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THE 

PROCEEDINGS 


OF   THE 


LiriMEnn  Society 


OF 


New    South    Wales 


FOR    THE    YRAR 

1918 

Vol.   XLIII. 


WITH    NINETY-THREE    PLATES, 

and  112  Text-figures. 


SYDNEY : 
PRINTED    AND    PUBLISHED    FOR    THE    SOCIETY 

BY 

W.    A.    PEPPERDAV    ik    CO.,    119a    PITT    STREET 

AND 

SOLD    BY    THE   SOCIETY 

1918-19. 


\V.    A.    PEPPKkDAY    AND   CO., 

GRNERAI.    PRINTKRS, 
119a    PITT    STREET,    SYDNEY. 


CONTENTS  OF  PROCEEDINGS,  1918. 

PART  I.     (No.  1G9). 

(Issued  Srd  July,  1918). 

pa(;ks 

Presidential  Address  delivered  at  the  Forty-third  Annual  Meet- 
ing, March  27th,  1918,  Vjy  Professor  H.  G.  Chai'MAX,  M.D., 
B.S.,  President       1-30 

The  Geology  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  Queensland,  with 
special  Reference  to  their  Distribution  and  Fossil  Flora,  and 
their  Correlation  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  other 
parts  of  Australia.  By  A.  B.  Walkom,  D.Sc,  Assistant 
Lecturer  in  Geology,  University  of  Queensland.  (Plates 
i.-ii.,  and  six  Text-figures)  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...      37-11.5 

Studies  in  Australian  Neuroptera.  No. 5.  The  Structure  of  the 
Cubitus  in  the  Wings  of  the  MyrmeJtont\d<^.  By  R.  J. 
TiLLYAKD,  ]SLA.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.     (With  three  Text-figures)    116-122 

On  the  Affinities  of  two  interesting  Fossil  Insects  from  the  Upper 
Carboniferous  of  Commentry,  France.  By  R.  J.  Tilia'ak]>, 
M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the 
Society  in  Zoology.     (With  three  Text-figures)  123-134: 

Tha  Origin  of  Yolk  in  the   Ova  of  an   Fiudoparasitic  Copepod. 

By  H.  Leighton  Kestevex,  D.Sc,  M.B.,  Ch.M.     (Plate  iii.)    13«;-Ul 

Contributions  to  our  Knowledge  of  Soil-Fertility.  No.  xvi.  The 
Search  for  Toxin-Pnjducers.  By  R.  Greki-Smitii,  D.Sc, 
Macleay  Bacteriologist  to  the  Society   ...  ...  ...  ...    142-190 

On  certain  Shoot-bearing  Tumours  of  Eucalypts  and  Angophoras; 
and  their  modifying  influence  on  the  natural  Growth-habit  of 
the  Plants.  By  J.  J.  Fletcher  and  C.  T.  Musson.  (Plates 
iv.-xxvi.)      191-233 

Hon.  Treasurer's  Financial  Statement  and  Balance  Sheet        ...        30-34 
Elections  and  Announcements         ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  135,234 

Notes  and  Exhibits 235-236 


27801 


IV.  CONTENTS. 

PART  IL     (No.  170). 

(Issued  loth  Septemhtr,  lOtS).  pages 

Oil  the  Seasonal  Distribution  of  some  Queensland  Species  of 
Arrella  Ehrenbeij,'  [Rhizopoda].  By  C.  D.  Gilijes,  M.8e., 
Biolof,'y  Department,  University  of  Queensland.     (Four  Text- 

fi^aires)          287-246 

On  the  Leaf-Anatomy  of  Sovrola  crassi/ofia  [Goodeniace.*;],  with 
special  reference  to  the  Epidermal  Secretion.  By  Marjorie 
Isabel  Collins,  B.Sc,  Demonstrator  in  Botany,  Universit}^ 
of  Adelaide.  (Plates  xxvii.-xxviii.;  and  six  Text-figures)  ...  247-259 
A  Fossil  Insect-wing  from  the  roof  of  the  Coal-seam  in  the  Syd- 
ney Harbour  Colliery.  By  R.  J.  Till  yard,  M.A.,  D.Sc, 
F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in 

Zoology.     (One  Text-figure)        260-264 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  A  Study  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the 
Holometabolous  Insects,  with  special  Reference  to  the  Sub- 
classes Panorpoidea  and  Neiirapteroidea.  [Introduction]. 
By  R.  J.  Tillyakd,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 

Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology        26.)-284 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  Part  i.  The  Wing-Coupling  Apparatus, 
with  special  Reference  to  the  Lepldopttm.  By  R.  J.  Till- 
YARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S..  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow 
of  the  Society  in  Zoology.      (Plates  xxix.-xxx.;  and  .sixteen 

Text-figures)  2S6-819 

The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of  New 
South  Wales.  Part  vii.  The  Geology  of  the  Loom V)e rah  Dis- 
trict and  a  portion  of  the  Goonoo  Goonoo  Estate.  B3'  W. 
N.  Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S,,  Profes.sor  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy  in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow   of  the  Society   in  (Geology.     (Plates  xxxi.- 

xxxviii. ;  and  four  Text-figures) 320-360.  363-384 

With  two  Pahwntological  Appendices  by  F.  Chapman,  F.R.M.S., 
A.L.S.,  Paheontologist  to  the  National  Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Plates  xxxix.-xlii.)  3Sr)-3y4 

Studies  in  Australian  Mecoptera.  No.  ii.  The  Wing-Venation  of 
Chorista  amtralis  Klug.  By  R.  J.  Tillyakd,  M.A.,  l^.Sc, 
F,L.S.,  F.E.S.,    Linnean  Macleay  Fellow   of  the  Society  in 

Zoology.     (Plate  xliii,,  and  four  Text-figures)  395-408 

The    "Springing"    of    Tins   of   Preserved    Fruit.       By    W,    W, 

LEsTRANGE  and  R.  Greio-Smith         409-414 

Elections  and  Announcements         285,362,416 

Notes  and  Exhibits 361,415,416 


CONTENTS.  V. 

PART  III.     (No.  171). 

(IsmuhI  ISth  Decemher,  IfilSJ.  pa(;es 

Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queeiislaiul.  No.  8.  Odonata  and  Protodonntn. 
^^y  R.  J.  TiLLYAKD,  M.A  ,  D,,Sc.,  F.L.8.,  F.E.8.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.  (Plates  xliv.-xlv., 
and  Text-tiguies  11-16) 417-436 

The  Carboniferous  Trilobites  of  Australia.  By  JoHX  MiT(  hell, 
late  Principal,  Teclinical  College  at  Newcastle,  N.S.W, 
(Plates  xlvi,-liii.) 437-494 

New  and  rare  Fieshwater  Alga^  By  G.  I.  Playfaik,  late  Science 
Research  Scholar  of  the  University  of  Sydne\'.  (Plates  liv.- 
Iviii.,  and  eleven  Text-tigures)    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...    497-'")43 

The  Mosses  of  North  Queensland.     By  Dr.  V.  F.  Bkotiiekus  and 

the  Rev.  W.  Walter  Watts     o44-o67 

Mesozoic  In.sects  of  Queensland.  No. 4.  Htmiptera  HeJeroptera  : 
the  Faniilj'  Dun.sta7iiid<e.  With  a  Note  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Heteroptera.  B3'  R.  J.  Tij.lyakd,  M.A. ,  D.Sc,  F. L.S. , 
F.  E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoolog}'. 
(Plate  lix.,  and  Text-tigures  17-22)         ...  ...  ...  ...    368-592 

The  (Teolog3'  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of  New 
South  Wales.  Part  viii.  Tlie  Extension  of  the  (rreat  Serpen- 
tine Belt  from  the  Nundle  District  to  the  Coast.  By  W,  N. 
Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Min- 
eralogy in  the  Univei'sity  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late  Linnean  Mac- 
leay Fellow  of  the  Societj'  in  Geology.      (One  Text-figure)  ...    o93-599 

The  Steins  of  Climbing  Plants.     By  John  Shirley,  D.Sc,  and 

C.  A.  Lamrert.      'Plates  Ix.-lxvi.)         6(KJ-609 

The  Relation  between  the  Fat-Content  and  the  Electrical  Con- 
ductivity of  Milk.  By  H.  S.  Halcro  Wardlaw,  D.Sc, 
Linnean  Maclea3'  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Physiology  ...    613-62o 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  Part  2.  The  Wing-Tricliiatiijn  and  its 
Relationship  to  the  General  Scheme  of  Venation.  By  R.  J. 
Ti].LYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.  (Plates  Ixvii.-lxix.,  and 
Text-figures  17-34)  626-657 

A  Study  c)f  the  External  Breathing-Apparatus  of  the  Larvie  of 
.some  Muscoid  Flies.  By  John  L.  Froguatt,  B.Sc  (Plate 
Ixx.) 658-667 


VI.  CONTENTS. 

PART  III.  (Continmd).  pages 

Notes  on  Australian  Sawflies  (Tenthredimdre).      By  Walter  W. 

Fro(u;att,  F;L.S.,  (Government  Entomologist  668-672 

Elections  and  Announcements         ...  ...  ...  ...  ...495,610 

Notes  and  Exhibits 495,610 


PART  IV.     (No.  172). 

(Ismed   26th  March,  1910).  pages 

Notes  on  the  Native  Flora  of  New  South  Wales.  Part  x.  The 
Federal  Capital  Territory.  By  R.  H.  Cambage,  F.L.S. 
(Plates  Ixxi.-lxxiv.)  673-711 

Descriptions  of  new  Species  of  Australian  Cohoplera.     Part  xiv. 

By  Arthur  M.  Lea,  F.E.S 715-746 

On  a  new  Species  or  Form  of  Eucalyptus.     By  Cuthbert  Hall, 

M.D.,  Ch.M.     (Plate  Ixxv.)        747-749 

Studies  in  Australian  Nenroptera.  No. 6.  The  Family  Pst/chop- 
sidfJd,  with  Descriptions  of  new  Genera  and  Species.  By  R. 
J,  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.  (Plates  Ixxvi.-lxxviii. ; 
and  four  Text-figures)       750-786 

Studies  in  Australian  Xeuroptera.  No. 7.  The  Life-history  of 
Psychopsis  e/ei/ans  (Guerin).  By  R.  J.  Till  yard,  M.A., 
D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society 
in  Zoology.     (Plate  Ixxix.,  and  twelve  Text-figures) 787-818 

Australian  Mef/afoptera  or  Alder-Flies,  with  Descriptions  of  new 
Genera  and  Species,  By  R.  J.  Tillyard,  M.A. ,  D.Sc, 
F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Soeiety  in 
Zoology.     (Three  Text-figures) 819-825 

Contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  Australian  (Ju/icid'V.      No.  iv. 

By  Frank  H.  Taylor,  F.E.S.     (Plates  Ixxx.-lxxxiii.)         ...    826-843 

Note  on  the  Temperature  of  Echidna  acnleata.  By  H.  S.  Halcro 
Wardlaw,  D.Sc,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in 
Physiology.      (Two  Text-figures)  844-849 

The  Occurrence  of  Methyl  Ltevo-Inositol  in  an  Australian  Poison- 
ous Plant.  By  James  M.  Petrie,  D.Sc,  F.I.C,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Biochemistry.  (Two  Text- 
figures)         ...         ...         ...         ...         •••         ...         •••  •••    850-867 


CONTENTS.  Vll. 

PART  IV.  (Continued).  pages 
An  Account  of  some  Observations  upon  the  Life-histoiy  of  Plwma 
citricarpa  Mq A\\i.  :  tlie  Cause  of  the   "Black  Spot"  Disease 
in  Citrus  Fruit  in  New  South  Wales.     Bj'  G.  P.  Daknei.l- 

Smith,  D.Sc,  F.I.C.     (Plates  Ixxxiv.-xc.)       868-882 

The  Occurrence  of  an  inverted  Hynieniuni  in  A<jaricui<  canijieMtris, 

ByG.  P.  Darnell-Smith,  D.Sc,  F.I.C.     (Plates  xci.-xciii.)  883-887 

Notes  and  Exhibits 713-714 

Donations  and  Exchanges 888-902 

Title-page        i. 

Contents           ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...  iij. 

Corrigenda       ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...  vii. 

List  of  New  Generic  and  other  Names      ...          ...          ...          ...  vii. 

List  of  Plate?...         ...          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  viii. 

Index i.-xxix. 


CORRIGENDA. 


Page  11)1,  line  31— ;/b/-  length,  read  lengthen. 

Page  231,  line  2.3— ^/br  Museum,  read  Herbarium. 

Page  235,  line  19 — for  ('ornicidatu-'^,  read  corniculata. 

Page  315,  line  17 — for  forewing,  read  frenulum. 

Page  377,  line  36— for  <S'.  partita,  read  S.  partitnm. 

Page  415,  line  32 — for  /anrina,  read  laurifolia. 

Page  669,  line  7 — for  nor(e-any/iie,  read  nova-anglica. 

Page  702,  line  21 — for  A.  riparins,  read  .S'.  riparins. 

Page  827,  line  4 — for  Anophile-^,  read  Anopheles. 

Page  829,  line  23 — after  length,  add  3  mm. 

Page  829,  line  33— /'or  1914  and  (1915)  read  1913  and  (1914). 

Page  832,  line  33— after  Skuse,  add  Taylor. 

Page  843,  last  line— ;/a/-  sp.n.,  read  Taylor. 


LIST  OF  NEW  SUBORDINAL,  TRIBAL,  FAMILY,  AND  GENERIC 
NAMES  PROPOSED  IN  THIS  VOLUME (1918). 


PAOE 

Aeroplana  (Protodonata)         ...  426 
Aeroplanid.*:  (Protodonata)...  425 
Aekoplaxoptera    (Pro- 
todonata)        ...  ...  ...  425 

Arisocepha/ns  (Coleoptera)      ...   732 
Austrosia/is  (Megaloptera)      ...   821 
Creoleon  (Neuropterai  ...  ...  436 

C  R  E  o  L  E  o  N  T I X  I  ( Neu  roptera )  436 
Dicti/eiwnemii^  (Coleoptera)  ...  728 
Dunstaniop8i><  (Hemiptera)  ...  584 
El caiiops i s  \OvthoptGva,)  ...  262 

Megapsychops  (Neuroptera)    ...   771 


page 
Mesopano7'podes  (Mecoptera)  ...  435 


Mesopanokpodid.^  (Mecopter 
Xematodinu.s  (Coleoptera) 
Notopsychops  (Neuroptera) 
Paradunstania  (Hemiptera) 
Ferissoph  I  eh  ia  ( Odonat  a ) 
Pterobryidium  (Muaci)... 
Stenosialis  (Megaloptera) 
Tasmomlpingus  (Coleoptera) 
Tessellaria  (Algie) 
TriassoleMes  { Odonata ) . . . 
Triassolestin .q^.  (Odonata) 


)  436 
.  730 
.  759 
.  585 
.  422 
.  558 
.  823 
743 
.  508 
.  418 
.  418 


Vlll.  CONTENTS 

LIST    OF    PLATES 

Plate  i. — Map  of  Queensland,  showing  the  distribution  of  Lower  Mesozoie 

Rocks. 
Plate  ii. — (xeological  Sketch-Map  of  S.E.  Queensland,  showing  the  areas 

occupied  by  the  Lower  Mesozoie  Rocks. 
Plate  iii. — Origin  of  yolk  in  the  ova  of  an  endoparasitic  Copepod. 
Plates  iv.-xxvi. — Shootbearing  Tumours  of  Eucalypts  and  Angophoras, 
Plates  xxvii.-xxviii. — Leaf-anatomy  of  Safrolacrasi^ifolia. 
Plate  xxix. — Jugo-frenate  Wing-coupling  Apparatus  {Microptery(ji(lif). 
Plate  XXX. — Jugate  {Hepialklre)  and  Frenate  {Sphhigidie)  Wing-coupling 

Apparatus. 
Plate  xxxi. — Topographical  Map  of  the  Loomberah  District. 
Plate  xxxii. — Geological  Map  of  the  Loomberah  District, 
Plate  xxxiii. — Pillow-lavas   exposed    in    the  cutting    b^^   the    Loomberah 

Bridge. 
Plates  xxxiv.-xxxviii. — Fossils  from  the  Loomberah  Limestone. 
Plates  xxxix.-xli. — Devonian  Foraminifera  from  the  Tamworth   District, 

N.S.W. 
Plate  xlii. — CJuetetes  steUiformis,  sp.nov. 

Plate  xliii.— Pupal  Wing-tracheation  of  Chorista  auf^tralis:  Klug. 
Plate  xliv. — Aeroplana  mirahi/i.^,    n.g.   et   sp.      Principal   preserved   por- 
tions of  the  wings;  {  x  7). 
Plate  xlv, — Aiiroplana  mirahUiM,   n.g.   et  sp.       Restoration    of    fore-  and 

hindwings;  (  x  4). 
Plates  xlvi.-liii. ^Carboniferous  Trilobites  of  Australia. 
Plates  liv.-lviii. — New  and  rare  Freshwater  Algte. 
Plate   lix. — Restoration    of    right    hemelytron    (forewing)    of    Dnnstania 

pv/ehra  Till. 
Plates  Ix.-lxvi. — Sections  of  Stems  of  Climbing  Plants. 
Plate  Ixvii. — Archiptanorpa  ma(jmfica  Till. 

Plate  Ixviii. — Prototheora  petrosema  Meyr. ;  Rhyphu'^  hreris  Walk. 
Plate  Ixix. — Chorista  austral  is  Klug;  GaUiphoru  rillosa  Desv. 
Plate  Ixx. — Spiracles  of  larvie  of  Muscoid  Flies. 
Plate  Ixxi. — Casuarina  Luehmanni  R.  T.  Baker. 
Plate  Ixxii. — Grevilha  juniperina  R.Br. 
Plate  Ixxiii. — Banksia  marginata  Cav. 
Plate  Ixxi  v. — Swampy  plain  between  Gudgen  by  and  Cotter  River,  at  about 

4,500  feet  level. 
Plate  Ixxv. — Eucalyptus  Mai'sdeni,  f.  vel  sp.n. 
Plate  Ixxvi. — Meyapsychops  illidgeJ  (Froggatt). 
Plate  Ixxvii. — Meyapsychojjs  ilJklytl  (Froggatt),   Psychopsis  gracilis,  n.sp., 

Psychopsel/a  gallardi,  n.g.  et  sp. 
Plate  Ixxviii. — Psychopsis  gracilis,  n.sp.,  Psychopsel/a  gallardi,  n.g.  et  sp. 
Plate  Ixxix. — Psychopsis  elegans  ((4uer. ). 
Plates  Ixxx.-lxxxiii. — Australian  Cuiicida^. 
Plates  Ixxxiv.-xc. — Phoma  citricarpa  McAlp. 
Plates  xci.-xciii. — Agaricus  campestria. 


PROCEEDINGS 

OF    THE 

LINNEAN     SOCIETY 

OF 

NIi:^\^  SOUTH  W^ALES. 


WEDNESDAY,   MARCH   27th,    1918. 

The  Forty-third  Annual  General  Meeting,  and  the  Ordinary 
Monthl}^  Meeting,  were  held  in  the  Linnean  Hall,  Tthaca  Road, 
Elizabeth  Bay,  on  Wednesday  evening,  March  27th,  1918. 

ANNUAL  GENERAL  MEETING. 


Pi-ofessor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  R.8.,  Pi-esident,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Minutes  of  the  preceding  Animal  General  Meeting  (March 
28th,  1917)  were  read  and  confirmed. 

The  President  delivered  the  Arnuial  Address. 


PRESIDENTL\L  ADDRESS. 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen, 

This  is  the  forty-third  occasion  on  which  the  President  lias 
delivered  an  annual  address  to  the  Members  of  the  Society.  The 
progress  of  this  Linnean  Society,  aiming  at  advancing  the  study 
of  Natural  Science  in  this  newly-popidated  continent,  is  also 
shown  by  your  election  of  a  graduate  of  an  Australian  University 
to  the  presidential  chair.  Such  a  selection  bears  witness  to  the 
increasing  influence  and  preponderating  numbers  of  the  scientists 
trained  in  Australia  in  the  personnel  of  the  membership.  This 
is  the  first  occasion  on  which  such  an  honour  lias  been  conferred 
on  a  student  of  our  Universities  by  the  naturalists  of  our  Society, 
I  appreciate  the  honour  that  you  have  done  me.  I  think,  how- 
ever, that  I  should  be  ungrateful  if  I  did  not  render  some  tribute 
to  those  who  have  given  me  of  the  best  of  their  intellect  and 
of   their  assistance.      I   feel  that   T   owe  my  educational  develop. 


2  PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS. 

ment  to  two  men.  One  has  ceased  to  be  a  Member  of  this  Society 
and  to  continue  his  work  in  AustraHa,  but,  in  a  larger  sphere,  he 
still  directs  the  labours  and  lends  his  kindly  hand  to  encourage 
the  early  efforts  to  learn  of  Nature  of  those  of  another  land.  I 
refer  to  Charles  James  Martin.  The  other  lives  among  us  and 
sets  us  the  example  of  an  earnest  student  of  the  animals,  plants, 
and  rocks  ai'ound  us.      1  pa}^  my  homage  to  Charles  Hedley. 

