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PROCEEDINGS
of the
Indiana Academy
of Science
Founded December 29, 1885
Volume 87
1977
Benjamin Moulton, Editor
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana
Spring Meeting
April 22, 1977
Indiana University —
Purdue University at Indianapolis
Indianapolis, Indiana
Fall Meeting
October 27, 1977
Indiana University-
Purdue University at Indianapolis
Indianapolis, Indiana
Published at Indianapolis, Indiana
1978
1. The permanent address of the Academy is the Indiana State Library, 140 N. Senate Ave.,
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204.
2. Instructions for Contributors appear at the end of this volume.
3. Exchanges. Items sent in exchange for the Proceedings and correspondence concerning
exchange arrangements should be addressed:
John Shepard Wright Memorial Library of the Indiana Academy of Science
c/o Indiana State Library
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
4. Proceedings may be purchased through the State Library at $7.00 per volume.
5. Reprints of technical papers can often be secured from the authors. They cannot be supplied
by the State Library nor by the officers of the Academy.
6. The Constitution and By-Laws reprinted from Vol. 74 are available to members upon appli-
cation to the Secretary. Necrologies reprinted from the various volumes can be supplied to relatives
and friends of deceased members by the Secretary.
7. Officers whose names and addresses are not known to correspondents may be addressed care
of the State Library. Papers published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Science are abstracted
or indexed in appropriate services listed here:
Annotated Bibliography of Economy Geology
Bibliography of North American Geology
Biological Abstracts
Chemischer Informationsdienst
Current Geographical Publications
Geological Abstracts
Metals Abstracts
Pesticides Documentation Bulletin
Review of Applied Entomology
The Torry Bulletin
Zoological Record
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Officers and Committees for 1977 3
Minutes of the Spring Meeting (Executive Committee) 16
Minutes of the Spring Meeting (General Session) 19
Minutes of the Fall Meeting (Executive Committee) 20
Minutes of the Fall Meeting (General Session) 24
Annual Financial Report 29
Annual Report, Indiana Junior Academy of Science 35
Biological Survey Committee Report 37
Necrology 46
New Members for 1977 70
ADDRESSES AND CONTRIBUTED PAPERS
Presidential Address
Chemistry, Science, and Culture — Dr. Donald J. Cook 72
Anthropology
Robert E. Pace and Steve Coffing— A Riverton Culture Gathering
Site in Parke County* 81
Gary A. Apfelstadt and Robert E. Pace — Settlement Patterns Along
the White River* 81
Emory C. Whipple — "Continuity and Change in the Political System of
the Caribs of Central America"* 81
Mark Wolfal, Phil McCLUREand Robert E. Pace— A Riverton Culture
Base Camp in Bartholomew County, Indiana* 81
Alan R. Sandstrom — "Preliminary Analysis of Religious Iconograph in
Nahua, Otomi, and Tepehua Paper Cuttings"* 82
Robert E. Pace and Charles M. Anslinger — The Wilson Site: A Havana
Burial Mound in Southwest Vigo County* 82
Francis X. Grollig — Costumbre in the Cuchimatani Mountains
Guatemala* 82
Charles P. Warren — Forensic Anthropology — Theory and Practice . . 83
Curtis H. Tomak and Norma J. O'Connor — An Early Woodland Burial
from Greene County, Indiana 90
♦Abstract
in
iv Indiana Academy of Science
Page
Botany
N. P. Maxon, C. L. Rhykerd and C. L. Rhykerd Jr. — Plant Cell and
Tissue Culture for In Vitro Manipulation with Agronomic Species* 99
William W. Bloom and Gayton C. Marks — Quantitative Experiments
with Plant Catalase for the Beginning Botany Laboratory* 99
Theodore J. Crovello — Use of Computers to Enhance Education in
Plants and Human Affairs* 99
Philip A. Orpurt — The Trees of the Manchester College Campus after
Sixty Years* 100
Robert J. Lamoreaux, William R. Chaney and Richard C.
Strickland — Some Effects of Cadmium on Carbon Dioxide and
Water Vapor Transfer in Leaves of Acer saccharinum L.* 100
W. J. Hurkman and G. S. Kennedy — Ultrastructural Changes of
Chloroplasts in Attached and Detached, Aging, Primary Wheat
Leaves* 100
W. S. Courtis — Storing Orchid Pollinia for Future Use in Hybridization:
A Preliminary Report* 101
Byron O. Blair, V. L. Anderson, and C. L. Rhykerd — Predicting
Crop Yields by Use of Multiple Species Phenology Observations* . 101
Paul C. MacMillan, K. Cromack, Jr. and J. E. Means — Nutrient
Capital and Substrate Quality of Logs in an Old-Growth Douglas-
fir Forest* 101
Richard C. Strickland, William R. Chaney, and Robert J.
Lamoreaux — Effects of Low Levels of Available Cadmium on Height
Growth, Dry Matter Accumulation and Tissue Cadmium Levels
in Soybeans* 102
Richard C. Strickland, William R. Chaney, and Robert J.
Lamoreaux — Organix matter Influences Availability, Uptake and
Distribution of Cadmium in Soybeans* 102
Susannah Nelson, Mary Jo Donovan and Anne Susalla — Greening
in Albino Plants of a Green: Albino Strain of Tobacco without the
Addition of an Amino Acid to the Culture Medium* 103
Jay H. Jones — Possible Disadvantages of Isolating Plant Cuticles by
the ZnCh-HCl Method* ,. 103
John L. Roth — The Foliar Physiognomy of an Indiana Lake Bottom and
its Paleoclimatic Implication* 103
R. C. Ploetz and R. J. Green, Jr.— The Root Rot of Black Walnut
Seedlings Caused by Phytophthora critricola 105-1 12
C. L. Rhykerd, B. O. Blair, N. P. Maxon, R. E. Mullen and J. J. Vorst
— Seeding Orchardgrass in an Established Stand of Alfalfa .... 113-115
:Abstract
Table of Contents v
Page
Robert D. Williams and David T. Funk — Eighteen-Year Performance
of an Eastern White Pine Genetic Test Plantation in Southern
Indiana 116-119
Gary E. Dolph — Notes on the Construction of Leaf Size Distribu-
tions 1 20- 125
Cell Biology
Edward A. Kimble — Light-Induced Changes in Photoreceptor
Metabolism, A New Clue to Visual Function* 127
Ralph A. Jersild, Jr. and R. W. Crawford — The Distribution and
Mobility of Anionic Sites on Intestinal Absorptive Cell Brush
Borders* 1 27
William K. Stephenson and R. Scott Vander Wall— The Structure of
Small Molecule Permeation Channels in Human Red Blood Cell
Membranes* 1 27
Kathleen L. King, Daniel C. Williams, George B. Boder and
Richard J. Harley — Morphological and Functional Interaction of
Dissociated Rat Superior Cervical Ganglion Neurons and Heart
Ventricular Cells in Co-culture* 128
Kim E. Creek, D. James Morre and C. L. Richardson — Effect
of Retinol Ralmitate on Glycolipid and Glycoprotein Galactosyl
transferase activities of rat liver plasma Membrane* 128
Zafar Iqbal — Fast Axoplasmic Transport of Calcium is Associated with
the Transport of a Protein in the Mammalian Nerve* 129
Meg Durkin and Charles W. Goff— The Effects of Isoproterenol on
Mitosis and Cell Ultrastructure* 129
W. S. Courtis — Increased amounts of ATP related to cellular activation
of onion leaf base tissue* 1 29
Thomas M. Kloppel, Dorien Sarles, Linda B. Jacobson and D. James
Morre — Sialic Acid Elevated in Experimental Liver Cancer 131
L. Leonard, R. Barr and F. L. Crane — Extraction and Purification of a
Factor which Stimulates Silicomolybdate Reduction by Photosystem
II of Spinach Chloroplasts 138
Mary F. Asterita — Electrophysiological Characterization of the Ionic
Selectivity of Necturus Proximal Tubule 143
Chemistry
Stephen R. Wilson and Lawrence R. Phillips— A General Synthesis of
Cyclobut- 1-Enecarboxylates* 157
Richard Mulford, John H. Meiser, and David E. Koltenbah— Recent
Progress in Radiocarbon Dating at Ball State University* 157
♦Abstract
vj Indiana Academy of Science
Ivan Saval, Jonathan Worstell, and Bruce N. Storhoff — The
Synthesis and Characterization of Phosphine — Nitrile Systems* ... 158
Horeb Trujillo and Bruce N. Storhoff — Palladium(II) Complexes of
Potentially Bidentate Phosphine — Nitrile Ligands* 158
Paul L. Bock — Stereochemical Probes: A Test to Distinguish Erythro
and Threo Diastereomers* 158
John R. Ricketts and Paul A. Lang — The Behavior of the Bismuth-
Bismuth Oxide Electrode in pH Determinations* 158
Joseph R. Siefker and Jonathan O. Brooks — Wabash River Water
Analysis in the Vicinity of Sugar and Coal Creeks, Vigo County,
Indiana* 159
J. A. Mosbo — Reaction Rates and Equilibria at Tricoordinate
Phosphorus* 159
E. H. Appellm^n, K. G. Migliorese and M. N. Tsangaris — Reactions
of Hypofluorous Acid with Organic Compounds* 159
F. O. Rice — A Research Chemist's Formula For Retirement* 160
Eugene P. Schwartz — Dielectric Properties of Bromanil (2, 3, 5,
6-tetrabromo-\, 4-benzoquinone)* 160
Michael Whalon and Terry L. Kruger — New Methods of Analysis of
Isomeric Diols* 160
Philip A. Kinsey and Richard E. Rutledge — Determination of Iron
in Breakfast Cereals by X-Ray Fluorescence* 161
Catherine A. Dick, Terry L. Kruger, and Bruce N. Storhoff—
Identification of the cis and trans Isomers of 4-t-Butylcyclohexane-
carbonitrile* 161
Terry L. Kruger — Applications of Transactional Analysis to the
Laboratory Situation* 161
Douglas Grinstead, Joseph Wu, Terry Kruger, and Bruce
STORHOFF-Michael-Like Reactions: The Reaction of Diphenyl-
phosphine with 1-Cycloalkene Carbonitriles* 161
R. Segal, D. J. Reuland and W. A. Trinler — An Investigation of the
Feasibility of Classifying and Identifying Soil Samples of Forensic
Interest on the Basis of Elemental Composition by X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrometry* 162
Barth H. Ragatz and Gina Modrak — Optimization of reaction
Conditions for the Preparation of Subunits from Variant
Hemoglobins 163
♦Abstract
Table of Contents vii
Page
Ecology
Louis H. Ehinger and George R. Parker — Growth of Andropogon
gerardii as Affected by Seed Source, Heavy metals, and Nutrients in
two Northwestern Indiana Soils* 167
Larry J. Miles and George R. Parker — Effects of Zinc addition to two
northwestern Indiana Soils on growth of Andropogon scoparius and
availability of Cd, Pb and Cu* 167
Paul C. MacMillan, J. E. Means and K. Cromack, Jr.— Log Input
and Decomposition in and Old-Growth Douglas-fir Forest* 168
Edwin R. Squiers — Trends in the structural organization of an early
successional system: The Devon Project* 168
Richard W. Greene, David F. Spencer, Quentin E. Ross, and
Thomas L. Theis — Restoration of Eutrophic — Evaluation of Fly Ash
as a Botton Sealant* 1 69
Craig Caupp, Eva Liu, and Toufiq A. Siddiqi — Determination of
Trace Elements in Indiana Air and Sludge Samples, Using Neutron
Activation Analysis* 1 69
Byron G. Torke and Bradley J. Hall — Determination of Primary
Production in Four Borrow Pit Lakes in West-central Indiana* ... 169
Thcmas S. McComish and Richard O. Anderson— Frozen Chrinomid
Larvae as Food in Feeding Experiments with Bluegills* 169
Anne Spacie — A Study of Periphyton Production in the Wabash River* 170
David W. Morgan and Leo D. Cline— Impingement at the NIPSCO
Michigan City Generating Station: . A Comparison of Analysis
Methods* 170
Cody D. Best and David W. Morgan — Factors Affecting Density of
Ichthyoplankton Entrainment in Condenser Cooling Water at the
NIPSCO Michigan City Generating Station* 170
Dolores M. Dawis and David W. Morgan — Fish Communities in the
Vicinity of the Michigan City Generating Station: Preliminary
Results* 171
Donald E. Miller — Seasonal Distribution of Bythinia tentaculata in
Hamlin Lake, Mason County, Michigan* 171
J. R. Gammon — The Fish Community as an Indicator of Water Quality* 172
Alton A. Lindsey— Success of the Holdridge Life Zone Model in Yielding
Potential Evapotranspiration Estimates for U.S. Weather Stations* 172
Sean T. Kelly and Charles M. Kirkpatrick— Evaluation of a Ruffed
Grouse Reintroduction in Northern Indiana* 173
Thomas E. Lauer and Kenneth A. Frato — Primary Productivity and
Chlorophyll a of Selected Northern Indiana Lakes 174
*Abstract
viii Indiana Academy of Science
Page
Kevin D. Curry and Anne Spacie — Distribution of Stream Fishes in
Tippecanoe County, Indiana 182
David M. Sever and Clarence F. Dineen— Reproductive Ecology of the
Tiger Salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, in Northern Indiana .... 189
David F. Spencer, Richard W. Greene, Thomas L. Theis, Hung Yiu
Yeung, Quentin E. Ross and Elizabeth E. Dodge — A Study of the
Relationship between Phytoplankton Abundance and Trace Metal
Concentrations in Eutrophic Lake Charles East, Using Correlation
Techniques 204
William Chang — Factors Controlling Eutrophication in Lake Monroe 213
Carl E. Warnes — Bacterial Examination of Four Borrow Pit Lakes in
East Central Indiana 217
Elizabeth S. Maxwell and Ralph D. Kirkpatrick — Terrestrial
Flora and Vertebrate Fauna of Four East-central Indiana Borrow
Pit Lakes 222
Kathleen L. Horwath and David W. Morgan — Possible Physiological
Clock Associated with the Feeding Habits of the Central Mudminnow
( Umbra limi) Kirtland 230
H. E. McReynolds and Joseph L. Janisch — Recent Fish Collections
from Blue River, Washington County, Indiana 238
Entomology
Alan C. York — Organic Insect "Control" in Indiana Vegetables* 243
Randall T. Baum and James D. Haddock — Studies on the Predation
of Mosquito Larvae, by Pleid Bugs* 243
Richard B. Schoenbohm and F. T. Turpin — Parasites Reared from
Black Cutwork Larvae (Argrotis ispsilon Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) Collected in Indiana Corn Fields from 1974 to 1977* . . 243
Spencer E. Reames* and Harold L. Zimmack — Hemocytes of the Fifth
Instar European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hubner* 244
R. F. Wilkey — Some Techniques for Collecting, Preserving and the
Slidemounting of Arthropods* 244
Ronald A. Hellenthal, Edwin F. Cook, and Theodore J. Crovello—
Considerations of Variability and Taxonomic Methodology in the
Systematics of the Orthocladiinae (Diptera: Chrionomidae)* 245
John L. Mauszak* and Harold L. Zimmack — The Effect of a Pathogen,
Nosema necatrix on the European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis
Hubner* 245
Jack R. Munsee — A Gynadromorph of Smithistruma (Hymenoptera:
Formicidae) 246
*Abstract
Table of Contents ix
Page
David B. MacLean — Seasonal and Spatial Variation of Species Diversity
in Collections of Sacrabaeidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae from
West Central Indiana 252
D. K. Reed, G. L. Reed, and D. W. Hamilton— The 13-year Cicada-
Conclusion of an Experiment Started in 1963 259
James A. Burnside and Thomas E. Mouzin — Intergeneric Attraction of
Ramosia rileyana and Synanthedon pictipes 262
Robert W. Meyer — Insects and Other Arthropods of Economic
Importance in Indiana During 1977 265
Geography and Geology
Gary Westerman — An Assessment of Methodologies for Climate-Corn
Yield Research* 273
Mauri Sommer — Land vs. Space in the Middle East: Territorial
Experience as a Source of Conflict* 273
Robert D. Hall and Thomas L. Greenawalt— Thickness and
Geographic Boundary of the Terra Rossa in South-Central Indiana* 273
Rolla M. Dyer, Warren R. Abbey and Robert Soaper— A
Characterization Study of Crude Oils From Certain Reservoirs In
the Phillipstown Field, White County, Illinois* 274
Jeffery Ehrenzeller, Ben Dailey, Diane Lane, Tim O'Neil, Jay
Franklin, Lynn Recker, and Donald Ash— Aromatic Hydro-
carbon Contamination of the Aquifer Supplying West Terre Haute,
IN* 274
Arthur Mirsky — Introductory Geology Field Trip Using Indianapolis
Building Materials* 274
Robert B. Votaw— Conodonts from the Black River Limestone,
Subsurface of Indiana 276
Curtis H. Ault and Donald Carr — Thick High-Purity Limestone and
Dolomite in Carroll County, Indiana 283
Peter L. Calengas — Mineral Resource Considerations in a Regional
Management Plan 292
Ellen E. Otto and Terry R. West— Application of Geology to land
use Planning, Clinton County, Indiana 299
Jack Barnes— The Effect of Strip Mine Blasting on Residential
Structures Ayrshine Mine Warrick and Vanderburgh Counties,
Indiana 311
Steven D. Jansen— Bankfull Discharge of Indiana Streams 321
L. Michael Trapasso — The Effects of Lake Monroe on the Flow of
Salt Creek, South Central Indiana 329
*Abstract
x Indiana Academy of Science
Page
Robert D. Hall and Patricia A. Boaz— Hydrology and Water Quality
of the Crooked Creek Watershed, Indianapolis, Indiana 334
History of Science
S. Mrozowski — The Story of Carbon Mesophase and Carbon Fibers* 341
B. El wood Montgomery — The Cumberland Road* 342
Gertrude L. Ward and Joseph Moore Museum— The National
Road: An Introduction* 342
Patrick H. Steele — The National Road: A Summary* 343
Microbiology and Molecular Biology
Jean Dickey and Morris Levy — Development of Erysiphe polygoni on
susceptible and resistant races of Oenothera biennis* 345
Clyde G. Culbertson, M. D. — Pathogenic Soil Amebas* 345
G. C. Bergstrom and R. L. Nicholson — The Effect of the
Collectotrichum graminicola Condial Matrix on Anthracnose
Development in Maize* 345
D. Madsen, M. Beaver, E. Bruckner, and B. Wostmann— Role of
the Cecum in Bile Acid Metabolism in Germfree Rats* 346
N. P. Maxon, E. M. Jones, R. L. Nicholson, and C. L. Rhykerd— In
Vitro Selection of Somatic Callus Sectors in Regeneration Capacity* 347
S. G. Newman and C. E. Warnes— Enumberation and Identification of
Bacterial Chitinoclasts in Selected Indiana Waters with Emphasis on
the Actinomycetes* 347
C. Y. Lin, W. R. Stevenson, and R. L. Nicholson— The Hypersensitive
Response of Tomato to the Bacterial Wilt Pathogen, Pseudomonas
solanacearum* 347
W. W. Baldwin and M. F. Asterita— Magnetic Effects on the Bacterium
Escherichia coli 349
Physics
Ralph L. Place — A Proposed Technique for the Computer — Aided
Measurement of Loudspeaker Driver Parameters* 355
Ying Guey Fuh and Uwe J. Hansen — Computer Analysis of Alfven
Wave Data* 355
John A. Wisler and F. R. Steldt — The Economical Development of a
Practical Holography Table* 355
Gary W. Erwin and Uwe J. Hansen — Pressurization Technique for
Alfven Wave Studies in Bismuth* 355
'Abstract
Table of Contents xi
Page
Vincent A. DiNoto, Jr. — Initial Experimentation of the Thermal
Pollution of the Middle Wabash River* 356
John Stromseth, Gary Stern and Stanley Burden— A Low-Cost,
Student-Built Communications Interface Project for an 8080A Based
Microcomputer and a PDP 1 1 /40 Minicomputer* 356
Kent W. Bullis and Stanley L. Burden — A Low-Cost, Student-Built
Digital Integrator for Computerized Logging of Solar Insolation
Data* 357
Malcom E. Hults and Ralph L. Place — Computer Assisted Instruction
Modules for Physical Science* 357
Kevin E. Gardner — Construction of a Molecular Nitrogen Laser and a
Tunable Dye Laser for Lifetime Studies* 357
Elmer Nussbaum — A Summary of Solar Energy Activities in Indiana* 357
Gregory Peterson — An Innovative Approach to Environmental Physics
Education* 357
Carl C. Sartian — A Brief Report of "History of Physics in Great
Britian", The Professor's View* 357
D. J. Fehringer, R. J. Vetter, and P. L. Ziemer— Factors Affecting
the Operation of a TSEE Proportional Counter 358
Torsten Alvager and Mark Branham — Time Resolved Fluorescence
Spectroscopy for in Situ Measurements 365
Plant Taxonomy
Dennis E. Grossnickle and Marion T. Jackson — Vascular Plant
Inventory of Fall Creek Nature Preserve* 369
Susan Rivar Kephart — The Effectiveness of External Factors in Isolating
Sympatric Species of Milkweek (Asclepias)* 369
Theodore J. Crovello and Douglas Miller — Computerized
Information Retrieval and Graphics to Study The Mustard Flora of
the Soviet Union* 370
Peter K. Bretting — Artificial Interspecific Hybrids in Proboscidea
(Martyniaceae)* 370
Science Education
James Mitchell Smith — Column in Agriculture Magazine as
Educational text* 373
Matthew Kelty — A Videotape Method for Testing of Anatomy Course
Material* 373
♦Abstract
xii Indiana Academy of Science
Charles L. Gehring — Utilizing Resource Individuals for TV Instruction
in Biology Teaching Strategies* 373
Marshall E. Parks — Bird Studies and Environmental Education* .... 374
H. Marvin Bratt — Development of Spatial Abilities in School Age
Children* 374
Jon R. Hendrix — Development and Implementation of a Bioethical
Decision-Making Course at Ball State University* 375
Robert B. Votaw — Piaget and Geology* 375
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
Russell K. Stivers — Comparison of Methods for Determining
Exchangeable Bases in Soils* 377
S. J. Kristof and R. A. Weismiller— Application of Satellite Remote
Sensing Data for Mapping Vegetation* 377
James Mitchell Smith — Soil Science Atmospheric Science, Teaching
Devices for Solar Heater and Methane Generator* 378
Stephen A. Justham — The Status of Tornado Preparedness Planning in
Indiana's Institutions of Higher Education* 378
E. D. Orme and D. W. Nelson — Phosphate Chemistry of Indiana Lake
and Reservoir Sediments* 378
Paul E. Ciesielski and Phillip J. Smith — The Influence of a Synoptic
Scale Cyclone on Boundary Layer Winds Over Lake Michigan in
Early Summer, 1976* 379
Dennis A. Keyser, Ernest M. Agee and Christopher R. Church — The
Modern Climatology of Indiana Tornadoes 380
Frederick E. Brennan and Phillip J. Smith — The Climatology of
Cyclones and Anticyclones in the Upper Mississippi and Ohio
River Valleys and Great Lakes Region, 1950-74 391
Byron O. Blair and M. F. Baumgardner and B. E. Dethier — Landsat
Data From Two Forest Sites in Indiana Reflect Impact of Summer
Drought 403
D. W. Nelson — Transformations of Hydroxylamine in Soils 409
J. L. Lefton and J. L. Ahlrichs — Cadmium Levels of Golf Green Soils 414
G. C. Steinhardt and L. D. Norton — Comparison of Soil Structure
Resulting From Permanent Pasture and Continuous Row Crop ... 421
Zoology
Clive W. Arave and Jack L. Albright — The Influence of Space
Reduction and Behavioral Stress upon Plasma Corticoids
Concentration in Dairy Cows* 429
♦Abstract
Table of Contents xiii
Page
Duvall A. Jones — Models for Gas Diffusion into Red Blood Cells* . . 429
William J. Brett — Circadian Rhythm of Movement in the Mexican
Jumping-Bean Moth, Lspeyresia saltitans ( Westwood)* 429
Raymond A. Schlueter — Reproduction of Notropis spilopterus and
Pimephales vigilax in the lower White River, Pike County,
Indiana* 430
Larry R. Ganion — A Preliminary Study on the Effect of Vasectomy
on the Biology of the Mouse Epididymis* 430
Belinda A. Shenk and William J. Brett— Localization of Amino-
glutethimide at the Cellular Level* 431
Mohinder S. Jarial and Ling S. Jen — The Fine Structure of the
Nictitans Gland of the Dog with Particular Reference to the
Formation and Release of its Secretory Product* 43 1
H. E. McReynolds — A Distribution Study of the Blacktail Shiner
{Notropis venustus) in the Clear Creek Basin* 432
Gary L. Tieben and John S. Halter — Food Habits of the Barn Owl
Tyto Alba Clinton County, Ohio* 432
John O. Whitaker, Jr. and Rebecca J. Goff — Mallophaga of Wild
Mammals of Indiana* 432
W. J. Eversole — Effects of Age on Blood Pressure in Female Rats* . . . 432
Wayne C. Houtcooper — Distribution and Abundance of Rodents in
Cultivated Ecosystems 434
Sherman A. Minton, Jr. — Serological Relationships among some
Midwestern Snakes 438
Mary E. Wassel, Gary L. Tieben, and John O. Whitaker, Jr. — The
ectoparasites of the southern bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi,
in Indiana 446
J. Dan Webster and Steven G. Goff — Variation in the Vertebral Column
and Ribs of Songbirds 450
R. J. Vetter, W. V. Kessler, M. P. Plumlee, and R. B. Harrington—
Effect of Dietary Selenium Level on Feed Intake and Weight Gain of
Rats 460
Raymond A. Schleuter — Appearance and summer growth of young-of-
the-year Morone chrysops and Ictalurus punctatus in the lower
White River, Pike Co., Indiana 467
♦Abstract
Proceedings
of the
Indiana Academy
of Science
Officers and Committees 15
Robert O. Petty (1977) Department of Biology
Wabash College
Crawfordsville, IN 47933
Richard L. Powell (1977) Indiana Geological Survey
611 North Walnut Grove
Bloomington, IN 47401
Marion T. Jackson (1978) Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, IN 47809
Carl H. Krekeler (1978) 360 Mclntyre Court
Valparaiso, IN 46383
Victor Riemenschneider (1978). . . Department of Biology
Indiana University — South Bend
South Bend, IN 46615
Winona H. Welch (Honorary) DePauw University
Greencastle, IN 46135
Carrolle Markle (Honorary) Ashfield, MA 01330
Newsletter
Walter A. Cory, Jr School Science Coordinators Office
Morrison Hall 103
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN 47401
Phone: 812/337-9785
"Speaker of the Year" Selection Committee
John A. Ricketts (1978), ChairmanDepartment of Chemistry
DePauw University
Greencastle, IN 46135
Harry G. Day (1977) Department of Chemistry
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN 47401
Damian V. Schmelz (1977) Department of Biology
St. Meinrad College
St. Meinrad, IN 47577
Neil V. Weber (1979) Department of Earth Sciences
Indiana University — South Bend
South Bend, IN 46615
Academy Representative on Indiana Natural Resources Commission
Damian V. Schmelz Department of Biology
St. Meinrad College
St. Meinrad, IN 47577
Phone: 812/357-6580
SPRING MEETING
MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
April 22, 1977
The meeting was called to order by President Clarence F. Dineen at 4:10
p.m. in the Roof Lounge of the Union Building, Indiana University-Purdue
University at Indianapolis. The minutes of the Executive Committee and of the
General Session of the Fall 1976 meeting were approved as corrected.
TREASURER'S REPORT
Treasurer Stanley L. Burden presented a financial report for the period
January 1 through April 16, 1977, a summary of which follows:
Academy Administered
Accounts Accounts Total
Balance: January 1, 1977 $6,359.58 $14,585.77 $20,945.35
1977 Income 3,486.07 5,302.70 8,788.77
1977 Expenditure 4,879.67 8,041.58 12,921.25
Balance: April 16, 1977 $4,965.98 $11,846.89 $16,812.87
The Treasurer also reported that more than one-half of the 1977 membership
dues have been received and that the new check-off format dues cards appear to
be effective. The treasurer's report was accepted.
STANDING COMMITTEE REPORTS
Academy Foundation Committee. William A. Daily, Chairman,
reported that the John S. Wright Invested Income Account held $14,000 as of
March 31, 1977. He also reported that the market value of the Foundation
Account had increased by 13.3% to $23,148, while that of the John S. Wright
Fund had declined by 13.1% to $490,987.
Research Grants Committee. Robert M. Brooker, Chairman, reported
that $4,244 has been granted for eleven individual research projects this year.
Membership Committee. Jerry J. Nisbet, Chairman, presented an
analysis of Academy membership which indicated that the total membership
had declined from 1,095 in 1975 to 1,059 in 1976; principal source of this
decrease was a loss of 9 senior and 34 regular members during the period
surveyed. The Executive Committee was asked to review the impact of the
recently created Senior membership category on the financial status of the
Academy. The consensus of the Executive Committee was that no further action
on membership categories should be considered until the effectiveness of the
check-off dues cards could be fully evaluated.
16
Minutes of the Executive Committee 17
Publications Committee. Editor Benjamin Moulton, reporting for the
committee, raised several questions concerning available space and costs of
publishing Proceedings. He requested that suggestions for greater economy and
efficiency be passed on to the committee. After some discussion concerning
probable cost of publishing the next volume of Proceedings and the number of
volumes required, the following action was taken:
Motion: That the Academy publish 525 paperback and 600 hardback
volumes of Volume 86 of Proceedings. Seconded and carried.
Library Committee. Lois Burton, Chairman, reported on the status of the
expansion of the State Library into the recently completed facilities and invited
the Academy to visit, use, and hold committee meetings in the new facilities.
Representative to Association of Academies of Science (AAAS). Presi-
dent Dineen reported that the Academy representative, Willis H. Johnson, had
attended the Denver meeting of the Association.
Youth Activities Committee. Although no formal report was presented,
Chairman Donald R. Winslow informed the Executive Committee of
forthcoming scheduled events which will lead to the awarding of two $1,000
scholarships in the name of the Academy.
Science and Society Committee. Robert E. Henderson, Chairman,
reported that support for the Science Advisory Bill will be actively sought at the
next session of the State Legislature. He reported that the wide circulation of
"Indiana Energy 1977" has resulted in the introduction of legislation in the
General Assembly. The committee has received an interim report from Dr. Jerry
Hamelink on PCB contamination in Indiana and has approved a major effort
for 1977 tentatively entitled "Environmental Policy Decisions; A Case Study of
PCB's in Indiana," with Dr. William Beranek as study committee chairman.
SPECIAL COMMITTEE REPORTS
Biological Survey Committee. Theodore Crovello, Chairman, presented
a review of the goals, activities, and membership of the committee, including an
analysis of the four existing subcommittees: Literature, Endangered Species,
Flora Indiana Projects (FLIP), and People Power. He also urged interested
Academy members to become actively involved in the various projects of the
Biological Survey Committee. Dr. Crovello also distributed copies of the first
bulletin of the Indiana Public Responsibilities Network of the American
Institute of Biological Sciences (I-AIBS).
Emeritus Member Selection Committee. Robert H. Cooper, Chairman,
reviewed the requirements for eligibility for Emeritus status and presented the
following persons (initial membership year in parentheses) for election:
George F. Hennion, South Bend, Indiana (1928)
Theodore Kallas, Beech Grove, Indiana (1946)
William J. Tinkle, North Manchester, Indiana (1936)
Motion: That the persons presented be elected to Emeritus Membership.
Seconded and carried.
18 Indiana Academy of Science
Preservation of Natural Areas Committee. William B. Barnes,
Chairman, presented a complete listing of the 45 Indiana Nature Preserves,
totalling 6,630 acres. Included are the four dedications and one addition since
the last report. These new preserves are the Cedar Bluffs, Wawasee Wetlands,
Hemlock Bluff, Hayswood, and Olin Lake Nature Preserves. Mr. Barnes also
distributed copies of "Indiana Nature Preserves," a profusely illustrated reprint
from Outdoor Indiana, which describes the first 36 nature preserves in the state-
wide system. This publication is available, free of charge, from the Indiana
Department of Natural Resources, Division of Nature Preserves.
Speaker-of-the- Year Selection Committee. Chairman Frank A. Guthrie
submitted a report for the 1976-77 committee, which included a brief summary
of the committee's activities and a complete listing of Speaker-of-the- Year
Visitations since the inception of the program in 1971. Damian V. Schmelz,
reporting for the 1977-78 committee, stated that seven nominations are under
consideration for the next Speaker-of-the-Year.
Academy Representative to Natural Resources Commission. Damian V.
Schmelz reviewed the functions and current activities of the Commission.
Newsletter. Walter A. Cory, Director of Public Relations, announced
that Newsletter # 1 7 had been unavoidably delayed, but should be sent out soon.
He reviewed the Newsletter program and summarized information which will
appear in the next issue.
OLD BUSINESS
The constitutional amendments regarding Article VII. Meetings, which
was tabled during the Fall 1976 meeting was briefly discussed. By Executive
Committee consensus, further consideration of this amendment will be delayed
until an appropriate survey of the membership, conducted by the Secretary
during the 1977 Fall meeting, can be completed.
President Dineen solicited suggestions on locations for future meetings; the
1978 and 1979 Fall meetings are scheduled for Anderson College and
Manchester College, respectively. Of particular concern is the location of the
Centennial Year meeting in 1985.
Following brief announcements concerning the General Session meeting
and the Saturday morning field trip, the meeting was adjourned at 5:15 p.m.
Respectfully submitted,
Robert E. Van Atta, Secretary
SPRING MEETING
MINUTES OF THE GENERAL SESSION
April 22, 1977
The meeting was called to order by Program Chairman Arthur Mirsky at
7:30 p.m.
Dr. Mirsky presented Dean William Neville, who introduced the speaker of
the evening, Dr. John M. Vaughan, Vice President, Engineering and
Environmental Affairs, Inland Container Corporation, Indianapolis. Dr.
Vaughan delivered an extremely interesting and thought-provoking address
entitled "Industry and the Environment — A Dichotomy That Can Work,"
which generated many questions and lively discussions.
After a brief recess, President Dineen called the Business Meeting to order.
The Secretary of the Academy presented a brief summary of committee
reports received and action taken by the Executive Committee on April 22, 1977.
Brief instructions regarding Saturday morning field activities were given by
President Dineen and Program Chairman Arthur Mirsky.
William Daily, Chairman of the Resolutions Committee, moved the
adoption of the following resolutions:
The Academy members and guests here assembled wish to express
their sincere appreciation to the officers and especially Dr. Arthur
Mirsky, Chairman of the Program Committee, for the fine program he
has arranged.
We are grateful to the Indiana University-Purdue University here in
Indianapolis for providing us with their splendid facilities.
Our thanks also go to Dr. John M. Vaughan who presented a timely
and interesting address this evening.
Our appreciation is extended to the leaders of tomorrow's field trips,
which are so important to our spring meetings.
The resolutions were approved.
President Dineen announced that a brief meeting of Division Chairmen
with the Program Chairman and the Secretary would follow the Business
Meeting.
The meeting was adjourned at 8:50 p.m.
Respectfully submitted,
Robert E. Van Atta, Secretary
19
FALL MEETING
MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING
October 27, 1977
The meeting was called to order by President Clarence F. Dineen at 7:05
p.m. in the Roof Lounge of the Union Building at Indiana University-Purdue
University at Indianapolis. The minutes of the Executive Committee and of the
General Session of the Spring 1977 meeting were approved.
TREASURER'S REPORT
Treasurer Stanley L. Burden presented a financial report for the period
January 1, 1977 through October 20, 1977, summarized as follows:
Academy
Accounts
Administered
Accounts
Totals
Balance: January 1, 1977
1977 Income
$6,359.58
9,873.82
$14,585.77
5,811.02
8,753.56
$20,945.35
15,684.84
6 866 97
15 620 53
Balance: October 20, 1977
$9,366.43
$11,643.33
$21,009.66
The Treasurer's report listed 803 currently paid-up members, including 370
senior members, with 52 new member applications; 96 members were dropped
for non-payment of dues.
ELECTED COMMITTEE REPORTS
Academy Foundation Committee. William A. Daily, Chairman,
presented the following summary report:
I. Foundation Account
Balance as of September 30, 1976 $ 559.94
Income as of September 30, 1977 1,060.42
Disbursements to Academy 300.00
Transferred to Principal 1,000.00
Cash Balance 320.36
II.
John S. Wright Fund
Balance as of September 30, 1976 $ 14,000.00
Income as of September 30, 1977 19,930.65
Cash balance as of September 30, 1977
Disbursements from Invested Income Account:
Research Grants and Proceedings, Vol. 85 ... .
Indiana National Bank fee
Cash balance
Balance in Invested Income Account:
924.75
5,500.00
2,432.00
6,923.40
. . 20,000.00
III. Market Value of all Securities $442,243.00
20
Minutes of the Executive Committee 21
Bonding Committee. No report.
Research Grants Committee. Robert M. Brooker, Chairman, reported
that one research grant in the amount of $320 has been awarded since the Spring
1977 meeting. After some discussion the Executive Committee agreed that
future Academy meeting programs should carry appropriate identification of
those papers resulting from research supported by the Academy.
Editor's Report. Benjamin Moulton, Editor, reported that Volume 86
(507 pages, plus index and table of contents) is nearing completion. A
breakdown of contents by divisions was included.
Director of Public Relations. Walter A. Cory, Director, commented that
media coverage of Academy activities remains a problem. He solicited
suggestions and assistance in this area.
The reports of elected committees were approved.
PRESIDENTIAL APPOINTIVE COMMITTEES
Academy Representative to A A AS and A AS. Willis H. Johnson
submitted a report summarizing the activities of Section X and the AAS,
including changes in AAS operations for 1978.
Auditing Committee. No report.
Youth Activities Committee. Donald R. Winslow, Chairman presented a
status report on the activities of the three youth activity programs sponsored by
the Academy: the Science Fair Program, the Science Talent Search, and the
Indiana Junior Academy of Science.
Twelve Regional Science Fairs were held last year; 24 state finalists and
their sponsoring teachers made the trip to Cleveland to participate in the
International Science and Engineering Fair. The Indiana Science Education
Fund, Inc., and over 200 other organizations contributed financial support for
this trip.
The 30th Annual Science Talent Search produced 43 participants from 26
high schools throughout the state; 24 finalists were selected, of whom 1 3 winners
were selected to receive one-year subscriptions to Scientific American.
The chairman's report included a listing of the assets and liabilities of the
Junior Academy and contained a recommendation for increased growth and
service.
The most significant accomplishment of the year for the Youth Activities
Committee was the award of two $1,000 scholarships, created by the Board of
Directors of the Indiana Science Education Fund, Inc. These awards were as
follows:
Karl F. Kaufman Scholarship: Mike Miller, Lawrence Central High
School, Indianapolis.
L. A. PVillig Scholarship: Mike Forrest, John Adams High School,
South Bend.
Library Committee. Lois Burton, Chairman, reported that Volume 85 of
Proceedings was sent to 344 members and clubs. The library presently receives
22 Indiana Academy of Science
materials from most states and 72 foreign countries; 67 new titles were received
in exchange during the past year. Academy members were invited to visit the
expanded facilities of the Academy Library.
Program Committee. Arthur Mirsky, Chairman, made several
announcements pertaining to operations during the current meeting.
Publications Committee. William R. Eberly, Chairman, reported that the
demand for monographs has been very heavy; Natural Features of Indiana has
been taken over by the University of Notre Dame Press. Monographs and other
Academy publications are available for purchase by members.
Fellows Committee. Richard L. Conklin, Chairman, made the following
motion:
Motion: That the following persons, recommended by the Fellows
Committee, be elected as Fellows of the Academy:
Karl L. Kaufman Carl H. Krekeler
William G. Kessel Dan Wiersma
Virgil R. Knapp Donald R. Winslow
Seconded and carried.
Resolutions Committee. No report.
Invitations Committee. Philip A. St. John, Chairman, announced that
meetings are scheduled for Anderson College in 1978 and Manchester College in
1979. He requested invitations for 1980 and subsequent years. Brief discussion
led to the suggestion that a possible site be sought in the Brookville area for the
Centennial Meeting in 1985.
Necrologist. No report.
Parliamentarian. No report.
Science and Society Committee. Jerry J. Nisbet, reporting for Robert E.
Henderson, Chairman, made the following motion:
Motion: That the Resolutions Committee be asked to draft a resolution to
the Governor of the State of Indiana requesting that the Governor
meet with a representative group of the Indiana Academy of
Science to discuss appropriate mechanisms to provide assistance
to state government on matters related to science and technology.
Seconded and carried.
Membership Committee. Jerry J. Nisbet, Chairman, reported that a new
membership brochure is now available.
The reports of Presidential Appointive Committees were approved.
SPECIAL COMMITTEE REPORTS
Biological Survey Committee. Theodore J. Crovello, Chairman,
presented a report detailing the activities of the four subcommittees on
Literature, Endangered Species, Flora Indiana, and People Power. The
function and progress of each was outlined and current tasks of the committee
were reviewed.
Minutes of the Executive Committee 23
Emehtis Member Selection Committee. Robert H. Cooper, Chairman,
presented the following persons for Emeritus Membership (initial membership
year shown in parentheses):
William G. Kessel (1946)
Motion: That the person presented be elected to Emeritus Membership.
Seconded and carried.
Preservation of Natural Areas Committee. William B. Barnes,
Chairman, reported that although no nature preserves have been dedicated since
the 1977 Spring meeting, the state-wide system now contains 45 areas with a
total of 6,733 acres. He also reported on litigation involving the Bittern ut Nature
Preserve.
Speaker-of-the- Year Committee. John A. Ricketts, Chairman, reported
that with the current Speaker, Dr. John B. Patton, the list of Indiana college
visits has been completed. He also requested that names of suggested speakers be
submitted in order that a catalog of speakers may be accumulated.
Academy Representative on Indiana Natural Resources Commission.
Damian V. Schmelz reported on current and proposed activities of the
Commission, including the forthcoming publication of all administrative laws.
A long-range program for the Design for the Future of Indiana's Natural
Resources is being initiated. He also briefly discussed the unfortunate outcome
of the litigation involving the Bitternut Preserve, in which a small portion of that
reserve will be lost in order to enlarge a road and construct a new bridge.
OLD BUSINESS
The Secretary of the Academy briefly reviewed the status of the
constitutional amendment proposal originally presented at the November 4,
1976 Executive Committee meeting. The purpose of the straw vote to be taken of
the membership during the Divisional Business Meetings on October 28, 1977
was described and possible further action of the Executive Committee following
the straw vote was discussed. No action was taken.
The meeting was adjourned at 8:30 p.m.
Respectfully submitted,
Robert E. Van Atta, Secretary
FALL MEETING
MINUTES OF THE GENERAL SESSION
October 28, 1977
The Business Session of the 93rd Annual Meeting of the Academy was
called to order by President Clarence F. Dineen at 11:05 a.m. in Room 101,
Lecture Hall, Indiana University-Purdue University of Indianapolis.
Dr. Glen W. Irwin, Jr., Vice President of Indiana University
(Indianapolis), welcomed the Academy on behalf of the university.
President Dineen introduced the Academy Speaker-of-the-Year, Dr. John
B. Patton, State Geologist and Director of the Indiana Geological Survey, and
three panelists: Dr. Mark Reshkin, Dr. Robert Henderson, and Mr. George W.
Lands. Dr. Patton presented a timely illustrated lecture entitled "The Invisible
Crisis: Implications for Indiana of Federal Energy Policy." Following his
presentation, each panel member made brief remarks, to which Dr. Patton
responded. A question-and-answer session produced numerous questions,
directed to Dr. Patton and the panelists.
The Business Meeting was recessed at 12:05 a.m. and reconvened at 1:30
p.m. in Room 100, Lecture Hall.
The Secretary of the Academy presented a summary of committee reports
and informed the membership of official actions taken by the Executive
Committee on October 27, 1977.
The names of individuals who were elected 1978 Divisional Chairmen and
Chairmen-Elect include:
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chairman: Russell E. Lewis
Chairman-Elect: Charles P. Warren
BOTANY
Chairman: Larry R. Yoder
Chairman-Elect: Anne Susalla
CELL BIOLOGY
Chairman: Betty D. Allamong
Chairman-Elect: Mary F. Asterita
CHEMISTRY
Chairman: Clyde R. Metz
Chairman-Elect: John R. Ricketts
ECOLOGY
Chairman: Robert Priddy
Chairman-Elect: Harold McReynolds
24
Minutes of the General Session
25
ENGINEERING
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
(No 1977 election held:
ENTOMOLOGY
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
GEOLOGY & GEOGRAPHY
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
Milton E. Harr
Ramachandra A. Rao
1977 officers carry over to 1978.)
Harold L. Zimmack
Alan C. York
Gerald R. Showalter
John H. Cleveland
William Bloom
Patrick H. Steele
MICROBIOLOGY & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
William W. Baldwin
Carl E. Warnes
PHYSICS
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
PLANT TAXONOMY
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Chairman:
Chairman-Elect:
SOIL & ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
Chairman: Stephen A. Justham
Chairman-Elect: Gary C. Steinhardt
ZOOLOGY
Chairman: Jackson L. Marr
Chairman-Elect: Richard McCracken
Carl Sartain
Ralph Llewellyn
Theodore Crovello
Donald L. Burton
Stanley S. Shimer
H. Marvin Bratt
The straw vote on the matter of a constitutional change of Academy Meeting
dates was: Favorable, 67; Unfavorable, 95; Recorded abstentions, 35.
The Secretary then presented the following motions:
Motion: That the individuals who have applied for membership in the
Academy be elected to the types of membership for which they
have applied.
Seconded and carried.
Motion: That the individual recommended by the Emeritus Member
Selection Committee and approved by the Executive Committee
be elected to Emeritus Membership.
Seconded and carried.
Motion: That the individuals recommended by the Fellows Committee
26 Indiana Academy of Science
and approved by the Executive Committee be elected as Fellows
of the Academy.
Seconded and carried.
Fa ye Kenoyer Daily presented the Necrologist's report, which included the
names of eight members:
Terzo P. Amidei Eli Lilly
Nellie M. Coats Armin Manning
William E. Edington Dorsey P. Marting
David T. Jones Fernandus Payne
Damian Schmelz, Chairman of the Nominating Committee, placed the
following slate in nomination:
President: Jerry J. Nisbet, 1978
President-Elect: J. Dan Webster, 1978
Secretary: Robert E. Van Atta, 1978-80
Editor: Benjamin Moulton, 1978-80
Academy Foundation: Clyde R. Metz, 1978-79
Bonding Committee: Robert M. Brooker, 1978
C. Barry Knisley, 1978
Research Grants Committee Gary E. Dolph, 1978-82
No nominations were made from the floor.
Motion: That the slate presented by the Nominating Committee be
declared elected.
Seconded and carried.
William A. Daily, Chairman of the Resolutions Committee, presented the
following:
RESOLUTION:
WHEREAS: State government needs scientific counsel in dealing with
many of the problems facing government and society
today; and
WHEREAS: Many members of the Indiana Academy of Science have
expressed an interest in assisting the Governor in matters
that involve their particular competence, be it therefore
RESOLVED: That the President of the Academy be empowered to
arrange a meeting with the Governor and selected
members of the Academy to discuss ways in which
members of the Academy might be of greatest assistance in
solving such scientific problems, and be it further
RESOLVED: That the Secretary of the Academy be instructed to
transmit this resolution to the Governor of the State.
RESOLUTION:
WHEREAS: The Indiana Academy of Science is deeply grateful to
Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis for
their invitation to hold its 93rd annual meeting on their
campus; and
Minutes of the General Session
27
WHEREAS: Administration, faculty and students alike have
cooperated in providing us these many splendid rooms
and facilities, be it
RESOLVED: That the Academy members here assembled express their
sincere appreciation to IUPUI through Vice-President G.
W. Irwin.
We express our sincere thanks to Dr. John B. Patton for
his "Speaker of the Year" very informative and timely
address.
We are grateful to Dr. Arthur Mirsky and his committee
for the arrangements of the entire program and the
comforts and conveniences provided the membership.
Motion: That the resolutions presented by the Resolutions Committee be
approved.
Seconded and carried.
The meeting was recessed at 4:15 p.m. and reconvened at 6:00 p.m. with
President-Elect Jerry J. Nisbet presiding at the annual banquet held in the
Hoosier Room of the Student Union.
Following introduction of Academy Officers at the speakers' table, Dr.
Nisbet introduced President Clarence F. Dineen, who presented the annual
Presidential Address, entitled "History of a River," an interesting and thought-
provoking discussion of the Michigan-Indiana watershed of the St. Joseph
River.
The meeting was adjourned at 7:45 p.m.
Respectfully submitted,
Robert E. Van Atta, Secretary
28
Indiana Academy of Science
Lilly Research Laboratories
Division of Eli Lilly Company
Indianapolis, Indiana 46206
Telephone (317) 636-2211
October 28, 1977
WHEREAS: The Indiana Academy of Science is deeply grateful to
Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis for
their invitation to hold its 93rd annual meeting on their
campus: and
WHEREAS: Administration, faculty and students alike have
cooperated in providing us these many splendid rooms
and facilities, be it
RESOLVED: That the Academy members here assembled express their
sincere appreciation to IUPUI through Vice-President G.
W. Irwin.
We express our sincere thanks to Dr. John B. Patton for
his "Speaker of the Year" very informative and timely
address.
We are grateful to Dr. Arthur Mirsky and his committee
for the arrangements of the entire program and the
comforts and conveniences provided the membership.
Submitted by the Resolutions Committee
William A. Daily, Chairman
Howard R. Youse
DePauw University
Greencastle, Indiana 46135
October 28, 1977
WHEREAS: State government needs scientific counsel in dealing with
many of the problems facing government and society
today; and
WHEREAS: Many members of the Indiana Academy of Science have
expressed an interest in assisting the Governor in matters
that involve their particular competence, be it therefore
RESOLVED: That the President of the Academy be empowered to
arrange a meeting with the Governor and selected
members of the Academy to discuss ways in which
members of the Academy might be of greatest assistance in
solving such scientific problems, and be it further
RESOLVED: That the Secretary of the Academy be instructed to
transmit this resolution to the Governor of the State.
FINANCIAL REPORT
JANUARY 1-DECEMBER 31, 1977
I. ACADEMY ACCOUNTS
Income Budgeted Expenditure Budgeted
Dues
Reprints: Vol. 83
84
85
86
Interest
Miscellaneous
Secretary
Treasurer
General Office
Travel, AAAS Dues, etc
Membership Committee
Transfer to Adminstered Accounts
Junior Academy ($1,000.00)
Science and Society ($500.00)
Natural Areas (-$526.50)
Library Binding ($1,200.00)
Proceedings: Publication ($750.00) . .
Proceedings: Mailing ($0.00)
Publications: Clerical ($0.00)
President's Fund
Newsletter
Speaker of the Year Honorarium
Program Committee
Publications Editor's Expenses
Youth Activities
Biological Surveys Committee
Representative to AAAS Meeting
Public Relations
Section Chairman Expenses
CPA Fees for Tax Return Preparation.
Lawyer's Fees
Miscellaneous
$7,123.20
61.55
$6,140.00
101.64
2 661.31
0.00
1,000.87
4.00
2,886.00
1,300.00
$10,952.57
* Includes a $324.00 late billing from 1976 expense.
$2,911.70 $2,700.00
486.91
500.00
354.71
400.00
109.00
250.00
170.95
225.00
200.00
200.00
2,923.50
2,923.50
0.00
100.00
500.00
500.00
500.00
500.00
* 1,644.45
1,000.00
500.00
500.00
0.00
50.00
150.00
150.00
294.70
300.00
17.00
100.00
0.00
150.00
400.00
500.00
0.00
250.00
85.00
100.00
$10,326.00 $11,229.92 $11,398.50
29
30 Indiana Academy of Science
II. administered accounts
January 1 1977 1977 December 31
Balance Income Expenditures Balance
Junior Academy $ 55.78 $ 1,000.00 $ 553.29 $ 502.49
Science Talent Search 725.55 2, 127.32 2,580.07 272.80
Science and Society 1,925.33 879.20 328.24 2,476.29
Research 254.60 660.00 4,574.00 (-3,649.40)
Natural Areas 526.50 -526.50 0.00 0.00
J. S. Wright Library 134.28 0.00 0.00 134.28
Lilly III Library 2,632.76 0.00 0.00 2,632.76
Lilly V Library 4,513.20 0.00 0.00 4,513.20
Library Binding 995.55 1,200.00 998.70 1,196.85
Science Fairs 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Publications:
Proceedings 46.27 6,250.00 5,495.38 800.89
Mailing of Proceedings 779.43 0.00 0.00 779.43
Monographs 1,496.52 34.00 0.00 1,530.52
Natural Features 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clerical 500.00 0.00 0.00 500.00
$14,585.77 $11,624.02 $14,519.68 $11,690.11
III. SUMMARY
Academy Admistered
Accounts Accounts Total
Balance: January 1, 1977 $ 6,359.58 $14,585.77 $20,945.35
1977 Income 10,952.57 1 1,624.02 22,576.59
1977 Expenditures 1 1,229.92 14,519.68 25,749.60
Balance: December 31, 1977 6,082.23 11,690.11 17,772,34
IV. BANK BALANCES
Upland United Bank, Upland, Indiana $ 2,272.36
Great Western Savings and Loan, Los Angeles, California 6,019.83
First Western Savings and Loan, Las Vegas, Nevada 9,480.15
$17,772.34
V. SUMMARY OF TRUST FUNDS
A. Foundation Account (00430-00-0)
Income cash balance (1/1/77) $ 518.68
Total dividends and interest for 1977 1,041.98
Disbursements for 1977
Research grants $ 300.00
Transfer to principal cash 1,300.00
$ 1,600.00 -1,600.00
Income cash balance (12/31/77) $ -39.34 $ -39.34
Principal cash balance (1/1/77) 485.94
Total receipts for 1977 1 1,544.02
Total disbursements for 1977 -1 1,976.56
Principal cash balance (12/31/77) 53.40 $ 53.40
Market value of investments (12/31/77) $23,248.50
Total value of account (12/31/77) $23,262.56*
""Carrying value is $24,192.53
Financial Report
31
B. John S. Wright Fund (00430-01-9)
Income cash balance (1/1/77)
Total dividends, interest, and other income
for 1977
Disbursements for 1977
INB fee $ 2,432.00
Transfer to 00430-02-8 13,983.73
Transfer to Principal Cash 0.00
$16,415.73
Income cash balance (12/31/77)
Principal cash balance (1/1/77)
Total receipts for 1977
Total disbursements for 1977
Principal cash balance (12/31/77)
Market value of investments (12/31/77)
Total value of account (12/31/77)
♦Carrying value is $337,431.53
C. John S. Wright Invested Income Account (00430-02-8)
Income cash balance ( 1 / 1 / 77)
Total interest for 1977
Disbursements for 1977
Transfers to principal $ -1,500.00
$-1,500.00
Income cash balance (12/31/77)
Principal cash balance (1/1/77)
Total receipts for 1977
Disbursements for 1977
Purchase of investments $16,000.00
Research grants 0.00
Proceedings, Vol. 85 5,500.00
$21,500.00
Principal cash balance (12/31/77)
Market value of investments
Total value of account
782.98
19,594.25
$-16,415.73
3,961.50
$ 3,961.50
210.33
0.00
0.00
$ 210.33
$ 210.33
$466,671.50
470,843.33*
694.84
999.85
$-1,500.00
$ 179.69 $
555.18
1,483.73
-21,500.00
179.69
538.91 $ 538.91
$ 22,000.00
$ 22,718.00
VI. NOTES
Membership Dues:
According to the Treasurer's records, the current status may be summarized as follows:
945 paid (299 member, 436 senior member, 54 student, 13 family, 32 senior family member, 14
sustaining member, 1 family sustaining, (4) life, (1) honorary, (79) emeritus, and 14 club
members.
152 on file from 1976 but not paid for 1977
70 new members for 1977 (included in above totals)
3 previous members reinstated during 1977 (included in above totals)
96 members and clubs dropped for nonpayment of 1976 dues
Dues Structure for 1977:
$ 2.00 for student memberships
5.00 for memberships and club memberships
10.00 for senior memberships
32 Indiana Academy of Science
25.00 for sustaining memberships
2.00 additional for family memberships
300.00 for life memberships
150.00-500.00 corporate memberships
50.00-100.00 institutional memberships
1.00 initiation/ reinstatement fee ($2.00 for family membership)
Savings
The treasurer, from the total assets of both Academy and Administered accounts, has maintained
sufficient funds in the checking account to pay current bills throughout the year; the remaining
funds have been invested in savings certificates.
Certificates redeemed in 1977
1. (FWSL #32-002495-4) $2,000 invested at 6.50% April 26, 1976; April 26, 1977 redemption
value $2,143.01. $2,000 reinvested as certificate #11-32010279.
Certificates current
1. (GWSL) $5,919.10 invested at 6.75% October 1977; 31 December value $6,019.83;
Maturity at April, 1980.
2. (FWSL) $3,000.00 invested at 6.75% October 1976; 31 December value $3,266.70;
Maturity at April 1979.
3. (FWSL) $2,000.00 invested at 6.50% April 1977; 31 December value $2,081.25;
Maturity at April 1978.
4. (FWSL) $1,000.00 invested at 6.50% June 1977; 31 December value $1,033.05;
Maturity at June 1978.
5. (FWSL) $1,000.00 invested at 6.50% June 1977; 31 December value $1,033.05;
Maturity at June 1978.
6. (FWSL) $1,000 invested at 6.50% June 1977; 31 December value $1,033.05;
Maturity at June 1978.
7. (FWSL) $1,000.00 invested at 6.50% June 1977; 31 December value $1,033.05;
Maturity at June 1978.
Total $15,499.98
Reprints:
Reprint charges to authors for Vol. 82 have been collected giving a net profit to the Academy of
$100.83 in excess of printing costs. Reprint charges to authors for Vol. 83 have been collected
giving a net profit to the Academy of $ 1 23. 1 3 in excess of printing costs. Reprint charges to authors
for Vol. 84 are being collected with 1 billing outstanding for a total of $150.48 (William R. Eberly)
and will give a net profit to the Academy (1975, 1976 and 1977) of $223.81 in excess of printing
costs when all bills have been collected. Reprint charges to authors for Vol. 85 are being collected
with 4 billings outstanding for a total of $416.08 and will give a net profit to the Academy of
$225.93 when all bills have been collected.
Attorney Fees:
Ice, Miller, Donadio & Ryan of Indianapolis have been advising the Academy in matters
concerning the reprinting and roles of various publications. The executive committee voted at the
Fall Meeting of 1973 to delay the transferring of $4,226.87 for attorney fees concerning the tax
classification problems to the Academy operating funds from the J.S. Wright fund until these
funds are needed for operating expenses.
Publications:
Sales to date during 1 977 have been $34.00 for Mongraphs. The total cost of publishing Vol. 85 of
the Proceedings was $13,495.38 of which the State of Indiana paid $8,000 leaving a balance of
$5,495.38 to be paid from Academy funds.
Research Grants:
Funds totaling $4,564.00 have been awarded to: Greg Patterson (Indiana State), Charles D.
Lawrence (I.U.), James Haddock (IUPU-Ft. Wayne), Larry R. Yoder (Ohio State- Marion
Campus), William Chang (I.U.), L.R. Ganion (Ball State), J. Dan Webster (Hanover), Diana J.
Einselen (Butler), Michael R. Hudson (I.U.), Deborah A. Champagne (I.U.), Neil Warren
Stillman (Purdue), and Daniel Lee Krisher (I.U.).
Financial Report
33
VII. BUDGET FOR 1978
The following budget was approved by the Budget Committee in a telephone conference call meetinj
on December 14, 1977:
Academy Accounts
Anticipated Income
Dues, Initiation and Reinstatement Fees
(70@$2, 500@$5, 400@$10, 100@$0) $ 6,640.00
Interest on Savings 1,000.00
Reprint Charges to Authors 3,100.00
$10,740.00
Budgeted Expenditures
Secretary $ 500.00
Treasurer 400.00
General Office 250.00
Officer Travel, AA AS Dues 225.00
Membership Committee 200.00
President's Contingency Fund 100.00
Newsletter 500.00
Speaker of the Year Honorarium 500.00
Program Committee 1,000.00
Publication Editor's Expenses 500,00
Youth Activities Committee 50.00
Biological Surveys Committee (including Endangered
Plant Species and Flora Indiana Project Com-
mittees) 1,000.00
Representative to AAAS Meeting 300.00
Reprint Charges to Academy 3,000.00
Public Relations 100.00
Section Chairmen Expenses 50.00
CPA Fees for Tax Return Preparation 400.00
Lawyer's Fees 150.00
Miscellaneous (Including $110 for library books) 210.00
Transfers to Administered Accounts 3,450.00
Junior Academy $ 1 ,000.00
Science and Society Committee 500.00
Natural Areas Committee 0.00
Library Binding 1,200.00
Proceedings: Publication 750.00
Proceedings: Mailing 0.00
Proceedings: Clerical 0.00
$12,885.00
Endowment Funds
Anticipated Income
IAS Foundation $ 300.00
J.S. Wright Investment Income 15,500.00
$15,800.00
Budgeted Expenditures
Bank Fee $ 2,700.00
Research Grants ($7,000— $350 AAAS) 6,650.00
Publications
Proceedings, Vol. 87 ($14,250— $8,000 Ind.—
$750 transfer) 5,500.00
$14,850.00
34 Indiana Academy of Science
Restricted Accounts
Anticipated Income
Research Grants Committee (AAAS) $ 350.00 (part)
Science Talent Search (Tri Kappa) 2,000.00
Publications 300.00
Proceedings $ 50.00
Monographs and Nat. Feat 250.00
$ 2,650.00
Budgeted Expenditures
Research Grants Committee $ 350.00 (part)
Science Talent Search 2,000.00
Publications 300.00
Proceedings $ 50.00 (part)
Monographs 250.00 (part)
$ 2,650.00
Respectfully submitted,
Stanley Burden, Treasurer
We, the undersigned, have audited the Treasurer's records for the Indiana Academy of Science for
the year 1977 and have found them to be accurate and in order.
February 20, 1978 Timothy J. Burkholder
A. Gilbert Cook
THE INDIANA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
45th Annual Meeting, October 28, 1977
The 45th annual meeting of the Indiana Junior Academy of Science was
called to order at 1:35 p.m. on October 28, 1977 by the president, Greg Rondot.
Qualifications for president and secretary were read and nominations were
opened to the floor. Nominations for president were Brian Stephens, Highland
High School and Terry Weigand, Marquette High School. Nominations for
secretary were Cheryl Barbati, Highland High School and Julie Cadle, Paoli
High School.
Candidates gave a brief explanation of why they felt they deserved the
office. The ballots were distributed, marked and collected. They were then
counted. The results were announced. The president-elect was Brian Stephens
and secretary-elect was Cheryl Barbati. Seven clubs were represented at the
meeting.
Dr. Robert Rivers, Junior Academy Director, announced the winners of
the research paper competition. They were as follows:
JUNIOR SCIENCE DIVISION
First Place
Jamie Sibbitt, Paoli Jr.-Sr. High School
Second Place
Julie Calarek, St. John the Baptist, Fort Wayne
Tammi Hedges, Bishop Luers High School, Fort Wayne
LIFE SCIENCE— SENIOR DIVISION
First Place
Anne Celeste Pfauth, Marquette High School, Michigan City
Second Place
Margaret T Bruner, Paoli Jr.-Sr. High School
Lynda S. Rhodes, East Noble High School, Kendallville
Third Place
Debra S. Benham, Paoli Jr.-Sr. High School
Ron Doris, Highland High School
Debbie S. Ferree, Paoli Jr.-Sr. High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE— SENIOR DIVISION
First Place
Michael J. Patterson, East Noble High School, Kendallville
John A. Stark, East Noble High School
Second Place
Pamela Jo Barnett, Paoli Jr.-Sr. High School
Gregory A. Rondot, Bishop Luers High School, Fort Wayne
Third Place
Terry Wiegand, Marquette High School, Michigan City
35
36 Indiana Academy of Science
Outstanding Paper Awards went to John Stark and Anne Pfauth.
Outstanding Junior Scientists selected by the Junior Academy Council were
Greg Rondot, Teresa Bruner and Mike Patterson. The new President and
Secretary's address is: The G.R.A.M.S., Highland High School, Highland,
Indiana 46322.
A movie was presented by the admissions office, IUPUI. Total attendance
of the days' sessions was about 75 persons. The meeting was adjourned at 2:30
p.m.
Respectfully submitted,
Stacy Fox, Secretary IJAS 1976-77
BIOLOGY SURVEY COMMITTEE
Report to Executive Committee
October 27, 1977, IUPUI, Indianapolis
BSC's Purposes And Organization
The Biology Survey Committee (BSC) has experienced a busy and
productive year. Much thought and discussion has been given to how the BSC
may best serve biology, the Academy, our government, and the people of
Indiana.
Historically, the BSC is almost as old as the Academy itself. Its original
purpose was extremely broad: to accumulate and make available information
on the biota of the State. In a recent BSC history project coordinated by Jack
Munsee, we discovered that originally the BSC's goal included an actual survey
of the State, county by county. In subsequent decades the major BSC activity
centered on the creation of an index to the literature of the State's biota. In the
last few years, however, the need for diverse and detailed information on the
biota of the State has become evident. But potential users of such information
on the biota of the State has become evident. But potential users of such
information no longer are restricted to academic biologists, and now also
include such diverse people as environmental impact statement writers, workers
in various agencies of both State and Federal government, teachers at all levels,
area planners, and individuals with private interests. More importantly, at least
federal legislation (e.g., the 1973 Endangered Species Act) now requires
developers to demonstrate that their activity will not endanger species, etc. This
and other legislation requires a basic, detailed knowledge of the biota of
Indiana. Furthermore, not only is it essential that such knowledge be
accumulated, but also that the small parts of it relevant to a specific task be made
available in a meaningful and efficient way.
Thus we now see the current goal of BSC to be the same as when the
Academy was founded: to accumulate, store, and make available in useful
forms, information on the biota of the State. Given the magnitude of the data
base of interest, and the need for fast retrieval of selected pieces of it, we also
considered how computers might help the BSC achieve its goals of accumulating
and disseminating information.
Consequently, given its purposes and building on previous activities of the
BSC (for which we must thank its past Chairman, Jack Munsee), and of several
more recently created subcommittees, the BSC is organized into the following
subcommittees:
A. BSC Literature Subcommittee — Its purpose is to maintain and to
accumulate published references on the biota of the State. While in the past the
BSC Literature Project has presented its findings in conventional printed form,
we also wish to explore the simultaneous creation of an accumulative computer
data bank. It would provide updated, integrated bibliographies of particular
37
38 Indiana Academy of Science
topics in response to specific requests. A recent poll on the value of this
bibliographic service indicate it is of value, but its methods of dissemination
should be reviewed.
B. BSC Endangered Species Subcommittee — Its purpose is to develop
and maintain information on the status of species that might be threatened or
endangered. Progress is being made in studying several large taxa, including
mammals, fish, and vascular plants. This year two summary lists of rare species
were produced from a computer data base, and await dissemination.
C. BSC Flora Indiana Project (FLIP) Subcommittee — Currently
information is available on the presence or absence of each of 2,500 vascular
plants in each of Indiana's 92 counties. Based on Deam's ( 1 940) Flora of Indiana
plus new records as verified by herbarium species this computerized information
will be available as a byproduct of a Ph.D. thesis by Clifton Keller, a student of
Crovello's at Notre Dame. While these data deal only with plants, the hope is
that the computer programs and other techniques developed also will be of use
to a Fauna Indiana Project.
D. BSC People Power Subcommittee — The purpose of this
subcommittee is to develop and maintain information on persons interested in
any or all aspects of the biota of the State, including the accumulation and use of
such data. People with interests in the biota of one geographic area immediately
come to mind, as do people with interests in one taxon, one group of species, etc.
But people of value to the goals of the BSC are not restricted to biologists. The
expertise of geographers, geologists and archeologists to name a few, is of great
value to the BSC.
Larger Benefits of BSC Activity
A partial list of broad benefits of BSC activity include:
1. Provision of data and their evaluation to State agencies, educational
institutions, businesses, and private citizens.
2. Enhancement of education at all levels.
3. Enhancement of good citizenship by increased awareness and
involvement in the study of our biological natural resources (and introduced
resources, e.g., crops, weeds, diseases, ornamentals).
4. Increased appreciation among Indiana citizens, young and old, for the
beneficial effects of science.
5. Increased prestige and participation for the Indiana Academy of
Sciences.
Current Tasks of the BSC.
1. Determine interest about the biota of the State, and in BSC activities,
among individuals in Indiana, and in such organizations as Audubon,
Isaac Walton, Nature Conservancy, etc.
2. Continue the work of the BSC Literature Subcommittee.
3. Integrate the works of several people on the status of endangered biota.
Request a grant from the Indiana Academy to describe and summarize
Biology Survey Committee Report 39
their findings in a modest publication, much like that already done in
states like Michigan and Wisconsin.
4. Investigate sources of funding (outside of the Indiana Academy) for BSC
activities. An attractive feature of BSC activities, and thus funding, is that
its activities are geographically oriented, thus opening the possibility and
need for funding to be distributed among people and institutions around
the state. Also, most computerized data banks developed by the BSC can
be duplicated for use at colleges, etc., around the State.
5. Continue and expand work on the Flora Indiana Program.
6. Determine how the activities of the BSC Committee can enhance those of
the Natural Areas Committee, and vice cersa.
7. Develop background information and suggestions to help the State to
draft endangered species or similar legislation, with cooperation of the
Academy's Science and Society Committee, the AIBS's Public
Responsibilities Network, etc.
8. Investigate whether the re-creation (?) of the post of State Botanist (plus ?)
is necessary, given our increasingly-limited natural resources, etc. If
deemed so, then provide sound recommendations and reasons to the
proper people.
9. Explore the possibilities of making BSC data locally available via
Indiana's IHETS, INDIRS, or other computer networks.
10. Maintain high levels of communication at the national level (e.g., with the
federal Office of Endangered Species, EPA) to assure our awareness of
new information affecting Indiana, and to assure that the BSC can
contribute to the solution of relevant national problems.
October 27, 1977 Prepared and Submitted By,
Theodore J. Crovello, Chairman
Biology Survey Committee
Current BSC Members:
William B. Crankshaw Department of Biology
Ball State University
Muncie Indiana 47306
Theodore Crovello, BSC Chairman Department of Biology
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Phone: (219) 283-7496
James R. Gammon Department of Zoology
DePauw University
Greencastle, Indiana 46135
Jack R. Munsee Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
40
Indiana Academy of Science
Victor Riemenschneider
David S. Woodruff
Frank N. Young, Jr
Department of Biology
Indiana University — South Bend
South Bend, Indiana 46615
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Department of Zoology
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
HELP US TO HELP INDIANA!
BIOLOGY SURVEY COMMITTEE
LITERATURE SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT 1976-1977
Theodore J. Crovello, Chairman, University of Notre Dame
William B. Crankshaw Victor Riemenschneider
Ball State University Indiana University, South Bend
James R. Gammon David S. Woodruff
DePauw University Purdue University
Jack R. Munsee Frank N. Young, Jr.
Indiana State University Indiana University, Bloomington
The goal of the Literature Subcommittee of the Academy's Biological
Survey Committee is to accumulate and maintain published and unpublished
references on the biota of the State. While in the past the BSC Literature Project
has presented its findings in conventional printed form, we now also are engaged
in the simultaneous creation of a current and retrospective computer data bank.
It will provide updated, integrated bibliographies on particular topics in
response to specific requests. A recent poll on the value of this new bibliographic
service indicated both its value and need. Contact Crovello for further
information, or to submit project information to the data bank. The data bank
includes much more information about each reference than is included in this
printed summary.
The works reported below are arranged first by major taxonomic category,
and then alphabetically by author. The letter in parentheses at the end of each
reference stands for one of the following: P= Publication; I = In press; T= Thesis;
W = Work in progress. For theses and for work in progress, the worker's
affiliation is indicated if it was supplied to the Committee.
Biota: 1. Dineen, C. F. 1977. The history of a river. St. Mary's College. (I).
2. Goodman, J. D. 1977. Vertebrates, molluscs, flatworms, parasites, and flower-
ing plants of Delaware and Madison counties, Indiana. Anderson College. (W).
Nonvascular Plants: 1. Fahey, T., and J. D. Schoknecht. 1977. Coprinus, Oidium and Ozonium:
Development and ultrastructural investigations. Indiana State University. (T).
2. Jack M. A., and M. R. Tansey. 1977. Growth, sporulation, and germination of
spores of thermophilic fungi incubated in sun-heated soil. Mycologia 69: 109-
117. (P).
3. Konopka, A. 1978. Physiological ecology of planktonic blue -green algae.
Purdue University. (W).
4. Samson, R. A., and M. J. Crisman, and M. R. Tansey. 1977. Observations on
the thermophilic ascomycete Thielavia terrestris. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 69:
69: 417-423. (P).
5. Sclokneclt, J. Myxomycetes of Indiana and Illinois. Indiana State
University (W).
6. Tansey, M. R., and M. A. Jack. 1977. Growth of thermophilic fungi in soil
in situ and in vitro. Mycologia 69: 563-578. (P).
7. Tansey, M. R., and M. A. Jack. 1976. Thermophilic fungi in sun-heated
soils. Mycologia 68: 1061-1075. (P).
41
42 Indiana Academy of Science
Vascular Plants: 1. Crovello, T. J. and C. Keller. 1977. Rare plants of Indiana (W).
2. Crovello, T. J. and C. Keller. 1977. The Flora Indiana Project. (W).
3. Crovello, T. J., B. Hellenthal, and C. Keller. 1977. 1-Trees, A Manual Of
The Trees of Indiana. (W).
4. Crovello, T. J. et al. 1977. An Atlas Of The Flora Of Indiana. (W).
5. Enderle, K. 1977. Mosses of the Saint Mary's College Nature Area. (W).
6. Gastony, G. J. 1977. Chromosomes of the independently reproducing Appala-
chian gametophyte: a new source of taxonomic evidence. Systematic Botany 2:
43-48. (P).
7. Gastony, G. J. and D. E. Soltis. 1977. Chromosome studies of Pamassia and
Lepuropetalon (Saxifragaceae) from the eastern United States. A new base
number for Pamassia. Rhodora 79: 573-578. (P).
8. Kephart, S. R. Reproductive isolating mechanisms in Asclepias sp. Indiana
University, Bloomington. (T).
9. Levy, M. and P. L. Winternheimer. 1977. Allozyme linkage disequilibira
among chromosome complexes in the permanent translocation Oenothera
biennis. Evolution 31: (I).
10. Maxwell, R. H. 1978. Indiana Plant Distribution Records, Clark County.
Indiana University Southeast. (W).
11. Mertens, R. 1977. Determination of the taxonomic position of Polygonum
tenue in genus Polygonum. Ball State University. (W).
12. Rietveld, W. J. and R. D. Williams. 1977. Development of lifting and storage
guidelines for optimun physiological condition of black walnut planting stock.
U.S. Forest Service, Bedford, Indiana. (W).
13. Reitveld, W. J. and R. D. Williams. 1977. Detection of dormancy in black
walnut seedlings with the Shigometer and an Oscilloscope technique. (I).
14. Schilling, E. E. Systematics of the Solanum nigrum comples in North America.
Indiana University, Bloomington. (W).
15. Smith, A. W. and J. J. Tobolski. 1977. Isozyme polymorphism in white ash and
blue ash. (W).
16. Soltis, D. E. 1977. Biosystematic study of Sullivantia (Saxifragaceae). Indiana
University, Bloomington. (W).
17. Tobolski, J. J. 1977. An isozyme survey of several Indiana oak species. (W).
18. Williams, R. D. and D. T. Funk. 1977. Eighteen-year performance on an
eastern white pine genetic test plantation in southern Indiana. (I).
19. Williams, R. D., D. T Fund and R. Nielsen. 1977. Squirrels, direct seeding
walnuts, repellents. Southern Lumberman. 89-91. (P).
20. Williams, R. D. and D. T. Funk. 1977. The effects of genotype and nursery
environment on the survival and growth of black walnut plantations. (W).
21. West, L G., J. L. McLaughlin, and G. K. Eisenbeiss. 1977. Saponins and
Triterpenes from flex opaca. Phytochemistry 16, 1846-1847. (P).
Insects: 1. Ailor, M. C. R. 1977. A study of the factors affecting body size and of fertility
in the Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say). M. S. Thesis, Purdue University.
106p. (T).
2. Akey, R. J. 1977. A survey of the mosquito breeding sites in Wayne County,
Indiana. Indiana University East. (W).
3. Ballard, T and D. L. Schuder. 1977. Life history and control of eastern pine
shoot borer. Annals Entom. Soc. Amer. (W).
4. Belicek, J. 1976. Coccinellidae of Western Canada and Alaska with analyses of
the transmontane zoo-geographic relationships between the fauna of British
Columbia and Alberta. (Insecta; Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Quaestiones
Entomologicae 12: 283-409. (P).
5. Bennett, G. W. and R. D. Lund. 1976. Evaluation of insecticide baits for cock-
roach control, 1976. Insecticide and Acaricide Tests, Vol. 3. (1978). (I).
6. Bennett, G. W. and R. D. Lund. 1977. Evaluation of encapsulated Pyrethrins
(Sectrol™) for German cockroach and cat flea control. Pest Control 45 (9): 44,
46, 48-50. (P).
Biology Survey Committee Report 43
7. Bennett, G. W., and S. H. Robertson. 1977. Field testing of Ficam W for flea
control. (I).
8. Caldwell, D. L. ana D. L. Schuder. 1977. Life cycle and descriptions of forms
of Phylloxera caryaecaulis (Filch). Annals Entom. Soc. Amer. (W).
9. Foster, J. E. 1976. Current status of genetic control of Hessian fly populations
with the dominant Great Plains Race. Proc. XV Internatl. Congress of Entomol.
157-163. (P).
10. Foster, J. E. 1977. Suppression of a field population of the Hessian fly by
release of the dominant avirulent Great Plains biotype. Jour. Econ. Entomol.
70: (I).
1 1. Haddock, J. D. 1977. The biosystematics of the Caddis Fly genus Nectopsyche in
North America with emphasis on the aquatic stages. The American Midland
Naturalist 98: 382-421. (P).
12. Haddock, J. D. and N. D. Schmidt. 1977. Seasonal changes in soil arthropod
species diversity as affected by perturbation in three successional communities
in Northeastern Indiana. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. 86: 467-473. (P).
13. Hallman, G. J., and C. R. Edwards and J. E. Foster. 1977. Soybeans cultivars
evaluated for resistance to Mexican bean beetle in southern Indiana. Jour.
Econ. Ent. 70: 316-318. (P).
14. Harris, T. L. and W. P. McCafferty. 1977. Assessing aquatic insect flight
behavior with sticky traps. The Great Lakes Entomologist Vol. 10 (4): 233-
239. (P).
15. Jacobs, M. E. 1974. Beta-Alanine and Adaptation in Drosophila. J. Insect
Physiol. 20: 859-866. (P).
16. Johnson, M. D. 1976. Survey of the bees in Putnam Co. (includes nesting
biology). DePauw University. (W).
17. Knisley, C B. 1977. The Cicindelidae of Indiana (tiger bettles). (W).
18. Lund, R. D. and G. W. Bennett. 1977. Evaluation of Bolt Roach Bait, 1977.
Insecticide and Acaricide Tests, Vol. 3. (1978). (I).
19. Lund, R. D. and G. W. Bennett. 1977. Comparison of three kinds of cockroach
traps. Insecticide and Acaricide Tests, Vol. 3. (1978). (1).
20. Lund, R. D. and F. T. Turpin. 1977. Carabid damage to weed seeds found in
Indiana cornfields. Environ. Entomol. 6 (5): 695-698. (P).
21. Lund, R. D. and F. T. Turpin. 1977. Serological investigation of black cutworm
larval consumption by ground beetles. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 70 (3): 322-
324. (P).
22. McNeal, C. D., Jr. and G. W. Bennett. 1976. Utilization of ultra-low volume
aerosols for the control of German cockroaches. J. Econ. Entomol. 69 (4): 506-8.
(P).
23. Meyer, R. W. 1976. Insects and other arthropods of economic importance in
Indiana during 1975. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. 85: 262-270. (P).
24. Meyer, R. W. 1977. Insects and other arthropods of economic importance in
Indiana during 1976. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. 86: (I).
25. Meyer, R. W. and D. P. Sanders. 1976. New locality records in the genus
Chrysops (Diptera: Tabanidae) in Indiana. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. 85: 271-273.
(P).
26. Munsee, J. R. 1977. Smithistruma jilitalpa W. L. Brown, and Indiana Dacetine
ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science. (P).
27. Munsee, J. R. 1977. A gynandromorph of Smithistruma Symenoptera: Formi-
cidae). Indiana State University. (W).
28. Munstermann, L. E. and G. B. Craig. 1976. Culex mosquito populations in the
catch basins of northern St. Joseph County, In. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. 86: 246-
'z252. (P).
29. Owens, Hohn M. 1977. Ultra-low volume particle-size distribution in green-
house whitefly control on poinsettia. Purdue University. (T).
30. Owens, J. M. and G. W. Bennett. 1978. Ultra-low volume particle-size deposi-
tion on immature greenhouse whiteflies. J. Econ. Ento. (I).
44 Indiana Academy of Science
31. Owens, J. M and G. W. Bennett. 1978. Ultra-low volume particle-size distri-
bution in greenhouse whitefly control on poinsettia. Purdue University. (T).
32. Russo, R. 1977. Effect of quantity of blood on ovarian development in Culex
pipiens. IUPUI, Indianapolis. (W).
33. Russo, R. 1977. Information retrieval in mosquito control. IUPUI, Indiana-
polis. (W).
34. Sabath, M. D., R. C. Richmond, and R. M. Torrella. 1973. Temperature-
mediated seasonal color changes in Drosophila putrida. Amer. Midi. Natur.
90: 509-521. (P).
35. Santos, J. P. A Brazilian corn germplasm screened for resistance to Sitophilus
zeamaise Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Sitotroga Cerealella
(Oliver). (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). M. S. Thesis Purdue University 182 p.
1977. (T).
36. Shade, R. E., M. J. DosKOCiLand N. P. Maxon. 1978. Potato leafhopper resis-
tance detected in glandular-haired Medicago species. J. Econ. Entomol. (I).
37. Shade, R. E., T. E. Thompson and M. J. Busching. 1978. Evaluation of the
Genus Medicago for alfalfa weevil resistance. (W).
38. Shade, R. E., T. E. Thompson and W. R. Campbell. 1975. An alfalfa weevil
larval resistance mechanism detected in Medicago. J. Econ. Entomol. 68 (3):
399-404. (P).
39. Shroyer, D. A., et. al. 1976. Mosquito diversity in St. Joseph Co., In. (Diptera:
Culicidae). Proc. In. Acad. Sci. 86: 238-241. (P).
40. Sosa, O., Jr, and J. E. Foster. 1976. Temperature and the expression of resis-
tance in wheat to the Hessian fly. Environmental Entomol. 5: 333-336. (P).
41. Thompson, T. E., R. E. Shade and J. D. Axtell. 1977. Alfalfa resistance to
Hypera postica larvae. Corp Science. (I).
42. White, D. S. 1978. A revision of the neartic Optioservus (coleoptera: Elmidae)
with descriptions of new species. Systematic Entomology, 3: 59-74. (P).
43. York, A. C. 1976. (reports on control of eight crop insect pests). Insecticide and
Acaricide Tests. 1: 38, 39, 43, 49, 52, 77. (P).
44. York, A. C. 1977. Corn earworm and European corn borer control on sweet
corn. Insecticide and Acaracide Tests. 2: 52-53. (P).
Other Invertebrates: 1. Dineen, C. F. 1977. Annual production of zooplankton and benthic organisms
in Spicer Lake. St. Mary's College. (W).
2. Fain, A. and J. O. Whitaker, Jr. 1976. Notes on the genus Acanthophthirius
Perkins in North America (Acarina: Myobiidae). Bull. Ann. Soc. Beige Entomol.
112: 127-143. (P).
3. Frey, D. C. Geography of reproduction among the Cladocera. (W).
4. Goseco, C. G., V. R. Ferris and J. M. Ferris. 1976. Revisions in Leptonchoidea
(Nematoda: Dorylaimida). Dorylaimoides in Dorylaimoididae, Dorylaimoi-
dinoe; Caiolaimus and Timmus n. gen. in Dorylnimoididae, Calolaiminae; and
Miranema in Miranemtidae. Purdue University Research Bulletin No. 942. (P).
5. Knisley, C. B. 1974. Phytoseiid mites of Pease Woods, Johnson County, Indiana
— a preliminary study. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 84: 477 (abstract only). (P).
6. Whitaker, J. O. Jr. 1976. Ectoparasites of squirrels of the genus Sciurus in
Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. For 1975. (I).
7. Whitaker, J. O. Jr., G. J. James and R. J. Goff. 1977. Ectoparasites and food
habits of the opossum, Didelphis virginiana, in Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.
86: 501-507. (P).
Fish: 1. McReynolds, H. E. and J. L. Janisch. 1977. Recent fish collections from Blue
River, Washington County, Indiana. U.S. Forest Service, Bedford, Indiana. (I).
2. Whitaker, J. O. Jr. Fish community changes at one Vigo County locality over
a twelve year period. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. For 1975. 85: 191-207. (P).
3. Whitaker, J. O. Jr. 1977. Seasonal changes in food habits of some cyprinid
fishes from the White River at Petersburg, Indiana. Amer. Midi. Natur. 97:
411-418. (P).
Biology Survey Committee Report
45
Mammals:
Other Vertebrates:
10.
II.
Whitaker, J. O. Jr., R. A. ScHLUETERand G. L. Tieben. 1977. Effects of heated
water on fish and of White River at Petersburg, Indiana. Ind. Univ. Water
Resources Res. Center. Rept. Invest. #8. 198 p. (P).
Kirkpatrick, C. M., C. M. White, T. W. Hoekstra, F. A. Stormer, and H. P.
Weeks, Jr. 1976. White-tailed deer of U.S. Naval Ammunition Depot Crane.
Purdue U. Ag. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. No. 932 42 pp. (P).
McCrocklin, S. M. 1976. Studies in the role of wild mammals in the spread
of pseudorabies among swine. Master's thesis, Purdue U., West Lafayette, In.
90 pp. (T).
Pascal, D. D. Jr., G. S. Jones and J. O. Whitaker, Jr. 1976. Mammals in the
Indiana State University Vertebrate Collections. Publ. #1. ISU Vertebrate
Collections. (P).
L. L. Schmeltz and J. O. Whitaker, Jr. 1977. Use of woodchuck burrows by
woodchucks and other mammals. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38: 79-82. (P).
Stormer, F. A., T. W. Hockstra, and C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1977. Hunter-
inflicted wounding of white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin. (I).
Stormer, F. A., C. M. White, and C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1977. Frequency dis-
tribution of deer pellets in southern Indiana. J. Wildl. Manage 41 (4). (I).
Weeks, H. P., Jr., and C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1976. Adaptations of white-tailed
deer to naturally occurring sodium deficiencies. J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (4): 610-
625. (P).
Whitaker, J. O. Jr. 1977. Food and external parasites of the Norway Rat,
Rattus moruagicus, in Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 86: 193-198. (P).
Branham, A. and J. C. List. 1977. Development of the urostyle during meta-
morphosis in five species of Anurans. Journal of Morphology. (T).
Couture, M., and D. M. Server. Egg mortality in Ambystoma tigrinum. St.
Mary's College. (W).
Deneff, S., and D. M. Sever. 1977. Ontogenetic changes in phototactic behavior
of Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum (Amphibia-Urodea). Proc. In. Acad. Sci. 86:
478-481. (P).
Eisenhauer, D. T. 1976. Ecology and behavior of the emperior goose in Alaska.
Master's Thesis, Purdue U., West Lafayette, In. 255 pp. (T).
Eisenhauer, D. T. and C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1977. Ecology of the emperior goose
in Alaska. Wildlife Monographs No. 57. 62 pp. (P).
Kelly, S. T. 1977. Evaluation of a ruffed grouse reintroduction into northern
Indiana. Master's thesis, Purdue U., West Lafayette, In. 70 pp. (T).
Melchiors, M. A. 1976. Migration and feeding behavior of non-hunted and
hunted geese on the Jasper-Pulaski goose management zone. Master's thesis,
Purdue U., West Lafayette, In. 70 pp (T).
Sever, D. M. 1978. Male cloacal glands of Plethodon cinereus and Plethodon
dorsalis (Amphibia, Pletho dontidae). Herpetologica. (I).
Sever, D. M. 1978. Female cloacal anatomy of Plethodon cinereus and Plethodon
dorsalis (Amphibia, Plethodontidae). Journal of Herpetology. (I).
Sever, D. M., and C. F. Dineen. 1978. Reproductive ecology of the tiger sala-
mander, Ambystoma tigrinum, in northern Indiana. Proc. In. Acad. Sci. (I).
Strange, C. A. 1976. Feeding behavior and ecology of glaucous gulls in Alaska.
Doctoral Thesis, Purdue U., 146 pp. (T).
NECROLOGY
Fay Kenoyer Daily, Butler University
Terzo P. Amidei
Fanano, Italy Gary, Indiana
July 23, 1907 January 17, 1977
Mr. Terzo P. Amidei came to the United States with his parents when he
was three years old. His birthplace was a village, Fanano, Italy, where he was
born July 23, 1907. He went to grade and high school in Gary, Indiana,
graduating from Froebel High School in 1925. He attended Indiana University
where he obtained a B.A. degree in 1929 and a Master's degree majoring in
Botany in 1931. His education was financed by working in the Gary steel mills
for several years and in the school cafeteria and other odd jobs while on campus.
His interest in botany was nurtured at an early age by his mother whom he
helped in growing flowers and vegetables at their home. This interest was
recognized and stimulated by Mr. A. M. Wheeler, a science teacher at the high
school which Mr. Amidei attended. When Mr. Wheeler retired, he gave Mr.
Amidei books and special reference material which he had used in his own
teaching. Mr. Amidei built up a fine library and subscribed to a number of
scientific publications which he read avidly.
Mr. Amidei was a teacher in various public schools in East Chicago during
his career. He taught elementary science, physics and biology. He was head of
the science department at Roosevelt High School for about ten years before his
retirement in 1973.
Mr. Amidei was the first naturalist at the Dunes State Park at Tremont
working for the Indiana Department of Conservation for over twenty years. He
would teach school during the week and serve as naturalist from Friday evening
to Sunday evening. He was considered an authority on plants, animal tracks and
birds. His nature hikes and visual aid programs were very successful and were
praised by many participants. He had hoped to write a book on the origin of the
Dunes, its characteristics, flora and fauna, but did not realize this
accomplishment. He was also a Boy Scout leader for many years in East
46
Necrology 47
Chicago, creating an interest in nature and ecology among youngsters in his
troop. He spent two summers in Rochester, Indiana, with Scout troops on a
reforestation project. He was also a volunteer in the Red Cross. He served two
years. as an X-ray technician in the United States 5th Army in France during
World War II with the 132nd Evacuation Hospital.
Mr. Amidei joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1926 while a student
at Indiana University. He was also affiliated with the First United Prebysterian
Church in which he was an elder. He was also a member of the Sons of Italy;
Dante Allghieri Lodge No. 1220 of Gary; National Retired Teacher's
Association; Indiana University Alumni Association of Gary, Indiana; and the
Lake County Retired Teachers Association.
Mr. Amidei died January 17, 1977, in Gary after a successful teaching
career. He had been praised by supervisors and principals for his dedication,
quality of teaching and creativity. He was kind, gentle and noted for helping
those in need.
48 Indiana Academy of Science
Glenn G(ardner) Bartle
Borden, Indiana Johnson City, New York
February 7, 1899 September 14, 1977
Dr. Glenn Gardner Bartle was the founder of Triple Cities College of
Syracuse University in 1946 at Endicott, New York. The 200 students of the
college, mostly returning servicemen on the GI bill, went to classes held in
Quonset huts. In 1950, Triple Cities College was incorporated into the State
University system and Dr. Bartle became the first president. The university was
soon renamed Harpur College which was headed by Dr. Bartle until his
retirement in 1964. He arranged the move in 1961 to the Vestal Parkway campus
west of Binghamton. It has developed into a sprawling $200 million university
center with around 9,000 students. Dr. Bartle pressed for the incorporation of
the college into the state university system with the aid of a committee of
community leaders and friends with connections in banking and political fields.
Their united efforts against the opposition fulfilled his dreams of a fine
university. The story of Dr. Bartle's years at the college is told in a book, Harpur
College in the Bartle Era (1975, available on campus).
Dr. Bartle was born in an Indiana farmhouse near Borden February 7,
1899. His father was a teacher and later a minister and was a descendent of
Palatine Germans. He studied at Indiana University where he received an A.B.
degree in 1921, M.A. in 1923 and Ph.D. degree majoring in stratigraphy and
economic geology in 1932. He also attended Chicago University from 1924 to
1925 where he was an assistant.
His professional career began as a school superintendent in Illinois from
1 922 to 1 924. He became an instructor in Geology at Kansas City Junior College
from 1925 to 1933. He was also a consulting geologist with Panhandle East Pipe
Line Company from 1929 to 1942. He was Chairman of the Geology and
Geography Department of the University of Kansas City from 1933 to 1938,
professor of geology and dean of liberal arts from 1938 to 1942. He was with the
United States Army in 1918 and served the United States Navy as lieutenant
commander from 1942 to 1945 commanding an officer's training school at
Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania. When he returned from the navy, the saga
of the Triple Cities College of Syracuse University began in 1946 as he became
dean and professor of geology. He was also a consulting geologist with the
Australian Oil and Gas Company in 1957 and after. After leaving Harpur in
1964, he continued with his usual energy and enthusiasm to another assignment
as full-time consultant to the Agency for International Development for the
U.S. Department of State at Washington, D.C. Later with some partners, he
was active in gas and oil well explorations, chiefly in Texas.
Dr. Bartle joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1923, the year he
received his M.A. degree at Indiana University. The next year while in Illinois he
presented a paper at the Indiana Academy of Science fall meeting on the change
of drainage of Raccoon Creek, Indiana. He was at Mateno, Illinois, then. He
was honored as fellow in 1931 and was a senior member at death. His research
interests covered stratigraphy and natural gas reserves. Dr. Bartle was also a
Necrology 49
member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science;
Association of Petroleum Geologists; Institute of Mining, Metal and Petroleum
Engineers; Association of Economic Geologists and Phi Beta Kappa. He was on
the board of directors of the Binghamton Savings Bank, Roberson Center for
the Arts, Endicott Rotary Club and Broome County Council on Anti-
Discrimination.
When Dr. Bartle died September 14, 1977, at Johnson City, New York,
after a short illness, many memorials were written. His founding of Harpur was
viewed as a great legacy for posterity, achieved by his dedication, great energy,
tirelessness, wisdom and humor. The fondness for the man was evident all
through the many tributes.
50
Indiana Academy of Science
V
Nellie Mae Coats
Lafayette, Indiana
October 26, 1888
Indianapolis, Indiana
January 11, 1977
Miss Nellie M. Coats was born on a farm in Tippecanoe County near
Lafayette, Indiana, October 26, 1888. She was of Scottish and French Huguenot
ancestry. She graduated from the red brick Battle Ground High School and
continued education at Purdue University receiving a B.S. degree in 1915. She
pursued a course in home economics at first but became interested in library
work. She was an apprentice in the Purdue library from 1916 to 1917. In 1918,
she worked briefly as a government clerk in Washington, then returned to
Purdue as librarian for the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station. She did
post-graduate work at the University of Illinois Library School from 1919 to
1920 and worked there as Serials Librarian. She was Assistant Reference
Librarian for the Indiana State Library from 1923 to 1929 and Chief of the
Catalog Division 1930 to 1959 when she retired. She then continued as Librarian
of the John Shepard Wright Memorial Library at the Indiana State Library for
the Indiana Academy of Science which she had done since 1934. For her
An Indianapolis Star photo reprinted by permission of Indianapolis
Newspapers, Inc.
Necrology 51
outstanding performance in this capacity, she was made Honorary Member of
the Indiana Academy of Science in 1937 and was the only honorary member of
the society for many years. She was made a fellow in 1948.
This was one professional side of Nelle Coats, but another was her great
interest in history, especially of Indianapolis and Indiana; but in general, human
kind. In an excellent sketch of her activities by Lotys Benning Stewart (They
Achieve, Indianapolis Star, October 12, 1947) her study of libraries in England,
Scotland and France was discussed and the article concluded with a quote from
Miss Coats, "Working with many people, seeing books covering the history of
the race since records began, I am made extremely conscious of the continuity of
man's effort, the universality of human experience." This combination of
interest in history and humanity by Miss Coats resulted in some great benefits
for Indianapolis. She conducted sightseeing tours of the city for visitors covering
sites of historical interest and helped compile the Riley trail map setting up a
scenic tour route of the city. She also briefed tour guides and received high praise
for training new hostesses. She was the second woman to serve on the board of
directors of Greater Indianapolis Information Incorporated and was vice
president of the board. She received a Certificate of Achievement from former
Mayor Richard G. Lugar for her efforts on behalf of the city. Her research
efforts also established some "forgotten facts" (League's Tribute to Nell Coats,
Indianapolis Star, February 13, 1971) about Woodruff Place in Indianapolis
helping obtain the listing as a national landmark. She was dedicated to its
restoration and stimulated community pride when she disclosed interesting
historical facts gleaned from correspondence with relatives of the founder, Mr.
James Woodruff, and interviews with former and present prominent members
of the community.
After retirement, she was distinguished as "Woman of the Year" in 1962 by
the Hoosier Chapter of American Women in Radio and Television. This was in
recognition of her successful production of the popular and enlightening half-
hour radio interviews with local personalities first on station WAIV and then
WFMS. The programs were entitled "Indianapolis Now and Then" and "Our
Community".
As mentioned at the beginning of this article, Miss Coats was made an
honorary member of the Indiana Academy of Science for her work on the John
Shepard Wright Library. She was on the Academy Library Committee
beginning in 1938 and chairman from about 1949 to 1970. She often brought an
exhibit of new materials from the Academy library to the fall meetings and
displayed stamps taken from materials received showing the geographical scope
of exchanges. During these years she also served on the Budget Committee and
Executive Committee. Other committees upon which she served, were
Sesquicentennial, Publicity and Membership. She suggested preparation of the
valuable cumulative index for the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of
Science and gave valuable advice on format and subject matter. She served on
the 50 year Index Committee and then the Index Committee for almost twenty
years. She was chairman of the History of Science Section in 1965. In 1953, Miss
Coats gave a paper before the History of Science Section on the history of the
52 Indiana Academy of Science
Academy's John Shepard Wright Memorial Library and work of the librarian
(Proc. I.A.S. 63: 248-252).
Miss Coats was equally as active in other organizations. She was program
chairman of the 1962 international Zonta meeting; president in 1926 of the
Indiana Library Association and honorary member publishing various check
lists in the Library Occurrent. She was twice chairman of the Ohio Valley
Regional Group of Cataloguers, member of the National Association of State
Libraries, life member of the American Library Association and headed the
Committee on State Author Headings. She was a member (life) of the Children's
Museum, Alpha Xi Delta, Indiana Historical Society, Marion County
Historical Society, director and member of Historic Landmarks Foundation,
International Center, Indianapolis Museum of Art, Tippecanoe County
Historical Society, Hoosier Folklore Society (president 1949 to 1950).
Biographies can be found in Who's Who of American Women and Indiana
Lives.
Miss Nellie M. Coats died January 1 1, 1977, in Indianapolis at 88 years of
age. Her friendship, service, dedication, integrity, sense of propriety and
background in Indiana Academy of Science history made her a reliable aid and
source of advice to members of the society. This was sincerely appreciated and
esteemed.
Necrology
53
Will(iam) E(dmund) Edington
Rantoul, Illinois
December 8, 188
New Castle, Indiana
March 12, 1977
Dr. Will E. Edington was retired from head of DePauw University
Mathematics and Astronomy Department since 1 953. He was a past president of
the Indiana Academy of Science and wrote memorials for the society over 35
years. He also supplied considerable material to Indiana Scientists (Visher,
1951) and was a frequent contributor of papers in the History of Science Section
of our society so that he has written more probably than anyone else about the
history of the Academy, scientists of Indiana and other Indiana scientific
societies.
He was the son of a Rantoul, Illinois, barber and was born December 8,
1886. He was considered in some ways a self educated man. There was a spread
of twelve years between an A. B. degree received at Indiana State Normal School
at Terre Haute in 1909 and his Ph.D. degree in 1921 from the University of
Illinois. The necessity for earning money to finance his education and the
increasing necessity for academic credits in teaching positions led to continuing
education mixed with several teaching assignments and service to his country.
He first taught mathematics and physics at an early age at a Brazil, Indiana, high
54 Indiana Academy of Science
school. Then he was a mathematics instructor at Indiana State Normal School
from 1911 to 1912. He then went to the University of Colorado from 1913 to
1914 where he was also an assistant. Subsequently, he was a professor and head
of the department of mathematics at the University of New Mexico from 19 14 to
1917. He went to the University of Illinois and was a graduate assistant in
mathematics in 1917. His education was interrupted in 1918 by World War I
service to the United States Army Signal Corps in which he was a Sergeant 1st
Class. After the war, he resumed education at the University of Illinois and
received an M.A. degree in 1919 and a Ph.D. degree in mathematics in 1921. He
taught briefly at Pennsylvania State University from 1921 to 1922 and then at
Purdue University from 1922 to 1930. He moved to DePauw University as
professor and head of the Mathematics and Astronomy Department in 1930
where he taught until 1953. During World War II, he was Captain and
Commanding Officer of the Civil Air Patrol in 1945. He became Emeritus
Professor but continued to teach at DePauw from 1953 to 1955 and was visiting
professor at Coe College from 1955 to 1957 He returned to teach at DePauw
from 1957 to 1959.
Dr. Edington received a number of honors for his excellent teaching and
service to organizations or universities. He was selected "Best Teacher" by the
students of DePauw in 1952, and in 1960 Indiana State University (formerly
Indiana State Normal School) bestowed on him the distinguished alumni service
award. He also received the Silver Beaver Award from the Boy Scouts of
America in 1 94 1 and the Veterans of Foreign Wars Medal for Service to Colored
People in 1946 and received the twenty-five year service plaque from Pi Kappa
Phi in 1951. He is listed in Who's Who of America, Who's Who in Indiana,
Indiana Scientists and American Men of Science.
Dr. Edington joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1924 and was very
active in the society from the beginning of his membership. He was soon made
fellow in 1927. He submitted a paper the same year asjoining giving suggestions
for research in mathematics. All but a few volumes of the Indiana Academy of
Science Proceedings after that until 1965 contained articles by him on
mathematics, mathematics education, biographical sketches, memorials or
more than one of these subjects. One of the most famous of his writings is There
Were Giants in Those Days. His mathematical research interests included group
theory, high voltage transmission, elementary differential equations,
mathematical physics and corona losses in high voltage transmission lines. His
service on committees and in the offices of the Academy began soon after joining
the society, too. He was chairman of the Auditing Committee 1928 to 1930; press
secretary 1930 to 1934; Anniversary Publicity and Research Committee in 1933;
Library Committee and Research Committee in 1934; vice president. Library
Committee and Research Committee in 1935; Library Committee and Research
Committee in 1936; and president in 1937. His presidential address was entitled
Science and Modern Thought. With the exception, then, of 1936, he was on the
Executive Committee, by virtue of his assignments and past presidency, from
1928 until death. He missed very few executive committee meetings and was
often vocal in his convictions helping mold our society through the years. Even
after serving as press secretary once, he served again from 1938 to 1941. He was
Necrology 55
chairman of the Mathematics Division in 1941 and 1943 and chairman of the
History of Science Division in 1 946. He served on several other committees not
already mentioned as Indiana Scientists, Nominating, Resolutions, Correlation
of the Duties of Officers and in 1 938 a special committee to promote attendance
by secondary school teachers. The committee sent letters to principals all over
the state recommending that teachers be excused so that they could attend
Academy meetings. The response was disappointing.
Dr. Edington was also active in several other societies. He was former
president of the Rotary Club of Greencastle and was awarded a lifetime
membership, charter member of the Mathematics Association of America and
American Association of University Professors. He was national scholarship
chairman of Pi Kappa Phi Fraternity; fellow of the American Association of
Science; member of the American Mathematics Society, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma
Xi, Alpha Phi Omega, Gold Key; Deacon, financial secretary and elder in the
Greencastle Presbyterian Church.
Dr. William E. Edington was ninety years old when he died after a brief
illness in New Castle, Indiana, on March 12, 1977. His dedication to the
Academy, teaching, mathematical research and history of science was
outstanding. There were giants in our day, too!
56 Indiana Academy of Science
Waldemar C(arl) Gunther
Grand Rapids, Michigan Valparaiso, Indiana
May 25, 1918 March 22, 1977
Dr. Waldemar C. Gunther was a biology professor at Valparaiso University
when he died March 22, 1977. He had received recognition for his research in sex
endocrinology, general embryology, vertebrate anatomy and mental
retardation.
Dr. Gunther was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, May 25, 1918. He
served in the United States Army from 1942 to 1945 and then pursued his higher
education at the University of Chicago receiving a B.S. degree in 1949, and an
M.S. and Ph.D. Degree with a Zoology major in 1955. He was an associate
zoologist at the University of California, Davis, California, from 1949 to 1954.
He then came to Indiana and progressed from instructor to associate professor
from 1954 to 1961. He was made professor in biology from 1961 on at
Valparaiso University. He served as director of research there for many years. In
addition to these positions, he was: a visiting lecturer; research biologist on an
NSF grant to study sex endocrinology; was a member of the Institute of
Developmental Biology at Williams College; was an instructor of desert ecology
at the University of Wyoming; was a fellow in the mental retardation section of
the Institute of Mental Health, U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare; was an intern in the United States Office of Education at the University
of Minnesota; and received a Grass Foundation grant for the study of mental
retardation.
Dr. Gunther joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1954 and was a
senior member at death. He was the author or co-author of a number of papers
given before the Zoology Division at Academy meetings. They dealt with the
effects of high incubator temperatures and environmental stress on the blood
chemistry, behavior and variability of chick embryos and chicks. Other papers
were on a study of the effects of rodent diet and other subjects. Dr. Gunther was
also a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and
American Society of Mammalogists. He is listed in American Men of Science
and American Men and Women of Science.
Dr. Gunther was only 58 when he died, but as one can see his
accomplishments were many.
Necrology
Edward L(auth) Haenisch
Chicago, Illinois
August 9, 1911
Crawfordsville, Indiana
December 28, 1977
Dr. Edward L. Haenisch was retired from teaching at Wabash College
when he died in his home December 28, 1977. He had been chairman of the
chemistry department and chairman of the science division. He was born in
Chicago, Illinois, August 9, 1911, and took his advanced education at Chicago
University receiving a B.S. degree in 1930 and a Ph.D. degree in 1935.
Dr. Haenisch began his professional career also at Chicago University as an
instructor in chemistry from 1932 to 1934. He taught at Montana State College
from 1934 to 1936. He was an assistant professor at Villanova College from 1936
to 1938, associate professor 1938 to 1943, professor and head of the department
from 1943 to 1949. He then came to Wabash College at Crawfordsville, Indiana,
in 1949 as professor and chairman of the chemistry department retiring in the
spring of 1976. He continued to teach general chemistry courses on a part-time
basis after that. He had been a lecturer at Rosemount College from 1946 to 1949
and in the summer of 1957 at Columbia University. He was also the summer
institute director of the National Science Foundation in Washington, D.C. from
58 Indiana Academy of Science
1958 to 1959 and was head of the institutes division. He had been chairman of
the College Entrance Examination Board's chemistry examination committee.
Dr. Haenisch had a distinguished teaching career and was widely
recognized for his innovations. He received an award in chemical education
from the American Chemical Society in 1963, the first McClain-McTurnan
Award for distinguished teaching at Wabash in 1965, the James Flack Norris
Award in chemical education from the Northeastern Section of the American
Chemical Society in 1967, and the Manufacturing Chemists Association college
chemistry teaching award in 1975. In 1971, he was made an honorary alumnus of
Wabash College, and in 1975 an honorary doctor of humane letters at Villanova
College.
Dr. Haenisch was a seventeen year member and chairman of the American
Chemical Society's accreditation division and often traveled as much as 70,000
to 100,000 miles a year in this capacity. He also worked about ten years in the
society's visiting scientist program. He was a consultant for the DuPont
Corporation and was a leader of the Chemical Educational Material (CHEM)
study program which was adopted in many schools of the United States and
Canada. For this program he contributed material to the book, Chemistry An
Experimental Science. He was a co-author of nine textbooks and contributor to
six others including Quantitative Analysis in its fourth edition and Fundamental
Principles of Physics and Chemistry, a new direction in that disciplines are
integrated.
Dr. Haenisch was particularly proud of the achievements of his former
chemistry majors and corresponded with over two hundred of them. Over one
hundred became professors or research chemists with a Ph.D. degree and over
fifty become medical doctors.
Dr. Haenisch joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1949 when he came
to Wabash College and was made a fellow in 1954. He was chairman of the
Chemistry Division in 1952 and then served on the Invitations and Resolutions
committees. In 1963, he was elected vice president and was president in 1964. His
presidential address was entitled "Johnny and Relativity". It described some
experimental methods which have been used for teaching relativity and other
scientific subjects to school children. A number of organizations and individuals
are mentioned as pressing for new methods. He presented other papers at
Academy meetings on chemistry education. He also served on the Special
Constitution Revision Committee and a special committee on finance in 1964.
He further served on the Youth Activities Committee a couple of years and on
the Emeritus Member Selection Committee from 1968 on. His research interests
included physical and analytical chemistry, spectrographic analysis and
absorption spectrum of samarium tungstate and samarium molybdate at low
temperature.
Dr. Haenisch was also a member of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, was founder and former president of the Midwestern
Association of Chemistry Teachers in Liberal Arts Colleges, member of the
American Chemical Society, Electrochemical Society and fellow of the Institute
of Chemists.
Necrology 59
Dr. Haenisch was sixty-six years old at his death. Just the year before at his
retirement from Wabash College, he had reflected on his past twenty seven years
there. He said, "The sciences have always been a strong aspect of the college, and
I am pleased to have had a part in planning, staffing, equipping and teaching in
the science department, which will continue to insure a strong future at
Wabash."
60
Indiana Academy of Science
Eli Lilly
Indianapolis, Indiana
April 1, 1885
Indianapolis, Indiana
January 24, 1977
Mr. Eli Lilly was born in Indianapolis, Indiana April 1 , 1 885, where he died
January 24, 1977. However, his influence encompasses the world. His profession
was manufacturing chemist in the family owned business where he worked over
eighty years. The eulogies poured out from friends in all walks of life after his
death and their words tell more about him in a much better way than can be
covered here in this short space. A book is needed to cover his life adequately.
Tributes from Indiana leaders, including Governor Bowen and Mayor Hudnut,
appeared in the Indianapolis News, January 25, 1977. Mr. Lilly's basic
goodness, modesty, kindness, generosity and genuine interest in other human
beings as well as his great business leadership were recognized. Some of the
eulogies were found in the Lilly News (a special edition), college publications,
etc. Newspapers articles covered his business ability, civic service, a book
collection made in his honor by Orchard School children, a party of nine
hundred youngsters at Conner Prairie farm near Fishers in honor of Mr. Lilly
for his generosity to Conner Prairie. Eulogies came also from publications and
letters to the members in organizations to which he contributed generously with
time and money.
Necrology 61
The wealth that he inherited and had earned was used for the benefit of
mankind in generous amounts strengthening values which he considered of
great importance. One of the latest articles expressed sadness that Mr. Lilly did
not live to see the complete renovation of the historical 150-year old
Indianapolis City Market dedicated last September (1977) and financed for $4.7
million by Lilly Endowment (Lilly family foundation). Mr. Lilly initiated the
establishment of Lilly Endowment Incorporated in 1937. It has contributed over
$300 million to charitable causes. Colleges and universities throughout the
nation, historical projects such as the restoration of the pioneer village at
Conner Prairie farm, religiously oriented programs, etc. have received support
from the foundation.
Mr. Eli Lilly was the elder son of Josiah K. Lilly and namesake of Col. Eli
Lilly who founded the family business in 1876. He was educated in Indianapolis
public schools graduating from Shortridge High School in 1904 where he
received a letter in track and was president of the junior class. He received a
pharmaceutical chemist degree in 1907 from the Philadelphia College of
Pharmacy and Science.
Mr. Lilly formally joined Eli Lilly and Company June, 1907. However, he
had worked for the company since he was about ten years old on Saturdays and
summers before becoming permanently employed. He was an efficiency expert
at the company until becoming superintendant of the manufacturing division
from 1909 to 1915, general superintendant from 1915 to 1920, vice president
from 1920 to 1932, president from 1932 to 1948, chairman of the board 1948 to
1961 and again from 1966 to 1969. He then became honorary chairman of the
board until death.
Mr. Lilly was instrumental in transforming Eli Lilly and Company into a
world enterprise making significant contributions to medicine and agriculture.
Some major drugs were developed during his administration including insulin,
liver extract for anemia, barbiturates, penicillin and other antibiotics and salk
polio vaccine. Agricultural products for weed control and animal health were
also developed. He had a sincere interest in Lilly employees. He stated, "the first
responsibility of our supervisors is to build men then medicines." He was very
proud that during the depression years of the 1930's none was fired because of
the depression and no salaries were cut at Lilly's. His striving for excellence and
his sense of integrity made for fair and stable management. He instituted the
bonus system and suggestion awards which reward employees for innovative
ideas with cash amounts. A key to his business success is found in his own words,
"Foolish indeed is the business organization that measures its success solely with
the profit yardstick and ignores its most valuable assets: the faith and good will
of those whom it seeks to serve and the faith and loyalty of those who are
dependent on it for happiness."
Indiana University named Mr. Lilly author of the year in 1961. He was the
author of Prehistoric Antiquities of Indiana, 1937; The Little Church on the
Circle, 1957; Early Wawasee Days, I960; and Schliemann in Indianapolis, 1961.
He prepared a bibliography of Indiana archeology in 1932 which was published
by the Indiana Historical Bureau. He was largely responsible for the acquisition
of the Angel Mounds site on the Ohio River by the Indiana Historical Society
62 Indiana Academy of Science
and the subsequent study and publication on it. He supported site surveys and
excavations. Excavations by the society and Indiana University led to the
publication of Angel Site, an Historical, Archeological and Ethnological Study
by Glenn A. Black. Other publications of the historical society were directly
supported by Mr. Lilly or grants from Lilly Endowment, Inc. The Indiana
Historical Society's new Conference and board of Trustees Room is to be a
memorial to Mr. Lilly enhanced by gifts from the members.
