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PROCEEDINGS
of the
Indiana Academy
of Science
Founded December 29, 1885
Volume 81
1971
Marion T. Jackson, Editor
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana
Spring- Meeting*
April 23-24
Mary Gray Bird Sanctuary, Connersville
Fall Meeting
October 28-29
Earlham College, Richmond
Published at Indianapolis, Indiana
1972
1. The permanent address of the Academy is the Indiana State Library, 140 N.
Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Indiana 46204.
2. Instructions for Contributors appear at the end of this volume, P. 410-411.
3. Exchanges. Items sent in exchange for the Proceedings and correspondence con-
cerning exchange arrangements should be addressed:
John Shepard Wright Memorial Library of the Indiana Academy of Science
c/o Indiana State Library
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
4. Proceedings may be purchased through the State Library at $5.00 per volume.
5. Reprints of technical papers can often be secured from the authors. They cannot
be supplied by the State Library nor by the officers of the Academy.
6. The Constitution and By-Laws reprinted from Vol. 74 are available to members
upon application to the Secretary. Necrologies reprinted from the various volumes can
be supplied to relatives and friends of deceased members by the Secretary.
7. Officers whose names and addresses are not known to correspondents may be
addressed care of the State Library. Papers published in the Proceedings of the Academy
of Science are abstracted or indexed in appropriate services listed here:
Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology
Bibliography of Agriculture
Bibliography of North American Geology
Biological Abstracts
Chemical Abstracts
Chemisches Zentralblatt
Current Geographical Publications
Geological Abstracts
Metallurgical Abstracts
Pesticides Documentation Bulletin
Psychological Abstracts
Review of Applied Entomology
The Torrey Bulletin
Zoological Record
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1
THE WORK OF THE ACADEMY
Page
Officers and Committees for 1971 3
Minutes of the Spring Meeting (Executive Committee) 6
Minutes of the Spring Meeting (General Session) 10
Minutes of the Fall Meeting (Executive Committee) ........... 11
Minutes of the Fall Meeting (General Session) 15
Annual Financial Statement 17
Annual Report, Indiana Junior Academy of Science 22
Necrology ............. 27
New Members for 1971 37
Part 2
ADDRESSES AND CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
Presidential Address 45
"Minicourses and the Audio-Tutorial System," S. Postlethwait
"The Role of Scientists in the Preparation and Evaluation of
Environmental Impact Statements/' Alton A. Lindsey .... 51
Anthropology
B. K. Swartz, Jr.— A Brief Synthesis of Indiana Prehistory* .... 55
G. M. Heathcote, Y. Toyoda and B. K. Swartz, Jr.— A Second
Report on Earthwork Seven, the New Castle Site, a Portion of
the Southeast Quadrant— 1971* 55
H. G. Stacy and B. K. Swartz, Jr. — Continued Excavation of
Earthwork Four, New Castle Site, Indiana* ............... 55
R. E. Pace — Aerial Photography in Archaeological Survey* ..... 56
R. Little: — Archeology of Tell Hesban, Jordan* .... .... 56
G. K. Houck and B. K. Swartz, Jr. — The Commissary Site: A
Woodland Cemetery* 56
A. J. Perzigian — Bone Growth in Two Prehistoric Indian Popu-
lations 58
R. M. Little— The McKinley Site 65
R. W. Alexander, Jr. — The Hybrid Origin of the Arikara
Indians 71
*Abstract or Note only
iii
iv Indiana Academy of Science
Page
M. L. Brashear, Sharon K. Cupp and Debora Mackie—
Excavations at the Daughtery-Monroe Site, 1971 76
B. K. Swartz, Jr. — A Provisional Taxonomy of Prufer's Scioto
Tradition 81
R. W. Alexander, Jr. — Multivariate Analysis and Human Skeletal
Populations 86
Botany
R. K. Togasaki and Margaret O. Hudock — Inorganic Arsenate as
a Tool for Genetic and Biochemical Analysis of Photosynthetic
Metabolism in Algae* 91
P. Weatherwax — The "Liquid" Endosperm of Grasses* .... 91
A. T. Guard— The Dichotomous Dilemma* 91
R. A. Riepe and D. L. Dilcher — A Comparison of Modern and
Cretaceous Sassafras Leaves* 91
C. T. Hammond and P. G. Mahlberg — Structure of Glandular
Hairs of Marihuana* 92
L. R. Yoder and P. G. Mahlberg — Chromic Acid as a Selective
Stain for Laticifers in Vinca rosea* 92
C. L. Gehring and S. N. Postlethwait — The Terminal Inflores-
cence of the Maize Mutant Tassel seed-2* 93
G, E. Dolph — A Review of the Fossil Apocynaceae from the
Eocene of Western Tennessee and Kentucky* 93
F. W. Potter, Jr., and D. L. Dilcher — Revaluation of Engelhardia
of the Eocene of Southeastern United States* 94
C. P. Daghlian and D. L. Dilcher — Middle Eocene Sabaloid
Palms* 94
R. K. Horine — Cell Wall Regeneration Around Protoplasts Iso-
lated from Convolvulus arvensis Tissue Culture* 95
R. W. Olson and A. L. Eiser — Initiation of Callus Tissue of
Abies concolor (White Fir) by Tissue Culture Techniques ... 96
Cell Biology
F. Padgett and W. A. Summers — Electron Microscopic Study of
Anaplasma marginal by Negative Staining* 101
L. F. Ellis and R. J. Douthart — Growth Cycle of Penicillium
chrysogenum Virus* 101
D. A. Werderitsh, D. Shelton, C. Swan, C.-M. Haun, W.
Yunghans and D. J. Morre — Toxic Response of Mice to a
DDT Diet, Its Supression by Feeding and the Effect of
Estrogen* 101
: Abstract or Note only
Table of Contents v
Page
D, M. Huang, D. J. Morre and T. W. Keenan— NADH De-
hydrogenase Activity of Golgi Apparatus from Rat Liver* , . 102
T. W. Keenan, C. M. Huang and D. J. Morre: — Golgi Apparatus-
Medicated Cytomembrane Differentiation in Rat and Bovine
Mammary Gland* 102
Anne S. Susalla and P, G. Mahlberg — Ultrastructure of Green
Plastids in Leaves of Genetic Albino Tobacco* . ....... 108
Shirley Siew— Use of the Scanning Electron Microscope in the
Investigation of Cardiac and Pulmonary Tissue* 103
G. B, Boder and L. F. Ellis — Ultrastructure of Mouse Heart
Cell Culture* 103
I. Watanabe, V. Patel and W. Zeman — Ultrastructures of Neu-
ronal Lipofuscin and Ceroid* ............................. 104
M. E. Jacobs — Effect of Beta-alanine on Glucose Catabolism and
Growth of Ehrlich Ascites Tumor Cells* ................... 104
P. V. Blair and L. Y. Chao — Inhibition of Succinate Oxidation in
Beef Heart Mitochondria by Derivatives of Pyridine Adenine
Dinucleotide* 104
J. H. Elder, C. A. Lembi, L. Anderson and D. J. Morre—
Scale Calcification in a Chrysophycean Alga: A Test System
for the Effects of DDT on Biological Calcification .......... 106
R. Barr, J. D. Hall, T. Baszynski, J. Brand and F. L.
Crane — The Effect of Mineral Deficiency on the Photosyn-
thetic Apparatus in Maize. I. The Role of Chloroplast
Sulfolipid 114
F. E. Wilkinson, Sally E. Nyquist, W. D. Merritt and
D. J. Morre — Aryl Sulphatases: Properties and Subcellular
Distribution in Rat Liver ................................ 121
T. W. Keenan and F. L. Crane — Constancy of Unsaturation in
Molecular Species of Cardiolipin and Phosphatidyl Ethanola-
mine from Beef Heart Mitochondria 133
Chemistry
L. Mullins, T. L. Kruger, Theresa Cheng, and J. Sharp —
The Synthesis and Decomposition of Some Interesting 1-
Pyrazolines* 139
T. L. Kruger, Nancy E. Tharp, and James W. Kress — Prop-
erties and Reactions of Some N, N-Diethylaniline Oxides* . . . 139
J. E. Rogers, Jr., and James Jose — Synthesis and Identification
of p-Benzoquinones Occurring in Arthropod Defensive Secre-
tions* 139
*Abstract or Note only
vi Indiana Academy of Science
Page
C. T. Botkin and R. E. Van Atta — A Chemical Study of the
White River at Muncie* 140
B. N. Storhoff and D. F. Storhoff — A New Experiment for
Advanced Inorganic Chemistry* 140
B. N. Storhoff — Rhenium (I) Complexes of 2-Cyanoethyldiphenyl-
phosphine* 140
J. A. Scarlett and W. J. Stratton — Chelating Behavior of Some
New Sterically Hindered Tetrafunctional Azine Ligands* . . . 140
D. J. Harris and W. J. Stratton — Conductivity Studies in Ace-
tonitrile for a Novel Series of Metal Chelates with 2-
Pyridylmethylketazine* 140
J. D. Naylor and J. H. Meiser — A Counterdiffusion Study of
Ferric and Silicate Ions in Agar Media* 141
R. M. Lawrence and J. R. Relford — Liquid X-Ray Diffraction
Studies of the Structures of Aqueous Metal Nitrate, Acetate,
and Perchlorate Solutions Using Overviewing Techniques* . . 141
T. L. Kruger and J. W. Kress — Molecular Orbital Calculations on
Some Nitrogen Heterocycles* 141
R. M. Brooker — An Anticholinesterase Agent and Myasthenia
Gravis* . 142
P, Andermatt — The Biosynthesis of Steroidal Sapogenins* . 142
B. A. Thornburgh and P. F, Ma — Thin-Layer Gel Filtration
Studies of Adenosine Deaminases from Beef and Beef Fetus
Livers* . . 143
T. A. Magers and P. F. Ma — A Comparative Study of Adenosine
Deaminase in Human Tissue* 143
M. L. Druelinger and S. R. Lammert — Photochemical Synthesis
and Destruction of Oxaziranes* 143
L. L. Garber — Some New Approaches to Teaching Chemistry
for Non-Science Majors* 144
Ecology
P. T. McKelvey — A Water Quality Study of the Tippecanoe
River* 147
R. H. L. Howe — The Howe's Rapid Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Index and its Technique* 147
W. R. Chaney and A. C. Leopold — Stimulation of Branch Abscis-
sion in Quercus alba by 2-Chloroethylphosphonic Acid* 147
H. E. McReynolds — Basic Leakage Considerations in Ecological
and Hydrological Studies of Experimental Watersheds* 147
: Abstract or Note only
Table of Contents vii
Page
J. W. Hart and Jessie M. Turner — A New System for Ecological
Education— SEE* 148
R. M. Hoffer and L. A. Bartolucci — Calibration Techniques for
Remote Sensing Measurements of Water Temperatures ..... 150
Linda K. Escobar and A. A. Lindsey — Natural Areas in the
Beech-maple and Maple-basswood Forest Regions of Nine
States 154
Christine O. Hopkins, W. E. Hopkins and G. W. Barrett —
Importance Per Cent Values of a Browsed Southeastern Indiana
Forest 160
R. E. Kirkpatrick, Marsha R. Roy, G. A. Wise and L. L.
Haruman — Contents of Southern Indiana Wild Turkey Drop-
pings 165
Entomology
R. W. Meyer and J. V. Osmun — Insects and Other Arthropods of
Economic Importance in Indiana During 1971* 171
B. E. Montgomery — Survival of Odonata Naiads Through Drought
and Freezing* 171
R. E. Siverly — Myiasis in Delaware County, Indiana, 1971, with
a Confirmed Case of Infestation by Wohlfahrtia vigil (Walker)
(DipterarSarcophagidae)* 171
S. Betras and R. E. Siverly — Preliminary Investigation of the
Effects of Three Hormonomimetic Compounds on Larvae of
Culex pipiens pipiens L (Northern House Mosquito)* 172
D. A. Shroyer and R. E. Siverly — A Preliminary Study of
Autogeny and Host Preference of Culex pipiens pipiens L.
(Northern House Mosquito) in East-Central Indiana* 172
F. N. Young — Genetic Studies on Melanic Forms of Tropisternus
collaris (Fabricius) from North and South America* 173
H. R. Lawson — The Planipennia (Neuroptera) in Indiana* 173
E. M. Shull — Indiana State Records and Notes on Some Rare
Butterflies and Skippers in the State 175
Gertrude L. Ward — Aggregations of Chalybion calif ornicum (Saus-
sure) (Hymenoptera:Sphecidae) near Centerville, Wayne
County, Indiana 177
R. E. Dolphin — Observations of Halictus confusus Smith (Hy-
menoptera:Halictidae) on Woodland and Field Flowers 182
Geography and Geology
M. J. Murphy and J. P. Szabo — Glacial Geology of St. Joseph
County, Indiana (Map 1 :62,500) * 187
*Abstract or Note only
viii Indiana Academy of Science
Page
R. W. Orr and W. D. Rebuck — Age and Correlation of Middle
Devonian Strata of Jasper County, Indiana* 187
R. L. Powell — Structural Control of Cavern Development in
Northwestern Washington County, Indiana* 188
J. H. Cleveland — To Harmonize a County — -A Proposed Integrated
Study of Vigo County, Indiana* 188
A. H. Meyer — Geography's Inherent Role in Environment Con-
trol* 189
S. K. Pontius — Factors Associated with the Decline of Central
Place Functions on the Rural Poor of Monroe County,
Indiana* 189
H. W. Bullamore — The Relationship of Expensive Residential
Dwellings to Hilly Terrain* 189
F. P. Kallay — Fulmendosa River: A Multipurpose Irrigation Proj-
ect in Sardinia* . 190
D. L. Dilcher — Coal Age Tree Stumps in Indiana* 190
S. H. Murdock — Earth Dam Problems — and the Geological Site
Investigation 191
N. K. Bleuer and M. C. Moore — Glacial Stratigraphy of the
Fort Wayne Area and the Draining of Glacial Lake
Maumee 195
T. R. West — Engineering Soils Mapping in Indiana by Computer
from Remote Sensing Data 210
S. H. Murdock and R. A. Pettijohn — Status of Interagency
Erosion and Sediment Studies in Indiana 217
A. J. Rudman, J. Mead, R. F. Blakely and J. F. Whaley
— Precambrian Geophysical Provinces in Indiana 223
G. S. Austin and J. B. Patton — History of Brick Manufacture in
Indiana 229
A. C. Freeman and G. W. Webb — A Comparison of Public Utility
and Governmental Rates and Services Provided Mobile Home
Park Residents and Other Residents: A Case Study of Tippe-
canoe County, Indiana 238
C. H. Judy— Heavy Water— A Natural Tracer 242
L. V. Miller — A Preliminary Investigation of Sludge Refuse from
Indiana Coal Mines 246
D. B. Waldrip and M. C. Roberts — The Distribution of Slopes in
Indiana 251
Microbiology and Molecular Biology
R. H. L. Howe — Comparative Growth Kinetics of Microbial Bio-
Oxidation* 259
*Abstract or Note only
Table of Contents ix
Page
J. Butler, D. Docauer, M. Downing, M. Dulin, K. Fisch-
vogt, W. Gardiner, J. Holloway, J. Jacoby, J. Neff and
L. Schell — A Survey of Pollution Levels in the Bean Blossom
Watershed (Lake Lemon) and in the Salt Creek Watershed
(Lake Monroe) — Brown and Monroe Counties, Indiana* . ... 259
R. F. Ramaley — The Use of Pollution Surveys as Aids in
Environmental Protection and Planning* .................. 259
S. C. Burt — The Impact of Water Pollution on Recreational Areas
in Delaware County* 260
D. L. Peterson and A. S. Bennett — The Effects of Glucose,
Acetate, and Malonate Upon Fatty Acid Distribution in
Aspergillus niger 262
Physics
I. J. Hansen and E. M. Compy — Effects of Pressure on Elec-
tronic Properties of Bismuth* 267
R. Kaitchuck and N. G. Sprague — Photoelectric Photometry of
an Eclipsing Binary Star System* 267
D. E. Michael and L. M. Reynolds — Neutron Activation Cross
Sections Using 2.8 MeV Neutrons* 267
J. Swez, J. Westgard and L. Plew — The Numerical Lathe Fabrica-
tion and Theoretical Evaluation of an Electron Lens* 268
J. B. Westgard and D. G. Pitts — Tayex: A Taylor Expansion
Equation Solver* 268
C. T. Wunker and P. R. Errington — D-178B Minuteman Missile
Computer Interfacing* 268
D. L. DeMoss and C. C. Sartain— Growth of Single Crystals of
Alkali Niobates* 268
K. E. Wright and C. C. Sartain— A Critical Study of the
Various Factors Limiting Resolution in Solid State De-
tectors* 269
P. S. Marcus— Calculus Without Differentials 269
T. K. E. Alvager, R. A. Llewellyn and R. E. Pace: — Neutron
Activation Analysis of a Metal Button from the Site of Fort
Harrison* 269
G. E. Haring and E. B. Nemanic — A Study of the Rate of
Absorption of Methylated Mercury by Carassius auratus .... 271
Plant Taxonomy
T. J. Crovello — The Computerization of the Edward Lee Greene
Herbarium (NDG) at Notre Dame* 275
*Abstract or Note only
x Indiana Academy of Science
Page
C. B. Heiser, Jr.— The Origin of Seed Planting* 275
L. and A. Beesley — Wild Flowers of Franklin County and
Indiana* 275
G. M. Brooks and T. R. Mertens — A Biosystematic Study of
Polygonum ramosissimum and Polygonum tenue 277
Winona H. Welch — Studies in Indiana Bryophytes XIV 284
L. C. Brown — The Effects of Preservation Time on Chroma-
tographic Patterns in Equisetum hiemale 290
Fay K. Daily — Comments on a Check List of Indiana Algae:
Purpose and Problems 294
Science Education
L. L. Bodie, Jr. — Uses of a Student Responder System* 297
C. C. Hinds — An Audio-tutorial, Independent Study Program for
the Elementary Teacher* 297
S. S. Shimer, Linda B. Knight and H. H. Jaus — Training-
Supervising Teachers to Evaluate and Counsel Pre-Service
Teachers on the Basis of Teaching Techniques Derived from
Methods Courses* 298
H. D. Shock — An Environmental Science Conservation Course* . 298
W. D. Brooks — Reading Habits of Prospective Secondary Earth
Science and Geography Teachers* 299
J. W. Hart and Jessie M. Turner — SEE — System for Ecological
Education 301
Soil Science
J. L. White and Maribel Cruz — Soil Colloids and Behavior of
Pesticides in Soils* 305
D. E. Phinney and J. E. Newman — The Precision Associated
with Sampling Frequencies of Total Particulate at Indi-
anapolis, Indiana* 305
R. K. Stivers — High Rates of Urea Fertilizer for Corn (Zea
mays L.) on Two Soils, 1969-1971 306
J. E. Newman and D. E. Phinney — Weekly and Seasonal
Changes in Total Suspended Particulate Concentrations at
Indianapolis, Indiana 312
D. E. Linvill and R. F. Dale — Temperature and Relative Hu-
midity Inside Corn Canopies and in Standard Shelters during
July and August, 1970 and 1971 319
"Abstract or Note only
Table of Contents xi
Page
W. L. Stirm, M. Bauer and 0. Loewer, Jr. — Predicting Southern
Corn Leaf Blight Development in 1971 by Computer Simu-
lator EPIMAY 325
E. J. Monke and R. M. Alverson — Some Effects of Soil and
Ambient Air Temperature Differences on Tomato Growth . . . 330
Zoology
K. Abler and D. H. Taylor — Perception of the Plane of Polarized
Light and its Use by Orienting Salamanders* 339
C. E. Mays and M. A. Nickerson — A Population Study of the
Ozark Hellbender Salamander, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
bishopi* 339
J. H. Clark, J. A. Anderson and E. J. Peck, Jr. — Specific
Estrogen Binding Sites in the Nuclear Fraction of the Rat
Uterus* . 340
A. Lairje and N. A. Dial — Effects of Differentiated Brain on the
Development of the Nervous System of the Explanted Chick
Embryo* 340
T. Joseph — Coccidial Immunity Studies in the Grey Squirrel* . . . 341
K. Belcher — Relationship between Metabolic and Emergency
Rhythms in Drosophila melanogaster* 341
R. L. Suddith — Sites of Cell Proliferation in a Colonial Hydroid,
Campanularia flexuosa . 342
R. S. Benda — Fish Populations in the White River near Peters-
burg, Indiana* . 343
N. A. Dial — Some Effects of Methylmercury on Early Frog
Development* 343
Susan L. Donaldson, J. L. Albright and W. C. Black — Primary
Social Relationships and Cattle Behavior 345
Susan L. Donaldson, J. L. Albright and Mary Ann Ross — Space
and Conflict in Cattle 352
D. R. Goins — A Check List of Freshwater Ostracods of Indiana —
Including Sixteen New Recordings and a Description of Two
New Species 355
D. R. Lank, Jr. — Parasites of the Bullfrog in Indiana . . .... 359
Virginia R. Ferris and J. M. Ferris — Distribution of Free-living
Soil Nematodes of the Belondiroidea in Indiana and the
United States 365
R. L. Richards — The Woodrat in Indiana: Recent Fossils 370
J. O. Whitaker, Jr., and R. E. Mumford — Notes on Occurrence
and Reproduction of Bats in Indiana 376
*Abstract or Note only
xii Indiana Academy of Science
Page
W. C. Houtcooper — Rodent Seed Supply and Burrows of Peromys-
cus in Cultivated Fields 384
L. G. Martin, T. F. Myers and Grace E. Wertenberger — Effect of
Aging on Ability to Acclimate to Chronic Hypoxia of Simulated
Altitude 390
W. G. Gunther and M. W. Wagner — Preferences for Natural and
Artificial Sweeteners in Heat-Stressed Chicks of Different
Ages 401
Instructions for Contributors 410
Index 413
Cumulative Index Volumes 71-80 423
PARTI
THE WORK
OF THE
ACADEMY
1971
Samuel N. Postlethwait, President
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1971
OFFICERS
President Samuel N. Postlethwait, Purdue University
President-elect Otto K. Behrens, Eli Lilly & Co.
Secretary J. Dan Webster, Hanover College
Treasurer Damian V. Schmelz, St. Meinrad College
Editor Marion T. Jackson, Indiana State University
Director of Public Relations . Paul E. Klinge, Indiana University
Program Chairmen . ...Carrolle A. Markle and W. K. Stephenson,
Earlham College
DIVISIONAL CHAIRMEN
Anthropology .William R. Adams, Indiana University
Botany .James R. Rees, Anderson College
Cell Biology ... ......... .William J. Griffing, Eli Lilly & Co.
Chemistry .. ... ...... Wilmer J. Stratton, Earlham College
Ecology .................. Carl H. Krekeler, Valparaiso University
Engineering Robert L. Swaim, Purdue University
Entomology Robert E. Dolphin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Geography and Geology .Charles E. Wier, Dept. of Natural Resources
Microbiology and Molecular Biology Robert F. Ramaley
Indiana University
Physics .Malcolm E. Hults, Ball State University
Plant Taxonomy Fay K. Daily, Butler University
Science Education .Kenneth W. Uhlhorn, Indiana State University
Soil Science .................. Russell K. Stivers, Purdue University
Zoology .....William J. Brett, Indiana State University
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
(Past Presidents*, Current Officers, Divisional Chairmen,
Adams, W. R.
Behrens, 0. K.
Brett, W. J.
Brooker, R. M.
Chandler, L.
*Christy, O. B.
*Cleland, R. F.
Coats, Nellie
Daily, Fay K.
*Daily, W. A.
*Day, Harry G.
Dhonan, C. A.
Dolphin, R. E.
*Edington, W. E.
*Edwards, P. D.
*Girton, R. E.
Griffing, W. J.
Committee Chairmen)
*Guard, A. T.
*Guthrie, F. A.
*Haenisch, E. L.
Hopp, W. B.
Hults, M. E.
Jackson, M. T.
*Johnson, W. H.
Kaufman, K. L.
Kessel, W. G.
Klinge, P. E.
Krekeler, C. H.
* Lilly, Eli
*Lindsey, A. A.
* Markle, Carrolle A.
McBurney, W. F.
*Mellon, M. G.
* Meyer, A. H.
*MlCHAUD, H. H.
* Morgan, W. P.
MOULTON, B.
Newman, J. E.
Nisbet, J.
Patton, J. B.
Petty, R. 0.
Postlethwait, S. N.
* Powell, H. M.
Ramaley, R. F.
Rees, J. R.
Schmelz, D. V.
Stephenson, W. K.
Stratton, W. J.
Stivers, R. K.
*Wayne, W. J.
*Weatherwax, P.
:;
4 Indiana Academy of Science
Webster, J. D. *Welcher, F. J. Winslow, D. R.
*Welch, Winona H. Wier, C. E. *Youse, H. R.
Williams, E. C.
BUDGET COMMITTEE
President, Samuel N. Postlethwait; President-elect, Otto K. Beh-
Rens; Secretary, J. Dan Webster; Treasurer, Damian V. Schmelz;
Editor, Marion T. Jackson; Director of Public Relations, Paul
E. Klinge; Retiring President, Frank A. Guthrie; Director of
Junior Academy, Donald R. Winslow; Library Committee, Nellie
Coats; Relation of Academy to State, William A. Daily; Program
Chairmen, William K. Stephenson and Carrolle A. Markle.
COMMITTEES ELECTED BY THE ACADEMY
Academy Foundation: William A. Daily, 1972, Chairman; W. P.
Morgan, 1971.
Bonding: Robert M. Brooker, 1971, Chairman; Howard H. Michaud,
1971.
Research Grants: James E. Newman, 1973, Chairman; Nelson R.
Easton, 1974; John B. Patton, 1972; William K. Stephenson,
1971; Winona H. Welch, 1975.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE PRESIDENT
(President an ex officio member of all committees.)
Academy Representative on the Council of the A.A.A.S.: Willis H.
Johnson.
Auditing Committee: C. A. Dhonan, Chairman; Robert E. Dolphin.
Youth Activities Committee: Paul E. Klinge, Chairman; Sr. Mary
Alexandria; Robert M. Brooker; Jerry Colglazier; John V.
Davis; William Field; Emil Hoffman; Karl L. Kaufman;
Ralph W. Lefler; Wendell F. McBurney; James D. Schwengel;
Donald R. Winslow.
Indiana Science Talent Search: Mark Bambenek; Robert L. Henry;
Wendell F. McBurney ; Alfred R. Schmidt; Howard R.
Youse; Harold L. Zimmack.
Indiana Science Fairs, State Coordinator: Karl L. Kaufman.
Indiana Science Fairs, Regional Fair Directors: P. V. Flannery,
Calumet; A. C. Koester, Northwestern; Harry Weimer, Northern;
A. W. Friedel, Northeastern; William W. Hill, Jr., N.E. Tri-
State; William J. Fischang, Lafayette; William F. Phillips,
West Central; George W. Welker, East Central; William
Gommel, Central; W. F. McBurney, South Central; Richard
L. Conklin, Southeastern; H. A. Schleter, Tri-State.
Indiana Junior Academy of Science Council: Donald R. Winslow,
1975, Chairman; Sr. Mary Alexandra, 1972; Mary J. Pettersen,
1973; Lawrence Poorman, 1974; Helen Reed, 1971.
Officers and Committees 5
Library Committee: Lois Burton, Chairman; Nellie Coats; William
R. Eberly; John W. Klotz; Eli Lilly.
Program Committee: Carrolle Markle and William Stephenson,
Co-Chairmen.
Publications Committee: Marion T. Jackson, Chairman; Marion F.
Baumgardner; Harry G. Day; William R. Eberly ; Wilton N.
Melhorn; John F. Pelton; B. K. Swartz, Jr.
Newsletter: Frank A. Guthrie.
Relation of the Academy to the State of Indiana: William A. Daily,
Chairman; James A. Clark; William R. Eberly; Helmut
Kohnke.
Membership Committee: Marvin Schreiber, Chairman; Eliot C
Williams.
Fellows Committee: Ben Moulton, 1973, Chairman; James A.
Ahlrichs, 1973; Charles E. Brambel, 1973; Richard L.
Conklin, 1971; Sears Crowell, 1972; Fay K. Daily, 1971;
William W. Davis, 1973; Robert E. Gordon, 1972; Charles B.
Heiser, 1971; Donald E. Miller, 1971; B. E. Montgomery, 1972;
Georg K. Neumann, 1972; John Pelton, 1972.
Resolutions Committee: Arthur T. Guard, Chairman; Howard R.
Youse, Robert 0. Petty.
Invitations Committee: James R. Gammon, Chairman; Alton A.
Lindsey; James C. List; Paul R. Quinney; William K.
Stephenson.
Parliamentarian: Paul Weatherwax.
SPECIAL COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE PRESIDENT
Biological Survey Committee: Leland Chandler, Chairman; Jack
E. Humbles; Gayton C. Marks; Russell E. Mumford; Jack R.
Munsee; Winona H. Welch; Frank N. Young.
Emeritus Member Selection Committee: Ralph E. Cleland, Chair-
man; Robert H. Cooper, Edward L. Haenisch; Howard Michaud;
Winona H. Welch ; J. Dan Webster.
Preservation of Scientific Areas Committee: Robert 0. Petty,
Chairman; Ray Gutschick; Carl H. Krekeler; Carrolle
Markle; Ben Moulton; Damian V. Schmelz; Robert Weber;
Winona H. Welch.
"Speaker of the Year" Selection Committee: Ralph E. Cleland,
Chairman; Willis H. Johnson; A. J. Ullstrup.
Science and Society Committee: Willis H. Johnson, Chairman;
Ralph E. Cleland; Harry G. Day; William R. Eberly; Alton
A. Lindsey; Paul E. Klinge; Robert D. Miles; Robert Menke;
Robert E. Gordon; Milton Burton; John B. Patton; D. James
Morre; Herman B. Wells, Honorary; Helmut Kohnke,
Executive Secretary.
Member, Indiana Natural Resources Commission: Samuel N.
POSTLETHWAIT.
SPRING MEETING
Mary Gray Bird Sanctuary, Fayette County, Indiana
MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
April 23, 1971
The meeting was called to order at 4:39 pm by President
Samuel Posthlethwait in Earl Brooks Hall, Mary Gray Bird Sanctuary,
near Connersville. Nineteen members were present. The president re-
ported briefly, chiefly noting- points of the agenda which were
considered later in the meeting. The secretary moved the approval of
the minutes of the November 5, 1970, meeting, which had been
duplicated and distributed. Seconded and carried.
Treasurer: Rev. Damian V. Schmelz distributed duplicated copies
of his report for the period January 1 to April 23, 1971. It was moved,
seconded, and carried that it be accepted.
Academy Foundation Committee: William A. Daily, Chairman,
reported that legal counsel had been retained to clarify the tax status
of the academy with the United States Internal Revenue Service. He
moved that attorney Donald G. Sutherland be granted Power of
Attorney to act for the academy in tax matters. Seconded and
carried. (This action had previously been taken by the Council.)
Bonding Committee: Robert M. Brooker, Chairman, recommended
no change in our program.
Academy Representative on the A.A.A.S. Council: Willis H. Johnson,
Representative, reported the following interesting actions at the
December, 1970, meeting of the council: 1) Passed resolution recom-
mending phaseout of the use of herbicides in Southeast Asia; 2) Passed
resolution recommending that all scientists start using the metric
system in their publications and also recommending that the government
establish a national policy on its use; 3) Passed resolution reaffirming
its commitment to equal opportunity for all scientists regardless
of sex, race, creed or national origin.
A new rule of the A.A.A.S. requires representatives from affiliated
organizations (such as ours) to serve 2-or-more-year terms. It was
moved that the constitution of the academy be amended as follows:
(italicized words added)
"Article V, Section 1. The following named committees shall be ap-
pointed by the President, to serve for one year, except as noted other-
wise below and except as rotation is provided, and except as otherwise
provided they shall be announced . . .
"(1) The Academy Representative on the Council of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. This person
shall serve for a three-year term beginning January 1, 1972,
and every 3 years thereafter.
"(2) Auditing. . ." Seconded and carried.
6
Minutes of the Executive Committee 7
Auditing Committee: Robert Dolphin, Chairman, stated that no
report was necessary at this time of year.
Library Committee: Mrs. Lois Burton, Chairwoman, reported that
in December the Academy received a grant of $15,000 from Lilly
Endowment, Inc., to be expended in general support of the John
Shepard Wright Memorial Library. The amount is on the Treasurer's
books as Lilly Fund IV. We plan to begin carrying out provisions under
this grant during the coming summer.
A second mailing of Volume 79 of the Proceedings has been com-
pleted, courtesy of the Indiana State Library. The total number mailed
to members to date is 1,127.
Monograph Number 2 has been received and is ready for mailing
under our Exchange program to libraries, universities, and scientific
societies.
Some sales of Natural Features of Indiana were made. Sixty-five
copies remain in stock.
Program Committee: Mrs. Carroll A. Markle reported no prob-
lems.
Publications Committee: Marion T. Jackson, Editor, reported that
Monograph 2 has been published and will be distributed free to members
who request it, pending investigation of costs and past actions of this
committee. Volume 80 of the Proceedings will be published about
September and will be larger than the last volume. The possibility of
page charges or of a limitation of allowable published papers per year
per member should be considered for future volumes.
Relation of Academy to State of Indiana: William A. Daily, Chair-
man, reported that no change had been made in the State's budget
allowance for publication of the Proceedings.
Membership Committee: Eliot C. Williams, Chairman, reported
no radical changes.
Invitations Committee: The secretary reported official approval
from Indiana Central College of that school as our meeting site for 1973.
Emeritus Members Committee: The secretary read a report from
Chairman Ralph Cleland which recommended that Ralph W. Lefler be
elected to emeritus status. It was moved, seconded, and carried that Dr.
Lefler be so elected.
Natural Areas Committee: Rev. Damian V. Schmelz reported that
the registry of natural areas in the state has been extended, intensified,
and more effectively computerized.
Speaker of the Year Committee: The committee consisted of Ralph
F. Cleland (chairman), Willis H. Johnson (reporting), and Arnold
Ullstrup. Willis Johnson moved that,
8 Indiana Academy of Science
The Special Lecturer should be paid an honorarium of $500.00 by
the Academy.
A committee should select the Special Lecturer each year. While
the Executive Committee might do this and the contacting of the
colleges, you may prefer to appoint a special committee for this purpose.
If you decide on a special committee of three, each should serve three
years except in the beginning when one should serve for three years,
one for two, and one for one. Thus, after the first year one new member
would be appointed by the President each year.
The job of the committee would be two-fold: 1) to select the
speaker, and 2) to contact the colleges.
The speaker should be a member of the Academy (preferably). He
should be a forceful speaker, able to communicate with young
people. His subject should be relevant. It might be on his research, but
it should be related to social problems. On the other hand, it might be
on a social problem or problems not directly related to his research. The
committee should know the subject of a prospective speaker before he
is selected. It is understood that the speaker will give his lecture before
the fall meeting of the Academy, preferably in a session immediately
following the lunch period. This lecture will be printed in the Proceed-
ings of the Indiana Academy. In addition to the lecture before the
Academy, the speaker will give his lecture at four or five colleges in
the state. It is understood that this is a program for the colleges of the
state. The second job of the committee each year will be to contact the
colleges where the speaker will give his lecture. Once a college has been
served it should not be contacted again for a special lecturer until all
of the colleges of the state have had an opportunity to have a special
lecturer. It may be that the committee will want to select colleges in
a particular region of the state for a given year. It is understood that
the colleges will pay for any meals and lodging involved in the visit;
the colleges will not pay an honorarium.
Seconded and carried.
Willis H. Johnson moved that the speaker of the year for 1971 be
Alton A. Lindsey, with first alternate William R. Breneman and the
second alternate Charles B. Heiser, Jr. Seconded and carried.
Science and Society Committee: Willis H. Johnson, Chairman,
reported that the committee and its Executive Director, Helmut
Kohnke, had been able to advise several branches of the state and city
governments concerning environmental and other scientific problems.
The President reported that a group of engineers at Purdue Uni-
versity had requested the formation of an Engineering Section of the
Academy. It was moved by Rev. Damian V. Schmelz, seconded, and
carried, that an Engineering Section be organized at the 1971 fall meet-
ing; that the section follow all appropriate procedures and restrictions
consistent with the constitution and by-laws of the Academy. The
President appointed Robert L. Swaim Chairman for 1971.
Minutes of the Executive Committee 9
Marion T. Jackson reported the recent death of Georg K. Neumann,
who was the elected 1971 chairman of the Anthropology Section. The
President appointed William R. Adams Chairman for the remainder of
the year.
There was an extended discussion of some recent attributions by
news media of "official Indiana Academy of Science" positions to public
statements by certain members. Mrs. Fay K. Daily moved that the
Parliamentarian draft a disavowal statement for publication by the
Academy, disassociating the academy officially from all public
statements by its members. The motion was seconded; a vote by show
of hands was tied. It was moved by Willis H. Johnson, seconded, and
carried that the motion be tabled until next meeting.
The President requested an investigation of the possibility of hiring
an Executive Secretary. No objection being raised, consent was
declared.
The President stated :
"The President of the Academy by law is the official appointee
to the Natural Resources Commission. It is believed that it would
serve the best interests of the Academy and the Natural Resources
Commission if the law were changed to permit the appointee to
be the president or his representative."
It was moved by Willis H. Johnson, seconded, and carried that the
Academy petition the Indiana State Natural Resources Commission and
the legislature of the State of Indiana to change the law so that the
member of the Natural Resources Commission not be "The President
of the Indiana Academy of Science", but, rather, "The President of the
Indiana Academy of Science or his designated representative."
On motion the meeting adjourned at 6:32 PM.
Approved October 28, 1971.
Respectfully submitted,
J. Dan Webster, Secretary
MINUTES OF THE GENERAL SESSION
April 23, 1971
The meeting was called to order by President Samuel N. Postleth-
wait at 7:49 PM in Earl Brooks Hall, Mary Gray Bird Sanctuary, near
Connersville. Thirty members were present.
The secretary moved the following proposed amendment to the by-
laws of the Academy —
Article III, Section 1. Delete the last clause, reading, "provided
that any bill for fifty dollars or more shall be approved by the presi-
dent." As a result, Article III, Section 1, would read: "The treasurer
is authorized to issue checks in payment of bills submitted by
officers or committees for which provision has been made in the
budget for that year."
Seconded and carried. (This was the second passage; the amend-
ment is now effective.)
A. T. Guard moved the following resolution —
The Indiana Academy of Science members and friends here
assembled express their most sincere appreciation to Dr. Carrolle
A. Markle and Dr. W. K. Stephenson for the fine program which
they have arranged. Our sincere thanks are extended to the officials
of the Indiana Audubon Society and especially to Mr. and Mrs.
Denzil Barricklow, Resident Naturalists of the Mary Gray Bird
Sanctuary, for making their facilities available to us.
Our thanks also go to Dr. Gary Barrett of Miami University
for his timely, instructive and interesting address on "The New
Ecology".
We also wish to express our appreciation to those ladies who
served us such excellent meals.
Our appreciation is extended to the leaders of the various field
trips which are always such an integral part of the spring meeting
of the Academy.
Seconded and carried.
Dr. Carrolle A. Markle announced details of field trips and meals.
The evening feature was an illustrated lecture by Gary Barrett entitled
"The New Ecology".
The meeting adjourned at 9:15 pm.
Approved October 28, 1971.
Respectfully submitted,
J. Dan Webster, Secretary
10
FALL MEETING
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana
MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
October 28, 1971
The meeting- was called to order at 7:47 pm by President Samuel
N. Postlethwait in the Orchard Room of Runyan Center, Earlham
College. Twenty-two members were present at the start; ten more came
in later. The secretary moved the approval of the minutes of the
executive committee and general session meetings of April 23, 1971, as
duplicated and distributed. Seconded and carried.
Treasurer: Rev. Damian V. Schmelz presented his report for the
period January 1 through October 28, 1971, as follows:
Academy accounts
Income $ 5,759.03
Expenditure 5,865.49
Net loss 106.46
Balance December 31, 1970 10,296.09
Balance October 28, 1971 10,189.63
Administered accounts
Income 39,586.79
Expenditure 47,005.93
Net loss 7,419.14
Balance December 31, 1970 43,920.55
Balance October 28, 1970 36,501.41
It was moved by the Treasurer, seconded, and carried that the report
be accepted. (On all following committee reports, action, unless noted
otherwise, was accepted by general consent.)
Bonding Committee: Robert M. Brooker, Chairman, wrote in,
recommending- no change in our program.
Director of Public Relations: Paul Klinge wrote in, reporting* ex-
cellent press coverage during the past year.
Research Committee: James E. Newman, Chairman, reported the
following grants in 1971 :
J. Dan Webster (Hanover College). Breeding bird censuses in
Indiana old growth forests $ 378.
Robert E. Pace (Indiana State University). Aerial survey of
archeological sites in the Lower Wabash Valley $ 505.
Paul T. McKelvey (Tippewa Tech. Institute). Study of water
quality of the Tippecanoe River $ 530.
D. James Morre (Purdue University). Chlorinated hydrocarbons
and egg shell changes $ 500.
11
12 Indiana Academy of Science
Winona H. Welch (DePauw University). Hookeriaceae in the
West Indies $ 200.
Damian V. Schmelz (St. Meinrad College). A comparative study
of the physical environment and biotic elements of three
strip-mine lakes $ 299.
Charles E. Mays (DePauw University). To continue a study of
salamander and turtle populations on the North Fork River
in Ozark County, Missouri, $ 450.
Total grants approved $2,862.
Also, one more proposal is under consideration and another from
last year has been extended. A manuscript by Sherman Minton, "Rep-
tiles and Amphibians of Indiana," has been approved by the Publications
Committee as Monograph No. 3; the research committee will consider
underwriting the publication cost.
Academy Representative to the A.A.A.S. Council: Willis H. John-
son reported no actions by the council relevant to our Academy,
Youth Activities Committee: A written report by Paul E. Klinge,
Chairman, was presented by Donald R. Winslow. The anti-animal-
experimentation rule set up by the National Science Talent Search still
hampers Indiana student biologists. Reorganization of the entire youth
program is under discussion, but no proposals are ready.
Science Talent Search Committee: A report was written in by
Wendell F. McBurney, Director. The report was accepted, but no action
was taken on the request to support the position of the Indiana
Science Talent Search Committee regarding experimentation on
vertebrate animals.
Science Fairs: A report was written in by Karl Kaufman,
director.
Indiana Junior Academy of Science: Donald R. Winslow presented
his report and distributed copies of the program for the forthcoming
Saturday meeting. It appears that a valuable and interesting meeting
for high school students is scheduled. It will include a report on a
successful high school applied ecology program, six invited research
reports by high school students, an address by Lawrence E. Poorman,
and a tour of the Earlham College research facilities.
Library Committee: Mrs. Lois Burton, Chairwoman, reported that
600 square feet of additional floor space have been obtained, but without
the needed shelving. Four hundred volumes have been bound. Sixty-
six additional journals have been received as exchange; more are being
sought.
Trustees of the Academy Foundation: William A. Daily gave this
annual report, as of September 30, 1971 —
I. Foundation fund
Last year's balance $ 979.96
Receipts 897.05
Minutes of the Executive Committee 13
Disbursements .............. ........... 300.00
Balance 536.57
Market value of securities held $ 19,472.00
II. John S. Wright fund
Last year's balance ..........................$ 16,627.99
Receipts ... 16,917.19
Disbursements ................................. 14,590.11
Balance ....................................... 18,955.07
Market value of securities held .............. ,$596,440.00
Program Committee: Mrs. Carrolle A. Markle, Co-chairman, re-
ported that no serious problems were handicapping her committee,
Publications Committee: Marion T. Jackson, Editor and Chair-
man, reported. The cost of the current Volume 80 of the Proceedings
now being distributed, has risen sharply over preceding years, but no
final figure is yet available. The size increase was 9% in the divisional
reports section; had there not been a more careful review system ini-
tiated, this increase would doubtless have been much greater. The
10-year index is due in Volume 81.
Frank A. Guthrie moved that Monograph No. 2 and all subsequent
monographs be sold to members at one-half price; it was seconded and
carried. (The vague action on the same subject taken April 23, 1971—
see minutes — is herewith rescinded.)
Newsletter: Frank Guthrie, Editor, reported that the last issue
came out in December, and that the next will be published in November
1971.
Relation of Academy to the State of Indiana: As it has for many
years, the legislature in 1971 appropriated $4,000 per year for the next
two fiscal years to aid printing of the Proceedings.
Fellows Committee: Benjamin Moulton, Chairman, moved the elec-
tion of these 7 members to the rank of Fellow of the Academy —
Robert E. Dolphin Holm W. Neumann
John D. Favinger B. K. Swartz, Jr.
John W. Hart Gertrude L. Ward
Edward V. McMichael
The motion was seconded and carried.
Invitations Committee: A report was written in by James R.
Gammon, Chairman. We will meet at St. Mary's College in 1972, at
Indiana Central College in 1973, and at DePauw University in 1974.
Preservation of Scientific and Natural Areas Committee: Robert
O. Petty, Chairman, reported that a current listing of 429 areas and
their outstanding features is on magnetic computer tape and available
on request.
Speaker of the Year Committee: Willis H. Johnson, Chairman
pro tern, reported that the list of colleges where speaker of the year
Alton A. Lindsey would appear was under consideration.
14 Indiana Academy of Science
Science and Society Committee: The death of Ralph F. Cleland
has been acutely felt by the committee.
A booth which was operated with much effort at the recent state
fair resulted in some publicity.
Special Committee on Executive Secretary: Jerry Nisbet, Chair-
man, reported that his committee had decided that the idea of having
an Executive Secretary was valid, but expensive. At present, it is beyond
our means unless we can find a considerable new source of funds.
When the President called for old business, Mrs. Fay K. Daily
called for her tabled motion from the April 23, 1971 meeting. (See page
9.) Mrs. Daily stated that her motion should read: "The
Indiana Academy of Science shall not be responsible for public
statements of opinion of its members concerning governmental or
political matters." After further discussion, the motion was put to a
vote by show of hands; it was defeated. In discussion, all were agreed
that the Academy must be chary of expressing opinions on political or
governmental matters officially. However, public expressions by
members, or even officers, not based on official actions may be reported
in the public news media as the news media prefer. Alton A. Lindsey
moved that any statements made by him, as Speaker of the Year, in
1971-72 be considered individual opinions and not official positions of
the Academy. Seconded and carried.
New business was called for. William J. Brett suggested the estab-
lishment of an animal behavior section, or at least the investigation
of such a possibility for next year. Rev. Damian V. Schmelz moved that
the annual dues schedule be increased to: Regular $6, Family $8, Student
$3, with no change in the initiation fee; the motion was seconded. Frank
A. Guthrie moved to amend so that the action was merely a recommen-
dation to the budget committee and council at their forthcoming
December 4, 1971 meeting; the amendment was seconded and
carried. Helmut Kohnke moved to amend to increase the recommended
dues schedule to $8, $10, and $4 but abolishing the initiation fee;
this amendment was seconded, but defeated. The original motion was
carried as amended.
A showing of his pictures from the Galapagos Islands by Robert
Cooper after the close of the meeting was announced.
The meeting adjourned on motion at 10:39 pm.
Approved April 28, 1972.
Respectfully submitted,
J. Dan Webster, Secretary
GENERAL SESSION—OCTOBER 29, 1971
RICHMOND, INDIANA
President Postlethwait called the meeting to order at 2:07 pm in
Wilkinson Theater of Runyan Center, Earlham College. Provost Helen
Hole welcomed us to Earlham College in a few gracious words. The sec-
retary read a brief summary of the actions of the executive committee
at its meeting last night, and moved its acceptance. Seconded and
carried. The secretary moved approval of the following amendment to
the constitution; which had been passed by the executive committee
on April 23, 1971 :
Article V, Section 1. The following named committees shall
be appointed by the President, to serve for one year, except as noted
otherwise below and except as rotation is provided, and except as
otherwise provided they shall be announced . . .
(1) The academy representative on the council of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. This person shall serve
for a three-year term beginning 1 January 1972 and every 3 years
thereafter.
(2) Auditing . . ,
(added words italicized)
Seconded and carried.
Mrs. Fay K. Daily named the members of the Academy who had
died during the past year. (See Necrology Report, page 27.) A
moment of silence was observed in their honor.
As speaker of the year, Dr. Alton A. Lindsey gave an outstanding
lecture, "The Role of Scientists in the Preparation and Evaluation of
the New Environmental Impact Statement Requirement." Recent history
of the federal government shows encouraging new laws for protecting
the environment, much lip service to conservation by many politicans,
but little real protection of the environment.
The meeting was temporarily adjourned at 3:15 PM.
The meeting was recalled to order at 8:08 pm, after dinner in the
Friend's Room of Earlham Hall by President-elect Behrens. The secre-
tary read these results of the elections of chairman in the various
sections :
Section 1972 Chairman 1973 Chairman-elect
Anthropology Edward Dolan
Botany Willard F. Yates C. L. Gehring
Cell Biology Charles W. Goff
Chemistry Richard Pilger William Nevill
Ecology Alton A. Lindsey
Engineering Robert Swaim
Entomology Claude F. Wade Walter J. Weber
15
16 Indiana Academy of Science
Section 1972 Chairman 1973 Chairman-elect
Geography-Geology Richard L. Powell Arther Mirsky
Micro-and
Molecular Biology Morris Pollard
Physics Torsten Alvager Peter Skadron
Plant Taxonomy Gerald Gastony Ted Crovello
Science Education Frederick K. Ault Jack Brewer
Soil Science Christian Johannsen William R. Gommel
Zoology Dorothy Adalis
Dr. Arthur T. Guard moved the following resolution — —
Members of the Indiana Academy of Science, here assembled,
wish to express our sincere thanks to Earlham College for opening
their facilities to us for our meetings. We are also grateful to
Provost Helen Hole for her warm words of welcome. Our thanks
also go to Dr. A. A. Lindsey for his timely, instructive and
interesting address. We extend our appreciation to Carrolle A.
Markle axid William K. Stephenson, co-chairmen of the program
committee, for their careful planning of the many details associated
with o ir meeting and also to the chairmen of the various
divisions: meetings that make the fall meeting both stimulating
and instructive.
It was seconded and carried. The resolutions committee consisted
of Robert O. Petty, Howard R. Youse, and A. T. Guard, Chairman.
The nominating committee (Harry G. Day, Chairman, A. T. Guard,
and Frank A. Guthrie) presented the following slate of candidates for
office — For President-elect, William B. Hopp. For Treasurer
(1972-75), Clyde R. Metz. For Trustee of the Academy Foundation,
Damian Schmelz. For Bonding Committee, Robert Brooker and John A.
Ricketts. For Research Grants Committee (1972-76), Kenneth E.
Nichols. A. T. Guard moved that these men be nominated and that we
cast a unanimous ballot for their election. Seconded and carried.
Samuel Postlethwait presented a study of his methods of teaching
botany, entitled, "Individualized Study for Today's Student." It was
thought-provoking for all teachers, and well illustrated by movies and
still photographs.
The meeting adjourned, on motion, at 9:15 PM.
Approved April 28, 1972.
Respectfully submitted,
J. Dan Webster, Secretary
FINANCIAL REPORT OF THE
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
JANUARY 1— DECEMBER 31, 1971
I. ACADEMY ACCOUNTS
Income
Dues $ 3,866.00
Interest 2,227.39
Secretary
Clerical ..........................
Postage, etc. ..................... $ 421.3©
Treasurer ............................
Clerical 29.00
Postage, etc. 204.16
Office
Travel, AAAS Dues
Transfer to Adm. Accts.
Proceedings: Pub. ................ 500.00
Proceedings : Mailing 100.00
Library Binding ................. 1,000.00
Science & Society 600.00
Natural Areas 575.00
President's Fund .....................
Membership Comm. ..................
Junior Academy
Program Committee
1970 Meetings ...................
Chairman 20.00
Printing . 214.00
1971 Meetings ...................
Chairman ....................... 174.29
Printing .... 239.79
Mailing ......................... 59.10
Publications : Editor ..................
Speaker of the Year ................
Honorarium
Administrative ...................
Newsletter
$ 6,093.39
Reprints : Vol. 78 270.00
Vol. 79 . 706.55
Vol. 80 .......................... 1,730.70
Miscellaneous
Attorney Fees 3,460.49
Bonding Fee 63.00
Public Relations ................. 15.00
$ 8,800.64
Expenditure Budgeted
$ 421.30
233.15
400.00
500.00
225.00
143.45
175.00
171.30
180.0H
!,775.00
.-,(!«.. 110
100.00
1,000.00
600.00
575.00
100.00
76.00
104.37
200,110
707.18
000.00
400.00
JiOO.OO
500.00
50.00
105.68
100.00
$ 5,561.43
$ 5,880.00
2,790.70
3,638.49
$11,890.62
i;
IK
Indiana Academy of Science
II. administered accounts
January 1
Balance
Science Talent .9 1,834.37
Science Fairs ............ ........ 2,310.98
Science & Society .................... 811.82
Research ............................ 6,118.57
Natural Areas ....................... — 13.50
J. S. Wright Library 134.28
Lilly III Library 2,922.82
Lilly IV Library .................... 15,000.00
Library Binding ..................... 1,033.55
Publications 997.01
NSF Grant .......................... 12,770.65
1971
Income
$ 1,600.00
21,891.32
600.00
6,554.00
575.00
1,000.00
8,668.39
8,349.97
$43,920.55 $49,238.
1971
Expenditure
$ 1,587.73
21,472.01
9,634.80
310.00
182.09
3,966.75
2,033.15
8,168.39
15,667.79
$63,022.71
December
Balance
$ 1
2
1
3
,846.64
,730.29
,411.82
,037.77
251.50
134.28
,740.73
,033.25
0.40
,497.01
,452.83
$30,136.52
III. SUMMARY
Academy
Accounts
1971 Income .................................. $ 8,800.64
1971 Expenditure ................ ......... 11,890.62
Net Loss 1971 ................................ —3,089.98
1970 Balance ................................. 10,296.09
December 31, 1971 Balance ................... 7,206.11
Administered
Accounts
$49,238.68
63,022.71
—13,784.03
43,920.55
30,136.52
Total
$58,039.32
74,913.33
-16,874.01
54,216.64
37,342.63
IV. BANK BALANCES
Terre Haute First National Bank, Terre Haute, Indiana ......$ 4,365.32
Great Western Savings & Loan, Los Angeles, California .................. 11,602.80
First Western Savings & Loan, Las Vegas, Nevada 21,374.51
$37,342.63
Rev. Damian V. Schmelz, Treasurer
December 31, 1971
January 19, 1972
We, the undersigned, have audited the Treasurer's records for the Indiana Academy
of Science for the year 1971 and have found them to be accurate and in order.
Curtis A. Dhonan
Robert E. Dolphin
January 19, 1972
Financial Report 19
budget for 1972
Anticipated Income
Dues, Initiation and Reinstatement Fees $ 5,800.00
Interest on Savings 1,200.00
Reprints : Net Profit on Sale to Authors 125.00
$ 7,125.00
Budgeted Expenditures :
Secretary . $ 500.00
Treasurer . 225.00
Office ........ . . 175.00
Officer Travel Allowance, AAAS Conference Dues, etc. 180.00
President's Fund 100.00
Membership Committee 150.00
Program Committee . 600.00
Proceedings : Editor's Travel and Office Expenses . 500.00
Youth Activities : Chairman 50.00
Public Relations : Director 50.00
Speaker of the Year
Honorarium 500.00
Administrative 50.00
Newsletter ........ 150.00
CPA Fees : Tax Forms and Auditing 500.00
Transfers to Administrative Accounts 3,025.00
Publications : Publication of Proceedings ..............$ 500.00
Publications : Mailing of Proceedings 150.00
Library Binding 1,000.00
Science & Society 600.00
Natural Areas 575.00
Junior Academy . 200.00
$ 6,755.00
Approved by the Budget Committee at the meeting held at the Indiana State Library,
Indianapolis, on December 4, 1971.
20 Indiana Academy of Science
NOTES
Membership Dues — According to the Treasurer's records, the current status may be
summarized as follows : 892 paid, emeritus, life, and honorary members and clubs ;
105 on file from 1970 but not yet paid for 1971 ; 15 resigned or lost by
reason of no current address ; 5 deceased during this year ; 103 new members
(last ones to begin during 1972) ; 6 previous members reinstated during the year.
Our attorney has confirmed that we may increase dues during 1972 according to
Phase II legislation. Accordingly : $6.00 regular and high school club memberships ;
$3.00 student membership ; $8.00 family membership ; $1.00 initiation fee for regular,
club, and student ; $2.00 initiation fee for family.
Interest — The Treasurer, from the total assets of both Academy and Administered
Accounts, has maintained sufficient funds in the checking account to pay current
bills throughout the year ; the remainder has been invested in savings certificates :
Certificates redeemed during 1971. 1) $10,000.00 invested at 5.25% February 1971;
September 1971 redeemption value $10,324.81. 2) $5,000.00 invested at 5.25% April
1971; September 1971 redeemption value $5,139.09. 3) $5,000.00 invested at 5.75%
February 1971; December 1971 redeemption value $5,185.29.
Certificates current: 1) $10,000.00 invested at 6.00% April 1970; current value
$10,941.86; maturity April 1972. 2) $5,000.00 invested at 5.75% April 1971; current
value $5,205.39; maturity April 1972. 3) $4,465.07 invested at 5.75% April 1970;
current value $4,938.07; maturity March 1973. 4) $6,000.00 invested at 6.00% April
1970; current value $6,664.73; maturity March 1973. 5) $5,000.00 invested at 5.75%
October 1971 ; current value $5,061.87 ; maturity October 1972.
Treasurer — Expenditure exceeded budget mainly due to considerable amount of xeroxing
materials and telephone calls relative to work with the attorney on tax status
problems.
Program Committee — Expenditure exceeded budget due to some 1970 bills which arrived
months late.
Newsletter — Expenditure exceeded budget this first year for the newsletter. Next
year's budget has been increased.
Reprints — Volumes 78 & 79 appeared in 1970. Payments by authors were not
completed until this year; this account showed a deficit in 1970; net profit to
the Academy = $572.54.
Volume 80 appeared this year. Currently more than one third still owe for reprints.
Anticipated profit = $125.00.
The profit to the Academy pays for office expenses in billing and the expense for
President's address, necrology report, and instructions for contributors.
Attorney Fees — ICE, MILLER, DONADIO & RYAN of Indianapolis have been repre-
senting us in clarifying our tax-exemption status. One additional quarterly
billing can be expected in 1972. Although IRS has not completed study of
documents and has not sent formal ruling, the attorney has instructed us to continue
operating under the assumption of a final favorable determination.
The 1972 budget allows for contracting a CPA firm to prepare the Indiana and
Federal Non-Profit Organization Tax Forms and to perform an informal audit of
the Treasurer's records.
Science Talent— Refunds of $67.50 from the director and $16.00 from Scientific
American have not been entered in this report as either income or expenditure.
Science Fairs — A refund of $2,866.32 has been entered in this report as both income
and expenditure.
The unusually large expenditure is explained by $13,500.00 having been
transferred to the Indiana Science Education Fund, Inc.
Financial Report 21
Research — $5,870.00 was transferred from the Indiana Academy of Science Invested
Income Account 11-430-2 (income) to pay for Monograph 2 (expenditure).
Other income includes $384.00 from A.A.A.S. and $300.00 annual transfer from the
Indiana Academy of Science Foundation Fund 11-430 for research grants.
Other expenditure was $3,764.80 in grants to nine Academy members.
NSF Grant — Request for extension on use of funds, originally scheduled for August
31, 1971, was granted first until December 31, 1971, and most recently until June
30, 1972.
Publications — Income includes $7,565.89 transferred from the J. S. Wright Fund
11-430-1 and $500.00 from Academy Accounts to pay for publishing Volume 80
of the Proceedings.
The State of Indiana contributes $4,000.00 towards the publication of each volume
of the Proceedings, provided we contract with the state-approved publisher; this
amount is subtracted from our bill by the publisher; the state pays the publisher
directly so that this amount never appears on the Treasurer's records.
Additional income includes: $65.00 for sale of Proceedings; $285.50 for sale of
Natural Features; $152.00 for sale of Monographs; $100.00 transferred from
Academy Accounts for mailing Volume 80.
Additional expenditure includes $102.50 for mailing Volume 80.
Budget for 1972 — Increase from 1971 budget: Membership Committee from $75.00 to
$150.00. Proceedings: Editor from $400.00 to $500.00. Newsletter from $100.00 to
$150.00. Proceedings: Mailing from $100.00 to $150.00.
New items: Youth Activities: Chairman. Public Relations: Director. CPA Fees.
Change from Academy Accounts to Administered Accounts: Junior Academy.
INDIANA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OFFICERS
President: John Joseph Farrell, Brebeuf Preparatory School,
Indianapolis, Indiana
Vice-President: Dennis DeRosa, Morton High School, Hammond,
Indiana
Secretary: Barbara Konkle, Madison High School, Madison, Indiana
JUNIOR ACADEMY COUNCIL
Helen Reed, (1971), Manual High School, Indianapolis, Indiana
Sister Mary Alexandra, (1972), Roncalli High School, Indianapolis,
Indiana
Mary J. Pettersen, (1973), Morton High School, Hammond, Indiana
Lawrence E. Poorman, (1974), Physics Department, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, Indiana
STATE DIRECTOR
Donald R. Winslow, Owen Hall 205, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana 47401
REGISTRATION
All members, sponsors, and guests were requested to register (no
charge) in Dennis Science Hall, Lobby, 8:00 AM to 11:00 AM.
PROGRAM
Thirty-Ninth Annual Meeting
Earlham College Campus Richmond, Indiana
Saturday, October 30, 1971
8:00 AM
Junior Academy Council Meeting. Dennis Science Hall, 2nd Floor
Conference Room
8:30-10 :00am
Junior Academy Council Interviews for "Best-Boy" — ''Best-Girl"
Scientists Awards. Dennis Science Hall, 2nd Floor Conference Room.
8:30-10 :00am
Tours and Demonstrations of Research Facilities, Faculty-Student
Research Projects. Arranged by Ansel M. Gooding, Earlham
College.
10:00-11:30 am
General Session I, John Farrell, presiding. Dennis Science Hall,
Room 110.
22
Indiana Junior Academy of Science 23
PROGRAM OF PAPERS
"The School Ecology Club — An Active or Passive Role", University
School Ecology Club, Bloomington, George Luginbill, sponsor.
Invitational Papers
1) The Symptoms of Anxiety Neurosis that Result from Injections of
Lactic Acid. Kevin Poelhuis, Harrison High School, Evansville.
2) The Effect of Time on the Transfer of Information for Cell Division
in Escherichia coli B/r. Dale Purdy, Student, Indiana University,
Bloomington. (High school research funded by T. A. Kleckner Science
Grant Award, Indiana Heart Association Grant)
3) Variance in Visual Latency on the Human Retina. Mark Criswell,
Morton Senior High School, Hammond.
4) The Effects of Acetylstrofludin on Conduction and Automaticity
of a Mammalian Heart. Deborah Rajski, Ladywood-St. Agnes
School, Indianapolis.
5) Design and Construction of a Laser for Research Purposes. Ray
Lichtenhan, Morton Senior High School, Hammond.
6) The Effects of Adrenal Demedullation on the Urinary Catechola-
mine Concentration as Related to Pheochromocytoma. Milton J.
Miller II, Harrison High School, Evansville.
11 :30 am-1 :00 pm Lunch
1:30 pm
General Session II, John Farrell, presiding. Dennis Science Hall,
Room 110.
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
Election of Officers
Address: "Synthesis from Divergence: The Coming Revolution in
Science" Lawrence E. Poorman, Associate Professor of
Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute.
3:00 pm
General Announcements, Presentation of Awards, Adjournment.
Don Winslow, State Director.
AWARDS
Awards will be presented to the "Best Boy" and "Best Girl"
scientists by the American Association for the Advancement of
Science. Nominations may be sent by teachers to the Director (October
22 deadline) at the following address:
Donald R. Winslow, Director
Indiana Junior Academy of Science
Owen Hall 205
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
24 Indiana Academy of Science
MINUTES OF THE THIRTY-NINTH
ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
INDIANA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
The thirty-ninth annual meeting of the Indiana Junior Academy
of Science was held Saturday, October 30, 1971, on the campus of Earl-
ham College in Richmond, Indiana. One hundred twenty-two members
representing 14 high school clubs attended.
President John Farrell called to order the morning session at 10:00
am in Room 110 of Dennis Science Hall. Prior to the meeting members
and their sponsors were given tours and demonstrations of research
facilities and faculty-student research projects. These were arranged
by Ansel M. Gooding, Earlham College.
A panel discussion on "The School Ecology Club — An Active or
Passive Role" was presented by members of The University School
Ecology Club. Mr. George Luginbill, sponsor, moderated the presenta-
tion.
Vice-President Dennis DeRosa presided over the presentation of
papers. Those presenting papers were Kevin Poelhuis, Milton J. Miller
II, Harrison High School, Evansville; Dale Purdy, Indiana University,
Bloomington; Mark Criswell, Ray Lichtenhan, Morton Senior High
School, Hammond; and Deborah Rajski, Ladywood-St. Agnes School,
Indianapolis.
The afternoon session was called to order at 1:30 pm by President
John Farrell. The election of officers followed; nominations were re-
ceived from the floor. The results were as follows :
President — Ray Lichtenhan, Hammond Morton, Indianapolis
Vice President — Eric Valainis, Brebeuf Preparatory School
Secretary — Laura Fisher, Lew Wallace Senior High
A presentation by Lawrence E. Poorman, Associate Professor of
Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, followed. It was entitled
"Synthesis from Divergence: The Coming Revolution in Science."
Next, the AAAS award for the "Best Boy Scientist" was presented
to Mark Criswell of Hammond Morton. The "Best Girl Scientist" award
was presented to Laura Fisher, Lew Wallace Senior High School, Gary.
President John Farrell adjourned the meeting at 3:00 PM.
Respectfully submitted,
Barbara Konkle, Secretary
Indiana Junior Academy of Science
25
Figure 1. Front row: Miss Laura Fisher, Freshman, Lew Wallace High School,
Gary — "best girl" and Mr. Mark Crisivell, Senior, Morton Senior High School, Hammond
— "best boy". Back Row: Mr. Lee E. Moss, Lew Wallace High School, Gary, sponsor of
Miss Fisher; Donald R. Winslow, State Director, Indiana Junior Academy of Science,
Indiana University; and Dr. Mary J. Pettersen, Hammond, sponsor of Mr. Criswell.
Photo taken at Earlham College, October 30, 1971, by Richard Rodgers, Photographer,
Richmond, Indiana.
2<;
Indiana Academy of Science
Club
Griffith Science Club
NEW CLUBS For 1971
School
Sponsor
Griffith Senior High Lynn Oroutt
School
Science and Math Club Lowell High School
Omer Beeching and
Lawrence Ouwenga
East Washington
Science Club
Physics Club
Indian Creek
Beech Groye High
School Science Club
E. Washington
High School, Pekin
St. Joseph Academy,
Tipton
Indian Creek Senior
High, Trafalgar
Beech Grove High
School
J. E. Evensole
Sister Mary Ann, C.S.J.
Harold Heckman
Ben Chapin
NECROLOGY
Fay Kenoyer Daily, Butler University
(Samuel) Clifford Adams
Rockville, Indiana Hanover, Indiana
February 12, 1912 August 13, 1971
Dr. (Samuel) Clifford Adams, a geology professor, was at his desk
at Hanover College when he died August 13, 1971, of a heart
attack.
Born on a farm near Rockville, Indiana, February 12, 1912, Dr.
Adams was of English descent. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts
Degree cum laude at Hanover College in 1935; obtained a Master of
Science Degree (1940) and a Doctor of Philosophy Degree (1942) from
the University of Iowa. He was an instructor of geology at Hanover
College from 1935 to 1937, and clerk of mapping for the Agricultural
Adjustment Agency, United States Department of Agriculture in
Indiana from 1936 to 1937. He was an assistant at the University of
Iowa from 1938 to 1942. He also served as Junior Geologist with the
Soil Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture
from 1939 to 1941, and field assistant for the Iowa Geological Survey
in 1940.
In 1942, he entered the United States Army and served until 1945.
He was a combat intelligence officer and was permanently blinded by
enemy mortar fire during the invasion of the Leyte Islands, the Philip-
pines. For his heroism, he received the Combat Infantryman Medal, the
Bronze Star and the Purple Heart. Posthumously, his wife received a
certificate signed by President Nixon which states: "The United States
honors the memory of Samuel C. Adams. This certificate is accorded
by a grateful nation in recognition of devoted and selfless consecration
to the service of our country."
In September, 1945, Dr. Adams returned to Indiana to teach
geology as an associate professor at Hanover College. Familiar with
the campus from student days, he had little difficulty finding his way
around, which he accomplished unassisted. An article in the magazine
section of the Indianapolis Star (February 2, 1947) commended his
classes. With the use of models, blackboard illustrations and free
discussions, his classes maintained a high degree of interest. It was
stated that he was the only professor in a Hoosier College, blinded in
World War II actively engaged in teaching at that time. His wife, Mrs.
Blanche Adams, also taught at Hanover College. They were both
alumni of Hanover and she was a student at the University of Iowa at
the same time as Dr. Adams. Clifford Adams was especially interested
in soil erosion, recent stream and valley sedimentation, accelerated
27
28 Indiana Academy of Science
sedimentation of the Galena River Valley, soil conservation, strati-
graphy and sedimentation, general, surficial and structural geology
and ground water. He became a full professor in 1951 serving the college
with great distinction.
Dr. Adams joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1945 and was
a Divisional Chairman of the Geology and Geography Section in 1953.
He delivered a paper at that meeting on Modern Floodplain Deposits.
In 1962, he gave a talk before the History of Science Section of the
Indiana Academy of Science on A Century and a Quarter of Geology
at Hanover College. The study of Hanover history was a hobby for Dr.
Adams. He was also very interested in sports, particularly football and
baseball.
In addition to belonging to the Indiana Academy of Science, Dr.
Adams was a Fellow of the Geological Society of America and belonged
to the Geochemical Society, American Geophysical Union, Iowa
Academy of Science, Sigma Xi, Delta Epsilon, Pi Gamma Mu, and was
a charter member of the Indiana Section of the American Institute of
Professional Geologists. He was awarded an alumni achievement award
from Hanover College in 1967.
Poised and sure, Dr. Clifford Adams faced a dark world with con-
fidence and without self pity. He leaves with us the inspiration of an
exemplary life.
Herbert Faust Call
Madison County, Florida Indianapolis, Indiana
October 2, 1904 September 1, 1969
Few practicing physicians have been a member of the Indiana
Academy of Science, but Dr. Herbert Faust Call, a pediatrician, joined
in 1935 because of a life long interest in natural science and because
of his interest in archeology. These interests stemmed from early boys
camp experiences and the collection of Indian relics and butterflies. He
became a world traveler and a sportsman. On a "camera safari", Dr.
Call and Katharine, his wife, visited eight national game preserves in
East Africa in 1966. Then, they took their daughter Karen (now a
pediatrician) and their son, William H. (an otolaryngologist) with
them to the Fiji Islands, Australia and New Zealand in 1968.
Born in Madison County, Florida, October 2, 1904, Dr. Call came
to Indiana as a boy and attended grade and high school in Anderson,
Indiana. He then attended Indiana University Medical School. He took
his internship there and a residency at the James Whitcomb Riley
Hospital for Children, receiving an M.D. Degree and his license to
practice in Indiana in 1929. Post graduate work was done at Washington
University at St. Louis, Missouri, and at the Children's Memorial
Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. He opened his first office in Indianapolis
in 1932 and developed one of the largest practices in pediatrics in
Indiana.
Necrology
2!*
Dr. Call was also a member of Sigma Chi Fraternity, Phi Rho
Sigma, medical fraternity, Marion County Medical Society, the
American Medical Association and the Woodstock Club. A good
biographical account of Dr. Call appeared in the Indianapolis Star,
September 2, 1969.
Cancer was the cause of Dr. Call's death, September 1, 1969,
bringing a busy, successful career to a close at only 65 years of age
(lacking about a month).
Dr. Ralph E. Cleland
Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Botany
Indiana University
Le Claire, Iowa
October 20, 1892
Ralph Erskine Cleland
Bloomington, Indiana
June 11, 1971
Dr. Ralph Erskine Cleland was a Distinguished Service Professor
Emeritus at Indiana University when he suddenly died of a heart attack
30 Indiana Academy of Science
in his office June 11, 1971. He had gained international recognition for
his study of the heredity and evolution of the evening primrose,
Oenothera.
Born in Le Claire, Iowa, October 20, 1892, Dr. Cleland was reared
in Philadelphia. He attended the University of Philadelphia where he
received an A.B. degree in 1915 with a major in the classics and
history. During his junior year, a friend suggested that he take a course
in botany. He was so interested that he became a botany major receiving
an M.S. in 1916 and a Ph.D. in 1919. Reprints of his Ph.D. thesis on
the red alga, Nemalion, were lost at sea. He received honorary degrees
from the University of Pennsylvania, Hanover College and Indiana
University. He served the United States in Italy during World War I
from 1917 to 1918.
He began his teaching career as Instructor of Biology at
Gaucher College, Baltimore, Maryland, in 1919, and had become
chairman of the department before leaving in 1938. He was an instructor
at the Woods Hole Marine Laboratory in 1924, and a Guggenheim
Fellow from 1927 to 1928 when he traveled to Germany to study. He
had begun research on Oenothera while at Gaucher and had published
a joint paper with A.F. Blakeslee in 1931 on analytical procedure in the
study of genetic behavior in this genus and had begun to work out the
probable evolutionary pathways in speciation.
In 1938, he moved to Indiana University to become professor of
botany and head of the department. In 1946, Dr. Cleland's research
received further recognition and financial support as one of several
participants in a 6-year program in the field of genetics financed by
the Rockefeller Foundation and Indiana University. He became Dean
of the Graduate School from 1950 to 1958 and Distinguished Service
Professor in 1958. He retired in 1963 becoming Distinguished Service
Professor Emeritus. He was co-director of the Indiana University
Aerospace Research Applications Center from 1963 to 1967.
Dr. Cleland joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1938, the year
he began teaching at Indiana University and was honored as a Fellow
in 1940. Even though he was active in many other organizations both
national and international, he devoted considerable time to our society
and contributed many papers on Oenothera at the sectional meetings.
He was a divisional chairman of the Botany Section in 1941, president
in 1959 and served on many committees. Recently, he was active in
planning the establishment and program of the Science and Society
Committee.
Dr. Cleland was a member of many other societies and received
many honors and positions of responsibility from them. He served
as editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Botany from 1940 to 1946
and was president of the Botanical Society of America in 1947. He was
awarded a certificate of merit as a distinguished botanist by that
society "for his extensive researches into the species relationships and
segmental interchange problems in Oenothera and also for his states-
manship in representing plant science at the national level" (Golden
Necrology 31
Jubilee Volume of the Botanical Society of America, William Steere,
Ed., McGraw-Hill Co., N.Y., 1958).
He was a member of a group instrumental in forming the American
Institute for Biological Sciences. While the Institute was still under
the aegis of the National Academy of Science and National
Research Council (1948 to 1949), he was a chairman in the society. He
was chairman of the Division of Biology and Agriculture of the
National Research Council from 1949 to 1952, editor of the section on
plant cytology of Biological Abstracts 1925-. He was elected to the
National Academy of Sciences in 1942; the Philosophical Society, which
presented him with the Lewis Award in 1937, and he was Fellow of the
American Academy. He was secretary of the Society of Naturalists from
1938 to 1940 and president in 1942. He was president of the Genetics
Society in 1956 and vice-president in 1954. He was a member of the
Society of Study of Evolution and was vice-president (1953 to 1958)
of the International Union of Biological Science. Dr. Cleland was
starred in the American Men of Science and was the subject of
numerous articles in newspapers, scientific journals and biographical
publications.
In 1960, Dr. Cleland and Dr. Farrington Daniels, vice-president of
the National Academy of Science were "academic ambassadors of
Science" on a visit to 11 Asian countries to meet with Asian leaders,
both scientific and governmental, to discuss the possibilities of the
development of these countries by science and technology. They
planned to give a number of lectures to lay and professional groups
on solar energy and plant genetics.
In 1948, at a Paris meeting, the Committee of Science and
Social Relations of the International Council of Scientific Unions dis-
cussed science and the maintenance of peace. Questions were directed
to the National Research Council Committee on UNESCO and Dr.
Cleland was one of the persons replying to the request. He said
{Science and the Maintenance of Peace by Bart J. Bok, 1949.
Science 109:131-137): "Most modern wars have been brought about as
a result of economic pressures, based on the Malthusian principle. Only
science can relieve the basis of these pressures. Scientific control of
population, the production of more efficient crop plants and domestic
animals, the proper exploitation of vast areas of potentially usable land,
control of soil erosion, development of irrigation and other projects
designed to increase arable land, the discovery of new sources of
energy — these are activities which will remove the chief cause of war.
Without such activities, no amount of talk or education will achieve
lasting peace."
While chairman of the botany department and dean of the graduate
school at Indiana University, Dr. Cleland and his wife were guests at
the first state dinner to which leading scientists were invited by
President and Mrs. Eisenhower.
Dr. Cleland was the subject of an interesting article in The
Indianapolis Star Magazine (May 13, 1962). After describing Dr.
32 Indiana Academy of Science
Cleland's scientific achievements, the author wrote: "One gets the im-
pression in talking with this great scientist that primroses must have
a tranquilizing influence, for Professor Cleland's calm and gentle
manner gives no hint of his abilities as a dynamic, efficient
administrator." Then later he wrote: "Professor Cleland is a deeply
religious man. He holds that there is no true conflict between science
and religion. 'Both science and religion', he says, 'have the same goal;
that is the finding of truth.' "
Dr. Cleland was quite active until death. One would invariably find
him in attendance and often in a place of honor at national and
international botanical meetings. He had just sent the manuscript to
the publisher for his new book, Oenothera Cytogenetics and Evolution,
dedicated to his wife, Elizabeth. Three sons are also scientists. They
are William W. Cleland, professor of biochemistry at the University
of Wisconsin, Robert Erskine Cleland, professor of botany at the
University of Wisconsin and Charles F. Cleland, assistant professor
of biology at Harvard University. A brother, Dr. James W. Cleland,
is a Philadelphia pediatrician.
The Indiana Academy of Science lost a great friend and valuable
member with the death of Dr. Ralph E. Cleland.
C(lare) F(rancis) Cox
Hudson, Illinois Indianapolis, Indiana
March 9, 1888 February 24, 1971
Dr. Clare Francis Cox considered secondary education as the most
stimulating professional field, because of the opportunity to encourage
young people to develop an interest in science and specifically,
ecology. He taught at Arsenal Technical High School in Indianapolis,
Indiana, from 1917 to 1958, becoming head of the botany department
in 1931. After he retired, an annual science award was established in
his name in appreciation of his services.
With Milo H. Stuart, he was influential in establishing a nature
preserve at Tech (part of the campus later replaced by a school) and
he sponsored a nature study group there for many years. He was active
in the Indiana Nature Study Club. He also taught Microbiology at the
Indiana College of Mortuary Science 1958 and 1959.
Dr. Cox was born in Hudson, Illinois, March 9, 1888, and attended
a country elementary school. He rode horseback to high school in
Vandalia, Illinois. His teaching career began in a country elementary
school the year after graduating from high school. He attributed his
knowledge of birds, wildflowers and trees to his country boyhood
rambles and curiosity. He also taught high school and was a basketball
coach from 1913 to 1916 teaching at Herrin, Illinois, and Marion,
Illinois.
Necrology 33
He began his college education during this period, too, receiving
a Bachelor of Arts Degree from Illinois State University in 1917.
Immediately afterwards, he started teaching at Arsenal Technical High
School and also served in the United States of America Air Force
Reserve from 1917 to 1919.
A Doctor of Philosophy Degree was obtained at Chicago University
in 1931. The influence of John Merle Coulter, while he was there,
further stimulated his interest in science. Also, summer field trips in
Utah and Colorado taught by Dr. Henry Cowles and Dr. George D.
Fuller influenced Dr. Cox to study ecology and alpine vegetation. He
became known here and abroad as an authority in this field. For three
summers he and his wife established headquarters at 12,000 ft
elevation near James Park, Colorado, in an abandoned gold miner's
shack and explored the surrounding peaks for alpine plants. Tolland,
14 miles away, was their supply base to which they hiked every week
climbing 3,000 feet to reach it.
Dr. Cox joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1922 and was
honored by being elected to Fellow in 1935. He served on the Junior
Academy of Science Committee in 1939, 1940 and 1941. He also wrote
a memorial to Emerson Blane Wright for the Necrology Report for 1928
(Proceedings, V. 38, 1929).
Dr. Cox was also a member of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, Ecological Society of America and was elected
to Sigma Xi at Chicago University where he held a Coulter Fellowship
for one year. He was life deacon at the Woodruff Place Baptist Church.
Dr. Cox is listed in American Men of Science and Indiana Scientists.
He has a son, Dr. Milton D. Cox, teaching at Miami University.
Dr. Clare F. Cox died February 24, 1971, at 82 years of age. He had
lived a full life, but considered his personal influence on his pupils and
their enthusiastic response to his teaching as his greatest satisfaction.
This is the ultimate reward for the dedicated teacher.
G(eorg) K(arl) Neumann
Hamburg, Germany Bloomington, Indiana
June 6, 1907 April 13, 1971
The practical application of many academic scientific research
activities is obscure, but this was not so with the work of Dr. Georg
K. Neumann. Widely known for his knowledge of the physical character-
istics of human skeletons, Dr. Neumann was a consultant to the
Indiana and Illinois state police departments in identification of
unknown persons. In an Indianapolis News story (April 2, 1952) some
of the more famous murder trials in which he had testified were dis-
cussed. It was astonishing that a bit of bone, even a charred bone, could
reveal the sex, age, size and region of ancestry of the deceased. Dr.
34 Indiana Academy of Science
Neumann was an associate professor of anthropology at Indiana Uni-
versity and an archeologist. He had written two books and a book
chapter relative to these subjects. He had participated in many Indian
site excavations and was an authority on American Indians, their
physical types, racial differentials and racial history.
Born in Hamburg, Germany, June 6, 1907, Dr. Neumann received
his higher education in America obtaining a Ph.B. degree in 1930, an
A.M. in 1936 and a Ph.D. in 1943 from the University of
Chicago. He taught at the University of Chicago, Western Reserve
University and was assistant director of the University of Tennessee
archeological projects. He left the museum of anthropology at the
University of Michigan to become an assistant professor of
anthropology at Indiana University in 1942.
Dr. Neumann also became a member of the Indiana Academy of
Science that same year, 1942, and was honored as a Fellow in 1957. He
was a popular chairman of the Anthropology Section having served in
1943, 1944, 1949, 1956 and 1959. He was to have served again in 1971.
He presented numerous papers at Academy meetings concerning Indian
physical types, racial affiliations, migrations and culture. He had served
a number of years on the Fellows Committee and was a member at his
death. Dr. Neumann also belonged to the Central States Anthropological
Association, of which he had been president; to Phi Beta Kappa, honor
society; and to the Mexican and German Societies of Anthropology.
Not only were the macabre details of the murder trials in which
Dr. Neumann testified newsworthy to reporters, but also the mysteries
of aboriginal life determined by Dr. Neumann from the bones excavated
from Indian mounds. Thus, several articles about his work in this field
appeared also in Indianapolis newspapers. Some of these appeared in
the Indianapolis Times (December 26, 1948), the Indianapolis Star
(August 4, 1956) and Indianapolis News (April 2, 1952), and upon
moving to Indiana University, his professional qualifications were dis-
cussed in an article in the Indianapolis Star, February 7, 1942.
Dr. Georg Karl Neumann died April 13, 1971, at only 63 years of
age, when his unusual talent was lost to us prematurely.
Claude E(dgar) O'Neal
Coatesville, Indiana Delaware, Ohio
January 29, 1884 February 8, 1971
Dr. Claude Edgar O'Neal, botanist, died February 8, 1971. He had
been a member of the Indiana Academy of Science since 1912, joining
when a student working on a graduate degree at Indiana University.
He gave a paper in 1914 on the species of Nummularia common in
Indiana. Later, he became interested in the cytology of Datura and the
embryologic development in Oenothera.
Necrology 35
Dr. O'Neal was a native of Coatesville, Indiana, born January 29,
1884. He attended Indiana State Teacher's College in Terre Haute for
4 years where he received a certificate. He then attended Indiana Uni-
versity where he received an A.B. in 1911, was a teaching fellow 1912
to 1913, obtained an A.M. in 1913 and a Ph.D. in botany in 1922. He was
head of the Department of Science at Brazil (Indiana) High School;
principal of the Coatesville (Indiana) High School and Hadley
(Indiana) High School; and taught at Reno, Indiana. He became an in-
structor at Ohio Wesleyan University in 1913 and served as head of
the botany program until retirement. In 1920, he was named
Professor of Botany on the Allen Trimble Foundation. He taught there
until his retirement in 1954 when he became Professor Emeritus. He
also taught one term after that from 1957 to 1958. In recognition of
his service to Ohio Wesleyan University, the greenhouse adjacent to
Bigelow-Rice Science Hall was dedicated as the Claude E. O'Neal Green-
house in 1964. Former students and colleagues joined in this
tribute. A memorial statement said, "The building housing the beauty
and vitality of growing plants and, in its utilitarian function, serving
his driving interest in botanical education, shall always stand as a
fitting memorial."
Besides his membership in the Indiana Academy of Science, Dr.
O'Neal was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi and Omicron Delta
Kappa, honor socieites. He had been vice-president of the Botanical
Section of the Ohio Academy of Science twice, and president of the Ohio
Academy of Science from 1938 to 1939. He also belonged to the
American Association for the Advancement of Science and Botanical
Society of America.
Although Dr. O'Neal had been in Ohio for many years, he kept in
touch with former teachers, students and friends in Indiana. The high
regard which they held for him was quite evident. His former students
are too numerous to be mentioned, but hold many positions of honor
and distinction as professors, department chairman, directors of
research or heads of national botanical laboratories. Letters of love and
gratitude from them to Claude and Mabel O'Neal were a great
satisfaction.
Milo Bostwick Sampson
Erie, North Dakota Bloomington, Indiana
June 18, 1908 April 10, 1971
Dr. Milo B. Sampson was a professor of physics at Indiana Uni-
versity and a leading authority on cyclotron design and operation. He
was in charge of the development of a large cyclotron at Indiana Uni-
versity when he died, April 10, 1971, at his home. He had received a
grant from the National Science Foundation for this work.
Born at Erie, North Dakota, June 18, 1908, Dr. Sampson went to
the State College of Washington, where he received a Bachelor of
36 Indiana Academy of Science
Science Degree in 1931 and a Master of Science Degree in 1933. He was
a Queen scholar and obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree in physics
at Princeton in 1937.
Dr. Sampson was a physicist at the Biochemical Research Founda-
tion of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, from 1937 to 1942. From 1942
to 1943, he was research associate in the Office of Scientific Research
and Development and the National Defense Research Committee at
Princeton. From 1943 to 1944, he was physicist and section chief of the
metallurgical laboratory, University of Chicago Laboratory, where the
first nuclear reaction had been achieved in 1942. In 1944 to 1946, he was
physicist at the Los Alamos Science Laboratory in New Mexico. In the
atomic energy laboratories there, the atomic bomb was made. It was
tested July 16, 1946, in the desert region just west of Sierra Oscura,
about 50 miles northwest of Alamogordo.
Dr. Sampson came to Indiana in 1946 as an assistant professor at
Indiana University. He became associate professor in 1952 and professor
in 1958. He was in charge of cyclotron research from 1946 on. The old
cyclotron at Indiana University, which has been dismantled, was one
of the first to be built in the country.
Dr. Sampson joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1967, and
was author or co-author of a number of papers presented at sectional
meetings before and after that date. These dealt, primarily, with the
results from use of the cyclotron and the measurement of energy levels
with a spectrometer. He was also a member of the American
Physical Society, a member of Sigma Xi, scientific honorary society,
Phi Kappa Phi and Pi Mu Epsilon. Biographical sketches can be found
in American Men of Science, Indiana Scientists, and the Indiana
University Alumni Magazine (1971, V. 33, No. 9, p. 40).
Awesome nuclear power under the control of man, although
devastating and controversial as an instrument of war, has undoubtedly
saved more lives than it has taken because of these qualities. It is thus
a deterrant to war between nations possessing it. Furthermore, with
wise management, it is sure to find a prominent place as a peacetime
power source. Radio isotopes have improved man's lot remarkably in
the field of medicine. These accomplishments will stand as a tribute
to physicists like Milo B. Sampson who were intelligent and resourceful
enough to seek the truth about nuclear energy and how to control it.
NEW MEMBERS FOR 1971
The following list contains the names and addresses of all new
members who joined during 1971. The letter (s) following the address
indicates the Section of the Academy in which the member has indi-
cated his major interest, according to the following code :
A — Anthropology N— Engineering
B — Botany O— Cell Biology
C — Chemistry P— Physics
D — Science Education R — Microbiology &
E — Entomology Molecular Biology
G — Geology and Geography S — Soil Science
H — History of Science T — Plant Taxonomy
L — Ecology Y — Psychology
M — Mathematics Z — Zoology
Dr. A. Hasan Al-Abbas, Agronomy Dept., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 SB
Dr. Ralph W. Alexander Jr., Dept. Anthropology, 736 Bolton Hall, Univ. of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wise. 53201 ALR
Mr. Robert M. Alverson, Sperry Rand Corp, New Holland, Pa. 17557 LSH
Dr. George T. Asteriadis Jr., Purdue Univ.-North Central, Westville, Ind.
46391 ROD
Dr. Frederick K. Ault, 207 Meeks Ave., Muncie, Ind. 47304 DC
Mr. George S. Austin, Indiana Geological Survey, Bloomington, Ind. 47401 ORB
Dr. Rita Barr, Dept. Biological Sciences, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 ORB
Mr. Steven Batras, Entomology Dept., Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 ECR
Dr. Jessie L. Bobbitt, 8101 Rosemead Lane, Indianapolis, Ind. 46240 COR
Mr. Arthur Branham, 201 Morningside, Gary, Ind. 46408 DZT
Mr. Melvin L. Brashear, 5428 South Woodlawn, Apt. C-l, Chicago, 111. 60615 AGS
Mr. Larry C. Brown, Biology Dept., Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 BGO
Mr. Henry W. Bullamore, Dept. Geography, 220 Davenport Hall, Univ. Illinois,
Urbana, 111. 61801 GAS
Mrs. Margaret Ann Bures, S. Maish Rd., R. 3 Box 18, Frankfort, Ind. 46041 CDO
Dr. Timothy J. Burkholder, Dept. Biology, Taylor Univ., Upland, Ind. 46989 ZOL
Mr. James C. Byse, Box 315, Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. 47374 AG
Dr. William R. Chaney, Dept. Forestry & Conservation, Purdue Univ., Lafayette,
Ind. 47907 LBS
Dr. James H. Clark, Dept. Biological Sciences, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907
OZR
Mr. Michual Coe, St. Meinrad College, St. Meinrad, Ind. 47577 L
37
38 Indiana Academy of Science
Mr. Thomas L. Crisman, Zoology Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 ZLG
Miss Sharon K. Cupp, 3606 East Wabash Ave., Terre Haute, Ind. 47803 AL
Mr. Charles P. Daghlian, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind.
47401 BLR
Mr. George B. Davis, Eli Lilly & Co., Dept. G265, 445 W. 46th St., Indianapolis,
Ind. 46208 AGH
Dr. Alfred Devite, Dept. Education, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 DGH
Dr. Lee Engstrom, Biology Dept., Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 OZE
Dr. Michael Eoff, Biology Dept., Marian College, E 3220 Cold Spring, Indianapolis,
Ind. 46222 ZLE
Dr. Warren W. Epinette, Dept. Dermatology, IU Medical Center, 1100 W. Michigan
St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46202 O
Dr. & Mrs. Austin W. Fergusson, P.O. Box 263, Wolf Lake, Ind. 46796 LOD
Dr. Lawrence L. Garber, Indiana Univ., South Bend, Ind. 46615 C
Mr. George A. Genz, Dept. Anthropology, Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 A
Dr. John D. Goodman, Biology Dept., Anderson College, Anderson, Ind. 46011 ZL
Dr. Richard W. Greene, Biology Dept., Univ. Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Ind. 46556 Z
Mr. Walter R. Gregg, Jr., 2428 South 5th St., Terre Haute, Ind. 47802 AGS
Mr. & Mrs. David A. Griggs, 7612 Wohama Dr., Ft. Wayne, Ind. 46809 LBD
Miss Elizabeth Gunn, Dept. Anthropology, Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 A
Mr. William J. Hahn, Agronomy Dept., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 SGL
Dr. Judy Dale Hall, Dow Chemical Co., P.O. Box 10, Zionsville, Ind. 46077 O
Dr. Donald A. Hendrickson, Biology Dept., Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 RL
Mr. Thomas J. Herrick, 329 Grissom Hall, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47906 NDP
Mr. Horton H. Hobbs, III, Zoology Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 ZLG
Dr. Randall Keith Horine, Biology Dept., Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. 47374
BOR
Mr. Wayne C. Houtcooper, Dept. Life Sciences, Indiana State Univ., Terre Haute,
Ind. 47809 LZ
Mr. Gary Huffman, 2585 E. 91st St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46240 DZ
Dr. Merle E. Jacobs, Zoology Dept., Goshen College, Goshen, Ind. 46526 ZLE
Mrs. Mary Lu Johnson, P.O. Box 333, Princeton, Ind. 47670 LTB
Dr. Thomas Joseph, Biology Dept., Indiana Univ., South Bend, Ind. 46615 ZLO
Mr. Glenn P. Juday, 134-3 Nimitz Dr., W. Lafayette, Ind. 47906 LGA
Dr. Clark Judy, Dept. Geography, Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 47306 LGD
Dr. Ferencz P. Kallay, Geology Dept., Valpai-aiso Univ., Valparaiso, Ind.
46383 G
Mrs. Marsha Kimmerling, Country Park Estates, RR. 5, Kokomo, Ind. 46901 DGL
Dr. Gerald H. Krockover, Education Bldg., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 DGC
New Members 39
Mr. Doyal R. Lank, Jr., 147 Woodland Terrace, Mobile Home Park, W. Lafayette,
Ind. 47906 ZER
Dr. Carole A. Lembi, Dept. Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue Univ., Lafayette,
Ind. 47907 OLB
Mr. Edmund C. Lewis, 5939 N. College Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46220 A
Mr. Dale E. Linvill, Agronomy Dept., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 SLG
Dr. Paul S. Lykoudis, Aeronautics, Astro-Engineering, Purdue Univ., Lafayette,
Ind. 47907 NPH
Mrs. Dorila A. Marting, 413 E. Prince Rd. 41, Tucson, Ariz. 85705 G
Mr. Jon Dorsey Marting, 413 E. Prince Rd. 41, Tucson, Ariz. 85705 CPZ
Mr. Kenneth Miller, Biology Dept., Purdue Univ-North Central, Westville, Ind.
46391 LEZ
Mr. Herbert S. Millstein, 2090 Suffolk Lane, Indianapolis, Ind. 46260 NM
Mr. William S. Miska, Federal Bldg., 7th & College Sts., Bloomington, Ind.
47401 GLA
Mr. F. H. Montague, Jr., Dept. Forestry & Conservation, Purdue Univ., Lafayette
Ind. 47907 ZL
Mr. Lupo A. Montecillo, Agronomy Dept., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 SGC
Mr. John N. Montgomery, 101 Hurricane St., Franklin, Ind. 46131 DOG
Mr. Michael C. Moore, Indiana Geological Survey, 611 N. Walnut Grove, Bloomington,
Ind. 47401 GZ
Mrs. Joanne Mueller, Biology Dept., Univ. Evansville, P. O. Box 329, Evansville,
Ind. 47701 D
Dr. James Norwine, Dept. Geography, Indiana State Univ., Terre Haute, Ind.
47809 GLH
Dr. Ernest J. Peck, Jr., Dept. Biological Sciences, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.
47907 ROC
Mr. David L. Peterson, R.R. 1, Monterey, Ind. 46960 ORG
Mr. Robert A. Pettijohn, 1819 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46202 LSG
Mr. Raymond N. Pheifer, Redbud Hill Apts. #304, Bloomington, Ind. 47401 GBL
Mr. Ronald A. Piepe, Dept. Geology, Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 GB
Mr. Steven K. Pontius, Geography Dept., Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. GLH
Mr. Frank Potter, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 BLG
Dr. Michael C. Roberts, Dept. Geography, Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind.
GSN
Mr. Terry A. Rogers, 129 W. Green, Montpelier, Ind. 47359 ELZ
Dr. Albert Ruesink, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 BOL
Mr. Raymond A. Schuttler, Dept. Life Sciences, Indiana State Univ., Terre
Haute, Ind. ZL
Mr. Wayne M. Schuttler, Agronomy Dept., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. 47907 SPH
Mr. H. Douglas Shock, R.R. 3, Box 387, Muncie, Ind. 47302 DBL
Dr. Shirley Siew, Pathology Dept., Indiana Univ. School Medicine, 1100 West
Michigan St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46202 ORZ
40 Indiana Academy of Science
Mr. Walter L. Stirm, National Weather Service, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.
47907 S
Dr. Wilmer J. Stratton, Chemistry Dept., Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. 47374 C
Dr. John E. Stump, Dept. Veterinary Anatomy, Lynn Hall, Purdue Univ., Lafayette,
Ind. 47907 OZ
Mr. Robert L. Suddith, Zoology Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 ZO
Miss Anne A. Susalla, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 BOR
Dr. Robert L. Swaim, Aeronautics-Eng., Grissom Hall, Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.
47807 NPL
Dr. Michael R. Tansey, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 BRL
Dr. Robert K. Toqasaki, Botany Dept., Indiana Univ., Bloomington, Ind. 47401 BOC
Mrs. Jessie M. Turner, Box 267, R.R. 3, Richmond, Ind. 47374 LDA
Mr. Harley J. Vanculin, Dept. Biological Sciences, Purdue Univ., Lafayette,
Ind. 47907 LTS
Mr. William J. Van Der Woode, Dept. Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue Univ.,
Lafayette, Ind. 47907 BOR
Mr. Claude F. Wade, 113 State Office Bldg., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204 E
Mr. Charles Wallace, Dept. Anthropology, Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind, 47306
Sister Donna R. Whipple, Ladywood-St. Agnes School, 5355 Emerson Way,
Indianapolis, Ind. 46226 CZO
Miss Camille M. Wiggs, 419 E. 48th St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46205 RGD
Mr. Richard E. Wilkey, 118 W. Cherry St., Bluffton, Ind. 46714 E
Mr. Clay A. Wilkinson, 309 N. 14% St., Terre Haute, Ind. 47808 LEA
Blackford Science Club, Blackford High School, R.R. 2, Hartford City, Ind. 47348
East Washington Science Club, East Washington High School, Pekin, Ind. 47165
Griffith Science Club, Griffith Senior High School, Griffith, Ind. 46319
Indian Creek Science Club, Indian Creek Senior High School, P.O. Box 6, Trafalgar,
Ind. 46181
Lowell Science and Math. Club, Lowell High School, Lowell, Ind. 46356
St. Joseph Physics Club, St. Joseph Academy, Tipton, Ind. 46072
Madison High School Science Club, Madison High School, Madison, Ind. 47250
PART 2
ADDRESSES
AND
CONTRIBUTED
PAPERS
Richmond, Indiana
October 29, 1971
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
The address, "Minicourses and the Audio-Tutorial
System,'* was presented by retiring president, Dr. Samuel
N. Postlethwait, Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, at the annual
Fall Meeting dinner at the Runyan Center, Earlham College,
Richmond, Indiana, on Friday, October 29, 1971.
SPEAKER-OF-THE-YEAR ADDRESS
The address, "The Role of Scientists in the Preparation
and Evaluation of Environmental Impact Statements", was
presented by the Speaker of the Year for 1971-72, Dr. Alton
A. Lindsey, Professor of Plant Ecology, Department of
Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana 47907, at the annual Fall Meeting luncheon at the
Runyan Center, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana, on
Friday, October 29, 1971.
a:\
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Minicourses and the Audio-Tutorial System
S. N. POSTLETHWAIT
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
A student can select four variations of coffee from an ordinary
vending machine, but when he enters the classroom he may receive in-
struction identical to that of several hundred other students. It is an
obvious fact of life that people exhibit great diversity, interests
and capacities, yet our educational system is made up of large
blocks of content (courses) with little or no provision to break the lock-
step of time, content or instructional procedure. There is some justifica-
tion for the classroom approach however, since education is not just
a dispensing procedure and the teacher is vital to the learning process.
Many people can trace their excitement about a specific subject to the
special way the subject was presented by a great teacher. Unfortu-
nately these "great teachers'' are rather rare and physical limitations
permit only a few students to "sit at their feet." While it is true that
the talent of these teachers has been made available to some degree
through their writings, many good teachers never write for publication^
and even so, the limitation imposed by the printed word negates the
potential of the teacher for the clever use of tangible objects and sound.
Hopkins has suggested that the best learning situation is the
"teacher on one end of the log and the student on the other." Hopkins
assumed the teacher was a "good" teacher and, if one can assume the
log was figurative, the concept serves as a proper model for the
Audio-Tutorial (AT) system. The AT system used in conjunction with
minicourses, while retaining compatability with the conventional edu-
cational system, has great potential for providing students with im-
proved access to "good" teachers and with some other important
features such as greater individualization. This paper attempts to
describe a pilot study currently being conducted at Purdue University.
History of the AT System
At Purdue University the author began an attempt to provide a
remedial program in a freshman botany course in 1961. The initial effort
involved the production of a weekly lecture on audio tape. This was soon
expanded to include: 1) tangible objects (specimens, experimental
equipment, models) ; 2) printed materials (texts, study guides,
journal articles) ; and 3) projected images (slides and movies). Ultimately
the program was produced by assembling the appropriate items ("logs")
and, while sitting among these items, recording on audio tape the conver-
sation one would expect to use with one student while tutoring the student
through a sequence of learning activities. The product, i.e. the tape and
45
46 Indiana Academy of Science
other materials, was then duplicated as many times as necessary to accom-
modate all students. Because of student enthusiasm for the program the
procedure was expanded to cover the content for the entire botany course.
The course was then restructured to include three major study sessions:
1) Independent Study Session (ISS)
The audio tutorial program was placed in a learning center
which was open from 7:30 am to 10:30 pm Monday through Fri-
day. The student could come in at his convenience and check into a
booth. On his way to the booth he would pick up a mimeographed
sheet of objectives written in behavioral terms. Other components
needed to complete the program (except for the student's own copy
of the textbook and study guide) were housed in the booth.
Materials too bulky or too expensive to include in each booth
were placed on a central table for common use by all
students.; The student placed the headphones in position and
by listening to the tape, he experienced a simulated one-
to-one tutoring by the instructor. The student could pace his study
as he desired, stopping at any point in the program to use additional
resources such as supplemental texts and discussions with the
instructor on duty or with peers. Each student proceeded independ-
ently of other students and was free to omit any part of the study
unnecessary to help him achieve the stated objectives for the week.
The prep room was equipped with a table, chairs and a coffee urn to
encourage students to take frequent breaks and to enter into discus-
sions with peers over a cup of coffee. When the student was satisfied
with his progress he was free to leave without regard to scheduled
class time.
2) General Assembly Session (GAS)
This session was scheduled on a weekly basis and included 300
or more students. Activities in this assembly involved an occasional
lecture, special films, major exams and other activities that could be
done most effectively in a large group. Attendance was required only
for certain special events.
3) Integrated Quiz Session (IQS)
This session involved eight students and an instructor scheduled
to meet weekly for one-half hour. The primary purpose of the session
was to exploit the principle that "one really learns a subject when
one is required to teach it". For this session each student was expected
to prepare a little lecture about each of the items (logs) used in the
ISS. The instructor presented the items in the sequence programmed
earlier and selected the student to lecture on a random basis. Thus
all students were forced to organize the subject matter in their own
minds and could not rely on superficial responses to instructor ques-
tions. In addition, this session provided :
Presidential Address 47
1) direct feedback on the effectiveness of the components of the
AT program;
2) an opportunity for each student to know at least one instructor
very well ;
3 ) each student to be well known by at least one instructor ; and
4) an opportunity to take care of certain administrative details.
The AT system in this form has been adopted in a great many schools
and in a broad spectrum of disciplines (one-third of the papers presented
at the Second Annual Audio-Tutorial Conference held at Purdue in No-
vember 1970 dealt with subject matter areas outside the field of biology
and several were concerned with programs below the college level).
Obviously, its effectiveness corresponds directly to the ability of the
"good" teacher to prepare the AT programs and to originate the necessary
supplementary sessions. Many teachers report highly successful systems
(1,2,3).
Minicourses and Mastery
In 1969 when Dr. Robert N. Hurst joined the staff at Purdue Univer-
sity with the assignment to convert a zoology course (Biology 109) to the
Audio-Tutorial approach, it was decided to reorganize the content of both
the zoology and botany courses into smaller units of information called
minicourses. Each minicourse would cover a reasonably coherent segment
of subject matter (topic) and each minicourse would have a written set
of specific objects suitable for testing the student's mastery of the concepts
included. No rigid guide lines were established as to length or teaching
strategy. Primarily, the limits of a minicourse were determined by good
judgment much as one decides on how to divide a book into chapters.
Approximately 30 minicourses were identified for each course and several
of these minicourses covered subjects common to both zoology and botany.
It was clear that if students were required to master the objectives in their
first study of the common minicourses it would be redundant to involve
them with the same subject matter a second time in the subsequent course.
As each student mastered the objectives for a particular common
minicourse, it was recorded on his individual card and he was not required
to repeat the minicourse study again. Thus, students entering the two
course sequence through either botany or zoology and taking the common
minicourse during their first enrollment accumulated some time which
could be devoted to the exploration of their own interests through the study
of optional minicourses during the second semester of their enrollment.
The botany and zoology courses which had previously been two distinct
four credit hour courses now became a "pool" of minicourses divided into
four categories, i.e.,
1) Plant minicourses 3) Common minicourses
2) Animal minicourses 4) Optional minicourses
48 Indiana Academy of Science
Students entering the botany-zoology complex by the way of botany were
required to take the plant minicourses and common minicourses and those
students entering the complex by way of zoology were required to take
the animal minicourses and common minicourses. Optional minicourses
were selected by the student during the second semester of enrollment
as needed to complete the requirement for the full four credit hours in
botany and four credit hours in zoology.
Most of the objectives for each minicourse were written at the
knowledge and comprehension level, and when a student achieved mastery
for a given minicourse he had a C entered on his record for that minicourse.
After completing the required number of minicourses at this level, the
student was awarded a grade of C in the course for which he was enrolled,
A student who had not completed the number of minicourses required for
the course for which he was enrolled was given a grade of incomplete with
the opportunity to complete the uncompleted minicourses during the subse-
quent semester. At that time, the incomplete would be removed and a
permanent grade would be assigned by the Registrar's office.
Students who wished to earn grades of A or B could do so by
completing additional activities requiring a greater knowledge and "under-
standing" of science, a greater time imput and more creative ability. The
A-B activities were administered on a point basis. Students receiving an
A were expected to acquire 110 points, while those working for a B had
to acquire 85 points. These points were earned by participating in a variety
of activities including special examinations, outside readings, research
projects, peer tutoring activities, library projects, and other ways agreed
upon between the student and instructor.
After two years experience it is clear that it is possible to combine
the Audio-Tutorial system with the concepts of minicourses and mastery
to develop a learning system which provides a great deal more individual-
ization and flexibility than the conventional lecture-laboratory approach.
Some advantages and disadvantages
A partial list of advantages is as follows :
1) The primary learning program (AT) can be prepared by a "good"
teacher and all his skill in selecting and sequencing learning
activities can be made available to each student on a simulated
tutorial basis.
2) The rate and emphasis of study is directly under the student's
control. He can stop at any point in the program to obtain outside
assistance (instructor, peer, book or other resources) and can
repeat or skip any segment of the program appropriate to his
needs.
3) The system is designed for success. The expectation is that all
students will achieve the objectives of each minicourse. The
relatively small units of subject matter are less forboding than
Presidential Address 49
a complete course and a sense of accomplishment is achieved with
the mastery of each minicourse.
4) There is great flexibility for individualizing course content to
the specific needs of students. Minicourses can be selected and
combined in a variety of ways to accommodate major goals, inter-
ests, capacities and backgrounds.
5) Redundancy can be reduced and efficient use of facilities, staff
and student time can be achieved.
6) Selection of media and instructional strategy is limited only by
the creativity of the instructor and his facilities. The nature of
the subject matter and objectives dictate the procedure and
materials to be used.
7) Programs that only involve portable tangible items could be made
available outside the Learning Center. Perhaps several mini-
courses constituting a relatively high proportion of a regular
course could be studied at home and thus reduce the cost to both
the student and the school.
8) The transfer of materials between courses and between schools
could be accomplished more readily since each minicourse is
essentially an independent learning system and could be easily
combined with others to adapt to the local situation.
A partial list of disadvantages is as follows :
1) The development and testing of an AT minicourse program Is
time consuming and requires considerable skill and talent.
2) The system requires some psychological adjustment for both
student and teacher. The student must assume a greater degree
of responsibility for his own progress and make some decisions
for himself. The teacher must become committed to "helping
students learn" and accept less focus on himself and his role in
the learning process. The teacher further must adjust to having
all his efforts and objectives exposed to students and colleagues
for review and criticism.
3) Many factors only tangentially related to the system may be
frustrating and create unexpected difficulties which have undue
influence on the success of the program. A change from the
routine within routine surroundings is never easy.
Summary
Although the pilot study using the AT system with minicourses and
mastery concepts has been underway only two years, it is apparent that
it is feasible and practical even in a conventional university setting. Its
potential for individualization is well received by students, and the admin-
50 Indiana Academy of Science
istration of the program can be accomplished by re-deploying about the
same number of staff as required for conventional teaching.
The author's hopes for the botany and zoology students have nearly
all been realized. Perhaps more important, however, is the potential the
minicourse concept has for providing new ways of "going to college" and
for assisting with equal opportunity education and continuing education.
Alternatives to the existing educational system are necessary to accommo-
date the needs of a substantial portion of our population. Many of these
people are unable to fit into the regime of "going to school" for a variety
of reasons, but they still have a need and desire of expanding their educa-
tion. Self-instructional minicourses in the format described in this paper
can provide the necessary flexibility and portability with no compromise
in the quality of instruction. The compatibility of the system with
conventional procedures makes it feasible to intermix the two ap-
proaches with no loss or problem to the student. The major task now is
to produce the quantity and quality minicourses necessary to accommo-
date the current needs and to devise the additional administrative pro-
cedures required to make such programs available on a broad scale.
Literature Cited
1. Brewer, I. M. 1970. An audio-visual method of teaching and learning in
biology. The Gazette, Nov.: 309-312.
2. Meleca, C. B. 1970. The use of multivariate analysis in the evaluation of
audio-tutorial programs I and II. BioScience 20:23-30.
3. Sparks, P. D., and L. M. Unbehaun. 1971. Achievement of audio-tutorial and
conventional biology students: A comparative study. BioScience 21:574-576.
The Role of Scientists in the Preparation and Evaluation of
Environmental Impact Statements1
Alton A. Lindsey2
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Pressure from private citizens including many environmental
scientists has prompted Congress, the Administration and the Courts to
improve our national policies toward the environment during 1969-1971.
The Congressional Research Service identified as "environment oriented"
121 of the 695 bills signed into law during the 91st Congress. Signing of
the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) on January 1, 1970, was
President Nixon's first official action in the "environmental decade of the
'70 's." The Act set up a 3-man Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)
with a small staff. It deals with environment broadly, whereas the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA), born on December 2, 1970, is concerned
only with air and water pollution, environmental impact of pesticides, solid
waste and radiation hazards in the general environment. As an operating
agency, EPA received nearly $2.5 billion for F.Y. 1972.
NEPA requires for major federal projects that the lead agency
prepare a "draft" environmental impact statement, stating the effect the
proposed action would have on the environment, including unavoidable
adverse effects, possible alternatives, the long-term as well as immediate
impact and any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.
The draft statement must be available to the public for 90 days before
action is taken. Public hearings are to be provided "when appropriate"
which presumably means in controversial cases. Draft statements are
reviewed in the 10 regional offices of EPA, and by other involved federal
agencies. The public (including outside scientists) is invited to make
significant inputs into revision of draft statements, and thus into federal
decision-making. This concedes that the public has some expertise as to
what is in the public interest. As a panel of 3 federal judges ruled, "The
very purpose of NEPA was to tell federal agencies that environmental
protection is as much a part of their responsibility as is protection and
promotion of the industries they regulate".
1 The Indiana Academy of Science established in 1971 a Science Communication
Award of $500., funded through the Science and Society Committee from its National
Science Foundation grant. The award is presented at the general session of the fall
meeting, when the recipient is called upon to give an address. He is also scheduled for
visits to Indiana college campuses, to bring somewhat similar material to students,
faculties and townspeople. Printed here is Dr. Lindsey's brief summary of his address
given at the Earlham College meeting of the Academy on October 29, 1971. A more
popularized version entitled "People, science and federal environmental policy" was
given later at 5 colleges.
2 The speaker wishes it recorded that the views expressed herein are his
own; he is not speaking as a representative of Purdue University, the Indiana
Academy of Science or any other institution.
51
52 Indiana Academy of Science
States should license the ecological consulting firms which are spring-
ing up, so as to insure at least minimum qualifications. So far, these firms
have had little business involving impact statements. There is much
scientific and technical content in the areas under CEQ jurisdiction: air
quality, weather modification, energy, hazardous substances including
pesticides and herbicides, land use and management, noise, physiological
health and human well-being (including food purity and waste systems),
transportation, urban environments, water and wildlife. The Washington
office of CEQ evaluates the final statements, chiefly by attorneys with
some ad hoc reference to scientists. The Chicago regional office of EPA,
one of the best, employs many technical experts, but has twice as many
people trained in law and social science as in chemistry and chemical
engineering. (Although EPA is often thought of as an enforcement agency,
it is not empowered to take cases to court, but recommends action by
prosecutors up to the Department of Justice.) A maxim in Washington
says that scientists should not be on top, only on tap. But we think the tap
should be turned on more often. This would make it less necessary for
scientists' groups like Environmental Defense Fund to engage in litigation.
Students being trained in the new environmental law specialty should take
more courses in science.
The federal projects that have been pushed through without compli-
ance with NEPA have mostly been military procurement projects. Several
large public works projects have been postponed by citizen action in federal
courts for lack of environmental impact statements. However, no projects
have yet been finally vetoed or terminated, without court action by private
groups, because an impact statement projected environmental harm.
Nationally, about 1,800 impact statements have been received, for Indi-
ana only four. Apparently, only one public hearing on an impact state-
ment has been held in the nation. Scientists Institute for Public Infor-
mation is asking the courts to require AEC to prepare, for comment and
discussion of alternatives, a detailed statement on the environmental
effects of, not one reactor at a time, but a nation full of liquid metal fast
breeder reactors.
Since even the best impact statements prepared by the promoting
agency are slanted toward advocacy, such statements for potentially
controversial projects, at least, should be done by multidisciplinary teams
independent of the agency, and using a broad systems analysis approach.
The provisions of NEPA have greatly enlarged the opportunity of
scientists, as well as the so-called ordinary citizen, to participate directly
in the operative processes of government. For this unprecedented and
superb mechanism of environmental democracy to start operating as
Congress intended, it will require more understanding and activism by
outside scientists and other private citizens.
Address 53
Selected References
Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries (91st Congress, House) 1970. Hearings
before the subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation ... on
Federal agency compliances with Section 102(2) (C) and Section 103 of NEPA.
Serial No. 91-41, Part, 1279 pp.; Part 2, 822 p. U.S. Gov't Printing Office.
Washington, D.C. $5 and $3.50.
Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. 1971. Administration of the
National Environmental Policy Act. 92nd Congress, House Report 92-316. U.S.
Gov't Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 107 p.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1970. First annual report. U.S. Gov't Printing
Office. Washington, D.C. (out of print).
. . _. 1971. Second annual report. Executive Office of the President. U.S. Gov't
Printing Office. Washington. 360 p. $2.
Institute of Ecology. 1971. Optimum pathway matrix analysis approach to the
environmental decision making process. Testcase: relative impact of proposed
highway alternatives. University of Georgia. Athens. (Mimeo).
Ruckelshaus, W. D. 1971. The beginning of the new American revolution. Ann.
Amer. Acad. Political and Soc. Sci. 396:13-24.
Sax, J. L. 1971. Defending the environment, the challenge of citizen action.
Knopf Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. $6.95.
U. S. Congress (91st). Public Law 91-190. National Environmental Policy Act of
1969. 83 Stat. 852.
U. S. Congress (92nd). 1971. The Cannikin test. Congressional Record-Senate.
S11635-S11639.
U. S. Congress (92nd). 1971. Military procurement authorizations, 1972. Congressional
Record— Senate. S14181-S14210.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chairman: William R. Adams, Department of Anthropology,
Indiana University, Bloomington 47401
Edward Dolan, Department of Anthropology,
DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana 46135, was elected
Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
A Brief Synthesis of Indiana Prehistory. B. K. Swartz, Jr., Depart-
ment of Anthropology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. — —
Indiana was subdivided into three physiographic zones, Moraine and Lake,
Tipton Till Plain, and Valley and Upland, and its prehistory was examined
on this backdrop through six developmental stages, Lithic (usually termed
Paleo-Indian in North American archaeology), Archaic, "Intermediate"
(a provisional stage specifically formulated from an Indiana point of
view), Woodland, Mississippian, and Woodland-Mississippian (a fusion of
the two preceding, rather than a stage in itself.)
A Second Report on Earthwork Seven, the New Castle Site, a Portion of
the Southeast Quadrant— 1971. Gary M. Heathcote, Yasuo Toyoda, and
B. K. Swartz, Jr., Department of Anthropology, Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana 47306.— — Earthwork 7, Hn-1 (IAS-BSU), is a small
"sacred enclosure" located on the southern periphery of the New Castle
Site complex. Descriptively, the earthwork is a low-lying natural knoll,
measuring 67 feet by 81 feet, surrounded by an aboriginally excavated
interior ditch. Excavations in the southeast quadrant this year revealed
the presence of plain Woodland Ware sherds within the disturbed fill strata
of the interior ditch. No diagnostic features, such as post molds, were
discovered, and only one lithic artifact, a pecked stone ball, was found
in situ within the earthwork.
Continued Excavation of Earthwork Four, New Castle Site, Indiana.
Harold G. Stacy and B. K. Swartz, Jr., Department of Anthro-
pology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. For the past
6 years excavation has been carried on a panduriform mound known as
Earthwork Four. This year the major portion of the northeast quadrant
of the east mound was excavated. A total of 15 features were uncovered
in the 39 5x5 foot excavation units excavated during the 1971 Summer
Field School. These included three human cremations, one probable post
hole, one unique soil formation, a bird burial, four ash and charcoal lenses,
one group of rocks surrounding a piece of red ocher, two fire hearths (one
with post holes), and two features of fire cracked rocks. During the excava-
tion six scrapers, five pieces of nondescript pottery, two cores, three points,
and a post hole filler from Feature 2 were unearthed. A rusted piece of
metal and a square nail were found 48 inches below the surface in units
N1-E3 and N2-E3, and another piece of rusted metal was found at the base
of the mound in unit S1-E3. Also in unit S1-E3 the unexcavated portion
of a cremation was uncovered. A portion of this earthwork had been exca-
vated, possibly Redding's work in 1890.
55
56 Indiana Academy of Science
Aerial Photography in Archaeological Survey. Robert E. Pace, Department
of Anthropology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809.
Where extensive areas are to be searched for archaeological sites,
carefully planned and executed aerial photography lends invaluable assist-
ance. While aerial film will record a few obvious sites, its greatest value
lies in identifying relationships of surface natural features, land-use pat-
terns, and back-road networks. With this information and topographic
maps, surface survey can proceed more rapidly and efficiently. At specific
sites, aerial film may record evidence of archaeological features not
apparent to the surface observer.
Archeology of Tell Hesban, Jordan. Robert Little, Department of
Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. Tell Hesban,
or ancient Heshbon, is a city mound at the edge of the plain of Moab in
the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. It has an elevation of 895 meters above
sea level and is 26 road kilometers southwest of the capital city of Amman.
It is 30 kilometers east of the north end of the Dead Sea.
The first time it is mentioned in history, it was a Moabite city, then
a capital city of the Amorites of the Late Bronze Age.
It was continuously occupied from that point by Isralies, Greeks,
Romans, Christians, and Arabs. It was last mentioned by Arab writers
in the 14 century a.d.
The first expedition to Heshbon, sponsored by American Schools of
Oriental Research and staffed by 45 technicians and 165 native workers
was scheduled in 1967 but had to be canceled. There was 8 successful
weeks in 1968, then canceled again in 1970, and another successful 8
weeks in 1971.
Much material has been recovered and analyzed, but since the second
season has only reached Iron III and possibly II and in only some of the
areas, it is too early for final conclusions. About 5 more seasons will be
needed to develop a clear picture of 4,000 or more years of continuous
history at one location.
The Commissary Site: A Woodland Cemetery. Glory K. Houck and B.
K. Swartz, Jr., Department of Anthropology, Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana 47306. Concentrated effort was made to discover
a burial left in 1968 that would allow the reconstruction of the grid system
established in 1966. Stakes from the original grid and a burial correspond-
ing to the 1968 provenience were exposed; but, the missing lower limbs
of the burial and its closeness to the edge of the site cause doubt that it
is the 1968 burial.
A total of 13 individuals in 9 designated burials were exposed and
removed. Five individuals were removed from one unit alone. The possible
1968 burial was associated with a great number of artifacts, including
beaver incisors, worked chert objects, bear canines, antler tines, a tortoise
shell rattle, and the remains of what may have been a "medicine bag/' In
Anthropology 57
association with another individual in the same excavation unit were an
expanded stem elbow pipe of steatite and two shouldered knives.
The Henry County district soil scientist identified the dark brown
soil surrounding burials as gravelly silt loam, identical in texture to the
soil found in the valleys of the Big Blue and Little Blue Rivers. In his
opinion, the normal subsoil of the site had been removed and replaced with
the soil transported from the valley beds.
Special emphasis was placed on stratigraphy and outlining of burial
pits.
Bone Growth in Two Prehistoric Indian Populations
Anthony J. Perzigian
Department of Anthropology
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221
Abstract
The diameter of the adult radius was compared in two prehistoric Indian popu-
lations which differed markedly in diet. The Indian Knoll population of the Archaic
Period was a hunting and gathering group. The Pete Klunk Mound Group population
of the Middle Woodland or Hopewell Period supplemented its hunting and gathering
with part-time agriculture. Therefore, the diet of the Hopewell population was larger
and more varied than that of the Indian Knoll population. Statistically significant
differences in radius diameter were shown to exist both inter- and intrapopulationally.
Males of both populations were larger than females. Males and females of the Hopewell
group were larger, respectively, than males and females of the Indian Knoll group.
These population differences in bone diameter are attributed to differences in the
aboriginal diets.
The effect of nutrition on circumferential growth of the radius bone
was examined in two prehistoric Indian populations, the Indian Knoll of
Kentucky and the Pete Klunk-Hopewell of Illinois. The Indian Knoll pop-
ulation (dated between 2500 and 2000 B.C.) represents the Archaic Period
of Eastern United States prehistory. The subsistence activities of this
group were centered exclusively around hunting and gathering in the
vicinity of the Green River. The Hopewell, a more recent population (dated
between 50 B.C. and 250 a.d.) represents the Middle Woodland Period. This
group also relied on hunting and gathering but supplemented these
activities with part-time agriculture in the Illinois River Valley. The
hypothesis tested is that due to agriculture and, as a consequence, a larger
and more varied diet, the amount of bone growth in the Hopewell popula-
tion would be greater than that of the Indian Knoll population.
Materials and Methods
Only well-preserved, intact radii from adult males and females were
studied. The sampled radii represented individuals ranging in age from
20 to 70 years. The sample was made up of 121 males and 54 females from
Indian Knoll and 45 males and 46 females from Hopewell. Those radii
which evidenced obvious pathology such as periostitis or arthritis were not
used. The width or diameter of each radius was measured at two sites: a
cortical or compact bone site at a point one third the shaft length as meas-
ured from the styloid process and a trabecular or spongy bone site, at a
point one tenth the distance from the styloid process. A photon absorptio-
metric technique developed by Cameron (1) was employed to measure both
width and bone mineral content of each radius. A monoenergetic photon
beam from a low energy radionuclide, iodine-125, was passed across the
width of the bone. Changes of transmittance, which are directly propor-
tional to the bone mineral mass in the scan path, were measured with a
scintillation detector-pulse height analyzer system (3). Data from each
scan or measurement were transferred to paper tape by means of an eight
channel Tally Paper Tape Punch. An IBM Tape to Card Converter trans-
58
Anthropology
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Indiana Academy of Science
ferred the data to the standard 80-column cards. A computer program for
calculation of radius width was written by Dr. David M. Smith of the
Indiana University Medical Center and was made available for this study.
Results
Table 1 presents data on the width of the radii used in this study. In
all cases the average width of the Hopewell radius exceeds that of the
Indian Knoll radius. This relationship is especially evident in the 14.5%
Table 2. Comparison of mean cortical and trabecular widths by sex and culture using
Student's t. Indian Knoll (IK) and Hopewell (H).
Site
Comparison
Value
Significance
Cortical
IK
Males vs. H. Males
4.19
p<0.001**
IK
Females vs. H. Females
6.96
p<0.001**
Trabecular
IK
Males vs. H. Males
3.74
p<0.001»*
IK
Females vs. H. Females
4.12
p<0.001**
Cortical
IK
Males vs. IK Females
8.71
p<0.001**
H.
Males vs. H. Females
4.32
p<0.001**
Trabecular
IK
Males vs. IK Femalet
8.00
p<0.001**
H.