You  will  pardon  me  if  I  spend  a  few  minutes  in  pointing  out 
what  I  owe  to  my  chief  teachers.  The  Australians  are  said  to 
lack  reverence  and  gratitude.  Perhaps  their  critics  are,  some- 
times, astray.  It  is  rather  more  than  twenty-one  years  since  I 
saw  for  the  first  time  C.  J.  Martin.  I  was  a  student  of  medicine 
at  the  Medical  School  in  Melbourne,  and  had  reached  my  third 
year.  We  students  had  heard,  towards  the  end  of  our  second 
year,  that  the  venerable  Professor  of  Physiology,  Dr.  Halford, 
had  been  granted  leave  of  absence,  and  that  a  lecturer  had  been 
appointed  in  his  place.  Early  in  the  next  year,  I  went,  in  the 
compan}^  of  a  fellow  student,  to  find  out  if  we  could  not  start  our 
year's  reading  before  lectures  commenced.  The  Long  Vacation 
seemed  too  lengthy  an  holiday.  We  were  young  in  many  ways. 
We  thought  that  in  books  lay  the  knowledge  of  natural  pheno- 
mena. We  had  not  learnt  that  our  work  in  the  laboratory  was 
anything  more  than  an  attempt  to  assist  our  memories  by  visual- 
ising what  we  committed  to  our  minds.  I  recollect  that  we 
went  to  the  Old  Medical  School  through  the  Grecian  porch.  We 
passed  through  the  bare  hall  with  its  tablet  in  commemoration 
of  Professor  Kirkland,  and  into  the  asphalted  court.  On  the 
right  was  the  Department  of  Physiology.  It  consisted  of  a  theatre 
into  which  opened  the  Professor's  library  and  a  small  ante-room. 
Beyond  stretched  a  commodious  laboratory  with  benches  equipped 
for  chemical  work,  with  gas,  with  water,  and  with  shelves 
for  bottles.  A  preparation-room  in  which  the  Professor's  assist- 
ant made  ready  the  microscopical  sections  and  chemical  solutions 
with  which  we  worked,  and  two  empty  rooms  completed  the  suite 
of  rooms.  As  we  walked  to  the  door,  I  little  thought  that  I  was 
to  spend  the  greater  part  of  five  out  of  the  next  six  years  within 
those  walls.      In  answer  to  our  knock,  there  appeared  a  tall,  fair 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  S 

man  in  singlet  and  pants,  a  file  in  one  hand  and  a  piece  of  brass 
in  the  other.  We  asked  for  Professor  Martin,  and  were  curtly 
told  to  say  what  we  wanted.  Slowly  it  dawned  on  our  minds 
that  we  were  addressing  a  new  type  of  teacher.  Those  we  had 
formerly  known  were  dignified  and  distant.  We  had  never 
thought  of  them,  even  in  the  heat  of  summer,  unbending  so  far 
as  to  remove  their  coats.  Many  of  them  never  spoke  to  us  unless 
covered  by  their  academic  I'obes,  and  we  were  taught  to  prepare 
for  any  interview  with  them  by  donning  our  academic  attire.  A 
new  era  in  the  Melbourne  School  of  Medicine  had  already  com- 
menced. I  would  not  have  you  think  that  we  students  did  not 
benefit  from  the  instruction  of  those  with  whom  we  had  only  a 
formal  association.  The}"  contributed  to  our  education,  but 
neither  in  the  same  way  nor  to  the  same  extent  as  Dr.  Martin, 
When  we  two  had  stated  our  errand  and  sought  advice  as  to 
what  books  we  should  read,  we  were  made  not  to  value  ourselves 
too  highl}"  for  our  desire  to  start  work  early  by  the  kindly  j^et 
satirical  praise  that  we  received.  We  were  also  informed  that 
we  could  not  do  better  than  give  some  weeks  to  a  renewed  study 
of  the  microscopical  specimens  that  we  had  mounted  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  As  to  the  books,  we  might  take  our  choice.  We 
were  to  study  Physiology  and  the  functions  of  the  living  organ- 
ism, not  any  description  of  them  in  a  book.  V\e  went  away 
with  little  understanding,  and  somewhat  perplexed. 

One  fact  remained  in  my  mind.  I  had  to  examine  once  more 
and  to  draw  again  the  pieces  of  animal  tissue  prepared  for  micro- 
scopical study.  I  devoted  the  rest  of  the  vacation  to  that  labour, 
and  I  have  kept  to  this  day  my  sketches  and  those  slides.  It 
was  several  years  before  I  realised  the  value  of  those  few  minutes' 
counsel.  Scientific  study  not  only  includes  the  reading  of  books 
and  pamphlets  about  natural  objects  and  happenings,  but  de- 
mands the  investigation  of  the  things  and  of  their  behaviours. 
The  books,  papers,  and  monographs  are  the  records  of  what  other 
students  have  noted  on  these  matters.  I  wonder  often  if  we 
make  this  position  plain  in  advocating  more  attention  to  scientific 
subjects.  We  suggest  that  children  should  be  taught  science  in 
schools.     We  mean  that  the  children  should  be  given  the  objects 


4  PRESIDEXTS    ADDRESS. 

to  handle  and  regard  so  as  to  become  aware  of  what  is  known 
of  them.  Do  we  make  the  parent  and  the  schoolteacher 
understand  that  education  in  science  is  the  examination  of  things 
and  not  of  words  or  descriptions?  I  fear  that  many  of  us  who 
have  some  control  over  education  in  this  State  by  means  of  ex- 
aminations and  the  institution  of  courses  of  instruction,  some- 
times forget  at  what  we  aim.  We  demand  too  large  a  store  of 
knowledge.  We  force  the  child  to  learn  of  Nature  by  books. 
We  do  not  remember  how  slowly  we  acquired  our  own  acquaint- 
ance with  the  world  of  matter  about  us.  We  yield  to  the  critic 
w^ho  tells  us  that  we  set  too  low  a  standard,  and  that  we  do  not 
ask  the  child  to  know  enough.  We  set  out  examinations  with- 
out sufficient  regard  for  the  hours  needed  to  experiment  and  to 
observe  the  facts  necessary  for  an  answer.  I  have  tried  often  to 
persuade  examiners  and  boards  of  examiners  to  give  more  weight 
to  practical  examinations.  I  like  to  ask  students  to  record  their 
observations  on  simple  objects.  M}^  fellow-examiners  have  said 
to  me  that  the  questions  are  so  easy.  They  are  easy  to  the 
student  w^ho  has  learnt  to  stud}"  things,  and  they  mislead  the 
student  who  does  not  know  of  things  but  only  about  words. 
Such  students  do  not  recognise  what  they  see.  Life,  however,  is 
concerned  with  the  persons  and  objects  around  us,  not  with  the 
descriptions  of  them  that  literary  men  may  pen. 

I  have  told  you  that  I  used  my  microscope.  To  those  hours 
of  observation  I  ow  e  the  interest  that  Dr.  Martin  took  in  my 
future  education.  Some  weeks  after  lectures  had  begun,  I  went, 
at  the  close  of  the  instruction,  to  ask  a  question  about  the  act  of 
breathing  on  high  mountains.  The  conversation  passed  to 
personal  topics.  I  mentioned  that  I  had  seen  certain  appear- 
ances in  some  sections  of  the  lungs.  I  was  invited  to  come  into 
the  laboratory  to  arrange  the  microscopical  objects  that  Dr. 
Martin  had  brought  with  him  from  Sydney.  Each  day  I  spent 
an  hour  or  so  in  looking  at  the  specimens  and  putting  them  in 
the  different  drawers  of  the  cabinets.  Now  and  then,  my  teacher 
came  to  hear  what  I  was  doing  or  to  invite  me  to  look  at  some 
experiment  that  he  was  performing  in  the  laboratory.  I  saw  for 
the  first  time  a  working  laboratory  engaged   in  the  observation 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  0 

of  physiological  plienoineiia.  I  noted  that  experiments  were 
arranged  to  ascertain  how  these  phenomena  were  brought  about. 
I  noticed  how^  these  experiments  gave  answers,  at  times  precise, 
at  other  times  inconclusive,  as  to  the  characters  of  the  events 
examined.  T  was  led  to  think  of  these  experiments,  to  ask 
questions  myself,  to  form  my  own  answers  from  the  sequence  of 
the  events  of  any  experiment,  and,  indeed,  to  inquire  of  natural 
occurrences  how  they  hajDpened. 

I  trust  that  I  do  not  weary  you  with  these  reminiscences,  but 
T  think  that  it  would  be  advantageous  to  the  people  of  this 
C(jmmonwealth  if  they  knew  more  of  the  work  of  that  laboratory. 
I  believe  that  the  citizens  of  this  continent  would  have  derived 
more  benefit  if  Dr.  Martin  had  possessed  better  opportunities  of 
making  others  aware  of  the  meaning  of  scientific  education. 
Charles  James  Martin  had  that  personal  magnetism  which  gave 
him  command  over  others.  He  did  not  preach  to  us  on  his 
doctrines,  but  he  set  us  an  example  in  his  own  attitude  to  the 
science  that  he  taught.  During  the  first  year,  I  was  the  only 
undergraduate  that  worked  daily  in  the  laboratory  at  hours 
beyond  those  prescribed  by  the  curriculum.  Other  older  men 
came  to  do  research  at  his  inspiration.  Dr.  (later  Professor)  T. 
Cherry,  J.  F.  Wilkinson,  A.  B.  Colquhoun,  A.  C.  Halford,  A. 
Finch  Noyes,  and  J.  W.  Barrett  (now  Sir  James)  were  amongst 
the  earliest  workers.  A  little  later,  E.  H.  Embley  commenced 
his  investigation  upon  antesthetics,  destined  to  become  one  of  the 
principal  studies  of  the  laboratory  during  Dr.  Martin's  director- 
ship. Other  undergraduates,  among  whom  were  R.  A.  O'Brien, 
now  head  of  the  Wellcome  Research  Laboratories  in  London,  S. 
W^.  Patterson,  M.  Lidwill,  and,  lastly,  G.  C.  Mathieson,  endowed 
with  genius  of  highest  order,  who  might  have  influenced  the  world 
for  generations,  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  brightest  stai's  of  the 
rising  generation  of  British  scientists,  but  gave  his  life  at  Gallipoli 
while  acting  as  a  regimental  medical  ofHcer,  came  into  the  labora- 
tory in  the  next  few  years.  All  too  soon.  Dr.  Martin's  work 
among  us  came  to  an  end.  He  held  no  Professorship.  An  offer 
from  Belfast  had  been  declined,  but  he  accepted  with  reluctance 
the  post  of  Director  of  the  Li-ster  Institute  of  Preventive  Medi- 


6  PRESIDENT  S    ADDRESS. 

cine  ill  London.  This  post  is  one  of  much  importance,  for  the 
Institute  is  tlie  largest  medical  research  laboratory  in  the  British 
Empire.  Dr.  Martin  did  not  wish  to  leave  Australia.  His  heart 
was  with  his  students.  His  work  lay  in  training  them  to  continue 
what  he  had  begun.  His  influence  was  growing  in  Melbourne. 
The  years  of  sowing,  at  times  disheartening,  were  almost  over, 
and  the  days  of  fruition  and  reaping  were  at  hand.  An  attempt 
to  obtain  for  him  a  chair  in  the  University  failed,  and  one  of 
the  most  inspiring  scientific  teachers  that  we  have  had  in  Aus- 
tralia left  our  shores. 

The  influence  that  Dr.  Martin  wielded,  was  due  to  his  personal 
relations  with  those  around  him.  He  worked  with  his  students 
at  the  same  tasks.  He  asked  all  to  take  an  interest  in  his 
researches.  When  graduates  or  students  started  their  own  re- 
searches, he  came  each  day  to  see  what  was  going  on.  He  made 
the  necessary  instruments  with  his  own  hands.  He  manipulated 
the  apparatus  or  took  the  notes.  He  drew  the  conclusions  or 
criticised  the  inferences.  He  expected  discussion  at  every  step. 
It  is  well,  perhaps,  that  I  remind  you  that  he  fitted  up  the  work- 
shop, setting  up  tlie  benches  with  his  own  hands.  He  repaired 
the  gas  engine  that  supplied  the  power.  He  made  the  apparatus 
before  H.  J.  Grayson  became  the  mechanic.  He  was  carpenter, 
fitter  and  turner,  glass  worker  and  electrician  for  the  laboratory, 
and  for  the  rest  of  us.  He  was  the  chief  under  whom  we  all 
delighted  to  serve.  I  am  afraid  that  we  shall  never  be  able  to 
let  you  know  how  much  we  stand  in  his  debt. 

I  would  like  to  add  just  a  few  words  about  his  methods  of 
teaching  science.  He  did  not  use  diagrams  or  models  to  any 
extent.  If  he  referred  to  the  structure  of  a  muscle-fibre,  he 
threw  on  the  screen  the  image  cast  by  a  specimen  of  muscle 
through  a  projecting  microscope.  The  students  thus  formed 
their  own  mental  pictures  of  natural  objects  instead  of  accepting 
the  interpretation  that  some  other  person  had  embodied  in  a 
diagram  or  model.  Each  lesson  was  a  demonstration  rather  than 
an  exposition.  Experiment  followed  experiment  throughout  each 
lecture.  These  experiments  were  selected  to  answer  the  queries 
which  rose  in  tlie  mind  as  the  result  of  the  previous  experiment. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS.  7 

Great  skill  was  manifested  in  choosing  the  experiments  and  in 
arranging  their  order.  The  sequence  of  the  experiments  was 
sufficient  instruction  to  most  students.  The  results  were  so 
obvious  and  the  interpretation  so  easy  that  most  of  those  who 
saw  the  demonstration  needed  no  prompting  as  to  the  inferences 
and  conclusions.  Dr.  Martin  possessed  little  oratorical  skill. 
He  was  not  a  successful  lecturer.  His  expositions  were  by  no 
means  good  accounts  of  all  that  is  known  on  a  subject.  It  was 
necessary  to  work  with  him  to  obtain  his  instruction.  The 
student  who  attended  classes  with  a  note-book  in  which  he 
intended  to  write  all  he  meant  to  learn  on  a  subject  found  the 
lectures  most  unsatisfactory.  The  lesson  was  not  prepared  for 
assimilation.  The  student  found  that  he  had  to  work  out  much 
for  himself.  If  the  student  did  what  was  asked  of  him,  he  had, 
at  the  end  of  the  course,  a  training  in  the  science  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  living  organisms. 

From  Charles  James  Martin  I  learnt  of  the  inductive  and  de- 
ductive methods  of  analysis.  I  observed  how  exj)eriments  were 
employed.  I  saw  how  to  select  an  experiment  so  that  some 
precise  inference  could  be  drawn  from  it.  I  learnt  of  physics  and 
chemistry  and  of  their  use  in  explaining  the  behaviour  of  living- 
cells,  tissues,  organs,  and  animals.  To  Charles  Hedley  I  am 
indebted  for  a  different  awakening.  I  was  a  teacher  of  some 
years'  standing  in  the  University  of  Sydney  before  I  became 
acquainted  with  Mr.  Hedley.  He  was  a  neighbour,  and  our 
common  interest  in  this  Society  led  me  to  cultivate  his  friend- 
ship. I  had  attended  classes  in  zoology  and  botany  at  the  Uni- 
versity. During  my  holidays  I  had  wandered  through  the  bush 
or  meandered  over  the  rocky  shore  or  beach.  Many  plants  and 
animals  attracted  my  notice,  but  I  found  my  instruction  had  left 
me  ignorant  of  what  they  were  and  how  to  learn  of  them.  As 
I  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  Hedley,  I  formed  the  habit  of 
taking  walks  with  him,  and  I  was  soon  the  pupil  of  an  accom- 
plished naturalist.  The  trees,  shrubs  and  herbs,  rocks,  birds, 
and  insects  had  a  message.  I  was  led  to  look  at  them  and  see 
what  they  revealed.  Until  this  time,  science  had  appeared  to 
me  to  need  incessant  analysis.     I  now  saw  the  science  of   simple 


8  FKK!SII)KXT*8    ADDRESS. 

observation.  Tlie  plants  seemed  to  gi\  e  me  special  interest,  and 
I  started  to  collect  those  around  my  home,  to  notice  their  con- 
struction, and  to  learn  their  names  from  their  descriptions.  T 
was  told  for  the  first  time  that  much  could  be  learnt  from  noting 
what  plants  occurred  together,  or  how  different  plants  favoured 
tlifierent  localities  and  surroundings.  I  need  not  tell  you  much 
as  to  ]io\v  Mr,  Hedley  made  stone,  animal,  and  green  plant  of  such 
interest  that  I  had  to  look  at  them.  Few  of  you  knew  Charles 
James  Martin,  but  all  of  you  know  Charles  Hedley.  There 
will  be  no  one  in  this  room  who  has  not  had  some  words  from 
him  on  natural  history,  who  has  not  had  his  attention  turned  to 
some  (jbject  of  interest,  and  who  has  not  been  led  by  his  inspira- 
tion to  look  again  at  some  natural  object.  No  naturalist  has 
done  more  for  those  of  us  of  the  younger  generation.  I  think 
some  of  the  older  naturalists  do  not  realise  how  ditHcult  it  is  for 
the  Australian  to  obtain  information  about  the  things  around 
him.  There  is  an  almost  complete  absence  of  simple  books  about 
our  plants  or  animals.  E^'en  the  elementary  text-books  used  in 
schools  are  those  of  European  authors,  and  deal  with  European 
forms.  It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  here  an  opportunity  which 
should  not  be  missed  by  those  among  us  capable  of  supplying 
this  information.  AVe  need  cheap  books  dealing  with  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  life  of  our  bush,  beaches,  and  waters.  8uch  books 
as  ha\  e  been  prepared  cover  a  wide  range.  They  deal  with  the 
birds,  fishes,  animals,  or  insects  of  Australia.  I  believe  there 
would  be  a  ready  sale  for  cheap  books  dealing  with  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  small  districts.  When  I  started  to  examine  the  flower- 
ing plants  about  my  home,  T  read  once  again  Hooker's  Botany, 
and  then  used  Moore's  Flora  of  New  South  Wales.  I  will  not 
say  how  many  hours  I  spent  in  discovering  the  name  of  a  plant. 
No  beginner  will  find  it  easy  if  he  has  to  use  Moore's  Flora. 
The  classification  of  plants  depends  on  characters  which  are  not 
readily  ascertained.  After  several  weeks,  I  named  Bauera 
7'ubioides,  and  was  materially  aided  by  the  presence  of  eight 
petals.  Observ^ation  seems  easy  to  those  who  have  not  observed. 
I  cannot  i-emember  how  often  it  became  necessary  to  revise  my 
description  of   the  characters  of  a  plant.      I   used    to  write  them 


PRESIDENT  S    ADDKESS.  9 

out  as  I  recognised  them  in  tlie  })]knt.  Wlien  my  account  was 
completed,  I  started  to  find  the  family,  the  genus,  and  the  species. 
If  T  found  the  correct  genus,  the  rest  was  comparatively  simple. 
How  I  wished  for  a  book  with  some  figures  or  diagrams  of  the 
fioral  characters  of  the  principal  families  of  plants  found  in  our 
bush!  From  these  laboui-s,  I  learned  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
precise  observation.  T  have  mentioned  plants,  Ijut  our  rocky 
foreshores  are  alive  with  animal  life,  and  no  one  but  a  specialist 
can  learn  of  them.  Butterflies  and  moths  attract  many.  We 
have  a  useful  book  about  butterflies,  and  we  would  all  welcome 
others  treating  of  other  kinds  of  insects.  May  I  hope  that  the 
day  is  not  very  distant  when  ten  or  twenty  of  these  useful  books 
will  have  been  written. 

On  this  occasion  our  th<nights  may  fittingly  turn  to  our  absent 
soldier-members.  In  addition  to  those  mentioned  at  the  last  two 
Annual  Meetings,  Mr.  E.  Griffiths,  B.Sc,  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Mr.  Tilley,  of  the  Geolc^gical  Department  of  the 
University  of  Sydney,  and  Mr.  R.  B.  Oliver,  of  Auckland,  New 
Zealand,  have  departed  for  the  front  during  the  year,  or  are  pre- 
paring to  do  so.  Not  only  have  we  not  had  the  pleasure  of 
N\elcoming  any  of  them  .back  during  the  year,  but  we  haxe  heard, 
with  sorrow,  of  the  death  of  Dene  B.  Fry,  one  of  our  promising 
junior  Members. 

Four  Ordinary  Members  lune  been  elected  during  tlie  Session, 
two  resignations  have  l)een  received,  and  three  Members  ha\e 
been  lost  by  death. 

Dene  Barrett  Fry,  killed  in  action  in  France,  on  April  Uth, 
1917,  aged  23,  was  the  first  of  our  Soldier-members  to  fall.  He 
was  a  rising  young  biologist  of  great  promise,  elected  a  Member 
in  191. "3;  and  his  loss  is  greatly  to  be  dej^lored.  His  training- 
began  at  the  Australian  Museum,  as  a  cadet,  in  1908,  where  he 
i-emained  until  1914.  When  the  war  broke  out,  he  was  a  student 
at  the  University,  and  a  demonstrator  in  zoology;  but  he  gave 
up  his  University  work  in  order  to  enlist,  joining  the  Army 
Medical  Corps  in  May,  1915,  After  two  voyages  in  a  hospital- 
ship,  he  transferred  to  the  Infantry,  qualifying  for  the  i^ost  of 
lieutenant.      But  as  there  was   no   vacancy  available,  he  left  for 


10  president's  address. 

the  front  with  reinforcements,  as  sergeant.  After  some  time 
spent  at  Sahsbury  Plains,  his  regiment  was  sent  to  France,  where 
he  took  part  in  several  engagements.  His  last  contribution  to 
science,  "Description  of  Aphantophvyne^d,  new  Batrachian  Genus 
from  New  Guinea,"  and  his  only  one  to  our  Proceedings,  ap- 
peared in  the  volume  for  1916.  Ten  other  papers  dealing  with 
reptiles  or  amphibia  wei-e  published  in  the  Records  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Museum  (1912-13),  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Queensland 
Museum  (1913),  in  the  Records  of  the  Australian  Museum  (1913- 
14),  and  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Queensland 
(1915). 

Dr.  Thomas  P.  Lucas,  one  of  our  Senior  Members,  elected  in 
1861,  died  in  Brisbane  on  November  15th,  1917,  in  his  75th 
year.  He  came  out  to  Australia  in  1876;  and  after  practising 
his  profession  in  Melbourne  for  ten  years,  he  removed  to  the 
warmer  climate  of  Brisbane,  where  he  continued  to  practise  up 
to  the  time  of  his  last  illness.  He  was  especially  interested  in 
Lepidoptera,  an  enthusiastic  collector,  and  the  possessor  of  a  very 
fine  collection. 

Alfred  John  North,  another  Senior  Member,  elected  in  1886, 
died  on  May  6th,  1917,  aged  61.  He  came  to  Sydney  from 
Melbourne  in  1886,  and  became  associated  with  the  Australian 
Museum,  as  x\ssistant  in  the  Zoological  Department,  to  under- 
take the  preparation  of  a  "Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Nests 
and  Eggs  of  Birds  found  breeding  in  Australia  and  Tasmania" 
(Catalogue  No.  12)  which  was  published  in  1889.  In  1891  he 
was  appointed  Assistant  in  Ornithology.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  papers  published  in  the  Records  of  the  Australian 
Museum,  and  other  Journals,  including  the  Society's  Proceedings. 
But  his  most  important  contribution  to  ornithology  was  Special 
Catalogue  No.  1  of  the  Australian  Museum,  being  a  second  and 
much  enlarged,  well-illustrated  edition  of  Catalogue  No,  12, 
entitled  "Nests  and  Eggs  of  Birds  found  breeding  in  Australia 
and  Tasmania,"  in  four  quarto  volumes  (1901-14).  Mr.  North 
was  a  keen  observer  of  bird-life  as  well  as  a  voluminous  writer; 
and  he  frequently  exhibited  specimens  of  interest  at  our  Meet- 
ings over  a  long  period. 


president's  addr'ess.  11 

The  year's  work  of  the  Society's  research-statf  may  be  sum- 
marised as  follows: — Dr.  R.  Greig-Smith,  Macleay  Bacteriologist 
to  the  Society,  contributed  two  papers  during  the  Session,  which 
have  already  appeared  in  Parts  i.-ii.  of  the  Proceedings  for  1917. 
One,  the  fifteenth  of  his  series  of  contributions  to  a  knowledge 
of  soil-fertility,  dealt  especially  with  the  action  of  certain  micro- 
organisms upon  the  number  of  bacteria  in  the  soil;  and  the  other 
was  descriptive  of  an  improvement  in  the  technique  of  the  single 
cell  cultivation  of  yeast.  He  also  completed  the  sixteenth 
of  the  series  already  alluded  to,  which  is  concerned  with  the 
search  for  toxin-producers.  Certain  soil-bacteria,  moulds,  and 
amcebi«,  all  reasonably  supposed  to  be  capable  of  furnishing  sub- 
stances of  a  toxic  nature,  have  been  grown  in  various  media  and 
under  varying  conditions,  and,  in  all  cases,  the  signs  of  toxicity, 
which  become  manifest,  can  be  attributed  to  an  alteration  in 
in  the  reaction  of  the  media.  The  effect  of  reaction  is  quite  of 
a  different  order  from  the  evidence  of  toxic  action  obtained  in 
former  researches. 

