate School, he permitted the
Brown County artist, Marie Goth, to paint his portrait which was pre-
sented to the University at the 1959 Commencement Exercises.
On April 12, 1960, Dean Briscoe was the principal speaker at a
''silver awards" banquet honoring eleven faculty members of the School
of Business who had served the University 25 or more years.
Besides his research papers Dean Briscoe was author of the text-
books: "Qualitative Chemical Analysis," 1931; "The Structure and Prop-
erties of Matter," 1935; and "General Chemistry for Colleges," 1937. He
was also chief editor for books on chemistry published by the Houghton-
Mifflin Publishing Co. In 1942, during World War II, he served as Dean
of the School of Business for a time, and in Washington he served as
Chief of the Division of Professional and Technical Training in the War-
Manpower Commission from 1942 to 1944.
Dean Briscoe had been a member and Fellow of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science since 1934. He also held member-
ships in the American Chemical Society, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi,
Tau Kappa Alpha, Phi Lambda Upsilon, Alpha Chi Sigma, and the social
fraternity Lambda Chi Alpha. He was a Mason and a member of the
Methodist Church. He was listed in Who's Who in America and American
Men of Science.
He joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1925 and was made a
Fellow in 1935. Before his appointment as Vice President of the Univer-
sity he presented six joint papers before the Academy, five of which were
published in the Proceedings. He served as Chairman of the Chemistry
Section of the Academy in 1939.
Following his death, memorial exercises were held at Indiana Univer-
sity at the same time that the funeral services were held at his home in
Sarasota, Florida. As a permanent memorial to him, plans have been
made by the University through the Indiana University Foundation to
establish an endowed chair in chemistry to be known as the Herman T.
Briscoe Memorial Professorship.
With his death Herman T. Briscoe joins that great group of Indiana
University scientists and immortals: Kirkwood, Jordan, Branner, Bryan,
Eigenmann, Mottier, Rothrock, Foley, Moenkhaus, Lyons, Myers and
Williams.
Daniel DenUyl
Holland, Michigan West Lafayette, Indiana
March 25, 1898 September 21, 1961
The Boy Scouts of America was incorporated on February 8, 1910.
Since then millions of boys and men, not only in America but all over the
38 Indiana Academy of Science
non-Communist world, have recited its oath: "On my honor I will do my
best: to do my duty to God and my country and to obey the Scout Law; to
help other people at all times; to keep myself physically strong, mentally
awake, and morally straight." Fifty years ago, in 1911, Daniel DenUyl,
then a thirteen year old youth, took this oath and from that time on his
life was lived according to those ideals.
Daniel DenUyl was born in Holland, Michigan, on March 25, 1898.
After completing his public school education he served as a 2nd Lieutenant
in the Infantry, U. S. Army, in World War I during 1918-1919, and
following his discharge he entered Michigan State College where he
majored in forestry and received the B.S. degree in 1922.
He began his career in forestry with two years of service from 1923
to 1925 as a Junior Forester in the U. S. Forest Service in Washington,
D. C, after which he spent a year in graduate study in Cornell University
and received the M.S. degree in Forestry in 1926. He served the next two
years as a District Forester in the State of Missouri. In 1928 he accepted
an instructorship in Forestry at Purdue University where he spent the
rest of his life and was an Associate Professor of Forestry at the time of
his death from cancer on September 21, 1961.
Daniel DenUyl was a true woodsman. He knew and loved his trees
and his principal recreation through the years was derived from a small
wooded plot of several acres with a stream running through it, located
several miles from his home, where he and his family spent their weekends
and frequently entertained friends with picnic suppers on Sunday after-
noons.
He early became associated with Charles C. Deam and despite the 33
years difference in their ages these two men became intimate friends.
Dr. Deam was Indiana's first State Forester and was still active in the
State forestry service when DenUyl came to Purdue. Deam's rugged
honesty and outspoken aversion to sham and pretense impressed and
strongly appealed to the younger man and, following Deam's death in
1953, DenUyl wrote a most sympathetic and understanding memorial,
published in Volume 63 of the Proceedings of the Academy, which not only
showed the close friendship of the two men but also reflected the ideals
that guided Daniel DenUyl in his life's work.
DenUyl joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1938 and was made
a Fellow in 1949. He became one of the most active members in the
Academy, serving on the important Relation of Academy to State Com-
mittee in 1949 and 1950, Chairman of the Botany Section in 1953 and the
History of Science Section in 1957, and on the Membership Committee in
1959. He presented fifteen papers before the Academy, eleven of which
were published in the Proceedings.
He was much concerned with conservation and reforestation and he
did much research on the reforestation of eroded and marginal land and
the waste land in the strip coal mining areas of the State. His results
were published in Bulletins issued by the Purdue University Agricultural
Station and other forestry periodicals. Following twenty years of study
he published a bulletin in 1958 on the growth and development of wood-
lands in Indiana, particularly the hardwoods. He also did research on
Christmas trees and was a past president of the National and Indiana
Necrology 39
Christmas Tree Growers Association. He was a member of the Society of
American Foresters and the Sigma Xi scientific society, and he was listed
in American Men of Science and Who's Who in Indiana.
Daniel DenUyl felt a deep responsibility toward working for a better
world. He was a sincere, dedicated humanist. Long a member of Central
Presbyterian Church in Lafayette, he transferred his membership and
became a leader in the organization and subsequent construction of the
beautiful church edifice for the Covenant Presbyterian Church located in
West Lafayette in order better to serve the student need. His extracur-
ricular activities were largely devoted to serving college youth. He was
early a member of Alpha Phi Omega, the national scouting service fra-
ternity which has chapters in 300 American colleges and universities.
His work brought him national recognition as he moved up through the
ranks of Alpha Phi Omega. From a local chapter counselor he ultimately
became a Director, First Vice President and finally President of this
organization and was a member of its National Executive Board at the
time of his death. In recognition of his distinguished service in Scouting
he was awarded in 1956 the Silver Antelope, the highest Regional honor
granted by the Boy Scouts of America.
In civic work he was active in the Lafayette Lions Club and served a
term as its president. He was also a member of the Sigma Pi social
fraternity.
A few months before his death an issue of the Purdue Log, published
by the Purdue forestry students, was dedicated to Daniel DenUyl in
recognition of his contributions to forestry. Following his death it was
his wish that his friends use the money that might be spent for flowers as
contributions to the Covenant Presbyterian Church in the purchase of
memorial pews, which resulted in the gift of two complete pews.
In the death of Daniel DenUyl Purdue University and the State have
lost an excellent and conscientious scientist and the Indiana Academy of
Science has lost a faithful, active member. He will also be long remem-
bered for his devotion and contributions to youth welfare.
Henry Bernhardt Froning
Sebastian, Ohio South Bend, Indiana
September 7, 1884 October 18, 1960
Notre Dame University, following the lead of Indiana and Purdue
Universities, has come a long way during the past thirty years in the
development of its graduate school program. In the early 1930's Father
Julius A. Nieuwland had centered the scientific eyes of the nation on him
because of his work in the development of Duprene, the synthetic rubber
so important in World War II, and at the time of his death in 1936 he
had surrounded himself with fifteen graduate students in chemistry.
Father Nieuwland had been Dean of the School of Science from 1918 to
1922, and his successor was Father Francis J. Wenninger who during the
years before his death eighteen years later set about building up the
graduate standards and offerings. He brought in Edward G. Mahin in
Metallurgy in 1925, Theodor Just in Botany and Lawrence A. Baldinger
in Pharmacy in 1929, James A. Reyniers in Bacteriology in 1931, Arthur
40 Indiana Academy of Science
E. Haas, renowned Theoretical Physicist, in 1936, Karl Menger and Emil
Artin in Mathematics in 1937.
The Head of the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
during all this period was Henry Bernhardt Froning, a biochemist, who
had come to Notre Dame in 1920 as Professor of Chemistry to take charge
of those departments. Following the death of Father Wenninger in Feb-
ruary, 1940, Professor Froning was appointed Dean of the College of
Science, and under his guidance the Department of Chemistry, in 1941-
1942, became the first department at Notre Dame to offer a regular pro-
gram for the doctorate. However, the Ph.D. had been conferred earlier
at Notre Dame, for Professors Menger and Artin had directed the work
of a candidate for that degree in mathematics that was conferred in 1938.
Dean Froning had scarcely received his new appointment when his
wife passed away in April, 1940. The shock of her death caused a duode-
nal ulcer condition, from which he had suffered, to flare up. This condition
was further aggravated by the tensions of World War II and the strain
of the reorganization of graduate study at Notre Dame and led to his
taking a leave of absence during the year 1942-1943. His recovery was
slow and he resigned in 1943, as Emeritus Dean, bringing to an end his
active work as a teacher and administrator. His successor was Dr. Law-
rence W. Baldinger who had served as acting Dean during Dean Froning's
leave of absence.
Henry Bernhardt Froning was born on September 7, 1884, in Sebas-
tian, Ohio, where he attended the elementary school. He then entered the
preparatory department of St. Joseph's College in Rensselaer, Indiana.
Since it was necessary for him to earn most of his own way, the years
following his graduation from the preparatory department were divided
between teaching and attending college. He taught in the one-room public
schools in Mercer County, Ohio, did college work in both Lima College
and St. Joseph's College, served as Principal of Minster, Ohio, High
School one year, and in 1908 received the A.B. degree from both Lima
College and St. Joseph's College.
He entered Catholic University of America in Washington, D. C, in
1909 as a graduate assistant in chemistry and spent two years there. In
1911 he became a graduate assistant at Ohio State University and received
the M.A. degree in 1912. The following year he spent in graduate study
at Johns Hopkins University, after which he returned to Ohio State in
1914 as an instructor in bacteriology. He was later promoted to Assistant
Professor of Bacteriology, and in 1918 he was made Assistant Professor
of Biochemistry. In 1919 he accepted a position with the Nizer Labora-
tories, Inc., in Detroit, Michigan, as a research chemist and bacteriologist,
and a year later he came to Notre Dame.
After his retirement in 1943 he devoted the next three years to
recovering his health but he kept up his reading in chemistry. He remar-
ried in June, 1946, and he and his wife spent the next five years in travel
and extended visits with the families of his three sons and two daughters.
He returned to South Bend in 1951 where he resided until his death on
October 18, 1960, but his failing health did not permit his return on
academic work.
Necrology 41
He was the first recipient, in 1929, of the Notre Dame Faculty Award.
He had also served as a juror on Notre Dame's Laetare Award Committee
which since 1883 has awarded the Laetare Medal to outstanding Catholic
laymen. In 1940 Dean Froning received the honorary LL.D. degree from
St. Vincent's College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania.
Dr. Froning was a member of the American Chemical Society and
had served as a Counselor for its St. Joseph Valley Section. He also held
membership in Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft, American Society for
the Promotion of Engineering Education, Indiana Chemical Society, New
York Academy of Science, Phi Lambda Upsilon and Sigma Xi. He was a
Fellow of the American Institute of Chemists and the Chemical Society
of London.
He joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1920 and was made a
Fellow in 1935. He wrote the Academy Memorial in 1936 for his friend
and colleague, Father Nieuwland.
Henry B. Froning, in his active days, was an able teacher, adminis-
trator and scientist. Since his death the Froning Memorial Trophy has
been set up at Notre Dame in his honor as an annual award at the Science
Fair.
John Anthony Molter
Plymouth, Indiana Portland, Oregon
November 5, 1905 October 27, 1960
Reverend John Anthony Molter, C.S.C., was a highly trained biologist
who dedicated his life to teaching. He was born on November 5, 1905 in
Plymouth, Indiana. Completing the elementary work of the local paro-
chial school at the age of fourteen, he entered Holy Cross Seminary at
Notre Dame in 1920 and during the next four years he definitely deter-
mined to enter the priesthood. After a year's novitiate he made his first
profession in July, 1925. He entered Moreau Seminary, Notre Dame, for
his college work. He made his final profession in July, 1928, and received
the B.A. degree from Notre Dame in 1929.
Anticipating a considerable period of study both in theology and
science he remained at Notre Dame for another year taking basic biology
courses. In 1930 he entered Holy Cross College, Catholic University of
America, Washington, D. C, where he completed his theological study for
the priesthood and was ordained in 1933. He continued his theological
studies for another year and then began work on two years of scientific
study in Catholic University of America where he received the M.S. degree
in 1936.
He returned to Notre Dame in 1936 and taught for three years as an
instructor in biology. In 1939 he entered the University of Pennsylvania
to work for the doctorate. He studied there four years and spent the
summers from 1939 to 1943 in the Woods Hole Laboratories. He then
returned to Notre Dame as Assistant Professor of Biology, where he
completed his thesis requirements and received the Ph.D. degree in Physi-
ology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1944.
In 1945 he was assigned to the University of Portland, Oregon,
another university like Notre Dame under the auspices of the Congrega-
42 Indiana Academy of Science
tion of the Holy Cross. He went to Portland as Professor of Biology and
a few years later he was made Dean of the College of Science. In 1954 he
was appointed Dean of the Graduate School.
Father Molter was an excellent teacher and administrator. He insisted
on high quality work and graded accordingly. He was also a sincere and
effective preacher who spoke his convictions without fear or rancor and he
held the respect and admiration of his students and others. In his last
years he had a cardiac condition so that his work was lightened. His death
occurred on October 27, 1960, shortly after he had left his classroom and
turned his laboratory work over to a colleague.
Father Molter joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1937, but
he was unable to be active in the Academy because of his graduate study
in Pennsylvania and his assignment to the University of Portland. How-
ever, he was another scientific leader like Fathers Nieuwland and Wen-
ninger, both prominent in the Academy, who successfully worked in both
science and religion and who, like them, died in his fifties at the height of
his career.
Harry James Reed
Paris, Illinois West Lafayette, Indiana
February 9, 1887 November 5, 1960
It is difficult to realize what tremendous strides have been made in
American agriculture during the past century. Much of this was made
possible through the Morrill Act of 1862, leading to the founding of 69
Land-Grant Colleges such as, among others, Cornell University in 1865,
University of Illinois in 1867, Iowa State and Purdue in 1869. Also the
development of the gasoline engine and the abundance and consequent
cheapness of our petroleum products have led to an economical mechaniza-
tion of the farm so that the farmer today spends four minutes in raising
a bushel of corn compared to five man-hours a century ago. But the most
important factor was the imagination and acuity of research administra-
tors and workers. During the past forty years Harry James Reed earned
an international reputation as an agricultural leader and administrator.
Harry James Reed was born on a farm near Paris, Illinois, on Feb-
ruary 9, 1887. While he was still a boy his family moved to Indianapolis
where he graduated from Shortridge High School. He entered Purdue and
received the B.S. in Agriculture in 1911. The following two years he was
employed as a farm manager for the Southern Indiana Orchard Company
in Harrison County. Shortly after the organization of the Agricultural
Extension Service in Indiana he was appointed in 1913 county agricultural
agent for Parke County, being the third agent to be appointed in the State.
Three years later he returned to Purdue as an Associate in Agriculture
and in 1917 he was appointed Assistant Director of the Purdue Experi-
ment Station in charge of the University's horticultural farms near the
campus. He was made Farm Director the next year. When Dean John H.
Skinner's health began to fail in 1938, Harry Reed was made Acting-Direc-
tor of the Experiment Station and following Dean Skinner's retirement
on July 1, 1939, Reed was appointed Dean of the School of Agriculture
and Director of the Agricultural Extension Service, which positions he
Necrology 43
held until his retirement as Emeritus Dean of Agriculture in 1957. Harry
Reed was the second Dean of Agriculture at Purdue and the total service
of Skinner and Reed as Deans was fifty years.
Following Reed's retirement U. S. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra
Taft Benson appointed him Coordinator of the Rural Development Pro-
gram devised to unify Federal, State and private agencies in building up
the lower income rural areas of the United States. This work required
him to travel frequently between Lafayette and Washington, D. C. He
continued as Coordinator up until the time of his death in West Lafayette
on November 5, 1960.
During his tenure as Dean he received State, national and interna-
tional recognition. He worked with the State Board of Health on a com-
prehensive rural health program. In 1956 he was appointed to the State
Conservation Commission by Governor-elect Handley. He served on the
Indiana Economic Council and from 1939 to 1957 he was a member of the
Indiana State Fair Board. He served as Chairman of the National Insti-
tute of Animal Agriculture from 1950 to 1957 and was a member of the
International Livestock Exposition Board, the International Dairy Expo-
sition Board, and the Board of Governors of the Refrigeration Research
Foundation. From 1947 to 1953 he was a member of the Research and
Marketing Act Advisory Committee and in 1952-1953 he was a member of
Agricultural Advisory Committee of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
In 1953 he was leader of the U. S. Mission to Pakistan during the drought
there that led to America's gift of 700,000 tons of wheat to that nation.
The following year he headed the American Agricultural Trade Mission
to Latin America seeking a greater market for our farm products in the
Central and South American countries. He also served as Vice Chairman
of the American Institute of Cooperation.
Dean Reed received a number of honors during the last dozen years
of his life. In 1948 the Purdue Agricultural Alumni Association awarded
him its Certificate of Distinction as its founder and president for three
years and "for outstanding service to agriculture beyond the call of duty."
North Carolina State College conferred the Doctor of Science degree on
him in 1950 and Purdue honored him with the Doctor of Agriculture
degree in 1958. In 1955 he became the second Hoosier to receive the highest
award given by the American Farm Bureau Federation for distinguished
service to agriculture. The American Meat Institute, in 1959, gave him
its highest honor, the Animal Agriculture Award.
He held memberships in the American Society of Horticultural
Science, the American Academy of Political and Social Science, and the
American Genetics Society. He joined the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1924 and was made a Fellow in 1927. He was
a member of Epsilon Sigma Pi and Alpha Zeta honorary fraternities, Phi
Gamma Delta social fraternity, the West Lafayette Masonic Lodge and
the Scottish Rite in Indianapolis. He was also a member of the Central
Presbyterian Church in Lafayette.
Dean Reed joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1923 and was
made a Fellow in 1936. Eli Lilly, President of the Academy in 1938,
appointed him a member of the very important committee, Relation of
Academy to State, and he served continuously until his death. While sel-
44 Indiana Academy of Science
dom able to attend meetings of the Academy, he was always interested in
its work. In 1953 it was he who informed the Academy Necrologist of the
death of the Academy Charter Member, George W. Benton.
Harry James Reed served his State and country well. Indiana and
the Purdue School of Agriculture made great progress under his leader-
ship through his deep interest in fruit production, cattle breeding and
agriculture in general, and particularly in the economic welfare of the
Indiana farmer. His name will always stand high among our nation's
agricultural leaders.
Mary Louise Stork
Louisville, Kentucky St. Petersburg, Florida
December 16, 1900 June 1, 1961
In May, 1852, just a few months before his death, Daniel Webster
gave a speech in Faneuil Hall, Boston, "Cradle of American Liberty,"
eulogizing the founders of Massachusetts, in which he said: "If we work
upon marble, it will perish; if we work upon brass, time will efface it;
if we rear temples, they will crumble into dust; but if we work upon
immortal minds, if we imbue them with principles, with the just fear of
God and love of our fellowmen, we engrave on those tablets something
which will brighten to eternity." Mary Louise Stork, a teacher of biologi-
cal sciences for thirty-seven years and a religious worker with an active
concern for human welfare all her adult life, believed and exemplified this
ideal.
She was born on December 16, 1900, in Louisville, Kentucky, and was
an only child. The family moved to Evansville where Miss Stork grad-
uated from Central High School in 1918. She immediately entered DePauw
University and received the A.B. degree in 1922. Later she completed the
requirements for the Master of Science degree at Indiana University,
which she received in 1935.
In September, 1924, she accepted a position as a science teacher in
Reitz High School, Evansville, and two years later was transferred to
Central High School. She was a sympathetic, conscientious, effective
teacher with a pleasing personality that won and held the high esteem of
her fellow teachers and students. She made friends easily and possessed
great vitality and was an active, enthusiastic worker not only profes-
sionally but also in civic, church and social organizations.
Professionally she was a member of the National Education Asso-
ciation, Indiana State Teachers Association and the Evansville Teachers
Association. She joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1935 because
of her interest in biology, particularly ornithology. As an active member
of the Indiana Audubon Society, she served on its State Executive Com-
mittee.
She took an active interest in the Evansville YWCA, served as a
Board Member and Chairman of the Personnel Committee, and worked on
the Membership Committee.
Miss Stork was an active church worker in the Evansville Methodist
Temple, serving as Secretary of its Official Board and as a member of its
Building Committee in charge of the construction of the church edifice.
Necrology 45
She was also a charter member of its Wesleyan Service Guild and served
a term as its President.
While a student at DePauw she became affiliated with the Alpha Chi
Omega social sorority and after her graduation she founded the Evansville
Alumni Club of Alpha Chi Omega. Also she was a charter member of the
Evansville chapter of the American Association of University Women.
Miss Stork continued to teach in Central High School for thirty years.
During this time she also taught for a short period in 1943 in Evansville
College. She spent a number of her summers traveling in the United
States and Canada. In 1938 she made a bicycle tour of England, Germany,
Austria and France. She visited Mexico in 1941. She was a great lover
of nature and an amateur ornithologist.
She resigned at Central High School in 1956 to accept an instructor-
ship in biology in St. Petersburg, Florida, Junior College, where she
taught courses in zoology, botany, general biology and comparative verte-
brate anatomy. She exhibited the same vitality and enthusiasm in St.
Petersburg as had characterized her in Evansville, and continued her
extracurricular activities.
She joined the Florida Academy of Science and the Audubon Society
of St. Petersburg. As a member of the Executive Committee of the Florida
State Audubon Society she was active in establishing a scholarship at
St. Petersburg Junior College for the Audubon Society. She became a
member of the Florida Educational Association and the Pinellas County
Classroom Teachers Association, and was active in the work of the
Teachers of Science Division for the Science Fair. She transferred her
church membership to the Christ Methodist Church and was active in its
Wesleyan Service Guild.
Her summers in Florida were spent in visiting its beaches, parks and
other areas of scientific interest.
Following her death in St. Petersburg on June 1, 1961, her DePauw
University classmates, recognizing her worth and success as a teacher
and excellent citizen, established the Mary Louise Stork Memorial Library
Fund to be used in the purchase of books for the DePauw University
Library.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
The Genesis of a Drug
Lawrence H. Baldinger, University of Notre Dame
One of the more pleasant and rewarding aspects of assuming the
presidency of an organization such as this is the opportunity to review
the past volumes of the Proceedings, to read the presidential addresses of
the people who have held this post, and to hope that I may add some-
thing— besides length — to the long list of significant talks which have
been delivered on this occasion. My own file of Proceedings of the Academy
of Science starts with the 1930 volume, the year I joined the organization;
thanks to my close association with the late Rev. Julius A. Nieuwland,
C.S.C., President of the Academy in 1934, my collection of Proceedings
also includes the 1913 and 1914 volumes, also those from 1926, 1927, 1928.
Needless to say, I prize this collection; and one of my regrets during the
year of my presidency has been the lack of time to peruse these Proceed-
ings more carefully, for there is a great deal of Indiana scientific history
in these volumes.
Since my duties in the institution which I represent have been for the
past fifteen years more in student administration and teaching than in
research, I must rely upon my initial profession, pharmacy, to furnish me
with a topic for my talk on this occasion — 'The Genesis of a Drug." But
I do so with considerable trepidation for the reason that many members
of that profession have been or are active members of the Indiana Academy
of Science, and maintain a closer association with the day-to-day develop-
ments in the medicinals industry than I have been able to do in my present
position. In the present-day production of drugs, however, all areas of
science and a fair number of the engineering branches are playing impor-
tant parts to keep us well supplied with the best medicines history has
known to date.
Thanks to the excellent cooperation and help of Dr. Will Edington
in response to my query about the role of pharmacy in the Academy, I
should like to include a bit of interesting history. Since the Academy has
never included a pharmacy division, those of us who have become members
of the organization did so because of our interests in the work of some
other division. Seven Academy presidents have been associated with the
Eli Lilly Co.: Stanley Coulter and Robert Hessler in 1896 and 1906,
respectively, and both were charter members of the Academy; John S.
Wright served in 1905; Severance Burrage in 1914; Eli Lilly in 1938;
Horace Powell in 1953; William Daily in 1958.
Other prominent pharmacists who were associated with the Academy
at one time or another were Chalmers J. Zufall and Dean Charles B.
Jordan, both of beloved memory, and Charles O. Lee, now located at Ohio
Northern University; also, Edward W. Koch, Francis E. Bibbins, Harley
W. Rhodehamel, Walter A. Jamieson, George H. A. Clowes, Edward H.
Niles, Adam H. Fiske, Ralph W. Showalter, and Bert R. Mull. At the
risk of omitting names of many good friends, I will refrain from attempt-
ing to list all the active Academy members from the Eli Lilly Co., the
Pitman-Moore Co., the Mead Johnson Co., and other pharmaceutical
46
Presidential Address 47
houses in Indiana, and from the faculties of the College of Pharmacy at
Purdue and at Butler, but as a fellow pharmacist I welcome them to
membership in this organization. It may be of interest to many of you
that until 1939 four institutions for the study of pharmacy were in
operation in this state. In that year both Valparaiso and Notre Dame
discontinued the divisions of pharmacy, leaving Purdue University and
the Indianapolis College of Pharmacy — later to become part of Butler
University — for the training of pharmacists in the state.
An interesting bit of pharmaceutical history concerns Charles C.
Deam (1865-1953), President of the Academy in 1924, who owned and
operated a drug store in Bluffton for many years, although he had not
received formal training in pharmacy. As pointed out in the memorial
by Will Edington and in the summary of his life by Daniel DenUyl, both
fascinating reading in the 1953 Proceedings, botany claimed more of his
attention than the drug business.
It is a well-known fact that the pharmaceutical industry is intensely
competitive. Research is very important in this industry, and in no
industry, probably, has it been more productive. The volume of the
ethical drug business at the manufacturer's level rose from less than 350
million dollars in 1940 to over $1200 million in 1955; in 1955, 36% of the
prescriptions written were for drugs that were not even in the test-tube
stage four years before; in that year some 400 new products were intro-
duced as compared with less than 100 in 1940. If I may inject a very brief
personal note, one reason why I try to spend a week or two each summer
as a pharmacist in the prescription department of a local pharmacy is to
learn about the many important new items which are being introduced to
the medical profession each year. One needs only to read Aldous Huxley's
Brave New World and the sequel to it, Brave New World Revisited to get
at least a fictional picture of the work being done in the field of tranquil-
lizing agents and psychic energizers; a contemplation of what is being
done in the highly classified research in chemical warfare centers on
"nerve-gas" and "psychogenic agents" provides a more somber note in the
tension-laden, cold-war existence in which we are living.
One of the problems confronting the health agencies today is the
critical attitude of the general public toward the cost of medical care, one
facet of which involves the allegedly high cost of drugs for the prevention,
cure, or diagnosis of disease, and the alleviation of symptoms. An impar-
tial analysis of, and a sober reflection on the benefits of modern medica-
tion, however, reveal some interesting facts. In terms of per capita costs,
annual spending for drugs moved from about $10 in 1948 to $19 in 1958,
according to the Department of Commerce. Much of this increase is not
due to higher prices; it comes about because people buy more drugs.
Production of vitamins gained 239% in the decade 1948-1958, and today
many vitamin preparations are bought voluntarily without prescription.
Understandably, some drugs when first introduced, do cost a lot, but
industry can point to many sharp cuts in prices over the years. The Eli
Lilly Company, for example, cites a 95% reduction in the cost of insulin
to the diabetic since 1923, all this in the face of raw material costs that
are double those of 1923, and wage costs that are five times higher than
in 1923. Many examples from other companies in more recent drug inno-
48 Indiana Academy of Science
vations can be cited. Merck's introductory price for cortisone in 1949
was $200 per gram; by 1952 the price had dropped to $20.00 per gram —
a 90% reduction — without the pressure of competition. Lederle has
pointed out that the price of its broad-spectrum antibiotic, Aureomycin,
dropped 65% within a year of its introduction.
Actually, today's drugs are a bargain; deaths from diphtheria have
declined 96% since 1944, pneumonia 24%, tuberculosis 80%, scarlet fever
and strep throat 90%, and whooping cough 93%. The average length of
stay in general hospitals today is nine days (in 1935 it was 15 days) ; and
since 1900, twenty years have been added to the life expectancy of
Americans.
The production of a new drug constitutes what might be termed the
creative stage, one of three in the path of human progress: 1) the adop-
tive, 2) the adaptive, 3) the creative. In the adoptive stage a crude drug
may find its way into empirical use in medicine. Because of a bitter taste
or objectionable odor, or for other reasons, an enterprising chemist or
pharmacist may isolate the active principle into a concentrated form to
facilitate the administration of the drug; this constitutes the adaptive
stage. Finally, the scientist proceeds to analyze the product, to synthesize
it in the laboratory, and then, as the final step in the creative stage, to
prepare compounds with the same action, but which may have no close
chemical relationship with the natural product. The story of cinchona
bark, then of quinine, and finally of the synthetic antimalarials, illustrates
this interesting sequence in the production of drugs.
The genesis of a drug or new product development is a long, tedious,
complex pathway more frequently beset with failures than with successes,
some of which may be short-lived. Those who have read the fascinating-
story of Ehrlich's magic bullet, arsphenamine, know that 605 compounds
were made and tested against syphilis before the 606th showed promise.
Research on antimalarials has produced 14,000 drugs, of which only a
few, possibly a dozen, have been found to be satisfactory; fortunately, the
pharmacological testing has pointed to many other uses for some of these
compounds. Of the many hundreds of antispasmodic drugs, only a few
are widely used; more than 5,000 analgesics have been discovered, but not
more than a dozen are commonly used. A team of 55 scientists spent two
and a half years screening 100,000 soil samples at a cost of $4 million;
only 76 showed organisms with antibiotic activity.
To many persons unfamiliar with new product development, seren-
dipity appears to be an important factor in the production of a new drug.
To those of us who have been in contact with scientific research, however,
sound fundamental training, the ability to plan a problem, and the good
common sense to recognize the big break which may come his way, still
remain as prime factors in the success of a scientist to produce a new
compound.
In the development of a new drug, ten important steps may have to
be taken; from start to finish, this may involve a period of eight or nine
months to many years, and constitutes an ever-increasing challenge to
the pharmaceutical industry. I should like to comment briefly on each of
these ten steps.
Presidential Address 49
1) The original impetus may arise in very diverse areas of scientific
investigations. A graduate student whose work is being subsidized by a
grant from a pharmaceutical house in a university laboratory may initiate
the work on a particular compound; within ear-shot of a chemist at a
scientific meeting a physician may express a wistful hope for a new drug
to help him in a baffling case; or a researcher on a world tour may observe
the effects of a crude drug which may well warrant further investigation.
Only the limitations of human ingenuity and planning can affect this
initial step toward new products.
2) If the initial plan warrants further investigation, the research
committee of the company next considers the feasibility of the research
on the particular compound or compounds in question. Expense, consumer
acceptance, and availability of raw materials are only a few of the factors
which must be considered in this step. It is remarkable, I think, that in
1959 the drug industry spent $200 million for research and development,
but came up with fewer than 50 new drugs. In the past decade one com-
pany has spent $100 million and has marketed some 70 new products.
Another company in 10 years has spent $111 million, another $36 million.
These amounts represent between 8 and 9% of total industry sales, far
above the levels of most other industries.
3) If the research committee decides favorably on the proposed
research, the work involved is assigned to the various divisions of the
organization. The pattern of competition which has developed within the
past few years between the pharmaceutical companies to maintain their
positions in the high-powered promotion race makes it imperative that
the people involved in this step are conscientious, responsible group leaders
who can gear their divisions to meet deadlines and to interlock their duties
with those of other groups to produce the intermediates and the final
product. Those of us who teach the sciences and who counsel the young
folks who may enter these industries are challenged to foster in them these
personal attributes of initiative, cooperation, and responsibility — all this
in addition to giving them a sound scientific background.
4) During the fourth step, the preparation and purification of the
intermediates and the final product, many other problems worthy of
investigation may arise; these can be referred back to the committee on
research for consideration.
5) The next step involves the pharmacological testing of the com-
pound or compounds for animal toxicity so that a rough idea of their
therapeutic index in various species can be determined. To insure safety,
extensive testing in animals must be undertaken to establish potency,
toxicity, and contraindications. At this stage many companies are com-
pelled to write off tremendous sums already invested, because the com-
pounds are too toxic to warrant further investigation. It is at this stage
that the "arm-chair" research of the chemist or pharmacologist may or
may not prove to be fruitful.
6) Assuming that the screening and toxicity testing uncovers some
promising compounds for specific indications, the production schedule
must move out of the pilot-plant stage into large-scale production. This
may involve top-level decisions by the company to build plants for the
50 Indiana Academy of Science
production of the basic chemicals in order to guarantee an uninterrupted
supply of intermediates in the synthesis of the finished compounds. Two
examples worthy of note include the construction of the malonic ester
plant at the Eli Lilly Company to provide this important intermediate in
the production of their barbiturate compounds, and more recently the con-
struction of the citric acid plant at the Miles Laboratories to guarantee
plenty of this product for their effervescent aspirin compound, and also
to permit the company to become competitive in the sale of this chemical.
Large-scale production may introduce problems for which the chemical
engineer, the electrical engineer, the civil engineer, and the mechanical
engineer must provide the answers.
7) After large quantities of material become available, additional
toxicity and pharmacological studies must be conducted. If the drugs pass
all of these tests with flying colors, the whole trial process must be repeated
with the compound in various mixtures, this in order to determine the
toxicity of the solvents or various adjuvants. The sulfa tragedy in the
late thirties might have been prevented if toxicological studies had been
conducted on the various ethylene glycol derivatives used as solvents. It is
a sad commentary that this tragedy was the prod which impelled Congress
to take action on the revision of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.
8) The eighth step involves the clinical testing of the product. If the
drug has satisfactorily passed all of the previous tests, the whole trial
process must be repeated in the clinics under carefully controlled and
observed conditions. In the development of one of the new oral drugs for
treatment of diabetes, more than one million patient-days went into the
clinical program alone. For this step the cooperation of health and welfare
agencies is of utmost importance; clinical testing may take years, although
the pressure on every company to match the promotional effort of the less
responsible companies has created a situation which is being scrutinized
carefully by the Food and Drug Administration.
9) Before a drug can be offered to the medical profession, the results
of the experimental tests must gain the acceptance of the Food and Drug
Administration. Most companies, too, prize the acquisition of the seal of
the acceptance of the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American
Medical Association for their products.
Undoubtedly many of you have been following the newer develop-
ments which have resulted from the recent Labor-Health, Education and
Welfare Appropriation Act. The FDA has been able to increase the
number of plant inspections per year, although the officials maintain that
the proportion of the thousands of shipments annually which are inspected
is not large enough to give a reliable index of the quantity of substandard
drugs which the FDA ought to be keeping off the market. Also, the FDA
has been able to increase the number of samples tested for adulteration
and misbranding as a further protection of consumers against health
hazards and economic cheats. In the field of radiological health, the FDA
has been able to begin the ground work for an expansion of its monitoring
of radiation levels in a great variety of foodstuffs.
In order to maintain proper rapport with the Food and Drug Admin-
istration, the pharmaceutical houses must maintain legal staffs to insure
proper compliance with food and drug regulations; this, by the way, is
Presidential Address 51
another area of endeavor for those people who have a sound scientific
background and a real interest in the legal profession.
10) Even prior to the completion of the initial steps, the sales depart-
ment begins the task of marketing the product. Work begins at once on
one of the trickiest steps of product evolution : the search for a name or
often two names — trade and generic. Marketing research steps in to make
a preliminary survey of the current market, the pricing, the competitive
products, the package sizes and all the other factors which enter into the
total marketing picture. Pharmaceutical research will be called in to
develop suitable dosage forms — whether tablet, capsule, parenteral or
topical or perhaps, eventually, all four. The advertising and promotional
program is blueprinted and carefully studied and reviewed. From this
will come the plans for the monies to be expended for journal advertising,
for direct mail, for sampling and for introduction notices to wholesalers,
retailers, and hospitals.
In spite of all the careful planning on the part of the pharmaceutical
houses, surveys shows that out of seven new products which reach the
druggists' shelves, four are not successful, two show some kind of profit,
and one makes a real contribution.
Unquestionably, the genesis of a drug — new product development —
is a continuing challenge to scientific research.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chairman: James H. Keller, Indiana University
Downey D. Rairourn, Gary Extension of Indiana University, was
elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACT
A Scale for the Assessment of the Somatotype. Eugene J. Slabaugh,
Indiana University. — The present study constitutes a modification of
William H. Sheldon's system of assessment of human constitutional varia-
bility. This system differs from previous schemes in that, instead of
placing the individual into one of a series of established types, he is
classified according to the varying development of three developmental
tendencies or components on a scale from 1 to 7.
Anthropometric and anthroposcopic assessments are carried out on
the subject directly and include subjects who object to being photographed.
In order to facilitate a constitutional assessment, a series of eight charts
have been set up to illustrate the gradations of the bodily areas between
the extremes of two components, keeping the third component at a con-
stant rating of 2. Four charts deal with the male and four with the
female physique. The individual charts are set up in the following manner :
Endomorphy to ectomorphy with mesomorphy held constant;
Mesomorphy to endomorphy with ectomorphy held constant;
Mesomorphy to estomorphy with endomorphy held constant.
The last chart presents common combinations in the middle ranges
with none of the components being rated at less than a three or more than
a four. The detailed presentation of constitutional differences in chart
form should be of special value in constitutional studies on conservative
subjects, women, older individuals, or extreme variants — groups in which
the taking of somatotype photographs often presents difficulties. With the
use of the graded charts, a rapid assessment can be made at the time
routine measurements and observations are collected.
52
The Identification of a Sample of Unmodified Faunal
Remains from the Angel Site
Holm Wolfram Neumann, Indiana University
The ultimate purpose of this study is to determine the relative num-
bers and types of fauna utilized by the aboriginal inhabitants of the
Angel Site. After the proper identification of the faunal remains, the
food habits of the occupants and the relative economic importance of each
species can be determined. The climate and flora at the time of occupation
are indicated by the type of faunal remains present and past ranges of
various species could be revealed in making a comparison with present day
fauna and flora.
The materials used for this study consisted of three packing cases of
unmodified (unworked) faunal remains from the Angel Site in southern
Indiana. The bone material excavated from the site had been washed,
catalogued, and sacked according to Division, Subdivision, Block, and the
vertical level in which it was found. Remains from more than one Sub-
division were identified and an areal distribution comparison is therefore
possible. Material from four one hundred foot squares: Subdivisions
W10D, W11B, X11C, and X11D was used in the study.
The identification of the remains from the site was accomplished by
making a comparison of the unknown material to the known material in
the Indiana University Ethno-zoology Laboratory collection. In the con-
firmation of particularly difficult specimens, I was assisted by Mr. Wm.
Richard Adams, who has collected and prepared the known material in
the collection.
The skeletal remains from each Subdivision were first identified by
biological Class. Remains which were too fragmentary and had no dis-
tinguishing markings for proper identification were not included in the
count. Remains which were in an identifiable condition but could not be
positively identified because of lack of comparative material were classi-
fied as unidentified.
The Class Mammalia was further broken down to the order of respec-
tive species since over 90% of the remains were those of mammals. The
absolute and relative values of the frequency counts were then put into
tabular form. Both an areal distribution count and a total count of the
combined Subdivisions were presented.
By utilizing certain readily identifiable bones, a frequency count was
made on the Odocoileus virginianus remains in order to determine the
approximate number of individuals of this species which were represented
in the total sample. The frequency study was taken on individual Sub-
divisions and on the total occurence of each representative bone. By
applying this method, a minimum number of individuals of the species
can be determined.
The frequencies of the unmodified faunal remains per Subdivision
are presented by Class in Table 1. 1,937 bones (90.5%) of the total
material identified were of the Class Mammalia. Subdivision W10D
showed the lowest relative frequency of mammalian material (84.6%),
while Subdivisions X11C and X11D showed the highest relative frequency
(100%) in this Class. The extremely high relative frequencies in the two
53
54
Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE 1
Absolute and Relative Frequencies of Unmodified Faunal Remains
(Non-human) Per Subdivision by Class
W10D
W11B
X11C
X11D
Total
Birds
76
83
0
0
159
Fish
n
17
o
0
28
Reptiles
12
9
0
0
14
Mammals
542
952
409
:: »
1937
Unidentified
0
2
0
0
2
Total
641
1056
409
34
2140
W10D
W11B
X11C
X11D
Total
Birds
11.9%
7.9%
0.0%
0.0%
7.4%
Fish
1.7%
1.6%
0.0%
0.0%
1.3%
Reptiles
1.8%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.7%
Mammals
84.6%
90.3%
100.0%
100.0%
90.5%
Unidentified
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
Total
100.0%
100.2%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
latter Subdivisions are most probably due to an inadequate sample of
representative material. Wm. R. Adams (M.A. Thesis, 1949) found a
relative frequency of only 51.7% mammalian material in a sample of 729
specimens from Subdivision X11C (his lowest relative frequency). A
larger proportion of reptile (turtle) material was present in Subdivision
W10D (1.8%) than in W11B (0.2%).
Tables 2 and 3 present the breakdowns of the Class Mammalia into
absolute and relative frequencies. All four Subdivisions are represented
TABLE 2
Absolute Frequency Count of Mammalian Faunal Remains Per
Subdivision and of Total of Four Subdivisions
Species
Subdivision
Canis familaris — Domestic Dog-
Cams latrans — Coyote
Castor canadensis — Carolina Beaver
Cervus canadensis — American Wapiti
Didelphis Virginia no — Opossum
Euarctos americanus — Black Bear
Felts cougar — Adirondack Cougar
Lynx rufus — Bay lynx
Marmota monax — Southern Woodchuc
Mephitis mephitis — Striped Skunk
Odocoileus virginianus — Virginia Deer
O nda tra ziheth ica — Mu sk rat
Procyron lotor — Raccoon
Sciurus' carolincnsis — Gray Squirrel
Sciurus niger- — Fox Squirrel
Sylvilagus pZoridanus — Cottontail Rabb
W10D
W11B
X11C
X11D
Total
6
13
0
0
19
1
1
0
ii
• >
0
16
0
ii
10
1
6
0
0
7
:;
L6
0
II
19
2
2
0
0
4
1
0
0
II
1
0
II
0
3
■j
2
0
II
4
o
1
0
(1
1
483
778
409
34
1704
O
2
0
()
o
10
62
0
o
72
5
29
0
0
:u
■_' \ :
0
I)
46
2
1
1)
0
3
Total
512
or, 2
409
34
193r
Anthropology
55
TABLE 3
Relative Frequencies of Mammalian Faunal Remains Per
Subdivision and of Total of Four Subdivisions
Species
Subdivisions
W10D W11B X11C X11D
Total
1. Canis familiaris — Domestic Dog
2. Canis latrans — Coyote
3. Castor canadensis — Carolina Beaver
4. Cervus canadensis — American Wapiti
5. Didelphis vuginiana — Opossum
6. Euarctos americanus — Black Bear
7. Felis cougar — Adirondack Cougar
8. Lynx rufus — Bay Lynx
9. Marmota monax — Southern Woodchucl
10. Mephitis mephitis — Striped Skunk
11. Odocoileus virginianus — Virginia Deer
12. Ondatra zibethica — Muskrat
13. Procyon lotor — Raccoon
14. Sciurus carolinensis — Gray Squirrel
15. Sciurus niger — Fox Squirrel
16. Sylvilagus floridanus — Cottontail Rabb
Total
1.1%
1.4%
0.0%
0.0%
1.0%
0.2%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
0.0%
1.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.8%
0.2%
0.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.4%
0.6%
1.7%
0.0%
0.0%
1.0%
0.4%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
0.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.4%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
89.1%
81.7%
100.0%
100.0%
87.9%
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.1%
1.8%
6.5%
0.0%
0.0%
3.7%
0.9%
3.0%
0.0%
0.0%
1.8%
4.2%
2.5%
0.0%
0.0%
2.4%
0.4%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
100.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.2%
by high frequencies of Odocoileus virginianus remains (81.7 — 100%).
Here again, however, the 100% frequencies in Subdivisions XI 1C and
X11D are due to inadequacy of sample size. All the Castor canadensis
remains were found in Subdivision W11B. The comparatively high fre-
quency of Didelphis virginioMa, Procyon lotor, and Sciurus carolinensis
in W11B as compared with W10D may also be of some significance as well
as the higher frequency of Sciurus niger in Subdivision W10D.
Table 4 shows a frequency count of the Odocoileus virginianus re-
mains per type per Subdivision. It is from this table that the Type and
Subdivision minimums have been determined. From the table it is quite
evident that the Type total minimum is ninety-two individuals since
TABLE 4
Frequency Count of Odocoileus virginianus Remains
Per Type and Subdivision
Subdiv
ision
Type of Remains
W10D
W11B
X11C
X11D
Type Minima
Right Proximal Humerus
4
4
','>
0
11
Right Distal Humerus
28
11
22
1
92
Left Proximal Humerus
5
3
0
0
14
Left Distal Humerus
'J.'-',
24
'JO
1
OS
Right Proximal Femur
!)
9
4
o
1"'
Right Distal Femur
7
10
7
0
21
Left Proximal Femur
~>
3
4
1
13
Left Distal Femur
11
~>
10
2
:;i
Minima per Subdivision
28
41
22
• >
Minimum per Total of Subd
visions
93
Minimum Determined by Most Frequent Type
92
56 Indiana Academy of Science
ninety-two right distal humeri were present. The minimum number of
individuals as calculated by the minimums per Subdivision totals ninety-
three. This total, however, is made on the assumption that each individual
is represented in one and only one Subdivision and therefore may be in-
accurate.
Although the aboriginal inhabitants of Angel Site were primarily
dependent upon agriculture for subsistence, a relatively high utilization
of mammalian fauna in their economy is indicated. In addition to the
mammalian fauna, the inhabitants made some use of the readily available
birds, reptiles, and fish. A complete study of the diet should, of course,
also include a statement to what extent molluscs were utilized. A prefer-
ence for, or perhaps the greater availability of larger game is indicated
by the high proportion of Odocoileus virginianus remains.
Although the difference in frequency of beaver and reptile remains in
Subdivisions W10B and W11B may seem to be indicative, a specialization
of hunters (or fishermen) is not significantly indicated by the sample.
A larger, more representative sample should reveal more evidence to be
considered. According to the sample studied here, there is no indication
that areal differences in frequencies have any statistical significance.
Literature Cited
Adams, Wm. Richard (1949). Faunal Remains from the Angel Site. M.A. Thesis.
Indiana University, (unpublished).
The Incidence of Dental Caries of Pre-Historic
and Historic Indian Groups
Elizabeth Ann Herrala, Indiana University
In the consideration of the etiology of dental caries which occur in
high incidence in present day populations, research workers have regarded
diet as a possible contributing factor. In order to test the role of diet in
caries formation, a number of prehistoric and historic American Indian
groups under varying dietary conditions have been examined. The data
on comparative Indian dental pathology have revealed significant corre-
lations which are rather intriguing.
Because the time factor has been controlled through the utilization of
Carbon-14 dates for various populations, and the recovery of camp refuse
gives one a fairly accurate estimate of the diet of these groups, the present
study lends itself to a more precise assessment of this question than pre-
vious studies.
Although an earlier investigator, R. W. Leigh (1) states that his
four series represented tribes that existed at different time levels, actually
three of the series — Arikara, Sioux, and Zufii — were contemporaneous
historic groups. In his conclusions he accepted Hrdlicka's identification
of the Archaic Kentucky series as probably representing an Algonquian
group such as the Miami, attributing the marked dental attrition to grit
which was included in the corn meal ground in stone mortars.
It is obvious that Leigh's studies involve more diverse diets than that
of the groups considered in this paper; yet the same trends that he noted,
prevail in the Middle Western area as one proceeds from the oldest inhabi-
tants to historic Indian tribal groups. In other words, the present study
employs a chronological rather than a geographical approach to the
question.
The observations on the series compared in this paper were made by
G. K. Neumann on crania in the collections of the Department of Anthro-
pology of the University of Wisconsin (Northern Archaic) ; the U. S.
National Museum (Southern Archaic) ; Indiana University and the Dick-
son Mound (Spoon River Focus) ; the Indiana Historical Society (Angel
Mounds) ; and the Archaeological Survey of Illinois (Sauk).
The number of crania on which observations were made is 167 with
the average ages ranging from 39.4 to 59 years for the individual series.
Only males are represented in this study.
The incidence of dental caries has varied significantly among differ-
ing Indian groups. Several factors merit consideration. Two factors that
can be correlated with caries are : the type of diet and the methods of food
preparation.
The groups assessed for caries, their antiquity, and their types of
economy, are as follows :
1. Northern Archaic (Old Copper) 5600 B. C. Hunting economy
2. Southern Archaic (Indian Knoll) 3000 B. C. Hunting and gathering
3. Middle Mississippi (Spoon River) 1200-1400 Horticulture and hunting
4. Middle Mississippi (Angel Village Site) 1200-1400 Horticulture and
hunting (sedentary village dwellers, farmers)
57
58 Indiana Academy of Science
5. Upper Mississippi (Oakwood Mound) 1600-1650 Hunting and horti-
culture
6. Upper Mississippi (Sauk) 1790-1810 Hunting and horticulture
(semi-nomadic hunters and gardeners)
Animals identified, which were utilized to differing degrees for food
by all six groups, are as follows:
Virginia deer lynx fox squirrel
elk coyote (possibly) gray squirrel
dog skunk woodchuck
black bear cotton tail rabbit muskrat
raccoon opossum
cougar beaver
The diet of the different groups underwent a change with varying
climatic conditions. It may be briefly summarized as follows:
The Northern Archaic group subsisted mainly on larger game, such
as elk, moose and bear. The Southern Archaic group depended on mussels
for a major portion of their diet, supplemented with wild seeds, small
game, and fish. The diets of the two Middle Mississippi groups were quite
similar. Corn and game made up the major portion with fish of less
importance. The fauna of the Spoon River Focus sites closely resembles
the list of animals given above, except for a lack of: cougar, lynx, and
coyote; and the addition of badger, red fox, timber wolk, and bison. The
two Upper Mississippi groups from the Oakwood Mound and the Sauk
village site, subsisted mainly on mixed game and some corn.
As one proceeds from archaic to historic times, one can notice a
gradual change in the types of economy of these groups. The Archaic
Indians were hunters and gatherers, depending wholly on what they could
bag or find for their existence. The Indians of the Middle Mississippi
culture, however, were semisedentary and had a mixed diet, utilizing
horticultural products and game. Since the Upper Mississippi region was
rich in game, the semi-nomadic groups of this area depended primarily
on hunting for food supply. Gardening supplemented their diet. The
trend toward an increasing frequency of dental caries with a change in
economy is best expressed in the following summary:
1. Northern Archaic (Old Copper) average age, 45.7 years. 1 carious
tooth of 232 teeth present or .4% of teeth carious.
2. Southern Archaic (Indian Knoll) average age, 39.4 years. 4 carious
teeth of 912 teeth present or .4% of teeth carious.
3. Middle Mississippi (Spoon River Focus) average age, 42 years. 68
carious teeth of 868 teeth present or 7.4% of teeth carious.
4. Middle Mississippi (Angel Village site) average age, 44.7 years. 53
carious teeth of 513 teeth present or 10.3% of teeth carious.
5. Upper Mississippi (Oakwood Mound) average age, 59 years. 15 carious
teeth of 182 present or 8.2% of teeth carious.
6. Upper Mississippi (Sauk) average age, 40 years. 11 carious teeth of
434 teeth present or 2.6% of teeth carious.
These six series are comparable in that we utilize the crania of adult
males. Since there is a twenty year difference in the average age at the
time of death between the Indian Knoll and Oakwood Mound people, one
would expect the incidence of caries to be somewhat higher because of the
greater average age of the Oakwood series. In this comparison it is note-
Anthropology 59
worthy that the average incidence of caries of the two archaic groups
that subsisted almost entirely on game and mussels is less than 1%.
In the Upper Mississippi groups whose diet consisted predominantly
of game with a small portion of horticultural products, the average inci-
dence of caries rises to 5.4%.
Finally, the diet of the Middle Mississippi groups, who as a whole
were sedentary village dwellers, was principally corn with game animals
as a supplement. In these series the average incidence of caries stands
highest, 8.67%.
Four Indian groups studied by Leigh can be utilized for broader
comparisons. They comprise a series of Sioux, Arikara, Zufii, and a series
of California Indians from the Great Valley.
The Sioux were bison hunters, subsisting almost entirely on bison
and other game animals. Meat was cured by drying. A minor portion of
their diet was supplied by wild cherries, plums, strawberries, and the
prairie turnip. A transportable mixture, pemmican, consisted of dried,
pounded bison meat mixed with berries. Leigh states that caries were
almost negligible; of 92 crania there are but 10 with carious lesions and
concludes that the Sioux are peculiarly free from dental and paradental
lesions.
In the Arikara, village Indians, who were semi-sedentary and rather
appropriately described in Indian sign language as "corn-eaters," one
finds a mixed diet. The Arikara raised maize, beans, and squashes, bar-
tering some of the crop for meat. Hunting bison in winter and fishing
with basket traps supplemented their diet. Corn was prepared in stone
mortars which inevitably added stone particles to the meal. This had a
wearing effect on the teeth. The coarseness of the hulls of the kernels is
also a factor meriting consideration in abrasion of the teeth. Leigh finds
that the incidence of caries in the Arikara is considerably higher than in
the teeth of the Sioux proper: 28% of the crania exhibit one or more
carious lesions. Therefore, caries occurred quite frequently in the teeth
of the Arikara.
The third group for comparison is the Zuhi. This group, which dates
from late pre-Columbian to early post-Columbian times, had a farming-
economy. Corn was the principal crop, with beans, and squashes adding
to their primarily vegetarian diet. Deer, rabbit, and turkey formed only
a small dietary supplement. The Zuhi, too, ground the corn in stone mor-
tars, thus some pulverized stone was mixed with the meal. Leigh finds
that caries occur in 75% of the Zuhia crania, that no tooth in the series
was immune and that many teeth were lost from caries. Incidentally,
Leigh observes that the mode of life and food of the Zuhi are more closely
related to our own civilization than that of the other tribes here considered.
Indians of the Great Valley of California, also studied by Leigh (2)
are the fourth and last group to be considered. The acorn was the pre-
dominant staple, constituting a larger part of the diet than any other
food. Many other seeds, roots, fish, and mammals — ranging from deer
to gophers — supplemented the acorn diet. Pulverization of the seeds was
either by pounding in a mortar or rubbing on an oval grinding slab. The
acorns were leached to remove tannic acid and cooking methods resulted
in abrasives in the flour. In this group, which had a very high ratio of
60 Indiana Academy of Science
plant to animal food, 25% evidenced dental caries. Eighteen caries were
present in 50 crania or 36% of the population had caries.
In summary it may be stated that the results of the present study
based on chronologically documental local populations as well as Leigh's
earlier studies based on geographically widely spread groups with diversi-
fied diets, definitely indicate that diet and food preparation constitute
important factors in the relative incidence of dental caries.
Literature Cited
1. Leigh, R. W. 1925. Dental Pathology of Indian Tribes of Varied Environmental
and Food Conditions. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8:179-195.
2. — — — . 1928. Dental Pathology of Aboriginal California. University of
California Publication in American Archaeology and Ethnology 23: 399-440.
The Role of Diffusion in Changing Kinship Systems
Downey D. Raibourn, Indiana University
George Peter Murdock in his book Social Structure (7) made a crush-
ing indictment against diffusional studies of social structural change. He
conclusively demonstrated that unilinear descent is not as anomalous as
was conceived by the various historical schools. The assumption of a
single or a limited number of origins for unilinear descent which then
spread throughout the world was thus unwarranted. He demonstrated
from his world wide sample of 250 societies that similarities in social
structure and kinship systems occurred where diffusional theory would
anticipate differences, and differences occurred where similarities were
expected. He further demonstrated the limiting effect of diffusion by
utilizing Spoehr's (9) work among the Indians, of the Southeastern
United States. Spoehr had shown that under the influence of white con-
tact, the Southeastern Indians had changed from a unilinear system to a
bilateral system but they had selected an alternate bilateral system not
the one possessed by Europeans.
The role of diffusion as conceived by Murdock (7, p. 196) is of minimal
importance for he states that "Traits of social structure appear to be
borrowed, in general only under conditions in which the same traits would
be independently elaborated even in the absence of culture contacts."
The object of this paper is to demonstrate that while Murdock is
essentially correct, diffusional studies can substantially aid Murdock's
theory of historical reconstruction when both are utilized together in an
area of limited size.
The limited area dealt with is central California. This area was
selected because of the great variability in kinship systems. Before begin-
ning research it seemed that this area might be one in which Murdock's
principles of kinship change were not valid. This research started with
the aim of testing Murdock's theory in this area.
The consensus of opinion among workers in the central California
area seemed to be that the area was moving toward the patrilineate. This
assumption was apparently based primarily on the age area principle
which holds that traits at the margin of an area are older than those at
the center. If this assumption was valid, then Murdock's theory was not
valid as applied to the area.
After analyzing the 27 tribes or tribelets in the central Californian
area, it was shown that Murdock's theory was valid. In this area,
the marginal traits, not the central ones, were the most recent. From
the sample of 27 tribes, 21 show a developmental trend out of patri-
organization towards a bi to matri type of social structure. Only three
tribes showed a developmental trend toward patri-organization. With
respect to these three, two were based on limited data and one may have
had a recent residence change. Such a change would then not invalidate
Murdock's theory. The social structure of the remaining three tribes was
in equilibrium and shows no developmental trend. As such these three
tribes with their social structure in equilibrium neither aided nor abetted
Murdock's theory. Thus most of the tribes showed a trend anticipated by
Murdock's theory and the three which showed the opposite trend were
based on questionable data.
61
62 Indiana Academy of Science
Murdock's theory while valid in central California does not imply
that the age area principle is invalid. The age area principle as pre-
viously mentioned states that marginal traits are older. This aspect of
the principle particularly holds; if the central area is one of high culture
where the rate of invention is greater; if the type of trait involved is
unlimited ; and if the acceptance of the trait does not involve a radical
change in social organization. In the central California area, all of these
conditions are lacking. The central part of that area is neither higher nor
lower than the margins; the type of change involved in social structure
or kinship system change is limited; and such changes demand significant
changes in organization. Kroeber (6) who appreciates the value of the
age area principle has nevertheless pointed out that when radical changes
are introduced they frequently can survive and grow only at the margins
of areas. The beginning of Christianity and practical communism would
be examples. To state that the age area principle does not apply in central
California is to state only that it does not apply in this context. It does
not refute the very valuable function which the age area principle can
perform in historical reconstruction.
In other contexts the age area principle was used with central Cali-
fornia data. This application involved not system but kinship terms. The
actual terms used are unlimited since a relative could be designated by
any term. Also the adoption of a term does not involve a radical change
in organization even though they may reflect such changes. By utilizing
kinship terms rather than systems the requirements for the application
of the age area principle were met. The use of the principle in this manner
made it possible in many instances to determine which dialects of a related
language were conservative or innovators with respect to terms used for
specific relatives. It could then be shown that many of the innovations
involved attempts to change from patri to bi or matri organizations in
accordance with Murdock's theory.
A basic component of Murdock's theory was the classification of
cousin terminology. Using only male terms for female relatives each type
of cousin terminology may be briefly outlined as follows :
Eskimo: A bilateral system involving the lineal principle of classi-
fying kindred. Cross and parallel cousins are classified
together but they are differentiated from sisters.
Hawaiian : A bilateral system involving the generational principle of
classifying kindred. Cross and parallel cousin are classi-
fied together and they are classed with and called by the
same term as sisters.
Iroquois: A unilinear and transitional system involving the bifur-
cate and symmetrical merging principles of classifying
kindred. Both cross cousins classed together but they are
differentiated from parallel cousins and sisters.
Sudanese: A unilinear and transitional system involving the bifur-
cate collateral principle of classifying kindred. Cross
cousins are differentiated from each other and neither is
classified with any other relative.
Omaha: A patrilineal system involving the asymmetrical merging
principle of classifying kindred. Cross cousins are differ-
Anthropology
63
entiated from each other except mother's, brother's,
daughter (MoBrDa) is classified with mother's sister
(MoSi) and/or father's sister's daughter (FaSiDa) with
sister's daughter (SiDa).
Crow : A matrilineal system involving the asymmetrical merging
principle of classifying kindred. Cross cousins are differ-
entiated from each other and from other relatives except
FaSiDa is classed with FaSi and/or MoBrDa is classed
with BrDa.
With the cousin term system defined as above an example of the
method used in applying the age area principle to the study of kinship
change will be demonstrated.
Table 1 represents a distribution of the terms used for FaSiDa, SiHu,
the relative called by the same term as FaSiHu, the present cousin term
system and the possible ancestry for the Southern, Southwestern, Central,
Southeastern, Eastern and Northern Porno respectively.
TABLE 1
Porno Term for FaSiDa and SiHu Which Indicate Possible Ancestry
for Present Types of Cousin
Porno
FaSiHu
Cousin
Possible
Dialect
FaSiDa
SiHu
Amaghon
Lumped with
Terms
Ancestry
S
Amutsin
SiHu
Crow
Omaha
sw
Digin, Comen
Maghon
MoBr
Hawaiian
Iroquois
c
Kegu
Magoda
SiHu
Omaha
Equilibrium
SE
Hadjin
Imkon
SiHu
Omaha
Equilibrium
E
Dah
God
SiHu
Omaha
Equilibrium
N
Tcamandi
Aghon
MoBr
Sudanese
Iroquois
From Table 1 it is apparent that the terms used to designate SiHu
have elements in common and would thus represent an old Porno term for
this relative. In contrast the terms used to designate one type of cousin,
FaSiDa, are different terms in each dialect which implies that terms for
this relative have undergone recent changes. This limited example illus-
trates that kinship change normally begins among the cousin category.
Gifford (4) showed that the priority of cousin term change held not only
for the Porno but throughout the California area. That cousin terms
normally change before changes affect other relatives is historically docu-
mented in the works of Eggan (3), Spoehr (9) and Schmidt (8). Driver
(1, 2) in a study of North American Social Structure which is based on
correlation has pointed out that kinship systems normally begin to change
in the cousin category. The priority of cousin term change is also inferred
though not specifically mentioned in Murdock's (7) study on the deter-
minants of kinship terminology. Murdock's correlations and his Chi square
index of probability which involved cousins were in general higher than
those which involved other relatives. Since there are higher coefficients
between cousins and the determinants of kinship systems than with other
relatives, it would indicate that the determinant of kinship terminology,
normally affects cousin terms before affecting terms for other relatives.
The priority of cousin term change is thus a principle which can be
used in historical reconstruction. Table 1 illustrates the use of this prin-
(54
Indiana Academy of Science
ciple. The equating of FaSiHu with SiHu is an Omaha extension which
in accordance with the cousin term principle indicates former Omaha
cousin terminology among non-Omaha type tribes. The Southern Porno
which classifies cousins by the Crow system has this Omaha extension
thereby indicating former Omaha ancestry. Among the Southwestern
Porno which equate FaSiHu with MoBr but with no other relative the
ancestry indicated is Iroquois. However, the Iroquois extension in this
instance probably represents a transitional type because the Southwestern
Porno have a number of Omaha extension when terms for other relatives
are utilized. While only one extension has been used to indicate the
method employed, conclusions should be based upon the presence of as
many extensions as possible.
Murdock used several aspects of social structure from which historical
reconstruction can be determined. Utilizing only cousin terminology type,
the distribution of the 27 dialects in central California are presented in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
The Distribution of Linguistic Groups and Types of Terminology
Represented. The number represents tribes or dialects.
Bilateral
Unil
near
Patri
Matri
Linguistic Group
Eskimo
Hawaiian
Iroquois
Sudanese
Omaha
Crow
Yokuts
3
3
Mi wok
1
4
Wintu
2
3
Maidu
1
3
Porno
1
1
3
1
Wappo
1
The distribution from Table 2 points out a number of factors. Eskimo
cousin terminology is the only type unrepresented in the area. Since all
Europeans in the area classify cousins by the Eskimo system, any influ-
ence by Europeans which may have aided the movement out of patri-
organization was ineffective in establishing an Eskimo system. The dis-
tribution also shows the variability of kinship system within the area for
five of the six possible ways of classifying cousins are represented. Since
14 of the 27 dialects are non-Omaha, the distribution shows that the move-
ment out of Omaha or patri-unilinear types of organization is well under-
way. It is necessary to add some of the patri-unilinear tribes to the Omaha
because it could not be determined from the data whether or not the three
Maidu dialects with Iroquois terminology and the one Porno dialect with
Sudanese terminology had formerly possessed the Omaha system. How-
ever with respect to the one Maidu dialect with Hawaiian terminology
there were indications of former Iroquois terminology so that the Hawaiian
terms thus represent a movement out of patri-unilinear organization.
With these four exceptitons all the remaining non-Omaha dialects showed
indication of a previous Omaha system.
The distribution in Table 2 also illustrates the previously mentioned
conflict involving the age area principle and Murdock's theory. In accord-
ance with the age area interpretation the present variability in the area
Anthropology 65
would be moving towards a state of homogeneity. This would be expected
in such a limited area as central California. However, the age area inter-
pretation does not explain the great amount of diversity which is present
even among closely related dialects. In such a small area, homogeneity
would be expected at least among related dialects. Expectations from
Murdock's theory, on the other hand, point to either an Omaha or the
closely related patri-unilinear type of organization in the immediate past
for all groups; the present diversity is completely accounted for and the
direction of change would lead eventually to a new state of relative homo-
geneity. The present diversity thus represents transitional stages in the
movement from patri to bi or matri-organization.
Changing from one kinship system to another usually involves the
applications of a new term to designate certain relatives. Such new terms
may be either invented or borrowed. The presence of unique terms for a
relative involved in the change of kinship system was sought because the
presence of unique terms aids in determining the direction of change. No
attempt was made to determine the origin of such terms, i.e. whether
invented or borrowed, but a few cases of apparent borrowing of terms
were encountered.
One apparently borrowed term is found among the Northern Porno
which have the term "Tcamandai" for FaSiDa and SiDa. Since this term
is unique and the "dai" in the SiDa generation indicates only the address
form, it appears to have been borrowed from the central Wintu grand-
mother term "Tcama." The Northern Porno which are Sudanese with
respect to reference terms seem never to have developed an Omaha system.
However the use of this term gives them an Omaha system with respect to
address terms. It was perhaps borrowed as a result of an Omaha stimulus.
A second instance of borrowing of terms occurs among the Wappo
who utilize the term "olo" for FaYrBr and FaSiSo. This is the same term
utilized by the Lake and Coast Miwok for FaOlBr. Since the Wappo
utilize the term for a Crow linkage it suggests that the term was borrowed
in order to make the shift to the Crow system.
The Wappo seem to have been borrowers to a greater degree than
other central California tribes. With respect to kinship they differ greatly
from most Yukian tribes but are closely associated with the Southern
Porno. Not only do they have Crow cousin terms in common with the
Southern Porno but also three Omaha extensions which are FaOlBr =
FaFa, FaOlBrWi = FaMo and FaSiHu = SiHu. The Wappo have one
Omaha extension which is not found among any of the Porno but which is
present among the Central, Southwestern and Southeastern Wintu. This
is the lumping of FaSi with Si. For some unexplained reason the Wappo
seem to be particularly vulnerable to the borrowing of traits to inaugurate
changes in their kinship system.
Other evidence which points out a change of system as a result of
diffusional stimulus is also present. The tribes in Table 2 which have
Hawaiian or Iroquoian terminology had neighbors with these types of
organizations. Thus the neighbors could serve as models which could aid
their movement out of the Omaha system. The Porno on the other hand
were marginal and surrounded by tribes most of which had Omaha organi-
zation. The diversity of the Porno is thus accounted for not because of
66 Indiana Academy of Science
diffusion but probably has resulted from a lack of stimulus. Lacking the
stimulus of diffusion the movement out of Omaha would involve random
invention which could result in a variety of systems being developed.
That Murdock's theory and diffusional studies are not antagonistic
is shown by reference to Gifford's (4) analysis of California kinship termi-
nologies. Gifford's conclusions were based primarily on distribution, and
diffusion and was published 27 years before Murdock's theory. Yet the
similarities of the results between the two are remarkable. Identical
conclusions are outlined as follows: the Crow cousin terminology of the
Southern Porno and Wappo are recent innovations (4, p. 164) ; the present
Northern Wintu terms have been derived from Omaha (4, p. 164) ; the
Yokuts tribes with Hawaiian cousin terms are derived from Omaha
(4, p. 204) and that many of the non-Omaha tribes in central California
had kinship systems which were similar to Shoshone (4, p. 210).
Gifford reached a number of conclusions which were not comparable
with Murdock's theory. But only one significant conclusion differed from
the expectations derived from Murdock's theory. This difference involved
the Hawaiian cousin terms of the Southwestern Porno. Gifford considered
the Hawaiian terms of the Southwestern Porno to be old while Murdock's
theory indicates they are derived from former Omaha organization.
In summary Murdock's criticism of the general widespread diffusion
of kinship systems is justified. However, in a small local area, utilizing
kinship terms which are unlimited, not systems which are limited, the use
of diffusional and distributional studies can substantiate interpretations
derived from Murdock's theory. Such studies can also aid in the refine-
ment or correction of hypothesis included in Murdock's theory as was
pointed out by Schmidt (8). One can also be more certain of the validity
of conclusions if such conclusions are reached through two different and
unrelated types of analysis.
Literature Cited
1. Driver, H. E. and W. C. Massey. 1957. Comparative Studies of North American
Indians. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 47 : Pt. 2.
2. — — ■ -, Ms. An Integration of Functional Evolutionary and Historical
Theory by Means of Correlation.
3. Eggan, F. 1927. Historical Change in the Choctan Kinship System. American
Anthropologist.
4. Gifford, E. W. 1922. California Kinship Terminologies. University of California
Publication in American Archaeology and Ethnology.
5. Kroeber, A. L. 1917. California Kinship Systems. University of California Publi-
cations in American Archaeology and Ethnology.
G. - — - — . 1948. Anthropology. Ilarcourt, Brace & Company, Inc.
7. Murdoch:, G. P. 1949. Social Structure. The Macmillan Co.
8. Schmitt, K. and Schmitt, I. Wichita Kinship Past and Present. University Book
Exchange, Norman, Oklahoma, n.d.
9. Si'OEHR, A. 1947. Changing Kinship Systems. Anthropology Series. Field Museum
of Natural History, Chicago.
Accelerated Acculturation of the Mayan Indians of Guatemala
F. X. Grollig, S.J., Loyola University, Illinois1
Down to recent times the life of the Mayan Indians in the Guate-
malan Highlands has been characterized by isolation induced by the very
topography of the land which separates the small villages. Now, however,
the Pan-American Highway is changing the face of the Highlands, cul-
turally as well as physically. It is with this cultural change that the
present paper is concerned (1). It may be conjectured that the villages
nearest to the new highway will "suffer" most in this process of accul-
turation.
The pattern of the villages varies little from the colonial Spanish
pattern — government offices, church, and market place forming the center
of the town, village, or city. In most of the Guatemalan Highland villages
this pattern is observable, with the land holdings of the individual Indians
lying outside this centralized area.
In the domain of food, the main item is still corn. The crops are
planted on the steep grades — some ranging up to a 60° angle of elevation —
using the ancient hill method which involves the planting of several grains
of corn in the same hole, and then hoeing up the dirt around the corn
stalk as it begins to grow. An innovation is the use of metal hoes and
machetes.
The ancient household tools, the metate and mano (stone rolling pin
and mortar) are commonly used by the modern Mayan Indians. Here,
too, one notes that small food grinders occasionally appear, and with the
increase of a cash income, the Indians are willing to pay a cent or two to
have the day's supply of corn ground at the water-powered mill. One
progressive Ladino (2) installed a small generator to power a small
electric grinder. The basic corn product used in the daily menu is the
tortilla, a sort of corn-pan-cake, which is usually fried on a pottery griddle.
Pottery cups and plates are being replaced by metalware. Finally, a
watery corn drink, called atoli, is drunk in a non-fermented state.
The diet of many of the children is being augmented by the use of
powdered milk and vitamin pills — both supplied by U. N. E. S. C. O.
These same two new items in the diet of pregnant women are apparently
helping to cut down the infant mortality rate.
In the domain of clothing there is the most noticeable change. Wher-
ever the trend is heavily toward the Europeanization (or Americaniza-
tion) of the Indians, the type of the clothing the people wear is an accu-
rate barometer to ascertain how far this trend has gone. Especially in
the dress of women is the change observable. In place of the beautifully
woven or embroidered blouses many of the women are wearing simple
western style clothes which are generally less colorful. For the men the
switch to western dress involves the discarding of the black slip-over type
of loose garb for suits or jackets.
Itinerant merchants travel on the roads that bring the buses, trucks,
or jeeps to the villages. Thus, whole stocks of cloth and dry goods, as well
1. The material was gathered in Guatemala from February to December, 1958,
the time spent by the author in field work among the Mayan Indians. Indiana University
provided the use of a tape recorder and a grant-in-aid for audio-visual materials.
67
68 Indiana Academy of Science
as items like flashlights, are now being sold regularly in the village mar-
kets. Cheap costume jewelry now appears at most markets.
Permanent cement laundry trays and fountains are becoming more
numerous. This partially eliminates washing clothes in the rivers and
small streams. But in most cases the water still has to be transported
from the village fountain to the private homes. Usually the water is
carried in special water jars by the women. These jars are pottery vessels
with two handles. A tump-line is stretched across the forehead, thus
supporting the jar which is carried on the woman's back.
For the anthropologist who has but a short time to visit a Guatemalan
village, one would give the advice : go to the market. There not only do
you see the contrasts in clothing and diet, but also a bit of the thrift of
the Indians. Thus, for example, discarded oil cans are used for washing
glasses and cups; old jeep tires are used for shoes. By checking with the
merchants one can find the distribution of products among the highland
villages themselves as well as the sources for foreign items.
While it may be said that western civilization is creeping into the
lives of the Indians in many subtle ways, there are some patent newcomers
into the cultural life of the Indians. Dancing the Indians always had, but
the Spanish dances show acculturation. Feasting undoubtedly was pres-
ent in pre-Columbian days, but the fiesta, or festival, is a comparatively
young — not more than 400 years old — innovation. The "Hollywood flare"
was introduced say in the last decade with the selection of queens for the
fiesta. These are little girls about 12 years old. Now, some of the villages
take cognizance of the cultural differences that do exist among the people
in the village, and give them two queens for the fiesta, one Indian and one
Ladina. In San Miguel Acatan, in 1958, both queens rode on the float, the
only float, in the fiesta parade, while the governor and the missionary
walked together. Though there are ancient ball-courts in the highlands,
the introduction of basket-ball represents athletic acculturation.
As the traditional isolation of the Mayan villages is broken down, and
as the pace of acculturation is accelerated, one wonders if the ancient
Mayan culture will all but disappear in the highlands of Guatemala.
Notes
(1) International interest in the acculturation of the Mayan Indians was recently
shown when the author was invited to speak on this subject at the 34th International
Congress of Americanists at Vienna, Austria. That this acculturation problem is not
of merely local proportions may be judged from the magnitude of the Andean Program
of the International Labor Organization currently operating in South America. The
author has been invited to conduct an acculturation study of the Aymara Indians.
This study would be in conjunction with the four anthropologists now working in the
Peruvian section of the Andean Program.
(2) Ladino is a term that originally had some basis in the fusion of the Indian
and Spanish bloods. Now, it is rather a cultural distinction: if one wears European
type clothes and shoes, and can speak Spanish, he may be called a Ladino.
An Investigation into the Physical and Cultural Basis of
Personality in College Women
Louise M. Robbins, Indiana University
The problems introduced in the examination of the nature of the
relationship between the constitution of the individual and his personality
are varied and many. Who will be included in the study and how their
personality and body constitution will compare are the major problems.
In the examination of the methods to be used in constitutional assess-
ment, it was decided that W. H. Sheldon's technique of somatotyping
would be used. He uses a 7 point scale for each morphological component
and classifies a male according to the amount of endomorphy, mesomorphy,
and ectomorphy in the body. A 1 in any of the components would mean
that there was a small amount of that particular component in the body.
Therefore, an extremely linear person would be considered to be low in
endomorphy and mesomorphy, and high (near 7) in the ectomorphic com-
ponent. An extreme case could be classified as a 1-1-7, meaning low endo-
morphy, low mesomorphy, and high ectomorphy. Thus Sheldon's scale
could be used visually in which case the individual doing the somatotyping
should be well trained by an instructor who is accomplished in the field of
somatotyping. Sheldon makes use of photographs, also, in which he has
a front, side, and rear view of the individual. Measurements can then be
taken from the photographs which are comparable to those taken directly
from the individual. I have eliminated the possibility of the photographs
for women due to their controversial nature. Instead of the photographs,
Slabaugh's scale for the somatotyping assessments will be used. In this
way it will be possible to reconstruct the individual from body measure-
ments by using the standardizing formula and still would not identify the
person being measured. Any desire not to be recognized is given the
greatest consideration. This is quite naturally the greatest obstacle in the
study. However, if handled properly this method could ease the reluctance
of being somatotyped because of photographs. The measurements needed
to reconstruct an outline of the individual are comprised of ten from the
front view, two from the side, and five from the rear view. In the practice
we have had to date, it has worked effectively.
Two tests are being used in the selection of the personality assess-
ment. One will be Sheldon's Temperament Scale which is again based
upon three components: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia.
Twenty traits are listed for each component, and the individual uses the
7 point rating scale again. The lower the number, the less is the tempera-
ment component in the subject. An example is shown by the third tem-
perament trait which for the viscerotonia is "Slow Reaction"; for the
somatotonia it is "The Energetic Character"; and for the cerebrotonia it
is "Overly Fast Reactions." This scale will be aided by the Edwards
Personal Preference Schedule which is entirely different in its approach
to personality. It is constructed as a general personality test which is
needed to give more information of the individual being interviewed than
can be gained by a single meeting.
The students used in this study are college undergraduate and grad-
uate women at Indiana University in the age range of 18 to 25. The
69
70 Indiana Academy of Science
majority of the sample is expected to fall in the 18 to 20 year age range.
The study will cover Residence Halls, sororities, plus girls who live or
room in the city of Bloomington. It will include Caucasoid, Negroid, and
Mongoloid students.
The diversity of students will naturally mean diversity in cultural
backgrounds. We hope that the study will indicate the role the background
plays in the answers given by the student. This would appear to direct
the mental aptitude of the student in her adaptation to the environment
of a college. The cultural background is also influenced by the economic
level of the girl herself or of her parents. An example would be two girls
with the same morphological components, one of whom lived in a sorority
and the other who lived in a co-operative house. Since the sample is taken
from a State University, it is possible to have a wide range of Negro and
White in-state and out-of-state students. They bring, in turn, several
levels of society.
One area of the study could include a comparison of Negro and White
somatotypes and personalities. Another area might compare the cultural
and economic background of White students with their somatotype and
personality, and a similar comparison made with the Negro students.
There are many students from other countries studying at Indiana Uni-
versity, but it is doubtful whether a large enough sample of the women
students could be obtained for comparison.
It is believed that the results of the study will give a substantial
amount of information on the somatotype and personality of college Negro
and White women, since there is little definite information at the present
time. There will be some traits which will be similar in Negroes and Whites
and others which will be quite different. It is suspected that there will be
less difference between northern Negroes and Whites than will be found
with the southern Negroes. All comparisons made may give one type of
results in a college environment, and a later study may show the same
morphological components giving another kind of result in a different
environment. Results received from this study of college women might
be compared with the same somatotypes given by Dr. Bullen in her study
of factory women.
Dr. Sheldon has conducted many tests and somatotypic measurements
on men of whom most have been college men at Harvard University.
Data gathered from a private school would seem to be more limited than
that gathered at a State University. However, it might still indicate
whether Dr. Sheldon's somatotype charts and temperament scales for
men may also be applicable for women or whether a slightly different scale
will need to be devised. This study is constructed to answer some of these
questions.
BACTERIOLOGY
Chairman: Gordon Mallett, Eli Lilly
Gordon Mallett, Eli Lilly and Indiana University, was elected
chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
Studies on the Increase in vitro of Mitotic Activity and Melangenesis
in the RPMI HA # 5 (7113) Strain Melano. Judyth Vary and Sister M.
Clare Francis, St. Francis College. — A 73rd generation un-pigmentecl
melanoma, derived from a metastatic lesion in a human host and cultured
in the Syrian hamster, was used in attempts to accelerate the proliferation
of the melanoma in vitro, employing assays of the basic media #213
against controls of 213, Puck's, Shu, and ELH media. Several hundred
variations of twelve amino acid concentrations, in correlation with fetal
calf serum percentages of 2%, 5%, and 10% were tested. Although results
are inconclusive at this date, indications suggest that specific concentra-
tions of phenylalanine, alanine, and tryptophane influence from a slight
to substantial extent the increase in mitotic activity of the melanoma. In
some instances melanogenesis was increased to the point that some cells
seemed to contain melanin in amounts noticeable under low microscopic
powers. Tests with the dopa reaction revealed an increase in melanogenic
activity in some cases.
The factors influencing accentuated mitosis and melonagenesis may
provide a key in the control of this deadly cancer, since the absence or
loss of such factors may reciprocally influence the proliferation and meta-
static activity of this melanoma in an adverse manner. An area of future
endeavor includes testing the influence of Ehrlich-derived ascites DNA ;
stock RNA; insulin; etc.
Cytochemical Changes Induced in Replicating Trachoma Virus by
Metabolic Analogues. Morris Pollard, Lobund Laboratories, University
of Notre Dame.- — Replicating trachoma virus induces the same sequence
of cytochemical changes in tissue cells as other members of the T-L-P
family of viruses. When infected tissue cultures were periodically stained
with acridine orange and observed with ultra violet light, the DNA virus
particle in the cytoplasm was surrounded by an RNA matrix, from which
mature DNA emerged.
Addition of antibiotics to the culture medium of infected cells inter-
rupted the cytochemical sequence. At determined time intervals following
infection, alterations in virus were induced as follows: aminopterin at
time 0 interrupted replication at the RNA stage; 5 fluorouracil at time 14
hours induced formation of massed "abnormal" fraudulent RNA; and
5-fluoro-2' deoxyuridine at time 14 hours induced abnormal DNA-appear-
ing material. An eclipse stage in replication of trachoma virus has been
demonstrated by this intracellular chemical indicator system.
The Use of Peracetic Acid to Obtain Invertebrate Eggs for Gnoto-
biotic Studies. James P. Doll, P. C. Trexler, G. R. Bernard and Louise
71
72 Indiana Academy of Science
Lindholm, Lobund Laboratories, University of Notre Dame. — Various
techniques both chemical and mechanical have been used to procure bac-
teriologically sterile invertebrates, but not all methods have proved equally
successful. Some do not render the egg completely germfree and anti-
biotics must be added which may interfere with certain studies; and in
some instances the disinfecting agent will tend to dry out the egg which
results in either death to the embryo or a maimed offspring.
Peracetic acid shows germicical activity against a broad spectrum of
gram positive and gram negative organisms as well as fungi. It can be used
and is effective in very low concentrations : as little as 0.001% in phosphate
buffer and 0.020 % in nutrient buffer will kill E. coli and Micrococcus
pyrogencs within 10 minutes. It is also sporicidal: 1.0% of peracetic acid
in the liquid phase will inactivate spores of B. sterothermophilus on glass
beads within 30 seconds. Because of these properties and also because the
residual products (water and oxygen) are non-toxic or can easily be
washed out, the use of peracetic acid should find popularity among workers
doing axenic studies.
In the present work, eggs of Hcterakis gallinae (vector of HistomoJias
meleagridis), Blatella germanica (cockroach), Drosophila melanogaster,
and Artemia salina were treated with various concentrations of peracetic
acid and then tested for both bacterial sterility and for viability. The tests
for microbial sterility were a modification and extension of the microbial
control methods used at LOBUND Institute. The test for viability of
H. gallinae was the ability to transmit blackhead to turkeys and grow in
chickens ; the ability of the embryo to hatch and maturate was the test of
viability for the other invertebrates used. Results showed that in all
instances the eggs could be effectively decontaminated and yet maintain
viability of their embryos. Two of the germfree strains thus obtained were
maintained for over a year and a half.
Dose-Response Relationships of X-Irradiated Germfree and Conven-
tional Mice. Brother Raphael Wilson, Lobund Laboratories, University
of Notre Dame. — Dose-response curves for Lobund Swiss mice exposed
to x-radiation were determined from data on 100 germfree and 166 con-
ventional mice. The curves appear to be parallel sigmoid curves with that
for the germfree mice about 50r to the right to that for the conventional
mice. The data indicate that in the absence of microorganisms, the radio-
sensitivity of the mouse is reduced. In the mid-lethal range, 20-30%
greater mortality occurs among conventional mice than among the germ-
free. Following exposure to fatal dosage of radiation, the germfree mouse
lives longer than its conventional counterpart. Plotting survival time
against dosage for conventional mice yields a curve that drops sharply
range a survival time of 14 days to a plateau of about 4 days in a dose
range of 500-2000r. The corresponding survival time curve for germfree
mice begins with a short plateau at about 12 days and drops gradually to
about 6 days. The use of germfree animals enables the study of radiation
syndrome in the absence of post-irradiation infection.
Experimental Use in Dogs of Rabies Vaccine Prepared in
Embryonated Duck Eggs
H. M. POWELL(a\ C. G. CULBERTSON(b), J. 0. MACFARLANE(b), and
F. 0. G0SSETT(b), Indiana University Medical Center(a)
and Lilly Research Laboratories"3'
The preparation of rabies vaccine in embryonated duck eggs has
already been described (1, 2, 3). Its use in man has been documented in
several papers (4, 5, 6).
Briefly this vaccine comprises fixed rabies virus of first generation
duck embryo passage, and this is put up in freeze dried form to be re-
hydrated with sterile water at the time of use. Assay of potency is
accomplished by use of N. I. H. mouse immunization and challenge methods.
The need for purification to remove factors present in brain tissue vaccine
responsible for neuroparalytic accidents is practically nil in the case of
duck embryo vaccine which virtually lacks such properties (7).
In addition to efficient immunization of mice as done in the N. I. H.
assay tests, the inactivated duck embryo rabies vaccine has been found
capable of producing virus neutralizing antibody in rabbits, monkeys,
and human beings. Vaccinated rabbits and guinea pigs were found to
develop immunity to street virus (8).
Materials and Methods
The results reported here concern an experiment with active duck
embryo rabies vaccine in dogs. Two of us (H. M. P. and C. G. C.) fur-
nished duck embryo vaccine which had passed through the official N. I. H.
mouse assay tests twice. J. MacF. and F. 0. G. administered this to dogs
subcutaneously and provided serum bleedings from these dogs under code
numbers for serum-virus neutralization tests by H. M. P. and C. G. C.
Commercial veterinary phenolyzed vaccine furnished by J. MacF. and
F. 0. G. was used for comparison. Details of the work with dogs by
J. MacF. and F. 0. G. were not known to Ii. M. P. and C. G. C. at the time.
Certain groups of sera were designated for test on any one day so that
pre and post immune sera from the same animals would be tested together.
Serum-virus neutralization tests were conducted with serum samples
inactivated at 56°C for 30 minutes. Doubling dilutions of serum, i.e. 1:2,
1:4, 1:8, 1:16, etc. were prepared in saline. One volume of such serum
dilutions was added to one volume of properly diluted virus, and the
mixture incubated 1 hour at 37° C. Final serum dilutions thus became
1:4, 1:8, 1:16, 1:32, etc. Groups of 6 mice were then injected intracere-
bral^ with 0.03 cc of the various mixtures. The virus in the mixture as
noted above was diluted so each mouse got 100 LD50 of fixed virus as proven
by 40 virus controls used each day. Final readings of mice dead and mice
surviving were made 14 days later.
From these data, exact titer of each serum was computed by the
methods of Reed and Muench (9), and titers are expressed as the recip-
rocal of the final dilution of serum which protected half the mice, i.e. 1 :4
and 1:8 are expressed as 4 and 8, etc.
Results
When these tests were completed and all titers had emerged, exchange
of information revealed that 28 dogs were given single doses of 3 cc of
73
74
Indiana Academy of Science
duck embryo vaccine following a normal bleeding, while 15 dogs were
given single doses of 5 cc of commercial brain origin veterinary vaccine
following a similar normal bleeding. Thirty days later single post-immuni-
zation bleedings were made from all dogs.
A third vaccine was originally included in these tests. This was a
commercial vaccine using a 3 cc dose however the results of this were so
far below expectations they are not being reported.
TABLE I
Dogs Recei
ving Duck Embryo Vaccine
Dogs Receiving
Commercial Vaccine
(single dose of 3 cc)
(single dose
of 5 cc)
Dog
Number
Initial
Titer
30 Day
Titer
Dog Initial
Number Titer
30 Day
Titer
Dog
Number
Initial 30 Day
Titer Titer
4704
0
5.7
*4720 19.4
84.6
4734
0
45.4
4705
0
4.5
4721 0
16
4735
0
0
4706
0
21.7
4723 0
12.6
4736
0
19
4707
0
13.9
4724 0
3.5
4737
0
91.6
4708
0
0
4725 0
4
*4740
i
42
4709
0
7.1
4726 0
18
4742
0
17.4
4710
0
49.4
4727 0
14.2
4744
0
45.4
4711
0
0
4728 0
6.5
4745
0
0
4712
0
48.8
4729 0
6
4746
0
9
4713
0
7.3
4731 0
4
4747
0
42
4714
0
16
*4732 4
4
4748
0
28.4
4715
0
0
4733 0
147
4750
0
48
4716
0
14.4
4738 0
0
4751
0
1'.)
4718
0
21
4749 0
0
4752
4753
0
0
4
0
* Dogs 4720, 4732, and 4740 exhibited an antibody titer in the initial (pre-immuni-
zations) bleeding. Vaccination increased the titers of 4720 and 4740 but not of 4732.
Dog 4732 contracted pneumonia during the 30 day period and this may have inhibited
a normal response.
Table I shows a list of all dogs used in the experiment, their normal
rabies virus neutralizing titer, and their post immunization titer 30 days
following the single injection of vaccine.
Inspection of Table I shows two dogs in the duck embryo vaccine
group (numbers 4720 and 4732) and one dog in the brain vaccine group
(4740) had antibody to begin with, that is in the initial or pre-immuniza-
tion bleeding. Two of these, 4720 and 4740, increased in titer while one
dog, 4732, did not. This latter dog developed pneumonia during the 30 days
period and this infection might have suppressed a normal response to
vaccine. In order to figure response to vaccine later in this report, we
shall omit the three dogs showing virus neutralizing antibody in the
initial bleeding.
It is further evident from Table I that five dogs of 28 in the duck
embryo vaccine group, and three dogs of 15 in the brain vaccine group
showed no antibody response at 30 days after vaccination. Our tests, and
the lowest thresholds tested, do not preclude the possible presence of
tracts of antibody if at the strongest serum dilution used, namely 1:4,
Bacteriology 75
our results are negative. In other words, more sensitive tests might have
revealed weaker antibody in the dogs whose response we regard as
negative.
TABLE 2
Vaccine Used
Number Dogs
in Group
0
Having
4*
Nu ml
Virus-N
8
>er of
eutral
16
Dogs
izing T
32
tei
■s of:
04
128
Duck Embryo
3cc
26
5
5
•1
9
0
2
1
Commercial
5cc
14
3
1
1
;:
1
2
0
* Titers expressed as in Table I. Each dog assigned to "nearest dilution" group
on basis of its final computed titer.
In Table 2 we have tabulated all dogs used in increasing order of
final potency with the exception of the three animals mentioned above
which had antibody to begin with. In the groupings shown in Table 2,
individual animals were assigned to an antibody titer group to which
their computed titers were nearest.
It appears from Table 2 that approximately 80 percent of each group
of dogs developed antibody 30 days after an injection of either vaccine.
Twenty-one of twenty-six dogs on duck embryo vaccine, and eleven of
fourteen dogs on commercial vaccine developed antibody. Roughly the
success of each vaccine in this respect turned out to be about the same as
based on the limited number of animals used. However inspection of
Table 2 indicates the antibody titers in the former group are not as high
as those in the latter group. Obviously it would take more animals to
settle this point, however the indications of this difference are in line with
the use as mentioned above of 3 cc of duck embryo vaccine in comparison
with 5 cc of brain vaccine. Since both of these vaccines originate from
fixed virus it might have been more advantageous to have compared these
two vaccines on an equal-volume-of-dose basis.
A bar graph chart I has been made on an arithmetical basis of
virus neutralizing titers of the two groups of dogs. It appears that
although there is little difference in the relative numbers of dogs success-
fully immunized by the two vaccines (roughly 4 out of 5 dogs developing
a demonstrable serum titer at 30 days), the height of antibody titers is
greater in some of the brain vaccine group than in the duck embryo vac-
cine group. Since the duck embryo vaccine group of dogs got 3 cc of
vaccine per dog and the brain vaccine group of dogs got 5 cc of vaccine
per dog, it would appear reasonable to expect a 5 cc dose of duck embryo
vaccine to equal a similar dose of brain vaccine as regards antibody
response in dogs.
Conclusions
1. A single dose of 3 cc of duck embryo rabies vaccine given to dogs, with
no antirabies antibody in their serum to begin with, results in demon-
strable antibody titers in about 80% of dogs in 30 days.
?<;;
Indiana Academy of Science
64
* 32
U3
ANTIBODY TITERS OF 26 DOGS
30 DAYS AFTER SINGLE DOSE
OF 3cc.DUCK EMBRYO RABIES
VACCINE (Approx. 80 % + )
147
■nn-nfi-n-
co64_
O
ANTIBODY TITERS OF 14 DOGS
30 DAYS AFTER SINGLE DOSE
OF 5cc. COMMERCIAL RABIES
VACCINE (Approx. 80 %+)
91
:
H
Q
S
-
OS
W
n n nil
2. A single dose of 5 cc of commercial rabies vaccine of brain origin under
the same conditions produces antibody also in about 80% of dogs.
3. So called long incubation antibody tests might have increased these
percentages.
4. The brain vaccine (5 cc) dogs have somewhat higher titers than the
duck embryo vaccine (3 cc) dogs. This might be expected in view of the
differing doses of vaccine.
5. These showings are compatible with the probability that equal doses of
these two vaccines would be quite comparable immunologically, although
equal doses were not tested in this study.
6. Although the duck embryo rabies vaccine used in this experiment com-
prised live virus, no ill effects were produced in dogs. There was no
particular merit in this vaccine over a similar inactivated vaccine which
we reported effective in 34 of 43 dogs two years ago.
7. The dogs used in this study were for general pharmacological use and
hence were not challenged with street virus.
Bacteriology 77
Literature Cited
Powell, H. M. and Culbertson, C. G. 1950. Cultivation of Fixed Rabies Virus in
Embryonated Duck Eggs. Pub. Health Reports 65 : 400-401.
Powell, H. M. and Culbertson, C. G. 1954. Recent Advances in the Preparation
of Antirabies Vaccines Containing Inactivated Virus. Bull. World Health Organi-
zation 10 : 815-822.
Powell, H. M. and Culbertson, C. G. 1959. Inactivation of Fixed Rabies Virus
Grown on Embryonated Duck Eggs by Means of Beta Propiolactone. The South-
western Veterinarian 12 : 281-295.
Peck, F. B., Jr., Powell, H. M., and Culbertson, C. G. 1955. A New Antirabies
Vaccine for Human Use. Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med. 45 : 679-683.
Peck, F. B. Jr., Powell, II. M., and Culbertson, C. G. 1956. Duck Embryo Rabies
Vaccine. Jour. Ainer. Med. Assoc. 162 : 1373-1376.
Greenberg, M. and Childress, J. 1960. Vaccination Against Rabies with Duck
Embryo and Semple Vaccines. Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc. 173 : 333-337.
MacFarlane, J. O., and Culbertson, C. G. 1954. Attempted Production of Allergic
Encephalomyelitis with Duck Embryo Suspensions and Vaccines. Canadian Jour.
Pub. Health 45 : 28-29.
Powell, II. M., Culbertson, C. G., and Peck, F. B., Jr. 1960. Tests of Duck Em-
bryo (DE) Rabies Vaccine Against Street Virus in Rabbits and Guinea Pigs. Jour.
Ind. State Med. Assoc. 53 : 1307-1312.
Reed, L. F., and Muench, H. 1938. A Simple Method of Estimating Fifty Percent
Endpoints. Amer. Jour. Hygiene 27 : 493-497.
Reversal of the Antibacterial Activity of Simple and Complex
Sulfonamides by p-Aminobenzoic Acid
Walter A. Zygmunt, Mead Johnson Research Center
Previous studies by Woods (1) clearly demonstrated that p-amino-
benzoic acid (PABA) competitively antagonized the antibacterial activity
of sulfanilamide (Fig. 1). There appears to be little information as to
H2N-
V //
COOH
HoN-
SOo NH
p-Aminobenzoic Acid
Sulfanilamide
Fig. I. Structure of p-aminobenzoic acid and
sulfanilamide.
whether the more complex sulfonamide derivatives currently used in
chemotherapy act like the simple sulfonamides in inhibiting susceptible
bacteria by interfering with the utilization of PABA. Studies on the
reversal of the in vitro antibacterial activity of sulfanilamide, N-(6-meth-
H.*/ \
S02NH
OCH
Sulfamethoxypyridazine
»j/ \
S02NH
OCH
OCH3
Sulf adimethoxine
Fig. 2. Structures of sulfamethoxypridazine and
sulfadimethoxine.
78
Bacteriology
79
oxy-3-pyridazinyl) -sulfanilamide (sulfamethoxypyridazine) and N-(2,6-
dimethoxy-4-pyrimidinyl) sulfanilamide (sulfadimethoxine) in Lactoba-
cillus plantarum, a PABA dependent culture, are described in this report
(Fig. 2). Studies on the PABA reversal of growth inhibition caused by
sulfadimethoxine in E. coli are also included.
Materials and Methods
The medium of Sarett (2) was used with L. plantarum, strain 17-5.
Since some of the compounds were not readily water soluble, five to ten
mg. quantities were dissolved in five ml. portions of 0.1 N NaOH, diluted
promptly to 400 ml. with distilled water, adjusted to pH 8.0 with HC1 and
diluted to 500 ml. to give 6X10"" M solutions. Solutions of the sulfonamide
analogues (pH 8.0) and PABA (pH 7.0) were sterilized by Seitz nitration
and added to previously autoclaved culture tubes containing five ml. por-
tions of basal medium and graded levels of sterile, distilled water to give
eight to nine ml. volumes. Final assay volumes were 10 ml. per 20X150
mm. culture tube. The sulfonamide analogues were tested at a final con-
centration of 6X106 M. In the preparation of the inoculum, precautions
were taken to minimize the carry-over of PABA by appropriate washing
of the culture and by using a dilute cell suspension. Growth was measured
turbidimetrically as optical density using a Coleman Junior spectropho-
tometer at a wave length of 620 n, following a 24 hr. incubation period
at 35°C.
For the studies with E. coli, strain AV, the minimal medium of Davis
and Mingioli (3) was used. Except for the concentrations of sulfadi-
methoxine and PABA, the procedures used with E. coli were similar to
those described for L. plantarum.
Results and Discussion
PABA reversed the growth inhibition of both a simple and two com-
plex sulfonamides in Lactobacillus plantarum,, a PABA requiring culture
TABLE I
Reversal of the Antibacterial Activity of Sulfonamides by
PABA in L. plantarum
PABA Sulfanilamide Sulfamethoxypyridazine
Molarity X 1010
% Reversal of Growth Inhibition
Sulfadimethoxine
0.02
3
3
4
0.04
2
3
3
0.08
3
4
4
0.20
14
16
4
0.40
57
54
6
0.75
91
92
40
1.50
100
100
84
3.00
100
100
100
(Table I). The ability of PABA to reverse the antibacterial activities of
sulfanilamide and sulfamethoxypyridazine was equivalent. In contrast,
the inhibition of bacterial growth caused by sulfadimethoxine was much
more resistant to PABA reversal.
80
Indiana Academy of Science
In the PABA reversal studies with L. plantarum, a 150 fold range
in PABA concentrations was employed starting with a level which gave a
maximal growth response in control tubes. At this base level, one will
note that inhibition of growth was about 95% with all three sulfonamides
at equimolar concentrations.
It was also of interest to determine whether the antibacterial activity
of sulfadimethoxine could be reversed in a micro-organism not requiring
exogenous PABA, such as E. coli. This organism is not as sensitive to the
antagonistic effect of the sulfonamides as is L. plantarum; hence higher
concentrations of the inhibitor were employed with this culture. A level
of sulfadimethoxine, 1.6 X 10"5M, which caused an 85% inhibition of E. coli
growth was completely reversed by the addition of 1.5X10~9M PABA.
A 19 fold increase in the concentration of sulfadimethoxine produced a
95% inhibition of growth and a 70% reversal of this inhibition occurred
TABLE II
PABA Reversal of Sulfadimethoxine Growth Inhibition in E. coli
PABA
Molarity X 10n
Sulfadimethoxine
1.6X10-BM | 30.3X10:'M
% Reversal of Growth Inhibition
0.0
14
6
0.1
20
5
0.2
70
4
0.4
74
4
0.8
84
4
1.5
100
7
3.0
100
7
6.0
100
12
12.0
100
48
24.0
100
70
when 24X10-°M PABA was added (Table II). These data clearly show
that the antibacterial activity of sulfadimethoxine also can be readily
reversed by PABA in a culture not requiring the addition of PABA for
growth.
These data confirm the expected conclusion that with both simple and
complex sulfonamides the inhibition of susceptible bacteria occurred
through an interference in the utilization of PABA.
Summary
The in vitro antibacterial activity of both simple and complex sulfona-
mide compounds was readily reversed by the addition of PABA in L.
plantarum, a PABA requiring organism. The growth inhibition observed
with sulfadimethoxine was more refractory to PABA reversal than was
the inhibition with sulfanilamide or sulfamethoxypyridazine. The growth
inhibitory activity of sulfadimethoxine was also reversed by PABA in
E. coli, a bacterium capable of PABA synthesis.
Bacteriology 81
As expected, these studies have shown that the antibacterial activities
of sulfamethoxypyridazine and sulfadimethoxine are due primarily to
antagonism of PABA utilization.
Literature Cited
1. Woods, D. D. 1940. Brit. J. Expt. Path. 21 : 74.
2. Sarett, H. P. 1951. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 34 : 378.
3. Davis, B. D.. and E. S. Mingioli. 19.30. J. Bacterid. 60: 17.
BOTANY
Chairman: Joseph Hennen, Indiana State College
Paul Weatherwax, Indiana University and Franklin College,
was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
Poison Ivy Rust and Its Allies in North America. Joe F. Hennen,
Indiana State College and Purdue University. — This is a preliminary
report of work done toward a proposed taxonomic monograph of the genus
Pileolaria for the world. Pileolaria brevipes Berk, and Rav., poison ivy
rust, is an autoecious, long cycled parasite of Toxicodendron radicans (L.)
Kuntze and T. diversiloba (Torr. and Gray) Greene. It is coextensive
with its hosts over much of North America and is the most common species
of Pileolaria in North America. Unlike its polymorphic hosts, it shows
little morphological variation. Other species and hosts of Pileolaria or
related form genera in North America are as follows: P. patzcuarensis
(Holw.) Arth. on Rhus trilobata Nutt., R, schmidelioides Schleckt. in the
Southwestern United States and Mexico and on R. aromatica Ait. in
Ontario; Pileolaria effusa, on Rhus glabra L. and Toxicodendron radicans
(L.) Kuntze in Arizona and Colorado; Uredo mexicana (Arth.) Cumm.
on Rhus choriophylla Woot. and Standi, in Southwestern United States
and Mexico; Pileolaria standleyi Cumm. on Pistacia mexicana H. B. K. in
Guatemala; Uraecium extensum (Arth.) Cumm. on Pistacia mexicana
H. B. K. in Mexico; Pileolaria cotini-coggy griae Tai and Cheo on Cotinus
coggygria Scop, in Georgia ; and Pileolaria domingensis Cif . on Comocladia
sp. in Dominican Republic.
Botanical Investigation in the Great Slave Lake Area. Robert J.
Reich, Indiana State College and Chicago Museum of Natural History . —
The general aspects of the Northern Boreal Forest and the Tundra Transi-
tion Zone will be the main concern of the talk. Slides taken during June,
July, and early August 1959 and 1961 will be shown to supplement the
discussion. Emphasis will be on the major plant communities existing
between the towns of Hay River, N. W. T. and Yellowknife, N. W. T.
along the new Yellowknife Highway which half circles Great Slave Lake
on its western side.
Gall Specificity in Relation to Synchytrium. John S. Karling, Pur-
due University. — Synchytrium macros])orum is a short-cycled member of
the subgenus Pycnochytrium which parasitizes several hosts in central
Texas. Under greenhouse conditions it has been transferred to more than
1,100 additional hosts species in over 700 genera of 157 plant families
ranging from the Pinaceae to the Compositae. On many of these hosts
the induced galls vary from composite to semi-composite and simple in
structure. Not only do the galls vary on different hosts but also on differ-
ent tissues or organs of the same host. Although the predominant type of
gall is composite, this type is not constant and specific on all hosts which
S. macrosporum is capable of infecting. Also, except for a few other
82
Botany 83
species of Synchytrium, the size, shape and structure of the galls caused
by these fungi are not constantly characteristic and distinctive so far as
they are known. Accordingly, present evidence indicates that the galls
caused by most species are not specific. The type of galls produced is a
reaction between host and parasite and not a microscopically discernable
character of the pathogen. Hence, gall type and structure cannot be used
effectively as primary taxonomic criteria in distinguishing individual
species of this genus.
Aquatic Hyphomycetes from Wyoming and Indiana. John W. Baxter,
Purdue University. — Surveys of streams in Wyoming and Indiana during
1959 and 1961 revealed the occurrence of 16 species of aquatic hyphomy-
cetes, representing 12 genera, growing on submerged, decaying leaves,
chiefly those of species of Salix, Populus, Betula and Alnus. This appears
to be the first report of the occurrence of these fungi in Wyoming and
Indiana. The results of the 1959 survey, conducted in Wyoming, have been
published. The following species were identified from Indiana streams
during 1961 : Tetraclaolium marchalia?iu?n de Wild., Anguillospora longis-
sima (Sacc. & Syd.) Ing., Anguillospora crassa Ing., Alatospora acumi-
nata Ing., Tricelophorus monosporus Ing., Lunulospora curvula Ing. and
Heliscus tentaculus Umphlett. A collection obtained in 1961 near Laramie,
Wyoming appears to represent a new species of the aquatic hyphomycetes.
Shoot Development in Glycine max. R. D. Decker and S. N. Postle-
thwait, Butler University and Purdue University. — The vegetative apex
of Glycine max, var. Hawkeye has a distinct tunica-corpus organization.
The corpus can be divided into a peripheral zone which gives rise to the
provascular tissue and the cortex, and a central zone which gives rise to
the pith.
Leaf initiation occurs in the inner layer of tunica cells near the base
of the dome of the apex. As growth progresses the outer portion of the
corpus becomes involved in the formation of the buttress while the remain-
ing tunica layers continue anticlinal divisions. Leaflet initiation is
similar to the initiation of the central primordium except the initiation
site in the inner tunica layer is rapidly becoming disassociated from the
apex proper. Leaflet initiation occurs at the base of the central primor-
dium when the primordium is approximately two hundred microns high.
Lamina initiation begins when the primordium is approximately one
millimeter high. The marginal initials give rise to the upper and lower
epidermis. The submarginal initials are responsible for all the internal
lamina tissue although some may not be formed directly by the submar-
ginal initials but by intercalary activity.
The pulvinus region, present at the base of each leaflet, has a vas-
cular cylinder while the remaining portion of the petiole has a ring of
vascular bundles. The petiolules of the two lateral leaflets is composed
entirely of pulvinus tissue. Pulvinus tissue is also present at the base of
the petiole where the petiole is attached to the trilacunar node. The shape
of the petiole as seen in transverse view is temporily altered at the point
of attachment of the lateral petiolules.
Differential Embryo Infection of Wheat by Ustilago tritici. Louis
W. T. Hsu and John F. Schafer, Purdue University. — Wheat has been
84 Indiana Academy of Science
reported to express effective resistance to loose smut, caused by Ustilago
tritici, by several different histological reactions: ovary resistance to
penetration, embryo resistance, inhibition of penetration of growing points,
reduction of growing point infection during subsequent growth, differ-
ential internode elongation, and death of infected seedlings. The same
variety may react differently to various cultures of U. tritici. Highly
resistant Hope-Hussar showed from 5.8 to 64.0% embryo penetration by
8 cultures of U. tritici in one test and from 1.6 to 31.3% from inoculations
made another season. The same smut culture caused the highest infection
by a wide margin in both tests. Susceptible Wabash ranged from 44.9
to 74.0% infection by the same 8 cultures in the second test. Although
Hope-Hussar is resistant to all cultures tested, its histological mechanism
of resistance must vary in respect to different smut cultures. Three Knox X
Hope-Hussar selections, developed to combine loose smut resistance with
superior agronomic characteristics, showed 12.6, 12.6 and 31.7% embryo
infection by race 6 compared to 13.0 for Hope-Hussar.
The Identity and Control of Fungi Associated with Damping-off of
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa,L.) Cuttings in the Greenhouse. Paul G. Addoh,
Kansas State University. — Studies were made on damping-off alfalfa cut-
tings in the greenhouse. Various fungi were found associated with the
sand beds used for a rooting medium and with the alfalfa cuttings.
Important isolates were Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium spp., Ascochyta im-
perfecta, Fiisidium spp., Fusarium roseum, Fusarium solani, Fusarium
spp., and Alternaria spp., the most common of which was A. tenuis. Tests
proved R. solani to be the most pathogenic. Satisfactory control of these
organisms was obtained from a 300 ml/sq. ft. drench of Captan 75 (300
ppm), Panogen (3 ppm), Phaltan (commercial preparation 500 ppm), or
PCNB (commercial preparation 500 ppm) or by surface sterilization of
the cuttings with 1/1000 bichloride of mercury, followed by immersion in
1/1000 indole butyric acid for *4 to 1 minute before planting. The latter
procedure was preferred because of its ease, lack of phytotoxicity, and
high percent of success (92%-95%). In addition, the following cultural
practices were found necessary to successfully grow the cuttings: (1) use
of young and vigorously growing plants, (2) adequate sanitation, (3)
careful and ample watering once a day, (4) shading of cuttings from
direct light during the first 10-14 days, and (5) spacing of cuttings V2 inch
to 1 inch in the rows and 2 inches between the rows to prevent the rapid
spread of pathogens among cuttings.
Temperature-Time Requirements for Flowering of Oriental Cherry
Trees at Washington, D. C. Alton A. Lindsey, Purdue University. —
Phenological records of 1924-1959 were obtained on the flowering of single
and double varieties of oriental cherry trees in Washington through cour-
tesy of the National Park Service. The duration-summation method of
Lindsey and Newman was applied to the annual flowering dates in con-
junction with daily maximum and minimum temperature records of the
U. S. Weather Bureau over this period. By use of tables, coefficient of
variation computation, and graphical analysis, time and temperature
requirements for the trees' flowering were determined, and possibilities
of improved prediction discussed.
Botany 85
The temperature threshold for flowering of the single-flowered trees
was 42°F. Their normal time period of preflowering bud development in
spring was 25 days, and a temperature-time duration sum of 4,749 degree-
hours was needed. The double-flowered variety had a 42°F. threshold also,
but required approximately 40 days and 9,297 degree-hours for coming into
full flower in a normal season.
Effects of Manganese Deficiency Related to Age in Soybeans (Glycine
max). Eugene E. Cooper and Eaymond E. Girton, Argos Community
School, Argos, Indiana, and Purdue University. — Soybean plants when
grown in manganese deficient silica sand developed typical manganese
deficiency symptoms of interveinal chlorosis and necrosis. Physiological
effects including depression of photosynthesis, respiration, growth, and
relative chlorophyll contents were studied. The depression of photosyn-
thesis was frequently but not always proportional to reduced chlorophyll
contents. This is taken to indicate the importance of manganese in reac-
tions concerned in photosynthesis in addition to chlorophyll formation.
Leaf position on the plant and actual aging produced different results
when related to photosynthetic rates. Chlorophyll contents increased with
age, except for a slight decrease after leaf maturity. For the most part,
the effects of aging on photosynthesis, respiration, and chlorophyll con-
tents were the same for soybeans as for other species reported in the
literature.
An Analysis of Sexual Compatibility in Eudorina from Indiana. Mel-
vin E. Goldstein, Indiana University. — In the past three years 20 natural
collections of Eudorina from the vicinity of Bloomington, Indiana have
yielded the following clonal stocks: 4 homothallic stocks, 12 heterothallic
pairs and 4 parthenosporic stocks. Two of the 20 collections yielded only
males and one collection yielded a single female strain. Sexual strains can
be characterized by their zygote arrangement: 1) the clumped type in
which the fertilized eggs remain in the maternal matrix forming tight
clumps and 2) the scattered type in which the maternal matrix breaks
down after fertilization and the zygotes are released singly. The study of
sexual compatibility included 11 heterothallic pairs, 2 males and one
female strain which were mixed in all possible male-female combinations
with the presence of zygotes used as an indicator of cross compatibility.
There were 31 intercrosses between heterothallic strains of Eudorina
representing 20% of the total possible intercrosses. In general, strains
with like zygote arrangements intercrossed more freely with one another,
and the greatest sexual isolation occurred between strains with different
zygote arrangements. Comparison with a more extensive study including
22 heterothallic pairs, 3 males and one female strain of Eudorina from 8
states and Vancouver, British Columbia showed the same relationship
between sexual compatibility and the zygote arrangement.
The Ultrastructure of Astrephomene. Norma J. Lang, Indiana Uni-
versity.— The electron microscope is being used to investigate the fine
structure of Astrephomene gubernaculifera Pocock in the Astrephomena-
ceae. In contrast to the Volvocaceae, this colonial green flagellate lacks
86 Indiana Academy of Science
inversion of daughter coenobia in asexual reproduction. Each cell is sur-
rounded by an individual gelatinous sheath and pyrenoids are lacking.
A current study of the Volvocaceae and the previous elucidation of
the fine structure of Chlamydomonas by Sager and Palade allow compari-
sons. Electron micrographs of the cellular organelles are shown and dis-
cussed. It is concluded that these cells are basically "chlamydomonad"
both in gross morphology and in ultrastructural characteristics. This
study of vegetative fine structure will form the basis for further exami-
nation of the origin of organelles in sexual and asexual reproduction.
A Preliminary Investigation of the Origin of Branches in Fascicled
Ear Corn. R. H. Hessler, 0. E. Nelson and S. N. Postlethwait, Purdue
University. — Dr. Paul Weatherwax obtained corn ears, which exhibited
an unusual type of branching, from a missionary in Mexico. He has pro-
vided the authors with seed for an investigation of the origin of these
branches. The first planting at Purdue was made in the Spring of 1961,
and a morphological study was begun in July 1961. By dissecting ears at
different intervals during the growing season, the various stages of devel-
opment were obtained. In developing from a single meristem to a many
branched-ear, the apical meristem undergoes a series of dicotomous branch-
ings. However, the number and extent of branching is not constant even
in a single plant. The number of fertile grains exceeds that produced on
normal ears. Tassel formation is normal except for a few dicotomous
branchings that usually occur at the apex of the tassel. The inheritance
of this abnormality is being investigated.
Developmental Anatomy of the Seedlings of Annonaceae. Arif Hayat,
Indiana University. — The form of cellular differentiation in embryos of
the various genera observed was generally in accord with the pattern that
has been described for a wide range of other dicotyledons. Contrary to
the situation in many other dicotyledonous seedlings, any visible indica-
tion of an epicotyl in examined annonaceous species is delayed in embry-
onic development. After germination there is a continuation of the growth
patterns initiated during late embryogeny. The exarch xylem of the root
is connected with the endarch xylem of the cotyledons and epicotyl through
a so-called transition region. However, the change in orientation of vas-
cular tissue is not accomplished by physical rotation or twisting of xylem
elements, but instead, the character of the cellular pattern in this region
is gradually changed due to the influences from the root and shoot meri-
stems. The level of the region where the transition takes place is roughly
correlated with the diameter of the hypocotyl axis. In general, the location
of transitions nearest the "collet" are characteristic of hypocotyls of large
diameter, transitions farthest from the "collet" with slender hypocotyls,
and intermediate types are found in hypocotyls of intermediate diameter.
The rate of growth of the hypocotyl determines in part the vertical extent
of the transition region. More or less uniform patterns of cellular organi-
zation characterized all seedlings examined within the family. Colored
photomicrographs of transections of various levels of the seedling axes
were utilized in the present study.
The Photoperiod of Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). Phillip Sparks
and S. N. Postlethwait, Purdue University. — Guar (Cyamopsis tetra-
Botany 87
gonoloba) was introduced into the United States in 1903. In recent years
it has been considered seriously as a possible crop plant because of the po-
tential uses of mannogalactin which it produces in the endosperm. Varieties
grown in the United States require a long season and do poorly in Indiana.
This report is the first of a series of investigations to determine the plant
requirements and to seek ways of adapting it to the climate of the mid-
west. The interaction of photoperiod and temperature on vegetative growth,
flower initiation, and fruit abscission has been studied.
Indiana Plant Distribution Records, XVIII. 1959-1961.
Genera are listed in the order of their appearance in Deam's Flora of
Indiana, species within each genus are in alphabetical order, and are fol-
lowed by the name of the county in which they were collected. Entities
considered worthy of being newly listed as part of the state's natural or
adventive flora are given in bold face followed by the literature reference
and name of the collector. Nomenclature is, with a few exceptions, in
accord with that used in Gray's Manual of Botany, 8 ed. 1950. In the case
of the exceptions, the Gray's Manual name is given parenthetically.
The specimens have been collected by the following collectors: (where
they have contributed most records of a certain county or taxonomic group,
this is indicated in parentheses after their name) Phyllis Barrett, Marvin
R. Bell, Joyce Bruening, J. J. Choper, Andre F. Clewell, Carol Davidson
(Pike Co.), Paul A. Davis, Carolyn DeWolf, Thomas Dick (Dubois Co.),
Zoe Ellis, Greeta Eyth, Gustav W. Hall, C. B. Heiser Jr., Connie M.
Hostetler, Jack E. Humbles, F. Kirsch, F. L. Langford (Daviess Co.),
Don Mahoney (Marshall Co.), Samuel I. Matsunami, Ruth W. McAlister,
Louise D. Moss, Jack R. Munsee, R. T. Neher, Gertrude Reynolds (Orange
Co.), William Sanders, E. Schlebecker, G. R. Stangl, Helene Stares
(Carex), Warren P. Stoutamire (ferns), S. Trinandwan, John L. White,
Carol Wilson, and Umpai Yongboonkird.
Records from Spencer County were contributed from the Henrietta
Herbarium of St. Meinrad Archabbey, St. Meinrad, Indiana, by the fol-
lowing collectors: K. Bechert, J. Bonifas, J. Butler, L. Crawford, E.
DeSabato, Martin Donnelly, William Francis, Fabian Frieders O.S.B.,
David Grimes, S. Guy, Henry Herpel, Jim Hill, Blanche Hutton, Land-
werlen, Clovis May, Jean McClellan, J. Mcintosh, Maurice E. Meyers,
P. Mislivec, Harry Moore, R. Norwood, P. Pyatt, Scharf, Damina Schmelz
O.S.B., B. Stanton, Lucille Temple, Vamos, and Marie Wright.
Voucher specimens for all the new records are in the herbarium of
Indiana University.
Taxonomic Entities
Dryopteris intermedia (D. spimdosa var. intermedia), Owen. D. the-
lypteris var. pubescens, Madison. Dennstaedtia punctilobula, Owen. Athy-
rium thelypteroides, Spencer. Asplenium montanum Willd. (see Amer.
Fern. Journ. v. 46, no. 2, pp. 94-95. 1956.), Owen. Collected by Dale M.
Smith. A. trichomanes, Owen. Typha angustifolia, Monroe. T. latifolia,
Madison, Randolph, Spencer. Sagittaria latifolia, Pike. Anacharis cana-
densis, Spencer. Vallisneria americana, Brown. Poa wolfii, Randolph.
Dactylis glomerata, Pike. Deschampsia caespitosa, Madison, Marion.
Muhlenbergia racemosa, Madison. Brachyelytrum e rectum, Madison.
Panicum clandestinum, Randolph. Andropogon scoparius var. scoparius,
Madison. Sorghastrum nutans, Madison. Cy perns flavescens, Monroe,
Morgan. C. ovidaris, Monroe.
Carex albursina, Rush. C. amphibola var. rigida, Bartholomew. C. a.
var. turgida, Hancock. C. blanda, Randolph. C. bromoides, Madison. C.
buxbaumii, Randolph. C. careyana, Owen. C. cephaloidea, Rush. C. com-
munis, Hendricks, Rush. C. conjuncta, Randolph. C. convoluta, Rush.
C. crinita, Clark. C. cristatella, Brown, Randolph. C. crus-corvi, Bar-
88
Botany 89
tholomew, Randolph. C. davisii, Cass, Hendricks, Madison, Randolph,
Rush. C. digitalis, Parke. C. emoryi, Madison. C. festucacea, Bartholo-
mew. C. Frankii, Rush, Union. C. gracilescens, Bartholomew. C. granu-
laris, Randolph, Union. C. gravida var. lunelliana, Union. C. grayii, Ran-
dolph. C. g. var. hispidula, Owen. C. hirsutella, Bartholomew. C. hitch-
cockiana, Rush. C. hyalinolepis, Bartholomew, Madison. C. hystricina,
Madison.
Carex incomperta, Madison. C. interior, Henry, Randolph. C. jamesii,
Madison, Rush. C. laevivaginata, Henry, Madison, Rush. C. lacustris,
Randolph. C. lanuginosa, Madison, Randolph. C. laricina (C. cephalan-
tha), Madison. C. laxiculmis, Henry, Madison, Parke. C. laxiflora, Madi-
son, Parke, Union. C. leavenworthii, Hancock, Rush, Union. C. leptalea,
Henry, Randolph. C. lurida, Henry, Union. C. meadii, Cass, Madison,
Randolph. C. mesochorea, Rush. C. molesta, Hancock. C. muhlenhergii
var. enervis, Martin. C. normalis, Hancock. C. oligocarpa, Rush. C.
prairea, Madison, Randolph. C. rosea, Hancock, Hendricks, Rush. C.
shortiana, Randolph, Rush. C. sparganioides, Hendricks, Union. C. ste-
rilis, Madison, Randolph. C. stipata, Henry, Morgan, Randolph. C. stricta
var. strictior, Madison, Randolph. C. suberectum, Madison. C. swanii,
Martin. C. tribuloides, Bartholomew. C. vulpinoidea, Union. C. willde-
nowii, Parke.
Peltandra virginica, Monroe. Arisaema atrorubens, Lawrence, Mon-
roe. A. dracontium, Morgan, Randolph. Commelina diffusa, Pike. J uncus
acuminatus, Bartholomew, Martin. J. biflorus, Jackson. J. diffusissimus,
Bartholomew. J. dudleyi, Randolph, Union. J. tenuis, Rush. J. t. var.
anthelatus, Bartholomew. Luzula echinata, Monroe, Spencer. Veratrum
woodii, Monroe. Hemerocallis fulva, Owen. Allium cernuum, Madison.
Lilium michiganense, Brown. Erythronium americanum, Greene. Aspara-
gus officinalis, Pike, Ripley. Polygonatum biflorum, Madison, Owen. P.
canaliculatum, Monroe. Trillium gleasoni (T. flexibes), Spencer. Smilax
pulverulent a, Brown. Dioscorea hirticaulis, Monroe. D. villosa, Randolph.
Sisyrinchium albidum, White. Habenaria lacera, Monroe. Spiranthes
ovalis, Monroe. Calopogon pulchellus, Madison. Corallorhiza odontorhiza,
Monroe. Tipularia discolor, Monroe. Aplectrum hyemale, Greene.
Juglans cinerea, Orange. Carpinus caroliniana var. virginiana, Ran-
dolph. Ostrya virginiana, Randolph. Corylus americana, Orange. Fagus
grandifolia, Jackson. Celtis occidentalis var. canina, Randolph. Morus
alba var. tatarica, Clinton. Laportea canadensis, Owen. Boehmeria cylin-
drica, Madison. Asarum reffexum, Spencer. Aristolochia serpentaria,
Owen. Polygonum hydropiperoides, Monroe. P. sagittatum, Spencer.
Cheyiopodium album, Daviess. Cycloloma atriplicif "olium, Monroe. Ama-
ranthus hybridus, Spencer. A. spinosus, Orange. Mirabilis nyctaginea,
Daviess. Phytolacca americana, Pike. Stellaria pubera, Martin. Holos-
teum umbellatum, Owen. Agrostemma githago, Spencer. Silene stellata,
Madison. S. virginica, Marshall. Dianthus armeria, Owen. Cabomba
caroliniana, Jackson. Brasenia schreberi, Brown. Nuphar advena, Monroe.
Isopyrum biternatum, Spencer. Aquilegia canadensis, Owen. Del-
phinium tricorne, Brown. Hepatica acutiloba, Morgan. Ranunculus abor-
tivus, Orange. R. pennsylv aniens, Owen. R. septentrionalis, Marshall.
R. s. var. caricetorum, Ripley. Magnolia acuminata, Hancock. Sassafras
albidum, Pike. Sanguinaria canadensis, Owen, Spencer. Dicentra cana-
90 Indiana Academy of Science
densis, Decatur, Lawrence, Spencer. D. cuctdlaria, Spencer. Corydalis
flavula, Monroe. Lepidium campestre, Union. L. virginicum, Pike, Rush.
Thlaspi perfoliatum, Dearborn. Barbarea vulgaris, Spencer. Iodanthus
pinnatifidus, Madison. Armoracia aquatica, Greene. Dentaria diphylla,
Spencer. D. heterophylla, Spencer. D. laciniata, Greene. Draba verna,
Orange. Polanisia graveolens, Marshall. Drosera rotundifolia, Randolph.
Saxifraga pennsylvanica, Madison. Parnassia glauca, Madison. Ribes
americanum, Madison.
Platanus occidentalis, Floyd, Jennings, Morgan, Randolph, Washing-
ton. Potentilla fruticosa, Madison. P. recta, Spencer. Cassia hebecarpa,
Madison. C. nictitans, Elkhart. Gleditsia triacanthos, Decatur, Ripley.
Gymnocladus dioica, Jennings. Medicago sativa, Pike. Melilotus offici-
nalis, Spencer. Trifolium pratense, Pike, Spencer. T. procumbens, Pike.
T. repens, Spencer. Apios americana, Madison. Ox alls europaea, Monroe.
O. stricta, Spencer. Xanthoxylnm americanum, Madison. Ptelea trifoliata,
Madison. Polygala sanguinea f. albiflora, Dubois. Acer negundo, Floyd.
A. rubrum, Spencer. A. saccharinum, Clinton, Decatur, Jennings, Orange.
A. saccharum, Spencer. Parthenocissus quinque folia, Randolph. Ampe-
lopsis cordata, Monroe, Abutilon theophrasti, Spencer. Viola kitaibeliana
var. rafiuesquii, Spencer.
Lythrum salicaria, Brown. Epilobium leptophyllum, Randolph. Eri-
genia bulbosa, Greene, Owen. Cryptotaenia canadensis, Morgan. Taenidia
integerrima, Madison. Pastinaca sativa, Pike. Daucus carota, Pike.
Cornus alternifolia, Madison. C. stolonifera, Morgan. Vaccinium sta-
mineum var. neglectum, Spencer. Samolus parviflorus, Randolph. Lysi-
machia longifolia (L. quadrifiora), Madison, Monroe. Apocynum canna-
binum, Brown. Asclepias perennis, Monroe. A. tuberosa, Morgan, Orange.
Ampelamus albidus, Pike. Cuscuta campestris, Monroe. Convolvulus
sepium, Randolph. Ipomoea hederacea, Spencer. Phlox glaberrima, Mon-
roe. Phacelia bipinnatifida, Ripley. Mertensia virginica, Spencer. Verbena
canadensis, Spencer. Marrubium vulgare, Pike.
Solanum carolinense, Pike. S. nigrum, Daviess. Datura stramonium,
Daviess, Dubois, Marshall, Orange, Pike. Verbascum thapsus, Pike, Spen-
cer. Pedicularis canadensis, Madison. Campsis radicans, Orange. Catalpa
bignonioides, Brown. C. speciosa, Spencer. Conopholis americana, Madi-
son. Ruellia humilis var. expansa, Daviess. R. strepens, Greene. Plantago
lanceolata, Pike, Spencer. Galium aparine, Brown. Sambucus canadensis,
Brown, Randolph. Viburnum lentago, Madison. Lonicera japonica, Pike,
Spencer. Valeriana pauciflora, Spencer. Specidaria perfoliate, Spencer.
Lobelia cardinalis, Randolph. L. kalmii, Madison.
Eupatorium sessili folium, Monroe. Solidago ohioensis, Madison. Eri-
geron ramosus (E. strigosiis), Spencer. Silphium laciniatum var. robin-
sonii, Monroe. S. terebinthinaceum, Monroe. Ambrosia elatior (A. arte-
misiifolia), Spencer. Verbesina helianthoides, Randolph. Helenium nudi-
florum, Monroe. Anthemis cotula, Dubois, Spencer. Chrysanthemum leu-
canthemum var. pinnatifidum, Spencer. Cacalia tuberosa, Madison. Sene-
cio aureus, Morgan. Arctium minus, Monroe, Pike. Cirsium vulgare, Pike.
Taraxacum laevigatum, Spencer. Lactuca floridana, Monroe.
Zoe Ellis, Herbarium Curator
Indiana University
Aerial Survey and Control of Oak Wilt in Indiana
Ralph J. Green, Jr. and Claude Fordyce, Jr., Purdue University
Introduction
Oak Wilt, caused by the fungus, Ceratocystis fagacearum (Bretz)
Hunt, was first reported in Indiana by Cummins in 1949 (2). Surveys
conducted by Stearns and Crowder (5) from 1952 to 1956 established the
distribution of this disease. In the northern third of the state, the disease
is epidemic and destructive while there are only scattered infection centers
in the southern third of Indiana. The central portion of the state is rela-
tively free from this disease.
Quercus spp. are the most important tree species utilized by the lum-
bering industry in Indiana and make up an important part of the perennial
vegetation. Total harvest of native lumber in 1950 was 254 million bd. ft.,
with oaks comprising 38% of the total (1).