Males vs. H. Females
3.45
p<0.001**
Cortical
IK
Males vs. H. Females
0.75
p>0.20
Trabecular
IK Males vs. H. Females
3.09
0.001<p<0.01*
*Significant
**Highly Significant
difference in average cortical width between the two female samples. In
Table 2, Student's t-tests show that when Indian Knoll males are compared
to Hopewell males or when Indian Knoll females are compared to Hope-
well females, the differences in average radius width are very highly
significant at the 0.001 level of confidence. Size differences are further
indicated when the Hopewell females are compared to Indian Knoll males.
No statistically significant difference between their respective cortical
widths could be found despite a statistically significant sexual dimorphism
within each population with males being larger than females (Table 2).
Discussion
In the earlier stated hypothesis, bone growth was predicted to be
greater in the Hopewell population than in the Indian Knoll population.
The data on radius width show this to be true. However, to fully test the
hypothesis it must be shown that bone width and diet are related and that
significant nutritional differences exist between the two populations. Garn
Anthropology 61
(2) has shown that bone width is related to caloric sufficiency to the extent
that average bone diameter or width may be 15% narrower among the mal-
nourished of a population. The data in Tables 1 and 2 are taken to indicate
significant nutritional differences.
The archaeological data also suggest nutritional differences. Excava-
tion of the Indian Knoll site has categorically demonstrated that this popu-
lation was pre-agricultural (8). Farming implements such as shell hoes
and floral remains of domesticated species are absent. The remains of shell-
fish and mollusca were found interspersed throughout the refuse or
cultural debris of the site. The heavily forested area around the Green
River provided the Indian Knoll people with a variety of foodstuffs.
Remains of hickory nuts, walnuts, and acorns are reported by Webb (8)
along with hammerstones which were employed to process the nuts. An
abundance of deer, Odocoileus virginianus, indicates its importance as a
meat source. In fact, of 27,756 animal fragments identified, 23,177 were
from O. virginianus. Atlatls or spear throwers were found in association
with burials and probably were used to kill both deer and wild turkey,
Melaegris gallopavo.
The Green River provided staples other than just mollusca, for fish
were also a significant component of the diet. Webb (8) describes the deer
ulnae and tibiae which were fashioned into fish hooks. Skeletal remains
of the drumfish, Aplodinotus grunniens, were scattered throughout the
debris of the midden. Migratory waterfowl such as the Canada goose,
Branta canadensis, were also found.
The Middle Woodland Period of North American prehistory emerged
at least 2,000 years after occupation at Indian Knoll was terminated. The
former Period, then, is represented by cultures which benefited from a
longer experience adapting to the New World environments. The hunting
and gathering society of Indian Knoll did not alter the normal habitats
of the natural flora and fauna. As stated above, shellfish were merely
gathered, nuts collected, and deer hunted. In contrast, the later Early
Woodland cultures which antedate the Middle Woodland cultures actually
modified the floral environment to their own advantage. Various excava-
tions of Early Woodland sites have shown remains of plants not naturally
indigenous to those areas. Archaeologists infer that the Indians intention-
ally introduced species whose existence depended upon human manage-
ment. This took the form of cultivation and selective removal of other
plants which might have been competitors. These plants used by man are
cultigens, the earliest of which were: Helianthus annuus, sunflower; Iva
sp., marsh elder; Cucurbita pepo, squash; Lagenaria siceraia, gourd; and
Chenopodium album, goosefoot or lamb's quarters.
An Early Woodland Kentucky site near Indian Knoll has yielded
human fecal material which reflects subsistence activities. Watson (7)
reports that the feces at Salts Cave contained hickory, acorn, sunflower
seeds, Chenopodium, and Iva. The latter three probably represent the
earliest cultigens in this eastern woodlands area. Significant too were
remains of two tropical exotic plants, squash and gourd. Cultivated plants
made up 45% of the bulk of the Salts Cave feces. The intermediacy of
62 Indiana Academy of Science
this site relative to the Indian Knoll and Hopewell cultures has been
shown by radiocarbon dates of 710 ± 200 B.C.
The original stimulus to cultivate was probably a product of cultural
diffusion from Mesoamerica where, for example, squash, gourd, and corn
are indigenous. The adoption of incipient agriculture in the Early Woodland
Period provided the Hopewellians of the Middle Woodland a tested, success-
ful behavioral adaptation. The evidence is impressive that by Middle Wood-
land times, horticulture had become widely practiced in both the Ohio and
Mississippi River Valleys where it was to persist until contact times.
The village site that adjoined the mounds which contained the
Hopewell skeletons is today covered by a town and highway and therefore
beyond archaeological recovery. Examination of other Middle Woodland
sites can, however, provide a picture of Klunk-Hopewell subsistence
activity. The McGraw site of Ross County, Ohio, is situated in the flat
bottomland or flood plain of the Scioto River. Such riverine locations, even
today, are the best areas for agriculture. Prufer (4) reports the discovery
of a medium-sized ear of corn in the middle stratum of the site. One may
posit, therefore, that, following in the tradition of the Early Woodland,
Hopewellians were introducing and propagating alien plants. Prufer maxi-
mizes the significance of the corn and believes that this community's
primary economic activity was farming based on a shell hoe technology.
Secondary activities in order of decreasing importance were shellfish
collecting, hunting, and wild plant collecting. Prufer reasons that the
nearby burial mounds, which are large in size and rich in material content,
could have been built only with the support of a stable agricultural
economy.
Middle Woodland sites in Illinois have also yielded corn. Vickery (6)
reports finds from the Jasper Newman site of Moultrie County (50 ± 140
B.C.) and the Macoupin site of Jersey County. In Calhoun County where
the Klunk-Hopewell site is located, the Peisker site (180 ± 130, 70 ± 120,
250 ± 20 a.d.) and Ansell site (250 ± 150 A.D.) also contained
corn. Both Illinois and Ohio Hopewell climates were capable of supporting
the corn plant.
Judging from the above village or occupation sites, one can cate-
gorically state that Hopewellian Indians of the lower Illinois River Valley
had expanded the exploitative potential of their environment through
farming activities. This is not to say, though, that the Valley itself was
not already naturally endowed with a diversity of food resources. Struever
(5) has shown the easy availability and abundance of hickory nuts and
acorns; Iva and Chenopodium; deer; geese and ducks; and fish. Both
population density and residential stability increased during Hopewellian
times. The number and size of burial mounds attest to the population
increase while numerous storage pits and earth ovens in close association
with a house at the Apple Creek site in Madison County, Illinois, attest
to the residential stability. This increase in population density and resi-
dential stability is taken to indicate the larger and more varied diet of the
Hopewell people over that of their forebearers, the Archaic Indians of
Indian Knoll.
Anthropology 63
The larger and more varied diet of the Hopewell people is considered
to be the primary variable which accounts for their bone growth being
greater than that of the Indian Knoll people who did not supplement their
hunting and gathering with part-time agriculture. There is the possibility,
though, that genetics is partly involved. The effective breeding size of the
two populations was small. Inbreeding was therefore probably operating
in both and contributing to an increase in homozygosity and decrease in
overall genetic variability. Since Hopewell populations were larger and
since they participated in an extensive trade network, outbreeding was
probably more characteristic than in earlier Archaic times. If outbreeding
were more common among Hopewellians, their larger bone diameter could
be partly explained. For example, hybrid vigor in the form of increased
stature has been observed among the offspring of outcrosses between
European sailors and Polynesian women. This is not taken, however, to
detract from the significant nutritional differences between the two
populations.
Conclusions
1) The diet of a Middle Woodland-Hopewell population from the
lower Illinois River Valley has been shown to differ from that of an
Archaic population from the Green River in Kentucky. The latter popula-
tion relied exclusively on hunting and gathering while the former enjoyed
a larger and more varied diet due to the adoption of part-time agriculture
to supplement hunting and gathering.
2) Statistically significant differences in radius diameter or width
were shown to exist both inter- and intrapopulationally. Males of both
populations were larger than females. Males and females of the Hopewell
group were larger, respectively, than males and females of the Indian
Knoll-Archaic group. These population differences in bone diameter are
attributed to differences in the aboriginal diets.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the late Dr. G. K. Neumann of Indiana Uni-
versity, who provided some of the skeletal materials used in this study,
and Dr. C. Conrad Johnston of the Indiana University Medical Center, who
provided me access to the photon absorptiometric apparatus. Also, I am
especially in debt to Dr. David M. Smith of the Medical Center and Dr.
Robert J. Meier of Indiana University who helped me with technical aspects
of this study.
Literature Cited
1. Cameron, J. R., and J. Sorenson. 1963. Measurement of bone mineral in vivo:
An improved method. Science 142 :230.
2. Garn, S. M. 1970. The earlier gain and the later loss of cortical bone. C.
C. Thomas Press, Springfield, Illinois. 146 p.
64 Indiana Academy of Science
3. Johnston, C. C, D. M. Smith, Pao-Lo Yu, and W. P. Deiss. 1968. In vivo
measurement of bone mass in the radius. Metabolism 17:1140-1153.
4. Prufer, O. H. 1965. The McGraw Site: A study in Hopewellian dynamics. Vol. IV.
Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Cleveland, Ohio. 144 p.
5. Struever, S. 1968. Woodland subsistence-settlement systems in the lower Illinois
Valley, p. 285-312. In S. R. Binford and L. R. Binford (eds.) New Perspectives
in Archaeology. Aldine Press, Chicago, Illinois. 373 p.
6. Vickery, K. D. 1970. Evidence supporting the theory of climatic change and
the decline of Hopewell. Wis. Archeol. 51 : 57-76.
7. Watson, P. J. 1969. The Prehistory of Salts Cave, Kentucky. Rep. Invest. No. 16.
Illinois State Museum. Springfield, Illinois. 86 p.
8. Webb, W. S. 1946. Indian Knoll. The University of Kentucky Reports in
Anthropology. IV (3), Part I. University of Kentucky Press. Lexington, Kentucky.
254 p.
The McKinley Site
Robert M. Little
Andrews University
Berrien Springs, Michigan 49103
Abstract
The McKinley Site is located just south of Noblesville, Hamilton County, Indiana.
It was first discovered in 1937 when a road was widened. It was excavated by Downey
Raibourn and Jack Householder, as a salvage operation, starting in 1953 under the
direction of the late Glenn Black.
The site had three periods of occupation from Late Archaic to Early Woodland
and finally during the contact period of 200 years ago. In the Late Archaic there was
evidence for hot-rock cooking plus an emphasis on small animal hunting and gathering.
The tool inventory was more sophisticated than for later occupations. The Early Wood-
land period emphasized larger animal hunting and there was evidence for pole structures.
The surface and near-surface occupation included stone artifacts and tools as well as
historical objects. Eighteen burials recovered showed associations with Indian Knoll.
Introduction
The McKinley Site, located just south of Noblesville in southeast
Hamilton County, was a salvage operation, excavated as a result of Indiana
State Highway operations.
In 1937 the road leading to Noblesville from the south was a very
narrow, paved highway. When the highway was widened, the road scrapers
cut into the east bank of the river terrace just south of a house owned by
Mr. and Mrs. McKinley. Bone fragments and flint chips were noticed by
the highway crew, and Dr. Glenn A. Black, Indiana University, was noti-
fied. He and Jack Householder examined the site and noted the situation.
Householder visited the site a number of times as the years passed and
collected samples from the surface.
Downey Raibourn and Jack Householder began excavation of the
McKinley Site on June 7, 1953. Of the total area dug, approximately half
of the work (750 square feet) was finished in the first season to sterile
soil, which in some cases went over 3 feet deep. In the next 2 seasons
approximately 775 square feet of surface was excavated to sterile soil.
The author wrote up the McKinley Site excavation as a thesis at the
suggestion of Dr. James Kellar, as part of the program to finish the work
of the late Dr. Glenn Black.
Site Description
The McKinley Site overlooks to the west, what is known as Horse
Shoe Prairie which is a fertile, flat land formed by several sharp bends
in the west fork of White River. In all probability during Late
Archaic-Early Woodland times, the river bank came up to the terrace that
is contiguous to the site. It has apparently been an ideal location for
occupation since post-glacial times.
65
66 Indiana Academy of Science
The area of the site had, in the immediate past, been in garden, but
at the time excavation began, it was covered with broom grass, wild lettuce
and weeds. The plow zone penetrated to at least the 0.4 foot level, but there
was still much material on and near the surface. In this level were found
bones of domesticated animals such as sheep and hog, glass and other arti-
facts of both modern man and of early settlers.
The area of occupation extended for 60 feet along a northeast-
southwest line and roughly paralleled what had been the original bank
of the river as it made its sharp bend forming the prairie. The road cut
doubtless destroyed much of the site, but there is no estimate of how much.
Unsuccessful attempts were made to locate material west of the right-
of-way. The 60 lineal feet previously mentioned applied to the surface and
to the layer down to the 1.6 foot level. The third occupational area was
primarily limited to a more circular area of about 30 feet in diameter at
the north end of the 60-foot line.
Methods
The site was laid out in 40 squares, each 10 feet by 10 feet. During
the first season, excavation was continued to sterile soil on a
10 foot block plan as originally intended. In addition, two 5-foot blocks
were opened 50 feet north and 30 feet east of the center lines to establish
the perimeter of the site. However, at the start of the second season the
expedition was constantly hampered by after-hour pot hunters. For this
reason, 5-foot squares were excavated and every effort was made to com-
plete a square before opening another. This was not an ideal technique,
and has led to many problems in studying the field notes, but was
necessary procedure under the circumstances.
In the laboratory, the author analyzed the projectile points for their
discrete attributes under a formula worked out at the University of
Michigan (1), as follows: outline of the blade, outline of the base, junc-
tures of the haft element, presence or absence of a shoulder or a barb,
outline of the shoulder element, tang form, tang outline-proximal
segment.
Of the 157 total selected points, 69 were complete enough for metric
measurements.
Results
The stratigraphy of the site was not apparent at the time of the
excavation, but analysis clearly indicated three occupations. On the
surface, along with the modern debris, a few sherds of grit tempered cord
marked pottery of Late Woodland variety were found. However, many
of the projectile points in the same context were Archiac. Under this
modern debris area which can be classified with the surface as Zone C,
Anthropology
vV7
a continuous black layer was noted over the entire site and was variously
referred to in the field notes as black soil, black debris, black disturbed
and mottled. It varied in thickness from several inches to 2 feet, and
averaged about 1 foot. This fact seems to correlate well with the second
occupation, or what was called Zone B. The extreme blackness of the second
layer indicated an intense occupation.
Under Zone B in discontinuous patches of about the same thickness
was a lighter-colored occupation that was called yellow-disturbed by the
excavators. This first occupation of the site was called Zone A. It is not
as wide-spread as Zone B and was similar except for the presence of many
shell fragments and a change in the style of the projectile points. Other
artifacts of stone and bone also indicate a change of style. Below Zone A
was a sterile yellow Miami silt loam soil.
The chipped stone projectile points recovered at the McKinley Site
were well distributed over the area. In all, some 363 points and fragments
of points were recovered, but only 149 were complete enough for the
discrete attribute analysis. The raw material was for the most part chert.
Eight bone points were added to this analysis for a total under considera-
tion of 157. Of this total, 64% were found on the surface, 24% in Zone B
and 16% in Zone A, including the bone points.
Table 1, Stone and bone implement inventory.
Zones
A
B
c
Stone Tools
Anvils
(i
3
16
Hammers
25
24
3
Axes:
% grooved
0
2
0
full grooved
0
0
4
Net Sinkers
0
4
0
Pestles :
elongated
2
0
u
bell shaped
4
0
0
Knives
1
5
10
Scrapers (4 types)
8
6
2:^
Drills
0
13
20
Smoothing stone
0
.1
0
Bone Tools
Awls
29
4:-;
—
Bodkins
9
0
_
Needles
2
11
_
Atlatl hook
1
0
—
Fish hook
1
Ornaments and Problem Forms
Banner stone fragments
0
0
3
Stone tube
0
0
1
Stone beads
1
0
0
Shell beads
3
0
0
Perforated turtle shell rattle
1
0
0
Bone tubes
0
2
0
<;x
Indiana Academy of Science
My analysis revealed at least one new type of projectile point for each
Zone. In Zone A, two distinct types were noted. All bone projectile points
were found in this lowest zone, and were similar to those found at Indian
Knoll (4). In the classification, they were described as having an ovate
blade and a lateral-lateral haft element (also known as side-notched). A
type originating (3) in Zone B was described as having an excurvate
blade and straight shoulders. Only Zone C revealed triangle points with
subconcave bases.
The tool inventory was very extensive and was divided into two
general categories, stone and bone (Table 1). Of special interest was the
fragment of an atlatal hook, which was found at the lowest level.
Atlatal hooks were known to have been used in the area during Late
Archaic times (2). The bone material recovered was, for the most part,
in good condition and quite extensive (Table 2). The bones and bone
fragments from animals used for food. Included were disarticulated dog
bone fragments found scattered throughout the site.
Table 2. Subsistence patterns.
Number of pieces
Bone
Zone A
Zone B
Deer — Odocoileus virginianus1
Turtle — Amyda spinifers,
Chelydra serpentine and
Terrepene carolinensis
Ground Hog — Marmota monax
Squirrel:
Fox — Sciurus niger
Gray — Sciurus carolinensis
Raccoon — Procyon lotor
Beaver — Castor canadensis
Rabbit — Sylvilagus floridanus
Opossum — Didelphis virginianus
Muskrat — Ondatra zihethica
Rodent misc.
Shell
Bird:
Small
Large
Dog — Canis familiaris
Unidentified (28 burned fragments)
-<■*■;?;
is
n
8
5
47
60 +
88
8
3
1,625
72
11
41
22
5
1
3
10
1 Representing an animal count of 84, using the Dick Adams method, Indians
University.
Of the 18 burials recovered, 8 were probably related to the Zone B
occupation and the remaining 10 were from the deepest level of occupation.
All heads were oriented facing south except one which faced north and
Anthropology
IrJ
showed evidence for red ocher
female double burial.
the pelvic region. There was one male-
Most of the burials were on their back with flexed lower limbs. Excep-
tions included two fully extended burials, and one unusual burial which
was on its back, fully extended to the knees, then with the lower legs flexed
back under the body. Probably the most important burial was a male, found
at the lowest level, tightly flexed and buried face down. Associated with
it was a perforated carapace rattle very similar to those found at Indian
Knoll in Kentucky (4).
Table 3. Age comparisons between McKinley and Indian Knoll.
Classification
Percenta
ge
Indian Knoll
McKinley
ti.U
11.00
19.80
6.00
14.13
0
6.64
6.00
.28
0
31.64
22.00
4.32
39.00
.02
11.00
9.10
0
Newborn to one year
1 to 3 years
Children 4-12 years
Youths 13-17
Near Adults 18-20 years
Young Adults 21-35 year:
Middle Age 36-55 years
Old Adults 55 + years
Unidentifiable
Of the 18 burials, there were 10 males, 5 females, and 3 infants. The
age at time of death ranged from 13 to 51 for the males and from 30 to
68 for the females. The final skull measurements were made by the late
Dr. Georg Neumann, and are very similar to Indian Knoll. However, the
McKinley population lived longer on an average than the Indian Knoll
population and were 1 to 4 inches taller. (Tables 3 and 4).
Table 4. Comparison of stature between Indian Knoll and McKinley.
Zone
Burial No.
Age
Sex
Manouvrier
Pearson
Neumann
A
12H1-13
13
M
1580
1569
1622
A
12H1-11
29
M,
1689
1667
1682
A
12H1- 7
30
F
1575
1557
1591
A
12H1-12
40
M
1738
1730
1722
A
12H1- 9
45
F
1673
—
1640
A
12H1-18
46
M
1630
1618
1652
A
12H1-10
46
F
1568
—
—
A
12H1- 6
67
F
1575
1557
_.
B
12H1- 3
32
F
1548
1527
1562
B
12H1- 5
44
M
1693
1693
1698
McKin
ley
Average
P
1588
1542
1588
McKin
ley
Average
M
1688
1677
1688
Indian
Ki
noil Average
F
1569
1532
—
Indian
K
noil Average
M
1656
1640
—
70 Indiana Academy of Science
Discussion
Other interesting features, in addition to burials, included pits and
post holes. There appeared to be no consistency in the size and shape of
the pits. There was no evidence for bark or rock lining for storage purposes
although several small pits were found containing charred nuts. Other
small pits contained charcoal and red burned clay.
One special pattern found in the lowest level of occupation was noted
by the excavators. At least six pits were uncovered with concentrations
of rocks in the center. These pits ranged from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, and
averaged a foot deep. In many instances these pits showed a possible
flanged rim. The excavators indicated that this was evidence for "hot rock"
cooking by the earliest occupants of the site.
Because of the density of the occupation it was difficult to identify
all of the post holes that were present. Some organization was present,
e.g., a suggestion of a straight line in the southwest quadrant of the ex-
cavation. The most intensive occupation appeared to be in the lowest strata
of Zone B. The organization that was present in the post holes can probably
be associated with the housing used primarily by the Zone B occupation.
Conclusions
It is obvious that hunting and gathering was the life style throughout
the occupations of the site, and that the availability of the fauna was
reasonably constant. However, there seemed to be an emphasis on small
animals at the lowest level, and a corresponding emphasis on larger animal
hunting in the middle occupational level.
There seems little doubt that the earliest village in Hamilton County,
Indiana, may well have been a small band of people, who left their home
at Indian Knoll, Kentucky, and worked their way up the White River to
settle at Horse Shoe Prairie sometime before 1000 B.C.
Literature Cited
1. Binford, Lewis R. 1963. A proposed attributes list for the description and
classification of projectile points. Anthropol. Paper No. 19. Mus. Anthropol. U. Mich.,
Ann Arbor 99:193-221.
2. Kellar, James H. 1955. The atlatl in North America. Vol. Ill, No. 3. Ind. Hist.
Soc, Indianapolis, Ind.
3. Munson, Patrick J. 1966. An archaeological survey of the Wood River
terrace and adjacent bottoms and bluffs in Madison County, 111. 111. State Mus. Prelim.
Rep. No. 8. Springfield, 111.
4. Webb, Wm. S. 1946. Indian Knoll: Part I. U. Ky. Rep. Anthropol. Arch.
4:253.
The Hybrid Origin of the Arikara Indians
Ralph W. Alexander, Jr.
Department of Anthropology
The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201
Abstract
The hypothesis of a hybrid origin of the historic Arikara of the Great Plains was
examined by multivariate-discriminant computer analysis applied to samples of Arikara
and related skeletal material. The ethnohistorical and archeological evidence bear-
ing on the Arikara was summarized, and the skeletal material utilized was described.
Three putative ancestral groupings were examined by F and t significance tests for
cranial measurements and indices, and were subjected to multivariate analysis with
Arikara sample series to determine their relationships. The initial hypothesis of the
Arikara being closely related to the protohistoric and historic Pawnee, and less closely
related to Siouan groups such as the Mandan and the Ponca and Omaha, was supported.
The purpose of this study was to examine the hypothesis of a di- or
tri-hybrid origin of some of the populations of the Great Plains, as initially
advanced by the late G. K. Neumann in 1942 (5). This hypothesis was
tested through the application of multivariate computer analysis. The
Caddoan-speaking Arikara of South Dakota were utilized as an example.
In their migration up the Missouri River, the Arikara came into contact
with the Siouan-speaking peoples of the Middle Missouri Tradition. Despite
the occasional war-like nature of the contacts, considerable mixture did
occur, especially in the northernmost Arikara villages. Contacts of lesser
importance may have been made with the Siouan bison hunters of the
Dakota and Dhegiha divisions. Physically, the analysis primarily involved
populations of the Muskogid and Dakotid varieties, following the termi-
nology of Neumann (6). These groups include: 1) historic and protohistoric
Pawnee represented by samples of the Upper Republican and Nebraska
Culture aspects and historic Pawnee (Muskogid Ancestral Group) ; 2) a
Plains Woodland and Mandan-like Siouan population (Dakotid A Ancestral
Group) ; and 3) the possibility of significant contribution of a second type
of the latter (Dakotid B Ancestral Group), represented by the Ponca and
Omaha. It is to be understood that the term "putative ancestral group",
particularly in the case of the Dakotid B Ancestral Group, does not infer
direct descent, but rather the possibility of mixture through contact. It
has long been suggested that the Arikara are descendants of the Pawnee
(3, 9, 10, 11, 14). Most of the evidence for this is linguistic in nature. The
history of the Arikara prior to the close of the 18th century is not perfectly
known, and can only briefly be summarized here. Northernmost of the
Caddoan-speaking people, the Arikara were the last of that linguistic stock
to come in direct contact with white chroniclers. Archeologically, some
time after circa a.d. 100, but still several centuries before the arrival of
the first white men in the Central Plains region, the Middle Woodland-
Hopewellian complexes were succeeded by a group of semi-horticultural
pottery-making cultures implying a much more stable pattern of settle-
ment. Included in these semi-sedentary complexes were several prehistoric
manifestations featuring small loosely arranged unfortified settlements —
71
72 Indiana Academy of Science
the Nebraska Aspect of northeastern Kansas and eastern Nebraska, and
the Upper Republican Aspect of western Kansas and Nebraska (16). There
is archeological evidence that the Arikara were established in present
central South Dakota by the 15th century, as represented by the Initial
Coalescent Variant (4). The Initial Coalescent sites appear to represent
the first stage of an amalgamation of the Central Plains and Middle
Missouri into the Coalescent Tradition. There is a considerable gap in the
archeological record between the Upper Republican and Nebraska Cultures
and the Pawnee, perhaps due to the dry years of the 1400's in the Central
Plains. The close similarity in houses, pottery, and other artifacts between
the Initial Coalescent and the Central Plains Tradition however leaves little
doubt that the Initial Coalescent groups were immigrants from the Central
Plains. Few studies in physical anthropology have been done on the remains
from the Great Plains. Wedel (15) says of this area: "For various reasons
it has remained one of the last major geographical provinces to attract
the interest of trained students of prehistory — strange to say, despite the
demonstrable richness of this upper Missouri region for the study of human
prehistory, no comparable body of data correlating cultural and soma-
tological materials on the Arikara — or for that matter on any of their
neighbors — has yet been published".
Crania of 169 nondeformed adult males comprise the 9 series used
for the study. All of the crania were measured and examined by Georg
K. Neumann, and the data placed in the files of the Laboratory of Bio-
anthropology, Indiana University, prior to his death. The original data
is now in the possession of his surviving family. The samples used are well-
documented temporally, and are based on specimens whose cultural affili-
ations are known either from archeological materials or historic records.
Identical measurements and observations were employed in assessing each
series ; error on the part of non-comparable data from different observers
was eliminated. The samples represent the totality of available materials
which adhere to the above criteria, and are considered adequate for estima-
tions of the parameters of the actual populations involved. The question
of the particular characteristics which are similar and different between
the groups should hopefully be examined in light of what is known of the
heritability of anthropometric traits. However, estimates which have been
made show a considerable variability in results, depending on the methods
used. Twin studies appear to show a fairly high agreement (12) in that
certain traits such as stature, limb lengths, facial height, and the cephalic
index appear to be highly heritable, having little within-pair variability
among dizygous twins (1, 2, 7, 8, 13). Despite the claim that such studies
show agreement among themselves (12), discrepancies do exist. Osborne
and DeGeorge (7) find the cephalic index to have the highest heritability,
while the same trait is listed as "unstable", inferring a low heritability,
in Ostertag's study (8). In a study mentioned above (13), twins were com-
pared in terms of 64 anthropometric traits, of which only 3 were not
significant at or beyond the 0.05 level of probability. Of the remaining
61 variables, all but 6 were significant at or beyond the 0.01 level. This
implies that nearly all anthropometric traits have very significant herita-
bility factors, while being little influenced by environment. However, the
length of the left ear is significant at the 0.05 level, while the right ear
Anthropology 73
shows considerably more significance (p=0.01) between mono- and
dizygous twins! Given such difficulties and inexplicable results, it would
seem that heritability studies point to very different conclusions. Given
also the questionable nature of mandibular traits due to developmental
influences, these problems make it unwise, in the opinion of the author,
to base any interpretation of the traits which emerge from the analysis
on these grounds.
The ancestral groupings were initially arrived at by an examination
of the temporal, spatial, and apparent biological similarities of the series
involved. Three statistical methods were used to substantiate this consoli-
dation of the material, including analysis of similarities of qualitative
variables, F tests of homogeneity of variance, and t tests for significant
differences in means. Eighteen multivariate-discriminant functions were
calculated, using all possible combinations of the ancestral groups with
the two initial Arikara series and the pooled "tribal" Arikara series, for
both measurements and indices. The initial separation of the total Arikara
sample into two series, the Muskogid Arikara, and the Dakotid A Arikara
(after the terminology of G. K. Neumann) was made for two reasons. The
available information indicated that the skulls grouped as the Muskogid
Arikara originated in earlier, more southerly sites where the population
would be more likely to resemble the proposed original parental (Muskogid
Ancestral Group) population, and that the Dakotid A Arikara skulls origi-
nated in sites later in date and more northerly in the territory occupied
by the Arikara, and would be more likely to resemble the groups contacted
later in Arikara history (the Dakotid A Ancestral Group). Also an exami-
nation of the material by the author and G. K. Neumann indicated that the
samples were slightly different in morphological characteristics. The
results of the initial multivariate functions appeared to bear out this con-
tention. However, the differences between the Arikara samples was slight,
and in the opinion of the author the total Arikara sample, or pooled "tribal"
Arikara series was the best indicator of overall relationships. The final
multivariate-discriminant functions which deal with this grouping are
therefore considered to be the most applicable to the examination of the
hypothesis, and are summarized here.
The analysis indicated that the Arikara were most closely related to
the Muskogid Ancestral Group, and that this similarity was greatest in
the region of the cranial vault, both by size and by proportion. The overall
conformation of the facial area was also very similar, including the facial
length, and nasal and orbital breadths. The Dakotid A Ancestral Group
was the next most closely related grouping, with the similarity greatest
in the nasal region as expressed by the nasal height, nasal root height
index, and the nasal index. There was some similarity in the facial breadth
and the flatness of the face. The Dakotid B Ancestral Group was the least
similar to the Arikara. No particular region of the cranium was related
as a unit to the Arikara. The greatest similarity between the Arikara and
the Dakotid B Ancestral Group was in the high nasal bones, and in a
moderate amount of the flattening of the cranial base; the cranial vaults
were quite different. This general picture was in agreement with that
proposed by the original hypothesis. The relationships between the
74 Indiana Academy of Science
ancestral groupings and the Arikara may be summarized by the use of
a generalized multivariate D2 value, considering all variables^ which indi-
cates general biological distance between populations. To place these values
in perspective, if the statistic were applied between the Arikara and a
remotely related American prehistoric population such as the Indian Knoll
Archaic series from Kentucky, a value of D2 = 24.00 would obtain. The
close relationship between the Arikara and the Muskogid Ancestral Group
was reflected in a D2 value of 4.65. The Dakotid A Ancestral Group was
not far behind, with a D2 value of 4.90, and appeared to have contributed
significantly to the historic Arikara. The Dakotid B Ancestral Group was
the least related of all the putative ancestral populations tested, but the
dissimilarity was not great; D2 = 5.13. In this regard, the Dakotid B
Ancestral Group appeared to be close enough to retain it as a viable puta-
tive ancestor, a question which was left open in the initial formulation
of the hypothesis.
The available evidence, as summarized here, appears to lend consider-
able credibility to the hypothesis of a hybrid origin of the Arikara. Certain
sets of characters which serve to identify the samples employed have been
identified, and may serve as a guide to workers planning further cranio-
metrie studies on similar material
Literature Cited
1. Clark, P. J. 1956. The heritabslity of certain anthropometric characters as
ascertained from measurements of twins. Amer. J. Human Genet. 8:49-54.
2. Hiernaux, J. 1963. Heredity and environment: their influence on human
morphology. A comparison of two independent lines of study. Amer. J. Phys.
Anthropol. 21:575-590.
3. Hodge, F. W. 1907. Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. No. S0: 83-86.
4. Lehmer, D. J. 1971. Introduction to middle Missouri archeology. Anthropol.
Pap. No. 1, Nat. Park Service, U. S. Dep. Interior, Washington D. C. 206 p.
5. Neumann, G. K. 1942. The origin of the prairid physical type of American
Indian. Papers Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett. 27:539-542.
6. ___________ 1952. Archeology and race in the American Indian, p. 13-34. In J. B.
Griffin, (ed.) Archeology of Eastern United States. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago,
III. 392 p.
7. Osborne, R. H., and F. V. DeGeorge, 1959. Genetic basis of morphological
variation. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 204 p.
8. Ostertag, W. 1959. Genetic and environmental factors influencing certain
anthropometric traits. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 68:59-64.
9. Powell, J. W. 1891. Indiana linguistic families of America North of Mexico.
Seventh Pep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. 1885-1886: 58-62.
10. Strong, W. D. 1935. An introduction to Nebraska archeology. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll. 93, No. 10. 323. p.
11. Swanton, J. R. 1952. The Indian tribes of North America. Smithsonian Inst., Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. No. 145. 726 p.
Anthropology 75
12. Vandbnburg, S. G. 1962. How "stable" are hereditary estimates? A com-
parison of faeritability estimates from six anthropometric studies. Amer. J.
Phys. AnthropoL 20:331-338.
13. ., and H. H. Stranbskov, 1964. A comparison of identical and fraternal
twins on some anthropometric measures. Human Biol. 36:45-52.
14. Wedel, W. R. 1936. An introduction to Pawnee archeology. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
Bull. No. 112. 122 p.
15. — — 1955, Archeological materials from the vicinity of Mobridge. South
Dakota. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. AnthropoL Papers No. 45, Bull. 157, 188 p.
16. _________ 1959. An introduction to Kansas archeology,. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull.
174. 174 p.
Excavations at the Daughtery-Monroe Site, 1971
Melvin L. Brashear and Sharon K. Cupp
Department of Anthropology
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
and
Debora Mackie
Department of Anthropology
DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana 46135
Abstract
The 1971 Indiana State University Field School excavated, for the second season,
the Daugherty-Monroe site (12-Su-13) in northern Sullivan County, Indiana. The site
contains both Allison and LaMotte cultures. Results of tests made in two mounds were
largely negative. Excavations in the more southern village area turned out to be pure
Allison. Distinctive traits typical of the Allison culture included house patterns,
storage/refuse pits and projectile points — a variant of the Lowe Flared Base type.
Bone artifacts and refuse were rare compared to LaMotte deposits to the north, but
this can probably be attributed to an acid soil in the area excavated.
Introduction
The purpose of the excavations at the Daughtery-Monroe site was
to gather additional information on the LaMotte and Allison cultures (1).
Excavations were carried out by the Archeological Field School directed
by the late Dr. Edward V. McMichael.
The site is located some 30 miles south of Terre Haute, Indiana, on
the second terrace of the Wabash River in Sullivan County, east of Hutson-
ville, Illinois. Before the 1970 summer excavations, it was believed that
the site had been occupied only by people of the LaMotte culture (2). It
was not until the last few days of the field school that an Allison component
was discovered (1). Initial attention was diverted to a group of mounds
in a wooded area near the LaMotte-Allison village. Approximately 13
mounds exist in the wooded area 50 yards to the northeast of the main
site. Mounds C and H were selected to be tested.
A trench was opened across the center of Mound C (Fig. 1). It was
found that a primary clay mound, approximately 15 feet diameter and
26 inches deep, had been built, then a later secondary sand mound added.
The clay, according to personal communications with Mr. Cantin of the
Indiana State University Georgraphy and Geology Department, was from
a fluvial deposit. A skelton of a horse, buried about 50 years ago, was
found in the center of Mound C. Three Allison potsherds, numerous fire-
cracked rocks and flint chips were found in the burial fill. No other
features were found in Mound C.
Mound H rose some 27 inches over its base and proved to be a single
structure, with loading of sandy soil. Artifacts recovered consisted of a
number of Allison Cordmarked sherds and one Baumer Fabric-marked
rim. These were apparently carried in with the fill. There were no post
molds or other features to indicate the function of the structure. While
76
Anthropology
77
OC-DATUMPOINT
S298EIO"
NORTH
I2-SU-I3 1971
UNIT ' S298EIO
S308EIO S3I8EI0
S328EIO S498EI0
Scale
Figure 1. Horizontal plot of features at 12-Su-13 (1971)
the excavation did demonstrate that Mounds C and H were man-made,
no conclusion can be drawn as to their use.
The Village
Excavation of the southern edge of the village demonstrated that only
Allison occupation was there. Four 10 x 10 foot units were opened, some
300 feet south of the 1970 excavations. Altogether, 10 basin-shaped pits,
averaging about 30 inches deep and 36 inches in diameter were found. All
the pits, except Features 5 and 13, had a single row of post molds around
them. The postmolds averaged about 6 inches apart and 3 inches in
78 Indiana Academy of Science
diameter. These posts may have supported a superstructure used as protec-
tion. All of these were storage and/or refuse pits.
One large refuse pit deserves special attention. This pit, Feature 13,
was found in a 10 x 10 foot test unit, 200 feet south of the other 1971
excavations, while searching for the village perimeter. The pit contained
numerous Allison sherds. Apparently this was a refuse dump located on
the edge of the village away from the main house areas.
Portions of possibly six house patterns were also found in the village.
Each pattern consisted of a double row of post molds approximately 12
inches apart and with posts measuring 3 to 4 inches in diameter. At the
present time it is unknown whether or not the pits were used in or outside
these house structures (Fig. 1).
Artifacts Analysis
Artifacts from Mound C consists of three Allison Cordmarked sherds.
The artifacts from Mound H consist of the following sherds: 195 Alli-
son Cordmarked; 6 Embarras Simple Stamped; 1 Baumer type sherd with
interior and exterior fabric marks and a squared rim ; and 1 piece of deer
leg bone. This material all seems to be Allison (except for the Baumer
rim sherd) (Table 1),
Table 1. Archeological materials recovered, 1971.
CERAMIC
2,190 Cordmarked (53.2%) 44 Simple Stamped (1.1%)
1,038 Smoothed Over Cord (25.2%) 716 Unclassifiable (17.4%)
93 Cross Cord (2.3%) 33 Other (0.8%)
CHIPPED STONE
6 Lowe Flared base projectiles 1 Trianguloid knife
4 Scrapers 1 Guilford-like projectile
4 Lamellar flake knives (Harrison County flint) 1 Trianguloid projectile
2 knife fragments, 1 parallel sided
STONE
1 Nutting stone 1 Celt
1 Abrader 2 Crinoid stems used as beads
OTHER
1 Fired Clay object (resembling a claw or beak) 1 Copper pin (2.5mm)
The ceramics found in the village during the 1971 excavations are
predominantly Stoner Cordmarked along with a few simple stamped sherds
of the LaMotte "Embarras" type (3). There were a few aberrant sherds
Anthropology 79
present, including: 3 cordmarked zoned, 5 simple and check stamped zoned,
1 sherd with interior and exterior cordmarking with the interior marking
perpendicular to the exterior, and 6 temperless "toy Pot" sherds.
A study of the rim sherds has shown that 80.7% of the cordmarking
is vertical to the rim (Table 2). The cordage ranges from loosely to
tightly twisted, and from close spiced to slightly over 5 mm apart. Coil
fractures were found on many sherds. Firing was uneven, resulting in
both oxidation and reduction on the same vessels. The tempering of the
sherds is fine to medium sand and grit.
Table 2. Rim treatment compared to surface treatment.
Cordmarked Zoned Unclassifiable
Reed punctate 21 — —
Smoothed 23 — 2
Oblique notching 7 — —
Scalloped 52 — —
Notched 8 — —
Scalloped & notched 3 — —
Interior notching 1 5 2
Other1 4 — —
1 Includes one tapered, three interior and exterior notched.
2Probably part of vessel both notched and scalloped from Feature No. 13.
Conclusions
Although the authors regard the LaMotte culture as a direct
descendent of the Allison culture, some variations were noted during the
1971 field work.
No house post mold patterns have been observed in the LaMotte
section of the village, even though a great number of random post molds
were found. The only house pattern found associated with Allison was a
"D-shaped" pit house. From work on the Illinois side of the Wabash, Denzil
Stephens suspects large circular house patterns for LaMotte. There were
no post molds associated with the LaMotte pits, unlike what proved to be
characteristic of Allison.
LaMotte pits were generally much deeper, more straight-walled and
oval to circular, although their diameters were about the same as Allison.
Allison pits were semi-conical, while the LaMotte pits were usually basin-
shaped. The deeper LaMotte pits may suggest an increase in population
and consequently an increase in storage problems.
A diagnostic trait of the Allison culture is Stoner Cordmarked pottery
and for LaMotte, Embarras Simple Stamped pottery. A large quantity
of bone tools were found this summer in the Allison excavation. A
difference has also been noted between the Allison and LaMotte point
types. Both used Lowe flared base point made of Harrison County flint,
but LaMotte points appear to have been reworked.
80 Indiana Academy of Science
Recent results of Carbon-14 dating has yielded dates of A.D. 570 and
a.d. 540.
Literature Cited
1. Clouse, Robert A., John W. Richardson, and Edward V. McMichael,
1971. Interim Report of the Daughtery-Monroe Site: An Allison-LaMotte Village.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 80:74-83.
2. McMichael, Edward V., and Stephen Coffing, 1970. Test excavations at the
Daughtery-Monroe Site (12-Su-13). Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 79:57-58.
3. Winters, Howard D. 1967. An archeological survey of the Wabash Valley in
Illinois.. Rep. of Invest. No. 10. Illinois State Museum, Springfield, 111. p. 47-48.
A Provisional Taxonomy of Prufer's Scioto Tradition
B. K. Swartz, Jr.
Department of Anthropology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Indiana and Ohio archaeologists have been reluctant to classify and culturally
affiliate archaeological remains. A sympton of this unwillingness to classify is the
forced definition of large, vague and invalidly-defined units such as Hopewell, Adena
and Fort Ancient. The purpose of this paper is to abolish these terms as culture taxons
by proposing a classification of Scioto Tradition phases.
For various reasons of historic, scholastic, and idiosyncratic nature,
Indiana and Ohio archaeologists have been loathe to define cultural affilia-
tions from archaeological remains, that is, do archaeological taxonomy.
It should be noted that McKern's (9) Midwestern Taxonomic System was
developed on the basis of materials in the northern Mississippi Valley area,
and was only nominally applied in Indiana and Ohio. Western Indiana is
outside the range of problems discussed in this article, but terms used there
are mostly borrowed from Illinois archaeology. Prufer's recent work in
Ohio, however, has radically altered established views of conventional
classification schemes there.
A symptom of this unwillingness to label is the forced definition of
large, vague, and invalidly defined units. Such terms as Hopewell, Adena,
and Fort Ancient hang on to plague contemporary comparative archaeo-
logical study. The purpose of this article is to rectify past sins, and, at least,
to abolish two of these terms as taxa {Hopewell might be maintained in
a ceremonial complex status, with its "Interaction Sphere," and/or a
pottery type designator — but not as a cultural unit). For an up-to-date
treatment of Fort Ancient see Prufer and Shane (15). Part of the
reluctance to classify Midwestern Woodland materials is that so little data
are available from living areas. Ceremonial remains do not seem to be sensi-
tive spatial indicators, probably due to the rapid diffusion of associated
religious concepts, as materials related to subsistence technologies.
Using the classification precepts of Willey (19) Prufer has proposed
a "Scioto Tradition" (12). This concept is based on the belief that there
is a continuity of development in the Ohio Valley of basic Woodland
character which is largely unknown due to absence of detectable living
sites. This assumption is not accepted by all workers in the field. The term
Scioto is unfortunate in that it includes southeastern Indiana, southern
and central Ohio, north central and eastern Kentucky, and western West
Virginia besides the focal Scioto River drainage of south central Ohio
(16, p. 212 and Fig. 3, p. 218; 17, p. 137). A specific site name or, per-
haps, an appropriate descriptive geographical term should have been chosen.
The term Scioto Hopewell, rather than Ohio Hopewell, does have some geo-
graphic plausibility though, in that the Scioto basin is the climax area,
and manifestations of this development, though largely restricted to Ohio,
do occur in some adjoining states.
81
82 Indiana Academy of Science
It is very dangerous to place time limits on archaeological units, but
the beginnings of the Scioto Tradition appear around 2000 B.C. The tradi-
tion is completely prehistoric, being displaced by Late Woodland and
Mississippian populations, such as those of the Fort Ancient Tradition.
Along with Scioto, there are a number of Woodland traditions in the
eastern United States which in some stage of development manifest a
strong cast of Hopewell ceremonialism (5, Fig. 3, p. 181). It is believed
that Hopewell ceremonialism evolved within the Havana Tradition of
Illinois.
Although Prufer has described "Scioto Hopewell" in various publica-
tions, a set of traits defining the Scioto Tradition as a whole has yet to
be put forth. In fact the literature suggests that Scioto Hopewell is
confused with Scioto Tradition. Struever's map (16), for example, should
read Scioto Hopewell for Scioto Tradition, and his definition of Scioto
Tradition refers to Scioto Hopewell. It must be realized that Prufer's
approach to this material has been from his initial interest in "Classic
Hopewell" (11). The integrating feature of the tradition as perceived by
Prufer appears to be cordmarked utilitarian pottery. Scioto can be con-
trasted to the Havana Tradition by the presence of extensive ceremonial
cremation and a deciduous forest setting.
Table 1 represents a taxonomy of the Scioto Tradition, with units
comparable to what Prufer calls phases, following procedures character-
istically applied to the Southwest United States. These are essentially
"generations of pottery makers" (6, p. 98), in river valleys. Local variants
of what Prufer (13, p. 49), calls Early Middle, Late, and Latest
[Scioto] "Hopewell" are, therefore, assumed to be components, though
generic terms are not given. The table is not complete as regional phase
sequences can probably also be established for the Miami and Muskingum
drainages in Ohio. Selective explanation of phase terms proposed seems
required. The most striking feature is the complete absence of the term
Adena. Early Adena is replaced by Fayette, from Fayette Thick pottery
(4). Robbins, from Dragoo's Robbins Complex (3, p. 269), has become the
term for Middle and Late Adena. Fayette is too generalized to divide into
phase units at this time. It differs from Munson's (7) Marion Culture of
the Havana Tradition in that pottery is typically decorated by cordmark-
ing, rather than by fabric impressing. Fayette and Marion pottery is quite
thick. Michael J. Rodeffer (personal communication, 1972) is of the opinion
that, on the basis of burial evidence, the dichotomy between Fayette and
Robbins is not apparent in the Licking basin, and proposes a general Early
Scioto Hartman Phase. The writer believes, though, that ceramic evidence
will eventually indicate a division of this unit. Westenhaver, following
Black's thinking (2, p. 301), is called Adena by Prufer (14, p. 130), and
Charleston is called Adena by McMichael (10, p. 37-8). This writer is term-
ing Prufer's Hopewell Phase McGraw (after Prufer's McGraw site) (14).
New Castle, rather than Mounds or Anderson, is used for Indiana Middle
Scioto because of the recorded presence of Hopewell pottery (18). Prufer's
term Peters (14) seems preferable to Baby's Cole (1), since it is defined
on the basis of pottery. An intrusive infant burial (8) was extracted from
Earthwork Four, West Mound, at the New Castle site, indicating possible
Anthropology
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84 Indiana Academy of Science
evidence of Late Scioto occupation in east central Indiana. The term "Little
Blue," from the nearby Little Blue River, is tentatively coined here to
represent this manifestation and the phase it represents. Excluding the
term Charleston, McMichael (10) is followed for Kanawha valley phases.
McMichael's phrase Kanawha "Tradition" should be replaced with
Kanawha Regional Sequence.
Literature Cited
1. Baby, Raymond S., and Martha A. Potter. 1965. The Cole Complex.
Papers in Archeol., Ohio Hist. Soc, No. 2. Columbus, O. 7 p.
2. Black, Glenn A. 1936. Excavation of the Nowlin Mound. Indiana Hist.
Bull. 13:197-342.
3. Dragoo, Don W. 1963. Mounds for the dead. Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh,
Pa. 315 p.
4. Griffin, James B. 1943. Adena "Village Site Pottery from Fayette County,
Kentucky, p. 167-170. In W. S. Webb (ed.) The Riley Mound, Site Be-15 and the
Landing Mound, Site Be-17, Boone County, Kentucky. Univ. Ky. Rep. Anthropol.
Archaeoi. 5:580-672.
5. 1967. Eastern North American archaeology: A summary. Science
156:175-191.
6. . 1971. Discussion of Edward V. McMichael, Adena-East, and appraisal
of the more easterly extensions of the spread of the Adena Phenomenon, p. 97-99.
In B. K. Swartz, Jr. (ed). The seeking of an identity. Ball State Univ., Muncie
Ind. 182 p.
7. Munson, Patrick J. 1966. The Sheets Site: A Late Archaic-Early Woodland
occupation in West Central Illinois. Mich. Archaeoi. 12:109-20.
8. McCrumb, Eleanor. 1966. Mound four intrusive burial, 9-10. In B. K.
SwartZ, Jr. (ed.) Archaeolgical Report, No. 1. Ball State Univ. Muncie, Indiana.
26 p.
9. McKern, W. C. 1939. The midwestern taxonomic method as an aid to archaeological
culture study. Amer. Antiq. 4:310-313.
10. McMichael, Edward V., and Oscar Mairs. 1969. Excavation of the Murad
Mound, Kanawha County, West Virginia. Rep. of Archaeoi. Invest., No. 1. West
Va. Geol. and Econ. Surv., Morgantown, W. Va. 41 p.
11. Prufer, Olaf H. 1961. The Hopewell Complex of Ohio. Unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation, Peabody Museum of Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 2 Vols. 784 p.
12. 1964a. The Hopewell cult. Sci. Amer. 211:90-102.
13. 1964b. The Hopewell Complex of Ohio. In Joseph R. Caldwell and
Robert L. Hall (eds.) Hopewellian Studies. 111. State Mus. Sci. Papers 12:35-83.
14. 1965. The McGraw Site. A study in Hopewellian dynamics. Sci. Pub.
Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist. 4:1-144.
15. , and Orrin C. Shane, III. 1970. Blain Village and the Fort Ancient
tradition in Ohio. Kent State Univ. Press, Kent, O. 280 p.
16. Struever, Stuart, 1965. Middle Woodland culture history in the Great Lakes,
riverine area. Amer. Antiq. 31:211-225.
Anthropology 83
17. Swartz, B. K., Jr. (ed). 1971. Adena: The seeking of an identity. Ball State
Univ., Muncie, Ind. 182 p.
18. 1971. Comments on the incomplete pottery vessel from east mound,
earthwork four, New Castle Site, 8. In B. K. Swartz, Jr. (ed.) Archaeological
Report No. 4, Ball State Univ., Muncie, Ind. 50 p.
19. Willey, Gordon R., and Phillip Phillips. 1958. Method and theory in
American archaeology. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 111. 270 p.
Multivariate Analysis and Human Skeletal Populations
Ralph W. Alexander, Jr.
The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201
Department of Anthropology
Abstract
The problems of determining the relationships of archeologically-derived human
skeletal populations are discussed. Multivariate analysis is examined in terms of its
statistical basis, its value as a tool in studies of human skeletal populations, and its
development and history of application in anthropology. The specific technique of
multiple-discriminant analysis and its application to problems of microevolutionary
change is discusssed.
One problem in studies of populations based on archeological sites
is delimiting the population's boundaries. This may be done on the basis
of grouping skeletal materials according to association with particular
assemblages of artifactual materials. If different populations resemble
one another in a number of diagnostic characteristics, they may be com-
bined into larger groupings. Temporal boundaries are established with
the aid of analysis of differences found in cultural materials at different
stratigraphic levels, and from the dating of specific periods in the overall
complex. Both temporal and spatial delimitation provide the framework
for the establishment of relationships of the population. The remains of
a specific culture are assumed to constitute an intrabreeding population
which may be characterized by a cluster of characteristics and form a
recognizeable stabilized entity, whose pattern of variation is known. Only
after analyzing the physical characteristics of the available remains and
comparing the results with other delimitable populations can particular
samples be identified as having a certain likelihood of relationship with
a particular archeological population or well-defined tribal grouping. Since
one purpose of many studies is the selection, identification, and evaluation
of traits having diagnostic phyletic significance for the samples involved,
attention must be given to the selection of traits that have historic mean-
ing at a particular level of differentiation. The premise is that these traits,
and functional combinations of them, will best reflect the genetic con-
tinuity of the populations in accord with other evidence. Once traits have
been identified, the populations may be compared to a number of other
series. It should be emphasized that combinations of traits rather than
individual traits, whether continuous or discontinuous in nature, serve
to delimit and identify a group.
Of the characteristics which can be studied in prehistoric bone
material, little is known of the specific genetic factors involved. Despite
this limitation, in almost every case nothing else remains of the biology
of early man, and as much reliable and useful information as possible must
be obtained. It is apparent from the nature of the patterns of distribution
of the values of the measurements and observations that these traits are
polygenic in nature. Although the genetic and environmental components
86
Anthropology 87
are not presently quantifiable, this variation is in no way detrimental
to the use of these traits for comparative purposes; it is rather the nature
of varietal groupings to exhibit a degree of overlapping in their character-
istics, and the statistical methods employed in descriptive and inductive
presentations in general make use of, assess, and in fact require this varia-
tion for their proper application. Indicial traits, demonstrating an absolute
relationship of proportion between two measurements, may be employed
along with measurements and observations. Change on a varietal level
may occur in the form of an overall reduction or increase in gross size,
with the form of the cranial proportions remaining constant. This has
been demonstrated for Amerind varietal groups (1), and may reveal
relationships that are not obvious from measurements alone.
In an analysis that deals with relationships and similarities of human
skeletal populations it is appropriate to use a tool such as multivariate
analysis, which considers the total physical variation present, and assesses
the relative contributions of each variable in distinguishing between
groups. A condition which must be met for such an analysis is that the
same kinds of data be collected for all individuals of all groups under
consideration. Assumptions which must be made are that the various
samples have a multivariate-normal distribution, a common dispersion
matrix, and a linear correlation between variables. A multivariate analysis
is characterized by its consideration of a number of characteristics simul-
taneously in assessing the relationships or discriminating traits between
two-or-more groups or sample series. The important distinction of this
statistical approach is that the totality of biological variables are con-
sidered in combination, as systems. The interrelationship of all the
morphological characteristics of the individual and the relative signifi-
cance of each variable is considered. The significance for evolutionary
change of individual traits can only be assessed in terms of their relation-
ships to other traits. All biological characteristics interact. A bone or a
tooth or a skull is a unit, and should be dealt with as such rather than
as an assembly of individual traits. Bronowski and Long (4) said that
the correct statistical method for the study of discrimination in anthro-
pology must treat the set of variables as a single coherent matrix, a
capsule summary of the multiple-discriminant technique. The individual
is preserved as a vector of all his characteristics, taken together with all
they convey as to size and shape by both absolute magnitude and by
covariation. The relative contribution of each variable in discriminating
between groups is assessed, and "weights" are assigned accordingly.
Therefore, only what is really significant in the particular comparison
is utilized, and exactly which variables are important and in what magni-
tude is brought out by the technique. The technique deals with the possi-
bility of a particular variable, which in itself is not a good discriminator
between groups, emerging as highly valuable when taken in combination
with other variables.
The amount of calculation involved in this type of analysis has severely
limited its use of anthropology until recently; a computer is a necessity.
Pearson's "coefficient of racial likeness" or C2 was one of the earliest
statistics to utilize multiple measurements, and was a test of the statistical
88 Indiana Academy of Science
significance of difference between populations rather than a true measure
of biological distance. This statistic was later revised to be a measure of
biological distance, and to handle intercorrelations. Mahalanobis (9)
developed a still useful statistic referred to as D2, or the generalized
distance statistic. The D2 procedure measures the extent and direction
of morphological separation between groups, and makes possible an
analysis of relationships between continuous variables, discounting the
correlation existing between them. Fisher (7) considered D2 as the best
available statistic for estimating biological similarities and differences
between groups. In 1936, the concept of discriminant function analysis
was introduced by Fisher, a new method of testing significance for
multiple measurements. A procedure was devised for estimating test
weights in such a way that a linear combination of the weighted scores
(called discriminant function coefficients) would provide a maximum
discrimination between groups of individuals. The compounded measure-
ments maximize the variation between groups, relative to the variation
within groups. The use of multiple-discriminant analysis in anthropo-
logical research is only now becoming common, and is not as yet
widespread. With the increasing availability of computer facilities the
calculation necessary for its application will become less of a problem.
A number of investigators have employed it in research of an anthropo-
logical nature (3,8,10). Fortran computer programs for multiple-
discriminant analysis are available (5,6). Dixon's BMD 04M program
computes means of the variables for each group and the mean difference,
variance-covariance matrix, inverse of the variance-covariance matrix,
discriminant function coefficients, Mahalanobis' D2 and associated F sta-
tistics, and the discriminant scores for the groups with their means, vari-
ances, and standard deviations. Scaled vector values to show the relative
contributions of the variables to each function may be obtained from
the Fortran V program Multivariate Discriminant Analysis (2). Scaled
vector values are discriminant function coefficients computed after
standardization of variables, and give an accurate picture of the relative
contributions of the particular measurements or indices contributing to
discrimination. In applications of the method to hybridization or classifica-
tory studies, a high scaled vector value indicates a major contribution
to group separation, or a low relative similarity between groups for the
particular variable. A low scaled vector value indicates that the variable
does not contribute greatly to group separation, and is a biological feature
which has not changed between, for example, a hypothetical ancestral
population and a hybridized descendant group. A "morphological score"
is computed for each individual hybrid skull on the basis of the discrimi-
nant function coefficients obtained from the comparison with potential
ancestral or contributor series. The biological position of each individual
is assessed, in addition to the relationships between the series considered
as units. The relative contributions of each series, with respect to each
variable used, is obtained. In classificatory studies, the position of each
individual may be assessed and the specific factors accounting for this
position identified. An initial set of variables may be reduced to a smaller
number of variables for further studies, and the overall direction of
morphological trends in the samples obtained.
Anthropology 89
Since in a multivariate analysis it is possible to treat a skull as a unit,
rather than as a series of single traits, and to compare these traits in
population terms, inter-related measurements likely to bring out aspects
of size and shape characterizing populations should perhaps be the goal
in mind. Characteristics which would be useful in characterizing popula-
tions may be identified which are not at all those which have been
traditionally used in univariate skeletal comparisons. In this regard,
there is much need for continued experimentation.
Literature Cited
1. Alexander, R. W. Jr., and G. K. Nemuann. 1969. On the origin of the
Tutelo-an Eastern Siouan tribe. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 78:88-92.
2. Alexander, R. W. Jr. 1971. Multi-t-test and multiple discriminant analysis, p.
69-70. In S. A. West (ed.) Directory of computer programs for anthropologists.
W. Mich. Univ., Kalamazoo, Mich. 71 p.
3. 1971. The hybrid origin of the Arikara Indian of the Great Plains. Un-
published Ph.D. Dissertation. Indiana University. 233 p.
4. Bronowski, J., and W. M. Long. 1952. Statistics of discrimination in
anthropology. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 10:385-394.
5. Cooley, W. W., and P. R. Lohnes. 1962. Multivariate procedures for the
behavioral sciences. John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 211 p.
6. Dixon, W. J. 1964. Biomedical computer programs. Health Sciences Computing
Facility, Univ. Cal. Press, Los Angeles, Cal. 620 p.
7. Fisher, R. A. 1936. The use of multiple measurements in taxonomic problems.
Annu. Eugen. 7:179-188.
8. Howells, W. W., and J. M. Crichton. 1966. Craniometry and multivariate
analysis. Papers, Peabody Mus. Cambridge, Mass. 67 p.
9. Mahalanobis, P. C. 1930. On tests and measures of group divergence,
theoretical formulae. J. Asian Soc. Bengal. 26:541-588.
10. Rightmire, G. P. 1970. Iron age skulls from southern Africa re-assessed by
multiple discriminant analysis. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 33:147-167.
BOTANY
Chairman: James R. Rees, Anderson College, Anderson, Indiana 46011
Willard F. Yates, Jr., Department of Botany, Butler University
Indianapolis, Indiana 46208, was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
Inorganic Arsenate as a Tool for Genetic and Biochemical Analysis of
Photosynthetic Metabolism in Algae. Robert K. Togasaki and
Margaret 0. Hudock, Department of Botany, Indiana University, Bloom-
ington 47401.- Wild type cells of C hlamydomonas reinhardi were grown
on acetate supplemented agar plates, containing varied concentrations
of inorganic arsenate, and the number of surviving colonies were scored.
The concentration of arsenate required to inhibit growth was lower in
the light than in the dark. Addition of 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) 1-1,1-
dimethylurea, or DCMU, to the solid medium decreased the cell's sensi-
tivity towards arsenate in the light, but did not affect sensitivity in the
dark. Several mutant strains, each carrying a specific defect in its photo-
synthetic apparatus, were tested for their response towards arsenate,
and all were found to be more resistant in the light than wild type cells.
The potential application of this system to genetic analysis of
photosynthesis, and also some possible explanations for the observed
phenomena was discussed.
The "Liquid" Endosperm of Grasses. Paul Weatherwax, Department
of Botany, Indiana University, Bloomington 47401.— A few species
of Gramineae have an endosperm which remains soft and plastic even
after the seeds have been stored dry for many years. The cell walls are
thin and fragile, and the stored food consists of what seems to be a fatty
matrix surrounding the nucleus and numerous minute starch grains. This
type of endosperm is distributed in such an erratic way in the grass family
that thus far it seems to have very little taxonomic significance.
The Dichotomous Dilemma. Arthur T. Guard, Department of Biological
Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907.— — -Very early in
the history of plant morphology, the growing apex of multicellular plants
became recognized as a focal point of interest. The final form of the plant
is very largely determined by the development of this apex and the
appendages which it produces. The biochemical compounds which so
profoundly affect the plant's development often originate in this area.
In view of these facts, it is indeed surprising that one finds such
confusing and conflicting usage of the term, "dichotomous branching",
in the descriptions of apical growth and development. This paper presented
some of the observable forms of apical branching and how the term has
been used in reference to these forms.
A Comparison of Modern and Cretaceous Sassafras Leaves. Ronald A.
Riepe and David L. Dilcher, Department of Botany, Indiana Uni-
versity, Bloomington 47401. A study was undertaken to reevaluate
the fossil record of Sassafras using a comparison of leaf form and fine
91
92 Indiana Academy of Science
venation of modern and fossil material. Sassafras, a monotypic genus
which has been identified early in the fossil record of angiosperms, has
leaves that are entire, asymmetrically bilobed, or trilobed, but may possess
up to six lobes (Berry, 1902). The form of the lobes and sinuses may be
extremely variable. Berry stated that the venation of the basal portion
of the blade was a constant character which could be used to differentiate
Sassafras from Aralia, Cissites, and Platanus. The distinctive marginal
vein pattern of Sassafras may also be used in classification, however this
character could be obliterated easily or overlooked in fossil forms. Ward
(1887) pointed out the remarkable character of the marginal veins of
the sinuses in modern leaves. Lesquereaux (1892) wrote of many of his
identifications of leaf remains from the Dakota Group with some uncer-
tainty. By 1902, twenty-eight American forms of Sassafras had been
published. Berry retained only six forms in the genus Sassafras, referring
others to Aralia, Cissites and Platanus. The leaf form and venation
characters of Sassafras have been reevaluated and applied to the fossil
record.
Structure of Glandular Hairs of Marihuana. Charles T. Hammond and
Paul G. Mahlberg, Department of Botany, Indiana University, Bloom-
ington 47401. Glandular hairs on the bracts of pistillate flowers of
marihuana (Cannabis sativa L.) were viewed with the aid of light,
electron tramission, and electron scanning microscopy. Three morpho-
logically distinct types of glandular hairs occur on bracts: bulbous,
capitate-stalked, and capitate-sessile. Bulbous glandular hairs, which are
small and composed of only a few cells, consist of a globular head of one
to several cells positioned on a basal cell or cells. Capitate glandular hairs,
whether stalked or sessile, have a flattened multicellular cap composed
of 8 to 13 cells which are covered by an abundant secretory product. The
secretory product accumulates beneath a membranous sheath which is
derived from the outer surface of the cap cells. Maturing cap cells have
a large central vacuole with a very dense peripheral cytoplasm. The cyto-
plasm contains dictyosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and plastids with
crystaline inclusions. Large pores in the walls between neighboring cells
contribute to the formation of a continuous protoplast in the cap. The
possible association of capitate glandular hairs with production and/or
localization of the hallucinogen tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was discussed.
Chromic Acid as a Selective Stain for Laticifers in Vinca rosea. LARRY
R. Yoder and Paul G. Mahlberg, Department of Botany, Indiana Uni-
versity, Bloomington 47401. A mixture of equal parts of 10% chromic
acid and 10% nitric acid added to living tissues of Vinca rosea causes some
cells to turn bright red within a few minutes. Acidified chromate and
dichromate salts produce the same effect indicating the dichromate anion
as the reactant. Reacting cells included occasional parenchyma cells in
the pith, stem cortex and root cortex along with laticifers in all parts
of the plant. Use of this staining procedure permitted delineation of
Vinca's entire non-articulated, unbranched laticifer system with a mini-
mum of preparation. Some coloration appears if latex exudes directly into
the reagent, but no reaction occurs if latex stands 30 to 60 seconds.
Staining only occurs when living cells are treated and the coloration fades
after 10 to 15 minutes and cannot be restored. Tissues which have been
Botany 93
frozen, fried, heated above 55 degrees Centrigrade, or treated with an fix-
ative are unreactive. The same cells vitally stain with neutral red and
toluidine blue indicating a low pH and possible lysosomal activity. Al-
though the reaction is not common to all latex-bearing plants, coloration
does appear in laticifers of Vinco minor, Plumeria, Asclepias and some
euphorbias. The reaction is postulated to be dependent upon a lower pH
in these specialized cells, and any treatment which interferes with main-
tenance of this acid condition also blocks the reaction with chromic acid.
The precise nature of this reaction is yet to be determined.
The Terminal Inflorescence of the Maize Mutant Tassel seed-2. C. L.
Gehring, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, Indiana 47809, and S. N. Postlethwait, Department of Biological
Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. — —A morpho-
logical and histological examination of developmental changes in the
terminal inflorescence of the maize mutant, Tassel seed-2 was conducted.
Plants were grown in environmental control chambers under the
conditions: 80 degrees Fahrenheit during 16 hours of artificial light
(flourescent and incandescent) and 65 degrees during an 8-hour dark
period.
Two plants a day were removed from the growth chamber starting
19 days after planting and terminating 67 days after planting. Examina-
tion of these plants revealed that the sequence of development and
arrangement of floral structures are similar to comparable structures
in normal maize. Primordia for both pistillate and staminate flowers are
initiated in all flowers. However, in tassels which develop functional
pistaillate flowers, the staminate primordia abort. Pistillate primordia
abort in the tassels which develop functional staminate flowers.
One hundred and nine days after planting, 28 plants were harvested;
16 plants had 100% pistillate tassels and they averaged 560.6 silks per
tassel and 12 plants had completely staminate tassels which averaged
281.3 stamens per tassel.
A Review of the Fossil Apocynaceae from the Eocene of Western Ten-
nessee and Kentucky. Gary E. Dolph, Department of Botany, Bloom-
ington 47401. Fossil leaves similar to those described by Berry in
the form genus Apocynophyllwn were collected from the Claiborne Forma-
tion (Middle Eocene) of western Tennessee and Kentucky. Fossil material
representing three of Berry's original eleven species of Apocynophyllum
— A mississippiense, A. crassum, and A. wilcoxense — was found. Fossil
leaves of A. mississippiense, a species characterized megascopically by
closely spaced major lateral veins and a broadly alate petiole, were divided
into two groups based on the presence or absence of cuticular flanges on
the abaxial cuticle. In addition, two previously undescribed leaf types
which also possessed alate petioles were distinguished from A. mississip-
piense. The first showed a much greater spacing between the major lateral
veins than A. mississippiense but yielded no cuticle. The second, whose
gross morphological features (except for the alate petiole) were totally
distorted, yielded a cuticle which lacked the trichome bases characteristic
of A. mississippiense. Apocynophyllum crassum has a broad petiole that
94 Indiana Academy of Science
is woody throughout and not alate as in A. mississippiense. In the preced-
ing four leaf types where cuticle has been isolated, the paracytic accessory
cell arrangement common to some extant members of the Apocynaceae
was found. Although a superficial resemblence exists with regard to acces-
sory cell arrangement, differences between the morphological character-
istics of the fossil leaf types and that of the extant members of the
Apocynaceae precludes the assignment of the fossil material to any extant
genus of the Apocynaceae. Fossil leaves, whose closely spaced, subparallel
major lateral veins terminate in a distinct marginal vein, were divided
by Berry among A. wilcoxense and select fossil species of Ficus and
Myrcia. Upon examination, only one leaf type characterized by internal
mucilaginous cavities was discerned. Internal mucilaginous cavities are
not characteristic of the Apocynaceae or Moraceae but are found in the
Myrtaceae.
Revaluation of Engelhardia of the Eocene of Southeastern United States.
Frank W. Potter, Jr., and David L. Dilcher, Department of Botany,
Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. Several species of fossil
fruits, leaves and pollen from the Eocene of southeastern United States
have been assigned to the genus Engelhardia. Recent examination of
modern representatives of Old and New World sections indicates sufficient
diversity to warrant segregating the New World members into the genus
Oreomunnea. Two fruits of E. puryearensis Berry were obtained from
the Puryear clay pit, Puryear, Tennessee; both specimens are impressions
of the three anterior lobes. No fourth posterior lobe is present. The an-
terior wings of the fossil show venation patterns similar to the New World
group, particularly O. mexicana. Based on the fruits, E. puryearensis is
more closely aligned to Central American populations than Asiatic taxa.
Other Engelhardia fruits reported by Berry suggest the presence of both
genera in the southeastern United States during the Eocene. Modern
pollen is not sufficiently distinctive to conclusively separate New and Old
world sections. To date, no fossil leaves have been obtained that can be
assigned to either the genus Engelhardia or Oreomunnea, although the
two extant genera show distinct morphological and cuticular differences.
The presence of leaves could be important foi determining the relation-
ship of the fruits to Engelhardia and/or Oreomunnea.
Middle Eocene Sabaloid Palms. C. P. Daghlian and D. L. Dilcher,
Department of Botany, Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. E.
W. Berry reported three palm types from the middle Eocene clay deposits
of western Kentucky and Tennessee. Two of these were pinnately com-
pound types. The third being palmately compound. The palmate palm
fossils in the Indiana Paleobotanical collection from the same sediments
suggest that there are more than one genus and species of palmately
compound palm leaf fossils. Berry's specimens of Sabalites grayanus, were
identified primarily on the basis of gross features, leaflet distribution
and venation. A detailed study of the palm material from the Indiana
University collection is in progress and a thorough examination of fine
features, particularly cuticular characteristics, as well as gross features
has indicated that there are clearly two and perhaps three kinds of
pramately compound palm leaf fossils rather than the one that Berry
Botany 95
reported. The first group has been identified as a member of the genus
Sabal indicating that it was a clearly defined group as early as the middle
Eocene. These palms are large, costa-palmate leaf fragments similar to
modern sabals such as S. texana. The second group is comprised of palmate
leaf fragments of Sabalites grayanus but contains two subgroups. Those
show differences in venation and the pattern of their stomatal apparatus.
These findings are important because they show a greater diversity of
palms in the flora of these middle Eocene sediments.
Cell Wall Regeneration Around Protoplasts Isolated from Convolvulus
arvensis Tissue Culture. Randall K. Horine, Department of Biology,
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374, and Albert W. Ruesink,
Department of Botany, Indiana, University, Bloomington 47401.
Protoplasts of Convolvulus arvensis L. tissue culture regenerated a wall-
like structure within 3 days in culture. Although unusually electron dense
and atypically amorphous in the electron microscope, this structure could
be digested with cellulase but was resistant to protease, pectinase, and
/3-1,3-glucanase just like the original wall. A cytochemical test for callose
was negative. Wall regeneration required a readily metabolized external
carbon source and was not inhibited by a high concentration of cyclo-
heximide, puromycin, or actinomycin D, suggesting that stable, long-lived
protein or messenger RNA is involved in its synthesis. Protoplast budding
was correlated with the wall regeneration and the latter was related
quantitatively to the sucrose concentration in the medium. Auxin (2,4-
D) neither promoted nor inhibited wall regeneration at any concentration.
Culturing protoplasts in the presence of proteolytic enzymes decreased
their ability to undergo cell wall regeneration, although the concentration
required was so high as to suggest that the proteins involved must be
at least partially buried in the plasma membrane.
Initiation of Callus Tissue of Abies concolor (White Fir) by
Tissue Culture Techniques
Richard W. Olsen and Arthur L. Eiser
Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Callus tissue of Abies concolor (Gord. and Glend.) Lindl. was initiated from
inocula prepared from terminal stem tissue on a modified Winton medium containing
basis salts, organic nutrients, growth regulators and a stem extract of Abies concolor.
Under controlled environmental conditions, the callus has grown and has been main-
tained through subsequent subculture for ten months.
Introduction
Culturing of gymnosperm tissues under aseptic conditions has been
difficult to achieve. Approximately 27 gymnosperm species have been
successfully cultured, however (1-13). Among these 27 is grand fir (Abies
grandis) the only representative of the genus Abies to have been success-
fully cultured to date (6).
We now report the initiation of callus tissue from stem tissue of
mature Abies concolor (Gord. and Glend.) Lindl. trees.
Materials and Methods
The inocula used in this study were obtained from branches (which
were less than 3 m above the ground level) of mature Abies concolor
trees. Terminal stem sections approximately 10 cm long and consisting
of the current year's growth were used; before taking, each stem section
was sprayed with 70% ethyl alcohol. Cuts were made with sterile scalpels.
After making the cut, the basal end of each stem section was sprayed with
70% ethyl alcohol and placed in a separate, unused, plastic bag and the
opening of the bag was fastened securely.
In the laboratory, one stem section at a time was removed from its
plastic bag and immersed in a shallow container of 70% ethyl alcohol.
While immersed in the alcohol, all the needles were removed with a scalpel
at their junction with the stem. Each de-needled stem section was trans-
ferred to a dry, sterlized, 500 ml Ehrlenmeyer flask equipped with a screw
cap. After the stem sections were de-needled and placed in the flask, 250
ml of fresh, household bleach (5.25% sodium hypochlorite) were added,
along with 2 drops of Tween 20 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate) ,
a wetting agent used as a surfacant. The flask was agitated frequently
during the 10-minute interval that the stem sections were sterilized. The
bleach was decanted, and the stem sections were rinsed 3 times with
sterile, distilled water. The sterilized portions of stems were cut into sec-
tions approximately 8-10 mm in length. The end sections were discarded,
while the others were inserted, basal end up, in 25 ml of an agar nutrient
medium in 20 x 100 mm petri dishes.
96
Botany
Results and Conclusions
!)7
Callus was successfully initiated and maintained on a modification
of Winton's medium for triploid quaking aspen (14-17). Winton's medium
was modified by the addition of gibberellic acid, indoleacetic acid, naphtha-
leneacetic acid, ascorbic acid, L-glutamine, myostatin (a fungicide), and
a stem extract of Abies coneolor. On this undefined medium (Table 1),
cell proliferation occurred within 14 days while the plates were being
maintained in the dark in an incubator at 27.5 ± 2° C under satur-
Table 1. Undefined medium for initiating and maintaining Abies coneolor callus.
Cone
Cone
Constituents
mu/l
Constituents
mg/1
MgS04.7H20
764.0
pyridoxine
0.1
Na2S04
425.0
Fe-EDTA
:,.:.
Ca(NOs)2
170.0
254D
0.5
KN03
425.0
kinetin
1.0
KCI
140.0
sucrose
20000.0
NaH2P04.H20
84.0
bacto-agar
8000.0
myo-Inositol
100.0
gibberellic acid
0.5
MnS04
y.o
Indoleacetic acid
ZnSOr7HaO
3.2
naphthaleneacetic acid
l.n
H3B03
8.2
ascorbic acid
0.1
KI
i..e
L-glutamine
250.0
nicotinic acid
0.5
myostatin
■j..v
thiamin
0.1
Abies coneolor
stem extract
85.01'2-8
iml/l
2The stem extract was prepared by adding 150 g of terminal stem sections of the
current year's growth of Abies coneolor to 50 ml of distilled water; pulverizing for 15
min at high speed in a Waring Blender; and suction filtering and collecting the liquid
extract.
3pH of medium was adjusted to 5.7 with 0.1N NH.OH.
ated humidity conditions. Figure 1 shows the small mound of callus which
formed on representative inocula after 42 days of growth. At 42 days the
callus tissue was transferred to fresh medium where it continued to grow
and, thereafter, was subcultured every 21 days. Figure 2 shows a repre-
sentative mound of callus tissue after 90 days. Cells on the surface of
tissue this age are still near white, but basal cells are reddish-brown. The
pigmentation in the older cells did not appear to hinder the proliferation
of Abies coneolor callus since the callus has been subcultured and main-
tained for 10 months. Harvey and Grasham (6) also reported pigmentation
Indiana Academy of Science
CM. SCALE
12 3 4
CM. SCALE
Figure 1. Abies concolor callus at 42 days (top).
Figure 2. Abies concolor callus at 90 days, (bottom)
in the callus of Abies grandis, but it lost its vigor by the end of 90 days.
Further study with the established Abies concolor callus is now in
progress; parameters being investigated are growth rate, minimal
nutrient medium, effects of varying photoperiod, and callus differentia-
tion and maturation.
Literature Cited
1. Ball, E. 1950. Differentiation in a callus culture of Sequoia sempervirens.
Growtb 14:295-325.
2. Barnes, R. L., and A. W. Naylor. 1958. Culture of pine root callus and the
use of Pinus clausa callus in preliminary metabolic studies. Bot. Gaz. 120 :63-66.
3. Brown, C. L., and R. H. Lawrence. 1968. Culture of pine callus on a
defined medium. Forest Sci. 14 :62-64.
4. Gautheret, R. J. 1959. La Culture des Tissus Vegetaux. Mason et Cie, Paris. 863
P.
5. Harvey, A. E. 1967. Tissue culture of Pinus monticola on a chemically defined
medium. Can. J. Bot. 45:1783-1787.
6. , and J. L. Grasham. 1969. Procedures and media for obtaining
tissue cultures of 12 conifer species. Can. J. Bot. 47 :547-549.
Botany 99
7. Hotson, H., and V. Cutter. 1951. The isolation and culture of Gymnosporangium
juniperi-virginianae upon artificial media. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U. S.
37:400-403.
8. Konar, R. N. 1963. Studies on submerged callus culture of Pinus gerardiana Wall.
Phytomorphology 13 :165-169.
9. Loewenberg, J., and F. Skoog. 1952. Pine tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant.
5:33-36.
10. Reinert, J., and P. White. 1956. The cultivation in vitro of tumor tissues and
normal tissues of Picea glauca. Physiol. Plant. 9:177-189.
11. Tulecke, W. 1959. Arginine-requiring strains of tissue obtained from Ginkgo
pollen. Plant Physiol. 35:19-24.
12. Walkinshaw, C. H., F. F. Jewell, and N. M. Walker. 1965. Callus culture
of fusiform rust-infested slash pine. Plant Dis. Rep. 49 :616-618.
13. White, P. R. 1943. Handbook of plant tissue culture. Cattel and Company,
Lancaster, Pa. 277 p.
14. Winton, L. L. 1968. Initiation of friable aspen callus under different light
environments. Phyton 25 :23-28.
15. . 1968. Plantlets from aspen tissue culture. Science 160:1234-1235.
16. 1968. The initiation of friable aspen callus. Phyton 25:15-21.
17. — . 1968. The rooting of liquid-growth aspen callus. Amer. J. Bot. 55:159-167.
CELL BIOLOGY
Chairman : William J. Griffin, Eli Lilly and Company^
Indianapolis, Indiana.
Charles W. Goff, Life Sciences Department^ Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809, was elected Chairman
for 1972
ABSTRACTS
Electron Microscopic Study of Anaplasma marginal by Negative Staining.
F. Padgett and W. A. Summers, Department of Microbiology, Indiana
University School of Medicine, Indianapolis 46207. — —Studies of the
morphologic features and reproduction of the initial bodies of Anaplasma
marginale were done by the negative contrast (phosphotungstic acid)
technique of unfixed, dehemoglobinized, infected bovine erythrocytes. The
internal structure appeared to be organized as a coiled, tubular, or ribbon-
like structure. The reproduction process, reconstructed from observation
of static preparations, began with the formation of a "budlike" structure
in the initial body.
Growth Cycle of Penicillium chrysogenum Virus. L. F. Ellis and
R. J. Douthart, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46206.—
Pennicillium chrysogenum was grown in stainless steel fermenters with
continuous agitation and aeration. During the fermentation aliquots were
withdrawn and were centrifuged to harvest the cells. Either the virus
particles of the double stranded RNA (dsRNA) was isolated from these
cells. The amount of dsRNA per gram of mycelia increases until approxi-
mately 60 hours incubation and then declines. Physical and biological
properties suggest this dsRNA is of viral origin. Other aspects of this
virus were discussed.
Toxic Response of Mice to a DDT Diet, Its Supression by Feeding and
the Effect of Estrogen. Dorothy A. Werderitsh, D. Shelton, C.
Swan, C.-M. Haun, W. Yunghans and D. J. Morre, Department of
Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
——Mice, 4 to 5 weeks old, of the C3H/HeJ strain or from the Purdue
University colony received ad libitum water and laboratory chow to which
corn oil (1:10, weight/ weight) was added. For those animals receiving
DDT, technical grade DDT (1, 1, l-trichloro-2 2-his (p-chlorophenyl)
ethane) was added to the corn oil to give a final concentration of 900
parts per million DDT in the total diet. Overt signs of DDT toxicity ap-
peared as early as the 5th day after DDT feed was offered. Most of the
animals died within 3 days after the onset of severe symptom development.
If the animals were withdrawn from the DDT feed and presented with
control feed in the initial stages of tremor development, they recovered
within 8 to 12 hours and exhibited normal behavior. Yet, if animals
previously receiving DDT feed were fasted to starvation levels several
weeks later, symptoms of DDT toxicity reappeared. Control animals fasted
to the same weight levels did not develop tremors or other overt signs of
DDT toxicity. It was not possible to prevent, reverse or significantly delay
101
102 Indiana Academy of Science
the toxic response to DDT by administration of estrogen (subcutaneous
injection of 5 micrograms estradiol cyclopentylpropionate in 100 micro-
liters corn oil per animal). Apparently, a significant factor in effecting
recovery of the animals from DDT toxicity is the removal of the source
of the DDT and offering of a normal diet to reestablish a pattern of
weight gain and caloric balance.
NADH Dehydrogenase Activity of Golgi Apparatus from Rat Liver.
C. M. Huang, D. J. Morre, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology,
and T. W. Keenan, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana 47907. Highly purified rat liver Golgi apparatus
(GA) fractions exhibited NADH dehydrogenase of specific activity
approximately one-fourth that observed with endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
With exogenous cytochrome c as electron acceptor, apparent Km's for
NADH were 6.17 and 6.09 ^M for GA and ER, respectively. The activity
in both membrane fractions was insensitive to rotenone and Pieridine
A, potent inhibitors of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase. With ferri-
cyanide as acceptor, the apparent Km for ferricyanide was 26.7 ^M for
both ER and GA and excess of substrate inhibited activity with both
membrane fractions. Maximal velocities for the NADH-ferricyanide reduc-
tase were 3.44 and 1.44 ^M NADH oxidized/min/mg protein for ER and
GA, respectively.
The high degree of similarity of these activities comparing ER and
GA suggest that they are catalyzed by the same enzyme present in both
membrane fractions. The results support the hypothesis that membrane
material derived directly from ER is utilized for formation of GA cisterna.
Golgi Apparatus-Medicated Cytomembrane Differentiation in Rat and
Bovine Mammary Gland. T. W. Keenan, Department of Animal Sciences,
and C. M. Huang and D. J. Morre, Department of Botany and Plant
Pathology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. Golgi
apparatus (GA), endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and plasma membrane
(PM) fractions were isolated in highly purified form from both rat and
bovine mammary glands and subjected to compositional analysis. Included
in the analysis was the milk fat globule membrane (GM), a membrane
which is derived directly from the secretory cell plasma membrane. With
regard to lipid composition, GA was intermediate between ER at one
extreme and the PM and GM at the other with regard to levels of total
lipid phosphorus, phosphatidyl choline, sphingomyelin, cerebiosides and
cholestrol. Fatty acid composition of GA polar lipids was intermediate
between ER and PM. Polar lipids of ER contained higher levels of unsatur-
ated fatty acids whereas PM and GM contained higher levels of saturated
fatty acids.
Levels of membrane protein-bound sialic acid were lowest in ER,
intermediate in GA and highest in PM and GM. Salt-washed ER, GA, PM
and GM membranes displayed several protein bands with identical electro-
phoretic mobilities. Golgi apparatus was also intermediate between ER
and the PM and GM with respect to specific activities of the enzymes
NADH dehydrogenase, 5'-nucleotidase, and adenosine triphosphatase.
Cell Biology 103
These results are compatible with the hypothesis of GA-mediated
cytomembrane differentiation. Further, they confirm previous results
obtained with rat liver cytomembranes and extend them to another cell
type with different secretory functions,
Ultrastructure of Green Plastids in Leaves of Genetic Albino Tobacco.
Anne A. Susalla and Paul G. Mahlberg, Department of Botany, Indi-
ana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47401.— Genetic green and albino
tobacco seedlings were grown on agar with defined nutrients, growth sub-
stances and light conditions. Albino plants developed patches of green
on the first and succeeding leaves even though the cotyledons were always
white. In later stages of growth, these plants became highly variegated
with some approaching the phenotype of normal green plants. In ultra-
structural studies, some mutant-green plastids of the albino plants have
grana that are massive in size with many appressed thylakoids and
irregular margins. Other plastids are large with tapered margins to give
a spindle effect while a few have only scattered thylakoids. Osmiophilic
globules and DNA-like fibrils are present in the stroma. Starch is evident
but photosynthetic activity is yet to be determined.
Use of the Scanning Electron Microscope in the Investigation of Cardiac
and Pulmonary Tissue. Shirley Siew, Indiana University School of
Medicine, Indianapolis 46202. -Scanning electron microscopic studies
were performed on both fresh biopsy and autopsy specimens of cardiac
and pulmonary tissue. The fresh material was obtained at open heart
surgery and was fixed in Muir's paraformaldehyde electron microscopy
fixative. After fixation, it was processed by three different methods for
scanning electron microscopy :
1) placed in glycerine overnight
2) post-fixed in osmic acid and then placed in propylene glycol
3) treated with acetone
The specimens were then coated with gold under vacuum and were
examined in a Cambridge Stereoscan Microscope. Chronic rheumatic aortic
and mitral valves, papillary muscle and a biopsy of the left lingula were
examined. The autopsy material comprised cardiac valves and lung. The
latter was fixed under inflation. The best results were obtained in studies
of valvular and pulmonary tissue by means of the second method. It was
concluded that the scanning electron microscope will prove of value in
the investigation of valvular and pulmonary disease.
Ultrastructure of Mouse Heart Cell Culture. G. B. Boder and L. F. Ellis,
The Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis,
Indiana 46206. Newborn mouse ventricles were dispersed by short
treatment with collagenase. Cultures derived by this method have a high
proportion of beating cells which attach to collagen, glass or plastic within
a few hours of isolation. Beating cells have been maintained in sterile
culture in the absence of antibiotics for as long as 6 months and remain
responsive to hormones. A photoelectric recording system was developed
which is capable of measuring the rate and amplitude of contractions of
a single myocardial cell or a colony of myocardial cells. The effects of
104 Indiana Academy of Science
drugs on these cells was reported in 1971 by Boder et al. (Nature 231:
531-532). We have been studying the ultrastructure of the cultured cells.
This report compared the cultured cells to those of the intact myo-
cardial tissue. Myofibrial filaments were observed in the cell cultures.
Ultrastructures of Neuronal Lipofuscin and Ceroid. Itaru Watanabe,
Vimal Patel, and Wolfgang Zeman1, Department of Pathology,
Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis 46202. Lipofuscin,
an autofluorescent yellow pigment in the residual body, is considered to
be indigestible by lysosomal acid hydrolases. This pigment is stained
positively by conventional fat staining technique and hence the term
"lipid pigment". The pigment is also called "wear and tear" or "age" pig-
ment because it is found most abundantly in the cells of aged individuals.
Actually, in the senile brain, the material occupies a large area of the
nerve cell body by displacing the nucleus and other cytoplasmic organelles.
Electron microscopy revealed that the lipofuscin bodies are surrounded
by trilaminar limiting membrane and contain fine granular osmiophilic
material. Using histochemical techniques for electron microscopy, we
observed acid phosphatase activity in the granular matrix but not in the
lipid portion. Our findings agree with observations by others. Recently,
we also demonstrated some evidence of peroxidation in the lipid portion
of this organelle, supporting the view that lipopigment is derived by
peroxidation of fatty acids and proteins.
Another pigment called "ceroid" is found to accumulate in brain cells
of patients with Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Ultrastructural aspects
of these two types of pigments, lipofuscin and ceroid, in the human brain
were presented.
xThe authors acknowledge the technical assistance of Vera Kolar, Janice Herring
and Connie Aryea.
Effect of Beta-alanine on Glucose Catabolism and Growth of
Ehrlich Ascites Tumor Cells. M. E. Jacobs, Department of Biology,
Goshen College, Goshen, Indiana 46526. Intraperitoneal injection
of 0.1 ml 5 M beta-alanine at the time of infection, and daily thereafter,
inhibits tumor-weight gain of Carworth female CF1 mice by 19% by the
end of 14 days, as compared with infected mice injected with 0.1 ml 2.5
M NaCl. Incubation of the tumor cells at 37.5 °C in 25 mM
beta-alanine in Krebs-Ringers bicarbonate solution at pH 7.4 inhibits
14C02 excretion from the cells using l-14C-D-glucose as substrate.
The inhibition is 18-25%, as compared with control samples containing
no beta-alanine, or 25 mM of beta-aminoisobutyric or gamma-
aminobutyric acids.
NOTE
Inhibition of Succinate Oxidation in Beef Heart Mitochondria by
Derivatives of Pyridine Adenine Dinucleotide. P. V. Blair and L. Y.
Chao, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, 46202.
Succinate oxidation is inhibited by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD + ) in damaged or sonicated mitochondria. Two mechanisms to
account for this NAD+-inhibition have been suggested. In 1948, Pardee
and Potter (1) postulated that inhibition occurred because NAD-f
Cell Biology 105
stimulated the production of oxaloacetate an inhibitor of succinate
oxidase, from succinate via fumarate and L-malate. In 1963 an
alternative hypothesis was proposed by Neubert et ah (2) in which
binding of NAD+ or one of its analogues to a site on succinate
dehydrogenase would cause direct inhibition of succinate oxidation.
Experiments to determine the most likely explanation for NAD+-
inhibition of succinate oxidation were carried out on preparations of
beef heart mitochondria.
All dinucleotide tested, NAD+, 3-acetylpyridine adenine dinu-
cleotide (3-AcPAD + ), 3-acetylpyridine deaminoadenine dinucleotide
(3-AcPDeAD+), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+),
NADH and NADPH with the exception of NADPH inhibited succinate
oxidation. The inhibition had a lag period and increased with time in
the presence of all inhibitory dinucleotides except NADP+. The
increase in inhibition with time by NADP+ comes to an early steady
(per cent inhibition does not change), probably because it is not
a good coenzyme for malate dehydrogenase and because the reduced
form (NADPH) can not be oxidized by the electron transfer chain.
L-malate, which stimulates the production of oxaloacetate in the
presence of NAD+ and its analogues, enhanced inhibition and com-
pounds (glutamate, rotenone, NADH plus rotenone, and meso-tartrate)
which remove oxaloacetate or stop its formation prevent or reverse
NAD -{--inhibition of succinate oxidation. The oxidized dinucleotides
do not inhibit succinate oxidation in purified electron transfer
particles. A supernatant fraction containing fumarase and malate
dehydrogenase restores the inhibitory ability of NAD+ to these
purified electron transfer particles. The addition of oxaloacetate
to these purified particles inhibits succinate oxidation with apparent
competitive kinetics.
Differential spectra and oxidation-reduction of the dinucleo-
tides at absorption maxima were recorded in the presence of suc-
cinate and L-malate. The appearance of the reduced form of the
NAD + -analogues was positively correlated with the per cent inhibition
of succinate oxidation. The reduced analogues accumulated from
malate dehydrogenation because they are not rapidly oxidized by
the respiratory chain, whereas NADH does not accumulate because it
is rapidly reoxidized by electron transfer. Our results are con-
sistent with the postulate that oxaloacetate is the inhibitor of
succinate oxidation and NAD+ only stimulates the accumulation of
oxaloacetate. None of our evilence would indicate that NAD +
directly inhibits succinate dehydrogenation or the succinate de-
hydrogenase enzyme.
Literature Cited
1. Pardee Arthur B., and Van R. Potter. 1948. Inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase
by oxalacetate. J. Biol. Chem 176 : 1085-1094.
2. Neubert, D., R. A. Chaplin, and Helmut Cooper. 1963. Inhibition of succinate
oxidation by DPN and DPN analogs in sub-mitochondrial systems. Biochem. and
Biophys. Res. Coram. 12:236-241.
Scale Calcification In A Chrysophycean Alga: A Test System For
The Effects of DDT On Biological Calcification!
J. EL Elder2, C. A. Lembi, L. Anderson and D. J. Morre'
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
The chrysophycean alga, Coccolithus huxleyi, responds to the chlorinated hydrocarbon,
DDT, by reduced calcification of surface scales. Cytological and biochemical findings
show reduced calcium carbonate deposition on the scales and reduced calcium utilization
by the organism.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons [particularly certain types of pesticides
such as dieldrin, DDT, DDE (a stable metabolite of DDT) and the poly-
chlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) used as plasticizers]3 at high levels in
the diet, result in changes in calcium metabolism which may lead to
eggshell thinning and reproductive failure in predators and raptorial
birds near the top of the food chain (2, 5-13, 15, 16, 17, 19-21, 24). The
mechanism by which these compounds reduce calcium carbonate deposi-
tion has not been established. One possibility is that carbonic
anhydrase is inhibited (1, 16). This enzyme catalyzes the conversion
of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate which then reacts with calcium to form
calcium carbonate. Another possibility, frequently mentioned, is
hormonal imbalance (1, 10-13, 15-17). Estrogen, for example influences
calcium mobilization to the shell gland during eggshell formation.
Because of the hormonal complexity of the avian calcification system,
simpler systems were sought which might serve as models for the study
of DDT effects on eggshell calcification.
The marine alga, Coccolithus huxleyi, secretes cell wall scales,
certain of which are layered with calcium carbonate (14). The scales
are produced within cisternae of the Golgi apparatus and transported
to the cell surface via secretory vesicles (14). Calcification occurs
during secretion. The purpose of this study was to determine whether
DDT influenced calcification in the algal system.
Materials and Methods
Cultures of Coccolithus huxleyi (Lohm.) Kamptner were obtained
from the Indiana University culture collection. Cells were grown on
Supported in part by EP 00872-01 and GB 23183. Journal Paper Number
4603. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
-Recipient of a summer research fellowship sponsored by an award from the
Research Grants Committee of the Indiana Academy of Science.
3DDT - l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-fo's(p-chlorophenyl) ethane
DDE - l,l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane
Dieldrin - 1,2,3,4, 10, 10-hexachloro-6,7,-epoxy-l,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-<>:ro-l,4-endo-
5,8-dimethanonapthalene.
106
Cell Biology
107
Erdschreiber Enrichment Medium (18), with and without technical
grade DDT in a saturated solution, using acetone at a final concentra-
tion of 1% as a carrier. Control cells were grown in the presence of 1%
acetone. Cultures were maintained under 100 ft-c at 23° C with a 16-
hour photoperiod.
Cells were prepared for electron microscopy by fixation in 2% gluta-
raldehyde in 0.1 M potassum phosphate, pH 7.2, for 1 hour, post-fixa-
tion in 1% osmium tetroxide in 0.1 M potassium phosphate, pH 7.2, for
1 hour and dehydration through an acetone series. The tissue was em-
bedded in Epon (23), sectioned and then observed with a Philips EM 300.
Carbonic anhydrase assays followed the procedure of Roughton
and Booth (22). Calcium utilization was determined by adding
100 iUC45Ca to 3 ml aliquots of cell suspensions grown in the presence and
absence of DDT. After 2 hours, the cells were transferred to a solution
containing unlabeled calcium for 30 min to remove exchangably bound
Plasma
Membrane
Non-calcified
Scales
Calcified
Scale
Figure 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the process of scale formation in a
chrysophycean alga. The scales are formed within cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.
The cisternae of the Golgi apparatus separate from the stack and the cisternal
membranes fuse with the plasma membrane during discharge of individual scales.
Calcification occurs at the scale margin (solid black projections) prior to discharge
of the scale to the cell surface. Adapted from Brown et al. (4).
108
Indiana Academy of Science
radioactivity. Radioactivity was measured with a Nuclear Chicago gas-
flow monitoring system.
Results and Discussion
Coccolithus huxleyi secretes cellulosic scales into the cell wall (14).
As with other Chrysophycean algae (3, 4), these scales are formed in
the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus and are transported to the
plasma membrane in secretory vesicles (14, Fig. 1). The scales are of
two types that are secreted in alternating waves. Type I scales are small
and non-calcified (Fig. 2A). Type II scales are larger and have a min-
eralized rim around their edges (Fig. 2B). Calcification takes place
while the Type II scales are en route to the cell wall in the secretory
vesicles.
Figure 2. Electron micrographs of isolated scales of Coccolithus huxleyi after
negative staining ivith 1% potassium phosphotung state, pH. 6.5 A. Noncalcified
(Type I) scale. B. Calcified (Type II) scale. The calcified rim appears in B as a
wide electron dense margin at the periphery of the scale. X 33,000.
A typical control cell is shown in Figure 3. The alternating waves
of Type I and Type II scales are apparent within the cell. Where
calcification is heavy on the Type II scales (scales normally calcified),
the mineralized deposit is lost during specimen preparation and only
a hole is left. Loss of the deposits from the section is a criterion for
heavy calcification that was previously reported by Manton and
Leedale (14).
When cells were grown in the presence of DDT, calcification in the
wave of Type II scales being formed was markedly reduced (Fig. 4),
Cell Biology
l()ii
whereas the previous wave of Type II scales was normally calcified.
Figure 5 shows that the scale and the matrix upon which the
PM
Figure 3. Thin section of a control cell of Coccolithus huxleyi. Glutaraldehyde-osmium
tetroxide fixation. Section post-stained with lead citrate. The outer wave of Type II
scales (double arrows) emanating from the Golgi apparatus (GA) is heavily calcified
as evidenced by the holes (double arrows) where the heavily mineralized deposits have
dropped out during specimen preparation. The inner wave is of the Type I, non-
calcified scales (single arrows). PM — plasma membrane. V — vacuole. N — nucleus,
X 26,000.
110
Indiana Academy of Science
calcium carbonate is layered are formed normally in the DDT-treated
cells, but the amount of calcium carbonate deposited is less than that
for control cells.
KS^ /spa Jfcw*<*).
x
Figure 4. Thin section of a DDT-grotvn cell of Coccolithus huxleyi prepared for
electron microscopy as in Figure 3. The outer layer of calcified, Type II scales (double
arrows) shows evidence of reduced calcification (compare with Figure 3), but the
reduction in calcification is most marked in the inner tvave of Type II scales (those
still associated with Golgi apparatus cisternae within the cytoplasm; arrows with
asterisks). Noncalcified, Type I scales (single arrows) appear normal. PM = plasma
membrane. N = nucleus. X 16,000.
Cell Biology
111
Figure 5. Comparison of scales from control (A) and DDT-treatcd (B) cells
of Coccolithus huxleyi as seen in thin section. The scale from the DDT-treated cell(B)
has developed normally but calcification is reduced (arrows) as evidenced by the ab-
sence of the hole-forming mineralized deposits (see Fig. 3 and text) characteristic of
control scales (A; arrows). X U0,000.
Further evidence for a DDT effect on algal calcification was sought
from determinations of carbonic anhydrase activity. Results summarized
in Table 1 show inhibition of carbonic anhydrase from the alga by DDT,
although the effect was much less dramatic than expected. The levels of
DDT required to inhibit carbonic anhydrase seem high but concentrations
of 2,500 ppm of DDT have been reported from thin-shelled eggs of fish-
eating birds (16). In experiments with 45Ca, calcium utilization was in-
hibited by 10 to 15% in the DDT-grown cells.
Table 1. Effect of DDT on carbonic anhydrase from Coccolithus huxleyi1.
DDT
Carbonic Anhydrase
Extract From
in Assay
(Relative
Specific Activity)
Experiment I
Control Cells
None
0.45
1000 /xg
0.36
Experiment II
Control Cells
None
0.22
DDT-Grown Cells
None
0.12
iBased on time required to lower the pH of veronal buffer from pH 8.15 to
pH 6.30 (22).
The results show that DDT retards the calcification of scales in
the alga C. huxleyi and that the organism merits further study as a test
112 Indiana Academy of Science
system for DDT effects on biological calcification. The alga offers the
advantage of a reproducible and inexpensive laboratory system that
is free from the complicating hormonal influences found in birds.
Literature Cited
1. Bitman, J., H. C. Cecil and G. F. Fries. 1970. DDT-induced inhibition of
avian shell gland carbonic anhydrase: A mechanism for thin eggshells. Science
168:594-596.
2. Bitman, J., H. C. Cecil, S. J. Harris, and G. F. Fries. 1969. DDT induces a
decrease in eggshell calcium. Nature 224:44-46.
3. Brown, R. M., W. W. Franke, H. Kleinig, H. Falk, and P. Sitte. 1969.
Cellulosic wall component produced by the Golgi apparatus of Pleurochrysis
Scherffelii. Science 166:894-896.
4. 1970. Scale formation in Chrysopycean algae. J. Cell Biol. 45:246-271.
5. Cooke, A. S. 1970. The effect of o.p-DDT on Japanese quail. Bull. Environ. Cont.
Toxicol. 5:152-157.
6. Heath, R. G., J. W. Spann, and J. F. Kreitzer. 1969. Marked DDE impairment
of mallard reproduction in controlled studies. Nature 224:47-48.
7. Hickey, J. J. 1969. Peregrine falcon populations: Their biology and decline.
Univ. Wis. Press, Madison, Wis. 567 p.
8. , and D. W. Anderson. 1968. Chlorinated hydrocarbons and eggshell
changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds. Science 162:271-273.
9. Hilton, B. D., and R. D. O'Brien. 1970. Antagonism by DDT of the effect of
valinomycin on a synthetic membrane. Science 168:841-843.
10. Jeffries, D. J. 1967. The delay in ovulation produced by p,p'-DDT and its
possible significance in the field. Nature 109:266-272.
11. 1969. Induction of apparent hyperthroidism in birds fed DDT.
Nature 224:578-579.
12. . , and M. C. French. 1969. Avian thyroid: Effect of o,p'-DDT
on size and activity. Science 166:1278-1280.
13. Kagan, Y S., S. I. Fudel-Ossipova, B. J. Khaikina, U. A. Kuzminskaya,
and S. S. Kouton. 1969. On the problem of the harmful effect of DDT and its
mechanism of action. Residue Rev. 27:43-138.
14. Manton, I., and G. F. Leedale. 1969. Observations on the microanatomy of
Coccolithus pelagicus and Criscosjihaera carterae, wiith special reference to
the origin and nature of coccoliths and scales. J. Marine Biol. Assn. U. K. 49:1-16.
15. Peakall, D. B. 1967. Pesticide-induced enzyme breakdown of steroids in birds.
Nature 216:505-506.
16. 1970. Pesticides and the reproduction of birds. Sci. Amer. 222:73-78.
17. 1970. pp'-DDT. Effect on calcium metabolism and concentration of
estradiol in the blood. Science 168:592-594.
18. Provasoli, L. 1968. Media and prospects for the cultivation of marine algae,
p. 63-75. In A. Watanabe and A. Hattori (eds.). Cultures and collections of Algae.
Proc. U.S.-Japan Conf. September 1966. Jap. Soc. Plant Physiol. Nakone, Japan.
19. Ratcliffe, D. A. 1967. Decrease in eggshell weight in certain birds of prey.
Nature 215:208-210.
Cell Biology 113
20. 1970. Changes attributable to pesticides in egg breakage frequency
and eggshell thickness in some British birds. J. Appl. Ecol. 7:67-116.
21. Risebrough, R. W., P. Rieche, S. G. Herman, D. B. Peakall, and M. N.
Kirven. 1968. Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global ecosystem. Nature 220:
1098-1102.
22. Roughton, F. J. W., and V. H. Booth. 1946. The effect of substrate concentration,
pH and other factors upon the activity of carbonic anhydrase. Biochem. J.
40:319-330.
23. Spurr, A. R. 1969. A low-viscosity epoxy resin embedding medium for electron
microscopy. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 26:31-43.
24. Wiemeyer, S. N.e and N. G. Anderson. 1970. DDE thins eggshells of captive
American kestrels. Nature 227:737-738.
The Effect of Mineral Deficiency on the Photosynthetic Apparatus
in Maize. I. The Role of Chloroplast Sulfolipidi
R. Barr, J. D. Hall, T. Baszynski,
J. Brand and F. L. Crane
Department of Biological Sciences
and
D. W. Krogmann
Department of Biochemistry
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Galacto- and sulfolipid content has been determined in sulfur and nitrogen-
deficient maize leaves. Only slight variations in monogalactosyl diglyceride and
digalactosyl diglyceride levels were detected in S-deficient plants compared to
normal maize leaves but there was a 50% decrease of both these lipids in N-deficient
plants. The greatest difference was found in the sulfolipid content in either S- or N-
deficiencies — the sulfolipid was reduced by 30 to 50%. Since decreased sulfolipid
content seemed to be associated with increased Photosystem II activity and the
occurrence of larger chloroplast grana stacks, it is proposed that sulfolipid may play a
role in grana stacking along with other structural chloroplast lipids. At least a
correlation between decreased sulfolipid and galactolipid content is associated with the
occurrence of larger chloroplast grana stacks and increased Photosystem II activity.
Introduction
In our studies of photosynthetic activity of chloroplasts from
nitrogen-, potassium-, phosphorus-, sulfur-, magnesium-, and calcium-
deficient plants we found an increased Photosystem II activity in the
chloroplasts from S- and N-deficient plants (3). Since increased rates
for PS II activity were observed in 2 separate assay systems (water
-> indophenol dye and diphenylcarbazide ->■ indophenol dye) and were
correlated with increased grana stacking in studies of the fine structure
of mineral-deficient chloroplasts by electron microscopy (9), it became
important to investigate the role of sulfolipids in S- and N-deficient
chloroplasts in relation to normal maize sulfolipid content.
Nichols and James (13) have reviewed the literature on chloroplast
lipid composition while Haines has surveyed the chemical information
on sulfolipids (8). Plant sulfolipids have been localized in the
chloroplast and assayed in several species of plants (1, 2, 6, 14, 16).
Previous studies on the composition of chloroplast lipids consider
sulfolipid a minor constitutent (<10% present) and assign a structural
role to it. Our discovery of reduced sulfolipid content in S- and
N-deficient plants both of which exhibit higher than normal PS II
activity points to the importance of sulfolipid not only as a passive
structural element but also as something critical for proper enzymatic
activity of chloroplast grana stacks.
•Supported by N.S.F. Grant #GB-27501.
114
Cell Biology 115
Materials and Methods
Methods for nutrient culture of various mineral-deficient maize
plants have been described (5). The galacto- and sulfolipid content of
S- and N-deficient plants was determined as follows: 5-g quantities of
fresh or frozen maize leaves were homogenized in 90% acetone in a
Waring blender and strained through a sintered glass filter. The residue
was rewashed with several aliquots of acetone. Then the total acetone
extract was transferred to a separatory funnel containing an equal
amount of petroleum ether (B.P. 40-60°C). Water-soluble components
were removed by water washes and discarded. The green epiphase con-
taining pigments and lipids was washed several times with increasing
concentrations of methanol-water (50:50; 75:25; 90:10). The combined
methanol-water extracts were evaporated to dryness in a rotary
evaporator at 30° C to yield a total lipid fraction. Evaporation was slow
and required the addition of several portions of acetone. The final dry
lipid mixture was suspended in diethyl ether and used for thin layer
chromatography. Silica gel G plates were developed in water, glacial
acetic acid, methanol and chloroform (4:10:15:75) according to Nichols
(12) or in water, benzene, acetone (8:30:91) by Pohl, Glasl and
Wagner's method (15). Monogalactosyl diglyceride, digalactosyl
diglyceride and sulfolipid were identified by spraying with 0.0035%
rhodamine G in 0.5% KOH solution and observing fluorescent bands
under U.V. light. After scraping the desired bands the various lipids
were eluted from the silica gel with diethyl ether and evaporated to
dryness under vacuum from an aspirator. If plates were developed in
mixtures containing glacial acetic acid as in (12), the lipid bands were
located by spraying one side of the chromatogram with reduced
methylene blue spray according to Barr and Crane (4).
Monogalactosyl diglyceride, digalactosyl diglyceride and sulfolipid
were assayed quantitatively by the phenol-sulfuric acid method as
described by Roughan and Batt (16). Sulfolipid was also determined
as inorganic sulfate after charring and acid hydrolysis in sealed glass
tubes. The spectrophotometric analysis of sulfate with barium
chloranilate reagent was performed according to Dittmer and
Wells (7).
Results
The visible symptoms of sulfur- and notrogen-deficient maize leaves
compared to normal maize are shown in Figure 1 (A). This figure
also shows a thin layer chromatrogram (B) where the sulfolipid spot
is visible as a light charred area in the control but not at all in
S-deficient plants in which the sulfolipid content is reduced by about
half. Figure 1 (C) shows the results of the phenol-sulfuric acid test
for sugars by which monogalactosyl diglyceride and digalactosyl
diglyceride can be identified by their galactose moiety and sulfolipid
by its quinovose moiety. By using spectrophotometric comparisons to
galactose standards, the sulfolipid content of normal maize leaves is
higher than that of S-deficient leaves.
116
Indiana Academy of Science
C 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
Figure 1. A. Control, S-deficient and N-deficient maize leaves from left to right in
the order indicated. B. Tlmn-layer chromatography of sulfolipid, (arroic) from 1)
control and 2) S-deficient maize leaves (level below limit of detection by TLC).
C. Results of phenol-sulfuric acid test with control and S-deficient maize leaves:
1-k, control; 1-MGD, 2-plate blank, 3-DGD, ^-sulfolipid; 5-8, S-deficient; 5-MGD,
6 -plate bland. 7-DGD, 8-sulfolipid.
Table 1.
A
comparison
of galactolipid and sulfolipid levels in normal versus
S-deficient maize leaves.1
n ill
By Sugar Analysis
Designa
MGD DGD SL
^moles/g Fresh Weight
Control
2.95 1.11 0.85
2.23 1.41 0.35
0.96 0.30 0.48
By Sulfur Analysis
Control
-s
— — 0.84
— 0.50
Plants grown in nutrient culture in the greenhouse during July and August at
high temperatures (25-30°C).
Cell Biology 117
Table 1 summarizes the results of chloroplast lipid analysis. In
S- and N-deficient leaves the sulfolipid content is reported from either
of 2 separate assays: 1) by analysis of the sugar moiety using the
phenol-sulfuric acid test and 2) by sulfur analysis with the barium
chloranilate test for inorganic sulfur. The results of both tests
indicate a reduced sulfolipid content of S- and N-deficient leaves in
contrast to normal maize while differences in galactolipid — mono-
galactosyl diglyceride and digalactosyl diglyceride — levels are not
marked for S-deficient plants but are sharply reduced in N-deficient
plants in relation to the control.
Figures 2 and 3 show electron micrographs of normal and S- or
N-deficient chloroplasts at the age of 8 weeks. It can be seen that both
deficiencies result in larger grana stacks and less stroma lamellae than
normal maize plants. The size of osmiophilic globules is increased in
chloroplasts from N-deficient plants (Fig. 3, B).
Discussion
From our studies of PS I and II activities in six types of mineral
deficiencies (N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca) in maize, we find increased PS II
activity in S- and N-deficiencies. Sulphur- and N-deficient plants con-
tain chloroplasts with larger grana stacks and a proportionally larger
amount of grana lamelle in relation to stroma lamellae (3, 9). This led
us to investigate the lipid composition of S- and N-deficient plants re-
ported here (Table 1), since chloroplast lipids have been implicated as
structural components of chloroplast membrane systems. As this table
shows we found only slight differences in the two major chloroplast
lipids, monogalactosyl diglyceride and digalactosyl diglyceride, in S-
deficient versus normal maize leaves but a striking reduction in the
amount of galactolipids present in N-deficient plants. The sulfolipid
content was also reduced up to 50% in the leaves from S- and N-
deficient plants. Thus sulfolipid, although present in lesser amounts
than chloroplast galactolipids, may function in the control of grana
stacking. Since only about a third to a half of the normal amount of
sulfolipid is present in S- and N-deficient plants while the proportion
of grana to stroma lamellae is increased, it may be inferred that in the
absence of the normal amount of sulfolipid stroma lamellae stick
together more easily to form abnormally large grana stacks. Thus
sulfolipid appears to control grana stacking in S- and N-deficient
maize chloroplasts.
Other agents which alter the control of grana stacking include
light and the concentration of cations. In bright light grana stacks
are dissociated in Amaranthus chloroplasts while in plants grown in
dim light abundant grana stacking is present (10). In isolated
chloroplasts grana can be dissociated into single lamellae but with the
addition of cations reassociation occurs (11). Both of these factors may
operate in conjunction with the lipid composition in controlling grana
stack formation.
Indiana Academy op Science
■llkx
i
'- i
Figure 2
Normal maize chloroplast at the age of 8 weeks. Glutaraldehyde and Os04
fixation with uranyl acetate and lead citrate stains. X 25,000
Cell Biology
119
S"-
....... .^., A.vi iV>„ .»*
. . b
Figure 3. A. Sulfur-deficient ehloroplast at the age of 8 weeks. Fixation and staining
as for Fig. 2. X 25,000. B. Nitrogen-deficient ehloroplast at the age of 8 weeks.
Fixation and staining as above. X 35,000
120 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Allen, C. F., P. Good, H. F, Davis, P. Chisum, and S. D. Fowler.
1966. Methodology for the separation of plant lipids and application to spinach
leaf and chloroplast lamellae. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 43:223-231.
2. Allen, C. F., O. Hiramaya, and P. Good. 1966. Lipid composition of
photosynthetic systems, p. 195-200. In T. W. Goodwin, (ed.) Biochemistry of
Chloroplasts, Vol. I. Academic Press. London and New York. 476 p.
3. Baszynski, T., J. Brand, R. Barr, D. W. Krogmann, and F. L. Crane.
1972. Photosystem I and II activity in mineral-deficient maize. Plant Physiol. 49:
(in press).
4. Barr, R., and F. L. Crane. 1971. Quinones in algae and higher plants, p.
372-408. In A. San Pietro (ed.) Methods in Enzymology, Vol. XXIII, Part A.
Academic Press. New York and London. 743 p.
5. , J. D. Hall, F. L. Crane, and H. Al-Abbas. 1971. Lipophilic
quinones in mineral-deficient maize leaves. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 80:130-139.
6. Bishop, D. G., K. S. Andersen, and R. M. Smillie. 1971. The distribution of
galactolipids in mesophyll and bundle sheath chloroplasts of maize and sorghum.
Biochim. Biophys. Acta 231:412-414.
7. Dittmer, J. C, and M. A. Wells. 1969. Quantitative and qualititave analysis of
lipids and lipid components, p. 482-530. In J. M. Lowenstein (ed.) Methods in
Enzymology, Vol. XIV, Lipids. Academic Press. New York, N. Y. 771 p.
8. Haines, T. H. 1971. The chemistry of the sulfolipids, p. 299-345. In R. T.
Holman (ed.) Progress in the Chemistry of Fats and other Lipids, Vol. XI, Part 3.
Pergamon Press. New York, N. Y. 47 p.
9. Hall, J. D., R. Barr, A. H. Al-Abbas, and F. L. Crane. 1972. Chloroplasts
in mineral-deficient maize. Plant Physiol. 49: (in press).
10. Lyttleton, J. W., J. E. M. Ballantine, and B. J. Ford. 1971. Development and
environmental studies on chloroplasts of Amaranthus lividus, p. 447-452. In
N. K. Boardman, A. W. Linnane, and R. M. Smilie (eds.) A taxonomy and bio-
genesis of mitochondria and chloroplasts. North-Holland. 522 p.
11. Murakami, S., and L. P. Auker. 1971. The role of cations in the organization of
chloroplast membranes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 146:337-347.
]>2. Nichols, B. W. 1964. Separation of plant phospholipids and glycolipids, p. 322-377.
In A. T. James and L. J. MORRIS (eds.) New biochemical separations. D. van
Nostrand Co., London, England. 424 p.
13. . . _, and A. T. James. 1968. Acyl lipids and fatty acids of photosynthetic
tissue, p. 1-47. In L. Reinhold and Y. Liwschitz (eds.) Progress in Phyto-
chemistry, Vol. I. Interscience Publishers, New York, N. Y. 48 p.
14. Ongun, A., W. W. Thomson, and J. B. Mudd. 1968. Lipid composition of
chloroplasts isolated by aqueous and monaqueous techniques. J. Lipid Res.
9:409-415.
15. Pohl, P., H. Glasl, and H. Wagner. 1970. Zur Analytik pflanzlicher Glyko-
und Phospholipoide und ihrer Fettsauren. I. Eine neue diinn-schichtchro-
matographische Methode zur Trennung pflanzlicher Lipoide und quantitativen
Bestimmung ihrer Fettsaure-Zusammensetzung. J. Chromatogr. 49:488-492.
16. Roughan, P. G., and R. D. Batt. 1968. Quantitative analysis of sulfolipid
(sulfoquinovosyl diglyceride) and galactolipids (mono-galactosyl and diglactosyl
diglycerides) in plant tissues. Anal. Biochem. 22:74-88.
Aryl Sulphatases: Properties and Subcellular Distribution in
Rat Liver1
Francis E. Wilkinson, Sally E. Nyquist,2
William D. Merritt and D. James Morre's
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Enzymes of the arylsulphatase complex (Arylsulphatases A, B and C) were shown
to be widely distributed throughout the endomembrane system of rat liver.
Arylsulphatase C, a microsomal enzyme, was localized primarily in rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Arylsulphatases A and B were more widely distributed. Electron
microscope localization combined with cell fractionation studies showed the activity to
be most concentrated in focal specializations of the bulk smooth endoplasmic reticulum
or in lysosomes. Less concentrated enzyme activity was associated with rough
endoplasmic reticulum, bulk smooth endoplasmic reticulum, the nuclear envelope and
the Golgi apparatus (especially in secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus).
Arylsulphatase A-B activity was not detected in mitochondria, microbodies, the plasma
membrane and the ground cytoplasm and was low or absent from smooth
endoplasmic reticulum of the Golgi apparatus zone. The results indicate a difference
between Golgi apparatus-associated and the bulk of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
and raise the possibility of direct transfer of arylsulphatase A-B from rough endo-
plasmic reticulum to forming secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus.
The enzymes of the arylsulphatase group (aryl-sulphate sulpho-
hydrolases, E.C. 3.1.6.1) are widely distributed among animals (1, 3,
4, 7, 8, 10-13, 15, 17, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34), microbial (16) and plant (29)
tissues. The importance of sulphuric acid esters in many metabolic
processes and disorders in animals (2-5, 8, 9, 17, 27, 28) adds consider-
able significance to the widespread distribution of the arylsulphatases.
At least in animal tissues, the activity is largely confined to substrates
in which sulphuric acid is conjugated with hydroxyl groups of
phenols (Fig. 1). The inorganic sulfate released during the reaction
can be precipitated with lead to form an electron dense reaction product.
The latter provides a means for localizing the enzyme activity at the
electron microscope level (1, 15, 18, 29, 34).
At least three arylsulphatases have been distinguished on the basis
of their kinetic properties. In rat liver, two of the enzymes, Arylsul-
phatase A and Arylsulphatase B are considered to be localized primarily
in the lysosome fraction (7, 8, 34). The third, Arylsulphatase C, is found
in the microsome fraction (10, 13, 18). Yet, the precise subcellular dis-
tribution of these enzymes in liver has never been established. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the subcellular distribution
of Arylsulphatases A, B and C in rat liver with particular emphasis
on components of the endomembrane system (25).
Supported in part by NSF GB 23183. Journal Paper No. 4604. Purdue University
Agricultural Experiment Station.
2Present address: Dept of Biology, Bucknell Univ., Leesburg, Pa. 17837.
3Appointed jointly between the Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and
Department of Biological Sciences.
121
122 Indiana Academy of Science
Materials and Methods
Male rats, 200 to 250 g, 50 days old of the Holtzman strain,
provided with laboratory chow and drinking water ad libitum, were
sacrificed and the livers drained of blood. The livers were removed,
minced at room temperature and used either for determination of
arylsulphatase activity, cell fractionation studies or enzyme cyto-
chemistry.
Golgi apparatus (20) and endoplasmic reticulum (6) were prepared
as described previously. The heavy particulate fraction of Table 1 was
obtained by collection of the band at the 1.5/1.6 M interface on a dis-
continuous sucrose gradient used for preparation of Golgi apparatus
fractions (22). The band was removed, resuspended in homogenization
medium and pelleted at 3,000 g for 30 min. This fraction is largely a
mixture of mitochondria and rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum.
Table 1. Arylsulphatase activities of isolated cell components of rat liver.
Enzyme Activity
Arylsulphatase C Arylsulphatases A and B
(mumoles p-hydroxyacetophenone/ (mumoles p-nitrocatechol/
Fraction mg protein/hr) mg protein/hr)
Total Homogenate 59 ± 6
Rough Endoplasmic 385 ± 88
Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus 87 ± 6
Heavy Particulate — —
The substrate for Arylsulphatase A-B was p-nitrocatechol sulphate
(Fig. 1) purchased from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Missouri.
The reaction was carried out as described by Roy (31, 32) using a sub-
strate concentration of 30 mM and a pH of 6.0 with a reaction time of
30 min unless indicated otherwise.
For determination of Arylsulphatase C activity, the substrate was
potassium p-acetylphenylsulphate synthesized from p-hydroxyacetophe-
none and chlorosulfonic acid by an adaptation of the simplified method
of Figenbaum and Neubert (14) for preparation of aromatic sulphuric
acid esters. This substrate was chosen in preference to some readily
available substances due to its relative stability toward metabolism by
rat liver homogenates (11). Arylsulphatase C was assayed as described
by Dogson et al. (12) with the exception that reactions were stopped
after 30 min rather than after 1 hour. Proteins were determined by the
biuret method.
Tissues and cell fractions subjected to cytochemical assay for
arylsulphatases A-B were processed according to the method of Gold-
fischer (15), except that they were fixed overnight in 2% glutaraldehyde
instead of being perfused as with the whole tissue experiments of Gold-
fischer (15). The tissues and fractions were then embedded in Epon
:»o
;+_-
13
668
±
5S
604
±
13
574
-f-
13
Cell Biology
123
02N
- + Enzyme
p-Nitrocatecholsulfate
+ Quinol Reagent
Red Color
520 nM
OH
OH
p-Nitrocatechol
+ SO.
+ Pb
Electron -dense
Precipitate
Figure 1. Summary of the detection methods employed for Arylsulphatase A-B.
In the presence of the enzymes, the substrate \>-nitrocatecholsulphate is cleaved to
V-nitrocatechol plus sulphate. In the presence of quinol reagent, the p-nitrocatechol
produces a red color absorbing at 520 nM. For cytochemical detection, the sulphate
ivas complexed with lead to yield an electron-dense precipitate observable in the
electron microscope.
(33) and thin sections were examined and photographed with a
Philips EM 200.
Results
Whole homogenates of rat liver were used in establishing assay
conditions for arylsulphatase A-B in rat liver. The activity was ex-
tremely stable and extracts could be stored for several months without
loss of enzyme activity. Controls containing the enzyme solution with
the substrate added immediately after incubation followed immediately
by ethanol, and controls in which the substrate was incubated with
buffer alone, were run simultaneously with experimental determinations.
Effect of time and enzyme concentration
Figure 2 shows the effect of incubating rat liver homogenates with
the substrate in the presence of varying quantities of protein (Fig. 2A)
and for varying times (Fig. 2B) under conditions of optimum pH
(Fig. 2C) and a substrate concentration of 30mM. This substrate con-
centration was near optimal for Arylsulphatase C (12), supraoptimal
(inhibitory) for Arylsulphatase A (31) and yielded first order
kinetics for Arylsulphatase B (31, Fig. 2D). There was an ap-
proximately linear relationship between protein concentration and the
reaction velocity over the range 0 to 4 mg of protein in the assay (Fig.
2A) and in subsequent studies a protein concentration of 1 mg or less
was employed. In agreement with a previous observation (31), there
was a decrease in reaction velocity during the first 10 min of incubation
124
Indiana Academy of Science
after which the degree of hydrolysis was proportional to the time of
incubation (Fig. 2B).
I 2 3
p-NITROCATECHOL
SULFATE (nig)
Figure 2. Properties of rat liver Arylsulhatase A-B assayed under standard conditions
(31, 32) except for conditions varied showing increased absorbance due to release of
p-nitrocatechol from p-nitrocatecholsulphate as a function of (A) protein concentra-
tion, (B) time, (C) pH, and (D) substrate concentration. The enzyme source was
total rat liver homogenate (Table 1) frozen and thawed to release structure-linked
latent enzyme activity.
Effect of pH
The effect of pH was determined over the range of 3 to 7. The pH
optimum is that of Arylsulphtase B and was determined to be 5.7 in
0.15 M acetate buffer with nitrocatechol sulphate as substrate (31).
The pH optimum for arylsulphatase A is 4.7 (31). The optimum for
Arylsulphatase C is about pH 7.2 (10, 12)
Effect of substrate concenration
The effect of varying substrate on reaction velocity (Fig. 2D)
shows a hump in the curve between 0 and 0.5 mg p~nitrocatechol
sulphate which is due to the presence of Arylsulphatase A (12) which
is saturated at a substrate concentration of approximately 3 mM. As
shown previously (12), there is no obvious substrate optimum for
arylsulphatase B within the limits studied (Fig. 2D).