Dr.  Petrie,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Bio- 
chemistry, contributed  three  papers,  which  are  contained  in  Part 
i.  of  last  year's  Proceedings.  One  of  them  was  a  continuation  of 
his  investigations  on  the  occurrence  of  hydrocyanic  acid  in  plants 
(Part  iii.),  and  furnished  a  record  of  some  new  cyanogenetic 
plants.  The  other  two  treated,  in  an  exhaustive  manner,  of  the 
chemistry  of  the  Duboisias,  and  the  alkaloids  of  Duboisia  Leich- 
hardtii.  Additional  subjects  which  occupied  his  attention  were 
certain  cpiantitative  problems  of  cyanogenetic  plants,  the  de- 
termination of  the  amount  of  hydrocyanic  acid  capable  of  being 
obtained  from  these  plants  by  fermentation,  and  the  isolation  of 
the  glucoside  of  Ileterode^tdroii,  one  of  our  most  fatal  stock- 
poisons. 

Mr.  E.  F.  Kallmann,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  in  Zoology,  con- 
ti'ibuted  a  paper  descriptive  of  the  genera  Echinaxia  and  Rhah- 
dvsignid,  which  was  published  in  Part  ii.  of  last  year's  Proceed- 
ings. He  also  had  under  consideration  a  paper  embodying 
a  reform  in  the  classification  of  the  Deamacidonidce,  a  rather 
troublesome  family  to  the  systematist.     At  the  end  of  the  month, 


12  president's  address. 

Ml'.  Halliiianii  gives  up  his  Fellowship  to  engage  in  other  work. 
We  wish  him  all  success  in  his  new  sphere. 

Mr.  K.  J.  Tillyard,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  in  Zoology,  con- 
tributed eleven  papers  during  the  Session,  of  which  seven  have 
already  appeared  in  Parts  i.-iii.  of  the  Proceedings  for  1917;  two 
others  will  be  found  in  the  forthcoming  Part  iv.  of  the  same 
volume:  and  the  remaining  two  will  be  read  at  an  early  Meeting. 
Three  of  these  papers  dealt  with  the  Odonata,  four  with  fossil 
insects,  one  each  with  the  Orders  Jvepidoi)te]'a,  Planipennia,  and 
Mecoptera  respectively,  and  one  with  the  neuropteroid  fauna 
of  Lord  Howe  and  Norfolk  Islands.  The  researches  upon 
the  breathing-apparatus  of  the  larva*  of  Odonata  were  com- 
pleted ;  the  work  begun  upon  Australian  fossil  insects  made 
considerable  progress  ;  and  a  start  was  made  with  the  study 
of  other  neglected  Orders.  A  considerable  amount  of  work  was 
carried  on  in  the  investigation  of  the  Orders  comprising  the 
"Panorpid  Complex,"  namely,  the  Mecoptera,  Planipennia, 
Megaloptera,  Trichoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera,  with  a 
\iew  to  the  elucidation  of  their  phylogeny,  and  inter-relation- 
ships. In  making  a  careful  study  of  the  Jugate  Lepidoptera, 
in  this  connection,  ISh:  Tillyard  recently  made  the  important 
discovery,  that  five  genera  of  the  Family  Micropterygida'  have  a 
wing-coupling  apparatus  not  of  the  jugate  type  found  in  llejna- 
Hdce,  as  has  hitherto  been  supposed,  but  of  a  more  primitive, 
jugo-frenate  type,  closely  resembling  that  found  in  the  Plani- 
pennia and  Mecoptera.  On  the  hindwing,  near  the  base  of  the 
costa,  there  is  a  strongly  developed  frenulum  of  from  two  to  six 
l)ristles,  which  becomes  engaged,  during  Hight,  in  the  sinus 
formed  between  the  base  of  the  dorsum  of  the  forewing  and  the 
so-called  jugum;  this  latter  is  bent  under  the  forewing,  with  its 
apex  pointing  outwards  and  forwards,  and  acts  as  a  retinaculum 
for  the  frenulum,  and  not  in  any  way  as  a  jugum  or  "yoke"  for 
the  costa  of  the  hindwing,  as  it  does  in  Ilepia/ida. 

Dr.  H.  S.  Halcro  Wardlaw,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  in  Physi- 
ology, completed  the  first  part  of  an  elaborate  study  of  the 
variability  of  cows'  milk,  which  will  appear  in  the  forthcoming- 
Part  of   last  year's   Proceedings.      This  dealt  with   the  variations 


pfnvStdent's  address.  13 

and  properties  of  samples  of  afternoon-milk  from  109  normal 
cows,  kept  in  connection  with  a  Government  Institution  solely 
for  the  supply  of  tlie  inmates,  and  not  for  profit.  It  is  of  interest 
to  note  that  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  samples  contained  a  per- 
centage of  solids  not  fat  below  8' 5 — the  standard  for  the  per- 
ceentage  of  solids  not  fat  in  all  the  States  of  the  Commonwealth, 
and  in  England.  Dr.  Wardlaw  has  in  contemplation  the  con- 
tinuation of  this  important  investigation,  the  extension  and  con- 
tinuation of  some  ^^■ork  of  a  similar  character  upon  human  milk 
carried  out  by  him  in  1914,  and  to  subject  to  a  more  detailed 
examination  certain  questions  suggested  by  his  work  on  the 
chemistry  of  respiration. 

In  response  to  the  Council's  invitation  for  applications  for 
Fellowships,  1918-19,  only  three  applications  were  received;  and 
I  have  now  the  pleasure  of  making  the  first  public  announcement 
of  the  Council's  re-appointment  of  Dr.  J.  M.  Petrie,  Mr.  R.  J. 
Tillyard,  and  Dr.  H.  S.  H,  Wardlaw  to  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow- 
ships for  a  period  of  one  year  from  1st  proximo:  and,  on  behalf 
of  the  Society,  of  w  ishing  for  them  a  fruitful  research-period. 

The  concluding  Part  of  the  forty-second  volume  of  the  Pro- 
ceedings is  nearly  ready  for  issue.  The  complete  volume  (926pp., 
50  Plates,  and  196  text-figures)  will  contain  thirty-three  papers, 
two  of  which  have  been  divided  for  convenience  on  account  of 
their  length.  Six  papers  exceed  40pp.  (43-82  pp.  in  length);  and 
sixteen  of  them  were  contributed  by  members  of  the  Society's 
research-staft'. 

The  war's  interference  with  our  exchange-relations  w^ith 
Societies  outside  the  Commonwealth,  continues  in  an  aggravated 
form.  We  have  heard  from  fewer  Societies,  and  there  has  been 
a  marked  falling  off  in  our  receipts  during  the  year.  Even 
Societies  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  finding  it  advisable  to  sus- 
pend their  despatches  for  the  present,  in  order  to  avoid  the  risk 
of  losses.  The  total  number  of  exchanges  received  during  the 
Session  1916-17  amounts  to  846  additions  to  the  library,  received 
from  136  Societies  oi*  Institutions,  ttc,  and  five  private  donors, 
as  compared  with  1285  (1913-14),  1028,  1243,  for  the  three  pre- 
ceding Sessions,      The   Society  is   much   indebted   to  the  Public 


14  president's  address. 

Library  of  New  South  Wales,  for  a  special  donation  of  some 
partial  sets  of  Anthropological  publications,  comprising  34  com- 
plete vols.,  37  incomplete  vols.,  39  Bulletins,  and  11  Reports, 
issued  by  twelve  Societies,  not  previously  contained  in  the 
Society's  Library. 

If  I  have  spent  some  time  on  personal  topics,  I  liope  that  you 
will  pardon  me.      They  will   serve    to  turn  your  attention  to  two 
different  kinds  of  scientific  knowledge.     The  educationists  of  this 
State  have  laid    stress   on  the  analytical   sciences,  mathematics, 
physics,  and    chemistry,   and   have,  perhaps  unwittingly,   under- 
valued the  biological  sciences.      The  student  in  our  Universities 
is  forced  to  learn  the  analytical  sciences,  and  is  handicapped  if  he 
wishes  to  study  zoology,  botanj^,  and  geology.      Some  have  advo- 
cated extending  this  handicap  to  the  teaching  of  these  sciences 
in  schools.     I  am  still  a  young   man,  and   I   remember  well  the 
frequent   expression   of  the  wish   that   the  student  entering  the 
University  should  have  had   no  previous   instruction  in  science. 
A  liberal   education    at   school  with   no   science  was  to   be  the 
prelude  to  specialism  consequent  on  learning  a  little  chemistry  or 
physics.      The   people  of  this   State  owe  to  Mr.   Peter   Board, 
C.M.G.,  Director  of  Education,  the  adoption  of  that  great  prin- 
ciple of   toleration,  of  suiting  the  subjects  to  the  inclination  of 
the   child.      Instead   of  trying  to  teach  all  children  the   same 
subjects,  the  child  may  select  a  certain  proportion  of  the  subjects 
to  be  studied.     Lately  an   attempt  has  been   made  to  influence 
the  child's  selection  by  giving  different  marks  to  different  subjects 
at  the  examinations  for  leaving  certificates.      As  free  education 
at  the  University  is  granted  on  the  results  of  this  examination, 
it  is  obvious  that  those  desiring  better  education  will  only  learn 
subjects  carrying  the  highest  numbers  of  marks.      What  we  seek 
in  this  State  at  the  present  time  is  the  opportunity  to  study  the 
natural  objects   that   interest  us,  without  hindrance.      When  we 
plead  for   freedom   in    the  choice   of  subjects   in  education,    we 
desire  that  those  in  schools  may  be  taught  those  subjects  which 
attract    their    attention    and    hold    their    minds.       We    protest 
against  the  suggestion  that  any  study  of  natural  objects  bespeaks 
a  worship  of  materialism  destined   to  wreck   the  progress  of  our 


president's  address.  15 

evolution.  A  brighter  day  for  science  has  already  dawned 
within  our  University.  The  unfair  influence  exercised  upon  the 
boy  or  girl  leaving  school  and  entering  the  University,  b}^  the 
scanty  recognition  granted  to  any  study  of  scientific  objects,  has 
been  done  away  with.  It  is  seen  that  it  is  possible  in  Australia 
to  train  students  well  in  science  without  forcing  them  to  go  to 
Europe  and  become  bound  by  European  traditions.  The  force 
of  these  traditions  is  seen  in  our  University  with  its  mediaival 
architecture.  The  scientific  departments  of  British  Universities 
are  housed  in  badly  lighted  rooms  because  they  have  had  to 
accept  the  buildings  handed  to  them  from  the  Dark  Ages.  In 
this  country,  it  is  ridiculous  to  build  a  laboratory  for  micro- 
scopical study,  in  which  many  students  have  to  work,  and  fit 
it  with  narrow,  arched  Gothic  windows  because  our  forefathers 
revered  such  building.  In  Great  Britain  tlie  modern  laboratory 
is  built  to  facilitate  the  investigation  that  is  to  take  place  within 
it.  Here  we  are  told  that  artificial  lighting  is  most  suitable  for 
microscopical  study,  but  are  left  to  get  what  light  we  can  from 
long,  narrow  windows  twenty  to  forty  feet  away  from  the  mirrors 
of  the  microscopes. 

May  I  remind  you  what  a  small  company  we  are  here  in  New 
South  Wales.  We  number  among  us  practically  all  those  dwell- 
ing in  this  State  who  are  engaged  in  increasing  our  knowledge 
of  the  living  objects  of  New  South  Wales.  Surely  we  should  aid 
each  other  in  learning  of  our  flora  and  fauna.  Some  seem  to 
consider  that  our  work  consists  in  writing  and  publishing  the 
results  of  their  own  inquiries.  The  papers  embodying  these 
observations  and  investigations  appear  in  our  Proceedings.  They 
may  be  read  in  the  printed  parts.  There  is  another  and  quicker 
method  of  imparting  information.  When  a  Member  describes 
to  us  his  work,  his  personality  adds  interest  to  his  description, 
and  we  easily  become  acquainted  with  his  results.  A  few  well 
chosen  remarks  on  an  exhibit  will  cause  every  one  to  examine 
what  is  shown  to  them.  We  would  all  be  pleased  if  every  Member 
attending  our  meetings  would  bring  some  object  of  interest  to 
himself  and  explain  that  object  and  its  interest  to  his  -fellow 
Members.     In  this  way  we  can  ail  acquire  a  better  acquaintance 


16  president's  address. 

with  natural  history.  Discussion  leads  to  clarity  in  our  ideas, 
and  assists  in  formulating  our  scientific  conceptions.  During 
last  year,  we  had  some  discussion  on  the  characters  of  hybrids. 
The  discussion  was  brief,  but  it  helped  us  to  understand  better 
how  we  were  to  recognise  hybrids  in  the  plants  around  us  We 
should  not  be  always  waiting  for  those  in  Europe  to  lay  down 
the  principles  on  which  we  are  to  work.  These  are  problems 
which  can  be  studied  more  readily  in  Australia  than  elsewhere. 
The  separation  of  Australia  from  the  other  great  land-masses  and 
its  isolation  for  long  epochs  have  affected  the  characters  of  our 
animals  and  plants.  I  hope  that  our  Council  will  promote  dis- 
cussions of  the  general  questions  to  the  stud}"  of  which  contri- 
butions are  made  in  the  monographs  of  our  Members.  Two 
such  discussions  might  well  be  arranged  each  year. 

If  I  have  spent  some  time  in  making  more  precise  my  concep- 
tion of  the  essential  f«^atures  of  scientific  work,  I  have  been 
desirous  of  ensuring  that  there  is  no  misunderstanding  upon  this 
point.  We  are  now  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  insensate  war 
which  is  devastating  more  and  more  of  Europe.  We  recognise 
that  we  must  utilise  our  resources  t)f  men  and  material  in  the 
most  economical  and  advantageous  manner  if  we  are  to  emerge 
victorious  from  the  struggle.  We  have  learnt  that  it  is  our  duty 
to  give  the  best  of  our  manhood  in  the  prime  of  life  for  the 
service  of  our  country,  not  counting  what  the  sacrifice  ma}" 
involve  personally.  AVe  give  our  savings  to  provide  for  the  cost, 
which  shows  still  a  tendency  to  increase  to  a  greater  daily  ex- 
penditure. We  endeav^our  to  do  what  we  can  in  personal  service 
to  assist  in  defeating  our  enemies.  We  have  heard  much  of  our 
duty  to  our  country,  but  we  ha\e  heard  very  little  of  the  duty  of 
the  Government  of  this  Commonwealth  to  use  men,  money,  and 
training  to  its  full  extent.  I  suppose  that  no  one  asserts  that 
this  war  has  revealed  the  ability  of  tlie  Government  to  place 
each  man  and  woman  whose  services  have  been  put  at  its  dis- 
posal in  the  position  in  which  the  training  and  experience  of  the 
individual  can  be  fully  employed.  I  have  looked  along  this  table 
from  month  to  month  and  thought  how  few  of  our  Members  are 
utilised  in  ways  in  which  their  special  ti-aining  can  be  of  service 


president's  address.  17 

to  the  community.  Surel}^  it  cannot  be  true  that  the  years  of 
observation  and  experiment  have  made  our  members  useless  to 
the  Department  of  Defence.  I  am  aware  that  the  habit  of 
casting  ridicule  upon  Dr.  Dry-as-dust  existed  in  the  past.  I 
know  that  it  is  still  common  to  hear  jokes  at  the  expense  of  the 
naturalist,  but  I  thought  that  those  raised  to  authority  were 
acquainted  with  the  fact  that  science  can  play  a  part  in  every 
phase  of  work  in  Australia  in  connection  with  the  War.  Some  have 
affirmed  that  the  recognition  of  the  importance  of  Science  will 
be  one  of  the  permanent  benefits  conferred  on  our  nation  by  the 
war.  It  is  perhaps  difficult  to  imagine  any  benefit  given  us  b}^ 
the  war,  which  has  caused  such  unspeakable  misery  and  sorrow, 
yet  we  can  understand  the  statement.  Whether  there  is  any 
greater  use  of  Science  made  in  Europe,  I  cannot  say  from  personal 
knowledge,  but-I  can  remind  you  that  there  are  few  evidences  in 
this  country  of  a  much  greater  employment  of  those  possessed  of 
scientific  training.  It  is  true  that  the  Federal  Government  is 
using  the  services  o'ratis  of  a  small  number  of  scientists  who 
devote  the  time  that  is  not  taken  up  with  other  duties  to  some 
investigation.  The  Council  of  Science  and  Industry  supplies  some 
money  towards  the  cost  of  this  research  work.  This  is  a  step  in 
the  right  direction,  but  that  is  all.  When  we  sa}^  that  greater 
use  should  be  made  of  Science,  we  do  not  mean  that  some  par- 
ticular method  should  be  employed,  but  that  every  problem 
should  be  studied  by  the  means  adequate  to  give  the  solution. 
In  connection  vvith  the  war,  we  find  much  evidence  of  the  failure 
to  use  scientific  methods.  The  whole  number  of  those  who  have 
spent  time  and  trouble  in  acquiring  knowledge  of  Nature  is  a 
very  small  fraction  of  the  population.  Even  this  small  number 
has  little  to  do.  It  has  been  said  that  it  looks  as  if  our 
authorities  regarded  scientific  training  as  a  disqualification  rather 
than  as  a  qualification.  I  do  not  suppose  that  there  is  any  desire 
not  to  use  the  experience  and  learning  of  scientists,  but  I  do 
think  that  the  majority  of  our  community  are  quite  unaware  of 
the  scope  and  character  of  scientific  knowledge.  The  scientist 
cannot  replace  the  practical  man  who  is  managing  a  business  or 
dealing  with  some  particular  problem,  but  he  can  supply  informa- 

2 


18  president's  address. 

tion,  and  be  can  make  observations  to  provide  facts  on  wbicb  tbe 
practical  man  can  work.  A  scientist  does  not  make,  as  a  rule, 
wbat  is  known  as  a  good  business  man.  I  think  it  unlikely  that 
he  ever  will,  but  I  think  a  study  of  the  uses  made  of  Science  in 
the  last  century  will  teach  any  one  who  will  examine  the  question 
that  information  obtained  by  scientific  study  has  been  of  in- 
calculable value  to  the  community.  Our  Government  does  not 
especially  need  advice  and  direction  from  scientific  persons,  and 
there  are  so  many  ready  to  offer  this.  It  needs  scientific  workers 
who  will  obtain  accurate  information  by  making  studies  on  the 
problems  of  the  hour.  Each  scientific  worker  can  only  do  a  little. 
It  takes  a  long  time  to  make  precise  observations  and  to  conduct 
experiments.  Let  me  take  an  illustration.  There  are  millions 
of  bags  of  wheat  stored  in  Australia.  Insects,  fungi,  and  other 
forms  of  animal  and  plant  life  are  destroying  that  wheat.  If 
every  zoologist  now^  in  Australia  worked  for  a  century  upon  that 
wheat,  there  could  be  no  thorough  examination  of  the  whole  of 
it.  To  examine  the  contents  of  even  a  million  bags  would  require 
a  very  great  time.  To  determine  where  an  insect  or  fungus 
came  from,  how  its  grow^th  was  favoured  by  various  circum- 
stances, wdiat  is  the  life-history,  and  at  what  stage  in  its  devel- 
opment can  the  destructive  agent  be  destroyed  so  that  it  does 
not  reach  the  wheat,  would  take  many  months.  I  do  not  want 
you  to  think  that  I  exaggerate.  May  I  remind  you  that  it 
took  many  men  and  many  years  to  obtain  some  information 
about  the  mosquito  in  its  relation  to  malaria,  that  to-day  we 
are  not  in  a  position  to  prevent  those  of  our  soldiers  who  go  to 
New  Guinea  and  elsewhere  from  acquiring  the  disease  by  the 
bite  of  the  mosquito,  and  that  it  has  taken  several  years  to  obtain 
even  a  little  knowledge  of  the  different  mosquitoes  scattered  over 
a  small  portion  of  Australia^  There  is  an  opportunity  for  every 
zoologist  in  Australia  with  some  acquaintance  with  entomology, 
and  for  every  botanist  with  some  knowledge  of  fungi,  to  be  of 
service  in  saving  some  of  that  wheat.  Is  there  no  way  in  which 
the  Defence  Department  can  be  informed  of  this  simple  fact?  Is 
it  better  that  many  of  these  trained  zoologists  or  botanists  should 
be  doing  none  of  that  work  for  which  they  are  specially  fitted  in 


/  president's  address.  19 

relation  with  the  war.  It  surely  cannot  be  true  that  we  have 
such  a  vast  surplus  of  food  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  take  tliese 
steps  to  preserve  this  wheat  against  loss.  Further,  it  cannot  be 
true  that  we  know  so  much  of  the  insects  and  fungi  in  this  wheat 
that  further  knowledge  is  unnecessary.  I  believe  that  the  De- 
fence Department  has  already  at  its  disposal  the  services  of  those 
who  can  advise  it  what  to  do  when  the  knowledge  of  what  insects 
and  fungi  are  present  has  been  obtained.  Ma)^  I  invite  all  the 
Members  of  this  Society  to  assist  in  making  these  facts  known? 