Aerial Survey and Control
Since 1959, emphasis in Oak Wilt investigations at Purdue Univer-
sity has been on the development of a suitable method for detection and
control of this disease in southern Indiana (3). This has included aerial
survey as a means of detecting the disease and the application of eradica-
tion practices to contain and finally eradicate Oak Wilt from the timber-
lands of southern Indiana.
KMT
'\M-m^[
—mmr
W'&^-siX
"lllfP
Fig. 1. Aerial view of typical new Oak Wilt infection locus. Note the one dead
tree exhibiting foliar symptoms.
91
92 Indiana Academy of Science
Aerial survey is used because of the speed and efficiency in covering
large areas of rough terrain. In 1960, 3 areas totaling approximately
1,000 sq. mi. were surveyed. During 1961, an area comprising some 6,200
sq. mi. was surveyed, including most of the important oak stands in south
central Indiana. Included were most of the Hoosier National Forest,
Clark County, Pike County, and Ferdinand State Forests and the Crane
Naval Ammunition Depot.
A Piper Colt plane, which is a single engine, 2 place, high wing air-
craft, with a cruising speed of 90 to 100 mph, was used for the aerial sur-
vey. The survey was flown at from 300 to 700 ft. altitude. The area was
covered at approximately 2-mile intervals. Eighty flight hours were
required to cover the designated area. During the survey, 123 possible
Oak Wilt infection sites were located, 69 of these were later visited by
ground crews and 29 of these were confirmed as Oak Wilt. The disease
incidence is widely scattered throughout the survey area, although certain
concentrations were noted, particularly in Brown County, Clark County
State Forest and the Crane Naval Ammunition Depot.
All suspected infection centers, which consisted of at least 1 dying
tree and 1 dead tree nearby, were accurately marked on 7.5 minute topo-
graphical maps. Later these maps were used in locating the suspect cen-
ters on the ground and specimens were taken for laboratory isolation of
the pathogen. Single dead trees were not marked from the air because
ground check of several of these revealed that most were due to lightning-
strikes.
In 1959, Oak Wilt infection sites were selected for eradication studies
(3). It has been established that the pathogen may spread from tree to
tree via natural root grafts and that such grafts may occur at distances
of 30 to 50 ft. or more from the infected tree (4). It is necessary, there-
fore, to form a barrier of at least 30 ft. around an infection center to
prevent the local spread of the pathogen. "Long distance" spread of the
fungus is assumed to be via certain vectors, such as insects.
The following treatments were made in the selected Oak Wilt infec-
tion centers. All living oaks within the infection center and oaks within a
radius of 35 to 50 ft. were poisoned by the application of either sodium
arsenite or 2,4, 5T (2,4,5 trichlorphenoxy acetic acid) as a silvicide (3).
In some instances, the poisoned trees were saw-girdled to hasten drying,
which is detrimental to ascospore production by the pathogen. After
poisoning, the trees were either harvested for pulp or firewood, felled and
piled or left standing.
The results from these studies for the past 3 years plus data from
other similar investigations indicate that this method for control of Oak
Wilt has promise. The low incidence of the disease on southern Indiana,
at present, and the limited size of the infection centers appears to support
the feasibility of a control program by the eradication of infection centers.
Periodic aerial survey and coordinated ground checks and eradication of
confirmed infection centers is suggested to maintain control. The following
recommendations are being made to State foresters and others interested
in the control of Oak Wilt disease.
1. In the spring or early summer, all oaks should be killed in the
infection center and within a radius of 35 to 50 feet. The following
methods may be used.
Botany 93
(a) Drill holes into the buttress roots 1V2" in diameter to a depth
of 3" to 4". These holes should be no farther than 9" apart
around the base of the tree. Fill the holes with 2,4,5T (2,4,5
trichlorophenoxy acetic acid) in fuel oil or 9.25% sodium
arsenite in water.
(b) Deep girdle or frill the lower trunk and spray with 2,4, 5T
in oil.
2. Trees that have died within the past year should be felled to reduce
the spread of the fungus causing Oak Wilt disease. Care should be
taken to avoid injury to standing trees and tools should be sterilized
with denatured alcohol or bichloride of mercury (1/1000) after
felling infected trees. The stump should be peeled to prevent fungus
growth and insect colonization.
3. Spray the bole of cut trees and the stump with 5% DDT in fuel oil
to eliminate insect vectors.
4. Following the death of poisoned trees, they may be felled if desir-
able. Extreme care should be taken to prevent injury to standing
oaks. Trees should be felled so that there is no breakage of sur-
rounding trees.
5. Any sucker sprouts that occur following poisoning and felling
should be promptly sprayed with 2,4.5T.
Literature Cited
Brundage, Roy C. 1955. Forests of Indiana and Their Importance. Purdue Univer-
sity Agriculture Ext. Bull.
Cummins, G. B. 1949. Oak Wilt in Indiana. Plant Disease Reptr. 33 : 8.
3. Green, R. J., Jr., and L. R. Sciireiber. 1961. Studies of the Control of Oak Wilt
Disease in Southern Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad, of Sci. 70 : 87-90.
4. Kuntz, J. E., and A. J. Riker. 195G. Oak Wilt, Wisconsin Dept. of Conservation and
U. S. D. A. Bull. 519 : 1-12.
Stearns, F., and H. Crotvder. 1957. Oak Wilt in Southern Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad.
of Sci. 66 : 63.
A Plant Growth Promoting Substance Found in an Acorn
Weevil of the Family Gurculionidae
Arthur H. Westing, Purdue University
Freshly fallen acorns of white oak, Quercus alba L., were collected
in October 1959 by John C. Callahan of Purdue University in Orange
County, (southern) Indiana as a part of an oak regeneration study.
Approximately half of the acorns were found to be infested with the larva
of an acorn weevil of the family Curculionidae. Callahan made the inter-
esting observation that the endosperm of infested acorns was in a fresh
green condition while the endosperm of acorns free of insects was brown.
Whether the green condition of the endosperm is the result of premature
abscission or of delayed maturation requires further investigation. Unfor-
tunately no acorns have been produced during the past two seasons to
carry on this work.
In the present study 170 larvae (having a combined fresh weight of
8.85 grams) were used in a preliminary test for the possible presence of a
plant growth hormone in the insects that could account for the phenomenon
observed. The larvae were stored at — 18°C until ready for use. They were
then twice extracted with cold methanol and the extracts combined and
taken to dryness in vacuo at 45°C. The resultant yellow oily substance
was redissolved in a small amount of methanol and fractionated using
ascending paper chromatography with 80% v/v isopropanol as the solvent.
The developed chromatogram was cut into 15 equal horizontal seg-
ments. These segments were each eluted in an aqueous solution of 0.1%
polysorbate-80 wetting agent buffered at pH 5.5. Each of the eluates was
tested for growth promoting (i.e., auxin) activity using an excised oat,
Avena sativa L. Brighton, coleoptile section straight growth test modeled
#
n
4 1 I
ri I
Figure 1. riant growth substance bioassay of the fractionated extract of a curculionid
acorn weevil. Fractionation was achieved by ascending paper chromatography using
80% v/v isopropanol. The oat coleoptile sections had an initial length of 4.01 mm ; the
final length attained by the untreated (control) sections was 5,27 mm.
94
Botany 95
after the one described by Nitsch et ux. (1) and tested by an analysis of
variance followed by J. W. Tukey's procedure for multiple comparisons
(3).
The eluate from segment 7 (i.e., at an Rf of 0.43) was demonstrated
by the above assay to contain a growth-promoting factor; the other 14
eluates exhibited no significant activity (see Figure 1). The growth pro-
moting substance in eluate 7 is unidentified as yet. It is not indoleacetic
acid (which has an Rf of 0.86 in this system) and may not even be an
indolic compound since it did not give a positive reaction with either
Salkowski reagent (acidified FeCL) or Ehrlich reagent (?>dimethylamino-
benzaldehyde). A positive reaction (chartreuse color) with ^-diazoben-
zenesulfonic acid could indicate the presence of a phenolic or aldehydic
compound while a positive reaction (lavender color) with ninhydrin sug-
gests the presence of amino plus carboxyl groups. Further tests and char-
acterizations must await future collections.
An attempt was made to approximate the quantity of growth promot-
ing substance extracted from each larva. Under the assay conditions
used, 1.8 x 10~10 moles of indoleacetic acid resulted in the same amount of
promotive activity as did the extracted and fractionated growth promot-
ing substance of eluate 7. If one assumes similar molecular weights (175) ,
similar biological activities, and 70% efficiency of extraction and recovery,
each larva contributed roughly 1.5 x 10"12 moles of growth promoting sub-
stance. This is indeed a small amount but presumably the larva could be
continuously producing the substance.
There have been several instances where it was conjectured that an
insect was influencing plant development by producing auxins. The finding
reported here is of interest because in perhaps the only other actual
attempt to demonstrate this, the presence of such plant growth promoting
substances in the insect could not be detected. This was the case when
Plumb (2) tested to no avail a crude extract of the salivary gland of the
fundatrix stage of the aphid Adelges abietis (L.), which produces a gall
on Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst., using the split pea test.
Additional research on the plant growth substance extracted from the
acorn weevil larvae should be directed towards its characterization and
its biological activity with reference to maturation and abscission.
Summary
The acorns of Quercus alba drop in a green rather than brown condi-
tion when infested with the larvae of an acorn weevil of the family Cur-
culionidae. A methanolic extract of these larvae was found to contain a
plant growth promoting substance, not indoleacetic acid.
Literature Cited
1. Nitsch, J. I'.. and C. Nitsch. 1956. Studies on the growth of coleoptile and first
internode sections. New, sensitive, straight-growth test for auxins. Plant Physiol.
31:94-111.
2. Plumb, G. H. 1953. Formation and development of the Norway spruce gall caused
by Adelges abietis L. Conn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 566, 77 pp.
3. Steel, R. G. D., and J. H. Toerie. 1960. Principles and procedures of statistics with
special reference to the biological sciences. N. Y. : McGraw-Hill, 481 pp.
Attempts at Germination of Teliospores of Puccinio
coronata var. avenae
David E. Zimmer, John F. Schafer, and George A. Gries,
Purdue University
The failure of teliospores of the cereal rust fungi to germinate readily
is a major obstacle in the genetic study of pathogenicity. To determine
the inheritance and relationships of pathogenicity characteristics it is
necessary to obtain the sexual stage of pure cultures grown free from
contamination. To establish the sexual stage an efficient method of induc-
ing germination of teliospores produced in isolation is needed. We attempt-
ed to stimulate germination of greenhouse-produced and field-collected
teliospores of the oat crown rust fungus, Puccinia coronata Cda. var.
avenae Fras. & Led. A preliminary report has been made (17).
Previous studies on inducing germination of dormant teliospores have
been inconclusive or contradictory. Dormancy of teliospores of several of
the cereal rust fungi was shortened by alternate periods of freezing and
thawing or of wetting and drying (1,5,6,8,9,10,14). On the contrary,
Hoerner (3,4), and Vakili (16) did not obtain germination of teliospores
of P. coronata and P. recondita, respectively, except when naturally over-
wintered. Theil and Weiss (15) were unable to shorten dormancy of P.
graminis teliospores by alternate freezing and thawing. Lambert (7)
obtained but limited germination by thorough wetting followed by freez-
ing. Theil and Weiss (15) shortened dormancy by treatment with dilute
citric acid solution, but Lambert (7) was unable to repeat this. Lambert
(7) also tested dilute solutions of benzaldehyde, salicylaldehyde, citralde-
hyde, several alcohols, the 16 essential oils used by Noble (13) in his
attempts to induce germination of Urocystis tritici, ethylene gas and
chlorohydrin which Denny (2) found effective in stimulating potato ger-
mination, straw extracts, and various concentrations of nitrate and other
salts ranging in pH from 5.0 to 8.2. All of these were of little value in
shortening the dormancy period.
Materials and Methods
Numerous teliospore collections of P. coronata races 202, 203, 294,
295, and two pathogenically distinct cultures of race 293 designated A
and B were studied. Each collection was dried at room temperature for
4 days, placed individually in a small cloth bag, and stored at 34° F.
Physical Stimulation — One collection each of races 202, 203, 293B,
and 295 was subjected to alternate periods of wetting and drying each day
for 20 days followed by alternate periods of freezing ( — 5°F) and thawing
(room temperature) at 5 day intervals for 40 days. Upon each transfer
from the cold, a sample of teliospores was removed and tested for ger-
mination. In a second experiment, telial material of the same races was
soaked overnight and frozen in ice at —20° F for periods up to 70 days,
a technique similar to that of Johnson and Newton (6). Samples were
removed at approximately 10 day intervals and tested for germination.
In a third experiment, telia of races 202, 203, 294, and 295 were alternately
soaked in running tap water and dried at approximately 12 hour intervals
for 30 days. The telia were then alternately frozen and thawed at 5 day
96
Botany 97
intervals for 60 days. Samples were removed periodically and tested for
germination. In a fourth experiment, telia were individually removed
from the leaves, placed under a cover slip on a glass slide and gently
crushed. When sufficient spores were obtained they were placed on a
2x2 glass slide and incubated in a petri dish and filter paper moist cham-
ber for 96 hours. The slides with spores were removed at approximately
12 hour intervals and examined for germination. Field collected telia
were not available at the same time as these experiments but were also
treated in a similar manner upon collection.
Greenhouse-produced telia of all cultures, as well as telia collected in
the field, were placed in small cloth bags and overwintered outdoors on
the ground from October 25 to May 26. This material was tested for ger-
mination at 10 day intervals from March 20 to May 26. Telia produced
outdoors on oat plants and overwintered thereon, both on standing and
prostrate culms, were collected and tested for germination at the same
times.
Chemical Stimulation — Telial material of race 295 was treated with
0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 30 seconds, divided into equal parts, and
submerged in either a 1, 2, or 3% solution of citric or lactic acid for 1 to
60 minutes, following the approach of Theil and Weiss (15). The telia
were then stored in small vials, removed at the end of 6, 10, 17, 23, 30, 34,
and 40 days, and tested for germination.
Field-collected telia were treated with a 1 % solution of citric acid for
3 minutes, divided into equal lots, and treated with either a 10 "3 or 10"
solution of the following chemicals: L-arginine monohydrochloride, citric
acid, 2-4 dinitrophenol, ferric citrate, furfural, glutathione, indoleacetic
acid, maleic hydrazide, L-naphthaline acetic acid, phosphoglyceric acid,
and thiourea. Treatment was facilitated by evacuating the atmosphere
surrounding the treating solution to 0.05 mm of mercury for 30 minutes
following submersion of the telial specimens. They were removed and the
teliospores observed for germination at 3 subsequent 12-hour intervals.
After 36 hours the telia were placed in the freezing compartment of a
standard refrigerator, removed at 5 day intervals, and tested for germi-
nation.
Germination Tests — These were conducted by placing telial mate-
rial in moist chambers constructed from petri dishes and filter paper.
Subsequently, telia were removed individually, placed on a microscope
slide, gently crushed to separate the spores, and observed microscopically
for germination. After the initial observation the slides were returned
to moist chambers and re-examined 12 and 36 hours later. In some in-
stances, to detect germination occurring at a low frequency, telial material
was suspended in moist chambers for 16 to 24 hours directly above leaves
of Rhamnns cathartica seedlings. Ten days later the seedling leaves were
examined microscopically for sporidial infection.
Experimental Results
Attempts to shorten or break the dormancy of teliospores of P. coro-
nata var. avenae by alternate wetting and drying, freezing and thawing,
leaching with water, mechanical separation, overwintering out of doors,
and combinations of some of these failed. However, teliospores produced
98 Indiana Academy of Science
in the field during the autumn of 1958 and naturally overwintered on the
plants, germinated readily the following spring.
Treatment of greenhouse and field-collected teliospores with 2 or
more concentrations of 13 chemicals chosen for special characteristics
failed to break dormancy.
Discussion
In nature, teliospores of P. coronata germinate after overwintering.
The physiological or morphological modifications which render the spores
germinable are not known. The climatic conditions during natural over-
wintering may activate enzymatic systems in the spore, thus breaking
dormancy. The mechanical action of freezing and thawing may modify the
cell wall of the spore and thus increase permeability. Wetting of telia-
bearing plant material may release degradation products which physio-
logically or morphologically modify the spores, thus rendering them ger-
minable.
The inability to induce germination of greenhouse and field-collected
teliospores, regardless of the stimulation, in comparison with success
obtained in germination of teliospores naturally produced and overwin-
tered suggests that natural conditions were not simulated closely enough
in the experiments to influence key processes involved in germinability.
Summary
Attempts to break the dormancy of P. coronata var. avenae teliospores
by several physical and chemical means and make them germinable failed.
Teliospores produced on oats outdoors and overwintered thereon prior to
collection germinated readily, indicating that the treatments did not
influence key processes to the same degree as do natural conditions which
break the dormancy period of teliospores.
Literature Cited
1. Brown, A. M., and T. Johnson. 1949. Studies on variation in pathogenicity in leaf
rust of wheat, Puccinia triticina Erikss. Can. J. Res. 27 : 191-202.
2. Denny, F. E. 1926. Second report on the use of chemicals for hastening the sprout-
ing of dormant potato tubers. Amer. J. Bot. 13 : 386-396.
3. IIoernee, G. II. 1921. Germination of aeciospores, urediniospores, and teliospores
of Puccinia coronata. Bot. Gaz. 72 : 173-174.
4. Hoerner, G. R. 1922. Data relative to the germination of aeciospores, uredinio-
spores, and teliospores of Puccinia coronata Cda. Phytopathology 12 : 108.
5. Johnson, T. 1931. Germination of wheat rust teliospores formed in the green-
house. Phytopathology 21 : 108.
6. Johnson, T., and Margaret Newton. 1933. Hybridization between Puccinia
graminis tritici and Puccinia graminis avenae. Proe. Worlds Grain Exhib. Conf.
2 : 219-223.
7. Lambert, E. B. 1929. The relation of weather to the development of stem rust in
the Mississippi Valley. Phytopathology 19: 1-71.
8. Mains, E. B. 1916. Some factors concerned in the germination of rust spores. 17th
Kept. Mich. Acad. Sci. 1915 : 136-140.
9. Maneval, W. E. 1922. Germination of rust at Columbia, Missouri. Phytopathology
12 : 471-488.
10. Maneval, W. E. 1927. Further germination tests with teliospores of rusts. Phyto-
pathology 17 : 491-498.
11. Meliius, I. E., and L. VV. Dukrell. 1919. Studies on the crown rust of oats. Iowa
Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull. 49.
Botany 99
12. Melhus, I. E., L. W. Durrell, and F. Willey. 1922. Alternate hosts and biologic
specialization of crown rust in America. Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull. 72.
13. Noble, R. J. 1924. Studies on the parasitism of Urocystis tritici Koern., the organ-
ism causing flag smut of wheat. J. Agr. Res. 27 : 451-489.
14. Prasada, R. 1948. Studies on the formation and germination of teliospores of
rusts. Indian Phytopath. 1 : 119-126.
15. Theil, A. F., and F. Weiss. 1920. The effect of citric acid on germination of
teliospores of Puccinia graminis tritici Phytopathology 10 : 448-452.
16. Vakili, N. G. 1958. A study of the mechanisms of variation of pathogenicity in
wheat leaf rust (Puccinia recondita Rob. Ex. Desm. f. sp. tritici Erikss.). Unpub-
lished Thesis, Purdue University.
17. Zimmer, D. E., J. F. Schafer, and G. A. Gries. 1960. Studies on teliospore forma-
tion and germination in Puccinia coronata. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 69: 107-108.
CHEMISTRY
Chairman: Arthur Smucker, Goshen College
Frederic Schmidt, Indiana University, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
Chemical Terms Derived from Latin. Ned Guthrie, Hanover Col-
lege.— Last year at the meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science, I
presented a paper on chemical terms derived from Greek. From the
demand for duplicate copies, I felt that it is worthwhile to present this
paper on terms derived from Latin. Each root, prefix or suffix may have
a number of words as examples. Following is a list of prefixes, roots and
suffixes:
Ab. From, away or off.
Alba. White.
Altus. High.
Ambi. Both, both sides, around.
Greek Ampho, Amphia.)
Amyl. Starch.
Aqua. Water.
Argentum. Silver.
Cide. Kill.
Com, Con, Col, Cor. With or
together.
Duct. Lead.
Durus. Hard or lasting.
Equi. Equal.
Ex, E. (Also Greek) Out.
Flu. Flow.
Fract, Frag. Break.
Fume. Smoke.
Fuse. Pour, Liquefy by heat.
Insula. Island.
Lac, Lactic. Milk
(Greek is galact or galacto.)
Lign, Lignium. Wood.
Luna. Moon.
Meter. Measure.
Per. Through, By. (In chemistry,
per means excess, more, beyond.)
Plumb. Lead.
Rubi, Rubor, Rubra, Rubum. Red.
Spect, Spec. View, Look or Image.
Sub. Under.
Super. Over, Above, Beyond.
Terr. Earth.
Thesis. Place or Set.
Tort. Twist or Wring.
Toxic. Poison.
Tract. Draw.
Tude. State of, Quality of, Condi-
tion of.
Vers, Vert. Turn.
Uni. One.
Ven, Vent. Come.
Rodo. Gnaw.
Capr. Goat.
The Reaction of Iminium Salts with Dichlorocarbenes. A. G. Cook,
Valparaiso University.1 — The reaction between a typical iminium salt,
1-cyclohexenyl-N-pyrrolidinium perchlorate, and dichlorocarbene was
studied. The dichlorocarbene was generated in situ by refluxing a mix-
ture of sodium trichloroacetate in ethylene dichloride. The product isolated
has been shown to be N-(l-trichloroacetoxy-l-carboxycyclohexyl) -pyrroli-
dine. The significance of this reaction along with a possible mechanistic
reaction path is discussed.
1. Work carried (Hit at Standard Oil Company Research Laboratories. Whiting.
Indiana, under the direction of E. K. Fields, where the author was a Summer Profes-
sor, 1901.
100
The Hydrolysis of Iron in Methanol Solutions
Elmer J. Bowers and Henry D. Weaver, Jr., Goshen College1
Summary
The method of Siddall and Vosburgh (8) has been used for deter-
mining the first hydrolysis constant of iron (III) ion in a 20% water 80%
methanol solvent in the presence of nitrate salts. Optical densities of a
series of solutions of known variable acidity were made at temperatures
ranging from 20 to -60 °C at iron concentrations of .00116 and .000272M
and ionic strengths of approximately 0.15. The heat of reaction has also
been calculated.
Introduction
Many determinations have been made of the hydrolysis constant for
the ferric ion in aqueous solutions (1, 3, 5-8). Little if anything has been
done in nonaqueous solutions, however. In the course of an experiment
involving reaction kinetics for the formation of the iron thiocyanate
complex it became necessary to determine the hydrolysis constant in a
20% water 80% methanol solvent at temperatures down to -60 °C.
Experimental
A stock solution of ferric nitrate of 0.0290M. was made in anhydrous
methanol. Dilutions from this stock were made for the experimental runs.
The ionic strength of the solution was adjusted to approximately 0.15
with an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate. The pH was adjusted with
6N. nitric acid. Distilled water was added so that the final solution was
20% water.
Absorbancy was measured with a Bausch and Lomb model 20 spec-
trophotometer at 355 m/x. pH measurements were made on a Beckman
Zeromatic pH meter using a glass electrode and a calomel reference cell.
Bacarella (2) and others have verified that pH determinations made
with the glass electrode are correct in a water-methanol system. However
as an added check methanol-water blanks were adjusted on the pH meter
to the same value as the iron solutions. These blanks were then titrated
with standard sodium hydroxide to determine the concentration of the
hydrogen ion.
The cold temperatures were maintained in a dry ice and methanol
bath. A tube with an insulating vacuum jacket was used to contain the
cold iron solutions during the measurement of absorbance. The per cent
transmittance was read and converted to absorbance.
Results and Interpretation
The first hydrolysis of the ferric may be written
Fe+3(H,0)«; ^ Fe(H,0)r,OH+2 + H+
The hydrolysis constant (Kh) is therefore
__ [Fe(H3Q)8QH^] [H+]
Kh — [Fe(H20)6+3] U>
1. This work was done in a Research Participation Program for High School
Teachers supported by the National Science Foundation.
101
102
Indiana Academy of Science
If
[Fe] ° — total iron concentration
A — the absorbance
b = cell length
a = the molar absorbancy index of Fe(H,0)5OH+-
then A = ab[Fe(H20)EOH+L] (2)
Substituting the value of [Fe(H20)50H+2] from equation (1) into equa-
tion (2) we have
-^ = Kh[Fe(H20)e+3] (3)
It is assumed that [Fe]° = [Fe(HX))u+3] + [Fe(H20),OH+2]
^P = K, { [Fe]8 - [Fe(H,0)BOH+3] }
abKhA
Then
and
Kh ([Fe]c
A[H+] =abKh[Fe]°
A{[H+] + k„ }
this yields
Rearranging equation (6) we have
J_ 1
A ~
ab
abKh[Fe]
[H+]
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(abKh[Fe]°) l±± J ' ab[Fe]°
Therefore a plot of 1/A versus [H+] should give a straight line with slope
m = l/abKh[Fe]° and intercept yG = l/ab[Fe]°.
At 355 m/i the absorbancy is due to the first hydrolysis product (7, 8)
Fe(H20)&OH+2, therefore absorbancy was measured for a series of iron
solutions of constant concentration and ionic strength but varying con-
centrations of hydrogen ion and temperature. The reciprocals of A were
plotted against the concentration of hydrogen ion. From equation (7) it
can be seen that Kh = y0/m. Values of y0 and m were taken from the plots
and values of Kh calculated.
Table la shows the dependence of the absorbance upon the hydrogen ion
concentration. Table lb gives the relation between the hydrolysis constant
and the temperature.
Table la
Table lb
[H+] M.
Absorbance
Temperature C°
Kh
0.139
0.0269
—59.2
0.00327 ± 0.000820
0.0996
0.0410
—49.7
0.00352 ± 0.00248
0.0587
0.0562
—41.8
0.00817 ± 0.00292
0.0437
0.0670
—25.0
0.00922 ± 0.00508
0.0127
0.142
0.0
0.0322 ± 0.0122
0.00950
0.155
20.0
0.0365 ± 0.00350
0.00184
0.346
0.00147
0.366
The absorbancy of iron solutions of varying hydrogen ion concen-
tration is shown in table la for -50 °C. Similar series of runs were made
at temperatures of -60, -40, -25, 0, and 20 °C. On the assumption of a
linear relationship the values of Kh were calculated. A plot of 1/A versus
Chemistry
1 03
30
J I I I I ■ I I I 1 I I I I
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
H M.
Fig. 1. The relation between abeorbance-1 and the molar concentration of
the hydrogen Ion at -50°C.
[H+] is shown in figure 1 for -50° C. The values of K„ at various tempera-
tures are shown in table lb.
The heat of reaction may be obtained by plotting -logKh versus T~\
Temp.
C°
20
0
-20
-40
-60
1
1
1
1
1
2.4
CO
L
y
1.6
-
^^
o
1.2
~ ^^
AH =
+3.8? t
0.57 kcal.
0.8
1 1
1 1 1
1 .
1 i
1
1 1
I
1 , 1
4.2
4.4
3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
1C00/T
Fig. 2. Relation between the values of K^ and temperature
104 Indiana Academy of Science
where T is the absolute temperature of the reaction. The heat of reaction
AH can be calculated from the slope of the line as follows:
AH = +slope X 2.303R
where R is the ideal gas constant, 1.987 cal. deg.-1 mole"1.
Figure 2 graphically presents this information. The slope of the curve
predicts the heat of reaction to be +3.87 ± 0.57 kcal.
No attempts were made to study the effects of dimerization of the
iron. This may well be a factor in solutions of relatively low dielectric
constant but there is evidence (1, 6, 7) against the formation of polynu-
clear species in relatively dilute solutions of iron.
Literature Cited
1. Atkinson, G. F., and W. A. E. McBryde. 1961. Graphical Representation of Hy-
drolysis of the Ferric Ion. Jour, of Chem. Ed. 38 : 127-12S.
2. Bacarella, A. L., E. Gkunwald, H. P. Marshall, and E. Lee Purlee. 1955. The
Potentiometric Measurement of Acid Dissociation Constants and pH in the System
Methanol-Water. Jour. Organic Chem. 20 : 747-762.
3. Bray, William C, and Allen V. Hershey. 1934. The Hydrolysis of Ferric Ion.
Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 56 : 1889-1893.
4. Ito, Teiichi. and Norio Yui. 1953. The Hydrolysis Constants of Ferric Ion in Ni-
trate Solution. Science Reports, Tohoku University. 37 No 1 : 19-27. cf. Chm. Ab-
stracts 48 : 6991f.
5. Lamb, Arthur B. and Alfred G. Jacques. 1938. The Slow Hydrolysis of Ferric
Chloride in Dilute Solution I. The Change in Conductance, Color and Chloride Ion
Concentration. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 60 : 967-981.
6. Milburn, Ronald M. 1957. A Spectrophotometric Study of the Hydrolysis of Iron
(III) Ion. III. Heats and Entropies of Hydrolysis. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 : 537-540.
7. Milburn, Ronald M., and W. C. Vosburgh. 1955. A Spectrophotometric Study of
the Hydrolysis of Iron (III) Ion. II. Polynuclear Species. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.
77 : 1352-1355.
S. Siddall, Thomas H., Ill and W. C. Vosburgh. 1951. A Spectrophotometric Study
of the Hydrolysis of Iron (III) Ion. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 73:4270-4272.
Steric Effects and the Secondary Isotope Effect
Robert Earl Davis, Purdue University
Numerous secondary deuterium isotope effects have been reported in
recent years. Shiner11 presented a chart relating the origins of such effects.
Inductive effects,4'51"' hyperconjugative effects1,5'8,11'13 and non-bonded in-
teractions1,7 have been suggested and vigorously debated. Each side has
supported its effect with experimental data and theoretical considerations.
Another group of workers prefer to argue within the framework of the
Bigeleisen expression.2,11 It should be reemphasized that all of the fore-
going effects and others can be contained within the Bigeleisen formula-
tion. Such effects can be included into the partition functions.
Bartell1 has signaled attention to the mass-sensitive amplitudes of
vibration or steric effect. We wish to expand upon this suggestion to pro-
vide an order of magnitude of the effect and to suggest that it will also
account for both normal and inverse secondary isotope effects.
Figure 1
Consider the model (Fig. 1) :
where position one represents a hydrogen or a deuterium, position three
represents the reactive site, four the incoming or outgoing reactant, and
rij is the distance between i and j. Centers 2,3,4 define the xy plane with
center 3 as the origin. The location of center 1 will be given by (xiyiZi)
though calculations are made in spherical polar coordinates. The inter-
action between i and j will be given by :
0 total = <p repulsion + <p attraction
Expressed in Mie's formulation (Fig. 2) :
The various parameters (De,o-,m,n) can be estimated from scattering
functions6 or Lennard-Jones and Morse curves. All force constants are
considered in the harmonic approximation and all off-diagonal elements
are set nearly equal to zero.
The overall energy, EH, of the system is then estimated for a given
set of rij's and angles <p and ©. Then ri2 is shortened 0.001 A° to 0.010 A°
to account for the anharmonicity upon substitution of deuterium. The
energy, ED, is then recalculated. The difference, EH — ED, is then the
105
106
Indiana Academy of Science
D
eLs
n^
'hi
T\Ci
1
?Uj->UJ
«*
^j
^j
vnxj
/*.
>_
^ > -m^-
^
Figure 2
estimate of the steric effect. This comparison is quite convenient due
to the cancellation of so many of the parameters. The most critical set
of parameters is, of course, for the Tu and r« interaction. The values
of this difference range from about -200 to 200 cal./mole. dependent
upon the orientation of the vector 0u to <j>u and the distance, ri4. This
is also seen from the graph of the potential function. If ru > (rij)e> the
slope is positive. If rij < (ru)e, the slope is negative. Thus both small
normal secondary isotope effects (kH/kD > 1) and small inverse effects
(kn/kD < 1) can be explained and order of magnitude is of the order of
a 200 cal. per hydrogen or less. If rf] = (rij)e, kH/kD would be one. An
isokinetic situation is also present if 0i2 is orthogonal to 0m. The effect is
very small if r« is large and also if center 1 is shielded from 4 by center 2.
The general model will account for the oc -effect by shortening ri3, the
/3-effect by shortening ru and the 7 (<;, etc) -effect by lengthening ru.
A simpler two center model1- also gives the correct order of magnitude.
Though both of the present models are static, they are comparable to
BartelPs method of using the mean-square of the amplitude times the
second derivative of the potential function. He considers only the region
where this derivative is positive. The present model has ascribed the
Chemistry 107
differences AAF+, of a given reaction mainly to non-bonded interactions.
As the model is static, strain arising from torsion and bending modes
cancel in the first approximation. Kinetic energy terms, though important,
have been neglected. The parameters were adjusted to give an activation
energy of about 20 kcal, an average value for reactions studied near room
temperature. Isotopic substitution has been assumed to give no difference
in the Arrhenius frequency factor.11
As first suggested by Bartell this type of model works quite well for
the dissociation of trimethylamine-trimethylboron.9 This type of reaction
is known to have large steric requirements.3 Much of our fundamental
understanding of steric effects has been due to Brown's thorough investi-
gations in such systems.
Mislow10 has claimed that a steric explanation based on the size of
deuterium compared to hydrogen is not compatable with data on attempted
assymetric reduction of ketones. This reaction is of very low steric re-
quirement as seen comparing the AAF* observed (170 cal./mole) upon
substitution of a methyl group for a hydrogen atom.10 Using the data on
substitution of methyl for hydrogen in amine-boron complexes as a refer-
ence and then estimating the parameters of methyl-hydrogen interaction
in Mislow's reduction, a crude estimate of the potential functions for
ketone reduction can be made. On such a basis, the maximum steric isotope
effect, kH/kD, is estimated to be only 1.0006 which is to be compared with
the observed value 1.0000 ± 0.0002. It is concluded that Mislow's system
is too insensitive to the steric effects and does not constitute a crucial
experimental case to rule upon the non-existence of such effects.
In conclusion, it is now noted that all the various origins of the second-
ary isotope effect predict small effects. The problem still remains as to
dissection of the isotope effect into three or more separate effects in a
given system.
The author wishes to acknowledge a Frederick Gardner Cottrell grant
from the Research Corporation. H. C. Brown is thanked for stimulating
discussions.
Literature Cited
1. Bartell, L. S. 1960. Secondary Isotope Effects and Mass-sensitive Amplitudes of
Vibration. Tetrahedron Letters. No. 6 : 13.
2. Bigeleisen, J., and M. Wolfsberg. 195S. Advances in Chemical Physics, Vol. I.
I. Prigogine, ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, pp. 15-76.
3. Brown, H. C, and G. K. Barabas. 1953. Dissociation of the Addition Compounds
of Trimethylboron with Branched-Chain Primary Amines ; the Effects of Chain-
Branching. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 75 : 6.
4. Halevi, E. A. 1957. Secondary Hydrogen Isotope Effects as a Criterion of Mech-
anism. Tetrahedron. 1 : 174.
5. Klein, H. S., and A. Streitwieser, Jr. 1961. On the Inductive Effect of Deu-
terium. Chem. and Ind. 1961 : 180.
6. Landau, L. D., and E. M. Lifshitz. 1958. Quantum Mechanics, Pergamon Press,
London.
7. Leffek, K. T., R. E. Robertson and S. E. Sugamori. 1961. Temperature Depend-
ence of the Secondary /3-Deuterium Isotope Effect in the Solvolysis of Isopropyl
Methanesulfonate. Chem. and Ind., 1961 : 259.
8. Lewis, E. S. 1959. Isotope Effects and Hyperconjugation. Tetrahedron. 5 : 143.
9. Love, P., R. W. Tafty, Jr., and T. Wartik. 1959. Secondary Hydrogen Isotope
Effect in a Gas-Phase Equilibrium. Tetrahedron. 5 : 116.
108 Indiana Academy of Science
10. Mislow, K., R. E. O'Brien and H. Schaefer. 1900. On the Magnitude of Possible
Steric Secondary Kinetic Deuterium Isotope Effects. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 82 : 5512.
11. Shiner, V. J. 1959. Deuterium Isotope Effects and Hyperconjugation. Tetrahedron.
5 : 243.
12. Westheimer, F. II. 1956. Steric Effects in Organic Chemistry, M.S. Newman, ed..
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 523-555.
13. Weston, R. E. 1959. The Magnitude of Electronic Isotope Effects. Tetrahedron.
6:31.
14. Wolfsberg, M. 1960. Note on Secondary Isotope Effects in Reaction Rates. J
Chem. Phys 33 : 2.
The Oscillator Strength of a Dipole Transition in a
Lorentz-Lorenz Field
Robert Earl Davis, Purdue University
Quantum theory has allowed the correlation of numerous aspects of
chemistry. Of great importance is the interaction of light with matter.
Upon this rests spectroscopy, diffraction and photoactivation.
In connection with a study on the effect of solvents upon the ultra-
violet spectrum of sulfur2, a relationship was needed to correlate the
change in spectrum with the changing internal field of the solvent. It is
the purpose of the present note to expand upon the derivation given only
as an appendix in a former paper." The present discussion, which had its
origin in the interaction of a non-bonded pair of electrons of a basic
nilrogen atom with a sulfur atom, is preliminary to the discussion of the
interaction between the nitrogen and sulfur atom within an aminothiol.
Such a study is of great importance due to the ability of some aminothiols
to serve as radiation protectors. In a future paper from this laboratory,
we will discuss the nature of the interaction in the simplest aminothiol,
aminoethanethiol, and several of its N-alkyl derivatives.
Consider a molecule with steady state wave functions:
0o, 0i, 02 • • • (1)
in the absence of external perturbation with energy levels :
eo, ei, e„ • • • (2)
Placing the molecule in a beam of light, the electric field on the molecule
will be given by
E = Eo cos w t (3)
The perturbation Hamiltonion operator will be
H1 = — S em x,„ |E| (4)
= — mx |Eo| cos w t (5)
where m is a charged particle of charge em in an ^-coordinate of xm and mx
is the x-component operator of the dipole moment summed over all par-
ticles, m :
mx = 2 em xm (6)
The time-dependant wave function of the molecule now becomes
* = 2j a, (t) 0, (7)
where
— i Ejt/h
mxjo e
<*> = 2h
i (uj0 — w)t
i (Wjo 4- to) t
(8)
J^= 0
where
«,o= (Bj — Eo)/h (9)
nixjo = / 0j* (2 em xm) 0o d r (10)
The value of /aj(t)/2 is then the probability that the molecule has been
excited to state <p> at time t. The x-component of the dipole moment in the
direction of the field will be
109
110 Indiana Academy of Science
— _ S ^* nix g d r (1:L)
Substitution of (7) into (11) and neglecting cross product terms of a}
(except of a0) gives:
nix = / 0O* nix 0o d t + ao 2 aj* J 0j* nix 0O d r (12)
+ a0* 2 aj J" 0O* nix 0j d r
2 |Eol -^A Inixjo]2 cojo (13)
nixoo i — ^ cos «t / i r — C5
n ^_f wjo — w
2
2]Eo| >r-\ '
<* - n 2i
2 |Eo| "\^ Inixjol3 cujo cos a>jo t
a»0j2 — u~
The first term, mx00, is time-independent and represents the ^-component
of the permanent dipole moment of the molecule. The second term oscillates
in phase with the light while the third term ((p) represents oscillating
dipole moments with frequencies independent of the light. Generalization
to a three coordinate space (x, y, z) involves replacement of the /mxi0/2
term by the average of the squares of the three components, /mj0/2. Thus
the polarizability, a, becomes
_2_^A o>jo
3 h ^^ wjo2
Inijol2 (14)
£j Wjo"
The oscillator strength, f}, is now
_ 8 7T me pio Imjol2 (15)
13 ~~ 3 h e2
where
^j0= (Ej — E0)/h
Expression (15) represents a normal electronic dipole transition between
states j and o of the molecule with wave functions, 0j and 0O.
Placing the molecule in a solvent medium of refractive index, n, intro-
duces several new effects. Chako1 considered these problems and the fol-
lowing discussion is from his paper. Dispersion and damping will occur
and the absorption bonds will be continuous and broader. The plane wave
will experience the effect of a complex refractive index: n; = n(l — ik) ,
k, a constant. The theory of dispersion now predicts that
n/2 — 1 = n2 (1 — k2) — 1 — 2 n2 ik
^_^N1V— ?' (16)
7r m j£aj vjo2 — v -\- iy) v
where N is the number of absorbing molecules per cc, 7, measures the
damping in sec-1, and band width, and 7 is some other frequency. If a
Lorentz-Lorenz force is now applied due to the internal field effect and
polarization of the surrounding molecules, the force on each molecule is
F + ~P = F[1 + -|-(n2 — 1)] (17)
where F is the field and P is the polarization/cc. Equation (16) must now
be modified by replacement of n2 — 1 by 3 (n2 — 1)
n + 2
The molar extinction coefficient, e, is now related to the oscillator strength
(in vacuo), fj, of equation (15) by
Chemistry 111
.ffd7=-^N("°! h2>
c m 7j02 9 n0 (18)
where
^ _ 6.02 X IP23 __ N
N~ 1000 ~~1000
As all of the quantities in (18) are constants, we now have a relationship
between e and n. Solution gives
e = k (n03 + 4n0 + -f) (19)
with k a constant:
f j Tr Ne2 (20)
k~98 2303 mec
where 6 is the half -band width in cm-1 when e = e max.
The derivation of equation (18) by Chako1 has been discussed by
Kauzmann1 and Mulliken.5 While equation (15) is exact and depends
only upon the proper choice of a basic set of wave functions, equation (18)
contains several assumptions. The only perturbation by solvent is assumed
to be due only to the operation of a Lorentz-Lorenz force. Such a force is
classical and cannot express chemical effects due to hydrogen bonding,
association or chemical reaction. Mulliken' when faced with these prob-
lems dropped the internal field correction term:
(n°2 + 2)g (21)
9nG
which is unity in vacuo as n0 = 1 and only 0.75 at n„ = 1.5. Chako1 ob-
served that the expressions for the oscillator strengths, fly fj and /,-, were
fj =
nofj (22)
9n0 (23)
(n°2 + 2)2
These terms were not strictly constant for the ultraviolet absorption bands
of numerous organic compounds include aromatics, carboxylic acids, ke-
tones, azo compounds, and alkyl halides.
Reexamination of the derivation of equation (18) and the basic fun-
damentals of the interaction leads to several new conclusions. Therefore
the limitations of the applicability are more readily apparent. Molecules
whose extinction coefficients would most closely correlate with equations
(18) and (19) would have several properties. The oscillator strengths
should be between 1 and 0.001 effective electrons and thus represent an
allowed transition. Further the term :
/ 0O* m 0o d r = 0 (24)
for the ground state should be zero. This represents the first term of
equations (12) and (13). Thus the permanent dipole moment of the mole-
cule should be zero. The average time derivative of (24) :
& r — (25)
■jj£ ■ 0o* m 0o d r = 0
would be zero. Thus no polarization of the surrounding solvent would
occur.
In the present investigation, octatomic sulfur has been found to obey
the relationship (19) (Fig. 1). Thus we conclude that the nature of the
112
Indiana Academy of Science
1
1
1
4
S8
300
Mp y
y< 6
e io".3
,<9<
—
3
1
1
1
8
*(-*)
9
Fig. 1. Extinction coefficient of Sulfur3 at 300 m/i versus n3 4- 4n 4 where n is
n
the refractive index. 1. Methanol, 2. Water. 3. Ethanol, 4. 90% Ethanol — 10% Water.
5. n-Hexane, 6. Chloroform.
feast.*
interaction between a sulfur molecule and the solvent is very small in
magnitude.
The classical Lorentz-Lorenz force due to the internal field of the
solvent also correctly predicts the dependance of the spectrum upon
solvent refractive index for inert solvents.
In another paper we will discuss the abnormal spectrum of sulfur in
amine solvents. In such cases strong chemical interactions have been
shown to occur.
\
/
R
R R
oo
\+ \
NI
; + s8 <f* NH2 +
/ /
R R
N — Ss
hv
R3N§ + S8 ■ — > I RaN - ■
The problem of the aminothiols will be discussed.
oo + -
H.N — CH.CrLSH <=± H3N CH,CH2S
8 r
hv
15
H2N — CH.CH.SH
H.N CH.CH.SH
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
Chemistry 113
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank the Department of Nuclear Medicine of
the Walter Reed Army Medical Center for a grant under which this work
was completed.
Literature Cited
1. Chako, N. O. 1934. Absorption of Light in Organic Molecules. J. Chern. Phys. 2 : <>44
2. Davis, R. E., and PI. P. Nakshbendi. 1962. Sulfur in Amine Solvents. Paper II.
Studies on the Willgerodt Reaction. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. in Press.
3. Friedman, H. L., and M. Kerker. 1953. Ultraviolet Absorption of Aqueous Sulfur
Solutions. J. Colloid Sci. 8 : 80.
4. Kauzmanx, W. 1957. "Quantum Chemistry." Academic Press, Inc., New York. pp.
577-583.
5. Mulliken, R. S., and C. A. Rieke. 1941. Molecular Electronic Spectra. Dispersion
and Polarization : The Theoretical Interpretation of and Computation of Oscillator
Strengths and Intensities. Reports Prog. Phys. 8 : 231-273.
ENTOMOLOGY
Chairman : R. E. Siverly, Ball State College
B. Elwood Montgomery, Purdue University, was elected chairman
for 1962
ABSTRACTS
Studies on the Control of the Periodical Cicada in Apple Orchards.
G. Edward Marshall, Purdue University. — Severe decline in certain apple
orchards is attributed to the presence of high populations of periodical
cicada nymphs in the soil. Research is reported on the types of chemicals
tried for the control of these insects with special comment on the success
of demeton.
The Life History of the Mimosa Webworm in Indiana. Michael L.
McManus, Purdue University. — Since its original discovery in 1940 at
Washington, D. C, the mimosa webworm, Homadaula albizziae Clarke,
has spread rapidly throughout the Eastern and Central United States.
At present, the webworm has officially been reported in 61 of Indiana's
92 counties. Although at least two generations each year occur in Indiana,
a partial third generation is possible. The completion of one generation
was found to require an average of 39.7 days. Studies on five varieties of
thornless honeylocust during the summers of 1960 and 1961 show that a
varying degree of susceptibility exists.
Humoral Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Cockroach
Blaberus craniifer Burmeister. W. S. Bowers, Purdue University. — The
effects of ablation of insect endocrine glands on the metabolism of blood
sugar and fat body glycogen have been studied. Preliminary results indi-
cate that glycogen disappearance during starvation is decreased by abla-
tion of the corpus allatum. Measurement of fat body glycogen in starved
allatectomized and starved unoperated roaches reveals higher levels of
glycogen persist in the operated animals.
Attractiveness of Various Cucurbit Varieties to Cucumber Beetles.
George E. Gould, Purdue University. — The attractiveness of various
squash varieties, cucumbers, muskmelons and watermelons to the heavy
spring populations of the striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittata
(F.)) and the August populations of the spotted cucumber beetle (Dia-
brotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber) showed considerable varia-
tion. Squash belonging to the species Cucurbita moschata (D.) had fewer
beetles attacking the seedling plants than did plants belonging to C. pepo
(D.) and maxima (L.). Butternut squash (moschata) attracted fewer
beetles and suffered less loss than did the Hubbard (maxima). Two varie-
ties first tested in 1961, Sweet Meat and Marblehead, were so seriously
attacked as seedlings that few plants remained for observations later in
the season. Cucumbers, muskmelons and watermelons were less attrac-
tive than squash growing adjacent to them, but grown to themselves had
to be protected with insecticides. In seasons of high beetle populations,
such as 1961, insecticide treatments were necessary to produce a crop on
114
Entomology 115
cucumbers, muskmelons, watermelons and most of the 10 squash varieties
under trial.
Further Studies of the Composition of Some Indiana Nectars. B. El-
wood Montgomery, Purdue University. — This paper is a continuation of
the preliminary studies reported in 1958. It includes the results of the
analysis of the sugar content of samples of nectar obtained from flower-
visiting bees during the past three seasons. Correlations and relationships
of the sugar content of nectar with relative humidity, temperature and
season of flowering are shown.
Occurrence of Culex territans Walker in Indiana. R. E. Siverly, Ball
State Teachers College. — Larvae of Culex territans Walker were collected
in a bog area in Delaware County, Indiana, in June, 1958. Larvae of this
mosquito were again collected in the same habitat in September, 1961.
So far as it is known, these are the first collection records for this mosquito
in Indiana. In the southern states, C. territans often occurs in earth cavi-
ties, or tree holes at ground level, and is found in breeding association
with Culiseta melanura. The same breeding association occurs in Indiana.
C. territans tends to occupy lighted areas of the earth cavity, while
Culiseta melanura larvae tend to seek out the darker recesses of the micro-
habitat. Culex territans is believed to be of minor economic importance,
since it feeds on cold-blooded animals. Perhaps its greatest significance
is indication — by its presence — of the possible occurrence of Culiseta
melanura in a given area. Culiseta melanura is now established as an
endemic vector of eastern encephalitis. Larvae of the two species of mos-
quitoes are distinguished by the color of the antennae, the length and shape
of the air siphon, and the character of the scales on the eighth abdominal
segment.
Periodical Cicadas, Magicicada Spp., as Pests in
Apple Orchards
D. W. Hamilton, Entomology Research Division, Agric. Res. Serv.,
U.S.D.A., Vincennes, Ind.1
Introduction
Studies pertaining to periodical cicadas, Magicicada spp., date back
to 1666 when Henry Oldenburg reported on their occurrence and damage.
They are a native North American species that have attracted the atten-
tion of entomologists, other scientists, and nonscientists alike because of
their comparatively large size, long subterranean life, and regular period-
ical appearances. The most complete account of periodical cicadas known
to the author is one prepared by C. L. Marlatt in 1907. At that time
Marlatt referred to Magicicada septendecim (L.) as, "undoubtedly the
most anomalous and interesting of all the insects peculiar to the American
continent."
Three excellent papers on periodical cicadas have been presented
before this group in the past decade — Deay (1953), Jacobs (1954), and
Young (1958). The object of this paper is to report on studies and obser-
vations of this pest and its control in apple orchards and to present evi-
dence that the feeding of the nymphs on the roots of apple trees reduces
the ability of the roots to function normally to the detriment of the
development of the trees. The studies and observations reported herein
were made in Orange and Duchess Counties, New York, in 1945 (Brood 2) ,
Knox County, Indiana, and Lawrence County, Illinois, in 1950 (Brood 23),
Brown and Fountain Counties, Indiana, in 1953 (Brood 10), and Brown
County, Indiana, in 1957 (Brood 14).
Broods Occurring in Indiana
Marlatt (1907) brought together all available information on the
different occurrences of periodical cicadas and classified them as repre-
senting 30 broods. Marlatt (1907), Deay (1953), and others have pointed
out the existence of two races, septendecim, which takes 17 years to com-
plete its life cycle, and tredecim, which takes 13 years. Marlatt placed
broods 1 through 17 in the septendecim race and broods 18 through 30 in
the tredecim race. The 17-year race of the cicada is generally confined to
the States in the northern area of infestation and the 13-year race to the
southern area. Some workers ascribe the difference in the longevity of
broods to differences in temperatures. Young (1958) and others showed
that there were also other plausible explanations for the difference in the
life cycle of the two races. Both races have been recorded from Indiana.
Seven of the Indiana broods have been credited to the 17-year and two to
the 13-year race. At least two of them are probably no longer present in
1. Acknowledgements are made to J. L. Brann, Jr.. New York Agricultural
Experiment Station, who cooperated in the experiments during 1045 in New York,
J. M. Ferris, Purdue University, for sampling and determining the abundance and
species of nematodes present in the Dixie Orchard soil, J. R. Shay and Zoiin
Maciejowska, Purdue University, for making the studies reported under the section
pertaining to root rots and viruses, and D. L. Shankland, Purdue University, foi
determining the weights and oxygen consumption of the nymphs.
116
Entomology 117
Indiana. A publication in press by Alexander and Moore (1962) shows
that the former identification of periodical cicada as a single species
(Magicicada septendecim (L.) ) with the two races, septendecim and
tredecim, is erroneous and that six different species may be involved.
Three of these have a 17-year cycle and three have a 13-year cycle.
Types of Injury to Apples
In the past reports of injury by periodical cicadas have been confined
to the direct and indirect effects of the slits made by the adult females
during the egg-laying process. These effects include splitting of the
branches, breaking off of bearing wood, stunting and loss of vigor of
effected trees, and weakening of trunks and scaffold limbs on young trees
(Marlatt 1907). Peach, pear, and apple trees and grapevines have been
reported as being damaged more than forest or shade trees. Young trees
usually suffer more damage than old trees. However, the act of oviposi-
tion is not confined to any special species of plant or type of wood. In the
Hudson Valley in 1945 unprotected young apple and pear trees up to 7
years old were a complete loss. In many instances 22-year-old trees had
more than 95 percent of their terminals ruined. An injured terminal
generally broke off 1 to 1% feet from its tip. Cherry trees were less
affected than apple trees. In one nursery oviposition punctures were
noticed in the stems of annual lilies, and on one farm the handle of a
pitchfork bore several oviposition marks extending down from the apple
limb against which it was standing. The severity of attack is not readily
appreciated prior to seeing a heavily infested orchard at the peak of adult
activity. Adult emergence holes in one orchard near Vincennes, Indiana,
averaged 20,000 under each apple tree in 1950.
Prior to the emergence of adults near Vincennes in 1950 and Nash-
ville, Indiana, in 1953, it was observed that mature apple trees in certain
orchards, especially in the Dixie and Bessire orchards, where heavy infes-
tations of cicada nymphs were present, were not responding to heavy
fertilization or other practices that stimulate growth and assure vigor in
apple trees. They appeared to be in poor physical condition. Although it
was suggested that the cicada nymphs feeding on the rootlets were respon-
sible for this condition, positive evidence was not available. The symptoms
were those characteristic of starving trees and could have been due to any
one or more of several causes. For example, trees injured by the tile-
horned prionus, Prionus imbricomis (L.), have been observed to show
similar symptoms. Nematodes could have been present in sufficient num-
bers to have had a similar effect. Examination of the roots of the apple
trees showed the presence of galls, which could be attributed to the woolly
apple aphid, and the absence of root hairs that help feed the trees. Large
numbers of cicada nymphs were present. The trees in the Dixie and Bessire
orchards recovered from their decline in 1950 and 1953, respectively,
following the emergence of the adult cicadas, but tree decline was apparent
again by 1957 in the Dixie Orchard and in 1959 in the Bessire Orchard,
especially in the latter. Adult populations in the Dixie Orchard were
partially killed off with TEPP sprays prior to their egg laying in 1950,
so that the subsequent nymph population was not as large as previously.
However, another block in the Dixie Orchard that was unsprayed was
showing severe decline.
118 Indiana Academy of Science
In order to definitely prove the exact cause of the tree decline, scien-
tists representing different disciplines worked as a team. These included
the author, representing entomology, J. M. Ferris, a nematologist, and
J. R. Shay and Zona Maciejowska, plant pathologists, to whom the author
is grateful for their valuable assistance in determining whether or not
root rots or viruses were present.
Determination of Nematodes Present
In order to determine whether plant parasitic nematodes could be the
cause of the tree decline in Dixie Orchard No. 5, Vincennes, Indiana, soil
samples were collected within the branch-drip area of six Rome apple
trees. A 500-cc. aliquot of soil from each sample was processed. Nema-
todes of the genera, Paratylenchns, Pratylenchus, Heliocotylenchus,
Tylenchorhynchus, and Xiphinema, were found in the samples. The num-
bers of Xiphinema americanum recovered varied from 15 to 130 per
sample with an average of 32. Pratylenchus spp. were found in numbers
ranging from 0 to 20, with an average of 6 per sample. As none of the
known or suspected plant-parasitic nematodes were obtained in consis-
tently high numbers from the samples, it was concluded that nematodes
were probably not the primary cause of the tree decline.
Investigations for Root Rots and Viruses
Removal of the block of Rome apple trees in the Dixie Orchard in
May, 1960, made it possible for a team of plant pathologists to make a
careful examination of the root system from approximately 100 mature
trees.
All of the downed trees were examined for evidence of root rots, for
xylem and phloem streaking in both the fibrous feeder and large transport
roots, and for pitting in the bark of the seedling root portions and in the
scion top that might indicate the presence of a virus. No evidence of root
or lower stem abnormalities that might indicate the presence of a fungus
or a virus disease as the cause of the general debility of the trees was
found.
It was the pathologists' conclusion that the debility of the trees was
due to some cause other than a root-attacking pathogen or a known virus.
Other Injury Present
Numerous nodules of the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lenigerum
(Haus), were present on the roots in both orchards, but this injury was
no more abundant than on the roots of normally growing, similarly aged
apple trees in other orchards in the area.
Periodical Cicada Nymphs Present
Whenever diggings were made in the soil under the trees in these
orchards during the 3 years covered by this study, large numbers of
cicada nymphs were found in the area 2 to 18 inches below the surface.
A study of the burrows in a plowed area in a portion of the Dixie Orchard
where trees had been removed because of their severe decline showed that
periodical cicada nymphs were concentrated in patterns that followed the
root system of the trees. Decline in both orchards was more evident the
seventh to eighth year after the nymphs had hatched, a period that coin-
cides with the completion of the fourth and final-growth instar for the
Entomology 119
nymphs and a time when their feeding would be the greatest. Nymphs
from these diggings varied in size. Most of this variation was attributed
to the presence of both the large and dwarf (cassinii) forms of the cicada
(Deay 1953) since the history of adult emergence did not indicate an
overlapping of broods. Weights of the larger nymphs ranged between
0.461 and 0.748 grams each. Their average oxygen consumption rate was
607 cubic millimeters of oxygen per gram per hour at 28 degrees C. This
is a relatively slow rate for respiration when compared with the average
1370 cubic millimeters of oxygen per gram per hour for insects, worms,
and spiders that inhabit the forest soil (Krogh 1941).
Diggings were made under the apple trees to determine the density
of the nymph population. Digging was done by removing cores of dirt 6
to 8 inches in diameter with a tiling spade. Three cores were removed from
under the branches of each tree. In June 1959, 30 nymphs per square foot
of soil surface were found under the apple trees in the Dixie Orchard, or
about 21,000 feeding on the roots of each tree. The largest number of
cicadas taken under a square foot of soil was 64. In November 1960, 104
nymphs per square foot were found under trees in the Bessire Orchard
at Nashville, or about 72,800 under the spread of each tree. The largest
number of cicadas taken under a square foot of soil was 122. Dean (1959)
reported 70 nymphs per square foot feeding on apple roots in Ulster
County, New York, where tree decline was present. Banta (1960) inves-
tigated conditions that were causing severe orchard decline in Ohio and
found as many as 45 cicada nymphs per square foot. Soil and leaf analyses
did not show any specific element deficiency. Examination of the roots
showed all small rootlets smaller than a pin to be brown or dead ; no healthy
ones were found. Older portions of the roots were white and alive. These
reports substantiate the findings in Indiana.
It can be concluded from these studies that the nymphs of the periodi-
cal cicada feeding on the roots of apple trees cause severe tree decline that
reduces growth and length of life of the trees, and the yield and size of
apples produced. Since the nymphs feed underground and the symptoms
are those of starvation, the damage they do has oftentimes been improperly
attributed to other causes.
Control Investigations
Adults
The author's first attempt to control this pest was in 1945 in eastern
New York where large-scale tests of DDT, ferbam, phenothiazine, alumi-
num sulfate with lime, ryania, and lead arsenate insecticides were applied
for control of the adults (Hamilton 1953). No practical control was
obtained. Cutright and Parks (1949) reported control with TEPP. Tests
made in 1950 by Hamilton (1953) substantiated these findings and also
indicated that Metacide (mixture of 6.2% parathion, 24.5% methyl para-
thion, and 2.7% related organic phosphates) was partially effective.
However, it was found that TEPP had to be applied almost daily to be
effective, partly because of continued emergence and migration of adults
into the orchards from neighboring trees and woods. The Bessire Orchards
are relatively narrow and lie along the ridge of hills surrounded by the
Yellow Wood Forest. In 1953 laboratory tests of high concentrations of
endrin, dameton, Strobane (terpene polychlorinates (65% chlorine)),
120 Indiana Academy of Science
methyl parathion, Metacide, and pyrethrins were made to control the
adults. Sprays were applied directly to the insects. Only the pyrethrins
were considered effective enough for field use. In tests in the Bessire
Orchard, a 2-percent formulation of pyrethrins at 8 ounces in 100 gallons
of spray was ineffective. Adults knocked down recovered rapidly. TEPP
(40 percent) at % pint and (20 percent) at 10 ounces in 100 gallons was
effective in knocking down the adults, but others moved into the trees
rapidly. Mr. Bessire failed to obtain satisfactory control in a 50-acre
block in which he applied about 10 gallons of TEPP spray per tree. The
most reliable method of protecting young trees from injury continued to
be a covering made of cheesecloth or netting during the egg-laying period.
Graham and Krestensen (1957) have reported that Sevin (1-naphthyl
iV-methylcarbamate) is effective against the adults. A single application
gave control for as long as 1 week. Sevin has not been used in Indiana
since no major emergence of adults has occurred since it has been available.
Nymphs
No practical measures for control of the nymphs appear in the
literature. Large-scale soil treatments, with phorate granules and sprays,
Nemagon (l,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane), Phosdrin (1-methoxycarbonyl-
l-propen-2-yl dimethyl phosphate), American Cyanamid 18133 (0,0-
diethyl 0-2-pyrazinyl phosphorothioate) , dimethoate, and Dow M-712
(l,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane) were made in May 1959. After the surface
of the soil had been culticut, materials were applied with a high-pressure
spray and then watered in, with 500 gallons of water for each 700 square
feet treated. Nymph counts made June 24 showed that none of the mate-
rials used gave satisfactory control.
In 1960 and 1961 soil treatments were applied to trees in the Bessire
Orchard that covered an average of 700 square feet. In 1960 Sevin was
applied at the rate of 5 pounds per tree, as follows: (1) A 10-percent
granular formulation was hoed into the soil and (2) an 85-percent wet-
table powder was mixed in 100 gallons of water and injected to a depth
of 12 to 24 inches at the rate of 5 gallons in each of 20 locations. Applica-
tion was made with an injector described by Cleveland (1960). Some
injections were also made 6 inches deep and 6 inches apart with a com-
mercial injector (Fumigum),2
In 1961, by means of the injector described by Cleveland, 20 ounces
47.5-percent phorate emulsifiable concentrate, 20 pounds 50-percent Sevin
wettable powder, and 25 million DD-136 nematodes3 in 100 gallons of
water per tree were applied to the soil beneath the spread of branches,
each to a single tree on May 18. The nematode-treated tree and an addi-
tional tree each received a nematode treatment on June 27 that contained
53 million nematodes in 121 gallons of water. In addition, one tree received
a surface application of 25 million nematodes in 100 gallons of water on
May 18. Diggings made on three occasions after application showed that
phorate injections killed more periodical cicada nymphs than the other
2. Mention of this proprietary product does not necessarily imply its endorse-
ment by the U. S. D. A.
3. The DD-136 nematodes used in these investigations were reared and sup-
plied by S. R. Dutky, Entomology Research Division, ARS, U. S. D. A.
Entomology 121
test treatments; however, none of the treatments were sufficiently effective
to warrant recommendation.
Marshall (1962), in a manuscript presented at this meeting, reported
substantial control of the nymphs with demeton.
Literature Cited
Alexander, R. D., and T. E. Moore. 1962. The Evolutionary Relationships of 17-
year and 13-year Cicadas, and Three New Species (Homoptera : Clcadidae :
Magicicada). Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Mich., (in press).
Banta, Eldon S. 1960. Apple Orchard Decline. Proc. Ohio State Hort. Soc, 113th
Annual Meeting: 88-90.
Cleveland, Merrill L. 1960. Soil Injection as a Means of Applying Systemic
Acaricides to Fruit Trees. Jour, of Ecou. Ent. 53(1) : 144-146.
Cutright, C. R., and T. H. Parks. 1949. Combatting the Periodical Cicada with
Insecticides. Jour. Econ. Ent. 42(2) : 359.
Dean, R. W. 1959. Weekly Report of Insects, Diseases and Crop Development. Ext.
Serv. Dept. of Entomology and Plant Pathology. Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York, June 8 : 60.
Deay, Howard O. 1953. The Periodical Cicada, Magicicada septendecim (L.) in
Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 62 : 203-206.
Graham, Costello, and Elroy R. Kreste.nson. 1957. A Residual Spray for Con-
trol of the Periodical Cicada. Jour. Econ. Ent. 50 ((5) : 713-715.
Hamilton, D. W. 1953. Notes on the Activity and Control of the Periodical Cicada,
1945 and 1950. Jour. Econ. Ent. 4(5(2) : 385.
Jacobs, M. E. 1954. Observations on the Two Forms of the Periodical Cicada.
Magicicada septendecim (L.). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 63:177-179.
Krogh, A. 1941. The Comparative Physiology of Respiratory Mechanism. Phila.
Univ. Press.
Marlatt, C. L. 1907. The Periodical Cicada. U. S. D. A., Bur. of Ent., Bui. 71:1-181.
Marshall, G. Edward. 1962. Studies on the Control of the Periodical Cicada in
Apple Orchards. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. for 1961. 71 : 114.
Oldenburg, Henry. 1666. Some Observations of Swarms of Strange Insects and
the Mischiefs Done by Them. Philos. Trans. London 1(8) : 137.
Young, Frank N. 1958. Some Facts and Theories About the Broods and Periodicity
of the Periodical Cicadas. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 68 : 164-170.
Euzophera ostricolorella Hulst (Lepidoptera, Phycitidae),
A Root Collar Borer of Tulip Tree
Donald L. Schuder and Ronald L. Giese, Purdue University
The larval stage of lepidopterous borer, Euzophera ostricolorella
Hulst, was found tunneling in the inner bark of the tulip tree at Lafayette,
Indiana in 1960. The insect has previously been reported from New York
south to Georgia and west to Kentucky. In Indiana, it has now been found
in LaPorte, Marion, Dubois and Tippecanoe counties. The borer probably
will eventually be found throughout the range of its host.
This insect has never been considered to be economically important
but, in northern Indiana, a wood lot heavily stocked with yellow poplar has
shown considerable dieback and mortality due to the attack of this insect.
At least one shade tree in West Lafayette was severely damaged by this
borer. The insect apparently is cyclic in its abundance and the present
infestation may be the peak of its population cycle.
Notes on Life History
The adults emerge in the spring. In northern Indiana, the mature
larvae, about one inch in length, and pupae were found early in May of
1961. In the fall of 1961, larvae and puae were found in Dubois County.
A cocoon is spun in the tunnel and pupation takes place with the head
towards a nearby exit hole. When the adults emerge, the pupal case remains
in the cocoon in the burrow. There apparently is only one generation in
northern climes, while there are two generations farther south.
Description of Injury
Symptoms of attack by the tulip tree borer are difficult to detect. In
infested trees, the bark just above the soil line appears to be loose and
checked, with the appearance of having been burned. There is no frass
extruded from the tunnels. Attacks are usually limited to two inches
below and six inches above the soil line. Most of the tunnels are restricted
to the soft phloem tissue. The walls of the tunnel and adjacent wood are
stained a deep black color. The tunneling by the larvae provides avenues
of entrance for various pathogens and the latter probably account for the
demise of infested trees.
Small trees, 6 inches diameter at breast height, usually have only a
few borers, while larger trees are attacked in much larger numbers.
Description of Larva
The mature larvae are about one inch long and a dull whitish color.
The head is dark brown with the heavily chitinized areas almost black.
The spiracles and anal shields are smoke brown.
Control
There is little information currently available about the control of
this insect. Hays (1) in Kentucky, found that an oil solution of 0.5%
BHC and 2% DDT was superior to the emulsion formulation.
An experimental control program is in progress at LaPorte, Indiana,
where an oil solution of dieldrin is being evaluated. Preliminary evidence
indicates that satisfactory control has been obtained.
122
Entomology 123
Literature Cited
Hay, C. J. 1058. Mfe history and control of a root collar borer ( Euzophera o>
colorella Ilulst) in yellow poplar. Jour. Econ. Ent. 51(2) : 251-252.
Light Trap Collections of the Nocturnal Bee, Sphecodogastra
texana (Gresson) (Hymenoptera, Halictidae)
Leland Chandler, Purdue University
Introduction
In conducting research on the insect pests of pines grown for Christ-
mas trees, Dr. Donald L. Schuder, of the Purdue Department of Ento-
,
Fig. 1 (upper). Light trap site in LaPorte Co., Indiana.
mology, has employed a light trap as a survey instrument. During 1959
and 1960, the site (Fig. 1) of the research under consideration in this
study was located approximately six miles northeast of LaPorte, Indiana.
The light trap (Fig. 2) was designed by the late John Taylor (U. S.
Department of Agriculture and Purdue Department of Agricultural En-
gineering) and Dr. Howard Deay (Purdue Department of Entomology).
The trap may be described briefly as being omnidirectional and had, as the
radiant energy source, three BL-360 fluorescent tubes, set vertically over
a funnel-topped collecting container. The killing agent employed was
calcium cyanide which was placed in a small paper sack and changed daily.
In 1959, the trap was placed in operation on May 15; however, as a
result of using too little cyanide, the first collections were not made until
June 1. After this date, collections were made daily through September 9.
In 1960, the trap was operated from May 15 through October 16.
The light trap collection for June 7, 1959, contained a female of S.
texana. When subsequent collections began to yield additional specimens,
occasionally in moderate numbers, the investigation reported herein began.
Review of Literature
This species of bee was described by Cresson (4, page 249) as Sphe-
codes texana (v. et. Graenicher, 6; Stevens, 13), not in Parasphecodes as
cited by Michener (10) and by Mitchell (11). In 1887, Cresson (5) moved
the species to Parasphecodes. Cockerell (2) placed it in Halictus, citing
it as the only Halictus with a red abdomen. He also cautioned against
124
Entomology
125
,,
mmmmmmmmmm
Fig. 2 (lower). Close-up photograph of the light trap.
)^mm;&
confusing this species with the Halictus texanus Cresson (4, pg. 251)
since the latter was a synonym of H. ligatus Say. Ashmead (1) erected
the genus Sphecodogastra in 1899 with the genotype, Parasphecodes
texana. Ducke referred the species to Megalopta (fide Stevens, 13).
Michener (9) reduced Sphecodogastra to subgeneric status in the genus
Lasioglossum but it was accorded generic status by Mitchell (11). The
proper designation can hardly be expected until a thorough study of the
Halictinae of the world is made.
Morphologically, S. texana is distinguished from all other Indiana
bees by the very large ocelli. Stevens (13) measured the lateral diameter
of the anterior ocellus in several species of halictine bees, including other
species of Sphecodogastra, and found this structure in S. texana to average
about 400 microns as compared to a range of 150-220 microns in the other
species. A review of structural adaptations and crepuscular, noctural and
matinal activities has been given by Linsley (8) and by Graenicher (6).
Biologically, S. texana is both a crepuscular and nocturnal species
although there are also records (Table 1) of both matinal and diurnal
126
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. Flower Visitation and Activity Records of S. texana (Cr.)
Flower Species
Time — Sex
Locality
Reference
Pyrus communis
Senecio sp.
Orindelia sp.
Oenothera rhomMpetala
Allionia nyctaginea
Megaptcrium missourien >
Hartmannia speciosa
Mentselia decapetala
Allionia hirsuta
Oenothera nuttalli
(as Anogra pallida)
0. strigosa
(as Onagra strigosa)
—do—
Helianthus petiolaris
daylight
—do—
8-10 :00 P.M.
before sunset
e to 8 :40 P.M.
sunset
7 :30 P.M.
( $ ) Mesilla, N. Mex. Cockerell (2)
( 2 $ )Las Cruces, N. M. —do — •
Lincoln, Nebr. Crawford (3)
Prescott, Wise. Graenicher (6)
Blue Rapids, Kans. Stevens (13)
— do — - — do —
■ — do — ■ ■ — do —
Manhattan, Kans. — do —
Stevens
(13, 14)
(?)
(?)
(9)
(2)
(2)
hour after sunset ( $ ) Oakes-La Moure,
N. D.
about 8 :40 P.M. ( 5 )
do
—do-
sunrise
early forenoon
— do—
( $ ) ~do-
( $ ) Sheldon, N. D.
-do—
-do-
do-
activity. Mitchell (11) reported that it was more frequently taken at
light traps than in visits to its host plants. The species is recorded as being
oligolectic on species of Onagraceae (8, 11) but there are records of
capture on species of flowers in other families. Many of these latter records
were for males or denoted only nectar sources. Table 1 summarizes those
published collection records of S. texana which mention time of activity
and/or host plant.
The length of adult flight activity ranges from April (2) to October
(2, 3) with most records between June and August. Hicks (7) described
a nest of this species taken at White Rocks, Colorado on August 25, 1926.
The nest burrow had been excavated vertically in the soil to a depth of
..I. ..i iJ'U.ij l.ll
ii hi|. ■
li ill
1^
Fig. 3 (upper). Daily collections of tf. texana (Cr.) during 1059. Number
of specimens on vertical axis.
Fig. 4 (lower). Daily collections of &. texana (Cr.) during 1060. Number
of specimens on vertical axis.
Entomology 127
40.5 cm. The tumulus of sand surrounding the nest entrance was 3.5 cm.
in height. The burrow diameter was recorded as being 5.5 mm. with the
inner walls very smooth. The one bee was taken in a short lateral at the
bottom of the burrow. No brood cells were found suggesting that the nest
was in an early stage. Graenicher (6) interpreted the spring and fall
collection records of Cockerell (2) to indicate at least two broods per year.
Linsley (8) has recorded species of Sphecodogastra as being semisocial.
Results
The results of the light trap collections for 1959 are given in Fig. 3
and the results for 1960 are given in Fig. 4. Records of males are not
plotted. In 1959, five males were collected, one each on August 17, 18, and
21, and two on August 26. In 1960, only three males were taken, one on
August 1 and two on September 8. Comparative collection data are tabu-
lated (Table 2) below.
Table 2. Comparative collection summary of S. texana females at a
light trap, LaPorte Co., Indiana.
1959
1960
No. 9
9 with
pollen
% pollen
collectors
No. 2
9 with
pollen
% pollen
collectors
June
July
August
September
32
111
85
44
4
18
10
0
12.5
16.2
11.8
0.0
31
43
42
4
1
8
7
0
3.2
18.6
16.7
0.0
Totals
272
32
11.0
120
16
13.3
Several trips were made to the light trap site to search for the nests
of the species. None was ever located. Attention was later turned to the
flowering plants of the area in order to determine the site of the pollen
source. On two occasions, specimens were secured of every species of
plant in flower at the time within a radius of several hundred yards of the
light trap. There was no species of Onagraceae included. Pollen removed
from the scopae of the bees appeared to be identical to that taken from
the flowers of Oenothera pycnocarpa Atk. and Bartl. at West Lafayette
and from the scopae of Anthedonia compta (Cr.), an Oenothera, oligolege,
collected in the same area.
Because of the dried conditions of the specimens, no study of ovariole
development could be made. Measurements of external characters (head
width, length of forewing, width of abdominal segments), while tending
to show that individuals averaged larger in June and September, did not
reveal the marked dimorphism of caste development. Neither mandibular
wear nor wing wear were found useful for age determinations.
Discussion
The weather during the period of flight activity was warm and dry
during 1959, cool and wet in 1960. These conditions could account for the
differences in collections and population peaks. Weather records were not
taken at the light trap site.
There are several points of similarity reflected in the collections.
Population peaks, interpreted as brood peaks, were more distinct in 1959
128 Indiana Academy of Science
but similar peaks were shown in 1960. The females taken during the first
two weeks of each year had not collected pollen, a condition also noted for
those females taken during the last week of August and thereafter. Pollen-
collecting females were taken only during the periods from June 29-
August 21, 1959, and June 30-August 17, 1960, with the percentage of
pollen-collectors nearly equal for both years.
Inferences drawn from the collection data would indicate the semi-
social behavior of £. texana, typical of the halictine groups in which this
species belongs. This possibly indicates, in addition, that the nest reported
by Hicks (7) really represented one in which a female was preparing for
hibernation and not a nest in the early stages of construction.
That S. texana is attracted to light is well-known. However, there
are evidences, largely unsupported, that the odor of cyanide may be an
adjunct attractant. Schwarz (12) recorded an observation made by G. H.
H. Tate in Papau who observed individuals of Trigona planifrons F. Smith
to enter an open cyanide bottle and to die there although they were not
otherwise prevented from leaving. The dead individuals covered the
bottom of the bottle to a depth of one inch. This species of stingless bee
was also collected at lights but in far fewer numbers. Diurnal bees, espe-
cially those restricted to cucurbit flowers (e.g., Peponapis p. pruinosa
(Say), Xenoglossa s. strenua (Cr.)) or frequently found on these flowers
{e.g., Melissodes b. bimaculata (Lep.), Tetralonia spp.) are taken almost
daily in light traps. The frequency of these collections, the numbers of
individuals taken and the set of conditions involved (light off, catch of
previous night removed, fresh charge of cyanide) lend some support to
this hypothesis.
In comparing the collections of S. texana made during the two years,
certain of the differences involving frequency of collections and numbers
of individuals, might be attributable to the greater amount of attention
given to care of the trap in 1959 as compared to 1960. Cyanide charges
were renewed almost daily in 1959 but in 1960 there were extended periods
in which this was not done. If, as hypothesized, cyanide is an adjunct
attractant, then the collections for the two years are not really comparable.
Literature Cited
1. Ashmead, W. II. 1809. Classification of the bees, or the superfamily Apoidea.
Trans. Ainer. Ent. Soc. 26 : 49-100.
2. Cockerell, T. D. A. 1898. On some panurgine and other bees, ibid, 25 : 185-198.
3. Crawford, J. C. 1903. Some Nebraska bees. Can. Ent. 35 : 334-336.
4. Cresson, E. T. 1872. Hymenoptera texana. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soe. 4:153-292.
5. . 1887. Catalogue of the described Hymenoptera of America north
of Mexico. Pt. 2. Catalogue of species and bibliography, ibid., Suppl. to 14:
155-350.
0. Graenicher, S. 1911. Bees of northwestern Wisconsin. Bui. Publ. Mus. Mil-
waukee 1, art. 3:221-249.
7. Hicks, C. II. 193G. Nesting habits of certain western bees. Can. Ent. 58(3) :
47-52.
8. Linseey, E. G. 1958. The ecology of solitary bees. Hilgardia 27(19) : 543-599
9. Michener, C. D. 1944. Comparative external morphology, phylogeny, and a
classification of the bees. Bui. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 82, art. 6 :151-326.
Entomology 129
10. . 1951. Family Halictidae in Muesebeck, et al, Hymenoptera of
America north of Mexico — synoptic catalog. U. S. D. A.. Agric. Monog. No
2 :1104-1134.
11. Mitchell, T. B. 1960. Bees of the eastern United States. Vol. 1. North Caro-
lina Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 141 :l-538.
12. Schwarz, II. F. 1948. Stingless bees (Meliponidae) of the Western Hemisphere.
Bui. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 90 : xviii + 546 pgs.
13. Stevens, O. A. 1920. Notes on species of Halictus visiting evening flowers
Ent. News 31(2) : 35-44.
14. . 1951. Native bees. North Dakota Agric. Exp. Sta. Bimonth
Bui. 14(2) : 59-64.
Insects and Other Arthropods of Economic Importance
in Indiana in 1961
John V. Osmun, Purdue University1
Although there are many factors which influence the status of arthro-
pod species during a given season, weather conditions tend to affect the
greatest number of different kinds, either in a negative or positive way.
The influence is both a direct one on the organism and an indirect one in
that host plant, and often host-insect, development may reflect unusual
periods in the weather. The growing season for 1961 was unusually cool
for most of the season. From April to September, there were no periods
with above normal maximum temperatures, and there were no periods
with temperatures 10°F. below the normal maximum. The average devia-
tions from the maximum normal for that part of the season were : north,
— 2.6°; central, — 5.3°; and south, — 4.0°. Solar radiation was consider-
ably below normal. In general, host plants were about three weeks re-
tarded in their early development. In September, there were four weeks
with an above normal average of 5°. The latter helps account for the late
surge in numbers of some insect species.
Rainfall during the growing season approached the normal average,
but a rather dry period occurred during the six weeks beginning May 16.
This condition, coupled with low temperatures, came at a time when many
insects normally are in their early development or are commencing activity.
Field and Crop Insects
Armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haw.)) infestations were below
normal. A few small grain fields were sprayed in the Knox and Daviess
County areas.
Fall armyworm (Laphygma fruqiperda (J. E. Smith)) appearance
was the earliest record to date in Tippecanoe County (August 1), although
few larval infestations were observed or reported in the northern half of
the state. An estimate in the south was difficult because of similar corn
earworm damage in the usual area of trouble. Light trap collections, how-
ever, indicated that the moths were more abundant than usual.
A billbug (thought to be Sphenopharus callosa (Olivier) ) continued
to be abundant in several fields of corn growing on a muck soil in Mont-
gomery County. The adults killed some seedling corn plants in the early
summer, but in general the harvest was excellent. Larvae were not found
in corn plantings. The heavy population of billbugs was associated with
the abundance of yellow nutgrass, Cyperus esculentus L., the most common
host plant of this species.
Blister beetles (several species) increased in abundance on many
truck and forest crops this season and were of special concern in home
vegetable gardens. This increase, together with that of grasshoppers,
suggests the possibility of another population rise during the next few
1. Information for this summary has been provided by : W. L. Butts, II. O.
Deay, R. C. Dobson, R. T. Everly, II. L. Giese, G. E. Gould, D. L. Hamilton, G. E.
Marshall, D. L. Matthew, J. D. Pasehke, D. L. Schuder, M. C. Wilson.
130
Entomology 131
Both the imported cabbage worm (Pieris rapae (L.) ) and the cabbage
looper (Trichophisia ni (Hbn.)) were abundant on cabbage and related
crops in late August and September.
Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus (Say)) populations remained at
non-economic levels.
Corn earworm (Heliothis zea (Boddie) ) populations declined in 1961.
The southern half of the state had the heaviest infestations with a gradual
decline northward where practically no losses were evident. It was mid-
September before the corn earworm infested sweet corn in Tippecanoe
County where infestations were momentarily high. The average state loss
of field corn was 0.31% this year compared with 0.59% experienced in
1960. This situation was corroborated by light trap catches in which moths
of this species were the lowest of the past five years.
Corn flea beetle (Chaetocnema pulicaria Melsh.) was more abundant
than during 1960 and leaf damage to popcorn continued until mid-summer
in central and east-central areas of the state.
The corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) ) was by far the
most injurious corn insect in 1961. Loss for the state averaged 4.0%
compared with 3.7% in 1960, a heavy year. The outstanding characteristic
of 1961 was the shift in population to the southern half of the state and
very low populations in the northern half where the insect had been
extremely abundant in 1959 and moderately numerous in 1960.
Southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Bar-
ber) was rather abundant throughout the state. Damage from beetle
feeding on cucurbits and some other vegetable crops was high.
Northern corn rootworm (Diabrotica longicornis (Say)) was gen-
erally distributed over the state and was more numerous than usual. Losses
were low but widespread. The feeding of the beetles on corn silks in one
field in Randolph County reduced pollination and caused a 50% reduction
in yield.
Cucumber beetles. The striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittata
(F.)) was more numerous than in the past several years. Damage was
severe throughout the state and was caused mostly by the beetles feeding
at the base of stems in early June when the weather was cold. In the latter
part of the summer, the spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica undecim-
punctata howardi Barber) was quite common on cucurbits, although cucur-
bit wilt was not more abundant than usual.
Cutworm populations were low due to climatic conditions which did
not favor them this season.
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbn.)) infestation was
heaviest in the extreme southern fourth of the state. The northern half of
the state showed high reductions in populations. The state average dropped
from 61.9 in 1960 to 33.9 borers per 100 plants in 1961. The state loss in
1961 was 1.0%.
The potato flea beetle (Epitrix cucumeris (Hart.)) was a serious
problem on potatoes throughout the season. In the past, damage from
adult feeding has been serious in the spring, but such feeding was also
abundant this year in August and early September. Growers complained
that the beetle appeared to be more difficult to control with the usual
chemical means.
132 Indiana Academy of Science
An unusual infestation of garden fleahopper (Halticus bra-cteatus
(Say) ) with populations as high as 36 per sweep were found on alfalfa in
Harrison County near Mauckport.
The fruit fly (Drosophila melanog aster Meig.) was not a serious
problem in tomato fields until last September. Populations became heavy
in October.
Grasshoppers (Melanoplus spp.) were more abundant and popula-
tions continue to increase over previous years. The two-striped grass-
hopper, M. bivittatus (Say), was not observed in the northern half of the
state.
Horn worms on tomatoes (Protoparce sextet (Johan.) and P. quinqiie-
maculata (Haw.)) were very abundant in some areas during July and
again during the first half of September. The majority of the larvae,
about 90 %, were P. sexta. Parasitism was highly irratic.
Hornworm on tobacco (Protoparce sexta (Johan.) and P. quinque
maculata (Haw.)) were important on tobacco in southern Indiana during
the last of June. Several growers in Jefferson County applied insecticides
for control at that time.
The Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica New.) continued to spread
and is now known from most of the larger urban areas of the state. A new
infestation, at Vincennes, was found in 1961. In general the population
levels were low, although populations in Evansville were high. In the
Newton County area, primarily rural, the numbers were low except for a
two square mile area. Here some 200,000 larvae per acre were found in
soybean land in the fall of 1960 and had a peak beetle population of 25,000
per acre in August of 1961. Losses to corn and soybeans were negligible.
Several species of legume caterpillars, the alfalfa caterpillar (Colias
philodice eurytheme Bdv.), the clover looper (Caenurgina crassiuscula,
(Haw.)), green cloverworm (Plathypena scabra (F.)), and the garden
webworm (Loxostege similalis (Guen.)) caused partial defoliation of
legumes in southern Indiana during September and October.
Meadow spittlebug (Philaenns spumaria (L.)) was again the most
serious insect pest on alfalfa and red clover. In addition to the expected
heavy infestations in eastern Indiana, the build-up in the central part of
the state was greater than was anticipated.
The mint looper (Rachiplusia on (Gn.)) caused little damage to the
mint crops this season. A light trap located at the edge of a peppermint
field collected several species of loopers, including Antographa precationis
(Gn.) and the celery looper, Anagrapha , falcifera (Kirby).
Damage to alfalfa by the pea aphid (Macrosiphum pisi (Harr.) ) was
noted as far north as Tippecanoe County.
Potato leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae Harris) was generally abun-
dant, causing serious damage to alfalfa, but on other crops infestations
were generally low and few complaints were received.
Spotted alfalfa aphid (Therioaphis maculata (Buckton)) was taken
July 24 in Harrison County south of Mauckport on the Ohio River. Ten
days later (August 3) it was found in Posey, Vanderburgh, and Perry
counties. These are the earliest dates that it has been collected. Data on
the development of this insect the past few years suggests that initial
infestations are coming into Indiana directly from the south rather than
Entomology 133
up the river valleys from the southwest. Consideration is being given to
the possibility that a more hardy disjunct population is developing in
Kentucky or Tennessee which may eventually select a strain adapted to
winter survival in southern Indiana.
Common stalk borer {Papaipema nebris (Guen.)) infestations re-
mained at the 1960 level. Larval damage was observed in early planted
corn. Infestations were more common along weedy fence rows.
Tomato fruitworm (Heliothis zea (Boddie)) infestations in tomatoes
were again relatively unimportant.
Fruit Insects
The codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella (L.)) can be expected to
need major consideration in 1962. The torrential rains during late bloom
resulted in a serious scab problem in southern Indiana. The many lesions
on the fruit provided easy entrance for young larvae with the result that
some orchards experienced 20% infestation in spite of spray programs.
Two of the orchard mites, the European red mite (Panonychus ulmi
(Koch)) and the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus telarius (L.))
were delayed in population development due to the cool, moist spring. Both
species developed and maintained heavy fall population pressure into late
October, and during the fruit season required miticide treatment, even on
peaches, at 5 to 7 day intervals. The four-spotted spider mite (T. cana-
densis (McGregor) ) was not numerous in 1961.
Red-banded leaf roller (Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker)) popula-
tions were low and easily contained by regular spray schedules.
The rosy apple aphid (Anuraphis roseus Baker) appeared in rela-
tively large numbers for the second successive year where control meas-
ures were marginal.
Stink bugs, including Acrosternum hilar e (Say) and several species
of Euschistus, were severe in catfacing in peaches. Some infestations were
as high as 45% in the border rows.
The peach tree borer (Sanninoidea exitiosa (Say)) was relatively
unimportant this season although the lesser peach tree borer (Senanthe-
don pictipes (G. and R.)) caused moderate to severe injury in a large
number of orchards.
The grape cane gall maker (Ampelogiypter sesostris (Lee.)) caused
considerable injury to many plantings of grapes as it did in 1960.
The lesser appleworm (Grapholitha prunivora (Walsh)) was impor-
tant for the second consecutive year in some orchards. Normal spray
schedules seem to exert little control of this insect.
Turf, Tree, Shrub and Forest Insects
Sod webworms (Crambus spp. and Nomophila noctuella) were un-
usually abundant in lawns in north-central area of the state.
Ash borer (Podosesia syringae fraxini (Lugger)) killed a large ash
tree in Tippecanoe County.
Bagworm {Thyridopteryx ephemerae}' ormis (Haworth)) populations,
although still evident on both deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs,
were not as abundant as in the past several seasons.
The Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus columbianus (Hopk.)) was
discovered in six more counties in Indiana. The addition of Orange, Rush,
134 Indiana Academy of Science
Ripley, Washington, Perry and Jackson counties indicates a nearly com-
plete distribution in the southern one-half of the state. The development
of this ambrosia beetle and its associated fungi in vigorous hosts results in
excavations and dark staining in soft maple and is highly important eco-
nomically.
Eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum (Fabricius)) lar-
vae were common on wild cherry in most areas of the state in May. Defo-
liation in many instances was quite extensive.
Elm leaf beetle (Galerucella xanthomelaena (Muller) ) again caused
heavy damage to Chinese elms in many areas of the state.
European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer (Geoffroy)), now rather
generally distributed in Indiana, caused especially heavy defoliation of
pine trees in the northern third of the state.
European pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia bouliana (Schiffermuller) )
continues to be serious in pine plantations throughout the northern part
of the state. Larvae of this species were found in buds of Scotch pine in
Jefferson and Spencer counties. The insect is now recorded along all four
borders of the state.
Fall webworm {Hyphantria cunea (Drury) ) was conspicuous on wal-
nut, cherry and other deciduous trees in Green, DuBois, Spencer, Owen and
Pike counties in early August.
Hackberry lacebug (Corythitcha celtidis (O. and D.)) was unusually
abundant in many areas of the state. Frequent requests for control meas-
ures were received in September.
Honeylocust mite {Eotetranychus multidigitula Garman) caused de-
foliation of ornamental thornless honeylocust trees in many areas of the
state.
An undetermined lepidopterous leafminer attacked foliage of pyra-
midal English oak in Tippecanoe County.
A leaf roller (Tortrix pallorana Rub.) appears to be an established,
serious problem in young Christmas tree plantings. A three-year-old
Christmas tree planting in Fulton County had an average infestation of
36 percent in early June.
Locust leafminer (Chalepus dorsalis (Thunberg)) caused leaves of
black locust to turn brown in Knox and Greene counties and was reported
to be abundant in southeastern Indiana.
Heavy infestations of the maple bladder gall (Vasates quadripedes
(Shimer)), a pest of young silver maple trees, were reported in Craw-
fordsville, Ft. Wayne and Lebanon.
Mimosa webworm (Homadaula albizziae Clarke) was extremely heavy
on honeylocust trees over the entire southern half of the state. Most honey-
locusts were completely brown and covered with silk by mid-August. This
insect was observed in Montgomery County for the first time.
Nantucket pine moth (Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock)) is normally
considered to be the most important pine pest in southern Indiana. Increas-
ing evidence of parasitism indicates that a natural balance may eventually
exist.
Oak kermes (Kermes pubescens Bogue) was heavy on several Burr
oak trees in Lafayette ; the crawlers were observed hatching in mid-July.
Entomology 135
Oak skeletonizer (Bucculatrix ainsliella Murtf.) caused extensive
damage to oak woods throughout the northern third of the state.
The brown race of oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.)) was
heavy on redbud trees in the Lafayette area.
A pine tortoise scale (Tourney ella pint King) was found infesting a
Mugho pine in Madison County. This is the first report of this insect from
the state.
Smaller European elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus (Marsh))
continues to be a very important insect because of the continuing spread
of Dutch elm disease, particularly in the northern quarter of the state.
Spruce bud scade (Physokermes piceae (Schr.)), a seldom detected
pest of spruce, was unusually abundant at both Muncie and Valparaiso.
Sycamore tussock moth (Halisidota hawisii Walsh) defoliated many
sycamore trees in Knox, Owen and Spencer counties in August.
The tulip tree callous borer (Euzophera ostricolorella Hulst) presents
a serious problem in tulip-poplar timber trees in LaPorte County. In May,
a 100% infestation of this insect was present in three timber stands,
totaling about 100 acres. Previously known from states east and south of
Indiana, this represents a new record for the state and poses a serious
threat to the growing of this valuable tree. Later in the year, the same
insect was recovered from DuBois County in southern Indiana. Although
the borer restricts its activities to the root collar region of trees of all
sizes, it is causing great concern among foresters because excavations
under the bark enhance the invasion of secondary pathogens and insects
into the plant tissue. The infestations in the two extreme locations have
been present for at least several years.
The walkingstick (Diapheromera femorata (Say)) continued in epi-
phytotic proportions in Starke County in a second growth stand of black
oaks. Major to complete defoliation had no apparent effect on the oak
hosts; however, this species is a potential devastator of other hardwoods
such as maple. Although numerous tachinid parasites were recovered
both in 1960 and 1961, the population appeared to be as severe in 1961
as in the previous year.
Walnut caterpillar (Datana integerrima G. and R.) defoliated walnut
trees in Madison County in late July.
Zimmerman pine moth (Dioryctria zimmermani Grote) was found
for the first time in Fulton and Marion counties. This is a severe pest of
pines grown in plantations and applied control in the form of spraying
and sanitation is indicated.
Livestock Insects
Cattle grubs (Hypodermis bovis De Geer and H. lineatum (De Vil-
liers) ) continued to be serious on western calves shipped into Indiana but
were only moderately important to native grown livestock.
Face fly (Musca autumnalis De Geer) continues to be the most impor-
tant pest of livestock in Indiana. Populations of this insect built up to
high levels in late June and remained numerous until fall. Counts were
similar to those of 1960 — up to 60 per face and 200 per total animal. This
year the fly spread to the southern third of the state where it was present
in non-economic numbers; the highest counts were 2 to 3 flies per animal.
Pink eye incidence remained high in the area of heavy infestation of flies
136 Indiana Academy of Science
and apparent correlations between pink eye incidence and face fly occur-
rence were observed.
Horn fly (Siphona irritans (L.)) was present in severe numbers on
untreated cattle throughout the summer in the northern part of the state.
In the southern half of the state, two peaks in population occurred, one in
June and the other in the first part of September.
Horse flies (Tabanus atratus Fab. and T. sucifrons Marquart) were
much less apparent this year than last year, even in the normally heavily
infested northeastern part of the state.
House fly (Musca domestica L.) remained in second position in im-
portance this year among the livestock pests. Populations throughout the
state were apparently higher than in 1960.
Stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) was again a serious pest in
barns with fouled bedding which was not changed with regular frequency.
Pests of Man and Households
Cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis (Bouche)) infestations were common
wherever cats or dogs were kept indoors. Complaints have been common
in late summer and early autumn.
Face fly (Musca autumnalis DeG.) occurred in small numbers in rural
homes this year throughout the summer. The heavy fall invasions noted
in some areas last year in September did not materialize until late October
in 1961.
The German cockroach (Blattella germanica (Linnaeus)) has con-
tinued to be troublesome in homes and food-handling establishments. Of
special interest was its occurrence in significant numbers outdoors in the
Fort Wayne area.
Sap beetles, or picnic beetles as they are frequently called, (Glisch-
rochilus spp.) were troublesome throughout the state, causing annoyance
to picnickers and to people at other outdoor activities. Control practices
now appear necessary and feasible.
Subterranean termites (Reticulitermes spp.) have been the most con-
sistently encountered household pest. Questions received throughout the
year indicate a definite interest in preventive treatment in new con-
struction.
Complaints concerning the two ticks, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (La-
trielle) and Dermacentor variabilis (Say), have been considerably less
frequent than in 1960.
Mosquitoes were, in general, less troublesome throughout the early
part of the year due primarily to the weather conditions. October infesta-
tions, however, were unusually annoying. Of particular interest was the
isolation of St. Louis Encephalitis virus from Psorophora sp. collected by
J. A. Dold in Holton, Ripley County. This is the first isolation of this virus
from mosquitoes of this genus.
Biological Control Agents
Field collection of loopers (Anagrapha falcifera (Kirby), Rachiplu-
sia ou (Gn.), Trichoplusia ni (Hbn.) and Autographa precationis (Gn.) )
from commercially grown mint (Jasper County) yielded parasitic species
in varying numbers. Both primary and secondary (hyperparasite) para-
sites were reared from the hosts. Members of the family Tachinidae, as
Entomology 137
well as parasitic hymenoptera of the families Eulophidae, Braconidae and
Ichneumonidae, were represented in these samples.
Other hymenopterous parasites, Praon simulans (Prov.) and Aphidius
pisivorus Smith, as well as a species of Aphelinus Dalm, were reared from
the pea aphid, Macrosiphum j)isi (Harris).
Virus diseases, nuclear polyhedroses, were prevalent in the above
mentioned looper species. The combination of virus diseases and numerous
parasites maintained the looper populations at sub-economic densities
which alleviated the need for the application of insecticides.
Importance Rating
A rating is given of the ten most important arthropod pests in Indiana
in 1961. It is very difficult to choose only ten, and lacking quantitative
data on most of them, the ranking within this group is a matter of judg-
ment. The following criteria were used: damage or annoyance actually
caused, the extent to which measures were taken to prevent economic loss,
and newness of the situation requiring considerable investigation.
The rating is:
1. Subterranean termite
2. Face fly
3. Corn leaf aphid
4. Smaller European elm bark beetle
5. House fly
6. Grasshoppers
7. Orchard spider mites
8. Potato leafhopper
9. Columbian timber beetle
10. Fleas
Greenhouse Studies on the Resistance of Corn and Barley
Varieties to Survival of the Corn Leaf Aphid.1
Gayla H. Dishner and Ray T. Everly, Shades Valley High School,
Birmingham, Alabama and Purdue University
The corn leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), has been recog-
nized as a serious insect pest of corn, sorghum and barley for many years.
A recent outbreak in Indiana reported by Everly (1960), stimulated re-
search on this insect.
Investigations on the control of this insect with insecticides has indi-
cated several materials that will reduce infestations. However the difficulty
in determining incipient outbreaks and the short period of time available
for control applications after the infestations are exposed, limits the value
of chemical control measures. In addition there is the probability that
much of the injury to the corn plant occurs before the appearance of the
tassels and exposure of the aphid infestation so that the value of insecti-
cides for preventing loss of corn yield is still problematical.
A number of investigators have reported on the resistance of certain
varieties of crops to this aphid. The earliest record of corn resistance was
reported by Gernert (1917). McColloch (1921) reported the corn variety
Minnesota 13 as very resistant to aphids. Snelling, et al (1940) reported
on the resistance of crop varieties to the corn leaf aphid. Huber and
Stringfield (1942) reported in detail on many inbred lines of corn and
suggested a high correlation with the resistance of these lines to the Euro-
pean corn borer. Everly (1960) reported observations on differences in
infestation among commercial corn hybrids and indications of tolerance
to damage by the aphid.
Since the need for chemical controls is difficult to determine and timing-
is critical, resistance and tolerance of plant varieties to attack by the corn
leaf aphid offers a continuous and easy way to avoid losses from aphid
infestations.
All the earlier investigation and observations of aphid resistance by
crop plants were made under heavy field infestations over a period of
years. At the present time only few of the inbred lines of corn are rated
on aphid resistance. There is a need for development of a method for
infesting crop plants under controlled condition in early stages of growth,
and before abnormal environmental conditions have influenced the physi-
ology and development of the plants. This paper is a report of preliminary
investigations on aphid infestations on seedling corn and barley plants in
the greenhouse during the summer of 1961.
Methods and Materials
Corn tests. Seed of sixteen inbred lines of dent corn were obtained
from Dr. A. M. Brunson of the U. S. D. A. and Dr. L. F. Bauman of the
Purdue Department of Botany and Plant Pathology. These lines were in
common use and/or were lines on which previous workers had reported
aphid resistance or susceptibility. The seed of sorghum variety RS 610
used to build up aphid infestations for transfer to the corn varieties, was
1. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Paper No.
1842.
138
Entomology 139
obtained from Dr. R. C. Pickett of the Purdue Department of Agronomy.
The experimental design consisted of six randomized replicate blocks.
The inbred lines were planted in rows in greenhouse flats with a row of
sorghum adjacent to each corn row. Each flat comprised five rows of
sorghum and four rows of corn, with four flats making up a replicate.
The sorghum seed was planted first and when the plants had emerged
the corn seed was planted. This allowed for sufficient time to build up
aphid infestations on the sorghum before the corn had outgrown the seed-
ling stage. The sorghum plants were infested and when sufficient build up
of aphid populations had developed (about 10 days after infestations),
the sorghum plants were cut off and laid in the rows. As these sorghum
plants dried, the aphids migrated to adjoining corn plants. To insure
infestation on all the corn the inbred lines of corn, two plants in each row
of corn were manually infested with aphids. About a week after the corn
plants were infested each plant was cut at the ground level and dissected
and the aphids recorded as small and mature. A complete replicate was
dissected each day.
Predators, particularly in flats near the open windows, were a factor
in reducing the aphid infestations, and may have contributed to the high
random variability of the corn tests.
Barley tests. Thirteen varieties of barley were obtained from Pro-
fessor L. E. Compton of the U. S. D. A. and Purdue Department of Botany
and Plant Pathology. These barley varieties along with sorghum RS 610
were planted in greenhouse flats with seven rows per flat, each row con-
taining two entries. The flats were covered with cheesecloth to protect
the germinating plants from bird damage. The cheesecloth covering also
prevented random infestation by free aphids and reduced predator and
parasite populations to a minimum. After germination the plants were
thinned to six per half -row and infested with one mature aphid per plant.
The following day the infestations were checked and plants with aphids
missing were reinfested. A subsequent observation made two days later
showed that some of the aphids were parasitized. These were removed and
destroyed and replaced by other aphids. About two weeks later the barley
plants were dissected and the small and mature aphids present on each
plant were recorded.
Results
Corn. The data from the inbred lines of corn are shown in Table 1.
Highly significant differences were shown for the numbers of small aphids
per plant. Mature aphids and total aphids showed no significant differ-
ences. However the inbred alignment differs very little when based on
immature aphids from that based on total aphids. Undoubtedly predators
were an influence on this variability. In addition, the technque of migra-
tion from drying sorghum plants to the corn plants permitted any differ-
ences in attractiveness of the corn varieties to influence aphid migrations.
A comparison of these results with those reported by previous workers
incidate a rather high degree of concurrence. Indiana WF9 was reported
Snelling et al (1940), and Huber and Stringfield (1942) as highly sus-
ceptible under field conditions. In these test Indiana WF9 was the third
most susceptible. Illinois A was reported as resistant in Illinois and
Indiana [Walter and Brunson (1940)] and moderately susceptible in
140 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1 — Populations of the corn leaf aphid developing on inbred lines of
dent corn under greenhouse conditions. Lafayette, Indiana 1961.
Aphid
s Per Plant
Inbred Lines
Immature
Mature
Total
No.
No.
No.
Oh 07
5.8
16.1
21.9
Os420
6.9
12.0
18.9
WF 9
6.1
11.3
14.4
Oh 51
4.0
12.7
16.6
P 8
6.0
9.8
15.8
Oh51A
4.5
11.1
15.6
Oh 43E
4.:1,
9.2
13.5
111. A
3.8
9.2
13.0
B 8
3.3
7.1
10.2
Oh 45
4.0
6.7
10.1
Oh 28
2,8
7.1
9.7
187 2
3.0
6.6
9.6
90
2.9
5.0
9.4
Hy
2.6
0.4
7.7
L317
2.7
4.2
7.6
38 11
1.7
5.4
7.1
LSD
19:1
3.7
NS
NS
99:1
4.9
NS
NS
Ohio [Huber and Stringfield (1942)]. It has been intermediate in these
tests. Ohio 51 was resistant in these tests and reported as resistant in
one or more field tests. Data assembled by Painter (1951 — table 9, p. 211)
indicates that the consistency of field observations was high in some inbred
lines and quite variable in others, which fact is supported by the data
obtained in these tests. Iowa L317 was reported as resistant in Ohio and
Pennsylvania (Huber et al 1948) and in hybrid combination in Illinos
(Snelling et al 1940). In these tests it was the second most resistant.
Indiana 38-11 was the most resistant in the greenhouse in these tests, but
under field conditions tended to show susceptibility except in hybrid com-
binations in Illinois and Indiana [Snelling et al. (1940) and Walter &
Brunson (1942). Illinois Hy was moderately resistant in Illinois [Snell-
ing et al (1940)] as an inbred and moderately susceptible in Ohio [Huber
and Stringfield (1942)]. In Pennsylvania [Huber et al. (1948)] it was
relatively resistant. In these tests Illinois Hy was resistant.
From these comparisons it appears with refinement in techniques that
further studies of seedling corn in the greenhouse offers a means of eval-
uating corn for aphid resistance.
Barley. The data obtained from the barley varieties are given in
Table 2. An analysis of these data indicated highly significant differences
among the varieties for all aphid categories. All varieties were less sus-
ceptible than Sorghum RS 610, although the higher populations on this
crop might be due to morphological differences more favorable to aphid
development and survival. Among the barley varieties Kenate CI 9570
was the most susceptible, having populations almost equal to those on the
Entomology 141
Table 2 — Populations of corn leaf aphids developing on varieties of barley
and sorghum under greenhouse conditions. Lafayette, Indiana, 1961.
Aphids Per Plant
Varieties
Immature
Mature
Total
No.
No.
No.
Sorghum
RS610
12.7
14.5
27.7
Barley
Kenate CI 9570
11.0
13.0
24.1
Hudson Sel 3
10.7
10.5
21.1
Dayton
9.7
9.2
18.4
Hard CI 6007
5.S
11.2
16.8
Kentucky #1
8.8
5.9
14.7
Meimi CI 5136
5.2
8.8
14.0
MoB 696 - 3
6.8
6.7
12.2
CI 9572 Decatur
5.2
6.2
11.4
MoB 475 CI 9168
4.6
3.5
7.4
Kearney CI 7580
3.5
4.0
7.1
Hooded 16 Sel 3323
4.0
4.6
6.6
Pictoo CI 5529
3.1
2.6
5.2
Utah Sel C 10,000
3.0
2. i
4.8
LSD 19:1
4.8
5.05
7.9
99:1
6.4
6.7
10.5
Sorghum. The most resistant variety was Utah Sel C 10,000. Based on
total aphid count, MoB 475, CI 9168, Kearney CI 7580, Hooded 16 Sel 3323,
and Pictoo CI 5529 were resistant to the corn leaf aphid. At the present
time there is no information available as to the performance of these
varieties under field conditions.
Literature Cited
Everly, Kay T. 1960. Loss in corn yield associated with the abundance of the corn leaf
aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis, in Indiana. Journ. Econ. Ent. 53(5) : 924-932.
Gernert, W. B. 1917. Aphid immunity of Teosinte-corn hybrids. Science (n. s.) 46:
390-392.
IIuber, L. L., B. L. Seem, B. F. Coon and C. C. Wernham. 1948. Pennsylvania corn
hybrid performance 1943-4G tests. Penn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 494.
IIuber, L. L., and J. H. Stringfield. 1942. Aphid infestation of strains of corn as an
index to their susceptibility to corn borer attack. Journ. Agri. Res. 64(5) : 283-291.
McColloch, J. W. 1921. The corn leaf aphid (Aphis' maidis Fitch) in Kansas. Journ.
Econ. Ent. 14 : 89-94.
Painter, Pi. H. 1951. Insect resistance in crop plants. Macmillan Co., N. Y. 520 pp.
illus.
Snelling, R. O., Ralph A. Elanchard and John H. Bigger. 1940. Resistance of corn
strains to the leaf aphid, Aphis maidis Fitch. Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron. 32 : 371-
381.
Walter, E. V., and A. M. Brunson. 1940. Differential susceptibility of corn hybrids to
Aphis maidis. Jour. Econ. Ent. 33 : 623-028.
Effect of X-Ray Radiation on the Survival of the
Corn Leaf Aphid1
Stephen C. Hershey and Ray T. Everly, Southwestern Community
High School, Flint, Michigan, and Purdue University
The genetic composition and manner in which traits are passed from
generation to generation is a most interesting problem in the corn leaf
aphid, Rhoj)alosij)hum maidis (Fitch). Although this insect was first
described in 1856 by Fitch, the first report and description of the alate
male was made by Wildermuth and Walters in 1932. These forms occurred
during the winter months in reared cultures. So far as is known the male
form does not occur in nature and oviparous females have never been
reported.
Since this insect reproduces parthenogenetically and viviparously, it
is to be expected that each daughter aphid would be genetically identical
with the mother. However, Cartier and Painter (1956) reported the exist-
ence of two biotypes in populations of this aphid. Additional biotypes were
isolated by Pathak and Painter (1958a, 1958b, and 1959) . Ford and Everly
(1960) observed two distinct color variants in cultures of the corn leaf
aphid on sorghum which were identified as this species by Professor J. J.
Davis. Since the absence of males precludes the introduction of variations
due to chromosomal interchanges of genes, morphological variations and
the development of physiologic races in this aphid must be due to a high
sensitivity to mutagenic agents. The mechanism of this phenomenon is
little understood.
To obtain information on the variability of this insect when subjected
to a mutagenic agent, X-rays, it was necessary to determine the effects
of different dosages on aphid mortality. An optimum survival with an
opportunity for mutations to occur should approximate the dosage at
which 50 percent of the aphids survived. To determine this LD50 dosage
rate, colonies of the corn leaf aphid were subjected to a wide range of
X-ray irradiation.
Methods and Materials
The aphids used in these tests were cultured on seedling barley plants
in the greenhouse during the summer. No cooling facilities were available
and consequently temperatures were quite high during August. This
resulted in reduced reproduction and smaller individuals, similar to the
observations of Wildermuth and Walters (1932). When the aphids had
increased in numbers on the barley plants, a single heavily-infested plant
was cut at ground level and immediately inserted in a water-filled "orchid"
tube to prevent wilting and drying of the plant. The infested plant and
tube were placed in a deep petri dish and covered. The dosage rate was
marked on the side of the dish with a wax pencil. Seven of these infested
plants were similarly prepared and taken within an hour to a nearby
building where six were subjected to X-ray dosages ranging from 1000 to
32000 r-units by progressively doubling the dosage rate.
A General Electric Maxitron 300 X-Ray machine was used. The
machine was calibrated to deliver 280 roentgen units per minute over a
1. Turdue University Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Paper No. 1841.
142
Entomology 143
field sufficiently large to treat three petri dishes simultaneously. The times
of exposure to produce the desired dosage rates are given in Table 1. The
Table 1. Exposure time needed to irradiate corn leaf aphids at varying
dosage levels and survival of aphids after irradiation.
Lafayette, Indiana. Summer 1961.
Irradiated
Time of
Aphids
Aphid
Survivals
Dosase
Exposure1
Transferred
After
11 Days
r-units
Min.
No.
No.
%
0
0
66
53
80.3
1000
3.6
103
120
116.5
2000
7.2
75
32
42.7
4000
14.3
68
8
11.8
8000
28.6
57
0
0
16000
57.3
n
3
6.8
32000
104.6
48
1
2.1
1. General Electric Maxitron 300 X-Ray machine delivered 280 r-units per minute.
dosage levels were selected to provide one sufficiently high to cause com-
plete mortality and one low enough not to injure the aphids. Three samples
were treated at one time, with each sample being removed when it had
received the proper dosage. An automatic built-in timer controlled the
exposure time. The untreated aphids received similar treatment as the
others except they were not subjected to the X-rays.
Immediately following the completion of the treatments the colonies
of aphids were returned to the greenhouse and transferred to flats of
seedling sorghum plants, one aphid to a plant and only one dosage rate to
a flat. These seedling sorghum plants were grown under cheesecloth to
reduce the chance of contamination from other untreated aphids. After
the plants were infested the cheesecloth was replaced. The cheesecloth also
reduced the attack of predators and parasites. Daily observations were
made and on the tenth day the plants were dissected and the numbers of
aphids present recorded. (Table 1.)
Results and Conclusions
The percent of aphids surviving on the sorghum plants and the dosage
rates were plotted on rectilinear, semi-log and double-log coordinate paper.
When the data were plotted on the double-log paper the points fell in
approximately a straight line indicating the relationship between the two
variables was best expressed by the power log curve. The data were then
converted to common logarithms and a straight line fitted with the formula
log Y = 5.88025 — 1.29252 log X. The correlation was high significant,
r = 0.988 compared with 0.917 required for high significance, with a highly
significant b-value of — 1.29. When the constants for the straight line are
converted to the power log curve the relationship of the two variables was
best expressed by the formula Y = 759,000X"129252. (See figure 1.) Based
on this relationship the LD50 was determined to be 1717.8 r-units.
This LD50 dosage rate has several inherent modifying factors as it is
based on a heterogeneous-age population of aphids, ranging from newly-
144
Indiana Academy of Science
Y ■ 759,000 X*1-29292
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17
X-RAY DOSAGE IN ROENTGEN UNITS x 1 02
Figure 1. Effect of different dosages of X-radiation on the mortality of the
corn leaf aphid in the greenhouse. Lafayette, Indiana. 1961.
born nymphs to reproductively-depleted adult females, although the large
size of the irradiated colonies would tend to minimize the effect of age
differences of the individuals comprising them. However, the LD50 of
immature aphids might conceivably differ extensively from that of mature
aphids. In addition the LD50 calculated from the surviving aphids after
a period of 10 days represents a combined morphological and reproduc-
tive LD50.
For further studies on the sensitivity of the corn leaf aphid to muta-
genic agents, the LD50 of approximately 2000 r-units will give sufficient
survival and possibility of induced variations to make this a usable irra-
diation rate. The results of these studies indicate the need of further
experiments along these lines to determine the effect of age on variability
of morphological mortality as well as reproductive sterility.
Literature Cited
Cartier, Jean Jacques, and Painter Reginald H. 1956. Differential reactions of two
hiotypes of the corn leaf aphid to resistant and susceptible varieties, hybrids and
selections of sorghums. Jour. Econ. Ent. 49(4). 498-508.
Fitch, Asa. 1856. The maize aphid. Second Rpt. Insects of New York State. Albany,
pp. 318-320.
Ford, Benjamin T., and Ray T. Everly. 1960. Sorghum resistance to the corn leaf
aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Pitch). Indiana Acad. Sci. 70: 137.
Pathak, M. D., and Reginald H. Painter. 1958a. Effect of the feeding of the four
biotypes of corn leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), on susceptible White
Martin sorghum and Spartan barley plants. Jour. Kans. Ent. Soc. 31(2) : 93-100.
Pathak, M. D., and Reginald H. Painter. 1958b. Differential amounts of material
taken up by four biotypes of corn leaf aphids from resistant and susceptible sor-
ghums. Ann. Ent. Soc. Araer. 51(3) : 250-254.
Entomology 145
Pathak, M. D., and Reginald H. Painter. 1959. Geographical distribution of the four
biotypes of corn leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch). Ind. Acad. Sci. 70:
137.
Wildermuth, V. L., and E V. Walters. 1932. Biology and control of the corn leaf
aphid with special reference to the Southwestern States. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech.
Bui. 306. pp. 13-17.
Some Factors Associated with Earworm Resistance
in Sweet Corn
E. V. Walter, Entomology Research Division, Agr. Res. Serv., U.S.D.A.
Plant resistance to insect injury has been demonstrated several times
in the past few years. Most of the records of resistance refer to an insect
having a limited number of similar host plants. As a contrast, the corn
earworm has been recorded as feeding on nearly 100 species of food plants
in the United States alone. These species include grains and forages,
vegetables and flowers, and even the citrus fruits. The earworm always
develops best on the fruiting parts of the plant but usually has little diffi-
culty living on other parts if necessary. Resistance in a favored host-plant
species to an insect of such omnivorous feeding habits would seem quite
unlikely. Yet, that corn has been able to develop into a grain of such
importance may be due to the development of protective factors within the
plant, as well as to the natural enemies of the earworm. Certainly the 50
or more eggs often found would entirely destroy the ear if all developing
larvae were able to feed on it.
For the most part, factors responsible for the observed resistance are
not understood. Some of the factors are considered to be mechanical, such
as a hairy or a hard stem that the insect cannot easily penetrate.
Husk covering was the most obvious reason for the differences Kyle
(U.S.D.A. Bull. 708, 1910) observed in the amount of earworm injury on
different varieties of corn. He considered that long, tight husks reduced
the damage. Several workers since then have argued the point but have
confused the issue by failing to differentiate between infestation and
actual damage. Tight husks and closely placed rows do tend to reduce the
total injury by compelling the larva to feed at the tip instead of penetrat-
ing deep into the ear. Thus, we have a mechanical form of resistance.
Tightness of husks does not have any effect on the percentage of the
ears that may be infested. This lack of effect is easily understood when
it is realized that a larva usually follows a single silk strand or a few
adjacent strands in its feeding during the first, second, and sometimes
third instar on its way to the kernels. Thus, it is not unusual to find a
rather large number of small larvae in the silk channel during the early
stages of development. By the time the larvae have reached the late third-
or fourth-instar stage, they will have eaten off most of the silks and
reached the tip of the ear. If the husks are tight the larva will be com-
pelled to feed as it penetrates the ear. Thus, feeding will be confined to a
small area at the tip where cannibalism occurs and often only one or two
larvae survive. Although the ear is infested, less damage is done than if
more larvae had wandered over the ear.
Early in our work with the earworm we noted that the larvae grew
faster and larger on some varieties of corn than on others. In our hand-
infestation work, we observed one case where larvae from the same batch
of eggs had reached full size and left the ears of one inbred in 16 days
whereas on an adjacent row of another inbred they were still feeding 10
days later. Also, in one case, when larvae from the same mother were
kept in individual tin boxes under the same conditions in an incubator but
fed different inbred lines of corn, those of one group reached full growth
146
Entomology 147
but those of another were very much smaller. Larvae fed on one very
highly susceptible inbred were very much larger than normal and seldom
completed development to the pupal stage. They remained as larvae or
pre-pupae until. death. The differences in growth pattern seemed to be due
to some nutritional factor and should be studied further. This nutritional
factor may affect the value of corn as food for livestock.
An inbred sent to us for testing by C. F. Poole of the Regional Vege-
table Breeding Laboratory at Charleston, S. C, proved to be quite resis-
tant. The progeny of a mutant selection found in 1941 have been highly
resistant, and this character appears to be dominant since crosses of this
selection also are resistant. This same resistance can be reselected from
the crosses. Thus, it appears that the plants can produce some material
perhaps distasteful to the larvae, and this character can be transferred
from one plant to another through breeding. Likewise, we have observed
a recessive character in one inbred that was highly resistant but the char-
acter was not expressed in the crosses.
We have also noted another form of resistance. Two inbreds, Ohio 55
and Connecticut 53, each of which are susceptible to earworm attack and
injury, seem to have complementary factors for resistance. The cross of
these inbreds gives us the resistant hybrid known as Brookhaven. A few
other such results have been observed.
Perhaps the most spectacular form of resistance so far observed in
corn was first found by R. A. Blanchard in 1941 in a line of flour corn
with which he was working. He observed dead larvae in the silks of about
14 percent of the ears he had hand-infested with newly hatched larvae.
This particular line of flour corn was lost but not until after it had been
crossed with sweet corn.
Selections from these sweet x flour corn crosses have been found
which carry the factor, sometimes much stronger than that of the original
flour corn. What appears to be the same lethal character has been found
in selections from a corn x teosinte x sweet corn cross, and from another
line involving a cross between sweet corn and a semiflint variety known
as Mexican June. The lethal character in these three lines appears to be
dominant in breeding. The crosses are highly resistant and often a rather
high percentage of the ears will have dead larvae in the silks. This lethal
character that results in resistance is rather easily isolated again in
inbreds.
We have found still a fourth line coming from a cross between sweet
corn and Cuban Yellow Flint in which frequently from 50 to 75 percent of
the inbred ears will have dead larvae in the silks. This character may be
the same as that in the other three, but it appears to differ in being reces-
sive in crosses and less easy to recover.
Thus, we have observed several resistant factors in the favored host
of one of our most omnivorous insects. These factors each appear to be
independent of any other plant character and can be used in breeding to
combine two or more resistance factors in a single cross that is very highly
resistant to earworm damage.
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
Chairman: Duncan McGregor, Indiana Geological Survey
Lowell Dillon, Ball State College, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
The Borden Formation at Highbridge, Indiana. David M. Patrick,
Purdue University. — The rocks of the Borden formation of southern In-
diana have been the subject of much investigation and controversy, but
little work has been done on this formation in northern Indiana. The pur-
pose of this investigation is to describe the stratigraphic and areal rela-
tionships of the Pennsylvanian-Borden contact at Highbridge, Indiana.
Here the Mansfield sandstone (Pennsylvanian) overlies the Borden forma-
tion (lower Mississippian). At Attica, Indiana, the Borden is represented
by a marine siltstone of undisputed Mississippian age, while at High-
bridge, the siltstone is continental and contains coal seams and plant
fossils. North and south of the main gorge at Highbridge, the siltstone
becomes lighter in color and contains Mississippian marine fossils similar
to those at Attica. The problem is whether the dark, continental siltstone
at the main gorge at Highbridge is continental Borden or a Pennsylvanian
channel filling on top of the Borden. By comparing and identifying the
flora of the continental deposit, and the areal relationships, it is believed
that this flora represents deposition in a typical Pennsylvanian swamp
environment and that the section there represents a Pennsylvanian chan-
nel filling.
The Instrument Tiltometer and the Dynamical Elasticity of the Earth's
Crust. Gerald J. Shea, Terre Haute. — The Tiltometer, an instrument
devised for measuring a change in mass by the use of a horizontal pendu-
lum. Based in theory on the assumption that the solid material composing
the earth's crust is in reality elastic in nature. Based in fact on the obser-
vations by the use of an instrument devised to show experimentally the
existence of the elastic solid described. The use of so minute a curve as
measured in an elastic solid may at first prove bothersome. To really
understand the functions involved is not simple but it is a known fact that
the earth and all it is composed of is in reality an elastic solid. Being thus
the material of the crust, as well as the deeper layers may be proved to
obey all the laws governing confined fluids. A slab of rock, which appears
to exhibit no elasticity, can be shown by the analysis of instruments to
be as elastic in nature as a block of rubber. From the study of the prin-
ciples governing the function of the seismograph was derived this instru-
ment. The recording trace of the seismograph in response to a given tilt
was observed when changing the record daily. This deviation was known
to be due to the bending of the material upon which the seismograph
rested. It was found that a man's weight (165 pounds) at a distance of
four feet from the column caused a trace displacement of one inch on the
record. Two men at the same distance caused a displacement of two inches,
etc. All that was now necessary was to devise a portable form of seismo-
graph having high sensitivity and stability to measure any given change
148
Geology and Geography 149
in mass at any reasonable distance. Practical applications of the idea have
been to weigh huge semi-trailers, water tanks, coal piles, and individuals.
Abstract of How Old Is Man? J. A. Reeves, West Terre Haute. — A
few thousand years ago Moses wrote that God made Adam and Eve, the
first man and woman, about 6,000 years ago. As time goes on scientists
keep increasing this figure. There are very great differences of opinion as
to the proper figure. This paper attempts to choose a figure that is nearer
the true figure than any submitted before. The Gargantuan Calendar, the
steps made by Nature in the formation of coal and the finding of the
Abominable Coal Man in northern Italy are submitted in determining
another figure.
Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle
Thomas Frank Barton, Indiana University
In Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle are found not only most
of the state-owned outdoor recreational facilities but also the physical
potentials which, if developed, would enable this region to become not only
the leading recreational area of the state but also one of the chief recrea-
tional areas of the entire Ohio River watershed. It is urgent that these
potentialities be recognized now and developed within the next ten years
or some of the latent recreational assets may disappear.
At this writing, October, 1961, the state- and national-owned recrea-
tional facilities could be better coordinated. Some of the potentialities of
this triangle apparently are not recognized or are neglected by local, state
and national agencies. As far as the writer knows, the region presented
has never been identified, bounded, named or characterized.
In this paper the author wishes to call attention to the area and, if
possible, contribute suggestions for the region's coordinated development.
Although it is located, in part, in the depressed area of the state where
there is a surplus of labor and an outward migrating population, here the
natural resources of forest, water and recreation are underdeveloped.
General Characteristics
Boundaries. Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle is bounded on
the west by the Wabash River and on the south and southeast by the
serpentine course of the Ohio River. Its non-river boundary is formed by
drawing three straight lines: (1) the first connects the junction of the
Indiana-Illinois state boundary and the Wabash River with Turkey Run
State Park, (2) the second a short line connects the Turkey Run and
Shades State Parks and (3) the third connects the Shades State Park
and the junction of the Indiana-Ohio boundary and the Ohio River. Thirty-
two of Indiana's 92 counties are completely within this triangle and parts
of 11 others are included.
Size. The 32 counties in this triangle have a land area of over 7.7
million acres. When parts of the other 11 are included, then this region
covers over one-third of the state's entire land area.
An arc with a 190-mile radius pivoting in Shades State Park would
include all the southernmost points in Indiana and this recreational region.
Relative Location. Five of Indiana's 11 standard metropolitan county
areas are in or partially in the region, namely Clark, Floyd, Marion, Van-
derburgh and Vigo. The other six are less than 180 air miles away.
People living in the extreme northwest corner of Lake County in
metropolitan Chicago are about 185 miles from the Shades State Park.
Those living in the northwest corner of Steuben County (which is in the
northwest corner of Indiana) are less than 200 air miles from Southern
Indiana's Recreational Triangle. Part of the Louisville metropolitan area
is within this region and metropolitan Cincinnati is only about ten miles
east. From the standpoint of accessibility over two-thirds of Indiana's
citizens can use the area for day outings and all of the state's citizens
can reach it for weekends or several-day outings.
150
Geology and Geography 151
Topography. All of Indiana's unglaciated hill lands are within this
Recreational Triangle as well as most of the rugged topography associated
with the Norman Upland, the Crawford Upland, the Muscatatuck Regional
Slope and the Dearborn Upland.
Population. Eighteen of the 32 counties lying entirely within this
region had fewer people in 1960 than in 1900.2 Between 1900-1960 only in
four of these 32 counties did the population increase more rapidly than it
did in the state average.3 These four were Bartholomew, Clark, Monroe
and Vanderburgh. During this same sixty-year period, ten additional
counties gained in population but the increase was less than the 18 per
cent state increase.4 In spite of the fact that, with few exceptions, this
area is one of declining population, there is a labor surplus in the region.
Recreational Assets
Besides its light and declining population density, this triangular
recreational region contains the state's concentration of (1) forests, (2)
reservoir sites, (3) natural scenic views, (4) early historical places and
(5) lowest-priced land.
Forests. The 32 counties wholly in this area have 2.8 million acres of
forest land.5 If the forest acreage within the other 11 counties were added
to the 2.8 million, there would be in and adjacent to this recreational tri-
angle over three million acres of forest land or over three-fourths of the
entire acreage.
Reservoir Sites. The greatest number of large dam and reservoir sites
(not farm ponds) are in the hill lands and in the major river valleys of
this region : namely, the Ohio, Wabash and White Rivers. These sites are
potentially capable of holding more acre-feet of water than the artificial
reservoir sites in other parts of the state.
Scenic Views. Formerly the greatest concentration of unique and
scenic views in northern Indiana were found in the Dunes area along Lake
Michigan, but today these views are rapidly being destroyed or despoiled.
Many areas with recreational potential have been leveled, filled-in and/or
polluted. Some realists fear that within the next 25 years industry and
urbanization will sweep around and perhaps over the area in the Dunes
State Park.
Since the scenic areas of Kankakee Swamps have been largely de-
stroyed by drainage and those of the Dunes along Lake Michigan primarily
occupied and despoiled by cities and industry, the state's remaining scenic
attractions are concentrated in Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle.
Early Historical Places. Since the southern part of Indiana was settled
first, it is only natural that cultural features which epitomize the state's
early history are to be found here adjacent to the Ohio River.6 Those who
wish to study early "on-the-spot" history in its geographic setting should
come to southern Indiana's Ohio River country. Here, where archaeolo-
gists uncover the past and reconstruct the pre-white uses of the land, are
found interesting remains of pre-white cultures.
Low-Priced Land. To date it is difficult to convince either city or rural
people that recreational areas are just as essential in a metropolitan
society as stores, offices, warehouses and factories. It is also usually diffi-
cult to get adequate appropriations from a state legislature or local politi-
152 Indiana Academy of Science
cal governments for the purchase of relatively high priced recreational
land in and near the cities.
At the present time, the lowest-priced land in the state is in this
recreational area. And, fortunately, some of it can be most profitably used
for forest and recreational purposes.
Present Recreational Development
Although the development of the recreational potentialities in this
triangle has hardly begun, still here is found the greatest concentration
of state-owned outdoor recreational accommodations. Within the area are
ten of the 14 state-owned forests and both sections of the Hoosier National
Forest. Not only does the region contain 15 of the state's 23 parks, but
10 of these contain 33,101 acres (July 1, 1960) or over 75 per cent of the
entire state park acreage (43,980 acres).7
All three of Indiana's flood control reservoirs, Cagle's Mill, Mansfield
and Monroe (under construction), are located here. Also six of the 14
state game farms owned and/or managed by Indiana's Fish and Game
Division are found here. In addition, nine of the 14 State Memorials are
scattered through the area.
Because most of the state-owned outdoor recreational accommodations
are in the area, this does not mean that these facilities are either adequate
or well-developed. In the state forests, these ar totally inadequate and
often in need of repair. The recreational facilities made available during
the 1930's when ten of the state's forests were established have been left
to deteriorate.8 Only a few lakes, beaches, shelter houses and other facili-
ties were constructed in the 20 year period of 1940-1960.