Intracellular location
In tissue fractionation studies, the activities of Arylsulphatases
A and B as compared to Arylsulphatase C showed distinctly different
distribution patterns. Arylsulphatase C appeared to be specifically
localized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Table 1). Arylsulphatases
A-B, however, showed approximately equal distribution in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus (Table 1).
Cell Biology
125
FIGURE 3. Electron micrograph of rat liver incubated for a ryl sulphatase activity at
pH 5.5 for 30 min at 37°C (15). Thin sections were stained with lead citrate (30).
Reaction product is found in specific bodies (L) adjacent to or continuous with (arrows)
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Lighter, granular deposits of reaction product
are seen over the lumens and membranes of both rough (RER) and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum. The plasma membrane (PM) at the cell border, mitochondria (M), micro-
bodies (MB) and the cytoplasmic matrix are free of reaction product. Magnifications
are approximate. A' 30,000.
126 Indiana Academy of Science
This distribution was confirmed and extended by the results from
cytochemical localization of Arylsulphatases A-B. The heaviest deposits
of lead were found over the membranes and contents of bodies attached
to and interspersed with fields of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Fig.
3). These bodies may represent lysosomes but their consistent associa-
tion with smooth endoplasmic reticulum was unexpected. More impor-
tant in the context of the present study, lead deposits of a more diffuse
nature were found equally distributed over the lumens of both rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Figs. 3 and 4), the nuclear envelope
(Fig. 4) and cisternae and vesicles of the Golgi apparatus (Fig. 4). In
isolated fractions of rough endoplasmic reticulum, dense reaction prod-
ucts were still present and uniformly distributed but more so over the
membranes than within cisternal lumens (Fig. 5). With isolated Golgi
apparatus fractions, reaction products were found over secretory
vesicles containing lipoprotein secretory products as well as secretory
vesicles lacking lipoprotein secretory products and presumed to repre-
sent primary lysosomes (Figs. 6 and 7). Only small amounts of reac-
tion product were found over Golgi apparatus cisternae and the smooth
system of peripheral tubules (23, 24, 26). Both the isolated endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus fractions were free of the lysosome-like
bodies containing dense lead deposits observed in situ (Fig. 3).
Discussion
In the animal tissues investigated by Goldfisher (15) and others
(1, 34), Arylsulphatase A-B activity was largely localized in cytoplas-
mic bodies identified as lysosomes. In contrast, Arylsulphatase C has
been generally considered to be a microsomal enzyme (10, 18), but
microsomes are a heterogeneous cell fraction containing membrane
fragments of many different types of cell components. The analysis
of arylsulphatase activity is complicated to some extent by
anomalous kinetic properties. These anomalies have been noted
previously (31, 32) and no clarification is provided by the present study.
Our studies, however, do show that much of the Arylsulphatase
A-B activity of rat liver is localized in cytoplasmic structures not
readily identified as conventional lysosomes. Arylsulphatase A-B
activity was about equal in endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
fractions. Both fractions were considerably enriched over that of the
homogenate but the specific activity was only 0.1 that reported for lyso-
some fractions (7, 8). Its presence in the endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi apparatus fractions was not due to lysosomal contamination of
the fractions as shown by the cytochemical analyses of the isolated
fractions (Figs. 6 and 7).
In contrast, Arylsulphatase C activity of the Golgi apparatus frac-
tion was only 22% that of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Table 1).
This value is higher than that observed with glucose-6-phosphatase and
other endoplasmic reticulum enzymes (13 to 15%, ref. 21). One explana-
tion for this discrepancy lies in the observation that potassium
Cell Biology
127
f ER! ■ * -
,* jr^i^^'v^
| 4
t>, .
\*^ %
VV-'v.fV***
,*'
'flpf ■■.
>- Sister w
Figure 4. As in Figure 3 shoiving a portion of the Golgi apparatus (GA) adjacent
to the nucleus (N). Granular reaction product is seen within the lumen of the nuclear
envelope, tvithin plate-like portions (P) of Golgi apparatus cisternae, within secretory
vesicles (SV) of the Golgi apparatus and within the lumens of rough endoplasmic
reticulum ( RER ) . One densely staining body next to the Golgi apparatus may rep-
resent a primary lysosome (L) . Note the connections between lipoprotein-containing,
smooth endoplasmic reticulum tubules and the large secretory vesicles of the Golgi
apparatus {single arrows), between these tubules and a portion of a Golgi apparatus
plate (ivhite P) seen in face view (double arrow) and between a secretory vesicle
and rough endoplasmic reticulum (arrow with asterisk). Arylsulphatase reaction pro-
duct is reduced somewhat in amount from the SER tubulues near their point of con-
tinuity with Golgi apparatus cisternae. M mitochondrion. X 54,000.
128 Indiana Academy of Science
p-acetylphenylsulphate is not a completely specific substrate for
Arylsulphatase C under the conditions used, so that the arylsulphatase
A and B, shown to be present in the Golgi apparatus, could account for
the additional 7 to 10% of the activity. F. A. Rose (personal communica-
tion) suggested that phosphate ions increase the specificity of
p-acetylphenylsulphate for Arylsulphatase C. However, phosphate ions
were not added to our reaction mixture.
In the cytochemical analyses, the activity detected may be largely
ascribed to Arylsulphatase B. Arylsulphatase A-B show a high degree
of substrate specificity hydrolyzing p-nitrocatechol sulphate while
splitting p-acetylphenylsulphate very slowly (31, 32). The pH optima
of these two activities also differ. Type C Arylsulphatase has a pH
optimum slightly over neutrality and would not be expected to con-
tribute to the cytochemical results. At the acid pH employed, both
Arylsulphatases A and B are active although data of Figure 2D
suggest that, in future studies, Arylsulphatases A and B could be dif-
ferentiated cytochemically by varying substrate concentration.
In addition to the focal specializations of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (Fig. 3) and other lysosome-like bodies, we find arylsul-
phatase activity distributed throughout the endomembrane system
(Figs. 3 to 7). It is less evident in the smooth tubules of the Golgi
apparatus (Figs. 4, 6 and 7) and is absent from plasma membrane,
microbodies, mitochondria and ground cytoplasm. It is present in the
nuclear envelope, bulk rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum and
cisternae and vesicles of the Golgi apparatus. This distribution is
similar to that observed in plants where acid arylsulphatase activity
was found in the nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum with the
lead deposits located in the lumen lying next to the membrane
(29). Poux (29) noted lead deposits in a type of cytoplasmic body found
in root tips of Cucumis sativus which closely resemble the structures
illustrated in Figure 3 but which she tentatively identifies as
phragmosomes (= microbodies, ref. 19). We found no arylsulphatase
activity associated with microbodies in rat liver. Nor did we find
arylsulphatases concentrated in pericanalicular dense bodies of liver
in contrast to the report by Abraham (1). Arylsulphatase A-B was not
found cytochemically in mitochondria. The activity present in crude
mitochondrial fractions isolated from liver (31, 32, Table 1) may be due
to contamination of the fraction by lysosomes and/or endoplasmic
reticulum.
The widespread localization of Arylsulphatase A-B in the endomem-
brane system of rat liver raises the possibility of an active protein being
synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and/or nuclear envelope and
being transported to the bulk smooth endoplasmic reticulum or to the
Golgi apparatus where it then becomes incorporated into lysosomes and
other types of vesicles. Of specific interest in terms of the present study
Cell Biology
129
&/>*>*
^
'^A**'^5
0M. * ^
v
*
• /;'*
*v
©
*f'
m
1 /
sv
ST.
*X
©
ST
Figures 5 and 6. Isolated cell fractions from rat liver incubated for Arylsulphatase
A-B activity as described in Figure 3. The only lysosome-like bodies observed in the
preparations were those attached to Golgi apparatus cisternae. Figure 5. Endoplasmic
reticulum fraction shotving finely granular reaction product located principally over the
membranes or tvithin the cisternal lumens against the membranes. X 40,000. Figure 6.
Golgi apparatus fraction.showing finely granular reaction product primarily restricted
to secretory vesicles containing lipiprotein particles (SV) and vesicles lacking the
particles and presumed to represent primary lysosomes (L) still attached to the Golgi
apparatus. In this preparation, both the plate-like portions of cisternae (P) and the
lipoprotein-containing SER tubules (ST) lacked reaction product. X 38,000.
130
Indiana Academy of Science
& F
RER
«
Figure 7. As in Figure 6 showing an intact stack of Golgi apparatus cisternac -
dictyosome (D) with finely granular reaction product being restricted to the secretory
vesicles (SV) and a fragment of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). A region of
close association between the RER fragment and a portion of a secretory vesicle is in-
dicated by the arrows. Rather than being represented by a continuous tubule, the region
of association lias a beaded or vesicular character. X 47,000.
is the absence of arylsulphatase activity from smooth tubules (=
smooth endoplasmic reticulum, refs. 23, 24, 26) of the Golgi apparatus
zone. The results show a difference between Golgi apparatus-
associated and bulk smooth endoplasmic reticulum and raise the pos-
sibility of direct transfer of arylsulphatase A-B from rough endoplasmic
reticulum to forming secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus.
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1. Abraham,
11:129-131.
R. 1967. Lysosomal ai
sulphatase in the liver. Histochemie
2. Austin, J. 1960. Metachromatic form of diffuse cerebral sclerosis. III.
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kidney. Neurology 10:470-483.
, D. Armstrong, and L. Shearer. 1965. Metachromatic form of
diffuse cerebral sclerosis. V. The nature and significance of low sulfatase
activity: A controlled study of brain, liver, and kidney in four patients
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4. , D. McAfee, and L. Shearer. 1965. Metachromatic form of diffuse
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5. Brady, R. O. 1969. Tay-Sachs disease. New England J. Med. 281:1243-1244.
6. Cheetham, R. D., D. J. Morre, and W. N. Yunghans. 1970. Isolation of a
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7. DeDuve, C. 1959. The function of intracellular hydrolases. Expt. Cell Res.
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8. , and R. Wattiaux. 1966. Functions of lysosomes. Ann. Rev. Physiol.
28:435-492.
9. Dickens, F., P. J. Randle, and W. J. Whelan. 1968. Carbohydrate metabolism
and its disorders. Academic Press, New York. 456 p.
10. Dodgson, K. S., F. A. Rose, and B. Spencer. 1957. Studies on sulphatases.
16. A soluble preparation of arylsulphatase C of rat liver microsomes. Biochem. J.
66:357-363.
11. , and B. Spencer. 1963. Studies on sulphatases. I. The choice of sub-
strate for the assay of rat-liver arylsulphatase. Biochem. J. 53:444-452.
12. , and J. Thomas. 1953. Studies on sulphatases. II. The assay of the
arylsulphatase activity of rat tissues. Biochem. J. 53:452-457.
13. 1954. Studies on sulphatases. VI. The localization of arylsulphatase
in the rat-liver cell. Biochem. J. 56:177-181.
14. Fiegenbaum, J., and C. A. Neuberg. 1941. Simplified method for the preparation
of aromatic sulfuric acid testers. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 63 :3529-3530.
15. Goldfischer, S. 1965. The cytochemical demonstration of lysosomal aryl sulfatase
activity by light and electron microscopy. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 12 :659-669.
16. Gregory, J. D., and P. W. Robbins. 1960. Metabolism of sulfur compounds
(sulfate metabolism). Ann. Rev. Biochem. 29:347-364.
17. Jatzkewitz, H. 1960. Die Leukodystrophie, Typ Scholz (metachromatische
Form der diffusen Sklerose) als Sphingolipoidose ( Cerebrosid-schwef elsavreester-
speicherkrakheit). Hoppe-Seyler's Z. Physiol. Chem. 318:265-277.
18. Milson, D. W., F. A. Rose, and K. S. Dodgson. 1968. Assay of a microsomal
marker enzyme: rat liver arylsulphatase C. Biochem. J. 109 :40P.
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23. — , T. W. Keenan, and H. H. Mollenhauer. 1971. Golgi apparatus
function in membrane transformations and product compartmentalization: Studies
with cell fractions isolated from rat liver. Adv. Cytopharmacol. 1:159-182.
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24. , R. W. Mahley, B. D. Bennett, and V. S. Lequire. 1971. Continuities
between endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles and Golgi apparatus in rat liver
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25. , H. H. Mollenhaueb, and C. E. Brackek. 1971. Origin and continuity
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Problems in Cell Differentiation. Vol. 2. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
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33:839-844.
Constancy of Unsaturation in Molecular Species of
Cardiolipin and Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine
from Beef Heart Mitochondria1
T. W. Keenan
Department of Animal Sciences
and
F. L. Crane
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
The diglyceride acetate products of the acetolysis of beef heart mitochondrial
cardiolipin were separated into three fractions, trienes, tetraenes and pentaenes, by
argentation chromatography. Tetraenes accounted for 64 per cent of the total diglyceride
acetates and linoleic acid accounted for 93 per cent of the total acyl residues of this frac-
tion. There was an inverse linear relationship between the oleic and linoleic acid
contents of cardiolipin preparations. Six diglyceride acetate fractions were obtained
from beef heart mitochondrial phosphatidyl ethanolamine. The major fraction, tetraenes,
accounted for 54 per cent of the total diglyceride acetates. Stearic and arachidonic acids
accounted for 89 per cent of the acyl groupings in this fraction. There was a high
degree of consistency in the total unsaturated fatty acid content of cardiolipin prepara-
tions and in all diglyceride acetate fractions derived from cardiolipin. This consistency
was also evident in phosphatidyl ethanolamine preparations.
In a preliminary communication we reported that the fatty acids
were nearly randomly distributed between the a- and ^-positions of
beef heart cardiolipin (8). Argentation chromatography of the
diglyceride acetates prepared by acetolysis of cardiolipin revealed the
presence of three molecular species. The major species, tetraenes,
contained more than 90% linoleic acid (8). Wood and Harlow (19), by
gas chromatographic separation, similarly found one predominant
diglyceride in the Phospholipase C digestion products of rat liver
cardiolipin. In continuing our earlier studies, analyses of multiple
cardiolipin preparations revealed a great deal of constancy in molecular
species distribution. Further, this constancy was also observed in the
total unsaturated fatty acid content of both native cardiolipin and the
molecular species derived therefrom. These results are reported herein
along with those obtained from parallel analyses of beef heart
mitochondrial phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PE). Next to cardiolipin,
PE contains a higher proportion of unsaturated acyl residues than do
other beef heart mitochondrial phospholipids and contains high levels
of arachidonic acid (1,2,6). Analysis of PE was thus of particular in-
terest in view of the hypothesis of De Pury and Collins (4) that
arachidonyl species are more firmly bound to mitochondrial structural
protein than are other species. This hypothesis is correlated in part with
technical assistance by Diane E. Olson. Supported in part by research grant
AMo4663 from the National Institute for Arthritic and Metabolic Diseases. F. L. C.
is supported by career grant K6-2 1,839 from the National Institute of General Medical
Science. Journal Paper No. 4385. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
133
134 Indiana Academy of Science
our recent observation that the highly unsaturated cardiolipin is tightly
bound to cytochrome oxidase and is essential for function of the
enzyme (1, 2).
Materials and Methods
Beef heart mitochondria were isolated by the method of
Low and Vallin (10). Cardiolipin and PE were isolated from washed
total lipid extracts (1) by preparative thin-layer chromatography (8).
Analysis by two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography (12) revealed
these lipids to be free of other polar lipid contaminants. To minimize
autotoxidation, samples were stored in a nitrogen atmosphere at —20°
C and a small amount of butylated hydroxyanisole was added to all
solvents used. Diglyceride acetates were prepared by acetolysis at
145° C for 40 hours in a nitrogen atmosphere according to
Renkonen (14). In certain cases, PE was mixed with sphingomyelin
(chromatographically pure, Sigma Chemical Company), digested with
Phospholipase C from Clostridium welchii, and the diglycerides thus
obtained were acetylated (14). The diglyceride acetates were first puri-
fied by thin-layer chromatography (8) and then separated by argenta-
tion chromatography on thin layers of Silica gel G containing silver
nitrate (10:3 by weight). Plates were developed in chloroform contain-
ing from 0.75 to 1.25% methanol (9, 13). Lipid bands were localized, re-
covered (8), methylated and analyzed by gas chromatography (7).
Relative concentrations of various diglyceride acetates was determined
by ester analysis of the material eluted from silver nitrate plates (18).
Acetolysis was chosen for the preparation of diglyceride acetates
as a matter of convenience. It is known that intramolecular migration
of fatty acids occurs under these conditions (11, 15). However, inter-
molecular migration does not occur during this reaction (14) and, since
positional distribution of fatty acids was not determined, the
diglyceride acetates were suitable for analysis of molecular species
distribution. As a check on the method, diglyceride acetates prepared
by acetylation of the products of Phospholipase C digestion of PE (in
the presence of sphingomyelin) gave results nearly identical to those
obtained with the acetolysis product of the same PE sample in all
analyses reported herein. Cardiolpin was not digested by the enzyme
under these conditions. Although there was oxidative degradation on
acetolysis, as evidenced by darkening of the reaction mixture, the
colorless diglyceride acetates isolated had a fatty acid composition
identical to that of the starting lipid.
Results and Discussion
Only three fractions were obtained on separation of the cardiolipin
diglyceride acetates. The predominant molecular species in each fraction
were trienes, tetraenes, and pentaenes, respectively (Table 1). A
remarkably constant amount of each species was present in the seven
mitochondrial preparations analyzed. Tetraenes were the major species
encountered, representing 64% of the total (range 60 to 67%). In con-
trast, a total of six fractions were obtained on argentation chromato-
Cell Biology 135
graphy of PE (Table 1). Saturates (minor) plus monoenes plus dienes to-
gether accounted for approximately 28% of the total. As with cardiolipin,
tetraenes were the major molecular species, accounting for 54% of the
total. There was a reasonable consistency in distribution of molecular
species among the four separate preparations analyzed.
Table 1. Distribution of molecular species of diglyceride acetates derived from
cardiolipin and phosphatidyl ethanolamine of beef heart mitochondria.
% of Total1
Molecular
Cardiolipin (7)3
Phosphatidyl
species2
ethanolamine (4)
Saturates — dienes
—
27.6 ± 4.25
Trienes
20.5 ± 1.86
6.9 ± 1.72
Tetraenes
63.8 ± 2.66
54.4 ± 2.97
Polyenes
15.7 ± 1.71
11.1 ± 2.28
1Results, expressed as % of total ester groups recovered, are reported as the aver-
age ± standard deviation.
2Fractions are designated as the total number of double bonds.
^Number of separate mitochondrial preparations analyzed.
In all cardiolipin preparations, at least 91% of the total fatty acyl
groupings were unsaturated (average 95%, range 91 to 99%) (Table 2).
There was, however, appreciable variation in individual fatty acids
comparing different samples, particularly with regard to the major
fatty acid, linoleate. There was also appreciable variation among the
individual fatty acids of each diglyceride acetate species from
cardiolipin comparing separate preparations (Table 2). As with the
parent lipid, there was a reasonable consistency in the total
percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, which on the average accounted
for over 90% of the total acyl residues in all molecular species. Linoleic
acid was the major fatty acid in all fractions. In the tetraene fraction
linoleate accounted for, on the average, 93% of the total fatty acids.
Table 2 contains data on the fatty acid composition of PE and the
more highly unsaturated diglyceride acetate fractions derived therefrom.
As with cardiolipin, although there was variation in individual fatty
acids, the total unsaturated acid content was nearly constant comparing
different preparations and averaged 64% (range 61 to 68%). The major
acids were stearate and arachidonate. This constancy in unsaturated
acid content was also evident in the major subfractions analyzed. In
the major species, tetraenes, stearate and arachidonate together
accounted for approximately 89% of the total acyl residues. We had
previously demonstrated that arachidonate is contained nearly entirely
in the /^-position of beef heart mitochondrial PE (8). Thus it can be con-
cluded that l-stearoyl-2-arachidonyl phosphatidyl ethanolamine is a
major species of beef heart mitochondria.
The diphosphatidyl glycerol structure of cardiolipin precludes
conclusions on the molecular species distribution of the parent
136
Indiana Academy of Science
phosphatide based on results obtained with diglyceride acetates. How-
ever, the results contained herein suggest that the majority of the
molecular species contain three linoleate molecules and further imply
the occurrence of a molecular species containing solely linoleic acid.
Table 2. Fatty acid composition of cardiolipin, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and their
diglyceride acetates1.
Cardiolipin (7)2
Acid
Total
Trienes
Tetraenes
Polyenes
14:0
0.3
± 0.2
2.1
± 2.23
0.4 ± 0.6
0.8
± 0.66
16:0
2.3
± 1.40
5.4
± 1.68
1.8 ± 0.95
5.1
± 1.86
16:1
2.5
± 0.17
11.4
± 1.15
1.0 ± 0.68
4.0
± 1.16
18:0
2.1
± 1.47
2.2
± 1.23
0.9 ± 0.51
3.3
± 1.37
18:1
9.9
± 3.14
28.5
± 1.77
1.5 ± 0.94
22.0
± 7.05
18:2
73.9
± 5.72
50.0
± 6.58
93.2 ± 4.32
37.2
± 3.86
18:3
5.8
± 1.42
0.4
± 0.63
1.1 ± 1.85
20.4
± 6.61
20:3
2.0
± 1.41
3.8
± 1.39
20:4
L.5
± 0.97
3.3
± 1.38
20:5
Trace
0.2
± 0.46
22:5
22:6
Total
%
unsaturated
95.3
± 2.93
90.4
± 6.78
96.7 ± 1.72
90.9
± 3.56
Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (5)
Acid
Total
Trienes
Tetraenes
Polyenes
14:0
16:0
16:1
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
20:3
20:4
20:5
22:5
22:6
Total %
unsaturated
0.9 ± 1.34
1.3 ± 1.48
0.2 ± 0.24
3.5 ± 2.03
16.4 ± 9.56
1.9 ± 0.65
1.0 ± 0.86
7.0 ± 2.40
0.6 ± 0.47
32.5± 5.81
15.1 ± 6.36
40.3 ± 2.48
4.1 ± 0.89
24.6 ± 4.18
1.8 ± 2.14
11.5 ± 4.32
31.9 ± 9.45
4.7 ± 4.38
2.5 ± 3.29
0.6 ± 1.25
0.5 ± 0.58
2.5 ± 1.55
3.1 ± 3.78
1.7 ± 0.40
35.6 ± 2.31
48.5 ± 5.60
4.8 ± 0.42
0.9 ± 0.80
0.5 ± 1.07
0.2
±.
0.87
5.9
±
2.48
1.8
±
1.41
33.5
±
6.67
10.6
±
2.58
4.3
■+
1.11
0.8
±
1.07
0.1
+
0.31
16.1
±
7.14
18.8
±
8.04
4.2
H;
5.70
3.8
±
3.7]
63.8
3.40
67.2
5.06
57.8 ± 2.48
jv<\
2Weight % of fatty acids reported as the avearge ± standard deviation.
^Number of separate mitochondrial preparations analyzed.
The observations on the constancy in total percentage of un-
saturated acyl residues in both PE and cardiolipin and the
molecular species derived from them render feasible the conclusion that
the physiological function of these lipids requires a closely controlled
content of unsaturated fatty acids. This conclusion is substantiated by
the observation that alterations in fatty acid composition can influence
the properties of membranes by affecting both the attractive forces
between lipids and proteins and the molecular packing of membrane
lipids (4, 16).
Cell Biology
137
Eichberg (5) has recently reported that nearly 50% of the cardioli-
pin of beef heart can be isolated as a protein complex. The high degree of
unsaturation in all diglyceride acetate species from cardiolipin may
explain the tenaceous binding of cardiolipin to protein as being due to
extensive interaction between the double bonds of the fatty acids and
hydrophobic groups within the proteins. (3, 4, 17).
76
_l 70
O
66 -
62
60
10 12 14
% OLEIC ACID
Figure 1. Relationship between the contents of linoleic acid and oleic acid in beef
heart mitochondrial cordiolipin. Data are weight percentages calculated by peak area
analysis of gas chromato grams.
We wish to call attention to one further observation made in the
course of these studies. Although there was appreciable variation in
the contents of oleic and linoleic acids comparing different preparations
of cardiolipin, there was a nearly linear inverse relationship between
the contents of these two acids (Fig. 1). This appears to indicate that
at least a portion of one acid may be replaced by the other in
cardiolipin without impairment of the psychochemical properties of the
mitochondrial membrane.
Literature Cited
1. Awasthi, Y. C, T. F. Chuang, T. W. Keenan, and F. L. Crane. 1970. Associa-
tion of cardiolipin and cytochrome oxidase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
39:822-832.
1971. Tightly bound cardiolipin in cytochrome oxidase. Biochim.
Biophys. Acta 226:42-52.
138 Indiana Academy of Science
3. Benson, A. A. 1966. On the orientation of lipids in chloroplasts and cell
membranes. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 43:265-270.
4. De Pury, G. G., and F. D. Collins. 1966. The influence of fatty acid composition
on the rate of binding of lecithin by extracted mitochondria. Chem. Phys. Lipids
1:1-19.
5. Eichberg, J. 1969. Isolation and partial characterization of beef heart pro-
teolipid. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 187:533-545.
6. Fleischer, S., and G. Rouser. 1965. Lipids of subcellular particles. J. Amer.
Oil Chem. Soc. 42:588-607.
7. Keenan, T. W., and D. J. Morr:e. 1970. Phospholipid class and fatty acid
composition of Golgi apparatus from rat liver and comparison with other cell frac-
tions. Biochemistry 9:19-25.
8. Keenan, T. W., Y. C. Awasthi, and F. L. Crane. 1970. Cardiolipin from beef
heart mitochondria: Fatty acid positioning and molecular species distribution.
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 40:1102-1109.
9. Kuksis, A., L. Marai, W. C. Breckenridge, D. A. Gornall, and O.
Stachnyk. 1968. Molecular species of lecithins of some functionally distinct
rat tissues. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 46:511-524.
10. Low, H., and I. Vallin. 1963. Succinate-linked diphosphopyridine nucleotid-
reduction in submitochondrial particles. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 69:361-374.
11. Nutter, L. J., and O. S. Privett. 1966. Acyl migration in the conversion of
lecithin to 1, 2-diglyceride acetates by acetolysis. Lipids 1:234-235.
12. Parsons, J. G., and S. Patton. 1967. Two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography of
polar lipids from milk and mammary tissue. J. Lipid Res. 8:696-698.
13. Privett, O. S., M. L. Blank, D. W. Codding, and E. C. Nickell. 1965.
Lipid analysis by quantitative thin-layer chromatography. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc.
42:381-393.
14. Renkonen, O. 1965. Individual molecular species of different phospholipid
classes II. A method of analysis. J. Amer. Oil. Chem. Soc. 42:298-304.
15. 1966. Altered fatty acid distribution of glycero-phosphatides induced
by acetolysis. Lipids 1:160-161.
16. Richardson, T., and A. L. Tappel. 1962. Swelling of fish mitochondria. J. Cell
Biol. 13:43-53.
17. Rosenberg, A. 1967. Galactosyl diglycerides: Their possible function in euglena
chloroplasts. Science 157:1191-1196.
18. Snyder, F., and N. Stephens 1959. A simplified spectrophotometric deter-
mination of ester groups in lipids. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 34:244-245.
19. Wood, R., and R. D. Harlow. 1969. Structural analyses of rat liver phos-
phoglycerides. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 135:272-281.
CHEMISTRY
Chairman : Wilmer J. Stratton, Department of Chemistry,
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374
Richard Pilger, Department of Chemistry, St. Mary's College,
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
The Synthesis and Decomposition of Some Interesting 1-Pyrazolines. LEO
Mullins, Terry L. Kruger, Theresa Cheng, and John Sharp,
Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.
The synthesis of several bicyclo-1-pyrazolines through 3 + 2 cycloaddi-
tion has been studied. The kinetics of the decomposition of a few of these
compounds has been carried out with the identification of the decomposi-
tion products. These studies have shown that the decompositions may
occur by processes allowed by orbital symmetry considerations. Future
work includes product analysis, kinetics, mass spectra, and comparison
of photodecomposition products with thermal-decomposition products.
Properties and Reactions of Some N, N-Diethylaniline Oxides. Terry L.
Kruger, Nancy E. Tharp and James W. Kress, Department of Chem-
istry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.— — The title com-
pounds with a variety of ring substituents have been synthesized. The
basicities of these water soluble compounds have been correlated in the
Hammett Equation. These compounds undergo facile Cope elimination
to the corresponding N-ethylphenylhydroylamines. An analysis of some
aspects of the mechanism of this reaction and an explanation of the
effect of substituent on both this reaction and basicity was presented.
Synthesis and Identification of p-Benzoquinones Occurring in Arthropod
Defensive Secretions. Joseph E. Rogers, Jr., Benjamin Fieselmann
and James Jose, Department of Chemistry, Earlham College, Richmond,
Indiana 47374. Eight substituted p-benzoquinones known to occur in
arthropod defensive secretions have been prepared. Chromatographic
methods have been explored which facilitate identification of these
quinones in complex naturally-occurring secretions. The eight quinones
(p-benzoquinone, methyl-p-benzoquinone, ethyl-p-benzoquinone, 2,3-di-
methyl-p-benzoquinone, 2,5-dimethyl-p-benzoquinone, 2,3,5-trimethyl-p-
benzoquinone, 2-methoxy-p-benzoquinone, and 2-methyl-3-methoxy-p-
benzoquinone) were either purchased or in most cases were synthesized
by oxidation of suitably substituted amines or phenols. The gas chromato-
graphic behavior of these quinones has been investigated on several
stationary phases over a range of temperatures. All but two of the
quinones may be resolved on a five-foot by one-eighth inch copper column
containing 2 per cent OV-17 on GC Q. Thin-layer and paper
chromatography of the 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone derivatives of the
quinones reveals that all eight 2,4DNP derivatives may be resolved on
a silica gel layer (Eastman Chromagram K301R) upon development
with a 3:1 chloroform :xylene solvent in the presence of aqueous
ammonia vapors.
139
140 Indiana Academy of Science
A Chemical Study of the White River at Muncie. Charles T. Botkin
and Robert E. Van Atta, Department of Chemistry, Ball State Uni-
versity, Muncie, Indiana 47306. — — Analyses for several chemical com-
ponents of the White River are reported for a 50-day period during the
summer of 1971. The objective of the study was to determine whether
or not significant variations in dissolved oxygen, chloride, free and
albuminoid ammonia, pH, calcium, magnesium, iron, and several other
factors occurred and could be conveniently monitored in a flowing system
of considerable volume. Results are presented for sampling points
upstream and downstream of the city and are compared with climato-
logical records for the sampling period. Time versus analyzed factor
profiles are presented and, where feasible, correlated with each other and
with other variables in the stream's composition.
A New Experiment for Advanced Inorganic Chemistry. B. N. Storhoff
and D. F. Storhoff, Department of Chemistry, Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana 47306. The utility of simple group-theoretical consid-
erations in inorganic chemistry is well documented. The appreciation for
such considerations has prompted the design of an experiment which illus-
trates their utility in vibrational spectroscopy. The experiment focuses
on the infrared active CO stretching vibrations of several manganese
carbonyl complexes. Probable structures are assigned to the complexes
by comparing the observed and predicted spectra.
Rhenium(I) Complexes of 2-Cyanoethyldiphenylphosphine. B. N. Stor-
hoff, Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana
47306. — Halopentacarbonylrhenium (I) (CI or Br) reacts with 2-
eyanoethyldiphenylphosphine(L) to yield novel complexes of the stoi-
chiometry [Re(CO)3LX]n. Infrared data and molecular weight data
suggest that these complexes are dimeric and utilize L as a bridging
ligand. The complexes react with a variety of donor solvents and ligands
(L/) to yield complexes of stoichiometry Re(CO)3LL'X.
Chelating Behavior of Some New Sterically Hindered Tetrafunctional
Azine Ligands. John A. Scarlett and Wilmer J. Stratton, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374. Two
new unsymmetric azine ligands and their iron (II) complexes have been
synthesized and characterized. Pyridinalpyridylphenylketazine was found
to form two complexes as expected: [Fe2L3]I4, with each ligand
bridging two metals in a bis-bidentate fashion, and [FeL2]I2, with trident-
ate bonding of each ligand. Elemental analysis, infrared spectra, and elec-
tronic spectra were used to confirm these structures. Pyridylmethylpy-
ridylphenylketazine also forms a bridged complex, [Fe2L;?]I4, but ap-
parently does not form a 2:1 tridentate complex. Attempts to produce
the latter complex resulted only in formation of a hydrazone complex.
A ligand hydrolysis mechanism is proposed, in which the steric effects
of the phenyl and methyl groups cause the ligands to "squeeze" out a
metal ion, thus allowing proton attack on the uncoordinated C=N group.
Conductivity Studies in Acetonitrile for a Novel Series of Metal Chelates
with 2-Pyridylmethylketazine. David J. Harris and Wilmer J.
Stratton, Department of Chemistry, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana
Chemistry 141
47374. Complexes of NiCl2, CoCl2, ZnCl2 with 2-pyridylmethylketa-
zine, each of which had analyses indicating 4/5 or 5/6 of a ligand per
metal, were studied in acetonitrile solution. The data obtained showed
that the conductances of the three compounds are distinctly different.
Empirical equivalent weights were established from the conductivity data
for each complex. Comparison of the slopes of plots of equivalent conduct-
ance versus square root of concentration with similar plots for two ref-
erence compounds was used to establish the charge types of the com-
plexes. Results for the nickel complex are consistent with a formula
[Ni2L2Cl3(H20)2][NiCl4]. Data for the cobalt and zinc complexes do
not fit this formulation and are indicative of a more highly polymeric
structure.
A Counterdiffusion Study of Ferric and Silicate Ions in Agar Media.
Jon D. Naylor and John H. Meiser, Department of Chemistry, Ball
State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. The development of new
techniques for obtaining quantitative data used in the investigation of
the counterdiffusion of ferric and silicate ions in an agar gelatin is pre-
sented. A treatment is given of the equations used for predicting the
location of the band precipitates at given time intervals based on the
supersaturation theory. The authors also presented a brief historical
account of the Liesegang Phenomenon and a review of several
theories providing explanations of this occurence of band precipitates.
Liquid X-Ray Diffraction Studies of the Structures of Aqueous Metal
Nitrate, Acetate, and Perchlorate Solutions Using Overviewing Tech-
niques. Richard M. Lawrence and Jan R. Relford, Department of
Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. -Overviewing
techniques were developed to examine the structures of liquids by x-ray
diffraction. Viewing the entire scattering volume of a sample yields agree-
ment between the forms of the observed and calculated scattering curves
and permits routine calculation of a radial distribution function for the
system. In these studies radial distribution functions were calculated for
almost twenty aqueous solutions of silver, lead, thallium (III), mercury
(I), and cerium (III) nitrates, acetates, and perchlorates. These radial
distribution functions are interpreted in terms of the numbers and dis-
tances of metal-metal and metal-oxygen interactions among closest neigh-
bors. The mercury (I) solutions are the only solutions studied in which
there are significant metal-metal contacts, and the results are consistent
with the presence of Hg22 + . In the other solutions studied the metal
ions appear to be in contact with from four to nine oxygens of water
molecules or oxy anions. The number of metal-oxygen contacts is found
to vary in a consistent manner with the concentration of the solution and
the nature of the cation and the anion. The metal-oxygen distances agree
with the sums of the van der Waals radius of oxygen and the crystal
ionic radii of the metal ions.
Molecular Orbital Calculations on Some Nitrogen Heterocycles. T. L.
Kruger and James W. Kress, Department of Chemistry, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. A CNDO/2-INDO calculation of
the quantum-mechanical properties of diazomethane and some substituted
pyrazoles and 1-pyrazolines was presented. Calculated and experimental
142
Indiana Academy of Science
bond orders, bond lengths, ultraviolet spectra and their relationship to
the physical properties of the compounds were compared. Specific
emphasis was placed on comparison of HMO and CNDO/2-INDO prer
diction for pyrazole and substituted pyrazoles.
An Anticholinesterase Agent and Myasthenia Gravis. Robert M.
Brooker, Department of Chemistry, Indiana Central College, Indianap-
olis, Indiana 46227, and T. Lamar Kerley, Dow Human Health R and D
Laboratories. Large doses of impure para-xylene-bis (pyridinium)
chloride when given to unanesthitized dogs produced a muscle weakness
that progressed to complete paralysis. Small doses of the drug reversed
the paralytic effects of d-tubocurarine. It was found that this latter effect
was caused by an impurity present in the original salt. Attempts were
made to isolate and identify this compound that exhibited this anticholine-
sterase activity.
The Biosynthesis of Steroidal Sapogenins. Paul Andermatt, University
of Basel, Switzerland, and Department of Chemistry, Earlham College,
Richmond, Indiana 47374. The biosynthesis of steroids in human and
animal organisms is known: acetic acid ~>~ mevalonic acid -*" squalene
-> cholesterol, or a similar C27-steroid.
From Digitalis lanata, an European plant, tigogenin(2) was isolated.
After the incorporation of (2-14C) -mevalonic acid(l) the molecule showed
the expected distribution of radioactivity :
HO
CH.
CH2 CH2
HO-CH2 COOH
(1)
The distribution of radioactivity was determined by chemical degradation
of the molecule.
The cyclisation and ring closure are strictly stereospecific. One fifth
of the radioactivity was located at C-27, while C-26 showed no radio-
activity. To explain this stereospecific ring closure, a A24-steroid as
desmosterol or cycloartenol(3) may be a possible precursor of tigogenin.
To clarify this problem, radioactive cycloartenol(S) and cholesterol (4)
were fed to the plants. Whereas cholesterol was incorporated, tigogenin
showed no radioactivity after the application of cycloartenol.
HO
Chemistry 143
These results show, that the biosynthesis of tigogenin involves the
following steps : mevalonic acid -> squalene -> cholesterol -> tigogenin.
Thin-Layer Gel Filtration Studies of Adenosine Deaminases from Beef
and Beef Fetus Livers1. Bruce A Thornburgh and Pang Fai Ma,
Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.
The chromatographic patterns of adenosine deaminase in beef liver
and beef fetus liver showed that the enzyme exists in two forms in these
tissues. The high molecular weight enzyme (Type A) was the predominant
form in the beef liver and the low molecular weight enzyme (Type C) was
the predominant form in the beef fetus liver. The Type-A enzyme was
found to partially dissociate to the Type-C enzyme when it was rechro-
matographed on a Sephadex column.
A rapid method for detecting the presence of the Type-A and Type-
C enzymes was needed to study the dissociation of the Type-A enzyme
under various conditions. This led to the development of a thin layer gel
filtration chromatographic technique which was applicable to adenosine
deaminase. The technique involved the detection of the ammonia that
is given off in the deamination reaction with Nessler's Reagent.
1This study was supported by a Student-Faculty Research Grant from Ball State
University.
A Comparative Study of Adenosine Deaminase in Human Tissues.1
Thomas A. Magers and Pang Fai Ma, Department of Chemistry, Ball
State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. Multiple forms of adenosine
deaminase were first observed and studied in many species of lower
animals by Ma and Fisher. Three relative molecular sizes were observed:
200,000 100,000, 30,000, and designated as enzyme forms A, B, and C,
respectively. Evidence by Ma has shown the smallest multiple form to
be a monomeric unit of the largest.
Akedo, Nishihara, Shinkai, and Komatsu, have since studied similar
multiple forms corresponding to the A and C forms in certain human
tissues. They have reported that while normal human lung tissue con-
tains only the A form adenosine deaminase, cancerous lung tissue
contains both A and C forms.
The present study enlarges the survey of multiple forms in both
normal and cancerous human tissues. Kinetic, physical, and immunological
parameters are presented by way of comparison of the multiple enzyme
forms extracted from various tissues. Thin-layer gel filtration and electro-
phoretic techniques have been applied to the study and characteristic pat-
terns were discussed. Partial purification of the monomeric adenosine
deaminase from the cerebrum has been achieved and pertinent data were
reported.
Supported by the Little Red Door, The Delaware County Cancer Society.
Photochemical Synthesis and Destruction of Oxaziranes. M. L. Druel-
inger and S. R. Lammert, Department of Chemistry, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, Indiana, 47809.— -The irradiation of a series
144 Indiana Academy of Science
of nitrones was studied. The compounds selected for this study possessed
N-aryl or N-t-alkyl groups, while the nitrone carbon was either unsubsti-
tuted (methylene) or carried a single phenyl group. The reactions were
carried out in a nuclear magnetic resonance tube using a medium
pressure mercury arc. In all cases the initially formed product was the
oxazirane whose photochemical stability was dependent upon its substi-
tuents and the irradiation wavelength. Subsequent reaction occurred via
rearrangement to give amides or fragmentation to give nitrenes and
carbonyl compounds. Mechanistic studies indicate a singlet excited state
for the former and a triplet excited state for the later reaction.
NOTE
Some New Approaches to Teaching Chemistry for Non-Science Majors.
Lawrence L. Garber, Department of Chemistry, Indiana University at
South Bend, South Bend, Indiana 46615. If today's college student
is to deal constructively with present and future social and technical prob-
lems, he must have a basic understanding of the fundamentals of science.
The course described here is designed to enable the non-science oriented
student to learn some of the fundamentals of chemistry but in a stimulat-
ing manner. To meet this objective, topics such as environmental pollu-
tion, polymer chemistry, chemical processes important to life, and certain
aspects of drug chemistry are used to exemplify chemical phenomena.
The course meets for 4 hours of lecture-discussion and 2 hours of labora-
tory work per week for 15 weeks.
Part I of the course emphasizes properties of atoms, electronic
structure, periodic trends, oxidation numbers, simple theories of chemical
bonding and the rationale behind why chemical changes take place as they
do. Part I is designed to provide sufficient background for the discus-
sion of subsequent topics. To illustrate why Part I is necessary, consider
the production of sulfur dioxide which is a basic air pollutant. If the
student understands electronic sturcture and periodic trends, the student
can very easily predict that sulfur, when combined with oxygen, can have
an oxidation number of plus four and thus a combustion product of sulfur
will be sulfur dioxide. This type of logic can be applied to many simple,
yet important, reactions that occur in pollution production and abate-
ment.
Part II of the course emphasizes the topic of air and water pollu-
tion which obviously cannot be extremely detailed. Five main classes of
air pollution; sulfur oxides and related compounds, nitrogen oxides and
related compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate
matter, are included in the discussion. The student is exposed to some
of the important chemical reactions that are instrumental in the produc-
tion of air pollutants; chemical reactions that can be potentially harmful
to life and matter; and chemical processes that might render solutions
to the problems. The greenhouse effect is discussed. The factors and condi-
tions necessary for the production of smog are emphasized.
The discussion of smog production and composition provides an excel-
lent mechanism for the introduction of organic chemistry. The topic of
Chemistry 145
air pollution can be used to illustrate acid-base neutralization, chemical
properties of acidic and basic anhydrides, pH, oxidation-reduction, colloids
and colloidal properties. The discussion of water pollution very easily
permits the illustration of such phenomena as ionization, electrolytes,
solubility, hydrogen bonding and concentration units.
Water pollution topics include a discussion of eutrophication by
phosphates and nitrates, the chemical and physical properties and biode-
gradability of detergents, and the essential chemical characteristics of
phosphorous, nitrogen and sulfur cycles. A discussion of water hardness
and the use, characteristics and effects of water softners are easily
incorporated in Part II. The topic of mercury pollution and associated
controversies demonstrates readily the interrelationships of inorganic and
organic chemistry.
Part III emphasizes organic and biochemistry. A discussion of poly-
mers illustrates successfully some additional characteristics of organic
compounds. A discussion of pesticides, polychlorobiphenyls and selected
aspects of drug chemistry are also included. The characteristics and roles
of DNA and RNA in life processes are emphasized as well as the char-
acteristics of fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
The laboratory is designed to supplement the lecture. For 5 weeks
the student investigates air and water pollution. Examples of some of
the determinations are pH, color, temperature, dissolved oxygen, dissolved
carbon dioxide, hardness, detergent content (ABS and LAS) and
concentrations of sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, copper, and chloride
ions in local water systems. Except for temperature, color and pH
measurements, Hach chemical kits, which are specifically designed for
each determination, are used. The advantage of using these chemical
kits, or other commercial chemical kits, is that the reagents are pre-
measured, the glassware is calibrated, and the detection is simple. The
amount of substance present is indicated quanitatively by either a color
change or a color comparison. The detection scheme is calibrated so as
to permit direct determination of concentration without the need for
mathematics. Hence, the result is not masked by mathematical diffi-
culties that the student might have. All results are collected on a data
sheet. The laboratory results help to promote considerable discussion
and illustrate the quality of water in the South Bend area.
In conclusion, by presenting the topics of environment pollution,
aspects of drug and polymer chemistry and some of the essentials of the
chemistry of life processes, important topics and concepts of chemistry
can be discussed and learned by the student but in a more interesting
fashion.
ECOLOGY
Chairman: Carl H. Krekeler, Department of Biology,
Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana 46383
Alton A. Lindsey, Department of Biological Sciences,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907, was elected
Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
A Water Quality Study of the Tippecanoe River. Paul T. McKelvey,
Tippewa Technical Institute (IVTC), Lafayette, Indiana 47905. A
field study of water quality of the Tippecanoe River in north-central
Indiana was conducted during June-September 1971. Surface samples
were collected at 18 sites covering the 168-mile length of the Tippecanoe
River from North Webster to Delphi, Indiana. Quantitative determina-
tions were made for temperature, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity,
ortho-phosphate, nitrate-nitrogen, pH, and total coliform bacteria.
Results indicated a high potential productivity due to more than adequate
quantities of dissolved nutrient material. Total coliform bacteria counts
were typical of small river systems flowing through both rural and urban
areas.
The Howe's Rapid Biochemical Oxygen Demand Index and its Technique.
Robert H. L. Howe, Eli Lilly and Company Tippecanoe Laboratories,
Lafayette, Indiana 47902. The meaning of a rapid biochemical oxygen
demand index and its usefulness was described. The development of a
technique for the determination of this index was presented.
Stimulation of Branch Abscission in Quercus alba by 2-Chloroethyl-
phosphonic Acid. William R. Chaney, Department of Forestry and
Conservation, and A. Carl Leopold, Department of Horticulture, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. Abscission of young branches
of a mature white oak (Quercus alba) was stimulated by 1 per cent and 2
per cent 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid in lanolin applied to the base of the
branches. Treatments were applied 4 times at approximately 2-week
intervals in the fall. The greatest stimulation of branch abscission re-
sulted from treatment on September 11. Thirty-six per cent of control
branches were shed, whereas 80 per cent of branches treated with
2-chloroethylphosponic acid abscised. The current shoot of abscised
branches was significantly shorter than the current shoot of branches
retained on the tree, suggesting that the less vigorous branches were
shed. Branches of juvenile trees of white oak did not abscise
naturally and were not induced to abscise by treatment with
2-chloroethylphosponic acid.
Basin Leakage Considerations in Ecological and Hydrological Studies of
Experimental Watersheds. H. E. McReyonlds, U. S. Forest Service, 633
Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203. In the last two
decades, there has been an increase in the number of ecological or hydro-
logical watershed studies. More often, these experiments have concerned
147
148 Indiana Academy of Science
nutrient cycling, water-yield, and measurements of vegetative manipula-
tions. Basically, these studies have considered the watershed to be a
collecting basin with a single output point.
Too often, these watershed studies have not considered hydrologic
"basin leakage" (i.e., interbasin imports and exports of ground water
flow). This paper explored a number of processes by which interbasin
transfer can occur (non-coincidental topographic and phreatic divides;
interbasin solution tubes; intercepting pre-glacial channels; seasonal
variations in flow direction). It appears that the basic assumptions con-
cerning precipitation input area and piezometric flow patterns are seldom
validated in the experimental design.
NOTE
A New System for Ecological Education — SEE. John W. Hart, Hayes
Research Foundation, Inc., and Jessie M. Turner, Finley School; Rich-
mond, Indiana 47374. Man's activities are shaping his environment;
in turn, the environment he creates surreptitiously molds him. The indus-
trial revolation initiated a speed up in man's ability to modify his
surroundings. The pressures of a steadily increasing number of people,
each demanding more and more goods and services are dictating the
direction of movement of environmental change. That these forces are
carrying us on a tidal wave in the wrong direction is particularly
apparent in the developed nations of the world. We are surrounded on
all sides by activities which degrade our environment — and hence our
lives. Our senses are constantly insulted by noise, visual blight, dirty
water, and stinking air, but man is a sensitive creature, and it is this
very sensitivity which separates him from the other animals. The
problem is not that man will not be able to adapt to this hostile
environment. The problem is that he is doing so already, and in so doing,
he is becoming a less sensitive organism. When man has finally lost his
sensitivity, man has been lost. Nature may add a noble name to the list
of animal failures.
Education is the last hope for creating citizens who are environmental
assets, members of a citizenry atuned to its responsibility to all living
things on Earth.
The system which provides the American education has for the most
part given only lip service to the need for environmental training. An
equally serious indictment of the system is that it Las not recognized the
life-centered approach to learning as an exciting way to escape today's
educational doldrums. A few innovative teachers have found that students
can be turned on by involving them in the study of their surroundings
and the interrelationships therein. Unfortunately the efforts of these
teachers, while not wasted entirely, are greatly diluted by the absence of
any continuity of environmental learning. The one shot environmental/
ecological learning experience may come at any level from kindergarten
thru college, or even in that limited education after college or high school
which we call "continuing".
SEE, the System for Ecological Education, was created to fill the
need for an orderly, planned, life-centered approach to education which
Ecology 149
will encompass the entire educational experience of an individual from
kindergarten throughout life. SEE introduces a systematic way of
developing in each child an understanding of environmental problems,
their causes, solutions, and man's moral reasponsibility to solve them.
It introduces and progressively develops concepts. At each grade level
the student attains a more comprehensive understanding of each com-
ponent of the environment and of the interrelationships among its
physical and biological components.
SEE is envisioned as a unifying framework within which the environ-
mental inputs of all educators may become cumulative. The system, while
designed primarily for use as a K-12 instrument, can be used to develop
college courses for teachers, resource majors, and students of other
disciplines. It is equally adaptable for use in adult education.
OTHER PAPERS READ
Natural Areas and the Indianapolis Parks Department. Glenn Patrick
Juday, Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana 47907.
Response of Eyeless Cave Beetles to Light. Carl H. Krekeler, Neal
Brandt, and Bruce Rutland, Department of Biology, Valparaiso Uni-
versity, Valparaiso, Indiana 46383.
Calibration Techniques for Remote Sensing Measurements of
Water Temperatures1
R. M. Hoffer and L. A. Bartolucci2
Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Remote sensing techniques, involving optical-mechanical scanners mounted in aircraft,
offer great potential for meeting some of the needs for more quantitative information
on our water (and other) resources. One technique used in remote sensing allows the
absolute temperature of water surfaces to be determined from several thousand feet of
altitude to within 0.5 degree Centigrade. Two methods for calibration of thermal infrared
scanner data were described. The accuracy of these techniques was shown. The limitations
of the calibration procedures and use of airborne scanner systems were discussed.
Introduction
One recently-developed remote sensing tool is a "thermal infrared
optical-mechanical scanner" or "thermal IR scanner." This instrument
can be mounted in an aircraft and flown over an area of interest, thereby
allowing one to obtain a temperature map of the area below the aircraft.
Calibration Techniques
To make thermal IR scanner data meaningful, the relative radiance
values (as measured by the scanner) must be related to the true tempera-
ture of the area being sensed, or target area. Two quite different tech-
niques are possible. These are 1) the correlation method, and 2) the
internal calibration techniques.
The correlation method is relatively simple, but does have some
serious drawbacks. Variations in tone on the thermal IR imagery corres-
pond to relative differences in the radiant temperatures of the scene
imaged. Therefore, if the actual temperature of the various objects on
the earth's surface can be determined, it is possible to correlate these
measurements with density values of the imagery to those points on the
ground. To use this technique for water studies, temperature measure-
ments must be obtained for a number of locations on the river or lake at
the time the aircraft passes overhead. Later, these measurement points
are located on the thermal IR imagery and the density of the film at these
points is measured. In this way, correlation is possible between actual
temperature of the water at a few points and the film density at these
same points. Intermediate film density values can then be interpolated.
The major drawbacks to this technique are that, 1) it takes only a
few minutes to obtain the scanner data via airplane, but it may take
1The work described in this paper was supported by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, under Grant #NGR 16-005-112.
2 Associate Professor, Department of Forestry and Conservation, and Graduate
Student, Geosciences Department, respectively.
150
Ecology 151
several hours to obtain surface temperature measurements, during which
time the water temperature may have changed significantly, and 2)
development of the film on which the data are recorded is subject to many
possible variations in chemical processing which can sometimes cause
tonal differences to not have a linear relationship.
For several years, the correlation method was the only technique
available, due to limitations in the thermal IR scanning equipment.
Relatively recent developments in scanning equipment have allowed
researchers to devise an "internal calibration" technique, which, with
two assumptions, allows the actual water temperature to be determined
directly from the scanner data, and no surface observations of tempera-
ture are necessary (other than to verify the reliability of the technique).
One assumption is that the radiation characteristics of water in the
thermal IR region approximate those of a black-body radiator (which
is defined as an object that will completely absorb all frequencies of
radiation incident upon it). Water departs only 2-3% from being a perfect
black-body radiator in these thermal IR wavelengths (1). The second
assumption is that atmospheric attenuation has relatively little effect
on the amplitude of the signal received at the scanner. This assumption
is based on the fact that the 8.0-13.5^m region of the electromagnetic
spectrum is in an atmospheric window (where absorption by the various
components of the atmosphere is minimal), and also that most of the small
amounts of energy absorbed by water vapor or other atmospheric constit-
uents would be reradiated by the water vapor since water acts as a black-
body in this portion of the spectrum, thereby allowing only extremely
small net losses of radiated energy between the water surface and the
aircraft scanner. Previous work has indicated that these assumptions
appear to be reasonable (3).
The data used by LARS in this work was obtained by a multispectral
scanner, owned and operated by the University of Michigan, and mounted
in a C-47 aircraft (4). This scanner has been modified to accommodate
two reference black-bodies which are viewed by the scanning mirror
during each revolution. These reference sources are referred to as calibra-
tion plates, and are temperature controlled, one plate being cooler than
the other, in approximately the same range of temperatures of the earth
surface features over which the aircraft is flying (2).
Methods
The objective of this study was to determine the reliability of the
temperature calibration procedures using data collected over the Wabash
River at two different times of the year, and under somewhat different
weather conditions. On June 30, 1970, data were collected from an alti-
tude of 3,000 feet at 10:45 am, with good clear weather conditions, while
on August 13, the altitude was 2,000 feet, with somewhat hazy weather
conditions and at 3:47 PM.
Using the data logs on the calibration plate temperatures, the data
were calibrated for radiant temperature and gray scale maps were
produced. The different temperature ranges were depicted by different
15;
Indiana Academy of Science
111
%, !ii!
I'i1!,;
S
m
•11
II.,.
Jim:
;tj
Figure 1. An aerial photograph and computer printouts of calibrated thermal IR
scanner data, collected June 30 from 3,000 feet (center) and August 13 from
2,006 feet altitude (bottom). The function of the Tippecanoe River (from top) and
Wabash River (from right) is shown. Note that the June 30 data shows that the water
in the Tippecanoe is cooler than the Wabash, while the opposite is true for the August
13 data. The August data also shows much of the land area at the same apparent
temperature range as the water.
Symbol Key. Temperature in °C.
June 30. (blank): 24.0 or lower, (M) : 24.0-24.9, ( = ): 24.9-25.2, ( — ) : 25.2-25.5, (.):
25.5-26.0, (blank) : 26.0 or higher.
August 13. (blank): 25.4 or lower, (M): 25.4-25.9, ( = ): 25-9-26.2, (— ) : 26.2-26.5,
(blank) : 26.5 or higher.
Ecology W4
computer symbols. Only those temperature ranges that corresponded
to the river were displayed. A blank, or no symbol, was used for all other
temperatures.
Results
The junction of the Tippecanoe River (from left) with the Wabash
river (from top) is illustrated in Figure 1. On June 30, the actual water
temperatures, as measured from the boat, showed very good correlation
with the temperatures indicated by the calibrated scanner data. Note that
the Tippecanoe River was approximately 1.2°C cooler than the Wabash,
and that this temperature difference persisted for a considerable distance
downstream. On August 13, the Tippecanoe was relatively warmer than
the Wabash, but the calibrated scanner data indicates about 0.8°C lower
temperatures than were actually measured. Since the August data were
obtained under hazy conditions, this could be the cause of the calibration
error, and would indicate that additional work is required to obtain a fully
reliable calibration technique.
Note that on the June 30 data only the river areas are shown on the
printouts, indicating that only the water occupied the temperature ranges
indicated, but on August 13, considerable land areas were emitting the
same amounts of energy as the water. This indicates that if one is to
produce temperature maps showing only the water areas, a layered classi-
fication scheme will need to be developed whereby one first identifies all
water areas, and then maps the temperature characteristics of the water
only.
Literature Cited
1. Hood, P., and S. H. Ward. 1969. Airborne geophysical methods. In Advances in
Geophysics, Vol. 13, Academic Press, New York, N.Y. 112 p.
2. Atwell, B. H. 1971. Calibration of thermal channels of the university of
Michigan Scanner. LARS Information Note 022571, Purdue University.
3. Atwell, B. H., R. B. Macdonald, and L. A. Bartolucci. 1971. Thermal
mapping of stream from airborne radiometric scanning. Water Resources Bull.
7:228-242.
4. Lars Staff. 1968. Remote multispectral sensing in agriculture. Annu. Rep., Laboratory
for Agricultural Remote Sensing, Volume 3. Purdue Univ. Agri. Expt. Stat., Res.
Bull. #844, Lafayette, Ind. 175 p.
Natural Areas in the Beech-maple and Maple-basswood
Forest Regions of Nine States
Linda K. Escobar* and Alton A. Lindsey
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Four hundred and eighty-two natural areas of biological or geological interest are
now reported within the Beech — maple and Maple — basswood Regions of the 9 states which
include these forest regions.
In Indiana, 8 forested natural areas and 17 tracts of other types were previously
unpublished. Of the former, the Womer Tract, Bryan Memorial Preserve and Burgdorf
Woods are described briefly.
In 1969-70 the National Park Service commissioned 5 theme-studies
at as many ecological laboratories in the eastern and central United
States, to obtain data from secondary sources for later use in designating
many new National Natural Landmarks. The basis for organizing this
overall survey was the forest region map inside the back cover of Braun
(1950). Our contribution (3, 7) was a study based largely on correspond-
ence, interviews and published sources, of the two forest regions domi-
nated by sugar maple. The Maple-basswood region is confined to parts
of Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, whereas Beech-maple occurs in
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana.
The literature cited consists of 204 titles.
The concept of natural areas and the rationale and techniques of their
description and preservation were presented in references 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8 and 9. W. B. Barnes has written popular descriptions in "Outdoor
Indiana" magazine of most of the 17 areas in the state system of nature
preserves, of which he is the Director.
We acknowledge with thanks the information about "new" Indiana
stands received from William B. Barnes, Mrs. Thomas E. Dustin and
Floyd Swink. Among the multitude who helped provide data for other
states condensed into Table 1 we are especially indebted to Drs. Grant
Cottam, J. Arthur Herrick, Kenneth S. Erdman and William Tans.
Summary for the Two Entire Regions
A table of data giving only one line for each of 482 tracts of land was
prepared, but proved too voluminous for publication. A more generalized
summary, given in Table 1, categorizes areas by the single natural
feature of special interest, usually the one constituting the chief reason
for considering the site worth preserving. Those of the 9 states for which
Table 1 shows few tracts are not deficient in natural areas if the whole
Present address: Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin,
Columbia.
154
Ecology
155
state were considered, but, rather, are states having little acreage of the
two of Braun's vegetational Regions that we studied for this project. The
larger tracts are often state parks, wildlife areas or metropolitan parks,
that possess a great diversity of natural interest in addition to recrea-
tional facilities. These are listed as "large, varied" areas. Since our bias
as ecologists is toward communities, there is much more of geological
interest encompassed in the sites than is reflected by the table. (Prac-
tically all the Beech-maple stands occupy land that has been glaciated,
for example). The line for "Other geology" includes mostly waterfalls.
The tracts considered under "Gorges, bluffs" very often contain relict
hemlock colonies. Caves and archaeological sites were omitted. Even
though several or many natural features were present, a site is listed only
once; therefore, the numbers and totals are significant.
Table 1. Number of natural areas, classed by their chief feature and by state, in
only the portions of the state inside the Beech-maple and M&ple-basswood Regions
of Braun (1). Indiana data, are based on Lindsey, Schmelz and Nichols (6) and the
present study.
Types
Ind.
la.
111.
Wis.
Minn.
Mich.
Ohio
Pa.
N.Y.
Beech-maple
23
—
—
13
—
6
12
2
1
Oak-hickory
16
—
3
5
„_
4
11
__
Mixed Woods
14
—
10
19
2
3
21
—
1
Maple-basswood
-
—
1
15
4
—
—
—
—
Hemlock-hardwoods
—
1
—
10
—
9
1
2
Oak savanna
1
—
—
2
1
3
—
=_
Flood Plain
2
1
2
4
1
4
3
__
_
Swamp Forest
5
—
1
4
—
4
13
2
2
Bog or Fen
6
—
6
9
1
3
14
10
3
Marsh
—
—
—
2
—
1
3
_
1
Varied Wetlands
—
—
1
1
—
3
9
—
1
Lake, pond
4
—
—
1
1
2
12
1
—
Sand dunes
1
—
2
3
_
1
2
„
_
Prairie
10
-
6
9
3
4
—
__
__
Glacial geology
—
—
—
1
—
—
3
—
2
Gorge; bluff
7>
1
1
7
—
,—
13
2
_
Other geology
3
—
_
1
—
__
4
__
—
Large,, varied
2
—
1
3
2
3
9
2
I
Wildlife refuge
—
—
1
1
—
1
4
—
4
Heronry
1
—
—
_
1
—
2
—
1
TOTALS
93
3
35
110
16
39
147
20
19
Nearly all the good natural areas and nature preserves in Indiana
had been described in Lindsey, Schmelz and Nichols (6). Additional Indi-
ana tracts reported to the NPS by the present authors are also
included in Table 1.
156 Indiana Academy of Science
Indiana Areas Previously Unpublished
Further details on "new" Indiana natural areas are given in Table
2 for forests and Table 3 for tracts where the principal feature is not the
tree community, if any.
The largest and most diversified of the new Indiana nature preserves
is that donated to the State System of Nature Preserves in 1970 by Mr.
and Mrs. John Womer of Chicago. It is 4 miles south of Chesterton and
1 mile east of Rt. 49 on Rd. 750 N. It is in two parts lying a quarter-mile
apart on rough land of the Valparaiso moraine. The upland supports a
disturbed oak woods, and, in much of the north 80, early lumbering left
open conditions now showing early successional stages with scattered
small trees and shrubs. About one-third of shallow Carlson Pond lies
within the southern 80. There are also 2 small kettle ponds, and a former
pond nearly as large as Carlson Pond is now a large depression supporting
buttonbush and willows. In the southern part of the south 40, about 10
acres of a mixed forest appear to be essentially undisturbed except for
an o!d woods road.
The Eunice Hamilton Bryan Memorial Nature Preserve is also within
the state system under Director William B. Barnes. It was bequeathed
by the late Henry R. Smith of Rossville, and named in honor of the mother
of Mrs. Smith. The tract was previously known as Smith Woods. The area
is notable for many large old trees and includes several permanent ponds
which, in April, occupy about 6 of the 29 acres. The soils are Crosby and
Brookston. Table 4 gives data on vegetational attributes of the oak-
hickory stand on high ground away from the pond edges, and indicates
that the major dominant, white oak, had more than double the import-
ance value of shagbark hickory. Irrespective of species, the average acre
of the 4 acres (contained within the 0.2 acre sampling strips) showed 101
individual trees over 4 inches diameter at breast height. These trees on
the average acre had 117 feet basal area, which is high for Indiana
forests. In the 4 acres within the sampling strips, species that had one
or more individuals in the 30-inch or larger size class were white oak, red
oak, swamp white oak, beech and bur oak. There were 29 such trees
sampled, including 18 white oaks, ranging up to the 46-inch size class
which had two individuals. The largest red oak was 38 inches and the only
swamp white oak measured 42 inches.
Burgdorf Woods, in the extreme southwest corner of Vanderburgh
County, has only 10 acres of large, old-growth timber, which is surrounded
by woods of lesser quality. It represents the Oak-hickory type, with
stratum ranks as follows for trees exceeding 4 inches dbh — red oak
(including Shumard's) 7, black oak 6, tulip tree 6, white oak 5 and white
ash 5. The species with some stems exceeding 30 inches dbh were Shu-
mard's red oak with 13 such stems, black oak had 10, tulip tree 7, white
oak 5, white ash 3, and sugar maple, sycamore and bitternut hickory
with one each. In all reproduction strata, sugar maple dominated
substantially. Twenty-three species had stems exceeding 22 inches dbh.
Of the 142 larger trees measured in the 10 acres, 95 exceeded 22 inches.
Ecology
157
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158 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 4. Vegetational Attributes1 in the high ground, old growth stand at Bryan Woods,
Clinton County, Indiana.
Species
D2
D3
B2
B3
F3
v3
White oak
13.5
13.3
51.5
44.1
13.6
23.6
Shagbark hickory
13.2
13.0
s.s
7.5
14.1
11.5
White ash
14.5
14.2
7.8
6.6
13.2
11.3
Ironwood
14.0
13.7
2.1
1.8
12.5
9.4
Bassw <!
L2.2
12.0
2.6
2.2
*.:>
7.6
Beech
4.5
4.4
7.5
6.4
4.7
5.2
Sugar maple
5.2
5.1
4.3
3.7
5.5
4.8
Red oak
4.2
4.1
16.9
14.5
5.5
4.7
American elm
5.2
5.1
.*
..74
5.9
3.9
Pignut hickory
4.0
3.9
2.6
2.2
4.0
3.4
Bur oak
1.2
1.2
3.3
2.8
1.31
1.80
Wild cherry
2.0
I, '.IT
.25
.21
2.22
1.17
Walnut
1.5
1.48
i.:u
1.15
i.m;
1.40
Swamp white oak
.2
.25
2.5
2.17
.30
.91
Blue beech
1.0
.98
.13
.11
1.31
.82
Silver maple
1.0
.98
.96
.82
.65
.80
Sycamore
.50
.49
1.00
.86
.65
.67
Red maple
.75
.7 1
.42
.36
.91
.67
Bitternut hickory
.50
.49
.79
.68
.65
.61
Hackberry
.50
.49
.10
.08
.65
.41
Flowering dogwood
.50
.49
.05
.04
.65
.39
Sassafras
.25
.•jr,
..•J 7
.23
,.:;o
.26
Tulip tree
.25
.25
.08
.07
.30
.21
Pin oak
.25
.25
.05
.04
.30
.20
Red elm
.25
.25
.04
.03
.30
.19
TOTALS
D0=101
BB=117
1Based on trees 4 inches or more dbh. Twenty sampling strips (each 400 feet long
and one-fifth acre area) were laid out, totalling 4 acres in area. D2 symbolizes density
per mean acre, D3 is relative density, B2 is basal area per acre, B3 relative basal area,
F3 is relative frequency and V3 importance value.
Literature Cited
1. Braun, E. Lucy. 1950. Deciduous forests of Eastern North America. The Blaki-
ston Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 597 p.
2. Dustin, T. E. 1966. Perspective, p. 582-591. In A. A. Lindsey (ed.) Natural
Features of Indiana. Indiana Acad. Sci., Indianapolis. 600 p.
3. Escobar, Linda K. 1971. Beech-maple and Maple-basswood Regions of the de-
ciduous forest formation. 2 vols. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, Purdue University,
536 p.
4. Lindsey, A. A. 1968. Indiana's new system of scientific areas and nature preserves.
Pi-oc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 77:75-83.
Ecology 159
1969. Nature preserves and recreational areas. Purdue Centennial Sym-
posium, Agronomy Dept, Lafayette, Indiana, p. 34-37.
__, D. V. Schmelz, and S. A. Nichols. 1969. (reprint Ed. '70) Natural
areas in Indiana and their preservation. Araer. Midland Naturalist, Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Ind. 606 p.
7. Lindsey, A. A., and Linda K. Escobar. 1970. Beech-maple and maple-basswood
regions of the deciduous forest formation. Unpublished report to National Park
Service, Washington. 3 Vols. 575 p.
8. Lindsey, A. A., and D. V. Schmelz. 1970. The forest types of Indiana and a
new method of classifying midwestern hardwood forests. Proc. Indiana Acad. Set.
79:620-629.
Importance Per Cent Values of a Browsed Southeastern Indiana Forest1
Christine O. Hopkins and William E. Hopkins
Department of Botany
and
Gary W. Barrett
Department of Zoology
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056
Abstract
White ash (Fraxinus americana) , hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) , red oak
(Quercus rtibra) , yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and beech (Fagus grandifolia)
exhibited importance per cent values of 49.4, 37.4, 28.6, 26.5 and 20.3 respectively, for
a 10-acre forest located on the Brookville Ecology Research Center in southeastern
Indiana. These values represented 54 per cent of the total tree species
sampled within an area which had recently been released from browsing. White ash,
hophornbeam, sugar maple (Acer saccharum) , redbud (Cercis canadensis) and honey
locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) were represented by a high density of seedlings (< 1 inch
Diameter Breast Height), while canopy species of yellow poplar, red oak, beech and
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) were poorly represented in smaller size classes.
Introduction
Systematic sampling of a forest area following removal of cattle
reveals much quantitative information regarding secondary succession.
Cattle prefer tender grasses, forbs and herbs, in addition to shoots and
tree seedlings (6). Effects of browsing also include such physical changes
as compaction of soil, promotion of erosion, damage to root systems, litter
removal, and general degradation of the natural seedbed conditions (6).
Although several recent studies have been concerned with deciduous
forests in this region of the midwest (2, 7, 8, 11), only limited information
is available regarding the effects of browsing on the composition of for-
est communities. Thus far, only the study by Day and DenUyl (3) has
provided specific information on browsing pressures by cattle in Indiana
forests. We attempted to better measure and evaluate the effects of
browsing on the composition of a mature deciduous forest community
located in southeastern Indiana.
Study Area
The study area is located in Union County, south of Liberty, Indiana,
specifically in the NW 1/4, Sec. 22, TUN, R2W on the Fairfield, Indiana,
Quadrangle. The site is included within the Brookville Ecology Research
Center, administered by Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, and Earlham
College, Richmond, Indiana. The actual study area was comprised of 10
acres of forest located on the 140-acre research station leased in 1969 from
the Army Corps of Engineers. The remaining 130 acres had been used
annually for agricultural crops (e.g., corn, soybeans, etc.) until the spring
Contribution No. 2 from the Brookville Ecology Research Center, Miami Univei'sity,
Oxford, Ohio 45056.
160
Ecology 161
of 1970. The total area had since been left undisturbed to proceed through
secondary succession. The 10-acre forest area had been periodically grazed
by a herd of cattle for at least the past 8-10 years. This herd ranged in
size from 6-15 cattle and was permitted to graze this area periodically
during the spring and summer months out of each year. Cattle were
permanently removed from the study site approximately 3 months before
sampling was initiated.
The forest is located on a gradual-moderate slope with a total relief
of 140 feet from the highest to lowest points and lies just north of the
Wisconsin glacial boundary. The physiography is defined as Dearborn
Upland, a dissected plateau north and west of the Ohio River with
streams in deeply incised valleys (12). Soils for this area have been
reported by Alfred, Ulrich and Zachary (1). Climatic conditions for this
area have also been previously described by Schaal (10).
Methods and Materials
The nested quadrat method was used for sampling the vegetation
(9). This method provides adequate sampling within a community of vary-
ing plant sizes. Ten nested quadrats, each 66 feet by 66 feet (0.1 acre
each), were placed randomly within the 10-acre forest area. Thus, 10 per
cent of the total forest area was sampled. Each 0.1-acre quadrat
contained one 6.6 feet by 66.0 feet plot (0.01 acre) and two 6.6 feet by
6.6 feet square plots (0.001 acre or 1 milacre).
During October, 1970, all trees greater than 3 inches in diameter
breast height (dbh) were tallied in the 0.1-acre plots. All saplings over
12 inches in height and less than 3 inches dbh were tallied in the
0.01-acre plot and all seedlings less than 12 inches in height were tallied
in each milacre plot. The number of trees per acre, relative density,
frequency of occurrence, relative frequency, total basal area, relative
cover, and importance per cent values were computed (9). Frequency
distribution of all species was computed by size classes. Diameter
measurements of all trees were rounded to the nearest inch. Basal area
for each species was calculated using a conversion table (9).
Results and Discussion
White ash (Fraximus americana) , hop hornbeam (Ostrya virgini-
ana), red oak (Quercus rubra), yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera) ,
and beech (Fagus grandifolia) were clearly dominant, having impor-
tance per cent values of 49.4, 37.4, 28.6, 26.5, and 20.3, respectively.
These species constituted 54% of all tree species sampled. (Table 1). Hop
hornbeam, usually a mid-canopy species in white ash-yellow poplar-red
oak associations (5) was the most frequently encountered species. White
ash, red oak, yellow poplar, and beech, the major canopy species, had
relative cover values of 20.7, 18.9, 13.6, and 12.8%, respectively, repre-
senting approximately 66% of the total cover (see Table 1).
The above-mentioned dominant trees (i.e., white ash, hop hornbeam,
red oak, yellow poplar, and beech) exhibited maximum dbh measure-
ments of 18, 9, 34, 31, and 23 inches, respectively. Other large trees in-
162
Indiana Academy of Science
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Ecology 163
eluded black cherry (Prunus serotina) , sugar maple (Acer saccharum),
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), shagbark hickory (Gary a ovata) , and
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) , with maximum dbh measure-
ments of 18, 17, 16, 15, and 12, respectively. Such major canopy species
as red oak, beech, bitternut hickory, yellow poplar, and black cherry were
not well represented in the small size classes (< 5.0 inches dbh), nor in
the seedling class. The paucity of reproduction of the major canopy species
may be due to the influence of livestock. Species dominating the mid-
canopy were redbud (Cercis canadensis), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra),
sugar maple, hawthorn (Crataegus crux-gallii) , paw-paw (Asimina tri-
loba) and wafer ash (Ptelea trifoliata) .
Seedlings present were mainly white ash (78,500/A), hop hornbeam
(54,000/A), redbud (9,500/A), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)
(8,500/a) and sugar maple (6,000/A). Slippery elm and blue ash
(Fraxinus quadrangulata) exhibited a seedling density of 1,500/A each.
Five taxa with 500/A seedlings each were sassafras, blue beech (Carpinus
caroliniana) , osage orange (Madura pomifera) , chinkapin oak (Quercus
muehlenbergii) , and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) .
In an earlier study concerned with browsed Indiana forests Day and
DenUyl (3) reported that seedlings of white ash, sugar maple, and
slippery elm were selected by cattle under all browsing intensities,
whereas, under light to moderate browsing (i.e., 10 or more acres per
cow), red oak, beech, sassafras, bitternut hickory, sycamore, honey locust,
and black cherry were selected. They also reported that seedlings utilized
under heavy to very heavy browsing conditions (i.e., less than 4 acres
per cow) included shagbark hickory, hawthorn, blue beech, hophornbeam
and paw-paw. Comparing the results of Day and DenUyl (3) to those of
this study, it would appear that this forest had been under moderate
browsing stress due to the paucity of red oak, beech, bitternut hickory,
and black cherry seedlings.
DenUyl, Dillen and Day (4) reported that white ash, slippery elm,
and sugar maple were found to be prolific seed producers. This, perhaps,
helps to explain much of the data in the present study, in which white
ash, slippery elm, and sugar maple were represented by 27, 9, and 6 mature
trees per acre, respectively, as well as each exhibiting an abundance of
small seedlings.
In summary, the disturbance (browsing) of this forest community
was clearly reflected by an absence of reproduction (seedlings) of over
50% of the dominant canopy species. It appears that certain dominant
species based on importance per cent values (e.g., red oak, yellow poplar,
and beech) were adversely affected by browsing. It also appears that
white ash and hop hornbeam are able to maintain their dominance even
under moderate browsing stress. The reason for this browsing selection
factor awaits further investigation.
164 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Alfred, S. D., H. P. Ulrich, and A. L. Zachary. 1960. Soil Survey of
Fayette and Union Counties, Indiana. USDA Series 1952, No. 8. 91 p.
2. Ashby, W. C, and G. T. Weaver. 1970. Forest regeneration on two old fields in
southwestern Illinois. Amer. Midland Natur. 84:90-104.
3. Day, R. K., and D. DenUyl. 1932. The natural regeneration of farm woods
following the exclusion of livestock. Indiana Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 368. 48 p.
4. DenUyl, D., O. D. Dillen, and R. K. Day. 1938. The development of natural
reproduction in previously grazed farm woods. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull.
431 p.
5. Fowells, H. A. (ed.). 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Agric.
Handbook 271. USDA. 762 p.
6. Hawley, R. C. 1929. The practice of silviculture. 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. 335 p.
7. Lindsey, A. A., and D. V. Schmelz. 1970. The forest types of Indiana and a new
method of classifying midwestern hardwood forests. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 79:198-
204.
8. Loucks, O. L. 1970. Evolution of diversity, efficiency, and community stability. Amer.
Zool. 10:17-25.
9. Phillips, E. A. 1959. Methods of vegetation study. Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
New York. 107 p.
10. Schaal, L. A. 1966. Climate, p. 156-170. In A. A. Lindsey (ed.) Natural features of
Indiana, Indiana Sesquicentennial Volume. Indiana Acad. Sci., Indianapolis. 600 p.
11. Schmelz, D. V., and A. A. Lindsey. 1970. Relationships among the forest types of
Indiana. Ecology 51:620-629.
12. Schneider, A. F. 1966. Physiography, p. 40-56. In A. A. Lindsey (ed.) Natural
features of Indiana, Indiana Sesquicentennial Volume. Indiana Acad. Sci., Indian-
apolis. 600 p.
Contents of Southern Indiana Wild Turkey Droppings
Ralph D. Kirkpatrick, Marsha R. Roy1, Gerald A. Wise2,
and Leland L. Hardman,
Department of Biology,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Food item volume percentages were determined of the contents of 207 adult and 84
juvenile wild turkey droppings collected over 4 seasons.
Material found in order of decreasing volume percentages was Gramineae seeds; soil
and organic debris (including grit); unidentified plant material (leaves and stems); insect
parts; various seeds of Quercus sp., Cornus sp. and Smilax sp.
The Gramineae constitutes a large portion of the diet over all seasons with the large
seeds from small woody species being important only in the fall and winter.
Insects probably are not a large part of the diet of either adult or juvenile wild
turkeys.
Introduction
The eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot) dis-
appeared from northern Indiana by 1870 and from southern Indiana by
1900 (2, 4, 7). The regrowth of forests and the increased protection due
to hunting laws and management programs has allowed the successful
re-establishment of this species in Indiana. In 1956, wild turkeys from
Arkansas were released on the Crane Naval Ammunition Depot in Martin
County and later releases of wild turkeys from Missouri were made in
other parts of southern Indiana between 1962 and 1966. Wild turkey
populations are now established at Brown County State Park, Clark State
Forest (Clark, Scott and Washington Counties), Harrison County Turkey
Management Area in the Harrison-Crawford State Forest, Lost River
Area of Hoosier National Forest (Martin and Orange Counties), Mogan
Ridge Turkey Management Area of the Hoosier National Forest (Perry
County), Owen-Putnam State Forest (Owen and Putnam Counties), and
Pike State Forest (Pike County).
Indiana wild turkey management programs may extend the present
range. Markley (8) and Webb (11) have noted that the shortage of food
may be a factor limiting wild turkey populations. Food habits of the
re-introduced wild turkey in Indiana have not been studied. These data
may be used by game biologists in future management programs.
This study concerned the food habits of the wild turkey in southern
Indiana. Dropping analysis was used to determine the food habits because
an adequate sample of crop and gizzard contents was unavailable for
analysis due to the low populations and minimal hunting take.
Present address: 178 Washington St., Winthrop, Mass. 02152
-Game Research Biologist. Indiana Depai'tment of Natui'al Resources, Indianapolis.
165
166
Indiana Academy of Science
Methods and Materials
Wild turkey droppings were collected by Indiana game biologists in
unglaciated portions of Clark, Harrison, Perry, and Monroe Counties.
Sex and age of the wild turkeys producing the droppings were determined
according to dropping size and shape (1, 6). Contents of droppings were
separated and identified following procedures outlined by Korschgen (5)
and Eaton, Moore, and Saylor (3). All remains from a given season and
age class were pooled to obtain total volume. Food item volume percent-
ages were then based on the total sample volume (6, 9).
Results
A total of 291 wild turkey droppings (collected between January 1968
and January 1971) was examined in this study. Food item volume per-
centages of the dropping contents are listed by season for adults in Table
1 and for juveniles in Table 2.
Plant seeds from the Family Gramineae constitute a major portion
of the diet throughout the year for both juvenile and adult birds. Plant
Table 1. Food items in 207 droppings of adult wild turkeys listed by seasonal volume
percentages and dates collected.
Volume Percentages
Food Items
Spring
(Mar.-May)
n = 28
Summer
( June-Aug. )
n = 6
Fall
(Sept.-Nov.)
n = 64
Winter
(Dec. -Feb.)
n = 109
Soil & Debris
12.3
—
46.0
48.2
Gramineae (several genera)
50.0
83.5
59.5
3.1
Undetermined Plants
parts
33.3
13.9
1.7
1.7
Insect Parts
1.0
0.4
0.3
0.6
Grit
1.5
1.6
12.3
5.8
Quercus sp.
0.3
0.01
0.7
13.0
Cornus sp.
0.9
0.3
0.7
11.9
Pinus sp.
0.01
0.01
—
0.3
Fraxinus sp.
—
—
—
0.01
Cercis canadensis
—
—
0.01
—
Rosa sp.
—
—
—
0.01
Smilax sp.
0.8
0.1
14.9
13.0
Rhus radicans
O.S
—
0.9
1.1
Misc. materials each
less than 0.01 per
cent volume
0.11
0.42
0.23
1.2*
^Cyperus sp., Labiatae.
"Lonicera sp., Car ex sp.
^Physalis sp., Solanum sp., Raminctdus sp., Loniccra sp., Sida sp., reptile
and bird feathers.
iVitis sp., Lespedeza sp., Lonicera sp., Rumex sp., Sida sp., reptile scales,
feathers and mammal hair.
scales
bird
Ecology
167
material of undetermined origin was second in volume percentage over
all seasons for both age classes, with soil and organic debris present in
large quantities as well. This organic material is probably partially
digested plant seeds, undigested cellulose and insect exoskeletons.
Table 2. Food items in
droppings of juvenile wild turkey listed by seasonal volume
percentages and dates collected.
Volume Percentages
Food Items
Spring
( Mar.-May )
n = 3
Summer
(June- Aug. )
n = l
Fall
(Sept.-Nov.)
n=39
Winter
(Dec-Feb.)
n=41
Soil & Debris
—
—
50.8
25.9
Gramineae (several genera)
91.5
93.5
3.7
10.7
Undetermined Plant parts
4.2
0.01
8.9
1H.6
Insect Parts
2.7
0.01
0.6
2.1
Grit
1.7
—
3.3
3.0
Quercus sp.
_
—
0.5
4.7
Cornus sp.
—
—
8.8
1.3
Pinus sp.
—
—
—
0.3
Fraxinus sp.
—
8.4
—
—
Smilax sp.
0.1
—
19.9
8.0
Rhus radicans
—
_
2.9
6.2
Lonicera sp.
_
—
1.1
—
Lespedeza sp.
—
—
0.1
0.3
Misc. materials each
less than 0.01 per
cent volume
—
—
0.041
0.042
Wesmodium sp., reptile scales.
2Desmodium sp., beetle feeces, and reptile scales.
Seeds from Cornus sp., Quercus sp. and Smilax sp. are most
abundant in the droppings collected during the fall and winter, and
appear to constitute a large part of the diet during those months.
Insects are not a significant part of the annual diet of adult Indiana
wild turkeys, but appear to be slightly more important to juvenile birds.
Schorger (10) reports that insects form the most important food of young
wild turkeys, but this study indicated that few insects are ingested by
juveniles.
Literature Cited
1. Bailey, R. W. 1956. Sex determination of adult wild turkeys by means of dropping
configuration. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:220.
2. Butler, Amos W. 1898. The birds of Indiana, p. 515-1197 In W. S. Blatchley.
Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources Twenty-Second Annual Report,
1897. Indianapolis, Ind. 1, 197 p.
168 Indiana Academy of Science
3. Eaton, S. W., T. L. Moore, and E. N. Saylor. 1970. A ten year study of the food
habits of a northern population of wild turkeys. Sci. Stud. 26:43-64.
4. Holbrook, H. L., and J. C. Lewis. 1967. Management of the eastern turkey in the
southern Appalachian and Cumberland Plateau region, p. 343-370. In O. H. Hewitt
(ed.) The wild turkey and its management. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C.
589 p.
5. Korschgen, L. J. 1962. Food habits of greater prairie chickens in Missouri. Amer.
Midland Natu. 68:307-318.
6. . 1969. Procedures for food-habits analysis, p. 135-174. In R. H. Giles
(ed. ) Wildlife management techniques (Revised ed.). Edward Brothers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Mich. 623 p.
7. Leopold, A. 1931. Game survey of the north central states. Democrat Printing Com-
pany, Madison, Wis. 299 p.
8. Markley, M. H. 1967. Limiting factors, p. 199-244. In O. H. Hewitt (ed.) The wild
turkey and its management. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C. 589 p.
9. Martin, A. C, R. H. Gensch, and C. P. Brown. 1946. Alternative methods in upland
game bird food analysis. J. Wildl. Manage. 10:8-12.
10. Schroger, A. W. 1966. The wild turkey. Univ. Okla. Press, Norman. 625 p.
11. Webb, L. C. 1941. Acorns a favorite food of wild turkey in winter. Ala. Conserv.
13:5, 14-15.
ENGINEERING
Chairman: Robert L. Swaim, Department of Aeronautieal-
Astronautical Engineering,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Robert L. Swaim, Purdue University, was re-elected
Chairman for 1972
ENTOMOLOGY
Chairman: Robert E. Dolphin, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Entomology Research Division, Vincennes, Indiana 47591
Claude F. Wade, Department of Natural Resources,
113 State Office Building*, Indianapolis, Indiana 46203
was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
Insects and Other Arthropods of Economic Importance in Indiana
During 1971. R. W. Meyer and J. V. Osmun, Department of
Entomology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. -The
abundance and activity of insects and other arthropods that were im-
portant to growers of foods, fibers, or animal products, or were
destructive of stored products, or were annoying to man in the state
of Indiana during 1971 were reviewed, together with notes on
non-economic arthropods that were of interest.
Survival of Odonata Naiads Through Drought and Freezing. B. Elwood
Montgomery, Department of Biology, Frostburg State College,
Frostburg, Maryland. Living Odonata naiads were found in a "dry"
pond in late October (October 28, 1968). They were in damp situations
— masses of fine roots or accumulations of debris on the exposed bottom
surface. The natural environment was restored within a few days of
the initial observations by fall rains.
During the following winter an examination of the pond
revealed that all water was frozen, but the bottom surface immediately
beneath the ice was not.
No naiads could be recovered from the pond following the fall rains
which resulted in extensive marshy margins so that the central area
of the pond could not be approached. Sampling was difficult in the
spring for the same reason. However, naiads of Zygoptera (none of
which had been found the previous fall), Aeshnidae and Libellulidae
were collected. These were of such age that development from the egg
during the spring appeared extremely improbable. Thus, the naiads must
have survived the elimination of all water from their habitat twice —
once through drought and, then, by freezing.
Myiasis in Delaware County, Indiana, 1971, with a Confirmed Case of
Infestation by Wohlfahrtia vigil (Walker) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae).
R. E. Siverly, Department of Physiology and Health Science, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. Two fly larvae were removed
from the leg of a rabbit on July 25. One of these larvae was reared to
the adult stage. The pupal period required 12 days. The adult was
identified by the U. S. National Museum as Wohlfahrtia vigil (Walker).
Wohlfahrtia is known as a specific myiasis producer, and the larvae
are reported to invade unbroken skin in children, as well as in young
animals. Death has occurred in animals as a result of secondary
171
172 Indiana Academy of Science
bacterial infection. This species evidently has extended its range into
Indiana from the north.
Another case of dermal myiasis occurred in a very old and feeble
dog. Larvae of Phaenicia sericata (Mg.) and Phormia regina (Mg.)
were recovered from the frontal head region on August 26.
Identification of these flies was confirmed in the adult stage.
It is doubtful if primary screwworm occurs in this area; however,
a survey is planned in 1972 which will solicit the cooperation of
veterinarians in Indiana for early reporting of all myiasis cases, so
that accurate species determinations can be made, and follow-up studies
conducted at sites where actual infestations occur.
Preliminary Investigation of the Effects of Three Hormonomimetic
Compounds on Larvae of Culex pipiens pipiens (L.) (Northern House
Mosquito). Steve Betras and R. E. Siverly, Department of
Physiology and Health Science, Ball State University, Muncie,
Indiana 47306. The effects and lethal dosages of three hor-
monomimetic agents were investigated during the summer of 1971. Tests
with Stauffer (R-20458), Monsanto (Mon-0585), and Zoecon (ZR-0515)
were conducted, using late instar larvae of Culex pipiens pipiens ob-
tained from waste lagoons in Delaware and Henry Counties. All three
compounds were juvenile type hormones.
Larvae were exposed to the chemicals by dissolving the compounds
in acetone and mixing these solutions with lagoon water in which larvae
were collected. Each sample consisted of 20 larvae in 100 milliliters of
filtered lagoon water. Control samples were set up with filtered
lagoon water alone. From three to five levels of concentrations were
used on each trial, with from three to five replicates for each level of
concentration.
Effective dosages were much higher than the manufacturer's recom-
mendations for each compound. This was believed due to rapid
biodegradation of the chemicals in lagoon water.
R-20458 and Mon-0585 produced a total kill during a 48-hour
exposure at 40 and 30.5 parts per million, respectively. ZR-0515
produced complete kill at 15.5 parts per million with a 24-hour exposure.
Most of the tests were difficult to evaluate because of the high
mortality in the controls. The Zoecon product appeared more active,
but less stable than either the Stauffer or Monsanto compounds. Further
laboratory investigations should be conducted before actual field testing
of these compounds is attempted.
A Preliminary Study of Autogeny and Host Preference of Culex pipiens
pipiens L. (Northern House Mosquito) in East-Central Indiana. Donald
A. Shroyer and R. E. Siverly, Department of Physiology and
Health Science, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.
Several colonies of Culex pipiens pipiens L. were established from
immature stages collected at two food processing waste lagoons to
evaluate the effects of photoperiod on the expression of autogeny and
on host preference.
Entomology 173
Three cages were maintained under a 15L 9D photoperiod, at 80°
Fahrenheit ± 2°. One cage was provided no blood host and produced no
egg rafts after several weeks. All dissected females from this cage were
nongravid.
A second cage was provided only avian hosts, while a third was
offered mammals. Although Culex pipiens pipiens is regarded as pri-
marily an avian feeder, samples from both cages contained
equivalent proportions of engorged females. However, females fed on
birds produced more eggs than those fed on mammals.
Two colonies were maintained under a 13L 11D photoperiod. One
cage was provided a bird host and the other a mammal. There was no
evidence to support the shorter day length as conducive to mammal
feeding, since samples from both cages contained equivalent proportions
of engorged females.
Further studies to clarify the effects of photoperiod on host
preference and autogeny will be conducted by: 1) observations of lab-
oratory colonies under simulated natural light conditions but constant
temperatures, 2) observations of laboratory colonies under simulated
hibernating conditions, and 3) studies of natural overwintering popula-
tions in the field.
Genetic Studies on Melanic Forms of Tropisternus collaris (Fabricius)
from North and South America. Frank N. Young, Department of
Zoology, Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. Laboratory studies
of the results of crossing melanic Tropisternus collaris from South
America with the melanic subspecies from Florida and South Carolina
indicate higher levels of interfertility than shown in crosses with the
lightly pigmented North American forms. Rearing of larvae from wild
caught females from South Carolina show that interbreedings of light
and melanic forms occur in nature. Further evidence for the discreteness
of the genes producing the melanic condition was presented.
The Planipennia (Neuroptera) in Indiana. H. Randolph Lawson,
Department of Entomology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana
47907. — — Representatives of nine families (Coniopterygidae, Mantis-
pidae, Berothidae, Hemerobiidae, Polysteochotidae, Sisyridae, Chry-
sopidae, Ascalaphidae, and Myrmeleontidae) were recorded in this study.
Representatives of the eighteen species previously recorded in litera-
ture as occurring in Indiana were collected during the summer of
1969. Twenty species were reported as being new records from
Indiana. Due to inadequate taxonomic work on the species of the
family Coniopterygidae, specimens of this family were identified only
to genus. Five genera of coniopterygids were recorded.
The possible occurrence of 17 more species which have been re-
corded from adjacent areas is reported. Included in these possible
species is Nallochius americanus (McLachlan) which represents a
10th family, Dilaridae. Therefore, a total of 55 species is included in
the keys constructed for adult identification.
174 Indiana Academy of Science
Important range extensions include Micromus variolosus Hagen,
a western species of Hemerobiidae, and Brachynemurus longicaudus
(Burmeister), an eastern, south-eastern coastal species of Myrmeleon-
tidae.
The only recorded species of the family Polysteochotidae in the
eastern U. S., Polysteochotes punctatus (Fabricius), appears to have
had a drastic population decline since the early 1900's. Although
collected quite often in the Chicago area around the turn of the
century, no specimens have been seen that were collected after 1940.
OTHER PAPER READ
Fruit Insect Research Programs of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
M. L. Cleveland, USDA, ARA, Beltsville, Maryland (by invitation).
Indiana State Records and Notes on Some Rare
Butterflies and Skippers in the State
Ernest M. Shull
402 N. Wayne Street
North Manchester, Indiana
Abstract
As the result of collecting butterflies in the state from 1964 to 1971, six species,
Thymelicus lineola (Ochsenheimer) , Polites mystic (Scudder), Autochton cellus
(Boisduval & LeConte), Erynnis baptisiae (Forbes), Euristrymon Ontario (Edwards),
and Polygonia satyrus (Edwards), have been added to the butterfly fauna of Indiana.
In addition to the new state records, the following rare species were collected: Euphyes
dukesi (Lindsey), Satyrium caryaevorus (McDunnough) , and Pieris napi oleracea.
Family Hesperiidae
Thymelicus lineola (Ochsenheimer) European Skipper
I collected one male June 22 and one female July 1, 1967, in a grassy
pasture, North Manchester, Wabash County. In recent years I have
collected lineola in LaGrange, Elkhart, Kosciusko, and Wabash
Counties (3). Pairs in copula have been taken in June, suggesting that
this species has become well established in Indiana.
Polites mystic (Scudder) Long Dash
I collected the first Polites mystic in the state on June 6, 1969,
Mongo Bog, Mongo, LaGrange County, only seven miles from the
Michigan border (6). It is now fairly common in Wabash and
Kosciusko Counties. June 10, 1970, I found a colony of this species in
a bog by Lake Waubee, Milford, where Iris versicolor was its favorite
food flower.
Autochton cellus (Boisduval & LeConte)— — Golden Banded Skipper
Single specimen was collected by my son, James D. Shull, June 7,
1970, in Brown County State Park, near Nashville, Indiana (7).
Erynnis baptisiae (Forbes) — Wild Indigo Dusky Wing
August 27, 1970, I collected a female near its food plant
(Baptisia tinctoria) in a field near North Manchester but in
Kosciusko County (7).
Euphyes dukesi (Lindsey) Dukes' Skipper
Mr. Homer F. Price, Payne, Ohio, collected one male July 24, 1962,
in Steuben County (2). I collected one more June 27, 1970, North
Manchester, Wabash County (7).
Family Lycaenidae
Satyrium caryaevorius (McDunnough) Hickory Hairstreak
I collected a pair June 22, 1968, on a hickory tree leaf in
Kosciusko County (5). Caryaevorus is uncommon in Wabash and
Kosciusko Counties in June and July.
175
176 Indiana Academy of Science
Euristrymon Ontario (Edwards) Northern Hairstreak
Collected the first specimen July 12, 1967, on dogbane flowers,
North Manchester, Wabash County (4). Each year a few have been
collected in Wabash County from late June to about mid-July.
Family Nymphalidae
Polygonia satyrus (Edwards) — — Satyr Angle Wing
June 25, 1969, I collected this essentially western species in
Kosciusko County, Indiana (6). It is uncommon, rare, or absent from
late May through July in Wabash and Kosciusko Counties.
Family Pieridae
Pieris napi oleracea Harris — Mustard White
Blatchley (1891) reported this species from Kosciusko County, in
the summer of 1890 (1). Old records are unreliable as napi was often
confused with virginiensis.
July 12, 1971, John Campbell, a high school student in my collecting
party, collected one in Mongo, LaGrange County. On August 24 John
Campbell and I returned to Mongo, where we collected 23 more napi.
It should be looked for elsewhere in the state.
No doubt other rare Indiana species could be added to this report,
but Mr. S. Sidney Badger, Jr., of Woodland Hills, California, and I have
just completed a comprehensive annotated list of the butterflies of
Indiana, 1971, therefore I have limited this paper primarily to a listing
of my own state records.
Literature Cited
1. Blatchley, W. S., 1891. A catalogue of butterflies known to occur in Indiana.
Ann. Rept. Indiana State Geol. 12:356-408.
2. Price, Homer F., and Ernest M. Shull. 1969. Uncommon butterflies of North-
eastern Indiana. J. Lepid Soc. 23:186-188.
3. Shull, Ernest M., 1968. Thymelicus lineola (Hesperiidae) in Indiana. J. Lepid.
Soc. 22:20.
4. Annual Summary of Lepidoptera 1967. News Lepid. Soc. 3:13.
5. Annual Summary of Lepidoptera 1968. News Lepid. Soc. 3:14.
6. North American Annual Summary for 1969. News Lepid. Soc. 5:9.
7. Annual Field Season Summary for 1970. News Lepid. Soc. 3:3.
Aggregations of Chalybion calif ornicum (Saussure) (Hymenoptera :
Sphecidae) near Centerville, Wayne County, Indiana
Gertrude L. Ward
Joseph Moore Museum
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374
Abstract
Observations over a 5-year period of aggregations of Chalybion californicum
(Saussure) near Centerville, Indiana, indicate a preference by this wasp for a western
exposure on wooden buildings. The wasps were found at the nighttime roost sites, in
varying numbers from about June 1 to September 30. A peak in numbers was reached
between June 14 and June 28, with a second, but much lower peak coming from 6 to
22 days later. The highest number counted was 260 on June 26, 1971.
Introduction
Clusters of animals are of interest to biologists for several reasons.
Sleeping aggregations permit easy population censusing. Aggregation
is of interest as a precursor of social development, of particular sig-
nificance when occurring in an otherwise solitary species. Finally, there
is little understanding of the stimuli which initiate grouping and which
hold groups together.
Aggregations of the blue wasp, Chalybion californicum (Saussure),
were observed over the 5-year period from 1967 through 1971 near
Centerville, Wayne County, Indiana. Observations extended from June
1 to October 1.
Over the years, several explanations have been offered for clusters
of animals. In 1916, Fabre (5) thought that the cluster of several
hundred wasps, Podalonia hirsuta (Scopoli), which he found sheltering
under a stone might be resting migrants. After studying the sleeping
habits of a Florida butterfly, Heliconius charitonius L. (=//. chari-
thonia L.), Jones (7) argued the pros and cons of group protection.
He observed that when one insect was disturbed the whole group was
warned, but also found that a predator could gorge on the collected
insects if they were unwary or slow to move. He saw no sexual
significance in grouping. Evans and Linsley (4), observing bees and
wasps of several species, found no clear adaptive value in sleeping
aggregations. However, in clusters of the digger wasp, Steniolia
obliqua (Cresson), which Evans and Gillaspy (3) observed for 5 years,
mating behavior was evident. Evans believed that the clustering served
a social function leading to mating.
Allee's (1) interest in aggregations is well known. After referring
to some accidental animal groupings such as New England corals and
the animals on a wharf piling he said, "Other close aggregations occur
as a result of the less spectacular trial and error reactions, in which
the animals wander here and there, more or less vaguely stimulated
by internal physiological states or external conditions, and so come to
collect in favorable locations." The effect of one external condition,
177
178 Indiana Academy of Science
temperature, on the choice of an aggregation site was described by El
Rayah (2) for 2 tenebrionid beetles, Adesmia antiqua Klug and
Pimelia grandis Fabricius. He found that A. antiqua aggregated in a
zone of 34-38 °C and P. grandis gathered in a zone of 28-34° C.
Chalybion zimmermanni Dahlbom which P. Rau (10) saw in Mexico may
have been responding to temperature. Rau found about 20 of these blue
wasps clustered on a piece of rope in a shed where a 75-watt
incandescent lamp burned until midnight.
Hamilton et al. (6), after studying an aggregation of starlings
(Sturnus vulgaris L.), devised a model of a refuge with a core at the
center representing the nighttime roost, and two dispersal areas around
it. They believed that the expenditure of time and energy required to
fly from the core to the outer range was balanced by the lack of
competition in that area. Applying this model to C. californicum, the
nighttime roost is the core, the nest area lies in the inner dispersal area,
and the feeding area is the outermost range.
An aggregation pheromone was isolated from the southern pine
beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann, by Payne (8). He found
that the chemical was emitted in the frass by female beetles and was
attractive to both males and females of the same species.
Variations in the numbers of Chalybion californicum at nighttime
roosts were reported by Rau and Rau (11) and by P. Rau (9) from
Missouri and Kansas. For example, 30 wasps were found on the under-
side of an overhanging rock near the Meramec River in the vicinity of
St. Louis, and 100 or more wasps were found in an open cow shed in
the middle of July at Lake View, Kansas (11). Near Wickes, Missouri, a
group of more than a thousand were in the eaves of an abandoned
house. Another group slept in a niche of a pillar and a third group
entered a hollow tile on top of a brick chimney (9).
In New Jersey, Weiss (12) found a group of C. californicum
clustered at night on the same inside corner of a cloth awning for 5
summers. These were on the southwest side of a dwelling (personal
communication). Leland Chandler (personal communication) reported
that a group of C. californicum roosted on the west-facing side of a shed
near Otterbein, Indiana.
It seems possible that the initial choice of a roost or refuge by C.
californicum may be based on temperature. The continued use of a roost
then may be reinforced by a pheromone or some other odor-producing
material.
Results of Observations
The wasps started gathering at the main roost site in east-central
Indiana about June 1 and several could be found there until the middle
of September. Roosting began about 2 hours before sunset, and the last
wasps had settled by about an hour after sunset. During the period of
settling they would fly off if an observer approached within 3 feet.
Counts were made after dark when the wasps were not disturbed by
Entomology
179
the beam of a flashlight. In the morning the wasps were often still in
place until 2 or 3 hours after sunrise. They were active earlier on warm,
sunny days than on cool, cloudy days.
At one favorite roost site, an old privy, a Fahrenheit ther-
mometer was fastened close to where the wasps spent the night.
Temperature was recorded each time a count was made. When tempera-
ture at the roost site was compared with that on the north side of a
nearby building, the roost site was warmer by 4°F.
Over the 5-year period several roost sites were used. The main site
favored by most of the wasps changed from the west side of the privy
to the west side of a tool shed (Fig. 1). The tool shed was about 7 feet
east of the privy and the roost site under the eaves was about 4 feet
higher than the former site. Sunlight reached the new site for several
minutes longer each day.
Figure 1. Aggregation of Chalybion calif ornicum (Saussure) on west side of tool shed
near Centerville, Indiana, on night of June 15, 1970.
Early in June 1971 a few wasps were found on the north side of
the tool shed just under the peak of the roof, and a few were on the
southeast corner of the shed. As the summer progressed wasps disap-
peared from these sites and more accumulated on the west side. A few
also appeared around a seldom-used light socket on a porch ceiling and
also under a loose shingle on the south side of a building about 5 feet
north of the tool shed. The shingle gave some protection from the
weather and, at the end of the summer, wasps were found here in small
180
Indiana Academy of Science
numbers after they had disappeared from the main site. For example,
the last wasps were seen on the west side of the tool shed on September
9, 1971, but one was found under the shingle as late as October 1, 1971.
Two peaks in numbers of wasps occurred in each of the 5 years.
Except in 1969, the first appeared in June and the second in July. In
1969, both peaks were in June. During the study, time between peaks
varied from 6 to 22 days (Table 1). During 3 summers, counts were
made of female C. calif or nicum working on nests in the tool shed and
other buildings, but there was no correlation of these counts with counts
of the roosting wasps. The number of nesting wasps was always low,
about 5 to 10.
Table 1. Numbers of roosting Chalybion calif ornicum (Saussure) near Centerville,
Indiana, 1967-1971.
Days
between
Year
First peak
Date
Second peak
Date
peaks
1967
100
June 28
60
July 4
6
1968
m
June 21
30
July 8
17
1969
16
June 7, 8, 9
13
June 25
16
1970
!S2
June 14
54
July 2
18
1971
260
June 26
45
July 18
22
No predation on the wasps by birds was observed at the roost sites
over the 5-year period, although birds which are known to eat wasps
were in the vicinity. The extent of predation away from the roost site
was not investigated.
Aggregations were made up of both males and females. No mating
behavior was observed at the roost sites.
Small deposits of fecal matter were found at the roost sites. These
were not tested for presence of a pheromone because techniques for the
analysis of such small amounts of material were not accessible.
Conclusions
1) It is believed that the warmer temperature at the main roost
sites on the west sides of 2 wooden buildings was the initial stimulus
for choice of sites.
2) Peaks in numbers of wasps at the roost sites occurred from 7
to 28 June, over a 5-year period.
3) Peak numbers of wasps varied from 16 to 260. Second but lower
peaks varied from 13 to 16 and followed from 6 to 22 days later. Some
of the second peaks were higher than some of the first peaks of other
years.
Entomology 181
4) Neither mating behavior nor predation by birds was observed
ho rnnet cifoc
at the roost sites.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Jay A. Myers, Lee J. Reynolds, Sarah
C. Strawn and Carl H. Luckhardt for their assistance during the obser-
vations.
Literature Cited
Allee, W. C. 1938 (1958). The social life of animals. Beacon Press, Boston,
Mass. 233 p.
El Rayah, E. A. 1970. Some reactions of two desert beetles, Adesmia antiqua and
Pimelia grandis (Tenebrionidae) to temperature. Entomol. Ext. Appl. 13:286-292.
Evans, H. E., and J. E. Gillaspy. 1964. Observations on tbe ethology of digger
wasps of the genus Steniolia. Amer. Midland Natur. 72:257-280.
, and E. G. Linsley. 1960. Notes on a sleeping aggregation of solitary
bees and wasps. Bull. S. Calif. Acad. Sci. 59:30-37.
5. Fabre, J. H. 1916. The hunting wasps. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York, N.Y. 427 p.
6. Hamilton, W. J. Ill, W. M. Gilbert, F. H. Hoppner, and R. J. Planck. 1967.
Starling roost dispersal and a hypothetical mechanism regulating the rhythmical
animal movement to and from dispersal centers. Ecology 48:825-833.
7. Jones, F. M. 1931. The gregarious sleeping habits of Heliconius charithonia L. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. London 6:4-10. In W. C. Allee, 1938 (1958). The social life of animals.
Beacon Press, Boston, Mass. 233 p.
8. Payne, T. L. 1971. Bark beetle olfaction. 1. Electroantennogram responses of the
southern pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) to its aggregation pheromone frontalin.
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 64:266-268.
9. Rau, P. 1938. Additional observations on the sleep of insects. Ann. Entomol. Soc.
Amer. 31:540-556.
10. 1942. The sleep of Chalybion zimmermanni. Can. Entomol. 74:196.
11. , and N. Rau. 1916. The sleep of insects: an ecological study. Ann.
Entomol. Soc. Amer. 9:227-274.
12. Weiss, H. 1944. Permanent "sleeping" quarters of Chalybion caeruleum (Linn.).
Entomol. News 55:270-271.
Observations of Halictus confusus Smith (Hymenoptera:
Halictidae) on Woodland and Field Flowers1
Robert E. Dolphin2- 3
Department of Entomology
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
The native bee {Halictus confusus) has been recorded from at least 165 host plant
species. Observations were made of a local nest population for 4 years. These indicated
that the flowers visited by bees during the warm months of the year reflected availability
and, possibly, selectivity. Events of 1964 were typical and are reported.
Spring beauty {Claytonia virginica L.), toothwort (Dentaria laciniata Muhl.), dande-
lion {Taraxacum officinale I.), and winter cress (Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.) were visited
most frequently during April and May. Nectar and pollen were obtained principally from
white clover (Trifolium repens L. ) and red clover ( T. pratense (Mill.) Schreb. ) during
the summer period of nest expansion.
The native bee, Halictus confusus, is a polylectic species with a
wide range of floral hosts throughout the growing season in the eastern
United States (3). While studying the ecological life history of this
species at the Purdue University Entomological Research Area near
West Lafayette, Indiana, in 1964, observations were made of the
interrelationship of a nesting population of H. confusus and plants
having conspicuous flowers within 200 yards of the nesting site from
April to October.
Although H. confusus has been recorded on at least 165 species of
plants (1, 2, 3), this extensive floral record does not reflect the utiliza-
tion of regional flora by a local nesting population. In the results re-
ported here, only 22 plant species were frequented in the forage area
by the bee colony investigated, and only 6 species were considered
important to colony nutrition (Table 1).
During April, the newly-emerged queen bees showed a marked
preference for spring beauty (Claytonia virginica L.) in the woodland
areas adjacent to the colony site on a field hilltop. At this time, the trees
were still without foliage and the forage area of the woodlands was
well lighted in favorable weather. Most of the floral visits to spring
beauty were for nectar to be used in personal nutrition, although several
observations of pollen feeding and one sighting of pollen collection on
the scopae were recorded on this plant. Pollen collection was indicative
Journal Paper No. 4690, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. Based
on a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana.
^Present address: USDA, Entomology Research Division, Vincennes, Ind. 47591.
Acknowledgment: Especial appreciation is acknowledged for the advice and guidance
of Dr. Leland Chandler during the course of this study, which is a phase of the research
for a doctoral thesis.
182
Entomology
183
of early nest provisioning for the next brood generation. Toothwort
(Dentaria laciniata Muhl.), which bloomed at the same time and in the
same areas, was also visited by the females but to a lesser extent.
Table 1. Plants visited
by Halictus confusus Smith
in the Purdue
Universii y
Entomological Research Area,
196k.
Plant
Range of observation
No. days bees
product
Host plant
dates
observed
CfilWttMj1
Spring beauty2
April 8-26
3
N
Toothwort2
April 23-26
2
N
Dandelion2
April 23-May 20
6
P
Redbud
May 3
1
M
Winter cress2
May 4-18
8
P
Shepherd's purse
May 6
1
N
Mouse-ear chickweed
May 18
1
N
Blackberry
May 22
1
N
White clover2
May 22-July 30
11
P
Yarrow
June 5
1
N
Hop clover
June 9
1
m
Red clover2
June 10-July 29
15
p
White sweet clover
June 19
1
u
Crown vetch
June 27
1
n
Wild rose
June 29
1
N
Yellow sweet clover
July 3
i
N
Wild carrot
July 13-16
2
N
Daisy fleabane
July 16
1
N
Horse nettle
July 19
1
N
Japanese lespedeza3
September 5
1
H
White heath aster3
September 18
i
N
only.
Symbol (P) denotes pollen and nectar being collected, while (N) represents nectar
2Multiple observations on date of observations.
3Only male(s) observed on host plant.
As these woodland flowers waned in late April, the bees shifted
suddenly to dandelion (Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber) as this flower
attained a conspicuous bloom in the fields near the nesting site during
the last week of April and the first few days of May. The visits to
dandelion blossoms were primarily for personal nutrition. About the
first week of May, winter cress (Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.) began to
bloom in large conspicuous stands in nearby orchards and fields. As
it became common, H. confusus females deserted the dandelions and
for the next several weeks were found on the blossoms of this plant
during favorable weather. Coincidentally, provisioning of brood cells
in the nests became commonplace as this floral species began to bloom.
The pollen and nectar collected from winter cress probably provided
184 Indiana Academy of Science
more than 95% of the material from which the pollen balls of the first
brood were fashioned by the overwintered females. By the end of the
third week in May, the last utilization of this plant was witnessed as
it entered a fruiting stage.
During late May, flowers in the nearby fields and orchards were
scarce and the bees were observed spending more time than usual in
the field, presumably searching for the few winter cress blossoms still
left or looking for alternate sources of nutrients. At this time, the long-
est flights of 1964 took place with 10 flights for pollen, taking from
60 to 138 minutes, whereas the seasonal average was about 30 minutes.
At this time, single observations were recorded for mouse-ear
chickweed (Cerastium vulgatum L.) and blackberry (Rubus sp.),
suggesting that a search for a preferred floral host was in progress.
At the conclusion of this period of flower scarcity, the females
became inactive and the nests became sealed as the adults remained
in the nests with their developing broods. This period extended from
May 26 to June 6, 1964. As the first brood-worker females emerged,
conspicuous flowers were in bloom in the forage areas, such as yarrow
(Achillea millefolium L)., daisy fleabane (Erigeron strigosus Muhl.),
and white daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.). Although a few
visits were recorded to these composites (white daisy visited by H.
confusus on June 5, 1965), the summer workers favored white clover
(Tri folium repens L.) and red clover (T. pratense (Mill.) Schreb.) as
the major sources for nectar and pollen during the June and July nest
expansion and provisioning period. During this time, Halictus ligatus
Say, a related species coexisted with H. confusus by nesting in the same
nesting site. However, interspecific competition was apparently avoided
in part by preference of floral hosts since H. ligatus was common on
the flowers of yarrow, daisy fleabane, and white daisy and uncommon
on white clover and red clover, just the opposite of H. confusus.
Halictus confusus adults were observed 1 to 3 times only on redbud
(Cercis canadensis L.), shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)
Medic), hop clover (T. agarium L.), white sweet clover (Melilotus alba
Desa.), wild rose (Rosa sp.), yellow sweet clover (M. officianalis
(L.) Lam.), horse nettle (Solanum carolinense L.), wild carrot
(Daucus carota L.) in the order first observed in the field.
In late summer and fall as clovers became scarce, the newly-
emerged males and females fed on the available flowers, such as
Japanese clover (Lespedeza lineata (Thumb.) H. and A.) and white
heath aster (Aster ericoides villosus (Mich.) Voss). Since these females
were destined to be the overwintering brood, they did not construct cells
and collect pollen provisions.
The only other nutrient observed to be collected by H. confusus
was perspiration, presumably for the salt content. Although Stevens
(4) reported this species to be a common "sweat bee" in North
Dakota, the behavior of "sweat bees" in feeding on the perspiration of
one's bare skin was not observed in H. confusus, nor could it be induced.
In the nesting site, Dialictus imitatus (Smith) and a larger species,
Entomology 185
probably D. zephyrus (Sm.), were common "sweat bees" on hot and
humid days but were not joined by H. confusus individuals. The manner
in which this species fed upon perspiration was to land on artificial
objects that had been handled such as stakes, paper bags, etc., and feed
upon the perspiration residue. There was one record of a female
H. confusus hovering about the eyes of the observer for several
minutes in the manner of an eye gnat.
Some species of flowers seemed to be visited for nectar only. In
central Indiana, five species of milkweed were observed to have
male and female bee visitors for nectar only. Whorled milkweed
(Asclepias verticillata) was quite attractive to H. confusus during
midsummer in the general Lafayette, Indiana, area. Both sexes trans-
ported pollinia in interblossom transfer, but these were never found
in pollen balls within a nest.
Literature Cited
1. Dolphin, R. E. 1966. The ecological life history of Halictus (seladonia)
confusus Smith (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Purdue
University, Lafayette, Ind. 311 p.
2. Mitchell, T. B. 1960. Bees of the eastern United States. Vol. 1. North Carolina
Agric. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. 141: 1-538.
3. Robertson, C. 1928. Flowers and insects. List of visitors of 453 flowers. Carlinville,
Illinois. Science Press, Lancaster, Pa. 221 p.
4. Stevens, O. A. 1951. Native bees: furrow bees — Halictus. North Dakota, Agric. Expt.
Sta. Bimonth. Bull. 14:59-64.
GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
Chairman: Charles E. Wier, Indiana Geological Survey,
Indiana Department of Natural Resources,
611 N. Walnut Grove,
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Richard L. Powell, Indiana Geological Survey,
Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 611 N. Walnut
Grove, Bloomington, Indiana 47401, was elected
Chairman for 1972
Abstracts
Glacial Geology of St. Joseph County, Indiana (Map, 1:62,500).
Rev. Michael J. Murphy, C.S.C., and John P. Szabo, Department
of Geology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556.-
Northern Indiana was rejuvenated in the Pliocene producing a gently
rolling landscape with moderate relief. The La Porte Valley and
Elkhart Valley, two buried valleys, reflect this. Two of three ice lobes
which penetrated Indiana produced the presently visible glacial features
during the Wisconsin's Cary substage. Some features' depositional his-
tories have multiple explanations while those of others are more
evident. One interpretation of the St. Joseph River's present course in-
volves piracy of the headwaters of the ancient Kankakee River. The
pebble lithologies of various deposits show the underlying bedrock type;
there are differences between outwash and till pebble analyses. Some
percentages may possibly serve as indicators in distinguishing a lobe's
deposits in this area.
Age and Correlation of Middle Devonian Strata of Jasper County,
Indiana. R. William Orr and William D. Rebuck, Department of
Geography and Geology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306.
—Outcrops of Middle Devonian strata in south-central Jasper County,
near Rensselaer, were examined and collected for eonodonts as part of
a continuing study of conodont biostratigraphy of Middle Devonian
rocks of Indiana. Jasper County exposures consist of mostly fine-to-
medium grained, dark gray, vuggy dolomite, which lithology is also ex-
hibited by correlative subsurface strata to the south in White, Tippe-
canoe, and Warren Counties. Conodont faunas of the studied outcrops
are dominated by specimens of the important platform genera
Icriodus and Polygnathus and contain as late Middle Devonian zonal
indicators I. latericrescens latericrescens and P. varcus s. I. Middle
Devonian strata of Jasper County represent a southwestern dolomitic
facies of the Traverse Formation of the Michigan Basin and lie within
the P. varcus Zone high in the Middle Devonian. These beds correlate
with the upper (sub-Squaw Bay) part of the Traverse Group of
Michigan, the upper part of the Traverse Formation of northern
Indiana, and the Beechwood Member of the North Vernon Limestone
of southern Indiana and the Illinois Basin.
187
188 Indiana Academy of Science
Structural Control of Cavern Development in Northwestern Washington
County, Indiana. Richard L. Powell, Department of Geosciences,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. Most caverns in the
outcrops area of limestones of Mississippian age in south-central
Indiana consist of passages that trend down the local dip of the bed-
rock. Generally, the regional structure is reflected by numerous
caverns or subterranean drainage routes which divert surface karst
drainage westward or southwestward to outlets or springs along en-
trenched surface streams. The gradient of the subterranean passages
is generally compatible with the local rate of dip of the bedrock, some-
times dissecting progressively lower strata if the cave stream gradient
exceeds the rate of dip. A few cavern passages parallel the strike of
the strata, usually owing to a steeper hydraulic gradient to a surface
outlet. Examples of subterranean drainage in an updip direction are
rare, if not nonexistent, in Indiana.
Several caverns have been surveyed in the drainage basin of Clifty
Creek, in northwestern Washington County, Indiana, which exhibit sub-
terranean drainage contrary to the southwestward regional trend. These
caverns have commonly developed eastward in a down-dip direction on
the east flank of the southernmost nose of the Leesville Anticline. They
are tributary to Clifty Creek, a partially strike-oriented, deeply en-
trenched stream. River (Wet Clifty) Cave is mostly a strike-
oriented, northward flowing cavern, a subterranean headward exten-
sion of Clift Creek. This example of cavern development in adjustment
to local structure is proof of the importance of structural control to the
initiation and development of subterranean drainage.
To Harmonize a County A Proposed Integrated Study of Vigo
County, Indiana. John H. Cleveland, Department of Geography-
Geology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809. The
finite nature of a region's natural resources, combined with ever in-
creasing demands upon them, produces a conflict between man and his
environment that may lead to extinction, or at best, radical change for
both. Challenged by the writings of Indiana "geoecologists" Guernsey,
Wayne, and Patton, a comprehensive pilot study of Vigo County is
underway to form the orderly framework of information necessary for
viable courses of action now to avert future tragedy. The project will:
1) compile and catalogue the extensive data and sources represented
by federal, state and local governmental agencies, educational and
research institutions, and business enterprises; 2) outline and undertake
research projects of both short and long term duration to fill in the in-
formation gaps; 3) develop "dynamic equilibrium equations" for the
local ecosystem; and 4) disseminate this information to the public and
to the decision makers. As an illustration, coal resources are examined.
It is believed that this continuing study will aid in justifying our
existence, enhance teaching and research capabilities, and of most im-
portance, aid in rational progress towards a dynamic equilibrium with
his environment of man's choosing, permitting a quality survival of both
for a significant fraction of geologic time.
Geography and Geology 189
Geography's Inherent Role in Environment Control. Alfred H. Meyer,
Department of Geography, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana
46383. Regional populations and their optimally related natural and
human resource patterns considered in their total environmental
perspectives — social, economic, political and spiritual — may be said
to be the basic geographic principle of evaluation of human behavior
and life's motivations.
Ethnic and economic concerns of man are necessarily space-related
and resource-oriented, whatever the stage of cultural development may
be. Hence, the study of human ecology of the environment in sequent
occupance form has been traditionally considered a comprehensive chal-
lenge to the geographer.
Despite historic antecedents and present-day research and teaching
concerned with the basic qualities of the environment, the field of
geography today occupies a comparably inferior professional position
in the area of Environment Management.
This paper explored the reasons for this condition and suggested
some remedial measures establishing professional and public recognition
of geography as a distinctly environmental behavior science.
Factors Associated with the Decline of Central Place Functions On the
Rural Poor of Monroe County, Indiana. Steven K. Pontius, Geography
Department, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455.
Between 1910 and 1970 the number of small towns and villages in
Monroe County, Indiana, providing the essential retail and service
activities has declined from 31 to 2. The result of this decline has
spatially isolated many rural residents who previously were within 2
miles of such a village anywhere in the county. To those individuals
who have transportation this is of little or no concern.
However, to over 100 of the 294 low-income households inter-
viewed, which represents a 20% sample of all low-income rural residents
in Monroe county in 1965, the ramifications are great. They represent
people who have no means of transportation. Characteristically these
people are 65 or older, have lower incomes, fewer jobs, poorer housing
conditions, and who are spatially more isolated from the remaining
central places than the low-income people interviewed who had trans-
portation.
The consequences associated with their isolation, due to their lack
of transportation and their household location in relation to the
remaining central places are: the inability to supplement their income,
and thus the inability to maintain their homes, buy nutritious food,
and acquire preventive medical care. And, saddest of all is that because of
this spatial isolation, some of these people give up in despair, stay
home, and become more isolated from the world. In reality they exist
in a sort of solitary confinement.
The Relationship of Expensive Residential Dwellings to Hilly Terrain.
Henry W. Bullamore, Department of Geography, University of Illinois,
190 Indiana Academy of Science
Urbana, Illinois 61801. A field study indicated no statistically signif-
icant relationship between expensive residential dwellings and hilly
terrain in the City of Valparaiso, Indiana. The concept of "hilliness" was
quantified through the use of the local relief within designated study
sectors. The mean true value according to the Assessor of randomly
selected homes within each sector was used to quantify "expensiveness".
Analysis using Pearson's Correlation Coefficient r, the Chi Square test,
and other tests, all failed to substantiate the hypothesis that expensive
homes would be found in hilly areas.
Fulmendosa River: A Multipurpose Irrigation Project in Sardinia. F. P.
Kallay, Geography Department, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso,
Indiana 46383. One of the great engineering triumphs of modern man
has been his ability to transform acres of barren land into arable areas of
large scale productivity. Such a transformation is occurring in the south-
west portion of Sardinia, known as the Campidano, an area which is
already an intensively cultivated portion of the island, but possessive of
much greater agricultural potential. This potential will be realized in the
form of a vast project known as the ENTE AUTONOMO DEL
FLUMENDOSA (EAF).
The major purpose of the EAF is the utilization of the hydro-electric
basin of the Flumendosa River and its tributaries. In addition to provid-
ing water for irrigation purposes, the EAF project will supply water for
the capital city of Cagliari and several surrounding communities. Fur-
thermore, it will provide hydroelectric power at an annual average of 80
million kilowatt hours.
The effects of the entire EAF project will not be known in their
totality for several more years, but it is safe to say that the effects will
be far-reaching for the island of Sardinia and will have numerous bene-
fits on the Italian economy as a whole as well.
Coal Age Tree Stumps in Indiana. D. L. Dilcher, Botany Department,
Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. During the spring of 1971
the Paleobotany class of Indiana University located three casts of Sigil-
larian trunks apparently standing in place where the trees once grew.
These were found exposed in the No. 5 pit at the Hawthorne strip mine
of Peabody Coal Company. Several more trunks were located during the
summer and one was collected by the Indiana State Natural History
Museum before mining was stopped in the area. The nature of the trunks,
positions, size and relationships were discussed and a photographic record
of them was used to illustrate the talk.
OTHER PAPER READ
A Study of the Floras in the Allegheny Series in Green County Indiana.