Mr. Lilly received many honors among them were honorary degrees from
the following colleges and universities: the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy
and Science, Wabash College, University of Kentucky, Indiana University,
University of Pittsburgh, Ball State University, University of the South, Butler
University, Transylvania University, Union College, DePauw University and
Kenyon College. He was also honored by China for donations of medicines in
1942 and he received Olav's Medallion in 1948 from Norway. Other honors
included being placed on the honor roll at Union College; an alumni medal from
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science; Centennial Award from the
Indiana Dental Association; Remington Honor Medal from the American
Pharmaceutical Association; merit award from the American Association for
State and Local History; a testimonial from the Trowel and Brush Society for
his archeological contributions; alumni merit award from Wabash College;
William Henry Harrison citation from Vincennes University; Bishop Case
Medal for distinguished service to the Protestant Episcopal Church from
Kenyon College; award for service to the deaf from the Alexander Graham Bell
Association. He was honorary chairman of the Marion County Tuberculosis
Society's Christmas seal campaign from 1932 through 1947 and headed a drive
for new units of the Boy Scouts of America conducted by the Central Indiana
Council in 1952. He was named philanthropic man of the year in 1951 by the
Indianapolis Community Chest. He helped organize the Indianapolis United
Fund and was board chairman and subsequently honorary co-chairman of the
United Way of Indianapolis, Incorporated. He was honorary chairman in 1965
and 1966 for the successful debut in Indianapolis of the Metropolitan Opera
National Company. In 1969, Governor Whitcomb proclaimed April 1 (Mr.
Lilly's birthday) Eli Lilly Day in Indiana in honor of his contributions to the
state and its citizens. In March, 1976, he received the Robert L. Stringer award
for good citizenship and a key to the city of Indianapolis from the Lilly
American Legion Post and Mayor William Hudnut, respectively, and March 19
was declared Eli Lilly Day in the city.
Mr. Lilly joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1930 and he was
honored as fellow in 1937. He gave several papers at Academy meetings chiefly
on archeological studies. He was president of the Academy in 1938 and gave an
address on A Plan for Accomplishing More Effective Research. The plan for
interdisciplinary expertise coordinated for a more effective approach to a
research problem had been used with great success by Mr. Lilly in his business.
Besides the Academy Executive Committee, Mr. Lilly served on a number of
other committees such as Archeological Survey, Relation of the Academy to
state, and the Library Committee for a great number of years. In 1975, the
Executive Committee of the Indiana Academy of Science granted honorary
Necrology 63
membership to Mr. Lilly in recognition of his lifelong interest in and
contributions to the society.
Mr. Lilly was also honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa, honorary
president of the American Pharmaceutical Association; member of the
American Anthropological Society, American Chemical Society, Phi Delta Chi;
honorary commander in chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the
United States; fellow of the Rochester (N. Y.) Museum of Arts and Sciences, a
trustee of The Indianapolis Museum of Art and of Wabash College, trustee and
past president of the Indiana Historical Society, and chairman emeritus of the
Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana. He was former director of the
American Foundation for Pharmaceutical Education, English Foundation,
Indiana Manufacturers Association, Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra and
Purdue Research Foundation. Biographic material can be found on Mr. Lilly in
Who's Who in the Midwest, Who's Who in Indiana; Indiana Lives and other
references.
Mr. Lilly was ninety one at his death. His long and exemplary life had an
impact on millions of people.
64 Indiana Academy of Science
Armin William Manning
Milwaukee, Wisconsin East Marion, New York
August 22, 1913 July 17, 1977
Dr. Armin Manning died July 17, 1977, at his summer home in East
Marion, New York, after suffering a heart attack. He was chairman of the
Physics Department of Valparaiso University. His specialty was nuclear
physics.
Dr. Manning was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, August 22, 1913. He
received a B.A. degree from Valparaiso University in 1936; a B.D. degree from
Concordia Seminary in 1937; an M.A. degree from the University of Michigan
in 1938 and a Ph.D. degree from Fordham University in 1957. At Fordham, Dr.
Manning studied under Nobel Prize winner Dr. V. F. Hess.
Dr. Manning began teaching as a professor of mathematics and modern
physics at Concordia College, Bronxville, New York, from 1938 to 1956. He was
also an instructor in the evening school at City College of New York from 1947
to 1956. During World War II, he served three years in a restricted war
laboratory. He was an associate research physicist at Brookhaven National
Laboratory on Long Island from 1957 to 1958 and worked summers from 1959
through 1962 at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. He also spent a
sabbatical leave there, too, during the fall semester of 1963 to 1964 in the nuclear
ballistics laboratory. There, also, he was a consultant to the Terminal Ballistics
Laboratory from 1964 to 1972. He did part time research from 1945 to 1946 for
Associated Metalcrafts of Philadelphia.
Dr. Manning came back to Valparaiso University in 1956 to be associate
professor and co-chairman of the physics department. He was professor and
chairman of the department from 1961 on. He obtained a sub-critical nuclear
reactor for the campus and in 1970 the United States Atomic Energy
Commission designated the school "a model for all small universities wishing to
provide excellent training in the field of undergraduate physics". Dr. Manning
had also become a clergyman in the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod.
According to a news release from Valparaiso University, President Huegli said
of him, "Dr. Manning was a respected and beloved colleague who combined the
insights of a theologian with the scholarship of a physicist. He brought strength
to the faculty and wholehearted dedication to teaching and research in his
discipline. The university is a better place of learning, because he was a part of it,
and many generations of students will remember him with grateful hearts."
Dr. Manning joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1956, the year he
came to Valparaiso University. At a fall meeting in 1961, he presented a paper
co-authored by men from the Terminal Ballistics Laboratory, Aberdeen
Proving Ground, on a method to measure neutron flux by a paraffin oil bath
technique. He was the author or co-author of a number of other articles
published in educational, scientific or army journals. His specific field of
research was in reactor physics and radioactivity. He was also a member of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science; American Association
of Physics Teachers; American Geophysical Union; Indiana State Health
Necrology 65
Department's radiological section; American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
physics section. Biographic material can be found in the National Faculty
Directory and American Men and Women of Science.
Dr. Manning's death at sixty four was a great loss.
66 Indiana Academy of Science
dorsey p. marting
Branchville, Indiana Tucson, Arizona
October 3, 1894 April 28, 1977
Mr. Dorsey P. Marting was a retired meteorologist and newspaper
reporter. He was a native of Indiana having been born near Branchville,
Indiana, October 3, 1 894. He was reared and educated in the state and received a
bachelor's degree from Ball State Teacher's College, Muncie, Indiana. He
taught high school science in the public school system of Indiana. Then he served
during World War I aboard the U.S.S. Antigone with the rank of Ensign. He
was transferred to the U.S. Army Quarter Master's Corps until the end of the
war.
Mr. Marting served in the United States National Weather Bureau as
Meteorologist in charge of the station for thirty-six years. The stations were in
Roseburg and Astoria, Oregon; Denver, Colorado; and Winslow, Arizona. He
retired in 1964. He received considerable publicity in newspapers and magazines
and his scientific contributions have been incorporated into a novel (in
manuscript) by Mr. Marting and his wife, Dorila, which they composed over a
period of twenty-five years.
Mr. Marting was a free lance reporter contributing news and feature stories
to the Arizona Republic of Phoenix, the Arizona Daily Sun of Flagstaff and
Winslow Mail of Winslow, Arizona, from 1962 through 1968. His excellent
photography was well-known and was pursued as a hobby in later years. His
wife, Dorila, is also a free lance reporter.
Mr. Marting joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1926 and was a
faithful member through the years even though his life work was out-of-state.
He was also a member of the American Meteorological Society, Masonic Lodge
of Eckerty, Indiana, and Arizona Press Club.
A niece, Dr. Barbara Marting, of Evansville, Indiana, wrote a loving tribute
to her uncle, Dorsey P. Marting. It was printed in the notice of death on April 28,
1977 and private services for Mr. Marting conducted on top of Mount Lemmon
overlooking Tucson, Arizona. In part, she said, "He cared deeply for others, yet
never gave the impression of having any problems of his own. He was always
concerned with the comfort of others, but asked nothing more of life than what
he daily received. He was always cheerful, interesting and interested ... He has
added zest to our lives and given us an example to live by. . ."
Necrology
67
Fernandus Payne
Shelbyville, Indiana
February 13, 1881
Frankfort, Indiana
October 13, 1977
Dr. Fernandus Payne was a native of Indiana, born in a log cabin near
Shelbyville February 13, 1881. At his death, he was an internationally famous
scientist and had lived to be ninety-six years old. For many years he was dean of
the Indiana University Graduate School, dean of the Indiana University College
of Arts and Sciences and chairman of the zoology department.
Dr. Payne's early education was obtained in the Hoosier state and the ensuing
years of struggle for his advanced education prompted him to set up a
scholarship fund in 1965 at Indiana University for students in the life sciences.
He obtained a B.S. degree from Valparaiso University in 1901. From Indiana
University, he received an A.B. in 1905 and an M.A. in 1906. From Columbia
University, he received a Ph.D. degree in 1909. In 1912, he was a student at the
Biological Station at Naples and the University of Wurzburg.
68 Indiana Academy of Science
Dr. Payne began his teaching and administrative career at Indiana
University in 1909 as an assistant professor of zoology and held that title until
1912. From 1912 to 1919, he was an associate professor of zoology and then full
professor until 1951 when he became emeritus professor. Dr. Payne helped
guide the zoology department when the health of Dr. Carl H. Eigenman, the
chairman, failed. After Dr. Eigenman died, Dr. Payne became chairman in 1927
serving in that capacity until 1948. He was assistant dean of the Graduate School
from 1925 to 1927 and dean from 1927 until 1947. He was acting dean from 1943
to 1946. Other administrative positions during this period included being vice
chairman of the division of biology and agriculture of the National Research
Council from 1931 to 1932 and chairman from 1932 to 1933. Dr. Payne had the
ability to discern great potential in people then guide with a light touch while
they achieved to the fullest of their abilities. He was able to attract a number of
distinguished scientists to the Indiana University campus. These included
Herman J. Muller, a Nobel Prize winner; R.E. Cleland; Tracy M. Sonneborn;
S.E. Luria and Alfred C. Kinsey. Eminent students taught by this group
included at least one Nobel Prize winner. After retiring in 1951, he returned to
the work he loved best, his research, in which he remained active for more than
twenty more years. He was widely acclaimed for work on blind fish, cytology
and genetics.
Dr. Payne was assistant director of the National Science Foundation from
1952 to 1953. He wrote an autobiography, Memories and Reflections (Indiana
University Press, 1975) to which the reader is referred for further information
about this great man. He is also listed in Indiana Scientists, Who's Who in the
Midwest, and American Men of Science.
Dr. Payne joined the Indiana Academy of Science in 1913, and was
honored as fellow in 1916. He was an emeritus member at death and had been a
member of the Academy for sixty four years. He served as editor in 1919 and
1921 and also on the Publication of Proceedings Committee. He was vice
president in 1923, and president in 1932. He also served on the Nominations
Committee and was a member of the Executive Committee for over fifty years.
He was the author of quite a few papers (some given by title) and memorials
presented to the Academy. Some of the papers were on blind fish, genetics of
Drosophila and other genetic studies, the occurrence of fresh-water medusae in
Indiana, etc. He was also a fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (member of the executive committee for many years),
vice president in 1929; past president of the American Society of Zoologists;
member of the Genetics Society; American Society of Naturalists; Association
of American Universities (chairman of the committee on classification from
1934 to 1946); American Association of University Professors (member of the
council from 1935 to 1938); Sigma Xi and Phi Beta Kappa.
Dr. Fernandus Payne died October 13, 1977, in Frankfort, Indiana, where
he had resided. His life span was just four years short of a century, a century
witnessing an astonishing development in science. During that time, he had
developed the Indiana University Zoology Department and Graduate School
Presidential Address 69
into one of the nation's best. In the Indiana Alumni Magazine announcement
of a third volume of a history of the university, a caption "IU's rise to greatness"
is followed by comments on hiring Dr. Payne and others. With that it states, "A
new era began for Indiana University. . ."
NEW MEMBERS INDIANA ACADEMY
OF SCIENCE— 1977
Mr. Robert M. Anderson, Box 341, Bloomington, IN 47401
Mr. Munawar Ahmad Anees, Department of Zoology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401
Dr. Mary F. Asterii a, 3400 Broadway, Northwest Center for Med. Ed., I.U. School of Medicine,
Gary, IN 46408
Dr. George S. Bakken, Life Science Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Dr. William Baldwin. 3400 Broadway, lnd. Univ. Med. School, Gary, IN 46408
Dr. Dale I. Balls, Physics Department, Anderson College, Anderson, IN 46013
Mr. Jack Barnks, 8600 University Blvd., Evansville, IN 47711
Mak\ Darnki i Bauer, 3501 S. Stover. Bldg. 5. Apt. 95. Ft. Collins. CO 80521
Mr. Thomas M. Bodei.l. R.R. 3, Wabash. IN 46992
Miss Mary Boucherle, Dept. of Biology, Jordan Hall, Bloomington, IN 47401
Mr. Jonathan Oswald Brooks, 107 East Central, Rosedale High School, Rosedale, IN 47874
Dr. Richard L. Buckner, Div. of Sci. & Math, Indiana State University, Evansville, IN 47712
Miss Deborah Ann Champagne, Dept. of Zoology, Jordan Hall 224, Indiana University, Blooming-
ton, IN 47401
Mr. Charles G. Crawford, 1808 Orchid Ct., Indianapolis, IN 46219
Mr. James R. Crcm, Agronomy Department, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
Mr. Richard A. Davis, 5047 N. Capitol, Indianapolis, IN 46208
Miss Carlotta L. DeMaio, Dept. of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47807
Miss Stephanie Jo DeNefe, P.O. 1369 Holy Cross St., St. Mary's College, Notre Dame, IN 46556
Mr. & Mrs. Carl S. Diehl, R.R. I, Albion, IN 46701
Mr. Vincent A. DiNoto, Jr., Physics Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Miss Diana J. Einselen. 750 West Hampton. Indianapolis, IN 46208
Miss Debra P. Gayda, 240 S. Salisbury, Apt. 17, West Lafayette, IN 47906
Dr. Thaddeus J. Godish, Dept. of Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306
Sister Mary Walter Goebel, Convent, Ferdinand, IN 47532
Mr. James K. Good, Dept. of Geography, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Mrs. Lois Mur.NO Gray. Spring Mill State Park, Box 95, Mitchell, IN 47446
Dr. Stanley N. Grove, Department of Biology, Goshen College, Goshen, IN 46526
Dr. Edward M. Hale, 1213 Ridge Road, Muncie, IN 47304
Dr. Uwe J. Hansen, Dept. of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Mr. Ronald L. Helms, R.R. I, Pimento, IN 47866
Mr. John H. Hii.lis, 520 N. Summitt St., Kendallville, IN 46755
Mr. Michael R. Hudson, Dept. of Geology, Indiana University, Bloomington. IN 47401
Mr. Larry Hutchens, Eli Lilly Research Labs, Indianapolis, IN 46206
Mrs. Mary Ann Johns, 1639 171st St., Hammond, IN 46324
Dr. Eric R. Johnson, Dept. of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306
Jay H. Jones, Dept. Plant Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401- New Member 1976
Dr. James H. Keith, 5042 North Capitol, Indianapolis, IN 46208
Mrs. Susan Kephart, Plant Sciences, Box 95, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401
Jefeery L. Kingdon, Rustic Oaks, Apt. II0-A, Hwy. 54 W, Jefferson City, MO 65101
Mr. Dixon H. Landers, 204 S. Clark St., Bloomington, IN 47401
Ms. Nancy R. Larson, Science Building, St. Mary's College, Notre Dame, IN 46601
Mr. David M. Leva, Dept. of Entomology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
Dr. Russell E. Lewis, Department of Sociology, University of Evansville, Evansville, IN 47702
Mr. John W. McClain, 101 Crawford St., Apt. 209. Terre Haute, IN 47809
70
New Members 71
Dr. Richard O. McCRACKEN, Biology Department, I.U.P.U.I., Indianapolis, IN 46205
Mr. David D. MclNTOSH, 823 B, Teachers College, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306
Miss Karen L. MclNTOSH, 16 1/2 North Salisbury St., West Lafayette, IN 47906
Ms. Cathy Meyer, Biology Department, Indiana University. Bloomington, IN 47401
Mr. WlLLARD Moore, Conner Praire Pioneer Settlement. 13400 Allisonville Road, Noblesville, IN
46060
Dr. & Mrs. David W. Morgan, I 740S Auten Rd., Granger. IN 46530
Mr. Michael Nowacki, 3400 Broadway, Biology Department. Indiana University Northwest, Gary,
IN 46408
Mr. Malven L. Olson, 3232 Halifax Drive, Indianapolis, IN 46222
Mr. Own Salem Own, 201 Crawford St., Apt. 309. Terre Haute, IN 47807
Dr. George W. Pendygraft, 10354 Dunham Court West, Indianapolis, IN 46229
Mr. Peter Percival, Department of Zoology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47401
Mr. Warren J. Pettitt, R.R. 2, Carmel. IN 46032
Dr. Loy Dean Pike, IUSB, Northside Blvd., South Bend, IN 46615
Andreas Polemitis, 519 Tulip Tree House, Bloomington, IN 47401
Mr. Charles I.. Rhykerd. Jr.. 164 Blueberry Lane, West Lafayette, IN 47906
Mr. G. Phillip Robertson, Jordan Hall 224, Zoology Dept., Indiana University, Bloomington. IN
47401
Dr. Ray Russo, I. U. P.U.I. 1201 E. 38th St., Indianapolis. IN 46205
Dr. Herbert Senft II, 1706 N. Maddox Drive, Muncie, IN 47304
Mr. Pail Sergita. 5032 Brandywine Dr., #332, Indianapolis, IN 46241
Dr. Jane R. Shoup, Department of Biology, Purdue University. Calumet Campus. Hammond, IN
46323
Dr. Gerald R. Showalter, Dept. of Geog. Geol., Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306
Dr. Horst F. Siewart, Dept. of Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306
Mr. Douglas Soltis. 2106 E. 2nd St., No. 9, Bloomington, IN 47401
M. Maurie Sommer, Publications. St Mary's College, Notre Dame. IN 46656
Dr. Anne Spacie, Dept. of Forestry & Nat. Res., Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
Dr. Edwin R. Sqciers, Biology Department, Taylor University. Upland, IN 46989
Mr. Patrick Steele, Huddleston Farmhouse Inn Museum, R. R. I, Box 555, Cambridge City, IN
47327
Mr. Anibal L. Taboas. 308 Argonne National Lab., Argonne, IE 60439
Mr. L. Michael Tkapasso, Dept. Geography & Geology. Indiana State University Terre Haute, IN
47809
Mr. Gordon VanWoerkom, Dept. of Entomology, Purdue University. W. Lafayette, IN 47906
Mr. Ralph R. B. von Frese, Geosciences Dept., Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47906
Dr. Robert B. Votaw. 8030 Hickory Street, Gary, IN 46403
Miss Mary E. Wassel, Dept. of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Mr. David W. Wearly, 6121 Haverford Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46220
Mr. Gary S. Westerman, 1327 Liberty Avenue, Terre Haute, IN 47809
Mr. Steve R. White, R. R. I, Box 57. Sullivan, IN 47882
Dr. Robert P. Wintsch, Department of Geology, Indiana University, Bloomington. IN 47401
Center Grove High School Science Cub. c o Wilma Griffin. Center Grove High School.
(ireenwood, IN 46142
The Grams. Highland Sr. High. 9135 Erie Street. Highland, IN 46322
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
HISTORY OF A RIVER
Clarence F. Dineen
Saint Mary's College, Notre Dame, IN 46556
The Saint Joseph River in northern Indiana and southern Michigan has
played a major role in the development of the communities within the
watershed. The native American in his birch bark canoe was the pioneer in river
transportation. It is no coincidence that South Bend is located on the southern
bend of the main river. Today almost every drop which is removed from the river
system, used, and then returned to the watershed is scrutinized by governmental
agencies and the watchful eyes of residents.
The native Americans and explorers accepted the waterway for all the
assets the natural conditions had to offer. Only the beaver (Castor canadensis), a
skilled engineer, injected measures of control. However, the beaver was
subjected to numerous ecological restraints. Thus, the impact of beaver activity
not only developed gradually but never attained any great magnitude.
The attitude of pioneers and early settlers toward the water resources was
the same as for the minerals, soils, plants and animals: i.e., complete freedom of
the individual to use the seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources for
whatever benefited him at the moment. His actions are documented very well by
scars and artifacts, some of which have remained for over a century.
However, as the density of the population increased and technology
developed, the demands on the Saint Joseph River became highly varied and
reached levels of great magnitude. The demands on the river approached and
exceeded the natural ecological carrying capacity without man even
understanding the full impact of the carrying capacity concept. In an attempt to
meet the growing, specific needs of man, changes and controls of our waterways
became necessities. This, together with little or no foresight as to the long range
effects, made disasters of various degrees imperative.
The Saint Joseph River watershed was formed by the action of glaciers. In
glacial times the waterway functioned as a much larger system. A tremendous
flow of water drained the present Saint Joseph River area directly into the
Kankakee system and on to the Mississippi River. The swamps and low lands of
the upper Kankakee and the greatly reduced Saint Joseph River watershed are
vestiges of a much larger system. In post-glacial time the systems were separated
by only a slight rise in land which became a well-known portage. The extensive
use of the portage from the Saint Joseph River to the Kankakee by many native
American tribes has been documented by early explorers, namely, the poet-
priest Father James Marquette (1669) and Rene Robert Cavalier de La Salle
( 1 679) and by well worn trails and other artifacts which are clearly evident today.
72
Presidential Address
73
The main river was first called The River of the Miamis in reference to one of
the three native tribes (Miamis, Potawatomes, Ottawas). Later the name was
changed to Saint Joseph's River of the Lakes, then to Saint Joseph's and finally
Saint Joseph.
'MICHIGAN
* INDIANA
JOSEPH RIVER
WATERSHED
FIGURE I. SAINT JOSEPH RIVER WATERSHED
The Saint Joseph River watershed, (Fig. 1 ) now referred to as the Michiana
watershed, drains only ll,137kl2 (4300M2). The 338 kilometers (210 miles) of
main stream begins in Michigan, enters Indiana, and returns to Michigan where
it empties into Lake Michigan. About 20 percent of the main stream and 27
percent of the watershed are in Indiana. Seven hundred miles of significant
tributaries to the main stream and over 1000 lakes, 400 of which range in size
from 9 to 15.5 kl2 (3.5 to 6 M2), complete the water network of the Michiana
watershed. The pronounced fall of 183 meters (600 feet) from the source to the
mouth has been an attractive feature for users of the river.
Now let us examine the history of some of the activities of man as they are
related to the great natural resource, the Michiana watershed. The water supply
has been a very attractive force in the growth and development of communities
within the entire area. The uses as well as the misuses of the river as a natural
resource have been highly varied and they form historical milestones in the
development of the total area. The impact of these activities on the water
resource warrants careful study. History has been properly termed — a vast
warning system. Certainly in the case of the Saint Joseph River many warnings
have been very clear but the response of man has been apathetic, or at best short
sighted.
A rather complete report of the early navigation on the Saint Joseph River
was published by Knoblock (8). The populations of native Americans traveled
74 Indiana Academy of Science
on the rivers extensively while hunting and fishing. Also, they shifted by water
from one area to another in response to pressures among the tribes and to
seasonal changes. Fur trading developed and from 1700 until about 1831 furs
carried in canoes were the predominant freight on the river. However,
communities of immigrants grew and in order to meet the rapidly developing
demand for the transportation of other freight, keel boats, which at first were
actually only large canoes, were constructed. The first keel boat on the Saint
Joseph River was built in 1831 and by 1833 a fleet of a dozen keel boats, some
actually much too large for the capacity of the river, operated from the Lake
Michigan to South Bend and points upstream. As agriculture developed and the
towns along the river continued to grow, mills were constructed. Beginning
about 1830 until 1900, all of the larger towns along the river had one or more
flour, grist, and saw mills (7). The milling industry used the river for water power
and to transport their products. At first direct power was used by way of races
and channels. Then dams were built for better water control to produce power
efficiently. In addition, the cutting of timber and converting a major portion of
the area into agriculture had a significant impact on the watershed. The volume
of water in the surface drainage was reduced and the rate of flow throughout the
year fluctuated to a greater degree. These changes made navigation less and less
feasible. However, steamboats came into use in 1833 on the river which helped
overcome to some degree the reduced water capacity problem as well as the
many natural and man-made physical obstacles which were discouraging
navigation. Twenty-four steamboats operated from the mouth of the Saint
Joseph River at Saint Joseph, Michigan (first called Newburyport) to South
Bend and beyond during the period from 1 832 to 1 925. The primary function of
the steamboats was to carry freight, but pleasure boating played a secondary
role. In attempts to develop the Saint Joseph River as a navigable river, efforts
were made to obtain major help from the government, but federal money was
refused three times between 1832 and 1847. A futile attempt was made to join the
Kankakee and the Saint Joseph River for navigation.
Planning to link the Saint Joseph River with other drainage systems did not
disappear quickly nor completely. In 1 879, government engineers made a survey
of the river from Elkhart, Indiana, to the mouth. The report was adverse to
making the river navigable. Even in the 20th century surveys and plans
continued. However, efforts to retain and to develop the Saint Joseph River as a
navigable river have been unsuccessful, chiefly due to the simple fact there is not
enough water. However, railroads were developing rapidly during the upsurge
of demands on the Saint Joseph River for the transport of freight. Thus, the river
was spared the demand to carry freight.
As the watershed area was converted to agriculture, the destruction of
fertile land by erosion received considerable attention. The deterioration of the
river system by the deposits of sediments from the land was ignored for many
years. The scientific literature included some excellent observations; i.e., the
report in the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy by Dryer and Davis (4) in
1910 described the erosion factor related to a small stream over a period of 13
years. The eroded materials from poorly managed farms, and materials from
disturbed banks, roadways, housing developments and even the construction of
Presidential Address 75
modern shopping centers have had a continuously serious impact on the
waterways, in particular on the small streams. These impacts have elicited far
too little response to protect the water. However, when massive amounts of
fertilizer were added annually to soils and extensive use of pesticides became
commonplace, some of the top predator fishes in small streams were killed. Then
and only then was the need to protect the waterways seriously noted. Likewise,
when in recent time the total coliform counts and in some cases the fecal
coliform counts reached high levels in small streams, there has been positive
responses to protect the water resources.
In the last few decades, agriculture and other land use programs have
included facets which indicate a clear cut awareness of the erosion problem as
related to the water resources. However, to adequately protect the river and
many of the smaller streams, strips of undisturbed areas along banks are needed,
not only to protect against erosion, but also to provide cover and a movement
path for wildlife. These filter strips or green belts as they are sometimes called,
are excellent in principle to protect aquatic ecosystems. Nevertheless, most of
the streams in the Michiana watershed have been striped naked or have been
given what I call back door attention.
In spite of the many assets of water as a natural resource, we have turned
our backs to rivers in the past. The waterways have become dumping grounds
for solid wastes, highly varied in kind and of tremendous magnitude in volume.
The Saint Joseph River has had its fair share of dumps. A canoe trip on the Saint
Joseph River, in particular along the smaller tributaries, reveals many hidden
records of serious damage to the waterway. Some dumps are very old, that is,
almost obliviated by natural succession; while others are brand new wounds in
nature. The idea that the best way to get rid of something is to throw it away in
some body of water is deeply implanted in the minds of Americans.
Nevertheless, during the last few decades there has been a decided change in
the attitude of the public toward our lakes and rivers. A plea to make the Saint
Joseph River your front yard has been heard. A prime example is Indiana
University of South Bend (built in 1 96 1 ) which was constructed to face the river,
with only a double-lane road as a distractive feature. A significant assumption is
that youth will not allow a polluted river. Also in South Bend, Century Center,
1977, is a serious attempt to obtain the maximum use of a river front. A strange
coincidence has been noted, that is, over a century ago rocks and boulders were
removed from the river bed to improve navigation. Navigation improved for a
while, waned and almost completely disappeared. In 1976, rocks and boulders
were returned to the same river bed to create white water rapids for aesthetic
reasons. Also, there might be a return of blackflies and other small dipterans.
The call to make the river your front yard has been heard by suburban
developers. Extensive rows of homes now occupy the banks of the Saint Joseph
River. The impact on the river has been greater and in many ways less desirable
than the construction of public buildings. As houses began to line the banks,
cement walls, sometimes for miles, were erected, lowlands were filled, and
drainage inlets were tampered with. All of these changes in order to use the river
for recreation made new demands on the river. The river front accommodates
76 Indiana Academy of Science
boat houses, high speed motors and water skiing equipment. Unfortunately,
seldom do you find a significant resemblance between the natural habitat of the
river bank and the front yard of homes.
A long story could be told on the use of the river front property by industry.
At first mills used the water for direct power which gave way to larger plants
using dams for hydroelectric power. Then, the picture changed to almost
exclusively fossil fuels plants on the river. Consequently, large and small
industries moved away from the waterway because electricity could be
transported and fossil fuels were not carried on the river. Railroads had taken
over the burden of coal transportation. Nevertheless, many industries stayed
close to the river for two reasons, a place to deposit waste products and the
thermal aspect. As industry grew, the disposal of wastes and large quantities of
heat became major problems. Until very recently, as a field, aquatic ecologist I
found it most difficult if not impossible to approach the Saint Joseph River at
industrial sites. Barricades of all descriptions had been erected and the attitude
of management was hostile to say the least. In the minds of management not
only the land but the river was owned by industry.
The disposal of solid and liquid industrial wastes into the Saint Joseph
River began with mills in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. During the
river milling period, numerous newspaper articles, urged by conservation
minded organizations, noted changes in the river. Pollution and obstructions by
dams were given as the major reasons for changes in the fish populations. One
article in the early nineteenth century stated that, "about the only life in some
sections is that of the turtle." The mills on the river vanished before any
abatement was seriously considered. However, as industries developed and the
wastes became highly varied, the ecological carrying capacity of the river was
exceeded in may locations. The pathway toward abatement and improvement
has been most difficult. First the waste problems had to be exposed, then
analyses of damage and finally pressure for abatement.
In 1977 these point sources of solid and liquid pollution .have been
identified, the analyses of damage is in progress, and fortunately considerable
abatement has been accomplished. The major question is, at what level should
pollution be permitted. Likewise the same question is being asked in regard to
thermal pollution. Many fossil fuel plants are located on the Saint Joseph River.
The conversion of massive amounts of one type of energy to another follows the
well-known laws of thermodynamics. Thermal pollution at a significant level
has occurred in the Saint Joseph River. The question today is, to what extent do
we wish to have changes in temperature, caused by industry, control the biotic
status of the water resource?
The impact of domestic sewage on the Saint Joseph River has followed the
same general pattern as on most midwestern waterways. Abatement to various
degrees came long after the ecological carrying capacity of most segments of the
river system had been seriously exceeded. This was due largely to the rapid
population growth coupled with a reluctance to construct disposal plants.
Scientific publications, and, frequently newspaper articles, stressed the
deterioration of the river. Dolley (3), a student of the well-known parasitologist
Presidential Address 77
Henry B. Ward, made an extensive study of the biology of the Saint Joseph
River in 1933. He emphasized the grossly polluted conditions in urbanized
sections of the river. Nevertheless, the first disposal plants in those same areas
were not built until over twenty years later.
Even with modern technology in sewage waste disposal the Saint Joseph
River is used as a "back up" system. In the event of heavy rainfall, overflow
valves open up to permit sewage along with the run off water to empty directly
into the river. In several cities, South Bend included, the number of overflow
outlets has increased in the last decade. Also, if there is a mechanical or electrical
failure in pump systems which are conveniently associated with the Saint Joseph
River, the sewage flow doesn't stop, it simply dumps everything into the river. In
general the impact of industrial and domestic wastes on the Saint Joseph River
has been reduced to a considerable degree, however, this only covers the point
sources of pollutants. The control of nonpoint sources is more difficult to locate
and analyze. Control measures are just beginning.
The recreational uses of the Saint Joseph River began with swimming,
canoeing, small hand-powered boats. Swimming lessened largely in reaction to
pollution both domestic and industrial. Canoeing has had an upsurge in recent
decades both as an individual sport and as annual organized events. A paddler's
guide to one section of the river includes historical landmarks for the traveler.
Large, slow moving boats are now common on the reservoir areas behind dams
where homes line the banks. Pleasure boats began when river freight flourished
in the early 19th century. The dams and great fluctuations in water levels have
discouraged pleasure passenger boating over extensive sections. However,
during the last few decades pleasure boats have regular schedules on several
short sections of the Saint Joseph River where the water level is maintained by
dams. Sportmen have encouraged speed boating and water skiing on the Saint
Joseph River. These activities have been largely incompatible with the more
passive recreational activities such as fishing, canoeing, and small craft boating.
Also, there has been a complete disregard for biotic aspects, i.e., spawning beds
of fishes. Zoning of the river for the various recreational activities has been
considered possible but extremely difficult to enforce.
In the mid-twentieth century, youth camps and trailer camp grounds have
become common along the smaller tributaries of the Saint Joseph River. Most
of the impact of the recreational activities by these groups on the tributaries has
not been extremely harmful. However, two species of clams have disappeared
from one tributary due to eager collectors from a large trailer camp. I hope they
produced many science fair winners in the Chicago school system. The impact
has in some areas exceeded the carrying capacity of small natural streams.
Early settlers spoke of the biotic assets of the river in terms of plenty of life
in the water and an abundance of birds and animals associated with the river.
Research on the biotic aspects of the Saint Joseph River has been rather sparse
and frequently limited to small areas on a single taxon. However, the fact that
numerous changes have taken place has been sufficiently documented. As the
human population of the watershed increased, mills, dams and roads were
constructed, and wastes were deposited into the waterway. Thus, the impression of
78 Indiana Academy of Science
plenty of clean natural water changed. Concerned citizens wrote in terms of
deterioration and pollution of aquatic habitats.
The record of fishes in the Saint Joseph River watershed indicates many
changes in species and number. However, much is really unknown due to a lack
of comprehensive basic research. The story of changes in the population of
mussels in the watershed is quite clear and it suggests similar patterns for many
other taxa. In particular, the large bivalve (Unionidae) populations have
declined in number of species and the size of populations. In addition to the
basic research on mussels, the practical uses of mussels have been recorded;
consequently, population data can be safely extrapolated. Van der Schalie (10)
stated that mussels were once plentiful and all are potentially edible. This is
clearly shown by the large piles of shells left as kitchen middens at camp sited by
many native Americans and manuals on survival include mussels (10).
The Saint Joseph River watershed supplied a share of the large tonnage of
commercially valuable mussel shells used for buttons and novelties. The button
industry, which was established in the last decade of the nineteeth century and
flourished for about 50 years (9), used many species which were common in the
Saint Joseph River watershed. Only one of the three formerly most useful
species is found in any significant number in the watershed today. Dineen (1,2),
Goodrich & Van der Schalie (5), clearly established and the fact that at least
twenty-one species formerly inhabited the portion of the Saint Joseph River
watershed in Indiana. These studies and subsequent work produced only eleven
living species and only two of the eleven species were common. The valves
(shells) of ten other species were found, many of which were rare and greatly
deteriorated. Why has the number of species of bivalves been reduced to almost
fifty percent? First, all freshwater mussels are parasitic on fish in one stage of the
life cycle. Thus, the construction of dams set restrictions on the distribution of
mussels even though feeble attempts have been made to construct fish ladders.
Secondly, the button industry reduced the populations in some sections.
Sediments carried to the river by water erosion, from the time the first trees were
cleared until today when almost the complete watershed area is managed, had
some impact on the mussel populations. Also, domestic and industrial wastes, in
spite of abatement measures, have influenced the molluscan populations. The
total flow of water in the Saint Joseph River was greater and fluctuated less
when the watershed was timber and wilderness as compared to present urban
and agricultural watershed. In August 1959, when the annual precipitation was
low and the dams controlled the flow to regulate the output of electricity, mussel
beds were exposed to desiccation and to predation by raccoons and birds.
Likewise, new wide bridges, roads, retaining walls and extensive land fill of
floodplains and wetlands adjacent to the watershed have greatly reduced the
area of suitable habitat for mussels. Small tributaries have been diverted into
ponds and the vegetation along the banks removed. Consequently, the
temperature of the water has increased beyond the tolerance of some mussels.
No doubt habitat destruction has been the single most limiting factor.
The strictly aesthetic aspects of the Saint Joseph River have been
emphasized by poets and naturalists. The native Americans loved the Saint
Joseph River. However, practical forces have always taken top priority. Efforts
Presidential Addrhss 79
to retain or to improve the aesthetics, in terms of natural conditions, have been
sporadic and limited to small segments.
In conclusion, a review of the history of the river as a natural resource and
an analysis of the present conditions indicate that the status of the complete
Michiana watershed, with the Saint Joseph River as the main artery, is rather
critical and tenuous.
Water and air are actually the last two facets of the environment which, to a
significant degree, are treated as commons. The principle of commons has been
expressed explicitly by Hardin (6) in his "Tragedy of the Commons." The Saint
Joseph River as a natural resource has had many uses over a period of a couple
of centuries.
Consequently, when all of the numerous demands for the water supply of
the Michiana watershed and the impact of erosion are considered, it becomes
obvious that water must be managed as a cyclic commodity. The amount of
water is finite, it is not inexhaustible. The natural ecological carrying capacity
can be exceeded in many ways. There are no substitutes for many of the uses of
water. Clean-up activities are frequent in the drainage area, but that only
indicates that prevention must be given a higher priority. Today individuals and
organizations form a strong collective force favoring total management of the
water supply. Master plans must supersede segmented actions which have had
long histories of use and misuse of the water resources. Master plans have been
emerging but progress is extremely slow. The Michiana watershed includes two
states, fifteen counties, and numerous townships, cities and towns. Yet this is a
small watershed. Nevertheless, mutual understanding and cooperation must
become the driving force supporting any significant plan for water management.
A complete basic inventory of the water resources, formulating a plan, executing
the plan and finally monitoring and adjusting the operation of the plan are all
essential aspects of the total program. The first two steps of a total program are
receiving much attention at the present time.
My major concern after reviewing the history of the Saint Joseph River and
observing some areas for over twenty-five years is the obvious ever-increasing
trend to change a beautiful river from a free flowing natural system toward a
tightly controlled series of channels and ditches. There must be some middle
ground area which would be most rewarding to man in the long range. To
achieve this middle ground position the greatest need is to build a stronger
foundation for whatever super structure which might be built and called a water
management program. The building blocks for a firm foundation are the results
of basic research. To The Academy, I make a strong plea for greater awareness
of the serious need for basic research — the most significant justification for
having The Academy.
80 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Dineen, C. F., 1960. Bottom types and organisms of the Saint Joseph River. Fish. Res. Rep.,
Statewide Fish. Invest., Indiana Dept. Conserv. 3(2):2-27.
2. Dineen, C. F., 1970. Changes in the molluscan fauna of the Saint Joseph River, Indiana between
1959 and 1970, Proceedings, Indiana Academy of Science, 80:246-250.
3. Dolley, J. S., 1933. Preliminary notes on the biology of the Saint Joseph River, Amer. Mid. Nat.,
14:193-227.
4. Dryer, C. R. and M. K. Davis, 1910. The work done by normal brooks in thirteen years, Proc.
Indiana Acad. Science, 20:147-152.
5. Goodrich, C. and H. Van der Schalie, 1944. A revision of the Mollusca of Indiana, Amer. Mid.
Nat., 32(2):257-326.
6. Hardin, G., 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons, Science Vol. 162, pp. 1243-1248.
7. Howard, T. E., 1907. A History of the Saint Joseph County, Indiana, Vol. I, The Lewis Publishing
Company.
8. Knoblock, O. M., 1925. Early Navigation on the Saint Joseph River, Indiana Historical Society
Publications, Vol. 8, Number 4.
9. Krumholz, L. A., R. L. Bingham and E. R. Meyers, 1969. A Survey of the commercially valuable
mussels of the Wabash and White Rivers of Indiana, Proc. Indiana Acad, of Science 79:205-226.
10. Van der Schalie, H., 1960. Pearls, food and buttons practical uses of Michigan mussels. Michigan
Department Conserv. Fish Div. Pamphlet #32, June, 1960.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Chairman: Edward M. Dolan, DePauw University
Greencastle, Indiana 46135
Chairman-Elect: Russell E. Lewis
University of Evansville, Evansville Indiana 47701
Abstracts
A Riverton Culture Gathering Site in Parke County, Indiana. Robert E. Pace
and Steve Coffing, Indiana State University Trench tests on an
intermediate level terrace above Big Raccoon Creek in southwest Parke County
uncovered heavey concentrations of cracked stone, remanents of midden,
burned areas and pits. A tool assemblage is dominated by milling stones, with
few knives, scrapers and projectile points. Bone was absent, but quantities of
carbonized nuts and traces of oil indicated a highly specialized gathering station,
suspected but not previously reported as a part of the Riverton settelment
pattern. Carbonized nut remains have been dated at 810 B.C. (UGa-1902: 2760 +
95 B.P.).
Settlement Patterns Along the White River, Southeast Knox County. Gary A.
Apfelstadt and Robert E. Pace, Indiana State University A sector of
changing terrain was surveyed that extended from the White River into adjacent
upland. Both Archaic and Woodland sites were located, with the former
concentrated in the upland and the latter along the bluffs and on the floodplain.
It is suggested that the shift in settlement patterns is associated with an
introduction of cultigens better adapted to floodplain growth.
"Continuity and Change in the Political System of the Caribs of Central
America". Emory C. Whiple, Department of Sociology/ Anthropology,
Indiana University-Purdue University at Fort Wayne The Caribs
(Garifuna) of Belize are undergoing changes in their traditional political system
which are a direct result of the recent influence of national politics. Concepts
such as individual suffrage, political parties, and secret balloting conflict with
the traditional system of decision making, which is based upon kinship and
eithnic unity. Nevertheless, the Caribs have adopted many aspects of the
parlimentary system, especially when they are faced with new political problems
which are the outgrowth of modernization.
A Riverton Culture Base Camp in Bartholomew County, Indiana. Mark
Wolfal, Phil McClure and Robert E. Pace, Wabash Valley Archaeological
Society A Field Workshop conducted a controlled surface survey and
subsurface testing at a Riverton base camp near Azalia, in southeast
Bartholomew County. The surface and midden produced cracked stone, a
number of Riverton points, and related hunting tools, along with a few milling
stones. Fragments of bone, nuts and mussel shell were recovered, and a large pit
examined. The site is one of several on high floodplain terraces along the White
River, and conforms to Winter's definition of a base camp, as applied to
Riverton Culture settlement patterns along the Wabash River.
81
82 Indiana Academy of Science
"Preliminary Analysis of Religious Iconograph in Nahua, Otomi, and Tepehua
Paper Cuttings". Alan R. Sandstrom, Department of Sociology/ Anthro-
pology, Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne,
Indiana 46805 Nahua, Otomi, and Tepehua Indians of the Huasteca region
in east central Mexico continue the ancient art of cutting paper images for use in
religious rituals. In this report, these images are shown to represent spirits and
religious concepts that are important to the Indian worldview. Through analysis
of a large number of paper images collected in the Huasteca, elements of
worldview, processes of religious change and syncretism, and principles of
symbolic expression are illuminated. Finally, changes in the nature of paper
images are noted as they are increasingly manufactured for sale as tourist items.
The Wilson Site: A Havana Burial Mound in Southwest Vigo County. Robert
E. Pace and Charles M. Anslinger, Indiana State University Excava-
tions of a disturbed Havana Tradition burial mound has established the
presence of a sub-floor tomb, a ramp, ash pits, a fiberous mantle, and clay caps.
Similar features are noted in the Illinois River Valley mounds. A Havana village
is located nearby at the Farrand Site. Charcoal from ash pits has been dated at
115 B.C. (UGa-1898: 2065 ± 120 B.P.).
Costumbre in The Cuchumatan Mountains, Guatemala. Francis X. Grollig,
S. J., Ph. D. Anthropology Department, Loyola University of
Chicago This presentation will be a part of a forthcoming volume,
Guatemala: Folk and Folk Religion. It is built on original observations that
were a part of the author's fieldwork for the doctorate (Indiana U. 1959). All of
the work was done in the northwestern section, in the department of
Huehuetenango. Some examples are cited; some are developed in detail. Special
attention is given to the bloody sacrifices and "The Ancient Idol" at San Juan
Atitan and Santa Eulalia, respectively.
Forensic Anthropology— Theory and Practice
Charles P. Warren
Department of Anthropology
University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1977
Forensic Anthropology as a Subdiscipline
Forensic science is the study and practice of the application of science to the
purpose of law. Theoretically, forensic anthropology is the application of
anthropological methods and techniques to the resolution of legal problems. In
practice, with some exceptions, forensic anthropology is the recognition and
analysis of hominid anatomical structures, primarily for the purpose of personal
identification of unknown human remains (11).
The associated research is concerned with the characteristics of both soft
and hard tissues of human remains, and the methodological techniques which
have been developed contribute to the determination of sex, race, age, stature,
muscularity, hair analyses, body fluid typing, anomalies, non-metric traits,
discriminant trait analyses, and the blood-grouping of bone. The research is
PALEOANTHROPOLOGY
BIOARCHAEOLOGY
ANATOMICAL
FORENSIC
SCIENCES
PALEOPATHOLOGY-
CRIMINALISTICS
HUMAN
GROWTH
STUDIES
DISASTER AND MILITARY
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
FORENSIC
ODONTOLOGY
Figure 1 . The relationships between developmental and comparative osteology and the disciplines
which utilize the basic concepts of osteology.
83
84 Indiana Academy of Science
further concerned with the anlayses of structural modification of both soft and
hard tissues of human remains as induced by decomposition vectors, wounds
and pathology, animal marks, bone changes in salt water, plant activity on
bones, the impact of the environment on bones, and other related investigations
which help to reconstruct the history of the remains.
Regardless of the research interests, the applied skills, or the specialization
titles of the forensic anthropologist — physical anthropologist, bioanthropolo-
gist, bioarchaeologist, human paleontologist, criminalistician, or mass disaster
expert, that is, some form of identification specialist who works with human
remains — one must accept the fact that the recognition and analysis of human
teeth and bones are basic to forensic anthropology — and to the anatomical
forensic sciences in general. It is essential that the practitioner of forensic
anthropology — whatever the parent discipline may be — have ample competence
in the fields of general human skeletal and dental anatomy and be fairly well
acquainted with the up-to-date techniques of anthropological osteology.
Comparative human osteology is the core discipline which provides
functional data for at least eight areas of anthropological interest, as follows:
human growth studies; paleopathology; paleoanthropology; bioarchaeology;
the anatomical forensic sciences; criminalistics; forensic odontology; and
disaster and military personal identification (see Fig. 1). The latter will be of
major concern in the discussion which follows, but throughout the discussion
the importance of anthropological osteology will be stressed.
An Example of a Job Description
An example of the role of the forensic anthropologist in disaster and
military identification is outlined in the job description for the physical
anthropologist (5) employed in the U. S. Army Central Identification
Laboratory (CILTHAI), formerly located in Sattahip, Thailand, during the
recent military conflict in Southeast Asia (1, 2, 3, 4, 10).
The physical (forensic) anthropologist receives general administrative
supervision from the Chief, Central Identification Laboratory, who assigns the
overall responsibilities and discusses the major projects, field trips, and
problems which affect established policy or those requiring additional personnel
or equipment. The work of the anthropologist is conducted independently, with
only occasional outside professional consultation, and the completed
identification work is normally accepted as final. The laboratory findings of the
anthropologist and his co-workers are reviewed for effectiveness, results, and
conformance with established policy.
The major duties are to serve as a physical (forensic) anthropologist with
responsibility for conducting anthropological studies and investigations
oriented toward establishing the positive identification of skeletal remains of
allied war dead and civil disaster victims recovered in Southeast Asia. The
anthropologist applies a technical knowledge of physical (forensic)
anthropology primarily involving such fields as osteology, anatomy,
anthropometry, race, age, and sex determination, and related areas.
Anthropology 85
The physical (forensic) anthropologist plans and conducts investigations to
achieve, if possible, the resolution of the identity of casualties. He obtains and
reviews the reports from authorities and other sources throughout Southeast
Asia, including casualty reports, health and dental records, X-ray
transparencies, eye-witness accounts, after-action reports, statements of
incident, aircraft manifests, fingerprint and footprint records, and other
associated data required for subsequent matching with the laboratory
findings — acts which may lead to the identification of each casualty. Further,
the anthropologist conducts the background research of recovered but
incomplete remains, mising-in-action personnel, and killed-in-action but body-
not-recovered personnel by means of a thorough analysis of laboratory case
files, alpha rosters, grid locator cards, and the Bright Light Identification
Parameters. Utilizing this acquired information, the anthropologist then
associates the recovered skeletal remains with the proper casualty, or group of
casualties, and determines if partial or minimal recoveries of remains actually
represent portions of previously recovered incomplete remains or if the remains
present represent the only recoverable portions of a casualty not previously
recovered.
The anthropologist performs laboratory examinations by processing and
studying each skeletal and semiskeletal set of complete or fragmentary remains
to determine sex, race, dentition, age, stature, muscularity, hair color,
anomalies, malformations, deformations, healed fractures, old injuries,
amputations, and the markers of bone disease. He also supervises the
preparation of the dental charts which reflect the extraction and restoration
patterns, together with their spacings, inclinations, rotations, versions,
overlappings, types of occulsion, degrees of abrasion, impactions, and the
presence of supernumerary teeth and prosthetic devices.
The anthropologist attempts to recognize and reassemble the small
fragmentary skeletal portions that are splintered by trauma or burning. The
majority of the remains received in the laboratory will have suffered extreme
trauma or calcination as the result of explosions, air crashes, projectile impact,
or other factors leading to tissue damage and dismemberment. The
anthropologist utilizes his working knowledge of anthropometry and its proper
instruments, techniques, and land-marks to obtain raw data, which is then
translated into objective measurements and meaningful indices.
Administratively, the anthropologist consolidates the collective
investigative evidence with the laboratory findings so as to achieve positive
identification of the individual set of remains. He supervises the preparation of a
variety of anatomical, skeletal, and dental charts, and he identifies the
reconstituted individual remains by matching the anthropological findings with
all of the available data, he then prepares comprehensive Certificates of Identity
and supplementary anthropological reports, which include case histories
leading up to recovery, detailed descriptions of the remains, comparisons with
the records available for the casualty, summaries of the facts and circumstances
of the individual case, data which eliminate all of the other associated casualties,
discussions of discrepancies considered and discounted, and evaluations of all
relevant factors, thus concluding with a concise decision — that is, an
86 Indiana Academy of Science
anthropolotical opinion in a format that is scientifically sound for presentation
in any court of law. The anthropologist also performs other duties as assigned ( 1 ,
2, 3, 4, 5, 10).
In spite of the intricacy and complexity of the above job description, the
entire procedure may be summarized in the form of primary and secondary
goals to be held and acted upon by the physical (forensic) anthropologist and his
co-workers in the laboratory: (a) establish the uniqueness of the remains, that is,
reduce commingling to zero; (b) identify the remains, that is, establish the
correct location of the former living individual in the social matrix of his or her
family, community, and society; (c) improve current techniques and develop
new methods for more efficiency and reliability in the establishment of the above
primary goals; (d) increase information in all areas of knowledge relevant to the
above primary goals; and (e) provide a sound legal basis for the scientific and
circumstantial findings.
Laboratory Procedure
In addition to the recognition of the primary and secondary goals of the
laboratory personnel as indicated above, laboratory procedure is an important
consideration. As data are being revealed, ascertained, and recorded, the
sequence for assessing the anthropometric data from skeletal human remains is
very important. The recommended sequence has been discussed by Krogman (6,
7) and Stewart (8, 9) and with slight modification takes the form of a series of
interrogative statements, as follows:
1. Is it bone?
2. Is it hominid (human) bone?
3. What bones are present?
4. Are sets of remains commingled?
5. Is the individual male or female?
6. What is the race or ethnicity?
7. What is the nature of the dentition?
8. What is the age at the time of death?
9. What is the height or stature?
10. What anomalies or abnormalities are visible?
11. What is the osteological evidence of the cause of death?
Sequence of the assessment of data is important because the determination of
some of the characteristics is dependent upon prior knowledge of other
characteristics (11).
Segregating commingled human remains also requires set procedures.
When remains are received in the laboratory, there are no records of (a) the exact
locations or (b) the positional relationships of the recovered bones as they may
have been arranged at, or in, the site of the recovery. However, one must assume
that the collecting and packaging of the recovered bones was not done
randomly, but reflects to some extent the proximity of the bones, one to another,
at the site of the recovery. Therefore, the packages containing the bones
represent an initial, but tentative, segregation. It is for this reason, then, that the
Anthropology 87
contents of each package must be kept separate from the items in other packages
from the same site during the initial stages of the segregation process.
After the bones have been cleaned, and washed only if necessary, the entire
set of bones in each package should be arranged on the laboratory table so that
each bone occupies its normal relative position to the other bones of a supine
human skeleton. This procedure provides an early visual awareness of the skeltal
parts which make up the contents of each package. It also provides a quick
revelation of the presence of the bones of animals other than human. At this
stage of the procedure the minimum number of individuals represented in each
commingled package can be assessed by counting the multiple identical skeletal
protions.
If there are no objections to marking the bones, each bone on each table
(each table bearing the contents of one package) should be marked with an
identifying mark indicating the table (that is, the original package) upon which it
presently resides. This assures the worker that any skeletal portion can always be
returned to its original table (package) if the need arises. The markings on the
bones also permit the subsequent construction of a descriptive narrative of the
procedural activities which occurred during the segregation and reconstruction
of each set of remains, if such a document is requested.
As the segregation of the commingled remains progresses, it is important
that the worker realize that a skeletal part should not be removed from its
original position to a new position — that is, from one table to another — unless
there is a valid and accountable reason for doing so. In other words, the parts
which arrived in the laboratory in a single package are assumed to belong to one
individual unless some discrepancy is observed. The usual osteological
discrepancies which necessitate the relocating of skeletal parts are as follows:
1. Duplication of anatomical parts;
2. Improper articulation with other related anatomical parts;
3. Improper matching of bilaterally symmetrical parts;
4. Incompatibility of size in relation to other anatomical parts; and,
5. Incompatibility of surface anatomy when compared with other bones of
the set.
The worker may develop other reasons for relocating anatomical parts — for
instance, evidence of similar trauma on closely associated bones or the fitting of
bone fragments to distantly removed bones — but it must be stressed that in each
instance there should be ample justification for making such changes.
Basic Skills Required of an Identification Specialist
Throughout the above discussion the reader has been made aware of the
basic skills required of identification specialists and, more specifically, forensic
anthropologists. These skills may be summarized as follows:
1. Thorough knowledge of human surface anatomy;
2. Familiarity with procedures for chemical analyses of body fluids;
3. Thorough knowledge of the skeletal anatomy of the human organism;
4. Thorough knowledge of the dental anatomy of the human organism;
88 Indiana Academy of Science
5. Familiarity with the concept of variability and its manifestations in
human populations;
6. Familiarity with the methods and techniques used in obtaining and
assessing anthropometric and anthroposcopic data;
7. Thorough knowledge of the effect of trauma and heat on flesh-
covered, semiskeletal, or skeletal remains;
8. Knowledge of types of tissue associated with non-skeletal remains;
9. Familiarity with procedures for systematically segregating
commingled flesh-covered and semiskeletal remains;
10. Thorough knowledge of fragmentary skeletal human remains;
11. Familiarity with procedures for systematically segregating
commingled skeletal remains; and,
12. Knowledge of the role and function of the forensic anthropologist as
an expert witness.
In summary, the processes of personal identification demand the matching
of complex physical characteristics as revealed by the remains with the record of
an individual who manifested these complex characteristics in life. The forensic
anthropologist, as a result of training, research, and field experiences, must be
well equipped to perform most of the tasks required in the processes of personal
identification but must also be prepared to work in close cooperation with
experts and technicians in other disciplines in order to fulfill the role which is
prescribed for the forensic anthropologist.
Anthropology 89
Literature Cited
1. Field Manual. 1959. Handling of deceased personnel in theaters of operations. FM 10-63.
Departments of the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force, Washington, D.C. 128 p.
2. Field Manual. 1976. Identification of deceased personnel. FM 10-286. Headquarters,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. 108 p.
3. Helgesen, H. T., ed. 1974. Standing operating procedure — Central Identification Laboratory
(CILTHAI). Department of the Army, U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Sattahip,
Thailand. 49 p. (unpubl.).
4. Helgesen, H. T., ed. 1975. Standing operating procedure— Central Identification Laboratory
(CILTHAI). Department of the Army, U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Sattahip,
Thailand. 52 p. (unpubl.).
5. Job Description. 1973. Physical Anthropologist. U.S. Civil Service Commission PCS GS-190-0.
Headquarters, U.S. Army Support, Thailand. 1 p. (unpubl.).
6. Krogman, W. M. 1949. The human skeleton in legal medicine, medical aspects. In S.A. Levinson,
ed., Symposium on medicolegal problems. Series two. Lippincott, Philadelphia, pp. 1-92.
7. Krogman, W. M. 1973. The human skeleton in forensic medicine: a detailed and analytic
discussion and interpretation of problems in the identification of human skeletal material. 2nd Ptg.
Thomas, Springfield, 111. 337 p.
8. Stewart, T. D. 1951. What the bones tell. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. February, pp. 1-5.
9. Stewart, T. D. 1968. Identification by skeletal structures. In F. E. Camps, ed., Gradwohl's legal
medicine. 2nd ed. John Wright & Sons, Ltd., Bristol, pp. 123-154.
10. Technical Manual. 1964. Identification of deceased personnel. TM 10-286. Headquarters,
Department of the Army, Washington, D. C. 128 p.
1 1. Warren, C. P. 1978. Personal identification of human remains: an overview. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 23(2):388-395.
An Early Woodland Burial from Greene County, Indiana
Curtis H. Tomak
Indiana State Highway Commission
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
and
Norma J. O'Connor
Department of Anthropology
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Introduction
The subject of this paper is a discussion of an Early Woodland burial from
Greene County, Indiana. Greene County is located along the West Fork of the
White River in southwestern Indiana.
While surface collecting, two individuals found a large flint blade with red
ochre on it on the surface of a plowed field. This indicated to them that a deposit
of archaeological materials might be buried there. They excavated and cleaned
the immediate area, uncovering a deposit of human bone and artifacts just below
the plow line. They left the deposit in place and called one of the authors (CHT)
late one afternoon and invited him to assist in its removal that day.
The Site
The burial was located on an archaeological site that is situated on the edge
of upland immediately adjacent to a former marshland. This site had previously
been surveyed by one of the authors (CHT). A light scatter of material occurs
over an area of about 1 acre. The material recovered indicates that the site is
multicomponent, having been occupied by various Archaic and Woodland
peoples.
The Burial Feature
The intact burial deposit consisted of a mass of cremated human bone, red
ochre, 14 blades, 1 drill, and 1 grooved sandstone "tablet" (Fig. 1). The deposit
was about 4 inches thick, 1 3 inches in east-west diameter, and 1 8 inches in north-
south diameter. It was about 13 inches below ground surface. The matrix was
dark in color and contrasted with the yellowish clay subsoil.
There was no evidence of burning in the burial pit, indicating that the
cremation had occurred elsewhere. After cremation the bone and red ochre were
placed in the pit. Four of the blades, the drill, and the grooved stone were
positioned just above some of the bone and just south of the main concentration
of bone. The drill was lying upon the grooved stone, and the rest of the blades
were placed more or less horizontally on top of the bone and the above-
mentioned artifacts. Eight of the overlying blades were irregularly grouped with
most having an approximate east-west orientation. This group was bounded on
the northwest and the southeast by a blade oriented northeast-southwest. Red
90
Anthropology
91
ochre was on the blades, drill, grooved stone, and bone and in the surrounding
matrix. The artifacts had not been burned.
Figure 1: Top: 6 of the 15 blades from the burial deposit. Bottom: Grooved stone tablet from the
burial deposit, point from the burial pit, drill from the burial deposit.
About 9 inches west of the burial deposit and within the burial pit was a
stemmed point (Fig. 1). The point was in undisturbed context at about the same
elevation as the top of the burial deposit. Upon screening the fill of the pit, 1 red
chert flake and 5 gray chert fragments from a bifacial object(s) were found. This
object(s) had been shattered by heat, presumably in the crematory fire.
Artifact Descriptions
The blades are elongated "leaf shaped" artifacts. They are widest in their
midsection or their proximal portion and taper to a pointed to rounded basal
edge. They are well chipped, and most of them exhibit terminal cortex and have
had at least some of their lateral edges dulled. They are made from a blue-gray
flint probably obtained from deposits in the vicinity of Harrison County,
Indiana. Length varies from 137 to 155 mm., with 11 of them being 146 to 154
mm. long. Maximum width varies from 36 to 47 mm. However, 10 of them are
44 to 46 mm. wide. Midpoint thickness ranges from about 7 to 10 mm.
The drill has a rounded stem which is 32 mm. long and 21 mm. wide. The
lateral edges of the stem are ground smooth. The bit is inset somewhat from the
stem and is 60 mm. long. Thickness varies from about 6 to 8 mm. This artifact is
made from what appears to be Harrison County flint.
The grooved stone consists of a tabular piece of fine grained sandstone
more or less rectanguloid in outline with 1 corner missing. It has a maximum
92 Indiana Academy of Science
length of 76 mm., a maximum width of 60 mm., and is 13 to 23 mm. thick. The
longest edge has been smoothed and has a narrow "pencil line" groove along its
midline. The other edges are broken and irregular. The concave edge has 2
narrow pencil line grooves. One face has a diagnoal groove about 45 mm. long
and about 10 mm. wide. The other face exhibits 2 parallel diagonal grooves. One
is about 45 mm long and about 10 mm. wide, and the other is about 35 mm. long
and about 9 mm. wide. The faces also possess various scratches and narrow
grooves.
The point has a blade which is 61 mm. long and a stem which is 19 mm. in
length. The stem is inset from the blade by narrow sloping shoulders and tapers
somewhat to a rather straight basal edge. The shoulder width is 29 mm., and the
blade thickness is about 8 mm. This point is made from Harrison County flint.
Cultural Comparison
The artifactual materials placed in the burial feature are like those
occurring with cremations and other forms of burial at some Adena sites in the
Ohio Valley as exemplified below.
The Tarlton mound was a small structure located in Fayette County,
Kentucky (9). It is reported to have produced a mass of cremated bone and red
ochre accompanied by, among other thing, leaf shaped blades and drills (drill
form unspecified). In addition, a grooved sandstone tablet and a stemmed point
like the Greene County specimen are said to have come from the mound
(location unspecified).
The Fisher mound was a small structure located near the Tarlton mound
(10). Several deposits of materials were found in it which included artifacts like
the Greene County specimens. For example, a group of 8 artifacts in association
with red ochre designated as Burial 6 included 2 drills, 2 leaf shaped blades, and 1
sandstone tablet. Burial 1 consisted of cremated bones accompanied by, among
other things, red ochre, drills, stemmed points, a leaf shaped blade, and stone
tablets. The close similarity between the Kentucky and Indiana artifacts is quite
apparent.
The Natrium mound (7) and the Cresap mound (3) were sizable and rather
complicated tumuli located along the Ohio River near Moundsville, West
Virginia. Both contained numerous burials and deposits of materials. Artifacts
such as those from Greene County were well represented at these sites. By way of
example, Feature 40 at Natrium contained cremated and uncremated human
remains deposited with, among other things, red ochre, grooved stone tablets,
leaf shaped blades, stemmed points, and a drill. Burial 42 and Cresap consisted
of an extended uncremated burial (minus skull) and portions of a cremated skull
in association with red ochre, grooved stone tablets, a stemmed point, and leaf
shaped blades, in addition to a couple of other items.
Dragoo (3) utilized the stratified nature of the Cresap mound to formulate a
sequence of Adena cultural development. He divided the sequence into early to
middle Adena and late Adena. Included among the attributes of his early to
middle division are: burned and unburned artifacts placed with cremated
remains; extensive use of red ochre; grooved stone tablets; and drills with
Anthropology 93
slightly expanded or stemmed bases, leaf shaped blades, and stemmed points
like the Greenee County specimens. Cresap, Natrium, and Fisher are listed as
typical early to middle Adena sites.
Typologically the Green County burial would not have been out of place at
the Kentucky and West Virginia sites referred to herein, and it conforms quite
well to what Dragoo terms early to middle Adena. Disregarding the
appropriateness or the desirability of referring to the local burial as Adena and
notwithstanding the observation that it occurred somewhat west of what is
generally considered as "Adenaland", the fact remains that the Greene County
burial is very much like ones termed Adena in the central and upper Ohio Valley.
Chronological Placement
The Greene County burial deposit is very much like ones Dragoo (3, 4)
refers to as early to middle Adena. In those same publications Dragoo, utilizing
a variety of considerations (radiocarbon dates for Adena and other cultural
manifestations, typology, stratigraphy, cultural distributions, and
anthropological theory) places the entire Ohio Valley Adena sequence in the
first millenium B.C.
Another way to approximate the date of the local occupation is to consider
its place within the local cultural sequence.
An attempt at elucidating the cultural sequence for the Greene County area
has been made (8). The latest Late Archaic occupation recognized is one
utilizing "Riverton" points which are common in the Greene County area. The
Riverton culture has been defined by Winters (12) from sites in the Wabash
Valley just west of the Greene County area. Radiocarbon dates for Riverton in
that portion of the Wabash Valley indicate a time span of approximately 1500 to
1000 B.C. (12). The local "Riverton" occupation is thought to date about the
same and to immediately predate the occupation under consideration.
There is evidence of a Middle Woodland Havana-like or influenced
occupation in Greene County (8). This occupation is evidenced by ceramics,
Snyders-like points, and the Worthington mound. Based upon a variety of
considerations, this occupation is thought to begin no sooner than late in the
first millenium B.C. and to postdate the one under consideration.
The foregoing indicate to the writers that the burial deposit which is the
subject of this paper probably dates sometime in the first millenium B.C.
Occurrence and Associations
The writers know of no other burial from the Greene County area which
can with certainty be associated with the one under consideration. Other
cremated bone-red ochre deposits are known from the area, but they were
unaccompanied by artifacts or they do pertain or could pertain to other
occupations.
Several caches of leaf shaped blades like those placed with the burial have
been found in Greene County and the immediately adjacent area. These caches
range in size from 3 to over 600. Such caches have been reported for other
sections of southwestern Indiana (personal communications).
94 Indiana Academy of Science
The style of stemmed point found in the burial pit and related stemmed
variants from the Greene County area have been termed Category P points in a
recent study (8). Category P points are common in Greene County. They occur
on many sites, and some sites produce numerous examples. Some scrapers and
drills have a stem like that of Category P points. The drill from the burial deposit
has such a basal configuration.
Stone celts are common in Greene County, and boatstones and rectaguloid
two-holed gorgets with concave sides and drilled from one face are occasionally
found. It is quite probable that some of the celts and possible that the boatstones
and gorgets pertain to the occupation in question. Such or similar artifacts
occurred at the Adena sites mentioned previously.
A thick, generally coarse grit tempered pottery which may have cord
impressions on both the exterior and the interior surfaces occurs in Greene
County. For the area this kind of ceramic is included in Category A pottery (8).
It is similar to such Early Woodland types as Marion Thick and Fayette Thick
and may be associated with the occupation under consideration. Dragoo (3, 4)
associates Fayette Thick with his early to middle Adena division.
Table 1 : Weights and numbers of fragments identified.
% of identified
wt. in grams
%of total wt.
total wt.
# of fragments
vault bones
22.7
20.6
26.0
31
facial bones
1.8
1.6
2.1
4
mandible
3.4
3.1
3.9
4
teeth
0.3
0.3
0.3
2
ribs
2.5
2.3
2.9
4
innominate
3.9
3.5
4.5
3
upper long bones
18.0
16.3
20.6
18
lower long bones
8.0
7.3
9.2
7
unclassified long bones
26.8
24.3
30.7
111
unidentified
22.9
20.8
214
Total
110.3
398
Total identified
87.4
184
Skeletal Remains
The human skeletal remains from the burial consist of the approximately
400 bone fragments considered in this analysis and possibly of a few other
minute fragments which were not removed from the soil matrix. All of the bone
fragments are small, most being under 20 mm., the largest being only 35 mm. in
length. All of the bone has been cremated and nearly all is chalky white in color.
Red ochre occurs on a large proportion of the fragments. Information
concerning the types of fragments identified and their collective weights and
numbers is to be found in Table 1.
No duplicate diagnostic skeletal parts were observed in the burial deposit,
and there is no evidence that more than one maturational level is represented.
Therefore, the remains appear to represent a single individual. Although all of
Anthropology 95
the bone was highly calcined and broken into small, frequently distorted
fragments, several clues as to the probable age and sex of the individual were
available. The adult proportions of the rib fragments, the complete epiphyseal
union of the distal femur, the robusticity of long bone fragments, and the very
marked development of the (right) suprameatal crest suggest that the individual
was most likely an adult male.
The only pathological lesion observed on the remains is a slight periosteal
reaction on the exterior of 2 of the vault bones. This condition is undiagnostic in
character and provides no good evidence for its cause. One cremated molar root
is so distorted as to cause some question as to its human origin. However, its
dissimilarity to the morphology of other animal forms (William R. Adams,
personal communication) and the apparent absence of other cremated non-
human faunal remains in the contents of the burial deposit suggest that this
distortion is the result of heat damage to a presumably otherwise normal or non-
pathological human molar root.
A very hot and/ or long-burning fire is demonstrated by the high degree of
calcining of all of the bones (11). Vault and long bone fragments which exhibit
deep checking, spiral fracturing, and warping all indicate that the cremation
took place soon after the death of the individual, presumably while the body was
still fleshed (1). Differential degrees of burning of various skeletal parts was not
noted, making it impossible to determine the position of the body relative to the
crematory fire. Only 1 articular surface (a left mandibular condyle) was present.
There was therefore insufficient evidence to determine whether the body had
been cremated while articulated or disarticulated (1, 2). The small size of the
fragments at least suggests that the bones may have been intentionally broken
after burning; it is not clear whether fire damage alone would or would not
account for such extensive fracturing (5).
Table 2: observed and expected distributions of various skeletal parts by weight (expected
frequencies based on Seale 1959)
obs. % of
identified total
exp. % of
total
obs. weight
in grams
exp. weight
in grams
skull
ribs
limbs
32.3
2.9
65.0
18.5
16.9
64.5
28.2
2.5
56.7
16.2
14.8
56.4
observed
(
expected
superioi
inferior
• limbs
limbs
20.6%
9.2%
18.5%
46.0%
Characteristics of the burial feature have been mentioned in the
archaeological portion of the paper which suggest that the individual was
cremated elsewhere and secondarily buried in the pit. Differential or incomplete
secondary burial is suggested by the marked differences between the observed
frequencies by weight of skeletal parts recovered and the expected frequencies
by weight of those same skeletal parts from a control sample. The expected
96 Indiana Academy of Science
frequencies were taken from the work of Raymond Seale (6) which details the
weights of the component parts of the dry, fat-free skeletons of 100 adult
American Whites and Blacks. His subsample of 25 adult male Caucasians has
been used for comparison in the present analysis, it being assumed to be the
subsample from his work closest in skeletal characteristics to that of an adult
American Indian male. Observed frequencies by weight of the archaeological
specimens were calculated under the assumption that the unidentified fragments
are distributed as in the identifiable portion of the sample and may thus be
disregarded for this purpose. Observed frequencies were therefore calculated in
relation to the weight of the total identified portion of the sample. Comparison
of observed and expected frequencies shows that in this burial more of the total
weight of bone is represented by skull fragments than would be expected. Less is
represented by the rest of the axial skeleton and by the lower limb than would be
expected, and the upper limb is represented in approximately the expected
proportion of the total bone weight (Table 2). These differences were not tested
for significance due to the inability to find an acceptable statistical procedure for
testing differences in weight in grams. However, visual comparisons of the
differences in weight suggest that in the secondary burial process portions of
skull were collected and deposited in the grave at the expense of most of the rest
of the skeleton.
Summary
This paper discusses a burial feature from Greene County, Indiana. The
feature contained cremated human bone, red ochre, and several artifacts. An
analysis of the skeltal material indicates that it likely represents the remains of
one adult male and that the individual was cremated in a hot and /or long
burning fire soon after death. The cremation occurred elsewhere and some of the
bones were subsequently deposited in the burial pit along with red ochre and a
few heat fractured biface fragments. There appears to have been selection for
burial of skull bone at the expense of most of the rest of the skeleton, and there is
the possibility that the bone may have been intentionally broken into small
fragments prior to burial.
After the skeletal material had been placed in the grave, a group of artifacts
with red ochre on them was then added to the deposit. These artifacts had not
been burned and consist of 15 leaf shaped blades, a drill, and a grooved
sandstone "tablet". A stemmed point was put in the burial pit away from the
central deposit.
The artifacts are quite like those associated with early to middle Adena of
the Ohio Valley. We think that the burial is Early Woodland, dating in the first
millenium B.C.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Suzanne and Earl Hensley for allowing one of
them (CHT) to participate in the excavation of the burial deposit and for
permitting the examination of the recovered materials. Their help and interest in
greatly appreciated. We would also like to acknowledge the assistance of
William R. Adams, ethnozoologist in the Department of Anthropology at
Anthropology 97
Indiana University, for examining some of skeletal material for faunal remains
and to thank Delia C. Cook, physical anthropologist in the Department of
Anthropology at Indiana University,for assistance in the analysis of the skeletal
material.
Literature Cited
1. Baby, R. S. 1954. Hopewell cremation practices. Papers in Archaeology, No. 1. Ohio Hist. Soc.
2. Buikstra, J. E., and L. Goldstein. 1973. The Perrins ledge crematory. 111. State Mus. Reports of
Investigations, No. 28. Springfield.
3. Dragoo, D. W. 1963. Mounds for the dead. Annals of Carnegie Mus., Vol. 37. 315 p.
4. Dragoo, D. W. 1964. The development of Adena culture and its role in the formation of Ohio
Hopewell. In: Hopewellian studies, edited by J. R. Caldwell and R. L. Hall. 111. State Mus. Sci.
Papers, 12(1): 1-34.
5. Lisowski, F. P. 1956. The cremations from Barcelodaid y Gawres. In: Barcelodaid y Gawres,
edited by T. G. E. Powell and G. E. Daniel, pp. 62-69.
6. Seale, R. U. 1959. The weight of the dry fat-free skeleton of American Whites and Negroes. Amer.
Jour, of Phys. Anth., 17(l):37-48.
7. Solecki, R. S. 1953. Exploration of an Adena mound at Natrium, West Virginia. Smithsonian
Institution, B. A. E. Bull. 151, Anth. Papers 40.79 p.
8. Tomak, C. H. 1970. Aboriginal occupations in the vicinity of Greene County, Indiana. M. A.
thesis. Indiana Univ. 313 p.
9. Webb, W. S. 1943. The Riley mound and the Landing mound with additional notes on the Mt.
Horeb site, Fa 1, and sites Fa 14 and Fa 15, Fayette County. Univ. of Ky. Reports in Anth. and
Arch., 5(7):657-665.
10. Webb, W. S., and W. G. Haag, 1947. The Fisher site. Univ. of Ky. Reports in Anth. and Arch.,
7(2):56 p.
11. Wells, C. 1960. A study of cremation. Antiquity, 34:29-47
12. Winters, H. D. 1969. The Riverton culture. 111. State Mus. Reports of Investigations, No. 13.
BOTANY
Chairman: Gary E. Dolph, Indiana University-Kokomo,
Kokomo, Indiana 46901
Chairman-Elect: Larry Yoder, Ohio State University-Marion,
Marion, Ohio 43302
Abstracts
Plant Cell and Tissue Culture for In Vitro Manipulation with Agronomic
Species. N. P. Maxon, C. L. Rhykerd and C. L. Rhykerd Jr., Depart-
ments of Agronomy and Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Application of novel techniques
in plant cell and tissue culture with agronomic species is rapidly becoming a
potent research tool for the plant scientist. There is great interest by plant
breeders and geneticists to expand the genetic variability of existing gene pools.
This objective is hampered by the conservative nature of the sexual cycle.
Through the use of cell and tissue culture new genetic combinations are possible
with such techniques as cell hybridization, exogenous DNA uptake or forced
somatic cell association. Directed mutation induction has been limited by lack
of selection screens for desirable mutants. In Vitro selection using suspension
culture is a powerful tool for those interested in mutation breeding. Tissue and
embryo culture can now be used to restore fertility to normally sterile F1 plants.
By allowing F1 callus tissue to change its ploidy level, sexual recombination is
possible with regenerated plants. Haploid plants can be recovered from anther
or pollen culture and be induced to double forming a homozygous diploid. The
factor limiting greater utilization of these research techniques is the difficulty of
regeneration of plants from primary and secondary callus. It appears that the
greatest success with regeneration comes from species that can be vegetatively
propagated. By exploring various phytohormone combinations and pre-
conditioning treatments, this impediment in application of these techniques will
soon be removed.
Quantitative Experiments with Plant Catalase for the Beginning Botany
Laboratory. William W. Bloom and Gayton C. Marks, Department of
Biology, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana, 46383 An effective
inexpensive manometer is described, together with a convenient method of
extracting catalase from germinating cucumber seeds. A number of experiemtns
are described for laboratory teams of four students. Quantitative data can be
collected on the effects of variations in pH, temperatures, enzyme
concentrations, and substrate concentrations. The inactivation of the enzyme by
boiling and poisoning with heavy metals can also be demonstrated.
Use of Computers to Enhance Education in Plants and Human Affairs.
Theodore J. Crovello, Department of Biology, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 Computers are used in an advanced
undergraduate Plants and Human Affairs course which is open to all juniors and
99
100 Indiana Academy of Science
seniors at the University. Computers were introduced to enhance both teaching
and learning in the course. Major uses involved information retrieval (of
literature, of 2 x 2 slides, etc.), multiple choice course review, and simulation of
plant-related systems of relevance to society (the world model, and endangered
species status). Reaction to all aspects of computer use in general has been good,
but efforts must still be made to enhance understanding and clarity of the more
difficult assignments, particularly those involving simulation. Many different
types of people are required to make computere assisted education work,
including biology professors, students in nonparasitic roles, and computer
center personnel. We believe that students benefit from the use of computers in
Plants and Human Affairs, and while computers will not replace good teachers,
they can enhance their effectiveness.
The Trees of the Manchester College Campus after Sixty Years. Philip A.
Orpurt, Biology Department, Manchester College, North Manchester,
Indiana 46962 Sixty years ago in 1917, E. E. Frantz, a Manchester College
student chose as the topic for his required graduation thesis, "Trees of
Manchester College." This paper is to acknowledge that earlier study and to
report on the general status and growth of some of the trees which have survived
to the present. The M. C. Campus was established in an "oak opening,"
consequently, Quercus alba L., the white oak comprised the most numerous
species. Counts when compared with those of 19 1 7 indicate that the stresses and
hazards often associated with campus life have taken their toll. Of 441 white
oaks in 1917 only 169 remain. From an average dbh of 10 inches and an average
height of 45 feet in 1917 the white oaks remaining have grown to an average dbh
of 21 inches and an average height of 75 feet with some attaining a height of 85
feet. The frequencies of oak trees ranging from 10 in. dbh to a maximum of 32
inches show a relatively even distribution.
Some Effects of Cadmium on Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapor Transfer in
Leaves of Acer saccharinum L. Robert J. Lamoreaux, William R. Chaney
and Richard C. Strickland, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906 Net photosynthesis,
transpiration and dark respiration were measured in excised leaves of silver
maple {Acer saccharinum L. exposed to 0, 5, 10 or 20 ppm Cd2+ added as CdCb ■
2l/a H20. Rates of net photosynthesis and transpiration were reduced to 18 and
21%, respectively, of untreated controls after 64 hours, and reduced rates were
highly correlated with solution concentration of Cd2+. Dark respiration
increased to 1 93% of untreated controls but was poorly correlated with solution
concentration of Cd2+. Diffusion resistances of leaves to carbon dioxide and
water vapor transfer increased with increasing Cd2+ concentration. Cadmium
treated leaves exhibited increased mesophyll resistance to carbon dioxide
transfer which was probably an indirect effect of Cd2+ acting on diffusive and
enzymatic factors associated with the mesophyll cells. These findings indicate
that Cd2+ inhibited transpiration by interference with stomatal function, and
that it inhibited net photosynthesis by increasing both stomatal and mesophyll
resistance to carbon dioxide uptake.
Ultrastructural Changes of Chloroplasts in Attached and Detached, Aging,
Primary Wheat Leaves. W. J. Hurkman and G. S. Kennedy, Department of
Botany 101
Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
and Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
53201 In chloroplasts of mesophyll cells in attached, naturally senescing
primary leaves of wheat, the first indications of aging are the appearance of
osmiophilic globuli and reorientation of the thylakoidal system. Subsequently,
the membranes of the grana and intergrana lamellae become distended and,
later, dissociate into distinct vesicles. Concurrent with these membrane changes,
osmiophilic globuli increase in size and number, the stroma becomes less dense,
and the chloroplast envelope remains intact. In chloroplasts of mesophyll cells
in detached, aging, primary leaves, initial changes also include appearance of
osmiophilic globuli and lamellar reorientation. However, later stages of
chloroplast degradation are strikingly different. The chloroplast envelope
breaks down prior to lamellar breakdown. Osmiophilic globuli are fewer in
number. Swelling of grana and intergrana lamellae is not pronounced and,
additionally, the thylakoidal system degenerates without the formation of
vesicles.
Storing Orchid Pollinia for Future Use in Hybridization: A Preliminary Report.
W. S. Courtis, Assistant Professor of Biology, IUPUI, Indianapolis, Indiana
46205 Data obtained to date suggest that optimal storage conditions may
be different for different species. In general, this study confirms the previously
reported detrimental effects of drying agents; and, that lower temperatures(4°
and -6°C) are most effective. The data also suggest that stored pollen may
germinate on artificial media and yet fail to produce seed when used for
pollination.
Predicting Crop Yields by Use of Multiple Species Phenology Observations.
Byron O. Blair*, V. L. Anderson, and C. L. Rhykerd Phenology
observations on lilac (Syringa persica) have been in continued use since they
were instigated in the mid 1960's over broad areas of the United States and more
recently the Northeastern Providences of Canada. These observations have been
of limited value in the United States due to the very short period in the spring
when phenological observations on lilac can be taken. However, these
observations have been of greater value in predicting yields in Canada where
agricultural production is limited by the shorter growing season. In 1964 a
multiple garden system with several species was initiated in Indiana. Ten years of
data have been collected from seven species with flowering patterns from late
April to September. This paper is a correlation evaluation of species at several
locations with yearly corn and soybean yields and demonstrates how
phenological studies employing multiple species may be used in predicting crop
yields.
Nutrient Capital and Substrate Quality of Logs in an Old-Growth Douglas-fir
Forest. Paul C. MacMillan, Department of Biology, Hanover, College,
Hanover, Indiana 47243. K. Cromack, Jr. and J. E. Means, School of Forestry,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 Visual criteria were used
to classify Douglas-fir logs into 5 decay classes: 1 = recent input, to 5 - highly
decayed log. These decay classes were used in our study of log nutrient capital
and substrate quality in a 450 yr old stand in western Oregon. Mean residence
time of logs by decay class was: 7, 16, 36, 82 & 159 yr. Over this time span wood
102 Indiana Academy of Science
density decreased to less than one-half the original density. Percent of N, P, K,
Ca, Mg & Na all increased with residence time; changes in absolute
concentrations and total kg/ ha of these elements will be discussed. Percent of
lignin increased and % cellulose decreased with residence time; changes in
absolute concentrations of carbon components and C/N ratios will be
discussed.
Effects of Low Levels of Available Cadmium on Height Growth, Dry Matter
Accumulation and Tissue Cadmium Levels in Soybeans. Richard C.
Strickland, William R. CHANEYand Robert J. Lamoreaux, Department of
Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
47906 Soybeans (Glycine max L. var. Williams) were grown for seven
weeks in a greenhouse in quartz sand amended with 0, 0.063, 0.125, 0.25, 0.50,
1.00, 2.00 or 4.00 ppm CdCl2 ■ 2l/2 H20 (49.4% Cd). Heights were measured
weekly and at harvest plants were separated into leaves, stems and roots for
subsequent dry weight and Cd2+ determinations. Height growth was reduced
over the entire study period in the 2.00 and 4.00 ppm treatments, while in all
other treatments heights were not statistically different. Treatments above 0.25
ppm caused significant decreases in dry matter accumulation with leaves, stems
and roots showing similar patterns of reduction. While Cd2+ levels in the various
tissues increased with increasing treatment, the pattern of accumulation varied
among tissues. For treatments up to 0.50 ppm, stems contained less Cd2+ than
leaves, but in higher treatments the reverse was true. Cadmium levels in roots
were always higher than in leaves and stems. Accumulation of Cd2+ by leaves,
stems and roots ranged from 1.0 to 11.2, 0.2 to 61.3 and 1.5 to 582.7 ppm,
respectively, and was highly correlated with treatment. This study showed: (1)
substantial accumulation can occur at low levels of available cadmium, (2)
accumulation of cadmium in roots is not necessarily reflected in dry matter
reduction in roots or shoots, (3) height growth is less sensitive to cadmium than
dry matter accumulation, (4) cadmium is not evenly distributed throughout the
plant and (4) there is no growth stimulation at any level of cadmium used in this
investigation.
Organic Matter Influences Availability, Uptake and Distribution of Cadmium
in Soybeans. Richard C. Strickland, William R. Chaney and Robert J.
Lamoreaux, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906 Soybeans (Glycine max L. var.
Williams) were grown for six weeks in the greenhouse in quartz sand containing
0, 3, 6, 12, 24 or 48%(v/v) sterilized peat moss. The cation exchange capacities of
the organic matter-sand (OM-S) mixtures ranged from 0 to 8.7 meg/ lOOg dry
weight. Imposed on each OM-S mixture was a CdCb ■ 2l /2 H2O treatment of 0,
2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 20.0 or 40.0 ppm. Height growth was measured weekly and at
harvest plants were separated into leaves, stems and roots for dry weight and
tissue Cd2+ determinations. Height growth and dry matter accumulation in all
tissues were reduced and Cd2+ content was increased for plants grown in sand
alone. These effects were correlated with increasing Cd2+ concentration in the
rooting medium. Inhibitions in growth by Cd2+ were reduced by addition of
organic matter; the amount of alleviation was dependent on the level of organic
matter and the Cd2+ treatment. In the 0, 3 and 6% OM-S mixtures, Cd2+ content
Botany 103
in the various tissues was correlated with metal treatments in the 1 2, 24 and
OM-S mixtures. The order of Cd~+ accumulation in the tissues was roots «
stems < leaves.
Greening in Albino Plants of a Green: Albino Strain of Tobacco without the
Addition of an Amino Acid to the Culture Medium. Susannah Nelson,* Mary
Jo Donovan and Anne Susalla, Saint Mary's College, Notre
Dame Albino plants of a green: albino strain of tobacco have consistently
become variegated with green when grown on a specific culture medium that
includes the amino acid, glycine. Because leucine produces greenness in other
albino plant species and is relatively similar to glycine in its chemical
configuration, it was used to substitute glycine in the cu'ture medium. The
leucine-grown plants became green to the same degree as the control glycine-
grown plants. The plants were then grown on the culture medium without an
amino acid. Greenness occurred and the plants could not be distinguished from
control plants grown on the culture medium containing glycine. Thus, albino
plants of this strain of tobacco do not need an amino acid in the culture medium
for greenness to occur.
Possible Disadvantages of Isolating Plant Cuticles by the ZnCl2-HCl Method.
Jay H. Jones, Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana 47401 Isolated cuticles are used for a variety of purposes. These
include studies of cuticular anatomy and morphology, ion exchange and
permeability, water loss and chemical composition. Methods of isolating
cuticles also vary. One of the most frequently used methods (Holloway and
Baker, Plant Physiol. 43:1878-1879) involves digestion of leaf discs in a
concentrated ZnCb-HCl solution. Intuitively such a harsh treatment might be
expected to cause molecular changes within the cuticle. To test this, the
composition of cutin hydrogenolysates prepared from cuticles isolated by the
ZnCh-HCl and the less severe oxalate methods were compared. Results indicate
that chemical changes do occur during the ZnCh-HCl digestion. These changes
involve unsaturated cutin components. The exact identity of the products is still
under investigation. These changes are of little importance for anatomical and
morphological work. However, when working with ion exchange, permeability
and chemical composition, such changes should be avoided by using other
methods or at least taken into consideration.
The Foliar Physiognomy of an Indiana Lake Bottom and its Paleoclimatic
Implications. John L. Roth, Department of Biology, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana 47401 The current method of leaf margin and leaf
size analysis in paleoclimatology assumes that the foliar physiognomy of a fossil
deposit accurately reflects the physiognomy of the living forest from which it
was derived. However, a study of lake bottom sediments from a small lake near
Bloomington, Indiana shows that depositional systems are selective and tend to
distort the physiognomic composition of fossil deposits. Streamside vegetation
and sun leaves tend to be overrepresented in fossil deposits, while large leaves
tend to be fragmented during transport and underrepresented in fossil deposits.
Seasonal variations in the rate of deposition and in the leaf fall of deciduous and
evergreen species also distort the physiognomy of the deposit. Therefore, foliar
physiognomic data compiled from a fossil deposit cannot be compared to foliar
104 Indiana Academy of Science
physiognomic data compiled from herbarium collections and published
regional floras as this would lead to a misinterpretation of the paleoclimate. It
should be compared to new reference data that is compiled from modern sites of
deposition and carefully correlated with local climatic conditions.
The Root Rot of Black Walnut Seedlings Caused by
Phytophthora citric ola*
R. C. Ploetz and R. J. Green, Jr.
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
Black walnut, Juglans nigra, L. is one of the most highly valued species of
the American deciduous forest. The rich wood color, its durability and ease with
which it is worked placed black walnut in high demand in both the lumber and
veneer industries of the U.S. and abroad. Nearly one third of the veneer-quality
walnut logs harvested annually in the U.S. come from Indiana (Blyth 1973).
Because of the demand and dwindling supply of walnut trees for harvest, nursery
production of seedlings in state-owned and private nurseries has more than
doubled in the eastern U.S. in the past few years (Grey 1973).
Figure. 1. Symptoms of root rot of black walnut seedlings caused by Phytophthora citricola.
Infection usually restricted to root collar area of seedling.
♦Research supported, in part, by funds from the Cooperative Agreement 13-390, North Central
Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service.
105
106 Indiana Academy of Science
Walnut seedling production is often severely curtailed both in the seedbed
and in winter storage by a root rot disease. In seedbed, the symptoms include a
general chlorosis and wilting of above-ground parts and the root system exhibits
distinct water-soaked, greenish black lesions, usually located at the root collar
(Fig. 1). The root lesions increase rapidly in size and the entire seedling turns
black. Roots of infected plants in storage exhibit similar symptoms and, in both
cases, mortality is almost certain.
In general, infected seedlings occur in the poorly drained areas of the
seedbed. Infection centers start as isolated diseased plants which, in time, give
rise to expanding areas of dead and dying plants. In storage, symptoms develop
primarily from incipient infection from the seedbed, but the causal agent may
spread rapidly to other plants.
In 1970, Green and Pratt implicated Phytophthora citricola Sawada as the
causal fungus of this disease. However, other species of Phytophthora are also
associated with root disease of black walnut (Green 1975). More recently,
Cylindrocladium scoparium and related species have been associated with a root
disease of walnut seedlings (Cordell and Matuszewski 1974). Also, critical
studies have not been made of the factors of the soil environment which favor
infection by P. citricola and the factors affecting germination of oospores of P.
citricola in soil. For example, Banihashemi and Mitchell (1976) found that both
light quality and light intensity affected germination of other Phytophthora
species and this may be significant in the localization of root infection.
The objectives of this study were to a) ascertain whether species of
Phytophthora or fungi other than P. citricola are involved in this disease, b) to
determine the effect of soil environmental conditions and inoculum density on
infection by P. citricola and c) ascertain the effect of various environmental
factors on germination of oospores of P. citricola.
Materials and Methods
In earlier studies, Green and Pratt (1970) found it difficult to isolate
consistently P. citricola from diseased walnut seedlings. They used both selective
media and baiting techniques. We used the following selective media for
isolation from diseased roots:
PNP — potato dextrose agar (PDA) + neomycin (50 ppm), penicillin G
(35 ppm) and pimaracin (100 ppm). This medium is similar to
that described by Eckert and Tsao (1962) for selective isolation
of Phytophthora sp..
ENC — V-8 juice nutrient agar + neomycin (100 ppm), Chloromycetin
(10 ppm) and endomycin (10 ppm), for isolation of
Phythiaceous fungi (Schmitthenner and Hilty 1962).
PDTA — PDA + tergitol NPX (200 ppm) and aureomycin (30 ppm) for
isolation of Cylindrocladium sp. and other fungi (Watson
1960).
Diseased roots were washed, surface sterilized in 1% sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) for 5 min. and tissue selections from the periphery of the root lesion
Botany 107
placed on the selective media. The plates were incubated at 25° C in the dark and
emerging fungi isolated by hyphal tip transfer.
At least three species of Phytophthora cause a root disease of walnut (Green
1975). A similar, but distinct, root disease is caused by Cylindrocladiwn
scoparium (Cordell and Matuszewski 1974) and related species. Black walnut
seedlings were inoculated with isolates of the following fungi: Phytophthora
citricola — (host: black walnut), P. cactorum — (host: apple), P. cinnamomi
(host: rhododendron and Taxus sp). and Cylindrocladium scoparium — (host:
black walnut).
All isolates were grown on PDA for 3 weeks at 25° C in termittent light.
Walnut seedlings were grown from stratified seed in sterile sand for 4 weeks and
then lifted, the roots washed gently in tap water and inoculations made in the
root collar area. Root tissue was cut to a depth of ca. 1 cm and a 0.5 cm square
section of mycelial mat inserted in the wound. Check plants were wounded but
not inoculated. The wound area was protected with petrolatum and the
seedlings incubated in sterile, moist vermiculite in the greenhouse for 3 weeks.
After incubation, the inoculated seedlings were lifted and the fleshy
primary root was cut lengthwise to determine the extent of root involvement.
The area of the cut surface of the primary root which exhibited symptoms was
calculated as a percentage of the total cut root surface area. The comparative
virulence of the various Phytophthora species to black walnut seedlings was
determined on the basis of root involvement. The inoculated seedling roots were
then surface sterilized in 1% NaOCl for 2 min. and tissue sections placed on both
PNP and ENC media.
The effects of varying soil moisture and temperature regimes and inoculum
density on infection of walnut seedlings by P. citricola were determined.
Naturally infested nursery soil was used and the moisture saturation capacity
(SC) was determined by the methods described by Couch and others (1967).
Oospores of P. citricola were produced, following Honour and Tsao (1974), and
added to sterile silica sand. The supplemental inoculum was incorporated in the
upper 5 cm of the soil container.
Naturally infected nursery soil was placed in ceramic containers (dia 25 cm,
ht 25 cm) with a drain and 5 walnut seeds with the radicle just emerging planted
in each container. The containers were placed in controlled environment
chambers and soil temperature, moisture and inoculum density varied as
follows:
Soil temperatures — 15°C and 22. 5° C, 12 hr photoperiod
Soil moisture — 100% SC and 60% SC for 24 and 72 hr, respectively,
followed by free drainage
Soil inoculum — naturally infested nursery soil (NS) and nursery soil
amended with 500 oospores/ g soil (NS + 1) in upper 5
cm
All treatments were replicated 3 times and the soil moisture adjusted daily
when soil moisture was controlled. Thereafter, the soil containers were watered
every 3 days for the duration of the 3-week incubation period.
108
Indiana Academy of Science
The effects of culture age, temperature and light intensity and quality on
germination of oospores of P. citricola were determined. Germination boxes (30
x 60 x 10 cm) with an open top were placed in a high light intensity, controlled
environment chamber (22. 5° C, 16 hr photoperiod, 3400 f.c). The light intensity
in the germination boxes was controlled with varying layers of cheese cloth
(open — 3400 f.c; 16 layers — 830 f.c.) and light quality was varied using filters
of colored acetate (blue, aqua, green, yellow, and red). When light quality was
varied, the light intensity under each filter was adjusted to approximately 800
f.c. Oospore germination was also compared at 25° C in total darkness and in
continuous light of 300 f.c. and 3 f.c. Ooospores from cultures 2, 4 and 7 weeks
old were observed for germination after 3, 6, and 10 days.
Results
Isolation — selective media — Phytophthora citricola was recovered from
1 1 of the 20 diseased walnut seedlings on the selective medium PNP, but only
from 2 of the seedlings on ENC. On both media, especially ENC, Phthium
sp.and other fast growing fungi were common. This made detection of slower
growing fungi as Phytophthora sp. difficult. Diseased root tissue on PDTA
yielded numerous fungi, including Fusarium sp., Penicillium sp. and Phythium
sp., but no known root pathogen of walnut. Cylindrocladium scoparium, which
causes the black root rot disease of walnut seedlings, was not recovered in any
isolation attempts. Thus, although successful isolation of P. citricola was limited
(approx. 50%), no other known root pathogen of walnut was recovered. Later
inoculations confirmed the virulence of P. citricola isolates.
k
w
Figure. 2. Comparative virulence of A) Phytophthora cactorum, B)P. cinnamomi and C)P. citricola
to roots of black walnut seedlings, D) wounded, non-inoculated control.
Botany 109
Inoculation — Walnut seedlings were inoculated with isolates of P.
citricola, P. cactorum and P. cinnamomi to compare disease severity and
symptoms. In addition, seedlings were inoculated with Cylindrocladium
scoparium. Although all Phytophthora sp. induced root lesions, there was a
marked difference between species in the extent of root tissue involvement. This
is demonstrated in Fig. 2, which diagramatically shows the comparative root
involvement by P. citricola, P. cactorum and P. cinnamomi following wound
inoculation. The black area represents the average (10 seedlings) root
involvement. The isolates of P. citricola produced extensive necrotic lesions in
the root tissues, compared to infection by P. cactorum and P. cinnamomi. These
differences may be due, in part, to the origin of the respective isolates, since P.
citricola was from walnut and P. cactorum and P. cinnamomi were from other
hosts. Nonetheless, only P. citricola produced the typical extensive root
involvement associated with this disease. Also, P. citricola was readily reisolated
from inoculated seedlings (80%), while P. cactorum was recovered from only
20% of the inoculated seedlings and P. cinnamomi was not recovered.
Walnut seedlings inoculated with Cylindrocladium scoparium exhibited
symptoms typical of the root rot disease described for this pathogen (Cordell
and Matuszewski 1974). These included longitudinal cracks and brown, necrotic
lesions which were sunken in the root tissues. The fungus was readily reisolated
from the inoculated seedlings on PDTA.
Table 1 . The effects of soil moisture, temperature, and inoculum density on infection of black walnut
seedlings by Phytophthora citricola.
Temp ° C
15
22.5
Soil moisture-7
Inoc^
Infect — roots
100% SC - 24 hr
NS
4/15
NS + I
8/15
100% SC - 72 hr
NS
10/15
NS + I
13/15
60% SC - 72 hr
NS
1/15
NS + I
2/15
free drainage
NS + I
1/15
100% SC - 24 hr
NS
7/15
NS + I
10/15
100% SC - 72 hr
NS
8/15
NS + I
11/15
60% SC - 72 hr
NS
2/15
NS + I
2/15
free drainage
NS + I
0/15
-'Soil moisture X 100% and 60% saturation capacity (SC) of soil for 24 and 72 hr, followed by free
drainage for 3 weeks.
-'inoc — NS — naturally infested nursery soil; NS + I — nursery soil + 500 oospores/ g in upper 5 cm of
soil.
Factors affecting infection incidence — The effects of soil temperature, soil
moisture and inoculum density on infection of walnut seedlings by P. citricola
are shown in Table 1. Infection varied markedly with soil conditions. Infection
was low (0/15 — 2/1 5) in NS and NS+I soil if the moisture was below 100% SC.
1 io Indiana Academy of Science
The infection increased progressively when the soil moisture was increased to
1 00% SC for 24 and 72 hr, respectively, and with supplemental inoculum (NS+I).
A slight increase in infection occurred in most treatments when the temperature
was increased from 15°C to 22.5°C. The highest infection incidence (13/15)
occurred when the soil moisture was 100% SC for 72 hr at 15°C in NS+I soil.
Table 2. The effects of age, incubation time, light intensity and quality on the germination of
oospores of Phytophthora citricola.
Treatment
Germination (%)
Age -
— 2 wks.
Age — 4 wks. Age -
— 7 wks.
Temp °C
3 da
10 da
3 da 10 da 3 da
10 da
Q.T-1
1.3
3.7
6.0
1.3
1.3
0.7
7.3
4.7
18.0
10.0
9.0
2.0
7.3
6.0
25.3
7.3
30.0
0
0
0
1.3
0
0
0
0
2.0
8.0
7.3
8.0
2.7
11.3
28.0
46.7
11.3
41.3
2.0
23.3
47.4
60.7
30.0
57.3
0
3.3
7.3
11.3
7.3
10.0
0
1.3
4.7
14.7
11.3
18.0
0
0
2.7
1.3
2.0
8.0
0
14.7
46.0
46.7
41.7
58.7
0
0
0
1.3
1.3
2.0
25 dark
3 f.c.
200 f.c.
22.5 3,400 f.c.
2,300 f.c.
1 ,200 f.c.
830 f.c.
22.5 (800 f.c.)
blue filter
green filter
aqua filter
yellow filter
red filter
a- Percent germination X 150 oospores counted at random.
The effects of culture age, incubation time, light intensity and light quality
on germination of oospores of P. citricola are presented in Table 2. Oospore
germination was affected by all factors, as indicated by the comparative
germination rates. Germination increased with culture age, regardless of other
treatments, and the data indicate that both light intensity and light quality affect
germination. The highest germination occurred with oospores from cultures 4
and 7 weeks old incubated at 22. 5° C, 830 f.c. and decreased sharply as the light
intensity increased above 1200 f.c. Germination was almost completely inhibited
at 3400 f.c. Light quality also affected oospore germination with the germination
rate under a yellow filter approaching that of full light under similar intensities.
Germination was reduced under all other filters with the lowest germination
occurring under the red filter.
Discussion
Although isolation of P. citricola from diseased walnut seedlings was
somewhat erratic, even with selective media, the results confirm this fungus as
the causal agent of the root rot disease described. No other fungi, including other
species of Phytophthora and Clyindrocladium scoparium, were consistently
isolated from diseased seedlings. Inoculation trials showed that the symptoms
produced by C. scoparium are distinct from those caused by P. citricola.
Botany 1 1 1
The inconsistency in reisolation of P. citricola from diseased seedlings may
be related to both the relatively slow growth of this fungus and the nature of the
primary root of the walnut seedling. The root is fleshy and, under soil conditions
favorable for infection, is rapidly colonized by secondary organisms. In
controlled inoculation studies, the reisolation of P. citricola was much more
consistent (80%+).
The effects of soil environmental conditions on infection incidence under
controlled conditions correlate with field observations. In the nursery, diseased
plants occur primarily in poorly drained areas and we found that infection
incidence was invariably low unless soil moisture was 100% SC for 24 hr or
more, regardless of other conditions.
We also found that germination of oospores of P. citricola is markedly
influenced by light and that both light intensity and light quality may affect the
germination rate. These results compare favorably with results presented by
Banihashemi and Mitchell (1976) with oospores of P. cactorum. They found
that germination was essentially the same under blue and yellow filters (30.8%
and 31%, respectively), whereas we found germination of oospores of P.
citricola was much lower under the blue acetate filter (10%) than under the
yellow filter (6 1.7%). However, there was good agreement on the light intensities
most favorable for germination (200-1000 f.c.) and the light quality least
favorable for germination (red). The differences observed in light quality may be
due to innate differences in these two closely related organisms or to differences
in the filter systems used. The filters we used were of unspecified wavelength
transmission and comparisons based on filter color alone may be unreliable.
The dependency of the oospores of P. citricola on light for optimal
germination may also explain the occurrence of infection almost exclusively at
the root collar of walnut seedlings rather than at random over the entire root
system. Since both light and soil moisture saturation are apparently required for
oospore germination and subsequent infection, these conditions are met
primarily at or near the soil surface. Thus, infection is restricted primarily to the
root collar area of the susceptible walnut seedlings.
Literature Cited
1. Banihashemi, Z., and J. E. Mitchell. 1976. Factors affecting oospore germination in
Phytophthora cactorum, the incitant of apple collar rot. Phytopathology 66:443-448.
2. Blyth, J. E. 1973. "Timber demand and use", p. 7-9, Black walnut as a crop, U.S. Forest Service
General Tech. Rpt. NC-4.
3. Cordell, C. E., and M. Matuszewski. 1974. Cylindrocladium scoparium — damaging black
walnut seedlings in Kentucky nurseries. Plant Dis. Reptr. 58:188-189.
4. Couch, H. B., L. H. Purdy, and D. W. Henderson. 1967. Application of soil moisture principles
to the study of plant disease. Va. Polytech. Inst. Res. Bull. 4, 23 p.
5. Eckert, J. W., and P. H. Tsao. 1962. A selective antibiotic medium for isolation of Phytophthora
and Phthium from plant roots. Phytopathology 52:771-777.
6. Green, R. J., Jr., 1975. "Phytophthora root rot of black walnut seedlings", p. 19-22, Forest
Nursery Diseases in the United States, Agric. Handbook No. 470.
112 Indiana Academy of Science
7. Green, R. J., Jr. and R. G. Pratt. 1970. Root rot of black walnut seedlings, caused by
Phytophthora citricola. Plant Dis. Reptr. 54:583-585.
8. Grey, G. W. 1973. "Seven Years of Growth", p. 4-6, Black walnut as a crop, U.S. Forest Service
Tech. Rpt. NC-4.
9. Honour, R. C., and P. H. Tsao. 1974. Production of oospores by Phytophthora parasitica in
liquid medium. Mycologia 66:1030-1038.
10. Schmitthenner, A. F., and J. W. Hilty. 1962. A modified dilution technique of obtaining single
isolates of fungi from contaminated material. Phytopathology 52:582-583.
1 1 . Watson, R. D. 1960. Soil washing improved the value of the soil solution and plant count method
estimating populations of soil fungi. Phytopathology 50:792-794.
Seeding Orchardgrass In An Established Stand of Alfalfa
C. L. Rhykerd, B. O. Blair
N. P. Maxon, R. E. Mullen, and J. J. Vorst
Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
Several situations arise where it would be desirable to seed a cool-season
grass, such as orchardgrass, in an already established stand of alfalfa. The most
common situation occurs as alfalfa stands become unproductive due primarily
to a thinning of the stand. The recent development of "clear seeding" of alfalfa
involving the application of the herbicides Balan or Eptam dictate that pure
alfalfa must be seeded since these herbicides kill many grasses.
Many dairy farmers prefer to seed alfalfa without a grass because of the
high quality forage produced by alfalfa. However, there are advantages to
growing a cool-season grass in association with alfalfa (1). These advantages
include:
1. Reduced soil erosion.
2. Reduced winter heaving of alfalfa.
3. Resistance to weed encroachment.
4. Reduced bloat hazard.
5. Reduced lodging of alfalfa.
6. Hay drying is more rapid.
7. More easily preserved silage.
The following experiment was conducted since little, if any research has
been reported relative to the feasibility of seeding orchardgrass in an established
stand of alfalfa.
Materials and Methods
This experiment was conducted on the Purdue University Agromony
Farm, West Lafayette, Indiana. The soil types on the experimental site were a
Chalmers silty clay loam (typic argioquoll) and Raub silt loam (aquic argiudoll).
'Hallmark' orchardgrass was seeded on a 5-year-old stand of Tempo'
alfalfa employing the following methods of seeding: 1) late summer seeded with
a Nordsten grain drill, 2) frost-seeded in late winter, 3) early spring seeded with a
John Deere Powr-Till Seeder. The dates of seeding were September 24, 1975,
March 26, and April 2, 1 976, respectively. The rate of seeding was 1 1 . 2 kg/ ha for
all methods of seeding. Tiller counts, using a 20 x 50 cm quadrat, were taken
after the first cutting in 1977.
The 5-year-old stand of alfalfa had been originally seeded to study the effect
of seeding rate and method of seeding on alfalfa yields (2). At the time the
orchardgrass was seeded, the alfalfa population was approximately 20
plants/ m2 (3).
113
114 Indiana Academy of Science
Results and Discussion
Tiller counts of the orchardgrass were taken following the first cutting in
1977. No attempt was made to make a stand evaluation in 1976 since seedlings
from the spring-seeding were slow to establish. The 1975 late summer seeded
orchardgrass plots made vigorous growth in 1976 indicating successful
establishment.
The data presented in Table 1 demonstrate that all methods of seeding the
orchardgrass in an established stand of alfalfa were successful. It was evident
from observing the plots during the growing season in 1976 that the seeding rate
for the late summer seeded and the spring seeded orchardgrass was too high.
Consequently these two methods of seeding resulted in excessive competition
for the alfalfa.
Table 1 . Effect of time and method of seeding orchardgrass in established alfalfa on the number of
orchardgrass tillers/ m2. Tiller counts were taken in June 1977.
Orchardgrass1
Seeding Time Tillers/ m2
Late Summer— 1975 1188
Frost Seeding — 1976 631
Spring Seeded 1976 950
Based on these results it is apparant that, in Indiana, late summer is a better
time to seed orchardgrass in an established alfalfa stand than late winter or early
spring. One of the factors favoring the late summer seeding of orchardgrass is
the cool temperatures at this time along with adequate rainfall. In addition,
adapted alfalfa varieties produced a rosette type growth during the fall months
thereby offering less competition to the orchardgrass seedlings. Alfalfa makes
vigorous growth during the spring months and consequently offers a great deal
of competition to the young orchardgrass seedlings.
Agronomists in the Midwest often do not recommend late summer seeding
of orchardgrass due to lack of winterhardiness in orchardgrass seedlings. There
was no evidence of winter killing of seedlings in this experiment. Quite possibly
the established alfalfa plants provided some protection to the orchardgrass
seedlings.
Based on the results of this study, a late summer seeding rate for
orchardgrass of 5-6 kg/ ha should be adequate when seeding in an established
alfalfa stand. The 11.2 kg/ ha seeding rate appeared optimal for the frost seeding
while 6-8 kg/ ha should be sufficient for spring seeding of orchardgrass.
Some soil coverage of the orchardgrass seed was provided by the Nordsten
grain drill and the John Deere Powr-Till Seeder. Based on the data from this
investigation, the use of seeding equipment providing some soil coverage of the
seed would appear advantageous to insuring the successful establishment of a
cool-season grass such as orchardgrass in an established stand of alfalfa.
Average of 3 replications.
Botany 115
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Samual E. St. Clair,
a Purdue University student, in taking the tiller counts reported in this paper.
Literature Cited
1. Decker, A. M., T. H. Taylor, and C. J. Willard. 1973. Establishment of new seedings. In
Forages. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 3rd edition, p. 384-395.
2. LaBorde, H. E. 1973. Effect of rate, method, and date of seeding on stand establishment and yield
of Medicago sativa L. M.S. Thesis. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
3. Mullen, R. E. 1975. Effects of seeding management on performance of two-and three-year-old
alfalfa. Ph.D. Thesis. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
Eighteen- Year Performance of an Eastern White Pine
Genetic Test Plantation in Southern Indiana
Robert D. Williams and David T. Funk
Principal Silviculturist and Principal Plant Geneticist
USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station
Bedford, Indiana, and Carbondale, Illinois
Introduction
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) is the best selling species at Indiana's
two State tree nurseries. More than 1.7 million white pine seedlings and
transplants were planted in Indiana during the spring of 1977. The possibility of
improving the yield of white pine in Indiana by use of seed of optimum
geographic origin prompted the establishment of a test of white pine from 16
seed sources.
Methods
Seeds were collected from 16 locations throughout the natural range of
white pine. Seedlings from the 16 origins were grown for 2 years at the Edwards
State Nursery, Morganton, North Carolina, and planted on a bottomland site in
Perry County, Indiana, on the Hoosier National Forest in the spring of 1959.
The planting site includes two soil series, Henshaw and Uniontown, and the
topsoil of both soils is classed as silt loam. Both soils are suitable for planting
white pine.
Twelve 4-tree row-plants of each provenance were planted with a mattock
in a completely random design. Randomly assigned locations were saved for the
seedlings from the Lower Michigan source, which were planted as 3-year-old
transplants in 1961. Study trees were planted 7 feet apart in rows 14 feet apart.
Intervening rows were planted with filler trees, which were cut in 1975.
First-year survival of the planting was poor — it ranged from 30 to 56
percent. Blank spots were replanted in 1960 and 1961, and in the fall of 1961
survival ranged from 85 to 100 percent. Only two seed sources, Maine and
Quebeck, had survival less than 92 percent.
In 1976 the two "best" (usually tallest) trees per plot were measured and
their heights and diameters averaged for analysis. A few plots contained only
one live treeand two of the plots contained no live trees; missing values were
replaced. Average height, diameter, and "volume" (D2H) of the 20-year-old trees
(18-year-old plantation) were calculated and subjected to analysis of variance
(table 1).
Results
Height, diameter, and D2H differences attributable to seed source are
highly significant; the probability of differences being due to chance is at the
vanishing point.
116
Botany
117
Table 1. Height, diameter, and LfiH of eastern white pine trees in an 18-year-old southern Indiana
plantation in relation to geographic origin.
Origin
Height
Diameter
Location
North latitude
D2H
Degrees
Feet
Inches
Feet3
Union Co., GA
34.8
39.3
7.6
15.8
Transylvania Co., NC
35.2
37.4
7.4
14.2
Green Co., TN
36.0
40.6
8.3
19.4
Pulaski Co., VA
37.1
32.8
6.5
9.6
Greenbrier Co., WV
38.0
32.8
5.8
7.7
Ashland Co., OH
40.8
36.7
7.1
12.8
Monroe Co., PA
41.1
37.5
7.3
13.9
Allamakee Co., IA
43.5
25.8
4.6
3.8
Newaygo Co., MI
43.5
^39.7
i;7.8
-16.8
Lunenburg Co., N.S.
44.4
29.0
5.1
5.2
Franklin Co., NY
44.4
30.7
5.4
6.2
Penobscot Co., ME
44.9
26.7
4.4
3.6
Forest Co., WI
45.9
35.8
7.1
12.5
Algoma Dist., Ont.
46.2
30.7
5.1
5.5
Cass Co., MN
47.4
28.4
4.8
4.5
Pontiac Co., Quebec
47.5
23.2
3.7
2.2
Plantation mean
32.9
6.1
9.6
i'Trees of Michigan origin are 1 year younger than the rest; height and diameter were adjusted by
adding mean of past 3 years' increment.
The relative ranking of the provenances by height has remained remarkably
consistent (table 2). The North Carolina, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Georgia, and
Ohio provenances were "good prospects" at age 5 (Funk 1964) and they are still
Table 2. Height rank of white pine trees at five successive measurements according to geographic
origin.
Provenance
location
Plantation age (years)
5
6
10
15
18
4
4
6
4
3
1
1
3
5
5
2
2
2
3
1
7
7
8
8
8.5
9
9
9
9
8.5
5
5
5
2
6
3
3
4
6
4
10
10
13
15
15
(6)
(6)
(1)
(1)
(2)
11
11
10
11
12
12
13
11
10
10
15
15
15
14
14
8
8
7
7
7
13
12
12
12
11
14
14
14
13
13
16
16
16
16
16
GA
NC
TN
VA
WV
OH
PA
IA
Ml!7
NS
NY
ME
WI
ON
MN
PQ
-7Ranks for Michigan provenance based on adjusted heights.
118
Indiana Academy of Science
among the top six. Age: age correlations of rankings for total height are good
(table 3); no serious mistakes would have been made at age 5 in an attempt to
select the provenances containing the tallest trees at age 18.
Table 3. Age: age Spearman rank correlations for height.
Age
age
6
10
15
18
5
.998
.92
.84
.87
6
.92
.84
.87
10
.95
.95
15
—
—
—
.95
D2H, an indicator of volume, was calculated for the different provenances.