I  have  often  thought  that  the  scientific  experts  in  the  State 
and  Federal  services  do  not  make  the  authorities,  under  whojn 
they  work,  aware  of  what  a  small  amount  of  scientific  investiga- 
tion can  be  done  by  one  person.  We  have  a  State  Entomologist 
who  sets  us  an  example  of  industry  and  devotion  in  the  way  in 
which  his  whole  life  is  dedicated  to  the  study  of  insect  life.  I 
am,  however,  amazed  at  the  range  over  which  his  advice  is  sought. 
He  is  expected  to  report  and  advise  on  matters  in  a  few  weeks 
when  months  of  research  would  probably  only  serve  to  reveal 
the  nature  of  the  problem  to  be  attacked.  Even  if  we  had 
twenty  entomologists  as  learned  as  Mr.  Froggatt  in  the  ways  of 
insects,  we  would  be  aware  that  all  the  twenty  naturalists  could 
go  on  working  for  many  years  without  exhausting  the  possibilities 
of  research  in  insect  life.  Does  not  the  work  done  by  all  the 
entomologists  of  the  world  in  the  century  that  has  passed  onl}^ 
serve  to  show  us  what  remains  to  be  done?  Are  we  not  all  like 
Newton,  when  he  remarked  that  he  was  as  an  infant  playing 
with  a  few  grains  of  sand  with  the  whole  ocean  before  him  yet 
to  be  explored? 

The  community  has  little  appreciation  for  the  laljours  of  those 
seeking  the  advancement  of  knowledge  of  Natural  Phenomena. 
The  man  who  could  supply  a  pound  of  tea  to  every  person  on 
this  globe  of  ours  would  gain  an  immense  fortune.  Lister,  who 
did  something  to  diminish  the  suffering  of  every  living  person, 
and  who  was,  perhaps,  better  rewarded  than  most  other  scientific 
men  for  his  discoveries,  had  much  less  reward  than  any  really 
successful  man  of  business.  Have  not  scientists  some  right 
to  ask  more  encouragement   from   their  fellows?      Most    of    us 


20  president's  address. 

have  made  our  scientific  observations  in  our  leisure  time.  Even 
those  of  us  employed  in  our  Universities  soon  learn  from 
those  under  whom  we  work  that  teaching  and  not  scientific 
inv'estigation  is  what  the  University  demands.  We  learn  that 
it  gives  greater  satisfaction  if  no  scientific  research  is  done,  since 
the  absence  of  scientific  investigation  shows  that  there  cannot 
have  been  any  leisure  time  in  which  it  could  be  done.  It  is  only 
a  few  years  ago  that  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  Sydney 
was  informed  by  the  President  of  the  Professorial  Board  that 
only  those  with  leisure  from  teaching  duties  did  any  research 
work.  The  attitude  of  official  discouragement  should  be  re- 
moved. It  seems  to  me  desirable  that  young  graduates  should 
be  promoted  more  often  w^hen  they  do  research  work.  Some 
have  seen  those  who  have  never  made  a  single  original  observa- 
tion placed  above  others  who  have  spent  three  or  four  years  in 
research  after  graduation.  We  often  find  the  attitude  that  it 
were  better  that  a  problem  be  not  studied  at  all  than  that  we 
should  study  it.  I  once  suggested  to  the  late  President  of  the 
Board  of  Health  that  it  would  be  a  fortunate  day  when  every 
town  in  New  South  Wales  was  the  home  of  one  biochemist  making 
investigations  in  respect  to  the  people's  food.  To  my  surprise, 
his  answer  expressed  the  hope  that  not  a  single  biochemist 
would  meddle  with  the  affairs  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Health.  The  opinion  is  held  by  many  holding  positions  in  the 
educational  and  professional  services  that  it  is  better  that 
scientific  research  should  not  be  done  at  all  than  it  should  be 
done  by  Australian  graduates  or  by  those  trained  in  this  country. 
Many  of  the  Members  of  this  Societ}^  will  have  had  experience 
of  the  contempt  for  their  capacity,  training,  and  public  utilitj- 
exhibited  by  some  holding  high  official  stations  in  our  University, 
our  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  our  Civil  Service,  and  our 
learned  professions.  Scientific  research  is  little  I'egarded.  Few 
attempts  are  made  by  the  official  bodies  connected  with  scientific 
work  to  assist  the  progress  of  investigation.  The  research 
student  finds  that  it  often  takes  longer  to  fight  for  the  material 
with  which  he  wishes  to  work,  in  order  that  he  may  have  the 
opportunity  to  conduct  his  research,  than  to  carry  out  the  actual 


pI{p:sident's  address.  21 

Avork  uf  investigation.  The  research  student  learns  tliat  his  in- 
vestigation is  regarded  as  a  personal  matter,  and  that  the  time 
taken  in  its  performance  is  considered  misspent,  since  some  of 
the  experiments  may  have  been  done  in  the  hours  for  which  he 
is  presumably  paid  by  the  University  or  State.  Australian 
graduates  are  considered  by  some  of  the  official  heads  in  our 
Universities  as  required  only  for  the  "teaching  of  the  drill-work." 
The  graduate  who  does  research  work  rather  than  this  drudgery 
need  expect  no  promotion  in  some  of  the  Departments  of  our 
University.  Surely  this  is  a  poor  policy  in  our  educational 
development.  Ability  to  do  research  work  is  not  commonly 
found.  The  desire  to  carry  it  on  continuously  is  even  less  fre- 
quently present.  The  power  of  directing  investigation  in  others 
to  a  successful  conclusion  is  one  of  the  rarest  accomplishments. 
These  facts  are  well  known  to  the  members  of  the  Senate  of  our 
Universities,  to  the  heads  of  our  Departments  of  Health,  Mines, 
Agriculture,  and  Education,  to  the  members  of  the  State  Com- 
mittees and  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Federal  Advisory 
Council  of  Science  and  Industry.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  pass 
from  opinion  to  practice  in  these  matters?  Why  is  there  not 
a  better  attempt  to  ensure  that  every  scientist  in  ISTew^  South 
Wales  who  shows  that  he  can  train  students  to  become  more 
efficient  investigators,  has  as  many  students  as  possible  brought 
under  his  influence?  Not  infrequently  after  years  of  labour  in 
building  up  a  laboratory  and  a  team  of  workers,  the  investigator 
is  driven  to  cast  aside  what  has  been  done,  to  provide  himself  with 
an  income  sufficient  for  his  needs. 

The  naturalist  is  not  only  interested  with  the  structure  of 
dead  animals  and  dried  plants,  but  he  spends  his  time  in  learning 
of  the  behaviour  of  living  animals  and  plants.  Living  animals 
and  plants  seem  endowed  with  attributes  not  found  among  inani- 
mate objects.  Life  is  associated  with  a  definite  form  of  con- 
struction. If  we  cut  a  thin  slice  of  a  rock  and  recognise  that 
the  rock  is  built  up  of  inorganic  material  arranged  to  show  a 
body-wall  and  nucleus,  such  as  are  found  in  vegetable  or  animal 
cells,  we  know  that  we  are  looking  at  the  petrified  remains  of 
what  was  once  alive.     Not  only  so,  but  if  we  find  any  substance 


22  PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS. 

composed  of  certain  chemical  compounds,  as  proteins,  carbo- 
hydrates, or  fats,  we  are  aware  that  this  material  has  been  part 
of  the  animal  or  vegetable  body.  Life  is  thus  associated  with  a 
particular  architecture  built  with  characteristic  chemical  sub- 
stances. AVhile  the  qualities  and  properties  of  living  things  ap- 
pear so  different  from  those  of  lifeless  matter,  the  biochemist  soon 
discovers  that  all  living  things  are  constructed  from  lifeless  sub- 
stance. As  an  animal  or  plant  grows,  it  adds  to  its  bulk  material 
from  the  inanimate  world.  All  the  carbonaceous  material  in  the 
protoplasm  of  the  cells  of  all  living  objects  contains  carbon  once 
diffused  through  the  atmosphere  as  carbon  dioxide.  For  a  brief 
period  this  carbon  is  found  in  some  animal  or  plant.  Perhaps  it 
in  the  green  leaf  of  a  growing  wheat-plant.  A  few  weeks  later, 
it  lies  in  the  golden  grain.  The  farmer  harvests  that  grain  and 
sends  it  to  the  miller.  The  same  carbon  is  part  of  a  particular 
sack  of  flour,  delivered  to  a  baker.  It  is  portion  of  some  loaf  of 
bread  eaten  by  John  Smith.  It  is  the  carbonaceous  constituent 
of  «iluco8e  in  the  blood  of  John  Smith.  It  is  combusted  in  some 
part  of  John  Smith's  body,  and  it  is  dissolved  as  carbon  dioxide 
in  his  blood.  It  diffuses  through  the  epithelium  of  his  lungs.  It 
goes  out  again  into  the  atmosphere  in  the  expired  breath  of  the 
individual.  Some  day  it  will  be  taken  up  by  another  plant,  and 
so  on  in  an  endless  cycle.  It  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  this 
carbon  becomes  endowed  with  new  qualities  while  it  lies  in  the 
living  tissues  <jf  the  animal  or  plant.  It  is  necessary  to  seek  some 
other  explanation  of  the  characteristic  properties  of  living  things. 
It  has  long  been  obvious  that  animals  and  plants  make  the 
chemical  constituents  of  their  bodies  from  raw  materials  by  dif- 
ferent processes  from  those  used  in  the  chemical  laboratory  or  in 
the  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  similar  substances.  Heat  and 
pressure,  so  freely  used  in  the  synthesis  of  bodies  akin  to  those 
found  in  living  things,  play  no  part  in  the  manufacture  of  starch, 
fat,  or  protein  in  a  plant.  We  have  a  dim  idea  that  those  in- 
tangible materials,  known  as  ferments,  are  chiefly  concerned  with 
vital  synthesis.  In  fact,  the  presence  of  ferments  and  the  capacity 
to  produce  ferments  appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  distinctive 
chemical   characters   of   living  matter.      Ferments   bring  about 


president's  address.  23 

decoDipositions  and  incite  combinations  under  the  conditions 
favourable  to  the  continued  life  of  animals  and  plants.  We  sow 
a  wheat-seed,  presumed  to  contain  minute  amounts  of  a  number 
of  these  ferments,  and  from  the  fully  grown  wheat-plant  we  can 
obtain  a  greater  degree  of  ferment-activity.  The  powers  of  these 
ferments  do  not  differ  from  those  possessed  by  lifeless  chemical 
substances  under  certain  conditions.  Most  chemical  substances 
appear  capable  of  bringing  about  decompositions  or  combinations 
in  other  bodies  in  the  same  way  and  under  analogous  circum- 
stances as  do  the  ferments  from  living  tissues.  When  acting  in 
this  manner,  these  substances  are  called  catalysts.  Chemists  do 
not,  however,  suppose  that  platinum  black  inciting  the  union  of 
hydi-ogen  with  oxygen  contains  some  unknown  ferment.  The 
sulphuric  acid  which  brings  about  the  decomposition  of  cane 
sugar  into  glucose  and  hevulose  is  presumed  to  be  chemically  pure 
sulphuric  acid.  Chemists  are  beginning  to  recognise  that  cata- 
lysts are  not  a  group  of  substances  possessed  of  these  special 
qualities,  but  that  many,  if  not  all,  chemical  substances  can  act 
as  catalysts  under  particular  conditions.  Evidence  is  accumu- 
lating to  show  that  it  is  on  the  arrangement  of  the  particles, 
molecules,  or  whatever  we  may  call  the  minute  masses  of  the 
substance,  that  the  capacity  to  act  as  a  catalyst  dej^ends.  The 
physical  state  of  a  substance  rather  than  the  kind  of  matter  of 
which  it  is  formed,  confers  catalytic  activity.  There  appears  to 
be  no  reason  to  infer  that  the  catalytic  action  of  the  extracellular 
and  endocellular  ferments  found  in  animal  and  vegetable  tissues 
has  a  different  basis.  I  have  always  been  impressed  by  the  fact 
that  the  powei-  of  an  extract  of  an  animal  or  vegetable  extract 
to  act  as  a  ferment  was  abolished  by  those  agencies  which  pro- 
foundly alter  the  colloidal  state  of  proteins  and  lipoids.  The 
attempts  to  identify  the  unorganised  ferments  as  a  special  class 
of  chemical  substances  have  invariably  ended  in  failure.  May 
we  not  look  for  better  progress  along  other  lines  of  investigation? 
The  study  of  the  position  of  the  particles  composing  inorganic 
crystals  has  given  us  an  insight  into  the  arrangement  of  the 
atoms  or  ultimate  particles  in  the  molecule.       The  crystals  of 


24  presidp:nt's  addrp:ss. 

proteins  and  fats  have  not  yt^t  been  examined  in  the  same  way. 
May  we  not  hope  that  these  studies  may  be  ext(ended  in  con- 
nection wdth  fermentative  activity? 

The  functions  of  living  matter  have  been  the  object  of  that 
branch  of  science  in  which  I  have  been  a  student.  The  aim  of 
the  physiologist,  is  to  explain  the  behaviour  of  living  things  in 
terms  of  the  mechanical,  physical, chemical,  and  psychical  sciences. 
It  is  believed  that  progress  is  at  present  possible  if  an  endeavour 
is  made  to  reduce  biological  phenomena  to  physical  and  chemical 
problems.  Living  things  are  built  from  inanimate  matter,  and 
the  attributes  of  living  things  are  the  expressions  of  the  pro- 
perties of  matter.  I  am  aware  that  such  a  belief  is  condemned 
as  materialistic.  I  must  confess,  however,  that  I  see  no  diffi- 
culty in  supposing  that,  as  heat,  light,  magnetism,  and  electricity 
are  qualities  of  the  arrangement  of  matter,  the  psychical  qualities 
of  the  higher  forms  of  living  things  are  likewise  material. 
Heat  apart  from  matter  does  not  exist.  Why  should  we  suppose 
that  memory  and  thought  exist  apart  from  some  matter  in  the 
living  organism  ?  Whoever  will  become  acquainted  witli  the 
history  of  physiological  knowledge  will  find  that  progress  is 
represented  by  the  explanation  of  a  greater  number  of  the  func- 
tions of  animals  and  plants  in  terms  derived  from  the  study  of 
physics  and  chemistry.  On  such  a  conception,  there  is  no  sucli 
thing  as  inanimate  matter,  though  there  may  be  lifeless  objects. 

With  these  ideas  in  your  mind,  I  invite  your  attention  to  the 
problem  of  variation  as  exemplified  in  the  different  functions  of 
each  kind  of  animal  and  plant.  For  many  centuries,  naturalists 
had  believed  that  each  kind  of  animal  or  plant  was  endowed 
with  unchanging  characters.  The  fixity  of  species  was  con- 
sidered axiomatic  by  zoologists  and  botanists.  Darwin  and  his 
followers  have  demonstrated  to  us  the  progressive  evolution 
from  one  form  to  another  in  animal  and  plant.  Every  animal 
and  plant  showed  a  certain  degree  of  variation  in  its  characters. 
Some  of  these  characters  favoured  the  living  organism  in  its 
struggle  for  existence,  others  rendered  it  less  able  to  cope  with 
the  conditions  of  environment.  Some  organisms  survived  longer 
and  had  a  better  chance  of  reproducing  their  kind,  others  died 


president's  address.  25 

early  and  bad  less  opportunity  for  transmitting  their  peculiar 
qualities  to  their  descendants.  It  is  well  known  that  the  off- 
spring of  any  organism  possess,  in  general,  similar  external 
characters  and  biochemical  properties  to  their  parents.  The 
mechanism  by  which  the  resemblances  and  variations  were 
brought  about  received  little  study  in  the  last  centur}'.  Indeed 
it  was  held  by  most  biologists  that  environment  had  little  in- 
fluence on  the  qualities  of  the  different  generations  of  any  race, 
however  much  it  might  affect  the  individual  in  a  particular 
generation.  It  was  denied  emphatically  by  the  Darwinian  evo- 
lutionists that  the  conditions  of  the  environment  could  produce 
new  characters  in  the  descendants  of  any  individual.  While 
naturalists,  in  general,  held  these  views,  there  were  notable  dis- 
sentients from  these  doctrines.  Physicians,  who  have  many 
occasions  for  observation  in  this  field,  have  in  general  believed 
that  some  acquired  characters  can  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring. 

The  progress  of  knowledge  is  showing  us  that  the  question  of 
the  inheritance  of  acquired  characteis  no  longer  interests  this 
generation  in  the  form  in  which  it  attracted  the  previous  genera- 
tion A  wider  acquaintance  with  the  qualities  of  a  living  thing 
has  led  us  to  have  a  more  comprehensive  idea  of  inheritance. 
Differences  that  seemed  insurmountable  to  older  generations  are 
no  longer  differences  to  us.  We  can  produce  an  artificial  immu- 
nity to  some  particular  chemical  substance,  and  we  find  that  this 
immunity  can  be  transmitted  permanently  to  the  race.  We  can 
cause  an  animal  or  plant  to  acquire  new  characters,  which  seem 
to  become  fixed  characters  in  succeeding  generations.  We  find 
that  the  characters  of  animals  and  plants  are  much  more  labile 
than  had  been  supposed,  and  that  it  is  a  comparatively  easy 
matter  to  engraft  some  new  qualities  upon  them.  There  are 
limits  to  what  can  be  done,  but  we  have  not  yet  fathomed  what 
can  be  accomplished.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  you  to  consider 
how  some  of  these  changes  can  be  produced. 

We  may  take  as  an  example  the  control  of  some  of  the  quali 
ties  of  micro-organisms  which  are  known  to  have  such  intimate 
relations  with  the  existence  of  more  differentiated  animals  and 
plants.      The  behaviour  of  yeasts  in  connection  with  the  conver- 


26  president's  address. 

sion  of  glucose  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  the  so-called 
alcoholic  fermentation,  will  serve  for  this  purpose.  The  ferment- 
ation of  sweet  liquids  has  attracted  some  attention  from  every 
generation  of  natuial  philosophers.  The  slow  accumulation  of 
real  knowledge  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  we  have  no  record 
of  any  observation,  current  in  our  descriptions  of  the  process, 
before  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Until  that  date,  it 
was  thought  that  the  spirit  of  the  liquid  made  its  escape  in  the 
heaving  struggle  of  the  bubbling  liquid.  Van  Helmont  identi- 
fied the  gas  vinorum  escaping  from  the  fermenting  liquid  with 
the  gas  sylvestre  found  in  woods  and  caves  or  freed  from  marble 
by  acids.  Becher  observed  that  only  sweet  liquids  underwent 
this  change.  Leeuwenhoek,  indeed,  saw  the  countless  myriads 
of  particles  with  his  microscope,  but  did  not  connect  their 
presence  with  fermentation.  Another  century  rolled  by  before 
Lavoisier  made  use  of  the  balance,  and  discovered  that  sugar  is 
split  into  approximately  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide.  Cagniard  Latour,  using  a  better  microscope,  noted  in 
1831  that  the  yeast  particles  multiplied  by  budding,  and  that 
they  were  living  plants.  He  suggested  that  the  growth  of  these 
plants  occasioned  fermentation.  Theodore  ISchwann  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  fermentation  was  brought  about  by  the 
entrance  of  living  micro-organisms  into  the  fermenting  liquid. 
Liebig  denied  the  relation  of  the  yeast-plants  to  the  process  of 
fermentation.  He  drew  a  humorous  picture  of  the  yeast  cell 
equipped  with  its  still  and  condenser,  furnishing  alcohol  and 
blowing  off  gas.  He  asked  whether  such  scenes  were  really 
visible  through  the  microscope.  Later  he  accepted  the  yeast- 
cell  as  a  living  plant,  but  affirmed  that  its  presence  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  occasioning  of  fermentation.  Pasteur  showed 
that  the  sugar  was  split  in  the  body  of  the  yeast-plant,  and 
attributed  this  decomposition  to  the  vital  powers  of  the  living 
cell.  Buchner  demonstrated  that  an  unorganised  ferment  could 
be  separated  from  crushed  yeast-cells,  and  that  this  lifeless  body 
decomposed  glucose  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  It  has 
taken  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  gain  this  infor- 
mation.     To  those  of  you  who  know  little  of  fermentation,  our 


president's  address.  27 

knowledge  seems  very  complete.  The  agent  for  decomposition 
is  made  in  the  body  of  the  yeast-plant,  in  which  it  remains.  Tlie 
sugar  enters  the  yeast-plant  and  is  split  into  roughly  equal 
weights  of  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  To  those  who  have  a 
more  extended  acquaintance  with  these  objects,  it  is  obvious 
that  much  more  has  to  be  learnt.  We  are  not  aware  how  the 
sugar  is  split  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  glucose  does  not 
make  it  easy  to  imagine  a  decomposition  into  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide.  Further,  we  have  some  knowledge  that,  without  other 
agencies,  such  as  the  presence  of  salts  of  phosphoric  acid,  no 
decomposition  of  sugar  can  be  accomplished  by  the  ferment. 
Time  will  undoubtedly  reveal  other  aspects  of  this  phenomenon 
at  present  entirely  unsuspected. 