R. N. Pheifer and David L. Dilcher, Indiana University.
Earth Dam Problems — and the Geological Site Investigation
Stanley H. Murdock
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service
Indianapolis, Indiana 46224
Abstract
There are many small man-made lakes in Indiana and a few large reservoirs with
dams over 100 feet in height. The major problems encountered in the construction and
operation of these structures are seepage around or through their fills, permeability or
weakness of foundation bedrock, unsuitable construction materials, instability of
natural slopes, subsidence of dam or pool into caverns or mine voids, and tectonic activity.
Faulty construction is not within the scope of this paper. To minimize structural
inadequacies or failures caused by these problems, the design engineer must be forewarned.
An adequate detailed design investigation must be conducted by a capable geologist. The
geologist must review all available data relative to the site, study, test and sample the
features of the site, submit samples, test data and his interpretations to the soil mechanics
laboratory, and present all this information and the laboratory report to the design
engineer.
Introduction
Multi-purpose use of stored surface water has increased greatly in
recent years. Problems in dam construction, operation and maintenance
have kept pace.
In Indiana most dams for water storage have been constructed with
earth. The type of earth material is dictated by the type of dam, the site
features and the available material.
Problems are encountered during construction and while the reservoir
is in operation. The purpose of the geological dam site investigation is
to discover the problems so that they may be offset by adequate design.
Simply expressed, a dam must be strong enough to hold back a given
volume of water. The permeability and strength of the dam and its abut-
ments are important factors in the successful operation and maintenance
of the reservoir.
Pre-design investigations of dam sites vary in intensity. The larger
and more elaborate the structure, the more detailed must be the investiga-
tion. The compilation and review of data on dam failures or deficiencies
has largely determined the steps taken in current dam site investigations.
The causes of inadequacies in all earth fills reported prior to 1952
have been placed in the following order (5) :
1)
Overtopping
30%
5) Slope paving
5%
2)
Seepage
25%
6) Miscellaneous
7%
3)
Slides
15%
7) Unknown
5%
4)
Conduit leakage
13%
191
192 Indiana Academy of Science
Most of the dams referred to in this study are large structures. The
writer believes that most of the problems could have been foreseen had
an adequate pre-design been employed.
Overtopping usually occurs when the dam has insufficient height
or when the outlet structure is inadequate. This design deficiency usually
results from inaccurate hydrologic data. In recent years the science of
hydrology has become much more reliable and overtopping is no longer
a common event.
Based upon the writer's experience and study of recently constructed
earth dams in Indiana, the following order for problems encountered is
listed as follows :
1) Seepage in overburden or fill 3) Bedrock incompatibility
2) Foundation weakness 4) Miscellaneous.
Seepage occurs through permeable fills, abutments and/or founda-
tions. This leakage results in water loss and, frequently, piping of fine
soil materials in fill or adjacent natural ground. Poorly graded (well
sorted) sands and gravels are common offenders. Abutment or foundation
seepage may occur through layers or lenses of sands and gravels in
glacial drift or in alluvial sediments. Fills constructed chiefly with
coarse-grained earth materials are subject to seepage. Conditions con-
ducive to either of these possibilities must be recognized in the
pre-design investigation. Permeable materials are important components
of a good fill, but must be used with silts and clays.
Soft and compressible foundations will consolidate during or after
construction. Weak soils located at the base of the dam must be found,
sampled and tested. Such weak materials must be either treated or
removed. Standard penetration tests, conducted during the site investiga-
tion, pin-point weak foundations. Undisturbed samples of the weak
material, as indicated by standard penetration tests, are collected and
submitted to a soil mechanics laboratory for test data. These data
determine the proper solution for the design engineer.
Shale, sandstone and limestone are the bedrock possible to encounter
during the construction of dams in Indiana.
Shale is generally impermeable and of adequate strength. Slides and
creep occur on hillsides where shale is near the surface. Some shales swell
when wet and shrink when dry. Propensity to cause slides or to swell or
shrink must be noted in the investigation report.
Sandstone is generally strong and relatively impermeable. Some sand-
stones are weakly cemented and are therefore permeable, weather
rapidly and are often weak. When permeability or strength is in question,
adequate testing must be done.
Limestone, when massive and not jointed, provides a good foundation
and basin for dams. Cavernous, open and jointed limestone presents prob-
lems in maintaining water levels in the reservoir and in making secure
the embankment and structural works. When limestone is suspected of
Geography and Geology 193
being permeable, the bedrock is usually pressure-tested in place. Core
samples may be subjected to testing to determine stability.
There are numerous miscellaneous problems that may result in the
inadequacy or eventual failure of a reservoir if not discovered in the
investigation and allowed for in the design.
Lack of and/or insufficient suitable embankment material may
present a serious problem. Sands and gravels, to the exclusion of fine
grained soil, or vice versa, are unsatisfactory fill materials.
Haul distance is an important factor in determining the economics
of borrow operations. In the construction of the moderate size dams of
from 20 to 50 feet of fill height, borrow must be available within 1/4
mile.
Proper placement of fill, proper compaction and satisfactory moisture
control are necessary to avoid construction and operation problems (6).
Steep slopes and shallow soils combine to present slope stability
problems. During construction, care must be exercised to prevent distrub-
ing slope equilibrium. Unloading the toe of a natural slope may be inviting
disaster. Saturation of an otherwise stable slope can also cause a slide.
The disaster at the Vaiont reservoir in Italy is an example (3).
Subsurface mining and subsequent subsidence can ruin a dam or its
impounded pool. Underground voids resulting from the pumping of oil
is believed to be a major contributor to the failure of the Baldwin Hills
Reservoir in California (4). Subsidence from coal mining or from oil
pumping are not known to have caused damage to dams in Indiana
although there is ample reason for concern.
Problems related to tectonic activity have not yet been reported in
Indiana. One study of the location of earthquake probabilities indicates
that southwestern Indiana is an area of concern (1). There are known
and suspected fault areas in the state, many of which appear to be related
to the Mt. Carmel fault.
To minimize the hazards related to site problems a pre-design geo-
logical investigation of the site is mandatory. This should be planned by
and carried out under the direction of a qualified geologist. Minimum
requirements for this investigation appear below.
First, all available published or unpublished data relative to the site
should be assembled and reviewed. One source of these data is the Indiana
Geological Survey.
Second, an adequate subsurface investigation must be carried out
in conjunction with a study of all surface features of the site. Field test-
ing, sample collection, and complete and accurate reporting of the site
conditions are necessary parts of this requirement (2).
Third, the samples collected must be submitted to a soil mechanics
laboratory for testing, analyzing and reporting.
194 Indiana Academy of Science
Fourth, the geologists report and the laboratory report must be
delivered to and interpreted for the design engineer. An important part
of these reports is a recommendation for further study, if necessary.
Fifth, the geologist should make periodic visits to the site after
construction has begun to compare conditions actually encountered with
those anticipated as a result of the pre-design investigation.
It is my opinion that a well-conceived and an economical site
investigation will uncover virtually all adverse site conditions likely to
result in dam inadequacies and possible failures.
Literature Cited
1. Algermissen, S. T. 1969. Seismic map shows areas of U. S. vulnerable to earth-
quakes. Eng. Geol. 26:5.
2. U. S. Dep. Interior, Bur. Reclamation, 1960. Design of small dams. Washington,
D.C. 611 p.
3. Flawn, P. T. 1970. Environmental geology. Harper and Row, New York, N.Y. 313 p.
4. James, L. B. 1966. Failure of Baldwin Hills Reservoir, Los Angeles, Cal. Eng. Geol.
Case Histories No. 6, Los Angeles, Cal.
5. Middlebrooks, T. A. 1952. Progress in earth dam design and construction in the
U. S. Civil Eng. 124:708-715.
6. Murdock, S. H. 1966. A pond or a puddle? J. Soil and Water Conserv. 21:180-182.
Glacial Stratigraphy of the Fort Wayne Area and the Draining
of Glacial Lake Maumee1
N. K. Bleuer and M. C. Moore
Indiana Geological Survey, Blooming-ton, Indiana 47401
Abstract
Two major glacial till sequences are present in the Fort Wayne area. The upper
sequence consists of the clayey tills of the Lagro Formation and the lower consists of
extremely hard loam tills that are correlated with the Trafalgar Formation. Both are
Wisconsinan in age.
The morphology and development of the Fort Wayne Outlet, the Six Mile Creek
channel, and the Wabash-Erie Channel were controlled by a combination of bedrock topog-
raphy, early glacial discharge routes, the lithology and thickness of glacial materials, and
the most recent ice-controlled drainage.
The morphology of the lake floor and the morphology and postglacial stratigraphy
of the outlets of glacial Lake Maumee suggest that all three of the classic lake levels could
have discharged at Fort Wayne and that the classical 800-foot, 760-foot, and 780-foot
sequential order is without foundation. The lower hard tills could have slowed
temporarily the downcutting of the Fort Wayne Outlet and stabilized the intermediate
lake level.
Introduction
An ongoing study of the environmental geology of the Fort Wayne
area, Allen County, Indiana, has required that we develop much more
detailed knowledge of the glacial stratigraphy than has been known here-
tofore. Therefore, we have accumulated a considerable amount of data
in the form of water well records, engineering boring logs, shallow refrac-
tion seismic records, measured sections of natural and artifical exposures,
and logs of our own power augering. Our synthesis of these data is just
beginning, but we wish here to outline some of the new information by
giving a basic stratigraphic framework for the area and a more detailed
description of the outlets of glacial Lake Maumee and then to point out
some of the ramifications regarding accepted concepts of glacial and
glacial lacustrine history.
Past Work
Until the present study, the most recent geologic work in the Fort
Wayne area was done as a part of the Indiana Geological Survey's regional
geologic mapping program. The surficial geology shown on the "Geologic
Map of the 1° x 2° Fort Wayne Quadrangle . . ." (G. H. Johnson and
S. J. Keller, in preparation) does not differ significantly from that mapped
by earlier workers (Fig. 1).
The first comprehensive work in this area, the "Report upon the
Geology of Allen County," by C. R. Dryer, M.D. (3), has gone virtually
unchallenged to this day. And even it, in part, summarized work by
Publication authorized by the State Geologist, Department of Natural Resources,
Geological Survey.
195
196
Indiana Academy of Science
32 N
31 N
30 N
29 N
I2E
I3E
I4E
I5E
I 0
5Miles
Figure 1. Primary geologic features, Allen County, Indiana. Unlabeled areas are till
plain. City of Fort Wayne is outlined. Generalized from Johnson and Keller (in
preparation) .
N. H. Winchell and G. K. Gilbert on "the moraines of the Maumee Valley
[that] were among the first to be recognized upon this continent" (4).
A report on "The Roads and Road Materials of Allen County," by J. A.
Price (10), included a colored l:250,000-scale surficial geologic map, which
is still a valuable tool. The synthesis of this geology into the regional
interpretation of glacial history was done by Leverett (8) and Leverett
and Taylor (9). There are very few areas in the Midwest whose glacial
geology was better known before 1915 than was the glacial geology of
this area. And as is true for so many other areas, virtually no
morphologic or stratigraphic work has been done since the time of
Leverett and Taylor.
Bedrock Topography and Preglacial Drainage
Situated on the northeast flank of the Cincinnati Arch, just within
the Michigan Basin, the bedrock surface in Allen County is one of physio-
graphic transition. The dolomite, limestone, and shale bedrock of Silurian
to Mississippian age dips very slightly to the north and east. To the north
the average bedrock elevation becomes less where valleys are cut into the
softer shales. A carbonate rock plateau occupies the south half of the
county, and a persistent escarpment separates it from the lowlands in
the northern two tiers of townships (Fig. 2) (2). Glaciers from the Erie
basin entered Indiana by riding obliquely up the slope of this escarpment.
Geography and Geology
197
32 N
31 N
30 N
29 N
12 E
I3E
Figure 2. Generalized drainage pattern on the bedrock surface, Allen County, Indiana.
Generalized from large-scale bedrock topograpivic map (M. C. Moore, unpublished)
compiled from more than 1,000 well, boring, and seismic records.
All bedrock valleys in Allen County are tributary to the Teays Valley,
about 50 miles to the southwest (2). The headwaters of the Valley F-C
(Fig. 2), which are much steeper than those of Valley E-A, perhaps were
deepened by proglacial waters of one of the pre-Wisconsinan ice advances
that undoubtedly covered the area.
Glacial Stratigraphy
Two major drift sequences are present in the Fort Wayne area (Fig.
3). A dense sand is commonly present at the base of the lower sequence,
and its distribution appears to be partly controlled by topography on the
bedrock surface, the thicker deposits commonly occupying lows. The lower
drift sequence is composed of loam-textured glacial tills (C and D, Fig.
3), having in places abundant interstratified sand, silt, and flowtill-type
deposits, particularly near the top of the unit, and a persistent sand at
about mid-depth. The tills typically contain 35 to 45% sand and 15 to 20%
clay (grain-size analysis by American Association of State Highway
Officials Designation T-88; Wentworth size grades). They are overconsoli-
dated and are hard in the engineering sense of the word, having
unconfined compressive strengths far in excess of 4 tons/ft2. Moisture
contents are typically well below 10% and, correspondingly, dry densities
commonly exceed 140 lb/ft3. The top of the lower till sequence rises from
an elevation of about 735 feet in the axis of the Maumee Lake basin
in easternmost Allen County to an elevation of more than 800 feet be-
neath the moraines in western Allen County. Between the upper and
198
Indiana Academy of Science
820 -
800
780
760
740
720'
700
680
660
EXPLANATION
(&) Sand, silt, cloy, muck, peat, lake and swamp deposits (b) Sand and/or gravel,
medium dense (4) Glacial till, silty clay loam to clay loam, stiff (3) Glacial till, loam,
very hard, common interstratified sand in upper part, stone lines common locally
(2) Sand, fine, silty, some gravel, very dense (T) Sand and gravel, dense, rich in chert
and weathered material
Figure 3. Generalized geologic section, Allen County, Indiana, showing unconsolidated
materials.
lower till sequences there is usually a dense fine silty sand, which helps
separate the drift sequences in water well and engineering* boring
records throughout the county.
Geography and Geology 199
The upper drift sequence is the series of clayey tills of the Erie Lobe
(Fig. 3, A and B) that make up the concentric moraines of northeastern
Indiana and northern Ohio. The upper tills are silty clay-loam to clay-
loam textured, containing roughly 10% sand and 40 to 50% clay. They
are stiff to very stiff in the engineering sense, having unconfined com-
pressive strengths of 2 to 4 tons /ft2. Their moisture content is typically
between 15 and 20% with dry densities ranging from 115 to 125 lb/ft3.
A. M. Gooding ("Characteristics of late Wisconsinan tills in eastern
Indiana," in preparation) gives evidence for the glacial retreat and subse-
quent readvance of ice to the Wabash Moraine on the basis of a marked
increase in clay content of surface tills within the Wabash Moraine.
Although we have not as yet confirmed this in vertical section, numerous
engineering boring and water well records and some measured sections
indicate a distinct break marked by sand, gravel, or laminated clays with-
in the upper till, which may represent the interval described by
Gooding.
The sequential relationship is quite straightforward in most places,
but in the Fort Wayne Outlet and the Wabash-Erie Channel areas, as
discussed below, the lower drift sequence generally becomes much more
complex and the basal sand, the intermediate sand of the lower sequence,
and the intersequence sand in places increase greatly in thickness.
There is no evidence of any weathering interval between or within
the till sequences, and thus we assume that both sequences record Wiscon-
sinan glaciation. We believe that the lower sequence belongs to the
Trafalgar Formation and the upper sequence to the Lagro Formation of
Wayne (11). Wayne's plate 3 depicts a superposition of tills similar to
that found in Allen County. Similar tills have also been described by
Forsyth (5) near Defiance, Ohio.
The stratigraphically lowest and possibly the oldest unconsolidated
materials yet examined in Allen County are exposed in the May Stone
and Sand Company Ardmore Road quarry (NE*4, Sec. 29, T30N, R12E).
This unit (Fig 3, Unit 1) consists of about 7 feet of medium to fine loamy
sand to cobbly gravel, which, when moist, is dark gray, olive gray, and
olive (5Y hue). Distinguishing characteristics of these lowest gravels are
their high content of pebbles of angular chert and of igneous and meta-
morphic rocks, low content of shale, and lack of any carbonate except in
a basal rubble layer. Clay mineral analyses show a significantly greater
amount of mixed layered material than is present in samples of the area's
oldest tills. The deposit rests upon Devonian limestone, possibly within
a small bedrock valley, and is overlain by a generally clayey but variably
textured till (correlation uncertain). It has the appearance of a weathered,
reworked cherty lag deposit on an old erosion surface, but igneous and
metamorphic pebbles indicate a previous or contemporaneous glaciation.
The Classic Glacial Lake Maumee Sequence
It has been supposed since 1915 that a lake level at about 800 feet
was formed in the upper Maumee basin soon after the ice front re-
treated from the Fort Wayne Moraine (9). This lake was succeeded by
200
Indiana Academy of Science
another lake at 760 feet, after which the water rose again to 780 feet (790
feet according to some sources). The Maumee stages of the pro-Erie Lobe
lakes ended once lower outlets were free to discharge into the Saginaw
Bay area and into the Grand River valley.
For the sake of argument we will assume that three lakes existed
at roughly these elevations. However, examination of 7% -minute topo-
graphic maps not available to earlier workers shows that gross miscor-
relations of beaches were made and that many of the supposed beaches
are probably near-shore features other than beaches. Thus, we feel that
the nature and origin of these features and their correlation and sequential
order should be restudied.
Knowledge of the basic glacial stratigraphy and of this classic lake
sequence now provides the basis for a discussion of the morphology,
stratigraphy, and developmental history of the outlets of the Maumee
glacial lakes.
Morphologic and Stratigraphic Relationships in the Wabash-Erie
Channel and the Fort Wayne Outlet
Terminology
The entire valley through which glacial Lake Maumee drained,
extending from just east of Fort Wayne to the Wabash Valley below
Huntington, was called the Wabash-Erie Channel by Dryer (3). Leverett
(8) preferred the term Fort Wayne Outlet for the same channel. Because
Line of cross section
Well or being location
Figure 4. Topography of the Wabash-Erie Channel floor, showing 10-foot contours
and lines of cross section referred to in text. Maximum scoured elevation of Wabash-
Erie Channel in Cross Section H, 7U2 feet; G, 71+0 feet; F, 7U3 feet; E, 739 feet; D,
735 feet; C, 735 feet; B, 7/,5 feet; A, 735 feet (limestone bedrock). Cross sections
H, E, D, and B show 10 to 25 feet of soft clay and/or loose sand below the uppermost
unit of fine-grained fill.
Geography and Geology
201
Line of cross section
Well or boring location
Figure 5. Topography of the floor of westernmost glacial Lake Maumee and the
Fort Wayne and Six Mile Creek outlets, showing 10-foot contours and lines of cross
section referred to in text. Maximum scoured elevations of lake floor and Fort Wayne
Outlet shown in Cross Section K, 750 feet; J, 750 feet.
of their different although related origins we find it desirable to
distinguish the mile-wide trough below Fort Wayne from that part of
the valley that was cut through the Fort Wayne Moraine in Fort Wayne
(Fig. 1). Therefore, we will use Dryer's term Wabash-Erie Channel for
that single broad valley that is southwest of the city of Fort Wayne and
that extends to Huntington. The head of this valley is the area of merging
drainageways in the west half of T30N, R12E (Fig. 4). We will restrict
the term Fort Wayne Outlet to that narrow valley extending from Sec.
4, T30N, R13E, the western point of the Maumee lake basin, westward
through Fort Wayne to the point where the St. Mary's River turns east
in Sec. 2, T30N, R12E to join the St. Joseph River (Fig. 5).
Morphology of the Outlet and Channel Floors
The general course of the channel between Fort Wayne and Hunt-
ington is of particular interest because of the possible indirect effect of
bedrock topography upon the east-west segments (compare Valley D,
Fig. 2, with Wabash-Erie Channel, Fig. 1) and because of the obvious
effect of ice-controlled drainage upon the northeast-southwest segments
of its course. As noted by Dryer (3), west of the outlet through the Fort
Wayne Moraine "the channel turns to the southwest in a line which is
a direct continuation of the valley of the St. Joseph River." Similarly,
the valley also turns abruptly southwestward near the west Allen County
line just west of where it bisects the Wabash Moraine and joins the contin-
uation of Aboite Creek, which parallels the distal margin of the north
■M.i:>
Indiana Academy of Science
limb of the moraine. The St. Joseph and Aboite Creek drainageways,
like the nearby Mississinewa, Salamonie, upper Wabash, and St. Mary's
Rivers, clearly have ice-marginal or otherwise ice-controlled trends.
Dryer (3) stated that "the present level of its bottom [the Wabash-
Erie Channel] rises from 737 feet at the mouth of the St. Joseph to 756
feet at the summit 4 miles west, then falls to 744 feet at the margin of
the Niagara outcrop, and to 699 feet at its junction with the Wabash/'
although Dryer recognized that those elevations did not record the scour
depth of glacial lake outflow. He recorded about 4 feet of peat overlying
blue clay underlying the Wabash-Erie Channel and 40 feet of silt over
limestone at the outlet summit (discussed further below). Leverett (8),
however, recorded the bed of the outlet in Fort Wayne as 755 feet (mis-
quoted as 757 feet by Hough (7)) and noted that "parts of the bed are
strewn with boulders and cobblestones, . . . indicating an old scourway.
The northwest part of the city . . . stands on such a stony part of the bed."
Leverett apparently considered the present floor at Fort Wayne to be the
original scour depth, although he did recognize that below Fort Wayne
"the bed is occupied by an extensive growth of peaty material, beneath
which there is fine sand" and thus "had apparently been scoured out
somewhat below its present level during the most vigorous stage of the
excavation and was then filled in as the strength of the flow declined."
The surface elevation in the northwest part of Fort Wayne, southwest of
the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary's Rivers, is, indeed, be-
tween 755 and 760 feet (Figs. 1 and 4). The configuration of the con-
tours, of course, has been greatly affected by the building of the city,
and for that reason they have not been shown on parts of Figures 4 and
5.
Of special interest, however, is the form of the outlet channel east
of the city, where it is cut through the moraine. The outlet valley is for
the most part occupied by the Maumee River floodplain at an elevation
slightly greater than 740 feet, but in Sees. 3, 4, and 5, T30N, R13E, ter-
K
South
Figure 6. Geologic Cross Section KK', showing geology beneath lake floor 2
east of New Haven. Bedrock stir face interpreted from regional data. (See Fig. 5 for
section location, Fig. 8 for explanation.)
Geography and Geology
203
races at about 750 feet (along line of Cross Section J J', Fig. 5) record the
former scoured lake floor where it merges with the outlet.
The form of the westernmost lake bottom (along line of Cross Section
KK', Figs. 5 and 6) clearly shows the constriction but also the continua-
tion of the 750-foot contours into the outlet valley. It is clear from this
geomorphic evidence that the original scoured depth in the outlet and
channel downstream must have been even lower than 750 feet. In fact,
this is exactly what the channel stratigraphy shows us.
Postglacial Stratigraphy within the Channel
Between 10 and 25 feet of silt, clay, and organic deposits (not yet
radio-carbon dated) fill a scoured trough in the north half of the east-
west part of the Wabash-Erie Channel (Fig. 7, Cross Section FF', as
representative of Cross Sections CC through H in Fig. 4). Even across
the limestone sill at Huntington where Leverett (8) stated the elevation
of the channel floor, and presumably the limestone surface, to be 744 feet,
more than 7 feet of fine-grained fill is present over the limestone, which
is at an elevation of about 735 feet in the center of the channel (along
Cross Section A A', Fig. 4). Maximum elevations of the floors of the Fort
Wayne Outlet and the Wabash-Erie Channel before the postlake infilling
of the channel are given in the captions for Figures 4 and 5. It is clear
that a significant buried trough, about the width of the valley of the Fort
Wayne Outlet, occupies part of the larger Wabash-Erie Channel. The floor
elevation of the buried trough, not the surface elevation, records the depth
to which glacial Lake Maumee scoured. The buried channel floor appears
to have broadly spaced highs and lows, whose origins are difficult to
interpret. However, filling by at least the uppermost fine-grained unit
must postdate the Lake Maumee discharge, and we interpret this to mean
that the St. Marys and St. Joseph Rivers continued to flow sluggishly
westward down the channel prior to the development of the Maumee River.
F'
North
South
750'
Figure 7. Geologic Cross Section FF', showing representative geology of Wabash-Erie
Channel and surroundings. (See Fig. U for section location, Fig. 3 for explanation.)
The geology of the channel area is particularly complex. Inter-
sequence sand and silt or lower sequence sand is present beneath the
latest channel filling in many sections across the channel, the outlet, and
the westernmost lake bottom (Fig. 7 and as along Cross Sections J J' and
204 Indiana Academy of Science
LL', Fig. 5). Because of this, it is almost impossible to assign position
and age to many such deposits that occur immediately below the latest
fine-grained fill. Often, only engineering data can give any clue as to
whether sediments are exhumed or postglacial. Furthermore, there are
several very deep holes in the channel filled with as much as 25 feet of
soft (not overconsolidated) sediments to well below even the elevation
of the bedrock sill at Huntington (see captions, Figs. 4 and 5).
Stratigraphic Evidence Bearing upon the Early Development of the
Channel
Preliminary study of subsurface data suggests that the route of the
present channel in and just west of Fort Wayne is roughly parallel to the
route of drainage associated with lower sequence ice. Furthermore, two
upper sequence tills, possibly representing the advance of the Erie Lobe
to the Wabash Moraine and an earlier Erie Lobe advance, are separated
in one major exposure on the south wall of the present channel (Midwest
Aggregates quarry, Sec. 36, T30N, RUE) by a thick gravel that contains
armored till balls derived from the lower till. This outwash may have been
concentrated, before formation of the Wabash Moraine, along the present
trend of the Wabash-Erie Channel, just as earlier meltwaters had been
concentrated there.
During later development of the channel, high level outwash was
deposited west of the confluence of the St. Joseph and St. Mary's valleys
in continuation of the terraces in those valleys. Outwash as much as 25
feet thick is present as high as 785 feet in the west half of T30N, R12E
(Figs. 1 and 4). Thus, a precursor of the present Wabash-Erie Channel
was also in existence while the Fort Wayne Moraine was forming and
discharging outwash through the St. Joseph and St. Marys valleys.
The lows in the channel floor that are filled with soft sediment in
some way relate to the overall development of the channel. Were they
cut by waters under considerable head flowing off or through ice? Do
they represent plunge pools that consecutively developed as the channel
lengthened? Or is there another explanation? We do not know.
But as a generalization, we can say that the Wabash-Erie Channel
had a long, perhaps in part repetitive history of drainage and that most
of the route as we see it today was an already established drainageway
before the Fort Wayne Moraine and thus also before the Maumee glacial
lakes came into existence. As noted above, the course of the main east-
west segment of the channel may have been indirectly bedrock controlled,
and the northeast-southwest courses were determined by ice.
Six Mile Creek Channel
Morphology
The only other incised breach in the Fort Wayne Moraine, the Trier
Ditch, or the Six Mile Creek Channel as it was called by Dryer (Figs. 1
and 5) (3), connects the St. Marys River at 750 feet elevation with the
Maumee River 8% miles away at an elevation of 740 feet (Figs. 1 and 5).
In the northern one-third of its length the channel broadens considerably
and the 780-foot scarp swings into the embayment. The course of this
Geography and Geology
205
/ec
Figure 8. Geologic Cross Section 00\ showing representative geology across Six Mile
Creek Channel. (See Fig. 5 for section location, Fig. 3 for explanation.)
channel may have been indirectly determined by a minor bedrock valley
Fig. 2 E), which was tributary to one of the major north-flowing pre-
glacial streams.
Glacial and Postglacial Stratigraphy
As elsewhere in the Fort Wayne Moraine, the stratigraphy is rela-
tively simple and is described by the basic sequence shown in Figure 3.
In the southern part of the channel a thick basal sand is overlain by hard
sandy till of the lower sequence (Cross Section 00', Fig. 8, as representa-
tive of Sections NN' through RR'). This in turn is overlain by a thin dense
fine sand or silt of the intersequence unit. The upper clayey till sequence
lies above. All glacial stratigraphic units, as shown on Cross Section MM'
(Fig. 9), drop in elevation northward as they approach the lacustrine
plain and the axis of the Erie Lobe. The upper part of the lower sequence
here and near the main Fort Wayne Outlet becomes much more varied
where it is topographically low, containing abundant intercalated sand
and silt. Lacustrine and fluvial materials associated with glacial lakes
■so'
.> )
740'
720'
-"DO'
08' '
Figure 9. Geologic Cross Section MM' along the Six Mile Creek Channel. Bedrock
surface interpreted from regional data. (See Fig. 5 for section location, Fig. S
for explanation.)
206 Indiana Academy of Science
and recent alluviation rest on both upper and lower sequence units along
the channel, depending upon the depth of erosion.
Although there may have been a bedrock-determined initial sag, there
is no indication that the Six Mile Creek Channel was active prior to
deposition of the upper clayey till sequence. It appears that the contact
of the upper and lower sequences may be lower there than it is a few miles
to either side, but the data are insufficient to tell whether this indicates
a valley or a local, closed low. The scoured floor of the present channel
was cut in upper sequence clayey till at an elevation of 755 feet and, as
would be expected, does seem to drop in elevation at both ends. The slope
to the St. Mary's is very short and can be attributed to the more recent
drainage. The slope to the north begins nearly half way along the length
of the channel, is very gentle, parallels the boundary between the lower
sequence till and the basal sand, and becomes difficult to trace as the
stratigraphy becomes complex near the lake border. Leverett (8) pointed
out that current bedding in gravels exposed southwest of New Haven
shows a southward transport, which he attributed to drainage from glacial
Lake Maumee. Cross beds could, of course, be related to storm deposits
or longshore drift. Furthermore, it is obvious (Cross Section MM', Fig.
9) that no coarse sediment is found in the base of the channel in its
southern half and that there is no appreciable buildup of such material
opposite its south end. Thus, there is no clearcut reflection in morphology
or general stratigraphy of the lake drainage that must have passed south-
ward in the Six Mile Creek Channel.
As suggested by Dryer (3), the St. Mary's River used the channel
as a flood stage outlet after lake levels had dropped. As recently as 1913,
a flood of water 5 feet deep flowed through it. Leverett and Taylor (9)
made reference to this event, and Dryer suggested that it was a frequent
occurrence before the advent of modern drainage controls.
Dryer (3) defined a large sandy area in and just east of New Haven
as the delta of the St. Mary's-Six Mile Creek Channel. However, the topo-
graphically prominent sand at the east end of the supposed delta appears
to us to be dunal rather than deltaic, the dune sands lying upon coarse
sands on the lake floor. The broadest expanse of the so-called "delta" is
found in the city of New Haven where the elevation is about 760 feet, but
most of the town is underlain by hard loam till.
The Six Mile Creek gap, like the Fort Wayne Outlet, was very likely
an original low in the Fort Wayne Moraine. When the ice of the Erie Lobe
began to recede, there were surely isolated small lakes ponded in front
of it which had their own outlets. Six Mile Creek, which is now of a magni-
tude equal to that of the channel of the Imlay Outlet, may have been one
of these. Although a large quantity of meltwater may have been spilled
through Six Mile Creek Channel after integration of the ice marginal lakes
into Lake Maumee, the prevailing currents and sediment transport from
the lake bed were through the larger Fort Wayne Outlet. After the lake
was emptied and present drainage patterns established, the Six Mile Creek
Channel acted as a floodwater route for the St. Marys River.
Geography and Geology 207
Evidences for the Lake Sequence
Since Leverett's (8) first description in 1902 of the high stand of
glacial Lake Maumee, it has been assumed that that lake drained primarily
through the Fort Wayne Outlet and the Six Mile Creek Channel. Although
Taylor (9, 12) had traced the uplifted continuation of the highest beach
to a point 6 miles north of Imlay, Michigan, well north along the west
wall of the present channel at Imlay, neither author, for some reason,
concluded that the high lake drained at Imlay. It has been always recog-
nized that the intermediate lake level drained through the Imlay Outlet,
but Hough (7) pointed out that that level, too, must have drained
through the Fort Wayne Outlet. Leverett (8) originally accounted for
the change in level from 800 feet to 780 feet by the opening of the
Imlay Outlet. If the high lake drained at Imlay, however, the opening of
the Imlay Outlet alone (at least to the extent of the channel presently
visible) could not explain the lowering of the lake to the 780-foot level.
The "third beach" at 760 feet was recognized in 1908 by Leverett
(11) and was placed last in the sequence, although Leverett suggested
the possibility that the low level might actually be intermediate in age,
based upon its "rather washed-down appearance." Leverett further stated
that the third Maumee beach "appears to have been barely high enough
to have opened into the Imlay Outlet if its northward rise is as rapid as
that of the first and second beaches." Taylor (9), however, made no men-
tion of this observation, and assumed that the floor of the Imlay Outlet
visible today, like the floor of the Fort Wayne Outlet, was too high to have
drained the low-level lake.
We believe that the overriding reason for Taylor's (9) placing the
760-foot lake level between the two higher levels in the lake sequence was
not the washed look of the 760-foot beaches, rather it was that the
presumed lack of an outlet for the lowest lake necessitated the
postulated burial of the lake's outlet by a subsequent glacial advance that
also raised the level of the lake. Taylor (9) felt that a "readvance of the
ice did not [completely] close the [wider and deeper 760-foot]
outlet [at Imlay] but pushed it [westward] up the slope to the
place where the Imlay outlet channel is now found." The head of the
Imlay channel visible today was thought to have drained only the last
level, the 780-foot lake.
However, we have shown that the scoured floors of the Fort Wayne
Outlet, the Wabash-Erie Channel, and the Six Mile Creek Channel are
deeper than previously assumed. At least 10 feet of water from a 760-
foot lake could have passed through the Fort Wayne Outlet, and concur-
rently 5 feet of water could have passed through the Six Mile Creek
Channel. Furthermore, the important limiting elevation of the limestone
sill at Huntington is nearly 10 feet less than indicated by Leverett, and
thus discharge gradients of all lakes were considerably more than
previously assumed. Preliminary study of modern IVz' topographic maps
seems to indicate that the two high beaches can indeed be traced into the
Imlay channel and that taking into consideration about 50 feet of post-
208 Indiana Academy of Science
glacial uplift, the 760-foot lake might also have barely discharged through
the channel, just as Leverett (11) suggested.
The subdued or washed look of the 760-foot beaches has never been
quantitatively documented in the literature. Many of the classic 760-foot
beaches are far above that elevation, others can easily be explained as
nonbeach features, and any truly subdued beach certainly can be explained
in other ways than by the washing action of a higher lake. Therefore,
we feel that there is no evidence for other than the simplest sequence of
the classic Maumee Lake Levels, 800 feet, 780 feet, 760 feet.
Cause of Change in Level
An 800-foot lake level would have been controlled by the initial
configuration of the surface of the Fort Wayne Moraine. Assuming a
constant discharge rate, it is possible that the opening of a discharge route
at Imlay in addition to the Fort Wayne and Six Mile Creek outlets could
have balanced the lake level at a lower elevation, as Leverett (8) origi-
nally suggested. But backcutting in the Fort Wayne Outlet eventually
would have cut through the moraine, perhaps in a "stoping" process of
headward advance of a rapids or chute similar to that postulated for the
outlet of glacial Lake Chicago by W. C. Alden (1) and modified by J. W.
Goldthwait (6) in the early 1900's.
We suggest the possibility that a significant stratigraphic sill, the
top of the lower hard till, could have temporarily slowed downcutting at
Fort Wayne, perhaps causing a stabilization of the lake at the intermedi-
ate level. The Fort Wayne Outlet is cut into intrasequence sand and
apparently into the lower hard till, which is encountered at 750 feet in
borings in Fort Wayne just south of the outlet, and up to 780 feet just
northwest of the city (Fig. 7). (The Six Mile Creek Channel is cut entire-
ly in the upper clayey till.) The lowest lake level could have been initiated
once erosional equilibrium was attained in the outlet and channel, or the
lake could have been stabilized by a balance between glacial melting and
lake discharge, perhaps due to partial opening of the drainage route that
eventually lowered water to the glacial lake Arkona levels.
Acknowledgments
Compilation of these data has involved the cooperation of many
individuals and organizations. Essential information has been provided
by the Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water; the Indiana
State Highway Department, Division of Bridges and Division of Materials
and Tests; Soil Testing and Engineering, Inc., Fort Wayne; the office
of the Allen County Surveyor; and the Fort Wayne Water Pollution
Control Department. Stone quarry and gravel pit operators permitted
repeated access to their excavations. We are grateful to ail of these people
and to the many Indiana Geological Survey colleagues who aided in
interpretations, laboratory work, and field investigations.
Geography and Geology 209
Literature Cited
1. Alden, W. C. 1902. Description of the Chicago district. U.S. Geol. Survey GeoL
Atlas, Chicago Folio 81. 14 p.
2. Burger, A. M., S. J. Keller, and W. J. Wayne. 1966. Map showing bedrock
topography of northern Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Misc. Map 12.
3. Dryer, C. R. 1889. Report upon the geology of Allen County. Indiana Dep. Geol. and
Natur. Hist., Annu. Rep. 16:105-130.
4. 1894. The drift of the Wabash-Erie region — a summary of results. Indiana
Dep. Geol. and Natur. Hist., Annu. Rep. 18:83-90.
5. Forsyth, J. L. 1960. Correlation of tills exposed in Toledo Edison Dam cut, Ohio.
Ohio. J. Sci. 60:94-100.
6. Goldthwait, J. W. 1909. Physical features of the Des Plaines Valley. Illinois GeoL
Surv. Bull. 11. 103 p.
7. Hough, J. L. 1958. Geology of the Great Lakes. Univ. 111. Press, Urbana. 313 p.
8. Leverett, Frank. 1902. Glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio
basins. U.S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 41. 802 p.
9. , and F. B. Taylor. 1915. The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the
history of the Great Lakes. U.S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 53. 527 p.
10. Price, J. A. 1906. The roads and road materials of Allen County. Indiana Dept. GeoL
and Natur. Resources, Annu. Rep. 30:275-314.
11. Russell, I. C, and Frank Leverett. 1908. Description of the Ann Arbor Quadrangle.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas, Folio 155. 15 p.
12. Taylor, F. B. 1897. Correlation of Erie-Huron beaches with outlets and moraines in
southern Michigan. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 8:31-58.
13. Wayne, W. J. 1963. Pleistocene formations in Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Bull. 25.
85 p.
Engineering Soils Mapping in Indiana by Computer from Remote
Sensing Data1
T. R. West
Department of Geosciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Multispectral imagery of the surface terrain may be obtained from airborne scanning
devices that measure reflectance in the visible through infrared portion of the electromag-
netic spectrum. At the Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing (LARS), Purdue
University, multispectral imagery is analyzed using a high-speed digital computer. The
final result is a detailed map or classification of the surface material.
Pattern recognition (classification) is accomplished by separating materials accord-
ing to their spectral response statistics in a known area and then applying these
criteria to unknown areas. As an example of the LARS mapping technique, a detailed
analysis of a soils area in north-central Indiana is presented.
In this study the correct classification of sandy floodplain soils versus till plain
soils was obtained for 98 + % of the ground area elements (remote sensing units)
for the training fields. Similarly a 76 + % correct discrimination between the
two materials was made for the test fields in the flightline. This degree of accuracy indi-
cates that the analysis of these data using the LARS techniques was successful in
differentiating the materials sufficiently well to be of considerable use in reconnaissance
surveys.
Introduction
Aerial photography has been used for several decades in reconnais-
sance mapping of soil, rock, vegetation and man-made features in a variety
of scientific specialties, including geology, geography, agronomy, forestry,
hydrology, civil engineering and a number of others. With the development
of improved instrumentation systems for measuring electromagnetic radi-
ation of the terrain and with the advent of high-speed computers, it is
now possible to obtain more precise data which can be analyzed in great
detail by digital computers.
Remote sensing involves the identification and classification of
physical objects through analysis of data obtained from sensing devices
which do not come in direct contact with those objects. In most cases the
instruments measure radiation intensities from selected portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. For remote sensing studies that incorporate
analysis by computer, the data-gathering phase is followed by some data
reduction and reformatting which expedites subsequent data processing.
The final phase, analysis, involves classification of the target materials
through the use of pattern recognition techniques.
This paper presents a discussion of remote sensing of soil and rock
materials with specific emphasis on the techniques developed at the
Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University.
'Research was supported in part by NASA Grant NRG 15-005-112.
210
Geography and Geology 211
Methods: LARS Automatic Classification Technique
Perhaps the first question to answer is why use an automatic
classification system at all? Why not rely on the current method of
mapping soil and rock for geological and other purposes. An obvious
answer is that computers are faster and more accurate. Computer use
does not remove the scientist from the operation; it makes him more
important. As before, accurate field work is necessary; however, the same
amount of field effort can now be used to map a larger area. Reliable data
are needed to train the computer for proper classification but this detail
is not required for the entire mapping area.
Currently, multispectral imagery of the terrain is obtained for LARS
by the Institute of Science and Technology, University of Michigan, using
a multispectral optical-mechanical scanner mounted on their DC-3 aircraft.
As the plane proceeds along the flight path, the energy radiated by a
specific ground resolution element passes through the scanner optics, is
divided according to its spectral wavelength, and is directed to the
appropriate detector. The output of all such detectors is simultaneously
recorded by a multiband recorder. The transverse motion provided by
the rotating mirror and the forward motion of the aircraft cause a contin-
uous signal to be recorded for each spectral band of the scanner output.
The information is stored in analog form by the data recording system.
The multispectral bands recorded on the aircraft storage tapes vary
according to the needs of the researcher. In this study, 12 channels of
data were obtained from the visible and reflective infrared portion of the
spectrum, between 0.4 and 2.6 micrometers1 (^m).
Following the multispectral remote sensing flights, the aircraft
scanner analog data tapes are forwarded to LARS for conversion to digital
form. Each analog scan is sampled, normally at a sampling rate which
yields 220 data points for an 80° field of view across the flightline. For
later reference, each digitized data point (remote sensing unit or RSU)
is assigned a unique address in a two-dimensional coordinate system based
on scan line numbers ("line numbers") and samples within the line
("column numbers").
Typically the first step in the analysis is to obtain gray scale print-
outs of the data for several channels. Gray scale printouts are digital
displays of the spectral response of the terrain but limited to one band
or channel of the scanner data per display. They resemble low-resolution
photographs. Alpha-numeric symbols (letters of the alphabet, typing
symbols and single digit numbers) are assigned to the radiance levels so
that high-intensity or light areas receive symbols which cover a low
percentage of the paper (Example — ), and dark areas receive symbols
with a high percentage of cover (Example MMM). Because the data are
not equally distributed between the highest and lowest radiance values,
the symbols are not simply assigned so that each represents an equal range
of radiance. Instead, to achieve a maximum contrast display, the data
'One micrometer (^m) = 10-6 meters.
212 Indiana Academy of Science
are first histogrammed and the symbols are assigned so that each will
occur with approximately the same frequency.
Areas of known materials are located on the gray scale printouts by
the researcher and their addresses are recorded. This information,
referred to as "ground truth," is used to train the computer to recognize
similar kinds of material. In agricultural studies, this may consist of fields
containing corn, wheat, oats, soybeans, etc.; in forestry studies — conifers
and deciduous trees or individual tree species; in geology and highway
engineering — specific bedrock and soil types. While some of the ground
truth areas are used to train the computer to recognize the classes of
interest, the remaining areas are reserved for testing the accuracy of the
computer classification after it is completed. Addresses of training areas
are provided to the computer on punched cards; these addresses are
boundary corners indicated by column and line number, and the fields
are limited to rectangular shapes (commonly referred to as "fields").
After January 1, 1971, an alternative to using gray scale printouts
for field selection became available at LARS. This tool, known as the
digital display unit, provides a television-like image of the scanner data
with each digital value represented by a different brightness level. This
yields an image on the television screen having greater detail than is
possible with gray scale symbols on computer paper. Images for each
channel can be displayed, and fields of interest can be outlined on the
screen using a light pen with their addresses automatically punched on
cards.
Another method for obtaining training field sites is sometimes used
in conjunction with the above procedure of manually selecting these sites.
Accomplished by using the LARS non-specified classifier routine
(NSCLAS), this relatively new technique divides the scanner data into
groups or clusters based on similarity of spectral response within clusters.
Typically 4 to 6 channels of imagery are analyzed simultaneously and the
program is requested to obtain 10 clusters. A map of the results is printed
for each area analyzed in this way and the researcher can observe the
patterns of spectrally differentiable material occurring in the data. The
training fields may then be selected from these maps. The resulting
clusters may not in fact be spectrally distinct, but the researcher must
decide this to his own satisfaction based on separability information for
the clusters which is printed by the program. He then has the option of
repeating the analysis using a different number of clusters to increase
their separability. An important point is that this method of selecting
training fields takes into detailed account the multispectral response data
as well as the ground truth information.
In the clustering approach, the actual differences in spectral response
are displayed, but a major problem exists in determining what each of
the clusters represents. Some may be vegetation types, some water bodies,
man-made features or tonal aspects of bare soil and rock. Aerial photog-
raphy is helpful in affixing names to the patterns observed. Despite this
difficulty, clustering is a powerful tool in obtaining workable training
fields.
Geography and Geology 213
The next step in the analysis is to obtain histograms of each class
of material identified in the training fields. An example of classes for
a geologic study area might be alluvium, limestone soil, shale soil, trees,
mixed crops, and water. The histograms for each class show the distribu-
tion of reflectance intensity for each spectral channel.
Unimodal or single-peaked distributions in the histograms for a class
suggest that the proposed class is spectrally an individual group. Bimodal
or trimodal distributions must be subdivided manually into unimodal
classes by the researcher; histograms for individual fields can be obtained
to help in locating the multimodal contribution within a class.
The next operation involves the application of a divergence
(statistical separability) analysis (known as $DIVERG) to determine
the best channels to use for classification. Only the best four to six
channels are used for classification to save computer time; in general,
the accuracy is not meaningfully increased when more channels are added.
In addition to indicating the preferred channels, the divergence analysis
indicates the separability of the designated classes. If separability between
significant materials is poor, some of the preceding steps are repeated
in an attempt to improve this separability and hence classification
accuracy.
Next, training field statistics are used to classify the designated
portion of the flightline. The computer classifies each data point (RSU)
based on the maximum likelihood criterion. On request, the computer
calculates how accurately it classified the areas used for training by
comparing the classification of each point in the training fields with the
initial ground truth designation. A high level of agreement means there
is minimal confusion within the training field statistics for the various
materials and that the classes are being separated properly.
The final steps are to print out a computer classification for the whole
area and to determine how well the test fields were classified. The test
fields are those areas of known material from ground truth studies that
were not previously used for training purposes. If test fields and train-
ing fields show a high degree of accuracy, and the test fields are repre-
sentative of the entire area, the classification is a good one. If the accuracy
is low, some reworking of the classes should be done. The researcher may
also have to conclude that the classes involved are not spectrally separable.
Results: Tippecanoe County, Indiana, Study Area
To illustrate the automatic classification technique for engineering
soils mapping, a flightline in Tippecanoe County, Indiana, was selected
for study. The test site known as Tippecanoe County Flightline 23 is a
north-south line running approximately through the center of the county,
including a central strip through the Lafayette-West Lafayette metro-
politan area along the Wabash River (Fig. 1).
Scanner data were obtained for Flightline 23 during various seasons
of the year in 1969 and 1970 for the on-going LARS program of study
of the midwest corn belt area. Seasonal changes of soil patterns and crop
214
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1. Tippecanoe County, Indiana, flightlines.
cover were observed by these periodic flights over the established
flightline. In the current study, the scanner flight dated May 6, 1970, was
selected for analysis. In general, spring flights are best for soil classifica-
tion studies as the maximum percentage of bare soil is exposed at this
time of year.
Analysis was limited to the northern third of the flightline which
contains examples of the soil materials of greatest interest in the study.
The northern 5 miles of the flightline cover a portion of the Tipton Till
Plain. South of this segment is a 2-mile section which runs across the
Wabash River floodplain. These two sections comprise contrasting parent
materials and form the basis for the soils study of the 7-mile area. Flown
at an elevation of 3,000 feet, the flightline has a width of about 5,000
feet.
The initial step in the analysis technique was to compare a gray scale
printout of the flightline to black and white photography taken at the
time of flight. The Wabash River was outlined, as were the floodplain
Geography and Geology 215
and till plain areas and several significant man-made features: the By-
Pass 52 bridge and Interstate 65, which was under construction at the
time of flight.
To determine the material types present in the study area, 13 east-
west strips of data were taken at various points of interest along the
flightline. An NSCLAS was run on these combined transverse strips which
collectively comprised nearly the maximum number of data points that
the routine can handle.
In the 13 clustered strips, vegetation, water, man-made features and
bare soil were identified with the aid of the aerial photography.
Rectangular fields were selected in the bare soil areas and a second
NSCLAS was run on these combined areas using ten clusters for the
analysis. This yielded a numerous collection of rectangular fields with
soil patterns designated in each.
By selecting those fields (or portions of fields) which had predomi-
nantly one pattern, a collection of bare soil fields, each of essentially one
soil type, was assembled. Two distinct groups were maintained, however:
those fields from the floodplain area and those from the till plain.
Next, statistics were obtained for each field and the histograms
examined to insure that each was unimodal. Three divergence analyses
($DIVERG) were made on the fields to determine how to combine them
into separable classes. Two runs were required initially because the pro-
grams accept a maximum of 30 fields in the divergence analysis and the
50 fields were divided into two groups to accomplish this. Fields deemed
similar by the divergence analysis were combined, whereas, others were
left by themselves and a few confusing fields discarded. After this was
achieved for the two divergence runs, the remaining groups (numbering
less than 30) were collected in the final divergence analysis and the
combining technique repeated. The net effect is that 18 classes remained
after this compilation, 8 from the floodplain area and 10 from the till
plain.
Several classifications were made of the 7-mile segment using the
training statistics from these classes. Adjustments were made in succes-
sive classifications to improve the training field performance. In the final
classification this performance was sandy floodplain 99.1%, and till plain
98.5%. These values are somewhat misleading as a considerable number
of floodplain symbols were scattered within the till area although the till
symbols are rather minimal in the floodplain area.
To obtain a more meaningful indication of the classification's
accuracy, a large number of bare soil fields were selected as test fields.
In the sandy floodplain, 28 test fields containing a total of approximately
1,900 RSU's and 59 test fields in the till plain (approximately 8,700
RSU's) were included. Test results showed 92.7% accuracy for the sandy
floodplain and 76.8% accuracy for the till plain with an overall accuracy
of 76.8%.
216 Indiana Academy of Science
Because of limitations on the size of figures and their number in this
paper, the computer printout, which is quite large and loses much detail
in photo reduction, is not included here.
An intriguing situation was noted during the classification revisions.
The till plain areas most often confused with floodplain soils were in recent
road cuts where reflectance of the till was the greatest. This was observed
near the By-Pass 52 bridge cut on the west side of the Wabash River and
for borrow and fill areas along Interstate 65.
An interesting substudy was made on the flightline as a final effort.
Interstate 65 runs diagonally NW-SE across the flightline. Experience
at LARS has indicated that straight line, man-made features not oriented
essentially parallel or perpendicular to the flightline are difficult to map
in detail. Diagonal features of this sort run both away from the center
of the flightline yielding changes in viewing angle from the aircraft, and
up or down the flightline simultaneously. Also, as remote sensing units
measured on the ground are square, the units along the pavement
boundary have an averaged value of reflectance for both pavement and
soil. If training samples are taken from this boundary portion, erroneous
pavement symbols will appear in soil areas in other locations of the classi-
fication.
To master this problem, we clustered (NSCLAS) rectangular areas
across the highway from the southeastern edge to the northwestern edge
of the flightline. Ten cluster groups were designated. The pavement,
median strip and shoulders were outlined in the clustered map results.
As might be expected, the same cluster group was not associated with
the pavement in the center as at the edges of the flightline, but the
contrast of pavement and soil was apparent at each location. To insure
proper classification, pavement classes from the middle, quarter point and
edge of the flightline would be included for accurate designation of the
highway in an overall classification.
Status of Inter-agency Erosion and Sediment Studies in Indiana
Stanley H. Murdock
Soil Conservation Service
Indianapolis, Indiana 46224
and
Robert A. Petti john
U. S. Geological Survey-
Indianapolis, Indiana 46224
Abstract
Indiana streams erode, transport, and deposit a variety of sediments. About
10 years ago an inter-agency committee was formed to accelerate investigations of these
sediments. This committee consists of representatives from federal and state agencies.
Recent fluvial sediment studies on selected streams indicate a range in sediment yield of
from 30 to 880 tons annually per square mile of drainage area. Studies of sediment
deposited in selected reservoirs indicate that the area draining into these impondments
is eroded at rates of from 3 to 22 acres annually. The reservoirs studied are losing
storage capacities at the rate of from 0.1 to 2.9 percent annually.
Water-transported sediments have been the subject of study in
Indiana for many years. Observations of fluvial sediments — those in
transit in flowing streams — date back at least to 1906. Early studies
consisted of observations only and included no precise measurements,
however (3).
Imponded sediments — those relatively stationary in natural lakes and
reservoirs — have been measured since about 1930. The first such recorded
measurements were made on Winona Lake and Tippecanoe Lake, both
natural lakes formed during the Pleistocene Epoch or ice age (3).
Winona Lake is estimated to have decreased in depth from 127 feet
to 79 feet from the time it was left by the glacier to 1930. In this period
of time the surface area and volume of Winona Lake were reduced 37.4
and 43.6%, respectively. During this period the maximum depth of Tippe-
canoe Lake decreased from 164 feet to 123 feet, and the original surface
area and volume were reduced 20.8 and 31.9%, respectively.
Recent fluvial sediment studies have been carried out cooperatively
by the Geological Survey of the United States Department of the Interior
(USGS) and the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). The
first of these studies began in 1953 on the St. Mary's River near Ft.
Wayne (1). The location of the suspended sediment sampling stations
are shown in Figure 1, and Table 1 lists available data obtained from
these studies.
The fluival sediment studies show that each square mile contributes
from 30 to 880 tons of sediment annually. The size of drainage area that
contributes to the measurement sites varies greatly. The larger the drain-
age area the smaller the proportion of transported sediment that reaches
a measuring point. The fluvial sediment studies are of insufficient dura-
tion, however, to provide more than a general estimate of the average
annual sediment discharge for the streams.
217
218
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1. Indiana sediment surrey statiot
About 10 years ago several interested agencies and organizations
banded together to form a rather losely organized inter-agency committee
to study erosion and sedimentation in Indiana. This committee proposed
two distinct types of studies, comprehensive studies and limited studies.
Geography and Geology
219
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The comprehensive studies were to interrelate many environmental
factors related to erosion and sedimentation. Such disciplines as biology,
geology, meterology, soil conservation, hydrology and sedimentology were
to be involved in each watershed and lake study. The limited study was
planned to include the measurement of sediment in a lake and a study
of the erosion taking place in the area draining to the lake.
Unfortunately, no comprehensive studies have been made because
of lack of funds and personnel, but numerous limited studies have been
undertaken.
The inter-agency committee includes representatives of the U.S.
Geological Survey, Indiana Department of Natural Resources,
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U. S. Department of Agriculture's
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Soil Conservation Service
(SCS), the Water Resource Research Centers at Indiana University
and Purdue University and the Indiana Department of Natural Resources'
Geological Survey (IGS).
The major effort of the committee has been in arranging for and
conducting reservoir sediment studies. To date studies have been made
at 15 reservoirs in the state. Locations of these reservoirs are shown in
Figure 1, and pertinent data obtained from these studies are given in
Table 2. The procedures employed in these studies have been pre-
viously reported (2).
The results of the reservoir surveys indicate soil losses ranging from
3 to 22 tons annually, and losses of original storage capacity of from less
than 0.1 to 2.9% per year. As in the case of the suspended-sediment
studies, data are insufficient to allow complete evaluation.
Additional reservoir studies are being planned, and resurveys are
anticipated. It is normal procedure to allow a 10-year period after con-
struction of a reservoir before the first sediment survey. The Corps of
Engineers has installed, or is in the process of installing sediment ranges
on Lakes Huntington, Salamonie, and Mississinewa. Continuing studies
are being made on Cataract, Mansfield and Monroe Lakes by the Corps.
The IDNR has installed sediment ranges on Deems Lake in Clark County
and on the Quick Creek Reservoir in Scott County. The SCS has recently
completed a sediment survey on Lake Salinda, a water-supply reservoir
for Salem, Indiana (Table 2). Sediment ranges have been installed by
SCS on the Elk Creek fish and game reservoir in Washington County and
on the French Lick Creek fish and game reservoir in Orange County.
At the time of this writing, two Purdue University students, L. J.
Lund and Manuel Poulet, are preparing a paper on some pedologic fea-
tures of reservoir sedimentation. This study involves 14 Indiana and
Illinois reservoirs and their drainage areas.
The long-range plan of the committee calls for resurvey of most of
the reservoirs after ten years of additional sedimentation, or more fre-
quently if conditions warrant. Ideally, a survey should be made immedi-
ately before and after a large sediment producing storm. Such storms
usually occur at ten-year intervals.
Geography and Geology
221
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222 Indiana Academy of Science
The Indiana Inter-agency Committee on Erosion and Sedimentation
has provided much useful data, but its work it just beginning. Any and
all interested groups or agencies, not already involved, are encouraged
to join the committee's activities.
Literature Cited
1. Johnson, Lynn E. 1970. Continuing sediment investigations in Indiana — A
progress report. U.S. Geol Survey, Indianapolis, Ind. 16 p.
2. Murdoch, Stanley H. 1964. Reservoir sediment studies, Outdoor Indiana 8:
10-15.
3. Perry J. I., and D. M. Corbett. 1956. Hydrology of Indiana Lakes. U. S. Geol.
Surv. Water-supply Paper 1363. U.S. Geol. Curv., Indianapolis, Ind. 347 p.
Precambrian Geophysical Provinces in Indiana
Albert J. Rudman and Judson Mead
Department of Geology
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47401
and
Robert F. Blakely and Joseph F. Whaley
Indiana Geological Survey
611 N. Walnut Grove, Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Abstract
Regional statewide gravity and magnetic surveys in Indiana reveal large areas of
high and low intensities. The source of these variations are lithologic changes within the
Precambrian basement. A generalized map of basement provinces, constructed from both
gravity and magnetic data, identifies regions of basement lithologies as either dense or
magnetic-rich rocks or combinations thereof.
Analyses of intense, magnetic anomalies reveal the basement surface to vary from
2,000 to 11,000 feet below sea level. Many of the anomalies appear to be concentrated
along the Cincinnati Arch. Detailed studies of two regions suggest that the sources may
be basaltic pipe-like intrusions into a granitic country rock. Lava flow structures may be
associated with the individual pipes.
Introduction
Geophysical surveys today constitute an important and integral part
of almost every modern effort at geologic exploration. For many years
the petroleum industry has routinely utilized seismology, gravity and
magnetic methods in the search for oil beneath both the land and sea.
However, the cost of geophysical surveys in the past have limited their
use to major companies. With advances in technology, the cost of such
surveys is not necessarily prohibitive. This paper summarizes data that
are applicable to the study of Precambrian basement in Indiana and
emphasizes regional interpretation based on the most recent gravity and
magnetic studies.
Gravity Data
The first extensive gravity survey in Indiana (Fig. 1A) was
conducted by the Indiana Geological Survey during 1951 and 1952 (3).
Control was based upon a grid density of approximately one station for
each congressional township. Elevation and locations were determined
from several sources including U. S. Coast and Geodetic and U. S. Geo-
logical Survey bench marks, U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps,
U. S. Engineering maps and Indiana State Highway Commission maps.
Contours show equal values of Bouguer anomaly relative to an arbi-
trary datum with an interval of 5 milligals. Bouguer corrections were
based on an average density of 2.6 gm/cm3 for the sedimentary rocks
above sea level. In addition to the statewide gravity survey, the Indiana
Geological Survey and the Department of Geology at Indiana University
have conducted detailed surveys over selected anomalous regions in
Hamilton, Pulaski, Newton, Randolph, Wayne and Fayette Counties.
These data are available on file with the Department and the Survey.
223
224
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1. A) Map of Indiana shoiving gavitational intensity (3). Contour interval 5
milligals relative to an arbitrary datum. B) Map of Indiana showing average aero-
magnetic intensity U). Contour interval 50 gammas relative to an arbitrary datum.
Magnetic Data
From 1949 to 1952, the United States Geological Survey, in coopera-
tion with the Indiana Geological Survey, conducted a statewide aero-
magnetic survey of Indiana. Ninety-two county maps were published on
a scale of 1"=1 mile (1:63,360) with a contour interval of 10 gammas
(0.0001 oersteds). In 1958, Henderson and Zietz compiled the county maps
into a statewide map on a scale of 1"=8 miles (1:500,000) (Fig. 2). Con-
tours represent equal values of the total magnetic intensity at an eleva-
tion of approximately 1,000 feet above the surface. Contour interval is 50
gammas relative to an arbitrary datum.
Comparison of the aeromagnetic and gravity maps is difficult be-
cause of the discrepancy in control between the two maps. The gravity
map, based on few control points, emphasizes broad scale regional
features; the aeromagnetic map with continuous north-south control at
1-mile east-west flight line intervals shows great detail and thereby
obscures broad scale features.
In 1953, an average magnetic intensity map of the state was com-
piled from the aeromagnetic data (4) (Fig. IB). Control was based on
average values obtained for the mid-point of each township by computing
the arithmetic average of the magnetic intensity at the corners, the mid-
point of each side, and the center of each township. Average values were
further reduced by removing a south to north earth dipole gradient of
6.5 gammas per mile. Contour interval is 50 gammas relative to an arbi-
trary datum. Station density and contour intervals for the average mag-
Geography and Geology
225
Figure 2. Map of Indiana showing total aeromagnetic intensity (2, Plate h) . Solid
heavy lines show the approximate position of the Cincinnati Arch. Area A outlines the
Pulaski County anomaly. Area B outlines the Hamilton County anomaly.
netic intensity map are comparable to the gravity map and allow
comparative interpretations to be made.
In recent years, the Indiana Geological Survey and Department of
Geology at Indiana have conducted detailed magnetic surveys in Hamilton,
Pulaski, Newton, Wayne and Fayette Counties.
Analysis of Gravity and Magnetic Data
Lithology
Regional studies of the statewide gravity map (Fig. 1A) and average
aeromagnetic map (Fig. IB) begin with two simple assumptions:
1) The source of the anomalous gradients on both maps arise from
lithologic changes within the basement complex (the top of the basement
is 2,000 to 11,000 feet below sea level). The anomalies are not an expres-
sion of topographic relief on the basement surface. Lateral changes in
density and magnetic susceptibility in the overlying sedimentary section
are also not sufficient to create the anomalous contour patterns displayed
on these maps.
2) Areas of high gravity values are underlain by dense rocks within
the basement. Areas of high magnetic values are underlain by rocks with
a relatively high content of magnetite (an iron oxide mineral common
to certain igneous and metamorphic rocks).
U?r,
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure
Map of Indiana showing Precambrian provinces derived from gravity and
aeromagnetic data.
Figure 4. Map of Indiana showing structure on top of the Precambrian basement.
( modified from ( 2 ) , Fig. 11).
With the above assumptions, we have studied the statewide maps
(Fig. 1) and generalized areas of extreme high and low values. Figure
3 identifies areas of basement lithologies associated with either dense
or magnetic rocks or combinations thereof. For example, the stippled
pattern throughout the central part of Indiana (and isolated areas on the
western and southern edges of the state) delineate areas of low density-
low magnetic rocks. This combination could represent metamorphosed
sediments, or, perhaps a weathered granitic terrain. Magnetite-rich dense
basalts (the cross-hatched pattern) could underlie the magnetic and dense
areas to the northwest and southwest. A magnetite-rich zone of granitic
rocks would explain the strong magnetic region in southwest Indiana
(heavy diagonal pattern) and a very basic, but magnetite-poor lithology
might produce the isolated region in north central Indiana (light diagonal
pattern).
Studies of lithologies in the midwest (7) indicate that the average
Precambrian terrain may be granitic in nature and we suggest that the
areas labeled as "intermediate" basement rock in Indiana is a granitic
country rock.
Depth
Studies of individual gravity and magnetic anomalies can yield
estimates of a minimum depth to the top of the lithologic source of the
anomaly. Henderson and Zietz (2) used 79 isolated well defined magnetic
anomalies for depth calculations. Combining their results with seven deep
wells, they constructed a generalized contour map of the basement surface
(Fig. 4). Since the original work by Henderson and Zietz, there have been
12 additional basement wells drilled and extensive seismic reflection
Geography and Geology
227
coverage (5, 6). None of these data have been incorporated into
Figure 4.
There are several recent publications which represent the Indiana
basement surface to be a smooth topographic surface {e.g., 1) ; it is our
belief that the differences between the Henderson and Zietz interpreta-
tion and more recent versions are primarily due to lack of control. Recent
maps use only deep test wells and these are poorly distributed, generally
confined to the central part of the state along the Cincinnati Arch. The
basement map based on magnetic analysis depends on numerous, widely
distributed control.
Geometry of Basement Intrusives
We have earlier suggested that the source of many of the gravity
and magnetic anomalies be within the Precambrian basement. Various
rock types intruded into the granitic country create a lithologic contrast
responsible for the observed anomalies. It is a curious observation that
many of these anomalies are concentrated along the Cincinnati Arch (out-
lined by the heavy lines in Figure 1). Detailed studies of two of these
anomalies have been moderately successful in defining the geometric and
lithologic sources.
/°o£4SA-/ ca
/s^/ur/troA' co.
/ mm
-rjigrt
:1 j!
Jllj
GRANITE
Figure 5. Schematic representation of Precambrian bodies interpreted as sources for
the gravity and magnetic anomalies observed in A) Pulaski and B) Hamilton Counties.
Area A in Pulaski County (Fig. 1) is an isolated, well-defined anomaly
approximately circular in form (Fig. 5A). Analysis of seismic, gravity
and magnetic data (8) suggest that the source is a vertical, prismatic
body of basaltic material intruded into a country rock of granite. Area B
in Hamilton County (Fig. 1) is also a well-defined anomaly, but more
complex in its form (Fig. 5B). In a recent study we suggested that
the source of this anomaly is a vertical pipe, with a series of overlying
flow-like sheets of basalt (9).
Viewing the interpretation of these two anomalies as part of a larger
geologic picture, the Cincinnati Arch appears to be the site of numerous
intrusive pipes, now represented by a concentration of magnetic anomalies.
These intrusions were sources for flow-like basalts that covered the
228 Indiana Academy of Science
Precambrian surface in isolated patches. We encountered flow-like basaltic
rocks in several of our basement tests and this interpretation thus seems
geologically reasonable. The age of the intrusions and flows is question-
able, but it is suggested that they may be Keweenawan related.
Literature Cited
1. Cram, Ira H. (ed.). 1971. Future petroleum provinces of the United States —
their geology and potential. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Mem. 15 2:1165-1218.
2. Henderson, J. R., and Isidore Zietz. 1958. Interpretation of an aeromag-
netic survey of Indiana. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 316B. 37 p.
3. Mead, Judson, M. E. Biggs, and J. F. Whaley. 1953. Map of Indiana showing
gravitational intensity. Indiana Geol. Surv. Misc. Map 5.
4. , M. E. Biggs, and P. G. Holloway. 1953. Map of Indiana showing
average magnetic intensity. Indiana Geol. Surv. Misc. Map 4.
Rudman, Albert J. 1960. A seismic reflection survey of the basement complex
in Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Rept. of Prog. No. 18. 26 p.
1963. A study of seismic reflections from the surface of the base-
ment complex. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.
168 p.
, C. H. Summerson, and W. J. Hinze. 1965. Geology of basement in
Midwestern United States. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. 49:894-904.
, and R. F. Blakely. 1965. A geophysical study of a basement
anomaly in Indiana. Geophysics 30:740-761.
Mead, J. F. Whaley, and R. F. Blakely. 1971. Geophysical
analysis in central Indiana using potential field continuation. Geophysics 36:878-
History of Brick Manufacture in Indiana1
George S. Austin and John B. Patton
Indiana Geological Survey
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Abstract
In Indiana bricks were commonly burned at the construction site in the first
decades of the 19th century, but by 1840-1860 centralized brickyards were operating in
or near most communities. Pennsylvanian shales and underclays, Mississippian and
Devonian shales, leached glacial drift and alluvium, and residual soils have supplied the
raw materials for common brick, face brick, paving brick, and firebrick manufactured
during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The brick industry has progressively centralized to fewer but larger installations
concentrated near particularly favorable shale and clay supplies. By 1971 less than 200
million bricks were manufactured in only 12 plants in Indiana, but the annual value of
the product had grown to nearly $8 million. This stable industry will continue
indefinitely to be a significant factor in Indiana's economy.
Introduction
Indiana has long had a flourishing ceramics industry that has
contributed substantially to the economic growth of the State. Plants
producing building bricks have added aesthetic quality to Indiana towns
and landscapes (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Andrew Wylie house, built in Bloomington in 1835 of brick fired from
local clay.
Publication authorized by the State Geologist, Department of Natural Resources,
Geological Survey.
229
230
Indiana Academy of Science
Little was recorded concerning the early history of the brick industry
in Indiana. In 1833, the second edition of Scott's The Indiana Gazetteer
(18) had only one description of brick clay, although brick buildings were
recorded in nearly every community. Much of the brick for major
structures, small groups of buildings, and isolated localities was burned
at the site by itinerant craftsmen who specialized in this skill. The magni-
tude of brick manufacture may be judged from Scott's description (18)
of Charlestown, in Clark County:
"The public buildings are a court house, a jail, an office for the clerk
and recorder, and a market house, all of brick; in addition to which
the Episcopal Methodists, the Reformed Methodists, the Baptists,
and the Presbyterians, have meeting houses, all of brick, and an
extensive brick building has lately been erected for the purpose of
a county seminary . . . There are in Charlestown, about sixty-five
brick dwelling-houses, and about a hundred of wood."
It is known that by the 1840's and 1850's almost every
community in the state had a brick yard that manufactured common
brick (11). Some clay deposits and ceramic plants were briefly identified
by early authors ranging from David Dale Owen in 1839 (17), through
Cox (9, 10), and Collett (7, 8), to Maurice Tompson in 1886 (19), and W.
H. Thompson in 1889 (20), but these reports were short and offered little
basic information on the extent and geology of the deposits and the
facilities at the factories.
In 1895 the newly appointed State Geologist, W. S. Blatchley, began
to gather information concerning the clay and shale resources of Indiana.
j ! tVqlpofoisoL \
: #Crown Point"- T
f,,897f-
CSouth Bend
Figure 2. Brick plants of southeastern Indiana in 1895 (2) and of northeastern Indiana
in 1897 ($).
Figure 3. Brick plants of Indiana in 190k U).
Geography and Geology
231
This inquiry led to the 1896 publication of a report (2 and Fig. 2) on the
clay and related industry of some counties in southwestern Indiana. Two
years later a report on the clays and the clay industry of northwestern
Indiana followed (3 and Fig. 2). Blatchley's work on clays culminated
in the publication, in 1906, of a very extensive report on the clays of the
entire state (4 and Fig. 3).
Logan (15) presented some information about the clay industry in
the Handbook of Indiana Geology, published in 1922, and in 1933 Whit-
latch (21 and Fig. 4) published a comprehensive study on the clay
resources of the state. Whitlatch's report, which was his Ph. D. disserta-
tion, updated Blatchley's information on the clay industry and also
emphasized the regional geology of the clay deposits.
r*
EXPLANATION
1
Pennsylvanion
2
Cheslerion
3
Middle Mississippion
4
Borden
5
New Albany
6
Devonian, Silurian,
and Ordovician
Indianapolis
[/
\ Wisconsman
] \ __ l \ boundary _.■
50 Miles
Figure 4. Brick plants of Indiana in 1933 (21).
Figure 5. Map shoiving the distribution of clay materials in Indiana.
Since 1933, publications on the development of the clay industry have
been limited to five directories (1, 6, 12, 14, 16) of the producers and users
of clay and shale. Geological aspects of the clays have been explored in
one publication (13), and numerous reports have been issued on special
aspects of clay mineral research.
Regional Geology of Indiana Clay and Shale Deposits
The clays of Indiana can be divided for discussion into eight types
or regions (Fig. 5) : 1) Pennsylvanian shales and underclays are near the
surface and readily accessible in southwestern Indiana; 2) lying just east
of these exposures are shales of the late Mississippian Chesterian Series;
3) in the south-central part of the state, clays lying above the middle
232 Indiana Academy of Science
Mississippian limestones comprise a central residual belt, and 4) east of
this belt are the shales of the early Mississippian Borden Group; 5) to
the east of the Borden outcrops are exposures of the New Albany Shale,
and 6) in extreme southeastern Indiana residual clays lie above limestones
of Devonian and Silurian age and limestone-shale sequences of Ordovician
age. A seventh type of clay material is obtainable at numerous places in
northern Indiana, where glacial drift that includes both till and glacial
lake sediments can be used as raw material for a ceramic industry. An
eighth type of ceramic raw material consists of alluvial clays which are
related to present-day streams at various localities throughout the state,
and of leached loess found in the southwestern part of Indiana.
In the 19th century and the early part of the 20th, all of these eight
types of materials were used by plants producing brick from local raw
material. As the 20th century progressed, the brick industry consolidated,
not only because of the greater efficiency of larger plants but also because
of the superior product that could be manufactured from proper materials.
In addition, modern rail and truck transportation provided enlarged
market areas. Smaller and less efficient plants were abandoned. Small
kilns were replaced by larger ones. Wood as fuel was displaced by coal,
which in turn is being replaced by natural gas. Round periodic kilns are
giving way to continuously fired tunnel kilns. With growth and automa-
tion, very accurate control is necessary over all parts of the brick-
making process to produce modern bricks with their wide range of
predetermined colors and textures. Clay or shale units that vary greatly
in composition or are thin or interbedded with other types of rocks gen-
erally have been eliminated as a source of raw material. Unusual rocks
or minerals are tolerated only if they can be removed by screening or their
deleterious effects minimized by grinding and dispersion. Residual clays
overlying various carbonate rocks in southeastern and south-central Indi-
ana and leached alluvial clays throughout the state are not adequate. The
thin shales of the Chesterian Series, the carbonaceous New Albany shale,
and the commonly variable glacial till have generally been eliminated.
Only shales and siltstones from the Borden Group, a thick sequence
of fine-grained Mississippian rocks in south-central and west-central
Indiana, and several of the thick shales of Pennsylvanian age found in
southwestern Indiana are commonly used in the production of brick. Some
brickyards using these materials also consume a lesser amount of the
kaolin-rich clay that underlies certain coalbeds in the western part of the
state. Kaolin clays increase the firing temperature, widen the firing range,
and decrease the firing shrinkage of bricks made from rocks of the Borden
Group. For the few firebrick still made in Indiana, underclays are used.
Only one plant, at Munster in northwestern Indiana, now produces
brick from glacial materials, but it does have the sizable production
capacity of 260,000 bricks per day. The raw material comes from a very
clayey, homogeneous till about 22 feet thick.
Types of Bricks
Structural clay products, including common, pressed, and face brick,
structural tile, and drain tile, have consumed most of the clay industry's
Geography and Geology 233
output. Paving brick was an important product near the turn of the cen-
tury, but this phase of the brick industry has been almost entirely
abandoned. Firebrick for high-temperature ovens, furnaces, and kilns has
been made in Indiana for many years. Indiana's fire clays are still well
known and marketed in other states, but now only one Indiana company
produces firebrick.
The methods used to produce common brick early in the state's
history were some of the most simple processes in the manufacture of
ceramic ware, and they have been entirely replaced by other techniques.
Until the latter part of the 19th century, most building brick in Indiana
was made by the soft-mud process. Sandy clays were mixed in a pug mill
and either hand molded or forced into sanded molds. The resulting shapes
were sun dried or air dried and then burned in kilns, which in their most
primitive form were built around the stacked unfired bricks. Sandy clays
of the alluvial or loessial types were used for the soft-mud process. The
annual production of common brick by most companies operating in 1904
was small, commonly only a few hundred thousand.
In the late 1800's, dry-pressed brick replaced some of the soft-mud
variety, but the process was primarily used in the construction of terra
cotta and hollow building blocks. Moisture content was kept to the mini-
mum that would allow shaping by compression into molds, and the result-
ing products were denser and underwent less shrinkage. The raw ware
contained only 7 to 10% moisture, but moisture content was 20 to 25%
in the soft-mud process.
The use of brick for bearing walls in building construction decreased
progressively from shortly after the turn of the century, and pleasing
texture and color became relatively more important as brick came to be
used mainly for facing. Face brick is produced more satisfactorily by the
dry-press and stiff-mud methods than by the soft-mud process.
Since about 1920, face brick produced by the stiff-mud process has
been the principal product of the brick industry. A plastic clay mixture
is dewatered by vacuum to 12 to 15% moisture content and this is extruded
continuously through a die by auger or plunger pressure. Length and
width of the brick are controlled by the die, and thickness is established
by cutting the extruded bar at desired intervals.
Changes in the Brick Industry
From the 1840's and 1850's, when nearly every community had a brick
yard, to the 1890's and early 1900's, when brick as a construction material
was at its zenith, the quantity of brick produced grew steadily. At the
turn of the century most brick companies were still small, and therefore
their number was great. When W. S. Blatchley visited Evansville in 1895,
he recorded (2) that 21 brick yards were operating within 2 miles of the
county courthouse. In 1905, more than 200 companies in Indiana were
producing brick. Of this total, eight used the dry-press process and the
rest used the stiff-mud, soft-mud, or hand processes to produce common
brick. In 1904, almost 300 million common bricks were produced by these
plants, although a high of 315 million had been reached earlier in 1901.
234
Indiana Academy of Science
In addition, about 30 million pressed bricks, 50 million vitrified or paving
bricks, and lesser amounts of firebrick and ornamental material, such
as terra cotta, were produced. The total value of these products for that
year was $2,640,313. Only 34 companies were listed in 1922 in the Hand-
book of Indiana Geology (15), and even though the list is incomplete, the
great change in the number of companies involved in brick making, as
expressed by the numbers of companies in 1905 and in 1919 when data
for the Handbook were collected, reflected the change in the building
industry in Indiana. The use of common brick was reduced, and wood con-
struction replaced much of the former brick construction. By 1933, when
a more complete record of brick plants was made (21), 47 plants produced
brick, and most used the stiff-mud process. According to Whitlatch's
figures, in 1929 about 112 million common bricks, 130 million face bricks,
and 3% million paving bricks were produced. Fire clay refactories, com-
posed mostly of firebrick, totaled almost 6 million bricks or the equivalent.
The total number of bricks was 252 million, valued at $3,565,823. In 1970
only 12 brick plants remained in the state (Fig. 6), and they produced
about 186 million bricks. The value of these bricks was nearly $8 million.
The value of face brick amounted to more than 80% of that total, and the
remainder came from sales of common brick.
The brick industry has responded to the modern trend toward the
construction of modular homes by the building trades by producing pre-
Gory
I
L
L
1
4~
i
i
L | oFort j
"W— i Woynel
Indionopolis7 I \
I I. JJL.r-rf 7l '1
50 Miles
Figure 6. Brick plants of Indiana in 1970.
Geography and Geology
235
formed brick panels. These panels, which are made with normal or thin
brick, are fabricated at the plant, moved by truck to the construction site,
and hoisted into place by cranes.
Distribution of Brick
The many small companies that operated in Indiana near the turn
of the century probably did not ship their products more than a few miles ;
however, some larger companies were able to transport their products
to destinations many states away. In 1904 the Hoosier Brick Company
of New Albany shipped common bricks by rail throughout southern Indi-
ana and Kentucky. During the same year the Cayuga Brick and Coal
Company of Vermillion County shipped most of its common brick to
Chicago. Dry-pressed brick made at Hobart in Lake County were sold in
Philadelphia, Milwaukee, St. Paul, St. Louis, and other cities. The Indi-
ana Paving Brick Company of Brazil began operations in 1891, and by
1904 it was using local shale blended with sand from the shores of Lake
Michigan. Paving bricks were shipped from the plant to the larger cities
in Indiana and to Cincinnati, Louisville, and many towns in Illinois. Indi-
ana refactory bricks were well known in 1904, and the Burns and Hancock
Company of Vermillion County had supplied firebrick to states as far away
as Montana, Georgia, and Alabama.
At present most companies find their market within a 200-mile
radius of their manufacturing facilities.
Summary
In summary (Fig. 7), by 1900 Indiana's brick industry consisted of
more than 200 plants that were distributed broadly throughout the state,
that used virtually all types of suitable clay materials, and that produced
300
200
100
1929
47 Plants
1960
21 Plants
1970
12 Plants
Figure 7. Production and value of brick in Indiana for 1900 (.', ), 1929 (21) 1960 (5)
and 1970.
236 Indiana Academy of Science
more than 300 million brick a year with an annual value of nearly $2
million, predominantly for common brick. Progressively through the sub-
sequent 70 years the number of plants has decreased to the present 12,
the raw materials have been restricted largely to Pennsylvanian shales
and underclays and lower Mississippian shales and siltstones, the annual
volume has decreased by one-third to slightly less than 200 million brick,
and the annual value of the product has grown to nearly $8 million, partly
because of inflation and partly because most of the product is face brick
with higher unit value. This is a portrait of a stable industry — one that
has lost more ground in relation to the gross state product than is readily
apparent from the production figures, but one that is continuing to change
with advances in the construction industry and seems likely to continue
indefinitely as a significant element in the Indiana economy.
Literature Cited
1. Ault, C. H., and W. M. Webb. 1968. Directory of clay and shale producers
and ceramic plants in Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv., Bloomington, Ind. 25 p.
2. Blatchley, W. S. 1896. A preliminary report on the clays and clay industries
of the coal-bearing counties of Indiana. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Natur. Resources
Ann. Rept. 20:23-185.
3. 1898. The clays and clay industries of northwestern Indiana.
Indiana Dept. Geol. and Natur. Resources Ann. Rept. 22:105-154.
4. 1905. The clays and clay industries of Indiana. Indiana Dept. Geol. and
Natur. Resources Ann. Rept. 29:13-658.
5. Bureau of the Census, Industry Division. 1961. Current industrial reports. U.S.
Dept. Commerce, Washington, D. C. 6 p.
6. Callaghan, Eugene, and Jean Ecker. 1948. Directory of producers of mineral
raw materials, exclusive of oil and gas, in Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Directory 1.
88 p.
7. Collett, John. 1883. General economic geology. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Natur.
Hist. Ann. Rept. 12:17-25.
8. . 1884. Economic geology of the state. Indiana Dept. Geol. and
Natur. Hist. Ann. Rept. 13:38-44.
9. Cox, E. T. 1875. Geological report. Geol. Surv. Indiana Ann. Rept. 6:5-23.
10. . 1879. Porcelain, tile, and potters' clays. Geol. Surv. Indiana Ann.
Repts. 8, 9, 10:154-164.
11. Esarey, Logan. 1924 Clays, p. 904-907. In Logan Esarey. A history of
Indiana. 3d ed. Vol. 2. The Hoosier Press, Fort Wayne, Ind. p. 573-1151.
12. Harrison, J. L. 1960. Directory of producers and consumers of clay and shale in
Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Directory 7. 38 p.
13. , and H. H. Murray. 1964. Clays and shales of Indiana. Indiana Geol.
Surv. Bull. 31. 40 p.
14. Indiana Geological Survey. 1966. Directory of clay and shale producers and
ceramic plants in Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. 32 p.
15. Logan, W. N. 1922. Economic geology of Indiana. In W. N. Logan, et al. Hand-
book of Indiana geology. Indiana Dept. Conserv. Pub. 21:571-1058.
Geography and Geology 237
16. Murray, H. H. 1955. Directory of producers and consumers of clay and shale in
Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Dir. 3, 42 p.
17. Owen, D. D. 1839. Report of a geological reconnoissance of the State of
Indiana made in the year 1837. Osborn and Willetts, Indianapolis, Ind. 34 p.
18. Scott, John. 1833. The Indiana gazetteer. 2d ed. Douglass and Maguire
Indianapolis, Ind. 200 p.
19. Thompson, Maurice. 1886. The clays of Indiana. Indiana Dept. GeoL and
Natur. Hist. Ann. Kept. 15:34-40.
20. Thompson, W. H. 1889. Outline sketch of the most valuable minerals of Indiana.
Indiana Dept. Geol. and Natur. Hist. Ann. Rept. 16:77-86.
21. Whitlach, G. I. 1933. The clay resources of Indiana. Indiana Dept. Conserv.
Pub. 123, 298 p.
A Comparison of Public Utility and Governmental Rates and
Services Provided Mobile Home Park Residents and Other
Residents: A Case Study of Tippecanoe County, Indiana
Alan C. Freeman and George W. Webb
Department of Geography and Geology
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Abstract
This study involved a determination of whether services and rates received by
mobile home park residents differed from those received by other residents of the
county. Differences between these two classes of residents in public utility rates and
services were not found in the study area. With the exception of fire protection,
mobile home park residents receive governmental services comparable to those received
by other residents of the area. The principal variation in rates and services are those be-
tween locations inside and outside the municipal boundaries rather than those between
residents of mobile home parks and other residents.
Introduction
Mobile homes now account for about 94% of ail housing units sold
in the U. S. for under $15,000 and for 2/3 of all housing units costing
less than $25,000. The mobile home business is one of the fastest grow-
ing industries in the country today. Because of this growth the number
of mobile home parks has increased at a rapid rate.
A literature search revealed no prior investigations comparing
quality and costs of public utilities and government services received
by mobile home park residents with those received by other residents.
Tippecanoe County, Indiana, situated in the west-central part of the
state, was selected for such study.
In 1970 a total of 109,378 persons resided in Tippecanoe County,
according to the United States Census of Population. This was an in-
crease of 20,256 persons over the 1960 census figures. Lafayette,
located in the north-central part of the county, is approximately 60 miles
northwest of Indianapolis and 120 miles southeast of Chicago. Lafayette
had 44,955 persons while West Lafayette contained 19,157 persons, in
1970. Purdue University, with about 25,000 students on the home campus
is located at Lafayette. A large number of the university students reside
in mobile homes. The size and growth of the population, the presence
of Purdue University, and the locational advantages for industrial
development, along with the number of mobile home parks, were the
reasons for selecting Tippecanoe County, Indiana, for the study. The
purpose of the study was to determine whether or not the residents of
mobile home parks were subjected to differences in governmental serv-
ices and public utility rates from the rates and services received by other
residents of the study area.
Method
The data were obtained by holding personal interviews with the
proprietors and/or managers of the mobile home parks and with the
238
Geography and Geology 239
public utility companies and municipal departments which supply serv-
ices to the area.
The public utilities were the Public Service Company of Indiana;
Tipmont Rural Electric Membership Corporation; General Telephone
Company of Indiana; Indiana Gas Company, Incorporated; The City
of Lafayette Water Works and Sewage Treatment Department; The
West Lafayette Water Company; The City of West Lafayette Sewage
Treatment Department; and the Greater Lafayette T.V. Cable Service.
Governmental services included the following: maintenance of
streets, curbs, and street lights, police protection, fire protection, and
mail delivery.
Findings
It was found that a difference in rates for electrical service exists
in Tippecanoe County only in that Public Service, Indiana, In-
corporated, has two rate schedules, one for the urban areas and another
for rural areas. No rate differentiation is made between mobile home
park residents and other residents in the same rate schedule area.
Electrical service is made available to the mobile home park as
freely as to any other residential development in the county. Public
Service Indiana has encountered no major problems other than that of
congestion of lines with the other public utilities during the period of
construction.
Indiana Gas Company, Incorporated, sets no rate differences among
its various types of customers. One distinction is made in that mobile
home park residents are placed in the same class as customers who rent,
buy on contract, or live in an apartment. All of these residents are re-
quired to pay an $13.00 deposit before the gas company will provide
service to the unit.
Gas service is made available to any developer who wishes to make
a deposit equal to the cost of construction in case the gas company does
not feel it is economically sound for it to pay the initial cost. The
Indiana Gas Company does not face any major problems in bringing
service to the mobile home park resident other than that faced by other
utilities, the congestion of lines during the construction period.
A comparison of rates for water service in the mobile home parks
with other residents of the county revealed no difference between the
two; however, service was not as freely available to the mobile home
parks, primarily because it is not economically sound for the mobile
home park developer to pay for the construction of water lines when
he can drill his own well at a much lower cost. When service is extended
beyond the city limits of Lafayette the Board of Works decides who
will absorb the cost of construction for the water and sewage lines.
In West Lafayette the water company will not provide service to a
mobile home park unless the developer makes a deposit equal to the
cost of construction which is estimated by the West Lafayette Water
Company prior to the construction. It should be noted that the majority
240
Indiana Academy of Science
Bottle Ground
,4
I/-7
© / (251
Americus
&
WEST
m LAFAYETTE
52 W t-ft.
&0A
MOBILE HOME PARK LOCATIONS
IN TIPPECANOE COUNTY
• - Mobile Home Park
3 4 Miles
■i 1
Clarks Hill
SCALE
Figure 1. Mobile home park locations in Tippecanoe County, Indiana
of the mobile home parks are located just outside the municipal
boundaries (Fig. 1).
A developer may construct his own sewage lines and connect them
to the city's lines without having city water service if he is able to
obtain a permit by the city. However, it is more economical for the
developer to install septic tanks than to pay the cost of construction
of city sewage lines. No park in the study had city sewage without city
water service.
General Telephone Company of Indiana assigns its rates by zones
with Lafayette as the base area. No distinction is made between
mobile home park residents and other residents. A mobile home park
resident will, as will any other resident, pay a rate dependent on the
zone within which he is located.
Geography and Geology 241
Telephone service is available to all of the mobile home parks in-
cluded in the study. The major problem faced by General Telephone is
the strain placed on the central office as service is extended to a new
area.
The Greater Lafayette TV Cable Service Company does not dis-
tinguish between mobile home park residents and other residents when
establishing rates. However, the parks are treated as apartment
dwellings in installation and rate determination. This classification
often produces a rate which is lower than that for other residents. Only
six mobile home parks have cable T.V. service. The major problem is
again the congestion of lines.
In the area of fire protection the mobile home parks, because of
being located mostly outside the municipal boundaries, generally do
not receive the same level of service as do the residents of Lafayette
and West Lafayette. Parks located outside the municipal boundaries
must rely upon volunteer departments. Such units require an average
of approximately 25 min. to respond to calls, too long a time for the
department to be effective in extinguishing a mobile home fire. As a
result of being located relatively close to fire stations, municipality resi-
dents can be reached more quickly by the full-time fire fighting units.
Police protection of mobile home parks is comparable to that of
the other residents of the county. The mobile home parks located cut-
side the municipal boundaries are protected by the Sheriff's Office and
the Indiana State Police. The parks within the municipal boundaries
are protected by the municipal police departments.
Maintenance of streets, curbs, and street lights alongside the mobile
home park is also at the same level of service as that of any other area
within the county. The streets, curbs, and street lights within the parks
are the responsibility of the park owner.
The United States Post Office Department furnishes the same
service to the residents of the mobile home parks as to the other resi-
dents, the postman going to each unit in the park.
In summary, it can be stated that there are no differences between
the mobile home park residents and other residents in rates of the public
utilities, and that service is available to any park if the developer wishes
to make the investment when the public utility does not feel it is
economically sound for it to do so.
With the exception of fire protection, in the area of governmental
services the mobile home park resident receives comparable service to
that received by other residents who are similarly located. In general
it can be concluded that the principal variations in rates and service
are those between locations inside and outside the municipal boundaries
rather than those between residents of mobile home parks and other
residents.
Heavy Water A Natural Tracer
Clark H. Judy
Department of Geography
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
All naturally occurring water contains a small percentage of isotopically heavy
water molecules. The processes of vaporization and condensation affect the
concentration of the heavier water molecules. The changes in concentration of heavy
water molecules have been used to study the origin of winter storms, to determine
evaporation rates from lakes, and in studies of water movement.
Introduction
Three common heavy water molecules occurring in nature are HDO,
HTO, and H2Ois. HDO and H2Oi® are stable (non-radioactive)
isotopic forms of water and comprise 0.015% and 0.20%, respectively, of
naturally occurring water. HTO is radioactive and emits low energy
beta radiation. A small amount of HTO occurs naturally, but the use
of nuclear devices has increased the amount of HTO in the hydrologic
cycle.
The "heavy water" associated with nuclear projects, D20, is not
important in natural water supplies as it tends to break down and cause
the formation of HDO.
Scientists usually work with the natural or bomb-introduced
concentrations of heavy water. But, sometimes it is possible to
utilize small amounts of artificially concentrated heavy water for a
specific study. The concentrations of HDO or H2018 in a water sample
are usually measured with a mass spectrometer. A liquid scintillation
counter must be used to measure HTO.
The use of isotopically heavy water as a tracer of water movement
is best explained through a series of examples. First, two concepts must
be explained.
The vapor pressure of heavy water is slightly less than the vapor
pressure of H2016 at the same temperature. This will cause a slight
fractionation to occur whenever the processes of evaporation or conden-
sation takes place. During evaporation the heavy molecules tend to
become concentrated in the liquid phase while the vapor phase has a
higher percentage of light molecules. During condensation the heavy
molecules will tend to condense out more rapidly causing the first
condensate to be enriched with heavy molecules and the remaining
vapor to have a greater percentage of light molecules.
The heavy water content of a sample is often given as the per cent
deviation of the heavy isotope content of the sample relative to the
heavy isotope content of average ocean water. A sample of precipitation
with a HDO content reported as —7% contains 7% less HDO
242
Geography and Geology
243
molecules than ocean water, namely a reference water (SMOW,
standard mean ocean water, as recommended by Craig- ( 1 ) ) . Precipitation
is usually isotopically lighter than ocean water.
Examples
The change in the heavy isotope content of a body of water can
be used to determine the evaporative loss from that body of water. The
water entering a large lake has an average HDO content of —8.3%
and the discharge from the lake has a HDO content of —7.6%
(Fig. 1). These measurements indicate that fractionation during
evaporation caused an enrichment of the heavy isotope content of the
lake water. A knowledge of the amount of increase of HDO in the lake
and the vapor pressures of H20 and HDO allows one to calculate that
15% of the original volume of water has evaporated.
EVAPORATION
Outgoing water = -7.5$
Evaporation based on heavy water content = 15%
Figure 1. Diagram of heavy water — evaporation relationships of a lake. The amount
of evaporation from a lake can be determined by comparing the HDO content of the
incoming water with the HDO content of the outgoing water. Diagram after Friedman
et al (1964).
On a larger scale, we can follow the changes in the HDO content
of the moisture in a storm system (Fig. 2). The HDO (and
H2018 content of precipitation is controlled by the amount of condensa-
tion and the temperatures at which this condensation takes
place. The moisture evaporating from the ocean will be isotopically
lighter than the ocean water. As the processes of evaporation and con-
densation are opposite, the first condensate from the air mass will have
about the same heavy isotope content as the original ocean water. As
the air mass moves farther inland it will become depleted in heavy
molecules and the resulting precipitation will be isotopically lighter.
Snow is usually isotopically lighter than rain and high altitude precipi-
tation is usually lighter than low altitude precipitation.
In California, isotope measurements have been used as an indication
that during a winter of heavy snowfall there may have been a change
in circulation patterns not detected by the conventional meteorologist.
An extensive series of HDO or H2018 measurements should help the
meteorologists obtain some quantitative information on the processes
244
Indiana Academy of Science
Air mass has become
depleted in heavy molecules.
Air mass = -2%
»»*
Ocean water
Snow in^coastal mountains =
Early^condensate =
" " -1 to -5%
0% deviation
Snow in inland mountains =
14 to -20 %
Figure 2. Diagram of the variations in the HDO content of the precipitation as an air
mass moves inland. Preferential condensation of the heavier molecules causes the
moisture in the air mass to become isotopically lighter as it travels farther
inland.
occurring in the atmosphere. The main problem is a lack of sufficient
available data on the heavy isotope content of precipitation.
The variation in the heavy isotope content of precipitation may
be used in some hydrologic studies. Perhaps a city near a mountain
range is dependent upon ground water for a public water supply and
the city would like to determine the recharge area of the aquifer they
are using (Fig. 3). Basic information could be obtained by measuring
the heavy isotope content of the ground water and comparing it to the
heavy isotope content of precipitation in various areas. If the well water
was isotopically light, it could be assumed that the recharge area was
high in the mountains.
The uses of the isotopically heavy forms of water are not limited
to those just mentioned. HDO has been used in snowmelt studies, to
V
High altitude precipitation = -15%
Low altitude precipitation = -%
Well water = -14%
The low isotope content of the well
water indicates a high altitude recharge area.
Figure 3. Diagram of how the HDO content of water of unknown origin can be used
to indicate which of several areas is the actual source of the water.
Geography and Geology 245
help date layers of ice in glaciers, to trace the movement of soil mois-
ture, and in biological studies. The list of references that follows
expands on several of the applications. Friedman et al. reviewed
much of the work done with HDO (3). Dansgaard reviewed some of the
work done with H20ls (2).
There are several advantages to using heavy water as a tracer of
water movement. Water is actually being used to trace water, so there
is little problem with the selective absorption of an introduced tracer.
HDO and H2018 are naturally occurring and are not radioactive so
people will not be upset by their use. The slight fractionation upon
evaporation and condensation allows a quantitative measurement of
many hydrological and meteorological processes.
There is one disadvantage. The cost of sample analysis (currently
about $50 per sample) is high. This has restricted the accumulation of
large amounts of data and background knowledge about HDO and
H2018 in the hydrologic cycle.
Literature Cited
1. Craig, H. 1961. Standards for reporting concentrations of deuterium and oxygen
—18 in natural waters. Science 133:1833-34.
2. Dansgaard, W. 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16:436-68.
3. Friedman, I., A. Redfield, B. Schoen, and J. Harris. 1964. The variation of the
deuterium content of natural waters in the hydrologic cycle. Rev. Geophys.
2:177-223.
A Preliminary Investigation of Sludge
Refuse from Indiana Coal Mines1
Louis V. Miller
Indiana Geological Survey
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Abstract
Seven samples of fine refuse (sludge) were collected from two coal mine refuse pits
located in Greene and Sullivan Counties. Particle size distribution was determined.
Proximate and ultimate analyses of the sludge refuse were determined and compared to
a "whole coal." The data indicated that the British Thermal Unit content of sludge refuse
was about 75 per cent of that of the "whole coal" on the moisture-free basis, but was
almost similar on the moisture-ash free basis. Based on chemical parameters, sludge
refuse should be considered a natural resource for future fuel use and should be reclaimed.
Before coal can be used by industry, it must undergo a preparation
process at the mine site. This process consists of crushing, washing,
de-watering, and sizing of the coal. During the washing cycle, refuse
(pyrite, shale, clay, calcite, rock, high-gravity coal, etc.) is separated
from the coal.
Coal preparation produces two kinds of refuse: 1) a coarse particle
refuse ("gob") that may be several inches in diameter; and 2) a fine
particle refuse ("sludge" or "tailings") that may be 1/8 inch or less
in diameter. For brevity the terms "gob" and sludge are used in this
paper. Sludge contains larger percentages of coal than does "gob." Total
refuse can, periodically, account for as much as 45% of the total daily
raw coal (unprepared coal) production. Generally, the average
percentage for sludge is 3-7% and for gob 9-15% of total daily raw coal
production.
Within the 22 years preceding 1970, Indiana mines produced
370,022,689 tons of salable coal (M. B. Fox, personal communication).
Because almost all of this coal underwent the preparation process, the
average percentages (sludge — 5% and "gob" 12%) may be used to
calculate the amount of refuse produced. Calculations indicate that
during the 22-year period 136,857,706 tons of refuse were produced of
which 40,326,165 tons were sludge.
Sludge produced from the preparation of the following coal mem-
bers is considered in this paper: 1) Survant Coal (IV), 2) Springfield
Coal (V), 3) Hymera Coal (VI), and 4) Danville Coal (VII) (2).
Greene County
The Greene County sludge pit covered an area of 80-90 acres from
which Samples #4, 6 and 5 were taken (in that order). The interval be-
tween samples was 3,000 feet. Sample #4 was 1,000 feet from the point
of sludge entry into the pit. For observational purposes, additional
Publication authorized by the State Geologist, Department of Natural Resources,
Indiana Geological Survey.
246
Geography and Geology 247
samples were taken at 100 feet intervals between Sample Sites #5 and
6. Between these sites there was an apparent change to smaller
particle size and to a "dirty gray" color.
Sullivan County
The Sullivan County sludge pit covered a 70-acre area from which
Samples #13, 14, 11, and 12 were collected (in that order). Sample
#13 was the nearest to the point of sludge entry (about 400 feet). The
interval between samples was about 425 feet.
Methods
Seven sludge samples were collected from two sludge storage areas
(pits) of mines located in Greene and Sullivan Counties. Before
sampling, about 10 inches of sludge surface was removed and then the
sample was taken with the use of a post hole digger to a depth of 4 feet.
The sample filled a 5 gallon can.
Sample preparation and subsequent chemical analysis followed the
procedures and specifications of ASTM-D-271-58 (1). After collection,
the samples of sludge refuse were air dried so that their moisture con-
tent was in equilibrium with that in the atmosphere. Each sample
was thoroughly mixed and then split into four equal parts. Two of the
parts (making up 50% of the original sample) were mixed back
together to form the sample for the particle size determination. Of the
remaining two quarters, one was put into storage for future work and
the other was used for chemical analysis.
The chemical analysis consisted of determining moisture, ash,
volatile, fixed carbon, total carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulfur along
with the BTU and the C02. These data for sludge are compared with
the data from "raw coal." The Greene County sludge is compared with
Coal V while the Sullivan County sludge is compared with Coal VI.
The screening of the air-dried sample was accomplished with the
use of U.S. Standard sieves and a Tyler Ro-Tap sieve shaker. The sieves
had square opening sizes of 8, 16, 32, 100, and 200 mesh.
Results and Discussion
On the moisture-free basis the data indicate that sludge from the
Greene and Sullivan County pits is inferior to their respective compara-
tive coals (Tables 1 and 2). However, if data on the moisture-ash free
basis are considered, it is found that the differences are reduced and
that similarity of the materials is emphasized (Tables 1 and 2).
Samples #13, 14, and 11 of the Sullivan County pit exhibit the
idealistic pattern ; that is, higher ash and lower BTU nearer the point of
sludge entry into the pit progressing to lower ash and higher BTU
farther away (Table 2). Sample #12 appears to be the maverick in the
group with its high ash and low BTU; but the data in the particle size
histogram of Figure 1 indicates that Sample #12 had a high percentage of
fine particles (other data determined on particle size but not presented
in this paper indicated that higher ash is located in the finer size).
248
Indiana Academy of Science
Sample 4
GREENE COUNTY PIT
Sample 6
o> 30
Sample 13
H
rTrH..,,f
SULLIVAN COUNTY PIT
Sample 14 Sample 11
|«>^oggg ro^og88 «SS88§§ «2SS8§§
•^ V V V v
Figure 1. Histogram showing particle size percentages.
Sample #6, of the Greene County pit, exhibited the same tendencies as
Sample #12 except that its (Sample #6) sulfur and C02
were very high. These high values were brought about by a secondary
washing from run off water of a nearby 100-160 acre farm. The run
Table 1. Proximate and ultimate analysis, Greene County Pit.
Coal
V
"Sludge"
Sample
4
6
5
Moisture
Free
Ash
10.2
29.1
44.7
22.2
Volatile
40.9
29.0
27.4
31.7
Fixed Carbon
48.8
41.8
27.9
46.0
Carbon
71.1
54.3
41.3
61.3
Hydrogen
4.93
3.52
2.91
4.14
Nitrogen
L.54
0.85
0.70
.1 .07
Sulfur
3,9
3.29
6.97
3.46
BTU
12,670
9,560
7,130
10,880
CO2
1.331
0.08
Moisture and
2.98
Ash Free
0.12
Volatile
45.5
41.0
49.6
40.8
Fixed Carbon
54.3
59.0
50.4
59.2
Carbon
79.2
76.6
74.7
78.9
Hydrogen
5.49
4.96
5.26
5.32
Nitrogen
1.71
1 .20
1.27
1.38
Sulfur
4.34
4.64
12.6
4.45
BTU
14,110
13,480
12,900
14,000
COa
0.11
5.39
0.16
Sample only
Geography and Geology
249
off water entered the pit just above Sample #6 site resulting with the
separation of the lighter particles of coal from the heavier particles
of pyrite and calcite.
Because moisture is an erratic variable (on a daily basis) the data
for it were not included in the tables; but the moisture percentage
ranged from 18.8 to 37% with an average of 25.6% on the "as
received" basis.
Table 2. Proximate and Ultimate Analysis, Sullivan County Pit.
Coal
VI
"Sludge"
Sample
13
14
11
12
Moisture Free
Ash
13.4
26.6
19.3
18.7
84.3
Volatile
39.6
32.1
31.5
34.6
25.7
Fixed Carbon
47.0
41.3
49.2
46.8
40.0
Carbon
68.6
57.4
61.7
63.6
52.1
Hydrogen
4.76
2.85
4.12
4.50
3.27
Nitrogen
L.55
1.19
L.30
1.35
0.94
Sulfur
3.80
3.09
2.62
2.23
1.81
BTU
12,040
9,950
10,960
11,310
8,950
CO2
0.161
0.37
0.13
0.13
0.16
Moisture and Ash
Free
Volatile
45.7
43.7
39.0
42.5
39.1
Fixed Carbon
r»4.:i
56.3
61.0
57.5
60.9
Carbon
79.2
78.2
80.0
78.2
79.3
Hydrogen
5.50
3.89
5.11
5.53
4.98
Nitrogen
1.JS7
1.62
1.61
1.66
1.43
Sulfur
4.39
4.22
3.25
2.75
2.76
BTU
13,900
13,550
13,580
13,910
13,620
CO2
0.181
0.15
0.16
0.16
0.25
'Sample only
Conclusion
The data bore out some of the visual observations. When consider-
ing the BTU on the moisture-free basis, sludge refuse contains about
75% of that of the compared coal (Table 2). If the ash can be eliminated
then sludge refuse and coal are very similar, as indicated by the
moisture-ash free basis data. Because of the similarity of the chemical
parameters, and because of the great quantities available (over 40
million tons), sludge refuse should not be wasted. It should be considered
a fuel and should be reclaimed for fuel purposes.
250 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. American Society for Testing Materials 1970. Annual book of standards, laboratory
sampling and analysis of coal and coke. ASTB-D-271-68. p. 16-40.
2. Wier, C. E. 1959. Coal stratigraphy and resources studies, 1949-1957. Econ. Geol.
54:629-665.
3. Miller, Louis V. 1967. An investigative study of six Indiana coals. Proc. Indiana
Acad. Sci. 77:299-304.
The Distribution of Slopes in Indiana
David B. Waldrip and Michael C. Roberts
Department of Geography
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana, 47401
Abstract
Slope maps of Indiana have been prepared from the 2 percent sample of the United
States Department of Agriculture Conservation Needs Inventory. The Syngraphic Mapping
Technique (a form of computer cartography) was used to generate maps of average
slope, slopes between 0 and 2 per cent, and slopes 35 per cent and greater.
Introduction
The objective of this study was to develop a quantified slope map
which would supplement and extend the work of Malott (2) on the
regional geomorphology of Indiana. A subsidiary objective of the
research was to provide a slope map, sufficiently detailed, to aid in the
development of more precise morphometric measures to be used in
studies of watersheds in Indiana.
The classical study classifying and describing the physiographic
regions of Indiana was published by Mallott in 1922 (2). More re-
cent summaries of the State's physiography are to be found in papers by
Schneider (4) and Wayne (6). A quantitative approach to the
physiography of the state is taken by Lewis (1) who used principal com-
ponents analysis as a method of regionalizing 13 morphometric
variables. His data were collected from a random sample of 60 fourth
order drainage basins. The writers believe that Lewis is justified in con-
cluding that his approach provides a more objective view of Indiana
physiography. However, any examination of the benefits of objectivity
as yielded by principal components analysis must be balanced by the
fact that the physiographic regions, so produced, are rudimentary and
not particularly informative.
In the geographic literature there are many reports of research
dealing with state and regional maps of slope, though none of these
studies use the mapping techniques and data sources of this paper. Good
summaries of slope research are to be found in Miller and Summerson
(3), and Zakrzewska (7).
Conservation Needs Inventory
It was recognized in the mid-1950's that changes in land-use
patterns with their associated problems were taking place rapidly
enough to necessitate the development of a data bank which could be
used to monitor these changes. The response to the situation was the
establishment, in 1957, of the Conservation Needs Inventory (referred
to hereafter as the C.N.I.) . The major objective of this Inventory was
to provide the U.S. Government with up-to-date and detailed information
251
252 Indiana Academy of Science
on the rural landscape. The scope of the data is indicated by the follow-
ing variables which are included in the inventory: land ownership, soil
type, slope, erosion, land use and treatment needs. The U.S. Department
of Agriculture wanted the inventory, for the entire country, to be com-
pleted within 3 years of the starting date in 1957. To achieve these ob-
jectives, Taylor (5) designed a startified random sample, which used
the quarter section (160 acres) as its standard sampling unit; a
sampling rate of 2% was established that required the selection of 3
quarter sections per township. The Statistical Laboratory of Iowa State
University in Ames, Iowa, is responsible for maintaining and period-
ically updating the Inventory which is stored on magnetic tape.
Analysis of the Data
The first task of this research was to change the order of the
C.N.I, variables from a sequence based on soil types to one based on
counties and townships. This strategy put the data into a locational form
eminently suitable for computer mapping.
With the data in the new sequence it was possible to compute the
average slope value for a township by using the following formula:
1 N
Yi = 5 Pj (S qk) X 100
3=1 k=l
S ~ "
where, Yi = average slope for the ith township
N = number of soil mapping units in the ith township contain-
ing at least one acre of slope class j
Pj = midpoint value of slope class j (%)
qk = acreage of the kth soil mapping unit
S = sample acreage of the iUl township.
The outer summation refers to the seven slope classes adopted by the
C.N.I, for Indiana; these are 0-2; 2-6; 6-12; 12-18; 18-25; 25-35, and
greater than 35% slope.
Computerized maps of the slope classes were then generated by
using the Synagraphic Mapping Technique (SYMAP). The geographic
center of the 1,270 townships used in the Inventory of Indiana served
as the data points for the maps.
Slope Maps of Indiana
Four maps were selected for illustrating the variation of slope in
Indiana. Included were two average slope maps, and maps of 0-2% slope
and 35% and greater slope.
Average Slope Map 1
This map (Fig. 1) uses the slope class intervals adopted by the Con-
servation Needs Inventory for Indiana (these values vary from state
to state). The feature that clearly emerges from the map is the division
Geography and Geology
2^::
of the state into two parts about a line drawn approximately east-
west through Indianapolis. The slopes of the southern half of the state
clearly reflect the physiographic divisions established by Malott (2).
The Wabash and Scottsburg Lowlands are readily identified as are the
higher average slopes of the Crawford, Norman, and Dearborn Uplands.
The Mitchell Plain between the Crawford and Norman Uplands can be
distinguished even though the pattern of low slope is broken into dis-
continuous units. The northern half of the map is dominated by 1-6%
slopes reflecting the glacial modification of the landscape north of Indi-
anapolis.
Figure 1. The average slope map 1.
The 0-2% Slope Map
The value of this map (Fig. 2) to the interpretation of Indiana
physiography is the emphasis it gives to the occurrence of low slopes,
which are indicated by the darker shadings on the map. For example,
254
Indiana Academy of Science
the Calumet and Maumee Lacustrine Lowlands are clearly differentiated
as well as the more extensive Tipton Till Plain to the south. The low-
lands and floodplains associated with the Kankakee, Wabash and White
Rivers are well defined areas of low slope. Other features that can be
identified are the Valparaiso Moraine and the Steuben Morainal Lake
Area.
% Township wtth
0 - 2% Slope
3 9
- 207
207
- 405
"40 5
- 60 4
1H604
- 80.2
5K\i mi ■
- 1000
Figure 2. The map of slope in Indiana based on the percentage of a toivnship with
0-2% slopes.
Average Slope Map 2
The class intervals for this map (Fig. 3) are changed from Figure
1 in that each interval represents an equal range of slope. It is apparent
that the lowest class interval does not discriminate, very effectively,
the slope variation in the northern half of the state. The concentration
of high slopes in the southern uplands of Indiana is more clearly em-
Geography and Geology
■>-^
Figure 3. The average slope map 2.
phasized than on the previous map and, again, the Malott physiographic
divisions are reaffirmed in this area.
The 35% and Greater Slope Map
The high slopes, on this map (Pig. 4), are spatially clustered into
two groups. One group is associated with the bluffs of the Ohio River,
while the other is a cluster extending NW-SE across the southwestern
quadrant of the state. This trend line appears to reflect the occurrence
of particularly high slopes in both the Norman and Crawford Uplands.
An area of high slope in the central portion of the map reveals a prob-
lem of widely scattered data points in relation to the SYMAP
algorithm. The data of one township with a high slope value located
on the bluffs of the White River are expanded to influence a much larger
area on the map than exists in reality. This difficulty can be overcome
when the sample is areally dense enough to prevent the present situation
of an isolated anomaly from arising.
256
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 4.
The map of slope in Indiana based on the percentage of a township with
> 35% slopes.
Conclusions
The value of the C.N.I, to the physical geographer who is concerned
with slope research has been demonstrated. The maps produced here
give insight into the variation of landforms of Indiana for they show
that physiographic regions are not uniform spatial units but, in fact,
units possessing internal variations.
Acknowledgment
We thank Mr. J. M. Hollingsworth, Staff Cartographer, Department
of Geography, for his contributions in the preparation of the maps.
Geography and Geology 257
Literature Cited
1. Lewis, L. 1968. Analysis of surficial landform properties: the regionalization
of Indiana into units of morphometric similarity. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 78:
317-328.
2. Malott, C. A. 1922. The physiography of Indiana, p. 59-256. In W. B.
Burford (ed.) Handbook of Indiana Geology. Indiana Dep. Conserv., Publ. 21, Pt. 2.
1120 p.
3. Miller, O. M., and C. H. Summerson. 1960. Slope-zone maps. Geog. Rev.
50:194-202.
4. Schneider, A. F. 1966. Physiography, p. 40-56. In A. A. Lindsey (ed.)
Natural Features of Indiana, Indiana Acad. Sci. Sesquicentennial "Vol., Indianapolis,
Ind. 600 p.
5. Taylor, H. L. 1958. Statistical sampling for soil mapping surveys. Statistical
Lab., Iowa State Univ., Ames (reprinted 1962). 75 p.
6. Wayne, W. J. 1966. Ice and land, p. 21-39. In A. A. Lindsey (ed.) Natural
Features of Indiana, Indiana Acad. Sci. Sesquicentennial Vol. Indianapolis, Ind.
600 p.
7. Zakrzewska, B. 1967. Trends and methods in landform geography. Ann. Assoc.
Amer. Geog. 57:128-165.
MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Chairman: Robert F. Ramaley, Department of Microbiology,
Indiana University, Bloomington 47401
Morris Pollard, Department of Microbiology, University of
Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, was elected chairman
for 1972
Abstracts
Comparative Growth Kinetics of Microbial Bio-Oxidation. Robert
H. L. Howe, Eli Lilly and Company Tippecanoe Laboratories, Lafayette,
Indiana 47902. The comparative growth kinetics of microbial bio-
oxidation was discussed. A number of mathematical explanations were
devised and compared. For a substrate of high concentration, the
kinetics of both batch and continuous systems were presented. Illustra-
tions were given for signifying the difference of the first order
kinetics and those of higher orders.
A Survey of Pollution Levels in the Bean Blossom Watershed (Lake
Lemon) and in the Salt Creek Watershed (Lake Monroe)— Brown and
Monroe Counties, Indiana. James Butler, David Docauer, Mark
Downing, Michael Dulin, Kent Fischvogt, William Gardiner,
James Holloway, John Jacoby, Jerry Neff and Linda Schell.
Indiana University Undergraduate Honors Program and Department
of Microbiology, Bloomington, Indiana 47401. One hundred and
twenty-two samples were taken from various areas within the Lake
Monroe watershed by the H-300 Environmental Protection and Planning
class during the spring of 1971 and analyzed for presumptive coliform
numbers by the most probable number tube dilution method. Selected
samples were also analyzed by the confirmed and completed tests. One
hundred and thirty samples were similarly analyzed from the Lake
Lemon and Bean Blossom Creek watershed. The detailed maps and
results of the study are on file at the Indiana State Board of Health.
Areas within the Lake Monroe area that showed unusually high coliform
levels were: 1) downstream from the City of Nashville sewage treat-
ment plant on the north fork of Salt Creek; 2) areas adjacent to boat
launching ramps; 3) Moore's Creek and Ramp Creek; 4) bottom
samples from the Fairfax marina; and 5) a number of isolated areas
in the upper watershed. The swimming beaches and the center of the
lake showed a negligible coliform level. In contrast to the low levels
of coliform in the relatively undeveloped Lake Monroe watershed, the
Lake Lemon and Bean Blossom watershed showed 100 presumptive
coliform or greater per milliliter in more than 20 of the samples taken.
These high coliform levels in a similar and adjacent unprotected water-
shed point out the necessity for continued environmental protection of
Lake Monroe watershed by the Indiana State Board of Health.
The Use of Pollution Surveys as Aids in Environmental Protection and
Planning. Robert F. Ramaley, Department of Microbiology, Indiana
University, Bloomington, Indiana 47401. During the past 3 years
259
260 Indiana Academy of Science
a large number of students both in courses and during independent study
have conducted pollution surveys from this laboratory (e.g., the
H-300 survey of Lake Monroe) upon the request of conservation and
environmental groups and city and county planners. In these surveys
we have tried a number of different procedures and survey methods,
some of which may have utility especially to biology classes in
Indiana's primary and secondary schools. It is to be anticipated that
there will be an increasing number of public pollution surveys conducted
by classes in Indiana schools and universities, and, in order for these
surveys to have their desired effect, the following suggestions are
offered: 1) The use of Difco Endo LES agar rather than the presump-
tive coliform tube test. It is a better teaching aid and is much more
selective than other liquid or solid media. It is so highly selective for
coliform that schools without sterilizing equipment for sterilizing media
will be able to use it without any problem provided they make it up fresh
before each use and protect it from light. We have found that 0.1
milliliter of water sample spread over the surface of the agar is usually
sufficient for the determination of the number of coliform in most
samples. However, a series of samples should be prepared if millipore
filters are used to sample larger volumes since high bacterial growth
may obscure the identification of coliform colonies, giving a false
negative test. 2) Coordination with local and state regulatory agencies
both in the planning and in the interpretation of the results. There is
increasing evidence that the number of fecal coliforms is more closely
related to the level of sewage pollution, and, although this test is not
unusually difficult, it is best that some duplicate samples be done by
experienced bacteriological laboratories such as the Indiana State Board
of Health. 3) Cooperation with local city and county planners so that
survey information will be as useful as possible in deciding the future
extent and location of development as well as simply pointing out present
problems.
NOTE
The Impact of Water Pollution on Recreational Areas in Delaware County.
Stanton C. Burt, Department of Microbiology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana 47401. The contamination of lakes, rivers, and
their tributaries with fecal material often results in the conversion of
recreational areas into health hazards. This is an extensive problem
which can be combated most easily by the application of state laws
through local agencies.
Methods and Materials
The procedures followed for the determination of coliform group
are those in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater published by the American Public Health Association. The
"presumptive" and "confirmed" tests were performed before the applica-
tion of the MPN chart.
Results
During the summer of 1971, Muncie Creek, which empties into White
River within McCulloch Park, had an average coliform count of 130,000
Microbiology and Molecular Biology 261
organisms per 100 milliliters as it flowed through the park. The Muncie
Mall and Marhoefer Packing Company outflows were investigated as
possible contributers to this situation. Two-thirds of the Muncie Mall
samples exceeded the million organisms per 100 ml. The Marhoefer
samples varied from a low of 240,000 to a high of 1,100,000
organisms per 100 ml depending upon the time of day they were
taken. The Regulation SPC 1R-2, Water Quality Standards For Waters
of Indiana, states that "Coliform group (is) not to exceed 5,000 per 100
ml as a monthly-average value (either MPN or MF count)." This places
the Muncie Mall and Marhoefer Packing Company as much as 220 times
the violation figure at times.
The Prairie Creek Reservoir swimming facility was found to have
an MPN of 15,000 per 100 ml. A creek, which drains a feedlot 1% miles
upstream, empties approximately one block from the swimming site.
This sloping feedlot is located near the corner of 700E and 500S and
multiplies the coliform group level of the stream 30 times.
Data cannot relay the offensiveness of the Nebo Bridge outflow
which dribbles toilet paper down the bank and into White River. Al-
though residential outflows such as this one are small they are often
the most potent as all samples having an MPN of greater than
1,100,000 per 100 ml would indicate.
The local Stream Pollution Control Board held hearings for the
Muncie Mall and Marhoefer Packing Company reaching solutions agreed
to by both parties. The Nebo Bridge outflow and the feedlot were outside
the sanitary district's jurisdiction but will fall under county health laws.
There are 123 outflows remaining to be investigated.
The Effects of Glucose, Acetate, and Malonate Upon Fatty
Acid Distribution in Aspergillus niger.
David L. Peterson and Alice S. Bennett,
Department of Biology,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Submerged cultures of Aspergillus niger were grown In media containing
different concentrations of glucose, sodium acetate, or sodium malonate. Varying
concentrations of glucose with or without added acetate did not alter the distribution of
fatty acids produced by 120 hour cultures.
Increasing the concentrations of sodium acetate in the 5 per cent glucose medium
caused the percentage of saturated fatty acids to increase from 20 per cent to 68 per cent.
However, aerated stir cultures containing 2.5 per cent acetate produced the normal
amount of unsaturated fatty acids with linolenic acid representing the largest com-
ponent. In the control cultures linoleic is the major unsaturated fatty acid.
The high acetate cultures also differed from the control in that their growth was
markedly inhibited, and the sharp decrease in pH which is characteristic of
Aspergillus cultures was not observed.
Similar but not as pronounced effects were observed when sodium malonate was added
to the 5 per cent glucose medium.
Introduction
Research in recent years has indicated that there are at least two
pathways for the biosynthesis of fatty acids. The acetyl-coenzyme A
pathway has been observed in intact mitochondria isolated from plants
(1, 2, 3, 8, 13, 19, 21) and mammals (6, 7, 18). The malonyl-coenzyme A
pathway, which occurs outside of the mitochondria, has been identified in
many plant and animal tissues (20, 21). In soybeans (9), isolated plant
leaves (10), and yeast (5) the long chain fatty saturated fatty acids
are subsequently converted to unsaturated fatty acids by an oxygen
dependent enzyme system.
Members of the Class Ascomycetes, with fatty acid compositions
similar to those found in higher plants (15), have been used to study
the biosynthesis of fatty acids in plants and plant-like organisms
(4, 11, 17). Matto (12) reported that fatty acid synthesis in
Aspergillus niger was reduced but not completely inhibited when
avidin, a biotin inhibitor, was added to the medium, suggesting that
fatty acids are synthesized by a pathway other than that using
malonyl-coenzyme A. If the alternate pathway utilizes acetate, it should
be possible to stimulate fatty acid synthesis by this pathway by in-
creasing the amounts of acetate in the presence of a carbohydrate source
in the medium. However, Romano and Romberg (14) have reported
that cultures of Aspergillus nidulans grown in a medium containing
100 mM of sodium acetate and 100 mM of glucose were markedly
inhibited in growth and their ability to incorporate hexoses. The fatty
acid distribution of the inhibited cultures was not reported.
262
Microbiology and Molecular Biology 263
In this study the effects of adding increasing amounts of sodium
acetate and sodium malonate to the culture medium of Aspergillus
niger were investigated.
Experimental Procedure
Aspergillus niger (LBa 376) was maintained on potato dextrose
agar slants. Spores were lightly scraped and washed from the slants
with sterile medium. One ml of the spore suspension was used to
inoculate 100 ml of sterile culture medium. One set of experiments used
a medium containing from 0 to 5 g glucose and 0.2 g
KH2P04; 0.2 g MgS04.7H20; 0.2 g NH4N03; 5 g NaC2H302; and
100 ml H20. In another, the medium contained 5 g glucose, 0.2 g NH4N03;
0.2 g KH2P04; 0.05 g MgS04; 100 ml H20 and from 0 to 15 g of
acetate or malonate. Control cultures contained no acetate or malonate.
Cultures were incubated for 120 hours on a reciprocating shaker (180
revolutions per minute). Stir cultures were aerated and stirred for 120
hours. Cultures used for time studies were stirred and aerated in 600 ml
of medium in a 11 flask.
At the end of the incubation period or at selected time points the
mycelium was harvested by filtration through glass wool, resuspended
in 15 ml absolute methanol, and sonified for 3 min (J-17A Sonifier,
Branson Sonic Co.). The sonicate was diluted with an equal volume of
15% methanoic KOH, refluxed for 2 hours, and acidifed with concentrat-
ed HC1. The fatty acids were extracted with hexane, washed with distilled
water, and filtered through anhydrous sodium sulfate. After removing
the solvent on a rotary evaporator, the fatty acids were methylated with
diazomethane (14). The methyl esters were isolated on silica gel G thin
layer chromotography plates, and separated, identified, and quantified by
gas liquid chromatography using a 10-foot glass column packed with
5% DEGA on 60/80 mesh chrom GA/W; column temperature, 190°C;
gas flow, 70 ml/min (Varian Aerograph 90-P).
Results and Discussion
Although Woodbine et al. (21) reported that the addition of increas-
ing amounts of carbohydrates to the medium stimulated total fatty acid
synthesis in Aspergillus niger, our results indicated that increasing the
amount of glucose in the presence of 5% acetate did not affect fatty acid
distribution in 120-hour cultures (Fig. 1).
The normal decrease in pH observed in cultures grown without
acetate did not occur in cultures grown in a medium containing
5% glucose and 2.5% or 5% sodium acetate. Growth of the
mycelium was markedly inhibited at these concentrations and completely
inhibited at 15%. Romano and Kornberg (14) reported that the uptake
of glucose in cultures grown in a medium with 100 mM acetate
decreases as much as 80%. They suggested that acetyl-coenzyme A was
responsible for the inhibition of hexose uptake. Apparently the acetate
also inhibits the secretion of citric and gluconic acids which is
characteristic of normal cultures.