'Volume" of the Tennessee trees is 9 times that of the Quebec trees and more
Figure
Botany 119
than 5.5 times the "volume" of the trees from Maine (table 1). It is plain that
failure to consider origin of white pine seed could result in serious economic loss.
A comparison of the D2H values indicates the superiority of the more
southern provenances. Three-fourths of the southern sources (lower latitude)
rank in the top half, and three-fourths of the northern sources fall in the lower
half.
Trees from about one-fourth the seed sources do not fit a geographic origin
pattern. Trees from lower Michigan and Wisconsin have grown faster, and trees
from Iowa, Virginia, and West Virginia have grown slower than would have
been expected from the latitude of their provenance.
Recommendations
We continue to recommend an extensive collection zone for white pine seed
to be planted in Indiana (figure 1). Because of the poor performance of the
Virginia and West Virginia seedlings, however, we recommend caution in
obtaining seed from these two States for use in Indiana. Our confidence in these
recommendations is increased by previous similar findings in southern Illinois
and eastern Kentucky (Funk, Allen, and Williams 1975).
To establish fast growing but genetically diverse stands in Indiana,
nurseries should furnish white pine seedlings using a mixture of seed from
several stands in the "top 6" States. Subsequent research based on more
intensive collections within the southern Appalachian Mountains may provide
the opportunity to further refine recommended seed procurement zones.
Literature Cited
1. Funk, David T., 1964. Southern Appalachian white pine off to a good start in the midwest. Cent.
States For. Tree Improv. Conf. Proc. 4:26-28.
2. Funk, David T., Rufus Allen, and Robert D. Williams., 1975. Fifteen-year performance of
eastern white pine seed sources tests in the lower Ohio Valley. Cent. States For. Tree Improv. Conf.
Proc. 9:153-158, illus.
Notes on the Construction of Leaf Size Distributions
Gary E. Dolph, Indiana University at Kokomo, Kokomo, Indiana 46901
Introduction
In a recent review article, Dolph and Dilcher (11) synthesized the available
literature on leaf size variation in the tropical latitudinal region of the western
hemisphere. Based on the percentage of species having large leaves at 73 sample
sites, the tropical latitudinal region was divided into four foliar belts. Each foliar
belt had a characteristic average percentage of species having large leaves, but
the variation either within or between the foliar belts was not continuous. An
attempt was made to extend this analysis into the subtropical and warm
temperate latitudinal regions of the western hemisphere, but a lack of pertinent
data prevented any definitive conclusions from being reached.
Although variation in leaf size did occur, a close correlation between leaf
size and climate in the western hemisphere could not be demonstrated ( 1 1) at the
present time. This is due in part to the lack of data, particularly from non-
tropical life zones, and in part to the way in which leaf size data were collected in
the past. Seven problems complicated the attempt to correlate leaf size variation
with climate: 1) only five sample sites have been studied outside of the tropical
life zones; 2) the sample stands represent a mixture of climatic and non-climatic
associations {sensu 16, 17); 3) sample populations differed depending on the
investigator; 4) sampling techniques varied; 5) data from several sample stands
were lumped together in many studies; 6) adequate climatic data were not given
for the majority of the sample stands; and 7) leaf area was not estimated in a
consistent fashion. In order to develop a hypothesis which successfully relates
leaf size variation with climate, future field studies will have to be carried out in a
consistent fashion.
Life Zones Sampled
Of the 78 sample stands studied (1 1), 73(93.6%) were located in the tropical
latitudinal region. Two (2.4%) sample stands were studied in the subtropical
latitudinal region. Three (4.0%) were from the warm temperate latitudinal
region. Sampling has been carried out in 9 tropical life zones. Twenty-eight life
zones in the tropical latitudinal region have not been studied. In the subtropical
latitudinal region, sampling has been carried out only in the moist forest life
zone, leaving 28 additional life zones to be sampled. Outside of the tropical and
subtropical latitudinal regions, only 2 life zones (the warm temperate moist and
montane wet forest life zones) have been sampled, leaving data to be collected
from an additional 48 life zones. Sampling outside of the tropical latitudinal
region is particularly crucial because the decrease in leaf size predicted (21) does
not occur based on the available data (11). Dolph and Dilcher (10, work in
progress) are currently analyzing the flora of North and South Carolina, and
Dolph (work in progress) is analyzing the flora of Indiana.
120
Botany 121
Nature of the Sample Stands
The analysis of the variation in leaf size with respect to climate (11) was
based on Holdridge's (16, 17) life zone chart. Holdridge (16, 17) recognized 4
basic classes of associations (climatic, atmospheric, edaphic, and hydric),
although various combinations of these classes are possible. A climatic
association is one in which only the three major climatic factors (temperature,
rainfall, and humidity) influence the plant community (16, 17). In comparison,
atmospheric, edaphic, and hydric associations are referred to as non-climatic or
non-zonal associations. In non-zonal associations, the physiognomy of the
vegetation will indicate conditions that are drier or wetter than the climatic
association normal for that life zone. The difference in physiognomy results
from the action of the second order environmental factors such as soil type,
drainage, or wind ( 1 6, 1 7). Successional associations are recognized in the colder
regions of the world but not in the warmer where the successional stages are of
shorter duration (16). According to Holdridge (16), if plant form is related to
climate, there should be one characteristic physiognomy for the vegetation of
the life zone, that of the climatic association. The non-zonal associations may
occur in any life zone, but the plants found in these associations have
physiognomies that are very divergent from those of the climatic association.
Because of their divergent physiognomies, the non-zonal associations have
received more attention than the zonal. Swamps (12, 25), gallery forests (6, 12,
25), vegetation on soils having excessive drainage ( 1 , 19), transitional forests ( 1 2,
25), cloud forests (18), or secondary successional forests (12, 13, 28) should not
be expected to support vegetation having the physiognomy characteristic of the
climatic association. Theoretically, these associations should not be used when
attempting to correlate leaf form with climate.
Nevertheless, in many cases, the use of data from non-climatic associations
did not affect the outcome of the study (11). A good example was the use of
secondary forest sites. Five sample stands representing successional semi-
evergreen to evergreen seasonal forest on Trinidad (13) had an average
percentage of species having large leaves of 87.8% (11). This percentage was only
somewhat higher than the average percentage from the tropical basal belt
(83.0%, 1 1 ) and only slightly different from the percentage reported by Beard (4)
from the undisturbed seasonal evergreen forest of Trinidad (87.1%). Most
ecological measurements require the use of undisturbed vegetation because they
reflect the structure of the mature vegetation. Because the percentage of large
leaves at individual sample stands was based on the species present and not the
individuals present, the disturbed nature of secondary forests does not influence
the outcome of the calculation. In other instances, such as with stream side and
upland vegetation, significant differences in leaf size occurred within the same
life zone. Additional studies should attempt to find a basis for these differences.
Sample Populations
The sample populations utilized when studying leaf form have not been
constant. The chief differences occur in ( 1 ) the types of life forms studied and (2)
the number of species recorded. By varying the types of plants included in a
study, significantly different leaf size distributions may be produced. For
122 Indiana Academy of Science
example, studies in the tropics (4, 5, 6, 12, 14, 28) have emphasized trees and
neglected shrubs and vines. Cain et al. (6) provided leaf size distributions for the
entire plant community and the trees alone. The percentage of species having
large leaves was greater for the trees (84. 1%) than for the entire flora (79.5%).
Ideally, the leaf size for all species of dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and vines
should be recorded (2, 3, 21). In studying the warm temperate moist forest life
zone, Dolph (8, 9) utilized all the dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and vines.
Monocotyledons such as the palms (12), herbaceous angiosperms (6, 18), and
ferns (6) should not be used, particularly if the data is to be used in estimating
paleoclimate.
In addition to sampling different life forms, different sampling intensities
have been used in different studies. A lower sampling intensity than desirable
was a characteristic of the majority of the sample stands studied in the tropics. In
the tropical latitudinal region, the number of species recorded ranged from a low
of 7 (12) to a maximum of 218 (6). The number of species sampled at the 73
localities (11) was very different. Sampling was rarely complete. For example,
Gentry (12) recorded 7 tree species from a ridge top south of Osa Station in the
tropical wet forest life zone. In comparison, 97 tree species were recorded west of
Rincon and a minimum of 82 tree species south of Rincon in ridge top forests on
the Osa Pennisula by Holdridge et al. (17). The calculation of leaf area for only
the more common or dominant species in a sample stand was proposed by
Richards et al. (22). Because the correlation of leaf form with climate can vary
depending on the sampling intensity, more complete samples are desirable.
Improper Sampling Technique
A low species diversity in the sample could also result from improper
sampling of the vegetation. In a number of studies, a sufficiently large sampling
area was used to record either all the tree species (4, 6), all the phanerophytes (1,
19), or all the woody dicotyledons (8, 9). At many sample stands (12, 16, 17, 23,
24, 27), the sampling area was inadequate for complete analysis of the
vegetation. In sampling the tropical dry and wet forest life zones, Gentry (12)
analyzed between approximately 60 to 90 sq m at each locality by the line
transect method. This sampling area is less than the 200-500 sq m suggested for
use in temperate forests (20) and is insufficient for sampling more diverse
tropical woodlands. In contrast, Dolph (8, 9) sampled 1 ,000 sq m when studying
the warm temperate moist forest of Indiana. For some sample sites (18, 28),
sampling area was not discussed. Grubb et al. ( 14) did not feel that sampling area
had a great influence on the analysis of leaf size distribution. Because the
number of species recorded is dependent on the intensity of sampling, this
conclusion is in error. The determination of leaf size distribution at any locality
must be based on an adequate sample.
Generalized Vegetation Descriptions
Some investigators (4, 25, 26) did not record leaf size distribution by
locality but gave synthesized data for an entire vegetation type. For example,
Stehlef (25, 26) normally did not record leaf size distributions for specific forests
on the Caribbean Islands. Instead, the common species in the different
Botany 123
associations studies throughout the Caribbean and the range in leaf size of each
were listed. Depending on how the data are used, very divergent results can be
obtained. Using the data for the mesophytic forest at St. Luce, Martinque (25),
the percentage of species having large leaves was 30.5%, if the smallest sizes in
the range of each species were applied; and 80%, if the largest were used.
Generalized leaf size distributions should not be used because they fail to
account for the local effect of climate on vegetation. Leaf size distributions
should be given on a stand by stand basis.
Lack of Climatic Data
Considerable difficulty was encountered in estimating the precise climate at
each of the sample sites, particularly in the tropical life zones. This problem is a
direct result of the lack of weather stations in the tropics ( 1 7). In the initial survey
(11), the mean annual biotemperature of 19 of the original 78 sample sites had to
be estimated from nearby weather stations. Additional climatic data might shift
the position of the data points slightly on the life zone chart, particularly along
the axis indicating mean annual biotemperature. This problem did not affect the
initial study of leaf size distributions (11) because the relative and not the
absolute position of the sample stands was most important. If larger amounts of
data or a different method of analysis (e.g., Wisconsin polar ordination) are
used, more exact climatic data will be necessary.
Estimation of Leaf Area
Finally, a better method of estimating leaf area must be used. In the
majority of studies (4, 5, 6, 12, 18, 28), leaf area was estimated as two-thirds of
the product of leaf length and width. A recent study (9) has indicated that as
many as 30% of the species studied at a single locality can be placed in the wrong
size class by using this equation. The best approach (9) is to use a dot planimeter
(15) to estimate leaf area. Sophisticated electronic equipment is available to
carry out these estimates, but it can only be transported back and forth to the
sample site with great difficulty.
Conclusions
The theories relating leaf form with climate (2, 3,21) were all proposed over
forty years ago. Analysis of the available data on leaf size has indicated that
theoretical predictions and field observations do not always agree (11). If the
theories are to be revised, more data must be collected using a uniform
procedure. The need for a uniform method of data analysis was first noted in
1940 (22) but was disregarded. If followed, the proposals presented in this paper
should increase the accuracy of studies on the variation in leaf morphology and
make data from different areas of the world more directly comparable.
The need for accuracy in the determination of leaf size distributions is
particularly important for the estimation of paleoclimates. Currently, there are
two methods available for estimating paleoclimate. One method is based on
estimating the climate under which a fossil species lived by the climate under
which its nearest living relative currently exists. If the fossil species is
misidentified, paleoclimatic estimates based on its nearest living relative will be
124 Indiana Academy of Science
inaccurate. The second method involves using the correlation between modern
climates and leaf morphology to estimate paleoclimates. As the study of local
variation in leaf form with climate has revealed (11), this approach, although
promising, will yield useful results only after more data has been collected using
a standardized system of analysis.
Literature Cited
1. Asprey, G. F. and A. R. Loveless. 1958. The dry evergreen formation of Jamaica. II. The raised
coral beaches of the north coast. J. Ecol. 46:547-570.
2. Bailey, I. W. and E. W. Sinnott. 1915. A botanical index of Cretaceous and Tertiary climates.
Science 41:831-834.
3. and 1916. The climatic distribution of certain types of angiosperm leaves. Am. J. Bot.
3:24-39.
4. Beard, J. S. 1946. The natural vegetation of Trinidad. Oxford For. Mem. 20:1-152.
5. Cain, I. A. and G. M. de Oliveira Castro. 1959. Manual of vegetation analysis. Harper, New
York. 325 pp.
6. , G. M. de Oliveira Castro, J. Murca Peres, and N. T. daSilva. 1956. Application of some
phytosociological techniques to the Brazilian rain forest. Am. J. Bot. 43:911-941.
7. Dilcher, D. L. 1973. The Eocene floras of southeastern North America. In A. Graham (Ed).
Vegetation and Vegetational History of Northern Latin America, pp. 39-59. Elsevier, New York.
8. Dolph, G. E. 1971. A comparison of local and regional leaf characteristics in Indiana. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 80:99-103.
9. 1977. The effect of different calculational techniques on the estimation of leaf area and the
construction of leaf size distributions. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 104:264-269.
10. and D. L. Dilcher. 1976. Foliar physiognomy of the Carolinas. Am. J. Bot. 63 (Supp.): 24.
11. and 1979. Variation in leaf size with respect to climate. Manuscript in preparation.
12. Gentry, A. H. 1969. A comparison of some leaf characteristics of tropical dry forest and tropical
wet forest in Costa Rica. Turrialba 19:419-428.
13. Greig-Smith, P. 1952. Ecological observations on degraded and secondary forest in Trinidad,
British West Indies, I. General features of the vegetation. J. Ecol. 40:283-315.
14. Grubb, P. J., J. R. Lloyd, T. D. Pennington, and T. C. Whitmore. 1963. A comparison of
montane and lowland rain forest in Ecuador. I. The forest structure, physiognomy, and floristics. J.
Ecol. 51:567-601.
15. Heinicke, D. H. 1963. Note on the distribution of leaf area and leaf distribution in fruit trees. Can.
J. Plant Sci. 43:597-598.
16. Holdridge, L. R. 1967. Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center, San Jose, Costa Rica. 206 pp.
17. , W. C. Grenke, W. H. Hatheway, T. Liang, and J. A. Tosi, Jr. 1971. Forest environments in
tropical life zones: A pilot study. Pergamon Press, New York. 747 pp.
18. Howard, R. A. 1969. The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico, 8. Studies on stem growth and
form of leaf structure. J. Arn. Arb. 50:225-262.
19. Loveless, A. R. and G. F. Asprey. 1957. The dry evergreen formations of Jamaica. I. The
limestone hills of the south coast. J. Ecol. 45:799-822.
20. Mueller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 547 pp.
21. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life-forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford University
Press, Oxford. 632 pp.
22. Richards, P. W., A. G. TANSLEY,and A. S. Watt. 1940. The recording of structure, life form, and
flora of tropical forest communities as a basis for their classification. J. Ecol. 28:224-239.
Botany 125
23. Smith, J. H. Nelson. 1945. Forest associations of British Honduras, II. Caribbean Forester
6(2):45-61.
24. 1945. Forest associations of British Honduras, III. Caribbean Forester 7(3): 1 3 1 - 147.
25. Stehle\ H. 1945. Forest types of the Caribbean Islands. Caribbean Forester 6(Supp.):273-393.
26. and E. Bruet. 1953. Esquisse gdologique et evolution phytosociologique sur les sables de
sedimentation moderne de la plage de Grande Anse-Deshayes, en Guadeloupe. Bull. Mus. Natl.
Hist. Nat. 25(6):6 10-620.
27. Stevenson, N. S. 1942. Forest associations of British Honduras, I. Caribbean Forester 3(4): 164-
171.
28. Tasaico, H. 1959. La fisionaomia de las hojas de arboles en alguner formacioner tropicales. M.A.
thesis. Inst. Interam. Ciencias Agricolas, Turrialba, Costa Rica. 88 pp.
CELL BIOLOGY
Chairman: Ralph Jersild, Jr., Department of Anatomy
Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
Chairman-Elect: Betty D. Allamong, Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstracts
Light-Induced Changes in Photoreceptor Metabolism, A New Clue to Visual
Function. Edward A. Kimble, Purdue University Light induced
changes in the respiration of bullfrog retinae have been recorded under
conditions where synaptic transmission is known to be blocked, i.e. after
treatment with lOmM sodium aspartate. Under these conditions, illumination
causes a decrease in respiration that is apparently related to known changes in
the active transport of sodium ions and which amounts to a decrease in
respiration of -6800 O2 molecules per photon captured. Elimination of sodium
transport by treatment with 10"4M ouabain or by removal of sodium gives rise to
a second type of response. Illumination now stimulates respiration (+2160 O2
molecules/ photon captured). This response is abolished by removal of calcium
but readdition of calcium restores the response. These responses appear to
reflect changes in metabolic energy usage. Furthermore, bypassing anaerobic
sites of energy production does not change the general pattern of response. This
technique allows detection of chemical events in the retina which are not
currently detectable by electrophysiological measurements.
The Distribution and Mobility of Anionic Sites on Intestinal Absorptive Cell
Brush Borders. Ralph A. Jersild, Jr. and R. W. Crawford, Department of
Anatomy, Indiana University Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana
46202 The distribution and behavior of anionic sites on the microvillous
surface of rat jejunal absorptive cells were studied using polycationic ferritin
(PCF) as a visual probe. Segments were incubated in PCF either before or after
glutaraldehyde fixation. The results indicated that the anionic sites can be
divided into three groups based on their interaction with PCF. 1 ) Sites along the
length of the microvilli which are accessible to binding PCF in living, unfixed
cells. These sites are capable of translational mobility at the membrane surface
and can be induced to cluster into discrete patches by PCF. Their redistribution
is prevented by prefixation. 2) Sites randomly distributed along the length of the
microvilli which are inaccessible to PCF without prior fixation. 3) Sites
restricted to the microvillous tips which are accessible to PCF without fixation,
but are apparently immobile. Independent variation was observed in the
number of sites in each of the three groups among neighboring cells irrespective
of villous position, suggestive of variations in the turnover of these sites.
The Structure of Small Molecule Permeation Channels in Human Red Blood
Cell Membranes. William K. Stephenson and R. Scott Vander Wall,
Department of Biology, Earlham College, Richman, Indiana 47374 The
127
128 Indiana Academy of Science
permeability of human red blood cell (rbc) membranes to water and various
alcohols was determined by comparing hemolysis times. The maximum
diameter of the permeation channels or pores for small molecules was
determined to be 10 A since the rbc is relatively impermeable to glucose.
Alcohols with van der Walls radii diameters of up to 6.3 A are able to enter the
rbc. An increased number of hydroxyl groups retards permeability. We
conclude that the channels by which small molecules permeate the rbc
membrane are lined with ionic and /or polar groups which interact with the
permeating molecules.
Morphological and Functional Interaction of Dissociated Rat Superior
Cervical Ganglion Neurons and Heart Ventricular Cells in Co-culture.
Kathleen L. King*, Daniel C. Williams, George B. Boder and Richard J.
Harley. The Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company,
Indianapolis, Indiana 46206 In the absence of exogenously supplied nerve
growth factor, dissociated newborn rat superior cervical ganglion neurons will
survive and extend processes on a monolayer of dissociated rat heart ventricular
cells in culture. Interaction between these two types of cells in co-culture was
stimulated by the addition of tyramine which is believed to increase heart rate in
vivo by effecting release of catecholamines from sympathetic nerve endings. In
83% of the co-cultures examined in the presence of 5xl0"6M tyramine, an
increase in the beat rate of the ventricular cells contacted by neuronal processes
was observed and measured by means of a photooptical system. Heart cells
cultured without neurons did not show a positive chronotropic response to this
concentration of tyramine. Examination of the co-cultures with electron
microscopy has revealed muscle cell surfaces in close apposition to neuronal
varicosities containing granular and agranular vesicles. The dimensions of the
junctional spaces, the vesicle size, and the spatial relationships were similar to
those in the mouse ventricle in vivo. These observations suggest that the
association of sympathetic neurons and heart ventricular cells in co-culture is at
least in some ways similar to their morphological and functional interaction in
vivo.
Effect of Retinol Palmitate on Glycolipid and Glycoprotein Galactosyl
Transferase Activities of Rat Liver Plasma Membrane. Kim E. Creek, D. James
Morre* and C. L. Richardson, Departments of Biological Sciences and
Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
47907 Vitamin A has been implicated in glycosyltransferase reactions and
retinol phosphate has been identified as a lipid carrier for certain hexoses
destined for incorporation glycoproteins. Both vitamin A-deficient and -
supplemented diets have similar effects in depressing levels of liver glycolipids
and in the first glycosyltransferase unique to the ganglioside biosynthetic
pathway (Richardson et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 488, 88, 1977). In the
present study, effects of retinol palmitate on catalysis of transfer of galactose
from UDP-galactose to endogenous glycoprotein and glycolipid acceptors by
purified plasma membrane preparations from rat liver were examined. Results
show a log dose dependency with an optium at about 1/ 1000 unit per assay.
Above or below this optium concentration, the vitamin inhibited the enzymatic
activity as in previous studies in vivo. The significance of these findings to use of
Cell Biology 129
retinol derivatives in cancer chemotherapy will be discussed. Work supported in
part by a grant from the Phi Beta Psi National Sorority to C.L.R.
Fast Axoplasmic Transport of Calcium is Associated with the Transport of a
Protein in the Mammalian Nerve. Zafar Iqbal, Department of Physiology and
the Medical Biophysics Program, Indiana University School of Medicine,
Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, U.S. A The role of calcium in axoplasmic
transport has come under attention in our laboratory as a result of studies
showing that Ca2+ is required in the medium to maintain axoplasmic transport
and that it is transported at a fast rate of 410 mm/day in cat sciatic nerve (Iqbal
& Ochs, Neurosci. Abst. /: 802, 1975; Ochs, Iqbal, Worth & Chan, Int. Soc.
Neurochem. Symp., 1977). This communication describes that the transport of
Ca2+ in the nerve is associated with the transport of a calcium binding protein in
the nerve. These studies were made by injecting Ca + into L7 dorsal root
ganglion of cat and the labeled transported protein in the nerve characterized by
gel filtration using Sephadex G 100 and Biogel A 5m columns. Fast transported
45Ca2+ was found associated with a protein peak eluting in the range of 15,000
dalton. Using [3H]-leucine as a precursor, this 15,000 dalton protein was found
to be transported at the same rate as 4SCa2+ labeled protein in the sciatic nerve.
When [3H]-leucine labeled protein was incubated with 45Ca2+ and processed for
gel filtration, both 45Ca2+ and [3H]-activities eluted at the same elution volume
from the column. These results suggest that Ca2+ is transported in the nerve in
association with the protein. Some possible roles played by the calcium binding
protein will also be discussed. Supported by the NIH grant PHS R01 NS 8706-
08.
The Effects of Isoproterenol on Mitosis and Cell Ultrastructure. Meg Durkin
and Charles W. Goff, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University,
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 Isoproterenol and other factors which enhance
the activity of adenyl cyclase and thus lead to increased intracellular levels of
CAMP in a number of animal systems has been shown to lead to a decrease in
cell division within 24 hours. In an attempt to determine whether isoproterenol
has the same effect on plant systems, onion roots {Allium cepa) were grown in a
solution of 0.5 mM isoproterenol over a 24-hour period. Roots were sampled at
0, 1,3, 6, 9, 12 and 24-hour intervals, fixed and squash preparations of the roots
were examined under light microscopy. The mitotic index was calculated and
compared against control roots grown in distilled water. The experimental cells
showed a significant decrease in the percentage of mitotic cells 1 hour after
treatment (from 1 1.5% to 5.9%) and remained approximately one-half of the
percentage of mitotic cells for the control cells thorughout the 24 hour period.
Studies are in progress to determine whether any ultrastructural changes,
particularly involving the mitotic process, are associated with the presumed
change in intracellular CAMP level.
Increased amounts of ATP related to cellular activation of onion leaf base
tissue. Dr. W. S. Courtis, Assistant Professor of Biology, IUPUI, 1201 E. 38th
Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46205 Previously protected (quiescent) onion
leaf base tissue exposed to the ambient atmosphere contained significantly more
ATP per gram fresh weight than control tissue. Although 48 hour exposed tissue
contained more ATP than 24 hour exposed tissue, the difference (6 nm ATP per
130 Indiana Academy of Science
gram fresh weight) was not significantly different. These data suggest that leaf
base mesophyll cells are activated by exposure in a manner similar to that
reported for outer epidermal cells using other techniques.
Sialic Acid Elevated in Experimental Liver Cancer1
Thomas M. Kloppel, Dorien Sarles, Linda B. Jacobsen and D. James Morre"
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
Constituents of cell surfaces of mammalian cells which may be important to
cancer-related properties are glycoproteins and glycolipids ( 14, 1 5). Sialic acid is
a common terminal saccharide on many of these glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Some tumors have been reported to have elevated sialic acid content,
including human tumors of the colon, stomach, breast and other tissues ( 1 , 2, 6)
and experimental liver tumors of the rat (8-10). Some authors, however, have
concluded that specific cell surface sialic acid changes are not a general property
of neoplastic cells (11, 17). In cultured transformed cells, the most frequent
change is a lowering of the membrane sialic acid content (3, 12, 13).
As part of a continuing study to determine to what extent sialic acid
changes are associated with experimental liver cancer, the present study
compares the sialic acid content of several transplantable hepatomas and
normal livers of animals bearing transplantable hepatomas to those of
carcinogen-induced squamous cell carcinomas and normal and regenerating
liver. The results, although preliminary, suggest a pattern of sialic acid change
which may be a property of neoplastic cells when considered in the context of
previously published results from our laboratory and work of others.
Materials and Methods
To obtain hyperplastic and neoplastic liver tissues, inbred (CDF) male
Wistar rats (Carworth Farms, New City, N.Y.) weighing 150 to 170 g were fed a
low protein basal diet (Carcinogenic Basal Diet, Teklad Mills, Madison,
Wisconsin) containing 0.05% N-2-fluorenylacetamide (Aldrich Chemical Co.)
according to the schedule of Merkow et al. (7). Control rats received basal diet
without added carcinogen. At the end of a 13-week feeding schedule, all rats
were fed the basal diet for two additional weeks. Rats were killed by cervical
dislocation after a 24 hr fast and bled.
Transplantable tumors originated from carcinogen treated livers and were
harvested 6 to 10 months after the beginning of carcinogen administration.
Hyperplastic nodules and hepatomas appearing in tissues were removed,
washed, minced in sterile salt solution and injected subcutaneously into
syngeneic recipients. At the same time, a portion of each tumor was fixed in
Bouin's fixative solution or buffered 2% glutaraldehyde for histopathological
analysis. Any remaining tissue was stored at -20° C for determination of sialic
acid and protein. Once the transplanted tumors had reached a diameter of
approximately 3 cm, they were removed aseptically, minced and transplanted
'Supported in part by a grant from the National Institutes of Health CA 21958.
131
132 Indiana Academy of Science
into a second syngeneic recipient or processed for tissue culture as outlined
below.
To initiate tumor cell lines in culture, the transplantable hepatomas were
rinsed in calcium- and magnesium-free balanced salt solution and necrotic areas
were removed. Finely minced portions of the tumor were added to growth media
or incubated at 37° C in a trypsinizing flask with either 1% collagenase, 0.25%
trypsin, or 0.05% trypsin containing 0.02% EDTA for intervals of 15 to 20 min.
After incubation, cells were removed, washed and placed in growth medium.
The growth medium was a minimum essential medium with Earles salts or
Ham's F-10 nutrient mixture supplemented with 15 to 20% fetal calf serum, or
10% donor horse serum and 10% fetal calf serum. No single combination of
processing, medium, or serum was successful with all tumors processed. Once
the cultures had become confluent, or when dense colonies developed,
subcultures were obtained by routine procedures. Tumorigenicity was
monitored by harvesting cells and injecting the saline washed cells into syngeneic
recipient animals.
Regenerating liver was induced by surgical removal of one or two liver
lobes of sodium pentobarbital anesthesized animals. Ligation with suture was
used to prevent hemorrhaging. Hyperplastic liver tissue was removed one week
later and frozen for later analysis.
For biochemical analysis, tissues were minced, rinsed to remove residual
blood, and homogenized in four volumes of ice-cold distilled water with a
Polytron tissue homogenizer (Kinematica, Lucerne, Switzerland). The resulting
homogenates were sampled for determination of protein (5) and sialic acid ( 1 6).
For sialic acid determinations, samples were hydrolyzed with 0.5 ml 0. 1 N HC1
for 1 hour at 80° C, and the sialic acid determined by the thiobarbituric acid
procedure of Warren (16). In order to reduce interference from the crude
homogenates, values of sialic acid were calculated by recording absorbance at 2
wavelengths and substituting these values into the following equation: nmoles
sialic acid = 90 (O.D.549) - 33 (O.D.532). The value reported is the mean of
triplicate determinations.
Results
The transplantable hepatomas studied were well differentiated hepatomas
derived from primary tumors induced in the rat by oral administration of the
carcinogen N-2-fluorenylacetamide. Tumors were analyzed after the third
transfer in syngeneic recipients.
On a protein basis, levels of total sialic acid were elevated 1.4 to 4.0 times
control liver in the four transplantable hepatomas analyzed (Table 1).
Additionally sialic acid levels were significantly elevated in livers from
carcinogen treated animals prior to the appearance of either hepatomas or
hyperplastic nodules and even in apparently normal livers of animals bearing
transplantable hepatomas subcutaneously implanted. In contrast, regenerating
liver showed no elevation in sialic acid. A transplantable squamous cell
carcinoma from the jaw region (in vivo and in vitro), derived from rats fed the
carcinogen N-2-fluorenylacetamide, showed sialic acid values similar to those of
hepatomas (Table 1).
Cell Biology
133
Table 1. Sialic acid from experimental tumors and control tissues.
Tissue Source
Total Sialic Acid
(nanomoles per mg protein)
+ Standard Deviation
Control Liver
Liver from Carcinogen-
Treated Animals
Regenerating Liver
Transplantable Hepatomas
RLTi
RLT2
RLT3
RLT7
Liver from Rats Bearing
Transplantable Tumors
Transplantable Squamous Cell
Carcinomas from Jaw Region
JTi
JT2
In Cell Culture
4.5 + 0.3
7.0+ 1.0
3.8
18.0
16.4
6.3
10.3
5.9
18.0
16.9
21.6
0.7
When sialic acid content was expressed as a function of growth rate for the
four transplantable hepatomas and two jaw tumors, an optimum curve was
obtained (Fig. 1). Sialic acid content was greatest on a protein basis (or fresh
weight basis) with tumors of intermediate growth rate. The slowest and most
rapidly growing hepatomas had specific sialic acid values of lesser magnitude
although still elevated relative to control liver.
Table 2. Characteristics of experimental tumors cultured in vitro.
Derived from
Transfer
Transplantable
Number
Predominant In
Tumor Production
Tissue Source
Tumor
In Vivo
Vitro Cel Type
In Vivo
Liver
RLT!
1
epithelial-like
yes
2
fibroblast-like
no
RLT2
1
2
fibroblast-like
fibroblast-like
RLT3
1
fibroblast-like
no
RLT4
1
fibroblast-like
Jaw Region
JTi
1
epithelial-like
yes
JT2
1
epithelial-like
yes
Those hepatoma and squamous cell carcinoma lines successfully carried in
cell culture are summarized in Table 2. Thus far, only the squamous cell
carcinoma and one hepatoma line have been successfully transplanted back into
an animal.
134
Indiana Academy of Science
c
o
£
o
<
o
<
GROWTH RATE
mm /day x I02/I07
cells
Figure 1. Relationship between specific sialic acid content and growth rate of transplantable
hepatomas ( A ) and squamous cell carcinomas of the jaw region (•) originally induced in the rat by
administration of the carcinogen N-2-fluorenylacetamide.
Discussion
As emphasized in the Introduction, sialic acid alterations during
tumorigenesis have been questioned as to general significance because, while
elevations have been recorded for solid tumors, a frequent change in
transformed cells in culture is a lowering of sialic acid content (11, 17). Our
findings taken together with previous work from our laboratory and work of
others and summarized in Figure 2, however, suggest that sialic acid changes
may exhibit a more meaningful pattern than previously suspected.
Merritt et al. (8) reported increased sialic acid in preneoplastic hyperplastic
nodules of rat liver induced by administration of the N-2-fluorenylacetamide
carcinogen. Later studies (9) compared pooled small hepatomas most of which
were classified as well differentiated as well as livers from carcinogen-treated
animals, liver tissue surrounding nodules and hepatomas, fetal liver and livers of
developing animals.
Sialic acid levels are elevated in fetal liver and at birth, drop sharply in the
week after birth and remain more or less constant in the adult. Following
administration of carcinogen, sialic acid values once again begin to increase with
a nearly 2-fold elevation in hyperplastic liver nodules. Maximum values are
attained in well differentiated hepatomas with a decline in invasive, poorly
differentiated and poorly circumscribed hepatomas.
Cell Biology
135
NI310dd Gw/Qiov OHVIS S310WONVN
Figure 2. Summary of changes in total specific sialic acid content during liver development and N-2-
fluorenylacetamide-induced tumorigenesis in rat liver and cells in culture. Indications for cells in
culture are based on information from the literature (see discussion). Other values are from the studies
of Merritt et al. (8, 9) in our laboratory.
136 Indiana Academy of Science
The present results augment and extend these observations. It should be
noted that the absolute values obtained are less than those reported by Meritt et
al. (8, 9). However a different method of sialic acid determination was utilized in
the present investigation along with a procedure to correct for interference from
non-sialic acid sources of absorbing chromogens. However, the relative values
obtained are comparable to those of Merritt et al. (89) and show an optimum
curve with maximum sialic acid content on a protein basis with transplantable
tumors of intermediate rates of growth.
These findings point to an explanation for changes in sialic acid of opposite
sign previously obtained. Cell lines of fibroblast origin exhibit extremely rapid
rates of growth. Transformation serves to give an even more rapid rate of
growth. Thus a decrease in sialic acid under such conditions would follow the
same pattern we have observed with the transplantable hepatomas.
Although we have not studied the cause of the increased total sialic acid
content in hyperplastic tissues and well differentiated hepatomas, other studies
from our laboratory indicate that similar increases in lipid-associated sialic acid
(sialic acid-containing glycolipids = gangliosides) are attributable to increased
specific activities of glycolipid biosynthetic enzymes (10). Recently Kloppel et al.
(4) reported a biochemical method of cancer detection based on serum analysis
of lipid-associated sialic acid in mice and humans bearing mammary and colonic
carcinomas. In this regard, the elevated sialic acid levels in livers of rats bearing
transplantable hepatomas are of interest. Taken with the observations of
Kloppel et al. (4) that a serum sialic acid fraction is elevated, the findings point to
elevations in sialic acid as a primary and early tissue response to the presence of
cancer or to specific lesions of a potentially precancerous nature.
Literature Cited
1. Barker, S. A., M. Stacey, D. J. Tipper and J. H. Kirkham. 1959. Some observations on certain
mucoproteins containing neuraminic acid. Nature 184:BA68-BA69.
2. Bryant, M. L., G. D. STONERand R. P. Metzger. 1974. Protein-bound carbohydrate content of
normal and tumorous human lung tissue. Biochim. Biophhys. Acta 343:226-231.
3. Grimes, W. J. 1973. Glycosyltransferase and sialic acid levels of normal and transformed cells.
Biochemistry 12:990-996.
4. Kloppel, T. M, T. W. Keenan, M. J. Freeman and D. J. Morre". 1977. Glycolipid bound sialic
acid in serum: Increased levels in mice and humans bearing mammary carcinomas. Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 74:3011-3013.
5. Lowry, O. H., N. J. Rosebrough, A. L. Farr and R. J. Randall. 1951. Protein measurement
with the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem. 193:265-275.
6. Mabry, W. E. and R. Carubelli. 1972. Sialic acid in human cancer. Experentia 28:182-183.
7. Merkow, L. P., S. M. Epstein, E. Farber, M. Pardo and B. Bartus. 1969. Cellular analysis of
liver carcinogenesis. III. Comparison of the ultrastructure of hyperplastic liver nodules and
hepatocellular carcinomas induced in rat liver by 2-fluorenylacetamide. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 43:33-
63.
8. Merritt, W. D., T. W. Keenan and D. J. Morre". 1976. Gangliosides and other lipids of
hyperplastic liver nodules induced by N-2-fluorenylacetamide. Cancer Biochem. Biophys. 1:179-
185.
Cell Biology 137
9. Merritt, W. D., C. L. Richardson, T. W. Keenan and D. J. Morre". In Press. Gangliosides of
liver tumors induced by N-2-fluorenylacetamide. I. Ganglioside alterations in liver tumorigenesis
and normal development. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 60:1313-1327.
10. Merritt, W. D., D. J. Morre" and T. W. Keenan. In Press. Gangliosides of liver tumors induced
by N-2-fluorenylacetamide. II. Alterations in biosynthetic enzymes. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 60:1329-
1337.
1 1. Nicolson, G. L. 1976. Trans-membrane control of the receptors on normal and tumor cells. II.
Surface changes associated with transformation and malignancy. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 458:98-
102.
12. Ohta, N., A. B. Pardee, B. R. McAuslan and M. M. Burger. 1968. Sialic acid contents and
controls of normal and malignant cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 158:98-102.
13. Perdue, J. F., R. Kletzien and V. L. Wray. 1972. The isolation and characterization of plasma
membrane from cultured cells. IV. The carbohydrate composition of membranes isolated from
oncogenic RNA virus-converted chick embryo fibroblasts. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 266:505-510.
14. Richardson, C. L., S. R. Baker, D. J. Morre" and T. W. Keenan. 1975. Glycosphingolipid
synthesis and tumorigenesis: A role for the Golgi apparatus in the origin of specific receptor
molecules of the mammalian cell surface. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Cancer Reviews 417:175-186.
15. Wallach, D. F. H. 1975. Membrane molecular biology of neoplastic cells. Elsevier Scientific,
Amsterdam-Oxford-New York. 525 pp.
16. Warren, L. 1959. The thiobarbituric acid assay of sialic acids. J. Biol. Chem. 234:1971-1975.
17. Weiss, L. 1973. Neuraminidase, sialic acids, and cell interactions. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 50:3-19.
Extraction and Purification of a Factor which Stimulates
Silicomolybdate Reduction by Photosystem II of Spinach Chloroplasts
L. Leonard, R. Barr and F. L. Crane1
Department of Biological Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47901
Introduction*
As shown by Swanson, Thomson and Mudd (10), extraction of tobacco
chloroplasts with acetone concentrations up to 30% in fresh or glutaraldehyde-
fixed material removes some neutral lipid, acylated steryl glycoside, and
monogalactosyl diglyceride, but the structural integrity of chloroplast
membranes remains undisturbed. Likewise, the activity of most photosynthetic
electron transport reactions is undiminished or even stimulated after a 30%
acetone wash (Barr, unpublished results). The only exception may be
silicomolybdate reduction by PS II in presence of DCMU (3), a reaction which
normally gives good O2 evolution rates for the first 30 seconds but stops
thereafter. In this study, we have explored the possibility of loss of a factor from
chloroplast membranes in presence of silicomolybdic acid. For this purpose, we
used low acetone concentrations (1-2%) to extract and purify a factor from
spinach chloroplasts, which, when added to the silicomolybdate assay,
stimulates O2 evoluation up to 50%. The identity of the stimulator is also
discussed. It may be a pteridine or an analog of folic acid (4).
Materials and Methods
Chloroplasts were made from market spinach in 0.4 sucrose — 0.05M NaCl
according to a modified method of Jagendorf and Avron (5). Chlorophyll was
determined according to Arnon (1). Chloroplasts containing 1 mgchl/ml were
osmotically shocked by suspending in water prior to an acetone wash (10 mg
chl/50 ml 1 or 2% acetone in batches of 3-5). The washed chloroplasts were
sedimented by centrifugation at 2,000x g for 10 min. The supernatant containing
silicomolybdate stimulation factor was further purified by centrifugation at
7,500 x g. The clear yellow supernatant was used for further purification on
columns or by TLC. Sometimes it was dialyzed overnight to remove the acetone,
especially if used in silicomolybdate assays.
Purification of silicomolybdate stimulation factor was carried out in 3
ways: ( 1 ) on DEAE cellulose columns equilibrated with 5 m M phosphate buffer,
pH 7; elution of yellow band with 0.5 M NaCl in 5mM phosphate buffer, (2) on
'Supported by NSF Grant BMS 7419689.
*Abbreviations used frequently are:
DCMU— 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- 1,1 -dimethylurea;
PS II — photosystem II;
SM — silicomolybdic acid.
138
Cell Biology
139
Merck aluminum oxide columns equilibrated with 2% acetone; elution of yellow
band with 2% ammonium hydroxide after a 1% ammonium wash, (3) on PEI
Cellulose F TLC plates developed in 8% ammonium hydroxide; yellow
stimulator band has an Rf of 0.37 or higher depending on purity of starting
material.
Silicomolybdate reduction by spinach chloroplasts in presence of DCMU
was measured as (h evolution with a Clark-type oxygen electrode connected to a
Yellow Springs Oxygen Monitor. Rates were recorded with a Sargent- Welch
SRG recorder. Illumination (5 x 105 ergs/cm2-sec) was provided by a specially
built light source using a General Electric CBA (120V) Quartzline projector
lamp. Reaction mixtures are given in the legend of Fig. 2.
Folic acid (Sigma) was added to chloroplasts as alkaline solutions in water.
Results and Discussion
The silicomolybdate stimulation factor removed from chloroplasts by 1 or
2% acetone washes remains unidentified, although certain similarities between
folic acid and the factor in various stages of purification are apparent from
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
UJ
0 1.2
<
gl.0
O
CO
§0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
folic acid
— fr.from alumina
(before dialysis)
c \ /""X
after dialysis
"n \ / \
A-A 0.5M NaCI from DEAE
v \ \ f >*«S.
1%acetone super-
• \\ \ 1 X v \
natant
(after dialysis)
•-• compound after
heptane extraction
\ \s ^ /vX
\ \\ / \\
\i •• / \ \
- x — /-••• \ ^
v\\7 \
-V-->4
% -*^'\. ^*
V--**0^ N \1_
^ n
-■
**w. W*++-^
1 1
1 1
225 250 275 300
WAVELENGTH (nm)
325
350
Figure 1. The Ultraviolet Absorption Spectra of the Silicomolybdate Stimulation Factor Isolated
from Spinach Chloroplasts by 1 or 2% Acetone Extraction in Various Stages of Purification. The U. V.
absorption spectrum of folic acid is included for comparison.
140
Indiana Academy of Science
(JM/IMO Bw/ Am03n) NOIJUTIOA3 z0
Figure 2. Stimulation of Silicomolybdate Reduction in Presence of DC M U at p H 6 bv the Factor
Isolated from 1 or 2% Acetone Extracts of Spinach Chloroplasts Compared to Stimulation by Folic
Acid Under the Same Conditions. Silicomolybdate reduction assayed polarographicallv with a Clark-
type electrode. Reaction mixture contained in 1.5 ml volume: chloroplasts (50 g chlorophyll), buffer
(25 mM Tris-Mes. pH 6 or 8), 2 mM MgCh at pH 6 only. 2 mM NH^CIat pH8only, DCMU(I.5 /uM),
si/icomolybdic acid (0.2 mg).
Cell Biology 141
absorption spectra in the U.V. region of the spectrum (Fig. 1). The fraction
which resembles folic acid the most comes from purification of 2% acetone
extracts on a DEAE cellulose column and is eluted with 0.5 M NaCl. This factor
shows an absorption maximum at about 280nm, a minimum at 250 nm, as does
folic acid itself. However, the factor does not give blue fluorescence. The Rf on
PEI Cellulose F TLC plates developed in 8% ammonium hydroxide is also
different (0.37) versus 0.67 for folic acid). This difference may be due to
insufficient purification of the factor or to breakdown during our isolation
procedures, which require long periods of dialysis to remove residual acetone.
However, stimulation of silicomolybdate reduction by PS II in presence of
DCMUis shown by the impure 2% acetone factor after centrifugation at 7,500 x
g and dialysis (Fig. 2), as well as by various purified forms (not shown). Better
stimulation of the rate at pH 6 is given by the acetone factor than by folic acid
itself (Fig. 2), although lower concentrations of folic acid are required for
maximum stimulation (1:15) before inhibition of the rate is observed. At pH 8,
the acetone factor and folic acid are slightly inhibitory.
Folic acid was first isolated from spinach leaves by Mitchell and co-workers
(6,7). Folic acid and other pteridines stimulate photophosphorylation in spinach
chloroplasts (8,9). However, this is the first report of its action on
silicomolybdate reduction by PS II. The significance of stimulation of the
forward electron transport reactions by folic acid and the isolated acetone factor
may be related to the redox feedback control mechanism described earlier by
Barr and Crane (2) in which substances which inhibit silicomolybdate reduction
in presence of DCMU stimulate forward electron transport and
photophosphorylation. Higher concentrations of folic acid or of the isolated
factor than shown in Fig. 2 inhibit silicomolybdate reduction more than 75%,
resulting in increased forward electron transport according to predictions.
In conclusion, it can be stated that a stimulator of silicomolybdate
reduction has been isolated from dilute acetone extracts of spinach chloroplasts
which resembles folic acid in certain aspects but not in others. Complete
identification of the factor awaits further study.
Literature Cited
1. Arnon, D. I. 1949. Copper enzyme in isolated chloroplasts. Polyphenoloxidase in Beta vulgaris.
Plant Physiol. 24:1-15.
2. Barr, R., and F. L. Crane 1976. Control of photosynthesis byCO:: evidence for a bicarbonate-
inhibited redox feedback in photosystem II. Proceed. Indiana Acad. Sci. 85:120-128.
3. Barr, R., F. L. Crane, and R. T. Gianquita 1975. Dichlorophenylurea-insensitive reduction of
silicomolybdic acid by chloroplast photosystem II. Plant Physiol. 55:460-462.
4. Blakley, R. L. The Biochemistry of Folic Acid and Related Pteridines. in Frontiers of Biology,
vol. 13. A. Neubergerand E. L. Tatum, eds. North-Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam, 1969. 569
pages.
5. Jagendorf, A. T.,and M. Avron 1958. Cofactors and rates of photosynthetic phosphorylation by
spinach chloroplasts. J. Biol. Chem. 231:277-290.
6. Mitchell, H. K., E. E. Snell, and R. Williams 1941. The concentration of "folic acid". J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 63:2284.
142 Indiana Academy of Science
7. Mitchell, H. K. 1944. Folic acid IV. Absorption spectra. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 66:274-278.
8. Maclean, F. I., Y. Fujita, H. S. Forrest, and J. Myers 1965. Photosynthetic phosphorylation:
stimulation by pteridines and comparison with phosphodoxin. Science 149:636-638.
9. Maclean, F. I., Y. Fujita, H. S. Forrest, and J. Myers- 1966. Stimulation of
photophosphorylation and cytochrome c photooxidation by pteridines. Plant Physiol. 41:774-779.
10. Swanson, E. W., W. W. Thomson, and J. B. Mudd 1973. Theeffect of lipid extraction onelectron-
microscopic images of plant membranes. Can. J. Bot. 51:1221-1229.
Electrophysiological Characterization of the
Ionic Selectivity of Necturus Proximal Tubule
Mary F. Asterita
Northwest Center for Medicial Education
Indiana University of Medicine, Gary, Indiana
and
Emile L. Boulpaep
Yale University School of Medicine
New Haven, Connecticut 06510
Abstract
The characteristics of transepithelial conductance in the proximal tubules of the kidney of the
amphibian, Necturus maculosus was assessed by employing electrophysiological techniques.
Changes in luminal cell membrane, AV2, peritubular cell membrane, AVi,
and transepithelial potential, AV3 were monitored during unilateral salt
dilutions in the peritubular capillaries, p, or in the lumen, /, or bilaterally in
both the pertibular capillaries and lumen simultaneously, pi. Transference
numbers for sodium and chloride were evaluated from the voltage deflection
of V3 induced across the epithelium by these salt dilutions. Actual changes in
the electromotive forces induced by salt dilutions across the peritubular
membrane, AEi, luminal membrane, AE2, and paracellular path or extra-
cellular shunt path, AE3 were estimated by solving a set of simultaneous
equations using AVi and AV3 during p, I, or pi, the luminal to peritubular
cell membrane resistance ratio, and the specific transepithelial resistance. The
results indicate that the proximal tubule exhibits a marked degree of anionic
selectivity. Also, the observed transepithelial potential changes closely
approximate the actual changes in electromotive force induced across the
paracellular pathway and thus yield an accurate estimate of the ionic
selectivity of the paracellular path.
Introduction
Epithelial cells are held together by junctional complexes encircling each
cell (12). In a number of epithelia, these junctions offer little resistance to ion
movement. Proximal convoluted tubules of Necturus (4,28) dog (8), rat (16),
rabbit (22), Ambystoma (25) and Triturus (19) kidney as well as Necturus
gallbladder (14), and rabbit ileum (22) are characterized by epithelial cells and
conspicuous lateral intercellular spaces, joined at their apical surface by a
junctional complex. This junctional complex which includes the Zonula
Occludens together with the lateral intercellular spaces comprise the
extracellular shunt path or paracellular pathway for transepithelial ion
movement. Permeability and resistance properties of the two cell membranes in
series as well as that of the shunt must be elucidated for the complete
143
144 Indiana Academy of Science
characterization of transepithelial ion movement. Transepithelial ion
movement has been studied in terms of the contributions made by the two ceil
membranes in series as well as the extracellular or paracellular shunt pathway in
the Necturus proximal tubule (2,3,5,6,7). This work attempts to further clarify
the role played by the paracellular shunt in passive ion movement. In the
presence of transepithelial ion concentration gradients, the proximal tubular
epithelium develops difussion potentials which superimpose on the normal
transepithelial potential difference. Using salt dilutions on either side of the
epithelium and treating the resulting changes in transepithelial potential
difference as a liquid junction potential, the relative transepithelial ion
selectivity of the epithelium was assessed for sodium and chloride ions.
Moveover determinations of potential differences and resistances during salt
dilution were used to analyze the various elements of an quivalent electrical
circuit of the proximal epithelium (2,5). Actual changes in the electromotive
forces were computed both for the two cell membranes in series, luminal and
peritubular, and for the paracellular pathway. These changes in equivalent
electromotive forces were correlated with observed changes in potential
difference across the same barriers. The results lend support to the view that the
properties of the overall eipthelium are characterized entirely by the paracellular
pathway and that observed changes in trasepithelial potential yield an accurate
estimate of the ionic selectivity pattern of the shunt.
Methods
Animal Preparation
All experiments were performed on adult Necturus maculosus of either sex
(Mogul-Ed, Oshkosh, Wisconsin). Doubly perfused kidneys of Necturus were
prepared as previously described (17). The composition of control solutions, i.e.,
both superfusion fluid bathing the kidney surface and vascular perfusion fluid,
was similar to the Ringer solution used previously, (2). Experimental
superfusion and vascular perfusion solutions had the same ionic composition as
Ringer solution except that a moiety of NaCl was replaced in isosmotic
proportions by sucrose.
Electrical Measurements
Peritubular (Vi) or transepithelial (V3) electrical potential differences were
recorded differentially, i.e., between an intracellular or intraluminal
microelectrode and an external reference microelectrode by means of high
impedance electrometers. Intracellular or intraluminal microelectrodes were of
the Ling-Gerard type. Only microelectrodes with tip potentials less than-L5mV
were used. The differential output of the electrometers was displayed on a
Tektronix 502A dual-beam oscilloscope and recorded by means of a Gould
Brush 220 recorder (Gould Inc, Cleveland, Ohio). All electrical potential
measurements were made on early and mid-proximal convoluted surface
tubules.
The following technique was employed in the measurement of dilution
potentials during salt gradient experiments. A double-barrelled pipette for
microperfusion was initially made to impale the lumen such that solutions could
be rapidly switched on the luminal side of the cells. Transepithelial potential
Cell Biology 145
differences, V3 as well as changes in this potential difference, AV3 were
monitored during unilateral salt dilutions in the lumen, /, or in the peritubular
capillaries, p, and lumen simultaneously, pi. Four switches in solution were
made in succession while the microelectrode impaled the lumen, according to
the following protocol. The sequence of substitutions for tenfold dilutions was
(NaCl)p =
100^100^10^10 ^100
(NaCL)1
100 10 10 100 100
(NaCl)p
where (NaCl)1 represents the ratio of the sodium chloride concentration in the
pertibular capillaries to that in the lumen. First, the peritubular capillaries
and lumen were perfused with control Ringer solution c, and the transepithelial
potential difference, Vc3 was recorded. Second, the luminal fluid was diluted by a
factor of 10, an / substitution, and the transepithelial potential was recorded,
V 3. AV i was calculated as V 3 - Vc3. Third, a bilateral substitution was made and
the transepithelial potential, VP3 was recorded when both peritubular and
luminal compartments, pi, were diluted by a factor of 10. AVP3 was computed
as Vpl3 - Vc3, was obtained when the luminal fluid was returned to the control
solution and the peritubular compartment remained diluted, a p substitution.
AVP3 was taken as VP3 - Vc3. Finally, both compartments were returned to the
control solution and V3 was again recorded. All substitutions occurred during a
single impalement. Thus, the sequence of substitutions can be summarized as
c, I, pi, p, c where c, p, I, pi are used as superscripts to indicate the conditions
in which the absolute potential difference* V, and the change in potential
difference from control, AV, were obtained. The same procedure was followed
for the twofold and fivefold sodium chloride dilutions. A switch from one
perfusion solution to the next was made only after a steady state transepithelial
potential difference was achieved. Reversing the sequence did not alter the
results.
The measurements of peritubular membrane potential, Vi as well as
changes in this potential, AVi were achieved during salt dilution experiments
using the same protocol as above except that the recording microelectrode
impaled the cell.
The ratio of luminal (R2) to peritubular (Ri) cell membrane resistance, was
evaluated from a direct measurement of the voltage divider ratio. Hyper-
polarizing square wave currents from a constant current source were applied
across a microelectrode within the tubular lumen. A second microelectrode in
close proximity to the first, impaled a cell of the same tubule. As current
was injected through the intraluminal microelectrode, a deflection of the
peritubular membrane potential AVi was sensed by the intracellular micro-
electrode. The latter electrode was then advanced into the lumen at the same site.
Again, upon current passage through the first microelectrode, a deflection of the
transepithelial potential, AV3 was detected by the second microelectrode.
Deflections across the luminal cell membrane potential, AV2, were then
calculated from the difference between AV3 and AVi. The voltage divider
ratio, AF2/AV1 is a measure of R2/R1.
146
Indiana Academy of Science
The specific resistance of early proximal tubules was measured by means
of cable analysis experiments using the technique described earlier (4,8,18)
and was determined from the measured length constant, the known resistivity of
Ringer solution in the lumen, and the internal radius of the tubule (4).
CI®
Figure 1 . Magnitude of the transepithelial potential, Vi, during salt gradient experiments plotted
against the logarithm of the sodium chloride concentration gradient. Mean values with ± 1 SE are
shown. Number of observations are in parentheses.
Results
Salt dilution potential measurements
Figure 1 illustrates the results obtained for V3 during the imposition of three
different sodium chloride concentration gradients. Measurements of V3 in mV
are plotted on the ordinate and sodium chloride concentrations ratios,
(NaCl)p/(NaCl)' are plotted on the abscissa. Luminal dilutions are shown on the
right and peritubular dilutions are shown on the left. As can be seen from the
graph, dilution of the intraluminal fluid, i.e. an / substitution, results in an
hyperpolarization of the transepithelial potential. This is the case for all three
dilution factors. On the other hand, dilution of the vascular compartment, i.e., a
p substitution, results in a reversal of the transepithelial potential for all
gradients studied. For both unilateral dilutions, the diluted compartment
becomes more negative which implies perferential anionic selectivity of the
tubular epithelium. In contrast, in superficial mammalian proximal convoluted
tubule of rat and dog in vivo, (8,9,16), in isolated juxtamedullary proximal
convoluted tubules (20), juxtamedullary proximal straight tubules (20,21) and
in the first millimeter of isolated superficial proximal convoluted tubules (20) of
rabbit kidney, it has been shown that the epithelium is cation selective. However,
the second millimeter of isolated superficial proximal convoluted tubules (20)
and the pars recta of superficial proximal tubules (21,26) of the rabbit exhibit a
selectivity quite similar to the present findings.
Cell Biology 147
Figure 1 also shows that salt gradients of equal magnitude but of reversed
direction yield identical Ws but of opposite sign. The symmetry in response in
absolute values for V3 implies that either the epithelium as a whole acts as a
single barrier or that the two cell membranes in series, i.e., both the luminal and
peritubular cell membranes, exhibit identical ion selectivity. This latter
possibility is highly unlikely in view of previous findings (5,6,7) which show
discrepant selectivity properties of the peritubular and luminal membrane
particularly with respect to sodium ion permeability.
A quantitative estimate of the transference numbers for sodium (tNa) and
chloride (tci) can be obtained if AV3 is treated as a liquid junction potential. The
change in transepithelial potential, the change in the sodium chloride
concentration ratio in the two compartments, i.e., peritubular and luminal, and
the transference numbers are related by the following equation:
&1 = 2.3 RI (tNa - to)
d(log (NaCl)p ) F
(NaCl),
where R is the universal gas constant, F is the Faraday constant, and T is the
absolute temperature.
Figure 1 exhibits a non-linear behavior of V3 plotted against log
(NaCl)p/(NaCl)i. Therefore separate slopes were evaluated. For each dilution
factor, data from Vc3, Vp3, V3, and Vp3 were pooled to compute regression lines.
Table 1 compares the calculated transference number tci and tNa together with
the transference number ratio tci/ tNa for different dilution factors. In all cases the
transference number ratio exceeds the free solution chloride to sodium mobility
ratio of 1.52.
Table
1
Transference
numbers for
chloride and sodium
Factor
Average [
NaCl]
[NaCl]p
(NaClK
d
dv3
Dilution
,. [NaCl]p,
(lo8[NaClK}
2
75
mM
0.5 A 2
-31,
, 5 mV + 3.4 (
in-77)
5
60
mM
0.2 & 5
-25
.4 tnV + 1.0 I
In-92)
10
55
mM
0.1 & 10
-22
.6 mV + 0.6 1
In-85)
Evidence presented thus far strongly suggests that the measured changes in
transepithelial potential difference reflect the presence of a single barrier and are
likely due to the selectivity of the paracellular pathway, rather than to two
barriers, such as the two cell membranes, basolateral or peritubular membrane,
and luminal membrane, in series.
Consider Ei, E2, and E3 as the equivalent ionic electromotive forces due to
the diffusional pathways of respectively the peritubular cell membrane, the
luminal cell membrane, and the paracellular shunt, and Ri , R2, R3 the equivalent
corresponding ionic resistances of these same barriers. The potential differences
recorded across the peritubular cell membrane Vi, the luminal cell membrane
148 Indiana Academy of Science
V2, and across the entire epithelium V3 are not simply related to the electrical
parameters E and R of their own barrier but to the interplay of all three
electromotive forces and all three ionic conductances combined (5). Equations
relating these parameters have been reported earlier (2,5).
The presence of three boundaries across which diffusion potential
differences may occur renders it impossible to study one barrier independently
of the two others. Externally imposed changes in chemical potential as
performed during salt dilutions always affect the chemical potential difference
across two barriers simultaneously (5). For example, a peritubular salt dilution
(p) affects the diffusional pathways which are represented by Ei and E3, a
luminal salt dilution (1) affects similarly E2 and E3, whereas a symmetrical ion
composition (pi) would affect at least Ei and E2.
In view of these problems of interpretation, additional information was
gathered with the aim of at least resolving the true permeability characteristics of
the paracellular pathway. For this purpose peritubular membrane potential
differences, Vi, and changes in Vi, AVi were also measured during salt dilutions
of the same type as described above.
Resistance measurements
The luminal to peritubular cell membrane resistance ratio, for the free flow
condition in 19 proximal tubular impalements was 2.82 ± 0.25 as shown in Table
2. This is not significantly different from a value of 2. 52 ± 0.30 (n=22) obtained
Table 2
Experimental Potential Differences and Resistances
vl
(■V)
c
-52.89 + 1.50
(19)
-30.13 + 1.95
(16)
(
-42.06 +
1.56
(17)
Pt
-20.08 + 1.98
(13)
AVj
(■V)
♦21.97 + 1.02
♦ 10.76 +
0.80
+30.92 + 2.03
(16)
(17)
(13)
V2
(mV)
+46.37
4-48.84
+11.64
+13.58
AV2
(mV)
+ 1.70
-34.89
-31.60
V3
(mV)
-6.52 + 0.81
(28)
+18.70 + 0.63
(23)
-30.42 +
1.43
(19)
-6.50 +1.30
(15)
AV3
(mV)
+23.67 + 0.75
(23)
-24.13 +
0.99
(19)
-0.68 + 0.83
(15)
R2
Rl
2.82 + 0.25
(19)
Rte
(ohm en
2)
102.16 + 13.62
(19)
All
values
are
means + SE
Numbers In
parentheses refer to
the number of observations
.
V
V v3
are
the mean peritubular, luminal, and transep
thellal potentials.
potentials as compared to control during 1:10 salt dilution.
R./R. is the ratio of the luminal to peritubular cell membrane resistances.
R is the specific transeplthellal resistance.
c refers to the control condition, p to unilateral peritubular substitution,
t to unilateral luminal substitution, pt to bilateral peritubular and
luminal substitutions.
Cell Biology 149
previously (7). The specific resistance of the proximal tubule was measured by
means of cable analysis experiments. The specific resistivity, R„ of the
intraluminal fluid was taken to be 100 ohm cm2 (4). The tubule radius, r,
measured for 19 impalements of different early proximal tubules averaged 60.47
± 1.56 x 10"4 cm. The tubular length constant, A, for the same tubules averaged
53 1 .36 + 36.32 X 10~4 cm. This can be compared with a value of 492.00 ± 33.48 X
10"4 cm (n=14) for the blood perfused kidney also measured from early segments
of the proximal tubule (4). The tubule radius, r, and length constant was deter-
mined experimentally and the specific resistance (Rte), for each tubule was then
calculated by means of the equation
Rte = 2R, A2 (2)
r
The specific transepithelial resistance for 19 tubules averaged 102.16 ± 13.62
ohm cm2 as shown in Table 2. Again, this can be compared with a value for the
blood perfused kidney of 69.87 ± 8.47 (n = 14) ohm cm2 (4).
Analysis of single electromotive forces and resistances
The observed changes in cellular and transepithelial potential difference
together with the relative and absolute resistance measurements given in Table 2
may be combined to obtain information on the actual changes in electromotive
forces of either the peritubular, luminal or paracellular barrier. In accordance
with the equivalent electrical circuit for a shunted epithelium (2,5) observed
changes in potential at any barrer, AV, relate to actual changes in electromotive
force, AE, and resistances R, according to the following set of equations (3) to (8).
AVf = AEf (R2 + R3) + R! (AEP - AEg) (3)
Ri + R2 + R3
AV\ = AE', (R2 + R3) + Ri (AE'3 - AE2) (4)
R, + R2 + R3
AWp\ = AEpll (R2 + R3) + R, (AEP3 - AEP2)
R, + R2 + R3
(5)
AVp2 = AEp2 (R, + R3) + R2 (AE^ - AE^) (6)
R, + R2 + R3
AV2 = AE2 (R, + R3) + R2 (AE3 - AE1,) (7)
R, + R2 + R3
150 Indiana Academy of Science
avp' = AEP2 (R, + R3) + R2 (AEP3 - AEP1) (8)
Ri + R2 + R3
These equations relate changes in potential with changes in electromotive force
and membrane resistances and are derived from the general expressions for Vi,
V2 and V3 as a function of E's and R's (5). The equations (3) to (8) assume that the
resistances Ri, R2, and R3 are unaltered by the substitutions. The first three
equations (3) to (5) show peritubular membrane potential changes AVi obtained
during unilateral dilutions on the luminal side, /, peritubular side, p, and for
bilateral dilutions, pi. The next three questions (6) to (8) show luminal
membrane potential changes AV2 obtained under the same conditions. Similar
equations for AV3 are not included since these equations would constitute a
dependent set. The luminal to peritubular membrane resistance ratio, a, and the
specific resistence of the epithelium, Rte, are also shown and explicitly stated in
terms of the individual resistances in equations (9) and (10).
Ri
(Ri + R2) R3
R, + R2 + R.
(9)
(10)
Equations (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), (8), (9), (10) constitute eight
equations in twelve unknowns, i.e., Ri, R2, R3, Epi, Ei, Epli, Ep2, E2,
Ep2, Ep, E3, Epl3. Six additional assumptions further reduce
the number of unknowns. The assumptions are: (a) AEi =
^Ep2 = AEpl3 = 0; (b) AEP, - AEp1,; (c) AE2 = AEP2 and (d)
AEP3 = -AE3.
The first two equalities in (a) state that the cell membrane e.m.f. (luminal or
peritubular) does not change during a change in chemical potential at the
contralateral barrier (peritubular or luminal) respectively. The third equlity
states that changes in paracellular e.m.f. remain unaffected by bilateral
substitutions. This implies the presence of a single membrane or symmetrical
barrier. The latter assumption is justified by the demonstration of symmetrical
responses of AV3 during salt gradients of opposite sign. The assumptions in (b)
and (c) state that the e.m.f. of a membrane will undergo the same independent
change whether that membrane alone or also the contralateral membrane is
exposed to an external concentration change. This holds for both the
peritubular membrane and luminal membrane. The last assumption in (d) states
that changes in shunt e.m.f. for luminal substitutions are equal but opposite in
sign to shunt e.m.f. changes for peritubular substitutions. Again, this implies the
presence of a symmetrical barrier. With these assumptions, the system is reduced
to six independent equations, (1 1), (12), (13), (14), (5), (8), in six unknowns AEP,
AE2, AEP3, Ri, R2, R3 which can then be solved.
AV, = AEP, (R2 + R3) + AEP3 R, (11)
R, + R2 + R3
Cell Biology
151
AV
■Ri (AE2 + AEP3)
R, + R2 + R3
avp = R2 (AEp3 - AEP.)
R, + R2 + R3
Avj, = AE2 (Ri + R3) - AEP3 R2
R, + R2 + R3
(12)
(13)
(14)
Using this set of equations, the various single barrier AE's and R's were
calculated and are listed in the left column of Table 3. Observed AV values for/?,
/, and pi substitutions are shown for comparison in the right column. All AV2
values have been calculated from measured AV3 and AVi values for all
substitutions. As can be seen, the AEi 's and AVi 's approximate one another for
peritubular salt dilutions only. No correlation exists between AE2 and AV2 for
any of the substitutions, whereas there is a complete agreement between AE3 and
AV3 in all conditions.
In addition, solution of the equations also yields quantitative information
concerning cell membrane resistances. The luminal membrane, R2 is found to
have almost free times the resistance of the peritubular membrane, Ri, with
absolute values shown in Table 3. Paracellular resistance, R3, is calculated to be
103 ohm cm2, very close to the overall measured transepithelial specific
resistance of 102 ohm cm2. Calculated values for Ri and R2 are moreover close to
the resistance values obtained experimentally by means of cable analysis for
proximal tubules of Necturus (1,28) and Triturus (19).
Calculated parameters
+21.37 mV
e
l "
0 raV
<•
+21.37 mV
u% -
0 mV
<
+65.2 i mV
<
-65.23 mV
-5
+23.69 mV
«5
-23.69 mV
<
0 mV
"1 ■
2,550 ohm. cm
"2 •
2
7, 192 ohm. cm
*3 "
103 ohm. cm
Observed potential changes
+21.97 mV
►30. 92 mV
AV^ - + 1 . 70 mV
AV^ - -34.89 mV
AVJ? - -31.60 mV
«P<
AE,, AE2' AE3 are tne calculated changes in e.m.f. induced by a tenfold
salt dilution across the peritubular, luminal, and paracellular barriers.
152 Indiana Academy of Science
Discussion
The present electrical measurements provide firm evidence for the
important role an extracellular or paracellular shunt path plays in the overall
transepithelial conductance of the proximal tubules of Necturus kidney.
Relative chloride to sodium transference numbers obtained indicate that
the paracellular path behaves as an anion-selective barrier. The great majority of
leaky epithelia exhibit an opposite cation selective permeability pattern where
sodium permeability dominates chloride permeability. Such is the case for
proximal convoluted tubules of the in vivo rat kidney (9,16) and autoperfused
dog kidney (8), the juxtamedullary convoluted segments (20) of isolated rabbit
proximal tubule, fish gallbladder (11), rabbit gallbladder (11, 13), bullfrog
gallbladder (23), mammalian small intestine (13,29) and tortoise small intestine
(30).
Preferential anion permeation in the amphibian proximal tubule may result
from the epithelium acting as an anion-exchange membrane with fixed or
mobile sites (27). Alternatively the sites within the pores or channels controlling
transepithelial ion movement may be electroneutral with polar pores such that
the positive charge of the dipole protrudes into the center of the pore, thus
facilitating anion transfer.
Transepithelial potential differences yield a non-linear but symmetrical
response to the imposition of salt gradients across the epithelium. The
preferential permeability for chloride or the tcr/tNa ratio decreased with either
increased absolute gradient, larger dilution factor or with decreased average salt
concentration in the permeation barrier. Similar relationships between
transepithelial potential difference and sodium chloride concentrations of salt
gradients have been reported in rat proximal tubule (15).
Relationships between transepithelial potential and salt concentration also
deviate from linearity in rabbit ileum (13). Asymmetrical responses elicited by
composition changes of solutions on opposing sides of leaky epithelia have
occasionally been reported but are probably due to the presence of different
unstirred layers on either side (29,30). Linear and symmetrical responses of
transepithelial potential difference to unilateral salt gradients of opposite
polarity but equal magnitude have been found in fish gallbladder (10), rabbit
gallbladder (1 1) and bullfrog gallbladder (23).
The kind of deviation in the behavior of the selectivity shown in Figure 1
and Table 1 indicates a dependence of the relative chloride to sodium
permeability on either the absolute value of the concentration difference or on
the average concentration of the salt in the diffusion barrier. It is interesting to
note that a tci/tNa ratio close to the free solution mobility ratio was found in a
1:20 dilution (7).
The present study provides direct evidence that the observed transepithelial
potential changes originate from a single permselective path i.e., the paracellular
shunt. They symmetry of the transepithelial voltage-salt concentration plots
suggest the presence of a single barrier, and a selectivity due to the extracellular
shunt rather than to the two cell membranes in series. In order to firmly establish
this point, changes in transepithelial potential differences and changes in cell
Cell Biology 153
membrane potential difference were correlated with the actual changes in
electromotive forces generated across these same barriers. The results of this
analysis clearly confirm the view that the changes in both the luminal and
peritubular cell membrane potential differences cannot be completely
accounted for in terms of actual changes in the electromotive forces generated
across these same barriers (2,3,5). On the contrary, as predicted, the changes in
transepithelial potential differences can be completely accounted for in terms of
changes in electromotive force generated across the shunt. The observed
selectivity pattern of the entire epithelium as calculated from AV3 describes
accurately the relative contribution of chloride and sodium to the diffusional
pathways along the paracellular route.
Finally, it is important to note that the entire analysis employed in the
present study has considered only dissipative processes at each of the membrane
barriers. Inclusion of active transport pumps behaving as constant current
sources greatly complicates the interpretation of electrical potential differences
induced by changes in external chemical potential (5).
In conclusion, the data support the view of the existence of a low
paracellular shunt resistance and electrical coupling between contralateral cell
membranes in the proximal tubule of the Necturus. The properties of the overall
epithelium seem to be almost entirely determined by the paracellular pathway.
This path is governed by a simple symmetrical membrane, perhaps electrically
neutral or of a certain fixed charge density. In contrast to the mammalian kidney
and other leaky epithelia, the proximal tubular wall of the Necturus kidney is
anion selective. Transepithelial potential changes observed are close estimates of
the actual changes in the paracellular electromotive force. Hence, imposed
transepithelial diffusion potentials across this "leaky" epithelium measure
accurately the ionic selectivity of the paracellular shunt pathway.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Connecticut Heart Association and the
National Institute of Health for funding this research.
Literature Cited
1. Anagnostopoulos, T. and E. Velu. 1974. Electrical resistance of cell membranes in Necturus
kidney. Flugers Arch. 346:327-399.
2. Boulpaep, E. . 1967. Ion permeability of the peritubular and luminal membrane of the renal
tubular cell. In "Transport and Funktion intracellularer Elektrolyte", edit F. Kruck, Urban and
Schwarzenberg, 98-107.
3. Boulpaep, E. L. 1971. Electrophysiological properties of the proximal tubule: Importance of
cellular and intercellular transport pathways. In: Electrophysiology of Epithelial Cells, Stuttgart,
F. K. Schattauer Verlag, 91-118.
4. Boulpaep, E. L. 1972. Permeability changes of the proximal tubule of Necturus during saline
loading. Am. J. Physiol. 222:517-531.
5. Boulpaep, E. L. 1976. Electrical phenomena in the nephron. Kidney Int. 9:88-102.
6. Boulpaep, E. L. Electrophysiology of the proximal tubule of Necturus kidney. I. The peritubular
cell membrane. J. Gen. Physiol, submitted.
154 Indiana Academy of Science
7. Boulpaep, E. L. Electrophysiology of the proximal tubule of Necturus kidney. II. The luminal cell
membrane and the paracellular pathway. J. Gen. Physiol, submitted.
8. Boulpaep, E. L. and J. F. Seely. 1971. Electrophysiology of proximal and distal tubules in the
autoperfused dog kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 221:1084-1096.
9. de Mello G. B., A. G. Lopes and G. Malnic. 1976. Conductances, diffusion and streaming
potentials in the rat proximal tubule J. Physiol. (London) 260:553-569.
10. Diamond, J. M. 1962. The mechanism of solute transport by the gallbladder J. Physiol. (London)
161:474-502.
11. Diamond, J. M. and S. C. Harrison. 1966. The effect of membrane fixed charges on diffusion
potentials and streaming potentials. J. Physiol. 183:37-57.
12. Farquhar, M. G. and G. E. Palade. 1963. Junctional complexes in various epithelia. J. Cell Biol.
17:375-412.
13. Frizzell, R. a. and S. G. Schultz. 1972. Ionic conductances of extracellular shunt pathway in
rabbit ileum. Influence of shunt on transmural sodium transport and electrical potential
differences. J. Gen. Physiol. 59:318-346.
14. Fromter, E. 1972. The route of passive ion movement through the epithelium of Necturus
gallbladder. J. Membrane Biol. 8:259-301.
15. Fromter, E., C. W. Muller and H. Knauf. 1968. Fixe neative Wandladungen im proximalen
Konvolut der Rattenniere and inre Beeinflussung durch Calciumionen. 6th Symp. Gesellschaft
Nephrol., Vienna, p. 61-64.
16. Fromter, E., C. W. Muller and T. Wick. 1971. Permeability properties of the proximal tubular
epithelium of the rat kidney studied with electrophysiological methods. In "Electrophysiology of
Epithelial Cells, Stuttgart, F. K. Schattauer Verlag, p. 119-148.
17. Giebisch, G. 1961. Measurement of electrical potential difference on single nephrons of the
perfused Necturus kidney. J. Gen. Physiol. 44:659-678.
18. Grandchamp, A., and E. L. Boulpaep. 1974. Pressure control of sodium reabsorption and
intercellular backflux across proximal kidney tubule. J. Clin. Invest. 54:69-82.
19. Hoshi. T. and F. Sakai. 1967. A comparison of the electrical resistances of the surface cell
membrane and cellular wall in the proximal tubule of the newt kidney. Jap. J. Physiol. 17:627-637.
20. Jacobson, H. R. and J. P. Kokko. 1976. Intrinsic differences in various segments of the proximal
convoluted tubule. J. Clin. Invest. 57:818-825.
21. Kawarmura, S., M. Imai, D. W. SELDiNand J. P. Kokko. 1975. Characteristics of salt and water
transport in superficial and juxtamedullary straight segments of proximal tubules. J. Clin. Invest.
55:1269-1277.
22. Lutz, M. D., J. Cardinal, and M. B. Burg. 1973. Electrical resistance of renal proximal tubule
perfused in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 225:729-734.
23. Moreno, J. H. and J. M. Diamond. 1975. Cation permeation mechanism and cation selectivity in
tight junctions of gallbladder epithelium. In "Membranes— A series of advances", Vol. 3, lipid
bilayers and biological membranes: dynamic properties, p. 383-497.
24. Rose, R. C. and S. G. Schultz. 1971. Studies on the electrical potential profile across rabbit ileum.
Effects of sugars and amino acids on transmural and transmucosal electrical potential differences.
J. Gen. Physiol. 57:639-663.
25. Sackin, H., and E. L. Boulpaep. 1976. Simultaneous intracellular and transepithelial potential
measurements in isolated perfused amphibian proximal tubules. Kidney Int. 10:597.
26. Schafer, J. A., S. L. Troutman and T. E. Andreoli. 1974. Volume reabsorption, transepithelial
potential differences, and ionic permeability properites in mammalian superficial proximal
straight tubules. J. Gen. Physiol. 64:582-607.
27. Teorell, T. 1953. Transport process and electrical phenomena in ionic membranes. Progr.
Biophys. Biophys. Chem. 3:305-369.
28. Windhager E. E., E. L. Boulpaep and G. Giebisch. 1967. Electrophysiological studies on single
nephrons. Proc. Intern. Congr. Nephron., 3rd, Washington 1966, Basel, Karger, Vol. I, p. 35-47.
Cell Biology 155
29. Wright, E. M. 1966. Diffusion potentials across the small intestine. Nature, 212:189-190.
31. Wright, E. M., P.H. Barry and J. M. Diamond. 1971. The mechanism of cation permeation in
rabbit gallbladder. Conductances, the current voltage relation, the concentration dependence of
anioncation discrimination, and the calcium competition effect. J. Membrane Biol. 4:331-357.
CHEMISTRY
Chairman: Pang-Fai Ma, Department of Chemistry
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Chairman-Elect: Clyde R. Metz, Department of Chemistry
Indiana Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46205
Abstracts
A General Synthesis of Cyclobut-l-enecarboxylates. Stephen R. Wilson
and Lawrence R. Phillips*, Department of Chemistry, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana 4740 1 A general synthesis is described for cyclobut-
l-enecarboxylates from cyclobutanecarboxylates via sulfenylation-dehydro-
sulfoxylation and selenenylation-dehydroselenoxylation. Treatment of cyclo-
butanecarboxylates / with lithium diisopropylamide at low temperatures
followed by quenching of the ester enolate with either diphenyl disulfide or
diphenyl diselenide gave 2. Oxidation of 2 to give 3 (either the sulfoxide or
selenoxide, respectively) was done with sodium metaperiodate or hydrogen
peroxide. Dehydroselenoxylation proceeded smoothly at room temperature
1 2(X=S or Se) 3 4(18-45% over-all yield)
whereas heating was required to effect dehydrosulfoxylation to give 4. Examples
were given and discussed to demonstrate the scope and limitations of the reaction
sequence. An interesting parallel between diethyl malonate 5 and methyl
1-phenylsulfinoacetate 6 became apparent during this investigation.
6 was alkylated with 1,3-diiodopropane in dimethylformamide in the
CO.Et ^ C02Et feph ^ ^Ph
C02Et 1 C02Et C02Me+ ] C02Me
presence of two equivalents of sodium hydride to give 7 in 39% yield. Thus, a
synthetic route has been described to make potentially interesting cyclobut-l-
enecarboxylates which were formerly unavailable.
Recent Progress in Radiocarbon Dating at Ball State University. Richard
Mulford, Department of Geography-Geology, and John H. Meiser,
Department of Chemistry, and David E. Koltenbah, Department of Physics,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 The entire radiocarbon
dating process is discussed. Emphasis is placed on sample collection, sample
preparation, and data calculation. Peat samples were collected from post-
Wisconsin peat bogs north of Muncie In Delaware County. The sample is
cleaned megascopically of all foreign material. To remove carbonates and humic
157
158 Indiana Academy of Science
acid the sample is boiled in 2N HC1 and . 1 N NaOH respectively for a period of 2
hours. The liquid in the final solution is boiled off leaving a carbon residue.
Volatiles are removed by pyrolyzing the carbon sample in the reactor. Metallic
lithium is added with the pyrolyzed sample and heated to 900° C forming lithium
carbide. Distilled water is added to the lithium carbide producing acetylene and
hydrogen gas. The acetylene gas is subjected to an acetone-dry ice bath, and
ascarite-phosphorous pentoxide trap for purification. The acetylene gas is
trimmerized to benzene by use of a vanadium pentoxide catalyst. The
radioactive benzene vial is counted in a Beckman Liquid Scintillation Center
and the radiocarbon date is calculated.
The Synthesis and Characterization of Phosphine-Nitrile Systems. Ivan Saval,
Jonathan Worstell, and Bruce N. Storhoff, Department of Chemistry, Ball
State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 Synthetic methods based on
Michaelis-Arbuzov and/ or metal-halogen exchange reactions have been found
to provide convenient routes to phosphine-nitrile systems. Both the previously
reported o-NCC6H4P(C6H5)2 and the novel o-NCC6H4P(N(CH3)2)2 have been
obtained in good yield from the readily available starting materials R2PCI and o-
NCC6H4Br. The novel (C6Hs)2P(CH2)3CN has been obtained in good yield from
(C6H5)2POC2H5 and C1(CH2)3CN. The Chemical and spectroscopic properties
of the novel posphines are discussed.
Palladium (II) Complexes of Potentially Bidentate Phosphine-Nitrile Ligands.
Horeb Trujillo and Bruce N. Storhoff, Department of Chemistry, Ball State
University, Muncie Indiana 47306 Several novel palladium (II) complexes
of the stoichiometries L2PdX2 and (LPdX2)n where L is (cyanomethyl)
diphenylphosphine, (2-cyanoethyl)diphenylphosphine, (3-cyanopropyl)di-
phenylphosphine, or (o-cyanophenyl)diphenylphosphine have been
synthesized. In the complexes of the stoichiometry L2PdX2 (X = CI, Br, SCN) the
ligands have been found to function as monodentate phosphines. Both ligand
and halogen bridging have been detected for the (LPdX2)n complexes. The
nitrile groups in these palladium complexes display diverse patterns of
reactivities, and some of these are discussed.
Stereochemical Probes: A Test to Distinguish Erythro and Threo Dia-
stereomers. Paul L. Bock, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
A widely used nmr technique employing diastereomeric RCHDCHDX
compounds as stereochemical probes is based on the assumption that anti
conformations are preferred so that Jerythro is larger than Jthreo; hence erythro
and threo diastereomers can be identified, and the stereochemistry of reactions
can be monitored. If, however, the gauche conformations were preferred, then
Jthreo would be the larger coupling constant, and incorrect stereochemical
assignments would be made. This study suggests that assignments of erythro and
threo configurations can be made regardless of which conformation is favored.
The technique involves observing the coupling constants at two different
temperatures. The one that changes the most for a given change in temperature
will be Jerythro.
The Behavior of the Bismuth-Bismuth Oxide Electrode in pH Determinations.
John A. Ricketts and Paul A. Lang, Chemistry Department, DePauw
Chemistry 159
University, Greencastle, Indiana 46135 The electrochemical behavior of
the galvanic couple, Bi/ Bi2C>3(s) H// / saturated calomel electrode was studied as
a function of pH at 25° C. Two types of electrodes were employed, a slug
electrode and a semimicro electrode. The effect of various pretreatments of the
electrode surface before the potential difference was measured were studied, and
it was found that polishing of the electrode surface with fine emery paper gave
the most reproducible results. In the pH range 5-8 the potential-pH relationship
is best represented by the equation, E(volts) = 0.191 - 0.0589 pH with the
bismuth electrode being negative with respect to the calomel electrode. On the
hydrogen scale the standard reduction potential for the Bi-Bi203 couple
becomes E(red. volts) = 0.434 - 0.0589 pH. The performance of the Bi-Bi203
electrode as the indicating electrode in the potentiometric titration of acid with
base was compared with that of the glass electrode and the Sb-Sb203 electrode.
It was found that the Bi-Bi203 indicated an equivalence point nearer to that
observed with the glass electrode than did the Sb-Sb203 electrode.
Wabash River Water Analyses in the Vicinity of Sugar and Coal Creeks, Vigo
County, Indiana. Joseph R. Siefker and Jonathan O. Brooks, Department of
Chemistry, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 Concen-
trations of over a dozen inorganic elements were determined weekly for a year.
Recent sodium concentrations have doubled, mostly as chloride and
bicarbonate, over prior years. Sodium, calcium, and iron are their lowest in
summer, early-fall, and fall-winter, respectively. Nitrate levels were at 60% of
their May maximum of 3mg/ 1 in August and September. Nitrate/ phosphate
ratios peaked in both May and July. Sugar Creek assayed higher in potassium
and Coal Creek assayed higher in calcium, iron and sulfate compared to the
Wabash River. Assays corrected to a designated basal flow indicated a smooth
increase in mineral flow with river stage.
Reaction Rates and Equilibria at Tricoordinate Phosphorus. J. A. Mosbo,
Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Reaction rate and equilibrium data for alcohol and amine exchange at
phosphorus have been obtained for a series of 2-substituted-l,3,2-diazaphos-
phorinanes and 2-substituted-l,3-dimethyl-l,3,2-diazaphosphorinanes. The
data are interpreted in terms of the electronic and steric characteristics of the
exchanging groups and the 1,3 substituents. The dependence of the reaction
rates and equilibrium positions upon added acid are also discussed.
Reactions of Hypofluorous Acid with Organic Compounds. E. H. Appelman,
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439, and K. G. Migliorese
and M. N. Tsangaris*, Department of Chemistry, Indiana University North-
west, Gary, Indiana 46408 The recent preparation of hypofluorous acid
provides a unique opportunity to study the reactions of this extremely reactive
molecule with organic compounds. To date, only the reaction of hypofluorous
acid with aromatic hydrocarbons to yield phenols has been reported. We have
studied the reactions of hypofluorous acid with various alkenes and alkynes.
With alkenes, the major products appear to be a-fluoroalcohols while in the case
of alkynes, the products are a-fluoraldehydes and ketones. The mechanistic
implications of these results will be discussed.
160 Indiana Academy of Science
A Research Chemist's Formula for Retirement. F. O. Rice, Fellow-byCourtesy,
The Johns Hopkins University In 1968 I resigned from the University of
Notre Dame where I had held a position in the Radiation Laboratory since 1962
as Visiting Research Professor. I built a good laboratory in the basement of my
home and there, with the help of an assistant, I continue my research work for a
few hours each day. I obtain my asistant by advertising for a high school student
who has had at least one year of chemistry and is interested in continuing in
chemistry or chemical engineering after he finishes high school: after a period of
training this arrangement is entirely satisfactory; a capable student can be
trusted to carry out directions without close supervision. Such an arrangement
requires, in addition to a good laboratory and assistant, three other things: shop,
glassblowing and storeroom and ordering facilities. I am particularly indebted
to the University of Notre Dame, through its Chemistry Department and
Radiation Laboratory, for such help. Notre Dame is only a mile or so from my
home and I make frequent use of their readily available assistance. I want also to
thank the Johns Hopkins University Chemistry Department for an annual
research grant, as well as the Bureau of Standards Polymers Division for help on
several occasions. I have been working during the past few years on problems I
had tried many years ago but which gave negative results. It seemed worthwhile
to apply the newer techniques and increased knowledge now available. Evering
and I had originally shown that, under the action of heat, ordinary organic
compounds decompose into free radicals (J. Am. Chem. Soc, 54, 3529 (1932)).
The following years were occupied studying methyl, and other univalent, carbon
radicals. We had also attempted to study methylene, using as our source
diazomethane, but this compound is so treacherously explosive that we finally
abandoned the work. At present I am taking it up again, using the reaction
between dichlor organic compounds and metallic sodium in the vapor state.
Dielectric Properties of Bromanil (2,3,5,6-telrabromo-l,4-benzoquinone).
Eugene P. Schwartz, Department of Chemistry, DePauw University,
Greencastle, Indiana 46135 Dielectric properties of benzene solutions of
the title compound were determined at a radio — and at a visible frequency. The
compound was found to show an atomic polarization of about 9.4 cc, which is
appreciably larger than the value previously reported. In contrast to the
behavior of the parent compound ( 1 ,4-benzoquinone), for bromanil most of this
polarization is accounted for by a maximum loss in the microwave region at a
wavelength near 1 cm. Possible sources of this loss are discussed.
New Methods of Analysis of Isomeric Diols. Michael Whalon and Terry L.
Kruger, Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Studies of diols with Eu(fod)3 allow easy analysis of the compounds for structure
and purity. The raeso-2,4-pentanediol and meso-l,3-cyclohexanediol appear to
coordinate twice to one Eu atom. The 8 vs R/ S ratio plot and coupling constants
both support this conclusion. In contrast, trans- 1 ,2-cyclopentanediol can attach
two Eu(fod)3 and is structured so that a bidentate complex is unlikely. A
computer-programmed fit of the data for the meso-2,4-pentanediol was
necessary to extract the coupling constants.
Chemistry 161
Determination of Iron in Breakfast Cereals by X-Ray Fluorescence. Philip A.
Kinsey and Richard E. Rutledge, University of Evansville, Evansville,
Indiana, 47702 An x-ray fluorescence method for the determination of iron
in breakfast cereals were developed. The cereal was ground and pelletized in a
press and the intensity of the Ka line of iron measured. A least squares working
curve of intensity vs. iron concentration was determined over the concentration
range, 10 to 200 ppm, using iron standards prepared by serial dilution of Spex
HiPure Fe203 in microcrystalline cellulose. The standards were analyzed by a
spectrophotometric method to verify their concentration and homogeneity. It
was necessary to reduce the Fe2C>3 particle size until it would pass through a 250
mesh sieve to obtain uniformity in the standards. Samples of a iron fortified
cereal and an unfortified cereal were collected over a five month period and
analyzed. A much greater variability in iron content was found in the fortified
cereal. In conclusion, the x-ray method was fast and gave reproducible results
for analyzing iron in breakfast cereals.
Identification of the cis and trans Isomers of 4-t-Butylcyclohexanecarbonitrile.
Catherine A. Dick, Terry L. Kruger, and Bruce N. Storhoff, Department
of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 The effects of
the lanthanide shift reagent tris(6,6,7.7,888-heptafluoro-2,2-dimethyl-3,5-
octanedionato) europium (Eu(fod)3) on the proton NMR spectra of the cis and
trans isomers of 4-t-butylcyclohexanecarbonitrile have been determined. For
both isomers, the signal from the proton that is geminal to the nitrile group is
shifted downfield to a point where it is well-separated from the remainder of
the signals. The shifted signals can be interpreted by application of the Karplus
equation and used to unequivocally distinguish the cis from the trans form.
Applications of Transactional Analysis to the Laboratory Situation. Terry L.
Kruger, Department of Chemistry, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana
47306 A popular theory, transactional analysis (TA), of personality
structure was sketched and applied to everyday problems concerning chemists.
Examples from lecture and from laboratory were used to illustrate the use of the
theory. Games such as Grade Grubber, NIGYYSOB, IDU, and No Time were
discussed within the framework of the theory. Work by Piaget and by Kelley was
shown as supporting the usefulness of TA.
Michael-Like Reactions: The Reaction of Diphenylphosphine with
ICycloalkene Carbonitriles. Douglas Grinstead, Joseph Wu, Terry Kruger,
and Bruce Storhoff, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Michael-like additions of diphenylphosphine, PhuPH, to 1-cyanocyclohexene
and 1-cyanocyclopentene have been investigated. The reactions are base
catalyzed and give the corresponding (2-cyanocycloalkyl)diphenylphosphines
in 60-80% yields. The effects of the type of base on the isomer distributions of the
products have been determined. For aqueous hydroxide, the Ph^PCsHsCN
product consists of two isomers (ca. 65:35), whereas the PI12PC6H10CN product
is a single isomer. The reaction product from C5H7CN and PI12PH in the
presence of potassium tert-butoxide also consists of two isomers. However, the
isomer ratio is ca. 15:85. Results from deuteration studies are also presented.
162 Indiana Academy of Science
An Investigation of the Feasibility of Classifying and Identifying Soil Samples
of Forensic Interest on the Basis of Elemental Composition by X-ray
Fluorescence Spectrometry. R. Segal, Lone Star Industries, Greencastle,
Indiana 46135, D. J. Reuland and W. A. Trinler, Chemistry Department,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 Two potential
forensic applications of soil analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) were studied.
First, the possibility of cataloging soils on the basis of XRF data on oxide
composition was investigated. Soils belonging to three soil series: Elston,
Warsaw and Iva, were collected and analyzed. Data are presented as loss-free
oxide percentages and as oxide ratios. Oxides measured were: silicon,
aluminum, iron, potassium, calcium, magnesium and titanium. No significant
differences were found in the composition of the three soil series for either the
seven oxides or ten oxide ratios. Secondly, soils from five environmentally
differing locations were collected and analyzed. The five areas were selected with
the criterion that the chemical composition of each might be affected by the
environmental conditions. An eroded area, soil next to railroad tracks, a plowed
field, soil located downwind from a portland cement manufacturer, and soil
from a reclaimed stripmined area were analyzed. Data are presented as loss-free
oxides and as oxide ratios. Variations in composition for the five sampled
locations were studied for their use as tracers. Significant differences in the
compositions of several samples were noted.
Optimization of Reaction Conditions for the Preparation
of Subunits from Variant Hemoglobins
Barth H. Ragatz and Gina Modrak
Northwest Center for Medical Education
Indiana University School of Medicine
Gary, Indiana 46408
Introduction
Several reports exist in the literature about the effectiveness of sodium
ptfra-chloromercuribenzoate and other organomercurials as inducers of
dissociation of normal human adult hemoglobin (2,6,8). These
organomercurials have been shown to be selective in reacting with protein thiol
groups. Once an organomercurial reagent is covalently linked to the reactive
thiols in the beta subunits (cysteinyl residue 3), symmetrical dissociation to
dimers occurs. Additional reagent is linked to cysteinyl residue 1 12 in the beta
subunits and to cysteinyl residue 104 in the alpha subunits to complete
dissociation to isolated hemoglobin subunits (6,7).
The organomercurials can be removed by a variety of mild conditions to
yield subunits whose physical and chemical properties have been characterized
(3, 1). These subunits can recombine to form stable tetramers with biological and
physicochemical properties that are identical to normal adult hemoglobin (1).
Unfortunately, no mention is made of yield of isolated subunits in the above
references. This question is of importance when attempting to isolate subunits
from variant hemoglobins. (Variant hemoglobin subunits can be used in
physicochemical studies assessing influence of primary structure on
quaternary structure and in the preparation of purified antisera with diagnostic
potential.) Thus, the effects of incubation temperature, time of incubation,
organomercurial structure, and incubation pH on overall yield of soluble
hemoproteins remaining in a reaction mixture have been investigated with
hemoglobin A, and information obtained has been applied to the preparation of
isolated subunits from Hemoglobin S.
Materials and Methods
Hemoglobin was isolated from freshly drawn saline washed erythrocytes by
the water-toluene lysis method (5) and was stored at 5° C in the CO saturated
form.
One gram of hemoglobin (determined by absorbance of the CO derivative
at 540 mm) was diluted to a final volume of 10 ml with a final buffer
concentration of 0.01 M sodium phosphate, 0. 1M sodium chloride.
Temperature was regulated during the experiments with a Temp-Stir
temperature regulator (Precision Scientific Co.). Organomercurials (purchased
from Sigma Chemical Co.) were dissolved in the minimum volume of 1M
sodium hydroxide and adjusted to pH6.0 with 1M hydrochloric acid; final
163
164 Indiana Academy of Science
amount of organomercurial added was 8:1 molar excess compared to
hemoglobin. These compounds were rapidly mixed with a hemoglobin solution
and timing of incubation was initiated.
At four hour intervals, a representative aliquot was taken from the reaction
mixture and centrifuged at 2000 RPM in a Sorvall GLC-1 centrifuge (Sorvall
513/539 rotor) for ten minutes. An appropriately diluted sample of the
supernatant was bubbled with CO and absorbance was measured at 540nm with
a Beckman Acta C — III spectrophotometer. The percentage of total
hemoproteins remaining in this supernatant fluid was finally calculated.
Dissociation into subunits was monitored by cellulose acetate
electrophoresis of a 5 microliter sample taken from each supernatant fluid. A
Buchler Instrument Co. 3-1014A power supply and a Gelman electrophoresis
chamber were used under the following conditions:
Tris-glycine buffer, pH9.3; 5°C; 300 VDC-constant voltage mode; 30
minutes development time; staining in 0.2% Ponceau S (Sigma Chemical Co.)
dissolved in 4% trichloroacetic acid; destaining in 5% acetic acid washes (8).
Table 1. Effect of Reaction Temperature on Hemoglobin A Denaturation (PCMB, pH6.0, 0.1M NaCl)
Percent Soluble Hemoprotein Remaining
Reaction Time
(In Hours) at 23° C at 37° C
4 83 56
8 75 43
12 66 33
16 63 24
20 61 16
24 60 9
Results
The effects of incubation temperature on hemoglobin A denaturation using
sodium para chloromercuribenzoate (PCMB) as a typical organomercurial is
presented in Table 1. It can be seen that there is a profound loss of soluble
hemoproteins from the reaction mixtures at both 23° C and 37° C and that this
loss increases with incubation time, especially at 37° C. Cellulose acetate
electropherograms also reveal that there is no improvement in efficiency of
dissociation into subunits at the elevated temperatures. From the viewpoints of
both dissociation efficiency and maintenance of subunit yield, 5° C remains the
preferred incubation temperature.
Table 2 shows the effect of organomercurial structure on hemoglobin A
denaturation. It is seen that the organomercurials used in the present case are
not markedly different in magnitude as perturbants of protein conformation.
Cellulose acetate electrophoresis also reveals little difference among the
compounds in dissociation efficiency. This is not surprising since the principal
difference in structure is the replacement of a para carboxyl group (in PCMB or
PHMB) with a para sulfonic acid moiety (in PCMPS or PHMPS). This is in
agreement with the findings of Stefanini et. al. for dissociation efficiency with
Chemistry 165
Table 2. Effect of the Organomercurial Structure on Hemoglobin A Denaturation (5° C, 0.1 M NaCl,
0.01 M sodium phosphate, pH6.0)
Reaction Time
Percent Soluble Hemoprotein Remaining
4
92
8
95
16
97
20
86
99
—
100
100
—
97
99
97
(In Hours) PCMB PHMB PCMPS PHMPS
94
93
other organomercurials. They also concluded that presence of a para carboxyl
substituent was not essential (8). (These abbreviations refer to the sodium salts
of the following chemical compounds: PCMB, para chloromercuribenzoate;
PHMB, para hydroxymercuribenzoate; PCMPS, para chloromercuriphenyl
sulfonate; and PHMPS, para hydroxymercuriphenyl sulfonate).
Hemoprotein denaturation is much greater when incubation occurs at
pH6.0 than when pH7.0 is selected (Table 3). Unfortunately, cellulose acetate
electrophoresis reveals that very little dissociation into subunits occurs at pH7.0.
Dissociation efficienty at pH6.0 has been documented elsewhere also (3,6,8).
Under the present experimental conditions, it has also been observed that
dissociation is effective at time intervals less than the 16-20 hour interval
commonly used and that denaturation loss is also avoided in this way.
Table 3. Effect of pH of the Reaction Mixture on Hemoglobin A Denaturation (PCMB, 5° C, 0.1 M
NaCl, 0.01 M sodium phosphate)
Percent Soluble Hemoprotein Remaining
Reaction Time
(In Hours) at pH 6.0 at pH 7.0
4 89 100
8 87 100
12 84 98
16 77 97
20 72 96
24 66 96
Discussion
From the present studies, the following experimental conditions have been
selected for the optimum yield of native hemoglobin A subunits: 0.01 M
sodium phosphate buffer, pH6.0; PCMB (or PHMB)/hemoglobin, 8:1 molar
excess; incubation temperature, 5°C; and incubation time, 8 hours.
Age of the hemoglobin source is also an important consideration from the
veiw point of susceptibility to denaturation. For this reason, stored whole blood
samples have been judged unsatisfactory for the present purpose.
Using the above reaction conditions, several successful attempts to isolate
(3s subunits from hemoglobin S have occurred. Some rapidly eluted
166 Indiana Academy of Science
hemoprotein contaminant has been present in small amounts when the
carboxymethyl cellulose chromatographic method of Bucci and Fronticelli has
been employed (2). At the present stage of the investigation, no additional
information has been obtained about efficiency of removal of the
organomercurial, but the use of organomercurial dissociation of variant
hemoglobins to yield native abnormal subunits for various uses appears
promising.
Literature Cited
1. Antonini, E., E. Bucci, C. Fronticelli, E. Chiancone, J. Wyman and A. Rossi-Fanelli. 1966.
The Properties and Interactions of the Isolated a and /3 -chains of Human Haemoglobin. V. The
reaction of a - and p chains. J. Mol. Biol. 17:29-46.
2. Bucci, E. and C. Fronticelli. 1965. A New Method for the Preparation of a and /JSubunits of
Hemoglobin. J. Biol. Chem. 240: PC55 1-552.
3. Bucci, E., C. Fronticelli, E. Chiancone, J. Wyman, E. Antonini and A. Rossi-Fanelli. 1965.
The Properties and Interactions of the Isolated a and /? chains of Human Haemoglobin. I.
Sedimentation and Electrophoretic Behavior. J. Mol. Biol. 12:183-192.
4. Chin, H. P. 1970. Cellulose Acetate Electrophoresis. Ann Arbor — Humphrey Science Publishers.
5. Ragatz, B. H. 1969. Proton-Binding Behavior of the Subunits of Human Hemoglobin. M.S.
Thesis, Indiana University.
6. Rosemeyer, M.A. and E. R. Huehns. 1967. On the Mechanism of the Dissociation of
Haemoglobin. J. Mol. Biol. 25:253-273.
7. Shaeffer, J. R., A. T. Ansevin, R. P. Thompson and P. K. Trostle. 1969. Evidence that the
Dissociation of Human Hemoglobin by p-Mercuribenzoate is Related to the Structure of the fi-
chain. J. Mol. Biol. 40:415-421.
8. Stefanini, S., E. Chiancone, C. H. McMuRRAYand E. Antonini. 1972. Dissociation of Human
Hemoglobin by Different Organomercurials. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 151:28-34.
ECOLOGY
Chairman: Thomas S. McComish, Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Chairman-Elect: Robert B. Priddy, Department of Natural Resources
Huntington College, Huntington, Indiana 46750
Abstracts
Growth of A ndropogon gerardi as Affected by Seed Source, Heavy metals, and
Nutrients in two Northwestern Indiana Soils. Louis H. Ehinger and Goerge R.
Parker, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 A greenhouse pot study was conducted to
test the effects of seed source, heavy metals, and nutrients on the growth of
Andropogon gerardii. Soil and seed were collected from two sites in
northwestern Indiana. One site is an urban, heavy metal contaminated site; the
other is a rural uncontaminated site.
The growth variables considered were germination, height growth, tiller
production and biomass. Germination of seed from the urban site was less than
that of rural site seed. The urban site soil reduced height growth within four
weeks of germination. Added nutrients promoted height growth by the eighth
week although they did not alleviate completedly the height reduction in the
urban soil. Plant height appeared also to slow down in correlation with an
increase in tiller production.
After seven weeks, the urban site soil had significantly reduced the number
of tillers produced per plant. After nine weeks it became apparent that this was
affected by the seed source. The urban site plants produced significantly fewer
tillers than the rural site plants on the rural site soil while neither seed source
produced tillers on the urban soil.
Top biomass reacted essentially the same as plant height. Both added
nutrients and the rural site soil resulted in more top biomass. Again nutrients
increased biomass on the urban site soil but did not alleviate completely the
biomass reduction due to the urban soil. Root biomass reacted differently.
Nutrients increased root biomass in the urban site soil but decreased root
biomass in the rural site soil.
Although ecotypic (site) variation in tolerance to the urban site soil could
not be shown, the urban site plants did exhibit some characters common to
metal tolerant ecotypes.
Adult plants were suggested to be better suited than seed material to
population tolerance studies on the urban site due to suspected low selection
pressures and high gene flow.
Effects of Zinc addition to two northwestern Indiana soils on growth of
Andropogon scoparius and availability of Cd, Pb and Cu. Larry J. Miles and
167
168 Indiana Academy of Science
George R. Parker, Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Zinc was added to soils collected
from an urban site in East Chicago and a rural site located on the Willow Slough
Fish and Wildlife Area. The urban site had been contaminated with Zn, Cd, Pb
and Cu through atmospheric industrial fallout. Germination, survival, height
growth and dry weight yield were determined for little bluestem {Andropogon
scoparius). Metal concentrations in the soil and plants were determined with an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Height growth and dry weight yeild were affected while germination and
survival were not. This response was non-linear and apparently due to soil
chemistry effects on Zn availability (as measured by DTPA extraction) rather
than plant physiological effects on Zn uptake. The nature of the results also
indicate the existance of a critical limit for zinc toxicity effects.
Growth, as measured by dry weight yield and height is stunded on the urban
soil control treatment as compared to the rural soil control group. Zinc
additions to the rural soil result in a similar stunting of growth. It is hypothesized
that zinc toxicity may be the factor limiting growth on the urban soil.
Zinc additions significantly decreased the levels of DTPA extractable Cd,
Pb, and Cu, and apparently decreased the plant concentrations of Pb and Cu
and increased the plant Cd concentration although these effects were not
significant.
Log Input and Decomposition in and Old-Growth Douglas-fir Forest.
♦MacMillan, Paul C, Department of Biology, Hanover College, Hanover,
Indiana 47243, J. E. Means and K. Cromack, Jr., School of Forestry, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 A 5-class scheme of Douglas-fir
log decomposition will be presented: 1 = most recent, to 5= most decayed. This
scheme was used in our study of log input and decomposition in a 450 yr old
stand in western Oregon. The numbers of Douglas-fir logs by decay class were
27, 15, 21, 39 & 128 logs/ ha. Log biomass by decay class ranged from 324 to 15
mt/ha, for a total of 587 mt/ha for all all classes. Estimated log input rates varied
from 0.76 to 2.32 (mean = 1.33) logs/ yr/ ha. Mean wood density by decay class
ranged from 543 to 151 mg/cc; one-half of the original density was reached in
approximately 94 yr residence time. A decay rate of k = -0.0074 was obtained
using the exponential decay model. With this and other data on Douglas-fir
decomposition we found a correlation of decay rate as a function of surface to
volume ratio (r = 0.99) using the power function model.
Trends in the structural organization of an early successional system: The
Devon Project. Edwin R. Squiers, Department of Biology, Taylor University,
Upland, Indiana 46989 The organizational dynamics of an early secondary
succession system were studied on experimental plots at the Waterloo Mills
Field Research Station, Devon, PA. Data were obtained by intensive sampling
of replicated subplots within a randomized complete block design containing a
control (natural revegetation) and treatments (supplemental seeding of 15 and
34 species of local "weeds"). Univariate and multivariate analytical techniques
were used to evaluate presence-and-absence, frequency, and cover data collected
annually for six years (1964-1969) after fallowing. The results indicate that the
Ecology 169
structural organization of this system may be described as three intergrading
phases: Phase I, a period of temporally associated populations of annuals; Phase
II, a period of temporal/ spatial discontinuity; and Phase III, a period of
spatially associated populations of herbaceous and woody perennials. The
recognition of the temporal/ spatial shift in community organization as well as
other trends in these data suggest that several commonly held assumpions
relating to the study of secondary succession are invalid.
Restoration of Eutrophic— Evaluation of Fly Ash as a Bottom Sealant.
Richard W. Greene*, David F. Spencer, Quentin E. Ross, Hung-Yiu
Yeung and Thomas L. Theis For the past several years, the Departments
of Biology and Civil Engineering at Notre Dame have been involved in an
interdisciplinary project designed to determine the usefulness of fly ash as a
bottom sealant during lake restoration treatments. Lake Charles East, an
eutrophic lake in northeastern Indiana, was treated with lime in order to
precipitate phosphates from the water column. Following the liming, a two-inch
layer of fly ash was applied to the lake bottom in order to seal the sediments and
retard phosphate regeneration back into the water. In the two years since the
lake treatment positive changes have been noted in both the physical and
biological properties of the site.
The study was supported by Grant #R80 1245 from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Determination of Trace Elements in Indiana Air and Sludge Samples, Using
Neutron Activation Analysis. Craig Caupp, Eva Liu, and Toufiq A. Siddiqi,
School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana A major advantage of using neutron activation analysis is the
ability to determine the concentrations of several elements with only one set of
measurements. Using the research reactor at the University of Missouri,
Columbia, we have determined the concentrations of Ag, Au, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs,
Cu, Eu, La, Sb, Sc, Ta, V, and Zn in sludge samples from Bloomington and
Warsaw (Indiana) as well as amounts of Al, Br, Ca, CI, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na,
Sc, Ti, V and Zn in an Indianapolis air sample. These results are compared to
data obtained elsewhere in the nation, and their health implications are
discussed.
Determination of Primary Production in Four Borrow Pit Lakes in East-central
Indiana. Byron G. Torke and Bradley J. Hall, Department of Biology, Ball
State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 During 1976, gross primary
production values were determined for four borrow-pit lakes located in
Delaware and Grant counties along state highway 1-69. Oxygen evolution was
measured for various depths utilizing the light-dark bottle method. Chemical
parameters and plankton populations were also assessed, and their relations to
pond productivity are discussed. Frequent wind mixing of these shallow ponds
is probably a major factor affecting productivity. In general all four ponds
showed moderate to high production values, indicating that production values
are more than adequate to support fish populations for recreational fishing use.
Frozen Chironomid Larvae as Food in Feeding Experiments with Bluegills. T.
S. McComish, Department of Biology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana
170 Indiana Academy of Science
47306 and R. O. Anderson, Missouri Cooperative Fishery Research Unit,
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65201 Large quantities of
chironomid larvae were collected from a sewage lagoon, cleared of debris, and
frozen for use in fish feeding experiments. Bluegills {Lepomis macrochirus) fed
frozen larvae accepted them as readily as live larvae. Changes in the proximate
composition of previously frozen larvae soaked in water for 18 hours were
insignificant. Size and proximate composition of larvae fluctuated seasonally.
Gut contents significantly affected the proximate consumption and energy
content of larvae.
A Study of Periphyton Production in the Wabash River. Anne Spacie,
Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana 47907 The production of periphytic algae in the Wabash
River near Lafayette, Indiana was measured during three consecutive years.
Colonization of attached algae on floating artificial substrates was estimated by
chlorophyll-a content. Biomass and species composition of selected periphyton
samples were also determined.
Chlorophyll-a production was similar at sites above and below Lafayette
during the three periods studied. No seasonal trends were evident between July
and November. Typical levels of 4 - 40 mg chlorophyll-a/ m2 were found at
Lafayette and at sites 80 miles downstream near Clinton. Production at sites
within the town of Lafayette was significantly lower than production at sites
further up or downstream. Possible explanations for this suppression, including
differences in solar radiation, current velocity, and water quality are discussed.
Impingement at the NIPSCO Michigan city generating Station— Preliminary
results and a comparison of analysis methods. Morgan, D. W.* and L. D.
Cline. 1Q77 Thp Aquatic Behavior Laboratory, as part of the three year
project to determine effects of the Michigan City generating Station on fish
populations of southern Lake Michigan, conducted a year-long monitoring
project of fish impinged on the station's travelling screens. All fish were removed
hourly for a 24-hour period every 4th day from December 1975 thru November
1976. There wer then identified to species, weighed, measured, and sexed. Over
30,000 fish of more than 50 species were removed, with the alewife accounting
for more than 28,000 individuals, followed by gizzard shad (696), spottail shiner
(558), rainbow smelt (89), bluegill (89) and yellow perch (86).
Biological data obtained during this project will be discussed in relation to
known fish movements and populations in southern Lake Michigan, and three
alternative methods of determining total impact by impingement of power
generating stations employing once-through cooling will be presented and
compared. Suggestions for analysis of similar future impact studies will be
presented.
Factors Affecting Ichthyoplankton Entrainment in the Michigan City
Generating Station Condenser Cooling Water System. Best, C. D.* and D. W.
Morgon. 1977 Analysis of ichthyoplankton entrainment data collected at
the NIPSCO Michigan City Generating Station indicates a correlation between
temperature changes and density of alewife, carp, and spottail shiner larvae. The
plankton sampling program was conducted from 3 May to 23 August, 1976,
Ecology 171
with the first occurrence of the 3 species found on 27 May when average
temperatures of intake and discharge waters were 15.4°C and 20.0° C
respectively.
Mean larval densities varied directly with temperature from 12 June to 14
July. The first major increase in the density of carp, alewife and spottail shiner
larvae occurred on 16 June when average intake temperature was 21.1°C and
average discharge temperature was 27.2° C. The mean density of all larvae
dropped sharply on July 26th when water temperatures averaged 24. 1°C at the
intake crib and 31.7° C in the discharge plume. Thereafter, mean density of
larvae varied inversely with discharge temperature changes, with relatively fewer
larvae being found when temperatures were above 29.0° C.
No significant correlation was found between larval density and plant flow,
rainfall, or barometric pressure.
Fish Communities in the Vicinity of the Michigan City Generating Station—
Preliminary results. Dawis, D. M.* and D. W. Morgan. 1977 As part of
the three year study to determine effects of the Michigan City Generating
Station on fish populations in southern Lake Michigan, a gill net sampling
program was started in June 1977. This ongoing project includes four sampling
sites designed to delineate differences, if any, in fish community structure due to
generating station intake and discharge and /or the Michigan City breakwater
system. The sites are being sampled under three wind conditions: less than 5 kts.,
and greater than 5 kts from the northeast and southwest. Six-hour sets are made
during consecutive day and night periods. Gill net mesh sizes range from 1 " to 8"
(stretched) mesh. All fish are identified to species, weighed, measured (T.L.),
and sexed, and concurrent water chemistry data (D.O., temperature,
conductivity, and pH) and current data (direction and speed) are taken at start
and finish of each set.
Preliminary results indicate differences in community structure due to
location and time of day. Analyses of possible correlations with water
temperature, chemical and current characteristics, and weather conditions are
currently being undertaken and will be provisionally discussed.
Seasonal Distribution of By thinia tentaculata in Hamlin Lake, Mason County,
Michigan. Donald E. Miller, Department of Biology, Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana 47306 Bythinia (Bithynia, Bulimus) tentaculata has been
reported in the Great Lakes and associated bodies of water where it probably
was introduced from Europe. It is now abundant in Hamlin Lake, Mason
County, Michigan.