The  process  of  fermentation  has  not  only  a  scientific  aspect. 
It  forms  the  basis  of  some  manufacturing  industries  of  great 
antiquity.  The  preparation  of  wines,  beers,  and  spirits  is  an 
application  of  this  fermentation.  Yeast  is  also  used  commer- 
cially in  the  manufacture  of  wheaten  bread.  In  making  bread, 
bakers  mix  Hour,  water,  and  a  little  salt  with  a  small  quantity 
of  a  specially  prepared  yeast  at  28*3°C.  The  dough  thus  formed 
is  kept  warm,  when  it  swells  to  three  times  its  original  volume. 
At  the  present  time,  doughs  stand  about  nine  hours  in  the 
troughs  to  ripen.  With  a  greater  amonnt  of  yeast,  doughs  ripen 
more  quickly,  and  the  time  of  waiting  for  the  distended  dough 
can  be  diminished.  It  is  also  found  that  a  quantity  of  one  yeast 
may  be  much  more  efficient  in  liberating  gas  in  the  dough  than 
the  same  weight  of  another  yeast.  The  yeast  obtained  by  tlie 
brewers  of  beer  in  such  large  quantities,  will  not  ripen  a  dough 
in  the  time  required  by  a  baker,  even  when  used  in  large  quan- 
tities. A  yeast  has  to  possess  special  characters  if  it  is  to  bring 
about  alcoholic  fermentation  rapidly  in  a  baker's  dough.  At 
one  time  it  was  supposed  that  some  strains  or  races  of  yeast 
were  capable  of  multiplying  freely  in  a  baker's  dough,  while 
others  could  not  breed  quickly  under  these  conditions.  It  was 
supposed  that  it  was  necessary  to  search  for  these  yeasts  in 
nature  and  cultivate  them.      The  capacity  of  fermenting  doughs 


28  president's  addkess. 

at  some  suitable  speed  was  considered  a  fixed  cliaracter  of  each 
race  of  yeast-cells.  It  was  thought  that  the  cultivation  of  the 
progeny  of  an  individual  possessed  of  this  quality  would  produce 
a  race  with  the  desired  properties.  In  practice,  bakers  found 
that  it  was  impossible  to  continue  the  cultivation  of  a  particular 
strain  of  yeast,  as  the  fermenting  power  appeared  to  undergo 
deterioration.  Ever\^  few  weeks,  a  baker  started  a  new  stock  of 
yeast.  Failure  in  maintaining  suitable  yeast  by  continued  culti- 
vation was  ascribed  to  contamination  of  the  stock  by  unsuitable 
yeasts.  When  I  started  my  study  on  yeasts  for  the  Advisory 
Council,  I  thought  that  my  task  was  to  isolate  suitable  races  of 
yeast-Cells  and  then  to  cultivate  them  under  conditions  which 
would  prevent  contamination  with  uiisuitable  yeasts.  T  hoped, 
indeed,  to  isolate  the  strains  that  I  needed  by  physiological 
means  rather  than  by  bacteriological  separation  and  the  routine 
examination  of  the  progeny  of  hundreds  of  individuals,  but  I 
did  not  imagine  that  I  was  going  to  find  that  any  race  of  yeast 
could  be  taught  in  a  few  days  to  ferment  glucose  quickly  in  a 
baker's  dough.  Without  going  into  details,  I  may  say  that  I 
found  that  any  yeast  of  the  species  Saccharomyces  cerevisics, 
growing  under  certain  conditions  in  a  baker's  wort,  caused  rapid 
evolution  of  carbon  dioxide  in  a  dough.  These  conditions,  as 
far  as  I  could  define  them,  were  a  temperature  less  than  that  of 
dough,  aeration  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  air,  the  presence  of 
certain  extractives  from  flour,  the  presence  of  certain  substances 
from  hops  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  acid-forming  bacteria 
and  a  particular  concentration  of  the  sugar  and  other  products 
of  malted  starch.  These  conditions  were  so  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  yeast  that  in  the  bakehouse  of  the  Technical  College, 
Sydney,  Mr.  F.  Elliott  was  able  to  keep  one  strain  of  yeast  for 
making  bread  for  almost  six  months.  This  yeast  was  so  active 
that  two  and  a  half  ounces  of  the  moist  yeast  ripened  four 
hundred  and  ten  pounds  of  dough  in  six  hours.  If  any  of  the 
conditions  in  the  wort  were  altered,  the  yeast  rapidly  became 
quite  unsuited  for  making  bread. 

The  manner  in  which  the  yeast  is  selected  may  be  conceived 
in  two  different  ways.     Each  yeast-cell  buds  off'  daughter-cells 


presidejst's  address.  29 

Some  of  these  may  possess  a  greater  capacity  for  fermenting 
glucose  in  a  dough  than  others.  The  conditions  may  favour  a 
more  speedy  multiplication  of  these  desirable  cells.  In  this  %vay 
the  resulting  yeast  would  be  made  up  of  a  larger  number  of  cells 
capable  of  inducing  fermentation  in  the  dough.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  can  suppose  that  the  yeast-cells  all  become  so  altered  by 
their  environment  that  they  can  ferment  the  glucose  in  the  dough 
more  rapidly.  It  is  not  possible  to  explain  with  certainty  just 
what  happens  in  this  process.  By  cultivation  from  a  single  cell, 
yeast  suitable  for  a  baker  can  be  obtained.  It  is  therefore  clear 
that  the  desirable  yeast  may  be  selected  from  the  progeny  of  a 
yeast  not  endowed  with  the  required  qualities.  A  similar 
selection  is  made  in  the  dough.  This  explains  the  rapid  ripening 
of  doughs  made  with  "sponges."  The  elucidation  of  what 
happens  is  made  clearer  by  study  upon  other  organisms. 

When  the  Bacillus  coli  communis  is  grown  in  a  nutrient  liquid 
containing  glucose,  both  acid  and  gas  are  produced  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  glucose.  The  gas  consists  of  carbon  dioxide 
and  hydrogen,  and  the  acids  which  are  liberated,  comprise  lactic, 
acetic,  succinic,  and  formic  acids.  It  has  been  found  by  W.  J. 
Penfold  that  strains  af  Bacillus  coli  coinmtvuis  which  do  not  pro- 
duce gas  from  glucose,  can  be  isolated  by  cultivation  in  the 
presence  of  sodium  mono-chloracetate.  These  races  differ  from 
the  typical  parent-stock  in  their  fermentative  character  on 
glucose,  and  no  individual  member  of  the  selected  race  appears 
to  retain  the  action  of  the  typical  parent  micro-organism.  The 
presence  or  absence  of  the  quality  of  liberating  gas  enables  us  to 
recognise  that,  in  the  production  of  this  character,  every  indi- 
vidual of  the  selected  race  exhibits  the  altered  function.  If  a 
number  of  selected  races  are  examined,  it  is,  however,  noted  that 
some  show  a  complete  absence  of  the  gas-forming  quality,  while 
others  still  retain  more  or  less  activity  in  this  direction.  The 
careful  studies  of  Egerton  Gray  have  enabled  us  to  learn  some- 
thing of  the  enzymatic  changes  which  accompany  this  selection. 
The  estimation  of  the  amount  of  the  different  products  of  the 
decomposition  of  glucose  supplies  evidence  to  demonstrate  that 
lactic  acid  is  formed  in  greater  amount,  and  acetic  acid,  formic 
acid,  and  alcohol  in  less  amount,  bv  the  selected  strains  than  bv 


30  president's  address. 

the  typical  micro-organism.  Evidence  has  also  been  obtained 
to  show  that  the  failure  to  ferment  glucose  is  associated  with  tlie 
absence  (or  diminution)  of  the  reducing  ferments  in  the  cell.  In 
this  way,  the  intermediate  substance  from  which  formic  acid, 
acetic  acid,  and  alcohol  is  formed,  is  not  decomposed.  The 
selection  by  the  sodium  mono-chloracetate  can  thus  be  explained 
on  a  rational  chemical  basis,  since  those  microbes  endowed  with 
reducing  qualities  would  liberate  hydrochloric  acid,  and  thus 
occasion  their  extinction.  Only  microbes  in  which  the  reductase 
is  absent  or  diminished,  would  survive. 

The  study  of  these  micro-organisms  has  made  it  evident  that 
the  characters  of  these  plants  are  determined  by  the  conditions 
of  the  environment.  The  question  remains  as  to  whether  such 
a  conception  can  be  applied  to  higher  forms.  Have  soil  and 
climate  any  influence  on  the  structure  and  functions  of  highei- 
plants?  There  is  much  to  suggest  that  the  forms  of  plants  are 
dependent  on  the  interaction  with  the  environment.  Before 
this  problem  can  be  considered,  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  plants  which  occur  together  in  any  district. 
Owing  to  the  small  aboriginal  population  and  their  low  state  of 
civilization,  there  has  been  little  interference  with  the  flora  of 
this  Continent.  Studies  can  be  made  upon  areas  in  which  plants 
have  grown  together  with  little,  if  any,  human  selection.  These 
areas  are,  however,  being  settled  by  the  white  population. 
Before  these  areas  have  been  destroyed,  it  behoves  our  naturalists 
to  make  their  survey.  In  this  vast  continent,  we  can  travel 
from  Cape  Otway,  in  the  south,  to  Cape  York,  in  the  north, 
without  losing  sight  of  one  or  other  species  of  Eucalyptus.  It 
is  possible  to  go  from  Sydney,  in  the  east,  to  the  western  shores 
of  Australia  without  missing  anywhere  the  familiar  Eucalyptus. 
Is  it  not  possible  to  determine  what  characters  have  enabled 
these  trees  to  extend  over  such  a  vast  area"?  May  I  suggest  to 
you  that  the  members  of  our  Linnean  Society  consider  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  distribution  of  our  plants  and  the  factors 
w^hich  determine  their  association.  Such  a  labour  would  be  a 
worthy  memorial  of  the  work  of  this  generation,  and  would 
remain  a  testimony  of  our  appreciation  of  the  benefaction  of  our 
revered  founder.  Sir  William  Macleav. 


PRESIDENTS    ADDRESS. 


31 


Mr.  J.  H.  Campbell,  Hon.  Treasurer,  presented  the  balance 
sheets  for  the  year  1917,  duly  signed  by  the  Auditor,  Mr.  F.  H. 
Rayment,  F.C.P.A.,  Incorporated  Accountant,  and  he  moved  that 
they  be  received  and  adopted,  which  was  carried  unanimously. 
The  income  accounts  are  summarised  in  the  following  table: — 


Heads  of  Expenditure, 

General,      Bacteriology. 

Fellowships. 

Total. 

Administration 

Maintenance     

Publication 

Research  (Salaries)     ... 

Capital  Accounts 

£ 

586 

39 

303 

654 

£ 

5 

63 

too 

100 

£ 

221 

1,525 

£ 

591 
102 
524 
1,925 
754 

Totals        

1,582 

568 

1,746 

3,896 

Income  (all  sources)    . . . 

1,245                  567 

2,328 

4,140 

No  nominations  of  other  Candidates  having  been  received,  the 
President  declared  the  following  elections  for  the  Current  Session 
to  be  duly  made: — President:  Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.I)., 
B.8. — Members  of  Council  (to  fill  six  vacancies):  Messrs.  R.  T. 
Baker,  F.L.S.,  W.  W.  Froggatt,  F.L.S.,  Alex.  G.  Hamilton,  C. 
Hedley,  F.L.S.,  Thomas  Steel,  F.L.S.,  and  G.  A.  Waterhouse, 
B.Sc,  B.E.— Auditor:  Mr.  F.  H.  Rayment,  F.C.P.A. 

On  the  motion  of  Dr.  J.  B.  Cleland,  a  very  cordial  vote  of 
thanks  to  the  President,  was  carried  by  acclamation. 


32 


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36 


ORDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

March  27th,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting(28th  November,  1917),  amounting  to  16  Vols., 
155  Parts  or  Nos.,  27  Bulletins,  8  Reports,  and  7  Pamphlets,  re- 
ceived from  75  Societies,  Institutions,  etc.,  and  two  private 
donors,  were  laid  upon  the  table 


37 


THE  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  LOWER  MESOZOIC  ROCKS 
OF  QUEENSLAND, 
With   special  referp:nce   to  their  Distribution  and   Fossil 
Flora,  and  their  Correlation  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic 
Rocks  of  other  parts  of  Australia. 

By  a.  B.  Walkom,  D.Sc,  Assistant   Lecturer   in  Geology, 
THE  University  of  Queensland. 

(Plates  i.-ii.,  and  six  Text-figures). 

Contents.  pac^e 


Introduction,  AND  .Scope  OF  Paper 

Acknowledgments 

Previous  Literature       

The  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  OF  Queensland 

(a)  General 
.  (h)  Geological  Succession 
(c)  Lithological  Characters  ... 

W  Coals  

f^e^  Extent  and  Distribution... 
(i,)  The  Ipswich  Series... 
(ii.)  The  Bundamba  Series 
(iii.)  The  Walloon  Series 

(f)  Artesian  Water     ... 

(g)  Folding  Movements 
The  Flora  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  Queensland 

(a)  The  Flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  

(^/>;  The  Flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  

(c )  Comparison  of  the  Floras  of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series 

(d)  The  Age  of  the  Floras     

Correlation  of  the  Queensland  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  with 

other  Australian  Lower  Mesozoic  Strata 
(a)  New  South  Wales 
(h)  Victoria 

(c)  South  Australia    ... 

( d)  Western  Australia 

(e )  Tasmania   ... 


88 
41 
42 
45 
45 
47 
48 
50 
52 
52 
58 
54 
58 
60 
(58 
ti4 
71 
77 
81 

82 
82 
89 
90 
91 
93 


38         GEOLOGY    OP    LOWER    MESOZOlC    feOCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

CfJ  Summary    ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...          ...  9o 

Geological  History          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         96 

Pal.*:ogeographical  Considerations   ...         ...  102 

SlTTVIMARY       11-2 

Explanation  or  Pl.\tes ...         ...         115 

Introduction,  and  Scope  of  the  Paper. 

In  Eastern  xA.ustralia  and  Tasmania  there  is  no  large  develop- 
ment of  rocks  of  marine  origin,  representing  deposition  during 
the  period  between  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  and  the 
beginning  of  the  Cretaceous  period.  During  this  interval,  with 
a  single  exception,  the  sediments  deposited  in  this  region  were 
of  origin  other  than  marine;  the  organic  remains  included  in 
these  rocks  consist  for  the  most  part  of  plants,  but,  in  addition, 
fish*  and  insects!  are  abundant  on  some  horizons,  phyllopods 
are  represented  by  Ef<theria,  and  pelecypods  by  Ufiio  and  Unio- 
itella.  The  exception  mentioned  above  is  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Wianamatta  Stage  in  New  South  Wales;  the  top  of  this 
stage  is  formed  by  a  thickness  of  100  feet  of  a  calcareous  rock, 
which  contains  a  fauna  of  Ostracoda  and  Foraminifera.  This 
fanna  has  been  described  by  Chapman,  whose  conclusion  regard- 
ing the  species  is  as  follows  :  '•  These  undoubtedly  represent  a 
brackish  or  estuarine  fauna,  having  a  curious  intermingling  of 
Hhsetic  and  Lower  Jurassic  types,  with  others  more  properly 
referable  to  the  Upper  Pakeozoic  of  Europe. ■':|: 

The  term  "Lower  Mesozoic  "'  will  be  used  throughout  this 
work  for  these  rocks:  the  name  "Trias- Jura  '  has  been  generally 
used,  but  it  is  not  a  suitable  one,  and  we  have  not  been,  up  to 
the  present,  in  a  position  to  assign  either  a  Triassic  or  Jurassic 
age  definitely  to  all  of  them.  The  name  Lower  Mesozoic  may 
be  used  generally  to  include  the  whole  of  these  rocks,  and  to 
refer  to  all  the  strata  in  Eastern  Australia  which  were  deposited 
between  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  and  the  be^innini;  of  the 
Cretaceous  period. 

"'  Woodward,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Palseontology,  Nos.4,  9,  10. 
t  Etheridge  and  Olhff,  ihid.,  Palaeontology,  No. 7;  Tillyard,   Queensland 
Geol.  8uiv.,  Publication  No.2o3. 

J  Records  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  viii.,  p.33o,  1909. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


3& 


The  cofrelation  of  these  beds  is  necessariU^  based  on  the  fossil 
plants,  since  they  are  the  only  remains  which  are  of  widespread 
distribution.  In  the  past,  fossil  plants  have  formed  a  ver}- 
uncertain  means  for  the  accurate  correlation  of  strata.  This  has 
been  due,  particularly  in  the  case  of  Australia,  to  imperfect 
study  of  the  material  available.  This  statement  is  not  made  to 
detract  from  the  value  of  the  work  done  by  the  earlier  Australian 
geologists;  we  owe  much  to  their  efforts,  for  they  did  an  immense 
amount  of  work  under  conditions  much  less  favourable  than 
those  under  which  we  work  at  the  present  time.  The  vastly 
improved  conditions  existing  at  the  present  day  must  always  be 
borne  in  mind,  when  the  work  of  the  older  geologists  is  under 
consideration;  this  point  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasised,  for 
there  is  very  often  a  tendency  to  forget  or  overlook  it. 

The  author  has  just  completed  an  examination  of  the  fossil 
floraof  the  Queensland  Lower  Mesozoic  strata,*  and  the  present 
paper  is  concerned  chiefly  with  a  discussion  of  the  results  of 
that  examination. 

Briefly  stated,  the  object  of  this  contribution  to  Australian 
Geology  is  to  attempt  to  place  the  correlation  of  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  of  Australia  on  a  sound  basis.  The  paper 
aims  at  : 

(a)  Dealing  in  a  fairly  comprehensive  manner  with  the  general 
characters  and  distribution  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of 
Queensland. 

(6)  A  critical  discussion  of  the  relations  of  the  flora  of  the^se 
rocks. 

(c)  A  comparison  and  correlation  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  I'ocks 
of  Queensland  with  other  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Australia, 
paying  particular  attention  to  the  relations  of  the  fossil  floras  of 
the  various  occurrences  to  one  another. 

(d)  The  determination  of  the  position  of  the  Australian  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  in  the  Geological  Record.     And 

(e)  A  discussion  of  the  palaeogeography  of  the  Australasian 
region  during  Lower  Mesozoic  time. 

"'  Queensland  Geol.  .Suiv.,  Publications  No.s.252,  2.)7,  '2,yj. 


40        GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

It  maybe  of  advantage  hereto  summarise  the  present  position 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  Horas  of  Australian  Lower  Mesozoic 
rocks. 

Rocks  of  this  age  are  developed  in  all  the  Australian  States, 
but  only  in  Western  Austi-alia  are  they  of  marine  origin.  The 
state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  fossil  tloras  cannot  be  considered 
satisfactory.  In  Western  Australia,  the  number  of  plants  in 
these  rocks  is  very  small,  but  the  fact,  that  they  are  associated 
with  strata  containing  marine  fossils,  is  of  great  importance  as 
giving  some  indication  regarding  their  exact  position  in  the 
Geological  Record.  Jn  South  Australia,  a  few  fossil  plants  have 
been  described  from  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  at  Leigh's  Creek, 
and  PhyJlopteris  Feistmanteli  has  also  been  recorded  from  Ooroo- 
wilanie  Swamp,  100  miles  north  of  Leigh's  Creek;  this  latter 
record  may  be  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks  overlying  the  Rolling 
Downs  Series.  In  Tasmania,  fossil  plants  are  abundant,  and  a 
large  number  have  been  described  and  figured  from  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks.  Unfortunately,  some  of  the  determinations 
are  open  to  doubt,  and  many  of  the  figures  and  description  are 
too  imperfect  to  be  of  value  in  a  comparison  of  the  Tasmanian 
Mesozoic  flora  with  other  Australian  Mesozoic  floras  In  Vic- 
toria, Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  occur  in  three  areas  (South  Gipps- 
land.  Cape  Otway,  and  Wannon  areas).  A  collection  of  fossil 
plants  from  these  strata  has  been  described  by  Professor  Seward, 
and  more  recent  additions  have  been  determined  by  Mr.  F. 
Chapman.  This  flora  has  been  determined  as  of  Jurassic  age, 
and  it  is  sufficiently  well-known  to  enable  reliable  comparison  to 
be  made  with  other  floras.  In  New  South  A\  ales,  fossil  plants 
are  abundant  in  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  but  no  comprehensive 
examination  of  the  whole  flora  has  been  undertaken.  Lists  of 
the  floras  of  the  different  Series,  prepared  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Dun, 
were  published  in  Carne's  memoir  on  the  Western  Coalfield  of 
New  South  Males,  in  ly08.  Ihese  have  been  supplemented, 
from  time  to  time,  by  descriptions  of  additional  specimens,  by 
Mr.  Dun.  From  these  lists,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  fairly  good 
idea  of  the  flora  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  New^  South 
Whales.     In  Queensland,  the   author   has  just  completed  an  ex- 


BY    A.    B     WALKOM.  41 

amination  and  revision  of  tlie  floras  of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon 
Series,  the  results  of  which  have  been  published  by  the  Queens- 
land Geological  Survey. 

The  correlation  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Australia 
(based  mainly  on  their  fossil  floras)  and  their  exact  position  in 
the  Geological  Record  have  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion, 
and  different  views  regarding  their  correlation  have  been  put 
forward  from  time  to  time.  In  a  summary  of  the  literature 
dealing  with  the  Queensland  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,*  I  liave 
already  briefly  summarised  the  majority  of  these  views,  and 
there  is  no  need  to  discuss  them  in  further  detail  here.  It  is 
sufficient  to  state  that  no  finality  has  been  reached  on  this  point, 
and,  in  many  cases,  conclusions  have  been  based  on  insufficient 
evidence. 

As  a  result  of  my  examination  of  the  Queensland  fossil  flora, 
together  with  a  consideration  of  the  evidence  of  the  fossil  faunas, 
and,  in  addition,  general  considerations  of  the  stiata  containing 
the  fossils,  certain  conclusions  regarding  the  correlation  of  the 
various  series  have  been  arrived  at  (see  p. 95)  which  differ  from 
any  previously  put  forward. 

Acknowledgments. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  express  the  extent  of  my  indebted- 
ness to  Mr.  B.  Dunstan,  Chief  Government  Geologist  of  Queens- 
land, in  connection  with  the  whole  of  my  geological  and  palteon- 
tological  work  in  Queensland.  He  has  placed  at  my  disposal 
every  facility  for  examining  the  large  collection  of  Mesozoic 
plants  in  the  possession  of  the  Geological  Survey;  in  addition, 
he  has  made  available  to  me  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
unpublished  information,  and  permitted  me  to  use  such  for  the 
purpose  of  making  this  paper  as  complete  as  possible.  In  the 
section  of  this  paper  dealing  with  the  extent  and  distribution 
of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  much  field-information  is  published 
for  the  first  time,  and  this  is  based  almost  entirely  on  informa- 
tion supplied  by  Mr.  Dunstan.  I  would  like,  therefore,  to  make 
special  acknowledgment  of  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  Dunstan, 
*  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No.  252,  p.  6. 


42         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWEK    MESOZOIC    kOCKS    OP    QUEENSLAND, 

and  to  place  on  record  my  appreciation  of  the  generous  way  in 
which  he  has  lent  me  all  possible  assistance. 

To  other  officers  of  the  Geological  Survey,  I  am  indebted  for 
their  willingness  to  assist  me  with  their  knowledge  of  these 
strata  in  the  field,  especially  Mr.  W.  E.  Cameron,  who  has  made 
such  a  detailed  study  of  the  Ipswich  Series  in  the  Ipswich  Coal- 
field, and  who  has  given  me  access  to  the  information  which  he 
has  obtained  for  the  preparation  of  his  third  report  on  this 
field. 

For  assistance  in  connection  with  the  geology  of  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  in  Western  Australia,  South  Australia,  and  Tas- 
mania, I  have  to  thank  Messrs.  A.  Gibb  Maitland,  L.  K.  Ward, 
and  W.  H.  Twelvetrees,  respectively. 

To  Professor  David,  I  owe  my  introduction  to  the  broader 
problems  of  Australian  Geology,  and  the  resulting  desire  to  assist 
in  the  solution  of  some  of  the  problems  of  Australian  strati- 
graphy. I  have  been  inspired  to  carry  out  the  palseo-botanical 
portion  of  my  work  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  by  the  kindly 
encouragement  of  Professor  Seward. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  authorities  of  the  University  of  Sydney 
for  permission  to  publish  this  paper. 

Previous  Literature. 

Most  of  the  papers  dealing  dii-ectly  with  the  subject  of  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland,  or  their  flora,  have  already 
been  briefly  summarised  in  an  earlier  papei',  but  there  are  a  few 
additional  papers  to  which  reference  may  be  made  here. 