264
Indiana Academy of Science
4 -
-
""""^•sT* ***■
—
**•-<*.
^^^
^-*>.
">0
~-
-
5% Aceiaie + Glucose
2.5% Aceiaie + Glucose
_
i
i
1
Control
» •
i 1
24
120
72
Time (Hours)
Figure 1. Changes in pH during growth of Aspergillus niger on different substrates.
66
-
lftat4fa i PliinnCO
00
Maionaie + Glucose
cs
■**
a»
5
~
9<
^30
-
/
^
/
ca
/
CO
/
CO
^
"S»
/
/
CO
•^
^-v
1 1
i I
0.5
1,5
2,5
Percent substrate
Figure 2. Per cent saturated fatty acids recovered from Aspergillus niger grown in
the presence of acetate and malonate.
Microbiology and Molecular Biology 265
Table 1. The effects of growing cultures two different ways1.
Culture
Saturated
Unsaturated
20
80
64
36
25
75
Control, Shake
2.5% Acetate, Shake
2.5% Acetate, Stir and Aerate
'Harvested after 120 hours growth at 28°C.
The per cent saturated fatty acids produced by shake cultures grown
in a medium containing 2.5% sodium acetate was 48% higher than that
produced by control cultures (Fig. 2). A similar, but smaller (16%)
increase was effected by the addition of sodium malonate. This effect
could be reversed by stirring and aerating high acetate cultures
(Table 1). Upon aeration the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids in
the acetate culture was similar to the control.
However, when acetate was included in the medium, linolenic acid
represented the largest component while linoleic acid was highest in
the control (Table 2). Whether this difference in the distribution of un-
saturated fatty acids was due to the increased availability of the
acetate or the decreased availability of the glucose is not clear.
Table 2. Per cent distribution of the major Fatty acids recovered from Aspergillus
niger in a submerged medium containing varying concentrations of acetate1.
Per cent
Per cent
Acetate
Glucose
12:0
14:0
16:0
16:1
18:0
18:1
18:2
18:3
0.0
5
2
1
10
t
1
24
54
t
2.5
5
2
t
18
4
5
Vi
2fi
28
5.0
5
10
1
11
2
1
4
28
40
7.5
5
16
t
19
9
2
6
23
35
10.0
5
5
1
13
7
2
6
28
34
12.5
5
15
5
9
25
4
6
15
20
15-35
5
No Growth
'Grown at 28°C for five days in aerated stir cultures.
Literature Cited
1. Barron, E. J. 1966. The mitochondrial fatty acid synthesizing system: General
properties and acetate incorporation into monoenoic acids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta.
116:425-435.
2. Barron, E. J., C. Squires, and P. K. Stumpf. 1961. Fat metabolism in higher
plants: Enzymatic synthesis of fatty acids by an extract of avocado mesocarp. J.
Biol. Chem. 236:2610-2614.
266 Indiana Academy of Science
3. Barron, E. J., and P. K. Stumpf. 1962. Evidence for separate pathways for the
biosynthesis of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids by an avocado enzyme system.
J. Biol. Chem. 237:613-614.
4. Bennett,, A. S., and F. W. Quackenbush. 1969. Synthesis of unsaturated fatty
acids by PenciUium chrysogenum. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 130 :567-572.
5. Bloomfield, D. K., and K. Block. 1960. The formation of -9 unsaturated fatty
acids. J. Biol. Chem. 235:337-344.
6. Del Boca, J., and J. P. Flatt. 1969. Fatty acid synthesis from glucose and
acetate and the control of lipogenesis in adipose tissue. European J. Biochem.
11:127-134.
7. Dituri, F., W. N. Shaw, J. V. B. Warms, and S. Curin. 1957. Lipogenesis in
particle-free extracts of rat liver: Substrates and cofactor requirements. J. Biol.
Chem. 226:407-416.
8. Harlan, W. R., and S. J. Wakil. 1936. Synthesis of fatty acids in animal
tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 238:3216-3223.
9. Inkpen, J., and F. Quackenbush. 1966. Desaturation of fatty acids by
supernatant fractions from the soybean. Fed. Proc. 25:340.
10. James, A. T. 1963. The biosynthesis of long-chain saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids in isolated plant leaves. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 70:9-19.
11. Kamback, D. O., and A. S. Eennett. 1971. Effect of environmental conditions
on fatty acid composition of Aspei gillus niger. Bacterid. Proc. 1971:144.
12. Matto, A. K., V. V. Modi, and R. N. PATEL. 1966. Biotin and fatty acid
biogenesis in Aspergillus flavus. Experientia 22:436-437.
13. Mudd, J. B., and P. K. Stumpf. 1961. Fat metabolism in higher plants: Factors af-
fecting the synthesis of oleic acid by particulate preparations from avocado
mesocarp. J. Biol. Chem. 236 :2602-2609.
14. Roman, A. H., and H. L. Kornberg. 1969. Regulation of sugar uptake by
Aspergillus nidulans. Proc. Roy. Soc. Brig. 173:475-490.
15. Shaw, R. 1965. Occurrence of linolenic acid in fungi. Biochim. Biophys. Acta.
98:230-236.
16. Sciilenk, H., and J. L. Gellerman. 1960. Esterification of fatty acids with
diazomethane on a small scale. Anal. Chem. 32:1412-1413.
17. Schwenk, K., and A. S. Bennett. 1970. The effect of avidin in Aspergillus niger
and Aspergillus flavus. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 79:351-355.
18. Smith, S., D. J. Easter, and R. Dils. 1966. Fatty acid biosynthesis intracellular-
site of enzymes in lactating i-abbit mammary gland. Biochim. Biophys. Acta.
125:445-455.
19. Stumpf, P. K., and G. A. Barber. 1957. Fat metabolism in higher plants:
Enzymatic synthesis of long chain fatty acids by avocado particles. J. Biol.
Chem. 227:407.
20. Wakil, S. J. 1958. A malonic acid derivative as an intermediate in fatty acid
synthesis. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 80:6465.
21. Woodbine, M., M. E. Gregory, and T. K. Walker. 1951. Microbiological
synthesis of fat. J. Exp. Bot. 2:204-211.
PHYSICS
Chairman : Malcolm E. Hults, Physics Department,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Torsten Alvager, Department of Physics,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
Effects of Pressure on Electronic Properties of Bismuth. Uwe J. Hansen
Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809, and Elvin M. Compy, US Naval Research Lab, Washington, D.C.
20390. Experiments which study changes of electronic properties with
variation in interatomic spacing are critical in their support of energy
band calculations. The research reported here involves the first observa-
tion of cyclotron resonance and Alfven wave propagation in Bismuth under
pressures to 3 kilobars (Rev. Sci. Instr. 42:1215). The experiments are
carried out at a temperature of 4°Kelvin using a standard 35 GHz bridge
circuit. Effective mass decreases of the order of 6 per cent per kilobar are
observed.
Photoelectric Photometry of an Eclipsing Binary Star System. Ronald
Kaitchuck and Newton G. Sprague, Department of Physics, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. Many of the stars comprising our
galaxy are members of a system of two stars in orbit about each other.
The vast majority of these systems are far enough from the earth so as
to appear only as a single point of light even in the largest of telescopes.
However, if the orbital plane is seen edge-wise by an observer on the earth,
during some portion of the orbital period an eclipse of one component will
cause a drop in the observed light output.
The eclipsing binary system V566 Ophiuchi was studied in detail dur-
ing the summer of 1971. Data were collected with a photoelectric photo-
meter and the 12-inch Cassegrain telescope of the Ball State University
Observatory. A complete light curve was obtained in two different spectral
regions. The observations indicate that some event during the last 5 years
has caused a change in the orbital period. There is also some indication
that the color of the system is not as stable as was previously observed.
It is hoped that the light curve will yield information as to the orbital
elements. Standardization of the photometer system should yield the
surface temperatures of the two stars.
Neutron Activation Cross Sections Using 2.8 MeV Neutrons. DwiGHT
E. Michael and Leon M. Reynolds, Department of Physics, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. A low-voltage type neutron
generator-accelerator producing 2.8 MeV neutrons has been used to study
neutron activation cross sections in a number of elements. There is a
scarcity of good data in the literature because of the generally small values
of these cross sections and special methods are required to increase the
number of reactions occurring.
267
268 Indiana Academy of Science
A relative measure of the neutron flux was made using indium
standards. The efficiency of the detection system was experimentally
measured by the use of standardized radioisotopes.
The product isotopes, produced by (n,y) or (n,n'y) reactions, and
their measured activation cross section were: H6min _ iQ4 ± 5mb; 137mBa
- 459 ± 45 mb; 139Ba - 5.48 ± 0.47 mb; 128I - 38.5 ± 3.0 mb; 56Mn - 4.28
± 0.34 mb; and 87mSr - 219 ± 26 mb. Errors from 4.8 per cent for H6min
to 12 per cent for 8"mgr were determined.
The Numerical Lathe Fabrication and Theoretical Evaluation of an
Electron Lens. John Swez and James Westgard, Department of
Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809, and Larry
Plew, Quality Evaluation Section, Crane Naval Ammunition Depot,
Crane, Indiana. The construction of an electron lens similar to that
reported by A. V. Crewe (Quart. Rev. Biophys. 3:145) was
attempted utilizing a numerical lathe. A computer program (APTURN)
developed by the Cincinnati Research Corporation and used to
generate control tapes for numerical lathes was modified to accept the
equation used to generate the nonspherical surface of the lens. Although
the optical properties of such a lens have been evaluated by A. N. Butler
(Proc. 6th Int. Congr. for E. M., 1966), a partial evaluation of the optical
properties was reported here. Computer calculated parameters were dis-
played on an oscilloscope interfaced to a PDP 8/1 Computer.
Tayex: A Taylor Expansion Equation Solver. James B. Westgard and
David G. Pitts, Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, Indiana 47809. A digital computer program was written to
implement a method of solving nonlinear simultaneous differential equa-
tions. The method was based on the Taylor expansion with an algorithm
for finding the coefficients. It is extremely easy to use so that it should
be useful in giving students confidence in being able to handle differential
equations as they appear in course work. It will be especially useful for
Lagrangian mechanics.
D-17B Minuteman Missile Computer Interfacing. C. T. Wunker and
P. R. Errington, Department of Physics, Ball State University, Muncie,
Indiana 47306. Ball State University has recently acquired via govern-
ment excess property a type D-17B Minuteman missile guidance control
computer. Hundreds of these mini-computers are being made available
to colleges and universities throughout the United States. These com-
puters, as received from the government, do not have usable input and
output interfacing. To be useful as a teaching or research computer, inter-
facing must be designed and constructed. The computers and the inter-
facing now in use at Ball State University were described.
Growth of Single Crystals of Alkali Niobates. D. L. DeMoss and C. C.
Sartain, Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute,
Indiana 47809. Single Crystals of lithium niobate and potassium nio-
bate were grown from compounds made by solid state diffraction of the
alkali carbonate with Nb20f). The compounds were melted and single
crystals were pulled from the melt. Many experimental problems such
Physics 269
as phase separation of the melt and cracking of the crystal on cooling
through its Curie temperature arose in our study. Our solution to these
problems was discussed.
A Critical Study of the Various Factors Limiting Resolution in Solid
State Detectors. K. E. Wright and C. C. Sartain, Department of
Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809. — — A
measurement of the intrinsic Fano factor for a particular Si (Li) detector
was necessary to compare with theory. The Fano factor is defined as
< (N-N)2> = F N, where N, (N) is the (average) number of produced
ionized pairs; N =E/C, where E is the initial energy of the ionizing
particle. The value of the intrinsic Fano factor was determined from the
relation y2 = y2 + y2« + y2: and by linear extrapolation of
' ' ion ' col noise
y2 for the infinite field strength from the dependence of y2 on the re-
ciprocal detector voltage. This measured value of the intrinsic Fano
factor will ultimately determine whether or not carbon x-rays (277 ev)
can be detected. The Si (Li) detector will provide chemical analysis
composition when coupled to an scanning electron microscope.
Calculus Without Differentials. Phillip S. Marcus, Department of
Mathematics, Indiana University at South Bend, South Bend, Indiana.
The differential notation of Leibniz has recently been superceded in popu-
larity among mathematicians by the dot-prime notation of Newton and
LaGrange, and the abstract operator D notation of Cauchy. Leibniz differ-
entials are still used in integral calculus. Karl Menger showed that
differentials can be replaced by the unbelievably simple device of giving
an explicit symbol — j — to the identity function. Examples were given of
definite and indefinite integrals and seperable differentiate equations
which were usually integrated by manipulation of differentials, but the
usual manipulation of differentials was replaced by Menger's improved
notation for substitution of functions.
NOTE
Neutron Activation Analysis of a Metal Button from the Site of Fort
Harrison. Torsten K. E. Alvager and Ralph A. Llewellyn, Depart-
ment of Physics, and Robert E. Pace, Department of Anthropology,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809. Among the
artifacts recovered by the archeologists from the apparent site of the
Fort Harrison Cemetery were 7 metal buttons. Severe corrosion had
destroyed those features that might otherwise reveal unit, rank, and date
of manufacture. With the view of searching old metal specification
records, the metallic composition of the best preserved of the buttons was
examined by the non-destructive technique of neutron activation analysis.
Preliminary analysis using the ISU 2-curie Pu-Be neutron source indicated
that more complete examination would be of interest. The detailed analysis
was performed by irradiating the button for 48 hours in the General
Atomics 10-curie Pu-Be neutron source in San Diego, California. Follow-
ing irradiation, the gamma-ray activity produced was analyzed using a
36 cc Ge (Li) detector and a 4096 channel analyzer.
270 Indiana Academy of Science
On the basis of the observed gamma-ray energies, the elements posi-
tively identified as being present in the button are: Cu, Zn, Au, and As.
It is estimated that copper makes up 89 per cent of the button, zinc and
arsenic a few per cent each, and gold less than 1 per cent. What appear
to be gold flecks are visible on the surface of the button, indicating that
the gold may have been used as a plating or gilting. The button seems
to be constructed in layers with zinc overlying a copper base. This observa-
tion together with the relatively higher copper content indicates the
button was probably not made of alloyed copper and zinc (brass). Tests
are currently underway using an electron microprobe to "map" the distri-
bution of metals in the button in order to obtain additional composition
details.
The presence of arsenic is not particularly surprising, but the rela-
tively large amount, perhaps as much as 5-7 per cent, is. Arsenic occurs
with copper in some ores, and it may be that the high arsenic percentage
could serve to identify either the source of the ore or the refining
process. While no investigation along these lines has as yet been started,
a preliminary search of old metal specification records has been con-
ducted. Unfortunately, no satisfactorily close match has been found;
thus, at this writing we are not able to positively identify the button an-
alyzed as being associated with Fort Harrison. However, the examina-
tion is continuing and may lead to additional results later.
OTHER PAPER READ
The Decay of 71As. A. E. Rainis and J. R. Van Hise, Department of
Physics, Tri-State College, Angola, Indiana.
A Study of the Rate of Absorption of Methylated Mercury by
Carassius auratus
G. E. Haring and E. B. Nemanic
Department of Physics
Indiana State University,
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Abstract
Radioactive tracer techniques were used in determination of the rate of
absorption of a methyl mercury compound by goldfish. Goldfish were retained for
specified times in test concentrations of CH3HgCl containing commercially-
prepared 7-active Hg203. It was found that the fish concentrated the mercury by a
factor of 2 x 102 in the 36-48 hours required for saturation.
Introduction
The problem of mercury poisoning has recently been one of intense
interest in the United States and other countries (1, 2). The degree of
contamination, the biological effects, the allowable safe amounts in our
waters, the methods of contamination, and many other questions per-
taining to mercury and its compounds remain, at best, only partially
answered. This paper is primarily concerned with the rate at which a
particular mercury compound is absorbed by goldfish at various concen-
trations.
Monomethyl mercury was used because of its solubility in water and
because it is the generally accepted compound produced by anaerobic
bacteria in river and lake bottoms (4).
Measurement
Known concentrations of the CH3HgCl with y-active Hg203 was
used as a radioisotope tracer. This isotope was chosen because the y-
emitted could be easily detected without destroying the fish. To keep the
fish alive during the time required to measure the y-activity (a few min-
utes), the fish were placed in a container of fresh running water.
The detector arrangement was calibrated and adjusted using a pulse
height analyzer. The initial adjustments were made with gamma rays
from a Cs137 source to obtain a suitable energy calibration. The intensity
calibration was accomplished using a known quantity of Cs137 and Na22
and a scaler counter. Several different levels of contamination were
investigated. These were 5 ppb, 50 ppb and 500 ppb. Six fish were placed
in each container.
Results
The curves shown in Figure 1 is of the form C = CM(l-e~Xt), where
C is the concentration, CM is the maximum concentration achieved and
A is a factor related to the rate of absorption. For the 5 ppb sample
271
272
Indiana Academy of Science
CM = 0.73 ppm and A — 0.96 hi-1 and for the 50 ppb sample CM = 6.9 ppm
and A = 0.108 hr-1. With these fits, one half of the final concentration
is reached in only 7.2 hours and 6.4 hours for the 5 ppb and 50 ppb con-
centrations, respectively. In addition to the absorption rate found, it was
discovered that on two different occasions a concentration of 500 ppb
produced 100% fatality in that particular group of fish within 24 hours.
A study of the rate of de-absorption was also attempted but was not
completed. The reason we did not complete this study was that our Hg203
with a 47-day half -life decayed so rapidly that meaningful numbers could
not be obtained. A reasonable assumption for the biological half-life in
fish is 500 days during normal activity (3). The only conclusion we could
draw was that the rate of de-absorption was much greater than the rate
of decay of Hg203.
0.5
11
o
¥
G^--- ** —
© A
/
/
0/
/
a
/ o
/ ©
f . , . _j ^
24
Time
48
in hours
Figure. 1. Result for aquatic concentration of 5 ppb. (© represents the concentration
in the individual fiish; X represents the fish weight averaged concentration.)
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Mike Berry and Carl Hanger for their
assistance during this experiment.
Physics 273
Literature Cited
1. Goldberg, E. D., and D. H. Klein. 1970. Mercury in the marine environment.
Environ. Sci. Techno!. 4:765-768.
2. Goldwater, L. 1971. Mercury in the environment. Sci. Amer. 224 :15-21.
3. Jervis, R. E. 1971. Trace mercury in environmental material. Summary of
Progress, Canadian Health Grant Project No. 605-7-510.
4. Wood, J. M., E. S. Kennedy, and C. G. Rosen. 1968. Synthesis of methyl mercury
compounds by extracts of mathanogenic bacterium. Nature 220:173-174.
PLANT TAXONOMY
Chairman: Fay Kenoyer Daily, Botany Department, Butler
University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46208
Gerald Gastony, Department of Botany, Indiana University,
Bloomington 47401, was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
The Computerization of the Edward Lee Greene Herbarium (NDG) at
Notre Dame. Theodore J. Crovello, Department of Biology, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556. — Edward Lee Greene
(1843-1915) is a fascinating and important figure in American botany.
Throughout his career he was an active field botanist and named over
4,400 genera, species and subspecies new to science. The University of
Notre Dame possesses his herbarium of 70,000 specimens. Label and other
data are being captured on punched paper tape and input into a computer.
The procedures, biological value and types of output being produced were
discussed. Because Greene left no collection notebooks, it is only from a
computerized rearrangement of his specimen label data that his itinerary
can be obtained. Also, he often did not indicate which specimens were type
specimens. The specimen data and the data on what species he named can
be used to pinpoint some type specimens and to generate a list of missing
type specimens. The computer is seen as a valuable tool in assisting the
taxonomist in his information retrieval problems and as a means to
enhance the value of this Indiana resource.
The Origin of Seed Planting. Charles B. Heiser, Jr., Department of
Botany, Indiana University, Bloomington 47401. Recent archaeological
investigations have revealed a great deal about the origin of agriculture,
but the question as to why man ever changed his mode of subsistence
remains unanswered. A religious motive has been suggested for the origin
of animal domestication, and in a little known paper published in 1897
Grant Allen postulated that the sowing of seeds for crops began as an
adjunct to the primitive burial system. While Allen's proposal has some
merit, I am more inclined to look for the origin of seed planting as a con-
sequence of the "first fruits" or "last sheaf" ceremonies of primitive seed
collectors. Primitive man believed that spirits existed in plants and as
a propitiation to the spirit the first fruits were returned to the fields. This
magico-religious act would make the seeds safe for mortals to eat and
at the same time assure a beautiful harvest in future seasons. Such a
hypothesis would also offer a possible explanation for the rapid improve-
ment of the early cultivated plants, in that man would return some of the
best seeds to the field instead of eating them. Thus one might postulate
that artificial selection began to operate with the offering of seeds to the
spirits of the plants.
Wild Flowers of Franklin County and Indiana. Lloyd and Adele Beesley,
Cedar Grove, Indiana. In the Flora of Indiana by Charles C. Deam,
275
276 Indiana Academy of Science
two species of Chelone, Turtlehead, are listed with variants. We have
found and photographed the following :
1) Chelone oblique var. speciosa Pennell and Wherry. Rose Turtle-
head. Grows in wet woods and less frequently in springy places in wood-
lands.
2) Chelone glabra var. typica Pennell. White Turtlehead. Five
varieties of this species are cited for Indiana which grow in wet woods,
springy places about lakes, along streams and in marshes. However, we
do not have all of them at this time.
A Biosystematic Study of Polygonum ramosissimum and
Polygonum tenue1
George M. Brooks and Thomas R. Mertens
Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Plants collected in Wisconsin during September 1970 were identified as
Polygonum ramosissimum and P. tenue according to the taxonomic character established
by Styles for European species of genus Polygonum and adapted for North
American species of this genus by Mertens and Raven. The somatic chromosome numbers
for these two species were determined to be 60 for P. ramosissimum and 30 or 32 for P.
tenue. These counts were compared with chromosome numbers of species of section
Polygonum, all of which have a somatic number of either 40 or 60. Chromatographic
analysis of free amino acids and secondary substances further suggests that
P. ramosissimum has amino acids similar to those of other species in section
Polygonum. Chromatographic data for P. tenue is somewhat less conclusive in assigning
this species to a section of genus Polygonum.
Genus Polygonum, section Polygonum (Avicularia) consists of a
number of morphologically similar plant species. Individuals within each
species vary morphologically according to local edaphic and climatological
conditions. This has led to a general confusion among taxonomists who
have been attempting to identify field and herbarium specimens, on the
one hand, and to systematists, on the other, who have been attempting
to assign natural rank to the various species of Polygonum. This study
reports on an attempt to establish the natural relationships of two Poly-
gonum species to section Polygonum by using cytological and chemical
parameters.
Research in the 1960's brought taxonomic clarification to some
species within section Polygonum. Styles (9) defined the four species of
the Polygonum aviculare aggregate found in Britain (P. aviculare, P.
arenastrum, P. rurivagum,, and P. boreale) , and three other species found
elsewhere in Europe (P. maritimum, P. rati, and P. oxyspermum) in terms
of fruit and perianth characteristics and chromosome number. He found
achene texture, color, shape and size, and inflorescence position to be
stable and conservative traits. Mertens and Raven (5), using the bio-
systematic approach of Styles (9), studied the P. aviculare complex in
North America and were able to devise a workable key for eight species
of section Polygonum. Savage and Mertens (7) studied six species of
Polygonum found in Indiana and Wisconsin by using the parameters
established by Styles. Moore, Mertens, and Highwood (6) summarized
cytotaxonomic data on various species within this same section. These
workers compared chromosome number with the taxonomic characters
decided upon by Styles and later researchers, to determine if indeed a
plant with a certain combination of fruit and perianth characteristics
consistently displayed the same chromosome count.
1This study was supported by a grant to Dr. Mertens from the Society of the
Sigma Xi.
277
278 Indiana Academy of Science
The present investigation is concerned with examining Polygonum
ramosissimum and P. tenue to determine if they are to be included in
section Polygonum. The two species, collected in Wisconsin, were keyed
according to the following taxonomic couplet established by Savage and
Mertens (7) :
Achene surface predominantly smooth and shiny but may have stip-
pled or striated edges; inflorescences appear to be terminal, the
flowers being more-or-less clustered at the ends of stems among
reduced leaves or bracts; perianth tightly oppressed to the achene,
which has three equal concave sides.
Achene surface completely smooth, achenes dark reddish brown,
sharp angled; calyx yellowish green, plant large [3-10 dm],
much branched P. ramossissimiim
Each face of black, trigonous achene smooth and shiny but
bordered with striated or stippled margin; plant slender
[1-4 dm], stiff or wiry; leaves linear ..... F. tenue
Materials and Methods
All plant material was collected in Wisconsin at two sites along the
Wisconsin River on September 27, 1970. Both species were collected In
a sandy beach habitat. Polygonum ramosissimum was found 2M miles
due west of Lone Rock in Richland Co., Wisconsin. Polygonum tenue was
gathered in Upham Woods in Juneau Co., Wisconsin.
Viable achenes were removed from the plants and germinated on
moist filter paper in petri dishes. Chromosome coonts were made of root
tip and apical meristem cells treated with the mitotic poison, oxyquinoline,
and stained with aceto-orcein.
Chromatographic patterns of the two plants under study were com-
pared with patterns made by other species of Polygonum, section Poly-
gonum. Single dimensional paper chromatograms testing for the qualita-
tive distribution of free amino acids and secondary substances among
the compared plants were run to see if a related pattern developed. It was
assumed that related species would have similar,, but not necessarily
identical, chromatographic patterns, and that different plants of the same
species would consistently display the same patterns.
A mixture of 0.3 g of plant root, steam, and leaves was pulverized in
a motar and then transferred to a vial with 2 ml of 80% methanol.
After a drop of 1 N hydrochloric acid was added, the vial was corked and
allowed to stand at room temperature for 24-48 hours before the extract
was used to streak the chromatography paper.
Single dimensional chromatograms were developed by the descending
method using 46 X 57 cm Whatman No. 1 chromatographic paper. The
plant extracts were applied to the paper with a 10-^1 pipet. Generally 100
fil of plant extract were needed to get readable results. The chromatograms
were developed for 24 hours, using a solvent mixture, described by Smith
(8), consisting of 12 parts n-butyl alcohol, 3 parts glacial acetic acid, and
5 parts distilled water.
Plant Taxonomy
279
The chromatograms in which the free amino acids were to be detected
were sprayed with a ninhydrin aerosol bomb. The chromatograms were
dried in the dark for 24 hours before observations were made. Secondary
substances were detected by placing unsprayed chromatograms under
long-wave ultraviolet light in the presence of ammonia vapors.
Data
Definite chromosome counts were obtained for Polygonum ramosissi-
mum from these plants:
P. ramosissimum Michx., Richland Co., Wisconsin, Sept. 27, 1970,
G. M. Brooks No. 89 (BSU). Somatic count of 60.
P. ramosissimum Michx., Richland Co., Wisconsin, Sept. 27, 1970,
G.M. Brooks No. 75 (BSU). Somatic count of 60.
Photographs of the chromosomes found in cells of these two plants were
taken (Fig. 1). Diagramatic line drawings of the cells counted were made
because all chromosomes do not appear equally well at the focal level from
which the photomicrographs were taken (Fig. 2).
H^t^iy^iMM^. 2*11
Figure 1. Photograph of chromosomes from Polygonum ramosissimum, G. M. Brooks
No. 89. Chromosome number 2n=60 (1000 X Magnification) .
Tentative counts were obtained from the following specimens of
Polygonum tenue:
P. tenue Michx., Juneau Co., Wisconsin, Sept. 27, 1970,
G.M. Brooks No. 209 (BSU). Somatic count of ea. 30.
P. tenue Michx., Juneau Co., Wisconsin, Sept. 27, 1970,
G.M. Brooks No. 216 (BSU). Somatic count of 30 or 32.
280
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 2. Diagramatic line drawing of cell of Polygonum ramosissimum shotvn
Figure 1. Chromosome number 2n=60.
The chromatographic procedure described previously was repeated
with at least five different specimens of each species studied. The speci-
mens of each species were found to display consistent chromatographic
patterns. The following specimens were used as representative samples
in preparing the chromatograms from which the data in Tables 1 and 2
were determined :
P. aviculare L., Great Bras d'Or, Nova Scotia, August 17, 1969,
D. Jones No. NSJ 15 (BSU).
P. erectum L., Porter Co., Indiana, August 29, 1966, A.D.
Savage No. 58-30 (BSU).
P. ramossissimum Michx., Richland Co., Wisconsin, Sept. 27, 1970,
G. M. Brooks No. 89 (BSU).
P. tenue Michx., Fulton Co., Indiana, August 20, 1966, A.D.
Savage No. 50-1 (BSU).
Table 1. Rt values of the qualitative distribution of free amino acids for four species
of Polygonum.
Color
P. aviculare
P.erectum
P .ramosissimum
P.tenue
Pink
.06
—
.06
—
Purple
.12
,11
.12
.10
Purple
.14
.14
.14
.15
Purple
.19
.18
..IS
—
Purple
.26
.24
.26
.26
Purple
.31
.31
.32
.34
Yellow
.36
,35
.36
.37
Purple
.43
.40
.40
.40
Purple
—
.47
.46
—
Purple
,52
.52
.53
.53
Purple
..58
.59
.60
—
Purple
.65
—
.66
—
Plant Taxonomy
281
A single dimensional paper chromatogram was developed for P. avicu-
lare, P. erectum, P. ramosissimum, and P. tenue. It was sprayed with nin-
hydrin to develop the free amino acids which had migrated down the paper
from the sites of origin. A second single dimensional chromatogram was
developed with the same four plants and was placed under long-wave ultra-
violet light in the presence of ammonia vapors to highlight the secondary
substances. Table 1 gives the Rf values of the qualitative distribution
of the free amino acids for the four plants; Table 2 shows the same for
the secondary substances.
Table 2.
't values of the qualitative distribution of secondary substances for four
species of Polygonum.
P. aviculare
P. erectum
P. ramosissimum
P. tenue
Rf Color
Rf Color
Rt Color
Rf Color
.37 yellow
.47 blue
.53 green
.45 yellow
.46 blue
.58 yellow
.60 yellow
.55 yellow
.55 yellow
.69 yellow
.70 yellow
.62 blue
.68 yellow
.82 blue
.85 blue
.69 yellow
.77 yellow
.80 blue
Discussion
Species of genus Polygonum section Polygonum generally give
somatic chromosome counts of 40 or 60. Styles (9) determined the somatic
number 40 for P. arenastrum and 60 for P. aviculare, while Mertens
and Raven (5) determined the somatic number of 60 for P. marinense.
Love and Love (4) reported that P. erectum and P. fowleri each has a
somatic number of 40, and these counts have been confirmed by Moore,
Mertens, and Highwood (6). It may be that the basic chromosome number
in this group of plants is #=10, and that those species with 40 chromosomes
are of tetraploid origin, while those with 60 are hexaploids. This suggests
that P. ramosissimum might also have a somatic chromosome count of
40 or 60 if it is to be included in section Polygonum. The determination
that P. ramosissimum indeed does have a somatic count of 60 agrees with
this cytotaxonomic requirement. Love and Love (4) published a somatic
chromosome number of 20 for this species collected in Manitoba. However,
voucher specimens were not kept for cross-checking purposes, thus calling
their finding to question.
Polygonum tenue collected for this study had a somatic chromosome
count of 30 or 32. This departure from a count of 40 or 60 (which numbers
seem to be generally characteristic of plants in genus Polygonum, section
Polygonum) may suggest that P. tenue belongs to another section of the
genus. This would be especially true if the count proves to be 32 rather
than 30. Love and Love (4) reported this plant to have a somatic count
of 20. Again, no voucher specimens were kept to verify their findings for
P. tenue collected in Minnesota. Mertens and Raven (5) commented that
P. tenue was morphologically similar, from the standpoint of its fruit and
282 Indiana Academy of Science
perianth characteristics, to other species of section Polygonum, but that
this plant had pollen of the type found in section Duravia.
(2). Thus? palynological data tend to support the contention that P. tenue
should be assigned to a section of the genus other than section Polygonum.
Alston and Irwin (1) were able to separate closely related species
of the genus Cassia (Caesalpinia Family) by using paper chromatographic
techniques. Jones and Mertens (3), by using the same technique, were
able to qualitatively distinguish among a number of species of Polygonum
section Polygonum. The data in the present investigation (Tables 1 and
2) show that P. ramosissimum has basically the same qualitative distribu-
tion ©f amino acids as do the two established species of section Polygonum,
P. aviculare and P. erectum.
Although the chromatogram of amino acids for P. tenue indicated
that this species has many spots in common with the other three species
studied, certain repeatable differences in the chromatograms were noted:
1) To obtain a readable chromatogram for P. tenue speci-
mens, the extract had to be four times as concentrated at the site of origin
as for any of the other species investigated.
2) The color intensity of the various chromatogram spots for P.
tenue was always less than for comparable spots of the other species.
3) Although the size of the streak of origin of the P. tenue chroma-
tigram was comparable to that used for the other species, the size of the
spots in the chromatogram were consistently smaller than comparable
Poots for the other species.
It may be argued that the chromatogram of P. tenue differs from
those of the other three species only in lacking certain spots and that this
CDuld be due to less diversity in its genome in response to a more restricted
habitat. However, the three points cited above would seem to argue for
the uniqueness of the chromatogram of P. tenue.
Secondary substances are so termed since thay are not involved in
basic energy transfer or catabolic activity of plant tissues. These com-
pounds (alkaloids, terpenoids, and polyphenols) are stable by-products
and so can be used as chemical taxonomic parameters.
Although certain spots in the chromatograms of secondary substances
of the different species seem to be identical (e.g., .68 yellow in P. avicu-
lare and .69 yellow in P. erectum), the overall qualitative distribution of
secondary substances was unique for each species. This suggests that sec-
ondary substance analysis may be used to establish speciation, since each
of the four species studied had a different overall chromatographic
pattern and various plants within a species displayed a consistent
pattern.
Conclusions
1) Polygonum ramosissimum, with a somatic chromosome count
of 60, seems to be similar to established species of section Polygonum all
of which have either 40 or 60 as their somatic chromosome number.
Plant Taxonomy 283
2) Since the tentative somatic chromosome counts of 30 or 32 for
P. tenne were made from collections at one site, and since they do not
agree with counts reported in the literature, fresh specimens of P. tenue
containing viable achenes should be collected and a definite chromosome
number determined.
3) Chromatographic studies indicate that the overall qualitative
free amino acid distribution for P. ramosissimum is similar to the distri-
butions shown by species of Polygonum in section Polygonum.
4) Polygonum tenue has quite a different overall qualitative amino
acid distribution due to: a) the greater concentration of extract required
in order to get readable chromatograms, b) the much weaker color
intensities for the various spots, and c) the smallness of the spots in
comparison to comparably colored spots of the three other species at the
same Rf locus on the chromatogram.
5) The overall quantitative distribution of secondary substances
is unique for each species with various specimens of the same species
giving the same pattern.
Literature Cited
1. Alston, R. E.8 and H. S. Irwin. 1961. The comparative extent of free aroloo
acids and certain "secondary" substances among Cassia species. Amer. J. Bot.
48s 35-89.
2. Hedberg, O. 1946. Pollen morphology in the genus Polygonum L. s. lat. and Its
taxonomie significance. Sv. Bot. Tidskr. 40:371-404.
3. Jones, D. M., and T. R. Mertens. 1971. A taxonomie study of genus Polygonum
employing chromatographic methods. Proc. Indiana Acad, SeL 80; 422-430.
4. Love, A., and D. Love. 1956. Chromosomes and taxonomy of eastern North
American Polygonum. Can. J. Bot. 34:501-521.
5. Mertens, T. R., and P., H. Raven. 1965. Taxonomy ©£ Polygonum, section
Polygonum (Avicularia) in North America. Madrono 18:85-92.
6. Moore, D. N., T. R. Mertens, and J. E. Highwood. 1970. Cytotaxonomle
notes on genus Polygonum, section Polygonum. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
79:396-400.
1. Savage, A. D.„ and T. R. Mertens. 1968. A taxonomie study of genus
Polygonum, section Polygonum {Avicularia} in Indiana and Wisconsin. Proc.
Indiana Acad. Sci. 77:357-369.
8. Smith, I. 1958. Chromatographic techniques: Clinical and biochemical applications.
Heinemann Medical Books, Ltd. London. 419 p.
9. Styles, B. T. 1962. The taxonomy of Polygonum avieulare and its allies in
Britain. Watsonia 5:177-214.
Studies in Indiana Bryophytes XIV
Winona H. Welch,
Department of Botany
DePauw University,
Greencastle, Indiana 46135
Abstract
Two additional species and two additional varieties have been found to occur in
Indiana since the publication of Studies in Indiana Bryophytes XIII (15):
Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) P. Beauv. var. oerstedianum (C. Mull.) Crum; Grimmia
pulvinata (Hedw.) Smith; Isopterygium distichaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg. & Sauerb.; and
Pohlia annotina (Hedw.) Lindb. var. loeskei Crum, Steere and Andrews. Specimens of
each have been deposited in the Herbarium of DePauw University. One species,
Grimmia indianensis (Sayre) Crum (3), originally G. trichophylla Grev. var-
indianensis Sayre (12), has now become a synonym of G. pulvinata (Hedw.) Smith. The
total number of known species of mosses in Indiana is presently 228, varieties 39, and
forms 9, a total of 276 kinds.
The American Bryological and Lichenological Society 1970 foray
was held in West Central Indiana, including- habitats in Putnam and
Parke Counties. One species, Isopterygium distichaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg.
& Sauerb., and one variety, Pohlia annotina (Hedw.) Lindb. var.
loeskei Crum, Steere and Anderson, were collected by two foray
members, which are first records for Indiana. Another collection is that
of a species (9) or a variety (4) which has been present in eastern
United States indefinitely, within the species Atrichum undulatum
(Hedw.) P. Beauv. A. oerstedianum (C. Mull.) Mitt, was not known
to occur in the United States until the research on Atrichum published
by Ireland (9).
On July 22, 1971, Keith Hoss, an Army Corps Engineer, and I
visited Rocky Ford, on Big Pine Creek, in Warren Co., Indiana, search-
ing for Grimmia indianensis (Sayre) Crum, in the area in which I
collected the type, Nov. 27, 1937. The search was in vain. All of our
collections were G. alpicola Hedw. The next day Mr. Hoss returned to
Rocky Ford, crossed Big Pine Creek, on to Mud Pine Creek, a tributary
to Big Pine, and climbed Table Rock in the creek bed. Table Rock has
a flat top and steep sides. Mr. Hoss estimated this block of sandstone,
a remnant of erosion (11) to be ca. 8 feet high, 50 feet long, and 30 feet
wide, and exposed 6-7 feet above the water in the stream. On the flat top
surface, there is a pothole, 2 feet deep and 10 feet in diameter. On this
rock Hoss made several collections of G. pulvinata (Hedw.) Smith,1 a
'From a letter from H. A. Crum, Oct. 22, 1971: "I am convinced that Grimmia
indianensis is a synonym of G. pulvinata. I would perhaps never have thought of it,
except for the several collections you recently sent from Warren County and the type
locality. It appears that both typical G. pulvinata and typical G. indianensis grow in
the same locality, the latter probably no more than a shaded expression with less ob-
viously contorted leaves and a poor development of hairpoints on the leaves. (I have
seen a similar development from Scotland.) The specimen which you sent could be
called G. indianensis, but it merges in its variations almost completely into typical
G. pidvinata."
284
Plant Taxonomy
285
first record for Indiana, and G. laevigata (Brid.) Brid. We are indebted
to Howard Crum, Univ. of Michigan, for making or checking
determinations.
Bryaceae
Pohlia annotina (Hedw.) Lindb. var. loeskei Crum, Steere, and
Anderson. [Var. decipiens Loeske, in Grout (8).] (Fig. 1). Plants in
loose tufts, pale green, yellowish green, or green, not glossy when dry,
Figure 1. Pohlia annotina loeskei (Conrad, 2, Fig. I07e), gemma. Figures: 2-5.
Isopterygium distichaceum (Grout, 6, PI. 43C, from Sullivant, 13, PL 67). 2. Portion
of foliated axis. 3. Leaf. 4. Upper portion of leaf. 5. Base of leaf. Figures 6-11. Grimmia
pulvinata (Grout, 7, PI. 13C, from Braithwaite, 1, PI. 48C.) 6. Habit. 7. Plant, with
sporophytes. 8. Leaf. 9. Leaf apex, with base of hair point. 10. Basal portion of leaf.
11. Upper seta, with capsule. Atrichum undulatum oerstedianum is not illustrated be-
cause Welch (14), Fig. 21, is sufficient. [Figures by permission, from the late H. S.
Conrad and the late A. J. Grout.]
286 Indiana Academy of Science
to 2 cm high, with some radicles. Stems slender, erect, simple or
branched from the base, flexuose reddish at base. Leaves erect-
spreading, frequently decurrent, ovate-lanceolate, lanceolate below,
narrowly lanceolate above, the upper ones erect or nearly so. Apices
mostly acute, occasionally acuminate. Margins of leaves plane to slightly
recurved, expecially near base in dry leaves, entire below, toothed above.
Costa strong, commonly percurrent, yellowish to reddish at base. Cells
of leaves narrowly rhomboidal to linear, to 80 X 7^, the walls
moderately thick. Gemmae in leaf axils, especially the upper ones,
commonly 2-5 each, hyaline or yellowish to green, elongated,
twisted-vermiform, generally with 3-4 acute erect leaf-points. Dioecious.
Usually sterile. Seta red, flexuose, slender, to 2 cm long. Capsule
reddish brown, inclined, horizontal, or pendulous. Urn long-pyriform
or broadly oval, to + 3 mm long, with a tapering neck,
± the length of the urn. Operculum conic, apiculate. Annulus
removable. Peristome teeth yellowish, slender. Segments hyaline,
slender, carinate, split along the keel. Cilia in pairs. Spores ± 18^
in diameter.
Habitat : Moist, sandy soil, especially among sandstone rocks9
Indiana distribution: Parke Co.: wet faces of Mississipian sand-
stone gorge wall, in Sword Moss Gorge, ca. 14 miles W of Greencastle,
Norton G. Miller 5929 (DPU, NCU).
Grimmiaceae
Grimmia pulvinata (Hedw.) Sm. (Fig. 6-11). Plants in small, round
tufts, appearing grayish green due to long hyaline hair points. Upper
leaves oblong-lanceolate, to 2 mm in length, abruptly narrowed into
a long, hyaline, flexuose, serrate hair point. Both margins revolute
from base nearly to tip, or plane and bistratose at apex. In upper-
lanceolate leaves, hair points nearly as long as blades. Upper cells of
leaves rounded, incrassate, the lower ones thin-walled, quadrate, except
5-6 rows near costa rectangular. Autoecious. Calyptra mitrate.
Capsule exserted, pendent, ± ovoid. Operculum rostrate. Seta arcuate,
2-3 times the length of capsule.
Habitat: Common on dry rocks, also on walls and roofs, usually
at lower altitudes.
Indiana distribution : Warren County.
Hypnaceae
Welch (14) considers the genus Plagiothecium B.S.G. in the family
of Hypnaceae. Crum et al. (5) regard Plagiothecium as a genus in the
family of Plagiotheciaceae. Ireland (10) in his revision of the genus
Plagiothecium treated it as a genus in the Hypnaceae.
According to Ireland (10), the Indiana species in Welch (14) should
be revised as follows. Plagiothecium denticulatum (Hedw.) B.S.G. and
P. roesanum B.S.G. are correct; P. micans (Sw.) Paris = Isop-
Plant Taxonomy 287
terygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt.; Plagiothecium muellerianum Schimp.
= Isopterygium muellerianum (Schimp.) Jaeg. & Sauerb. ; Plagiothecium
deplanatoum (Sull.) Spruce = TaxiphyUum deplanatum (Sull.)
Fleisch.; Plagiothecium geophilum (Aust.) Fleisch. = TaxiphyUum
taxirameum (Mitt.) Fleisch.; Plagiothecium sylvaticum (Brid.) B.S.G.
is a European species and has been excluded from North America.
"Most of the North American plants named P. sylvaticum are
depauperate P. roeseanum B.S.G."
Isopterygium distichaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg. {Plagiothecium, sub-
falcatum Aust. in Grout (6)] (Fig. 2-5). Plants in thin, soft,
intertangled mats, bright green to yellowish green, glossy. Stems
usually prostrate, sometimes ascending to erect, appearing flattened
because of complanate leaves. The leaves often distant, appearing
distichous, spreading, obliquely attached to axis, subfalcate, many
apices pointing toward base of axis or substratum, frequently
asymmetric, sometimes subcultriform, at times undulate, oblong-
lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, not decurrent, 0.3-1.8 X 0.2-0.6 mm.
Apices acute or sometimes broadly short acuminate. Margins plane or
narrowly recurved below, entire to serrulate below, the apices
serrate-dentate. Leaf cells usually smooth, sometimes papillose on
lower surface by projecting cell angles in apices. Median cells
linear, 48-100 X 4-7^. Propagula commonly in leaf axils of the
apical portions of the axes, elongated, twisted-vermiform, 2-4 rows of
cells wide, to 0.5 mm long, with 1-5 acute apical points.
Calyptrae, antheridia, archegonia, and sporophytes not known in North
America.
Habitat: In shade, on sandstone cliffs in crevices of rocks, and on
banks of soil and humus.
Indiana distribution; Putnam Co., Hoosier Highlands, on Mansfield
sandstone, ca. 14 mis. S of Greencastle, Nancy G. Slack 851 (DPU).
Verified by R. Ireland.
Polytrichaceae
Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) P. Beauv. var. oerstedianum (C,
Mull.) Crum. Atrichum undulatum in Indiana was described and illus-
trated by Welch (14), based on collections from 50 counties. Ireland (9)
states that most of the eastern North American specimens of
Atrichum in the herbarium of the Museum of Natural Science,
National Museums of Canada named A. undulatum are A.
oerstedianum (C. Mull.) Mitt, and that A, undulatum is not as common
as once believed.
The following is a brief summary of Ireland's description. Plants
2-6 cm high. Dry leaves usually undulate, twisted and crispate,
lingulate to lanceolate, 5-9 X 0.8-1.6 mm, acute, ending in a tooth.
Margins bordered ± throughout with 2-3 rows of narrow, linear,
thick-walled cells, the border usually bistratose; upper margins
toothed, singly or doubly. Costa subpercurrent to percurrent, toothed
on lower surface from midleaf to apex, lamellae on upper surface.
Lamellae 4-6, often undulate, 2-4 cells high, occasionally 6. Leaf cells
smooth or minutely papillose. Median cells rounded or irregularly
288 Indiana Academy of Science
angled, 12-31^, in longest dimension, averaging less than 17^
in shortest dimension. Calyptra hispid at tip. Dioecious. Seta 1.5-4 cm
long, 1-3 per perichaetium. Capsule cylindric, usually inclined and
subarcuate. Urn 4-7 mm long. Operculum obliquely rostrate, 2-3.5 mm
long. Spores 12-17^ in longest dimension.
Ireland states that A. oerstedianum is our native species and one
of the common species in eastern North America and that A.
undulatum has been introduced, probably from Europe, and rarely
collected on this continent. Ireland adds that the latter prefers a dry,
weedy habitat, such as weedy roadside ditches and the former occurs
in wet habitats, especially on humus and soil along stream banks and
inundated areas.
Crum (4) reduces this species to the synonymy of Atrichum
undulatum and makes the var. oerstedianum (C. Mull.) Crum. He
states, "Without sex organs or capsules, the var. undulatum and the
var. oerstedianum are impossible to distinguish (except sometimes by
size and habitat)." The var. undulatum, at least in some plants, is
monoecious, and the var. oerstedianum is dioecious.
Habitat: On soil or humus, mostly in shaded situations; often in
wet areas along streams or occasionally at margins of swamps.
Indiana distribution: Putnam Co., Fern Cliff, on bank, ± 9
mis. W of Greencastle, Nancy G. Slack 763, 778 (DPU). Determined
by R. Ireland.
Literature Cited
1. Braithwaite, R. 1888. The British Moss-Flora 2:17-18.
2. Conard, H. S. 1944. How to know the mosses and liverworts. H. E. Jacques Co., Mt.
Pleasant, Iowa. 166 p.
3. Crum, H. A. 1965. Grimmia trichophylla v, indianensis reviewed. The Bryologist
68:233-235.
4. Crum, H. A. 1971. Nomenclatural changes in the Musci. The Bryologist 74:165-174.
5. , W. C. Steere, and L. E. Anderson. 1965. A list of the mosses of North
America. The Bryologist 68:377-432.
6. Grout, A. J. 1932. Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico 3:166.
7. 1933. Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico 2:34-35.
8. 1935. Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico 2:200.
9. Ireland, R. R. Taxonomic studies on the genus Atrichum in North America. Can.
J. Bot. 47:353-368.
10. 1969. A taxonomic revision of the genus Plagiothecium. Nat. Mus.
Can. Publ. Bot. 1:1-118.
11. Lindsey, A. A., D. V. Schmelz, and S. A. Nichols. 1969. Natural areas in
Indiana and their preservation. Indiana Natural Areas Survey, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana. 594 p.
Plant Taxonomy 289
12. Sayre, G. 1954. A new variety of Grimmia trichophylla from Indiana. The
Bryologist 57:21-25.
13. Sullivant, W. S. 1874. Mosses peculiar to North America. Icones Muscorum,
Suppl. Triibner and Co., London, Eng. 109 p.
14. Welch, W. H. 1957. Mosses of Indiana. Indiana Department of Conservation,
Indianapolis, Indiana 478 p.
15. 1962. Studies in Indiana Bryophytes XIII. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
72 :270-278.
The Effects of Preservation Time on
Chromatographic Patterns in Equisetum hiemale
Larry C. Brown
Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
A study was made to determine if the age of a herbarium specimen of
Equisetum hiemale L. had any effect on the chromatographic patterns. Specimens of
E. hiemale were analyzed employing descending paper chromatography. The amino acid
and phenolic patterns were of significant value in determining if the chromatographic
patterns varied as the herbarium specimen aged. The fluorescent phenolic compounds of
E. hiemale were analyzed by placing the chromatograms under long wave ultraviolet light.
The free amino acids were detected by spraying the chromatograms with ninhydrin.
The chromatographic patterns showed that the age of the oldest herbarium specimen
investigated had no effect on its patterns.
The purpose of this study was to determine if variations occur in
the free-amino acid and phenolic chromatographic patterns of
Equisetum hiemale L. samples taken from herbarium specimens as com-
pared with those obtained from fresh material.
Since the technique of paper chromatography appeared, it has
contributed significantly to systematic studies (3). The works of
Alston and Irwin, Heywood, Smith and Levin, and others have firmly
established the study of "secondary constituents" as a valid taxonomic
method (1,4,7).
Analyses can be carried out on fresh plants from the field, or
greenhouse transplants. In the absence of fresh material, the inves-
tigator may have to resort to using herbarium specimens. Since some
taxa are exceedingly rare, and some are difficult to grow under
greenhouse conditions, it is significant to know whether detectable
differences exist between freshly-dried specimens and ones which have
been dried for long periods of time. Some workers have stated that no
significant differences exist (7). Others suggest that analyses are best
carried out on fresh materials (6).
Methods and Materials
Herbarium specimens of Equisetum hiemale were obtained from
the Missouri Botanical Garden Herbarium and the Field Museum of
Natural History. Those materials had been preserved for periods up
to 144 years. Fresh material was collected in Richmond, Indiana.
Comparisons of free-amino acid and phenolic composition were
made by means of 1-dimensional paper chromatography. Extracts were
prepared by powdering dried internodes and soaking the materials in
methanol :water:hydrochloric acid (7.9 : 2 :0.1) for 24 hours at room
temperature. One hundred microliters of each sample were applied to
23 X 57 cm sheets of Whatman #1 paper using the spot
method. The chromatograms were run using n-butanol: acetic acid:
water (12 : 3 : 5) as the solvent. Following air drying at room
290
Plant Taxonomy
291
temperature, the chromatograms were viewed under long wave ultra-
violet light in the presence of ammonia vapor. Those spots which
fluoresced but did not show a ninhydrin reaction were taken to
represent phenolics (1, 2, 5). Subsequently the chromatograms
were sprayed with ninhydrin for the detection of free-amino acids and
related substances (1, 2, 4, 5, 7).
Results
The chromatographic results of horsetails which had been preserved
for periods of time ranging from four to 144 years were compared
chromatographically with freshly collected materials (Table 1).
Table 1. Equisetum hiemale used in chromatography and their sources.
Date
Reference
Collected
Locality
Collector
Number
Sept. 1970-
Richmond,
L. C. Brown
PI, Al
Feb. 1971
Indiana
Jun. 1966
Cooke City,
Robert G.
P2
Montana
Stoke
Nov, 1958
Lafayette,
Louisiana
W. D. Reese
P3
Jul. 1955
Iantha,
Missouri
B. J. Palmer
A4
June 1946
Cumberland,
Rhode Island
E. J. Palmer
P5, A5
Oct. 1935
Greenwich Pt.
John M.
P6
Pennsylvania
Fogg, Jr.
Jul. 1926
Spearfish,
Herman E.
P7
South Dakota
Hayward
Aug. 1911
Hull, Canada
John Macoun
P8„ A8
Jun. 1902
Amesbury, Mass.
Walter Deane
P9
Oct. 1890
Flor de Maria,
State of Mexico
C. G. Pringle
P10
May 1880
Preble, New York
J. H. Sehueffer
Pll, All
1871
Koenigberg, Germany
P12
1862
Hock Creek, Georgia
Dr. Arthur
Schott
P13
May 1858
Easton, Pa.
T. Green
P14
April 1847
Mexico
G. Gregg
PIS
1826
Frankfort,
G. Engelmann
PJ6
Germany
The ultraviolet patterns viewed in the presence of ammonia vapor
were consistently characterized by the presence of nine compounds.
These compounds are designated by number in Figure 1. Compound 2
was present in all except P13. Compound 1 was detected in all
samples except Pll, P12, and P16. Compounds 5 and 7 existed in all
samples except P9 (Fig. 1).
292
Indiana Academy op Science
1 ^3 Lt Y
4
a
9 CO v
P 3 2J_
S^
P 6 P 7
a o P 0 $
o
P 9 rf
.67
P
o
D
a
o
LtY
I
P 15
a
P 16
<&3 BV
Figure 1. Patterns of Equisetum hiemale in ultraviolet light (A=avocado, B=blue,
BV=blue violet, I=ivory, LtB=light blue, htY =-light yellow, T=turquoise, V=violet,
Y —yellow).
Chromatograms sprayed with ninhydrin showed remarkable con-
sistency in free-amino acid composition. All samples revealed nine
compounds except A4 in which spot # 1 was not observed
(Fig. 2).
LtV
LtB
Figure 2. Amino acid patterns of Equisteum hiemale (LtB=light blue, LtV=light
violet, 0=orange, P=pink).
Discussion and Summary
The results of this study indicate that the place and aging of
herbarium specimens have little effect on the free-amino acid and
phenolic composition in Equisetum hiemale.
Plant Taxonomy 293
Literature Cited
1. Alston, R. E., and H. S. Irwin. 1961. The comparative extent of free amino
acids and certain "secondary" substances among Cassia species. Amer. J. Bot.
48:35-39.
2. Challice, J. S., and A. H. Williams. 1968. Phenolic compounds of the genus
Pyrus— II. Phytochemistry 7:1781-1801.
3. Consden, R., A. H. Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin. 1944. Qualitative analysis of
proteins: A partition chromatographic method using paper. Biochem. J. 38:224-232.
4. Heywood, V. H. 1968. Modern methods in plant taxonomy. Academic Press, New
York, N. Y.
5. Medina Blanco, M. 1968. Vegetal taxonomy: A chromatographic study of genus
Trifolium. Archivos de Zootecnia 17:1-25.
6. Reinhold, L., and Y. Liwschitz. 1968. Progress in phytochemistry. Vol. 1.
Interscience Publishers, London, Eng. 551 p.
7. Smith, Dale M., and Donald A. Levin. 1963. A chromatographic study of
reticulate evolution in the Appalachian Asplenium complex. Amer. J. Bot.
50:952-958.
Comments on a Check List of Indiana Algae: Purpose and
Problems
Fay Kenoyer Daily
Department of Botany
Butler University, Box 169, Indianapolis, Indiana
Abstract
A check list of Indiana algae by county has been compiled from the literature
appearing from 1929 to 1971. This is the fifth in a series of publications initiated by
C. M. Palmer who covered the algal reports of 1875 to 1928. A few additions to this
period have been made. The purpose of the check list and some problems in its use and
preparation are discussed.
In 1929, C. M. Palmer (1) provided a check list of Indiana
algae based upon his own research and publications appearing from
1875 to 1928. Additions were included in three later papers (2, 3,
4). Distribution maps for each taxon were filed at Butler University.
When Dr. Palmer moved to Ohio in 1950, the work was continued by
the present author and William A. Daily. The first check list since then
covering the 1929 to 1971 period has been compiled and will be
distributed by the author upon request.
In the interest of continuity, algae are listed essentially in the same
style as that used by Palmer except for literature citations. The
genus, species and infraspecific names are followed by the county where
the algae were found and with the literature citation in
parenthesis (Table 1).
Table 1. Indiana algae listed by county and bibliographic reference number.
GROUP 1. BLUE-GREEN ALGAE
AGMENELLUM Breb. Agmencllum tkermale (Kiitz.) Dr. & Da.:
Pulton (43), Grant (43), Kosciusko (43), LaGrange (43), Marion (43), Morgan (43),
Parke (43), Putnam (50). A. quadruplicatum Breb.:
The purpose of this work is to inventory the algae occurring in the
state and to give distribution by county. This information is useful as
an historical document and may help relocate specimens in herbaria
or in nature. The latter is possible because some algae may persist in
the same or nearby habitats for many years. The interest in
geographical occurrence anticipates possible reflected ecological
patterns. A. C. Smith (5) summed up the value of systematics as
follows: "Agriculture, medicine and all phases of human economy
ultimately depend upon natural living organisms of which no real
understanding can be had without a basic inventory and knowledge of
spatial and environmental relationships."
Nomenclature in the check list is the same as in the literature
cited. This was necessary because specimens are not available as a
basis for all reports. This precludes restudy to produce a uniform,
294
Plant Taxonomy 295
modern classification. There is also a lack of agreement on the classifi-
cation of many algae. Herbarium specimens are not available, in part,
because of the following differing concepts or methods in taxonomy.
Specimens preserved by drying and storing in an herbarium are
sometimes criticized as worthless, so none were kept by the authors.
Others prepared liquid-preserved specimens which have dried and
have been discarded. However, some taxonomists have studied the
effects on algal morphology of varying conditions of the habitat,
differing methods of collecting, handling and restoring specimens,
and can recognize most algae from well-preserved dried specimens
demonstrating the necessary stages for identification. This ability is
necessary for a monographer employing the type method or in applied
microscopy.
Various techniques have been applied to algal taxonomy during
the 1929 to 1971 period. These include the study of cultured algae,
the use of scanning and electron microscopes and various advances
in genetics, physiology and biochemistry. Many of these studies have
made substantial contributions.
However, some methods require cultured algae free of con-
taminating organisms, and only cultures are cited. It has been found
that algal morphology is sometimes different after isolation in
artificial media. It has been suggested that this may be due to
genetic changes induced by shock of isolation or unnatural growing
conditions, undetected contamination by a second alga which may
become dominant later, the mixed genetic constitution of the original
isolate or other undetermined factors. If the mechanisms of inheritance
and genetics have not been compared in cultured algae and
natural populations, genetic studies based on cultured algae alone may
result in classification without general application due to the above
difficulties.
On the other hand, algal morphology may be very uniform under
the cultural conditions employed. Results from the study of a few of
these specimens may not reveal the wide range of morphological
variation that is apparent in a study of a large number of
specimens from nature under varying habitat conditions.
It is, therefore, recommended that herbarium specimens of natural
collections (or soil collections, if applicable) be prepared as a basis for all
algal reports. Comparison of adult forms can be made with cultured
material to detect morphological change. Resting forms can be
recultured from soil for comparison. Classification based on culture
characteristics should indicate the specimens seen by the code of the
culture collection.
296 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Palmer, C. M. 1929. Algae of Indiana: A classified check list of those
published between 1875 and 1928. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 38:109-121.
2. „ 1931. Algae of Indiana. Additions to the 1875 to 1928 check list.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 40:107-109.
. 1933. Algae of Indiana. A second list of additions to the 1875 to 1928
check list. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 42:90-92.
1936. Algae of Indiana. Third list of additions to the 1875 to 1928 check
list. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 45:99-101.
Smith, A. C. 1969. Systematics and appreciation of reality. Taxon 18:5-12.
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Chairman : Kenneth Uhlhorn, Science Teaching Center
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Frederick K. Ault, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana
47306, was elected Chairman for 1972
Uses of a Student Responder System. Lloyd L. Bodie, Jr., Plane-
tarium Director, Vigo County School Corporation, Terre Haute,
Indiana. Traditionally, educational procedures have required that
the instructor have a limited maximum number of students within the
classroom. The Student Response System (SRS) has made it possible
to bring some of the most important features of the small teaching
classes to large group instruction. This paper described the use of SRS
by a qlass of 65 junior and senior students from high schools in Vigo
County School Corporation, enrolled in Astronomy, at the Allen
Memorial Planetarium. All students had a science and mathematical
background. Topics discussed included the strengths and weaknesses
of this system as used in our program; the description of the
Responder System— the instructor's console, the student units, and
the central electronics unit printer; the student's operation of the
responder system; the value to the student; and some typical questions
asked.
An Audio-tutorial* Independent Study Program for the Elementary
Teacher. Conrad Carlyle Hinds, Department of Education, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306. -The purpose of this study was
to develop and test an audio-tutorial, independent study program on
simple machines to meet the individual needs of elementary in-service
teachers.
The research was designed to determine how well in-service
teachers could learn the specific content involved using this particular
approach. Advantage was taken of the teaching skills and methods
which teachers employ in their own classes. Pre- and post-tests of the
Smith Mechanic Test were administered.
Two samples were drawn from the population of elementary
teachers in the Science 590 extension and summer classes at Ball State
University. There was a control group of 29 elementary teachers and
an experimental group of 48 elementary teachers. The experimental
group used the audio-tutorial program. The control group received class-
room instruction over the specific content involved.
The difference in means between groups was examined for
significance using a two-tailed t-test. No significant difference was
found on the pre-test. A significant difference beyond the 0.01 level was
found on the post-test (t = 2.87, 75 d.f.). Each group was considered
separately for significance in the mean gain. The control group
showed significance at the 0.05 level (t = 2.05, 28 d.f.). The
experimental group showed significance beyond the 0.001 level
(t = 13.54, 47 d.f.).
297
298 Indiana Academy of Science
It was concluded that the audio-tutorial program afforded a much
better mode for practice over the specific content involved than did
classroom instruction. It was recommended that the program be used
in conjunction with elementary pupils to measure any increase in
teacher competency more accurately; that the program be used in a
teaching situation other than the extension class to measure retention;
that the program be used as one mode of presentation in the Science
590 classes; and that administrators institute this program into
schools as part of continuing in-service training.
Training Supervising Teachers to Evaluate and Counsel Pre-Service
Teachers on the Basis of Teaching Techniques Derived From Methods
Courses. Stanley S. Shimer, Linda B. Knight, and Harold H.
Jaus, Science Teaching Center, Indiana University, Bloomington,
47401. The Indiana University, Bloomington Campus, Triple "T"
Program is a professional year internship for pre-service elementary
teachers which combines student teaching with basic methods courses.
This program assumes that the techniques taught in methods classes
are implemented in the classroom. However, it was found that the
terminology used in the methods class, indeed, even the teaching
techniques covered in the course were unfamiliar to many of the class-
room supervising teachers. Thus, there was very little reinforcement
of the method topics used by student teachers in the classroom. A
package of instructions was developed for the supervising teachers to
acquaint them with the topics dealt with in the methods courses and to
aid them in reaching competency in evaluating a student teacher's use
of these techniques. This enabled supervising teachers to evaluate and
counsel the student teachers. It also provided the student teachers with
much needed reinforcement and feedback on the use of teaching
techniques.
The package consisted of 9 hours of performanced-based-instruction
on techniques selected from the Science Methods Curriculum, e.g.,
performance objectives, question asking skills, formative evaluation,
teacher responses, systematic instruction and sequencing. Formative
Post Tests were designed for each unit and summative evaluation was
administered at the end of the 9 weeks. Data indicated that supervising
teachers are more able to accurately evaluate and counsel pre-service
teachers after receiving this package of instruction.
An Environmental Science Conservation Course. H. Douglas Shock,
Cowan High School, RR 4, Muncie, Indiana 47304. An environmental
science conservation course for the high school level was developed to
give students a basic understanding of their environment, of the en-
vironmental problems which are facing each of them and to help each
student discover his role in making the environment a place worth
living. The writer taught the course for 2 years before formalizing it
by writing a creative project for the degree of Master of Science at Ball
State University. To accomplish this, the following study units were
planned: Life Designs, Conservation in Perspective, Ecology, Popula-
tions, Soil Resources, Minerals and Energy, Water Resources, Air
Science Education 299
Resources, Plant Resources, Animal Resources, Resource Relationships,
Recreation, Community Planning, and Careers.
The course was designed to use a wide variety of learning experi-
ences rather than from a single source, such as a textbook. Books,
pamphlets, library materials, films, resource people, and field experi-
ences relative to the course of study were planned to enhance the
student's awareness of his environment. Group work was encouraged
throughout the course to help build a willingness for cooperation.
NOTE
Reading Habits of Prospective Secondary Earth Science and Geography
Teachers. William D. Brooks, Department of Geography and
Geology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809.— —At
Indiana State University, within the Department of Geography and
Geology and in cooperation with the Division of Teaching, all geography
and earth science teaching majors are required to take a 2-credit hour
course entitled "The Teaching of Geography in the Secondary Schools"
(G393). A methods course, G393 meets 4 days each week for 8 conse-
cutive weeks. This 8-weeks period represents the first half of the profes-
sional semester while the second half is spent in a student teaching
experience under local school and university supervision.
Juniors and seniors prior to the student teaching experience and
prior to attaining professional status should be in the process of
organizing in-depth knowledge not only in a chosen content area but
also in educational theory and practice. It seems obvious that an upper
semester junior or senior enrolled in a program leading to professional
status should have developed or be in the process of developing a
sophisticated reading habit.
The purpose of this study was to examine the reading habits of pros-
pective secondary teachers of geography or earth science.
To test empirically student reading habits, all students enrolled in
G393 for six consecutive semesters were asked to submit a one page
report each week on anything they had read that could in any way be
related to the teaching of geography or earth science. No other direc-
tions were given nor were restrictions imposed. Each time the course
was given a number of class periods were spent examining and dis-
cussing a variety of sources that could be used to acquire knowledge
in earth science, geography and education.
First, a total of 258 reports were submitted which represented 113
different sources. Twenty-six of the 113 sources were considered pro-
fessional-educational journals. Thirty-eight books were critiqued, thus
64 of the 113 sources can be considered excellent sources for acquisition
of knowledge.
Second, of the 258 reports 188 were from important journals. Add
39 book reports (one book reported twice) for a total of 157 reports
gathered from first-rate information.
300 Indiana Academy of Science
Third, 88 reports were gathered from newspapers, layman journals
(Newsweek, Time, etc.) and government agencies. The rest of the
reports, 13 in number, were placed in that "catchall" category other.
OTHER PAPERS READ
"ISCS" or Implementing Science in a Confusing Situation. Jack
Brewer, M.S.D. of Perry Township.
Our Model for I.S.C.S. Based on Five Years Experience. Charles
E. Richardson, M.S.D. of Lawrence Township.
SEE
System for Ecological Education
John W. Hart
Stanley W. Hayes Research Foundation
801 Elks Road, Richmond, Indiana 47374
and
Jessie M. Turner
Finley School
217 South 4th St., Richmond, Indiana 47374
Abstract
The System for Ecological Education (SEE) is a new systematic approach to life-
centered environmental education which employs a scope and sequence format. It includes
grade level teaching materials for K-6, and for grades 7-12 a scheme of eight topics of
concern which can be integrated into existing eurriculums.
SEE provides a unifying framework within which the environmental
input of all educators may become cumulative. It is ecologically com-
prehensive and forms the basis for college level teacher training. It es-
tablishes for K-12 educators minimum ecological understandings for
each year of study. It suggests a route to take to bring about these
understandings; yet it allows full latitude for the teacher to exercise
initiative and imagination.
Because SEE is a system, it requires teacher direction to assure
a smooth flow, and this direction may be used to make sure that the
child becomes a participant in the educational experience. Students are
expected to learn by doing. The laboratory for learning is their own
local surrounds.
Scope and Sequence — Grades 1-6
The scope and sequence charts, one for each grade, are based on
environmental concepts developed by Roth (2) ; the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service (3) ; and the Indiana Department of
Public Instruction (1). There has been substantial grouping of
material for simplification, and most concepts are presented in
language appropriate to the grade level in which they are used. The
concepts selected for each grade are those which are comprehensible
and which contribute to the progressive grade by grade development
of the horizontal thought threads. The six threads are: 1) Living
Things, 2) Needs of Living Things, 3) Meeting Needs and Wants, 4)
Problems from Meeting Needs and Wants, 5) Solving Problems, and
6) Man's Moral Responsibility. It is important to understand that in
these threads the material becomes increasingly more complex in each
successive grade. Across the time span of the child's education, each
thread remains intact; and at the completion of high school, building
is still taking place on the understandings introduced in kindergarten
or in one of the lower grades.
301
302 Indiana Academy of Science
K-12 Grade and Subject Area Teaching Materials
Kindergarten
The system presents 25 pages of material which is divided into
three subject areas: 1) Using the Senses; 2) Introducing the
Physical Environment- — Air, Soil, Water, and Sun; and 3) Living
Things. Included in each area are experiments, outdoor activities, games,
and a bibliography guiding the teacher to books, films, filmstrips, pic-
tures, charts, and other visual aids.
Grades 1-6
Individual grade level charts have been developed. These expand
the concepts found on the scope and sequence charts for each
grade. The expansion sometimes involves more than one sub-concept.
It employs the same horizontal threads used in the scope and sequence
chart. Grade level charts are made up of one vertical column for the
concept or sub-concept and six veritcal columns with the following
headings: 1) Introducing the Concept; 2) Developing the Concept;
3) Films, Filmstrips, & Slides; 4) Other Visuals; 5) Publications;
and 6) Other Resources & Suggestions.
In many columns of their grade charts, teachers will be guided by
an asetrisk (*) to refer to a separate guide book. In It
they will find suggested activities to help develop the concept or written
material to further their own understanding of the concept.
Grades 7-12
The concepts for these grades are presented in four vertical
columns 1) Title; 2) The Natural Laws (Governing Factors); 3)
Man Apart from, Nature (Problems Created) ; and 4) Man a Part of
Nature (Solving Problems) .
Each of eight topics is treated in every vertical column. The
study of the first topic, How Many People are Enough?, for
example, involves consideration of three things in the column entitled
The Natural Lavjs: 1) Population change is the product of biotic
potential and environmental resistance. 2) Living things increase in
number to the level the environment will permit. Man's ability to
modify the environment does not make him an exception. 3) The
Earth's carrying capacity is finite for one and all species.
In the column Man Apart from Nature, students consider the need
for restrictive laws and regulations which arises as the population in-
creases. They also find proof that as numbers of people increase, the
need for food, fiber, and minerals (energy in particular) expands.
In the column Man a Part of Nature, they give careful
study to man's obligation to function rationally in a system with his
culture and the biophysical environment.
There are seven other subjects covered by this same horizontal
approach: 1) Consuming the Fruits of Technology; 2) For a
Beautiful World; 3) Preserving Mail as a Sensitive Creature; 4)
Science Education 303
Man Needs Wilderness; 5) Man and Adaptation-, 6) Conserving our
Natural Resources; and 7) Man and the Environment.
Examples of Horizontal Developmental Threads
The K-12 study of living things is an example of the
systematic development of a child's understanding of increasingly
complex material by building each year on the base erected the
previous year. This study is initiated in kindergarten as the children
use their five senses to learn about life around them. In succeeding
years, they discover how living things differ and how they are alike,
They explore the world of living things and learn that there are also
similarities and differences in the ways living things acquire the things
they need and want. Continuing to build their understanding, they use
similarities and differences in form and function to divide plants and
animals into groupings. Before completion of grade six, they learn to
construct and use various kinds of taxonomic keys. The depth of
understanding they achieve either as individuals or as a class depends
on their interest and ability. The study of living things continues thru
the upper five grades. Each of the eight topics which are integrated
into the existing curriculums in these grades is concerned with one or
more aspects of living things. The K-6 foundation studies of living
things are prerequisite to a full understanding of the eight topics.
Another example which demonstrates both the systematic develop-
ment of a concept thread and student involvement also starts with the
study of living things in kindergarten. However, this thread branches
in grade one from the route taken in the previous example to become
resource rather than biologically oriented. The children develop in class
their ideas of the difference between needs and wants. In subsequent
grades, they find out how the natural resources of planet Earth are used
to satisfy our needs and wants. They then seek local evidence of prob-
lems which can be traced to the fact that each year we are using
resources to meet extensive and growing demands of more and more
people. The students appraise the influence of advertising, particularly
the creation of desire for more wants, and the resultant increase in
resource consumption. A field trip to the local solid waste disposal
facility focuses on the serious problem of disposal of the child's own
throwaways. This "needs and wants" thread continues into the eight
topic areas and broadens the base from which they are studied.
Throughout the whole system, man's moral responsibility to Earth
and all its living things is stressed. The child is guided to explore ways
his own behavior influences the quality of his environment. He forms
his own ideas of what behavioral patterns are required of individuals
and both small and large groups if there is to be a quality life for all
living things.
The System for Ecological Education is designed to be an educa-
tional tool with which to shape attitudes and values and to construct
patterns of behavior which will make each citizen an environmental
asset.
304 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Michaud, Howard (Chairman, Cons. Education Advisory Committee). 1959. Teaching
Conservation in Indiana Schools. Indiana Dep. Public Instr. Bull. 232, Indianapolis,
Ind. 50 p.
2. Roth, Robert E., M. O. Pella, and C. A. Schoenfeld. 1970. Environmental
Management Concepts — A List. Univ. Wis. Tech. Rep. 126, Madison, "Wis. 72 p.
3. U. S. Dep. Agr., Forest Serv. 1968. Conservation Tools for Educators. Pacific North-
west Region Publ. Portland, Oregon. 76 p.
SOIL SCIENCE
Chairman : Russell K. Stivers, Agronomy Department,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Christian Johannsen, Agronomy Department, Purdue
University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907, was elected Chairman
for 1972
Abstracts
Soil Colloids and Behavior of Pesticides in Soils.1 Joe L. White
and Maribel Cruz,2 Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907. ■
The interaction of pesticides with soil is largely dependent upon the
nature and properties of the surfaces of the colloidal components of
the soil. Interactions of organic molecules with surfaces of aluminosili-
cate minerals have been studied by infrared and other spectroscopic
techniques. These studies have provided evidence for the mechanisms
involved in adsorption, bonding, and degradation of several groups of
pesticides by inorganic soil components. The role of the higher degree
of dissociation of water molecules on clay surfaces ("surface acidity")
in the protonation and hydrolysis of chlorotriazines has been estab-
lished by this work. These studies also suggest that competition between
pesticide molecules and water molecules for adsorption sites, together
with changes in the environment of the pesticide molecules resulting
from physical adsorption processes, may explain desorption and
volatilization losses.
1Journal Paper No. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
2Present address: Institut des Sciences de la Terre, Laboratoire de Physieo-Chimie
Minerale, Heverlee-Louvain, Belgique.
The Precision Associated with Sampling Frequences of Total Particulate
at Indianapolis, Indiana. Dale E. Phinney and James E Newman,
Agronomy Department, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
The frequency distribution of total suspended particulate matter for
Indianapolis, Indiana, was examined to determine the precision associated
with a given sampling scheme. By assuming a basic loge-normal distribu-
tion, a theoretical set of confidence intervals about the geometric mean
was derived for random sampling. Verification of the loge-normal distribu-
tion was made for particulate matter in Indianapolis. Application of the
derived confidence intervals revealed that for a 30-day period 20 samples
must be taken to ensure that the 90 per cent confidence interval will be
within 10 per cent of the geometric mean. Analysis of the records for 19
sampling locations showed that only 2 sites possessed sufficient data to
allow monthly climatological evaluation over the period 1968-1970.
OTHER PAPER READ
The Good in Pollution. A. J. Ohlrogge, Purdue University.
305
High Rates of Urea Fertilizer for Corn (Zea mays L.) on Two
Soils, 1969-19711
Russell K. Stivers
Agronomy Department
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Five rates of nitrogen from urea with accompanying rates of agricultural limestone
were compared for continuous corn on Fincastle silt loam soil and on Chalmers silty clay
loam soil. The effects of the urea were similar in both soils, but they were more pro-
nounced on the Fincastle soil which was lower in both organic matter and in cation
exchange capacity. In 1969 on the Fincastle soil, the highest rate of urea furnishing 1344
kilograms per hectare of nitrogen, when applied the day before planting, reduced stands
of corn to 32 per cent and yields of corn grain to 37 per cent of those which received 336
kilograms per hectare of nitrogen. In 1970, there was no stand, vegetative growth or
meaningful grain yield reductions when the same high rates of fertilizer were plowed
under on the same plots in November prior to seeding in May. In 1971, soluble salts in the
Fincastle soil were more than doubled, height of plants was reduced 20 per cent, and soil
pH was reduced 0.9 unit with the 1344 kilograms per hectare rate of nitrogen as compared
with the 336 kilograms per hectare rate of nitrogen.
Introduction
Powell and Webb (3) found that in the third year of continuous corn,
yields began to decrease above 336 kg per ha (300 lbs per A) or 448 kg
per ha (400 lbs per A) of nitrogen. They attributed this reduction to
accumulation of salts and to decreases in soil pH. The purpose of this
research, which is similar to that of Powell and Webb, is to compare high
rates of N for continuous corn.
Methods
Two soil areas approximately 1 km (0.6 mile) apart were selected
on the Purdue University Agronomy Farm. The Chalmers silty loam,
classed as a Typic Arguaquoll, had been well fertilized and limed, as well
as tile drained, and had been cropped to corn and soybeans (Glycine max
L.) for several years. The plow layer had a cation exchange capacity of
32.5 meq per 100 g of soil, contained 4.4% organic matter, had 185 parts
pp 2m of Bray No. 1 phosphorus (P) and had 675 pp 2m of potassium (K)
as determined by the Purdue Soil Testing Laboratory. Soluble salts were
low with a specific conductance of 19 x 10~5 mhos. This area is depressional.
The other soil, a Fincastle silt loam, is classed as a Aerie Ochraqualf. It
had received moderate rates of fertilization, had been well limed, and had
been cropped to continuous corn for several years. Cation exchange
capacity of the plow layer was 16.3 meq per 100 g of soil, and the organic
matter content was 2.3%. It had 100 pp 2m of Bray No. 1 phosphorus (P)
and 285 pp 2m of available potassium (K). Soluble salts were low with
a K value of 16 x 10~5 mhos. Tile drainage was inferior to that in the
Journal Paper No. 4593. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
306
Soil Science
307
Chalmers soil. Land leveling was used on the Fincastle soil prior to the
initiation of this experiment to make the 2-4% slopes more nearly uniform.
The plot layout was a randomized complete block design with four
replications of five treatments on each soil. Treatments were no N and
four rates of N from fertilizer grade urea (45%) and rates of limestone
as shown in Table 1. Soil samples from all plots were taken in May before
applying treatments and in August of 1969, 1970 and 1971. Lime require-
ment was determined by use of the Shoemaker, McLean and Pratt buffer
(4). Soil pH was determined using a 1:1 soil to water ratio and a Corning
glass electrode pH meter. The agricultural limestone from the Delphi
Limestone Company in 1969 had an average of 36% of the particles passing
through a 60-mesh sieve and 95% through an 8-mesh sieve. The 1970 lime-
stone from the Newton County Stone Company had 38% passing through
a 60-mesh sieve and 95% through an 8-mesh sieve. The urea was broadcast
one day before planting for the 1969 crop and in the previous
Table 1. Relation of rates of urea fertilizer and limestone application to soil pH,
soluble salts, and nitrate nitrogen on two soils, 1969-71.
Kg/ha
of N
Soil pH
M.Tons/ha
Limestone
Added
Soluble Salts
Specific Conductance
K(Mhos x 10-5)
Nitrates
ppm
Annually 5-28-69
8-13-69
8-3-71
'69
"70
8-13-69
6-29-71
8-3-71
6-20-71
Fincastle silt loam
0
6.1
6,1
6.4
4.5
4.5
18
15
20
1
168
6.2
6.1
6.4
4.5
4.5
20
21
1
336
6.2
5.9
6.2
9.0
6J
26
36
12
mt.
6.2
5.6
5.7
6.7
7.2
55
62
35
1,344
6.1
5.4
5.3
9.0
8.1
115
99
78
88.
LSD 05
for rates
Not
Sig.
.2
0.3
12
yes1
13
A v-e !■«#«-'
6.1
5.8
6.0
47
47
49
Chalmers silty clay loam
0
6.4
6.5
6.5
0
0
15
16
L68
6.6
B.5
6.6
0
0
22.
„,„
836
6.7
6.5
6.6
0
0
45
672
6.5
6.4
6.3
4.5
2.7
m
1,334
6.4
5.9
5.9
6.7
5.2
115
36
LSD 05
for rates
0.3
Not
Sig.
0.5
ye*
Average
6.5
6.4
6.4
53
26
LSD 05
for soils
Yes2
yes2
Not
Sig.
....
yes2
xYes means averages for the different rates of N are significantly different from
each other at the stated or greater probability.
sYes means averages for the two soil
at the stated or greater probability.
are significantly different from each other
308 Indiana Academy of Science
November for the 1970 and 1971 crops. In 1969 all fertilizer was broadcast
after plowing disked, or field cultivated for incorporation. For the 1970
and 1971 crops broadcast limestone and fertilizers were plowed under in
the previous November, and field cultivation and spike tooth harrowing
were used for spring preparation for planting. In all years the urea was
applied last just prior to disking or plowing. In 1969, 1,190 kg per ha
(1,065 lbs per A) of 0-11-21 (percentages of total N, available P, and
available K) were applied to all plots. For the 1970 and 1971 crops 975 kg
per ha (870 pounds per acre) of 0-11-21 fertilizer were applied each year
to all plots.
Broadcast aldrin was incorporated into the soil in 1969 to control soil
insects. The corn hybrid, DeKalb XL-45, was planted May 29, 1969, and
Pioneer 3369A was planted May 8, 1970 and May 4, 1971. Average final
stands were 43,000 plants per ha (17,400 plants per A) in 1969, 54,000
plants per ha (21,860 per A) in 1970, and 59,000 plants per ha (23,900
per A) in 1971. In 1970 corn was planted at a high rate and hand thinned
to an exact population per row. Stand counts were taken in 1970 prior
to thinning. In 1969 and in 1971 no hand thinning was done. Atrazine
(Aatrex) and Lasso were used as broadcast pre-emergence herbicides.
Cultivation was also used for weed control. Corn was planted in 76 cm
(30 inch) rows in plots 18.3 m (60 feet) long and 4 corn rows wide. Hand
harvest areas were 7.9 m (26 feet) long and the 2 center rows were used.
Moisture percentages in the grain and tables for converting ear corn
weights to shelled corn were used to calculate grain yields. Yields are
reported on a 15.5% moisture in shelled corn basis.
Corn ear leaf samples were analyzed for plant nutrients by the
Growth Sciences Center of the International Mineral Chemical Corpora-
tion, Libertyville, Illinois.
Results and Discussion
The use of the highest rate of urea (1,344 kg per ha or 1,200 lbs per
A) in 1969, resulted in a decline of 0.7 pH unit in Fincastle soil and 0.5
pH unit in Chalmers soil (Table 1). In 1971, the soil pH was 5.3 on this
treatment on the Fincastle soil. According to Barber (1), limestones
having low percentage of particles passing through a 60-mesh sieve are
not likely to be efficient in acting rapidly to correct soil acidity. With 36
to 38% passing a 60-mesh sieve, these limestones were apparently too
coarse to completely correct acidity in time between application and
pH measurement.
Soluble salts in both soils were higher as rates of nitrogen increased.
This was true in both 1969 and in 1971 (Table 1). Soluble salts were not
determined in 1970 when no growth irregularities were observed. In 1969
differences in numbers of plants per plot and yield related to treatment
were observed (Table 2) even with 4.5 cm of rain in the 10 days following
planting. In 1969 the stand (number of plants per plot) on the 1,344 kg
per ha rate of nitrogen from urea was reduced to 33% and yields of corn
grain were reduced to 37% of those which received 336 kg per ha of nitro-
gen. This reduction in stand cannot be attributed entirely to salt effect.
Soil Science
309
Hunter and Rosenau (2) found that in closed urea-soil systems, urea-soil
mixtures out of contact with germinating corn seeds released gaseous
ammonia into the atmosphere, and the ammonia inhibited germination
and affected seedling development of corn. Similar effects were noted
when corn was seeded in soils saturated with ammonium ion to the extent
of 32% or more. The 1,336 kg per ha rate of N used herein would, if care-
fully mixed and all the ammonia (from urea) were absorbed on the
exchange sites, saturate 80% of the cation exchange capacity of Fincastle
soil and 40% of the exchange capacity of Chalmers soil. Highly significant
reductions in stand were found at this rate of N on both soils. However,
at the 672 kg per ha (600 lbs per A) rate of N, stand was reduced signifi-
cantly only on the Fincastle soil. In all years N deficiency symptoms were
observed on both soils in the no nitrogen treatment. In 1971, a year of
high corn yields, these symptoms of N deficiency were severe. The
significantly lower grain yield on both soils of the 672 kg per ha rate of
N than the 1,344 kg per ha of N in 1970 was not thought to be meaningful
because the 336 kg per ha treatment was also higher yielding. The general
Table 2.
Relation of rates of urea fertilizer application to plant population, leaf
height, and yield of corn on two soils, 1969-1971.
1969
1970
1971
Kg/ha
of N
Applied
Annually
Plants
per Plot
(7.92 m
x 1.52 m)
Grain
Yield
(kg/ha)
Maximum
Leaf Height
(6-26-70 cm)
Grain
Yield
(kg/ha)
Maximum
Leaf Height
(6-23-71 cm)
Grain
Yield
(kg/ha)
Fincastle silt loam
0
61
7,500
81
4,450
113
1,470
n;v.
63
8,540
100
8,950
1 1 r,
9,240
336
65
8,140
97
8,840
116
10,020
672
48
6,120
m
8,220
'.»!
8,490
1,344
21
3,020
100
9,010
?.i2
9,250
LSD 05
for rates
id
1,120
14
680
1 8
1,610
Average
52
6,660
MS
7,900
105
7 .,»■>!> n
Chalmers silty clay loam
0
59
7,500
114
6,379
140
2,990
168
51
y.;>r.o
128
9,615
181
11,880
336
59
9,040
138
9,697
181
12,450
672
E»5
8,710
143
9,044
175
12,720
1,334
31
5,310
£48
9,941
165
12,690
LSD 05
for rates
9
1,690
10
780
7
2,110
Average
53
7,980
134
8,944
168
10,550
LSD 05
for soils
Not Sig.
yes1
yes1
yes1
yes1
yes
xYes means averages for the two soils are significantly different from each other
at the stated or greater probability.
310 Indiana Academy of Science
trend in yield was very slightly higher in rates above none. This trend
was the result of heavier ears with the higher rates of N.
In 1971, even though grain yields were not reduced significantly,
maximum leaf heights were reduced significantly at the two highest rates
of N in the Fincastle soil and at the highest rate on Chalmers soil (Table
2). Total soluble salts and also nitrates were high in these two highest
treatment rates of N from urea on Fincastle soil. Soluble salts were not
as high on the Chalmers as on the Fincastle soil at the highest rate of
N in 1971. High soluble salts in soil probably contributed to the reduced
rate of growth of corn in the highest treatments on the Fincastle soil.
Height of plants was reduced 20% on the Fincastle soil and to only 9% on
the Chalmers soil in 1971. Germination and stand were not measurably
affected by high rates of N, and neither were grain yields.
Plant analysis on corn ear leaves indicated that contents of
manganese (Mn) increased from 4 to 15 times as rates of nitrogen were
increased from 0 to 1,344 kg per ha (Table 3). This increased uptake of
Mn was associated with a lower soil pH. Content of Mn in the ear leaves
was 2 to 3 times as high from the 168 kg per ha rate of N on Fincastle
soil as from the same rate of Chalmers soil. Soil Mn determinations were
not made.
Table 3. Relation of soil types and rates of nitrogen to manganese in corn ear leaves
on two soils, 1970-71.
Part per Million of Manganese
Kg/ha of
N Applied
Fincastle silt loam
Chalmers silty clay loam
Annually
1970
1971
1970
1971
0
35
33
14
<10
188
52
46
i'\
17
336
53
48
20
22
672
94
VI
34
37
1,344
149
196
91
77
LSI* »h
38
66
12
Not possible
LSD 01
64
93
19
Not possible
In conclusion, high rates of urea (672 or more kg per ha of N)
incorporated into the plow layer of soil just before planting can reduce
germination and yield of corn. Also, high rates of urea can cause soil pH
to decline as much as 0.7 of one pH unit in one cropping season. After
three applications of high rates of urea and two applications of limestone
in three cropping years, soluble salts can become high enough to contribute
to reduced maximum leaf height of corn in late June particularly on the
low exchange capacity and low organic matter Fincastle soil.
Soil Science 311
Literature Cited
1. Barber, S. A. 1967. Liming materials and practices In soil acidity and liming.
In Pearson, Robert W., and Fred Adams (eds.) Monograph Number 12. Amer.
Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. 274 p.
2. Hunter, Albert S., and William A. Rosenau. 1966. The effects of urea, biuret,
and ammonia on germination and early growth of corn (Zea mays L. ) Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. Proc. 30:77-81.
3. Powell, Richard D., and J. R. Webb. 1969. How much fertilizer ean corn take?
Crops and Soils Mag. 21:14-15.
4. Shoemaker, H. E., E. O. McLean, and P. F. Pratt. 1961. Buffer methods for
determining lime requirements of soils with appreciable amounts of extractable
aluminum. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 25:274-277.
Weekly and Seasonal Changes in Total Suspended
Particulate Concentrations at Indianapolis, Indiana1
James E. Newman
Departments of Agronomy and Geosciences
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
and
Dale E. Phinney
NOAA, EDS Laboratory for Environmental Research
U.S. Department of Commerce, Silver Springs, Maryland 20910
Abstract
Daily total suspended particulate concentrations for the period of 1968-1970 at
Indianapolis, Indiana, were analyzed to illustrate the weekly and seasonal variation in
urban air pollution. Weekly and seasonal changes in air quality as measured by daily total
particulate concentrations are identified; comparisons are made between the maximum
monthly concentrations and the mean monthly frequency of stagnating anti-cyclones.
Mean annual area concentrations for daily periods as measured by 19 monitoring stations
in Indianapolis and Marion County, Indiana, are illustrated. Some reasons for the recorded
changes in daily, weekly, and seasonal air quality in Indianapolis are proposed.
Introduction
It is generally understood that air pollution concentrations change
from hour to hour, day to day, and from one season to another during
the year. These variations have many causes, some of which are well
understood. Extremely high levels of air pollutants are related primarily
to very stable stagnating meteorological conditions for several days.
Likewise, extremely low levels are related to very unstable
meteorological conditions. But the normal hour to hour and day to day
meteorological change, coupled with time and space changes in human
activity in a given urban area, usually produces substantial periodic
patterns in air pollution concentrations. These pattern changes must
be properly assessed when planning a sampling procedure for the
purpose of monitoring air pollution concentrations. Sampling at fixed
times and places can produce highly biased data. It is for this reason
that the authors took a rather critical look at periodic changes in air
pollution concentrations of total suspended particulate over a 3-year
period at Indianapolis, Indiana.
Data and Methods
Data used in this study consisted of 24-hour samples of total sus-
pended particulate concentrations from 19 locations in Indianapolis,
Indiana, from January 1, 1968, through December 31, 1970. These daily
values were in micrograms per cubic meter (^,g/m3). The data
aJournal Paper No. 4649, Purdue University, Agricultural Experiment Station.
This research was supported jointly by the U.S. Dept. HEW, Public Health Training
Grant No. 5TO1AP00072-03, and Purdue University AES Hatch Project 1685, entitled
"The Climatic Resources of the North Central Region."
312
Soil Science
313
1
©
JHINGTONI ST.
80
74/ '
FIGURE 1. Mean daily total suspended particulate for Indianapolis, Indiana 1968-1970.
were recorded by the Environmental Control Division, Department of
Public Works, City of Indianapolis.
Daily values representing a 24-hour period from 10 AM one day
to 10 am the following day from each of the 19 monitoring stations were
averaged to produce the estimated isolines of mean daily total particu-
late reported in Figure 1. The total composite of daily values in con-
secutive 7-day weeks for the 3 years at Site 1 was 777 or 111 weekly
periods. These daily values were further composited into 7-day period
values for each day of the week, thus the mean value for each of the
Table 1. The Analysis of variance for the composite of daily values for total
particulate at Indianapolis, Indiana, 1968-70.
Sources
D. F.
Sums of Squares
Mean Squares
F Ratio
Treatment
6
27565.0101
4594.1683
3.2704
Residual
im
1076051.2668
1404.7667
Total
772
1103616.2768
F. os = -210
F 01 = .280
314 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. The analysis of variance for the composite of monthly values for total
particulate at Indianapolis, Indiana 1968-70.
Sources
D. D.
Sums of Squares
Mean Squares
F Ratio
Treatment
Residual
Total
11
761
772
57549.0300
1046067.2469
1103616.2768
5231.7300
1374.5956
3.8060
F 05 = 1-75
F01 =2 2.18
7 days in a weekly period is an average of 111 values. Similarly,
all daily values falling within a given month were composited to produce
monthly mean values. These data were subjected to an analysis of vari-
ance reported in Tables 1 and 2, and in Figures 2 and 3. Site 1 air
sampling station is located near the City-County Building in downtown
Indianapolis.
Results and Discussion
The National "Clean Air Act" passed by Congress in 1967 has many
provisions, regulations, and suggestions as guidelines for achieving its
goals. This Act clearly states that all areas within the United States
shall come under the control of a State or Federal designated Air
Quality Control Region. Further, the Act provides general guidelines
and timetables for achieving compliance.
One of the goals as stated in guidelines, under the 1967 Clean Air
Act, is that all areas in the United States should achieve an air
quality, as measured by total suspended particulate matter, of 80 /xg/m3
per 24 hours for an annual mean value.
With this in mind, the authors summarized 3 years of daily total
suspended particulate samples collected within the City of Indianapolis
and Marion County to produce Figure 1. This figure provides an esti-
mated geographical picture of that area in Indianapolis where the air
quality exceeded that annual mean value of 80 /xg/m3 per day.
Once an air pollution problem area has been established, further
monitoring must be continued to establish whether or not a geographical
area has or has not achieved the goal of compliance for a given air
pollutant. If one could assume that air pollution levels did not change
much from hour to hour, day to day, and month to month, then only
a few sampling days during the year would be adequate for establishing
compliance within a given Air Quality Control Region. Secondly, if one
could assume the air pollutants' changes in concentration were strictly
random in time and space, then only enough samples to estimate the
statistical error desired would be necessary. Unfortunately, neither of
these two assumptions is likely to hold.
It is well known that air pollutants vary both in time and space.
Over a yearly period or longer, variations in space are closely related
to sources of pollutants in a given area. On the other hand, variations
in time are closely related to changes in meteorological conditions and
Soil Science
315
the total activities of the community concerned. Since Figure 1 illus-
trates the mean estimated variation in space for the City of Indi-
anapolis, the authors decided to subject the data to an analysis of vari-
ance in time at a given point. For this study, Site 1 was selected near
the geographic center of Indianapolis. All daily values that were
consecutive in 7-day runs over the 3-year period at Site 1 were subjected
to this time-series analysis. The results of this effort are graphed in
Figure 2, with the analysis of variance reported in Table 1.
110
100
90
80
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in
60
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WW
/////
%
V,
w
SUN
MON
FRI
SAT
TUE WED THU
WEEKLY CYCLE
Figure 2. Mean daily values of total suspended particulate for each day in the week
at Site 1, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1968-1970.
Figure 2 illustrates considerable change from day to day during
the normal 7-day calendar week in mean daily total suspended
particulate for Indianapolis. These mean changes from day to day
during a weekly period are very significant as shown in Table 1. This
analysis strongly suggests that taking air quality samples on one or
two fixed days during a 7-day week is likely to produce biased data.
The one day with the least bias in this analysis turns out to be Friday,
since it is the mean daily value closest to the estimated weekly mean
value.
A similar analysis was done for monthly periods. These results are
reported in Figure 3 and Table 2. Here again, considerable variation
exists in mean daily value of total particulate from one month to an-
other and particularly between seasonal periods. The highest values
occur during the summer season, particularly in August. The lowest
seasonal values occurred in late autumn and early winter with the
lowest in November.
316
Indiana Academy of Science
no
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90
80
70
-
f
'/,
///
1
■%
i
1
1
1
1
1
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i
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1
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60
JFMAMJJASOND
MONTHLY VALUES
Figure 3. Mean monthly values of total suspended particulate for each month, at
Site 1, Indianapolis, 1968-1970.
Variations in mean monthly values for daily total particulate at
Site 1 in Indianapolis were subjected to further analysis as graphed
in Figure 4. This graph reports the number of times per month that
mean daily values exceeded one standard deviation above the monthly
mean. Such above-normal values in air pollution concentration are
LU
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8.0
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2.0
0.0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JLY AUG SPT OCT NOV DEC
MONTHLY VALUES
High air pollution occurrences at Site 1, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1968-1970.
Soil Science
317
7r
M
N D
A M J J A S 0
MONTHLY VALUES
Figure 5. Monthly number of stagnating anti-cyclones as reported by Korshover (1)
at Indianapolis, Indiana, 1936-1965.
usually associated with an extended period of extremely stable
meteorological conditions. Therefore, it was decided to compare the
results graphed in Figure 4 with the results reported by Korshover (1)
on the mean number of cases per month of anti-cyclone stagnations in
a 30-year period (1936-1965) for Indianapolis. Korshover's results are
graphed in Figure 5. Note the unusually high number of cases in
August, September, and October. Since Korshover's results represent
a climatic norm, one can conclude that high levels of air pollution for
extended daily periods should be expected during the late summer and
early autumn at Indianapolis, Indiana.
This analysis shows that periodic sampling of air pollutants, as
has often been the practice of air quality control districts, can result
in seriously biased data. The reason for this possible bias is related to
the fact that air pollution concentrations are subjected to periodic
changes caused by the area patterns of total community activities and
seasonal changes in meteorological conditions. Biased data from an air
quality sampling network can be reduced by avoiding fixed sampling
periods, such as one particular day per week or a particular set of days
per month. Therefore, air quality samples should be taken in a manner
318 Indiana Academy of Science
that minimizes the error in estimating the true mean for the period
concerned.
It is generally accepted that air pollution concentrations vary from
hour to hour during a normal 24-hour period. But since no hourly data
existed at Indianapolis, the diurnal period could not be studied. Nor-
mally, the highest concentrations occur during the early morning hours
of 7 to 9 am, with the lowest values occurring between 1 and
4 PM.
Conclusions
From air quality data on total suspended particulate at Indi-
anapolis, Indiana, from January 1, 1968, through December 31, 1970,
it is concluded that day to day weekly variations and month to month
seasonal variations are significant. Therefore, periodic sampling of air
pollutants on fixed days of the week should not be practiced without
proper correction procedures. Otherwise, seriously biased estimates in
air quality can result.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Mr. Lewis F. Scott, Manager, and Mr.
Wallace Benson, Chemist, of the Environmental Control Division, De-
partment of Public Works, City of Indianapolis, for their many helpful
discussions and suggestions concerning the data used in this study. The
data were made available by the Environmental Control Division,
Department of Public Works, City of Indianapolis.
Literature Cited
1. Korshover, J., 1967, Climatology of stagnating anti-cyclines east of the Rocky
Mountains, 1936-1965, Pub. Health Serv. Publ. No. 999-AP-34, 15 p. U. S. Dep.
Health, Educ, and Welfare.
Temperature and Relative Humidity Inside Corn Canopies
and in Standard Shelters during July and August, 1970 and 1971 1
D. E. Linvill and R. F. Dale
Agronomy Department
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Temperature and relative humidity within the microclimate of corn canopies were
compared to macroclimate temperature and relative humidity recorded in a standard
National Weather Service shelter for the period July 17 to August 15, 1970 and 1971.
Unaspirated wet bulb and dry bulb thermocouples exposed at one meter were used to
measure corn canopy temperature and relative humidity. A hygrothermograph was
exposed in a shelter for macroclimate measurements. Corn canopy maximum
temperatures were higher than shelter maximum temperatures and, conversely, corn
canopy minimum temperatures were lower than shelter minimums during both years.
Relative humidity within the corn canopy during this period was similar in both years al-
though differences occurred in macroclimate relative humidity patterns.
This study suggests that temperatures obtained from standard National Weather
Service shelters can be used to approximate temperatures within a corn canopy.
Relative humidity, however, can be quite different within a corn canopy than within a
standard shelter.
Introduction
Following any unfavorable agricultural situation such as delayed
corn maturity in 1967 or the unprecedented development of Southern
Corn Leaf Blight (SCLB) in 1970 and 1971 (3), agriculturists often
look first to anomalous weather conditions for an explanation. Weather
data are collected and published by the National Weather Service from
a network of instruments exposed under standard conditions. These data
furnish excellent macroclimatic comparisons, but unless relationships
between these data and microclimatic conditions are known, a correct
assessment of the effect of macroclimatic anomalies upon biological
response within a micro-environment can only be hypothesized.
This paper describes temperature and relative humidity patterns
observed within a corn canopy and compares them with those from
standard instrumental exposures for a period from mid-July to mid-
August in 1970 and 1971. These microenvironmental measurements were
taken as part of a corn growth and development study conducted at the
Purdue University Agronomy Farm, West Lafayette, Indiana.
Description of Experiment
A summary of published temperature data (4) for the 1970 and
1971 growing seasons and the 18-year (1953 to 1970) average for the
Purdue University Agronomy Farm is shown in Table 1. In this study,
a 30-day period from July 17 to August 15 — a period important in the
SCLB development — was examined during both years.
ijournal Paper No. 4632. Agricultural Experiment Station, Purdue University.
Partially supported by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Cooperative
Agreement E-205-69.
319
320 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. West Lafayette 6NW, Purdue University, Agronomy Farm temperature
summary °C.
April
May
June
July
Max Min
August
Max Min
September
Max1 Min
Max Min
Max Min
Max Min
Normal2
16.1 4.6
21.8 9.7
27.0 14.7
29.2 16.7
28.2 15.4
25.2 11.2
1970
16.4 4.7
23.8 11.4
26.5 14.8
29.1 16.8
28.1 15e3
25.8 12.3
1971
16.7 2.4
20.6 7.8
29.8 17.3
27.3 15.6
27.2 14.2
26.1 14.2
Average daily maximum temperature and average daily minimum temperature,
8 am observation day.
21953-1970 average.
Environmental temperature and relative humidity data were from
a hygrothermograph exposed in a medium National Weather Service
shelter at the Purdue Agronomy Farm Agricultural Weather Station.
The corn experimental area was located about 200 m north-northeast
of the weather station. Corn population was about 62,000 plants per
ha planted in 76 cm-wide rows oriented north to south. The corn
canopies were approximately 2.7 m tall in both years with an average
leaf area index during the study period of 3.5 in 1970 and 4.0 in 1971.
Seventy-five per cent silk dates were August 3, 1970 and July 27, 1971.
Copper-constantan thermocouples (24-gauge wire) were utilized to
measure dry and wet bulb temperatures at 1 m within the corn canopy.
Dry bulb fluctuations were reduced by shielding the thermocouple
junction with white tape. A wet bulb was formed by tying a muslin wick
securely around a bare thermocouple junction and extending the muslin
downward into a water reservoir. Output from the thermocouples was
recorded on a multi-point recorder.
Relative humidities measured by wet and dry bulb thermocouples
were compared with those from a hygrothermograph exposed at the
same location within the corn canopy during September 1971. The
hygrothermograph used in the corn canopy was calibrated with the
shelter hygrothermograph before and after the September study. The
least squares regression equation for the calibration period was
Y = 1.718 X — 70.266, where Y is relative humidity taken
from the hygrothermograph and X is that from the thermo-
couples. R2 was 0.83. Since relative humidity in the shelter was
recorded with a hygrothermograph, corn canopy relative humidities
calculated from wet and dry bulb thermocouples data were corrected
by this equation for this study.
Results and Discussion
Temperature
Temperatures in the shelter for the period from July 17 to August
15, 1970 and 1971 are shown in Figure 1. Daily maximum and
minimum temperatures during 1970 were close to normal with periods
both above and below normal. In 1971, daily maximum and minimum
temperatures were well below normal with only a short period in August
having above normal temperatures.
Soil Science
321
35
30
uj 25
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cc 20
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DAILY MAXIMUM
DAILY MINIMUM
1970
1971
20 25 30 5 10 15
JULY AUGUST
Figure 1. Daily maximum and minimum shelter temperatures at West Lafayette
6NW, Purdue University Agronomy Farm, July 17 to August 15, 1970, 1971,
and 30-year (1931-1960) normal.
Hourly shelter temperatures averaged for the 30-day period from
17 July to 15 August show that 1971 temperatures were 2 to 3°C lower
than 1970 temperatures (Fig. 2). An average hourly standard deviation
of 1.3°C was found in 1970 and 0.9°C in 1971.
Differences between temperatures in the canopy and in the shelter
for each hour are also shown in Figure 2. Nighttime temperatures
within the canopy averaged 1.5°C lower than those in the shelter
during 1970 and 0.5 °C lower in 1971. Midday temperature differences
reached a maximum of 1.2°C greater in the canopy than in the shelter
during 1970 and 0.6°C during 1971. This difference between the two
years can partially be explained by a denser canopy leaf area in 1971
than in 1970. The 1971 canopy did not permit as great a radiational
exchange between the 1 m level in the canopy and the macroenviron-
ment as did the 1970 canopy. Radiational heating and cooling of the
canopy interior was therefore less during 1971 than during 1970. The
early evening hours were a time of greatest temperature differentials
between the macroenvironment (shelter) and the corn canopy. Rahn
and Brown (2) have also found the corn canopy microenvironment to
be warmer in daytime and cooler at night than the macroenvironment
as measured in an instrument shelter.
Temperature differences in Figure 2 could reflect differences
between exposures and also differences between types of instruments,
i.e., thermocouples within the canopy and a hygrothermograph in the
shelter. The temperature data shown in Table 1 are from a third type
322
Indiana Academy of Science
28
26
t
f v ^
24
I /
o
22
-
/ /
\ \
9
/ /
\ \
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3
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1971
2*
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-
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\
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_
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1 1 1
1 1 1 1
9 12 15
Time of Day, EST
24
Figure 2. Average hourly shelter temperatures and average hourly difference, corn
canopy minus shelter temperature, for the period 17 July to 15 August, 1970 and 1971.
of instrumentation, liquid-in-glass maximum and minimum ther-
mometers. Accuracy in reading both time and temperature from
hygrothermograms and thermocouple charts defeat quantification of
any estimate of bias due to instrumental differences2.
If temperature differences shown in Figure 2 are used to estimate
maximum, minimum, or mean temperatures within a corn canopy from
published climatological data, bias arising from the time of observation
must be considered. Mitchell (1) has shown that estimates of mean
temperature were near the true daily mean if the observational day
ended at 8:00 am, but the maximum and mean temperatures were
biased upward if the observational time was 5:00 PM. An 8:00 AM
observational day was used in this study for summarizing all tempera-
ture data.
2Published (4) maximum temperatures from ]iquid-in-g]ass thermometers averaged
0.6°C higher and minimum temperatures 0.7°C lower than those from a hygrothermo-
graph exposed in the same standard shelter. A hygrothermograph and thermocouples
exposed at 1 m within a corn canopy during September 1971, recorded the same night-
time minimum temperatures. Daytime maximum temperatures, however, were recorded
about 1°C higher on the hygrothermograph. The higher daytime temperatures were
due to sunfleck heating of the hygrothermograph while thermocouples remained in
shaded locations during both the July-August and September periods.
Soil Science
323
Relative Humidity
Three basic instruments are used by the National Weather Service
to measure relative humidity. Hygrothermographs, of the type exposed
in a shelter for the data in this paper, depend upon absorption of water
vapor by human hair. Hygrothermometers of the type currently exposed
at airport weather stations consist of a ventilated dew cell to obtain
dew point data. Relative humidity measurements with this instrument
are usually lower than those recorded by a hygrothermograph. A third
type instrument is the wet and dry bulb psychrometer. Although the
psychrometer is usually force ventilated, an unaspirated thermocouple
version of this instrument was used for canopy measurement of relative
humidity in this study.
Relative humidity data in the corn canopy were not recorded prior
to July 26, 1970. Thus hourly relative humidities in the shelter and
canopy were averaged for the 21-day period from July 26 to August 15
(Fig. 3). The 1970 hourly relative humidities in the shelter were
generally higher than those in 1971. The largest differences, 5% to
10%, occurred during the morning hours. The 1970 and 1971 corn
canopy relative humidities, however, were similar throughout the day.
100,-
9 12 15
Time of Day, EST
Figure 3. Average hourly shelter relative humidity and average hourly difference,
corn canopy minus shelter relative humidity for the period July 26 to August 15
1970 and 1971.
324 Indiana Academy of Science
Relative humidities in both the shelter and corn canopy were close to
100% during the nights in both years.
Hourly relative humidity differences, canopy minus shelter, were
similar during the night, afternoon, and early evening hours in both
years (Fig. 3). Morning relative humidities, however, did not show
similar characteristics in 1970 and 1971. During 1970, relative humidity
in the corn canopy and shelter changed at about the same rate until
2:00 PM, but in 1971 the shelter relative humidity decreased more
rapidly in the morning than did the corn canopy relative humidity.
Hourly standard deviations of the relative humidity differences were
about 3% at night and 10% in the afternoon. The large afternoon
deviations were caused by a few periods of rain and high humidity.
Conclusions
During the 30-day period, July 17 to August 15, 1970 and 1971,
temperatures at 1 m within a corn canopy were lower at night and
higher during the day than temperatures recorded in a standard
National Weather Service shelter. The shelter relative humidity was
greater in 1970 than in 1971 with the largest differences occurring
during the morning hours. Relative humidities within the corn canopy,
however, showed similar average hourly trends during the morning
hours in 1970 and 1971. Relative humidity in both the corn canopy and
shelter averaged close to 100% at night in both years.
These data suggest that temperatures obtained from standard
National Weather Service shelters can be used to approximate
temperatures within a corn canopy. Relative humidity, however, can
be quite different within a corn canopy than within a standard
shelter.
Literature Cited
Mitchell, J. M., Jr. 1958. Effect of changing observation time on mean
temperature. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 39:83-89.
Rahn, J. J., and D. M. Brown. 1971. Estimating corn canopy extreme tempera-
tures from shelter values. Agr. Meteorol. 8:129-138.
Stirm, W. L., M. E. Bauer, and O. J. Loewer, Jr. 1971. Predicting southern corn
leaf blight development in 1971 by computer simulator EPIMAY. Proc. Indiana
Acad. Sci. 81:325-329.
U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Nat. Oceanic and Atmos. Adm., Env. Data Serv.
1970, 1971. Climatol. Data, Indiana 1970-71, Vols. 75-76. 194 p. and 187 p.
Predicting Southern Corn Leaf Blight
Development in 1971 by Computer Simulator EPIMAY1
Walter L. Stirm
National Weather Service, NOAA
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
and
Marvin Bauer
Laboratory for Application of Remote Sensing
Otto Loewer, Jr.
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
A disease simulator model was used on an experimental basis during 1971 to
evaluate the effects of weather on the spread and multiplication of Southern Corn Leaf
Blight. Weather data consisting of hourly temperature, humidity, wind speed, sunshine,
leaf wetness and precipitation were used in the computer program to provide daily values
for new infections, lesion accumulations and per cent leaf area affected. Results were then
compared to observations provided through pathological reports, ground observer data
and aerial photo-multispectral scanner information.. Weekly EPIMAY predictions
compared favorably with the observed weekly change in blight. At stations where
starting dates of EPIMAY and the initial observed infection were close, good comparisons
resulted for per cent leaf area infected.
Introduction
During 1970 southern corn leaf blight, race T of Helminthosporium
maydis, reduced corn yields in the United States by an estimated 10
to 15% according to crop reports of the U.S.D.A. Statistical Reporting
Service. Losses were confined mainly to corn hybrids containing Texas
male sterile-cytoplasm. The disease started in the Southern United
States in May and June, then spread rapidly into the midwest corn belt
during July and August (1). Some fields of corn in Indiana were com-
pletely destroyed by the epidemic.
Considerable effort was made during and following the 1970 grow-
ing season to establish the effect of weather on the development of the
disease. EPIMAY, a disease simulator model, was developed by Dr.
Waggoner and associates at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment
Station (2). The model was based on application of 1970 observed
weather-disease information and laboratory tests. The results showed
promise for application as an objective indicator of the favorability of
weather for the development of southern corn leaf blight.
Barger (NOAA, EDS, Wash., D.C.) suggested national use of
EPIMAY for the corn blight problem and in June 1971 a program, under
the direction of Regional Climatologist, L. A. Joos (Joos, unpublished
data), was established using computer facilities at the National
Journal Paper No. 4611. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
325
326 Indiana Academy of Science
Weather Service Central Region in Kansas City. The program was
conducted over a 12-state area and included about 20 stations. To
supplement and assist in evaluating the national program, an intensive
application of the EPIMAY model was conducted at Purdue University
for 8 stations in Indiana.
The Indiana program was a joint cooperative effort by research
and operation groups at Purdue to identify and evaluate southern corn
leaf blight by aircraft sensing and by collection of field observations,
and thus testing the predictability of EPIMAY (using weather data).
In addition to airborne information, the Corn Blight Watch Experi-
ment conducted by the USDA, NASA and Universities in seven Corn
Belt States provided an organized collection of ground truth by
extension agents and pathologists in a specific series of fields along
the designated flight paths for sensing aircraft (Bauer, M., unpublished
data).
Methods
The disease simulator model estimated the effects of temperature,
humidity, wind, light and leaf wetness on all stages of the disease
cycle. Other factors involved were effects of wind and rainfall on wash
off, dry out and transport of spores. To determine the number of
lesions formed, the model systematically considered the factors relating
to spore production, dissemination and infection by the blight fungus.
This was accomplished by a series of laboratory developed curves relat-
ing the single and combined effects of weather on the disease. Some
modifications were made in the model by Purdue researchers to adjust
for change in leaf area available for infection and to adjust starting
dates to fit planting and various development stages of the corn crop
(Peart, R., and O. Loewer, unpublished data).
Weather input to EPIMAY for the national and Indiana programs
were provided by the daily reports from the Indiana agriculture weather
observation network and by hourly teletype reports from the National
Weather Service and Federal Aviation Agency teletype reporting sta-
tions. Data for each 3-hour period through the day, beginning at mid-
night Greenwich time (7 pm EST), were summarized, resulting in 8
data readings per 24-hour period from June 11 through September 2.
Dew or leaf wetness were rated in five classes: no dew — zero
duration, light dew — 3-hour duration, moderate dew — 6-hour duration,
heavy — 9-hour duration, and very heavy — 12-hour duration. Dura-
tion of classes was determined through instrument measurements
and visual checks. When dew was present hygrothermograph traces
usually indicated 80 to 100% relative humidity. Light or brightness of
the sky information was based on cloud cover from sunrise to sunset
using 50% or greater cloudiness as a cloudy day. The data were
punched on computer cards each Friday for processing by the LARS
computer facility.
The computer output consisted of a daily listing of weather data
including the starting, ending and inches of rainfall for each precipi-
Soil Science
^7
tation period, leaf wetness as yes or no, and hourly rate of rainfall
for each 3-hour period for checking the input data. Next came the
results, a daily listing of new infections, new lesions, accumulated
lesions and per cent of leaf area infected by lesions. Map summaries
showing accumulated lesions, weekly increase and per cent leaf area in-
fected at each location were then prepared for distribution to all
Purdue groups and by telecopier to Climatology Research Laboratory,
NOAA, Silver Springs, Maryland.
Results
EPIMAY estimated the number of blight lesions formed daily and
provided accumulative totals for each station. Flat plateau-like portions
of the curves (Fig. 1) indicate when weather was unfavorable for blight
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<^-h-
— f~ r
'~i
i
1
1 1 1 1 1 i
16 21 26
June
16
July
21 26 31
10 15 20 25
August 1971
lo-
west Lafayette
Agronomy
Farm
16 21 26
June
10 15 20 25
August 1971
Figure 1. Accumulated southern corn leaf blight lesions during the 1971 groiving
season as predicted by EPIMAY for West Lafayette Agronomy Farm, Johnson,
Hedrick and Terre Haute, Indiana.
328
Indiana Academy of Science
development. During favorable periods sharp increases in the anticipated
lesion numbers followed 72 hours after the onset of infection. This
reflects the time interval from when fungus spores land on the corn
plant until lesions become visible.
Curves showing accumulated lesions (Fig. 1) reached 108 values
(level corresponding to approximately 20% leaf area coverage of lesions)
10 days earlier at West Lafayette Agronomy Farm and Terre Haute
than at Johnson and 15 days earlier than at Hedrick. Accumulated
Table 1. Comparison of EPIMAY predictions and field observations of per cent leaf
area infected by southern corn leaf blight.
Starting Date
100 Lesions/ha)
Observation
Date
Per cent of Leaf Area Infected
Location
EPIMAY
Field
Observations
Wanatafa
6/21
7/31
2.5
0.5
Lafayette
6/11
7/26
8,5
1.0
Lafayette
(Agron. Farm)
6/11
7/29
17, ,3
11.0
(Inoculated 7/1)
Hedrick
6/11
7/27
0.2
0.5
Indianapolis
6/11
7/28
0.5
32.0
Terre Haute
6/11
7/27
18.8
12.0
Vincennes
6/1
7/26
4.6
15.0
Evansville
6/1
7/27
9.8
8.0
lesion curves at all 8 stations showed similar slope but were displaced
by 0 to 20 days for an equal level of lesions.
Per cent leaf area infected as predicted by EPIMAY, was compared
to levels observed in corn fields of susceptible varieties (Table 1).
Table 2. Weekly increase factors in number of lesions as predicted by EPIMAY.
Factors
in the Increase in
Numbers of
Lesion Over
Number
Previous
Week
New
Date
Wanatah
W.Laf.
Hendrick
T.Haute
Vi
incennes
Johnson
Augusta
6/11-6/17
0
1
0
1
1
6
3
6/18-6/24
6
8
0
39
12
4
2
6/25-7/1
9
6
2
4
1
1
2
7/2-7/8
2
3
3
2
3
10
7
7/9-7/15
24
19
19
11
3
4
4
7/16-7/22
9
8
3
6
7
3
2
7/23-7/29
6
19
27
13
14
14
6
7/30-8/5
2
2
7
5
3
4
8
8/6-8/12
4
3
15
11
12
11
7
8/13-8/19
4
JO
4
23
20
10
9
8/20-8/26
5
12
16
3
1
4
3
8/27-9/2
9
3
6
2
6
12
24
Soil Science 329
Reasonable agreement was found at 5 of the 8 locations where
weather data and sample fields were near and quite poor agreement
elsewhere.
Weekly increases in number of lesions were used to indicate the
degree of favorability of weather for blight development (Table 2).
Favorable weather produced 7 day lesion increases up to 39 times the
number for the previous week.
Discussion
A number of limitations prevent conclusive evaluation of EPIMAY.
In most cases, except at the Purdue Agronomy Farm, West Lafayette,
and at Wanatah, weather stations were at distances of several miles
to over 20 miles from the sampled corn fields. Variation from local in-
fluences of topography, soil moisture and rainfall patterns for these
distances could account for some of the differences between observed
and predicted disease levels (Table 1). A starting condition of 100 initial
lesions per hectare were used for EPIMAY but large variation could
occur in this level due to local inoculum sources.
It was also necessary to adjust EPIMAY to account for per cent
of leaf area remaining available for new infections (Peart, R., and 0.
Loewer, unpublished data). Further adjustments of leaf area indices
are needed to account for different planting dates and stages of
development of corn.
Other factors contributing to variation in results that should be
considered are the susceptibility of different corn hybrids and the
general physical status of the crop from other diseases and insects. In
1971, early planted susceptible corn varieties matured far enough ahead
of the late developing southern corn leaf blight to limit damage
mainly to foliage and stalks.
The overall effects of the 1971 corn growing season also has some
bearing on the 1971 southern corn leaf blight situation. Winter and
early spring dryness and summer coolness were effective in reducing
spore viability in the 1970 crop residue. No large scale influx of spores
were noted by pathologists as in the previous year. Early planting plus
a warm very rapid spring growth period caused corn development earlier
than usual before blight fungus development. These plus other factors,
such as reduced acreage of susceptible corn, were among the reasons
for Indiana's improved blight picture.
Literature Cited
1. Moore, W. F., 1970. Origin and spread of southern corn leaf blight in 1970.
Plant Dis. Rep. 54:1104-1108.
2. Waggoner, P. E., 1971. EPIMAY. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. New Haven. Conn. 48 p.
Some Effects of Soil and Ambient Air Temperature
Differences on Tomato Growth1
E. J. MONKE
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
and
R. M. Alverson
New Holland Division, Sperry Rand Corporation
New Holland, Pennsylvania 17557
Abstract
An experimental laboratory study was designed to evaluate the effect of temperature
difference combinations on the growth response of tomato seedlings. Growth indices were
changes in stem diameter, root-mass length, and stem height. The stem diameter was con-
tinuously monitored with a specially designed electronic micrometer.
An endogenous cyclic pattern of change in stem diameter was noted as a function of
the light and dark intervals. Increases in root temperatures up to 35 "Centigrade
(95° Fahrenheit) for periods of approximately four days had at least temporary bene-
ficial effects on growth. However, further increases in root temperature were deleterious
to growth, particularly root development.
Introduction
One of the most troublesome environmental problems in the
United States is thermal pollution in water. It is readily apparent, due
to the importance of temperature on metabolic and respiratory proc-
esses of living organisms, that release of large volumes of heated water
to waterways and lakes can be an upsetting influence on natural life
cycles. Heated waste water, because of its low grade temperature con-
dition, has little industrial value and controls are both costly and
complicated. Mechanical cooling towers and cooling ponds are the most
common methods of controlling waste heat output but both are rather
inefficient with little capital return accruing to their use. A possible
alternative would be to find beneficial uses of the heated waste water.
One proposed solution is to use the heated water for irrigation and
environmental control of crops. However, depending on the means of
application of this water to plants, relatively large temperature
gradients between plant tops and the root systems could exist.
The purpose of the reported study was to evaluate some of the
effects of soil and ambient air temperature differences on the growth
response of tomato seedlings which might occur as a result of using
thermally polluted water as the source of water for irrigation (1).
Journal Paper No. 4613, Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station, Lafayette,
Indiana 47907. Supported in part with an NSF traineeship.
330
Soil Science
331
Literature
Plant growth may be defined as cell multiplication with or without
an increase in volume or an increase in volume without cell multiplica-
tion. In the reported study only non-destructive measurements of volume
were used as indices of plant growth. Measurement of stem diameter
was after Splinter (5) who reported on the design of an electronic
micrometer using a linear variable differential transformer to give
continuous monitoring of plant stem diameter. Using this device, he
also showed a high correlation coefficient between stem diameter and
total leaf area for plant species exhibiting apical dominance.
The effect of temperature gradients between plant tops and their
root systems has been previously investigated (4) but more so in recent
years (3, 6) because of the possibility of thermally polluted soil water
and because of improvements in instrumentation and experimental con-
trol. Currently, Boersma from Oregon State University is studying the
effects of heating soil under field conditions by using buried electrical
cables to simulate irrigating with thermally polluted water (2).
Equipment and Procedure
Three-week old tomato seedlings (Heinz 1350) were "transplanted"
from a gravel to a mist culture. Transplanting was accomplished by
securing a plant stem in the top side of a root environmental
chamber with a cork and floral putty so that the root system would
extend into the chamber. The root environmental chamber was in turn
contained within a larger growth chamber as shown in Figure 1.
o1
TIMER
BTU'S— i
SUMP
LIGHTS
«
LVDT
TEMPERATURE
PROBE
ROOT ENVIRONMENTAL
v CHAMBER
GROWTH
CHAMBER
o
PROPORTIONAL
TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLER
PUMP
HEATER
o
OSCILLATOR/ STRIP
DEMODULATOR CHART
RECORDER
Figure 1. Experimental
showing the root environmental chamber witlvin the
larger growth chamber.
:;:;2
Indiana Academy of Science
Nine different root-top temperature combinations were used. Ambi-
ent air temperatures of 20 and 25°C were combined with 5°C
increments of "soil" temperatures ranging from that of the ambient
air to 40°C.
In the root environmental chamber, the plant roots were continu-
ously sprayed with modified Hoagland's #1 nutrient solution. The
temperature of the solution was controlled by a temperature probe, a
proportional temperature controller, and a heater to ±0.25°C
once equilibrium conditions were established. The root environmental
chamber, which was transparent, was covered to provide a darkened
space for root growth.
In the growth chamber, the air temperature was controlled at either
20 or 25°C ± 0.3°C, the relative humidity at 70 ± 2%, and the
light intensity at 1200 ± 100 ft-c. The day was divided into 16-hour
continuous light and 8-hour continuous dark periods.