One of the reasons that extensive recreational facilities were not
developed in the Hoosier National Forest in the past is that the United
States Forest Service formerly did not have a clear-cut legal right to
engage in such a program. During the last year of his second administra-
tion, however, President Eisenhower signed into law a bill:
". . . that for the first time establishes as a legislative policy
for the management of the national forests, the principle of mul-
tiple use.""
Although 15 of Indiana's State Parks are in southern Indiana's
Recreational Triangle and although the State Parks Division has been
effective with its limited funds, still, during the last two decades (1940-60) ,
the state has steadily lost its leading position in park development to more
energetic and progressive states. Indiana has less than one per cent of
all the land included in state parks in the United States and yet it has the
responsibility of providing adequate recreational facilities for nearly four
per cent of the nation's population.10 Between 1950-1960, Indiana bought
only 4,401 acres of land for park expansion.11 While Indiana's park acre-
age was increasing at a rate of about 11 per cent, its population was in-
creasing at a rate of 18 per cent. As a result, the ratio of park acreage
per million declined in Indiana during the 1950's.12
Potential Development
Based on population needs, Mr. Clawson has estimated that Indiana
will need 640,000 acres of state park land by the year 2000.13 As of July
1, 1960, the state-owned land on which outdoor recreational accommoda-
Geology and Geography 153
tions had been anci/or could have been built amounted to a total of 201,297
acres (Table l).14
Table 1. State-Owned Land Totally or in Part Used for
Outdoor Recreation (July 1, I960)15
1. Thirty-five parks and monuments 45,126
2. Fourteen forests 117,683
3. Nine fish and game areas 35,237
4. Fourteen public fishing sites 251
5. Indiana University (Bradford Woods and Lily Woods) 201,297
Total 201,297
The vital question today is, where can and should Indiana get an
additional 439,000 acres? I believe that it can and should get most of this
land in Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle. Of course small acre-
ages for daily recreational use should be made available by the state,
counties and cities. But most of the land needed and suitable for the
intermediate type of recreational area (camping, hiking, riding, hunting,
fishing, swimming and picnicking) can only be found in this Recreational
Triangle. Action should be taken now to acquire this good recreational
land before it too disappears as it has this last half century on Indiana's
46-mile Lake Michigan shoreline.
State Parks. Some action has been taken to expand park acreage in
this Triangle. Mr. Cougill, in the State Parks Division's biennium report
in 1960, requested $75,000.00 to buy land and create a State Park sur-
rounding Marengo Cave and another $75,000.00 to develop basic facilities
in this park.16
A proposal to buy land for park purposes and to create a seven-mile-
long lake in Sugar Creek between Turkey Run and Shades State Parks is
under study. The reported multiple purpose revervoir would be used pri-
marily for flood coritrol and recreation.
On September 9, 1961, Indiana's 23rd State Park, The Raccoon Lake
State Park, was dedicated by Governor Matthew E. Welsh. This is a six
hundred acre park located on a wooded peninsula in the 2,100-acre lake
called the Mansfield Flood Control Reservoir.17
Indiana's Division of Parks has plans to expand accommodations on
the land it owns. The 1960 Division of Parks report showed a request of
$931,000 for "Capital Project Requests and Rehabilitation." "The 1961
session of the Indiana legislature did not approve any specific money for
any specific construction work. Instead, they approved $400,000 for im-
provements in the entire state park and state memorial system for the
1961-63 Biennium."18
Regardless of how efficiently and wisely this money is spent Indiana
cannot expect its Division of Parks to provide "one of the finest state park
systems in the nation"19 with such meager funds. During the period from
July 1, 1950, to June 30, 1960, the total amount of money appropriated by
the Indiana legislatures for the Division of State Parks was only $3,624,192
or an average of only $362,419 per year.20 Furthermore during the same
ten-year period the State Parks Service had an earned income of
$9,790,376.21 Actual expenditure during this ten-year period amounted to
154 Indiana Academy of Science
$15,320,89622 or a yearly average of $1,532,089. In sharp contrast with
this, in one year, 1961, the State of Kentucky made available 10 to 15
million dollars for the development of state parks.23
In recent years a few county committees have been active in promoting
park and recreational development. The Crawford County Rural Develop-
ment initiated state action to have the Marengo Cave area made into a
state park. The Clark County Planning Commission has appointed a six-
member committee to make a study of future parks and playground areas.
This committee has been instructed to (1) work with a committee making
a study of future school sites and (2) give first consideration to the more
densely populated areas.21
State Forests. In spite of the inadequacies of Indiana's outdoor recrea-
tional facilities for its present population, during the 1940's and 1950's the
meager existing recreational accommodations in the state forests were left
to deteriorate while appropriations for the development of new ones were
almost nil.
In Bedford, Indiana, on December 17, 1960, it was estimated that
"needed public improvements in Indiana state forests during the biennium
of July 1, 1961-June 30, 1963, would cost $860,500."25 But the 1961 session
of the Indiana legislature appropriated only $400,000 of new money for
the 1961-1963 biennium.20 What portion of this will be spent for recreation
during the next two years is not known at the present time.
Monroe Reservoir. Many people believe that the Monroe Reservoir
(now under construction) will provide many new recreational accommo-
dations and stimulate the development of others. The Indiana Flood Con-
trol and Water Resources Commission announced in September, 1961, that
the district Army Corps of Engineers has established ten proposed public
access sites at the Monroe Reservoir and that more than 1,700 acres of
land will be used for the sites.27
Although the Monroe Reservoir may not be as great a stimulant to the
tourist industry as some promoters hope, it will increase recreational
opportunities.28
Ohio River "Chain-of-Lakes." The 42nd Annual Report of Indiana's
Department of Conservation (1960) does not reveal any plans or proposals
or even an active awareness of the recreational potentialities created by
the construction of the Ohio River valley Chain-of-Lakes along the com-
plete length of southern Indiana. In Indiana, these potentialities at present
seem to be minimized if not neglected. The chain of five lakes will border
on Indiana and occupy most of the 354 mile section of the Ohio River along
the state's southern border.
These five lakes will lie end to end all the way up the Ohio River
valley from Uniontown on the downstream side to above the Indiana-Ohio
state boundary where it junctions with the Ohio River. The Markland
dam in Switzerland County a few miles upstream from Vevay, under con-
struction and scheduled for completion in 1962, will create a pool of water
in the Ohio River approximately 95.3 miles long.20 The McAlpine dam
under construction at Louisville will create a pool 75.3 miles long reaching
upstream to the Markland dam.30 The dam to be built at Cannelton, In-
diana, which is in the "initiate construction stage" of development will
create a pool 113.7 miles long stretching upstream to the McAlpine dam.ni
Geology and Geography 155
The dam to be constructed near Uniontown, Indiana is in the advanced
planning stage and when completed will back water upstream to New-
burg.32 And a fifth dam to be constructed near Newburg will create a pool
up to the Cannelton dam.
When these five dams are constructed, a chain of lakes holding enor-
mous amounts of water could be a major contribution toward the restora-
tion of wildlife — fish, birds and animals. And the lake surfaces can be
enjoyed by various water sports.
There are indications that some of the Indiana State agencies engaged
in providing recreational facilities have serious doubts and misgivings
about the ultimate success of Ohio River pollution control, and, therefore,
of the recreational potentialities, especially swimming, in this chain of
lakes. The Division of State Parks "does not have plans to secure 'state
beaches' on the Ohio River,"33 Mr. Cougill points out that:
"Public access sites on lakes, small streams and rivers are
acquired and developed by officials in the Dingle-Johnson Section
of the Division of Fish and Game."34
According to William B. Barnes, Federal Aid Coordinator, Division
of Fish and Game:
"The Division of Fish and Game does not operate state
beaches. This has been the function of both the Division of State
Parks and the Division of Forestry. I know of no state beaches
contemplated for the Ohio River. It would appear to me that
swimming in that body of water might not adhere to State Board
of Health regulations."
"At present time, our Division of Fish and Game is negotiat-
ing with the U. S. Corps of Engineers regarding the placement of
access areas on the lake formed by the Markland Dam but no defi-
nite information is available at present."35
Apparently, fishing and boating in the Ohio River Chain-of-Lakes is
considered feasible by Indiana's Division of Fish and Game but not swim-
ming and water skiing.
Mr. Wilcox, Director of the Division of Forestry, writes in reply to
a personal letter which raised the question, "Does your division have
plans to develop state-owned beaches along the Ohio River?":
"I just talked with George Fassnacht of the Board of Health.
He has no precedent as a guide. We both think bacterial count,
muddy water, these would make swimming out of the question."
"Also there is a real practical objection. Beaches should have
a stable water level line. That Ohio River goes up and down like
an escalator, 10'-20' is not a bit uncommon. Leaves, logs, mud and
trash all over our Harrison boat launching site and access road.
It's a mess after high water."30
In contrast with the negative opinions just presented, the annual
reports of the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission continue
to stress the control of pollution to a degree where wading, swimming and
water skiing will be possible the entire length of the river. The 8th Annual
Report published in 1956 devoted pages 18 and 19 to "Water-Use Data"
and showed a half-page picture of people enjoying swimming in the Ohio
River. The caption reads as follows :
"Cruising down the river on a Saturday afternoon — with
time out for some sunning and swimming — it is now inviting the
attention of some 14,000 boatowners in the Cincinnati area alone.
156 Indiana Academy of Science
A few miles above this scene the first of Cincinnati's sewage-
treatment works went into operation two years ago."37
The Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission's Chronicle of
the Twelfth Year carries an 8.5 inch wide picture showing recreation on
the banks of the Ohio River with the caption :
"Clean rivers are enhancing recreational opportunities in the
Ohio Valley. Pictured here is part of the estimated 65,000 people
at hydroplane race regatta at Madison, Indiana, on October 3,
1960. During the four-month period starting June 1, the U. S.
Coast Guard issued notices covering 34 regattas or ski shows, 26
of which were conducted on the main stem of the Ohio River and
eight on tributaries. ":iS
In answer to an inquiry concerning swimming and other recreational
activities in the Ohio River, Mr. Cleary, who is Executive Director and
Chief Engineer for the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission,
writes :
"About swimming potentials : for the past four years I have
operated a cruiser on the Ohio River, spending many happy hours
with my family in the area between Cincinnati and Louisville. We
swim in the river wherever fancy indicates — off the boat or from
beaches on either the Indiana or Kentucky shores. It's wonderful !
And I note the Clearys are not alone in benefitting from progress
being made in the crusade for clean streams. ""'•'
Some people are unaware of the progress made in pollution control
during the last 13 years by the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Com-
mission. "By June 30, 1959, purification plants to serve 95 per cent of the
3.6 million people living in municipalities adjacent to the river were either
in operation or nearing completion."10 It is reported that the river is
becoming clean enough that bass are caught again in some stretches of the
river, and that other species prized by anglers are increasing.41
Moreover, with recreation as one of the river's multiple uses, the
Corps of Army Engineers are practicing long-ranged planning in the con-
struction of high permanent dams on the Ohio River. They will install
unique small-boat mooring cables in the auxiliary locks. Pleasure craft
then can tie to a 150-foot-long stainless steel cable which rides up and
down in the locks on floating mooring belts. This is a major safety and
time-saving device.42
In addition, these engineers are planning embayment launching and
boat servicing areas near the mouths of certain tributary streams which
will flow into the Markland Reservoir. Anglers with boats may launch
their craft in the same access areas. Such landing and servicing areas
will be turned over to local or county governments for operation in com-
pliance with regulations which have proven beneficial for several decades.40
The creation of this Ohio River Chain-of-Lakes raises anew the old
problem of water ownership. About 175 years ago Kentucky was granted
ownership of all the Ohio River channel to the low water point on the
north bank. After the lakes are created parts of Indiana's territory will
be permanently flooded. Substantial areas of the new lakes will be in
Indiana. Indiana land has been bought in Switzerland, Ohio and Dearborn
counties for the Markland Reservoir.41 Consequently, the old need to buy
Kentucky fishing, hunting and boating licenses may no longer be necessary.
Geology and Geography 157
This problem should be settled around a conference table with the
states of Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia represented.
Representatives of these five states voted 4-1 in 1959 that the Federal
government should decide what each of these five states' boating rights
are under existing navigation and licensing laws.4"' Representatives from
Kentucky, the state claiming ownership to the Ohio River, were opposed
to this.
Downstream Boat Trips. A rather new innovation in southern Indi-
ana's recreational program is the development of access areas along the
major rivers to facilitate launching boats in which the owners can fish as
the boat drifts downstream with the current. As pollution in the White,
Wabash and Ohio Rivers and their tributaries is brought under control
and fish return to these waters, sportsmen will come to these state owned
streams. But as yet access areas where citizens have the right to launch
or remove their boats as well as to park their cars and trailers are few
and far between. Old privately-owned access points have been or are being
rapidly closed to the public.
The Fish and Game Division of Indiana's Department of Conserva-
tion, during the fiscal year of 1959-1960, established eight public fishing
sites. Although this number represents a trend in the right direction, it
hardly "amounts to a drop in the bucket" when the state needs are con-
sidered/6 During this decade many, many more public access areas need
to be provided for on both rivers and lakes. As yet, the public does not
have adequate access to some state-owned lakes and only a few access
points on even the largest rivers.
National Monument. Indiana's first national monument may be estab-
lished in Southern Indiana's Recreational Triangle. In May, 1961, the
Department of Interior approved a proposal by Senator Vance Hartke
and Representative Winfield K. Denton (both of Indiana) to establish a
national monument at Abraham Lincoln's boyhood home near Lincoln
City, Indiana.47
On September 15, 1961, the Senate amended, passed and returned to
the House a bill under which a Lincoln boyhood national memorial would
be established. The bill authorized an appropriation of one million dollars
and limited to $75,000 the amount the Secretary of the Department of
Interior could spend from the appropriation for land.48 If the area becomes
a national monument, the Department of Interior will build and maintain
first-class recreational accommodations for the expected tourists.
State Parkways. Many people would like to have some agency build
more state parkways, especially in the Southern Indiana Recreational
Triangle. The Brown County Parkway, extending from south of Bean
Blossom to Nashville on Indiana highway 135, is the only parkway in
Indiana.49 A parkway along Sugar Creek connecting Turkey Run and
Shades State Parks is in the proposal stage. The Division of State Parks
"favors development of State Parkways"50 but as yet have given higher
priority to the acquisition of land for park purposes.51
National Parkway. United States Senator Vance Hartke has intro-
duced a bill to create a Lincoln Parkway along the "trail" followed by the
great president from his Kentucky birthplace to his Indiana home (where
he grew from a youth into manhood) to his adult home in Illinois. Senator
158 Indiana Academy of Science
Hartke reports that many senators and representatives have agreed to
help him pass the bill because:
". . . This kind of historical highway has been delayed too
long and action in the centennial year of the Civil War is most
appropriate."52
Regional trails. Perhaps the lack of cooperation and coordination be-
tween state and national agencies in recreational development accounts
for the lack of long "circular" regional hiking, bicycling and horseback
trails. Before these trails can be put into operation there will need to be
adequate hostels and horse barns at convenient places along well-marked
routes. Also, where these trails of necessity cross primary highways, the
cooperation of the Indiana Highway Department would need to help mark
the crossings to protect the travelers. Many of the hostels and barns
could be located on land already owned by the state and federal govern-
ments. But additional land should be purchased where accommodations
are needed.
To set up these trails, an inter-agency committee, working with recre-
ational specialists, should first locate suitable routes and draw up long-
ranged plans for both short and long routes. It should be possible for
people in any section of this Recreational Triangle to get on a hiking,
bicycling or horseback trail and make a circle or loop trip from 50 to 100
or 200 or 300 miles long.
Two short hiking trails established in Morgan-Monroe and Yellow-
wood State Forests proved very popular during the summer of I960.53
Five hiking trails and many miles of bridle trails have proven very
popular at Clifty Falls State Park.51 What is needed now are the longer
loop or circular trails which will connect the various state parks, state
monuments, state forests and other natural and historical points of
interest.
The writer believes the time for developing facilities for circular hik-
ing, bicycling and horseback trails is long overdue. We should make a
modest start by establishing a few shorter routes as "pilot projects" as
soon as feasible.
Suggestions for Accelerated Expansion
Although in the next 25 years Southern Indiana's Recreational Tri-
angle may become the largest outdoor recreational center in Indiana, and
perhaps one of the largest in the Ohio River watershed, this is a part of
Indiana and regional development should be correlated with all activities
in the state. In February, 1961, I made some of the following suggestions
to accelerate expansion of outdoor recreational facilities in Indiana and
they appear as valid now as they were then. In fact these suggestions if
followed would bring a greater growth to Southern Indiana's Recreational
Triangle than to any other section of the state:
1. Between 1963-1973, the Indiana legislature should provide a land-
purchase fund of 2.5 million dollars to be used by the Division of
Parks in creating new state parks and parkways and enlarging the
ones now in operation. This money should be appropriated at the
rate of half a million dollars per biennium. The money should be
spent as opportunities become available and need not be spent be-
fore 1980.
Geology and Geography 159
2. During this same ten-year period (1963-1973), the Indiana legis-
lature should provide a half million dollar land-purchase fund to
be used by the Division of Forestry to enlarge present state forests
and/or develop news ones. This money should be appropriated at
the rate of 100,000 dollars per biennium with the understanding
that none of it can be spent on the purchase of stripped coal mine
land or land pitted with quarries. There should be an understanding
that the money could remain in the fund until 1980 rather than
attempting to spend all of it every biennium.
3. The Indiana legislature should at each session pass a resolution
urging (1)- that the United States Congress make available
$100,000 to $150,000 a year for the purchase of land within the
boundaries of the Hoosier National Forest and (2) urging that the
recreational sites within the Hoosier National Forest be developed
as rapidly as public needs justify.
4. A scientific survey should be made of the state forests by recrea-
tional specialists who will prepare a written inventory and ap-
praisal of sites that can be developed for recreational purposes.
5. The Division of Parks should make a survey to determine what
additional acreage should be added to existing parks, and to locate
and appraise potential recreational areas which could be purchased
and made into state parks.
6. Prepare a 15-year program for the development of an Outdoor
Museum in the present Morgan-Monroe State Forest under the
administration of the Division of Parks and State Forests. And
this Outdoor Museum should not be limited to a zoo or standard
city museum built in a forest.
7. Locate hiking, bicycling, horseback trails in Southern Indiana's
Recreational Triangle and develop adequate hostels and horse barns
at convenient places along these trails.
8. The Indiana legislature should pass a resolution each session in
support of the creation of a national monument in honor of Abra-
ham Lincoln in Spencer County until such a monument becomes a
reality.
9. Indiana citizens should work for a Youth Conservation Corps or
Home Peace Corps both in Indianapolis and in Washington, D. C.
10. Wilderness specialists should locate and the state should establish
several wilderness areas. Indiana may now have some suitable
ones in its parks (especially Brown County State Park) and forests
for this purpose. These wilderness areas must be legally established
and so protected from commercialization that they will always be
preserved for nature's development only.
11. A committee consisting of the Directors of the Divisions of (1)
State Parks, (2) Forestry and (3) Fish and Game in Indiana's
Department of Conservation should make a preliminary investi-
gation of potential recreational opportunities which will be created
by an Ohio River Chain-of-Lakes (four or five permanent lakes)
and bring in a written appraisal which will either recommend for
or against the employment of a recreational team to survey and
160 Indiana Academy of Science
make recommendations concerning the potential recreational op-
portunities of this chain-of-lakes.
12. Indiana citizens and governmental agencies should participate in
and support interstate organizations so necessary to implement
conservation projects which cover more than one state. The Wa-
bash River Compact and the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Compact55 are examples of this type of cooperation.
13. Citizens interested in recreational development should realize: (1)
that the recreational use of "flood control-low flow regulation"
reservoirs must be a secondary and minor use and (2) the limited
facilities available at this type of reservoir can never supply suffi-
cient accommodations on which to build a great tourist industry.
Action During 1960's Vital
Indiana might well follow the rapid expansion programs of outdoor
recreational development found in the adjacent states of Kentucky and
Michigan. Each year recreational development costs more and it is esti-
mated that the cost "doubles about every 10 years."5'3 Can Indiana afford
to delay?
At least two and perhaps four of the five Ohio River Chain-of -Lakes
along southern Indiana will be completed during this decade. To attempt
to develop state-owned facilities along these lakes after completion may be
impossible and, if not impossible, more costly and impractical.
Will Southern Indiana's citizens during the 1960's use their technology
and know-how to develop and wisely use the now latent and underdeveloped
resources of forest, water and recreation, or will they continue to apa-
thetically acquiesce to a declining economy, an outward migrating popula-
tion, and the establishment of a permanently depressed area where work
is not available for some youth or adults during the summer or throughout
the year?
If the problem is recognized and all the resources of Indiana utilized,
the 1960's might go down in history as one of the greatest of water, forest
and recreational development in the history of Indiana. Or this generation
may do little or nothing during the next decade in the way of conservation
and be judged an abject failure by our descendants.
We should consider prayerfully for a few minutes the following
words of a wise poet :
The moving finger writes and having writ
Moves on: nor all the Piety nor Wit
Shall lure it back to cancel half a line
Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it.
When this decade of the 1960's ends and the moving finger writes an
evaluation of our development of Southern Indiana's Recreational Tri-
angle, will it write success or failure?
Literature Cited
1. A proposal has been made to buy the land along- Racoon River and actually join
these two parks.
2. McDekmott, J. K., "Indiana's Population Moves Around," Economic and Market-
ing Information, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, March 30, 1961, p. 3.
3. Ibid.
Geology and Geography 161
4. Ibid.
5. Indiana Forest Industries Committee and the American Forest Products Indus
tries, Inc., Indiana Forest Facts, Washington, D. C, 1960, pp. 3-4.
6. Barton, Thomas Frank, "Some Geographic Recreational Aspects of Unglaciated
Indiana," Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 191$, Volume 59, pp.
216-220.
7. Indiana Department of Conservation, lt2nd Annual Report, Indianapolis, p. 1-21 .
8. Barton, Thomas Frank, "Indiana's State Forests and Recreation," Indiana
Academy of Social Science Proceedings, 1961 "New Series Vol. 6" (scheduled for
publication).
9. Fersh, George L., Resource-Use Review, Joint Council on Economic Education.
Number 3 (Winter, 1961), New York, p. 14.
io. Barton. Thomas Frank. "Long-Range Park and Other Public Outdoor Recrea-
tional Planning in Our Population Explosion," 15tJc Annual Pi ocvedings of the
Great Lakes Park Institute, Bloomington, Indiana University's Recreation Depart-
ment, 1961, p. 202.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Clawson, Marion, "The Role of State Parks in Meeting Recreational Demands
of the Future," Planning and Civic Comment, Supplement Part II to the Decem-
ber, 1960 issue, p. 6.
14. Op. cit., Barton, "Long Range Park and Other Public Outdoor Recreational Plan-
ning in Our Population Explosion," p. 197.
15. Ibid.
16. Op. cit., Indiana Department of Conservation, p. 1-29.
17. "Raccoon Lake State Park," The Courier-Journal, Louisville. Kentucky, Septem-
ber 10, 1961, Section 2, p. 1.
18. Personal letter from K. R. Cougill, Director, Division of State Parks, Department
of Conservation, Indianapolis, Indiana, July 24, 1961.
19. Siikpard, Joseph K., "The Woods Are Waiting for Our Children." The Indian-
apolis Star (Sunday Magazine Section), January 8, 1961, pp. 10-11.
20. Personal letter from K. R. Cougill, Director, Division of State Parks. Department
of Conservation, Indianapolis, Indiana, February 16, 1961.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. "Park Project Will Cost 10 to 15 Million," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Ken-
tucky, December 8, 1960, Section 1, p. 1.
24. "Six in Clark to Survey Park Sites," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky
(Indiana Edition) May 14, 1961, p. 24C.
25. Op. cit., Barton, "Indiana's State Forests and Recreation."
26. Ibid.
27. "Reservoir Access Sites Announced," Daily Herald-Telephone, September 26, 1961,
Section 1, p. 1.
28. Barton, Thomas frank, "The Monroe Reservoir : A Multiple Use Project," Pro-
ceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1960, Volume 70, pp. 170-181.
29. Personal letter from Colonel Robert W. Lockridge, Executive Officer, Corps of
Engineers, W. S. Engineering Division, Cincinnati, Ohio, February 17, 1961.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Personal letter from K. R. Cougill, Director, Division of State Parks, Department
of Conservation, Indianapolis, Indiana, January 30, 1961.
34. Ibid.
35. Personal letter from William B. Barnes, February 6, 1961.
36. Reply to inquiry sent to Ralph F. Wilcox, State Forester, dated May 31, 1961.
162 Indiana Academy of Science
37. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, 8th Annual Report, 1056, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, pp. 18-10.
38. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, Chronicle of the Twelfth Year —
1960, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1960, p. 24.
39. Personal letter from Edward J. Cleary dated May 24, 1961.
40. Barton, Thomas Frank, "The Sewer or Waste Disposal Use of the Ohio River,'"
The Journal of Geography, 1900, Vol. LIX, p. 334.
41. "Ohio River Cleanup Called Rapid," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky,
February 10, 1961, Section 1, p. 0.
42. Monroe, Burt, "Ohio River Soon Will Be Mecca for Sportsman," The Courier-
Journal, Louisville, Kentucky, March 6, 1900 (Indiana Edition), Section 2, p. 0.
43. Personal letter from Colonel Robert W. Lockridge dated 9 June 1961.
44. "U. S. Files to Condemn Dam Tracts," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky
(Indiana Edition), May 10, 1901, Section 2, p. 1.
45. Vance, Kyle, "State of Ohio Fishing for Answer to Fishing-License Tangle on
Ohio," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky (Indiana Edition), October 11.
1959, Section 1, p. 10.
46. Op. cit., Indiana Department of Conservation, p. D-6.
47. Bingham, Worth, "Lincoln National Park Proposal Approved by Interior De-
partment," The Courier-Journal, Louisville, Kentucky, May 3, 1961, Indiana News
Section, p. 1.
48. "Senate Amends Lincoln Bill to Permit Land Purchase," The Courier-Journal,
Louisville, Kentucky, September 17, 1961, Indiana News Section, p. 21 B.
49. Personal letter from K. R. Cougill dated January 30, 1961.
50. Ibid.
51. IMd.
52. In Washington with Senator Vance Hartke (a newsletter) dated July 28, 1961.
53. Wilcox, Ralph F., "More State Forest Recreation," (unpublished manuscript).
54. "Cliffy Falls State Park Offers 668 Acres of Scenic Wonder Overlooking Ohio
River," The Courier Journal, Louisville, Kentucky, June 4, 1961, Indiana News
Section, p. 24 B*
55. Op. cit., Barton, "The Sewer or Waste Disposal Use of the Ohio River," The
Journal of Geography, pp. 326-336.
56. "Penny Tap Suggested for Outdoor Program, The Courier-Journal, Louisville,
Kentucky, May 16, 1961, Indiana Edition, Section 1, p. 8.
Movement of Limestone Blocks by Floodwaters in Southern
Putnam County, Indiana
C. L. Bieber, DePauw University
An unusual change in the attitude of limestone blocks on a creek floor,
following a local flood, is here reported. The area is 5 miles north of
Cloverdale, Indiana in the NE^ SW% sec. 12, T. 13 N., R. 4 W. in south
central Putnam County. Here Upper Limestone Creek, a branch of Deer
Creek, flows over a rolling bedrock surface of middle St. Louis limestone.
The limestone beds are from 2 to 12 inches thick, some of which are sepa-
rated by thin shaly partings. Bedding plane cherts are scattered sparingly
over exposed surfaces of the sparsely fossiliferous limestone. The stream
bed, which is near the margin of the Wisconsin drift, is eroded through
drift to the limestone.
In the local area considered, the stream channel averages 35 ft. wide,
and bottoms on limestone. During floods the water spills over the banks
upon small flood plain aprons. Upper Limestone Creek descends by a
series of small pools and cataracts over a warpy limestone surface with an
average gradient of 40 ft. /mile. The stream drops over rock ledges from
1 to 3 ft. high at a few points along the course, and these ledges are usually
broken along joint lines. In general the stream follows the limestone sur-
face down the regional dip (30-40 ft. /mile, southwest). Total relief of the
surrounding land averages 100 ft. At least 8 small sink holes are within
500 yds. of the stream on either side of the valley. A few springs are
along the valley sides.
This area was being studied during April, 1961 (2). On May 6-7,
1961, 6 inches of rain fell over this section in a 24 hour period. Flood
waters rose at least 5 feet at the road bridge. A return visit to the area a
few days after the flood revealed these facts. Where the creek formerly
flowed over the top of the limestone it now enters a rectangular opening,
disappears under the upper limestone beds for 50 ft. horizontally and
reappears where the rock has been fractured and torn out. Whereas the
limestone in the creek bed was formerly gently warped, now a prominent
buckle lies across the creek bed (Fig. 1). The buckle is 35 ft. long, 15 ft.
wide, and has been raised 1.2 ft. along the axis. New fractures have opened
along one side and along the crest of this upwarp. On the other side of the
buckle fracture lines are pinched together so tightly that chips have been
broken from the rock along the break. Also, several new fractures con-
trolled somewhat by joints which strike S. 70° W. and S. 40° E., have
opened. The most prominent fracturing is parallel to the joints along the
north side of the stream bed. Here several blocks have been ripped out and
moved down stream. The entire limestone floor of the stream bottom (60 ft.
X 30 ft. X 1 ft.) has been slightly shifted and freshly cracked.
From the field evidence, it is difficult to explain how floodwaters alone
could account for the displacement and fracturing. It is postulated that
floodwaters backing up behind the bridge and road grade increased velocity
of the water immediately west of the bridge. Force by impact was exerted
upon the frontal edges of limestone blocks exposed over a gentle warp in
the creek bottom (3). Frictional drag of the torrent over the limestone
would have the power to transport, dependent upon depth of water and
163
164
Indiana Academy of Science
CREEK CHANNEL
»«-%-NEW FRACTURES
EN WATER ENTRANCE
EX WATER EXIT
10
Fig. 1. Plan view of a portion of the rock channel of Little Limestone Creek.
slope of stream (critical tractive force). Also differing velocities between
top and bottom of the turbulent current would create variation of pressure
with resulting hydraulic lift. Any one or combination of the above could
account for transport of blocks of limestone. Some blocks 2 ft. X 3 ft. X
1 ft. were transported several feet to as much as 50 ft.
More difficult to explain, however, is the fracturing of the limestone
floor and the formation of the prominent buckle. Force to accomplish this
could not come from the torrent alone (1).
The block of limestone (60 ft. X 30 ft. X 1 ft.) which has been dis-
turbed has a dry weight of approximately 140 tons. This block is jointed
but shows fresh fractures over most of the surface. If buoyed up by
surrounding water the weight would be reduced to 80 or 90 tons. To this,
however, must be added the pressure of the floodwater over the block. This
stream of water was about 5 ft. deep. Thus it is necessary that a hydraulic
force from beneath the limestone act in order to accomplish the buckle,
and to lift the rock in other places differentially to cause the fractur-
ing (4).
It is postulated that the necessary hydraulic forces may have come
from floodwaters filling pipes or solution channels fed from sinkholes on
uplands nearby. These channels may have connected with an area beneath
the upper limestone beds of the stream bottom. As the head increased with
continuing rain, and the areas affected with this hydraulic force spread,
the limestone was broken, and at one place buckled. Thus even before the
floodwater gathered appreciably, much of the disturbance to the limestone
of the creek bed had occurred.
In conclusion, these observations suggest that at least some of the
break-up in limestone creek channels is accomplished by heavy downpours
Geology and Geography 165
filling solution channels, building up sufficient head to force the rock up
from below. The broken rock then falls prey to the rising flood waters.
Literature Cited
1. Bieber, Charles R. 1961. Personal communication, Engineering School, University
of Alabama.
2. Peirce, Thomas. 1961. Senior Research, DePauw University.
3. Rubey, W. W. 1988. The force required to move particles on a stream bed. U. S.
G. S. Prof. Paper 189 : 121-141.
4. Smith, Orrin H. 1961. Personal communication, Physics Department, DePauw
University.
Recent Developments in Underground Gas Storage
Fields in Indiana
Robert V. Kirch, Indianapolis Extension, Indiana University-
Reflecting the great demand for natural gas as a heating fuel, the
number of underground gas storage fields in Indiana has doubled within
the last three years. Since underground reservoirs provide the most effec-
tive and economical method to obtain additional amounts of gas to satisfy
this demand, Indiana's gas utilities have continued their efforts to locate
suitable geological formations capable of holding substantial volumes of
natural gas. The gas is injected into the reservoir during the warmer
months and is withdrawn from storage throughout the winter months
when there is a shortage in the supply of gas. The extent of exploration
efforts to discover underground storage sites is indicated on the map of
Indiana. (Fig. 1). Some drilling activity for this purpose has occurred
in the counties which have been shaded — one or more test holes have been
drilled in each of these thirty-six counties during the past three years.
The map also shows the location of all storage reservoirs, both experi-
mental and operational, in the state of Indiana. Presently, there are
twenty-two such projects.
Northern Indiana Public Service Company which supplies gas to the
northern third of the state and Citizens Gas and Coke Utility with its
Indianapolis-Marion County service territory are responsible for most of
the recent attempts to utilize subterranean rock formations as storage
reservoirs. Together they have seven storage fields. Northern Indiana
Public Service Company has three projects in various stages of explora-
tion and development in the vicinity of the towns of Royal Center in Cass
County, Thayer in Newton County, and Linkville in Marshall County.
The most advanced project is the Royal Center reservoir. All of these
projects involve the use of non-gas bearing geological structures, that is,
formations which have not previously held natural gas. Storage facilities
of this kind are known as "aquifers" in that they originally contained
only water. Such fields represent a somewhat new development in under-
ground storage — the feasibility of storing gas in these formations has
now been amply demonstrated. In the past, the majority of reservoirs
were constructed from structures which had at one time held natural gas.
These abandoned and depleted gas fields offered a much greater likelihood
or assurance that the formations could be reconditioned to again hold
natural gas.
In both gas bearing and non-gas bearing structures, however, the
basic geological requirements are the same. The gas is stored under pres-
sure in porous and permeable rock strata, usually sandstone or limestone,
which rises and falls to form a domical shape or "hump." The storage
formation must be bracketed by impervious strata to prevent the gas
from escaping. The necessary gastight seal is completed by the back
pressure which develops when the gas injected into the storage formation
displaces and pushes the water, normally present in both types of struc-
tures, to the sides of the dome. The cross section diagram of an under-
ground storage reservoir (Fig. 2) illustrates the essential requirements.
By drilling through the first reservoir a few gas utilities in this
country have discovered a second storage field. Currently, the Indiana
166
Geology and Geography
167
tM£/R6ftOUND GAS STORAGE — *$&
168
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 2
Cross Section Diagram of an Underground Storage Reservoir.
Gas and Water Company is experimenting with the possibility of "double
storage" at their Unionville field in Monroe County. It is hoped that
geological formations about one hundred feet below the original reservoir
will have the general characteristics for storing gas.
The four storage facilities of the Citizens Gas and Coke Utility be-
came operational in 1961. These large reservoirs, constructed from gas
bearing structures, are located in Greene County near the towns of Linton,
Worthington, Lonetree, and Howesville. Including the connecting pipe
line between Greene County and Marion County, the total cost of these
underground reservoirs is twelve million dollars. The estimated storage
capacity of these fields is fourteen billion cubic feet.
Recognizing that the development and use of all the storage fields,
proposed and operational, in this state still will not meet the market
demand for natural gas, it is safe to say that additional underground
storage reservoirs will be constructed in the near future by gas utilities
operating in Indiana. Explorations are currently underway for more
suitable storage sites for this premium heating fuel.
Manufactural Geography of East Chicago-Whiting, Indiana
(A Study in Geographic Rehabilitation)
Alfred H. Meyer and Diane Heidtmann Paetz, Valparaiso University
This study is one of a continuing series of industrial community
geographic surveys of the Calumet region of northwest Indiana and north-
east Illinois, of which already four have been published — those of Michigan
City, LaPorte, Gary, and Chicago Heights. The objective is to review and
evaluate the salient historical geographic forces which enter into the
development of the manufactural pattern, such as elements of settlement,
locative factors, transportation facilities, sources of raw materials, mar-
kets, and zoning-planning of industrial land. Appraisal of actual and
potential manufactural resources is based on questionnaire and interview
data and field mapping.
The contiguous cities of East Chicago (pop. 57,669) and Whiting
(pop. 8,137) form a compact industrial unit fronting on Lake Michigan
and focused on Indiana Harbor and its ship canal (1). Whiting is pri-
marily a petroleum refining center; East Chicago dominates in primary
and fabricated metals. Some three-score establishments are oriented
areally to three sectors of the transportation pattern. Rapid industrial
expansion and crowding of industrial sites without the benefit of a con-
current adequate zoning and planning program have resulted in wide-
spread residential blight. The problem of providing improved living and
recreational facilities in an area whose residential occupance constitutes
only 11 percent of the total area of the two cities, and still provide for
extra land needed for growing industries presents a challenging redevelop-
ment project.
Historic-Geographic Perspective
This industrial community, variously characterized as "The Work-
shop of America, Where Rail and Water Meet," and "The Steel Capital
of the World," was a relatively late comer on the Midwest manufactural
scene. One of the reasons for the belated settlement and development of
the area is revealed on the first maps and field notes of the Federal land
survey of about the year 1830, represented in composite form in Figure 1.
Here we note, among other data, "the east-west parallel sand ridges 50
links to 5 chains wide separated by narrow marshes," flanking the "Grand
Callumic River," and another series of interlinear sand ridges and marshes
extending northwestward to the Indiana-Illinois state line.
The West Calumet region itself, of which this area is a part, was
physiographically frustrating: "The prairie was too wet to cultivate.
The east-west orientation of the deep Calumet marshes made approach
to Lake Michigan from the south extremely difficult. But an even greater
barrier to travel headed for the lake was the east-west marshes flanking
the Kankakee River immediately south of the Calumet area" (2). Nor-
mally, any enterprising community exploits available or potential navi-
gable waterways; but the shallow, sluggish, and meandering Grand Calu-
met needed straightening and dredging to be of any service to East Chicago
and neighboring communities. In view of the forbidding dune-marsh
topography, U. S. Army engineers, as late as 1872, could not commercially
justify a dredging project. However, potential navigability of waterways,
169
Figure 1. The East Chicago-Whiting area in Fundamental Perspective— the environ-
mental features under Indian and pioneer white man's occupance. (From a larger Calu-
met regional map in Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. XLVI,
1950, pp. 314-315.)
Geology and Geography 171
especially when the navigational pattern takes on new commercial signifi-
cance, as in this instance, have a way of commanding periodic reassess-
ment of values, as is shown in Figure 4.
Once the full import of geographic site and situation at the head of
Lake Michigan and their orientation on the Chicago transportation and
marketing center was realized, "waste" land took on a new geographic
concept — wide open spaces, and at the price much below that of corporate
communities. This might be said to have been the beginning of Midwest
industrial decentralization.
The immediate antecedent events that led to the initial industrializa-
tion of the area are well described by Moore :
The expansion of the steel industry in the Chicago area was
largely responsible for the origin and development of East Chicago
and Gary. This expansion was from the heart of Chicago eastward
along the shore of Lake Michigan. Cheap transportation on the Great
Lakes was one of the most important factors in the development of
the iron and steel industry in the Calumet Region of Illinois and
Indiana. The industrialists of the late nineteenth century recognized
the value of the excellent facilities afforded by the numerous railroads
in the region. They also saw the possibilities of harbors along the
Lake for the reception of iron ore, coal, and limestone as well as for
the shipment of finished products to market. Moreover, adequate sites
were available for industrial purposes at reasonable prices.
Originally, the iron and steel industry in the Chicago area was
concentrated along the Chicago River near the heart of the city.
Foundries were built there as early as 1839. By the second half of the
century the sites near the river were too valuable for industrial pur-
poses. Industrialists then turned their attention to the sparsely
settled region known as South Chicago. In 1870 the Federal govern-
ment started the development of the South Chicago Harbor at the
mouth of the Calumet River. Ten years later, the Illinois Steel Com-
pany began construction of its South Chicago Works alongside this
harbor. In the beginning, the steel officials thought they had a site
large enough for all time, but the erection of this great steel mill set
off a boom in South Chicago which lasted for several years. Other
industries located there, and part of the area was subdivided for
residential purposes, with space set aside for parks and schools. As a
result, land for industrial purposes became scarce and expensive.
Therefore, industrialists and speculators began to seek sites across
the state line in Indiana (3) .
The site of East Chicago was laid out in 1887 by the Standard Steel
and Iron Company; the William Graver Tank Works was the first to
establish itself in the community (1888).
The Whiting community, wedged in between East Chicago, the north
arm of Hammond and Lake Michigan, had its industrial inception about
the same time (1889), when the Standard Oil Company erected its first
unit of the now celebrated world's largest oil refinery (the 1880 census
recorded a village population of only 115). Much of the same geographic
advantages applied to the founding of oil refineries here as for steel in
neighboring East Chicago — close to the newly developed markets of the
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Geology and Geography 173
Midwest; sharing the benefits of the land and water transportation facili-
ties converging on Chicago, but without its high taxes; an abundance of
water; and a large regional labor force.
How the modern industrialists themselves assess the locative factors
is revealed by our questionnaire, in approximately the following order of
importance: proximity to Lake Michigan (Indiana Harbor and the navi-
gable section of the canal) ; railway and highway transportation facilities;
markets; availability of land, and, in some instances, buildings. Other
miscellaneous responses include: relatively central location in Calumet
area; discovery of oil in Lima, Ohio, 1885, and in Mid-continent area,
1888; nearness to refinery and/or steel plants (symbiotic) ; potential
marketing in Midwestern states, centering on Chicago; closeness of an
unlimited supply of fresh water (Lake Michigan) ; and because of rejec-
tion elsewhere (Chicago did not want certain industries of suspected
nuisance or hazard types) .
Regional resources of raw materials, both nearby and from afar, are
of particular geographic significance. As earlier indicated, the featuring
manufactures of the area are identified with steel fabrications and oil
refining. Raw materials of the former are primarily iron ore from the
Mesabi range of Minnesota, coking coal from Kentucky, and limestone
flux from Michigan. The source of raw petroleum for the latter (originally
the Lima, Ohio area) is now centered on the Mid-continent field — Texas,
Oklahoma, Kansas, Louisiana, and the Gulf Coastal area generally, with
a limited supply also from Indiana and Illinois. More recently, Wyoming
and New Mexico have been added to the list of petroleum producers for
the Whiting refineries.
It is the manufactures of semi-processed materials of these two major
industries which in turn supply so-called raw materials for the many
satellite manufactures in the community. The neighboring Buffington
area to the east is a large producer of sand, gravel, and cement. Other
significant raw materials include special types of clays from South Dakota
and Wyoming; gypsum from Louisiana; lead and zinc products from
western United States ; and asbestos from Canada.
Figure 2 is designed to show the general progress of area spread of
the industrial pattern. It is noteworthy that within the short span of
four decades the major pattern had been set.
The Manufactural Pattern Is One of Compactness
A survey of the distribution pattern of manufacturing establishments
suggests a threefold division of the East Chicago-Whiting community
(See Figure 3). The northern area (A), the earliest and largest manu-
facturing district to be developed, is noted for heavy industries requiring
expansive tracts of land and combined water and rail facilities, such as
Figure 4. The Cal-Sag Navigation Project. Within five years after completion, the
channel is expected to handle an annual commercial traffic of 12 million tons ; ulti-
mately 18 million or more. On this TJ. S. Army Engineers map is outlined the East
Chicage-Whiting area to show the geographic position it hears to Part II of the project.
Note the numerous bridges that have to be reckoned with in case this part of the project
materializes. Of primary concern here is how the Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal will
function in supplying auxiliary traffic for the main channel.
1800'
1878-1894
1901 - 1919
1920- 1929
1930- 1939
1940-1960
SUBSEQUENT
ADDITIONS
N
Figure 2 Periodic Industrial Occupance. Note the predominance of original
sequent occupance in the lake section (A) and river section (C), and the
smaller sites in the central residential section (B).
site and
generally
Geology and Geography 175
primary metals, petroleum and coal products, stone and clay, chemicals
and allied products. The Standard Oil Refinery, most complete in the
world, dominates the Whiting area and extensive tracts in neighboring
Hammond on the west and East Chicago on the east. And Inland Steel
Company and Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company have sprawled out
on lakeside natural and man-made land, and the ship canal, on the east
and west side, respectively.
Already at an early date it was recognized that a mushrooming in-
dustrial district, such as this, needed adequate housing for its workers.
So in 1914 a steel firm, the Mark Manufacturing Company, platted and
promoted the residential community denoted as Mark on the map. Com-
pletely surrounded by industrial land, "Marktown" represents the first
attempt on the part of industry in the area directly to sponsor a housing
project.
Section C — The section along Grand Calumet River is likewise iden-
tified by large individual tracts, featured by E. I. Dupont De NeMours
and Company and Cities Service Oil Company, manufacturers of chemical
and petroleum products, respectively. Like section A, it belongs to the
early period of development — latter decades of the 19th century and early
decades of the 20th. This area was also earlier conceived as a separate
entity, being identified with the prospect of eventual conversion of this
meandering, shallow, and sluggish stream into a navigable waterway
connection with the Sag to the west (Figure 4). But the dream of this
navigable connection is far from realization; likewise the Calumet River
end of the ship canal remains undeveloped for cargo traffic. However,
the new Indiana East-West Toll Road adds transportation facility to the
area.
Section B, extending northeastward-southwestward through the heart
of East Chicago, looks more like an average industrial community. Indus-
trial sites occupy a sizeable percentage of the area, but they are much
smaller, more dispersed, and diversified in character than in either of the
other two sections. This is the "residential town," with its multiple com-
mercial and civic as well as industrial functions. Three residential areas
are recognized. The eastern one, the largest cohesive unit and with a
prominent axial commercial core, is proximate to the chief industrial area.
A second sizable residential rectangular area occupies the southwest with
a commercial axis centered on the intersection of US 12-20 with Indiana
312. A smaller south-central district bounds the Calumet industrial area.
Section B incorporates every classification type of manufactures
shown in the legend of our map. Fabrication plants (some dozen units)
and allied manufactures of machinery and transportation dominate the
area, benefited by the proximate position of the sources of primary steel
and other raw products, and the closely knit north-south, east-west road-
rail matrix of central East Chicago and its extra-regional transportation
outlets.
It is this compact maze of miscellaneous industries with their complex
traffic pattern, mixed with or adjoining residential neighborhoods, which
challenges the urban planner for new or renewal residential sites, as well
as maintaining adequate space for manufactural expansion.
176
Indiana Academy of Science
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features exhibited are the expansive heavy industries in section A and C. the mixed
heavy and light, and generally smaller industries,
in section B. The lower case lettered
Geology and Geography
areas (a,b,c,d), and for the most part the blank areas (predominantly in section B)
denote residence sites. The significance of the a, b, c, d, so-called "action" sites, is ex-
plained in the text.
178 Indiana Academy of Science
Space Inadequacy and Areal Disunity
Such an extensive and intensive industrialization land utilization
pattern as indicated in Figure 3 is self-revealing of the space problems
that now beset the two communities. But if the map does not give a com-
plete picture of the situation, questionnaire and other data are conclusive.
Except for industries operating at capacity, respondents to our question-
naire repetitively reported inadequacy of amount or quality of land avail-
able for expansion. Or, if there is such a facility, it is limited to the
immediate future. Although some of the industries now possess unoccu-
pied land, extended expansion means an undesirable encroachment upon
areas in immediate residential contact or with areas of other needed
urban functions. Various comments indicate the types of restrictions
recognized, such as "not enough area to merge two plants which is de-
sired"; "bounded by canal, railroad, highway, another factory"; "closed
in by towns — surrounded by other communities." As summarily observed:
"This area is highly industrialized and populated. Additional land for
expansion is very expensive and full use of land owned is not possible due
to proximity to residential areas and resulting zoning restrictions placed
on us by their encroachment."
The one major expansion facility, of course, is lake-fill land as in the
case of the lakesited steel industry. One of the major objectives in urban
renewal (to be described later) is to allocate land for industrial purposes
either so originally intended, or rezone land in such a way as to relocate
residents of the community so as to provide additional industrial land
where such sites are more suited to industry than to other civic purposes.
Sub-nuclear urbanization and lack of an inter-community planning
program resulted in other space problems. Already in the latter nine-
teenth century as the Chicago industrial complex came to be developed,
industries were moving out of Chicago because of exorbitant corporation
taxes. This and other considerations, such as vacant and cheap land of
expansive proportions, led Standard Oil Company to locate in the unin-
corporated Whiting area. Then, when neighboring Hammond on the west
pressed for annexation of the Whiting area, Standard supported a move
for an independent Whiting where taxes were expected to be much lower
than in heavily-indebted Hammond.
A geographic cleavage of another sort in this industrial community
arose from the construction of the Indiana Harbor Ship Canal, paralleled
in part by the switching yards of the Indiana Harbor Belt Line Railroad.
The extension of this canal from the Harbor southward to the Grand
Calumet River resulted in the concept of "Twin City": the section of East
Chicago east of the canal lakeward came to be known as Indiana Harbor
and the section west of the canal as East Chicago. This geographic con-
cept has more than theoretical significance. The highway crossings of the
Canal are limited to the interregional traffic congested thoroughfares (a
mile to nearly two miles apart) — Indiana 912 in the north, US 12 and
Indiana 312 in the center, and the Indiana East- West Toll Road on the
southern boundary. This accentuates the regional separateness of the
two areas. Note also on the map (Figure 3), that each community has
developed a commercial core, with its own residential districts separated
in part by broad industrial tracts on either side of the Canal. "The rail-
Geology and Geography 179
roads that pass through the eastern part of the city add to the confusion
by listing their stations as Indiana Harbor. Until recent years, the tele-
phone company identified its exchanges as East Chicago and Indiana
Harbor respectively. Consequently, unity of thought and action among
the citizens of the Twin City has been difficult to attain, and on many
occasions sectional strife has characterized the various phases of its
affairs" (4).
The "Most Pressing Industrial Problem"
Transportation facilities abound within East Chicago, yet are said
to be critically inadequate. Within the city is a criss-crossing network of
busy streets, railroads, highways, and the Indiana Harbor canal, navi-
gable in its lakeward sector. Three major railroad lines traverse the city
and provide freight and passenger service for the industries and its resi-
dents. And the Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad serves as a connecting link
to all other railroads for the proper handling of freight cars within the
city and the region.
Three major U. S. highways (Routes 12, 20, and 41) and two state
highways, plus the East- West tollway, are extremely beneficial to the local
industries. A newly projected highway, the Tri-State, is being developed
from the east.
The Indiana Harbor Ship Canal is not only of particular importance
to the local heavy industries but also ranks high in the Calumet region.
According to statistics on tonnage shipped and received, the Harbor ranks
23rd in the nation. Within the conurban area of the region it ranks second
to the Illinois Calumet Harbor only 12 miles to the northeast.
Because the area involves extraordinary diversity of manufactured
goods, transportation facilities used are also extremely diverse. Practi-
cally every conceivable form of water, land, and air transport is used in
one case or another — heavy and light trucking service, railroad boxcars
and tankcars, boats and barges, pipelines and planes. Factors which
influence or determine the type of transportation used are related to
varying factors: differential costs; distances of source of raw materials
and markets; size, weight, and bulkiness of product; convenience of
handling and packaging; urgency; special physical characteristics of
products requiring a particular type of handling. A major change in
transportation within the last ten years is increased trucking on a large
scale. Though questionnaire percentage figures are lacking comparing
truck transportation with that of other forms, a greater number of manu-
facturers reported a change to trucking service than any other single
change. Heavy and bulky products are naturally favored by rail and barge
shipments. Thus, one of the industries reported its practice: "A 20,000-
pound unit of purchase will go by truck; a 60,000-pound unit will go by
rail." On the other hand, where time or urgency is a factor, sizable items
may be shipped by plane.
Despite these widespread and varied facilities, the area of transpor-
tation is reportedly East Chicago's "most pressing problem." "While our
highways in all directions are inadequate to handle the ever increasing
number of employees coming into our community to work, the problem is
most acute in the pitifully small number of North-South highways.
Through a splendid cooperative effort between the Public Officials and the
180 Indiana Academy of Science
Chambers of Commerce in this area, we at last have under construction
the improvement of Cline Avenue as a limited access highway. It is
scheduled for completion between Route 6 and Industrial Highway by
next September. We also have developed extensive plans which are pres-
ently being considered by the State Highway Department. These involve
the improvement and re-routing of State Road 912; the creation of an
Alternate 912, which would involve restoration of the long time useless
Canal Street bridge; the improvement of Kennedy Avenue and its con-
nection with the proposed Alternate 912" (5).
Geographic Dispersion of the Labor Force a Distinguishing
Industrial Feature
As is noted elsewhere, a large percentage of the labor force must be
gotten outside the immediate area, though many industries encourage
settlement within the immediate area, particularly employees of the high-
est skilled type, since absenteeism, hazards, or other adverse factors due
to distant travelling can result in serious handicaps of industrial activity.
Very few industries report that all, or nearly all, of their employees are
from within the area. Such characterizations include ''Calumet area,"
"entire area," "Lake and Cook County and Porter County." Various
outside cities are mentioned, primarily Hammond on the west and Gary
on the east. Several of the larger firms gave us a revealing percentage
breakdown of the various outside communities represented on their labor
force. Thus, for example, the following percentages: East Chicago, 46;
Gary, 16; Hammond, 15; Chicago, 8; Calumet City, 2; Whiting, 2. Another
respondent reported: Hammond, 34.4; East Chicago, 10.2; Whiting, 8.6;
Highland, Q.Q; Gary, 5.3; Munster, 3.5; Griffith, 3.3; other miscellaneous
employees who live in Indiana, 8.7. From communities on the Illinois side,
the following percentages: Chicago, 6.2; Calumet City, 5.4; Lansing, 5.4;
Dolton, 0.8; miscellaneous, 1.6. Thus the total percentage of employees of
Indiana is approximately 81, and of Illinois 19. Still another firm lists
the following community figures: East Chicago, 50; Chicago, 35; Gary, 10;
Hammond, Griffith, 5.
Such high percentages of non-resident laborers point to another major
problem of the area, namely, inadequate housing for industrial workers.
The wide open spaces of northwestern Indiana once made it possible for
workers, if they so wished, to live at some distance away from the noisome
gases, odors, and dust-polluted atmosphere of the refining stills and blast
furnaces. However, as a result of phenomenal industrial expansion, land
became progressively scarce as more and more residences came to be built
privately both by industrial management as well as by workers. It was
only a question, therefore, of a few decades when civic authorities as well
as industries began to recognize that such proximity could result only in
substandard housing and eventual "slums," similar to those that have
developed elsewhere in heavily industrialized communities. The first major
step to be taken by civic agencies to correct or at least check this progres-
sive blightening influence was that of the East Chicago Chamber of
Commerce, which in 1926 published a general survey of its social and
economic problems (6). The purpose of this report was to present the
results of a survey of the "physical, social and economic aspects" of the
city, with the view of assaying the major housing and other related
Geology and Geography 181
problems in the community and reviewing various possible measures of
improving the general living conditions of the community. Other aspects
of the report deal with local marketing, transportation, recreation facili-
ties, educational facilities, noxious elements, the ethnographic composi-
tion of the population, as well as suggestions for zoning and planning for
the future. One of the unique features of this report is the distribution
of a questionnaire to the citizens to determine attitudes that militated
against living in the community. So one of the questions asked was, "If
you do not live in East Chicago please state briefly why you do not." The
answers of the 274 respondents were tabulated. While the individual
answers are highly illuminative, they cannot be individually listed here.
However, the report goes on to summarize the criticisms of the commu-
nity, particularly as they reflect living conditions, which in tabulated
form is here produced in part as follows:
Planning for the Future of East Chicago — Criticisms by
Industrial Employees:
The foregoing 274 answers to Question #11 furnish 420 objections,
which may be conveniently classified as follows :
SUMMARY OF CRITICISMS
Objections Totals
No. % No. %
1. Housing
Shortage of Residences 42 10.00
Shortage of Stores and Markets 6 1.43
Shortage of Amusements 9 2.14
High Rents and Taxes 44 10.48 101 24.05
2. Transportation 48 11.43 48 11.43
3. Racial
Foreigners in General 25 5.95
Mexicans 30 7.14
Negroes 45 10.72 100 23.81
4. Public Utilities
Poor Water 23 5.48
Poor Gas 4 0.95 27 6.43
5. Undesirable Conditions
Uncleanliness 22 5.24
Cement Dust 17 4.05
Smoke 3 0.71 42 10.00
The remaining categories in the order of importance were: "Living
Conditions Generally (8.81); Lawlessness (5.95); Poor Schools (2.38);
Environment (1.90) ; Miscellaneous (1.90) ; No Restricted Districts
(1.67) ; and Owns Property Elsewhere (1.67)."
Another questionnaire circulated by the Chamber of Commerce was
directed at determining "suggestions for improvements." Again detailed
responses were received and a broad classification indicated. Items con-
cerned with building of more housing units of diverse types and the
182 Indiana Academy of Science
lowering of rents were emphasized to the extent of 24.30 percent. A similar
aggregate percentage was concerned with restrictions based in order of
segregation of races, zoning ordinance, elimination of foreigners, and
building restrictions. The third major improvement category concerned
improvements in sanitation, public utilities, elimination of cement dust and
smoke, as well as the planting of trees, a total of 21.77 percent. The remain-
ing classification items stressed the elimination of lawlessness (6.48 per-
cent), the provision for more parks and playgrounds (3.24 percent), and
other miscellaneous items for a total of 3.47 percent.
In the summarization, then, it is noted that "two-fifths assigned as
the reason for not living in East Chicago is the inability to secure suitable
living quarters at reasonable rents or some other objection having to do
with the housing situation."
Between the years 1950 and 1954 constructive action on the part of
industries and the social-political forces in the city and surrounding
communities stimulated the need for planning, to solve the housing and
other land-use problems. For this purpose the Purdue-Calumet Develop-
ment Foundation was organized.1
According to statistics compiled by the foundation, industrial land
comprises 70.1 percent of the total land use in East Chicago and 58.3
percent in Whiting. These high percentages present many problems in
relation to residential land use which occupies approximately 11 percent
of the total land area in both communities, with East Chicago supporting
a population of 57,669 and Whiting 8,137. As Bunsa made clear, the
industrialists have become concerned about the residential blighting con-
ditions and, incidentally, help financially to sponsor the urban redevelop-
ment project in East Chicago.
In Figure 3 are shown the main housing developments, known as
"action" areas:
"Area a is officially known as the Indiana Harbor Urban Renewal
Area. This area has a clearance section and a conservation section.
Execution of the project after completion of planning and federal and
local approvals, commenced in August, 1960.
Area b represents the new Prairie Park subdivision to be devel-
oped by Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation for 600 middle-
income homes. At this time the Foundation owns only that portion
west of Alder Street, the first section of which (80 units) is now
under development.
xAccording to Mr. Thomas S. Bunsa, the General Director, the organization got its
start in this manner :
"The idea of the foundation grew out of the social, economic and administrative
needs of the Calumet region after World War II. Economic growth in the area brought
high prosperity and a need for more and more housing to accommodate adequately a
growing work force. But years of neglect, through depression and war, had produced
widespread areas of blight intensified by overcrowding after the war, which continued
to spread despite high prosperity. In these circumstances, people began to question
whether or not better housing and living standards should not be attainable in high
prosperity, and industrialists began to be concerned about the need for more and better
housing and an improved environment, which they considered necessary to hold and
attract the required personnel to man their expansion programs" (7).
Geology and Geography 183
Area c is the West Calumet Urban Renewal Area. Planning of
this project is almost complete. Commencement of execution is antici-
pated sometime during late 1962. As in Area a, both clearance and
conservation is proposed.
Area d is known as "New Addition." Some renewal activities are
necessary here, but at this time there are no proposals for this
area" (8).
Cal-Sag Project Poses a New Geographic Dimension to
West Calumet Industries
Figure 4 shows three harbors on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan
identified with the so-called Calumet-Sag Navigation Project — the Chicago
Harbor, the Calumet Harbor, and the Indiana Harbor at East Chicago.
The project "was authorized by Congress with approval of the Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1946. Its completion will join two great inland water
routes, one of which leads to the Mississippi and the Gulf ports; the other
through the Great Lakes and to the Atlantic ocean via the St. Lawrence
Seaway. . . . Constructed primarily as a sanitation and drainage canal,
it had two major purposes: to provide drainage for the south side of
Chicago and to prevent pollution of Lake Michigan by reversing the flow
of the Calumet River. . . . However, the original purpose for which the
Channel was built has been far overshadowed by its importance to the
surging need for adequate commercial navigation in this area. Bypassing
the congested Chicago business district, it leads through comparatively
open country to the great concentration of industry south and east of
Chicago — a region in which are located numerous steel mills, oil refineries,
cold storage plants, grain elevators, chemical industries, and plants allied
with the heavy industries." ... (9).
As it will also be noted on the map, the East Chicago-Whiting region
is part of Part 2 of this project, involving as it does the Indiana Harbor,
the Indiana Ship Canal, and the Grand Calumet River to the south.
Improvements here call for deepening the Grand Calumet River from its
present four feet to nine feet, and from its present width of approximately
one hundred feet to 225 feet from the junction of the Grand Calumet River
with the Little Calumet River to the present head of deep-draft navigation
at 141st Street. A further provision calls for a lock and controlling works
in the Grand Calumet River immediately west of its junction with the
Indiana Harbor Canal.
As will also be noted on the map, the development of this navigation
project involves expensive relocation or reconstruction of numerous
bridges — both highway and railway— now without adequate vertical and
horizontal clearances.
Though the Federal government is committed to the project in the
main, local interests have the responsibility of cooperating in the project
by providing necessary rights of way and areas for soil disposal as well as
relocation or alteration of utilities affected by the channel improvement
project.
Part 1 of the project, started in 1955, is scheduled for completion in
1964. Development of Part 2 is contingent upon the readiness of the local
area to assume its share of contractual obligations, as indicated above.
184 Indiana Academy of Science
To what extent the East Chicago area will benefit directly from the
development of Part 2 together with Part 1 of the project is difficult to say.
Much would depend upon the comparative developments of the three
harbors indicated and the degree to which the eastern part of the Grand
Calumet region would expand industrially and commercially.
Conclusion: Community Rehabilitation in Interstate
Calumet Perspective
The East Chicago Chamber of Commerce report for 1926 concluded
with a strong recommendation on certain principles to be observed in
planning and zoning of residential, business, and industrial areas to fit
the progressive needs of the community, particularly in terms of social
and economic betterment. It went even so far as to suggest a change of
name, partly because some eight other communities in the region already
carried the appellation of Chicago, and partly because of the confusion in
the minds of some that East Chicago and Indiana Harbor actually repre-
sented two different cities. Because East Chicago was recognized as being
closely integrated especially in terms of transportation with the other
cities of the West Calumet region, the report suggested consolidating East
Chicago with the other three neighboring communities — Whiting on the
northwest, Hammond on the west, and Gary on the east, with which East
Chicago has "coterminal boundaries in large part."
After some thirty-five years, this time as part of the program of the
Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation, the problem of co-ordination
of inter-area transportation is again being considered. It is proposed that
the several west Calumet communities be developed after the pattern of
the PCDF for East Chicago, and that such four-area foundations be
"federated into a parent Northwest Indiana Development Foundation"
(10).
Mr. Applegate, executive vice president of the East Chicago Chamber
of Commerce, also reports that local industries, through the Chamber of
Commerce and local public officials, working with the neighboring Calu-
met area communities, propose the creation of a new deep water harbor —
the so-called Outer Harbor Project or Tri-City Harbor. This project
envisions "connecting the existing South Chicago Harbor and Indiana
Harbor with a breakwater," involving also the creation of new land for
port and industries. Again working with "neighbors in Indiana and
Illinois," the Chamber is active in "seeking congressional appropriations
to continue the Calumet-Sag Canal project eastward," as outlined pre-
viously.
Observations and proposals, such as the above, point to problems of
areal development inherent in growing industrial communities where arti-
ficial corporate limits and arbitrary municipal controls operate in conflict
rather than in co-ordination of area interests for the component regional
communities. Urban renewal, with all that this implies in the redevelop-
ment of the East Chicago-Whiting community, is not, then, merely a
matter of internal city concern. It represents rather a geographic rehabili-
tation project calling for consideration of all the major natural and human
environmental factors germane to the manufactural, commercial, and
residential functions of the area — such as drainage, sewerage, and sani-
tation; the transportation and traffic patterns; the industrial expansion
Geology and Geography 185
potential, and labor force availability. Important as are their interrela-
tionships within the community itself, the problems arising from such
compact and complex situation as here presented must be assayed in a
wider regional context than the precincts of a city boundary, or county,
or even any one state. Industrial-residential blight may be primarily an
internal community affair. Yet even this is normally related to a traffic
pattern of inter-regional scope. And this inter-regional impact, in the
case of the Calumet-Chicago area, is, of course, inter-state, involving the
Illinois side as well as the Indiana component. Sound community planning
for the rehabilitation and progressive development of the East Chicago-
Whiting area thus involves a comprehensive geographic survey of the
inter-state implications of: the projected improvements of Calumet River
drainage; the eastward extension of navigability of the Cal-Sag, including
the connected Indiana Harbor Ship Canal; the promotion of St. Lawrence
Seaway commerce by the various ports in the southwestern Lake Michigan
area, including Indiana Harbor (and any new harbors that might be
projected, such as the site of the Burns Waterway) ; and the changing
pattern of transport and traffic of the Calumet region.
But such inter-state survey, to be effective, must be implemented by
proper legislation — an inter-state compact of some type. Such legislation
would not only identify more clearly community problems and their
regional scope of attack, but also would help eliminate some of the regional
prejudices which are blind to the geographic realities that must be ap-
praised objectively if all the industrial communities of the Calumet are
to share in an expanding world market for their goods and by such indus-
trial expansion improve as well the standard of living of their employees,
whether local or regional residents.
The Calumet compact might be patterned after similar compacts
operative elsewhere. For example, the Bi-State Compact of the Wabash
River Valley is an agreement between the legislatures of Indiana and
Illinois (January 25, 1960), approved by the Congress of the United
States, to develop comprehensively the resources of the Wabash valley.
To this end, the compact is directed at relating the "agricultural, indus-
trial, commercial, recreational, transportation, development and other
problems to the opportunities in the Valley" (11). Jurisdiction resides in
the Wabash Valley Interstate Commission which has the responsibility of
"coordinating the efforts of the local, state, and federal agencies to obtain
efficient and effective development of resources for all purposes."
The virtue of a comprehensive planning pattern such as this is that
it identifies the integral inter-state relations of the economic potential
within the framework of the total geographic perspective.
Though the Calumet-Lake Michigan region is uniquely focused on
urban-industrial-commercial resource developments, and, therefore, calls
for its own distinctive regional analysis, the general principle of seeking
a co-ordinated and unified regional evaluation of its problems and poten-
tialities applies in the East Chicago-Whiting community as it does in other
conurbanized areas.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the many sources that have
materially contributed to this areal study : the industrial and other inter-
186 Indiana Academy of Science
viewees as well as all documentary sources. Particularly helpful have been
the contributions by conference and correspondence significant in develop-
ing insights and concepts of areal projections of policy in modeling a new
geography for the East Chicago-Whiting area. In this connection, we
wish to credit specifically Mr. George H. Applegate, Executive Vice Presi-
dent of the East Chicago Chamber of Commerce, and Mr. Thomas S.
Bunsa and Mr. Walter Furness, General Director and Chief Planner,
respectively, of the Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation.
Developed as a research project in the class of "Geographic Problems"
in the Department of Geography and Geology at Valparaiso University,
this study involved a considerable amount of "spadework" — the collection,
tabulation, and cartographic representation of data in which students
participated, including the class of "Urban Geography" under the direc-
tion of Mr. Elmer Hess of the departmental staff — all of whose services
are deeply appreciated.
Literature Cited
1. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce. 1960 Census of Population,
Indiana, November 30, 1960.
2. Meyer, Alfred II. September, 1956. Circulation and Settlement Pattern of the
Calumet Region, Second Stage of Occupance, 1830-1850. Annals of the Associa-
tion of American Geographers 46, p. 313.
3. Moore, Powell A., 19.39, The Calumet Region. Indiana Historical Bureau 39, pp.
219-220.
4. Ibid. pp. 216-217.
5. AprLEGATE, George EL, Executive Vice President. East Chicago Chamber of Com-
merce, communication, November 4, 1961.
6. Walker. James, 1926, Planning for the Future of East Chicago, Indiana. (Pre-
pared for the East Chicago Chamber of Commerce.)
7. Bunsa, Thomas S.. January. 1900, Calumet Industrial Area. Brochure extract
from the Journal of Housing 42.
8. Eurness, Walter, Chief Planner, Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation, East
Chicago, Indiana. Communication, November 15, 1961.
9. Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army Engineer District, Chicago. Illinois. Calumet-Sag
Navigation Project (Brochure).
10. Purdue-Calumet Development Foundation, Annual Report for 1900.
11. Wabash Valley Interstate Commission, Terre Haute, Indiana. A Bi-State Approach
to Resource Development (Brochure).
Apportionment of Representation in the Indiana
Legislature
David W. Amsttjtz, Indiana University
Since the 1960 state elections a focus of interest has developed con-
cerning the possibility of reapportioning elective districts in Indiana.
This is not a recent issue in as much as the General Assembly has stead-
fastly refused to reapportion itself since 1933. Recently one of the Judges
of the State Court of Appeals ruled the whole Assembly unconstitutional
for not reapportioning itself.
The Indiana General Assembly is composed of two houses, the upper
house or Senate and the lower House of Representatives. At the last
reapportionment the state was divided into 43 Senate districts which
elect 50 Senators, and 75 House districts which elect 100 representatives.
The boundaries of these voting districts strictly adhere to county boun-
daries, so that the county is the basic political unit of legislative district-
ing. Counties may not be divided into more than one district, but a district
may be formed by several counties which must be contiguous.
Any reapportionment would involve changing the boundaries of the
present elective districts rather than adding representatives, since the
number of representatives is specifically fixed in the State Constitution.
According to the State Constitution, reapportionment of the elective dis-
tricts is to be based on an enumeration of male inhabitants over 21 years
of age, to be taken every six years. The last enumeration of this type
made by the state was in 1931, but the 1933 and all subsequent legislatures
have refused to use this law as a basis for reapportionment, because it
became outdated when women also received the vote.
With this in mind, we shall take a look at the present apportionment
of legislative voting districts in the state of Indiana.
The total population of the state has been divided by the number of
representatives in each house of the state legislature, in order to compute
a population mean per representative. The actual population of each
elective district is divided by this mean, in order to find its percentage of
the mean. The classification of all elective districts into four categories is
purely arbitrary but necessary to facilitate graphic presentation.
The use of the population mean per representative is presumed to be
the most ideal method of comparing equality of representation in this
study, because it is consistent with the old democratic theory of one man,
one vote. The population figures used are from the 1960 Census of Popu-
lation.
The mean population figure for each of the 100 lower house repre-
sentatives is 64,625. The range of population per representative of those
districts in the 70 to 129 % of mean classification varies from 32,443
(Marshall County district 70% of mean), to 59,225 (Monroe County dis-
trict 127% of mean). One may hesitate to consider a distribution this
wide as being acceptable, but considering all of the inheritant problems of
apportioning a fixed number of representatives within unflexible districts,
it would not be unreasonable to accept this range if it were to include all
of the elective districts of the state. However, as shown on the district
Map 1, only approximately two thirds of all lower house elective districts
187
188
Indiana Academy of Science
VOTING DISTRICTS
INDIANA HOUSE
PERCENTAGE
OF MEAN
D"
NDER 70
■ 70 129%
HI 130-199%
■ OVER 200 %
Map 1
in the state do fall in this classification. The remainder are either highly
over represented or badly under represented. For example, Lake County
has an average of 95,581 people per representative (183% of mean),
while Parke County has a population of only 14,804 enjoying the luxury
of a representative. The Parke County district at 38% of mean is the
most over represented elective district in the lower house.
Geology and Geography 189
The districts which are under 70% of mean contain 15% of the total
population of the state, which elects 23% of the representatives in the
lower house. This may be compared with the districts which are in the
130 to 199% classification. They contain 19% of the total population but
elect only 12% of the representatives. A vote cast in one of the latter
districts has only approximately half the representation of a vote cast in
one of the former districts. In the 70 to 129% of mean classification, 61%
of the total population elects 64% of the representatives, and the districts
which are over 200% of mean contain 5% of the total population but elect
less than 1% of the representatives in the lower house.
Those districts which are over 200% of the mean have a unique
characteristic of districting in common. They have been integrated with
large adjacent urban districts in a very curious manner. An example of
this is Johnson County adjacent to Marion County, which contains Indian-
apolis. The 697,567 inhabitants of Marion County have 11 lower house
representatives which are elected at large in Marion County, in addition
to another representative in common with Johnson County, population
43,707, who is elected at large in both counties. The question that arises is
how to evaluate Johnson County. Can Johnson County be considered to
have one full representative? Not really, when Marion County has 16
times more voice in determining this representative. Thus we find that
Johnson County has 1/17 of one representative and Marion County has
11 16/17 representatives. This arrangement gives Johnson County a
remarkable index figure of 1058% of the mean. There are thirteen of
these integrated district combinations in the House and six in the Senate.
In addition to Johnson County, Blackford County 194% of mean, Whitley
County 542% of mean, Carroll County 124% of mean, Hancock County
324% of mean, Rush County 148% of mean, Tipton County 183% of mean,
Pike County 116% of mean, Porter County 1270% of mean, Starke County
242% of mean, Posey and Warrick Counties 446% of mean, Warren
County 209% of mean, and Union County 173% of mean, share in this
dubious distinction of minor league representation.
In the Senate, the population mean per Senator is 93,250. As is evi-
dent by the Map 2, only half of the Senate districts fall within the 70 to
129% classification. The population distribution within this category
ranges from 66,582 (population of Dearborn, Jennings, Ripley district
71% of mean) to an average of 117,435 per representative of Marion
County district, 126% of mean.
The Clay and Parke County district (population total 39,011) is the
most over represented district in the Senate at 42% of mean. At the other
end of the index is the Lake County district, average population per repre-
sentative 171,088, which is 184% of mean.
The districts under 70% of mean contain 20% of the total population,
which elects 32% of the Senate. The districts in the 70 to 129% of mean
classification contain 59% of the total population, which elects 58% of
the Senate. The districts which are in the 130 to 200% of mean classifica-
tion contain 16% of the total population and elect 10% of the Senate,
while the districts over 200% of mean contain 5% of the population, which
elects less than 1% of the Senate.
190
Indiana Academy of Science
VOTING DISTRICTS
INDIANA SENATE
PERCENTAGE
OF MEAN
I"""] UNDER 70%
\~~] 70—129%
V] 130^199%
■ OVER 200%
Map 2
Those districts over 200% of mean are those which share a repre-
sentative with a large adjacent urban district. Unlike the lower house,
all of these integrated districts are in this classification.
The apportionment of representation in the Indiana Legislature is
unequitably balanced for a considerable fraction of the state's inhabitants,
Geology and Geography 191
and does not present equal representation to the citizens of this state
irrespective of geographic location within its boundaries.
Literature Cited
Census of Population, 1960.
General Election Report of Indiana compiled by Charles O. Hendricks, Secretary of
State, Indiana, 1960.
Yearbook of Indiana, 1950.
Distribution of Population Change in Indiana, 1950-1960
Paul D. Whippo, Indiana University
In the past, most population studies have employed the county unit
for mapping and describing population change. While one may list a
number of advantages for selecting the county unit in preference to a
smaller areal unit, the fact that the county is the larger unit is a disad-
POPULATION CHANGE BY COUNTY
De c li tie
m
gift
Increase
■
< 18,5%
liiiil
Paul D, Whippo
INDIANA UNJV,
Geology and Geography 193
vantage in so much as many significant population changes in the smaller
areas are obscured. This paper is an attempt to illustrate some of these
obscurities and thereby to more accurately describe the change in popula-
tion which has taken place in Indiana during the 1950-1960 decade through
the comparison of a county unit map depicting the distribution of popula-
tion change for this period with a civil township unit map.
The rate of change in population per unit area on each map has been
computed from data in the 1950 (1) and 1960 (2) United States Censuses
of Population. To facilitate the handling of the numerous rates at which
population change has occurred, the rates of change have been grouped
into three categories: (1) areas of population decline, (2) minimum gain
areas which increased in population at a lesser rate than did the state
(18.5 per cent), and (3) maximum gain areas which increased in popula-
tion at a greater rate than did the state.
From the county unit map (map #1) , it would appear that population
decline is concentrated in fifteen southwestern counties and limited to
three additional counties in the eastern part of the state. However, the
township unit map (map #2) reveals a different pattern. Based on the
average thirty-six square mile township, thirty-three per cent of the total
area of the state is computed to have lost population as compared to only
nineteen per cent of the total area when the county unit is used. Also,
from the township unit map it is disclosed that only forty-one per cent of
the area which lost population is located in the eighteen declining counties.
These discrepancies in the size and dispersion of areas of decline are
the product of averaging the maximum increase in population of a few
townships among all of the townships within the county. Warrick and
Rush Counties illustrate this most vividly; seven of the ten townships in
Warrick County and eight of the twelve townships in Rush County lost
population during the ten year period, but still both counties were able to
record an increase in population on the county unit map.
The averaging process is also observable when the urban areas on the
two maps are compared. While both maps relate the areas of maximum
increase in population with established cities, the maximum gain asso-
ciated with six cities (Evansville, Terre Haute, South Bend, Bloomington,
Logansport and Richland) on the township unit map are obscured by the
larger county unit.
Thus, an evaluation of the comparison of the two maps at this point
would indicate (1) a larger and more dispersed area of population decline
than is depicted on the county unit map, and (2) a closer correlation of
areas of maximum population gain with urban places. However, a third
point to be made is that the township unit permits a more precise descrip-
tion of the pattern of population change associated with urban areas.
This pattern may be described as analogous to a 'doughnut," with the
"doughnut" representing the area of maximum growth, and encompassing
an urbanized township which experienced a relatively small increase or
an actual decline in population.
The "doughnut" pattern is illustrated on the nine county-Indianapolis
area map (map #3) which was constructed by consigning the rates of
population change for each township to the geographic center of the town-
ship and interpolating there from the isopleths of population change. The
194
Indiana Academy of Science
POPULATION CHANGE BY TOWNSHIP
1950-1960
Paul D. Whippo
NDIANA UNIV.
Map
"doughnut" depicts the greatest increase in population to be, not in the
urbanized area or suburban fringe, but in the second tier of townships
from the city, with the steepest gradient of population change on the city
side of the "doughnut." This method of mapping population change illus-
trates the importance of the city as a place of employment, and the small
towns and rural areas as a place of residence.
Geology and Geography
195
Three cities experienced the aforementioned decline in population of
the "core" township: Indianapolis, Terre Haute, and Evansville, and the
actual loss in population for the three townships, 32,944 persons, repre-
sents fifty-one per cent of the total loss for all of the declining townships.
This would seem to indicate that urban to rural movement is equally as
important as rural to urban movement in the population redistribution.
Although the Indianapolis area is the only example of the "doughnut"
pattern to be described in this paper, it should suffice to say that the pattern
prevails in eighteen of the remaining nineteen urban places in Indiana
with over 20,000 persons.
POPULATION CHANGE IN THE
INDIANAPOLIS AREA 1950-1960
Increase
> 100 %
> <
b0 %
u
> 20 %
D
< 20 %
Paul D. Whippo
IN
DIA
NA UNIV.
Map 3
Literature Cited
1. TJ. S. Bureau of the Census. 1950. TJ. 8. Census of Population: 1, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1951.
2. TJ. S. Bureau of the Census, TJ. 8. Census of Population: 1960 Advance Report, PC
(Al)-16, November 30, I960.
Bloomington's Industrial Labor-Shed
Richard D. Wright, Indiana University
Introduction
This is a study of an industrial labor-shed. Just as the term water-
shed is defined as the area from which a stream receives its water, so also
the term labor-shed can be used to indicate the region from which a par-
ticular industry or city acquires its source of labor. The objective of this
paper is thus to analyze the size, shape, and composition of one industrial
labor-shed in particular; that of Bloomington, Indiana. Labor-shed
analysis is important not just because it directs attention to the distances
traveled by some people to work, but also because it is one of several major
indicators of the amount of influence exerted by the city on its surrounding
region. In any sort of regional or city planning, labor-shed studies become
invaluable as a necessary preliminary for sound zoning practices, the
establishment of outlying service centers, and the handling of a host of
traffic problems. It is hoped that other studies, similar to this, will be
made of the industrial labor-sheds of other Indiana cities. Then through
comparison, perhaps some broad principles regarding labor-shed size,
shape, and composition may be evolved.
Methodology
In order to achieve the objective set forth in the introduction, it is
both unnecessary and impractical to take into account the nearly 100
industries on the Bloomington Chamber of Commerce industrial list.
Rather, only the three largest industries — Radio Corporation of America,
Sarkes Tarzian, and Westinghouse — are considered on the basis that these
three, excluding the 26 stone firms that are scattered throughout the
county, account for approximately 56 per cent of Bloomington's industrial
labor force. In addition to these three industries, Indiana University is
included in this study and considered as an industry because it is the
biggest employment establishment in the city. The major role played by
the university in the economy of Bloomington is at once obvious if one
considers that the some 5,000 persons working at the university are bring-
ing money into the city. However, in this treatment only the 3,033 salaried
employees will be considered, for practically all the other employees are
students working part-time. The addition of Indiana University's salaried
employees brings the total to 8,463 workers or about 90 per cent of Bloom-
ington's total industrial labor force, excluding again the stone firms.
Mapping the distribution of 90 per cent of the labor force is considered
sufficient to allow an accurate identification of Bloomington's industrial
labor-shed.
One of the objectives is to determine with some accuracy the limits
of the labor-shed. Consequently, it is essential to find where the workers
live. Three alternative methods of obtaining information regarding the
workers' residences are available: (1) license plates can be checked at
industrial parking lots and addresses obtained from license plate direc-
tories, (2) one may conduct interviews at the industrial location, or (3)
residences can be located by securing a list of employees and their home
addresses from each industry. The third method of obtaining home ad-
196
Geology and Geography
197
dresses is utilized here because this procedure, unlike the first two, is not
only less time consuming, but is also open to considerably less error.
The employees of Bloomington's major industries are broken down
into three groups on the basis of their home location with respect to Bloom-
ington. Bloomington city employees are those which live inside Blooming-
ton's city limits, Bloomington rural employees are those which live in
Bloomington's rural areas, and non-Bloomington employees are those
which live outside of the rural areas of Bloomington.
Proportionate circles are used in this paper to represent the non-
Bloomington class of workers. Figures one through three illustrate the
proportionate circle method of showing distributions. A black circle near
the center in each of the first three figures symbolizes the number of
Bloomington city and Bloomington rural persons working in the major
industries. A pie graph located in the lower left-hand corner of each of
these figures shows the percentage of Bloomington city, Bloomington
rural, and non-Bloomington employees.
Electronic Industries
The electronics industries have an average labor force totaling 5,430
employees, or about 65 per cent of the total number of workers employed
ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES
Indianapolis
Terre Haute
Vincennes
Columbus
Seymoui
Classification Of Employees
34" /v\ B'oom>n£t°n Citv
Non-Bloomington
5.430 - Total Number Of Employees
Non-Blomington Employees
0 110 25 100 300 HOI i
Number Of Employees
Figure 1
198 Indiana Academy of Science
in Bloomington's major industries (Figure 1). An unusually high per-
centage of the labor force resides outside of the political city. Twenty-one
per cent of the workers live in the city's rural areas while an additional
45 per cent live outside of the Bloomington area. Thus a total of 66 per
cent of the labor force lives outside of the city limits.
The largest concentration of non-Bloomington workers is found in
the Bedford area 30 miles to the south (Figure 1). Large numbers of
workers also come from the Bloomfield, Ellettsville, and Spencer areas.
The large number of employees commuting from the northwest, west,
southwest, and south probably is a result of the lack of employment oppor-
tunities in these mining and agricultural areas. The paucity of economic
activity is further indicated by the fact that many of these counties have
been losing population for 60 years. On the other hand, only a few people
engaged at the electronics industries live east and northeast of Blooming-
ton. Columbus probably siphons off much of the labor force east of
Bloomington ; while to the northeast, much of the labor is drawn to indus-
trial Indianapolis. Then too, poor roads leading into Bloomington from
the east, though much better in recent months, have also lessened the
number of persons willing to commute from this area because of the
greater time distance. In addition, immediately to the northeast and east,
there are relatively few population concentrations from which to draw
labor.
The longest straight-line distance journeyed by workers commuting
to the electronics industries is nearly 70 miles; traveled by employees
living at Vincennes, Huntingburg, and Birdseye. However, as Figure 1
illustrates, there are very few commuters residing outside of a 40-mile
radius of Bloomington.
Indiana University
A total of 3,033 salaried employees work on the Bloomington campus.
This number accounts for about 35 per cent of the labor force of Bloom-
ington's major economic establishments (Figure 2).
The distribution of Indiana University's labor force, as shown in
Figure 2, differs from that of the electronics industries in that: (1) a
much higher per cent of its employees live within the city limits of Bloom-
ington, (2) the non-Bloomington class of employees have a less wider
distribution range, and (3) the directional distribution of the non-Bloom-
ington class of workers is dissimilar.
Seventeen per cent of the workers live in the rural districts of Bloom-
ington, while only six per cent live outside of the Bloomington area. Thus
only 23 per cent of the employees at Indiana University reside outside of
the city limits as compared to the figure of 66 per cent exhibited by the
electronics industries. University personnel thus prefer to live within a
few minutes driving distance of work.
The farthest straight-line distance traversed by a university em-
ployee is about 65 miles from Vincennes. In addition, workers also com-
mute from Brazil and Terre Haute. For the most part, however, most
university personnel live within a 30-mile radius of Bloomington.
Unlike the electronics industries, Indiana University has a large
number of commuting employees who live to the east of Bloomington,
principally in the Unionville and Nashville areas. In addition to these two
Geology and Geography
199
Indianapolis
Columbus
Seymour
Classification Of Employees
Bloomington City
Non- Bloomington
Bloomington Rural
3.033 - Total Number Of Employees
Non-Bloomington Employees
01 5 10 30
Number Of Employees
Figure 2
areas, relatively large concentrations of commuters are also found in the
Ellettsville, Bloomfield, and Bedford areas.
The Total Industrial Labor-Shed
Figure three is a composite map of the first two. It represents, for
all practical purposes, Bloomington's industrial labor-shed. The composi-
tion of the labor-shed, as revealed in the pie graph shows that less than
one-half of the 8,463 workers live within the political city, while 20 and 31
per cent, respectively, are classified as Bloomington rural and non-Bloom-
ington.
The largest concentrations of workers are found northwest, west, and
south of Bloomington within a 40-mile radius. The Bedford area predomi-
nates as the single largest contributor of labor to Bloomington's industries.
Again it is obvious that few workers commute to Bloomington from the
east.
Bloomington's industrial labor-shed is asymmetrically oriented with
respect to the city. The northern and eastern borders extend to a distance
of 45 to 40 miles respectively; while the southern and western reaches of
the boundary extend to a distance of 60 to 70 miles. A large number of
200
Indiana Academy of Science
THE TOTAL INDUSTRIAL LABOR-SHED
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES J^ •
Indianapolis
Greencastle
Terre Haute
Columbus
Seymour
Classification Of Employees \ Scale Of Miles
<„... y\ Non-Bloomington
{J20".)*- Bloomington Rural
Bloomington City
H.463 - Total Number Of Employees
Richard D. Wright. 1961
Huntingburg- Birdseye
Non-BloomingtonEmployees
0 1102550100 300 600
Number Of Employees
Figure '•'
population centers, better transportation routes with shorter time dis-
tances, and a declining local economic activity combine to make those
regions to the northwest, west, and south of Bloomington good areas from
which to draw a labor supply. Conversely, the regions to the east and
northeast of Bloomington supply only a small percentage of the labor
force, principally because they are areas characterized by a relatively
small number of population centers and poorer transportation routes
leading into Bloomington. Columbus and Indianapolis apparently succeed
in drawing off most of the labor force east and northeast of Bloomington
except, of course, for the university employees.
The Labor-Shed, Studied on a County Basis
Perhaps a better idea of the influence of Bloomington on the economies
of Monroe County and the surrounding counties may be gotten by com-
paring the county industrial labor force with the number of persons in
the county that are employed in Bloomington's major industries. In this
way it is possible to assess the influence of Bloomington, industrial-wise,
on Monroe County and the surrounding counties. Looking at Blooming-
ton's labor-shed from this viewpoint, several interesting conclusions may be
Geology and Geography
.201
drawn. Figure 4 shows that Monroe County, with a figure of 63 per cent,
has the highest percentage of its industrial labor force working in the
major industries of Bloomington. Greene County, though contributing
fewer workers than Lawrence County; nevertheless, has a higher per-
centage of its labor force engaged by Bloomington industry. Owen, Law-
rence, and Brown counties all have a large proportion of their industrial
labor force working in Bloomington.
BLOOMINGTON'S^
INDUSTRIAL
LABOR-SHED
XI
■>%!%
I
"ihoteasew
X.
?m Cent of County
Industrial Labor Force
Ekipleyedf in Blooming-
fjon*B Major Industries
&®s £h&*i 0.1%
ttM% to $$A%
mm mm
Figure 4
Bloomington's industrial labor-shed, as shown in Figure 4, is strongly
oriented to the west and southwest. The per cent of the county labor force
working in Bloomington remains relatively high — three to seven per cent —
50 miles west and southwest of Bloomington in Knox and Sullivan coun-
ties. However, the percentage of county labor force employed in Bloom-
ington drops quickly to 0.4 per cent or less in Putnam, Marion, Johnson,
Bartholomew, Jackson, and Orange counties. The westward and south-
westward orientation of Bloomington's labor-shed is also indicated by the
fact that Knox and Sullivan counties, located 50 miles from Bloomington,
contribute 68 and 51 workers, respectively, to the major industries; while
Brown County, immediately east of Monroe County, contributes only 72
workers. Thus one can see that the influence of Bloomington's major
202 Indiana Academy of Science
industries extends much farther west and southwest than in any other
direction. Figure 4 also clearly indicates the influence of the labor-sheds
of Terre Haute and Greencastle to the northwest, Columbus to the east,
Seymour to the southeast, and Indianapolis to the north. These cities have
reduced the size of Bloomington's labor-shed in these directions by drawing
off much of the labor.
Though not indicated in any of the maps, the orientation, size, and
shape of Bloomington's labor-shed is also affected by the components of
its composition; that is, the people who work in the major industries.
Among the many human factors which exert an influence on the labor-
shed, probably the most important is the sex composition of the workers.
The wide distribution of commuting workers to the northwest, west, and
south of Bloomington is at least partially explained by the fact that over
one-half of the industrial labor force is composed of women. There does
not seem to be as strong a desire to move close to the place of work where
the wife is employed as there is to move near to the husband's place of
employment. Many of the men, if unemployed, go back to part-time farm-
ing, while their wives work at such places as Radio Corporation of Amer-
ica, Sarkes-Tarzian, and Indiana University.
Conclusions and Suggestions for Additional Research
Slightly more than half of the workers in Bloomington's major indus-
tries live outside of the city limits. Thus, there is probably a considerable
amount of money made in Bloomington, but spent in other communities.
However this assumption is open to some doubt, and should be field checked
by interview if its validity is to be established.
Though only the general characteristics of Bloomington's industrial
labor-shed are presented here; there are a number of other rewarding
studies which can be pursued simply by using the same type of industrial
employee address lists that were used to achieve the results of this paper.
For example, it would be well worthwhile to study and compare the labor-
sheds of other Indiana cities. This is one way of measuring the sphere of
influence of cities. Another worthwhile study, using employee address
lists, can be made by correlating the journey-to-work pattern with selected
social and economic conditions. These and many other similar projects
using employee address lists are recommended for further study.
Characteristics of the Terre Haute Central Business District
Lee Guernsey, Indiana State College
The Central Business District of Terre Haute is a rectangular-shaped
area bounded by 2nd Street on the west, 9% Street on the east, Mulberry
Street on the north, and Walnut Street on the south. The area is 102.0
acres in size, and is bisected by Wabash Avenue (U. S. 40).
The Central Business District, hereafter termed the CBD for the
sake of brevity, is the heart of Terre Haute. It is the place where indi-
vidually, and collectively, business establishments do a greater volume of
business than elsewhere in the city. However, the economic dominance of
the CBD is being challenged today by two relatively new outlying shopping
centers which provide for more spacious and more leisure shopping at
slightly higher prices and somewhat less selectivity. As a consequence,
downtown businessmen in Terre Haute are being forced to analyze the
CBD more critically today than ever before. Most all CBD businessmen
live in fear that competition of suburban shopping will become even
keener.
The Terre Haute CBD is currently plagued with some difficult and
challenging problems. Among them are obsolete and unattractive down-
town buildings, nonconforming land uses, low assessed valuations, vacant
buildings, and retail sales which are far below their potential. In addition,
downtown traffic congestion is frequently observable, parking is often
expensive or hard to find, and truck terminals are so limited that loading
often occurs on public streets. Unprofitable or undesirable land uses are
all too common within the Terre Haute CBD.
Land Use
Of the 102 acres wThich comprise the Terre Haute CBD, 39.1 acres are
in streets and alleys. This is the largest single land use shown in Figure 1
which depicts the street level use of all buildings and most all lots. Rank-
ing second to streets and alleys in acreage consumed in the CBD is retail
and service land use with 30.4 acres, and third is public parking with 10.5
acres. Institutional facilities and wholesale business and warehouse uses
occupy 6.5 acres and 4.6 acres respectively. Within the street level of the
CBD area only 2.7 acres are used by residences, 2.5 acres of the land are
vacant, office space occupies 1.4 acres, transportation, utilities and com-
munications occupy 1.2 acres and 1.1 acres are consumed by industries.
Retail and Service. Within the Terre Haute CBD, 30.4 per cent of the
land is used for retail and service sales (Figure 1). The main retail area
fronts on Wabash Avenue although numerous small specialty stores and
service shops are located on streets a block or two away from Wabash
Avenue. The largest department stores are located between 5th and 7th
Streets on Wabash Avenue with the major exception of a large furniture
store recently opened beyond the eastern edge of the CBD at 9Mj Street
and Wabash Avenue.
Offices. A large proportion of the total office space is presently con-
tained within the rectangular area of the existing CBD despite the fact
that only 1.4 acres of ground level area are occupied by offices. The offices
of professional men are concentrated mainly near the center of the CBD
203
204
Indiana Academy of Science
TERRE HAUTE
C.B.D.
EXISTING LAND USE
LE0END
«grtA»u an© selves
©rrtcs
W*iOUBZm&L& AND
@
Fijnire 1
although some are moving to outlying areas. Lawyers, however, have
tended to remain near the center of the CBD. Many physicians and sur-
geons are also located near the center of the CBD. Most professional and
business offices are located in buildings with retail outlets occupying the
ground floor. Within the CBD, 10.4 per cent of all the total building space
is occupied by offices. They provide office facilities for about 15,000 workers
despite the small area at the ground level which is occupied by offices.
Wholesaling and Warehouses. Most Terre Haute wholesaling and
warehouse facilities are located beyond the western edge of the CBD.
Wholesale farm produce, lumber, salvage and grain make up the main
categories of wholesale companies. Currently, only 4.6 acres within the
CBD are used for wholesaling and warehouses. Most of this acreage is
located at the northeastern edge of the CBD (Figure 1). At the present
time, a considerable amount of wholesale loading is done on public streets
which causes problems of definite traffic congestion. Trends would indicate
that at least twice the present acreage will be required for the future
wholesale and warehouse use. Currently, Terre Haute uses only 723.0
square feet per employee, in contrast to 1,000 square feet per employee as
an acceptable planning standard for wholesale land use.
Industrial. A wide variety of industries occupy only 1.1 acres within
the CBD. Most are composed of diversified but intensive light industries
Geology and Geography 205
such as printing and publishing. Seven CBD industries are located in a
scattered random pattern as shown by Figure 1.
Transportation, Utilities and Communications. Only 1.2 acres of land
within the CBD are occupied by transportation, utilities, and communi-
cation facilities. The two largest spaces shown in Figure 1 are used by
the bus station and by the telephone company. Most others are small
scattered buildings. Contiguous to, but outside of, the CBD on the north,
east, and west are 18.7 acres used for transportation, utilities, and com-
munications. This is 15 times as much area as that so used within the
CBD. Accounting for these acreages are mainly railway facilities con-
centrated to the north and east and trucking facilities and utilities which
front along the Wabash River to the west of the CBD.
Institutional. About 40 per cent of all the institutional acreage of
Terre Haute is located within the CBD. Institutional uses occupy 6.5 acres
of CBD land (Figure 1). Churches, schools, fraternal organizations and
government buildings make up most of the institutional land use.
Residential. Only 2.7 acres are classified as residential within the
CBD. Most residential areas within the CBD have seriously deteriorated
and most existing housing units adjacent to the CBD are also in poor
condition. Many former CBD residential buildings have been adapted for
small retail stores and office use, or cleared to provide land for parking
lots and automobile service stations. But, a few old houses still exist
around the CBD fringe, most of which are on the northwest and southeast
(Figure 1).
Parking. Public parking occupies 10.5 acres within the CBD. It is
generally placed within one or two blocks of the large department stores
which front on Wabash Avenue (Figure 1). A survey of parking spaces
conducted during the summer of 1960 revealed a total of 3,054 parking
spaces. Of these, 1,370 stalls are available in commercial parking lots
and 315 parking spaces are set aside for either private or institutional
uses. The remainder of 1,369 spaces are "on street" curb parking.
Vacant. Within the CBD there are 2,5 acres vacant. Three such areas
are found even at the choice locations between 6th Street and 7th Street
along Wabash Avenue. The largest amounts of vacancies are in the three
blocks between Ohio Street and Wabash Avenue and between 3rd and 6th
Streets, and in the two blocks fronting on Wabash Avenue between 8th
and 9th Streets (Figure 1).
Assessments
Since the very nature of the real estate market is a constantly chang-
ing one, it is never possible to obtain a precise picture of the pattern of
values. Assessed values which are available from figures prepared by the
tax assessor's office, give approximate relationships to true market values.
These data were gathered for both land and improvements and are here
presented as the total assessed valuation for the CBD area. These data
were gathered on a lot-by-lot and building-by-building basis for the entire
CBD and plotted by the generalized patterns shown in Figure 2.
A serious consequence brought about by the decline of assessable
property values within the CBD is the financial loss to the City. Property
206
Indiana Academy of Science
values have been reduced, not only as a result of the removal or demolition
of buildings, but also through the loss of retail trade, unprofitable land
use, and empty buildings. With the decline of CBD property values, the
City's revenue from this source decreases proportionately.
In 1959, the total CBD valuation was $14.6 million or an average of
about $3.50 per square foot. Land valuations totaled $5.8 million and the
total valuation for improvements was $8.8 million. Despite the fact that
the CBD only includes 102 acres of the approximate 16,000 acres in the
entire city, this small area furnished one-seventh of the City's total prop-
erty valuation in 1959.
TERRE HAUTE C.B.D.
TOTAL ASSESSED VALUATION
in nn nn f
LEGEND
SSSSS $0.00-3.50 PER SQ. FT.
m&& $3.50-7.00 "
^ $7.00 +
®
Figure 2
Figure 2 indicates that the blocks from 5th Street to 8th Street front-
ing on Wabash Avenue contain all the $7.00+ per square foot assessed
valuation with the single exception of the eastern one-half of the block
between 6th and 7th Streets along the south side of Ohio Street. The area
between 6th Street and 8th Street on the north side of Ohio has an
assessed value on land and improvements in the $3.50 to $7.00 per square
foot category. Other blacks having from $3.50 to $7.00 per square foot
assessments are between 4th and 6th Streets and front on Wabash, Ohio
or Cherry Streets, and a small area between 9th and 9V2 Streets. Assess-
ments of less than $3.50 per square foot characterize all of the area west
of 4th Street and all except one small area east of 8th Street.
Geology and Geography
207
The fact that about 28 blocks (Figure 2) within the CBD have a total
assessed valuation of less than $3.50 per square foot represents a real
loss of income to the City. It should be readily evident that it is of vital
importance to the City to maintain or enhance real estate values. Even
the smallest of such losses or reductions of taxes represents a trend toward
downtown deterioration.
About three blocks are tax exempt. Churches, the County Court House,
the Boy's Club, and several fraternal organization buildings comprise a
few of the institutions that are located within the CBD which are exempt
from real estate tax. Total tax-exempt properties in Terre Haute amounted
to $9,041,500 for the entire City in 1959.
Buildings Ratings
The conditions and appearance of buildings in the Terre Haute CBD
were also analyzed during the summer of 1960. In the survey of these
buildings, scores were assigned to each building on the basis of age, con-
struction, condition and appearance. In this technique of scoring, a num-
ber was assigned to each factor. The factors were then totaled and plotted
on a Cumulative Building Rating Map (Figure 3). In effect, the survey
evaluated the overall physical condition of the structure. For example, a
modern concrete well-maintained structure obtained a high score,, whereas
TERRE HAUTE
C.B.D.
CUMULATIVE BULDMG RATNG
pl??5SI ik^^H"%?p^ FiF^n KuiJft l^r~ — i
n nn nn nn n
i i
LEGEND
GOOD J>K
AVERAGE^
POOR hffff
®
Figure 3
208
Indiana Academy of Science
an older frame building in need of considerable improvement obtained a
low score.
The cumulative building scores have been grouped into categories of
good, average, and poor. The 243 buildings were found to be fairly equally
divided into 3 categories. In fact, 73 were judged to be poor, 80 average,
and 90 classed as good buildings. Correspondingly, the total amount of
floor space shown in Figure 3 is 23 per cent poor, 25 per cent average, and
52 per cent good. Figure 3 depicts the cumulative scores and shows that
most buildings having a good rating are located between 5th and 8th
Streets. In contrast, most poor buildings exist to the west of 5th Street.
The following conclusions may be drawn from an analysis of the
Cumulative Building Rating: (1) The tallest and most important build-
ings near the center of the CBD have the best ratings and the lowest
cumulative scores were most often totaled for the buildings located on the
periphery; (2) The good buildings have few vacancies, but almost two-
thirds of the total space in the poor buildings is either vacant or is used
as storage; (3) Approximately 48 per cent of retail and service uses are
located in good buildings; (4) Seventy-three per cent of the office space is
located in good buildings; (5) The majority of institutional uses (56 per
cent) are located in buildings which are rated as average; and (6) The
majority of industrial uses are located in either average or poor buildings.
TERRE HAUTE
LOT COVERAGE
C.B.D.
-mm in mm
% IP ap mm
it all in
Isf^JtaCMcbH
iTn nn nn
LEGEND
MM 0-33%
34-66%
67-100%
'! :l i:r ■ urn r
®
'igure 4
Geology and Geography 209
Lot Coverage
The proportion of blocks covered by buildings, termed the lot cover-
age, of the CBD was also measured and plotted by entire blocks. Figure 4
indicates that the most concentrated structural density of buildings is
located along Wabash Avenue from 3rd to 9th Streets. The extreme north-
eastern edge is the only other area to have more than a 67 per cent lot
coverage. Nine blocks which are mostly located to the south or west have
between 34 per cent and 66 per cent of the lot covered by buildings. The
proportions of lot coverage of less than one-third covered with buildings
are mostly located either to the southeast or northwest. In fact, some of
these blocks wTould not be considered a part of the Terre Haute CBD if
the Murphy and Vance CBD index method had been employed as the basis
for delimiting the CBD.
Conclusions
The best utilization of land occurs in the blocks between 6th and 8th
Streets along Wabash Avenue, and on the south side of Ohio Street between
6V2 and 7th Street. The lowest utilization of space is obtained between
2nd and 3rd Streets and between Mulberry and Cherry Streets. Other
poorly utilized areas are located west of 4th Street, south of Ohio Street
and east of 7th Street. A well-planned CBD rehabilitation program is
needed to raise the assessed valuation, increase the structural density,
improve the building rating and alter existing land uses. Many CBD
buildings are structurally sound but functionally obsolete and unattractive.
A well-planned remodeling and new building program together with an
improved circulation system should help in revitalizing the Terre Haute
CBD.
Some Comparisons of Population Distribution in the
Middle West in 1950
John Fraser Hart, Indiana University
Although variations in population density are among the most fun-
damental aspects of human geography, geographers have been surprisingly
slow in coming to grips with the problem of describing these variations
objectively and quantitatively. We have prepared accurate maps of the
distribution of population in many parts of the world, but in seeking to
describe and explain these maps we have often taken recourse to such
subjective generalities as "densely populated" or "sparsely populated"
for the description of broad areas, and within these areas we have tended
to ignore considerable local variations in density.
This paper is a report of progress to date, and of questions for future
investigation, in an attempt at description and partial explanation of the
distribution of population in a block of nine States in the Middle West.
This area was chosen primarily for its convenience, however, and the basic
goal of the project is the formulation of generic principles relating to pop-
Total persons per sq
uare mile,
E*w 19 50
v-^lfficii
O A R
j j , \j !K»SJsJSJ
70.0-B
ftjisp&ii
ypii«f^r^dSV r™3pp
IpA
Wr
frpf
^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^
§m 1
|
Sijgj
hip
fyiHjlsE::^!
P
1
Fig. 1
210
Geology and Geography 211
ulation distribution in the entire United States, and perhaps in other areas
as well. Nevertheless, those phases of the project which were based upon the
data of the 1950 Census of Population (1) were halted in view of the
imminent availability of 1960 data, and this paper must be considered
simply as a progress report.
The map of total population density has such a complicated — almost
kaleidoscopic — pattern of high, intermediate, and low densities that it
virtually defies simple description (Fig. 1). But is it not possible that
the complex variations of this pattern, like the pattern of the kaleido-
scope, are simply the product of variations in a number of simpler patterns
superimposed one upon another? And if so, is it not possible that we
might better be able to describe the complex pattern if we resolve it into
its simpler components? If, for example, we understand the factors which
influence the spatial variations of any one component of the population,
we thereby approach a better understanding of spatial variations in total
population density.
A fundamental problem in preparing and describing a map of total
population density is the extremely wide range of actual densities, from
virtually uninhabited areas to densely populated urban districts. Twenty-
nine of the 856 counties in this area had fewer than ten persons per square
mile in 1950, yet ten counties had more than 1,000; Cook County, Illinois,
had 4,726 persons per square mile, but Cook County, Minnesota, had
only 2.1 !
This tremendous range is partially the product, I suggest, of the
superimposition of two quite different patterns of population distribution.
One pattern is essentially clustered, point-oriented, and highly concen-
trated in space, with large empty areas between points — or small areas —
of extremely dense population. The other pattern of distribution is more
uniform, with far less areal variation. For want of better terms I refer
to the first pattern as "urban" and to the second as "rural," but I must
emphasize that I use these terms with specific reference to different pat-
terns of population distribution, and not in the official Census sense.
But we must rely on Census data in order to resolve these patterns;
that is, to determine the actual numbers and the precise location of those
people who are distributed in a point-oriented pattern, and those who are
distributed in a pattern of regional uniformity. How can we best use
Census data for this purpose?
For most of the point-oriented population the solution is compara-
tively simple, for the Census publishes data on the number of persons in
all places of 1,000 or more persons, and for all incorporated places, no
matter how small they may be. Certainly these places should be mapped
separately, with point symbols. The explanation of their distribution, I
suggest, might well be one of the products of research in central place
theory. Admittedly some of these "points" are of considerable size— the
Chicago Urbanized Area in 1950 covered almost 650 square miles — but I
suggest that they nonetheless be considered points in the formulation of a
theory of population distribution.
In 1950 just over twelve percent of the total point-oriented population
of this nine State area was classified in the rural nonfarm category by
the Bureau of the Census. These are the people who lived in large villages,
212
Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE 1
Population by Place of Residence, 1950, in Nine Middle Western States
Total
Urban
i
Lural Nonfarm
Places of Incorporated
1.000 to Places of
2,500 Less Than
Persons 1,000 Person?
Unagglom-
s erated
Farm
Rural
Minnesota
2,982,483
1,624,914
197,003
205,271
215,496
739,799
Iowa
2,621,073
1,250,938
190,887
272,453
124,145
782,650
Missouri
3,954,653
2,432,715
169,579
187,007
301,856
863,496
Wisconsin
3,434,575
1,987,888
184,476
151,239
385,738
725,234
Illinois
8,712,176
6,759,271
319,066
304,314
566,329
763,196
Michigan
6,371,766
4,503,084
248,713
112,649
812,578
694,742
Indiana
3,934,224
2,357,196
177,111
142,601
590,162
667,154
Ohio
7,946,627
5,578,274
292,311
229,290
993,664
853,088
Kentucky
2,944,806
1,084,070
155,316
75,659
655,591
974,170
TOTAL
42,902,383
27,578,350
1,934,462
1,680,483
4,645,559
7,063,529
Source: U. S. Census of Population : 1050. Vol. II, Characteristics of the Population.
of 1,000 to 2,500 persons, and in incorporated small villages of less than
1,000 persons (Table I). I suggest that these smaller clusters of popula-
tion, although officially classified as rural, are just as much a part of the
point-oriented population as is the population which is officially classified
as urban, and should be so treated.
I apply the term "unagglomerated" to the remainder of the rural
nonfarm people, who cannot be assigned to specific locations within their
respective counties on the basis of published Census data (Fig. 2). We
have ample reason to suspect, however, that they also form part of a
point-oriented distribution. For example, more than one third of these
people — comprising more than a fifth of the total rural nonfarm popula-
tion— live in counties which are included in Standard Metropolitan Areas
(Table II).
Whitney's study of 20 years of change at the national level (2) , Solly's
study in Minnesota (3), and my own work in Georgia (4) and in Indiana
(5) have all shown that a considerable proportion of the unagglomerated
rural nonfarm population is concentratetd in the vicinity of urban places,
but unfortunately we have little information as to the distribution of the
remainder. In Indiana, however, where stringent laws control incorpora-
tion of small places, preliminary investigation indicates that a sizable
percentage — perhaps as much as half — of the unagglomerated rural non-
farm people live in unincorporated small villages for which Census data
are not available. Conversely, in Iowa and Missouri, where incorporation
of small villages is relatively easy, most of the rural nonfarm people live
in villages for which data are published, and the distribution of the un-
agglomerated rural nonfarm population is closely related to the distribu-
tion of urban centers (Fig. 2). Furthermore, the traditional reluctance
of coal mining communities to incorporate is apparently related to the
dense unagglomerated rural nonfarm population of mining areas in south-
Geology and Geography
213
Unagglomerated Rural Nonfarm
persons per square
mile, 1950 3.5-
10.5-
17.5
Fig. 2
eastern Kentucky, southern Illinois, southwestern Indiana, and south-
eastern Ohio (Table II).
In summary, then, the rural nonfarm population, like the Census
urban population has a point-oriented or "urban" pattern of distribu-
tion. A considerable percentage of the rural nonfarm people are clus-
tered in villages, and most of the rest live on the fringes of urban cen-
ters of varying sizes. The distribution of these people around urban cen-
ters reminds one of a number of conical tents of varying height and
diameter, with the diameter of each tent proportional to the height of its
central pole; in the same fashion, the density and extent of the rural non-
farm population around a city would appear crudely proportional to the
size of the city's population.
Therefore, I suggest that if research in central place theory can pro-
vide us with a theoretical explanation of the size and distribution of urban
centers, this theory should go far toward describing and perhaps explain-
ing the distribution of one major component of population — the point-
oriented population — which includes both the urban and rural nonfarm
groups as denned by the Bureau of the Census.
214
Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE II
Unagglomerated Rural Nonfarm Population in Counties of Standard
Metropolitan Areas and in Mining Counties in Nine Middle
Western States, 1950
Tot
al
Standard
Metropolitan Areas
Mining
Counties
*
Popula-
tion
No. of Popula- No. of
Counties tion Counties
%
Popula-
tion
No. of
bounties
%
Minnesota
215,496
87
89,058
5
41.4
6,821
1
3.2
Iowa
124,145
99
30,783
6
24.8
Missouri
301,856
115
98,771
6
32.7
10,107
1
3.4
Wisconsin
385,738
71
94,335
6
24.4
2,700
1
0.7
Michigan
812,578
83
348,261
10
42.5
41,612
5
5.1
Illinois
566,329
102
265,047
13
46.8
81,971
20
14.4
Indiana
590,162
92
171,963
9
29.0
58,634
10
9.9
Ohio
993,664
88
494,154
18
49.6
79,184
11
8.0
Kentucky
655,591
120
856
89,800
5
78
13.7
36.1
269,009
26
75
41.0
TOTAL
4,645,559
1,680,172
538,002
11.6
* Mining counties are defined as those which had at least one male-einployed-in-
mining per square mile, and at least five percent of the employed-male-lahor-force
employed in mining, in 1950.
In contrast to the point-oriented population, the distribution of the
rural farm population exhibits a striking degree of regional uniformity
(Fig. 3). Although there are some local variations, this regional uni-
-
R
jral
Farm
sq
persons per
jare mile,
~Y~~U \ ^
1 c
=qO \r\
1950 /?
if-
r^/)
/ c3 V~~^
P..- vr1
■^li
£>
v ^
G3
CD
Si
>R
^isfc"
3.5-
10.5-
vip^
*5^x\
i7-5-jHI
24 5 B
Fig. 3
Geology and Geography
215
formity tempts one to think of the farm population as being distributed
in a series of levels, or plateaus. The lowest plateau is in northern Minne-
sota and Michigan, with a fairly steep rise to the next, centered in Iowa
and Illinois with extensions into adjacent States. In western Indiana this
second plateau rises to a third and higher plateau centered along the
Indiana-Ohio line, and the third plateau rises to a fourth — still higher —
in southern Kentucky.
One might hypothesize that variations in the density of the farm
population are the product of variations in farm size and variations in
Farms
4
per square mile
8
Average
size of
farm
family
• •
•
•
9 9
• • •
•
•
•
©
«
•
3
e • •
•
• •
9 9
9
•
•
•
•
»
•
• • •
• • •
12
24
• • •
• • •
9 9
© •
© 9
• • •
• • •
• •
• •
• •
• •
6
• • •
e 9
9 9
9 9
• • •
• © ©
• •
• •
• • •
• • •
24
48
Fie. 4
the size of farm families (Fig. 4). It might even be argued that the
number of farm persons per square mile could be determined by multiply-
ing the number of persons per farm family by the number of farms per
square mile, and that variations in either factor will influence the density
of farm population. A farm population density of 24 persons per square
mile will result, for example, either if there are 8 farms per square mile
and 3 persons in the average family, or if there are only 4 farms per
square mile but 6 persons in the average farm family. In short, we should
be able to express variations in farm population density in terms of
variations in farm size and in size of farm family.
Actually, variations in farm population density in the Middle West
appear to be so closely related to variations in farm size that the two sets
of data were subjected to regression analysis. The coefficient of correla-
216
Indiana Academy of Science
tion for the 856 counties proved to be an impressive +0.94, with a standard
error of estimate of 2.4, and a regression line with the formula :
y =zr 4.4X— 1.1
This means that one can estimate the farm population density of any
county by multiplying the number of farms per square mile by 4.4, and
then subtracting 1.1.
Residuals from regression were computed and mapped by comparing
the actual farm population density, D, as taken from the 1950 Census of
Population, and the computed density, Do, as computed by multiplying the
number of farms per square mile, F, by 4.4, and then subtracting 1.1 (6).
D-Dc, when Dc= 4.4F-1.1
Fig. 5
A plus figure indicates that the actual density is higher than the computed
density, while a minus figure indicates that the actual density is lower
(Fig. 5). This formula computed the farm population density of 412
counties— almost half— to an accuracy of one person per square mile, and
it computed the density of more than 80 percent of the counties to within
2.5 persons per square mile— a range of plus or minus one standard error
of estimate. In other words, when we can explain variations in farm size,
Geology and Geography
217
we can explain a very considerable proportion of variations in farm popu-
lation density in this area in 1950 (7).
The great majority of the variations that cannot be explained by
the use of this formula can be explained by variations in farm family size.
Unfortunately, we have no direct measure of farm family size by counties
in 1950, and there are serious objections to any indirect measure that
might be used. All in all, however, the median number of farm persons per
occupied farm dwelling unit seems to be the least objectionable (Fig. 6).
[j 4.1 or more
H 1.1 or more
■H BOTH
Persons per occupied farm dwelling unit
D-Dc, when DC:4.4F-1.1
3.5 Or fewer j::i:;;j
■1.1 or lower |~ |
Vo 1
pir
j\ \ o^Jr
r
i§ Jp'-^gqjf}
a 7a
ki*
%
sGFi o ^jBjW
Pig. G
Fifty-four percent of the counties whose actual farm population density
was 1.1 or more persons more than the computed density also had 4.1 or
more persons per occupied farm dwelling unit, whereas 59 percent of the
counties whose actual farm population density was 1.1 or more persons
less than the computed density also had 3.5 or fewer persons per occupied
farm dwelling unit.
More significant, perhaps, is the fact that three quarters of the 160
counties which fell outside plus or minus one standard error of estimate —
as computed by the regression formula — can be explained in terms of farm
family size, leaving only 40 of the 856 counties whose farm population
density cannot be explained in terms of variations in farm size or in the
size of the farm family.
In summary, variations in population density in these nine Middle
Western States apparently result from the superimposition of two differ-
ent distributions. One is point-oriented, while the other has considerable
regional uniformity. The latter is essentially the distribution of the farm
population ; its areal variations are primarily the product of variations in
farm size and in the size of farm families. Superimposed upon the regional
uniformity of the farm population distribution is the distribution of the
rural nonf arm and urban population, which has been likened to the distri-
bution of scattered conical tents; the density and extent of this popula-
218 Indiana Academy of Science
tion around each city are crudely proportional to the size of the city's
population, just as the diameter of each tent is proportional to the height
of its central pole. More precise description and explanation of the dis-
tribution of the point-oriented population may be based on better formu-
lation of principles relating to the size and distribution of places in the
urban hierarchy.
This scheme of population distribution would appear to have validity
for nine Middle Western States as of 1950. But how valid is it in time?
And in other parts of the nation? And of the world? If it does prove
fairly constant in time, how constant has been the size of farms? And the
size of farm families? And if it proves fairly constant in space, is farm
family size or farm size the most important factor influencing spatial
variations in farm population density? What factors influence the size
and location of cities?
These quite obviously are questions requiring further research, but if
they can be answered, they will help us to describe, understand, and
explain the distribution of population in a more precise and objective
fashion. And the distribution of population is one of the most fundamental
facts of human geography.
Literature Cited
1. U. S. Bureau of the Census. 1952. U. S. Census of Population : 1050. Vol. II, Char-
acteristics of the Population : Part 13, Illinois ; Tart 14, Indiana ; Part 15, Iowa ;
Part 17, Kentucky ; Part 22, Michigan ; Part 23, Minnesota ; Part 25, Missouri ;
Part 35, Ohio ; Tart 49, Wisconsin.
2. Whitney, Vincent Heath. 1960. "Changes in the Rural-Nonfarin Population,
1930-1950." American Sociological Review 25 : 363-368.
3. Solly, Marion W. 1958. "The Rural Nonfarm Population of Minnesota." Proceed-
ings of the Minnesota Academy of Science 26 : 338-347.
4. Hart, John FRaser. 1955. "The Distribution of the Rural Nonfarm Population in
Georgia." Bulletin of the Georgia Academy of Science 13 : 118-123.
5. Hart, John Fraser. 1956. "The Rural Nonfarm Population of Indiana." Indiana
Academy of Science 65 : 174-179.
6. Thomas, Edwin N. 1960. Maps of Residuals from Regression : Their Characteris-
tics and Uses in Geographic Research. No. 2, Department of Geography, State Uni-
versity of Iowa, Iowa City.
7. Robinson, Arthur II., Lindberg, James B., and Brinkman, Leonard W. 1961. "A
Correlation and Regression Analysis Applied to Rural Farm Population Densities
in the Great Plains." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 51 : 211-
221.
Regional Contrasts in the Characteristics of the Agricultural
Labour Force of the Corn Belt
I. B. Thompson, Leeds University, England
It is perhaps too readily assumed, abroad to a greater degree than
in the United States, that the Corn Belt of the Middle West represents
a homogeneous unit from the point of view of the characteristics of its
agriculture. A more detailed study reveals that despite an undeniable
distinctiveness in the basic rural economy, the Corn Belt is more realis-
tically considered as constituting an agglomeration of socio-economic en-
vironments, contrasted with respect to each other and to adjoining areas
outside the Corn Belt. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the degree
of regional variation in one selected criterion, the agricultural labour
force. The agricultural labour force was deliberately selected as being the
human element with the closest direct link with the farming economy and
therefore the population group most sensitive in response to variations in
the type of farming. In order to clarify description of spatial contrasts in
the agricultural labour force, Figs. 1 and 2 provide a reference framework
which has been consistently adhered to in the text. Fig. 1 indicates the
Fig. 1
setting of the Corn Belt and suggested regional components based on the
major geographical contrasts. Fig. 2 illustrates the sub-division of the
Corn Belt into "Type of Farming" areas proposed by the United States
Department of Agriculture.1 (Figs. 1 and 2)
The Detailed Variation in the Dominance of Agricultural Employment
The agricultural labour force of the Corn Belt is overwhelmingly
rural farm in residence. In Nebraska, the most purely agricultural of
the Corn Belt states, the proportion of the agricultural labour force which
219
220
Indiana Academy of Science
GENERALISED TYPES OF FARMING IN THE
CORN BELT IN I9SO.
Fig. 1!
was rural non-farm in residence in 1950 was only 11%. Fig. 3 indicates
the detailed relative distribution of the labour force employed in agricul-
ture on a county basis for the year 1950 (Fig. 3). This map indicates that
the major contrasts in relative distribution occurred east and west of the
Mississippi River. East of the Mississippi the proportion of the labour
force employed in agriculture did not exceed 34% in any county and in at
DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURAL
LABOUR FORCE I9SO
COUNTY BASIS
Pis
Geology and Geography 221
least half of the counties did not exceed 20%. West of the Mississippi
River the agricultural proportion was universally over 35% and in wide-
spread areas exceeded 51% of the total labour force. It is necessary that
account be taken of overall variation in population density. Although the
proportion engaged in agriculture was much higher in the Central and
Western Corn Belt, since the total population density was much lower than
in the Eastern Corn Belt, this involved fewer actual workers. Essentially
Fig. 3 therefore indicates the intensity of agricultural employment, that
is, the degree to which agriculture dominated the economy in terms of
employment opportunities. In this latter context it is possible to define
two major areas of the Corn Belt of predominantly agricultural employ-
ment with over 51% of the total labour force employed in agriculture in
1950.
1. The Upper Missouri Valley
The Upper Missouri Valley had the largest concentration of counties
in which the agricultural labour force exceeded 51% of the total. More-
over this concentration coincided closely with the distribution of the Live-
stock and Cash Grain type of farming. This coincidence was therefore one
with an area of low population density, few towns, extensive form of
agriculture and consequently little variety in economic activity or infra-
structure.
2. The Iowa-Missouri Border
This concentration coincided even more directly with the distribution
of the Livestock and Pasture type of farming, in which grazing was of
greater significance than cropping and concentrated feeding. Again this
was a coincidence with an area of low population density, an absence of
even moderate-sized towns and a lack of complexity in the economic base.
It is impossible to suggest detailed relationships between type of
farming and the characteristics of the agricultural labour force without
reference to the contrasts in the absolute distribution. This is attempted
in Fig. 4 which illustrates the density of persons engaged in agriculture
per square mile of cropland. This ratio has been selected as being more
realistic in the analysis of the agricultural labour force rather than the
density per square mile since it eliminates land uses unrelated to agricul-
tural functions. ("Cropland" included cropland harvested, cropland used
only for pasture, and cropland not harvested and not pastured. The cate-
gory therefore included all the potentially productive cropland. It included
land in the Soil Bank or withdrawn from cultivation for conservation pur-
poses, but did not include woodland or wasteland. For further details of
definition, vide U. S. Census of Agriculture 1954, Vol. 1. Introduction XV,
Washington, D. C. 1956.)
Fig. 4 indicates a remarkable uniformity in that throughout the Corn
Belt the range of this density was from 5 to 12 persons per square mile of
cropland and over the majority was in the range 5 to 7.9 persons. Lower
densities than 5 occurred chiefly in the Livestock and Cash Grain area of
the western fringe in the area of largest farm size and most extensive
system. Higher densities than 8 occurred especially in three distinct types
of farming areas.
222
Indiana Academy of Science
OFF-FARM EMPLOYMENT BY FARM OPERATORS 1950
pib ctwT or r*»u opi»atom whoh prr-rAWM incomi
txcetos FARM INCOMI
Fig. 4
1. Livestock, Dairy, Soybeans and Cash Grain
In this area of Northern Indiana and North Western Ohio the proxim-
ity to large urban concentrations has encouraged whole milk production
in combination with pig rearing in an area of the smallest farm size in
the Corn Belt.
2. Hogs and Soft Winter Wheat
Similarly in this area, immediately to the south of the Livestock,
Dairy, Soybeans and Cash Grain region, the decrease in farm size as com-
pared with the Central and Western Corn Belt contributed towards a
higher agricultural density. Moreover, it will be indicated that the small
farm size, together with the proximity of urban centres in the industrial
zone of the East Central Lowland offering alternative employment, greatly
increased the incidence of part-time farming by farm operators.
Geology and Geography
223
3. Hogs and Dairy
In this area of North West Illinois and Northern Iowa the emphasis
on dairy production with its higher per acre labour input than mechanised
cropping increased the agricultural density of the labour force above that
of the Corn Belt average.
Elsewhere in the Corn Belt higher densities than 8 persons per square
mile of cropland were relatively restricted. However an additional vital
consideration may be indicated which tends to blur a simple distinction
between agricultural and non-agricultural functions and offers further-
evidence of regional contrasts in the Corn Belt labour force. This is the
distribution of part-time farming of farm operators.
Regional Variations in Off-Farm Employment by Farm Operators
Fig. 5 indicates the distribution of part-time farming by farm opera-
tors who devoted part of their time and derived part of their income off
the farm. In Fig. 5 the significance of part-time farming has been meas-
DENS1TY OF POPULATION ENGAGED IN
AGRICULTURE I9SO
COUNTY BASIS
Fig. 5
ured by two indices. Firstly the proportion of the total farm operators
working more than 100 days off the farm was plotted and secondly the
proportion of farmers whose farm income was exceeded by their earnings
off the farm was indicated. On this basis it is apparent that part-time
farming varied in significance spatially both in the nature of alternative
employment and in the motives involved. (Fig. 5.)
Off-farm work was insignificant, less than 15% of the total farm
operators, in two major areas. In the heart of the Corn Belt the low
incidence may be related to the predominance of family farm commercial
enterprises in which the farm tends to be an individual social and economic
unit on a family basis. In these circumstances the opportunity for employ-
ment outside the demands of the farm is consequently restricted. Secondly,
224 Indiana Academy of Science
in the case of the Western Corn Belt the low incidence coincided with a
system of large farms and a concentration on corn and livestock requiring
labour at all seasons. Moreover in this overwhelmingly rural area the
opportunities of alternative forms of employment are absent and the high
loss of rural farm population by migration, which is prevalent throughout
the western fringe of the Corn Belt, suggests that surplus rural labour
had to leave the area altogether to find employment.
Fig. 5 indicates that in two areas of the Corn Belt part-time farming
is of considerable importance. In the Lower Missouri Valley the deteriora-
tion in the quality of soils and the smaller size of farm results in a sub-
stantial reduction in the cash returns. In this area off -farm work accounted
for more than half the income of over 21% of the farm operators. The
nature of off -farm work was varied, involving part-time industrial employ-
ment, especially in Kansas City and St. Louis, custom work on other farms
in the area, and even seasonal employment in agriculture outside the Corn
Belt. In this case of the Lower Missouri Valley the increased significance
of part-time farming may be seen as a desire to supplement a low farm
income.
Finally, the urbanised section of the Corn Belt involving the eastern
portion of the East Central Lowland together with the Lower Great Lakes
region had the most important incidence of part-time farming. In this
area of small farms and increased mechanisation, labour input per farm
unit has been reduced. The importance of off-farm work was moreover
related to the proximity of urban centres offering industrial and tertiary
employment opportunities and especially commuting was involved. It may
further be argued that the high incidence of part-time farming also
reflected a contrasted social environment from that prevalent elsewhere in
the Corn Belt. In this section high school attendance was the highest in
the Corn Belt and rural life was more open to urban influence, with a
consequent weakening of the family farm as an economic and cultural
unit and an attraction towards urban employment.
Summary
(1) The relative significance of the agricultural labour force was
shown to vary considerably spatially, and the degree to which agriculture
predominated the employment composition varied substantially, in part
according to the type of farming, but more particularly with the distribu-
tion of urban centres.
(2) The lesser significance of agricultural employment in the Eastern
Corn Belt was relative only. In fact the density of agricultural workers
indicated that numerically the labour force was concentrated overwhelm-
ingly east of the Mississippi.
(3) The density of agricultural workers per square mile of cropland
revealed a remarkable uniformity with from 5-7.9 per square mile through-
out the great majority of the Corn Belt counties. However, significant
variations above and below this mean coincided spatially with contrasts in
farming economy and a functional relationship may be proposed. It is
suggested that the overall distribution of agricultural population is re-
sponsible for the high degree of uniformity in total population distribu-
tion and density in the Corn Belt and that the major contrasts arise
through the much more irregular distribution of population employed in
Geology and Geography 225
secondary and tertiary industry, superimposed on this agricultural, rural
basis.
(4) The significance of part-time farming suggested further con-
trasts within the Corn Belt in relation to distribution, character of alter-
native employment and motives.
(5) This paper has been presented to illustrate, by reference to a
single criterion, the agricultural labour force, that the term "Corn Belt"
is essentially a generalisation of extremely contrasted socio-economic com-
ponents, and suggests that clear relationships exist between contrasts in
rural economy and contrasts in population geography that are worthy of
more detailed research.
Literature Cited
1. Elliott, P. F. 1950. Generalized types of farming in the United States. Agric. Inf.
Bull. No. 3, U. S. Dept. of Agric, Washington. D. C.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Chairman: T. G. Yuncker, DePauw University
Ned Guthrie, Hanover College, was elected chairman for 1962
A Brief History of the Herbarium of Indiana University
Charles B. Heiser, Jr., Indiana University
In 1892 the Botanical Gazette announced : "The Herbarium of Indiana
University was established upon the election last April of Professor John
M. Coulter, as President. In addition to private material already in the
possession of Professor Coulter, a liberal appropriation for the purchase
of plants was made. All the well-known collectors of phanerograms and
pteridophytes were asked to furnish as complete sets of their collections
as possible, and these purchases now amount to over 15,000 species of
North American plants."