Observations and collections of these snails were made from June, 1972 to
June, 1977. Although winter observations were limited, adults appeared to over-
winter on the lake bottom and on various types of supports in water one to two
meters deep. Soon after ice-off (March 9, 1973; March 27, 1974; April 17, 1975;
March 24, 1976; and March 30, 1977), adult snails migrated to shallow water
where they found supports and soon began to deposit eggs: by April 29, 1 976 and
April 23, 1977. Microscope slides gave the best picture of egg abundance. At the
peak of egg deposition, up to 45 egg masses were found on one microscope slide.
By early May up to 48 snails were found on two sides of a 25 x 77mm microscope
172 Indiana Academy of Science
slide. At greatest abundance the snails occupied up to 30 per cent of the surface
of some dock posts, microcsope slides, and other supports. At times 90 per cent
or more of microscope slide surfaces were covered by snails and snail eggs. The
population declined by late August, but even then substantial numbers were
found on limited areas of some supports. Snails did not again become abundant
on supports until the following spring. Distribution and abundance of Bythinia
varied in different localities and depths in the lake. An accurate picture of
abundance and distribution requires observations at several stations. At times,
other species of snails, especially Goniobasis livescens, were present at the
collection sites.
The Fish Community as an Indicator of Water Quality. J. R. Gammon,
Department of Zoology, DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana
46135 Although regulations for water quality standards stress the general
goal of maintaining "balanced" aquatic communities, little progress has been
made in establishing what a "balanced" aquatic community consists of.
Among a variety of community paramenters based upon electrofishing
catches of fish from rivers, a composite index of well-being incorporating
relative density, relative biomass, Shannon index of diversity based on numeric
data, and Shannon index based on biomass appears to reflect environmental
conditions better than any single parameter. Profiles of water quality based
upon the composite index are presented for the Wabash River, 200 miles of the
Ohio River, and the middle Great Miami River.
Success of the Holdridge Life Zone Model in yielding Potential
Evapotranspiration Estimates for U.S. Weather Stations. A. A. Lindsey,
Purdue University Biological and physical aspects of the Holdridge life
zone model are closely related, but the biological ones have not been
persuasively tested against external criteria. However, validation of Holdridge's
concept is possible from physical data from an independent method, by
comparison of results for potential evapotranspiration between the Holdridge
and the (standard) Thornthwaite method. In comparing such results for 300
weather stations scattered through the 50 states, I found a mere 1.65 per cent
difference, in the mean of all stations combined, from the corresponding
Thornthwaite mean. This results from the canceling out of consistent bias in
Holdridge from the Thornthwaite results, in that Holdridge's method
overestimated potential evapotranspiration in all four Warm Temperate life
zones studied, and consistently underestimated it in the three Cool Temperate
and three Warm Temperate Montane life zones. The Holdridge approach has a
general tendency to underestimate this value, overall.
Holdridge's procedure, using the 300 stations lumped, was more variable,
its coefficient of variability being 33.9 compared with a CV of 27.3 for
Thornthwaite. The coefficient of correlation (r) between the two methods was
rather good (0.94). In a breakdown by life zones, five of the major zones had r
values of 0.96 through 0.99. These statistical results, though showing that
Holdridge's method is inferior to Thornthwaite's for potential evapotranspira-
tion, furnish strong physical or climatological confirmation of the basic concept
of Holdridge's system overall.
Ecology 173
Evaluation of a Ruffed Grouse Reintroduction in Northern Indiana. Sean T.
Kelly* and Charles M. Kirkpatrick, Department of Forestry, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Throughout northern Indiana,
in the late 1800's and early 1900's, once substantial ruffed grouse (Bonasa
umbellus) populations were extirpated by intensive agriculture. Land
abandonment and public land purchases have recently produced potentially
suitable grouse habitat, and since 1952 the Indiana Department of Natural
Resources has attempted to restore the species to part of its former range. One
reintroduction was made at Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area, where 89
wild -trapped birds were released in the falls of 1970 and 1971. This study
evaluated the success of that reintroduction. Drumming counts conducted
during the springs of 1976 and 1977 revealed 14 and 20 drumming activity
centers, respectively. Density estimates derived from seasonal strip censuses
ranged from 6-31 birds per 100 hectares. Flush counts indicated that birds used
the upland hardwood-brush type during all seasons except winter when the birds
moved to the lowland woody community, possibly because of changes in food
availability. Reproduction was suggested in 1977 by the capture of three
unbanded drumming males, and confirmed by the sighting of five broods during
the summer field season. The ruffed grouse appears to be the established on this
area, and the success of this reintroduction indicates that restocking is a viable
means of reestablishing the ruffed grouse in other forested portions of northern
Indiana.
Primary Productivity and Chlorophyll a of Selected Northern Indiana Lakes
Thomas E. Lauer and Kenneth A. Frato
Division of Water Pollution Control, Indiana State Board of Health
1330 West Michigan Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46206
Introduction
The State of Indiana was required by Section 314 (a) of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 to identify and classify all publicly
owned fresh water lakes according to their trophic status. Initially a preliminary
limnological survey of all public lakes in the state was undertaken. Subsequent
classification using Bon Homme's index (2) placed these lakes into a trophic
state ranking. From this information, more intensive studies were implemented
on selected "key" or "problem" lakes. Special attention was given those bodies of
water where a high degree of cultural eutrophy or a rapid change in the quality of
the lake existed.
As part of the intensive survey program, eight lakes in northern Indiana
were sampled in the summer of 1976. The study was designed to determine: 1)
the rate at which new organic matter is formed and accumulated within the lake
under study (primary productivity), 2) the concentration of photosynthetic
pigment for estimation of plankton biomass (chlorophyll a), and 3) how the
previous classification using BonHomme's index (2) compares with the 1976
findings and other classification schemes.
Study Areas
A total of eight lakes was studied in Kosciusko, LaGrange, Noble and
Steuben Counties. They range in size from 10 ha. to 325 ha., and represent a wide
range of trophic states. Crooked, Webster, Hamilton, and Sylvan are large lakes
that are heavily developed and highly recreational. Palestine, Long and Waubee
are somewhat smaller but are also developed along a significant portion of their
shore line. While only a small portion of Martin Lake is populated, it is being
developed at a fast rate. Table I presents a more complete morphometric
description of the lakes.
Table 1. Morphometric characteristics of the eight lakes studied in northern Indiana, 1976.
Area
Volume
Max Depth
Mean Depth
Lake
County
(ha.)
(m3xl06)
(m)
(m)
Crooked
Steuben
325
12.4
23.5
3.8
Webster
Kosciusko
237
8.8
13.7
3.7
Hamilton
Steuben
325
20.5
21.3
6.3
Martin
LaGrange
10
1.1
17.1
11. 0
Waubee
Kosciusko
76
5.9
15.5
7.8
Long
Steuben
37
1.9
9.7
5.1
Sylvan
Noble
255
7.6
11.0
3.0
Palestine
Kosciusko
94
1.1
9.0
1.2
174
Ecology 175
Methods
Algal primary productivity was measured in situ using carbon- 14
methodology. Modification of the procedures outlined by Slack (4), Strickland
and Parsons (5), and Vollenweider ( 1 3) were utilized. The procedures outlined in
this study incorporated suggestions proposed by the Biology Section, Central
Regional Lab of Region V, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Samples for determination of primary productivity were collected at depth
intervals which varied from 0.25 to 1.0 m (dependent upon the depth of the
eupthotic zone) with either an opaque plastic Van Dorn or Kemmer-type
sampler. Surfactant washed (Contrad 70), acid washed, and thoroughly rinsed
300 ml BOD bottles were filled from the sampler through a length of rubber
tubing. One dark and two light bottles were filled for each depth sampled. The
contents of a sterile glass ampoule containing 2.0 ml of C-14 as sodium
bicarbonate of known activity (approximately 1 /uCi/ml) was injected into the
BOD bottle with a 2 ml B-D Cornwall syringe fitted with a 4-inch canula. While
adding the C-14, the bottles were either kept in subdued light or enclosed within
a black plastic bag. All bottles were placed in light-tight plywood boxes from the
time of sample collection until placement in the water column. When all samples
at a station had been inoculated, the bottles were suspended at the depth from
which the samples had been collected and incubated in situ for four hours
(generally, between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m.). Following incubation, 1 ml of
formalin was added to each bottle to arrest photosynthesis. Samples were
immediately transported to the field laboratory and processed within two to
three hours.
In the laboratory a measured aliquot (usually 50 ml) was filtered through a
47 mm, 0.45 /um membrane filter (Millipore-HAW P04 4700). Vacuum was
maintained at less than 200 mm of mercury. A rinse of approximately 10 ml of
distilled water was applied and the filter vacuum dried. Each filter was
immediately placed in a scintillation vial containing 20 ml of Beckman Filter-
Solv liquid scintillation cocktail and stored until counted.
Background samples were prepared by filtering 50 ml of distilled water
through a membrane filter and placing the filter in 20 ml of cocktail.
Background samples were prepared in triplicate at least once each week
throughout the study. Productivity and background samples were counted twice
in series for 20 minutes or 10,000 counts and the results averaged.
Counting efficiency was determined by the external standard ratio method.
A quench series was prepared using nitromethane as the quenching agent and
Beckman Filter-Solv as the cocktail. Primary productivity in mg carbon per
cubic meter per hour (mgC/m3/hr) was calculated using the equation of
Saunders (3). The values from the entire eupthotic zone were integrated using
the method of Slack (4) and expressed as mgC/m2/hr.
Samples for analysis of chlorophyll a were collected with an opaque plastic
sampler. Lake water was transferred to plastic containers and stored in a cooler
until processed. Samples were kept in subdued light with the time between
collection and processing rarely exceeding two hours.
At the field laboratory, the sample was thoroughly shaken and 200 ml were
176 Indiana Academy of Science
filtered through a glass fiber filter (Gelman-type AE). When the filter was almost
clear, approximately 1 ml of saturated magnesium carbonate suspension was
added to the filter followed by a distilled water rinse. The filter was folded with
forceps, algae side inward, and wrapped in aluminun foil. The foil packets were
placed in labeled 48 x 5 mm plastic petri dishes and immediately frozen. Samples
were kept frozen until the chlorophyll was extracted. Replicate samples were run
for quality control and consisted of 200 ml aliquots from the same sample
container.
The extraction and measurement of chlorophyll a in the samples was
performed by the Biology Section, Central Regional Laboratory of Region V,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, according to the fluorometric method
of Strickland and Parsons (5). Chlorophyll a concentrations were corrected for
phaeophytin.
The eight study lakes were ranked and classified based on primary
productivity and chlorophyll a values. Where the exact trophic status was not
delineated by these two parameters, subjective judgments were based on the
supplemental data collected. These other data included total phosphorus,
nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia, total kjeldahl nitrogen, alkalinity, pH, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, Secchi disc readings and light transmittance levels. Secchi
disc, total phosphorus and chlorophyll a were used to calculate Carlson's
Trophic State Index (TSI) (1).
Results
Primary productivity and chlorophyll a data for the eight study lakes are
summarized in Table 2. Palestine Lake showed the highest primary productivity
at 430 mgC/m2/hr in June. The value dropped somewhat in July and declined
further in August. During July, 85 percent of the production in Palestine Lake
was restricted to the first meter. In August, when the Secchi disc reading was
0.25 m and the one percent light transmittance level was less than one meter, 100
percent of the primary productivity was found in the first meter. These
productivity values did not include that contributed by the extensive
macrophyte growth (primarily spatterdock and duckweed) which covered over
40 percent of the lake surface. Although macrophytes were evident in other lakes
studied, none approached the dense growth found at Palestine. The chlorophyll
a values were twice that of any other study lake in July and August, ranging up to
87.8 mg/m3.
Algal production at Sylvan Lake increased as the summer progressed.
Eighty-five percent of the primary productivity within the euphotic zone was
confined to the first meter in August. Unlike Palestine Lake, the density of
macrophytes was small, contributing little to the total productivity of the lake.
The rapid extinction of light in the water column (one percent light
transmittance level at 2.5, 1.75, and 1.75 m in June, July and August,
respectively) from the biogenic turbidity effectively limited macrophyte growth.
This observation was also noted by Wetzel (14).
Long Lake has a history of severe algal problems according to Indiana
State Board of Health records (ISBH unpublished) and (5). The findings of this
Ecology
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178 Indiana Academy of Science
study indicated it to be a highly productive lake (240 mgC/m2/hr in August).
The chlorophyll a values were high in all months sampled, indicating no decline
from the National Eutrophication Survey (NES) findings of 1973 (8).
Primary productivity in Waubee Lake reached 290 mgC/m2/hr in August.
The high chlorophyll a values, also found this month, indicated the fertile nature
of this lake. Only Palestine and Sylvan indicated higher productivity during the
study, while only Palestine had higher chlorophyll a concentrations.
In Martin Lake, primary productivity in June and August were comparable
to the values found at Webster, Crooked and Hamilton Lakes. However,
productivity in July was much lower than during the same sampling period at
the above-mentioned lakes.
Hamilton Lake experienced a large increase in productivity in July. Algal
clumping was apparent in some areas of the lake, while Secchi disc readings and
light transmittance levels indicated the increase in biogenic turbidity.
Chlorophyll a values in July were also the highest found at this lake. Both the
June and August samples indicated a lowered rate of production and
chlorophyll a.
In both Webster and Crooked Lakes primary productivity values were low
initially and increased as the summer progressed. Both also displayed low
chlorophyll a values ranging from 4.2 to 7.5 mg/m3.
Discussion
Rankings and classifications from this study and other methods are shown in
Table 3. Crooked, Hamilton and Webster Lakes exhibited similar trophic
characteristics. This study classified Crooked Lake eutrophic, not meso-
eutrophic as indicated by both NES (6) and ISBH (unpublished). However, by
all classification methods it was considered the least eutrophic. We based our
ranking on the low productivities and chlorophyll a values found. In addition,
the distribution of productivity in the water column was indicative of a
eutrophic lake (15) during July and August. Productivity and chlorophyll a
values were similar in Webster and Crooked Lakes but the values for Webster
were slightly higher (except for the June chlorophyll a value). The large increase
in productivity and chlorophyll a values in Hamilton Lake during July were
responsible for ranking this lake more eutrophic than Webster Lake. These July
figures may indicate that this lake is more susceptible to algal blooms. This
ranking corresponds with the NES results (6, 7, 12). However, both earlier ISBH
data (unpublished) and TSI (1) show Hamilton Lake to be less eutrophic than
Webster Lake. Thus, the importance placed on different parameters may
influence the ranking of these two lakes.
The relatively low ranking assigned Martin Lake was not expected since the
other two lakes in the chain (Oliver and Olin) were considered to be mesotrophic
by NES (9, 10) and the earlier ISBH survey (ISBH, unpublished). Impact from
non-point source runoff in recent years has been decisive in changing the trophic
status of this lake. Heavy rain in the watershed the day before the July sampling
brought in an excessive amount of sediment from a soybean field approximately
one-half mile away. This inorganic turbidity restricted the euphotic zone to the
Ecology
179
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180 Indiana Academy of Science
upper 1.5 m. In addition, overcast weather conditions reduced incident solar
radiation, further limiting the energy available for algal photosynthesis. These
conditions were probably responsible for the low productivity found in July,
and it is the opinion of these investigators that this measurement is not indicative
of the true trophic status of Martin Lake.
Waubee, Long and Sylvan Lakes appear to be similar when viewing
productivity and chlorophyll a data. The ranking of Waubee Lake as less
eutrophic reflects the chlorophyll a and productivity found in June and July.
Although Long Lake showed chlorophyll a values in excess of Sylvan Lake in all
months, the productivity depth profile (ISBH, unpublished) in August showed
Sylvan Lake to be in a more advanced eutrophic state.
Palestine Lake was found to be highly eutrophic, much more so than the
other lakes in the study. Based on ISBH surveys (ISBH, unpublished), this lake
has a history of problems related to its highly eutrophic state and these problems
were evident at the time of sampling.
Conclusions
1. Crooked Lake was considered the least eutrophic of the study lakes.
2. Hamilton and Webster Lakes generally exhibit characteristics of moderate
eutrophy, but are subject to algal blooms which are indicative of their
trophic variability.
3. Accelerated eutrophication might be expected in Martin Lake due to the
impact of heavy non-point source runoff. If not controlled, this trend may
spread to the other lakes in the chain.
4. Sylvan, Long and Waubee Lakes appear to be in an advanced eutrophic
state.
5. Based on the consistently high productivity and chlorophyll a values,
Palestine Lake was considered the most eutrophic of the eight lakes studied.
6. Various lake classification schemes may produce different results.
Differences between the classification scheme developed in this study and
those developed from earlier studies may reflect actual changes in trophic
state. However, differences in techniques, parameters, sampling dates and
subjective observations may explain some of the differences.
Disclaimer
Mention of trade names or commercial products does constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the Indiana State Board of Health.
Literature Cited
1. Carlson, R. E. 1977. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:361-369.
2. Indiana State Board of Health. 1977. Annual report to U.S. Congress. 305(b) report for 1976.
Indiana State Board of Health Pub. Loose-leaf pub. n. p.
3. Saunders, G. W., F. B. Trama, and R. W. Bachmann. 1962. Evaluation of a modified C-14
technique for shipboard estimation of photosynthesis in large lakes. Great lakes Res. Div. Pub. No.
8, 61 p.
Ecology 181
4. Slack K. V., R. C. Averett, P. E. Greeson, and R. G. Lipscomb. 1973. Methods for collection
and analysis of aquatic biological and microbiological samples. Techniques for water resources
investigation of the U.S.G.S. Book 5, 165 p.
5. Strickland, J. D. H., and T. R. Parsons. 1972. A practical handbook of seawater analysis. Bull.
Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Bull. 167, 311. p.
6. U. S. EPA. 1976. Report on Crooked Lake, Steuben Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental
Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 325.
7. 1976. Report on Hamilton Lake, Steuben Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 328.
8. 1976. Report on Long Lake, Steuben Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 332.
9. 1976. Report on Olin Lake, LaGrange Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 338.
10. 1976. Report on Oliver Lake, LaGrange Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 339.
11. 1975. Report on Sylvan Lake, Noble Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 341.
12. 1976. Report on Webster Lake, Kosciusko Co., Indiana. Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las
Vegas, Nevada. Working paper No. 345.
13. Vollenweider, R. A., ed. 1974. A manual on methods for measuring primary production in
aquatic environments. Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford. I.B.P. Handbook No. 12, Second ed.,
225 p.
14. Wetzel, R. G. 1966. Variations in productivity of Goose and hypereutrophic Sylvan Lakes,
Indiana. Invest. Ind. Lakes and Streams. 7:147-184.
15. 1975. Limnology. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 743 p.
Distribution of Stream Fishes in Tippecanoe County, Indiana.
Kevin D. Curry and Anne Spacie
Department of Forestry and Natural Resources
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
Accurate distributional records are important in assessing long term
changes in fish distribution. Gerking (2) published the last record for fishes of
Tippecanoe County in his 1945 report on Indiana fishes. Since 1945, changes in
habitat, taxonomic status, and collection methods have all effected changes in
the reports and records offish that occur in the streams and rivers of Tippecanoe
County.
Several researchers have monitored the distribution of fish in the county
since Gerking's (2) state survey. Erman and Mumford (1) added 19 species to
Gerkings list in their collections from 1958 to 1965. They noted Gerking had
mapped a collection site for the channel darter, Percina copelandi, in lower
Wildcat Creek but reported it only from Big Pine Creek, Fountain County and
the Wabash River near Attica in Warren County. Lehman (4) did an intensive
investigation of fish populations in channelized and natural segments of Wea
and Little Wea Creek. Changes in fish community diversity of Indian Creek
were investigated relative to quantified measures of habitat diversity by Gorman
(3). Fisheries classes at Purdue University have noted occurrences offish species
in the Wabash River from 1971 to 1977. During our investigations, we collected
in all the major streams in the county from 1974 to 1977.
The purpose of this report is to update and summarize all records of fish
distribution in Tippecanoe County since 1945. We have included studies by
other researchers in updating the information on fish distribution.
Sites
All stream systems within the county drain into the Wabash River. The
Wabash River enters the northeast corner and flows southwest through the
northern half of the county. The Flint Creek, Wea Creek, and Wildcat Creek
systems drain northwest through approximately two-thirds of Tippecanoe
County. Indian Creek, Little Pine Creek and Burnetts Creek are the principle
stream drainages for the remaining one-third of the county northwest of the
Wabash River. Our survey covered 39 sites within the county (Table 1).
Table 1 . Collection Sites in Tippecanoe County, Indiana.
1. Flint Creek, sec. 4-5, Burnetts Reserve, T. 22 N., R. 6 W..
2. Flint Creek, sec. 1, Burnetts Reserve, T. 22 N., R. 6 W..
3. Wea Creek, sec. 30, T. 21 N., R. 4 W..
4. Wea Creek, sec. 18, T. 21 N., R. 4 W..
5. Wea Creek, sec. 17, T. 21 N., R. 4 W..
6. Wea Creek, sec. 9, T. 21 N., R. 4 W..
7. Wea Creek, sec. 2, T. 21 N., R. 4 W..
182
23 N., R
3 W..
T. 23 N.,
R. 3 W.
23 N., R
3 W..
T. 23 N.,
R. 3 W.
Ecology 183
8. Wea Creek, sec. 22, T. 22 N., R. 4 W..
9. Wea Creek, sec. 12, T. 22 N., R. 5 W..
10. Dismal Creek, sec. 22, T. 22 N. R. 4 W..
11. Little Wea Creek, sec. 21, T. 21 N., R. 5 W..
12. Little Wea Creek, sec. 10, T. 21. N., R. 5 W..
13. Little Wea Creek, sec. 1, T. 21 N., R. 5 W..
14. Little Wea Creek, sec. 12, T. 22 N., R 5 W..
15. Wildcat Creek, sec. 22, T. 22 N., R. 3 W..
16. Wildcat Creek, sec. 33, T.
17. Wildcat Creek, sec. 26-27,
18. Wildcat Creek, sec. 21, T.
19. Wildcat Creek, sec. 10-11,
20. Wildcat Creek, sec. 14, T. 23 N.,R.4W..
21. Wildcat Creek, sec. 3, T. 23 N., R. 4 W..
22. Sugar Creek, sec. 21, T. 24 N., R. 3 W..
23. Buck Creek, sec. 30-31, T. 24 N., R. 3 W..
24. Little Pine Creek, sec. 36, T. 24 N., R. 6 W..
25. Little Pine Creek, sec. 22, T. 23 N., R. 6 W..
26. Indian Creek, sec. 4, T. 23 N., R. 5 W..
27. Indian Creek, sec. 18, T. 23 N., R. 5 W..
28. Indian Creek, sec. 24, T. 23 N., R. 6 W..
29. Burnetts Creek, sec. 27, T. 24 N., R. 4 W..
30. Moots Creek, sec. 8, T. 24 N., R. 3 W..
31. Wabash River, sec. 16, T. 24 N. R. 3 W..
32. Wabash River, sec. 20, T. 24 N., R. 3 W..
33. Wabash River, sec. 17, T. 23 N., R. 4 W..
34. Wabash River, sec. 29, T. 23 N., R. 4 W..
35. Wabash River, sec. 31, T. 23 N., R. 4 W..
36. Wabash River, sec. 35, T. 23 N., R. 5 W..
37. Wabash River, sec. 28, T. 23 N., R. 5 W..
38. Wabash River, sec. 26, T. 23 N., R. 6 W..
39. Wabash River, sec. 3, T. 22 N., R. 6 W..
Methods
Fish were sampled by means of 1/4 inch mesh seines, gas powered D.C.
back pack shocker, Smith Root Type VI electrofisher, hoop nets and D-nets.
Common species were identified in the field. Other specimens were preserved
and returned to the laboratory. Laboratory identifications were made using the
taxonomic keys of Nelson and Gerking (5), Pflieger (6), and Trautman (7). Voucher
specimens for most of the species reported are located at the Department of
Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University.
Collection sites are listed according to stream system. Species are listed by
family and include the numbers and letters that correspond to their collection
records in this report (Table 2).
Site specific information is not included in Gorman's (3) report and
specimens from his Indian Creek Study are no longer present at Purdue
University. We are listing species reported by Gorman that were not collected in
our investigation by using In. Crk. under the species name.
184 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. List of Species
PETROMYZONTIDAE
Lampetra lamottei (Lesueur); American Brook lamprey. 21.
Ichthyomyzon unicuspis (Hubbs and Trautman). Silver lamprey. 31, 33, 34, 38.
POLYODONTIDAE
Polyodon spathula (Walbaum); Paddlefish. 33, 36.
ACIPENSERIDAE
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus (Rafinesque); Shovelnose sturgeon. 21, 32, 33, 39.
LEPISOSTEIDAE
Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus); Longnose gar. 31, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Lepisosteus platostomus (Rafinesque); Shortnose gar. 33, 34, 36, 37.
AMIIDAE
Amia calva (Linnaeus); Bowfin. 33, 36, 38.
ANGUILLIDAE
Anguilla rostrata (Lesueur); American eel. 31, 33, 36.
CLUPEIDAE
Dorosoma cepedianum (Lesueur); Gizzard shad. 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Alosa chrysochloris (Rafinesque); Skipjack herring. 32, 33, 36.
ESOCIDAE
Esox americanus vermiculatus (Lesueur); Grass pickerel. 3, 6.
Esox lucius (Linnaeus); Northern pike. 33.
HIODONTIDAE
Hiodon alosoides (Rafinesque); Goldeye. 33, 36, 37, 39.
Hiodon tergisus (Lesueur); Mooneye. 32, 33, 36, 38, 39.
CYPRINIDAE
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus); Carp. 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Rhinichthys atratulus (Hermann); Blacknose dace. 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 1 1, 12, 13, 17, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29.
Hybopsis amblops (Rafinesque); Bigeye chub. 7, 21, 30, 37.
Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchell); Creek chub. 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 17, 23, 24, 26, 27,
28, 29, 30, 32, 38.
Nocomis micropogon (Cope); River chub. 2, 7, 19, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38.
Hybopsis aestivalis (Girard); Speckled chub. 21, 32, 35.
Hybopsis x-punctata (Hubbs and Crowe); Gravel chub. 32.
Pimephales notatus (Rafinesque); Bluntnose minnow. 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 1 1, 12, 14, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27,
28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Pimephales vigilax (Baird and Girard); Bullhead minnow. 21.
Pimephales promelas (Rafinesque); Fathead minnow. In. Crk.
Ericymba buccata (Cope); Silverjaw minnow. 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 1 1, 12, 14, 22, 23, 24, 28, 31, 35, 36.
Hybognathus nuchalis (Agassiz); Silvery minnow. 14, 34, 39. In. Crk.
Phenacobius mirabilis (Girard); Suckermouth minnow. 2, 15, 21, 25, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 39. In.
Crk.
Notropis chrysocephalus (Rafinesque); Striped shiner. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Notropus atherinoides (Rafinesque); Emerald shiner. 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37.
Notemigonus chrysoleucas (Mitchill); Golden shiner. In. Crk.
Notropis volucellus (Cope); Mimic shiner. 2, 36, 39.
Notropis umbratilis (Girard); Redfin shiner. 5, 9, 24. In. Crk.
Notropis blennius (Girard); River shiner. 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37. In. Crk.
Notropis rubellus (Agassiz); Rosyface shiner. 4, 5, 7.
Notropis stramineus (Cope); Sand shiner. 7, 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39. In. Crk.
Notropis spilopterus (Cope); Spotfin shiner. 1, 2, 7, 13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Ecology 185
Notropis whipplei (Girard); Steelcolor shiner. 2, 30.
Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque); Stoneroller. 1, 2, 4, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39.
CATOSTOMIDAE
Cycleptus elongatus (Lesueur); Blue sucker. 35.
Hypentelium nigricans. (Lesueur); Northern hog sucker. 1,2, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16,20,21,28,31,32,
33, 35, 36, 38.
Minytrema melanops (Rafinesque); Spotted sucker. 33, 36, 38.
Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede); White sucker. 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 19, 20, 21, 27, 33, 36, 38.
Carpiodes velifer (Rafinesque); Highfin carpsucker. 21, 31, 33.
Carpiodes cyprinus (Lesueur); Quill back. 21, 31, 33, 36.
Carpiodes carpio (Rafinesque); River carpsucker. 21, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Ictiobus cyprinellus (Valenciennes); Bigmouth buffalo. 33, 35, 36, 39.
Ictiobus niger (Rafinesque); Black buffalo. 32, 33, 26.
Ictiobus bubalus (Rafinesque); Smallmouth buffalo. 31, 33, 35, 36, 37.
Erimyzon oblongus (Mitchill); Creek chubsucker. 11. In. Cr.
Moxostoma erythrurum (Rafinesque); Golden redhorse. 20, 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
39.
Moxostoma carinatum (Cope); River redhorse. 21, 31, 32, 33, 38.
Moxostoma macrolepidotum (Lesueur); Shorthead redhorse. 14, 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
38, 39.
Moxostoma anisurum (Rafinesque); Siver redhorse. 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39.
ICTALURIDAE
Ictalurus melas (Rafinesque); Black bullhead. In. Cr.
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque); Channel catfish. 21, 33, 34, 36.
Pylodictus olivaris (Rafinesque); Flathead catfish. 21, 33, 34, 36.
Ictalurus natalis (Lesueur); Yellow bullhead. 3, 5, In. Crk.
Noturus miurus (Jordan); Brindled madtom. 18, 32.
Noturus flavus (Rafinesque); Stonecat. 13, 14, 20.
GADIDAE
Lota lota (Linnaeus); Burbot. 33, 36.
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Fundulus notatus (Rafinesque); Blackstripe topminnow. 3.
ATHERINIDAE
Labidesthes sicculus (Cope); Brook silversides. 33, 34, 36.
COTTIDAE
Cottus bairdi (Girard); Mottled sculpin. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 1 1, 12, 13, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29,
30.
PERCICTHYIDAE
Morone chrysops (Rafinesque); White bass. 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.
CENTRARCHIDAE
Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede); Largemouth bass. 21, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37. In. Crk.
Micropterus dolomieui (Lacepede); Smallmouth bass. 6, 13, 14, 17, 20, 21, 31, 32, 36, 38.
Lepomis macrochirus (Rafinesque); Bluegill. 14, 19, 34, 36. In. Crk.
Lepomis cyanellus (Rafinesque); Green sunfish. 3, 5, 6, 14, 19, 27, 33, 36.
Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque); Longear sunfish. 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 20, 21, 27, 28, 32, 33, 34,
36, 38, 39.
Lepomis humilis (Girard); Orangespotted sunfish. 33.
Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque); Rockbass. 3, 6, 20.
Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur); Black crappie. 33, 36.
Pomoxis annularis (Rafinesque); White crappie. 33, 34, 36, 38, 39.
PERCIDAE
Stizostedion canadense (Smith); Sauger. 21, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39.
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum (Mitchill); Walleye. 21, 36.
Perca flavescens (Mitchill); Yellow perch. 18.
186 Indiana Academy of Science
Percina maculata (Girard); Blackside darter. 19, 20, 21.
Ammocrypta pellucida (Putnam); Eastern sand darter. 21.
Etheostoma flabellare (Rafinesque); Fantail darter. 1,2, 13.
Etheostoma blennioides (Rafinesque); Greenside darter. 1, 3, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 20, 25, 28.
Etheostoma nigrum (Rafinesque); Johnny darter. 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 19, 20, 24, 28, 29,
30, 32, 37.
Percina caprodes (Rafinesque); Log perch. 32, 36, 37, 39.
Etheostoma spectabile (Agassiz); Orangethroat darter. 2, 3, 10, 12, 13, 17, 25, 27, 28.
Etheostoma caeruleum (Storer); Rainbow darter. 1, 5, 7, 13, 14, 20, 25, 29, 30, 32.
SCIAENIDAE
Aplodinotus grunniens (Rafinesque); Freshwater drum. 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38.
Results and Discussion
Eighty-six species representing 20 families were identified from collections
within the county (Table 2). Our report represents an addition of 40 species to
Gerking's (2) list for fish in Tippecanoe County, Twenty-one of the new species
records are primarily Wabash River species (Icthyomyzon unicuspis, Polyodon
spathula, Sacphirhynchus platorynchus, Lepisosteus osseus, Lepisosteus
platostomus, Amia calva, Anguilla rostrata, Esox lucius, Hiodon alosoides,
Hiodon tergisus, Cycleptus elongatus, Carpiodes velifer, Carpiodes carpio,
Ictiobus niger, Ictiobus bubalus, Moxostoma duquesnei, Moxostoma
macrolepidotum, Pylodictus olivaris, Lota lota, Morone chrysops, Stizostedion
vitreum vitreum). Most of these fish probably were present in the Wabash River
during past surveys but these species are not easily captued by seining.
Electrofishing gear enabled us to sample these species effectively in our
investigations.
Of the 46 species collected in Tippecanoe County by Gerking (2), only the
harelip sucker, Lagochila lacera, bluebreast darter, Etheostoma camurum, and
channel darter, Percina copelandi, were not found in our study. Single records
for four species were recorded by Erman and Mumford (1) in their preliminary
report (bigmouth shiner, Notropis dorsalis, spotted bass, Micropterus
punctalatus, warmouth, Chaenobryttus gulosus, and the tadpole madtom,
Noturus gyrinus). None of these species were found during our investigations.
Two species appear to be localized in their distribution. We collected the
brindled madtom, Noturus miurus, only from upper Wildcat Creek and below
the junction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers. Eastern sand darters,
Ammocrypta pellucida, were captured only in our collections from lower
Wildcat Creek. Gerking (2) and Erman and Mumford (1) reported both of these
species only from Wildcat Creek. Additional careful sampling is necessary to
properly assess the current distribution of these species.
Of the large fish we collected in the Wabash mainstem, five species were
seldom seen during our study. One northern pike, Esox lucius, was captured
during a fisheries class in 1975. Burbot, Lota lota, and walleye, Stizostedion
vitreum vitreum, are captured occasionally in our spring D-net samples. These
fish probably escaped from impoundments on upstream tributaries or from pay
fishing ponds that flood into the Wabash River in the spring. Shovelnose
sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus platorynchus, and blue sucker, Cycleptus elongatus,
Ecology 187
were captured infrequently in our river electrofishing surveys. We have sighted
one blue sucker while electrofishing in the Wabash River below Wildcat Creek
in 1975. Two blue suckers were sighted between Lafayette and the mouth of Wea
Creek during the 1977 summer survey of the Wabash River1.
Noticeable changes in abundance and distribution of species occurred
between major habitats. Redfin shiners, Notropis wnbratilis, appear to inhabit
only the upper headwaters of a few streams in Tippecanoe County while nine
species were abundant throughout the tributary streams of the Wabash River
{Semotilus atromaculatus, Pimephales notatus, Ericymba buccata, Notropis
chrysocephalus, Notropis spilopterus, Campostoma anomalum, Hypentelium
nigricans, Cottus bairdi, Etheostoma nigrum). Bluntnose minnows, Pimephales
notatus, and spotfin shiners, Notropis spilopterus, were also extremely
abundant in seine collections from the Wabash River but six of the remaining
seven common stream species rarely appeared in our Wabash River collections.
We captured large adult northern hogsuckers, Hypentelium nigricans, regularly
in our electrofishing surveys of the Wabash River but juveniles were abundant
only in the tributaries. Sand shiners, Notropis stramineus, river shiners,
Notropis blennius, and emerald shiners, Notropis atherinoides, consistently
appeared in the Wabash River collections but were seldom collected in the
tributary streams.
During the course of this study and related projects we noted marked
seasonal changes in the distribution and abundance of several catostomids that
are characterized as river species. During March and April, several species of
redhorse (Moxostoma anisuram, M. erythrurum, M. duquesnei, M.
macrolepidotum, M. carinatum) and river carpsuckers, Carpiodes carpio, are
extremely abundant during their spring spawning run in Wildcat Creek. After
early to mid May, some of these species reside in the stream in much lower
numbers while others appear to be absent (M. carinatum, M. anisurum).
Of the large Wabash River species collected in our investigations, five
species were extremely abundant (Dorosoma cepedianum, Cyprinus carpio,
Carpiodes carpio, Moxostoma erythrurum, and Moxostoma maccrolepidotum
White bass, Morone chrysops, and silver redhorse, Moxostoma anisurum, were
captured frequently but in much smaller numbers.
'Personal communication Dr. James Gammon, DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana.
88 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Erman, D. C.,andR. E. Munford. A preliminary list of the fishes of Tippecanoe County, Indiana.
Unpublished report. 6 p.
2. Gerking, S. D. 1945. The distribution of the fishes of Indiana. Invest. Indiana Lakes and Streams
3:1-137.
3. Gorman, O. T. 1976. Diversity and stability in the fish communities of some Indiana and Panama
streams. M. S. Thesis, Purdue University.
4. Lehman, L. L. 1974. Some effects of PL 566 small watershed project on fish populations and
selected water quality variables within and below a channelized area. M. S. Thesis, Purdue
University.
5. Nelson, J. S., and S. D. Gerking. 1968. Annotated key to the fishes of Indiana, Indiana
University, Bloomington, Indiana.
6. Pflieger, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Missouri Dept. of Conservation. 343 p.
7. Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. The Ohio State University Press, Columbus, Ohio. 638
P-
Reproductive Ecology of the Tiger Salamander,
Amby stoma tigrinum, in Northern Indiana
David M. Sever and Clarence F. Dineen
Department of Biology, Saint Mary's College, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Introduction
The tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum (Green), is the most widely
distributed species of salamander in the world. Seven subspecies range from
central Alberta to Saskatchewan to the southern limits of the Mexican Plateau
and from Long Island, New York to the Pacific coast of California (7). The
subspecies occurring in Indiana, A. t. tigrinum, occurs over most of the eastern
deciduous forest region except in the Appalachians (7).
Adult A. t. tigrinum are terrestrial burrowers except for a short period in
late winter when they migrate to ponds to breed. The most detailed life history
accounts of A. t. tigrinum are by Bishop (2) in New York and Hassinger et al. (8)
and Anderson et al. (1) in New Jersey. There have been no ecological studies on
midwest populations.
In 1975, we became aware of a large population of A. t. tigrinum breeding in
a temporary pond 1 km south of Saint Mary's College. We studied various
aspects of the reproductive ecology of this population in 1976 and 1977. Specific
aims of the study were to determine numbers and sex ratio of breeding adults,
food and growth of larvae, and details of migration of both adults and newly
metamorphosed individuals.
Materials and Methods
The study pond is situated in a mowed grassy field. The pond at maximum
size is one-fourth ha and 60 cm deep (Fig. 1). Milkweed {Asclepias incarnata)
and a few red maple trees (Acer rubrum), cottonwoods {Populus deltoides) and
willows (Salix niger) grow around the border of the pond. The pond is filled by
melting winter snows and rainfall. Water was held until late July in 1976 and late
May in 1977. During spring, pH of the pond is 6.8-7.0. A. tigrinum is the only
salamander breeding in the pond, but anurans Pseudacris triseriata and Bufo
americanus are present. The area surrounding the pond was once an extensive
wetland, but human activities have reduced the habitat suitable for Ambystoma
breeding to the one pond.
In 1975, the first salamanders were noted in the pond on 14 March. In 1976,
we visited the pond on 28 February to set up pit traps around the pond, but
seining revealed that a considerable number of salamanders were already
present — 46 were collected in one hour of seining. Pit traps were nevertheless set
up and checked daily. These traps were set at 1 2 compass points about 1 0 m from
the circumference of the pond (Fig. 1). Drift fences from each pit trap diverted
immigrating salamanders into the traps. The cans used for traps were 28.0 cm in
diameter and 36 cm deep. When it appeared that no more salamanders were
189
190
Indiana Academy of Science
w®
32 m
oQ oo o
©E
©
s
©
Figure 1. Study pond showing dimensions at maximum size in March, distribution of trees, and
placement of pit traps (numbered circles) and drift fences (on trap 1). Not drawn to scale.
immigrating into the pond, the drift fences were turned on 23 March to sample
emigrating salamanders. Additional seining samples were made on 5, 12 and 22
March, and four salamanders were caught by dipnet on 9 March. Seining on 2
April produced no specimens.
Larvae were collected throughout the period of metamorphosis in 1976,
and stomach analyses of food items were made. Prior to metamorphosis, traps
and drift fences were set to capture the emigrating newly metamorphosed
individuals.
In 1977, traps were not used, and all adult salamanders recorded were
captured by seining on 26 February; 4, 10, 21 and 29 March; 3, 1 1, and 15 April.
Seining on 24 April produced no specimens.
Each seining effort was an hour. All salamanders were individually marked
by toe-clipping. Sex was determined by the presence of swollen cloacal glands in
males and the absence of such swellings in females. The snout-vent length (S VL)
of all specimens was measured in the field to the nearest mm from the tip of the
snout to the caudal end of the vent.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of the Adult Population
In 1976, 189 (14300:46++) Ambystoma tigrinum were captured. Of these,
158 (122:36) were captured by seining, 24(17:7) by traps, 4(1:3) by dipnet and 3
(3:0) by both traps and seining. In 1977, 244 (204:40) individuals were captured
Ecology
191
for the first time by seining. The overall sex ratio in 1976 was 76.7:24.3, and in
1977 it was 84.6: 16.4. The operational sex ratio is the ratio of fertilizable females
to sexually active males at any one time (6). This varied considerably among
samples (Fig. 2). Significance of the sex ratio is discussed after consideration of
migratory movements and population size.
ioo ^
90
80
70
60-
°/O50
40-
30-
20
10
12345 12345678
1976 1977
COLLECTIONS
Figure 2. Sequential percentage of male and female Ambystoma tigrinum in 1976-1977 samples.
Size Relationships. — There was no difference at the 0.01 probability level in
snout-vent lengths (SVL) among collections or between males and females
(Table 1). Males ranged from 8. 1-1 2. 5 cm and females 8.5-12.6 cm SVL. Figs. 3
and 4 show frequency distributions for SVL of all specimens collected in 1976
and 1977 respectively. By inspection, both distributions are normal. It is
interesting to note that the mode for 1976 was 10.5 cm, and for 1977 it was 1 1.0
cm (Figs. 3-4) although mean SVL did not vary much between years (Table 1).
Age classes based on SVL would be hazardous to define. Sixteen specimens
originally captured and measured in 1976 were recaptured and remeasured in
1977. The average change in SVL of these 16 specimens between years is +. 16 cm,
which is probably within the range of measuring error. Growth of adults appears
to be too slow to detect age classes by simple field measurements.
Migration of Adults. — Only 14 specimens (7oo:7+r) were captured in pit
traps between 29 February-14 March, 1976, as they immigrated to the pond.
Five were in the W trap, 3 in the E trap and the others in traps ENE ( 1 ), SES (2),
192
Indiana Academy of Science
20
N 15
10
5
I
I
D c^l
I
\iih
I
8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 1U) 113 1Z0 12.5
SVL (CM)
Figure 3 . Frequency distribution of snout-vent lengths (S VL) of A mbystoma tigrinum males (open
blocks) and females (solid blocks) captured by seining in 1976.
N
40-1
35
30
25
20
15
10J
I
I
P
D
Liu
I
LT
D
8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
SVL (CM)
Figure 4. Frequency distribution of snout-vent lengths (S VL) ofAmbystoma tigrinum males (open
blocks) and females (solid blocks) captured by seining in 1977.
Ecology
193
Table 1. Data on snout-vent lengths of Ambystoma tigrinum collected in 1976 and 1977 by seining.
Females for a given year were considered as a group separate from males. Data on males from each
collection and females for each year were subjected to an analysis of variance. F ratios were
nonsignificant at the 0.0 1 level.
Date
N
Range
Mean
Var
1976
28
Feb
39
8.5-12.5
10.6
0.82
5
Mar
55
8.5-12.0
10.5
0.53
12
Mar
26
9.0-12.0
10.7
0.70
22
Mar
12
9.8-12.1
10.8
0.50
all
n
39
Fs(4,167) =
8.5-12.6
= 0.4890
10.6
0.86
1977
26
Feb
22
9.1-12.0
10.8
0.52
4
Mar
37
9.6-12.0
10.9
0.44
10
Mar
51
9.0-12.5
10.6
0.80
21
Mar
63
9.0-12.0
10.8
0.62
29
Mar
18
9.5-12.0
10.5
0.62
3
Ap
28
8.1-11.5
10.4
0.79
11
Ap
25
9.0-12.5
10.7
0.64
15
Ap
17
8.5-12.0
10.5
0.73
all
n
44
9.4-12.2
10.8
0.48
Fs(8,296) =
= 1.1507
SWS (2) and WSW (1). Two males captured in traps on 1 and 7 March were
recaptured in the pond on 12 March.
After drift fences were turned to capture the emigrating salamanders, 13
were collected in pit traps on 29 March. Eleven of these were in traps NEN-ESE,
15
0
°C 5
0
-5
40
P 30
(m m)20
10
Figure 5. 77?^ relation of mean temperature (° C) and precipitation (P) to numbers (N) of adult
Ambystoma tigrinum captured in pit traps in 1976. Those captured on 30 March were emigrating
individuals; the rest were immigrating to the pond.
194
Indiana Academy of Science
and the remainder were in traps N and WSW. These 13 salamanders were all
males. One individual had previously been captured in the pond on 28 February,
5 and 22 March.
The relationships among adult migration, mean daily air temperature and
precipitation are shown in Fig. 5. Migration was correlated with periods of
precipitation. Temperature appears to show less relation to migratory behavior
aside from the fact that rainfall was generally associated with a decrease in
temperature.
We found no evidence of a fall migration of salamanders to the breeding
pond as suggested for A. tigrinum by Duellman (5) in Michigan and Smith (14)
in Illinois. The pond is dry in late fall and appears as a tree-line depression in the
field. The first immigrating salamanders arrive during or immediately after
periods of bitter cold weather, but the highest population concentrations are not
found until the air temperature is in the 8-16 C range (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. The relation of mean temperature (° C) and precipitation (P) to Petersen population
estimates (N)for samples of Ambystoma tigrinum obtained by seining in 1977.
Recaptures. — In 1976, 11 specimens (5.8%) were recaptured within the
breeding season. Ten were recaptured once, and one male was recaptured three
times. Two of the 10, both males, were initially captured in pit traps and
subsequently recaptured in the pond. Of the 10 recaptured once, three were
females. Four of the males and two of the females were recaptured one collection
after initial capture, and three males and one female were recaptured two
collections later. The specimen recaptured three times was captured in the first
seining collection on 28 February and recaptured in the pond on 5 and 22
March. Its final recapture came in a trap on 29 March. Thus this male, captured
in the first and last samples of 1976, spend the entire breeding season in the pond.
Eighteen specimens (9.5%) captured in 1976 were recaptured in 1977. One
Ecology 195
was subsequently recaptured in 1977 three times, six were recaptured twice and
11 were recaptured once. Three (16.7%) of the 18 specimens were females. This
percentage is similar to the overall sex ratio and indicates that some if not most
female A. trigrinum breed annually.
There was a correlation between dates when some of these 18 specimens
were initially captured in 1976 and initially recaptured in 1977. Thus two
specimens originally collected on 28 February, 1976 were recaptured on 26
February, 1977, and two others originally captured on 12 March, 1976 were
recaptured on 10 March, 1977. However, two specimens originally captured on
5 March, 1976 were not recaptured until 3 and 11 April, 1977. Other dates are
not as close or disparate as these examples. Synchronic comparisons between
1976 and 1977 are hampered or invalidated by the extreme weather differences
between the two years. The winter of 1976 was relatively mild while the winter of
1977 was the coldest on record. Salamanders arrived at the pond both years in
later February, but they remained at the pond longer in 1977 (maximum until 24
April) than in 1976 (maximum until 31 March).
Of specimens initially captured in 1977, 32 (13.1%) specimens were
recaptured in subsequent samples in the breeding season. Four specimens were
recaptured twice. Only one female was recaptured within the 1977 collections,
and she was recaptured in the subsequent two collections. Of the other three
multiple recaptures, one male was recaptured in the following two collections
and another was recaptured in the next collection and two collections
afterwards. The final multiple recapture was a male initially collected in the first
sample on 26 February, recaptured three collections later (22 March) and finally
recaptured in the last collection on 1 5 April. So this individual, as noted for one
in 1976, spent the entire breeding season in the pond.
Of the 28 specimens (all males) recaptured once during the breeding season
in 1977, 1 1 specimens were recaptured one collection later, nine were recaptured
two collections later, five were recaptured three collections later, one was
recaptured four collections later and two were recaptured five collections later.
Table 2. Population estimates (N) based on the Petersen method using 1976-1977 collections of
Ambystoma tigrinum obtained by seining. 95% confidence limits were calculated using a Poisson dis-
tribution. The percentage of females is the actual value for each sample.
Date <$$ N 95% CL
1976
1977
28
Feb
5
Mar
12
Mar
26
Feb
4
Mar
10
Mar
21
Mar
29
Mar
3
Ap
11
Ap
15.2
787
309-3149
16.7
770
302-3082
42.2
360
100-3600
18.5
383
130-1913
11.9
254
138-541
20.3
1132
444-4526
13.7
560
191-2796
18.2
245
84-1227
6.7
277
94-1387
0
299
83-2990
196 Indiana Academy of Science
Population Size. — Using the formula for the adjusted Petersen estimate of
Ricker (13), population size was estimated between successive seining
collections in 1976 and 1977 (Table 2). There was considerable variability in
population estimates throughout each breeding season, ranging from 360-787 in
1976 and 245-1 132 in 1977. In 1976, there were three recaptures between the first
three collections and one between the last two collections. In 1977, there were
nine recaptures on 10 March from the previous sample on 4 March, but between
each other sample and the previous collection there were only two or three
recaptures except on 15 April there was only one recapture.
Population estimates are also compared in Table 2 with actual percentage
of females (operational sex ratio) per sample. In 1977 the largest population
estimate was on 10 March. This sample had the second highest percentage of
females (20%) for the season. The highest percentage of females in 1977 was
22.7% for the 15 April collection for which no Petersen estimate can be made,
but there were relatively few salamanders left in the pond at that time.
Population estimates for 29 March (245), 3 April (277) and 1 1 April (299) were
similar, but on 29 March there were 18% females, on 3 April 6. 7% females and
on 1 1 April no females.
The disparate population estimates, low numbers of recaptures and
dramatic shifts in the operational sex ratio indicate that there is variable
migration among individuals to and from the breeding pond. Only four females
were recaptured within a given season, none more than two collections following
initial capture. This implies that females do not remain at the pond for an
extended period but rather mate soon after arriving at the pond, oviposit and
leave the pond. The variation in the operational sex ratio further indicates that
females arrive and leave at various times, i.e., there is no synchronic mass
migration of females. Most male recaptures were also in the collection following
initial capture, but many males were recaptured several collections later, and
data on two males demonstrate that they spent the entire breeding season in the
pond (see under Recaptures). Thus, although individual males remain at the
pond for variable periods, males in general stay at the breeding pond longer than
females.
Although both males and females act as individuals in their migratory
movements, there are definite periods correlated with optimal weather
conditions when shifts in population size imply extensive movement within the
population. Such periods of mass movement are seen for the 1977 sample in Fig.
6. Population numbers increased dramatically during a period of high
precipitation and rising temperature (4-10 March) and decreased during a
subsequent similar period (29 March- 11 April).
Other methods of estimating population size based on multiple censusing,
such as those described by Ricker ( 1 3), are inappropriate when there is extensive
migration.
The only other estimate of the size of a breeding population of A. t.
tigrinum was by Anderson et al. (1) in New Jersey where they estimated a
population of 540 adults in a series of small adjacent ponds. Because of the
effects of migration throughout the breeding period, it is hard to estimate the
Ecology 197
total number of adults in our breeding population, but it could be 1500-2000
individuals.
Interpretation of the Sex Ratio. — Wilson (15) stated that ideally, a parent
will not produce equal numbers of each sex but instead make equal investments
in them. Female A. tigrinwn produce and maintain large numbers of eggs and
thus assume the greatest physiological burden for reproduction in the sepcies.
The evolutionary strategy pursued by this species should be one by which
individual females arriving at the philopatric breeding area have the greatest
chance of mating, preferably with a superior male. To insure that each female
offspring will find a mate, it would be advantageous for an individual to produce
more males than females or to at least have all the males aggregated in one area
for a period of time.
The courtship activities of A. tigrinum constitute the type of male
dominance polygyny involving a lek (6). A lek is a communal display area where
males congregate for the sole purpose of attracting and courting females and to
which females come for mating. Such aggregations are typified by fairly long
breeding seasons, an operational sex ratio skewed towards males, the inability of
individual males to control resources necessary for female acquisition and some
asynchrony in female mating receptivity (6).
These criteria seem to fit what is known about breeding activities in A.
tigrinum. The long breeding season, communal mating area, skewed sex ratio
toward males and lack of controllable resources are obvious features of this
population. Asynchrony of female mating receptivity due to variable migration
of females was discussed under Population Size. We will comment only on the
communal nature of the male courtship display.
Courtship in many Ambystoma involves a mass display by males called the
Liebesspiel (10). This was described in A. tigrinum by Kumpf (9) and O'Donnell
(11). O'Donnell (11) stated that courtship begins by males nosing other
individuals indescriminate of sex, and such nosing is permitted by both males
and females. In A. maculatum Nobel (10) stated that such movements involve
males turning back and forth over one another and rubbing snouts agains each
other's tail or body in a caudo-cephalic direction. Also, the most aggressive
males frequently pass under the bodies of others (10).
Females are presumably attracted to males by secretions of the male cloacal
glands (9). The female follows the male with her snout applied to the male's vent
(9). After the male extrudes a spermatophore, the female settles her vent over it
and swims away with the apex of the spermatophore containing the
spermatozoa lodged in her cloaca (9). O'Donnell (11) stated that the number of
spermatophores is small, and deposition is not necessarily dependent upon
presence of females or preceding courtship activities.
Thus A. tigrinum fits the lek strategy which explains the skewed sex ratio
towards males. If the males of a population remain a long time at the breeding
area while females come and go, the operational sex ratio at any one time may be
highly skewed towards males. Females have the largest physical investment in
the next generation, and nearly all females would be expected to mate
successfully. A group of males is more likely to attract a single female than is a
198 Indiana Academy of Science
solitary male, and a male is more likely to encounter a receptive female when he
is in a group ( 1 5). However, there may be disporportionate success among males
in terms of successful matings. Larger, healthier or otherwise dominant males
may mate a number of times while other males do not mate at all (6, 15).
The skewed sex ratio observed in this population may not only be related to
sexual differences in length of time spent at the pond, but may also indicate that
individuals produce more males than females to insure that each female finds a
mate. The mechanics of maintaining such a skewed sex ratio in a dioecious
species with a heterogametic and homogametic sex begs more data. The adult
sex ratio is a product of three quantities: the ratio at birth, the difference in
maturation time between males and females, and differential mortality (15). All
three of these quantities can be functions of sexual selection (15). Work needs to
be attempted on A. tigrinum to see if any of these factors are also responsible for
the skewed sex ratio in our population of A. tigrinum.
Another explanation for the relatively high number of males in breeding
populations of A. tigrinum was offered by Anderson et ah (1). They suggested
that females have a biennial reproductive cycle while males breed annually. Our
data do not support this. Of the 18 specimens originally captured in 1976 that
were recaptured in 1977, three (16.7%) were females, approximately the
proportion one would expect. This indicates that many, if not all female A.
tigrinum breed annually in this population.
Survivorship. — Blanchard (3) reported that a male A. tigrinum raised from
an egg lived 1 1 years in captivity. A female collected as an adult was still in good
condition after seven years (3). Oliver (12) reported that an aquatic neotenic
larvae of A. tigrinum lived 25 years and a transformed adult 16 years. Thus A.
tigrinum is a relatively long-lived species.
We assume a variable survival rate for A. tigrinum throughout the year due
to the marked difference in habitat between the aquatic breeding period and the
terrestrial mode of life the rest of the year. However, we also assume that natural
mortality will be similar among all ages of adults due to similarity of body size,
slow growth and known longevity. Ricker (13) gives a formula for determining
survivorship (S) based on variable rates as:
S = Ri (M2) / R2 (M2)
where Ri = number of specimens marked in the first year and recaptured in the
second, R2 = recaptures in the second year, Mi = number of specimens marked in
the first year, and M2 = number of specimens marked in the second year. Solving
this equation for our data gives a survivorship of 71.9% with a variance of .040.
This estimate proposes that roughly 72% of the salamanders that bred in 1976
survived to breed again in 1977.
Characteristics of Eggs, Larvae and Newly Metamorphosed Individuals
Hatching and Growth of Larvae. — In 1976, the first eggs were noted in the
pond on 2 March and first hatching larvae on 2 April. Clutches were generally
attached to vegetation bordering the deeper portion of the pond. Hatching seemed
limited to April, but egg clutches in various stages of development were found
throughout the month indicating again that females are asynchronous in
Ecology 199
migrating to the pond. Other workers initiated a detailed study of oviposition in
the population in 1977; their results will be reported elsewhere. Our results on
larval development are limited to 1976.
The frequency distributions of snout-vent lengths of larvae collected in the
pond on 29 June and 19 July and of newly metamorphosed individuals caught in
traps on 6 and 15 July are shown in Fig. 7. The wide range of larval sizes also
indicates an extended period of egg-laying.
19 JULY
.lui
15 J ULY
Jt
6 J ULY
29 JUNE
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
SVL (mm)
Figure 7. Frequency distribution of snout-vent lengths (SVL) of larval Ambystoma tigrinum
collected in the pond on 29 June and 19 July and of newly metamorphosed individuals captured in pit
traps on 6 and 15 July, 1976.
Toward the end of July, 1976, as the pond became nearly dry, some
specimens collected in pit traps were not completely metamorphosed and still
possessed gill stubs. When we visited the pond on the night of 15 July, 200 larvae
were actually counted before counting was stopped as many more than that were
present. As pond depressions dried, large larvae made no attempts to burrow or
cross overland to other depressions still holding water. Since some trapped
specimens still retained gill stubs, this suggests that the urge to emigrate is closely
correlated with a specific stage of metamorphosis.
The pond dried completely on 20 July, and many larvae were found
desiccated. These larvae were apparently from late broods and had not reached a
critical stage necessary for emigrating behavior. Most of these desiccated larvae
were quite large. Larvae that failed to leave the drying depressions were heavily
preyed upon by birds, especially killdeer, bittern and grackles.
200 Indiana Academy of Science
In 1977, following a prolonged drought, the pond dried completely at the
end of May. No collection was made immediately prior to the drying, and it is
assumed that the entire year crop was killed. Such catastrophies may play an
enormous role in the dynamics of this population of A. tigrinum. The pond is the
last suitable habitat for A. tigrinum in an area of several kilometers, and many
man-made barriers exist in the interim.
The fate of all such ponds in succession is to disapper, but as long as the
pond holds water during breeding activities, salamanders are likely to return to
the pond for a number of years. The high survival rate for adults (71.9%) and
longevity ( 1 6 years) indicate that the population could continue for a number of
seasons without recruitment from younger classes.
Food Habits of the Metamorphosing Larvae. — In the absence of predator
fishes, the larval salamanders were the top predators in the aquatic ecosystem.
However, a few large, larval predacious beetles {Dytiscus) were observed feeding
on larval A. tigrinum. Insect predation on small larval A. tigrinum was reported
by Anderson et al.(l).
The larvae of A. tigrinum were voracious feeders from the time the yolk was
absorbed until metamorphosis was close to completion. The larvae of all ages
were primarily carnivorous. Some plant and organic detritus were consumed
inadvertently while feeding on animals. Limited quantities of filamentous algae
(Oedogonium, Spriogyra, Zygemia) were taken when the small larvae fed
extensively on individual planktonic crustaceans which were feeding on algal
masses attached to rooted plants. Also, organic detritus was found in the
stomachs when the larvae fed on certain benthic invertebrates {i.e., Hyalella,
chironomid larvae) and during the period when small tadpoles (Bufo
americanus) were preyed upon in large numbers in the warm, shallow (less than
5 cm) edges of the pond.
The size of the animals as prey was a significant selective factor in the
feeding habits of the larval salamanders. However, other than swallowable size,
there were no species preference for prey. Selection of swallowable prey was
directly correlated with abundance. In this respect the natural development and
succession of invertebrates in the temporary pond supplied ample food for the
population of A. tigrinum larvae.
All microhabitats of the pond were inhabited by the larval salamanders at
some stage in their development. While the larvae moved primarily on the
bottom in search of food, many were observed swimming among rooted plants.
Also, they moved into planktonic zones where crustaceans were feeding on
filamentous algae and into very shallow water to consume tadpoles.
In the Eubranchiopoda, which characteristically inhabit temporary ponds
in early spring, the fairy shrimp population preceded the development of feeding
larval salamanders. However, one species of clam shrimp was a significant food
item in April. Cladocera, chiefly Ceriodaphnia and species of Copepoda
constituted major food items. Ostracoda, a few Rotatoria and small immature
insects completed the diet of larval salamanders in April.
In May, Rotatoria, mainly Brachionus, and water mites, Hydracarina,
became important foods. The cladoceran population shifted from primarily
Ecology 201
Ceriodaphnia to Daphnia and secondarily Chydorus. Also, for a period of
about two weeks in May large numbers of Bufo americanus tadpoles were
consumed.
The planktonic organisms remained important food items throughout June
and July. However, a variety of insects formed the chief portion of the diet.
Dineen (4) reported that larval A. tigrinum have dual feeding habits; snapping at
the larger organisms when light is adequate and gulping water from a stationary
position in order to sieve out plankters when the light intensity is low. Several
species of Odonata and Trichoptera were common food items. The most
significant families of Hemiptera were Corixidae, Gerridae, Nepidae, and
Notonectidae. Coleoptera was represented in the stomachs by Dytiscidae,
Hydrophilidae, Belostomatidae and Gyrinidae. Tendipedidae and Culicidae
were abundant dipteran foods. Other common summer food included
Amphipoda, Oligochaeta and Gastropoda. Very few Hirudinea were consumed
by the larvae. Some terrestrial insects were eated by the larval salamanders.
Surface feeding was observed on a few occasions in shallow water.
The newly metamorphosed individuals captured in pit traps during
emigration contained mainly earthworms and terrestrial insects. However,
many of the stomachs were empty.
Emigration of Newly Metamorphosed Individuals. — Traps were set up in
June, 1976, and between 6-29 July, 158 newly metamorphosed individuals were
caught in the traps. All 12 traps caught some specimens, but 58% were in traps
NEN-ESE. The pond dried completely on 20 July, but a heavy rain refilled the
pond on 21 July and 35 specimens were caught that day in traps even though
there was no evidence of live salamanders in the pond the previous day. After 21
July, no larvae were found in the pond, and only seven were caught in traps.
These latter specimens may have fallen into the traps during normal foraging
and not have been new pond emigrants. The relationship of temperature and
precipitation to numbers of specimens caught in the traps is shown in Fig. 8.
Emigration was correlated with rainfall and/ or low temperature.
The general easterly preference for migratory movements of newly
metamorphosed specimens cannot be explained. To the east are extensive
athletic fields bordering a major highway on which dead salamanders have not
been observed. To the north is the campus of Holy Cross Junior College and to
the south and west are large fields bordering the Saint Joseph River. The
grounds-keeper of Holy Cross Junior College mentions the occasional
unearthing of specimens while planting trees and doing other work on the
grounds.
202
Indiana Academy of Science
10 15 20 25
JULY
30
Figure 8. Relation of mean temperature (° C) and precipitation (P) to numbers (N) of newly
metamorphosed Ambystoma tigrinum captured in pit traps in July, 1976.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a grant-in-aid from the Indiana Academy of
Science. We wish to thank the administrators of Holy Cross Junior College for
access to the pond. We also wish to thank many undergraduate students who
aided in this research, especially Stephanie Jo DeNeff, Rita Schroer and
Madeline Couture.
Literature Cited
1. Anderson, J. D., D. D. Hassinger, and G. H. Darymple. 1971. Natural mortality of eggs and
larvae of Ambystoma t. tigrinum. Ecology 52:1107-1112.
2. Bishop, S. C. 1941. The salamanders of New York. New York State Mus. Bull. 3241-365.
3. Blanchard, F. C. 1932. Length of life in the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum (Green).
Copeia 1932:98-99.
4. Dineen, C. F. 1955. Food habits of the larval tiger salamander (Ambyustoma tigrinum). Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 65:231-233.
5. Duellman, W. E. 1954. Observations on autumn movements of the salamander Ambystoma
tigrinum tigrinum in southeastern Michigan. Copeia 1954:156-157.
6. Emlen, S. T. and L. W. Oring. 1977. Ecology, sexual selection, and the evoluation of mating
systems. Science 197:215-223.
Ecology 203
7. Gehlbach, F. R. 1967. Ambystoma tigrinum. Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept:5 1.1-4.
8. Hassinger, D. D., Anderson, J. D., and G. H. Dalrymple. 1970. The early life history and
ecology of Ambystoma tigrinum and Ambystoma opacum in New Jersey. Amer. Midi. Nat.
84:474-495.
9. Kumpf, K. F. 1934. The courtship of Ambystoma tigrinum. Copeia 1934:7-10.
10. Noble, G. K. 1931. The biology of the Amphibia. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 577 pp.
11. O'Donnell, D. J. 1937. Natural history of the ambystomid salamanders of Illinois. Amer. Midi.
Nat. 18:1063-1071.
12. Oliver, J. A. 1955. The natural history of North American amphibians and reptiles. D. Van
Nostrand Publ. Co., Princeton, New Jersey. 359 pp.
13. Ricker, W. E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations.
Fish. Res. Board Canada Bull. 191:1-382.
14. Smith, P. W. 1961. The amphibians and reptiles of Illinois. Bull. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. 28:1-298.
15. Wilson, E. O. 1975. Sociobiology: the new synthesis. Belknap Press, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass. 697 pp.
A Study of the Relationship Between
Phytoplankton Abundance and Trace Metal Concentrations
in Eutrophic Lake Charles East, Using Correlation Techniques
David F. Spencer, Richard W. Greene, Hung Yiu Yeung, Quentin E. Ross
Department of Biology, Notre Dame University, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Thomas L. Theis, Elizabeth E. Dodge
Department of Civil Engineering
Notre Dame University, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556
Introduction
While phytoplankton succession is familiar, determination of the specific
biological and environmental factors which influence the timing of relative
species abundances remains a central question for aquatic ecologists. Recently,
Porter (13) has reviewed the literature on the relative importance of chemical
(nutrient availability), physical (light, temperature), and biological
(zooplankton grazing) factors and concluded that all three interact to determine
which algal species will occur and become dominant in a lake at any given
moment. However, much remains to be learned before ecologists arrive at a
general model to explain the temporal changes in species composition which
characterize aquatic communities. Goldman (5) suggests that this statement is
especially significant with regard to the role of trace metals, which may play a
dual role in phytoplankton species succession. Trace metals may function either
as limiting nutrients (6), or as substances which differentially inhibit algal
photosynthesis and growth (16,18,19) thereby, influencing species succession
(12, 17).
Chau et al. (2) studied relationships between levels of Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb,
Mn, Mo, Ni, Sr, V, and Zn and the subsurface concentrations of chlorophyll in
Lake Ontario during 1969. They reported positive correlations between
chlorophyll and Zn, and combinations of Zn, Cu, and Fe. The purpose of this
paper is to examine the results of a similar study using data on the
phytoplankton community and physio-chemical parameters collected from
Lake Charles East, Indiana. In the course of this study the levels of 10 trace
metals, 8 of which were considered by Chau et al. (2) were measured.
Additionally, measurements of the levels of arsenic and selenium were included
in the present study. Comparisons between the total algal standing crop and
trace metal levels, were augmented by attempts to correlate trace metal levels
with the abundances of classes of algae and of individual species. Such
comparisons are not possible when algal abundance is measured as chlorophyll.
Therefore, this study not only contributes information on two trace metals not
considered by Chau et al. (2), but also provides information on the interaction
between trace metal levels and individual algal species abundances under field
conditions.
204
Ecology 205
Table 1. Morphometric and geographic characters for Ljike Charles East, Indiana
Maximum length 6I7-2 m
Maximum width 237-7 m
Maximum depth ^ 3.1 m
Mean depth
Relative depth
Surface area
Volume 1849525 m
Shore line length l563-6 m
Shore line development *■•*
Elevation 3II° m
Latitude
Longitude
2.1 m
.9 m
8.6 hectares
41.38 N
85.00 W
Study Area
Lake Charles East is a small, shallow, man-made lake located
approximately 7 kilometers north of Angola, in Steuben County, Indiana.
Pertinent morphometric and geographic characteristics are listed in Table 1.
The lake is traversed by 2 bridges which are part of U.S. Interstate Highway 69.
Using the criteria of Wetzel (22) the lake may be described as hypereutrophic.
During the study period the mean value for total phosphorus (particulate plus
reactive) was 301 (±66.5) /ug/1, and the mean total algal biomass was 160.3
(±140. 1) cm3/m3. Additional data on the chemical and physical characteristics of
Lake Charles East are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical, physical, and biological parameters for Lake Charles East from April — Octobe
1976.
Total phosphorus
Dissolved phosphorus
Temperature
pH
Dissolved oxygen
Alkalinity
Ammonia-Nitrogen*
Nitrite Nitrate-Nitrogen31
Total Organic Nitrogen*
Hardness
Calcium
Sulfates
Total Algal Biomass
*mg/ 1 as nitrogen
X
s
301.0
66.5 ugl 1
53.4
48.1 ugl 1
21.6
3.8 °C
8.5
0.7
6.6
2.0 mg/1
11.5
28.5
0.7
0.7
0.04
0.04
1.8
1.0
148.3
35.6
78.2
37.6
16.6
2.1
160.3
140.1 cm'/m
206 Indiana Academy of Science
Methods of Analysis
One liter samples were collected with a plastic Kemmerer water sampler
from 0.5 m depth at a sampling station near the deepest part of the lake. Samples
were filtered through fiber glass filters (1 yum pore size) within one-half hour or
collection. One hundred milliliters were pipetted into acid-washed ground glass-
stoppered bottles, preserved with 5 drops of 50% perchloric acid and
transported to the laboratory for analysis. The trace metal concentrations were
determined using a Perkin-Elmer model 305 atomic absorption
spectrophotometer equipped with a graphite furnace and an automatic
sampling device. Additional chemical parameters were determined using the
techniques outlined in Standard Methods (1).
One liter phytoplankton samples were collected and fixed with Lugol's
solution (20). Phytoplankton enumeration was accomplished using the stained-
organism, membrane filter technique described by DeNoyelles (4). Cell counts
were converted to biomass units (cubic micrometers) using species volumes
given by Nauwerck (9). Climatic data were obtained from a local weather
station. Data on the traffic flow across the two bridges of Interstate 69 were
obtained from the Indiana Department of Highways. Statistical treatment of the
data was facilitated by use of the programs in the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (10).
Table 3. Trace metal concentrations in Lake Charles East, Indiana during April to October, 1976.
Values are from samples collected from 0.5 meter and are in units ofug/L
Date
FE
Mn
Cu
Cr
Cd
As
PbZn
Ni
Se
Apr 15
165
5
29
15
nd
X
318
365
X
May
180
13
24
18
nd
100
335
300
37
Jun 8
186
4
7
1
72
502
6539
Jun 17
307
43
5
11
1
65
551
85
37
Jun 24
216
37
5
6
2
61
553
103
34
Jul 8
160
51
7
1
3
57
596
83
30
Jul 21
143
40
8
1
3
60
596
40
30
Jul 28
90
10
8
1
3
60
554
33
30
Aug 4
108
23
8
1
2
58
784
28
31
Aug 18
170
97
7
2
1
70
1186
56
44
Aug 25
215
158
6
3
1
84
1357
90
55
Sep 15
295
115
45
4
2
60
549
83
30
Oct 4
655
510
30
8
3
56
257
90
30
MEAN
222
88
14
6
2
67
625
.109
36
S.D.
144
135
13
5
1
13
322
103
8
nd, not detected; x, not determined
Results and Discussions
Table 3 lists the measured concentrations for each of the trace metals
monitored during this study. The general trends for temporal metal
distributions were as follows. Arsenic, chromium, and nickel were relatively
high during the spring and decreased through the summer and autumn. Arsenic
Ecology
207
exhibited a second peak in late August. Cadmium was low through the spring,
peaked in midsummer, declined, and then peaked again in late autumn. Copper
displayed a vernal and an autumnal peak and was relatively low through the
summer. Iron, lead, manganese, and selenium exhibited general increases from
spring to late autumn. Zinc displayed three peaks: spring, midsummer, and
autumn.
Metal concentrations in Lake Charles are higher in every case except zinc,
than those reported by Wetzel (220 for 8 lakes in northeastern Indiana.
Concentrations of Pb, Ni, Fe, and Mn are higher than the average level reported
by Kopp and Kroner (8) for lakes and rivers in the United States, while Zn and
Cd are lower than the values given by Kopp and Kroner (8).
Figure 1 shows the relationship between Pb concentration in Lake Charles
and the traffic density over the bridges of Interstate 69 which cross the lake. The
functional relationship between Pb concentration and traffic density was
determined using Bartlett's 3-group method for Model II regression (14,1 5). The
regression equation is, (Pb) = -707.3 + 0.068 x Traffic density. The 95%
confidence limits on the slope are lower limit = 0.053 and upper limit = 0.124.
CD
2
*
120
*
100
-
80
*
60
40
* y
*
i
20
*
1
Wy
* i
i
1
10.4 10.8 11.2 11.6
RUTOMOBILES/DflY (* 1000)
Figure 1 . This figure shows the relationship he/ween lead concentration and the traffic density across
the two bridges which bisect the lake. The verticle axis shows lead concentration in ug/ 1 while, the
horizontal axis refers to the mean daily number of automobiles across the bridges.
Cowgill (3) reported that rainfall during the previous 7 days and zinc
concentrations in Linseley Pond, Connecticut, were correlated, suggesting that
zinc dynamics were closely related to rainfall. This does not appear to be so for
Lake Charles. Neither, zinc nor any other metal measured by us showed a
significant correlation with rainfall.
X
S
3147
5500
5223
6948
406
598
26
47
57
80
132
203
15
31
676
1209
11
41
11
40
35
76
15
42
68
170
38
78
750
2375
403
1038
878
2730
18
36
64
97
10489
21253
916
1304
208 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 4. The phytoplankton species sampled in Lake Charles East during the study period. The values
given are the mean and standard deviation of three samples taken at 5.0, 1.5, and 2.0 meters.
Species
Oscillatoria Agardhii
A nabaena circinalis
Microcystis aeruginosa
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
Merismopedia sp.
Trachelomonas hispida
Scenedesmus dimorphus
S. quadricauda
S. arcuatus
A nkistrodesmus falcatus
Pediastrum duplex
Cosmarium sp.
Dactylococcus sp.
Staurastrum sp.
Tetraedron sp.
Chlamydomonas sp.
Cyclotella bodanica
Synedra ulna
Navicula sp.
Cryptomonas ovata
Gymnodinium palustre
Phytoplankton species succession in Lake Charles East followed the typical
pattern described by Hutchinson (7) for temperate eutrophic lakes. Species and
their mean abundances (counts/ ml) are given in Table 4. In the spring
Cryptophyta, Bacillariophyceae, and Chlorophyta were dominant. Thereafter,
with the exception of a diatom bloom {Cyclotella bodanica) in mid-June,
Cyanophyta remained dominant until mid-September. During this period the
dominant blue-green species shifted according to the following scheme:
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae to Anabaena circinalis to Microcystis aeruginosa.
Other species which contributed up to 20% of the total biomass during this
period were Gymnodinium palustre, Cryptomonas ovata, and Scenedesmus
quadricauda. By mid-September, Cryptomonas ovata had become the
dominant species. The general pattern is evident in Figure 2.
Using bivariate correlation analysis the matrix of algal abundances, trace
metal concentrations, and physico-chemical parameters were scanned for
statistically significant relationships. The null hypothesis is that there exists no
relationship between trace metal concentration or physico-chemical parameter
and algal abundance. Algal abundance was represented by three types of
variables. They are total algal biomass, biomass of classes of algae (i.e. blue-
greens, greens, diatoms, etc.), and biomass of individual species. Since there is a
priori evidence to suggest that any given correlation may be positive or negative,
a two-tailed test of significance was employed. A number of statistically
significant correlations were found. These are listed in Table 5. The question
arises as to whether or not the significant correlation observed between the
abundance of species A and trace metal B is real, or whether it merely reflects the
Ecology
209
PHYTDPLRNKTON, V. COMPOSITION
0.00 20.00 UO. 00 60.00 80.00 100.00
ZD
K
ID
LD
Figure 2. This figure shows the percent contribution of the Chrysophyta (white), Chlorophyta
(diagonal), Cyanophyta (cross-hatched), Cryptophyta (vertical), and Pyrrhophyta (solid) to the total
algal hiomass during the study period.
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients between algal variables and the physico-chemical and trace
metal parameters measured in this study. Correlations are significant at the 0.05 level.
Oscillatoria Agardhii- Pb,Se,A,H,Ca
Microcystis aeruginosa — Pb , P H , A , H , Ca
Trachelomonas hispida — Cr,Zn, A, H.Ca
Navicula sp.— Cr,Ni,T,H,Ca
Scenedesmus quadricauda—Pb.PH, A, H,Ca
Ankistrodesmus falcatus — Cr,As,Ni
Cosmarium sp. — Cu,TP04
Cryptomonas ovata — Cu,TP04
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae — Cr, As
S. dimorphus — Pb,Se
Dactylococcus sp. — Zn,Si,A,S04
Merismopedia sp. — Pb,TP04,OPO4
Pediastrum duplex — Si,PH
S. arcuatus — Fe,Mn,NH3
Cyanophyta— Cr,Pb,Se,PH, A, H,Ca
Total Algal Biomass — pb,PH
A, represents alkalinity; H, represents hardness; T, represents temperature; TP04, represents total
phosphorus; OP04, represents dissolved phosphurs; NH3, represents ammonia-nitrogen.
210 Indiana Academy of Science
fact that both are correlated with a third factor, C. Partial correlation techniques
provide a means of answering this question, at least in terms of the variables
measured during this study. For example, in the case of the correlations
observed between T. hispida and Cr, Zn, alkalinity, hardness, and Ca, partial
correlations techniques allow calculation of the correlation between
Trachelomonas abundance and Zn while statistically holding Cr, alkalinity
hardness, and Ca constant. A resulting significant partial correlation coefficient
suggests that in terms of the variables considered, the correlation between
Trachelomonas and Zn is not a spurious one (10). Table 6 list the significant
correlations between algal variables and the trace metal concentrations.
Table 6. Significant partial correlation coefficients between algal variables and physico-chemical and
trace metal par amets. Coefficients are significant at the 0.05 level, 'ns' indicates that no significant
correlations were observed.
Total Algal Biomass ns
Chlorophyta ns
Chrysophyta ns
Pyrrhophyta ns
Cryptophyta ns
Cyanophyta — Se 0.83
Microcystis aeruginosa — Pb 0.84
Scenedesmus quadricauda — Pb 0.67
Trachelomonas hispida — Car 0.77
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae — Cr 0.51
Navicula sp. — Ni 0.75
5. arcuatus— Mn 0.77
T. hispida — Zn -0.68
Chau et al. (2) reported positive correlations between subsurface
chlorophyll concentrations for Zn and combinations of Zn and Cu and Zn and
Fe. Lake Charles total algal biomass was not correlated with these or any other
trace metal considered here. However, total blue-green algal biomass was
significantly correlated with Se concentration. Selenium was not reported by
Chau et al. (2). The significant species abundance — trace metal correlations
involve 3 species of green algae, 2 of blue-green, and 1 diatom species. The trace
metals include 2 which are known to be required micronutrients, Zn and Mn
(11), while the role of Pb, Cr, Ni, and Se in natural waters still needs to be
established. The observed correlations are all positive except for the one
between Zn and T. hispida.
Care must be used in ascribing ecological meaning to these correlation
coefficients. A significant correlation coefficient implies that the two variables
covary in a manner that does not seem likely to be due to chance alone ( 15). With
this caution, we suggest that the positive correlations between species
abundance and trace metal concentration reported here may be interpreted as
meaning that a given species may be more tolerant of higher levels of the trace
metal it is correlated with, than another noncorrelated species. A second
interpretation may be that a nutrient limitation is involved (5). Controlled
bioassy experiments presently underway should provide a clearer indication as
to which interpretation is more appropriate for the cases reported above.
Ecology 211
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Peter J. McCabe, Brian P. J. Higgins, and Sudhir
C. Mohleji for technical assistance. This research was supported by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (Project number R-80 1245-04-2).
Literature Cited
1. American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard Methods for the examination of water
and wastewater. 13th edition. APHA, Washington, D.C. 874 p.
2. Chau, Y.K., V.K. Chawla, H.F. Nicholson, and R.A. Vollenweider. 1970. Distribution of
trace elements and chlorophyll-A in Lake Ontario, inter. Assoc. Great Lakes Research, Proc. 13th
Conf. on Great Lakes Research, Part 2:659-672
3. Cowgill, U.M. 1970. The hydrogeochemistry of Linsely Pond, North Branford, Connecticut. I.
Introduction, field work and chemistry by X-ray emission spectroscopy, arch. Hydrobiol. 68: 1 -95
4. DeNoyelles, F. 1968. A stained-organism filter technique for concentrating phytoplankton.
Limn, and Ocean. 13: 562-565
5. Goldman, C.R. 1972. The role of minor nutrients in limiting the productivity of aquatic
ecosystems, p 21-33. In: Symposium on nutrients and ecosystems: The limiting nutrient
controversy, ed. G.E. Likens, Am. Soc. Lim. & Ocean. Spec. Symp. v. 1
6. Goldman, C.R. 1965. Micronutrient limiting factors and their detection in natural phytoplankton
populations, p 121-135. In: Primary productivity in acquatic environments, ed. C.R. Goldman.
Mem. Inst. Ital. Idrobiol. 18 Suppl., Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley
7. Hutchinson, G.E. 1967. Treatise on Limnology, vol 2. Introduction to lake biology and the
limnoplankton. Wiley, N.Y.
8. Kopp, J.F. and R.C. Kroner, (n.d.) Trace metals in waters of the United States. Fed. Water Poll.
Cont. Admit*, Cincinnati
9. Nauwerck, A. 1963. Die Beziehungen zwischen zooplankton und phytoplankton im See Erken.
Symb. Bot. Upsal. 17:16-163
10. Nie, N.H., C.H. Hull, J.G. Jenkins, K. Steinbrenner, D.H. Bent. 1975. SPSS statistical
package for the social sciences, 2 ed. McGraw-Hill, N.Y. 675 p
11. O'Kelly, J.C. 1974. Inorganic nutrients, p 610-635. In: Algal physiology and biochemistry, ed.
W.D.P. Stewart. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley 989 p.
12. Patrick, R., T. Bott, R. Larson. 1975. The role of trace elements in management of nuisance
growth. Environmental protection Tech. Ser. EPA-660/ 2-75-008. 247 p
13. Porter, Karen Glaus. 1977. The plant-animal interface in freshwater ecosystems. Am. Scientist
65:159-170
14. Simpson, G.G., A. Roe, R.C. Lewontin. 1960. Quantitative Zoology. Harcourt, Brace, & World,
Inc., N.Y. 440 p
15. Sokal, R.R. and F.J. Rohlf. 1969. Biometry. W.H. Freeman and Co. 776 p
16. Steeman-Nielsen, E. and S. Wium-Anderson. 1971 . The influence of Cu on Photosynthesis and
growth in diatoms. Physiol. Plant. 24: 480-484
17. Thomas, W.H. and D.L.R. Seibert. 1977. Effects of Copper on the dominance and the diversity of
algae: controlled ecosystem pollution experiment. Bull. Mar. Sci. 27: 23-33
18. Thomas, W.H., O. Holm-Hansen, D.L.R. Seibert, F. Azam, R. Hodson, and M. Takahashi.
1977. Effects of copper on phytoplankton standing crop and productivity: controlled ecosystem
pollution experiment. Bull. Mar. Sci. 27:34-43
19. Tompkins, T. and D.W. Blinn. 1976. The effect of mercury on the growth rate of Fragilaria
crotonesis Kitton and Asterionella formosa Hass. Hydrobiol. 49:111-116
212 Indiana Academy of Science
20. Vollenweider, R.A. 1974. A manual on methods for measuring primary production in aquatic
environments. IBP Handbook No. 12, Blackwell Scientific Pub., London. 225 p
21. Wetzel, R.G. 1975. Limnology. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia 743 p
22. Wetzel, R.G. 1966. Productivity and nutrient relationships in marl lakes of northern Indiana.
Verhn. Int. Ver. Limnol. 16:321-332
Factors Controlling Eutrophication in Lake Monroe
William Chang
Department of Biology, Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Introduction
The principal result of lake eutrophication is increased algal productivity.
This increase is regulated by a variety of environmental factors, of which light
and nutrients, particularly phosphorous, are the prime limiting factors in Lake
Monroe, Indiana (1,2). Sufficient solar radiation and nutrient enrichment are of
great significant in controlling algal productivity, and the interdependence of
these factors is of significant importance in accelerating primary productivity in
this lake (2). Similar findings were obtained in the study of two Illinois rivers by
Wang (6). The Illinois River was characterized by turbid conditions and was
generally void of algal blooms, whereas the Fox River was usually clear except
during periods of frequent algal blooms. His report attributes this effect to high
turbidity conditions, which cause a light-inhibition effect and thus retard algal
growth.
In Lake Monroe, during the summer months of 1975 and 1976, surface
light-inhibitions in productivity were observed. Nutrient enrichment
experiments were also performed; however, no significant increase in algal
productivity was observed during these experiments. A hypothesis of the
existence of a factor inhibiting algal productivity was formed. This hypothesis
assumes that the factor occurred concurrently with increased productivity in
summer months when the concentration of alkalinity in the lake rose above 0.48
meq (this concentration was determined by the value that best correlated with
significant changes in algal assays) and disappeared when the concentration of
alkalinity fell below 0.48 meq. The effect could be neutralized by the addition of
EDTA (a chelator). The hypothesis was further tested by Chang (2), who
confirmed the existence of this inhibiting factor.
This paper focuses on the characteristics of the inhibiting effect. From what
is known, two hypotheses can be formed: (A) the change in alkalinity, which
results from the increased productivity in summer, alters the permeability of
algal membranes, which in turn prevents algal intake of nutrients present in the
water during the experiment (Grossman, pers. comm.); or (B) the increase in
alkalinity in summer causes a chain of chemical changes in the water, thereby
rendering the enriched nutrients, in particular soluble reactive phosphate,
inaccessible to the algal population (7). In hyopothesis A, the addition of EDTA
may cause an increase in the permeability of algal membranes and thus increase
algal productivity. With respect to hypothesis B, when EDTA is added, it
chelates with cations in these phosphate-bonded compounds releasing
phosphate in accessible form to algae and thereby increasing algal productivity.
213
214
Indiana Academy of Science
Materials and Methods
Bioassay experiments were conducted from May to August, 1977, in Lake
Monroe by monitoring the flux of carbon dioxide molecules. This method
involves measuring the differential metabolism in transparent and darkened
bottles with C-14 labelled carbon dioxide. The bottles were filled with water
samples collected at one-meter intervals from 0-6 meters and incubated for six
hours at the depth from which the sample was taken. A detailed discussion of the
method can be found in Lewis (5) and Chang and Frey (1).
Stock solutions were prepared containing 5 ug/ml phosphate as KH2PO
and 300 ug/ liter EDTA. In each experiment the amount of nutrient varied
according to the experimental design (Table 1). The concentrations of soluble
reactive phosphate in the water before and after the addition of EDTA were
determined by the extraction method of Golterman and Clymo (3). In the
laboratory, the samples from each depth were separated into two groups. One
group served as the control; the other group was treated with EDTA, and
immediately analyzed for soluble reactive phosphate. Glassware used for the
determination was acid-washed and rinsed in double-distilled water just prior to
use. The determination was made with a Cary-14 spectrophotometer in a 10-cm
cell at a wavelength of 885 mu. The results are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Bottles
were artificially aerated with CO2 to lower the alkalinity concentration in the
water to that existing prior to the summer increase in productivity. This
technique decreased pH by 0.3 degrees.
Comparisons of the productivity results between the bottles with various
nutrient enrichment and CO2 treatments, and the control were made using
Fisher's distribution-free sign test (4). The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 . Comparison of the productivity results between the bottles with various nutrient enrichment
and the control using Fisher's distribution free sign test. ( — not significant; * significant increase at 5%
level; ** significant increase at 1% level; x significant decrease at 1% level.)
Lake water
Lake water
Lake water
Lake water
&
&
&
& 5ug/l of P04
EDTA (1 ml)
5 ug/1 of P04
15 ug/1 of P04
& C02 aeration
Control *
—
—
no data
(June 29)
Control **
—
no data
X
(July 13)
Results and Discussion
If hypothesis A is correct, then the reduction of alkalinity in the water to the
level prior to the summer increase in productivity should alter the permeability
of the algal membranes, thereby causing a significant increase in productivity in
the enriched bottles as compared to the control. However, the results of the
artificial reduction of alkalinity by CO2 aeration in the phosphate-enriched
bottles showed no significant increase in productivity when compared to the
control, but instead a significant reduction in productivity (Table 1). These
Ecology 215
results indicate that this hypothesis is not likely to explain the mechanism that
regulates this sytem.
Hypothesis B assumes that a chain of chemical changes occurs in the water
due to the increase in alkalinity in the summer months, thereby rendering some
nutrients, in particular soluble reactive phosphate, unavailable to the algal
population. It is known, however, that when added to the water, EDTA chelates
with cations of the phosphate-bonded compounds, thereby releasing phosphate
in accessible form to the algae. Therefore, if this process does indeed take place
in the water, the addition of EDTA should cause a significant increase in soluble
reactive phosphate in the water. The results of the experiments with EDTA
conducted on June 29, 1977, and July 13, 1977, showed EDTA not only had a
significant effect on algal productivity, but also triggered an increase in the
concentration of soluble reactive phosphate in the water (Tables 2 and 3). This
suggests that hypothesis B may offer an explanation for the phenomenon under
study.
Table 2. The concentration of soluble reactive phosphate (in ug per liter) before and after the addition
of EDTA as determined on July 29, 1977.
Depth
Prior to the add
ition
Aft
er the addition
in
of EDTA
of EDTA
meters
Mean
S. D.
Mean
S. D.
1
3.4
4.5
0.2
0.3
2
0.1
0.1
0
0.1
3
0.4
0.4
0.9
1.5
4
1.6
0.6
6.5
0.8
5
0
3.1
0
0
Table 3. 77?^ concentration of soluble reactive phosphate (in ug per liter) before and after the addition
of EDTA as determined on July 13, 1977.
Depth
Prior to the addition
After the addition
in
of EDTA
of EDTA
meters
Mean
S. D.
Mean S. D.
0
0
0
8 0
1
10.5
0.7
15 2.8
3
0
0
0 0
5
0
0
0.2 0
However, some questions also arose when the results shown in Tables 2 and
3 were reviewed. Significant increases in soluble reactive phosphate were found
only in the sample taken from the four meter depth on June 29, and from the
surface and the one meter depth on July 1 3. It was also noted that the amount of
the increases was small. These results hardly support this hypothesis, in
particular regarding the chelating power, and cannot fully account for the
increase in productivity caused by EDTA. Therefore, there must be other
accompanying physiological changes that are triggered by the addition of
EDTA, or other complex mechanisms that interact with EDTA not yet
216 Indiana Academy of Science
understood. Nevertheless, it is certain that the unavailable nutrients, in
particular phosphate, are released to the algae in an accessible form through
EDTA-chelation.
In summary, the inhibiting factor of algal productivity in Lake Monroe is
probably affected by changes in the physical environment, and the chemical
chelating power of EDTA may be one of the mechanisms which control this
process. However, the complete dynamics of this system appear to be very
complex, and a satisfactory explanation has yet to be found.
Literature Cited
1. Chang, W., and D. G. Frey. 1977. Nutrient relations, pages 71-117 in: Technical report no. 87,
Indiana University Water Resources Research Center.
2. Chang, W., 1977. The use of path analysis to determine the factors affecting eutrophication. 34 p.
M.S.
3. Golterman, H. L., and R. S. Clymo. 1969. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Fresh Water. IBP
Handbook no. 8. Blackwells, Oxford. 166 p.
4. Hollander, M., and D. Wolfe. 1973. Nonparametric Statistical Methods. John Wiley and Sons,
New York. 503 p.
5. Lewis, W. M., Jr. 1974. Primary production in the plankton community of a tropical lake. Ecol.
Monogr. 44:377-409.
6. Wang, W. C, 1974. Effects of turbidity on algal growth, Technical report no. ISWS-74-CIR-121.
Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana. 14 p.
7. Wetzel, R. G., 1966. Productivity and nutrient relationships in marl lakes of northern Indiana.
Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol 16:321-332.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the Indiana Academy of Science for the
support received through a research grant. The author would also like to
thank L. Chang, M. Slovin, M. Tamura, and M. Binford for reviewing this
paper.
Bacterial Examination of Four Borrow Pit Lakes in East Central Indiana
Carl E. Warnes, Department of Biology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Introduction
One aspect of aquatic ecosystems often overlooked is the role played by
bacteria in nutrient cycling and decompositional processes within the water
column. Various bacterial types are involved in transformation of N and S
within the water column. Vanderpost (8) has enumerated such physiological
types of bacteria as nitrifiers, denitrifiers, ammonifiers, and sulfate reducers
within Lake Ontario sediments and waters. Saprophytic bacteria are often
considered synonymous with ammonifying bacteria within the water as
mentioned by Rodina (6). These are very active in decomposition processes
within the lake.
The present study was designed with four goals in mind: to provide data on
the water for recreational use from a bacteriological standpoint by MPN values
for total coliforms; ascertain bacterial potential for cycling of N and S within the
system by determining numbers of sulfur oxidizers, sulfate reducers,
dentitrifiers, nitrifiers, and ammonifiers; to determine numbers of saprophytic
bacteria within the water most responsible for decompositional processes; and
to determine if bacterial stratification exists during the summer months in
Dumpert's Lake, the deepest of the four lakes examined. The results of these
studies will be related to various environmental parameters as they might affect
bacterial potential and numbers.
Description of Study Area
Four borrow pit lakes were selected along 1-69 in Indiana for variation in
surface area, depth, and general conditions. The lakes are named according to
the individual owning the land on which they are located. Clark Lake consists of
1.5 acres with a mean depth of 2.75 m and maximum depth of 3.7 m. Cardinal
Lake is 17.2 acres with mean and maximum depths of 1.9 m and 2.5 m
respectively. Dumpert Lake is 8 acres having a mean and maximum depth of 2.4
m and 5.5 m, respectively. The fourth lake is referred to as Walter's and has mean
and maximum depths of 1 .4 m and 1 .8 m respectively and a surface area of 4.5
acres. The first three are located in north west Delaware County, Indiana while
Walter's is located in southern Grant County, Indiana.
Methods
Water samples were taken at least monthly over the 1976 calendar year. A
2-1 Kemerrer was used for collection of water samples at the water-sediment
interface where maximal bacterial activity is known to occur. All samples were
taken close to the deepest spot in the four borrow pit lakes examined. Samples
were placed in sterile medicine bottles for transport to the laboratory. Samples
for the stratification study were taken with a J-Z bacteriological sampler
217
218
Indiana Academy of Science
(Rigosha Co., Rigosha, Japan). This apparatus allows for sample collectionata
given depth without contamination from water from other depths within the
water column.
Most probable number (MPN) technique was used to estimate numbers of
ammonifiers, denitrifiers, sulfur oxidizers, sulfate oxidizers, sulfate reducers,
nitrifiers, and total coliforms. Triplicate tubes were inoculated with the
appropriate dilutions for MPN determinations. The MPN procedure followed
was outlined in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater (3).
Appropriate dilutions of the following media were inoculated and
incubated at 28-30° C for 3 weeks before results were recorded: Postgate's
medium (5) for sulfur oxidizers; Starkey's medium (7) for sulfate reducers;
Alexander and Clark's medium (2) for nitrifying bacteria using ammonium as an
energy source; Alexander's medium (1) for denitrifying bacteria; and
Vanderpost's medium (8) for ammonifying bacteria. Total coliforms were
obtained by standard procedures using lactose broth as a presumptive media
with incubation temperatures of 37° C.
Results
Of the more than 48 samples taken of the 1976 calendar year only twice did
total coliform values exceed one organism per ml. The June sample in Clark's
Lake and the October sample in Cardinal Lake, both reached 150 coliform/ 100
ml sample. Samples taken at drainage ditches and field tiles at their entrance into
the lake never surpassed 1 coliform/ ml. These sites were only sampled a few
months of the year when water was observed flowing in them.
A positive test for sulfate reducing bacteria was the presence of a black
precipitate in the screw cap tube filled with Starkey's medium (7). Values
obtained over the year (Figure 1) show relatively high values in the shallower
!> 2400
. . CARDINAL
S
. . CLARK
1500.
i
. . DUMPERT
• • WALTERS
1200-
it
j i
900.
,' \
/ ;t *
600-
\
V
1 \
/ \
\
300-
\ '
\jl
\\
\ ; /
~^~~-
Jif/
\4->.
I 1 T
■
■
r i -T- 1
Figure 1 . Sulfate reducing bacteria at the sediment-water interface in borrow pit lakes during the 1976
calendar year.
Ecology
219
lakes (Walter's and Clark's). A very black mud sediment was visible in Walter's
Lake with the generation of sulfide evident by smell and color. This was not the
case in Clark or the other lake sediments.
Sulfur oxidizers were determined by a drop in pH and the presence of a red
precipitate in the media described by Postgate (5) for enumeration of these
organisms. Initial pH values of 7 and 5 were tried but no positive results were
obtained. Members of the genus Thiobacillus could be determined by this
medium.
The presence of gas and an alkaline reaction were considered positive tests
for denitrifying bacteria in Alexander's medium (1). In all lakes greatest
numbers were obtained in September (Figure 2). These bacteria utilize NCbasa
terminal electron acceptor in the limitation or absence of oxygen. In general,
numbers decreased substantially during the colder months following the
September peak.
t>2.4X105
CARDINAL
1U5-
CLARK
_--
™ *
DUMPERT
WALTERS
7 A
ij
/ M
104-
n
\ //
/ /'■ \ l \
\\\
V, \ ;
f —
7
10'-
/
/' V
~*~
-•/-•'*.-■
/
_ -4
*
^ \
' \ ' *
■A \ •//
10?
Figure 2. Denitrifying bacteria at the sediment-water interface in borrow pit lakes during the IV76
calendar year.
A blue color upon addition of Griess-Ilosvay reagent to Alexander and
Clark's medium (2) was a positive test for ammonium oxidizing bacteria.
Although the organisms were not detected in all samples, highest values (240-
1 100/ 100 ml) were observed in April samples. These autotrophic, highly aerobic
organisms may have lacked proper oxygen during the experiment although
samples were vortexed every third day.
Ammonification, the release of ammonia from nitrogenous compounds,
can be performed by a diverse group of bacteria. A positive test for ammonifying
bacteria in the MPN tubes was the appearance of an orange precipitate on the
addition of Nessler's reagent to Vanderpost's medium (8). The highest values for
ammonifying bacteria occurred primarily in the summer months. December
220 Indiana Academy of Science
samples also showed increased values. Values equal to or greater than 2.4 x 106
bacteria/ 100 ml occurred in the summer months with values of 9.3 x 104/ 100 ml
in Cardinal to 1.1 x 10' \ 100 ml in Clark and Walters as obtained in December.
Dumpert had an MPN of 2.4 x 105/ 100 ml in December. Samples in January
and February were equal to or greater than 2.4 x 104 to 2.4 x 105 respectively in
the four lakes.
Stratification studies conducted on Dumperfs lake showed no real
stratification of the bacterial types studied (Table 1). The 4.5 m sample
represents the sediment-water interface. Care was taken to collect the water
samples for stratification from the surface to the deepest sample, in that order to
avoid mixing of the column by the sampling procedure.
Table 1. Enumeration of Bacterial Types (MPN/ 100ml) in Dumperts Borrow Pit Lake at varying
depths during June and July 1976.
June sample
Depth (M)
Coliforms
Nitrifiers
Denitrifiers
Ammonifiers
Sulfate
reducers
0
4
<30
90
1.100.000
3
1.5
9
<30
230
210.000
21
3
4
<30
110
21.000
240
4.5
< 3
2.400.000
53
July
sample
0
15
<30
2,400,000
9
1.5
9
<30
70
1 50,000
93
3
4
<30
90
1 50,000
93
4.5
< 3
<30
< 30
12.000
150
Discussion
Data obtained on coliforms indicate the borrow pit lakes to be relatively
free from sewage pollution. The recreational value of these lakes are not
jeopardized by contamination from domestic or human sewage. However,
further tests should be conducted to determine the safety of the water for
drinking and swimming purposes.
The bacterial cycling of sulfur in the lake is exemplified by the sulfate
reducing bacteria. These bacteria metabolize most efficiently in the shallow,
relatively small borrow pit lakes examined (Clark and Walters). The values
obtained for these organisms will probably increase with age of the pits as silt
and other debris slowly fill in the pit. The high numbers point to the accelerated
eutrophy most likely occurring in these bodies of water. Their presence also
points to possible taste and odor problems, as well as corrosive qualities, often
associated with members of this group.
Sulfur oxidizers such as Thiobacillus novellus are probably active in the
bodies of water, although no results were obtained to indicate this. Enrichment
studies have shown the existence of photosynthetic bacteria possibly active in
this S transformation.
Ecology 221
The increased numbers of denitrifying bacteria obtained over the warmer
months supported studies conducted by Owens and Nelson (4) on selected farm
ponds in Indiana. They reported the effects of various parameters on
denitrification processes in surface waters. Using water from the sediment-water
interface shows higher numbers (4, 7) and also a greater potential for
microenvironments of an anaerobic nature required for identification. Nitrate
runoff from adjacent fields may also have stimulated the increased numbers
obtained during the warmer summer months.
The peak in nitrifying bacteria in April may be associated with application
of ammonium fertilizer to nearby fields with subsequent runoff into the borrow
pit lakes.
The number of ammonifying bacteria were high in nearly all samples taken.
This is indicative of the high counts of saprophytic bacteria existing in lakes (7).
This group of bacteria display potential degradative qualities that may be active
in the borrow pit lakes.
Typical bacterial stratification in lakes should show highest bacterial
numbers at the sediment-water interface with second highest values at the water-
air interface. This is not evident with the physiological types examined.
However, oxygen sensitive organisms, such as sulfate reducers, do show an
increase with increasing depths.
Literature Cited
1. Alexander, Martin. 1965. Denitrifying bacteria, pp. 1484-1486 In C. A. Black (Ed.). Methods of
Soil Analysis. Monogr. No. 9. Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. 1572 p.
2. and F. Clark. 1965. Nitrifying bacteria, pp. 1477-1487 In C. A. Black (Ed.). Methods of
Soil Analysis. Monogr. No. 9. Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison. Wis. 1572 p.
3. American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater. 13th ed. American Public Health Association. Inc.. Washington. IXC. 874 p.
4. Owens, L. B. and D. W. Nelson. 1973. Relationship of various indices of water quality to
denitrification in surface waters. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 82:404-413.
5. Postgate, J. R. 1966. Media for sulfur bacteria. J. Lab Practice 15:1239-1244.
6. Rodina, A. G. 1972. Methods of Aquatic Microbiology. R. R. Colwell and M. S. Zumbruski
(eds.). University Park Press, Baltimore. 461 p.
7. Starkev, R. L. 1948. Characteristics and cultivation of sulfate reducing bacteria. J. American
Works Assoc. 40:1291-1298.
8. Vanderpost, J. M. 1972. Bacterial and physical characteristics of Lake Ontario sediment during
several months. Proc. 15th Conf. Great Lakes Res. 15:198-213.
Terrestrial Flora and Vertebrate Fauna
of Four East-Central Indiana Borrow Pit Lakes
Elizabeth S. Maxwell and Ralph D. Kirkpatrick
Department of Biology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Introduction
Borrow pit lakes created by the removal of soil during highway construction
may have value to wildlife. To determine potential wildlife values of borrow pit
areas, comprehensive surveys of flora and fauna of the lands adjacent to four
borrow pit lakes located along Interstate 69 in Delaware and Grant Counties,
Indiana, were made during 1976.
Related Literature
Few references about wildlife use of small man-made bodies of water and their
adjacent areas are available. Greenwell (3) reported consistent use of Missouri
farm ponds by upland game birds and game mammals, small mammals, and
songbirds. In 1966, Evans and Kerbs (1,2) studied waterfoul and shorebird use
of selected stock ponds in South Dakota. They noted that although the main
purpose of the stock ponds was to provide drinking water for livestock, many
species of waterfowl and shorebirds used them for resting and feeding during
migration periods and for summer nesting habitat. Merrill and Kirkpatrick (5)
recorded that newly created borrow pit lakes along Interstate Highway 69 (1-69)
in northeastern Indiana provide suitable resting and feeding habitat for various
species of birds. They noted the presence of waterfowl, shorebirds, and other
birds during 1968 on three study borrow pit lakes in Delaware County, Indiana
Other literature related to the ecology of disturbed land with associated
bodies of water includes a study by Jones (4) of the avifauna of a strip-mined
region in southern Indiana. He included nearly 90 bodies of water in his study
area. Riley (6,7,8) discussed wildlife values of reclaimed strip-mined lands in
southeastern Ohio.
The Study Areas
Four study borrow pit lakes were selected adjacent to 1-69 in Delaware and
Grant Counties, Indiana. They varied in surface area, depth and in other
morphometric characteristics. The four lakes: Cardinal, Clark's, Dumpert's,
Walters', are privately owned and are located on land previously used for
agricultural crops.
Cardinal Lake is L-shaped and has approximately 6.9 ha of water surface.
It has a maximum depth of 2.5 m and is bounded on three sides by cultivated
fields. Wildlife and erosion-control plantings are established around the
perimeter of the pit. A bluegrass lane approximately 6 m wide separates the
borrow pit from its bordering fields and a county road.
Clark's Borrow Pit Lake has a water surface area of 0.8 ha and a maximum
depth of 2.5 m and is bounded on three sides by cultivated fields. Wildlife and
222
Ecology 223
erosion-control plantings are established around the perimeter of the lake. A
bluegrass (Poa pratensis) lane approximately 6 m wide separates the borrow pit
from its bordering fields and a county road.
Dumpert's Borrow Pit Lake is near-oval in shape with a water surface area
of approximately 3.2 ha and a maximum depth of 5.5 m. It is surrounded by a
strip of grassland which is in turn bordered by a deciduous woodlot on the east
and by cultivated fields on the north and south. Wildlife plantings have recently
been made adjacent to the pit.
Walters' Borrow Pit Lake is rectangular and has a water surface area of 0.8
ha with a maximum depth of 1.75 m. It is surrounded by cultivated fields. A
mature multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) hedge on the north and west sides
borders the borrow pit area.
Methods and Materials
Birds at each borrow pit were observed weekly using binoculars and/ or a
spotting telescope. Numbers and kinds of observed birds were compiled.
Small mammal populations on land adjacent to the borrow pits were
sampled by mouse snaptraps and by Museum Special snaptraps. A transect line
at each pit had a total of 20 trapping stations spaced at 10 m intervals. Three
snaptraps were set at each station for five nights, making a total of 300
trapnights per sampling period at each pit. Traps were baited with dry rolled
oats and were checked each morning and evening. Trapped specimens were
identified, catalogued and deposited in the Ball State University Mammal
Collection.
Vegetative cover at the borrow pits was sampled by collection of non-
woody plants for later identification in the Ball State University Herbarium.
Woody plants were identified in the field.
Results and Discussion
Vegetation
Terrestrial vegetation adjacent to the four borrow pit lakes was
characterized by early successional species that would be expected on former
cropland in this region, e.g. thistles (Cirsium spp.), bluegrass and chickory
{Cichorium intybus). Multiflora rose was present on all areas, having been
planted on the Walters' area, and having spread to other areas from nearby
plantings. Woody invasion of fencerows included native species such as red
mulberry {Morus rubra) and hawthorn {Crataegus spp.). Wildlife cover
plantings on Clark's area included red and white pine (Pinus spp.). Wetland
species encountered were principally cattails (Typha spp.), sedges (Carex spp.),
cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and willows (Salix spp.).
Vegetation, with the exception of the multiflora rose hedge on Walters' area
and in fencerows on all areas, was kept low by periodic mowing. This
management strategy denied nesting and escape cover to larger vertebrates.
Birds
Bird surveys were conducted during 11 months (January through
November) in 1968 on Cardinal Lake and Clark areas by Merrill and
224
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1 . Status of birds observed on four borrow pit lakes in east-central Indiana during 1976 or 1968
and 1976.
Species
Cardinal Clark's ' Dumpert's Walters'
1968' 1976 1968' 1976 1976
1976
Pied-billed Grebe,
Podilymbus podiceps
Canada Goose,
Branta canadensis
Mallard,
Anas platyrhynchos
Northern Shoveler,
Anas clypeata
Blue-winged Teal,
Anas discors
Green-winged Teal,
Anas crecca
Wood Duck,
A ix sponsa
Ring-necked Duck,
Aythya collaris
Lesser Scaup,
Aythya affinis
Common Goldeneye,
Bucephala clangula
Bufflehead,
Bucephala albeola
Ruddy Duck,
Oxyura jamaicensis
Hooded Merganser,
Lophodytes cucullatus
Turkey Vulture,
Cathartes aura
Bobwhite,
Colinus virginianus
Common Egret,
Casmerodius albus
Great Blue Heron,
Ardea herodias
Green Heron,
Butorides virescens
American Bittern,
Botaurus lentiginosus
American Coot,
Fulica americana
American Golden Plover,
Pluvialis dominica
Piping Plover,
Charadrius melodus
Semipalmated Plover,
Charadrius semipalmatus
Data from: Merrill and Kirkpatrick (1970).
a = abudnant, 51 or more individuals seen during period of study,
c = common, I I to 50 individuals seen during period of study,
u = uncommon, 1 to 10 individuals seen during period of study.
Ecology 225
Cardinal Clark's Dumpert's Walters'
Species 19681 1976 1968' 1976 1976 1976
Killdeer,
Charadrius vociferus a a a c c c
Solitary Sandpiper,
Tringa solitaria u
Spotted Sandpiper,
Actitis macular ia c a u a c
Greater Yellowlegs,
Tringa melanoleucus u u
Lesser Yellowlegs,
Tringa flavipes c c u
Short-billed Dowitcher,
Limnodromus griseus u
Long-billed Dowitcher,
Limnodromus scolopaceus u
Pectoral Sandpiper,
Calidris melanotos u
Baird's Sandpiper,
Calidris bairdii u
Least Sandpiper,
Calidris minutilla u
Semipalmated Sandpiper,
Calidris pusillus u u c
American Woodcock,
Philohela minor c
Common Snipe,
Capella gallinago c c u
Bonaparte's Gull,
Larus Philadelphia u
Common Tern,
Sterna hirundo u
Rock Dove,
Columba livia c a c a
Mourning Dove,
Zenaida macroura a a a a a c
Chimney Swift,
Chaetura pelagica u
Belted Kingfisher,
Megaceryle alcyon u u u
Common Flicker,
Colaptes auratus u u u u
Red-headed Woodpecker,
Melanerpes erythrocephalus u
Hairy Woodpecker,
Picoides villosus u
Downy Woodpecker,
Picoides puhescens u u
Eastern Kingbird,
Tvrannus tvrannus u u
'Data from: Merrill and Kirkpatrick (1970).
a = abundant, 51 or more individuals seen during period of study.
c = common, 1 1 to 50 individuals seen during period of study,
u = uncommon, 1 to 10 individuals seen during period of study.
226 Indiana Academy of Science
Cardinal Clark's Dumpert's Walters'
Species 1968' 1976 I9681 1976 1976 1976
Least Flycatcher,
Empidonax minimus u
Eastern Wood Pewee,
Contopus virens u
Horned Lark,
Eremophila alpestris a c u
Barn Swallow,
Hirundo rustica c c c u c c
Tree Swallow,
Iridoprdcne bicolor u u u
Bank Swallow,
Riparia riparia c u u u
Rough-winged Swallow,
Stelgedopteryx rujicollis u
Blue Jay,
Cyanocitta cristata c
Common Crow,
Corvus brachyrhynchos a c c c c u
Carolina Chickadee,
Parus carolinensis u c u
Tufted Titmouse,
Parus bicolor u u
White-breasted Nuthatch,
Sitta carolinensis u
House Wren,
Troglodytes aedon u
Mockingbird,
Mimus polyglottos u
Gray Catbird,
Dumetella carolinensis u
Brown Thrasher,
Toxostoma rufum u u
Robin,
Turdus migratorius c c c u c u
Hermit Thrush,
Catharus guttata u
Golden-crowned Kinglet,
Regulus satrapa u
Cedar Waxwing,
Bobycilla cedrorum u u
Starling,
Sturnus vulgaris a a c c a c
White-eyed Vireo,
Vireo griseus u
Nashville Warbler,
Vermivora ruficapilla u
Yellow-rumped Warbler,
Dendroica coronata c
'Data from: Merrill and Kirkpatrick (1970).
a = abundant, 51 or more individuals seen during period of study,
c = common, 1 I to 50 individuals seen during period of study,
u = uncommon, 1 to 10 individuals seen during period of study.
I
Ecology
227
Species
Cardinal
Clark's Dumpert's Walters'
1968' 1976 19681 1976
1976
1976
Bay-breasted Warbler,
Dendroica castanea
Pine Warbler,
Dendroica pinus
Palm Warbler,
Dendroica pahnarum
Common Yellowthroat,
Geothlypis trichas
House Sparrow,
Passer domesticus
Meadowlark,
Sturnella spp.
Red-winged Blackbird,
Agelaius phoeniceus
Rusty Blackbird,
Euphagus carolinus
Common Grackle,
Quiscalus quiscula
Brown-headed Cowbird,
Molothrus ater
Cardinal,
Cardinalis cardinalis
Indigo Bunting,
Passerina cyanea
American Goldfinch,
Carduelis tristis
Savannah Sparrow,
Passerculus sandwichensis
Vesper Sparrow,
Pooecetes gramineus
Dark-eyed Junco,
Junco hyemalis
Tree Sparrow,
Spizella arborea
Field Sparrow,
Spizella pusilla
White-throated Sparrow,
Zonotrichia albicollis
Fox Sparrow,
Passerella iliaca
Song Sparrow,
Melospiza melodia
'Data from: Merrill and Kirkpatrick (1970).
a = abundant, 51 or more individuals seen during period of study,
c = common, 1 1 to 50 individuals seen during period of study,
u = uncommon, 1 to 10 individuals seen during period of study.
Kirkpatrick (5). A comparison of bird observations for 1968 and 1976 (12
months) for these areas reveal that 1 1 waterfowl species were found on Cardinal
Lake during one or both of the study years (Table 1). Common goldeneye
{Bucephala clangula), hooded merganser {Lophdytes cucullatus), ring-necked
228 Indiana Academy of Science
duck {Ay thy a collaris) and the shoveler {Anas clypeata) were observed in 1968
but not in 1976. The Canada goose {Branta canadensis) and the woodduck {Aix
sponsa) were seen only in 1976. The American woodcock {Philohela minor) was
not seen in 1968 but was common in 1976, probably as a breeding and nesting
species. During the interval between 1968 and 1976, woodcock nesting cover and
feeding areas developed in the low, wet, unmowed area immediately south of
Cardinal Lake.
The number of waterfowl species observed on Clark's Borrow Pit area
declined from four to one between 1968 and 1976. Bufflehead {Bucephala
albeola), green-winged teal {Anas crecca), lesser scaup {Aytha affinis), and the
mallard {Anas platyrhynchos) were seen in 1968 but only the lesser scaup was
seen in 1976.