The growth response of the tomato seedlings was evaluated from
changes in stem diameter which were continuously monitored with an
electronic micrometer and from changes in root-mass length
and stem height over the time period for each experiment. Each
experiment lasted approximately 4 days. For any one experiment only
the stem diameter of one tomato plant was measured. The equipment
used to measure stem diameter consisted of an LVDT (linear variable
differential transformer) head assembly, an oscillator/ demodulator
(Automatic Timing & Controls, Inc., Series 6101E) and a potentiometric
strip chart recorder. This equipment is schematically represented in
Figure 1 and the LVDT head assembly in position for monitoring change
in stem diameter is shown in Figure 2.
.0^0-
Figure 2. LVDT head assembly positioned for monitoring change in stem diameter of
a tomato plant.
Soil Science
WXi
The LVDT (ATC No. 6233 A) was enclosed in a precisely machined
central housing. The head assembly was constructed of non-magnetic
stainless steel and Plexiglas to prevent stray electrical current inter-
ference with the LVDT. A micrometer head (Starret Co. T263RL) was
used to provide precise mechanical positioning of the LVDT armature
in the center or null position of the coil.
The LVDT head assembly provided a non-destructive means of
measuring stem diameter. The only back pressure, considered negligible,
was caused by a small coil spring which was used to keep the
LVDT in constant contact with the plant stem. When operating, the
oscillator/demodulator was used to excite the LVDT primary coil,
amplify the a-c output with phase sensitivity and convert it to a
d-c signal suitable for direct readout on the strip chart recorder. The
readout was thus directly proportional to the differential transformer
armature displacement. Readings of 10~3 mm were considered
accurate without readout interpolation.
Results and Discussion
The growth response of a tomato plant with leaf temperatures of
20 and 25 °C, respectively, and root temperatures ranging from 20 to
40°C are shown in Figures 3 and 4. These curves were smoothed
through many data points which also exhibited diurnal fluctuations.
At a 40 °C root temperature for both leaf temperatures, increases in stem
diameter did not occur after 72 hours. Prior to this time, the roots of
ROOT
HOURS
Figure 3. Growth response of tomato plants with 20°C leaf temperature and root
temperatures ranging from 20 to 40°C.
334
Indiana Academy of Science
25°C
LEAF
ROOT
~35°C
+<1 30°C
1.0
25°C
0.5
n
i
-40°C
50
100
150'
HOURS
Figure 4. Growth response of tomato plants with 25°C leaf temperature and root
temperatures ranging from 25 to JfO°C.
the tomato plants showed little secondary root growth and were much
darker in color than had been observed with any of the lower root
temperatures. However, little visual damage to the leaf and stem por-
tions of the plants was noted up to 72 hours but by 96 hours severe wilt-
ing and obvious death had occurred.
For all root temperatures less than 40°C, the stem diameter in-
creased throughout the length of the experiment for both leaf
temperatures. Trends if any between these root temperatures were not
discernible for a given leaf temperature. However, increases in stem
diameter were more linear for the 20°C than for the 25°C
temperature during this stage of plant growth.
Effects of root temperature on the growth rate of tomato plants
as measured by stem and root-mass lengths are shown in Figures 5 and
6. Both the stem and root-mass lengths are the average of three
tomato plants for any one experiment. The maximum growth rate as
measured by stem length occurred at a 30° C root temperature for both
the 20 and 25 °C leaf temperatures. The growth rate for the
25 °C leaf temperature, however, was about double that of the
20 °C leaf temperature. The maximum growth rate as measured by
root-mass length occurred when the root temperature was 5°C
higher than the leaf temperature. The 25°C leaf temperature condi-
tion produced about 1.5 times the growth rate of the 20°C
leaf temperature when root-mass length was used as the growth index.
The optimum temperatures for obtaining maximum stem and root-
mass growth in these experiments were 25° C leaf and 30° C
root temperatures.
Soil Science
335
0.8-
^0.4
OL^,
STEM LENGTH
20
25
30 35
ROOT TEMPERATURE, °C
40
Figure 5. Effect of root temperature on the growth rate of tomato plants as measured
by stem length.
In all experiments, the diameter of the plant stem changed with
respect to the light and dark periods. Figure 7 is an expanded example
of the diurnal growth response of a tomato plant with 20°C leaf and
20 °C root temperatures. The growth rate based on change in stem
20UC LEAF
— -A._25°C LEAF
25 30
ROOT TEMPERATURE, °C
Figure 6. Effect of root temperature on the growth rate of tomato plants as measured
by root-mass length.
:m\
Indiana Academy of Science
diameter tended to decrease over the latter portions of both the light
and dark intervals. This condition may have been caused by
"fatigue" during the light periods and consumption of photosynthetic
products during the dark periods. A rapid increase in stem diameter
always occurred shortly after the climate chamber was darkened. This
rapid increase in growth was probably caused by a change in the water
regime within the plant. Turgor pressures tended to increase rapidly
because of the closing of the stomata in the absence of light and be-
cause of the probable cooling of the leaves which would cause the energy
available for transpiration to decrease.
0.2
■0.1
HOURS
Figure 7. Diurnal growth response of a tomato plant with
temperatures.
'C leaf and 20° C root
Conclusions
Based on this study, the optimum temperatures for this stage of
tomato plant development appear to be 25°C (77°F) leaf and
30°C (86°F) root temperatures. At these temperatures, the
rate of growth as measured by increases in stem length and root-mass
length was maximum. The rate of growth as measured by increases
in stem diameter, although not always maximum under these tempera-
ture conditions, was always high. A continuation of these optimal
conditions might be expected to result in maximum fruiting but this
is only conjectural.
The LVDT head assembly provided a versatile and highly precise
means of measuring changes in stem diameter in a non-destructive
manner. Its precision was illustrated in the manner by which it was
able to measure the small cyclical changes occurring between light and
dark periods.
Soil Science 337
At 40°C (104°F) root temperature, the tomato plants died. The
deleterious effect of this temperature was quickly noticed by the con-
dition of the root system but approximately 3 days passed before it
became noticeable from measurements of stem diameter. For lower
temperatures, growth trends as measured by changes in stem diameter
were not discernible. At this particular stage of tomato plant growth,
measurement of changes in stem diameter should be coordinated with
other growth indices and visual inspection to give much information con-
cerning overall plant response. However, each type of measurement can
yield useful information about certain physiological responses of the
plant.
Heated waste water usually varies anywhere from 25 (77°F) to
50°C (122°F). Over the first half of this temperature range, direct ap-
plication of the heated waste water to the soil would probably give
beneficial growth results. However, over the last half of this tempera-
ture range, some cooling of the water should be accomplished during
the application process. Under these conditions, sprinkler irrigation
should be considered because the spray drops tend toward equilibrium
with the wet-bulb temperature. The major objection to the use of heated
waste water by tomato plants or for that matter any plant is not
whether it can be beneficially used — it can — but the fact that it
may be largely a consumptive use. Over-irrigation and the collection
of return flow for reuse could reduce the percentage of applied water
lost to consumptive use, however.
Literature Cited
1. Alverson, R. M. 1970. Some effects of root-leaf temperature differences on
plant growth response. Unpublished M.S. Thesis. Purdue University. 83 p.
2. Carter, L. J. 1969. Warm-water irrigation: An answer to thermal pollution.
Science 165:478-480.
3. Chen, L. H., B. K. Huang and W. E. Sprinter. 1968. Effect of air and soil
temperature on growth of small tobacco plants. Tobacco Sci. 12:222-225.
4. Nelson, C. H. 1944. Growth responses of hemp to differential soil and air
temperatures. Plant Physiol. 19:294-309.
5. Splinter, W. E. 1969. Electronic micrometer continuously monitors plant stem
diameter. Amer. Soc. Agric. Engrs. J. 50:220-221.
6. Walker, J. M. 1969. One-degree increments in soil temperatures affect maize seedling-
behavior. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:729-736.
ZOOLOGY
Chairman : William J. Brett, Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Dorothy Adalis, Department of Biology, Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana 47306, was elected Chairman for 1972
ABSTRACTS
Perception of the Plane of Polarized Light and Its Use by Orienting
Salamanders.1 Kraig Adler, Department of Biology, University of Notre
Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, and Douglas H. Taylor, Department
of Zoology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio 45056. — —Tiger sal-
amanders (Amby stoma tigrinum) were trained to move along a specific
axis in an indoor tank under a polarized light (produced by a
polarizing filter, HN-38 Bausch & Lomb). Orientation tests were per-
formed indoors in a small water-filled arena which was completely en-
closed in opaque plastic. Animals were placed individually in the
center of the arena beneath the polarized light source, then released
and allowed to move to the edge of the arena where they were
scored. Directional responses of salamanders in the arena were the same
with respect to the plane of polarization as they had been in
training. Rotation of the polarization filter by 90° produced cor-
responding changes in the direction of movement.
Orientation to the plane of polarization can be demonstrated in
sighted and blinded animals. However, if opaque plastic is inserted over
the skull of blinded animals, movement is at random; oriented movement
is restored, however, when clear plastic is substituted in these
animals. These studies suggest that the critical receptor for polarized
light is extraoptic.
A Population Study of the Ozark Hellbender Salamander, Cryptobran-
chus alleganiensis bishopL Charles E. Mays, Department of Zoology,
DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana 46135, and Max A.
Nickerson, Department of Zoology, Arkansas State University,
State University, Arkansas. During the summers of 1969 and 1970,
an extensive mark and recapture study of Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
bislwpi was made on the North Fork River, a branch of the White River,
Ozark, Co., Missouri. It was estimated that there are 1,142 salamanders
in a 1.65 mile study area (N = 439). From length and weight measure-
ments, it appears that the population consists of at least four age
groups. According to a biomass estimate, there are 919 pounds of
C. alleganiensis bishopi in this area. One riffle has a density estimate of
one hellbender per 182 square feet.
Supported by an Indiana Academy of Science Grant, NSF GB-30647, and NIH FR
07033-05 to Adler; NSF Post-doctoral Fellowship GU-2058 to Taylor.
339
340 Indiana Academy of Science
Observation of feeding activities as well as stomach analysis indi-
cates that crayfish are the principal food source of C, alleganiensis
bishopi. Cannibalism and egg-eating, which have been observed in the
laboratory, may be important factors in maintaining population stability.
Specific Estrogen Binding Sites in the Nuclear Fraction of the Rat
Uterus. J. H. Clark, J. A. Anderson, and E. J. Peck, Jr.,
Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette,
Indiana 47907.— — Numerous investigations have demonstrated that the
interaction of estradiol -17/3 with the rat uterus is probably a two-step
process in which the estrogen first binds with a cytoplasmic component
to form a complex which subsequently moves to the nucleus. A method
has been developed for the determination of the number of these
nuclear binding sites in estrogen sensative tissues. The method is based
on the observation that estradiol, previously complexed with nuclear
binding sites as a result of hormonal injection or ovarian secre-
tions, is freely exchangeable with 3H -estradiol during in vitro incuba-
tions of the nuclear fraction. This technique has revealed that the
injection of estradiol -17/? results in an increased number of
nuclear receptors in the uterus, vagina and anterior pituitary but has
no effect on kidney or muscle. In addition, the injection of estrogenic
hormones, but not testosterone or progesterone results in increased
quantities of nuclear binding sites in the immature uterus. Fluctua-
tions in the quantities of nuclear binding of the uterus as a function
of endogenous hormonal levels were also examined. In mature cycling
rats, uterine nuclear receptor concentrations were: proestrus, 2.44;
estrus, 0.58; metestrus, 0.42; and diestrus 1.42 pico moles/per
milligram DNA. These data reveal a cyclic fluctuation of nuclear re-
ceptor concentration which parallels the ovarian estrogen secreatory
rate during the estrous cycle.
Effects of Differentiated Brain on the Development of the Nervous
System of the Explanted Chick Embryo. Abdulla Lairje and
Norman A. Dial, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State Univer-
sity, Terre Haute, Indiana 42809. One theory of development sug-
gests that differentiated tissue inhibits in some way the differentiation
of the same type of tissue in the early embryo. Blastoderms of chick
embryos incubated for 24 hours were explanted to an agar-albumin-
glucose medium made up in Howard Ringer solution and further
incubated in Petri dish moist chambers for a period of 12 to 24 hours.
Small pieces of brain from 7-10 day incubated embryos were placed on
the blastoderm near the developing brain of the explant or in small de-
pressions in the medium under the anterior portion of the explant.
Homogenized brain mixed in the medium was also used. As a control,
chick leg muscle from 7-10 day incubated embryos was used in the same
manner. Untreated controls were also used. Fifty-seven (40.7 per cent)
of 140 explants treated with differentiated brain showed brain
abnormalities, while 15 of 74 (20.3 per cent) muscle-treated controls
showed such abnormalities. Twenty of 112 (17.9 per cent) untreated
controls had brain abnormalities. The usual kinds of abnormal changes
observed included rudimentary or absent optic vesicles, reduced size
Zoology 341
and rounded or pear-shaped anterior neural structures. These mor-
phological changes were limited primarily to the forebrain.
Coccidial Immunity Studies In The Grey Squirrel1 Thomas
Joseph, Department of Biology, Indiana University at South Bend,
South Bend, Indiana 46615. The response of the grey squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis to infection with Eimeria lancasterensis and
E. confusa was investigated. All 17 squirrels live-trapped from
Tippecanoe County, Indiana, were naturally infected with E. lancaster-
ensis. One of the squirrels carried a mixed infection with both
parasites, but E. confusa disappeared after a week in captivity. The
infection with E. lancasterensis persisted throughout captivity in all
squirrels. This parasite infected the epithelial cells of the distal
two-thirds of the villi. When experimentally inoculated with
E. confusa, the squirrels took the infection with a patent period that
ranged from 7-15 days. The patent period was shortened by repeating
the infection; however, additional infections proved to be negative.
Eimeria confusa infected the entire villus and penetrated deeper into
the epithelial cells. The results of the study lead to the following tenta-
tive conclusions: 1) Grey squirrels do not develop immunity to
E. lancasterensis, but will become immune to E. confusa and remain
so for a period greater than 5 months; 2) Repeated infections with an
interval of 1 month do not produce immunity; 3) It appears that im-
munity is more likely to develop against coccidia that penetrate deeper
into the host tissues and may be a factor responsible for the low
incidence of E. confusa in nature.
Supported by a grant from the Office of Research and Advanced Studies, Indiana
University.
Relationship between Metabolic and Emergency Rhythms in Drosophila
melanogaster. Karen Belcher, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana
State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809. Oxygen consumption
and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) activity were measured to determine
a metabolic rhythm and this rhythm was then compared with the
emergency rhythm and the relationship determined. Oxygen consump-
tion was determined for Drosophila melanogaster pupae that had been
exposed to 12:12 or 1:23 light-dark (LD) regime and LDH
activity was determined for pupae exposed to 12:12 LD regime.
Bimodal circadian fluctuations of oxygen consumption were found
to exist in pupae of D. melanogaster exposed to 12:12 or 1:23 LD
regime. Pupae under both regimes appeared to demonstrate an
anticipatory change in oxygen consumption associated with the change
in illumination. Techniques employed in the study did not permit detec-
tion of any regular fluctuations in LDH activity but a steady decrease in
LDH activity during pupal development was evidenced.
The oxygen-consumption trend for the entire pupal stage showed
a high at the time of emergence, but the diurnal rhythm for oxygen
consumption showed a low at the time of emergence. These data suggest
that emergence occurs at a metabolic low in the diurnal cycle.
342 Indiana Academy of Science
Emergence data for the population showed an anticipatory change in
the level of emergence to a change in illumination. A dark to light
change was accompanied by an increase in number of emergents and
a decrease in oxygen consumption. Emergence maximum showed a
3-hour lead over the oxygen-consumption maximum. Changing the LD
regime from 12:12 to 1:23 and changing the time of the 1 hour of light
by 12 hours in the 1:23 LD regime produced similar changes in the phas-
ing of both oxygen-consumption and emergence rhythms.
Sites of Cell Proliferation in a Colonial Hydroid, Campanularia
flexuosa. Robert L. Suddith, Department of Zoology, Indiana
University, Bloomington, 47401. The colonial hydroids exhibit diverse
and specific patterns which are generated during the normal growth
of the colony. Analysis of these growth patterns requires an under-
standing of the mode of growth. Morphological growth is expressed
in the colonial hydroids as terminal elongation concomittant with an
increase in colony mass (all hydroids) and pedicels (thecate hydroids).
The sources of growth — primarily cell proliferation and secondarily
increase in cell mass— have been thought to reside in the site of
morphological elongation, the stolon tip, in a situation analogous to an
apical meristem in plants.
When bands of cells in an actively growing stolon are marked with
nile blue sulfate, their movement does not correspond with that to be
expected if cell proliferation is in the terminal region. We have
undertaken a series of pulse-chase experiments using 3H-thymidine
as a marker to determine the site(s) of cell proliferation in an
elongating stolon. Colonies were placed in filtered sea water containing
3H-thymidine at a concentration of 5 micro Curie per milliliter for 1
hour and then incubated in filtered sea water containing 10~4 molar
cold thymidine for one hour, before fixation. The tissue was fixed in
Bouin's, embedded in Paraplast, and sectioned at 6 microns. The slides
were coated with Kodak NTB-3 liquid nuclear tracking emulsion and ex-
posed for 29 days. The developed slides were stained with Harris
hematoxyline and counterstained with eosin.
Detailed analysis of the position of labeled cells following the 1
hour pulse with 3H-thymidine reveals that only a few cells are
labeled in the terminal 200 microns of the stolon tip. In the region
0.5-1.0 millimeter behind the tip there is a high density of labeled
cells; beyond this to a distance 2.4 millimeter behind the tip there are
few labeled cells. This is in direct contrast to the concept of a restricted
terminal cell proliferation region. Proliferation of cells elsewhere than
at the stolon tip is compatible with the results of vital staining experi-
ments of Hale, Crowell, Syttenbach, and Suddith. In the particular
stolon studied, the region containing a high density of labeled
cells is at the level at which a new hydranth would be expected to
develop.
Some Effects of Methylmercury on Early Frog Development. Norman
A. Dial, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, Indiana 47809. Little is known of the effects of
methylmercury on early embryonic development. Preliminary investiga-
Zoology 343
tions utilizing embryos of the frog (Rana pipiens) have been conducted.
Embryos in various stages of early development were treated with
various concentrations of methyl mercuric chloride in Holtfreters grow-
ing solution. The extremes in concentration ranged from 0.2 to 200 parts
per billion (ppb). Solutions were changed daily to maintain a relatively
constant exposure to a given concentration. Duration of exposure ranged
from 2 days at higher concentrations to 7 days at lower concentrations.
Results indicated that selective developmental defects (poor tail
development) may occur at concentrations as low as 1-5 ppb when
treatment was begun in the late blastula and neural plate stages. Con-
centrations of 80 ppb or more inhibited development altogether within
36 to 48 hours when treatment was begun in early cleavage and late
neural plate stages. A graded response as a result of time and concen-
tration was evident. For example, midgastrula eggs treated with
10 ppb methyl mercuric chloride resulted in stunted, irregular tails
and a slight slowing of body development after 6 days of exposure. On
the other hand, eggs treated at the 32-cell stage of cleavage with 20,
40, 60, 80 and 100 ppb methyl mercuric chloride showed the following
after 24 hours: Controls-late blastula-early gastrula; 20 ppb— same
as controls; 40 ppb — same as controls; 60 ppb— mid-blastula ; 80
ppb — mid-blastula ; 700 ppb early blastula. After 48 hours controls
were in the neural plate stage, while the 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 ppb
treated groups showed the following: Complete dorsal lip, early dorsal
lip, late blastula, mid-blastula and early blastula, respectively. No
further development occurred in any of the treated groups while con-
trols continued to develop normally. Further investigation is continuing
to determine uptake, localization and whether or not stage tolerance
exists.
NOTE
Fish Populations in the White River near Petersburg, Indiana.
Robert S. Benda1, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809. A 6-year study of the fish
populations in the White River near Petersburg, Indiana, was concluded
in October 1970. Two hundred and twenty-seven collections were made
in a total of 237 hours. Fifty-three and one-half hours were used in 63
seining collections, 44 1/2 hours were used in 111 AC electro-
fishing collections, and 139 hours were used in 53 DC electro-
fishing collections. Collections were made in all habitats during the
months of May through November each year.
The most frequently captured fish, based upon the per cent of
collections containing at least one specimen, are as follows :
Gizzard shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (69%); Carp, Cyprinus carpio
(44%); River carpsucker, Carpiodes carpio (37%); Spotted bass,
Micropterus punctulatus (34%); Longear sunfish, Lepomis megalotis
(34%); Emerald shiner, Notropis atherinoides (34%); Spotfin shiner
N. spilopterus (31%); Bullhead minnow, Pimephales vigilax (31%);
Longnose gar, Lepisosteus osseus (23%) ; Bluegill, Lepomis machrochirus
(22%) ; Silvery minnow, Hybognathus nuchalis (20%) ; Freshwater drum
344 Indiana Academy of Science
Aplodinotus grunniens (18%); Shortnose gar, Lepisosteus platostomus
(15%); Sand shiner, Notropis stramineus (14%); Steelcolor shiner,
N. whipplei (13%); river shiner, N. blennius (13%); Green sunfish,
Lepomis cyanellus (12%); Orange-spotted sunfish, Lepomis humilis
(11%); Black crappie, Pomoxis nigromaculatus (11%); and the white
crappie, Pomoxis annularis (11%). The other 49 species were collected
less frequently and can be found listed in two other works (1, 2).
The Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, was captured twice. A single
specimen was collected in a slough area in 1969 and one specimen was
collected in the main river in 1970. This is the farthest north this species
has been collected in Indiana according to published records (3, 4).
1Pi*esent address, Natural Science Division, Aquinas College, Grand Rapids, Michigan
49506.
Literature Cited
1. Proffitt, M. A. 1969. Effects of heated discharge upon aquatic resources of the
White River near Petersburg, Indiana. Water Resources Research Center. Rep. of
Invest. No. 3. 101 p.
2. Benda, R. S. 1971. Effects of thermal effluents upon the growth and distribution of
fish in the White River near Petersburg, Indiana. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation.
Indiana State Univ. 97 p.
3. Gerking, S. D. 1945. The distribution of fishes of Indiana. Invest. Indiana
Lakes and Streams. 3:1-137.
4. Nelson, J. S., and S. D. Gerking. 1968. Annotated key to the fishes of Indiana.
Indiana Univ. Indiana Aquatic Res. Unit Proj. No. 342-303-815. 85 p.
Primary Social Relationships and Cattle Behavior1
Susan L. Donaldson2 and Jack L. Albright
Department of Animal Sciences
and
William C. Black3
Department of Psychology
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47906
Abstract
Holstein and Holstein-Red Danish dairy calves were removed from their mothers with-
in 30 minutes after birth and before nursing. Thirty-six calves were raised from birth
until 18 weeks of age on 1 of 4 treatments: Group SS, fed individually-penned
individually; Group ST, fed individually-penned in groups of three; Group TS, fed
in group of three-penned individually; and Group TT, fed in groups of three-
penned in groups of three. Animals were then maintained in one group on pasture until
their first parturition. Subjects raised together were more vocal, ignored and did not
protect their young, partially cleaned them and failed to allow nursing. Raised separately
cows had few vocalizations, tended to fully clean, protected their calves and allowed
nursing. At second calving all cows cleaned, nursed and protected their young. Those
showing poor maternal behavior at first calving remained less efficient at second calving.
There were no significant differences among the four gi'oups as measured by ease of train-
ing to enter the milking parlor, frequency of kicking, temperament and milking ease.
SS Holsteins (P<.05) produced more milk than those fed and raised under other
conditions. The variance within groups was tripled as early feeding-rearing conditions
progressed from SS to TT.
Introduction
Within the herd, several social hierarchies are known to develop
which function to define priority rights to food and water and
leadership for each animal. At least three (dominance, leadership and
entrance order into milking parlors) and perhaps four (submission)
are distinct social orders which evolve among cows. The observed social
order is a function of the test situation. A submissive order which is
the readiness of an animal to defer to an attacking animal is distinct
from the dominance order of the provoking cow which wins.
Donaldson (4) showed both the dominance and submission tendencies
of dairy calves could be altered by manipulating early feeding and rear-
ing conditions. Calves that were reared together in groups of three with
limited feeding space, regardless of whether they were fed separately
or with other calves, were significantly more dominant than calves
reared separately. Calves that were fed together, regardless of their
rearing condition were significantly more submissive than calves fed
separately. Fed separate-reared separate calves were significantly less
1Journal Paper No. 4634. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
2Present address: Indiana State University, Evansville.
sPresent address: Indiana University Medical School, Indianapolis.
845
346 Indiana Academy of Science
dominant and less submissive than other calves while fed together-
raised together calves were more dominant than calves from other
feeding-rearing conditions.
These same calves were available for later observations as cows
to ascertain what effects early experience had upon later social and
maternal behavior as well as milk producing capabilities.
Methods
The subjects in this study (5) were 18 Holstein-Friesian heifer
calves and 18 Holstein-Friesian X Red Danish crossbred heifer calves.
On the basis of birth order, the first nine calves born were assigned
to a group (SS), the second nine were allotted to a second group, etc.
until all subjects were assigned to one of four treatment conditions.
The 36 calves were raised from birth until 18 weeks of age on one of
the following four treatments :
1) Group SS: fed separately—raised separately
2) Group ST: fed separately — raised together
3) Group TS: fed together— raised separately
4) Group TT: fed together — raised together
An attempt was made to remove the calves from their dams within
30 minutes after birth and before they nursed. As a consequence of late
night births, however, several calves were with their mothers for 4 or
5 hours and they nursed at least once. Early removal from the dam may
be an important point in this study, since J. P. Scott predicted
earlier that if a group of calves were taken from their mothers at birth
and put together they would form primary social relationships with
each other (personal correspondence with T. H. Scott, 1956). Primary
social relationships in some animals are formed within a matter of hours
after birth (10).
The calves were placed either individually into a 3 feet
x 6 feet x 5 feet pen (0.9 m x 1.8 m x 1.5 m) or three
calves lived together in a 6 feet x 12 feet x 5 feet pen
(1.9 m x 2.6 m x 1.5 m). The pens provided isolation and were
constructed of 3/8 inch (9.5 min) plywood within an unheated, lighted
barn. Four 6 feet x 12 feet (1.8 m x 2.6 m) feeding pens were con-
structed in the barn. One small 20 inch x 12 inch x 24
inch (0.50 m x 0.30 m x 0.60 m) feeder was in each feeding
pen. These feeding and rearing techniques are a departure from
recommended procedures at Purdue. Individual calves are normally
reared and fed in a 4 feet x 7 feet pen where they can see one another.
Following weaning, they are in small groups of 4-8 calves for
approximately 1-2 months after which they are taken out of doors and
placed in a large group of 30 heifers.
The subjects were fed a conventional powdered milk replacer, calf
starter diet and a mixture of timothy and alfalfa hay. Water was
available ad libitmn in the pens. After 18 weeks of age the heifers were
maintained as a group on pasture until their first parturition.
Zoology 347
When the heifers were 20 months old agonistic or con-
flict behavior was observed daily for 6 weeks. A Social Index
f number of encounters initiated _ . . _ . . _ 1
\ = Social Index expressed as a % \
[total number of encounters J
was computed for each animal. The parturition sequence was observed
through two calvings during which aspects of maternal behavior were
recorded. The cows were rated on milking parlor behavior by two full-
time milkers. Milk production was recorded daily and 4% fat-corrected,
305 day lactation milk records were also compared for each group.
Results and Discussion
There were wide differences among cows in maternal behavior with
their first calf. Raised-together cows ignored their young or partially
cleaned them and failed to allow nursing. Raised-separately cows fully
cleaned their offspring and allowed nursing. Raised-together cows
tended not to protect their young and were quite vocal toward them
while raised-separately cows were protective and did not make many
vocalizations. A Chi-square test was performed for group differences
in care and cleaning the calf. Values approached significance
(P<.10) in that animals raised separately cleaned their calves
better than those raised together. There were significant group differ-
ences in nursing allowed within 4 hours after birth (P<.025) as well
as in protection of the calf (P<.01) and approached significance in
vocalization toward the calf (P<.10).
With their second calf, all cows cleaned, nursed and protected their
young, but there was a difference in the degree to which these be-
haviors were performed. Cows that had not given proper care to their
first calf were not nearly as maternal as those that had taken care of
their first calf. It was concluded that early feeding and rearing
experiences dramatically affect maternal behavior.
It is not uncommon for cows to reject their young. Russian workers
(1) support the claim that high milk-producing dairy cows and produc-
tive hens are known to lose some degree of maternal instinct. Also,
Selman and co-workers (11) in Scotland, under continuous observation
of natural suckling in cattle (10 beef cows, 10 dairy cows and 10 dairy
heifers) during the first 8 hours postpartum, found that teat sucking
advances were rejected at some time by 15 of the 30 dams. These
rejections consisted of either moving away from, or kicking at, their
calves. However, in 13 of the 15 dams, rejections were seen only
occasionally and usually occurred only when calves pushed vigorously
at udders. This mild form of rejection inhibited only the weakest
calves. When suckling eventually commenced, all 13 dams became very
quiet. Two primiparous heifers rejected their calves' advances for
6-8 hours. These two mothers frequently ran away from their calves.
There was no statistically significant difference among the groups
in milking parlor behavior as measured by the ease of training to enter
the milking parlor initially and one month postpartum, as well as
348
Indiana Academy of Science
frequency of kicking, temperament and milking ease. While differences
existed for other behavioral traits, one might expect milking parlor
behavioral differences. However, this was not the case. The milking
parlor quickly becomes a routine where defined behaviors are rewarded
and all others are disciplined early and oftentimes changed. In
addition, being milked and having udder pressure reduced is, in itself,
rewarding and thus conducive to having a cow conform to the
routine (3).
The milk production records for each breed in each feeding-rearing
condition are presented in Table 1, with SS Holsteins producing up to
3,500 lbs more milk than other groups while, TT crossbreds average
about 2,000 lbs more milk than other groups. With the exception of TS
crossbreds, the standard deviation within groups increased as a function
of increased "together" contact during early calfhood. For each breed
the standard deviation is more than tripled as early feeding-rearing
conditions progress from SS to TT. The TS crossbreds show the highest
variance of all groups. Earlier, Donaldson (4) pointed out that the TS
group (fed together — raised separately) was characterized by excessive
amounts of non-nutritive sucking during their early experience, while
other groups did not exhibit non-nutritive sucking after reaching 4 days
of age. The only animals lost on this experiment were from group TS,
one Holstein and one crossbred, who died at the age of 5 weeks.
Table 1.
Mean and standard deviation of milk production records of the first lactation
for each breed in each feeding-rearing condition.
Holstein-
Condition
Friesian
S.D.
Crossbreds
S.D.
SS
13,381
427
10,186
546
ST
12,936
1,540
10,417
578
TS
12,068
1,307
10,453
2,614
TT
9,861
1,775
12,253
1,648
Average
12,061
10,827
Regarding milk production, assuming a fixed model with an
unweighted mean, an analysis of variance was computed. A summary of
this analysis in Table 2 shows a significant difference for the breed main
effect (C) with Holsteins averaging more milk produced (12,061 lbs)
than crossbreds (10,827 lbs) during the first lactation. This finding was
not unexpected in that purebred Holsteins have been bred and main-
tained for their high milk production. The crossbreds gave more milk
than the smaller Red Danish, but still were not as large or capable of
producing as much milk as the Holstein.
Table 2 also reveals a significant interaction of feeding by breed.
An examination of the data shows that the feeding condition affected
the breeds differentially. For Holsteins the fed-separate Holsteins av-
eraged 13,158 lbs of milk while fed-together Holsteins averaged 10,964
lbs of milk. On the other hand, for crossbreds, the fed-together condi-
Zoology
349
Table 2. Analysis of variance summary for milk production.
Source
di
MS
F
P
A (feeding)
L 2060829
.95
B (rearing)
L 28231
.01
C (breed)
L 9619095
4.46
.04
AB (feeding X rearing)
L 463923
.21
AC (feeding X breed)
L 1662857
7.71
.01
BC (rearing X breed
L 5680317
2.63
.11
ABC (feeding X rearing X breed)
L 7031519
3.26
.08
Within cell
2
L 2156054
tion was more conducive to higher milk production. Fed-together cross-
breds averaged 11,353 lbs of milk while fed-separate crossbreds
averaged about 1,000 lbs less (10,301 lbs) of milk. By chance, higher-
quality dams were used to produce the crossbred calves that filled the
fed-together groups. They averaged 13,177 lbs of milk while the
fed-separate calves came from dams averaging 10,800 lbs of milk.
By combining the data (ABC interaction, P<.08) it appears that
certain conditions maximize milk production for Holsteins as well as
for crossbreds.
Cows that experienced competitive raising had a higher average
Social Index and were more domineering and aggressive within a herd
and rejected their young at first parturition. Cows that were raised in-
dividually tended to be low ranking in the herd and accepted their young
at first parturition.
The importance of "contact comfort" has been demonstrated for
dogs (8, 9) and for monkeys (7). Presumably, in the absence of any type
of species interaction, the SS group developed and maintained a high
drive for contact which could be most fully expressed when their calves
were born. If this is true, one would expect cows that have been raised
individually to actively seek more contact within the herd and to main-
tain closer physical proximity to other animals than cows raised
together. Unfortunately, such data are not available.
On the other hand, three of the groups had enriching, almost to
the point of stressing, experiences in their competition for food and
living space. The competitive animals experienced, in effect, an over-
exaggeration of a learned behavior pattern with the ultimate effect of
enhancing the frequency and efficiency of that behavior pattern.
Given that the competitive groups were inclined toward emotional
disturbances due to maternal deprivation, while at the same time were
prone to overreact with aggressiveness due to early experience, one can
readily expect rejection of the young. Later, when other experiences
had altered the effect of early experience, the second calf was accepted.
In a similar hypothesis, Bronfenbrenner (2) proposes the "frustration
of dependency drive" when mother-infant interactions are absent and
350 Indiana Academy of Science
specifically predicts "initial fear, rejection of, and aggressiveness
toward other social objects."
An alternative theory would be to ignore any deprivation during
the first 4 months and focus mainly upon the agonistic experience. Cows
from the competitive groups had been conditioned since the first day
of their lives to be constantly perceptive of social threat. Not sur-
prisingly they treated their first calf as another animal and only after
experiencing the non-threatening aspects of the situation could they
accept the second. Conversely, the raised-individually group did not
perceive or respond to threat from other cows and subsequently were
able to exhibit the full range of maternal behavior correctly the first
time.
It would be interesting to know how early feeding and rearing
experiences affect other breeds of cattle and then investigate the
economic feasibility of rearing each breed in a condition that be-
haviorally and physiologically promotes milk production. Since twin
calves are known to stay together (6), an obvious experiment is to rear
twins apart from each other. They would have to be separated very early
as the primary social relationships are formed within a matter of hours,
i.e., sheep and goats (10). It would be very interesting to see if the twins,
when brought back together, would tend to stay together and imitate
or mimic their behavior as they ordinarily do. The close behavioral
link between twins reared together at present tends to increase the re-
semblance between twins in such items as grazing behavior and milk
production.
Literature Cited
1. Bamshnikov, I. A., and E. P„ Kokorina. 1964. Higher nervous activity of
cattle. Dairy Sci. Abstr. 26:97-115.
2. Bronfenbrenner, U. 1968. Early deprivation in mammals: a cross species analysis.
p. 627-764. In G. Newton and S. Levine (eds.) Early experience and behavior.
Charles C. Thomas, Publ. Springfield, 111. 785 p.
3. Dietrich, J. P., W. W. Snyder, C. E. Meadows, and J. L. Albright. 1966.
Rank order in dairy cows. Amer. Zool. 5:713.
4. Donaldson, Susan L. 1967. The effect of early feeding and rearing experiences on
dominance, aggression and submission behavior in young heifer calves. Unpublished
M.S. Thesis, Purdue University. 48 p.
5. 1970. The effects of early feeding and rearing experiences on social,
maternal and milking parlor behavior in dairy cattle. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation,
Purdue University. 75 p.
6. Ewbank, R. 1967. Behavior of twin cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 50:1510-1512.
7. Harlow, H. F„ and R. R. Zimmerman. 1959. Affectional responses in the infant
monkey. Science 130:421-432.
8. Igel, G. J., and A. D. Calvin. 1960. The development of affectional responses in
infant dogs. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 53:302.
Zoology 351
9. Melzak, R, and W. R. Thompson. 1956= Effects of early experience on social
behavior. Canach J. Psychol. 10:82.
10. Scott, J. P. 1945. Social behavior, organization and leadership in a small flock
of domestic sheep. Comp. Psychol. Monogr. 18:1-29.
11. Selman, I. E., A. D. McEwan, and E. W. Fisher. 1970. Studies on natural
suckling in cattle during the first eight hours postpartum. I. Behavioral studies
(dams). Animal Behav. 78:276-283.
Space and Conflict in Cattle1
Susan L. Donaldson-, Jack L. Albright and Mary Ann Ross
Department of Animal Sciences,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
Agonistic behavior is more pronounced among cattle when they are closely confined
in yards or holding areas. Many authors have collected data on social behavior
(dominance and temperament) under these conditions rather than when little agonistic
behavior is occuring such as when cows are on pasture (1, 2, 3). Sommer (7) has reviewed
the literature regarding dominance relationships in which a subject knows where he
belongs socially, and territorially with his knowledge of a spatial place. Macmillan (5)
reported that reduced fertility and short estrus cycles in young cows were the result of
social stress in large herds of 200 or more cows in one group. Kilgour (4) suggested that
in closely confined areas, the existence of the social order causes stress to the cows low
in the dominance order in that they must constantly violate the space of higher ranking
animals and they are attacked.
The purpose of the present study was to determine the amount of agonistic behavior
and movement that occurs among animals in relation to rank when the size of available
space is changed.
Method
Ten yearling Holstein heifers that weighed between 790 and 1,025
lbs were chosen randomly from a group of 25 maintained under summer
pasturing conditions at the Purdue Dairy Center, Cherry Lane, West
Lafayette, Indiana. The subjects were then confined in a 40 feet x 25
feet electric fence holding area. Adequate feed bunk space (3 feet x 16
feet) and a watering trough were at one end of the holding area.
The heifers were given 3 days to adjust to the holding area and
then were observed 4 hours per day for the next 3 days to determine
the social dominance hierarchy within the group, using the technique
of Schein and Fohrman (6).
The holding area was lined at 5-foot intervals with a 2-inch strip
of powdered lime with the result that the holding area was marked off
into 5-foot squares (approximately the heifer's length of body).
One end of the fence was movable so that the size of the holding
area could be adjusted by the experimenters.
Heifers were observed for 16 one-half hour periods for the next
2 days. Four observations were made under each of four sizes of the
holding area: 40 feet x 25 feet, 30 feet x 25 feet, 20 feet x 25 feet
Journal Paper No. 4634, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
This research was financed in part from a trust agreement between Purdue University
and Normandy Farm, New Augusta, Indiana, Mr. and Mrs. Herman C. Krannert,
owners. We thank Kevin Brown, Purdue Dairy Center, for his help.
2Present address: Indiana State University, Evansville 47712.
352
Zoology 353
and 10 feet x 25 feet. These areas were considered to be 100, 75, 50 and
25%, respectively, of the recommended routine pen size allocation for
yearling heifers. The order of size changes were reversed with each
successive observation.
During the observational periods, all agonistic behavior was
recorded and the dominance order was redetermined using the technique
of Schein and Fohrman (6). Also recorded was the number of squares
that each subject entered. A heifer was required to put both front feet
in a square to be counted as entering that space.
The dominance order was compared with the one determined pre-
viously. Data were then analyzed by means of an analysis of variance.
Results and Discussion
Assuming a fixed model, an analysis of variance was computed on
the obtained scores in Table 1. A summary of this analysis in Table 2
shows significant differences for both field size and subjects
(P<.01) in that the three low ranking animals entered the most squares,
averaging 1,044, and the five middle animals entered the least
squares (469). As had been predicted by Kilgour (4), low ranking
animals were observed to be constantly violating the space of other
animals and were moving to prevent or avoid being attacked.
Surprisingly though, high ranking heifers entered an average of 215
more squares than middle ranking animals. In the smallest enclosure
(10 feet x 25 feet) it appeared that high ranking animals followed the
escaping low ranking subjects. Subjects in the reduced space showed
less total activity (P<.01).
Table 1. Number of squares entered by subject, space allocation and rank order.
Subject
10 X 251
20 X 252
30 X 25s
40 X 25*
Total
Rank Order
1
113
367
284
214
978
8
2
82
197
197
l»h
mi
1
3
52
129
102
Hi
370
6
i
153
317
324
314
1,108
10
5
76
194
204
233
707
7
6
47
92
86
100
325
5
7
79
138
L19
132
46X
4
8
86
231
191
J 98
70S
2
9
72
156
lie
133
477
3
10
120
357
258
312
1047
y
Total
880
2,178
1,881
1,908
6,847
x25 ft.2 per animal, i.e., one 5 feet X 5 feet square per subject.
250 ft.2 per animal, i.e., two 5 feet X 5 feet squares per subject.
375 ft.2 per animal, i.e. three 5 feet X 5 feet squares per subject.
4100 ft.2 per animal, i.e., four 5 feet X 5 feet squares per subject.
354 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. Analysis of variance of experimental data.
df SS MS
Subjects 9 44781.26 4975.69
Fields 3 24408.92 8136.30
S X F 27 8897.27 329.52
Replicates 3 8845.02 2948.34
Error 117 58929.73 503.67
Total 159 145862.20
F( Subjects) = 9.87** F(S X F) = Non Significant
F( Fields) = 24.69** ** P<.01
Movement can be categorized as another indication of dominance.
The behavior and status of animals moving from one area to another
area was remarkably similar.
Considerable movement, conflict, competition and agonistic behavior
occurred near the feed bunk. This is similar to earlier work with
heifers (1, 3) and with cows (2).
Literature Cited
1. Beilharz R. G., and P. J. Mylrea. 1963. Social position and behavior of dairy
heifers in yards. Anim. Behav. 11 :522-528.
2. Dickson, D. P., G. R. Barr, and D. A. Wieckert. 1965. Social relationships of
dairy cows in a feed lot. J. Dairy Sci. 48:795.
3. Hook. S. L., S. L. Donaldson, and J. L. Albright. 1965. A study of social
dominance behavior in young cattle. Amer. Zool. 5:714.
4. Kilgour, R. 1969. Social behavior in the dairy herd. New Zealand J. Agric.
119:8-12.
5. Macmillan, K. L. 1971. The effect of social stress on the oestrus cycle of cows. 4th
Asia and Oceania Cong. Endocrinol. Abst. No. 48, Univ. of Auckland, New
Zealand. 112 p.
6. Schein, M. W., and M. H. Fohrman. 1955. Social dominance relationships in a herd
of dairy cattle. Brit. J. Anim. Behav. 3 :45-55.
7. Sommer, R. 1969. Personal Space. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 177 p.
A Check List of Freshwater Ostracods of Indiana —
Including Sixteen New Recordings
and a Description of Two New Species
Daniel R. Goins
Daleville High School, Daleville, Indiana 47334
Abstract
The check list of freshwater ostracods of Indiana raises the number of ostracods re-
ported from Indiana from 6 to 24. The list is a result of a survey taken in the spring of
1968 in Delaware County. The list includes the descriptions of 2 new species:
Potamocypris brachychaeta and Candona ginnensis.
Introduction
A survey of ostracods (Class Crustacea, Order Ostracoda) was
taken through Delaware County during May and June, 1968. The survey
was an attempt to fill a gap in the taxonomy of ostracods from
Indiana. Comprehensive surveys of ostracod faunas have been made
in Ohio (1) and Illinois (3), but to date none have been made in
Indiana. There are scattered reports of ostracods from Indiana; among
these are 4 cave types; Candona marengoensis, C. jeanneli (5),
Entocythere donaldsonensis (7), E. barri (2). There are only 2
ostracod species reported from streams and ponds in Indiana:
Cyiiridojjsis vidua (4), Cyclocypris laevis (6). The survey of Delaware
County raises the number of known ostracods from Indiana from 6 to
24 including 2 new species.
Methods and Materials
During May and June 1968, 100 dredge-net samples were taken
in Delaware County. The samples were taken from rivers, creeks, ponds,
drainage ditches, and borrow pits. Of the 100 samples 62 contained
ostracods. The ostracods were preserved in a 95% alcohol solution.
Permanent reference slides were made and placed on file in the Ball
State University biology laboratory.
Description of New Species
Potamocypris brachychaeta, sp. nov.
Five specimens were collected from two sample sites.
Sample number 20 was from a borrow pit along Interstate 69 in Delaware County.
The pit is about 6 acres in area and the true depth is not known. The bottom is mostly
mud and silt. There was little vegetation except along the edges of the pit, and this was
mostly grass and unidentified algae. Cypridopsis vidua was also found in the sample.
Sample 31 was taken from a small creek with slow movement under normal
conditions. The bottom was mostly silt and much decaying vegetation. The water was clear.
Five other species of ostracods were found at this site: Ilyocypris bradyi, Candona
elliptica, Candona sp., Paracandona sp., and Darwinula stevensoni. Also found in the
collection were many unidentified insect larvae, copepods, and cladocera.
Potamocypris brachychaeta is easily identified as genus Potamocypris because of the
genus characteristics: reniform shape, compressed valves, arched dorsum maximum height
355
356
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1. Potamocypris brachychaeta. Interior view of left valve showing list.
Scale 0.5 mm. Arrow — anterior.
Figure 2. P. brachychaeta. Interior view of right valve. Scale 0.5 mm.
Figure 3- P. brachychaeta. Third leg. Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 4. P. brachychaeta. Furca. Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 5. P. brachychaeta. Exterior view of right valve. Scale 0.5 mm. G — green,
H — hair, P — pit.
Figure 6. P. brachychaeta. Second antenna. Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 7. Candona ginnensis. Dorsal view of left valve. Scale 0.5 mm.
Figure 8. C. ginnensis. Third leg. Scale of 0.1 mm.
Figure 9. C. ginnensis. Interior view of right valve. Scale 0.5 mm. T — testes.
Figure 10. C. ginnensis. Second antenna. Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 11. C. ginnensis. Genital lobe. Scale 0.1 mm. V — ventral, P — posterior,
D — dorsal.
Figure 12. C. ginnensis. Oblique view of left prehensile palp showing the teeth.
Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 13. C. ginnensis. Right palp. Scale 0.1 mm.
Figure 14. C. ginnensis. Leg 2. Scale 0.1 mm. Dashed line shows normal length of
terminal seta.
Figure 15. C. ginnensis. Furca. Scale 0.1 mm. S — S-shaped seta.
Figure 16. C. ginnensis. Penis. Scale 0.1 mm.
Zoology 357
reached at mid-length, broad anterior vestibule, with the left valve slightly overlapping
the right valve. The valves of P. brachychaeta are punctate with very few hairs and are
grayish with several areas of green pigment. The pore canals are simple and the hinge
is adont. This new species differs from the other potamocyprids with abbreviated natatory
setae in that the setae of P. brachychaeta are very short (Fig. 6). The swimming setae
are a mere 0.08 mm long and barely reach the proximal 1/3 of the penultimate segment.
Another distinguishing feature is the appearance of a second posterior list on the left
valve ( Fig. 1 ) . This list does not appear on any of the other species of
Potamocypris.
Dimension of adult female: Right valve 0.56 mm long, 0.29 mm high. Left valve
0.59 mm long, 0.36 mm high. Width 0.3 mm.
Candona ginnensis, sp. nov.
The sample was collected from Ginn's Woods, a preserve of Ball State University in
Delaware County, Indiana. Five individuals were found in a sample taken in April. The
sample contained Candona truncata and the eggs of the spring peeper, Hyla
crucifer, and the chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita.
The left valve of Candona ginnensis is slightly longer and higher than the right valve.
The greatest height is reached in the posterior one-third of the valve. From the rounded
anterior, the dorsal margin arches gradually to the maximum height. Posteriorly the
dorsal arch curves gently to the posterior; this downward curve is not sharp as in
Candona truncata. From the broadly rounded posterior margin the ventral margin forms
a slight sinuation at the mid-point. The male has a weak point where the ventral margin
meets the anterior margin. The third leg has an undivided penultimate segment. The
prehensile palps are both similar with a double row of teeth on the ventral side at the
curve between the setae (Figs. 12, 13). The furca has a definite "S" shape in the
female (Fig. 15) and is only slightly less pronounced in the male.
Dimensions of adult female: Right valve 0.85 mm long, 0.42 mm high. Left valve 0.93
mm long, 0.45 mm high. Width about 0.5 mm.
Dimensions of adult male: Right valve 1.1 mm long, 0.5 mm high. Left valve 1.2 mm
long, 0.6 mm high. Width not determined.
Candona ginnensis is similar to Candona simpsoni (Sharp, 1897) and C.
sigmoides (Sharp, 1897) (6) with each having an S-shaped furca. However, the valves
of Candona ginnensis and C. sigmoides are arching, while the valves of C.
simpsoni are elliptical in shape. The sizes also differ with Candona ginnensis
being between C. simpsoni, the smallest, and C. sigmoides, the largest. The penis of C.
ginnensis (Fig. 16) is longer and somewhat narrower than the penis of C. sigmoides. The
genital lobe (Fig. 11) of the female of the new species is shorter and less pointed than
that of C. sigmoides.
A Check List of Freshwater Ostracods of Indiana
Class Crustacea
Order Ostracoda
Suborder Podocopa
Family Darwinulidae
Darwinula stevensoni (Brady and Robertson, 1870)
Family Cypridae
Subfamily Uyocyprinae
Ilyocypris bradyi (Sars, 1890)
/. gibba (Ramdohr, 1808)
Subfamily Cyprinae
Cyprinotus sp. (Brady, 1886)
Subfamily Cypridopsianae
Cypridopsis vidua (O. F. Miiller, 1776)
Potamocypris smaragdina (Vavra, 1891)
P. brachychaeta, sp. nov.
358 Indiana Academy of Science
Subfamily Candocyprinae
Tribe Cyclocyprini
Physocypria globula (Furtos, 1933)
Cypria maculata (Hoff, 1942)
C. obesa (Sharp, 1897)
C. turneri (Hoff, 1942)
Tribe Candonini
Candona elliptica (Furtos, 1933)
C. stagnates (Sars, 1890)
C. marengoensis (Klie, 1931)
C. jeanneli (Klie, 1931)
C. ginnensis, sp. nov.
Subfamily Cyprinae
Genus Cypris
Subgenus Eucypris (Vavra, 1891)
E. af finis hirsuta (Fischer, 1851)
E. reticulata (Zaddach, 1844)
Subfamily Candocyprinae
Cyclocypris laevis (Miiller, 1912; Sharp, 1918)
C. forbesi (Sharp, 1897)
Family Cytheridae
Subfamily Entocytherinae
Genus Entocythere (Marshall, 1903)
E. donaldsonensis (Klie, 1931)
E. barri (Hart and Hobbs, 1961)
E. sp.
Literature Cited
1. Furtos, N. 1933. The Ostracoda of Ohio. Bull. Ohio Biol. Surv. 5:411-524.
2. Hart, C. W. Jr., and H. H. Hobbs, Jr. 1961. Eight new Troglobetic
ostracods of the genus Entocythere (Crustacea, Ostracoda) from the Eastern United
States. Proc. Phila. Acad. Natur. Sci. 113:173-185.
3. Hoff, C. 1942. The Ostracods of Illinois, Their biology and taxonomy. Univ. 111.
Biol. Monogr. 19:1-196.
4. House, J. L. 1910. Crustacea of Winona Lake. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 16:131.
5. Klie, W. 1931. Campagne speologique de C. Bolivar et R. Jeannel dans
l'Amerique du Nord (1928) 3. Crustaces Ostracods. Arch. Zool. exp. gen.
1:333-4.
6., Sharp, R. W. 1918. The Ostracoda, p. 790-827. In Ward, H. B., and G. C.
Whipple. Ward and Whipple's Fresh-water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York, N.Y. 1111 p.
7. Tressler, W. L. 1947. A check list of known species of North American freshwater
Ostracoda. Amer. Midland Natur. 38:698-707.
Parasites of the Bullfrog in Indiana1
Doyal R. Lank, Jr.
Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstract
Parasitological examinations were made of 72 bullfrogs from four Indiana areas
during May through September 1970, of which 91.7 per cent contained parasites.
Parasites found included: (protozoans) Hexamita intestinalis, Nyctotherus cordiformis,
Trypanosoma rotatorum, and an unidentified species of Trichomonas; (trematodes)
Gorgodcra amplicava, Gorgoderina attenuata, Haematoloechus brevij)lexus, Haemato-
loechus longiplexus, and Glypthelmins quieta; and (nematodes) Cxysomatium longi-
caudata and one unidentified species. Two species of Hirundinae, Placobdella rugosa
and Glossiphonia stagnalis, were found apparently as parasites.
Introduction
Brandt (2), in a comprehensive study of the parasites of several
species of North Carolina frogs, has presented the only extensive review
of the parasites of bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana Shaw. He found the bull-
frog to harbor a number of helminth and protozoan parasites and one
arthropod. Reports of parasites of bullfrogs in Indiana are few. Cort
(5) observed the lung flukes Haematoloechus longiplexus and H.
breviplexus from a North Judson, Indiana, bullfrog, and Walton (21)
found cysts of the nematode Physaloptera ranae in the stomach and
intestinal walls in bullfrogs of northern Indiana. Krull (11) also found
H. longiplexus in an Indiana bullfrog. More recently, Myer (17) reported
metacercariae of the fluke Mesostephanus kentuckiensis in Ohio bull-
frogs. Since Cable (3) reported cercariae of M. kentuckiensis in snails
from McCormick's Creek and Clifty Creek, Indiana, this trematode may
occur in Indiana bullfrogs, although none has yet been reported.
Materials and Methods
The bullfrogs examined in this study were collected from four
Indiana Fish and Game Areas: Glendale, in southwestern Indiana
(Daviess County), Crosley Lake in the southeast (Jennings County),
Willow Slough in the northwest (Newton County), and Tri-County in
the northeast (Kosciusko and Noble Counties). Frogs were collected
at night by hand or by a dip net.
Five monthly collections were made at each of the four study areas.
The frogs were taken to the laboratory at Ball State University and
placed in a refrigerator until examined. Some frogs were dissected and
searched for parasites within 24 hours after collection, but others were
held for as long as 10 days before examination.
Supported by a grant from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources 1969-1970
Wildlife Research Small Grant Program.
359
360 Indiana Academy of Science
Before examination the bullfrogs were either pithed or beheaded.
The heart, lungs, stomach, large and small intestines, cloaca, liver, gall
bladder, kidneys, and urinary bladder were examined. Before removing
the organs, the host was searched for any coelomic parasites, using a
dissecting microscope. Upon removal, each organ was placed individually
in frog Ringer's Solution in a watch glass in order to retain any para-
sites which might leave the organ.
Each organ was then opened or teased apart under a binocular
dissecting microscope. Except for protozoans, all parasites found were
counted and representatives preserved for permanent mounting. Smears
were made of the contents of the intestines and of peripheral, renal,
and cardiac blood for examination under a compound microscope.
Blood smears were made by using Wright's stain or by fixing in
95% alcohol and staining with Giemsa's stain. Intestinal smears were
fixed in Schaudinn's fluid and stained with Heidenhein's iron
haematoxylin.
All worms were washed thoroughly in physiological saline before
fixing. Trematodes were relaxed in distilled water and then fixed in
either 10% formalin, formol-acetic-alcohol (F.A.A.), or Bouin's solution
which had been heated to bubbling but not vigorous boiling.
Nematodes were dropped into warm F.A.A., 10% formalin, or 70%
acid-alcohol for fixation. Leeches were fixed in 70% alcohol using the
method described by Mann (14). For permanent storage, all worms
were transferred to either 70% alcohol plus 5% glycerine or
5% formalin plus enough glycerin to make a 5% solution, depending upon
the method of fixation used.
Stains used for trematodes and nematodes included Grenacher's
Alcoholic Borax-Carmine, Mayer's MCI Carmine, either with or without
Fast Green counterstaining, and Harris' or Delafield's Haematoxylin.
After staining, the specimens were destained, dehydrated, cleared, and
mounted in Permount.
Cort (4, 5), Harwood (8), Higgins (9), Kudo (12, 13), Mann (14),
Miller (16), Miller (15), Najarian (18), and Yamaguti (23) were used
for making identifications.
Results
Seventy-two bullfrogs were examined for parasites between May
and September of 1970, 20 each from Glendale and Crosley Lake and
16 each from Willow Slough and Tri-County. Those frogs 100 mm or
more in snout-vent length were classed as adult, and those below 100
mm were considered juveniles. According to Wright and Wright (22),
100 mm is approximately the minimum breeding size. The range of
length of the 49 adult frogs examined was 100 mm to 142 mm, with
an average length of 115.6 mm. The 23 juveniles ranged from 47 mm
to 77 mm, the average being 62 mm.
Of the 72 bullfrogs examined, 91.7% were found to be infested by
one or more species of parasites (Table 1). Four species of protozoans
Zoology
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362 Indiana Academy of Science
were found: Hexamita intestinalis, Nyctotherus cordiformis, Trypano-
soma rotatorum, and an unidentified Trichomonas sp. Trematodes in-
cluded the bladder flukes Gorgodera amplicava (3.817) 2 and
Gorgoderina attenuata (0.772), the lung flukes Haematoloechus
breviplexus (0.780) and H. longiplexus (0.793), and the intestinal fluke
Glypthelmins quieta (1.913). The nematodes found were Oxysomatium
longicaudata (2.822) and one unidentified species. No cestodes or
acanthocephalans were encountered.
Two species of leeches, Placobdella rugosa and Glossiphonia
stagnalis, were found in the collecting jars, but were never seen
attached to the frogs. Probably the leeches were on the frogs at the time
of collection.
Discussion
In addition to the primary species-specific limitations, many fac-
tors influence the kinds and numbers of parasites in a host: age,
geographic distribution, diet, the presence of suitable intermediate hosts,
seasonal aspects of the life cycle, etc. The operation of some of these
factors as they apply to parasitism in the bullfrog has been reported
by other authors, and data from the present study suggest the operation
of others. For example, bullfrogs were introduced into the Rocky Moun-
tain region relatively recently, but their parasites do not yet seem to
be well established there (20). This may well be due to the absence of
suitable intermediate hosts.
Although the samples are small, the data in Table 1 suggest some
seasonal variation in the abundance of parasites, most species showing
peaks of occurrence in June, July, or August. Leeches were most
abundant in June and July, and the recording of trypanosomes only in
these 2 months may well be related to the abundance of the leeches, their
possible intermediate hosts.
Although most parasites were found in all four collecting areas
(Table 1), there were two possibly significant exceptions. The blood
protozoan, Trypanosoma rotatorum, was found in only the two northern
collecting areas. This may again be due to the presence in these areas
of large numbers of leeches. Leeches have been reported as intermediate
hosts of trypanosomes in certain other amphibians: Trypanosoma
diemyctyli in the Red-spotted Newt, Notopthalamus viridescens (1), and
in various European frogs (6).
The other exception is the lung fluke Haematoloechus longiplexus,
which was found only in the two southern areas.
With respect to adult frogs versus juveniles, only in two species
of parasites is there a notable difference in the overall amount of in-
festation. Hexamita intestinalis was found more often in juvenile bull-
frogs than in adults (86.9% incidence compared to 69.5%). The
•'Average number of parasites per individual bullfrog.
Zoology 363
bladder fluke, Gorgoderina attenuata, was found in over half (53.1%)
of the adult frogs, but in very few of the smaller frogs (13%).
Multiple infestation in bullfrogs is a common occurrence and has
been reported by Cort (5), Miller (15), and Najarian (18). In this study,
some individual frogs contained six different species of parasites: three
of the four protozoans and three of the five trematodes, although a
typical frog would harbor one or two species of protozoans and a
species of fluke.
Two species of leeches, Placobdella rugosa and Glossiphonia
stagnalis, are here reported for the first time as parasites of bullfrogs.
Acknowledgments
The writer appreciates the assistance of Dr. James C. List,
Department of Biology, Ball State University, under whose direction
this study was made. Thanks are also due to the managers of the state
fish and game areas: Mr. Dick Hudson, Mr. John Goold, Mr. George
Seketa, and Mr. Ray Wilson. The writer is especially indebted to Mr.
Gary Young, Mr. Kenneth Stewart, and my wife, Gracie, for their
assistance in the field.
Literature Cited
1. Barrow, J. H. 1953. The biology of Trypanosoma dicmyctyli (Tobey). I.
Trypanosoma diemyctyli in the leech Batrachobdella picta (Verrill). Trans. Amer.
Microbiol. Soc. 72:197-216.
2. Brandt, B. B. 1936. Parasites of certain North Carolina Salientia. Ecol. Monogr.
6:491-532.
3. Cable, R. M. 1937. Cercaria of Indiana. A preliminary note on larval trematodes from
McCormick's Creek with a description of three new species. Proc. Indiana Acad.
Sci. 47:227-228.
4. Cort, W. W. 1912. North American frog bladder flukes. Trans. Amer. Microbiol.
Soc. 31:151-166.
5. . 1915. North American frog lung flukes. Trans. Amer. Microbiol. Soc.
34 :203-240.
6. Franca, C. 1908. Le cycle evolutif des trypanosomes de la grenouille (T. costatum,
T. rotatorium, and T. inopinatum) . Arch, do R. Inst. Bact., Camara Pestana.
2:89-93.
7. Goodchild, C. G. 1950. Establishment and pathology of gorgoderid infections in
anuran kidneys. J. Parasitol. 36:439-446.
8. Harwood, P. D. 1932. The helminths parasitic in the Amphibia and Reptilia of
Houston, Texas, and vicinity. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 81 :1-71.
9. Higgins, H. 1929. Variations in the Nyctotherus (Protozoa, Ciliata) found in frog
and toad tadpoles and adults. Trans. Amer. Microbiol. Soc. 48:141-157.
10. Jahn, T. L., and F. F. Jahn. 1949. How to know the Protozoa. Wm. C. Brown
Co. Publ. Dubuque, la. 234 p.
11. Krull, W. H. 1931. Life-history studies on two frog lung flukes, Pneumoneces
medioplexus and Pneumobites parviplexus. Trans. Amer. Microbiol. Soc. 50:215-277.
364 Indiana Academy of Science
12. Kudo, R. R. 1922. On the Protozoa parasitic in frogs. Trans. Amer. Microbiol. Soc.
41:59-76.
13. .. 1966. Protozoology. 5th Ed. Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, 111. 1174
P.
14. Mann, K. H. 1962. Leeches (Hirudinea). Their structure, physiology, ecology, and
embryology. Vol. 2. Pergamon Press. New York, N. Y. 201 p.
15. Miller, E. L. 1930. Studies on Glypthelmins quieta Stafford. J. Parasitol.
16:237-243.
16. Miller, J. A. 1937. A study of the leeches of Michigan with keys to orders,
suborders, and species. Ohio J. Sci. 37:85-90.
17. Myer, D. G. 1960. On the life history of Mesostephanus kentuckiensis (Cable, 1935)
n. comb. (Trematoda: Cyathocotylidae) . J. Parasitol. 46:819-832.
18. Najarian, H. H. 1955. Trematodes parasitic in the Salientia in the vicinity of
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Amer. Midland Natur. 53:195-197.
19. Swezy, O. 1915. Binary and multiple fission in Hexamitus. Univ. Calif. Pub.
Zool. 16:71-88.
20. Waitz, J. A. 1962. Parasitic helminths as aids in studying the distribution of
species of Rana in Idaho. Trans. 111. State Acad. Sci. 54:152-156.
21. Walton, A. C. 1931. Notes on some larval nematodes found in frogs. J Parasitol.
17:228-229.
22. Wright, A. H., and A. A. Wright. 1949. Handbook of frogs and toads of the
United States and Canada. Comstock Publishing Company, Inc. Ithaca, N. Y. 640 p.
23. Yamaguti, S. 1961. Systema helminthum. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,
N. Y. (5 volumes). 4818 p.
24. Zebrowski, G. 1922. The occurrence of secondary parasitism in the frog. Proc.
Indiana Acad. Sci. 32:205-208.
Distribution of Free-living Soil Nematodes of the
Belondiroidea in Indiana and the United States1
Virginia R. Ferris and John M. Ferris
Department of Entomology
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47807
Abstract
During a 5-year study of distribution of soil and fresh-water nematode species in
Indiana, four genera of the Belondiroidea have been found widely distributed in natural
areas of the state. Of these, Dorylaimellus Cobb, Axonchium Cobb, and Oxydirus
Thorne were found in most biotic units of the state. In subsequent sampling in widely sep-
arated areas of the U. S., Dorylaimellus and Axonchium were found in natural areas in
all sections of the country sampled. Species of Oxydirus were found less frequently and
appeared in only one collection in western U. S., a forest meadow in Sequoia National
Park, California. Although four species of Belondira Thorne were well-distributed in
southern Indiana, only two were found as far north as Tippecanoe County. Despite
extensive sampling throughout the U. S. we have recovered specimens of this genus from
a very limited geographic area, extending only from eastern Kansas to Tennessee.
Introduction
The nematode superfamily Belondiroidea as presently understood
by most authorities consists of eight families and 13 genera (3). Of
these, only five genera, one in each of five families, have been reported
from continental United States : Dorylaimellus Cobb in the Dory-
laimellidae; Axonchium, Cobb in the Axonchiidae; Oxydirus Thorne in
the Oxydiridae; Belondira Thorne in the Belondiridae; and Swangeria
Thorne in the Swangeriidae. All contain stylet-bearing soil species
whose food habits are largely unknown. Some may be plant parasitic,
although they are not generally found in large numbers around
cultivated plants at least in temperate regions. For this reason they
have been studied very little.
Dorylaimellus virginianus Cobb was originally found by Cobb (2)
in Virginia and subsequently also in Utah by Thorne (8). Other species
of Dorylaimellus were found by Thorne (8) and Cobb (2) in
Virginia, Idaho, Utah, Texas, and Colorado; and by Orr and
Dickerson (7) in Kansas. A wide distribution for species of
Axonchium was recorded by Thorne (8) when he reported their occur-
rence in Utah, Colorado, Missouri, Washington, D. C, Georgia, South
Carolina, and Florida. More recent collections were noted by Orr and
Dickerson (7) in Kansas and by Hechler (5) in Virginia.
Oxydirus spp. were reported from Utah and Virginia by Thorne (8),
and Hechler (4) reported finding Oxydirus gangeticus Siddiqi in Mary-
land. A single species of Belondira (B. apitica Thorne) was found by
Thorne (8) in Utah, and this species plus another were found by Orr
Journal Paper No. 4602. Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station.
This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant GZ-416.
365
366 Indiana Academy of Science
and Dickerson (7) in Kansas. Swangeria bisexualis Hopper was
described (6) from a series of 10 specimens taken in Florida.
Despite the fact that the occurrence of belondiroid nematodes in
the U. S. has been infrequently noted by nematologists, we found four
of the five genera discussed above to be common in Indiana. Subsequent
sampling over the rest of the country indicated that these four genera
differ from each other in their biogeography. The present report con-
cerns the distribution of genera only. Detailed studies of the species
found within each genus will follow in later papers.
Methods
Intensive sampling of natural sites within the biotic units of Indiana
(1) was carried out over a 5-year period. Sites were usually wooded
and often included a stream or river. The number of samples taken at
any given time from a specified area varied from 6 to 50, but most areas
were sampled several times at different seasons of the year. Three
3-liter samples were collected from each site. One sample was collected
from the edge of the stream or river using a 2.5 cm sampling tube thrust
15-20 cm into the soil, whenever possible. Approximately 50 such cores
were collected for a distance of 30 m along the contour of the stream.
A second such sample was taken from the normal flood plain, but away
from the stream edge; and a third sample was taken well outside the
normal flood plain. Additional samples were taken in specialized and
typical habitats in all areas. Detailed ecological data were recorded at
the time of sampling including information about flora of the area, soil
type, soil contour, soil moisture, and other factors. Samples from other
parts of the United States were collected in a manner similar to that
used for Indiana samples.
In the laboratory one 1-liter subsample was processed from each
sample by a combination of sieves and Baermann funnels. Nematodes
were relaxed by gentle heat (57°C for 10 min.) and killed and fixed
in F. A. A. (9). A "profile" of all species present was established for
each sample and the specimens processed to permanent glycerine mounts
by the Thorne slow method (9).
Results and Discussion
The occurrence of representatives of these four genera in our collec-
tions is shown on the maps, Figure 1 (Indiana) and Figure 2 (the
U. S.). Dorylaimellus species are common throughout Indiana and are
present in all areas of the U. S. we have sampled. The same generali-
zation may be made about Axonchium, although it should be noted that
we have recovered fewer species of Axonchium than of Dorylaimellus
(3). Nematodes belonging to the genus Oxydirus are found in all parts
of Indiana, although they were less numerous than nematodes of the
former two genera. Oxydirus specimens appeared in only one collection
in western U. S., a forest meadow in Sequoia National Park, California.
Zoology
367
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•
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•
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Figure 1. Distribution of four genera of the Belondiroidea in Indiana (map is
divided into biotic units of Chandler (1). A, Dorylaimellus; B, Axonchium; C, Oxydirus;
D, Belondira.
Although four species of Belondira are well-distributed in the southern
part of Indiana, only two species were found as far north as Tippecanoe
County. Despite a vigorous search for representatives of this genus
throughout the U. S., we have recovered specimens from a very limited
geographic area, extending only from eastern Kansas to Tennessee.
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 2. Distribution of four genera of the Belondiroidea in the United States. Open
circles indicate sites samjAed, and solid circles show where a given genus was found.
Conclusions
Although members of the Belondiroidea have never been reported
from many areas of the new world, it appears that the genera
Dorylaimellus and Axonchium are widely distributed and common
throughout the U. S. Oxydirus appears to be less widely distributed,
especially in the western states, and the genus Belondira appears to
be restricted in distribution.
Zoology 369
Literature Cited
1. Chandler, L. 1966. The origin and composition of the insect fauna, p. 345-361.
In A. A. Lindsey (ed.) Natural features of Indiana. Indiana Acad. Sci.,
Indianapolis. 600 p.
2. Cobb, N. A. 1913. New nematode genera found inhabiting fresh-water and non-
brackish soils. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3:432-444.
3. Ferris, V. R. 1971. Taxonomy of the Dorylaimida, p. 163-189. In B. M.
Zuckerman, W. F. Mai, and R. A. Rohde (eds.) Plant Parasitic Nematodes. Vol. 1.
Academic Press, New York, N.Y. 345 p.
4. Hechler, H. C. 1969. Variability of the basal esophageal sheath in belondirid
nematodes. J. Nematol. 1:160-165.
5. — 1969. Taxonomy and morphology of Axonchium (Nematoda:
Belondiroidea), and a description of A. thornei n. sp. J. Nematol. 1:321-348.
6. Hopper, B. E. 1961. Swangeria bisexualis n. sp. (Belondiridae: Nematoda) from
Florida. Canad. J. Zool. 39:69-72.
7. Orr, C. C, and O. J. Dickerson. 1966. Nematodes in true prairie soils of
Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 69:317-334.
8. Thorne, G. 1939. A monograph of the nematodes of the superfamily
Dorylaimoidea. Capita. Zool. 8:1-261.
9. — _____ — .. 1961. Principles of Nematology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. New
York, N.Y. 553 p.
The Woodrat in Indiana: Recent Fossils
Ronald L. Richards
48 N. Euclid Avenue
Indianapolis, Indiana 46201
Abstract
Skeletal remains of Neotoma, presumably N. floridana magister, have been recovered
in relative abundance from caves throughout Indiana's karst area associated with bones
of such locally extinct fauna as black bear, porcupine, elk, and spotted skunk. Presently
rare in Indiana, a few woodrats have been historically recorded and recently observed
marginal to the Ohio River. The ancient depopulation may have been associated with some
indirect effect of climatic change.
One species and several races of woodrat are present in the Eastern
United States (4). Only a few woodrats, Neotoma floridana magister,
have been recorded in Indiana (7), along and near the bluffs of the Ohio
Figure 1. Locations of Neotoma observations (circles) and "recent fossil" sites (squares).
pn Freeman's Pit, Hidden Pit Cave; VT\ Beetree Cave, Brinegar's Cave; HH Anderson Pit
Cave; Hf! Sullivan's Cave (1); [5] Carcass Crypt Cave; [g] Stroud Cave (6); [7] N. Jim Cave;
[s] Cave 3 miles S.S.W. of North. Vernon; (1) Wyandotte Cave (2, 8); @ Small bluff -top
cave (5); (3) Rat Cave (5).
370
Zoology
371
River (5), and in Wyandotte cave (2, 8). The author has recently noted
woodrats in the two caves near the Ohio River where Hickie and
Harrison first recorded them in 1930 (5).
Kirkpatrick and Conaway found woodrat nests, though no rats,
in Stroud cave, Orange County (6). Bader and Hall (1) found remains
of woodrat in Sullivan's cave, Lawrence County, associated with bones
of Didelphis marsupialis, Blarina brevicauda, Erethizon dorsatum,
Sylvilagus floridanus, Spilogale putorius, Procyon lotor, Urocyon
cinereoargenteus, Odocoileus virginianus, Cervus canadensis, and
Myotis sp., again indicating an ancient distribution father north than
at present.
Table 1. Location and occurence of Neotoma remains.
Cave
Quadrangle, County
Occurance and Important Associations
Freeman's Pit
Hidden Pit Cave
Brinegar's Cave
Beetree Cave
Trap Door Cave
Anderson Pit
Cave
Sullivan's Cave
Carcass Crypt
Cave
Stroud Cave
N. Jim Cave
Cave near
North Vernon
Whitehall, Monroe
Whitehall, Owen
Stanford, Monroe
Stanford, Monroe
Stanford, Monroe
Clear Creek,
Monroe
Owensburg,
Lawrence
Bedford West,
Lawrence
Valeene, Orange
Mauckport,
Harrison
Hayden,
Jennings
A dozen Neotoma with Ursus, Spilogale, and
Erethizon in the explored top 17 inches of
an osteiferous, laminated silt-clay deposit.
One Neotoma in the top 4 inches of the silt
floor of a dome.
Two Neotoma, one in a small nest with 2
Ursus.
One Neotoma in a nest, and another in a
silt with Erethizon near an old entrance.
A large nest with few bones.
A large nest with 8 Neotoma and a human
parietal fragment. Another nest was largely
of vegetal material.
A large nest with 7 Neotoma, Ursus, Erethi-
zon, and Cervus. Possibly the nest of Bader
and Hall (1). Several other nests in the cave.
A nest with large Ursus bones and one Neo-
toma. Five Neotoma were contemporaneously
associated with Ursus, Spilogale, and Didel-
phis in a carbon-rich area overlain by a
sterile silt-clay layer.
One Neotoma with Erethizon, among several
nests.
One Neotoma in an osteiferous, fissure in-
washed silt deposit. A Spilogale dentary near-
by was not necessarily associated.
Neotoma skull and Ursus tooth on surface
near the entrance.
From Indiana's caves have recently come numerous "Recent fossils"
of Neotoma (Table 1), some as far north as western Monroe county
(Fig. 1), and many with extensive associated faunas (Tables 2 and 3).
Discussion
Neotoma distribution in the past was most likely concurrent with
the limits of both of Indiana's karst areas, according with its cave and
372
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. Fauna recovered from the various Neotoma nests.
Beetree
Anderson
Sullivan's
Stroud
Species
Cave1
Pit Cave2
Cave3
Cave*
Myotis sp.
27
61
95
3
Pipistrellus subflavus
3
3
23
1
Permyscus sp.
8
47
28
5
Microtus sp.
3
25
12
6
Neotoma. floridana
1
8
?
1
Blarina brevicauda
4
30
28
4
Sciurus sp.
2
S
2
1
Indet. mole
1
3
1
1
Bufo sp.
1
4
1
—
Indet. frogs
2
2
2
—
Plethodontidae
2
2
5
4
Colubridae
1
3
2
1
Indet. bird
—
3
2
1
xAlso from Beetree Cave were: Indet. large bat, 1; Indet. bat, 13; Synaptomys
cooperi, 2; Tamias striatus, 3; Marmota monax, 1; Indet. small carnivore, 1;
Sylvilagus floridanus, 1; Odocoileus virginianus, 1; Amby stoma sp., 1; Crotalidae,
2; Indet. fish, 1; and snails.
2Also from Anderson Pit Cave were: Indet. large bat, 1; Synaptomys cooperi, 3;
Tamias striatus, 1; Marmota monax, 1; Sorex sp., 3; Procyon lotor, 2; Indet.
small carnivore, 1; Didelphis marsupialis, 1; Sylvilagus floridanus, 1; Odocoileus vir-
ginianus, 2; Homo sapiens, 1; Ambystoma sp., 1; Terrepene sp., 1; Crotalidae, 1;
Indet. fish, l-3(?); snails; crayfish; and small clams.
3AIso from Sullivan's Cave were: Eptesicus fuscus, 1; Indet. bats, 6; Synap-
tomys cooperi, 1(?); Tamias striatus, 1; Marmota monax, 1; Erethizon dorsatum,
1; Ursus americanus, 1; Procyon lotor, 2; Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 1; Indet.
small carnivore, 1: Didelphis marsupialis, 1; Sylvilagus floridanus, 1; Odocoileus
virginianus, 1(?); Cervus canadensis, 1; Ambystoma sp., 2; Crotalidae, 2; Indet. fish,
3-6(?); aquatic snails; crayfish; small clams; bird eggshell (?).
4Also from Stroud Cave were: Indet. large bat, 1; Marmota monax, 2; Erethizon
dorstaum, 1; Procyon lotor, 1; Didelphis marsupialis, 1; Sylvilagus floridanus, 1;
Odocoileus virginianus, 1(?); Indet. frog or toad, 3; Terrepene sp., 1; Natricinae, 1;
Indet. fish, 1; snails; crayfish; small clams.
bluff crevice habitat. Nests were observed in the wall solution
anastomoses, in fissures, crevices, on ledges, and in breakdown
piles; Neotoma bones, however, occurred in many depositional situa-
tions. Nests seem to have been used over again by successive woodrats.
With time, the vegetal materials of the nest disintegrate, concentrating
the bones, rocks, snails, etc., emphasizing the faunal component, where-
as in all actively inhabited nests observed by the author in Kentucky
the floral component had hundreds of times more bulk. Thus, the older
nests usually had the greater bone concentration. The floral contents
of nests have yet to be studied. Of the faunal contents, only those bones
actually chewed upon can be attributed to the woodrat's collecting
behavior, these being most all of the larger than squirrel-sized forms,
with deer bones often making up the bulk. The extensive microfaunal
remains were predominantly those animals inhabiting the cave (e.g.,
Zoology 373
Table 3. Fauna! remains from the various cave deposits.
Hidden Bvinegar's Beetree Carcass N. Jim Cave,
Species Pit Cave1 Cave2 Cave3 Crypt Cave1 Cave"' N. Vernon"
Myotis sp.
•1
Pipistrellus subflavus
5
Peromyscus sp.
26
Microtus sp.
—
Neotoma floridana
1
Tamias striatus
•'.
Blarina brevicauda
2
Sorex sp.
I
Bufo sp.
1
Plethodontidae
i
Colubridae
2
Indet. bird
_
28
395
.".liU
—
2
6
52
—
5
11
L92
—
5
■I
1
—
1
5
1
1
■A
•i
1
K?)
6
3
5
—
1
23
_
r,
2
—
2
2
.',
22
__
2
2
ca. 17
—
2
2
1
::
iAlso from Hidden Pit Cave were: Indet. bats, 2; Sciurus sp., 1; Marmota
monax, 1; Ambystoma sp., 1; snails.
2Also from Brinegar's Cave were: Sciurus sp., 1; Ondatra zibethicus, 1; Indet.
mole, 1; Ursus americanus, 2; Mephitis mephitis, 1; Odocoileus virginianus, 1;
Terrepene sp., 1.
3Also from Beetree Cave were: Indet. bats, 9; Sciurus sp., 1(?); Erethizon
dorsatum, 1; Scalopus aquaticus, 1; Indet. canidae, 1; Indet. small carnivore,
1; Sylvilagus floridanus, 1; Odocoileus virginianus, 1; Ambystoma sp., 1; Crotalidae,
2; Indet. lizard, 1; Indet. fish, 1; snails.
4Also from Carcass Crypt Cave were: Indet. large bat, 1; Indet. bats, 7;
Sciurus sp., 2; Erethizon dorsatum, 1(?); Indet. shrew, 3; Indet. mole, 1; Ursus
americanus, 2; Procyon lotor, 1; Spilogale putorius, 1-2; Mephitis mephitis, 1;
Didelphis marsupialis, 1; Indet. frog, 4; Ambystoma sp., 1; Terrepene sp., 1;
Crotalidae, 1; snails.
5Also from N. Jim Cave were: Eptesicus fuscus, 5; Indet. bats, 24; Indet. frogs,
2; Ambystoma S2)., 1; Crotalidae, 2; Indet. lizard, 1; snails.
°Also from the Cave near North Vernon were: Lasiurus sp(?) 1; Sciurus sp.,
1; Marmota monax, 1; Indet. mole, 1; Ursus americanus, 1; Procyon lotor, 2;
Didelphis marsupialis, 1; Sylvilagus floridanus, 3; Odocoileus virginianus, 2; Indet.
frog, 1; Indet. turtle, 2; Indet. snake, 1; Indet, fish, 1; large clams.
mice, shrews, bats, salamanders) or trapped in it (e.g., toads, frogs,
snakes) and attracted to the nest, as indicated by the completeness of
their skeletons, lured by the numerous invertebrates infesting its
organic contents. Dying bats probably fell into the nests from their
roosts. The minute clams and crayfish remains seem to be unique to the
nests, perhaps collected by the woodrats, though along with the fish,
could also been in the stomachs of raccoons, snakes, etc. Thus, many
of the forms from the nests probably post-date the Neotoma,
being only pene-contemporaneous. Animals associated in the sedi-
mentary deposits, however, were most likely contemporaneous. Except-
ing Spilogale, Ursus, Erethizon, and Cervus the associated fauna seems
to be similar to that at present, the latter three exterminated from
southern Indiana by the mid-1800's, and Spilogale with an ancient
northerly distribution, much as Neotoma. This Neotoma-Ursus-
374 Indiana Academy of Science
Erethizon-Spilogale component commonly occurs together, and can be
used locally to recognize a Prehistoric fauna. From faunal evidence the
Neotoma archaeo-range seems to have been presettlement at minimum,
and post-Pliestocene by the lack of true fossil fauna. The presence of
Didelphis, known to be a late arrival in the Eastern United
States (3), sealed in the Carcass Crypt sediments confirms a maximum
of at least a few thousand years for at least that deposit.
Illinois and Missouri also have "Recent fossil" finds. Jerry Long
cave, Ralls County, Missouri, included a large percentage of Neotoma,
Marmota monax, Ursus americanus, Sylvilagus floridanus, and Spilo-
gale sp., among others. The bones were thought to have accumulated
"a few hundred years prior to about 1850". Neotoma may inhabit that
same area presently, but in less abundance (10). In Meyer cave, Monroe
County, Illinois, bones of 535 Neotoma were associated with one of the
most extensive Recent age faunas ever recovered in the United States,
and included Spilogale and Erethizon where they do not presently occur.
Neotoma was there 50 miles northwest of its living population (11).
Spilogale has been recorded from the Modoc Rock Shelter, Randolph
County, Illinois, where it does not presently occur, from a level radio-
carbon dated at between 4,500 and 2,500 years B.D. (9). Other than the
"Recent fossil" finds of Bader and Hall (1) and the author,
Spilogale has not been definitely recorded in Indiana, paralleling the
Illinois situation.
Significantly, by Recent fossil evidence from three Midwest states
Neotoma has had a distribution much farther north than at present,
in Indiana almost 70 miles from the historically recorded Wayndotte
Neotoma. The distance of the range delineation, age of the Illinois
Spilogale, inferred ages of other Neotoma, and association with
Didelphis permits a generalized age of a few thousand years, with a
wide age span between northerly and southerly sites, to be inferred.
There is a general opinion that following the glaciations climate
has changed from cool to warmer than present, and now cooler again.
During this warm phase prairies are thought to have expanded east-
erly, and southern elements northerly (12). Parmalee (11), on the
Meyer cave remains, regards Erethizon and several other northern
forms as belonging to the cool-moist climate of approximately 9,500-
7,500 B.C., and Spilogale and others as belonging to the warm-dry
period of approximately 3,500-1,500 B.C. These forms, including the
woodrat, were regarded as becoming expatriated, being unable to adjust
to a replacement in vegetation type.
As Neotoma floridana magister ranges almost abruptly to the
southern borders of Indiana at the Ohio River, yet also ranges up
through the cooler Appalachian area, temperature would not seem to
play a strong role locally in its distribution. South-central Indiana's
vegetation is similar, if not identical, to that of adjacent Kentucky,
where Neotoma is common. Except for the Ohio River the karst
habitat is continuous. Thus, Neotoma could probably inhabit Indiana's
karst area today. The author holds that there was a widespread, and
Zoology 375
effective (i.e., lack of disjunct colonies) depopulation of Neotoma in the
northerly portion of its range, rather than just an ancient northerly
extension, and that with time Neotoma would regain its former distribu-
tion were it not hampered by its slow immigration (e.g., from cave system
to cave system, the Ohio River crossing). The widespread nature of the
depopulation would seem to point to climate as the cause; however, with
the ecological plasticity of Neotoma only an extreme in climate would
seem to displace it. The associated fauna indicates that climate was not
then at an extreme. Thus, some other ecological factor, perhaps an
indirect result of a mild climatic change, would seem to be the cause
of the Neotoma depopulation.
Acknowledgements
I thank Robert Benton for continued effort throughout the project.
A. Gregory James independently located the Jennings County Neotoma
skull, and Dr. Robert J. Hosley kindly produced Figure 1.
Literature Cited
1. Bader, Robert S., and John S. Hall. 1960. Mammalian remains from an
Indiana cave. J. Mammal. 41:111-112.
2. Cope, E. D. 1872. Observations on Wyandotte Cave and its fauna. Amer. Natur.
6:406-422.
3. Guilday, John E. 1958. The prehistoric distribution of the opossum. J. Mammal.
39:39-43.
4. Hall, E. Raymond, and Keith R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America.
The Ronald Press, New York, N.Y. 819 p.
5. Hickie, P. F., and Thomas Harrison. 1930. The Alleghany wood rat in Indiana.
Amer. Midland Natur. 12:169-174.
6. Kirkpatrick, Charles M., and Clinton H. Conaway. 1948. Some notes on
Indiana mammals. Amer. Midland Natur. 39:128-136.
7. Mumford, Russell E. 1969. Distribution of the mammals of Indiana. Monogr. No.
1, Indiana Acad. Sci., Indianapolis, Ind. 114 p.
8. Packard, A. S. 1888. The cave fauna of North America, with remarks on the
anatomy of the brain and origin of the blind species. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.
4:16.
9. Parmalee, Paul W., and Donald F. Hoffmeister. 1957. Archaeozoological evidence
of the spotted skunk in Illinois. J. Mammal. 38:261.
10. - — . and Karl W. Jacobson. 1959. Vertebrate remains from a
Missouri cave. J. Mammal. 40:401-405.
11. - . 1967. A recent bone deposit in southwestern Illinois. Nat.
Speleol. Soc. Bull. 29:119-147.
12. Smith, Philip W. 1965. Recent adjustments in animal ranges, p. 633-642.
In H. E. Wright, Jr., and David G. Frey (eds.), The Quaternary of the United
States. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J. 922 p.
Notes on Occurrence and Reproduction of Bats In Indiana
John O. Whitaker, Jr.
Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
and
Russell E. Mumford
Department of Forestry and Conservation
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstract
A total of 1,907 bats from Indiana was examined, of which over half were big brown
bats, Eptesicus fuscus, a species which was found to be somewhat active all winter. Most
other species were found primarily during April through October. Some Lasiurtis
cinereus appear to hibernate in Indiana. Reproductive information for Pipistrellus
subflavus and Eptesicus fuscus is presented. Most Eptesicus had two embryos. Parturition
in this species occurs around June 1 in Indiana. Testis size in Eptesicus was
greatest in August, but at least some individuals appear capable of breeding much of the
year. Lasiurus borealis produced young about mid-June; juvenile red bats tend to leave
their mothers when about 80 millimeters total length and they weigh about 4 to 6
grams. A number of new county distribution records are included in this paper.
Introduction
This paper presents information on seasonal occurrence, reproduc-
tion and growth, and distribution for 10 of the 12 species of bats
recorded from Indiana (Table 1). These data were collected mostly from
1963 to 1971 during our investigations of Indiana mammals (11, 12, 14,
15, 21). The bats examined were obtained from several sources. Some
were shot about wooded or water areas or collected from buildings and
caves. Many were collected by citizens of various areas and submitted
Table 1. Bats taken, by month, in Indiana during present study.
Month
Species
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Total
Ej)tesicus fuscus
34
32
47
73
98
99
265
271
78
44
48
37
1,126
Lasionycteris
noctivagans
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
5
0
0
12
Lasiurus borealis
a
0
0
s
20
98
154
130
35
11
.!
0
457
Lasiurus cinereus
1
0
0
.1
12
8
iS
3
1
2
0
1
47
Myotis
austroriparius
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i
1
0
0
1
6
Myotis keenii
0
0
0
1
1
3
1
5
i
0
2
0
17
Myotis lucifugus
0
0
I
3
>;
5
13
51
24
3
3
4
115
Myotis sodalis
0
.1
0
4
■i
2
4
7
9
4
3
0
38
Nycticeius
humeralis
0
0
n
0
3
4
I
3
1
2
1
0
19
Pipistrellus
subflavus
0
1
0
2
9
12
8
21
11
1
5
0
70
Total
1,907
376
Zoology 377
to the Indiana Department of Health for rabies examination. We thank
Jerry D. Brown for some of the Eptesicus fuscus testis measurements.
Results
A total of 1,907 bats from Indiana was examined during the present
study (Table 1). More than half (1,126) were big brown bats, Eptesicus
fuscus, which might indicate this as the most common bat in the state.
However, since Eptesicus is active during the winter, while
Lasiurus borealis is not, the months May to September were used for
comparison. During those months 811 big brown bats and 437 red bats
were taken. Since Eptesicus is the common bat in buildings, perhaps
citizens are more apt to encounter it than other species. Also, the total
for Eptesicus is inflated by a few collections of numbers of bats from
buildings, 133 from Madison during rabies studies (22) and several other
smaller collections. Red bats are solitary and cannot be collected by such
methods. We can conclude that these are the two most common bats
in Indiana.
Next in abundance would appear to be Myotis lucifugus and
Pipistrellus subflavus. It was surprising to take 47 of the relatively
uncommon hoary bats, Lasiurus cinereus, most from April to October,
but one each in December and January. Perhaps these latter individuals
were hibernating in Indiana (20), although this species presumably
migrates south for the winter. There are also isolated reports from
Indiana and other states that suggest that red bats also may hibernate
at this latitude (5).
Except for Eptesicus and the two Lasiurus cinereus, most bats were
taken during the months April through October, except for a few
Myotis and Pipistrellus found in hibernation in caves. It is evident
(Table 1) that there is much winter activity in Eptesicus, a hibernating
species. Many of those taken were active at the time of capture, or were
obviously recently active (found in a place where they would have been
noticed). It is not known where the majority of the big brown bats
spend the winter. Certainly, the large summer population in Indiana
cannot be accounted for by the relatively small numbers that hibernate
in Indiana caves, and banding records do not yet indicate long-range
fall migrations. A group of 17 big brown bats found March 26, 1969,
in a barn in Vigo County, was thought to have still been in winter
quarters since the bats were torpid, there was no food in their
stomachs or intestines, and they were wedged so tightly into tiny
crevices that their skins were torn and myobiid mites on their
abdomens were crushed when the bats were removed. Seven of the bats
were found singly, but groups of 2, 3, and 5 were present. Six of the
singles were female; the group of two consisted of two males, and the
other groups each contained one male. Examination of the crevices on
January 21, 1972, turned up no bats, hence the bats found earlier likely
entered the barn after leaving their winter quarters.
The records of Lasionycteris are of interest. The previous late
spring record for this migrant was May 28 (14), but we have two
individuals taken June 1 and June 10 from Lake County.
378 Indiana Academy of Science
Reproduction
There is but a single breeding record of Myotis sodalis for
Indiana (13), but our additional June and July records further substan-
tiate the conclusion that the species breeds there. There is little informa-
tion on Pipistrellus breeding in Indiana. Eight gravid females were shot
over a pond in Vigo County and appear to have been the small colony
of bats using a nearby barn. The colony disappeared at the time these
were shot. Embryos ranged from 11 to 21 mm crown-rump length (avg.
14.3 mm). Six females contained two embryos each; two had one. An
additional female, shot in Vigo County on June 30, had recently given
birth, as had a female taken July 10 in Jefferson County.
Ovulation in Eptesicus occurs about the first week in April in
Maryland, and sperms are present in the female genital tract at this
time (1) ; birth occurs about June 1, giving a gestation of about 2
months. Eastern United States populations have two young per litter
and western populations one (4, 6, 7). In 1971, three collections of big
brown bats were made from a breeding colony in Putnamville,
Putnam County, Indiana. On April 14, 7 of 14 females contained no
visible embryos; one female appeared to have one tiny embryo; 6
females appeared to have two tiny embryos each (counts based on
uterine swellings). Each of 30 females taken May 14 was pregnant.
Three each had one embryo; 27 each had two embryos. Embryos av-
eraged 10.7 mm crown-rump length and varied from 4 to 16 mm. Each
of 15 females taken May 24 was gravid; two had one embryo each and
13 had two. The average crown-rump length of embryos was 17.3, with
a range of 13 to 21 mm. In addition, two females from a Vigo County
barn taken April 3, 1963, contained two tiny embryos. Our latest records
of embryos in this species are June 1 and 2 (Vigo County) and June
4 (Allen County). The first young of the year appeared in our sample
in June. The smallest one, taken June 11, weighed 7.8 g, measured 60
mm in total length, and had a forearm length of 20 mm.
Copulation in Eptesicus fuscus occurs primarily in autumn, but
may occur also during the winter (7, 16). Copulation of big brown bats
has been reported in Indiana caves on November 23, January 8,
February 7, and March 12 (10). Phillips (16) found sperm in the repro-
ductive tracts of four of five females taken October 18, in each of four
females taken October 29, and in four of five females taken in
February and March, in northeastern Kansas. We examined five big
brown bats (2 males; 3 females) taken March 26 in Vigo County. The
males had living sperm in the epididymus; two of the females had living
sperm in their uteri.
Testis size has been found to be greatest in August, but regression
occurred by the time of autumn copulation (4, 16). Testes size was tabu-
lated, by month, for Indiana Eptesicus (Table 2). In August and
September the highest percentage of males in the sample had testes
more than 5 mm long and testes size averaged greatest in those
months. This indicates that the largest amount of breeding activity
takes place in August and September, but judging from testis size males
may be capable of breeding much of the year.
Zoology
379
Table 2.
Testes measurements in mm, by month, of male Eptesicus fuscus and
Lasiurus borealis, Indiana.
Avg.
Avg.
No. w
ith
% with
Testis
Testis
Number
Testis
>5
Testis >5
Length
Width
Eptesicus fuscus
Jan.
13
7
53.8
4.42
2.19
Feb.
14
K
50.0
4.S1
2.56
Mar.
L5
'•
60.0
5.37
v -m
Apr.
22
!'•
54.5
4.76
2.1 J
May
29
L2
41.4
4.77
2.41
June
•J 4
1"
70.8
5.37
2.55
July
u
U
75.9
r>>!
3.04
Aug.
117
'.IS
83.8
6.88
:;,:u
Sept.
32
:>.!
96.9
7.06
■:.':,,
Oct.
14
7
50.0
4.43
2.68
Nov.
l>
11
61.1
5.48
2.53
Dec.
14
s
Lasiurus
57.1
!xir> clis
5.04
2.39
Apr.
2
3.50
2.50
May
z
3.30
1.50
June
4
4.13
2.25
July
■I:.
4.43
2.55
Aug.
Ui
4.99
3.15
S.M.f,
*
5.06
2.89
Oct.
2
3.00
2.00
Nov.
1
4.00
2.00
Few red bats were taken that could be classed as adult males. From
April through June, before young males entered the population, only
11 of 56 (19.6%) adult red bats were males. A similar sex distribution
has been found in Kansas (3, 8).
Of 13 gravid female red bats examined, 2 each had 2
embryos, 7 had 3, 2 had 4, 1 had 5, and 1 had embryos destroyed by shot.
An average of 3.2 embryos among 44 pregnant females has been re-
ported (1). The earliest embryos found by us were in a female collected
April 30; she contained 4 measuring 1.8 mm in diameter. The latest date
was June 19 (3 embryos 10 mm crown-rump length). Crown-rump meas-
urements were made on other embryos as follows: May 9 (10 mm) ; May
17 (10 mm) ; May 21 (9 mm) ; May 26 (6 mm) ; May 26 (12 mm) ; May
26 (10 mm) ; May 31 (12 mm) ; June 5 (15 mm) ; June 14 (22 mm). The
three embryos found June 14 were probably near term; the eyes were
visible as dark spots and the milk teeth had erupted. Standard
measurements of these young were total length 44, 44, 41 mm; tail length
15, 12, 12 mm; hind foot length 6, 6, 6 mm. The one male had testes 1 by
1.5 mm. Young taken with adult females on June 6, 14 and 17 were of
380 Indiana Academy of Science
similar size and were possibly newborn. Hamilton (6) stated that young
were born about mid-June, while in Kansas and southern Illinois
(8, 9) parturition occurs in late May and early June. A female taken
April 19 appeared to have given birth, judging from the expanded and
flaccid condition of the uterus. This would seem to be an unusually early
date. Another female taken May 3 had four placental scars. Twenty
females that had given birth were collected between June 20 and July
20. It appears that most females give birth about mid-June in Indiana.
The largest young taken with a female (3 young, July 14) meas-
ured 79, 79, and 81 mm in total length and weighed 6.4, 7.4 and 7.6 g.
Young only slightly smaller were taken with four other females on June
20, June 23 and two on July 1. One young, taken with a female on June
15, weighed 4.4 g. and was 64 mm total length (Table 3). The stomach
of this young contained 60 chironomid and 40% Coleoptera remains. Two
other large young taken with females had traces of vegetation and milk
in their stomachs.
Table 3. Size variation in young red bats taken with females in Indiana.
Total
Tail
Hind
No
No.
Length
Length
Foot
Weight
Forearm
Date Found
Juv.
Fema
les
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(g)
(mm)
June 15
4
1
63-65
20-21
6-6.5
4.2-4.4
June 20-23
16
5
50-77
14-29
6-8
2.2-7.5
24-36*
June 30-July
12
:.!
44-77
13-29
5-8
3.6-5.02
17-34
July 14
3
1
79-81
29.32
6-7
6.4-7.6
31-36
1Forearm data not available on smallest two litters.
2Smallest not weighed.
The 29 juvenile red bats less than 80 mm in total length and taken
without accompanying females are of interest. We do not know whether
some of this sample had been weaned, but suspect that most (or all)
had merely become separated from their mothers. All of the above
young were collected in late June and July (July 31 the latest) and all
that had any food in their stomachs contained milk; two of them (with
forearms of 31 and 27 mm) contained parts of ants and other insects
in their intestines. Three large young found on June 30 had milk in their
stomachs and intestines; the largest of this trio measured 91 mm in
total length, had a forearm of 38 mm, and weighed 7.5 g. Judging from
the growth rate of other young examined, this litter must have been
born in early May. Two lone immatures taken July 28 and August 11
contained only insect remains, thus were evidently independent of their
mothers. These bats had total lengths of 85 and 86 and forearms of 36
and 39 mm, respectively. It would appear that juvenile red bats tend
to become independent of their mothers when about 80 mm in total
length and weighing from 4 to 6 gm.
None of 25 adult female red bats shot in June and July during our
study were carrying young. Despite various records (6, 7) of females
Zoology 381
carrying their young on foraging flights, we do not feel that this occurs
regularly. Females with attached young may be frightened from their
roosts, thus fly off carrying the young (if the young are not too large)
or be forced to the ground by the weight of large, attached young. More
data are required on this.
Hamilton (6) collected female red bats with quantities of sperm
in their uteri the first week in August and stated that the species mates
in August, while other authors (1, 7) thought mating probably takes
place in August and September. Males taken in Indiana have the largest
testes in August and September (Table 2) and although testes size alone
is not necessarily proof of reproductive ability, it does suggest that this
is the season of mating.
Female hoary bats with two young each were taken May 23 (John-
son County) and June 19 (Vigo County). The May young had total
lengths of 79 and 80, forearm lengths of 36 and 37, and one weighed
7.1 g. Comparable data for the young taken June 19 were total lengths
100, 102; forearm lengths 42, 44; and weights 13.2 and 13.1 g. A
lactating female captured May 28 gave birth to two young that day.
Whether this was normal parturition is unknown, but there are
numerous instances in the literature of births shortly after capture,
some of which may be cases of induced abortion brought on by condi-
tions of captivity. Caution should be used in considering such cases
as parturition dates. Young are probably born in Indiana in late May
or early June. Two small adult females (total length 105, 107, forearm
51, 52) taken in late May, but showing no evidence of reproductive
activity, suggest, on very limited data, that females might not breed
their first year.
Three evening bats each with two embryos were examined, one
taken May 20 in Monroe County, one May 26 from Tippecanoe County,
and one June 27 from Marshall County.
Distribution records
New county distribution records for bats in Indiana follow:
Myotis lucifugus: Clinton, Gibson, Hancock, Howard, Madison, Tipton, Union and
Vanderburgh.
M. keenii: Johnson, Vanderburgh.
M. sodalis: Dubois, Hancock, Hendricks, Jefferson, Johnson, Marion, Morgan,
Vanderburgh.
Lasionycteris noctivagans: Hendricks, Howard, Lake, Vanderburgh
Pipistrellus subflavus: Gibson, Johnson, Morgan, Spencer, Vanderburgh, and Wells.
(The latter represents the most northern locality in Indiana where the
pipistrelle has been recorded and is some 80 miles north of Wayne County, the
closest previously known station. This was the only individual taken north of
Marion County.)
Eptesicus fuscus: Bartholomew, Clark, Floyd, Hancock, Hendricks, Howard, Jasper,
Knox, Lake, Martin, Miami, Morgan, Newton, Starke, and Sullivan.
Lasiurus borealis: Adams, Bartholomew, Brown, Gibson, Greene, Hancock, Hendi'icks,
Jasper, Johnson, Madison, Noble, Rush, Shelby, Sullivan, Vanderburgh, and White.
L. cinereus: Clay, Elkhart, Johnson, Morgan.
Nycticems humeralis: Carroll, Clinton, Gibson, Jefferson, Johnson, Marshall, Monroe,
and Vanderburgh.
382 Indiana Academy of Science
Discussion
It is apparent that winter bat activity occurs in Indiana during the
period when we generally assume that bats (especially Eptesicus fuscus,
various species of Myotis, and Pipistrellus subflavus) are hibernating.
Whether such activity is usual requires more investigation; it would
seem that much of it, in the case of Eptesicus particularly, is normal.
Urine in the bladder may cause bats to wake periodically (19). While
the need for water may be responsible for winter movements (16),
Rysgaard (17) felt that some food was necessary in winter, for he found
chitin in the mouths of some bats; he also found that Eptesicus
fuscus drank water in winter. Other authors also feel that winter
activity is for feeding (1, 18). In Indiana, winter movement appears
not to be related to feeding, based on stomach analyses of winter-taken
specimens (Whitaker, unpublished data). Big brown bats have been kept
for six months at 4.5°C without food with no ill effects (2).
Delayed fertilization is presumably advantageous to bats, allowing
them to mate in the fall when they are in good condition with plenty
of food, thus avoiding an excess use of energy during early spring when
energy may be at a premium. This advantage would seem to be
negated, at least in part, if bats mate in winter, as appears to be the
case in Eptesicus fuscus (10) and in Myotis lucifugus (23). Additional
winter activity would further drain this energy and would seem to be
strongly selected against, if energy is at a premium. It may well be that
bats are physiologically adapted so that they can easily survive the
winter on stored fat with energy to spare. Possibly, winter activity
facilitates mating, ensuring that a high percentage of females become
pregnant. This would be an advantage since the reproductive potential
of bats is low (one litter per year and one to two young per litter in
most species). Delayed fertilization may have evolved along with winter
mating, allowing young to be born at the optimum time. Delayed
fertilization might also be a mechanism by which bats take advantage
of chance matings over extended periods of time.
It also appears that Lasiurus cinereus and Lasiurus borealis, both
considered migrant species that leave the latitude of Indiana in
winter, may actually remain in winter. Possibly the portion of the total
population that behave in this fashion is small, but we need further data.
The fact that Lasiurus borealis will appear and fly about during
periodic warm periods in mid-winter in Indiana indicates that these
animals probably were nearby.
Zoology 383
Literature Cited
1. Barbour, R. W., and W. B. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. Univ. Ky. Press,
Lexington. 286 p.
2. Beer, J. R., and A. G. Richards. 1956. Hibernation of the big brown bat. J.
Mammal. 37:31-41.
3. Birney, E. C., and J. D. Rising. 1967. Notes on distribution and reproduction of
some bats in Kansas, with remarks on incidence of rabies. Trans. Kans. Acad.
Sci. 70:519-524.
4. Christian, J. J. 1956. The natural history of a summer aggregation of the big brown
bat, Eptesicus fuscus fuscus. Amer. Midland Natur. 55:66-95.
5. Davis, W. H., and W. Z. Lidicker. 1956. Winter range of the red bat, Lasiurus
borealis, J. Mammal. 37:280-281.
6. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. 1943. The mammals of eastern United States. Comstock Publ.
Co., Ithaca, N.Y. 432 p.
7. Jackson, H. H. T. 1961. Mammals of Wisconsin. Univ. Wise. Press., Madison. 504 p.
8. Jones, J. K., Jr., E. D. Fleharty, and P. B. Dunnigan. 1967. The distributional
status of bats in Kansas. Misc. Publ. Mus. Natur. Hist. Univ. Kans. 46:1-33.
9. Layne, J. N. 1958. Notes on mammals of Southern Illinois. Amer. Midland Natur.
60:219-254.
10. Mumford, R. E. 1958. Population turnover in wintering bats in Indiana. J.
Mammal. 39:253-261.
11. . 1967. The hoary bat in Indiana. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
78:497-501.
12. . , — __. 1969. Distribution of the mammals of Indiana. Indiana Acad,
Sci. Monogr. 1. 114 p.
13. , and L. L. Calvert. 1960 Myotis sodalis evidently breeding in Indian?
J. Mammal 39:586-587.
14. , and J. B. Cope. 1958 Summer records of Myotis sodalis in Indian?
J. Mammal 39:586-587.
15. . . 1964. Distribution and status of the Chiroptera of Indiana, Amer.
Midland Natur. 72:473-489.
16. Phillips, G. L. 1966. Ecology of the big brown bat (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)
in northeastern Kansas. Amer. Midland Natur. 75:168-198.
17. Rysgaard, G. N. 1942. A study of the cave bats of Minnesota with special
reference to the large brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Beauvois). Amer. Midland
Natur. 28:245-267.
18. Swanson, G., and C Evans. 1936. The hibernation of certain bats in southern
Minnesota. J. Mammal. 17:39-43.
19. Twente, J. W., JR. 1955. Some aspects of habitat selection and other behavior
of cavern dwelling bats. Ecology 36:706-732.
20. Whitaker, J. O., Jr. 1967. Hoary bat apparently hibernating in Indiana.
J. Mammal. 48:663.
21. . 1967. Habitat and reproduction of some of the small mammals of
Vigo County, Indiana, with a list of mammals known to occur there. Occas. Papers
Adams Ctr. Ecol. Stud. 16:1-24.
22. Whitaker, J. O., Jr., W. A. Miller, and W. L. Boyko. 1969. Rabies in Indiana
bats. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 78:447-456.
23. Wimsatt, W. A. 1945. Notes on breeding behavior, pregnancy and parturition in some
vespertilionid bats of the eastern United States. J. Mammal. 26:23-33.
Rodent Seed Supply and Burrows of
Peromyscus in Cultivated Fields
Wayne C. Houtcqoper
Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Abstract
Food supply, in the form of seeds, was investigated in corn and soybean fields in
Vigo County, Indiana, to determine what effect availability of this food had upon the dis-
tribution and abundance of prairie deermice, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii, and house
mice, Mus musculus. Food was abundant in all study areas and did not adversely affect
the distribution or abundance of either species.
Twelve burrows constructed by P. m. bairdii were examined and sketches of two of
these are presented. The burrows averaged 16.0 feet long, 4.1 inches deep, and had 6.0
branches with only one opening per burrow. The branch nearest the opening commonly
had a deep V-shaped tunnel which may serve as shelter during periods when the ground
is being worked. Chambers containing feces, nesting material, or food caches of seeds were
frequently found.
Introduction
Food supply has often been thought of as an important factor
limiting distribution and abundance of animals (1, 5), but there are con-
flicting reports (2, 3, 4) which indicate that food is not an important
factor limiting the distribution of Peromyscus. The present paper is
an attempt to determine if food, in the form of seeds, is a critical factor
influencing the distribution and/or abundance of two common rodents,
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii and Mus musculus, in cultivated
habitats of Vigo County, Indiana.
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii constructs burrows, but there are ap-
parently no previous reports describing the burrows. Burrows examined
during this study are described.
Study Areas
Three separate areas totaling approximately 2,800 acres were chosen
for study, with corn and soybeans being the most prevalent cultivated
crops. Area (Sees. 21, 22, 27, 28, T13N, R9W), 1,100 acres, 3 miles north
of Terre Haute, Indiana, was adjacent to the Wabash River and was
part of the Wabash Floodplain. Area 2 (Sees. 25, 36, T13N, R9W, Sees.
29, 30, 31, T13N, R8W), 800 acres on the Wabash River terrace, was
approximately 2 miles northeast of North Terre Haute, and was com-
posed of 4 separate fields. Area 3 (Sees. 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, T12N, R8W), 900
acres on an upland site, was 1 mile northwest of Seelyville, Indiana,
and contained 4 separate fields.
Methods
Maps of each area were constructed using aerial photographs and
vegetation maps. A scale of 1:4800 was used. Each map was divided
into sampling plots of 76 by 76 feet numbered in rows from west to east
384
Zoology 385
and with the first row to the north. Ten plots per area per trapping
period were randomly selected for study. Plots not in cultivated fields
were omitted. In each plot, 25 traps were set in 5 lines of 5 traps, with
15 feet between each trap and 7.5 feet between the outer traps and the
edge of the plot.
Mammals for this study were collected during four trapping
periods: July 1970; August 1970; September-October 1970; and
December-January 1970-71. All specimens were taken by means of
standard snap-back mousetraps baited with peanut butter. Traps in each
area were checked each trapping period for 4 consecutive days, resulting
in 12,000 trap-nights for the entire study.
A square foot of soil, sampled to a depth of one-half inch, was col-
lected in each study plot for seed analysis. Seeds were isolated
according to a technique described by Malone (6). The seeds from each
sample were placed in marked Petri dishes, dried in an oven, identified
by comparison to known samples, and counted.
A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test was used to determine sig-
nificance of differences in the numbers of mice taken per trapping
period. A completely randomized design of analysis of variance was
used to determine significance of: 1) differences in the numbers of mice
per species per study area, 2) differences in the total number of seeds
per sampling period, 3) differences in the total number of seeds per
study area. A t-test was used in cases where a significant F value from
Analysis of Variance was obtained.
Twelve burrows were examined in Area 2 during February and
March 1970. Attempts at locating burrows in Areas 1 and 3 were unsuc-
cessful due to the absence of snow and the onset of cultivation. Traps
placed near the burrow openings yielded only Peromyscus maniculatus
bairdii; thus the burrows were presumed to be those of P. m. bairdii.
Results and Discussion
Rodent, Population and Seed Supply
During this study 414 prairie deermice (Peromyscus maniculatus
bairdii), 252 house mice (Mus musculus) , 22 woodland deermice
(Peromyscus leucopus) , 3 jumping mice (Zapus hiidsonius) , 2 prairie
voles (Microtus ochrogaster) , and 1 rat (Rattus norvegicus) were taken.
The totals for P. m. bairdii and Mus musculus were divided into numbers
of mice per study area and per trapping period. There were no sig-
nificant differences between the average number of M. musculus per
plot in the floodplain (2.0), river terrace (2.4), and upland area
(2.0) (F = 0.29, 119 df), indicating similar populations in the 3 areas.
Average numbers of P. m. bairdii per plot in the floodplain (6.0), river
terrace (2.7), and upland area (1.3) were significantly different
(F = 28.96, 119df). Study plots in the floodplain area had more P. m.
bairdii than those in the river terrace area (T = 5.04, 78 df), while those
in the river terrace area had more P. m. bairdii than those in the up-
land area (T = 2.44, 78 df).
:;s<;
Indiana Academy of Science
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Zoology 387
Avrage numbers of P. m. bairdii per plot in July 1970 (3.0),
August 1970 (4.4), September-October 1970 (3.1), and December-
January 1970-71 (3.3), indicated similar populations during all 4
trapping periods (F = 0.96, 119 df). Average numbers of M. musculus
per plot in July 1970 (1.9), August 1970 (1.9), September-
October 1970 (3.5), and December-January 1970-71 (1.1), indicated
an increase in late autumn followed by a decrease in winter
(F = 4.29, 119 df). These results agree with those of Whitaker (7), who
found that P. m. bairdii remained at roughly similar population levels
throughout the year while Mus moved out of areas when ground cover
decreased.
Information on the number of seeds taken was summarized accord-
ing to sampling period and study area (Table 1). Species which had
an average number of seeds per sample greater than 5.0 are listed. Other
species less frequently found were Datura stramonium, Cerastium
vulgatum, Aster sp., Polygonum sp., P. pensylvanicum, Ambrosia
trifida, Brassica kaber, Hypericum perforatum, Rumex crispus, Glycine
max, and Zea mays.
There were no significant differences in the mean number of seeds
per sample per sampling period (F = 0.09, 119 df). There were, however,
significant differences in the mean numbers of seeds per sample per
study area (F = 51.60, 119 df), with the extremes in Area 1 of 47.7 seeds
versus Area 2 with 177.4 seeds. Significant differences were also found
in the mean numbers of seeds per sample between Areas 2 and 3
(T = 5.88, 78 df).
If food in the form of seeds is a critical factor, mouse numbers
should be influenced by seed availability. Since no significant differences
were found in the mean numbers of seeds per sampling period
(99.6, 107.2, 107.2, 99.4), while significant differences were found in
the number of M. musculus per sampling period, seeds as a food source
apparently did not limit M. musculus numbers. The floodplain area had
the fewest seeds per sample (47.7), yet this area contained the most
P. m. bairdii per plot (6.0). No significant differences were found in
the number of M. musculus per plot per area (F = 0.29, 119 df).
The number of seeds per sample apparently did not influence the
abundance of either P. m. bairdii or M. muscidus.
Burrow Studies
Burrows were most easily found when snow cover was present. The
burrows constructed by P. m. bairdii appeared to offer an adequate
habitat for living, feeding, and nesting. Two burrows are diagrammed
(Fig. 1).
The 12 burrows averaged 16.0 feet in length (range, 5 to 35 feet),
and 4.1 inches in depth (range, 1 to 12 inches). The average burrow had
6.0 branches (range, 1 to 12), and was 6.3 inches at its deepest point.
Burrows ranged from 0.75 to 1.50 inches in diameter. Only one opening
was found for each burrow. All of the burrows had a drop of 2 to 3
inches from the opening, then a relatively straight tunnel of 4 to 6
388
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1. Top view of two Peromyscus maniculaturs bairdii burrows in Vigo
County, Indiana. Numbers indicate depth of burrows in inches. Linear scale:
Vz inch — 2 feet.
inches before the first turn. The deepest point in the burrow was
frequently found in the branch nearest the opening. This branch com-
monly had a steep decline of 30 to 40°, then an abrupt incline at the
same angle which opened into a chamber. Three of the burrows had
caches of uneaten seeds, mainly Setaria, at this chamber site, indicating
food storage by this species. The deep, V-shaped tunnel may serve as
shelter during periods when the ground is being worked. Most of the
burrow would be destroyed but this area would remain. Many of the
other tunnels had similar chambers, but without the steep slope or in-
cline before them. In 6 of the burrows, feces were found in these
chambers. Eight burrows terminated in a large chamber and three of
these contained nesting material of finely chewed grass, straw, leaves,
and paper. In all cases, the main tunnel was free of debris. These find-
ings indicate a high degree of burrow utilization by P. m. bairdii.
Zoology 389
Literature Cited
1. Bendell, J. F. 1959. Food as a control of a population of white-footed mice,
Peroymscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer). Can J. Zool. 37; 173-209.
2. Cogshall, A. S. 1929. Food-habits of deer mice of the genus Peromyscus in
captivity. J. Mammal. 9:217-221.
3. Dice, L. R. 1922. Some factors affecting the distribution of the prairie vole,
forest deer mouse, and prairie deer mouse. Ecology 3:29-47.
4. Grinnell, J., and R. T. Grr. 1934. Systematic review of the ealifornicus
group of the rodent genus Peromyscus. J. Mammal. 15:210-220.
5. Lack, D. 1954. The natural regulation of animal numbers. Oxford Univ. Press, London,
Eng. 250 p.
6. Malone, C. R. 1967. A rapid method for enumeration of viable seeds in soil. Weed
Sci. 15:381-382.
7. Whitaker, J. O., Jr. 1967. Habitat relationships of four species of mice in Vigo
County, Indiana. Ecology 48:867-872.
Effect of Aging on Ability to Acclimate to Chronic Hypoxia of
Simulated High Altitude1
Loren G. Martin and Thomas F. Myers
Department of Physiology
Temple University School of Medicine. Philadelphia, Pa. P.* 140
and
Grace E. Wertenberger
Department of Anatomy and Physiology
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, 47401
Abstract
Young (1 month old) and old adult (13 months old) rats were subjected to a
simulated high altitude (23,000 feet for 5 weeks) environment. The anoxic resistance of
isolated right ventricles, right ventricular weights and hematocrit values were then
measured in both sea level control and altitude-acclimated animals from both age
groups. This research demonstrates that the hematocrit cannot be increased in older
individuals to such an extent as in young individuals and that the right ventricular
hypertrophic response to hypoxis is markedly decreased in the older animal. Older
animals were shown to have increased their myocardial anaerobic competency as a result
of the aging process. Young animals can be forced to increase their anaerobic competency
by chronic exposure to hypoxia, but the old myocardium cannot be forced to induce
further anaerobic competency by such hypoxia exposure.
Introduction
It has been well established that several parameters of the
cardiovascular system are modified as a result of chronic exposure to
the hypoxia of high altitude (9, 11, 16, 17, 29). Increased hematocrit,
or polycythemia, has been shown to be a meaningful high altitude
adaptation by several researchers, both on the basis of increasing the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (8, 11, 29) and of increasing the
capacity of the animal to perform work under hypoxic conditions
(7, 21). This enhanced erythropoietic activity has been shown to be
mediated by a hormonal factor which produces bone marrow
hyperplasia accompanied by an augmented rate of iron turnover (18,
19).
Right ventricular hypertrophy has been shown to consistently ac-
company high altitude exposure, whether one employs laboratory
animals acclimated to simulated high altitude or natively acclimatized
high altitude species (9, 10, 31, 32). This right ventricular
hypertrophy is reflected in the EKG as a right-axis deviation (20), and
it has been shown to result from the pulmonary hypertension which
accompanies the hypoxia of high altitude acclimation (1, 9, 20, 27.)
In addition to these anatomical changes which accompany altitude
acclimation, several investigators have demonstrated an increased
Supported by a Grant-In-Aid from the Indiana Academy of Science and by a
National Institutes of Health General Research Support Grant awarded to Temple Uni-
versity School of Medicine 5S01RR05417-10.
390
Zoology 391
anaerobic capacity of the brain (2), straited muscle (2, 13, 17) and
cardiac muscle (14, 15, 16, 17, 22), as well as an increased percentage
recovery of cardiac muscle after an anoxic stress (23).
By examining these three parameters— hematocrit, heart weight
and myocardial anoxic resistance — in sea level rats and in altitude-
acclimated rats whose ages ranged from young to old adult it would
be possible to show whether or not the aging process had altered the
animal's ability to develop these cardiovascular adaptations in response
to chronic hypoxia.
Materials and Methods
Animals
Male albino rats (Sprague-Dawley) were purchased from Purina
Laboratory Animals, Vincentown, N. J. These rats were fed a special
thyroxine-free synthetic diet (Vitamin B complex test diet, with salt
mixture USP XIV substituted for Salt Mixture #2, completely vitamin
and mineral fortified and pelleted for rats) purchased from Nutritional
Biochemicals and tap water ad libitum. The animals were maintained
on this test diet for 2 weeks before experimentation was begun, and
this diet was administered for the duration of the experiment. Animals
employed in the study were either 1 month or 13 months old. These rep-
resent respectively young and older mature rats.
Lighting, Temperature and Altitude
Animals were maintained in the laboratory at 25±1®C,
and the fluorescent lighting provided 12 hours of light and 12 hours
of darkness daily. The altitude-exposed animals were maintained in
altitude chambers at a simulated 23,000 feet above sea level (14, 15).
The high-altitude animals were acclimated for 2 days at 7,000 feet, 3
days at 10,000 feet, 3 days at 17,500 feet, 3 days at 20,000 feet, and for
the remaining 5 weeks at 23,000 feet. These altitude-exposed animals
remained at 23,000 feet for 72-hour intervals; they were then returned
to sea level for 1 hour to allow for cleaning, disinfecting and feeding
and were then depressurized to 23,000 feet for another 72-hour interval.
This depressurization was accomplished gradually over an hour period
so as to avoid aeroembolism. The "sea level controls" were maintained
in the same laboratory at a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, altitude of
approximately 150 feet above sea level.
Hematocrit Determinations
The animals were anesthetized with ether, guillotined, and
heparinized micro-hematocrit tubes were filled with blood from the
severed carotids and were spun down on a clinical centrifuge to deter-
mine each animal's hematocrit value.
Right Ventricular Function Test
After blood was collected for hematocrit determinations, the rat
was restrained on a dissecting board, an incision was made from the
:::iu
Indiana Academy of Science
ventral mid-line of the neck to the xyphoid process, and the ribs and
musculature on the left side of the sternum were severed and sep-
arated with a wound retractor. The pulsating heart was removed and
placed in a beaker of well-aerated (95% 02 - 5% C02)
Krebs-Ringer's bicarbonate solution to remove the excess blood. The
right ventricle was dissected away (Fig. 1) and was rapidly transferred
into the Krebs-Ringer's bicarbonate-filled muscle chamber (Fig. 2)
which was aerated by the 95% 02 - 5% C02 mixture. After an initial
stabilization period of 30 minutes, the aerating mixture was changed to
95% N2 - 5% C02 as an anoxic test. This anoxic test was applied for
a 20-min period, and then the 95%02-5% C02 mixture was re-
introduced for a 20-min recovery period. During the entire test the
isolated right ventricle was kept at 29° C and was driven at a supra-
maximal stimulus strength (10 volts, 7 msec) at a frequency of one
stimulus per second. The apical end of the excised ventricle (Fig. 1) was
pinned and attached to an isometric strain gauge (Stratham Instruments).
The output signal from the strain gauge was recorded on an Electronics
for Medicine recording system, and the resting tesion of the excised
ventricle was set a 1 g.
TO
STRAIN GAUGE
TO STIMULATOR
Figure 1. Right ventricular procurement and fixation to muscle chamber and strain
gauge.
Zoology
393
REMOVABLE
VENTRICULAR PLATE
DEFLECTING PLATE
GAS INLET PORTS
Figure 2. Plexiglass muscle chamber used to conduct anoxic resistance tests.
Heart Weight
At the conclusion of each experiment, the excised right ventricle
was blotted and weighed on a Mettler H 20 T (Fisher Scientific) and
was analyzed on the basis of 100 g of body weight.
Results
Hearts were analyzed on the basis of right ventricular weight per
100 g of body weight. Right ventricular weights were increased in both
young and old adult rats by altitude exposure (Fig. 3). However, while
altitude acclimation induces a 171% increase in right ventricular
weight in the young (2 months of age) group of rats, the same
hypoxic exposure elicits only a 69% increase of the same parameter in
the older (14 months of age) group.
Hematocrit values were determined and compared among both age
groups at sea level and after altitude exposure (Fig. 4). When compared
to sea level controls of the same age, altitude acclimation elicits a
92% increase in the hematocrit value of the young group, but the older
group shows only a 67% increase following the same chronic hypoxic
exposure. The maximal hematocrit values achieved by the two groups
:;sm
Indiana Academy of Science
1
o
1-
1
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h-
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130-
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c
I -ALTITUDE ACCLIMATED ANIMALS
FlOUBH
Relationship between ventricular weight and ambient p02 in young and older
mature rats. Vertical line indicates mean zh 1 S. D.
after altitude acclimation,
(P>0.05).
however, are not significantly different
100 •
90-
80-
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Figure 4. Hematocrit changes in young and old rats in response to chronic hypoxia.
Vertical line indicates mean ± 1 S.D.
Zoology
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~ o
9 T
396 Indiana Academy of Science
To compare both early and late responses to anoxia, contractile
strengths were measured after both 120 and 480 anoxic contractions
and were expressed as a percentage of the control preanoxic strength
(Table 1); after the 20-min anoxic period had elapsed, the gassing
mixture was switched back to 95% 02 - 5% C02, and the
recovery was measured after 960 additional contractions in the
aerobic recovery period. The recovery was then expressed as a per-
centage of the control preanoxic strength (Table 1). It can be seen that
whereas altitude acclimation afforded the young animals no increase
in preanoxic contractility after 2 min (120 anoxic contractions) when
compared to young sea level controls and a 225% increase in the same
parameter after 8 min into the anoxic period (480 contractions), the
old altitude-acclimated animals showed no increase in anoxic resistance
when compared to old sea level controls after either 2 min or 8 min. On
the other hand, when compared to young controls, the old controls
showed a 15% added anoxic resistance after 2 min into anoxia and a
226% added anoxic resistance after 8 min of anoxia. Thus, while old sea
level-control rats show a greater anoxic resistance than do young sea
level-control animals, the anaerobic competency of the young ventricle
can be increased to the same level as that of the old ventricle by
chronic altitude acclimation. The older ventricle, however, cannot be
forced to increase its anaerobic competency by altitude exposure.