^Ir.  C  Hedley,  in  his  Presidential  Address  to  Section  D  of 
the  Australasian  Association  for  tl)e  Advancement  of  Science 
in  1909,  published  two  maps  of  the  Queensland  region  in  Meso 
zoic  time,  one  reproduced  after  Keumayr,  showing  the  distribu- 
tion of  land  and  water  in  Triassic  time;  and  the  other  original, 
showing  the  same  at  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  Kra. 

Dr.  H.  I.  Jensen,  in  a  paper  entitled  '-The  Building  of  Eastern 
Australia,"*  has  many  references  to  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 
The  paper  partakes  rather  of  the  nature  of  a  summary  of  views 

""  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Queensland,  xxiii.,  Ft.  2,  1912,  p.U9. 


GV    A.     M.    WALKOM.  43 

the  author  stating  in  his  introduction  that  the  object  of  the 
paper  "is  not  to  offer  the  reader  any  really  new  material,  but 
rather  to  present  the  knowledge  we  alieady  possess  in  a  concise 

form "'     JS^evertheless,  many  interesting  points  are  raised, 

one  or  two  of  which  bear  more  particularly  on  the  problem  of 
the  Lower  Mesozoic,  and  these  will  be  referred  to  later.  A 
series  of  maps  accompanies  the  paper,  showing  suggested  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  sea  in  the  Australian  region  during  the 
various  geological  periods. 

Mr.  E.  C.  Saint-Smith  has  carried  out  extensive  observations 
on  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  the  Koma  District,  and  presented 
a  summary  of  his  results*  to  the  Second  Interstate  Conference 
on  Artesian  Water.  These  observations  cover  a  very  large  area 
of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  and  fossil  plants  were  found  at  various 
localities.  The  present  author  had  the  pleasure  of  accompanying 
Mr.  Saint-Smith  on  a  reconnaisance-trip  over  part  of  the  area 
between  Yeulba,  Goongarry  (Hornet  Bank  Station),  and  Roma, 
and  can  confirm  Mr.  Saint-Smith's  remarks  regarding  the  strata 
of  that  area.  'J'he  greater  part  of  the  country  traversed  consists 
of  outcrops  of  sandstones,  with,  here  and  tliere,  shales  and  coal- 
seams,  belonging  to  the  equivalents  of  the  Walloon  Series. 

Professor  David,  in  the  Federal  Handlx^ok  for  the  Meeting  of 
the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  Aus- 
tralia in  1914,  refers  briefly  to  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of 
Queensland,  which  he  classes  as  Jurassic. 

Mr.  R.  J.  Tillyard  has  described  a  number  of  fossil  insects, 
from  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  Queensland  and  New  South 
Wales. t  The  majority  of  the  insects  were  obtained  from 
Denmark  Hill,  Ipswich,  in  strata  belonging  to  the  Ipswich 
Series,  and  others  from  St.  Peter's,  near  Sydney,  N.S.W.,  from 
the  Wianamatta  Stage  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series.  Twenty-two 
species  were  described  from  the  Ipswich  Series,  and  six  species 
from  the  Wianamatta  Beds. 

The  insects  appear  to  be  of  considerable  interest  from   the 

*  Rept.  Second  Interstate  Conference  on  Artesian  Water,  Brisbane,  1914, 
p.  19. 

i  Queensland  (ietjl.  Sur\  .,  Publication  Xu.2r)3. 


44         GEOLO(iY    OF    LUWRli    MBSOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    gUEKNSLAXD, 

point  of  view  of  the  phylogeny  of  the  Iiisecta,  but  the  results, 
up  to  the  present,  do  not  indicate  that  they  will  be  of  material 
value  in  the  determination  of  horizons,  or  in  fixing  the  position 
of  the  strata  in  the  Geological  Record. 

In  Appendix  B  to  the  "  School  Geography  of  Queensland,"  by 
G.  Harrap,  published  in  1916,  Mr.  Dunstan  gives  a  new  classi- 
fication of  the  geological  formations  of  Queensland  In  this 
classification,  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  are  divided  into  (?)Tri- 
assic  and  Jurassic,  the  Ipswich  Series  and  Bundamba  Series 
being  classed  as  (?)Triassic,  and  the  Walloon  Series  as  Jurassic. 
No  definite  evidence  is  given  for  the  separation.  Included  also 
in  the  Jurassic  are  the  trachytes  of  the  Glasshouse  Mts.,  which 
all  recent  work  goes  to  show  are  of  Cainozoic  age. 

Professor  Schuchert,  in  a  paper  recently  issued,  entitled  "The 
Problem  of  Continental  Fracturing  and  Diastrophism  in  Ocean- 
ica,"*  gives  a  series  of  palseogeographic  maps  of  Oceania;  these 
include  one  showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the 
Triassic  period. 

Mr.  E.  C.  Andrews,  in  a  recent  paper  entitled  "  Notes  on  the 
Structural  Relations  of  Australasia,  New  Guinea,  and  New  Zea- 
land,"! makes  many  statements  which  invite  criticism,  some  of 
them  coming  within  the  scope  of  this  paper.  He  considers  the 
growth  of  Australia,  New  Guinea,  New  Caledonia,  and  New 
Zealand  as  independent  units.  The  question  suggests  itself — 
Are  not  these  portions  of  the  one  continental  mass,  which  have 
.become  separated  as  a  result  of  folding-movements'?  In  discuss- 
ing the  'J'rias-Jura,  he  infers  two  basins  of  deposition  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland,  viz.:  the  Hawkesbury  basin,  and 
a  northern  basin,  separated  by  high  land-barriers,  and  with 
sedimentation  taking  place  simultaneously  in  the  two  basins. 

There  are  many  papers  dealing  with  the  volcanic  rocks  of 
south-eastern  Queensland,  in  which  passing  reference  is  made  to 
the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  occurring  in  the  same  area  as  the 
volcanic  rocks.      It   is   unnecessary  to  mention  these  in  detail 

*  Amei\  Journ.  Sci.,  xlii.,  1916,  p. 91. 
t  Journ.  Geol.,  xxiv. ,  1916,  p.  751. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  45 

here:  such  papers  include  the  works  of  Jensen,  Wearne  and 
Woohiough,  and  Richards,  in  addition  to  the  publications  of  the 
Queensland  Geological  Survey. 

The  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  Queensland. 

(a)  General. — Until  quite  recently,  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks 
of  Queensland  have  been  officially  designated  "Trias-Jura." 
This  name  was  first  used  in  1892,  it  being  suggested  that  the 
Burrum  and  Ipswich  Formations  represented  a  period  of  time 
extending  from  the  base  of  the  Trias  to  the  top  of  the  Oolite.* 
Prior  to  that  date,  in  1888,  regarding  the  Ipswich  and  Burrum 
Formations,  Jack  saysf  "The  Burrum  Coalfield  is  plainly  on  a 
higher  horizon  than  the  *Bowen  River  field  [Permo-Carbonifer- 
ous].  It  contains  a  fossil  flora  in  which  many  plants  are  common 
to  the  Mesozoic  Ipswich  Formation,  and  also,  it  is  said,  Glossop- 
terin  with  a  very  meagre  fauna,  most  of  it  peculiar  to  the  coal- 
field."   "Probably  to  call  it  Triassic  would  not  be  very  far 

from  the  mark,  in  al  least  a  homotaxial  sense."  In  the  same 
paper,  speaking  of  the  Ipswich  coalfield,  he  says  "  The  coalfield 
contains  an  abundant  fossil  flora  of  a  strongly  Jurassic  facies, 
and  is  probably  the  equivalent  of  the  Clarence  River  beds  of 
New  South  Wales." 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  recording  of  Glossopteris  in  the 
Burrum  Formation  was  originally  responsible  for  its  being 
regarded  as  older  than  the  Ipswich  Formation.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  authentic  record  of  the  presence  of  Glossopteris  in  the 
Burrum  Series. 

When  the  two  formations  were  united,  in  1892,  as  the  Trias- 
Jura,  the  Burrum  Formation  was  regarded  as  Lower,  and  the 
Ipswich  Formation  as  Upper  Trias-Jura.+  Ten  species  of  plants 
were  described  by  Etheridge  from  the  Burrum  Formation,  and 
thirty-one  from  the  Ipswich.  The  two  formations  were  not 
known  in  contact  in  the  field,  so  there  was  no  stratigraphic 
evidence  as   to   their  relation  to  one  another,  and   this  had  to 

*  Geology  and  Palaeontology  of  Queensland,  1892,  p. 312. 

t  Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  i.,  1889,  p. 196. 
ij:  Geology  and  Palieontulogy  of  Queensland,  1S92,  p. 312. 


46         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

be  determined  from  the  contained  fossil  plants.  The  fossils, 
which  were  available  from  the  Burrum  Formation  at  the  time, 
were,  unfortunately,  fragmentary,  and  were  not  a  representative 
collection.  Further  collections  have  been  obtained  from  time  to 
time  since,  and  a  cursory  examination  of  the  material  now  avail- 
able in  the  Geological  Survey  collections  shows  distinct  differ- 
ences from  the  floras  of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series.  It  is 
intended  that  an  examination  of  the  Burrum  flora  will  be  under- 
taken after  the  completion  of  the  present  paper. 

In  1907,  Mr.  Cameron,  in  discussing  the  age  of  the  Ipswich 
Formation,  says*  "  The  evidence  for  considering  the  Burrum 
Beds  as  belonging  to  an  earlier  period  of  the  Trias- Jura  is  not 
conclusive.  The  two  formations  have  long  been  considered  as 
identical  in  age  by  the  Geological  Survey,  and  the  recent  obser- 
vations of  Mr.  Jensen  lend  confirmation  to  that  conclusion.'' 

Our  present  knowledge  shows  that  a  large  part  of  what  was, 
at  that  time  (1907),  regarded  as  part  of  the  Burrum  Formation, 
is  actually  a  continuation  of  the  upper  series  of  what  was  con- 
sidered then  as  the  Ipswich  Formation.  Dr.  Jensen  had 
recorded  the  fact  that  these  were  continuous  in  the  field  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Point  Arkwright.f 

The  question  of  the  age  and  extent  of  the  Burrum  Formation 
has,  however,  been  established  beyond  doubt  by  the  obser\ations 
in  the  field  of  Mr.  Dunstan.  As  a  result  of  these  observations, 
it  is  now  certain  that  the  Burrum  Series,  in  the  Maryborough- 
Howard  district,  overlies,  with  apparent  stratigraphic  conform- 
ity, |  rocks  of  marine  origin,  whose  contained  fossils  indicate  a 
Cretaceous  age,  probably  equivalent  to  the  Rolling  Downs  Forma- 
tion of  Western  Queensland.  JV'Ir.  Dunstan  has  also  shown  that 
the  strata  to  the  south  and  south-west  of  Maryborough,  origin- 
ally mapped  as  part  of  the  Burrum  Formation,  dip  towards  the 
north-east  beneath  the  marine  Cretaceous  rocks,  and  are  equiva- 
lent   to    the   Walloon    Series.       For  these    equivalents   of   the 

*  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No. 204,  pp.12,  13. 
t  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  8.  Wales,  1906,  xxxi.,  pp. 74-75. 
t  Ann.  Rept.  Dept.  Mines,  Queensland,  1911  (1912),  p.  195;  Queensland 
Govt.  Mining  Jouin.,  xiii.(1912),  p. 641, 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  47 

Walloon   Series   in    this  area,    Mr.    Dunstan   has   proposed   the 
name  "  Tiaro  Series."* 

Of  the  two  formations  which  were  united  to  form  the  so-called 
Trias-Jura  System,  then,  one  has  been  removed  into  the  Creta- 
ceous System,  and  the  remaining  one  (the  Ipswich  Formation; 
is  that  which  was  originally  regarded  as  the  probable  equivalent 
of  the  Jurassic  System. 

The  Ipswich  Formation  was  divided  into  three  Series  by  Mr. 
Cameron,  viz.:  Ipswich  Series,  Bundamba  Series,  and  Walloon 
Series.  The  use  of  the  terms  Ipswich  Formation  and  Ipswich 
Series  (part  of  the  Ipswich  Formation)  has  probably  led  to  a 
certain  amount  of  confusion,  but  the  removal  of  the  Burrum 
Formation  to  the  Cretaceous  System  renders  the  use  of  the  name 
Ipswich  Formation  superfluous,  and  it  would  be  an  advantage 
to  abandon  it. 

(6)  Geological    Succession. — The     Lower     Mesozoic     rocks     of 
Queensland  consist  of  three  Series,  viz.:  — 
3.  Walloon  Series  (Upper). 
2.  Bundamba  Series  (Middle). 
1.  Ipswich  Series  (Lower j. 

The  complete  succession  is  found  only  in  South-CHstern  Queens- 
land, where  a  considerable  amount  of  detailed  geological  work 
has  been  carried  out,  chiefly  because  both  Ipswich  and  Walloon 
Series  ccmtain  workable  coal-seams. 

Ihe  Ipswich  district  has  been  examined  in  detail  bv  Mr. 
Cameron,  who  has  published  two  reports  on  the  area,t  and  is 
preparing  a  third,  incorporating  the  results  of  recent  develop- 
ments in  the  district. 

South-east  Moreton  has  been  the  subject  of  investigation  by 
Mr.  E.  O.  Marks,  late  of  the  Queensland  Geological  Survey, 
whose  results  are  embodied  in  a  publication  entitled  "The  Coal- 
Measures  of  South-east  Moreton.  '|  The  examination  of  the 
continuation  of  the  Coal-Measures,  from  the  area  examined   by 

*  See  Rept.  Second  Interstate  Conference  on  Artesian  Water,  Brisbane, 
IftU,  p.7. 

t  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publications  147,  204. 
X  Queensland  (ieol.  Suiv..  Puljlication  22o. 


48         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Mr.  Marks  towards  the  New  South  Wales  border,  has  been  com- 
menced by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reid,  of  the  Geological  Survey. 

Other  areas  of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  Queensland  have  been 
studied  in  detail  by  other  officers  of  the  Geological  Survey,  the 
more  important  ones  being  :  the  Stan  well  Coal-Measures,  ex- 
amined by  Mr.  Dunstan;*  the  Laura  Coalfield,  west  of  Cooktown, 
by  Mr.  Ball;!  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  the  Roma  district, 
by  Mr.  Saint-Smith.  Unfortunately,  the  full  results  of  Mr. 
Saint-Smith's  work  have  not  been  published,  but  a  summary  was 
communicated  to  the  Second  Interstate  Conference  on  Artesian 
Water.  I  For  local  details  regarding  these  areas,  reference  must 
be  made  to  these  publications. 

(c)  Litholoyical  Chavdcters. — The  lithological  characters  of  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  Queensland  do  not  call  for  very  special 
remark.  For  the  greater  part,  they  consist  of  sandstones  and 
shales  in  varying  proportions,  with  which  are  associated  occa- 
sional conglomerates,  grits,  and  also  coal-seams. 

The  Ipswich  Series  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  light-coloured 
shales  and  sandstones,  with  associated  conglomerates,  and  four- 
teen or  fifteen  workable  coal-seams.  There  are  coarse  conglom- 
erates developed  near  the  base  of  the  series,  indicating  vigorous 
erosion  in  the  early  portion  of  the  period. 

The  Brisbane  Tuff,  which  is  near  the  base  of  the  Ipswich 
Series  in  the  Brisbane  area,  is  a  rock  probably  of  volcanic  origin 
(though  there  is  no  indication  of  its  source),  resulting  from  the 
deposition  of  volcanic  ash  of  acid  nature  over  a  long,  narrow  area 
in  the  vicinity  of  Brisbane.  The  general  direction  of  the  out- 
crop of  this  belt  of  tuff  is  N.30°W.  As  far  as  known,  there  are 
no  volcanic  rocks  of  undoubted  Lower  Mesozoic  age  in  South 
eastern  Queensland,  with  the  exception  of  a  series  of  andesites 
south  of  Maryborough,  which  are  apparently  interbedded  in  the 
Tiaro  Series.  Marks,  Andrews,  and  Wearne  and  Woolnough 
have,  at  times,  advocated  a  Lower  Mesozoic  (Trias-Jura)  age  for 


*  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  131. 
t  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  222,  p. 5. 
X  Report  Second   Interstate  Conference  on  Artesian  Water,  Brisbane, 
1914,  p.l9. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


49 


some  of  the  South-east  Queensland  volcanic  rocks^  hut  l)i-. 
Richards  has  recently  examined  all  their  evidence*  and  shown 
that,  in  each  case,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  volcanic  rocks  are 
of  Cainozoic  age.  Since  then,  Mr.  Dunstan  lias  placed  the 
volcanic  rocks  of  the  Glasshouse  Mountains  in  the  (?)Walloon 
Series;!  the  only  field-evidence  regarding  the  age  of  these  rocks 
is  that  tliey  are  intrusive  through  a  series  of  sandstones,  which 
Mr.  Dunstan  believed,  at  the  time,  to  belong  to  the  Ipswicli 
Series.  On  the  evidence  of  the  relationship  between  these  vol- 
canic rocks  and  other  volcanic  rocks  of  South-eastein  Queensland, 
their  age  certainly  seems  to  be  Cainozoic.  Some  of  the  beds  of 
the  Ipswich  Series  at  Denmark  Hill,  Ipswicli,  are  regarded  by 
Mr.  Dunstan  as  tufi'aceous  in  character.  | 

The  Bundamba  Series,  which  succeeds  the  Ipswich  Series, 
consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  massive  sandstones.  With  the 
exception  of  one  coal-seam  about  1  foot,  6  inches  thick,  known 
as  the  West  Moreton  seam,  they  have  proved  unproductive  of 
coal;  they  are  also  practically  barren  of  fossils,  the  only  record 
being  of  silicified  wood.  The  basal  portion  of  the  Bundamba 
Series  lies  about  seventy  feet  above  the  top  seam  (Aberdare 
seam)  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  and  consists  of  coarse  grits  and 
conglomerates. 

The  Walloon  Series,  lithologically,  is  of  somewhat  similar 
nature  to  the  Ipswich  Series.  In  consists  mainly  of  compara- 
tively soft  sandstones,  with  which  are  interbedded  fine-grained 
shales  and  coal-seams.  Conglomerates  are  developed,  but  are  of 
limited  occurrence.  The  soft  sandstones  and  shales  weather 
away  rapidly,  and,  consequently,  in  many  places,  outcrops  are  few 
and  inconspicuous. 

In  the  Stewart's  Creek  (Stanwell)  district,  the  Series  includes 
a  hard,  white,  siliceous  tuff  in  which  abundant  fossils  are  pre- 
served. 

A  remarkable  feature  in  the  Walloon  Series  is  the  verv  wide- 


*  For  summary  of  evidence,  see  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Queensland,  xxvii.  (2) 
1916,  p.  126. 

t  Harrap's  School  Ueographj'  of  Qvieensland,  Appendix  B,  p  16 
X  Queensland  Geol.  Suiv.,  Publication  No.2o3,  p.5 


I  !  B 


R  Y 


If'     # 


50        GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

spread  distribution  of  a  fine-grained,  ferruginous  sandstone. 
This  rock  is  very  characteristic,  and  is  developed  on  one  or 
perhaps  more  horizons.  It  has  been  observed  from  the  following 
localities  :  Beaudesert,  Kalbar(late  Engelsburg),  near  Warwick, 
near  Toowoomba,  three  miles  north  of  Texas,  a  number  of 
localities  in  the  Wallumbilla-Roma  district,  and  Stewart's 
Creek,  Rockhampton.  All  these  occurrences  are  in  the  Walloon 
Series  or  its  equivalents.  This  rock,  in  nearly  every  case, 
contains  fossil  plants,  the  genus  Otozamites  being  particularly 
characteristic.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that,  in  the  Jurassic 
rocks  of  Western  Australia,  Otozamites  occurs  in  a  fine-grained, 
ferruginous  sandstone. 

The  widespread  distribution  of  this  rock,  apparently  on  a  few 
horizons,  leads  us  to  believe  that  it  gives  indication  of  some 
special  conditions  of  deposition.  It  would,  however,  be  useless 
to  attempt  to  account  adequately  for  it  in  the  present  state  of , 
our  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which  these  beds  were 
laid  down;  most  of  the  areas  from  which  it  has  been  obtained 
have  not  yet  been  studied  in  detail  geologically. 

{d)  Coals. — The  development  of  a  number  of  coal-seams  of 
workable  quality  and  thickness  is  an  important  feature  of  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland.  Coal  is  obtained  from 
both  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series,  and  the  character  of  the 
coal  from  the  two  Series  is  generally  distinct.  This  distinction 
has  been  expressed  both  by  Mr.  Cameron  and  Mr.  Marks.  The 
former,  speaking  of  the  Walloon  coals,  says*  "the  coals  hitherto 
found  show  characteristic  conchoidal  fracture  in  the  hand-speci- 
men, burn  readily  with  a  long,  luminous  flame,  and  give  off  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  volatile  hydrocarbons  when  heated  in 
a  closed  vessel  than  do  the  brittle,  bituminous  coals  of  the 
Ipswich  Beds." 

On  the  same  subject,  Marks  saysf  "The  Walloon  Beds  are 
characterised  by  coals  which,  like  those  of  the  Darling  Downs, 
are  of  the  nature  of  a  cannel  coal — highly  gaseous,  hard,  and 


*  Queensland  Geol,  Sufv.,  Publication  No.204,  p.  16. 
t  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No. 225,  p. 9. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


51 


breaking  with   a   concboidal    fracture,  in    contrast   to   the    more 
brittle  bituminous  coal  of  the  Jpswich  Beds." 

The  Ipswich  coals  are  steam-coals,  and  are  suitable  for  heatino- 
and  coke-making;  the  Walloon  coals  are  essentiall}^  gas-coals.  A 
table  of  typical  analyses  of  the  coals  from  various  areas  has  been 
published  by  Mr.  Dunstan,*  from  which  we  may  quote  the  typical 
Ipswich  and  Walloon  coals  for  comparison. 


Ipswich  Coal. 

Walloon  Coal. 

Mean  %. 

Range. 

Mean  % 

Range. 

Moisture      

Volatile  hj'drocarbons 

Fixed  carbon           

Ash 

1-5 
27  0 

58-5 
140 

2  0-0 -7 
33-21 
72-50 
21-4 

P.-O 
39-0 
44-0 
11  0 

8-4 
40-23 

48-29 
25-6 

The  most  notable  point  of  contrast  between  the  two  is  in  the 
relation  of  volatile  hydrocarbons  to  fixed  carbon;  in  the  Ipswich 
coals,  the  latter  is  very  much  in  excess  of  the  former,  while,  in 
the  Walloon  coals,  the  two  are  of  about  the  same  value.  In 
some  cases,  Walloon  coals  show  a  much  higher  percentage  of 
fixed  carbon  than  of  volatile  hydrocarbons,  and  the  analysis  is 
then  indistinguishable  from  that  of  Ipswich  coals;  in  these  cases, 
however,  the  field-relations  of  the  strata  usually  supply  the  ex- 
planation for  this  irregularity,  by  the  presence  of  intrusive  rocks 
not  far  away,  and  resultant  alteration  of  the  coal. 