A total of 65 avian species was observed at the Dumpert Borrow Pit and 33
species were observed at the Walters' Borrow Pit during 1976. The greater
number of species seen at Dumpert's is probably due to its larger surface area
and to the greater number of habitats in its immediate vicinity.
Mammals
A total of seven mammalian species was collected on transects. The masked
shrew {Sorex cinereus) was taken on all but Dumpert's Borrow Pit area while the
short-tailed shrew {Blarina brevicauda) was taken on all the study areas. The
eastern chipmunk {Tamias striatus) was collected only on Walters' area. The
white-footed mouse {Peromscus leucopus), the deer mouse {P. maniculatus) and
the meadow vole {Microtus pennsylvanicus) were taken on all four study areas.
Feral house mouse {Mus musculus) populations were found on all but the
Walters' study area.
Larger mammals not collected but known to occur on the areas include:
raccoon {Procyon lotor), red fox {Vulpes vulpes), striped skunk {Mephitis
mephitis), muskrat {Ondatra zibet hicus) and Virginia opossom {Didelphis
virginiana). Certain of these furbearers, particularly the muskrat, are harvested
by trappers on Cardinal and Walters'. These larger mammals add to the biotic
diversity and to the aesthetic appeal of the areas.
Conclusions
The construction of borrow pit lakes has created habitat necessary for
recreationally important wetland wildlife species including waterfowl,
shorebirds and certain furbearers such as the muskrat. The removal of the areas
from cultivation and the establishment of permanent woody and herbaceous
cover allows the presence of a diverse songbird fauna as well as several of the
larger mammals. It can be anticipated that additional wildlife species will appear
on the areas as community succession progresses. In a region of intensive
farming and rapid urbanization borrow pit lakes will become of increasing
importance for recreational activities including birdwatching, trapping and
nature study.
Ecology 229
Literature Cited
1. Evans, K. E., and R. R. Kerbs. 1967. Waterfowl and shorebird use on selected stock ponds in
Jackson County: 1966. South Dakota Bird Notes 19(2):28-30.
2. Evans, K. E., and R. R. Kerbs. 1977. Avian use of livestock watering ponds in western South
Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agri. Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-35. 1 1 p.
3. Greenwell, G. A. 1948. Wildlife values of Missouri farm ponds. N. Amer. Wildl Conf Trans
13:271-281.
4. Jones, G. S. 1968. Avifauna of a study area in the strip-mined region of Indiana. Ind. Audubon
Quart. 46(4):92-97.
5. Merrill, R. L., and R. D. Kirkpatrick. 1970. Utilization of three Delaware County, Indiana
borrow pits by birds. Ind. Audubon Quart. 48(1): 14-20.
6. Riley, C. V. 1954. The utilization of reclaimed coal strip-lands for the production of wildlife. N.
Amer. Wildl. Conf. 19:324-337.
7. Riley, C. V. 1957. Reclamation of coal strip-mined lands with reference to wildlife plantings. J
Wildl. Manage. 21(4): 402-413.
8. Riley, C. V. 1960. The ecology of water areas associated with coal strip-mined lands in Ohio. Ohio
Jour. Sci. 60(2): 106-1 21.
Possible Physiological Clock Associated
with the Feeding Habits of the
Central Mud minnow (Umbra limi) Kirtland
Kathleen L. Horwath and David W. Morgan
Aquatic Behavior Laboratory, Department of Biology
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
Introduction
Predator-prey relationships of fish and aquatic insects have functioned in
the regulation of both vertebrate and invertebrate populations throughout
history. The idea of fish predators as means of insect control has been widely
adopted. Although emphasis has been on Gambusia affinis, a number of small
fish with broad tolerance levels for temperature changes and organic pollutants
have possibilities for such biological control.
It should not be surprising, therefore, to consider the central mudminnow,
Umbra limi, along these same lines. Peckham and Dineen (9) reported that
mudminnows are a carnivorous species, feeding generally on the bottom.
Principle food items are small crustaceans, molluscs, and most important, insect
larvae.
Analysis of the feeding habits of the mudminnow is necessary in considering
the fish for biological control. Population distributions of prey and predator
tend to follow a sinusoidal rhythm. Since most aquatic insects reach their peak
numbers in early summer, it is necessary to see just when the predator
population has its maximum influence on the prey. Washino (11) reported that
the greatest number and variety of food organisms consumed by predatory fish
occurred in the early summer and that predation on mosquitoes intensified in
the later summer period as a result of the relative scarcity of other food sources.
To consider Umbra limi for mosquito control, one would have to show that it
followed this basic pattern and was most effective as a predator during these
times.
The ability of organisms to respond to their environment in rhythmical
cycles has proven to be of selective value. Periodicity in organisms, cued either
by some external or internal factor, allows them the advantages of obtaining
basic energy requirements and reproductive needs at the most opportune time.
The idea of synchronized rhythms, especially in the interaction of the
predator and prey, is not new. However, the idea of finding a rhythmic pattern
intrinsic in the predator itself which is involved in the regulation of its feeding
activity towards the prey is a different matter. This study provides information
on the feeding behavior of the mudminnow, with special emphasis on a possible
physiological cycle involved with their feeding activity. It is an effort to improve
our understanding of the fish in its natural environment. This knowledge can
then be applied as needed to make this proposed method of insect control as
effective as possible.
230
Ecology 23 1
Materials and Methods
This investigation consisted of two experiments. Experiment I was
designed to analyze the feeding behavior of groups of mudminnows while they
were maintained solely on a diet of mosquito larvae. Experiment II was designed
to analyze the feeding responses of individual fish with the same diet, under
controlled light and temperature, and in isolated conditions.
Central mudminnows were taken from Juday Creek, a small stream in St.
Joseph County, Indiana, which empties into the St. Joseph River north of South
Bend, Indiana.
For the first experiment, dealing with the feeding behavior of groups in
Umbra limi, a total of 15 fish was placed in three 20-gallon tanks, which were
barren except for sand on the bottom. Five Umbra were introduced to each tank
according to relative size, with one tank containing fish of 3 to 4 cm. standard
length, the second 5 to 6 cm., and the third 7 to 8 cm.
Part two of the research, which analyzed individual responses, was
conducted after the first experiment had been completed. It consisted of fifteen
10-gallon tanks placed in an enclosed room where temperature was regulated at
17.2°C and light was constant. Each tank contained only one fish, with five
tanks per size class of fish.
Mosquito type-form Aedes aegypti aegypti of the ROCK strain
(Rockefeller Institute) were used throughout the study, and were reared at 31° C
and 80% relative humidity. Properly conditioned egg strips were hatched in
water of 2 1 ° C and the resulting first instar larvae were placed in pans filled with
tap water. Liver powder was used as food for the larvae. When the larvae became
fourth instar, they were then fed to the fish.
All fish were fed to repletion. In the group tanks, the fish were fed by placing
mosquito larvae in the tank continously until all fish refused to respond to the
larvae. For the second experiment, each fish was given a predetermined number
of larvae depending on the size of the fish and was restricted to a fixed amount of
time consumption. All fish were given an excess of mosquito larvae. Small fish
received 200 mosquito larvae per feeding; the medium sized fish 250 larvae- and
the large fish, 350 larvae. Fifteen minutes was shown by the first experiment to
be sufficient time for all fish to reach repletion. Therefore, at the end of fifteen
minutes the remaining larvae were removed, and the amount eaten by each fish
was determined. The fish were fed every two days.
This information was collected from July 17 to October 14 1976 and
January 31 to March 8, 1977. Graphs of the number of larvae consumed perday
the total number of larvae consumed per size-class, and the number of larvae
consumed by each fish were prepared for comparison of the feeding activity per
individual fish and per size range. Similar comparative graphs were made of the
following: barometric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, sky cover
precipitation, and phases of the moon to determine any correlations between
feeding habits and these factors.
Statistical analysis by the nonparametric Friedman Two- Way Analysis of
Variance by Ranks was performed to compare the number of larvae consumed
at the observed peaks in the feeding activity (10).
232
Indiana Academy of Science
Results
The total number of larvae eaten by each size of fish during the first
experiment is shown in Figure 1. The graph shows that the total amount of
larvae eaten was dependent on the relative size of the fish, with the total amount
consumed by small fish being less than the total amount eaten by medium or
large fish.
IstQ- first quarter
LQ - last quarter
3 to ^crn. fish
5 to 6cn. fish
7 to Scm. fish
Figure 1 . Total larvae consumed per size class.
Independent of the size of the fish are patterns of high and low points in the
consumption of larvae. Figure 1 shows increases in the level of consumption
approximately every 14 days, with the greatest amount eaten during the first
quarter and last quarter phases of the moon. Alternatively, the lowest
consumption periods occurred approximately every 14 days during the new
moon and full moon. The total number of larvae consumed by all fish in
Experiment I (see Fig. 2), emphasizes this general trend of a near- 14-day feeding
response exhibited by all three size classes.
Statistical analysis of the amount of consumption for the group tanks
revealed the differences in larval consumption during different phases of the
moon are significant at the 0.001 alpha level.
The Umbra exposed to external factors also exhibited an overall decrease in
response to mosquito larvae during the three-month experimental period.
However, statistical analysis of the third month alone showed that there was still
a highly significant difference ( = 0.001) in the rates of larval consumption
between the first and last quarter phases of the moon, and the new moon and full
moon, indicating that the feeding pattern, although diminished overall, was still
present.
Each fish responded to the prey with varying degrees of consumption, but
Ecology
233
1st q
NM - new moon
1st Q- first quarter
FM - full moon
I50O
LQ
LQ - last quarter
1200
LQ
TOTAL
1st Q
LARVAE
CONSUMED
900
6 0 0
30 0
LQ 1st Q
NM
FM
NM
FM
NM FM
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78
DAYS
Figure 2. Total larvae consumed.
nevertheless with regular fluctuations approximately every 14 days. The amount
of consumption by individual fish in the group tanks is shown in Figure 3. The
feeding behavior of two fish from the medium size category is shown to
emphasize similarities in the feeding activities of some fish, while also revealing
characteristic differences in the feeding behavior of each fish.
Data collected from the second experiment indicate that the 14-day cycle
was present in all fish in the controlled environment, regardless of size. Figure 4
shows the total number of larve consumed per size class for Experiment II.
TOTAL
LARVAE
CONSUMED
1st Q- first quarter
LQ - last quarter
5 to 6cm. fish
60 66 72
Figure 3. Consumption per individual.
234
Indiana Academy of Science
800
TOTAL
LARVAE
CONSUMED 60°
7 to 8cm. fish
5 to 6cm. fish
.3 to 4cm. fish
1st Q- first quarter
LQ - last quarter
20 25 30 35
Figure 4. Total larvae consumed per size class.
Analysis by Friedman's Xr2 test again supports the hypothesis of a 14-day cycle,
and possible correlation to lunar periodicity, but with significance only at the
0.1 alpha level.
The feeding activity under constant light appeared to be slightly out of
phase among the fifteen fish. Not all fish increased the amount eaten on exactly
the same day. Figure 5 shows the feeding pattern of three individual fish of
various sizes superimposed on each other and shifted to coincide with each other
250
A
200
,-_
1
TOTAL
1 /\ / '"\
A
LARVAE
"' /^-^V| «'
CONSUMED
150
A / \\ //
/
\" /\ 1 v
100
t
V \ A / / i
50
N.. /'
15 20 25 30 35 40
DAYS
Figure 5. De synchronization of feeding cycles under controlled conditions.
Ecology 235
(arrows indicate first day of feeding). Even though there is a desynchronization
in their feeding behavior, the approximate 14-day feeding pattern is still found.
This deviation resulted in a more lengthy period of increases or decreases (see
Fig. 4), and also in a lesser significant difference between peaks and troughs as
shown by the 0.1 alpha level obtained by statistical analysis.
Results from the second experiment also suggests the presence of damping.
The feeding rhythm was still present, but continued exposure to constant
conditions resulted in reduced amplitude of the cycle.
Graphs of corresponding temperature, relative humidity, sky cover, and
precipitation revealed that there is little, if any, correlation between these
parameters and the feeding habits of the mudminnow.
Discussion
Results obtained by the first experiment suggest the presence of a
physiological clock associated with the feeding behavior of the central
mudminnow. Regardless of the size of the fish, there is present a rhythmic
feeding response with an approximate 14-day period and possible lunar
correlation.
Fish exposed to natural light cycles, as in the first experiment, possess a
rhythmic pattern in feeding. However, the first trials can only suggest the
presence of a physiological clock. Whether it was only chance that these fish
increased or decreased their consumption of larvae approximately every
fourteen days, or if this behavior was actually a mechanism incorporating a
physiological process along with external cueing factors still needed to be
ascertained. The second experiment pursued this aspect in more detail.
The periodicity found in the feeding habits of the first fish could be purely
exogenous, where the environment is the real and only cause of the rhythm
which in turn ceases in artificial constant conditions. Contrary to this
endogenous rhythms, are controlled from within the organism itself. In
this case the periodic environmental factor operates only as a synchronizing
agent.
Results obtained from the second experiment, in which mudminnows were
placed in a constant environment, indicate the presence of an endogenous
rhythm.
The 14-day periodicity continued in artificial conditions but with a
frequency that deviated slightly from the exact amount of a lunar cycle. Aschoff
(1) states that under artificial conditions, if a periodicity continues but deviates
by a certain, more or less constant amount from the external factor, then the
periodicity is endogenous. The results obtained show that phase shifts were
found in some individuals. At present, it is not possible to determine if these
deviations were constant. However, the possibility exists, that by excluding
external stimuli, which in this case appeared to be the light intensity of the moon,
the physiological clock involved with the feeding of the mudminnow was unable
to be synchronized and the fish became out of phase with one another.
Fade-out, or damping of an oscillation, is dependent on the conditions in
which the organism is placed, Bunning (4). Continuous light often causes fade-
236 Indiana Academy of Science
outs more rapidly than continuous darkness. These results show that there is a
damping effect on the feeding cycle under constant conditions.
What is the significance of a rhythmic cycle in the feeding behavior of the
central mudminnow? Does the feeding rhythm present an adaptive value for the
species in its natural environment? Such questions must be looked at in the
entire context of the interaction of the species with the physical and biological
environment around it.
Structural characteristics of species are related to their food niches. Keast
(7) described the morphological adaptation of Umbra limi which enable them to
capture both hard and soft bodied insects. Physiological adaptations are equally
important for the survival of the species. The presence of a physiological clock
involved with the feeding habits of the mudminnow provides a selective
advantage for the species by keeping the individuals of a population in phase
with the environment in which they live. Exploitation of resources is maximized
and intraspecific competition is limited.
Lunar cycles have been shown to exist in chironomids, ephemeropterans
and trichopterans. Such cycles deal with the synchronization of hatching,
emergence and reproduction. The effectiveness of the predator would be greatly
increased if it possessed a synchronizing agent that enabled it to follow the
prey in such a cycle.
Some chironomids have been show to hatch within a few days of the full
moon and new moon. A maximum number of larvae would therefore be present
during the first and last quarter phases of the moon, a time when the
mudminnow would be at its peak point in the consumption of larvae. At times of
low prey densities the predator would also be at the low consumption point in its
cycle.
Umbra limi also possess a seasonal response in their feeding behavior. The
results from these experiments, in accordance with Maw (8), show that the
mudminnow consumed the largest amount of larvae during the summer months,
the season when Washino (11) indicates that mosquito larvae numbers
increased. Maw noted a decrease in the numbers of larvae consumed by the
mudminnow toward the later summer and suggested this relative state of
inactivity could reflect a parallel period of aestivation that might occur during
adverse conditions in its normal habit. The overall decline in larvae
consumption found in the first experiment agrees with these findings. The effect
of a continuous laboratory environment is also a possible factor involved with
this apparent decline.
The selective advantage of the predator population in synchronization with
prey is evident. The availability of food along with reduction of intraspecific
competition operates to maintain the species at its optimal level.
As a possible agent for biological control, Umbra limi appears to be highly
qualified. Findings from this research support Maw (8) who recommended the
central mudminnow for integrated control programs. The species is adapted
morphologically and physiologically to capture and assimilate prey such as
aquatic insects with great efficiency, at the most opportune time to insure their
growth and reproduction for the continuation of their species.
Ecology 237
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the advice, aid, and use of facilities for
raising mosquitoes supplied by Dr. George Craig of the Vector Biology
Laboratory, University of Notre Dame.
Literature Cited
1. Aschoff, Jurgen. 1960. Exogenous and endogenous components in circadian rhythms. Cold
Spring Harbor Symposium Quant. Biol. 25:11-26.
2. Bay, Ernest, 1969. Fish predators. Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association.
3. Bunning, Erwin. 1960. Biological clocks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium Quant. Biol. 25:1-9.
4. 1967. The Physiological Clock. Springer- Verlag, New York, Inc., New York, N.Y. 167 pp.
5. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia On Quantitative Biology. 1960. Biological Clocks, Volume
25. Waverly Press, Inc., Maryland, 524 pp.
6. Hauenschild, C. 1960. Lunar periodicity. Cold Spring Symposium Quant. Biol. 25:491-497.
7. Keast, Allen, and Deirdre Webb. 1966. Mouth and body form relative to feeding ecology in the
fish fauna of a small lake, Lake Opinicon, Ontario. Fish. Res. Board Can. J. 23(12): 1845-1874.
8. Maw, M. G. 1968. The mudminnow Umbra limi (Kirtland). A possible mosquito control agent in
semi-permanent pools. Mosq. News. 28(1): 120.
9. Peckhan, Richard S. and Clarence F. Dineen. 1957. Ecology of the central mudminnow.
Umbra limi (Kirtland). The Am. Midi. Nat. 58(1 ):222-23 1 .
10. Siegel, Sidney. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, N.Y. 312 pp.
1 1. Washino, Robert K. 1968. Predator prey studies in relation to an integrated mosquito control
program, A progress resport. Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association.
Recent Fish Collections from Blue River, Washington County, Indiana
H. E. McReynolds
U.S. Forest Service, Bedford, Indiana 47421
and
Joseph L. Janisch, Division of Fish and Wildlife
Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
Introduction
During the summer of 1977, Dr. James Gammon of DePauw University (in
a conversation with the senior author) mentioned a situation that led to the
present study. Dr Gammon, interested for years in the systematics and
distribution of Indiana fishes, asked McReynolds if he were aware that Indiana
Department of Natural Resources had reported the capture of the white shiner,
Notropis albeolus, in its Blue River survey in 1972. McReynolds, also with a
long term interest in the distributional pattern of the Indiana ichthyofauna, had
been living out of the State at that time, and was unaware of this record.
If the white shiner record were a valid one, this would appear to be the most
extraordinary find of a new fish species in Indiana history. Only two species of
true fishes have displayed significant gaps between their previously known range
and the locality of their subsequent discovery in Indiana. Heretofore, the most
curious occurrence has been Shelby Gerking's collection (1) of the studfish,
Fundulus catenatus, in Shelby and Bartholomew counties, with an intervening
gap of 150-200 airline miles from its previously most northern occurrence in
south-central Kentucky. This distributional "flier" has never been adequately
explained.
The other anomaly was the identification of a burbot, Lota lota, by
McReynolds from the Whitewater River, Franklin County, in the late 1950's.
However, further investigation and subsequent sporadic occurrences
throughout Indiana indicated that these were escapes from fee-fishing lakes
("pay ponds") whose owners were being sold burbot by Minnesota fish haulers
under the more attractive misnomer of "Canadian catfish." Among the agnathid
fishes, the occurrence of a sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, in the Mississippi
River drainage (Tippecanoe system) has never been explained. This puzzling
record apparently was not the result of a misidentification, since both Shelby
Gerking and Vernon Applegate verified the identification (2).
The range of Notropis albeolus is basically eastern coast drainages, with its
only occurrence in the Ohio River drainage being in the upper Kanawha System
(New River) in Virginia, West Virginia, and possibly North Carolina. Therefore,
the discovery of the white shiner in Indiana would not only add a new species,
but would also be a spectacular distributional event. On the basis of ths
interesting situation, the senior author contacted the junior author, Joseph
Janisch, who had made the 1972 Blue River survey. A review of the field data
indicated that 36 specimens assigned to N. albeolus had been taken at 3 sites.
238
Ecology 239
In this review of the field records, another interesting occurrence was noted .
The popeye shiner, Notropis ariommus, was recorded from several collection
sites in the upper Blue River. There have been no documented records of this
species in Indiana since the late 1800's (although there is an unsubstantiated
report of this species from a recent collection), and some taxonomists have
speculated that it has been extirpated from Indiana. Interestingly, the clear
upper Blue River tributaries are the type of habitat in which one might expect to
find N. ariommus if it still exists in this State. At the suggestion of Janisch, and
the concurrence of Chief of Fisheries Robert Hollingsworth, the authors
decided to jointly re-sample selected Blue River sites.
We picked one of the upper tributary sites from which both albeolus and
ariommus had been recorded in the original survey (3). This was a section of the
Middle Fork of Blue River in Township 1 North, Range 4 East northwest
quarter of the northeast quarter of Section 3. At 10:00 a.m. on September 28, the
authors, with the assistance of DNR fisheries biologists Larry Lehman and
Robin Knox, applied an emulsified rotenone formulation to this stretch of
stream. The stream at this point is a medium-sized creek with a low to moderate
current. It is rocky with much sand and gravel bottom, and at the time of the
collection was quite clear. The stream has produced only an intermediate degree
of entrenchment below its surrounding flood plain, possibly due to the bedrock
strata upon which it is based (perhaps the Harrodsburg Limestone?). Habitat-
wise, the Middle Fork appears to be a smallmouth bass-rock bass creek,
although largemouth bass were also collected in the sample.
Results
Collection of dead and dying fish continued at the site until 2:00 p.m. Many
specimens bearing a resemblance in the field to albeolus and to ariommus were
picked up. We had previously determined that the species most likely to be
confused with albeolus was Notropis chrysocephalus and that the species closest
to ariommus was Notropis boops. Although additional replicate collection
stations had been planned, numerous specimens of the two target species were
taken and we saw no need for further collections. We were confident that these
were the two species which had been called albeolus and ariommus in the
original survey.
Subsequent to the field collections, the specimens in question were
examined in the laboratory. The specimens bearing a general resemblance to
Notropis albeolus proved to have the faint parallel lines on the upper sides that
form V-shaped markings. These lines are characteristic of the striped shiner,
Notropis chrysocephalus, and are lacking on the white shiner, Notropis
albeolus. Study of the specimens resembling Notropis ariommus showed
consistent counts of 8 anal rays. The bigeye shiner, Notropis boops, generally
has 8 anal rays (ocassionally 9, rarely 7). N. ariommus generally has 9 anal rays
(occasionally 8 or 10).
On the basis of these examinations, we felt that these had been
misidentifications in the original survey. However, specimens were submitted to
fish systematists for verification of our identifications. We sent the species in
question to Drs. P.W. Smith, and Larry M. Page, Faunistic Studies Section of
240 Indiana Academy of Science
the Illinois Natural History Survey. They verified our identifications of this
recent collection. On the basis of these findings, we must presume that Notropis
albeolus is not a member of the Indiana fauna, and that the fish identified as this
species in the 1972 survey was actually Notropis chrysocephalus. Similarly, it
would apear that we have not re-established — unfortunately — the presence of
Notropis ariommus in Indiana. It is highly likely that the species mistaken for
ariommus was Notropis boops, found also by Gerking in the upper Blue River
(1).
Since it appears that the white shiner cannot be reasonably added to the list
of Indiana species, some review of the numerical status of the State's
ichthyofauna seems indicated.
Gerkings's distributional study (1) lists 170 species and an additional 16
subspecific forms. A later Gerking paper (2) revises the State fish list to include
172 species and 11 subspecies. He settles on these figures in spite of the 174
species included in his actual key in this paper. (He deletes Notropis dorsalis,
found in a routine Notre Dame class collection, since the collection site had not
been recorded and is unknown. He did not include Moxostoma breviceps
(although in his key) because there were no authentic Indiana records for this
species at that time.)
McReynolds' 1966 paper (4) adds 3 new species to the State's fauna:
Dorosoma petenense, Notropis fumeus, and Moxostoma breviceps (which
Gerking had correctly presumed in 1955 to be present in Indiana waters). He lists
175 species but he did not give the number of subspecies he considered viable
forms.
Omitted in Gerking's 1955 key, and subsequently in McReynolds' faunal
total, was the white catfish Ictalurus catus, which was being trucked into the
State from Virginia and sold to pond and lake owners. In the early 1960's, a
Ripley County commercial hatchery was raising this catfish for sale and
distribution throughout Indiana. On the basis of the rather widespread dispersal
of this species, it would appear that the white catfish is probably still present in
the State, and we have added it to the Indiana list.
Since 1966, several taxonomic and /or distributional changes have
occurred. Foremost, has been the introduction and establishment of the Pacific
salmons in Lake Michigan and northern Indiana. The coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus kisutch, was the first species introduced, and its spectacular
success instigated further introductions of the chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus
tshawytsha, and the kokanee salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka. The first two
species, at least, seem to be long term residents of Indiana waters and should be
added to the State's fauna.
With the intentional introductions by the State of Arkansas and potential
escapes from research ponds, the white amur, Ctenopharyngodon idella, is now
a presumed member of the Indiana fauna. We may as well make this unfortunate
addition to the list. Also, the two subspecies of Notropis cornutus have been
given full specific status as Notropis cornutus (the common shiner) and Notropis
chrysocephalus (the striped shiner). This taxonomic change adds Notropis
chrysocephalus to the State's fauna. The Indiana Department of Natural
Ecology 241
Resources stocked the striped bass {Morone saxatilis) several years ago in
Brookville Reservoir. Since specimens have been captured by test netting and
angling, it appears that this species may become established in the Whitewater
system. We tentatively add this species to the Indiana fauna. The Atlantic
salmon, Salmo salar, has been stocked in Great Lakes waters by the Michigan
DNR, but within our knowledge has not yet been taken in Indiana waters.
Adding these new additions to the State fauna list, it would appear that 180
species of fish occur in (or have been recorded from) Indiana.
Literature Cited
1. Gerking, S. D., 1945. Distribution of the fishes of Indiana. Investigations of Indiana Lakes and
Streams 3(1):1-137.
2. 1955. Key to the fishes of Indiana. Investigations of Indiana Lakes and Streams 4 (2):49-86.
3. Janisch, Joseph L., 1972. Blue River: Stream survey report (mimeo). Division of Fish and Wildlife
Report, Indiana Dept. of Nat. Res., 53 pp.
4. McReynolds, H. E., 1966. Recent Indiana fish collections with notes on five new or rare species.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 75:299-302.
ENTOMOLOGY
Chairman: Jack R. Munsee, Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Chairman-Elect: Richard F. Wilkey, Slide Mounts, Inc.
Bluffton, Indiana 46714
Abstracts
Organic Insect "Control" in Indiana Vegetables. Alan C. York, Entomology
Hall, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Cucumber, snap
beans, eggplant, and cabbage were interplanted between previously
transplanted rows of seven companionate plant treatments: dwarf marigold,
nasturtium, peppermint, thyme, sage, and dill. Companionate crops were
transplanted on 30 in centers and vegetables seeded between these rows
approximately 2 weeks later. Each treatment consisted of 5 rows of a
companionate plant and one row each of the 4 vegetables. The control
(untreated) was created by seeding 3 rows of each of the vegetables and spraying
at 10-day intervals with carbaryl 80S, 5 tsp per gallon of water per 500 sq ft.
Three replicates were utilized of each treatment. Insect numbers, crop damage,
and yield were evaluated. Only yields differed significantly one from another.
Snap bean yields were highest in the dwarf marigold treatment, followed by
nasturtium, dill, peppermint, and insecticide. Cucumber yields were highest in
dill, followed by dwarf marigold, insecticide, sage, and nasturtium. Eggplant
yields were highest in the insecticide treatment, followed by dill, thyme and
dwarf marigold. Cabbage seedlings in each treatment except the insecticide were
destroyed when about 3 in tall by flea beetles.
"Studies on the Predation of Mosquito Larvae, by Pleid Bugs." Randall T.
Baum and James D. Haddock, Department of Biology, Purdue University,
Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805 In an attempt to assess the predation efficiency
of pleid bugs (Hemiptera: Pleidae) on mosquito larvae experiments using prey-
predator ratios of 20:2, 20:5 and 20: 10 were set up in white laboratory porcelain
pans. A 20:2 ratio resulted in the highest efficiency of predation: 1.13
larvae/ predator/ day. This is presumably due to a lessening of competition
between the predators. Experiments designed to explore a relationship between
predation efficiency and % light transmittance ranges (18-23%, 60-78% and 95-
100%) showed no significant differences between high and low values.
Occassionally, more than one pleid bug was observed feeding on a mosquito
larva. No cannibalism was observed during the course of the experiments. There
was a trend toward greater predation efficiency if the prey were less than 5mm in
length. Pleids will sometimes be found attacking mosquito purae which are
somewhat larger but less active.
Parasites Reared from Black Cutworm Larvae (Argrotis ipsilon Hufnagel)
(Leipdoptera: Noctuidae) Collected in Indiana Corn Fields from 1947 to 1977.
Richard B. Schoenbolm and F. T. Turpin, Entomology Department, Purdue
243
244 Indiana Academy of Science
University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Black cutworm larvae found
infesting Indiana corn fields were collected in the springs of 1974, 9175, 1976,
and 1977. Larval stages collected ranged from third instar to sixth instar.
Collected larvae were reared in the laboratory and emergent parasites were
identified. The following parasite species were obtained: Meteorus leviventris
(Wesmael) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Microplitis kewlevi Muesebeck
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Campoletis argentifrons (Cresson) (Hymenop-
tera: Ichneumonidae), Archytas apicifer (Walker) (Diptera: Tachinidae), and
Bonnetia comta (Fallen) (Diptera: Tachinidae). Rates of parasitism were 10.4,
67.7, 23.8, and 12.2 percent in 1974, 1975, 1976, and 1977, respectively. In all
four years, M. leviventris was the most abundant, and B. comta was the next
most abundant parasite. The black cutworm was a new host record for A.
apicifer.
Hemocytes of the Fifth Instar European Corn Borer, Ostrinianubilalis. Hubner
Spencer E. Reames and Harold L. Zimmack, Biology Department, Ball State
University Hemocytes of the fifth instar European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubilalis Hubner (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) were examined in stained and
unstained preparations. Prohemocytes, plasmatocytes, granular hemocytes,
oenocytoids, and spherule cells were found in this stage. The prohemocytes are
characterized by a scant intensely basophilic cytoplasm. The highly
pleomorphic plasmatocytes are characterized by a punctate nucleus, and
production of cytoplasmic extensions in vetro. Granular hemocytes are
characterized by a small eccentric to central nucleus, accumulation of lipid
droplets, and the production of extremely fine cytoplasmic extensions in living
preparations. The oenocytoid is characterized by a small eccentric nucleus in a
large expanse of hemogenous basophilic cytoplasm. The spherule cell is
characterized by a number of large sperules within the cytoplasm which may
mask the nucleus.
Some Techniques for Collecting, Preserving and the Slidemounting of
Arthropods. R. F. Wilkey, Arthropod Slidemounts, 118 West Cherry Street
(P.O. Box 185), Bluffton, Indiana 467 14 One of the most important steps in
making satisfactory slidemounts is the "quick heat fixing" of the tissue. This is
done by collecting the specimens in 75% alcohol and heating this solution, just to
a light boil. Allow to cool, pour off the heating alcohol and replace with fresh.
This heating needs to be done as soon as possible — at least within 48 hours. This
procedure applies to large specimens to be stored in alcohol as well as material to
be slidemounted. There are two basic "types" of mounting media; temporary
and permanent. Of the temporary type, the most common are HOYER'S and
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL. Specimens may be mounted directly into these
media from life or alcohol and with heating, may become clear enough for
observation. I consider these temporary because they are somewhat
unpredictable and may break down in several ways. The most common perment
type media are; BALSUM, EUPARAL and PICCOLYTE. Material to be
mounted using these media are cleared in a 10% KOH solution (up to 3-4 days),
cold, rinsed in a weak alcohol solution (10%) and transferred to a special lacto-
phenol solution with a special staining formula added. This is heated for 1-2
hours and specimens then rinsed in a 75% alcohol mixture and mounted directly
Entomology 245
in EUPARAL or transferred to Cellosolve or Xylene and then into BALSAM or
PICCOLYTE. The transferral and manipulation of the specimens is made easier
by the use of microtools such as cutters, spatulas and probes. Most of the
chemicals, detailed techniques, tools and other supplies are available from the
above company.
Considerations of Variability and Taxonomic Methodology in the Systematics
of the Orthocladiinae (Diptera: Chironomidae). Ronald A. Hellenthal,
Biology Department, University of Notre Dame, Edwin F. Cook, Department
of Entomology, Fisheries & Wildlife, University of Minnesota, St. Paul,
Minnesota 55 108, and Theodore J. Crovello, Biology Department, University
of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 Specimen samples of adults of
taxa within the Orthocladiinae were evaluated for character variability and
distribution characteristics and for the importance and effects of observer errors
and specimen preparation procedures. Slide-mounts of dissected specimens
were found to be indispensible for taxonomic study of adult Chironomidae.
Slide-mounting methods omitting maceration or utilizing phenol were
unacceptable for many Orthocladiinae due to insufficient clearing or distortion
of characters. Character measurements made by different persons showed
significant differences. For most characters these ranged from 1% to 3% of
character means, but for measurements of antenna flagellomeres they exceeded
6% of the mean and accounted for over 75% of the total variation. Pooled
conspecific character samples from different localities or dates generally showed
greater variability and more frequent departures from normality than single
samples. Pooling increased sample variability by as much as 250%. The quality
of ratio characters was evaluated by comparing the relative variability with that
expected for the ratio assuming a random association between the numerator
and denominator component variables. The antenna ratio and ratios of palp
segment lengths frequently offered no significant advantage over their
component variables.
The Effect of a Pathogen, Nosema necatrix on the European Corn Borer,
Ostrinia nubilalis Hubner. John L. Manuszak and Dr. Harold L. Zimmack,
Ball State University European corn borer egg masses in the blackhead
stage of development were topically infected with spore suspensions of Nosema
necatrix, a known pathogen of the armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta. A
comparative study of laboratory and field corn borers was conducted to
determine if N. necatrix could be used as an effective microbial control agent
against the European corn borer. Laboratory corn borers reared on artificial
medium and field recovered borers were sacrificed exposing the malpighian
tubules and fat bodies. Slides were stained with Zeihl's Carbol Fuchsin and
examined for the presence of N. necatrix. The observed percent of infection and
per cent of mortality was recorded for laboratory and field borers.
A Gynandromorph of Smithistruma (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
Jack R. Munsee, Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Introduction
Among ants collected in an undisturbed stripmine area, Vermillion
County, was a unique individual belonging to the genus Smithistruma. The
latter is represented by small ants, less than to slightly more than 2 mm. A
description of a worker of S. filitalpa Brown collected in the abandoned
stripmine adjacent to the location noted above has been cited from Indiana (4).
Contained in the description are the characteristics of the Tribe Cdaetini which
is represented by ants of this genus. The specimen in question represents the
reproductive castes in a single individual, although Wilson (9) recognizes male
ants as a caste only in the loosest sense. At least, the right side of the body is
predominantly male, while the left is female. Such an anomaly is a bilateral
gynandromorph.
The problem of gynandromorphism is associated with caste determination
in ants. As to the latter, two opposing views developed among myrmecologists:
One argued that caste was determined genetically, or blastogenically; the other
view, trophogenic, claimed that caste was determined by nutrition or caused by
environmental effects (6, 7, 9). Wheeler (6) supported the blastogenic view, and
according to Wilson (9) did not distinguish between normal functional castes
and true anomalies. In 1937, Wheeler (6) published a detailed account of his
study of an entire preserved colony of the fungus ant, Acromyrmex
octospinosus Reich, from Trinidad. There were over 8000 normal and 163
aberrant individuals in the collection. Among the latter were 10
gynandromorphs. The female component in each was confined to the head,
except in one specimen in which the genitalia was bisexual. According to
Wheeler the body of these ants was that of a "perfectly formed male." Whiting
(7) suggested that these "gynandromorphs" were male intersexes of varying
forms with more or less superficial female traits. He cited Goldschmidt who
determined that intersexes result when there is a shift at a specific point in
development from one sex to that of the opposite. According to Whiting (7),
intersexuality may result from trophogenic or other environmental factors,
besides resulting genetically from race-crossing.
Whereas Wheeler's "gynandromorphs" may be more accurately considered
as intersexes, the single specimen of Smithistruma in the present study is a true
gynandromorph. In true sexual mosaics the male and female parts of the body
are distributed more or less at random (7). Thus, male regions may be limited to
anterior or posterior half, to right or left sides, or in a female head or abdomen
there may be an island or spot of male tissue. Whiting's opinion of Wheeler's
"gynandromorphs" has come to be accepted and lends further evidence to the
trophogenic view of caste determinations in ants (9); furthermore, Wilson cited
246
Entomology
247
the separate works of Brian, Weir, Wesson, et al., in which nutritional and
environmental factors have been demonstrated to be important factors in caste
determination in some ants. An interesting side-light related to ant nutrition
came from Dr. George C. Wheeler (personal communication). Upon enquiring
if, in his extensive studies of ant larvae, he had noted the presence of anomalous
forms of these stages, he indicated that he had not. Although true mosaics,
including bilateral gynandromorphs, are viable adults, an anomalous larva
would die if it could not receive nourishment from nurse ants.
Methods
The gynandromorph was compared with a normal male and a normal
female of this genus. The three specimens were studied in glycerin in deep
depression slides, using a stereomicroscope with 10X and 15X eye pieces, and
having IX, 3X, 6X, and 8X objectives. The comparisons began with head
Figures Approximately 25X
Figure 1. Gynandromorph ofSmithistruma: Male side represented by 13- segmented antenna, large
compound eye and ocelli, reduced spongiform processes of pedicel, lack of gastric costulae, and
pigmentation (above).
Figure 2. Gynandromorph of Smithistruma: Female side represented by 6-segmented antenna (one
funicular segment obscured), reduced compound eye, well-developed spongiform processes of pedicel,
presence of gastric costulae, and general lack of pigmentation (below).
Figure 3. Front view of gynandromorph showing pyriform head, male and female compound eyes
and ocelli, mandibles, antennae, distribution of head and thoracic pigment, and reticulation (shown in
part) of head capsule (right).
248 Indiana Academy of Science
structures and proceeded posteriorly. Attention was given to differences in size,
form, and color of sclerites being compared in each region on male and female
sides. An ocular micrometer was used to measure certain structures, including
mouthparts. The latter are very small and detection of slight differences in sizes
cannot be determined otherwise. Lateral male and female habitus are shown in
Figures 1 and 2. Figure 3 is a frontal view of head and thorax. Drawings were
done with the aid of a camera lucida.
Discussion and Results
The head is divided laterally into distinct regions with the right side
predominantly male, and the left, female; the latter representing more of the
total head surface (Fig. 3). Head shape also more closely approaches that of the
normal female, thus affecting the normal teardrop head shape of the male, since
that of the female is more flattened and pyriform. The right side bears a typical,
filamentous, 13-segmented male antenna, while the left is 6-segmented and
elbowed as found in the workers and queens of this genus. The preocular
laminae on the female side (Fig. 3) is missing from the other side. The large
compound eye on the right is that of the male, and on the left is its much smaller
female counterpart. Two ocelli, right lateral and medial, are similar in size and
shape to those found in normal males. The left lateral ocellus, however, is small
and rudimentary, most closely resembling that of the female. Anteriorly, the
clypeus is sharply separated into male and female portions. The male part of this
structure is small and subtends the female part which is conspicuous and well
developed (Fig. 3). Lateral and anterior margins of the female clypeus are
bordered by stout, antero-medially projecting hairs with similar cover rather
closely distributed over much of that side of the head. On the male side, shorter,
stout curved hairs are sparse and lacking from the clypeal margins. Both male
and female head surfaces are distinctly reticulate (partly shown in Figs. 1 and 3).
Below the clypeus is the labrum, which in this genus of ants is two-pronged,
united basally, and usually projects beyond the anterior border of the clypeus.
The right element of the labrum is reduced and represents the male structure,
while the female counterpart is much longer and robust; however, each projects
beyond the anterior borders of their respective clypei. Beneath the clypei are the
mandibles, the right, small, toothless, and spike-like, typical of the male of this
genus (Fig. 3). In males of Smithistruma, the mandibles are shorter than, or at
least not greater in length than the greatest diameter of the eye, according to
Brown (1). In the anomalous ant, the length of the male mandible is about .03
mm compared with .19 mm, the male eye diameter (Figs. 1 and 3). The left
mandible is distinctly like that of the female and worker, bearing apical and
intermediate (principal) teeth, as well as a tooth at the basal inner border ( 1 ). The
maxillary and labial components are quite small, as noted by Kennedy and
Schramm (3) who determined that the length of the mentum and submentum of
a worker (S. dietrichi) of this genus measured .02 in. (about .5 mm), while the
labial palp was .00 1 in. (.025 mm). Since the maxillae appear to be essentially the
same size and form, and the intervening labium appears normal in shape and size
when compared with these structures of the normal female, it is assumed that
they are not anomalous. The mentum of the anomalous ant is about .08 mm,
while that of the normal female is . 1 1 mm in length. Some of the differences may
Entomology 249
be accounted for due to measurements being made in situ on the former, while
this structure was removed for measurement from the normal ant. Although the
mentum of the male is about the same length as that for the normal female, it
appears to be distinctly marginate, which is not seen in the mentum of either the
anomaly or normal female.
Viewed laterally, the outline of the alitrunk corresponds nicely to that of the
male (Fig. 1, 2). It follows, therefore, that the sclerites of this tagma reflect male
influence for the most part. The pronotum is predominantly male,although it
lacks the dark pigmentation of that sex. Especially noticeable is the mesoscutum
which in males is bulbous and rounded above, while in females it is flattened. On
the male side this sclerite is higher than on the left, or female side (Fig. 3). It is
also distinguishable from the left side since it is darkly pigmented as in the
normal male. On the right, anteriorly and dorsally, may be seen a vestige of the
Mayrian furrow (Fig. 1), but a parapsidal suture on the same side is not evident.
Both foregoing traits are often found in male ants. Dorsally, between the
mesoscutum and scutellum is a transverse sclerite found in alate ants and known
as the parapteron. On the male side, the lateral portion of this sclerite is well-
developed and distinctly angular. Its opposite extremity on the female side is less
conspicuous and rounded. Continuing posteriorly to the scutellum, on the
female side the margin curves evenly toward the apex, while on the male side the
curve to the apex is more abrupt. Also, it is darker. The metanotum of the
gynandromorph is longer at the midline (.04 mm) than that of either the normal
female or male (.02, .03 mm, respectively). However, since its length more
closely matches that of the latter, it is felt that it is a male sclerite. Bilaterally, the
mesosterna, mesepisterna, and mesepimera are somewhat similar in form and
size, and reflect male influence. On the male side these sclerites are darker.
Similarly, the corresponding sclerites of the metathorax exhibit male size and
form but are not as deeply pigmented as those of the mesothorax. The basal and
declivous faces of the epinota of the normal male and female meet at distinct
angles, with that of the male being more acute and therefore more distinct.
Spongiform plates on these faces form epinotal spine-like structures. The basal
and declivous faces of the epinotum of the anomaly are joined by a curve but
they are distinct. The characteristics of this sclerite in the anomaly most closely
resembles that of the normal male. It is darkly pigmented. Finally, the stigma, or
spiracle, of the epinotum on the male side is more conspicuous than on the
female side.
A characteristic of dacetine ants is the presence of spongiform collars
and/ or plates associated with the epinotum, petiole, and post-petiole (Figs. I, 2).
The same spongiform material forms the preocular laminae, noted previously.
These processes are well developed in workers and normal females. In the
anomaly, two inconspicuous thin lamellae parallel one another on either side of
the declivous face of the epinotum, the left being slightly larger (Figs. 1,2). In the
normal male these lamellae are inconspicuous.
The alate forms of the genus have a much reduced venation in both pairs of
wings, according to Brown (1). Since basic studies of ant wings have been largely
confined to the mesothoracic or fore wings, most of the following applies to
these. The complement of veins found in the gynandromorph was the same as in
250 Indiana Academy of Science
the normal male and female. Prominent in each are R + Sc, the stigma, and 2r;
also easily seen are the "basalis" veins ( 1 ), which are the first free abscissae of the
radial sector (Rs) and the Media (M), or Rsfl and Mfl, respectively. Other veins
were represented by furrows resulting from disturbances of the pattern of
microtrichia. These furrows were seen in reflected light only, and represent the
presence of former veins (2). Differences in wing lengths between those of the
anomaly and those of the normal ants were noted. On the basis of this, it is
believed that the wings of the anomalous ant, which appeared identical, are
female. Approximate wing lengths for the normal male and female were 1.9 mm
and 2. 1 mm, respectively. For the gynandromorph wing length was 2.2 mm. The
metathoracic or hind wing of the anomalous ant is slightly longer than that of
either the normal male or female, although for these, it is about the same length.
(The left hind wing of the gynandromorph is broken off beyond the hamuli.) As
observed by Brown (1), the only vein in the hind wing is found in the basal part of
the costal region. The 4 hamuli appear normal, decreasing in length toward the
apex of the wings.
The petiole of the anomalous ant tends toward maleness, being about the
same length as in the normal male (.28 mm), compared with the normal female
(.26 mm). The node is rounded above but more angular in the female. From
above, the petiole appears asymmetrical, the male part of the node is longer and
rounded laterally, while the node on the female side is clearly more angular.
Also, the petiolar stalk on the male side is ridged and projects laterally beneath
the node, while on the other side the projection is less pronounced with the side
somewhat straight as seen from above. The median ventral spongiform plate is
present in all three ants; however, it is much more developed in the normal
female than in either the gynandromorph or the normal male, although degree
of development most closely approaches that of the latter. Whereas conspicuous
and well-developed "wings" of spongiform substance, interconnected by a
bridge, flank the node of the petiole posteriorly in the normal female, in the
gynandromorph only the left "wing" is seen. Extending laterally toward the right
or male side is a single low, inconspicuous spongiform plate as seen in the
normal male.
The postpetiole clearly displays male and female characteristics. Most
notable are the shape of the node, as seen from above, and the distribution of the
spongiform substance. On the female side the node is angular-ovoid, and on the
male side it is rounded, the two sides corresponding in form to their respective
sides in the normal ants. On the female side the spongiform substance is seen as a
mass covering this side of the postpetiole, although it is not as dense as in the
normal female. On the male side this substance is lacking, except for a thin
transverse plate subtending this segment, which is the condition found in the
normal male (Figs. 1, 2).
The gaster of the anomalous ant is larger than that of either normal ant.
Because in preserving, swelling or shrinking of the gaster occurs, it is difficult to
assess actual sizes for comparison. Dorsally, the first gastric segment is nicely
separated into male and female regions by the basal costulae. These are absent in
the male, but are represented by about a dozen conspicuous striae in the female
Entomology 251
region of this tergite. The male region, which represents about one-half the
dorsal surface, is smooth and shinning as it is over the entire tergite in the normal
male.
Most myrmecine female ants bear a sting (5), which is well developed in the
queens. The sting is plainly visible in the normal alate female, but absent in the
gynandromorph. Also, in the latter there appears to be no distinct genital
capsule as in the normal male. Structures of the genitalia present are positioned
toward the left or female side. A poorly developed genital capsule is
recognizable, and it bears a single left volsella flanked on the right by a stipe. On
the left is a stipe-like mass which may or may not be the partner to the structure
on the right. The sclerotized volsella is not similar in form to the pair in the
normal male; therefore, it is assumed that the volsella of the anomalous ant
represents a different species of the genus. According to Brown (1), volsellae
appear to vary with species or species-groups.
To account for an anomaly such as exhibited in the gynandromorph of
Smithistruma, Wiggles worth (8) states that in all cases of gynandromorphism in
insects some of the cleavage nuclei are male and some are female. Such nuclei
reaching the cortical zone of the egg become determined for a given part of the
body, and patches of one or the other sex develop depending on the constitution
of the cells from which they happen to be formed. In this ant instead of patches,
whole sclerites, or parts of sclerites, as well as entire structures exhibit
characteristics of one sex or the other. Male cleavage nuclei reaching the
presumptive compound eye region of the embryo resulted in its partner being
female. Differential sexual development of other characteristics of the
gynandomorph ant may be similarly accounted for. The mosaic pattern of
distribution of maleness and femaleness shown in the anomaly indicates that it is
a true gynandromorph, quite unlike Wheeler's "gynandromorphs" of
Acromyrmex.
Literature Cited
1 . Brown, William L., Jr., 1953. Revisionary studies in the Ant Tribe Dacetini. Amer. Midi. Natur.
50(1):1-137.
2. Brown, William L., Jr., and W. L. Nutting. 1950. Wing venation and the phylogeny of the
Formicidae. Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 75:113-132.
3. Kennedy, C. H., and M. M. Schramm. 1953. A new Strumigenys with notes on Ohio species
(Formicidae: Hymenoptera). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer., 26:95-104.
4. Munsee, J. R. 1976. Smithistruma filitalpa W. L. Brown. An Indiana dacetine ant. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. 86: (in press).
5. Wheeler, W. M. 1910. Ants, Their Structure, Development and Behavior. Columbia Univ. Press.,
N.Y. 663 pp., illus.
6. Wheeler, W. M. 1937. Mosaics and other anomalies among ants. Harvard Univ. Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 95 pp., illus.
7. Whiting, P. W. 1938. Anomalies and case determination in ants. Jour. Heredity 29(5): 189-193.
8. Wigglesworth, V. B. 1974. Principles of Insect Physiology. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London. 7th
ed. 827 pp., illus.
9. Wilson, E.O. 1971. The Insect Societies. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 548 pp., illus.
252 Indiana Academy of Science
Seasonal and Spatial Variation of Species
Diversity in Collections of Scarabaeidae,
Elateridae, and Cerambycidae from West Central Indiana1
David B. MacLean
Department of Biological Sciences
Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio 44555
Introduction
The organization of biotic communities has received increasing attention in
recent years from both plant and animal ecologists. Research on plant
communities has emphasized the successional changes that occur with time.
Approaches to the study of plant communities have often involved ordination
procedures and an analysis of the relationships between plants and
environmental gradients. Animal communities have usually been arbitrarily
defined according to either the habitat or taxonomic group. Research on animal
communities has been less extensive than plant studies and has emphasized
species diversity as a basic characteristic. Poole (7) has stated that the degree of
community organization may be related to the relative difference in the
variabilities of seasonal species diversity and the populations of the most
abundant members of the community. This paper presents the results of
research on the seasonal and spatial variations of collections of three insect
families and their representative species populations.
Methods
The 16 sites chosen for this study were all mixed hardwood stands of
varying vegetational composition, soils, topography, and past management.
The stands were representtive of woodland habitats found throughout
Tippecanoe County, Indiana.
The trees, saplings, and seedlings were tallied in to one-half acre (one acre=
4048.3 M2) plot near the center of each stand. The diameter of the trees (4.0
inches and over diameter breast height) (1.0 inch = 2.54cm.)and saplings (l.Oto
3.9 inches diameter breast height) and the number of seedlings (less than 1.0
inches in diameter) were recorded for all woody species. Only seedlings over 12
inches high were recorded.
Insects were sampled by an omnidirectional light trap at the center of each
site. The attractant source was two 2-watt argon glow lamps powered by three 45
volt batteries (5). The traps were operated from July to September of 1966 and
from late May through August of 1967. collections were made at stand 16 only
during 1966 and at stands 5 and 13 only during 1967. collections were made
every two days except at the end of the sampling season when they were made
twice a week.
'Based in part on the Ph.D dissertation of the author, "Ordination of Forest Insect and Plant
Communities in West Central Indiana" submitted to the faculty. Department of Entomology, Purdue
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D degree, January, 1969.
Entomology
253
The insect families chosen for analysis were the Scarabaeidae, Elateridae,
and Cerambycidae. Many additional families could have been included but for
practical reasons the study was confined to these well known groups. All
determinations were made by the author.
Results
Twenty five species of trees were assigned to four species-groups (9): (1)
beech-maple species-group; (2) oak-hickory species-group; (3) upland
mesophytic species-group; (4) lowland-depressional species-group. An
additional designation was made for a black locust "species-group" because of
the large numbers of this species at stand 13. Relative importance values were
calculated for each tree species as the average of its relative density, frequency,
and basal area (2). Based on the relative importance values of species-groups,
each stand was designated as one of the five forest types of Schmelz and Lindsey
(9). Eleven stands were designated as mixed woods, two as oak-hickory, two as
lowland-depressional, and one as "early successional".
JUNE JULY AUGUST JUNE JULY AUGUST
Figure 1 . Seasonal distribution of selected insect species. A. Serica campestris; B. S. sericea; C. Cyclo-
cephala borealis; D. C. immaculata; E. Copris fricator fricator; F. Orlhosoma brunneum; G. crossed
hatched bars, Hemicrepedius bilobatus, clear bars H. memnonius; H. Melanotus Sagittarius;
I. M. similis; J. M. ignobilis.
254
Indiana Academy of Science
A total of 8179 specimens was identified from the light trap collections,
consisting of 35 species of Scarabaeidae, 26 species of Elateridae, and 33 species
of Cerambycidae. Twenty collections from May 30 to July 1 1, 1967 and twenty
four from July 13 to August 30, 1966 were selected to represent the seasonal
distribution of selected species. The period of peak adult flight was very short for
some species, e.g. Phyllophaga futilis, P. tristis, P.fusca, and P. inversa. Others
such as Serica sericea, Hemicrepedius memnonius, Melanotus Sagittarius, M.
similis, and M. ignobilis (Figure IB, G, H, I, and J) were collected throughout
most of the season. Two periods of adult activity were evident for Cophsfricator
fricator, the first from late May to June 29 and the second from mid-July to late
August (Figure IE). The most abundant cerambycid, Orthosoma brunneum,
had a well-defined mid-seasonal period of abundance (Figure IF).
Because light trap collections cannot be considered to be random samples,
each collection was treated as a complete population (6). Species diversity values
(H) based on Brillouin's formula:
H = C_ (logioN! - logioN!)
N
where c = 2.302585, and N was the number of specimens in each collection, were
calculated for five periods from June through August (4).
1.4000
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
0.6000
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
.Scarabaeidae
Elateridae
Cerambycidae
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
Figure 2. Seasonal distribution of H for collections of Scarabaeidae (solid circles), Elateridae (open
circles), and Cerambycidae (Xs) made during the summers of 1966 and 1967.
Entomology 255
The seasonal distribution of H averaged for all sites is shown in Figure 2 for
the Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae. The average diversity of
collections of Scarabaeidae, was highest during June, decreased in early July
and reached a second maximum during mid-July. From late July to September,
diversity decreased steadily. Collections made during the two periods of highest
species diversity (June and mid-July) had an average of 264 and 46 specimens
per site respectively. Collections made during early July and August had
averages of 10, 12 and 8 specimens per site.
The distribution of H for collections of Elateridae reached a maximum in
July and declined rapidly in early August and recovered slightly during late
August.
The Cerambycidae showed a sharp increase in species diversity in late July
and declined to a seasonal low in late August. Collections increased from an
average of 3 individuals per site in June to a maximum of 20 in late July and
declined to an average of only 2 cerambycids per site in late August.
A summary of the results of a model II analysis of variance of seasonal
species diversity values (H) for collections of Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and
Cerambycidae is shown in Table I. The two sources of variation were among
dates (June, early July, early August, and late August) and within dates (among
sites within collection periods). Variation in H among collection periods was
highly significant for all three insect families. The added variance component for
among dates accounted for 41 , 22, and 32 percent of the total variation in species
diversity for the Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae respectively. A
Table 1. Summary of Analysis of Variance of H Values for Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and
Cerambycidae.
Family Source d.f F
Scarabaeidae among dates 4 10.987***
within dates 66
Elateridae among dates 4 4 .985***
within dates 67
Cerambycidae among dates 4 7.792***
***P < 0.005. 4 and 60 degrees of freedom.
Table 2. Values of Coefficient of Variation based on H among and within dates and specie.
Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae.
Family
Number
Collected
C.V.1
Among dates
for H
values
Within dates
Range of popula-
tion C.V. values:
Scarabaeidae
Elateridae
Cerambycidae
4960
2789
430
0.4430
0.4958
0.7052
0.4342
0.6581
0.8438
0.8567-4.9888
0.4198-2.1125
0.3354-1.3618
'Coefficient of Variation.
2Based on the ten most abundant species.
256 Indiana Academy of Science
coefficient of variation was calculated from the antilog of the variance
component for both among and within sites (Table 2). The scarabaeidae had the
smallest coefficients of variation and the Cerambycidae the largest.
A coefficient of variation was also calculated for the ten most abundant
species of each family based on the number of each species as a percentage of the
total population during a collection period (7). The range of values is given for
each family in Table 2. Poole (7) states that smaller values of coefficients of
variation based on H than ones based on species populations indicate a degree of
community organization. Values for all ten species of Scarabaeidae were much
larger than those based on the among and within collection periods. However,
the coefficients of variation of two species were smaller than that for among
dates (M. similis) and within dates (M. similis and M. ignobilis). These species
showed less variability in their seasonal population size than was present in the
seasonal species diversity for the entire elaterid community.
Coefficients of variation for six of the ten most abundant Cerambycidae
were less than the coefficient of variation for among dates. The range of
coefficients for these species was quite small (0.3354-0.6942). Fewer than
seventeen specimens were collected for each of the four species that had
coefficients larger than the coefficient of variation for among dates. The fact that
these species were infrequently collected could account for their high seasonal
variability.
An inverse relationship was noted for numbers collected and the variability
of the community both among and within dates (Table 2). The species diversity
of communities composed of relatively small populations was more variable
than that of communities made up of larger species populations. The seasonal
variability of species populations was highest in numerically large communities
and lowest in small communities.
Species diversity values (H) were calculated for all stands based on the
species of trees recorded within each one-half acre plot. Correlation coefficients
calculated for H (trees) and H (insects) were all nonsignificant.
The collections of Scarabaeidae and Elateridae were next subjected to a
cluster analysis based on the unweighted pair-group method (10). The results,
which are summarized in Table 3, show that the collections were clustered more
by month than by site. At the 0.20 level of similarity, sixteen clusters of scarab
Table 3. Summary of Cluster Analysis of Collections of Scarabaeidae and Elateridae.
Family
Scarabaeidae
Elateridae
Similarity level
No. of clusters
0.80
53
0.50
31
0.20
16
0.10
10
0.80
47
0.50
28
0.20
14
0.10
11
Entomology 257
collections were evident (Table 3). If several distinct insect communities existed,
one would expect that most collections would be restricted to only one or two
clusters. However, collections from three sites were included in five different
clusters and nine sites in four different clusters. Thirteen of these clusters had
collections from more than one site. The most distinctive collections came from
sites 14 (heavily grazed white oak woodlot) and 15 (Wabash River floodplain)
which occurred in three and two different clusters respectively. No cluster had
more than two collections from the same site. However, based on seasonal
periods, the clusters consisted of collections from no more than two consecutive
months. Seven clusters included collections from the same month and nine from
two months.
Cluster analysis of collections of 26 species of Elateridae produced 14
clusters united at the 0.20 level of similarity (Table 3). Twelve of these clusters
had collections from more than one site. Collections from two sites were
included in five different clusters, from five sites in three different clusters, and
from one site in two different clusters. One cluster consisted of collections from
three months and four from two months and eight from the same month. Like
the Scarabaeidae, the collections of Elateridae were clustered more by month
than by site.
Discussion
Based on values of H among and within collection periods, the
Scarabaeidae made up the most stable, i.e. organized, insect community. A
number of well recognized ecological groups are included within this family (8).
Larvae of the genera Phyllophaga, Cyclocephala, Macrodactylus, and
Osmoderma as well as many others feed on the roots of plants. Adults of most of
these species feed on the foliage of forest trees and shrubs. Many of these species
had highly variable populations, i.e. they were present for short periods of time
but often in large numbers. However, they were replaced by other species
throughout the season which tended to maintain a large number of species at
most sites and thereby minimized the variability of the species diversity. Most
plant feeding woodland species such as Serica sericea and Diplotaxis harperi
showed less variability in their seasonal populations than did most species of
Phyllophaga. Populations of dung feeding species (e.g. Ateuchus histeroides
punctatus and Copris fricator fricator) were less variable than populations of
grass feeding species {Phyllophaga and Cyclocephala) but more variable than
the woodland species. Pelidonata punctata, a species that develops in decaying
wood was one of the least variable scarabs throughout the season.
Values of H among and within sites for the Cerambycidae showed the least
evidence of community organization. Many species of Cerambycidae appear to
be opportunistic since their presence at a site depends on specific requirements
for larval development (3). Populations of cerambycids were the least variable of
any which indicates that the species present at a site are able to utilize food
sources that are available on a nonseasonal basis.
Most species of woodland Elateridae are phytophagous (e.g. Melanotus
spp.) while some are carnivorous (e.g. Conoderus spp. and Hemicrepedius
bilobatus) (1). Plant feeding species are found in soil or in decayed tree trunks
258 Indiana Academy of Science
and plant remains. Populations that exhibited the most seasonal variation
included both phytophagous species (Limonius grisseus, Agriotes oblongicollis,
M. Sagittarius, M. corticinus) and carnivorous species (H. bilobatus).
Populations that showed the least seasonal variability also included both
phytophagous (H. memnonius, M. similis, M. ignobilis) and carnivorous species
(larvae of Athous cuculatus are carnivorous).
The results of this study provided indirect evidence of varying amounts of
community organization for the Scarabaeidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae.
Analysis of variance and cluster analysis of insect collections indicated that such
community organization may involve successive species populations
throughout the season more than differences between community types. The
seasonal variability of species population may, in addition to many other
factors, be related to the availability of its host food (e.g. plant stems, roots,
wood, dung, etc.) and the ability of the insect to exploit it. If the food source is
highly predictable in its seasonal availability (e.g. foliage and decayed wood for
forest trees) the population may be less variable than that of a species that feeds
on either seasonally abundant hosts or on less predictable food sources (e.g. prey
of carnivorous species).
Literature Cited
1. Arnett, R. H. Jr. 1968. The Beetles of the United States. 1968. The American Entomol. Institute.
Ann Arbor, Mich, xii and 1112 pp.
2. Brown, R. T. and J. T. Curtis. 1952. The upland conifer-hardwood forests of northern
Wisconsin. Ecol. Monogr. 22:217-234.
3. Linsley, E. G. 1959. Ecology of Cerambycidae. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 4:99-138.
4. Lloyd, M. J. H. Zar, and J. R. Karr. 1968. On the calculation of information-theoretical
measures of diversity. Amer. Midi. Naturalist. 79:257-272.
5. Lowe, R. B. and L. G. Putnam. 1964. Some simple and useful technological developments in light
traps. Canadian Entomol. 96:129.
6. Pielou, E. C. 1966. The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. J.
Theoretical Biol. 13:131-144.
7. Poole, R. W. 1 970. Temporal variation in the species diversity of woodland caddisfly fauna from
Central Illinois, trans. III. Acad. Sci. 63:383-385.
8. Ritcher, P.O. 1958. Biology of Scarabaeidae. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 3:311-334.
9. Schmelz, D. V. and A. A. Lindsey. 1970. Relationships among the forest types of Indiana. Ecol.
51:620-629.
10. Sneath, P. H. and R. R. Sokal. 1973. Numerical taxonomy; the Principles and Practices of
Numerical Classification. W. H. Greeman, San Francisco, California. 573 p.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Ronald Giese and Dr. Leland
Chandler for their encouragement and help with this research while at Purdue
University.
The 13-year Cicada — Conclusion of an
Experiment Started in 19631
D. K. Reed, G. L. Reed and D. W. Hamilton2
Science and Education Administration, USDA, NCR
Vincennes, Indiana 47591
Introduction
The periodical cicada, Magicicada spp., a pest of orchards in many areas of
the U.S., makes dramatic appearances at intervals of either 13 or 17 years. After
years of feeding underground upon roots of the trees, they sudenly emerge in
enormous numbers and move into trees and other woody vegetation in the area.
Although adults are equipped with piercing-sucking mouthparts, they do not
feed. Instead, they damage the tree with oviposition wounds made when the
female deposits her eggs in the bark of the trees. Hamilton and Cleveland said,
"The bark is pushed from the wood and the wood cut and raised so that series of
small bundles of splinters protrude from the surface" (2). Each female lays from
400 to 600 eggs with 12 to 20 eggs deposited within each puncture. The damage
can be severe in apple and peach orchards, causing die-back of terminals and
death of even large branches.
Control of the adult cicadas is difficult. Since the insect does not feed
actively after emergence, it must be reached with a contact insecticide to kill it.
Moreover the insects emerge in large numbers daily over a period of 2 to 3 weeks,
so in orchards adjacent to woodlands and in orchards heavily infested by the
previous brood of cicadas, numerous applications of insecticides may be
necessary.
Because of this difficulty during emergence of Brood XXIII of the
periodical cicada in 1963, Hamilton and co-workers initiated research to
determine the potential for controlling newly hatched cicada nymphs. Their
investigations showed that as many as 63 nymphs 10.092 m2 ( 1 ft2) were common
under mature apple trees in southern Indiana, that is about 43,000 nymphs were
feeding on the roots of each tree. They suspected, therefore, that severe decline
of apple trees, often attributed to other causes, might actually reflect the heavy
feeding over 13 or 17years of an expanding population of cicadas. Hamilton
identified all three species of the 13-year cicada, Magicicada tredecim-W alsh
and Riley, M. tredecassini- Alexander and Moore, and M. tredecula-Alexander
and Moore, in the 1963 population (1).
Materials and Methods
In 1963, Hamilton (unpublished data) tested 3 carbamates: Carbaryl (1-
naphthyl methylcarbamate); aldicarb (2-methyl-2-(methylthio) propion-
1 Mention of a pesticide in this paper does not constitute a recommendation for use by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture nor does it imply registration under FITRA as amended.
2Now retired.
259
260
Indiana Academy of Science
aldehyde O-(methylcarbamoyl)oxime); and mexacarbate (4-dimethylamino)-3
5-xylyl methylcarbamate); also 3 organophosphates: demeton (0,0-diethyl 0-[2-
(ethylthio)ethyl] phosphorothioate and 0,0-diethyl ,S-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl]
phosphorothioate); dimethoate (0,0-dimethyl S-[(methylcarbamoyl) methyl]
phosphorodithioate); and phorate (0,0-diethyl ,S-[(ethylthio) methyl]
phosphorodithioate. Foliar and ground applications of these materials were
made in a heavily infested block of apple trees near Vincennes, Indiana, July 30
as eggs of Brood XXIII began to hatch. Carbaryl, aldicarb, and mexacarbate
were applied at a rate of 453. 6g a.i./378 liters (1 lb a.i./ 100 gal), and demeton,
phorate, and dimethoate at 170g a.i./ 378 liters (6 oz a.i./ 100 gal). For the foliar
application, trees were sprayed to run-off; for the ground treatment, ca. 5-10
gal/ tree were applied. A randomized complete block design with 4 replications
and 13 treatments (check plus foliar and ground application of the 6 chemicals)
was utilized in the test.
Counts of egg mortality made during 1963 by Hamilton and Cleveland
indicated that the foliar applications of aldicarb and mexacarbate were effective
in reducing egg hatch. However, they had to wait for emergence of the adults in
1976 before the real evaluation could be made. Meanwhile, the entire research
staff of the Vincennes laboratory was completely replaced though Hamilton did
return to live in Vincennes after retirement. He was therefore available during
the spring of 1976 and was able to work with the current staff of the laboratory to
locate the plots used during 1963. Although some identity tags had been lost
during the 13 years, enough remained to allow reconstruction of the
experimental plots by using the plot maps in "Special Reports from 1963".
Afterwards, screen cages, 67.09 cm2 (2.2 ft2), (1 cage/ tree) were placed under the
treated and check trees, and emergence of adult cicadas was monitored weekly
during 1976 (May 20 through mid-June). No attempt was made to separate the 3
species of 13-year cicadas in the count. The resulting data were subjected to
analysis of variance and the treatments were orthogonally partitioned.
Table 1 . Effect of foliar (F) and ground (G) application of chemicals applied in 1963 to apple trees on
emergence of 13-year cicada in 1976.
Treatment
(F)
No. of cicadas emerged
(G)
Total
Untreated
Carbaryl
Demeton
Dimethoate
Phorate
Aldicarb
Mexacarbate
316
192
111
134
123
71
52
225
541
156
348
162
273
127
261
68
191
91
162
83
135
LSD 0.05 = 36.9
LSD 0.01 = 45.1
Results and Discussion
The difference in emergence in the check and treated plots was highly
significant (Table 1), but emergence in plots treated with carbamates was not
Entomology 261
significantly different from emergence in plots treated with organophosphates.
Aldicarb and mexacarbate were significantly (only 90% confidence limits) more
effective than the other organophosphates dimethoate and demeton. The
ground and foliar applications did not differ significantly.
All chemical treatments therefore gave some degree of control of freshly
hatched cicadas. Mexacarbate, aldicarb, and phorate appeared to be most
effective. It is impressive that differences between treatments still show so clearly
despite the length of time that had elapsed and the impact of nature upon these
populations. Obviously, the 1963 treatments against the eggs had produced
quite large differences.
Literature Cited
1. Hamilton, D. W., and M. L. Cleveland. 1963. Periodical cicadas in 1963, Broods 23 and 3.
Special Report VI-7-63, Oct. 15, 1963. USDA 17p.
2. Hamilton, D. W., and M. L. Cleveland. 1964. Periodical cicadas in 1963, Brood 23. Proc.
Indiana Acad. Sci. 73:167-170.
Inter generic Attraction of Ramosia rileyana
and Synanthedon pictipes
James A. Burnside and Thomas E. Mouzin
Fruit and Vegetable Insects Research
Agri. Res. Sen/., USDA, Vincennes, Indiana 47591
Introduction
In 1972, during tests of trap design for and population monitoring of the
lesser peachtree borer, Synanthedon pictipes (Grote and Robinson), a serious
pest of peach trees, significant numbers of male Ramosia rileyana (Hy.
Edwards) were found in pheromone traps containing virgin females of S.
pictipes. This intergeneric attraction was therefore studied in 1972, 1973 and
1974.
Methods and Materials
Trap Placement — Five each virgin female lesser peachtree borers obtained
from a laboratory culture were placed in screen-wire cages (5'/2 x 2'/2-in. diam)
that were put into 1-gal cylindrical cardboard cartons coated inside with
Stikem® (Wong and Cleveland 1970). In May 1972, 6 such traps were placed in a
10-acre peach orchard (later found to contain scattered growth of Solanum
carolinense L., the host plant of R. rileyana) to evaluate trap design and to
monitor the emergence characteristic of S. pictipes. An additional 6 traps placed
near stacks of infested peach trees that had been removed from an orchard and
were being allowed to dry before burning were used to determine the number of
moths that would complete development within these trees (thus adding to the
population of adult moths in the area). The traps were checked, and fresh
females were added every 3 days until September 4.
Again in May 1973 and 1974, 6 similar traps were placed in the 10-acre
orchard to detect the initial emergence of R. rileyana so field and laboratory
tests could be initiated. Also, live R. rileyana males were captured by placing 5-
10 virgin female lesser peachtree borers inside a cylindrical screen wire cage (9 x
3'/2 in. diam) suspended from a peach tree limb. The attracted R. rileyana males
were then easily captured by placing a similar container over them as they
hovered near the trap. Female R. rileyana were captured by netting them as they
rested on S. carolinense. A few males were also obtained by this method.
Attempts to cross-mate the R. rileyana and S. pictipes were made by placing
varying numbers of each inside a lxlxl screen-wire cage. The lesser peachtree
borer females used in these tests were taken from the laboratory colony and held
for 24 h after eclosion to insure sexual maturity. These moths and the captured
male R. rileyana were held in a darkened room maintained at 60 ± 2° F to reduce
flight activity and injury. All cross-mating tests were performed between 8 and
1 I AM, the optimum mating period for lesser peachtree borers (Cleveland and
Murdock 1964).
262
Entomology 263
Results and Discussion
In 1972, the 1st and last R. rileyana moths were caught July 12 and August
23, respectively; a total of 58 was taken, 44 in the orchard and 14 from traps near
the peach tree stacks (there were no host plants within 100 m). In 1973 and 1974,
the 1st moths were captured August 1 and August 3, respectively. This trapping
was then discontinued. However, 6 of the 10 separate attempts made in 1973 to
lure R. rileyana males with lesser peachtree borer females were successful, and a
total of 19 specimens was obtained. These attracted R. rileyana demonstrated
definite pre-copulatory activities such as direct flight, hovering near calling
females, clasper expansion, and striking, responses that are typical of S. pietipes.
An additional 20^ and 4 (/were netted while resting on host plants. Then since
all but one female caught in 1973 were gravid, the primary effort in 1974 was to
net females from which we could obtain eggs that could be placed on rearing
medium. Twenty-one ^ and 3(/were netted, and 3 additional were captured
by luring with female lesser peachtree borers.
Table 1 . Intergeneric sexual response of S. pietipes and R. rileyana.
Trial No.
No. ((/:£)
1
1:10
2
6:5
3
4:10
4
2:5
5
2:5
6
3:10
7
7:10
5:10
10:1
Couplings
Precopulatory
No.
Length
behavior aj
R. rileyana £
x S. pietipes +
0
w
0
O
0
O
0
S
()
M
0
S
4
10.85.50
and 70 sec
S
2
momentary.
4 1/2 min
s
S. pietipes J
1
x R. rileyana $.
4 min S
aj O - none; W = weak (hovering); M = moderate (clasper extension); S = strong (striking).
Nine attempts at cross-mating R. rileyana and S. pietipes were made in 1973
and 1974. Table 1 shows the numbers used and the results. Within 2 min after
each of 7 couplings was terminated, the females resumed calling, an indication
of an unsuccessful mating. The one time when a male S. pietipes coupled with a
female R. rileyana took place in a cage that contained both male and female S.
pietipes so this may have been an accidental connection. It has frequently been
observed that male lesser peachtree borers exposed to a conspecific sex
pheromone will "strike" at other males, non-calling females, inanimate objects
such as small peach tree twigs, and even the likeness of moths drawn on the
outside of cages containing calling females. In only 2 of the 9 trials was there no
coupling and/ or pre-copulatory activity.
The data thus indicate a definite attraction of R. rileyana males to the sex
phermomone emitted by S. pietipes. This result does not correspond to the
264 Indiana Academy of Science
results obtained by Nielsen et al. (1975). They reported the capture of only
conspecific males in traps baited with female S. pictipes through R. rileyana did
respond to a fraction of the S. pictipes pheromone extracted with ether. In
addition, they reported that only S. pictipes responded to (E,Z)-3,13-
octadioadien-1-ol acetate, a synthesized attractant, which led them to believe
that the primary sex attractant of S. pictipes is species specific and plays an
important role in reproductive isolation of this moth.
It has been theorized that certain sex pheromones contain 2 compounds;
one that aids in mate location and the other that stimulates copulation.
Therefore, different species may be attracted to a calling female, but the specifity
of the stimulatory compound would insure reproductive isolation. In fact, the
intergeneric couplings reported here indicate that a physical barrier, perhaps the
genitalia of one or both of the species, may actually be responsible for the
ultimate reproductive isolation of these 2 species.
Running Head
Intergeneric Attraction
Indexing Phrases
Ramosia rileyana
Syanthedon pictipes
Lesser Peachtree Borer
Intergeneric Attraction
Sex Pheromones
Literature Cited
1. Cleveland, M. L.,and L. L. Murdock. 1964. Natural sex attractant of the lesser peach tree borer.
J. Econ. Entomol. 57:761-2.
2. Nielson, D. G., F. F. Purrington, J. H. Tumlinson. R. E. Doolittle, and C. E. Young. 1975.
Response of male clearwing moths to caged virgin females, female extracts, and synthetic sex
attractants. Environ. Entomol. 4:451-4.
3. Wong, T. T. Y., and M. L. Cleveland. 1970. Flourescent powder for marking deciduous fruit
moths for studies of dispersal. J. Econ. Entomol. 63:338-9.
Entomology
Insects and Other Arthropods of Economic Importance in Indiana During 1977.
Robert W. Meyer, Department of Entomology,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
Introduction
Because the biology of many of our pest species is not yet well enough
known, the effect of climate on abundance and activity cannot always be
determined. The difference between 1975 and 1976 fall oviposition by the alfalfa
weevil probably is weather-related, but what the factor is cannot be stated with
certainty. The "premature" activity of many insects (Table 2 has dates for first
and peak activity of many species) in 1977 is probably weather-related, and the
severe setback in population numbers that the bagworm suffered is almost
certainly due mostly to the cold. Some cold-susceptible insects on the other hand
survived; the snow cover was probably responsible for that. But insect activity in
general was less than normal in 1977. Fewer cells for extension service help,
fewer nursery inspection problems, fewer arboviral infections.
January averaged 9° F, 18° below normal for the month. Soil moisture was
adequate through May even though rainfall was less than normal. June and July
were both hot and dry, and August was cool and wet. The weather, in short was
excellent for farm operations, permitting early planting and excellent harvesting
conditions. And the dry period, though reducing yields in some crops, was not
enough to seriously affect our two largest cash crops, corn and soybeans. In
addition, it was a good year for cutworms and other lepidopterans.
Corn and Small Grains
Adults of the western corn rootworm {Diabrotica virgifera LeConte)
appeared earlier (Table 1 gives available developmental data), in greater
Table I. New State (*)and County Records for 1977
Organism
A naphes flavipes fForster)
Bathyplectus anurus (Thomson)
B. curculionis (Thomson)
Chorizococcus lounsburyi (Brain)
Diabrotica virgifera (LeConte)
Diaparis sp.
Lemophagus curt us Townes
Microctonus aethiopoides Loan
Tetrastichus julis ( Walker)
County
Whitley, Jay, Bartholomew, Marion, Hendricks, Shelby
Bartholomew, Decatur, Clark, Dearborn, Jefferson,
Jennings, Ripley, Scott, Switzerland. Brown, Monroe,
Perry, Martin
Bartholomew, Decatur, Jefferson, Ohio, Scott, Switzerland,
Monroe, Perry, Martin, Pike, Vanderburgh
Marion*
Fayette, Union, Wayne, Dearborn, Franklin, Ripley, Scott,
Lawrence, Monroe, Daviess, Dubois, Martin
Huntington, Franklin
Franklin
Bartholomew, Scott
LaGrange, Noble, Steuben, Wells, Whitley, Carroll, Lake,
Jay, Blackford, Wayne, Fayette, Madison, Marion,
Putnam, Owen, Brown, Monroe
265
266
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. Date of first appearance and/ or peak population of several species of insects
Occurrence:
Data
Organism
Stage
First
Peak(s)
County
Source
Apple maggot
Adult
17 ,Iun
Tippecanoe
N.J. light
Adult
6 Jul
Knox
Pheromone
Armyworm
Ad., 1st flight
29 Mar
21 Apr
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Ad. 2nd flight
19 May
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Ad. 3rd flight
16 Jun
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Ad. 4th flight
11 Aug
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Bathyplectes
Adult
30 Mar
Harrison
Sweep
anurus
B. curculionis
Adult
4 Apr
Harrison
Sweep
Black cutworm
Ad., 1st flight
8 Apr
23 Jun
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Cereal leaf btle
Adult
28 Marh
Harrison
Sweep
Chrysopa carnea
Adult
9 Mar
Tippecanoe
N.J. light
Ad. 1st flight
17 Jun
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Ad. 2nd flight
4 Aug
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Chrysops cincticornis Adult
7 May
Washington
Bait
Chrysops niger
Adult
8 May
Scott
Bait
Codling moth
Ad., 1st night
20 Apr
1-18 May
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 2nd (light
6 Jul
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 3rd night'
17 Aug
Knox
Pheromone
Convergent lady
Ad. 1st flight
17 Jun
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
beetle
Ad. 2nd night
28 Jul
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Ad. 3rd night
9 Sep
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Corn earworm
Ad., 1st night
3 Aug
8 Sep
Tippecanoe
BL trap
European corn
Ad.. 1st night
15 May
26 May
Tippecanoe
BL trap
borer
Ad. 2nd night
21 Jul
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Ad. 3rd night
1 Sep
Tippecanoe
BL trap
European red
1st instar
19 Apr
La Porte
Observed
mite
Fall armyworm
Ad., 1st night
8 Jul
18 Aug
Tippecanoe
BL trap
Lesser peachtree
Ad., 1st night
20 Apr
11 May
Knox
Pheromone
borer
Ad. 2nd night
22 Jun
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 3rd night
17 Aug
Knox
Pheromone
Meadow spittle bug
1st instar
28 Mar
Harrison
Observed
Mexican bean beetle
0/ wintering ad.
29 Apr
Owen
Observed
1st gen. eggs
3 Jun
16-27 Jun
Lawrence
Research
1st instar
16 June
Lawrence
Research
O/wintering ad.
20 Jun
Lawrence
Research
1st gen. larvae
30 Jun
Lawrence
Research
1st gen. pupae
18 Jul
Lawrence
Research
1st gen. adults
7 Jul
14-21 Jul
Lawrence
Research
2nd gen. eggs
7 Jul
25-28 Jul
Lawrence
Research
2nd gen. 1st Ins
21 Jul
Lawrence
Research
2nd gen. larvae
4-11 Aug
Lawrence
Research
2nd gen. adult
15 Aug
Lawrence
Research
Northern corn
Adult
21 July
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
rootworm
Obliquebanded
Ad., 1st night
c. 1 1 May
18 May
Knox
Pheromone
leafroller
Ad. 2nd night
16 Sep
Knox
Pheromone
Oriental fruit
Ad. 1st flight
20 Apr
Knox
Pheromone
moth
Ad. 2nd night
6 Jul
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 3rd night
3-30 Aug
Knox
Pheromone
Peachtree borer
Ad. 1st flight
3 Aug
Knox
Pheromone
Entomology
267
Organism
Occurrence:
Data
Organism
Stage
First
Peak(s)
County
Source
Plum curculio
Adult
1 May
Tippecanoe
Jarring
Redbanded
Adult
26 Mar
Tippecanoe
Pheromone
leafroller
Ad. 1st flight
20 Apr
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 2nd flight
1 Jun
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 3rd flight
10 Aug
Knox
Pheromone
Ad. 4th flight
16 Sep
Knox
Pheromone
Spotted lady beetle
Ad. 1st flight
3 Jun
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Ad. 2nd flight
18 Aug
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Ad. 3rd flight
9 Sep
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Variegated
Ad., 1st flight
1 Apr
21 Apr
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
cutworm
Ad. 2nd flight
23 Jun
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Ad. 3rd night
8 Sep
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
Western corn
Adult
15 Jun
Parke
Observed
rootworm
Adult
4 Aug
Tippecanoe
Sticky t.
numbers in a larger portion of the state than ever before (See Table 2 for new
county records: this species has been found in all counties except 19 in the
southernmost part of the state). The masses of adults that invaded Lake
Michigan recreation areas during the first week of August, rendering both the
water and shore unfit for recreation, were a spectacular though probably unique
manifestation of this abundance. Fields with adult populations of 4+/ plant were
easy to find as far south as Tippecanoe Co. (where at least 20,000 acres — out of
120,000 — were treated for the control of adults feeding on silks). Quart-size
yellow sticky traps collected 15, 12, 19 and 11 adults/trap/day during the 4
weeks from mid-July to mid-August in an untreated cornfield in Tippecanoe
County which had a good population last year. Large numbers of adults in areas
where they were previously scarce caused growers to apply pesticides in record
amounts to prevent silk losses, but probably only a third or less of the estimated
300,000 acres so treated ( @$7/ acre) were in any real danger. These applications,
plus soil treatments to an estimated 2-2.25 million acres (nearly all in the
northern half of the state) @ $8/acre plus losses in both treated and untreated
corn make this the number 1 pest in corn in 1977.
Adults averaged about 20/25 stalks in 75 fields in the northern districts
surveyed from 1-3 August; at the same time northern corn rootworms (D.
longicornis (Say)) averaged 3/25 stalks. In the central districts a week earlier
westerns averaged 6, northerns 10/25 stalks, the latter the more numerous
because westerns have only recently reached the areas south of Indianapolis.
No soil-borne lepidopteran was of significance in corn this year; the
sandhill cutworm (Euxoa detersa (Walker)) — which damaged the corn in sandy
ridges in 5000 acres of corn — the darksided (E. messoria (Harris)), the dingy,
{Feltia subgothica (Ha worth)), theclaybacked {Agrotisglaciiaria (Morrison)) —
all uncommon in corn — as well as the usual black cutworm (A. ipsilon
(Hufnagel)), were reported mostly from the northern districts.
The state average of 68.4 larvae/ 100 stalks was the third highest in the
history of the Indiana European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner))
268 Indiana Academy of Science
survey; only the 1973 average of 1 10 and the 1971 average of 100 were higher.
The north-eastern corner of the state had lower numbers than average, the
south-eastern higher than ever before. Orange Co. had the highest county
average (238/ 100) (not all counties were surveyed) and the highest single farm
average was 1000/100 stalks, in Greene Co.
Among the ear-feeding insects the fall army worm (Spodopterafrugiperda
(J. E. Smith)) far outnumbered the corn earnworm {Heliothis zea (Boddie));
either one or the other was found in nearly 6% of the ears, with but small loss
(about 5.7 lbs/ acre on the average). The fall armyworm was extremely abundant
this year, and was found in the stalks and shanks (which it occasionally severed)
as well as in the ear. It would have been a significant insect had it arrived before
the kernels hardened. Bird damage was also light (a loss of an average of 1.6
lbs/acre); the early planting probably was a factor among all the ear-feeding
animals and the aphids.
Only 32% of the stalks examined (7500) over the state in the fall corn insect
damage survey showed evidence of having served as host to the corn leaf aphid
(Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch)), and most of the infestations were light and
late. A field of susceptible (Kentucky 27) corn of appropriate age averaged 47%
fewer (after adjustment for stand) than the 1976 level of 581 /stalk (1975 =
934/ stalk).
Severe infestations by the greenburg {Schizaphis graminwn (Rondani))
were observed in sorghum in the WC district at the end of May. One treatment
was necessary; predators kept them in control following the treatment to such an
extent that the only greenbugs left on the plants were in the whorls, an unusual
place for this species. The cereal leaf bettle {Oulema melanopus (Linnaeus)) was
of no consequence in small grains with the possible exception of some fields of
wheat grown for forage and some oat fields in Harrison Co. Several of these
were conspicuously silvered. Larvae were to be found in many northern and
eastern fields, however; last year they were generally difficult to find.
While Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor (Say)) infestations were still at low
levels, they were twice numerous as last year and the highest in 4 years. Of 285
fields surveyed in 44 counties, 35% were infested; 13 fields had infestations
higher than 10%. The mean number of puparia/ 100 stems for all surveyed
wheat was 1.7, the mean for cultivars resistant to Race B Hessian fly was 0.8, the
mean for cultivars having no source of resistance, 4.9. The fall 1976 survey of
preferred overwintering sites of the chinch bug {Blissus leucopterus (Say))
collected no chinch bugs. A few were taken outside the survey area in Adams
Co., however, and they were occasionally reported from the same county in 1977
in non-economic numbers in corn. The insect has also been collected from turf
for several years, first in the Richmond area, and in 1977 as far west as
Tippecanoe Co.
Forage Legumes and Soybeans
Alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica (Gyllenhal)) egg deposition usually begins
after temperatures moderate in the fall. In contrast to the fall of 1975, when egg
numbers in Harrison Co. alfalfa averaged in excess of 70/ quarter square foot,
Entomology 269
the fall, 1976, average was about a tenth of that. Spring oviposition also lagged;
by 28 March there were only about 30, and by 4 April about 66/ quarter square
foot. Springlaid eggs began to hatch in numbers by 14 April, but by then alfalfa
was approaching maturity. By the 20th it was 19" tall and still averaged only
about 2.3 larvae/ infested stem. For the first time in at least 5 years, a well
managed alfalfa field in the southern third of Indiana generally did not need a
control treatment where the harvest was properly timed. A stubble treatment
after the first cutting was often necessary, however. For not only were alfalfa
weevil larvae present, but this year clover leaf weevil (//. punctata (Fabricius))
larvae were present and sometimes more effective in retarding growth than were
the alfalfa weevils. And for the first time in at least 10 years alfalfa was invaded
by cutworms in significant numbers. Oviposition by the variegated cutworm
(Peridroma saucia (Hiibner)) was observed on small plastic white flags planted
in Harrison and Washington Co. alfalfa fields between 15 and 29 April. Mature
larvae were present at the time of the harvest in numbers large enough to
seriously delay regrowth in a number of fields in those counties as well as in
Knox Co. (Up to 13/ sq. ft. were counted under newly windrowed alfalfa in the
latter county.) Incidentally, although white flags as well as flags of other colors
were planted in areas where adults were known to be present, they were never
again used as oviposition sites. Later, in the last week in August, fall armyworms
removed all of the leaves of 2 acres of alfalfa in a large field in Harrison Co. This
was the most severe infestation observed, but larvae were widespread in this crop
as well as in corn in the southern third of the state. Adult Mexican bean beetles
(Epilachna vahvestis Mulsant) invaded alfalfa fields in September in such
numbers, especially in Harrison and Washington Co., that a few growers were
forced to treat for them. On the other hand the potato leafhopper (Empoasca
fabae ( Harris)) was less of a problem than usual; the 1st and 2nd cuttings escaped
injury entirely, though the 3rd and 4th in some cases were treated.
In the fall adult alfalfa weevils appeared as early as the last week of
August — at the rate of 1 / sweep in a Fulton Co. field, a rate that was reached by 4
Nov. in a Warren Co. field. These are very high numbers for this part of the state,
where economic infestations are not the rule.
The Mexican bean bettle of course is primarly a pest of beans. In soybeans it
was of importance especially through most of the SE district, in a few counties in
the SC, in Daviess Co. in the SW and in Clay, Owens, and Parke in the WC.
Populations in soybeans were observed as far north as the northern bordern of
Wayne Co. in the east and the southwest corner of Montgomery Co. in the west,
both the northernmost extensions of this pest on soybeans so far observed.
Between 250,000 and 300,000 acres of soybeans were treated for this pest in 1977.
The green cloverworm (Plathypena scabra (Fabricius)) was almost at outbreak
levels as well, particularly in Benton, White and Jasper counties in August.
Possibly 2% of the susceptible crop was endangered.
Vegetables
The most important insect in Indiana gardens in 1977 was probably the
variegated cutworm. It was a problem especially in cabbages and tomatoes, but
attacked a large variety of other garden plants and flowers. The cabbage looper
270 Indiana Academy Of Science
(Trichoplusia ni (Hubner)) and the imported cabbage worm (Pieris rapae
(Linnaeus)) were also important in cole crops, but not the diamond back moth
(P/ute/la xylostella (Linnaeus)).
The first generation population of the Colorado potato beetle
( Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)) was economic, especially in the northern part
of the state; the second was not. Corn earworms were an important pest in both
sweet corn and tomatoes in August and early September. It and the European
corn borer devastated snap beans in the Vincennes area during the same period,
often rendering the pods unsaleable. Root maggots seem to be on the increase, as
well.
Ornamentals, Forest and Shade Trees
In general, the elm leaf beetle {Pyrrhalta luteola (Muller)), the mimosa
web worm (Homadaula anisocentra Meyrick) and sod webworm (Pediasia,
Crambus sp. populations were down, and the bagworm (Thyhdopteryx
ephemeraeformis (Ha worth)) was virtually wiped out except for warmer
portions of the state. The black vine weevil {Otiorhynchus sulcatus (Fabricius))
on the other hand, was reported much more frequently, particularly from Taxus
but also from blueberries and rhododendrons. The obscure scale (Melanaspis
obscura (Comstock)) was also common especially on pin oaks. The big news
among forest insects was again the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria
Hubner), whose 1977 expansion together with acres previously covered
exceeded 30,000 acres.
There were a few reports of a small scarab (Ataenius spretulus (Haldzman))
attacking turf; this insect has frequently been reported from the same host in
Ohio. The bluegrass billbug {Sphenophorus parvulus Gyllenhal) was reported
from a golf course in Wells Co., in damaging numbers.
The species of insects reported most often by nursery inspectors during
1977 are the following:
1. Fall webworm {Hyphantria cunea (Dury))
2. Maple bladdergall mite ( Vasates quadripes Shimer)
3. Boxelder twig borer (Proteoteras willingana (Kearfott))
4. Bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius Gory)
5. Oystershell scale {Lepidosaphes ulmi (Linnaeus))
6. Cooley spruce gall aphid (Adelges cooleyi (Gillette))
7. Velvet mite (Eriophyes aceris (Riley))
8. Japanese bettle (Popillia japonica Newman)
9. Potato leafhopper {Empoasca fabae (Harris))
10. Euonymus scale {Unaspis euonymi (Comstock)) and Painted maple
aphid (Drepanaphis acerifoliae (Thomas))
Man and Animals
The following is a review of the inquiries received by Purdue Extension staff
concerning household anthropod problems, which for convenience are grouped
according to their intimacy with their hosts. An average year brings 25 1 inquiries
concerning household nuisances. This year only 191 such inquiries were made,
the lowest in at least the last 10 years, and the first to fall below the 200 mark. The
Entomology 271
greatest shortfall was among the "accidental invaders of the home" category,
which dropped from an average of 99 to 65. Only the strawberry root weevil
(Otiorhynchus ovatus (Linnaeus)) was reported in excess of its usual number of
times — more often (12 times) than in any of the preceeding 10 years. Large
swarms of the larger yellow ant {Acanthomyops inter jectus (Mayr)) were
observed on 2 and 8 July in Henry Co.
Creatures that live full time in man's houses — moth flies, sow bugs and so
forth, — but do not normally share his food, were complained of but 6 times, a
third of the usual, with moth flies (Psychodidae) heading the list. Commensals —
extension calls average 73 annually — dropped to 53, and the Indian meal moth
(Plodia interpunctella (Hubner)) which for the last 6 years has headed the list,
became second behind the foreign grain bettle (Ahasverus advena (Waltl)),
recorded 9 times. The flat grain beetle {Cryptolestes pusillus (Schonherr)) and
the Australian spider beetle (Ptinus ocellus Brown) may have been in the state
for many years; they were however identified for the first time from materials
sent to the extension department and are thus newcomers to the list.
Insects that feed upon so-called inedibles dropped only slightly in numbers
of inquiries. The black carpet beetle (Attagenus megatoma (Fabricius))
remained the most commonly reported. New to this category last year was the
brown house moth (Hofmannophila pseudospretella (Stainton)); it was
reported again this year. The eastern subterranean termite (Reticulitermes
flavipes (Kollar)) was reported at average levels, and led the list of arthropods
that damage homes.
Arthropods that bite or other wise attack man were reported 30 times,
slightly above the 25 that is average, with the clover mite {Bryonia praetiosa
Koch) in the lead. Two new arthropods were added to this group. The first is a
centipede, Hemiscolopendra punctiventris punctiventris (Newport), taken in a
Harrison Co. bedroom from the leg of a child. The child had been bitten several
times, and this centipede was believed to have been the attacker. The second is a
milichiid fly of the genus Desmometopa near m-nigrum (Zetterstedt). Larvae of
this species were eventually found breeding in the dead space between two walls
of a hospital in Miami Co., a space to which water had been admitted as a result
of a construction project. Adults which emerged from the soaked debris found
their way through the lighting system to the operating room to which they were
attracted by open wounds and apparently the soap used for scrubbing or other
odors associated with scrubbing.
Blackflies (Simuliidae) were extremely abundant in several White Co.
communities early in May, driving children from the playgrounds and golfers
from the links.
Only 10 cases of St. Louis encephalitis and 2 of the LaCrosse strain had
been confirmed in the state by mid-November.
Beneficial Insects
(For range extensions of some beneficial insects see Table 1).
Pediobius foveolatus (Crawford), an exotic parasite of the Mexican bean
beetle, was released for the first time in June in Scott and Clay Counties. It was
272 Indiana Academy Of Science
probably an unfavorable time to release this parasite, a hot and dry period, but it
provided protection in at least some parts of Scott Co.
Rhinocyllus conicus Froelich, a weevil, was released in Jefferson, Johnson
and Switzerland Counties in an effort to control the musk thistle {Carduus
nutans).
The spotted lady beetle {Coleomegilla maculata DeGeer), was less
abundant this year than in previous years, both in alfalfa and in corn. On 7500
corn stalks surveyed during the annual corn insect survey only 79 were observed,
as compared with 121 on 4725 stalks in 1976, and 159 on 4700 stalks in 1975. On
sticky traps in cornfield in Tippecanoe Co. they were outnumbered by
Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville, the usually less common
convergent lady beetle. There was also no indication of a fall flight, which
usually occurs about October first.
GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
Chairman: Mark Reshkin, Department of Public and Environmental Affairs
Indiana University Northwest, Gary, Indiana 46408
Chairman-Elect: Gerald R. Show alter, Department of Geography and Geology
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstracts
An Assessment of Methodologies for Climate Corn Yield Research.
Gary Westerman, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809 The purpose of this study is to assess the utility of two
types of anlaytic methods, graphical and statistical, for investigating climate and
corn yield relationships. Climatic data from southern Indiana are anlayzed by a
modified climograph method and by the statistical methods of multiple
correlation and stepwise regression. To account for considerable variation
during the study period in technological factors, a method of adjusting yields is
employed, thus enabling yields to be classified as peak (optimum) or deficit. The
correlation-regression analysis is of limited usefulness, identifying a significant
set of predictor variables for only one of the three study areas. Climographs are
found to be useful in identifying several climatic factors which effectively
separate peak production conditions from deficit conditions, but the
climographs are not suited for predicting the magnitude of yield deficits. It thus
would seem that a combination of these methods, graphical and statistical, is
needed for a complete analysis of climate-yield relationships.
Land vs. Space in the Middle East: Territorial Experience as a Source of
Conflict. Maurie Sommer, Saint Mary's College, Notre Dame, Indiana
46556 The evolution of territoriality in the Moslem Middle East has been
sharply distinct from that of the Jewish state of Israel. Whereas the daral-Islam
(land of Islam) has been fluid and dynamic in its growth and retrenching for
more than ten centuries, eretz Yisroel (the land of Israel) has only recently taken
on the modern form of a nation-state after centuries of having been nurtured as a
fixed and preserved ideal by a people long dispersed from the region. The
implications of these divergent pasts and experiences of territoriality have been
felt amidst the many other tensions that for more than a generation have plagued
the Middle East. The territorial component has become the more critical in
recent years in view of demands by Palestinian groups for a separate national
entity. These spatial factors will be examined historically, with emphasis on the
Arab/ Moslem model, in order to elucidate contemporary political behavior
patterns and to propose possible programmatic approaches for their resolution.
Thickness and Geographic Boundary of the Terra Rossa in South-Central
Indiana. Robert D. Hall and Thomas L. Greenawalt, Department of
Geology, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana
46202 The geometry of the reddish silty clay (terra rossa) of the karst area in
South-Central Indiana is similar to that of continental basins in which sediments
273
274 Indiana Academy Of Science
are shed from adjacent uplands. The deposit generally thickens from a zero edge
near the escarpments bordering the Mitchell Plain to over 30 feet (9. 1 m) at the
center of this topographically trough-like area. Local variations in thickness are
extreme. The wedge-shaped nature of the terra rossa deposit, together with
evidence from earlier investigations of the stratigraphy and origin of surficial
deposits in sinkholes, supports the contention that the terra rossa of the Mitchell
Plain is primarily a transported sedimentary deposit. The source of much of the
terra rossa sediment is probably the adjacent Crawford and Norman Uplands.
A Characterization Study of Crude Oils From Certain Reservoirs In The
Phillipstown Field, White County, Illinois. Rolla M. Dyer of Indiana State
University Evansville, Warren R. Abbey of Barger Engineering Company,
Robert Soaper of Soaper Chemical Company Gas chromatograms
showing characteristic portions of the crude oil from known oil-producing
formations or pay zones were collected. These characterized oils were used to
prepare calibration mixtures and standards for the quantitative determination
by zones of the crude oil from wells under water flood. This identification
technique was and can be used to supplement the geological studies used in oil
production, particularly in those oil pools where mutliple pay zones are present
and open in the same well. This technique allows for an estimation of the portion
of the total production that can be assigned to a particular zone.
Aromatic Hydrocarbon Contamination of the Aquifer Supplying West Terre
Haute, Indiana. Jeffery Ehrenzeller, Ben Dailey, Diane Lane, Tim O'Neil,
Jay Franklin, Lynn Recker, and Donald W. Ash, Department of
Geography and Geology, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809 Hydrocarbon contamination of the aquifer supplying the town of
West Terre Haute, Indiana shows that the response of water levels to ground
water pumping is critical — even in unconsolidated sands and gravels of high
permeability where drawdown should be minimal. The suspected source of the
contaminates is located approximately 200 ft south of the town's two water
supply wells. This is down the regional flow path; and theoretically, except for
dispersion effects, the contaminates should never have reached the vicinity of the
wells. The cone of depression on the pumping wells reversed the gradient on the
ground water table in the area of the wells and thus the contaminates flowed to
the wells.
Management alternatives include:
(1) Joining Terre Haute's existing water supply system
(2) Regulation of pumping to control (reduce) drawdown and recovery
times on the wells
(3) New well field development to replace existing wells
Because of economic reasons, joining Terre Haute's water system was not
feasible. Because the existing wells are old and because it was uncertain if the
Health Department would allow the wells to be pumped again, new well fields
were developed.
Introductory Geology Field Trip Using Indianapolis Building Materials.
Arthur Mirsky, Department of Geology, Indiana University-Purdue
University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202 Largely because of budgetary
restrictions, the introductory Geology field trip to rural outcrops had to be
Geography and Geology 275
canceled. In its place the Department of Geology has developed a self-directed
walking field trip which uses building materials in downtown Indianapolis as a
substitute for natural outcrops.
A surprisingly large number of varied geologic features can be seen in these
building materials, particularly if one takes the complete walking tour of just
over two miles. Students, however, can choose to take one or more of five
shorter "loops" and miss very few, if any, features. Among igneous rocks,
students can see basalt, diorite, gabbro, granite (in a variety of colors and grain
sizes), granodiorite, larvikite (an alkaline syenite), monzonite, obsidian, pumice,
and scoria. Among sedimentary rocks are breccia, chert, dolostone, limestone
(with and without obvious fossils), sandstone, and travertine. Among
metamorphic rocks are gneiss, a variety of marbles, quartizite, and schist.
Minerals that are large enough to be visible include biotite, calcite, hematitie,
hornblende, jasper, limonite, olivine, orthoclase feldspar, plagioclase feldspar,
quartz (milky, rose, smoky), and serpentine. Man-made building materials
include aluminum, brick (of a variety of colors), brass, bronze, cement, concrete,
glass, pebble aggregates of various compositions, and a variety of tiles.
Igneous textures range from glassy, fine- to coarse-grained to prophyritic;
igneous structures include segregation zones, dikes, flow, and inclusions. All
sedimentary textures are present except natural conglomerate; sedimentary
structures include parallel bedding, several types of cross-bedding, laminations,
graded bedding, stylolites, flagstone, and trace fossils. Fossil fragments are
abundant as fossil hash, and recognizable fossils include several types of
bryozoans, crinoid stems, brachiopods, and snails. Metamorphic textures
include both foliated and massive; metamorphic structures include schistose,
gneissose, ptygmatic, and flow.
Both physical and chemical weathering are abundantly represented.
The main shortcoming of the building-material field trip is that some
aspects of introductory geology are not represented (such as glaciation,
structural geology, landscape development). Also, of course, students can not
take a hammer on the tour and collect samples. Still, using building materials in
the downtown city is very useful for introductory geology in an urban university.
Conodonts from a Core of the Black River Limestone,
Subsurface of White County, Indiana
Robert B. Votaw, Department of Geosciences
Indiana University Northwest, Gary, Indiana
Introduction
Middle Ordovician rocks are well exposed throughout the eastern
Midcontinent of the United States (Fig. 1), and these rocks have been
thoroughly studied from the outcrop both stratigraphically and
paleontologically. Middle Ordovician rocks are less well studied from the
subsurface and are usually correlated on the basis of lithology (6). In Indiana,
Middle Ordovician rocks do not outcrop and, their age has been determined by
their subjacent position to the Upper Ordovician, well known from outcrops in
southeastern Indiana.
Stratigraphy
The Indiana Geological Survey has defined two carbonate units from the
subsurface as Middle Ordovician, the Trenton Limestone below the Upper
Ordovician and the Black River limestone beneath the Trenton. These two units
are readily distinguished lithologically, however there have been no reports of
the fossil content of these two units in the subsurface of Indiana. The Indiana
Geological Survey has kindly provided me with samples from a core through the
Black River limestone from the John G. Forbes #1 well, drilled by the Indiana
Gas and Water Co., in White County, Indiana.
Figure 1. Outline map of the eastern Midcontinent of the United States showing the outcrop
distribution of Middle Ordovician rocks. The location of the Forbes well, White County, Indiana, is
indicated.
276
Geography and Geology 277
The well is located in the SE'/4, SW'/4l NE'/4, Sec. 3, T27N, R6W. The well,
located on the southwest flank of the Kankakee Arch, was spudded in
Pleistocene till and reached a total depth of 1470 feet. The well bore penetrated
the stratigraphic section from the Devonian New Albany shale into the upper
120 feet of the Cambro-Ordovician Knox dolomite. The unit defined as Black
River limestone is massively bedded, very fine-grained, tan to light gray, slightly
dolomitic limestone with a few vugs and free floating sparry calcite crystals. In
some zones, the unit is extensively bioturbated. The top of this interval lies at a
depth of 1 1 60 feet immediately beneath the Trenton limestone and the bottom is
placed at 1 352 feet at the top of a two foot interval of white sandstone cemented
by calcite, designated the St. Peter sandstone (Fig. 2). The St. Peter sandstone
lies uncomformably on the Knox dolomite. Thirty-one samples have been
collected from this core from the lower twelve feet of the Trenton limestone to
the base of the Black River limestone, as indicated in Figure 2.
Table
Faunal List
specimens
Faunal List
specimens
acodiform elements
6
Erismodus radicans
69
Acontiodus alveolaris
!
Microcoelodus symmetricus
63
Belodina compressa
122
oistodiform elements
23
Bryantodina? abrupta
9
Panderodus gracilis
254
Chirognathus monodactylus
2
Phragmodus inflexus
5
Curtognathus robustus
7
Phragmodus undatus
1595
Distacodus faleatus
2
Plectodina aculeata
AH
Drepanoistodus suberectus
221
Polyplacognathus ramosus
54
Total
2521
Paleontology
Thirty-one samples from the Black River limestone were treated for
conodonts by standard acetic acid techniques. More than 2500 identifiable
conodont elements have been extracted from these samples. These elements
have been assigned to fourteen species of thirteen genera of conodonts (Table 1 ).
The stratigraphic intervals from which each species has been collected is
indicated in Figure 2 by a solid vertical bar. Samples 1-4 contain elements of
Phragmodus undatus (PI. 1, Figs. 4-6), a key species to Fauna 8 of Sweet,
Ethington, and Barnes (5). Bryantodina? abrupta (PI. 1, Figs. 2 1-22) is present in
samples 3 and 4 and is a common component of Fauna 8 elsewhere (1,5).
Elements of Polyplacognathus ramosus (PI. 1, Figs. 39-20) are restricted to
samples 1-3 of this collection but are known to range lower in the section
elsewhere (2,7,8). Fauna 8 characterizes the type Trenton Group of New York
(3) and its lateral equivalents throughout the eastern Midcontinent (5).
Elements assigned to Fauna 7 of Sweet, Ethington, and Barnes are present
below sample 4. Phragmodus inflexus (PI. 1, Figs. 1-3) is present in samples 28-
30 near the base of the Black River limestone. This species is known to range up
into the middle of Black Riveran rocks throughout the eastern Midcontinent
(Fig. 3) (7). Erismodus radicans (PI. 1, Figs. 7-9), a fibrous conodont, is present
278
Indiana Academy Of Science
knox
BLACK RIVER
TRENTON
Lkfl n lj __ lj lZj — LJ — □ M □ — I~~l I I Zj LJ H HHHH
ACONTIODUS ALVEOLARIS
PHRAGMODUS INFLEXUS
DISTACODUS FALCATUS
-CHIROGNATHUS MONODACTYLUS
CURTOGNATHUS ROBUSTUS
ACODIFORM ELEMENTS
PHRAGMODUS UNDATUS
BRYANTODINA ABRUPTA
POLYPLACOGNATHUS RAMOSUS
PLECTODLNA ACULEATA
OISTODIFORM ELEMENTS
ERISMODUS RADICANS
DREPANOISTODUS SUBERECTUS
PANDERODUS GRACILIS
BELODINA COMPRESSA
MICROCOELODUS SYMMETRICUS
Figure 2. Generalized lithology, intervals sampled and stratigraphic ranges of the conodont species
from the Forbes well, White County, Indiana.
from sample 4 through 31, and elsewhere is restricted to Fauna 7 (7). Other
elements of fibrous conodonts Curtognathus robustus, Microcoelodus
symmetricus, and Chirognathus monodaclylus are found throughout the
interval of samples 4-31 and are common constituents of Black Riveran
conodont collections elsewhere (7). Several ubiquitous Middle and Upper
Ordovicain species, Drepanoistodus suberectus, Belodina compressa, and
Panderodus gracilis are found throughout the sampled interval in the Forbes
well.
McGregor
IOWA
DIXON
ILLINOIS
MIDDLETOWN
OHIO
COMINCO CAMP NELSON
CORE KENTUCKY
highest
Appalachignoihus
deltcatulus
Geography and Geology
279
Analysis of this conodont assumblage indicates a change from Fauna 7 to
Fauna 8 between samples 5 and 4, six feet below the top of the Black River
lithology. Consequently the lower 186 feet of the Black River limestone and the
two feet of St. Peter sandstone are assigned to the Black Riveran Stage of the
Champlainian Series, and the upper six feet of the Black River and the sampled
portion of the lower Trenton limestone are assigned to the Rocklandian Stage.
Correlation
The Black River limestone of the Forbes well can be correlated with Middle
Ordovician limestones in the outcrop at Dixon, Illinois, McGregor, Iowa, and
along the Kentucky River south of Lexington, and in cores from wells near
Middletown, Ohio, and in northern Kentucky (Fig. 3). The lowest stratigraphic
occurrence of Phragmodus undatus marks the base of the Rocklandian Stage
and the top of the Black Riveran. In each case cited here the top of the Black
Riveran Stage falls within ten feet above or below the lithologic change at the
contact of the Trenton limestone with the Black River limestone.
Limestones of the Black Riveran Stage thin dramatically from 550 feet in
the Cominco core of northern Kentucky (Fig. 3) to only forty feet in a complete
exposure in northeastern Iowa. The stratigraphically highest occurrence of
Phragmodus inflexus and Appalachignatus delicatulus document the
Champlainian transgression of the eastern Midcontinent from southeast to
northwest.
The assemblage of conodont elements obtained from this core belongs to
Faunas 7 and 8 of Sweet, Ethington, and Barnes, and is diagnostic of the Black
Riveran and Rocklandian Stages respectively. Thus all of the lithologic unit in
the subsurface of Indiana described by the Indiana Geological Survey as Black
River limestone is, with the exception of the upper six feet, Black Riveran in age
and correlative with the Watertown, Gull River, and Pamelia of New York, the
Lebanon, Ridley, Pierce, and Murfreesboro of Tennessee, the Joachim of
WHITE
COUNTY
OKLA-
HOMA
MISS-
OURI
IOWA
CINCIN-
NATI
TENN-
ESSEE
NEW
YORK
STAGE
TRENTON
CORBIN
RANCH
PLATTIN
DECORAH
TYRONE
OREGON
CARTERS
SELBY
ROCK
LAND
BLACK
RIVER
UPPER
BROMIDE
JOACHIM
PLATTE-
VILLE
CAMP
NELSON
LEBANON
RIDLEY
PIERCE
TYPE
BLACK
RIVER
BLACK
RIVER
ABSENT
LOWER .
BROMIDE
DUTCH-
TOWN
ABSENT
ABSENT
ABSENT
ABSENT
CHAZY
Figure 4. Correlation of the Black River limestone in White County, Indiana, with equivalent units in
the eastern United States (After Sweet and Bergstrom, 1976).
280
Indiana Academy of Science
Missouri, and the upper Bromide of Oklahoma (Fig. 4) according to the recent
conodont-based correlation chart of Middle and Upper Ordovician of the
United States Midcontinent (4).
Explanation of Plate 1
All figures are X40. Sample number for each specimen is in parentheses.
Figures 1-3 — Phragmodus inflexus Stauffer. Lateral views of phragmodiform (29),
cyrtoniodiform (29), and dichognathiform (28) elements.
Figures 4-6 — Phragmodus undatus Branson and Mehl. Lateral views of dichognathiform (3),
oistodiform (3), and phragmodiform (3) elements.
Figures 7-9 — Erismodus radicans Hinde. Lateral views of microcoelodiform (29), ptiloconiform
(29), and erismodiform (29) elements.
Figures 10-12, 16-18 — Plectodina aculeata Stauffer. Lateral views of prioniodiniform (16),
ozarkodiniform (27), and dichognathiform* 16)elements; posterior views of trichonodelliform (29) and
zygognathiform (27) elements; lateral view of corydlodiform element (29).
Geography and Geology 281
Figures 13-15 — Drepanoistodus suberectus Branson and Mehl. Lateral views of
drepanoistodiform (3), suberectiform (3), and oistodiform (3) elements.
Figures 19-20 — Polyplacognthus ramosus Stauffer. Views of upper surface of
polyplacognathiform (I) and bilobatiform (2) elements.
Figures 21-22— Bryantodina? abrupta Branson and Mehl. Lateral views of bryantodiniform (3)
and prioniodiniform (3) elements.
Figures 23-24 — Belodina compressa Branson and Mehl. Lateral views of belodiniform (3) and
oistodiform (3) elements.
Figures 25 — Panderodus gracilis Branson and Mehl. Lateral view of panderodiform element (3).
Literature Cited
1. Bergstrom, S. M., and Sweet, W. C. 1966. Conodonts from the Lexington Limestone (Middle
Ordovician) of Kentucky, and its lateral equivalents in Ohio and Indiana. Bull. Am. Paleont.
50(229):27 1-441.
2. Ethington, R. L., and Schumacher, D. 1969. Conodonts of the Copenhagen Formation (Middle
Ordovician) in central Nevada. Jour. Paleont. 43:440-483.
3. Schopf, T. J. M. 1966. Conodonts of the Trenton Group (Ordovician) in New York, southern
Ontario, and Quebec. Bull. N.Y. St. Mus. 405:1-105.
4. Sweet, W. C, and Bergstrom, S. M. 1976. Conodont Biostratigraphy of the Middle and Upper
Ordovician of the United States Midcontinent. 121-151 in Bassett, M.G. (ed.). The Ordovician
System: proceedings of a Paleontological Assoc, symposium. Univ. of Wales Press and National
Museum of Wales, Cardif. 696.
5. Sweet, W. E., Ethington, R. L., and Barnes, C. R. 1971. North American Middle and Upper
Ordovician conodont faunas. Mem. Geol. Soc. Am. 127:163-193.
6. Templeton, J. S., and Willman, H. B. 1963. Champlainian Series (Middle Ordovician) in Illinois.
111. Geol. Surv. Bull. 89:1-260.
7. Votaw, R. B. 1971. Conodont biostratigraphy of the Black River Group (Middle Ordovician) and
equivalent rocks of the eastern Midcontinent, North America; Ph. D. diss, (unpubl) The Ohio State
Univ. :1-170.
8. Webers, G. F. 1966. The Middle and Upper Ordovician conodont faunas of Minnesota. Spec.
Publ. Minn. Geol. Surv. SP-4: 1-123.