Both age groups were compared after 16 minutes of recovery with
the 95% 02 - 5% C02 mixture (Table 1). While the young and
old acclimated animals and the young sea level control animals have
recovered 43%, 39% and, respectively, of their preanoxic contractility
values, the old sea level control animals have regained only 26% of their
original control value.
Discussion
While our results indicate that older animals do not show as great
a percentage change in their hematocrit as do young animals in response
to the same hypoxic stress, both age groups were able to reach the same
maximal hematocrit value in response to the hypoxic stress. This find-
ing contrasts with a previous study on humans by Dill (5, 6), in which
he reports that both the rate and equilibrium value of hema-
topoiesis during altitude exposure may be depressed by the aging
process. These studies, however, involved only a few subjects who were
tested after only a 2-week sojourn at 3,000 m. Our animals, on the other
hand, remained at 7,012 m for 5 weeks.
The fact that the older right ventricle does not show the extent
of hypertrophy as does the young right ventricle in response to the
hypoxia of chronic altitude exposure may be due to several factors. It
has been established that the right ventricular hypertrophy of the
altitude-acclimated animal results from pulmonary hypertension which
accompanies exposure to hypoxia (1, 9, 20, 27). This implies, however,
that: 1) the lung vasculature must be reactive to the hypoxia to which
it is exposed, and 2) the right ventricle is capable of responding to this
extra work load by increasing its muscle mass. The first of the require-
Zoology 397
merits is diminished by the aging process, for active microvascular
responses are both more limited and slower in older animals (3, 33).
The second requirement is modified by the facts that in the aging
muscle there is a decrease in the concentration of DNA and
RNA, there is a decreased uptake of amino acids by the older muscle
cell and there is a decrease in essential transaminases required for pro-
tein synthetic reactions (3). This decreased ability of the aging
myocardium to respond to greater work loads by hypertrophy has been
noted in the dialated ventricles of old rats (28). In addition, Poupa
postulates that while young animals increase their cardiac muscle mass
in response to increased work loads primarily by increasing the
number of myocardial cells (hyperplasia), older animals respond to the
added work load by increasing the size of pre-existing myocardial cells
(24, 26). Furthermore, according to many researchers, there is an actual
disappearance of patent vasculature in the myocardium of the old
animal with aging (24, 25, 26, 30). As Poupa points out, "In young
animals, overloading of the heart leads to an accelerated growth of both
structures (cardiac cells and capillaries), while in adult animals growth
is confined to cardiac cells only" (24).
Thus, in comparison with the younger myocardium during hypoxic
exposure, the aging heart may be given less of an increased work load
as a result of less reactive pulmonary vasculature, the actual protein
synthetic reactions required to effect an increase in ventricular mass
are depressed by aging, and the older myocardium cannot increase the
oxygen-supplying structures to the muscle cells while increasing the
oxygen-consuming structures as can the young myocardium. All of these
aging changes may contribute to the fact that the older myocardium
responds with far less increase in muscle mass than does the young
myocardium to a given hypoxic stress.
Finally, this research indicates that while the aging myocardium
possesses a greater anaerobic competency than does the young
myocardium, the anoxic resistance of the older myocardium cannot be
increased by exposure to chronic hypoxia while that of the young
myocardium is greatly increased. This finding supports a recent obser-
vation of McGrath et al. (unpublished, personal communication) that
the older myocardium cannot be forced to increase its anaerobic com-
petency by chronic hypoxic exposure. What might be responsible for
the increased anerobic competency in the older sea level-control animal,
and why could it be increased no further by hypoxic acclimation? It
has been demonstrated that the oxidative metabolism of the myocardium
decreases greatly with age with little or no deterioration of the
glycolytic and dehydrogenating activity (3). Since ATP levels are main-
tained at the normal level in the myocardium of the aging animal and
since the ATP-ase activity of the myosin does not change with age (3),
the demand of ATP for myocardial contraction in senility must remain
unchanged. Since myocardial aerobic metabolism has decreased with
aging, some alternative anaerobic metabolic mechanism must be em-
ployed to a greater degree if energy requirements are to be met — i.e.,
398 Indiana Academy of Science
if some enzymatic oxidative activities are decreased by the aging proc-
ess, others must be increased compensatorily if energy requirements
remain constant and are satisfied (3). Such a mechanism has been
elucidated in the aging erythrocyte, such that as its aerobic competency
decreases with age, its anaerobic competency increases so that the con-
centration of ATP remains constant (3). The search for such a
mechanism in the aging myocardial cell continues, however, for the
pentose phosphate pathway appears to remain relatively unchanged
(3) and the total LDH activity reaches its peak and then begins to de-
crease at 30 weeks of age as do the H4 end M6 isoenzymes (12).
If the myocardial cell in the older animal is employing its
anerobic processes to a greater degree than is the young myocardial cell
in compensation for a decreased aerobic capacity, one should expect
to see evidence of a heightened anaerobic capacity in the older cell.
Indeed, our results indicate the presence of such an increased
anaerobic competency as added anoxic resistence in the older
myocardium. Also, since the diffusion distance for oxygen from the
coronary capillaries to the myocardial cell is increased in the aging
ventricle due to hypertrophy of the myocardial cells and to the disap-
pearance of patent capillaries (24, 25, 26, 30), local cellular hypoxia
may also have further induced the development of a greater anaerobic
competence in the older heart (4). From the results of this experiment,
it would appear that the young myocardium can be influenced by chronic
hypoxia to increase its anaerobic competence to the maximal level at
which the older sea level controls are already operating. Under these
experimental conditions, the old adult cannot be stimulated to increase
its anaerobic capacity above this maximal level.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Peter R. Lynch, Department of
Physiology, Temple Medical School, for reviewing the manuscript, Mrs.
Jane Zanes for her assistance in preparing the manuscript, and Miss
Dorothy Brey for technical assistance. We are also grateful to Dr. Mary
P. Wiedeman, Chairman, Department of Physiology, Temple Medical
School, for providing equipment and support for this study.
Literature Cited
1.. Alexander, A., D. Will, R. Glover, and J. Reeves. 1960. Pulmonary hyper-
tension and right ventricular hypertrophy in cattle at high altitudes. Amer. J. Vet.
Res. 21:199-204.
2. Barbashova, Z. 1967. Studies on the mechanisms of resistance to hypoxia. Inter. J.
Biometerol. 11:243-254.
3. Bektolini, A. M. 1969. Gei'entologie metabolism. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield,
111. 697 p.
4. Bishop, S. P., and R. A. Altschuld. 1970. Increased glycolytic metabolism in
cardiac hypertrophy and congestive failure. Amer. J. Physiol. 218:153-159.
Zoology 399
5. Dill, D. B., J. W. Terman, and F. G. Hall. 1963. Hemoglobin at high altitude as
related to age. Clin. Chem. 9:711-716.
6. Dill, D. B., S. M. Horvath, T. E. Dahms, R. E. Parker, and J. R.
Lynch. 1969. Hemoconcentration at altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 27:514-518.
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of cobalt on work performance under conditions of anoxia. Amer. J. Physio.
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8. Houston, C. S., and R. L. Riley. 1947. Respiratory and circulatory changes in
acclimatization to high altitude. Amer. J. Physiol. 149:565-588.
9. Hultgren, H. N., E. Martiocorena, and H. Miller. 1963. Right ventricular
hypertrophy in animals at high altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 18:913-918.
10. Hultgren, H. N., and H. Miller. 1965. Right ventricular hypertrophy at high
altitude. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 127:627-631.
11. Hurtado, A. 1964. Animals in high altitudes, p. 843-860. In D. B. Dill [ed.]
Handbook of physiology, Section 4. Amer. Physiol. Soc, Washington, D. C. 1056 p.
12. Kanungo, M. S., and S. N. Singh. 1965. Effect of age on the isozymes of lactic
dehydrogenase of the heart and the brain of rat. Biochem. Biophys. Res.
Commun. 21:454-459.
13. Komives, G., and R. W. Bullard. 1967. Function of the phrenic nerve —
diaphragm preparation in acclimation to hypoxia. Amer. J. Physiol. 212:788-792.
14. Martin L. G. 1969. Thyroidal changes in the rat during acclimation to the
hypoxia of simulated high altitude environments. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation;,
Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. 100 p.
15. , G. E. Wertenberger, and R. W. Bullard. 1971. Thyroidal changes in
the rat during acclimation to simulated high altitude. Amer. J. Physiol.
221:1057-1063.
16. McGrath, J. J., and R. W. Bullard. 1968. Altered myocardial performance In
response to anoxia after high-altitude exposure. J. Appl. Physiol. 25:761-764.
17. McGrath, J. J., R. W. Bullard, and G. K. Komives. 1969. Functional adaptation
in cardiac and skeletal muscle after exposure to simulated high altitude. Fed.
Proc. 28:1307-1311.
18. Merino, C. F. 1956. The plasma eythropoietie factor in the polycythemia of high
altitudes. School of Aviation Med., U. S. A. F. Rep. No. 56-103.
19. . — _, and C. Reynafarje. 1949. Bone marrow studies in the polycythemia
of high altitude. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 34:637-647.
20. Monge, C, and C. Monge. 1966. High altitude diseases. Charles C. Thomas,
Springfield, 111. 97 p.
21. Pace, N., E. Lozner, W. Consolazio, G. Pitts, and L. Pecora. 1947.
The increase in hypoxic tolerance of normal men accompanying the polycythemia
induced by transfusion of erythrocytes. Amer. J. Physiol. 148:152-163.
22. Poupa, O., K. Krofta, J. Prochazka, and M. Chavpil. 1965. The resistance
of the myocardium to anoxia in animals acclimated to simulated altitude.
Physiol. Bohemoslov. 14:233-237.
23. Poupa, O., K. Krofta, K. Rakusan, J. Procazka, and J. Radl. 1966.
Myoglobin content of the heart and resistance of the isolated myocardium to anoxia
in vitro during adaptation to high altitude hypoxia. Physiol. Bohemoslov.
15:450-453.
24. Poupa, O., K. Rakusan, and B. Ostadal. 1970. The effect of physical activity
upon the heart of vertebrates, p. 202-233. In E. Jokl [ed.] Medicine and sport
(Vol. 4); Physical activity and aging. Univ. Park Press, Baltimore, Md. 315 p.
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25. Rakusan, E., and O. Poupa, 1963. Changes in the diffusion distance in the rat
heart muscle during development. Physiol. Bohemoslov. 12:220-227.
26. _________ 1964. Capillaries and muscle fibers in the heart of old rats.
Gerontologia 9:107-112.
27. Rotta, A., A. Canepa, A. Hurtado, T. Velasquez, and R. Chavez. 1956.
Pulmonary circulation at sea level and at high altitudes. J. Appl. Physiol.
9:328-336.
28. Shreiner, D. P., M. L. Weisfeldt, and N. W. Shock. 1969. Effects of age, sex and
breeding on status on the rat heart. Amer. J. Physiol. 217:176-180.
29. Stickney, J. C, and E. J. VanLiebe. 1953. Acclimatization to low oxygen
tension. Physiol. Rev. 33:13-34.
30. Tomanek, Robert J. 1970. Effects of age and exercise on the extent of the
myocardial capillary bed. Anat. Rec. 167:55-62.
31. Ullrick, W. C, W. V. Whitehorn, B. B. Brennan, and J. G. Krone. 1956.
Tissue respiration of rats acclimatized to low barometric pressure. J. Appl. Physiol.
9:49-52.
32. Valdivia, E. 1957. Right ventricular hypertrophy in guinea pigs exposed to simulated
high altitude. Circulation Res. 5:612-616.
33. Weisfeldt, M. L., T. R. Wright, D. Shreiner, E. Lokatta, and N. W.
Shock. 1971. Coronary flow and oxygen extraction in the perfused heart of
senescent male rats. J. Appl. Physiol, 30:44-49.
Preferences for Natural and Artificial Sweeteners in
Heat- Stressed Chicks of Different Ages1
W. C. Gunther and Mahlon W. Wagner2
Department of Biology
Valparaiso University,
Valparaiso, Indiana 46383
Abstract
Chicks are capable of discriminating various taste stimuli and their aversions
for cyclamate and preferences for glucose are similar to those reported for various
rodents. The age differences found here deserve further investigation as does the effect
of heat-stress during incubation on preference behavior.
Introduction
Preferences for various sugars are found throughout the animal
kindgom, particularly among mammals. Until recently, reports of sugar
preference in chickens had been sporadic and contradictory (4, 5). How-
ever, Wagner and Gunther (9) have shown that new-born chicks have
definite preferences for glucose and sucrose over water and gradually
develop an aversion for lactose. Higher incubation temperatures (heat-
stress) failed to result in marked sugar preference differences although
heat-stress has been shown to produce marked differences in other be-
haviors such as discrimination learning, reversal learning, frequency
of pecking, and color preferences (1, 2, 3).
Research on sweeteners other than sugars (sweet as judged by
humans and accepted as rewards by rodents) as well as the well-
publicized ban on cyclamates has spurred the study of preferences for
various substances such as saccharin and cyclamate. Wagner (6, 7) and
Wagner and Gunther (9) have found several rodent species which prefer
saccharin and avoid cyclamate. Whether this cyclamate aversion is be-
cause of its taste (or off -taste) or to the suspected toxicity of
cyclamates has not been resolved.
The purpose of the present study was to examine preferences for
saccharin, cyclamate, glucose, and water in normal and heat-stressed
chicks at various ages. The chemicals were purchased from a chemical
supply house and are of reagent grade.
Methods
All control and experimental chicks were hatched from buff White
Rock eggs in commercial Montgomery Ward incubators, modified for
electronic control of temperature within ±0.5°C. Humidity was kept con-
1This study was supported by a Grass Foundation Grant to the first author.
2Present address: Department of Psychology at State University of New York,
Oswego, New York 13126.
401
402 Indiana Academy of Science
stant. Both temperature and humidity were continuously monitored and
recorded during incubation by electronic recorders. The eggs were
turned 3 times each 24-hour period. The sugar, saccharin, and cyclamate
solutions were made with tap water and the strength of the solution
determined on a weight/volume basis. The concentration of the sugar
was standardized at 8% and 16%, sodium cyclamate at 0.91%,
the calcium cyclamate at 1.81%, and sodium saccharin at 0.23%.
These concentrations have been noted in the literature and are well
above threshold for all animals that have been tested. The reasons for
the choices of values have been discussed elsewhere (9).
Control chicks were hatched from eggs incubated at the optimal
temperature of 37.5° C for 21 days. Experimental chicks were placed
in a nonoptimally high temperature incubator at a temperature of
41°C for the first 72 hours of incubation, after which they were placed
in the normal temperature incubator until hatching. After hatching, the
chicks were banded and placed in heated starting battery brooders,
eight or nine chicks per group. The solutions were presented in a water-
ing trough with three removable waterproof sections containing water
and the various concentrations of sweeteners (see reference 10 for ad-
ditional details of presenting solutions and measuring solution intake).
Table 1 shows the experimental paradigm.
Measurement of daily intake was made in Class A graduated
cylinders to the nearest milliliter, and the volume recorded was the total
intake for each group of chicks. The solutions were discarded after
measurements, and fresh solutions were introduced from the
refrigerated stock.
Commercial starting mash was available to the chicks at all times.
The chicks were completely isolated from other animals and humans,
except for those periods necessary to rotate the sections and to measure
and change the solutions. Humidity and temperature were kept constant
in the battery room since this facility had no windows (zone air-
conditioning). Light-dark conditions were made to match those of the
normal day-night at this time of the year. The experiments were con-
ducted during July and August.
Results
Since chicks were housed in groups (for practicality as well as the
necessity of rearing infant chicks in a warm environment) , measurement
of individual intake and preference was precluded. Because of this, the
analyses of variance were more limited in scope since the interaction
variances had to be used as error terms instead of within and between
subject variability, and all interpretations would, therefore, tend to be
conservative estimates of actual differences.
The data for the analyses are per cent intake, and for graphical
presentation are mean per cent intake with the standard error of the
mean as a vertical line to indicate variability. Per cent intake was used
since this method of computation equates for greater bodyweight in
Zoology
403
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Indiana Academy of Science
older chicks and, hence, greater fluid intake by presenting relative in-
take instead of absolute intake.
Replication: Experiment 1 vs. Experiment 2 (30-day-old chicks)
There were no significant differences in preference upon replica-
tion (Fig. 1).
30 DAY OLD CHICKS
*©•
H,0
8% .91% H.O 8% 91%
Glue NaCyc Glue NaCyc
°- 20
°- 20-
16% .91% H.O
Glue NaCyc
16% 91%
Glue NaCyc
8*. Glue 181%CaCyc
Hp 8-.Gluc 1.81%CaCyc Hfi
REPLICATION -1 REPLICATION -2
Figure 1. Experiment 1 (replication 1) vs. Experiment 2 (replication 2); Group I
for each replication at top of figure, Group II next, and Group III at bottom of figure.
Zoology 405
Experiments 1 and 2, Group I (water; 8% glucose; 0.91%
sodium cyclamate) vs. Group II (water; 16% glucose; 0.91%
sodium cyclamate) showed no overall difference between the two condi-
tions of having differing glucose concentrations available. Glu-
cose was significantly preferred to both water and cyclamate
(F = 42.089; df =2/2; p<.025) regardless of its relative concentration
(see Table 1 for distinctions relating to Experiments 1 through 4 and
Groups I through III).
In Experiments 1 and 2, Group I (water; 8% glucose;
0.91% sodium cyclamate) vs. Group III (water; 8% glucose;
1.81% calcium cyclamate) there were no overall intake differences
in preferences which could be traced to the two different salts or con-
centrations of cyclamate. Eight per cent glucose was preferred
to water or cyclamate regardless of cyclamate salt or concentration
(F = 21.50; df = 2/2; p<.05).
Experiment 3 (4-day-old chicks)
Four-day-old chicks did not discriminate between water, 16%
glucose and 0.91% sodium cyclamate (Group II), nor were their
preferences different from those chicks which received water,
8% glucose and 0.91% sodium cyclamate. However, when the choices were
different cyclamate salts and concentrations (Group II: water,
16% glucose; 0.91% sodium cyclamate vs. Group III: water;
16% glucose; 1.81% calcium cyclamate) overall analysis indicated that
cyclamate was not preferred (F = 1,350.959; df = 2/2; p<.001),
heat-stressed chicks preferred glucose to cyclamate F = 66.81; df = 2/2;
p<.025), and chicks having 1.81% calcium cyclamate as a choice pre-
ferred glucose and avoided cyclamate to a greater extent than chicks
having 0.91% sodium cyclamate as an alternative (F = 1,218.143; df
= 2/2; p<.001) (Fig. 2.)
Experiment 4 (17-day-old chicks)
Seventeen-day-old chicks preferred glucose (either 16% or 8%) to
water or saccharin (Groups I and III) (F = 24.44; df =2/2; p<.05).
If the choices involved cyclamate or saccharin (Groups II and III re-
spectively) chicks preferred glucose to either water or the artificial
sweetener (F = 78.37; df = 2/2; p.<.025) and further, Group III chicks
drank relatively more saccharin (and less 8% glucose) and Group II
chicks drank relatively less cyclamate (glucose II vs. glucose III,
t = 4.373; df = 14; p<.001; saccharin III vs. cyclamate II,
t = 4.19; df = 14; p<.001) (Fig. 2).
Age Differences
Thirty-day-old chicks preferred glucose to either water or sodium
cyclamate while four-day-old chicks were indiscriminate (water;
16% glucose; 0.91% sodium cyclamate; F = 36.513; df = 2/2; p<.05).
Any differences between 30-day-old and 4-day-old chicks when presented
with choices of water, 8% glucose, and 0.91% sodium cyclamate were not
due to experimental manipulation, but were the results of excessive
variability.
40f,
Indiana Academy of Science
601
40
20
H20
4 DAY OLD CHICKS
16%
glue
•control
exp'l
KQ
1.81%
CaCyc
16%
glue
.91%
NaCyc
HO
17 DAY OLD CHICKS
8%
Glue
1.81%
CaCyc
control
exp'l
HO
8%
Glue
23%
NaSac
Figure 2. Experiments 3 {top) and 4- (bottom); only Group III, left and Group II,
right (Exp. 8) and Group HI, right and Group II left (Exp. 4) compared in each
experiment.
Seventeen and 30-day-old chicks were both given choices of water,
8% glucose, and 1.81% calcium cyclamate. For all chicks glucose intake
was greatest and cyclamate least (F = 2,403.959; df = 2/2; p<.001).
Heat-stressed chicks drank relatively more water, less glucose and equal
small amounts of cyclamate — still preferring glucose, however,
(F = 35.325; df =2/2; p<.05), and finally, the younger chicks (17 days
old) showed a more pronounced glucose preference (F = 26.435;
df = 2/2; p<.05) (Fig. 3).
Discussion
Wagner and Gunther (10) previously have shown that chicks can
discriminate various taste stimuli, preferring some over water, while
avoiding others. The present studies clearly reinforce this.
Chicks consistently avoid cyclamates, the sole exception being
4-day-old chicks which were indiscriminate to a 16% glucose or 0.91%
Zoology
407
4 DAYS OLD
30 DAYS OLD
16%
Glue
control
axp'l
.91% H-O
NaCyc
16%
Glue
.91%
NaCyc
17 DAYS OLD
30 DAYS OLD
Glue
1.81% H.O
CaCyc *
Glue
1.81%
CaCyc
Figure 3. Age differences in intake of water and sweetners.
sodium cyclamate. Are chicks avoiding cyclamates because of the
suspected toxicity of cyclamate, or because of some taste-quality
inhert in cyclamate solutions? Dr. Jacqueline Verrett (unpublished re-
search progress reports, U.S. Food and Drug Adm.) found that
cyclamate injected into incubating eggs produced embryonic deformities,
but it is difficult to generalize from such studies to food preferences
or aversions (6). Chicks reject toxic lactose, but the aversion develops
gradually (10). In the present study, the nonintake of cyclamate was
immediate, suggesting that taste rather than toxicity accounts for the
aversion. This same phenomenon has been observed in rodents (7, 8, 9).
A comparison of rodent and chick preferences and aversions for
sweeteners does not imply that these two species inhabit similar
sensory worlds in general. However, the universality of the chemical
sense and its function in food selection might lead one to expect some
408 Indiana Academy of Science
similarities in taste preferences for simple sweeteners. Since, in
nature, sweets are a source of calories basic to the energy requirements
of all living creatures, especially warm-blooded animals, it is quite
logical to make comparative analyses of sweet preferences and aversions
across diverse species with some expectation of finding similarities.
While chicks never preferred the saccharin to glucose, comparative
data from rats and mice would suggest that this should not be expected
since rats and mice prefer 8% glucose to 0.23% sodium saccharin
(8, 9).
Perhaps a better test of relative palatability of the two artificial
sweeteners is the observation that saccharin was drunk to a much
greater extent than 1.81% cyclamate under similar conditions by
17-day-old chicks.
The effects of heat-stress during incubation are overshadowed by
preference differences because of age and type of choice available. In
fact, heat related differences might be considered equivocal since heat-
stressed 4-day-old chicks drank relatively less water and more glucose
than their normal counterparts, whereas heat-stressed 17-day-old and
30-day-old chicks drank relatively more water and less glucose than
their normal counterparts. Previously cited research also found stress
differences to be less pronounced than preference differences because
of type of sugar choice available.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the help of Evan Geissler in conducting
this research.
Zoology 409
Literature Cited
1. Gunther, W. C. 1958. Effect of abnormal incubating temperature on chick
behavior. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 66:363-366.
2. , and R. K. Jones. 1961. Effect of nonoptimally high incubation
temperatures on T-maze learning in the chick. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
71:327-333.
3. 1962. Effect of nonoptimally high incubation temperature on frequency
of pecking and on color preferences in the chick. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci.
72:290-299.
4. Jacobs, H. L., and M. L. Scott. 1957. Factors mediating food and liquid intake in
chickens. 1. Studies on the preference for sucrose or saccharin solutions.
Poultry Sci. 36:8-15.
5. Kare, M. R., and W. Medway. 1959. Discrimination between carbohydrates by the
fowl. Poultry Sci. 38:1119-1127.
6. Wagner, M. W. 1970. Cyclamate acceptance. Science 168:1605.
7. 1971. Comparative rodent preferences for artificial sweeteners. J.
Comp. and Physiol. Psych. 75:483-490.
8. 1971. Species variability and rodent aversions for three sugars.
Psychol. Rep. 29:799-804.
9. , and W. C. Gunther. 1969. Preference for toxic and non-toxic
artificial sweeteners in rodents. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 78:457-465.
10. 1971. Parameters of sugar preference in normal and heat-
stressed chicks. J. Gen. Psych. 85:177-185.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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Literature Cited. List complete literature citations, i.e., author, date, title,
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7. Doe, J. B., and R. C. Roe. 1949. New light from old radioactive carbon. J. Amer.
Biol. Sue. 34:273-305.
8. Milazzo, G. 1963. Electrochemistry. Elsevier Publ. Co., New York, N. Y. 708 p.
References cited should be numbered consecutively (in the alphabetized list) and
should be referred to in the text by number in parentheses on the line of type and
before the period if at the end of a sentence.
410
Instructions for Contributors 411
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Revised July 14, 1970.
INDEX
Abies concolor cell culturing, 96
Abscission, of branches, 147
Acetate, effects on Aspergillus niger, 262
Acetonitrile in conductivity studies, 140
Adams, S. C, memorial, 27
Adena, abolishment of, 81
Adenosine deaminase, 143
Adler, K., 339
Aerial survey for archaeological sites, 56
Aggregations of Chalybion califorrdcum,
177
Aging, myocardium, anoxic resistance, 390
Air quality at Indianapolis, Indiana, 312
Air quality sampling frequencies, 312
Albino tobacco, green plastids, ultrastruc-
ture, 103
Albright, J. L., 345, 352
Alexander, R. W., Jr., 71, 86
Algae, 106
Algae, check list for Indiana, 294
Alkali niobates, growth of crystals, 268
Allen County, Indiana, glacial geology, 195
Altitude, hypoxia, myocardial adaptation,
390
Alvager, T. K. E., 269
Alverson, R. M., 330
Anaplasma marginal, electron microscopy
of, 101
Andermatt, P., 142
Anderson, J. A., 340
Anderson, L., 106
Animal behavior, cattle, 345, 352
Anticholinesterase agent, 142
Apocynophyllum, fossil leaves, Tennessee
and Kentucky, 93
Archaeology, aerial survey, 56
Archaeology, Sullivan County, 76
Archaic Period, 58
Arikara Indians, prehistory and origins,
71
Arthropod secretions, identification of
p-benzoquinones, 139
Aryl sulphatases, 121
Aspergillus niger, fatty acid synthesis, 262
Audio-tutorial program for elementary
teachers, 297
Austin, G. S., 229
Award, science communication, 1971, 51
Azine complexes of iron (II), 140
Barr, R., 114
Bartolucci, L. A., 150
Baszynski, T., 114
Bats, occurrence and reproduction, 376
Bauer, M., 325
Bean Blossom watershed, pollution survey,
259
Bee, native, observations on flowers, 182
Beech-maple region, nature preserves, 154
Beesley, Adele, 275
Beesley, L., 275
Belcher, Karen, 341
Benda, R. S., 344
Bennett, Alice S., 262
Benzoquinones, synthesis and identifica-
tion of, 139
Betras, S., 172
Biochemical oxygen demand index, 147
Bio-oxidation, microbial, 259
Biostratigraphy, Devonian, 187
Biosynthesis, steroidal sapogenins, 142
Bismuth, effects of pressure on electronic
properties, 267
Black, W. C, 345
Blair, P. V., 104
Bleuer, N. K„ 195
Boder, G. B., 103
Bodie, L. L., Jr., 297
Bone growth, radius, 58
Botkin, C. T., 140
Brain and development of nervous system
in chick embryo, 340
Brand, J., 114
Brashear, M. L., 76
Brick, production and value in Indiana, 229
Brick manufacture, history of, 229
Brooker, R. M., 142
Brooks, G. M., 277
Brooks, W. D., 299
Brown, L. C, 290
Browsed forest, Union County, Indiana,
160
Bryophytes XIV, studies in Indians, 284
Bullamore, H. W., 189
Bullfrog, parasites of, 359
Burrows of Peromyscus maniculatus bair-
dii, 384
Burt, S. C, 260
Butler, J., 259
Butterflies and skippers, state records, 175
Calcification, 106
Call, H. F., memorial, 28
Candona ginnensis, new species of ostra-
cod, 355
Cannabis sativa, glandular hairs, 92
Carbon-14 tracer studies, biosynthesis of
steroidal sapogenins, 142
Cardiolipin, in beef heart mitochondria, 133
Cardiolipin, constancy of unsaturation, 133
Cattle territoriality, 352
Ceramic industry, Indiana, 229
Ceroid, neuronal, ultrastructure, 104
Chalybion calif or ni cum, aggregations of,
177
Chaney, W. 71., 147
Chao, L. Y., 104
Cheng, T., 139
Chicks, heat-stressed, sweetner preference,
401
413
414
Index
Chiroptera, occurrence and reproduction,
376
Chloroethyl phosphonic acid, 147
Chromatography, used in identifying p-
benzoquinones, 139
Chromic acid, laticifer stain, 92
Clark, J. H., 340
Clay and shale, use for brick, 229
Cleland, R. E., memorial, 30
Cleveland, J. H., 188
Coal refuse (sludge), 246
Coccolithus, 106
Commissary site, excavation of, 56
Computer generated analysis, 210
Computer mapping, 251
Computers, used by herbaria, 275
COMPY, E. M., 267
Conductivity studies of metal complexes,
140
Conodonts, Devonian, 187
Conservation course, environmental sci-
ence, 298
Conservation needs inventory, 251
Corn, high rates of urea for, 306
Corn blight, computer disease simulator,
325
Corn canopy, temperatures and relative
humidity, 319
Corn mutant, sex expression, 93
Counterdiffusion of ferric and silicate ions,
141
Cox, C. F., memorial, 33
Crane, F. L., 114, 133
Crovello, T. J., 275
Crystals, growth of, 268
Cruz, M., 305
Cryptobranchus, population study, Mis-
souri, 339
Culex pipiens pipiens L., 172
Cupp, Sharon K., 76
Cyclotron resonance, in Bismuth, 267
Donaldson, Susan L., 345, 352
Douthart, R. J., 101
Downing, M., 259
Drosophila, rhythms in, 341
Druelinger, M. L., 143
Dulin, M., 259
Eiser, A. L., 96
Elder, J. H., 106
Elderly people, in Monroe County, Indiana,
189
Electron microscopy, of marihuana, 92
Ellis, L. F., 101
Endosperm, liquid, of grasses, 91
Environmental curriculum guide, K-12, 301
Environmental education, K-12, 148
Environmental impact statements, 51
Equisetum hiemale, chromatographic pat-
terns, 290
Erethizon, bones from Indiana caves, 370
Erosion and sediment in Indiana, 217
Errington, P. R., 268
Escobar, Linda K., 154
Estrogen receptors, binding by uterine
nuclear fraction, 340
Evaluation, large group instruction, 297
Fatty acids, effects of acetate on, 262
Ferris, J. M., 365
Ferris, Virginia R., 365
Fertilizer, high rates, for corn, 306
Fieselmann, B., 139
Fischvogt, K., 259
Fish, absorption rate for mercury, 271
Forest composition, effects of browsing,
160
Fort Wayne, Allen County, Indiana, glacial
geology, 195
Freeman, A. C, 238
Daghlian, C. P., 94
Daily, F. K., 294
Daily, F. K. (necrology by), 27
Dale, R. F., 319
Dam inadequacies, 191
Daughtery-Monroe site, Allison-LaMotte
cultures, 76
DDT, 101, 106
DeMoss, D. L., 268
Detectors, solid state, 269
Deuterium, tracer of water movement, 242
Devonian, correlation, 187
Dial, N. A., 340, 343
Diethylaniline oxides, properties and reac-
tions, 139
Diglyceride, monogalactosyl and digalac-
tosyl, 114
Dilcher, D. L., 91, 94, 190
Docauer, D., 259
Dolph, G. E., 93
Dolphin, R. E., 182
Gambusia af finis, extension of range, 344
Garber, L. L., 144
Gardiner, W., 259
Gehring, C. L., 93
Geography, role in environment control,
189
Geography students, reading habits, 299
Geological dam site investigations, 191
Geophysical provinces in Indiana, pre-
cambrian, 223
Glacial geology, St. Joseph County, Indi-
ana, 187
Glacial stratigraphy, Allen County, Indi-
ana, 195
Glucose, effect on fatty acid distribution,
262
GOINS, D. R., 355
Golgi apparatus, 102
Grasses, liquid endosperm of, 91
Gravity, studies in Indiana, 223
Grey squirrel, coccidia, immunity, 341
Index
415
Growth, in hydroids, 342
Guard, A. T., 91
GUNTHER, W. C, 401
Halictus confusus Smith, observations on
flowers, 182
Hall, J. D., 114
Hammond, C. T., 92
Hansen, U. J., 267
Hardman, L. L., 165
Haring, G. E., 271
Harris, D. J., 140
Hart, J. W., 148, 301
Heathcote, G. M., 55
Heiser, C. B., Jr., 275
Hellbender population in Missouri, 339
Herbaria, use of computers, 275
Hinds, C. C., 297
Hoffer, R. M., 150
Holloway, J., 259
Hopewell, abolishment as a taxon, 81
Hopewell-Middle Woodland period, 58
Hopkins, C. O., 160
Horine, R. K., 95
estrogen receptor inter-
compounds, lab tests,
384
Hormone binding,
actions, 340
Hormonomimetic
mosquitoes, 172
Houck, Glory K.,
Houtcooper, W. C
Howe, R. H. L„, 147, 259
Huang, C. M., 101, 102
Hudock, M. O., 91
Hydroids, cell proliferation, 342
Hydrology, isotopic tracers, 242
Hymenoptera (Sphecidae), 177
Indiana bryophytes XIV, studies
Indiana prehistory, 55
Inflorescence development, 93
Insects, economic, in 1971
Iron (II), azine complexes of, 140
Irrigaton, 190
Isotopes, heavy water molecules, 242
Jacobs, M. E., 104
Jacoby, J., 259
Jasper County, stratigraphy, 187
Jaus, H. H., 298
Jose, J., 139
Joseph, T., 341
Judy, C. H., 242
Junior Academy of Science, 22
Kaitchuck, R., 267
Kallay, F. P., 190
Keenan, T. W., 102, 133
Kerley, T. L., 142
Kirkpatrick, R. D., 165
Knight, Linda B., 298
Kress, J. W., 139, 141
284
Krogmann, D. W., 114
Kruger, T. L., 139, 141
Lairje, A. A., 340
Lake Maumee, discharge at Fort Wayne,
Indiana, 195
Lammert, S. R., 143
Lank, D. R., Jr., 359
Laticifers, identification in Vinca rosea, 92
Lawrence, R. M., 141
Lawson, H. R., 173
Leakage, subsurface basin, 147
Lembi, C. A., 106
Leopold, A. C., 147
Liesegang phenomenon, 141
Lindsey, A. A., 51, 154
Linvill, D. E., 319
Lipofuscin, neuronal, ultrastructure, 104
Lithium niobate, growth of crystals, 268
Lithologies, precambrian basement in Indi-
ana, 223
Little, R. M., 56, 65
Liver, 121
Llewellyn, R. A., 269
Loewer, O., Jr., 325
Ma, P. F., 143
Mackie, Debora, 76
Magers, T. A., 145
Magnetics, studies in Indiana, 223
Malhberg, P. G., 92, 103
Maize, chloroplast sulfolipid content, 114
Marcus, P. S., 269
Marihuana, glandular hairs, 92
Martin, L. G., 390
Mays, C. E., 339
McKelvey, P. T., 147
McKinley site, central Indiana Late
Archaic, 65
McReynolds, H. E., 147
Meiser, J. H., 141
Mercury, absorption by fish, 271
Merritt, W. D., 121
Mertens, T. R., 277
Metal chelate compounds, 140
Meteorology, isotopic tracers, 242
Methylmercury, effects on early frog em-
bryos, 343
Meyer, A. H., 189
Meyer, R. W., 171
Michael, D. E., 267
Miller, L. V., 246
Mobile home parks, 238
Monke, E. J., 330
Mcnroe, Lake, pollution survey of, 259
Montgomery, B. E., 171
Moore, M. C., 195
Morre, D. J., 101, 102, 106, 121
Mouse heart cell culture, ultrastructure of,
103
Mullins, L., 139
Multivariate analysis, application to ar-
chaeological skeletal populations, 86
416
Index
Mumford, R. E., 376
Murdock, S. H., 191, 217
Murphy, Rev. M. J., 187
Mus musculus, in cultivated fields, 384
Myasthenia gravis, 142
Myers, T. F., 390
Myiasis, 171
NADH Dehydrogenase, 102
Natural areas in beech-maple region, 154
Nature preserves, new, 154
Naylor, J. D., 141
Nefp, J., 259
Nemanic, E. B., 271
Nematoda, Belondiroidea, 365
Nematodes, distribution of, 365
Neotoma, bones from Indiana caves, 370
Neuroptera, Plainipennia of Indiana, 173
Neutron activation, 267
New Castle site, excavation, 55
Neumann, G. K., memorial, 34
Newman, J. E., 305, 312
Nickerson, M. A., 339
Nitrogen heterocycles, 141
Nyquist, S. E., 121
Oak, branch abscission, 147
Odonata naiads, survival, 171
Olsen, R. W., 96
O'Neal, C. E., memorial, 35
Orientation, by salamanders, 339
Orr, R. W., 187
Osmun, J. V., 171
Ostracods of Indiana, check list, 355
Oxaziranes, synthesis and destruction of,
143
Pontius, S. K., 189
Postlethwait, S. N., 45, 93
Potamocypris brachychaeta, new species of
ostracod, 355
Potter, F. W., Jr., 94
Powell, R. L., 188
Precambrian geophysical provinces in
Indiana, 223
Prehistoric Indians, diet, 58
Preserves, nature, 154
Presidential address, 45
Protoplasts, cell wall regeneration, 95
Pyrazolines, synthesis and decomposition,
139
Ramaley, R., 259
Rana eatesbeiana, parasites of, 359
Roy, Marsha R., 165
Rebuck, W. D., 187
Relative humidity, in corn canopy and
shelter, 319
Relford, J. R., 141
Remote sensing, 150, 210
Residential location, Valparaiso, Indiana,
189
Reynolds, L. M., 267
Rhenium (I) complexes of 2-cyanoethyl-
diphenylphosphine, 140
Rhythms, emergence and metabolic, 341
Richards, R. L., 370
Riepe, R. A., 91
Roberts, M. C, 251
Rogers, J. E., Jr., 139
Ross, M. A., 352
Rudman, A. J., 223
Ruesink, A. W., 95
Pace, R. E., 56, 269
Padgett, F., 101
Patel, V., 104
Patton, J. B., 229
Peck, E. J., Jr., 340
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii, in culti-
vated fields, 384
Perizigian, A. J., 58
Pesticides in soils, 305
Peterson, D. L., 262
Pettijohn, R. A., 217
Phinney, D. E., 305, 312
Phosphatidyl ethanolamine, 133
Photon absorptionmetry, 58
Pitts, D. G., 268
Plastids, green in albino tobacco, ultra-
structure, 103
Pollution, particulate, sampling, 305
Pollution, survey of Lakes Monroe and
Lemon, 259
Pollution, use of surveys in environmental
planning, 259
Pollution, water in Delaware County, 260
Pollution study in chemistry, 144
Polygonum, biosystematic study of, 277
Salamanders, orientation by, 339
Sampson, M. B., memorial, 36
Sardinia, Flumendosa River hydroelectric
basin, 190
Sartain, C. C, 268, 269
Sassafras leaves, Cretaceous versus mod-
ern, 91
Scarlett, J. A., 140
Schell, Linda, 259
Science policy, federal environmental, 51
Scioto Hopewell versus Scioto Tradition,
81
Scioto Tradition, definition of, 81
Sediment stations, reservoirs, 217
Seed planting, origin of, 275
Sharp, J., 139
Shelton, D., 101
Shimer, S. S., 298
Shock, H. D., 298
Shroyer, D. A., 172
Shull, E. M., 175
Siew, Shirley, 103
Sigillarian fossils from Greene County,
Indiana, 190
Siverly, R. E., 171, 172
Index
417
Slopes, distribution of, 251
Skeletal materials, human archaeological
populations, 86
Social behavior of cows, 345
Soil colloids, effect on pesticides, 305
Soils, Fincastle and Chalmers, urea fertili-
zation, 306
Soil mapping, automatic, 210
Spilogale, bones from Indiana caves, 370
Sprague, N. G., 267
Stacy, H. G., 55
Stars, eclipsing binary, 267
Steroidal sapogenins, biosynthesis, 142
Stirm, W. L., 325
Stivers, R. K., 306
Storhoff, B. N., 140
Storhoff, D. F., 140
Stratton, W. J., 140
Student responder system, 297
Suddith, R. L., 342
Sulfolipid, chloroplast, 114
Summers, W. A., 101
Susalla, Anne A., 103
Swan, S., 101
Swartz, B. K., Jr., 55, 56, 81
Swez, J., 268
Szabo, J. P., 187
Taylor, D. H., 389
Teacher, supervising, training of, 298
Tell Hesban, archaeology, 56
Temperature, in corn canopy and shelter,
319
Tharp, N. E., 139
Thin-layer gel filtration studies, adenosine
deaminase, 143
Thornburgh, B. A., 143
Tippecanoe County, Indiana, 210
Tippecanoe River, water quality, 147
Tissue culture of Abies concolor, 96
Tobacco, green plastids in albino, ultra-
structure, 103
Togasaki, R. K., 91
Tomato growth, temperature effects, 330
Toyoda, Y., 55
Tropisternus collaris, genetic studies, 173
Turkey, wild, droppings content, 165
Turner, J. M., 148, 301
Ultrastructure, green plastids in albino
tobacco, 103
Urea fertilizer for corn, 306
Ursus, bones from Indiana caves, 370
Van Atta, R. E., 140
Vigo County, Indiana, natural resources
planning, 188
Vinca rosea, laticifer identification in, 92
Virus, Penicillium chrysogenum, growth
cycle, 101
Wagner, M. W., 401
Waldrip, D. B., 251
Ward, G. L., 177
Watanabe, I., 104
Water, heavy isotopic forms, 242
Water, interbasin transfers of, 147
Water pollution, thermal, use, 330
Water quality, Tippecanoe River, 147
Water temperature mapping, 150
Weatherwax, P., 91
Webb, G. W., 238
Welch, Winona H., 284
Werderitsh, D. A., 101
Wertenberger, Grace E., 390
West, T. R., 210
Westgard, J., 268
Whitaker, J. O., Jr., 376
White, J. L., 305
White River, list of fish species, 344
Wild flowers, Franklin County, 275
Wild turkey, food habits, 165
Wilkinson, F. E., 121
Wise, G. A., 165
Wohlfahrtia vigil, in Indiana, 171
Wright, K. E., 269
Wunker, C. T., 268
X-ray diffraction studies, 141
Yoder, L. R., 92
Young, F. N., 173
Yunghans, W., 101
Zeman, W., 104
PROCEEDINGS
of the
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
CUMULATIVE INDEX
Volumes 71-80
1961-1970
Compiled
by
Gloria E. Jackson
and
Marion T. Jackson
Indiana Academy of Science
Indiana State Library
1972
INDEX TO PORTRAITS
(Portraits reserved for those who have
served as presidents)
Baldinger, Lawrence H. (1907-1970) 80:25
Cumings, Edgar Roscoe (1874-1967) 77:39
Davis, John June (1885-1965) 75:31
Laubengayer, Richard August (1902-1966) 76:51
Mackell, James Francis (1888-1964) 74:52
Markle, Millard S. (1883-1968) 78:38
Porter, Charles Lyman (1889-1966) 77:41
Visher, Stephen Sargent (1887-1967) 77:44
Wallace, Frank N. (1878-1968) 78:41
Yuncker, Truman George (1891-1964) 74:56
PAST OFFICERS 1961-1970
Year
President
Vice President
Secretary
1961
L. H. Baldinger
H. G. Day
W. W. Bloom
1962
H. G. Day
H. H. Michaud
W. W. Bloom
1963
H. H. Michaud
E. L. Haenisch
W. W. Bloom
1964
E. L. Haenisch
F. J. Welcher
President-Elect
C. F. Dineen
1965
F. J. Welcher
C. A. Markle
C. F. Dineen
1966
C. A. Markle
(R. A. Laubengayer,
Honorary President)
A. A. Lindsey
C. F. Dineen
1967
A. A. Lindsey
W. J. Wayne
J. R. Gammon
1968
W. J. Wayne
H. R. Youse
J. R. Gammon
1969
H. R. Youse
F. A. Guthrie
J. R. Gammon
1970
F. A. Guthrie
S. N. Postlethwait
J. D. Webster
Year
Treasurer
Editor
Press Secretary
1961
K. H. Carlson
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1962
K. H. Carlson
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1963
K. H. Carlson
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1964
J. C. List
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1965
J. C. List
R. A. Laubengayer
F. N. Young
1966
F. A. Guthrie
W. R. Eberly
J. A. Clark
1967
F. A. Guthrie
W. R. Eberly
J. A. Clark
1968
F. A. Guthrie
W. R. Eberly
J. A. Clark
1969
D. V. Schmelz
W. R. Eberly
P. E. Klinge
1970
D. V. Schmelz
M. T. Jackson
P. E. Klinge
422
INDEX
INDIANA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE PROCEEDINGS
Volumes 71 (1961) —80 (1970)
Abnaki Indians, social organization,
74:112-113
Abrasion resistance of carbonate ag-
gregates, 75:153-162
Abscission of bean leaf, 78:146-160
Academic origins of geneticists, 78:
370-377
Acculturation, Mayan Indians of
Guatemala, 71:67-68
Aceria tulipae, 76:259
Achievement, using instructional aids,
80:439-442
Acritarchs in New Albany Shale,
79:254-262
Acrylamide gel, for staining nucleic
acids, 79:348-350
Actinomycin D in cell growth, 75:63-
64
Actinoplanaceae, 75:230
Adalis, D., 80:485 (see also Whit-
aker, J. O., Jr.)
Adams, S. C, A century and a
quarter of geology at Hanover
College, 72:243-245
Adams, W. H., Some possible causes
for late-pleistocene faunal ex-
tinctions, 79:65-68
Addoh, P. G., 71:84
Adenomas, islet B-cell, 77:157-158
Adler, K., 80:486
Adrenal cortical accessory tissue and
azo dye carcinogenesis, 71:374-
377
Aedes, distribution in Indiana, 79:
238-248
Aedes and soils, 79:238-248
Aedes aegypti, 75:109
Aedes excrucians, occurrence in Indi-
ana, 72:140
Aedes infirmatus D&K, new Indiana
record, 78:257-259
Aeolosoma hemprichi, 77:413
Aerobic heavy sludge digestion, 74:
149-151
Aerodynamic method for sizing gran-
ulat material, 77:389-396
Agee, E. M., The climatology of
Indiana tornadoes, 79:229-308
Aggregates, abrasion resistance of
selected Indiana carbonate
rocks, 75:153-162
Aging, skeletal de-mineralization
during, 80:90-93
Agricultural labour force of the corn
belt, 71:219-225
Ahlrichs, J. L., (see also Meyers,
N. L.)
, J. R. Russell, R. D. Harter,
and R. A. Weismiller, Infra-
red spectroscopy of clay min-
eral systems, 75:247-255
Akalan, L, and J. L. White,
Natural and fission-produced
radioactivity in four Indiana
soils, 72:325-329
Akhtaruzzaman, M., 75:65-66
Al-Abbas, H. (see Barr, R.)
Albright, J. L., 76:397 (see also
Heitman, H., Jr.)
Alcohol dehydrogenases in Dro-
sophila, 76:405-407
Aldrin, toxicity to fishes, 75:325-329
Alexander, A. (see Zehring, C. S.)
Alexander, R. W., Jr., and G. K.
Neumann, On the origin of
the Tutelo — An Eastern Si-
ouan tribe, 78:88-92
Alfalfa weevil, 74:207-218
Algae, blue-green, 74:165-168
Cabin Creek raised bog, Randolph
County, Indiana, 71:298-301
extracts inducing miniature cells,
77:125-126
fossil, 75:206-209
mitotic poison from, 76:180
occurrence in Indiana, 72:279-281
in plastic popcorn ear enclosures,
73:219
423
424
Algae — Anthocyanin
Putnam County, Indiana, 71:293-
297; 72:256-257
in sewage ponds, 78:139-145
in waste stabilization ponds, 76:
204-209
Algal extracts, effects on tissue
cultured cells, 75:61
Algonkian Indians, 74:112-113
Alkali chelates, bonding of, 80:151-
154
Alkyldiamine-water systems, den-
sities and molal volumes,
75:90-95
Allee Woods, Collembola, 78:231-240;
79:234-237
Allen County, soil associations of,
72:330-337
Allen, J. P., J. H. Hamon and
R. W. McFarlane, Some stud-
ies of the spermatozoa of
certain species of the Icteridae
(blackbirds), 77:434-441
Allen, P. R. (see Jackson, M. T.)
Allen, F. J., memorial, 78:32
Allison culture, 80:74-83
Allomyces, a new species, 72:258
Alman, D. H., and H. K. Hughes,
Fourier synthesizer, 74:294-
297
Alpha-1-glycoprotein, role in phago-
cytosis, 76:181-182
Alpha particles, scattering by
carbon, 72:247
Altitude, acclimatization to, 77:
445-449
Alvager, T., 80:378
and E. Haring, New upper
limit of production cross sec-
tion of faster-than-light par-
ticles, 80:380-383
and J. Swez, On the use of
ion bombardment and implan-
tation in the study of biologi-
cal material, 80:384-387
, R. Darrah, and D. Kawatka,
On possible nuclear synthesis
of helium at low densities, 80:
404-411
Alves, L. M. (see Middleton, A. E.)
, A. E. Middleton, and D. J.
Morre, Localization of callose
deposits in pollen tubes of
Lilium longiflorum Thunb. by
fluorescence microscopy, 77 :
144-147
Amaranthus caudatus, 80:413
Amblyomma americanum (L) in
Indiana, 76:284-285
American electric power system,
76:347-352
Americans, southward decline in the
yield of eminent, 73:202-207
Amino acids, prebiotic synthesis,
80:369-373
thermal synthesis, 80:369-373
Aminoglutethimide, effects, 79:455-
461
effects on blood corticosteroids,
77:420-426
(Elipten), effects on ovulation,
76:398-399
effect on rats, 77:427-433
effects on rat ovaries and uteri,
79:439
effects on serum electrolytes,
78:468-471
Amphibian behavior, biological
clocks, 80:486
Amphibian breeding dates, Vigo
County, 77:442-444
Amphibians of Vigo County, 75:
279-280
Amstutz, D. W., Apportionment of
representation in the Indiana
Legislature, 71:187-191
Anax Junius (Drury), life history
notes, 73:154-163
Anderson, G. J., 77:130-131; 80:414
Angel Site, unmodified faunal re-
mains from, 71 : 53-56
Angomois grain moth, effect on
germination and vigor of,
72:140
Annis, J. F., The relationship of
cephalic to cranial measure-
ments in an unmixed group
of American Negroes, 73:67-
70
Annonaceae, developmental anatomy
of seedlings, 71:86
Anthocyanin, use in dialysis, 80:439-
442
Anthropology — Artificial
425
Anthropology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Adams, W.
H.; Alexander, R. W., Jr.;
Annis, J. F.; Blakely, R.
L.; Burnor, D. R.; Chap-
man, F. H.; Clouse, R. A.;
Frisch, J. A.; Griffin, E. C;
Grolling, F. X., S. J.;
Henn, R. E.; Herrala, E. A.;
Huelsman, B. R.; Hunter, K.
B.; Hurt, W. R.; Little, R.
M.; LlTTO, I. M. F.; MURAD,
T. A.; Neumann, E. A.; Neu-
mann, G. K.; Neumann, H.
W.; Perzigian, A. J.; Rai-
bourn, D. D.; Robbins, L. M.;
Saksena, S. S.; Sapaula, C.
C.; Schwartz, B. K., Jr.; Seg-
al, E. D.; Skomp, D. C.;
Smail, J. K.; Urbont, A. L.;
Vickery, K. D.; Walker, P.
L.; Weiss, M. S.)
abstracts, 71:52; 77:95-97; 78:71-
72; 79:57-59; 80:63-66
Anti-allergic agents for clinical use,
application of immunology in
testing, 73:75
Antibacterial activity, reversal of
p-Aminobenzoic acid, 71:78-81
Antibiotics — past, present and fu-
ture, 71:248-257
Thiadiketopiperazine, 78:111-112
Antibody, formation in germfree
chickens, 72:97-102
formation by spleen cells, 77:125
plaque technique, 78:109
response in M. pneumoniae, 77:124
salivary, influence on dental caries
in gnotobiotic rat, 73:75
studies, 78:163-164
Anti-microbial defenses, thiamine
and, 72:93-96
Ants, rare species of Indiana, 77:
222-227
Aphid, corn leaf, 75:109; 75:109;
76:260-264
Apollo botanical studies, 80:437
Appalachia, culture of, 78:97-103
Apple pest control, 76:265-269
Apple trees, relationship of soils and
fertilizers to the nutrient
content, 73:232-238
Araneae of Indiana, an annotated
list, 78:266-314
Arbutin, 75:62; 76:199
Archaeology, climatic change and the
Northern Plains Archaic, 74:
99-106
Eastern Siouan Tutelo, 78:88-92
female crania comparisons, 74:72-
80
Archaic American Indian, 74:87-89
Illinois, 74:81-83
Indiana, 74:90-98
methods, 75:47-54
middle Wabash woodland cultures,
80:74-83
Mounds State Park, 79:75-82
nomenclatural standardization, 74:
114-117
Oxendine Site, Vigo County, 79:57
State of Delaware, 79:69-74
Arginase, induction of by viruses,
77:123-124
Aristida, Unredinales on, 75:229
Armington, J. H., memorial, 78:
32-33
Arnett, P. M., A study of Col-
lembolan populations asso-
ciated with four serai stages
leading to the beech-maple
climax, 78:231-240
, A taxonomic key to the
Collembola in four serai stages
leading to the beech-maple
climax, 79:234-247
Arrow-wood or Northern Arrow-
wood in Porter County, 76:
368-369
Arroyos, 77:229
Arthritis, incidence, in a prehistoric
middle Mississippian Indian
population, 72:59-62
Arthropods, saprophagous, succes-
sion, 75:282
Arthur herbarium at Purdue Univer-
sity, history, 71:228-232
Artifact slips, 77:96-97
Artificial sweeteners, rodents' pref-
erence for, 78:457-465
426
Asellus — Banks
Asellus jordani, nov. spec, 75:
286-288
Asia, urbanization, 79:253
Asman, Sister M., 75:109
Aspergillus niger, biosynthesis of
fatty acids, 79:351-355
Asteroids, collisions between, 77:
172-173
Astrephomene, ultrastructure, 71:85
Astronomy, radio, history, 80:377
Atmospheric density affecting heat
exchange, 76:372-376
Atneosen, R. A., 72:247
Atomic beam, a gaseous light source,
71:275
Atomic lifetimes, measurement of,
78:389-393
Augochlora pura (Say), underground
nests, 80:245
Avena sativa, 77:127
stem rust resistance, 75:63; 75:
67-72
Avidin, effect on fatty acid biosyn-
thesis, 79:351-355
Awasthi, Y. (see Chuang, T. F.,
and Hall, J. D.)
Aymara and Uru Indians of the
Peruvian altiplano, 72:67-68
Azo dye carcinogenesis, adrenal
cortical accessory tissue, 71 :
374-377
Bacillus subtilis, growth and sporu-
lation, 78:111
Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, field
tests with, 76:265-269
Bacteria, inhibitory effects on patho-
gens, 75:55-56
succession of, in macerating birds,
75:282; 76:421-425
and coal mine stream pollution,
79:345
in farm ponds, 78:417; 79:423-431
and thermal pollution, 80:183-188
Bacterial ingestion, European corn
borer, 79:227
Bacterial phagocytosis, 75:56
Bacterial reduction of flow through
sand column, 76:377-385
Bacteriology (See also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included : Considine,
R. G.; Hassler, C. R.; Kel-
logg, T. F.; Knight, P. L.;
Makulu, D. R.; Olsen, G. B.;
Pleasants, J. R. ; Powell, H.
M.; Smith, P. L.; Wost-
mann, B. S.; Zygmunt, W.
A.
abstracts, 71:71-72; 72:86; 73:75-
77; 74:118-119; 75:55-56; 76:
179-182; 77:123-126; 78:109-
114
history, in Indiana, 76:65-70
Bacteriophage, inhibition of an RNA,
by streptomycin, 72:86
T2 on Iron Oxide, 80:368
Bagworm, parasitism in a population
of, 75:148
Baker, G. R., 79:122
Baker, J. B., and J. H. Hamon,
Some intestinal parasites of
robins from Marion County,
Indiana, 77:417-419
Baker, P. C., and J. B. Cope,
New county records for Fay-
ette and Franklin Counties,
Indiana, 71:292
Baldinger, L. H., The genesis of
a drug (presidential address),
71:46-51
, memorial, 80:25-26
Biological Survey Committee, re-
ports with chairmen, C. A.
Markle, 71:12-16; C. A.
Markle, 72:14-17; C. A.
Markle, 73:16-17; J. D. Web-
ster, 74:14-16; J. D. Webster,
75:16-18; J. D. Webster, 76:
21-23; J. D. Webster, 77:
32-34; J. D. Webster, 78:29-
31; J. D. Webster, 79:23-25;
Leland Chandler, 80:21-23
Baldwin, C. L., 76:179-180
Ball State University, observatory,
80:377
science department, 78:381-386
Ballistic paths of tektites, 73:209
Banerjee, M. (see McGrath, J.)
Banks, J. B., and J. M. Cumo, A
biosystematic study of the
Banks — Belt
427
narrow - leaved spleenwort,
Athyrium pycnocarpon, 80:
431-435
Barber, S. A., 79:373
Barbosa, L. H., 77:124
Bardin, B. M., 77:347-348
Barger, S. A. (see Kohnke, H.)
Barley, resistance to corn leaf aphid,
71:138-141
resistance to smut, 76:199
Barr, D. J. (see West, T. R.)
Barr, R., J. D. Hall, F. L. Crane
and H. Al-Abbas, Lipophilic
quinones in mineral-deficient
maize leaves, 80:130-139
Barski, G., 78:165-166
Bartis, F. J., 72:247
Barton, T. F., Southern Indiana's
recreational triangle, 71:150-
162
, Our recreational needs and
long-ranged potential plans
for public outdoor recreation
in Indiana, 72:218-227
, Zipf's rank-size theory ap-
plied to some cities in Indiana
and the Ohio River Watershed,
75:191-196
, Notes on a new pattern and
process of physical city de-
velopment: The web theory,
76:339-346
, Lack of planning or failure
in pre-construction planning of
the Monroe Reservoir, 77:312-
320
, Planning for and utilization
of the web pattern of physical
urban development in cities,
78:342-347
, Population and settlement de-
cline in southwestern Indiana,
79:318-324
, The need for and some kinds
of multi-county regional plan-
ning in Indiana, 80:337-345
Barzynski, H. F., 74:180
Basic data report for archaeologists,
77:96-97
Bats, incidence of rabies in, 78:
447-456
local movements of some Indiana,
71:369
Bauer, M. E., 80:98
Baumgardner, M. F., 80:443; 80:
443; (see also Hoffer, R. M.,
and Johannsen, C. J.)
, S. Kristof, C. J. Johannsen,
and A. Zachary, Effects of or-
ganic matter on the multispec-
tral properties of soils, 79:413-
422
Baxter, J. W., 71:83
, and F. D. Kern, History of
the Arthur Herbarium at Pur-
due University, 71:228-232
Bayer, M. F., 80:178
Beall Woods, Keensburg, Illinois,
72:282-287
Beta-gamma directional correlation
in EU151, 71:275
Beaty, L. E., 77:123-124
Bechert, C. H., memorial, 80:27
Beckville Woods, phytosociology, 77:
183-184
Beech ferns, taxonomy, 79:388-395
Beech-maple climax, Collembola
present in, 78:231-240
Beech-maple complex, Montgomery
Co., Indiana, Rush Woods, a
lowland extension of, 73:220-
226
Beecher, A. B., memorial, 74:41-42
Beer's Law with a limited detector,
72:248
Beers, T. W., Rapid estimation of
forest parameters using mona-
real and polyareal combination
sampling, 76:251-255
Beesley, A., 77:131; 78:118; 79:83
Beesley, L., 77:131; 78:118; 79:83
Beetles (Hydrophilidae) , 78:260-265
Beetles, Dewart Lake, 76:286-290
records of Indiana species, 76:
308-316
Behavior, damselfly, 75:110-115
Indiana ruffed grouse, 79:177-186
orientation of amphibians, 80:
486-487
Behaviorism, biological origins of,
72:288
Belt roads in Terre Haute, 77:230
428
Benda — Black
Benda, R. S., Using injected dyes
for marking fish, 80:180-182
, and J. R. Gammon, The fish
population of Big Walnut
Creek, 77:193-205
Bending force constants, 77:171
Bennett, A. S. (see Marshall, v.,
and SCHWENK, K.)
Bennett, L. F., memorial, 76:42-43
Benninghoff, W. S., The prairie
peninsula as a filter barrier
to postglacial plant migration,
73:116-124
Benomyl, systemic fungicide, 80:
104-109
Benzene mixtures, radiolysis, 74:180
Benzoyl isocyanate, some reactions
of, 73:125
Berger, S. M., 72:289
Bernard, G. R., 71 : 71-72
Bernhardt, F. L., 80:437; 80:
437-438; 80:438; 80:438
Berry, E. W., memorial, 80:27-29
Bessel functions, and modes of prop-
agation, 80:388-403
Beta-alanine, metabolism, Drosophila,
75:283-284
utilization by Drosophila, 76:399
Beta decay of carbon 10, cluster
model of the nucleus, 72:247
Betta splendens, early development,
76:397-398
Betula nigra L., phenotypic varia-
tion, 80:225-229
Bi-angular coordinates: the N-
sectrix, 72:246
Bick, G. H., 75:108
, and L. E. Hornuff, Behavior
of the damselfly, Lestes un-
quiculatus Hagen ( Odonata :
Lestidae), 75:110-115
Bidens, comparative biology of East-
ern North American species,
72:256
Bieber, C. L., Movement of lime-
stone blocks by floodwaters in
Southern Putnam County,
Indiana, 71:163-165
, The relation of the changing
facies of the Mansfield For-
mation to possible park sites in
Western Indiana, 72:177-181
, Structural mapping by means
of Mississippian corals in
west-central Indiana, 74:268-
270
, Fossil algae in the St. Louis
limestone of western Indiana,
75:206-209
, memorial, 76:43-44
Biehn, W. L., 76:203
Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) ,
movements, 79:439-440
Big trefoil and tall fescue, 79 :
193-197
Big trefoil, ecotypes in southern
Indiana, 79:193-197
Big Walnut Creek, fish, 77:193-205
Reservoir, resolution, 78:13
Biguanide complexes, 75:100-104
Bile acids, excretion by germfree
rat, 76:191-192
Binder, R. A., 71:367
Bingham, R. L. (see Krumholz, L.
A.)
Bingle, G., 79:92
Bioassay methods for geotropically
active growth substances, 72:
115-117
Bioassays, need for tests, 79:148-161
Bioclimatic formations of the east-
ern and central United States,
the Holdridge, 73:105-112
Biographical sketches of Indiana
scientists, 71:258-264; 77:37-
46; 77:336-339
Biohazards warning symbol, 76:
179-180
Biological control, corn borer, 77:213
Bird eggs, Gorby collection, 74:348
Bird Woods, Indiana, 80:215-219
Birds, ossification of skull, 75:282-
283
problems in osteology of Passeri-
forms, 75:282
succession of bacteria in macera-
tion of , 75:282
Bison, bones from Indiana cave,
79:472-475
Blab ems discoidalis, fatty acid pro-
files, 75:284
Black, G. A., memorial, 74:42-45
Black — Botany
429
Black, H. T., 71:276
Blackbirds, spermatozoa, 77:434-441
Black walnut seedling development,
indole butyric acid failed to
aid, 72:108-111
Blair, B. O., 79:83-84; (see also
Schaal, L. A.)
Blair, P. V., 79:93
Blakely, R. L., and P. L. Walker,
Mortality profile of the Mid-
dle Mississippian population
of Dickson Mound, Fulton
County, Illinois, 77:102-108
, R. J. Marmouze, and D. D.
Wynne, The incidence of the
perforation of the Coronoid-
olecranon septum in the Middle
Mississippian population of
Dickson Mounds, Fulton
County, Illinois, 78:73-82
Blanc, T. V., A. G. Danemar, and
D. E. Koltenbah, The design
and construction of a system
for direct measurement of
atomic lifetimes, 78:389-393
Blazek, D. (see Sergeant, M.)
Blephilia ciliata forma albiflora,
76:368-369
Blind snakes, 74:350-351
Blome, D. A., A more general ap-
proach to the concept of
threshold population, 77:326-
334
Blood, Gc system, 78:164-165
Bloom, W. W., 79:83; (see also
Kroening, C. J., and Nich-
ols, K. E.)
, Some factors influencing
rhizoid formation in female
gametophytes of the Marsil-
eaceae, 72:118-119
, A simple method for collect-
ing hydra, 72:351-352
, and K. E. Nichols, Some
responses by members of the
Marsileaceae grown under field
conditions, 76:215-216
Bloomington, Indiana, geographic in-
fluence, changes in, 71:265-
270
, industrial labor-shed, 71:196-
202
Blue Island, Illinois, 74:232-244
Blue Spring Cave, 77:245-249
Bluegill, growth rate, 80:196-200
population density changes, 80:
196-200
response to predation, 79:139-147
seasonal growth, 79:135-147
Bluegill growth, effect of photo-
period, 79:135
Bochrath, R., 78:109
Bone growth, prehistoric Indians,
78:83-87
Bone loss, prehistoric Indians, 80:
90-93
Boneham, R. F., Earth science
teaching in the secondary
schools of Indiana, 78:329-332
, Acritarchs (Leiosphaeridia)
in the New Albany Shale of
Southern Indiana, 79:254-262
, and W. R. Masters, Silurian
chitinozoa from Indiana I: The
Mississinewa shale member of
north-central Indiana, 80:320-
329
Boone County, Indiana, bat colony,
75:280-281
Borden formation at Highbridge,
Indiana, 71:148
Borer, tulip tree, 71:122-123
Borohydrides, synthesis and infrared
spectra, 76:236-239
Borrow pits, ecology of, 80:178
Boschmann, E., A reinvestigation
of some alkali chelates, 80:
151-154
Bosmia (Crustacea, Cladocera), re-
mains in lake sediments, 71 :
368
Botany (see also entries under fol-
lowing author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Alvers, L.
M.; Benninghoff, W. S.;
Bloom, W. W.; Clark, F. B.;
Cox, R. L.; Dolph, G. E.;
Eberly, W. R.; Eisenger,
W. R.; Ellis, J.; Green,
M. J- Green, R. J., Jr.;
430
Botany— Burkhardt
Grove, S. N.; Judd, R. W.;
Kroening, C. J.; Leon-Gal-
legos, H. M.; Lindsey, A. A.;
Locke, J. C.; Morre, D. J.;
Nichols, K. E.; Palmer,
C. M.; Patterson, F. L.;
Sawyer, J. O., Jr.; Shands,
H.; von Meyer, W. C;
Weatherwax, P.; Welch,
W. H.; Westing, A. H.;
Williams, R. D.; Zimmer,
D. E.
abstracts, 71:82-87; 72:103-104;
73:88; 74:152-154; 75:61-66;
76:199-203; 77:127-131; 78:
115-119; 79:83-84; 80:95-98
history of, in Indiana, 76:71-80
Bounty, fox in Indiana, 79:187-192
Bowers, E. J., and H. D. Weaver,
Jr., The hydrolysis of iron in
methanol solutions, 71:101-104
Boyko, W. L. (see Whitaker,
J. O., Jr.)
Bracker, C. E., 77:156; (see also
Grove, S. N.)
Brahmi, Z., 78:109
Brain tumor, experimental, mor-
phology, 80:112-113
Bram, R. A., 74:194
, Insects and other arthropods
of economic importance in In-
diana in 1964, 74:207
Brannon, D. R., 78:111-112
Brechner, R. E., and R. D.
Kerkpatrick, Molt in two
populations of the house
mouse, Mus musculus, 79:
449-454
Bretscher, M. M., 75:227
— -, Measurement of the thermal
neutron diffusion parameters
of water by the pulsed neutron
method, 72:249-255
, and J. F. Meyer, Diffusion
heating and cooling of thermal
neutrons in water, 73:210-216
Brett, W. J., 75:281-282; 75:282;
78:445; 80:95; (see also HAY-
den, M. A.)
, Long term cyclic changes
in temperature of man, 71 :
370-373
Brett-Hauer, R. K., 76:222
Bridgeman furnace for growing
crystals, 80:377
Brigadier, W., and G. L. Ward,
Protura of Wayne County,
Indiana, 74:205-206
Briscoe, H. T., memorial, 71:36-37
Brock, J. E., S. Pursley, M. G.
Dunn and A. Clausen, A
constant voltage supply for a
pressure transducer, 71:282-
283
, memorial, 74:45-46
Brock, T. D., 72:86
, and I. Yoder, Thermal pol-
lution of a small river by a
large university : bacteriologi-
cal studies, 80:183-188
Brooker, R. M., 72:120
Brooks, A. E., Zygote germination
in astrephomene, 74:153-154
Brooks, W. D., 80:312-313
Brown, K. M., and C. Merritt,
Simulated sunlight duration
maps of forest openings, 80 :
220-224
Brown, O. W., memorial, 77:37-38
Brown, P. (see Ricketts, J. A.)
Bryophyta, 78:396-405
Bryophytes of Cabin Creek Raised
Bog, 72:105-107
Bryophytes XIII, studies in Indiana,
72:270-278
BSCS vs. traditional biology,
achievement, 80:437
Buchman, R. L., 77:96
Buckbee, Sister B., R. E. Surdzial,
and C. R. Metz, Temperature
dependence of E° for the
Daniell Cell, 79:123-128
Bucko, B., 75:62
Bullard, R. W. (see McGrath, J.,
and Schaffer, R. E.)
Bullfrog, open season, 77:414
BURCK, P. J., 80:111
Burgess, J., 80:437-438
Burgess, R. D., 78:387-388
Burkhardt, R. W., Jr., 74:195
Burkle — Cell
4::i
Burkle, M. A., 79:357
Burnham, K. D., 74:349
Burnor, D. R., and J. E. Harris,
Racial continuity in Lower
Nubia: 12,000 B.C. to the
present, 77:113-121
Burns, J. M., 78:445-446
Burns, J. T., 74:348
Burrows and oscillative behavior
therein of Lumbricus terres-
tris, 71:378-384
Burton, E. T., memorial, 78:33-34
Burton, M., 74:179; 74:179-180;
74:180; 74:181-182; 77:173;
77:173-174
Bushnell, T. M., A history of soil
science in Indiana, 1816-1966,
76:151-163
Butcher, J. W., 74:196
Butler, J. W., 78:165-166
Butler University, Pharmacy Col-
lege, 76:216-219
Butomus umbellatus, a new station
for, in Indiana, 73:88
Buttrey, B. W., 80:487
Cabin Creek raised bog, Randolph
County, Indiana, diatom flora,
71:305-319
vascular plants, 71 : 302-304
Cabomba caroliniana in Indiana, 71 :
284
Cadmium (II), complex of, and
pyrocatechol violet, 73:135-138
Callen, R. B., 76:221
Callis, R., 78:387
Callose deposits, 77:144-147
Camp, D. C, 72:248
Campaigne, E. E., 77:174
, The development of the
science departments at Indi-
ana University, 77:340-345
Campbell, M. F., 75:282-283
Campbell, W. F., 78:110-111
Cannibalism in genus Rana, 75 :
319-324
Canon City Embayment, Colorado,
76:335-338; 77:229
Cantin, A. J., (see Dinkel, R. M.,
and Hook, J. C.)
Carbohydrate metabolism, in cock-
roach, Blaberus cranifer Bur-
meister, 71 :114
Carlson, K., 78:109
Carlton, W. W., 79:91
Carmack, M., L. M. Weinstock,
D. Shew, F-H. Marquardt,
R. Y. Wen, I. W. Stapleton,
and R. W. Street, The chem-
istry of 1,2,5-thiadiazoles. I.
The parent compound, 80:164-
173
Carotenoid, mutant of Cyanidium
cald avium, 79:83
Carr, M. T., memorial, 79:27
Cartersburg till, end moraines, 74:
223
Carver, D., 77:123
Castilleja coccinea, yellow form,
74:314
Cat stomach, 74:360-361
Cathartes, bones from Indiana cave,
79:472-475
Cave, Thundermug Bone, Monroe
County, Indiana, 79:472-475
Cave fauna, 75:286-288
Cave springs, alluviated, of south-
central Indiana, 72:182-189
Cavern development, 77:236-244; 77:
250-255; 79:281-291
in Chesterian rocks, 75:210-215
Caves, Lawrence County, Indiana,
77:245-259
Cedar Bluffs, leaf physiognomic
study, 80:99-103
Cell Biology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included : Barr, R. ;
Cheetham, R. D.; Chuang,
T. F.; Hall, J. D.; Middleton,
A. E.; Morre, D. J.; Sergeant,
M.; VanDerWoude, W. J.
abstracts, 77:154-158; 78:161-166;
79:91-95; 80:111-113
Cell dispersing enzymes, 76:201-202
in maize root, 75:65
Cell expansion, inhibition of, 76:
200-201
432
Cell — Chemistry
Cell membrane composition, 78:
161-162
Cell mobility, 78:165
Cell wall deformability, 75:63-64
Cells, nuclear changes and mitotic
anomalies, 75:61
simulation, 80:439-442
Centaurium pulchellum, 78:414-416
Central places, hierarchy of, 79:
325-332
Cephalosporium, genetics, 78:112-113
sulfatase regulation, 77:123
Ceratina metallica Smith, mortality
during hibernation, 72:139-140
Cereal leaf beetle, Oulema melanopa
(L), occurrence in Indiana,
1962, 72:167-168
Cerebral cortex, neuron structure,
78:161
Ceric ammonium sulfate, alkaloid
test, 80:97
Cesium chloride-polyacrylamide gels,
80:374-376
Chalybion zimmermanni, in Indiana,
79:231-233
Dahlbom, nest site preference,
80:264-266
Chandler, A. D., Jr., 74:118
Chandler, L., 72:139; 72:139-140;
80:245; 80:245-246
, Light trap collection of the
nocturnal bee, Sphecodogastra
texana (Cresson) (Hymenop-
tera, Halictidae), 71:124-129
, The social wasps in Indiana
(Hymenoptera: Vespidae), 74:
197-204
, Wasps of the Tribes Stizini
and Bembicini in Indiana
(Hymenoptera: Sphecidae), 75:
141-147
, The second record of Coeli-
oxys obtusiventris Crawford
(Hymenoptera, Megachili-
dae), 79:228
, Indiana vs. Indian Terri-
tory : Misinterpreted locality
citations, 79:229-230
Chapman, F. H., Incidence of
arthritis in a prehistoric mid-
dle Mississippian Indian popu-
lation, 72:59-62
■ , The incidence and age dis-
tribution of Osteoarthritis in
an archaic American Indian
population, 73:64-66
— , Comparison of osteoarthritis
in three aboriginal popula-
tions, 74:84-86
Chappell, R. G., 72:139
Chara, fossils, 78:406-412
Charophytes, fossil, from Ixtapa,
Chiapas, Mexico, 73:217-218
Pleistocene, 79:84
Check list, Indiana Collembola, 79:
249-252
Cheetham, R. D. (see Middleton,
A. E.)
— — , and D. J. Morre, Di- and
tri-nucleotidase activities of
rat liver cytomembranes, 79 :
107-109
Academy science index from p 28
Chelates, alkali, bonding of, 80:151-
154
cobalt, copper, and nickel, 77:176-
181
metal, 75:33-42
Chemical effects on nuclear transi-
tions, 77:347
Chemical research publications by
alumni of Hanover College,
72:239
Chemistry (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Boschmann
E.; Bowers, E. J.; Buckbee
Sister B.; Carmack, M.
Cook, A. G.; Cook, D. J.
Darlage, L. ; Davis, R. E.
Fischer, R. B.; Heys, J. R.
Hoffman, W. E.; Huffman
C. J.; Loeschke, W. L.
Ludwig, P.; Miranda, T. J.
Petersen, Q. R.; Pryor, W
A.; Ricketts, J. A
Schmidt, F. C; Siefker
J. R.; Smith, J. A.
Chemistry — Clark
433
abstracts, 71:100; 72:120; 73:125-
126; 74:178-180; 76:221-222;
77:171-175; 78:199-200; 79:
121-122; 80:141-143
freshman success in, 76:227-235
history of, in Indiana, 76:81-94
Chenopodium nuttalliae, 77:349
Chenopodium quinoa, 77:349
Cherokee past, evidence for, 79:57
Cherry trees, oriental, phenology,
71:84
Chi-square, statistical approxima-
tions, 78:482-490
Chick, effect of high incubation
temperature on pecking and
color preferences, 72:290-299
effect of temperatures on T-maze
learning, 71:327-333
Chicks, heat-stressed, 77:413
temperature effects and pecking
frequency and color prefer-
ence, 74:362-366
Chick embryos, oxygen uptake in
heat-stressed, 73:261-266
Chick weight, effect of environ-
mental stress on, 71:385-398
Chicken, blood chemistry, effects of
high incubation temperatures
on, 72:353-361
pituitary glands, assay by radio-
active phosphorus, 73:257-260
Chicks' handedness and variability
affected by temperature
stress, 76:426-430
Chinch bug, control with insecticides,
75:130-136
Chiroptera, incidence of rabies in,
78:447-456
the Hoary Bat, 78:497-501
Chitinozoa, Silurian, 80:320-329
Chlorophyll, fluctuation in Juniperus,
80:95
variation in corn, 78:118-119
Chloroplast development, ultrastruc-
ture, 77:158
Chloroplast quinones, 80:130-139
Cholesterol catabolism, intestinal
flora and, 73:83-87
Christian, J. E. (see Ziemer,
P.L.)
Chromate - dichromate equilibrium,
80:159-163
Chromatography, gas, 76:222
gas-liquid, 80:39-49
gel permeation, 80:39-49
study of Polygonum, 80:422-430
Chromosomal aberrations, 75:65-66
Chromosome associations, 79:84
Chromosome numbers in Polygonum,
79:396-400
Chromosomes and affinities of the
genus Reverchonia, 72:257
Chromotography, quantitative appli-
cation of thin layer: assay of
tryptamine, 72:120
Chromotrophism in Mermis suh-
nigrescens, 80:501-504
Chuang, I. F., Y. C. Awasthi and
F. L. Crane, A model mosaic
membrane : Cytochrome oxi-
dase, 79:110-120
Cicada, periodical, 80:247-252
Cicadas, periodical, in 1963, Brood
23, 73:167-170
periodical, in apple orchards, con-
trol of, 71:114
periodical, Magicicada spp., as
pests in apple orchards, 71 :
116-121
Cipra, J. E., 80:443
Circadian rhythm, sleep movements
of Marsilea, 77:152-153
Citellus tridecemlineatus, new dis-
tribution records, 76:397
Cities, Indiana, land use of selected,
73:196-201
near-neighbor analysis, 79:325-332
population, Indiana and Ohio River
Watershed, 75:191-196
City climates, conflicting hypotheses,
80:330-336
City growth and development, 76:
339-346
City planning and web pattern, 78:
342-347
Cladosporium leaf mold, 80:104-109
Cladocera remains in Indiana lake
sediments, 71:368
Clark, D. E., Parasites of Mus
mus cuius taken from an in-
434
Clark — Cole
habited building in Terre
Haute, Vigo County, Indiana,
80:495-500
Clark, F. B., White ash, hackberry,
and yellow-poplar seed remain
viable when stored in the
forest litter, 72:112-114
Clark, J. A., 73:144
Clark, W. C, Vitamin deficiency
and survival of hepatoma
BW7756 mice, 74:367-370
Clark's Grant, land-survey divisions,
74:248-254
Clausen, A. (see Brock, J. E.)
Clay, colloidal flow through sand
column, 76:377-385
infrared studies, 75:247-255
soil analysis, 77:405-411
Cleland, R. E., Science: Boom or
Bane? special address, 77:
84-93
Cleveland, J. H., 78:315
, Variation of iron sulfide con-
tent in sphalerites of Missis-
sippi Valley deposits, 74:271-
277
, Flow diagram for a com-
puter program designed to
calculate igneous molecular
norms, 75:175-190
Cleveland, M. L., (see also Hamil-
ton, D. W., and Dolphin, R.
E.)
, Maintenance of fruit insect
cultures at Vincennes, Indiana,
74:219-221
Clifford, B. C, 75:63
Climatic change and the northern
plains, Archaic, 74:99-106
Climatic records, a comparison of,
74:245-247
Climatology, Anderson, Indiana, 80:
313
urban, new theories, 80:330-336
Cline, J. C, 78:112
Clouse, R. A., J. W. Richardson,
and E. V. McMichael, Inter-
im report on the Daughtery-
Monroe Site: An Allison-
LaMotte village, 80:74-83
Coal, analysis of Indiana samples,
77:299-304
stream pollution from mine waste,
79:345
Coal balls, 78:120-138
Coal mine reclamation costs, 78 :
355-362
Coal mine reclamation problems,
74:255-258
Coal mining, 79:263-269
Coartney, J. S., 75:63-64; 76:
200-201
Cobalt-60, decay of, 76:358-365
Cobra venom action on virus, 78:110
Cockroach, metabolism, 75:284
Codling moth eggs and Tricho-
gramma minutum, 80:305-309
Coelioxys obtusiventris Crawford,
79:228
Coffin, S., 78:71
Coffing, S. J., 79:57-58
Coffman, D. M., Parameter meas-
urement in fluvial morphol-
ogy, 79:333-344
Cognatic kinship organization, some
theoretical considerations, 73 :
71-74
Coincidence techniques in measure-
ment of atomic lifetimes, 78:
389-393
Colchicine-induced cells, tissue-cul-
tured, 73:76
virus growth in, 74:118
Cold exposure, larval amphibian,
74:351
Cole, T. A., and B. W. Kemper, An
analysis of pupal proteins of
Drosophila melanogaster by
Polyacrylamide gel electro-
phoresis, 75:308-310
, and J. B. Snodgrass, Alcohol
dehydrogenases in the pupae
of Drosophila melanogaster,
76:405-407
, and W. F. Middendorf, De-
velopment of a clear, photo-
polymerizable acrylamide gel
and its use in immobilizing
and staining nucleic acids,
79:348-350
Cole — Copper
435
■ , and S. G. O'Neal, The use
of ethidium bromide in de-
tecting banded DNA in cesium
chloride-polyacrylamide gels,
80:374-376
Coleoptera, aquatic, 76:272-278; 76:
279-283; 76:286-290
Dystiscidae, hybridization of, 72:
139
Hydrophilidae, 75:137-140
records of Indiana species, 76:308-
316
reproductive behavior, 77:213
College women, physical and cultural
basis of personality, 71:69-70
Collembola, Indiana species, 79:249-
252
key to, 79:234-237
new records in Indiana, 80:246
in beech-maple climax forest, 78 :
231-240
Collinsia heterophylla, chromosal ab-
errations, 75:65-66
Collodian-methacrylate film, 77:154
Color preference, chick, 74:362-366
Communication, scientist to non-
scientist, 78:65-69
Community development, systems
approach, 78:104-107
Complexes, biguanide, 75:100-104
o-tolyl biguanide, 77:176-181
Computer, use in terrain analysis,
77:256-270
in chemistry instruction, 80:141-
142
display of soil patterns, 80:443
Computer mapping, synagraphic,
80:356-361
Computer program for igneous mo-
lecular norms, 75:175-190
Computers in education, 78:200
Conrad, P. J., 75:62; 76:199
Conchostraca, first record in Indi-
ana, 80:175-176
Conroy, J. J., 80:96
Conservation, land, 76:267-272
wildlife, 75:289-292
Conservation activities of Indiana
Academy, 77:75-83
Conservation planning, 77:312-320
Considine, R. G., 74:118; 76:181
, Tolerance to the induction
of interferon by vaccinia virus
in germfree mice, 76:57-60
Constitution and By-Laws, 74:21-29
amendments, 75:10-11; 78:14
Contributors, instructions for, 80:
517-518
Cook, A. G., 71:100; 73:126; 76:221;
78:200; 78:200
, An alternative mechanism to
the stork ring enlargement,
72:132-135
Cook, D. J., 79:122
, and W. E. Schelwalt, The
preparation of several 3,4-
dialkylquinolines and inter-
mediate compounds, 74:183-
188
Cooling degree days in Indiana,
79:292-298
Coons, M. P., 80:413
Cooper, E. E., 71:85
Cooper, R. H., The occurrence of the
whistling swan (Cygnus Co-
lumbianus L.) in Delaware
County, Indiana, 72:342-343
, Further notes on the occur-
rence of the whistling swan
(Cygnus Columbianus L.) in
Delaware County, Indiana, 73:
267
, Melanoma in Heloderma
suspectum Cope, 78:466-467
, A half century of science at
Ball State University, 78:381-
386
Coordination compounds, infrared
spectra, 79:121
Cope, J. B., 71:369; 79:439-440; (see
also Baker, P. C, and Hum-
phrey, S. R.)
, D. R. Hendricks and W.
B. Telfair, Radiotelemetry
with the big brown bat (Ep-
tesicus fuscus) , 79:466-469
, and D. R. Hendricks,
Status of My otis lucifugus in
Indiana, 79:470-471
Copeland, R. F., 78:200
Copper (II), dielectric study of, 80:
144-150
436
Corals — Cucurbit
Corals, Mississippian, of West-
Central Indiana, 74:268-270
Corley, R. C, memorial, 76:44-45
Corn, 77:128; 77:129
damage by symphylans, 77:214-221
diseases in Indiana, 78:117-118
effect of angomois grain moth on
germination and vigor, 72:140
effect of residual nitrogen, 77:373
response to phosphorus and potas-
sium fertilization, 78:435-443
southern leaf blight, 80:96-97;
80:98
Texas male-sterile cytoplasm, 80:
96
yield and temperature, 77:389-395
Corn leaf aphid, 75:108; 75:109
corn's resistance to, 71:138-141
ecology, 76:260-264
Corn leaf moisture variations, 80:
461-467
Corn monoploids, chromosome asso-
ciations, 79:84
Corn production and Indiana climate,
80:315-319
Corn roots, distribution in soils,
79:401-406
Corn seed, fungi on, 76:217-220
Correlation coefficients, statistical
approximations, 78:482-490
Corthum, K. W., Jr. (see Whit-
aker, J. O., Jr.)
Corticosteroids in blood, 77:420-426
Costa Rica, vegetation types, 71:284
Cotter, D„ A., 79:345-346
Cottingham, J. O., memorial, 72:
38-39
Coturnix coturnix japonica, 75:282-
283; 75:289-292
County records, plants for Fayette
and Franklin Counties, Indi-
ana, 71:292
Cover type mapping, automatic, 80:
230-244
Cox, R. L., and A. H. Westing,
The effect of peat-moss ex-
tracts on seed germination,
73:113-115
Craig, E., 78:387; 80:378
Crane, F. L. (see Barr, R., Chuang,
T. F., and Hall, J. D.)
Crania, demonstrating racial rela-
tionships, 74:72-80
from shell heaps of Brazil and
from the archaic of eastern
United States, 73:56-59
Cranial and cephalic measurements,
relationship of, in American
negroes, 73:67-70
Crankshaw, W. B., 78:201-202;
79:137; 80:178
, The effect of ground cover
on the soil moisture regime
in a mixed mesophytic woods,
78:204-209
, J. A. Smith, and R. D.
KlRKPATRICK, Woodcock
singing ground descriptions
for two Indiana sites, 78:241-
244
Craske, A. G., Jr., 78:201
Craspedacusta, new records in Indi-
ana, 80:178-179
Crater Lake, Wizard Island, 77:183
Cravioto, H., 80:112-113
Creel census, Lake Michigan, 77:184
Crib Mound, Spencer County, Indi-
ana, 80:63
Crocodilian circulation, 80:486
Crooked Lake, fish and limnology,
77:185-192
Crop canopy, effect on soil patterns,
80:443
Crop plants on fragipan soils, 78:
429-434
Crop potentials, increasing, through
water availability, 71:347-352
of Indiana soil types, 71:335-340
Crowe, D. R., and J. R. Norwine,
An example of consumer con-
trol of location: service sta-
tions, 76:353-356
Crown rust in oats, 75:63
Crushed stone, transportation costs,
78:348-354
Crustacea, 80:175-176
Crystals, growth by Bridgeman fur-
nace, 80:377
Cucumber beetles, attractiveness to
cucurbits, 71 :114
Cucurbit varieties, attractiveness to
cucumber beetles, 71 :114
Culaea — Davis
437
Culaea inconstans, ecology in Indi-
ana, 77:185-192
Culbertson, C. G. (see Powell,
H. M.)
Culex pipiens, in waste lagoons,
80:275-282
Culex territans Walker, occurrence
in Indiana, 71:115
Culiseta minnesotae, 75:108
Culture of planktonic blue-green
algae, 74:165-168
Cumings, E. R., memorial, 77:38-
40
Cummins, G. B., Records of South
Texas rust fungi, 72:267-269
Cumo, J. M. (see Banks, J. B.)
Curran, T., 78:71
Currier, W. W., 80:368
Curtis, K. K., 78:118-119
Cuticle variability in plants, 78:115
Cyanamide complex of iron, 78:199
(II), 80:141
Cyanidium caldarium, a carotenoid
mutant, 79:83
Cyclanthera, a revision of the genus,
77:349
Cyclic changes, in temperature of
man, 71:370-373
Cyclohexane, 77:173-174
Cycloheximide, blockage of Dictyos-
telium discoideum myxamoeba
release, 79:345-346
Cyclotron, Indiana University, 77:
347-348
resonance theory, 79:360
Cytochemical changes in replicating
Trachoma virus, 71 :71
Cytochrome oxidase, membrane
form, 79:110-120
D* absolute value, 78:387
D'Alelio, G. F. (see Miranda,
T.J.)
D'Allessio, J. (see Ludwig, P.)
Daghlian, C. P., 80:95-96
Daily, F. K., 73:217; 79:84
, necrology by, 75:30-32; 76:
42-53; 77:37-46; 78:32-42; 79:
27-38; 80:25-32
, Some scientific expeditions
to the southeastern United
States taken by David Starr
Jordan, 71:271-274
, Some late glacial charo-
phytes compared to modern
species, 78:406-412
Daily, W. A., Some algae of the
Cabin Creek raised bog, Ran-
dolph County, Indiana, 71:298-
301
, Notes on some algae found
in Indiana, 72:279-281
, and R. T. Everly, Algae
found growing in plastic en-
closures covering ears of pop-
corn plants, 73:219
Damiano, M. E., 79:414
Damping-off, alfalfa and associated
fungi, 71:84
Damselfly, reproductive behavior,
75:108; 75:110-115
Dancis, B. M., Experimental hybri-
dization of an insular form of
Tropisternus collaris (Fabric-
us) with mainland subspecies
( Coleopetera : Hydrophilidae ) ,
76:279-283
Daniell cell, temperature dependence
of voltage, 79:123-128
Darlage, L., An inexpensive low
voltage paper strip electro-
phoresis apparatus, 76:223-226
Data analysis, life sciences, statis-
tical shortcuts, 78:482-490
Daughtery-Monroe site, excavations,
79:57-58
Davidson, P. G., 79:135
Davis, R. E., 77:171
, Steric effects and the second-
ary isotope effect, 71:105-108
, The oscillator strength of a
dipole transition in a Lorentz-
Lorenz Field, 71 : 109-113
, A predictive analysis of
Chemistry 115 at Purdue with
a single class of 1100 students
in 1962, 76:227-235
, and R. E. Kenson, Boron
hydrides. XII. The synthesis
and infrared spectra of
NaBH3D and NaBD3H. 76:
236-239
438
Davis — Di-n-butyloxamidine
Davis, W. D. 80:311
Day, H. G., The nutritional sig-
nificance of trace elements
(presidential address), 72:50-
58
Deay, H. 0., 73:145
, memorial, 79:27-29
, and J. G. Taylor, Response
of the house fly, Musca
domestica L., to electric lamps,
72:161-166
Decker, R. D., 71:83
Degree days in Indiana, 73:183-187;
79:292-298
Dehydration of 3-hexen-2,5-diol, 77:
172
deLanglade, R. A., and A. A.
Lindsey, A decade of oldfield
succession in an Indiana bi-
ological reserve, 71:285-291
Delaware County, Indiana, domestic
flies, 80:299-304
Delaware Indian tribe, 79:60-61;
79:69-74
Delia, A. (see Ricketts, J. A.)
Dendropanax in the Eocene, 78:115-
116
Dennen, D. W., 77:123
Denner, M. W., Infections of Or-
thopterans by Mermis sub-
nigrescens Cobb (Nematoda)
in Iowa, 80:283-285
, Some biological aspects of
Mermis subnigrescens Cobb
(Nematoda), 80:501-504
Density curves of alkyldiamine-
water systems, 75:90-95
Dental caries, in gnotobiotic rat,
influence of salivary antibody
on, 73:75
in pre-historic and historic Indian
groups, 71:57-60
DenUyl, D., memorial, 71 :37-39
DePauw University, a century of
botany and botanists at, 71 :
242-247
Herbarium, 71 : 239-241
Deppa, C. A., memorial, 72:39-40
Desmognathus ochrophaeus carol-
inensis, water loss physiology
in, 78:472-481
Despommier, D. D., 76:179
Desrosier, N., The edge of hunger,
71:341-346
Dessication, response to, in sala-
manders, 78:472-481
Developmental levels, effect on
learning, 75:240-245
Devonian rocks, 78:333-341
Dewart Lake, 76:286-290
Diabrotica, biology and distribution,
80:267-274
resistance to aldrin, 80:267-274
Dialkyl quinolines, preparation, 74:
183-188
Dialysis, simulating movement, 80:
439-442
Diatom flora, Cabin Creek raised
bog, Randolph County, Indi-
ana, 71 :305-319
Diaz-Piferrer, M., 75:61
Dickson Mound, Fulton County, Illi-
nois, 78:73-82
prehistoric Indian cemetery, 77:102
Dictyosomes, in fungal hyphae, 76:
210-212
Dielectric, bis- ( 2'-hydroxyacetophe-
nonato) copper (II), 80:144-
150
Dietary factors in experimental
liver cancer, 72:362-366
Differential thermal analysis of
magnesite and dolomite, 75 :
163-166
Diffusion coefficients, electronalyti-
cal measurements of, 74:178
Diffusion heating and cooling of
thermal neutrons in water,
73:210-216
Dilantin, effect on rats, 77:427-433
Dilcher, D. L., 77:130-131; 78:115;
78:115-116; 79:375; 79:375-
376; 80:95-96
Dillon, L. L, 75:151-152
, Dubois County, an exception
to the general trend, 72:174-
176
, Popcorn production in Indi-
ana, 78:363-368
Dillon, M. A., 74:179-180
Di-n-butyloxamidine complexes, 79 :
129-133
Dimethyl— Duroic
439
Dimethyl sulfoxide, effect on seed
germination, 75:62
Dineen, C. F., 71:367
, Changes in the Molluscan
fauna of the Saint Joseph
River, Indiana, between 1959
and 1970,80:189-195
Dinga, C. F., Analysis of retail site
locations in Terre Haute,
Indiana, 77:321-326
Dinkel, R. M., 78:201
, and L. Guernsey, An eco-
nomic appraisal of reclamation
practices on a strip coal mine
site in Greene County, Indi-
ana, 78:355-362
, and A. J. Cantin, The
changing location patterns of
the neighborhood grocers in
Terre Haute, Indiana: A geo-
graphic analysis, 79:309-317
Dinocardium robustum, 74:348
Dion, T. (see Morre, D. J.)
Dipole transition in a Lorentz-
Lorenz field, 71:109-113
Diptera collected in Indiana walnut
groves, 72:154-157
Disaccharidases in rats, 76:180-181
Disc electrode configurations in elec-
troanalytical diffusion, 74:178
Dishner, G. H., and R. T. Everly,
Greenhouse studies of the
resistance of corn and barley
varities to survival of the corn
leaf aphid, 71:138-141
Dissociation constant of cadmium ion
and pyrocatechol violet, 73:
135-138
Division of Nature Preserves, Indi-
ana Department of Natural
Resources, 77:75-83
DNA, detection with ethidium bro-
mide, 80:374-376
microspectrophotometric analysis,
79:84
Doehring, D. G., 72:289
Dolan, E., 79:57
Doll, J. P., 71:71-72
Dolomite, 75:163-166
Dolph, G. E., 78:115-116
■ — — •, A comparison of local and
regional leaf characteristics in
Indiana, 80:99-103
Dolphin, R. E., M. L. Cleveland,
and T. E. Mouzin, Field
tests with Bacillus thuringieu-
sis Berliner in an apple
orchard, 76:265-269
— — , M. L. Cleveland, and T. E.
Mouzin, Trichogramma min-
utum relationship to codling
moth and red-banded leaf
roller eggs, 80:305-309
Donahue, S., 77:155; 78:161
Douglas, C. F. (See Stivers, R. K.)
Douglas, J. C. (See Siefker,
J. R.)
Downey, R. J., 73:77; 76:181-182:
78:113
Downie, N. M., and C. E. White,
Records of Indiana Coleop-
tera, III, 76:308-316
Doyle, J. R., 78:200
Drainage map, Indiana, 76:323-327
from topograhic map, 79:333-344
Drosophila, control on canning to-
matoes, 73:145
effects of age of parents, 74:
386-392
periodicity and rhythm, 78:445
Di'osophila melanog aster, alcohol de-
hydrogenaces in pupae, 76:
405-407
beta-alanine utilization, 75:283-
284; 76:399
pupal protein analysis, 75:308-310
survival of mated and non-mated
progeny, 72:344-347
Druelinger, M. L., 80:142
Dryophyllum, Eocene fossil leaves,
77:130-131
Dubois County, an exception to the
general trend, 72:174-176
Dudley, R. F. (see Stivers, R. K.)
Dunn, M. G. (see Brock, J. E.)
Dunn, R. L., The distribution of
mobile home park development
in Vigo County, Indiana, 80:
362-364
Durham, J. W., 73:217-218
Duroic acid, decarboxylation mechan-
ism, 79:122
140
Dusting— Electron
Dusting pattern, quail, 75:282
Dye, fish marking, 80:180-182
Early woodland, Greene County, 74:
90-98
Earth mound, 78:417
Earth science, secondary school cur-
riculum, 75:246
teaching in Indiana, 78:329-332
Earthworm resistance in sweet corn,
71:146-147
East Chicago, Indiana, 71:169-186
Eaton, S. V., memorial, 73:31-32
Eberly, W. R., 80:175-176; 80:178-
179
, Preliminary results in the
laboratory culture of plank-
tonic blue-green algae, 74:165-
168
, A new troglobitic isopod
(Asellidae) from Southern
Indiana, 75:286-288
Eble, J. N., 72:120
Eclipse, solar, 78:387-388
Ecology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Arnett, P
M.; Beers, T. W.; Benda
R. S.; Brock, T. D.; Brown
K. M.; Crankshaw, W. B.
Dineen, C. F.; Gulish, W
J.; Heath, M. E.; Hoffer
R. M.; Jackson, M. T.
Jones, G. S.; Kirkpatrick
R. D.; Krumholz, L. A.
LlNDSEY, A. A.; MUEHRCKE
J. P.; Nelson, J. S.; Roth
P. L.; Schmelz, D. V.
Weaver, D.; Weeks, H. P.
Jr., Whitaker, J. O., Jr.)
abstracts, 76:241-242; 77:183-184
78:201-203; 79:135-138; 80
175-179
Indiana ruffed grouse, 79:177-186
Ecuador, cultivated Solanaceae, 79:
376
Eddleman, H., Scar: A temperature
sensitive mutation in Tri-
bolium castaneaum Herbst,
74:398-401
Edington, W. E., 72:239
-, Necrology by, 71:36-45;
72:38-49; 73:31-37; 74:41-59
, Biographical sketches of
Indiana scientists, II, 71:258-
264
■ , Mathematics in Indiana, 1816
to 1966, from the rule of three
to the electronic computer, 76:
116-128
, Biographical sketches of
Indiana scientists, IV, 77:
336-339
Education, the non-science major,
78:65-69
and undergraduate oceonography,
79:359
Educational psychology, comparison
of graduate and undergradu-
ate performance in, 72:288-289
Edwards, C. A. (see Gould, G. E.)
Edwards, D. M. (see Monke, E. J.)
Effing, M., 72:246
Eggs, embryonated duck, experi-
mental use in rabies vaccine
preparation, 71:73-77
Ehrlich, H. G., 76:199-200
Ehrlich, M. A., 76:199-200
Eichelkraut, N., 77:413
Eidson, W.W., 71:276
Eisinger, W. R., 75:63; 76:200-201
, and D. J. Morre, The effect
of sulfhydral inhibitors on
plant cell elongation, 77:136-
143
Elaphe obsoleta, 78:446
Elder, J. H. (see Sergeant, M.)
Electric lamps, response of house fly
to, 72:161-166
Electrochemical cells, e.m.f.
107
Electrokinetic measurements of
through sand column
385
Electrolytes, potassium and
78:468-471
Electron microscopy, supporting film,
77:154
Electron spin resonance lineshapes,
80:378-379
75:105-
flow
76:377-
sodium,
Electrophoresis — Esterase
441
Electrophoresis, 76:223-226
of proteins, 75:308-310
Elipten (aminogluthethimide), ef-
fects on fertility, 76:398
Elliott, F. R., memorial, 76:45-46
Ellis, J., Indiana plant distribution
records, XVIII, 1959-1961, 71:
88-90
Ellson, D. G., 72:289
Embryology, 75:283; 75:303-307
mouse ova, 77:413-414
Emery, G. T., 77:347
Enamine synthesis and properties,
78:200
Enamines, reduction of, 76:221
Endoplasmic reticulum, 77:154-155;
77:164-170; 78:183-188
nucleotide phosphatase activities,
79:107-109
Endothelial cell nuclei, brain, 79:93
Endrin as a fish toxicant, 79:148-161
Energy balance, in Dolichonyx ory-
zivorus during premigratory
fat deposition, 71:369
Engineering geology, 74:259-267
Enteric epithelium, human, 79:92
Entomology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Bick, G. H.;
Brigadier, W.; Chandler,
L.; Cleveland, M. L.; Dan-
cis, B. M.; Deay, H. O.;
Denner, M. W.; Dishner,
G. H.; Dolphin, R. E.;
Downie, N. J.; Everly, R.
T.; Favinger, J. J.; Gould,
G. E.; Hall, D.; Hamilton,
D. W.; Hart, J. W.; Hershey,
S. C; Huber, R. T.; Mack-
lin, J. M.; Meyer, R. W.;
Montgomery, B. E.; Mont-
gomery, M. E.; Munsee,
J. R.; Osmun, J. V.; Parker,
T. A.; Schuder, D. L.;
Shroyer, D. A.; Siverly,
R. E.; Walter, E. V.; Wappes,
J. E.; Ward, G. L.; Young,
F. N.; Zehring, C. S.)
abstracts, 71:114-115; 72:139-141;
73:144-145; 74:196-197; 75:
108-109; 76:259; 77:213; 78:
255-256; 79:227; 80:245-246
Environment, preservation of, 79:49-
56
Environmental alteration, inadvert-
ent human, 80:330-336
Environmental changes and chloro-
phyll concentration, 80:95
Environmental stress effect on chick
weight, 71:385-398
Enzyme cof actor, Escherichia coli,
80:111
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions, 79:346
Enzymes, cell dispersing, 76:201-202
L-amino acid oxidase, 79:121-122
Eocene leaf fossils, 77:130-131
Ephestia kuhniella, 75:311-318
Epiphyllae, tropical rain forest, 80:
176
Epipyropidae, parasitic lepidopteran,
in Tippecanoe and Warren
Counties, Indiana, 80:245
Epithelial tumor, 79:94
Equilibrium constants of complex
ions, 77:176-181
Equilibrium, tautomeric, between the
azonium and ammonium
species, 73:139-143
Erie Lobe drifts in east-central
Indiana, 77:279-291
Erman, D. C, 75:279
Erodibility of Indiana soils, 72:
319-324
Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici, 77:
127-128
Erythrocytes, aminoglutethimide on
hemolysis, 80:510-516
Escherichia coli, arginase induction
in, 77:123-124
concentrative uptake of a-gluco-
side by, 72:86
inhibition of molecular syntheses
in, by phenethyl alcohol, 73:
76-77
L-serine deaminase, 80:111
mutant, 78:109
Esten, M. H., memorial, 78:34-35
Esten, S. R., memorial, 76:46-47
Esterase, nonspecific neutral, 77:154-
155
442
Ethidium — Fish
Ethidium bromide, use in detecting
banded DNA, 80:374-376
Ethionine, effects on fat transport,
77:156-157
Ethnic groups in Siberia, 76:173-177
Eudorina from Indiana, sexual com-
patability in, 71:85
Euphorbiaceous fruits, Eocene, 79:
375
European corn borer, biological con-
trol, 77:213
control, heartbeat and bacterial
pathogens, 79:227
Eurycea bislincata and Eurycea
luciiuga, histocompatibility,
74:348
Evapotranspiration rates and soil
moisture levels determined
from climatological data, 73:
244-248
Everly, M. E., 75:56
Everly, R. T., 72:140; 75:109;
(See also Daily, W. A.,
Dishner, G. H., and Her-
shey, S. C.)
, Review of factors affecting
the abundance of the corn leaf
aphid, 76:260-264
Eversole, W. J. 75:285; 76:398;
76:398-399; (see also Zim-
merman, R. E., and Zwerner,
R. K.)
•, Adrenal cortical accessory
tissue and azo dye carcino-
genesis, 71:374-377
, Some dietary factors in ex-
perimental liver cancer, 72:
362-366
Evolution in plants, 77:349; 77:350
Excitation transfer, 74:179
Expeditions, scientific, to southeast-
ern United States by David
Starr Jordan, 71 :271-274
Extinctions, megafauna of late-
Pleistocene, 79:65-68
Falconiformes, 75:283
Fall meetings, Indiana State College,
71:11-21; Evansville College,
72:12-22; Goshen College, 73:
14-21; Indiana Central Col-
lege, 74:13-20; University of
Notre Dame, 75:14-21; Indiana
Institute of Technology, 76:
18-27; Indiana University, 77:
18-24; Ball State University,
78:15-21; Hanover College,
79:9-15; Indiana State Univer-
sity, 80:9-17
Faller, A., Ill, 77:183
Farm ponds, 79:423-431
Farrow, B. J. (see Santos, J. F.)
Faster-than-light particles, search
for, 80:380-383
Fascicled ear corn, origin of branches,
71:86
Fat transport, effects of ethionine
on, 77:156-157
Fatty acids, avidin effects and bio-
synthesis, 79:351-355
Fauna, Maryland Miocene, 79:253
Faunal remains from the Angel Site,
71:53-56
Favinger, J. J., and M. A. Moussa,
The occurrence of the cereal
leaf beetle, Oulema melanopa
(L.), in Indiana, 1962, 72:
167-168
Feathers, count of, in falconid birds,
75:283
Feed-back theory (physics), 76:357
Feeding frequency and bluegill
growth, 79:136
Ferguson, R. J., 79:58; 80:65-66
Ferns, chromatography, 80:431-435
Ferris, J. M., 74:195
Fertilization effects on potato
growth, 73:227-231
Fertilizer experiments with corn,
78:435-443
Fehlner, T. P., 74:178
Fescue, tall, 80:177
and big trefoil, 79:193-197
Fischer, R. B., and P. Haffley, The
hydrolysis of sulfamic acid,
72:123-126
Fish, 80:114-123; 80:124-129
Crooked Lake, Indiana, 77:185-192
distribution, Putnam County, 74 :
353-359
dye marking, 80:180-182
populations of streams, 77:193-205
Fish— Fruits
443
species new or rare to Indiana,
75:299-302
Fisher, D. D., 79:346
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles — Indi-
ana State University collec-
tions, 77:415-416
sensitivity to Aldrin, 75:325-329
of Tippecanoe County, 75:279
of Vigo County, 75:279-280
Fitzgerald, G. R., 74:119
Fixation, glutaraldehyde, 78:167-182
Fleas of Vigo County, 76:431-440
Fletcher, R. I. (see Hassler,
C. R.)
Flies, domestic populations, Indiana,
80:299-304
Fluorescein stream tracing, 77:250-
255
Fluorescence techniques, 77:130
Fluvial morphology, parameter-
measurement, 79:333-344
Foley Woods, Edgar County, Illinois,
79:137-138
Foliar analysis in nutritional survey
of Indiana apple orchard, 73:
239-243
Follicle stimulating hormone, effect
on chicken pituitary, 79:462-
465; 74:351
Food habits of Rana catesbeiana,
78:491-496
Foods, Peromyscus leucopus, 79:172-
176
white-footed mouse, 79:172-176
Ford, L., 79:84
Fordyce, C, Jr. (see Green, R. J.)
Forest, old-growth oak-hickory rem-
nant, 80:215-219
analysis, 78:245-254
dominance expressions, 79:137-138
ecology, 77:183-184; 77:184; 78:
201; 78:204-209
leaf litter, loss of rubidium 86 and
phosphorus 32 from, 73:88
microclimates, computer simula-
tion, 80:210-224
opening design, 80:220-224
sampling methodology, 76:243-250;
76:251-257
types, Eastern United States, 80:
210-214
succession, 78:203
types, Indiana, 79:198-204
Forests, old-growth, 78:210-230
old-growth, analyses, 74:169-177;
74:307; 74:308-313
original, lower Wabash floodplain
and upland, 72:282-287
Fort Ancient, archaeological popula-
tion, 78:93-96
Fossil leaves of Dyrophyllum, 77:
130-131
Fossil fruits of Eocene age, 79:375
Fossils, algae, 75:206-209
charophytes, 78:406-412
elephantine teeth, 75:293-298
Philodendron leaves from Tennes-
see, 80:95-96
Fox, bounty in Indiana, 79:187-192
Fourier synthesizers, 74:294-297
Fragipan soils and suitable crops,
78:429-434
Francis, Sister M. C, 71 :71
Franklin County, Indiana, Trillhims
of, 79:83
wildf lowers of , 77:131
Fraser, D., 80:112
Free energy, standard, of formation
of MgBr2, 75:105-107
Freeman, L. W., memorial, 79:29-
30
Freeze etching, Pseudomonas aeru-
ginosa, 80:112
French, R. R., Geology and mining
of gypsum in southwestern
Indiana, 76:318-322
— - — , Transportation of mineral
aggregates in Indiana, 78:348-
354
Frisch, J. A., Cognatic kinship or-
ganization : some theoretical
considerations, 73:71-74
, The social organization of
the Northeastern Algonkians,
74:112-113
Frogs, rhythms and photoreception
in, 80:486
Froning, H. B., memorial, 71:39-41
Fruit insect cultures, 74:219-221
Fruits, Euphorbiaceous of Eocene
age, 79:375
444
Fulk — Geology
Fulk, F. D., 77:414
, and J. O. Whitaker, Jr.,
The food of Rana catesbeiana
in three habitats in Owen
County, Indiana, 78:491-496
Fulton County, Illinois, prehistory,
80:64
Functional organization, administra-
tive structure, 80:312-313
Fungi, 76:199; 76:202-203; 76:203;
76:210-214; 76:217-220; 76:222
wall ultrastructure, 77:156
Fungicides, systemic, 80:104-109
Furnace, Bridgeman, for growing
crystals, 80:377
Fusarium moniliforme, ultrastruc-
ture, 76:202-203
Galileo's telescopes, air thermometer,
and astrolab, 78:378-380
Gall specificity in Synchytrium, 71:
82-83
Galloway, H. M., Establishing crop
potentials for Indiana soil
types, 71:335-340
, Soils affecting urban uses —
a teaching program, 75:273-
278
Galloway, J. J., memorial, 72:40-42
Gamma radiation from Ne20, 71:276
Gamma rays, 73:174
absorption coefficient of, 76:358-
365
Gamma-A globulin, 79:92
Gammon, J. R., 74:352; 78:203;
79:136; 80:175; (see also
Benda, R. S., and Phelps,
J. M., Jr.)
, The distribution of fishes in
Putnam County, Indiana, and
vicinity, 74:353-359
Garner, M. R. Notes on the ecology
of the milliped, Plenroloma
butleri (McNeill) in migra-
tion, 72:348-350
, History of zoology in Indi-
ana, 76:164-170
Garnier, B. J., 72:171
Garter snake, 78:445
Gas chromatography, 77:175
Gas storage, underground, in Indi-
ana, 71:166-168
Gastrotricha in Indiana, 76:400-404
Generating plants, location factors,
76:347-352
Genetics, 75:63; 75:65-66; 75:67-72;
75:109; 75:137-140; 75:229
in barley, 76:199
of Tropisternus, 76:272-278; 76:
279-283
Society of America, academic
origins of members, 78:370-
377
Gentianaceae, 78:414
Geographic influences, changes in
Bloomington, 71:265-270
Geography, history of, in Indiana,
76:95-102
materials, classification, 80:313-
314
physical, Canon City Embayment,
Colorado, 76:335-338
physical, a program for, 72:171
Geologic reports for land-use plan-
ning studies, 78:49-64
Geology and Geography (see also
entries under following author
names, only those who submit-
ted manuscripts included :
Agee, E. M.; Amstutz, D. W.;
Barton, T. F.; Bieber, C. L.;
Blome, D. A.; Boneham,
R. F.; Cleveland, J. H.;
Coffman, D. M.; Crowe,
D. R.; Dillon, L. I.; Dinga,
C. F.; Dinkel, R. M.; Dunn,
R. L.; French, R. R.; Guern-
sey, L.; Hart, J. F.; Hasch,
J. E.; Hess, E. B.; Hook,
J. C; Johansen, N. I.;
Kane, H. E.; Kirch, R. V.;
Knowles, W. W.; Lewis,
L. A.; Medvick, C. ; Meyer,
A. H.; Miles, R.; Miller,
L. V.; Moulton, B.; Mur-
doch, S. H.; Norwine, J. R.;
Orr, R. W.; Palmer, A. N.;
Powell, R. L; Ricketts, J.
A.; Riley, B. W.; Schaal,
L. A.; Schneider, A. F.;
Smith, J. M.; Straw, W. L;
Geology — Gordon
445
Thompson, I. B.; Turner,
A. K.; Visher, S. S.; Wayne,
W. J.; Webb, G. W.; Weber,
N. V.; West, T. R.; Whippo,
P. D.; Wier, C. E.; Wright,
R. D.)
abstracts, 71:148-149; 72:171-173;
74:222-223; 75:149-152; 77:
229-230; 78:315-316; 79:253;
80:311-314
Geology, coal roof rock, 79:263-269
north-central Indiana, 80:320-329
at Hanover College, 125 years, 72:
243-245
history of, in Indiana, 76:103-115
of Sabine Lake and vicinity, Loui-
siana and Texas, 73:171-176
Geomorphology of Indiana, 78:317-
328
George, J., 79:121
Geotropism, maize stem, 77:128
Gerber, D. (see Middleton, A. E.)
Germanium (III) phthalocyanine,
80:141
Germfree animal research, history
of, at Lobund Laboratory,
75:220-226
Germfree animals, lysozyme levels,
76:183-190
Germfree chickens, antibody forma-
tion in, 72:97-102
antigens, 74:120-124
Germfree mice, 74:125-131; 73:75-76
serum interferon of, 75:57-60
Germfree rats, influence of Salmo-
nella typhimurhim on ileum
and spleen morphology, 73:78-
82
intestinal disaccharidasses, 76:180-
181
rearing, on chemically defined,
antigen low diets, 72:87-92
Germination, in Dictyostelium dis-
coideum, 79:345
teliospores of Puccinia coronata
var. avenae, 71 : 96-99
Gerwig, J. L., 78:201-202
Geyer, R. E., Jr., 78:446
Ghate, A. V., 72:140-141
Ghemawat, M. S., 77:127-128
Gibbs, P. S., 77:156-157
Giese, R. L. (see Schuder, D. L.)
Gifford, C. E., 71:369, (see also
Harper, S. E., Pettee, R. E.,
and Wade, S. E.)
Gilbert, S. K. (see Patterson, F.
L.)
Gill, J. B., 80:64
Gilloly, C. (see O'Brian, D. M.)
Girdley, W. A. (see Wier, C. E.)
Girton, R. E., 71:85; 78:116-117
, Three-quarters of a century
of biology at Purdue Univer-
sity: 1874-1947, 74:284-288
Glacial features, linear, in west-
central Indiana, 72:172-173
Glacial geology, 75:149-150; 75:167-
174; 75:202-205
Lake Maxinkuckee area, 76:328-
334
Glacial Lake Chicago, 77:271-278
Glacial till, effects on strip mined
lands, 77:305-311
Glasses, oxide, produced by Ir, Pd,
Rhand Ru, 79:361-373
Gleditsia, biosystematics of North
American species, 75:229
Glenn, E. J., 80:64
Glutaraldehyde, reactions with cyto-
membranes, 78.167-182
Glycine max, shoot development, 71:
83
Glycine sp., resistance to fungi, 76:
203
Goebel, H. H., 80:112-113
Goethe, C. M., memorial, 76:47-49
Goins, D. R„ 79:137
Goldfish, maze learning, 75:235-239
Goldstein, M. E., 71:85
Golgi apparatus, 77:154; 77:159-163;
77:164-170; 78:162; 78:183-
188; 80:124-129
in fungal hyphae, 76 210-212
mucleotide phosphatase activities,
79:107-109
Gonadotropins, effect on chick testes,
80:505-509
Gooden, Robert, Site, Fulton County,
Illinois, 80:64
Goodrich, F. E. (see Hoffer, R. M.)
Gordon, D., 75:229
446
Gordon — Guernsey
Gordon, R. E., Science, communica-
tion, and the critical mass,
78:65-69
Gorham, E. D., 71:276
Gorman, M., 78:111-112
Gossett, F. 0. (see Powell, H. M.)
Gould, G. E„ 71:114-115; 73:145;
74:196; 76:259
— — , Chinch bug control with new
insecticides, 75:130-136
, The corn rootworm problem
in Indiana, 80:267-274
, and C. A. Edwards, Damage
to field corn by Symphylans,
77:214-221
Goulden, C. E., 71:368
Grains, small, response to nitrogen,
75:256-261
Gramineae, 77:132-135
stem structure in, 79:85-90
Grant, K. E., The soil survey in the
rural urban complex, 75:262-
266
Graphical analysis of forests, 74:
169-177; 74:307
Grasses, nodal complex in, 77:132-
135
stem structure in, 79:85-90
"Great Mound," excavation of, 79:
75-82
Great Slave Lake area, botanical in-
vestigations, 71 :82
Green, M. J., P. D. Sparks, and
S. N. Postelwait, Studies of
the ovule and seed develop-
ment of guar, 73:97-104
Green, R. J., Jr., 75:62; 80:96;
(see also Locke, J. C., and
Smith, P. L.)
, and C. Fordyce, Jr., Aerial
survey and control of oak wilt
in Indiana, 71:91-93
Green sunfish, growth and effect of
hierarchy, 79:136
Greene County, Indiana, 78:355-362
prehistory, 80:63
Greene-Nieuwland Herbarium, Uni-
versity of Notre Dame, 71:
235-238
Gries, G. A. (see Zimmer, D. E.)
Griffin, E. C, Water and soil con-
servation by prehistoric Indian
cultures in the Sierra Madre
Occidental of Mexico, 77:109-
112
Grocer locations, Terre Haute, Indi-
ana, 79:309-317
Grollig, F. X., S. J., Accelerated
acculturation of the Mayan
Indians of Guatemala, 71:67-
68
, The Aymara and Uru Indians
of the Peruvian Altiplano,
72:67-68
Groundwater, in Chesterian rocks,
75:210-215
geology, West Lafayette, Indiana,
area, 74:259-267
in limestones, 79:281-291
pollution in Monroe County, 75:
150-151
Grove, S., 76:202-203; 77:156
, D. J. Morre, and C. E.
Bracker, Dictyosomes in veg-
etative hyphae of Pythium
ultimum, 76:210-214
Growth, bluegill, effect of photo-
period, 79:135
bluegill, effect of feeding fre-
quency, 79:136
bluegill, seasonal, 79:135
substances, bioassay methods for
geotropically active, 72:115-
117
Gruenholz, A. W., 78:446
Guar, ovule and seed development,
73:97-104
Guard, A. T., 78:117
Guernsey, C. W., Some aspects of
soils and soil survey on the
Island of Maui, Hawaii, 72:
338-339
, Characteristics and forma-
tion of plinthite on Maui Is-
land, Hawaii, 74:335-338
Guernsey, L. (see also Dinkel,
R. L.)
, Characteristics of the Terre
Haute central business dis-
trict, 71 : 203-209
Guernsey — Hamilton
447
, Land use of selected cities
in Indiana, 73:196-201
, Strip coal mine reclamation
problems in Indiana, 74:255-
258
, Selected effects of glacial till
on the physical characteristics
and existing land use of
Indiana's strip mined lands,
77:305-311
Gulish, W. J., Bluegill predation by
three fish species, 79:139-147
Gunther, W. C., 74:350; 75:283;
77:413; (see also Wagner, M.
W.)
, Oxygen uptake in heat-
stressed chick embryos, 73:
261-266
, Further observations on ef-
fect of nonoptimally high in-
cubation temperature on fre-
quency of pecking and color
preference in the chick, 74:
362-366
, Effects of embryonic temp-
erature stress on handedness
and variability in chicks, 76:
426-430
, and R. K. Jones, Effect of
non-optimally high incubation
temperatures on T - maze
learning in the chick, 71:327-
333
, and R. K. Jones, Effect of
environmental stress on chick
weight, 71:385-398
, and R. K. Jones, Effect of
nonoptimally high incubation
temperature on frequency of
pecking and on color prefer-
ences in the chick, 72:290-299
, and R. K. Jones, Some ef-
fects of nonoptimally high
incubation temperatures on
chicken blood chemistry, 72:
353-361
Gussin, A. E. S., 74:350; 75:284
, Lipid metabolism in the
Mediterranean Meal Moth,
Ephestia kuhniella Zeller, dur-
ing its life cycle, 75:311-318
Guthrie, F. N., Chromatography
and spectroscopy — The new-
team in chemistry (presiden-
tial address), 80:39-49
Guthrie, N., 71 :100; 72:239
, memorial, 76:49-50
Gypsum, resources in United States,
78:315
stratigraphy and mining in south-
western Indiana, 76:318-322
Hackett, C. F., and H. K. Hughes,
A constant speed drive for
Mossbauer experiments, 74 :
298-301
Hadley Lake depression, Tippecanoe
County, 79:270-280
Haenisch, E. L., Johnny and rela-
tivity (presidential address),
74:60-67
Haffley, P. (see Fischer, R. B.)
Hagen, C. W., Jr., 72:103
Hall, B. V., 79:91
Hall, C. R., 72:256-257
, Algae of Putnam County,
Indiana, 71:293-297
Hall, D., 75:65; 76:201-202
— — , The West Lafayette mos-
quito control program, 72:169-
170
Hall, G. W., 72:256
Hall, J. D., (see Barr, R.)
, J. W. Stiles, Y. Awasthi,
and F. L. Crane, Membrani-
fibrils on Cristae and Grana
membranes, 78:189-197
Halteria grandinella, 74:349; 77:414
Hamilton, D. W., Periodical ci-
cicadas, Magicicada spp., as
pests in apple orchards, 71 :
116-121
, Interesting Diptera col-
lected in Indiana walnut
groves, 72:154-157
, and M. L. Cleveland, Peri-
odical cicadas in 1963, Brood
23, 73:167-170
Hamilton, J. A., 79:357-358
Hamilton, R. L. (see Middleton,
A. E.)
448
Hammett — Heiser
Hammett acidity functions of some
organophosphorous acids, 73 :
126
Hammond, C. T., 80:97-98
Hammond, Indiana, manufacturing
geography, 72:190-211
Hamon, J. H., 71:367-368; 71:369;
74:348; 75:282; 75:282; 75:
283; (see also Allen, J. P.,
Baker, J. B., and Troyer,
B. C.)
, Another cat with an "upside-
down" stomach, 74:360-361
Hannah, P. R., and H. Kohnke,
Pot studies indicate need of
fertilization in reforestation
of abandoned cropland in
southern Indiana, 73:252-256
Hanover College, 125 years of ge-
ology at, 72:243-245
chemical research publications by
alumni of, 72:239
Hansen, U. J., 79:360
Hanson, R. J., 75:56
Harbron, T. R., 80:313
Hardwick, P. F., 72:139=140
Haring, E. (See Alvager, T.)
Harmon, N. P. (see Joyner, J. W.)
Haroz, R. K., 76:222
Harper, S. E., and C. E. Gifford,
A twice taken qualitative and
quantitative sampling of phy-
toplankton in four areas of
Dewart Lake, Indiana, 74:315-
318
Harris, J. E. (see Burnor, D. R.)
Hart, J. F., 75:150
, Some comparisons of popu-
lation distribution in the mid-
dle west in 1950, 71:210-218
, Smithville, Amo, and Coates-
ville, 72:228-235
, Population concentration in
Indiana, 74:224-229
Hart, J. W., 80:246
, A checklist of the mos-
quitoes of Indiana with a
record of the occurrence of
Aedes infirmatus D&K, 78:
257-259
, A checklist of Indiana col-
lembola, 79:249-252
Hart, R. D., 79:137
Harter, R. D. (see Ahlrichs, J.