In  normal  cases,  then,  there  is  a  more  or  less  marked  distinc- 
tion between  the  coals  of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series  in 
Queensland,  and  this  distinction  is  of  some  practical  value  in 
helping  to  distinguish  between  the  two  Series.  The  Walloon 
coals  are  distinctive,  and  can  frequently  be  recogni.'^ed  M'ith  a 
reasonable  amount  of  certainty  as  belonging  to  that  Series.  The 
Ipswich  coals,  however,  though  they  are  distinct  from  the  Wall- 
oon coals,  are  very  similar  to  the  coals  of  the  Burrum  Series,  of 
Cretaceous  age,  and  their  age  cannot  be  identified  by  the  nature 
of  the  coal. 


Queensland  Geol    Surv. ,  l^ublication  No.239,  p. 23. 


52         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

(e)  Extent  and  Distrihiition.—ii.)  7'he  Ipswich  Snnes. — The 
Ipswich  Series  is  of  comparatively  limited  extent,  and  has  a 
thickness,  in  the  type-district,  of  about  2,000  to  2,500  feet,  as 
estimated  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Cameron.  Its  best  development  is  in 
the  Ipswich  district,  where  the  strata  have  been  studied  in  detail 
by  Mr.  Cameron.* 

North-west  of  the  town  of  Ipswich,  the  north-western  end  of 
the  Ipswich  Series  is  hidden  by  Cainozoic  rocks.  ^Mapping  in 
this  portion  of  the  area  has  not  been  carried  out  in  detail,  but 
apparently  the  Ipswich  Series  cuts  out  between  the  Bundamba 
Series  and  Brisbane  Schists  (as  shown  in  Plate  ii.),  and  it  is  not 
known  to  outcrop  further  in  this  direction.  It  is,  of  course,  pos- 
sible that  this  series  extends  some  distance  north  under  the 
Walloon  Series,  but  one  might  expect,  in  this  case,  to  find  some 
indication  of  its  presence  by  outcrops  between  the  outcrops  of 
the  Walloon  Series  and  the  older  rocks  to  the  east. 

From  Ipswich,  the  Ipswich  Series  extends  in  a  general  easterly 
direction  to  Oxley,  where  it  disappears  beneath  overlying  Caino- 
zoic rocks,  as  shown  on  the  most  recent  maps  prepared  b\'  iMr. 
Cameron.  It  reappears  along  a  line  running  approximately 
N.30°W.-S.30''E  through  Brisbane,  and  is  succeeded  to  the  east 
by  a  line  of  schists  of  Pala?ozoic  age.  This  belt  of  Palaeozoic 
rock  is  not  very  wide  here,  and,  on  the  eastern  side  of  it,  the 
Ipswich  Series  reappears.  Between  Mt.  Cotton  and  Mt.  Petrie, 
the  two  belts  of  Ipswich  Series  are  in  direct  connection,  as  also 
are  they  between  Mt.  Petrie  and  White's  Hill 

Still  going  to  the  east,  the  Ipswich  Series  again  disappears 
under  the  overlying  Bundamba  sandstone  along  a  line  running 
in  a  N.30°W.  direction  through  Hemmant,  and  reappears  on  the 
other  side  of  a  syncline  at  various  points  on  the  coast  south  of 
the  Brisbane  River.  The  axis  of  this  syncline  is  in  a  direction 
N.30°W.-S.30°E. 

The  whole  of  the  Ipswich  Series  so  far  described  skirts  the 
southern  extremity  of  an  extensive  occurrence  of  the  schists 
known  as  the  Brisbane  Schists,  whose  age  is  uncertain,  and  can 
only  be  stated  definitely  as  Pre-Mesozoic. 

*  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publications  Nos.147,  204, 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  53 

From  the  Brisbane  River,  extending  north  as  far  as  Mary- 
borough, there  is  a  narrow,  coastal  belt  of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 
These  are,  here  and  there,  intruded  or  overlain  by  volcanic  rocks 
of  Cainozoic  age,  with  which  we  are  not  concerned  here.  The 
Mesozoic  rocks  of  this  coastal  belt  are  gently  folded  into  anti- 
clines and  synclines,  the  general  direction  of  dip  being  north- 
easterly or  south-westerly. 

This  coastal  belt  averages  about  15  to  20  miles  in  width.  At 
its  southern  end,  it  consists  of  rocks  of  the  Ipswich  Series,  repre- 
senting a  continuation  of  the  syncline  just  mentioned  south  of 
the  Brisbane  Biver.  The  Bundamba  sandstone  in  this  synclinal 
area  does  not  extend  much  north  of  the  Brisbane  Fviver,  and 
appears  to  be  entirely  surrounded  on  its  northern  end  by  the 
Ipswich  beries.  The  north-eastern  side  of  this  syncline,  pro- 
duced northwards,  forms  the  south-western  arm  of  an  anticline 
whose  axis  passes  approximately  through  the  region  of  the 
Glasshouse  Mountains,  in  a  direction  N.SO^W.,  and  whose  north- 
eastern arm  dips  away  towards  the  north  east  under  the  sand- 
stones of  the  'J'oorbul  Point-Landsborough  district,  which  pro- 
bably represent  the  Bundamba  Series. 

This  is  the  last  that  is  seen  of  the  outcn^p  of  the  Ipswich 
.Series,  and  their  extent  under  the  Bundamba  Series  to  the  east 
and  north  east  cannot  be  determined. 

The  distribution  of  this  Series  is  indicated  generally  in  Plate  ii. 

(ii.)  The  Bundamba  Series.  —  The  Bundamba  Series  comprises 
a  development  of  massive  sandstones  in  which  there  are  practi- 
cally no  fossils,  the  only  ones  so  far  recorded  being  examples  of 
fossil  wood.  Mr.  Cameron  estimates  the  thickness  of  the  Series 
at  between  3,000  and  5,000  feet. 

This  Series  overlies  the  Ipswich  Series  conformably.  It  ex- 
tends, roughly,  from  the  Ipswich  District  eastwards  to  a  little 
beyond  the  railway-line  between  South  Brisbane  and  Kingston, 
and  in  a  general  south-easterly  direction  past  Canungra  to  the 
New  fcouth  Wales  border.  It  is  impossible,  in  this  area,  to 
define  accurately  the  limits  of  the  formation,  but  its  existence  is 
beyond  doubt.  Mr.  Dunstan  has  recently  observed  it  in  iSew 
South  Wales,  not  far  from  Mt.  \N  arnini{. 


54         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOlC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

The  Series  also  occupies  a  syncline,  with  an  axis  in  a  direction 
approximately  N.30°W.-S.30°E.,  between  Hemmant  and  Wyn- 
num,  extending  southwards  to  about  the  latitude  of  Redland 
Bay,  and  northwards  only  just  beyond  the  Brisbane  River. 
Further  north,  there  is  a  parallel  belt  of  the  Bundaniba  Sand- 
stone extending  from  Toorbul  Point  in  a  direction  approximately 
N.SO'VV.  through  the  Landsborough  district.  The  presence  of 
the  Bundamba  sandstones  has  been  indicated  at  Toorbul  Point 
by  Mr.  Cameron.*  At  this  point,  a  bore  (the  Bribie  View  Bore) 
in  Portion  28,  Parish  of  Toorbul,  passed  through  508  feet  of 
massive  sandstones,  with  one  or  two  seams  of  hard,  black,  sandy 
shales  and,  near  the  bottom,  pebbly  conglomerates;  no  coal-seams 
were  observed  in  these  sandstones.  Mr.  Cameron  correlated  these 
sandstones  with  the  Bundamba  grits  and  conglomerates  occurring 
at  Logan  Village.  The  sandstones  of  the  Landsborough  district 
have  been  correlated  with  the  Bundamba  Series  by  Mr.  Dunstan. f 

It  can  thus  be  recognised,  that  there  is  a  belt  of  the  Bundamba 
Series  running  through  this  area,  and  its  position  can  be  defined 
in  a  general  way,  but  the  exact  determination  of  its  boundaries 
would  involve  a  careful  geological  survey  of  the  whole  area,  and 
it  is  not  certain  even  then  that  the  boundaries  could  be  accu- 
rately defined. 

This  belt  disappears  towards  the  north-east  under  the  southern 
extension  of  the  Tiaro  Series,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  Walloon 
Series.     The  distribution  of  the  Series  is  indicated  in  Plate  ii. 

The  Helidon  sandstones  may  be  the  equivalents  of  the  Bun- 
damba sandstones,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Dunstan,!  but  we  do  not 
know  sufficient  detail  of  the  geology  of  the  Helidon  district,  at 
present,  to  be  sure  of  their  position. 

(iii.)  The  Walloon  Series. — The  rocks  belonging  to  this  Series 
cover  a  vastly  wider  area  than  either  the  Ipswich  or  Bundamba 
Series.  Their  distribution  is  indicated  in  Plates  i.  and  ii.  In 
South-eastern  Queensland,  they  outcrop  over  most  of  the  country 
between  a  line  drawn  from  just  west  of  Esk  to  Toowoomba, 
thence  along  the  eastern   foot  of  the   Main   Bange  to  the  New 

*  Ann.  Rept.  Dept.  Mines,  Queensland,  1908,  p. 172. 
t  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No  252,  p.4. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOxM.  55 

South  Wales  border,  and  a  line  drawn  roughly  from  Ipswich  to 
('anungra,  and  thence  to  the  New  South  Wales  border.  In  a 
good  deal  of  this  area,  they  are  overlain  by  volcanic  rocks  of 
Cainozoic  age,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are  practically 
continuous  through  the  whole  area.  In  addition,  there  is  a  belt, 
live  to  fifteen  miles  wide,  from  Esk  up  the  valley  of  the  Brisbane 
River  nearly  to  Cooyar  Creek,  but  this  belt  is  not  a  continuous 
outcrop;  there  is  also  an  extension  from  Esk  in  a  north -easterly 
direction  past  Mt.  Brisbane. 

Rocks  belonging  to  the  Walloon  Series  also  outcrop  verv  ex- 
tensively to  the  west  of  the  Main  Divide.  There  is  probably  a 
continuous  belt  from  the  New  South  Wales  border  near  Kil- 
larney,  running  through  Warwick  to  Dalby  and  Chinchilla,  then 
swinging  round  to  an  east  and  west  direction  parallel  to  the 
railway-line  past  Roma.  The  exact  extent  of  the  belt  past  this 
point  is  not  absolutely  proven,  but  there  seems  little  doubt  that 
it  swings  round  in  a  general  north-north-westerly  direction,  and 
extends  right  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  towards  Cape  York. 
Mr.  Dunstan*  has  placed,  in  the  W^alloon  Series,  sandstones  and 
shales  in  this  belt  at  the  following  localities:  the  Upper  Maranoa 
River,  the  Upper  Dawson  River,  Jericho,  the  Upper  Flinders 
River,  Croydon,  and  probably  the  heads  of  the  rivers  flowing  west- 
erly across  the  Cape  York  peninsula  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 

This  belt  dips  to  the  west  and  south-west,  and  underlies,  with 
apparent  conformity,  the  marine  Cretaceous  rocks  of  the  Rollins*- 
Downs  Series.  In  the  east,  the  Walloon  Series  is  represented 
by  a  number  of  occurrences  scattered  over  a  very  wide  area.  To 
the  south  and  south-west  of  Maryborough  is  the  Tiaro  Series 
(equivalent  to  the  Walloon  Series);  other  occurrences  include 
those  at  Callide  Creek,  Westwood-Wycarbah-Stanwell  district 
Waterpark,  Brovinia,  a  small  area  about  10-15  miles  west  of 
Mundubbera,  a  small  area  west  of  the  Burnett  River  in  latitude 
25°  45'S.,  a  small  area  west  of  Barambah  Creek  in  latitude  26°S 
at  Mondure  on  Barambah  Creek,  and  the  Laura  Coalfield,  Cook- 
town  district.     The  exact  positions  of  these  areas  are  shown  on 


*  Harrap's  Geography  of  Queensland,  1916,  p.  166. 


56         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Plates  3,  5,  and  9  of  the  Queensland  Mineral  Index.  On  Plate 
1 1  of  the  same  work,  a  small  patch  is  shown  as  belonging  to  the 
Walloon  Series,  just  west  of  Anakie.  Mr.  Dunstan,  who  in- 
vestigated the  Anakie  district  some  years  ago,  kindly  informed 
me  tliat  tliere  is  no  representative  of  the  AYalloon  Series  in  that 
district,  and  that  the  colouring  of  this  area  as  Walloon  was  due 
to  an  error  in  lithographing.  Another  area,  to  M'hich  attention 
should  be  called,  is  that  of  the  Styx  River,  marked  on  Plate  3 
of  the  Mineral  Index  as  belonging  to  the  Ipswicli  Series.  Mr. 
Dunstan  now  believes  this  to  be  of  Cretaceous  age,  and  has 
recently  obtained,  from  the  Styx  River  Coal -Measures,  a  frag- 
ment which  appears  to  be  a  dicotyledonous  leaf.  This  is  an 
interesting  find,  and  the  greatest  age,  which  can  reasonably  be 
assigned  to  these  Measures  in  view  of  it,  is  Cretaceous. 

In  the  case  of  most  of  the  isolated  occurrences  of  the  Walloon 
Series  just  mentioned,  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  render  it 
almost  certain  that  the  determination  of' the  age  is  correct.  The 
evidence  is  here  summarised  : — 

In  the  Westwood-Wycarbah-Stanwell  district,  the  fossil  Hora 
is  distinctly  of  the  Walloon  type  {infra^  Table  vii.).  At  Water- 
park,  the  coal  is  of  Walloon  type,  but  there  appears  to  be  no 
record  of  fossils.  The  areas  in  the  vicinities  of  Brovinia,  Mun- 
dubbera,  Burnett  River,  Barambah  Creek,  and  Mondure  are  all 
residuals,  occupying  rather  higher  ground,  and  Mr.  Dunstan  is 
of  opinion  that  they  undoubtedly  represent  outliers  of  the  exten- 
sive outcrop  a  little  to  the  south-west.  In  the  Laura  coalfield, 
the  strata  consist  of  arenaceous  beds,  with  occasional  thin  beds 
of  shale  and  coal-seams.  Mr.  Ball  records  the  finding  of  the 
following  fossils  :  Fhyllotheca(i),  Tte'itioj)teris,  Alethopteris,  Bra- 
chyphyllunn^  and  Taxitesi^.).  The  presence  of  BrachyphyUiim  a,i[\(\ 
TaxUes(l)  is  sufficient  to  indicate  a  Walloon  age.  In  the  remain- 
ing area,  Callide  Creek,  there  is  no  definite  indication  of  age; 
the  fossils,  Thinnfeldia  odonlopteroides  [  =  T.  FeislmaiUeli],  and 
Tceniojjteriti  sp.,  have  been  recorded,  but  they  are  not  sufficient 
to  determine  the  age.  In  view,  however,  of  the  wide  distribu- 
tion of  strata  of  V\  alloon  age,  the  Callide  Creek  beds  are  re- 
garded as  probably  of  similar  age. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  5< 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  Walloon  Series  extends  uninterriipt 
ediy  over  a  great  part  of  Eastern  Queensland.  Though  occurring 
iu  comparatively  small,  isolated  areas  at  the  present  time,  I 
believe  that  these  occurrences  represent  the  remnants  of  a  de- 
position which  probably  covered  the  greater  pait  of  Queensland. 
This  will  be  discussed  later. 

Further,  that  the  western  belt,  extending  past  Toowoomba 
and  Warwick,  probably  extends  a  great  deal  further  west  than 
is  shown  on  the  map,  is  indicated  by  the  known  occurrences  of 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  to  the  south-west  of  Dalby,  and  west  of 
Warwick. 

Towards  the  south,  this  belt  divides  into  two;  the  eastern 
portion  extends  past  Killarney  into  New  South  Wales,  and  is 
continuous  with  the  western  extent  of  the  Clarence  Series;  and 
the  western  portion  continues  along  the  western  margin  of  New 
England,  and  dips  away  to  the  west  under  the  marine  Cretaceous. 
In  New  South  Wales,  this  latter  belt  is  known  as  the  Artesian 
Series. 

It  must  be  noted  that  the  Walloon  Series,  in  the  Toowoomba- 
Warwick  District  and  in  South-eastern  Queensland,  have  pro- 
bably been  separated  by  heavy  faulting  along  the  Main  Range, 
but  were  formerly  continuous;  and  it  is  quite  natural,  therefore, 
that  this  Series  should,  in  these  two  areas,  be  continuous  with 
parts  of  the  Clarence  Series  of  New  South  Wales. 

That  the  Walloon  Series  continues  for  great  distances  west- 
ward under  the  Cretaceous  rocks,  is  proved  by  the  Artesian 
bores  of  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales.  It  is  fairly  well 
established  now  that  the  rocks  from  which  the  Artesian  water 
(or  rather  that  part  of  it  which  is  of  meteoric  origin)  is  obtained, 
are  part  of  the  so-called  Trias-J  ura  System,  and  not  of  the  Cre- 
taceous System.  This  fact  is  of  great  value  in  determining  the 
extent  to  which  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  continue  under  the 
Cretaceous. 

Small  Hows  of  water  have  undoubtedly  been  obtained  from 
the  Cretaceous  rocks,  but  the  rocks  from  which  the  large  flows 
of  water  have  been  obtained  are  of  Lower  Mesozoic  age.  Ex- 
amination of  the  bore-records,  then,  will  show  the  extent  of  the 


5<S         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOlC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  both  in  Western  Queensland  and  in  New 
South  Wales.  At  some  places,  there  is  a  very  great  thickness 
of  Cretaceous  and  possibly  Cainozoic  strata  overlying  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks;  e.g.,  in  South  Australia,  the  bore  at  Goyder's 
Lagoon  struck  water  bearing  strata  at  4, 700  feet,  and  the  Patcha- 
warra  bore  was  abandoned  at  a  depth  of  5,458  feet,  being  still 
in  the  Cretaceous  rocks. 

Palaeontological  proof  of  the  age  of  the  water-bearing  strata 
in  the  bores  is  not  often  forthcoming,  but,  in  a  number  of  cases 
in  New  South  Wales,  records  have  been  made,  e.g.,  (a)  in  the  Bul- 
yeroi  bore,  60  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Moree,  Lower  Cretaceous  rocks 
with  marine  fossils  were  passed  through  down  to  520  feet,  and 
then  shales,  sandstones,  and  coal-seams  with  fossil  plants:  (b)  in 
the  Wallon  bore,  20  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Moree,  Lower  Cretaceous 
rocks  with  marine  fossils  were  encountered  dow^n  to  1,500  feet; 
at  1,630  feet,  fragments  of  Tceuiopteris  spatnlata  [7'.  Baiiiti'eei] 
were  obtained,  and  water  was  struck  at  2,330  feet;  (c)  in  the 
Coonamble  bore,  both  T(vniopteris  sjmtulata  [7'.  Daiiitreei\  and 
Thlniifeldia  odoiitopteroides  were  obtained.  These  are  not  all  of 
the  recorded  occurrences. 

The  Walloon  Series  (or  its  equivalents)  is  considerably  thicker 
than  the  Ipswich  or  Bundamba  Series.  In  AVestern  Queens- 
land (Roma  District),  the  map  and  sections  prepared  by  Messrs. 
Saint-Smith  and  Thom  show  a  width  of  outcrop  of  about  60 
miles,  and  dips  of  the  order  of  3  or  4  degrees;  the  dips  are  small, 
but,  if  the  average  dip  be  only  2  degrees,  the  thickness  repre- 
sented is  about  11,000  feet.  En  the  Maryborough  District,  the 
thickness  of  the  Tiaro  Series  has  been  estimated  at  12,000  feet 
by  Messrs.  Blake  and  Bryan. 

if)  Artesian  IFa^er. —A  general  consideration  of  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland  would  not  be  complete  without 
some  reference  to  the  question  of  artesian  water.  This  question 
has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  controversy  between  the 
exponents  of  the  two  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  water, 
known  respectively  as  the  '^  Meteoric"  Theory,  and  the  "Plu- 
tonic" Theory.  Suffice  it  to  state,  that  there  seems  now  to  be 
no   reasonable  doubt    that  a   large  portion  of   the  water   is   of 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  5^ 

meteoric  origin,  and  that  the  belt  of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  ex- 
tending, probably  without  interruption,  from  near  Dubbo  in  New 
South  Wales,  to  the  Cape  York  Peninsula,  forms  the  intake-beds 
of  the  Great  Australian  Artesian  Basin.  Probably  also  a  small 
percentage  of  the  water  is  of  plutonic  origin.  It  is  also  now 
generally  agreed  among  Australian  geologists  that,  in  the  Great 
Australian  Artesian  Basin,  the  rocks,  from  which  all  the  large 
flows  of  water  are  obtained,  are  of  Lower  Mesozoic  age,  under- 
lying the  Marine  Cretaceous  (Rolling  Downs)  Series. 

An  examination  of  the  bore-records  shows  conclusively  that 
the  sandstones  of  the  Walloon  Series  in  Queensland,  and  the 
Artesian  Series  in  New  South  Wales,  extend  continuously  in  a 
westerly  and  south-westerly  direction  into  the  north-eastern  por- 
tion of  South  Australia.  The  depths  at  which  the  sandstone  is 
found  vary,  but,  in  genei  al,  the  deepest  occurrences  are  in  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  South  Australia,  not  far  from  the  Queens- 
land border. 

It  must  be  noted  here,  that,  near  the  border  between  Queens- 
land and  New  South  Wales,  in  the  vicinity  of  Hungerford,  there 
are  patches  of  granite  at  the  surface,  and  also  that  some  of  the 
bores  in  that  vicinity  have  struck  granite  at  comparatively 
shallow  depths  There  is  here,  then,  indication  of  an  island  in 
Lower  Mesozoic  time. 