Thick High-Purity Limestone and Dolomite, In Carroll County, Indiana
Curtis H. Ault and Donald D. Carr
Indiana Geological Survey, Bloomington, Indiana 47401
Introduction
Large -size high-purity dolomite deposits of reefal origin are well known in
northern Indiana, northeastern Illinois, Michigan, and northwestern Ohio, but
high-purity limestone reefal deposits are rare. Without doubt the original reef
composition was limestone, but in many of the deposits diagenesis has changed
the limestone to dolomite. Exceptions seem to occur, however, almost as
accidents of nature, and because of this we were pleasantly surprised to discover
two thick sections of high-purity carbonate rock in reefs of Silurian age, one
limestone and one dolomite, about 6 miles apart in Carroll County (Fig. 1).
Discovery of the high-purity limestone was propitious because the demand for
high-purity carbonate rock for use in flue gas desulfurization, fluidized bed
50 MILES
Figure 1 . Map of Indiana showing areas of Fort Wayne and Terre Haute Bank and locations of some
exposed (dots) and buried (circles) Silurian reefs. Reef interpretations by Curtis H. Ault, John B.
Droste, and Robert H. Shaver.
282
Geography and Geology 283
combustion, lime, glass raw materials, and chemical products has been
increasing. The dolomite is currently being exploited for aggregate, but the
limestone awaits commercial development.
Background
In 1973 the Indiana Geological Survey drilled a core hole (SDH 244) in the
center of the Delphi reef as part of a study of reefs in northern Indiana by Curtis
H. Ault and Robert H. Shaver. The reef was found to be 398 feet thick; this is the
thickest continuous section of high-magnesium dolomite in Indiana ever
analyzed by the Survey. Despite the impressive thickness and purity of the
deposit, the full surface diameter and shape of the Delphi reef was not known
until three more Survey cores were drilled in 1976 and 1977 as part of the Ault-
Shaver study and for a detailed paleontologic and stratigraphic study by the
Indiana University Paleontology Seminar of 1976-77 under the direction of
Robert H. Shaver (4).
Location of a reef of Silurian age near Camden, in Carroll County, was
recorded in 1927 by Cumings and Shrock (3). Only a small outcrop of the
Camden reef is visible in and near Little Deer Creek in the NE!4NE!4 sec. 25, T.
25 N., R. 1 W. Cumings and Shrock described the outcrop as limestone, but
samples of the limestone collected by the Survey in 1975 were dolomitic and
considered unsuitable for many chemical uses.
SDH 262 was drilled near the outcrops of the Camden reef in 1976 as part of
the Ault-Shaver study. This is also the thickest section of high-calcium limestone
ever analyzed by the Survey. A second test, SDH 264, was drilled in the reef one-
quarter mile to the north to determine the extent of the reef and the amount of its
stone reserves.
Discovery of thick high-calcium limestone in the first test in the Camden
reef was announced in a news release and Survey newsletter in December 1976.
As a result, requests for additional information came from nearly 20 companies
and individuals. Acreage on the reef has been leased commercially, and the
deposit is now being evaluated by test drilling and chemical analysis of core
samples for possible exploitation.
Geologic Setting
The Delphi and Camden reefs are part of a regional archipelago of Silurian
reefs that extends from New York to Iowa and bounds major parts of the
Appalachian, Michigan, and Illinois Basins in Ohio, Ontario, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois. Two carbonate banks, the east-westward-
trending Fort Wayne Bank in northern Indiana and the northwest-
southeastward-trending Terre Haute Bank in southwestern Indiana (Fig. 1)(1),
were the loci for profuse reef growth during Silurian time. The banks define the
limits of the Wabash Platform of central Indiana, a broad shallow-water shelf
between the Michigan and Illinois Basins during the Silurian Period, where
hundreds and probably thousands of solitary reefs grew, among them the Delphi
and Camden reefs.
284
Indiana Academy of Science
L.L.
Kenneth
Ls.
Mbr.
Kokomo
Ls.
Mbr.
Liston Creek
Ls.
Mbr.
Mississinewa
Sh.
Mbr.
Louisville Ls.
Woldron Fm.
Limberlost Dol
Salamonie Dol
Figure 2. Stratigraphie chart showing Middle and Upper Silurian rocks in north-central Indiana.
Growth and accumulation of some reefs on the platform were continuous
from Niagaran (Wenlockian) through Cayugan (Pridolian) time (Fig. 2). The
thick Delphi reef is one of these large long-lived reefs. It belongs to the second of
five generations of Silurian reefs described by Droste and Shaver (2) and Shaver
(5) for part of the Great Lakes area. The Camden reef appears to have roots in
the Louisville Limestone and to be a third-generation reef.
Geology of the Delphi Reef
The Delphi reef is centered in the SW^SW^SW1/* sec. 19, T. 25 N., R. 2 W.
It is in the abandoned south pit of the Delphi Limestone, Inc> quarry
immediately north of U.S. 421 near the west edge of Delphi and less than one-
quarter mile east of the Wabash River. It is one of at least two large reefs and
may be part of a larger reef complex north and northeast of town. Reefal
dolomite is also exposed near Deer Creek in the south part of town.
The roots of the reef are in the Salamonie Dolomite; the overlying
Limberlost Dolomite, Waldron Shale, Louisville Limestone, Wabash
Formation, and Salina Formation (Fig. 2) have been recognized in cores in and
near its edge (6).
SDH 244 was drilled in the south quarry pit in the structural center of the
reef. This is indicated by flank beds dipping away from the center in all
directions. A secondary center on the north side of the reef in the active quarry
pit (Fig. 3) has been described by the Indiana University Paleontology Seminar
(4).
Chemical analysis of this reef, except for an 8-foot section that was not
cored at the top of SDH 244 and 20-foot interval of core lost at a depth of 220
Geography and Geology
285
Figure 3. Active Delphi Limestone, Inc., quarry in north flank of Delphi reef
feet, indicated that it was high-magnesium dolomite with less than 2 percent
noncarbonate impurities (Table 1).
The skeletal dolomite is light gray and sucrosic but has poorly defined fossil
outlines and original textural features because of dolomitization. It is porous
and friable in part. Its texture varies somewhat from the center to the edge of the
reef because of fossils of different types and fragment sizes, but differences in
lithology are not as distinctive as those in the Camden limestone reef.
Table 1
. Chemical analyses (weighted average
in percent) for the
Delphi and Camden reefs.
Location
Thickness
(ft.)
CaC03 MgC03
Si02
A1203
Fe203
Ti02 MnO
Delphi
Camden
370'
2572
54.8 44.3
97.3 0.93
0.32
0.74
0.087
0.38
0.20
0.10
nd3 tr4
0.021 0.011
•Includes core samples from SDH 244, SW'ASW^SW^ sec. 19. T. 25 N., R. 2 W.,and samples
from quarry face near SDH 244; does not include 28 feet not cored.
includes core samples from SDH 262, SE^NE«4NE!4 sec. 25, T. 25 N., R. 1 W., from a depth of
57 to 323 feet; does not include three intervals of solution-cavity fill totaling 4. 1 feet or two intervals of
core loss totaling 4.8 feet.
3nd = not determined.
4tr - trace.
286
Indiana Academy of Science
Our knowledge of the shape of the reef and the amount of its stone reserves
is increasing rapidly because of new information. Three Survey test holes drilled
in 1976 and 1977 indicate that the reef is about a mile in diameter at the surface
(Fig. 4). It is laterally expansive upward with two main periods of growth, one
during Salamonie deposition and a later one of extensive growth during
deposition of the Mississinewa Shale Member (Wabash Formation).
R.3W.
R.2W.
1 Mile
0
I I L
1Km
_i
W/$M Active quarry pit
Y////7//A
Abandoned quarry pit
®
Survey drill hole
Chemical analyses
of core samples
Figure 4. Approximate extent of Delphi reef and locations of quarry pits and Survey drill holes.
The great thickness of the reef indicates the large amount of stone reserves
left, even though the reef is much smaller near its base than at the surface. The
thick section of high-magnesium dolomite at the center also indicates large
Geography and Geology 287
reserves of chemical stone. But much more core drilling and sampling will be
needed before definite reserve figures for chemical stone can be calculated.
Several secondary features of the reef are mentioned here because of their
importance in quarrying and possible commercial implications. The reef
contains near-surface grikes and small caves filled with carbonate and quartz
sand. Some of these are particularly evident on the south face of the active
quarry pit, and others could be a source of contamination during mining for
chemical stone elsewhere in the reef.
R.1W. R.1E.
K?
1 V
,a jr. jv? \.cRM^; kt
4\ 262 o 'tf '! /^APPROXIMATE
< « q| v->/ EXTENT OF
CAMDEN REEF
$.-• 125 >^
?J
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(§) Survey drill hole (SDH); chemical ▲ Reef outcrop
analyses of core samples
Figure 5. Approximate extent of Camden reef and locations of Survey drill holes and reef outcrops.
Geology of the Camden Reef
The Camden reef is centered approximately at the junction of sees. 19 and
30, T. 25 N., R. 1 E., and sees. 24 and 25, T. 25 N.,R.1W, about 4 miles east of
Camden and 1 mile south of State Road 218. Small outcrops of the reef are on
288 Indiana Academy of Science
the banks and in the streambed of Little Deer Creek, a few hundred feet south of
the junction of County Roads 300 North and 300 East (Fig. 5).
The full extent and shape and detailed lithology, chemistry, and
stratigraphy of the Camden reef are incompletely known, even though several
industrial core holes and two Survey core holes have now been drilled into or
through the reef. Although much of the industrial data is proprietary and cannot
be published, much can be said about the reef in a general way.
Available core data indicate that the roots of the reef are in the Louisville
Limestone, less than 20 feet above the top of the Waldron Formation, which is
poorly developed at this location. The Louisville is blue gray, mottled, and easily
differentiated from the overlying light-colored skeletal reefal limestone. Toward
the southeast edge of the reef, some Mississinewa shale of the Wabash
Formation has been recognized overlying the Louisville, but to date no nearby
test holes have been drilled beyond the edge of the reef to reveal the stratigraphy
of the uppermost Silurian interreef rocks. In a few holes, a thin brown silty
dolomitic limestone or dolomite containing a few horn corals overlies the reef.
These rocks have tentatively been identified as Devonian in age, possibly of the
Traverse Formation.
The reef is more than three-fourths of a mile in diameter and probably more
than a mile in diameter in its upper part. Its thickness of more than 300 feet in
SDH 262 and nearly 250 feet in SDH 264 indicate that stone reserves are more
than enough for commercial aggregate and probably for commercial chemical
stone, which depends on the size of the body of high-calcium limestone. That
such a body exists seems likely because only 18 feet of the 308 fet of reef rock
cored in SDH 262 exceeded 5 percent MgCCb. All limestone in the core
contained less than 2 percent noncarbonate impurities, but a few solution
cavities containing clay and silt, probably washed in by ground water, were
found in most drill holes. In SDH 264, 90 feet of the 172 feet of high-calcium
limestone cored in the reef was a continuous section.
The high-calcium limestone of the reef is light tan to pink bioclastic
limestone that is thought to have been deposited on the reef flanks; it contains
moderate to abundant sparry calcite cement. Inclined bedding was observed in
all flank beds cored, but direction of the flank dips is poorly understood. Vague
bedding dips in the outcrops in and near Little Deer Creek are to the east and
southeast.
Determination of the center of the reef — important if muchdolomitization
is associated with the center and near-center rocks and if we are to know the full
extent of the reef — can only be speculated on at this time. Much micritic blue-
gray dolomitic limestone and dolomite containing little-disturbed light-colored
shells and stromotoporoids were cored in the top 160 feet at SDH 264. Bedding
in this lithology is irregular and has little discernible dip. The distinction
between this zone and the steeply dipping bioclastic skeletal limestone of the
pink to light-buff flank beds is pronounced. SDH 264 thus may be in a near-
center position for the upper part of the reef, although dipping flank beds were
indicated in the bottom part of the core and lesser amounts of near-center
lithologies were found in other drill holes.
Geography and Geology 289
In general, increased dolomitization of the flank beds has been found south,
southeast, and southwest of SDH 262. Nowhere does the amount of dolomitized
limestone and dolomite with more than 5 percent MgCO.i exceed 30 percent of
the total reef section drilled. Generally, less than 20 percent, and in several wells
less than 10 percent, of the reef rock is more than 5 percent MgCO.i. Even where
the amount of dolomitic limestone and dolomite is nearly 30 percent, thick
continuous sections of high-calcium limestone have been cored.
Our preliminary data show dolomitization in two parts of the reef: (1)
dolomitized carbonate muds that were deposited in the near-center areas of the
reef and that have well-preserved and little-disturbed light-colored calcitic
shells, corals, and large stromotoporoids, and (2) some dolomitized flank beds,
possibly associated in part with interfingering interreef beds near the edge of the
reef. Again, more information is needed to determine if dolomitization is
confined to individual flank beds following the steep 30-40° dips, or if the
dolomitized zones are independent of bedding boundaries. Selective
dolomitization in porous zones by dolomitizing fluids probably was involved,
but we have seen no obvious evidence of such permeable zones in the cores.
Our study of the reef has been limited to microscopic examination of two
cores and macroscopic examination of others. Detailed petrographic studies
using thin section, staining, and SEM techniques would undoubtedly shed more
light on the processes and effects of dolomitization.
Geological and Commercial Implications
Of The Delphi and Camden Reefs
Discovery of thick chemical-quality carbonate stone in the Delphi and
Camden reefs has prompted an examination of their relationship to the overall
stratigraphy and reef distribution of northern Indiana. Obviously important is
the relationship of the size and chemical composition of the Delphi and Camden
reefs to reefs originating in similar stratigraphic positions in other areas. Both
reefs have older beginnings than many reefs in Indiana, but their earlier
Niagaran origins relate them to many Indiana reefs beginning at this same time.
Thus we can make geologically and commercially important inferences
concerning physical size, number, distribution, and composition of the reefs.
The Delphi Generation
The reef at Delphi arose out of Salamonie and Limberlost rocks, Droste
and Shaver's (2) and Shaver's (5) second generation for part of the Great Lakes
area (but the first generation of reefs in Indiana). Many small reefs of this
generation in eastern Indiana and northwestern Ohio, where early Niagran
rocks are well exposed in several quarries and some outcrops, have been
described by geologists. Some of these early Silurian reefs were little more than
mounds of biota that did not survive the environmental restrictions during
deposition of the Limberlost Dolomite. Other reefs, though, gained a good
foothold and survived to enlarge and expand later.
An excellent exposure of the latter, a reef that breaches the Limberlost
Dolomite and the Waldron Formation, can be seen in the Muncie Stone Co.
quarry at Montpelier, Wells County. The Delphi reef is another example of a
second generation reef breaching these formations and expanding greatly in late
290 Indiana Academy of Science
Louisville and later time. Reefs that were able to survive the apparently
restricted environments during deposition of parts of the Limberlost Dolomite
and the Louisville Limestone, and possibly the Waldron Formation, were quite
likely to continue their growth and eventually to become large reefs containing
commercial deposits. Significantly, none of the known reefs of this generation
are calcareous; all are dolomite, and many are high-magnesium dolomite.
The Camden Generation
Several large known reefs in northern Indiana, including the Camden reef
are of this generation, the third generation for part of the Great Lakes area. The
large reefs at Lapel, Madison County, and at Huntington, Huntington County,
are believed to be of this generation. Drilling data indicate that their roots are at
or near the base of the Louisville Limestone. Because of their large size, they are
among the most important reefs for commercial mining in Indiana.
Reefs of this generation apparently grew with little hindrance from
incoming impurities deposited in the Louisville, but the seas were probably of
above-average salinity during deposition of the middle part of the Louisville, a
time of evaporite deposition in the Michigan Basin, which restricted the growth
of some reefs and probably caused the termination of many.
The third generation of reefs presents a lithologic mystery for Indiana reefs.
Most reefs of Indiana have been thoroughly dolomitized, but the thickest known
section of high-calcium limestone in Indiana, that in SDH 262 in the Camden
reef, was deposited in a reef of this generation. There is little evident difference in
the stratigraphy at the Camden reef and other dolomitized reefs of this
generation. But the eroded tops at the bedrock surface of the larger reefs of this
generation are at different stratigraphic levels. Available chemical analyses
show few compositional differences or at least no obvious pattern of variable
composition in the substrate and interreef rocks near the limestone reefs as
compared with those near the dolomite reefs.
Large reefs of the third generation offer excellent promise as commercial
sources of both high-magnesium dolomite and high-calcium limestone.
Other generations
Two large reefs of the fourth generation, one at Bluffton, Wells County,
and the other at the Pipe Creek Jr quarry in southwestern Grant County, have
roots in upper Louisville limestone. The Pipe Creek Jr reef has a surface
diameter of about a mile, and a 139-foot section of high-calcium limestone
averaging less than 2 percent noncarbonate impurities has been core drilled on
the south flank of the reef. The large dolomitic reef at Bluffton has been quarried
for aggregate for many years. Cores at this reef show an earlier and apparently
separate episode of third-generation reefing in basal Louisville limestone. Large
fourth-generation reefs, such as Bluffton and Pipe Creek Jr, are prime
exploration targets for commercial stone reserves.
Small reefs of this generation with slightly younger beginnings in silty and
argillaceous dolomite of the Mississinewa Shale Member of the Wabash
Formation are present in large numbers in the Wabash Valley east of
Logansport. As many as five reefs per square mile are exposed east of Lagro,
Wabash County. Obvious commercial disadvantages are their small size and,
Geography and Geology 291
for some, their mixed composition. Few known Wabash Valley reefs of this
generation are more than one-third of a mile in diameter in their maximum
dimension or are much more than a hundred feet thick. Their reserves for
commercial exploitation are limited, usually less than those required for a
modern permanent quarry.
A reef of the youngest Indiana generation, the fifth, has been identified by
core drilling in Cass County about 10 miles northeast of the Camden reef and 3
miles west of Logansport on the south bank of the Wabash River. The reef,
although small, contains high-calcium limestone.
From present knowledge, the fifth-generation reefs, originating in Salina
rocks in Indiana, offer the least potential for large reserves of high-calcium
limestone or high-magnesium dolomite. This is due to their small size and the
limited geographic distribution of Salina rocks on the Wabash Platform.
Literature Cited
1. Ault, C. H., L. E. Becker, J. B. Droste, S. J. Keller, and R. H. Shaver. 1976. Map of Indiana
showing thickness of Silurian rocks and location of reefs and reef-induced structures. Indiana
Geol. Surv. Misc. Map 22.
2. Droste, J. B., and R. H. Shaver. 1977. Synchronization of deposition: Silurian reef-bearing rocks
on Wabash Platform with cyclic evaporites of Michigan Basin. American Assoc. Pet. Geol. Studies
in Geol. No. 5. p. 93-109.
3. Cumings, E. R., and R. R. Shrock. 1928. The geology of the Silurian rocks of northern Indiana.
Indiana Dept. Conserv. Pub. 75. 226 p.
4. Indiana University Paleontology Seminar (1976-77). In prep. Stratigraphy, structure, and
zonation of the Silurian reef at Delphi, Indiana.
5. Shaver, R. H. 1976. Indiana portion of guidebook for field trip on Silurian reefs, interreef facies,
and faunal zones of northern Indiana and northeastern Illinois. Geol. Soc. America, North-Central
Sec, and Western Michigan Univ. p. 1-27.
6. , 1976. Log of core from Indiana Geological Survey Drill Hole 269. Unpublished core
description, Indiana Geol. Surv. 5 p.
Mineral Resource Considerations In A Regional Management Plan
Peter L. Calengas, Geology Department
Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois 61455
Abstract
An evaluation of Indiana Planning and Development Region 6 (Blackford,
Delaware, Grant, Henry, Jay, Madison, and Randolph Counties) land-use
plans reveals that continued availability of mineral resources necessary for
future growth has received little consideration.
Mineral resource data indicate that the construction materials sand and
gravel and crushed stone are abundant but irregularly distributed throughout
the region.
Much of the difficulty facing future mineral development would be
removed, and prospects for an adequate supply would be improved, if potential
mineral producing areas were designated as dual-use districts, such as
agricultural-mineral resource district, industrial-mineral resource district, and
flood plain-mineral resource district.
Introduction
In regions undergoing rapid urban expansion, special problems are
inevitable in planning land-use and zoning. Many environmental considerations
have some geologic base — water supply, disposal of solid and liquid wastes,
flooding, erosion, mineral resources, and others. This paper addresses mineral
resources that are esential to the economy of urban areas. Of the many types of
mineral resources, those that present special problems in urban area are the low-
cost, high bulk, construction materials — crushed stone and sand and gravel.
Every community desires to have low-cost materials for construction and
development, but few citizens individually wish to live near or be bothered by the
quarries, pits, mines, and processing plants that produce the materials. Local
planning efforts to solve this problem are commonly directed toward removing
the problem from the immediate environs. The common effect is to intensify the
problem elsewhere. Most community and county plans and zoning ordinance do
not provide for the production of mineral resources except to recognize the
existence of present mineral-producing activities. It is difficult to obtain
approval for extension of such operations, and it is sometimes virtually
impossible in many locations to secure permission to open new deposits. As
urbanization proceeds, land use other than minerals production spreads across
the potential producing areas, making it unlikely that new mineral production
will be permitted. The only way to secure adequate supply of such minerals for
future needs is to classify those limited areas that contain the mineral resources
in such way that appropriate reserves will be maintained.
292
Geography and Geology 293
The Region
Indiana Planning and Development Region 6, includes seven eastern and
northeastern counties — Blackford, Delaware, Grant, Henry, Jay, Madison, and
Randolph. The population of the region is 472,606, or 9. 10 percent of the state's
total population (13). The region includes two Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Areas (SMSA's), Anderson with a population of 138,45 1 people and
Muncie with a population of 129,219 people (13). The region is expected to
undergo a moderate to high (9.5 to 17.3) percentage increase in population
for the period 1970 to 2000 (13).
The future demand for mineral aggregate resources can be estimated by the
increase in contract construction in the region. Data for the Anderson SMSA
indicate a 121-percent change, and for Muncie a 70-percent change in contract
construction for 1971-1990, ranking the Anderson and Muncie SMSA's third
and tenth in the state respectively (6).
Methods
The sand and gravel resource potential of Region 6 (Fig. 1) was determined
by compiling and reconciling information from the Muncie and Cincinnati 1° x
2° quadrangle sheets (2 and 3); engineering soils maps of Delaware, Grant, and
Madison Counties (11, 7, 10); water well logs from the Division of Water,
Indiana Department of Natural Resources; and soil maps of Delaware (4),
Madison (9), Randolph (1), Grant (5), and Blackford (12) Counties.
In addition, all of the available water-well logs were checked to locate sand
and gravel deposits at reasonable depths (less than 50 feet) and with no more
than 20 feet of overlying material, such as tough glacial till, that is difficult and
costly to remove. These wells are not plotted on Figure 1; they occur not only in
the designated prospective sand and gravel producing areas (Fig. 1), but also
outside these areas (till).
The crushed stone resources (Fig. 1) were compiled by plotting depth to
bedrock from water well logs, oil and gas wells, and seismic records and then
drawing isopach contours for 100 feet, 50 feet, and 25 feet of overburden
thickness. Figure 1 shows only the less-than-50-feet isopach contour.
The Zoning Map of Region 6 (Fig. 3) was compiled by obtaining the zoning
maps of the townships and cities (where available) of Region 6. The different
zoning districts within corporate city limits are not shown on the map. The
urban, built-up areas of the region include lands classified as residential districts,
although some are classified as business, industrial, and commercial districts.
Results
Sand and Gravel Resources
The prospective sand and gravel resources (Fig. 1) occurs as out wash-plain,
valley train, and kame and esker deposits.
Most of the outwash-plain deposits occur mainly in the southern third of
Delaware County and in southern Randolph County. The largest outwash-plain
areas are west and southwest of Muncie. The sand and gravel outwash deposits
are highly variable, some areas being essentially all sand and other gravel.
294
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 1.
The valley train deposits of the region are located along the numerous rivers
and streams that occur in the region. The principal valley train deposits of the
region occur in Henry County along the Big Blue and Flatrock Rivers. The
valleys of these rivers are rather wide for the size of the streams, and sand and
gravel deposits form terraces on either side of the streams. The terraces are 10 to
15 feet above the adjacent floot plain, and the overbuden over much of the
deposits range in thickness from 0 to 25 feet.
The kame and esker deposits of the region are highly variable. The eskers
occur as long sinuous ridges in a general north-south direction south of
Anderson and north of Muncie. The kames occur as rounded hill-like forms and
as complexes in southwestern Henry and northwestern Jay Counties, and as
small topographic highs in many parts of the region.
Crushed Stone Resources
The principal crushed stone resources of the region are to be found in
Silurian reef rocks of the Huntington Lithofacies of the Wabash Formation, and
Geography and Geology
295
20Miles
'onian rocks
Liston Creek Limestone
Mbr. of Wabash Fm.
Limberlosf Dolomite,
Salamonie Dolomite,and
Brassfield Limestone
Ord
ovician
rocks
■
Mississinewa Shale Mbr.of Wabash Fm.
Louisville Limestone, and Wa Idron Fm.,
M, base of Mississinewa Shale Mbr.
Figure 2.
in the Liston Creek Limestone Member of the Wabash, the Louisville
Limestone, the Limberlost Dolomite, and the Salamonie Dolomite (Fig. 2). The
Devonian rocks below the glacial drift in southern Madison County have only a
limited potential. The Ordovician rocks have no economic potential as an
aggregate source, as they are too inaccessible and occur as exposures only along
buried valleys where the glacial drift is thickest. Two of these deep buried valleys
occur in the region (Fig. 2).
296
Indiana Academy of Science
The prospective crushed stone producing areas of the region are situated
where the Silurian rock units are overlain by shallow drift (less than 50 feet) (Fig.
1).
The region as a whole has adequate aggregate supplies, but they are not
equally or uniformly distributed in each of the counties of the region.
Land-Use Plans
For the purpose of this report, the present land-use classification for the
region is simplified into three types of districts, the agricultural, the urban, built-
up, and the incorporated (Fig. 3). The urban built-up and incorporated areas
show the extent of urbanization of the region. Most of the urban built-up and
incorporated areas are classified by the individual city and county zoning
ordinances as residential land use districts, although other land uses such as
business, industry, and commerce are allowed in certain parts of the urban built-
up and incorporated districts.
Marion
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Figure 3.
Geography and Geology 297
In general, mineral extraction operations are not allowed in areas classified
as urban built-up, as these operations cannot be located closer than 300 feet to a
residence. Therefore, in areas such as the rapidly urbanizing Muncie and
Anderson metropolitan areas, land-use conflicts could arise, as the two areas are
growing toward each other (Fig. 3).
Present land-use classifications do not recognize minerals production as
essential. Approval for mineral development can be obtained only through an
Exception Use Permit, after meeting strict regulations for city and county
zoning ordinances.
Conclusions
Mineral resource data indicate that the construction materials sand and
gravel and crushed stone are abundant but irregularly distributed throughout
the region.
In order to assure an adequate future supply and to prevent possible future
land use conflicts, I propose that certain areas where mineral resource potential
exists (Fig. 1) be set aside, and classified as a dual use zone district such as
agriculture-mineral resource district, industrial-mineral resource district, or
residential-mineral resource district. This takes extractive operations within the
regulations rather than as a non-conforming Use or special exception. This dual
classification would accomplish two things: ( 1) it would make it easier to obtain
an operating permit to expand new operations, and (2) it would define certain
areas or tracts for sequential use, that is from agriculture to mineral production
to recreational-residential; going from low cost development to high cost
development.
The above recommendation can be adopted as part of the land-use element
in the Regional Development Plan now being formulated by the Region 6
Planning and Development Commission.
Literature Cited
1. Buckannan, W. H. et al., 1931. Soil survey of Randolph County, Indiana: United States
Department of Agriculture, 36 p.
2. Burger, A. M., et al., 1971. Regional Geologic May No. 5, Muncie Sheet, Indiana Geological
Survey.
3. Gray, H. H., et al., 1972. Regional Geologic Map No. 7, Cincinnati Sheet, Indiana Geological
Survey.
4. Huffman, K. K. 1972. Soil Survey of Delaware County, Indiana: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Soil Conservation Service, 66p.
5. Hurst, L. A., et al., 1917. Soil Survey of Grant County, Indiana: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
36p.
6. Marcus, M., 1977. Estimated percentage change in contract construction for 1971 to 1990:
Indiana University School of Business.
7. McLerran, J. H., 195 L Engineering soils map. Grant County, Indiana: Joint Highway Research
Project, Purdue University (map).
8. Region 8 Planning and Development Commission, 1977. Region 6 population projections by
county.
298 Indiana Academy of Science
9. Schermerhorn, E. J., et al., 1967. Soil Survey of Madison County, Indiana: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, 89p.
10. Shurig, D. G., 1968. Engineering soils map of Madison County, Indiana: Joint Highway Research
Project No. E-36-51B, 21 p.
11. 1974. Engineering soils map of Delaware County, Indiana: Joint Highway Research
Project, JHRP-74-7, Purdue University, Indiana State Highway Commission, 57p.
12. Tharp, W. E., and Bacon, 1928. Soil survey of Blackford County, Indiana: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, 41 p.
13. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970. Population Census for 1970.
Application of Geology to Land Use Planning,
Clinton County, Indiana
Ellen E. Otto, Tennessee Valley Authority
Engineering Geology Section, Chattanooga, Tennessee 37401
Terry R. West, Dept. of Geosciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
To provide a suitable base for developing a land use plan for Clinton
County, Indiana, detailed data on the significant physical and cultural aspects of
the area have been compiled for easy access (5). This inventory of physical and
cultural characteristics provides planners with a detailed overview of the
County, presented in map, table and text format. These materials can be used
singly or in combination for various land use evaluations, the procedure
depending upon the interaction of that use with the environment. Information is
presented in an appropriate format which can be understood and interpreted by
specialists and non-specialists alike.
Setting
In the current study, Clinton County, Indiana was chosen because of its
location adjacent to a fast-growing sector of the state. Located approximately 40
miles northwest of Indianapolis and 20 miles east of Lafayette it is bordered by
Boone, Hamilton and Tippecanoe Counties which are experienceing major
population growth. By providing a suitable information base for Clinton
County prior to expansion, land use planning can proceed in an orderly manner
and geologic factors can be included in the decision making process.
The physiography of Clinton County is a result of Wisconsin age glacial
deposition. The County is contained within the Tipton Till Plain division of the
Central Lowlands Physiographic Province. This till plain, of youthful
topography, is characterized by a gently undulating to moderately rolling
surface. The maximum relief, caused by stream dissection, occurs within one
mile of the major drainages. The valley flats commonly are less than one-half
mile wide. Away from the drainage channels there has been little modification of
the surface by Holocene drainage development.
Local relief is greater in the northern part of the county because of
dissection associated with the larger drainage channels in that sector. The land
surface displays a regional slope to the northwest, toward the base level set by
the Wabash River. Maximum total relief is approximately 300 feet, with a
maximum local relief of about 70 feet occurring along portions of the South
Fork Wildcat Creek. Bluffs 20 to 50 feet are common along most of the other
drainage channels.
299
300 Indiana Academy of Science
Methodology
A review of literature concerned with urban planning, land use
development, and engineering and environmental geology was undertaken to
determine those physical characteristics which were most valuable to land use
planning. The topics included for study were those pertaining to Clinton County
and suited for presentation in a map format.
Topics selected to convey general information about the county include
generalized topography, bedrock geology, bedrock topography, drainage
channels and watershed boundaries. Topics useful for land use planning
included surficial geology, glacial drift thickness, gravel resources, soil
association, piezometric surface, well yield, transportation systems, present land
use and depth to seasonal high water table. Some of these topics were combined
into a single map for convenience of presentation.
Map sources of information for the various topics ranged in scale from
1:24,000 to 1:500,000. A uniform scale was needed which would result in a base
map of manageable size, yet convey sufficiently detailed information to be
useful. A scale of 1 inch = 1 mile or 1 :63,360 was chosen. To achieve this scale, the
fourteen USGS lx/i minute topographic quadrangle maps which comprise
Clinton County were reduced to 38% of their original size, combined into a
mosaic, and the base map prepared from that mosaic. This produced a map with
dimensions of \lx/i" x 17" page size convenient for presentation. The final scale
after reduction was approximately 1:150,000. The Depth to Seasonal High
Water Table Map was presented at the original scale of 1:63,360 because of its
considerable detail and the useful information it provides at that scale.
Several sources of information were used in preparation of the topical
maps. The USGS 7!/2 minute quadrangle provided information for the 50-foot
contour-interval, generalized topography map, for drainage channels and
watershed boundaries and for the transportation systems map. Pipeline
locations for the transportation map were obtained from the "Map of Indiana
Showing Oil, Gas and Products Pipelines" (4). Present land use was modified
from a published report of consultants (3) with floodplain limits modified from
the Danville Geologic Quadrangle (7) using 1939 black and whiteairphotosata
scale of approximately 1:21,000.
Bedrock geology was obtained from the Danville Geologic Quadrangle (7),
and combined with bedrock topography as modified from a bedrock
topography map of northern Indiana (1). Modifications were made based on
logs of wells drilled to bedrock which are recorded with the Indiana Department
of Natural Resources (DNR), Division of Water, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Surficial geology was modified from the preliminary and published sheets
of the Danville Geologic Quadrangle (7). These modifications were
accomplished using airphoto interpretation. Glacial drift thickness, depicted
with a 50-foot contour interval was added to the map. Drift thickness was based
on wells penetrating bedrock (DNR information) and on published information
(6).
Well records from the Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Water were
used to produce the potential well-yield map and the piezometric surface map
Geography and Geology
301
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3. Natural soil drainage: PO (poorly drained), SPD (somewhat poorly drained). Others considered were moderately well and
well drained.
4. Subject to periodic flooding unless protected by dikes or levees.
5. Organic areas 1n low landscape positions with or without surface outlets.
6. Percent tillable, Classes I-IV by SCS Land Capability Classification.
7. Present average yield on Classes I-IV (better row-crop soils) without Irrigation.
8-11. Present' average yields on Classes I-VII (all soils) without Irrigation. For yields on Class I-IV only, multiply values
1n col. 7 by .35 for soybeans, by .40 for wheat and divide by 30 for hay (tons).
12. Percent potential increase over yields 1n cols. 8-11 with excellent management 1n best growing seasons.
13. Productivity index ■ average gross return minus production and conservation costs (highest Index ■ 100).
14-16. Col. 14. 1 (slight) to 4 (severe); col. 15. 1 (slight) to 3 (severe); col. 16, 1 (low) to 4 (high) response for grains.
17. Muck soils (usually over 30* organic matter) not included In calculation. No percent OM given for Assn. 108.
18. Soils with slight and moderate limitations by SCS system. Rest have severe limitations.
19-23. Land use calculated from Indiana soil and water conservation needs Inventory data for 1958.
Geography and Geology 303
for the County. The piezometric surface map was presented at a 50-foot contour
interval.
The map showing soil associations was prepared from map information of the
Agricultural Experimental Station/ Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue
University (2). The Depth to Seasonal High Water Table Map was prepared
from advanced field sheets provided by the Clinton County office of the Soil
Conservation Service and through detailed photo interpretation of the 1939
black and white airphotos of the County.
Results
The maps, tables and text of the complete report can be used for various
phases of land use planning in Clinton County, Indiana (5). The maps can be
used individually or in combination to make evaluations, depending upon the
type of land use anticipated. For this discussion, general interpretations of
various topical mpas are presetned as they relate to specific land uses. The
purpose is to illustrate the value of the mapped information during initial phases
of land use evaluations. The information is generalized and can only provide a
starting point for planning. Because of the extreme variability of actual physical
conditions and the small scale at which information was gathered, specific site
investigations should also be performed before site selection is finalized.
A map of the general soil associations of Clinton County (Figure 1)
provides an overview of the soil types, textures, drainage characteristics, slope
and parent material types. This map, used in combination with data from the
Agricultural Experiment Station/ Cooperative Extension Service for each soil
association, (Table 1) can provide information about yields for various crops,
productivity of the soil, potential for wind or water erosion, percent of land
surface suited for septic systems and the current type of land use found
predominantly within a particular soil association. The descriptions of the soil
association also include soils formed on floodplains, but these areas are
excluded from development owing to the potential for flooding.
Because the soil is directly involved with many aspects of land use, a map
showing more detail than the general soils map can be very useful for planning.
A detailed map at a scale of 1:63,360 was prepared using one characteritic of the
soil, the depth to seasonal high water table, as the mapping unit (5). Soil wetness
and drainage characteristics are important in determining what uses are
acceptable for specific soils. For examle, soils with a depth to seasonal high
water table of 0-1 foot would not be suited for a use as septic filter fields because
of the need for a dry, permeable soil for absorption. Other uses, such as
basement construction, would require special construction designs, such as
waterproofing, and possibly drainage in soils with a high water table. The detail
provided by this map can supply valuable information for many land uses and
designate areas where corrective design would be needed to overcome wetness
problems.
An important resource for urban development is a supply of sand and
gravel. The map of the surficial geology and glacial drift thickness (Figure 2)
shows areas of potential supply. Valley train and kame deposits have a good
304
Indiana Academy of Science
Geography and Geology
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Geography and Geology 307
potential for sand and gravel production, with a moderate source available from
alluvial deposits.
The drift thickness contous on the surface geology map show that bedrock
is not found within 50 feet of the surface, therefore, no bedrock will be
encountered during normal foundation construction. This is an important
consideration in estimating costs for excavation.
Development of industry or residential areas requires a good source of
water. In Clinton County, that source is ground water. A map of the potential
well-yield (Figure 3) shows areas where yields of 0-50 gpm and yields of over 50
gpm may be expected. The areas are generalized and yields cannot be
guaranteed. However, the map does provide a starting point in the search for an
adequate water supply for commercial or domestic use.
The map of the piezometric surface (Figure 4) shows the elevations to which
the ground water will rise under artesian pressure. Using this map in
combination with topographic map information (available from the 7'/2 minute
quadrangles of the county) depth to the static water surface in a well can be
determined. The actual aquifer may be deeper, with the static water level
reaching a higher elevation because of the artesian conditions. However, the
position of the piezometric surface can provide information regarding how
much lift will be needed to pump water to the surface.
The general direction of ground water flow can also be determined from the
piezometric surface map as flow occurs perpendicular to the contours and in the
down-slope direction. Flow direction becomes important in the location of
water supply wells which should be upgradient from likely sources of
contamination, such as septic filter fields. Also a sanitary landfill shoud not be
sited where the regional ground water flow is through the fill material.
Along with information and maps of the physical characteristics of Clinton
County, the cultural or man-made features also provide an important aspect for
the land use planner. It is necessary to know where past development has taken
place so patterns of growth can be determined and suitable areas for new
development can be located.
A map of transportation systems (Figure 5) locates the pipelines,
transmission lines, railroads and highways of the county. Developing industry
will wish to locate near ready access to one or more of these transportation
systems depending upon the specific needs. Frankfort is an important railway
center with lines extending to all parts of the state. Rapid access statewide is also
provided by Interstate 65 which crosses the southwestern part of the county.
Other state and federal highways provide ready access to nearby cities of
Lafayette, Kokomo, Lebanon and Indianapolis, as well as other parts of the
state. The transportation map is also helpful in planning residential areas so easy
access to the development will be possible.
The map of present land use (Figure 6) shows areas of urban development,
industry, parks and institutions and agricultural areas. Industrial development
would be best suited in areas where industry is already located, assuming the
physical characteristics are suited for that type of development. Also the pattern
of urban development can be determined from this map. Recent "strip
308
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310 Indiana Academy of Science
development" has taken place along the major highways with residential
housing expanding in a linear fashion from the major towns. An example, is the
pattern of growth of south of Frankfort to Antioch along state road 38, 39. This
type of "strip development" if not planned, results in problems of extending
municipal services for a great distance to serve a limited number of people.
Development along a transportation route also limits access to lands beyond
this "strip" for future development.
The land use map also delineates floodplains, those areas which should not
be used for development except for agriculture, open space or perhaps certain
recreational uses which would not be greatly affected by occasional flooding.
Cemeteries are located on the land use map because of the need to avoid these
areas for most types of development.
Conclusion
A brief overview has been presented to show some specific uses of the
various maps of physical and cultural aspects of Clinton County, Indiana. Using
the extensive inventory of the County (5), planners can make more appropriate
decisions related to land use. Before any final land use decisions are made, a
more detailed on-site investigation would be required. However, the
information in this report provides a proper starting point for analysis,
streamlines the procedure and insures the consideration of geologic and other
physical factors in the decision-making process.
Literature Cited
1. Burger, A. M, S. J. Keller and W. J. Wayne, 1966. Map showing bedrock topography of
northern Indiana. Misc. Map 12, Ind. Geol. Surv., Bloomington, Indiana, scale 1:500,000.
2. Cooperation Extension Service/ Agricultural Experiment Station and the Soil
Conservation Service, USDA, 1971. General soil map and interpretation table for Clinton
County, Indiana. Purdue Extension Publ. AY-50-12, scale 1:190,080.
3. Huff, Carpenter, Ross Associates, 1974. Frankfort-Clinton County comprehensive plan. South
Bend, Indiana.
4. Keller, S. J., 1973. Map of Indiana showing oil, gas and products pipelines. Misc. Map 18, Ind.
Geol. Surv., Bloomington, Indiana, scale 1:500,000.
5. Otto, E. E., 1977. Engineering and environmental geology of Clinton County, Indiana. M.S.
Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana. 118 p.
6. Wayne, W. J., 1956. Thickness of drift and bedrock physiography of Indiana north of the
Wisconsin glacial boundary. Report of Progress 7, Ind. Geol. Surv., Bloomington, Indiana, 70 p.
7. Wayne, W. J., G. H. Johnson, and S. J. Keller, 1966. Geologic map of the Danville 1° x 2°
Quadrangle, Indiana and Illinois, showing bedrock and unconsolidated deposits Regional Geol.
Map No. 2, Ind. Geol. Surv., scale 1:250,000.
The Effects of Strip Mine Blasting
On Residential Structures Ayrshire Mine
Warrick and Vanderburgh Counties, Indiana
Jack Barnes, Geologist
Purpose
Investigation of numerous complaints regarding structural damage to
residences in the vicinity of the Ayrshire Mine, Warrick County, Indiana (Figure
# 1 ), prompted a twelve-month study into the nature and cause (or causes) of this
widespread and severe damage. Data were collected from November 1976
through May 1977. The cumulative effects of repeated strip mine blasting were
thought to be the most probable cause of this damage, and a study was designed
to confirm or disapprove this belief.
LOCATION MAP
AYRSHIRE MINE
WARRICK COUNTY, INDIANA
Figure 1.
It is known that shock waves from a blast radiate outward in all directions
from the source, and that the force decreases with an increase in distance from
the blast. In a homogeneous medium shock waves radiate from a blast source in
a spherical front. Therefore, distance from the blast area should be the prime
factor influencing structural failure.
311
312 Indiana Academy of Science
If strip mine blasting were the dominant cause for this widespread
residential damage a similar halo pattern of concentric destruction radiating
outward from the blast source should be apparent within the area studied.
Damage should decrease with an increase in distance from the mine face where
blasting occurs. This study was designed to test this hypothesis.
Area Studied
The area studied consists of rolling farm land and low-lying bottom land
situated in western Warrick and eastern Vanderburgh Counties of Southwestern
Indiana (Figure 1). Much of the western portion of the area is situated on an
ancient lake bed that is now filled with 80-120 feed of unconsolidated alluvium.
Ths fill rests of Paleozoic beds of shale, sandstone and siltstone.
Strip mine operations at the Ayrshire Mine involve blasting and removal of
70-90 feet of siltstone, sandstone, shale and limestone that overlie the upper and
lower Millersburg coals of Pennsylvanian Age. Blasting occurs within one mile
of the lake bed alluvium.
Approximately 1300 homes are located within the survey area. Most
residences are one-story, bungalow-type homes containing 1000-1500 square
feet. Most have basements (62%), while construction type is divided between
frame (36%), brick-block (43%) and combination (21%). The homes examined
range from two years of age to log homes more than 100 years old.
Method of Study
A Home Damage Report form was devised to indicate location and type of
damage, age of house, construction type, blast frequency, etc. (Figure 2). Mobile
homes were not considered to be anchored to the ground firmly enough to
register the strains applied to a standard home during blasting operations and
were not included in this survey. Mobile homes were also excluded from a
similar study of blasting damage conducted for the Atomic Energy Commission
in 1973.
The strip mine blasting area (high wall), bordering trench and mined-out area
associated with the Ayrshire Mining operation, were located and plotted on a
U.S. Geological Survey topographic map through ground investigation and
overflight. Survey grid lines were then established along county roads indicated
on a topographic map of the area.
Concerned neighbors, students and parishioners of St. John's Catholic
church formed survey teams of one or two persons each. These investigators
were instructed in map reading and in completing Home Damage Reports. Each
survey team was given a topographic map of the area on which they located each
home with a number that matched the corresponding Home Damage Report
number. Surveyors were instructed to take random samples located
approximately one-half mile apart along established grid lines. Clustering of
data in some areas was unavoidable because they were the only data available.
Many homes close to the mine were owned by Amax Coal Company, or had
been abandoned by the previous owners, resulting in an unavoidable scarcity of
data within one mile of the Ayrshire Mine. A total of 169 homes were surveyed,
Geography and Geology 313
Figure 2
Date
Report No
HOME DAMAGE REPORT
Home Owner Age of Home.
Address Phone
Distance from Ayrshire Mine In Feet
Number of Rooms (Exclusive of Basement)
Basement ( ) Yes; ( ) No.
Water Well ( ) Yes; ( ) No.
Construction: ( ) Frame ( ) Block ( ) Brick ( ) Combination
Basement:
A. Square Footage
B. Number of Hairline Cracks
C. Number of Cracks Larger than Hairline
D. Number of Cracks Longer than 5 ft
E. Number of Horizontal Cracks Longer than 5 ft.
F. Total of Number of Cracks
9. Living Area Above Ground:
A. Number of Floors
B. Square Footage
C. Number of Hairline Cracks
D. Number of Cracks Larger Than Hairline.
E. Number of Crakes Longer than 5 ft
F. Number of Horizontal Cracks Longer than 5 ft
G. Number of Horizontal Cracks at Junction of Wall and Ceiling
H. Total Number of Cracks
10. According to the homeowner, have cracks increased in width, length or number since the opening
of the Ayrshire Mine?
Width: ( ) Yes ( ) No
Length: ( ) Yes ( ) No
Number: ( ) Yes ( ) No
11. Record any other damage that has occurred since blasting at the Ayrshire Mine commenced.
(Damaged water wells or cisterns, porches, stoops, chimneys that have cracked or separated from the
house; doors or windows that no longer fit, abundant chipped bricks, etc.)
12. How many times a week is your home shaken by blasting?.
13. Does blasting occur at night? ( ) Yes; ( ) No.
on Sunday? ( ) Yes; ( ) No.
(Signed) Examiner)
(Signed) Homeowner
in an area including an estimated 1300 homes which were indicated on the most
recent topographic maps of the area. Of these, six were discarded because the
home owner or resident did not attest the survey form with his (or her) signature.
Sites unusually close to each other were occasionally combined as representative
314 Indiana Academy of Science
of that particular area. (Points 82 and 147 represent two and five homes
respectively). Lack of funds, time and personnel resulted in a more concentrated
random sample of data points within a four-mile belt trending approximately
north-south and parallel with the mine face, which is located to the east of
sampled area. Data were cross-checked for accuracy and plotted on a
topographic map of the area as survey teams returned from the field.
The data were divided into the following categories and color coded on a
topographic base map according to the nautre and extent of damage reported.
a. Blasts not felt — no damage reported (yellow)
b. Blasts felt — no damage reported (green)
c. Blasts felt — damage reported
1. Sub-surface damage
a. Damage to water wells, septic tanks and cisterns (blue)
b. Damage to basement floors, basement walls and foundations
(red)
2. Surface damage
a. Damage to windows, doors, porches, patios and garage
floors (orange)
b. Damage to living area walls, fireplaces, chimneys and brick
or stone veneer (black)
One-mile zones were then drawn around the blasting area measuring from
the high wall shown in Figure 3.
Percentages of homes reporting each type damage reported in Figure 3 were
calculated in each one-mile blast ring. The blast ring effect that is indicated
resulted from these calculations.
These are as follows:
Zone I 12 of 12 homes surveyed reported damage 100%
Zone II 38 of 42 homes surveyed reported damage 91%
Zone III 38 of 42 homes surveyed reported damage 64%
Zone IV 14 of 35 homes surveyed reported damage 40%
Zone V 9 of 19 homes surveyed reported damage 47%
Zone VI 11 of 15 homes surveyed reported damage 73%
Observations of home characteristics were assembled from the surveys
located in each zone and summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary — Home Damage Survey
1. Age of Structure
5 Years Old:
Zone I = 2/12(17%); II = 0/42 (0%); III = 5/38 (13%); IV = 2/35 (6%); V = 0/ 19(0%); VI = 2/ 15
(13%).
5-10 Years Old:
Zone I = 2/ 12(17%); II = 6/42 (14%); III = 5/38 (13%); IV = 5/35 (14%); V = 2/ 19(10%); VI =
1/15(7%).
11-20 Years Old:
Zone 1= 1/12(8%); II = 8/42 (19%); III = 7/38 (19%); IV = 8/35 (23%); V = 10/ 19 (53%); VI =
4/15(27%).
Geography and Geology 315
Table 1. Summary— Home Damage Survey (continued)
21-40 Years Old:
Zone 1 = 4/12 (33%); II = 21/42 (50%); 111=13/38 (34%); I V = 9/ 35 (26%); V = 6/ 1 9 (32%); VI =
6/15 (40%).
Over 40 Years Old:
Zone 1 = 3/12 (25%); II = 7/42 (17%); III = 8/38 (21%); IV = 1 1/35 (31%); V = 1/ 19 (5%); VI =
2/15(13%).
2. Construction
More Than One Story Above Ground Level:
Zone 1 = 3/12 (25%); II = 8/41 (20%); III = 9/39 (23%); IV =10/35 (29%); V = 5/ 19 (26%); VI =
6/15 (40%).
Homes With Basements:
Zone 1=7/12 (58%); II = 32/42(76%); 111= 13/39(33%); IV = 24/35(69%); V = 1 1/ 19(58%); VI
= 12/15(80%).
Frame Construction:
Zone I = 7/ 12(58%); 11= 15/42 (36%); III =19/ 38 (50%); IV= 11/35 (31%); V = 4/ 19 (21%); VI =
3/15(20%).
Brick- Block-Stone Construction:
Zone I =5/12 (42%); 11= 19/42(45%); 111= 13/38(34%); IV = 17/35 (49%); V= 10/ 19(53%); VI
= 5/ 15 (33%).
Combination Construction:
Zone 1 = 0/12(0%); 11 = 8/42(19%); 111 = 6/38(16%); IV = 7/35 (20%); V = 5/ 19 (26%); VI =
7/15(47%).
3. Homes Indicating Surface or Subsurface Structural Failure
Zone I = 12/ 12 (100%); II = 38/42 (91%); III = 25/39 (64%); IV = 14/35 (40%); V = 9/ 19 (47%);
VI = 11/15 (73%).
4. Subsurface Failure — Basement Cracked
Basement Cracked:
Zone 1 = 3/7(43%); 11 = 26/32 (81%); III = 3/ 13 (25%); IV = 7/24 (29%); V = 3/ 1 1 (37%); VI =
5/12(42%).
More Than Two Cracks Larger Than Hairline:
Zone I = 1/5 (20%); 11= 15/31 (49%); 111 = 2/ 13(15%); IV= 1/24(4%); V = 0/ 10(0%); VI = 0/ 1 1
(0%).
More Than Two Cracks Longer Than Five Feet:
Zone I = 1/5 (20%); 11 = 7/31 (23%); 111 = 0/13 (0%); I V = 1/24 (4%); V = 0/ 10 (0%); VI = 0/ 1 1
(0%).
More Than Two Cracks:
Zone 1= 1/5(20%); 11 = 21/31 (68%); 111 = 2/13(15%); IV = 4/24 (17%); V = 0/ 10 (0%); VI =
4/ 1 1 (36%).
5. Surface Failure— Living Area Above Ground Level Cracked
Living Area Above Ground Cracked:
Zone I = 11/ 12(92%); 11 = 32/42(76%); 111= 20/39(51%); IV = 9/35(26%); V = 6/ 19(32%); Vl =
10/15(67%).
More Than Two Cr-acks Larger Than Hairline:
Zone 1 = 5/12 (42%); II = 15/42 (36%); III = 8/39 (20%); IV = 4/35 ( 1 1%); V = 0, 19 (0%); VI =
0/15(0%).
More Than Two Cracks Longer Than Three Feet:
Zone 1 = 2/12(17%); 11= 14/42(33%); 111 = 7/39(18%); IV = 3/35 (9%); V = 0/ 19 (0%); VI =
0/15(0%).
316
Indiana Academy of Science
More Than Two Cracks:
Zone I = 10/ 12(83%); 11 = 26/42(62%); 111= 16/39(41%); IV = 6/35(17%); V = 3/ 19(16%); VI =
6/15 (40%).
More Than Four Cracks:
Zone I =8/ 12 (67%); II = 21/42 (50%); 111= 14/39(36%); IV = 6/35(17%); V = 2/ 19(10%); VI =
4/15(27%).
6. Homes Reporting Increase in Crack Width, Length or Number Since Opening of Ayrshire Mine
Zone I = 11/ 12 (92%); II =32/42(77%); 111= 18/39(46%); IV = 9/35 (26%); V = 3/ 19(16%); VI =
3/15(20%).
7. Blast Frequency
Home Shaken Less Than Five Times/ Week by Blasting:
Zone I = 3/ 10 (30%); II =11/38(29%); 111= 18/34(53%); IV = 19/32(59%); V= 14/ 18(78%); VI
= 13/14(92%).
Home Shaken Five To Ten Times/ Week By Blasting:
Zone I = 2/ 10 (20%); 11= 1 1/38 (29%); III = 10/34(29%); IV = 9/32(28%); V= 2/ 18(1 1%); VI =
1/14(7%).
Home Shaken More Than Ten Times/ Week By Blasting:
Zone 1 = 5/10 (50%); II = 16/ 38 (42%); III = 6/ 34 (18%); IV = 4/ 32 (13%); V = 2/ 18 ( 1 1%); VI =
0/ 14 (0%).
Home Reporting Sunday Blasting:
Zone I =3/9 (33%); 11= 13/40 (33%); 111 = 6/30(20%); IV = 3/26(12%); V = 2/7(39%); VI= 1/7
(14%).
Home Reporting Night Blasting:
Zone I = 5/ 10 (50%); II = 23/41 (56%); III = 20/39(51%); IV = 9/32 (28%); V = 8/ 14(57%); VI =
2/8 (25%).
DI5TRNCE FRDM RYR5HIRE MINE IN MILES
Figure 2.
Geography and Geology
317
i "
\J.
V '
1 ""• ^
7 !
! /
1
I /
EFFECTS OF STRIP MINE BLASTING
AYRSHIRE MINE
WARRICK COUNTY, INDIANA
O SHOCKS NOT FELT
D SHOCKS FELT- NO STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
CRACK WIDTH, LENGTH, OR NUMBER SINCE OPENING OF
Figure 3.
The data indicated a linear drop in damage effects with an increase in
distance from the mine face. These data were illustrated graphically in Figure 4.
Data concerning the nature, distribution and thickness of alluvium were
obtained from records of oil, coal and water tests in the area. This informatin
was obtained from The Indiana Geological Survey, Bloomington, Indiana; The
U.S. Geological Survey, Indianapolis, Indiana; Indiana State University
Evansville, Evansville, Indiana; and The Indiana Water Resources Division of
The Department of Conservation, Indianapolis, Indiana. An isopachous map of
unconsolidated fill, was constructed from data contained in approximately 130
wells and illustrated in Figure 5.
A geologic cross section of the surface geology within the area studied was
prepared to illustrate the effects of shock wave propagation in alluvium (Figure
6).
318
Indiana Academy of Science
z^U
2J3L2
r-
£
>
SlTtS WTTM THICKNESS (
ALLUVIUM THICKNESS
DAYLIGHT QUADRANGLE FIGURE 4.
COUNTIES
A profile of abnormal residential structure failure was constructed along
the geologic cross section A-A' to further illustrate the effects of repeated
blasting near thick water-soaked alluvium. These effects are illustrated in Figure
7.
Geologic Cross Section A-A
Vanderburgh 8 Warrick Co., Indiana .
1 ' '
40
■ ■ I ■ ■
35
■ ■ 1 ■ ■
30
. . , i .
25
Distance
1 ' 1 " ' '
20
- Feet X 1000
15
. . 1 i i
10
1 ' 1
5
Figure 5.
Geography and Geology
319
40
25 20
Distance- Feet X 1000
Figure 6.
Conclusions
This study was designed to prove or disprove the hypothesis that repeated
strip mine blasting at the Ayrshire Mine was responsible for the severe and
widespread structural failure observed in residences near the mine. The results of
the study prove the hypothesis. The dominant factor in residential structural
failure within three miles of the Ayrshire Mine is repeated blasting during
stripping operations at this mine. Within four miles of the blasting area
residential structural failure decreases linearly with distance from the mine face
(R2 = .96 to .99, depending on criteria measured) (Figure 4). Other possible
causes of structural failure such as freezing and thawing, age of house,
construction type, soil type, etc. are negligible, when compared with the
overwhelming effects of repeated strip mine blasting. Age has been largely
eliminated as a factor by the criteria established for abnormal structural failure.
Other factors in residential structural failure do not occur as a function of
distance from the mine face. Only the blast force occurs as a function of distance
from the mine face. The determination of whether this structural failure is due to
1) structural fatigue, 2) amplification or focusing of shock wave intensity in
alluvium, and/ or 3) subsidence due to repeated vibration was not within the
scope of this study. All of these possible explanations require additional
investigation. Nevertheless, the data gathered and anlayzed indicates that
blasting at the Ayrshire Mine is the cause of the abnormal residential structural
failure observed within three miles of the mine face.
320 Indiana Academy of Science
Acknowledgements
Dr. Robert Blakely, Professor of Geophysics, Indiana University.
Dr. Eugene Carden, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Alabama.
Dr. Frank Stanonis, Professor of Geology, Indiana State University.
Dr. Howard Dunn, Professor of Chemistry, Indiana State University.
Dr. Barbara Moses, Professor of Mathematics, Indiana State University.
Literature Cited
1. Howell, Benjamin F., Jr. 1959. Introduction to Geophysics McGraw-Hill Company, N.Y. 399 p.
2. Sholl, R. E. and Farhoomand, I. 1973. Statistical Correlation Of Observed Ground Motion With
Low Rise Building Component Damage. "Project Rulison", John A. Blume & Associates,
Research Division, San Francisco, California, 44 p.
3. Straw, W. T., Gray, Henry H. and Powell, Richard L. 1977. Environmental Geology of the
Evansville Area, Southwestern Indiana. #12 Special Report. Department of Natural Resources,
Bloomington, Indiana 8 p.
Bankfull Discharge of Indiana Streams
Steven D. Jansen
University of Illinois at Chicago Circle
Introduction
Bankfull discharge is considered an important parameter of stream
behavior for two reasons. First, it represents the flow volume above which flood
activity commences, and second, it is thought by many researchers to be
equivalent to the channel-forming flow. Recurrence interval of bankfull
discharge rather than discharge at bankfull stage is employed as the basis of
stream behavior comparison. Use of recurrence intervals allows comparison of
stream discharges in a form not primarily dependent on basin area or
downstream order. Thus, a statistical property of the flood series is used to
render discharges of large and small streams comparable.
Bankfull discharges (Qb) is the flow volume which completely fills the
channel to the top of the bank. Any additional discharge would cause water to
flow over the floodplain surface. Recurrence interval (RI) is the expected number
of years between occurrences of a given event. Therefore, the recurrence interval
of bankfull discharge (RI Qb) is a measure of the frequency of the discharge
which completely fills the stream channel. A high RI Qb indicates infrequent
flooding while a low RI Qb indicates frequent flooding. In light of increasing
floodplain usage, knowledge of RI Qb has utility for individuals and agencies
confronted with tradeoffs between locational advantage and flood hazard.
The geomorphological significance of bankfull discharge has been
established in the literature over the last two decades. This recent research was
stimulated by Wolman and Leopold's assertion that streams flowing in diverse
climatic and physiographic regions flood with a relatively uniform frequency of
once every year or every other year (12). Data from 177 streams in the United
States and India showed RI Qb to be closer to 1 than 2 years where floodplain
elevations were accurately known.
Subsequent investigations in Australia (5,14), England (6,9), the United
States (1, 11) and particularly Indiana (4, 8) have yielded remarkably similar
values. These studies showed RI Qb to range from 0.5 1 to 4 years on the annual
series, with most values between 1 and 2 years.
Theoretical justification for uniform flood frequency was provided by
Wolman and Miller's examination of the concept of "effective force" in
landform development (13). Reasoning that above the level of competency the
"effective force" of a process is the product of the rate of sediment movement
times the frequency with which that rate of transport is attained, graphs relating
transport rate times frequency as a function of applied stress will attain a
maximum which represents the "effective force" of the process. In the case of
sediment transport by rivers, the graphs showed most of the work to be done by
frequent flows of moderate magnitude. They concluded from this result that
321
322
Indiana Academy of Science
f J Recurrence interval
of bankfull discharge
| Gaging station] ^^j Station number |
40 KILOMETERS
Figure I. Gamin? Marion locations and Rl Qh
Geography and Geology 323
channel and floodplain morphology are related to discharges approximating the
bankfull stage.
In most cases these studies employed laborious field methods to determine
bankfull stage. The present study develops a method of deriving bankfull stage
directly from rating curves. Problems in identifying the topographic bankfull
level are averted by consulting readily available United States Geologic Survey
(USGS) records.
Data Collection
Morphological considerations concerning the inception of overbank flow
lead to the conclusion that bankfull discharge is concomitant with an observable
change in the relationship between gage height and stream discharge. Below
bankfull stage, increases in gage height are accompanied by regular increases in
discharge due to higher water velocity and larger flow area. Above bankfull
stage, however, additional increments of gage height are accompanied by
extremely large increases in discharge as wide areas of floodplain surface
become available for flow. Therefore, rating curves, which relate discharge to
gage height, display smooth changes in slope below bankfull stage but flatten
rapidly along the discharge axis as the bank is overtopped. The point of
maximum slope change on the rating curve represents bankfull discharge.
This method was employed to obtain 56 bankfull discharge observations
from rating curves prepared by the USGS. Conversion from discharge to
recurrence interval was accomplished by plotting, on log-Pearson Type III
probability paper, the discharge associated with the 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-
year recurrence interval flood as given in Davis (3). This type of annual series
analysis (7) yields a straight line plot. Identification of RI Qb is then simply a
matter of locating Qb on the line and recording the associated RI.
Data derived by this method agrees well with values found by others (4, 8)
for 21 of the stream gages used in this study. Differences between the 21
published values and those used herein are attributible to either the use of
regional flood frequency analysis (8) as opposed to the individual station
analysis used herein or the use of flood damage records (4) which may reflect
stages above or below bankfull.
Spatial Characteristics
The map of gaging stations and RI Qb (Fig. 1) shows most of the
observations to be well distributed over the vast midsection of Indiana with
relatively few observations in the extreme north and south. RI Qh ranges from
less than 1 year, generally in the south-central part of the state, to 3.9 years in the
north-central part of the state. The mean value is 1 .26 years and the median and
the mode are both 1.1 years. The frequency distribution of observations
conforms well to the general form of Pearson Type III distributions (2) in that it
is skewed to the right with limited range to the left.
Power series polynomials were used to produce generalized computer trend
surface maps and equations of RI Qb. This technique produces a least-squares fit
by treating x and y map-coordinates as independent variables and RI Qb as the
dependent variable.
324
Indiana Academy of Science
(years)
-5225 TO3333-
3333333 IT"
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777 888 9999 0000000OU000000 99Q
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Figurk 2. Fourth - degree trend surface of Rl @h
Geography and Geology
325
The first-degree equation (R I Qb = 1.812-0.003x-0.235y) fits a plane to the
spatial data. Although this surface only explains 23 per cent of the data varia-
tion, it demonstrates the distinct south to north increase in Rl Qh. This is
indicated by the fact that the y-coefficient (-0.235), representing north to south
distance, is two orders of magnituted greater than the x-coefficient (-0.003),
representing west to east distance.
The fourth-degree surface (Fig. 2) accounts for 66 per cent of the variation.
The most prominent feature of the quartic surface is the pronounced minimum
in south-central Indiana. RI Qh increases in every direction from this point. A
secondary minimum occurs along the northern half of the state's eastern border
with Ohio. The steepest reliable gradient on the map is in the north-central part
of the state where the surface attains its distinct maximum. To the north of the
maximum and again in the southwest portion of the map, the surface equation
generates meaningless values because of a lack of data points in these areas. It
should be noted that the output of the routine is not the value of RI Qb at a
specified location but only the trend of the data within the specified region (10).
This phenomenon is evidenced by non-correspondence between the values in
Figure 1 and those in Figure 2.
Analysis of Variance
The south to north increase in RI Qb suggests the possibility that bankfull
discharge may be related to the variable effect of repeated glaciations in different
parts of the state. It appears that RI Qb is inversely proportional to time elapsed
since glaciation and the number of repeated glaciations and directly
proportional to thickness of glacial materials. A direct test of these hypotheses is
impractical due to the difficulty of obtaining a single numerical value
characteristic of these glacial variables for each gaging station. However, a
REGION
NO. OF
DATA MEAN
POINTS RI Q,
Northern Lake and Moraine
Tipton Till Plain
Illinoian Glacial
Unglaciated
28
2.00
1.23
16 1.11
1M.
Figure 3. Glacial regions and analysis of variance statistics
326 Indiana Academy of Science
satisfactory surrogate for the necessary glacial measures is available in the form
of Indiana's major physiographic regions. Significant differences in RI Qb
between glacially determined physiographic regions would indicate the two are
related. Analysis of variance is the appropriate test for such differences.
Four regions are employed in the analysis of varianceXthe Northern Lake
and Moraine Region, the Tipton Till Plain, the Illinoian Glacial Region, and the
Unglaciated Region (Fig. 3).
The analysis of variance yields significant F-test results at the 99 per cent
confidence level. The results indicate that RI Qb variation within glacial regions
is significantly less than RI Qb variations between regions. Thus, the null
hypothesis is rejected and the hypothesis that RI Qb and glacial parameters are
related is strengthened. The increase from south to north is again apparent.
Correlation Analysis
The results obtained in the preceding section may be spurious if the two
variables are only related to each other by means of a third variable. One such
potential confounding variable is precipitation which also varies along the
north-south axis of the state. Correlations are calculated to test this possibility
and to indentify morphometric variables related to RI Qb. Five morphometric
drainage basin characteristics, a measure of soil conditions, and an index of
precipitation are employed in the correlation analysis (Table 1 ). These data were
obtained from Davis (3).
Two of the variables are significantly correlated with RI Qb at the 95 per
cent confidence level: drainage density and watershed relief. Two additional
variables are significant at the 99 per cent confidence level: precipitation index
(mean annual precipitation - average annual evapotranspiration - water
equivalent of annual snowfall) and soil runoff coefficient (ratio of the volume of
rainfall to the total volume of runoff occurring after the inception of runoff).
Table I. Correlation Analysis Statistics
Independent
Variable
Channel Slope
Drainage Area
Channel Length
Precipitation Index
Drainage Density
Watershed Relief
Soil Runoff Coefficient
Graphs of RI Qb as a function of each of the significant variables illuminate
the nature of the relationships. The graphs display strikingly similar
characteristics: (1) a significant overall inverse relationship with RI Qb; (2) a
marked overlapping of the spatially clustered values of the Unglaciated Region,
Illinoian Glacial Region and the Tipton Till Plain; (3) a separate spatial
distribution for the Northern Lake and Moraine Region: and (4) a tendency toward
No. of
F- Ratio
Data
Correlation
Significance
Points
with RI Qh
Level
54
-0.03
Not Significant
56
-0.16
Not Significant
54
-0.23
Not Significant
41
-0.44
0.01
20
-0.44
0.05
54
-0.48
0.05
21
-0.73
0.01
Geography and Geology 327
regional variability in the response of Rl Qh. Within certain regions the
relationships seem random and in several cases a region displays an orthogonal
relationship to the overall trend. The tendency toward randomness and
orthogonality increases from south to north (i.e. prevalent in the Northern Lake
and Moraine Region and the Tipton Till Plain and not found in the Illinoian
Glacial Region and the Unglaciated Region). These results indicate that RI Qb is
more closely related to some undiscovered regional mix of variables represented
by the glacially defined regions than to any of the independent variables tested.
Conclusions
The uniform frequency of flooding of about 1-2 years, first postulated by
Wolman and Leopold (12), is essentially confirmed by the modest range (0.9 to
3.9 years) and the mean of 1.26 years obtained for Indiana streams. However,
spatial analysis shows significant differences between glacially defined regions.
Specifically, the results show a consistent increase in mean RI Qb from a low
value of 1.0 year in the Unglaciated Region through 1.1 years in the Illinoian
Glacial Region and 1.2 years in the Tipton Till Plain to a high value of almost 2.0
years in the Northern Lake and Moraine Region.
Correlation analysis indicates precipitation index, drainage density, relief
and soil runoff coefficient to be significantly related to the frequency of bankfull
flow. However, these correlations are not entirely convincing due to the
inconsistency of the relationships from one glacial region to another. The
correlation results are much more consistent for the Unglaciated Region and the
Illinoian Glacial Region than for the more recently glaciated Tipton Till Plain
and Northern Lake and Moraine Region. The significantly correlated variables
may be reliable determinants of RI Qb only for streams that have reached a state
of quasi-equilibrium. As many authors have suggested (12, 9, 14), a uniform
frequency of flooding may be the end result of the balance achieved between the
erosive effect of the water and the resistance to erosion provided by the channel
material. The dramatic changes accompanying glaciation could obviously
disturb such a quasi-equilibrium. The retreat of the glaciers would be followed
by a refractory period during which the streams must readjust to a new regime.
According to this view, the Unglaciated Region and the Illinoian Glacial Region
have had sufficient time since glaciation to achieve a relatively uniform
frequency of flooding whereas the Tipton Till Plain and the Northern Lake and
Moraine Region have not.
Literature Cited
1. Brush, Jr., L. M. 1961. Drainage basins, channels, and flow characteristics of selected streams in
central Pennsylvania. USGS Prof. Paper 282-f: 145-175.
2. Chow, V. T. 1954. The log-probability law and its engineering application. Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil
Engr. 80: 536:25p.
3. Davis, L. G. 1974. Floods in Indiana: Technical manual for estimating their magnitude and
frequency. USGS Circular 710:40p.
4. Dury, G. H. 1961. Bankfull discharge: An example of its statistical relationships. Bui. Int. Assoc.
Sci. Hydrology. 6:48-55.
5. Dury, G. H., J. R. Hails, and M. B. Robbie. 1963. Bankfull discharge and the magnitude
frequency series. Aust. J. Sci. 26:123-124.
328 Indiana Academy of Science
6. Harvey, A. M. 1969. Channel capacity and the adjustment of streams to hydrologic regime. J.
Hydrology, 8:82-98.
7. Langbein, W. B. 1949. Annual floods and the partial-duration series. Trans. Amer. Geophysics
Union. 30:879-881.
8. Leopold, L. B., M. G. Wolman, and J. P. Miller. 1964. Chapter 3, 27-96, in Fluvial Processes in
Geomorphology. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.
9. Nixon, M. 1959. A study of bankfull discharges of rivers in England and Wales. Proc. Inst. Civil
Engr. (London). 12:157-174.
10. Norcliffe, G. B. 1969. On the use and limitations of trend surface models. Canadian Geographer.
13:338-348.
11. Wolman, G. M. 1955. Natural channel of Brandywine Creek, Pennsylvania. USGS Prof. Paper
271:50p.
12. , and L. B. Leopold. 1957. River flood plains: Some observations on their formation.
USGS Prof. Paper 282-C:87-107.
13. Wolman, G. M., and J. P. Miller. I960; Magnitude and frequency of forces in geomorphic
processes. J. Geology, 68:54-74.
14. Woodyer, K. D. 1968. Bankfull frequencies in rivers. J. Hydrology. 6:114-141.
The Effects of Lake Monroe on the
Flow of Salt Creek, South Central Indiana
L. Michael Trapasso
Department of Geography and Geology
Indiana State University
Introduction
In 1964, construction was completed at the Lake Monroe dam site, and in
1965 the reservoir was filled. This undertaking resulted in the creation of the
largest man-made lake in Indiana. Since its completion, studies and speculations
have been made about its usefulness as well as its effects upon the surrounding
environment.
To this date, no work has been done concerning the dam's effects on Salt
Creek, the stream which has been impounded. The purpose of this study is to
determine how the reservoir has affected the flow of Salt Creek. Unit
dydrograph analysis, double-mass analysis, and analysis of variance are
executed to help achieve this purpose.
Since its construction, the reservoir has been shown to add many economic
benefits to the area. However, the Lake Monroe Project was constructed
primarily as a means of flood control for the Salt Creek Basin and as a part of a
flood control network for the Mississippi River. This study is designed to
evaluate the flood control aspect of the Lake Monroe dam site.
Study Area
The study area is Salt Creek, downstream from the Monroe Reservoir. Salt
Creek is a tributary to the East Fork of White River, a short distance
downstream from Bedford, Indiana. It drains approximately two-thirds of
Brown County, the lower half of Monroe County and parts of Lawrence and
Jackson Counties. The drainage area is 1 146.6 sq. km.. The slope is .23 m. per
km.. The length is 151.3 km.. Salt Creek is located in the Southern Thin Drift
Region of Indiana (2).
Data
Diurnal discharge data was attained by the U.S. Geological Survey,
Surface Water Supply Records, Part 3 Volume 3, Ohio River-Lousiville,
Kentucky to Wabash River. The data was taken from Salt Creek gage near
Harrodsburg, Indiana. The length of record for the Harrodsburg gage is 21
years; conveniently divided in half by the completion date of the man-made lake.
That is 1955 to 1965 comprises the pre-impoundment period; and 1966 to 1975
comprises the post-impoundment period of record.
Methods and Interpretation
The derivation of a unit of hydrograph from a simple hydrograph is
straightforward. The ordinates of the required unit hydrograph are equal to the
329
330
Indiana Academy of Science
corresponding ordinates of the given direct runoff hydrograph divided by the
total amount of runoff in inches (1, 4). The percentage of runoff per day is
calculated for each unit hydrograph storm. An average is taken for the runoff for
each day, and a model unit hydrograph is derived (See Table 1). It is found that
on the average, a large storm would produce a fluctuation in the direct runoff
hydrograph that would last about five days.
LOCATION OF MONROE RESERVOIR
IN SOUTH CENTRAL INDIANA
Study Area
Monroe Co.
Brown Co
Jackson Co.
30
3
Kilometers
Table I Unit Hydrograph Analysis Daily Distribution (5 day storm)
Days
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Pre-Impoundment
Post-Impoundment
Comparison
12.8%
10.5%
17.9%*
34.7%
33.8%
2.6%*
35.1%
30.3%
13.7%*
13.4%
17.7%
32.0%+
3.9%
7.7%
72.0%+
* decrease after impoundment
+ increase after impoundment
The unit hydrograph suggests, that the flow after a major storm, has been
controlled by man. The rationale is as follows: On the first day, there is a great
deal of retention of the surge of upstream water (approximately 18%). Between
the second and third day, peak flow is expected, and less water is retained to
prevent the reservoir from reaching a dangerously high level. On the fourth and
fifth days, a great amount of water is released, in order to return the reservoir to
normal levels. There is little danger in such a release by the dam because there is
Geography and Geology
331
small percentage of runoff expected on these last two days. Furthermore, the
downstream, portion of Salt Creek will begin to approach baseflow. Therefore a
greater release by the dam on these last two days is more easily transported by
Salt Creek, which by this time is in less danger of flooding.
Analysis of variance is a statistical technique which seeks to determine the
equality or inequality of two population means (3). The hypothesis for this study
is MPre = Mpost. That is, the mean of the pre-impoundment period is equal to the
mean of the post-impoundment period (see Table II).
Table II Analysis of Variance Source Table
Data Source
d.f.
F values*
Result
Annual Mean
Discharge
Annual
Maximum Flow
Annual
Minimum Flow
March Monthly
Means
March Daily
Discharges
October Monthly
Means
October Daily
Discharges
1
16
1
10
1
10
1
16
1
237
1
16
.040
/u(pre) = ,u(post)
4.6
/i(pre) = M(post)
8.69
Ax(pre) ^ /i(post)
2.16
M(pre) = /u(post)
46
/u(pre) # ju(Post)
.475
/u(pre) = M(post)
1662
/i(pre) # Ai(post)
.01 Probability of error.
Table III Storms Used in Unit Hydrographs
Pre-impoundment
Post- Impoundment
Storm I
February 17-21, 1961
Storm I
April 14-17, 1969
Storm II
March 31-April 4, 1962
Storm II
May 10-15, 1971
Storm III
April 19-23, 1963
Storm III
April 7-12, 1972
Storm IV
February 4-8, 1973
Annual Basis: Analysis of the annual mean discharge for pre- versus post-
impoundment reveals that there is no significant difference between the two
groups. Likewise, the annual maximum flows were not significantly different
between pre- and post-impoundment. However, it was found that a significant
difference exists in annual minimum flows between the two periods. This
suggests that Monroe dam is used more often to augment low flow, and less
often to retain high flows.
High flows: Examination of the data reveals March as the month with the
highest flow. March daily discharges were analyzed and it was found that the
two periods differ significantly. This significant difference suggests that March
daily discharges have been controlled by the dam. Daily discharges for March
332
Indiana Academy of Science
have been reduced since the construction of the dam. However, this significant
difference is lost when March monthly means were analyzed.
Low Flows: The data reveals October as the month with the lowest flow.
October daily discharges were anlayzed and it was found that they too, differ
significantly between pre- and post-impoundment. The significance difference
here suggests that October daily discharges have also been controlled by the
dam. Daily discharges for October have been augmented since the construction
of Monroe Dam. In analyzing October monthly means, again, the significant
difference between pre- and post-impoundment is lost.
The graph of the cumulative data of one variable versus the cumulative data
of a related pattern is a straight line so long as the relation between the variables
is a fixed ratio. A break in the slope will indicate a disruption in the system. The
difference in the slope of the lines on either side of the break indicates the degree
of change (5). The pattern is an average of four streams in the area of Salt
Creek not impounded by any dam. They were: (1) East Fork of the White River
at Bedford, (2) North Fork of Salt Creek at Belmont, (3) East Fork of White
River near Shoals, (4) North Fork of Salt Creek near Nashville.
GRAPH 1
DOUBLE-MASS CURVE
Cumulative Runoff for Pattern (c.m.s./sq. km.)
Graph I reveals two remarkable features. First, there is a very slight but still
visible break in the slope of the line. The ordinate and abscissa of these particular
coordinates corresponded to the period of time in which the dam construction
was completed and the reservoir was being filled. Second, it is remarkable that the
break in the slope is very slight. As a safeguard against personal bias, regresion
slopes were calculated on either side of the alleged break, and their slope
coefficients were compared. It was found that they were indeed different, but the
difference is very minute (1.06 as compared to 1.02).
Geography and Geology 333
Conclusions
It appears that Lake Monroe affects the flow of Salt Creek on a short term
basis. This is exemlified by the unit hydrograph analysis which shows the change
in flow caused by a controlled slide gate at Monroe dam. The distribution of
flow in the model unit hydrographs differ, showing control of a major storm
event by man.
However, on a long term basis, it appears that Lake Monroe has had no
effect on Salt Creek. This is exemplified by the double-mass analysis which
shows that the 21 year record of the Harrodsburg station has remained in
balance with surrounding unimpounded streams. One minute disruption was
noted in the double-mass curve during the time the reservoir was being filled.
Analysis of variance seems to support both arguments. On a short term
basis, that is March and October daily discharges, pre- and post-impoundment
periods were found to be significantly different. However, on a long term basis,
that is March and October monthly means, and annual mean discharges the pre-
and post-impoundment periods were not statistically different. Information is
lost in the calculation of any mean value. This loss of information may effect the
significance of values in the analysis of variance program. However, it is not
certain that this is the case here.
It would appear that Lake Monroe does affect the flow of Salt Creek but
only on a day to day basis, e.g. retention of flood waters, and augmentation of
low flow periods. However when examining the situation on a monthly or yearly
basis it would appear that Lake Monroe has no effect what-so-ever on the flow
of Salt Creek.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to thank Dr. John J. Hidore, Department of Geography,
Indiana University for his patience and guidance.
Literature Cited
1. Chow, V. T., 1964. Handbook of Applied Hydrology. McGraw Hill Publ. Co., New York, N.Y.
1950 p.
2. Davis, L. G., 1974. Floods in Indiana: Technical Manual for Estimating Their Magnitude and
Frequency, Geol. Surv. Circ. 710, U.S.G.S. Washington, D.C. 50 p.
3. Glass, G. V., and Stanley, J. C, 1970. Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology.
Prentice-Hall Publ. Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 596 p.
4. Johnston D.,and Cross W., 1949. Elements of Applied Hydrology. Ronald Press Publ. Co., New
York, N.Y. 293 p.
5. U.S. Geological Survey, 1960. Manual of Hydrology: Part 1 General Surface- Water
Techniques, 1541-B Double-Mass Curves, U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 25 p.
Hydrology and Water Quality of the
Crooked Creek Watershed, Indianapolis, Indiana
Robert D. Hall and Patricia A. Boaz
Department of Geology and Department of Chemistry
Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
Introduction
The Crooked Creek Watershed is located in northwestern Indianapolis in
an area rapidly becoming urbanized. Crooked Creek drains into White River
about 4 miles northwest of Monument Circle in downtown Indianapolis (Fig. 1 ).
The area has the regional hydrology typical of central Indiana: the mean
annual precipitation is 40 inches, and even though the mean annual
evapotranspiration is high, the average flow in White River (the area's major
stream) is slightly above 1000 cfs. The ground water system is in approximate
equilibrium, and the United States Geological Survey has recently estimated a
sustainable ground water recovery of about 90 mgd (2).
The Crooked Creek Watershed is within the area glaciated during the early
Woodfordian. The estimated time of ice recession is 18,000 to 20,000 years BP
(1). The area is relatively featureless tillplain, characterized by generally
unsorted and moderately impermeable silts containing variable amounts of
gravel, sand, and clay. Some post-glacial alluvium of much greater permeability
is found along Crooked Creek and its tributaries but not enough to importantly
affect the hydrogeology of the area. The low permeability of the till favors runoff
and impedes infiltration to the ground water system within the Crooked Creek
Watershed.
Physical Characteristics of the Watershed Influencing Runoff
The physical characteristics of the watershed favor rapid runoff and high
sediment yield in response to precipitation. The watershed is small (area of 18. 1
square miles) and highly elongated along a general north-south trend (Fig. 1).
Shape ratios (3) show basin elongation: form ratio, Rf = 0.20; circularity ratio,
Re = 0.28; and elongation ratio, Re = 0.96.
Crooked Creek is a fifth-order stream according to the Horton stream
numbering system, as modified by Strahler (3). The major stream is long (9.7
miles) with respect to watershed size, and most of the drainage net is
concentrated in the upper part of the watershed (Fig. 1). An unusually large
number of first-order tributaries (152) collects runoff from this rapidly
urbanizing section. Bifurcation ratios of 5.0 for first-order through third-order
streams vs. 2.0 for third-order through fifth-order streams illustrate the
dominating influence of small tributaries in the upper part of the watershed (Fig.
2).
The upper part of the watershed contains four subwatersheds. From east to
west these are: "Ditch Creek", Delaware Creek, "Upper" Crooked Creek, and
334
Geography and Geology
335
Figure I. Map of Marion County, Indiana, showing the location of the Crooked Creek Watershed.
Payne Branch. The respective drainage densities of the subwatersheds of 3.26,
5.00, 5.23, and 5.20 vs. that of the entire watershed (4.35) show again the
importance of the upper part of the watershed in influencing runoff.
Thus, a large number of first-order tributaries and high drainage densities
favor rapid runoff from the upper part of the basin, as do: 1) short stream lengths
(0.40 miles as an average); 2) moderately high total relief (216 feet); 3) a main
stream gradient of 15 feet per mile; and 4) a lack of significant surface storage
with only about 0.2% of the surface area in lakes and ponds. Accompanying the
runoff should be a high sediment yield.
Because the upper part of the watershed is undergoing rapid urbanization
we can expect even greater influence of that sector on future hydrologic
response.
Hydrologic Response
The study of hydrologic response, to date, has focused on an analysis of
data available from the United States Geological Survey for their gaging station
on Crooked Creek at the 42nd Street bridge. This site is located low in the
watershed approximately 1 mile from the junction of Crooked Creek with White
River. What follows, then, is a summary of hydrologic characteristics of the
watershed as reflected in stream flow at that site only. The period of record is
June 1969 through September 1975.
336
Indiana Academy of Science
\\
BIFURCATION RATIO
2.00
CROOKED CREEK WATERSHED
STREAMS
o
\
Vv
X B.R. = 5.0
o
DC
\
m
g 1.00
\ v ^ BR. =35
o
\\
0.50
v\
= 2.0
0
1
2 3 4
STREAM ORDERS
5
Figure 2. Bifurcation ratios — Crooked Creek Watershed
A hydrograph plotted from monthly totals of discharge at the gaging
station (Fig. 3) reveals an increase in the number and magnitude of high-level
and peak discharges during the period of record. The total number of months
per water year with discharges above 400 cfs has increased from 3 to 8-9 from
1971 through 1974 (Table 1). During the same period the total number of
months per water year with discharges above 600 cfs has increased from 1 to 8,
and the total number of individual peak discharges has increased from 1 to 3 per
water year.
Annual runoff has increased by an average of 22% during the water years
1971 through 1974, and by a total of 79% over that period (Table 1). Rainfall has
also increased during the period, but only at an annual rate of 5.5% and by 24%
Table 1. Changes inflow characteristics — Crooked Creek Watershed.
Water
Number of M
onths Above
Total Number
of Peak Flows
Annual
% Change In
Year
400 cfs
600 cfs
Discharge
Precipitation
1971
1972
1973
1974
3
5
9
8
I
4
6
8
1
2
2
3
-35
+52
+49
+22
+ 2.5
+ 7.1
+ 6.6
+ 5.8
Mean
+22
+ 5.5
Overall Change
+ 79
+24.0
Geography and Geology
337
Figure 3. Hydrograph of monthly totals of discharge at the 42nd Street United States Geological
Survey gaging station on Crooked Creek, June 1969 through September 1975.
from 1971 to 1974. Clearly, another factor is increasing total runoff, as well as
the number and magnitude of high-level discharges. Urbanization, particularly
in the upper part of the Crooked Creek Watershed, is thought to be that factor.
Water Quality
Since June 1975 samples have been taken at sixteen evenly-distributed sites
along Crooked Creek and its tributaries. Collection techniques and analytical
procedures were those of the United States Geological Survey (4). Field
measurement of dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, and temperature
accompanied each sample. Routine analyses were made for twenty four
chemical parameters: acidity, alkalinity, boron, cadmium, calcium, carbon
dioxide, chemical oxygen demand, chloride, hexavalent and tervalent
chromium, hardness, iron, lead, loss on ignition, magnesium, nitrate, nitrite,
orthophosphate, silica, solids (dissolved and suspended), sulfate, sulfide, and
zinc. Additional analyses were made at three-month intervals: ammonia
nitrogen, barium, bromide, detergents, iodide, organic matter, organic nitrogen,
and phosphorous compounds (acid and acidpersulfate hydrolyzable.)
The diversity of land use in the upper part of the Crooked Creek Watershed
is clearly reflected by the water quality of the tributaries which drain the
following subareas (Fig. 1).
Ditch Creek
This eastern-most tributary is channelized and drains the most heavily
urbanized area. Relative to Upper Crooked Creek, the water exhibits
significantly higher values for constituents indicative of organic pollution. These
include nitrogen species, phosphates, and organic matter. Chloride levels
average 40 mg/ liter higher than in Upper Crooked Creek.
Delaware Creek
Delaware Creek drains land which is primarily agricultural. Its waters are
338 Indiana Academy of Science
lower in almost all chemical constituents than those of Upper Crooked Creek.
Exceptions are chemical oxygen demand and loss on ignition. Higher values for
these parameters are not surprising because Delaware Creek has more biota
than elsewhere in the upper part of the watershed.
Agricultural activity seems to contribute little to non-point pollution.
Negligible differences from Upper Crooked Creek are found for nitrogen
species, phosphate, and sulfate, all of which could originate from soil treatment.
Payne Branch
This tributary drains the western portion of the upper watershed. This area
is the site of two oil refineries, an asphalt company, several terminal wastewater
lagoons, and a large completed Marion County landfill which lies above stream
level. The contributions of the landfill and industrial operations to water quality
are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Comparison of the water quality of Payne Branch with that of Upper Crooked Creek
Acidity Averages 45 me/ liter higher
Boron Averages 3.5 mg/ liter higher
Cadmium Trace levels; usually absent in Upper Crooked Creek
Chloride Averages 30 mg/ liter higher
Iron Averages 3.2 mg/ liter higher
Lead Trace levels; usually absent in Upper Crooked Creek
Magnesium Occasionally reaches values as high as twice that of Upper Crooked Creek
Organic matter Averages 120 mg/ liter higher
Phosphate Few mg/ liter higher
Silica Averages 12 mg/ liter higher
Solids (dissolved) Averages 200 mg/ liter higher
Sulfate Averages 40-50 mg/lier higher
Sulfide Averages 0.5-1 mg/ liter higher
Oil and foam Usually present in variable amounts; persist in diminished amounts in lower part
of Crooked Creek after confluence
Crooked Creek
The water of Crooked Creek is of poor quality overall. Most chemical
parameters show little variation or a gradual increase in value from headwaters
to debouchment. Dilution is insufficient to offset the quantities of pollutant
species received by the stream.
During periods of low flow high levels of chloride, nitrogen, phosphate, and
organic matter indicate sites of point pollution. These point sources were later
confirmed and identified in the field or from maps. Each was a public or
semipublic wastewater treatment facility or a septic system.
Water Quality As a Reflection of Urbanization
Water quality in the Crooked Creek Watershed clearly reflects the effect of
increasing urbanization. Beginning in June 1976, samples could be compared
with those obtained one year earlier. The following general results were
observed.
Geography and Geology 339
Ditch Creek
Little change in chemical parameters occurred. This finding is consistent
with the fact that the eastern part of the upper watershed was already highly
urbanized at the beginning of the study.
Delaware Creek
The area drained by this tributary has experienced an increase in the
number of single residences and apartment complexes. A corresponding
increase of 2-5% in values for dissolved solids, phosphate, chloride, and nitrogen
species has occurred.
Payne Branch
Virtually no change in chemical parameters has been noted in this tributary.
Although residential use of the area has increased slightly, the contribution of
pollutants from industry and the landfill masks the effect of this increase.
Crooked Creek
During the one-year period deterioration of water quality accompanying
population increase was significant. Representative results show increases of 30-
50 mg/ liter for chloride, approximately 100 mg/ litter for dissolved solids and
50-100 mg/ liter for suspended solids.
Conclusions
Urbanization of the Crooked Creek Watershed, particularly of its upper
part, is shown by the hydrologic and water quality data. Rapid runoff and high
sediment yield is accompanied by an increasing load of pollutants from
residential, industrial, and agricultural sources. Runoff, sediment loss, and
deterioration of water quality will increase even more as population growth of
the watershed continues.
Acknowledgements
The illustrations were drafted by Marcia Moyer and the manuscript was
typed by Ann England. The authors are grateful for their fine efforts.
Literature Cited
1. Harrison, W. 1963. Geology of Marion County, Indiana. Indiana Geol. Surv. Bull. 28:78 p.
2. Meyer, W., J. P. Reussow, and D. C. Gillies. 1975. Availability of ground water in Marion
County, Indiana. U.S. Geol. Survey Open-File Rpt. 75-312. 87 p.
3. Morisawa, M. 1968. Streams— Their Dynamics and Morphology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, N.Y. 175 p.
4. Brown, E., M. W. Skougspad, and M.J. Fishman. 1970. Methods for collection and analysis of
water samples for dissolved minerals and gases. U.S. Geol. Survey Techniques of Water Resources
Investigations, Book 5, Chapter Al, 160 p.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Chairman: Gertrude L. Ward
Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana 47374
Chairman-Elect: William W. Bloom
Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana 46383
Abstracts
The Story of Carbon Mesophase and Carbon Fibers. S. Mrozowski, Depart-
ment of Physics and Astronomy, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana
47306 A study of the structure of premium petroleum cokes used in manu-
facture of graphite electrodes for the steel industry has revealed that their high
performance is due to crystallite alignment with axes perpendicular to the axis of
the needle particle into which such cokes break upon grinding (thus the name
needle cokes). It was found further that needle cokes can be produced from any
tar of petroleum or coal origin, if the process of heattreatment and solidification
is properly carried out, and if all the quasi-solid components (so-called second
phase) are removed beforehand. This led to a multimillion industrial production
of specialized high grade needle cokes. It was sometime later that the mechanism
of this process became clarified. Brooks and Taylor have discovered formation
in the liquid tar of small balls with highly oriented molecular arrangement
(mesophase) which grow rapidly in size and numbers in the tar in relatively
narrow range of temperature, and if there is no second phase coalesce into a
molecularly oriented continum, giving then a needle coke upon solidification.
Such tar in the mesophase state has been used recently to make carbon fibers
with highly aligned structures. Carbon fibers were first produced and
investigated some 15 years ago. It was found that very high tensile strengths can
be obtained, many times higher than for steels or other metals especially if the
graphite crystallites are aligned with planes parallel to the axis of the fiber. Such
fibers are incorporated into composites from which racket frames, skis, and
many other objects requiring very high modulus of elasticity and strengths are
fabricated ( It is expected that in the near future even airplane wings will be made
of such composites). Until now a partial crystalline alignment was obtained by
stretching fibers while they are solidifying, but the new technique of using the
mesophase promises even greater advances in production of very light
composites with an exceptional one, two or tridimensional strength, as needed.
The Cumberland Road. B. Elwood Montgomery, Department of
Entomology, Purdue University Although we identify Road 40 as the Old
National Road it extends rather far beyond the National Road both east and
west.
When the Ohio Company (not to be confused with the later Ohio Company
of Associates) was chartered by King George in 1749 a direct path was
immediately cut through the forests by Col. Thomas Cresap and Christopher
Gist guided by the Indian chief, Nemacolin. This pack saddle trail was used by
341
342 Indiana Academy of Science
21 year old George Washington, accompanied by Christopher Gist, in 1753
carrying a message from Gov. Dinwiddie to the French at Fort le Boeuf.
Washington cut a road along the route for his artillery and wagons the following
year, when as a Colonel he led a military expedition against the French. It was as
unsuccessful as the warning he had delivered the previous year. The road was
further improved by the Coldstream Guards, forming the regular British army led
to the disasterous defeat at the Battle of Monogahela by General Braddock in
1755. The road became known as Braddock Road and portions of it are so-called
to-day.
George Washington appears to have been the first to propose the building of a
National Highway in 1785. In 1806 Congress passed and President Jefferson
signed a bill "to build a road from the navigable waters of the Atlantic to the
river Ohio." Construction began in 1811 and the road was opened to traffic in
1818.
Long's Second Expedition in 1823 traveled the road to Wheeling. The
narrative report of the scientific expedition compiled from the notes of Long,
Say, Keating and Colhoun, contains very interesting observations on the
condition of the road and political influences on its construction.
The National Road: An Introduction. Gertrude L. Ward, Joseph Moore
Museum, Earlham College, Richmond, Indiana The concept of the
National Road can be traced to George Washington as early as 1784.
Washington feared that the settlers in the Northwest lands would form political
and commercial ties with either Spain or England. When the Congress passed
the bill for the construction of the road from Cumberland to Ohio in 1806, they
funded the first internal improvement project of the young American nation.
The survey of the road in Indiana was completed by Jonathan Knight in
1827. Appropriations for construction came in 1829. Crews worked east and
west out of Indianapolis, and west out of Richmond. By 1835, it was open to
traffic across the state. When federal funding ended in 1839, the road had been
completed only in Richmond, Centerville, Indianapolis and Terre Haute.
The plan called for the paving of the roadbed according to the Macadam
process. However, the National Road was never surfaced for its entire length in
Indiana. It was macadamed in Richmond, paved with flat creek stones set on
edge at Centerville, macadamed in Indianapolis and Terre Haute. The rest of the
road remained dirt.
Many early settlers benefitted directly from the construction of the
National Road. Road work paid 63 !/> cents per day, higher than the usual rate
for labor. Other workers were paid for the number of feet of broken stone they
could pile. Local farmers supplied teams of horses and oxen; many of the
laborers and contractors who came to work on the road remained as permanent
residents.
The National Road: A Summary. Patrick H. Steele, Historic Landmarks
Foundation of Indiana, Cambridge City, Indiana Several immediate
benefits of construction and use of the National Road in Indiana are easily
identified and documented. It created new jobs; increased the volume and
quality of available trade goods; significantly reduced travel time, and attracted
History of Science 343
craftsmen and laborers into the state. In addition, the National Road provided a
medium for the relatively easy transfer of ideas and goods between people of
various backgrounds. The National Road became the route of culture for the
Midwest. It brought together and united settlers into towns, attracted new
business enterprises, and provided the connecting link that kept the state
growing.
The location of the National Road promoted the settlement and
development of central Indiana. It provided an easier route to the newly opened
lands in Illinois and Missouri. Several towns were platted or replatted to
straddle the National Road. Vandalia was moved south to the National Road
and became Cambridge City. Knightstown, named in honor of the surveyor
Jonathan Knight, was created; Greenfield and Cumberland came into existance.
The National Road became the Main Street of each of these towns.
In 1926, the Old National Road became part of the new U.S. 40 route with
concrete sections replacing large segments of the old dirt road. By 1935 it was
widened as the east-west, coast-to-coast highway. Towns again prospered and
business flourished. With the construction of the Interstate system in the 1960,s
through traffic has traveled across Indiana on 1-70 and U.S. 40 became obsolete.
A new class of travelers has developed who are willing to take a slower trip
across Indiana to experience vestiges of the 19th century. Preservation and
restoration activity along the National Road are commonplace in eastern
Indiana. Designation of the National Road as a Historic Civil Engineering
Landmark was an important step. Perhaps an additional classification as a
historic or scenic route would restore stature to Indiana's National Road.
MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Chairman: Ralph L. Nicholson, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906
Chairman-Elect: Debbie Gayda, Department of Biology
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Abstracts
Development of Erysiphe polygoni on susceptible and resistant races of
Oenothera biennis. Jean Dickey and Morris Levy, Department of Biological
Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Oenothera
biennis (evening primrose) consists of numerous isogenic races. Each race, when
grown in a greenhouse or garden, is characteristically either susceptible or
resistant to the powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe polygoni. Both mildewed and
non-mildewed plants are also found in nature. As the initial step in determining
the basis of resistance, the time course of fungal development on susceptible and
resistant Oe. biennis was studied. Leaves were artificially inoculated with E.
polygoni conidiospores. At two hour intervals epidermal peels were taken and
stained with aniline blue in lactophenol for examination by light microscope. In
addition, some specimens of leaf tissue were fixed in formaldehyde-alcohol-
acetic acid, dehydrated in acetone, critical-point dried and gold-coated for
observation by scanning electron microscope.
Under conditions of 95% relative humidity, 20 C, conidiospores germinated
within 5 hours, appressoria were formed from 5-12 hours, penetration had been
effected and haustoria initiated by 20 hours. On resistant plants, there was no
further growth of the fungus. Secondary hyphae were present but poorly
developed. On susceptible plants, by 26 hours after inoculation secondary
penetration occurred and secondary haustoria appeared. Sporulating colonies
could be seen in 4-5 days.
Pathogenic Soil Amebas, Clyde G. Culbertson, M. D. Lilly Laboratory for
Clinical Research Indianapolis, Indiana 46202 We have published a review
of the literature regarding pathogenic soil amebas and have developed staining
methods for identifying Naegleria and Acanthamoeba utilizing the indirect
immunoperoxidase technique. Recently we have been able to improve this by
utilizing Gill's modification of Mayer's hematoxylin, to first stain the formalin-
fixed tissue sections or smears also fixed in formalin, thereafter applying the
indirect immunoperoxidase procedure.
With the advent of the vertical illuminator for epifluorescence,
immunofluorescence identification can be similarly used, but this gives only a
temporary preparation. Using hyperimmune serum made against Entamoeba
histolytica it is also possible to identify this parasite in autopsy or biopsy tissues.
The Effect of the Colletotrichum graminicola Conidial Matrix on Anthracnose
Development in Maize. G. C. BERGSTROMand R. L. Nicholson, Department of
345
346 Indiana Academy of Science
Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
47907 Colletotrichum graminicola isolate 104 was grown on oatmeal agar
under constant fluorescent light (3200 lux) at 24 C. Conidia were borne in an
orange, mucilagenous matrix both in cluture and on anthracnose infected corn
leaves. The water soluble spore matrix was washed from conidia by
centrifugation (2,000g) of aqueous spore suspensions and was removed in the
supernatant. Two week old susceptible corn plants (inbred Mo940) inoculated
with unwashed spores exhibited more rapid development of anthracnose
symptoms than did plants inoculated with washed spores. Removal of the
matrix did not affect the viability of spores, since germination percentages
(twelve hours after inoculation onto 2% water agar containing 1 % sucrose) were
the same for washed and unwashed spores. Addition of the macromolecule
fraction (non-dialyzable) of the spore wash restored the ability of washed spores
to cause rapid symptom development. Neither the spore wash dialyzate nor a
leachate from oatmeal agar stimulated anthracnose development. Autoclaved
spore wash also gave no stimulation. Thus, a heat-labile component of the
macromolecule fraction of the spore matrix was associated with the stimulation
of anthracnose seedling blight.
Acid invertase activity (pH optimum of 4.7) was found in the spore wash
and exhibited a maximum specific activity of 4,000 g glucose equivalents
liberated /hr/mg protein at 30 C. the presence of an extracellular fungal
invertase is consistent with the organism's preference for sucrose as a carbon
source and may afford the pathogen an advantage in colonizing corn tissue.
Maximum anthracnose severity is observed in the field at two stages of plant
development characterized by the presence of high levels of sucrose in the host
tissue. These stages correspond to seedlings up to the six-leaf stage and mature
plants immediately following pollination.
Role of the Cecum in Bild Acid Metabolism in Germfree Rats. D. Madsen, M.
Beaver, E. Bruckner, and B. Wostmann. Lobund Laboratory, University of
Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556 High tissue levels of cholesterol
in the germfree (GF) rodent has been suggested to be a function of the increased
pools of bile acids. Increased cholesterol absorption from the GF rat gut has
been demonstrated directly; increased bile acid absorption has been estimated
from other data. The enlarged cecum of GF rodents is linked to several effects on
metabolism. We have investigated the role of the cecum on bile acid metabolism
and excretion in the GF and conventional (CV) rat. Indwelling cecal fistulas
were established in GFandCV rats. 1.0 Ci of 14 -Na-deoxycholate(DOC)(2.0
mg) was injected and feces subsequently analyzed over 9 days for excretion and
distribution of label. Total excretion of label by the GFrat was roughly half that
in the C V rat. The percent of label found in the cholic acid fraction of GF feces
was more than twice that in the CV rats. (In the rat, absorbed DOC is
rehydroxylated by the liver to cholic acid.) This indicates greater absorption and
retention of DOC in the enterohepatic circulation, since 12aiPha-hydroxylation in
GF rat liver has been shown to be not greater than in CV rats.
We conclude that bile acid absorption from the cecum of the GF rat is much
greater than in the CV rat. This may be due to greater available cecal surface
Microbiology and Molecular Biology 347
area, greater absorptive capacity, or to variations in cecal emptying and
intestinal transit time.
In Vitro Selection of Somatic Callus Sectors High in Regeneration Capacity. N.
P. Maxon, E. M. Jones, R. L. Nicholson, and C. L. Rhykerd. Departments of
Agronomy and Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Expression of totipotency in plant cells is
dependent on genotype by environmental (in vitro) interactions. Alfalfa plants,
Medicago sativa L., have been regenerated in our laboratory from primary
callus. Examination of newly initiated callus revealed morphologically distinct
callus sectors which were present in most callus that eventually regenerated. By
selecting out and subculturing these sectors regeneration frequency was
increased.
These callus sectors contained cells organized in such a way as to resemble
pre -embryo structures. When cells were examined 14-17 days after callus
initiation they contained large numbers of starch granules surrounding the
nucleus. After 18-20 days callus contained xylem cells apparently dispersed at
random through the tissue. Following an additional 3 to 4 days growth
interconnected elements of vascular tissue were evident. When callus was
initiated on a proper auxin: cytokinnin medium, embroyogenesis was detected
within 28 days.
If callus sectors, such as the type found in alfalfa, occur in other plant
genera and species, in vitro selection for these cell types may increase the
regeneration capacity and reduce the time involved in the regneration of viable
plants. This would be of particular importance for species which at present are
difficult to regenerate from callus.
Enumeration and Identification of Bacterial Chitinoclasts in Selected Indiana
Waters with Emphasis on the Actinomycetes. S. G. Newman and C. E. Warnes.
Department of Biology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 Four
borrow pits located in East Central Indiana were examined quantitatively and
qualitatively for aerobic bacterial chitin decomposition from January through
July, 1977. Speciationof chitinolytic actinomycetes was accomplished primarily
by patterns of carbon compound utilization and sporulating qualities of the
isolates. Numbers of chitinoclasts were lowest (50- 150/ ml) in winter with
increasing counts through spring and summer months (60-4200/ ml). Three
major groups of chitinoclasts were isolated: gram-negative, nonfermentative
rods (Group 1); gram-negative fermentative rods (Group II); and the
actinomycetes (Group III). Actinomycetes comprised 0-20% of the chitinolytic
bacterial community, attaining the highest percentages in the winter samples. A
possible seasonal selection for different groups of actinomycetes was noted, with
members of the genus Micromonospora predominating in the cold winter
waters and Streptomyces spp. in warmer spring and summer waters.
The Hypersensitive Response of Tomato to the Bacterial Wilt Pathogen,
Pseudomonas solanacerarum. C. Y. Lin, W. R. Stevenson, and R. L.
Nicholson, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University,
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Inoculation of stem sections of resistant
and susceptible tomato lines with an avirulent isolate of Pseudomonas
348 Indiana Academy of Science
solanacearum elicits a hypersensitive response characterized by intense
browning of the tissue. A similar response is observed on resistant tomato stem
sections inoculated with virulent isolates of the pathogen, but not on inoculated
susceptible stem sections. The browning response is visible 48 hours after
inoculation and increases in color intensity with time. By 96 hours after
inoculation, susceptible stem pieces inoculated with virulent isolates are only
slightly discolored whereas other tissue-isolate combinations are deep brown to
black. Intact resistant plants inoculated with the virulent isolate respond with
the development of brown coloration of internal and external tissues 48 hours
after inoculation. Water-soaking near the point of inoculation is the only
symptom apparent at this time on susceptible plants inoculated with the virulent
isolate. A localized necrosis of tissues surrounding the site of inoculation with
the virulent isolate appears on otherwise symptomless resistant plants 96 hours
after inoculation. Wilting and internal tissue maceration are observed at this
time on susceptible plants inoculated with the virulent isolate.
The intensity of browning of resistant stem sections is greater when the
virulent isolate inoculum is adjusted to 5.2 x 107 cells/ ml and less intense at
higher and lower concentrations. Bacterial populations in inoculated resistant
and susceptible plants increase at the same rate during the first 48 hours after
inoculation. After 48 hours the bacterial population in susceptible plants
continues to increase while the population in resistant plants rapidly decreases.
Reduction of bacterial populations in resistant plants corresponds to the
appearance of browning associated with the hypersensitive reaction. Bacterial
populations in susceptible plants continue to increase until the time of plant wilt.
Magnetic Effects on the Bacterium Escherichia coli
W. W. Baldwin and M. F. Asterita
Northwest Center for Medical Education
Indiana University School of Medicine
3400 Broadway, Gary, Indiana 46408
Introduction
Davis and Rawls, (2,3), have claimed that there are distinct differences
between the north and south magnetic fields with regard to their effects on living
organisms. This claim is based on their theory that the nature of the magnetic
field surrounding a magnet is essentially quite different in nature from the
conventionally accepted view. It has been tradionally held that the path of travel
of magnetic lines of force is a direct one from pole to pole. However, Davis and
Rawls claim that the magnetic lines of force travel from the south pole into the
center of the magnet and from the center they travel to the north magnetic pole.
The south pole of the magnet is characterized by lines of magnetic force spinning
to the right (clockwise or positive spin) and the lines of force of the north pole
spin to the left (counterclockwise or negative spin). The center of the magnet
therefore posses a region of zero magnetism. According to this theory, the lines
of magentic force show the same overall effect as that of conventional theory,
namely, that of traversing from the south pole to the north pole of the magnet.
The only difference is that the center of the magnet is a region of null field
strength, since the magnitude and opposing directions of the north and south
magnetic spins give a cancellation effect. This difference in spin effect is not a
function of the shape of the magnet but bar magents of definite dimesions and
structural material were found to be most effective in investigating the effects of
the different magnetic pole energies or field strengths on various living
organisms.
Davis and Rawls (2,3) used a flat slate-like non-metalic magnet with an
average field strength of 3000 gauss (N-l type biomagnet), 6" long by 2" wide by
W thick with a lifetime of from 3 to 5 years.
They found that the south pole of such a magnet when placed in close
proximity to a living organism has a positive, enhancing effect, while the north
pole has a negative, retarding effect. For example, in their study of the growth and
development of chickens, the application of the N-l biomagnet south pole for a
definite time period caused these organisms to grow faster and stronger than
north pole treated animals. The north pole treated animals turned out to be light
eaters and developed slower than control animals. The north pole treated
animals were also more sensitive to surrounding noises and weather conditions.
This was in distinct contrast to the overly strong south pole treated animals.
Similar results, on other living systems, showing the different positive and
negative effects of the south and north magentic pole energies were obtained by
Davis and Rawls. Some of their other studies include the effects of north and
south pole energies on seeds and other small animals such as snakes, birds, mice,
349
350 Indiana Academy of Science
and rats. In all cases, the application of north and south magentic pole energies
were different from control studies and produced opposite effects. The sex life,
aging, and the increase or reduction of the normal life span of animals was also
the subject of their investigations. In all cases, with regard to organism growth,
the south pole magnetic field has a positive, enhancing growth effect while the
north pole magnetic field has a negative, retarding effect.
Other reports of magnetic effects on living systems have been published.
Some of those that claimed an effect included Schaarschmidt et al (10),
Persinger et al (9), Moskwa and Rostkowska (8). Grencser et al (5), and an early
report by Kimball (7). However other workers including Jennison (6), Steen and
Oftedal (11), and Dymshits et al (4) were unable to show effects of magnetic
fields on biological systems.
If Davis and Rawls were correct about the differential effects of north and
south magnetic fields on living systems this might explain the apparent
discrepancies in the published data. We attempted to test this theory in our
laboratory by studying the effect of north and south magnetic pole energies on
E. coli using the N-l type bar magent obtained from the laboratory of Davis and
Rawls. These investigations were performed under three different conditions,
application of the south magnetic field, application of the north magnetic field,
and no magnetic exposure, all at constant 37° temperature. Our studies included
the effect on growth rate, mutagenesis, and viability of E. coli in non-growth
conditions.
Methods and Materials
Strains and Growth Conditions: E. coli WWU was a gift of R.C. Bockrath
and C. N. Newman and was grown either in A-l medium with appropriate
supplements or nutrient broth plus glucose as described by Brockrath et al (1).
The number of arginine revertants was determined on A-l medium lacking
arginine and viability was determined on Difco Nutrient Agar plus 1% glucose
plates. Liquid cultures were grown in 13 x 100 mm culture tubes and bubbled
with air through a manifold to insure equal oxygenation. The 37° C growth
temperature was maintained by a hair dryer with a variable autotransformer
wired in series with the heating element.
Magnetic Exposure: The culture tube with 5 ml of growth medium was
clamped to the appropriate pole of the magnet or not exposed to a magnetic field
(control) as was needed. The type N-l (3000 gauss) magnet was purchased from
Davis and Rawls.
Results
The effect of magnetic fields on growth of E. Coli WWU was determined by
diluting an over-night culture 1 to 10 on the morning of the experiment. When
this diluted culture was in expoential growth it was further diluted to give at least
five doublings before stationary phase was reached. The culture was then
exposed to the magnet and at twenty minute intervals samples were taken and
diluted and plated on nutrient agar to determine viable titer. Figure 1 shows the
results of one such experiment. The correlation coefficients were: control = 0.98,
north pole = 0.93, and south pole = 0.98. The slopes of all three lines were 0.03. It
Microbiology and Molecular Biology
351
appeared that the magnet produced no measureable effect on growth (five
doublings) in nutrient broth plus glucose.
GROWTH
lO-
co
10
n = north
- s = south
— - c z control
*
MINUTES
*
*
Figure 1 . Effect of the magnetic exposure on the growth ofE. coli. N - north magnetic poll exposure,
S - south magnetic pole exposure, C - no magnetic exposure.
Next, the effect of the magnetic field on long term viability was determined.
The bacterial cells were grown overnight and diluted as before except the
exponential culture was washed and suspended in AO buffer (1). Five ml of this
suspension were placed in a 25 cm2 tissue culture flask and placed on the
appropriate pole of the magnet or left unexposed (control). Viability was
determined as before. Figure 2 shows the results of the south pole exposure as
compared with the control exposure. The north pole experiment (not shown
here) produced similar results. The correlation coefficients for both lines (south
and control) were 0.85 and the slopes of both lines were -0. 1 1 . It appeared that
the magnet produced no measurable effect on viability of this bacterium when
held in AO buffer.
The final set of experiments was conducted to determine if the north or
south magnetic field (3000 gauss) was mutagenic for E. coli WWU. Table 1
demonstrates that mutation can be quantified in this organism by determining
the number of arginine revertants. The number of arginine revertants was
determined per 0.2 ml while viability was expressed per 1 .0 ml. As can be seen in
the last row of the table, the number of revertants per 108 viable cells increased
dramatically with only 30 seconds of ultraviolet light exposure. For tables 2 and
352
Indiana Academy of Science
SOUTH POLE
Figure 2. Effect of the magnetic exposure on the viability ofE. coli. in buffer (non-growth conditions).
• = south magnetic exposure, O - no magnetic exposure.
3 the bacteria were treated as in the viability experiment and the cells were plated
on agar medium lacking arginine. In both cases there was no significant
difference between those cells exposed to the magnetic field and the unexposed
controls.
Table 1 . The Effect of Ultraviolet Light on E. coli.
Seconds of UV Exposure1
0
10
20
30
Viability 3 x 10* 1.5x10* 1.3x10* 8.2 x 107 9.8 x 107 1 x 107
Arginine Revertants 10 173 530 518 512 281
Net Revertants 0 163 520 508 502 271
Net Revertants/ 10* Viable Cells 0 543 2,080 3,200 2,600 13,600
'The cells were suspended in buffer and irradiated with UV light (8-10 ergs per mm2 per second)
Table 2. The Effect of the North Magnetic Field on E. coli.