After only two years at Indiana University, Coulter left to assume
the presidency of Lake Forest College and in June of 1893 he wrote to
J. N. Rose, "I am just getting over the strain of my inauguration cere-
monies and am almost too tired to move. All of the herbarium at Bloom-
ington comes to me here, cases and all." In November he wrote, "My
herbarium has just begun to get into working shape again, and I find much
more time for my botanical work than I expected." (2:pp. 106, 126-127.)
Thus the herbarium at Indiana, founded only two years earlier,
started again from scratch in 1895. For the next forty years the collection
gradually grew, but there was no systematic effort to build a herbarium.
Funds were limited, and moreover no one member of the staff had taxon-
omy as his central interest. Various persons, mostly students and staff
members, however, contributed so that by 1931 nearly 10,000 sheets had
accumulated. The principal contributors were Flora Anderson, Edna
Banta, Frances Beede, Stanley Cain, Wilbur Duncan, Madeline A. Gullion,
D. M. Mottier, John Potzger, Gladys Price, J. M. VanHook, Paul Weather-
wax, Winona Welch, and William J. Woodburn (3). In addition to these
the collection of A. H. Young, who had been a student with Coulter at
Hanover, was brought to the University by Edna Banta.
In 1931 a contract was drawn up with C. C. Deam by D. M. Mottier,
then chairman of the department. Beam's specimens, all mounted, were
to be bought at ten cents a sheet and in addition his herbarium cases and
library were to be purchased. Since many universities had sought the
Deam collection, which was probably the finest collection of a state flora in
existence, the university considered itself fortunate in acquiring his
herbarium. Deam felt that his specimens belonged in the state and this
played no small part in his decision to sell his herbarium to Indiana Uni-
versity.
Deam's collection served as the basis for his many books on the flora
of Indiana, culminating in the Flora of Indiana (1). His botanical
study in the state had begun in 1893 as a hobby, and from 1914-1938 he
traveled over 125,000 miles by car in the state, collecting approximately
60,000 plants from his visits to all 1,016 townships. In addition to his
226
History of Science 227
activity in Indiana he also made a number of collections in Florida, Mexico,
and Guatemala. His collections from the last two areas went to the Uni-
versity of Michigan.
At the time the contract was signed Deam was busily engaged upon
his Flora of Indiana and needed his specimens for study, so no specimens
came to Indiana until 1938 when 12,000 sheets arrived. Adequate facilities
and room were not available for the collection at this time. However,
under the chairmanship of Ralph Cleland beginning in 1938, the impor-
tance of the herbarium was recognized and more adequate support was
provided. In 1940 a large room in Science Hall was made available and
served to house the herbarium until 1955. During the early 1940's Weath-
erwax was responsible for bringing about the reorganization of the her-
barium with student help. From 1944 to 1947 Dr. Martha Springer served
as instructor and was instrumental in initiating an active exchange pro-
gram with a number of institutions. The writer came to Indiana University
in 1947 and has been in charge of the herbarium since that time. In 1959
Miss Zoe Ellis became the first full-time employee specifically designated
to curate the herbarium.
In 1953 after the death of Deam the last of his herbarium came to the
university. Although most of his collection had been brought to the uni-
versity before that time he had retained a number of specimens at Bluffton
with the hope that he would be able to revise some of the more difficult
groups. In 1955 with the completion of Jordan Hall, the herbarium was
moved to its present quarters, where in addition to a three floor herbarium
with space adequate to hold over 200,000 specimens, a large herbarium
mounting and fumigating room is provided. Although the majority of the
specimens are housed in new steel cases, the wooden cases purchased from
Deam are used on the second floor. Deam's desk and microscope are also
housed in the herbarium, along with his reprints and collecting books.
His library is now incorporated into the Biology Library also in Jordan
Hall.
At present the herbarium contains 104,987 accessioned sheets of
vascular plants. Of this number, more than 73,000 came from Deam, most
of them collected by him. In addition there are special research collections
of Helianthus, Capsicum, Oenothera, and grasses. These with the un-
mounted material now on hand give a total holding of over 130,000 speci-
mens of vascular plants. The herbarium is provided with offices for grad-
uate students, and it seems most appropriate that students actively en-
gaged in taxonomic research should have their headquarters in the Deam
Herbarium.
Literature Cited
1. Deam, C. C. 1940. Flora of Indiana. Dept. of Conservation, Indianapolis.
2. Rodgers, Andrew Denny, III. 1944. John Merle Coulter, Princeton University
Press.
3. Weatherwax, Paul. 1941. (Unpub.) Notes on the history of the herbarium at
Indiana University in Accession Book of herbarium of Indiana University.
(For brief biographical sketches of C. C. Deam see Proc. Ind. Acad. 03:29-32. 232-
229. 1954.)
History of the Arthur Herbarium at Purdue University
J. W. Baxter and F. D. Kern, University of Wisconsin and
Pennsylvania State University
The Arthur Herbarium at Purdue University is devoted exclusively
to rust fungi and, with its 75,000 specimens, is the largest rust collection
in the world. The history of the Arthur Herbarium is to a great extent
associated with the life story of the man for whom it is named, Dr. J. C.
Arthur. The original nucleus of the herbarium was a collection of rusts,
chiefly from Iowa and Minnesota, accumulated by Arthur when he was a
student at Iowa State College.
Joseph Charles Arthur was born at Lowville, New York, in 1850, and
died at Brook, Indiana, in 1942. He was a collector in his boyhood, and
had an intense interest in flowering plants and fungi, an interest that
gradually narrowed down to the rusts. His very early years are best
described by Dr. Arthur himself: "In my fifth year, my parents went on
an excursion to Rochester, embarking at Sackett's Harbor for a steamer
ride on Lake Ontario. Being the only child at that time, I was taken along.
It was a stormy passage, and my earliest recollection of this or any other
event of that period, was my being held over the rail of the vessel in much
distress. If that indicated I was to be a traveller, it failed to show my
after reaction to a sea voyage, for it was the only time I contributed to
the waves."
"It could not have been long after this that my parents decided to try
their fortunes in the West, and memory pictures my plight while left with
an uncle's family in Sterling, Illinois, while they went northward to recon-
noiter for a possible place of residence. During this interval I was to
attend the nearby country school. I do not recall any antipathy to learning,
but a decided dislike to the social situation. It was my first experience in
upholding my individual position among strangers of my own age. The
experiment did not work well. Either my new acquaintances were too
aggressive, or I was too timid. I can not now recall the cause of my dis-
comfort, but the picture of a small disconsolate boy reclining on a sunny
bank under a row of locust trees, with his books beside him, is a vivid
memory. It also includes the approach of the responsible uncle, who did
not impersonate the irate parent, but on the contrary mildly took the
shrinking child by the hand, gathered up his books, and turned toward
home. There was no more school for him that summer."
When Iowa State College opened in 1869, Arthur was one of the first
students, receiving his botanical training under C. E. Bessey. In 1877 he
received the master's degree from Iowa State College, and in 1886 was
granted the D. Sc. from Cornell. In 1887 he accepted a position at Purdue
University, in what was called Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. In
addition to his work in plant physiology and plant pathology, he continued
his rust studies, and by means of collecting, exchanges, and material con-
tributed by others, built up a collection which at the time of his death
amounted to some 60,000 specimens.
During the early years of Arthur's rust work at Purdue, the her-
barium was housed in a few wooden cases in a semi-private room separated
from the laboratory by an interior hall. If this seems to imply a secret
228
History op Science 229
beginning, the right impression has been given. In other words, the Arthur
Herbarium had an unofficial origin. The Director of the Experiment Sta-
tion personally had no objection to the concept of a herbarium, but officially
he thought he ought to be opposed to the use of public funds for such a
venture. Therefore, the money for packets, mounting paper, genus covers,
and cases was provided personally by Dr. Arthur during the early years
of development of the herbarium.
After the passage of the Adams Act in 1906 (Federal Funds for the
support of research in State Experiment Stations), the official attitude
toward the Arthur Herbarium gradually changed, and finally evolved to
the point where official recognition and support were given to the rust
project. This carried with it cost of materials for developing the her-
barium, salaries for workers, and funds for collecting. Field trips were
soon made, not only in Indiana but to neighboring states, to the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado, and to the southeastern and southwestern states.
During this period of expansion there were several assistants who
contributed much time to studying, classifying, and incorporating speci-
mens into the rapidly growing collection. Miss Evelyn Allison (Purdue
'04) deserves great credit for the work involved in receiving and prepar-
ing specimens. Others during this early period were R. E. Stone (1906-
07), A. G. Johnson (1908-11), and C. R. Orton (1910-12).
After the Adams Act the next impetus to growth of the herbarium
was the undertaking by Dr. Arthur to contribute the volume on the
Uredinales to the North American Flora, which was being projected by
the New York Botanical Garden. Vol. 7 on the Uredinales finally appeared
in 15 parts over a period of 34 years (1906-1940). In order to gather as
much information as possible about the identity and range of the species
of this order, a considerable correspondence was carried on with mycolo-
gists in the United States, and also in other countries, and specimens were
solicited.
The list of correspondents would be a long one. A few of those who
were especially helpful must be included here: E. Bartholomew (Kansas),
J. M. Bates (Neb.), E. Bethel (Colo.), J. F. Brenkle (N. D.), J. J. Davis
(Wis.), J. Dearness (Ontario), G. P. Clinton (Conn.), W. P. Fraser (Nova
Scotia), A. O. Garret (Utah), E. W. D. Holway (Minn.), W. A. Kellerman
(Ohio) , W. H. Long (U. S. D. A., N. Mex.) , E. W. Olive (S. D.) , C. L. Shear
(U. S. D. A., D. C), J. L. Sheldon (W. Va.), F. L. Stevens (N. C), and
H. H. Whetzel (N. Y.). It is interesting to note the vocations represented
here — a farmer, a minister, a banker, an experiment station worker, two
physicians, two high school teachers, two U. S. D. A. workers, and seven
college professors.
Two collectors who contributed a great deal of valuable material to
the Arthur Herbarium and who aided greatly in extending our knowledge
of the rust fungi were Elam Bartholomew and E. W. D. Holway. Edward
Willet Dorland Holway was a banker who lived in Decorah, Iowa and
whose hobbies were mountain climbing and collecting. Holway was for-
tunate in that he could frequently pursue both hobbies at one and the same
time. Although he was rather frail in childhood, Holway in later life
climbed so many mountains in the Canadian Rockies that a mountain was
finally named after him, and a mountaineering friend was once heard to
say, "Holway is made of India rubber and steel springs." His collecting
230 Indiana Academy of Science
expeditions to Central and South America yielded a wealth of material.
In the words of L. H. Pammel of Iowa State College, "It is probably correct
to say that Holway discovered more new plant rusts than any other
botanist."
Elam Bartholomew was a Kansas farmer who had been a school
teacher and had a good general knowledge of botany. For several years
he collected only flowering plants, until one day in 1885 when he was
visited by W. A. Kellerman, then professor of botany at Kansas State.
As they were walking around the farm, Kellerman plucked a leaf of
pigweed, showed Bartholomew the pustules of Albugo on the lower sur-
face and said, "Bartholomew, why don't you study something that is really
interesting?" From that day on, Bartholomew concentrated on fungi.
On his trips, which took him into every state in the Union, as well as
Canada and Mexico, he personally collected more than 290,000 specimens
and discovered about 470 new species of fungi.
In addition to material contributed to the Arthur Herbarium by col-
lectors in the United States, many type specimens were obtained through
correspondents in foreign countries. Also the aid received from some of the
large herbaria both in this country and abroad was considerable. This was
accomplished through duplicate specimens and by division of specimens
where abundant material made that possible. It was found that flowering-
plant specimens often bear rusts, and examinations of such material
became a source of mycological specimens. The cooperating herbaria de-
serving especial mention include those at the New York Botanical Garden,
Harvard University, Smithsonian Institution, N. Y. State Museum, and
Academy of Natural Sciences (Philadelphia). The relations with these
institutions were furthered by more or less extended visits by Arthur and
Kern, during the years from 1904 to 1910, and were very fruitful.
This account would be incomplete indeed if reference were not made
to the illustrations in the Arthur Herbarium. Mycological specimens in
packets are not observable and even when opened for examination yield
only gross characters which may not be very distinctive. Only through
microscopic study of spores and sometimes sections can the necessary
characters be determined. When these studies were being pursued camera
lucida drawings were frequently made. These drawings, mounted below
a packet, served to reveal the identity of a specimen and often precluded
the repetition of detailed and time-consuming studies. Of course not every
specimen could be so illustrated, but the inclusion of many illustrations,
together with measurements and a recording of other data, promoted the
studies and enhanced the working value of the herbarium. It should be
noted that every illustration was dated and initialed, thus making it
possible for later investigators to have a guide to its reliability. It should
also be noted that photomicrography later came in as an illustrative
supplement.
In 1899, J. C. Arthur began an extensive series of culture experiments
that were continued until 1917, in the course of which the life histories of
a great many host-alternating rusts were worked out by means of care-
fully controlled inoculations of host plants in the greenhouse. Arthur was
aided in these studies by the field observations and outdoor culture work
of Ellsworth Bethel, of Denver, Colorado. Bethel did a considerable amount
of collecting, but it was a rather specialized type of collecting. In a letter
History of Science 231
to Arthur in 1918, Bethel, in describing a hurried trip to California, says,
"There was no time for exploration, and I was so rushed, could only grab
what I saw in passing. Speaking of grabbing, I will say sub rosa that
outside of yourself and your men, I find no real collectors, only 'grabbers,'
I call them. Most collectors never stop to look for the various stages or
connections. I am likened to an 'old granny' in spending hours with my
magnifier on a little grass plot. Well, I am not ashamed of the name, as I
can get several times as many things as most collectors."
Bethel was interested not so much in accumulating a large number
of specimens as he was in finding material that could be used in establish-
ing life cycle connections, which he did by means of outdoor inoculations.
His outstanding contribution was in working out the aecial host range of
the remarkable grass rust Puccinia aristidae, which is now known to form
its aecia on about 100 species in 24 families of host plants.
Members of the Purdue staff who made important contributions to
the growth of the herbarium during the period of 1912 to 1920 were
G. R. Bisby, F. D. Fromme, H. S. Jackson, C. A. Ludwig, and H. C.
Travelbee. Dr. Jackson stayed on through the twenties, and through his
efforts many South American specimens were added to the herbarium.
In 1920, a few years after Arthur's retirement at Purdue, a crisis
arose that is best described in Arthur's own words : "One day I was called
into the Director's office and questioned about the work in the herbarium.
I was informed, much to my surprise and chagrin, that the herbarium was
considered the property of the station. I objected, and pointed out that
the larger part was collected by myself and my collaborators, much of it
before I became a member of the Station, that I had paid for all of the
mounting paper, genus covers, packets and labels; further that my labor
on it had been largely outside of Station hours, and certainly since my
retirement, two years before, had cost the Station nothing. The Director
maintained that any and all material brought into the Station became
property of the Station. This statement seemed to me unjust, and a poor
return for the years of labor I had put into building up the collection.
I asserted my ownership, and to prove it, removed the whole mounted
collection to my home in the city, where I felt that I might carry on the
work I had had so much at heart for nearly fifty years."
There is no record as to how long Dr. Arthur kept the collection at
home. Eventually a committee was appointed to negotiate with him, and
after a few summit meetings a mutually satisfactory agreement was
drawn up, the collection was returned to the cases, and, in Arthur's words,
"From this time to the present the status of the herbarium, and the char-
acter of the work in connection with it, have not been called into question."
This had been a discouraging period for Arthur, but he had had the
support and encouragement of friends and collaborators throughout the
country. In a letter to Arthur from Ellsworth Bethel, we find the follow-
ing: "Keep up your spirits and enthusiasm and all will come out well yet.
I find that my troubles usually turn to something good — a change for
something better than I had planned or anticipated. Now if all your
trouble should result in your giving to the world some publication on the
biology of rusts and a working manual for beginners, what a great thing
it would be for the advancement of knowledge. This would be of far greater
value than the determination of species for correspondents or the publi-
232 Indiana Academy of Science
cation of rust species. You have described enough species — perhaps too
many, and if you could help the younger men to do this work, since they
must ere long take your place, it would be of inestimable service to science.
Now please consider seriously the matter of giving us something which
will give us younger men, and especially beginners, a start and a guide in
the study of the most interesting and important group of plant diseases."
At this time Arthur was working on the second number of the rust
portion of the North American Flora, the first of which had been published
in 1907, but the publications that Bethel considered to be so much needed
were eventually to appear. In 1929 Arthur published "The Plant Rusts,"
in collaboration with Kern, Orton, Fromme, Jackson, Mains and Bisby,
and in 1934 he brought out his "Manual of the Rusts in United States and
Canada," with illustrations by George B. Cummins. In his manual, Arthur
abandoned the life cycle classification that he had introduced in the North
American Flora, a scheme of classification that had not been generally
accepted. The manual of rusts proved to be the "good working manual"
that Ellsworth Bethel had envisioned.
In addition to Arthur's publications, major contributions from the
Arthur Herbarium include F. D. Kern's study of the genus Gymnospo-
rangium, taxonomic studies of various groups by Bisby, Orton, and E. B.
Mains, and H. S. Jackson's paper on life cycles and evolutionary tendencies
in the Uredinales. Outstanding contributions by the present curator,
George B. Cummins, include a study of the phylogenetic significance of
the pores in rust urediospores, a monograph of the genus Prospodium,
a recently published manual of rust genera, and studies of major groups
of grass rusts, some cooperatively with H. C. Greene and J. F. Hennen.
Current research projects at the Arthur Herbarium include a manual
of the grass rusts of the world, G. B. Cummins; a study of the morphology
and taxonomic significance of rust spermagonia, Yasuyuki Hiratsuka;
studies of the rusts of Mexico and Central America, G. B. Cummins, J. W.
Baxter and J. F. Hennen; a monograph of the genus Ravenelia, J. W.
Baxter; and a taxonomic study of the genus Pileolaria, J. F. Hennen.
Literature Cited
1. Bartholomew, E. W. 1935. Elam Bartholomew. Mycologia 27 : 91-95.
2. Dearness, J. 1946. E. W. D. Holway. 1853-1923. A banker's avocations. Mycologia
38 : 231-239.
3. Mains, E. B. 1962. Joseph Charles Arthur (1850-1942). Mycologia 34: 601-605.
The Kriebel Herbarium at Purdue University
Grady L. Webster, Purdue University
The Ralph M. Kriebel Herbarium of Purdue University was formally
dedicated on August 29, 1961, at the annual banquet of the American
Society of Plant Taxonomists (during the A. I. B. S. meetings at Purdue).
A bronze plaque with the title of the herbarium, donated by the Kriebel
family, was accepted on behalf of Purdue by Vice-President Chenea and
shortly thereafter was installed on the east wall of the herbarium room
in the Lilly Hall of Life Sciences. However, despite the newness of the
herbarium as an integrated whole, it includes many older collections. It is
the purpose of this article to trace the history of the present herbarium
as well as can be determined.
The Purdue University Herbarium was officially founded concomi-
tantly with the University in 1874 under the direction of the Rev. John
Hussey, Professor of Botany and Horticulture, who had been a chaplain
in the Union forces during the Civil War. Hussey appears to have made
a number of botanizing trips, with emphasis on collecting ferns, to various
areas (particularly Edmonson Co., Kentucky). At the time of the Fourth
Annual Report of the university of 1878, the herbarium was described as
containing 1,500 specimens ("species") of the flora of the United States.
The next year, in 1879, it was augmented by a shipment of 1,200 specimens
from George W. Clinton of Albany, New York. In this same year Hussey
was disabled by an attack of paralysis and his place was taken by Charles
R. Barnes, who brought his private collection of 1,500 specimens to Purdue.
Barnes' collections were eventually added to the herbarium, which grew
to 5,000 specimens by 1892 and to 7,000 by 1902.
Stanley Coulter, who became a professor at Purdue in 1887, soon took
over botanical activities and was active in the work of the Indiana Bio-
logical Survey which began in 1893. However, although a prolific writer
on the flora of Indiana, he appears to have collected few specimens; most
of those collected during his tenure were by students or correspondents
such as Alida Cunningham, H. B. Dorner, and W. B. Van Gorder. After
the erection of Coulter Hall, the herbarium was stored in the basement
for some years, and suffered considerably through neglect. However,
Coulter's recommendation (made when he was nearing retirement) that
the herbarium be renovated was eventually followed up and in 1930 C. L.
and J. N. Porter (3) were able to report that the specimens were filed in
the proper order in the cases and thus were once more available for study.
The Porters list in considerable detail the more important collections
in the herbarium at this time. Some of the most interesting were those
made by Dr. Clapp in the "Knobs" region of southern Indiana in 1838 and
1839. C. C. Deam had donated a large series of Indiana specimens over a
number of years. Other interesting collections not mentioned previously
include those of McOwen from South Africa, Steinitz and Wenzel from
Hungary, and A. H. Curtiss from Virginia. This herbarium in Stanley
Coulter Hall unfortunately became inactive because of the lack of pro-
fessional taxonomist. Later, Dr. A. T. Guard, who taught the elementary
course in taxonomy, began adding specimens to the herbarium.
In 1953 the west wing of the Lilly Hall of Life Sciences was com-
pleted, and the rust fungi of the Arthur Herbarium were moved to their
233
234 Indiana Academy of Science
present location. The vascular plant collections of Arthur were placed
in a separate room together with the Coulter collection and the private
herbarium of Ralph M. Kriebel. The Kriebel collection, which had been
purchased for a nominal sum by the University after his death in 1946,
was by far the largest component of the amalgamated phanerogamic her-
barium; it consisted of more than 10,000 mounted sheets of his own collec-
tions plus additional sets and many unmounted duplicates. It is the largest
collection of Indiana plants made by one person next to that of C. C. Deam,
who had originally encouraged Kriebel to begin collecting in 1933. Kriebel
made probably the most thorough sampling of the flora of an Indiana
county in his botanizing in Lawrence County, but he later collected exten-
sively throughout the state as well. At first he was especially interested
in ferns, and he reported several rare Asplenium hybrids (1, 2). He was
also interested in oaks and made very extensive collections, including a
number of hybrids, many of which have still not been critically studied.
It seemed appropriate, therefore, to associate his name with the combined
vascular plant herbarium, to which he had contributed so much.
Beginning in 1958, the writer began a program of reorganizing the
herbarium which lasted for about three years. The Arthur, Coulter, and
Kriebel collections have been intercalated and arranged in the Engler-
Prantl sequence, the specimens placed in new genus covers color-coded for
geographical origin, and a set of the Gray Card Index has been installed.
The total number of mounted specimens of vascular plants is now approxi-
mately 35,000, of which over one-half are from Indiana. The collection is
especially rich in grasses, partly due to the interest of Dr. George Cummins
in collecting hosts for grass rusts. At the present time the emphasis in
adding to the collections is on plants from the Midwest, Gulf Coastal Plain,
and American tropics. Recent additions to the herbarium since 1958
include Alton Lindsey's collections from a number of interesting areas
(Canadian Arctic, New Zealand, Mount Rainier, etc.), the T. E. Eaton
collection of native and exotic ferns (donated by Dr. Lindsey), Alaskan
plants collected by B. E. Montgomery, many plants of the western U. S.
donated by George Cummins, Ekman collections from Hispaniola, and
West Indian and Himalayan plants collected by the writer. A fairly large
collection of bryophytes (the hepatics annotated by C. E. Bonner and
H. A. Miller) is presently stored in another room but will eventually be
made available for study.
Literature Cited
1. Kriebel, R. M. 1933. Asplenium ebenoides R. R. Scott in Lawrence County, Indiana.
Amer. Fern. Jour. 23 : 52-59.
2. 1935. Pteridophytes of Lawrence County. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
44 : 47-52.
3. Porter, C. L., and J. N. Porter. 1931. The Stanley Coulter herbarium at Purdue
University. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 40 : 115-117.
The Greene-Nieuwland Herbarium at the University of
Notre Dame
Robert P. McIntosh, University of Notre Dame
The arrival of Edward Lee Greene at the University of Notre Dame
in February, 1915 with "bag and baggage" to use his description, was the
last stop in the peregrinations of one of the outstanding figures in the
history of American botany. Bag and baggage consisted of "a most select
library of botanical science of some thirty-five hundred bound books and
rare printed documents, together with several hundred unbound; (2) An
unique collection of some hundred thousand unmounted herbarium speci-
mens, the most valuable ever offered for sale in America, this as being a
kind of voluminous reference work which future generations of botanical
authors will need to consult for verification of my own published genera
and species; (3) A large accumulation of autograph letters from botanists
of all degrees of eminence, from both sides of the Atlantic during more
than forty years of my own activity in the science." (1)
These forty years of avid collecting and prodigious publication began
in the mid-west, in Wisconsin, where the young Greene initiated his botani-
cal career stimulated by his mother's interest in plants and under the
tutelage of Thure Kumlien, a pioneer Wisconsin naturalist. As a nineteen-
year-old soldier in the Civil War he wrote Kumlien in consecutive sen-
tences of the horrors of war and his interest in botanical collecting; "They
lay side by side and probably were both killed by the same merciless bomb
shell. I have seen a great many new things in the vegetable world since
I left home but it has not been much more than an aggravation to me to
see when I could not have a chance to collect anything."
Nevertheless, he managed to pursue his botanical interests and later
wrote, "I have a book which I keep in my knapsack in which I can press
small plants quite well. I sent a few home about a week ago and wrote
mother to divide them with you." (2) Various hazards attended his mili-
tary botanizing as indicated in his comments on a fox glove he had marched
by "It was pretty, but I did not dare leave the ranks to notice it closely";
and on a rapid retreat, "I had well nigh lost all my botanical and other
little collections on my last march. We were ordered away from Claysville
soon after my last letter to you and were obliged to burn up a good many
valuable things to prevent them from falling into rebellious hands after
our departure. I managed to crowd most of my plants into my knapsack
by carrying some of my clothing in another manner and have preserved
now the most of them." (2)
During his military service Greene wrote, "I have almost made up
my mind that I would make my home somewhere in that trans-Mississip-
pian region though possibly farther to the southward than Kansas." (2)
It was in the post bellum west that Greene's botanical reputation was
established and his botanical collection grew. During his early years in
Colorado, where he arrived in 1870, he became an established botanical
collector known to Asa Gray, George Engelmann, John Torrey and other
leading American botanists of the day. He also completed his theological
studies, was ordained in the Episcopal Church, and persuaded his bishop
to assign him rural parishes so he could pursue his botanical and religious
235
236 Indiana Academy of Science
roles "in order that the care of souls might be lightened by the pursuit of
botanical studies." (3) He ranged over the then little known areas of
Wyoming, northern Colorado down to New Mexico adding to his knowledge
of western plants, discovering several species and, "had a fine time, also
have worked my way into the pulpit so as to have no trouble about the
wherewithal to pay my expenses. ... I have a large congregation and a
good salary but with all that so much pastoral work, that my scientific
studies are interfered with not a little." (2)
Pastoral work notwithstanding, by 1885 Greene had established him-
self as the leading botanist of the west, so that when he gave up the
ministry he founded the department of botany at the University of Cali-
fornia. Here he continued his collecting and entered the most productive
period of his publishing career becoming a world renowned figure in
botanical circles. By 1892 he was named a member of the International
Committee on Botanical Nomenclature; of which he wrote later, "As far
as the rules of nomenclature of the last botanical congress I have never
read them ; although I am a member of the International Commission. If
you knew how these congresses are composed and how the business of
them is done you would have no great deference to pay their rules." (1)
Perhaps his earliest association with Notre Dame was in 1894 when the
University awarded him the LL.D. In 1895 he was chosen president of the
Botanical Congress held at Madison, Wisconsin.
That same year he left California taking with him his herbarium and
library at his own expense, and became professor of botany at the Catholic
University of America in Washington, D. C. He remained here until 1904
working on his systematic and historical studies. In 1904 he became an
honorary associate in botany at the Smithsonian Institution, his herbarium
and library being transferred to the U. S. National Herbarium. The agree-
ment with the National Museum was that Greene's collections were not to
be removed for ten years and within that time the Museum could purchase
the plant collection and library for thirty thousand dollars, or in the
event of his death the collections would become the property of the Museum.
During this period Greene devoted himself in large part to his studies in
the history of botany the first volume published in 1909 as "Landmarks in
Botanical History," the second volume unfortunately being unpublished
to this day.
It was during this period that the events took place which led even-
tually to Greene and his "bag and baggage" arriving at Notre Dame.
Greene's tenure at the Catholic University was not an entirely happy
period but one of his students there was Father Julius Nieuwland, C.S.C.,
who upon his return to Notre Dame in 1904 became professor of botany.
Father Nieuwland did his thesis in chemistry and subsequently became
famous as a chemist. However, in his early career he devoted his attention
to botany and his correspondence with Greene, beginning in 1905, dealt
with botanical subjects. In October of 1907 he wrote "I am doing my level
best to build up a botanical library and have lost all interest in chem-
istry." (1) Greene had infected his student with his own interest in old
and rare botanical books and Father Nieuwland became another botanical
bibliophile writing of books, "since I have thrown chemistry practically
overboard I am intensely interested in these things." (1) Nieuwland
History of Science 237
acquired a considerable library of botanical works from the proceeds of
the sale of slides of botanical materials which he made and sold.
During this period Father Nieuwland frequently urged Greene to visit
Notre Dame pointing out "the cost of living is nothing divided by two at
Notre Dame," and commenting, "I badly feel the need of some encourage-
ment in this work." (1) As early as 1907 Greene wrote, "I should be very
happy were it so ordered that I should join you at Notre Dame for weeks,
for months, or for years." (1) However, he desired to stay in Washington
because the libraries there favored his historical work.
Nevertheless during these years Greene was instrumental in stimu-
lating Father Nieuwland to pursue his botanical studies and urged him to
develop the herbarium at the University. In 1908 Greene wrote to Nieuw-
land "You will need a great herbarium in a place such as Notre Dame is
destined to become" (1) and in the same year he even provided directions
for the labels for the herbarium.
The initial herbarium of the University had been destroyed in a fire
in 1879. (4) In Father Nieuwland's early years at Notre Dame he men-
tions the difficulty of working without a herbarium. His own extensive
botanical studies and collecting began to remedy this lack and by 1945 the
Nieuwland Herbarium contained some fifty thousand specimens. Much of
this is Indiana and midwestern material, but many specimens from other
regions were obtained by exchange.
In response to Father Nieuwland's repeated urgings Greene, in 1909,
visited the University and went on collecting trips with Nieuwland and
his students. This was the first of almost annual visits he made to South
Bend before he moved there permanently. That he was pleased with his
reception and prospects at Notre Dame is evidenced in a letter to Nieuw-
land written in December, 1909. In it he said that he had asked the Smith-
sonian to release him from his contract so he could move his books and
herbarium, and that two places on the Atlantic coast, one on the Pacific
were waiting "to claim me, my equipment and all." None of these inter-
ested him and he wrote "If I were assured the University (Notre Dame)
would accept the above as a gift, publish all I write without cost to me
and give me shelter and food — all this to the end of my days — I am not
sure I would not prefer that to any other place." (1) Father Nieuwland
wrote back "I certainly did lie awake a good part of last night after read-
ing your letter. You can hardly imagine how glad I would be if you would
decide to come to Notre Dame." (1) Thus, some six years before his
arrival at Notre Dame, Greene was considering the move to South Bend.
During this period Greene was obviously concerned by his situation
at the National Museum and was anxious to move. He wrote Nieuwland
of a discussion with a friend in the United States Senate, "My senator . . .
advised me to procure release from the contract of deposit here and, when
I am ready, betake myself to that Indiana place." (1)
However he was bound by contract to leave his herbarium and library
on deposit at the National Museum for ten years and at any time the
Museum secured the money it could, according to the contract, purchase
the collections. In January, 1910 a bill was introduced in Congress to
appropriate thirty thousand dollars to buy Greene's herbarium and library.
Both Greene and Nieuwland were much concerned about this and Father
Nieuwland wrote to Greene asserting he would, if Greene wished, try to
238 Indiana Academy of Science
prevent passage of the bill. Continued efforts to procure the appropriation
prompted Greene to take action as well, "I had to leave all yesterday and
go lobbying to prevent that." (1)
In November of 1912 he wrote to Father Cavanaugh, then president
of Notre Dame, the statement of an offer of his herbarium, library and
correspondence in return for a modest annuity and living quarters for the
duration of his life. He remarks in this letter that the proposed annuity
was "less than half what I am sure of being able to take from one
or another of four different great seats of botanical study and re-
search. ..." (1)
In spite of the inducements offered him by several other universities
and museums Greene persisted in his resolve to go to Notre Dame. In
November, 1913 he wrote Father Cavanaugh, "Shall you be ready next
May to receive and set in order for use — my use also — the massive botani-
cal collections?" (1) It was not, however, until February of 1915 that
Father Cavanaugh reported that the freight car with books and herbarium
had arrived and cases were being constructed, according to Green's speci-
fications, to receive the collection.
Greene was never to pursue his botanical studies at Notre Dame for
within the year of his arrival he was dead. His plan to do a flora of
Wisconsin was unfulfilled and his history of botany and projected "Ameri-
can Botany in My Time" were never completed, an irrevocable loss to the
history of the science.
Nevertheless his mark was firmly placed on the botanical work of the
University ably carried on by Father Nieuwland and later Theodore Just.
Greene was responsible for the stimulation and encouragement which
enabled Father Nieuwland to establish a considerable herbarium of his
own. The addition of his own invaluable collections, which are kept sepa-
rate as the Greene Herbarium, to the Nieuwland Herbarium made the
botanical collection at Notre Dame one of the largest and most significant
in the country; in Greene's words "a kind of voluminous reference work
which future generations of botanical authors will need to consult. ..." (1)
Literature Cited
1. Correspondence of Edward Lee Greene in the Archives of the University of Notre
Dame.
2. Main, A. K. 1929. Life and letters of Edward Lee Greene. Trans. Wis. Acad, of
Sciences, Arts and Letters 24 : 147-185.
3. Ewan, J., 1950. Rocky Mountain Naturalist, The University of Denver Press.
4. Just, T. 1945. A brief history of the Department of Biology, University of Notre
Dame. Troc. Ind. Acad, of Science 55 : 147-153.
The DePauw University Herbarium
Winona H. Welch, DePauw University
The date of the establishment of the DePauw Herbarium is not defi-
nitely known, but the estimated origin is approximately 70 years ago.
Probably the founder was Dr. Lucien M. Underwood who was the pro-
fessor of Botany on the DePauw staff from 1891-1895. There is a small
number of earlier local collections with dates in the late 1870's and early
1880's. These may have been in the department when Dr. Underwood came
to DePauw or he may have secured them in an exchange of specimens.
Although the bulk of Underwood's plant collections are in the New York
Botanical Garden, a number of his specimens have remained in the
DePauw Herbarium.
When Prof. Truman G. Yuncker became a member of the DePauw
staff, in September, 1919, he found a small, much neglected herbarium.
The specimens were filed in pasteboard herbarium boxes with drop-ends.
These, in turn, were stored in wooden cabinets which were neither insect-
nor dust-proof. Unfortunately, it was necessary to discard a number of
the specimens because of damage due to these factors. An estimated 900-
1,000 sheets were redeemed.
The first large addition to the herbarium was the gift of the Earl
Grimes collection, 1,000 or more specimens, from Putnam, Montgomery,
and Tippecanoe counties. He was a most promising young local botanist
who died in 1921, during surgery. Mrs. Grimes gave his collection to
DePauw in 1922. The author, a senior in the university that fall, mounted
these specimens, checked the determinations of all ferns in the herbarium,
and assisted Prof. Yuncker in the reorganization of the DePauw Her-
barium. In June, 1923, the Botany Department regarded its collection of
plants in three small steel cases as satisfactorily protected against insects,
fire, and dust, and properly arranged.
The vascular flora of Jasper County, Indiana, was the basis of the
writer's thesis for the A.M. degree, under Prof. William Trelease at the
University of Illinois. Dr. Charles C. Deam, then collecting plants in the
preparation of his Flora of Indiana, left the flora of Jasper County for the
author but checked each determination. The 710 species of vascular plants
which were represented in this Master's thesis were presented to the
DePauw Herbarium.
Upon the death of Miss Madge McKee of Goodland, Indiana, in 1950,
her large collection of Newton County plants was presented by her brother
to DePauw. Other sizable personal collections or duplicates have been
given to the university by Charles C. Deam, Charles M. Ek, Ralph M.
Kriebel, Ray C. Friesner, John E. Potzger, and, more recently, by Scott
McCoy. In the late 1920's, Dr. Joseph P. Naylor, Professor of Physics at
DePauw, presented his moderately large collection of mosses to the her-
barium.
Since 1931, members of the Botany staff have made large collections
in Hawaii, Alaska, Central America, Cuba, Jamaica, and various islands
of the Pacific, as well as throughout Canada and the mainland of the
United States. Duplicates of these collections have been exchanged with
other herbaria throughout the world in order to increase the representa-
tion of families, genera, and species in the DePauw Herbarium.
239
240 Indiana Academy of Science
As a result of special research interests of staff members and major
students in the department, special groups of plants occur in the herbarium
in large numbers. Dr. William D. Gray became a keen student of Myxomy-
cetes while at DePauw and has presented the department a very large
collection of slime molds. The collections of fungi by Dr. Emery G. Sim-
mons for his Master's thesis at DePauw, A Monographic Study in the
Stromatic Sphaeriales of Indiana, were presented to the herbarium. Mr.
John 0. Cottingham, a DePauw student from the class of 1896, has given
through the years his specimens of fungi collected in Marion County,
Indiana. Charles R. Hall has contributed a collection of algae, approxi-
mately 200 species and varieties, resulting from his research for his
Master's thesis on the Algae of Putnam County, Indiana. The approximate
2,000 Indiana hepatic collections of the writer were included by Dr. Ken-
neth A. Wagner, along with his personal collections, in his Master's thesis
on the Liverworts of Indiana, and were deposited in the DePauw Her-
barium. Because of a promise made to Dr. Bruce Fink, a few months
before his death, the author has continued collecting lichens in the state.
These have been determined or checked by recognized lichenologists and
filed in the herbarium. In the Mosses of Indiana, the collections from the
92 counties were determined and placed in the herbarium. The writer's
herbarium of lichens, mosses, and liverworts consists of more than 32,500
collections. This number includes a very large accumulation of species in
Fontinalaceae, Wardiaceae, Hydropogonaceae, and Hookeriaceae, due to
the monographic studies in these families. Among the exsiccati of crypto-
gams which occur in the DePauw Herbarium are de Thiimen, Mycotheca
universalis, Fink, Lichens of Northeastern Minnesota, Tuckerman, Reli-
quiae Tuckermanianae, and Grout, North American Musci Perfecti, and
North American Musci Pleurocarpi.
Dr. Yuncker having started his monographic treatise of the genus
Cuscuta for his doctorate thesis has acquired approximately 8,000 num-
bers in this genus as represented throughout the world. More recently he
has become interested in the Piperaceae and presently this family is repre-
sented by several thousand collections, chiefly of the West Indies and the
Americas. In both Cuscuta and the Piperaceae, a considerable number of
types and isotypes are included. It is believed that the accumulation of
species represented in these special groups is among the largest in any
herbarium in the world.
Because of the divergent areas : tropical, temperate, and arctic, from
which collections have been made, and through widespread exchanges,
practically every family of flowering plants is represented.
The filing of the specimens follows the usual herbarium practice.
Those from Indiana are segregated in regular manila folders, while those
from out of the state are in pink folders. This method materially reduces
handling and consequent damage when examining the plants. Both species
and genera are alphabetically arranged while the families follow the
arrangement of Dalle Torre & Harms. A very large amount of the mount-
ing of specimens through recent years, the repair of herbarium sheets,
and the filing in the herbarium cases has been done by Mrs. Yuncker.
In 1955, the Lilly Endowment Foundation made a grant of $15,000 for
use in improving and enlarging the herbarium and for the purchase of
History of Science 241
such works as the Index Kewensis, Engler & Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien,
the Pflanzenreich, and various floras and other important reference works.
The herbarium, presently known as the Truman G. Yuncker Her-
barium of DePauw University, at the beginning of the university's 125th
year, has a total of approximately 125,000 specimens and is completely
housed in steel, insect- and dust-proof cases, in the Department of Botany
& Bacteriology, in Harrison Hall.
A Century of Botany and Botanists at DePauw University1
Truman G. Yuncker, DePauw University
DePauw was founded in 1837 as Indiana Asbury University. From
the very beginning of the University, science was recognized as an impor-
tant part of the curriculum, with Geology and Mineralogy, Mathematics,
Chemistry, and Natural Philosophy or Physics appearing among the first
courses of study offered. The first Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science was the Rev. Mathew Simpson who was also the University's
first President. He continued to teach all of the science offered until 1841
when he was succeeded by the Rev. W. C. Larrabee who, in turn, was one
year later replaced by C. G. Downey who continued to teach mathematics
until 1852 when he left to become Professor of Chemistry in the new
School of Medicine which was being established by Asbury at that time.
Professor Larrabee was much interested in nature and introduced a num-
ber of unusual species of trees on the campus from his native state of
Maine, the Orient, etc. These have mostly since disappeared.
In 1849, Dr. Joseph Tingley became Professor of Natural Science and
held this position for thirty years, until 1879, when, in a general reorgani-
zation, he along with several others were dismissed. He had been made
Vice-President of the University in 1860 but also continued as Professor
of Natural Science.
During Tingley's tenure the University experienced intermittent
periods of expansion and retraction. In 1849 a Medical School was auspi-
ciously started in Indianapolis which, however, continued for only three
years. In 1853 a Law School was inaugurated. At first, Natural Science,
including Animal Physiology and Natural History, which was chiefly
Zoology, represented the offerings of the biological sciences.
It was not until the college year of 1859-1860 that Botany was first
given as a distinct course. Professor Tingley offered it during the third
term of the sophomore year and Gray's textbook was used. He continued
offering botany for one or two terms each year, with either Gray or Wood
as a text. At the time, these were the principal botanical texts, although
in 1877 Sach's text was also used. During this time, the course consisted
of three half -hour lectures each week; certainly not extensive. Tingley
was primarily interested in mathematics and in physics but, because of
his courses in botany, is to be considered as the first teacher of that subject
at Asbury. At the same time he offered other science courses which be-
tween 1875 and 1878 included a one-term course in zoology each year.
Dr. John M. Mansfield succeeded Tingley in 1879, and in the year
1879-1880 offered 1V2 terms of botany and a half-term course in Sanitary
Science, presumably reflecting the influence of the work being done by
Pasteur, Koch and others in the Old World at about this time. Previous to
coming to Asbury, Mansfield had traveled in Europe where he visited
laboratories, and had also developed laboratories at Iowa Wesleyan Uni-
versity.
Considering the religious heritage of the University, it would not be
surprising that the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859
1. Thanks are due Dr. Geo. B. Manhart, Emeritus Professor of History at
DePauw, for furnishing some of the data used in this paper.
242
History of Science 243
would provoke a certain amount of discussion as it certainly was the great
controversial issue of that period. As early as 1850, Larrabee gave lec-
tures on the "scientific evidences of natural and revealed religions." He
vigorously opposed "new-fangled systems and notions" when inconsistent
with "correctly interpreted teachings of the Bible." He claimed that the
evidence was clear that the earth was created in 6 natural days 6,000
years ago. We also read in the Asbury Review of January 1874 that Prof.
Tingley "demolished the theory of the Evolutionists, Darwin and the
rest." It is noted that Gray's text was not listed for some of the years,
perhaps because of his very positive stand in support of Darwin.
In 1881, Bessey's Botany for High Schools and Colleges, published the
previous year, supplanted the Gray and Wood texts previously used. At
this time the department was known as Physics and Biology, but the
following year it was divided, with Dr. Mansfield continuing as the Pro-
fessor of Biology. At this time he was offering one term of botany and
three terms of zoology. In the catalogue for 1881 we read: "First and
Second Honors were conferred on students who carried out appropriate
work beyond class requirements." This represented an interesting experi-
ment with "Honors" which continued for a number of years for good
students willing to do extra work. Among the books listed as available
for such additional work were: Sach's Botany, von Zippel's Pflanzen-
familien, Magnin's Bacteria, Wood's Fresh Water Algae, Harvey's Marine
Algae, and Eaton's Ferns of North America, all important works of that
time. We also note the following: "The freshmen study Botany the third
term, with Bessey's Textbook, and with microscopes and reagents make
experiments and observations on the morphology and physiology of plants.
A well-written notebook, drawings, to scale in water colors, or the mor-
phology; microscopic mountings; pressed flowers; analysis of flowers,
with Wood's Check-Tablet, are some of the methods of study. The class
makes large collections in the spring, and especially during vacations, to
increase their knowledge and have an abundance of material in the her-
barium for investigation the rest of the course." In this connection, it is
interesting to recall that laboratory methods of teaching had been intro-
duced into America between 1860 and 1870, and it is reported that the
botanical department of Harvard University as late as 1865 did not own
a compound microscope. It is evident, therefore, that Asbury was abreast
of the times in its science teaching. The walls of the Museum at that time
were filled with pressed plants, drawings in water colors, etc. of a large
number of orders of plants arranged according to the Besseyan system.
Fossil plants were also included. The Professor of Biology or of Natural
Science from the beginning had been also the Curator of the Museum.
In 1884 the name of the institution was changed to DePauw Univer-
sity in honor of a prominent benefactor. That year also saw the establish-
ment of a School of Horticulture which offered a number of courses relat-
ing to plants including, in addition to Botany as such, Vegetable Physi-
ology, Forestry, Landscape Gardening, and Vegetable Gardening. Although
started with enthusiasm, the School continued for only two years, regis-
tering 13 students the first and 29 the second. From 1883 to 1886 there
was no Professor of Biology and no courses were offered aside from those
in the School of Horticulture which apparently was taking over for the
244 Indiana Academy of Science
time being the botany courses normally offered in the College of Liberal
Arts.
In 1886, 0. P. Jenkins, A.M., M.S., became Professor of Bio7ogy and
in that year had three student assistants. He occupied this position until
1891. He offered one term of biology, one of elementary zoology and one
of elementary botany, using Gray, and Arthur, Barnes & Coulter's Hand-
book for Plant Dissection as texts. Advanced work in botany was also
offered, with diatoms, algae, fungi, and ferns listed as some of the special
topics being studied. He had good equipment for his work including 34
compound microscopes. Laboratory work in science had been required
from almost the beginning of the University and, beginning with Professor
Tingley, had continued to occupy an increasingly prominent role in the
curriculum. At this time DePauw required all students in the regular
course of study to have two courses in Physics, Chemistry, or Biology.
Professor Jenkins left DePauw for Stanford University at the time
of the founding of that University in 1891. His specialty was ichthyology
and he helped Jordan and Evermann in their work. He took two of his
DePauw students, F. M. McFarland and George Price, with him and both
later became noted members of the Stanford faculty. Another DePauw
student who had assisted Jenkins was Daniel T. McDougal who received
the B.S. degree at DePauw in 1890, A.M. in 1893, and the honorary LL.D.
in 1900. He later became director of the Carnegie Institution's Laboratory
for Plant Physiology and was one of the so-called starred scientists in
America and internationally known for his work.
In 1891 the department of biology was divided to form separate de-
partments of Botany and Zoology. Dr. Lucien M. Underwood was ap-
pointed Professor of Botany and department head. He remained at
DePauw for four years during which time he offered a strong course of
study composed of one year of general botany, one on the Cryptogams,
and one of Plant Physiology and Biological Problems. In 1895 he was
released from his position on the plea of President John of the financial
necessity of reducing faculty, and the two departments were recombined.
Underwood came to DePauw from a professorship of Biology at
Syracuse University at a considerable reduction in salary because he felt
he would have greater opportunities for his work in a separate department
such as DePauw was offering him. Upon leaving DePauw, he became
Professor of Biology in Alabama Polytechnic Institute and, in 1896, Pro-
fessor of Botany at Columbia University as well as a member and Chair-
man of the Board of Scientific Directors of the New York Botanical
Garden, which positions he retained until his death in 1907. He made
extensive collections during his lifetime which are now, for the most part,
in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden.
He was especially interested in the lower groups of plants and was
the author of several noteworthy books together with about 200 scientific
papers, including a number published while at DePauw. He prepared the
text on the Hepaticae for the 6th edition of Gray's Manual in 1890.
He was a member of the original committee on botanical nomenclature
at the A. A. A. S. meeting at Rochester in 1892, and was elected the Ameri-
can delegate to the Genoa Botanical Congress of the same year, and also
to the International Botanical Congress at Vienna in 1905 where he pre-
History of Science 245
sented the American viewpoints relative to the Type Concept and other
debated points. He was one of the Vice-Presidents at the Congresses and
took part in the decision to make 1753 the beginning date for botanical
nomenclature. He served as Vice-President of the Botanical Section of
the A. A. A. S. in 1894 and, together with Dr. Britton of the New York
Botanical Garden, helped launch the publication of the monumental ency-
clopedic North American Flora and was one of its earlier editors. He was
appointed a member of the committee which helped found the Botanical
Society of America and in 1899-1900 was its President, and was also
Chairman of the section on Biology of the A. A. A. S. in 1904-1905.
Considering his competence and his international reputation as a
botanist, it would seem to have been a major error on the part of DePauw
when it let him go and thus lost one of the most distinguished nationally
as well as internationally known American scientists as a member of its
faculty.
In 1894, Mel T. Cook was elected to become instructor in charge of the
department. He remained at DePauw until 1904, being advanced to a
professorship in 1897. He had entered the Preparatory School at DePauw
in 1885 taking courses in botany under Professor Jenkins whom he held
in the greatest esteem. His work was interrupted for two years after
which he returned and had courses under Professor Underwood. For his
senior year he transferred to Stanford where he obtained the A.B. degree
in 1895. In 1904 he resigned from DePauw to go to Cuba as Chief of the
Department of Plant Pathology at Santiago de las Vegas. Professor Cook
was a most energetic and inspiring teacher. Among his students at De-
Pauw who were later to distinguish themselves in the field of botany were
F. W. Foxworthy, Guy M. Wilson and H. H. York. He initiated the
DePauw Biological Association for the Advancement of the Study of
Biology. Funds were collected which were used for student scholarships
in the department and to provide outside lecturers among whom were
W. A. Locy, C. H. Eigenmann, H. C. Cowles, O. W. Caldwell, Geo. T.
Moore, and Amos Butler. It was during his tenure that Alfred Dickey,
one of his former classmates at DePauw, set up an endowment fund for a
departmental library in honor of his father, a former governor of North
Dakota. This bequest amounted to $2,500 of which $500 was for the
immediate purchase of books and the balance to remain as an endowment,
the income of which was to be used for the purchase of books each year.
The department is still enjoying the fruits of this bequest.
In 1904 Cook was succeeded by Dr. Howard J. Banker who remained
at DePauw for 10 years during which time the department enjoyed a
steady growth. Banker was a very personable man, well-liked by students
and associates. He was an authority on the Hydnaceae and also in the
field of Eugenics. Upon leaving DePauw he carried on eugenics research
at the Eugenics Research Office of the Carnegie Institution.
The following five years saw a procession of Acting Professors of
Biology. Dr. D. W. Davis served one year to be followed by Dr. H. R.
Glasscock who in turn was followed by Walter N. Hess in 1917. Hess had
his A.M. from Oberlin College and was completing his doctorate at Cornell
University at the time of his appointment. These three men were primarily
zoologists and botany was not particularly stressed. During 1918-1919
246 Indiana Academy of Science
Hess was on leave for war duty and Dr. B. E. Quick served as Acting
Professor. He offered a variety of botany courses including, for the first
time, a semester course in bacteriology.
A. M. Johnson was an instructor during the summer sessions of 1917
and 1919. Hess returned from the army in 1919 and resumed leadership
of the department.
The writer, who had the B.S. degree from Michigan State University,
A.M. from the University of Nebraska and the Ph.D. from the University
of Illinois, was appointed Assistant Professor of Biology in 1919 by Presi-
dent Gross with the understanding that Botany was to be developed co-
ordinate with Zoology. He was promoted to Associate Professor of Biology
in 1920 and to Professor of Botany the following year. New courses of
botany were introduced to provide students with a general background in
the subject and to prepare them for graduate study. His chief interest has
been in the field of taxonomy especially with the genus Cuscuta and the
family Piperaceae.
The department quickly expanded with the addition of two instruc-
tors and in 1923 Dr. George Gage was added as Assistant Professor of
Botany. In 1924, the Department of Botany was established separate from
that of Zoology but the following year President Murlin recombined them.
They remained as the Department of Biology for the following four years
but were again divided in 1928 and have so continued.
Dr. Gage resigned in 1927 and was succeeded by Dr. Grace Barkley
who died suddenly in the spring of 1930. Dr. Winona H. Welch, a specialist
in the Bryophyta, was appointed Assistant Professor succeeding Dr.
Barkley. She received her A.B. degree from DePauw, the A.M. from
Illinois University, and the Ph.D. from Indiana University from which
institution she came to DePauw. She was promoted to Associate Professor
in 1934 and to Professor of Botany in 1939. She is the author of Mosses
of Indiana and a notable monograph on the moss family Fontinalaceae, as
well as many scientific papers. Among many other recognitions, she is a
past President of the American Bryological Society, and also of the Indiana
Academy of Science. She assumed the headship of the department in
1956, upon the retirement of the writer, and reached retirement herself
in 1961.
George Burkett, A.B., A.M., was appointed Instructor in 1930 and
remained in the department for six years. In 1940 Howard Youse, who
had the A.B. from DePauw and the M.S. from Oregon State College, was
appointed Instructor and has continued on the staff, with the exception of
war service and work on the doctorate. He was promoted to Assistant
Professor in 1946, Associate Professor in 1952, Professor of Botany in
1955, and now succeeds Dr. Welch as department head. He obtained the
Ph.D. from Purdue in 1951. His chief interest is in the field of Plant
Physiology. When the writer, who for a number of years had been devoting
a major part of his time to the teaching of the courses of bacteriology,
retired, Dr. Anne M. McCarthy of Michigan State University was ap-
pointed to take over this part of the work. She remained for one semester
only, whereupon Robert Fletcher, who had received his A.B. and A.M.
degrees in bacteriology at DePauw and was currently employed in the
Admissions Office of the University, was asked to take over this work and
History op Science 247
has continued in this position. At present, he is carrying on work toward
the Ph.D. at Purdue University and the writer, who currently holds the
position of Curator of the Herbarium, is filling his place. Dr. W. P.
Adams, B.S. and M.S. from the University of Georgia and Ph.D. from
Harvard, comes from the State University of Florida as Assistant Pro-
fessor of Botany. His field of research is taxonomy and he takes over
courses vacated by the retirement of Dr. Welch.
Bacteriology has continued to be taught in the department since 1918
when it was first introduced. In 1946 the University for the first time
allowed students to offer Bacteriology courses to satisfy the science re-
quirement for graduation. In 1947 the offerings in the subject underwent
considerable revision in order to permit students the opportunity of
obtaining a major in it, and, at the same time, the department name was
changed to that of Botany and Bacteriology. With the introduction of a
Medical Technology program and a School of Nursing, increasing empha-
sis has been placed on this part of the departmental offerings.
Through the years, the department has been variously housed in
different buildings on the campus. For many years it occupied quarters
in what was then known as Middle College, a brick building originally
designed as a dormitory. Upon the condemnation of that structure, the
department was removed to a temporary dormitory built in 1921 where it
remained until 1940 when the present John Harrison Hall of Science,
which provides enlarged quarters, was completed. An adjoining green-
house was the gift of the Eli Lilly family.
In 1939, Professor Trelease of the University of Illinois and a former-
professor of both Yuncker and Welch, presented his personal botanical
library of hundreds of items to the department in honor of Dr. Agnes
Chase, the noted agrostologist and a personal friend.
The Lilly Endowment Foundation in 1956 made a grant of $15,000
for the purpose of improving and enlarging the herbarium and for the
purchase of books in the field of taxonomy. This has greatly enhanced the
efficiency of the work, and the herbarium, which has greatly increased in
size in more recent years, is now completely housed in modern steel cases.
During the difficult war years, with Dr. Youse in service, and other
disruptions, a number of instructors saw brief service in the department,
including Joseph McMenamin, Kenneth Wagner, Emory Simmons, Charles
Reimer, and, more recently Mrs. Marjorie Bumbalek and Mrs. Mabel
Esten. While on leave during the year 1932-1933, the writer's courses were
continued by Ethel Yuncker, his wife, as Acting Professor of Botany, and
again, while on leave in 1939-1940, Dr. Welch acted as head of the depart-
ment and his courses were taught by Dr. R. F. Dawson, a former DePauw
graduate and now Professor at Columbia University.
Thus, with temporary lapses, botany has continued to be taught at
DePauw with increasing emphasis for the past century.
The Antibiotics — Past, Present, and Future
J. M. McGuire, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana
The concept of antibiosis — the realization that microorganisms can
synthesize chemical substances which selectively inhibit or kill other
microorganisms, did not occur suddenly to Alexander Fleming, nor to any
other single scientist. Like most other discoveries, this concept grew out
of the cumulative experiences and observations of man dating back, no
one knows how far, into the past.
It is difficult to say how far back in history we might find evidence of
man's belief in the curative power of microorganisms, were we to make
an exhaustive search. We know that apothecaries in the England of 1640
prized the mold that grew on dead men's skulls as an ingredient for an
ointment. (1) Stories of the use of deliberately nurtured moldy bread
and moldy corn are found in the folk lore of the Maya Indian centuries
ago, and in this century in rural areas of the Ukraine, eastern Europe,
and even in England. The story is told of an untrained technician in a
1911 laboratory of Oxford University gathering up and taking home
remnants of the mold cultures used in classroom demonstrations. Asked
why he did so, he said his family had used molds to treat "gatherings" for
generations.
Whether these medicinal uses of molds were based on observations of
forgotten origin or on superstition is unknown. But we cannot question
so readily the observation by Tyndall, most noted as a physicist, who in
1876 noted that growth of a Penicillium mold discouraged growth of bac-
teria in test tubes of mutton infusion. Nor can we discount the careful
description by Pasteur in 1877 of the suppression of anthrax bacilli by
other common bacteria in the same medium, and the protection of small
animals from anthrax infection by simultaneous introduction of other
bacteria into the animal. Whether these represent actual cases of anti-
biotic production, we cannot be certain. We can be certain, however, that
these scientists did not clearly derive the modern concept of antibiosis
from their observations. Babes (1885) came much closer when he studied
the antagonisms of specific bacteria for one another by methods much like
the cross-streak technique used by Waksman more than fifty years later.
Garre (1887) went further, showing in plate tests that the suppression of
one bacterium by another was brought about by the secretion of a diffus-
ible substance from the inhibitory organism. By 1890, several other inves-
tigators had demonstrated, by methods little different from ours today,
the production of antagonistic substances. The critical flash of insight did
not occur, however, and attempts to exploit the property of microbial
antagonisms took the direction of therapy by clinical administration of
antagonistic organisms themselves. These efforts were not significantly
successful, and progress toward the use of antibacterial substances from
microorganisms came to a virtual halt.
Vuillemin introduced the term antibiosis in 1889 as the phenomenon
of one organism's actively destroying another to preserve its own life.
This meaning, bearing little resemblance to present usage, was modified
in 1928 by Papacostas and Gate to very nearly the meaning we ascribe to
antibiosis today. It is an interesting coincidence that this definition was
248
History of Science 249
published the very year that Fleming's classic paper describing the dis-
covery of penicillin was in preparation.
Penicillin
The discovery of penicillin, announced by Alexander Fleming in
1929 (3), is generally recognized as the beginning of a new era in medical
history — an era in which chemotherapy grew from infancy to dominance
in the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections in man. But while
Fleming certainly called attention to the blue-green mold that synthesized
penicillin, it remained for a group of Oxford University investigators ten
years later to revive interest in the almost forgotten antibiotic. Fleming
and the leader of the Oxford group, Dr. Howard Florey, were later
awarded jointly the Nobel prize for their complementary roles in bringing
to the world its first important and still in many ways its most remarkable
antibiotic.
In August, 1940, the Oxford University group headed by Florey
described in Lancet (4) their laborious partial purification of penicillin
from Fleming's mold and demonstrated the effectiveness of this substance,
still less than one per cent pure, in protecting laboratory animals infected
with virulent streptococci, pneumococci, and Clostridium septique. Even
in this very impure state, penicillin inhibited these organisms in the test
tube at dilutions up to one part in 500,000.
Excited by this publication, I set about trying to find cultures of this
mold. The Oxford paper had cited a publication of a Pennsylvania State
College graduate student who had published his thesis on studies of
Fleming's mold in 1935, in which he corroborated Fleming's work (5).
This was Roger Reid, who was in 1940 on the staff of Johns Hopkins
University, and who is now director of the Biological Sciences Division
of the Office of Naval Research. I obtained a subculture of Fleming's
Penicillium from Reid, and another from Dr. Charles Thorn, Principal
Mycologist in the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Beltsville, Mary-
land. Through the winter of 1940 and most of 1941 I experimented with
Penicillium notatum with no spectacular success. It was not difficult to
obtain activity in filtrates of the mold, but in the absence of controlled
temperature, yields were low and unpredictable — usually less than one
meg per ml.
Meanwhile, the Oxford University group was working feverishly on
penicillin. In August, 1941, they described in a second publication (6)
their laborious accumulation, in spite of the difficulty of carrying on
research in severe wartime conditions, of enough penicillin, perhaps five
per cent pure, to treat a number of patients with severe infections. Their
results were most encouraging in spite of the low dosages, by present
standards, made necessary by the scanty supply of penicillin. In some
cases, penicillin was recovered from the urine of patients, purified, and
reused in order to make continued therapy possible.
By this time it became obvious to the Oxford research team that
penicillin had real potential usefulness as a therapeutic agent, but that
the scale of developmental work needed for adequate evaluation was
impracticable in a Britain preoccupied with fighting off bombing attacks
and rebuilding its defenses. In the summer of 1941, Florey and Heatley,
the latter of whom was responsible for the microbiology and who had
250 Indiana Academy of Science
devised the cylinder-agar plate diffusion assay now used widely in various
forms, came to this country in an attempt to stimulate interest in large
scale development work on penicillin.
Florey and Heatley were to see much of America before achieving
their desired results (2). They first approached the Rockefeller Founda-
tion, which had supported much of their work by grants, and were referred
to the National Academy of Science. From here they were directed to
see Dr. Charles Thorn, eminent mycologist in the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try. Dr. Thorn took them to the top officials of the Department of Agri-
culture, who suggested that they might get help at the Northern Regional
Research Laboratory in Peoria, Illinois. Here they found genuine interest,
and here notable advances in penicillin research in this country were to
be made — by N. G. Heatley, Florey's colleague who remained at Peoria
for several months, and by Peoria staff members, notably K. B. Raper,
A. J. Moyer, R. G. Benedict, F. H. Stodola, and others, directed by Dr.
Robert D. Coghill, director of the Fermentation Division. Florey visited
various industrial laboratories, among them Eli Lilly and Company, in
an attempt to arouse further interest in penicillin.
Florey's reception by American industry was friendly, but lukewarm
with respect to serious consideration of penicillin as a potential commer-
cial product — and not without reason. The sulfonamide drugs had sprung
to prominence from 1935 to 1941, and as the first reasonably effective
chemotherapeutic agents for bacterial infections they were themselves
considered miracle drugs at the time of Florey's visit. This fact along
with the obvious technical problems presented by penicillin, with its
strange origin and its production by the mold in yields of less than one
microgram per ml, gave little cause for enthusiasm in the ranks of indus-
trial management. To research people, of course, penicillin had consider-
able appeal, for there were indications that it could conceivably surpass
the sulfonamides in effectiveness. The problems of inducing the mold to
synthesize practical yields of penicillin, and of recovering from it a
potent new drug, formidable as they appeared, presented interesting
research challenges.
The result was the initiation of moderate research efforts in several
industrial plants, including our own, aided by frequent progress reports
from the Northern Research Laboratory at Peoria. It would be difficult
to overrate the importance of the Peoria group's work to the unparalleled
industrial development of penicillin that followed. It was their discovery
of more effective nutrient materials to stimulate higher yields of peni-
cillin (7), their early recognition of the potential advantages of deep tank
fermentation (8), and their discovery of new Penicillium cultures capable
of producing penicillin in deep culture (9) that brought penicillin pro-
duction into the realm of economic practicability.
By late 1941, involvement of the United States in World War II
caused the creation of a cooperative research program on penicillin be-
tween a number of industrial firms, universities and the Peoria Labora-
tories, fostered by the Committee on Medical Research of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development. This cooperative effort, unprece-
dented both from the standpoint of size and of close cooperation of rival
industrial research groups, was a rewarding and pleasant experience for
History of Science 251
the research personnel involved. This combined effort resulted in raising-
penicillin yields a hundred-fold, perfecting large scale purification proc-
esses, achievement of sterile fermentations on an unprecedented scale,
building of plants, and the attainment of massive production of penicillin
in the span of less than two years.
Early developmental studies of penicillin were carried on chiefly by
the surface culture method. Spores of Penicillium notatum were intro-
duced aseptically and shaken up with the nutrient solution in flasks or
bottles which were then incubated, undisturbed, for 6-10 days at 24° C.
The spores germinated and formed a floating carpet of mycelium which
absorbed nutrients from the shallow broth beneath it and excreted peni-
cillin into it. When the nutrients were exhausted, the mold formed a mass
of blue spores and synthesis of penicillin ceased. The solution under the
mold was then filtered and assayed for antibacterial activity. Purification
studies were then carried on.
Late in 1941 we cleaned out a small building that once housed rabbits
on our Agricultural Research farm at Greenfield, and equipped it for
maintenance of constant temperature. Our first large scale attempt to
produce penicillin consisted of 300 large flat bottles, each containing one
liter of nutrient broth. They were inoculated a few days before Pearl
Harbor, were harvested on December 10, 1941, and the pooled filtrates
contained 8 u/ml of penicillin. I remember spending long hours riding a bus
to Greenfield during this period, carrying five-liter bottles of Penicillium
spore suspensions for use in inoculating the weekly batch of bottles. There
were skeptical stares from the bus passengers, for the spores were a
muddy green in color, and this undoubtedly reminded them that the Green-
field laboratory was known to work with dangerous pathogens.
Early results were not aided by the fact that our incubator building-
was a convenient sheltered route between animal buildings for farm
employees on stormy or cold days, often while we were inoculating bottles.
Materials clinging to their boots and clothing were obviously rich sources
of microorganisms, which had an uncanny aptitude for getting into our
bottles.
Early synthetic media used by the English workers gave yields of
less than 1 unit per ml, and bear in mind that a milligram of pure penicillin
contains 1,667 units. Replacement of pure dextrose with crude corn sugar
improved yields to 4-5 units per ml. Then the Peoria group recommended
corn steep liquor as an adjuvant, and this raised our yields quickly to
40 u/ml. Replacement of glucose with lactose again boosted yields to 100
units per ml or more. This crude broth inhibited the staphylococcal test
strain at dilutions as high as 1 :5000.
Our first attempts at purification consisted of ammonium sulfate pre-
cipitations commonly used for toxins and proteins. The harvested filtrates
were chilled overnight, (NH^SOi was added, and the precipitate was
collected on filter paper by filtration. Excess moisture was pressed out
between layers of blotting paper, and thus we obtained dry cakes of
material that inhibited staphylococci at dilutions as high as 1:300,000.
Though it contained far more (NH^.SOt than penicillin, this material
when taken orally produced fairly high urine concentrations of penicillin,
along with diarrhea and stomach cramps, and was at least as bitter as we
252 Indiana Academy of Science
used to think drugs should be. These precipitates were not suitable for
systemic therapeutic use, but they provided a stable storage form, when
refrigerated, for later work.
While interest in penicillin declined late in 1942, encouraging clinical
success with our crude material in the treatment of carbuncles in diabetics
at the Lilly Clinic in the spring of 1943 stimulated renewed interest. By
this time improvements in media, higher yielding variants of the orginal
mold, and improved fermentation conditions had also raised yields to
100-140 units per ml, more than 100-fold greater than those from which
the Oxford group obtained their first meager clinical material. In the
summer of 1943, the War Production Board made known its desire for all
possible penicillin for use by our armed forces. A number of industrial
firms made haste to get surface culture plants in operation. Late that
year we were in full production in a three story warehouse converted into
a penicillin factory. One floor was devoted to propagation and control
laboratories, another to incubation, and the other to purification to the
final product.
At peak production in 1944, 25,000-30,000 two-quart bottles were filled,
sterilized, inoculated, and harvested every day, and as many as 200,000
bottles of Penicillium were in various stages of incubation at one time.
This resulted in the daily recovery of some 6,000 liters of Penicillium
filtrate, which at a yield of 100 u/ml would contain 600 million units of
penicillin. The early purification procedure recovered, at best, 150 million
units, or about 100 grams in terms of pure penicillin. The early finished
product, only 10 per cent pure, was a yellow-brown powder. At worst,
contamination of a few bottles with penicillinase-forming bacteria was
sufficient to destroy nearly all the penicillin in the collection tank before
it could be filtered.
In Peoria, Dr. K. B. Raper had screened Penicillium notatum and
related species in the Department of Agriculture collection, and was
searching for wild cultures in nature that might produce penicillin in
submerged culture. By mid-1943, strains yielding 50-100 units per ml in
shaken flasks and small fermentors were found and distributed to indus-
trial laboratories. The potential advantages of submerged culture for
large scale production were evident. Hence, soon after penicillin produc-
tion in bottles began, plans were laid at Eli Lilly and Company for a
building to house 6 eight-thousand-gallon fermentors. No precedent for
such aerobic sterile fermentations existed, and Lilly had no previous
experience in industrial fermentations. Nevertheless, depending upon
their engineering training and what they had learned from surface culture
production, J. A. Leighty, a research biochemist, now Executive Director
of Scientific Research, G. B. Walden, Director of Biochemical Research,
later vice president in charge of biochemical production, and S. L. McCor-
mick, chemical engineer, designed and built a plant which began produc-
tion early in 1945. It operated successfully from the beginning. One fer-
mentor produced four times the volume of penicillin produced by the
bottle plant in a week, with nearly comparable yields. The six fermentors
soon raised production to 24 times the previous output.
The shift to submerged culture by most of the firms in 1944 and 1945,
along with rapid improvements in mold strains and increasing technical
"know-how" in a new industry resulted in fantastic increases in penicillin
History of Science 253
production. In 1942, only 3 ounces of penicillin were made available for
clinical trial in this country (2) ; in 1943, 29 pounds were produced; in
1944, 3,200 pounds; and in 1945, 11,000 pounds. By 1951, these figures
were dwarfed by the 636,000 pound output of commercial penicillin, long
since produced in crystalline form (22).
To biologists, perhaps the most interesting aspect of the boom in
penicillin was the rapid improvement in mold strains. The first strain used
in this way, known as NRRL 832, was found in the Peoria culture collec-
tion. Its yield of penicillin was about 50 units per ml. The search for new
strains outside the laboratory soon turned up two more of promise, one
from cheese, another from a cantaloupe. While the former at first looked
better, a variant strain was soon recovered from the "cantaloupe" mold,
which gave higher yields and at the same time proved to be highly un-
stable— a "mutator" (10). It was this strain, Penicillium chrysogenum
NRRL 1951. B25, undesirable as it may have appeared, that became the
ancestor of a line of increasingly high yielding strains which have in turn
been used almost exclusively by penicillin producers in this country and
abroad. Spores of 1951. B25 were sent from Peoria to Demerec, geneticist
at the Carnegie Institute, who irradiated them and sent them to Minnesota
University. Here some higher yielding mutants were selected by labora-
tory tests. These were sent to Wisconsin University, whose biochemistry
department was equipped to test cultures in small fermentors. Among
the strains provided by Minnesota University, one outstanding mutant
capable of producing 500 units per ml of penicillin was found (12). The
graduate student who carried out that study was Dr. J. J. Stefaniak, the
present director of our Lilly Tippecanoe Antibiotics and Chemical Manu-
facturing plant at Lafayette (11). This strain, labeled X-1612, was used
as a parent strain in an intensive development program at the University
of Wisconsin. The result was a long series of Penicillium mutants, each
with greater penicillin-producing capacity (12, 13). These have made
possible tremendous gains in penicillin yields, with consequent reduction
of penicillin prices from the original $20 per 100,000 units of crude drug
to a little more than ten cents per 100,000 units of crystalline penicillin
in 1961.
Other Antibiotics
By emphasizing the history of penicillin so greatly, I do not mean
to imply that this was the only antibiotic investigation going on in the
early forties. Dubos had reported in 1939, soon after the Oxford group
began work on penicillin, the discovery of gramicidin, an antibiotic pro-
duced by Bacillus brevis (14). While it has never attained large scale
use, this antibiotic is commercially available, supplied in topical prepa-
rations and medicated gauze. Selman A. Waksman, microbiologist at
Rutgers University, had long been interested in antagonisms shown by
the actinomycetes — a group of soil microorganisms neglected alike by
bacteriologists and mycologists. Discovery of gramicidin and the revival
of penicillin undoubtedly stimulated the pace of Waksman and his grad-
uate students. They announced in 1940 the discovery of actinomycin (15),
unfortunately a toxic substance but certain forms of which have received
attention recently for their antitumor activities. In 1944, Waksman and
Schatz announced the discovery of streptomycin (16), which was highly
254 Indiana Academy of Science
active against the tubercule bacillus. Industrial firms active in the peni-
cillin field quickly extended their studies to streptomycin. The story of
streptomycin is like that of penicillin all over again. By 1946, 3,800
pounds of streptomycin were produced for the treatment of tuberculosis.
In 1954 nearly 500,000 pounds were produced in this country alone. The
royalties have built a magnificent Institute of Microbiology and continue
to help maintain it. Dr. Waksman was recently awarded the Nobel Prize,
largely for his direction of the studies resulting in this antibiotic.
The discovery of penicillin and streptomycin stimulated an increas-
ing volume of effort directed toward the discovery of additional new and
useful antibiotics. As a result chloramphenicol was marketed in 1947, and
this was followed in a single decade by chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline,
erythromycin, neomycin, vancomycin, nystatin, novobiocin, amphotericin,
viomycin, and a score of others. Hundreds of antibiotics have been dis-
covered and described in the literature that have not reached the market.
Many American-discovered antibiotics are manufactured in other countries
along with a few discovered there. With the exception of penicillin, how-
ever, the major antibiotics were discovered and developed in the United
States.
Significant in the search for new chemotherapeutic agents is the
increasing attention being given to the improvement of established anti-
biotics by structure modification. For brevity we shall use penicillin as
an example.
Penicillin was at first thought to be a single substance. Only when
variables were introduced into the nutrition of the mold did it become
apparent that Fleming's mold made more than one kind of penicillin.
With the Oxford synthetic medium it formed chiefly pentenyl penicillin,
or Penicillin F; when the Peoria group enriched synthetic nutrient with
corn steep liquor, benzyl penicillin or penicillin G was predominant (1).
With finer analytical techniques, several other forms were found to be
produced in varying amounts. Of all these, penicillin G became the com-
mercial form because of greater ease of production and its generally
greater effectiveness. It was found quite early that penicillin G yields
could be markedly stimulated by the addition of phenylacetic acid to the
nutrient solution (17).
Success in inducing greater penicillin G production by a precursor
led to research by a team headed by Dr. O. K. Behrens, of Eli Lilly and
Company, to determine whether Penicillhim could be induced, by feeding
it suitable synthetic compounds, to synthesize new forms of penicillin.
The project was most successful, and more than thirty new penicillins
were obtained and characterized by this method (18). One of these, com-
monly known as Penicillin V, was later found to be efficiently abosrbed
by the oral route because of its stability to acid. It has subsequently
attained high repute as an orally administered penicillin.
More recently, British investigators demonstrated that penicillin-
producing molds may also form the body (or nucleus) of the penicillin
molecule, but lacking the accessory group that confers antimicrobial
activity and the characteristics of a particular type of penicillin (19).
By nutrient modifications, this inactive "nucleus," more commonly called
6-aminopenicillanic acid, can be made the predominant product. It was
History op Science 255
an obvious step from this discovery to the isolation of the penicillin
nucleus and the chemical attachment of different groups to it to form
new species of penicillin. Several have now been synthesized which have
promise of significant usefulness. One has the property of stability
against destruction by penicillinase, and consequently is effective against
destruction by penicillinase, and consequently is effective against staphy-
lococcal strains resistant to natural penicillins (20). Another has a
broader antimicrobial spectrum, though without the advantage of stability
to penicillinase (21). Because these "semi-synthetic" penicillins are quite
new, and since in gaining a new desirable property they may lose others
or pick up new undesirable properties, it is too early to assess their true
value. Other instances of useful antibiotic modifications can be cited.
Tetracycline, discovered as a modification of chlortetracycline (aureo-
mycin) is made by two methods: by inducing the aureomycin-producing
organism to form tetracycline, and by chemically modifying aureomycin.
Erythromycin was twice modified, first to the propionyl ester, and then to
the lauryl sulfate salt of propionyl erythromycin, a compound markedly
superior to the parent antibiotic.
A Look Into the Future of Antibiotics
Considering the intensity of the search for new antibiotics over the
last fifteen years, the flow of new discoveries remains surprisingly steady.
One factor that has helped to maintain this pace is the interest created by
new applications for which antibiotics are sought. Where once only
therapeutic agents for human medicine were sought, now diseases of
farm animals, poultry and plants, and the potential use of antibiotics in
improving animal nutrition are considered.
Actidione has long been used for certain fungal diseases of grasses
and fruits, and streptomycin is used to treat a bacterial disease of
orchards. A Japanese antibiotic, blasticidin, looks promising in combat-
ting a serious fungal disease of rice. Penicillin and other antibiotics of
human medicine have long been used for bacterial infections of farm
animals and pets. Hygromycin is used extensively in feed to eliminate
and control round worm infestation of swine. Tylosin, one of the more
recent antibiotics, promises to be a powerful weapon against poultry
respiratory diseases caused by pleuropneumonia-like organisms. A num-
ber of antibiotics have for several years been widely used in feeds to
promote more rapid, economical weight gain in farm animals. It appears
certain that these early successes will sustain continued interest in the
application of new antibiotics to the needs of agriculture.
But are there no new fields to conquer in diseases of man that might
be susceptible to the antibiotic approach? Indeed there are. I have left
them until last because the need is so great; the chances of early success,
so unpredictable. I refer to the virus infections and cancer.
In spite of constant tests against viruses in connection with anti-
biotic screening programs, no effective therapeutic agent for the true
virus infections has yet been found. Knowledge of the intimate inter-
actions between virus and host cell is rapidly accumulating, however.
In time we may be able to make a rational approach to attacking the virus
after it has set up shop in its human host. One hint of possible success is
represented by a substance produced by certain molds, which when admin-
256 Indiana Academy of Science
istered to small animals before exposure to certain viruses, prevents
infection by the virus for several days (23, 24, 25, 26, 27). This is prophy-
laxis rather than cure, but it may be a start toward a new approach to the
suppression of viruses not yet under control — of which there are many.
As for the chances of finding microbial products for the treatment of
cancer, it is too early to do more than speculate. A vast screening program
involving laboratories of private foundations, government-supported lab-
oratories, and our Lilly-supported laboratory, is devoted to the discovery
and development of anti-cancer agents.
The problem is overwhelmingly complex. Cancer is not one disease,
but a large family of diseases with widely different characteristics. In
cancer, the problem is to attack cells for which no significant physiological
differences from normal cells that might cause selective susceptibility to
a drug are yet known.
No general cure for cancer has been found. A number of substances
have found limited therapeutic use and often retard the progress of
some types of cancer for a time. This limited success gives hope that better
agents may be found.
Microbial culture filtrates are found which in small animals and in
tissue culture show antitumor activity. Most of these remain to be purified
and evaluated. We can only hope that some of them will be more effective
than those we have seen thus far.
Literature Cited
1. Plorey, H. W., Chain, M. A., Heatley, N. G., Jennings, M. A., Sanders, A. G.,
Abraham, E. P. and Florey, M. E, 1949. Antibiotics 1 : 1-73.
2. Ibid, 2 : G31-671.
3. Fleming, A. 1929. Brit. J. Exptl. Path. 10 : 226.
4. Chain, E., Florey, H. W., Gardner, A. D., Heatley, N. G., Jennings, M. A., Orr-
Ewing, J. and Sanders, A. G. 1940. Lancet II : 226.
5. Reid, Roger. 1933. J. Bact 25 : 31.
6. Abraham, E. P., Chain, E., Fletcher, C. M., Gardner, A. D., Heatley, N. G.,
Jennings, M. A., and Florey, H. W. 1941. Lancet II : 177.
7. Moyer, A. J. and Coghill, R. D. 1946. J. Bact. 51 : 57.
8. Ibid, 51 : 79.
9. Raper, K. B. and Alexander, D. F. 1945. J. Elisha Mitchell Soc. 61 : 74.
10. Raper, K. B., Alexander, D. F. and Coghill, R, D. 1944. J. Bact. 48 : 639.
11. Johnson, M. J., Stefaniak, J. J., Gailey, F. B. and Olson, B. H. 1946. Science
103 : 504.
12. Raper, K. B. 1952. Mycologia 44 : 1-59.
13. Backus, M. P. and Stauffer, J. F. 1955. Mycologia 47 : 429-463.
14. Dubos, R. J. 1939. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 40 : 311.
15. Waksman, S. A. and Woodruff, II. B. 1940. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 45 : 609.
16. Schatz, A., Bugle, E. and TFaksman, S. A. 1944. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol. Med. 55 :
66.
17. Moyer, A. J. and Coghill, R. D. 1946. J. Bact. 53 : 329.
18. The Chemistry of Penicillin. Princeton Univ. Press. 1949. Chapter IX, pp. 657-679
(by O. K. Behrens, Eli Lilly and Company).
19. Batchelor, F. R., Doyle, F. P., Naylor, J. IL C, and Rolinson, G. N. 1959.
Nature (London) 183:257.
20. Rolinson, G. N., and Batchelor, F. R. et al. 1960. Lancet II : 564.
21. Rolinson, G. N., and Stevens, Shirley. 1961. Brit. Med. J. 5246 (July 22) : 192.
History of Science 257
22. Welch, Henry, in The Impact of the Antibiotics on Medicine and Society, Ed. by
N. Y. Acad. Med., International Universities Press, Inc. 1958, pp. 70-80.
23. Shope, R. E. 1953. J. ExptJ. Med. 97 : 601-626, 627-638, and 639-650.
24. Powell, H. M., Culbertson, C. G., McGuire, J. M., Hoehn, M. M., and Baker, L.
A. 1952. Antibiotics and Chemotherapy 2 : 432.
25. Hull, R. N. and Lavelle, J. M. 1954. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 58 (Art. 7) : 1188.
26. Cochran, K. W„ Brown, G. C. and Francis, T., Jr. 1954. Proc. Soc. Exptl. Biol,
and Med. 85 : 104.
27. Johnson, I. S. and Baker, L. A. 1958. Antibiotics and Chemotherapy 85 : 104.
Biographical Sketches of Indiana Scientists, II
Will E. Edington, DePauw University
RYLAND THOMAS BROWN. Ryland T. Brown was one of the most
influential and colorful scientists in Indiana during the middle decades
of the nineteenth century. He was born on October 5, 1807, in Lewis
County, Kentucky, and died in Indianapolis on May 3, 1890.
The Brown family moved to Clermont County, Ohio, near New Rich-
mond, in 1809. About this same time a colony from Maine settled in this
community and brought with them a teacher, Mark P. Stenchfield, who
conducted a school both winter and summer. Ryland was a frail child,
unable to stand the rigors of that pioneering period, and his under-
standing parents encouraged him to attend school to get a good education.
Stenchfield was a competent teacher and a zealous Baptist who, with
Brown's pious parents, exerted a life lasting influence on the child. The
family moved to Richland, Rush County, Indiana, in 1821 and the next
year at the age of fifteen Ryland joined the Clifty Baptist Church.
In Indiana Brown began living a backwoods life of labor and priva-
tion and served several years as a guide to land hunters. This outdoor
life strengthened him and he became an expert woodsman and a keen
observer and lover of nature. He was an ardent reader and he frequented
the county library that had been established in Rushville.
In 1826 he read a book containing the Campbell- Walker debate on the
pertinence of certain Calvinistic beliefs in Christian doctrine. Alexander
Campbell, founder of the Disciples of Christ sect, objected to the accept-
ance of man-made creeds. Brown was won over and at the age of nineteen
led the movement to reform the Clifty Church group and free it "from the
bondage of human authority." However, the sudden and violent death of
his father, in 1825, from an attack of congestive fever, aroused his interest
in diseases and their remedies. He began a three-year study of medicine
in which for anatomy in part he used a partial skeleton of an Indian
unearthed on his father's farm. He attended the sessions of the Ohio
Medical College, in Cincinnati, from 1827 to 1829 and graduated in the
spring of 1829. (1, 4)
Following his graduation he returned to Rushville and began the
practice of medicine. On his return he found the Rushville Community
in "the throes of religious excitement over 'Campbellism'," and Brown, as
leader of the reform movement, "was arraigned on the very general charge
of being a 'Campbellite' and as such was excluded from the church," that
is, the "Orthodox Calvinistic Baptists." However, some forty members
of the Little Flat Rock Church, a majority, took control and, in 1830,
organized the "Church of Christ at Little Flat Rock." Brown was denied
an opportunity to defend his stand but he did write a letter in March,
1830, that was published in the "Christian Baptist" in which he stated:
"I became convinced that the popular doctrine of a partial atonement,
and unconditional election and reprobation, were alike antichristian and
unscriptural." (1)
Later, in 1848, representatives of the Disciples of Christ met in the
Flat Rock Church to discuss the founding of a college that was chartered
258
History of Science 259
by the State Legislature in 1850 and opened in 1855 in Indianapolis as
Northwestern Christian University, now Butler University.
In October, 1829, Brown married Miss Mary Reeder who was a cousin
to Milton Wright, the father of the Wright Brothers, pioneer airmen. In
1832 the Browns moved to Connersville.
Despite his excommunication by the Baptists, Brown both preached
and practiced medicine with considerable success. He first held church
meetings in the county courthouse and, following a protracted meeting,
he and John O'Kane, another ardent follower of Campbell, organized a
Church of Christ in Connersville in 1833. In the practice of medicine he
formed a partnership with Dr. Philip Mason, who had come to Conners-
ville about 1824, and this partnership lasted several years. He became a
member of the Fifth Medical District Society which at that time had con-
siderable influence on "enlightening its members and preventing irregular
medical practice." (5)
After a few years his health became bad from overwork and he gave
up the active practice of medicine and devoted his time to preaching. He
was also interested in education and he attended a convention in Indian-
apolis on January 2, 1839, for those interested in better common schools.
He preached extensively from 1832 to 1842 throughout the White-
water valley and helped to organize a number of churches. At a State
meeting of the church held in June, 1842, in Connersville, he and three
others were appointed "to labor in word and doctrine 'for the churches in
Indiana'." He spent the next year traveling over the State but lung hem-
orrhages developed and he had to resign. To restore his health he spent
the next year in outdoor manual labor running a sawmill, but he continued
to preach on Sundays. The work in the open air restored his health. (1)
By 1844 treaties had been concluded with all the Indian tribes in
Indiana, most of the Indians had been moved to reservations outside the
State, and two thirds of Federal public lands in the State had been ceded
to the State. There was a general movement of peoples to the north and
Brown, his wife and six children moved to the "Wabash country" in the
spring of 1844 and settled near Wabash which had been laid out in 1834.
He formed a medical partnership with Dr. James Ford of Wabash. There
was much swampy land along the river and Brown's wife and children
became ill from chills, malaria or ague. Brown became disgusted and
through the advice and efforts of his friend, fellow Mason and strong
anti-slavery advocate, Dr. Elizur H. Deming, of Lafayette, he moved to
Crawfordsville where he bought a home on the outskirts with one and a
half acres of ground so that he could garden and keep a cow. He again
began the practice of medicine and resumed his preaching. (3)
This was the low point in his career. At a meeting of the State Agri-
cultural Board in 1878 he related "how he had lost everything about 1840
by going too deeply into debt and he spent the next ten years paying his
debts as well as the debts of those for whom he had gone security."
At Crawfordsville he immediately made use of the Wabash College
library and scientific equipment and got acquainted with the College
faculty. He became deeply interested in the sciences, particularly geology,
260 Indiana Academy of Science
through his association with Professor Edmund O. Hovey, who was a
minister and professor of chemistry and natural science in Wabash Col-
lege. Brown was especially interested in the State's coal and limestone
resources. Wabash College conferred the honorary A.M. degree on him in
1850. (2)
The Wabash Academy of Science was founded in 1844 and Brown
became active in its work. According to its published "Proceedings" for
1854, Brown was then its secretary, treasurer and naturalist. According
to its Constitution the duties of the Naturalist, who must be a resident of
Crawfordville, were to "open and carry on correspondence with scientific
men in different parts, and collect facts and specimens in the various
departments of science, etc." The "Proceedings" closes with the "Report
of the Naturalist of the Wabash Academy of Science." Brown's Report
is eight pages long and is devoted to "Observations on the Topography of
Indiana." (9)
On June 6, 1849, a State Medical Convention was held in Indian-
apolis to organize the Indiana State Medical Society. Brown did not
attend this organization meeting but he was a member of the Society
from its beginning. The Society held its first Meeting in Indianapolis on
May 15, 1850.
Through his Lafayette friend, Dr. Deming, who was trying to secure
the removal of the LaPorte Medical School to Lafayette, Brown, in 1850,
was employed to teach chemistry in a spring course of eight weeks held
in Lafayette. (5)
David Dale Owen made a geological report in two parts, in 1837 and
1838, entitled "Geological Reconnaissance of the State of Indiana," but
nothing came of it until 1849 when Governor Joseph A. Wright reported
to the Legislature the necessity of continuing the work of Owen. The 1850
Legislature took no action except to provide for the organization of a
State Board of Agriculture. This Board was organized in 1851 and ap-
pointed Brown its "Geological Agent." In 1852 the Governor appealed to
the Legislature again, and on January 22, 1852, Brown delivered a lecture
to the legislators in the Hall of the House of Representatives on "The
Geology of Indiana as an Element of Wealth to the State" in which he
pointed out the need for a survey of the geology and mineralogy of the
State in which "the topography of each county should be carefully exam-
ined and accurately marked on the map." He also made a 34-page report
to Governor Wright, of the State Board of Agriculture, published in the
Third Transactions (1853) of the State Agricultural Society, entitled
"Geological Survey of the State of Indiana," in which for the first time
in geological literature attention is called to the Falls of Eel River as a
source of power and the gorges of Turkey Run for their wildness and
scenic beauty, and he also discussed Wyandotte Cave. He stressed the
importance of limestone for building purposes, sidewalks, etc., and he
devoted twelve pages to discussing Indiana's coal resources. In 1852 he
also published essays on "Swamp Lands" and "On the Best Method of
Improving the Soil."
At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the State Board of Agri-
culture on January 7, 1854, "On motion of Gov. Wright, Dr. R. T. Brown
was employed to prosecute a partial geological examination of the State,
History of Science 261
at a salary of $500 per year." An interesting sidelight on this close
cooperation between Governor Wright and Brown is that the Governor
was a Democrat and Brown a Whig. (2)
In the Indiana Agricultural Reports for 1854-5 Brown has three
essays: "On Grasses," "On the Dairy," and "The Soil of Indiana," and
for 1856, a report on "The Manufacturing Capabilities of the Indiana
Coal Field," and an essay on "Analysis of Corn." In carrying out his
work he traveled over the State studying its geological and natural features
and locating the Glacial Moraine across the State. During the years
1856-7 Brown represented the 9th District, composed of Putnam, Hen-
dricks, Montgomery and Boone counties, on the Board of Agriculture.
Despite his other work Brown never lost sight of the evils of slavery
and drunkenness and he lectured against both over the State. A poem
against slavery that he wrote in 1851 may be found on page 1046 of
Dunn's "Indiana and Indianians." Throughout this period he wrote many
articles that appeared in the Indiana School Journal, Ohio Farmer, Chris-
tian Record, Christian Luminary and other periodicals and the news-
papers.
In 1842 a secret society, known as the Sons of Temperance, was organ-
ized in New York and the first lodge in Indiana was chartered at Brook-
ville on November 15, 1845. With the organization of the tenth lodge in
the State at Indianapolis on April 24, 1846, a Grand Lodge was organized
in May, 1846, and "the order was fully launched in the temperance work
in which it was the chief agency in Indiana for the next decade." Within
five years there were 400 lodges in the State and "the Grand Division of
the Sons of Temperance met in 1853, declared for prohibition, elected
Ryland T. Brown Grand Worthy Patriarch, and requested him to canvass
the State for prohibition on the Maine law basis." A State temperance
convention was held in Indianapolis in January, 1854, a State Central
Committee was set up, $12,000 was raised, and following a thoroughly
organized State campaign, a State Prohibition Law was passed by the
Legislature in 1855 and signed by Governor Wright. (8)
In 1858 Brown was elected to the Chair of Natural Science in North-
western Christian University, now Butler University, and he moved his
family to Indianapolis in August, 1858. For the first time in his life he
was a teacher by profession and for the first time, living in the capital
city, he was at the center of the political and educational life of the State.
Shortly before Brown left Crawfordsville the Wabash Academy of
Science at a preliminary meeting called for the purpose resolved to
organize a State-wide association of scientists. At a later meeting held
in Indianapolis the Indiana Association for the Advancement of Science
was founded with Dr. John S. Bobbs as President and Ryland T. Brown
as Secretary. The Association was divided into six sections and definite
plans were made for the first meeting with a program on December 30,
1858. The coming of the Civil War terminated the activities of the Asso-
ciation. (10)
Brown early showed genuine concern for improved educational facili-
ties in the State and attended a convention held in Indianapolis on January
2, 1839, for those interested in better common schools. (8) He frequently
lectured before school groups and was active in the Indiana State Teachers
262 Indiana Academy of Science
Association which was founded in December, 1854. In 1864 Brown was
elected President of the Association.
As a college teacher Brown was primarily interested in chemistry
and geology. Harvey W. Wiley, who was Professor of Latin and Greek
at Northwestern Christian College from 1868 to 1870, got to know Dr.
Brown well and at the 1916 meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science
Dr. Wiley expressed his estimate of Brown as a teacher as follows: "He
was particularly a geologist and taught geology by modern methods. He
was also quite accomplished in the theory of chemistry, though not a
practical analyst." "I joined on more than one occasion his geological
excursions with great pleasure and benefit. He was an interesting speaker
and knew his subject well but only from the didactic and theoretical point
of view." (7) In line with his interest in science and education, Brown
early became a member of the Indiana Historical Society which was
founded on December 11, 1830. (8)
Along with his college duties Brown continued his work with the
State Board of Agriculture. In 1867 he published "An Essay on the
Natural Resources of Indiana." At the request of Lt. Governor Conrad
Baker, Acting Governor, he compiled a pamphlet in 1868 entitled "Indiana
and Her Resources" in which he discussed the position, soil, climate,
waterpower, building material such as stone and clay, coal, iron and
manufacturing facilities of the State. Ten thousand copies were printed
and distributed throughout Pennsylvania and the Eastern States. In
March, 1870, he published a comprehensive series of seven articles in the
Indianapolis Daily Journal on "The Indiana Coal Field," based on his
long study of the State's coal resources. (2)
At the earnest solicitation of Brown and the leading members of the
State Board of Agriculture, the Legislature on March 7, 1869, passed an
Act authorizing a Department of Geology and Natural Science in con-
nection with the State Board of Agriculture. Governor Baker appointed
Edward T. Cox to the office of State Geologist on March 22, 1869. (2)
Also in 1869 the Indiana Medical College was organized in Indian-
apolis and Brown, although still on the Faculty at Northwestern Chris-
tian College, was selected to teach chemistry. (3, 8)
Following the close of the Civil War, scientists in Indiana again
began discussing the organization of a scientific society. Edward T. Cox,
State Geologist, led the movement which culminated in the founding of
the Indianapolis Academy of Sciences on December 30, 1870, with Cox as
President and Brown signing the Constitution as a charter member. This
organization lasted only a few years. (11)
After thirteen years of service at Northwestern Christian University
Brown resigned in 1871 to accept appointment as Chemist-in-Chief of the
Department of Agriculture in Washington, D. C. However, he disliked
the confinement of office work and resigned in 1873 and returned to Indian-
apolis. According to Smart (4), he was appointed Professor of Physiology
in Indiana Medical College which, in 1871, had affiliated with Indiana
University as its Medical Department. This affiliation continued until
1876. Indiana Medical College continued in operation and over the years
affiliated or merged with several different medical organizations, and was
affiliated at different times with Butler and Purdue Universities, until
History of Science 263
finally in 1908 it united with the Indiana University Medical School.
Brown was still on its staff in 1876 and he had also resumed his medical
practice and preaching following' his return to Indianapolis in 1873.
During the period he was in Washington he wrote and published in 1872
Brown's Physiology which was a textbook used in Indiana schools.
Brown was appointed head of the ''Forestry Display" in the Cen-
tennial Exposition held in 1876 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. John L.
Campbell of Wabash College was Secretary of the U. S. Centennial Com-
mission from 1875 to 1878.
Although Brown was influential in securing the legislative action
that created the office of State Geologist, rather strangely he did little or
no State geology work during the ten year tenure of Edward T. Cox.
However, under Cox's successor, John Collett, State Geologist from 1879
to 1885, and Maurice Thompson, State Geologist from 1885 to 1888, he
made a number of county geological surveys and his reports are pub-
lished in the Reports of the State Geologist. His first report, "Trees and
Shrubs of Fountain County," was done in 1881 and he lists 74 trees and
shrubs. He reported on Marion County in 1882, Morgan County in 1883,
and in 1884 besides his report: "Geological and Topographical Surveys of
Hamilton and Madison Counties," he also had an essay on "Fish Culture
in Indiana." Under Maurice Thompson he worked in Hancock County
and his report was published in 1886. This apparently completed his
geological work.
In 1885 when Amos Butler was canvassing scientists in the State as
to founding a State-wide scientific society he received the following reply
from Ryland T. Brown, written on September 26, 1885, on the "Indiana
Farmer" stationery:
"Your circular was received this morning, and I hasten to reply.
"In 1849 we organized the Wabash Academy of Science at Wabash
College (Crawfordsville), and it continued in successful operation till
1856 when it was consolidated with a State organization, the title of which
I do not remember. This organization, together with the State Historical
Society, died in 1861, of war excitement. Subsequently we organized the
Indiana Archeological Society, for the investigation of prehistoric remains
and the collection of relics. This suspended in 1873, and at present there
is a clear field for a "State Academy of Science" and I favor a call of
Scientists for the purpose of effecting such an organization about Tues-
day, December 29th, 1885. Respectfully and truly yours, R. T. Brown."
This letter is in the Archives Division of the Indiana State Library
and the above copy was sent to me by Miss Nelle Coats.
Both "The American Naturalist" and "The Indiana Pharmacist" for
1886 report on the first meeting of the Indiana Academy of Science,
December 29, 1885, and state that R. T. Brown gave a report on Indiana
Geology and "The Indiana Pharmacist" also quotes from his report.
Brown was 78 years old at this time and was probably the oldest in years
of the Academy's Charter Members, being at least two years older than
Richard Owen and T. A. Wiley.
Brown was active almost to the day of his death, being "employed in
an editorial capacity on an agricultural paper" and writing "on scientific
subjects apropos to farming, more especially grains and fruits for which
he had always a deep interest and a profound knowledge." (3)
264 Indiana Academy of Science
Physically Brown was of medium stature and slight physique, weigh-
ing about 145 pounds, a homely man with keen blue eyes and red hair and
beard which became totally white by the time he was forty. He possessed
a "nervous-sanguine" temperament, and was quick of movement and an
intensive and indefatigable worker. Frank and brusque, but not ill-
tempered or unkindly, he possessed an indomitable will and a clear, logical
and practical mind. He was the kind of man one remembered. (1, 3)
Edward Barrett, State Geologist from 1911 to 1918, rated Brown as "one
of the ablest all-round scientists that Indiana ever had" and ranks him
with David Dale Owen and Edward T. Cox "in establishing the founda-
tions of geological science in Indiana." (8) Dr. William B. Fletcher,
Superintendent of the Indiana Hospital for the Insane from 1883 to 1888,
stated that Dr. Brown believed in the germ theory of disease long before
it was proved. (3) For a man who worked under the constant threat of
tuberculosis Ryland T. Brown undoubtedly had a remarkable record of
accomplishment as a churchman, educator and scientist.
In the last week of April, 1890, Dr. Brown became ill with "the grip"
and died at his home in Indianapolis on May 3, at the age of 82 years.
Literature Cited
1. Madison Evans : Biographical Sketches of Pioneer Preachers of Indiana, 1862,
pp. 300-314. Lithograph of Brown at about age of fifty, opposite p. 300.
2. W. W. Clayton : Illustrated Historical Atlas, State of Indiana, 1876, p. 214.
.'!. Caroline Brown : Dr. Ryland Thomas Brown. Indiana Magazine of History, Vol.
23, 1927, pp. 92-106.
4. James H. Smart, Editor : The Schools of Indiana, 1876, pp. 89, 90.
5. W. H. Kemper : A Medical History of Indiana, 1911, pp. 33, 41. r,4, 116, 117.
6. W. S. Blatchley : A Century of Geology in Indiana, Proceedings of the Indiana
Academy of Science for 1916, pp. 89-177.
7. II. W. Wiley : The Early History of Chemistry in Indiana. Proceedings of the
Indiana Academy of Science for 1916, pp. 178-185.
8. J. P. Dunn: Indiana and Indianians, 1919, Vol. II, pp. 884-886. 1044-46. Photo-
graph of Brown, Vol. II, p. 1045.
9. Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Session of the Wabash Academy of Science,
July 19, 1854. In the Indiana State Library.
10. Indiana School Journal, Vol. Ill, Nov., 1858, pp. 339-341.
11. Transactions of the Indianapolis Academy of Sciences, 1872. See Proc. Ind. Acad,
of Science for 1934, Vol. 44, pp. 26-27.
12. History of Montgomery County. A. W. Bowen & Co.. Vol. II, pp. 905-910.
13. Goodrich and Tuttle : History of the State of Indiana, 1876. Contains etching of
Brown, p. 239.
Geographic Influences, Changes in Bloomington, Indiana
Stephen S. Visher, Indiana University
The widespread disagreement as to the importance of environmental
factors reflects inadequate recognition that as man's technology evolves
and as other areas develop, radical changes often occur in the significance
of local environmental factors. One consequence of the fact that the
human factor is in the long run far more significant in cultural develop-
ment than are geographic factors in nearly all well-populated parts of the
world is that historians have almost ignored them. Even voluminous
accounts of the history of Indiana have very little on the geographic
environment. Histories of arid regions, or of rugged or cold regions or
even of coastal regions cannot so fully ignore geographic influences, and
of course accounts of battles and wars pay attention to the terrain, and
sometimes to the weather. A major objective of this paper is to call
attention to the fact that at different times specified environmental factors
have been highly significant even in inland, peaceful Indiana, and surely
should not be ignored in studies of local history. The need for repeated
evaluation of their significance can be illustrated by a study of Bloom-
ington. Contributing to Bloomington's suitability for this purpose are its
university, its moderate size, and its considerable variety of environmental
factors.
Here are discussed the changing significance of Bloomington's loca-
tion in the state, of its rolling topography, of its site on a drainage divide
in a depression between more rugged land, of its being underlain by an
exceptional limestone, and of its situation in a wooded, unglaciated area.
Considered also are its accessibility, quality of the soil, feasibility of dams
to create reservoirs, and its attractiveness as a residence city.
Bloomington was established where it is largely because of the selec-
tion of the site for the "Seminary township." The Federal Government
provided in the enabling act that created Indiana for a donation of a
township of public land in support of an institution of higher learning.1
The seminary established in that township in 1824 has grown into Indiana
University. The committee appointed to select the township made its
recommendation in time for President Monroe to designate it on July
10, 1816.2 The county created two years later including and surrounding-
it was named after President Monroe. The township later was named
after Commodore Perry.3
The selected township was near the northern margin of the part of
Indiana which had been surveyed in 1812 into townships and sections.4
Nearly all of central and northern Indiana remained Indian territory
until 1818, when "The New Purchase" was made of much of that region/'
The selected township was nearly midway between the northern parts of
the lower Wabash Valley, at the southwest, and of the Whitewater Valley
at the southeast. In July, 1816, most of the people of Indiana lived in or
near those valleys, south from near Terre Haute and Richmond respec-
tively, or else near the Ohio River at the south,0 partly because those
rivers were then the chief highways of travel.7 The selected township is
about 20 miles west of the middle longitude of Indiana. South-central
Indiana is mostly rather rugged partly because it was not glaciated.8
265
266 Indiana Academy of Science
However, in the midst of this generally hilly region is a broad shallow
depression or valley, the so-called Limestone Belt, which extends from
near Louisville, Ky., north-northwestward to beyond Bloomington.9 More-
over, this Limestone Belt is generally well-drained and has many large
springs, fed by underground streams, the most famous of which is Lost
River, which emerges near French Lick.
The township selected them had no settlers, while more southern
townships already had at least a few, and hence were not all federal land.10
Promptly after the township was set aside in support of a state
institution of higher learning, Bloomington was started just north therof.11
Although the actual site of the "seminary" was not fully determined until
1820,12 its probable location was evident in 1816 when Bloomington's first
settlers came, because the most favorable site in the designated township
was by a large spring on a slight elevation in a valley believed not to be
subject to flooding, a quarter mile from the center of Bloomington. Monroe
County was organized early in 1818, with Bloomington as its county seat.13
The town was plotted in April, 1818, and the first lots were soon sold by
auction, some of them at the surprisingly high price of $200 a lot.14 The
prospectus of the auction, published in newspapers of Vincennes, Louis-
ville, and Cincinnati, listed among the advantages of the townsite that it
had many fine springs, that the soil was fertile, and that it was at the
head of navigation on Clear Creek down which flatboats could descend
via Salt Creek, and the White, Wabash, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers.15
Bloomington was established on the northern margin of the "Seminary
township" because on the other margins the land is distinctly more rugged.10
Another advantage of the site in the flatboat era was that five miles north
is Bean Blossom Creek which flows into the West Fork of the White River,
affording additional flatboat possibilities. Indeed during several years in
the 1830's and 1840's, as many as a dozen flatboats which were loaded on
Bean Blossom Creek near Bloomington descended to the Wabash, Ohio,
and Mississippi rivers.17
Hence, at first locational factors were of prime significance. However,
soon Bloomington ceased to be near the center of the State's population,
which center has moved farther away each decade, stimulated, for example,
by the establishment of the State Capitol at Indianapolis near the center
of the state in 1825,18 and the construction of the National Road from
Richmond to Terre Haute soon thereafter,11' and the Michigan Road, from
Indianapolis to Michigan City.20 Important also was the conspicuous
increase in the usefulness of central Indiana, much of which had been of
little value because of poor drainage.21 Also, Bloomington's situation as
to navigation became much less significant as roads were constructed, and
became unimportant when railways appeared. Bloomington's location in
the shallow depression of the Limestone Belt became increasingly signifi-
cant for a time as settlers came by the thousands along this route from
Kentucky, the Carolinas, and elsewhere. After a railway was constructed
from Louisville to the northern end of the Belt in 1853 and thence to
Chicago in 1854,22 many additional people travelled this route, and much
freight. But later, after railways became numerous, and good roads were
constructed in many parts of the state, the transportational significance
of the Limestone Belt declined. At present no national road follows it, nor
is it followed by an airplane route, and only locally by a pipeline. Thus a
History of Science 267
belt which during a few decades had been exceptionally favorable for
transportation chiefly because of its less than average ruggedness and its
possession of few streams which were difficult to cross (the latter due
largely to the underground drainage in the soluble limestone) became far
less significant.
Bloomington's location on a drainage divide had distinct advantages
in early years partly because divides are seldom subject to floods. Divides
were favored sites for early roads also because they entail fewer stream-
crossings, which were difficult before there were bridges or ferries.23 An
early road followed the divide near Bloomington, as does the town's second
railway.21 Situation on the divide long facilitated storm-water drainage
and sewage disposal, but when the city expanded onto the north slope, as
it has recently, much sewage has to be pumped over the divide before it
can flow to the city's sewage disposal plant. Location on the divide also
became a handicap when Bloomington's water supply had to be pumped
from reservoirs located at a notably lower altitude (about 230 feet).
The forest which originally occupied the Bloomington area retarded
its development because laborious land-clearing was necessary before
crops could be grown, and Bloomington long depended primarily upon
agriculture. Some of the trees removed were useful for fuel, building
materials or fencing, but most of them had so little value in the early
years that they were burned. During the second half -century of Bloom-
ington's history, however, much furniture was manufactured largely from
local supplies of hardwoods. For several years in the 1920's, a Blooming-
ton furniture factory was reputed to be the largest in the nation. It then
sold most of its output to Sears, Roebuck and Co. When local supplies of
suitable lumber were nearly depleted, by 1930, the increasing costs asso-
ciated with importing lumber contributed to the withdrawal of Sears,
Roebuck and to a sharp decline in the local furniture industry.
The soils of the Bloomington area generally were productive when
first farmed, but in this rather hilly, unglaciated area, most upland soils
soon deteriorate badly, partly because even during the cooler months,
torrential rains often fall. In recent decades little of the upland has been
farmed; much is pastured or abandoned to brush, and hence local crop-
growing has contributed relatively little to the support of Bloomington,
possibly less than five percent. The decline in local agriculture reflects
also the great increase in agricultural production in other areas, for
example in relatively level central Indiana, in the prairies, and in the
Great Plains.
The limestone upon which Bloomington rests was little used during
the town's first half century, but soon thereafter it became significant.
This followed the discovery of methods which take advantage of the
relative ease whereby it can be sawed and grooved. Important also was
the availability of large amounts of stone which possess comparable
qualities. From about 1900 to 1933 limestone played a highly significant
role, as then the Bloomington-Bedford area was the world's largest pro-
ducer of cut building stone. During recent years, however, the stone
industry has declined as a result of increased competition of artificial
substitutes, increased labor and transportation costs, and partial deple-
tion. Whereas about 1925 perhaps a fifth of Bloomington's income flowed
268 Indiana Academy of Science
from stone quarries and mills, in recent years less than five percent has
come thence.26
Bloomington's location on soluble limestone has played a significant
role but a varying one. During early years, one of the assets stressed by
promoters was the numerous springs; but as the area became settled, the
springs fed by rain which entered sinkholes at higher levels became con-
taminated, and for decades Bloomington had a relatively high death-rate
from typhoid.27 Moreover, because of the cavernous limestone, no safe
water was obtainable from wells in the limestone. Below the limestone,
the strata contain little water, and that is mostly bitter or saline.28
Furthermore, leaks soon developed after dams were constructed. The
city erected a series of dams at increasing distances southwest in 1894,
1907, 1909, and 1915, each to take advantage of a large spring and a very
small natural lake. But each reservoir soon leaked when the increased
water pressure cleared the accumulated mud from some solution opening
in the cavernous limestone.2S The water famine became severe enough in
especially dry seasons to induce State-wide consideration of moving the
University to another city.20 Moreover, the only industries which could
prosper were those that required little water, notably furniture, basket-
making, quarrying and stone-cutting, and, recently radio and electronic
equipment. Fortunately for Bloomington, the Limestone Belt's eastern
margin is only a short distance east of the city, and reservoirs constructed
in the shale beyond the limestone do not leak. The first reservoir there was
built by the University in 1910. The city constructed a sizable reservoir
nearby in 1924, and notably increased the dam's height in 1940. In 1953
a dam located a dozen miles northeast across Bean Blossom Creek forms
a reservoir large enough to supply the city's need for a long time.
Bloomington's attractiveness for residence has also fluctuated. In
early years, its being well-drained made it considerably more attractive
than most of the State, a large share of which was poorly-drained and
rendered unhealthful partly by malaria and partly by a common herb in
wet land, the water hemlock or white snakeroot, which caused many deaths
by poisoning the milk of cows which ate it.80 Later, after extensive ditch
and tile drainage, the virtual extermination of malaria, and the building
of many bridges, the level land of central Indiana and elsewhere increased
greatly in value and attractiveness for residence, while sloping land
deteriorated as a result of soil erosion. Hence until relatively recently, the
fact that Bloomington is in a rolling-to-rugged area was increasingly
unfavorable.
Recently, however, Bloomington's site has been rendered increasingly
attractive for residence by three developments, first by the great growth
of the University, which for many years was tiny but recently has
attracted many thousands of students and numerous faculty members,
service personnel and others. The money brought into Bloomington annu-
ally now as a result of the University is many times as much as from all
other sources combined except its two largest industries. Its largest
present industry, electronics, grew up there because its talented founder
(an immigrant) heartily appreciated Bloomington's recreational and edu-
cational opportunities. He also was attracted by the scenic beauty of the
rolling landscape, with its exceptionally fine autumn and spring-time
History of Science 269
colors. The recreational attractiveness has been increased recently by the
creation of several nearby artificial lakes and recreational areas, includ-
ing two state parks and two state forest parks, and the construction of
several excellent state highways. Bloomington's residential attractive-
ness also has been increased by the apparent solution of the long-trouble-
some water-supply problem. The taking over by the Radio Corporation of
America of a huge building unused when the furniture industry collapsed
(when Sears, Roebuck withdrew) has also contributed by affording many
positions, especially for women. At present Bloomington is reputed to
have in that building the largest color TV factory in the world.
In brief, it is apparent that environmental factors fluctuate in sig-
nificance. In Bloomington's beginning, locational factors were predomi-
nant; their significance, and that of soil, forest, and underlying rock have
declined; topography has increased in importance; climate, favorable
most of the year, has become notably less significant; drouths have been
partly counteracted by adequate water-supply reservoirs; air-condition-
ing has alleviated the hot spells, and furnace heating the cold spells. The
damage done by the frequent torrential rainfalls has been decreased by
storm-sewers, paving, and by the use of most sloping land for grass or
trees rather than for tilled crops.
Literature Cited
1. David D. Banta. "History of Indiana University," in Centennial Memorial Volume
(Indiana University, Bloomington, 1921), 11, 12. Judge Banta, dean of the I. U.
Law School, 1889-1896, was the author of a respected history of Johnson County,
1867. By a Congressional Act of 1804, a township was donated to the Vincennes
District of Indiana Territory for support of an institution of higher learning. It
was located by Secretary of the Treasury AJbert Gallatin in Gibson County in 1806,
and was appropriated by the territorial legislature to Vincennes University, which
was established in Nov. 1806. It opened in 1810 but was closed for years following
1825. John D. Barnhart and Donald F. Carmony, Indiana From Frontier to Indus-
trial Commonwealth. (2 vols., Lewis Historical Co., Inc., New York, 1954), 1, 271.
2. Banta, "History of Indiana University," 12.
3. Weston Goodspead, "Monroe County," 294 pp. of Chas. Blanchard (ed), Counties
of Morgan, Monroe and Brown, Indiana. (F. A. Battey & Co., Chicago, 1884), 374.
Included is a description of Bloomington of 1883.
4. Banta, 12. George Pence and Nellie C. Armstrong, Indiana Boundaries, Territory,
State, and County. (Indianapolis, 1933), 601 ; this in vol. XIX of the Indiana His-
torical Publications.
5. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana, 1, 164. Baynard R. Hall, the first professor in
the predecessor of Indiana University, wrote of the Bloomington area as he knew
it, 1824-1832, in The New Purchase, or Seven and a Half Years in the Far West.
The 1843 Philadelphia (Appleton) edition was reprinted, edited by J. A. Woodburn
(Princeton University Press, 1916). A concise description of Bloomington of 1849
is in Indiana Gazetteer (Indianapolis, 1850). (This is a third edition of John
Scott's Gazetteer (Centreville, 1826) which gives very little about Bloomington
and that partly erroneous. David Starr Jordan tells considerable about Blooming-
ton as he knew it as professor and president 1879-1891 in Days of a Man (2 vols.
World Book Co., New York, 1922).
6. Banta, 12. Logan Esarey, A History of Indiana (2 vols. Ft. Wayne, 1924), I, 243-
245. (The first edition was 1914 ; this 1924 edition is slightly altered therefrom.)
7. Harlow Lindley (ed), Indiana as seen by early travellers; . . . prior to 1830.
(Indianapolis, 1916), passim; this is Vol. Ill, Indiana Historical Collections: R.
Carlye Buley, The Old Northwest; Pioneer Period 1815-1840, (2 vols., Indiana
Historical Society, Indianapolis, 1950), passim. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana,
1, 280-284.
270 Indiana Academy of Science
8. S. S. Visher, Economic Geography of Indiana (New York, 1923), 17-24. idem,
"Regionalization of Indiana," Association of America Geographers, Annals, 38
(1948), 282-300.
9. Clyde A. Malott, "Physiography of Indiana," and S. S. Visher, "Geography of
Indiana", Pts. 2 and 1 of Handbook of Indiana Geology (Indiana Department of
Conservation, Indianapolis, 1922), passim.
10. Banta, 14 : Goodspeed, 451.
11. Goodspeed, 453-455. Banta, 14 ; also History of Lawrence and Monroe County,
Indiana, (author not mentioned although small sections are accredited to named
individuals) (B. F. Bowen & Co., Inc., Indianapolis, 1914), 369. This volume
briefly describes Bloomington of 1913, Baskin. Forster and Co. (Chicago, 1876)
Historical Atlas of Indiana presents a brief description of Bloomington of 1875
and something of its earlier history. A valuable aspect of this atlas are plats of
towns, and somewhat detailed maps of townships and counties.
12. Banta, 18.
13. Pence and Armstrong, 600.
14. Goodspeed, 455.
15. Bowen, 369.
16. This is clearly revealed by the U. S. Geological Survey topographic map, Bloom-
ington Quadrangle.
17. Goodspeed, 491.
18. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana, 1, 171, 191-193.
19. Lee Burns, "The National Road in Indiana," Indiana Historical Society Publica-
tions, VII (1923), summarized in Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana, 1, 289, 290.
20. Barnhart and Carmony, 1, 292-293.
21. Lindley, op. cit. ; Richard L. Powers, "Wetlands and the Hoosier Stereotype,"
Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 22 (1935), 33-48, idem "The Hoosier as an
American Folk-type." Indiana Magazine of History, (Bloomington. 1905), 38
(1942), 107-122.
22. Thomas Carter Perring, in Bowen, (cited in footnote 11), 448.
23. George Wilson, "Early Indiana Trails," Indiana Historical Society Publication*,
VI (1919), 347-457.
24. The Illinois Central R. R. was built through Bloomington in 1906. Perring, op. cit.,
453.
25. S. S. Visher, "Climate of Bloomington," Chapter 26 of Climate of Indiana (Indi-
ana University, 1944), 215-253, 466-467.
26. S. S. Visher, "The Indiana Oolitic Limestone Industry," Economic Geograpy, VII
(1931), 50-58. Joseph A. Batchelor, Economic History of the Indiana Oolitic Lime-
stone Industry (Indiana University School of Business, Bloomington, 1944)
27. S. S. Visher, "Geographic Variations in Deathrates in Indiana." Indiana Academy
of Science Proceedings 33 : (1925) 55-61, 34 : 154-156 ; 44 : (1934) 168-173.
28. J. W. Beede, "Geology of the Bloomington Quadrangle." 39th Indiana Geological
Report (Indianapolis, 1915) 190-312.
29. Information on Bloomington's water supply problems has been assembled from
official unpublished and newspaper reports by students who wrote term papers or
masters theses under my supervision : Paul S. Visher, 1941 ; Eldon Jann, 1942 ;
Don Rothrock, 1951 ; and Harry Taylor, 1955.
30. Don E. Bloodgood, "Early Health Conditions in Indiana," Indiana Academy of
Science Proceedings, 61 (1952), 252-260.
Some Scientific Expeditions to the Southeastern United States
Taken by David Starr Jordan
Fay Kenoyer Daily,1 Butler University
In 1874, David Starr Jordan came to Indianapolis to teach at the
Indianapolis High School (now Shortridge High School) and in the
summer of 1875 "accompanied by a young engineer named Harper from
Purdue" (7, p. 178) went to teach the local flora to a group of young
geologists at Camp Harvard Summer School of Geology in Cumberland
Gap, Tennessee, a natural passage through the mountains. The tents of
the school were pitched where an artillery camp once stood and battle-
ments and marks of the recent Civil War were quite evident in the region.
The alpine grandeur of the area offered beauty as well as interesting
material for natural history study.
During his stay at Cumberland Gap, Jordan was elected to the pro-
fessorship in Biology in the Northwestern Christian University (now
Butler University). When he returned there in the fall, one of his first
duties was to transfer collections and apparatus on a dray from the College
Avenue location to the new site in Irvington.
The position that he left at the Indianapolis High School was filled
by a former school associate at Cornell University, Herbert Copeland,
with whom he lived from 1875-1876. They resumed joint studies begun at
Cornell and during the course of a year and one-half they worked on three
projects: study of the life history of the Johnny Darters, the Ethiosto-
midae; identification of fishes described from the falls of Ohio by Con-
stantine Rafinesque; and a catalogue of the fresh water fishes of the
United States.
The association with Copeland ended tragically with Copeland's death
when he fell into White Itiver in January, 1877, and died of exposure
shortly thereafter. Copeland's position at Indianapolis High School was
filled by Alembert W. Brayton, who had been another associate of Jor-
dan's at Cornell.
In the summer of 1876 on a trip to Georgia to study the fish fauna,
Jordan was accompanied by his wife and Charles H. Gilbert who had
been a student of his at Indianapolis High School and was now at North-
western Christian University (Butler). Jordan's Manual of the Verte-
brates arrived just as he was leaving home. The party went through
Livingston, Ky., and by way of Lookout Mountain, establishing head-
quarters at Rome, Georgia, at the junction of the red waters of the
Etowah River and clear Oostenaula River flowing from the Missionary
Ridge on the north. They stayed at Rome for a month, then traveled to the
Chattahoochee River and through Atlanta passing the Ocmulgee River
Basin to the southeast.
The results of this expedition are embodied in The Fishes of Upper
Georgia (3) which is a monographic review of the local fish fauna. Speci-
mens were deposited in the Museum of Butler University where at least
some of the preserved collections from that region are still located.
1. The author wishes to thank Dr. Will E. Edington for suggesting this subject
and aid in obtaining material, as well as Miss Mildred Campbell ; Dr. Richard Starr ;
Dr. Lee Brayton, grandson of Alembert Brayton ; Dr. Nathan Pearson and Dr. Albert
Mock for their aid.
271
272 Indiana Academy of Science
In August, 1877, Jordan again set out on a summer exploration of the
south, this time with a larger party which met at Morristown, Tennessee.
Jordan and William Russell Dudley (another former associate at Cornell)
came from the east where Jordan had visited the Smithsonian Institution.
This summer trip was under the auspices of the United States Fish Com-
mission (2, p. 25). Jordan and Dudley were joined at Morristown by
Alembert Brayton; Charles Gilbert; Jordan's cousin, Edward Ely; John
H. Oliver; and Wade Ritter, all students at Butler. They had walked from
Rock Castle River, past Cumberland Gap, Tennessee, to Morristown.
Above Morristown, the party walked up the French Broad River, through
the beautiful Great Smokies to Asheville, North Carolina. They then
followed the Swannanoa to its source and climbed Mount Mitchell, North
Carolina, the highest mountain east of the Rockies. In Jordan's words
(7, p. 162), "This wild rough mass locally known as Black Mountain,
beset with balsam firs, soft moss, and many subalpine plants rises 6,711
feet above tidewater ... On its towering summit under an overhanging
rock, we passed the night." They then explored rivers around Greenville,
South Carolina, and Spartanburg, and westward to Atlanta, Georgia.
In Atlanta, they visited Alexander H. Stephens, late Vice-President
of the Confederate States, who entertained them with interesting remi-
niscences.
From there they journeyed to Rome, Georgia, and moved on to
examine fishes of the Chickamauga River at Ringgold, Georgia, thus
ending this long summer trip in the south. The many collections taken this
summer were described by D. S. Jordan and Alembert W. Brayton in a
bulletin of the U. S. National Museum in 1878 (4), and types of the new
species were placed in the U. S. National Museum in Washington. Some
specimens were placed at Butler.
This 1877 expedition was summed up by a ^Harper's Magazine article
(8, p. 508) on summer schools in this way, "One of the most successful
from the scientific point of view as well as one of the most ubiquitous of
the schools of last summer was that connected with Butler University of
Irvington, Ind. It was composed of a dozen professors and students and
in the course of its eight weeks session, its members traveled over a thou-
sand miles by rail and three hundred miles by foot. It . . . embraced the
most picturesque scenery of the central Southern States. The mountains
and caves of Cumberland Gap, the gorges, cliffs and Niagara-like rapids
of the French Broad, the valley of the Swannanoa with its magnificent
white laurels, the rugged grandeur of the Black Mountains and the falls
of the Toccoa as well as the glen and cataracts of the Tallulah formed a
series of the most sublime and beautiful views of mountain and river
scenery. . . . But the athletic and social element as well as the aesthetic
was more cultivated by the members of the expedition than is usual among
schools of its peripatetic type. A base-ball club was organized which was
wont to consider itself worthy to meet any nine in the Gulf States. Along
the line of march, too, the frolicsome enthusiasm of the party found a
vent, and its lagging footsteps were often quickened by its song:
We're a band of jolly brothers
From the Hoosier state we come
And we're known through Northern Georgia
For our wisdom, wit and fun.
History of Science 273
The scientific results of the expedition are, however, as valuable as
the trip was delightful. Collections from the flora of the regions traversed
were made and specimens illustrative of several departments of geology
and zoology were gathered. . . ."
In the summer of 1878, Jordan made another expedition to the south
with still a larger group of companions. Alembert Brayton; Charles
Gilbert; Barton Evermann, who later had a long-standing scientific rela-
tionship with Jordan; Evermann's wife; Miss Clapp, a former acquaint-
ance at the school at Penikese; Charles Merrill, later a partner in the
Indianapolis publishing firm of Bobbs-Merrill; Charles Moore, a cousin
of Charles Merrill; Horace G. Smith and others were included.
An announcement by Jordan in the American Naturalist (5, pp. 412-
413) describes the proposed trip thus: "Butler University Scientific Expe-
dition and Summer Tramp will leave Indianapolis June 20 going by rail
to Livingston, Ky., and then by foot via Rock Castle River, Wild Cat
Mountain, Cumberland Gap and Clinch Gap to Morristown, Tennessee,
exploring caves and seining the rivers, thence up the Big Pigeon River
over the Great Smoky and great Balsoni Mountains, summit higher than
the White Mountains and far more beautiful and wild; thence over the
mountains of Chilhowee, over the Nantahala, up the Little Tennessee
River to the Estatoah Falls, through Rabun Gap to the Tallulah Falls,
the wildest and most beautiful cascades east of the Rocky Mountains. At
Toccoa Falls, Georgia (about July 17th) the party will divide, a portion
marching through Georgia to collect fishes, the other remaining in the
mountains returning as they please. Objects: natural history, health and
scenery. Full instructions in Field Geology, Zoology and Botany. The two
previous trips have been eminently successful, forty species of animals
new to science having been obtained. For account of the last see Harper's
Magazine for March. Tuition $15.00. Board $1.00 per day (average). Total
expenses about $70.00. Eastern students join at Morristown. Address
Prof. D. S. Jordan, A. W. Brayton, C. H. Gilbert, Directors, Irvington,
Indiana."
The wild beauty of this trip is also described dramatically and poeti-
cally in Jordan's Days of a Man (7, pp. 165-172). He speaks of the moun-
tain wall of the Blue Ridge "particularly delightful because of its out-
cropping white quartzite set against the 'piney woods' and for its heavy
growth of Rhododendron, Azalea and Kalmia . . ." Then he says, "On the
road we straggled along in groups, the party in advance marking every
fork with a branch of Rhododendron flowers, and so laying out the Rhodo-
dendron Trail. This precaution was constantly necessary in a region where
all paths diverge and very few lead anywhere in particular. Most of them
in fact were like Thoreau's 'Old Marlborough Road/ merely a direction
out there, a bare possibility of going somewhere, finally dwindling to a
squirrel track and running up a tree." The falls, chasms, cascades and
lacelike spray were of breathtaking beauty.
Of the instruction, Jordan says (7, p. 169), "In the evening, settling
in front of a little mountain cabin, Brayton, Gilbert and I would give a
talk on some phase of the natural history of a region we had that day
passed over. The Botany was always interesting and the Geology usually
so. These discussions were much appreciated and Evermann insists that
274 Indiana Academy of Science
he learned more science from me on the road than in my laboratory from
which he took his doctor's degree."
Gilbert, Brayton, the Evermanns and Miss Clapp left the others at
Toccoa City and went on with Jordan to Beufort, North Carolina, where
they stayed about a month studying fishes. Beufort is represented among
the fish specimens at Butler University Museum. Jordan finally finished
the summer's trip at the Smithsonian Institution. Jordan's Notes on the
Fishes of Beufort Harbor was published in 1879 (6).
The academic year, 1878-1879, was Jordan's last at Butler Univer-
sity, when he left for a position at Indiana University, but he later recalled
the summer tramps taken between spring and fall teaching assignments
in Indianapolis as the beginning of his exploration for fish inhabitants of
the United States, and which were to lead him to carry his explorations
over half the earth (1, p. 136).
Literature Cited
1. Dye, Charity. 1917. Some torch-bearers in Indiana, pp. 1-327. Hollenbeck Press.
Indianapolis.
2. Inlow, William D. Mar., 1960. Indiana physician as geologist and naturalist. Ind.
Mag. of Hist. LVI (1) : 1-35.
3. Joedan, D. S. June 1, 1877. A partial synopsis of the fishes of upper Georgia with
supplementary papers on fishes of Tennessee, Kentucky and Indiana. Ann. of N. Y.
Lyceum of Nat. Hist. XL : 307-377. Salem Press.
4. and Alembert W. Brayton. 1S78. Contributions to the North Ameri-
can Ichthyology. Papeer 3A. On distribution of fishes of the Alleghany Region of
South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee with descriptions of new or little known
species. Bui. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 12. pp. 1-95.
5. — . 1S78. Announcement of scientific expedition and summer tramp.
Amer. Nat. XII : 412-413.
6. and Charles Gilbert. 1879. Notes on fishes of Beufort Harbor, N. C.
U. S. Nat. Hist. Proc. 1(55) : 365-388 (for 1878).
7. . 1922. The days of a man, being memories of a naturalist, teacher
and minor prophet of democracy. Vol. 1. World Book Co.
8. Thwing. C. F. Mar. 1878. Summer schools. Harper's New Monthly Magazine LVI :
501-510.