L.)
Hartzell, S. L., 80:142-143
Harwood, D. (see Petty, R.)
Harvey, Illinois, manufactural geog-
raphy, 75:178-190
Hasch, J. E., and T. W. Hodler,
Synagraphic mapping of the
mean elevation and relative
relief of Indiana, 80:356-361
Haseman, J. S., 75:282
Haslanger, P. C, memorial, 78:35
Hassler, C. R., and R. I. Fletcher,
Aerobic heavy sludge diges-
tion, 74:149-151
Hastings, J. R. (see Phelps, J.
M., Jr.)
Hatcher, C. O., 74:352
Hatchett, J. H., 72:141
Hatching substance, localized pro-
duction in Rana pipiens, 75:
303-307
Hayat, A., 71:86
Hayden, M. A., and W. J. Brett,
The effect of aminoglutethi-
mide on membrane permea-
bility in rabbit and human
erythrocytes, 80:510-516
Hazelton, J. L., 79:360
Heart, effects of altitude on, 77:445-
449
Heat exchange in relation to atmos-
pheric density, 76:372-376
Heated effluents, fish response to,
79:136
Heath, M. E., 80:177
, Fitting plants to fragipan
soils in southern Indiana,
78:429-434
, Naturalized Big Trefoil
(Lotus pedunculatus Cav.)
ecotypes discovered in Craw-
ford County, Indiana, 79:193-
197
Heiser, C. B., Jr., 79:376
, A brief history of the herb-
arium of Indiana University,
71:226-227
Heiser — History
449
, Some observations on pol-
lination and compatibility in
Magnolia, 72:259-266
Heitman, H., Jr., and J. L. Al-
bright, The effects of ex-
ploration and test frequency
on maze learning, 75:235-239
Heliomeris, hybridization, 75:229
Helminths, in Mus musculus, 80:485
Helium, nuclear synthesis, 80:404-411
Helminthosporium maydis, 80:96-97;
80:98
Heloderma suspectum, tumor in,
78:466-467
Hemmer Woods, Gibson County,
Indiana, 78:245-254
Hemolytic plaque assay for antibody
forming cells, 77:125
Hendricks County, elephantine teeth
from, 75:293-298
mastodon in, 71:407-411
Hendricks, D. R. (see Cope, J. B.)
Henn, R. E., A preliminary report
on the Leonard Site, 80:67-73
Hennen, J. F., 71:82; 72:104; 72:
258; 73:217; 80:96
Henry, H. F., Physics: Its develop-
ment in Indiana, 76:129-141
Henry, R. L., 73:209
Henson, J. F., memorial, 76:50
Hentz, R. R., 74:180; 77:173; 77:
173-174
Henzlik, R. E., 75:284; 76:241;
80:176
Hepatitis virus, mouse, 75:55
Herbarium, Arthur, Purdue Univer-
sity, history, 71 : 228-232
Greene-Nieuwland, University of
Notre Dame, 71:235-238
Notre Dame, 75:229-230
Purdue University, 71:233-234
Herbicides, 80:114-123
Herley, P. J., 74:179-180
Herrala, E. A., The incidence of
dental caries of pre-historic
and historic Indian groups,
71:57-60
Hershey, S. C, and R. T. Everly,
Effect of X-ray radiation on
the survival of the corn leaf
aphid, 71:142-145
Hess, E. B., Historical background-
Wisconsin population distribu-
tion, 74:278-282
Hessian fly and wheat jointworm in-
festations in Indiana in 1962,
72:141
Hessler, R. H., 71:86
Hetaerina americana, 75:108
Heteroaromatic sulfur-nitrogen com-
pounds, 80:164-173
Hettmer, J. H., 79:359
Heys, J. R., and E. Schwartz, A
dielectric study of Bis- (2'-
hydroxyacetophenonato) Cop-
per (II), 80:144-150
Hierarchy, effect on green sunfish
growth, 79:136
Higgins, J., 71:276
Highwood, J. E. (see Moore, D. N.)
Hill, D. L., 76:397
Hinsman, E. J., 78:161
Histamine, formation in rat tissues,
76:193-198
Histidine decarboxylase in rat tissue,
76:193-198
Histopathology, plant tissues, 77:130
History, racial, in Lower Nubia, 77:
113-121
History, science departments, Indi-
ana University, 77:340-345
bacteriology in Indiana, 76:65-70
botany in Indiana, 76:71-80
chemistry in Indiana, 76:81-94
geography in Indiana, 76:95-102
geology in Indiana, 76:103-115
mathematics in Indiana, 76:116-128
physics in Indiana, 76:129-141
plant taxonomy in Indiana, 76:142-
150
soil science in Indiana, 76:151-163
zoology in Indiana, 76:164-170
History of Science (see also entries
under following author names,
only those who submitted
manuscripts included : Adams,
S. C.; Baxter, J. W.; Cam-
paigne, E. E.; Cooper, R. H.;
Daily, F. K.; Edington, W.
E.; Girton, R. E.; Heiser,
C. B., Jr.; Howard, D.; Kauf-
man, K. L.; McGuire, J, M.;
450
History — Huffman
MdNTOSH, R. P.; MOULTON,
B.; Pleasants, J. R.; Sprague,
N. G.; Visher, S. S.; Web-
ster, G. L.; Welch, W. H.;
Yuncker, T. G.)
abstracts, 72:239; 74:283
Hlavaty, V., memorial, 79:30-31
Hodde, D. L. (see Schmelz, D. V.)
Hodes, M. E., 77:123-124
Hodges, H. F. (see Stivers, R. K.)
Hodler, T. W., (see Hasch, J. E.)
Hoffer, G. N., memorial, 74:46-49
Hoffer, R. M., C. J. Johannsen,
and M. F. Baumgardner, Ag-
ricultural applications of re-
mote multispectral sensing,
76:386-395
, and F. E. Goodrich, Geo-
graphic considerations in au-
tomatic cover type identifica-
tion, 80:230-244
Hoffman, W. E., (see Schmidt,
F. C.)
, M. Jacobs, G. Kennepohl,
D. W. Parrott, P. Reed, T.
R. Stout, and J. Sundy, The
study of complexes of Di-n-
butyloxamidine with transi-
tion metals, 79:129-133
Hog-nosed snakes (Heterodon platy-
7'hinos) , defensive actions, 71:
369
Hoggott, N., 77:155
Holdaway, P. A., Effects of amino-
gluthethimide and diphenyl-
hydantoin sodium on the rat
adrenal cortex, 77:427-433
Holdridge bioclimatic formations of
the eastern and central United
States, 73:105-112
Holdridge life-zone applications, 80:
210-214
Holler, F. J., 78:199; 80:141
Holmes, R. E., 78:112
Holtermann, O., 77:125-126
Hook, J. C, and A. J. Cantin, A
comparison of ten, twenty-five
and fifty year climatic rec-
ords, 74:245-247
Hookeriaceae, distribution patterns,
77:351-356
species in South America, 78:396-
405
species and distribution in Africa,
Europe, Asia, Australia and
Oceania, 79:377-387
Hoot Woods, virgin timber in Owen
County, Indiana, 71:320-326
Hopewell culture, 74:81-83
Indians of Illinois, 79:62-64
people, stature, 77:98-101
Hopp, W. B., 71 :369 ; 78 :446
Hormones in chickens, 78:445-446
Hornuff, L. E., (see Bick, G. H.)
Horst, J., 77:154
Horvath, E., O. Montgomery, and
B. Van Zile, The effect of
altitude on the multispectral
mapping of soil organic mat-
ter, 80:476-483
Hosseinie, S. O., 74:195-196
Houlihan, J. F., 78:387; 79:358;
80:378; (see also Tiano, D.
E.)
■, Energy ether, 74:302-306
House fly, response to electric lamps,
72:161-166
Howard, D., and T. R. Mertens, Aca-
demic origins of members of
the Genetics Society of Amer-
ica, 78:370-377
Howard, J. B., 73:125; 73:126
Hsu, L. W. T., 71:83-84
Huant, C., 80:111-112
Huber, R. T., and J. V. Osmun,
Insects and other anthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana during 1965, 75:116-
129
, and J. V. Osmun, Insects
and other anthropods of ec-
onomic importance in Indiana
during 1966, 76:291-307
Huelsman, B. R., Brief sketch of
the racial history of selected
ethnic groups of Siberia, 76:
173-177
, Urban anthropology and the
southern mountaineer, 78:97-
103
Huffman, C. J., J. C. Huffman,
and F. C. Schmidt, Anom-
Huffman — Indiana
451
alies in the density curves of
alkyldiamine - water systems,
75:90-95
Huffman, J. C, (see Huffman,
C.J.)
Huggins, L. F., (see Skaggs, R.
W.)
Hughes, H. K., 72:248; (see also
Alman, D. H., and Hackett,
C. F.)
Hughes, L. B., and H. W. Reuszer,
A two-year study of bacterial
populations in Indiana farm
pond waters, 79:423-431
Hughes, L. E., 78:417
Hull, J., Jr., and A. L. Kenworthy,
Nutritional survey of Indiana
apple orchards utilizing foliar
analysis as the diagnostic tool,
73:239-243
Hults, M., 78:387-388
Humbles, J., 80:413-414
■, Indiana plant distribution
records, XIX, 1962-65, 75:231-
232
, Indiana plant distribution
records, XX, 1966-68, 78:413
Humeral septum, performation of,
78:73-82
Humphrey, S. R., 75:280-281
, and J. B. Cope, Movements
of My otis lucifugus lucifugus
from a colony in Boone
County, Indiana, 73:268-271
Hunger, the edge of, 71 : 341-346
Hunter, K. B., Preliminary report
on the Hopewellian skeletons
from the Klunk Site, Calhoun
County, Illinois, 74:81-83
- — -, and G. K. Neumann, Orig-
ins and racial affiliations of
the Illinois Hopewell Indians,
79:62-64
Hurt, W. R., Climatic change and
the northern plains archaic,
74:99-106
Husband, D. D., 77:129-130
Huygens' pendulum clock and plane-
tarium, 78:378-380
Hybridization of Coleoptera species,
72:139
Hybridization in Heliomeris, 75:229
Hydra, simple method for collecting,
72:351-352
Hydraulic geometry, 80:351-355
Hydrocyanic acid, content in Manioc,
79:137
Hydrogen formation from dioxane,
77:173
Hydrolysis, of iron in methanol
solutions, 71:101-104
of sulfamic acid, 72:123
Hymenoptera, social wasps, 74:197-
204
Hypera postica (Gyll.), alfalfa wee-
vil, pest in Indiana, 74:194
Hyperglycemic response in king
crab, 75:285
Hyphomycetes, aquatic, from Wyom-
ing and Indiana, 71:83
Hypocotyl development, 80:97-98
Hypothermia and Tamias striatus,
79:476-483
Hypoxia, effects on cardiac muscle,
77:445-449
Hypsometric integral, computer cal-
culation of , 77:256-270
Ichthyofaunal distribution, basic con-
siderations, 75:299-302
Icteridae, 77:434-441
Igneous molecular norms, computer
program, 75:175-177
Iliniwek (Illinois) Indians, 77:95
Iminium salts, the reaction of, with
dichlorocarbenes, 71:100
Immunochemistry, 77:159-163
Impatiens balsamina L., genetics and
biochemistry of the "dark
"eye" phenotype, 72:103
Impedence, surface, in wave propa-
gation, 80:388-403
Inconspicuous figures in learning
tests, 75:240-245
Indian population, osteoarthritis in
an archaic, 73:64-66
Indian territory, misinterpreted as
Indiana, 79:229-230
Indiana, early man, 79:65-68
plant distribution records, 80:413-
414
population needs, 74:230-231
452
Indiana — Ishikawa
yield of eminent people compared
with that of nearby states,
72:240-242
Indiana Academy of Science, com-
plete membership list, 1968,
77:47-72
meetings (see spring meetings and
fall meetings)
relation to State government,
77:84-93
service to citizens of State, 77:84-
93
whither?, 76:54-61
Indiana biological reserve, oldfield
succession in, 71:285-291
Indiana-born eminent scientists, his-
torians, and educators, 72:240-
242
Indiana fossil plants, 78:120-138
Indiana plant distribution records,
71:88-90; 75:231-232; 78:413
Indiana soils, natural and fission-
produced radioactivity in four,
72:325-329
Indiana spiders, annotated list, 78:
266-314
Indiana State University collections,
77:415-416
Indiana University, cyclotron, 77:
347-348
herbarium, history of, 71:226-227
science departments, 77:340-345
thermal pollution by, 80:183-188
Indians, prehistoric American, 77:95
Shawnee, origin, 78:93-96
Indolebutyric acid and black walnut
seedling development, 72:108-
111
Induction, chemical, of germfree
tumors, 73:76
Industry, chemical, in Indiana, 76:
81-94
Infrared absorption, alkali chelates,
80:151-154
Infrared adsorption of oxime ace-
tates, 80:127-131
Inglefield and Dicksburg Hills sand-
stone members, distribution
of, Posey and Vanderburgh
Counties, Indiana, 72:212-217
Ingraham, J. S., 77:125; 78:109
Inquiry in teaching biology, 80:437
Insect, heartbeat and bacterial path-
ogens, 79:227
pathology and heartbeat, 79:227
sex attractants, spectroscopic iden-
tifications, 80:39-49
Insecticide adsorption on soils, 79:
432-437
Insecticides, chinch bug control, 75:
130-136
Insects, attractiveness of electric
lamps to nocturnal, 73:145
economic, in 1961, 71:130-137
economic, in 1962, 72:142-149
economic, in 1963, 73:146-153
economic, in 1964, 74:207-218
economic, in 1965, 75:116-129
economic, in 1966, 76:291-307
economic, in 1970, 80:286-298
genetic variability, 75:137-140
Instructions for contributors (see
Contributors)
Interest measurement and science
achievement, 80:438
Interferon, germfree mice, 76:181
tolerance to production of, 75:57-
60
Internode development, 80:97-98
Intestinal microflora and cholesterol
catabolism, 73:83-87
Ion implantation, biological material,
80:384-387
Ion source, polarized helium-3, at
Indiana University, 79:359
Ionization potentials, hydrides of
phosphorus, 76:221
Iron, hydrolysis in methanol solu-
tions, 71 : 101-104
oxidizing bacteria, and coal mine
stream pollution, 79:345
solvation of, 80:155-158
Iron (II), cyanamide complex of, 80:
141
Iron meteorites, shock effects, 77:
172-173
Iron sulfide in sphalerites, Missis-
sippi Valley, 74:271-277
Irradiation of germfree rats, 76:180-
181
Ishikawa, S., 79:93-94
ISOCYANATE JUNIOR
453
Isocyanate dimers and trimers, ultra-
violet absorption spectra of,
77:171-172
Isocyanates, aryl, dimerization and
trimerization of, 77:172
Isopod, cave, 75:286-288
Isostatic adjustment to Wisconsin
glacier, 75:167-174
Isotope effects, deuterium, 79:121-
122
secondary, and steric effects, 71 :
105-108
Jackson, M. T., 77:183; 79:137-138
— , Hemmer Woods: An out-
standing old-growth lowland
forest remnant in Gibson
County, Indiana, 78:245-254
, Outdoor museums and lab-
oratories: Needs, uses and
values, 80:56-61
, and P. R. Allen, Use of
large scale forest maps for
teaching forest sampling
methodology, 76:243-250
, and P. R. Allen, Detailed
studies of old-growth forests
in Versailles State Park, Indi-
ana, 78:210-230
Jacobs, M. E., 76:399; (see also
Hoffman, W. E.)
, Beta-alanine utilization in
Drosophila with notes on other
amino acids, 75:283-284
Jaeger, R. R., 77:172-173
Japanese beetle, crop threat in
Indiana, 74:196
Japanese Knotweed, 75:233-234
Japanese Quail, 75:282; 75:289-292
Japanese weevil in Indiana, 78:255-
256
Jardine, L. J., (see Siefker, J. R.)
Jensen, D. D., 72:288
Jersild, R. A., 77:156-157; 77:157-
158; 78:162; 78:163
Jeter, T. R., (see Manning, A. W.)
Job's method and transition metal
complexes, 79:129-133
Johannsen, C. J., (see Baum-
gardner, M. F., and Hoffer,
R. M.)
, M. F. Baumgardner, and D.
Wiersma, Leaf moisture vari-
ation within corn leaf sections,
80:453-460
, M. F. Baumgardner and D.
Wiersma, Effect of changing
soil moisture on corn leaf
moisture, 80:461-467
Johansen, N. I., and W. N. Mel-
horn, Proposed origins for
the Hadley Lake Depression,
Tippecanoe County, Indiana,
79:270-280
Johns, R. M., memorial, 74:49-50
Johnson, C. B., (see Olson, T. C.)
Johnson, G. H., 72:172-173; (see
also Schneider, A. F.)
Johnson, L. B., 72:103-104
Jones, C. E., 79:349
Jones, D. D., 75:64-65
Jones, D. M., and T. R. Mertens,
A taxonomic study of genus
Polygonum employing chro-
matographic methods, 80:422-
430
Jones, G. S., Foods of the white-
footed mouse, Peromyscus leu-
copus noveboracensis, from.
Pike County, Indiana, 79:172-
176
Jones, R. K., (see Gunther, W. C.)
Jordan, R., memorial, 79:31-32
Jordan River, thermal pollution of,
80:183-188
Joyner, J. W., and N. P. Harmon,
Burrows and oscillative be-
havior therein of Lumbricus
terrestris, 71:378-384
Joyner, R. D., 78:199; 78:199; 80:
141; 80:141
Judd, R. W., and J. J. Nisbet,
Pennsylvania coal ball flora of
Indiana, 78:120-138
Junior Academy of Science Clubs,
71:25-35; 72:26-37
74:33-40; 75:25-29
77:25-31; 78:22-28
80:18-20
73:25-30;
76:35-41;
79:16-22;
454
Kahn — Kasman
Kahn, A., 77:158
'Kaiser' trefoil, ecotypes from Craw-
ford County, Indiana, 79:193-
197
Kajima, M., 75:61; 76:179
Kalland, Gene, A., Localized pro-
duction of the hatching sub-
stance in Rana pipiens, 75:
303-307
Kampmeyer, S., 76:201-202; 76:202-
203
Kane, H. E., 72:171-172; 77:229
, Geology of Sabine Lake and
vicinity, Louisiana and Texas,
73:171-176
, Some aspects of the drainage
geography and sedimentation
of a portion of Southeastern
Texas, 75:197-201
, Some general aspects of the
physical geography of the
southeastern portion of the
Canon City Embayment, Colo-
rado, 76:335-338
Kane, W. D., 75:230
Karling, J. S., 71:82-83
K a r s t geomorphology, Mitchell
Plain, 77:245-249
Karst groundwater zone, 79:281-291
Karst hydrology, 77:250-255
Karst, land use, 80:311-312
Kaufman, K. L., A brief history of
the Pharmacy College of But-
ler University, 75:216-219
Kellogg, T. F., and B. S. Wost-
MANN, Factors affecting ster-
oid excretion in the rat, 76:
191-192
Kemper, B. W., (see Cole, T. A.)
Kendall, S. H., 78:113-114
Kende, M., 77:124
Kennepohl, G., (see Hoffman, W.
E.)
Kenson, R. E., (see Davis, R. E.)
Kenworthy, A. L., (see Hull, J.,
Jr.)
Kern, F. D., (see Baxter, J. W.)
Kern, O. L., 76:357
Kessler, D. P., 72:86
Kidney microvilli, ultrastructure and
enzymology, 79:93-94
Killough, R. A. 73:145
Kindig, R., 79:345
Kinsey, P. A., 80:141-142
Kinship systems, diffusion in chang-
ing, 71:61-66
Kirch, R. V., Recent developments
in underground gas storage
fields in Indiana, 71:166-168
Kirkpatrick, C. M., (see Mu-
ehrcke, J. P.)
Kirkpatrick, R. D., (see also
Brechner, R. E., and
Crankshaw, W. B.)
, the introduction of the
Japanese Quail (Coturnix co-
turnix japonica in Indiana,
75:289-292
, Fox bounty in Indiana dur-
ing the years 1961 through
1968,79:187-192
Kline, C. E., (see Wert, W. G.)
Knight, P. L., 76:180
— — , Thiamine and anti-microbial
defenses, 72:93-96
, and B. S. Wostmann, In-
fluence of Salmonella typhi-
murium on Ileum and spleen
morphology of germfree rats,
63:78-82
Knight, R. J., 77:173-174
Knotted leaf mutant in corn, 75:61-
62
Knotweed, {Polygonum), taxonomy,
74:307; 77:357-369
Knowles, W. W., The relative relief
of Monroe County, 72:236-238
Kohlstedt, D. L., 75:227
Kohnke, H., (see Hannah, P. R.)
, Experiences with vertical
mulching, 80:468-475
, and S. A. Barger, Tillage
techniques on Indiana prairie
soil, 78:418-428
Koltenbah, D. E., 78:388
Kolitschew, K. D., memorial, 80:
29-30
Konetzka, W. A., 73:76-77
Kornicker, L. S., 71:369; 74:348-
349
Koski, W. S., 74:178
Kosman, W. M., 76:221
Kramer — Leon
455
Kramer, D. C., 78:445
Kramer Woods, 77:184
Kriebel herbarium, Purdue Univer-
sity, 71:233-234
Kristof, S., 80:443; (see also
Baumgardner, M. F.)
Kroening, C. J., W. W. Bloom,
and K. E. Nichols, A study
of sleep movements in the
genus Marsilea, 77:148-151
Kruger, T. L., 80:142; 80:142-143;
80:143
Krumholz, L. A., R. L. Bingham,
and E. R. Meyer, A survey
of the commercially valuable
mussels of the Wabash and
White Rivers of Indiana, 79:
205-226
Kruse, M., 75:282
Kuc, J., 78:118; 80:367; 80:367-368;
80:368
Kuebler, J. R., memorial, 77:40-41
Kurowsky, S., 77:172
Kutlich, E. S., 72:103
Labor-shed, Bloomington's industrial,
71:196-202
Lair, B., (see Meyer, A. H.)
Lake estuarine environment and
geologic development at Sa-
bine Lake and vicinity, Texas-
Louisiana, 72:171-172
Lake Maxinkuckee area, glacial his-
tory, 76:328-334
Lake Michigan, fisheries harvest and
utilization data, 77:184
Lake shores, ecological benefits of,
80:176
Lakes and streams map, Indiana,
76:323-327
Lambert, N. E., 79:375
Lammert, S. R., 80:142
LaMotte culture, 79:57; 80:74-83
Land use, mapping, automatic, 80:
230-244
planning, 78:49-64
of selected Indiana cities, 73:196-
201
of strip mined lands, 77:305-311
Landform properties, 78:317-328
Land-survey divisions, noncongres-
sional, 74:248-254
Lane, T. J., memorial, 73:32-33
Lang, N. J., 71:85-86
Langenheim, J. H., 73:217-218
Langer, L. M., 72:248
Laplace transform, and wave propa-
gation, 80:388-403
Lasiurus cinereus, in Indiana, 78:
497-501
Late woodland American Indians,
78:83-87
Latex agglutination, M. pneumoniae
antiserum, 77:124
Lattice defects, 80:141
Laubengayer, R. A., memorial, 76:
50-52
Laughlin, R., 71 :284
Lavelle, G., 75:55
Lawrence, R. M., 78:199
Leaf abcission, environmental regu-
lation, 78:146-160
Leaf moisture, variation within corn
leaves, 80:453-460
at different corn leaf positions,
80:461-467
— soil moisture relationships, 80:
453-460; 80:461-467
Leaf morphology and climates, 80:
99-103
Learning, chick, effect of tempera-
tures on, 71:327-333
effect of tranquilizer (chlorpro-
mazine),on 73:272-276
Lease, W. H., 74:196
Leavis, P. C, 75:55-56
Lee, S. S., 79:346
Leewenhoek's microscopes, 78:378-
380
Leiosphaeridia in New Albany shale,
79:254-262
Lembi, C. A., (see Morre, D. J.)
Lemke, P. A., 78:112-113
Lemna minor, the flowering of, 78:
414-416
Lemnaceae, 78:414-416
Leon-Gallegos, H. M., 77:130
, The differential effect of
mercuric chloride on growth
of certain fungi associated
with corn seed, 76:217-220
456
Leonard — Locke
Leonard Site, excavations, 80:67-73
Lestes unguiculatus, 75:110-115
Leukemia suppression by L-As-
paraginase, 78:110-111
Leukocytes in human peripheral
blood, fine structure, 77:155-
156
Levine, A. S., 77:154; 78:109; 78:
110; 78:110-111
Levin, M.H., 75:229-230
Lewis, L. A., Analysis of surficial
landform properties: The re-
gionalization of Indiana into
units of morphometric similar-
ity, 78:317-328
— — , and Y. M. Sternberg,
Changes in the configuration
of a stream channel resulting
from the construction of a
dam, 80:351-355
Library classification problems,
geography, 80:313-314
Lichen planus, 78:162-163
Lieske, J. H., 73:209
Light effects on leaf moisture, 80:
461-467
Light trap collections of the noc-
turnal bee, Sphecodogastra
texana (Cresson) (Hymenop-
tera, Halictidae), 71:124-129
Lilium longiflorum, 77:144-147; 77:
164-170
Lillo, J. C, 72:246
Limestone blocks, moved by flood-
waters in Putnam County,
Indiana, 71:163-165
Limestone sediment, effects on in-
vertebrates, 80:175
Limnology, of a western Indiana
lake, 79:359
Lindholm, L., 71 :71-72
Lindsey, A. A., 71:84-85; 71:284;
74:307; (see also deLanglade,
R. A.; Petty, R. O.; Sawyer,
J. O., Jr.)
, Analysis of an original forest
of the lower Wabash flood-
plain and upland, 72:282-287
, Indiana's new system of
scientific areas and nature
preserves (presidential ad-
dress) , 77:75-83
, and D. V. Schmelz, Com-
parison of Donaldson's Woods
in 1964 with its 1954 forest
map of 20 acres, 74:169-177
, and D. V. Schmelz, The
forest types of Indiana and a
new method of classifying
midwestern hardwood forests,
79:198-204
, and J. O. Sawyer, Jr., Vege-
tation-climate relationships in
the Eastern United States,
80:210-214
Lindstrum, B. M., 80:245
Linkages, connections between ele-
ments, 80:312
Lipid in membrane structure, 79:
110-120
Lipid metabolism, meal moth, 75:
311-318
Lipschutz, M. E., 77:172-173
Liquid junction potentials, Daniell
cell, 79:123-128
Lish, P. M., 73:75
List, J. C, 74:350-351
Lithostrotionella, West-central Indi-
ana, 74:268-270
Little, R. M., Methodological limi-
tations in the location of
underground objects by elec-
trical resistivity, 75:47-54
Litto, I. M. F., A comparison of
crania from the shell heaps of
Brazil with those of the Ar-
chaic of the Eastern United
States, 73:56-59
Liver, fish, 80:124-129
Liver cancer, experimental, some
dietary factors, in, 72:362-366
Llewellyn, R. A., 79:359
Lobelias of Indiana, 78:118
Lobund Laboratory, history of, 75:
220-226
Locke, J. C, and R. J. Green, Jr.,
Systemic activity of benomyl
fungicide against cladospor-
ium leaf mold and verticillium
wilt of greenhouse tomatoes,
80:104-109
Locomotion— Mannering
457
Locomotion rhythm, turtle, 75:281-
282
Loeschke, W. L., Studies on the
wet-belly disease of the minkf
72:136-138
Logansport Sag, 78:333-341
Lost River, Orange County, 77:
250-255
Lott, A. V., memorial, 80:30-31
Lotus pedunculatus Cav., formerly
L. uliginosus Schkuhr., L.
major Sm., 79:193-197
Louraine, F. E., memorial, 78:35-
36
Lowell, B., 77:229-230
Ludwig, N. G., 80:312
Ludwig, P. K., 74:179
, J. D'Allessio, and M. Bur-
ton, Generation and measure-
ment of Uv light pulse in the
nanosecond and sub-nanosec-
ond region, 74:181-182
Lumbricus terrestris, burrows and
oscilation behavior therein,
71:378-384
Luminescence, 74:179
radiation induced, 77:173-174
Lymphocytopoiesis and plasmacyto-
poiesis, 74:125-131
Lynceus brachyurus, 80:175-176
Lysozyme in germfree animals, 76:
183-190
Mabe, J., 78:111-112
MacParlane, J. O., (see Powell.
H.M.)
Machine literature searching, 71:275
Mackell, J. F., memorial, 74:50-52
Macklin, J. M., (see Montgomery,
B. E.)
— — , and B. E. Montgomery,
Further notes on rates of de-
velopment of the naiads
of Neotetrum pulchellum
(Drury) (Odonata: Libellui-
dae), 72:158-160
, Notes on the life history of
Anax Junius (Drury) (Odon-
ata: Aeshnidae), 73:154-163
Macromolecular syntheses, inhibi-
tion of, in Escherichia coli by
phenethyl alcohol, 73:76-77
Magneli phases and electron spin
resonance, 79:358
Magnesite, 75:163-166
Magnesium bromide, free energy,
75:105-107
solubility, in di-n-butyl ether, 73:
132-134
Magnolia, pollination and compati-
bility in, 72:259-266
Magnum, T. E., Ill, 79:136
Mahlberg, P. G., 80:97; 80:437
Mahley, R., (see Middleton, A. E.)
Maize, adherent tassel mutant, 77:
129
leaf absorption spectra, 80:130-139
milk-weed pod mutant, 77:129-130
mineral deficient, 80:130-139
mutant, silkless (Sk), 76:200
sexual differentiation of lateral
buds, 77:128
Mak, K. M., 78:162
Makulu, D. R., and M. Wagner,
Lysozyme activity in the
serum, saliva and tears of
germfree and conventional
rats and mice, 76:183-190
Malecite Indians, social organization,
74:112-113
Malin, B., A note on the Academy's
John Shepard Wright Mem-
orial Library, 76:171
Malven, P. V., 76:397
Mammals of Vigo County, 75:280
Man, age of, 71:149
cyclic changes in temperature, 71 :
370-373
Manganese deficiency, effects on soy
beans, 71:85
Manihot esculenta, influence of mic-
roclimates, 79:137
Manioc, influence of microclimates,
79:137
Mannering, J. V., (see also Olson,
T. C.)
, and D. Wiersma, The effect
of rainfall energy on water
infiltration into soils, 79:407-
412
458
Manning — McFarland
Manning, A. W., T. R. Jeter, and
H. Schmuckler, A method
for measuring neutron flux by
a paraffin oil bath technique,
71:277-281
Mansfield formation, in relation to
possible park sites in western
Indiana, 72:177-181
Manufactural geography, Blue Is-
land, Illinois, 74:232-244
East Chicago-Whiting, Indiana,
71:169-186
Hammond, Indiana, 72:190-211
Harvey, Illinois, 75:178-190
Mapping by means of corals, 74:268-
270
Marble, light transmission through,
75:149
Marigolds (Tagetes), taxonomic and
chromatographic studies, 72 :
256
Markle, C. A., Whither the Indiana
Academy of Science? (presi-
dential address), 76:54-61
Markle, M. S., The history of plant
taxonomy and ecology in Indi-
ana, 76:142-150
, memorial, 78:37-39
Marks, G. C, Castilleja coceinea in
the yellow form, 74:314
— — , Polygonum cuspidatum, an
introduced weed in Porter
County, 75:233-234
— - — , Some taxonomic problems
with Viburnum dentatum and
observations of Blephilia cili-
ata, 76:368-369
■ , Teratological Androecia of
Saponaria officinalis, 79:370-
372
, The flowering of Lemna
minor and the establishment
of Centaurium pulchellum in
northwestern Indiana, 78:414-
416
R. J., (see Blakely,
Marmouze,
R. L.)
Marquardt,
M.)
Marsh ferns,
395
F. H., (see Carmack,
taxonomy of, 79:388-
Marshall, G. E., 71:114; 72:140-141
Marshall, V., and A. Bennett,
Thermal synthesis of amino
acids under assumed prebiotic
conditions, 80:369-373
Marsilea, 76:215-216
M. Drummondii A. Br., 72:118-119
rhizoid formation, 79:83
sleep movements in, 77:148-151;
77:152-153
Marsileaceae, sleep and other leaf
movements, 76:215-216
Martinez-Carrion, M., 76:222
Masters, W. R., (see Boneham,
R. F.)
Mastodon evidence in Hendricks
County, 71:407-411
Metatabiether and related terpenes,
synthesis, 77:174-175
Mathematic and science achievement,
80:438
Mathematics, history of, in Indiana,
76:116-128
abstracts, 72:246
Matthew, D. L., Jr., 76:259
Mayan Indians, Guatemala, 71:67-68
Mayrose, C. R., 76:241-242
Maxinkuckee Moraine, formation
and description, 76:328-334
McAtee, W. L., memorial, 72:42-43
McBee, E. T., 74:179
McClung, L. S., The history of bac-
teriology in Indiana, 76:65-70
McComish, T. S., 79:135; 79:135;
79:136
McConnell, M., 77:156
McElheny, A. J., 77:171
McFarlane, R. W., (see Allen,
J. P.)
McGrath, J. M. Banerjee, and
R. W. Bullard, Adaptive
changes in cardiac muscle
activity under hypoxia of high
altitude, 77:445-449
McGrew, L. A., 77:171-172; 77 172;
78:199-200; 80:143
McGuire, J. L., 75:284
McGuiRE, J. M., The antibio'irs —
past, present and future. 71 :
248-257
McFarland, J. W., 73 125: 7- i^
McIntosh — Meyers
459
McIntosh, R. P., The Greene-Ni-
euwland Herbarium at the
University of Notre Dame, 71 :
235-238
McKee, R., memorial, 78:36-37
McKelvey, P. T., 78:202-203
McLaughlin, T., 80:313
McManus, M. L., 71:114
McMichael, E. V., 79:57-58; (see
also Clouse, R. A.)
McReynolds, H. E., 77:184; 80:176;
(see also Weaver, D.)
, Recent Indiana fish collec-
tions with notes on five new
or rare species, 75:299-302
, Practicality of endrin as a
fish toxicant, 79:148-161
Maze learning in goldfish, 75:235-
239
Meal moth, lipid metabolism, 75:311-
318
Medvick, C, The Indiana coal in-
dustry surface mining rec-
lamation program, 80:346-350
Meiser, J. H., 80:141
Melanoma in Heloderma suspectum,
78:466-467
Melanoplus sp., infection by Mermis
subnigrescens, 80:501-504
Melhorn, W. N., (see also Johan-
SEN, N. I.)
, A century and a half of
geology in Indiana, 76:103-115
Mellon, M. G., Chemistry in Indi-
ana at the state's sesquicen-
tennial, 76:81-94
Membrane, mosaic structure, 79:110-
120
permeability, effect of amino-
glutethimide, 80:510-516
Membranes, fibrils in mitochondria
and chloroplasts, 78:189-197
Membranifibrils, 78:189-197
Memorials (see under separate
names)
Menke, T. M., 77:413-414
Mentha, evolution and hybridization,
77:350
Mercuric chloride, effect on fungi,
76:217-220
Mermis subnigrescens, biology of,
80:501-504
infection in orthopterans, 80:283-
285
Merritt, N. R., memorial, 78:39-40
Merritt, C, (see Brown, K. M.)
Mertens, T. R., 74:307; 76:367; (see
also Howard, D., Jones, D. M.,
Moore, D. N., and Savage,
A. D.)
Meson scattering, 78:388
Metal chelates, 75:33-42
Metal oxides and electron spin reson-
ance, 79:358
Metal-metal halides, catalysts for
polymerization, 75:73-80
Metals, heat capacity, 80:141
Metamorphic stasis in larval amphi-
bia, 74:351-352
Methyl ion, 77:171
Mexican bamboo, 75:233-234
MeWhinney, J., 71 :284
Metz, C. R., (see Buckbee, Sister
B., and Smith, J. A.)
Meyer, A. H., 80:313-314
, and D. H. Paetz, Manufac-
tural geography of East Chi-
cago-Whiting, Indiana (A
study in geographic rehabili-
tation), 71:169-186
, and N. Mitchell, Manu-
factural geography of Ham-
mond, Indiana, 72:190-211
, and B. Lair, Manufactural
geography of greater Blue
Island, Illinois, 74:232-244
Meyer, E. R., (see Krumholz, L.
A.)
Meyer, J. F., (see Bretscher, M.
M.)
Meyer, R. W., and J. V. Osmun,
Insects and other arthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana during 1970, 80:286-
298
Meyers, D., 76:222
Meyers, N. L., J. L. Ahlrichs, and
J. L. White, Adsorption of
insecticides on pond sediments
and watershed soils, 79:432-
437
460
Mice — Miranda
Mice, relation to soil types, 77:206-
212
Michael, H. L., Soil information
and urban planning, 75:267-
272
Michael, R. L., 78:71
Michaud, H. H., Science and the
conservation of our natural re-
sources (presidential address),
73:38-46
Michigan road land sections, 74:248-
254
Micmac Indians, social organization,
74:112-113
Microbiology, study with germfree
animals, 75:220-226
Microbiology and Molecular Biology
(see also entries under follow-
ing author names, only those
who submitted manuscripts in-
cluded: Cole, T. A., Mar-
shall, V., Schwenk, K.)
abstracts, 79:345-347; 80:367-368
Microclimate, effect on Manioc, 79:
137
maximizing the use of, 71 :334
Microflora, intestinal, and choles-
terol catabolism, 73:83-87
Micronucleated cells, virus growth
in, 74:118
Micronutrient status of soybeans in
Indiana as determined by
foliar analysis, 72:313-318
Microscope sections-photographed on
16 mm film, 76:200
Microtus, food habits, 75:281
internal parasites, 80:489-494
in Vigo County, Indiana, 77:206-
212
Middendorf, W. F., (see Cole, T.
A.)
Middle Mississippi Indians, stature,
77:98-101
Middle Mississippian American Indi-
ans, 78:73-82
Middleton, A. E., (see also Alves,
L. M.)
, D. J. Morre, L. M. Alves,
R. L. Hamilton, and R.
Mauley, Immunochemical
identification of very low
density serum, lipoproteins in
Golgi apparatus from rat
liver, 77:159-163
, R. Cheetam, D. Gerber, and
D. J. Morre, Adenosine mona-,
di- and trinucleotidase activ-
ities of rat liver cytomem-
branes, 78:183-188
Miles, R., (see also Turner, A. K.)
, Perennial and ephemeral
streams and lakes map of
Indiana, 76:323-327
Miller, C. W., 80:313
Miller, D. W., 77:347-348
Miller, K. L, 72:257
Miller, L. V., An investigative
study of six Indiana coals,
77:299-304
Miller, M. S., 74:195
Miller, P. A., and J. E. Newman,
Conductive heat exchanges at
terrestrial surfaces as influ-
enced by changing air density,
76:372-376
Miller, W. A., (see Whitaker,
J. O., Jr.)
Milliped, Pleuroloma butleri, migra-
tion ecology of, 72:348-350
Mills, R., 76:200; 79:439-440
Milstead, W. L., 72:257
Mimosa webworm in Indiana, life
history, 71:114
Mineral aggregates, transportation
costs, 78:348-354
Mineral deficiency, quinone content,
80:130-139
Minerological analysis of clay soils,
77:405-411
Mink, studies of wet-belly disease,
72:136-138
Minton, S. A., 78:113-114; 80:485-
486
Miocene charaphytes from Ixtapa,
Chiapas, Mexico, 73:217-218
Miranda, T. J., and G. F. D'Alelio,
Metal-metal halide reaction
products as low pressure ole-
fin polymerization catalysts,
75:73-80
, and G. F. D'Alelio, Varia-
tions in polymer structure
M IRA N DA — M ORRE
461
with catalyst composition in
Ziegler type polymerizations,
75:81-89
Mississinewa shale, chitinozoa, 80:
320-329
Mitchell, A. C. G., memorial, 74:
52-55
Mitchell, N., (see Meyer, A. H.)
Mitchell plain, land use, 80:311-312
deposits, 78:316
origin of, in southcentral Indiana,
73:177-182
Mite, wheat curl, 76:259
Mitochondria, ADP induced changes
in, 79:93
Mitogens, 77:124
Mitosis poison from algae, 76:180
Mitotic activity and megalgenesis in
the RPMI HA No. 5(7113)
Strain melano, 71 :71
Miyakawa, K., 76:357
Moe, K., 78:161
Mobile home parks, 80:362-364
Modes, non-orthogonal, in wave
propagation, 80:388-403
Modulation effects on lineshape, 80:
378-379
Modulation oscillator calibration, 80:
378-379
Molal volumes, apparent, and vis-
cosities of some electrolytes in
anhydrous ethlenediamine at
25°C, 72:127-131
Molar absorptivity of cadmium ion
and pyrocatechol violet, 73:
135-138
Molecular beam scattering technique,
77:174
Molecular complexes, bromine and
substituted carbostyrils, 79 :
122
Molgula manhattensis, 75:284
Mollenhauer, H. H., 75:64-65; 75:
65; (see also MoRRE, D. J.)
Molloy, B. B., 78:111-112
Molluscan fauna changes, 80:189-195
MoltinM^s, 79:449-454
Molter, J. A., memorial, 71:41-42
Monke, E. J., (see Skaggs, R. W.)
, and D. M. Edwards, Elec-
trokinetic measurements of
colloidal-laden flow through a
sand column, 76:377-385
Monoamine oxidase, 80:111-112
Monroe County, the relative relief
of, 72:236-238
Indiana, ruffed grouse ecology and
behavior, 79:177-186
Monroe Reservoir, planning, 77:312-
320
Montgomery, B. E., 71:115; 73:145;
74:194; 76:259; (see also
Macklin, J. M., and Zehr-
ing, C. S.)
— — , Records and observations of
Indiana Odonata, 80:253-263
Montgomery, J., 80:437
Montgomery, M. E., and G. L.
Ward, Aquatic beetles of a
northern Indiana lake, 76:286-
290
Montgomery, O., (see Horvath, E.)
Montgomery, R., and K. A. Wen-
ner, Soil survey saves Lake
County taxpayers' money, 74:
325-327
Moore, D. N., T. R. Mertens, and
J. E. Highwood, Cytotaxon-
omic notes on genus Poly-
gonum, Section Polygonum, 79:
396-400
Moraine, near Crawfordsville, 74:223
near Knightstown, 74:223
around south end, Lake Michigan,
77:271-278
Morgan, C. R., 77:157-158
Morgan, F., 78:202
Morgan, P. C, 78:111
Morgan, W. W., 75:283
Morpholine, addition to ketones,
76:221
Morre, D. J., 75:62; 75:63; 75:63-
64; 75:64-65; 75:65; 76:200-
201; 76:201-202; 76:202-203;
77:154; 78:161-162; (see also
Alves, L. M.; Cheetham,
R. D.; Eisinger, W. R.;
Grove, S. N.; Middleton, A.
E.; Sergeant, M.; and Van
Der Wonde, W. J.)
, B. Rau, R. Vieira, T.
Stanceu and T. Dion, En-
462
Morre — Mussels
vironmental regulation of ex-
perimental leaflet abscission,
78:146-160
, and H. H. Mollenhauer,
Studies on the mechanisms of
glutaraldehyde stabilization of
cytomembranes, 78:167-182
, J.-C. Roland, and C. A.
Lembi, Comparison of isolated
plasma membranes from plant
stems and rat liver, 79:96-106
, C. A. Lembi, and H. H.
Mollenhauer, A compact
and dispersed form of the
golgi apparatus of fish liver,
80:124-129
Morris, B., 77:95-96; 77:96; 78:71
Morrison, H., 77:172
, memorial, 73:33-36
Mortality rate among prehistoric
American Indians, 77:102-108
Morton, C. J., 74:179
Mosquito, 75:108; 75:109
Mosquito control program, West La-
fayette, 72:169-170
Mosquitoes, Indiana check list, 78:
257-259
Indiana distribution, 79:238-248
occurrence at waste lagoons, 80:
275-282
Mossbauer experiments, 74:298-301
Mosses, 78:396-405
of North and Central America,
77:351-356
Moulton, B., 75:150; 77:230
, Degree days in Indiana, 73:
183-187
, Charles Redway Dryer, 74:
289-292
Mound (White Site) excavation, 78:
71
Mounds States Park, excavations,
79:75-82
Moussa, M. A., (see Favinger, J.
J.)
Mouzin, T. E., (see Dolphin, R.
E.)
Mroczynski, R., 80:98
Mucous velocities in trachea, 78:446
Mud daubers, nest mortaility, 80:245
Muehrcke, J. P., and C. M. Kirk-
patrick, Observations on
ecology and behavior of Indi-
ana ruffed grouse, 79:177-186
Mueller, C. R., 77:174
Mueller, J. A., 71:367; 77:413
Mueller, W. D., 79:357
Mueller, W. P., 71:368
Mulay, L. N., 79:358
Mulcare, D. J., The problem of
toxicity in Rana palustris, 75:
319-224
Multispectral measurements of soils,
80:443
Multispectral soil patterns, 80:443
Mumford, R. E., (see Whitaker,
J. O., Jr.) 75:279; 76:397;
— — , and C. L. Rippy, The south-
eastern shrew (Sorex long-
irotris) in Indiana, 72:340-
341
, The hoary bat in Indiana,
78:497-501
Muncie esker system, 77:279-291
Munsee, J. R., Nine species of ants
(Formicidae) recently re-
corded from Indiana, 77:222-
227
Muon energy study, 78:387
Murad, T. A., (see Neumann, G.
K.)
, The application of photon
absorptiometry to prehistoric
skeletal material, 80:84-89
Murdock, S. H., and R. L. Powell,
Subterranean drainage routes
of Lost River, Orange County,
Indiana, 77:250-255
Murray, H. L., 73:75; 77:128
Murray, M. J., 79:350
Mus, molt in, 79:449-454
M. musculus, parasites in, 79:441-
448; 80:485; 80:495-500 in
Vigo County, Indiana, 77:206-
212
M u s c a domestica, of Delaware
County, Indiana, 80:299-304
Muscular dystrophy, 80:143
Mussell, H. W., 75:62
Mussels of Wabash and White Riv-
ers, 79:205-226
Mutation — New Albany
4<;:;
Mutation, for resistance to stem rust
in oats, 75:67-72
Mycophenolic acid, 78:112
Myelination, deficient, quaking
mouse, 79:92
Myers, W. E., 77:183-184
Myotis lucifugus, in Boone County,
73:268-271; 75:280-281
in Indiana, 79:470-471
N-Alkyl-N-arylhydroxylamines, 80 :
142-143
Napthobenzothiophenes, ultraviolet
absorption spectra, 77:174
Nasal bones, morphology in Ameri-
can Negro, 75:43-46
Natural area values, 80:56-61
Natural areas, quantification, 80:
176-177
survey of Indiana, 77:75-83
Natural resources, outlook, 79:49-56
Necrology (see Edington, W. E.,
and Daily, F. K.)
Nectars, composition of, 71:115;
73:145
Negro, American, 73:67-70
morphology of nasal bones, 75:43-
46
Negro-white hybrids in the United
States, 77:95
Neher, R. T., 72:256
Nelson, D., 77:174-175; 77:349
Nelson, J. S., Ecology of the
southernmost sympatric popu-
lation of the brook stickle-
back, Culaea inconstans, and
the ninespine stickleback, Pun-
gitius pungitius, in Crooked
Lake, Indiana, 77:185-192
Nelson, O. E., 71 :86
Nematode, infection in orthopterans,
80:283-285
Neotetrum pulchellurn, rates of de-
velopment of older naids,
72:158-160
Nerve fibers, axoplasmic transport
in, 79:346-347
Nesbitt, D., 77:213
Neumann, E. A., Post-glacial ecol-
ogy and prehistoric settlement
patterns in the central states
area, 73:47-55
Neumann, G. K., 77:95; 80:63; 80:
64; 80:64; 80:64-65; (see also
Alexander, R. W., Jr., Hunt-
er, K. B., and Robbins, L. M.)
, A re-examination of the
question of the middle western
origin of the Delaware Indi-
ans, 79:60-61
, and C. H. Tomak, The early
woodland manifestation in
Greene County, Indiana, 74:
90-98
, and C. G, Waldman, Re-
gression formulae for the re-
construction of the stature of
Hopewellian and Middle Mis-
sissippi Amerindian Popula-
tions, 77:98-101
, and T. A. Murad, Prelim-
inary report on the crania
from the Island Field Site,
Kent County, Delware, 79:69-
74
Neumann, H. W., The identification
of a sample of unmodified
faunal remains from the
Angel Site, 71:53-56
— — , Is there an American Negro
race?, 72:80-81
, A preliminary study in the
paleopathology of an archaic
American Indian population,
74:87-89
Neuron, fine structure, 78:161
Neutron diffusion parameters of
water by the pulsed neutron
method, 72:249-255
Neutron flux by a paraffin oil bath
technique, a method for meas-
uring, 71:277-281
Neutron generator, flux determina-
tion, 79:357
Neutrons, diffusion heating and
cooling of thermal, in water,
73:210-216
fast interactions in Si-28, 75:227
New Albany Shale, acritarchs, 79:
254-262
464
New Castle — Oliver
New Castle Site, excavations, 77:
95; 77:96; 78:71
Newman, J. E., 71:334; (see also
Miller, P. A., and Ziemer,
P.L.)
Nichols, K. E., 79:83; (see also
Bloom, W. W., And Kroen-
ing, C. J.)
, and W. W. Bloom, A cir-
cadian rhythm in the sleep
movements of the Marsilea-
ceae, 77:152-153
Niederpruem, D. J., 78:163
Nisbet, J. J., (see Judd, R. W.)
Nitrate reductase synthesis, 78:113
Nitrogen, in corn culture, 77:373
response of wheat on Indiana soils,
71:361-366
Nitrogen fertilization, small grains,
75:256-261
Nomenclature in archaeology, 74:
114-117
Norwine, J. R., (see Crowe, D.
R.)
, Conflicting theories of inad-
vertent weather modification
in urban areas, 80:330-336
Notre Dame University, history of
Lobund Laboratory, 65:220-
226
Nowak, J., 79:121
Nubia, Lower, racial continuity in,
77:113-121
Nuclear emulsion, ionization in, 79:
357
Nuclear matrix elements, non-unique
first forbidden beta decay of
Eu1^, 72:248
Nuclear quadrupole resonance line
splitting, in weak Zeeman
field, 72:247-248
Nuclear resonance anlaysis, 78:388
Nuclear synthesis of helium, 80:404-
411
Nuclear transitions, chemical effects
on, 77:347
Nucleic acids, acrylamide gel stain-
ing of, 79:348-350
Nuner, J. H., 78:113
Nutrient assimilation by algae, 76:
204-209
Nutrient content of apple trees, re-
lationship of soils and fer-
tilizers, 73:232-238
Nutritional survey of Indiana apple
orchards by foliar analysis,
73:239-243
Nyquist, S., 77:154
Oak fern, systematic studies, 80:
416-421
Oak wilt, aerial survey for and con-
trol of, in Indiana, 71:91-93
Oats, aneuploids, 77:127
inheritance of resistance to stem
rust, 75:67-72
resistance to crown rust, 75:63
response to nitrogen fertilization,
75:256-261
O'Brian, D. M., The effect of par-
ental age on the duration of
life of mated and non-mated
progeny in Drosophila melan-
ogaster, 72:344-347
— , C. Yablonsky, and C. Gil-
lloy, The effects of parental
age on egg production,
hatchability of the eggs, and
survival of the offspring in
Drosophila melanog aster, 74 :
386-392
O'Neal, S. G., (see Cole, T. A.)
Ochs, S., 79:346-347
Odonata, Indiana, 76:259; 80:253-263
rates of development of Neotetrum
pulchellum, 72:158-160
seasonal distribution of naiads, 80:
253-263
studies of eggs, 72:150-153
Ohio, surface geology, 75:202-205
Ohio River Valley, 77:231-235
Ohlrogge, A. J., (see Wilkinson,
S. R.)
Oldfield succession in an Indiana
biological reserve, 71:285-291
Oliver, J. C, Biosystematic studies
of the beech and marsh ferns,
79:388-395
, A systematic study of the
oak fern, 80:416-421
Oliver, P. F., 76:397-398
Olson — Palmer
465
Olson, G. B., (see Wostmann, B.
S.)
, and B. S. Wostmann, Lym-
phocytopoiesis and plasmacy-
topoiesis in germfree mice
stimulated with 7s human
gamma globulin, 74:125-131
Olson, T. C, J. V. Mannering, and
C. B. Johnson, The erodi-
bility of some Indiana soils,
72:319-324
Oneota culture, 80:64
Ong, L. G., 79:121
Organic carbon in farm ponds, 79:
423-431
Organonitrile complexes, 78:200
Orland, F. J., 73:75
Orpurt, P. A., 74:152
ORR, R. W., Stratigraphy and cor-
relation of Middle Devonian
strata in the Logansport Sag,
north-central Indiana, 78:333-
341
Orthopterans, infection with Mermis
subnigrescens, 80:283-285
Osborn, S., 77:174
Oscillator strength of a dipole transi-
tion in a Lorentz-Lorenz field,
71:109-113
Osmun, J. V., (see Huber, R. T.,
and Meyer, R. W.)
, Insects and other arthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana in 1961, 71:130-137
, Insects and other anthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana in 1962, 72:142-149
, Insects and other arthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana in 1963, 73:146-153
, Insects and other arthropods
of economic importance in
Indiana in 1964, 74:207-218
Osteoarthritis, in archaic American
Indiana, 73:64-66
in three aboriginal populations,
74:84-86
Osteology of birds, 75:282
Osteoporosis in Illinois Hopewell
Indians, 80:90-93
Ostracods, of Delaware County,
Indiana, 79:137
effects of environmental factors on
populations, 71 :369
Oulema melanopa (L.), population
build-up in Indiana and effect
of wind on dispersion, 73:144
in Indiana, 1962, occurrence of
cereal leaf beetle, 72:167-168
in Indiana, 1963, occurrence of
cereal leaf beetle, 73:144
Outdoor laboratories, 80:56-61
Outdoor museums, 80:56-61
Ovary, effects of amino-gluthethi-
mide, 75:285
Overpopulation of Indiana, 71:230-
231
Ovicidal effects of wheat flour-
butter-milk combination on
the eggs of Paronychia idmi,
72:140-141
Owen, D. E., 74:222
Oxaziranes, 80:142
Oximes, preparation and selective
hydrolysis of acetates on al-
umina, 73:127-131
Oxygen consumption in rats, 76:180
Oxygen uptake in heat-stressed chick
embryos, 73:261-266
Oxytocin, effect on intra-mammary
pressure, 76:397
p-Aminobenzoic acid, reversal of
antibacterial activity of simple
and complex sulfonamides, 71 :
78-81
Pace, R. E., 78:71; 79:55
Padgett, F., 77:154
Page, D. S., 79:121-122
Paintbrush, Indian, 74:314
Palamara, R. D., 75:227
Paleobotany, 78:120-138
Paleo-Indian, cause for megafauna
extinctions, 79:65-68
Paleopathology, 74 : 87-89 ; 80 : 84-89
Paleozoic rocks, southern Indiana,
79:254-262
Palmer, A. N., The survey of Blue
Spring Cave, Lawrence Co.,
Indiana, 77:245-249
466
Palmer — Petty
Palmer, C. M., Nutrient assimilation
by algae in waste stabiliza-
tion ponds, 76:204-209
■ , Algal records for three Indi-
ana sewage stabilization
ponds, 78:139-145
Pancreatic islet, B-cell adenomas,
77:157-158
Paracetic acid, used to obtain in-
vertebrate eggs for gnoto-
biotic studies, 71:71-72
Paraffin oil bath technique, a method
for measuring neutron flow,
71:277-283
Paramecium, infection by kappa,
71:367
Paraprofessional program in public
schools, 80:437-438
Parasites, Microtus and Synaptomys,
internal, 80:489-494
in Mus musculus, 79:441-448; 80:
485,80:495-500
of robbins, 77:417-419
Parelephas jeffersonii, teeth of, 75:
293-298
Parents age effect on offspring in
Drosophila, 74:386-392
Parker, T. A., an annotated list of
the spiders of Indiana, 78:266-
314
Parrot, D. W., (see Hoffman, W.
E.)
Parsons, J. T., 73:125
Passamaquoddy Indians, social or-
ganization, 74:112-113
Passeriformes, 75:282
Pasture, winter, 80:177
Patrick, D. M., 71:148
Patterson, F. L., 77:127; (see also
Shands, H.)
, and S. K. Gilbert, Inheri-
tance of stem rust resistance
in Avena sativa L., 75:67-72
Patton, J. B., To ruine a world
(special address), 79:49-56
Peat-moss extracts, effect on seed
germination, 73:113-115
Pecking frequency, chick, 74:362-366
Pelton, J. S., memorial, 76:53
Pelvic floor musculature of Macada
ira in relation to upright pos-
ture, 73:60-63
Pembroke soils from Indiana, 77:
396-404
Pennsylvanian flora, 78:120-138
Pennsylvanian rocks, classification,
77:292-298
Penobscot Indians, social organiza-
tion, 74:112-113
Pensaert, M., 77:157
Penstemon, pathogen of, Ramularia
nivosa, 72:104
Perceptual learning, 75:240-245
Peri, B., 78:110
Peromyscus, in Vigo County, Indi-
ana, 77:206-212
P. leucopus, Pike County, Indiana,
79:172-176
Peroxides and disulfides, radical
reactions, 72:121-122
Personality, college women, physical
and cultural basis of, 71:69-
70
Perzigian, A. J., Osteoporotic bone
loss in an Illinois Hopewell
population, 80:90-93
Pesticide, toxicity of endrin to fish,
79:148-161
Petersen, B. H., 77:125; 78:109
Petersen, Q. R., Reductive prepara-
tion of oximes and the selec-
tive hydrolysis of their ace-
tates on alumina, 73:127-131
Petrology, 75:149-150; 75:153-162;
75:163-166; 75:175-177
Pettee, R. E., and C. E. Gifford,
The distribution of macro-
invertebrates in Littoral mac-
rophytes in a northern Indiana
lake, 74:393-397
Petty, R. O., 71:284; 73:88; 77:
183-184; 78:203; 79:137-138;
80:176-177
, Forest analysis of a mesic
ravine, Parke County, Indiana,
74:308-313
, The flag and the fir tree
(special address), 80:50-55
, and A. A. Lindsey, Hoot
Woods, A remnant of virgin
Petty — Pilot
467
timber, Owen County, Indi-
ana, 71 :320-326
, and D. Harwood, Rush
Woods, A lowland extension of
the Beech-maple climax,
Montgomery County, Indiana,
73:220-226
Pfaltzgraff, G. H., A preliminary
study of the gastrotricha of
Northern Indiana, 76:400-404
Pflanzer, R. G., 80:486
pH, effects on enzyme kinetics, 79:
121-122
pH, in relation to available phos-
phate and potash in Purdue
soil tests, 72:307-312
Phagocytosis, role of alpha-1-glyco-
proteinin, 76:181-182
Pharmacy College, Butler Univer-
sity, 75:216-226
Phaseolus, resistance to anthracnose,
78:118
P. spp., resistance to fungi, 76:203
P. vulgaris, leaf abscission, 78:
146-160
Phelps, J. M., Jr., J. R. Hastings,
and J. R. Gammon, The effect
of pesticides on the bluegill
(Lepomis machrochirus) in a
northern Indiana lake, 74:379-
385
Phenethyl alcohol, inhibition of mac-
romolecular syntheses in Es-
cherichia coli, 73:76-77
Phenology, flowering, of oriental
cherries, 71:84-85
in Indiana, 79:83-84
Phenyl isocyanate reaction with
water, 78:199
Philippines, peopling of, 72:82-85
Philodendron, fossil leaves from
Tennessee, 80:95-96
Phormia regina, of Delaware County,
Indiana, 80:299-304
Phosphatases, nucleotide, 78:183-188
Phosphohistidine proteins, Succinyl
Co A Synthetase, 77:126
Photography, aerial, of agricultural
regions, 76:386-395
Photon absorptiometry, 80:84-89; 80:
90-93
Phosphorus, radioactive, in assay of
chicken pituitary gland, 73:
257-260
Phosphorus32 and rubidium loss
from forest leaf litter in
Parke County, Indiana, 73:88
Photochemistry, dinitrones, 80:142
Photoperiod, effect on bluegill
growth, 79:135
of Guar, 71:86-87
Photoreceptors, extraoptic in am-
phibians, 80:486
Phthalocyanino germanium (II), 80:
141
Phthalocyaninogermanium com-
pounds, 78:199
Physical anthropology, 74:68-71; 74:
72-80; 74:81-83; 74:84-86
Physical structure, distribution of
elements, 80:312
Physics (see also entries under fol-
lowing author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Alman, D.
H.; Alvager, T.; Blanc, T. V.;
Bretscher, M. M.; Brock,
J. E.; Hackett, C. F.; Houli-
han, J. F.; Manning, A. W.;
Sartain, C. C; Snyder, H.
H.; Tiano, D. E.)
abstracts, 71 :275-276 ; 72 :247-248 ;
73:209; 75:227-228; 76:357;
77:347-348; 78:387-388; 79:
357-360; 80:377-379
history of, in Indiana, 76:129-141
research activity, 80:378
and mathematics background of
Indiana high school physics
teachers, 71:276
Phytoplankton, laboratory culture,
74:165-168
Pickard, B. L., and A. E. Rey-
nolds, Aspects of water loss
physiology in certain pletho-
dontid salamanders, 78:472-
481
Picloram, 80:114-123; 80:124-129
Pierson, C, (see Ricketts, J. A.)
Pilimelis gen. n., 75:230
Pileolaria, asiatic species of, 73:217
Pilot black snake growth, 78:446
4H8
Pine — Pollution
Pine pests, weevils, 76:270-271
Pineal complex, as amphibian photo-
receptor, 80:486
Pinealocyte of dog, fine structure,
77:155-156
Pinkerton, J. M. H., 79:357-358
Pion production reactions, peaks in,
71:276
Pisano, J. C, 76:181-182
Plant distribution records, 75:231-
232
Plant ecology, history of, in Indi-
ana, 76:142-150
Plant cell elongation, 77:136-143
Plant distribution records, 78:413;
80:413-414
Plant growth promotion substance
found in an acorn weevil of
the family Curculionidae, 71:
94-95
Plant migration, the prairie penin-
sula as a filter barrier to
postglacial, 73:116-124
Plant species disappearing, 78:117
Plant Taxonomy (see also entries
under following author names,
only those who submitted
manuscripts included : Al-
man, D. H.; Baker, P. C;
Banks, J. B.; Cummins, G.
B.; Daily, F. K.; Daily, W.
A.; deLanglade, R. A.; Hall,
C. R.; Harper, S. E.; Heiser,
C. B., Jr.; Humbles, J.; Jones,
D. M.; Lindsey, A. A.;
Marks, G. C; Morre, D. N.;
Oliver, J. C.; Petty, R. 0.;
Reimer, C. W.; Savage, A.
D.; Starcs, H.; Welch, W.
H.)
abstracts, 71:284; 72:256-258; 73:
217-218; 74:307; 75:229-230;
76:367; 77:349-350; 79:375-
376; 80:413-415
history of, in Indiana, 76:142-150
Plasma, fractions, 77:154
membrane, 78:183-188
membrane, nucleotide phosphatase
activities, 79:107-109
membranes, plant stems and rat
liver, 79:96-106
Plastoquinones, 80:130-139
Pleasants, J. R. 76:180-181
, History of germfree animal
research at Lobund Labora-
tory, Biology Department,
University of Notre Dame,
1928-1965, 75:220-226
, and B. S. Wostmann, Rear-
ing germfree rats on chemi-
cally defined antigen low
diets, 72:87-92
Pleistocene, faunal extinction
causes, 79:65-68
drift in Indiana, 78:315-316
glaciation, 77:231-235; 77:271-278;
77:279-291
passeriform avifauna of Reddick,
Florida, 71:367-368
Plethodon glutinosus, 76:408-420
water loss physiology, 78:472-481
P. jordani jordani water loss
physiology, 78:472-481
P. jordani {melaventris) , 76:408-
420
Plethodons, 74:375-378
Pleuroloma butleri, migration ecol-
ogy of , 72:348-350
Plinthite on Maui Island, Hawaii,
74:335-338
Poison-ivy rust and its allies in
North America, 71:82
Pokeweed extract, 77:124
Poliomyelitis virus, 74:136-139
Polistes hunteri Bequaert, in Craw-
ford County, Indiana, 80:245-
246
P. spp., social wasps in Indiana,
74:197-204
Pollard, H., 73:77
Pollard, M., 71:71; 73:76; 74:119
Pollen tubes, 77:144-147; 77:164-170
Pollination and compatability in
Magnolia, 72:259-266
Pollock, G. P., A comparative study
of some effects of aminoglu-
tethimide phosphate on serum
potassium and sodium, 78:468-
471
Pollution, avoidance, abatement, 79:
49-56
effect on fish, 78:202
Pollution — Powell
469
effect on organisms, 78:203
ground water, 75:150-151
and mosquitoes, Indiana, 79:238-
248
stream, from coal mines, 79:345
-tolerant algae, 78:139-145
Polyacrylamide gels, with cesium
chloride and DNA, 80:374-376
Polygonum, cytotaxonomic notes, 79:
396-400
P. cuspidatum, 75:233-234
sect. Polygonum, 76:367; 77:357-
369
taxonomic study, 74:307
taxonomy of, 80:422-430
Polymerization, 75:73-77; 75:81-89
Polyoma virus, 74:132-135
Pond sediment mineralogy, 79:432-
437
Popcorn production in Indiana, 78:
363-368
Popham, R. A., 80:97-98
Population, change in Indiana, 1950-
1960, 71:192-195
analysis, community, 77:326-334
concentration in Indiana, 74:224-
229
decline, Southwestern Indiana, 79:
318-324
distribution in the middle west in
1950,71:210-218
fox in Indiana, 79:187-192
increases vs. prosperity, 74:230-
231
Indiana, 75:150; 75:191-196
trends in Dubois County, 72:174-
176
Porter, C. L., memorial, 77:41-42
Porter, E., 73:125
Posey County, Indiana, prehistory,
80:67-73
Inglesfield and Dicksburg Hills
sandstone members in, 72:212-
217
Positron spectrum in Ga66, shape of
the 0+->0 + , 72:248
Post, D. F., (see Zachary, A. L.)
, and H. P. Ulrich, Charac-
terization of the Pembroke
soils from Indiana, 79:396-404
, and J. L. White, Quanti-
tative mineralogical analysis
of soil clays, 79:405-411
Post-glacial ecology and prehistoric
settlement patterns in the
central states areas, 73:47-55
Postglacial plant migration, the
prairie peninsula as a filter
barrier to, 73:116-124
Postlethwait, S. N., 71:83; 71:86;
71:86-87; 74:152-153; 75:61-62
76:200; 77:128; 77:129; (see
also Green, M. J.)
Potato growth on sandy and organic
soils, row fertilization effects,
73:227-231
Potato-phytophthora interaction, 80 :
367
Pottery, early woodland, 74:90-98;
80:63
Poverty in Indiana, 75:151-153
Povinelli, R. J., 74:179
Powdery mildew of wheat, 77:127-
128
Powell, H. M., Inhibitory action of
statolon against polyoma vir-
us, 74:132-135
■ , Mouse tests of poliomyelitis
vaccine, 74:136-139
, C. G. CULBERTSON, J. O.
MacFarlane, and F. O. Gos-
sett, Experimental use in dogs
of rabies vaccine prepared in
embryonated duck eggs, 71 :
73-77
Powell, R. L., 74:222; 78:316; 80:
311-312; (see also MlTRDOCK,
S. H.)
, Alluviated cave springs of
south-central Indiana, 72:182-
189
-, Origin of the Mitchell plain
in south-central Indiana, 73:
177-182
, Groundwater movement and
cavern development in the
Chester Series in Indiana,
75:210-215
, The geology and geomor-
phology of Wyandotte Cave,
470
Powell — Pyrocatechol
Crawford County, Indiana, 77:
236-244
, Base level, lithologic and cli-
matic controls of karst
groundwater zones in south-
central Indiana, 79:281-291
Prairie peninsula as a filter barrier
to postglacial plant migration,
73:116-124
Prairie soils, tillage techniques, 78:
418-428
Pratylenchus penetrans, 80:96
parasitic nematode, 74:195
Prebiotic synthesis, amino acids,
80:369-373
Precipitation, Indiana, gross gamma
radioactivity in, 74:343-347
Predation, effect on bluegill, 79:139-
147
Prenanthes, migratory and phylo-
genetic trends in, 72:257
Preservation, natural areas, legisla-
tion, 77:75-83
Presidential address, L. H. Bald-
inger, 71:46-51; H. G. Day,
72:50-58; H. H. Michaud,
73:38-46; E. L. Haenisch, 74:
60-67; K J. Welcher, 75:
33-42; C. A. Markle, 76:
54-61; A. A. Lindsey, 77:75-
83; W. J. Wayne, 78:49-64;
H. R. Youse, 79:45-48; F. N.
Guthrie, 80:39-49
Pre-training, chicks, 74:362-366
Prickett, P. S., 73:75
Proffitt, M. A., Some factors af-
fecting the toxicity of Aldrin
to fishes, 75:325-329
Proglacial drainage, Hadley Lake de-
pression, 79:270-280
Propagation, in cylindrical guides,
80:388-403
Proteins, analysis of pupae of
Drosophila, 75:308-310
Protochlorophyllide, reduction of, 77:
158
Protons, addition of, to Schiff bases
of p-Phenylazoaline, 73:139-
143
Protura of Wayne County, 74:205-
206
Pryor, W. A., Radical reactions of
peroxides and disulfides, 72:
121-122
Pseudemys scripta, locomotion rhy-
thm, 75:281-282
Pseudocnerohinus bifasciatus, 78 :
255-256
Pseudomonas, freeze etching of, 80:
112
Psorophora ciliata (Fabricius), bi-
ology of, 74:194-195
P. discolor (Coquillett) , occurrence
of, 74:195
Psychology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included : Gunther,
W. C; Heitman, H., Jr.;
Santos, J. F.)
abstracts, 72:288-289
Puccinia, correlations between spec-
ies, 80:96
P. coronata, germination of telio-
spores, 71:96-99
P. graminis, 76:199-200
P. polysora and P. sorghi on dif-
ferent genotypes of maize,
histological study on host
parasite relations of, 73:89-96
P. recondita, resistance to, 72:103-
104
Pullen, M. W., 80:64-66
Pulsed neutron method, measurement
of thermal neutron diffusion
parameters of water by, 72:
249-255
Pungitius pungitius, ecology in Indi-
ana, 77:185-192
Purdue biology, 74:284-288
Pursey, S., (See Brock, J. E.)
Putnam County, Indiana, movements
of limestone blocks by flood
waters, 71:163-165
Pygmy sunfish, axial skeleton, 71 :
367
Pyrazoline-dicarboxylic anhydrides,
80:142
Pyrocatechol violet, a complex of
cadmium (II) and, 73:135-138
Pythium — Reily
471
Pythium ultimum, dictyosomes in
hyphae, 76:210-212
hyphal wall structure, 77:156
Quail, 75:282; 75:289-292
Quaking mouse, deficient myelina-
tion, 79:92
Quantum theory of reactive scatter-
ing", 77:174
Quarter method, testing, 79:138
Quarter-wave plates, a simple meth-
od of testing, 73:209
Quinoa de Castilla, 80:413
Quinolones and Alkoxyquinolines,
ultraviolet spectral features,
75:96-99
Rabies, in Indiana bats, 78:447-456
vaccine, prepared in embryonated
duck eggs, 71:73-77
Raccoon Creek, reversal at Atherton
Island, 75:167-174
Racial continuity, in Lower Nubia,
77:113-121
Racial groups, Siberia, 76:173-177
Racial history, Indians of eastern
United States, 79:60-61; 79:
62-64; 79:69-74
Radiation effects, germfree mice,
71:72
Radiation, X-ray, effect on survival
of corn leaf aphid, 71:142-145
Radioactivity, gross gamma, in Indi-
ana precipitation, 74:343-347
of Indiana soils, 74:339-342
natural and fission-produced, in
four Indiana soils, 72:325-329
Radiolysis, 77:173
Radionuclides, movement in estuar-
ine and benthic environments,
76:241
Radiosensitivity, 75:109
Radiotelemetry and big brown bat
(Eptesicus fuscus), 79:466-469
Rahe, J. E., 78:118
Rai, K. S., 75:65-66; 75:109
Raibourn, D. D., The role of dif-
fusion in changing kinship
systems, 71:61-66
, Role interaction as a factor
in kinship classification, 72:
69-79
Raitano, A. C, 78:110
Ramaley, R., 77:126; 78:111; 79:345
Rana catesbeiana, food habits, 78:
491-496
Rana palustris, toxicity in, 75:319-
324
Rana pipiens, hatching substance,
75:303-307
phagocytosis in, 75:56
Ranish, N., 79:346-347
Rank-size theory, Zipf, 75:191-196
Rat liver, golgi apparatus, 77:159-
163
Rates, germfree, reared on chemi-
cally defined, antigen low
diets, 72:87-92
Rathkamp, W. R., (see Zeller,
F.J.)
Rau, B., (see Morre, D. J.)
Ray Cave, Greene County, Indiana,
75:210-215
Reading, elementary, programmed
tutoring of, 72:289
comprehension and science
achievement, 80:438
Reber, J. C, 75:227-228
Reclamation, practices, strip coal
mine, 78:355-362
problems, strip coal mine, 74:255-
258
Recreation, needs in Indiana, 72:281-
227
Recreational triangle, southern Indi-
ana's, 71 : 150-162
Reddy, B. S., 76:180-181
Reductases, multiple nitrate, in Ba-
cillus subtilis, 73:77
Reed, H. J., Memorial, 71:42-44
Reed, P., (see Hoffman, W. E.)
Reeves, J. A., 71:149
Reforestation of abandoned crop-
land in southern Indiana, need
for fertilization, 73:252-256
Regional planning, Indiana, 80:337-
345
Regnellidium diphyllum, 76:215-216
Reich, R. J., 71:82
Reily, Ohio, 75:202-205
472
Reimer — Rippy
Reimer, C. W., Some aspects of the
diatom flora of Cabin Creek
Raised Bog, Randolph County,
Indiana, 71:305-319
Relativistic thermodynamics, 79:358
Relief, Monroe County, 72:236-238
lineaments, airphoto, 75:151
Remedial reading and science
achievement, 80:438
Remote multispectral sensing, 76:
386-395
Remote sensing, 80:98; 80:476-483
of soils, 80:443
Representation in the Indiana legis-
lature, apportionment of, 71:
187-191
Reptile serum profiles, 78:113-114
Reptiles of Vigo County, 75:279-280
Reservoir, limnological studies, 78:
202
planning, 77:312-320
Reshkin, M., 75:149-150
Residence pattern of instructional
staff at Indiana University,
73:188-195
Resistivity surveying in archeology,
75:47-54
Resonance transfer in viscous media,
74:179
Retail locations in Terre Haute,
77:321-334
Retention of biology concepts, 80:437
Reuszer, H. W., 78:417; (see also
Hughes, L. B.)
Reverchonia, chromosomes and af-
finities of , 72:257
Reynolds, A. E., (see Pickard,
B. L.)
, Evidence of the mastodon in
Hendricks County, 71:407-411
, Two elephantine teeth from
the Mill Creek drainage area,
75:293-298
, A comparative study of Ple-
thodon glutinosus and Pletho-
don jordani (melaventris)
with respect to external form,
76:408-420
, and T. A. Stabler, Quantita-
tive external relationships in
two species of small pletho-
dons 74:375-378
Reynolds, L. M., 79:357
Reynolds, W. A., 74:351-352
Rhizoid formation in Marsileaceae,
72:118-119
Rhizoids, auxin effects on forma-
tion, 79:83
Rhopalosiphum maidis, 75:108-109
Rhykerd, C. L., (see Ziemer, P.
L.)
Rhythm, circadian, in frogs, 80:486
Ribonuclease, yeast, 76:222
Rice, W. J., memorial, 73:36-37
Richards, R. L., Vertebrate remains
from an Indiana cave, 79:472-
475
Richardson, J., 78:71; (see also
Clouse, R. A.)
Rickenberg, H. V., 72:86
Ricketts, J. A., and P. Brown, The
solubility of magnesium bro-
mide in Di-n-Butyl ether, 73:
132-134
, and C. Pierson, The addi-
tion of protons to schiff bases
of p-Phenylazoaniline. Tauto-
meric equilibrium between the
azonium and ammonium spec-
ies, 73:139-143
, and A. Delia, Quantitative
differential thermal analysis
as applied to the thermal de-
composition of magnesite, 75:
163-166
, and B. Wicke, A special
comparison of 2-Quinolones
with 2-Alkoxyquinolines, 75 :
96-99
, and P. Brown, The standard
free energy of formation of
magnesium bromide from its
elements, 75:105-107
Rickey, M. E., 77:347-348
Riley, B. W., The residence pat-
tern of the instruction staff
at Indiana University during
the twentieth century: In city
of Bloomington, Indiana, 73:
188-195
Rippy, C. L., (see Mumford, R. E.)
Road — Savage
473
Road network density in Terre
Haute, 77:321-333
Robbins, J. M., Jr., Soil associations
of Perry County, 74:328-334
Robbins, L. M., An investigation
into the physical and cultural
basis of personality in college
women, 71:69-70
, Personality, race, and phys-
ique in college women, 72:63-
66
, and G. K. Neumann, The
origin of the Shawnee Indi-
ans, 78:93-96
Robins, intestinal parasites, 77:417-
419
Robinson, K. S., 72:247
Roeling, S. C., 78:199-200
Rock textures, measurement, 80:312
Rodents' preferences for artificial
sweeteners, 78:457-465
Rogers, R. M., memorial, 79:32-33
Roland, J.-C, (see Morre, D. J.)
Root cap slime secretion in corn, 75:
64
Rootworm, damage to corn, 80:267-
274
Rosene, G. L., 78:164
Roth, P. L., Phenotypic variation
in river birch (Betula nigra
L., 80:225-229
Rothwell, F., 78:201
Row, E. H., 76:397
Rubin, D., 75:279-280; 77:415
— — , Amphibian breeding dates in
Vigo County, Indiana, 77:442-
444
Ruffed grouse, ecology and behavior,
in Monroe County, Indiana,
79:177-186
Run-off and sedimentation, Sabine
and Neches Rivers, Sabine
Lake, 75:197-201
Run-off studies, 80:468-475
Rural-urban complex, 75:262-266
Rush Woods, a lowland extension of
the beech-maple complex,
Montgomery Co., Indiana, 73:
220-226
Russell, J. R., (see Ahlrichs,
J. L.)
Rust fungi of south Texas, 72:267-
269
Ruttan, V. W., Technological change
and resource utilization in
American agriculture, 71:353-
360
Sabine Lake, Texas, 75:197-201
Sabri, M. I., 79:346-347
Sacrum of the American Indian, 74:
68-71
Saint Joseph River, Molluscan fauna,
80:189-195
Saksena, S. S., 77:95
, Morphology of the nasal
bones of the American Negro,
75:43-46
Salamanders, external form, 76:408-
420
Saline Lake and vicinity, geology of,
Louisiana and Texas, 73:171-
176
Salmonella typhinurium, 77:124-125
influence of, on illeum and spleen
morphology of germfree rats,
73:78-82
Salovesh, M., 78:71-72
Salvage of waste, decline in, 79:49-
56
Sampling, methodology, forest, 76:
243-250; 76:251-257
techniques, soil testing, 77:374-376
Sampson, M. B., 77:347-348
Sandberg, P., 72:140
Santos, J. F., and B. J. Farrow, The
influence of developmental
level on perceptual learning,
75:240-245
Sapaula, C. C, The peopling of the
Philippines, 72:82-85
Saponaria officinalis, 77:370-372
Sartain, C. C, 80:375
■ , Semiconductors produced by
doping oxide-glasses with Ir,
Pd, Rhor Ru, 79:361-373
Sassenrath, J., 72:288
Sastry, K. S. R., 71:275-276; 72:248
Saugstad, E. S., 75:108-109
Savage, A. D., 76:367
, and T. R. Mertens, A taxo-
nomic study of Genus Poly-
474
Savage — Schwenk
gonum, Section Polygonum
(Avicularia) in Indiana and
Wisconsin, 79:357-369
Sawyer, J. O., Jr. (see Lindsey,
A. A.)
, and A. A. Lindsey, The
Holdridge bioclimatic forma-
tions of the Eastern and
Central United States, 73:105-
112
Scamehorn, R., 73:125
Schaal, L. A., (see Ziemer, P. L.)
, Cooling- degree days in Indi-
ana, 79:292-298
— , and B. O. Blair, The temp-
erature factor in corn produc-
tion in Tippecanoe County,
Indiana, 79:389-395
Schaap, W. B., (see Schmidt, F.
C.)
Schaffer, R. E., 80:487-488
-, and R. W. Bullard, Com-
parisons of rewarming from
natural torpidity and induced
hypothermia in chipmunks
{Tarnias striatus) with ref-
erence to heart rate and temp-
erature relationships, 79:476-
483
Schafer, J. F., 71:83-84; 72:103-104;
75:63; 76:199; 76:199-200; 77:
127-128; (see also Shands,
H., and Zimmer, D. E.)
Schelwalt, W. E., (see Cook, D.
J.)
Scherich, L., 80:485
Schiff bases, of p-phenylazoaniline,
addition of protons to, 73
139-143
Schizanthus, origin of variation, 77
349-350
Schizophyllum commune, nucleus, 78
163
Schmedtje, J. F., 77:154-155; 78
163-164; 79:92
Schmeiz, D. V., 74:307; 77:184
79:138; (see also Lindsey,
A. A.
, and D. L. Hodde, The James
Bird Woods: An old-growth
oak-hickory remnant in Harri-
son County, Indiana, 80:215-
219
Schmidt, F. C, (see Huffman,
C.J.)
, W. E. Hoffman, and W. B.
Schaap, The determination of
the apparent molal volumes
and viscosities of some elec-
trolytes in anhydrous ethyl-
enediamine at 25° C, 72:127-
131
Schmidt-Bleak, F., 76:222; 77:175
Schmuckler, B..t (see Manning,
A. W.)
Schneider, A. F., 72:172-173; 78:
315-316
, Noncongressional land-sur-
vey divisions in Indiana, 74:
248-254
— — , The Tinley moraine in Indi-
ana, 77:271-278
— — , and G. H. Johnson, Late
Wisconsin glacial history of
the area around Lake Maxin-
kuckee, 76:328-334
Schneider, G. L., 75:149
Scrophulariaceae, 74:314
Schuder, D. L., 78:255
-, The control of sod web-
worms (Crambus spp.) in
Indiana, 73:164-166
, Three pine weevils new to
Indiana, 76:270-271
— — , and R. L. Giese, Euzophera
ostricolorella Hulst (Lepidop-
tera, Phycitidae), a root collar
borer of tulip tree, 71:122-123
Schultz, D. J., 78:200
Schulz, A. R., 79:346; 80:111-112
Schulz, C. R., 76:221
Schwan, T. C, 74:189-193
Schwartz, B. K., Jr., A suggested
standardization of nomencla-
ture in archaeological meth-
odology, 74:114-117
Schwartz, E., 79:121; (see also
Heys, J. R.)
Schwenk, K., and A. S. Bennett,
The effect of avidin on the
biosynthesis of fatty acids in
Schwenk — Shrew
475
Aspergillus niger and Asper-
gillus flavus, 79:351-355
Science, achievement and reading,
80:438
apparatus originals: Florence,
Leyden, Glasgow, and Camb-
ridge, 78:378-380
at Ball State University, 78:381-
386
departments, development, at Indi-
ana University, 77:340-345
Science Education (see also entries
under following author names,
only those who submitted
manuscripts included : Wert,
W. G.)
abstracts, 80:437-438
history, astronomy and physics,
78:378-380
teaching, telephone interviews, 80:
437
and technology, social and econ-
omic effects of, 77:84-93
Scientists, social responsibility of,
77:84-93
Scintillation counting, 74:339-342
Scintillators, 77:173-174
Scutigerella, 77:214-221
S. immaculata, 76:259
Sea squirt, uptake and retention of
radioactive substances, 75:284
Seaton, J. P., memorial, 77:42-43
Secondary education, earth science,
78:329-332
Sedmak, J., 77:126
Sediments, Lake Chicago, 75:149-150
Seed germination, effect of peat-
moss extracts, 73:113-115
Seely, O., 79:357-358
Segal, E. O., Some institutional re-
sponse to culture contact, 74:
107-111
Selenium effect on respiration, 78:
116-117
Semiconductors produced by Ir, Pd,
Rhand Ru, 79:361-373
Sergeant, M., D. Blazek, J. H.
Elder, C. A. Lembi, and D.
J. Morre. The toxicity of 2,4-
D and picloram herbicides to
fish, 80:114-123
Serine deaminass, Escherichia coli,
80:111
Serological changes in rats, 77:124-
125
Serum lipoproteins in rat liver, 77:
159-163
Service stations, consumer control of
location, 76:353-356
Sesquicentennial symposia, 76:15-17;
76:63-171
Settlement decline, Southwestern
Indiana, population, 79:318-
324
Settlement patterns, prehistoric, in
the central states area, 73:47-
55
Sewage ponds and algae, 76:204-209
Sewage stabilization ponds, algae,
78:139-145
Sexual, compatibility in Eudorina
from Indiana, 71:85
differences in crania, 74:72-80
Shade, R. E., 73:144
Shands, H., 76:199
, F. L. Patterson, and J. F.
Schafer, Inheritance of re-
sistance to loose smut in three
winter barleys, 74:155-164
Shangkuan, J., 80:143
Sharp, J., 80:142
Shawnee Indians, 78:93-96
Shea, G. J., 71:148-149
Sheehan, R. J., memorial, 72:44-
45
Sheffy, M. V., 79:375-376
Shell heaps, a comparison of crania
from Brazil and the archaic
of eastern United States, 73:
56-59
Shelley, R. L., memorial, 79:33-34
Sherman, W. V., 77:173
Shew, D., (see Carmack, M.)
Shih, M., 80:367-368
Shirer, D. L., 73:209
Shock to performer, apparent, vicari-
ous instigation, conditioning
and frequency of, 72:289
Shope papilloma virus, 77:123-124
Shrew, southeastern, (Sorex longi-
rostris), in Indiana, 72:340-341
I7<;
Shroyer — Snyder
Shroyer, D. A., and R. E. Srv-
ERLY, A preliminary study of
mosquito populations at waste
lagoons in East-Central Indi-
ana—1970, 80:275-282
Shultes, D. M., 77:129
Siakotos, A. N., 79:93
Siamese fighting fish, 76:397-398
Siddiqi, A. H., 79:253
Siefker, J. R., and C. S. Springer,
Jr., A complex of cadmium
(II) and pyrocatechol violet.
Determination of the molar
absorptivity and dissociation
constant, 73:135-138
— — , and R. L. Wence, O-Tolyl
biguanide complexes of some
transition metal ions in 1-
Methyl - 2 - Pyrrolidinone,
75:100-104
— — , and L. J. Jardine, Aqueous
solution studies of O-Tolyl
biguanice complexes of Cobalt
(II), Copper (II), and Nickel
(II), 77:176-181
— — , and J. C. Douglas, The solva-
tion of Iron (III) by 1-
methyl - 2 - pyrrolidimone, 80:
155-158
Silification, 80:311
Simon, J., 79:91
Singer, A. C, 80:95
Singleton, J. R., memorial, 72:45-
46
Siphon, operation under low pres-
sure, 75:227-228
Siverly, R. E., 71:115; 72:140; 73:
144-145; 74:194-195; 74:195;
75:108; (see also Shroyer,
D. A.)
, Factors influencing the spec-
ies composition of mosquito
populations in Indiana, 79:238-
248
, Composition of domestic fly
populations in Delaware
County, Indiana, 80:299-304
Skaggs, R. W., L. F. Huggins, and
E. J. Monke, An aerody-
namic method for sizing sands
and other granular materials,
79:377-388
Skeletal aging, prehistoric, 80:64-65
Skeletal muscle, regeneration in rab-
bits, 79:91
Skeletons from the Klunk Site, Cal-
houn County, 74:81-83
Sketches, biographical, of Indiana
scientists, III. Joseph Tingley,
72:239
Skomp, D. C, Preliminary notes on
the pelvic floor musculature of
Macada ira in relation to the
assumption of upright pos-
ture, 73:60-63
Slabaugh, E. J., 71 :52
Sludge digestion, aerobic heavy, 74:
149-151
Smail, J. K., The use of female
crania in demonstrating racial
relationships as exemplified in
two upper Mississippi Amer-
ind groups, 74:72-80
Smalley, S. F., 78:164-165
Smith, C. E., Jr., 78:202-203
Smith, D. E., 78:118-119
Smith, J. A., (See Crankshaw,
W. B.)
, and C. R. Metz, Spectro-
photometry determination of
the chromate-dichromate equi-
librium constant, 80:159-163
Smith, J. M., 75:246; 76:371
, Ohio landscape puzzle, 75:
202-205
Smith, L. C, 80:143
Smith, P. L., and R. J. Green,
Jr., Identification and physio-
logical studies of soil bacteria
causing fungistasis, 74:140-
148
Smithville, Amo, and Coatesville,
72:228-235
Smut, loose, in winter barleys, 74:
155-164
Snodgrass, J. B., (see Cole, T. A.)
Snodgrass, R., 72:288-289
Snow, J. T., 79:122
Snyder, H. H., On propagation in
cylindrical guides with arbi-
Snyder — South America
477
trary impedance walls, 80:388-
403
Social organization of Northeastern
Algonkians, 74:112-113
Social wasps in Indiana, 74:197-204
Sod worms (Crambus spp.), control
of, in Indiana, 73:164-166
Sodium borohydride, 76:236-239
Soil, analysis, physical, 77:377-388
associations, Allen County, origin,
characteristics, and manage-
ment, 72:330-337
associations, Perry County, 74:328-
334
conservation in Mexico, 77:109-112
conservation research, 80:468-475
corn root distribution in, 79:401-
406
glacial till, 77:305-311
heat balance with atmosphere, 76:
372-376
information in urban planning, 75:
267-272; 75:273-278
moisture, forest, 78:204-209
moisture levels and evapotrans-
piration rates from clima-
tological data, 73:249-251
multispectral properties, 79:413-
422
organic matter, 79:413-422; 80:
476-483
radiation measurements, 80:443
reflectance, 80:476-483
sample preparation, effect of high
moisture content upon Purdue
soil test values, 73:249-251
sampling depth and corn root dis-
tribution, 70:401-406
survey, Lake County, 74:325-327
survey, use in rural-urban plan-
ning, 75:262-266; 75:267-272
testing data handling, 77:374-376
types, establishing crop poten-
tials for Indiana, 71:335-340
Soil Science (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts, included: Ahlrichs
J. L.; Akalan, I.; Baum-
Gardner, M. F.; Desrosier,
N.; Galloway, H. M.; Grant,
K. E.; Guernsey, C. W.; Han-
nah, P. R.; Heath, M. E.;
Hoffer, R. M.; Horvath, E.;
Hughes, L. B.; Hull, J., Jr.;
JOHANNSEN, C. J.J KOHNKE,
H.; Mannering, J. V.; Mey-
ers, N. L.; Michael, H. L.;
Miller, P. A.; Monke, E. J.;
Montgomery, R.; Olson, T.
C.; Post, D. F.; Robbins, J.
M., Jr.; Ruttan, V. W.;
Schaal, L. A.; Skaggs, R.
W.; Stivers, R. K.; Tukey,
R. B.; Turner, R.; Wiersma,
D.; Wilcox, G. E.; Wilkin-
son, S. R.; Zachary, A. L.:
Ziemer, P. L.)
abstracts, 71:334; 75:246; 76:371;
77:373; 78:417; 80:443
history of, in Indiana, 76:151-163
Soils, effect of rainfall energy, 79:
407-412
fertilizer response of corn, 78:435-
443
fragipan, 80:177
(fragipan) and suitable plants, 78:
429-434
gross gamma radioactivity of,
74:339-342
high and low ground differences,
80:444-452
portion of geology course, 76:371
and soil survey, on the Island of
Maui, Hawaii, 72:338-339
surface sealing by rain, 79:407-412
and trees, 79:198-204
and urban uses, a teaching pro-
gram, 75:273-278
water infiltration into, 79:407-412
Solanaceae, cultivated of Ecuador,
79:376
Solar radiation and cooling degree
days, 79:292-298
Somatotype, a scale for assessment,
71:52
Sorex longirostris, new distribution
records, 76:397
southeastern shrew, Tippecanoe
County, Indiana, 72:340-341
South America, Magdalena Valley,
80:64
47K
Southern — Steroids
Southern mountaineers, migration of,
78:97-103
Southwestern Indiana, population
and settlement decline, 79:318-
324
Soybean, development, 80:97-98
micronutrient status in Indiana,
72:313-318
Sparks, P., 71:86-87; 74:152; (see
also Green, M. J.)
Spectral characteristics, land sur-
faces, 80:230-244
Spectral comparison, 2-Quinolones
with 2-Alkoxyquinolines, 75:
96-99
Spectral properties of soils, 80:476-
483
Spectrometers, mass, 80:39-49
nuclear magnetic resonance, 80:39-
49
Spectrometry, infrared, 80:39-49
Spectrophotometric studies of com-
plex ions, 77:176-181
Spectroradiometer for field use, 80:
443
Spectroscopy, atomic, in measuring
atomic lifetimes, 78:389-393
infrared, of clay, 75:247-255
Spencer County, Indiana, prehistory,
80:63
Spermatozoa of Icteridae, 77:434-441
Sphecidae, 75:141-147
Sphecodogastra texana (Cresson),
light trap collections of the
nocturnal bee, 71 : 124-129
Spheroplasts, freeze etching of, 80:
112
Spiders of Indiana, 78:266-314
Spleenwort, narrow-leaved, sys-
tematics, 80:431-435
Splitting of the nuclear quadrupole
resonance lines of certain
nuclei in a weak Zeeman field,
72:247-248
Spores, fungal, in Eocene deposits,
79:375
Sprague, N. G., 80:377; 80:377-378
, Original science apparatus
preserved in science museums
and universities in free
Europe, 78:378-380
Spring meetings, Turkey Run State
Park, 71:9-10; Spring Mill
State Park, 72:9-11; Pokagon
State Park, 73:10-13; Mc-
Cormick's Creek State Park,
74:11-12; Culver Military
Academy, 75:10-13; Wabash
College; 76:12-17; McCorm-
ick's Creek State Park, 77:13-
17; Honeywell Center, 78:12-
14; Hanover College, 79:6-8;
Turkey Run State Park, 80:
6-8
Springer, C. S., Jr., (see Siefker,
J. R.)
Stability of differential equations,
72:246
Stabler, T. A., (see Reynolds, A.
E.)
Stadler, A. M., 80:63
Stanceu, T., (See Morre, D. J.)
Stapleton, I. W., (see Carmack,
M.)
Starcs, H., 71:284
, Notes on vascular plants of
the Cabin Creek Raised Bog,
71:302-304
Stanley, R. W., 71:275
Stark, W. M., 78:111-112
Starr, T. J., 73:75-76; 73:76; 74:118;
75:55; 75:61; 76:80; 76:181;
77:125-126; (also see Consi-
dine, R. G.)
Statistical approximations, Chi
Square, correlation coeffi-
cients, 78:482-490
Statton, C. T., 79:253
Stature, in Hopewell and Middle
Mississippi Indians, 77:98-101
Ste. Genevieve limestone, cavern in,
77:236-244
Steinert, D. L., 79:358
Steinrauf, L. K., 79:357-358
Stem structure in grasses, 79:85-90
Stephens, J., 80:378
Steric effects and the secondary iso-
tope effect, 17:105-108
Sternberg, Y. M., (see Lewis, L.
A.)
Steroids, effect on chicken pituitary
FSH content, 79:462-465
Sterols — Superconductivity
479
Sterols, fecal excretion of germfree
rat, 76:191-192
Stibbins, D., 77:171-172
Sticklebacks, occurrence in Indiana,
77:185-192
Stiles, J. W., (see Hall, J. D.)
Stivers, R. K., The relation of pH
to available phosphate and
potash in Purdue soil tests,
1961, 72:307-312
, The effect of high moisture
content at the time of soil
sample preparation upon Pur-
due soil test values, 73:249-
251
, Some characteristics of Pur-
due soil testing data from
field plots, 74:319-324
, Yield response of small
grains to nitrogen fertiliza-
tion, 75:256-261
, Characteristics of Purdue
soil testing data from plugs
taken out of experimental
plots, 79:374-376
, Fertilizer experiments with
corn on several soils in Indi-
ana, 1963-1965, 78:435-443
, Distribution of corn (Zea
mays L.) roots in two soils
in relation to depth of sampl-
ing and type of sampler,
79:401-406
, Differences between selected
high and low ground soils of
Indiana, 80:444-452
, H. F. Hodges, R. F. Dudley,
and C. F. Douglas, Response
of wheat to nitrogen on Indi-
ana soils, 71:361-366
Stockdale, P. B., memorial, 72:46-
48
Stoneflies, winter species, ecology of,
in Columbus, Indiana, area,
72:139
Storhoff, B. N., 78:200
Stork, M. L., memorial, 71 :44-45
Stork ring enlargement, an alter-
native mechanism, 72:132-135
Stout, T. R., (see Hoffman, W. E.)
Stovall, W. E., 78:164
Stover, R. L., 78:199
Stratigraphy, Devonian rocks, 78:
333-341
Pennsylvanian rocks, 77:292-298
Straw, W. T., The upper alluvial
terrace along the Ohio River
Valley in south-central Indi-
ana, 77:231-235
Strawn, S. C, 80:245
Stream changes caused by dam, 80:
351-355
Streams, accuracy of ordering pro-
cedures, 79:333-344
Street, R. W., (see Carmack, M.)
Streptococcus faecalis immunity in
rat, 78:110
Stress, in chick embryos, 75:283
Strip coal mine reclamation, 74:255-
258; 78:355-362
Strip mine areas, temperature and
moisture, 78:201
vegetation, 76:241-242
Strip-mined land use, 77:305-311
Subsoil tillage, 80:468-475
Succession, bacteria, 75:282; 76:421-
425
saprophagous arthropods, 75:282
Subramanian, S., 80:367
Sulfamic acid, hydrolysis of, 72:123-
126
Sulfatase, regulation in Cephalospor-
ium, 77:123
Sulfhydryl inhibitors, 77:136-143
Sulfonamides, reversal of the anti-
bacterial activity by p-Amino-
benzoic acid, 71:78-81
Sulfur-nitrogen heteroaromatic com-
pounds, 80:164-173
Sulfur, oxidizing bacteria and coal
mine stream pollution, 79:345
reaction with ketones, 77:171
Sulfur in coal ash, 77:299-304
Sulzbach, D., 75:108
Sundy, J., (see Hoffman, W. E.)
Sunlight maps of forest openings,
80:220-224
Sunspot "K" number determination,
80:377-378
Superconductivity in strong-coupling
superconductors, 77:347
480
Surdzial — Thyroid
Surdzial, R. E., (see Buckbee,
Sister B.)
Surface coal mining, reclamation
program, 80:346-350
Sus scrofa, trichomonad parasites
of, 80:487
Swain, P. H., 80:98
Swartz, B. K., Jr., 77:96-97; 80:
65-66
Sweeney, M. J., 78:112
Sweeteners, rodent preference to
toxic and non-toxic, 78:457-465
Swez, J., 80:368; (see also Alvager,
T.)
Swihart, J. C, 77:347
Symbol, biohazards (infectious
agents) warning, 76:179-180
Symphylans, damage to field corn,
77:214-221
in corn, 76:259
Synagraphic mapping, 80:356-361
Synaptomys, internal parasites, 80:
489-494
Tague, N. A., 80:64
Tamar, H., 74:349; 75:285; 77:414;
76:446
Tamias striatus, caloric content of
fat, 80:487
torpor and hypothermia,, 79:476-
483
Taylor, D. H., 80:486-487
Taylor, J. G., (see Deay, H. O.)
Teaching earth science in Indiana,
78:329-332
Technological change and resource
utilization in American agri-
culture, 71 : 353-360
Tektites, ballistic paths of, 73:209
Telfair, W. B., (see Cope, J. B.)
Telinde, H. D., 75:61-62
Temperature, and cooling degree
days, 79:292-298
and corn yields, 77:389-395
effect, chick, 74:362-366
effect on pecking and color prefer-
ence in the chick, 72:290-299
percentiles for Anderson, Indiana,
80:313
stress effect in chicks, 76:426-430
Teratological androecia of Sapon-
aria officinalis, 77:370-372
Terraces, alluvial, Ohio River Valley,
77:231-235
Terrain analysis by computer, 77:
256-270
Terre Haute, belt roads, 77:230
central business district, 71:203-
209
city planning, 77:321-325
service station location, 76:353-356
Tetrahydrofuranones, some reac-
tions of substituted, 73:125
Texas, Sabine Lake, 75:197-201
Texture, influence on aggregate
abrasion resistance, 75:153-
162
Thallium chloride, 78:199
Thamnophis sirtalis, 78:445
Theisen, C. T., 77:171
Thermal discharge, in river, 78:201-
202
Thermal induction, bacteriophage PI,
79:346
Thermal pollution, bacteriological
studies, 80:183-188
Thermodynamic properties, Daniell
cell, 79:123-128
Thermodynamics, relativistic, 79:358
Thermus aquations, indicator of
thermal pollution, 80:183-188
1,2,5-Thiadiazoles, chemistry of, 80:
164-173
Thiamine and anti-microbial de-
fenses, 72:93-96
Thiouracil, thyroid response, 79:91
Thomas, G. P., 78:388
Thomas, R. J., 78:165-166
Thompson, D. J., 75:285; 76:398;
76:398-399
Thompson, H. B., 71:275
Thompson, I. B. Regional con-
trasts in the characteristics of
the agricultural labour force
of the corn belt, 71:219-225
Thrall, C. L., 80:141
Threshold population concept, 77:
326-334
Thyridopteryx ephemerae formis , 75 :
148
Thyroid, 80:111-112
Thyroxine — Tropisterneis
481
Thyroxine, 80:111-112
molecular structure, 79:357-358
Tiano, D. E., and J. F. Holuihan,
Comparison of two techniques
for determining linear absorp-
tion coefficients, 76:358-365
Ticks, Amblyomma americanum, 76:
284-285
Tiefel, C. F., 78:315
Tiemeier, D., 76:222
Tillage techniques, 78:418-428
Tiltometer and the dynamical elas-
ticity of the earth's crust, the
instrument, 71:148-149
Time-of-flight method, student lab,
80:378
Tin, hydrolysis constant, 79:121
Tincher, J. F., 77:95
Tingley, J., 72:239
Tingle y, Joseph, Biographical
sketches of Indiana scientists,
111,72:239
Tinley moraine, 77:271-278
Tippecanoe County, Indiana, corn
yields, 77:389-395
fishes, 75:279
Hadley Lake depression, 79:270-
280
topographic map, 77:229-230
Tissue culture, 77:124
colchicine - induced mironucleated
cells, 73:76
Titanium-oxygen system and elec-
tron spin resonance, 79:358
Tocopherolquinones, 80:130-139
Tolypella, fossils compared to mod-
ern, 78:406-412
TOMAK, C. H., 80:63; (see also
Neumann, G. K.)
Tomato response to nitrogen fertili-
zation in Indiana, 72:300-306
TOMS, W. L., memorial, 79:34-35
Topographic mapping by computer,
77:229-230
Topographic maps and stream nets,
79:333-344
Topotypes, example of misuse, 80:
414-415
Tordon, growth regulator, 75:63
Tornadoes, Indiana climatology and
statistics, 79:299-308
Torpor, rewarming from, in Tamias
striatus, 79:476-483
Toxicity in Rana palustris, 75:319-
324
Townsend, J. W., 80:487
Townsend, S., 77:96
Trace metals, biological functions of,
75:33-42
Trachoma virus, cytochemical
changes in, 71:71
Tragis (Euphorbiaceae), 72:257
Tranquilizer (chlorpromazine) , ef-
fect of, on learning, 73:272-
276
Transducer, a constant voltage sup-
ply for a pressure, 71:282-283
Transamination, glutamate-aspartate
isozymes, 76:222
Transition metal complexes, 75:100-
104
Transition metals, di-n-butyloxa-
midine complexes, 79:129-133
Transitions, in metal oxides, 79:358
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus,
77:157
Transportation costs, mineral ag-
gregates in Indiana, 78:348-
354
Trees, site preference, 78:201
and soils, 79:198-204
Trehaleses in insects, 74:350
Treick?R. W., 73:76-77
Trexler, P. C, 71:71-72
Tribolium, temperature mutant, 74:
398-401
Trichinella spiralis, antibody-binding
sites, 76:179
Trichogramma minutum, 80:305-309
Trichomonads of swine, morphology,
80:487
Trilliums, Franklin County, Indiana,
79:83
Trincheras, water-retention struc-
tures, 77:109-112
Tritrichomonas suis, taxonomy, 80:
487
Tropical rain forest, radionuclide
uptake, 80:176
Tropisterneis collorus (Castelnau),
interbreeding, 79:227
4X2
Tropisternus— Verbal
Tropisternus collaris, 75:137-140; 76:
279-283
T. collaris complex, 76:272-278
T. collaris and subspecies, genetics
78:260-265
Troyer, B. C, 75:282
— , and J. H. Hamon, Prelimin-
ary studies of the succession
of bacterial genera involved in
the maceration of some birds,
76:421-425
Troyer, F., 77:128
Trumbull, D., 76:202-203
Tsuga canade?isis in Indiana, ecol-
ogic status of, 71:284
Tuberarimn, section of genus Sol-
atium, 80:414
Tukey, R. B., The relationship of
soils and fertilizers to the
nutrient content of apple
trees, 73:232-238
Tulip tree borer, 71 : 122-123
Tumor cells, mitotic activity, 78:164
Tumors, chemical induction of germ-
free, 73:76
Turner, A. K., and R. D. Miles,
Terrain analysis by computer,
77:256-270
Turner, R., and D. Wiersma, De-
termining evapotranspiration
rates and soil moisture levels
with climatological data, 73:
244-248
Turtle, Terrepene Carolina Carolina,
population study in Allee
Memorial Woods, 71:399-406
locomotion rhythms, 75:281-282
Indiana distribution, 80:485-486
Tutelo Indian tribe of North Caro-
lina, 78:88-92
Ullstrup, A. J., 77:128; 78:117; 80:
96-97
, A virus disease of corn in
Indiana, 74:153
Ulrich, H. P., (see Post, D. F.)
Ultrastructure of Astrephomene, 71:-
85-86
Ultrastructures, 76:199-200; 76:202-
203; 76:210-214
Ultraviolet light pulse, 74:181-182
Unified theory (physics), 76:357
Union City moraine, stratigraphic
significance of, 77:279-291
Urban climatology, recent theories,
80:330-336
Urban development and planning,
78:342-347
Urban geology, research programs,
78:49-64
Urban planning, 75:262-266; 75:267-
272
Urban structure analysis, 78:104-107
Urbanization and Indiana mosquito
populations, 79:238-248
Urbont, A. L., The sacrum of the
American Indian, 74:68-71
Uredinales on Aristida, 75:229
Ursus, bones from Indiana cave, 79:
472-475
Ustilago tritici, 71:83-84
Vaccinia, growth in miniature cells,
77:125-126
Valparaiso and Lake Border moranic
systems, 77:271-278
Vanderburgh County, Inglesfield and
Dicksburg Hills sandstone
members in, 72:212-217
VanDerWoude, W. J., and D. J.
Morre, Endoplasmic reticu-
lum - dictyosome - secretory
vesicle associations in pollen
tubes of Lilium longiflorum
Thunb., 77:164-170
VanEtten, R. L., 79:121-122
Van Nuys Site, excavation, 78:71;
79:58
Van Vleet, J. R., 79:91
Van Zile, B., (see Horvath, E.)
Varns, J. L., 80:367; 80:368
Vary, J., 71:71
Vascular plants of Cabin Creek
Raised Bog, 71 :302-304
Vegetation-climate in Eastern
United States, 80:210-214
Vegetation, gradients, Wizard Island,
77:183
types of Costa Rica, 71 :284
Vella, P. P., 73:75-76
Verbal understanding, transfer of
learning without, 72:288
Vermillion — Ward
4s:;
Vermillion County, ants, 77:222-227
Versailles State Park, Indiana, 78:
210-230
Vertical mulching, 80:468-475
Verticillium albo-atrum, 80:96
Verticillium wilt, 80:104-109
Vespa crabro L., in Indiana, 80:245-
246
Vespa spp., 74:197-204
Vespidae, 74:197-204
Vespula spp., 74:197-204
Viburnum dentatum, 76:368-369
Vickery, K. D., Preliminary report
on the excavation of the
"Great Mound" at Mounds
State Park in Madison
County, Indiana, 79:75-82
Vieira, R., (See Morre, D. J.)
Vigo County, Indiana, 77:206-212;
77:442-444
amphibians, 75:279-280
fishes, 75:279
fleas, 76:431-435
mammals, 75:280
mobile home parks, 80:362-364
reptiles, 75:279-280
Village growth in Indiana, 72:228-
235
Villages, social activity, Middle
Western, 75:150
Vinca rosea, alkaloid test, 80:97
Vincennes, land-survey divisions, 74:
248-254
Vinnedge, L., 76:259
Virgin timber, Hoot Woods, Owen
County, Indiana, 71:320-326
Virus, hepatitus, infection of corti-
sone-treated germfree mice,
73:75-76
transmissable gastroenteritis in
swine, 77:157
vaccinia, 76:181
Visher, S. S., Geographic influ-
ences, changes in Blooming-
ton, Indiana, 71:265-270
, Indiana's yield of eminent
people compared with that of
nearby states, 72:240-242
, A southward decline in the
yield of eminent Americans
illustrated and partly ex-
plained, 73:202-207
, Is Indiana becoming over-
populated?, 74:230-231
, A brief history of geography
in Indiana, 76:95-102
, memorial, 77:44-46
Vitamin-E deficiency, 80:143
rabbits, 79:91
von Meyer, W. C, A histological
study of host parasite rela-
tions of Puccinia polysora and
P. sorghi on different geno-
types of maize, 73:89-96
Wabash, lower, original floodplain
and upland forest, 72:282-287
proglacial drainage, 79:270-280
valley, population, 75:150
Wade, S. E., and C. E. Gifford, A
preliminary study of the turtle
population of a northern Indi-
ana lake, 74:371-374
Wagner, M., 73:75; 78:110; (see also
Makulu, D. R.)
, and W. C. Gunther, Pref-
erence for toxic and non-toxic
artificial sweeteners in rod-
ents, 78:457-465
Waldman, C. G., (see Neumann,
G. K.)
Walker, P. L., (see Blakely, R.
L.)
■ — — , The linear growth of long
bones in late woodland Indian
children, 78:83-87
Wallace, D. C, 75:279
Wallace, F. N., memorial, 78:40-42
Wallace, Sr. M. J., 79:413-414
Walter, E. V., Some factors asso-
ciated with earworm resist-
ance in sweet corn, 71:146-147
Walters, D. R., 79:349-350
Wappes, J. E., An Indiana record
of Ainblyomma americanum
(L), 76:284-285
Ward, G. L., 74:205; (see also Mont-
gomery, M. E.)
— — , Parasitism in a population
of the bagworm (Thyridop-
4S4
Ward — Weir
teryx ephemerae for mis) , 75:
148
, The occurrence of Chalybion
zimmermanni Dahlbom (Sphe-
cidae) in Indiana, 79:231-233
Nest site preference of
Chalybion zimmermanni Dahl-
bom (Hymenoptera, Spheci-
dae), 80:264-266
Ware, M. G., 79:227
Warner, G. W., memorial, 79:35-37
Warren, J., 77:124
Wasps, Stizini and Bembicini in
Indiana, 75:141-147
Waste lagoons, mosquito production,
80:275-282
Watanabe, I., 77:155; 78:161; 79:
92
Water, availability increasing crop
potentials, 71:347-352
beetles, 75:137-140
conservation, 77:109-112; 77:312-
320
ethical implications, 79:49-56
resources, surface, Indiana, 76:323-
327
Watershed soil mineralogy, 79:432-
437
Watson, Jennings, and the biolog-
ical origins of behaviorism,
72:288
Wave guides, with impedance walls,
80:388-403
Wayne, N. L., 75:150-151
Wayne, W. J., 72:172-173; 74:223;
75:150-151
, The reversal of Raccoon
Creek at Atherton Island,
west-central Indiana, 75:167-
174
— , The Erie Lobe margin in
east-central Indiana during
the Wisconsin glaciation, 77:
279-291
, Urban geology — A need and
a challenge (presidential ad-
dress), 78:49-63
Weather modification, inadvertent,
urban areas, 80:330-336
Weatherwax, P., Indiana botany in
retrospect, 76:71-80
, The nodal complex in
grasses, 77:132-135
, Some "Atypical" stem struc-
tures in the Gramineae, 79:
85-90
Weaver, B., 72:140
Weaver, D., and H. E. McReynolds,
Inferential evidence of
changes in growth rates and
population densities of bluegill
sunfish during a 30-year per-
iod, 80:196-200
Weaver, H. D., Jr., (see Bowers,
E.J.)
Web pattern in urban development,
78:342-347
Web theory of city development,
76:339-346
Webb, G. W., Factors affecting the
location of steam-electric gen-
erating plants of the Ameri-
can electric power system, 76:
347-352
Webb, R. L., memorial, 72:48-49
Weber, N. E., 79:93
Weber, N. V., A comparison of the
central place hierarchy pat-
tern of central Indiana to the
Walter Christaller model, 79:
325-332
, Indiana climate and corn
production: 1960-1969, 80:315.
319
Webster, G. L., 72:257
, The Kriebel Herbarium at
Purdue University, 71:233-234
Wechter, M. A., 77:175
Weeks, H. P., Jr., Courtship and
territorial behavior of some
Indiana woodcocks, 79:162-172
Weeks, T. F., 76:200
Weevil, acorn, of the family Cur-
culionidae, a plant growth pro-
moting substance found in,
71:94-95
Weevils, three pine pests, 76:270-271
Weimer, H. R., memorial, 80:31-32
Weinstock, L. M., (see Carmack,
M.)
Weir, C. E., Stratigraphic classi-
fication of rocks of Pennsyl-
Weir — White
•ixr>
vanian age in Indiana, 77:292-
298
Weismiller, R. A., (see Ahlrichs,
J. L.)
Weiss, M. S., A systems approach
to the study of complex so-
ciety, 78:104-107
Weiss, R. L„ 80:112
Welch, W. H., The DePauw Uni-
versity Herbarium, 71:239-241
, Bryophytes of Cabin Creek
Raised Bog, 72:105-107
, Studies in Indiana Bryo-
phytes XIII, 72:270-278
■ , Hookeriaceae species and
distribution in South America,
78:396-405
, Hookeriaceae species and
distribution in north and cen-
tral America and West Indies,
79:351-356
, Hookeriaceae species and dis-
tribution in Africa, Europe,
Asia, Australia and Oceania,
79:377-387
Welser, J. R., 79:91
Welsh-Dunlap Site, excavation, 78:71
Wen, R. Y., (see Carmack, M.)
Wence, R. L., (see Siefker, J. R.)
Wendt, H. W., Rapid approxima-
tions for some chi-square and
derived correlational statistics
used in the social and biologi-
cal sciences, 78:482-490
Wesler, J. R., 77:155-156
West, T. R., 77:229-230; 80:312
, and D. J. Barr, Economic
groundwater problems en-
countered in the development
of a housing area near West
Lafayette, Indiana, 74:259-267
, and R. B. Johnson, An-
alysis of textural and physical
factors contributing to the
abrasion resistance of some
Indiana carbonate aggregates,
75:153-162
Westing, A. H., (see Cox, R. L.)
, A plant growth promoting
substance found in an acorn
weevil of the family Cur-
culionidae, 71:94-95
, Bioassay methods for geo-
tropically active growth sub-
stances, 72:115-117
Wet-belly disease of the mink, 72:
136-138
Wheat, infection by Ustilago tritici,
71:83-84
resistance to leaf rust, 72:103-104
response to nitrogen fertilization,
75:256-261
response to nitrogen on Indiana
soils, 71:361-366
Whippo, P. D., Distribution of pop-
ulation change in Indiana,
1950-1960,71:192-195
Whistling swan, occurrence in Dela-
ware County, Indiana, 72:342-
343; 73:267
Whitaker, J. 0., Jr., 75:279; 75:
280; (see also Fulk, F. D.)
, Relationship of Mus, Pero-
myscus and Microtus to the
major textural classes of soils
of Vigo County, Indiana, 77:
206-212
, Parasites of feral housemice,
Mus musculus, in Vigo
County, Indiana, 79:441-448
— — ■, and K. W. Corthum, Jr.,
Fleas of Vigo County, Indi-
ana, 76:431-440
■ , W, A. Miller, and W. L.
Boyko, Rabies in Indiana
bats, 78:447-456
, and R. E. Mumford, Jump-
ing mice (Zapodidae) in Indi-
ana, 80:201-209
, and D. Adalis, Trematodes
and cestodes from the diges-
tive tracts of Synaptomys co-
operi and three species of
Microtus from Indiana, 80:
489-494
White ash, hackberry and yellow-
poplar seed, viability in forest
litter, 72:112-114
White-footed mouse, Pike County,
Indiana, 79:172-176
White, C. E., (see Downie, N. M.)
486
White — Wyandotte
White, D. S., 80:175
White, E., 80:378
White, J. L., (see Akalan, I.,
Meyers, N. L., and Post, D.
F.)
White, K., 73:125
Whiting, Indiana, 71:169-186
Whitten, J. B., Jr., 78:162-163;
79:94
Whittle, E., 79:439
Wicke, B., (see. Ricketts, J. A.)
Wieliczko, T. B.f 74:179
Wier, C. E., Factors affecting coal
roof rock in Sullivan County,
Indiana, 79:263-269
-, and W. A. Girdley, Distri-
bution of the Inglefield and
Dicksburg Hills sandstone
members in Posey and Van-
derburgh Counties, Indiana,
72:212-217
Wiersma, D., (see Johannsen, C.
J., Mannering, J. V., and
Turner, R.)
- — — , Increasing crop potentials
through water availability,
71:347-352
Wilcox, G. E., Tomato response to
nitrogen fertilization in Indi-
ana, 72:300-306
nitrogen fertilization in Indi-
■, Row fertilization effects on
potato growth on sandy and
organic soils, 73:227-231
Wildf lowers, Franklin County, 77:
131
Wildlife management, 78:241-244
Wilkinson, S. R., and A. J.
Ohlrogge, The micronutrient
status of soybeans in Indiana
as determined by foliar analy-
sis, 72:313-318
Willgerodt reaction, 77:171
Williams, E. C, Jr., A study of
the box turtle, Terrapene Caro-
lina Carolina (L.), population
in Allee Memorial Woods,
71:399-406
Williams, H. R., Jr., 73:75
Williams, R., 79:121
Williams, R. D., Indolebutyric acid
failed to aid black walnut
seedling development, 72:108-
111
Williams, R. H., 78:112
Wilsey, R. A., 79:136
Wilson, H. L., 72:247
Wilson, M. C, 73:144
Wilson, Brother R., 71 :72
Winkler, E. M., 75:149; 75:151
Wise, C. D., 71:369; 74:348-349
Wisconsin population distribution,
74:278-282
Witmer, S. W., 73:88
Wizard Island, Crater Lake, 77:183
Wolinsky, J., 77:174-175
Wood, A., 80:377-378
Woodcock, courtship behavior, 79:
162-172
singing ground descriptions, 78:
241-244
territorial behavior, 79:162-171
Woodmint, white flowering, in Porter
County, 76:368-369
Women, personality, race, and phy-
sique in college, 72:63-66
Wostmann, B. S., 76:179; 76:180;
77:124-125; (see also Kellogg,
T. F.; Knight, P. L., Jr.;
Olson, G. B.; and Pleasants,
J. R.)
, Intestinal microflora and
chlorestrol catabolism, 73:83-
87
, Histidine decarboxylase in
the adult rat, 76:193-198
— — , and G. B. Olson, Antibody
formation in germfree and
conventional chickens, 72:97-
102
, and G. B. Olson, The effect
of the successive administra-
tion of two antigens to germ-
free and conventional chick-
ens, 74:120-124
Wright, H. F., 79:37-38
Wright, R. D., Bloomington's in-
dustrial labor-shed, 71:196-202
Wright, M. K., 76:241-242
Wyandotte Cave, Crawford County,
77:236-244
WYATT — ZlMMACK
487
Wyatt, G. R., 74:350
Wyeomyia smithii (Coquillett), oc-
currence in Indiana, 73:144-
145
Wynne, D. D., (see Blakely, R.
L.)
Xiphosura polyphemus, 75:285
X-ray radiation, effect on survival
of corn leaf aphid, 71:142-145
Yablonski, C, (see O'Brian, D.
M.)
Yates, W. F., Jr., 75:229
Yeast ribonucleases, 76:222
Yemma, J., 79:84
Yoder, I., (see Brock, T. D.)
Yoder, L. R., 80:97; 80:437
Young, F. N., 72:139; 74:194; 77:
213; 79:227
— — , Genetic variability in a popu-
lation of Tropisternus collaris
(Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Hy-
drophilidae), 75:137-140
, Studies on the color patterns
in Crosses of Tropisternus
from western Mexico with
other color forms of the
Tropisternus collaris complex
(Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae),
76:272-278
, Crosses of Tropisternus from
central America with other
color forms of the Tropistern-
us collaris Complex (Coleop-
tera: HYDROPHILIDAE), 78:
260-265
, Observations on periodical
cicadas (Brood X) in Indiana
in 1970 (Homoptera-Cicadi-
dae), 80:247-252
Youse, H. R., The world of the
honey bee (presidential ad-
dress), 79:45-48
Yu, H. C, 80:368
Yumoto, S., 79:93-94
Yuncker, T. G., A century of botany
and botanists at DePauw Uni-
versity, 71:242-247
— — , memorial, 74:55-59
Yunker, P. L., The effect of chlor-
promazine on the learning
process, 73:272-276
Zachary, A. L., (see Baumgardner,
M. F.)
, and D. F. Post, Origin, char-
acteristics, and management
of the soil associations of
Allen County, 72:330-337
Zapus hudsonius, biology, 80:201-209
Zea mays, knotted leaf (Kn) mutant,
75:61-62
response to fertilization, 78:435-
443
root cap slime secretion, 75:64-65
Zeck, C. A., 78:115
Zehring, C. S., A. Alexander, and
B. E. Montgomery, Studies of
the eggs of Odonata, 72:150-
153
Zeller, F. J., 74:351
— — , Assay of chicken pituitary
glands by means of radioactive
phosphorus, 83:257-260
, The early effect of Gonadot-
ropins on 32P uptake by the
immature chicken testes, 80:
505-509
, and W. R. Rathkamp, The
effect of steroids on the fol-
licle stimulating hormone
(FSH) content of chicken
anterior pituitary glands, 79:
462-465
Zeman, W., 78:161
Ziegler type polymerizations, cat-
alyst composition, 75:81-89
Ziemer, P. L., and J. E. Christian,
Determination of the gross
gamma radioactivity of Indi-
ana soils by large volume
liquid scintillation counting,
74:339-342
, L. A. Schall, J. E. New-
man, C. L. Rhykerd, and
J. E. Christian, Gross gam-
ma radioactivity in Indiana
precipitation, 74:343-347
Yunghans, W., 77:154; 78:161-162 Zimmack, H. L., 77:213; 79:227
488
ZlMMER — ZYGMUNT
Zimmer, D. E., J. F. Schaffer, and
G. A. Gries, Attempts at
germination of teliospores of
Puccinia coronate var. avenae,
71:96-99
Zimmerman, E. G., 75:281
Zimmerman, J. F., 74:178
Zimmerman, R. E., 80:111
— — , and W, J. Eversole, Some
effects of aminoglutethimide
on water and electrolyte me-
tablism in the female rat,
79:455-461
Zipf rank-size theory, 75:191-196
Zoology (see also entries under
following author names, only
those who submitted manu-
scripts included: Allen, J. P.;
Baker, J. B.; Bloom, W. W.;
Brechner, R. E.; Brett, W.
J.; Clark, D. E.; Clark,
W. C; Cole, T. A.; Cooper,
R. H.; Cope, J. B.; Denner,
M. W.; Eberly, W. R.; Ed-
dleman, H.; Eversole, W. J.;
Fulk, F. D.; Gamon, J. R„;
Garner, M. R.; Gunther,
W. C; Gussin, A. E. S.;
Hamon, J. H.; Hayden, M.
A.; Holdaway, P. A; Hum-
phrey, S.; Joyner, J. W.;
Kalland, G. A.; Kirkpat-
RICK, R. D.; McGrath, J.;
McReynolds, H. E.; Mul-
care, D. J.; Mumford, R. E.;
O'Brian, D. M.; Pettee, R.
E.; Pfaltzgraff, G. H.;
Phelps, J. M., Jr.; Pickard,
B. L.; Pollock, G. P.; Prof-
fitt, M. A.; Reynolds, A. E.;
Richards, R. L.; Rubin, D.;
Schaffer, R. E.; Troyer, B.
C; Wade, S. E.; Wendt, H.
W.; Whitaker, J. 0., Jr.;
Williams, E. C, Jr.; Yunk-
er, P. L. ; Zeller, F. J.; Zim-
merman, R. E.; Zwerner,
R. K.)
abstracts, 71:367-369; 74:348-352;
75:279-285; 76:397-399; 77:
413-416; 78:445-446; 79:439-
440; 80:485-588
history of, in Indiana, 76:164-170
Zwerner, R. K., and W. J. Ever-
sole, Effects of aminoglutethi-
mide on corticosteroids in
adrenal vein plasma of the rat,
77:420-426
Zygmunt, W. A., Reversal of the
antibacterial activity of simple
and complex sulfonamides by
p-Aminobenzoic acid, 71:78-81
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