Hours of Exposure1
0
Viability (Not exposed)
1.3 x 10*
1.2 x 10*
1.2 x 10*
Arg. Revertants (Not exposed)
4
5
7
7
10
5
Viability (Exposed)
1.3 x 10*
7 x 107
1.2 x 10*
Arg. Revertants (Exposed)
4
6
7
9
5
8
Net Revertants
0
1
0
2
-5
3
1 Cells were suspended in buffer in a 25 cm2 tissue culture flask and placed directly on the magnet.
Microbiology and Molecular Biology 353
Table 3. The Effect of the South Magnetic Field on E. coli.
Hours of Exposure1
Viability (Not exposed)
5 x 10«
1 x 109
1 x 109
Arg. Revertants (Not exposed)
4
3
2
6
2
4
Viability (Exposed)
5 x 10"
—
6 x 108
4 x 10*
Arg. Revertants (Exposed)
2
3
4
5
4
5
Net Revertants
-2
0
2
-1
2
1
■Cells were suspended in buffer in a 25 cm2 tissue flask and placed directly on the magnet.
Discussion
We have attempted to determine if the type N-l magnet (3000 gauss) of
Davis and Rawls could produce measurable effects on E. coli. The data in figure 1
seem to indicate that there was no effect of either the north or south poles of the
magnet on growth. The forty minute data from the north pole did seem to vary
from the line of best fit, but this might be explained by experimental error since
similar results were not seen in other experiments.
Since it is difficult to maintain exponential growth in closed systems for long
periods of time, we felt that measuring viability of cells held in buffer might be a
more sensitive method to measure magnetic effects. Figure 2 showed, that while
there is some scatter to the data, there was no significant difference in the slope
of the two lines over a 24 hour period.
Finally, if the mangetic field caused mutations, the effect would not be
readily seen in the first two types of experiments. Therefore, we measured
mutations directly using the arginine revertant system. Table 1 showed that a 30
second exposure to UV light produced 13,600 mutations per 108 cells while a 5
hour exposure with a magnet, using either the north or south pole, produced a
number of mutants that was not significantly different from the unexposed
controls. In conclusion, we could not detect any effect of the type N-l magnet on
E. coli WWU.
Literature Cited
1. Cheung, M. K. and R. C. Bockrath. 1970. On the specificity of UV mutagenesis in E. coli.
Mutation Res. 10:521-523.
2. Davis, A. R. and W. C. Rawls, Jr. 1974. Magnetism and its effects on the living system.
Exposition Press, Hicksville, New York.
3. Davis, A. R. and W. C. Rawls, Jr. 1975. The magnetic effect. Exposition Press, Hicksville, New
York.
4. Dymshits, G. M., Z. M. Bekker and Y. N. Molin. 1974. Absence of the influence of a permanent
magnet field on the enzymatic hydrolysis of DNA. Biofizika. 19:760-761.
5. Gerencser, V. F., M. F. Barnothy and J. M. Barnothy. 1962. Inhibition of bacterial growth by
magnetic fields. Nature. 196:539-541.
6. Jennison, M. W. 1937. The growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds in a strong magnetic field. J.
Bacteriol. 33:15-29.
7. Kimball, G. C. 1937. The growth of yeast in a magnetic field. J. Bacteriol. 35:109-122.
354 Indiana Academy of Science
8. Moskwa, W. and J. Rostkowska. 1965. Effects of a constant magnetic field on the fermentation
and sensivity to toxins of yeast. Acta Pysiologica Polonica. 16:474-479.
9. Persinger, M. A., G. B. Glavin and K. P. Ossenkopp. 1972. Physiological changes in adult rats
exposed to a ELF rotating magnetic field. Int. J. Biometeor. 16:163-172.
10. Schaarschmidt, B. and I. Lamprecht. 1974. Influence of a magnetic field on the UV sensitivity in
yeast. Z. Naturforsch 29:447-448.
1 1. Steen, H. B. and P. Oftedal. 1967. Lack of effect of constant magnetic fields on Drosophila egg
hatching time. Experientia 23:814.
PHYSICS
Chairman: Elmer Nussbaum
Physics Department, Taylor University, Upland, Indiana 46989
Chairman-Elect: Carl C. Sartain
Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Abstracts
A Proposed Technique for the Computer- Aided Measurement of Loudspeaker
Driver Parameters. Ralph L. Place, Department of Physics and Astronomy,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 Principles of a technique are
discussed for measuring loudspeaker driver parameters in which the
loudspeaker in open-air is treated as an underdamped harmonic oscillator.
Voltage information from the device under test is digitized by a fast analog-to-
digital converter. Timing information is obtained using a gated crystal coltrolled
oscillator circuit that provides the timing information in BCD form. Data
acquisition occurs in time intervals between 20 msec and 500 msec in duration,
depending on the resonance frequency of the device. Real-time data acquisition
and storage occurs with subsequent analysis of the data by the computer. Two
additional measurements must be made, one of initial current through the voice-
coil and one of the resulting initial displacement.
Computer Analysis of Alfven Wave Data. Ying Guey Fuh and Uwe J.
Hansen A parallel faced bismuth samples serves as an interferometer for
Alfven waves propagating in the compensated semi-metal at high magnetic
fields. Resulting interference fringes are periodic in 1/B. A computer program
was written to analyze this periodicity and extract effective mass density
parameters from the slope of the straight line plot of the interference fringe index
vs. 1/B. The computer program is designed to process data from the digital
output of a high pressure Alfven wave experiment.
The Economical Development of a Practical Holography Table. John A.
Wisler and F. R. Steldt Construction of an inexpensive and portable
holography table has been developed, such that the unit can function in
economical hologram production and be operated at the undergraduate level.
The unit incorporates three levels. Stability is attained at level one by use of an
inner tube supported sandbox. Physical vibrations of the unit are monitored at
the second level by a Michelson Interferometer. The third upper level functions
as the holography area. This area is void of the bulky laser unit by transferring
the beam from a second level housing to the main holography area through a
mirror-shutter system. This allows both larger hologram production and an
expanded experimentation area.
Pressurization Technique for Alfven Wave Studies in Bismuth. Gary W. Erwin
and Uwe J. Hansen.. A low cost, small volume gas pressure system was
assembled and tested at room temperature and pressures to 27,500 PSI. The
355
356 Indiana Academy of Science
experimental volume, a reservoir and the pump were presurized from a Helium
gas tank at 3,000 PSI. Subsequently, the pressure in the experimental volume
was raised to 27,500 PSI in 10 pump strokes. A modified van der Waals equation
of state was used for volume and pressure calculations to reach the highest
pressure in the least number of pump strokes. A comparison of this system with
an oil reservoir system was made.
Initial Experimentation of the Thermal Pollution of the Middle Wabash River.
Vincent A. DiNoto, Jr., Physics Department, Indiana State University
To show how the Middle Wabash River does not conform to the theoretical
harmonical temperature curves of the U.S. Geological Survey, near Terre
Haute, Indiana. By the use of a PDP8/I computer with a KV8/I display scope
used to plot the theoretical curves with the experimental data points. The
experimental data was taken with a Martex Mark V Probe, by the author and
the West-Central Indiana Economical Development District, Water Quality
Division. With a discussion of the possible cause and effect to the river ecology
due to the termperature increases.
A Low-Cost, Student-Built Communications Interface Project for an 8080A
Based Microcomputer and a PDP 11/40 Minicomputer. John Stromseth,
Gary Stern and Stanley Burden, Physics and Computer Science
Departments, Taylor University, Upland, Indiana 46989 A project for
undergraduate students who are ready to engage in or who have completed a
study of universal asynchronous receiver/ transmitters (UARTS) in a digital
electronics or computer interfacing course is described. The project can be either
hardware or software oriented depending on the students' interest. An
asynchronous communications link was designed which permits an E & L Mini
Micro Designer to appear as a high speed programmable terminal to a PDP
1 1/40 computer. The interface was designed by students and assembled on a
solderless breadboard with components totaling approximately $30. The
interface permits students to write, edit and cross-assemble programs on the
PDP 11/40 and then dump them to the microcomputer RAM. This makes
possible operations otherwise impossible with a microcomputer having only
2.5K of RAM, since all of the PDP 1 1 / 40 memory and peripherals are accessible
to the microcomputer. A student-written cross-assembler was also part of the
project.
A Low-Cost, Student-Built Digital Integrator for Computerized Logging of
Solar Insolation Data. Kent W. Bullis and Stanley L. Burden, Chemistry
Department, Taylor University, Upland, Indiana 46989 A solar-insolation
data logging system which provides average values of insolation occurring
during a specified sampling interval is described. An Eppley model 8-48 Black
and White Pyranometer is used to measure the insolation. The pyranometer
output signal is amplified and converted to a frequency by a Heath voltage-
frequency converter and integrated. The associated counter, real-time clock and
sequencing logic are constructed from standard TTL integrated circuits. The
resulting information is entered into a PDP-8-L minicomputer using Heath
Computer Interface Buffer equipment. At specified intervals the computer
inputs the integrated value from the counter, resets the counter to zero, and
Physics 357
converts the integrated value to a mean, which it stores on magentic tape cassette
and prints out along with the clock time as it collects the data. The cost of the
pyranometer integraor, excluding the V-F converter, which was previously
owned, was about $50.
Computer Assisted Instruction Modules for Physical Science. Malcom E.
Hults and Ralph L. Place, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Ball State
University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 Six computer assisted instruction
•modules, each consisting of twenty-five multiple choice questions, were written
covering the basic topics of mechanics, properties of matter, heat, sound, light,
electricity and magnetism. Three of the modules are basically simple recall while
the other three are sets of simple problems. A computer program records the
date, time, number of questions attempted, a final percent score and bonus
points for each student using the modules. Use of the computer was strictly
voluntary. Correlation of grades and use of the modules is discussed.
Construction of a Molecular Nitrogen Laser and a Tunable Dye Laser for
Lifetime Studies. Kevin E. Gardner, Department of Physics and Astronomy,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 The construction of a pulsed
molecular nitrogen laser to operate in the near ultraviolet range is discussed. The
super radiance of this laser is to be used to stimulate lasing in an already existing
tunable dye laser. The complete system is to be used for lifetime measurements
especially of metastable levels of various metals.
A Summary of Solar Energy Activities in Indiana. Elmer Nussbaum, Physics
Department, Taylor University, Upland, Indiana 46989 Indiana's self
assessment while bidding for ERDA's new Federal Solar Energy Research
Institute provided an excellent opportunity to survey the state's interest and its
activities related to solar energy. Though the bid was unsuccessful, the effort
produced lasting positive effects. Indiana's growing role in solar programs can
be documented by its increasing participation in HUD and ERDA grant
programs. Memberships by Indiana firms and individuals in solar energy trade
and professional organizations indicate statewide interest in learning about and
becoming involved in solar energy options. Recent state legislation which
provides tax relief serves as a further inducement to Indiana residents to include
solar heating in new residential housing.
An Innovative Approach to Environmental Physics Education. Gregory
Peterson, Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute,
Indiana 47809 The environment of our lakes is a very strong emphasis in an
environmental physics course (Physics 470/570) taught at Indiana State
University. The major portion of the laboratory time spent by the students was
used performing various water sampling tasks. An underwater camera, made
available by an Indiana Academy of Science grant, was utilized to give students
a view of the sampling devices as well as fish life and the underwater vegetation.
A Brief Report of "History of Physics in Great Britain", The Professor's View.
Carl C. Sartain, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809 This paper is a brief report on the "History of Physics in Great
Britain". It describes who we are, where we went, what we saw, who lectured to
us, and how well we met our objective — to improve our teaching of Physics by
using historical examples, events and personalities.
Factors Affecting the Operation of a TSEE Proportional Counter
D. J. Fehringer, R. J. Vetter, and P. L. Ziemer
School of Pharmacy and Pharmacal Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
Exoelectron emission is the emission of low energy electrons from the
surfaces of ionic crystals, metals, semiconductors, and some organic materials,
either during or following various physical or chemical treatments including
exposure to ionizing radiation. Electrons may be emitted spontaneously or upon
stimulation of the material with heat or light. Exoelectron emission stimulated
by heating the material is termed thermally stimulated exoelectron emission
(TSEE), and shows emission maxima at distinct temperatures thought to be
characteristic of the energy levels of electron traps in the investigated material.
Measurement of TSEE for radiation dosimetry is often accomplished using
windowless gas-flow radiation detectors operated in either the Geiger- Mueller
(G-M) or the proportional region. The number of photo-electrons produced in
the detector is dependent on a number of factors including the applied voltage,
the electrode configuration, and the type and pressure of the filling gas (6). The
probability of an electron within a detector producing an ionization when it
collides with a gas molecule is dependent on the ionization potential of the
molecule and the energy of the electron. The energy acquired by an electron
between collisions depends on the electric field intensity through which it is
accelerated and on the mean free path between collisions, or the molecular
density of the gas. Electrons gain larger amounts of energy between collisions
when the electric field intensity is increased or when the gas pressure is decreased
(increasing the mean free path between collisions). Therefore, increasing the
electric field intensity or decreasing the pressure of the filling gas will increase the
probability of secondary electron production at each collision, and will increase
the gas multiplication factor. Fenyves and Haiman (4) indicate that the
multiplication factor increases approximately exponentially with increasing
electric field strength, and decreases exponentially with increasing pressure of the
filling gas.
In addition to an effect on the output pulse size, the magnitude of the
voltage applied to a proportional counter anode would be expected to
significantly influence the efficiency with which exoelectrons are drawn into the
sensitive volume of the proportional counter where electron multiplication
occurs. The electric field intensity near the walls of a proportional counter is
relatively low and will not strongly accelerate free electrons toward the center of
the detector. It is possible, therefore, for exoelectrons to diffuse to the walls of
the detector and be lost before producing a discharge. Increasing the detector
voltage will increase the electric field intensity throughout the detector volume
and will decrease the tendency for exoelectons to be lost in this manner.
Niewiadomski (5) reported that making the TSEE sample electrically negative
358
Physics
359
with respect to the detector walls helped accelerate the emitted electrons into the
detector volume and provided a four-fold increase in the TSEE detection
efficiency.
The objective of this study was to measure the influence of three major
factors — the type of counting gas, the type and position of the detector anode,
and the electrical potential of the TSEE sample — on the operation of the
proportional counter for TSEE measurements.
Methods and Materials
The TSEE reader used for this study consisted of a windowless gas flow
proportional counter with associated electronic instrumentation (Figure 1 ). The
proportional counter was modified so as to accept a sliding drawer which
contained the TSEE dosimeter, a heater, and thermocouples. A temperature
programmer1 was used to provide a linear heating rate of approximately
50° C/ minute, and was controlled by a feedback signal from one of the
thermocouples. The other thermocouple was used to monitor the heating rate
during readout.
k©kD
iHEKD
l
H
T
Figure 1. Block diagram of TSEE measurement system. A, proportional counter-heater; B,
temperature programmer; C, strip chart recorder; D, preamplifier; E, power supply; E. amplifier; G,
single channel analyzer; H, count rate to voltage converter; I, scaler; J, timer.
Pulses from the proportional counter were processed by commercially
available modular equipment2 consisting of a low-noise preamplifier operated
with gain setting X 1 , a linear amplifier operated with gain setting X 1 50, a single-
channel analyzer and a scaler to obtain the integrated output. A count rate-to-
voltage converter of the diode pump type was constructed which produced a
D.C. voltage proportional to the TSEE count rate ( 1 ). This converter permitted
simultaneous recording of the TSEE "glow curve" and the heater temperature
on a dual pen strip chart recorder.
'Va'rian Instrument Co., Palo Alto, CA.
2Models 109 PC, 451, 406 A and 430, Ortec Incorporated, Oak Ridge, TN.
360 Indiana Academy of Science
A previous study of proportional counter operation (3) indicated that a
90% argon— 10% methane counting gas (P-10 gas) did not provide adequate gas
multiplication for TSEE counting applications, and that substitution of pure
methane would improve the gas gain of the detector. This substitution of pure
methane would improve the gas gain of the detector. This substitution was made
and the operating characteristics, including pulse height distributions and
"characteristic curve" measurements were investigated.
Brown (2) reported that the type, shape and location of the anode within the
detector significantly influenced the stability and detection efficiency of a
proportional counter for TSEE measurements. In particular, he found that a
needle-point anode provided more stable operation than the conventional loop
anode. In our investigation several anodes of both the loop and the needle-point
types were fabricated and the operating characteristics were recorded.
In order to determine the influence of the electrical potential of the sample
on the TSEE detection efficiency, the TSEE reader was modified so that the
sample was insulated from ground potential, and a voltage was then applied to
the sample using an external power supply. The TSEE detection efficiency was
then determined by comparing the observed count rates at various potentials to
that observed with the sample grounded, both for isothermal fading and during
a normal TSEE readout cycle.
Results and Discussion
The use of pure methane rather than an argon — methane mixture as the
counting gas improved the proportional counter operation for TSEE detection,
although the counter operation was still not entirely satisfactory. The pulse
height distributions obtained from an isothermally fading TSEE source for pure
methane and for a 90% argon — 10% methane counting gas mixture are
presented in Figure 2. Each curve was obtained at the highest voltage that would
allow reasonably stable detector operation without transition to Geiger or
multiple counting operation. Corresponding plots of count rates versus voltage,
or "characteristic curves" are displayed in Figure 3.
!« — Discriminator
Figure 2. Pulse height distributions
_ for pure methane at 4500 volts (M) and
argon-methane at 2250 volts (A-M).
r
5
PULSE HEIGHT (V)
The curves of Figures 2 and 3 were found to be highly variable on a day-to-
day basis, as illustrated in Figure 4. Below 4 100 volts, however, little variation in
the characteristic curve was found, and, although it did not provide the
Physics
361
COUNTER BIAS (kV)
Figure
3. Count rate versus voltage curves for argon-methane (A-M) and pure methane (M).
maximum detection efficiency, 4000 volts was chosen as the working voltage in
order to optimize the day-to-day reproducibility of the proportional counter.
Variations in the characteristic curve were correlated with variations in the
atmospheric pressure (pressure of the filling gas) as shown in Figure 4. It is
suggested that decreases in the gas pressure favor transition to the Geiger
counting mode, and that the resulting large increases in the dead time of the
detector were responsible for the decreased count rates observed at higher
voltages. At higher pressures the absence of a "counting plateau" is attributed to
an increased tendency for the electrons to be collected into the sensitive volume
of the detector as the voltage is increased. The observed increase in the count rate
with increasing voltage was therefore due to an increase in the efficiency with
which electrons were drawn into the detector volume before diffusing to the
detector walls where thev would otherwise have been lost.
>5
-J
UJ
I I I
3.7 4.1 4.5
COUNTER BIAS (kV)
Figure 4. Variation of count rate with
voltage as affected by day-to-day
variations in barometric pressure.
i
4.9
It was noted that use of pure methane as the counting gas appeared to
increase the TSEE detection efficiency compared to the argon-methane gas. It
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Indiana Academy of Science
could not be determined, however, if this increase was due to an improved
counting efficiency, or if the higher detector bias required for methane operation
resulted in an increased exoelectron "collection efficiency" as discussed above.
Figure 5. Variation of pulse height
distributions with TSEE count rate.
9 10
PULSE HEIGHT (V)
The pulse height distributions for both counting gases were found to exhibit
a marked count rate dependence as illustrated in Figure 5. Higher count rates
caused a shift of the pulse height distribution to larger pulse heights and the
growth of additional peaks in the curve.
Attix (1) reported that use of an argon-methane counting gas for TSEE
detection resulted in large numbers of "spurious" counts, and that substitution
of methane eliminated this problem. Our investigation confirmed the existence
of these spurious pulses, with bursts of hundreds of counts spontaneously
appearing, especially at higher temperatures during a readout cycle.
Substitution of methane as the counting gas did not entirely eliminate this
problem, but it did reduce the frequency of occurrence of these spurious pulses
to an acceptably low level. It was also observed that the frequency of occurrence
and the number of counts per burst both decreased during the course of a day's
readout work. If the detector was not used for several days, however, the
problem of spurious pulses was found to be considerably increased when work
was resumed. It therefore appears that this effect may have been caused by water
vapor or other atmospheric contaminants collected inside the detector while not
in use.
Brown (2) reported that substitution of a needle-point anode in place of the
normal loop anode eliminated the spurious counting problem in his TSEE
proportional counter. In our investigation, several platinum needle-point
anodes of varying lengths were fabricated, and their operation was compared
with that of a loop anode in both methane and argon-methane counting gases.
None was found to outperform the loop anode in any way, including reduction
of spurious counting. Measurements of pulse height distributions and
characteristic curves indicated that the needle-point anodes operated in the
proportional mode over a more limited voltage range and showed a sharper
transition to Geiger operation than did the loop anode. The needle-point anodes
were therefore discarded.
A loop anode of approximately twice the diameter of the standard anode
Physics 363
was obtained, and its performance was measured. When installed, the bottom of
this anode was only about 8 mm from the TSEE emitting surface, and it was
thought that the increased electric field in the vicinity of the sample surface
would improve the exoelectron "collection efficiency." The TSEE characteristic
curve for this anode at room temperature exhibited a very attractive counting
plateau extending over several hundred volts, but at higher temperatures an
extremely high thermionic emission was found. It was thought that the increased
electric field at the sample surface lowered the work function slightly resulting in
the greatly increased thermionic emission. This anode was therefore also judged
to be unsuitable, and the standard loop anode at a height of 25 mm above the
sample was used for all subsequent investigations.
The TSEE reader was modified so that an external power supply could be
attached to the sample, biasing it at any desired potential with respect to ground.
The infuence of the sample potential on the TSEE detection efficiency for an
isothermally fading TSEE source was measured and the results are presented
graphically in Figure 6. A negative sample potential was found to greatly
increase the TSEE detection efficiency. At higher temperatures, however, it was
found that a negative sample potential resulted in a very strong thermionic
emission which largely obscurred any accompanying TSEE. Application of a
negative bias to the sample was therefore judged to be an unacceptable method
for improving the TSEE detection efficiency.
Figure 6. Variation of TSEE detection
efficiency with electrical potential of
sample.
-100
SAMPLE POTENTIAL (V)
Conclusions
This study showed that use of pure methane as the counting gas in the TSEE
proportional counter resulted in better counter stability and higher gas gain than
the argon-methane counting gas. The standard loop anode positioned 25 mm
above the sample gave better performance than needle-point on large-loop
anodes. Detection efficiency was increased when a negative bias was applied to
the sample, but thermionic emission was increased when ambient temperature
was high. Although the operation of the detector was still not entirely
satisfactory, it is suspected that additional investigations of the geometrical
configuration of the detector and improvements in the associated electronic
components could increase the TSEE detection efficiency and detector stability.
364 Indiana Academy of Science
Literature Cited
1. Attix, F. H. 1971 A proportional counter for thermally-stimulated exoelectrons. Int. J. Appl.
Radiat. Isotopes 22:185-197.
2. Brown, L. D. 1971. Problems in the use of proportional counters for TSEE measurements.
Proceedings of Third International Conference on Luminescence Dosimetry. Danish Atomic
Energy Commission. Copenhagen. Riso Report No. 249. 654-659. 1229 p.
3. Fehringer, D. J. 1973. The Effects of Microwave Radiation on Thermally Stimulated
Exoelectron Emission. M.S. Thesis. Purdue University. 94 p.
4. Fenyves, E., and O. Haiman. 1969. The Physical Principles of Nuclear Radiation Measurements.
Academic Press. New York. 500 p.
5. Niewiadomski, T. 1971. TSEE dosimetry studies. Proceedings of the Third International
Conference on Luminescence Dosimetry. Danish Atomic Energy Commission. Copenhagen. Riso
Report No. 249. 612-617. 1229 p.
6. Price, W. J. 1964. Nuclear Radiation Detection. McGraw-Hill, New York. 430 p.
Time Resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy for in Situ Measurements1
Torsten Alvager and Mark Branham
Department of Physics, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
Introduction
Fluorescence measurements of biological material in situ is a a growing and
potentially very powerful technique for many biological and medical studies. In
most existing fluorometers adapted for in situ measurements a beam of
excitation light is directed towards the sample position and fluorescence light is
then detected in the fluorometer. In general, the method for creating a beam
involves the use of a microscope in which a parallel beam of light is focused into
a small spot at the sample position. This system is suitable for studying
fluorescence from surface targets but is relatively complicated to use, especially
if observations have to be performed over a longer period of time of living
material. In such cases a more flexible arrangement to direct the light towards
the sample spot is through the use of the recently developed light guide technique
(5). This method may also allow fluorescence measurements of cells situated
deep inside tissue and organs (2).
The most important example of in situ fluorescence measurement is
probably the assay of oxidation-reduction state of NADH in which this
compound serves as an indicator of the rate of oxygen consumption and the rate
of ATP formation in a tissue (3). This method has been applied, for instance, in
observation of NADH fluorescence as a measure of oxygen consumption in
various changing states of the cerebral cortex of cats in situ (6).
A problem that confronts most in situ fluorescence studies is the effect of
scattered and reflected excitation light. For a fluorophore with high quantum
yield and suitable sample concentration (like NADH in the illustration
mentioned above) it is often possible to separate, satisfactorily, the scattered
light from the fluorescence light by the use of a monochromator or a filter.
However, for less favorable cases spurious scattering light may dominate over
fluorescence light even at the fluorescence wavelength and make a meaningful
reading difficult or impossible. Under such circumstances, an improved
fluorescence signal would be possible to obtain in many cases by separating the
two light signals in time, since relative to the excitation light the fluorescence
light is often delayed (often in the nanosecond range) while the scattered light is
prompt. This possible method has been investigated in the present work. A
nanosecond fluorescence spectrometer has been adapted to a light guide
arrangement for observation of fluorescence and various experimental
parameters of such a system have been measured.
'Supported in part by a grant from the ISU Research Committee.
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Indiana Academy of Science
Method
A schematic block diagram of the experimental set-up is seen in Fig. 1.
Nanosecond light pulses from an air spark source are selected in filter 1 and
passed partially through a beam splitter. The light then enters a light guide
system, consisting of a Schott uv-light guide having an effective diameter of 0. 1
cm. The distol end of the light guide is in contact with the sample. Fluorophores
in the immediate vicinity of the end point of the probe will be excited by the
incoming light and re-emit some fluorescence light into the light guide. This light
together with some scattered and reflected light is transported back to the beam
splitter and part of it reflected into the detector system and registered after
selection in filter 2. The time difference between light source pulses and
corresponding detector pulses are measured in the time measuring unit which is
a conventional delayed coincidence system and a time spectrum is finally
obtained.
Sample
Fiber Optic
System
Detector
Beam Splitter
Monochromator 1
Light Beam
Figure 1. Block diagram of fiber optic fluorometer
The instrument outlined in Fig. 1 is usually referred to as a nanosecond
fluorescence spectrometer (1). The main difference between the present set-up
and a conventional instrument is the light guide system. Light emitted from the
spark, maintained between two high voltage electodes, is focused by a lens to the
entrance surface of the light guide, which has a diameter of approximately 0.1
cm. The beam splitter consists of a mirror with a small opening (diameter = 0.05
cm) transmitting excitation light into the light guide. Part of the light returning
Physics
367
through the light guide is reflected by the beam splitter into the detector. The
filters are interferance filters. The detector is an RCA 8850 photomultiplier for
registration of single photons.
■S in3
10 20
Time (Nanoseconds)
30
Figure 2. Time spectra obtained with the fiber optic probe shown in Fig. 1 of quinine sulfate fixed in
gelatine ( — •— • — • — ) and pure gelatine ( ). Excitation at 350 nm; emission of 460 nm.
Results and Discussions
A typical time spectrum measurement with the light guide can be seen in
Fig. 2, where the numbers of counts registered by the detector is plotted vs.
delayed time (in nanoseconds). The sample was 5 x 10"5 M quinine sulfate in 0.1
N H2SO4 fixed in gelatine to simulate biological material. The two filters had
maximum transmission at wavelengths 350 nm (filter 1) and 460 nm (filter 2)
respectively, corresponding to optimal excitation and emission conditions in
quinine sulfate. The two peaks in Fig. 2 are due to a small residue of scattered
and reflected light which, in spite of the filters, reached the detector. Peak A
corresponds mainly to excitation light scattered into the detector from the
section around the beam splitter, while Peak B is due to light passed through the
light guide and scattered or reflected in the sample. The time difference between
the two peaks is due to the time of flight of light in the light guide. The
continuous part of the curve (C) in Fig. 2 corresponds to fluorescence light from
quinine sulfate. The slope of the decay curve gives the lifetime of the decay. In
this case it is 10.5 ns. This value can be compared to the lifetime of quinine
sulfate in pure 0. 1 N H2SO4, which is 1 9.0 ns (4). The smaller value of the lifetime
in the present case is mainly due the environmental change caused by the
presence of the gel.
368 Indiana Academy of Science
The data presented in Fig. 2 shows clearly the advantage of using a timing
device to separate fluorescence light from scattered light. The degree of
separation depends, of course, on the lifetime of the fluorophore and the time
resolution given by the instrument. In the present case the fluorescence lifetime
(10.5 ns) is much longer than the instrumental time resolution (approximately 2
ns) and the separation is good. For shortlived fluorophores several factors are of
importance in determining the degree of separation. Of special interest for the
light guide technique is the spread in time due to different paths of light rays in
the light guide. To study this problem in more detail Fig. 2 gives also a
measurement with a quinine sulfate absent from the sample (dashed curve) to
enhance the prompt peaks. In this experiment two light guides were used: one
situated between the beam splitter and the sample and one between the beam
splitter and the detector. Both light guides were approximately 0.5 m in length.
Light giving rise to peak A therefore traversed a distance three times shorter
than light responsible for peak B. In spite of the length difference, the widths of
the two peaks are approximately equal, which means that the time spread in the
light guides contributes to less than 1 ns of the peak widths. For lifetimes in the
range 1-2 ns this spread may be of importance. However, in such critical
situations shorter light guides than those employed here may be used.
It should be noted that by an improved design of the system the intensity of
the scattered light could be reduced. For instance, the use of high quality
monochromators instead of filters would attenuate the intensity of scattered and
reflected light considerably. However, with the particular geometry necessary to
use in connection with the light guide, non-fluorescence light will always be
present and will give rise to some residual light that can enter the detector. The
time measurement procedure will therefore be of importance in most situations,
especially for fluorphores with a low quantum yield.
Literature Cited
1. Alvager, T. and W. X. Balcavage, 1974. Nanosecond fluorescence decay study of mitochondria
and mitochondrial membranes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 58:1039-1046.
2. Alvager, T., 1977. Microfluorometry with optical fiber microprobe. To be published.
3. Chance, B., P. Cohen, F. Jobsis, and B. Schoener, 1974. Intracellular oxidation-reduction states
in vivo. Science 137:449-508.
4. Guilbault, G., 1973. Practical Fluorescence. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, p. 13.
5. Maveysky, A. and B. Chance, 1973. A new long-term method for the measurement of NADH
fluorescence in intact rat brain with chronically implanted cannula. Oxygen Transport to Tissue:
239-244.
6. Rosenthal, M. and G. Somjen, 1973. Spreading depression, sustained potential shifts, and
metabolic activity of cerebral cortex of cats. J. Neurophysol. 36:739-749.
PLANT TAXONOMY
Chairman: Victor Riemenschneider, Department of Biology
Indiana University — South Bend, South Bend, IN
Chairman-Elect: Theodore J. Crovello, Department of Biology
University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556
Abstracts
Vascular Plant Inventory of Fall Creek Nature Preserve1, Warren County,
Indiana. Dennis E. Grossnickle, 1055 4th Street NE, Hickory, N.C. 28601 and
Marion T. Jackson, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University,
Terre Haute, IN 47809 Fall Creek Nature Preserve is a 43-acre forested
tract which includes Fall Creek Gorge, a steep-walled sandstone canyon with
large potholes along the creek floor. The tract was preserved by the Indiana
Chapter of The Nature Conservancy.
A year-long floristic inventory concluding in June, 1977, yielded a total of
1 75 species of vascular plants, including 34 tree, 1 5 shrub and vine, 1 1 6 flowering
herb and 10 fern species. Several additional species of graminoids await
verification. Species of special interest because of disjunct distribution or small
population size include Pinus strobus L., Gaylussacia baccata (Wang.) K. Koch,
Aralia nudicaulis L., Panax quinquefolius L., Cynoglossum officinale L.,
Lobelia inflata L., Cacalia atriplicifolia L., Psoralea onobrychis Nutt., Trillium
nivale Riddell, Poly gala senega L., Dodecatheon media L., Monotropa uniflora
L., Mitchella repens L., Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl., G. virginica (L.), Mimulus
alatus Ait., Zizia aurea (L.), Athyriumfilix-femina (L.) Roth., Woodsia glabella
R. Br., and W. obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Nomenclature follows Fernald (1950).
Voucher specimens are located in the Indiana State University Herbarium.
A complete floristic list is available from the authors or from The Nature
Conservancy, Route 1, Box 155, Nashville, IN 47448.
The Effectiveness of External Factors in Isolating Sympatric Species of
Milkweed (Asclepias). Susan Rivar Kephart, Department of Biology, Indiana
University, Bloomington, Indiana 47401 The coexistence of closely related
plant species is made possible in large part by the presence of reproductive
barriers to hybridization. As part of a study of reproductive isolation among
locally sympatric Asclepias species, umbels from an experimental population
containing A. incarnata and A. syriaca were examined for interspecific and
intraspecific pollinium insertions. Previous study had indicated that insects fly
freely between these species and that a given insect may carry both pollinium
types simultaneously. A. incarnata pollinium insertions into stigmatic chambers
of 871 A. syriaca flowers averaged 13% of the total number of correct insertions
■A field expense grant from The Nature Preserves Stewardship Fund, Midwest Regional Office,
The Nature Conservancy, is gratefully acknowledged.
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370 Indiana Academy of Science
(values ranged from 2-35%) during a 16-day overlap in flowering between the
species. Reciprocal insertions have not yet been found (302 flowers sampled).
Thus, neither the specific fit between pollinium and stigmatic chamber operating
as a lock and key mechanical barrier nor differential positioning as a result of
behavioral factors is sufficient to prevent pollinium transfer between species.
However, mechanical and ethological factors, acting alone or in combination,
may provide a partial, or one-way, barrier to hybridization. Experimental
pollinations completed to date between A. syriaca and A. incarnata have also
failed to yield hybrids, indicating physiological factors may be effective in
preventing gene flow. It is suggested that both external factors and physiological
effects are important in maintaining the very low level of hybridization observed
in natural populations of sympatric milkweeds.
Computerized Information Retrieval and Graphics to Study The Mustard Flora
of the Soviet Union. Theodore J. Crovello and Douglas Miller,
Department of Biology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
46556 The need arose to obtain as much information as possible about the
mustard flora of the Soviet Union, especially of South Central Asia, and to have
it in various summary formats, and to have it quickly. Accordingly, data in
Volume 8 of the Flora of the Soviet Union was keypunched for computer
processing. The mustard family (Brassicacceae) was found to be represented by
757 species in 1 28 genera. For each genus its name, number, year published, and
page number were captured. For each species its name, number, year published,
distribution within and without the Soviet Union, habitat, months of flowering,
and phytogeographic regions were captured for computer processing. Results
included printouts of all or selected taxa, with all or only selected information on
each. Graphic summaries included summary distribution maps over the 51
phytogeographic regions of the Soviet Union, frequency distributions of
number of species for each region, and plots of number of species by number of
regions. Statistical analyses also were made. Total effort was less than two
people-months.
Artificial Interspecific Hybrids in Proboscidea (Martyniaceae). Peter K.
Bretting, Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
47401 Gene flow between species can be prevented or reduced by many
different sorts of isolating mechanisms. The nature of the reproductive isolating
mechanisms separating species of Proboscidea (Martyniaceae) is being
examined through interspecific cross pollinations. To date, three species native
to different geographical areas have been crossed: P. triloba (native to central
Mexico), P. parviflora (native to the American Southwest and northern
Mexico), and P. louisianica (native to the Great Plains). The following crosses
yielded Fi plants: P. triloba X P. parviflora, P. louisianica X P. triloba, and P.
parviflora X P. louisiancia. P. parviflora X P. louisiancia hybrids showed no
reduction in pollen stainability, while P. triloba X P. parviflora and P.
louisiancia X P. triloba hybrids had pollen stainabilities of 72% and 74%
respectively. Several Indian groups of the American Southwest cultivate a
distinct form of Proboscidea parviflora for use in basketry. Crosses of this
cultivar with P. louisianica and P. parviflora yielded Fi plants with pollen
Plant Taxonomy 371
stainabilities greater than 95%. Additional crosses involving the preceding taxa
and recently obtained Proboscidea accessions should lead to a better
understanding of the reproductive isolating mechanisms extant in this genus.
SCIENCE EDUCATION
Chairman: Jon R. Hendrix
Department of Biology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Chairman-Elect: Stanley S. Shimer
Science Teaching Center, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Abstracts
Column in agricultural magazine as educational text. James Mitchell Smith,
Instructor, New Castle Area Vocational School, New Castle, Indiana 47362,
also Box 23 Liberty, Indiana 47353 The column, "Over the dashboard"
from the magazine, "Confinement" is used to present a point of view as well as
basic agricultural information.
The opening paragraph points the direction of the column. A repeating
phrasing, almost a poem, occurs in the middle part of the column and the body
of the information is in the later third of the column. Except that the last
paragraph gives the summing up of the subject.
As the writer of "Over the dashboard", I use the column with adult classes in
agriculture which I teach in a vocational school. From time to time readers
whom I do not know, write to me about the column.
A Videotape Method for Testing of Anatomy Course Material. Matthew
Kelty, University of Notre Dame, Department of Biology, Notre Dame,
Indiana 46556 The introductory biology laboratory course (enrollment
400) at the University of Notre Dame includes a nine-hour sequence on
vertebrate dissection. In the past, testing this material by both lab practical and
photographic slides has been unsatisfactory from the aspects of excessive time
and energy expended in the first case, and poor quality of the test material in the
second. Since 1975, a television system of testing has been employed, using color
videotape recording equipment. Videotapes were produced which showed and
asked questions about the anatomy of a dissected specimen. This system was
judged the most successful employed because 1.) the capability of zooming from
a view of the entire organism to an extreme close-up of a specific structure and of
moving the structure to show it from various camera angles make the tape far
superior to color slides, and 2.) the capability of testing 80-100 students
simultaneously is much more efficient than a lab practical test.
Utilizing Resource Individuals for TV Instruction in Biological Teaching
Strategies. Charles L. Gehring, Professor of Life Sciences, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 The topic considered herein is
restricted to utilizing resource individuals in the production of Instructional
Television (ITV) programs. The new copyright laws make it difficult to use
commercially prepared materials (films, video cassettes, etc.) in ITV.
Fortunately, for the student, the copyright law does encourage the instructor to
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374 Indiana Academy of Science
develop materials and utilize individuals more appropriate to a specific course
and/ or region.
What are some of the criteria for selecting a resource individual? One, the
individual must possess the expertise or skill which makes his/her participation
worthwhile. Two, the individual must be a "willing", rather than a coerced,
participant. Three, there must be sufficient visuals/graphics to eliminate the
"talking face" syndrome. Prior to establishing these criteria, the author was
involved in more than one bad ITV production. In terms of student disinterest,
our worst production involved the panel discussion format, in which four
experts from different ecological fields discussed environmental problems.
To date, our greatest success with resource individuals involved staff
members from the Human Genetics Department (Indiana University School of
Medicine). The criteria for selection were established, followed by months of
planning, taping, editing, and compiling the finished product. Resource
individuals do exist; however, one must proceed with a well-conceived plan to
utilize their talents in ITV programs.
Bird Studies and Environmental Education. Marshall E. Parks, Science
Teaching Center, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana
47809 The University Studies Program at Indiana State University is an
alternative general education track for undergraduate students. "Man and His
Environment" is a course designed to increase environmental understandings by
emphasizing a systems approach to basic biophysical interrelationships. The
study of birds in their natural environment is one unit incorporated in this
course.
In this bird studies unit, the student learns to identify the common birds in
the field and begins to perceive the nature of the relationships between
organisms and their environments. The students utilizes field identification and
special techniques, such as bird song recording using parabolic reflectors, and
bird netting and scientific banding. However, the instructional emphasis is on
the abiotic and biotic phenomena of birds in their natural environments.
Important concepts and principles presented in other units of the course are
reiterated, developed in more detail and carefully integrated into the bird studies
unit. If planned properly a bird studies unit has considerable potential as a
vehicle for improving the college students' understanding of basic
environmental principles which have general application to all ecosystems.
Development of spatial abilities in school age children. H. Marvin Bratt,
Science Education, The Ohio State University, Marion, Ohio 43302. Tasks
designed to engage the right and left hemispheres of the brain were given to
school age children in an attempt to discover asymmetries in development. Of
special concern were developmental differences in spatial recognition and
conservation of space. For comparison, tasks which engage verbal abilities were
also given. Twenty six school age children were randomly selected from a typical
rural school and individually tested using the tasks.
The data from the study indicate that there are differences in hemisphere
functioning in these school age children. Scores on tasks requiring right
hemisphere function were significantly higher than scores on left hemisphere
Science Education 375
tasks. With respect to age, there seem to be developmental differences in both
right and left hemisphere abilities. The results tend to support the hypothesis
(Gazziniga, 1970; Bratt and Haver, 1976; Hewitt, 1962; and Conel, 1959) that 1)
the two hemispheres act independently during development, 2) that
preadolescent children tend to use the right hemisphere more efficiently than the
left, and 3) that children are more successful learners in environments containing
objects and materials than in environments in which reading or verbal
interaction is predominant.
Development and Implementation of a Bioethical Decision-Making Course at
Ball State University. Jon R. Hendrix, Associate Professor Biology, Ball State
University Students' confusion about contemporary bioethical problems,
an author-conducted national survey of bioethics course, and a research
background in values/ morals education led the author to develop and
implement a bioethical decision-making course at Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana. The major thrust of the course is the exploration of bioethical
issues and the application of confluent, developmental value clarification
teaching techniques to these issues. A four-step teaching model is employed:
1. Sensitize students to a particular problem; 2. Analyze the particular
problem from as many points of view as possible; 3. Synthesize a personal stance
to the problem and; 4. Actualize the stance if possible. A contract grading system
is employed having both core and optional activities. Small group discussions
are also utilized to allow for examination of alternate views of peers. Hastings
Center reading packets and extensive bibliographic materials were used as data
bases for decision-making. Howard Brody's models in Ethical Decisions in
Medicine were modified to include a value clarifying component and then
utilized as the major mode of ethical decision-making.
Piaget and Geology. Robert B. Votaw, Department of Geosciences, Indiana
University Northwest, Gary Indiana Levels of thought processes and
development of reasoning have been described by Piaget. Two of these levels
exist among college students. Puzzles designed to assist in the recognition of
these levels of thought processes have been administered to students enrolled in
introductory earth science. Results show that half the students tested are
functioning at a concrete level of reasoning, while most of the topics discussed in
the course require a formal level of thought for mastery of the topic.
SOIL AND ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE
Chairman: Lawrence A. Schaal, Department of Agronomy,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Chairman-Elect: Stephen A. Justham, Department of Geography and Geology,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306
Abstracts
Comparison of Methods for Determining Exchangeable Bases in Soils. Russell
K. Stivers, Department of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
Indiana 47907 The Purdue Plant and Soil Analysis Laboratory offers two
types of tests for exchangeable soil bases. One is the standard procedure in which
samples are weighed, leached overnight with neutral, normal ammonium
acetate, filtered, and elements determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. In our rapid procedure for K, Ca, Mg, and Na, samples are
scooped, shaken five minutes in neutral, normal ammonium acetate, filtered,
and the elements determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. This
rapid procedure is used in our laboratory as the basis for K fertilizer
recommendations and, in part, liming recommendations. The purpose of this
research report is to compare results of the standard procedure with results of
the rapid procedure for exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, and Na on the same soil
samples. Two sets of data, each of 77 different soil samples tested in our
laboratory during 1976 and 1977, were compared. One set of 77 samples from
the surface soil on seven different Indiana farms, averaged 3.79% organic matter
and 25. 1 milliequivalents of cation exchange capacity per 100 grams of soil. The
other set of 77 samples from coal strip mines, averaged 1.02% organic matter
and 20.5 milliequivalents of cation exchange capacity per 100 grams of soils.
Regression coefficients relating rapid soil test cations to the leaching procedure
for the same cations were determined. The regression coefficients of the farmers'
samples were all significantly lower (P<001) than those of the strip mine
samples for all four cations. These coefficients for farmers' samples were 402 for
K, 271 for Ca, 197 for Mgand 93 for Na. All values are parts per two million per
milliequi valent per 1 00 grams of soil. They were 51.5%, 67. 8%, 82.1% and 20. 2%
respectively of the expected values. The corresponding respective values for the
strip mine soil samples were 84.9%, 89.0%, 89.2% and 59.5%.
Application of Satellite Remote Sensing Data For Mapping Vegetation. S. J.
Kristof and R. A. Weismiller Computer-assisted statistical pattern
recognition techniques of Landsat-2 data have been used to detect, identify and
locate vegetative ground cover.
Using the nonsupervised cluster routine technique and ground truth
information, seven, different crop classes were selected for classification and
testing. Variations in spectral response in the visible and in the reflective infrared
electromagnetic spectrum resulted from differences in the type of vegetative
cover, densities of the cover, stage of physiological development, geographic
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378 Indiana Academy of Science
orientation, and soil background. The response of plants to incident radiation
varies with wavelength. Plants strongly absorb incoming radiation in the green
and red portions of the spectrum, but absorb weakly in the reflective infrared
region of the spectrum. The high absorption of visible radiation is attributed to
the high absorption by chlorophylls and other leaf pigments (Gates, 1965).
Under such circumstances the ratio between relative reflectance of the visible
spectrum (0.5 to 0.7 /j, m) and relative reflectance of the infrared region will be
low. Nonvegetated areas in general reflect more energy in the visible spectrum
than in the reflective infrared; thus their ratio will be high. Association of
nonsupervised cluster classes with their corresponding cover type was facilitated
by the use of these characteristics. Almost all classes of vegetation differ in their
reflective behavior from the ideal Lambertian law, mostly because of incomplete
plant cover, moisture content, zenith and azimuth angles.
Soil Science Atmospheric Science, Teaching Devices for Solar Heater and
Methane Generator. James Mitchell Smith, Liberty, Indiana 47353 Used
with adult classes in agriculture, New Castle, Indiana Vocational School, two
models were found to be of value.
Methane generator consists of a distillation flask, stopper in top opening
and rubber tubing fastened to small outlet to the side. The rubber tubing leads to
a bunsen burner and there is a clamp between flask and burner. Animal manure
placed in flask and when clamp is released enough methane is generated to
produce a small flame for a short time.
Solar heater consists of flat plastic tray, in this tray is placed a quarter of an
inch of water. Over the water is placed a black roofing sheet and over the roofing
a plate of glass. When placed in the sun, water temperatures will rise 40° Fin an
hour.
The Status of Tornado Preparedness Planning in Indiana's Institutions of
Higher Education. Stephen A. Justham, Department of Geography and
Geology, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 Institutions of
higher education commonly function as communities isolated from the larger
communities of which they are generally a part. Because institutions furnish
duplicate services, such as health and police agencies, it is suggested that they
have an equal responsibility to provide separate alerting systems to warn their
communities of an impending tornado. The majority of Indiana's institutions,
located in a "high risk" state, seem to be inadequately prepared to warn their
populations of an approaching tornado. An institution's attitude toward the
possibility of a tornado disaster may be related to the institution's chief
administrator's perception of the probability of a tornado striking the
institutional community. Several survey questions were designed to try to
determine if there is any association between the chief administrator's
perceptions and whether or not the institution has a tornado preparedness plan.
The preliminary results of these aspects of the research are examined.
Phosphate Chemistry of Indiana Lake and Reservoir Sediments. E. D. Orme
and D. W. Nelson, Purdue University Soluble inorganic phosphorus is
presumed to be a vital element in the process of lake eutrophication.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 379
Information available on Wisconsin lakes indicates that some sediment
properties control sediment-water phosphorus exchange. Studies were
conducted on Indiana lake and reservoir sediments to relate general sediment
properties to the nature of the dynamic inorganic phosphate equilibrium
between the sediment and water phases. The concept of equilibrium phosphate
concentration (EPC) was introduced and evaluated as the sediment property
which measures the ability of a sediment to maintain a concentration of P in the
water phase. Data from reservoir and lake sediments were compared and
parameters for each class of sediments statistically correlated. These
correlations revealed that the sediment EPC was directly related to the degree of
eutrophication in the body of water. The oxalate-extractable fractions appeared
to be responsible for the majority of Padsorptive capacity of sediments. Oxalate
and NH4F-extractable fractions of P in lake sediments appeared to be involved
as pools of P for the dynamic equilibrium between sediment and water. The
labile pool of P for reservoir sediments, though, appeared to involve only the
NH4F-extractable fraction.
The Influence of a Synoptic Scale Cyclone on Boundary Layer Winds Over
Lake Michigan in Early Summer, 1976. Paul E. Ciisiei ski. Department of
Atmos Sciences, Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, CO 80521, Phillip J.
Smith, Dept. of Geosciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
47097 The description of low level air flow over large bodies of water is a
problem of major commercial and scientific importance. Insufficient and
sporadic data often hamper adequate description of these wind fields. Progress
though has been made by utilizing and relating relatively abundant synoptic
scale data to low-level wind fields over water. Realizing that particularly
significant winds and wind-driven waves are produced by snoptic scale systems
moving over the Great Lakes, a case study was conducted for a cyclone system
which moved across Lake Michigan on June 30 — July I, 1976.
Objectives are (1) to present a synoptic analysis of the system, and (2) to
formulate and test the validity of a simple model for estimating the low-level
wind field over water. The primary components of the model are gradient winds
determined at the top of the boundary layer and the power law wind profile
relationship. The results from this model, which show relatively good agreement
with the observed synoptic wind field, are discussed. The agreement in results is
shown to be especially good under conditions of strong atmospheric turbulence
when neutral stability existed.
The Modern Climatology of Indiana Tornadoes
Dennis A. Keyser, Ernest M. Agee and Christopher R. Church
Department of Geosciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
The tornado is an event which is quite common to the people of Indiana. On
the average the state is affected by approximately 21 tornado events per year,
with about 5 of these tornadoes bringing injury and/ or death. The destruction
created by the tornado, certainly the most violent act of nature, is often
unbelievable. During the period from 1905 through 1976 Indiana was
considerably above the national average in tornado frequency, and the state was
in the midst of two major tornado outbreaks. The Palm Sunday tornadoes in
1965 and the Jumbo Tornado Outbreak of 3 April 1974 together spawned
collectively 33 tornadoes and killed 184 people in the state. Since tornado
activity is such an integral part of Indiana weather, reliable statistics on these
storms should be of great importance to the people of the state.
A paper by Agee (1969) in the Proceedings of the Academy entitled, The
Climatology of Indiana Tornadoes, has been the most complete effort to
statistically analyze tornadoes in Indiana. The article dealt with tornadoes
occurring during a period from 1916 to 1968, which unfortunately was not a
homogeneous data period. The National Severe Storms Forecast Center
(NSSFC) in Kansas City, Missouri went into operation in 1953, and up until
that time records of tornado events were not accurately kept. Many tornado
events, especially those occurring primarily in rural areas, surely took place
without being recorded. Since 1953 the NSSFC has encouraged the recording of
all tornado events inform Data, a. NO A A publication. The impact of this effort
can be verified by checking the yearly tornado frequencies in the article by Agee,
which after 1953, increased by some 400 per cent.
In this paper, the heterogeneity in the data has been eliminated since the
statistics are only for Indiana tornadoes from 1950 to 1976. The "modern day"
period of tornado data records was extended back to 1 950 (and double checked
through 1976 as well) through a nationwide research effort by NSSFC and the
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. This has included a search though all
records and archives, as well as local newspapers and state libraries to gather any
useful information on storm damage. The goal of this paper has been to
investigate and update many of the same statistical relationships as in the Agee
article for the modern day period. For instance, the variation of monthly, yearly,
and diurnal tornado frequencies will be investigated, as well as a county-by-
county comparison of tornado occurrence. Even though such county-by-county
statistics may seem significant (politically), they do not provide a reliable
estimate of regional tornado frequency in the state because the counties are of
unequal area. This problem was alleviated by dividing the state into equal area
grids so that tornado statistics could be examined based on each individual grid.
380
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
381
Data
A computer printout listing each recorded tornado event in Indiana from
1950 through 1976 was complied by the National Severe Storms Forecast Center
and sent to the Purdue University Tornado Research Group. The statistics
included were date, hour, location of the beginning point, location of the end
point, fatalities, and injuries associated with each tornado event. Other
information such as the FPP scales (when known) was also provided by this
program, but it was not used in this statistical study. Also, waterspouts over
Lake Michigan were not included in the tornado records.
Results and discussion
A total of 553 tornadoes were recorded in the state during the 1950 to 1976
period, with 544 tornadoes originating in Indiana. Six tornadoes entered the
state from Illinois, two from Kentucky, and 1 from Michigan. Of the 553
tornadoes that affected the state, 374 were only brief touchdowns with no
discernible track length, with the remaining 179 tornadoes creating a damage
track.
Figure 1 . Paths of the 553 tornadoes
affecting Indiana from 1950 through 1976.
In Fig. 1, the paths of all the tornadoes which affected Indiana during the 27
year period of records have been plotted, with the single dots representing the
brief touchdowns. As can be seen, the state has experienced a great deal of
tornado activity, with several tracks extending over more than 50 miles of
Hoosier countryside. The longest tornado path ever recorded in Indiana was
created by the Monticello tornado on April 3, 1974. It began in Benton County
in northwestern Indiana and moved northwest over a distance of 121 miles
before it finally dissipated over Lagrange county in the extreme northeast corner
of the state.
Fig. 2 gives a county-by-county breakdown of tornado frequency from
1950 to. 1976. Marion and Tippecanoe counties both experienced the greatest
number of tornadoes with 18. St. Joseph, Elkhart, and Marshall counties were
each affected by 17 tornadoes. Here, another problem with tornado recording
comes into play. These counties are all highly populated, with the exception of
Marshall. Obviously, population density has had a considerable impact on the
reporting of tornadoes. Two counties, Floyd and Spencer were not affected by
any tornadoes during the 1950 to 1976 period. Fig. 2 also indicates the numbers
of tornadoes which originated within each county. The county which had the
382
Indiana Academy of Science
Figure 2. Tornadoes affecting Indiana counties (framed), tornadoes originating in county (underlined),
and the number of tornado days per county from 1950-1976.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
383
maximum number of tornadoes originating in it was Tippecanoe with 17.
Sixteen tornadoes originated in Marion county, 14 in Marshall county, and 13
in Lake county. The number of tornado days per county is also shown in Fig. 2.
Marion led all counties with 18 tornado days. Again it should be noted that
counties do not represent equal geometric areas.
m
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..
*,
as
■■
29
..
.,
»
,.
■«
28
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..
r
,.
.,
..
,0
H
"
,0
»jl
,.
'•
'!/
~vr
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a»
Figure 3. Total number of tornadoes
affecting each 1253 square mile grid
(for 1950-1976). Numbers in parenthesis
next to border-line grids are the number
of tornadoes which would affect that
grid if it would hare the same area as the
square grids (based on a proportion).
Fig. 3 gives a more workable statistical model. Here, the state has been
divided into equal grids, each representing an area of 1253 square miles. Along
the Wabash and Ohio River boundaries in the southern part of the state it was
impossible to arrive at these equal area grid divisions. The number within each
grid indicates the number of tornadoes that affected that grid between 1950 and
1976. Along the borderline regions, the numbers in parenthesis give the number
of tornadoes which one could consider to have occurred in that region if it had
had the same area as the equal area grids. Fig. 3 also shows that the maximum
number of tornadoes affecting any grid occurred in a grid near the central part of
the state. The value here was 42. The minimum number of tornadoes in a grid
was 5, the converted value in a borderline grid in the southwest corner of
Indiana.
Figure 4. Isopleths of total number of
tornadoes per 1253 sq. mile grid (for
1950-1976).
In Fig. 4, lines of constant number of tornadoes for the grids called
isopleths, have been drawn. The solid isopleths are given in increments of 5
tornadoes. These isopleths of total number of tornadoes from 1950 to 1976 point
out three major areas of maximum tornado activity. The first maximum area
during this period was located in the central portion of the state, just northeast of
the Indianapolis area; 42 was the maximum value here. The second maximum.
384
Indiana Academy of Science
with a value of 37 tornadoes, was located in the South Bend — Elkhart area in
extreme north-central Indiana. Another maximum region was present near
Lafayette, where 29 tornadoes were counted in a 1 253 sq. mile grid. This isopleth
map shows a well-defined minimum region for tornado activity located in
extreme south-western Indiana, where a minimum of 7 tornadoes was identified.
Other minimum areas occurred in extreme southeast Indiana (10), in east-
central Indiana (18), and in the extreme northeastern part of the state (16).
Generally, Fig. 4 shows that tornado activity dropped off substantially toward
the southern part of the state, while the northern two-thirds of the state
experienced a relatively high frequency of tornado activity, except for a slight
drop in frequency in the Logansport-Peru area of north-central Indiana. The
geographical variation in tornado activity in Indiana can probably be explained
in part by the variation in the topography of the state. The northern half of the
state consists of primarily flat farm-land with few trees, this is especially true in
northwestern Indiana. By contrast, in the southern half of the state the land
becomes increasingly more hilly with numerous forested areas present. The
effect of the rougher terrain may be to disrupt the boundary layer flow so as to
dissipate the weaker tornadoes.
«„
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r-
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Figure 5. Total tornado track length,
in miles, within each 1253 sq. mile grid
(for 1950-1976). Numbers in parentheses
next to border-line grids are the total
tornado track lengths which would he
located in that grid if it would have the
same area as the square grids (based on
a proportion).
While identifying the number of tornadoes affecting a certain grid may be
an important statistical study, it probably is not as significant as studying the
total length of tornado tracks within the grids. The number of tornadoes
affecting an area is surely biased to some extent by the population of that area.
However, this bias can be removed by looking at only tornado track length in a
grid as is done in Fig. 5. The length of all the tornado tracks during the 1950
through 1976 period in each grid was totaled, with brief touchdowns given a
length of one mile. Again total tornado track length in borderline grids was
corrected to the value shown in parenthesis based on the proportion developed
earlier. A total of 237 miles of tornado tracks affected the grid in the Elkhart
area; this was the highest value for a grid in Indiana. The lowest value was
recorded in the borderline grid along the Ohio River near Evansville where a
corrected value of 1 1 miles of tornado tracks would have occurred if this grid
could have expanded to an area of 1253 square miles.
An isopleth map of the total tornado track length within each grid for the 27
year period is shown in Fig. 6, with an increment between these isopleths of 20
miles of tornado track length. Three large maximum areas can be seen, with the
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
385
Figure 6. Isopleths of total tornado
track length, in miles per 1253 sq. mile
grid (for 1950-1976).
largest maximum, 237 miles of tornado tracks, in the grids in the South Bend —
Elkhart region. Two other maximas occured, one in the Indianapolis area of 187
miles and another in the area between Indianapolis and Louisville of 172 miles.
Another maximum of 155 miles was present northwest of Lafayette. Minimum
areas occurred in southwestern Indiana, 11 miles; in the extreme southeast
corner of the state, 60 miles; in extreme west central Indiana, 33 miles; and in
extreme east central Indiana, 74 miles. This pattern is somewhat similar to that
in Fig. 4, however the maximum in track length in the sparsely-populated region
between Louisville and Indianapolis was not pointed out as a maximum region
for number of tornadoes in Fig. 4. Again, topography may have played an
important role in tornado track length distribution.
1950
TORNADO DAYS PER YEAR
TORNADO DEATH DAYS
20
15
10
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5
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— f — »-
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1965
- TORNADOES PER YEAR
• TORNADOES CAUSING
INJURY OR DEATH
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\ / /\
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/
I960
1965
1970
1975
1950 1955
Figure 7. Yearly distribution of tornadoes, tornadoes causing injury or death, tornado days, and
■ tornado death days for Indiana (1950-1976).
Fig. 7 shows the yearly distributions of tornadoes, tornado days, tornado
death days, and tornadoes causing injury and death. This indicates that the
reporting of tornadoes, and deaths and injuries due to tornadoes, increased
386
Indiana Academy of Science
tremendously after 1953 when the NSSFC was initiated and began keeping
accurate records of tornado activity. Fig. 7 tends to show an increasing trend in
the number of tornadoes per year during the 27 year period. In fact the first half
of the period averaged 17 tornadoes per year while the second half averaged 25
per year. The trends in tornado days, tornado death days, and tornadoes causing
injury or death have also increased in more recent years. The year 1965 had the
greatest number of tornado days with 21; a total of 47 tornadoes occurred that
year with 12 of these occurring on April 1 1 (Palm Sunday). 1973 was also a big
tornado year with the largest number of tornado events for any year, 48, and a
total of 20 tornado days. Surprisingly 1974, the year of the Jumbo Tornado
Outbreak, did not have the largest frequency of tornadoes. Thirty were recorded
that year and 21 of these occurred on April 3. The most tornadoes causing injury
or death, however, did occur in 1974 with a total of 13 causing human casualties.
Another important statistic was that of the 553 tornadoes affecting Indiana
between 1950 and 1976, 110 (=20%) caused injury and/ or death.
I I TORNADOES
TORNADO DAYS
TORNADOES CAUSING
INJURY AND/OR DEATH
Figure 8. Indiana tornado occurrences
by month from 1950 through 1976.
JFMAMJJASOND
Fig. 8 shows the monthly distribution of Indiana tornadoes for the 1950 to
1976 period. This indicates that April was the leading month for tornado
activity, however, this distribution of tornadoes was actually bimodal since
another maximum showed up in June, even though it was not as high as for
April. The period of March through July experienced 78% of the total tornadoes
during the 27 year period of records. This is explained by the fact that during the
spring and early summer months there is an increase in frontal activity, and a
potentially strong temperature gradient between warm-moist air brought
northward ahead of cold fronts and the remaining cold polar air masses and
snow-covered ground north of these fronts. The frequency of tornado activity
drops off in August as frontal activity decreases but increases slightly in
September when frontal activity increases once more (but contrasts are not as
great). January had the least number of tornadoes with only 7. The maximum
number of tornado days occurred in June, due mainly to the fact that more days
with thunderstorms occur in this month than any other. Unlike the situation in
April, however, the thunderstorm (in the event that it is severe enough to
produce tornadoes) will probably spawn only a single tornado. In April, the
single severe thunderstorn can easily spawn a family of 3 to 6 individual
tornadoes. April was the leading month of the occurrence of tornadoes causing
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
387
injury and /or death. It should be noted that a higher proportion of tornadoes
caused injury and / or death in early spring than in summer. For instance, 26% of
the tornadoes in March caused casualties whereas only 7% caused casualties in
June. This would indicate that the tornadoes in the spring are more severe. The
late fall and early winter months also experienced a high proportion of
tornadoes causing injury and/ or death; i.e. October 28%, November 47%, and
December 36%. This seems to indicate that people may not take tornado
warnings seriously this time of year.
Table 1 gives the number of Indiana tornado deaths and tornado death days
by month of the 27 year period. April was the month of greatest number of
deaths, as would be expected with the two major outbreaks of the period
occurring in that month. Of the 197 deaths due to tornadoes in Indiana from
1950 to 1976, 184 or 93% were due to either the Palm Sunday or April 3, 1974
tornado outbreaks. In the Palm Sunday outbreak 12 tornadoes killed 137 people
while the 21 April 1974 tornadoes killed 47 people. This may indicate that in
recent years people have become more aware and advised of tornado activity,
and have been better prepared in the way of seeking shelter in the event a
tornado warning is issued.
Table 1. Indiana tornado deaths and tornado death days by month from 1950 through 1976.
Tornado
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
s
o
N
D
T
Death Days
0
0
3
3
2
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
10
Tornado
Deaths
0
0
5
186
2
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
197
□ TORNADOES
■ TORNADOES
CAUSING INJURIES
Figure 9. Diurnal variation of Indiana
tornado activity from 1950 through 1976.
00 02 04 06
The diurnal variation of Indiana tornado activity is shown in Fig. 9.
Tornadoes occurred most often around 5:00 p.m. local standard time (L.S.T.),
with the period of 3:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. L.S.T. having produced 65% of all the
tornadoes studied. It is during this time of day that convection can most readily
occur due to daytime solar heating of the earth's surface. Of course, tornadoes
could occur at any hour but the period from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. L.S.T. was
the least likely time for tornado activity to occur. Secondary maxima appeared
at midnight to 1:00 a.m. L.S.T. and at 6:00 a.m. L.S.T. which might be
associated with nocturnal thunderstorm activity which can occur in the
388
Indiana Academy of Science
Midwest. Fig. 9 also shows the diurnal variation in tornadoes causing injuries. A
maximum appeared at 1:00 p.m. L.S.T. and remained high through the
afternoon and early evening hours in conjunction with the high frequency of
tornadoes during these hours.
MEANB237'
140 " 160°
160- 180°
180-200°
200-220°
220-240°
240-260°
260-260°
280-300°
300-320°
320-340°
!6I ■
th=
Figure 10. Distribution of Indiana
tornadoes by direction from which they
came (1 950-1976).
In Fig. 10, the distribution of Indiana tornadoes by direction is portrayed.
This is based only on those tornadoes with discernible tracks, while those
consisting of only brief touchdowns were ignored. The directions, listed in 20°
intervals, indicate the direction from which the tornado came. Standard
meterological convention is used here with north indicated is 0°, east as 90°,
south as 180°, and west as 270°. Fig. 10 shows that nearly all of the tornadoes
had an eastward component in their direction of movement, while none showed
a westward component in their direction of movement. The mean direction from
which the Indiana tornado arrived during the 27 year period was 237° , out of the
west southwest. Around 84% of the tornadoes during the period moved from
southwest to northwest (categories 1 1 to 14). This is basically due to the fact that
extratropical cyclones (low pressure systems) in the Midwest which create
thunderstorms that spawn tornadoes generally move in a southwest to northeast
direction.
A method of determining the probability of a tornado striking a
geometrical point on the earth's surface was developed in 1963 by H.C.S. Thorn
of the Office of Climatology of the then U.S. Weather Bureau. The probability
of a tornado striking a point in one year is simply the ratio of the total area
covered by tornadoes in a year to the area over which the tornadoes may occur.
The probability formula can be expressed as P = t / A, where t is the average area
covered by tornadoes in the grid in one year and A is the area of the grid. Since
Indiana has been divided into equal area grids and the total track length within
each grid has already been determined, the value for P will be easy to compute.
An average width for Indiana tornadoes of 250 yards has been determined from
the data provided by the NSSFC. This converts to .142 miles. Multiplying this
value by the total track length in the grid gives the total area within the grid
affected by tornadoes. This number is then divided by 27 years to get an average
for the total area affected by tornadoes in a single year. Finally, this value is then
divided by A, the total area of the grid ( 1 253 square miles) to get the probability
that a point in the grid will be affected by a tornado in a single year. The results of
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
389
U. 00018
(0.815)
Figure 1 1 . The probability of a tornado striking a given point within each 1253 sq. mile grid in Indiana
for any single year. Numbers in parenthesis are the average number of tornadoes affecting the grids per year.
this study are shown in Fig. 11. The grid surrounding the Elkhart region has the
highest probability with a value of 0.00099. A grid in the extreme southwest
corner of the state has a probability value of 0.00005 which is the lowest for any
grid in Indiana. The numbers in parenthesis below these probability values are
the average number of tornadoes affecting each grid per year during the 27 year
period.
Thorn also has shown that the recurrence interval for a tornado striking a
point (i.e. the predicted number of years between successive tornado
touchdowns at a given point) can be given by R = \> , where p is the probability
value computed in the previous paragraph. Fig. 12 shows the recurrence interval
(in years) for a given point on each grid based on the p values for that grid. A
point in the Elkhart grid has a recurrence interval of 1,010 years, the lowest in the
state. The highest recurrence interval value is 20,000 years, located in the grid in
extreme southwestern Indiana near Evansville.
Summary
Tracks of all tornadoes occurring in Indiana from 1950 to 1976 have been
plotted. Also, the state has been divided into equal-area grids (1253 sq. miles)
and the total number of tornadoes occurring within each grid and the total
tornado track length within each grid have been computed. Isopleths based on
these quantities have been drawn for the entire state. In addition, yearly,
monthly and diurnal variations of tornado frequencies, injuries, and deaths for
390
Indiana Academy of Science
2128
1111
1010
1887
2??3
2174
2439
2 041
1538
1818
1695
3226
71^3
1563
1282
1786
/
2941
2174
1724
4000
4
<
2941
4167
1389
2857 ^
2,50c y
5000
4348
3448 f
yf6,667
20,000
4762 r/\
_J 5556
Figure 12. The predicted number of years between successive tornado touchdowns at a given point
within each 1253 sq. mile grid for Indiana.
Indiana have been presented along with directional variation of tornadoes for
the period of 1950 through 1976. Finally, a point probability of tornado
occurrence, and a recurrence interval for tornadoes for each grid at an arbitrary
point in the grid have been determined. Ail of these data are summarized in Figs.
1-12 and in Table 1. The importance of population bias and the importance of
equal area studies of geographical tornado frequencies have been discussed.
Also, the effect of topography on regional tornado distribution has been noted;
however, more research will need to be done in this area before a definite
correlation between topography and tornado frequency can be accurately
presented.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Ms. Gene Shelley for typing the manuscript.
This study was supported by the National Severe Storms Laboratory under
NO A A Grant 04-5-022-15.
Literature Cited
1. Agee, Ernest M., 1969: The Climatology of Indiana Tornadoes. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 79:299-308.
2. Thom, H.C.S., 1963: Tornado Probabilities. Mon. Wea. Rev., 91:730-736.
The Climatology of Cyclones and Anticyclones
in the Upper Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys
and Great Lakes Region, 1950-74
Frederick E. Brennan, Department of Geosciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Phillip J. Smith, Department of Geosciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
It is well known that migrating synoptic-scale cyclones and anticyclones are
crucial in determining the weather over North America. Such events have been
subjected to numerous individual case studies designed to diagnose their
kinematic, dynamic, and thermodynamic properties and associated weather.
However, in order to establish typical behavior and to understand the extent to
which individual cases represent significant departures from the norm, a
complete diagnosis of cyclones and anticyclones must also include analyses of
their climatologies. Previous climatological studies of synoptic-scale systems
have been reported by Hurley (5), Hosier and Gamage (4), Petterssen (8), Klein
(6), Halzworth (3), Korshover (7), Reitan (9), and Colucci (2). Clearly, the
amount of attention given to this subject has been very small. Further, aside
from the work of Holzworth (3) and Colucci (2), little has been done to relate
these climitologies to fluctuations in accompanying weather parameters.
The objectives of the work described in this paper are:
(1) to establish a climatology of cyclone and anticyclone events over the
upper Mississippi and Ohio Valleys and Great Lakes region, and
(2) to conduct a preliminary study of the relationship of this climatology to
temperature and precipitation climatologies at a station in the interior of
the region.
The results provide more detailed depictions of the spatial distributions and
temporal variations of cyclones and anticyclones over the study region than in
any previous studies.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data utilized for this study span the 25 year period from 1950-74 for the
region bounded by 32° N and 52° N latitude and 77° W and 97° W longitude (Fig.
1). This region was selected to capture cyclones and anticyclones most likely to
influence the upper Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and the Great Lakes
area. The primary source of data was the NOAA/EDS monthly publication of
Climatological Data — National Summary. Contained in each monthly volume
are charts depicting positions and central pressures of cyclones and anticyclones
that occurred during that particular month and could be identified for at least 24
hours. Positions are indicated in six hour increments, while pressures are given
every 24 hours.
391
392
Indiana Academy of Science
/
' vf
f
\
/
/
1 11
}
_J_I
K.
'ti
J
j
v «
1
/
1
1
P"T
1
1
/
1
1
(.
1
1 ~
1
i
v —
~ j
_I__i
s
— f
j 1
1
i
i
r
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--r-L
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l
t
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F 1
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i L^
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""T"
— r
i
-j
1
,
— k —
1
2
— i
<;
i-
OM «^t
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e*
Figure 1. Study region and 2° x 2° latitude/ longitude analysis grid.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 393
Cyclone and anticyclone frequencies for the latitude/ longitude bounds
previously noted were obtained by overlaying a 2° x 2° latitude/ longitude grid
(Fig. 1) on the monthly data charts. The number of cyclones and anticyclones
passing through each of the 100 2° x 2° quadrangles was recorded for each
month in the period. Repeated entries into the same quadrangle by the same
cyclone (anticyclone) were not included in the tabulation. In order to obtain
quadrangle values representative of equivalent areas each value was normalized
through multiplication by the factor Ao/An, where Ao is the area of the
quadrangles bounded by 40° N and 42° N and An is the quadrangle area bounded
by any 2° longitude limits. Seasonal frequencies for the 25-year period were
obtained for each quadrangle by adding the frequencies in that quadrangle for
each month in the season. Seasons are defined as: winter (December- February);
spring (March- May); summer (June-August); fall (September-November).
At the initial entry and final exit of a cyclone (anticyclone) from the study
region the central pressure was recorded to the nearest millibar. The central
pressure was determined by linear interpolation between the 24 hour interval
pressure values given in the original data charts. Individual pressure values were
combined to determine average incoming and outgoing central pressures for
each month and season in the period and in some cases were subjected to 5 year
running mean smoothing. This latter procedure was chosen in order to isolate
the more persistent trends while smoothing shorter term fluctuations. Also
recorded was the total number of cyclones (anticyclones) that travelled through
the study region during each month. If a cyclone or anticyclone left the region
and re-entered at another point, it was counted as only one occurrence.
Finally, monthly precipitation and average temperature data for
Whitestown, Indiana were derived from Indiana climatological records1 for
comparison with the cyclone and anticyclone statistics. This station was selected
because it is located near the center of the study region, its data represent a
particularly reliable climatological series over the period of study, and the data
were readily available.
Results
Cyclone/anticyclone distributions
Figs. 2 and 3 show, respectively, 25 year total cyclone and anticyclone
frequency distributions for each season. The analyses reveal that distinct areas
of maximum and minimum frequency occur and, in addition, that axes of
maximum and minimum frequencies can also be seen. The resulting axes of
maximum frequency suggest preferred cyclone or anticyclone tracks. The term
"preferred" is employed in the sense that cyclones and anticyclones generally
tend to travel along or very near these axes, although individual cyclones and
anticyclones may deviate from or converge upon these axes at many different
locations. In fact, the analyses occasionally show that some tracks terminate
inside the study region because the movement of individual cyclones and
anticyclones is so highly variable downstream from the termination point.
'Provided by Mr. Lawrence A. Schaal, Dept. of Agronomy, P.U.
394
Indiana Academy of Science
spring
SUMMER
Figure 2. Spatial distributions of cyclones for each season. Arrows represent preferred tracks.
Isopleths correspond to 25 year totals in tens of units.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
395
SPRING
FALL
Figure 3. Same as Fig. 2 for anticyclones.
396 Indiana Academy of Science
Prominent in the cyclone statistics are the frequency maxima that occur in
the Great Lakes region and minima in the southern states. The maximum
cyclone axes suggest the existence of three major cyclone tracks, with the overall
cyclone occurrences exhibiting a northward migration from winter to summer.
The first track, which is present in all seasons except summer, enters the region
from the southwest and is likely associated with cyclones that originate or
intensify in the area from the Texas panhandle to Colorado. Such cyclones are
especially prominent in winter and spring, as verified by the present results. The
second, which appears in all seasons except fall, lies along the northern tier of
states and represents and extension of cyclones originating from Colorado north
and west to Alberta. The third, which is prominent in all seasons, reflects
cyclones propagating out of western and northwestern Canada across southern
Ontario and Quebec. It is of interest to note that the cyclone tracks are similar to
those documented by Reitan (9). However, the factor of three higher resolution
used in the present study (2° vs. 740 km quadrangles by Reitan) results in less
smoothing and reveals multiple track features not present in Reitan's results.
The most prominent area of maximum anticyclone frequency occurs in the
Ohio River Valley with a shift to the Allegheny region during the summer.
Another maximum occurs west of James Bay during the fall and winter.
Minimum anticyclone frequency occurs in the western Great Lakes region in the
winter, spring, and fall. Two major anticyclone tracks, which again reflect
seasonal migrations, traverse the region. The first, which is within the
northeastern boundaries of the region only in fall and winter, reflects polar
outbreaks penetrating central Canada. The second represents high pressure
penetration into the midwest from the western states and Canada.
Area average frequencies and central pressures
Fig. 4 depicts five year running means of annual cyclone and anticyclone
frequencies. Definite trends appear in both frequencies during the period,
although they are less pronounced for anticyclones. Fluctuations in the cyclone
frequencies are in phase with those in the anticyclone frequencies with the
number of cyclones exceeding the anticyclones by a factor of 1.25. This
corresponds closely to Klein's (6) factor of 1.3 for the Northern Hemisphere.
Fig. 4 also suggests a cyclic pattern to the frequencies, although the amplitude of
the pattern varies. Frequency minima occurred around 1956 and, more
prominently, in the late 1960's. A frequency maximum occurred around 1960
and possibly another around 1954, although the lack of data before 1950
prevents complete definition of this maximum. The seasonal contributions
depicted in Fig. 4 show that in general greatest cyclone frequencies can be
expected in winter, followed in order by spring, fall, and summer. The greatest
anticyclone frequencies are also seen in winter, but are followed in order by fall,
summer, and spring.
Fig. 5 contains five year running means of average annual entering and
exiting central pressures for cyclones and anticyclones. Lower (higher) average
central pressures are assumed to represent in general more intense cyclones
(anticyclones). The average central pressure of cyclones increased during the
first half of the period to a maximum around 1960, decreased to a minimum in
the mid-1960's, and then began rising again during the last quarter of the period.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
397
TOTAL
1 WINTER
2 SPRING
3 FALL
4 SUMMER
1952 57
62
T-
72
ANTICYLONES
F 28
Figure 4. Five year running means of cyclone and anticyclone annual (top) and seasonal (center and
bottom) frequencies for the study period.
398
Indiana Academy of Science
t
P
1005
1003
1001
CYCLONES
.„.•
I I I I I I I i
1952
57
62
T —
i i i i » i
67
72
t
P
1027
1026
1025
ANTICYCLONES
' ' ' ' ■■■!..
1952
57
62
67
72
T —
Figure 5. Five year running means of average annual central pressure in mb for cyclones and
anticyclones. Solid line represents the average incoming central pressure and dashed line the average
outgoing central pressure. Shaded areas indicate periods during which outgoing exceeds incoming
pressure.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 399
The average central pressure of anticyclones reached a minimum around 1954,
rose to a maximum during the first half of the 1960's, then fell to a minimum
again in the early 1970's. Throughout the period cyclones intensified after
entering the study region with the magnitude of the intensification remaining
fairly constant (usually 1-1.5 mb). Anticyclones, on the other hand, tended to
weaken after entering the region, although intensification did occur in each case
when the central pressure was increasing from a minimum. The magnitude of
anticyclone weakening (maximum value of 0.6 mb) is much less than cyclone
intensification and tends to vary more throughout the period.
Similar analyses of average central pressures for each season (not shown)
reveal that cyclones generally intensified while propagating through the region
in all seasons. Only during the spring did any significant periods of weakening
occur, and then only during years of relatively low central pressure. In contrast
to cyclones, fall and winter anticyclones weakened in the region throughout the
period, while spring and summer anticyclones generally intensified.
Fig. 6 depicts the 25 year monthly means of frequency and central pressure
for cyclones and anticyclones occuring in the study region. January is the month
of maximum cyclone activity, with a secondary minimum occurring in March.
These results are in contrast to those of Hurley (5), who studied cyclones in the
midwest for the period 1920-1929 and found a single cyclone maximum in April.
July contains the fewest number of cyclones, in agreement with Hurley, and is
the only month in which anticyclones outnumber cyclones. December and
January are the favored months for anticyclones activity, while minimum
anticyclone activity occurs in April. The central pressure of cyclones exhibit a
roughly inverse relationship to their frequencies, with the lowest central pressure
occurring in April and the highest in July. Further, while cyclone intensification
occurs throughout most of the year, the previously noted tendency for spring
cyclones to weaken in some years is seen in April and May. The central pressures
of anticyclones are strongly seasonally dependent with the greatest pressures
occurring during the colder winter months and lowest pressures in the warmer
summer months. Again as noted earlier, anticyclones tend to weaken in the fall
(especially November) and the winter (especially January) and tend to intensify
during the spring and summer. The greatest intensification of anticyclones
occurs in July.
Comparisons with temperature/ precipitation statistics
Finally, a preliminary attempt was made to relate cyclone/ anticyclone
statistics to temperature and precipitation variabilities at a single station located
near the center of the study region (Whitestown, Indiana). It is of course
recognized that comparisons between regional cyclone/anticyclone statistics
and single station temperature/ precipitation data are necessarily uncertain.
Nevertheless, some relationships do emerge.
Fig. 7 illustrates the annual mean temperature and total precipitation (five-
year running means) for Whitestown. Also presented to exemplify the
comparisons for one season are analgous statistics for the summer. The shape of
the cyclone and anticyclone frequency pattern of Fig. 4 closely resembles that of
the Whitestown temperature pattern except that the two profiles are out of
400
Indiana Academy of Science
ANTICYCLONES
FEB APR JUN AUG OCT DEC
Figure 6. Top: Mean monthly frequencies of cyclones and anticyclones. Center and bottom: Mean
monthly incoming (solid) and outgoing (dashed) central pressures for anticyclones and cyclones.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
401
Figure 7. Top: Five year running means of Whitestown average annual temperatures in ° F (left) and
total annual precipitation in inches (right) for the period. Bottom: Same as top for summer season.
402 Indiana Academy of Science
phase by approximately three years. Thus, warmer annual mean temperatures
tend to occur during periods of more frequent cyclone and anticyclone
occurrences. Comparison of average summer frequencies with average summer
temperatures shows the same general result, with a particularly good
comparison to be noted for the anticyclone frequencies. Relationships between
annual precipitation amounts and cyclone/ anticyclone frequencies are less
pronounced, a somewhat surprising result which probably reflects the
limitations inherent in using a single station to represent the precipitation
statistics. However, it is of interest to note that the relatively greater
precipitation amounts prior to 1960 and the lesser amounts during the 1960's
occur, respectively, during periods of relatively greater and lesser cyclone and
anticyclone frequencies.
Summary
This study reveals that spatial and temporal patterns exist in the movement
and intensities of cyclones and anticyclones and that these patterns bear some
relationship to the average temperature and precipitation at a representative
station. The study further suggests that extensions of the 2° x 2° grid analyses to
all of North America, analyses of other regions, and more comprehensive
summaries of the temperature/ precipitation characteristics of each region might
be fruitful. Having established a full array of such statistics, it would then be of
interest to study the causal mechanisms responsible for such statistics.
Acknowledgements
This research was partially supported by the Atmospheric Research
Section of the National Science Foundation under Grant Nos. ATM 75-02898
A01 and ATM 77-00932.
Literature Cited
1. Climatological Data-National Summary. 1950-1976. NOAA/EDS, U.S. Dept. of Commerce.
2. Colcucci, S.J. 1976. Winter cyclone frequencies over the eastern United States and adjacent
western Atlantic. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 57:548-553.
3. Holzworth, G.C. 1962. A study of air pollution potential for the western United States. J. Appl.
Meteor. 1:366-382.
4. Hosler, C.L., and L.A. Gamage 1956. Cyclone frequencies in the United States for the period
1905-1954. Mon. Wea. Rev. 84:388-390.
5. Hurley, J.C. 1954. Statistics on the movement and deepening of cyclones in the Middle West.
Mon. Wea. Rev. 82:116-122.
6. Klein, W.H. 1956. The frequency of cyclones and anticyclones in relation to the mean circulation.
J. Meteor. 15:98-102.
7. Korshover, J. 1967. Climatology of stagnating anticyclones east of the Rocky Mountains, 1936-
1965. Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-34, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and
Welfare.
8. Peterssen, S. 1956. Weather Analysis and Forecasting, Vol. 1. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. 422 p.
9. Reitan, C.H. 1974. Frequencies of cyclones and cyclogenesis for North America, 1951-1970. Mon.
Wea. Rev. 102:861-868.
Landsat Data From Two Forest Sites in Indiana
Reflect Impact of Summer Drought1
Byron O. Blair and M. F. Baumgardner
Agronomy Department
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
B. E. Dethier
Department of Atmospheric Science
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850
Introduction
With the successful launch of LANDSAT-1 in July 1972, many exploratory
research studies were initiated. A study entitled "Phenology Satellite
Experiment" was initiated by the North Eastern Regional Agricultural Research
Committee (NE-69) (Atmospheric Influences on Ecosystems and Satellite
Sensing).
The study was designed to scan forest canopies in fourteen areas in the
eastern half of the country, from Orono, Maine, to College Station, Texas and
ten locations in the Rocky Mountain states (4).
Included in the eastern area were two locations in Indiana, one near West
Lafayette which included McCormick Woods and adjacent areas, and the
second near Princeton where U.S. 41 intersects the White River. Data and
methods are included in the final report of the original report, which was
undertaken to study the comparative progression of the Green and Brown wave
(1).
These two locations in Indiana were of particular interest because a severe
drought condition developed in July 1973 at Princeton while Lafayette, 210 km
to the north, had favorable weather and production conditions for both corn
and soybeans, and they lie in the area of east-west overlap between two
successive days of LANDSAT passes. During the 1973 season more data were
collected at these locations than any of the other fourteen sites and thus provided
an opportunity for this investigation.
Differences in reflectance of the two canopies prompted a more detailed
evaluation of data collected.
Review of Literature
Differences in seasonality, over broad areas of the United States as detected
annually between different plant cultivars, have been reported by Caprio and
Hopp and Blair (2,5). Most of these studies have been on limited species which
are confined to phenophase observations which terminate in the early spring.
Similar studies are in progress using cultivars which hopefully will make
possible use of phenophase observations beyond flowering, i.e., fruit
development, ripening and maturation (3). These data hopefully will provide
additional phenophase information over more of the growing season and relate
403
404
Indiana Academy of Science
to the influence of seasonal climatic patterns over broad areas of the U.S. which
relate to crop production.
Recent analysis of lilac phenology data from the Ontario and Quebec
Provinces of Canada for over 300 stations has demonstrated that with four years
data new areas have been located not now in economic crop production.
Agriculturists feel these areas can be successfully developed into needed crop
production. Thus at least in marginal production areas above 50° N latitude,
phenology observations have demonstrated a means of locating areas that may
hopefully be shifted from timber to economic crop production (6).
Without the need for developing extensive meteorological instrumentation,
the hypothesis of using phenophase evaluation, which can be observed on
selected species adapted to broad marginal areas of the humid subtropics, may
have similar potential and application.
Material and Methods
After analysis of multispectral data collected from fourteen locations from
Orono, Maine, to College Station, Texas, it was demonstrated that variations in
spectral reflectance measured by bands 5 and 7 occur at the extremes and also at
a mid-latitude location for both the green and brown wave. A more indepth
evaluation of the two Indiana locations was undertaken. This was prompted for
LAFAYETTE a PRINCETON, INDIANA
30 r
25
20
15
10
LAFAYETTE, INDIANA
PRINCETON, INDIANA
J L
J L
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV
1973
Figure 1 . Mean relative canopy reflectance from wave band (.8- 1.1 nm) in percent of the total possible
reflectance at two locations in Indiana during the growing season of 1973.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
405
E
>o >o
oo
c
O
OO rn O SO
5 O oo o oo
cn rn c-> c-i
OS Os SO O
rsi r- oo oo v~>
r-~ i~- t-- m so
o r- o oo o
m Os oo so
r — r— t — - — ■
a U
n-> >o <n o <n
(N so os r~ u~i
S 2
^ oo H
3 < H
406
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. The influence of 1973 climate on crop yields (kg I ha) at two Indiana locations.
County
Tippecanoe*
White
Warren
Clinton
Montgomery
MEAN YIELD
Lafayette Location
Corn
Soybeans
6,608
2,160
6,384
1,980
6,328
2,160
6,664
2,400
6,496
2,340
6,496**
2,208"
Gibson*
Warrick
Vanderburg
Posey
Pike
mean yield
Princeton Location
5,488
4,816
4,928
5,264
4,928
5,045**
Yield for county of site location
Yield average for five county area around location
1,680
1,320
1,860
1,620
1,440
1,584**
four reasons: 1) These locations provided more cloud free data than any other
locations; 2) An intensive summer drought developed at the southern locations
near Princeton which did not occur at Lafayette; 3) These locations were in close
enough proximity (210 km) and with similar management practices so that the
same crops are produced in both areas and the influence by water stress on forest
canopy cover could be expected to be reflected in adjacent crop yields; and 4)
The southern location and adjacent areas are residual soils which are more
droughty than at the northern location which are a loess soil formed over glacial
till and are more drought resistant.
Reflectance data reported in this paper for the two locations for the
growing season of 1973 have been summarized and reported (4). Figure 1 shows
the canopy reflectance at these two locations. Voids in the data at both locations
result from cloud cover which prevented obtaining satellite data on those dates.
20
g io
z
5
PRINCETON RAINFALL
FOR 1973 8 40 YR. x
Figure 2. Comparison in cm of the 1973 rainfall
pattern with the 40 year mean at Lafayette.
-^1973
-^-40YR. X
MAY
JUN JUL AUG
DATE
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 407
Comparative climatic and crop yield data are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Differences in rainfall at the two locations are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
LAFAYETTE RAINFALL
FOR 1973 8 40 YR. X
Figure 3. Comparison in cm of the 1973 rainfall
pattern with the 40 year mean at Princeton.
Results and Discussions
These data from canopy reflection which is the percent of total reflectance
possible in band 7(. 8-1.1 \x m) show that the leaf cover at Princeton developed
earlier and ahead of that at Lafayette with Princeton showing maximum
reflectance from leaf cover in early June. Maximum reflectance developed at
Lafayette in July. In July and until mid-August reflectance dropped appreciably
at Princeton. This indicated a loss in canopy by leaf drop, change in metabolic
processes or both, that influenced reflectance. The reflectance then continued to
decline in a similar pattern at both locations but on a two to three week earlier
schedule at Princeton.
The loss in canopy reflectance at Princeton is associated with leaf drop
and/ or perhaps change in chlorophyll quantities. Rainfall patterns and
subsequent comparison of growing degree days at these two locations correlate
with the reflectance differences (Table 1 and Figures 2 and 3). As seen in the table
and illustrated in the figures, rainfall was much above normal at Princeton
during spring and early summer with a marked drop to slightly below normal in
July. This dry period extended over 29 days at Princeton with a total of 55 days
without measurable precipitation. At Lafayette there were 39 rain free days with
15 occurring in late August.
The high spring precipitation pattern resulted in extensive, and probably
above normal, leaf development at Princeton. Leaves began dropping under
pressure of limiting water supplied in July. This observed leaf thinning and
probable changes in stress was related to the difference in reflectance noted in
the multispectral data in both bands 5 and 7.
Precipitation patterns in Lafayette were normal during early spring
followed by very favorable rainfall during late spring and summer with a 1 5-day
dry period in late August. These comparative rainfall patterns are further
reflected in the temperature differences in monthly and seasonal mean and
growing degree days during July and August at these locations (Table 1). Under
such different climatic patterns the leaf canopy would be expected to adjust to
the stress at Princeton and remain near normal at Lafayette.
408 Indiana Academy of Science
The impact of a drought period has been clearly demonstrated between two
locations 210 km apart. This climatic pattern is not an uncommon occurrence in
Indiana and other areas in the Corn Belt. In 1974 the following year and again in
1977 the reverse climatic pattern between these two areas was noted.
The impact of detecting stress by multispectral scanning should also have
similar implications on crop performance in these two areas. Table 2 shows the
influence of this differing climatic pattern in 1973 on the yields of corn and
soybeans in Tippecanoe, Gibson and four adjacent counties in each area.
Results of the favorable conditions at Lafayette compared with the mid-summer
drought at Princeton are quite obvious.
Conclusions
Based on analysis of data collected over one season, it would appear that if
numerous sites of timber canopies of 50-100 ha over the Corn Belt were selected
and could be monitored during the growing season such data would be available
and useful in detecting the severity of drought stress over large areas. Its impact
on pending productive potential of the crops of the immediate and adjacent
areas might also be detected early in the season. Since the multiple scan data
from LANDS AT- 1 and -2 are available, confirmation and feasibility of using
this technique as a tool could be obtained by analysis of data already collected.
Further study should be undertaken and would be necessary for using
LANDSAT data for relating such information to annual production of food,
fiber and timber. Further basic studies on relationship of water stress to leaf
drop, chlorophyll changes and metabolism should also be investigated.
Literature Cited
1. Blair, B. 0.,and M. F. Baumgardner. 1977. Detection of the green and brown wave in hardwood
canopy covers using multidate, multispectral data from LANDSAT- 1. Am. Jour. Agr. 69(5):803-
808.
2. Caprio, Joseph M. 1966. Patterns of plant development in the western United States. Montana
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 607. 42 pp.
3. Caprio, J.M., M.D. Magnuson, and H.N. Metcalf. 1970. Instructions for phenological
observations of Purple Common Lilac and Red Berry Honeysuckle. Montana Agr. Exp. Sta.
Circular 250. 19 pp.
4. Dethier, B. E. 1974. Phenology Satellite Experiment Type III. Final Project Report. NASA
Contract NAS5-21781. Division of Atmospheric Science. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
14853. 789 pp.
5. Hopp, R. J., and B. O. Blair. 1973. Plant phenology in eastern and central North America. Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 677. 20 pp.
6. NE-95 Committee. July 1977. Annual Report. Phenology weather and crop yields. Laval
University, Quebec, Canada (Unpublished).
Transformations of Hydroxylamine in Soils
D. W. Nelson
Agronomy Department, Purdue University
Introduction
Although hydroxylamine (NH2OH) is considered to be an intermediate in
biological nitrogen fixation (Equation 1), nitrification (Equation 2), and nitrate
reduction (Equation 3) in various ecological systems (Alexander, 1961), few
investigations have been concerned with NH2OH transformations in soils.
N2 - (NHOH)2 - 2NH2OH - 2NH3 - jlutamic acid (1)
NHl - NH2OH - (HNO) - NO - NO 2 - NO 3 (2)
NO3-NO2-?- NH2OH - NH+4 (3)
Duisberg and Buehrer (1954) found that NH2OH was not converted to nitrite
and nitrate when added to soils. Bremner and Shaw (1958) could not detect the
presence of NH2OH during studies of denitrification in soils; furthermore, they
reported that NH2OH could not be recovered soon after addition to soils. They
speculated that higher oxides of manganese and iron reacted with NH2OH to
produce gaseous N compounds. Relatedly, Arnold (1954) observed that N20
was produced when NH2OH was added to wet soil which he attributed to
reactions with nitrite. Nommik (1956) reported that N2 and N20 were evolved
when NH2OH was added to soil maintained in an argon atmosphere.
The lack of quantitative information on NH2OH transformations in soils
coupled with the potential importance of these transformations in the loss of
inorganic N from soils has prompted the work reported here. The objective of
the work was to determine the fate of NH2OH in soils and to characterize the
products of NH2OH reactions in representative soils.
Materials and Methods
The soils used (Table 1) were surface (0-15 cm) samples representing a wide
range in physical and chemical properties. Samples were air-dried (20 to 22° C
for 48 hours) and ground to pass an 80-mesh sieve. Organic C was determined by
the method of Mebius (1960), total N by a semimicro Kjeldahl procedure
(Bremner, 1965a), pH by glass electrode (soil:water ratio 1:2.5), clay by pipette
analysis (Kilmer and Alexander, 1949) after dispersion by Na-saturated
Amberlite IRC-50 resin (Edwards and Bremner, 1965) and cation exchange
capacity by the procedure of Edwards (1967).
In Experiment 1, 3 g samples of steam-sterilized soil were treated with 600
/xg of N15H20H-N in 1 ml of solution. Treated samples were immediately
extracted with 2 M KC1 or incubated for 4 days (25° C, 100% relative humidity)
before extraction. The amount of NH2OH-N fixed and amounts converted to
NH4, NO 2, and NO 3 were determined. In Experiment 2, 10 ml of pH 5 acetate
buffer (2 M containing 10 g of soil, 0.5 g Mn02, 0.5 M FeCl3, or 0.057 M NaN02
were treated with 6 ml of a N15H2OH ■ HC1 solution containing 8 mg of NH2OH-
409
410 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. Characteristics of soils used in the investigation.
Soil
Cation-
Organic
Total
exchange
No.
Type*
PH
C
N
Clay
capacity
%
%
%
me/ 100 g
1
Pershing sil
5.1
1.79
0.164
19
7.0
2
Clyde sil
5.5
4.30
0.402
25
29.9
3
Sac sicl
6.8
2.48
0.237
34
28.4
4
Thurman sa
6.8
0.64
0.056
1
4.4
5
Glencoe sic
6.8
8.92
0.860
41
48.8
*sil, silt loam; silty clay loam; sa, sand; silty clay.
N. Treatments were performed in a sealed gas analysis unit (helium-oxygen
atmosphere) described by Nelson and Bremner, 1970) containing KMn04
solution in the center well. After 48 hours of incubation at 25° C, the amount of
added NH2OH-N fixed and the amounts converted to NH4, N02, NO 3, NO +
NO2, N2, and N20 were determined.
The amounts of NH4, N02, and NO 3 in 2 M KC1 extracts of soils or in
acetate buffer were estimated by the extraction-distillation procedure of
Bremner and Keeney (1966). Hydroxylamine was estimated by a steam
distillation procedure which involved recovery of inorganic N in soil extracts or
acetate buffer before and after treatment with FeCh solution. High FeCh
concentrations oxidized NH2OH to gaseous forms of N. Details of the method
will be published elsewhere. The amount of N fixed (i.e. rendered
nonextractable) on addition of N15 enriched NH2OH to soil was determined by
total N analysis and isotope-ratio analysis of the total N digest after removal of
inorganic forms of N by extraction with 2 M KC1. Nitrogen isotope-ratio
analyses were performed as described by Bremner (1965b) using a Consolidated
Electrodynamics Corporation Model 21-620 mass spectrometer fitted with an
isotope-ratio accessory. Amounts of NH2OH converted to N2 and N20 were
estimated by gas chromatographic analysis of a 1 ml sample of the atmosphere
within gas analysis units as described by Nelson and Bremner (1970). Amounts
of NO plus N02 formed during NH2OH reactions were determined by absorbing
these gases in a 0. 1 M K Mn04: 1 Af K OH solution and subsequent analysis of this
solution for inorganic N as described by Nelson and Bremner (1970).
Results and Discussion
Data in Table 2 establish that added NH2OH rapidly reacts with soil
constituents. The total recovery of added NH2OH-N immediately after addition
averaged 55% in the five soils investigated. Only small amounts of added
NH2OH-N were converted to NH4, N02, or NO 3, whereas an average of 25%
was "fixed" by soil constituents in a form which could not be extracted by KC1
solutions. The fixation process was very rapid and the amount of NH2OH-N
fixed was directly related to the organic C content of the soil. This suggests that
the site of fixation of NH2OH in soils is organic matter. Recovery data suggests
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 411
Table 2. Recovery ofhydroxylamine N after treatment of soils with hydroxylamine solution for 0 and 4
days.
Treatmi
Recovery of NH2OH-N (%)
Soil
;nt
As
As
As
As
no.
time (da
iys)
NH2OH
NH4
NO: + NO,
fixed N
Total
1
0
4
0
0
9
13
4
1
0
0
10
11
2
0
43
1
5
30
79
4
5
2
8
34
49
3
0
19
0
0
19
38
4
4
0
4
21
29
4
0
67
0
3
10
80
4
2
3
21
22
48
5
0
5
0
0
55
60
4
2
0
0
56
58
Ave.
0
28
0
2
25
55
4
3
1
7
29
40
that an average of 45% of the added N15 could not be accounted for and was
presumably lost from the system in gaseous form.
Recovery of NH2OH-N four days after addition to soils showed that only
small amounts of added N were present as NH2OH (Table 2). Limited amounts
of added NH2OH-N were converted to NHl, NO 2, or NO 3 (significant amounts
of NO 3 were formed in two soils). The amounts of added NH2OH-N fixed
increased slightly after four days of incubation as compared to values for
immediate fixation. Only an average of 40% of added N was recovered in soils
following four days of incubation, suggesting that 60% was lost from soil in
gaseous form.
In an attempt to determine which components of soil were responsible for
gaseous loss of added NH2OH-N and what types of gaseous N compounds are
released upon addition of NH2OH to soils, a model system was used which
allowed measurement of all NH2OH reaction products. Addition of NH2OH to
acetate buffer containing two soils demonstrated that a portion of the added N is
fixed, and substantial amounts of N are evolved as N2 and N20 (Table 3). The
proportion of added N evolved from soils as N2 is about equal to that evolved as
N20. This finding is somewhat surprising because most investigators have
believed that N20 is the major gaseous product of NH2OH reactions in soils. In
an attempt to determine which soil constituents may be responsible for
conversion of NH2OH to N2 and N20, inorganic substances present in soils were
reacted with NH2OH under controlled conditions. Nitrite and Mn02 oxidized
NH2OH to N20 with little formation of N2 (Table 3). Reaction of FeCl3 with
NH2OH resulted in significant production of N2 along with large amounts of
N20. These findings suggest that inorganic materials may be responsible for
decomposition of NH2OH in soils with subsequent release of gaesous forms of
N.
412 Indiana Academy of Science
Table 3. Recovery of hydroxy/amine N added to pH 5 buffer containing various materials (25° C)*
Recovery of added NH2OH-N (%)
Material in
•As
As
As
As
As
As
As
buffer
NH2OH
nh;
N02 + NO
NO+ NO
N2
N20
fixed
N
Soil no. 1 (lOg)
2
0
0
1
41
46
10
Soil no. 2 (lOg)
6
2
10
0
21
23
32
Mn02 (0.5g)
0
1
0
0
2
96
0
0.5 M KeCl,
0
0
0
<1
29
71
0
0.057 M NaN02
0
0
5
0
5
90
0
Ten ml. of pH 5 acetate buffer (2 M) containing the material specified was treated with 6 ml of
hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution containing 8 mg of hydroxylamine N. Treatments were
performed in sealed gas analysis units (helium-oxygen atmosphere) with KMn04 solution in center
chamber.
Conclusions
Hydroxylamine reacted rapidly with soil constituents after addition to
soils. A small portion of added NH2OH was converted to other inorganic forms
of N in soils (NH4, NO 2, NO 3) whereas substantial amounts were fixed by soil
organic matter and evolved as gaseous forms of N. Fixation of NH2OH likely
occurs through the formation of oximes when carbonyl groups in soil organic
matter react with NH2OH (Equation 4):
R-C=0 + NH2OH - R-C=NOH + H20 (4)
Schnitzer and Skinner (1965) and Porter (1969) have observed oxime formation
upon treating humic acid materials with NH2OH. Gaseous N compounds are
likely formed through the reaction of NH2OH with common inorganic
constituents in soils such as ferric iron and manganese dioxide (Equations 5, 6
and 7):
2 Mn02 + 2NH2OH - 2 MnO + N20 + 3H20 (5)
4Fe+3 + 2NH2OH - 4 Fe +2 + N20 + 4H+ (6)
2Fe+3 + 2NH2OH - 2Fe +2 + N2 + 2H20 + 2H+ (7)
Mann and Quastel (1946) observed that NH2OH reacted rapidly with Mn02 in
soils. Porter (1969) reported that NH2OH reacts with NO 2 to liberate large
amounts of N20, however, N02 is seldom detected in soils.
The finding that NH2OH is rapidly decomposed and fixed when added to
soils explains why this compound has never been detected in soil systems.
Furthermore, it seems likely that NH2OH is not released into the soil
environment during N transformation carried out by microorganisms because if
this were the case large unexplained losses of N would occur. A more likely
situation is that NH2OH is an intermediate in the transformations of inorganic
N in cells of soil organisms, however, NH2OH is probably bound to the enzymes
involved in oxidation-reduction of N compounds. Little NH2OH is released
from the cell before more stable N compounds are formed enzymatically. The
more stable N forms such as N H4 or NO 3 are then released from the cells and are
available for use by plants or microorganisms.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 413
Literature Cited
1. Arnold, P. W. 1954. Losses of nitrous oxide from soils. J. Soil Sci. 5:116126.
2. Alexander, M. 1961. Introduction to Soil Microbiology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, N.
Y. p. 472.
3. Bremner, J. M. 1965a. Total nitrogen. Agronomy 9:1149-1178.
4. Bremner, J. M. 1965b. Isotope-ratio analysis of nitrogen in nitrogen — 15 tracer investigations.
Agronomy 9:1256-1286.
5. Bremner, J. M. and D. R. Keeney 1966. Determination of different forms of nitrogen in soils. 3.
Exchangeable ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite by extraction-distillation methods. Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. Proc. 30:577-582.
6. Bremner, J. M. and K. Shaw. 1958. Denitrification in soil. J. Agric. Sci 51:22-39.
7. DuiSBhRG, P. C. and T. F. Biehrer. 1954. Effect of ammonia and its oxidation products on rate of
nitrification and plant growth. Soil Sci. 78:37-49.
8. Edwards, A. P. 1967. A semimicro technique for the determination of cation exchange capacity.
Can. J. Soil Sci. 47:140-142.
9. Edwards, A. P. and J. M. Bremner 1965. Dispersion of mineral colloids in soils using cation
exchange resins. Nature 205:208-209.
10. Kilmer, V. J. and L. T. Alexander 1949. Methods of making mechanical analysis of soils. Soil
Science 68:15-24.
11. Mann, P. J. G. and J. H. Quastel 1946. Manganese metabolism in soils. Nature 158:154-156.
12. Mebius, L.J. 1960. A rapid method for determination of organic carbon in soils. Anal. Chim. Acta
22:120-124.
13. Nelson, D. W. and J. M. Bremner 1970. Gaseous products of nitrite decomposition in soils. Soil
Biol. Biochem. 2:203-215.
14. Nommik, H. 1956. Investigations on denitrification in soil. Acta Agr. Scandinavica 6:195-228.
15. Porter, L. K. 1969. Gaseous products provided by anaerobic reaction of sodium nitrite with oxime
compounds and oximes synthesized from organic matter. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:696-702.
16. Schnitzer, M. and S.I. M. Skinner 1965. The carbonyl group in a soil organic matter preparation.
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 29:400-405.
Cadmium Levels of Golf Green Soils
J. L. Lefton and J.L. Ahlrichs
Agronomy Department
Purdue University
Introduction
Cadmium is not an essential element for either plants or animals. The need
for information about cadmium levels in soils and plants has come with the
environmental and health concerns associated with heavy metals. The soil
represents a vast natural sink where cadmium amd other heavy metals
eventually are deposited either directly or indirectly. Once in the soil the metallic
ions tend to accumulate although there is limited downward movement and
some plant uptake.
A normal soil cadmium range of 0.01-0.70 ppm is quoted in the literature,
the average being 0.06 ppm (Bowen, 1966). Values reported 15 Indiana sites by
Pietz et al. ( 1 978) range from < 0. 05 at Lafayette to 0. 60 at a site near Gary where
contamination is expected. The average content of cadmium in sandstone was
reported by Bowen (1966) as 0.05 ppm, in limestone as 9.04 ppm, and in shale as
0.03 ppm. Cadmium is also geochemically associated with zinc materials such as
ZnS (Lagerwerffs, 1972).
One of the land use situations receiving great doses of added cadmium is
that of golf greens. Fortunately this use of soil is not typical and the crop is not
harvested for human consumption. The high concentrations of cadmium
expected in golf green soils can be attributed to the heavy use of cadmium
fungicides, activiated sewage sludge as a fertilizer source, and the use of
phosphate fertilizers. In addition, there are natural sources of contamination
from the air and rainfall, especially near cities and industrial areas. One would
expect heavy accumulation of cadmium on greens to come primarily from the
fungicide use in the 1950's and 1960's. Recent use has decreased because of a
resistance of the pathogens to cadmium and with the advent of new controls.
Cadmium carbonate, cadmium chloride, cadmium sebacate, and cadmium
succinate have been used as fungicides (Couch, 1962). The most commonly used
cadmium fungicide for the control and prevention of the disease, dollar spot,
Sclerotina homoeocarpa, was a commercial product, Cadminate. It contained
60% cadmium succinate as the active ingredient, thus the product had 29% total
cadmium. The manufacturer recommends that 0.5 oz Cadminate per 1000 sq ft
(15g/ 100m2) per month be used on a preventative fungicide schedule. It was used
extensively as a turf fungicide beginning about 1950. Today it is used lessdueto
cadmium-resistant dollar spot strains.
Additional contributions of cadmium to agricultural or turf soils could
come from some phosphate fertilizers and from activated sewage sludge
fertilizers. Schroeder and Balassa ( 1 963) reported 9-36 ppm Cd in the phosphate
fraction of five fertilizers. The cadmium is primarily found in rock phosphate
and super phosphate. Activated sewage sludges sold as slow-release sources of
414
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 415
nitrogen have only about 6% nitrogen so application rates of up to 100 lbs per
1000 sq ft (50kg/ 100m2) per year are not uncommon for golf greens. The trade
name commonly used in turf management is Milorganite. The manufacturer
reports that a representative sample of Milorganite contains 79 ppm Cd.
Representative values from anaerabically-digested sludge produced by 10
different Indiana cities varied from 3 to 810 ppm and average 170 ppm Cd
(Sommers et. al., 1973).
Thus golf greens were expected to be heavily contaminated with cadmium.
The cadmium would be well equilibrated with the soil-plant system since much
of the cadmium was added 10 or 20 years ago. The contaminated greens could
therefore provide an excellent source of soil and plant material for cadmium
research studies.
The objectives of this study were to develop simplifying modifications in a
procedure for determining Cd in plant and soil material and to use the method to
assay cadmium levels in representative golf greens to determine both the content
and the vertical distribution.
Methods and Materials
Sampling Procedures:
The three main sampling locations were the Lafayette Country Club, Elks
Country Club and The Purdue North Course, all in the Lafayette, IN vicinity.
Three greens were randomly selected at each and four, one inch, cores were
taken with a soil probe at random locations on each green. An additional
sampling of three random cores were taken on the Purdue Experimental Green.
The cores were separated into 0-3, 3-6, 6-9, and 9-12 inch layers and each
analyzed separately.
To verify the prevalence of cadmium on golf course greens in general,
seventeen greens from twelve different golf courses located all across the USA
were sampled at 0-1" or 0-2" depths.
Samples were air-dried and crushed with a wooden roller to pass a 1 6-mesh
aluminum screen.
Digestion Procedures: '
1. A. 3.5 gram air-dried samples were placed in graduated 50 ml Folin-Wu
N.P.N, tubes (Kimax 47125 or Corning 7940).
2. N-octyl alcohol ( 1 ml) was added to each to reduce frothing during digestion.
3. The samples were then placed in an aluminum heating block constructed as
described by Nelson and Sommers (1972).
4. One Folin-Wu tube centrally located in the block contained mineral oil and a
thermometer to determine the operational temperature of the block.
5. Twelve ml of concentrated HNO (70%) was added and 25 mm diameter
funnel was placed on top of each tube to maintain a constant reflux of the
liquid.
1 A modification of the procedure for total cadmium used by the Analytical Lab, Bionucleonics,
Purdue Univ., W. Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
416 Indiana Academy of Science
6. The aluminum block was then placed on an electric hot plate at a temperature
of 110 C for approximately 15 hours of predigestion.
7. After the pre-digestion the samples were cooled to room temperature, three
ml of fuming HNO3 (90%) was added and they were reheated to 100 C.
Digestion was considered complete when brown NO2 fumes disappeared.
8. The samples were cooled to room temperature and diluted in the tubes to the
35 ml mark with distilled water.
9. The samples are then filtered through Whatman 42 filter paper into 50 ml
Erlenmeyer flasks for reading on a Jarrell-Ash Model 82-526 Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer.
10. Cd solutions were prepared containing 2, 1, 0.5 and 0.1 ppm for the standard
curve.
Table 1. Cadmium Concentrations from 5 Different Samples. (A Comparison of the Results Obtained
by the Method Described, and the Results Obtained by the Analytical Lab, Bionucleonics, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, Indiana).
Sample Location ppm Cda ppm Cd
Purdue University Golf 15.3 19.2
Course, G. 1 1
Lafayette Country Club, 9.1 10.2
Practice Green
Elks Country Club, 2.3 2.5
G.9
Elks Country Club, 1.8 NDC
G.18
Elks Country Club, 43.5 50.3
G.18
J Results from the method described in this paper.
Results from the method utilized by the Analytical Lab, Bionucleonics, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana.
L Not detectable.
Results and Discussion
Analytical Procedure
The development of an analytical procedure for total cadmium that would
be rapid, easy to duplicate, and accurate was one of the objectives of this study.
The low level of cadmium in most samples requires a digestion method which
will handle several gram sample sizes with minimum dilution.
The accuracy of the tube digestion method with 3.5 gm sample was
evaluated by comparison to the cadmium values obtained on five representative
samples by the analytical lab for the cadmium project1. The results (Table 1) of
this investigation show a close agreement between the two procedures. The
further substantiate the accuracy of the tube digestion method, recovery tests of
added cadmium chloride ranged from 95 to 100%. This range was considered
satisfactory for this particular study. Also the same check sample (Purdue North
■The Analytical Lab, Bionucleonics, Purdue University, utilize a nitric acid digestion in
Erlenmeyer flasks on a hot plate and determines cadmium on a Perkin-Elmer 304 atomic absorption
Spectrophotometer.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
417
Golf Course, Green 1 1, the 3-6 inch depth) was in each set of digestions run on
the Lafayette vicinity samples. In each case the concentration of this sample did
not vary measurably from the initial value of 2.5 ppm Cd.
The N-octyl alcohol and nitric acid used in the digestion procedure
contained no detectable cadium.
Since the accuracy of the volume calibration of the tubes is + 0.8%, dilution
directly in the digestion tubes was considered adequately precise. By diluting in
the tubes, the chance for error in transferring digests is eliminated, and time and
labor are reduced.
It is estimated that a technician could analyze 500-600 samples per week
utilizing two aluminum blocks with the method described. Thus, the proposed
method represents an accurate, rapid and simple method for determining total
cadmium in soil samples.
Cadmium Levels in Golf Green Samples.
The results (Table 2) show that the highest concentration of cadmium is in
the top movement of cadmium vertically in the profile. Lagerwerff et al. (1970)
found a similar situation for roadside soils contaminate with cadmium.
Table 2. Cadmium Contents of Golf Greens Sampled at Four Locations, and at Four Deptsf
Soil Profile Layer
, inches
Sampling
Location b
0-3
3-6
6-9
9-12
(ppm Cd)
Elks C.C.,
West Lafayette,
Indiana
G. 9
46.1
2.9
1.8
1.9
G. 18
61.6
3.2
2.0
1.7
P. G.
68.5
3.0
2.1
1.7
Purdue North
Golf Course,
West Lafayette,
Indiana
G. 9
38.1
3.6
2.6
2.6
G. 11
21.4
2.4
1.9
1.4
G. 3
51.0
2.7
1.6
1.8
Lafayette C.C.,
Lafayette,
Indiana
G. 7
35.5
3.9
3.5
2.3
P. G.
8.3
7.4
2.8
1.8
G. 9
33.0
3.0
2.4
2.1
Purdue Experi-
mental Putting
Green, West
Lafayette,
Indiana
17.1
3.6
2.9
1.9
Average 38.1 3.6 2.4
a Averages of triplicate smples and duplicate analysis.
Samples are identified according to country club, city, state, and G (green).