MATHEMATICS
Chairman: Merrill E. Shanks, Purdue University
John Yarnelle, Hanover College, was elected chairman for 1962
No papers or abstracts received.
PHYSICS
Chairman: Howard Black, Indiana State College
R. T. Dufford, Evansville College, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
A Gaseous Atomic Beam Light Source.1 R. W. Stanley, Purdue Uni-
versity.— It has recently become possible to observe the light emitted from
atoms of a permanent gas which are traveling nearly perpendicular to
the line of sight. A beam of neutral atoms, moving through a highly
evacuated region, is bombarded with electrons from an electron gun. As
a result of the electron bombardment some of the gaseous atoms are
excited to higher energy states and subsequently emit optical radiation.
The resulting spectrum may be quite different from that observed in an
ordinary light source. One important property of the emitted light is
that it is highly monochromatic. The gaseous atomic beam apparatus will
be described and some recent results will be given.
Machine Literature Searching. H. B. Thompson, General Electric
Company, Cincinnati 15, Ohio. — The need for a more rapid and discrimi-
nating method of locating literature is apparent to those who have made
any appreciable state-of-the-art search in recent times. Manual coordi-
nate indexing came into use in the '50's to meet this need. General Elec-
tric's Flight Propulsion Division at Cincinnati established such a system
in 1953 and converted its manual system to an IBM 704 computer in 1958.
Several other firms have made similar moves to make their literature
handling effective. With such a system, the searcher obtains in about %
hr. of machine time, all the references in the particular collection that
have been indexed as dealing with the combination of subjects desired.
Choices "ors," and negations (but not relationships), can also be used for
selection with proper programming. Many are trying to retain the con-
text or usage of the words and in certain cases with appreciable success.
No system thus far developed satisfies all desires, but all help greatly in
establishing the state-of-the-art in a given field quickly and, thus, in
reducing duplication of effort.
Beta-Gamma Directional Correlation in EU15\ K. S. R. Sastry, In-
diana University. — The energy dependence of the fi-y directional correla-
tion between the 1.86 Mev outer /3-ray group of Eu151 and the 123-kev cas-
cade gamma-ray of the daughter Gd15t has been measured with a shaped
magnetic field p-y coincidence spectrometer. The correlation coefficient, e,
measured to an accuracy of about 5%, is negative and varies from -0.11
1. This research was supported in part by a grant from the National Science
Foundation.
275
276 Indiana Academy of Science
to -0.18 in the energy range 0.80 to 1.60 Mev. The experimental results
indicate predominant contribution due to the Btj matrix element. It will
be shown that the modified BtJ approximation is not consistent with the
spectrum shape measurement of Langer and Smith and our directional
correlation data. A more general analysis of the data together with the
experimental shape factor yields a set of the nuclear parameters x, u, and Y
(in Kotani's notation) namely,
x = -0.19 ± 0.08 u = +0.08 ± 0.04 Y = 0.84 ± 0.08
The resulting nuclear matrix elements are considerably reduced relative
to the ones expected for a perfect overlap of the initial and final state
wave functions indicating that a selection rule effect (probably due to
K-for-biddenness) rather than a mutual cancellation of the matrix ele-
ments is responsible for the undue retardation of the transition.
Gamma Radiation from Ne20.2 W. W. Eidson, Indiana University. —
The 22 Mev alpha beam of the Indiana University cyclotron has been used
to bombard targets of natural neon gas. Particle-gamma coincidence
spectra of the reaction Ne20(oc,oc,7)Ne20 have been studied employing
standard fast-slow coincidence techniques. The existence of new gamma-
emitting levels in Ne20 at 5.88 Mev and 7.93 Mev excitation energy is
implied by the data. As these levels are unbound to alpha emission they
must have unnatural spin and parity (J^ L) to prevent the favored alpha
decay. A 3+ assignment for both of these levels is consistent with known
information. Possible interaction mechanisms for production of such
levels will be presented. Qualitative arguments will be discussed concern-
ing possible collective model interpretation of Ne20.
Peaks in Pion Production Reactions. John Higgins, Indiana Univer-
sity.— The 600 and 900 Mev peaks in the cross-section for t + N-*t + ttN
are examined on the basis of an isobar mechanism. The reaction is assumed
to proceed in two steps. First tt -f- N -> w -f- isobar, then the isobar decays
into a nucleon and a pion. Describing the isobar decay in terms of the
known low energy tt + N -> tt + N amplitude and using given angular
momentum and isotopic spin assignments for the peaks the amplitude for
the production process can be written down. This amplitude is then sym-
metrized and from it momentum spectra of the pions and charge ratios
are calculated.
The Physics and Mathematics Backgrounds of 350 Indiana High School
Physics Teachers. H. T. Black and E. D. Gorham, Indiana State College;
and T. Pickett, Evansville College. — In the spring of 1961 a question-
naire was sent to Indiana high school physics teachers requesting infor-
mation concerning their training in physics and mathematics, their par-
ticipation in N. S. F. Institutes, their attitudes concerning P. S. S. C.
physics and the enrollment of their schools. The average training of the
350 teachers reporting is 23 Semester Hours in physics and 28 Semester
Hours in mathematics. The relation between average physics training
and: (1) N. S. F. Institute Attendance; (2) Plans to Teach P. S. S. C.
Physics; (3) High School Enrollment, was investigated and will be
reported.
2. Supported in part by the joint program of the Office of Naval Research and the
Atomic Energy Commission.
A Method for Measuring Neutron Flux by a Paraffin Oil
Bath Technique
A. W. Manning, Valparaiso University, and Thomas R. Jeter and
Howard Schmuckler, Terminal Ballistics Laboratory,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
This method is based upon the procedure of slowing down neutrons
to thermal energies and then measuring these neutrons with a 'point'
neutron scintillation detector.1,2 (Nuclear-Chicago, Model DS8-10) Though
paraffin oil (Esso,Primol D) is unpleasant to handle, nevertheless, it was
selected in preference to water in order to avoid any competing reactions
from oxygen.3,4
SELSYN INDICATOR UftTno _B11I.
TRANSMITTER ^0T0R DRIVE
OETECTOR
FIGURE X
277
278
Indiana Academy of Science
An aluminum tank having a radius of 22 inches and a height of 46
inches was constructed. (Figure 1) An opening sufficiently large, so as
to accommodate the Van de Graaff target tube, was built into the side of
the tank so that the target was essentially at the center of the paraffin
oil bath.
In order to facilitate the procedure of taking the experimental data,
a rotating motor driven bar with evenly spaced holes was mounted above
FIGURE 0->
the tank. By inserting the neutron detector through one of the holes in
the cross-bar and adjusting the height of the assemblage so that the
sensitive tip of the counter was at the center of the target tube, a complete
series of measurements could be taken at the same distance from the
source target and at the various angles indicated by the selsyn transmitter.
Let Qs = the total neutron emission from a source or target
q (r,(p,6) = thermal neutrons/cm3 - sec. at r, (p, 6
c (r,(p,e) =the counts which will be registered by the photo-
multiplier counter at various positions.
Kc = q
where K = constant depending upon counter efficiency
then
CO 7T 2tT
Q =KJ J J C(v,0,9) r2 sin 0d<£>d0dr
S 0 0 0
Assuming symmetry around the axis of the Van de Graaff tube (i.r.t. the
integration of the angle <p) the volume integral will then become
Physics
279
00 "K
Q = 2 ttK / J* CiYyO)^ sin 0 d#dr,C in this case will be a function
S 0 0
of r and 6 only
By plotting C(r,0)r2 as a function of r for each of the values of 6 that
could be measured (e.g.) (Figure 3) and integrating under the curve, a
series of areas were found.
(s)*
t,
= conSTft-H
u*+
A smc
By plotting each one of these values of A0 sin
Figure 4)
the volume integral was evaluated.
as a function 0(e.g.
Experimental Procedures
The apparatus was set up as indicated in Figure 1 with a calibrated
source in position where the Van de Graaff target is to be placed. Meas-
urements were taken at angles from 0° to 160° as measured from the
forward direction of the tube position. The volume integration was then
performed as outlined and a value of Ki determined equivalent to 2tt/c in
the above formula.
As a check on the experimental accuracy of this method and the
calibration constant, another standard source was measured in a similar
manner. Using the obtained constant Ki, a value within 7% of the given
value of this source was obtained.
Measurements were made on the neutron output of a deuterium target
bombarded with deuterons. A summary of the experimental results is
given in Table I below and on the following pages.
Source
Yield (std)
A Final
Measured Yield
% Dev.
200 mg
Ra-Be
2.29 x 106n/sec
23.9
55 curie
Pu-Be
9.16 x 10°
± 10% n/sec
102
9.79 x 106n/s
7%
H2 target
bombarded
with deuterons
209
2 x 10T n/sec. or
4 x 106 n/microcoulomb
A 200 mg. Ra - Be neutron source having an output of 2.29 x 10° n/sec
was used to calibrate the oil bath. Typical graphs for various angular
positions are given in Figures 5, 6 and 7. The final value of the volumetric
integral is given by the graph as indicated in Figure 8. The value of Ki
was calculated to be 9.6 x 10*. (Figure 8)
280
Indiana Academy of Science
90,000
45,000
40,000
J5.000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
f
^X
/
\
/
a
= 20*
0
The accuracy of the experimental procedure and the value of the
constant was checked using a 55 curie Pu - Be source. The value of the
source as given by the manufacturer is 9.16 x 10° n/s ± 10%. The value
as found by this experimental procedure is 9.79 x 106 n/sec. The deviations
between these two values is less than 7%.
A deuterium target of 446 micrograms per sq. cm. was measured for
neutron output when bombarded with deuterons at 1 mev. The target out-
put was measured to be 2 x 107 n/sec. or 4 x 10° n/microcoulomb.
,
~i
1
8 -■ 90*
-
- 1
- /
- /
^^
The following errors might be considered: errors in extrapolation,
determination of areas under the experimental curves, flux depressions
by the 5 introduction of the neutron counter, loss from the sides of the
0,7 vessel due to neutron escape, fast neutron absorption and neutron 8
energy variations. Since, however, the value of the constant Ki was deter-
mined and used under identical conditions, these errors should be mini-
mized. It would be well to make a systematic study of the above in order
to increase the accuracy of this experimental procedure.
Physics
281
100,000
80.000
80.000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40.000
J0.0O0
20.000
8 « 120*
\
\
\
\
/
'
1
FIGURE 7,
20 22
Qs = 27TK f fc(r{B) r2 sin 6 d 0dr
(2.29)(I0)6= K, (23.90)
36
32
26
24
20
16
12
8
4
K ,
= (9 pHim 4
\
\
\
V
\
\
\
\
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 "160 170 180 190
FIGURE 8
Literature Cited
1. Larson, K. E. 1955. Arkiv Fysik 9 : 293.
2. Larsson, K. E. 1958. J. Nuclear Energy 6 : 322.
3. Marion, J. B. Fast Neutron Physics, Vol IV, Fart I-A Interscience Publisher, Inc.
4. Elliot, Hincks. May, 1948. Can J. Research 26 : 386.
5. Auerbach, T. 1955. BNL 370 (T-68).
6. Macklin, R. L. Nuclear Instruments 1 : 355 (1957).
7. Macklin, R. L. and J. H. Gibbons. 1958. Physical Review 109 : 105.
S. Graves and Froman, Misc. Physical and Chem. Techniques of the Los Alamos
Project, Vol. V-3, McGraw Hill 1952 (Chapter 2).
A Constant Voltage Supply for a Pressure Transducer
James E. Brock, Stephen Pursley, M. G. Dunn, and
Alan Clausen, Purdue University
Dry cells are the usual source of voltage for operating a pressure
transducer of the strain gauge type. The voltage available from a dry cell
decreases with use so some means of compensation is necessary in order
to maintain a constant voltage to the transducer. The voltage supply
described here maintains a constant output voltage over a relatively large
range of current loads.
The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 1, and takes advantage of
the regulating properties of a Zener diode. For this experiment a small
isolating transformer was used with a 36 volt secondary.
. To R?tefrho m«ter
A
^Trftuselucf
Fig. 1. Zener Reference Voltage Circuit for a Pressure Transducer.
The output from the transformer was rectified by a full wave dry
plate rectifier of about 50 ma. capacity. Smoothing was secured with two
50 mfd condensers G and C2 and the 270 ohm series resistor Ri. The
variable resistor R2, in conjunction with the transducer load resistance of
about 340 ohms, lowers the voltage to a point where the zener diode
1N1771A controls and maintains a constant 10 volt input to the transducer.
The output from the transducer was measured with a potentiometer.
3e> 4o
p - cm a
f%
Pig. 2. Pressure vs. Millivolts curves for C. E. C. Type 4-32G Pressure Transducer at
77.5°F and 82.5°F
Physics 283
Two calibration curves for a Consolidated Electrodynamics Corpora-
tion, type 4-326, pressure transducer made at different temperatures are
shown in Fig. 2. The calibrating pressures to the transducer were supplied
from a mercury in glass manometer.
The calibration was linear and the reproducibility depended on the
accuracy of reading of the height of the mercury column in the manometer.
There was no observable hysteresis effect.
The solid state devices used in the voltage supply network, and also
the transducer, are temperature sensitive. Obviously, the system should
be calibrated under conditions simulating closely those in which it is to
be used.
PLANT TAXONOMY
Chairman: Mrs. Helene Starcs, Health and Hospital Corporation
of Marion County
Grady Webster, Purdue University, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACT
Natural Vegetation Types of Costa Rica, Central America. Alton A.
Lindsey, Purdue University. — The vegetation of Costa Rica was surveyed
during July and August, 1961, according to the classification proposed for
the Central American Tropics by Holdridge. The types found are illus-
trated by Kodachrome slides. They range in elevation from sea level to
11,500 ft., and in mesophily from "dry" tropical forest to paramo and
"wet" rain forest.
Cabomba caroliniana Back in Indiana. Helene Starcs, Health and
Hosp. Corp. of Marion County. — The fanwort Cabomba caroliniana Gray
was found in Knob Lake (Sawmill Hollow Lake), located in Jackson
County State Forest, Sec. 19, Twp. 5N, Rge. 5E, September 7, 1958. It
formed several flowering colonies on the mucky western border of the
small lake (8 acres). It was still there September 11, 1960. The species
was reported by Ridgway in 1872 and by Schneck in 1876 in the ponds of
the Lower Wabash Valley. Later it could not be found there. Charles C.
Deam (Flora of Indiana, 1940:452) assumed the fanwort extinct in
Indiana, killed by drought periods. Lindsey and co-workers recently re-
checked the Foote's Pond, mentioned by the previous authors, and found
no Cabomba for the Lower Wabash Valley. Now it is back again in south-
ern Indiana. Herbarium specimens are deposited at Butler University
and at Indiana University.
A Re-evaluation of the Ecologic Status of Tsuga canadensis in In-
diana. Robert Petty, Ronald Laughlin and James MeWhinney, Wabash
College, Ohio State University and University of New Mexico. — The paper
presents a new evaluation of site-habit of eastern hemlock in Indiana.
Data are presented which contradict findings of earlier workers regarding
moisture regimes in Indiana hemlock stands. These earlier published
papers describe hemlock as occurring on "rigorous sites" and situated
ecologically between Oak-Hickory and Beech-Maple on a soil-moisture
spectrum. Current soil-moisture data and phytosociological analyses show
maximum hemlock expression to occur on sites significantly cooler and
moister than those of mesic climax beech and maple, giving a contempo-
rary site index that more closely agrees with its earlier interpreted posi-
tion as a relict, postclimax species. Phytosociological data are presented
from six stands distributed throughout the state range of the species.
Total state distribution is presented with current stand vigor compared
to that described by Charles C. Deam several decades ago.
284
A Decade of Oldiield Succession in an Indiana
Biological Reserve1
R. A. deLanglade and A. A. Lindsey, Wabash College and
Purdue University
Introduction
The Ross Biological Reserve is a 54 acre tract located 8 miles south-
west of West Lafayette, Indiana in the southwestern portion of Tippe-
canoe County. Prior to 1949 the tract had been used for various agricul-
tural purposes. In that year the Biological Sciences Department of Purdue
University acquired the tract as its various abandoned oldfields and
second growth forest offered wide opportunities for research and teaching.
From early research in the Reserve Kenneth H. Bush determined three
major vegetation types: oldfield, woodland, and forest; Chester W. Miller
determined the flora, and Clifford R. Faulkner delimited the soil types
(2, 3, 4). The present study was the second in an expected series to deter-
mine serai developments over ten year periods.
Methods
Following the procedures used by Bush (2), quantitative data were
obtained from permanent herbaceous quadrats five links square (1/4000
A.), and woody quadrats 10 links by 50 links (1/200 A.). These quadrats
were located at permanent metal posts, 2 chains apart, which divide the
Reserve into a grid pattern. All species in the herbaceous quadrats were
counted while tree species under four inches diameter breast height (dbh)
in the woody quadrats were counted and listed as to height classes. Attri-
butes of frequency and density per acre were determined for the various
species and these compared to similar data from the 1950 analysis. Quan-
titative data were supplemented by photographs taken from the exact
location and direction as those of the 1950 analysis (1).
Bush (2) recognized, and designated after dominant species, 13
vegetation sub-divisions in the Reserve. These were recognized in the
present study but for clarity the designations were not changed even
though new dominants were present. Only three sub-divisions of the
oldfield type will be presented since these show the most striking changes.
Results
The first of these sub-divisions of the oldfield type is the Grass-
Ambrosia Upland. This area, located on the upland plateau, is relatively
flat, 2-6% slope, and has Russell Silt Loam soil type. Although quadrats
were not laid out in this particular area in 1950, Bush (2) indicated that
Ambrosia elatior, Rubus flagellaris, Verbena urticae folia, Daucus Carota,
and Sonchus sp. were the dominant herbaceous species. Attributes deter-
mined in the present analysis show Poa compressa, 261,796/A., and Rubus
flagellaris, 38,333/A., as the dominant herbs. Poa represented 61% and
Rubus 9% of the total density for all species combined. Respective fre-
quencies were 92 and 62. The former dominants, Ambrosia elatior and
Daucus Carota, now having respective densities of 5,227/A. and 871/A.
1. Part of a thesis submitted to the Graduate School of Purdue University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.
285
286
Indiana Academy of Science
and frequencies of 46 and 8, are minor species representing only 1% and
.2% of the total density for all species. Verbena urticae folia and Sonchus
sp. were so infrequent that none were counted in the quadrats.
Liriodendron tulipifera and Ulmus fulva were the only tree species
present in 1950; neither had a dbh of 4 in. or greater. Seventeen tree
species, represented by 113 individuals all less than 4 in. dbh, were found
in the quadrats in 1960. Liriodendron and Fraxinus americana, represent-
ing 35% and 18% of the total number of individuals in the quadrats, were
the most abundant. Reproduction density (for all species combined)
decreased through the 3-4, 1-2, and 5-7 foot height classes.
Table 1. Herbaceous species of the Poa-Andropogon-Rubus
Upland Oldfield.
1!'(J(I 1050
Species
Density/A.
Freq.
Poa compressa
525,769
100
Rubus flagellaris
38,333
89
Monarda fistulosa
30,828
50
Potentilla simplex
28,750
22
Draba repens
17,860
22
Panicum spp.
14,810
67
Daucus Carota
11,326
61
Lysimachia lanceolata
11,326
6
Rhus radicans
10,454
22
Achillea millifolium
7,841
33
Danthonia spicata
6,970
6
Desmodium spp.
6,098
61
Veronica verna
5,227
17
Andropogon virginicus
4,792
33
Lactuca sp.
3,920
39
Solidago spp.
3,920
22
Cerastium spp.
2,614
22
Rubus allegheniensis
2,614
22
Ambrosia elatior
1,307
17
Cirsium sp.
1,307
17
Dianthus Armeria
1,307
6
Melilotus officinalis
1,307
6
Car ex spp.
871
17
Fragaria virginiana
871
11
Galium spp.
871
11
Plantago spp.
871
6
Rumex acetosella
871
17
Solanum sp.
871
11
Potentilla erecta
436
6
Erigeron sp.
218
6
Mentha sp.
218
6
Specularia perfoliate
218
6
Oxalis sp.
218
6
Density/A. Freq.
not counted
3,354 88
1,581 65
1,176 59
653 29
5,184 88
4,763
82
479
29
Total
744,996
18,440
Plant Taxonomy
287
The Poa-Andropogon-Rubus Upland is another oldfield sub-division
having 2-6% slope and Russell Silt Loam soil type. Eight herbaceous
species were noted in the 1950 analysis; Poa compressa, Andropogon vir-
'wmms&iimmmmm
mam
iliitl
liiaiillii
■•Miff
usA11
wmmmammemmii
;»'■.■■■,
jtif§«. J»II«B«&
Figure 1. Poa-Andropogon-Rubus Upland Oldfield taken from the same location
and direction, (upper — 1950, lower — 1960)
288
Indiana Academy of Science
ginicus, 5,184/A., Ambrosia elatior, 4,763/A., and Rubus fiagellaris,
3,354/A., were the dominants. Respective frequencies (except Poa) were
88, 83, and 88. Andropogon represented 28%, Ambrosia 26%, and Rubus
18% of the total density for all species in 1950. Thirty-two herbaceous
species were noted in the present analysis; Poa compressa, 525,769/A.,
Rubus fiagellaris, 38,333/A., and Monarda fistulosa, 30,828/A., were the
dominants. Respective frequencies were 100, 89, and 50. Rubus repre-
sented 18% and Monarda 14% of the total density for all species.n Former
dominants, Andropogon and Ambrosia, now have respective densities of
4,792/ A. and 1,307/ A., and represented only 2%> and .6% of the total
density for all species combined (Table 1).
No data were collected for trees under 4 in. dbh in the 1950 analysis.
In the 1960 analysis of woody quadrats 24 tree species, represented by 376
Table 2. Herbaceous Species of the Andropogon Sandslope Oldfield.
I960
1950
Species
Density /A.
F'req.
Density/A. F'req.
Poa compressa
252,648
67
not counted
Andropogon virginicus
20,909
8:]
55,321 83
Rubus fiagellaris
19,166
50
16,553 67
Potentilla simplex
8,276
33
Rumex acetosella
5,663
17
Panicum spp.
3,920
67
Convolvulus spp.
3,049
33
7,840 33
Desmodium spp.
3,049
33
Galium spp.
3,049
33
Lactuca sp.
2,613
33
Lysimachia lanceolata
2,613
17
Tradescantia canaliculata
2,613
33
Parthenocisus quinque folia
1,742
17
6,870 33
Solidago spp.
1,307
17
Monarda fistulosa
1,307
17
Achillea millifolium
436
17
Antennaria Parlinii
436
17
Oxalis sp.
436
17
Potentilla erecta
436
17
Rudbeckia hirta
436
17
Ambrosia elatior
0
0
26,572 67
Danthonia spicata
0
0
3,049 17
Rubus allegheniensis
0
0
1,307 17
Total
329,311
127,095
individuals, were found. Based on the percentage of the total number of
individuals in the quadrats XJlmus fulva, 24%, Fraxinus americana, 15%,
Acer saccharum, 14%, Malus sp., 9%, and Rhus glabra, 8%, were the
major species. Reproduction density for all species ranged downward
through the 3-4, 1-2, and 5-7 foot height classes. No trees were recorded
3. Since Poa was not counted in the 1950 study, its 1960 density was not included
in the total density for all species in order that percentages for the two years would be
comparable.
Plant Taxonomy
289
with a 4 in. or greater diameter in the 1950 quadrat analysis; in the
present study a Quercus velutina, dbh 4.95 in., Fraxinus americana, dbh
6.0 in., and Populus grarididentata, dbh 5.1 and 7.0 in., were recorded.
¥'
:/.
Figure 2. Andropogon Sandslope Oldfield taken from the same location and
direction, (upper — 1950, lower — 1960)
290 Indiana Academy of Science
Other individuals having 4 in. or greater dbh were scattered throughout
the field ; e.g., Platanus occidentalis, 4-8.4 in. dbh, Liriodendron tulipifera,
4-7.1 in. dbh, (Fig. 1).
The last oldfield sub-division to be discussed is the Andropogon Sand-
slope. This area has a 12-18% slope. Its soil is Oaktown Loamy Fine Sand
except in the draw which is Russell Sandy Loam. Eight herbaceous species
were recorded in the quadrats in 1950. Andropogon virginicus, 55,321 /A.,
Ambrosia elatior, 26,572/ A., and Rubus flagellaris, 16,553/A., were the
dominants representing 43%, 21%, and 13% of the total density for all
species. Twenty herbaceous species were found in the same quadrats in
the present study. Poa compressa, 252,648/A., Andropogon virginicus,
20,909/A., and Rubus flagellaris, 19,166/A., were dominant. The latter
two represented 27% and 25% of the total density for all species. Ambrosia
elatior was so infrequent that none were found in the quadrats (Table 2).
Large trees were restricted to a natural draw cutting through the
field; Platanus occidentalis, Juglans nigra, Fraxinus americana, Sassa-
fras albidum, Quercus velutina, and Liriodendron tulipifera predominate.
Small Juglans nigra and Quercus velutina were present on the sand ridge-
crest (Fig. 2). Considering tree species under 4 in. dbh, 18 species were
found in the 1960 quadrat analysis. Ulmus fulva, Quercus alba, Fraxinus
americana, and Juglans nigra, having respective percentages (of the total
number) of 20, 15, 13, and 12 were the most prevalent in the quadrats.
Reproduction density for all species decreased through the 1-2, 3-4, and
8-10 foot height classes.
Discussion and Conclusions
Herbaceous cover in the Grass-Ambrosia and Poa-Andropogon-Rubus
Upland oldfields has increased during the decade in the number of species
present as well as density of these species. The majority are perennials
rather than annuals as formerly. Dominance has shifted in 10 years from
Ambrosia elatior and Daucus Carota to Poa compressa and Rubus flagel-
laris in the Grass-Ambrosia Upland oldfield. In the Poa-Andropogon-
Rubus Upland oldfield, Poa and Rubus are dominants. Andropogon, a
former dominant, has decreased drastically in density representing 28% of
the total density for all species in 1950 and only .2% in 1960. Ambrosia
decreased in density from 25% of the total density in 1950 to .6% in 1960.
Liriodendron, Fraxinus, Ulmus, and Acer are early-invasion tree species.
In the Grass-Ambrosia Upland 53% of the individuals noted in the quad-
rats were Liriodendron and Fraxinus. In the Poa-Andropogon-Rubus
Upland, Ulmus, Fraxinus, and Acer composed 53% of the individuals
noted in the quadrats. Liriodendron represented only 2% of the individ-
uals in the quadrats. This latter condition appears to be related to the
number of seed sources in the adjacent forest. In considering the rate
of succession during the decade in both areas, there has been rapid ecesis
of various herbaceous and woody species. Both oldfields have the same
general appearance and species present, varying only in the density of
these species. Marked physiognomic changes in the future will be much
slower since future dominants are present and need only to expand in
density. Eventually both upland oldfields will probably support a mixed
mesophytic climax forest.
Plant Taxonomy 291
Herbaceous species have also increased in the number present and
density in the Andropogon Sandslope oldfield. Andropogon, which once
practically covered the area, is now restricted to the sand ridge-crest,
represented 43% of the total density for all species in 1950 and only 27%
in 1960. Ambrosia was completely lacking in the quadrats. Only Rubus
fiagellaris, of the former dominants, had an increase in density per acre ;
representing 13% of the total density in 1950 and 25% in 1960. Ulmus
fulva, Quercus alba, Fraxinus americana, and Juglans nigra composed
60% of the tree species under 4 in. dbh in the quadrats. Large trees are
restricted to the draw running through the area where soil moisture is
sufficient to support their development. As in the above-mentioned old-
fields, marked physiognomic changes will be much slower in the future.
Succession will probably terminate at a sub-climax of oak-hickory due to
the relative xeric edaphic conditions of the area.
Literature Cited
1. deLanglade, R. A. 1961. The Vegetation and Flora of the Ross Biological Reserve — -
1960. Unpublished M. S. Thesis, Purdue Univ.
2. Bush, K. H. 1951. A Vegetational Analysis of the Ross Biological Reserve. Unpub-
lished M. S. Thesis, Purdue Univ.
3. Faulkner, C. R. 1951. Soil Types of the Ross Biological Reserve. Unpublished M. S.
Thesis, Purdue Univ.
4. Miller, C. W. 1951. The Vascular Flora of the Ross Biological Reserve. Unpub-
lished M. S. Thesis, Purdue Univ.
New County Records for Fayette and Franklin
Counties, Indiana
Phil C. Baker and James B. Cope, Earlham College
In the course of a research project sponsored by the Charles F. Ket-
tering Foundation on the Flora of the Whitewater valley in relation to
the glacial tills and their respective soil types, we became interested in
the fact that some species that we were encountering were county records.
Each plant specimen has been placed in the Herbarium of the Joseph
Moore Museum of Earlham College with the nomenclature in accord with
Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th Edition. The following list is in the order
used in Beam's Flora of Indiana, and includes 33 species in the same
number of genera. In several instances Deam's nomenclature is given
parenthetically. Following each species is the name of the county in which
it was collected.
Ophioglossum vulgatum, Franklin. Botrychium dissectum var. tenui-
folium, Fayette. Osmunda Claytoniana, Franklin. Onoclea sensibilis,
Fayette. Dryopteris noveboracensis, Franklin. Athyrium Felix-femina,
(A. asplenoides or A. Angustium), Franklin. Lycopodium complanatum
var. flabelliforme, (L. flabelliforme), Franklin and Fayette. Alisma sub-
cordatum, Franklin. Arisaema Dracontium, Franklin. Juglans cinerea,
Franklin and Fayette. Ostrya virginiana, Fayette. Quercus bicolor,
Franklin. Quercus palustris, Franklin. Boehmeria cylindrica, Franklin.
Hepatica acutiloba, Franklin. Clematis virginiana, Franklin. Asimina
triloba, Franklin. Nasturtium officinale, Franklin. Platanus occidentalis,
Franklin. Gymnocladus dioica, Franklin. Acer rubrum, Fayette. Tilia
americana, Franklin. Panax quinque folium, Fayette. Nyssa sylvatica,
Fayette. Gaylussacia baccata, Franklin. Fraxinus nigra, Franklin.
Scrophula?-ia marilandica, Fayette. Cephalanthus occidentalis, Franklin.
Virburnum dentatum, (V. pubescens), Franklin. Lobelia Cardinalis,
Franklin. Eupatorium fistulosum, Franklin. Cacalia Muhlenbergii,
Franklin.
Three of the previous species have significance for this area of the
state. In both counties we found the Lycopodium complanatum var. flabel-
liforme growing in reasonably sunny, open spots surrounded by low
second growth timber. It covered an area approximately 1,700 sq. ft. in
two locations in Franklin Co., while the area covered in the Fayette Co.
location was about 300 sq. ft. According to the Plant Distribution Records
I through XVII of Indiana, Jefferson Co. is the only other county in the
eastern half of the state to have a previous recording. We were also sur-
prised to find Gaylussacia baccata growing in Franklin Co. although it
has been recorded in Bartholomew, Jefferson, and Switzerland counties,
all of which are within 40 miles. The condition under which we found it
was a flat, poorly drained, wooded area of Clermont silt loam and trees
of sweet gum, black gum, black oak, swamp-white oak, and pin oak. The
Osmunda Claytoniana which we collected was taken from a very small
stand in a woods of primary growth in northern Franklin Co. The distri-
bution records include this for Jefferson Co., but as the only other record
for southeastern Indiana.
292
Algae of Putnam County, Indiana
Charles R. Hall, Emmerich Manual Training High School, Indianapolis
The collections of algae, from which the accompanying list was com-
piled, were made between December 1959 and April 1961. All collections
were made in Putnam County. Farm ponds, temporary pools, streams,
quarries and an artificial lake were the sources of the collections. All of
the species and varieties are new reports for Putnam County with the
exception of Chara contraria A. Braun (1), Char a vulgaris Vaillant ex.
Linnaeus, Chara globularis Thuillier (2), Draparnaldia plumosa (Vau-
cher) C. A. Agardh (3), Spirogyra borgeana Transeau, and Spirogyra
majuscula Kuetzing (4). The species and varieties marked by an asterisk
are new reports for the state.
There are 42 families, 98 genera, 192 species and 15 varieties reported
by the writer as being collected in Putnam County. As far as known, 1
family, 3 genera, 35 species and 5 varieties are new reports for the state.
The writer wishes to thank Dr. Winona H. Welch, under whose direc-
tion this work was conducted. To Mr. W. A. Daily and Mrs. Fay Kenoyer
Daily for their suggestions and assistance in the determination of the
Myxophyceae and Characeae, the writer extends his appreciation. The
writer is indebted to the Indiana Academy of Science for a research grant
and to DePauw University for the use of all necessary equipment, all of
which have made possible this study.
All specimens collected for this study are deposited in the T. G.
Yuncker Herbarium, of the Botany Department of DePauw University, at
Greencastle, Indiana.
Chlorophyta
Chlamydomonas globosa Snow
Phacotus lenticularis (Ehrenberg) Stein
Gonium pectorale Mueller
Pandorina morum (Mueller) Bory
Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg
Volvox aureus Ehrenberg
Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat
*Gloeocystis ampla (Kuetzing) Lagerheim
Tetraspora cylindrica (Wahlenberg) C. A. Agardh
Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vaucher) Desvaux
Tetraspora lubrica (Roth) C. A. Agardh
Ulothrix tenerrima Kuetzing
Geminella interrupta (Turpin) Lagerheim
*Radiofilum flavescens G. S. West
Cylindrocapsa geminella Wolle
Draparnaldia glomerata (Vaucher) C. A. Agardh
Draparnaldia plumosa (Vaucher) C. A. Agardh
Stigeoclonium stagnatile (Hazen) Collins
Chaetophora elegans (Roth) C. A. Agardh
Chaetophora incrassata (Hudson) Hazen
Chaetophora pisiformis (Roth) C. A. Agardh
*Chaetopeltis americana (Snow) Collins
Aphanochaete repens A. Braun
293
294 Indiana Academy of Science
Protocoecus viridis C. A. Agardh
*Coleochaete orbicularis Pringsheim
Coleochaete scutata Brebisson
*Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordstedt) Klebahn
Cladophora glomerata (Linnaeus) Kuetzing
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (C. A. Agardh) Kuetzing
Pithophora varia Wille
Basicladia chelonum (Collins) Hoffman and Tilden
Bulbochaete varians Wittrock var. subsimplex (Wittrock) Hirn
Oedogonium crenulatocostatum Wittrock
Oedogonium grande Kuetzing var. aequatoriale Wittrock
Oedogonium hirnii Gutwinski
Oedogonium inconspicuum Hirn
Oedogonium iowense Tiffany
Oedogonium mexicanum Wittrock
Oedogonium moniliforme Wittrock
Oedogonium plagiostomum Wittrock
Oedogonium rugulosum Nordstedt var. minutum (Hansgirg) Tiffany
Oedogonium vaucherii (Le Clerc) A. Braun
Oedogonium westii Tiffany
Oedogonium wyliei Tiffany
*Characium ambiguum Hermann
Characium pringsheimii A. Braun
*Characium rostratum Reinhard
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (Linnaeus) Lagerheim
Pediastrum boryanum (Turpin) Meneghini
Pediastrum duplex Meyen
Pediastrum duplex Meyen var. rotundatum Lucks
Pediastrum simplex (Meyen) Lemmermann var. duodenarium (Bailey)
Rabenhorst
Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs
* Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs var. tetrodon (Corda) Hansgirg
Sorastrum spinulosum Naegeli
Coelastrum cambricum Archer
Coelastrum microporum Naegeli
Botryococcus braunii Kuetzing
Oocystis borgei Snow
Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck
*Quadrigula closterioides (Bohlin) Printz
Planktosphaeria gelatinosa G. M. Smith
Gloeotaenium loitlesbeigerianum Hansgirg
Nephiocytium agardhianum Naegeli
Kirchneriella obesa (W. West) Schmidle
Ankistrodesmus convolutus Corda
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs
* Ankistrodesmus fractus (West & West) Brunnthaler
Ankistrodesmus spiralis (Turner) Lemmermann
Tetraedron caudatum (Corda) Hansgirg
*Tetraedron constrictum G. M. Smith
Tetraedron gracile (Reinsch) Hansgirg
* Tetraedron limneticum Borge
Plant Taxonomy 295
Tetraedr on minimum (A. Braun) Hansgirg
*Tetraedron regular e Kuetzing var. incus Teiling
Scenedesmus abundans (Kirchner) Chodat
Scenedesmus acutiformis Schroeder
Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemmermann var. platydisca G. M. Smith
Scenedesmus bijuga (Turpin) Lagerheim
Scenedesmus dimorphus (Turpin) Kuetzing
Scenedesmus opoliensis P. Richter
Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turpin) Brebisson
Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turpin) Brebisson var. quadrispina (Chodat)
G. M. Smith
Crucigenia fenestrata Schmidle
Crucigenia irregularis Wille
Crucigenia lauterbornii Schmidle
Micr actinium pusillum Fresenius
*Errerella bornhemiensis Conrad
Vaucheria geminata (Vaucher) DeCandolle
Vaucheria repens H assail
Vaucheria sessile (Vaucher) DeCandolle
Spirogyra borgeana Transeau
Spirogyra ellipsospora Transeau
^Spirogyra hatillensis Transeau
Spirogyra juergensii Kuetzing
Spirogyra majuscula Kuetzing
* Spirogyra parvula (Transeau) Czurda
*Spirogyra plena (W. & G. S. West) Czurda
Spirogyra singidaris Nordstedt
Spirogyra spreeiana Rabenhorst
Spirogyra varians (Hassall) Kuetzing
*Mougeotia miamiana Transeau
Mougeotia scalaris Hassall
Zygnema leiospermum DeBary
*Zygnema sterile Transeau
Micrasterias americana (Ehrenberg) Ralfs
Micrasterias radiata Hassall
Micrasterias truncata (Corda) Brebisson
Staurastrum setigerum Cleve var. brevispinum G. M. Smith
Cosmarium circulare Reinsch
*Cosmarium porrectum Nordstedt
Cosmarium reniforme (Ralfs) Archer
Euastrum interme Lundell
Euastrum pulchellum Brebisson
Euastrum verrucosum Ehrenberg
Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Brebisson) DeBary
Penium margaritaceum (Ehrenberg) Brebisson
Closterium ehrenbergii Meneghini
*Closterium gracile Brebisson var. elongatum W. & G. S. West
Closterium leibeinii Kuetzing
* Closterium littorale Gay
Closterium moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenberg
Closterium venus Kuetzing
296 Indiana Academy of Science
Onychonema filiforme (Ehrenberg) Roy & Bissett
Onychonema laeve Nordstedt var. latum W. & G. S. West
*Spondylosium planum (Wolle) W. & G. S. West
Hyalotheca dissiliens (J. E. Smith) Brebisson
Desmidium swartzii C. A. Agardh
Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrenberg
Chara contraria A. Braun ex. Kuetzing
Chara delicatula C. A. Agardh
Chara globularis Thuillier
Chara sejuncta A. Braun
Chara vulgaris Vaillant ex. Linnaeus
Chrysophyta
*Centritr actus belanophorus Lemmermann
Ophiocytium arbusculum (A. Braun) Rabenhorst
Botrydium granulatum (Linnaeus) Greville
*Botrydium wallrothii (Kuetzing) Mueller
Trihonema utriculosum (Kuetzing) Hazen
*Mallomonas acaroides Perty
*Mallomonas caudata Iwanoff
*Mallomonas pseudocoronata Prescott
Synura uvella Ehrenberg
*Dinobryon calciformis Bachmann
Dinobryon divergens Imhof
Dinobryon sociale Ehrenberg
Dinobryon tabellariae (Lemmermann) Pascher
Uroglenopsis americana (Calkins) Lemmermann
Asterionella, formosa Hassall
*Surirella splendida (Ehrenberg) Kuetzing
Cymatopleura elliptica (Brebisson) Wm. Smith
Euglenophyta
Euglena acus Ehrenberg
Euglena ehrenbergii Klebs
Euglena spirogyra Ehrenberg
Euglena tripteris (Dujardin) Klebs
Phacus caudatus Huebner
Phacus longicauda (Ehrenberg) Dujardin
*Phacus suecicus Lemmermann
* Phacus tortus (Lemmermann) Skvortzow
Trachelomonas acanthostoma (Stokes) Deflandre
:'Trachelomonas armata (Ehrenberg) Stein var. longispina (Playfair)
Deflandre
* Trachelomonas dybowskii Drezepolski
* Trachelomonas pulcherrima Playfair
* Trachelomonas robusta Swirenko
* Trachelomonas superba (Swirenko) Deflandre
^Trachelomonas superba (Swirenko) Deflandre var. duplex Deflandre
Pyrrophyta
Glenodinium quadridens (Stein) Schiller
Peridinium cinctum (Mueller) Ehrenberg
Ceratium hirundinella (Mueller) Schrank
Plant Taxonomy 297
Cyanophyta
Anacystis cyanea (Kuetzing) Drouet & Daily
Anacystis dimidiata (Kuetzing) Drouet & Daily
Anacystis montana (Lightfoot) Drouet & Daily
Anacystis thermalis (Meneghini) Drouet & Daily
Agmenellum quadruplicatum (Meneghini) Brebisson
Agmenellum thermale (Kuetzing) Drouet & Daily
Gomphosphaeria aponina Kuetzing
Gomphosphaeria lacustris Chodat
Gomphosphaeria wichurae (Hilse) Drouet & Daily
Oscillatoj^ia anguina (Bory) Gomont
Oscillatoria chalybea Mertens
Oscillatoria curviceps C. A. Agardh
Oscillatoria irrigua (Kuetzing) Gomont
Oscillatoria limosa C. A. Agardh
Oscillatoria ornata Kuetzing
Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher
Lyngbya aestuarii (Mertens) Liebmann
Lyngbya diguetii Gomont
*Lyngbya epiphytica Hieronymus
Spirulina major Kuetzing
Spirulina princeps (West & West) G. S. West
Microcoleus paludosus (Kuetzing) Gomont
Nostoc microscopicum Carmichael
Nostoc muscorum C. A. Agardh
Anabaena circinalis (Harvey) Rabenhorst
Anabaena flos-aquae (Lyngbye) Brebisson
* Anabaena unispora Gardner
Cylindrospermum muscicola Kuetzing
Aphanizomenon holsaticum Richter
Scytonema myochrous (Dillwyn) C. A. Agardh
Scytonema ocellatum Lyngbye
Scytonema tolypotrichoides Kuetzing
Tolypothrix distorta Kuetzing
Tolypothrix lanata Wartmann
Tolypothrix tenuis Kuetzing
Calothrix parietina (Naegeli) Thuret
Gloeotrichia pisum (C. A. Agardh) Thuret
Rhodophyta
Batrachospermum sp.
Lemanea sp.
Literature Cited
1. Daily, P. K. 1945. The Characeae of Indiana — A Preliminary Report. Butler
University Botanical Studies 7 : 1-8.
2. Daily, F. K. 1953. The Characeae of Indiana. Butler University Botanical Studies
11 : 5-49.
3. Hazen, F. E. 1902. Ulotricaceae and Chaetophoraceae of the United States. Mem-
oirs of the Torray Botanical Club 11 : 135-250.
4. Smith, B. H. 1932. The Algae of Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science 41 : 177-206.
Some Algae of the Cabin Greek Raised Bog, Randolph
County, Indiana
William A. Daily,1 Butler University
The Cabin Creek Raised Bog, located 6 miles north of Modoc in Ran-
dolph County, was described and named in 1946 by the late Drs. Ray C.
Friesner and John E. Potzger of Butler University (1).
Raised bogs are chiefly limited to coastal areas in North America,
however, these unusual physiographic features have been found in the
interior at Urbana, Ohio, Itasca Park, Minnesota, and Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. Of the three general types of raised bogs in America the
Cabin Creek Bog represents those inland bogs due to artesian spring
water, high in calcium, with mosses, sedges and grasses as chief peat
formers. Of two variations, the Cabin Creek Bog is an example of those
having weakly expressed hydrostatic pressure which gives rise to wet
areas favorable to luxuriant growth of mosses as well as sedges and
grasses. The Cabin Creek Bog has risen at least ten feet above the flood-
plain at the maximum elevation, and covers an area of approximately 15
acres. There is no open water in or beneath the raised portion of the bog.
The deepest boring in the bog indicated 32 feet of peat beneath the raised
portion.
The algae of raised bogs have been neglected in study, because to our
knowledge, besides the three species of Chara cited for the Cabin Creek
Bog in 1946 (1), F. B. Chapman's algal list for the Ohio raised bog (2),
remains the only study to date in the United States in which identifications
to species are noted.
The following list of algae, comments and illustrations are based upon
collections and observations made during the years 1939, 1944, 1960 and
1961. The diatoms, treated by Dr. Charles W. Reimer, appear in another
paper in this issue of the Proceedings.
Algal Habitats
The surface of the Cabin Creek Bog is covered with a black mucky
soil. The vegetation is still much the same as reported by Friesner and
Potzger, loc. cit., with a few exceptions. There are three general areas in
which the algae were collected, the Spring Areas in the west part of the
bog, and the Grassy-Sedge Knoll in the eastern part of the bog.
Spring Areas
Spring 1, in the north section, has at least one visible flowing source
of water. The water is ponded over an area of several square meters to
a depth of 2-4 inches, before flowing slowly down the slopes in two small
streamlets.
1. I wish to express my appreciation to Mr. and Mrs. Robert Holliday for their
hospitality and collecting privileges on the raised bog ; their son, Michael, who aided
with collecting (1960-1961) ; Mrs. Fay K. Daily, Dr. Francis Drouet, and Dr. G. W.
Prescott for aid in identification of certain species ; the curators of the Chicago Natural
History Museum and Earlham College Herbaria for the loan of herbarium specimens;
Mrs. E. J. Cejnar, Butler University Library, and Mrs. Lois Burton, Indiana State Li-
brary for providing pertinent literature and Mr. W. E. Kruse, Eli Lilly & Co., who pre-
pared lantern slides and plate.
298
Plant Taxonomy
299
Spring 2, in the south section, is somewhat similar to Spring 1 with
the exception that the water flowing away from the source has formed a
moderately steep-sided channel which separates the Spring Areas from
the Grassy-Sedge Knoll. On May 28, 1961, the acidity of the spring water
at its immediate source from the ground was pH 6.9, the temperature was
52° F. and the temperature of the air was 72° F. Approximately 100 feet
downstream from the spring the pH of the water had risen from 6.9 to 7.5
and the temperature from 52° to 55° F. The mucky soil in the springs and
streams contained much fine and coarse granular marl.
Grassy-Sedge Knoll
This grass and sedge covered marshy area is wet in varying degrees
throughout the year. No flowing springs are evident in this area. One
shallow streamlet bed (with occasional flowing water) which lies in an
east-west direction on the west slope of the knoll, has sides and bottom
covered with a light grey granular marly soil layer. The pH of one of the
numerous small puddles of stagnant water was 7.3 and the temperature
was 62° F.
THE ALGAE
Charophyceae
Three species, Chara Brittonii Allen ; C. contraria A. Br., and C. vul-
garis Vaill. ex L. were found in 1944 and again during this study.
C. Brittonii has been collected only once before in Indiana (in a bog), once
in Michigan, and the type locality. The other two species are rather widely
distributed in Indiana, however, C. vulgaris is confined to the glaciated
region chiefly in the northern half of the state and to bodies of water fed
by springs or artesian wells indicating the importance of mineral nutri-
tion in distribution.
Chlorophyceae and Heterokontae
Spirogyra varians (Hass.) Kiitz., Tribonema minus (Wille) Hazen,
Oedogonium sp. (sterile) Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Ag. and Stigeo-
clonium lubricum (Dillw.) Kiitz. were found in the springs area. The first
1. Netrium digitus var. rectum 2. Palmogloea protuberans 3. Chlorotylium cataractum
4. Scytonema involvens
5. Nostcc foliaceum
Plate 1
300 Indiana Academy of Science
three were found floating in shallow pools; the last two species were
attached to substrates in flowing streamlets. The cytoplasm of random
cells of S. varians contained a purple pigment. Chlorotylium cataractum
Kiitz. (Plate 1, fig. 3), apparently a new report for Indiana, was found
as a green encrusting layer on marl pebbles in the springs area in flowing
water. A submerged moss plant in the springs area was partially covered
with a copious mass of the saccoderm desmid, Netrium digitus var. rectum,
(Turner) Krieger (Plate 1, fig. 1). This variety is a new report for
Indiana, however, the species is reportedly common in elevated boggy
moorlands of Europe. Palmogloea protuberans (Sm. & Sow.) Kiitz. (Plate
1, fig. 2), a coccoid form, was found intermingled with various Myxophy-
ceae in gelatinous masses on the Grassy-Sedge Knoll. Vaucheria sp.
(sterile) was abundant in a drainage ditch bordering the north edge of
the raised bog, but was not found on the raised portion.
Myxophyceae
One collection, no. 29^6, composed of Gomphosphaeria lacustris Chod.,
G. aponina Kiitz., Anacystis dimidiata (Kiitz.) Dr. & Da. and Oscillatoria
tenuis var. tergestlna Rabenh., was of unusual interest because it was
found in ponded water scarcely 2-3 inches in depth in one of the spring
pools. G. lacustris is generally an open-water plankter at least in Indiana
and found chiefly in our lakes of glacial origin (4). Here atop the bog,
the irregularly lobed plants are composed of a large number of closely
packed protoplasts, slightly reminiscent of those found in small ponds and
shallow water. The other three species are also found in the open or deep
water, but more generally in shallow water of lakes, ponds and rivers. It
would be interesting if these coccoid species are members of a relict com-
munity and remnants of the now extinct lake.
Calothrix parietina (Nag.) Thur. was found attached to a submerged
board in the flowing water of Spring 1.
The remaining Myxophyceae were collected from the Grassy-Sedge
Knoll on the streamlet bed previously described. They are: Anacystis
thermalis (Menegh.) Dr. & Da. f. thermalis, Coccochloris stagnina Spreng.,
Microcoleus acutissima Gard., M. paludosus (Kiitz.) Gom., Nostoc ellipso-
sporum (Desmaz.) Rabenh., N. foliaceum Moug. (Plate 1, fig. 5), Schizo-
thrix lacustris A. Br., Scytonema mirabile (Dillwyn) Born, and S. invol-
vens Rabenh. (Plate 1, fig. 4). N. foliaceum apparently has not been
reported previously for the United States. On the Grassy-Sedge Knoll it
was found on the streamlet bed as small, foliose, pale green gelatinous
masses. The spongy and lacunose nature of the plants was quite evident.
In collection no. 2957, mature spores are evident and they remain the
chief diagnostic characteristic of the species. Of the four specimens on
file in the Chicago Natural History Museum, only one contains mature
spores (Remiremont, ex herb. Lenormand).
Scytonema involvens, a new report for Indiana, is closely related to
S. crustaceum Rabenh., and F. Drouet believes it may be an ecological
variant of the latter species. King (3) reported S. crustaceum for Wayne
County, Indiana, which adjoins Randolph County.
Chapman lists 38 species for the Urbana raised bog, of which 2 were
charophytes, 3 were Myxophyceae and the remainder were diatoms, Chloro-
Plant Taxonomy 301
phyceae and heterokontae. Many of these occurred in the ditch encircling
the bog.
In this paper, the Cabin Creek Raised Bog algal flora is as follows:
3 charophytes, 14 Myxophyceae, 8 Chlorophyceae and one heterokont. No
efforts were made to collect intensively from the drainage ditches which
partially surround this bog in preparation for this preliminary study.
This study is based upon collections on file in the Ray C. Friesner
Memorial Herbarium, Butler University, and are numbered as follows:
F. K. and W. A. Daily 89, 28 US, 281*5, 291*6-2959, 2961-2964, 2969-2971,
2973-2975, 2977, 2978, 2980-2983, 3006-3008, Tribonema minus coll. by
F. K. Daily; 1+7 IB (Mich.) W. A. & F. K. Daily, Fish Lake, Barry Co.,
Sept. 5, 1955.
Literature Cited
1. Friesner, Ray C. and J. E. Potzger. 1946. The Cabin Creek Raised Bog-, Randolph
County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 8 : 24-43.
2. Chapman, P. B. 1934. The Algae of the Urbana (Ohio) Raised Bog. Ohio Jour. Sci.
34 : 327-332.
3. King, L. J. 1943. A list of Myxophyceae from Wayne County, Indiana. Indiana
Acad. Sci. Proc. 52 :71-81.
4. Daily, W. A. 1959. In search of some blue-green wanderers. Indiana Acad, of Sci.
Proc. 68 : 43-57.
Notes on Vascular Plants of the Cabin Greek Raised Bog
Helene Starcs, Health and Hospital Corp. of Marion County,
Indianapolis
Fifteen years have passed since the publication of The Cabin Creek
Raised Bog, by R. C. Friesner and J. E. Potzger (1). During that period
of time the bog seemed to become drier and to grow over with vegetation,
as observed by Fay K. Daily, Butler University (personal communica-
tion). To check the present vascular flora, the bog was visited repeatedly
in 1961, and plants were collected. I am greatly indebted to the Robert
Holliday family for their hospitality during my field trips. My thanks
are due to Dr. Marion T. Hall, Butler University, and to Mr. Floyd A.
Swink, Morton Arboretum, Lisle, for confirming and identifying my col-
lections. Specimens are deposited at the herbaria of Butler University,
Indiana University and Chicago Natural History Museum. Nomencla-
ture is in accord with Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th ed.
As stated by Friesner and Potzger (1), Cabin Creek Bog is located
in the floodplain of Cabin Creek, 6 miles north of Modoc, Randolph County,
Indiana, along Highway 1. It is a raised bog due to artesian spring water,
high in calcium, with mosses (Drepanocladus), sedges and wood as chief
peat formers. The weakly expressed hydrostatic pressure gives rise to wet
areas favorable to a luxuriant growth of plants, and the accumulating
remains build up a mound to ten feet above the floodplain. Moisture is
derived from springs which give rise to several small streams which flow
from the peat mass. Marl is abundant. There are lime tufa concretions
around the springs and rivulets.
The mound is divided by a central north-south depression and a
drainage ditch into two main parts: the western and the eastern. The
western part has several springy areas, divided by chanels of the rivulets.
On the eastern knoll the water seepage is slower, accumulating in small
pools. The tussocks of sedges are predominant, accompanied by grasses
and showy herbs, many of them prairie species and those of northern
distribution (1). Several colonies of Lilium michiganense were found on
the western springy area, toward the central wooded depression. The
eastern knoll has a large area dominated by Eleocharis rostellata, with
Cacalia tuberosa abundant, and Calopogon pulchellus and Pogonia ophio-
glossoides infrequent. Here William and Fay K. Daily found Drosera
rotundi folia in 1960. It is a northern disjunct in this area, two counties
south of its general distribution in Indiana. Drosera grows on moss
cushions around the pools and seepages. There was no Sphagnum found
in the raised bog. Scirpus validus goes along the rivulets. The springs,
stream beds and the shallow pools have a sod of Rhynchospora capillacea,
with other calciphiles: Triglochin palustris, Scleria verticillata, Juncus
brachycephalus, Eleocharis elliptica, Parnassia glauca, Lobelia Kalmii.
The shrubby cinquef oil (Potentilla fruticosa) is dispersed all over the
mound, especially around the margins. Other shrubs and young trees
also appear invading the open spaces: Salices, Carpinus caroliniana, Rhus
vernix. Previously the trees and shrubs had been kept back by a yearly
burning over. It has not been burned for several years, according to
Robert Holliday (personal communication).
302
Plant Taxonomy
303
The southeastern side of the mound is covered by a tall sedge meadow
(Carex lacustris, C. stricta). West of the raised area there is an open
shrubby marsh toward Highway 1, with tall Carices, Eleocharis calva,
Typha, Sagittaria. On the south, along the highway, it is joined by a
compact reed marsh (Phragmites communis). The northwestern border of
the raised bog proper is marked by an open shrub zone, beyond which
the pasture of the Holliday Farm begins. The central wooded area has
several tall hardwood trees, groups of young trees and an abundance of
shrubs and vines.
New Species for the
On the raised springy areas:
Cyperus rivularis
Scirpus validus var. creber
Eleocharis elliptica
Carex Buxbaumii
C. granularis
C. interior
C. lanuginosa
C. leptalea
C. prairea
C. sterilis
C. stricta
C. tetanica
J uncus Dudley i
Lilium michiganense
Pogonia ophioglossoides
Calopogon pulchellus
Carpinus caroliniana var.
virginiana
Drosera rotundifolia
Epilobium leptophyllum
Southeastern sedge meadow:
Typha latifolia
Eleocharis calva
Carex lacustris
C. lanuginosa
C. prairea
C. stipata
C. stricta
Marsh at the highway:
Typha latifolia
Sagittaria latifolia
Leersia oryzoides
Cyperus rivularis
Eleocharis calva
Carex conjuncta
C. cristatella
C. lacustris
C. stipata
C. stricta
Cabin Creek Raised Bog
Juncus Dudleyi
Epilobium color atum
C. molesta
C. Shortiana
C. stipata
C. tribuloides
C. trichocarpa
Juncus Dudleyi
Carpinus caroliniana v.
virginiana
Anemone canadensis
Iodanthus pinnatifidus
Epilobium coloratum
Colvolvulus sepium
Sambucus canadensis
Verbesina helianthoides
Heliopsis helianthoides
Central wooded area:
Panicum clandestinum
Carex blanda
C. amphibola var. turgida
C. granularis
C. rosea
Arisaema atrorubens
A. Dracontium
Trillium sessile
Smilax lasioneura
S. tamnoides var. hisjnda.
Dioscorea villosa
Juglans nigra
Carpinus caroliniana var.
virginiana
Ostrya virginiana
Celtis occidentalis var. cai
Mortis rubra
Urtica procera
Polygonum cristatum
Anemone virginiana
Iodanthus pinnatifidus
Platanus occidentalis
304 Indiana Academy of Science
Central wooded area (continued): Northwestern shrub zone :
Xanthoxylum americanum Cyperus strigosus
Ptelea trifoliata Carex conjuncta
Vitis riparia C. granularis
Parthenocissus quinquefolia Blephilia hirsuta
Colvolvidus sepium Scrophularia marilandica
Cuscuta Gronovi Sainhucus canadensis
Verbesina helianthoides
Altogether 63 new plant species for the Cabin Creek Raised Bog were
found. Among those are 32 new Randolph County records. This "raised
bog" might be called a fen as understood by Curtis (2) : "A fen is a grass-
land on a wet and springy site, with an internal flow of water rich in
calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. It is to be considered a hybrid
community where the unusual combination of environmental factors has
sorted out and retained suitably adapted species from each of the major
formations as they passed by in postglacial times."
Literature Cited
1. Friesner, Ray C. and J. E. Potzger. 194G. The Cabiu Creek Raised Bog, Randolph
County, Indiana. Butler Un. Botan. Studies 8 : 24-43.
2. Curtis, John T. 1959. The Vegetation of Wisconsin. An Ordination of Plant Com-
munities. The Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Some Aspects of the Diatom Flora of Cabin Greek Raised
Bog, Randolph Co., Indiana
Charles W. Reimer, Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia
This is a brief study of the diatoms from Cabin Creek Raised Bog in
Indiana. To my knowledge it is the only report of diatoms from such an
area in this country other than that of Chapman (1). Chapman listed a
total of nine diatom taxa from the Urbana (Ohio) Raised Bog with a short
note of their occurrence and frequency.
Bogs and raised bogs have been studied from the standpoint of extant
diatoms in Europe with greater frequency, but even there, much work is
yet to be done in separating out the various floristic expressions as they
correlate with the type of bog.
In North America several profile studies of lakes and bogs have been
made with reference to the diatoms. Patrick has published on the diatom
deposits of the Great Salt Lake (31), Linsley Pond, Connecticut (32),
Patschke Bog, Texas (33) and Bethany Bog (34). Hutchinson et al. (12)
have studied the diatom sediments of Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico. In Indiana,
Weaver (46) studied some of the diatoms from a profile of Lakesville Bog.
None of these works, however, deal primarily with the present-day flora
and none are studies of a raised bog.
Materials and Methods
For a detailed description of the origin, history and structure of the
bog the reader is referred to Friesner & Potzger (9) and Daily (5).
Collections for diatoms were made in all three areas mentioned by
Daily (5), viz. Spring #1, Spring #2 and Grassy-sedge Knoll area. The
first two areas are near the summit of the raised portion and the third is
on the eastern slope. This report is restricted to the collection from
Spring #1.
The samples from Spring #1, collected by Mr. W. A. Daily, were
composited and treated as a single sample. One half of the material was
preserved in 3% formalin with no further treatment and retained without
further analysis as "uncleaned material." The remainder was "cleaned"
of organic matter with nitric acid and potassium dichromate, the common
method for diatom "cleaning." Cover slips were placed on a hot plate and
some of the "cleaned" diatom material was added by dropper to these
cover slips. The sample bottle was thoroughly shaken before the dropper
was filled. The material on the cover slips was then allowed to dry under
low heat. The cover slips were then inverted onto a 3" x 1" slide containing
a drop of hyrax. The entire mount was then returned to the hot plate for
about 1 minute to evaporate the hyrax solvent.
For this analysis a single, evenly distributed slide from the com-
posite collection material of Spring #1 was used. The diatoms were
observed under oil immersion by rows, each specimen being identified and
tabulated until a total of approximately 8,300 were counted. Results of
this analysis are given in Table 3.
Results (Floristic)
As is true of most diatom samplings and analyses of this type, a large
number of taxa (about 45% of all taxa observed) were seen only a very
305
306 Indiana Academy of Science
few times (Table 3, Frequency "A"). This pattern is indicated by the
work of Patrick et al. (35). Such a pattern points up the advisability of
doing mass counts in a floristic study.
Table 1 shows the general structure of the diatom population analyzed.
It is clear that there is no direct relationship between the numbers of
TABLE 1. Structure of diatom population analyzed
Number of
Appx. percentage
Genera
subordinate taxa
of population
Achnanthes
8
47
Amphora
2
-1
Anomoeoneis
1
1
Caloneis
5
2
Cocconeis
2
-1
Cymbella
14
■1
Denticula
1
1
Diploneis
3
1
Epithemia
2
-1
Eunotia
3
2
Fragilaria
2
-1
Gomphonema
8
1
Mastogloia
2
-1
Navicula
33
15
Neidium
6
-1
Nitzschia
18
10
Pinnularia
6
2
Rhopalodia
4
-1
Stauroneis
7
-1
Surirella
5
1
Synedra
4
11
subordinate taxa and their percentage representation in the population
analyzed. There is even a suggesion of an inverse relationship between
the two.
Although it is often dangerous to consider the absence of certain
genera as important in such a study, it is well to note that the genera
Cyclotella, Stephanodiscus, Melosira and, in fact, all of the other members
of the order Centrales are lacking from the generic list.
Hustedt (21) notes this phenomenon in a high mountain (swampy)
spring area in Switzerland. Woronikhine (47) lists diatoms found in a
spring area in the Caucasus Mountains. His list shows the same situation
but no particular note is made of the absence of the Centrales.
Also of note in this connection is the very low numbers of species of
Araphidineae. Only 6 taxa are diatoms which have no active means of
locomotion and these are generally considered as epiphytic and rheobionts.
Of the 81 forms found by Hustedt (21) in the spring area, only 3 lacked
the ability of active motion.
A comparison of the diatom population observed (Spring #1) and
those populations observed by others in different habitats is given in
Table 2. Only such studies have been included here in which large num-
bers of extant diatoms have been observed.
Plant Taxonomy
307
TABLE 2. Percentage occurrence (in other floristic studies) of
diatom taxa found in Spring #1, Cabin Creek Raised Bog.1
STREAMS AND RIVERS
Dystrophic
Soft water
Hard water
New Jersey
Assunpink Creek
(95,000)2
25%
California
Sacramento River
(67,000)
28%
Maryland
Potomac River
(60,500)
30%
SPRINGS
SPRINGS
ACID BOGS
pH 3.5-5
Florida (Hohn-11)
Silver Springs
(ca. 300,000)
26%
Denmark (Foged-7)
Danish Springs
(ca. 10,000)
50%
Germany (Niessen-30)
Murnauer Moor
(100 samp.)
23%
LAKES
SALT BOG
MOOR & RAISED
BOGS pH 7-8.5
Switzerland (Hust.-21)
Lakes of Davos
(50 samp.)
40%
Denmark (Foged-6)
Langemose Bog
(8,000)
41%
Germany (Niessen-30)
Murnauer Moor
(100 samp.)
42%
1. Based od approximately 8,300 specimens. Data supplied through courtesy of
Dr. Ruth Patrick, Head, Limnology Department, Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia. 2. Indicates number of specimens counted or number of samples.
We have here some suggestion that the diatom flora in Spring #1 is
more completely represented in the lake, danish spring, neutral to alkaline
bog and raised bog studies. The percentage agreement with river studies
seems relatively low. There is also a low percentage agreement with the
Silver Springs study.
Some of the taxa listed in Table 3 have rather wide-spread occurrence
and are reported for a wide variety of ecological conditions. Most of the
frequently observed species would fit this category. There is one exception
amongst thet common species. That is Navicula tantula Hust. (15). This
taxon was originally observed in Poggenpohls Moor, Germany. Later,
Hustedt (21) found it in two lakes in Switzerland and more recently he
reported it as rare in the Weser River (24). I can find no published
records of its distribution outside of Europe.
Other species in Table 3 seem not to be quite so widely distributed
either ecologically or geographically. Some remarks about a few of
these species might be of interest in a better understanding of the flora
analyzed.
The following notes are taken from some of Hustedt's major floristic
and ecological studies: Cymbella leptoceros — a littoral form especially
numerous in alkaline waters (19) ... found widespread and frequent in
alkaline lakes of subalpine region but absent in acid lakes and lakes with
a wide pH range (24). Cymbella norvegica — found in alpine lakes, a
308
Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE 3. List of diatoms observed
Description and
Citation Illustration Fr
equency
ACHNANTHES
exigua v. heterovalvata Krasske
13
p. 202, textfig. 288
A
flexella (Kiitz) Brun
14
p. 416, textfig. 869
A
lanceolata Breb.
13
p. 207, textfig. 306a
T)
lanceolata v. elliptica CI.
13
p. 208, textfig. 306c
D
lapponiea (Hust.) Hust.
14
p. 414, textfig. 868
1)
microcephala Kiitz.
13
p. 198, textfig. 273
G
minutissima Kiitz.
13
p. 198, textfig. 274
F
A
sp.
AMPHORA
*ovalis Kutz.
13
p. 342, textfig. 628
A
ovalis v. pediculus Kiitz.
L3
p. 343, textfig. 629
A
ANOMOEONEIS
* variabilis (Ross) Reim.
37
p. 194, pi. 1, fig. 7-8
D
CALONEIS
alpestris (Grun.) CI.
13
p. 240, textfig. 372
1)
bacillum (Grun.) Meresch.
13
p. 236, textfig. 360a-c
D
bacillum v. fontinalis Hust.
IS
p. 282, pi. 5, fig. 17-19
A
silicula v. truncatula Grun.
13
p. 238, textfig. 363-364
A
A
sp.
COCCONEIS
diminuta Pant.
13
p. 190, textfig. 265
A
patrickii sp. nov.
A
CYMBELLA
*aspera (Ehr.) CI.
13
p. 365, textfig. 680
A
cesatii (Rabh.) Grun.
13
p. 351, textfig. 638
D
cesatii v. linearis var. nov.
D
hybridiformis Hust.
22
p. 937, pi. 40, fig. 23-25
A
incerta Grun.
1 3
p. 360, textfig. 665
A
laevis Naeg.
13
p. 353, textfig. 643
D
leptoceros (Ehr.) Grun.
13
p. 353, textfig. 645
B
microcephala Grun.
13
p. 351, textfig. 637
B
*naviculiformis Auersw.
13
p. 356, textfig. 653
A
norvegica Grun.
13
p. 359, textfig. 664
B
obtusa f. krasskei Foged
8
p. 56, pi. 11, fig. 5-6
A
turgida (Greg.) CI.
13
p. 358, textfig. 660
C
*ventricosa Kiitz.
13
p. 359, textfig. 661
A
A
sp.
DENTICULA
elegans Kiitz.
13
p. 382, textfig. 725
D
DIPLONEIS
elliptica (Kutz.) CI.
13
p. 250, textfig. 395
A
oculata (Breb.) CI.
13
p. 250, textfig. 392
A
ovalis v. oblongella (Naeg.) CI.
13
p. 249, textfig. 391
D
EPITHEMIA
argus v. protracta A. Mayer
29
p. 100, pi. 6, fig. 15
B
zebra v. saxonica (Kiitz.) Grun.
13
p. 385, textfig. 730
A
Plant Taxonomy
309
Description and
Citation Illustration
Frequency
EUNOTIA
arcus Ehr.
arcus v. bidens Grun.
*lunaris (Ehr.) Grun.
FRAGILARIA
brevistriata v. inflata f . curta Skv.
construens v. venter (Ehr.) Grun.
GOMPHONEMA
angustatum v. intermedia Grun.
angustatum v. producta Grun.
*constrictum Ehr.
intricatum Kiitz.
intricatum v. dichotomum (Kiitz.)
Grun.
*parvulum Kiitz.
subtile v. sagitta (Schum.) Grun.
sp.
MASTOGLOIA
grevillei W. Sm.
smithii v. lacustris Grun.
NAVICULA
amphibola v. polymorpha Fusey
arvensis Hust.
bacilliformis Grun.
bryophila Ostr.
*cryptocephala Kiitz.
cryptocephala f. terrestris Lund
cincta v. leptocephala (Breb.)
Grun.
cincta v. rostrata var. nov.
*cuspidata Kiitz.
dailyi sp. nov.
dicephala v. lata M. Per.
friesneri sp. nov.
graciloides A. Mayer
hustedtii Krasske
indianensis sp. nov.
insociabilis Krasske
minima Grun.
minima v. okamurae Skv.
perpusilla v. distans Cl.-Eul.
potzgeri sp. nov.
potzgeri v. quadripunctata var.
nov.
pupula Kiitz.
pupula v. capitata Hust.
pupula v. mutata (Krasske) Hust.
13 p. 175, textfig. 216 B
13 p. 175, textfig. 217 D
23 p. 70, pi. 2, fig. 11-15 B
40 p. 17, pi. 1, fig. 18
13 p. 141, textfig. 138
43 pi. 24, fig. 47
43 pi. 24, fig. 52-55
43 pi. 23, fig. 6
43 pi. 24, fig. 28-29
43 pi. 24, fig. 30-31
45 textfig. 11-14
43 pi. 23, fig. 27
13 p. 215, textfig. 313
13 p. 217, textfig. 316
10 p. 15, textfig. 67, 68, 69
18 p. 249, pi. 20, fig. 19-20
13 p. 273, textfig. 446
17 pi. 404, fig. 45, 46, 47
13 p. 295, textfig. 496
27 p. 86, textfig. 9H-W
43 pi. 7, fig. 16
13 p. 268, textfig. 433
42 p. 56
13 p. 299, textfig. 515
13 p. 273, textfig. 449
26 p. 114, pi. 3, fig. 17
13 p. 272, textfig. 441-442
41 p. 203, pi. 1, fig. 23
4 p. 168, fig. 848d
13 p. 281, textfig. 467a
13 p. 281, textfig. 467c
13 p. 281, textfig. 467f
A
A
A
A
A
E
A
B
A
A
A
C
B
A
A
B
B
A
D
B
A
A
B
B
B
A
A
B
C
A
A
C
A
E
B
A
310
Indiana Academy of Science
Description and
Citation Illustration Fr
equency
pupula v. rectangularis (Greg.)
Grun.
13
p. 281, textfig. 467b
B
*radiosa Kiitz.
13
p. 299,textfig. 513
A
radiosa v. parva Wallace
44
p. 3, pi. 1, fig. 5
A
radiosa v. tenella (Breb.) Grun.
13
p. 299
D
stroemii Hust.
16
pi. 399, fig. 25-28
B
subhamulata Grun.
18
p. 282, textfig. 468
A
tantula Hust.
in
pi. 399, fig. 54-57
E
sp.
A
sp.
A
NEIDIUM
binodis (Ehr.) Hust.
36
p. 17, pi. 2, fig. 4
C
bisculcatum (Lagerst.) CI.
18
p. 242, textfig. 374
B
bisculcatum v. baicalensis (Skv.)
Reim.
36
p. 18, pi. 2, fig. 2
B
iridis (Ehr.) CI.
13
p. 245, textfig. 379
A
iridis f. vernalis Reichelt
18
p. 245, textfig. 380
A
iridis v. conspicua A. Mayer
28
p. 115, pi. 11, fig. 16
A
NITZSCHIA
^amphibia Grun.
13
p. 414, textfig. 793
C
angustata (W. Sm.) Grun.
18
p. 402, textfig. 767
c
angustata v. acuta Grun.
13
p. 402
A
communis v. obtusa Grun.
43
pi. 69, fig. 33-34
B
denticula Grun.
18
p. 407, textfig. 780
1)
denticula v. abberans Fusey
10
p. 20, textfig. 100
A
dissipata (Kiitz.) Grun.
18
p. 412, textfig. 789
C
frustulum (Kiitz.) Grun.
13
p. 414, textfig. 795
B
hiemalis Hust.
21
p. 223, textfig. 57-59
B
intermedia Hantz.
43
pi. 69, fig. 10
A
kuetzingiana Hilse
13
p. 416, textfig. 802
C
linearis W. Sm.
18
p. 409, textfig. 784
1)
*palea (Kiitz.) W. Sm.
13
p. 409, textfig. 784
E
palea v. tropica Hust.
28
p. 147, pi. 13, fig. 26-29
A
paleoides Hust.
19
p. 483, pi. 41, fig. 11
E
*sigmoidea (Ehr.) W. Sm.
13
p. 419, textfig. 810
A
sp.
A
sp.
A
PINNULARIA
braunii v. amphicephala
(A. Mayer) Hust.
18
p. 319, textfig. 578
B
gibba v. mesogongyla (Ehr.) Hust.
18
p. 327, textfig. 603
n
microstauron (Ehr.) CI.
18
p. 320, textfig. 582
A
:':streptoraphe CI.
13
p. 337, textfig. 620
A
undulata v. subundulata Grun.
13
p. 315
A
*viridis (Nitz.) Ehr.
18
p. 334, textfig. 617a
B
RHOPALODIA
gibba (Ehr.) 0. Mull.
18
p. 390, textfig. 740
A
gibba v. parallela (Ehr.) 0. Mull.
43
pi. 32, fig. 3
B
Plant Taxonomy
311
Description and
Citation Illustration
Frequency
gibberula v. vanHeurckii 0. Mull.
musculus (Kiitz.) O. Mull.
STAURONEIS
acuta W. Sm.
*anceps Ehr.
ignorata Hust.
ignorata v. rupestris (Skv.) Reim.
norvegica Hust.
phoenicenteron v. amphilepta
(Ehr.) CI.
smithii Grun.
SURIRELLA
linearis v. constricta (Ehr.) Grun.
robusta Ehr.
spiralis Kiitz.
tenera Greg.
tenera v. nervosa A. Mayer
SYNEDRA
amphicephala v. intermedia
Cl.-Eul.
parasitica W. Sm.
parasitica v. subconstricta Grun.
*ulna (Nitz.) Ehr.
13 p. 391, textfig. 744 A
13 p. 392, textfig. 745 A
13 p. 259, textfig. 415 A
25 p. 772, textfig. 1120a B
37 p. 201, pi. 2, fig. 7 A
37 p. 202, pi. 2, fig. 8 A
25 p. 795, textfig. 1141 A
3 p. 149 A
25 p. 810, textfig. 1157a-c C
13 p. 434, textfig. 839 D
13 p. 438, textfig. 850 A
13 p. 445, textfig. 870 B
13 p. 438, textfig. 853 A
13 p. 439, textfig. 854 B
13 p. 161, textfig. 195 C
13 p. 161, textfig. 196 F
13 p. 151, textfig. 158-159 A
Key to frequencies
* Previously reported for Indiana.
A — 1-5 specimens observed
B — 6-20 specimens observed
C — 21-50 specimens observed
D — 51-150 specimens observed
E — 151-500 specimens observed
F — 501-1000 specimens observed
nordic-alpine species. In Germany it has been found only in the Riesenge-
birge and in springs of Tyrol. Mastogloia grevillei — it is frequent as a
littoral species in alpine lakes (14). Mastogloia smithii var. lacustris —
frequent as a littoral form in fresh water lakes . . . generally favors
standing waters but in Europe sometimes found in springs and brooks
(19). Navicula insociabilis — an aerophilous species especially in springs
and swamps at a pH of 5.5-8.0 with maximum development around pH
7.0 (19). Pinnularia braunii var. amphicephala — the species is acidophi-
lus. In contrast to the species, however, var. amphicephala is frequent at
pH's of 7.5 and at higher temperatures (19) . Stauroneis smithii — in North
Germany the species is certainly alkaliphilous. It is missing in acid lakes
but very widespread in alkaline ones. Likewise in the alpine lakes it
prefers alkaline waters. The species can certainly be characterized as
alkaliphilous even if here and there it is found in more or less weakly
acid water (24).
Results (Systematic)
The diatoms included in this section are considered as new taxa.
Other forms were observed which may have been new, but they have been
312 Indiana Academy of Science
excluded from this section and merely listed in Table 3 as "sp." since clear
observation of the valve features was not possible.
The following data applies to all of the new taxa:
Type locality: Indiana, Randolph Co., Cabin Creek Raised Bog,
6 miles north of Modoc ; artesian rivulet at summit of bog.
Collection #2835A of W. A. Daily, July 9, 1960.
Illustration slides: All illustrations were taken from the same
preparation which is deposited in the Diatom Herbarium of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in the
General Collection with the designation: ANSP-GC 45669.
Holotypes: The holotypes for all of the following new taxa are
here designated as being on the above slide.
Sub-order : Monoraphidineae
Family: Achnanthaceae
Sub-family: Cocconeioideae
Cocconeis patrickii sp. nov. pi. 1, fig. 7A, 7B
Valva elliptica. Valva cum raphe: Area axiali et raphe sigmoid. Area
centrali parva, ovata. Valva sine raphe : Area axiali angustalanceolata,
diagonalis, non clare sigmoid. Area centrali non clare diversa ab area
axiali. Striis diagonalibus, punctatis tenuiter. Longitudo 10-19 mu, lati-
tudo circa 5 mu, striis (valva cum raphe) 28 in 10 mu ad 34 in 10 mu
prope apices; striis (valva sine raphe) 26 in 10 mu ad 32 in 10 mu prope
apices; punctis 33-36 in 10 mu.
Valve elliptical. Raphe-valve with sigmoid axial area and raphe.
Central area small, oval. Pseudo-raphe-valve with narrow lanceolate axial
area, diagonal, but not distinctly sigmoid. No distinct central area. Striae
on both valves diagonal, very finely punctate, curved. Length 10-19 mu;
width about 5 mu; striae on raphe-valve 28 in 10 mu at center becoming
34 in 10 mu at ends; striae on pseudo-raphe-valve 26 in 10 mu at center
becoming about 32 in 10 mu at ends; puncta about 33 to 36 in 10 mu.
This taxon is similar to Eucocconeis elliptica Savelj-Dolgowa (38)
but is smaller, has mostly curved-diagonal striae and a more straight
pseudo-raphe. It also resembles Cocconeis diruptoides Hust. (14) but,
again, is narrower and has more diagonally displaced striae which are not
distinctly punctate as in C. diruptoides.
This diatom is named in honor of the well-known limnologist-diato-
mist Dr. Ruth Patrick, Head, Limnology Department, Academy of Natural
explanation of plate figures
Fig. 1 Navicula cincta var. rostrata vai*. nov.
2 " friesneri sp. nov.
3 " dailyi sp. nov.
4 " indianensis sp. nov.
5 " potzgeri sp. nov.
6 " " var. quadripunctata var. nov.
7A Cocconeis patrickii sp. nov. (raphe-valve)
7B " " " " (psendoraphe-valve)
The plate figures were made by Miss Helen Wu, Limnology Department, Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
Plant Taxonomy
313
o
o
o
o
o
314 Indiana Academy of Science
Sciences of Philadelphia to whom I express my great appreciation for
having stimulated my interest in diatoms. Dr. Patrick also very kindly
reviewed this manuscript and offered several helpful suggestions.
Sub-order : Biraphidineae
Family: Naviculaceae
Sub-family: Naviculoideae
Navicula cincta var. rostrata var. nov. pi. 1, fig. 1
Apicibus angustis, protractis, rostratis. Longitudo 28-32 mu, lati-
tudo 6 mu, striis 14 in 10 mu.
Valve with narrow, protracted-rostrate ends. Length 28-32 mu ; width
6 mu, striae 14 in 10 mu.
The nominate variety has attenuate ends not distinctly set-off from
the valve body which makes it easily distinguishable from var. rostrata.
The var. leptocephala has some suggestion of distinct ends but they are
not protracted and rostrate as in this variety.
Navicula daily i sp. nov. pi. 1, fig. 3
Valva lineari, apicibus cuneatis. Area axiali angusta, lineari. Area
centrali parva aut non clare dissimili ab area axiali. Raphe filiformi,
apicibus distalibus versis in eodem cursu. Striis lineatis tenuiter, parallelis
in media parte valvae, radiatis ad apices. Longitudo 20-22 mu, latitudo
circa 8 mu, striis 11 in 10 mu ad 15 in 10 mu prope apices.
Valve linear with cuneate ends. Axial area narrow, linear. Central
area very small, irregular, or lacking completely. Raphe filiform, distal
ends curving in same direction. Striae parallel in center becoming radiate
toward ends, finely lineate. Length 20-22 mu, width about 8 mu, striae
11 in 10 mu at center, 15 in 10 mu near ends.
This taxon is most similar in shape to N. ocallii Hohn (11), but is
distinguished by the much smaller central area, parallel central striae
and radiate terminal striae, the opposite of which is true of N. ocallii.
It is best distinguished from N. destricta Hust (20) by the coarse
striae (Hustedt gives 24 in 10 mu). It differs from N. gradata Hust (18)
by having more narrow, pointed ends and being about one-half as wide.
The extremely radiate striae of N. medica Skv. (40) eliminate it from
that taxon.
This diatom is named for the well known Indiana phycologist and
former president of the Indiana Academy, Mr. W. A. Daily, who made
the collections from Cabin Creek Raised Bog which formed a basis for
this paper. I wish to express my thanks to him for his many kindnesses.
Navicula friesneri sp. nov. pi. 1, fig. 2
Valva lineari, margine undulata exliter; apicibus valvae latis ros-
tratis vel subcapitatis. Area axiali angusta, lineari. Area centrali parva,
orbiculari aut non clare dissimili ab area axiali. Raphe filiformi, apicibus
proximalibus propinquis, apicibus distalibus versus in eodem cursu. Striis
punctatis-lineatis, parallelis, convenientibus prope apicibus. Longitudo
19-24 mu, latitudo 3.5 mu, striis 22-24 in 10 mu.
Valve linear with slightly undulate margins and broadly rounded
rostrate to sub-capitate ends. Axial area narrow, linear. Central area
Plant Taxonomy 315
very small, circular, or lacking completely. Raphe filiform, proximal ends
close, distal ends hooking slightly in same direction. Striae punctate-
lineate, parallel except at the ends where they become convergent. Length
19-24 mu, width 3.5 mil, striae 22-24 in 10 mu.
This taxon is similar to N. nympharum Hust. (18) in general appear-
ance. It does not, however, have longitudinal axial furrows characteristic
of N. nympharum. In N. friesneri the striae are coarser (Hustedt gives
30 in 10 mu for his species), convergent at the ends and parallel through-
out the remainder of the valve, not radiate at the ends and near the center
as in Hustedt's species.
This diatom is named in honor of the late Dr. R. C. Friesner, former
Head of the Botany Department, Butler University, under whom I was
privileged to study. Dr. Friesner and Dr. J. E. Potzger were the first to
make an intensive botanical investigation of this raised bog.
Navicula indianensis sp. nov. pi. 1, fig. 4
Valva lineari, margine triundulata subtiliter, apicibus latis, obtuse
rotundatis. Area axiali angusta, lineari. Costa longitudinali axiali mani-
f este, intermissis ad area centraliam. Area centrali parva, oblonga. Raphe
filiformi, apicibus distalibus versus in eodem cursu. Striis radiatis in
media parte valvae, convenientibus prope apices. Costis transversalibus
in apices inter se N. pupula. Longitudo 25-29 mu, latitudo circa 4.5 mu,
striis 24 in 10 mu, in media parte valvae, residuus 36-39 in 10 mu.
Valve linear with slightly undulate sides and blunt, broadly rounded
extremities. Axial area narrow-linear with accompanying longitudinal
ribs which are interrupted by the central area. Central area small, oblong.
Raphe filiform, distal ends curved in same direction. Striae radiate,
becoming convergent at the ends. Striae in center of valve distinct, above
and below which they become suddenly fine and difficult to resolve. Heavy
transverse ribs at the ends as in N. pupula. Length 25-29 mu, width about
4.5 mu, striae 24 in 10 mu at center then abruptly 36-39 in 10 mu.
This species resembles N. micropupula Choln. (2) but is distinguished
by having convergent (not radiate) striae at the ends and longitudinal
ribs on either side of the raphe. It is excluded from the puputa-complex
on the basis of the convergent striae at the ends.
Navicula potzgeri sp. nov. pi. 1, fig. 5
Valva lineari, apicibus protractis, rostratis ad sub-capitatis. Pseudo-
septis praesentibus in valvam circa Mj longitudinem apicium. Area axiali
angusta, lineari, amplificante ad area centrali. Area media dilatata
transverse in fasciam quae paene attingit margines valvae. Raphe fili-
formi, apicibus distalibus versus in eodem cursu. Striis punctatis, radiatis
leniter in media parte valvae, parallelis ad apices. Longitudo 18-30 mu,
latitudo 4-4.5 mu, striis 19-22 in 10 mu, puncta 24-26 in 10 mu.
Valve linear with protracted rostrate to sub-capitate ends. Pseudo-
septa at ends extending barely % the length of ends. Axial area narrow,
essentially linear, expanding somewhat toward center. Central area trans-
versely expanded, rectangular, irregularly bordered at the margins by a
few very short striae. Raphe filiform, distal ends curving in same direc-
tion. Striae distinctly punctate, radiate in center becoming parallel at the
316 Indiana Academy of Science
ends. Length 18-30 mu, width 4-4.5 rau, striae 19-22 in 10 mu, puncta
24-26 in 10 mu.
Hustedt's N. septata (20) has the same general features as this
diatom but has strongly radiate striae throughout and a smaller central
area than N. potzgeri. Fusey (10) describes a N. jurassensis which is
also similar. It has, however, a broad raphe and lacks a pseudoseptum.
This species is named in honor of my former professor, the late Dr.
J. E. Potzger, botanist and plant ecologist at Butler University, who
pioneered the field of palynology in this country and who, in collaboration
with Dr. R. C. Friesner, did a very comprehensive profile study of the
Cabin Creek Raised Bog.
Navicula potzgeri var. quadripunctata var. nov. pi. 1, fig. 6
Valva margine raphe, striis, area axiali quam descripta speciei. Area
centrali cum quattuor punctis distinctis, duo utrobique raphe, ordinatis
formare figuram orthogoniam parvam. Longitudo 19-22 mu, latitudo 4
mu, striis 19-20 in 10 mu, puncta 22-24 in 10 mu.
Differs from the nominate variety by the presence of four isolated
puncta at the center, one each on both sides of the proximal raphe-ends
forming a rectangle. Length 19-22 mu, width 4 mu, striae 19-20 in 10 mu,
puncta 22-24 in 10 mu.
Family: Cymbellaceae
Sub-family : Cymbelloideae
Cymbella cesati var. linearis var. nov. pi. 1, fig. 8
Valva linearis, apicibus protractis, capitatis. Longitudo 24-30 mu,
latitudo circa 5 mu, striis 20-21 in 10 mu, 24 in 10 mu prope apices.
Valve linear with protracted capitate ends. Length 24-30 mu, width
about 5 mu, striae 20-21 in 10 mu, 24 in 10 mu near apices.
This diatom is smaller and has a different shape than var cesati. The
nominate variety is narrow-lanceolate with indistinctly set-off ends.
There are also certain similarities between this diatom and C. broen-
lundensis Foged (8), but the distal raphe-ends of var. linearis make it
easily distinguishable from Foged's species and align it closely with C.
cesati (Rabh.) Grun.
Discussion
In general, the flora observed here is composed of several segments
which seem to show up most frequently in certain springs, alkaline lakes
and circumneutral to alkaline bogs.
A sample of water taken from Spring #1 in April, 1961 showed a
total hardness of 376 ppm and a calcium hardness of 242 ppm. The pH
was 6.9. On May 28, 1961 the springs were revisited by Mr. and Mrs.
Daily who recorded in the field a pH of 6.9 and a water temperature of
52 degrees F. At about 2 to 3 feet from the bubbling source the pH was
7.2 and at 15 feet from the source the pH was 7.1.
This data, although rather meager, does tie in with the indications
from general distribution data that the habitat is a rather stable, neutral
to alkaline hard water one. Most of the species in the spring for which
data from the literature was available were listed as "alkaliphilous"
species.
Plant Taxonomy 317
The relatively low percentage of species in the genus Nitzschia is
probably indicative of an oligosaprobic-type situation in which very little
organic matter is present.
Even from this introductory study, one is tempted to consider that
the presence of several more typically lake and lake-shore diatom species
in the spring area may have some correlation with the original post-glacial
impoundment or lake. Could these forms be remnants of the original open-
water area having survived because of an adaptability to the change in
environment? The absence of most non-motile and unattached forms
might possibly be explained on this basis.
Although present in an open-water situation they would not be able
to survive a flowing-water habitat, but the benthic, attached forms and
the highly motile ones would. The very few remaining slower water micro-
habitats could possibly support some planktonic elements but their num-
bers in relation to the total growth would be very small. The low percentage
of Cabin Creek diatoms found in Silver Springs may bear some relation-
ship to the non-lake origin of the latter.
Hustedt (21) hypothecates that the non-motile forms are very scarce
in spring and lake areas in the high mountains of Switzerland because of
their inability to invade from downstream. This presents a second possi-
bility which must be considered; that is, that the invasion proceeded on
the bog from downstream areas.
This is possible, but seems unlikely for Cabin Creek (into which the
bog rivulets drain) does not flow through what can be considered a lake
district and so the sources for lacustrine diatoms would not be available.
Summary
1. The diatom flora of Spring #1, Cabin Creek Raised Bog, was studied,
approximately 8,300 diatoms being observed.
2. A total of 135 taxa representing 21 genera were recorded from the
composite sample.
3. The occurrence of the taxa observed is correlated with other studies.
The structure of the diatom population from Spring #1 showed great-
est similarity to that of certain other spring areas, neutral to alkaline
lakes and circumneutral to alkaline bogs. There was considerably less
agreement with the flora of streams, rivers and one spring area in
Florida.
4. Floristically the rivulet at Spring #1 reflects a neutral to alkaline
hard water situation, in agreement with the chemical data available
(pH 6.9-7.1, total hardness 376 ppm., Ca hardness 242 ppm.).
5. The relatively low representation of Nitzschia probably indicates an
oligosaprobic condition.
6. The diatom association at Spring #1 has no Centrales and has but a
meager representation of Arayyhidineae. This, together with other
ecMogical evidence for many other species present suggests the possi-
bility that the present diatom flora has remnants of the old open-water
area of Cabin Creek Valley which developed after the Early Wisconsin
glaciation.
7. Of the total diatom flora reported here there are 5 species and 3
varieties described as new. A total of 117 taxa are new records for
Indiana.
318 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Chapman, P. B. 1934. The algae of the Urhana (Ohio) raised bog. Ohio Jour. Sci.
34(5) : 327-332.
2. Cholnoky, B. J. 1057. Uber die Diatomeenflora einiger Gewasser in den Magalies-
Bergen nahe Rustenburg (Transvaal). Bot. Notiser 110(3) : 353. fig. 61-63.
3. Cleve, P. T. 1894. Synopsis of the naviculoid diatoms. K. Svenska Vet. Akad.
Ilandl. 26(2) : 194.
4. Cleve-Eulee, A. 1953. Die Diatonieen von Schweden und Finnland. K. Svenska
Vet. Akad. Ilandl. Fjare Serien. 4(5) : 168, fig. 848d.
5. Daily, W. A. 1961. Some Algae of the Cabin Creek Raised Bog, Randolph County,
Indiana. Indiana Acad, of Sci. Proc. 71 : 298-301.
6. Foged, N. 1949. Diatoms in the salt bog of Langemose in East Funen. Dansk Bot.
Arkiv. 13(6) : 31 pp.
7. Foged, N. 1951. The diatom flora ot* some danish springs. Natura Jutlandicae
4 : 1-84.
8. Foged, N. 1953. Diatoms from West Greenland. Medd. om Gronland. 147(10) : 1-86.
9. Fkiesner, R. C. and J. E. Potzgek. 1946. The Cabin Creek Raised Bog, Randolph
County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 8 : 24-43.
10. Fusey, M. P. 1948. Contribution a la flore algologique du Jura ; I. Florule algo-
logique de la tourbiere de Frasne (Doubs). Rev. Gen. Bot. 55: 1-22.
11. IIohn, M. II. 1961. The relationship between species diversity and population
density in diatom populations from Silver Springs, Florida. Trans. Amer. Micros.
Soc. 80 : 140-165.
12. Hutchinson, G. E., Ruth Patrick and E. S. Deevev 1956. Sediments of Lake
Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Mexico. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 87 : 1491-1504.
13. Hustedt, F. 1930. Bacillariophyta (Diatomeae). In Pascher : Die Sfisswasser-
Flora Mitteleuropas. 10(2) : 1-466.
14. Hustedt, F. 1933. Die Kieselalgen. In Rabenhorst : Kryptogamen-Flora von
Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. 7(2) : 321-576.
15. Hustedt, F. 1934. Die Diatomeen-Flora von Poggenpohls Moor bei Dotlingen in
Oldenburg. Bremer Wiss. Ges., Abh. und Vortrage. 8 : 362-403.
16. Hustedt, F. 1934. A. Schmidt's Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde. pi. 399.
17. Hustedt, F. 1937. A. Schmidt's Atlas der Diatomaceenkunde. pi. 404.
18. Hustedt, F. 1937. Systematische und okologische Untersuchungen fiber die Dia-
tomeen-Flora von Java, Bali and Sumatra. Arch, ffir Hydrobiol. Suppl. 15 : 187-295.
19. Hustedt, F. 1938. Systemstische und okologische Untersuchungen fiber die Dia-
tomeen-Flora von Java, Bali und Sumatra. Arch, ffir Hydrobiol. Suppl. 15 : 393-506.
20. Hustedt, F. 1942. Sttsswasser-Diatomeen des indomaylayischen Archipels und der
Hawaii-Inseln. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. und Hydrogr. 42(1) : 54, 64.
21. Hustedt, P. 1943. Die Diatomeen-Flora einiger Hochgebirgseen der Landschaft
Davos in den Schweizer Alpen. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. und Hydrogr. 43(2.4) : 124-
197, 225-280.
22. Hustedt, F. 1945. Diatomeen aus Seen und Quellgebieten der Balkan-Halbinsel.
Arch, ffir Hydrobiol. 40(4) : 867-973.
23. Hustedt, F. 1949. Sfisswasser-Diatomeen aus dem Albert-Nationalpark in Bel-
gisch-Kongo. In : Exploration du Tare National Albert Mission H. Damas (1935-
1936)8 : 199pp. Brussells, Belgium.
24. Hustedt, F. 1957. Die Diatomeenflora des Flusssystems der Weser im Gebiet der
Hansestadt Bremen. Abh. Naturw. Ver. Bremen. 34(3) : 181-440.
25. Hustedt, F. 1959. Die Kieselalgen. In Rabenhorst : Kryptogamen-Flora von
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26. Krasske, G. 1932. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Diatomeenflora der Alpen. Hedwigia.
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27. Lund, J. W. G. 1946. Observations on soil algae : II Ecology, size and taxonomy
of British soil diatoms. New Phytol. 45(1) : 56-110.
Plant Taxonomy 319
28. Mayer, A. 1913. Baclllariaceen der regensburger Gewasser. Ber. Naturw. Ver.
Regensburg. 14 : 1-364.
29. Mayer, A. 1936. Die bayerisehen Epithemien. Denkschr. Bayerischen Bot. Gesell.
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31. Patrick, R. 193G. Some diatoms of Great Salt Lake. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 63 : 157-
166, lpl.
32. Patrick, R. 1943. The diatoms of Lindsley Pond, Connecticut. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia 95 : 53-110, 2pl.
33. Patrick, R. 1946. Diatoms from Patschke Bog, Texas. Not. Nat. 170 : 17.
34. Patrick, R. 1954. The diatom flora of Bethany Bog. Jour. Protozol. 1 : 34-37.
35. Patrick, R., M. H. Hohn and J. H. Wallace 1954'. A new method for determining
the pattern of the diatom flora. Not. Nat. 259 : 1-12.
36. Reimer, C. W. 1959. The diatom genus Neidium: I-New species, new records and
taxonomic revisions. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 111 : 1-35.
37. Reimer, C. W. 1961. New and variable taxa of the diatom genera Anomoeoneis
Pfitz. and Stauroneis Ehr. from the United States. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-
phia 113(9) : 187-214.
38. Saweljewa-Dolgowa, A. J. 1925. Materialen zur Kenntnis der Bacillariaceen-
Flora des Bassins des Flusses Oka im Murom-Gebiete (in Russia). Raboty Okskoi
Biologicheskoi Stantsii (Arb. Biol. Oka-Stat.) 3(2) : 47.
39. Skvortzow, B. W. 1935. Diatoms from Calcutta, India. Phil. Jour. Sci. 58(2) : 184,
pi. 1, fig. 25.
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Jour. Sci. 61(1) : 9-74.
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Island, Nippon. Phil. Jour. Sci. 62(2) : 191-218.
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Archacon (Gironde), France.
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44. Wallace, J. H. 1960. New and variable diatoms. Not. Nat. 331 : 1-0
45. Wallace, J. H. and Ruth Patrick. 1950. A consideration of Gomphonema parvu-
lum Kiitz. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 9 : 227-234.
40. Weaver, J. R. 1948. Fossil diatoms from Lakeville Bog, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot.
Stud. 8 : 126-138.
47. Woronikhine, N. N. 1927. Materiuax pour l'etude de la flore algologique et des
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Hoot Woods, A Remnant of Virgin Timber, Owen County,
Indiana
Robert 0. Petty and Alton A. Lindsey, Wabash College
and Purdue University
Introducton
Few examples remain of the presettlement forest of Indiana. Rem-
nants, however small, which have been protected from decimation, are
increasingly difficult to find outside of the heavily trampled acreage of
our state parks. When such an area is discovered it is important botani-
cally that a detailed description of it be added to our scant record of the
original vegetation of the midwest.
The virgin stand reported in this paper is owned by the heirs of the
late George and Bertha Hoot. The authors express their gratitude to
Anne, Alice and Robert Hoot for permission to conduct the study.
Location and Description of the Area
Hoot Woods is located approximately 3 miles northwest of the town
of Freedom, Owen County, Indiana. The stand occupies 64 acres of a
gentle east-facing slope which is drained by a small intermittent stream.
The area is on the eastern edge of the Crawford Upland described by
Malott (6) and was subjected to Illinoian glaciation and mild subsequent
erosion. A few trees have been removed over the years; these primarily
from the northern end of the stand. In all other respects the woods has
been undisturbed with the natural processes of competitive development,
windthrow, gap replacement and decay allowed to operate. Soil support-
ing the timber is a highly melanized podsolic type having a thick, loose
mull humus which grades into an A horizon relatively high in potassium
and phosphorus. Soil pH varies between 5.0 and 5.5. Texture analysis of
ten samples throughout the tract averaged 28% clay, 68% silt and 4%
gravel-sand (these determinations were made by the Bouyoucos hydro-
meter method) .
Vegetation Analysis
In the summer of 1961, a rectangular segment of the stand, 17 acres
in area, was fully tallied and the corners marked with steel posts to allow
future reference and the study of subsequent change. All trees four inches
dbh were tallied and their diameters recorded to the nearest one tenth
inch as measured by standard diameter tapes (Table 1). From these data,
relative basal area per acre and relative density were determined for each
species (Table 2). Species nomenclature follows Fernald (3).
Stand Attributes
Twenty-two tree species were recorded with 1,263 individuals above
4 inches dbh, giving a density per acre of 73 stems. This density correlates
with the stands of greatest maturity described by Griffin (4) and confirms
the Hoot Woods' relatively undisturbed condition. Griffin relates stands
having 80 or less stems per acre to an age in excess of 150 years, which
predates settlement of this region of the state. The stand is clearly domi-
nated by beech (Fagns grandifolia) having a density per acre of 32, with
sugar maple (Acer saccharum) expressing a co-dominance with 23 stems
320
Plant Taxonomy
321
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Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE II. Stand Attributes
Species
D2
D3
B,
B3
V3
Fagus grandifolia
30.3
41.5
63.40
46.5
44.0
Acer saccharum
23.8
32.6
41.42
30.4
31.5
Liriodendron tulipifera
6.3
8.6
14.76
10.8
9.7
Fraxinus americana
2.5
3.4
4.60
3.4
3.4
Sassafras albidum
2.0
2.1
1.98
1.5
2.1
Ulmus fulva
1.4
1.9
1.81
1.3
1.6
Prunus serotina
0.87
1.19
1.40
1.02
1.1
Quercus rubra
0.52
0.71
1.33
0.97
0.84
Ulmus americana
0.92
1.26
0.31
0.22
0.74
Fraxinus penn. var. Ian.
0.52
0.71
0.98
0.71
0.71
Quercus Muehlenbergii
0.23
0.31
1.51
1.1
0.70
Nyssa sylvatica
0.81
1.11
0.20
0.14
0.62
Carya cordiformis
0.52
0.71
0.59
0.43
0.57
Celtis occidentalis
0.52
0.71
0.54
0.39
0.55
Quercus alba
0.55
0.47
0.52
0.38
0.47
Juglans nigra
0.23
0.31
0.27
0.19
0.25
Carya ovata
0.29
0.39
0.24
0.17
0.23
Juglans cinerea
0.23
0.31
0.14
0.10
0.20
Carpinus caroliniana
0.17
0.23
0.02
0.01
0.16
Carya glabra
0.125
0.16
0.01
0.007
0.08
C. laciniosa
0.06
0.08
0.01
0.007
0.04
Ostrya virginiana
0.06
0.08
0.006
0.004
0.04
per acre. Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and white ash (Fraxinus
americana) ranked third and fourth. Many of the trees measured with an
Abney level exceeded 120 feet in height (Plate II). Thirty-three stems
were greater than 30 inches dbh, notable of which was a yellow oak
(Quercus Muehlenbergii), 46.5 inches dbh (Plate II-4). Beech also con-
tributed the greatest basal area per acre (Plate 1-2). Numerical expres-
sion of density and basal area are presented in Table 2. Attribute symbols
are those of Lindsey (5) : D2, density per acre; D3, relative density; Bi,
basal area; B2, basal area per acre; B3, relative basal area; V3, importance
value, in this instance the average of the D3 and B3 figures.
Phytosociological Considerations
The Hoot Woods lies in a tension zone between the beech-maple type
extending northeast, east and southeast and an arm of oak-hickory
type; these communities were described by Braun (1). The stand's cur-
rent development affiliates it with the beech-maple dominated mixed-
mesophytic system. The nature of this regional type, dominated so clearly
by beech and its frequent co-dominant, sugar maple, has been reported
extensively for Indiana by the late John E. Potzger, Ray C. Friesner and
their students (9), (10), (11), (12), both as it occurs today in isolated
mature secondary stands and as depicted by the systematic records of the
original land surveys of 1819-1830. Petty (7) has recently related a con-
temporary virgin stand in Parke County, both to the regional forest
complex and to the original land survey records of 1820. In his study,
and in Potzger's data, beech and maple dominate the size classes below
Plant Taxonomy
323
30-36 inches dbh, while white oak and tulip poplar contribute the larger
diameters, being conspicuously reduced in the lower size classes. This is
true of tulip poplar and yellow oak in the Hoot stand.
Plate II
(1
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Typical tulip poplar and beech in the Hoot Woods. Man gives scale.
Stems of white ash damaged by recent localized tornado. Note the
extent of crown opening, providing a niche for opportunizing intol-
erant species, e.g. tulip poplar, sassafras and wild black cherry,
in addition to the previously established seedlings of the tolerant
genera. Man gives scale.
Yellow oak (Quercics Muehlenbergil), 42 inches dbh.
Yellow oak, 46.2 inches dbh.
Aspect of clear-length ; a typical group. Many individuals exceed
120 ft. in height ; 60 and 90 ft. to the first limb. Man gives scale.
324
Indiana Academy of Science
8 II 14 17 20 23 26 29 32 35
DIAMETER SIZE CLASS MID POINTS IN INCHES
38 41
30
-
20
10
Fg
As
Lt
Fa
Ss Other
MEAN BASAL AREA
Plate I
(1) Graph showing size class distribution for the four most important species.
(2) Basal area per acre of the five most important species: density (D2) plotted
against mean basal area per tree determines the area of the rectangle. Fg refers
to Fagus grandifolia ; As, Acer saccharum ; Lt, Liriodendron tulipifera ; Fa.
Praxinus americana ; Ss Sassafras albidum ; plus all other species combined.
Plant Taxonomy 325
The most typical serai pattern, following extensive cutting in west-
central Indiana, is a progression from second growth oak (predominantly
white, red and black) to oak-maple (chiefly Acer saccharmn, but on
some sites Acer nibmim) to maple-oak, and with increased mesic condi-
tioning of the seedling environment, beech accomplishes ecesis, gradually
resulting in maple-beech, with the eventual shift to beech dominated
mixed-mesophytic hardwoods. The oaks are rarely completely eliminated
during climax equilibration. A few of the species of oak (Quercus
alba, Q. rubra, Q. Muehlenbergii and even Q. velutina) and the hickories
(predominantly Carya glabra, C. ovata, C. laciniosa and C. cordiformis)
continue to ecize under natural release conditions of windthrow and death
removal of a canopy area. In many localities of Indiana, chiefly in the
unglaciated portion, drought cycles and general moisture regime retard
mesic conditioning and maintain the oak, oak-hickory or oak-maple phase
in the more xeric edaphic equilibrium. Stands within this region were
also described by Potzger (8).
It should perhaps be pointed out that while it is possible to charac-
terize small isolated stands as continuous or discontinuous with a proposed
regional type, both vegetationally and microclimatically, it is important
to remember that contemporary vegetational distributions within phyto-
sociological patterns cannot be explained solely by means of environmental
parameters. The causation of our contemporary patterns is at best im-
perfectly interpreted due to our scant knowledge of post-Pleistocene
population centers, rates of segregation and the more specific invasion
radii.
In the Hoot Woods, as in many mature stands in Indiana, white oak
is probably somewhat under-represented due to extensive selection of this
species by the lumber industry (adjacent to the stand is an even-aged
second-growth of 3 or 4 acres which is comprised of a rapidly moving
midseral oak complex dominated by white oak). If, however, we accept
the aforementioned characterization of serai pattern, then the selective
cutting of oak since early settlement days (which left depressurized places
for beech, maple, ash and other mesic components) simply augmented a
natural process.
Despite notoriously low germination percentages, the abundant seed
source and rapid growth rate of tulip poplar, together with sufficient
windthrow, clearings, abandoned fields, etc. has maintained this intolerant
species as a major climax associate, frequently ranking third after beech
and maple as it does in the Hoot Woods. Periodic disturbance in the stand
has also allowed the maintenance of such intolerant species as sassafras
and wild black cherry (Primus serotina) in the dominant complex, rank-
ing fifth and seventh respectively in importance value (V3, Table II).
This natural process of gap replacement is frequently under-emphasized.
High prevalence of natural canopy opening by death removal can be a
major selective factor in the maintenance of seedling environments, which
are the ultimate immediate determiners of species composition in the
mature stratum (Plate II-2).
Should the Hoot Woods continue to survive the pressures of civiliza-
tion, the dominant expression of beech should increase with increased
trends toward equilibration of the soil, climate and vegetation.
326 Indiana Academy of Science
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Mr. Joseph Ludlow, senior botany major
at Wabash College, for his assistance in the field.
Literature Cited
1. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Blakiston, Co.
2. Blewett, M. B. and J. E. Potzger. 1950. The forest primeval of Marion and
Johnson Counties, Indiana, in 1819. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 10 : 40-52.
3. Febnald, M. L. 1950. Gray's Manual of Botany. 8th ed. New York : Amer. Book Co.
4. Griffin, C. D. 1948. A study of abundance of stems per acre in relation to age of
stand. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 8 : 219-232.
5. Lindsey, A. A. 1956. Sampling- methods and community attributes iu forest ecol-
ogy. Forest Sci. 2(4) : 287-296.
6. Malott, C. A. 1922. Handbook of Indiana Geology (sect. The physiography of
Indiana) Indiana Dept. of Conservation.
7. Petty, R. O. 1962. Vegetational analysis of the Allee Memorial Woods. Parke
County, Indiana. Annual progress report. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission
At(ll-l) 547.
8. Potzger, J. E. and R. C. Friesner. 1935. What is climax in central Indiana? A
five mile quadrat study. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 4 : 181-195.
9. — - — -, M. E. Potzger and J. McCormick. 1956. The forest primeval of
Indiana as recorded in the original U. S. land surveys and evaluation of previous
interpretations of Indiana vegetation. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 13(1) : 95-111.
10. — and R. C. Friesner. 1943. An ecological study of Berkey Woods :
a remnant of forest primeval in Kosciusko County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot.
Stud. 6 : 10-16.
11. , R. C. Friesner and C. Keller. 1942. Phytosociology of the Cox
Woods ; a remnant of forest primeval in Orange County, Indiana. Butler Univ.
Bot. Stud. 5 : 190-221.
12. and M. Esther Potzger. 1950. Composition of the forest primeval
from Hendricks County southward to Lawrence County, Indiana. Proceedings.
Ind. Acad. Sci. 60: 109-113.
PSYCHOLOGY
Chairman: Nicholas Long, Indiana University
S. M. Gerger, Indiana University, was elected chairman for 1962
Effect of Non-Optimally High Incubation Temperatures on
T-Maze Learning in the Chick1
W. C. Gunther and Robert K. Jones, Valparaiso University
and Purdue University
Introduction
Considerable research effort has been expended in efforts to assess
the effects of various types of environmental stress on behavior (11).
Much of this work has involved exposing organisms post-natally to stress-
producing situations. Several investigators have sought a correlation
between the incidence of mental deficiency in humans and time (season)
of conception (7, 8). Their reports indicate some statistical evidence of a
higher number of mentally deficient babies conceived during the hot
summer months. Gunther (3) and Gunther, et al (5), have pointed up
the desirability of extending this type of investigation to a study of the
effects of stressful agents operative during the course of embryonic
development and have reported qualitative observations of the effects of
non-optimal incubation temperatures on the behavior of chicks. Such
effects as structural anomalies of various parts of the body, inability to
ingest food or water, heightened aggressive and fearful behavior, and
hyperexcitability have been observed to result from such temperature
insults. More recently, Gunther and Jones (4) have also found lowered
mean weights and reduced rates of weight gain in animals which were
hatched from eggs incubated at non-optimally high temperatures for
varying numbers of days.
The present investigation is concerned with the effect of non-opti-
mally high incubation temperatures on the chick's ability to learn an
alternation pattern and a visual discrimination in the T-maze.
Materials and Methods
The T-maze employed in all experiments reported below has been
described in detail elsewhere (5). The maze is constructed of wood and
is painted flat black inside and out. It is 6" wide throughout and has a
6" x 6" start box with sliding panel door, a 17" runway, and 24" arms.
Illumination, in addition to normal daylight, is provided by fluorescent
lamps mounted over the arms of the maze. The food receptacles used were
colored plastic trays, 4" x 4" x IV2". For the temporal maze habit de-
scribed below, two identical yellow trays were used; for the discrimination
task, a red and a green tray were employed. In order to specify the
approximate hue, reflectance, and saturation values of the trays used in
the discrimination task, the colors of these trays were matched with the
dull sides of color chips from the Ostwald Color Harmony Manual (1).
1. This research was supported by grant B-2128, Council on Neurological Diseases
and Blindness, National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service.
327
328 Indiana Academy of Science
These matches were accomplished independently by three different indi-
viduals who unanimously agreed that the colors most closely approxi-
mated the following in the Ostwald system: red, 7na; and green, 181a.
These two colors have reflectance values of 17 and 30, respectively.
The animal subjects in all experiments were White Leghorn chicks
of the DeKalb strain. No crippled animals were used. Control animals
were hatched from eggs incubated at the optimal temperature of 37.5°
(all temperatures herein are reported as centigrade). Experimental ani-
mals were hatched from eggs incubated at 41° for varying numbers of
days during either the initial or the terminal phases of the incumbation
period and at the optimal temperature for the remainder of the period.
Identification of the various experimental groups is in terms of both time
and length of exposure to the 41° temperature. Thus, 1-day and 2-day
experimental groups were composed of animals hatched from eggs incu-
bated at 41° for the first 24 hours and for the first 48 hours, respectively,
of the incubation period; during the remainder of the period, the incuba-
tion temperature was optimal. Sixteen-day, 17-day, 18-day, 19-day, and
20-day experimental groups were composed of animals hatched from eggs
which were incubated at the optimal temperature for the first 360, 384,
408, 432, and 456 hours, respectively, of the incubation period; during the
remainder of the period, the incubation temperature was 41°. Although
it was hoped to have available 10 experimental groups (5 comprised of
animals hatched from eggs subjected to the 41° temperature during the
initial phases of the incubation period and 5 consisting of animals hatched
from eggs exposed to the higher temperature terminally in the incubation
period), insufficient numbers of chicks hatched to compose 3-day, 4-day,
and 5-day groups. All animals received 4 days of pre-training, beginning
at 4 days of age. The pre-training on each day consisted of placing the
animals individually in the T-maze for 10 minutes with food available in
both arms. Prior to each pre-training and test session, the animals were
subjected to overnight deprivation of food but not of water.
Since preliminary investigation revealed that individual chicks often
display consistent position and/or stimulus preferences in the T-maze and
also that the specific nature of these frequently varies among the animals
within a particular group, it was deemed desirable to obtain checks on
these preferences prior to running the animals on the learning tasks.
Consequently, 15-trial position and color preference series were run on
all groups before the learning series were begun. The data of these prefer-
ence tests were analyzed by means of chi-square to identify significant
preferences which might be shown by entire groups, and also to detect
significant between-group differences in terms of these preferences. The
criterion of significance employed was the .05 level of confidence. In addi-
tion, preferences shown by individual animals were examined, and these
were regarded as significant if a particular animal displayed a consistent
preference on 80% or more of the trials. On the basis of the results of
these tests, attempts were made to equate as closely as possible those
groups performing the same task.
Since several hours were required to run all groups through a par-
ticular learning task, animals were selected at random from among the
various control and experimental groups in order to establish control for
Psychology 329
between-group differences in motivational level due to differential tem-
poral effects of deprivation. Extension of any part of an animal's body
into an arm of the maze in the direction of the negative food tray was
regarded as an error. Upon reaching the positive food tray, the animal
was allowed to peck at the food (Purina Starteena) 2 or 3 times before
being returned to the start box for the next trial. As the animals grew
larger, it was necessary to elevate the food trays so that the food in the
positive tray could not be seen. The criterion of learning employed in all
tests was 13 correct trials out of a total trial sequence of 15 (P = -004).
Results
Temporal Maze Habit
Ten control animals, ten 1-day animals, and ten 2-day animals were
run on a simple alternation pattern in the T-maze. Position preference
tests were run when the animals were 8 days old. The results indicated
that no significant differences were in evidence among the groups in terms
of strength of displayed preference. The data for individual animals
revealed that 7 control animals, seven 1-day animals, and eight 2-day
animals manifested consistent position preferences on 80% or more of
the 15 trials. None displayed spontaneous alternation habits.
The learning situation series was begun when the animals were 9
days old, and consisted of learning an alternate pattern of reinforcement,
i. e., the position of the positive food tray was alternated on successive
trials. Thus the task involved learning a R L R L R L, etc., pattern. The
initial position of the positive tray was randomized left and right within
animals on all 15-trial sequences. A non-correction procedure was em-
ployed, and a total of 645 trials was run.
Eight control animals, five 1-day animals, and no 2-day animals
attained the criterion. The Fisher exact probability test (9) was used to
compare the number of control animals reaching the criterion with the
number of experimental animals in both the 1-day and 2-day groups reach-
ing the criterion. The results of this test indicated the difference between
the two numbers to be significant at the .02 level of confidence. Since
different numbers of animals in the control and 1-day groups achieved the
criterion, it was not possible to compare meaningfully the mean number
of trials required to achieve the criterion by these 2 groups. However,
a t-test was used to compare the mean score of the 5 animals of the 1-day
group which attained the criterion with the mean score of the first 5
control animals to attain the criterion. The mean for the five 1-day animals
was 404.40 and that of the 5 control animals 353.80. This test elicited a
non-significant value of t of .540.
Although limitations of space rendered it impossible to retain the
animals long enough to run retention tests on all those which reached the
criterion, tests were re-run on the 3 control and three 1-day animals which
attained the criterion earliest 2 weeks from the date on which the criterion
was attained by each animal. In these tests of retention, 2 of the 3 control
animals achieved the criterion within 15 trials and the third in 30 trials.
Of the three 1-day chicks, one ran to criterion in 30 trials, a second re-
quired 60 trials, and the third had not attained the criterion after having
run 135 trials.
330 Indiana Academy of Science
Discrimination Learning
In an exploratory investigation in which position and stimulus pref-
erences were uncontrolled, significant differences were obtained between
mean criterion scores of a control group, a 1-day group, and a 2-day group
on a red-green discrimination task (n = 8 in each group). The animals
employed in this study were not the same as those used in the temporal
maze task reported above. The mean criterion scores were the following:
control, 40.25; 1-day, 60.75; 2-day, 70.37. Tests of mean differences indi-
cated the control vs. 2-day and control vs. 1-day mean differences to be
significant (P<.01 and P<.05, respectively), while the 1-day vs. 2-day
mean difference was non-significant.
In view of these findings, further exploration of the discrimination
habit under conditions permitting control over preference behavior seemed
desirable. Accordingly, the following groups incubated initially at the
optimal temperature were given a color preference series when the animals
were 16 days old: control (n =6) ; 20-day (n = 6) ; 19-day (n = 6) ;
18-day (n = 6) ; 17-day (n == 5) ; 16-day (n = 6). The results disclosed
that no group manifested a significant preference for either of the 2
colored trays, although all groups showed a non-significant tendency to
prefer the green stimulus over the red. No significant differences in
stimulus preference behavior were in evidence between the groups. The
data for individual chicks revealed that one animal in each of the control,
20-day, 19-day, 18-day, and 16-day groups displayed a consistent prefer-
ence for the green tray over the red on 80% or more of the trials, while no
such preference was shown by any of the animals in the 17-day group.
A position preference series was run when the animals were 17 days
old. The results indicated that of the 6 groups a significant position prefer-
ence (right) was displayed by only the 17-day group. The data for indi-
vidual animals disclosed that 3 animals in the control group, 4 in the
20-day group, 4 in the 19-day group, none in the 18-day group, 2 in the
17-day group, and 2 in the 16-day group displayed consistent position
preferences on 80% or more of the 15 trials.
The discrimination task was begun when the animals were 18 days
old. A correction procedure was employed with the green tray as the
positive stimulus. Immediately after an animal attained the criterion, a
discrimination reversal sequence was run. Presentation of stimuli for
both the discrimination and the reversal series was in accordance with
randomly selected Gellerman sequences (2).
An analysis of variance of the criterion scores for the initial dis-
crimination task elicited a non-significant F of .886. In Table 1 are shown
Table 1
Mean criterion scores of the six groups on discrimination task
Group :
Control
20-day
18-day
19-day
16-day
17-day
Mean:
39.00
39.33
43.83
46.33
53.00
58.40
the mean criterion scores of the 6 groups on the discrimination task. It
may be seen that, although none of the mean differences is significant, the
order of magnitude of these differences is generally such that animals
Psychology 331
hatched from eggs exposed to the temperature insult for longer periods
of time tended to require greater numbers of trials to attain the criterion.
Table 2 is the summary of an analysis of variance of the discrimina-
tion reversal scores. The F of 2.932 is significant at beyond the .05 level
Table 2
Summary of analysis of variance of criterion scores on
discrimir
lation reversal task
Source
df
SS
MS
F
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
5
29
34
2908.65
5753.52
8662.17
581.73
198.40
2.932*
*P <.05
of confidence, indicating differences in performance between the 6 groups.
A Bartlett test indicated error variances to be homogeneous. Table 3
contains the mean criterion scores of the 6 groups for the discrimination
reversal series and the results of tests of mean differences. The "least
significant difference" method, described by Steel and Torrie (10), was
Table 3
Results of tests of mean differences of criterion scores on discrimination
reversal task ("least significant difference" method)
Group :
Control 18-day 20-day
19-day
16-day
17-day
n :
Mean:
6 6 6
71.33 76.67 81.33
6
86.50
6
94.17
5
97.60
gnifieantly.
not differ si
Means underscored by the same line do
Means not underscored by the same line differ significantly at
or beyond the .0f> level of confidence.
employed to assess the reliability of group mean differences at the .05
level of confidence. In Table 3 it is seen that the following 6 mean differ-
ences are significant: control vs. 16-day; control vs. 17-day; control vs.
19-day; 20-day vs. 17-day; 16-day vs. 18-day; and 17-day vs. 18-day.
Discussion
Despite the fact that the number of animals employed in this study
was quite small, there would appear to be little doubt that exposure of
eggs to incubation temperatures which were higher than optimal for the
periods mentioned above had a depressive effect on the ability of the
experimental animals to perform the two types of learning tasks. Gen-
erally the effect was found to be greater the longer the exposure to the
higher temperature. Although perhaps somewhat premature, it is inter-
esting to speculate regarding the nature and locus of this effect. Since
accuracy rather than speed of performance was stressed by the response
measure (number of trials to criterion), it seems unlikely that the effect
on learning is related to inter-group differences in quality of motor
functioning.
332 Indiana Academy of Science
The temporal maze habit would appear to be a task which is near the
ceiling of the chick's capacity to learn. Hunter (6) has suggested that
the salient cues in the learning of this type of pattern are kinesthetic in
nature. If this is assumed to be the case, the impaired learning ability of
the experimental animals may have been a function of disturbance of
kinesthetic feedback or of a reduced ability to utilize kinesthetic cues.
Although the group differences obtained on the initial discrimination
series failed to attain statistical significance, the order of the group means
was generally that which would be expected if the higher incubation
temperature produced a reduction in ability to learn this task. For the
discrimination reversal series this order was maintained, and significant
group mean differences were found. Since the colored food trays used for
this task differed in hue, saturation, and reflectance, further research will
be necessary in order to determine the stimulus dimension or combination
of dimensions which the animals utilized in making the discrimination.
In the case of this task, hypotheses concerning the nature and locus of
the effect of the temperature insult would vary, depending on the particular
properties of the stimuli which were critical for the accomplishment of
the discriminative response.
Gunther and Jones (4) have found lower mean weights and reduced
rates of weight gain in chicks hatched from eggs incubated for various
periods of time at non-optimally high temperatures. In considering pos-
sible underlying mechanisms which might have mediated these findings,
the most plausible appeared to be protein denaturization of one or several
enzymes which may have resulted in reversible or irreversible injury to
the enzyme systems involved. On this hypothesis, the poorer performance
of the experimental animals in the present study may have been related
to a generalized pathological effect of the temperature insult on several
or possibly all types of tissue. It is interesting to note that, as in the case
of reduced weights, deleterious effects on learning ability were evident
when the animals were incubated both initially and terminally at non-
optimally high temperatures.
In view of the demonstrated deleterious effect of non-optimally high
incubation temperatures on weight and rate of weight gain, it is also
conceivable that the higher temperature may have more or less perma-
nently altered the motivational level of the experimental animals in such
a manner that identical periods of food deprivation may have produced
differences in strength of hunger drive between control and experimental
animals.
Obviously further study of these phenomena, both at the behavioral
level and subsequently at more molecular levels, is indicated. Such research
is currently in progress in our laboratory.
Summary
Chicks hatched from eggs incubated at the optimal temperature of
37.5° (control group) and animals hatched from eggs incubated at 41°
for varying numbers of days during the initial phases of the incubation
period and at the optimal temperature thereafter (experimental groups)
were given a simple alternation task in the T-maze. A significantly greater
number of control animals attained the criterion of learning than did
experimental animals.
Psychology 333
In a second experiment a control group and animals hatched from
eggs incubated at 41° for varying numbers of days terminally in the
incubation period (experimental groups) were run on a color discrimina-
tion task followed by a discrimination reversal series in the T-maze. The
order of magnitude of the mean criterion scores of the various groups was
such that animals hatched from eggs which were exposed to the non-
optimally high temperature for longer periods of time tended to require
greater numbers of trials to attain the criterion on both the discrimina-
tion task and the reversal series. Significant differences were found be-
tween the mean criterion scores of control and experimental groups for
the reversal series, while group mean differences for the initial discrimi-
nation task were non-significant. Possible underlying mechanisms of the
observed effects were considered.
Literature Cited
1. Color Harmony Manual, 3d Edition. 1948. Container Corporation of America,
Chicago.
2. Gellerman, L. W. 1933. Chance orders of alternating stimuli in visual discrimi-
nation experiments. J. Genet. Psychol. 42 : 207-208.
3. Gunther, W. C. 1958. Effect of abnormal incubating temperature on chick be-
havior. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 68 : 303-366.
4. Gunther, W. C. and R. K. Jones. 1962. Effect of environmental stress on chick
weight. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 71 : 385-398.
5. Gunther, W. C, Robert K. Jones, and Paul Manske. 1961. The effect of high
and low incubating temperatures on chick behavior. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 70 :285-
292.
6. Hunter, W. S. 1928. The behavior of raccoons in a double alternation temporal
maze. J. Genet. Psychol. 35 : 374-388.
7. Knobloch, H., and B. Pasamanick. 1958. Seasonal variation in the births of the
mentally deficient. Am. J. Pub. Health 48 : 1201-1208.
8. Pasamanick, Benjamin, Simon Dinitz, and Hilda Knobloch. 1959. Geographic
and seasonal variations in births. Public Health Reports 74(4) : 285-288.
9. Siegel, Sidney. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York.
10. Steel, Robert G. D., and James H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and Procedures of
Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
11. Thompson, W. R. 1960. Research trends in comparative psychology. In Waters,
R. H., D. A. Rethlingshafer, and W. E. Caldwell (Eds.), Principles of Comparative
Psychology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
SOIL SCIENCE
Chairman: Ronald Tukey, Purdue University
Dan Wiersma, Purdue University, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACT
Maximizing the Use of Micro-Climate. James E. Newman. — Maxi-
mizing the use of favorable micro-climate can only be accomplished through
a working concept of its causes, its dimensions, how it varies in time and
space, plus some knowledge of possible controls. Micro-climates are
caused by changes in methods of energy transfer associated with soil and
plant surfaces. For this reason micro-climates always exist near any
surface that intercepts radiant energy within the open environment. They
vary according to changes in energy levels and forms through time ; that
is, from day to night and from summer to winter. Finally, control can
only be accomplished through changes in energy balances and gradients.
To accomplish a desirable control a favorable change in energy balance
must be created. Such a goal can only be created through a rather com-
plete understanding of the energy changes within the micro-climate pro-
file associated with a given radiating surface. Each radiating surface,
whether it be a soil or some vegetative surface has an associated micro-
climatic profile. This profile extends some distances in both vertical direc-
tions from the receptive radiating surface. These vertical dimensions
depend on the physical properties of the underlying soil as well as the
physical dimensions and arrangement of the vegetative cover. For these
reasons, micro-climates can be identified and classified according to physi-
cal characteristics. Therefore, it is possible to generalize from one similar
set of micro-climatic conditions to another.
334
Establishing Crop Potentials for Indiana Soil Types
Harry M. Galloway, Purdue University
For about sixty years the soil survey program in the United States
has been gathering soil facts. Soils have been classified and mapped
according to characteristics which influence the use of the soil for various
purposes, chief of which has always been the growing of crop plants. The
surveys are available in published form for some 61 Indiana counties1 and
in field sheet form only for soil conservation planning in all or parts of
72 counties.2
Early Yield Potential Studies
Prediction values by actual crop yields or by crop index levels for
given soils have been included in soil survey reports for at least the past
25 years. Farm managers, bankers, and professional agriculturists have
found these very useful in setting yield goals for given lands. Assessors
in some states have used them as a major guide in tax valuation studies.
The yield potentials have been only as reliable as the data gained
about the soils during the course of the survey. Crop yields reflect as
much the willingness or skill of the operator in applying the many neces-
sary factors of production as they reflect differences in the potential of
the soils themselves. So, the possible yield levels have generally been
stated at two levels of management: (1) a level attained at the time by
a majority of the farmers using these soils and (2) a level attained by
the "innovator" or "early adopter" class of farmer who were at the time
applying most of the better practices in crop production.
Great Production Increases Realized
In the past 25 years, we have witnessed a revolutionary increase in
crop yields. Average soil type yields of 40 bushels of corn have been
pushed up to 80 or more. Our better farmers are setting their sights on
150 and 200 bushel field yields. Small field yields of over 200 bushels of
corn have been attained by a few good farmers who are blessed with
especially favorable or responsive soils. At the same time, soybean and
other crop yields have steadily risen. Disease resistance, better tillage
and crop culture, improved drainage and moisture management, and
increasing use of commercial fertilizers with new varieties which have
higher production abilities have all played major parts in this crop yield
revolution.
There are many who feel that the yield levels already reached are
not yet near the ultimate. Yet they are surely closer to the ultimate on
some soils than others. Most farmers now producing at high levels feel
that the easiest increases are behind them and probably resulted most
from better varieties and greater use of fertilizers. More intelligent use
of fertilizers is going to be necessary to maximize production further.
But just as importantly other factors will have to be applied in combina-
tions designed to fit given soil conditions. For example, sloping, erosive
1. Of these only 38 can be purchased ; the rest may he consulted in libraries. About
39 of those are considered suitable for estimating potential yield levels.
2. Available in Work Unit Offices of S. C. S.
335
336 Indiana Academy of Science
soils must be handled better so as to check the losses of water in rainy
periods and prolong the use of soil water in peak use seasons.