1.9
418 Indiana Academy of Science
For golf greens, the higher concentrations of cadmium in the surface can be
attributed to several factors. To maintain resiliency on the surface of putting
greens it is common practice to maintain a 0.25-0.50 inch thatch layer. The thatch
layer offers a vast sink for chelation as well as exchange sites for heavy metals
added to the surface. In addition, the use of hard water on golf greens tends to
make most putting greens calcareous at the surface. The excessively high levels
of phosphorus1 found in a majority of greens also increases the possibility of
precipitating cadmium in the surface layer.
Only the practice green (Table 2) at the Lafayette Country Club was
appreciable lower in total cadmium in the 0.3" layer, as compared to the other
surface samples. This would be expected since this green was established
recently. There has been less cadmium fungicide applied, less phosphorus
fertilizer used, and less thatch build-up when compared to the other greens.
Statistical studies showed the cadmium levels to vary from green to green
on the same golf course and between golf courses. For the Elks Country Club the
mean value of cadmium2 in the 0-3" layer varied from 46. 1 to 68.5 ppm Cd. For
the Purdue North Golf Course the variation was from 21.4 to 5.1 ppm Cd. For
the Lafayette Country Club the variation was from 8.3 to 35.5 ppm Cd. This type
of variation would be expected since golf greens vary in their construction, in
slope, in compaction, in water application, and in the rate and frequency of
cadmium fungicide application.
In addition, variation in the cadmium levels existed in the lower portion of
the profile of the greens. This can be attributed to differences in the internal
water movement, layering within greens, and a variation in internal porosity of
greens. The mean value of cadmium2 in the 3-6" layer ranged from 2.5 to 3.9 ppm
Cd. An exception to this was the practice green at the Lafayette Country Club.
The mean value for cadmium2 for this layer was 7.4 ppm Cd. Since the green is
fairly new, the reduced compaction and a corresponding greater porosity in the
top 6 inches of the profile would yield high infiltration and percolation rates.
Also contributing to the movement of cadmium in this particular sample is the
lack of organic matter in the surface. The thatch layer for this green was minimal
when compared to the other samples.
The cadmium content of samples within greens also varied significantly.
The greatest source of error here would come from uneven application of the
fungicide. In addition, variations in compaction, slope and moisture application
on the same green could cause the varying cadmium contents.
The high cadmium levels in the 9-12" layer is of special interest. Even at this
depth the cadmium level is still considerable above the normal soil cadmium
level of 0.06 ppm (Bo wen, 1966). Follow up studies on green 9 of the Purdue
North Course showed that cadmium levels did not reach background levels until
the 24" depth.
'From the Midwest Turf Leaflet No. 16, 86% of the 1600 golf green samples tested by the Soil
Testing, Laboratory of Purdue Univ. were excessively high in phosphorus (greater than 100 lbs. P/ A).
2The mean cadmium level was determined from triplicate samples and duplicate analysis.
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 419
The 17 greens representing 12 golf courses across the USA (Table 3)
illustrate the prevalence of the cadmium enrichment. The lowest surface soil
value found was 4.2 ppm which is much above normal levels. The high value is
the 80 ppm of the University of Michigan country club green 16. This is the
oldest green in the collection being over 40 years old. It represents the
accumulation of cadmium from many years of use in a part of the country where
its use for disease control started early.
Summary
Digestion of soil samples for cadmium requires a concentrated digestate to
maintain sufficient cadmium concentration for analysis. The 3.5 gm samples
were handled well in the Folin-Wu tube digestion by long digestions at low
temperature, use of N-octyl alcohol as antifoaming agent and use fuming HNO3
acid for final digestion. The advantage of this block digestion system is the great
number of large samples that can be digested simultaneously with minimal
attention.
Table 3. Cadmium Contents of surface soil samples from Greens of 12 additional Golf Courses a.
Sampling Location Green No. ppm Cd
Old Warson C.C., St. Louis, MD
Big Spring C.C., Louisville, KY
Point-O- Woods, Benton Harbor, MI
Browns Run C.C., Middleton, OH
Oakwood C.C., Cleveland, OH
Riverside C.C., Battle Creek, MI
Univ. of Mich. C.C., Ann Arbor, MI
Goodyear Golf & C.C., Litchfield Park, AR
Silver Lake C.C., Silver Lake, IL
Sunset C.C., St. Louis, MO
Sunset C.C., St. Louis, MO
Edgewood C.C., Cinncinati, OH
Edgewood C.C., Cinncinati, OH
College Park, MA
College Park, MA
College Park, MA
College Park, MA
Average 14.0
a Results are averages of duplicate analysis on samples taken from 0-l"depth with thatch removed
excepting College Park samples which were 0-2" depth.
Cadmium contents on old greens is particularly high in the surface 0-3
inches, is still above normal at 9-12 inch depths, and in one green which was
studied to greater depths the cadmium levels returned to normal at 24 inches.
There is great variation in cadmium levels between golf courses, between
greens on a course and within greens. These undoubtedly arises primarily from
variation in rates of cadmium fungicide used and from movement patterns
affected by physical and chemical properties of the green and its soil.
10
7.8
17
12.0
1
16.8
15
10.4
15
31.0
2
4.2
16
80.0
15
5.2
10
6.1
2
8.4
10
10.4
4
7.0
16
10.3
X
8.6
10
7.0
12
5.8
15
7.8
420 Indiana Academy of Science
Samples from greens all across the USA showed modest to very great
contamination with cadmium. The levels appear to be related to the age of the
green and the use of cadmium salts as fungicides.
The soils, the microfauna, and the grass on the greens have been reacting
with the cadmium for many years. Thus, we have an excellent source for high
cadmium soil, microfauna and plant tissue from an already equilibrated system
for future scientific studies.
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate assistance received from R.P. Freeborg, A. Hegab,
and W.P. Miller in the sampling and analytical work.
Literature Cited
1. Bowen, H.J.M. 1966. Trace elements in biochemistry. Academic Press, New York. p. 179.
2. Lagerwerff, J.V. 1972. Lead, mercury, and cadmium as environmental contaminants. Soil
Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin p. 619-628.
3. Lagerwerff, J.V., and A.W. Specht. 1970. Contamination of roadside soil and vegetation with
cadmium, nickel, lead, and zinc. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4:583-586.
4. Nelson, D.W., and L.E. Sommers. 1972. A simple digestion procedure for estimation of total
nitrogen in soils and sediments. J. Environ. Quality. l(4):423-425.
5. Pietz, R.I., R.J. Vetter, D. Masarik, and W.W. McFee. 1978 Zinc and Cadmium Contents of
Agricultural Soils and Corn in Northwestern Indiana. J. Environ. Quality (accepted for
publication)
6. Schroeder, H.A., and J.J. Balassa. 1963. Cadmium: uptake by vegetables from superphosphate
by soil. Science 140:819-820.
7. Sommers, L.E., D.W. Nelson, J.E. Yahner, and J.V. Mannering. 1973. Chemical Composition
of Sewage Sludge from Selected Indiana Cities. Ind. Acad. Sci. 82:424-432.
Comparison of Soil Structure Resulting
From Permanent Pasture and Continuous Row Crop
G.C. Steinhardt and L.D. Norton, Department of Agronomy,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Physical properties of soils are an important factor in soil management to
improve yield and promote continued soil productivity. Because the parameters
that measure physical properties have been difficult to equate with yield
response they have often been relegated to a secondary role as compared to the
clearer relationship between soil fertility levels and yield.
Recent examples of yield reduction from subsoil compaction and increased
erosion noted on soils with poor soil structure has increased interest in
maintaining soil structure and determining important components of it. In
Fulton County, Indiana on a loamy sand soil a corn yield reduction from about
6.4 metric ton/ha (100 bu/acre) to 1.9 metric ton/ ha (30 bu/acre) was due to
compaction. And recent studies in Illinois show that sloping lands under intense
cultivation are losing poorly structured surface soil at a rate that is too high to
retain productivity.
Currently in Indiana many soils have poor structure in the surface horizon.
Two reasons have been suggested for this situation. First continuous row crops
especially soybeans, do not add enough crop residue to promote soil structure.
And second, less organic matter is being added to soils from animal agriculture
because animal manure has been considered to be too low in nutrients for the
effort needed to apply it, because of environmental concerns, and many farms
have eliminated this part of their operation.
Poor soil structure has also been evidenced by subsoil compaction
problems that have occurred over a wide range of soil textures. Part of this is due
to tilling wet soils, tilling at the same depth, and excessive use of a disk.
Methods and Materials
On a farm near Roachdale Indiana, a four acre pasture which had not been
plowed in 75 years was available for a study to compare the soil physical
properties under these conditions contrasted to those under continuous row
cropping in the adjacent field. Two soils differing in drainage were present in the
pasture, the somewhat poorly drained Fincastle and the poorly drained
Ragsdale. These soils were also present in the adjacent plowed field. Field
descriptions were made at each of the four sites representing each of four soil
conditions, somewhat poorly drained Fincastle and poorly drained Ragsdale,
both plowed and unplowed. Descriptions were made following the Soil Survey
Manual guidelines (Soil Survey Staff, 1951) and the procedures of the Purdue
University Soil Characterization Laboratory (Franzmeier et al., 1977).
Ten pound bulk samples of the surface horizon were taken for
characterization and aggregate analysis. Procedures for particle-size analysis,
organic carbon, and chemical analysis followed those of the Purdue University
421
422 Indiana Academy of Science
Soil Characterization Laboratory (Franzmeier et al., 1977) except that the
particle-size analysis was completed both with and without destroying organic
matter with hydrogen peroxide prior to analysis.
Aggregate analysis followed a procedure developed by McFree (personal
communication) which was based on a method by Kemper and Chepil (1965).
The steps in the analysis are:
1 . Sieve air dry natural aggreates through a sieve with square 8 mm openings.
Discard material larger than 8 mm.
2. Place the material that passed the 8 mm sieve on a sieve with a square 2 mm
opening. Keep the material for analysis that is retained on the 2 mm sieve.
3. Place the lOg samples in moisture dishes to determine air dry moisture
content.
4. Fill the container that is used for the wet sieving with water to within one
inch of the top. Use a nest of 4 sieves with the following openings: 4.76mm,
2.00mm, 1.00mm, and 0.21mm. Place each nest on a rack that attaches to
the apparatus that oscillates the sample up and down 35 times per minute
through a stroke of 38 mm. Adjust the nest of sieves so that at the top of the
stroke the mesh of the top sieve is at the water surface. Be sure that any
entrapped air is released.
5. Place two 25g samples of air dry soil for each soil on the top sieve at the top
of the stroke and sieve the sample for ten min.
6. After ten minutes of sieving remove the nest of sieves from the water
container and drain. Place a dish under each sieve and over dry at 105° C for
thirty minutes.
7. Weigh the oven dry aggregates. Place the aggregates in a dish, add a small
amount of water and dispersing solution, and crush with a rubber
policeman. Wash through the sieve that retained the aggregate until only
sand particles remain. Place in the oven and dry at 105° C.
8. Weigh sand fraction and subtract from original aggregate weight. The total
oven dry weight is calculated from the sample weight and air dry moisture
content.
9. Determine the corrected aggregate amount retained on each sieve and
determine the amount of fines by difference.
10. Calculate fraction of total sample in each size fraction. Multiply this
fraction by the mean size of each fraction. The sum of these numbers is the
mean weight diameter (MWD).
Results
The field description of the two soils are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
differences between the plowed and unplowed soils are basically surface color
and the strength of the granular structure in the surface horizon. The soils are
classified as the Ragsdale silt loam in the poorly drained condition and Fincastle
silt loam in the somewhat poorly drained condition. However, the color of the
surface horizon in the unplowed Fincastle is darker than the modal concept.
Table 3 contains the characterization data to compare the soil differences.
Particle-size analysis shows that the field determination of silt loam texture class
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences
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was correct. The Ragsdale soils were slightly higher in clay than the Fincastle
soils. In swell and swale topography the lower lying, very poorly drained soils in
the swale are often slightly higher in clay content than the somewhat poorly
drained soils on the swells.
When organic matter was destroyed by hydrogen peroxide the clay content
is consistently higher for both the plowed and unplowed condition. This would
show the ability of organic matter to aggregate clay and silt size particles into silt
and sand size particles. These aggregates were very durable because they
withstood overnight shaking with the dispersing solution of sodium
metaphosphate and sodium carbonate. In both the unplowed Fincastle and
Ragsdale the difference between organic matter free and organic matter
included clay content was approximately 12.5%. This compared with a
difference of about 2.5% for both the Fincastle and Ragsdale. This showed that
the additional organic matter found in these unplowed soils was effective in
enhancing soil structure.
There has been some speculation that some of the silt size aggregates of clay
size particles may act more like silt than clay in the soil. Comparing the air dry
moisture content shown in Table 3 with clay content measured with and without
organic matter destruction shows that this moisture content is more closely
related to clay content determined after organic matter destruction. However,
there might be another aspect to this relationship because silt size particles are
related more to available moisture (Franzmeier et al., 1960 and Steinhardt,
1968) than air dry moisture content and it may be in this property where these silt
size aggregates have a measurable effect on soil moisture.
Calculated mean weight diameter (MWD) is shown on Table 3. As
expected both unplowed soils had coarser MWD than the plowed soils. The data
also indicates that the Fincastle in both the plowed and unplowed condition had
slightly stronger structure than the Ragsdale in a similar condition. This is
contrary to what has been thought about these soils. There has been more
concern about compaction and structure problems on the somewhat poorly
drained than on the poorly drained soil. This data shows that current thinking
about potential problems of soil structure may need examination.
Another interesting feature of the aggregate analysis was the appearance of
the aggregate before and after analysis. Before wet sieving aggregates from both
plowed and unplowed soils, except for color, appeared quite similar. But after
wet sieving there was a considerable difference, the aggregates in both unplowed
soils had distinct faces on the individual granules compared to both plowed soils
where the faces on individual aggregates were not as smooth or regular. It
appeared as if the aggregates from the plowed soils were still being eroded away
by the wet sieving while the unplowed soils had been worked down to an
aggregate that would resist further breakdown. The unplowed aggregates were
much larger and more durable which would improve the infiltration and
permeability of the surface horizon for both dry and excessively wet conditions.
Organic carbon content was also measured and it is shown in Table 3. As
expected both unplowed soils were higher in organic carbon content than the
unplowed soils. In the unplowed condition Fincastle and Ragsdale
Soil and Atmospheric Sciences 427
were quite similar in organic carbon content. On the cropped two
different equilibrium contents were found with the poorly drained soils having a
higher organic carbon content probably because of higher moisture content
more time through the year.
In other work (Steinhardt et al., 1977) there has been a relationship
established for silt loam soil texture between the soil color as determined on the
Munsell Soil Color Chart and organic matter content in the plow layer of
Indiana soils. Samples from the plow layer horizon of 1 14 soils that had a silt
loam texture and had a color of the 10 YR hue were examined. These separations
could be consistently made: > 5% organic matter 10YR2/2 and N2/0; 3-5%
organic matter 10YR2/2, 3/1, 3/2, and 3/3; less than 3% organic matter all
other 10YR colors found for surface soils. This relationship changes for coarser
textured soils to a lower organic matter content for the same color and to higher
organic matter contents for the same color in finer textured soils. At this point,
not enough samples have been completed to establish precise numbers. Of
course, this relationship is not applicable in a different climate or moisture
regime.
The estimate of organic matter content with that actually measured was
correct for the plowed soils and low for both unplowed soils. This indicates that
a different equilibrium has been set up in the unplowed vs plowed soils and as a
result the relationship between soil color and organic matter content must be
limited to cropped soils.
Summary and Conclusions
Unplowed soils have a much higher content of clay particles aggregated
into larger particles than plowed soils. However, the relationship of air dry
moisture content is more closely related to clay content measured after organic
matter is destroyed.
The somewhat poorly drained Fincastle has slightly stronger structure than
Ragsdale. This points out that poorly drained soils may have some potential
structure problems that should be carefully examined.
The unplowed soils have organic matter content which is higher than the
plowed soils. These unplowed soils have a different relationship between soil
color and organic carbon content which limits the application of the relationship
between soil color and organic carbon content established for plowed soils. With
higher organic carbon content, soil structure was much coarser and more
durable. Both of these properties promote infiltration and improved moisture
holding properties. This would support the value of soil management systems
that promote addition of organic matter to soils for the improvement of soil
physical properties.
Literature Cited
1. Franzmeier, D.P., E.P. Whiteside, and A.E. Erickson. 1960. Relationship of texture classes of
fine earth to readily available water. 7th International Cong, of Soil Sci. Madison, Wisconsin
1:354-363.
428 Indiana Academy of Science
2. Franzmeier, D.P., G.C. Steinhardt, and L.D. Norton. 1977. Soil characterization in Indiana I:
Field and laboratory procedures. Research Bulletin No. 943. Purdue University, Agricultural
Experiment Station. 36 pp.
3. Kemper, W.D. and W.S. Chepil. 1965. Size distribution of aggregates. In C.A. Black (ed.)
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1. Amer. Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wisconsin. 499-510 pp.
4. Soil Survey Staff. 1951. Soil survey manual. USD A Handbook No. 18 U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
5. Steinhardt, G.C. 1968. Relation of various particle size limits in the silt size range to selected
physical properties. M.S. Thesis, Michigan State University.
6. Steinhardt, G.C, D.P. Franzmeier, L.D. Norton, and J.E. Yahner. 1977. Comparison of
organic carbon content with soil texture and color in Indiana soils. Agron. Abstracts, p. 19.
ZOOLOGY
Chairman: John O. Whitaker, Jr., Department of Life Sciences
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Chairman-Elect: Jackson L. Marr, Department of Biology
Indiana State University-Evansville, Evansville, Indiana 47712
Abstracts
The Influence of Space Reduction and Behavioral Stress upon Plasma
Corticoids Concentration in Dairy Cows. Clive W. Arave* and Jack L.
Albright, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Increased corticoid concentrations in the blood
have been one of the end results of psychological or social stress in various
experiments. One objective of this study was to determine whether reduction in
living area to one-fourth that normally found in loose housed dairy cattle was a
stress sufficient to affect plasma corticoids concentration. A second objective
was to determine what effect isolation in an even smaller area, as generally
practiced for artificial insemination or health problems, had on plasma
corticoids concentration. A final objective was to determine whether social
dominance rank (DR) was associated with corticoids concentration. Space was
reduced from 100 to 25 ft2 /cow during weeks 2 and 4 for one group of 17 cows in
a 4 week study. A second 1 7 cow group was maintained at 100 ft2 cow during the
same period as a control. Plasma total corticoids were determined for 8 cows (4
from each group) at the 0, 24th and 72nd hour of each week and for 3 cows from
each group following isolation. Corticoids were not increased but may have
been lowered during space restriction. Average plasma corticoids were higher
for the control group (1 1.0 vs. 5.7 ng/ml) than for the space restricted group.
Social dominance appeared to have little relationship to corticoids
concentration. Even though 5 of 6 cows experienced increased corticoids
concentration in isolation one cow's corticoids decreased. Within cow
differences between average and isolation corticoids were not significant.
Models for Gas Diffusion into Red Blood Cells. Duvall A. Jones, Department
of Biology, Saint Joseph's Colleges, Rennsselaer, Indiana 47978 Discoidal
models of red cells have long been used to demonstrate that aspects of red cell
shape, especially cell thickness and surface area to volume ratio, are important
to rate of oxygen uptake by these cells. More recent theoretical and
experimental studies, based upon spheres or infinitely thin sheets of
hemoglobin, have concluded that red cell shape is not important to rate of gas
uptake. Some suggest further that resistance to oxygen diffusion by the plasma
membrane has an important limiting effect.
The present analysis, based upon experimental data and discoidal models,
demonstrates the importance of thickness and surface area/ volume ratios to
rate of gas uptake. Shortcomings of models with extreme shapes are noted.
Circadian Rhythm of Movement in the Mexican Jumping-Bean Moth,
Laspeyresia saltitans (Westwood). William J. Brett, Life Sciences
429
430 Indiana Academy of Science
Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Mexican jumping beans, Sebastiana, containing living larvae of the moth
Laspeyresia saltitans were placed under a 12:12 light-dark regime and
monitored for movement. This was accomplished by detection and
amplification of audible clues, provided by movement of the seeds, which were
fed into a physiograph. Data showed the larvae to have maximum movement
during the period of light and very little movement during the peak period. The
larvae anticipated the commencement of the dark period, but did not exhibit
anticipatory behavior in relation to the commencement of the light period.
Reproduction of Notropis spilopterus and Pimephales vigilax in the lower
White River, Pike County, Indiana. Raymond A. Schlueter, Division of
Science and Mathematics, University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida Gonads
of Notropis spilopterus develop from March to June and become ripe in June.
Spawning peak occurs in late July and August. Females contained eggs of three
different size groups in addition to large ripe eggs indicating fractional
spawning.
Gonads of Pimephales vigilax develop in April and May and become ripe in
June and July. Spawning occurs in June and early July. Ripe females had two
egg sizes. Males were larger than females.
A Preliminary Study on the Effect of Vasectomy on the Biology of the Mouse
Epididymis. Larry R. Ganion, Department of Physiology and Health Science,
Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 To examine the effect of
vasectomy on the mammalian epididymis, a unilateral vasectomy was surgically
performed on the left vas deferens of sexually mature white mice. The vas
deferens was retracted through an abdominal incision, severed, ligated, and
returned to the peritoneal cavity. The animals were sacrificed at intervals
ranging from 2-17 months and the epididymides prepared for morphological
and biochemical study. Those removed from the right side of the mice served as
controls. The tissues were fixed in 3%glutaraldehyde, postfixed in 1% osmium
tetroxide, embedded in epon 812, and viewed in an RCA EMU 3-C electron
microscope. For histology study portions of the epididymides were fixed in
Bouins. Vasectomy does not appear to drastically alter the histology or
ultrastructure of the head of the epididymis, but a few morphological changes
are observed within the tail of the epididymis. With time the tubules in the tail of
the vasectomized epididymides became engorged with an amorphous substance,
vacuoles developed in association with the epithelial wall, and large cells
appeared within the lumina. The fine structure of the tubules in the epididymal
tail is also altered by vasectomy. These alterations include a thickening of the
basal lamina, shortening of epithelial cells, reduction in stereocilia and
dissolution of lumenal sperm. Biochemical analyses for acid phosphatase
revealed that there are no clearly demonstrable differences between the acid
phosphatase activity levels of the experimental and control epididymides.
Histochemical studies indicated that the enzyme is primarily restricted to
specific epithelial cells of the epididymal tubules. With the electron microscope
the reaction product was seen to be especially concentrated over cytoplasmic
vacuoles of these cells. The histological distribution of acid phosphatase in the
vasectomized and non-vasectomized epididymides appeared to be similar.
Zoology 431
Localization of Aminoglutethimide at the Cellular Level. Belinda A. Shenk
and William J. Brett, Life Sciences Department, Indiana State University,
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 Previous studies have shown that there is a
general tissue uptake of the anticonvulsant drug, aminoglutethimide (Elipten,
Ciba) (AG). In this study, an attempt was made to determine the area(s) of AG
localization within the cell. The liver was excised from a white rat which had
been injected with tritiated AG one hour prior to sacrifice and a liver
homogenate was prepared. Centrifugation was employed to separate cell
organelles and membranes from the cytoplasm and to isolate mitochondria
from the hemogenate. Samples of the pellet and supernatant from both sets of
experiments were counted in a liquid scintillation counter. Results from our
study indicate that AG largely localizes in the cytoplasm, but that AG does
become significantly associated with the mitochondria and other cell
organelle(s).
The Fine Structure of the Nictitans Gland of the Dog with Particular Reference
to the Formation and Release of its Secretory Product. Mohinder S. Jarial
and Ling S. Jen, Department of Physiology and Health Science, Muncie Center
for Medical Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306 The
nictitans gland of mongrel dogs were studied grossly and by histological and
electron microscopic techniques.
The nictitans gland is a yellowish pink, spatula shaped glandular mass that
surrounds the basal part of a flat somewhat T-shaped hyaline cartilage
embedded in the nictitating membrane. Paraffin sections stained with
hematoxylin and eosin show that it is a tubuloacinar gland composed of
randomly distributed acini and ducts. Based on the electron density of the
cytoplasmic matrix, two cell types can be differentiated in different acini i.e.
"dark" and "light" cells. The myoepithelial cells are often present in relation to
both cell types. The more numerous dark cells contain abdundant granular
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles and numerous electron dense
PAS positive secretory granules in the cytoplasm. The endoplasmic reticulum
and nuclei lie in the basal portion of the cells. The light cells which are mainly
located in the periphral portion of the gland contain large vesicles which give
honeycomb-like appearance to these cells. Frozen sections of these cells stain
positively for lipids with Sudan black B. Histochemical evidence shows that the
dark cells secrete seromucoid material while the light cells are involved in lipid
secretion.
Proximally the ducts are lined with secretory cells which appear
structurally similar to the dark cells of acini. Distal portion of the ducts
progressively become devoid of secretory cells.
In the acinar portion of the gland the granules of the dark cells are secreted
in whole and retain their membranes after extrusion into the acinar lumina. In
secretory portion of the ducts, the granules reach the ductal lumina by apical
extensions of secretory cells. Cytoplasmic fragments containing granules are
This work was supported in part by a grant from the College of Sciences and Humanities, Ball
State University.
432 Indiana Academy of Science
frequently present in the ductal lumina. A few free nuclei have also been
observed in the ductal lumina.
In conclusion the nictitans gland has an apocrine form of secretions,
although holocrine type of activity is exhibited by a portion of this gland.
A Distribution Study of the Blacktail Shiner (Notropis venustus) in the Clear
Creek Basin. H. E. McReynolds, U.S. Forest Service, Bedford, Indiana In
1974, a joint survey was undertaken to determine the present distribution of the
blacktail shiner (Notropis venustus). Biologists of the Illinois Department of
Conservation, U.S. Forest Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service sampled
12 sites in the Clear Creek basin. This stream, in Union and Alexander counties,
is the only Illinois drainage basin from which this rare minnow has been
recorded.
Food Habits of the Barn Owl Tyto alba in Clinton County, Ohio. Gary L.
Tieben and John S. Halter, Department of Biological Sciences, St. Francis
College, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46808 The food of the Barn Owl, Tyto alba
in Clinton County, Ohio, consisted of small mammals and birds. In a twenty-
two month period from June 1975 to April 1977, 972 pellets were collected.
Pellet analysis showed the general diet to consist of Microtus pennsylv amicus
81.1%, Blarina brevicauda 10.5%, birds .3% (Agelaius phoeniceus 40.0%,
Stunella magna 4.0%, Sturnus vulgaris 4.0%, unidentified species 52.0%),
Peromyscus sp. 1.3%, Microtus ochrogaster 0.6%, Mus musculus 0.4%, Rattus
norvegicus 0.1%, Mus tela nivalus 0.1% and unidentified microtines 4.7%. Owl
pellets were collected for three seasons, summer 1975, fall 1975, and winter 1975-
76. The summer diet consisted of: M. pennsylvanicus 73.9%, B. brevicauda 9.8%,
birds 6.5%, M. ochrogaster 3.3%, M. musculus 1.1%, M. nivalus 1.1%, and
unidentified microtines 4.3%. The fall diet consisted of: M. penny slvanicus
88.6%, B. brevicauda 5.7% and, unidentified microtines 5.7%. The winter diet
consisted of: M. pennsylvanicus 90.0%, B. brevicauda 3.3% and unidentified
microtines 6.7%.
Mallophaga of Wild Mammals of Indiana. John O. Whitaker, Jr., and
Rebecca J. Goff, Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, Indiana 47809 Mallophaga (biting lice) were found on wild
mammals of Indiana as follows: Geomydoecus illinoiensis on Geomys
bursarius, Suricatoecus quadraticeps on Urocyon cinereoargenteus,
Trichodectes octomaculatus on Procyon lotor, Stachiella kingi on Mustela
nivalis, S. larseni on Mustela vison, Neotrichodectes minutus on Mustela
frenata, N. interruptofasciatus on Taxidea taxus, N. mephitidis on Mephitis mephitis,
and Tricholipeurus parallelus and T lipeuroides on Odocoileus virginiana. Not
found to date were Suracatoecus vulpis (which could be synonymous with S.
quadraticeps) from Vulpes vulpes, Heterodoxus spiniger and Trichodectes canis
from Canis latrans, and Felicola felis from Lynx rufus.
Effects of Age on Blood Pressure in Female Rats. W. J. Eversole, Life Sciences
Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana 47809 Ten
female rats of the Charles River strain were studied from the age of 42 days (170
gm) until death by natural causes. They were fed Purina Laboratory Chow, had
access at all times to tap water, and were housed in wire cages with five rats to a
Zoology 433
large cage ( 1 8 x 35 x 42 cm). Weights and blood pressures were taken at intervals
varying from one to three months, and more often at certain critical times such
as when severe illness was present or when death seemed eminent. The average
survival was 734 days (2 yrs.) but one rat died at 490 days (1.3 yrs.) and the
longest survivor lived 985 days (2.7 yrs.). Seven of the ten animals developed
rapidly growing soft tumors of the mammary glands with the first palpable
tumor appearing at 481 days (1.3 yrs.). One rat did not develope an observable
tumor until it was 835 days of age (2.3 yrs.). Four rats developed huge tumors
that, at the time of death, weighed more than the rat carcass itself. The more
interesting aspect of this study was that the blood pressure did not progressively
increase with age and most rats were normotensive throughout the study. In
elderly rats that survived beyond the average two-year span the pressures
fluctuated considerably but hypertension was not consistently present. Two rats
that survived the longest had tremors and poor tail pulses terminally, making it
difficult to obtain blood pressure readings during the week preceding death.
Distribution and Abundance
of Rodents in Cultivated Ecosystems
Wayne C. Houtcooper, Department of Biology*
Aquinas College, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506
Introduction
The prairie deermouse {Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii Hoy & Kennicott)
and the house mouse (Mus musculus L.) occur commonly in Vigo County,
Indiana (3). Important previous studies have examined food habits (2), and
various aspects of habitat relationships of these rodents (1,3,4,5).
During a study from 1970 through 1974, information was gathered about
rodent distribution and abundance in relation to season, habitat, and cover
solely in agricultural habitats of Vigo County, Indiana. The specific objective of
this report is to relate those findings to explain the occurrence of these rodents in
cultivated field ecosystems and to compare my results with those of previous
studies to determine what changes, if any, have occurred in the distribution and
abundance of these rodents in cultivated field ecosystems.
Methods and Materials
Trapping was conducted in approximately 1133 ha of cropland in west-
central Indiana from July 1970 to October 1974 by snap traps baited with a
mixture of peanut butter and rolled oats. Fields were divided into plots of 25 x 25
m and sampling plots were randomly selected. In each plot, 25 traps were set in 5
lines of 5 traps, with 5 m between each trap and 2.5 m between the outer traps
and the edge of the plot. Traps were checked each day for 4 consecutive days and
rebaited when necessary. Sampling times were divided on the basis of season
(winter, spring, summer, fall), type of habitat (corn, soybean, corn stubble,
soybean stubble, plowed field) and amount of herbaceous cover (good, fair,
poor). A description of cover types may be found elsewhere (4). All mammals
taken were identified and sexed. A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test was used to
determine significance of occurrence by season, type of habitat, and amount of
cover. In all tests, the 0.05 level of significance was used.
Results and Discussion
A total of 497 P. m. bairdii (317 males, 180 females) and 281 M. musculus
(166 males, 115 females) were taken from 177 plots. For each species,
significantly more males than females were collected. Although undetermined,
these differences may have reflected either true population sex ratios or trapping
method influences (activity patterns including greater amount of movement by
males, trap responses, bait selection, etc.).
♦Present address: Chief biologist, Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. 407 West Broadway,
Frankfort, KY 40601.
434
Zoology 435
Table 1 . Seasonal Distribution of Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii and Mus musculus in Cultivated
Fields of Vigo County, Indiana, (number of plots shown in parentheses below respective season)
Season
Winter
Spring
Summer
hall
Dec-
■Feb
Mar-
■May
June
-Aug
Sept-Nov
(33)
(42)
(65)
(37)
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
Species
Sex
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
P. m. bairdii
Male
60
1.8
35
0.8
159
2.5
63
1.7
Female
35
1.1
29
0.7
74
1.1
42
1.1
Both
95
2.9
64
1.5
233
3.6
105
2.8
M. musculus
Male
21
0.6
8
0.2
71
1.1
66
1.8
Female
12
0.4
7
0.2
43
0.7
53
1.4
Both
33
1.0
15
0.4
114
1.8
119
3.2
Seasonal distributions were summarized by species and sex (Table 1). Both
species showed significant differences of distribution in relation to season than
would be expected by chance alone. More P. m. bairdii were taken in summer
and fewer in spring than expected, while values for fall and winter were as
expected. Fewer M. musculus were taken in winter and spring and more in fall
than expected; values for summer were as expected. These seasonal differences
may act to minimize competition for food and space, thus enabling the two
species to successfully inhabit these ecosystems. Whitaker (4) found that both
species occurred together in a variety of habitats but at different rates dependent
upon the quality of each habitat. Thus in response to the seasonal changes and
the corresponding changes in habitat quality (cover, food, etc.), the seasonal
distribution and abundance of these rodents also changed. An analysis by sex
indicated that significant differences existed for male P. m. bairdii but not for
females, and again, may have reflected true sex ratios or trapping method
influences. Males were most frequent in summer and least frequent in spring,
while more males than females were taken in winter, summer, and fall. No
differences between sexes were noted for spring. Seasonal differences were
found for both male and female M. musculus. Both sexes were most frequent
during fall and least frequent during spring. Males were taken more frequently
than females in winter and summer; no differences were found for spring or fall.
Habitat relationships were summarized by species and sex (Table 2).
Significant differences were found for each species and for each sex per species in
relation to habitat distribution than would be expected by chance alone. Both
male and female P. m. bairdii occurred more frequently in soybean and plowed
fields and less frequently in stubble fields than expected; occurrence in corn was
as expected. Whitaker (4) reported numbers of mice per plot for prairie deermice
to be 0.9 for corn and corn stubble and 2.1 for soybean habitats. My values
indicate slightly over a three-fold increase of P. m. bairdii in corn with smaller
increases in corn stubble and soybean habitats. No comparable figures are
available for soybean stubble or plowed field habitats. For M. musculus, both
sexes occurred more frequently in corn fields and less frequently in stubble
436
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. Habitat Distribution of Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii and Mus musculus in Cultivated
Fields of Vigo County, Indiana, (number of plots shown in parentheses below respective habitat)
Habitat
Corn
Corn S
ubble
Soyb
ean
Soybean
Stubble
Plowed Field
(72)
(41)
(35)
(19)
(10)
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
# of
Mice/
Species Sex
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
P. m. bairdii Male
136
1.9
33
0.8
82
2.3
16
0.8
50
5.0
Female
75
1.0
17
0.4
44
1.3
14
0.7
30
3.0
Both
211
2.9
50
1.2
126
3.6
30
1.6
80
8.0
M. musculus Male
95
1.3
20
0.5
37
1.1
0
0.0
14
1.4
Female
78
1.1
15
0.4
14
0.4
0
0.0
8
0.8
Both
173
2.4
35
0.9
51
1.5
0
0.0
22
2.2
fields; occurrence in soybean fields was slightly more than expected for males
and slightly less for females while occurrence in plowed fields was as expected
for both sexes. In comparison to Whitaker's data (numbers of mice per plot) of
3.7 for corn and 1.6 for corn stubble and soybean (4), my results show
reductions of M. musculus in corn, corn stubble and in soybean habitats. Thus
in at least three cultivated habitats, prairie deermice appear to have increased in
abundance while the numbers of house mice declined. Specific reasons for these
changes are not clear at the present time and should be a topic for future study.
A significantly greater number of both species were taken in unharvested
fields (corn and soybean) than in harvested fields (stubble and plowed fields). It
was felt that movements of the mice in harvested fields were much less than in
unharvested fields since food was more readily available as corn and soybeans
left on the ground following harvest. Less time would be spent in searching for
food and thus a lower catch would be expected.
Table 3. Cover Relationships of Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii and Mus musculus in Cultivated
Fields of Vigo County, Indiana, (number of plots shown in parentheses below respective cover type)
Cover Type
Gooc
Fair
Poor
(41)
(106)
(30)
# of
Vlice/
# of
vlice/
# of
Vlice/
Species
Sex
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
Mice
Plot
P. m. bairdii
Male
96
2.3
139
1.3
82
2.7
Female
52
1.3
86
0.8
42
1.4
Both
148
3.6
225
2.1
124
4.1
M. musculus
Male
66
1.6
82
0.8
18
0.6
Female
36
0.9
67
0.6
12
0.4
Both
102
2.5
149
1.4
30
1.0
Cover relationships were summarized by species and sex (Table 3).
Significant differences in distribution were found for each species and for each
Zoology 437
sex per species in relation to cover type than would be expected by chance alone.
Both species occurred more frequently than expected in plots with good cover
and less frequently in plots with fair cover. Plots with poor cover had more P. m.
bairdii and fewer M. musculus than expected. A direct relationship between the
amount of cover and the abundance of M. musculus was noted. Cover was
generally good during fall and poor in spring. In addition, most of the corn plots
had good cover. Therefore it appeared that cover quality was the most
important factor influencing the distribution of M. musculus, and agrees with
results reported by Whitaker (4). Presumably the house mice invade areas
having fair to good cover and leave when cover decreases. Herbaceous cover
appeared less important to P. m. bairdii. Houtcooper (1) found that P. m.
bairdii. made extensive burrows in cultivated fields and therefore the burrows
alone may serve as adequate cover. It appeared that the prairie deermice were
permanent residents of the habitats studied.
The results of this study in comparison to those of previous studies suggest
that in several cultivated ecosystems (corn, corn stubble, and soybean) of Vigo
County, Indiana, the abundance of prairie deermice has increased while the
number of house mice has declined. These demographic changes should be
monitored periodically in a continuing effort to assess the influence of these
rodents upon cultivated ecosystems.
Literature Cited
1. Houtcooper, W. C. 1972. Rodent seed supply and burrows of Peromyscus in cultivated fields.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 81:384-389.
2. Whitaker, J. O., Jr. 1966. Food of Mus musculus. Peromyscus maniculatus bairdi and
Peromyscus leucopus in Vigo County, Indiana, J. Mamm., 47:473-486.
3. 1967. Habitat and reproduction of some of the small mammals of Vigo County, Indiana, with
a list of mammals known to occur there. Occ. Pap. C.C. Adams Center for Ecological Studies #16.
24 p.
4. 1967. Habitat relationships of four species of mice in Vigo County, Indiana. Ecology 48:867-
872.
5. 1968. Relation of Mus. Peromyscus and Microtus to the major textural classes of soils of
Vigo County, Indiana. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 77:206-212.
Serological Relationships among some Midwestern Snakes
Sherman A. Minton Jr., Department of Microbilogy and Immunology
Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
Abstract
Using immunoelectrophoresis, serum samples from 24 species of
midwestern snakes were reacted against antiserums raised against serums of
Elaphe obsoleta, Natrix sipedon, and Agkistrodon piscivorus. On the basis of
immunoelectrophoretic patterns, three clusters of species can be recognized.
One consists of Natrix (3 sp.), Thamnophis (2 sp.), Regina septemvittata,
Clonophis kirtlandi, Storeria dekayi and Virginia valeriae. A second consists of
Elaphe (2 sp.), Lampropeltis (3 sp.) and Pituophis melanoleucus. The third
consists of Agkistrodon (2sp.), Sistrurus catenatus, and Crotalus horridus. Five
species {Coluber constrictor, Diadophis punctatus, Carphophis amoenus,
Farancia abacura, and Heterodon platyrhinos) do not fit well into any of the
above groups nor do they appear closely related to each other.
Immunoelectrophoretic patterns do not indicate a markedly closer relationship
between the Natrix and Elaphe groups of nonvenomous snakes than exists
between these groups and the Agkistrodon group of pit vipers. Elaphe, Natrix
and Agkistrodon all have species in east Asia, and the American groups
presumably evolved from this stock. Other relationships and their
zoogeographic implications are discussed.
Introduction
About 38 species of snakes occur in Indiana and adjoining states.
Traditional taxonomy divides them into two families, the venomous pit vipers
(Crotalinae, now generally considered a subfamily of the Viperidae) and the
"typical nonvenomous snakes" of the family Colubridae. However, work during
the past decade by investigators using both morphological and
nonmorphological criteria has shown the Colubridae to be a highly
heterogenous group (2,6,9,12,13). This paper brings together my observations
on serological relationships of midwestern snakes as based on comparison of
serum immunoelectrophoretic patterns. While immunoelectrophoresis, micro
complement fixation, and other serological techniques will not solve all the
problems of snake systematics, they can be useful tools in estimating degrees of
relationship in a group that shows much specialization and has a meagre fossil
record.
Materials and Methods
Most of the snakes used were collected in Indiana and nearby states. Larger
specimens were bled by heart puncture, smaller ones by decapitation. Serum was
separated, divided into aliquots of 0.2 to 0.5 ml and either used immediately or
stored at -20°. Samples used represented serum from one to eight individuals.
Nearly all samples were used within six months of collection. Antisera were
produced in rabbits against pooled serum from Agkistrodon piscivorus, Elaphe
438
Zoology
439
obsoleta, and Natrix sipedon by methods previously reported (8).
Immunoelectrophoresis was carried out at room temperature on agar-coated
slides in 0.025 ionic strength barbital buffer, p H 8. 6. Each set of slides was run at
7.5 v/cm for 45-60 min depending on migration of a nigrosin dye marker.
Development with antiserum was carried out for approximately 24 hrs at room
temperature. Slides were washed, dried, and stained with amidoschwarz or
Ponceau S. Many of the serum-antiserum combinations were repeated 3-10
times; some were done only once or twice because of the small volume of the
serum samples.
1
■ ««>»'SS -
4 5 §
1b
1.
JD>
4
/*""
^ih.
4
Figure 1 . Sera of natricine snakes developed with Natrix sipedon antiserum and with corresponding
arcs numbered. J A (upper) Natrix sipedon, (lower) N. rhombifera: IB (upper) Thamnophis radix,
(lower) T. sirtalis: IC (upper) Storeria dekayi, (lower) Virginia valeriae. In this and other figures, the
anode is to the left.
440
Indiana Academy of Science
Results
Examination of many immunoelectrophoretic patterns indicates snake
serum developed with antiserum against a homologous or closely related
species shows a strong pattern of 6 arcs, 3 predominantly on the anode side and 3
on the cathode side, with 2 to 4 additional minor arcs. Typical patterns are
shown in Figures 1 and 2. The number of anode and cathode side arcs observed
Figure 2. Sera of La mpr ope It is calligaster (upper), L. getulus (lower), and Elaphe obsoleta (both
upper and lower) developed with Elaphe obsoleta antiserum.
with various serum-antiserum combinations are shown in Table 1. In some
cases, position of the arcs relative to the origin made their allocation arbitrary.
One well defined arc, usually lying just to the anode side of the origin and often
passing through it, is seen in nearly all combinations of serum and antiserum,
being absent only when serums of archaic snakes such as Acrochoridids and
Table 1 . Numbers of anode and cathode arcs observed with combinations of snake serums with three
antiserums. The figure in parentheses represent the number of times the combination was carried out.
Antiserum
Snake Species
Natrix
sipedon
Elaphe
obsoleta
Agkistrodon
piscivorus
Anode
Cathode
Anode
Cathode
Anode
Cathode
Natrix sipedon
4-5
4(10)
2-3
0(5)
2
1 (1)
Natrix erythrogaster
4
4(3)
3
0(2)
2
1 (1)
Natrix rhombifera
5
4(2)
Regina septemvittata
3-4
2-3 (4)
3
0(2)
2
1 (1)
Thamnophis sirtalis
3
3(5)
3-4
0(2)
—
—
Zoology
441
Thamnophis radix
4
3(2)
2
1 (1)
Clonophis kirtlandi
3-4
4(4)
2-3
0(2)
Storeria dekayi
2-3
4(4)
2
0(2)
2
1 (1)
Virginia valeriae
3
3(3)
3
0(1)
—
Coluber constrictor
3
2(2)
3-4
2-3 (4)
2
KD
Elaphe ob so let a
2
2(4)
4-6
3(8)
2
0-1 (2)
Elaphe vulpina
—
—
5
3(3)
2
0(1)
Lampropeltis getulus
2
2(3)
4-5
2-3 (8)
2
0(2)
Lampropeltis calligaster
5
3(1)
Lampropeltis triangulum
—
—
5
0(1)
2
0(2)
Pituophis melanoleucus
2
3(2)
4
2-3 (2)
Diadophis punctatus
3
2(2)
2
1 (1)
2
1 (1)
Carphophis amoenus
2
3(1)
2
0(1)
2
KD
Farancia abacura
2
1 (3)
2
0(2)
Heterodon platyrhinos
2
2-3 (4)
2-3
0(4)
3-4
1(3)
Agkistrodon piscivorus
2
2(2)
4
0(4)
4-5
3-4 (5)
Agkistrodon contortri.x
2
2(2)
3
0(1)
3-4
2-3 (5)
Sistrurus catenatus
1
2(1)
3
1 (1)
3
2(2)
Crotalus horridus
1-2
2(3)
3
1(2)
3
2(2)
some Boids are developed with antiserums to serums of modern snakes. (Fig. 1,
Arc 3) It is present in all patterns analyzed here and evidently represents a
protein with similar antigenic determinants in the serum of most modern snakes.
The arcs with greatest anode mobility, presumably prealbumin and albumin,
appear in most of the patterns but show much variation in intensity of staining.
3b
^^i^s^^^
Figure 3. Sera of Coluber constrictor and three natricine snakes developed with Elaphe obsoleta
antiserum. 3A (upper) C. constrictor, (lower) Thamnophis sirtalis. JB (upper) Matrix erythrogaster
(lower) Regina septemvittata. Note virtual absence of cathode side arcs.
442
Indiana Academy of Science
Cathode side arcs, presumably globulins, show less tendency to be shared by
diverse species (Fig. 3).
When the number of arcs and their intensity and distinctness all are
considered, an admittedly subjective evaluation, certain clusters of patterns can
be detected. One includes those midwestern snakes, Natrix, Regina,
Thamnophis, Clonophis, Storeria, and Virginia. All show patterns of at least 5
arcs when developed with Matrix sipedon antiserum; usually no more than 3 arcs
with Elaphe or Agkistrodon antiserums. The genera Elaphe, Lampropeltis, and
Pituophis show 6 or more arcs when developed with Elaphe obsoleta antiserum;
no more than 4 arcs when developed with Natrix or Agkistrodon antiserums.
c
Figure 4. Sera of pit vipers developed with various antisera. 4 A (upper) Crotalus horridus, (lower)
Sistrurus catenatus developed with Natrix sipedon antiserum. 4B (upper) Sistrurus catenatus, (lower)
Crotalus horridus developed with Elaphe obsoleta antiserum. 4C (upper) Sistrurus catenatus, (lower)
Agkistrodon contortrix developed with A. piscivorus antiserum.
Zoology 443
Serums of pit vipers, Agkistrodon, Sistrurus and Crotalus, show at least 5 arcs
when developed with Agkistrodon piscivorus antiserum; 3 or 4 arcs when
developed with Elaphe or Natrix antiserums (Fig. 4). Five genera, each
represented by a single species, do not fall into any of the above groups.
Diadophis and Carphophis serums show 5 relatively weak arcs with Natrix
antiserum, 2 or 3 with Elaphe and Agkistrodon. Farancia serum shows no more
than 3 arcs with any antiserum. Heterodon serum shows no more than 4 arcs
with any antiserum, but its strongest reactions are with Agkistrodon antiserum
(Fig. 5). Coluber constrictor serum shows 4 or 5 arcs with Natrix antiserum and
5 or 6 with Elaphe.
f" ' .~—--—.--y..y
s gmm ■■■ ■
€>
Figure 5A. Serum of Heterodon platyrhinos (upper) and Elaphe obsoleta (lower) developed with
Agkistrodon piscivorus antiserum. 5B. Serum of H. platyrhinos (upper ) and Farancia abaeura (lower)
developed with Natrix sipedon antiserum.
Discussion
The snake fauna of the Midwest, like that of most of the northern
hemisphere, contains no archaic or highly aberrant genera and appears to be of
comparatively recent origin. Serological data presented here show a close
relationship among the 9 species and 6 genera assigned to the natricine group.
The genus Natrix is Eurasian, and there is convincing evidence (8,1 1) that the
Eurasian and North American species are not closely related. Rossman and
Eberle (11) suggest revival of the generic name Nerodia for the North American
species. Thamnophis, closely allied to North American Natrix, occurs from
northern Canada to Costa Rica and has undergone extensive speciation. The
444 Indiana Academy of Science
other American natricine genera contain one to a few species and are limited in
distribution. Elaphe is Eurasian, and limited serological evidence indicates a
fairly close relationship between New and Old World species. Lampropeltis is
American with a range from Canada to Ecuador. Pituophis is also American
and is found from Canada to southern Mexico. Serologically both these genera
are closely allied to American Elaphe. The pit vipers are well represented in both
Asia and America with one genus, Agkistrodon, common to the two regions.
Serum immunoelectrophoretic patterns indicate a relatively remote relationship
between two Asian Agkistrodon examined and the three American species. The
same criterion indicates relationship between American Agkistrodon and the
rattlesnakes {Sistrurus and Crotalus) is more remote than that between
Thamnophis and American Natrix and between Lampropeltis and American
Elaphe. For each of these three groups, the morphological, serological, and
zoogeographic evidence indicates an Asian origin with migration to North
America and extensive adaptive radiation with evolution of new genera. In the
case of the pit vipers there has been an extensive adaptive radiation with
evolution of new genera. In the case of the pit vipers there has been an extensive
South American radiation as well.
Serologically Coluber, as represented by its sole New World species, C.
constrictor, is intermediate between the Natrix- Thamnophis and Elaphe-
Lampropeltis groups although somewhat closer to the latter. On the basis of
serum immunoelectrophoretic pattern, I cannot distinguish C. constrictor from
two species of Masticophis that have been examined, and there are few
morphological differences between the genera. Coluber contains numerous
Eurasian species, but their relationships with one another and with their New
World allies are obscure.
Morphologically Heterodon appears closely related to Xenodon and
Lystrophis of tropical America. The relatively strong immunoelectrophoretic
pattern of Heterodon serum developed with Agkistrodon antiserum and also
with Crotalus antiserum (9) suggests that Heterodon may belong to a stock from
which the viperid snakes evolved. The data presented here tell little of the
relationships of the North American genera Carphophis, Diadophis, and
Farancia. The former two show a tenuous affinity with the natricine group, but
this may be fortuitous.
Of the midwestern snake genera not included in this study, there is
serological data indicating Tropidoclonion is a typical natricine (7). Opheodrys
is reported to be serologically related to Coluber and Cemophora to
Lampropeltis ( 10). I have not examined serum from either midwestern species of
Tantilla, but serum of the western T. nigriceps shows only weak reactions with
Natrix and Elaphe antiserums.
In summary, 19 of the 24 species studied can be allocated on the basis of
serum immunoelectrophoretic patterns to one of three groups. All the groups
have Eurasian affinities, but the species themselves represent a distinctively
American evolutionary radiation. Fossil evidence indicates Elaphe,
Lampropeltis, Natrix, and unidentified pit vipers were present in the Middle and
Upper Miocene of central North America and were replacing an older boid
Zoology 445
fauna. A species ancestral to Heterodon was also present (3,4,5). Most of the
genera and many of the species have been identified in Pliocene material ( 1 ). If a
migration of Asian species to North America took place, it must have begun
early in the Miocene some 25 million years ago and continued into the Pliocene.
Serological differences between congeneric New and Old World species are
compatible with a separation in time of this magnitude (8).
Acknowledgements
Equipment and financial support were provided by the Department of
Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine.
Photography of the immunoelectrophoresis preparations was done by the
Illustration Department of Indiana University Medical Center. Many persons
donated snakes for use in this study, and I particularly want to thank H. B.
Bechtel, James D. Fix, Philip Karant, and the Indiana Department of Natural
Resources for specimens contributed. Madge R. Minton and Ronald Everhart
helped with the care of the snakes and collection of blood samples. I am
especially grateful to graduate students of the Department of Microbiology and
Immunology whose gifts of surplus mice, rats, and hamsters have facilitated the
maintainance of a healthy snake colony.
Literature Cited
1. Brattstrom, B. H. 1967. A succession of Pliocene and Pleistocene snake faunas from the High
Plains of the United States. Copeia 1967:188-202.
2. George, D. W. and H. C. Dessauer. 1970. Immunological correspondence of transferrins and the
relationships of colubrid snakes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 33:617-627.
3. Holman, J. A. 1976. The herpetofauna of the Lower Valentine Formation, northcentral Nebraska.
Herpetologica 32:262-268.
4. 1976. Snakes of the Split Rock Formation (Middle Miocene), central Wyoming, ibid., 419-
428.
5. 1977. Upper Miocene snakes (Reptilia, Serpentes) from southeastern Nebraska. J. Herp.
11:323-337.
6. Mao, S. and B. Chen. 1974. Immunological correspondence of transferrins among some colubrid
snakes. The Snake 7:89-93.
7. Mao, S. and H. C. Dessauer. 1971. Selectively neutral mutations, transferrins and the evolution of
natricine snakes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 40A:669-680.
8. Minton, S. A. 1976. Serological relationships among some congeneric North American and
Eurasian colubrid snakes. Copeia 1976:672-678.
9. Minton, S. A. and S. K. Salanitro. 1972. Serological relationships among some colubrid snakes.
Copeia 1972:246-252.
10. Pearson, D. D. 1966. Serological and immunoelectrophoretic comparisons among species of
snakes. Bull. Sero. Mus. 36:8.
11. Rossman, D. A. and W. G. Eberle. 1977. Partition of the genus Natrix with preliminary
observations on evolutionary trends in natricine snakes. Herpetologica 33:34-43.
12. Smith, H. M., R. B. Smith and H. L. Sawin. 1977. A summary of snake classification (Reptilia,
Serpentes). J. Herp. 11:115-121.
13. Underwood, G. 1967. A Contribution to the Classification of Snakes. British Museum Natural
History, London, 179 pp.
The ectoparasites of the southern bog lemming,
Synaptomys cooperi, in Indiana
Mary E. Wassel, Gary L. Tieben, and John O. Whitaker, Jr.
Department of Life Sciences, Indiana State University
Terre Haute, Indiana 47809
Introduction
The southern bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi, is a small cricetid rodent
found primarily in grassy fields. It is rarely trapped, since it is not readily
attracted to bait, and since it tends to live in small colonies (1). Little is known
about its external parasites. Connor (2) conducted an extensive life history study
of S. cooperi in southern New Jersey and reported the ectoparasites as fleas, lice,
ticks and mites, and Stegeman (7) reported mites, fleas and lice from S. cooperi
from Michigan. Mites previouly reported from S. cooperi include Listrophorus
synaptomys (3), Laelaps alaskensis (8, 9) and Laelaps stupkai(6). Fleas reported
by Wilson (10) are Epitedia wenmanni and Rhadinopsylla orama. Jackson (5)
indicates that the louse, Hoplopleura acanthopus, has been found on the
southern bog lemming.
The purpose of this paper is to present information on the ectoparasites
from 65 bog lemmings from Indiana.
Methods
A total of 65 southern bog lemmings was examined, 50 from Vigo County,
and 15 from Clay, Dearborn, Harrison, LaGrange, Martin, Newton, Parke and
White Counties. Most were trapped with snapback mouse traps, although 17
were caught in pit traps and one was caught by a cat in Clay County. Twenty-five
of the lemmings were examined by brushing the fur with dissecting needles while
using a dissecting microscope. The ectoparasites on the remaining lemmings
were removed using a washing technique (4), after examining the lemmings
under a dissecting microscope for attached parasites. The washing technique
involved placing the animal in a pint jar containing a few grams of detergent and
250-300 ml of water, then shaking the jar for 5 minutes to dislodge ectoparasites.
The water was filtered through a vacuum filtration system. Ectoparasites were
retained on the filter paper, which was examined under a dissecting microscope.
Ectoparasites were placed in 75% ethanol with 5% glycerol for a few days,
cleared and stained in Nesbitt's solution, and mounted in Hoyer's solution.
Results
Of the 65 bog lemmings examined, 62 (95.4%) were infested with
ectoparasites. Two species of flea, one sucking louse, ten species of mites and 8
others identified only to family or genus, 4 chigger mites and 3 ticks were found
(Table 1).
The common flea was Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes, with 16 individuals
seen. This flea is mainly found on moles and shrews in Indiana, but is also found
446
Zoology 447
Table 1. External parasites of 65 southern bog lemmings, Synaptomys cooperi, from Indiana.
Number of Parasites Bog Lemmings Infested
Parasites Total Average No. %
Siphonaptera (fleas)
Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes
Baker, 1895 16 0.2 9 13.8
Megabothris asio Baker,
1904 1 0.01 1 1.5
Anoplura (sucking lice)
Hopolopleura acanthopus
Burmeister, 1839 183± 2.8 11 16.9
Acarina
Mites
Listrophorus synaptomys Fain,
Whitaker, McDaniel, &
Lukoschus, 1974 1657+ 25.5 20 30.7
Dermacarus hypudaei (Koch,
1841 623± 9.6 24 36.9
Laelaps alaskensis Grant,
1947 533 8.2 55 84.6
Androlaelaps fahrenholzi
(Berlese, 1911) 13 0.2 9 13.8
Laelaps kochi Oudemans, 1936 13 0.2 2 3.1
Ornithonyssus bacoti Hirst,
1913 12 0.18 2 3.1
Bakerdania sp. 10 0.15 6 9.2
Euryparasitus sp. 10 0.15 5 7.7
Oribatidae 7 0.1 7 10.8
Anoetidae 3 0.04 2 3.0
Haemogamasus liponyssoides
Ewing, 1925 3 0.04 1 1.5
Myocoptes japonensis Radford,
1955
Radfordia lemnina (Koch, 1841)
Proetolaelaps sp.
Pygmephorus mustelae
Rack, 1975
P. scalopi Mahunka, 1973
Pygmephorus sp.
Xenoryctes latiporus Fain and
Whitaker, 1973 1 0.01 1 1.5
Chigger mites (Trombiculidae)
Euschoengastia peromysci
(Ewing, 1929) 299 4.6 24 36.9
E. ohioensis Farrell, 1956 26 0.4 8 12.3
Eutrombicula alfreddugesi
Oudemans, 1910 8 0.12 1 1.5
Euschoengastia setosa (Ewing,
1939) 5 0.08 1 1.5
Ticks
Dermacentor variabilis
(Say, 1821) 381 5.9 28 43.1
Ixodes muris Bishopp &
Smith, 1937 9 0.13 2 3.1
/. dentatus Marx, 1899 5 0.08 4 6. 1
3
0.04
1
1.5
3
0.04
3
4.6
1
0.01
1
1.5
1
0.01
1
1.5
1
0.01
1
1.5
1
0.01
1
1.5
448
Indiana Academy of Science
on rodents and carnivores. Only one individual of the other species of flea,
Megabothris asio, was taken.
Sucking lice, Hoplopleura acanthopus, were found on 1 1 of the lemmings.
This louse also infests the three species of Microtus in Indiana.
By far the most abundant parasite taken was Listrophorus synaptomys, a
small mite which clings in large numbers to individual hairs. It occurred on 20
lemmings (30.7%), and was originally described on the basis of material
collected during the present study (3). It is currently known only from Indiana
and Sweden. In Sweden, the species was found on Lemmus lemmus and was
described as a separate subspecies, L. s. edleri(3). Listrophorus s. synaptomysis
known only from Synaptomys cooperi from Indiana, but likely occurs
throughout the range of the host.
Other abundant parasites include the mites Dermacarus hypudaei and
Laelaps alaskensis, the tick Dermacentor variabilis, and the chigger
Euschoengastia peromysci. Laelaps alaskensis occurred most frequently, being
found on 55 (84.6%) lemmings. Laeplaps alaskensis reached its greatest
abundance on Synaptomys cooperi on Indiana mammals, but occurs sparingly
on all three species of Microtus, whereas Laelaps kochi occurs abundantly on
Microtus (especially M. pinetorum), but sparingly on Synaptomys.
Androlaelaps fahrenholzi, which occurred on 9 bog lemmings, commonly infests
many Indiana mammals. Both the chigger E. ohioensis and the mite L. kochi
mentioned above are found on Microtus pinetorum, a species sometimes
trapped with 5". cooperi in this study. Other mites found include both parasitic
and nonparasitic forms.
The data are few, especially in summer, but there was some indication of
seasonal changes in parasite load (Table 2). Listrophorus synaptomys was most
abundant in summer and fall. Hoplopleura acanthopus was most abundant in
fall and winter, whereas Laelaps alaskensis, Dermacarus hypudaei and
Euschoengastia peromysci were most abundant in spring and winter. When
tested with Chi-square at the 95% level, the seasonal variations for all
ectoparasites in Table 2 were significant (x2 = 87.0 or more).
Table 2. Seasonal abundance of the common ectoparasites of 65 southern bog lemmings, Synaptomys
cooperi, from Indiana, given as mean number per host.
# Lemmings
Parasites
Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter
38
4
11
12
March-
June-
Sept.-
Dec-
May
Aug.
Nov.
Feb.
10.2
0.75
3.4
8.75
14.03
—
—
7.5
9.4
—
0.45
0.08
8.1
—
—
3.25
8.7
103.7
82.3
0.42
0.89
—
5.9
6.8
Laelaps alaskensis
Dermacarus hypudaei
Dermacentor variabilis
Euschoengastia permomysci
Listrophorus synaptomys
Hoplopleura acanthopus
The infestation of bog lemmings by sex was investigated. Using Chi-square,
the significance of the difference in infestation between males and females was
Zoology 449
tested at the 95% level for seven of the common ectoparasites (H. acanthopus, L.
alaskensis, D. variabilis, D. hypudaei, L. synaptomys, E. peromysci and E.
ohioensis).
The chiggers (E. peromysci and ohioensis) were significantly more common
on females than males (x2 - 10.98 for E. peromysci, 1 1.55 for E. ohioensis). The
infestation by the other ectoparasites was not significantly different between
males and females.
To our knowledge, all of the ectoparasites of S. cooperi found in this study,
with the exception of the louse Hoplopleura acanthopus and the mites Laelaps
alaskensis and Listrophorus synaptomys, are reported for the first time on this
host here. This includes 17 species and 8 various taxa of ectoparasites.
Literature Cited
1. Barbour, R. W. 1956. Synaptomys cooperi in Kentucky, with description of a new subspecies. J.
Mammal. 37:413-416.
2. Connor, P. F. 1959. The bog lemming Synaptomys cooperi in southern New Jersey. Publ. Mus.
Mich. St. Univ. 1(5): 161-248.
3. Fain, A., J. O. Whitaker, Jr., B. McDaniel and F. Lukoschus. 1974. Listrophorus
synaptomys, a new species from Synaptomys and Lemmus (Acarina: Listrophoridae).
Acarologia 16:319-324.
4. Henry, L. G., and S. McKeever. 1971. A modification of the washing technique for quantitative
evaluation of the ectoparasite load of small mammals. Jour. med. Entomol. 8:504-505.
5. Jackson, H. H. T. 1961. Mammals of Wisconsin. The Univ. of Wis. Press, Madison. 504 p.
6. Linzey, D. W., and D. A. Crossley, Jr. 1971. A new species of Laelaps from the lemming
mouse, Synaptomys cooperi (Acarina: Laelapidae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 73: 408-410.
7. Stegeman, L. C. 1930. Notes on Synaptomys cooperi cooperi in Washtenaw County, Michigan.
J. Mammal, 11:461-466.
8. Whitaker, J. O., Jr., and N. Wilson. 1968. Mites of small mammals of Vigo County, Indiana.
Amer. Midland Natur. 80:537-542.
9. Wilson, N. 1957. Some ectoparasites from Indiana mammals. J. Mammal. 38:281-282.
10. Wilson, N. 1961. The ectoparasites (Ixodides, Anoplura, and Siphonaptera) of Indiana
mammals. Unpubl. Ph.d. Dissertation, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, Indiana. 527 p.
Variation in the Vertebral Column and Ribs of Songbirds
J. Dan Webster and Steven G. Goff
Biology Department, Hanover College
Hanover, Indiana 47243
Abstract
Gross anatomy of vertebrae and ribs of 159 individuals of 47 species
belonging to 14 families of oscine passeriform birds is compared. Number of
cervico-dorsal ribs, number of free caudal vertebrae, and other characters
supposed by various authors to be of taxonomic value are tabulated.
Intraspecific variation essentially equals interspecific variation; no
taxonomically useful characters at the generic or familial levels are found.
In the nineteenth century, some authors such as Shufeldt (9,10) stated or
implied, at least part of the time, that there was little variation in the ribs and
vertebrae of birds of a single species. Even Gadow (5, 6) left little room for
variation in the vertebrae, although he emphasized that, "There are no
taxonomic characters in the ribs." Brodkorb (4) used the number of cervical
vertebrae as a diagnostic character of the suborder Passeres, and number of free
caudal vertebrae as a taxonomic character of some songbird families. Berger
suggested (2) that the numbers of cervico-dorsal and thoraco-dorsal ribs might
be characteristic of certain songbird families.
Other authors {e.g. Lucas, 7, 8) have emphasized variability in the axial
skeleton. Berger (2, 3) described some variation in the verterbral colums of
cuckoos and starlings, with taxonomic implications in the variability. Webster
(ms.) studying skeletons of warblers (Parulidae) noted a great deal of
intraspecific variation in cervico-dorsal ribs — which led to the present study.
Only articulated skeletons could be used for this work. Using a dissecting
microscope, we examined the entire vertebral column, with ribs; each vertebra
was designated by number on each specimen, beginning with the atlas as #1 . One
hundred fifty-nine specimens of 47 species were studied. Earlier, Webster had
studied many additional specimens and species for cervico-dorsal ribs only.
Gadow (5, 6) was followed for anatomical terms, with one exception noted
below.
We thank the curators of the following collections for the loan of
specimens: California Academy of Sciences, Moore Museum of Earlham
College, Indiana State University, Louisiana State University Museum of
Zoology, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, personal collection of
Alan Phillips, United States National Museum, Peabody Museum of Yale
University.
Our data was collected under the following headings: (a) Number and
position of free ribs. These include the cervico-dorsal ribs (#13 and #14), which
are movably articulated, but floating and lacking ventral parts or articulations;
the cervico-dorsal rib on vertebra #13 was marked present if it was bone,
450
Zoology
451
whether it was a tiny fragment 1 mm long and monocipital or a well-developed,
10 mm long {Molothrus ater), bicipital rib, but it was absent on 58% of the
specimens. Farther posterior are the "true" or dorsal ribs (#15 to #18, #19 or
#20), of these, the first four always articulate with the sternum. The rib of #19, if
it belongs to this group, sometimes articulates with the sternum and sometimes
with the ventral segment of the rib of #18. The rib of #20, if it belongs to this
group, articulates with the ventral segment of the rib of #19. Most posterior are
one or two thoracodorsal ribs which depend from the first one or two vertebrae of
the synascrum. All of our specimens but two had 14 cervical vertebrae, including
cervico-dorsals. These two, Meliphaga analoga, had 13 and 15 cervicals,
respectively.
(b) Ribs articulating with sternum. The ribs from the dorsal vertebrae
("dorsal ribs") have dorsal and ventral parts and articulations. Sometimes the
most posterior one or two articulate with preceding ribs, rather than with the sternum.
(c) Thoraco-dorsal ribs. There are 3 or 4 thoraco-dorsal vertebrae
(beginning with #19, #20, or #21) forming the medial part of the anterior region
of the synsacrum. Of these, the anterior one or two bear free ribs, which usually
have dorsal and ventral parts. The ventral segment, if present, articulates with
the rib of the preceding segment. Gadow (5) called these anterior pelvic
vertebrae and ribs. We have followed the terminology of Bellairs and Jenkin (1 .)
In five specimens (of three species) the rib from the most anterior vertebra in the
synsacrum articulated ventrally with the sternum; that is, the most anterior
thoraco-dorsal vertebra-with-rib was also the most posterior dorsal!
(d) Uncinate processes. These bones aren't ankylosed to the ribs in song
«pP*c
t slwwnalsSi !>•-
Figure 1. Vertebral column, ribs, sternum, and synsacrum of Passer domesticus in right lateral
aspect. Free ribs can be seen attached to vertebrae #13 through #20 and uncinate processes on ribs #14
through 18. Six free caudal vertebrae are evident.
452
Indiana Academy of Science
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Zoology 457
birds, but tightly attached by ligaments. Usually they are found only on the
dorsal ribs, but often, also, on the cervico-dorsal rib of #14. Frequently an
uncinate process is lacking on #19.
(e) Synsacrum. The first vertebra in the synsacrum is usually #20.
(f) Number of vertebrae in synsacrum. The lateral processes or ribs are
counted in ventral aspect.
(g) Number of free caudals. Posterior to those caudal vertebrae fused into
the synsacrum and anterior to the pygostyle are a variable number of free caudal
vertebrae.
Our results can be seen in Tables 1 and 2. The number in parenthesis
following the species name is the number of specimens examined. Unless
variation is indicated, all specimens of that species were the same for that
character. The symbol "N" denotes that that character wasn't studied in the
species or was imperfect in the specimen. The symbol "#" shows the number of
the vertebra in that skeleton. The fractional "!/2" is used for an asymmetrical
specimen, in which a condition was different on left and right sides of the body.
Really, our effort was an exercise in futility as far as finding differential
taxonomic characters was concerned. The only generic character among 8
genera of warblers in Table 1 is the free rib on vertebra #13, which is less
common in Vermivora than in the other genera. Variation within 15 specimens
of one species {Basileuterus luteoviridis) exceeds that among 42 specimens of 20
other species of the family in 5 of the 6 characters. As for possible familial
characters, none are clear. However, there is a tendency for more uncinate
processes in Vireonidae than in other families, and for fewer uncinate processes
in Zosteropidae and Sylviidae than in the other families. As to number of free
caudal vertebrae, the average is fewest in Sylviidae and most in Sturnidae, with
all other families intermediate.
Investigation of the hypapophyses began later than our study of other
structures, and involved fewer specimens because several loans had been
returned to their owners in the meantime. Moreover, Table 2 glosses over our
difficulty, oftentimes, in trying to decide whether a certain vertebra did or did
not bear a distinct hypapophysis. The data suggest to us no taxonomic
information.
Our observations are consonant with Brodkorb's (4) use of one character
for the suborder Passeres: All but two of our specimens had 14 cervical
(including cervico-dorsal) vertebrae. Shufeldt (10) tabulated some of the same
rib and vertebral data we did for some species of songbirds. Our data are
consistent with Shufeldt's (although showing more variation) except at one
point — the number of cervical vertebrae, where Shufeldt found 13 in most
Corvidae and Icteridae. Gadow (5) tabulated numbers of vetebrae in the various
regions for several groups of birds. Our counts are consistent with Gadow's, but
show more variation.
458
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 2. Songbirds, Vertebral Hypapophyses
Species
Vertebrae #'s
2-5; number
of hypapo-
physes pres-
ent; range
and (mean).
Vertebrae #'s
9-17; number
of hypapo-
physes pres-
ent; range
and (mean).
Free caudal
vertebrae;
number of
hypapophyses
present; range
and (mean).
Corvidae:
Corvus brachyrhynchos (1)
3
7
N
Paridae:
Parus atricapillus (5)
3
7-9 (8)
2-4 (3.2)
Troglodytidae:
Troglodytes troglodytes ( 1 )
3
8
4
Turdidae:
Turdus migratorius (9)
3
7
2-4 (2.8)
Sylviidae:
Regulus calendula (5)
3
6-7 (6.4)
2-3 (2.5)
Meliphagidae:
Meliphaga analoga (5)
Zosteropidae
Zosterops palpebrosa (4)
Sturnidae:
Sturnus vulgaris (7)
3
3
3-4 (3.8)
6-8 (6.6)
6-8 (6.8)
5-7(6.1)
3
3-4 (3.5)
3-4 (3.3)
Polceidae:
Passer domesticus (6)
4
6-8 (7)
5
Vireonidae:
Vireo olivaceus (5)
Hylophilus poicilotis (2)
3
3
5-7 (6.4)
7
2-4 (3)
3
Ploceidae:
Protonotaria citrea (1)
Vermivora pinus (5)
Dendroica coronata (2)
Basileuterus chrysogaster (1)
Basileuterus rivularis (2)
Geothlysis trichas (6)
3
2-3 (2.8)
3
3
3
3-4 (3.8)
6
6-7 (6.8)
6
6
6
6-7 (6.5)
3
3-4 (3.2)
3
3
2-3 (2.5)
3-4 (3.2)
Thraupidae:
Granatellus venustus (1)
Microligea palustris (2)
Piranga ludoviciana (5)
3
3-4 (3.5)
3
8
6-7 (6.5)
5-7 (5.8)
4
3-4 (3.5)
3-4 (3.4)
Icteridae:
Molothrus ater ( 1 2)
Agelaius phoeniceus (5)
3-4 (3.9)
3
7
6-7 (6.6)
2-3 (2.7)
2-4 (3)
Fringillidae:
Spinus tristis (5)
Passerina cyanea (3)
Pipilo erythrophthalmus (5)
Junco hyemalis (3)
Spizella passerina (5)
Passerella iliaca (2)
3
3
3
3
4
3
6-8 (7)
6
6-7 (6.2)
6
6-7 (6.8)
6-7 (6.5)
3-4 (3.2)
3-4 (3.7)
3
3
3
3
Zoology 459
Literature Cited
1. Bellairs, A. d'A. and C. R. Jenkin. 1960. The skeleton of birds. 1:241-300. In Marshall, A. J.,
ed. Biology and comparative physiology of birds. Academic Press, New York.
2. Berger, A. J. 1956. Anatomical variation and avian anatomy. Condor 58:433-441.
3. Berger, A. J. 1957. On the anatomy and relationships of Fregilupus varius, an extinct starling
from the Mascarene Islands. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. His. 113(3):225-272.
4. Brodkorb, P. 1968. Birds, Part V. In Blair, W. F., et al. Vertebrates of the United States. 2nd
Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
5. Gadow, H. 1894-96. Articles on ribs and skeleton. Pp. 788-89; 848-867. In Newton, A., et. al. A
dictionary of birds. A. and C. Black, London.
6. Gadow, H. 1933. The evolution of the vertebral column. Cambridge Univ. Press, London. Pp. 1-
450.
7. Lucas, F. A. 1889. Costal variations in birds. Auk 6:195-196.
8. Lucas, F. A. 1893. Individual skeletal variation. Science 22:52-53.
9. Shufeldt, R. W. 1883. Osteology of Eremophila alpestris. Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. and
Geogr. Survey of the Territories. 1:627-652.
10. Shufeldt, R. W. 1888. On the skeleton in the genus Sturnella, with osteological notes upon other
North American Icteridae and Corvidae. Journ. Anat. Physiol. 22:309-350.
Effect of Dietary Selenium Level
on Feed Intake and Weight Gain of Rats
R. J. Vetter, W. V. Kessler, M. P. Plumlee, and R. B. Harrington
Departments of Bionucleonics and Animal Sciences
Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
Introduction
The first evidence that selenium was required in the diet was reported by
Schwartz and Folz (11), who demonstrated that selenium was a component of
Factor 3, a nutritional substance which prevented necrotic liver degeneration in
rats (10). Since then, selenium has been shown to be essential for several species
(6,8,14). The National Academy of Sciences Subcommittee on Selenium (15)
emhasized the importance of alleviating selenium deficiency in domestic
animals. Feedstuffs made from grains grown in geographical areas low in soil
selenium must be supplemented with selenium to prevent severe deficiencies
(12,13). But the amount of selenium added to the diet must be carefully
controlled to prevent detection by the animal (2,3) and development of toxicity
symptoms. This study was conducted to provide additional data on the effect of
various dietary levels of sodium selenite on palatability, growth rate, and tissue
selenium levels of weanling rats.
Materials and Methods
Animals and Diets
Male rats which were Sprague Dawley descendants2 weighing about 100 g
were used in this investigation which was completed in a series of three
experimental trials. Each trial contained a 3-day pre-experimental adjustment
period in which the rats were housed individually in metal cages with raised wire
floors. The rats were handled daily for gentling during this adjustment period
and were maintained on a diet consisting of a commercial ration and distilled
water supplied ad libitum. After this adjustment period each rat was weighed to
the nearest gram, replaced in the individual cages, and randomly assigned a
treatment number.
Diets for Trials I and II were prepared by dissolving sodium selenite in
distilled water containing 75Se as sodium selenite and mixing this solution with a
commercial ration3. The final mixture contained the desired level of selenium
and 0.36 /uCi of 75Se per 100 g of diet. Each diet was determined to be mixed
homogeneously by analyzing several aliquots for 75Se and comparing the results
expressed as counts per minute per gram of feed. The diets for Trial III were
prepared as above except that no 75Se was added. The commercial diet was
analyzed colori metrically (9) and was found to contain 0. 120 ± 0.005 ppm of
selenium.
2Laboratory Supply Co., Inc. Indianapolis, Indiana.
3 Allied Mills, Inc., Chicago, Illinois.
460
Zoology 461
Radioactivity Analysis
A physical half-life determination and a differential gamma ray spectrum
were obtained by counting an aliquot of the stock 75Se solution. The results
indicated no radionuclide impurities when compared to a reference spectrum
and physical half-life (4). Ascending paper chromatography employing two
different solvent systems (1,5,7) showed that the chemical purity of the selenite
used in this investigation was greater than 99% and that the radiochemical purity
of the 75Se selenite was greater than 95%. Experimental animals and tissue
samples were analyzed for 75Se with a scintillation detection system containing a
large thallium activated sodium iodide well crystal located in a low background
shield. The crystal used was 25.4 cm in diameter and 28 cm long with a well 10.2
cm in diameter and 20.3 cm deep. The detection system was calibrated to
differentially count the 75Se gammas in an energy range from 265 to 402 KeV.
Trial I
The purpose of this trial was to determine if rats could detect high levels of
selenium in their diet and to determine the tissue levels of selenium. Sixty rats
were randomly divided into six groups with 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 20 ppm selenium
added to the diet. Small aluminum feeders designed to minimize spillage were
tared and weighed after being filled with the prepared diet. Feeders were
weighed every 2 days, refilled, and weighed again. Rats were weighed every 2
days and on the sacrifice day. Distilled water was supplied ad libitum.
At 4-day intervals two rats were taken from each group, counted for whole
body 75Se and sacrificed by decapitation and exsanguination. Liver, kidneys,
blood, and gut were removed from each rat and analyzed for 75Se.
Trial II
This trial was designed to more accurately determine the highest level of
selenium which would not affect feed intake or weight gain. The experimental
design was identical to that in Trial I except that the levels used were 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
or 5 ppm selenium added to the diet and rats were sacrificed at 7-day intervals.
Trial III
The third trial was designed to allow the rat to choose between four levels of
dietary selenium. Latin square design was used to rotate the feeders in such a
way as to prevent the animal from guessing which feeder contained his favorite
level and to eliminate bias due to location preference. Selenium was added to the
diet at levels of 0, 2, 4, or 6 ppm. The trial contained 32 rats randomly assigned to
cages and each cage contained all four levels. Distilled water was allowed ad
libitum. The four feeders were filled and weighed every fourth day for 16 days.
Calculation of Data
All parameters indicated in the figures are expressed as arithmetic means.
Analysis of the data in Trials I and II consisted of analysis of variance with the
sum of squares broken into orthogonal polynomial components for the main
effects and all their first order interactions. Correlation coefficients were
computed between all variables. In Trial III, all data were analyzed by analysis
of variance, and correlation coefficients were computed between periodic weight
gain and total selenium intake, periodic weight gain and total amount of feed
462 Indiana Academy of Science
consumed, cumulative weight gain and total selenium intake, and cumulative
weight gain and total amount of feed consumed.
Results and Discussion
Trial I
The results presented in Figure 1 indicate that when the diet was
supplemented with 0 or 4 ppm of selenium the rats ate nearly the same amount of
feed and gained nearly the same weight. But when the diet was supplemented
with a level of 8 ppm of selenium or greater, feed intake and weight gain
decreased considerably. Tissue level of selenium increased with dietary level as
shown in Figure 2, and there was a significant (P < .05) positive correlation.
Tissue level of selenium was highest in the kidney, then liver, blood, and whole
body. As dietary level increased, kidney level increased at a rate greater than the
rates in other tissues. There was a significant (P < .05) negative correlation
between feed intake and tissue level of selenium and between weight gain and
tissue level of selenium. This resulted from a decrease in tissue level of selenium
with time which may have been due to the increased ability of the animal to
metabolize selenium as the animal matured. This increased ability may have
been due to an enzyme induction process. There was a significant positive
correlation (P < .05) between whole body level and blood level, liver level,
kidney level, or gut content selenium. Therefore, in future studies of this type
involving large animals, whole body level or blood level of 75Se might be helpful
in determining if selenium affected the parameter of interest.
A statistical analysis indicated a significant difference (P < .01) between
levels and times for all variables except liver level of selenium which showed a
significant difference in levels only, and there was a significant interaction.
Trial II
This trial was conducted with lower levels and over a longer period of time
in an attempt to better define the highest level of selenium which could be added
to the diet without affecting feed intake or weight gain. Figure 1 shows that after
4 weeks rats fed diets supplemented with 4 or 5 ppm of selenium were eating less
feed and gaining less weight than those fed diets supplemented with 3 ppm of
selenium or less. Rats fed diets supplemented with 0, 1 , 2, or 3 ppm selenium ate
similar amounts of feed and gained nearly the same weight. The control rats
sacrificed on day 35 appear to have converted feed to body weight at an
efficiency somewhat less than those sacrificed earlier. This may be due to
consistent spillage of small amounts of feed by one of the rats. Tissue
distribution of selenium was similar to that in Trial I, but the levels were much
lower as shown in Figure 2. As in Trial I, there was a significant (P < .05) positive
correlation between dietary level and tissue level of selenium and a significant (P
< .05) negative correlation between feed intake and tissue level and between
weight gain and tissue level.
Trial III
The design of this trial allowed the rats equal access to four diets, but
eliminated bias due to location preference and previous location of the control
Zoology
463
TRIAL I
TRIAL H
Oppm
4ppm
I2ppm
8ppm
800-
600-
400-
20ppm 200-
I6ppm
Oppm
5ppm
J L
Oppm
4ppm
250-
200-
I2ppm
8ppm
20ppm
I6ppm
Days After Start of Selenium Diet
28 35
Figure 1 . Cumulative feed intake and weight gain of rats fed various levels of selenium. (In Trial II, 1-4
ppm are omitted. If plotted, they would lie between 0 and 5 ppm.)
464
Indiana Academy of Science
Tissue Level of Selenium ( ppm )
_£ oo F5 o> o
*
CD
ro
en
g
g no
5
>
r
H
Figure 2.
Tissue level of selenium as influenced by dietary level. (Each point represents average tissue
level of selenium for all rats on the dietary level of selenium indicated).
Zoology
465
4 8 12 16
Days After Start of Selenium Diet
Figure 3. Feed intake by rats offered a choice between diets containing 0, 2, 4 and6ppm of selenium.
466 Indiana Academy of Science
diet. Figure 3 shows that more of the control diet was eaten than any diet
supplemented with selenium. Data on individual rats showed that some
preferred the diet supplemented with 2 ppm of selenium but most preferred the
control diet. A few rats ate approximately the same amount of all the diets. It is
clearly evident, however, that most of the rats chose either the control diet or the
diet supplemented with 2 ppm selenium. This suggests that rats can detect
selenium in the diet at levels of 2 ppm or greater. Since a small amount of all
levels was eaten by each rat, it appears that the rats were tasting the food to
determine which one they liked the best. Correlation coefficients showed no
relationship between feed intake or weight gain and the amount of selenium
consumed by the rat.
The results of these experiments support the conclusions of Franke and
Potter (3). The rat can sense large amounts (2 ppm or greater) of selenium in its
diet and would either starve or choose a lower selenium diet if faced with a
choice. Dietary selenium additions of 3 ppm or less to a commerical rat chow did
not affect feed intake or growth rate in rats.
Literature Cited
1. Burstall, F. H., G. R. Davies, R. P. Linstead, and R. A. Wells. 1950. Inorganic
chromatography on cellulose. II. The separation and detection of metals and acid radicals on strips
of absorbent paper. J. Chem. Soc. 1950:516-528.
2. Franke, K. W., and E. P. Painter. 1938. A study of the toxicity and selenium content of
seleniferous diets: with statistical consideration. Cereal Chem. 15:1-24.
3. Franke, K. W., and V. R. Potter. 1936. A new toxicant occurring naturally in certain samples of
plant foodstuffs. XIII. The ability of rats to discriminate between diets of varying degrees of
toxicity. Science 88:330-332.
4. Heath, R. L. 1964. Scintillation Spectrometry Gamma-Ray Spectrum Catalogue, 2nd ed., U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, Idaho Operations Office, I DO- 16880-2.
5. Lederer, M. 1955. Paper chromatography of inorganic ions. X. A study of rhenium, technetium
and some other non-metals. Anal. Chim. Acta. 12:146-150.
6. Muth, O. H., J. E. Oldfield, L. F. REMMERTand J. R. Schubert. 1958. Effects of selenium and
vitamin E on white muscle disease. Science 128:1090.
7. Pluchet, E. and M. Lederer. 1960. Adsorption paper chromatography of inorganic anions in
acetate buffers. J. Chrom. 3:290-296.
8. Rahman, M. M., C. W. Deyoe, R. E. Davies and J. R. Couch. 1960. Selenium and exudative
diathesis in chicks and poults. J. Nutr. 72:71-76.
9. Rosenfield, I. and O. A. Beath. 1964. Selenium Geobotany, Biochemistry, Toxicity, and
Nutrition. Academic Press, New York. 411 p.
10. Schwarz, K. 1951. Production of dietary necrotic liver degeneration using American Tor ula
yeast. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 77:818-823.
11. Schwarz, K. and C. M. Foltz. 1957. Selenium as an integral part of Factor 3 against dietary
necrotic liver degeneration. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79:3292-3293.
12. Scott, M. L. 1973. The selenium dilemma. J. Nutr. 103:803-810.
13. Scott, M. L., G. Olson, L. Krook, and W. R. Brown. 1967. Selenium-responsive myopathies of
myocardium and of smooth muscle in the young poult. J. Nutr. 91:573-583.
14. Sharman, G A. M., K. L. Blaxter and R. S. Wilson. 1959. Prevention of enzootic muscular
dystrophy by selenium administration. Vet. Record 71:536.
15. Subcommittee on selenium. 1971. Selenium in Nutrition. National Academy of Sciences. 79 p.
Appearance and summer growth of young-of-the-year Morone chrysops
and let alums punctatus in the lower White River, Pike County, Indiana
Raymond A. Schlueter, Division of Science and Mathematics
University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida
Abstract
Collections of young-of-the-year white bass, morone chrysops, and channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were made approximately every two weeks in the
summer of 1974 in the White River. Young-of-the-year white bass were first
collected on June 23. Spawning apparently occurred in late May or early June.
Summer growth can be expressed by the regression line: y = 16.37 + 0.48x; r =
0.96. Young-of-the-year channel catfish were first collected on August 3.
Spawning apparently occurred in July. Summer growth can be expressed by the
regression line: y = 26.84 + 0.58x; r = 0.56.
Introduction
From 1973-75, the fish fauna of the lower White River were routinely
sampled as part of a study to monitor effects of thermal discharge on the
resources of the river.1 During the summer of 1974, young-of-the-year channel
catfish and white bass were collected. A lack of published information exists
concerning these two commercially important species in the White River. In this
paper, I present data on appearance and summer growth of young-of-the-year of
these two species.
Materials and Methods
All young fish were collected by seining (1/8 inch mesh 35 foot bag seine) in
shallow water along sandbars in the White River above and below the IPALCO
plant near Petersburg Pike County, Indiana. Seining was conducted
approximately every two weeks beginning June 23 when water levels lowered
(water levels were high in early June) until September 7. The standard lengths
(SL) of the young were measured to the nearest 0.1 mm. The correlation
coefficient (r) and regression line of least squares indicating growth was
calculated for each species.
Results and Discussion
On June 23, 1974, a spawn of young-of-the-year white bass was collected
(avg. SL = 17.5 mm, N = 13) indicating late May or early June spawning. In
Shafer Lake, Indiana, Riggs (2) reports that spawning occurred during the first
two weeks of June. Subsequent collections of the young revealed their summer
growth (Table 1, Fig. 1). The regression line of least squares is: y= 16.37 + 0.48x;
r = 0.96.
■This study was conducted under a grant from Indianapolis Power and Light Company
(IPALCO) to Dr. John O. Whitaker, Jr. (Indiana State University).
467
468
Indiana Academy of Science
Table 1. Sample size, Mean, Standard deviation and range of standard lengths (mm) of Morone
chrysops and IctaJurus punctatus for each collecting date.
Morone chrysops
Ictalurus punctatus
sample
sample
1974
size
Mean ± SD
range
size
Mean ± SD range
23 June
13
17.5 ± 1.7
14.0 - 20.5
6 July
6
22.2 ± 4.5
15.4 - 28.0
20 July
1
25.7
3 Aug
9
35.0 ± 2.9
31.0-39.8
64
26.9 ±6.1 16.3-46.0
18 Aug
11
44.9 ± 4.4
37.0-51.1
82
36.1 ±6.8 22.5-59.0
7 Sept
2
54.0 ± 7.8
48.5 - 59.6
9
51.8 ±7.1 39.3-60.3
53
E 41
£
c
17
6/23
7/6
7/20 8/3
DATES
8/18
9/7
Figure 1 . Growth of Morone chrysops (bass) and Ictalurus punctatus (catfish) during the summer of
1974.
Likewise, on August 3, the first young-of-the-year channel catfish appeared
(avg. SL = 26.9 mm, N = 64). Spawning apparently occurred in July. In Kansas,
Cross (1) reports spawning from late May to early July. Subsequent collections
showed summer growth of the young (Table 1, Fig. 1). The regression line is: y =
26.84 + 0.58x: r = 0.56.
Literature Cited
1. Cross, F. B. 1967. Handbook of fishes of Kansas, Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas Misc. Publ. 45:1-
357.
2. Riggs, C. D. 1955. Reproduction of the White Bass, Morone chrysops. Invest. Ind. Lakes. 4:87-
110.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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7. Doe, J. B. and R. C. Roe. 1949. New light from old radioactive carbon. J. Amer. Biol. Soc.
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8. Milazzo, G. 1963. Electrochemistry. Elsevier Publ. Co., New York, N.Y. 708 p.
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469
Reprinted from
Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science for 1970
Volume 80, 1971
470 Indiana Academy of Science
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INDEX
Abbey. Warren R., 247
Acanthamoeba, 345
Actinomycetes, 347
Age and blood pressure. 432
Agee, Ernest M.. 380
Agricultural information. 373
Ahi.richs. J. L., 414
Airphoto interpretation. 377
Aibeolus, Notropis, 238
Albino plants, 103
Albino tobacco, 103
Albright, J. L., 429
Alfalfa, 113
Alfuen wave data, 355
Algae inhibition of growth of, 213
Allamong, Betty D., 4, 127
Alvager, Torsten K. E., 365
Ambystoma tigrinum, 189
Amebas, 345
Amidei, Terzo P. (Memorial), 46
Aminoglutethimide, 431
Anatomy, course testing, 373
Anderson, R. O., 169
Anderson, V. L., 101
Andropogon gerardii, 167
Andropogon scoparius, 167
Animal behavior, 429
Anslinger, Charles M., 82
Ant Morphology, 246
Ant Mosiac, 246
Anthracnose, 345
Ants, 246
Ants, Caste Determination, 246
Anthropology, forensic, 83
Anthropometric data, sequence for assessing, 83
Apfelstadt, Gary A., 81
Appelman, E. H., 159
Aquatic Behavior Laboratory, 170
Arave. C. W. 429
Argon —methane counting, 362
Argrotis Ipsilon, 2A1>
Ariommus, Notropis, 239
Arthropods, 244
Arthropods, Economic Indiana, 265
Asclepias, 369
Ash, Donald, 274
Asterita. M. F. 349
ATP, 129
Ault, Curtis H., 282
Ault, F. Keith, 8
Axoplasmic Transport, 129
Aryshire Mine, 3 I I
Bacteria, 217
Bacteria, magnetic effects. 349
Baldwin. W. W.. 349
Bankfull discharge, 321
Barnes, Jack, 31 I
Barnes, W. B.. 6
Barr, R., 138
Bartholomew County, 81
Bartle, Glenn G. (memorial). 48
Bases, exchangeable, in Soil, 377
Bacm, R. L, 243
Bai mgardner, M. F., 403
Beaver, M., 346
Behrens, O. K., 6
Bergstrom, G. C, 345
Best, C. D., 170
Bile acid absorption, 346
Bioethical Decision-Making, 375
Bioethics. 375
Biological teaching, 373
Biology laboratory, 373
Biology Survey Committee, 37
Biostratigraphy. 375
Bird Studies, 374
Birds. Skeleton. 450
Bismuth Alfver Wave. 355
Bismuth-Bismuth Oxide Electrode, 158
Biting, Lice. 446
Black Cutworm, 243
Black River L. S., 375
Black Walnut. 105
Blackford Co., 293
Blair, Byron O., 403
Blanchard, O. S., 6
Blood, 429
Blood pressure, 432
Bloom. William W.. 599
Blue River, 238
Bluegills, 169
Boaz, Patricia A.. 334
Bock, Pail L.. 158
Boder, George B., 128
Bog Lemming, Southern, parasites of, 446
Bon Homme's, 174
BONEHAM, R. F., 6
Hoops, notropis, 432
Borrow Pit Lakes, 169, 217, 222
Brain development, 374
Branham, Mark S., 365
Bronnon, Donald R., 7
Bratt, H. Marvin, 374
Brett, Williams, 429, 431
471
472
Index
Bretting, Peter K., 370
Bromanil, 160
Brooker, Robert M., 6, 7
Brooks, Jonathan O., 159
Brown County, 329
Bruckner, E., 346
Brush borders, 127
Building materials, 274
Bums, Kent W., 356
Burden, Stanley, 3, 6, 356
BlIRKHOLDER, TlMOTHY J., 6, 7
Burnside, James A., 262
Burton, Lois, 6
Butylcyclohexanecarbonitrile, 161
Bythinia tentaculata, 171
Cadmium, 100
Cadmium Levels in Soybeans, 102
Corn oarer, 244
Calengas, Peter, 292
Callus sectors, 347
Camden, 283
Camden reefs, 283
Cancer, 131
Carbon fibers, 341
Carbon mesophase, 341
Cardinal, 222
Caribs of Central America, 81
Carr, Donald, 282
Cory, Sr., Walter A., 3
Cory, Jr., Walter A., 6
Craig Caupp, 169
Cayugan (Pridolian). 284
Cecum, 346
Cellular Activation, 129
Cerambycidas, 254
Cervical, 128
Chaney, William R., 102
Chang, William, 213
Chironomid composition, 169
Chironomid larvae, 169
Chitin, 347
Chitinoclasts, 347
Chlorophyll, 174
Chloroplasts, 100
Cholesterol, 346
Chromatograms. 274
Church, Christopher R., 380
Cicada, 259
Cicada, periodical, 259
Ciesielski, Paul E., 379
Clark's, 222
Climate-corn yield, 273
Cline, L. D., 170
Clinton County, Indiana, 299
Coats, Nellie Mae (memorial), 50
Coffing, Steve, 81
colglazier, jerry m., 8
Coliforms, 347
Colletotrhhum graminicola, 345
Computer Instruction, 357
Computers, 99
Computerized Logging, 370
Computerized Solar data logger, 370
Conodonts, 375, 276
Cook, Donald J., 6, 72
Cook, A. Gilbert, 8
Cook, Edwin, F., 245
Cooper, R. H., 6
Corn yield-climate, 273
Cory, W. A., 6
Courtis, W. S., 101, 129
Crane, F. L., 138
Crawford, R. W., 127
Creek, K. E., 128
Cresap Mound, 92
Cromack, K., 101, 168
Crooked Creek, Hydrology, 334
Crops, Arthoropods attacking Indiana, 265
Crovello, Theodore J., 5, 6, 99, 245, 370
Culbertson, Clyde G., 345
Cultivated Ecosystems-Distribution in Indiana. 439
Cumberland Road, 342
Curry, K. D., 174
Cycloalkene Carbonitriles, 161
Cyclobutanecarboxylates, 157
Cyclobout-1-enecarboxylates, 157
Cyclones, and Anticyclones, 391
Dailey, Ben, 274
Daily, F. K., 6
Daily, F. K., (necrology by), 46
Daily, W. A., 6
Daral-Islam, 273
Dairy Cows, 429
Dawis, D. M., 171
Day, H. G., 6
Delaware, 293
Delaware County, 217
Delaware Creek, 337
Delphi, IN, 283
Dethier, B. E., 403
Devon Project, 168
Diastereomers, 158
Dick, Catherine A., 161
Dickey, Jean L., 345
Diffusion, gas, 429
Dineen, Clarence F., 3, 6, 72, 189
Di Noto, Vincent A., Jr., 355
Diols, 160
Diols, Analysis of, 160
Ditch Creek, 337
Dodge, Elizabeth E., 204
Dolan, Edward N., 3
Dolan, Edward M., 81
Dolomite, 282
Index
473
Dolph, Gary E., 3
Dolph, Gary E., 120
Donovan, Mary Jo, 103
Douglas-fir, 168
Douglas-fir forest, 101
Drought, summer, 403
Dumperts, 222
Durkin, Meg. 129
Dyer, Rolla M., 274
Early Woodland. 90
Earth Science Education, 26
Eberly. W. R.. 6
Ecusystems, 434
Eddleman, H.. 6
Edington, W.. 6
Edington, William E. (memorial), 53
EDTA, effect on algal growth, 213
Ehinger, Lotus H., 167
Ehrenzeller, Jeffery, 274
Elateridat. 252
Ellis. L. F., 6
Entrainment, 170
Environmental Education, 374
Environmental Physics. 357
Epididymis, Mouse, 430
Eretz Yisroel, 273
Ersiphye polygoni, 345
Erythro, 158
Escherichia coli, magnetic effects. 349
Evapotranspiration Estimates, 172
Eversole, W. J., 432
Exchangeable Bases in Soil, 377
Fall Creek Nature Preserve, 369
Federal Water Pollution Control, 174
Fehringer, D. J., 358
Female rat blood pressure, 432
Field Trip, Urban Geology, 274
Fish Communities, 171
Fisher mound, 92
Flip, 38
Flow of Salt Creek. 329
Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 365
Fly Ash, 169
Foliar Physiognomy, 103
Folk Religion, Guatemala, 82
Food habits, Tyto a/ha, 446
Forensic anthropologist, basic skills, 83
Forensic anthropologist, job description, 83
Forensic anthropology, 83
Forensic anthropology laboratory procedure, 83
4-t-butylcyclohexanecarbonitrile, 161
FlIH, YlNG Gl'EY, 355
Fundulus Catenatus, 238
Funk, David T., 116
Franklin, Jay, 274
Frato, Kenneth A., 174
Galloway, H. M., 6
Gammon, J. R., 172
Ganglion Nevrons, 128
Ganion, Larry R., 430
Gardner. Kevin E.. 357
Gayda, Debbie, 345
Gehring, Charles LL. 373
Geology and Piaget. 375
Geology, Urban Field Trip, 274
Giorgini. A.. 6
Girton, R. E., 6
Glycolipids, 131
Glycoproteins. 131
Goff, Charles W.. 129
Goff. Steven G., 450
Goff, R. J., 432
Grant, 293
Grant County, 217
Great Britain, History of Physics in, 355
Green, R. J., Jr., 105
Greenawalt, T. L., 273
Greene County. 90
Greene. Richard W.. 169. 204
Greening. Albino Tobacco, 103
Grinstead, Douglas. 161
Grollig, S. J., Francis X., 82
Grossnickle, Dennis E., 369
Guard, A. T., 6
Guatemala, 82
Guatemala, Costumbre, 82
Gunther, Waldemar C. (memorial), 56
Guthrie, F. A., 6
Gynandromorph, 246
Grouse, ruffed, 173
Haddock, J. D., 243
Haenisch, E. L., 6
Haenisch, Edward L. (memorial), 57
Hale. R. E., 6
Hall, Bradley J., 169
Hall, Robert D., 273, 334
Halter, John S.. 432
Hamilton, D. W.. 259
Hansen, Uwe J., 355
Harley, Richard J., 128
Harr. Milton E., 4
Harrington, R. B., 460
Havana Burial, 82
Heart Ventricular Cells, 128
Hellenthai , Ronald A., 245
Hemoglobin, 163
Henderson, Robert E., 6
Hendrix, Jon R., 375
Henry Co.. 293
Hendriy. Jon R., 5
Holdridge bioclimatic system, 173
Holmes, E. A.. 6
Holmes, Earl A., 7
474
Index
Holography, 355
HOPP, W. B., 6
Horwath, Kathleen l... 230
HOUTCOOPER, W.. 434
Hults, Mai.com E., 356
Human Reed Blood Cell Membranes, 127
HlJRKMAN, W. .1., 100
Hydrocarbon Contamination, 274
Hydrology. 334
Hypofluorous Acid, 159
Hydroxylamine Decomposition. 409
Hydroxylamine Fixation. 409
Ichthyoplankten, 170
Ivtalwus Punctatus, 467
Illinois Glacial Region. 327
Immunoelectrophoresis, snake serum. 438
Impingement. 170
Indiana. South-Centerl. 273
Indiana Streams, 321
Indianapolis, 274
Insect Control, 243
Insecticide, 243
Insects. 265
Insects, Economic in Indiana, 1977, 265
Insects, Indiana Distribution, 265
Instructional Television (ITU) programs, 373
Intergeneric attraction, 262
Interspecific hybrids, 370
Intestinal absorptive, 127
Ion Selectivity. 143
Iqbal Zafar. 129
Iron in Breakfast, 161
Isomer ratios, 160
Isomers, 160
Isoproterenol. 129
Jacobsen. L. B.. 131
Jackson Co.. 329
Jackson, M. T.. 6, 369
Janisch, Joseph L., 238
Jansen, Steven D., 321
Jarial, Mohinder S.. 431
Jais, H. H.. 6
Jay Co., 293
Jen, Ling S., 431
Jersild, Ralph Sr.. 9
Jersild, Ralph Jr., 127
Johnson, W. H.. 6, 7
Jones. E. M.. 347
Jones, Jay H.. 103
Jones, A. Duvall, 429
Joseph Moore Museum. 342
Joseph, T.. 6
Justham, Stephen A., 5, 378
.!( sriiAM, Stephen A., 378
Kat Superior, 128
Kaufman, K., 6. 8
Kelty, Matthew, 373
Kelly. Sean T.. 173
Kennedy. G. S., 100
Kephart, Susan, Rtvar, 369
Kesslfr, W. V.. 460
Keysfr, Dennis A.. 380
Kimble, Edward A.. 127
King. Kathleen L.. 128
Kirkpatrick. Charles M.. 7. 173
Kirkpatrick. R. D.. 222
Kioppfl. T. M., 131
Koltenbah, David E., 157
Knapp. U. R.. 6
Knox County, 81
Kosciusko Co.. 174
Kinsey. Philip A. 161
Kristof. S. J.. 377
Kriger, Terry, 160, 161
Lake Charles East. 204
Lake Monroe, 213, 329
Lake Monroe Reservoir, 213
Lamoreacx, Robert J.. 102
LANDSAT, 403
Land use planning. 299
Lane, Diane. 274
Lang. Pail A.. 158
Lasers, 357
Lacer. Thomas E., 174
Leaf form. 123
Leaf size, 120
Lefton. J. L., 414
Leipdoptera, Noctuidae, 243
Leonard, L., 138
Levy, Morris. 345
Lewis, Russell, E., 3, 81
Life Zones, 120
Light-Induced Changes, 127
Lilly, E., 6
Lilly, Eli (memorial), 60
Limberlost Dolomite, 284
Lin, C. Y., 347
Lindsey. A. A., 6, 172
Liston Creek, L. S.. 295
Liu, Eva, 169
Liver Cancer, 131
Liver Tissues, 131
Llewellyn, Ralph A., 7
Log Input and Decomposition, 168
Loudspeaker Driver Parameters, 355
Louisville Limestone, 284
Ma, Pang-Fai, 157
Ma( Lean, David, B., 252
McClure, Phil, 81
MacMilian, P. C. 101. 168
McComish, T. S., 169
McReynoi.ds, H. E., 238, 432
Index
475
Madison Co., 293
MADSEN, D. C, 346
Magicicada spp., 259
Magnetic Effects, 350
Maize, 345
Mallophaga, of Indiana mammals, 432
Manchester College, 100
Manning, Armin W. (memorial), 64
Mapping, Vegetation, 377
Marki.i , C. A., 6
Marks, G. C, 6, 99
Marr, Jackson L., 5
Marting, Dorsey P. (memorial), 66
Mason County, Michigan, 171
Mai szak, John L., 245
MAXON, N. P., 99, 113, 347
Maxwell, E. S., 169, 222
McComish, Thomas S., 4
Mkans, J. E., 101, 168
Medicago saliva, 347
Meishr, J. H., 6
Meiser, John H., 157
Mellon, M. G., 6
Memorials (see under separate names)
Metabolismin Rats, 345
Methane Generator, 378
Metz, Clyde R„ 4, 7, 157
Meyer, A. H., 6
Meyer, Robert W., 265
Mexican Jumping Bean Moth, 429
Michael Addition, 161
Michaud, H. H., 6
Michclson interferometer, 355
Michigan City, 170
Microcomputer 8080A, 356
Micromonospora, 347
Middle East. 273
MlGLIORESE, K. G., 159
Miles, Earry J., 167
Mildweed, 369
Miller, Donald E., 171
Mn it r, Dougi as, 370
Mineral Resources, 292
Minicomputer PDP 1 I 40, 356
Minton, Sherman A., 438
Mirsky. Ar iiiik, 3, 274
Mitosis, 129
Modrak, Gin a, 163
Montgomery, B. Ei wood. 342
Morgan, D. W., 170, 270
Monroe County, 329
Monroe Reservoir, 329
Moraine Region, 327
Morone Chrysops, 467
Morre, I). J., 128, 131
MOSBO, J. A., 159
Moulton, Benjamin, 3, 6
Mouse Ventride, 128
Mod/in, Thomas E., 262
Mrozowski, S.. 341
Mudminnow. 230
Mulford, Richard, 1 57
Mullen, R. E., 113
Muncie, In.. 293
Mi Nsii, Jack R.. 4. 6. 246
Mustard. Flora in U.S.S.R., 370
Ma, Pang-Eai, 4
Naegleria, 345
Nahua Paper Cuttings, 82
Nahua Indian, 82
National Road, The, 341
Natrium mound. 92
Nature Conservancy, The, 369
Necturus maeulosus, 143
Ned urns proximal tubule, 143
Nelson, D. W., 378. 409
Nelson, Susannah, 103
Neutron Activation Analysis, 169
Newman, S. G., 347
Niagaran (Wenlockian), 284
Nichols, K. E., 6
Nicholson, Ralph 1.., 5, 345, 347
Nicholson, R. L„ 345, 347
Nisbet, Jerry S., 3, 6
Nitrogen Cycling, 347
Noble Co., 174
Norton, E. D„ 421
Northern lake, 327
Notropis Albeolus, 238
Notropis Spilopterus, 430
Notropis Uenustus, 432
Nussbaum, Elmer, 5, 355
O'Connor, Norma J.. 90
Oenothera biennis. 345
Oils. 274
O'Neil, Tim, 274
Orchardgrass, I 13
Orchid Pollinia, 101
Orme, E. E., 378
Oritri, P. A.. 100
Orthocladunal, 245
Ostrinia nubilatis, 244
Owls Tyto alba, 432
Otomic Paper Cuttings, 82
Otto, Ellen. E., 299
Pace. Robert E . 81. 82
Paleoclimatic Implications, 103
Palladium (IE) Complexes. 158
Paper Cuttings, 82
Parker, George R., 167
Parks, Marshall, 374
Pai ion, J. B.. 6
PYNE, FERNANDUS (memorial), 67
476
Index
Periphyten, 170
Perry County, I 16
Peterson, Gregory, 357
Phenology, 10!
Phillips, Lawrence R., 157
Phillipstown Field, 274
Phosphate Chemistry, 378
Phosphine-Nitrile Ligands, 158
Phosphine-Nitrile Systems, 158
Photoreceptor, 127
Photoreceptor metabolism, 127
Physical Science Teaching, 357
Physics, History of Physics in Great Britain, 357
Physics Teaching, 357
Phytophthora cithco/a, 105
Phytoplankton, 204
Piaget, 375
Pike County, 430, 467
Pimephales Vigilax, 430
Pine, Easter, 1 16
Pit vipers, serological relationships, 438
Place, Ralph L., 355, 357
Planning, Regional, 292
Planning and Development Region 6, 292
Plant Breeding, 370
Plant Catalase, 99
Plant Cuticles, 103
Plant Distribution, Indiana, 99
Plants and Human Affairs, 99
Plasma corticords, 429
Plasma membrane, 429
Pleid bugs, 243
Ploetz, R. C, 105
Plumlee, M. P., 460
Pollution Water, 274. 356
Postlethwaite, S. N., 6
Potential evapotranspiration, 172
Powdery mildew {Erysiphe potygoni DC), 345
Powell, H. M., 6
Presidential Address, 72
Priddy, Robert, 4, 167
Primary productivity, 213
Primrose, evening, 345
Probosciclea manyniaceae, 370
Protein in the Mammaliam Nerve, 129
Pseuclonomas solanacearum, 347
Ragatz, Bartii H., 163
Ramosia rileyana, 262
Randolph, Co.. 293
Rao, Ramachandra A., 4
Rat Liver Plasma Membrane, 128
Reames, Spencer E., 244
Recker, Lynn, 274
Reed, D. K., 259
Reed, G. L., 259
Regeneration, 347
Regional Management Plan, 292
Remote Sensing, 377
Reproductive ecology of the tiger salamander, 189
Reshkin, Mark, 4, 7, 273
Retinol Palmitate, 128
Retrieval, 370
Reuland, D. J., 162
Rhykerd, C. L., 43, 101, 347
Rhykerd, C. L., Jr., 101
Rice, F. O., 160
Richardson, C. L., 128
Ricketis, John A., 158
Riemenschneider, Victor, 5
Rivers, Robert H., 6
Rivers, R. H., 6, 8
Riverton Culture, 81
Rodent, 434
Ross, Quentin E., 169, 204
Roth, John L., 103
Ruffed Grouse, 173
Rctledge, Richard E., 161
Radiocarbon Dating, 157
Salamander, 189
Salamonie Dolomite, 284
Salina Formation, 284
Salt Creek, South Central Indiana, 329
Sandstrom, Alan, R., 82
Sarles, D., 131
Sartain, Carl C, 5, 355
Saval, Ivan, 158
Scarahaciilas, 252
Schaal, Lawrence A., 5
SCHMELZ, D. V., 6
Shimer, Stanley S., 5
Schlueter, Raymond A., 430, 467
SCHOENBALM, RlC HARD B., 243
Schwartz, Eugene P., 160
Segal, R., 162
Septic filter fields, 169
Sever, David M., 189
Showalter, Gi raid R., 4, 273
Sialic Acid, 131
Siddiqi, Toufiq A., 169
Siefker, Joseph R., 159
Silicom olybdate Reduction, 138
Smith, James Mitchell, 373, 378
Smith, Phillip J., 391
Smithisiruma, 246
Snakes, serological relationships, 438
Scaper, Rober, 274
Soil Amebas, 345
Soil, Methods for Bases, 377
Soils, Golf Green, 414
Soil Structure. 421
Soil Samples of Forensic, 162
Solar energy, 357
Solar insolation data, 356
Solar insolation integrator, 378
Index
477
Solar heating, 378
Sommer, Maurie, 273
South-Central Indiana, 273
Spacie, A., 170, 182
Spatial abilities, 374
Spatial analysis, 374
Species diversity, 252
Spencer, David F., 169, 204
Squiers. Edwin R., 168
St. John, P. A., 6
St. Joseph River, 72, II
Steele, Patrick H., 343
Steinhardt, G. C, 421
Stei dt, F. R., 355
Stephenson, William K., 127
Stereochemical probes, 158
Stern, Gary, 356
Steuben County, 174, 205
Stevenson, W. R., 347
Stivers, Russell K.., 377
Storhoff, Bruce N., 158, 161
Stream fishes, 182
Strickland, Richard C, 102
Strip Mine blasting, 31 1
Strip Mine insects, 31 I
Stromseth, John, 356
Sulfur cycling, 217
Susalla, Anne, 103
Swartz, B. K., 6
Sympatric species, 369
Synathedon pictipes, 262
Synaptomys cooperi, parasites of, 446
Synthesis of phosphines. The, 158
Tarlton Mound, 92
Tentaculata, 171
Tepehua Paper Cuttings, 82
Terra rossa, 273
Theis, Thomas L., 169, 204
Thiahacillus novellus, 220
Threo, 158
Tieker, G. L., 432, 446
Tiger Salamander, 189
Tippecanoe County, 182
Tissue Culture, 99
Tomak, Curtis H., 90
Tomato, 347
Torke, Byron, G., 169
Tornado Climatology, 378, 379
Probabilities, 379
Preparedness For, 378
Trace Elements, 169
Metals, 204 .
Transactional analysis, 161
Trapasso, L. Michael, 329
Tricoordinate phosphorus, 159
Trinler, W. A., 162
Trujillo, Horeb, 158
Tsangaris, M. N., 159
TSEE Proportional Counter, 358
TSEE Detection, 360, 363
Tunable Dye Laser, 357
Turpin, F. T., 243
Tyto alba, 432
Ultrastructure, 129
Umbra limi, 230
Van Atta, Robert E., 3, 6
Vanderburgh, 31 I
Vascular Plant Inventory, 369
Vertebral Column, Bird. 450
Vetter, R. J. 358
Vigo County, Indiana, 159, 82
Vorst, J. J., 113
Votaw, Robert B., 276
Wabash Formation, 284
Wabash River, 159, 170
Wabash River thermal pollution, 356
Waldron Shale, 284
R. Scott Vander Wall, 172
Ward, Gertrude L., 4, 342
Warnfs, Carl E., 217, 347
Warren, Charles P., 83
Warrick Co., 311
Washington Co., In., 238
Wassel, M. E., 446
Water analyses, 159
Water quality, 172
Wayne, W. J., 6
Weber, N. V., 6
Webster, J. Dan, 450
Weismiller, R. A., 377
Welch, W. H., 6
West Terre Haute, In., 274
West, Terry R., 299
Westerman, Gary S., 273
Whalon, Michael, 160
Whipple, Emory C, 81
Whitaker, John O., 5, 6, 432, 446
White County, 274, 276
White Pine, 119
White River
Wilkey, Richard F., 4, 244
Williams, Daniel C, 128
Williams, Robert D., 1 16
Wilson Site, The, 82
Wilson, Stephen R., 157
Winds, Boundary Layer, 379
Winslow, Donald R., 6, 8
Wisi.er, John A., 355
Wolfal, Mark, 81
Wood decay, 168
Wood fordian, 334
Worsted, Jonathan, 158
478 Index
Wostmann, B. S., 346 York, A. C. 243
Wu, Joseph, 161 Youse, H. R., 6
X-Ray Flourescence, 161 Ziemer, P. L., 357
X-Ray Flourescence Spectrometry, 162 Zimmack, Harold, 245
Zinc, Soil Additive, 167
YEUNG, Hung-Yiu, 204 Zoogeography, Midwestern Snakes, 438
Yoder, Larry, 3, 99
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