On the artificially drained, level and depressed soils, where runoff
water adds to that which falls as rain, there are problems of over abun-
dance of water at some seasons and a lack at others. Increasing the soil
aeration in the early season by improved tillage and managing the avail-
able water wisely will be keys on those soils to the further profitable use
of good practices, particularly the use of more fertilizers. Farmers on
such good level soils who are far out on the periphery of good management
are those who are reaping the rewards of continually increasing crop
yields at lower unit costs of production.
If all of Indiana was of such level unerosive soil we would be hard
put to make any estimate of attainable future production. However, these
nearly level lands are limited in amount to some 12 million acres which
is about half of all land in Indiana."
It is apparent that all farmers are not managing to reach anywhere
near the potential of their soils. For example in the most level central
Indiana counties we see cornfield after cornfield making 100 bushels per
acre or more at least 4 out of 5 years. In one of these counties there may
be 20 to 40 entrants in the Indiana Crop Improvement Association 5-Acre
Corn Contest with yields in the 120 to 150 bushel bracket. The tendency
is to think that the average county corn yields would approach these
figures. But they don't. Corn production figures in six of the most level
productive, central Indiana counties ranged from 66 to 81 bushels in 1959
and 1960. Obviously there is many a farmer who does not capitalize fully
on his soil resources. To maintain or improve his position in the competi-
tive system, and to make his proper contribution to society's future food
needs, he must use his land resources more efficiently.
Recent Yield Potential Study
The Purdue Agronomy Department recently completed a study of
crop yield potentials for Indiana's important soils. The National Plant
Food Institute will publish and distribute the results to fertilizer dealers,
elevators, banks and educational agencies. In compiling this information
we studied the records of experimental fields for several Indiana soils
used for many years for the common crops. To these limited figures we
added the estimates that agronomists and agricultural economists had
made for field production of crops on a wider range of soils. Yield tables
from the soil survey reports were particularly valuable in setting the
relative potential between soils.
Yields were estimated by soils and related to the several soil regions.
These are shown on a map published as a wall chart for use by the dealers,
bankers and educators. Agronomists further grouped the Indiana soil
regions geographically to facilitate easy assembly of 3 check lists cover-
ing a north section, a central part and a southern part. Check lists include
yields of four crops on all important soils and a list of the production
factors needed to assure maximum yield from each soil. These will be
take-home items for distribution to all interested farmers. In the check
3. From Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory data of Soil Conservation
Service. 1961.
Soil Science 337
lists, we arranged the soils by recognizable characteristics in soil regions.
This will help farmers who do not have soil maps to learn soil names and
select those soils which they most likely have at home. Table 1 gives crop
yield estimates for representative important soils of each Indiana soil
region. These are included on the wall charts which can be exhibited in
places where farmers gather.
A Look Ahead
Economists make some interesting predictions of trends ahead.' If
the yearly change in gross output per unit of gross input reached in the
1950-58 period (about 2.5 percent per year) continues we can look for
further surpluses even in 1975. The population appears to be expanding
at only 1.8 percent yearly. Since these gains have been made with a
fairly constant land supply and a diminishing labor supply, operating
capital and current operating expenses have increased greatly. Lower
farm prices have encouraged greater efficiency and a quest for lower unit
production costs. The substitution of machinery for labor has resulted in
a larger farm investment and a resulting competition for extra lands to
allow full use of the machinery. If land and labor both decrease further,
as predicted, the capital investment must grow to maintain production.
This can be considered as technology which acts as a substitute for land
and labor resources. Land charges contributed only about 11 percent of
the total investment in farm production in 1959.
Land and labor in agriculture will both decrease further. Increased
population growth assures that pressure on land will increase. By 1975,
estimates are that Indiana will lose about 2.7 percent of its land to urban
and other uses which will take it out of agriculture.5 This is about 5 per-
cent of land currently in crops. A three percent loss in croplands is
expected in the most productive central part of Indiana where urban
pressures are greatest. Pasture and range lands will move to croplands.
Woodlots will disappear from the more level lands. After these adjust-
ments are made, changes in land use can not be expected to make greater
areas of cropland available. Between 1975 and 2000 we will probably
lose cropland at an increased rate even if effective zoning and taxing
procedures are operating then.
To try to integrate all these changes into an equation which would
predict future land needs and estimate probable production would be
folly. It could not integrate the contribution to be made by technology
which has made possible the gains we have already seen in the 1950-60
decade. A 1952 report to the President by the Water Resources Policy
Committee foresaw the need for 100 million extra cropland acres by 1975
to fill expected food needs. Current predictions imply that 1975 produc-
tion needs can be met with even fewer cropland acres than were used
in 1952.
However, we must recognize that further food increases must come
from a diminishing land resource. Also that production boosting practices
4. Vernon W. Ruttan, Technological Change and Resource Utilization in Ameri-
can Agriculture. A paper presented at the 1961 annual meeting of Indiana Academy of
Science at Indiana State College, Terre Haute.
5. Soil and Water Conservation Needs Inventory data of Soil Conservation
Service. 1961.
338
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. Crop yield estimates of important soils in each Indiana Soil Region.
Soil
Name
Soil Description
Soil color, topography, texture
and natural internal drainage
You
can build up to at least
these average yields1
Soil
Region
Corn
Soybeans
Wheat Adapted
Hay
A
Maumee
Very dark gray, flat sandy loams
and loamy sands; poorly drained
90
35
35
3.5
Door2
Dark brown, level to sloping
prairie sandy loams to silt
loams — well drained
75
35
45
3.5
Plainfield
Light brown, level to duney
sands & loamy sands, droughty
35
20
25
2.5
B
B
Rensselaer
(west)
Hoytville
(east)
Very dark gray level silty
clay loams; poorly drained
Same
105
95
40
36
35
35
4.0
8.5
C
Chalmers
Same
115
42
42
4.0
Parr2
Dark brown, sloping to level
prairie silt loams; well drained
90
40
45
4.0
D
E
Brookston
Very dark gray, flat clay
loams; poorly drained
105
40
35
4.0
Crosby-
Gray, nearly level silt
loams; imperfectly drained
90
34
40
3.5
Miami2
Brownish, sloping to rolling
loams and silt loams, well
drained
80
36
45
3.5
Fox,
Kame phase
Brownish, sloping to rolling
sandy loams; well drained
55
26
40
3.0
F
Pewarao
Very dark gray level silty
clay loams; poorly drained
95
36
35
3.5
Blount
Gray, nearly level silt loams
imperfectly drained
90
34
35
3.5
Morley
Brown, sloping silt loams,
well drained
75
34
40
3.0
G
Brookston
Very dark gray, level silty
clay loams ; poorly drained
105
40
35
4.0
Fincastle
Gray, nearly level silt loams :
imperfectly drained
90
34
40
3.5
Russell
Brown, sloping to rolling silt
loams; well drained
80
36
45
3.5
H
North
Genesee
Bottom lands, graying brown
silt loams, clay loams & sandy
loams, well drained
100
40
40
„ * . Fox- Warsaw
Central
H Huntington
South
2 Brown, level to sloping silt
loams & sandy loams, well
drained to droughty
Bottomlands; grayish brown
silt loams; clay loams &
sandy loams; well drained
70
110
30
44
40
40
3.5
Wheeling2
Brown, nearly level silt
loams; well drained
85
38
40
3.5
I
Vigo
Light gray silt loams of
nearly level divides; clay pan;
imperfectly drained
90
28
45
2.5
Soil Science
339
Soil
Name
Soil Description
You
can build up to at least
these average yields1
Soil
Region
Soil color, topography, texture
and natural internal drainage
Corn
Soybeans
Wheat
Adapted
Hay
J
Clermont
Light gray flat silt loams;
cemented pan; poorly drained
100
28
45
2.5
Cincinnati
Brownish, sloping silt loams,
well drained
75
30
40
3.0
K
Switzerland
Brown, sloping silt loams;
well drained
75
30
40
3.0
L
Tilsit
Brown, nearly level silt loams,
cemented pan; mod. well drained
70
26
30
2.5
Zanesville
Brown sloping to rolling silt
loams; cemented pan; well drainec
[ 60
26
30
2.5
M
Bewleyville
Brown, undulating to sloping red
clay subsoil; well drained
90
35
35
3.0
Bedford
Brown, nearly level silt loams;
reddish subsoil; mod. well drained
80
30
35
2.5
N
Montgomery-
Dark gray level silty clay
loams; poorly drained
110
50
40
3.0
0
Princeton2
Brown sloping silt loams &
sandy loams; well drained
90
30
40
3.0
Bloomfield
Light brown wavy to duney
loamy sands; droughty
45
24
25
2.5
P
Iva
Light gray silt loams of nearly
level divides; imperfectly drained
105
35
45
3.0
P
Alford
Brown, sloping silt loams;
well drained
100
35
45
3.5
Farmers using well recognized superior management practices over a period of
years may well exceed these averages 2 out of 4 years.
Yields are for nearly level, mostly uneroded areas. For other conditions adjust
yields as below :
(1) For slopes up to 0% gradient which are severely eroded decrease yields 15-20%.
(2) For slopes over 6% gradient essentially uneroded decrease yields about 20%.
(3) For slopes over 6% gradient which are severely eroded decrease yields 30-40'%.
For sandy loam types of these soil series decrease potential yields 20-30%.
Genesee and Huntington soils are not commonly used for hay.
like irrigation are useful only where water is available and this means
largely underground sources. Only the droughty soils will benefit enough
from supplemental water in a climate like Indiana's to make irrigation
pay.
Six central Indiana counties mentioned before with corn yields rang-
ing from 66 to 81 bushels, have cropland soils largely of level Crosby and
Brookston types. These two soils can be built up to produce an average
corn yield of at least 90 and 105 bushels respectively. Sloping soils could
be expected to yield at about the county average levels or around 75
bushels. A 25 percent increase in corn yield could be expected in these
counties very soon from applying only the presently known management
techniques in growing our present corn hybrids.
Farmers who have made notable strides in fertility and other cultural
management have pointed the way to eventual yields well above the esti-
mates for Brookston and Crosby. By concentrating the grain crops on
such productive soils the present crop production could be maintained on
340 Indiana Academy of Science
one-quarter to one-third less acres. By releasing sloping, eroded and less
productive lands to use for pasture we could provide more and better low
cost feeds for our livestock industry. This would protect the soils for later
more intensive use to feed the expanding population a generation or two
hence. Also, by reducing floods and erosion which affect the use of crop-
lands and also the general welfare, these poorer lands will assume even
greater usefulness.
All in all the food producing potential for a generation ahead in
Indiana looks adequate. We have time to sharpen our technology further.
To do so, continuing agricultural research is absolutely essential even in
this period of plenty.
Agronomists hope that the recognition of their potential yields will
help stimulate farmers who have not reached this potential to aim higher.
Higher production means lower unit costs and increased efficiency, a goal
of all far-looking farmers.
Some Values of the Production Potentials
1. Learning crop yield levels to fertilize and manage for. Use of more
nitrogen than for the expected yield is wasteful. Where the potential
yield is likely to be only 80 bushels of corn it adds to the unit produc-
tion cost to use enough to raise 100 bushels or more.
2. Studying alternative uses of land and probable earning capacity in
direct family help Extension programs like Better Farming-Better
Living. These yield levels are a basis for economic analysis of crop
and pasture systems adapted to different enterprises in the several
soil situations in Indiana.
3. Projecting the long time food needs of our growing population and
determining how these may be met with the fixed amount of land
available at given times ahead.
4. To help determine the economic impact on communities where farmers
set out to achieve higher production in line with their potential yields.
5. In comparing actual yields with potential yields some soil areas will
be seen to offer much improvement. Their soils will be more responsive
to efficient use than other soils which already approach more closely
the potential. This will point to areas where Extension management
programs may operate more intensively and be especially fruitful.
The Edge of Hunger
Norman Desrosier, Purdue University
The first generation of men in the atomic age have at least one prob-
lem in common with the very first generation of modern men on Earth.
We both inherited a world in which starvation loomed on the horizon for
all people.
The new age finds seven nations in ten struggling with sub-marginal
living standards at a time when they already have under cultivation most
of their good farm land. Furthermore, eight of ten people in the world
are living on or near to a farm and semi-starvation is the rule rather than
the exception.
Concentration Effects on Human Life
Coupled with the above situations is the current increase in human
numbers on Earth. While man indeed needed to be concentrated in suitable
areas to evolve societies, which permitted specialization of human efforts,
there are obviously limits of safety to human population densities which
must be observed. Most societies on earth already have encountered the
quality-quantity barrier.
In spite of this, a human population has been added to this planet
during the past four years which equals the number of people living on
Earth at the time of Christ. The reason for our real concern is that there
has not been a concurrent development in our abilities to generate the
essentials of the good life for this new population.
While each of us may know some of the effects of starvation, the
majority of the people in the world today are experiencing many of the
effects of starvation and the situation for them has existed for most of
their lives.
While we do not often regard thinking as a biological process, people
in advanced semi-starvation have sluggish intellectual processes. The
repercussions of starvation extend beyond physical health and include the
whole being.
Modern societies are intellectual societies. Mental processes are in-
creasingly important as machines replace muscle in work tasks. Here
again, even though our food supplies and populations would remain fixed,
the acuteness of the problems of starvation would become increasingly
limiting to human advancement.
The situation is far from being hopeless since solutions are available,
but now public action is required to put them into play. The reasons for
this become more clear when we probe into the history of our present food
supply system.
Brief History of Food Production
The earliest known culturing of plants by man was in the Tigris-
Euphrates River valleys about 8,000 years ago, plus or minus a few
hundred years. Food production started with the discovery of planting
seeds in the ground and having them yield more than were planted. The
soil lost productivity in the process. Next, it was found to be replaceable
by careful selection and rotation of crops. But to force food production
further, fertilizer had to be added, seeds planted even more closely to-
gether, the plants artificially watered, and insects and pests controlled.
341
342 Indiana Academy of Science
These were undertaken with variable effectiveness. Next, good land
became in short supply, but by then it was possible to successfully farm
most land provided capital resources were available and could be applied.
As a matter of fact, food could be produced with this system without land,
and this was done in hydroponics agriculture. The nutrient needs of plants
were provided in a solution pumped to plants standing in water or sand.
The system was surprisingly effective. It was very good for plants but
not very effective for man.
In the first place, there are physical limits to this system . . . increas-
ing investment does not necessarily result in further food production.
When plant populations exceed definite limits, they shade each other,
lowering yields. The carbon dioxide content of the air also limits food
production on earth and this is not often realized. We must also consider
the increased water, nutrient, disease and weed problems. And, all months
of the year are not adequate for field production of crops. There are there-
fore several indications that this particular path to more intensive crop-
ping in soils in the evolution of food production is terminal.
Furthermore, there have been no new food crops of any significance
introduced into world agriculture since the discovery of America, and
no new method of preserving foods has been found in the past 160 years
which is now used by most people. Twentieth Century man has been con-
tent to refine age old crops and systems. .
Easing the pressure of the present day must occur, but to do it
effectively the evolutionary processes in man's ability to produce good
food must be quickened. Where could it go? To gain some insight we might
review briefly the nature of the world's resources for food production.
These are as follows :
Land — Four-fifths of the world's good farm land is already under
cultivation.
Water — There is an enormous amount of water in the world but gen-
erally man cannot increase his control of it. He is largely at the
mercy of the weather.
Plants — There no doubt are more good crops in the world but none of
any consequence has been found for 450 years, and these actually
were discovered about 1,500 years prior to their introduction into
world agriculture.
Animals — There have been notable improvements in the efficiency of
refining grain into meat (chickens and hogs) but no new animal
crop has been introduced in the past several thousand years.
Relation of Food Needs and Supplies
Let us look at the food problem in another perspective. A person eats
about 10 times his body weight a year. Assume we averaged the weight
of all people in the world, and we found it to be 120 pounds. Each person
would then need about 1,200 pounds of food a year. This number is perhaps
not too far from the truth, and we will use it here.
It would also be useful to have some idea of the presently available
food supplies in the world. While this information can only be estimated,
we now produce in the vicinity of 2.4 trillion pounds annually for the
present 3.0 billion people. Distributed to each this would amount to about
Soil Science 343
800 pounds per person per year, or about two-thirds present needs even in
bulk, with no mention being made of quality.
From 25-50 percent of the food produced is lost in storage and dis-
tribution. Using the lower figure, the consumed supply must be reduced
by one-fourth, leaving about 600 pounds per person.
Even in terms of bulk, to meet human food needs we must about
double the supplies available today to feed the people now alive. What are
the prospects for even this ?
Food Production Must Be Directed to Man's Needs
To double the world's food supplies in the next 40 years, it will be
necessary not only to use the most efficient agricultural methods in all
parts of the world, but we must also greatly increase the land under culti-
vation. Using present practices it is inevitable that more grain and less
meat be eaten. Yet, it is doubtful that even the best agricultural practices
now used will be able to keep the world's population alive if its rapid
expansion continues even 20 more years.
Now, the above data facts are merely statistics and are subject to
endless discussion and error. These data are subject to each one's inter-
pretation. The real cause for concern is that these facts represent only
quantities, tonnages, etc., and do not adequately reflect the true picture.
A pound of grain in such statistics has the same weight as a pound of
meat but they are not equal as food. The situation is thus worse than
statistics would lead one to believe. Because of this, to meet the food
needs of the future, new types of food production must be found and these
must be turned to the food requirements of man. This is the first departure
we must make from the past.
The starvation that is widespread in the world is a special starva-
tion . . . protein starvation. It is protein that is short in the world, and
just any kind of protein is not adequate. Man requires a high quality
protein — one which contains the proper kinds and amounts of building
blocks (amino acids) required to form and repair human protoplasm.
Such protein is found in no one plant, but is characteristic of most animals.
The tragedy is that present food production is not man-oriented.
The reason for this development is relatively clear. It was not until
a century ago that our ideas of food began to crystallize. From the begin-
ning of modern man some 10,000 years ago until the last century, whatever
filled man's stomach and kept him alive was called food. A century ago
food was found to be composed of three major factors — the carbohydrates,
fats and proteins. In the last 100 years, the list has grown to include
more than 50 essential chemical compounds. Present understanding of
human nutrient needs is adequate to demand shifts in food production.
But, during the whole period in which food production was evolving
it tended to become oriented to the most "food" per unit of land by the
earlier understanding. In fact, whatever "food" was available in an area
became incorporated into local diets. Cultures eventually accepted the
idea that the local diet was the best and those ideas have been perpetuated
ever since. They need not be particularly related to human needs for good
health.
Since grains yield the most "food" for the work involved, grain pro-
duction increased, and eventually man shifted from eating mostly meat
344 Indiana Academy of Science
to eating mostly grain. Grain eating people have not led the world's civi-
lizations to date. In fact, the poor have one thing in common the world
over — they are the grain eating people of the world.
It is not technologically difficult to produce carbohydrates (the main
crop for which is grain) since these are the immediate photosynthetic
products in plants. Producing edible oils is somewhat more difficult, yet
early men were ingenious in oil production, i.e. olive and palm plantations.
It is high quality protein which is difficult to produce and this is the com-
modity in short supply in the world. Food production systems are not
geared to yield this essential component for buoyant human life.
To man, the difference between high and low quality proteins is some-
what analogous to the difference in two jig-saw puzzles, one of which
contains all pieces, the other missing several which were replaced with
pieces from some other picture. High quality protein contains the essential
pieces needed by man; low quality protein does not yield the same picture.
Man's protein intake is a good index to the quality of diets. An intake
of 50-60 grams per person per day of which a third at least is from animal
sources is considered a working minimum. Some countries have available
more than 100 per day. For all countries, however, the average human
intake amounts to something in the order of 10-15 grams and this is
largely of low quality.
It is highly improbable that we can produce 40-50 grams more per
person per day with present practices. A pound of beef steak, pork, fish
or chicken only contains 20 percent protein. A pound of meat therefore
only has about 90 grams of protein. At rock bottom we need about a four
or five fold increase in present supplies now, and a 1,000 percent increase
in 40 years! If we are to produce 1,000 percent more animal protein with
grain, we would need 2,500 percent increases in grain supplies to yield the
protein in the form of chicken flesh, 4,000 percent increase for pork, or
10,000 percent increase to yield the beef, that we will need within the next
40 years. Just 20 years from now, we need a 500 percent increase in grain
for chickens, or 2,000 percent increases for pork or 5,000 percent increases
for beef. Present technology if applied worldwide would result in a 2.5
percent increase annually and most countries cannot sustain even this.
If we are to look forward to a day when all men might enjoy good health,
there must be dramatic improvements in food production technologies.
In pursuit of this goal, let us rearrange the world resources and look
at them from a different vantage point. What is the case then?
— Less than 10 percent of the earth's surface is used for food pro-
duction.
— Less than one percent of the energy received by the earth from the
sun is fixed in photosynthesis.
— Less than one calorie in a million reaching the earth is presently
usable as human food.
We must conclude that food production is a very inefficient affair,
that it is not particularly geared to man, and that food production is in
its infancy.
It is not enough to hybridize crops, produce and apply more ferti-
lizers, develop better farming equipment, decrease spoilage and improve
food distribution and improve our knowledge and practice of human
Soil Science 345
nutrition. Such are under development at the present time and we already
see, as the figures above show, not only the limitations in our present
approach, but the limitation of our present thinking.
For the future we need a system of food production that would allow
a large increase in high quality protein for diets and the system should
be operative with the resources men have available. As was true with the
legume rotation, for example, the new system must be an improvement in
technology. Since 70 percent of this planet's surface is occupied by salt
water it would seem reasonable to be able to use it in food production.
Untapped Potentials
Some significant discoveries in the field of atomic energy were the
demonstrations that uranium underwent fission under certain circim-
stances, that such fission events could be sustained, and that the energy
released in the process could be harvested. We need discoveries of this
order of magnitude in food production.
Fission also occurs in living cells. Fission is the general method of
cell division, creating two from one. This reaction, too, under certain cir-
cumstances can be sustained. If the cell undergoing fission is a photo-
synthetic cell, it can also harvest solar energy for us. This process is
recognized as the basic energy system for life in oceans and waters.
The cellular system is known, the cells are called algae, and they have
been a laboratory curiosity for more time than has been the fission of
uranium. In fact, more is known about plant growth from the study of
algae than from any other plant. In the course of study it was found that
the algae are about five times more efficient in the photosynthetic process
than are the higher (seed bearing) plants. Furthermore, the nutrient
requirements of algae are essentially present in sea water.
Some strains of algae have phenomenal growth rates. Under certain
circumstances, for example, the algae can be forced to grow into very
dense populations, approaching 50 million cells per drop; a pound of algae
cells could be harvested from a gallon of such a population each week. At
this rate, a 50 gallon unit would equal the productive capacity in a year
of an acre of farm land planted to soybeans or wheat. In fact dry algae
are half protein but like beans and grain are not good human food alone.
However, algae can serve as the bulk for animal feeding.
To speculate, a 50,000 gallon unit, about the size of a large double
garage, would be equal to feed produced by 100 acres of good farm land
in a year, and conceivably could yield more than a pound of chicken flesh
a day for 1,000 people after the eighth week of operation and at this rate
thereafter.
Furthermore, it might be useful to explore the growth of single celled
animals since some also have very great reproduction rates, as do insects,
which already serve as animal feed in nature. If these can be fed on
algae, and also maintained in a logarithmic growth phase, rather phe-
nomenal production of feed might be possible. This would then permit us
to dramatically increase high quality protein supplies to supplement pres-
ent systems.
Since electric light can be used by algae instead of sunlight in photo-
synthesis, we might eventually even explore the conversion of hydroelectric
power into meat or milk, or, atomic energy can be released and the energy
346 Indiana Academy of Science
converted to electricity to light to be converted into food. Since in the
latter process a large amount of radiation is also released, and the food
produced is perishable, we could pass it back through the radiation to
sterilize the food to permit effective storage and distribution. The United
States government has already invested many millions of dollars in more
than 100 laboratories over the past seven years to perfect this process of
food preservation. Adequate technology now exists with which we can
now destroy all the parasites, worms and insects which are present in our
foods and which constitute a major public health menace to man.
The "closed cycle" generation of food would make us less dependent
on fertile land. The system might find widespread application in civil
defense since each community could probably assemble workable genera-
tors with materials already available locally.
On the other hand, protein starvation at present occurs in the greatest
degree in a zone around the earth bounded by 25° North latitude and 25°
South latitude. In this belt, photosynthetic rates are very high, but the
rates of respiration of plants are also high. The result is a low net accu-
mulation of photosynthetic materials in higher plants. As a consequence,
there are small natural animal populations and many people residing in
the area as suffering from protein starvation. This belt around the earth
has good sunlight and temperatures favorable for single celled plant and
animal growths. For example, molds are rich in protein and one difficulty
in the tropics is to keep molds from growing! Mold growth on and with
algae is recognized as a natural process — the lichens. There are many
edible lichens, i.e., the rains of manna in the Bible, useful as animal food.
The only time when such innovations can be tried and perfected is
when some groups of people are not forced to consume every green shoot
that emerges from the earth. Three nations in ten are still in a position
to come to the aid of the seven in ten in trouble.
The overall problem we must attack is sub-marginal living standards
which presently limit the effectiveness of the majority of the people in the
world. Solutions to improving standards of living are hinged on adequate
food production and improvements must be based on the resources avail-
able to have lasting effects. Since the resource base of nations is relatively
fixed, the solution is to be found in expanding our technologies of food
production. It is now clear that our ability to increase the food supplies
on earth with the resources available to the point where most men could
enjoy good health is limited mainly by our present thinking. For the first
time in history man now has the technological capability to conquer starva-
tion, which has limited human life since civilization began.
Reviewing the past, we see mankind existing mainly on the edge of
hunger. Looking to the future, it appears mankind is on the brink of an
historic change. Some might call the change one toward the industrializa-
tion of food production.
Increasing Crop Potentials Through Water Availability1
Dan Wiersma, Purdue University
Water is essential for all life. It has probably had more influence on
the development of man's history than any other resource. Agriculture,
with its production of food and fiber, is especially dependent on water.
In this symposium we are concerned with maximizing Indiana agri-
culture. Water and its availability, however, knows no political boundaries,
but is of national, and even of international interest.
Water and its availability is a broad subject. There is much discussion
about agriculture's competition for water with industry, domestic use,
power, navigation, and the host of other interests. There are many inter-
esting facts about the physiological response of the plant to optimum
water conditions, the economic aspects of water and agriculture, and a
vast amount of statistics. These remarks, however, will be confined to the
availability of Indiana's water resources.
We are all familiar with the hydrologic cycle. The sun is the over-all
source of energy, while the ocean and land masses, rotation of the earth
and other factors are responsible for our weather and rainfall patterns.
It is a large scale system but an inefficient system in distribution both in
time and space. The moist air masses moving from the Pacific Ocean
eastward across the North American Continent go on from the East
Coast with more than three-fourths of their original moisture. (Acker-
man and Lof 1959). Further, it is estimated that even a heavy storm
precipitates only 0.5 percent of the overhead moisture in the storm area.
Indiana is favorably located in that its normal rainfall is more than
adequate for all uses in the foreseeable future.
As with any circle, or cycle, there is no logical beginning or ending
point. However, when the atmospheric moisture condenses and falls as
rain, it no longer is a part of the large scale system, but becomes an
integral part of a watershed. The Indiana Water Resources Study Com-
mittee (4), has defined 18 major Watersheds in Indiana for us in their
1956 report. They have taken the hydrologic data from the various sources
and have made an analysis which is extremely valuable.
As soon as the rain falls on the watershed it can then be related to a
hydrological equation; namely: P = R.O + ET + AS + ASMD + aG + L
Where
P = Precipitation
R.O => Runoff
ET = Evapotranspiration
S = Surface Storage
SMD = Soil Moisture Deficit
G = Ground water
L = Leakage from watershed
In this equation we have incoming water as precipitation and out-
going water as runoff and evapotranspiration. The surface storage, soil
moisture deficit, and ground water include the storage within a watershed.
1. Contribution from Purdue University, Agriculture Experiment Station, Journal
Paper No. 1835.
347
348 Indiana Academy of Science
Adapting this equation to Indiana conditions we have from past
records the annual mean precipitation of about 36 inches in the north and
42 inches in the south. This is the only source of water for the watershed,
excepting possibly the extreme right hand term, Leakage. In some water-
sheds, water may move in or out through porous formations. Hydrologi-
cally this water is usually difficult to account for, and unless known to
occur, it is assumed to be negligible.
Again, the physical forces of the atmosphere are responsible for the
amount, intensity and location of precipitation (Ackerman and Lof 1959)
(2). Weather modification studies have shown that cloud seeding has
increased precipitation by 10-15% in orographic areas, which does not
include Indiana. Meteorologists are continuing to improve their tech-
niques in predicting precipitation and climatologists have been doing
excellent work in developing probabilities of occurrence. The fact remains
that to date, man has practically no control of rainfall occurrence.
Each of the terms of the right hand side of the equation has peculiar
characteristics, but in turn the terms are related to each other. Runoff,
R.O., has two component parts, namely, the surface and the groundwater.
The surface runoff is water which does not infiltrate into the soil during
a storm, but flows directly overland to the watershed outlet. This is the
water which causes rise in stream and river flow, and frequently flooding.
The ground water runoff is water contributed to the watershed outlet
from the underground source. It is the source which keeps the stream or
river at its base flow level. The total of these two is measured on a hydro-
graph and constitutes the hydrologic data referred to as "runoff."
The next term "evapotranspiration" is a water loss from the water-
shed as transference from liquid to vapor occurs. It consists of (1) evapo-
ration from open water surfaces such as lakes, streams, bare soil, and
plant surfaces, and (2) transpiration, which involves the movement of
liquid water from the soil through the plant to the leaf surface and its
subsequent change from liquid to vapor. Evapotranspiration is an energy
process, and is dependent on the sun for its energy source. This is a definite
water loss and involves the water being returned to the large scale system.
Surface storage is water retained in ponds, sloughs, lakes, and other
means of retention. Change in level occurs due to evaporation and ground
water percolation.
Soil Moisture Deficit, SMD, is directly related to evapotranspiration.
A porous medium such as soils will retain some water in its interstice, the
amount depending largely upon texture and structure. Soils differ in their
capacity to hold water, the fine textured soils holding more than the
coarse textured. The amount of water held in a particular soil against
the force of gravity is referred to as "field capacity." Water infiltrating
into the soil must satisfy the "soil moisture deficit," the amount of water
below "field capacity," before percolation will proceed downward to the
ground water. Ground water is the region where all the interstices are
completely filled with water. Movement within this water reservoir is
dependent on the geologic formation.
As to the inter-relationship of these terms, from an agricultural
standpoint we are very much interested in SMD or "soil moisture deficit."
If this is maintained at a minimum and other environmental conditions
Soil Science 349
are equal, plants will respond favorably. Evapotranspiration is entirely-
responsible for the occurrence of this SMD. The amount of water a soil
can store varies from less than Vz inch per foot of soil to over 2V2 inches
per foot. Direct field measurements can be made of the storage capacity
of a soil, or it can be estimated in the laboratory. These measurements
are presently being made on many of our Indiana soils. The rate of evapo-
transpiration is dependent on isolation, wind, vapor pressure deficit and
temperature. Naturally the highest rate occurs during the growing season
when rainfall is normally the lowest and most irregular. These rates can
be estimated by measuring the SMD, however, this is slow and laborious.
Attempts have been made to estimate this rate by the use of climatic data.
Since temperature is a climatological parameter easily measured, and
taken in the routine weather station observations, several attempts have
been made to relate this with evapotranspiration. Notable of these are
the Blaney-Criddle and Thornthwaite formulas. These give reasonably
accurate estimates if adapted to a particular geographic area, and the
period of time is extended over several days. Other relatively simple
measurements which have been correlated with evapotranspiration are
net radiation, and evaporation from the Weather Bureau Class A open
pan, the Livingston atmometer, and the Bellani plate. Also, Penman of
England has derived a formula combining theoretical and emperical con-
sideration involving all the influences of evaporation. Modifications of
this equation have been developed in our country by Van Bavel and others.
None of these are extremely accurate on a day to day basis, but approach
it over a period of several days. These measurements are especially helpful
to a farmer who is equipped to irrigate. Rates as high as 0.36 inches for
one day have been measured in Indiana, and for a period of several days
average 0.23 inches per day. The rate for July and August ranges from
0.16 to 0.20 inches per day with the overall average about 0.18 inches.
Ground water is the source of water for all our wells. The lowering
of the ground water level always creates considerable interest. Naturally
pumping will lower the level, and the only source of recharge is from the
precipitation over the watershed surface. A relatively small amount of
water may flow back into ground water storage during high flow of a river
or stream; but this is usually minor. Also a considerable amount of water
may enter the ground water storage from streams which have porous beds.
Measurements taken the past few years by the U. S. Geological Survey
indicate fluctuation in ground water levels in Indiana have been minor,
other than in a few regions of heavy withdrawal. In general, there is an
abundant supply of accessible water in the glacial Wisconsin drift and
outwash plains of Northern and Central Indiana, but only small supplies
are available from the Illinoian drift and unglaciated areas of Southern
Indiana.
A crucial area in the hydrologic cycle and which does not appear in
the equation is at the point of water entry into the soil. The rate of infil-
tration will largely determine the fate of water in a particular storm.
There are four general situations; namely:
1. The rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration rate, and the
rainfall amount is less than the soil moisture deficit. This results
in no surface runoff, ground water accretion or increase in stream
flow.
350 Indiana Academy of Science
2. The rainfall intensity is less than the infiltration rate and the
total amount of rainfall is greater than the soil moisture deficit.
This results in no surface runoff, an increase in ground water
accretion and an increase in stream flow.
3. The rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, and the
total amount is less than the soil moisture deficit. This results in
surface runoff, no ground water accretion, and some increase in
stream flow.
4. The rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, and the
total amount is greater than the soil moisture deficit. This results
in surface runoff, ground water accretion and increase of stream
flow.
Relating the overall equation specifically to Indiana, and disregarding
the L (Leakage), it should be apparent that the three right hand terms
are in reality water storage. They will fluctuate, but in the humid area
where the hydrologic year is taken as beginning March 1, on this date
SMD can be considered as zero, and over a period of years surface storage
and ground water will assume a constant level. Runoff and Evapotrans-
piration remains as water loss terms and it can be assumed :
P = R.O. + ET
or
P — R.O. = ET
Taking the 25 year records (Table I) for all of the 18 watersheds
and applying this revised equation, the annual ET averages 26.7 inches.
Table I. Rainfall, Runoff, Exapotranspiration relationships for the 18
major watersheds of Indiana. Record taken for 25 year
period 1929-1954.
Calculated
Rainfall
Runoff
Evapotranspiration
Watershed
(Inches)
(Inches)
(Inches)
Lake Michigan
39.4
10.7
28.7
St. Joseph
36.0
11.5
24.6
Kankakee
38.7
10.9
27.8
Maumee
34.6
10.1
24.5
Tippecanoe
35.9
11.5
24.4
Upper Wabash
37.6
11.1
26.5
Mid-Wabash
38.4
11.2
27.2
Lower Wabash
40.4
11.3
29.1
Upper White,
West
Fork
38.2
11.7
26.5
Lower White,
West
Fork
41.4
12.8
28.6
Upper White,
East
Fork
39.6
13.5
26.1
Muscatatuck
43.9
14.8
29.1
Lower White,
East
Fork
42.1
14.8
27.3
Patoka
43.0
16.2
26.8
Whitewater
38.5
13.1
25.4
Laughery
41.3
14.1
27.2
Mid-Ohio
42.0
16.8
25.2
Lower Ohio
42.9
17.9
25.0
Soil Science 351
This amount is very uniform from North to South. The extreme for any
of the watersheds on either side of this average is less than 2.5 inches.
The standard deviation for all the watersheds is 1.71 inches.
On all the watersheds averaging more than 40 inches rainfall, the
average R.O. is 14.8 inches and the ET is 27.3 inches, while the watersheds
averaging less than 40 inches have a R.O. of 11.5 inches and an ET of
26.2 inches, a difference in ET of about 1 inch. Six watersheds along the
Northern border of the State have an average rainfall of 36.9 inches, a
R.O. of 11.0 inches, and an ET of 25.9 inches, while six southern water-
sheds average 42.5 inches of rainfall, a R.O. of 15.8 inches and an ET of
26.8 inches. Therefore, the additional precipitation of Southern Indiana is
principally utilized as runoff.
Attempts have been made to suppress evaporation from bare soil by
mulches, and other conservation practices (3). Monomolecular layers of
long chain alcohols such as hexadecanol have been reported to reduce
evaporation by as much as 30% on open water surfaces. There have also
been reports of using this substance to reduce the transpiration rate of
plants, but this has not been definitely verified. There are many who
ascribe to the idea that the future of the agriculture water economy lies
in this area, that is reduction of evapotranspiration. It may well be.
Certainly research should be continued on the physics involved in the
evaporation processes, and the physiology of plants in water use.
From an Agricultural viewpoint, minimizing soil moisture deficit
is most important in maximizing producton. We have in Indiana about
Wz millions acres of soil on which moisture is an acute problem almost
every year. These areas are principally in the northern sandy regions,
along the river bottoms in central Indiana, and on a large section of the
Wabash Valley in Southwestern Indiana. The problem then is to find a
source of water to supplement these acute areas and thus alleviate the
SMD during the periods of low summer rainfall. The means of supple-
menting this water is commonly known as "irrigation."
Ground water is one source. This is a vast resource, however, no one
seems to know just how much. It appears to be ample in some regions,
particularly in the northern areas of the state. But this source is not
inexhaustible as it ultimately must come from precipitation, and if with-
drawal is greater than recharge, eventually there will be a problem.
The other source is runoff. It is obvious that some runoff must be
maintained in our streams and rivers as base flow. An estimate of the
runoff necessary to maintain this base flow is made by taking information
from the Indiana Water Resource Committee report on a typical water-
shed and using runoff data for the period May through September, about
8.50 inches annually should be a conservative estimate. If this estimate is
anywhere near correct, then in Northern Indiana there is approximately
3 inches of water and in Southern Indiana 7 inches which is excess flow
and is lost as flood water. These are the peaks of our stream hydrographs.
One approach is to transfer these peak or excess Runoff, R.O., to surface
storage, S. This does not upset the hydrologic equation, but merely alters
the terms, changing R.O. to S. and ultimately to SMD and thus maximizing
our agricultural resource.
To be specific, for every 0.6 inch of water taken from the excess
runoff from the total area in Indiana, and stored, a million acres could be
352 Indiana Academy of Science
irrigated to alleviate the Soil Moisture Deficit. This is allowing an acre
foot of water for an acre of irrigated land. This would take considerable
storage area, for example, it would require 10,000 reservoirs averaging
10 acres in size and 10 feet deep. This sounds fantastic, but this is a
natural resource being lost every year.
How much additional output can we expect by management of the
SMD. We know from research that a 30 to 100% increase is not unusual.
Looking at the production pattern, we note that with supplemental water,
the annual yield output should be more nearly uniform each year. Other
environmental factors then become the limiting ones. We can also appre-
ciate that the lower the water holding capacity of the soil, the greater the
yearly fluctuations. Leveling out these fluctuations gives the producer
more stability, and greater flexibility in that he may produce crops which
require an ample and an assured water supply.
Some of this may seem far fetched and not economically sound, but in
this symposium we are thinking about utilizing our resources for maximum
agricultural production. In reality, we are even today working toward
these objectives in our conservation and watershed programs.
By way of summarization, I would like to quote Edward A. Acker-
man (1) of the Carnegie Institution, who in a talk given at a meeting of
the American Association for the Advancement of Science and speaking
of the States located east of the 98th meridian where he said : "This is
where the major Agricultural development of the future will be, even
more heavily weighed than in the past. This region has the lion's share of
the land, the water, and the future market. As yet, however, the develop-
ment of artificially supplied water has been small. Aside from the soil
moisture received from precipitation, water is a very minor agricultural
input. Perhaps because of this we know very little about its productivity
relative to inputs under the conditions prevailing in several parts of the
East. Yet when we view such important potential agricultural areas as
the lower Mississippi Valley this productive promise of water application
appears to be of first rank." He further states: "The first need for action
therefore, is rigorous economic evaluation of the relative productivity of
water in humid land cultivation, considered in the light of modern agri-
cultural technology. I believe that wise and fruitful public investment
cannot be made for water development without the results from such
studies."
We may not be ready to build 10,000 reservoirs in Indiana, but its
food for thought for food and fiber for the future.
Literature Cited
1. Ackeeman, E. A. 1960. "Water Resource Planning and Development in Agricul-
ture." Water in Agriculture, American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Publication No. 62: 3-14.
2. Ackerman, E. A., and Lof, G. O. G. 1959. Technology in American Water Develop-
ment. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore 356-383.
3. Harbeck, G. E. 1960. "Suppressing Evaporation from Water Surfaces." Water in
Agriculture, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication No.
62: 171-172.
4. Indiana Water Resources Study Committee. 1956. Technical Report on Indiana
Water Resources.
Technological Change and Resource Utilization in American
Agriculture1
Vernon W. Ruttan, Purdue University
1.0 Technological change in agriculture poses a major policy issue in
almost every country of the world.
— In most countries the problem remains, as in the time of Malthus,
how to relieve the "pressure of population on food supplies."
— In the U. S. the problem has been, for more than three decades, how
to relieve the "pressure of food supplies on population."
The transformation between these two situations made possible by
technological change is illustrated by the following item:
"Greek farmers grow enough wheat to meet home needs for the first
time in history by using higher yielding varieties, more fertilizer, and
switching to better tillage methods. Greece this year produced about
62 mllion bushels. Prior to World War II about half its requirements
were imported, mostly from the U. S." (Wall Street Journal, October
10, 1961, p. 1).
The situation in Greece is not unique. The FAO continues to report
additional countries in which the pressure of "population on food
supplies" is being transformed into the pressure of "food supplies on
population." Even the most densely populated areas of Western
Europe are approaching self sufficiency in food production. (See
"Trends in European Agriculture" FAO Monthly Bulletin of Agricul-
tural Economics and Statistics," Vol. 9, #10, October 1960.)
2.0 Identification of the role of technological change in this transforma-
tion involves a number of difficult conceptual and emperical problems.
2.1 The conceptual problem :
2.11 Before technological change can occur certain prior events are
necessary. The stage must be set by inventions or by scientific
discoveries. Technological change does not occur until the new
discoveries are utilized in production.
2.12 When technological change occurs its effects are felt in many
ways. For purposes of economic analysis three aspects are par-
ticularly significant: (a) changes in production costs and/or the
product mix of individual firms; (b) shifts in the demand for
inputs used by firms and industries and shifts in the supply of
products produced by firms and industries; (c) changes in the
total level of resource utilization in relation to output in the
economy as a whole. For the economy as a whole all cost reduc-
ing innovations become, through the operation of factor and
product markets, output increasing innovations.
2.13 The significance of technological change for the growth of agri-
cultural output, and for economic growth in general, is that it
permits the substitution of knowledge for resources. Tradition-
1. This report is based on research conducted under Purdue Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Project 917. Project 917 is financed by Grants from the National Science
Foundation and from Resources for the Future.
353
354 Indiana Academy of Science
ally, we have thought of economic growth stemming from the
substitution of resources (land, capital) for labor.
2.2 The measurement problem — how to separate the contribution of tech-
nology from the contribution of resources?
2.11 Partial productivity measures. [0 = T(W)]
Such measures as output per unit of labor, land, breeding stock,
or feed are useful but biased. Charges in these measures can
occur as a result of changes in resource inputs as well as a result
of changes in technology.
2.12 Total productivity approach. [0 = T (wW + 1L + cC + eE)]
The total productivity (output per unit of total input) or index
number approach accounts for all inputs but does not take into
account the fact that the rate of substitution between inputs and
output, among inputs, and between inputs and technology varies
with the amount used (fertilizer example).
2.13 Production function approach. [0 — TA (Ww L1 C° Ee)]
A non-linear function such as the exponential permits wider
latitude for substitution. Other functional forms are available.
When estimated statistically the production function describes
the new technology only as it exists on the average or typical
farm in the group being studied.
2.14 The diffusion function. [TA = R (T,) ]
In actual practice the technology used in the typical farm or
the average technology for the nation as a whole will differ from
the technology on the innovating farms depending on (a) the
receptivity of the population to new ideas; (b) the efficiency of
the communication or education system; (c) the size of the
investment in obsolete equipment; (d) the rate of technological
change itself; and others.
The best that can usually be done emperically is to measure
TA rather than T,.
2.15 The development level.
[O TA (Ww L1 Cc Ee)"|
P P J
The per capita output of a society is a useful index to its level
of economic development. If both sides of the production func-
tion equation are divided by the level of population the per
capita output level (D) for the industry or economy being con-
sidered is obtained. The level of resource inputs necessary to
achieve a particular level of per capita output depends on the
relationship between the rate of technological change and the
rate of population growth. If the rate of technological change
can be pushed above the rate of population growth the level of
per capita output can be increased with no increase in resource
inputs.
3.0 The Output Explosion in American Agriculture.
This background on the conceptual and emperical issues relating to
technological change should shed new insight on the output explosion in
American agriculture that we have experienced over the last several
decades.
Soil Science 355
3.1 Significance of output explosion in relation to discussion of early
1950's.
The President's Water Resources Policy Commission {Water
Policy for the American People, Vol. I, USPGO, Washington 1952,
p. 156-1959) warned that equivalent of 100 million acres of crop-
land would have to be added to meet 1975 farm output require-
ments. It warned that approximately two-thirds of this increase
would have to come from resource development activities such as
irrigation, flood protection, drainage and land clearing if Ameri-
can farmers were to fill, in the Department of Agriculture's ter-
minology, the "fifth plate" resulting from population growth. By
1960 the nation's farmers had already filled the "fifth plate" and
were well on their way toward filling a sixth. The error of these
and other projections of the early 1950's reflected failure to
visualize technology as a substitute for resource inputs.
3.2 The longer run picture.
3.11 The last decade is in sharp contrast to longer run picture
(See Figure 1 and Table 1).
Figure I. Indexes of Output, Input, Productivity and Real Prices in Agriculture, 1870-1959
<*0
140
ro
HO
Total Produc
7
4\
/ / '.^->V""~- Total Inputs-7
-Real Prices'^
1880 1900 1920 1940 I960
USDA, "Changes in Farm Production and Efficiency". Stat. Bui. 233, July I960, p. 48
Barnett, Harold J. "Measurement of Natural Resource Scarcity and Its Economic Effects" National Bureau
of Economic Research, October 1958, (Mimeographed).
Between 1870 and 1900 almost two-thirds of the increase in
output was accounted for by increased inputs and one-third
by technological change. Output rose by 3.7 percent per
year while resource inputs expanded by 2.0 percent per year
and total productivity by 1.1 percent per year. The supply
of resources was sufficiently elastic, when combined with
the flow of new technology, to permit an extremely rapid
rate of increase in farm output with no increase in "real"
farm prices.
356 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. Annual Average Rates of Change in Total Output, Inputs
and Productivity in American Agriculture, 1870-1958.1
1870-1900 1900-25 1925-50 1950-58
Changes of
(percent per year)
Gross Output
3.2
0.9
1.5
2.5
Gross Inputs
2.0
1.0
0.4
0.0
Gross output per unit
of gross input
1.1
-0.0
1.2
2.5
1. TJSDA, "Changes in Farm Production and Efficiency," Stat. Bui. 233, July,
1960, p. 48.
2. Harold J. Barnett, "Measurement of Natural Resource Scarcity and Its Eco-
nomic Effects," National Bureau of Economic Research, October, 1958 (mimeographed).
Between 1900 and 1925 a slow rate of growth in resource
inputs combined with failure to achieve any measurable
increase in total productivity reduced the rate of growth of
farm output to less than 1%. This was the only period since
1870 which experienced a sustained increase in agricultural
prices relative to the general price level. With the applica-
tion of new technology proceeding only fast enough to offset
the effect of diminishing returns even relatively rapid price
increases were not sufficient to draw additional resources
into agricultural production fast enough to maintain a rate
of growth in agricultural output equal to the rate of popu-
lation growth.
Since the mid 1920's the rate of technological change has
risen at an increasing rate. Between 1925 and 1950 a 1.2
percent annual change in total productivity and a 0.4 per-
cent annual increase in resource utilization combined to
produce an output expansion of 1.5 percent per year. By
the 1950 decade total productivity was increasing at a suffi-
ciently rapid rate to account for the entire increase in farm
output.
3.12 Significance of 1910-1925 for development of (a) conserva-
tion and (b) research and extension policies.
The implications of lagging productivity and diminishing
returns to resources during the first quarter of this century
were brought to the attention of consumers and legislators
through the mechanism of rising food prices. The public
concern with resource policy generated during this period
expressed itself in terms of both (a) increased emphasis on
conservation and development of physical resources and
(b) in increased allocation of public funds for research and
education designed to speed the rate of technological change
in American Agriculture.
The success of these policies is further evidence that it is
possible to regard technological change and resource invest-
ment as partial substitutes for each other in achieving
agricultural development. The problem of agricultural de-
velopment can now be stated in terms of achieving the most
efficient combination of expenditures on resource conserva-
Soil Science 357
tion and research and education leading to technological
change rather than simply assuring that the nation and
the world will be able to meet expanding food and fiber
requirements.
4.0 Implications of technological change for future resource require-
ments in American Agriculture.
4.1 Impact of alternative rates of technological change on use of
input factors (Table 2).
It is not possible to predict the precise level of farm output that
will be attained by 1975 or any other future date. Nor can the
exact combination of inputs that will be used to produce a par-
ticular level of output be specified precisely. It is possible, how-
ever, to arrive at a fairly reasonable output projections for the
mid-1970's. It is possible, without specifying the rate of techno-
logical change that will actually be achieved during the next
decade and a half, to analyze the probable effects of alternative
rates of technological change on the inputs required to produce a
given level of output. The rate of technological change that will
actually be achieved will, of course, depend upon many factors
over which decisions have yet to be made — the financial resources
to be devoted to research and development, and the quality of
research personnel which the colleges send into industry, for
example — as well as the many intangible elements which enter
into the effectiveness of basic and applied research.
Since projections, in contrast to predictions, serve to illustrate
the consequences of decisions and actions over which some degree
of control still exists, their most effective use is in guiding policy.
The challenge is, for example, to bring about a level of techno-
logical change which is consistent with both the required level of
farm output and feasible changes in land, labor, and capital
inputs in American agriculture.
Four basic technological change possibilities are identified in
Table 2. For purposes of contrast, input requirements are first
shown for the situation that would exist if technical change —
growth in output per unit of total input — completely ceased.
Extremely large quantities of capital and current operating ex-
penses would have to be employed, along with a rather constant
quantity of land and some additional decline in farm labor, in
order to achieve the required level of farm output.
In the second situation — identified as "slow technical prog-
ress"— a rate of technological change similar to the average rate
since 1910-1914 is assumed. Even with this fairly modest rate
of change (see Table 2), substantial reductions in input require-
ments are indicated as compared to the zero technological change
situation.
"Rapid technical progress" — proceeding at a rate similar to
that of the last three decades — results in further declines in
input requirements, but a larger share of the decline is felt in
terms of declining labor requirements and less in terms of decline
capital and current input requirements.
358
Indiana Academy of Science
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Soil Science 359
In the last situation — identified as "very rapid technical prog-
ress"— the consequences of a rate of technical progress which
would permit aggregate inputs to remain unchanged between
1950 and 1975 are examined. Although total inputs are held at
the 1950 level, substitution of capital and current operating
expenses for labor is projected.
Within each of the four major projections, a situation char-
acterized as "high" and "low" level land inputs is presented.
Considerable controversy has surrounded the question of future
land requirements. Part of this controversy seems related to the
traditional practice of stating future output requirements in
terms of acreage equivalents — "by 1975 increased food and fiber
requirements will require the equivalent of 50 million additional
acres of land" — instead of dealing explicitly with the contribu-
tion of technological change to farm output. Assuming a maxi-
mum decline of land inputs to an index of 90 and a maximum
rise to an index of 110 probably brackets the reasonable range of
alternatives, and serves to illustrate the effects of alternative
land policies on requirements for other inputs.
Table 3. Indexes of Farm Output and Input Changes 1950-59 and
Projections to 1960 and 1975.
Actual
19591
19.14 Pi
•ojeetions2
Revised
1960
197.")
Projection s:-
Output— % of 1950 ov.
itput
126
122
160
160-65
Labor
66
78
67
45-50
Land
96a
96-104
90-110
90-110
Non-Land Capital
(includes buildings
119
121-27
122-44
130-35
Operating Expenses
139
138-48
173-210
170-200
a. The 1959 index is based on acreage of harvested crops only. The projections
are in terms of a weighted quantity index in which irrigated cropland, non-irrigated
cropland and pasture are given separate weights based on productivity and market
price criteria. The decline in acreage harvested since 1950 has been at least in part
offset by increases in irrigated acreage.
Source: (1) Computed from U. S. Department of Agriculture, Changes in Farm Pro-
duction and Efficiency, Statistical Bulletin 233, Washington, July I960.
(2) V. W. Ruttan. "The Contribution of Technological Progress to Farm
Output : 1950-75," Review of Economics' and Statistics, Vol. 38, No. 1,
February 1956, pp. 61-64 (Models VII and VIII).
(3) Revisions of data presented in V. W. Ruttan. Iliid.
4.2 Where are we heading by 1975 (Table 3) ?
The projections presented in Table 2 (constructed in 1954)
appear to underestimate the rate at which capital inputs were
substituted for labor inputs during the decade of the 1950's.
Overall patterns appear, however, to conform rather closely with
that of Models VII and VIII. In Table 3 the projections are com-
pared with the actual experience of the last decade and revised
projections which takes this experience into account are pre-
sented. It would appear, with total productivity rising at close
to 2.5 percent per year and population expanding at 1.8 percent
per year the American Economy will continue to experience
"pressure of food supplies on population."
360 Indiana Academy of Science
5.0 Question — What does a rate of technological change which exceeds the
rate of population growth imply for research workers,
farmers and consumers?
The record of the past several decades indicates that research
workers in agriculture have been particularly successful in develop-
ing new knowledge leading to the substitution of technology for re-
sources inputs in agricultural production. Farmers have attempted,
through agricultural programs, to capture a significant share of these
gains. In this attempt they have been only partially successful. The
declining agricultural prices during the last decade indicates that a
substantial share of the gains from new technology are being passed
on to consumers.
In the future consumers will be best served by a continuation of a
national policy which encourages the support of agricultural research,
development and education. The rising food costs that could result
from failure to maintain a rate of technological change that at least
approximates the rate of population growth could easily exceed the
costs of agricultural research and education. A rate of technological
change in agriculture which exceeds the rate of growth in demand
will, on the other hand, create political pressures on the part of
farmers for protection against the loss of asset values and income
stemming from declining farm prices.
Response of Wheat to Nitrogen on Indiana Soils1
R. K. Stivers, H. F. Hodges, R. F. Dudley and C. F. Douglas,
Purdue University and Agricultural Engineering Research Division,
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. D. A.
In 1946 Horrall (2) found that nitrogen needed for maximum yield
of wheat varied with each experimental location. This difference, he
thought, was due primarily to the degree of rust and scab infestation
rather than to soil differences. At that time, 20 pounds of nitrogen at
planting plus 40 pounds of nitrogen top-dressed in spring was the highest
yielding treatment on three of his four test locations.
Peterson (3) found that anhydrous ammonia and ammonium nitrate
applied in the fall were more effective on poorly-drained, strongly acid
soils than on well-drained, slightly acid soils. Fall and spring applied
anhydrous ammonia and ammonium nitrate were compared at several
rates and on six locations. In general, he found that the tallest wheat and
the largest yields were obtained with the application of ammonium nitrate
broadcast in spring. However, he noticed that at one location in the
second year of the experiment that fall applications of nitrogen reduced
the winter killing of the wheat. Soil properties and yield results of Peter-
son's research with wheat are summarized in a Purdue publication about
wheat fertilization (1). In addition to Peterson's work, this publication
reports a fall versus spring nitrogen application experiment with wheat
on Plainfield sand. It definitely shows that spring application was much
better than fall on this sandy soil.
Results of eight years of demonstrations are reported in another
Purdue publication concerning small grains (4). It shows that \xk to 2
more bushels of wheat were obtained per acre from 25 pounds of nitrogen
top-dressed in the spring than from the same amount of nitrogen top-
dressed in the fall.
The purposes of this study were (1) to compare application of all of
the nitrogen at planting in two different 1-1-1 ratio fertilizers with appli-
cation of a small amount of nitrogen in the fall at planting plus most of
the nitrogen top-dressed in early spring, and (2) to study rates of nitrogen
top-dressed in spring in relation to soil type and cropping and fertilization
history.
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Experiment 1
This experiment was conducted on four locations with winter wheat
in 1957-1958. The descriptions of the soils used are given in Table 1.
Certified Dual wheat was seeded at 6 to 7 pecks per acre on three locations.
Certified Vermillion was seeded at the same rate on the Purdue Agronomy
Farm, the fourth location.
1. Journal Paper No. 1837, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
Contribution from the Department of Agronomy and from the Agricultural Engineer-
ing Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. D. A., Beltsville, Maryland.
The authors are indebted to H. N. Wheaton, Purdue University, and to H. J. Retzer,
Agricultural Engineering Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. D. A.,
Beltsville, Maryland, for their assistance.
361
362
Indiana Academy of Science
A randomized block design with four replications and four treatments
was used at each of the four locations. Time of nitrogen fertilizer appli-
cation was the variable studied. Treatments are given in Table 2. The
hypothesis tested was that spring application of most of the nitrogen on
winter wheat was better than fall application at planting. Two grades of
fertilizer, a 12-12-12 and a 15-15-15, were used to apply all of the nitrogen
in fall at planting. A 5-20-20 was used for the remaining two treatments.
Fall application of the nitrogen was in late September or in early
October at seeding. Spring application was in March or early April before
rapid spring growth started. Row fertilizer was applied with a farm wheat
drill. Rates of phosphate and potash applied were essentially the same on
all treatments. Spring top-dressing was done by hand using ammonium
nitrate as the fertilizer material.
Lodging percentages were estimated visually. Two people working
independently made the Purdue Agronomy Farm estimates. One person
made each of the other estimates.
Yields were determined by harvesting all of each plot except a small
strip across each end with a combine. Plot size was approximately 100
feet long by 5 feet wide.
Table 1. Description of soils used in experiments.
Crop & Yield
in 1957
Soil
Typo
Soil
pH
Purdue Soil Tests
Farm
Available
Phosphate
Lbs. A.
Available
Potash
Lbs. A.
Purdue Agronomy
Lafayette, Indiana
Soybeans
35-40 bu.
per A.
Russell
silt
loam
6.8
108
(medium)
198
(medium)
Wm. Windle
Lafayette, Indiana
Soybeans
27 bu.
per A.
Elston
loam
6.1
45
(low)
133
(low)
Roy Becht
Milroy, Indiana
Sweet corn
5 tons
per A.
Fincastle-
Crosby
silt loams
6.1
48
(low)
198
(medium)
Frank McRoberts
Hazelton, Indiana
Corn
70-80 bu.
per A.
Alford
silt loam
5,9
14
(very low)
79
(very low)
Wolfe & Summers
Carlisle, Indiana
Soybeans
yield not
known
Princeton
sandy loam
ill
124
(medium)
160
(low)
Oatley Thrasher
Rockport, Indiana
Tobacco
about 2000
lbs. per A.
Weinbach
clay loam
5.6
146
(medium)
110
(low)
Experiment 2
This experiment was conducted on Alford silt loam at Hazelton,
Indiana, in conjunction with Experiment 1.
A randomized block design with four replications was used. Variety,
rate, and time of seeding were the same as that used in Experiment 1.
Fertilizer grade and rate was the variable. Treatments are given in
Table 3. The hypothesis tested was that rates of spring applied nitrogen
as high as 65 pounds per acre would increase yields of winter wheat. In
Soil Science 363
addition, spring top-dressing of phosphate and potash fertilizer was
tested.
Fall application of row fertilizer was by a wheat drill at planting.
Spring top-dressing was by hand using ammonium nitrate.
Yields were determined by harvesting with a combine. Plot size was
approximately 120 feet long by 5 feet wide.
Experiment 3
This experiment was conducted at two locations with winter wheat
in 1959-1960. The description of the soils used is given in Table 1. Certified
Vermillion wheat was seeded in October at the rate of 6 to 7 pecks per
acre.
A randomized block design with four replication and four treatments
was used at each of the two locations. As in the two previous experiments
fertilizer nitrogen applied to winter wheat was the variable tested. Treat-
ments are given in Table 4. The hypothesis tested was that rates of spring
applied nitrogen as high as 90 pounds per acre would increase yields of
winter wheat. Plot size was approximately 60 feet long by 3.5 feet wide.
Harvesting was done with a small plot combine.
All plots had 300 pounds per acre of 0-20-20 drilled into the soil
before seeding plus 300 pounds per acre of 5-20-20 drilled at seeding.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment 1
There was some lodging on two of four locations. Only on the Russell
silt loam was there an apparent relation of lodging to treatment. The
treatment with 29 pounds per acre of nitrogen applied in the spring had
50% lodging on this soil. Other treatments had less. The treatment which
received the least nitrogen, 9.5 pounds per acre, had the least lodging, 33
per cent. There was a tendency toward lower yields on the treatment which
had the most lodging. Yields are given in Table 2. However, yields of
wheat were not significantly different on either the Russell silt loam or on
the Fincastle-Crosby silt loams.
Spring application of 29 pounds per acre of nitrogen along with
5-20-20 drilled in the fall on Elston loam resulted in a meaningful increase
in yield of 9.6 bushels per acre more than fall application of 5-20-20 alone.
Also, spring application of most of the nitrogen resulted in significantly
higher yields than applying all of the nitrogen at planting in 15-15-15 or
12-12-12 on the same farm. This Elston loam because of its high porosity
apparently allowed nitrates to leach out of the rooting zone over the
winter. Hence, spring application of most of the nitrogen was highest
yielding and appeared to be related to soil type.
On the Alford silt loam the general relationship of yield to treat-
ments was the same that was found on the Elston loam. Yields were not
as high, and the differences in yields among treatments were not as great
as those found on the Elston loam.
The Alford silt loam near Hazelton, Indiana, is approximately 140
miles south of the Elston loam near Lafayette, Indiana. In this southern
location winters are somewhat less severe with less frozen soil and more
winter leaching. This should have resulted in greater yield differences
among treatments on the Alford silt loam than on the Elston loam. How-
364
Indiana Academy of Science
ever, the reason for the smaller differences may be related to higher soil
tests for available phosphate and available potash and lighter soil texture
on the Elston loam than that found on the Alford silt loam.
Table 2. Influence of fertilization upon yields of winter wheat
at four locations in Indiana, 1958
Time and
rate of
plication
Spring
lbs./A.
Fertilizer
grade applied
in fall2
Yields
nitrogen ar
Fall
Ibs./A.
Russell
silt loam
bu./A.
Elston
loam
bu./A.
Fincastle
Crosby silt
loams bu./A.
Alford
silt loam
bu./A.
9.5
29
5-20-20
43.1
49.4
30.7
29.8
38.7
0
15-15-15
47.6
44.5
31.1
27.2
38.9
0
12-12-12
47.4
46.2
31.0
28.1
9.5
0
5-20-20
46.9
39.8
31.2
25.4
Average
46.3
45.0
31.0
27.7
Least significant difference
at the 5% level
not sig-
nificant
2.4
not sig-
nificant
1.9
Least significant difference
at the 1% level
not sig-
nificant
3.5
not sig-
nificant
2.7
Experiment 2
Wheat yields given in Table 3 largely reflected the influence of phos-
phate and potash fertilizer or phosphate, potash, and nitrogen fertilizer.
Of course, the 0-62.4-62.4 fertilizer had a much higher yield than the
treatment with no fertilizer applied. There was an indication of a higher
yield although not a significant one, with 12.9-51.4-51.4 than with the
0-62.4-62.4 fertilizer. There was a definite trend toward higher yields with
nitrogen top-dressed in spring in addition to 12.9-51.4-51.4 drilled at
Table 3. Influence of fertilizer upon yields of wheat on
Alford silt loam in Indiana, 1958.
Treatment
Lbs./A. drilled
at seeding
N-P205-K20
Lbs./A. top-dressed
in spring
N-P2CyK20
Yield
bu./A.
0-0-0
0-0-0
17.1
0-62.4-62.4
0-0-0
26.4
12.9-51.4-51.4
0-0-0
28.4
12.9-51.4-51.4
25-0-0
31.8
12.9-51.4-51.4
45-0-0
31.8
12.9-51.4-51.4
65-0-0
29.7
16.5-16.5-16.5
45-45-45
33.2
Least significant difference at the 5%
level
3.5
Least significant difference at the 1%
level
4.6
seeding. The 33.5 bushels per acre with 16.5-16.5-16.5 drilled with the
seed plus 45-45-45 top-dressed in spring was highest yielding although not
significantly higher than two of the treatments. Inasmuch as it had been
2. Phosphate applications were 38 lbs./A. of P205 from 5-20-20, 38.7 lbs./A. of
P205 from 15-15-15, and 38.9 lbs./A. of P205 from 12-12-12. Potash applications ex-
pressed in lbs./A. of KnO were the same as phosphate.
Soil Science 365
predicted that this treatment would not perform this well, more research
should be done on testing this method of fertilizing wheat.
Experiment 3
On one of the two locations reported in Table 4 yields decreased sig-
nificantly and on the other yields increased significantly with increasing
rates of top-dressed nitrogen. Increasing rates of nitrogen resulted in
decreased yields on the Weinbach clay loam. It contained a considerable
amount of available nitrogen from the previous tobacco crop. Had this not
been true, lodging probably would not have increased significantly with
increasing rates of top-dressed nitrogen. The correlation coefficient show-
ing the relation between yields and estimated percentages of lodging was
-0.77. This r value is significant at the 1% level.
On the Princeton sandy loam soil, results were much different from
those on the Weinbach clay loam. This sandy soil with its porous nature
was much more likely to allow leaching of previously applied nitrogen
than Weinbach clay loam. As shown in Table 4, there was no lodging of
wheat at any rate of nitrogen on the Princeton sandy loam, and it appears
that there would have been somewhat higher yields with more than 90
pounds per acre of nitrogen top-dressed. Yield increases varied from 17
bushels per acre for the first 30 pounds per acre of top-dressed nitrogen to
4.9 bushels per acre for the last 30 pounds per acre of top-dressed nitrogen.
These yield responses were highly significant.
Table 4. Influence of rates of top-dressed nitrogen on yields and lodging
percentages of wheat on two locations in Indiana, 1960.
Yields
Lodging
Lbs./A.
of nitrogen Weinbach
top-dressed clay loam
in spring bu./A.
Princeton
sandy loam
bu./A.
Weinbach
silt loam
%
Princeton
sandy loam
%
0
50.2
25.1
30
0
30
39.8
42.1
40
0
60
34.5
50.6
16
0
90
34.5
55.5
55
0
Least significant
difference at the
5% level
6.9
2.7
7
none
Least significant
difference at the
1% level
10.0
3.9
10
none
Summary
Three different fertilizer experiments were conducted with winter
wheat. The first experiment was conducted on four different soil types in
the 1957-1958 cropping year. Significant differences in yields were ob-
tained at only two of the four locations. Spring top-dressed nitrogen
produced greater yield increases than nitrogen applied at planting in
the fall on both the Elston and Alford soils. Difference in response to
nitrogen between these two soils appeared to be related to soil type.
In Experiment 2 yields were increased significantly as a result of
phosphate and potash fertilization at planting. There was a trend toward
366 Indiana Academy of Science
higher yields with 25 pounds per acre of nitrogen top-dressed in spring
compared to no top-dressed nitrogen when nitrogen, phosphate and potash
were applied in the fall at planting.
In Experiment 3 increasing rates of spring top-dressed nitrogen
resulted in significantly decreased yields on Weinbach clay loam. There
was a significant negative correlation between lodging and yield of wheat
on this soil. On the Princeton sandy loam yields of wheat were increased
significantly with increasing rates of spring top-dressed nitrogen. These
two soils differed in previous treatment and in texture, both of which
apparently influenced nitrogen availability for wheat.
Literature Cited
1. Fall versus spring application of nitrogen on wheat. Rev. February, 1959. Purdue
Mimeo AY 143.
2. Horrall, N. 1946. Field response of wheat to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
fertilizer. Master of science thesis, Agronomy Department, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana.
3. Peterson, Noble K. 1952. Anhydrous ammonia as a source of nitrogen for wheat.
Master of science thesis. Agronomy Department, Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana.
4. Summary of county wheat variety and fertilizer demonstrations and the same
variety in experiment station trials. Revised, January, 1961. Purdue Mimeo AY In.
ZOOLOGY
Chairman: L. E. DeLanney, Wabash College
James B. Cope, Earlham College, was elected chairman for 1962
ABSTRACTS
Further Studies on the Infection of Paramecium by Kappa.1 Jo Anne
Mueller, Indiana University. — Paramecium aurelia includes strains
known as killers which release a particulate toxin capable of killing sensi-
tive strains. The production of toxin is associated with the presence of
genically supported cytoplasmic particles known as kappa. The contents
of stock 51 killers, syngen 4, contain material that can cause stock 51
sensitive animals to become infected and subsequently develop into killer-
cultures (Sonneborn, 1948). Two components from the killers are required
for successful infection. Disrupted killer animals centrifuged at 25,000
x G for 5 minutes results in the separation of the two components. The
centrifugate contains infective kappa particles and the supernatant con-
tains a co-factor (Tallan, 1959). The following experiments investigate
conditions conducive to enhanced infectivity of sensitive animals. The
sensitive animals used for the detection of infective particles vary in their
response to the infective mixture. If the detectors are grown, previous to
exposure, in a medium buffered with CaCOs and Ca(OH), they are much
less susceptible to invasion by infective particles than if they are grown
in the same type of medium but with a sodium phosphate buffering
system. In the former, vast quantities of kappa particles are required to
insure infection, a thousand-fold increase to that required when the sensi-
tive detectors have been grown with the phosphate buffering system.
The Axial Skeleton of the Pygmy Sunfish (Elassoma).2 Rolliana A.
Binder and Clarence F. Dineen, Saint Mary's College, Notre Dame. —
The Pygmy Sunfish, Elassoma, has been reclassified from a single genus
family, Elassomidae, to the family Centrarchidae (sunfish) where it had
originally been placed. These classifications have all been based on external
characteristics. In order to gain additional evidence for proper classifica-
tion, the axial skeletons of 19 specimens (two species) were cleared and
stained for bone. Individual bones were compared chiefly with those of
Archoplites interruptus as a representative of the Centrarchids. The major
differences were the absence of interneurals, the fusion of the hypurals of
the caudal fin, modifications of the ultimate vertebra, greater constriction
of the centra and unique modification of the anterior abdominal haemal
spines. As evidenced by the axial skeleton, the Elassoma is less closely
related to the Archoplites interruptus than is the latter to the other Cen-
trarchid fishes.
The Pleistocene Passeriform Avifauna of Reddick, Florida. J. Hill
Hamon, Indiana State College. — The fossil-beds of Reddick, Florida are
1. This work was supported by a grant to T. M. Sonneborn from the American
Cancer Society No. E 81 B.
2. Supported in part by National Science Foundation grant No. G12586.
367
368 Indiana Academy of Science
the richest Pleistocene deposits in eastern North America. They bear a
tremendous vertebrate fauna including 60 species of mammals, 63 species
of birds, and 50 species of amphibians and reptiles. The passeriform avi-
fauna is the richest in North America and is composed of 26 species, four
of which are extinct. The deposit is the filling of a former large cave. The
bone-bed is of fresh water origin and is thought to have been deposited
during the Illinoiaan glacial stage. This age assignment is corroborated
by extinction ratios and by stratigraphic evidence. The avifauna has some
members with boreal and some with Sonoran affinities. Parallel faunal
origins exist among the mammals. The climate during the time of deposi-
tion of bone-beds is thought to have been about 6°F. cooler in summer, and
about 7°F. cooler in winter.
Horizontal Distribution of Cladocera Remains in Surficial Sediments
of Indiana Lakes. Wayne P. Mueller, Indiana University. — An examina-
tion of lake sediment reveals an abundance of chitinous exuviae of Clado-
cera which are identifiable to species. These remains are found distributed
over the entire lake bottom and can broadly be divided as those derived
from the littoral zone inhabitants — principally the Family Chydoridae;
and the planktonic inhabitants consisting mainly of Daphnia and Bosmina.
Due to these habitat differences and the movement of remains after molt-
ing, a non-uniform distribution is found in the surficial sediments. To
investigate the distribution of remains over the lake bottom, dredge hauls
of sediment were taken along transects in three Northern Indiana glacial
lakes. Qualitative and quantitative examinations reveal a uniform dis-
tribution of species over the lake bottom and a pronounced decrease in
littoral remains as deep water is approached. Total remains per gram
dry weight of sediment increases with depth although the maximum value
is usually found before maximum depth is reached. A sediment collector
was placed in Winona Lake to determine when redeposition of littoral
remains into deep water locations occurs. Available data suggest a con-
tinuous removal of littoral remains during thermal stratification due to
the overlying epilimnetic water. At fall overturn a six to seven fold
increase of total remains was observed but at this time deep water sedi-
ment enters the circulating water column.
The Identification and Significance of Bosmina (Crustacea, Cladocera)
Remains in Lake Sediments. Clyde E. Goulden, Indiana University. —
Because of the great variability in the genus Bosmina, much confusion
has existed in delimitation of species. At one time over nine species were
recognized in Europe, but now only two species are recognized, Bosmina
longirostris and B. coregoni based on Burckhardt's description of the
postabdominal claws. This problem is important to the study of lake
ontogeny because Bosinina exuviae compose over 50% of the cladoceran
remains in many lake sediments, and because B. coregoni tends to be more
closely associated with oligotrophy lakes. Postabdominal claws are very
scarce as compared to head shields and shells in lake sediments and hence
of limited use for identification of species. In a study of sediments from
Esthwaite Water in England, a method for the identification of head
shields by use of lateral head pores has been discovered. This method is
apparently usable in living forms as well as fossil material and thus is
of some taxonomic as well as paleolimnological importance.
Zoology 369
Defensive Actions of Newly-hatched Hog-nosed Snakes (Heterodon
platyrhinos). William B. Hopp and J. Hill Hamon, Indiana State Col-
lege.— Five of a clutch of eight eggs laid by a captive female Heterodon
platyrhinos on July 10, 1961, hatched on September 8, 1961. When first
observed, four had just emerged and the fifth was still partially within
the egg shell. Upon the slightest disturbance, all feigned death imme-
diately, without first going into the threatening activities frequently
observed in older specimens.
Some Observations on Energy Balance in Dolichonyx oryzivorus,
During Premigratory Fat Deposition. Cameron E. Gifford, Earlham Col-
lege.— Energy balance has been determined for twenty Bobolinks kept
under laboratory photoperiodic stimulation for a period of a year. Under
non-migratory conditions the bobolink requires 13-16 Kcal/bird/24hr.,
whereas the same bird during the premigratory period of fat deposition
requires 30-35 Kcal/bird/24hr. Premigratory fat deposition or positive
energy balance in the bobolink is brought on by the increase of gross
energy input or hyperphagia.
Local Movements of Some Indiana Bats. James B. Cope, Earlham
College. — Data on migrating bats was obtained by mist netting in front
of caves for three years during the spring and fall. Shifting of bats from
one colony to another, both in summer and winter, has definitely been
established. Movements of Myotis lucifugus, little brown bat, from winter
quarters to summer quarters and from summer quarters to winter quar-
ters, are reported for the first time.
Effects of Environmental Factors on Populations of Ostracods.
Charles D. Wise, Ball State Teachers College, and Louis S. Kornicker,
A. and M. College of Texas. — Few data from laboratory experiments on
ostracods have been recorded in the literature, but preliminary experi-
ments indicate that laboratory cultivation and experimentation can be
extremely useful in solving problems concerning the effects of environ-
mental factors on the distribution of ostracods. A most promising tech-
nique is culturing ostracods under controlled laboratory conditions and
determining the manner in which specific environmental variables affect
the population. In this way, it was shown in the laboratory that ostracods
varied in size when grown under different ecological conditions, e. g.,
ostracods cultured in the absence of light were smaller than those cultured
in the light, and those cultured at lower temperatures were larger than
those cultured at higher temperatures. A species of fresh-water ostracod
cultured in the laboratory was found to be smaller at maturity than speci-
mens of the same ostracod collected from nature. The fresh-water ostracod
species studied did not develop in laboratory cultures when the tempera-
ture was kept continuously at 37 deg. C, but did develop when the tem-
perature varied diurnally between 30 deg. C. and 40 deg. C, a condition
approaching that found in nature. At temperatures used, Cyprinotus
dentatus was found to develop best at 25 deg. C. Experiments performed
on the marine ostracod, Hemicy there conradi, showed that specimens
acclimated at 25 deg. C. could not survive temperatures above 36 deg. C.
nor below 6 deg. C. This species of ostracod exhibited positive phototropism
and preferred silty sand to oolitic sand when given free choice in the
laboratory.
Long Term Cyclic Changes in the Temperature of Man
William J. Brett, Indiana State College
Rhythmicities of various frequencies (solar-day, lunar-day, lunar-
month and annual) have been reported for a great number of organisms
ranging from single-celled plants and animals to the most highly developed
organisms. Many of these rhythms have been shown to persist in constant
conditions in regards to light, temperature, pressure and humidity. An
excellent review of the work in this area was done by Webb and Brown (8) .
More recent work has demonstrated the effects of cosmic radiation, mag-
netic fields and electrostatic fields on responses in living organisms.
(3,5,9).
Some work has been done with cycles in the human organism; but,
with rare exceptions, most of this work has been concerned with cycles of
24 hours or less duration. The main exception is the well known repro-
ductive or menstrual cycle in the human female. Lunar month cycles
have been pointed out in another mammal, the rat (2). And although
many M.D.'s and concerned persons have kept close records on individual
daily temperature changes for one or several months, there has, to the
author's knowledge, been little if any work clone to determine the nature
of the temperature cycle as it applies to the species. There has been no
effort made to uncover any correlation of this cycle with one of the cosmic
frequencies. The research described here was conducted to that end.
Methods and Results
Volunteers were asked to take their temperature twice daily for a
minimum of 30 days. The two times selected were: (1) in the morning
just before rising; and (2) at noon just before eating. In this report only
the early morning records were analyzed. Each individual was provided
with the same type of thermometer which had been checked for accuracy.
Each volunteer kept a daily record to indicate any illness or other unusual
occurrence which might disrupt the normal temperature pattern. Any
temperature record determined as abnormal for these reasons was dis-
carded. Records were kept for February and March of 1959 and May,
June and July of 1960.
Ninety monthly records were obtained and analyzed. Of these, fifty-
nine were female and thirty-one male. The temperature range for different
subjects varied from a minimum of .7° F. to a maximum range of 2.8° F.
In order to prevent one individual's record from contributing more to the
total picture than any other's, each individual's daily temperature was
expressed as a percent of his deviation range from his daily mean tem-
perature and plotted as a plus or minus percentage value.
A mean value was obtained for each day of the lunar month for all
the female records and for all the male records. Figure 1A depicts the
average value for the females for each day of the lunar month. Two main
temperature drops can be observed. The first occurring on the 13th day
after new moon is the minor one; and the second one occurring from the
16th through 19th day after new moon is the major one. It will be
noticed that the temperature maximum occurs on the day before full
moon and the temperature drop starts on the day of new moon. Menaker
370
FULL MOON
DAYS
Figure 1 A. The mean temperature value for the females for each day of the
lunar month. B. The same for the males.
372
Indiana Academy of Science
and Menaker in their work on lunar periodicity in human reproduction
found the day of maximum births to be the day before full moon (7).
The temperature data for the male records shows a rather random tem-
perature fluctuation (Figure IB).
An attempt was made in this study to demonstrate a correlation of
monthly temperature change in females with mean daily barometric pres-
sure. Other workers have shown that barometric pressure changes show
a rather close correlation with some biological rhythms (4). Figure 2
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Figure 2. Comparison of the mean daily temperature for the females and the
mean daily barometric pressure for the month of March, 1959.
shows the mean daily values for females and the mean daily barometric
pressure for the month of March 1959. The correlation was obtained by
sliding the barometric pressure over three days resulting in a three day
lead-lag relationship between temperature and pressure. A two day lead-
lag relationship was shown between respiration in several organisms and
barometric pressure by Brown, Webb and Macey (6).
Discussion
The results suggest that there is a definite lunar frequency for
female temperature variation. The major temperature drop starts on the
day of full moon. This temperature drop in an individual is usually inter-
preted by obstetricians and endocrinologists as signaling ovulation. A
period of 266 days is accepted as the mean duration of the period between
conception and birth in the human female. Recalling that a lunar month
is 29.5 days it is seen that 9 lunar months equal 265.5 days; therefore, it
would appear to be more than mere coincidence that these results show a
major temperature drop on the day of full moon and Menaker and Men-
Zoology 373
aker's work shows a significant birth increase on the day before full
moon. Knowing how many factors, both physical and psychological, can
disrupt the menstrual cycle it is quite remarkable to obtain a mean tem-
perature cycle of this magnitude.
The three day lead-lag relationship between human temperature
change and barometric pressure would appear extraordinary if previous
work by Brown and co-workers had not suggested this type of correlation
might occur. Further work may uncover a closer correlation with another
parameter of barometic pressure or with some other cosmic frequency.
Experiments with other organisms (quahogs, fucus, fiddler crabs, etc.)
have shown that the correlation with barometric pressure is not a corre-
lation with the immediate causative force (1). Rather one is more apt to
regard the correlation as being an indirect one, with human temperature
variations being correlated with some causative force which is also corre-
lated with barometric pressure. Further work may indicate that there is
no single causative force but rather there is a complexity of causative
forces by which living systems are regulated and correlated. If one con-
siders the idea of a complexity of external physical cycles which have an
effect on biological rhythms, it is possible to explain the persistence of
many biological rhythms, in so-called "constant conditions." Elimination
of one or several of the external physical forces might change the magni-
tude of the biological rhythm but would not destroy it. If, on the other
hand, it is ever possible to eliminate all external contributing forces, then
lacking a phasing or setting force, the endogenous timing mechanisms of
the living organism will, with a passage of time, dissipate and disappear;
and in turn all biological rhythms will disappear.
It is hoped that future work on a more extensive scale may uncover
more long term cycles in man.
Literature Cited
1. Brown, Frank A., Jr. 1956. Studies of the Timing Mechanisms of Daily, Tidal,
and Lunar Periodicities in Organisms. Perspectives in Marine Biology, ed. by A. A.
Buzzati-Traverso. Pp. 269-282.
2. Brown, F. A., Jr., J. Shrinbr and C. L. Ralph. 1956. Solar and Lunar Rhythmicity
in the Rat in "Constant Conditions" and the Mechanism of Physiological Time
Measurement. Am. Jour. Phys. 184 : 491-496.
3. Brown, F. A., Jr., H. M. Webb and M. F. Bennett, 1958. Comparisons of Some
Fluctuations in Cosmic Radiation and in Organismic Activity During 1954, 1955
and 1956. Am. Jour. Phys. 195 : 237-243.
4. Brown, F. A., Jr., H. M. Webb, M. F. Bennett and M. I. Sandeen. 1955. Evidence
for an Exogenous Contribution to Persistent Diurnal and Lunar Rhythmicity
under so-called Constant Conditions. Biol. Bull. 109 : 238-254.
5. Brown, F. A., Jr., H. M. Webb and W. J. Brett. 1960. Magnetic Response of an
Organism and its Lunar Relationships. Biol. Bull. 118 : 382-392.
6. Brown, Frank A., Jr., II. M. Webb and Erwin J. Macey. 1957. Lag-Lead Corre-
lations of Barometric Pressure and Biological Activity. Biol. Bull. 113 : 112-119.
7. Menaker, Walter and Abraham Menaker. 1959. Lunar Periodicity in Human
Reproduction : A Likely Unit of Biological Time. Am. Jour. Obstet. & Gyn. 77 :
905-914.
8. Webb, H. Marguerite and Frank A. Brown, Jr. 1959. Timing Long-Cycle Physio-
logical Rhythms. Phys. Rev. 39 : 127-161.
9. Webb, H. Marguerite, Frank A. Brown, Jr. and William J. Brett. 1959. Effects
of Imposed Electrostatic Field on Rate of Locomotion in Ilyanassa. Biol. Bull.
117 : 430.
Adrenal Cortical Accessory Tissue and Azo Dye
Carcinogenesis
W. J. Eversole,1 Indiana State College
Introduction
Adrenal cortical tissue in lower vertebrates is scattered along the
dorsal body wall in close association with cardinal veins. In mammals,
however, such tissue is generally considered to be organized into a discrete
gland, forming a cortex which encloses the adrenal medulla. The presence
of cortical tissue in laboratory rats, accessory to that found in the main
glands, has been reported in experiments designed to study the influence
of adrenalectomy and hormone treatment on azo dye carcinogenesis (1, 2).
The present investigations were undertaken in attempts to determine the
extent to which adrenal cortical accessory tissue is present in Long-Evans
laboratory rats, and the influence that such tissue may have upon the
course of azo dye carcinogenesis.
Materials and Methods
The procedure for producing liver carcinogenesis was similar to that
previously reported (1, 3). Rats were fed a semisynthetic diet containing
0.058% 3'-methylparadimethylaminoazobenzene (3'-Me-DAB) for four
months. Controls were unoperated, whereas experimental rats were
adrenalectomized and treated with either 50-75 mg/month or 10 mg/month
of desoxycorticosterone trimethylacetate (DCT). In the first series of
experiments (Table 1) the perirenal areas were searched macroscopically
for adrenal cortical accessory tissue. Animals in which such tissue was
found were considered separately (Group 4, Table I) and comparisons
were made on the degree of liver involvement in this group with that in
other groups in which no accessory tissue was found. Upon autopsy, livers
were excised, weighed, and examined for the presence and size of lesions.
Diseased livers without obvious lesions showed rough granulated-appear-
ing surfaces and were classified as "lobulated." Livers with lesions were
separated into two categories: those with small lesions (<5.0 mm in
diameter) and those with large lesions (>5.0 mm in diameter). Paraffin
and frozen sections of representative areas of the livers were prepared
and stained respectively with hemotoxylin and eosin and Scharlach R.
Tissue from livers was classified as carcinomatous only when neoplastic
areas were epitheloid in appearance.
In another series of experiments 41 rats were adrenalectomized,
treated with low doses of DCT and fed the carcinogen for four months.
At autopsy the perirenal areas were examined grossly for accessories and
when such bodies were found they were preserved, sectioned, and studied
to determine whether or not they were truly cortical tissue. In these
animals the liver and perirenal areas were stripped from the carcass and
prepared for histological study. Adrenal cortical tissue found in perirenal
areas was then classified as either macroscopic or microscopic accessories.
Livers were studied histologically and classified as carcinomatous or non-
carcinomatous. Correlations were then made between sizes of accessory
bodies and cancer incidence.
1. The author wishes to thank Prof. Lucio Severi of the University of Perugia,
Italy for aid in the histopathologic aspects of this study.
374
Zoology
375
TABLE I
Liver Appearance and Cancer Incidence in Rats Fed
3'-ME-DAB for 4 Months
Group Treatment
No. Liver wt. Liver
Rats g/100gBW Appearance
No. Carcinomatous
Livers No. </c
mean±S.E
1
none
36 7.7+0.2
Lobulated
Small lesions
Large lesions
3
13
20
~3(T
0
11
20
3T
86
2
Adrenalectomy
50-75 mg DCT/month
15 4.3±0.1
Normal
L3
0
(no macroaccessories)
Lobulated
Small lesions
Large lesions
I
1
0
~15
0
0
0
0
0
3
Adrenalectomy
10 mg DCT/month
(no macroaccessories)
38 4.8±0.2
Normal
Lobulated
Small lesions
Large lesions
L9
1 1
7
1
~38
0
1
3
1
~5~
13
4
Adrenalectomy
DCT
15 5.9±0.4
Normal
1
0
(macroaccessories)
Lobulated
Small lesions
Large lesions
7
4
3
2
3
3
15
8
53
Results
All control rats fed azo dye, but otherwise receiving no treatment,
had enlarged and abnormal appearing livers; 86% of these were found
to be carcinomatous (Table I, Group 1). The five non-cancerous livers in
this group were either grossly lobulated or contained small lesions. Micro-
scopic examination revealed areas that appeared swollen, inflamed, and
hemorrhagic; there was an increase in stainable fat and connective tissue.
Adrenalectomized, azo dye-fed rats receiving large doses of DCT had
carcinoma-free livers but two livers in the group (Table I, Group 2)
appeared to be mildly diseased. Also, in most all livers of this group
histological study revealed signs of hypertrophy, inflammation, and fatty
infiltration, although mean liver weight was approximately that expected
for stock Long-Evans rats.
Most of the adrenalectomized animals given small doses of DCT had
livers that were cancer-free, but again histological evidence of swelling,
fatty infiltration, and hemorrhage was present. Mean liver weight, while
slightly greater than in the previous groups, was about normal (Table I,
Group 3).
41
8
20
8
12
8
376 Indiana Academy of Science
In the group of rats that was adrenalectomized but exhibited macro-
scopically visible accessories upon autopsy 14 of 15 had abnormal appear-
ing livers, and eight of these were carcinomatous (Table I, Group 4) .
In the second series of experiments where a search was made for both
macroscopic and microscopic accessories the results showed that 20 of the
41 adrenalectomized rats had adrenal tissue present; twelve macroscopic
and eight microscopic accessories were found. In this group the only rats
TABLE II
Correlation of Adrenal Cortical Accessories with Liver Carcinomas
in DCT-Treated Adrenalectomized Rats Fed 3'-ME-DAB
No. with
carcinomas
Number rats studied
Number with acces. tissue
Number with macro acces.
Number with micro, acces. 8 0
with cancerous livers were those that had adrenal cortical accessories of
macroscopic dimensions. Rats with microscopic accessories did not have
liver cancer but evidence of liver pathology was present as evidenced by
marked eosinophilia of liver parenchyma cells and hemorrhagic areas.
Also, those livers from rats in which no accessory tissue was found showed
evidence of histological change since liver cords appeared swollen and
cells were strongly eosinophilic.
Accessory adrenal cortical tissue did not exhibit the typical histologi-
cal appearance as seen in adrenal glands. The adrenal cortical cells were
large and well differentiated but arranged in irregular nests and columns.
The connective tissue capsule around the accessories was thin and indis-
tinct, unlike the well differentiated capsule of regular glands.
Discussion
The experiments reported here again confirm the observations made
previously (1, 2, 3) that adrenalectomy and desoxycorticosterone treat-
ment inhibits azo dye carcinogenesis. However, they also indicate that
such procedures may not completely suppress the carcinogenic process.
The finding that protected livers show histologic deviations, confirms the
report of Symeonides et al (2). Whether the signs of hypertrophy and
inflammation in otherwise normal appearing livers are reflections of
resistance to carcinogenic dye, to DCT treatment, or to some other factor,
is unknown.
The results reported here clearly demonstrate that azo dye cancer
incidence is higher in adrenalectomized desoxycorticosterone treated ani-
mals with macroscopic adrenal cortical accessory tissue than it is in
similarly treated animals where no such tissue could be found. Such
findings imply that adrenalectomy and desoxycorticosterone treatment is
an effective means of inhibiting azo dye carcinogenesis, providing func-
tional accessory adrenal cortical tissue is absent. Credence is given to
this implication by previous studies which showed that azo dye carcino-
genesis could not be inhibited by desoxycorticosterone treatment in un-
operated rats (3).
Zoology 377
Summary
Adrenal cortical accessory tissue was found to be present in large
numbers of long-term adrenalectomized Long-Evans rats. In a detailed
study of the perirenal areas from 41 adrenalectomized rats, 12 animals
were found to have accessories that were macroscopically detectable and
8 others had accessories of microscopic dimensions.
Adrenalectomy and desoxycorticosterone treatment effectively inhib-
ited azo dye carcinogenesis, especially in animals lacking macroscopically
detectable adrenal cortical tissue. The presence of small accessories ap-
peared to have little, if any, influence upon the protective effects of adren-
alectomy and desoxycorticosterone treatment.
The protective effects of adrenalectomy and desoxycorticosterone
treatment in azo dye carcinogenesis were somewhat limited since micro-
scopic studies revealed that normal-appearing livers contained areas of
inflammation and cellular hypertrophy.
Literature Cited
1. Eversole, W. J. 1957. Inhibition of azo dye carcinogenesis by adrenalectomy and
treatment with desoxycorticosterone trimethylacetate. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.
96 : 643-646.
2. Symeonidis, A., A. S. Mulay, and F. H. Burgoyne. 1954. Effect of adrenalectomy
and of desoxycorticosterone acetate on the formation of liver lesions in rats fed
p-dimethylaminoazobenzene. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 14 : 805-817.
3. DaVanzo, J. P., and W. J. Eversole. 1958. The effects of adrenalectomy and
desoxycorticosterones on liver enzymes and protein in rats fed 3'-methyl-4-dimethyl-
aminoazobenzene. Cancer Res. 18 : 796-801.
Burrows and Oscillative Behavior Therein of Lumbricus
terrestris
James W. Joyner and N. Paul Harmon, Earlham College1
Introduction
Our paper is presented as a contribution to the knowledge of the
annelid worm Lumbricus terrestris Linnaeus, 1758 (part) Miiller 1774
(part). This large peregrine earthworm was an accessory to the importa-
tion of plants from Europe by our colonists and has become widely estab-
lished (3, 6, 7, 8, 9). There has been no complete study of the life history,
ecology and behavior of L. terrestris though Darwin (1) and others (4)
have made significant contributions.
While it is not the purpose of this paper to detail any behavior but
oscillative activity in the burrow, it is pertinent to this report that L.
terrestris performs certain basic burrowing, feeding and reproductive
activities which differ from those of other Lumbricidae found in associa-
tion with them. The latter seldom leave the earth and are inclined to feed
on the organic fraction of the soil. Incidentally, many species of worms,
including L. terrestris, willingly forsake the soil to take up residence in
suitable concentrations of organic waste such as leaves or compost, but
since such concentrations are atypical the phenomena will be noted only
in passing.
The burrows of L. terrestris open directly to the surface of the soil
and at night the worm extends its body from it in search of food which,
if found, is grasped in the mouth and drawn back to the burrow opening
where it remains until consumed. In some cases such a large amount of
food is accumulated around a burrow opening that the name "earthworm
midden" has been applied to it.
The relation of the reproductive activity of L. terrestris to this report
is found in the manner in which copulation is frequently, if not always,
carried out on the soil surface. It seems to us that if L. terrestris con-
structed a network of interconnecting burrows it would copulate there, as
do other Lumbricidae, rather than at the surface where they are more
vulnerable to predators. In other words above-ground copulation tends to
indicate that no extensive interconnecting burrow systems are constructed
by L. terrestris.
Burrows of Lumbricus terrestris
The surface of the soil occupied by L. terrestris will usually be raam-
milated with mounds of castings at the burrow openings. The castings
are, of course, the excreta which results from the consumption of soil by
the worm during burrowing. The quantity of soil which accumulates on
the surface indicates that L. terrestris must actively ingest soil and bring
it to the surface for deposit, thus excavating a burrow. While it cannot be
stated with certainty that L. terrestris does not cast underground, the
practice of surface casting, to the degree observed, contrasts with the
1. The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable aid of the unpublished research
of Michael Ilinshaw (5). We also wish to acknowledge the financial support of an NSF
Grant G-1332G made to the senior author and an NSF Undergraduate Research Par-
ticipation award (G-16060) to the junior author.
378
Zoology 379
subsurface casting into burrows, root tunnels and chambers by Allolobo-
phora caliginosa, Allolobophora chlorotica and various Diplocardia sp.
The apparent extensive burrowing activity of L. terrestris, as indi-
cated by the accumulation of castings and the observation of distinct
burrows beyond 12 inches, led us to a more thorough investigation of the
burrows. Attempts to trace the extent and pattern of these met with
limited success until we turned to the use of natural rubber latex. The
feasibility of using this material was reported some years ago by Gar-
ner (2).
Methods and Materials
Investigation of the burrows of L. terrestris was undertaken on blue-
grass sod away from the roots of trees. The sod which would interfere
with the flow of latex was removed by scalping the surface with a spade.
The burrow (or burrows) located before scalping was cleared of soil
particles to allow drainage of the latex. A circular container open at both
ends was placed over the burrow to act as a reservoir for the latex while
drainage into the burrow was completed. Latex was added to the reservoir
until all drainage ceased and a thin cap of rubber was allowed to form on
top of the soil.
Natural rubber latex coagulates to elastic rubber upon water loss and
change in pH. Soil absorbs both the moisture and the ammonia used to
maintain the liquid state of the latex. Our experience suggests that latex
casting in moist soils will not be successful and we recommend that initial
attempts at casting be made in dry soils.
After a minimum of 24 hours the arduous task of digging the cast
was undertaken. It was necessary to make a deep excavation adjacent to
the area containing the cast to facilitate its removal. In the laboratory
the cast was washed to remove clinging soil particles and then photo-
graphed. (The casts tend to become sticky in time and cannot be stored
indefinitely.)
Discussion
The flexible, three dimensional casts obtained by the above method
disclosed that the burrows of L. terrestris are distinctly separate vertical
tunnels. The terminal depth of burrows in this study was three feet but
it is probable that burrow depth would vary with soil and moisture con-
ditions. Guild (4) reports that Darwin and Miiller both noted that L.
terrestris burrows to a depth of ten feet under certain soil conditions in
Great Britain.
The cast illustrated (Fig. 1) is included to show that the earthworm
burrow did not come out as a simple cast as other spaces filled by latex
complicate the picture. Two other recognizable types of soil space were
filled by the latex. These were: (1) the soil cracks common to dry soil,
and (2) long branching tunnels formerly occupied by roots. The latter
structures were recorded in fine detail.
Oscillative Behavior
The behavior of L. terrestris at the surface coupled with the new
knowledge gained from latex casts that a single worm occupies a non-
branching vertical burrow led us to an investigation of the behavior of
the worm in the burrow and in particular its vertical movement. We
desired answers to such questions as how far, how often, in what direction,
380
Indiana Academy of Science
■
mm
:;:- 7
; LATEX CAST
Hi A OF
§ EARTHWORM
BURROWS
Pe
JL tftiuttius
Figure 1. Latex cast of the bur:
Lumbricus 1<
itris.
when and with what regularity did it display what we have termed oscil-
lative behavior.
Since visual observations of such worm movements under field con-
ditions were impossible we turned to radioactive isotope tagging; a tech-
nique which had already found application in tracing the movements of
many kinds of animals.
Methods and Materials
For the purposes of our investigation, earthworms were gathered at
night when they came to the surface. After careful removal by hand they
were placed in numbered containers. The burrows were marked with a
corresponding number and plugged so that the worm could be returned to
its own burrow following its being tagged with a radioactive isotope.
Zoology 381
In the laboratory each of the worms was etherized, confined in a sheet
of plastic between the jaws of a paper clamp, and then injected intra-
coelomically with approximately 12 lambdas of Aurcoloid, a commercial
preparation of radioactive gold (Au-198), diluted in 12 lambdas of double
strength invertebrate Ringer's solution. After injection the worms were
held in petri dishes in a cool room for at least a day to be sure that the
injection caused no ill effects.
The choice of Au-198 was based on its being a high gamma source and
its having a short half-life of 2.7 days. The high gamma source was
required because it was known that a probable barrier of from four to six
inches of soil interposed between the injected worm and the window of a
G-M tube would preclude the use of an isotope which emitted the lower
energy alpha and beta particles.
On the site where the worms were captured, a two inch auger shaft
was sunk to 36 inches approximately four inches away from each of the
several numbered burrows. If a small quantity of water poured in the
burrow opening appeared in the auger shaft it was taken as an indication
that the burrow had been intersected by the auger shaft and such a burrow
was not used.
After the above preparations had been made, the injected worms were
released into their own burrows and the process of tracing their move-
ments was begun. The tracing was accomplished by lowering a Geiger-
Miiller tube attached to a graduated stick into the auger shaft. The point
of highest radiation as monitored visually on a Nuclear-Measurements
field survey meter was recorded to the nearest two inch interval. The depth
location of the worms was monitored and recorded in this manner every
two hours during the periods that the studies were carried out.
Results
The first field study of earthworm movement was conducted for seven
consecutive days from July 20 through July 26. During this period weather
conditions were warm and humid. Rain showers were noted on each day
of the study period.
Data were gathered on the position of each of eight worms at two
hour intervals for the entire period. Taken as individuals, vertical move-
ment of the worms varied a great deal. The oscillation in the burrow by
one worm was limited to the 3 inch to 15 inch zone. In contrast, two
worms oscillated between the surface and 30 inches. The greatest depth
attained by any worm was 34 inches. Certain worms were never detected
at the surface. The mean depth maintained by all worms for the entire
period was 16 inches.
When the mean depth of the eight worms at each two hour interval
was plotted on a graph against time, a daily oscillative movement was
disclosed. The upward trend of the oscillation began about 6:00 p.m. and
peaked during the period following midnight. The downward trend, begun
in the early morning hours, terminated during a period following noon.
Figure 2 and Figure 3 display curves similar to those obtained in the
first study.
The mean data used in the graph hides the fact that certain worms
were erratic in their movement. We refer, in particular, to sudden drops
382
Indiana Academy of Science
9=00 5=00
100 9:00 5=00
HOUR OF DAY
r— i
100 9:00
5=00
Figure 2. Mean bihourly depth of four earthworms for three days with bihourly
temperature readings superimposed. (Centigrade scale inverted.)
1:00
5:00 9;00
HOUR OF DAY
Figure 3. Mean bihourly depth of four worms for oue day as related t<
differences in soil temperatures at two fixed points.
Zoology 383
in position during the night followed by a return to the same or higher
position. Two examples of this behavior were as follows:
(1) Night Depth (2) Night Depth
10:00 7 inches 10:00 10 inches
12:00 34 inches 12:00 30 inches
2:00 13 inches 2:00 0 inches
In the second field study, carried out August 5 through August 9,
similar procedures were followed except that four worms were studied for
five days and data on several environmental factors were recorded simul-
taneously with the depth location of the worms at two hour intervals.
Temperature readings were obtained from air, soil surface, and soil at 18
inches. Soil moisture, expressed as percent of dry weight, was obtained
by collecting, weighing, drying and reweighing soil samples from the
surface near the burrows. Relative humidity of air data were obtained
with a Serdex hygrometer.
The data obtained on worm movement during the second study were
similar to the first study both in the mean depth maintained of 16 inches
and in the general nature of the daily oscillative movement (Fig. 2).
In seeking relationships between movement and environmental fac-
tors we have plotted bihourly air temperature readings (scale inverted)
on the graph of daily oscillative movement (Fig. 2). As the temperature
rose the worms went deeper and as the temperature fell the worms came
nearer to the surface.
Temperature difference between surface soil and soil at 18 inches
(Fig. 3) when positioned with earthworm movement at a given time
showed that the worms were located in the region of cooler temperature
or were moving while the temperatures were equal.
Discussion
An obvious daily oscillative movement existed during the period of
our study. Soil moisture, air temperature and other environmental factors
were not at such levels that they limited activity.
Air temperature variations and soil temperature differences both
showed a direct relation to earthworm movement but we do not, at this
point, believe that this is an absolute relationship since it is obvious that
temperature changes, during the period under study, were a function of
heating during the day and cooling during the night and perhaps only
coincidentally varied with the earthworm's movement.
Summary
The general pattern of burrowing of Lumbricus terrestris (L.) was
established by liquid latex casting and disclosed that the worms con-
structed vertical burrows to a depth, in this instance, of 36 inches.
Investigation of the worm's movement in the burrow was accom-
plished by means of intracoelomic tagging with radioactive gold (Au-
198). The course of their movements, following release, was checked
bihourly by lowering the Geiger-Miiller tube of a survey meter into an
auger shaft adjacent to the vertical burrow.
Bihourly mean depth data for periods of seven and five days were
plotted against time. A daily oscillative trend in movement was disclosed.
The worms reached a mean point near the surface of the soil after mid-
384 Indiana Academy of Science
night and then began a descent which reached its lowest mean point after
noon. Some 800 depth position figures were obtained; the mean of these
was 16 inches.
Literature Cited
1. Darwin, C. 1881. The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms.
London. 326 pp.
2. Garner, M. R. 1953. The preparation of latex casts of soil cavities for the study of
tunneling activities of animals. Science. 118 : 380.
3. Gates, G. E. 1942. Checklist and bibliography of North American earthworms.
Amer. Mid. Nat. 27 : 86-108.
4. Guild, W. J. McL. 1955. Earthworms and soil structure. Soil Zoology. D. Keith
Kevan, Ed. Butterworth Sci. Publ. London. 512 pp.
5. Hinshaw, M. A. 1960. Application of radioisotopes to the study of vertical move-
ments of Lumbricus terrestris: Report in files of W. Stephenson, Earlham College.
6. Joyner, J. W. 1960. Earthworms of the Upper Whitewater valley. Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 69 : 313-319.
7. Murchie, W. R. 1956. Survey of the Michigan earthworm fauna. Papers of the
Mich. Acad, of Arts, Science, and Letters. 41 : 53-72.
8. Olson, H. W. 1928. The earthworms of Ohio. Ohio Biological Survey. Bulletin No.
17 : 47-90.
9. Smith, F. 1917. North American earthworms of the family Lumbricidae . . . Proc.
U. S. Nat. Museum. 52 : 157-182.
Effect of Environmental Stress on Chick Weight1
W. C. Gunther and Robert K. Jones, Valparaiso University
and Purdue University
Introduction
It has been demonstrated that subjecting chick eggs to varying de-
grees of non-optimal incubating temperatures has a deleterious effect on
the behavior of the hatched birds (3, 4). While observing this, it soon
became apparent that the size of the experimental birds was quite different
from that of the normal birds (Figs. 1, 2). There seemed to be a consistent
Fig. 1. Newly hatched chicks from eggs incubated at normal temperature (right)
and at 41° for the first three days of incubation (left).
Fig. 2. Five-week-old roosters hatched from eggs incubated at normal temperature
(left) and at 41° for the first three days of incubation (right).
decrease in body weight with an increase in incubating temperature.
Before proceeding with further analysis of this phenomenon, it seemed
desirable to test these data statistically in order to determine the relia-
bility of the weight differences. This report is concerned with the results
of this statistical treatment.
Materials and Methods
A total of 864 chicken eggs was incubated. The eggs were divided into
3 groups of 288. Each group was further subdivided into 48-egg lots.
Group I (White Leghorn, De Kalb Strain) consisted of 5 lots of 48 eggs,
each lot incubated respectively for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 days at 42° C. (all tem-
peratures herein reported are centigrade) and then placed in a normal
temperature incubator (37.5°) for the remainder of the incubation period.
Group II (White Rock, unknown strain) consisted of 5 lots of 48 eggs,
each lot incubated respectively in a normal temperature incubator for 16,
17, 18, 19, and 20 days and then placed in an incubator at 42° until
hatched. Group III (White Leghorn, De Kalb Strain) consisted of 5 lots
of 48 eggs, each lot incubated respectively for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 days at 41 a
and then placed in a normal temperature incubator for the remainder of
the incubation period. A sixth lot (Control) of 48 eggs in each group was
incubated for the entire incubation period at normal temperature.
1. This research was supported by grant B-2128, Council on Neurological Diseases
and Blindness, National Institute of Health, United States Public Health Service.
385
386 Indiana Academy of Science
Incubators were of the standard Montgomery Ward 416-egg, forced-
air type. Humidity and temperature were carefully controlled, the incu-
bators being modified with Fenwal thermo-regulators. Continuous record-
ings of temperature and humidity were made by means of Dickson Mini-
corders and Short and Mason recording hygrometers. Temperatures varied
within the limits of ±.xk° during all incubation periods, and humidities
were kept constant at a level recommended by the manufacturers of the
incubators. Eggs were regularly turned at 8-hour intervals. The room
housing the incubators was maintained at a constant temperature of 23°
and at a humidity level of 55-59% R.H. Room temperature and humidity
were recorded by means of a Dickson Minicorder and a Short and Mason
hygrometer.
At hatching, the chicks were carefully weighed to the nearest tenth
of a gram and tagged with wing bands. The various lots were then placed
in separate compartments of a hatching brooder. Food (Purina Starter
Mash) and water were available ad lib. All birds were weighed once a
week on the same day.
Results
Group I
The data relevant to the hatching of the eggs are summarized in
Table 1. It is readily seen that an incubation temperature of 42° is lethal
TABLE 1
Hatching data of Group I
No. of eggs
No.
. of days
No. of chicks
Total incubation
Lot*
incubated
incubation at 42°
hatched
period (days)
Control
48
0
24
20-
-22
1-day
48
1
12
19-
-22
2-day
48
2
2
21
3-day
48
• >
1
22
4-day
48
4
0
—
5-day
48
5
0
—
*Reference is made in the text to the different lots of eggs and to the
hatched chicks by means of these designations.
when eggs are initially exposed for 4 or more days, and that the number
of chicks hatched drops sharply upon exposure of the eggs to this tem-
perature for 24 or more hours. However, the total incubation time of the
hatched eggs does not vary appreciably among the 6 lots. Since only one
animal was obtained in the 3-day lot, the data for this bird are not con-
sidered in subsequent statistical analyses.
The mean weight of each lot was computed at hatching and at the
end of the first, second, and third weeks after hatching. These mean
weights appear in Table 2, which also includes the results of Kruskall-
Wallis one-way analyses of variance (8) which were performed on the
data at hatching and at the end of each post-hatching week. The non-
parametric Kruskall-Wallis procedure was deemed most appropriate for
the evaluation of lot mean differences because of the small number of
animals in the 2-day lot, and also because the results of Bartlett's tests (9)
run on the data at hatching and at the end of each post-hatching week
indicated the error variances at each of these periods to be nonhomo-
geneous.
Zoology 387
TABLE 2
Mean weights and analyses of variance of lots of Group I at hatching
and at the end of each post-hatching week
Mean weight (grams)
Lot
Hatching
1st Week
2nd Week
3fZ Week
Control
1-day
2-day
44.8
44.5
49.5
62.1
60.7
30.8
115.2
125.0
64.9
201.7
198.3
124.3
Kruskall-Wallis one
-way analyses of variance
H
df
P
Hatching
1st week
2nd week
Sd week
3.31
6.43
6.06
3.73
2
2
2
2
.19
.04*
.05*
.16
♦Significant
An inspection of the mean weights reveals a general decline in weight
with increase in time of exposure to the temperature insult. If P = .05 is
adopted as a minimal level of statistical significance, the results of the
Kruskall-Wallis analyses reveal significant differences in mean weights
among the three lots at first and second weeks after hatching (P = .04
and P = .05, respectively), while the values of H obtained at hatching
and at the third post-hatching week have associated P values of .19 and .16.
The Kruskall-Wallis test was also used to identify significant differences
between pairs of lot means at the first and second post-hatching weeks.
The results indicated the Control and 1-day animals to be significantly
heavier than the 2-day birds at both the first and second weeks after
hatching (P ^ .04 for all comparisons). The control and 1-day mean
differences failed to attain significance at either of these periods.
Group II
The hatching data for this group are summarized in Table 3. Unlike
the procedure employed with Group I, the temperature insult of 42° was
TABLE 3
Hatching data of Group II
No. of eggs No. of days No. of chicks Total incubation
Lot* incubated incubation at 42° hatched period (days)
Control
48
0
33
20-21
20-day
48
1
23
19-20
19-day
48
2
11
20-21
18-day
48
3
4
20
17-day
48
4
0
—
16-day
48
5
0
—
♦Reference is made in the text to the different lots of eggs and to the
hatched chicks by means of these designations.
imposed during the last five days of incubation in this case. A sharp
decline in number of chicks hatched with increased exposure is again
evident. Two of the four 18-day chicks were badly crippled and the
remaining 2 fared so poorly that the data for these 4 animals was not
388 Indiana Academy of Science
included in this report. As in Group I, the total incubation time varies
very little for those lots in which some eggs hatched.
In Table 4 are presented the mean weights of the lots of this group
at hatching and at the end of each post-hatching week, and also the
TABLE 4
Mean weights of lots of Group II at hatching and at the end of each past
hatching week and summary of repeated measures analysis of variance.
Mean weight (grams)
Lot
Hatching
1st week
2nd week 3d week
4th week
Control
20-day
19-day
42.7
42.7
40.2
55.2
51.7
44.1
98.7
93.7
78.9
174.1
164.1
143.3
267.9
256.5
244.3
Repeated
measures
analysis of
variance
of data of Group II
Source
df
i
SB
MS
F
Between Lots
2
9,792.82
4,896.41
3.888*
Animals within Lots
59
74,311.63
1,259.52
5.314**
Weeks
4
2,056,292.32
514,073.08
2,168.810**
Weeks X Lots
8
3,941.68
492.71
2.079*
Animals X Weeks
within Lots
236
55,938.05
237.03
Total
309
2,200,276.50
*P < .05
**P < .001
summary of a repeated measures analysis of variance performed on the
complete data for the group. Bartlett's tests for homogeneity of variance
were run on both the correlated and uncorrelated error variances of the
analysis summarized in Table 4 and on the error variances of all analyses
of variance reported below in this section. The results of these tests
indicated the assumption of homogeneity to be tenable in each case.
An inspection of the mean weights in Table 4 reveals that these
weights decrease steadily from the Control to the 19-day lots from hatch-
ing to the fourth week after hatching. The analysis of variance summary
indicates that a significant difference (P < .05) exists between lot means,
as reflected in the F for between Lots. The low P associated with the F
for animals within Lots reflects the presence of significant individual
differences between animals, while the P associated with the F for the
Weeks term indicates significant weight gain for the entire group of
animals across the four-week period. In this analysis, interest is directed
to the value of P associated with the interaction term, Weeks X Lots,
which indicates significant differential rates of weight gain among the lots.
Table 5 includes the results of analyses of variance of the data at
hatching and at the end of each post-hatching week, and also the results
of tests of lot mean differences at these periods. The "least significant
difference" method, described by Steel and Torrie (9), was employed to
evaluate differences between lot means. The values of F at hatching and
at the fourth post-hatching week do not attain significance, although
highly significant differences between lot means are evident at the first,
Zoology 389
TABLE 5
Analyses of variance of Group II data at hatching at the end of each
post-hatching week and results of tests of mean differences.
Analyses of variance
Source
df
as
MS
F
Hatching
Between Lots
2
56.10
28.05
1.888 (NS)
Within Lots
64
951.30
14.86
Total
66
1,007.40
1st week
Between Lots
2
899.99
450.00
7.700*
Within Lots
61
3,564.90
58.44
Total
63
4,464.89
2nd week
Between Lots
2
2,535.93
1,267.96
7.067*
Within Lots
59
10,585.80
179.42
Total
61
13,121.73
3rd week
Between Lots
2
6,352.65
3,176.32
5.977*
Within Lots
59
31,354.96
531.44
Total
61
37,707.61
4th week
Between Lots
2
4,223.56
2,111.78
1.478 (NS)
Within Lots
59
84,302.17
1,428.85
Total
61
88,525.73
*P < .005
NS: P> .
05
Results of tests of mean differences ("least significant difference"
method) for lots of Group II. Table entries are lot mean differences.
Comparison
Hatching
1st week
2nd week
'Aid week
4t)i week
Control— 20-day
Control — 19-day
20-day— 19-day
0.1
2.4
2.5
3.5
11.2**
6.1*
5.1
19.9**
14.8**
10.1
30.9**
19.1*
11.4
23.6
12.2
*P ^ .05
**P ^ .01
second, and third post-hatching weeks. The results of the tests of mean
differences reflect no significant differences between the Control and
20-day lots. At the first, second, and third weeks after hatching the mean
weights of the 19-day animals were significantly lower than those of the
Controls, and the 19-day means were significantly lower than those of the
20-day lot.
A trend analysis performed on the lot means for all weekly weighing-
periods elicited significant differences in linear trend (P < .01) between
all possible pairs of the three lots, the growth curve of the Controls dis-
playing the largest linear trend component and that of the 19-day lot the
smallest.
In order to identify the periods during which differential rates of
gain occurred among the lots, repeated measures analyses of variance
were run on all lots for each interval of one week. The results of these
analyses indicated that significantly different rates of gain between the
lots were in evidence for the interval between hatching and the first post-
390
Indiana Academy of Science
108-
• — • Control
%-
20 Day
11 Day
r /
^-8V
/
co DT
/ . /
tl -
<c
/ x'
on '
r / "
i^72-
/ /
/ /
/ •
/ /
/ /
-Z- .
/ /
/ / •
/ /
< ,
/ /
cJ3 60-
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
h-
/ f
zc -
/ /
/ /
<-5 , „
/ /
— H8-
/ /
LU
/ /
/ /
^ "
/ /
/ /
2
/ /
/ /
< 36-
/ /
//
UJ
/ /
T '
/ / »-
/ /
/ /
2^-
/ f
/ /
/ /
/ '
/ /
/ /
12-
y /
o-
1 L L_
Hatching to
Week 1
Week Ito
Week 2
WEEK 2 TO
Week 3
Week 3 to
wEEa
Pig. 3. Mean weight gain of the three lots of chicks in Group II
during four weekly intervals.
hatching week (P < .005), between the first and second post-hatching
weeks (P < .01), and between the second and third post-hatching weeks
(P < .05). During the interval between the third and fourth post-
hatching weeks the lots did not differ significantly in terms of rate of
weight gain.
Fig. 3 is a plot showing mean weight gain of the three lots during the
four weekly intervals. Analyses of variance run on the weight differences
Zoology 391
for those intervals during which significant differential rates of gain
were found, viz., Hatching to Week 1, Week 1 to Week 2, and Week 2 to
Week 3, elicited significant values of F (P < .005, P < .025, and P < .05,
respectively). Tests of mean differences ("least significant difference"
method) were performed to identify those lots which differ significantly
in mean rate of gain at these weekly intervals. These results indicated
that the mean rate of gain of the Controls was significantly greater than
that of the 19-day lot during all three intervals (all P's < .05) and that
the mean increase of the 20-day lot was significantly greater than that of
the 19-day lot during the intervals Hatching to Week 1 and Week 1 to
Week 2 (P < .05). Of particular interest is the rapid gain in weight of
the 19-day birds during the interval Week 3 to Week 4.
Group III
Hatching data for this group are summarized in Table 6. The eggs
were exposed to the non-optimally high temperature of 41° during the
TABLE 6
Hatching data of Group III
No. of eggs No. of days No. of chicks Total incubation
Lot* incubated incubation at 41° hatched period (days)
Control
48
0
27
21-23
1-day
48
1
29
20-22
2-day
48
2
22
21-22
3-day
48
3
12
21-23
4-day
48
4
8
21-23
5-day
48
5
0
—
* Reference is made in the text to the different lots of eggs and to the
hatched chicks by means of these designations.
first five days of the incubation period. It may be seen that the number
of chicks hatched from eggs exposed to the high temperature for only the
first 24 hours compares favorably with the number hatching in the Control
lot. A slight decline in the numbers hatched is evident at two days'
exposure, and a marked decline exists for the remaining lots.
Mean weights and the summary of a repeated measures analysis of
variance for the complete data of this group are shown in Table 7.
Except for the first post-hatching week, the mean weights of the chicks
declined steadily with increased number of days' exposure of the eggs to
the 41° temperature. The results of Bartlett's tests run on the correlated
and uncorrected error variances of this analysis indicated these variances
to be nonhomogeneous. In view of this, the degrees of freedom associated
with the error terms, Animals within Lots and Animals X Weeks within
Lots, were multiplied by one-half before the P values associated with the
F ratios were determined. The Between Lots term is significant (P < .03),
indicating differences in mean weights among the lots. The value of F for
Animals within Lots (P < .001) reflects the presence of significant indi-
vidual differences between animals. The F for the Weeks term indicates
significant weight gain for the entire group of animals across the four-
week period. The F for Weeks X Lots has an associated P < .001, again
reflecting highly significant differential rates of weight gain among the
lots.
392 Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE 7
Mean weights of lots of Group III at hatching and at the end of each post-
hatching week and summary of repeated measures analysis of variance
Mean weight (grams)
Lot Hatching Is* week 2nd week 3d week 4th week
Control 44.2 58.9 84.5 140.1 238.8
1-day 42.9 59.6 81.7 134.0 228.8
2-day 41.7 60.1 79.6 129.7 216.1
3-day 41.0 55.3 72.1 122.6 210.8
4-day 37.6 52.7 58.6 104.9 175.5
Repeated measures analysis of variance of data of Group III
Source
df
88
MS
F
Between Lots
4
11,563.40
2,890.85
3.452*
Animals within Lots
83
69,503.41
837.39
5.472**
Weeks
4
1,929,282.07
482,320.52
3,152.009**
Weeks X Lots
16
8,385.41
524.09
3.425**
Animals X Weeks
within Lots
332
50,802.73
153.02
Total
439
2,069,537.02
*P < .03 P values were obtained after multiplying degrees of freedom
**P < .001 for error terms by one-half.
Analyses of variance of the weekly weight data are shown in Table 8,
along with the results of tests of lot mean differences. Bartlett's tests
indicated that the error variances of the analyses summarized in Table 8,
as well as those of analyses reported below in this section, may be regarded
as homogeneous. The analyses of variance elicit significant values of F
at hatching and at the second, third, and fourth post-hatching weeks. The
F for the first post-hatching week does not attain a significant level.
The results of tests of mean differences ("least significant difference"
method) disclose highly significant differences between the Controls and
4-day animals and between the 1-day and 4-day birds in all analyses, with
the exception of the first post-hatching week. Significant differences are
found between the Controls and 3-day animals at each week (except for
the first post-hatching week) and between the Controls and the 2-day
birds at hatching and at the end of the fourth week after hatching. Other
between-lot differences attain significance also, but these are sporadic.
In the above comparisons the mean weights of the Control lot are greater
in each case.
A trend analysis was run on the lot means across all weekly weighing
periods. Significant differences in linear trend (P < .01) were found
between the growth curves of all possible pairs of the five lots with the
exception of the comparison of the 2-day and 3-day lots. As in the Group
II data, an inverse relationship exists between the magnitude of the linear
trend component of the growth curve of each lot and the length of the
period of exposure to the temperature insult, the curve for the Control
lot displaying the greatest linear trend and that of the 4-day lot the least.
Zoology
393
TABLE 8
Analyses of variance of Group III data at hatching and at the end of
each post-hatching Week and results of tests of mean differences
Analyses of variance
Source
df
SS
MS
F
Hatching
Between Lots
4
316.49
79.12
9.105**
Within Lots
92
799.19
8.69
Total
96
1,115.68
1st week
Between Lots
4
243.66
60.92
1.571 (NS)
Within Lots
83
3,218.77
38.78
Total
87
3,462.43
2nd week
Between Lots
4
2,100.06
525.02
4.270*
Within Lots
83
10,204.56
122.95
Total
87
12,304.62
3c? week
Between Lots
4
4,050.01
1,012.50
2.923*
Within Lots
83
28,746.12
346.34
Total
87
32,796.13
4th week
Between Lots
4
13,903.02
3,475.76
3.648*
Within Lots
8;^
79,084.88
952.83
Total
87
92,987.90
*P < .03
**P < .001
NS: P> .05
Results of tests of mean differences
("least significant difference" method) for lots of Group III.
Table entries are lot mean differences.
Comparison
Hatching
1st week
2nd week
3rd week
4th week
Control — 1-day
1.3
0.7
2.8
6.1
10.0
Control — 2-day
2.5**
1.2
4.9
10.4
22.7**
Control — 3-day
3.2**
3.6
12.4**
17.5*
28.0*
Control — 4-day
6.6**
6.2
25.9**
34.2*
63.3**
1-day — 2-day
1.2
0.5
2.1
4.3
12.7
1-day — 3-day
1.9
4.3
9.6
11.4
18.0
1-day — 4-day
5.3**
6.9
23.1**
28.1*
53.3*
2-day — 3-day
0.7
4.8
7.5
7.1
5.3
2-day — 4-day
4.1**
7.4
21.0**
23.8
40.6
3-day — 4-day
3.4*
2.6
13.5
16.7
35.3
*P ^ .05
**P^.01
To determine the periods during which the various lots differed in
terms of mean rate of weight gain, repeated measures analyses of variance
were run on the data for each interval of one week. These results disclosed
significant differences in rate of gain between the first and second post-
hatching weeks (P < .01) and between the third and fourth post-hatching
weeks (P < .025).
Fig. 4 shows the mean weight gains of the five lots for the four weekly
intervals. Analyses of variance run on the weight differences for the
394
Indiana Academy of Science
tv
"Control
-- 1 Day
/ /
M0-
2 Day
/ /
/ /
• 3 Day
/ / •
// ;
--^Day
/' ' '
81-
/ /■■"
I l:
00s -
H
I*
1 1!
en
CD "
/// >'
if /
^ 63"
/
<
/ •/
C5 .
h-5H-
it
n:
/h /
C_5 "
/// ■•■
UJ -
2:
/// /
< -
/// /
//.■/ /
/'7 /
zi-
/'•/ /
X-y /
y^l-
""/ /
18-
' ^<s
"7 /
i^^zr." '
— " /
""~~"
. ____ y
1-
1 — .
— 1 1 k
Hatching to
Week 1
Week 1 to
Week 2
Week 2 to
Week 3
Week 3 to
Week1}
Fig. 4. Mean weight gain of the five lots of chicks in Group III
during four weekly intervals.
intervals Week 1 to Week 2 and Week 3 to Week 4 elicited significant
values of F (P < .01 and P < .005, respectively). The results of tests of
mean differences at these intervals indicated that during the interval
Zoology 395
Week 1 to Week 2 the mean gain of the Control lot was significantly
greater than those of the 1-day, 2-day, 3-day, and 4-day lots (all P's < .05)
and that the mean gain of the 1-day birds was significantly greater than
those of the 3-day and 4-day animals (both P's < .05). During the
interval Week 3 to Week 4 the rate of gain of the Controls was significantly
greater than that of the 2-day animals (P < .01) and 4-day animals
(P < .05) ; also, the 1-day animals gained at a significantly faster rate
than did the 4-day birds (P < .05). It may be seen in Fig. 4 that the rate
of weight gain of the 3-day birds during the interval Week 3 to Week 4
was greater (but not significantly so) than that of the 2-day animals.
Furthermore, even though the mean weight gain of the Controls was
smaller than those of the 1-day and 2-day birds during the first post-
hatching week (non-significant differences), the Controls gained weight
more rapidly than the experimental animals and maintained their lead
for the entire period of observation.
Discussion
On the basis of the results of statistical analyses, it appears incon-
trovertible that increased incubation temperature for varying numbers
of days resulted in a reduction of total body weight in these chicks.
Coupled with this is the fact of increased mortality of the embryos with
increased temperature and length of exposure.
Of interest is the fact that a decrease of only one degree of incubation
temperature (from 42° to 41°) results in a marked decrease in mortality
of the embryos. Total incubation time is not appreciably different, regard-
less of temperature or length of exposure under these conditions. Mor-
tality rate and total incubation time are not considered further in this
report since primary concern is with phenomena associated with weight.
Extensive work has been done on mortality rate and total incubation time
(7, 10), although that work does not coincide exactly with the results of
this research.
It was surprising that significant differences in weight of the hatched
chicks occurred both when the eggs were incubated for five days at 42°
initially (Group I) and when another group (Group II) was incubated
at 42° for the last five days of incubation. According to Romanoff (6),
the temperature effect is greatest during the early stages of incubation,
but comparison of Tables 2 and 5 indicates that the temperature effect on
weights persisted through the first and second post-hatching weeks in
Group I and through the third post-hatching week in Group II. Moreover,
in both of these groups significant differences in weight did not occur
until after hatching. Because of lack of space the Group I birds were
not available for weighing after the third post-hatching week. The Group
II birds, however, were weighed at the fourth post-hatching week, and
Table 5 reveals that no significant differences in mean weights were found
at that time, although the mean weights are seen to be appreciably less
the longer the exposure to the 42° temperature (Table 4).
A different type of situation exists in Group III, in which the eggs
were incubated at 41° initially. This is one degree lower than the non-
optimal temperatures used with Groups I and II. Here it is seen that,
except for the first post-hatching week, highly significant differences in
weight of the hatched birds persisted through the fourth week (Table 8).
396 Indiana Academy of Science
In other words, there was no apparent reduction of the temperature effect
as the birds grew older. It could be speculated that the 42° temperature
used in Groups I and II was fatal to all but extremely well-adapted or
healthy birds and that these consequently were able to overcome the effects
of the abnormal temperatures. At 41° (Group III) chicks not so well
adapted and not so healthy may have survived and were not able to over-
come the ill effects of the non-optimally high temperature.
When the data on the differential rates of weight increase are exam-
ined critically (Figs. 3, 4), it is apparent that there is basically no differ-
ence in the causes underlying the disparities in the results between Groups
II and III. The best interpretation here is that the birds in Group III
simply partially recovered from the effects of the temperature insult of
41° more rapidly than the birds of Group II did from the temperature
insult of 42°. Insofar as the differences in mean weight gain are con-
cerned, the point to be made here is that these differences occur between
the lots of birds almost in an inverse step-wise fashion and that they are
statistically meaningful. As will be seen in the following paragraphs,
these results fit in rather well with an assumption of protein denaturi-
zation.
The physiological basis for these differences in mean weight is un-
known. Studies aimed at determining this are currently being conducted
in our laboratory. It has been suggested that at higher temperatures the
eggs lose too much water and appear to dry up (10). Barott (1) found
that when eggs were incubated at 38.8° the hatched chicks were smaller,
less lively, and less alert than those hatched from normally incubated
eggs (4). Recent work indicates that the quantity of polysaccharides is
diminished in liver and kidney cells of chick embryos when the eggs are
exposed to high temperatures (5). This suggests an interference with
the normal conversion of sugars to glycogen. On the other hand, this lack
might be the result of a more rapid use of sugars because of the higher
temperature.
With respect to dehydration as a result of the higher temperatures,
it would seem necessary to assume that, if drying occurred, weight differ-
ences at hatching should be significant. As is apparent in Tables 2 and 5,
no significant differences were found in weights of the newly hatched
chicks in Groups I and II. However, Table 8 reveals highly significant
differences in hatching weights among the birds in Group III. Further-
more, unlike the situation in Groups I and II, these weight differences
remained significant through the fourth week, although no significant
differences were found at the first post-hatching week. One might assume
that in spite of the lack of weight differences in the newly hatched birds
of Groups I and II dehydration had occurred, and that it would be
expected that with continued growtff the weight differences would shortly
disappear. This was found to be the case. In the case of the Group III
chicks it could be said that no dehydration occurred in spite of the highly
significant weight differences at hatching, and that the differences con-
tinued during the period under observation because of some factor other
than dehydration. If it were to be argued that dehydration occurred in
Group III but not in Groups I and II, an explanation would have to be
Zoology 397
forthcoming for the continued weight difference in Group III and for the
evening out of the weight differences in Groups I and II.
In view of the conflicting nature of the evidence it might be more
profitable to assume that dehydration was not a factor, and to seek an
answer in the effects of temperature on biological systems. Already men-
tioned has been the work of Preda and Cracium (5). The rapid depletion
of carbohydrate stores would force an early dependence on protein and
fat reserves. By measuring the respiratory and thermal quotients it has
been found that carbohydrates are oxidized mainly during the first 2 days
of incubation, proteins mainly from days 3-10, and finally fat from day
II on. Some evidence is accumulating to the effect that carbohydrates may
be principally utilized up to the tenth day of incubation (11). The point
is that an earlier dependence on the reserves in the egg could cause a loss
of the total dry weight of these substances, and, instead of being used for
tissue building, these would be lost in the form of waste metabolites. This
would account for the significant difference in the weights of Group III
(incubated initially at 41°) at hatching, but not for its continuance beyond
the fourth week, since the birds should have had ample time to recuperate
by that time. The above analysis would not hold for Groups I and II
(incubated at 42°), since no significant differences in the mean weights
were found between lots in these two groups at hatching.
A third possibility exists. The answer to the cause of the weight loss
might be found in the area of cell physiology. Specifically, protein dena-
turization of one or several enzymes can so affect the system that weight
losses occur at different times and in different ways. The thermal inactiva-
tion of enzymes may, in one system, be irreversible, as might have been
the case in Group III (incubated at 41°). Even within groups (Group III
in particular at the first post-hatching week) some reactions might readily
be either irreversible or reversible. According to Giese (2), even if a
denatured enzyme is not irreversibly altered, a cell might die because of
prolonged sub-lethal heat treatment. This has the effect of suspending life
processes necessary for the continued existence of a cell long enough to
do irreversible damage. In other words, the heat treatment may not be
at a temperature sufficiently high to cause irreversible denaturization oi
enzymes but may be of sufficient duration to cause an irreversible altera-
tion. Heat injury may also be caused by a derangement of the lipids of
the cell, and it has been suggested that the disruption of these important
cellular components could easily lead to death. It has also been suggested
that heat releases calcium from the cell, which liberates a clotting enzyme
that could cause the protoplasm to gel. It would appear that these latter
two reactions are irreversible and that this could not account for the
observed differences in the chicks' weights, especially in those groups in
which weights returned to normal. It seems more likely that reversible
enzymatic denaturization occurred in Groups I and II and that in Group
III an irreversible reaction occurred. Different enzyme systems become
affected at different times in development, and at different temperatures.
Whatever the actual cause it seems reasonable to assume that, on the
basis of the statistical evidence, these weight differences are real, and that
further investigation of the problem is fully warranted. Such investiga-
tion is being continued in our laboratory.
398 Indiana Academy of Science
Summary
Chick eggs were incubated at higher than normal temperatures for
varying periods of time up to five days, both at the beginning and at the
end of the incubation period. The eggs were then permitted to hatch. The
chicks were weighed at hatching and at the end of each early post-hatch-
ing week.
Statistical analyses disclosed significantly greater mean weight for
control animals hatched from eggs incubated at normal temperatures as
compared with the weight of experimental birds. In two groups of chicks
(eggs incubated at 42° for the first five days and for the last five days of
incubation, respectively) the differences in mean weights failed to attain
significance at hatching and at the third and fourth weeks after hatching,
although significant differences appeared between these times. In a third
group (eggs incubated at 41° for the first five days of incubation) signifi-
cant differences in mean weights were found at hatching and at the
second, third, and fourth weeks after hatching but not at the first week
after hatching. Highly significant differential rates of weight gain also
appeared among the different lots of chicks within these groups, the con-
trol birds gaining weight from week to week at a higher rate than the
experimental animals.
The possible causes of the observed weight differences are discussed
in terms of dehydration, protein denaturization, thermal injury to lipid
organization, and release of coagulating enzymes.
Literature Cited
1. Barott, H. G. 1937. Effect of temperature, humidity and other factors on hatch
of hen's eggs and on energy metabolism of chick enbryos. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech.
Bui. 553.
2. Giese, Arthur C. 1957. Cell Physiology. W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia.
3. Gunther, W. C. 1958. Effect of abnormal incubating temperatures on chick be-
havior. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 68 : 363-366.
4. Gunther, W. C, Robert K. Jones, and Paul, Manske. 1961. The effect of high
and low incubating temperatures on chick behavior. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 70 :
285-292.
5. Preda, V., and O. Cracium. 1959. The influence of temperature of incubation and
of the nervous system on the MacManus reaction in the liver and kidney of chick
embryos. Folia Morpnol. 10(4) : 403-409.
6. Romanoff, A. L. 1939. Effect of temperature shock on development of chick
embryos. Seventh World's Poultry Cong. Proc. pp. 184-186.
7. — , . 1960. The Avian Embryo. The Macmillan Company, New York.
8. Siegel, Sidney. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York.
9. Steel, Robert G. D., and James H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and Procedures of
Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
10. Taylor, Lewis W. (Ed.). 1949. Fertility and Ilatchability of Chicken and Tur-
key Eggs. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
11. Witschi, Emil. 1956. Development of Vertebrates. W. B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia.
A Study of the Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina Carolina (L),
Population in Allee Memorial Woods.1
Eliot C. Williams, Jr., Wabash College
As part of a general long-range ecological study of Allee Memorial
Woods, the population of the Common Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina
Carolina (L.), has been under study since 1958. This report summarizes
the findings during the period 1958-60.
Allee Memorial Woods is a 180 acre wooded tract located along the
eastern side of Sugar Creek in Parke County, Indiana, about two miles
northwest of the town of Annapolis. This area of partially virgin forest
was acquired during his lifetime by the late Dr. Warder C. Allee. Dr.
Allee's heirs gave the tract to Wabash College as a biological preserve.
The box turtle is a fairly abundant, permanent resident of Allee
Woods. In view of their size, long life span, and relatively slow movement,
it was felt that these organisms offered excellent material for a specific
population study. Studies on populations of the Common Box Turtle
(T. Carolina Carolina) have been made in New York by Nichols (4) and
by Stickel (5) in Maryland. Gould (1) made a study of the homing ten-
dencies in this species. The work of Stickel was very extensive and involved
the use of techniques similar to those employed in this study. Legler (2)
gives a very complete report on the natural history of the Ornate Box
Turtle {Terrapene ornata ornata Agassiz) in Kansas. He includes data
on population size and home range.
Starting in June 1958, each box turtle seen was marked and released
at the point of marking after taking certain measurements and deter-
mining the sex of the specimen. Date and time of capture as well as
location of the organism were also recorded. The location was taken in
terms of known land marks or permanent quadrats early in the summer,
but later in 1958 topographic maps of the area were obtained and a num-
bered grid was made on the map, dividing the area into hectares, and
locations of captures were indicated in terms of this grid. Early in the
summer of 1959 an 85 acre tract at the south end of the preserve was
surveyed and stakes were placed at 100-foot intervals in a grid pattern.
With the completion of the staked-out grid, it was possible to pin-point
the location of each capture by pacing the distance from the point of
capture to the nearest stake and taking a compass reading of the azimuth
of the line from the stake to the turtle. Marking the capture on the map
by use of a protractor and ruler gives a very close indication of the actual
point of capture. The printed map is scaled so that one millimeter on the
map is equal to ten feet on the ground. A sample of the pattern of recovery
for turtle 15 is given in Map 1.
During the first year of this study (1958) the turtles were marked by
drilling holes in the marginal scutes. Each of the scutes was assigned a
number and the number designating any particular specimen is determined
by the sum of the numbers designated by drilling.
Starting in 1959 a numbered monel metal tag was placed at the rear
of the carapace to the right of the tail. This necessitates drilling only one
hole and eliminates the possibility of misreading the number.
1. Supported by A. E. C. Contract AT (11-1) 547.
399
400
Indiana Academy of Science
TURTLE # 15.
1.
30 June 1958
2.
18 July 1958
3.
5 Sept 1958
Allee Woods 4«
17 Sept 1958
22 June 1959
6^
23 oune 1959
7.
13 July 1959
8.
20 July 1959
5 <*»*-«* 9.
30 July 1959
10.
31 July 1959
... a«/»/«/.11#
19 Aug 1959
^111 fcncr iifleslS #
7 July 1960
Map 1
Portion of the Allee Memorial Woods used in the turtle study. Dots show the location
of consecutive captures of Turtle No. 15. Dates of these captures are given ahove.
In the three-year period 255 turtles have been marked in the 85 acre
grid area. In 1958, some turtles were marked in the area north of the study
grid, but since that time the work has been confined to the grid area. All
the figures on captures given below are based on turtles in the grid area.
In 1958, 138 turtles were marked. In 1959, 66 new turtles were
marked and 46 turtles marked in 1958 were recovered at least once. In
1960, 51 new turtles were marked and 65 turtles marked the two previous
Zoology 401
years were captured at least once. Thus, 41 per cent of the individuals
captured at least once in 1959 had been marked in 1958, and 56 per cent of
those captured at least once in 1960 had been marked during the preceding-
two years.
Taking into account multiple captures, in 1958, when there were 193
actual captures, 28.4 per cent of the captures were of marked turtles. In
1959, when there were 172 actual captures, 61.6 per cent of the captures
were of marked turtles. In 1960, when there were 180 actual captures,
71.6 per cent of the captures were of marked turtles.
Combining the record of captures and recaptures for the three-year
period 1958-1960, gives the results indicated in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Cumulative Turtle Captures, 1958-1960
No. of No. of
Captures Individuals
1 125
2 59
3 42
4 10
5 4
6 5
7 5
8 1
9 2
10 0
11 0
12 1
13 1
255
Total Captures = 545
In the three-year period 255 individual turtles have been captured and
marked in the study area. Taking into account multiple captures, there
have been 545 total captures. Thus in the three-year period, 51.3 per cent
of the turtle captures have been recoveries of marked turtles.
Table 2 gives the data on the distance between captures for 291 cases
in which turtles were captured more than once within the study area.
The median distance travelled is slightly more than 150 feet, since 149
of the 291 cases fall within that range. Based on the range of distances
used in the table, the average distance travelled between captures was
228 feet. Since these data are based on captures over a three-year period
with 87 cases of turtles captured in more than one year, it seems to
represent a reasonable picture of turtle movements. It is quite interesting
that the figures for the two-year period 1958 and 1959 were: median
distance between captures, 162 feet; and average distance, 253 feet.
Another indication of the movement of turtles is shown in Table 3,
which gives the diameter of a circle including all captures for an indi-
vidual turtle. This table is based on 130 turtles which have been captured
at least twice. The median home range for these turtles falls in the 275-299
foot range. This corresponds with the median value of 150 feet for dis-
402 Indiana Academy of Science
TABLE 2
Distance Between Consecutive Captures for
Turtles Captured More Than Once
Distance Between No. of
Captures, in feet Cases
0-49 53
50-99 46
100-149 40
150-199 32
200-249 26
250-299 20
300-349 11
350-399 15
400-449 14
450-499 7
500-549 2
550-599 4
600-649 6
650-699 1
700-749 3
750-799 0
800-849 2
850-899 2
900-949 0
950-999 1
1000-1049 0
1050-1099 2
1100-1149 0
1150-1199 0
1200-1249 1
1250-1299 0
1300-1349 0
1350-1399 2
1750-1799 1
Average distance between consecutive captures = 228 feet
Median distance between consecutive captures = 150 feet
tance between consecutive captures, since movement of 150 feet in opposite
directions would give a diameter of home range of 300 feet. The average
home range is 375 feet. That these figures are quite indicative is again
borne out by comparison of the similar figures for the two-year period,
1958-59, in which the median value for home range diameter was 250 feet
and the average home range diameter was 368 feet. Stickel (5) found in
her studies of box turtles in Maryland that the average home range for
males was 330 feet and for females 370 feet. Legler (2) found that the
Ornate Box Turtle, a species characteristic of open grassland areas as
opposed to the woodland habitat of the Common Box Turtle, had a home
range with an average radius of 278 feet. This would be a range with a
Zoology 403
TABLE 3
Apparent Diameter of Home Range
Home Range No. of
Diameter in feet Individuals
1-100 16
101-200 25
201-300 23
301-400 17
401-500 16
501-600 10
601-700 9
701-800 4
801-900 4
901-1000 1
1001-1100 2
1101-1200 1
1401-1500 1
1701-1800 1
Average Diameter of Home Range = 375 feet
Median Diameter falls in the 275-299 foot range
diameter of 546 feet, somewhat larger than the ranges reported here and
those reported by Stickel (5) . It may well be that the Ornate Box Turtle,
primarily a prairie species, requires a larger area for the satisfaction of
its natural requirements.
Estimation of the total turtle population was made by use of the
so-called Lincoln Index (Lincoln, 3) in which the following formula was
used.
Total # in the Population # Animals in Second Sample
Total # Marked Animals = # Marked Animals in the
in the Population Second Sample
When the number of animals marked in 1958 is taken to be the first sample
(138) and the 1959 season's collection is taken as a second sample (112
collected including 46 previously marked turtles) the estimated popula-
tion value for the study tract is 336. When the number of animals marked
in 1958-1959 is taken to be the first sample (204) and 1960 season's
collection are taken to be the second sample (116 collected including 65
previously marked turtles) the population estimate is 364. A further
check on these estimates is provided in the collections made on October 14,
1960, when 38 members of the author's Ecology class spread out over the
entire area and hunted for turtles during a three-hour period. On that
day 14 turtles were observed, of which 10 had been previously marked.
Using the Lincoln formula with the total number of turtles marked prior
to October 14, 1960, as the first sample, the population estimate is 357.
Since a sample of 14 is certainly a very small one, the close correlation
with the other two figures seems to be significant. An estimated adult
population of around 360 turtles is a reasonably close one for the 85-acre
study tract. Very few juvenile turtles have been collected and this is
404 Indiana Academy of Science
probably due to the fact that very small turtles could be easily overlooked.
It is often quite by chance that the mature turtles are observed. In some
cases one becomes aware of their presence only when they are stepped on.
The time span over which turtles were captured is an important factor
in assessing the validity of population estimates. Table 4 gives the infor-
TABLE 4
Time Span of Turtle Captures
Years in Which No. of
Captured at Least Once Individuals
1958 67
1958. 1959 22
1958. 1960 25
1958, 1959, 1960 24
1959 47
1959, 1960 19
1960 51
Total 255
mation relative to this factor. The recapture of 25 turtles in 1960 which
were originally marked in 1958 and not taken at all in 1959, indicates that
our assumption that most of the marked turtles are still in the area is not
unreasonable. As Map 2 shows, the study area has a very much dissected
topography with two large, deep gorges and numerous ravines leading
into them. Innumerable brush piles, fallen logs, and other natural shelters
give the turtles adequate resting places in which they are not easily
observed. For obvious reasons, the area is not disturbed in turtle search-
ing and most captures are of turtles which are abroad in their normal
daily activities.
Since very few dead turtles have been found and the life span of the
box turtle is believed to be in excess of fifty years, mortality has not been
taken into account in the population estimates. Turtle #15, whose distri-
bution is indicated on Map 1, has some initials and the date 1911 carved
on its plastron. Assuming that the turtle was at least several years old
when it was originally marked, this turtle is well over 50 years old.
Another factor which has not been assessed is that of transient turtles
which may move through the area. There is no real way of knowing how
many of the captures fall into this category. The assumption is that the
number is probably not large. The only evidence bearing on this conclusion
is the fact that there have been no recaptures of turtles in the study area
which were marked in the portion of the preserve north of the 85-acre
grid area. There are 45 turtles in this category and it seems logical to
assume that any major tendency for the turtles to range over a wide area
would have resulted in the capture of at least a few of these individuals.
The population density of adult turtles based on an estimate of 360
turtles in the study area of 85 acres is 4.23 turtles per acre.
The problem of overlap in range from areas adjacent to the study area
does not seem to be significant in the case of the north and west boundaries
since these are both very steep slopes with a deep gorge below. There
are few cases in which a turtle moved down into a gorge and up the other
Zoology
Map 2
Topographic Map of the study area. The study grid is in the lower portion of the map
where the numbers indicate the location of permanent quadrats used for collection of
climatic data and other studies.
side. However, on the south and east, they may be some overlap. To the
east the wooded area extends a short distance beyond the study area and
then one finds cultivated fields. To the south there is a deep gorge for part
of the boundary, but the rest of the contiguous area is wooded and a
suitable habitat for the box turtle. Taking the average figure for diameter
of home range of 375 feet, one can include half of this distance as a strip
around the portions of the south and east borders which have readily
available and suitable habitats contiguous to the study area. This strip
adds about 15 acres to the total area, giving a total of 100 acres for
406 Indiana Academy of Science
calculation of adjusted population densities. Using this adjustment, the
population density based on an estimate of 360 turtles becomes 3.6 turtles
per acre.
These figures can be compared with those of Stickel (5) who found
a population density of box turtles at the Patuxent Research Refuge,
Maryland, of between four and five turtles per acre. Legler (2) reports
somewhat lower population densities for the Ornate Box Turtle. He
gives a value of .88 turtles per acre for the entire study area. The area
given for the Damm Farm, which was the site of his population studies,
is approximately 220 acres. The value of .88 turtles per acre seems to have
been obtained by the use of the actual number of turtles captured and
marked in his study. If one takes the estimated total population obtained
by the use of the Lincoln Index (286 turtles), the value for the population
density becomes 1.3 turtles per acre. This figure is a more satisfactory
one to use for comparison with that for Allee Woods (3.6 turtles per
acre) and those of Stickel (4-5 turtles per acre). Although certain parts
of the Damm Farm provided less suitable habitats than others, the same
can be said for the study grid in Allee Memorial Woods. It is probable
that there were also differences in the study area used by Stickel. It
therefore seems clear that the Common Box Turtle, a woodland species,
is somewhat more abundant in its normal habitat than the Ornate Box
Turtle, a grassland species.
Literature Cited
1. Gould, E. Orientation in box turtles, Terrapene c. Carolina (Linnaeus). 1957. Bio-
logical Bulletin 112(3) : 336-348.
2. Legler, J. M. Natural history of the Ornate Box Turtle, Terrapene omata ornata
Agassiz. 1960. Univ. of Kansas Pub. Mus. of Nat. Hist. 11, No. 10, 527-669.
3. Lincoln, P. C. Calculating waterfowl abundance on the basis of banding returns.
1930. U. S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 118, 4 pp.
4. Nichols, J. T. Range and homing of individual box turtles. Copeia, 1939 (3) :
125-127.
5. Stickel, Lucille F. Populations and home range relations of the Box Turtle,
Terrapene c. Carolina (Linnaeus). 1950. Ecol. Monog., 20:351-378.
Evidence of the Mastodon in Hendricks County
Albert E. Reynolds, DePauw University
While plowing to plant oats during the spring of 1961, Mr. Larry
Alkire turned up a large tooth which he subsequently placed on display at
the Farm Supply Store in Coatesville, Indiana. Through the agency of
Dr. John Ellett, Coatesville physician, the tooth was brought to the
attention of the author and the opportunity provided for making this
study and report. Grateful acknowledgement is hereby made to all con-
cerned for this cooperation, and to Dr. C. L. Bieber, Department of
Geology, DePauw University, for consultations and advice.
The very large size and weight (2.75 lbs. or 1.25 Kg.) of the tooth
made it at once apparent that only a very large animal such as a probo-
scidian could have produced it. Further taxonomic allocation of the tooth
was based on structural criteria mentioned in 1792 by the Scottish nat-
uralist Robert Kerr concerning mastodont teeth : "But the grinders are
totally different, being covered uniformly with enamel, and furnished
with a double row of high conic processes, like those of carnivorous
animals; whereas those of the elephant are composed of alternate perpen-
dicular layers of bone and enamel, and are ribbed transversely on their
upper surfaces, like those of graminivorous quadrupeds" (Osborn, 2).
Since the tooth discovered by Mr. Alkire exhibited three sets of "high
conic processes," it was obviously a tooth from a specimen of Mastodon
americanus Kerr (Osborn, 2).
Description and Diagnosis
The tooth was essentially complete, and in a relatively good state of
preservation, although fissured by several cracks and having sustained
the loss of a few pieces. Root and crown of the tooth were quite sharply
delimited by the line of junction between the cement covering former and
the enamel covering the latter (Figs. 1, 3), a line of demarcation that
must have been very close to the gum-line of the living Mastodon. The
shiny, glistening enamel of the crown, varying from 3.3 to 6.0 mm in
thickness, was black in color except for a bluish-white area on the facing
slopes of the ridges, and a white-spotted-with-black area located on the
lower postero-lateral portion of the crown (Fig. 3). The cement covering
the root presented the aspect of a brownish, bark-like layer, varying from
0.7 to 1.5 mm in thickness. In both crown and root, breakage had exposed
the underlying dentine which was different from both enamel and cement
in texture, and was brownish-white or gray-white in color. The tooth was
130.3 mm in total length, and, measured at its widest, was 77.0 mm wide
at the anterior end, 93.0 mm wide at the posterior end; greatest length
and width occurred just above the cement-enamel junction line.
The crown or grinding surface was thrown into three transverse
ridges separated by two parallel grooves about 40.0 mm deep (Figs. 2, 3).
Each ridge was bisected by a longitudinal furrow approximating 6.0 mm
in width and 3.0 mm in depth on the ridge slopes, but which formed on the
ridge crests a widely-divergent V-shape about 12.0 mm in depth (Figs.
1, 2). This longitudinal furrow converted each ridge into a partial cone
(conule), thus creating the "double row of high conic processes" men-
tioned by Kerr. A longitudinal ridge, approximating 12.0 to 14.0 mm in
407
408
Indiana Academy of Science
■■*■
#^
Figure 1. Mastodon tooth as seen from posterior end, lateral or cheek side to the left.
Note: (1) steeper grade on medial side of crown, more slope on lateral side, (2) line
of enamel-cement junction, (3) longitudinal groove forming widely-divergent V which
divides transverse ridges into conules, (4) bilateral fusion of root material into one
solid mass, (x y2, approximately).
Figure 2. Tooth as seen from top or grinding surface, cheek or lateral side uppermost,
anterior end to the right. Note: (1) three transverse ridges slightly oblique to the
longitudinal tooth axis, (2) longitudinal groove, above (lateral to) which occurs
buttress-like longitudinal ridge, (3) small amount of wear evident on anterior conules
to the right (other conules have suffered breakage, more pronounced on posterior
conules). (x 1/3, approximately)
width and rising to a height of 4.0 mm ran up the six slopes of the three
lateral conules, thus giving them a buttressed appearance. Measured as
vertical distance above the cement-enamel junction line, crown height for
the five most complete conules varied from 57.0 to 60.0 mm. On both front
and back of the crown, a row of quite small but closely-approximated
conules formed a transverse ledge-like ridge known as the cingulum.
In the root of the tooth there was evidence of a tendency for there to
be a root under each of the six conules of the crown, but extensive fusions
had occurred. Bilaterally, the anterior and posterior pair had fused into
one mass of root (Fig. 1), while the middle pair retained bilateral dis-
tinctness. From anterior to posterior, the middle pair of roots had fused
with the posterior pair (Fig. 3), and to a greater degree laterally than
medially. No root was completely represented due to breakage and loss,
Zoology
409
m. m*^-m^:Mm»::*^ - > ■■■■■ ■■ •
Figure 3. Tooth as seen from lateral or cheek side, anterior end to the left. Note: (1)
enamel-cement junction line, (2) three pronounced transverse ridges, (3) lack of fusion
of anterior roots with those behind, (4) root dentine showing where cement was chipped
off. (x % approximately)
but the three most complete measured from 102.0 to 107.0 mm in length
from the cement-enamel junction.
Diagnosis of this tooth as to exact position among the 24 cheek teeth
of the Mastodon was based on criteria given by Hay (1). Allocation to
the lower jaw was based on the fact that the transverse ridge axes were
somewhat oblique to a true right angle with the longitudinal axis of the
tooth (Fig. 2). Antero-posterior orientation was based on the fact that
the anterior roots of the lower jaw were unconnected with the roots behind
(Fig. 3) ; furthermore, in the Mastodon the anterior end of such teeth
erupted first and was subjected to abrasion and wear earlier and longer
than the rest of the tooth. In this tooth one pair of conules showed some
410 Indiana Academy of Science
wear (Fig. 2), the same conules that occurred above the distinct and
non-fused roots (Fig. 3). Bilaterality was adjudged by the slant or slope
of the sides of the transverse ridges: more slope on the lateral or cheek
side, much steeper on the medial or tongue side (Fig. 1). In this tooth
the deviation from vertical was between 10° and 15° on the tongue side,
between 25° and 30° on the cheek side. On the basis of these criteria the
tooth was allocated to the left lower jaw; finally, the exhibition of three
transverse ridges and its length and width placed it as the second true or
permanent molar. This diagnosis has been confirmed by careful compari-
son with illustrations, figures, and descriptions given by Osborn (2).
The Site of Discovery of the Tooth
The Alkire farm lies in Hendricks County, east and somewhat south
of Stilesville, Indiana, in Section 30, Township 14 North, Range 1 West,
and is part of a general area known as "the bottoms" and "the lake coun-
try." The entire area is generally low and quite flat; there are places
where elevation differences of ten feet are as much as one mile apart (4).
According to older natives of the area it was once very swampy; the
excavation of "public ditches" and the occasional dredging of the natural
streams have been the measures that have rendered the land tillable. The
Alkire farm is traversed by Mud Creek, about fifty feet from the west
bank of which the tooth was plowed up ; this spot may be located approxi-
mately as latitude 39° 37' 30" North, longitude 86° 33' 40" West.
The studies of Thornbury (3) reveal that the Alkire farm is land
once covered by the most northeasterly arm or extension of glacial Lake
Eminence, a lake that covered an area of approximately 30 square miles.
It had a very irregular outline, with many finger-like extensions. One
such extension lay in a northeast-to-southwest direction, generally par-
allel to the present course of Mud Creek, and at the level of the Alkire
farm this extension was approximately one mile in width according to
Thornbury's map (3). According to Thornbury's analysis, the retreat of
the Wisconsin ice sheet left a morainal deposit which blocked run-off to
the southwest and thus backed up the waters into Lake Eminence, which
probably had a spillway into Lamb's Creek southwest of Hall, Indiana.
Drainage was eventually established to the southwest by way of the
present Mill Creek. The area under consideration has thus had, evidently,
a long history as a swampy region, and the discovery of Mastodon remains
in the area is consistent with the general experience that swamps have
been the sites in which most such remains have been found (Hay, 1;
Osborn, 2).
Summary
A large tooth plowed up in Section 30, Township 14 North, Range 1
West, Hendricks County, Indiana, was identifiable as the second true
molar from the left lower jaw of Mastodon americanus Kerr. The tooth
was illustrated and described in quantified terms. The site of discovery
was near Mud Creek on land once covered by Lake Eminence of the late
Wisconsin glacial epoch, land that has had a history of being swampy
until fairly recent times.
Literature Cited
1. Hay, Oliver Perry. 1911. The Pleistocene Age and Its Vertebrata. 36th Annual
Report Indiana Dept. Geology & Nat. Resources, pp. 541-787.
Zoology 411
2. Osborn, Henry Fairfield. 1936. Froboscidea, Vol. I. American Museum Press, New
York.
3. Thornbury, W. D. 1939. Glacial Lakes Quincy and Eminence. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
49 : 131-144.
4. Map: Clayton Quadrangle. Indiana-Hendricks Co., 7.5 minute Series (topographic).
U. S. Geologic Survey, Washington 25, D. C.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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7. Doe, J. B., and R. C. Roe. 1949. New light from old radioactive carbon. Jour.
Am. Biological Soc. 34 : 273-305.
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Instructions for Contributors 413
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INDEX
Acculturation, accelerated, of the Mayan
Indians of Guatemala, 67.
Addon, P. G., 84.
Adrenal cortical accessory tissue and azo
dye carcinogenesis, 374.
Agricultural labour force of the corn belt,
regional contrasts in the characteris-
tics of, 219.
Algae of Putnam County, Indiana, 293.
Algae of the Cabin Creek raised bog, Ran-
dolph County, Indiana, 298.
Amstutz, D. W., 187.
Angel Site, the identification of a sample
of unmodified faunal remains from the,
Annonaceae, developmental anatomy of
the seedlings of, 86.
Anthropology division, 52.
Antibacterial activity, reversal of the, of
simple and complex sulfonamides by
p-Aminobenzoic acid, 78.
Antibiotics — past, present and future,
248.
Arthur herbarium at Purdue University,
history of, 228.
Astrepliomene, the infrastructure of, 85.
Atomic beam, a gaseous light source, 275.
Azo dye carcinogenesis, adrenal cortical
accessory tissue and, 374.
Bacteriology division, 71.
Baker, P. C, 292.
Baldinger, L. H., 6, 7, 10, 11, 20, 46.
Barley-resistance to corn leaf aphid, 138.
Barton, T. P., 150.
Bats, local movements of some Indiana,
369.
Baxter, J. W., 83, 228.
Bell, M., 10.
Bernard, G. R., 71.
Beta-gamma directional correlation in
EU^i, 275.
Bieber, C. L,, 163.
Binder, R. A., 367.
Biographical sketches of Indiana scien-
tists, II, 258.
Black, II. T., 6, 276.
Bloom, W. W., 6, 7, 10.
Bloomington, Indiana, geographic influ-
ence, changes in, 265.
Bloomington's industrial labor-shed, 196.
Borden formation at Highbridge, Indiana,
148.
Borer, tulip tree, 122.
Bosmia (Crustacea, Cladocera) remains
in lake sediments, the identification
and significance of, 368.
Botany division, 82.
Bowers, E. J., 101.
Bowers, W. S., 114.
Brett, W. J., 370.
Briscoe, H. T., memorial, 36.
Brock, J. E., 282.
Burrows and oscillative behavior therein
of Lumbricus terrestris, 378.
Cabin Creek raised bog, Randolph Coun-
ty, Indiana, some aspects of the diatom
flora, 305.
Cabin Creek raised bog, vascular plants
of, 302.
Cabomba caroliniana back in Indiana,
284.
Carbohydrate metabolism, humoral regu-
lation of, in the cockroach, Blaberus
crunifer Burmeister, 114.
Carlson, K. H., 6, 11.
Central business district, characteristics
of the Terre Haute, 203.
Chandler, L., 124.
Chemistry division, 100.
Cherry trees, oriental, phenology, 84.
Chick, effect of non-optimally high incu-
bation temperatures on T-maze learn-
ing in the, 327.
Chick weight, effect of environmental
stress on, 385.
Cicada in apple orchards, studies on con-
trol of the periodical, 114.
Cicadas, periodical, Magicicada spp., as
pests in apple orchards, 116.
Cladocera remains in surfical sediments
of Indiana lakes, horizontal distribu-
tion of, 368.
Clausen, A., 282.
Coats, N. M., 7, 17.
College women, an investigation into the
physical and cultural basis of person-
ality in, 69.
Cook, A. G., 100.
Cooper, E. E., 85.
Cope, J. B., 292, 369.
Corn-resistance to corn leaf aphid, 138.
Costa Rica, vegetation types, 284.
County records, new, for Fayette and
Franklin Counties, Indiana, 292.
Crop potentials, establishing, for Indiana
soil types, 335.
Crop potentials, increasing, through water
availability, 347.
Cucumber beetles, attractiveness of vari-
ous cucurbit varieties to. 114.
Cucurbit varieties to cucumber beetles,
attractiveness of various, 114.
Culbertson, C. G., 73.
Culex territans Walker, occurrence of, in
Indiana, 115.
Cyclic changes, long term, in the temper-
ature of man, 370.
414
Index
415
Cytochernical changes induced in repli-
cating Trachoma virus by metabolic
analogues, 71.
Daily, F. K., 271.
Daily, W. A., 7, 18, 298.
Damping-off of alfalfa, the identity and
control of fungi associated with, 84.
Davis, R. E., 105, 100.
Day, H. G., G, 21.
Decker, It. D., 83.
deLanglade, R. A., 285.
DeLanney, L. E., 6, 7, 10, 21, 367.
DePauw University, a century of botany
and botanists at, 242.
DePauw University Herbarium, the, 239.
Dental caries of pre-historic and historic
Indian groups, the incidence of, 57.
DenUyl, D., memorial, 37.
Desrosier, N. W., 341.
Diatom flora, some aspects of the, of
Cabin Creek raised bog, Randolph Coun-
ty, Indiana, 305.
Dineen, C. P., 367.
Dipole transition in a Lorentz - Lorenz
field, the oscillator strength of a, 109.
Dishner, G. H., 138.
Doll, J. P., 71.
Dose-response relationships of X-irradiat-
ed and conventional mice, 72.
Douglas, C. F., 361.
Dudley, R. P., 361.
Dunn, M. G., 282.
Earthworm resistance in sweet corn, 146.
East Chicago, Indiana, 169.
Eberly, W., 8, 21.
Edington, W. E., 7, 20, 30, 258.
Eggs, embryonated duck, experimental use
in dogs of rabies vaccine prepared in,
73.
Eidson, W. W., 276.
Energy balance, some observations on, in
Dolichonyx oryzivorus during premigra-
tory fat deposition, 369.
Environmental stress on chick weight,
effect of, 385.
Eudorina from Indiana, an analysis of
sexual compatibility in, 85.
Everly, R. T., 138, 142.
Eversole, W. J., 374.
Expeditions, some scientific, to the south-
eastern United States by David Starr
Jordan, 271.
Fascicled ear corn, a preliminary investi-
gation of the origin of branches in, 86.
Faunal remains from the Angel Site, the
identification of unmodified, 53.
Fordyce, Jr., C, 91.
Francis, Sister M. C, 71.
Froning, H. B., memorial, 39.
Fullerton, W. J., 8.
Gall specificity in relation to Synehy-
triwm, 82.
Galloway, H. M., 335.
Gamma radiation from Ne20, 276.
Gas storage, underground, in Indiana,
recent developments, 166.
Geographic influences, changes in Bloom-
ington, 265.
Geology and Geography division, 148.
Germination, attempts at, of teliospores
of Puccinia coronata var. avenae, 96.
Giese, R. L., 122.
Gifford, C. E., 369.
Girton, R. E., 85.
Glycine max, shoot development in, 83.
Goldstein, M. E., 85.
Gorham, E. D., 276.
Gossett, F. O., 73.
Gould, G. E., 114.
Goulden, C. E., 368.
Great Slave Lake area, botanical investi-
gation in the, 82.
Green, Jr., R. J., 91.
Greene-Nieuwland herbarium at the Uni-
versity of Notre Dame, 235.
Gries, G. A., 96.
Grollig, S. J., F. X., 67.
Guernsey, L., 203.
Gunther, W. C, 327, 385.
Hall, C. R., 293.
Hamilton, D. W., 116.
Hamon, J. H., 367, 369.
Harmon, N. P., 378.
Hart, John Fraser, 210.
Hayat, M. A., 86.
Heiser, Jr., C. B., 226.
Hendricks County, evidence of the masto-
don in, 407.
Hennen, J. F., 6, 82.
Herbarium, Arthur, at Purdue University,
history of, 228.
Herharium, Greene - Nieuwland, at the
University of Notre Dame, 235.
Herbarium, Purdue University, 233.
Herrala, E. A., 57.
Hershey, S. C, 142.
Hessler, R. H., 86.
Higgins, J., 276.
History of Science division, 226.
Hodges, H. F., 361.
Hog-nosed snakes (Heterodon platy-
rhinos), defensive actions of newly-
hatched, 369.
Holmstedt, R. W., 20.
Hoot Woods, a remnant of virgin timber,
Owen County, Indiana, 320.
Hopp, W. B., 7, 9, 10, 17, 369.
Hsu, L. W. T., 83.
Hunger, the edge of, 341.
Hydrolysis of iron in methanol solutions,
the, 101.
Hyphomycetes, aquatic, from Wyoming
and Indiana, 83.
416
Index
Iminium salts, the reaction of, with di-
chlorocarbenes, 100.
Incidence of dental caries of pre-historic
and historic Indian groups, the, 57.
Index, 414.
Indiana biological reserve, a decade of
oldheld succession in an, 285.
Indiana Plant Distribution Records,
XVIII. 1959-1961, 88.
Indiana University, a brief history of the
herbarium of, 226.
Insects and other arthropods of economic
importance in Indiana in 1961, 130.
Instructions for contributors, 412.
Iron in methanol solutions, the hydrolysis
of, 101.
Isotope effect, steric effects and tbe sec-
ondary, 105.
Jeter, T. R., 277.
Johnson, W. H., 8.
Jones, R. K., 327, 385.
Jordan, David Starr, expeditions to south-
eastern United States, 271.
Joyner, J. W., 378.
Junior Academy of Science, 25.
Karling, J. S.t 82.
Keller, J. H., 6, 52.
Kern, F. D., 228.
Kinship systems, the role of diffusion in
changing, 61.
Kirch, R. V., 166.
Klinge, P., 8, 9, 18.
Kornicker, L. S., 369.
Krekeler, C, 7.
Kriebel herbarium of Purdue University,
233.
Labor-shed, Bloomington's industrial, 196.
Lang, N. J., 85.
Laubengayer, R. A., 6, 7, 11.
Laughlin, R., 284.
Learning in the chick, effect of non-opti-
mally high incubation temperatures on
T-maze, 327.
Lefler, R. W., 8.
Light trap collections of the nocturnal
bee, Sphecodogastra texana (Cresson)
(Hymenoptera, Halictidae), 124.
Lindholm, L., 71.
Lindsey, A. A., 84, 284, 285, 330.
Long, N. 6.
Lumbricus terrestris, burrows and oscil-
lation behavior therein of, 378.
MacFarlane, J. O., 73.
Machine literature searching, 275.
Mallett, G., 6.
Man, how old is?, 149.
Man, long term cyclic changes in the
temperature of, 370.
Manganese deficiency related to age in
soy beans, effects of, 85.
Manning, A. W., 277.
Manufactural geography of East Chicago-
Whiting, Indiana, 169.
Markle, C. A., 7, 12.
Marshall, G. E,, 114.
Mastodon, evidence of, in Hendricks
County, 407.
Mayan Indians, Guatemala, 67.
McClung, L. S., 7, 17.
McCoy, S., 7.
McGregor, D., 6, 148.
McGuire, J. M., 248.
Mcintosh, R. P., 235.
McManus, M. L., 114.
Memorials
Briscoe, H. T., 36.
DenUyl, D., 37.
Froning, H. B., 39.
Molter, J. A., 41.
Reed, H. J., 42.
Stork, M. L., 44.
MeWhinney, J. A., 284.
Meyer, A. II., 169.
Michaud, II. II., 7, 8, 18, 19.
Micro-climate, maximizing the use of,
334.
Mimosa webworm in Indiana, the life
history of the, 114.
Mitotic activity and melangenesis in the
RPMI HA No. 5(7113) Strain melano,
71.
Molter, J. A., memorial, 41.
Montgomery, B. E., 115.
Movement of limestone blocks by flood-
waters in southern Putnam County,
Indiana, 163.
Mueller, J. A., 367.
Mueller, W. P., 368.
Necrology, 36.
Nectars, composition of, 115.
Nelson, O. E., 86.
Neumann, H. W„ 53.
Neutron flux by a paraffin oil bath tech-
nique, a method for measuring, 277.
New members, 22.
Newman, J. E., 334.
Nitrogen, response of wheat on Indiana
soils, 361.
Oak wilt, aerial survey for and control of,
in Indiana, 91.
Oldfield succession in an Indiana biologi-
cal reserve, a decade of, 285.
Oscillator strength of a dipole transition
in a Lorentz-Lorenz field, 109.
Osmun, J. V., 130.
Ostracods, effects of environmental fac-
tors on populations of, 369.
Paetz, D. IL, 169.
p-Aminobenzoic acid, reversal of the anti-
bacterial activity of simple and com-
plex sulfonamides, 78.
Index
417
Paracetic acid to obtain invertebrate eggs
for gnotobiotic studies, the use of, 71.
Paraffin oil bath technique, a method for
measuring neutron flow by a, 277.
Paramecium by kappa, further studies on
the infection of, 367.
Patrick, D. M., 148.
Personality in college women, an investi-
gation into the physical and cultural
basis of, 69.
Petty, R. O., 284, 320.
Phenology, flowering, of oriental cherries,
84.
Photoperiod of Guar, 80.
Physics and mathematics backgrounds of
305 Indiana high school physics teach-
ers, 276.
Physics division, 275.
Pion production reactions, peaks in, 276.
Plant growth promoting substance found
in an acorn weevil of the family Cur-
culionidae, 94.
Plant taxonomy division, 284.
Pleistocene passeriform avifauna of Red-
dick, Florida, 367.
Poison ivy rust and its allies in North
America, 82.
Pollard, M., 71.
Polley, J. C, 18.
Population change in Indiana, 1950-1960,
distribution of, 192.
Population distribution in the middle
west in 1950, some components of, 210.
Postlethwait, S. N., 83, 86.
Powell, H. M., 73.
Presidential address, 46.
Psychology division, 327.
Puccinia coronata, attempts at germina-
tion of teliospores, 96.
Pursley, S., 282.
Putnam County, Indiana, movement of
limestone blocks by flood waters in
southern, 163.
Pygmy sunfish, the axial skeleton of the,
367.
Rabies vaccine, experimental use in dogs
of, prepared in embryonated duck eggs,
73.
Radiation effects — germfree mice, 72.
Radiation, X-ray, effect on the survival
of the corn leaf aphid, 142.
Raibourn, D. D., 61.
Recreational triangle, southern Indiana's,
150.
Reed, H. J., memorial, 42.
Reeves, J. A., 149.
Reich, R. J., 82.
Reimer, C. W., 305.
Representation in the Indiana legislature,
apportionment of, 187.
Reynolds, A. E., 407.
Rice, W. J., 7.
Robbins, L. M., 69.
Ruttan, V. W., 353.
Sastry, K. S. R., 275.
Schafer, J. F., 83, 96.
Schmuckler, H., 277.
Schuder, D. L., 122.
Sexual compatibility in Eudorina from
Indiana, an analysis of, 85.
Shanks, M. E., 6.
Shea, G. J., 148.
Siverly, R, E., 6, 7, 17, 114, 115.
Slabaugh, E. T., 52.
Smucker, A., 6.
Soil science division, 334.
Soil types, establishing crop potentials
for Indiana, 335.
Somatotype, a scale for the assessment of
the, 52.
Sparks, P., 86.
Sphecodogastra texana (Cresson), light
trap collections of the nocturnal bee.
124.
Stanley, R. W., 275.
Stares, H., 6, 284, 302.
Steric effects and the secondary isotope
effect, 105.
Stivers, R. K., 361.
Stork, M. L., memorial, 44.
Sulfonamides, reversal of the antibacte-
rial activity by p-Aminobenzoic acid,
78.
Technological change and resource utili-
zation in American agriculture, 353.
Terre Haute central business district,
characteristics of the, 203.
Thompson, II. B., 275.
Thompson, I. B., 219.
Tiltometer and the dynamical elasticity
of the earth's crust, the instrument,
148.
Trachoma virus by metabolic analogues,
cytochemical changes induced in repli-
cating, 71.
Transducer, a constant voltage supply for
a pressure, 282.
Trexler, P. C., 71.
Tsuga canadensis in Indiana, a re-evalua-
tion of the ecologic status of, 284.
Tukey, R., 6.
Tulip tree borer, 122.
Turtle, a study of the box, Terrepene
Carolina Carolina, population in Alle
Memorial Woods, 399.
infrastructure of Astrephomene, 85.
Ustilago tritici, 83.
Vary, J., 71.
Vascular plants, notes on, of the Cabin
Creek raised bog, 302.
Vegetation types of Costa Rica, 284.
418
Index
Virgin timber, Hoot Woods, a remnant of,
Owen County, Indiana, 320.
Visher, S. S., 265.
Walter, E, V., 146.
Water availability increasing crop poten-
tials, 347.
Weaver, Jr., H. D., 101.
Webster, G. L., 233.
Weevil, acorn, of the family Curculioni-
dae, a plant growth promoting sub-
stance found in, 94.
Welch, W. H., 239.
Went, F. W., 20.
Westing, A. II., 94.
Wheat by Ustilago tritici, differential em-
bryo infection of, 83.
Wheat, response of, to nitrogen on In-
diana soils, 361.
Whippo, P. D., 192.
Whiting, Indiana, 169.
Wiersma, D., 347.
Williams, Jr., E. C, 399.
Willig, L. W., 8.
Wilson, Brother R., 72.
Wise, C. D., 369.
Wright, R. D., 196.
X-ray radiation on the survival of the
corn leaf aphid, effect of, 142.
Young, F. N., 6, 7, 17.
Yuncker, T. G., 6, 7, 11, 226, 242.
Zimmer, D. E., 96.
Zoology division, 367.
Zygmunt, W. A., 78.
PROCEEDINGS
of the
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
CUMULATIVE INDEX
Volumes 61-70
1951-1960
Compiled
by
Richard A. Laubengayer
Index Committee
Nellie M. Coats, Lois Burton
Richard A. Laubengayer, Chairman
Indiana Academy of Science
Indiana State Library
1962
INDEX TO PORTRAITS
(Portraits reserved for those who have
served as presidents)
Cogshall, Wilber Adelman (1874-1951) 61:18
Deam, Charles Clemon (1865-1953) 63:30
Enders, Howard Edwin (1877-1958) 68:33
Friesner, Ray Clarence (1894-1952) 63:32
Huston, Henry Augustus (1858-1957) 67:62
Mahin, Edward Garfield (1876-1952) 62:36
Ramsey, Rolla Roy (1872-1955) 65:31
Wright, John Shepard (1870-1951) 61:31
421
PAST OFFICERS 1951-1960
Year
President
Vice-President
Secretary
1951
W. P. Morgan
J. E. Switzer
W. A. Daily
1952
P. D. Edwards
H. M. Powell
W. A. Daily
1953
H. M. Powell
A. H. Meyer
W. A. Daily
1954
0. B. Christy
R. Girton
W. A. Daily
1955
A. H. Meyer
W. H. Johnson
W. A. Daily
1956
R. E. Girton
John Mizelle
W. A. Daily
1957
W. H. Johnson
W. A. Daily
H. E. Crull
1958
W. A. Daily
A. A. Lindsey
H. E. Crull
1959
R. E. Cleland
A. T. Guard
H. E. Crull
1960
A. T. Guard
Treasurer
L. H. Baldinger
W. W. Bloom
Year
Editor
Press Secretary
1951
F. J. Welcher
A. A. Lindsey
B. Moulton
1952
F. J. Welcher
A. A. Lindsey
B. Moulton
1953
F. J. Welcher
B. Moulton
J. A. Clark
1954
F. J. Welcher
B. Moulton
J. A. Clark
1955
F. J. Welcher
B. Moulton
J. A. Clark
1956
F. J. Welcher
R. A. Laubengayer
J. A. Clark
1957
F. J. Welcher
R. A. Laubengayer
J. A. Clark
1958
F. J. Welcher
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1959
D. J. Cook
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1960
D. J. Cook
R. A. Laubengayer
E. Weinberg
422
INDEX
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PROCEEDINGS
Volumes 61 (1951) —70 (1960)
Abandoned railroads, 65:162
Abbott, J. H., 69:162
Aboriginal American medicine and
surgery, 61:49-53
Academy, The Indiana, from horse and
buggy to jet, 70:194-199
Acer, effect of topography on the dis-
tri., 61:70
Acetate, aluminum solutions instead
of ferric in qualitative testing
for, 66:98
Acetic acid, metabolism in tomato, 62:
101
Acetylacetone, reactions with pheny-
lenediamines, 63:110-112
Acetyl-coenzyme A and succinate, re-
quiring enzyme from Azof abac-
ter, 64:53
Acetylenic alcohols, determination of
esters, 66:91-94
Acid-catalyzed decarbonylation of 2, 4,
6 - trimethoxybenzaldehyde, 65 :
66
accompanying condensation reac-
tion, 70:99
anomalous oxidation reaction: 70:
119-122
Acidophilic granules in basophiles of
laying hens, 64 :256
Aker, R. F., 63:60
Acorns in Indian diet, 62:56-62
Actinophage, 63:64
Actinoplanes, unusual keratinophilic
microorganism, 63:83-86
Adair, R. K., 61:276
Adams, Clifford, 63:198, 201
Adams, J. R., 70:205
Adams, N. E., memorial, 70:31-32
Adams, T., 64:254
Adams, W. R., Aboriginal American
men and surgery, 61:49-53; 67:
90
Adelburg, M., 61 :273
Adye, J. C, 69:100
Ae, Shigeru Albert, 65:230
Aedes grossbecki and Aedes aurifer in
Indiana, 68:149
Aedes thibaulti Dyar and Knab, in In-
diana, 70:137
Aeolosoma, reproduction of, 63:269
Aerial applications in agriculture, 69:
150
Aerosol applications, fogging, 61:152-
158
Agabus confusus, distribution and
habit of, 62:171
Age changes in liver as studied by light
and electron microscopy, 69:
325-331
of Tolleston sands, 61:176-179
pyramids for Indiana's counties and
larger cities, 67:187-193
Agglutination, red blood cells, 63:60
reactions, effect of formaldehyde on
red cell, 67:98
Aggression and avoidance in C57BL
mouse, 67:298
Aging of reagent solutions in precipi-
tation processes, 67:128-134
Agriculture, Sullivan county, 64:191-
193
Air-conditioned light rooms for grow-
ing plants, 63:230
Albright, L. E., 65:222
Alcoholic beverages and consumption,
64:50
Alfalfa, insects affecting seed produc-
tion, 62:181-197
insects, influence of residual and
non-residual insecticides on, 65:
145-148
yields in southern Indiana from pre-
dicted soil and plant analyses,
61:167-170
Algae
Cosmarium botrytus Meneghini,
some aspects of sexuality and
genetics, 64:56
growth of, 62:99
lyophilization, 64:61
of Lake Wawasee, 62:98
planktonic myxophyceae, 68:43-57
some of St. Meinrad area, 69:131-
133
Spirogyra, study of variation in,
64:56
unusual forms from Indiana, 69:119-
122
Alkali bee, artificially induced nesting,
67:135
Alkylation of 4-Nitrophthalimide, 63:
108-109
Allen County, precambrian rocks, 62:
234-243
population changes, 62:244-249
streams, 62:244-249
reaction of the Gabriel synthesis,
62:158-159
Allen, H. L., Ill, 64:237
Allen, M., 62:144; 64:92
Allen, M. A., 64:56
Allen, W. R., memorial, 65:25-26
423
424
Alpha — Antimicrobial
Alpha-conidendrin, bacterial dissemi-
nation of, 66:55
Alpha particle irradiation of germa-
nium at 4.2°k, 67:278
particles, scattering of 19-Mev, by
Ne, Al, A and Cu, 66:297
particles scattering by N14, 63:264
Alston, R. E., 64:57
Alternate routes of metabolism, 62:64
Alternation of responses as function of
hunger drive level, 61:280
Aluminum -bromide -hydrocarbon com-
plexes, 63:140-142
Aluminum, gaseous lower valence
states of, 61:115
in qualitative test for acetate, 66:
98-99
American cockroach, Periplanata
americana, susceptibility of the
ootheca to various insecticides,
68:196-198
American pharmaceutical association,
62:278
Ammocoete larvae of Lampetra lamot-
tenii, 62:318
Amphibians and reptiles, distribution
in Indiana and Illinois, 66:328
Amylase, cell-free, of Bacillus stera-
r other mophilus, 61:64
bacterial, 62:65
Analysis by extraction and high fre-
quency measurement, 66:81-85
Anderson, C. E. and S. N. Postle-
thwait, The organization of
root apex of Glycine max, 70 :
61-65
Andrew, K. L., 61:273; 62:291
Andrew, W., Age changes in liver as
studied by light and electron
microscopy, 69:325-331
Anesthetics, fluorine containing, 64:92
Angel site, 64:51
identification of unmodified faunal
remains from, 70:46
Animal activity, use of oxygen disso-
ciation curve in interpretation,
64:258
Annual rings, relation to multiple
flushes of growth in species of
oak, 67:104-106
Anthocyanin synthesis, use of tissue
culture for study of, 66:61
genetic control of, 64:57
Anthophilous insects of Indiana
I. A preliminary annoted list of the
Apoidea, 66:125-140
II. A preliminary list of the Diptera
collected from blossoms, 67:160-
170
Anthropological groupings, among
North American Indians, musi-
cal styles and, 69:65
methods, use of tape recording, 61 :48
Anthropology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Adams, W. R.;
Blasingham, E. J.; Driver, H.
E.; Faulkner, C. H.; Grollig, F.
X.; Helmen, V. R.; Huelsman,
B. R.; Johnston, R. B.; Klinge,
P.; Martin, F. P.; Murray, R.
W.; Neumann, G.; Neumann,
H. W.; Ostertag, W.; Raibourn,
D. D.; Wadia, M. S.)
abstracts, 61:46-48; 62:52; 63:45-46;
64:49-51; 65:48-49; 66;45-46;
67:90-91; 68:58; 69:65; 70:46-47
Aboriginal American medicine and
surgery, 61:49-53
Acorn in North American Indian
diet, 62:56-61
Alcoholic beverages in native North
America, 64:50
Anthropometric traits, 68:59-64.
Australopithecinae among human
fossils, 63:47-53
Estimation of prehistoric popula-
tions, 69:78-82
Field methods and C14 dating, 61:46
New archeological material from
Marion county, 62:53-55
New word affiliations of Neolithic
Baikal people, 63:54-56
Pagan marriage in Guatemala, 68:
70-71
Political organization of Tewa In-
dians, 68:65-69
Pottery figurine heads from Mexico,
66:53-54
ornaments from Rio Tapajos, Brazil,
67:92-95
Somatotyping for secondary schools,
61:54-61
Statistical analysis in archeology,
68:65-69
Sunflowers from Tilarosa Cave, New
Mexico, 61:47
Tape recording in anthropology, 61:
48
Wife stealing in central Mexico, 67:
90
Yankeetown pottery, 61 :46
Anthropometric traits, genetic and en-
vironmental factors, 68:59-64
Antibiotic substances from Ranuncu-
laceae, 70:83-86
Antibiotics, effect on bacterial reduc-
tion of triphenyltetrazolium
chloride, 62:63
Anticoagulant properties of phospho-
rylated proteins, 63:127-130
Antigen-antibody reactions in agar,
64:52
Antigens, 61:64; 63:270
Antimicrobial drugs, 64:53
Anxiety — Bacteriology
425
Anxiety, instrumental measures of, 61 :
280
measurement in clinical situations,
64:241
Aploparaksis, new species from fox
sparrow, 61:305-307
Apple scab pathogen, biochemical re-
sponse of Mains atrosanguinea
to, 70:53
trees in southern Indiana, insect
fauna of, 68:205-217
variety improvement, current status,
68:87
virus diseases, investigations on, 68:
88
virus diseases, further observations
on, 70:54
Aquatic plants, Verduin method for
measuring photosynthesis and
respiration of, 62:105
Araneology of Indiana, 62:299-317
Arawak community, 64:50
Archeology, 15 years excavation at one
Angel Site, 64:51
Aleutian, 63:45
Marion county, Indiana, 62:53-55
statistical analysis in, 68:65-69
Areal differentiation of Indiana coun-
ties, 66:159-166
specialization in Sullivan county, 64:
191-193
Armacost, R. R., 62:103
Aromatic thiols, improved preparation
of, 66:79
Arthropod infestation, unusual cases,
62:298
Arthur Herbarium, plant rusts, 63:231
Artifacts, baked clay, in Indiana, 61 :47
Ascaridia galli, effect of choline defi-
cient diet on, 64:288-291
Ascaris eggs, effects of radiation on,
65 :225
Ascaris lumbricoides var. saum, ova of,
62:323-324
Ash, C. R., Tingoidea of Tippecanoe
county, Indiana, 63:185
"Ask the Biologist," 62:103
Asters, cyto-genetics of some from
northern Indiana, 62:104
Aster sagittifolius, hybridization with
A. Shortii, 61:66
Asymmetry of anuran gonads, 61:292-
295
Athow, K., 68:86
Atomic energy and the Ohio River, 64 :
219-223
potential functions, one dimensional,
68:119
Attitude, measurement, toward effec-
tive teaching, 62:292
importance of favorable, in deter-
mining effectiveness of neutral-
wet-pack therapy, 61 :279
Audio-visual aids, in teaching general
chemistry, 68:121
devices, in the teaching of general
chemistry laboratory, 68:121
Auditory fatigue, relation to Kappa,
66:323
Aureomycin, effects of serum proteins
of rabbit, 68:139-143
Aughenbaugh, N. B., 69:184
Australopithecus, its place among hu-
man fossils, 63:47-53
Aux Vases sandstone, Putnam county,
63:203-207
Avers, C. J., 61:66
Axenic cultivation of planarians, 67:
301
Azeotropes, estimation of composition,
62:144
Azotobacter, oxidation of acetate by
extracts of, 66:56
Azotobacter vinelandii, 64:53
Aztec corn festival, 62:52
Babcock, R. F. and R. B. Fischer,
Aging of reagent solutions in
precipitation processes, 67:128-
134
Bachman, G. Bryant and Martin
Hamer, Synthesis of symmet-
rical diquinolylguanidines, 61 :
117-120
Banchofer, C. S., 61:62; 65:225
Bacillus siibtilis, Mn++ requirement,
65:50
thitringiensis Berliner for the con-
trol of caterpillars, 69:150
thuringiensis for insect control, 70 :
137
Bacteria anaerobes, advances in study
of, 63:62
-free planarian worm, 65:237-242
in soil, 64:54
microtechniques for identification,
61:64
Bacterial cell, action of cetyltrimethyl-
ammonium bromide on, 70:48
cell walls, 63:59
internal structure, 64:54
population change, 64:52
pyrogens, 63:59
resistance to antibiotics and surface
active agents, 68:79
respiration and growth in soil steri-
lized by high energy electron
beam, 68:79
Bacteriological problems in food, 67:99
Bacteriology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included; Culbertson, C.
G.; Dippell, R. V.; Ebert, J. D.
Fletcher, R. L; Fraser, D.
Hagan, C. W., Jr.; Hull, R. N.
Murray, R. G.; Pace, N.; Pfau,
426
Bacteriology — Beaches
C. J.; Powell, H. H.; Sonneborn,
T. M.; Thompson, R. L.; Weiss,
E.)
abstracts, 61:62-65; 62:63-66; 63:59-
63; 64:52-55; 65:50-52; 66:55-
56; 67:98-100; 68:78-80; 69:99-
100; 70:48-50
Antigen-antibody reaction in agar,
64:52
Bacterial pyrogens, nature, 63:59
Fixation effect on internal structure
of bacteria, 64:54
Fixed rabies virus, inactivated by
propiolactone, 68:81-85
Growth of mammalian virus in vitro,
62:92-94
Isotopes used in microbial physiol-
ogy, 64:55
Lysozyme and gram positive bacte-
ria, 62:63
Macronucleus of Paramecium aure-
lia by electron microscopy, 66 :60
p-Aminobenzoic acid, development
and role in early chick, 62:72-79
Protoplast and cell infesting agent
from T\. bacteriophage, 69:101-
104
Radiation damage in bacteriophage,
61:62
Respiration in Clostridium perfrin-
gens, 61:62
Rh factor, chemical nature, 61:64
Tissue culture, cinephotomicrogra-
phy, 62:67-71
counting infectious viral particles,
62:95-97
newer methods and applications,
62:87-91
Bacteriophage, 61:62
Baer, M., 64:241
Bagworm in Indiana, 61:159-164
Bailey, G. W. (See also Snow, B.)
and J. L. White, The mineralogy
and genesis of a soil (Tilsit silt
loam) of the unglaciated re-
gions of Indiana, 68:337-342
Bain, W. M., 68:79
Baker, P., memorial, 63:27
Baker, P., 70:260
Baker, W. (See Cope, J. B.)
Balance, upset of nature, between car-
bon dioxide and oxygen in air,
65:163
Balanoglossus and origin of verte-
brate nephros, 61:296-304
Baldinger, L. H., 65:79; 69:22; 70:6,
19 (See also Traynelis, V. J.)
Baldwin, C. L., 64:53
Ball State Teachers College, earth sci-
ence collection, 63:208-210
thirty-four years of science at, 62:
279
Bancroft, J. B., 68:86; 69:108
Banderscher, J. A., memorial, 69:33-
34
Bandy, O. L., 64:175
Barber, S. A. (See also Evans, S. D.;
Lavy, J.)
The prediction of alfalfa yields in
southern Indiana from soil and
plant analysis, 61:167-170
Measurement of the fineness of agri-
cultural limestone, 66:242-245
Prediction of the residual effect of
phosphate applications, 68:330-
336
How serious is phosphorus fixation
on Indiana soils?, 69:279-281
Bard, R. C, 61:62
Bartholomew County, Coleoptera, 66:
115-124
settlement patterns, 68:285-288
Barium sulfate, effect of age of re-
agent solutions on particle size
of, 67:128-134
Barton, II, Jay, 67:301; 70:260
Barton, J. D., Jr., Some observations
on tree strata of an oak-hickory
woods, 64:88-91
Barton, Thomas Frank, Population
growth of Indiana cities, 61:171-
175
Cities with a population decline in
southwestern Indiana, 1926-50,
62:250-255
A comparative study of geographic
sites of Spencer and Blooming-
ton, Indiana, 63:211-218
Atomic energy and the Ohio River,
64:219-223
Should we convert state forests into
state parks?, 68:268-272
The Monroe reservoir: a multiple use
project, 70:170-181
Basidiomycete which sporulates in ar-
tificial culture, 67:107-108
Bass, T. C. (See Galloway, Harry
M.)
Bats of the Genus Lasiurus, 64:257
banding in Indiana, 64:284-286
breeding colonies of four species in
Indiana, 70:262-266
method of tagging with radioactive
gold-198, in homing experi-
ments, 70:267-269
notes on homing of two species, My-
otis lucifugus and Eptesicns
fuscus, 70:270-274
Batts, M. M., 68:116
Baumgardner, M. F. and A. F.
Gohlke, 70:216 (See also
Gohlke, A. F.)
Bayer, R. E., 68:120
B-Bromovinyl ethyl ether, resonance
by infra red spectra, 64:92
Beaches and bars of Tolleston time,
61:176-179
Beals — Biological Survey
427
Beals, H. O., 66:63; 67:103; 68:86
Beam, intersecting, accelator with sto-
rage ring, 66:299
Bechert, C. H., History of water con-
servation in Indiana, 66:286-290
Becht, J. E., Indiana grain and the
Illinois -Mississippi waterways,
63:219-224
Bechtel, A. R., memorial, 66:27-28
Beekman, B. E., The effect of crystal-
line glucagon on blood sugar of
fowl, 66:341-345
Bee, alkali, artificially induced nesting,
67:135
Beech Creek limestone, 62:223; 64:175
Beetles attack on cucurbits, 68:186-189
distribution of cavernicolous, in In-
diana, 70:260
water, 62:207-210
Behrens, O. K., 66:77-78
Belinfante, F. J., 64:238; 67:280
Bell, R. L., 61:282; 62:297
Bellman, S. (See Meibohm, A. W.)
Benkeser, R. A., Findings of a Purdue
committee on how to stimulate
interest in young students to
choose a career in chemistry,
62:167
Bentley, A. F., memorial, 67:56-58
Benton County, mississippian-devonian
boundary, 67:194-198
population density, 68:218-224
Benton, G. W., memorial, 63:28-29
Berbarian, J. A. (See Mizelle, J. D.)
Berg, P. W., memorial, 63:29; Some
laboratory experiments on re-
sistance of Pomace Fly to DDT
poisoning, 62:211-216
Bergen, J. V., Some aspects of settle-
ment patterns — a case study in
south central Indiana, 68:285-
288
Bergeson, G. B., 68:90, 147; 69:106
Berka, C. A., 67:303
Berlese funnel, modified, 63:163-164
Bernard, Sister Marie, O. S. F. and
M. J. Metzger, Antibiotic sub-
stances from Ranunculaceae,
70:83-86
Berry, J. E., 64:254; 65:225
Berry, R. N., 66:325
Bertrand, A. R., 67:232, 233; 70:216;
(See also Frazier, R. D.)
Bessey, W. H., 69:17
Beta-cyclohexy lalanine, 63:120-123
acyl derivatives, 63:120
Beta decay of Rum3, 67:281
Beta-gamma directional measure-
ments in first forbidden transi-
tions, 69:260
Beta spectra, 'shapes' of, 65:204
shape of, of once forbidden transi-
tions in decay of Ga72, Lauo,
Eu152, Eum, and Sb12\ 70:205
Bibbins, F. E., memorial, 62:34-35
Biebel, P., 67:102
Bieber, C. L., Tolleston and Post-Tol-
leston beaches and bars in Lake
county, Indiana, 61:176-179
Current directions indicated by cross-
bedding in deposits of early
Mansfield age in southwestern
Indiana, 62:228-229
Clastic rocks near the Chester-mer-
amec contact in Putnam county,
Indiana, 63 :203-207
A pleistocene section near Green-
castle, Indiana, 64:207-208
Fossil cephalopods of Mississippian
age, central Putnam county, In-
diana, 67:185-186
Some Mississippi limestone breccias
in northwest Putnam county,
Indiana, 68:265-267
Pebble counts in glacial tills of Parke
and Putnam counties, Indiana,
69:210-213
Billman, J. H., 66:78; 68:117
, R. V. Cash, and E. V. Wake-
field, The preparation of aro-
matic esters of malonic acid, 61:
126-128
, and R. V. Cash, The alkylation
reaction of Gabriel synthesis,
62:158-159
, and R. V. Cash, 4-Nitrophthli-
mide III. Methylation with tri-
methyl phosphate and hydro-
methylation with formaldehyde,
63:108-109
, and J. A. Buehler, The catalytic
hydrogenation of tyrosine, 63:
120-123
, D. B. Borders, and J. A. Bueh-
ler, The action of silicomolyb-
dic acid with organic compounds,
65:68-72
Biographical sketches of Indiana sci-
entists not listed elsewhere. I,
70:182-188
Biological interrelationship in mud-
dauber nests, with special ref-
erence to Osmia coraata Robt.,
68:199-204
Biological Survey committee reports
with chairmen,
C. B. Heiser, 61:13
C. B. Heiser, 62:13
F. K. Daily, 63:12
F. K. Daily, 64:20-27
(This report included list of
members who willing to help the
committee.)
F. K. Daily, 65:13
W. H. Welch, 66:14
C. A. Markle, 67:12-14
(This report and subsequent
ones included publications of
428
Biological Survey — Epifagus
members of the current year
dealing with the flora and fauna
of Indiana and work in progress
or completed in the current
year.)
C. A. Markle, 68:12-13
C. A. Markle, 69:15-16
C. A. Markle, 70:14-16
Bird frequency in Delphi, Carroll coun-
ty, 64:256
Birds and grasslands in western Mex-
ico, 66:329
Birdwhistle, R. K., 68:119
Bismuth and uranium, (d, p) reactions
in, 69:260
Bivesiculidae, biology and affinities,
63:271
Blink rate and muscular tension, 65:
219
Black, G. A., 61:46; 64:51
Black, H., 70:20, 203
Blair, H. W., 62:292
Blair, W. B., 62:225
Blanchard, R. E., 67:297
Blasingham, E. J., 61:46; 67:90; The
"New England Indians" in the
western Great Lakes region, 66:
47-49
Bleuler, E., 66:297
Bloodgood, D. E., Early health condi-
tions in Indiana, 61:253-260
Bloom, W. W., 70:6, 7, 11, 12, 18, 19,
20; Effect of aging on the via-
bility of sporocarps of Marsilea
quadrifolia, 62:139-142
Growth responses of Regnellidium
diphyllum to variations in the
concentration of nutrient solu-
tion, 65:62-65
Bloomington and Spencer, geographic
sites of, 63:211-218
water supply, problems of, 66:188-
191
Blume, H., 62:226
BOCKELMAN, C. K., 61 :276
Borders, D. B. (See Billman, J. H.)
Boron, gaseous lower valence states,
61:115
Botanical forays to Florida, 66:318-320
Botanical teaching aids, 61:69
Botanists of the Butler University fac-
ulty (1920-1955), 69:237-242
Botany (See also entries under follow-
ing author names, only those
who submitted manuscripts in-
cluded: Anderson, C. E.; Bar-
ton, J. D., Jr.; Bernard, Sister
Marie, O.S.F.; Bloom, W. M.;
Brodie, H. J.; Brooks, A. E.;
Brown, E.; Cummins, G. B.;
Daily, F. K.; Canright, J. E.;
Cottingham, J. O.; Daniels, R.
P.; Decker, R. D.; DenUyl,
Daniel; Dunkin, J.; Englehardt,
D. W. ; Farquharson, L. I.;
Gambill, W. G.; Gopalkrishnan,
K. S.; Green, R. J., Jr.; Guard,
A. T.; Heiser, C. B., Jr.; Hirat-
suka, Y.; Humbles, J.; Jump, J.
A. ; Karling, J. S. ; Kelley, A. G.
Lindsey, A. A.; Metzgar, M. J.
Palmer, C. M.; Plummer, G. L.
Porter, C. L.; Postelthwait, S
N.; Potzgar, J. E.; Sawada, K.
Schafer, J. F.; Schreiber, L. R.
Shutts, C. F.; Stearns, F.
Thomas, C; Wagner, K. A.
Welch, W. H.; Westing, A. H.
Williams, E. B.; Wood, J. M.
Youse, H. R.; Zimmer, D. E.)
abstracts, 61:66-71; 62:98-107; 63
64-66; 64:56-62; 65:53-56; 66
61-64; 67:101-103; 68:86-92; 69
105-109; 70:51-55
Anatomy of windowed leaves, 65:54
Antibiotic substances from Ranun-
culaceae, 70:83-86
Characeae of Indiana, 68:95-107
Epifagus virginiana morphology,
70:73-78
Forest primeval of Indiana, 61:70
Growth responses of Regnelidium
diphyllum, 65:62-65
Hardwood seedlings, growth, 61:81-
89
tree planting on coal banks, 62:99
Indiana's old growth forest, 63:73-79
Leguminosae of Indiana, 61 :90-96
Oak forest in Laughery Creek valley,
62:129-135
wilt in Indiana, 68:110-115
Paleobotany in Indiana, present stat-
us, 63:87-91
Pennsylvanian plant fossils in Indi-
ana, 64:70-74
Petroleum naphtha on pine seed-
lings, 62:100
Phytoplankton of Lake Wawasee,
62:98 _
Pollen grains collected by bees, 62:
114-121
morphology value, 62:105
study of two Wisconsin bogs in
Indiana, 69:110-118
Raindrops as plant dispersal agents,
66:65-73
Redbud occurrence in Indiana, 64:
79-87
Sampling methods in forest survey,
67:101
Selectivity in Indiana mosses, 64:63-
69
Sporocarps of Marsilea quadrifolia,
62:139^142
Vascular flora of Ross biological re-
serve, 61:69
Epifagus — Burr
429
Vegetation and environment along
Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers,
70:54
Wood anatomy of Canellaceae, 66:63
Botryosphaeria ribis on apple, 68:108-
109
Bowen, R. (See Burkett, H.)
Bowman, S. E., 66:252
Boyer, M. C, Geomorphology and
floods, 70:165-169
Bracken, L. E., Some geographical
factors in a quarter century In-
diana harvests, 1926-50, 62:256-
265
Brain injuries, effect on sensory motor
capacities, 62:295
Brandt, Warren W., 70:20; (See also
Swinehart, B. A.)
, and E. Elaine Zimmerman, Tin
and lead complexes with 1,10-
phenanthroline, 64:105-107
Braun, W., 64:52
Bray, R., 64:236; 67:281
Brazil, a regional interpretation, 62:
224
formation, 63:198
Breccias and conglomerates, Putnam
county, 63:203-207
limestone, Putnam county, 68:265-
267
Breneman, W. R. (See Smith, R. E.),
66:329
Bretscher, M. M., 70:206
Brett, W. J., 69:310
Bretz, H. W., 66:55
Brewer, P. H., memorial, 69:34-35
Brock, J. E., 61:273 (see also Sutter,
D. M.)
Brodie, H. J., 61:66; 64:59; Raindrops
as plant dispersal agents, 66:65-
73
Bromer, W. W., 66:77
Bromination of carbostyrils, 66:80
Brooker, R. M., 62:145
Brookley, A. C, Jr., and T. G. Perry,
A striking example of pre-penn-
sylvanian erosion in Orange
county, Indiana, 64:202-206
Brooks, A. E., A preliminary morpho-
logical study of Epifagits vir-
giniana, 70:73-78
Brown, B. L., 65:218
Brown County, Agabus confasus, 62:
171
larval millipeds, 67:171-172
periodical cicadas, 68:164-170
population density, 68:218-224
settlement patterns, 68:285-288
Brown, C. B., Genesis of limestone
profiles in the tropics, 69:286-
289
Brown, E. (see Palmer, C. M.)
Brown, H. C. and W. C. Frith, Alu-
minum bromide-hydrocarbon
complexes, 63:140-142
Brown, O. W. (see Rohrer, C. S.)
Brucella, use in studying population
changes, 64:52
Brumbaugh, J. H., 66:300; 67:301
Brumfiel, C., 64:234; 67:274; 68:316,
317
Bryan, K. B., memorial, 68:29-30
Bryan, W. L., memorial, 66:28-30
Bryophytes of Indiana
Welch, W. H., Studies in Indiana
Bryophytes
IX, Leskeaceae, 61:106-110
X, Leskeaceae (cont.), 62:122-128
XI, Sphagnaceae, 63:92-100
XII, Species of mosses collected in
Indiana since the publication of
the Mosses of Indiana, 1957, by
Dr. W. H. Welch; these species
are included in the following
families: Ditrichaceae, Seligeri-
aceae, Dicranaceae, Pottiaceae
and Grimmiaceae, 69:123-127
Selectivity in Indiana mosses, 64:
63-69
Wagner, Kenneth A., Notes on In-
diana Liverworts
IV, A report of recent collections,
61:103-105
V, A report of collections in seven
state parks in Indiana, 62:136-
138
Buck, R., 70:200
Buehler, J. A. (see Billman, J. H.
and Welcher, F. J.)
Bud-break in woody plants of Porter
county, Indiana, 62:103
Bumble bee (Bombidae)
Notes on Indiana bumble bees, 61:
142-144
Domestication of, 62:278
Color variation in some common spe-
cies, 63:165-167
Parallel color variation in Bombus
impatiens Cr. and Bombus bi-
maculatus Cr., 65:116-117
Bundy, W. M., 64:179
Burdick, A. B., 62:279
Buried forests of Indiana, 67:103
Burkett, H. B., 65:66; 66:78; 70:6
, R. Murphy and D. Yarian, Acid-
ity of trichloroacetic acid, 66:
86-90
, and R. Murphy, The Ultraviolet
spectra of phloroglucinol and its
ethers, 69:140-142
, and R. Bowen, Acid-catalyzed
decarbonylation of 2,4,6-tri-
methoxybenzaldehyde. An
anomalous oxidation reaction,
70:119-122
Burr, I., 63:262; 67:274
430
Burwell — Chandler
Burwell, J. R., 69:260
Buser, F. B., 62:101; 63:64
Buser, K. R., 63:101
Bushey, C. J., 61:282
Bushnell, T. M., Soil conditions after
60 years in a Purdue pasture lot,
61:180-183
Trials of the catene-drainage profile
keyf orm as a frame of reference
in pedological taxonomy, 66:
246-251
Mystery mound, 68:343-348
Buss, A., 64:241; 66:324
Bybee, H. P., memorial, 67:58-59
Cabbage caterpillar, use of Bacillus
thuringiensis for control, 69 : 150
maggot, 62:170
worms, control, 70:137
Cable, R. M., 62:298; 63:270
Caird, R. S., 62:290
Caldwell, R. M., 68:88, 89; 69:109
Callender, M. E., 64:254
Callixylon from Indiana devonian
shales, 68:86
Calorimeter, high-pressure, for specific
heats, 64:97-104
Calumet region, manufactural geogra-
phy (see Meyer, Alfred H.)
Campaigne, E., 61:111; 66:79; 67:109;
70:99
Campanularia, regression and replace-
ment of hydranths, 62:297
Campbell, D. H., 64:92
Canellaceae, wood anatomy, 66:63
Candicidin, medium for production, 63:
60
Canright, James E., 62:105; (see also
Wood, J. M.; Shutts, C F.)
History of paleobotany in Indiana,
67:268-273
Cantrall, I. J. (see Young, F. N),
Contrasts in the Orthopteran
fauna of grassland, forest and
transitional areas in southern
Indiana, 63:157-162
Carbohydrate metabolism in Penecil-
lium, 62:64
Carbonyl compounds with alloys of
magnesium, reduction, 68:117
Carbostyrils, reduction studies of sub-
stituted, 70:115-118
Carlin, J., 63:60
Carlson, K. H., 70:6, 20
Carmack, M. (see Smith, Robert E.)
Carmichael, B. M., 63:264; (see also
Rasmussen, V. K.)
Carpenter, I. W., 61 :67
Carroll County, bird frequency, 64:256
Carroll, F. W., 69:258
Carterette, T. S., 66:326
Casein, phosphorylated, preparation
and properties, 63:127-130
Cash, R. V. (see Billman, J. H.)
Cassaday, J., 70:99
Catalytic activity of reduced vanadates
of nickel, copper and lead, 61:
135-139
Catfacing of peaches, 62:170
of strawberries, 64:136-139
Cations, chart for qualitative analysis,
62:145
Caulobacter from well water, 62:65
Caves, development in Beech Creek
Creek limestone in Indiana, 64:
175
planarians, pigmentation in, 67:300
-filling, "fossil," in St. Louis
limestone, Putnam county, 69:
185
Cell cultures, determination of glucose
in, 69:100
Cell, estimation of densities, 61:282
Celloidin, for study of leaf surfaces,
66:74-76
Cellulose fibrils in meristematic cells,
65:55
Century of entomology in Indiana, 64:
140-174
Cephalopods, Mississippian, of Putnam
county, Indiana, 67:185-186
Ceratium hirundinella (O. F. Muller)
Shrank, in lakes and ponds of
Indiana, 70:213-215
Ceratopteris pteridoides, geographic
distribution, 66:62
Cericariae of Fellodistomatidae, 63:
270
Cercis canadensis L., ecology of, 64 :
79-87
Cerebral palsies, 62:295
Ceremonies, agricultural, in Peru, 62:
52
Cesari, L., 64:234
Chalkland agriculture, changes in, 66:
157
Chalkley, D. T., 61:282
Chandler, Leland, 69:148, 149; 70:
138; (see also Potzger, J. E.)
Additional notes on Indiana bumble
bees, 61:142-144
Color variations in some common
species of bumble bees, 63:165-
167
Parallel color variation in Bombus
impatiens Cr. and Bombus bi-
maculatus Cr., 65:116-117
The orders Protura and Diplura in
Indiana, 66:112-114
Biological interrelationships in
mud-dauber nests with special
reference to Os7nia cordata
Robt., 68:199-204
, J. G. Taylor and H. O. Deay,
Phyllophaga collected in light
traps in Indiana, 65:149-158
Changes — Chemistry
431
Changes in attitude toward Germans,
Japanese, Jews, and Nazis, 65:
222
Chao, P. K., 64:255
Chao, T. S. (see McBee, E. T.)
Characeae, 62:107
occurrence and distribution in In-
diana, 68:95-107
Charter members of the Indiana Acad-
emy of Science, 61:261-263
Chemical terms derived from Greek,
70:98
Chemistry (See also entries under the
following names, only those who
submitted manuscripts included,
Babcock, R. F.; Baldinger, L.
H.; Bellman, S.; Benkeser, R.
A.; Billman, J. H.; Borders, D.
B.; Bowen, R.; Brandt, W. W.;
Brown, H. C.; Brown, 0. W.;
Buehler, J. A.; Burkett, H.;
Cash, R. V.; Chao, T. S.; Chris-
tens, J. M. ; Cook, D. J. ; Coulter,
N. M.; Danehy, J. P.; Davis, R.
E.; Ferguson, B. L.; Ferguson,
J. W.; Fielder, W. L.; Fischer,
R. B.; Fisher, D. S.; Frederick,
M. R.; Frith, W. C; Frost, L.
W.; Gross, E. W.; Gucker, F.
T., Jr.; Guthrie, N.; Haenisch,
E. L. ; Hamer, M. ; Haurowitz,
F.; Hill, Sister M. A. G.; Hsu,
C. G.; Hunt, H.; Johnston, W.
H.; Judd, G. F.; Kaslow, C. E.;
Keim, W.; Kessel, W. G.; King,
P. F.; Klemm, L. H.; Kosolsom-
bat, S.; Larson, R. G.; Leth, A.;
Mathers, F. C; McBee, E. T.;
McMasters, D. L.; Meibohm, A.
W. ; Meiners, A. F.; Messing,
R. A.; Moffat, A.; Mozen, M.
M.; Murphy, R.; Neher, B. W.;
Nichols, L. D.; Nix, S. J.; Os-
borne, C. E., Jr.; Peacock, J.;
Peake, J. S.; Pierce, O. R.;
Pierce, R. N.; Price, C. C;
Reitz, H. C; Ricketts, J. A.;
Roberts, C. W.; Rohrer, C. S.;
Schaap, W. B.; Schmidt, F. C;
Schwan, J. C; Swinehart, B.
A.; Traynelis, V. J.; Wakefield,
E. K.; Weaver, E. E.; Welcher,
F. J.; Yarian, D.; Yates, M. L.;
Yunghans, R. S.; Zimmerman,
E. E.)
abstracts, 61:111-116; 62:144-146;
63:101-102; 64:92-93; 65:66-67;
66:77-80; 67:109-110; 68:116-
121; 69:134-135; 70:98-99
Aluminum solutions in qualitative
testing for acetate, 66:98-99
Analysis by extraction and high fre-
quency, 66:81-85
Aromatic esters of malonic acid, 61:
126-128
Bromination of phenylquinolines, 61 :
121-125
Catalytic activities of reduced vana-
dates, 61:135-139
Chromotography for volatile organic
acids, 62:145
Cobalt (II) detection by succinimide
and isopropylamine, 65:89-93
Glucagon structure, 66:77
Heats of combustion of organic com-
pounds, calculating, 67:122-127
High-purity anhydrous magnesium
chloride, 63:113-119
Homomolecular reactions, new field
in chemistry, 63:136-137
Inorganic membrane electrodes, 69:
136-139
Instrumentation, proposed new ma-
jor at Marion College, 64:92
Lithium aluminum hydride reduction
of peppermint oil, 65:79-81
Metalation of alkyl sulfones, 63:101
Protein components of human hair,
68:128-143
Proteins condensed with thiocyanate,
65:82-84
Radioassay of potassium and ura-
nium as student experiment, 65 :
85-88
Reagent solution aging, in precipita-
tion process, 67:128-134
Spectrophotometry method for de-
termination of water, 63 : 124-125
Stepwise construction of sulfur and
selenium chains, 70:100-105
Symposium of papers on the teach-
ing of chemistry, 62:166-169
E. L. Haenisch, The relationship
between teaching of chemistry
in the secondary schools and in
the colleges and universities of
Indiana, 166
E. E. Weaver, Work on the North-
eastern Ohio Chemistry Teach-
ers organization, 166-167
F. C. Schmidt, Preparation for
college chemistry, 167
R. A. Benkeser, Findings of a
Purdue committee on how to
stimulate interest in young stu-
dents to choose a career in chem-
istry, 167-168
Ned Guthrie, Comments on teach-
ing chemistry in high school and
college, 168-169
E. W. Gross, Comments by a sec-
ondary school teacher, 169
Testing program for chemical educa-
tion, 65 :66
Turbimetric titrations, 68:116
Unstable intermediate investiga-
tions with infrared, 68:144-146
432
Chemotherapy — Coleman
Chemotherapy, experimental, 63:39
Chicago Heights, Illinois, manufac-
tural geography of, 66:209-229
Chick behavior, effects of abnormal in-
cubating temperature on, 68:
363-366
some effects of high and low incubat-
ing temperatures, 70:285-292
Chloroazol black E, in angiosperm em-
bryology, 68:92
Chlorination of 1, 1, 1-trifluoropane,
liquid phase, 65:100-102
Cho, C. S., 70:99
Cholera in Indiana, 61:253-260
Cholestanol, "<x"-, 69:134
Choline-deficient diet on host-parasite
relationship of fowl and Asca-
ridia galli, 64:288-290
Christens, J. M., 62:145 (see also
Gucker, F. T., Jr.), Reinforce-
ment of natural rubbers by fill-
ers, 62:150-155
Christy, O. B., 62:279; 65:16; 66:18,
27; The function of our schools
in producing scientists (Presi-
dential address), 64:40-48
Necrology by, 65:25-33; 66:27-34
Chromatography, in quantitative de-
termination, 62:145
in taxonomy, the role of paper, 70:
207
Churchwell, E. (see Cope, J. B.)
Cicada in Indiana, 62:203-206
observations on the two forms of the
periodical, 63:177-179
Cieciura, S. J., 70:48
Cities and towns of Indiana geographi-
cally considered, 63:200
with a population decline in south-
western Indiana, 62:250-255
population growth, 1940-1950, of In-
diana, 61:171-175
Cladophora balls collected in Steuben
county, Indiana, 61:67
Clark, F. B., Pot culture — an aid to
site evaluation, 70:234-237
Clark, J. A., 65:6, 17; 66:6, 9, 13, 19;
67:6, 7; The Japanese beetle in
Indiana, 61:145-147
Clastic rocks near the Chester-Mera-
mec contact, Putnam county, In-
diana, 63:203-207
Class administration with text book,
67:274
Clauser, E. H. M., memorial, 70:32-33
Clay minerals in west central Indiana,
63:198
in some glacial lacustrine sediments
of Indiana, 66:179-187
Claytonia virginica, aneuploidy in, 62 :
102
Cleavage factor in disaggregated frog
blastomeres, removal and re-
placement of a diffusable, 68:361
Cleland, R. E., 63:66; 66:15; 67:8,
17;68:18, 86; 69:6, 9, 12, 13; A
case history of evolution (Presi-
dential address), 69:51-64
Clements, J. N., 70:51
Cleveland, M. L. (see Wilson, M. C),
Tarnished plant bug injury to
peach, 64:127-130
and D. W. Hamilton, The insect
fauna of apple trees in southern
Indiana, 68:205-217
Clevenger, S. B., 64:60; 66:61
Clewell, A. F., 70:207
Clifford, A. F., 63:102
Climatic contrasts between Indiana
and adjacent states, 65:162
Clock reaction, iodine, isothermal salt
effect on, 61:129
Clostridium perfringens, respiration
of, 61:62
-advances in the last decade, 63:62
Cloud chamber, fast cycling, 64:237
Clover root borer control with granu-
lar insecticides, 65:159-160
Clover insects, meadow spittlebug pop-
ulation estimates and forage
losses, 68:171-185
Clowes, G. H. A., memorial, 68:30-31
Coal City and Swiss City area of In-
diana, geologic structures in,
64:194-201
Coal geology of Gibson, Posey, and
Vanderburg counties, 69:182
in Sullivan county, 64:191-193
mine spoil banks, 62:99
mine spoils, reclaiming for agricul-
ture, 61:165
Coal II, Indiana, identification by
spores, 63:198
Coal V, split and channel cutout, Vigo
county, Indiana, 65:165-168
Coats, Nellie M., 61:7; 62:7; 63:7;
64:7; 65:7; 66:7; 67:7; 68:7;
69:7; 70:7, The Academy's John
Shepard Wright Memorial Li-
brary, 63:248-252
Cobalt detection by succinimide and
isopropylamine, 65:89-93
Cobb, G. W., 70:54
Coccoidea or scale insects of Indiana,
additions, 63:171-176
Coggshall, W. A., memorial, 61:17-19
Colburn, D. C, 70:6
Colchicine treatment on development
of Drosophila, 61:282
effects on reproduction of Parame-
cium, 64:255
Cole, C. (see Ward, G. L.)
Cole, R. O., A chronological history of
the soil conservation service and
related events, 66:291-296
Coleman, R. M., Histochemical demon-
stration of vitamin C in Hymen-
Coleman — County
433
olepis nana var. fraterna, 62:
321-322
Coleoptera, Dytiscidae, distribution
and habitat of Agabus confusus,
62:171
Hydrophilidae, biometrical studies
on Tropisternus striolatus (Le-
Conte) and T. mexicanus (Cas-
telnau), 62:207-210
Cariadae (ground beetles), Prey rec-
ords, 67:136
Records of Indiana I, 66:115-124
Records of Indiana II, 68:155-158
Coleopterous parasite, Platypsylla cas-
tor is, of beaver, 64:115
Colorimetry, copper determination, 66 :
156-157
Color, parallel, variation in Bombus
spp., 65:116-117
Coluber constrictor, black racer, hatch-
ing, 63:278-279
Complement-fixing antigens of polio-
myelitis, 68:78
Compton, L. E., 68:89
Computers and curricula, 65:203
and the collegiate mathematics pro-
gram, 69:256
teaching physics with an analog, 70:
204
Concepts of God, children's, 69:269
Confer, J. (see Cope, J. B.)
Conformity, interaction with anxiety,
61:280
Confusion matrices for three English
syllables, 65:223
Conglomerate, with Mansfield sand-
stone, 62:228-229
lower pennsylvanian, unusual min-
erals with, 69:183
Conklin, R. L., 67:280
Conservation of man in Indiana, 66:
254-255
germplasm of domestic species, 66:
256-260
history of forest, in Indiana, 66:261-
267
recreational and scenic resources,
66:268-274
history of the study of fishes in In-
diana, 66:275-285
history of water, in Indiana, 66:286-
290
history of soil, service, 66:291-296
croplands in Indiana, 65:198-199
Constitution, Indiana Academy of Sci-
ence (revised 1952), 62:19-24
Contributors, instructions for, 70:293
Cook, D. J., 61:112; 63:101; 66:80;
69:6, 13, 22; 70:6,7,9, 13; (see
also Yunghans, R. S.)
and R. N. Pierce, Reduction stud-
ies of various substituted carbo-
styrils, 70:115-118
Cook, E. A., 65:50
Cooper, R. H., 62:279
Coordination complexes, calculation of
formation constants using com-
puters, 67:111-116
Coordination studies; dipyridylamine
and 3,3' - iminobispropylamine,
66:95-97
Cope, J. B. and R. E. Mumford, A pre-
liminary study on bat banding
in Indiana, 64:284-286
, R. E. Mumford, and N. Wilson,
Some observations on a summer
colony of Myotis lucifugus, 67 :
316-321
, A history of the Joseph Moore
Museum at Earlham College, II.
Later and present history, 68:
313-315
, W. Baker and J. Confer, Breed-
ing colonies of four species of
bats of Indiana, 70:262-266
, E. Churchwell, and K. Koontz,
A method for tagging bats with
radioactive gold-198 in homing
experiments, 70:267-269
, K. Koontz, and E. Churchwell,
Notes on homing of two species
of bats, Myotis lucifugus and
Eptesicus fuscus, 70:270-274
Copolymerization, Q-e scheme, 63:103-
107
Copper, a reagent for, 62:156-157; 63-
102
Coraggio, M. C, 69:100
Cormack, M. (see Smith, R. E.)
Corn borer, location of larvae of the
European, Pyrausta nubilalis,
in dent corn, 67:155-159
festival, Aztec, 62:52
grinding devices used by Indians, 61 :
251
Indian varieties of, 62:104
leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis
(Fitch), sorghum resistance to,
70:137
plant, square-stemmed, 69:105
root, response to high nutrient con-
centrations within a single root
culture cell, 70:254-259
root tips, ability to respire sugars,
62:98
Pasteur effect in, 63:65
Correll, M., 66:297; 67:277
Costas, P. (see Hart, John Fraesr)
Cottingham, J. O., 61:77, 78; 62:143;
64:247; 65:210; 66:305
Coulter, N. M. (see Ferguson, B. L.)
Counties, economic importance of In-
diana's, 66:159-166
and large cities, age pyramids for
Indiana's, 67:187
County planning, 63:202
County plant records, new, for Indiana,
69:262
434
Cox — Day
Cox, A. C, memorial, 68:31-32
Craspedacusta, locomotion of frus-
tules, 64:255
reoccurrence near Richmond, Indi-
ana, 64:257
Crawford County, bat banding, 64:284-
286
population change, 62:272-276
population density, 68:218-224
streams, 62:244-249
Crayfish of Indiana, distri., 64:281-283
Creager, C. B., 68:323
Crises, past and present, in mathe-
matics, 70:200
Crop increase and standard of living —
a West Indian example, 68:273-
276
Croplands, Indiana, 62:256-265
Cross, E. A., 67:135
Crowder, H., 66:63
Crowell, Sears, 61:283; 62:297; 64:
255; 66:328
Crull, H. E., 67:6, 7, 9, 16, 18; 68:3,
18; 69:6, 12, 14, 21
Crum, R., 69:150
Crustacea (isopods) of Indiana, 63:
272-277
Culbertson, C. G., 63:62 (see also
Powell, H. M.)
Cidiseta melanura, occurrence in Indi-
ana, 67:137
Culture, applications of plant tissue,
62:81-86
Cummins, G. B., 63:231; 68:88; (see
also HlRATSUKA, Y.)
Cunningham, R. L., 69:150
Cunningham, R. W., 67:281
Curran, Brother Columba, 68:119
Cyanide on developing Ascaris ova,
effect, 62:323-324 <
Cyanides, alkyl, preparation of 63:131-
132
Cyathus, aberrations in the genus, 64 :
59
Cyclic ester of organic acids, I, 70:106-
114
sedimentation, 67:205-211
Cyclonic characteristics and precipita-
tion in western Indiana during
summers of 1953, 1956 and 1957,
68:225-236
Cynanchium nigrum, a new record for
Indiana, 68:319
Cytogenetics of asters, 62:104
Cytology of the S913 transplantable
Lymphosarcoma, 69:312
Cytotaxonomy of Helianthus petio-
laris, 69:105
Dactylogyrinae and Tetraonchinae,
status of North American, 64:260-
264
Daily, F. K., 61:67; 62:107; 63:7; 64:
7, 144; 65:7, 13; 66:11, 18; 67:
101; 68:7; 70:6, 20, 182; Some
observations on the occurrence
and distri. of the Characeae of
Indiana, 68:95-107
Botanists of the Butler University
Faculty (1920-55), 69:237-242
The Academy from the horse and
buggy to jet, 70:194-199
Daily, W. A., 61:6, 16, 67; 62:6, 10, 18
98; 63:6,7, 14, 16; 64:10, 15,61
65:6, 15, 17; 66:6, 11, 19, 300
67:6, 7; 68:6, 9; 69:20; 70:6, 7,
16, 20, 207
In search of blue-green wanders
(Presidential address), 68:43-51
Forms of Ceratium hirundinella (O.
F. Mueller) Schrank in lakes
and ponds of Indiana, 70:213-
215
Dam sites in Indiana, 61:232-239
Damon, S. R., 61:63
Danehy, J. P., The extraction of the
protein component of human
hair, 68:128-138
Daniels, R. P. and C. L. Porter, A
basidiomycete which sporulates
in artificial cultures, 67:107-108
Darrow mastodon, 69:182
Dating a folk tale, 61:48
radio-carbon, 61:46
Dative bonding and polarizability, 68:
119
Davenport, D. A., 63:102
Daviess County, underground storage,
68:259-264
Davis, J. J., Insects in Indiana during
1951, 61:148-151
Insects of Indiana for 1952, 62:176-
180; 1953, 63:152-156; 1954, 64:
121-126
The field of entomology — its past,
its present, its future, 64:173-
174
Insects of Indiana in 1955, 65:107-
110
Highlights in the history of insect
control, 65:118-120
Insects of Indiana in 1956, 66:104-
107
Entomology and the Indiana Acad-
emy of Science, 69:152-153
Davis, R. C, 67:298; 68:326
Davis, R. E., John Peacock, F. C.
Schmidt, and W. B. Schaap,
The apparent molal volumes of
some electrolytes in anhydrous
ethylenediamine, 65:75-78
, Stepwise construction of sulfur
and selenium chains, 70:100-105
, Cyclic esters of inorganic acids,
I, 70:106-114
Davis, R. L., 61:141 (see also Wilson,
W. C.)
Day, H. G., 70:19
D D T — D I SULFIDE s
435
DDT, resistance of potato flea beetle,
63:143
experiments on resistance in Droso-
phila melanogaster, 62:211-216
Deam, C. G., memorial, 63:29-33; 62:
108; Summary of his life, 63:
232-239
Deay, H. 0., 61:140; 67:135; 68:149;
69:15, 148; 70:137 (see also
Chandler, L.)
The periodical cicada Magicicada
septendecim (L) in Indiana, 62:
203-206
Entomology at Purdue, 64:152-157
and J. G. Taylor, Preliminary
report on relative attractiveness
of different heights of light
traps to moths, 63:180-184
and J. G. Taylor, The sex of Eu-
ropean corn borer moths taken
at light traps, 66:108-111
Decatur County, underground storage,
68:259-264
Decay, beta, of Tblfil, 66:298
Decker, R. D. and S. N. Postle-
thwait, The maturation of the
trifoliate leaf of Glycine max,
70:66-72
Deiss, C, 66:18
DeLanney, L. E., 67 :302 ; 70 :7, 20, 261
Delaware County, Aedes thibaulti, 70:
137
meadow spittlebug, 68:171-185
Delisle, A. L., 62:104; 63:64; 64:60;
65:53
Denenberg, V. H„ 67:298; 68:326
Dental caries, incidence with changing
diets in prehistoric Indians, 70:
47
DenUyl, Daniel, 62:99; 67:243;
Growth and development of
hardwood seedlings, 61:81-89
Indiana's old growth forests, 63:73-
79
Charles C. Deam, 63:232-239
Hardwood tree planting on strip
mine spoilbanks, 65:57-61
History of forest conservation in In-
diana, 66:261-267
Forests of the lower Wabash bot-
tomlands during the period
1870-1890, 67:244-248
History of the civilian conservation
corps, 68:308-310
DePauw University, history of science
at, 63:230
de Penna, J. F., 65:49
Derbyshire, W. D., 64:236
Desmodium populations in southern
Indiana, 68:319
DeVol, C. E., 66:62
DeVries, T., 68:116
Dew-point instrument, 61:273
Diagnostic morphological traits for
walcolid variety of American
Indian, 69:69-72
Dichloro-argenate ion, dissociation con-
stant of, 62:144
Dickstein, I. L., 65:50
Dicotyledonae of Gibson county, Indi-
ana, 68:90
Diehl, H. F. and J. V. Osmun, Cham-
bers for exposure of roaches to
chemically treated surfaces, 66:
144-146
Dietary effects on estrous cycle of fe-
male California pocket gopher,
66:331-336
Dietz, H. F., memorial, 64:34-35
Difluoroacetic acid, lithium aluminum
hydride reduction of, 64:108-111
Dilling, R., 70:203
Dillon, L. L, 64:176
Dimethyl sulfoxide complexes, differ-
ential thermal analysis, con-
ductance and cryoscopic beha-
vior of, 70:123-131
Dineen, C. F., 61 :283 ; 69 :311 (see also
Peckham, R. S.)
Food habits of the larval tiger sala-
mander, Ambystoma tigrinnm,
65:231-233
Dinoflagellate, Peridinimn Volzii f.
Vancouver ense ( Wailes) , 66 : 300
Dinsmoor, J. A., 66:324
Diplura and Protura in Indiana, 66:
112-114
Dipole fields, novel orientations of, 66:
297
Dippell, R. V., 66:60
Diptera, list of species collected from
blossoms, 67:160-170
populations in the Whitewater val-
ley, 70:142-144
Diquinolylguanidines and diquinolyl-
thioureas, synthesis of symmet-
rical, 61:120
Direct interactions in (oc,p) processes,
70:203
Discrimination, training, drive inten-
sity as a clue in, 61 :280
learning, 65:222
learning, sampling common elements
in, 66:326
Diseases of trees, distribution of three
important insects transmitted,
64:116-120
Disintegration, search for double beta,
of ND150 and nature of the neu-
trino, 65:204
of I123 andl124, 68:323
of iron-52 and iron-53, 68:323
Distribution of land snails of Indiana,
61:282
Leguminosae in Indiana, 61 :90-96
Disulfides, ultraviolet absorption sectra
of unsymmetrical, 70:99
436
Doan — Effect
Doan, M., memorial, 70:33-34
Dobson, R. C, 69:165 (see also Mat-
thew, D. L.)
and D. L. Matthew, Field obser-
vations of face fly (Musca au-
tumnalis De Geer) in Indiana,
1960, 70:152-153
Donovan, Sr., A. J., 64:255
Dorman, L. C, 68:117
Doty, L. A., 65:220
Dowds, R., 69:258
Downie, N. M., 62:293; 66:324
Records of Indiana Coleoptera, I,
66:115-124; II, 68:155-158
Doyle, Msgn. John J., The relations
between the empirical and the
philosophical study of man, 69:
271-272
Dragon flies, 64:115
mating behavior, 61:141
Drainage and soil use in Indiana, 67:
249-250
Drive intensity as a cue in discrimina-
tion training, 61 :280
Driver, H. E., 61:46; 64:50; 67:90
The acorn in the North American
Indian diet, 62:56-62
Drives in raccoon, externally-aroused,
66:325
Drosophila, an Indiana microsporidian
parasitic on, 62:297
melanog aster, experiments on resist-
ance to DDT, 62:211-216
Drosophilidae found in tomato fields in
Indiana, 67:138-144
Drummond, R. O. (see Williams, E.
C, Jr.)
Drummond, R. R., A comparative
study of rural level-of-living in-
dexes in Indiana counties, 66:
167-169
Druste, J. B., 69:186
Dry air, dielectric constant of, 61:277
Dubois County, plant fossils, 64:70-74
streams, 62:244-249
Dugesia dorotocephala, sterilization
and axenic cultivation, 65:237-
242
tigrina, regeneration of heads, 64:
287
Duncan, W. G., 66:230, 231; 67:232
(see also Wilkinson, S. R.)
Dunkin, J. and S. N. Postlethwait,
The use of celloidin for study of
leaf surfaces, 66:74-76
Durkee, A., 64:241
Dutch elm disease, 64:116
Earlham College, history of science in,
63:240-242
Earthquakes, normal, and records of
tremors in the earth's rotation,
68:298-299
Earth science collection at Ball State
Teachers College, 63:208-210
Earthworms, distri. in upper White-
water valley, Indiana, 69:313-
319
Eaton, J. R., 61:275
Eberly, W. R., 70:7, 8, 9, 16, 51; The
terrestrial Isopods of Indiana,
63:272-277
Summary of the distri. of the Indi-
ana crayfish, including new state
and county records, 64:281-283
Ebert, J. D., The development and role
of p-Aminobenzoic acid in the
early chick embryo, 62:72-80
Ecological correlations in Indiana,
some, 67:101
sampling methods for trees, compar-
ison of, 67:101
study of 15 stands in the early Wis-
consin Drift Plain, 61:68
Ecology of spring flowering, 65:205
organic terrain, 62:98
Wabash floodplain, 70:54
Edds, J. W., 68:362
Edington, Will E., 63:230; 64:226,
235; The charter members of
the Indiana Academy of Science,
61:261-263
William Ephraim Heal, Indiana pio-
neer mathematician, 62:287-289
Biographical sketches of Indiana
Scientists not listed elsewhere,
I, 70:182-188
Necrology by, 61:17-32; 62:34-44;
63:27-38; 64:34-39; 67:56-72;
68:29-42; 69:33-50; 70:31-40
Education, attitudes public, 62:295
of scientists, 64:40-48
secondary, 61:54-61
Edwards, P. D., 64:7; 66:17; 67:274;
70:7, 14
The role of mathematics in science
(Presidential address), 62:45-51
Effect of decrease in size of reward
on scores in hooded rat, 67:297
formaldehyde on agglutination of
red cells by antiserums against
artificially attached antigens,
67:98
hue, brightness and saturation on
color preference, 67:297
iron, aluminum and humic acid on
phosphorus fixation by organic
soils, 69:277
protein-free diet in mouse liver, 65:
226
reduction on heat capacity of rutile,
64:237
two experimental counseling tech-
niques, 64:239
systematics when used in different
ways, 69:150
Effect — E ntomolog y
437
deficiency and luxury feeding on corn
hybrids, 66:231
Egan, J. P., 66:323
Ek, C. M., memorial, 70:34
Electric computers, application to
chemical computations, 67:111-
116, 117-121
light traps and their uses in ento-
mology, 67:135
shock therapy, 65:219
Electrical analog circuits applied to
heat conduction problems, 61,
275
contacts, bridge transfer in, 62:291
researches of Francis Hauksbee, 61 :
251
Electrolytes, apparent molal volumes
of some, in anhydrous ethylene-
diamine, 65:75-78
Electrolytic oxidation of hydrochloric
acid to perchloric, 63:138-139
Electromagnetic field with finite plas-
ma, interaction of, 70:204
Electromotive force, 63:264
Electronic states in crystals, 61 :273
Electroplating nickel from perchlorate
bath, 68:122-127
Ellner, P. D., 63:59
Elliott, F. R., The Araneology of In-
diana, 62:299-317
Elliott, S. E., memorial, 68:32-33
Ellis, J. R., 68:91
Embryo, early chick, development and
role of PABA, 62:72-80
Enbryology, angiosperm, use of chlor-
ozol black E, 68:92
of Tripsacum dactyloides, 62:104
Employee selection, 62:293
Endamoeba histolytica, isolation from
rats, 64:254
Enders, H. E., memorial, 68:33-35
Energy levels in Ne22, 69:260
Energy-matter, course in nature of, for
first semester of general chem-
istry, 61:111
Engelhardt, D. W., A comparative
pollen study of two early Wis-
consin bogs in Indiana, 69:110-
118
Engineering geology, application to
location of dam sites in Indiana,
61:232-239
Engle, T. L., 61:278
Englishton park area, 64:15
Enrollment, prediction of college fresh-
man, a geographic approach,
68:289-291
Entomological facilities and services
of Indiana Farm Bureau Coop-
erative, 69:149
Entomology (see also entries under the
following names, only those who
submitted manuscripts includ-
ed, Ash, C. R.; Berg, P. W.; Can-
trail, I. J.; Chandler, L.; Clark
J. A.; Cleveland, M. L.; Cole
C; Davis, J. J.; Davis, R. L.
Deay, H. O.; Diehl, F. P.; Dob-
son, R. C; Downie, N. M.
Drummond, R. O.; Everly, R. T.
Fahey, J. E.; Fitzwater, W. D.
Jr.; Gould, G. E.; Hamilton, D
W.; Jacobs, M.; Killough, R. A.
Lehker, G. E.; Lockard, D. H.
Luginbill, P.; Macklin, J. M.
Marsh, T. G.; Marshall, G. E.
Matthew, D. L.; Mockford, E
L.; Montgomery, B. E.; Moore
H. B.; Mullin, C. A.; Munsee, J
R.; Osmun, J. V.; Schuder, D
L.; Smith, C. A., Jr.; Taylor, J
G.; Ulman, P. T.; Van Scoik, W
S.; Ward, G. L.; Williams, E. C.
Jr.; Wilson, M. C; Young, F
N.)
abstracts, 61:140-141; 62:170-171
63:143; 64:115; 65:103; 66:100
67:135-137; 68:147-149; 69:148-
151; 70:137-138
Aerial application in agriculture,
69:150
Approach to taxonomic problems,
62:172-175
Biological interrelationship in mud-
dauber nests, 68:199-204
Electric light traps and use in Ento-
mology, 67:135
Insect control measures in a chemi-
cal era, 63:144-151
Japanese beetle in Indiana, 61:145-
147
Periodical cicada, facts and theories
about broods and periodicity,
68:164-170
in Indiana, 62:203-206
two forms, 63:177-179
Regulatory entomology, 68:147
Residual insecticide activity after
thermal aerosol application, 61:
152-158
Symposia in Entomology
The effects of continued wide-
spread use of organic insecti-
cides, 63:186-197
M. C. Wilson, The effects of
continued widespread use of
organic insecticides, 186
F. N. Young, Effects on the in-
sect balance of nature, 186-
188
W. D. Fitzwater, Jr., Effects
on wildlife other than insects,
188-190
D. W. Hamilton, Effects on
plants and soil, 190-194
J. V. Osmun, Effects on human
health, 194-197
438
Entomology — Fall
On a century of Entomology in
Indiana, 64:140-174
R. T. Everly, Introduction, 140-
141
B. E. Montgomery, Entomology
before 1854, 142-147
M. C. Wilson, Entomological
pioneers in Indiana, 148-151
H. 0. Deay, Entomology at Pur-
due, 152-157
P. T. Ulman, Regulatory ento-
mology in Indiana, 158-160
P. Luginbill, Federal entomol-
ogy in Indiana, 161-164
F. N. Young, Entomology at
Indiana universities, colleges,
and other institutions since
1854, 165-172
J. J. Davis, The field of ento-
mology— its past, its present,
its future, 173-174
The past, present and future use
of insecticides, 65:118-144
J. J. Davis, Highlights on the
history of insect control, 118-
120
J. E. Fahey, Develepment of in-
secticidal chemicals, 121-123
G. E. Gould, Use of insecticides
and their toxicity to plants,
124-128
W. S. Van Scoik, Toxicity of
insecticides to humans, 129-
138
J. V. Osmun, Development of
resistance in insects to insec-
ticides, 139-144
Ten most important plant feeding-
pests in Indiana, 67:173-174
Tree diseases, three important in-
sect transmitted, 64:116-119
Water beetles of temporary pond in
southern Indiana, 69:154-164
Wireworm populations influenced by
soil types, 66:147-151
Enzymes, thermophilic, 61:64
Epifagus virginiana, a preliminary
morphological study, 70:73-78
Equations, integral, for transition mat-
rices in static meson theory, 66:
298
Erdos, P., 63:262
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC., culture
on detached leaves of Zinnia
and Helianthus, 69:108
Esten, V., 64:256
Esters of acetylenic alcohols, determi-
nation of, 66:91-94
malonic acid, preparation of aro-
matic, 61:126-128
Estrous cvcle of California pocket go-
pher, diet effect on, 66:331-336
Ethanol permeation of frog muscle
cells; energetic interaction with
membrane, 69:311
Ethyl-methyl alcohols, physical prop-
erties relationship for binary
mixtures, 64:94-96
Ethyl 4-methyl-2-quinolone-l-acetate,
63:101
Euenothera, evolution, 63:66
Eugymnanthea, the hybrid that lives
in a clam, 66:328
Eumeces fasciatus, eggs and young of,
68:367-378
European corn borer, Pyrausta nubi-
lalis (Hbn.), location of larva
in dent corn, 67:155-159
sex of moths taken at light traps,
66:108-111
Evans, S. D. and S. A. Barber, The
effect of soil depth and soil vol-
ume upon corn yield in green-
house, 70:227-233
Evaporation and solar radiation in In-
diana, 70:216
Everly, Ray T., 61:140; 66:100; 67:
136; 70:137
The effect of the lesser clover leaf
weevil on the seed yields of
mammoth red clover, 62:217-222
Introduction of Entomology Sympo-
sium, 64:140-141
Granular insecticides for clover root
borer control, 65:159-160
Evaluation of population estimates
and rate of loss of forage for
the meadow spittlebug, Philae-
nus leucophthalmus, 68:171-185
Evidence of introgressive hybridiza-
tion and mutation in certain
Colorado populations of Aqui-
legia, 67:292-296
Evolution, place of Australopithecincw,
63:47-53
a case history of, 69:50-64
Exchange reactions, gas phase, 61:114
Executives of leading Evansville fac-
tories, sources, 69:236
Expectancy and extinction of expec-
tancy in rat, 65 :220
Experimental comparison of A-C pow-
ered diode and hydrogen ion
gauge circuits for leak detection
in high vacuum system, 67:277
Extent of effectiveness of natural se-
lection, 67:251-255
Extreme points of convex sets, 64:234
Fabre, J. H., biological theories of, 65 :
200-202
Face fly (Musca autumnalis DeGeer)
in Indiana, 1960, 70:152-153
Factor analysis, personality, 62:294
Fall meetings, Butler University, 61:
11; Valparaiso University, 62:
Fall — Forth
439
11; Earlham College, 63:15;
Purdue University, 64:11; Uni-
versity of Notre Dame, 65:11;
Indiana University, 66:12; De-
Pauw University, 67:10; Marion
College, 68:10; Butler Univer-
sity, 69:13; Manchester College,
70:13
Fan, H. Y., 67:279
Fahey, J. E., Development of insecti-
cidal chemicals, 65:121-123
Farm problems, are we doing a job
well, 66:230
Farquharson, L. I., 62:104; 67:102
Natural selection of tetraploids in a
mixed colony of Tripsacum dac-
tyloides, 63:80-82
and M. S. Markle, Botanical fo-
rays to Florida, 66:318-320
Farringer, L. D., 70:204
Faulkner, C. H., A possible early
woodland cache discovery in
northern Indiana, 69:92-98
Favinger, J. J., 64:115; 67:135; 68:
147; 69:149
Fayette County, soil formation, 68:
349-353
Fedynskyj, N., 69:65
Fellodistomatidae (Trematoda), inter-
pretation of larva types, 63:270
Ferguson, B. L. and N. M. Coulter,
A spectrophotometric method
for determination of water, 63:
124-126
Ferguson, J. W., An improved labora-
tory preparation of alkyl cya-
nides, 63:131-132
Ferguson, L., 70:48
Ferris, J. M., 68:147
Feuer, P., 61:273
Fiddle crab (Uca pugnax), locomo-
tion and oxygen consumption
rhythms in, 69:310
Fielder, W. L. (see Peake, J. S.)
Figurine heads, Mexican, 66:53-54
Fillers, of rubbers, 62:150-155
Filter paper discassay for amylases,
62:65
Film impression method for minute
features of wood anatomy, 66:63
Fimian, W. J., Jr., 61:283
Fischbeck, H. J., 67:278; 69:260
Fischer, R. B., 67:109; 68:116 (see
also Babcock, R. F.)
— — and D. J. Fisher, An oscillo-
graphic method for the study of
solution behavior of radio fre-
quencies, 62:160-165
■ and S. KosoLSOMBAT, Analysis by
extraction and high frequency
measurement, 66:81-85
and M. L. Yates, Inorganic mem-
brane electrodes, 69:136-139
Fish, maze learning, in, 64:242
toxicity of sodium pentachlorophe-
nate, 67:303
Fisher, D. J. (see Fischer, R. B.)
Fisher, T. R., 62:106
Fishes, history of Indiana, 66:275-285
Fiske, A. H., memorial, 69:35-36
Fitzwater, W. D., Jr., Effects of or-
ganic insecticides on wildlife
other than insects, 63:188-190
Fixatives, effect on the internal struc-
ture of bacteria, 64:54
Fixed rabies virus, inactivation by beta
propiolactone, 68:81-85
Flanders, H., 70:201
Flavonoid pigmentation in buds of lm-
patiens halsamina L., develop-
ment of, 69:106
Flavonols of Impatiens balsamina L.,
66:61
Fletcher, R. I., 69:17; An improved
petri dish cover, 66:57-59
Floodplain deposits, modern, 63:201
Floods, geomorphology and, 70:165-169
Flora, opportunities in Indiana, 62:106
pioneer period in study of Indiana
vascular, 61:250
Flores, J. G. (see Stivers, R. K.)
Flotation combined with fluorescent
antibody technique applied to
water analysis, 69:99
Fluorinated carbenyl compounds, re-
ducing action of Grignard re-
agents on, 61:114
Food, bacteriological problems in, 67:
99
Food habits of the larval tiger sala-
mander, 65:231-233
Food web dynamics in a pond, 61:283
Forces between strange particles and
nucleons, 66:299
Forces which shift the earth's crust,
69:187
Ford, B. T., 70:137
Ford, L., 64:258
Forest conservation in Indiana, 65:198-
199 ,
conservation, history of in Indiana,
66:261-267
ecology, 64:88-91
primeval in Indiana, 61 :70
succession, 62:100
survey, Laughery Creek, 62:129-135
Forests, buried, of Indiana, 67:103
Indiana's old growth, 63:73-79
of the lower Wabash bottomlands
during the period 1870-1890, 67:
244-248
state, should we convert into state
parks, 68:268-272
Formation of annual rings relative to
multiple growth flushes in spe-
cies of Quercus, 67:104-106
Forth, R. F., 61:47
440
Fosdick— Geography
Fosdick, L., 61:274
"Fossil" cave-filling in St. Louis lime-
stone, Putnam county, Indiana,
69:185
cephalopods of Mississippian age,
central Putnam county, Indiana,
67:185-186
plants of Indiana, 63:87-91; 64:70-74
wood, 63:87-91
interstadial, 65:164
4-H Entomology clubs, history of in
Indiana, 65:196-197
4-Nitrophthalimide, 63:108-109
Fountain County, plant distri., 62:101
vascular flora, 63:64
Fragaria-Potentilla intergeneric hy-
bridization, 68:91
Fraser, Dean, C. F. Pfau, and N.
Pace, Identity of protoplast in-
fecting and cell infecting agent
derived from T2 bacteriophage,
69:101-104
Frazier, R. D., 70:216
and A. R. Bertrand, Some obser-
vations on effect of vertical
mulching, 69:282-285
Frederick, L. R., 61:63
Frederick, M. R. (see McBee, E. T.)
Free radical additions to perfluoro-1-
heptene, 67:109
Friedel-Crafts complexes, 63:140-142
Friedman, N., 61:278
Friedman, S. A., 69:182 (see also
Wier, C. E.), Split and channel
sandstone cutout in Coal V in
the Dresser area, Vigo county,
Indiana, 65:165-168
Friesner, Ray C, memorial, 63:32-34;
61:250; 62:278; Compiler of Cu-
mulative Ten Year Index, 51-60,
1941-1950, 61:357-455
Frith, W. C. (see Brown, H. C.)
Frog muscle, sodium and potassium
movements in, following isola-
tion to Ringer solution, 64:258
Frost, L. W., 68:117 (see also McBee,
E. T.)
Fukuda, N., 66:298
Fuller, F. D., 69:310
Fuller, W. R., 67:275
Fulton County, Parrish mastodon, 69:
189-192
Fumigation chambers, circulation fans
for, 66:141
Functions, concept of continuity of,
63:261
on generalized, 69:257
special, 61:269
Fungi, aberrations in genus Cyathus,
64:59
Fungi, higher, of Marion county, Indi-
ana, 61:77, 62:143; 64:247; 66:
305
Fungitoxicity of phenolic compounds,
factors influencing, 69:107
Fungus, antibiosis, short history, 62:
278
sclerotia, 62:101
significance in medicine and indus-
try, 62:278
Gabriel synthesis, alkylation reaction
of, 62:158-159
Gager, O., 68:117
Gailar, O., 61:274; 66:297
Gaillardia, cultivated, 62:107
Galleria mellonnella, natural parthe-
nogenesis in, 65:227
Galloway, H. M. and T. C. Bass,
Streamlining soil survey infor-
mation for practical use, 68:354-
359
Galloway, J. J., 67 : 175
Gallun, R. L., 68:147
Gambill, R. A., 64:235
Gambill, W. G., Jr., Notes on the dis-
tribution of Leguminosae in In-
diana, 61:90-96
Gametophytes, fern, 70:56-60
Gamma ray spectroscopy, project in,
70:203
angular correlation in Cd1:4, 61:276
Garber, E. D., 64:54
Gardier, R. W., 68:118
Garner, H. R., 63:61; 70:49
Garner, M. R., 63:200, 269; 64:257,
287; 65:228
Garfolo, L., 67:298; 68:326
Gary "Big Steel" — geographic design
and destiny, 68:237-258
Gastrointestinal activity in hunger
and, after food, question of hun-
ger pangs, 67:298
Gates, G. R., 69:185
Gauger, W. L., 65:53
Gebhard, P., 63:45
Geneology, review of human, 69.65
Genesis of limestone profiles in the
tropics, 69:286-289
Genetic and environmental factors in-
fluencing anthropomorphic
traits, 68:59-64
Genetics, Cosmarium botrytis Mene-
ghini, Some aspects of sexuality
and, 64:56
Gentilcore, R. L., Curves of popula-
tion change in Indiana, 1850-
1950, 62:272-276
Geographic advantages of Indiana, 61:
245-249
sites, comparative study, 63:211
influences in location of Indiana cit-
ies and towns, 63:200
Geography (see also entries under the
following names, only those who
had submitted manuscripts in-
cluded, Barton, T. F.; Becht, J.
Geography — Girton
441
E;. Bergen, J. V.; Bracken, L.
E.; Costas, P. P.; Drummond,
R. R.; Gentilcore, R. L.; Guern-
sey, L.; Hart, J. Fraser; Hess,
E. B.; Hook, J. C; Johnston, R.
B.; Kirch, R. V.; Lai, A.; Lor-
ing, R. D.; Mayfield, R. C; Mei-
sel, J. L.; Meyer, A. H.; Miller,
P. F.; Ransome, J. C; Rhyns-
burger, W.; Schokel, B. H.;
Starkey, O. P.; Thomson, W. E.;
Visher, S. S.; Zakrzewska, B.)
abstracts, 61:165-166; 62:223-227;
63:198-202; 64:175-179; 65:161-
163; 66:157-158; 67:175-177; 69:
182-188; 70:154
Atomic energy and the Ohio River,
64:219-223
Distribution of our occupational
structures, 85:169-173
Geologic characteristics of Indiana
streams, 62:244-249
Geographic sites of Spencer and
Bloomington, 63:211-218
Geographical factors in Indiana har-
vests, 1926-50, 62:266-271
Indiana's boundaries and size, 64:
214-216
comparative richness, 61 :245-249
weather, 62:230-233
Migration and population change,
66:195-203
Monroe reservoir: multiple use proj-
ect, 70:170-181
Our highways, an Indian heritage,
62:266-271
Population growth of Indiana cities,
1940-1950, 61:171-175
Pre-cambrian rocks in test holes, 62:
234-243
Reclamation of strip-mined lands,
67:215-224
Regional, Brazil, 62:224
Road patterns of Indiana, 66:192-194
Rural population density, 68:218-224
Short line railroads, 61:242-244
Steam railroad abandonment, 65:162
Geologic characteristics of Indiana
streams, 62:244-249
control of ground water in western
Marion county, Indiana, 64:176
observation on Southhampton Island,
N. W. T., 67:176
structures in Coal City and Switz
City area of Indiana, 64:194-201
Geology (see also under the following
names, only those who had sub-
mitted manuscripts included,
Barber, S. A.; Bieber, C. L.;
Boyer, M. C; Brookley, A. C,
Jr.; Bushnell, T. M.; Friedman,
S. A.; Gosselink, J. G.; Howe, R.
H. L.; Hurlbut, F.; Kingsbury,
T. M.; Kottlowski, F. E.; Louns-
bury, R. W.; Malott, C. A.; Mc-
Clure, S. M.; McGrain, P.; Mel-
horn, W. N.; Mitchell, M. L.;
Murray, H. H.; Patton, J. B.;
Perry, T. G.; Schuster, R. L.;
Shea, G. J.; Smith, J. M.; Tuan,
Yi-Fu; Wayne, W. J.; Wier, C.
E.; Wrathall, J. E.)
abstracts (see Geography)
Aerial photography in evaluating
water resources, 7€:155-157
Coal geology of Gibson, Posey, and
Vanderburgh counties, 69:182
Dam sites, 61:232-239
Geomorphology and floods, 70:165-
169
Geologic structures in Coal City and
Switz City area, 64:194-201
Growth of strip coal mining, 61:184-
186
Location of dam sites, 61:232-239
Parrish and Glasford mastodons, 69:
189-192
Pleistocene periglacial environment,
65:164
Pre-pennsylvanian erosion in Orange
county, 64:202-213
Swallow-holes of Lost River, 61:187-
231
Tolleston beaches and bars in Lake
county, 61:176-179
Geomorphology and floods, 70:165-169
Mohawk region, 62:226
George, E. F., 64:257
Gerjuoy, H., 65:223; 66:324
Gerjuoy, I. R., 65:222
Gerking, S. D., A history of the studv
of fishes of Indiana, 66:275-285
Germanium spark spectrum, 62:291
Gerritsen, A. N., 67:280
Gherkin, E. H., 63:101
Ghost states in field theory, 66:299
Gibberellic acid, shoot elongation assay
for, 66:62
Gibbs, Josiah Willard, an historical
appraisal, 61:251
Gibby, R. G., 64:239
Gibson County, coal, 69:182
dicotyledons, 68:90
Yankeetown pottery, 61:46
GiFFORD, C, 64:256
Gill-lessness in newts and axolotls, ex-
perimental production, 70:261
Gini's mean difference, 61:269
Girton, Raymond E., 61:250; 62:98;
63:16, 65, 230; 65:17; 66:6, 9, 12;
70:52
Pioneer microscopists of the seven-
teenth century, 62:281-286
The capture and use of sunlight
(Presidential address), 66:35-44
The teaching of plant physiology at
Purdue in the nineteenth cen-
tury, 67:260-264
442
Glacial — Gucker
Glacial deposits of Tippecanoe county,
conglomerate-sandstone phase,
64:176
geology of east-central Indiana, 63:
199
till, method for mapping permeable
zones, 64:177
Gland, mental, of Plethodon glutino-
sus, 61:285
Glucagon, effect of crystalline, on
blood sugar of fowl, 66:341-345
structure of, 66:77
Glycine max, organization of root apex,
70:61-65
Gobeli, G. W., 67:278
God, children's, 69:269
Gohlke, A. F., 70:216
and M. F. Baumgardner, Statis-
tical evaluation of the analyti-
cal techniques employed in the
Purdue soil analysis laboratory,
70:248-253
Goldschmidt, E. P., 62:64
Golgi apparatus, investigation with
phase contrast microscope, 65 :
243-248
Golomb, M., 63:262; 69:257
Goniatites, western Indiana, 67:185-
186
Goodenough, D. S., 61:279
Goodnight, C. J., 61:284; 63:269; 64:
258; Two representatives of a
tropical suborder of Opilionids
found in Indiana, 67:322-323
Goodson, F. E., 65:220
Gopalkrishnan, K. S. and J. H. Jump,
The activity of thiolutin against
certain fungi and seed-borne
diseases, 61:97-102
Gopher, 67:303
Gordon, G., 68:119
Gosselink, John G., 70:203; What
caused the ice age?, 68:294-297
Gould, George E., 61:140; 62:170; 63:
143; 67:136; 70:137
Use of insecticides and their toxicity
to plants, 65:124-128
Wireworm populations as influenced
by soil types, 66:147-151
Varietal susceptibility of cucurbits
to cucumber beetle attack, 68:
186-189
The effect of Japanese beetle feeding
on the yield of soy beans, 69:
178-181
Graebner, O. E., 69:269
Grain, marketing of Indiana, 63:219-
224
Grant County, meadow spittlebug, 68:
171-185
Graves, G. H., 67:274
Gravitation, new theory and its quan-
tization, 64:238 *
Gray, H. H., 65:161
Greek science, ancient, 61:250
Green, Ralph J., Jr., 70:53 (see also
SCHREIBER, L. R.)
and K. Sawada, Septoris leafspot
disease of Mentha spp., 69:128-
130
and L. R. Schreiber, Studies of
the control of oak wilt disease
in southern California, 70:87-90
Greenberg, S. S., 69:186
Greene County, caves, 64:175
Orthoptera, 65:111-115
plant fossils, 64:70-74
streams, 62:244-249
Gries, G. A., 64:62; 65:53, 54; 66:62;
69:107
Grollig, F. X., 70:46; Pottery figurine
heads from the Valley of Mex-
ico, 66:53-54
Pottery ornaments from Rio Tapa-
jos, Brazil, 67:92-95
Pagan marriage practices in Guate-
mala, 68:70-71
Gross, E. W., memorial, 69:36-37;
Comments by a secondary school
teacher, 62:169
Ground squirrel, distri. of the 13-lined
in Indiana, 70:275-277
Ground water in southern Indiana, 63:
228-229
Growing of wheat seedlings in nutri-
ent solutions for Hessian fly
studies, 68:147
plants in air-conditioned light rooms,
63:230
Growth and development of hardwood
seedlings, 61:81
physical, 61:54-61
rate of boa constructor, 68:360
responses of Regnellidium diphyllum
sporelings to variation in the
concentration of nutrient solu-
tion, 65:62-65
Grula, E. A., 62:65; 63:59, 61
Guanidines, diquinolyl, 61:117
Guard, A. T., 61:69; 62:102; 65:55;
66:300; 67:286; 68:18, 86; 69:6,
22, 105; 70:6, 7, 9, 51 (see also
Jackson, R. C.)
Recent approaches to the study of
plant structures (Presidential
address), 70:41-45
and S. N. Postlethwait, Rela-
tion of the formation of annual
rings to multiple flushes of
growth in several species of
Quercns, 67:104-106
Guatemala, pagan marriage practices
in, 68:70-71
Gucker, Frank T., 61:112
and J. M. Christens, A high-
pressure calorimeter for spe-
Gucker — Health
443
cine heats of aqueous solutions
up to the critical temperature,
64:97-104
Guennel, G. K., 63:198
Guernsey, F. S., 62:101, 102
Guernsey, L., Reclamation of strip-
mined lands in Vigo county, In-
diana, 67:215-224
Relationships between cyclonic char-
acteristics and precipitation in
western Indiana during the sum-
mers of 1953, 1956, and 1957,
68:225-236
Land use changes caused by a quar-
ter century of strip coal mining
in Indiana, 69:200-209
Settlement changes caused by strip
coal mining in Indiana, 70:158-
164
Gunther, W. C, 67:303
Some dietary effects on the estrous
cycle of the female California
pocket gopher, Thomomys bot-
tae navus Merriam, 66:331-336
Effect of abnormal incubating tem-
perature on chick behavior, 68:
363-366
-, R. K. Jones, and P. Manske,
Some effects of high and low in-
cubating temperatures on chick
behavior, 70:285-292
Gustin, W., 61:269
Guthrie, N., 61:113; 62:168; 70:98
Gyromitra esculenta, notes on, 65:210-
211
Habitat segregation as a factor in re-
ducing competition among spe-
cies of Laccophilus, 68:147
Hadar, B. R., 70:58
Hadley, Alden H., 61:19-21
Haecmonchus contortus, development,
62:320
Haenisch, E. L., 61:113; 65:66; The
relationship between teaching
chemistry in the secondary
schools and in the colleges and
universities of Indiana, 62:166
Hagen, C. W., Jr., 61:68; 64:57; 66:
61; 69:12, 106; 70:207, Applica-
tions of plant tissue culture, 62:
81-86
Hair, extraction of the protein compo-
nents of human, 68:128-138
Hajos, theorum of, 61 :269
Hall, M. T., 67:286; 70:6, 7; Varia-
tion in the genus Hudsonia, 66:
321-322
Teratology in Trillium grandiflor-
wn's floral organs, 69:263-265
Hallerberg, A. E., 70:201
Hamer, Martin (see Bachman, G, B.)
Hamilton County, anthropology, 64:51
McKinley Site, 64:51
pollen, 69:110-118
Hamilton, D. W., 65:103 (see also
Cleveland, M. L.) Effects of
organic insecticides on plants
and soils, 63:190-194
Mites on tree fruits and branches in
Indiana and the neighboring
states, 65:104-106
Hamilton, J. H., 66:298; 67:280
Hamparian, V. V., 68:78
Haney, M. E., 69:134
Hanover College, history of science at,
63:243-247
Hardwood seedlings, growth and de-
velopment, 61:81-89
tree planting on strip mine spoil
banks, 62:99; 65:57
Harmonic series, 63:261
Harrington, R. W., 64:239
Harrises, A. E., 65:226
Harrison County, Alleghany wood rat,
69:311
streams, 62:244-249
Harrison, E. F., 67:99
Hart, John Fraser, 65:174; 67:175;
Rural non-farm population of
Indiana, 65:174-179
Migration and population changes in
Indiana, 66:195-203
Age pyremids for Indiana's counties
and larger cities, 67:187-193
Rural population density in Indiana,
68:218-224
Conversion of percentage distribu-
tions to weighted index numbers
of geographic significance, 69:
193-199
Census concepts of rural populations
in Indiana, 69:249-253
and P. P. Costas, Interurban dis-
tances in Indiana: an evaluation
of techniques, 67:199-204
Hartsell, S. E., 61:65; 62:63; 63:59,
61
Hartsock, J. G., 69:148; 70:137
Haskell, D. A., 68:92
Haslam, M. B., 61:269
Hatching of young lizards, 68:367-378
Hauksbee's electrical, 61:251
Haurowitz, F., Condensation of pro-
teins with thiocyanate, 65 :82-84
Hayes, M. E., 68:324
Headlee, W. H., 62:298, The incidence
of pinworm infection among In-
diana children with comments
on laboratory diagnosis, 61:286-
288
Heal, W. E., Indiana pioneer mathema-
tician, 62:287-289
Health conditions in Indiana, early
years, 61:253-260
444
Heath — History
Heath, E. C, 62:64; 64:55
Heating of hollow cylinder, continuous,
61:270
Heats of combustion of organic com-
pounds, method of calculating,
67:122-127
Heavy nuclei for fast neutrons, total
cross sections of, 61:276
Heavy particle spectrometer, 63:265
Heiser, Charles B., Jr., 61:47; 62:
106; 66:9, 15; 68:319; 69:105
A new annual sunflower, Helianthus
deserticolus, from southwestern
United States, 209-212
and D. M. Smith, New chromo-
some numbers in Helianthus and
related genera, 64:250-253
Helianthus, 61:47; 64:60
chromosome numbers in, 64:250-253
deserticolus, a new annual from
southwestern United States, 70:
209-212
hybrids, analysis of, 66:306-317
natural hybrids, 67:286
petiolaris, cytotaxonomy of, 69:105
Heliopsis, variations in, 62:106
Helium, 62:290
Hellyer, S., 61:281
Helmen, V. R., New material from
Marion county, Indiana, 62:53-
55
Hemoglobin, synthesis in the chick em-
bryo, 62:72-80
Hendriksen, M., 68:317
Hendrix, J. R., 70:260
Hennen, J., 70:20
Henry County, earthworms, 69:313-319
population changes, 62:272-276
precambrian rocks, 62:234-243
streams, 62:244-249
Henry, G. E., 69:186
Hepaticae (See Bryophytes of Indi-
ana)
Heptafluoropropyl silanes, 65:94-99
Herbicide, 62:100
Herr, E. B., Jr., 69:134
Herrala, E. A., 70:47
Herschman, J. B., memorial, 67:59-61
Herzog, G., 66:46; 69:65
Hess, E. B. (see Meyer, Alfred H.)
The Kalamazoo Valley paper com-
pany, 69:224-235
Hessian fly, growth of wheat for, 68:
147
Heterocyclic, compounds via, 1, 1, 1-
trichloro-3-nitropropanol, 66 :79
Heterozygous inversions, recombina-
tions adjacent to, 64:61
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene, ultraviolet
absorption spectra, 64:92
Hexacoordinate copper (II) in triethy-
lenediamine copper (II) sulfate,
68:119
Hexafluorides, recent studies, 68:120
Hickerson, N. P., 64:50
Hiestand, W. A., 68:362; 69:312
Higgens, C. E., 66:62; 69:134
High school psychology, training and
experience of teachers, 61:278
High-speed calculation of least-squares
best,
consecutive formation constants of
metal-ion complexes using elec-
tronic computer, 67:111-116
half-wave potentials and slopes of
polarographic waves using elec-
tronic computer, 67:117-121
Highwav patterns in Indiana, 62:266-
271
Hill, C. F., 61:63
Hill, Sr. Ann Gertrude, O.S.U., Stu-
dent experiment in the radio-
chemistry assay of potassium
and uranium, 65:85-88
Hiratsuka, Y. and G. B. Cummins,
Morphology of spermogonium
of Gymnoconia peckiana, rust
fungus, 70:96-97
Hire, C, memorial, 62:35-37
Hissong, G., 69:108
Histochemical demonstration of vita-
min C in Hymenolepis, 62:321-
322
History in Indiana of civilian conser-
vation corps, 68:308-310
early development of game regula-
tions, 67:256-259
entomology, 64:140-174
farm planning in relation to soil con-
servation, 66:252
forest conservation, 66:261-267
4-H entomology club work, 65:196-
197
Indiana moss studies, 67:243
insect control, 65:118-120
Joseph Moore Museum, Earlham
College, 68:311-312
J. S. Wright Library, 63:248-252
natural sciences, University of No-
tre Dame, 64:228-233
Richmond scientific association, 66:
252
science in Earlham College, 63:240-
242
science education in Indiana high
schools, 68:330
science work at Hanover College,
63:243-247
soil conservation service, 66:291-296
study of fishes in Indiana, 66:275-285
water conservation in Indiana, 66:
286-290
History of Science (see also under the
following names, only those who
had submitted manuscripts in-
cluded, Bechert, C. H.; Blood-
good, D. E.; Canright, J. E.;
History — Hybrids
445
Coats, N. M.; Cole, R. 0.; Cope,
J. B.; Daily, F. K.; DenUyl,
Daniel; Edington, W. E.; Gerk-
ing, S. D.; Girton, R. E.; Hart,
J. Eraser; King, L. J.; Lehker,
G.; Markle, M. S.; Martin, E.;
Mathers, F. C; Michaud, H. H.;
Porter, C. L.; Schaal, L. A.;
Sheehan, R. J.; Tinkle, W. J.;
Visher, S. S.)
abstracts, 61:250-252; 62:277-280;
63:230-231; 64:226-227; 66:252-
253; 67:243; 69:236
Arthur herbarium of rust fungi, 63 :
231
Biographical sketches of Indiana sci-
entists not listed elsewhere, 70:
182-188
Charter members of the Indiana
Academy of Science, 61:261-263
Conservation progress in Indiana to
1955, 65:198-199
Deam, Charles C, 63:232-239
Early health conditions in Indiana,
61:253-260
weather records in Indiana, 67:
265-267
History of natural sciences at Uni-
versity of Notre Dame, 64:228-
233
paleobotany in Indiana, 67:268-273
Richmond scientific association,
66:252
science at DePauw University, 63:
230
at Earlham College, 63:240-242
work at Hanover College, 63:
243-247
Indiana Nobelists and National
Academy members, 63:253-254
Influence of Quakers on science in
Indiana, 69:243-246
John Shepard Wright Memorial Li-
brary, 63:248-252
Pioneer microscopists of the seven-
teenth century, 62:281-286
period in study of Indiana vascu-
lar flora, 61:250
Salt and the early life in America,
64.226
Teaching of plant physiology at Pur-
due in the nineteenth century,
67:260-264
The Academy from horse and buggy
to jet, 70:194-199
Hlavaty, V., 61:269
Hoehn, M. M., 62:64
Hoffer, G. N., 66:231
Hollis, N. S., 62:294
Holm, G. B., 69:260
Homicide, records by subjects, 62:296
Homograft reactions in axolotls and
possible genetic implications,
70:261
Homologies in male reproductive sys-
tem of California pocket gopher,
67:303
Homomolecular, exchange reactions,
63:136-137
Honey bees, pollen, 62:114-121
Honey locust, new species, 68:320-321
Honig, J. M., 68:121
Hook, J. C, 70:6, 154; The quantifica-
tion of landform characteristics
—a roughness index, 68:277-282
Hopf, E., 61:269; 63:261
Hopp, W. B., 67:300; 68:360; 70:260
Hopper, S. H., 69:99
Hormone interaction, thyroxin-thyro-
tropic, 63:280
Hornick, R. J., 68:328
Hoshaw, R. W., 70:52
Hoskins, J. H., memorial, 67:61-62
Hosley, R. J., 65:51
Host-parasite relations of corn with
Helminthosporium, 65:54
Host range of and reaction to Synchy-
trium brownii Karling, 64:58
Householder, J. C, 64:51
Howard County, precambrian rocks,
62:234-243
Howe, R. H. L., 67:277; 68:119; Dis-
covery and evaluation of water
resources by aerial photo-
graphic method, 70:155-157
Hsu, C. G., 67:109 (see also McBee, E.
T.)
Huddleston, C. M., 61:275; 62:290
Huelsman, B. R., Possible new world
affiliations of the Neolithic Bai-
kal people, 63:54-56
Hughes, H. K., 63:261
Hull, Ralph, 63:261, 262
Hull, Robert N., Newer methods and
practical applications of tissue
culture, 62:87-91
Human resources, increasing Indiana's,
70:189-193
Humbles, J. E., 68:319
Humidities, of Indiana summers, 69:
108
Hummel, A. D., 67:275; 68:324
Hummeler, K., 68:78
Hunt, H. (see Moffat, A.)
Hurlbut, F. 64:226 (see also Mc-
Clure, S. M.) ; Our highways,
an Indiana heritage, 62:266-271
Hurbut, Z., 62:279
Huston, H. O., memorial, 67:62-64
Hyatt, J. L., memorial, 65:26-27
Hybridization in aster, 61 :66
of perennial sunflowers in Indiana,
65:212-217
Hybrid population, natural, among 3
species of Tragopogon, 67:286
Hybrids between Colias eurytheme-
philodice complex and C. inte-
rior, 65:230
446
Hydraulic— Insects
Hydraulic pendulum, 63:263
Hydrochloric acid, electrolytic oxida-
tion, 63:138-139
Hydrodynamics, limit solutions of com-
plete equations of, 61:270
Hydrogenation of tyrosine, 63:120-123
Hydrogen fluoride, complexes, 63:102
Hydroids, technique for growing, 61:
283
Hydrology, Indiana, 62:244-249
Hydrotherapy, of neutral - wet - pack
with psychotic patients, 61:279
Hylemya brassicae (Bouche), control
maggot of, 62:170
Hymenolepis nana var. fraterna, vita-
min C in, 62:321-322
Hypothermia effect on survival with
carotids ligated, 69:312
Ice age, what caused, 68:294-297
Ichthyokinometer for measuring phar-
mocological activity, 64:254
Idol, J. D., Jr., 64:92
Impatiens balsamina L., genetic con-
trol of anthocyanin synthesis,
64:57
flavonols of, 66:61
flavonoid pigmentation in buds, 69:
106
Inactivation of fixed rabies virus by
means of beta propiolactone, 68:
81-85
Indian ceremonies, rain, central Mex-
ico, 64:49
Deneid, 63.45
prehistoric, 63:57-58
species of Synchytrium, 63:65
trails of Indiana, 62:266-271
varieties of corn, 62:104
village sites in Indiana, 62:266-271
Indiana Academy of Science
constitution (see constitution)
complete membership list, 1951, 61 :
309-343; 1957, 67:19-48
charter members (see Edington,
Will E.)
library, 63:248-252
meetings (see spring meetings and
fall meetings)
Indiana Bryophytes (see Bryophytes
of Indiana)
cities, 1940-1950, population growth,
61:171-175
comparison with other areas in 10
great resources, 61:245-249
conservation progress to 1955, 65:
198-199
dam sites, 61:232-239
flora, opportunities in, 62:106
grain commerce, 63:219-224
harvests 1926-50, geographical fac-
tors, 62:256-265
insects (economic importance, 1951-
1955 (see Davis, J. J.)
insects and other arthropods (eco-
nomic importance), 1956-1960
(see Osmun, John V.)
Junior Academy of Science (see un-
der same title)
plant distribution records (see Vas-
cular plants)
plant fossils, in recent collections of
pennsylvanian, 64:70-74
pre-cambrian rocks, 62:234-243
Quakers, contributing to science, 69:
243-246
road patterns, 66:192-194
scientists, 62:277
climatic advantages over adjacent
states, 65:162
streams and lakes, effects on science,
69:254-255
township boundaries, 63:200
vascular flora, pioneer period, 61:72
Indiana's boundaries and size, 64:214-
216
comparative richness, 61:245-249
old growth forests, 63:73-79
topography summarized, 61 :245
valleys, 68:292-293
Indians, corn grinding devices, 61:251
diet, the acorn in North American
Indian, 62:56-62
medicine and surgery, 61:49-53
in Michigan, aboriginal occupancy,
65:48
of the plains, 61:48
Induced muscular tension on learning,
68:325
Industrial development of Michigan
City, 65:180-195
mineral resources of Washington
county, Indiana, 67:177
minerals in Indiana's economy, 67:
177
Infectious viral particles, counting in
tissue, 62:95-97
Infestation, unusual arthropod cases,
62:298
Influence of nitrogen and clippings on
roots of 2 grasses, 67:233
of leaves and axillary buds on apical
elongation in Tilia americava,
69:105
Infra-red spectra absorption of alkyl
substituted carbostyrils, 65:73-
74
Influenza viruses, absorption of lipids
and fatty acids, 68:78
Information handling and numerical
control, 67:279
Ingle, M., 68:90
Ingraham, J. S., 67:98
Inorganic membrane electrodes, 69:
136-139
Insects of economic importance in In-
diana, 1951-1955 (see Davis,
J.J.)
Insects — Jewell
447
and other arthropods of economic
importance, 1956-1960 (see Os-
mun, John V.)
control, involving farm practice
methods, 63:144-151
control, history, 65:118-120
orders from 3 types of cover in east-
ern Indiana, quantitative com-
parison, 70:139-141
pests of ornamentals recently dis-
covered in Indiana, 68:150-154
pests, some new, of trees and shrubs
of Indiana, 67:145-149
resistance, 61:141
Insecticidal chemicals, development,
65:121-123
Insecticide activity, thermal aerosol,
61:152-158
acaricide and aphicide, new, 63:168-
170
control of bagworm, 61:159-164
control of meadow spittle bug, 61:
140
control of red clover, 66:100
effect on balance of nature, 63:186-
188
cabbage worms, 70:137
man, 63:194-197
plants and soil, 63:190-194
wildlife, 63:188-190
granular, for clover root borer con-
trol, 65:159-160
residual versus non-residual, 65:145-
148
residual activity, 61:152-158
resistance in insects, 65:145-148
susceptibility of ootheca of Ameri-
can cockroach, 68:196-198
systemic, into fruit trees, 68:148
toxicity to humans, 65:129-138
use of toxicity to plants, 65:124-128
use on alfalfa, 62:181-197
Instructions for contributors (see Con-
tributors )
Instrumentation, proposed new major
at Marion College, 64:92
Integrating factors, 64:235
Interaction, hormonal, quantitative
study of thyroxin, 63:280-283
of time and duration of infantile ex-
perience on adult learning, 68:
326
Interests, vocational, for engineers,
66:324
Interpolated response on spontaneous
recovery, 65:221
Inter-relationship of application and
mathematical research, 67:276
Interurban distance in Indiana; evalu-
ation of techniques, 67:199-204
Introgression among 3 species of Vi-
burnum, 66:300
hybridization and mutation in Colo-
rado populations of Aquelegia,
67:292-296
Iodine clock reaction, 61:129-134
Ion movement and membrane poten-
tial, 65:227
Ions, predicting shapes of, 63:102
Irick, P. E., 61:269
Iron deposits in southwestern Indiana,
64:179
Irrigation in Indiana, problems, 64:
217-218; 67:249-250
Ising lattice, 61:274
Isolation of L Pi3 and I, P5 on Dryop-
teris apices, 68:92
and characterizing of new peptide
antibiotic, 69:134
Isolator systems used with germfree
animals, survey, 68:78
Isomer, Rb84m, 62:290
Isopods (terrestrial), of Indiana, 63:
272-277
Isopropylamine, for cobalt detection,
65:89-93
Isotopes in study of microbial physiol-
ogy, 64:55
Jackson County, population changes,
62:272-276
streams, 62:244-249
Jackson, R. C. and A. T. Guard, Hy-
bridization of perennial sun-
flowers in Indiana, 65:212-217
and , Analyses of some nat-
ural and artificial interspecific
hybrids in Helianthus, 66:306-
317
Jacobs, M. E., 61:141; 62:171; Obser-
vations on the two forms of pe-
rodical cicada, Magicicada sep-
tendecim (L), 63:177-179
Jacobson, A., 68:90
James, H. M., 61:273, 274; 65:203
Jamieson, W. A., memorial, 67:64-65
Janick, J., 68:87, 91
Japanese beetle, damage to soy beans,
69:178-181
infestation in Newton county, 67:136
in Indiana, 61:145-147
in Indiana, notes on distr., 67:136
Jarl, V. C, 68:325
Jasper County, streams, 62:244-249
Jay County, precambrian rocks, 62:
234-243
Jefferson County, light traps, 70:137
mammals, 68:360
May beetles, 65:149-158
Jenkins, M. B., 70:49
Jennings, P. R., 65:54
Jennings, R. K., 64:52
Jensen, K. E., 68:78
Jerison, M., 64:234
Jewell, M. E., 70:48
448
Job — Kingsbury
Job interrelationships, 64:240
John, John P. D., Influence in the de-
velopment of the science major
in Indiana, 64:226-227
Johns, R. M., 69:106
Johnson County, settlement patterns,
68:285-288
Johnson, D. F., 68:7
Johnson, E. R., 70:261
Johnson, J. L, Jr., 66:323; 67:298
Johnson, 0. E., 65:204
Johnson, R. F., 68:325
Johnson, R. G., 65:204
Johnson, W. H., 63:269; 65:6; 66:9
10, 19, 330; 67:6, 7, 301; 69:12
70:13; (see also Miller, C. A.)
Undergraduate curricula in bi-
ology (Presidential address),
67:73-89
Johnson, W. P., 70:205
Johnston, Richard B., Remarks on
the physical type of certain
middle Mississippi and south-
eastern groups, 66:50-52
, The findings after two years of
work at Serpent Mounds Site,
Rice Lake, Ontario, 67:96-97
, A geographic approach to pre-
diction of college freshman en-
rollment, 68:289-291
, More findings at the Serpent
Mounds Site, Rice Lake, On-
tario, 69:73-77
Johnston, W. H., 61:114; Homomo-
lecular reactions: a new field of
study in chemistry, 63:136-137
Jones, J. A., 63:46; 65:48
Jones, J. J., 61:68
Jones, R. K. (see Gunther, W. C.)
Jordan, David Starr, influence in de-
velopment of science major in
Indiana, 64:226-227
Jordan, E. T., 62:295
Jose, A. G., Jr., 65:66
Joseph Moore Museum at Earlham Col-
lege, 68:311-315
Josten, J. J., 66:56
Joyner, James W., Earthworms of the
upper Whitewater valley (east
central Indiana), 69:313-319
Judd, G. F. (see McBee, E. T.)
Juliano, J. O., 68:323
Jump, J. A., 65:54; 67:101 (see also
GOPALKRISHNAN, K. S.)
Junior Academy of Science, Clubs, 61
344-348; 62:28-33; 63:20-26; 64
28-33; 65:20-24; 66:20-26; 67
49-55; 68:21-28; 69:24-32; 70
23-30
Just, T. K., memorial, 70:35-37
Kalispel law, 65:48
Kamemoto, F. L., 63:269
Kanfer, F. H., 68:327
Kang, B. T. and A. J. Ohlrogge, The
response of corn roots to high
nutrient concentrations within
a single root culture cell, 70:254-
259
Karas, G. G., 67:297; 68:326
Karas, S., 68:327
Karl, J. E., Jr., 65:228
Karling, J. S., 61:68; 64:57; An un-
usual keratinophilic microor-
ganism, 63:83-86
A key to the subgenera of Synchy-
trium, 64:248-249
Karst terrains of Indiana, 61:187-231
Karst topography of Puerto Rico, 62:
225
Kaslow, C. E., 68:121; 69:135
and S. J. Nix, Bromination of
phenylquinolines, 61:121-125
Kaufman, V., 68:323
Keenan, T. A., 65:203
Keesom, P. H., 64:237
Keim, W. (see Weaver, E. E.)
Kellar, J. H., 63:45
Keller, J. H., 70:20, 46
Kelley, A. G., and S. N. Postle-
thwait, Fern gametophytes as
a tool for the study of morpho-
genesis, 70:56-60
Kennedy, R. J., 67:109
Kent, R. L., 68:8
Keratin, decomposing fungus of, 64:59
Keratinophilic microorganism, unus-
ual, 63:83-86
Kessel, W. G., 68:116; A mine water
problem, 62:147-149
Keyform, catene-drainage profile in
pedological taxonomv, 66:246-
251
Killing action, new type, in stock of
Paramecium aurelia from Pan-
ama, 67:302
Killough, R. A., Susceptibility of the
ootheca of the American cock-
roach, Periplaneta americana,
to various insecticides, 68:196-
198
Kimbell, R. R., 65:220
King, D. C, 65:219
King, Lawrence J., 66:252; 69:236
On the origin of the term "weed,"
67:287-289
and M. S. Markle, Dr. John T.
Plummer (1807-1865), pioneer
scientist of Richmond, Indiana,
63:255-260
King, P. F. (see Rohrer, C. S.)
Kingsbury, T. M., 66:157; Ground wa-
ter conditions of the unglaciat-
ed area in the southern part of
Indiana, 63:228-229
Some problems of irrigation in In-
diana, 64:217-218
KlNGSOLVER — LEAFROLLERS
449
Kingsolver, J. M., 64:115
Kinsey, A. C, memorial, 66:30-31; 64:
166
Kirch, R. V., Development and utiliza-
tion of underground gas storage
in Indiana, 68:259-264
Kirk, R. B., 62:295
Kirkpatrick, R. D. (see Mumford, R.
E.)
The introduction of the San Juan
rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
in Indiana, 69:320-324
Kirsch, A. D., 65:222
Klages, M. G. (see White, J. L.)
Klein, A., 66:61
Klein, E. 0. P., 61:275
Klemm, L. H., The isothermal effect
on the iodine clock reaction, 61 :
129-134
Klenner, J. J., Histological effects of
itrumil, thiouracil, and thiourea
on the endostyle of Lampetra
lamottenii, 62:318
Kline, D. R., 62:171
Klinge, P., 68:8; 69:19; 70:8, 9; Po-
tentialities of somatyping for
secondary schools, 61:54-61
Knight, P. L., In vitro, survival time
of swine lungworm, 62:319
Knight, P. L., Jr., 61:284
Knox County, underground storage,
68:259-264
Kocher, C. W., 68:323
Koffler, H., 62:64
Kohnke, Helmut, 61:165
Konetzka, W. A., 66:55; 67:98; 68:
79; 70:48
Konopinski, E. J., 68:322
Koontz, K. (see Cope, J. B.)
Kosciusko County, oxygen production,
70:51
phytoplankton, 62:98
Kosolsombat. S. (see Fischer, R. B.)
Kossack, C. F., 62:65
Kottlowski, F. E., Geologic struc-
tures in the Coal City and Switz
City area in Indiana, 64:194-201
and J. B. Patton, Pre-cambrian
rocks encountered in test holes
in Indiana, 62:234-243
Kovacs, J., 66:298
Krabbe, G. L., 69:257
Kraybill, H. R., memorial, 67:66-68
Krekeler, C. H., 70:6, 260
Kuc, J., 68:87; 69:107
KusTER, R. J., 62:103
LaBerge, D. L., 66:326
LaCroix, J. D.. 62:100
Laff, R. A., 67:279
LaGrange County, Darrow mastodon,
69:182
oxygen production, 70:51
Lake County, cabbage maggot, 62:170
Gary "Big Steel," 68:237-258
Mystery Mound, 68:343-348
population change, 62:272-276
Tolleston and post-Tolleston history,
61:176-179
Lake levels, maintaining, with well
water, 66:157
Lake Wawasee phytoplankton, 62:98
Lal, A., Population trends in Indiana's
villages of 1,000-2,500 popula-
tion in 1950, 66:204-208
Lamprey, larvae, 62:318
Land color theory, artist's response to,
70:205
Land snails of Indiana, geographical
distrL, 61:282
Land use changes caused by quarter
century of strip coal mining in
Indiana, 69:200-209
Landolt (iodine clock) reaction, 61:
129-134
Lange, L. H., 63:263
Langer, L. M., 65:204; 66:298; 70:205
Langston, R. G., 62:101; 67:232; 69:
277
LaPorte County, LaPorte, manufac-
tural geography, 64:180-190
May beetles, 65:149-158
pine engraver, 68:150-154
Lark-Horovitz, K., memorial, 68:35-
37; 67:278
Larsen, J. E., 69:277
Larson, R. G., 64:92; A study of phys-
ical properties for binary mix-
tures of methyl and ethyl alco-
hols, 64:94-96
Larval millipeds, Zinaria butleri (Mc-
Neill), large aggregation in
Brown county, Indiana, 67:171-
172
Laubengayer, R. A., 65:7, 16, 17; 66:
6, 12, 19; 67:6,7, 11; 68:7,8, 18;
69:6, 9, 14, 22; 70:6, 7, 8, 14
Laughery Creek valley forests, 62:129-
135
Lauth reaction, 63:110-112
Laurence, J. L., 67:274
Lawrence County, discontinuities, 65:
161
May beetles, 65:149-157
minerals, 69:183
moths, 68:108-111
underground storage, 68:259-264
Lava bed (N. M.), flora of, 61:68
Lavy, T., G. Sands, and S. Barber,
The molybdenum status of some
Indiana soils, 70:238-242
Leaders in conservation in Indiana to
1955, 65:198-199
Leafhoppers, 61:141
Leafrollers on pines, 69:175-177
450
Learning — Mahin
Learning, experimental study in con-
ditioned avoidance, in white rat
and electroshock, 65:220
reinfringement in human, 68:327
Least squares, new look at, 69:258
Lee, C. 0., 62:278
Lefler, R. W., 65:7; 66:16; 69 : 18; 70:
7, 18
Legume insects, 62:117-222
Leguminosae in Indiana, distri. notes,
61 :90-96
Lehker, G. E., The history of 4-H club
work in Indiana, 65:196-197
The ten most important plant feed-
ing pests in Indiana, 67:173-174
Leopold, A. C, 62:101, 102
Leopold, C. A., 62:103
Lespedeza, taxonomic problems in, 70:
207
Lesser clover leaf weevil, 62:217-222
Leth, A. (see Meibohm, A. W.)
Lethal temperature on Musca domes-
tica, factors influencing, 69:310
Levitt, E. E., 69:269
Lewis, C. L., stone mound, 63:45
Lewis, D. J,, 68:317
Lewis, G. W., 65:220; 67:297
Lewis, R. E., 64:257
Le Zotte, L. A., Jr., 63:271
Lichens of New Mexico lava bed, 61 :68
Lichtenberg, D. B., 66:299
Life in Indiana during glacial period,
67:183-184
Light traps, 63:180-184; 65:149-158;
67:135; 69:148
Light traps protect tobacco from horn-
worms, 70:137
sex of European corn borer taken at,
66:108-111
Limestone, measurement of fineness of
agricultural, 66:242-245
specific surface and reaction rate of
calcitic, in neutralizing soil
acidity, 67:237-242
X-ray diffraction study of Indiana,
69:305-309
Liming, A. N., 62:100
Lindsay, D. M., 68:360
Lindsey, Alton A., 61:1, 6, 68; 62:6,
98; 63:7; 64:60; 65:205; 67:101;
68:6, 18 (see also Plummer, G.
L.)
Line-strip sampling against full tallies
in 4 forest types, 64:60
Lingappa, B. T., 63:65; 64:59
Lipscomb, R., 62:106
Liquid latex injections, 63:269
Lithosperm, action on mice, 67:312-315
Lizard, Eumeces fasciatus, eggs and
young, 68:367-378
Localization experiment for teaching
geometry, 67:275
Locational influences conspicuous as to
Indiana cities, 63:200
patterns of wholesaling within met-
ropolitan centers, 64:178
Lockhard, D. H., A new experimental
acaricide and aphicide, 63:168-
170
Locomotion and oxygen-consumption
rhythms in Uca pugnax, 69:310
Loew, F. A., memorial, 61:21-22
Long, Alma L., memorial, 61:22-23
Long, R. W., 61:69
Lorentz-Covariance of commutation
relations, 67:280
Loring, R. D., The growth of strip-
mining in Indiana, 61 :184-186
Lost River, Orange county, Indiana,
61:187-231
Lounsbury, R. W. and R. L. Schus-
ter, Preliminary report in the
petrology of Southampton Is-
land, Northwest territory, 67:
225-231
Lovell, C. W., Jr., 67:232
LoVELL, G., 67:297
Ludy, L. V., memorial, 63:34-35
Luginbill, P., Sr., memorial, 67:68-
69; 64:140
Federal entomology in Indiana, 64:
161-164
Lygus lineolaris (tarnished plant
bug), injury to peach, 64:127-
130
Lysozyme, 63:61
Lysozyme and gram positive bacteria,
62:63
Lytle, Charles F., 64:255; 68:361;
The records of freshwater me-
dusae in Indiana, 67:304-308
Maciejowska, Z., 69:107; 70:52
Mackell, J. F., 62:277
Mackenzie Basin, Canada, ecology, 62:
98
Machlin, J. M. and B. E. Montgom-
ery, A separator for sampling
soil fauna, 66:152-156
Macronucleus structure of Parame-
cium aurelia by electron micro-
scopv, 66:60
Madinger, F. L., 67:136; 69:149
Magicicada septendecim, 62:203-206;
63:177-179
Magnesium chloride, preparation of
anhydrous, 63:113-119
Magnetic fields in solar atmosphere,
67:277
suggested by solar streaming, 66:297
Magnetic - vertical - corialis theory of
homing, 64:241
Magnoliaceae, phylogenetic value of
pollen, 62:105
Mahin, E. G., memorial, 62:37-39
Mahoney — Mathematics
451
Mahoney, D. L., 68:91
Mainer, R. E., 64:242
Maize mutants to characterize normal
development, 70:51
Malaria in India, 61:253-260
Mallett, G., 70:20, 48
Malonic acid, preparation of aromatic
esters, 61:121-125
Malott, C. A., The swallow-holes of
Lost River, Orange county, In-
diana, 61:187-231
Mammalian viruses, in vitro growth of,
62:92-94
Mammals of Ripley and Jefferson
counties, Indiana, 68:360
Man, fossil, 63:47-53
Manganese (Mn+ + ), microbiological
assay, 65:50
Mansfield sandstone, 62:228-229
bog iron ore of, in southwestern In-
diana, 64:179
Manske, P. (see Gunther, W. C.)
Manufactural geography of Chicago
Heights, Illinois, 66:209-229
LaPorte, Indiana, 64:180-190
Michigan City, Indiana, 65:180-195
"Steel," Gary, 68:237-258
Manufacturing, intra-city, 62:225
Manuscripts, preparation, 70:293
Mapping metropolitan patterns, 61 :240
Maps, 3 dimensions in color, 64:175
Marie Barnard, Sister, O.S.F., Anti-
biotic substances from Ranun-
culaceae, 70:83-86
Marion County, archeology, 62:53-55
cabbage maggots, 62:170
higher fungi, 61:77
ground-water, 64:176
pollen, 69:110-118
population changes, 62:272-276
Market areas, 62:225
wholesale, 63:199
Markle, C. A., 67:12; 68:7; 69:15;
70:7, 14; Contributions to the
flora of Wayne county: 65:208-
209; 66:301-304; 67:290-291; 69:
266-268 (see also vascular flora
of Indiana)
Markle, M. S., 63:230 (see also King,
Lawrence J. and Farquhar-
son, L.) ;
The history of science at Earlham
College, 63:240-242
A history of Joseph Moore Museum,
I, early history, 68:311-312
The influence of Quakers on science
in Indiana, 69:243-246
Marsh, T. E. (see Ward, G. L.)
Marshall County, cache, 69:92-98
oxygen production, 70:51
Marshall, G. E., 62:170; 65:103; 66:
103; 68:148; The effect of rain
and applications of fungicides
and insecticides on the catfacing
of strawberries, 64:136-139
Marsilea miicroyiata, response to nu-
trient concentrations, 63:64
qiiadrifolia, aging on viability of
sporocarps, 139-142
Martin County, caves, 64:175
discontinuities, 65:161
plant fossils, 64:70-74
streams, 62:244-249
Martin, E. M., 62:291; 66:297, His-
tory of science work at Hanover
College, 63:243-247
Martin, F. D., 68:121
Martin, F. P., 61:47; 67:90; A Van-
derburgh county site with south-
ern affinities, 63:57-58
Martin, H. J., 67:279; 69:260
Martin, J. W., 68:118
Martin, R. E., memorial, 69:37-39
Martin, W. C, Jr., 66:300, 67:286
Martinsville, Indiana, a satellite town,
63:225
Mason, D. J., 64:54
Masses, determination, from disinte-
gration energies, 66:297
Mastodon umericanus in LaGrange
county, 69:182
Mastodons, Fulton and Miami counties,
69:189-192
Mathematical models and statistics in
collision warnings, 68:316
Mathematicians, liaison between high
school and college, 70:201
Mathematics (see under special sub-
jects; no manuscripts were sub-
mitted for publication)
abstracts, 61:269-272; 63:261-263;
64:234-235; 67:274-276; 68:316-
318; 69:256-259; 70:200-202
Concept of surface integral, 67:274
Longitudinal vibration in hollow
metal tube, 62:291
Mathematics and the younger gen-
eration, 70:200
for teachers, 64:234
of the future, 67:274
New introduction to ideas and meth-
ods of trigonometry, 69:258
Nuclear spectra, 62:290
Report of Indiana school and college
committee on mathematics, 68:
316
Retraction, homotopy, integral, 64:
234
Some problems and results of addi-
tive number theory, 63:262
Uncertainty and entropy, 69:257
Mathematics and the younger genera-
tion, 70:200
anti-mathematical propaganda in
textbooks, 61:271
competition, state-wide, 63:263
452
Mathematics — Meiners
course, new, at DePauw, 70:202
curriculum, 63:262
for teachers, 64:234
of the future, 67:274
role of, 62:45-51
textbooks in, 61:271
the state of in California, 70:201
Mathers, F. C, Electrolytic oxidation
of hydrochloric acid in per-
chloric acid, 63:138-139
Aluminum solutions instead of ferric
in qualitative testing for ace-
tate, 66:98-99
Summary of my 60 years in chemis-
try, 69:247-248
and B. W. Neher, Electrodeposi-
tion of nickel from nickel per-
chlorate solution, 68:122-127
Mathews, F. S., 64:237
Mating behavior, dragonflies, 61:141
Matter-energy, a course for the first
semester of general chemistry,
61:111
Matthew, D. L. (see Dobson, R. C.)
and R. C. Dobson, Musca auutfn-
nalis (DeGeer), a new livestock
pest in Indiana, 69:165-166
Matthews, C. G., 69:270
Matus bicari?iatus, taxonomic discus-
sion, 62:172-175
Maxam, T., 69:107
Maxwell, T. J., 62:52; 64:49; 65:48
Maxwell's demon theory, extension of,
70:203
Mayfield, R. C., A study in areal spe-
cialization in Sullivan county,
Indiana, 64:191-193
Maze learning in fish, 64:242
McBee, E. T., 61:114; 64:92; 67:109;
68:117
, O. R. Pierce, and C. G. Hsu,
Lithium aluminum hydride re-
duction of difluoroacetic acid,
64:108-111
, A. F. Meiners, and C. W. Rob-
erts, Studies of the perfluoro-
propyl Grignard reagent, 64:
112-114
, C. W. Roberts, G. F. Judd, and
T. S. Chao, Reaction leading to
perfluoropropyl silanes, 65 :94-
99
, C. W. Roberts, G. F. Judd, and
T. S. Chao, Liquid phase of 1, 1,
1-trifluoropropane, 65:100-102
, L. W. Frost, M. R. Frederick,
and O. R. Pierce, Reactivity of
perfluoroalkyl group and of hal-
ogen in (perfluoroalkyl) halo-
benzenes, 69:143-147
McClung, L. S., 61:64; 63:62
McClure, S. M. and F. Hurlbut,
Classifying the earth science
collection, 63:208-210
McCormick, E. J., 61:278; 64:240; 67:
297
McCormick, J. S., 61:67
McCowen, M. C, 64:254
McCoy, Scott, 67:7; 68:18, 319; 69:
20, 262; 70:7, 20; A new species
honey locust, 68:320-321
McCrosky, L. L., 63:143
McEachron, K. B., memorial, 64 :35-38
McGrain, P., 64:175, Some applica-
tions of geology to the location
of dam sites in Indiana, 61:232-
239
and M. L. Mitchell, Geologic
characteristics of Indiana
streams, 62:244-249
McGregor, D. J., 67:177; 69:184
McGregor, M., 70:20, 154
McGuire, J. M., 62:64; 64:61; 66:62
McKay, H. E., 68:325
McKenna, F. S., 62:294
McKinley Site, preliminary report, 64:
51
McMasters, D. L. and W. B. Schapp,
High speed calculation of least-
squares best consecutive forma-
tion constants of metal-iron
complexes using an electric com-
puter, 67:111-116
and , High speed calculation
of least-squares best half-wave
potentials and slopes of polaro-
graphic waves using an electric
computor, 67:117-121
McMichael, E. V., 66:45; Statistical
analysis in archeology, 68:65-69
Towards the estimation of prehis-
toric populations, 69:78-82
Measles virus, influence of serum on
cytoplasmic effect, 70:48
Measurement, absolute, of beta-activi-
ties using sources of saturation
thickness, 67:278
and shapes of beta spectra, 67:280
of nuclear moments of excited states
of nuclei, 64:237
with a slotted line, 68:324
Media for tubercle bacilli, 61:63
Medicine, aboriginal American, 61:49-
53
Medium, synthetic, for candicidin pro-
duction, 63:60
Medusa, fresh water, recurrence near
Richmond, Indiana, 64:257
Meibohm, A. W., 63:102; Some ana-
lytical uses of 3-Dimethylami-
nopropylamine, 62:156-157
, S. Bellman, and A. Leth, Coor-
dination studies: dipyridyamine
and 3,3'-iminobispropylamine,
66:95-97
Meikle, G. S., memorial, 70:37-38
Meiners, A. F. (see McBee, E. T.)
Meisel — Miller
453
Meisel, Jay Lewis, Population censal
maxima in Indiana townships,
68:283-284
Meissner, K. W., 69:39-40, memorial;
61:273, 275; 62:291; 68:323
Melhorn, W. N., 69:185; Revision of
the Mississippian- Devonian
boundary in White and Benton
counties, Indiana, 67:194-198
The Parrish and Glasford masto-
dons, 69:189-192
Meloidogyne incognita acrita, migra-
tion, 69:106
Membership list, complete, 61:309-343;
67:19-48
Membrane potential and ion movement
in frog muscle fibers, 65 :227
of muscle fibers in crab, inhibitors,
66:330
Membranes, inorganic, electrodes, 69:
136-139
Memorials (see under separate names)
Mentha peperita, life history and eco-
nomic importance, 61:264-268
spp. in commercial mint plants, sto-
len decay, 70:53
spp., Septoria leaf spot on, 69:128-
130
Meristematic cells, cellulose fibers in,
65:55
Merkle, J., 65:205
Merom sandstone, geology, near Mer-
om, Indiana, 69:217-223
Messing, R. A. (see Reitz, H. C.)
Metabolism, aerobic, of obligate anae-
robe, 61:62
of animal cells in culture, effect of
PPLO on, 69:99
oxidative in P enicillium sp. 62:64
Metalation, of alkyl sulfones, 63:101
Metallic complexes in liquid HF, 63:102
Metals, silicon compounds of, 61:115
Metastable atoms in rare gases, 61:275
Metastrongylus apri, in vitro survival
time, 62:319
Method of calculating the heats of com-
bustion of organic compounds,
67:122-127
Methods, archaeological dating, 61:46
of sampling in forest ecology, 67:101
Methylene citric acid, synthesis and
evaluation of mono-derivatives,
68:118
Methyl and ethyl alcohol mixtures,
physical properties relationship,
64:94-96
Metropolitan areas, markets, 63:199
Metropolitan centers, locational pat-
tern of wholesaling within, 64:
178
Metzgar, M. J. (see Bernard, Sister
Marie, O.S.F.)
Meyer, Alfred H., 61:165; 62:223;
63:6, 202; 65:6; Societal respon-
sibilities of Academies of Sci-
ence at mid-century (Presiden-
tial address), 65:34-47
and P. F. Miller, manufactural
geography of LaPorte, Indiana,
64:189-190
and ■, Manufactural geogra-
phy of Michigan City, Indiana,
65:180-195
and , Manufactural geogra-
phy of Chicago Heights, Illinois,
66:209-229
and E. B. Hess, Gary "Big Steel"
— geographic design and des-
tiny, 68:237-258
Meyer, W. W., 70:99
Meyers, W. A., memorial, 65:27-28
Miami County, Glasford mastodon, 69:
189-192
Michaud, Howard H., 62:6, 31; 65:7;
66:15; 67:7, 243; 68:8; 69:17;
70:7, 17
Conservation of recreational and
scenic resources, 66:268-274
History of the early development of
game regulation in Indiana, 67 :
256-259
History of science education in In-
diana high schools, 68:303-307
MiCHELS, K. M., 66:325; 67:297; 68:
325
Michigan City, Indiana, manufactural
geography of, 65:180-195
Microbial physiology, use of isotopes,
64:55
Microbiological studies by soil perfu-
sion apparatus, 61:63
Micrococcus lysdeikticus, lysis of, 63 :
61
Micromagnetic waves, 70:154
Microscopists, pioneer, 62:281-286
Microtechnique in bacterial identifica-
tion, 61 :64
Middle Mississippi archeological site,
64:51
Middle Mississippi Indian groups, 69:
66-68
Mielke, P. T., 69:256
Migration and population change in
Indiana, 66:195-203
Miles, S. R., 67:101
Milkweed seed, germination, 68:90
Miller, B. M., 64:59
Miller, C. A., 66:330; 67:301
, W. H. Johnson, and S. C. Millis,
The sterilization and prelimi-
nary attempts in the axenic cul-
tivation of the black planarian,
Dugesia dorotocephala, 65:237-
242
Miller, C. W., 61:69
454
Miller — Morgan
Miller, D. W., 61:276 (see also Ras-
mussen, V. K.)
Miller, J. D., 66:323
Miller, P. F. (see Meyer, Alfred H.)
Miller, S. J., memorial, 66:31-32
Miller, W. A., 69:99, 100
Miller, W. F., 61:275
Millipeds, aggregation of larvae in
Brown county, Indiana, 67:171-
172
Millis, S. C. (see Miller, C. A.)
Millward, R., 65:221
Mine water problem, 62:147-149
Miner, E. E., 62:98
Mineral conservation in Indiana, 65:
198-199
Mineralogy and genesis of soil from
unglaciated regions in Indiana,
68:337-342
of Indiana soils, survey, 66:232-241
of Indiana and state's development,
68:300-302
universal, associated with lower
pennsylvanian conglomerate,
69:183
Mink, G. I., 66:88; 70:54
Minton, S. A., Jr., 64:256; 66:328
Mississippian age, 63:201
Mississippian-Devonian boundary, re-
vision in White and Benton
counties, Indiana, 67:194-198
Mitchell, A. C. G., 62:290; 66:297;
68:323
Mitchell, M. L. (see McGrain, P.)
Mites on fruit trees and brambles in
Indiana and neighboring states,
65:104-106
Mitosis, 61:283
Mizelle, J. D., 64:254; 65:8, 17; 66:
6, 18; Studies on monogenetic
trematodes XIX; the status of
North American Dactylogyinae
and Tetraonchinae, 64:260-264
and J. A. Berbarian, Develop-
mental rate of the sheep stom-
ach worm, Haemonchus contor-
tus, 62:320
Mockford, E. L., Additional notes on
Indiana Psocoptera, 62:198-199
Models and lantern slides for teaching
plant science, 61:69
Moe, H., 69:135
Moffat, A. and H. Hunt, A method of
calculating the heats of combus-
tion of organic compounds, 67 :
122-127
and , The investigation of un-
stable intermediates with the
aid of infrared radiation, 68:
144-146
Mohawk region, geomorphology, 62:
226
Moisture characteristics of represent-
ative Indiana soil types, 69:
300-304
Molal volumes, apparent, of some elec-
trolytes in anhydrous ethylene-
diamine, 65:75-78
Molecules, predicting shapes of, 63:102
Molybdenum status of some Indiana
soils, 70:238-242
stimulation of bacteria by, 65:50
Monaco, L. H., 61:284; Effects of cya-
nide on the oxygen consumption
of developing ova of Ascaris
lambricoides var. smtm, 62:323-
324
Mono and di-valent gaseous compounds
of boron and aluminum, 61:115
Monroe reservoir, multiple use project,
70:170-181
Monroe County, Agahus, confusus, 62:
171
Monroe reservoir, 70:170-181
periodical cicadas, 63:177-179
erosion, 64:224-225
streams, 62:244-249
water beetles, 69:154-164
underground storage, 68:259-264
woodlands, 66:170-178
Mont Tremblant biological station, 62:
106
Montgomery, B. Elwood, 62:278 (see
also Macklin, J. M.)
Notes and records of Indiana Odo-
nata, 1951-52, 62:200-202; 1953-
54, 64:131-135
Entomology before 1854, 64:142-147
The anthophilous insects in Indiana:
1. A preliminary annotated list
of the Apoidea, 66:125-140; 2. A
preliminary list of Diptera col-
lected from blossoms, 67:160-
170
Preliminary studies of the composi-
tion of some Indiana nectars,
68:159-163
Montgomery County, phytoplankton,
61:67
Moore, G. T., 63:201
Moore, H. B. and J. V. Osmun, Circu-
lation fans for fumigation cham-
bers, 66:143-144
Moran, J. F., Jr., Effect of cholin-defi-
cient diet on host-parasite rela-
tionship of domestic fowl and
Ascardia galli (Schrock), 64:
288-290
Differential staining of bone and car-
tilage in toto of fish, 65:234-236
Morgan County, satellite town, 63:225-
227
streams, 62:244-249
Morgan, L. O., memorial, 61:24
Morgan, W. P., 61:6; 65:7; 67:7, 11;
68:7; 70:7
Morgan — Nelson
455
The captivating Irids (Presidential
address), 61:33-45
Morphology of spermogonium of Gym-
noconia peckiana, rust fungus,
70:96-97
Morris, C. S., Physics research in a
small institution, 67:282-285
Morrison, R. M., 69:108
Moses, D. F., 68:121
Mosing, L. W., 67:299
Moskowitz, M., 61:64; 63:60
Moss studies, history of Indiana, 67:
243
Mosses of New Mexico lava area, 61:68
Mosses of Indiana (see Bryophytes of
Indiana)
Moths, attracted by light traps at dif-
ferent heights, 63:180-184
Motto, H. and J. L. White, Specific
surface and reaction rate of cal-
citic limestone in neutralizing
soil acidity, 67:237-242
Moulton, B., 61:6; 62:1, 6, 224; 63:6,
7, 9, 12, 15, 16, 198; 65:6, 7, 8, 9
Mound, shell 61:47
Mound, stone, the C. L. Lewis, and its
cultured application, 63:45
Mounds, archeological excavation of
prehistoric Indian, 67:96-97
Moura, R. A., 70:48
Moving, effect on adjustment, 62:293
Mozen, M. M. (see Reitz, H. C.)
Mucorales, antibiotics from, 64:59
Mud-dauber nest, biological relations
in, with special reference to
Osmia cordata, 68:199-204
Mulches on soil condition and environ-
ment, influence of surface ap-
plied, 69:277
Mulching, observations on vertical, 69:
282
Mull, B. R., memorial, 66:32-34
Mullin, C. A., Location of larvae of
the European corn borer, Py-
rausta nubilalis (Hbn), in dent
corn, 67:155-159
Mumford, R. E. (see Cope, J. B.)
and R. D. Kirkpatrick, Distribu-
tion of the 13-lined ground
squirrel in Indiana, 70:275-277
Munsee, J. R., A preliminary report
on biometrical studies on Tropi-
stei-nus striolatus (LeConte)
and T. mexicanus, 62:207-210
Murphy, I. A., 66:78
Murphy, R. (see Burkett, H.)
Murray, H. H., 63:198 (see also
Smith, J. M.)
Transgressions and regressions of
early alleghany (pennsylvani-
an) seas in Indiana, 67:205-211
Murray, H, L., 67:99; 70:49
Murray, R. G., Time lapse cinephoto-
micrography of tissue cultures,
62:67-71
Murray, R. W., The place of the Aus-
tralopithecinae among human
fossils, 63:47-53
Musca autumnalis (DeGeer), new live-
stock pest in Indiana, 69:165-
166
domestica, lethal temperature, fac-
tors affecting, 69:310
Musci, 61:68 (see also Bryophytes of
Indiana)
Muscular tension and blink rate, 65:219
Music and values in some Indian cul-
tures, 66:46
Mycophagy, 61:78-80
Myerholtz, L., 62:63
Myers, B. D., memorial, 61:24-26
Myers, R. D., 64:242
Myers, R. F., 64:257
Myotis, behavior and food habits of 2
species, 64:256
Mystery Mound, 68:343-348
Myxophyceae in Indiana lakes and
ponds, 68:43-57
Nainan, T. D., 68:323; 70:204
Nair, N., 68:149
Nakatsukasa, W., 70:48
Narasimhau, R., 63:262
Nash, H. A., 62:145; 64:53
National Academy of Sciences mem-
bers born, trained or employed
in Indiana, 63:253-254
Natrix sipedon, studies on growth rate,
70:260
Natural gas in Indiana, effects, 68:
300-302
hybridization in Helianthus, 67:286
selection, extent of effectiveness, 67:
251-255
selection of tetraploids in mixed col-
ony of Tripsacum dactyloides,
63:300-302
Nature of variations, 67:251-255
N-adic equivalence relations, charac-
terized, 67:274
N-butyl cyanide, 63:131-132
Neal, D. M., 61:270
Neal, M. J., 63:65
Neal, R. R., Jr., 70:261
Necrology (see Edington, Will E.
and Christy, O. B.)
Nectars, composition of some Indiana,
68:159-163
Needler, W. C, 64:92
Neher, B. W. (see Mathers, F. C.)
Neimark, E. D., 61:280
Nelson, G., 66:79
Nelson, O. E., 66:64; 69:105; 70:51
Nelson, T. C, 67:98
Nelson, W. L., 68:329
456
Nematodes — Ohio
Nematodes found in Indiana, survey of
plant parasites, 68:147
Neolithic Baikal people, 63:54-56
Nephros of Balanoglossus, 61:296-304
Nesbitt, J. J., 65:55
Netrium, conjugation in, 67:55
Neumann, Georg K., 61:48; 63:45;
66:45; 69:65; 70:46; Origin of
the Indians of the middle Mis-
sissippi area, 69:66-68
Neumann, Holm W., 70:46; Diagnos-
tic morphological traits for the
walcoloid variety of American
Indian, 69:69-72
Neurospora, threonine-less mutants,
63:61
Neutron physics, student experiments
in, 70:206
Neutrons, 61:276
New England Indians, 66:47
New hybrids of vascular plants from
Indiana, 68:319
Newby, N., Jr., 68:322
Newman, J. E., 65:205; 66:231
New Mexico lava area plants, 61:68
Newton County, Japanese beetle, 69 :
178-181
streams, 62:244-249
Newton, R. G., 66:299
New type of killing action in Parame-
cium aurelia from Panama, 67 :
302
N-Hydromethyl - 4 - nitrophthalimide,
63:108-109
Nibula, bird nest fungi, 61:66
Nichols, L. D., 68:119 (see also Rick-
etts, J. A.)
Nichols, R. E., 67:98
Nickel, electroplating from perchlorate
bath, 68:122-127
Nielsen, K. L., 67:276; 69:256
Niles, E. H., memorial, 68:37-39
Nipissing beach, Kale county, 61:176-
179
Niswander, R. E„ 70:6, 137, 138
Nitrate ion, spectrophotometry deter-
mination, 63:133-135
Nitrobenzene, reduction, 61 :135-139
Nitrogen, active, 63:136-139
for corn, three sources of, 70:217-226
in tomato fruit abnormalities, 62:
102
N-Methyl-4-nitrophthalimide, 63:108-
109
Nix, S. J. (see Kaslow, C. E.)
Nobelists and National Academy Mem-
bers of Indiana, 63:253-254
Noble, T. B., memorial, 69:40-42; 61:
48; 63:45
Nomia melanderi CklL, artificially in-
duced nesting, 67:135
Non-equilibrium carrier concentration
in Ge. 64:236
Non-linear differential equations peri-
odic solutions, 64:235
Non-literate peoples, economy, resi-
dence and descent among, 61 :46
Nomnetallics, 69:184
North, C., 64:53
Northwest Indiana-Northeast Illinois,
circulation and settlement pat-
terns, 61:165
Notre Dame University, history of nat-
ural sciences at, 64:228-233
Noyes, B., 61:276
Noveroske, R. L., 70:53
N-Propyl cyanide, 63:131-132
Nuclear energy levels, 61:276
energy states, half-lives of some, in
the m/i-sec region, 70:204
fractionation schemes, critique of,
70:260
proteins and genetic information,
67:301
spectra, 62:290
states in the RaEB-decay, 68:322
track emulsions, 61 :274
Nutrient concentrations, responses of
Marsilea mucronata, 63:64
Nutrition in host-parasite relationship,
role of, 64:54
Oak forests in the Laughery Creek
valley, 62:129-135
Oak-hickory in the forest primeval of
Indiana, 61:70
Oak-hickory woods, observations on
the tree strata, 64:88-91
Oak rust, teliospore formation and ger-
mination, 69:107
Oak wilt, one of three important tree
diseases insect transmitted, 64:
117
in southern Indiana, 66:63
prevalence in Indiana, 68:110-115
studies of control in Indiana, 70:87-
90
Obelia, regression and replacement of
hydranths, 62:297
O'Brian, D. M., 65:226
Occupational structure, distri. of our,
65:169-173
Odell, T. T., Asymmetry of chicken
thyroids, 61:289-291
Odonata, mating behavior, 62:171
notes and records of Indiana, 1951-
1952, 62:200-202; 1953-1954, 64:
131-135
Odor quality, spectra and biological ac-
tivity, 68:326
Oenothera, missing petals in, 68:86
Ogasawara, F. R., 63:270
O'Grady, D. C, memorial, 67:69-70
Ohio River, atomic energy and, 64:
219-223
Ohlrogge — Paper
457
Ohlrogge, A. J., 66:230; 67:232; 69:
277 (see also Kang, B. J., and
Wilkinson, S. R.)
One dimensional atomic potential func-
tions, 70:132-135
O'Neil, T. W., 65:51
Oniscoidea of Indiana, 63:272-277
Onofrio, R., 64:254
Opilionids found in Indiana, 2 members
of tropical suborder, 67:322-323
Optical instruments useful in bacterio-
logical and biological labora-
tory, 67:99
Orange County, caves, 64:175
discontinuities, 65:161
erosion, 64:202-208
Lost River, 61:187-231
plant fossils, 64:70-76
streams, 62:244-249
Orchard soil management on soil mois-
ture and water penetration, 67:
232
Order-disorder transitions, 61 :274
Orem, M. T., 61:140
Organic chemistry, non-science one
semester course, ■61:111
usual one year's course, 61:115
Organic compounds, reactions with
silicomolybdic acid, 65:68-72
Organic terrain, plant communities on,
62:98
Orgel, A. R., 64:241
Orientational transitions in solid CD4,
65:203
Origin and release of secretory gran-
ules in pituitary of mouse, an
electron microscopic study, 69 :
332-339
of limestone breccia, 68:265-267
of Indians in the middle Mississippi
area, 69:66-68
Origins, theories of, 62:277
Ornamentals, insect pests of, 68:150-
154
Orthoptera, contrast in faunas in
southern Indiana, 63:157-162
of relict prairie fragments in Greene
county, Indiana, 65:111-115
Osborn, S. W., 66:79
Osborne, C. E., Jr., Determination of
esters of acetvlenic alcohols,
66:91-94
Oscillographic method for study of so-
lution behavior at radio frequen-
cies, 62:160-165
Osynia albiventris Cresson, nesting
habits of, 69:149
Osmun, John V., 68:148; Appraisal
of residual insecticide activity
following thermal aerosol ap-
plication, 61:152-158
Effects of organic insecticides on
human health, 63:194-197
Development of resistance in insects
to insecticides, 65:139-144
Rearing methods of subterranean
termites, 66:141-143
Insects and other arthropods of eco-
nomic importance in Indiana:
1957, 67:150-154; 1958, 68:190-
195; 1959, 69:167-174; 1960, 70:
145-151
Ostertag, W., Genetic and environ-
mental factors influencing an-
thropometric traits, 68:59-64
Ottawa in early historic period, 67:90
Ovary, effect of stilbestrol on pullet,
67:309-311
Overmire, T. G., 67:101
Ovulation in hen, effects of Lithosper-
mum ruder ale on, 68:360
Owen County, limestone, 62:223
streams, 62:223
Owen, D. B., 63:261
Owl, long-eared, analysis of pellets,
64:257
Oxide films on chromium or nickel-
chromium, formation of, 64:236
Oxygen consumption, 61 :284
and survival decompression, effects
of ataractic drug on, 68:362
of developing Ascaris ova, 62:323-
324
on survival with carotids ligated, 69:
312
production in some lakes in northern
Indiana, 70:51
Pace, N., 69:101
Pachylomerides adouinii, trap-door
spider, in southern Indiana, 64:
255
Pagan marriage practices in Guate-
mala, 68:70-71
Paleobotany in Indiana, present status,
especially to fossils of pennsyl-
vanian age, 63:87-91
history of, in Indiana, 67:268-273
Paleontology, human, 63:45
Paleontological viewpoint on Ostracode
from Indiana, 69:184
Paleozoic rocks in Indiana, effect of
geologic processes on economic
resources of state, 67:178-182
Palmer, C. M. and E. Brown, Pecto-
dictyon and other unusual algae
from Indiana, 69:119-122
Palmer, T. P., 70:200
Palmoxylon from Eden Valley, Wyo-
ming, 63:66
p-Aminobenzoic acid in the chick em-
bryo, 62:224-235
Panel discussion of proposals of M. A.
A. committee on undergraduate
program, 68:317
Paper industry of Kalamazoo River
valley, 69:224-235
458
P ARALLELI S M — PETROLEU M
Parallelism of cheek skin color in Ple-
thodontid salamanders, 67:303
Paramecium aurelia, ciliary antigenic
system, 63:270
exposure to ultra violet, 63:270
maintainance of killer trait by kk
animals, 64:255
caudatum, effects of colchicine on re-
production, 64:255
multinucleatum, purine and pyrimi-
dine requirement, 66:330
sterile culture, 63:269
Parasites, infestation of man by arth-
ropods, 62:298
Parfit, S. D., 66:78
Parke County, Coleoptera, 66:115-124
pebbles, 69:210-213
plants, 62:101
Parrish and Glasford mastodons, 69:
189-192
Parrott, W. L., 69:50
Parter, S., 69:256
Parthenogenesis, natural, in Galleria
mellonella, 65:227
Pasteur effect, corn, 63:65
Pathogenecity in race 104 Ind. B of
wheat leaf rust, genetics of, 68:
88
Patterson, F. L., 68:89
Patton, J. B. (see Kottlowski, F. F.)
Peach, tarnished plant bug injury to,
64:127-130
Peacock, J. (see Davis, R. E.)
Peake, J. S., 62:144
and W. L. Fielder, The prepara-
tion of high-purity anhydrous
magnesium chloride, 63:113-119
Pearlman, N., 64:237
Peaslee, D. C, 64:237
Pebble counts in glacial tills of Parke
and Putnam counties, 69:210-
213
Peckham, R. S. and Dineen, C. F.,
Spring migration of salaman-
ders, 64:278-280
Pectodictyon and other unusual algae
from Indiana, 69:246-251
Pectolytic enzymes, production of, by
Botryosphaeria ribis and Glom-
erella cingulata, 68:87
Pedological taxonomy, catena-drain-
age profile keyform as refer-
ence, 66:246-251
Pelton, J. E., 67:286
Pelton, J. S., Evidence of introgres-
sive hybridization and mutation
in certain Colorado populations
of Aqnilegia, 67:292-296
Pemphredon lethifer lethifer (Schuck-
ard), life history of, 69:148
Penicillium chrysogenum, carbohy-
drate metabolism in, 62:64
color change induced by light, 66:63
Pennsylvanian, paleobotany, 63:87-91;
64:70-74
split and channel sandstone cutout in
coal V, Vigo county, Indiana, 65:
165-168
stratigraphy and sedimentation, 67:
205-211
Pentatomid bugs, 62:170
Peppermint oil, reduction with lithium
aluminumhydride, 65:79-81
Percentage distribution, conversion to
weighted index numbers of geo-
graphic significance, 69:193-199
Perceptual intelligence, 62:295
Perchloric acid, preparation, 63:138-
139
Perel, W. M., 61:270
Perfluoro-i-heptene, free radicals add-
ed, 67:109
Performance tests in motor handi-
capped cases, 62:95
Perfusion apparatus, for soil microbio-
logical studies, 61:63
Perhalotoluenes, reactivity of, 68:117
Periclinal polyploids in asters, artifi-
cial formation, 65:53
Periodic solutions of monolinear dif-
ferential equations, 67:275
Periodical cicada, facts and theories
about broods and periodicity,
68:164-170
in Indiana, 62:203-206
Peristome, double of snail shell, 61:285
Permeability of frog muscle cells to
ethyl alcohol, 69:311
Permian insects, some new, and insect
localities, 69:148
Peroxidase distri. in geotropically
stimulated candles of Pinus
strobus, 70:79-82
Perry County, plant fossils, 64:70-74
population density, 68:218-224
Perry, T. G., 62:223, 63:201; 65:161;
67:175 (see also Brookley, A.
C, Jr.)
Effect of geologic processes on eco-
nomic reserves of the paleozoic
rocks of Indiana, 67:178-182
Persell, J. V., 69:262
Personality measurement, 62:294
testing, industrial, 61:278
traits, 62:294
Personnel psychology, 62:293
Peru, agricultural ceremonies in, 62:52
Pests, ten most important plant feed-
ing, 67:173-174
Peters, B., 64:53
Petersen, Q. R., 68:118; 69:134
Peterson, G. H., 68:79
Petri dish cover, improved, 66:57-59
Petroleum in Indiana, effects, 68:300-
302
Petrology — Plagitura
459
Petrology of sandstones from the Big
Clifty formation of Indiana, 69:
186
of Southhampton, Northwest Terri-
tory, 67:225-231
of Bethel formation (Lower Ches-
ter) in Indiana, 69:186
Pettay, L. 66:45; 68:58
Petty, R. 0., 70:54
Petuely's medium, application to the
selection and differentiation of
Lactobacillus bifidus, 70:49
Pfau, C. J. (see Fraser, Dean)
Phalangida, origin of United States
forms, 61:284
Phantom sound, extra-cranial localiza-
tions, 65:223
Pharmaceutical, American Associa-
tion, century of, 62:278
pH changes in Warburg apparatus, 61 :
284
Phenol extraction of red cell altering
factor of Streptococci, 63:60
Phenylenediamine, test of o, m, p, iso-
mers, 63:110-112
Philae?ius leucophthalmus (L), 61:140
population estimates and loss of for-
age, 68:171-185
Phillippe, M. M. (see White, J. L.)
Phloem necrosis, 64:116
Phloroglucinol and its ethers, ultravio-
let spectrum of , 69:140-142
Phosphotase, alkaline, and differentia-
tion of gonads in the albino rat,
64:265-277
Phosphate availability, 69:277
Phosphorus fixation by organic soils,
effect of iron, aluminum and
humic acid on, 69:277
fixation on Indiana soils, how serious
is, 69:279-281
Phosphorylated proteins, preparation
and anticoagulent properties of
some, 63:127-130
Photography, use in ethnological field
work, 61:47
Photomicrography, cine, of tissue cul-
tures, 62:67-71
Photoperiod, influence on spring wheat
development, 65:53
and temperature, response of spring
wheat to, 64:62
response of Woodsia obtusa, 64:
75-78
Photosynthesis, measurement by Ver-
duin method, 62:105
Phyllophaga collected in light traps in
Indiana, 65:149-158
Physics (see also under the following
names, only those who had sub-
mitted manuscripts included
Brock, J. E.; Carmichael, B. M.
Miller, D. W.; Morris, C. S.
Rasmussen, V. K.; Sampson, M.
B.; Sutter, D. M.)
abstracts, 61:273-277; 62:290-291;
63:264; 64:236-238; 65:203-204;
66:297-299; 67:277-281; 68:322-
324; 69:260-261; 70:203-206
Computers and curricula, 65 :203
Construction of thermocouples, 63:
266-268
Forces between strange particles
and nucleons, 66:299
Magnetic fields in the solar atmos-
phere, 67:277
Measurement and shapes of beta
spectra, 67:280
Measurements with the slotted line,
68:324
Metastable gases in rare gases, 61:
275
Nuclear spectra, 62:290
Physics research in a small institu-
tion, 67:282-285
Satellite telescopes and meteorites,
70:205
Spectroscopic applications of atomic
beams, 68:323
The "shapes" of beta spectra, 65:204
Thermodynamics of crystalline lat-
tices, 64:236
Varieties of nuclear shell model, 64:
237
Physical chemistry, course in small
liberal arts college, 61:112
types of certain middle Mississippi
and southeastern groups, 66:50-
52
Phytoplankton of Indiana lakes and
ponds, 68:43-57
of Lake Wawasee, 62:98
Pierce, O. R., 61 :114 (see also McBee,
E. T.)
Pierce, R. N. (see Cook, D. J.)
Pigment production in flowers of Im-
patiens balsamina, 66:61
Pigmentation in cave planarians, 67:
300
Pike County, paleobotany, 63:87-91
population trends, 64:176
railroads, 61:242-244
underground storage, 68:259-264
Pine Hills as a natural area preserva-
tion, 64:15
Pine seedlings, effect of petroleum
naphtha on, 62:100
Pine, white, relationship between age
of tree and rooting of cuttings,
64:60
Pin oak, iron deficiency in, 61:67
PiTTENGER, G. E., 69:134
Pituitary gland, effect of sex steroids
on gonadotropic content, 66:
329
Plagitura parva, anatomy of, 65:225
460
Plan aria — Population
Planaria, sterilization and attempts in
axenic cultivation, 65:237-242
further studies on axenic cultivation,
67:301
Planarian cocoons, 65:238
Planarians, regeneration of heads on
opposite ends of long pieces,
64:287
Plant diseases, related to humidity,
69:108
dispersal role of raindrops, 66:65-73
distribution records (see Vascular
Flora of Indiana)
Plant physiology at Purdue in nine-
teenth century, teaching, 67:
260-264
records, Parke and Fountain coun-
ties, 62:101
rust fungi, Arthur Herbarium of,
63:231
structure, recent approaches to, 70:
41-45
succession on abandoned farm lands,
62:100
Plant Taxonomy (see also under the
following names, only those who
had submitted manuscripts in-
cluded, Cottingham, J. O.; Daily,
W. A.; Farquharson, L.; Guard,
A. T.; Hall, M. T\; Heiser, C. B.,
Jr.; Jackson, R. C.; Karling, J.
S.; King, L. J.; Markle, C. A.;
Markle, M. S.; McCoy, S.; Pel-
ton, J. S.; Smith, D. M.)
abstracts, 64:244; 65:205-206; 66:
300; 67:286; 68:319; 69:262; 70:
207-208
Analysis of C. C. Deam's thirty-year
flowering record in Indiana, 65:
205
Botanical forays to Florida, 66:318-
320
Ceratium hirundinella in lakes and
ponds of Indiana, 70:213-215
Hybridization of perennial sunflow-
ers, 65:212-217
Introgression among Viburnum spp.,
66:300
Natural and artificial interspecific
hybrids of Helianthus, 66:306-
317
Origin of the term ''weed," 67:287-
289
Paper chromatography in taxonomy,
70-207
Teratology in Trillium floral organs,
69:263-265
Variation in genus Hudsonia, 66 :
321-322
in genus Tragopogon, 69:262
Planthemis, mating behavior, 61:141
Plasma, coagulation, mutual effects of
Ca++ and antimicrobial drugs on,
64:53
Pleistocene periglacial environment in
Indiana, 65:164
section near Greencastle, Indiana,
64:207-208
terrace levels, three, near Terre
Haute, Indiana, 64:209-213
Plethodon glutinosus, mental gland of,
61:285
postfemoral spot in, 70:278-284
Pluerapneumonia-like organisms in
tissue culture, 69:99
Ploughe, W. D., 70:203
Plummer, G. L. and A. A. Lindsey,
On the occurrence of redbud in
Indiana, 64:79-87
Plummer, John T., Pioneer scientist
from Richmond, Indiana, 63:
255-260
Poa pratensis L., water absorption, 62:
104
Polacek, R. J., 68:119
Polarography, calculation of half-way
potentials by method of least-
squares, 67:117-121
Poliomyelitis virus, semi-synthetic me-
dium for cultivation, 65:51
Political organization of Tewa Indians,
68:72-77
Pollen analysis in Quebec, 62:106
collected by bees, 62:114-121
morphology, 62:105
study, of 2 early Wisconsin bogs in
Indiana, 69:110-118
Polley, J. C, 68:316; 70:8, 17
Pollination, mechanisms of, and seed
dispersal in Lithops, 67:101
Polembryony, chromosome numbers of
twin plants, in tetraploid races
of Tripsacum dactyloides, 63:
80-82
Polynomials, definition for, on topo-
logical groups and examples,
69:258
Polyphagus, development of, in algal
culture, 69:106
Pond dynamics, 61:283
Ponds, effect of light intensity on
growth of algae, 62:99
Poorman, A. P., memorial, 62:39-40
Population, archeological estimation
of, 69:78-82
censal maxima in Indiana town-
ships, 68:283-284
change, curves of, in Indiana 1850-
1950, 62:272-276
density, rural, in Indiana, 68:218-
224
estimates and rate of loss of forage
for the meadow spittlebug, Phi-
laenus leucophthalmiis (L), 68:
171-185
growth of Indiana cities, 1940-1950,
61:171-175
Population — Proton
461
decline, cities with, in southwestern
Indiana, 1940-1950, 62:250-255
of Indiana, rural nonfarm, 65:174-
179
problems, exact sampling, 63:262
statistics bearing; on Fort Ancient-
Shawnee linkage, 66:45
trends in Indiana villages of 1,000-
2,000 population in 1950, 66:204-
208
trends in Pike county, Indiana, 64:
176
Porter, C. L., 62:101, 278; 64:59; 66:
63 (see also Daniels, R. P.)
The history of Mentha piperita and
its economic importance in In-
diana, 61:264-268
Porter County, Coleoptera, 66:115-224
plants, 62:103
Posey County, coal, 69:182
May beetles, 65:149-157
plant fossils, 64:70-74
Yankeetown pottery, 61:46
Postlethwait, S. N., 61:69; 63:64;
66:64; 67:67; 68:92; 69:105;
70:6, 51 (see also Anderson, C.
E., Decker, R. D., Dunkin, J.,
Guard, A. T., Kelley, A. G. and
Stearns, F.)
Pot culture, aid to site evaluation, 70:
234-237
Potassium, gaps in our information,
68:329
Potato flea beetle, resistant to DDT,
63:143
Potato nutrition in southwestern Indi-
ana, 70:243-247
Pottery, ornaments from Rio Tapajos,
Brazil, 67:92-95
types with southern affinities, 63:57-
58
Yankeetown, 61:46
Potzger, J. E., memorial, 65:28-31;
61:70; 62:100, 106
and L. Chandler, Oak forest in
the Laughery Creek valley, In-
diana, 62:129-135
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe c/raminis
D. C), culture on excised wheat
leaves in solutions of benzimida-
zol, 69:109
Powell, H. M., 62:6; 63:62; 65:7, 8,
17
Some recent advances in experimen-
tal chemotherapy (Presidential
address), 63:39-44
and C. G. Culbertson, Inactiva-
tion of fixed rabies virus, grown
on embryonated duck eggs, by
means of beta propiolactone, 68:
81-85
Powell, G. W. H., 68:118
Powelson, D. M., 64:52, 54; 69:99
PPLO in tissue culture, 69:99
Pratt, C, 62:296
Pre-cambrian rocks in Indiana, 62:234-
243
Pre-illumination, morphology and re-
sponse in slit pea test, 62:103
Pre-pennsylvanian erosion in Orange
county, Indiana, 64:202-206
Predation, differential, in Osmia cor-
data Robt. — O. Lignaria Say
nesting associations, 70:138
Precipitation processes, aging of re-
agent solutions, 67:128-134
Predaceous fungus, Sommersto?,ffia
spinosa, 61 :68
Preparation of anti-rabies vaccines,
63:62
Preparation of manuscripts, 70:293-
294
Preparation of some w-trifluoro-ali-
phatic acids, 67:109
Presidential Address, W. P. Morgan,
61:33-45
P. D. Edwards, 62:45-51
H. W. Powell, 63:39-44
Otto B. Christy, 64:40-48
Alfred H. Meyer, 65:34-47
Raymond E. Girton, 66:35-44
Willis H. Johnson, 67:73-89
William A. Daily, 68:43-57
Ralph E. Cleland, 69:51-64
A. T. Guard, 70:41-45
Pressure, continuous measurements at
high temperatures, 61:114
Prestraining, effect of, in presence of
social stimulus on verbal condi-
tioning, 68:327
Prey records of ground beetles (Cara-
bidae), 67:136
Price, C. C, 64:92 (see also Schwan,
T. C.)
Prickett, P. S., 67:99; 70:49
Priestley, Joseph, apostle of reason,
61:250
Primality of integers, 61:270
Primary mammalian cells in suspen-
sion culture, growth behavior
of, 70:48
Prison, problems of a clinical psycholo-
gist, 62:294
Prophet, The, 61:48
Protein components of human hair, ex-
traction, 68:128-138
condensation of, with thiocyanate,
65:82-84
physiological action with sulfonated,
65:66
some phosphorylated, preparation
and anticoagulent properties of,
63:127-130
Proton magnetic resonance spectra of
amino acids in DjO solution, 70:
204
462
Proton — Randolph
Proton polarization measurements, 70:
205
Protoplast infecting and cell infecting
agent derived from T2 bacterio-
phage, identity, 69:101-104
Protura and Diplura in Indiana, 66:
112-114
Psendomonas aeruginosa, nature of
pyrogen by, 63:59
Pseudocholesterol, structure and reac-
tions of, 68:118
Psocoptera, Indiana, 62:198-199
Psychoanalytic theory, laboratory test-
ing of, 61 :280
Psychology (see also under the follow-
ing names, only those who sub-
mitted manuscripts included,
Doyle, J. J.; Strain, E. R.)
abstracts, 61:278-281; 62:292-296;
64:239-243; 65:218-224; 66:323-
327; 67:297-299; 68:325-328; 69:
269-270
Alcohol on response levels in rats,
65:218
Attitudes toward public education,
62:295
Children's concepts of God, 69:269
Comparison of normals, psychoneu-
rotics, and psychotics, 63:239
Drive intensity as cue in discrimi-
nation training, 61:280
Electroshock and conditioned avoid-
ance, 65:220
Gastrointestinal activity in hunger
and after food, 67:298
Multiple tone-pattern discrimina-
tion, 68:325
Scaling of words to describe person-
ality, 66:324
Spatial learning as discrimination
behavior, 65:224
Value and psychology, 69:273-276
Psychology, mass communication me-
dia and the public mind, 69:269
training and experience of high
school teachers of, 61:278
Psychotics and normals, differences in
perception of serially diffused
visual stimuli, 67:299
hyper and hypo active, 68:326
Puccinia coronata, teliospore forma-
tion and germination, 69:107
Pueblo native religion, some aspects
of, 69:83-85
Puerckhauer, G. W. R., 67:109
Pulaski County, leaf miner, 68:150-154
Putnam County, breccias, 68:265-267
cave filling, 69:185
clastic rocks, 63:203-207
pebbles, 69:210-213
population density, 68:218-224
Q-e Copolymerization scheme, 63:103-
107
Quadratic forms in vector spaces, 63:
261
Quakers, influence in science in Indi-
ana, 69:243-246
Qualitative analysis course, content,
61:113
analysis of cations, 62:145
Quantification of landform character-
istics, 68:277-282
Quantitative analysis course, 61:113
Quinn, Sr. Mary Lorita, R.S.M., 65:
227
Quinolines, bromination of phenyl-,
61:121-125
ortho substituted 2-phenyl, 69:134
Rabbit, San Juan, introduction in In-
diana, 69:320-324
Rabies virus, factors affecting in vitro
propagation of, 65:51
Raccoons, visual discrimination by, 67:
298
Racial affiliations of Indian Stone
Mound People, 68:58
significance of an anomaly in the
Atlas, 66:45
types, Micronesia, 68:58
Radavick, J. F., 64:236
Radiant energy, relative attractive-
ness to insects, 61:140
Radiation effects on Ascaris eggs, 65 :
225
Radical addition of hydrogen bromide
to 2,4,4-trimethylpentene-2, 67:
109
Radioactive fall-out, influences on ag-
ronomic field experimentation
with radioisotopes, 67:234-236
Radioactivity, atmospheric, from Indi-
ana soils, 66:231
Radioassay of potassium and uranium,
65:85-88
Rafinesque, early taxonomy of Indiana
vascular plants, 62:278
Raibourn, D. D., Two forms of Iro-
quois cousin terminology and
their functions, 69:86-91
Railroads, steam, abandonment in In-
diana, 65:162
short line, of Indiana, 61:242-244
Raindrops and spore dispersal in Poly-
porus conchifer, 61:66
Rainfalls, Indiana records to 1953, 62:
230-233
Rainfall in western Indiana during
summers of 1953, 1956 and 1957,
68:225-236
Ramsey, R. R., memorial, 65:31-33
Randolph County, pest, 69:165-166
streams, 62:244-249
underground storage, 66:259-264
Range — Respiration
463
Range-energy relations for x-particles
and deuterons, 61 :274
Range extension of the Alleghany
wood rat (Neotoma magister)
in Indiana, 69:311
Range limits, plant, in Wabash valley,
70:54
Ransome, J. C., 63:199; 64:178; An
illustration of mapping as ap-
plied to locating retail stores in
a metropolitan area, 61 :240-241
Rasmussen, G. K., 62:104
Rasmussen, V. K., D. W. Miller, M.
B. Sampson, and B. M. Carmi-
chael, The Indiana University
heavy particle spectrometer, 63 :
265
Rat, alternation behavior in, effect of
angle of inclination on, 61 :281
Rb82, RbS4, nuclear spectra, 62:290
Reaction time and stimulus intensity,
68:325
Reactions (d, p) in lead, 67:279
kinetics of homomolecular exchange,
63:136-137
of diethyl oxalate with ortho-substi-
tuted anilines, 67:109
of silicomolybdic acid with organic
compounds, 65:68-72
Reactivity of perfluoroalkyl groups
and of halogen in (perfluoroal-
kyl) halobenzenes, 69:143-147
Recent geologic work in Antarctica,
69:184
Reclaiming coal mine spoils, 61:165
Reclamation of strip-mined lands in
Vigo county, Indiana, 67:215-
224
Recombination in regions adjacent to
heterozygous inversions, inter-
ference rate, 64:61
Records of Indiana Coleoptera (see
Coleoptera)
Recreational and scenic resources, con-
servation of, 66:268-274
Recreational facilities in Indiana, 65:
198-199
Rector, Charlene, 64:226
Red blood cells, effect of formaldehyde
on agglutination, 67:98
Red cell antigens from Streptococcus
pyrogenes, 61 :64
Red clover insects, control with new
insecticides, 66:100
mammoth, effect of weevil on seed
yields, 62:217-222
Red oak-black oak hybrid, 68:319
Redbud, ecological life history, 64:79-
87
Reduction in effect of prior exposure
on escape-from-shock training,
66:324
of difluoroacetic acid, lithium alumi-
num hydride, 64:108-111
with Grignard reagents, 61:114
Reeves, J. A., 61:166; 69:187
Reeves, J. R., 65:163
Regeneration in urodele limbs, 61:283
in planarians, of heads on opposite
ends of long pieces, 64:287
Regnellidium diphyllum sporelings,
growth responses, 65:62-65
Regression and replacement of hy-
dranths, 62:297
Regulatory entomology in Indiana in
1959, 69:149
Reichenbach, H. R., memorial, 68:39-
40
Reimer, C. W., 61:70
Reinforcement of rubbers, 62:150-155
strength of secondary, as function
of quality of food reward, 67:
297
Reitz, H. C., 65:66
and M. M. Mozen, A study of the
preparation and anticoagulant
properties of some phosphory-
lated proteins, 63:127-130
and R. A. Messing, An electro-
phoretic study of the serum pro-
teins of rabbit as influenced by
intravenous injection of aureo-
mycin, 68:139-143
Relation patterns of QRS complex to
rote learning, 66:325
between empirical and philosophical
study of man, 69:271-272
Relationships between cyclonic charac-
teristics and precipitation in
western Indiana during the sum-
mers of 1953, 1956, and 1957,
68:225-236
Relict prairie fragments, Orthoptera
of, in Greene county, Indiana,
65:111-115
Religion and mental health, 69:270
Remmers, H. H., 62:292
Repaske, R., 64:53; 66:56
Reproductive system, male California
pocket gopher, 67:303
Residence of non-literate peoples, 61:
46
Residual effect, prediction on phos-
phate applications, 68:330-336
Resistance anomalies in binary alloys
at low temperatures, 67:280
to DDT, experiments with Droso-
phila melanog aster, 62:211-216
to insecticides by insects, develop-
ment of, 65:139-144
Respiration, measurement by Verduin
method, 62:104
of an obligate anaerobe, Clostridium
per frin gens, 61:62
464
Respitation — Sandstones
of maize and rice root tips, effects of
oxygen and inhibitors, 70:52
Pasteur effect on corn, 63:65
Response level in rats, effect of alcohol
on, 65:218
Response variability, drive level and
changes in tendency to alter-
nate, 61:280
Retail store location, mapping as ap-
plied to, 61:240-241
Retraction, homotopy, integral, 64:234
Reynolds, A. E., 61 :285 ; 67 :303 ; Eggs
and young of the lizard, Eume-
ces fasciatus, 68:367-378
A postfemoral spot in Plethodon,
70:278-284
Rh factor, chemical nature, 61:64
Rhodehamel, H. W., memorial, 62:
40-41
Rhynsburger, W., Short line railroads
of Indiana, 61:242-244
Rice, W. J., 67:7; 69:22; 70:7
Richason, B. F., Jr., Wetland trans-
formation in the Wisconsin drift
area of Indiana, 69:290-299
Richmond scientific association, his-
tory, 66:252
Ricketts, J. A., 68:119; 70:99
and L. D. Nichols, Some one di-
mensional atomic potential func-
tions, 70:132-135
Riddell, J. A., 65:54; 66:62
Riecken, W. E., memorial, 69:42-44
Riedhart, J. M., 62:103; 66:63
Riely, S. L., 63:198
Riemann-Stieltjes integration, some
advantages of, 69:257
Ripley County, mammals, 68:360
red maple and sweet gum forests,
62:100
Roach exposure to chemically treated
surfaces, 66:141-146
Roberts, C. M., 64:176
Roberts, C. W. (see McBee, E. T.)
Robinson, R. L., 66:298; 67:281
Rock and mineral classification, 63:
208-210
Rogers, B. J., 68:90
Rohrer, C. S., D. F. King, and O. W.
Brown, The catalytic activity
of reduced vanadates of nickel,
copper, and lead, 61:135-139
Role of entomology in science fair
projects, 67:135
the solvent in chemical equilibria,
68:120
Roller, D., 61:251
Roller, D. H. D., 61:251
Root and collar rot of apple, relation
of fungi to, 69:107
Root apex of Glycine max, organiza-
tion of, 70:61-65
Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne in-
cognita acrita, influence of tem-
perature on survival in absence
of host, 68:90
Roots, waterlogging of excised sun-
flower, 61:68
Rorschach Determinant Shift, compar-
ison of normals, psychoneurot-
ics and psychotics of, 64:239
Rorschach Test, 62:296
Rose Polytechnic Institute, mathemat-
ics program at, 70:200
Rosenblatt, J. I., 68:316
Rosenshein, J. S., 64:176
Rosenthal, A., memorial, 69:44-45;
63:261
Ross, A. E., 67:275
Ross Biological Reserve flora, 61:69
Ross, M. H., 66:299
Rote learning in experimentally regu-
lated and subject controlled
speed of presentation of mate-
rials, 68:328
Rothwell, F. M., 64:59
Roth well, N., 62:102
Roughness index — the quantification
of landform characteristics, 68:
277-282
Rubber reinforcement by fillers, 62:
150-155
Rural level-of-living indexes in Indi-
ana counties, comparative study,
66:167-169
nonfarm population of Indiana, 65:
174-179
population in Indiana, changing cen-
sus, concepts of, 69:193-199
Rural zoning in the United States, 64:
177
Russell, G. H., 61:280
Russell, I. S., 65:224
Russia, recent developments in science,
62:279
Rust fungi, some life cycles of, 68:88
Rust of wheat leaf, resistance to, 68:
Saguaro cactus, problems related to
the giant, 70:52
Salamander, food habits of larval ti-
ger, 65:231-233
spring migration of, 64:278-280
Salt effect, isothermal, in iodine clock
reaction, 61 :129
influence in early life of America,
64:226
Salter, L. S., 64:236; 67:277; 70:203
Sampling methods, testing line-strip
against full tallies, 64:60
compared in forest ecology, 67:101
Sampson, M. B., 63:265; 69:260
Samson, R. W., 69:108
Sands, G. (see Lavy, T.)
Sandstones from Big Clifty formation
of Indiana, petrology of, 69:186
Satellite — Settlement
465
Satellite telescopes and meteorites, 70:
205
Sawada, K. (see Green, R. J., Jr.)
Sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer, specific
virus for control of, 66:101-102
Scale insects of Indiana, additions, 63:
171-175
Scarborough, B. B., 65:218
Scarseth, G. D., 65:230
Schaal, L. A., 66:231; 70:216; Early
weather records in Indiana, 67:
265-267
Schaap, W. B., 68:120 (see also Davis,
R. E., McMasters, D. L.)
Schafer, J. F., 68:89; 69:107 (see
also Zimmer, D. E.)
Scherer, G. A., 61:111
Schieb, L. P., 63:102
Schiff bases of p-aminoazobenzene,
spectra of some, 70:99
Schipper, A. L., 61:285; 64:255
Schizophrenia, social behavior, 62:292
Schmidt, F. C. (see Davis, R. E.) ;
Preparation for college chemis-
try, 62:167
Schnaitman, M., 63:66
Schneller, M. V., 63:270; 67:302
Schockel, B. H., 62:225; 64:175; 69:
236; Distribution of our occu-
pational structure, 65:169-173
A rigorous estimate of the economic
importance of Indiana's coun-
ties, 66:159-166
Schoeffler, M. S., 61 :280
Schoff, E. L., 69:236
Schreiber, L. R. (see also Green, R.
J., Jr.)
and R. J. Green, Jr., The occur-
rence and prevalence of oak wilt
in Indiana, 68:110-115
Schuder, Donald L., The bagworm in
Indiana, 61:159-164
Additions to the Coccoidea or scale
insects of Indiana, 63:171-176
Distribution of 3 important insect-
transmitted tree diseases, 64:
116-120
A specific virus disease for control
of the European pine sawfly,
Neodiprion sertifer (Geoff.),
66:101-102
Some new insect pests of trees and
shrubs in Indiana, 67:145-149
Recently discovered insect pests of
ornamentals in Indiana, 68:150-
154
Tortrix pallorana Rob., a pest of
pine trees in Indiana, 69:175-
177
Schultz, R., 67:15
Schulz, R. W., 68:7
Schuster, R. L. (see Lounsbury, R.
W.)
Schwan, T. C., 61:115; 64:92
and C. C. Price, Some comments
on the Q-e copolymerization
scheme, 63:103-107
Science and a free world, 62:279
and the good life, 65:203
at Ball State Teachers College, 62:
279
major in Indiana, David Starr Jor-
dan and John P. John, in the de-
velopment, 64:226-227
role of mathematics in, 62:45-51
Soviet Russia, 62:279
Sciences, sketches of their local devel-
opment, 62:277
Scientific contributions made 1870-1950
by Indiana colleges and univer-
sities, 62:277
Scientific method, 62:278
Scientists, training of, function of our
schools, 64:40-48
Sclerotia, fungus, 62:101
Scolecotricham graminis Fckl., biol-
ogy of, causing leaf streak of or-
chard grass, 70:54
Scott, J. P., memorial, 63:36
Seaman, D. E., 62:105
Searcy, A. W., 61:114, 115; 63:102
Secondary and generalized reinforce-
ment in human learning, 68:327
Secretory granules in anterior pitui-
tary of mouse, origin and re-
lease of — an electron micro-
scopic study, 69:332-339
Sedimentary petrology, 63:198
Seed dispersal and mechanisms of pol-
lination, in Lithops, 67:101
Seidlitz, L., 61:274; 66:297
Selenium chains, stepwise construction
of sulfur and, 70:100-105
Semiquantitative method for determi-
nation of glucose in cell cultures,
69:100
Sensitivity of Streptomyces species to
ultra-violet radiation, 67:98
Separator for sampling the soil fauna,
66:152-156
Septoria leafspot disease on Mentha
spp., 69:128-130
Sequent occupance of the Calumet re-
gion, 61:165
of northwest Indiana-northeast Illi-
nois, 62:223
Serpent Mounds Site, Rice Lake, On-
tario, findings after 2 years, 67:
96-97
more findings at, 69:73-77
Serviss, F. L., memorial, 64:38-39
Settlement changes caused by strip
coal mining in Indiana, 70:158-
164
patterns-case study in south central
Indiana, 68:285-288
466
Seventeen — Soil
Seventeen year locusts, broods and pe-
riodicity, 68:164-170
Seymour, K. M., 62:144
Shanks, M. E., 70:20
Shaver, R. H., 69:184
Shaver, R. J., The effects of ~10°C and
-16°C on viability and infectiv-
ity of Trichinelia spiridis lar-
vae, 62:325-330
Shawnee Indians, 61:48
Shay, J. R., 68:87, 88; 70:54
Shea, G. J., 70:154; Normal earth-
quakes and records of tremors
in the earth's rotation, 68:298-
299
Sheehan, R. J., A brief history of de-
velopment of natural sciences,
University of Notre Dame, 64:
228-233
Sheep stomach worm, development, 62:
320
Shelby County, settlement patterns,
68:295-298
C. L. Lewis stonemound, 63:45
Sherockman, A. A., 61:251
Shewman, F., 69:148
Shideler, W. H., memorial, 69:45-47
Shiner, V. J., Jr., 67:109
Shirer, D. L., 70:204
Shively, J. M., 66:230
Shoaf, F. R., 65:223
Should we convert state forests into
state parks, 68:268-272
Show alter, R. W., memorial, 69:47
Shrigley, R. W., 67:98
Shutts, C. F. and J. E. Canright,
Recent collections of pennsylva-
nian plant fossils in Indiana, 64:
70-74
Siefer, J., 68:120
Silicomolybdic acid, reactions with or-
ganic compounds, 65:68-72
Silicon, transition metal compounds of,
61:115
Silver chloride, complex formation
from, 62:144
Single root fertilization of corn, 67:232
Singleton, J. R., 64:61
Sinn, L. G., 66:77
Sinski, J. T., 64:58
Sitler, L., 62:64
Sitotroga cerealella, studies on, 68:149
Siverly, R. E., 67:137; 68:149; 70:20,
137
Skeletal maturation in Puerto Rico
children, 65:49
Slit pea test, pre-illumination, mor-
phology and response, 62:103
Slope retreat, misleading antithesis
of Penckian and Davisian con-
cepts of, in waning development,
67:212-214
Slotted line, educational use of, 68:324
Smashey, A. R., 62:145
Smith, A., 66:326
Smith, A. B., 61:275
Smith, A. G., 62:52
Smith, C. A., Jr., Drosophilidae found
in tomato fields in Indiana, 67:
138-144
Smith, D. M., 62:102; 67:286 (see also
Heiser, C. B.)
Smith, D. R., 70:205
Smith, E. R., memorial, 62:41-43
Smith, I., 68:90
Smith, J. C., 64:241
Smith, J. M. and H. H. Murray, The
clay minerals in some glacial
lacustrine sediments of Indiana,
66:179-187
Smith, M. L., 67:109
Smith, N. M., 69:185
Smith, P. W., 66:328
Smith, R. E., Origin and release of
secretory granules in the ante-
rior pituitary of mouse — an
electron microscopic study, 69:
332-339
, W. R. Breneman, and M. Cor-
mack, The action of lithosperm
in mice, 67:312-315
Smith, W. G., 66:298
Snow, B., J. L. White, and G. W.
Bailey, X-ray diffraction study
of Indiana limestones, 69:305-
309
Snowfalls, Indiana's records to 1953,
62:230-233
Socio-psychological investigation of
attitude change, 64:242
Soil acidity, specific surface and reac-
tion rate of calcitic limestone in
neutralizing, 67:237-242
analysis techniques evaluation, 70:
248-253
bacteria, antibiotic producing, 64:53
compaction, some aspects of, 67:232
conditions after 60 years in a Pur-
due pasture lot, 61 :180-183
conservation and related events,
chronological history of, 66:
291-296
depth and soil volume, effect of, on
corn yield in greenhouse experi-
ment, 70:227-233
erosion, some consequences in an In-
diana township, 64:224-225
formation in Fayette and Union
counties, Wisconsin moraine as
source of loess in, 68:349-353
fungi, isolation and identification of,
and relation to root rot of apple,
70:52
molvbdenum status in Indiana, 70:
'238-242
of Indiana, their progressively wiser
use of, 67:249-250
Soil — Spring
467
restoration of structure of degraded,
63:200
survey information, streamlining,
for practical use, 68:354-359
test correlation, 70:216
type, 62:223
Soil Science (see also under the follow-
ing names, only those who sub-
mitted manuscripts included,
Bass, T. C; Bailey, G. W.; Bar-
ber, S. A.; Baumgardner, M. F.;
Bertrand, A. R.; Brown, C. B.;
Bushnell, T. M.; Clark, F. B.;
Duncan, W. G.; Evans, S. D.;
Flores, J. G.; Frazier, R. D.;
Galloway, H. M.; Gohlke, A. F.;
Kang, B. T.; Klages, M. G.;
Lavy, T.; Motto, H.; Ohlrogge,
A. J.; Phillippe, M. M.; Richa-
son, B. F., Jr.; Sands, G.; Snow,
B.; Stivers, R. K.; Talvenheimo,
G.; Ulrich, H. P.; White, J. L.;
Wiersma, D.; Wilcox, G. E.;
Wilkinson, S. R.)
abstracts, 67:232-233; 68:329; 69:
277-278; 70:216
Mineralogy and genesis of soil, 68:
337-342
Moisture characteristics of some In-
diana soil types, 69:300-304
Molybdenum status of some Indiana
soils, 70:238-242
Radioactive fallout on agronomic
field experimentation with ra-
dioisotopes, 67:234-236
Soil depth and soil volume on corn
yield in greenhouse, 70:227-233
Streamlining soil survey informa-
tion, 68:354-359
Vertical mulching, 69:282-285
Wetland transformation in Wiscon-
sin drift area, 69:290-299
Wisconsin moraines as a source of
loess soils, 68:349-353
X-ray diffraction study of Indiana
limestones, 69:305-309
Solanum, a wide species cross, 70:207
Solar radiation and evaporation in In-
diana, 70:216
Solids-liquid separation, theory and
application of flotation, for, 68:
119
Solubility of silver nitrate in aqueous
solutions of potassium nitrate,
64:92
Solution behavior at radio frequencies,
62:160-165
Somatotyping, potentialities for sec-
ondary schools, 61 :54-61
Sommerstorffia spinosa, predaceous
fungus, 61:68
Sonneborn, T. M., 63:270
Sonnenwirth, A., 63:60
Sorter, P., 66:80
Sources of executives of leading Evans-
ville factories, 69:236
Southern Indiana, proposed research
project to study population de-
cline, 61:166
Soviet Russia, science, 62:279
Spatial learning as discrimination be-
havior, 65:224
Spayth, F. J., 62:291
Special functions, unified theory of, 61 :
269
Specific and selective reagents, 65:67
heats of aqueous solutions up to crit-
ical temperatures, high-pres-
sure calorimeter for, 64:97-104
surface and reaction rate of calcific
limestone in neutralizing soil
activity, 67:237-242
Spectra, infra-red, of some alkyl sub-
stituted carbostyrils, 65:73-74
Spectrometer, Indiana University
heavy particle, 63:265
a 4^ beta-ray scintillation, and spec-
trum of chlorine, 65:204
Spectrophotometry method for deter-
mination of water, 63:124-126
Spectroscopic applications of atomic
beams, 68:323
Spectrum of germanium, 61 :273
Speech communication, operating char-
acteristic in, 66:323
Spencer and Bloomington, comparative
study of geographic sites, 63:
211-218
Spencer County, algae, 69:131-133
streams, 62:244-249
Tripsacum, 63:80-82
Spermogonium, morphology of, in
Gymnoconia, 70:96-97
Sphagnaceae of Indiana, 63:92-100
Spiders of Indiana, 62:299-317
Spinal blocking frogs for laboratory
study, 68:362
Spirogyra, variations in, 64:56
Spittlebugs, new insecticides for con-
trol of, 61 : 140
Splash-cups of Polyporus eonchifer,
61:66
Spleen of Taricha torosa, development
of and its experimental modifi-
cation, 67:302
Sporulation of a Basidiomycete in ar-
tificial culture, 67:107-108
Sprouting of rhizomes of Johnson
grass in vitro, 68:90
Spring meetings, McCormick's Creek
State Park, 61:9; Indiana Dunes
State Park, 62:9; Spring Mill
State Park, 63:9; Pokagon State
Park, 64:9; Brown County State
Park, 65:9; Bradford Woods, 66:
9; Turkey Run State Park, 67:
468
Spring — Sulfur
9; Earlham College Conference
grounds at Dewart Lake, 68:9;
McCormick's Creek State Park,
69:9; Clifty Falls State Park,
70:9
Squires, R. W., 61:65
Stagnicola reflexa, 61:284, 285; 64:
291-294
Staining, differential, of cartilage and
bone in toto of fish, 65:234-236
Stair, Edward C, memorial, 61:26
Stanley, P. E., 65:203; 70:205
Stantz, G., memorial, 67:70-71
Staphylococcus phage typing in re-
gional laboratory, 69:100
Starch, agar, 62:65
Starcs, H., 65:207; 70:20, 207
Starcs, K., memorial, 63:36-37
Stark County, wire worm, 66:147-151
Stark, E., 61:64; 62:65
Starkey, O. P., 61:166; 63:200; Road
patterns of Indiana, 66:192-194
Increasing crops and standard of
living — a West Indian example,
68:273-276
Technology and economic geogra-
phy, 69:214-216
Starr, R. C, 64:56
Starvation, effect on corn root tips,
62:98
State-wide mathematics competition,
63:263
Statistical analysis in archeology, 68:
65-69
Staub, A., 66:77
Steam railroad abandonment in Indi-
ana, dimensions, 65:162
Stearns, F., 64:62; 65:53, 54, 55; 66:
63
and S. N. Postlethwait, Re-
sponse of the fern Woodsia ob-
tusa (Spreng.) Torr. to temper-
ature and day length, 64:75-78
Steffen, R. M., 61:276; 64:237
Steigert, F. E., 62:290
Steinmetz, C. H., Further evidence
for thyroid function in Anuran
larvae, 61:292-295
Stephenson, W. K., 64:258; 65:227;
66:330; 69:311
Sterilization of planarian worms, 65:
237-242
Sterling, D. K., 70:54
Steroids, anomalous Meerwein-Ponn-
dorf reduction in, 69:134
Steuben County, Cladophora balls, 61 :
67
streams, 62:244-249
Stipp, J. W., 68:86
Stivers, R. K., D. Wiersma, and J. G.
Flores, Evaluation of 3 sources
of nitrogen for corn, 70:217-226
St. Joseph County, leaf miner, 68:150-
151
population changes, 62:272-276
salamanders, 64:278-280
St. Joseph River, bottom types and
organisms, 67:311
Stockton, M. R., Sr., 64:92
Stone in Indiana, effects, 68:300-302
Stone, R. B., memorial, 69:48-49
Store, retail, location in metropolitan
area, 61:240
Stotsky, B. A., 64:239
Stoutamire, W. P., 62:107
Stove, J., 66:55
Strain, E. R., Value and psychology,
69:273-276
Stratigraphy, Merom sandstone near
Merom, Indiana, 69:217-223
Reelsville limestone, 65:161
Straughan, J., 61:280
Strawberries, catfacing caused by rain
and applications of fungicides
and insecticides, 64:136-139
Strawberry research, pointers gleaned
from a decade of, 65:103
virus and insect vectors, 66:103
Streptomyces griseus 3570, synthetic
medium for candicidin produc-
tion by, 63:60
venezuelae 8-44, 62:64
Strip coal, counties engaged in produc-
tion of, 1948, 61:184-186
mining in Indiana, land use changes
caused by quarter century of,
69:200-209
mining in Indiana, settlement chang-
es caused by, 70:158-164
production, reasons for increase of,
61:184-186
mine, planting, 62:99
Strip mine spoil banks, hardwood tree
planting on, 65:57-61
Strip-mined lands in Vigo county, In-
diana, 67:215
Stromatopoid and coral reefs in Indi-
ana, 67:175
Structures, geologic, in Coal City and
Switz City areas of Indiana, 64:
194-201
Subfreezing temperatures, effect on
bacteria, 61:65
Subsoiling and subsoil fertilization,
predicting response of corn to,
70:216
Succinimide for cobalt detection, 65:
89-93
Suicide, records, 62:296
Sulfonamides, effect on chick embryo,
62:72-80
Sulfonated proteins, physiological ac-
tion of, 65:66
Sulfones, metalation of alkyl, 63:101
Sulfur and selenium chains, stepwise
construction of, 70:100-105
Sullivan — Thermocouples
469
Sullivan County, Indiana, areal spe-
cialization in, 64:191-193
sandstone, 69:217-223
Sulphuric acid, 63:102
Sulzer, E. G., 65:162
Summer colony, observations on, of
Myotis Lucifugus, 67:316-321
Summer precipitation of 1953, 1956,
and 1957, 68:225-236
Summers, W. A., 63:61
Sunderman, J. A., 67:177; 69:183
Sunflowers from Tularosa Cave, New
Mexico, 61:47
taxonomic and cytogenetic of 4 per-
ennial, 61:69
natural hybridization in perennial,
centered around Helianthus
mollis, 65:212-217
roots, waterlogging of excised, 61:68
Surface integral, concept of, 67:274
investigations in germanium, 67:281
tension, used to make maximum reg-
istering thermometer operate,
61:276
Surgery, aboriginal American, 61:49-
53
Susceptibility of cucurbits to beetle
attack, 68:186-189
Susceptibility of American cockroach,
Periplaneta americana, to vari-
ous insecticides, 68:196-198
Sutter, D. M. and J. E. Brock, Con-
struction of thermocouples, 63:
266-268
Swallow holes, 61:187-231
Swanson, F. R., 69:260
Swinehart, B. A. and W. W. Brandt,
The spectrophotometry deter-
mination of nitrate ion in 75%
sulfuric acid, 63:133-135
Switz City and Coal City area in In-
diana, geologic structures, 64:
194-201
Switzer, J. E., memorial, 62:43-44;
61:6
Synchytrium australe, 64:57
brownii, 64 :58
classification of species, 64:59
germination of resting spores, 64:59
key to subgenera, 64:248-249
new Indiana species, 63:65
Syringe driver, programmable multi-
ple for use in metabolic studies
with filamentous fungi, 70:49
Talvenheimo, G. (see White, J. L.)
Tape recording in anthropology, 61:48
Tapeworm, new species from fox spar-
row, 61 :305-307
Tarnished plant bug injury to peach,
64:127-130
Taxonomy, discussion of 62:172-175
in Indiana, vascular plants, Rafin-
esque and, 62:278
sixty kinds of pollen grains collected
by honey bees, 62:278
Taylor, J. G., 61:140 (see also Deay,
H. O. and Chandler, L.)
Taylor, R. G., 63:200
Teaching, attitude toward, 62:292
embryology, projection of serial sec-
tions in, 65:228
beginning courses in chemistry, use
of handbooks, 68:118
plant physiology at Purdue in nine-
teenth century, 67:260-264
symposium on teaching chemistry in
secondary schools and colleges,
62:166
undergraduate organic chemistry at
Indiana University, 68:121
use of easel and colored chalk, 63:64
Technology and economic geography,
69:214-216
Tecumseh, 61:48
Teel, M. R., 67:233
Telfair, D., 63:200
Telial formation, variability of, Puc-
cinia coronata, 70:91-95
Temperament classification, 61:54-61
Temperature, effects of -10° and -10°C
on Trichinella spiralis larvae,
62:325-330
effect on radiation damage in bac-
teriophage, 61:62
effect on survival of mixtures of
Escherichia coli substrains, 66:
55
effect on starter fertilizer by corn,
66:230
Indiana's records to 1953, 62:230-233
Tendam, D. J., 66:297
Teratology in Trillium grandiflorum's
floral organs, 69:263-265
Test holes in Indiana, pre-cambrium
rocks, 62:234-243
Testing program, chemical education
of American Chemical Society,
65:66
Termite rearing method, 66:141-146
Tetraonchinae, status of North Ameri-
can Dactylogyrinae and, 64:260-
264
method of attachment to gills, 64:
254
Tetrapolar heterothallism in Nidula
(fungus), 61:66
Tetrault, P. A., 61:64; 62:65
Tewa Indians, 68:72-77
Textbooks, anti-mathematical propa-
ganda in, 61:271
Thackray, R. L, 66:325
Thermal aerosol application, 61:152-
158
Thermocouples, construction, 63:266-
268
470
Thermodynamics — Trematode
Thermodynamics of crystalline lat-
tices, 64:236
Thermometers, maximum registering,
61:276
Thiolutin, activity against plant dis-
eases, 61:97-102
Thioureas, diquinolyl, 61:117-120
Thomas, C, Some algae from the St.
Meinrad area, 69:131-133
Thomas, J. G., 62:101
Thomas, R. J., 69:258; 70:202
Thompson, B., 63:60
Thompson, H. B., 67:279
Thompson, J. R., 62:99
Thompson, R. L., Factors affecting
growth of mammalian virus in
vitro, 62 :92-94
Thomson, W. E., Martinsville, Indi-
ana, a satellite town, 63:225-227
Three -dimethylaminopropylamine, in
copper determination, 62:156-
157
Three Fires confederation, 63:46
Three types of training, probability of
positional response to, 66:326
Threonine biosynthesis and metabo-
lism by Neurospora mutants,
tracer studies on, 63:61
Throw, F. E., 63:264; 65:203
Thrun, W. E., memorial, 61:27-28
Thwing, E. J., 61:281
Thyroid, asymmetry in chickens, 61 :
289-290
function in anuran larvae, 61 :292-
295
Thyroxin-thyrotropic hormone inter-
action, quantitative study of,
63:280-283
Tieken, A. J., 68:90
Tin and lead complexes with 1, 10-phe-
nathroline, 64:105-107
Tingoidea (Hemiptera) of Tippecanoe
county, Indiana, 63:185
Tinkle, W. J., The biological theories
of J. Henri Fabre, 65:200-202
Conservation of germ plasm of do-
mestic species, 66:256-260
The extent of effectiveness of nat-
ural selection, 67:251-255
Tippecanoe County, cicadas, 62:203-
206
Coleoptera, 66:115-124
corn borer, 66:108-111
May beetles, 65:149-157
sandstone, 64:176
Tingoidea, 63:185
Trichoptera, 64:115
underground storage, 68:259-264
Tissue culture, application of plant,
62:81-86
newer methods and practical appli-
cation, 62:87-91
time lapse cinephotomicrography,
62:67-71
virus particle counts in, 62:95-97
Titrations, turbidimetric, 68:116
Tobacco ringspot virus in soybean,
transmission and development
of, 68:86
Tolleston and post-tolleston beaches
and bars in Lake county, Indi-
ana, 61:176-179
Tolman, R. A., A quantitative study
of thyroxin-thyrotropic hor-
mone interaction, 63:280-283
p-Toluenesulfonylhydrazide and its de-
composition products, 66:78
Tolypella new to United States, rare,
64:244
Tolzmann, M. B., 64:53
Tomato, abnormal fruits, 62:102
an anatomical and morphological
study of sidebranchless, 70:51
and tobacco hornworms, 68:149
fruit set, 62:101
Topography effect on distri. of sugar
and black maples, 61:70
Torrey, T. T., Balanoglossiis and the
origin of the vertebrate nephros,
61:296-304
Alkaline phosphatase and the differ-
entiation of gonads in the albino
rat, 64:265-277
Tortrix pallorana Rob., a pest of pine
trees in Indiana, 69:175-177
Touloukian, Y. S., 61:273,275
Towards the estimation of prehistoric
population, 69:78-82
Township boundaries in Indiana, 63:
200
Toxicity of sodium pentachlorophenate
to fish, factors affecting, 67:303
studies on Stagnicola reflexa, 64 :
291-294
Toxoplasmosis, chemotherapy of, 63:
61
Trabant, E. A., 61:270
Traditional evidences of aboriginal
occupancy in Michigan, 65:48
Tragopogon, hybrids in, 62:102
variations in genus, 69:262
Transfer, bridge, in electric contacts,
62:291
Transgressions and regression of early
Allegheny (pennsylvanian) seas
in Indiana, 67:205-211
Transportation of Indiana grain by
Illinois-Mississippi waterways,
63:219-224
Trap-door spider, Pachylomerides
adouinii, in southern Indiana,
64:255
Traynelis, V. J. and L. H. Baldinger,
Reduction of oil of peppermint
with lithium aluminum hydride,
65:79-81
Trematode larvae of Fellodistomatidae,
63:270
Trematodes — Vascular
471
Trematodes, 64:260-264
marine, in Puerto Rico, 62:298
Trexler, P. C, 68:78
Trichinella spiralis, effect of low tem-
peratures, 62:325-330
larvae placed in mice, rate of loss,
65:228
Trichloroacetic acid, acidity of, 66:86-
90
Trichinosis, relative quantitative pho-
tometric determinations of total
and polymerized D.N. A. during
nucleomegaly, 65:226
Trichoptera of Tippecanoe county, 64:
115
w-Trifluoro-aliphatic acids, prepara-
tion of some, 67:109
Trifoliate leaf of Glycine max, matu-
ration of, 70:66-72
Trigonometry, new introduction to
ideas and methods of, 69:258
Triphenyltetrazolium chloride effect of
antibiotics on bacterial reduc-
tion of, 62:63
Tripsacum-corn hybrid, 67:102
Trvpsacum dactyloides, embryology,
62:104
chromosomal variation, 63:80-82
Trisomies in spinach, 68:91
Tropisternus, biometrical studies, 62:
207
Truce, W. E., 63:101
Truesdell, C, 63:263
Tsurugi, J., 70:99
Tuan, Ti-Fu, The misleading antithe-
sis of penckian and davision
concepts of slope retreat in wan-
ing development, 67:212-214
Tubercle bacilli, media for, 61:63
Tucker, W. M., memorial, 66:33-34
Tuite, J. F., 68:86; 69:108; 70:54
Tukey, R. B., 67:232; 69:277; 70:216
Turner, L. H., 67:274
Turpin site, notes on ceramic material
from, 66:45
Two forms of Iroquois cousin terminol-
ogy and their functions, 69:86-
91
Types, physical, occurring in historic
Illinois (Peoria), Miami, Sauk,
and Shawnee tribes, 70:46
Typhoid in Indiana, 61 :253-260
Tryon, P. F., memorial, 63:37-38
Tyrosine, catalytic hydrogenation, 63 :
120-123
Ullstrup, A. J., 65 :54
Ulman, P. T., 63:143; 64:115; Regu-
latory entomology in Indiana,
64:158-160
Ulrich, H. P., Wisconsin moraines as
a source of loess in soil forma-
tion in Fayette and Union coun-
ties, 68:349-353
Ultraviolet radiation, sensitivity of
Streptomyces to, 67:98
spectra of phloroglucinol and its
ethers, 69:140-142
Uncertainty and entropy, 69:257
Under clay, block, in west-central In-
diana, 63:198
Undergraduate curricula, 67:275
Underground gas storage in Indiana,
development and utilization of,
68:259-264
Union County, soil, 68:349-363
Universe, possible origin of, 62:277
Unstable intermediates with aid of
infrared radiation, investigation
of, 68:144-146
Upper Mississippian-lower pennsylva-
nian stratigraphy in Orange
county, Indiana, 64:202-206
Urban geography, 62:225
mapping and store location, 61:240-
241
Use of inexpensive substitutes for
elaborate equipment in zoology
teaching laboratory, 69:312
Vaccines, anti-rabies, 63:62
Vacuum trajectory compared with ac-
tual trajectory, 66:297
Vakili, N. G., 68:88
Valleys of Indiana, effects, 68:292-293
Value and psychology, 69:273-276
Van Asdall, W., 70:54
Van Dyke, G. D., 63:264
Van Frank, R. M., 69:100
Van Scoik, W. S., Toxicity of insecti-
cides to humans, 65:129-138
Van Verth, J. E., 67:109
Vanderburgh County, archeology, 63:
57-58
coal, 69:182
Yankeetown pottery, 61:46
Variations in Helianthus angustifo-
lius, 66:300
in genus Hudsonia, 66:321-322
Varieties of nuclear shell model, 64:237
Vascular flora of Indiana (see also as
separate entries of systematic
groups, counties and areas)
Indiana plant distribution records
XII, 1951, 61:72-76 (Deam, C. C,
T. G. Yuncker, Ray C. Fries-
ner)
XIII, 1952, 62:108-113 (Deam, C.
C, T. G. Yuncker, Ray C.
Friesner)
XIV, 1953, 63:67-72 (reported by
Frank Buser)
XV, 1954, 64:245-246 (Potzger, J.
E., Helene Starcs)
XVI, 1955, 65:207 (Helene
Starcs)
XVII, 1958, 68:93-94 (Heiser, C.
B., Jr. and J. Humbles)
472
Vascular — Water
Contributions to the flora of Wayne
county, Indiana (prepared by
Carrolle A. Markle)
I. (trees and shrubs) 65:208-209
II. (herbaceous dicotyledons) 66:
301-304
III. (pteridophytes and monoco-
tyledons) 67:290-291
IV. ( Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Com-
positae) 69:266-268
Vegetation in northern Illinois, 64:88-
91
Wabash valley, 70:54
zones in Grand Canyon National
Park, some representative
plants, 65:205
Venturia inequalis, sources of resist-
ance, 68:87
Veratrum album in chomotography
work, 62:145
Verduin method, use, 62:105
Versailles State Park, forest commu-
nities of, 65:55
Vertical mulching, observations of ef-
fect, 69:282-285
Verticillium albo-atrum, variation in,
65:53
Vibrations, longitudinal, in hollow tube,
62:291
Vig, R. J., 64:177
Vigo County, coal V, 65:165-168
Reclamation, 67:215-224
Virus disease control of the European
pine sawfly, N eodiprion sertifer
(Geoff.), 66:101-102
Virus from white clover in Indiana,
69:108
Viruses, factors affecting growth in
vitro, 62:92-94
Visher, Stephen S., 62:277; 65:162;
Indiana's comparative richness,
61:245-249
Indiana's weather: some extremes
and advantages, 62:230-233
Indiana Nobelists and National
Academy members, 63:253-254
Indiana's boundaries and size, 64:
214-216
Conservation progress in Indiana to
1955, 65:198-199
Water supply problems of Blooming-
ton, Indiana, 66:188-191
Aspects of conservation on man in
Indiana, 66:254-255
Indiana's probable climate during
the glacial period, 67:183-184
Aspect of the wiser use of Indiana's
soils, 67:249-250
Indiana's valleys, 68:292-293
Indiana's minerals and the state's
development, 68:300-302
Effects of Indiana's streams and
lakes on science, 69:254-255
Progress made in increasing Indi-
ana's Human Resources, 70:189-
193
Visual acuity in raccoons, 66:323
Vitamin C, histochemical demonstra-
tion, 62:321-322
Voegelin, E. W., 61:48; 64:49
Vollers, B., 68:92
Volutin, 62:65
Wabash river, 3 pleistocene terrace
levels near Terre Haute, Indi-
ana, 64:209-213
Wachholz, P. F., 62:224
Wadia, M. S., 70:6, 46; The political
organization of the Tewa In-
dians, 68:72-77
Some aspects of Pueblo native reli-
gion, 69:83-85
Wagner, K. A. (see Bryophytes of In-
diana)
Wakefield, E. V. (see Billman, J.
H.)
Walcoloid variety of American Indian,
69:69-72
Wallace, A., 62:99
Wallace F. N., 65:8; 66:15; 68:8;
69:20; 70:7
Wallace, J. E., 68:87
Walls of myxobacterial microcysts,
chemical composition of, 69:100
Warburg apparatus, problem of pH
change, 61:284
Ward, G. L., Notes on hatching of the
Black Racer, Coluber constric-
tor, 63:278-279
and C. Cole, quantitative compar-
ison of insect orders from 3
types of vegetational cover on
Miami, Bethel, and Brookston
soils in eastern Indiana, 70:139-
141
and T. G. Marsh, Diptera popu-
lations in the Whitewater val-
ley, 70:142-144
Ward, P. E., 63:202; 64:177
Warren, A. K., 69:312
Warren, G. F., 69:277
Warren, J., 68:78
Warrick County, archeology, 67:90
paleobotany, 63:87-91
Yankeetown pottery, 61 :46
Washburn, H. A., memorial, 61:28-29
Washington County, algae, 69:119-122
minerals, 67:177
streams, 62:244-259
Water beetle fauna of temporary pond
in southern Indiana, 69:154-164
conservation in Indiana, 65:198-199
conservation, history of, in Indiana,
66:286-290
Water — Wilkinson
473
ground, potential in upland sand de-
posits in southern Indiana, 63:
202
spectrophotometry determination
of, 63:124-126
problem in a mine, 62:147
resources, discovery and evaluation
of, by aerial photography, 70:
155-157
supply problems of Bloomington,
Indiana, 66:188-191
Waterlogging of excised sunflower
roots, 61:68
Waterways, effects on marketing of
Indiana grain, 63:219
in Indiana, 62:266-271
Wayne County, earthworms, 69:313-
319
flora (see Vascular flora of Indiana)
insects, 70:139-141
population changes, 62:272-276
precambrian rocks, 62:234-243
streams, 62:244-249
Wayne, W. J., 63:199; 65:164; 67:176;
69:182, 311
Weather forecasting, 62:224
Indiana's, some extremes and advan-
tages to 1953, 62:230-233
prophet, 62:224
records in Indiana, early, 67:265-267
records, use of punch cards, 66:231
Weatherwax, P., 61:251; 62:52, 104
Weaver, E. E., 68:120; Work of the
Northeastern Ohio Chemistry
Teachers Organization, 62:166
and W. Keim, A preliminary
study of differential thermal
analysis, conductance and cryo-
scopic behavior of dimethyl sulf-
oxide complexes, 70:123-131
Weaver, R. H., 62:65
Weber, G. C, 67:99
Weber, W., 69:149
Webster, J. D., 66:329; A new hy-
menolepid tapeworm from the
fox sparrow, 61:305-307
A new race of wood peewee from
Mexico, 66:337-340
Weed killer, 62:100
Weed, on origin of term, 67:287-289
Weinberg, E. D., 61:64; 62:63; 64:53;
69:22; 70:6
Weiss, E., Counting infectious viral
particles in tissue cultures, 62:
95-97
Welch, Winona H., 66:9, 14; 67:7,
15, 243; 68:8; 70:8 (see Studies
in Indiana Bryophytes, IX-XII
under Bryophytes of Indiana)
Selectivity in Indiana mosses, 64:63-
69
Welcher, F. J., 61:6; 62:6; 63:6, 11;
65:6, 17, 67; 66:6, 9, 19; 67:6, 7,
10; 68:6, 18, 19, 134
and J. A. Buehler, Identification
of the isomeric phenylenedia-
mines, 63:110-112
and , Detection of cobalt (II)
by succinimide and isopropyla-
mine, 65:89-93
Wellerson, R. J., 62:65
Wells, A. E., memorial, 69:49-50
Wells, H. B, 66:18
Welte, Sister Carmolla, memorial,
67:71-72
West Indies, as example, increasing
crops and standard of living,
68:273-276
Western Great Lakes region, the "New
England Indians" in, 66:47-49
Westing, A. H., Peroxidase distribu-
tion in geotropically stimulated
candles of Pinus strobus L., 70:
79-82
Westmeyer, P., 62:100
Wetland transformation in Wisconsin
drift area of Indiana, 69:290-299
Whaples, G., 61:271; 68:318
What caused the ice age, 68:294-297
Wheat grains, influence of age and
maturation temperature of, on
plant development, 66:62
spring response to photoperiod and
temperature, 64:62
spring, preinductive and postinduc-
tive development of, 65:53
Wheaton, J. M., 65:218
White clover, virus of, 69:108
White County, mississippian-devonian
boundary, 67:194-198
White, J., memorial, 70:38
White, J. L. (see Bailey, G. W.,
Motto, H., and Snow, B.)
-, G. Talvenheimo, M. G. Klages,
and M. M. Phillipe, A survey
of the mineralogy of Indiana
soils, 66:232-241
White, J. Y., 70:48
Wholesaling in metropolitan areas, 63:
199
Wiener, M., 64:239, 241
Wier, C. E., Stratigraphic relations of
the merom limestone near Mer-
om, Indiana, 69:217-223
and S. A. Friedman, Three pleis-
tocene terrace levels near Terre
Haute, Indiana, 64:209-213
Wiersma, D. (see Stivers, R. K.)
Moisture characteristics of some rep-
resentative Indiana soil types,
69:300-304
Wife stealing in central Mexico, 67:90
Wilcox, G. E., Potato nutrition in
southwestern Indiana, 70:243-
247
Wilkinson, R. G., 69:260
474
Wilkinson — Young
Wilkinson, S. R., W. G. Duncan, and
A. J. Ohlrogge, The influence
of radioactive fallout on agro-
nomic field experimentation
with radioisotopes, 67:234-236
Williams, E. B., 68:87; 69:107; 70:
52, 53; Botryosphaeria ribis on
apple, 68:108-109
Williams, E. C, Jr., 67:300
and R. O. Drummond, A modified
Berlese funnel, 63:163-164
Williams, H. R., Jr., 67:99
Williams, K. P., memorial, 68:40-42
Williamson, E. B., 64:166
Wilson, I. T., memorial, 61:29-30
Wilson, M. C, 61:141; 63:143, 186;
The role of insect control meas-
ures involving farm practices in
a chemical era, 63:144-151
Entomological pioneers in Indiana,
64:148-151
— and R. L. Davis, Studies on chem-
ical control of insects affecting
alfalfa production, 62:181-197
- and M. L. Cleveland, Residual
versus non-residual insecticides
to control leafhoppers on al-
falfa, 65:145-148
Wilson, N. (see Cope, J. B.)
Wilson, T. K., 66:63
Wilting in corn plant caused by failure
of metaxylem development, 66:
64
Windowed plants, leaf anatomy of,
65:54
Winkler, C. E., 65:161
Winn, R. E., 63:264
Wireworm populations influenced by
soil types, 66:147-151
problem in Indiana, 61:140
Wischnitzer, S., An investigation of
the golgi apparatus by means of
the phase contrast microscope,
65:243-248
Wisconsin drift plain, early, quadrat
study of 15 forest stands, 61:68
moraines as source of loess in soil
formation in Fayette and Union
counties, 68:349-353
stratigraphy of central and eastern
Indiana, 63:199
Witherspoon, J. D., 68:362; 69:312
WiTHERSPOON, R. H., 69:312
Wolfe, J. G., 70:204
Wollon, G. N., 69:20
Wood, J. M. and J. E. Canright, The
present status of paleobotany in
Indiana with special reference
to the fossils of pennsylvanian
age, 63:87-91
Wood pewee, new race, from Mexico,
66:337-340
Wood, R. A., toxicity studies on one-,
thirty-, sixty-day-old and adult
Stagnicola refleoca, 64:291-294
Wood, W. D., 61:270
Woodham, G., 70:261
Woodhour, A. F., 68:78
Woodland cache discovery in northern
Indiana, possible early, 69:92-98
pottery from Vanderburgh county
site, 63:57-58
in Monroe county, Indiana, 66:170-
178
Woods, K. B., 69:187
Woodsia obtusa, response to day length
and temperature, 64:75-78
Woody plants, bud-break in, 62:103
Words, scaling of, to describe person-
ality, 66:324
Work, N., 69:148
Worms, pin, among Indian children,
61:286-288
Wrath all, J. E., Some consequences
of soil erosion in an Indiana
township, 64:224-225
Wright, J. S., memorial, 61:30-32
Library, 63:248-252
Wright, R. H., 67:297; 68:326
X-ray diffraction study of Indiana
limestone, 69:305-309
action on mitotic activity and leuco-
cyte infiltration in regenerating
urodele limbs, 61:283
effect on bacteriophage modified by
temperature, 61 :62
"Yahooskin Snakes," 64:49
Yarian, D. (see Burkett, H.)
Yates, M. L., 68:116 (see also Fisch-
er, R. B.)
Yates, W., 70:207
Yearian, H. J., 64:236
Young, F. N., 62:170; 68:5, 18; 69:6,
10, 14; 70:20 (see also Can-
TRALL, I. J.)
The approach to taxonomic prob-
lems, 62:172-175
Effects of organic insecticides on the
insect balance of nature, 63 : 186-
188
Entomology at Indiana universities,
colleges, and other institutions
since 1854, 64:165-172
A large aggregation of larval milli-
peds, Zinaria butler i (McNeill)
in Brown county, Indiana, 67:
171-172
Some facts and theories about the
broods and periodicity of the
periodical cicadas, 68:164-170
The water beetles of a temporary
pond in southern Indiana, 69:
154-164
Young — Zygmunt
475
and I. J. Cantrall, Orthoptera
of relict prairie fragments in
Greene county, Indiana, 65:111-
115
Young, J. W., 68:58
Young, R. N., 62:225
Youse, H. R., 66:9, 15, 18; 67:8; 69:9
A taxonomic study of 60 pollen
grains collected by honey bees,
62:114-121
Yuncker, T. G., 62:108; 65:8, 16; 66:
13; 67:7, 8; 68:7; 69:11, 14; 70:
7, 16, 182
Yunghans, R. S., 63:101; 66:80
and D. J. Cook, A study of the
infra-red absorption spectra of
some alkyl substituted carbo-
styrils, 65:73-74
Zakrzewska, B., Woodlands in Mon-
roe county, Indiana, 66:170-178
Zassenhaus, H. J., 70:200
Zeller, F. J., 66:329; 68:360
The effect of stilbestrol on the ovary
of the immature white leghorn
pullet, 67:309-311
Zieman, C. M., 61:277
Zimmer, D. E., 69:107
and J. F. Schafer, Variability of
telial formation from Puccinia
coronata, 70:91-95
Zimmerman, E. E. (see Brandt, W.
W.)
Zimmerman, J. R., 68:147; 69:148
Zinaria butleri, large aggregation of
larval millipedes in Brown coun-
ty, Indiana, 67:171-172
Zirkle, G. A., 65:219
Zoology (see also under the following
names, only those who submit-
ted manuscripts included, Ae, S.
A.; Andrew, W.; Baker, W.;
Beekman, B. E.; Berbarian, J.
A.; Breneman, W. R.; Church-
well, E.; Coleman, R. M.; Con-
fer, J.; Cope, J. B.; Cormack,
M.; Dineen, C. F.; Eberly, W.
R.; Elliott, F. R.; Garner, M.
R.; Goodnight, C. J.; Gunther,
W. C; Headlee, W. H.; Johnson,
W. H.; Joyner, J. W.; Jones, R.
K.; Kirkpatrick, R. D.; Klenner,
J. J.; Knight, P. L.; Koontz, K.;
Lytle, C. F.; Manske, P.; Miller,
C. A.; Millis, S. C; Mizelle, J.
D.; Monaco, L. H.; Moran, J. F.,
Jr.; Mumford, R. E.; Odell, T.
T.; Peckham, R. S.; Reynolds,
A. E.; Shaver, R. J.; Smith, R.
E.; Steinmetz, C. H.; Tolman,
R. A.; Torrey, T. W.; Ward, G.
L.; Webster, J. D.; Wilson, N.;
Wischnitzer, S.; Wood, R. A.;
Zeller, F. J.)
abstracts, 61:282-285; 62:297-298;
63:269-271; 64:254-259; 65:225-
229; 66:328-330; 67:300-303;
68:360-362; 69:310-312; 70:260-
261
Age changes in the liver as studied
by light and electron micros-
copy, 69:325-331
Alkaline phosphatase and the differ-
entiation of gonads, 64:265-277
Araneology of Indiana, 61:299-317
Asymmetry of chicken thyroids, 61 :
289-291
Balanoglossus and origin of verte-
brate nephros, 61:296-304
Colchicine on reproduction of Para-
mecium caudatum, 64:255
Eggs and the young of the lizard,
Eumeces fasciatus, 68:367-378
Food habits of the larval tiger sala-
mander, 65:231-233
Fresh water medusae in Indiana, 67:
304-307
Hatching of the black racer, 63:278-
279
Histochemical demonstration of vi-
tamin C, 61 :321-322
Natural parthenogenesis in wax
moth, 65:227
Origin and release of secretory gran-
ules in the anterior pituitary of
mouse, 69:332-339
Pigmentation in cave planarians, 67:
300
Post femoral spot in Plethodon, 70:
278-284
Spring migration of salamanders,
64:278-280
Tagging bats with radioactive gold-
198, 70:267-269
Zygmunt, W. A., 69:99; 70:6, 48
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