In  the  north-east  of  South  Austialia,  where  the  Lower  Meso- 
zoic sandstones  are  at  great  depths,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
strata  above  them  include  Cainozoic,  Cretaceous  freshwater-beds 
(equivalent  to  the  Winton  Series  of  Western  Queensland),  and 
Cretaceous  marine  beds  (Rolling  Downs  Series).  This  is  in- 
ferred from  a  comparison  with  conditions  in  parts  of  Queensland; 
in  the  great  majority  of  bores,  unfortunately,  the  records  kept 
are  of  little  value  for  detailed  geological  purposes.  In  the  case 
of  the  Patchawarra  Ijore  in  South  Australia,  which  was  aban- 
doned at  5,458  feet  without  reaching  the  water-bearing  strata, 
it  appears  that  the  bore,  when  abandoned,  was  still  in  the  Cre- 
taceous rocks,  and  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  Artesian 
Series  of  sandstones  does  not  exist  further  down.  I  am  in- 
debted to  Mr.  L.  Keith  AVard,  Governnient  Geologist  of  South 


60         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OP    QUEENSLAND, 

Australia,  for  supplying  me  with  all  available  information  re- 
garding this  bore.  Mr.  Ward  also  remarks  that  the  bores  sunk 
by  the  South  Australian  Government,  with  tlie  exceptions  of 
Hergott  and  Marree  at  the  margin  of  the  basin,  have  failed  to 
reach  bedrock.  In  other  bores  in  the  north-east  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, water  is  obtained  from  sandstones  at  great  depths,  in- 
dicating surely  the  presence  of  equivalents  of  the  Walloon  Series. 
e.g.,  Uoyder's  Lagoon  Bore,  4,700  feet:  Mount  Gason  Bore,  4,420 
feet;  and  others. 

Examples  of  palteontological  proof  of  the  age  of  the  sandstones, 
carrying  the  large  supplies  of  artesian  water,  are  quoted  above 
{see  p.o8).  and  these  show  that  the  presence  of  artesian  water  is 
an  indication  of  the  existence  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Sandstones, 
and  can  be  used  in  the  determination  of  the  extent  of  these 
beds. 

{y)  Foldiny -movements  In  studying  the  folding-movements 
to  which  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland  have  been 
subject,  two  areas  may  be  considered  separately,  viz.,  {a)  the 
western  belt,  extending  from  the  Cape  York  Peninsula  to  the 
New  South  Wales  l)order,  and  (6)  the  occurrence  in  South-eastern 
Queensland,  (a)  The  western  belt  has  not  been  subject  to  any 
considerable  movement,  and  the  rocks  usually  dip  gently  to  the 
west  and  south-west  beneath  the  marine  Cretaceous  strata;  oc- 
casional high  angles  of  dip  have  been  observed.  (6)  In  South- 
eastern Queensland,  a  study  of  the  distribution  and  directions 
of  dip  shows  that  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  have  been  consider- 
ably folded,  and  that  the  folding  in  some  cases  gives  place  to 
faulting.  The  folding  takes  the  foi-ni  of  a  series  of  anticlines 
and  synclines,  whose  axes  are  in  a  direction  approximately  N.tJ0° 
W.-S.30°E.  The  distribution  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  in 
S<juth  eastern  Queensland  has  never  been  thoroughly  understood, 
but  the  recognition  of  this  series  of  folds  seems  to  explain  the 
distribution  in  a  simple  and  reasonable  manner.  In  places,  the 
folding  gives  place  to  faulting,  e.y..^  north  of  Ipswich,  and  pro- 
bably also  near  Hemmant.  Mr.  Ball  has  also  described  a  fault 
near  Woodford,*  which  he  believes  to  represent  a  continuation 

■'  Queensland  (government  Minin^^  Journal,  xvii.,  1916,  p. 169. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  61 

of  the  supposed  fault  at  Heminant.  The  general  directions  of 
the  dip  and  of  the  axes  of  foldino-  are  shown  in  Plate  ii. 

The  extent  of  this  folding,  which  has  aftected  both  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  and  the  overlying  Cretaceous  strata,  has  not  been 
generally  recognised,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  quota- 
tions. Dr.  Jensen*  says,  "Our  Mesozoic  sediments  show  no 
folding  of  consequence.  Generally  speaking,  they  show  only 
slight  dips,  and  have  never  been  under  the  influence  of  tangential 
pressure  like  the  Mesozoic  sediments  of  the  Alps,  Himalayas, 
Java,  etc  "'  Dr.  Richards,!  writing  of  South-eastern  Queensland, 
says,  "Folding-movements  of  only  a  very  gentle  nature  have 
taken  place  since  the  Palseozoic  era." 

Such  statements  are  not  consistent  with  the  folding  which 
has  been  observed  to  the  west  of  Ipswich,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Hemmant;  and  in  the  Maryborough  District,  particularly  on 
\\oody  Island,  where  the  strata  are  often  nearly  vertical. 

The  nature  of  the  folding  is  illustrated  in  two  Sections  (Text- 
fig.  1 ),  of  which  Section  A  has  been  prepared  from  a  section  drawn 
by  Mr.  Dunstan,  and  Section  B  from  a  combination  of  sections 
by  Messrs.  Cameron  and  Marks.  Neither  Mr.  Dunstan's  nor 
Mr.  Cameron's  original  section  has  been  published,  and  I  am 
indebted  to  them  for  permission  to  modify  these  sections  for 
use  here. 

This  folding  may  be  quite  adequately  and  reasonably  explained 
as  the  result  of  the  adaptation  of  the  earth's  crust  to  a  shrinking 
nucleus.  Such  folding  would,  naturally,  be  expected  along  zones 
of  weakness,  and  the  east  coastal  area  of  Australia  is  undoubt- 
edly such  a  zone.  Folding  of  this  nature  often  passes  into  fault- 
ing, and  this  may  have  occurred  near  Hemmant,  where  there 
seems  to  be  a  line  of  faulting  associated  with  folding,  and  also 
in  the  Ipswich  District,  where,  Mr.  Cameron  informs  me,  the 
severe  folding  just  south  of  Ipswich  gives  place  to  a  fault  further 
north. 

From  the  originals  of  the  sections,  it  was  possible  to  Estimate, 
approximately,    the   amount  of  shortening  of  the  earth's  crust 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Queensland,  xxiii.,  Pt.2,  p.  163. 
t  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Queensland,  xxvii.,Pt.2,  p.  114. 


^///^///' 


/  /.  y 


ri^V// 


Text-tig.  1  A. 


cQ 


Text-tig.  1 B. 

'I'ext-fig.  lA.  —  Sketch-Section 
from  near  Colton  to  Frazer 
Island,  sliowing  the  folding 
of  the  Jurassic  and  Creta- 
ceous rocks.  Vertical  scale 
exaggerated  about  2^  times. 
(Modified  from  Section 
drawn  by  Mr.  B.  Dunstan). 

Text-fig.  1  B. — Diagrammatic 
Section  from  Ipswich  to 
Manly,  showing  the  folding 
of  the  Lower  Mesozoie 
Strata.  Vertical  scale  ex- 
aggerated. (Modified  from 
Sections  by  Messrs,  W.  E. 
Cameron,  B.A.,  and  E.  0, 
Marks,  B.A.). 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  63 

represented  by  the  folding.  Both  sections  are  approximately  at 
right  angles  to  the  axes  of  folding.  In  the  section  between 
Ipswich  and  the  mouth  of  the  Brisbane  River,  a  shortening  of 
the  order  of  1|^  miles  in  .34  miles  has  been  effected;  and,  in  the 
Maryborough  district,  a  shortening  of  about  0*8  mile  in  34 
miles.  This  shortening  is  circumferential,  and  if  it  be  regarded 
as  the  shortening  represented  at  this  particular  time  for  the 
east-west  extent  of  Australia  (a  not  unreasonable  supposition, 
since  we  know  of  no  other  folding  of  the  same  age  across  Aus- 
tralia), the  radial  shrinkage  represented  would  be  of  the  order 
of  0-05%. 

Regarding  the  age  of  the  folding,  it  certainly  took  place  after 
the  Burrum  Coal-Measures  (probably  Lower  Cretaceous)  were 
deposited,  for  both  Marine  Cretaceous  strata,  which  are  ap- 
parently conformable  with  the  Tiaro  Series,  and  the  overlying 
Burrum  Coal-Measures  have  been  subject  to  this  folding  force, 
and  have  been  folded  to  an  extent  closely  comparable  with  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  strata.  This  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of 
Sections  A  and  B. 

This  same  folding  took  place  before  the  Cainozoic,  since  it 
has  not  affected  any  of  the  Cainozoic  rocks  of  South  eastern 
Queensland.  Also  the  disposition  of  the  Cainozoic  volcanic 
rocks  in  South-eastern  Queensland  indicates  that  the  Pre-Caino- 
zoic  drainage-system  was  approximately  meridional,  and  this 
may  be  closely  connected  with  the  N.30°W.  strike  of  the  folds 
of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 

In  the  Ipswich  District,  there  appears  to  have  been  a  sub- 
sequent period  of  folding.  This  is  comparatively  restricted,  and 
the  folds  produced  by  it  have  an  approximately  meridional 
direction.  The  Cainozoic  deposits  have  been  affected  by  this 
movement,  which  must,  therefore,  have  been  later  than  the 
period  of  folding  already  mentioned.  I  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
Cameron  for  information  regarding  this  latter  folding. 

Flora  of  the  Lowek  Mesozoic  Rocks  op  Queensland. 
The  lists,  presented  below,  of  the  Horas  of  the  Ipswich  and 
Walloon  Series  have  been  prepared  after  a  careful  examination 


64         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

of  the  specimens  available  in  the  collections  of  the  Queensland 
Geological  Survey,  the  University  of  Queensland,  the  Queens- 
land Museum,  and  the  "  Simmonds  "  Collection.  In  addition, 
previous  records  have  been  examined  and  verified  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and,  only  when  it  is  believed  that  they  are  reliable,  have 
they  been  included.  In  cases  where  the  original  specimens  have 
been  lost,  the  records  have  been  used  only  when  the  determina- 
tion is  not  subject  to  the  least  doubt.  These  lists,  then,  are 
regarded  by  the  author  as  being  as  complete  and  reliable  as  it  is 
possible  to  make  them,  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge. 

(a)  I/>stvir,/i.  Seines. — The  flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  comprises 
the  following  species  : — 
Equlsetalh:s. 

Equisetites  rotiferum  Tenison- Woods. 
Equiseiites  sp.  (tubers). 
Phyllotheca  aitstralis  Brongniart. 
N eocalamiles  luerensis  (Schimper). 
Neocalamites  cf.  Carrerei  Zeiller. 
Schizonenra  cf.  ajricaiia  Feistmantel. 
Filicales. 
Osmundaceffi. 

Cladophlebis  australis  (Morris). 
C.  Roylei  Arber. 
Cyatheacete. 

Coniopteris  delicatula  (Shirley). 
Dipteridinse. 

DictyophyUum  7nvyosuin  Lindley  and  Hutton. 
Thinnfeldiea?. 

Thinnfeldia  Feistinanteli  Johnston. 
Th.  laMci/oIia  (Morris). 
77/-.  odontopteroides  (Morris). 
Th.  acuta  VValkom. 
Marattiaceai. 

Danfeopsi.s  Hnyhesi  Feistmantel. 
Hydropteride8e('?;. 

Sagenopteris  rhoifolia  (PresI). 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


Of) 


Genera  of  Ferns  and  Plant.?:  incert.^  sedis. 
Spheiiopteris  hi.r.uiiosa  Shirley. 
Sph.  superba  Shirley. 

TcEiiioptaris  Tenison-Woodsi  Etheridge  Jr. 
T.  Carruthersi  Tenisoii-Woods 
T.  lentriculiforme  (Etheridge  Jr.). 
T.  Duiistani  Walkom. 
T.  ivianamattcp,  (Feistmantel). 
T.  crassinfTvis  (Feistmantel). 
Stenojiferis  elouyafa  (Carruthers).. 

GiNKGOALES. 

Ghikgo  aittarctica  Saporta. 
G.  digitata  (  Brongniart). 
G.  cf,  tmtgnifoHa  Fontaine. 
Baiera  Siiiimondai  Shirley. 
B.  bidens  (Tenison- Woods). 
/>    ipsvicieusis  Shirley. 
B.  ginkgoides  Shirley. 
('?)Ginkgoales. 

Stnchyopitys  annularioides  Shirley. 
aS'.  Simmojidsi  Shirley. 

CYCADOPHYrA, 

Bennettitales. 

Beiinettit-s  (  Williamsonia)  sp. 

CyCADOPHYTA  INCERT.E  SEDIS. 

Pterophyllum,  multilineatum  Shirley. 

Gymnospernious  seeds. 

Examination  of  this  list  at  once  shows  certain  distinctive 
features,  the  most  notable  being  the  comparatively  large  number 
of  Ginkgoales,  the  relatively  fevv  Cycadophyta,  and  apparent 
entire  absence  of  coniferous  remains.*     The  small  proportion  of 

*  This  statement  maj'  need  subsequent  modification.  Silicified  woods 
from  the  Ipswich  Series  have,  in  the  past,  been  described  as  Ai^aiicari- 
oxylon  spp.  These  woods  are  at  present  being  re-examined  by  Professor 
A.  C.  Seward,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  they  may  not  be  of  undoubted 
coniferous  affinities.  At  any  rate,  we  know  of  no  remains  from  the  Ipswich 
Series,  other  than  these  woods,  which  may,  at  the  present  time,  be  referred 
to  the  Conifers. 


66         UEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    ME80Z0IC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 


Cycads  may  ultimately  be  very  greatly  increased,  if  it  should  be 
shown  that  the  genus  Tce/)iiopteris  belongs  to  this  group.  In  a 
recent  publication,  Thomas  includes  species  of  Tceniopteris  with 
the  Cycadophyta,  as  a  result  of  his  examination  of  the  epidermis 
of  a  number  of  recent  and  fossil  Cycads.*  None  of  the  Queens- 
land Lower  Mesozoic  examples  of  Tceniopteris  obtained  have 
been  preserved  as  carbonaceous  films,  and  it  is  at  present  impos- 
sible to  state  the  nature  of  the  structure  of  the  epidermis  in 
them. 

The  list  of  species  in  this  Series  may  be  summarised,  and  the 
figures  expressed  in  percentages,  as  in  the  following  Table :  — 


Tablk 

i. 

1 

2 

8 

4 

No.  of 

% 

o/ 

o/ 

Species. 

^ 

/o 

Equisetales 

15 

15 

15 

Filicales 

10 

80 

1 

\ 
1 

89 

Filieales  incertc-e  sedis 

8 

9 

57 

Twniopteris 

6 

18 

1 

24 

Cycadophyta 

2 

G 

6 

(linkgoales 

7 

21 

21 

21 

Total      ... 

88 

— 

• 

Such  tables  as  these  must  be  used  with  a  good  deal  of  caution, 
as  their  indiscriminate  use  may  lead  to  quite  incorrect  and  even 
absurd  results;  but  careful  use,  with  a  full  realisation  of  their 
value  and  their  drawbacks,  may  yield  interesting  and,  to  some 
extent,  reliable  results.  The  use  of  such  numerical  methods  has 
not  come  into  very  general  use,  but  their  preparation  and  use 
have  been  illustrated  recently  by  VV  ieland.f 

In  the  above  Table  (Table  i.)  of  the  Ipswich  flora,  the  species 
of  Stachyopitys,  and  gymnospermous  seeds  have  not  been  used, 
since  they,  in  all  probability,  represent  seeds  or  reproductive 
organs  of  plants  already  represented  in  the  list  by  sterile  fronds. 
The  species  of  Tceniopteris  are  placed   separately  in  the  Table, 

*  Thomas,  Q.J.G.S.,  Ixix.;  p. 223. 
t  Anier.  Journ.  Sci.,  xxxvi.  (1918),  pp.268-278. 


B.    WALKOM. 


67 


since  their  position  is  uncertain.  Tn  column  3,  the  percentages 
are  given,  including  Tc^niojAeris  with  the  ferns;  in  column  4, 
this  genus  is  included  with  the  cycads.  This  latter  result  gives 
the  flora  a  not  abnormal  character  in  the  proportion  of  ferns  and 
cycads,  and  indicates  a  general  similarity  to  some  lihsetic  floras; 
there  are,  however,  certain  points  which  may  indicate  a  some- 
what greater  age,  e.y.,  the  high  percentage  of  Equisetales,  and 
the  rather  smaller  percentage  of  Cycads,  than  is  usual  in  Rhsetic 
and  Jurassic  floras. 

For  convenience  of  reference  and  comparison,  the  following 
Table  is  quoted  from  Wieland  :  —  * 

Table  ii.  (after  Wieland). 
Elements  of  typical  Rluetk-Oolitic  Ft  one. 


^ 

-2 

S 

_d 

%  i 

,'o 

X 

a; 

oT  a; 

90 

S 

'^ 

S 

■>  'o 

-^.2 

^i 

2  ^ 

^      r/. 

g^ 

90 

S^ 

■o^ 

•^-^ 

i^      ^ 

o 

o 

>HhS 

pq 

K 

d;^ 

hS 

Ferns 

42 

40 

37 

30 

32 

18 

48 

Cycadeans 

28 

38 

43 

33  1 

34  + 

70 

33 

Conifers 

27 

12 

),6 

17 

8 

(•2) 

9 

(Tinkgos 



4 

0 

•/ 

2 

Cordaites 





•> 

9 

9 

8 

2 

Eqnisetums    ... 

2 

-1 

4 

5 

2 

2 

o'o 

The  flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  may  now  be  examined  in 
greater  detail. 

Equisetales.  — Thki  percentage  of  Equisetales  in  the  Ipswich 
flora  is  unusually  high  for  a  Mesozoic  flora.  As  I  have  already 
pointed  out,t  they  show  attinities  with  the  Equisetales  of  Rhsetic 
floras.  Neocalarnites  hoereiisis  occurs  in  the  Rhsetic  of  Sweden, 
and  Neocal<imites  Carrerei  in  the  Rha?tic  of  Tonkin,  and  in  the 
Stormberg  flora  (Molteno  Beds)  of  South  Africa.  Phyllotheca 
australis  is  one  of  the  few  species  which  continue  from  the 
Palaeozoic  into  the  Mesozoic  in  Australia,  occurrincr  in  the  Per- 
mian  (Permo-Carboniferous)  of  Eastern  Australia,  and  also  in 

*  Amer.  Journ.  Sei.,  xxxvi.  (1913),  p.272. 
t  Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No. 252,  p. 38, 


68         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCK.S    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

the  Wianamatta  Stage  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series  of  New  South 
Wales.  Schizoiienra  africaiia  occurs  in  the  Beaufort  Series  in 
South  Africa  (Permian),  and,  according  to  Seward,  is  related  to 
iS'.  yondwa7ieiLiiis  from  the  Talchir,  Damuda,  and  Panchet  Series 
(Permian  and  Lower  Triassic)  of  India.  The  remaining  species, 
Equisetites  rotiferum,  is  a  widespread  type,  and  very  similar 
forms  are  widely  distributed  in  both  Rheetic  and  Jurassic  strata. 

Filicales.—  A  majority  of  the  true  ferns  of  the  Ipswich  Series 
indicate  a  Rhtetic  or  possibly  greater  age  for  the  flora.  Sterile 
Cladophlebis-ironds  of  the  C.  anstralis  type  are  of  very  wide- 
spread occurrence  in  rocks  varying  in  age  from  Rhsetic  to  Middle 
Jurassic.  Cladoph/ebis  Roylei  is  a  somewhat  older  type,  occur- 
ring in  the  Raniganj  Series  (Upper  Permian)  of  India.  Dictyo- 
phyllnm  riigosum  is  a  fairly  widespread  Jurassic  (Lower  Oolite) 
species,  but  there  is  so  little  difference  between  it  and  species  of 
Dictyophyllum  in  Rhsetic  floras,  that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
reliable  indicator  of  age.  The  species  of  Thinnfeldia  in  the 
Australian  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  do  not  appear  to  be  represented 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  three  species,  T.  Feistmait- 
teli,  T.  odontopteroides,  and  T.  lancifolia,  are  present  in  the 
Molteno  Beds  in  South  Africa;  and  T.  odoiilojiteroides  and  T. 
lancifolia  in  the  Mesozoic  flora  in  Argentina.  Dancr-opsis 
Hughesi  is  a  Rhretic  or  older  form,  occurring  in  the  Rhsetic  Beds 
of  Tonkin,  the  Burghersdorp  Beds  of  South  Africa  (Triassic), 
and  the  Middle  Gondwanas  of  India  (Triassic).  Sagenopteris 
rhoifolia  is  itself  a  Rhsetic  species,  but  it  is  at  times  difhcult  to 
distinguish  between  it  and  S.  Phillipsi,  a  common  Jurassic  form. 

Ginkgoales. — The  Ginkgoales  are  represented  by  a  compara- 
tively large  number  of  species,  and,  in  addition,  they  are  also 
relatively  abundant  as  regards  numbers  of  individuals.  Ginkgo 
antarctica  occurs  in  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  in  New  South 
Wales,  but  there  is  no  record  of  its  exact  locality  or  horizon.  G. 
digitata  is  a  very  variable  form  met  with  in  both  Rhsetic  and 
Jurassic  rocks.  G.  magnifolia  occurs  in  the  Jurassic  strata  of 
Oregon,  and  also  bears  some  slight  resemblance  to  Baiera  storm- 
bergensis  from  the  Stormberg  flora  of  South  Africa.  Baiera 
bidens  is  a  very  common  type,  and  is  similar  to  species  which  are 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  69 

abundant  in  both  Rhsetic  and  Jurassic  rocks.  B.  ipsviciensis 
may  be  compared  with  B.  multifida,  occurring  in  the  Rhsetic  of 
North  America:  and  B.  Simniondsi  also  occurs  in  the  Wiana- 
matta  Stage  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series  of  New  South  Wales. 
Stachyopilys  annularioides  is  a  very  similar  type  to  specimens 
referred  to  as  Stachyopilys  sp.,  in  the  Stormberg  flora  of  South 
Africa,  and  also  to  Sphenolejns  rhcetica  from  the  Pvhsetic  of  San 
Juan  (Argentine). 

Gycadophyta. — The  percentage  of  species  of  this  group  is  un- 
usually small  in  the  Ipswich  Series.  Should  the  genus  Tceui- 
opteris  ultimately  prove  to  be  a  cycad,  however,  the  percentage 
of  cycads  in  the  Ipswich  flora  would  be  a  normal  one  for  eaily 
Mesozoic  floras.  The  specimen  showing  expanded  bracts,  re- 
ferred to  Bennettites  (  Williamsonia)  sp.,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
indicating  any  special  age,  as  it  agrees  with  similar  specimens 
from  the  Mixteca-Alta  tiora  of  Mexico  (Rhsetic-Liassic),  and  also 
with  B.  Carruthersi  from  the  Wealden  of  England.  Fterophyllum 
multUineatiim  occurs  in  the  Rhajtic  of  Tonkin,  and  similar 
species  are  found  in  the  Burghersdorp  Beds  of  South  Africa. 

Genera  incerkB  sedis.  —  The  species  of  Sphenopteris  do  not  offer 
any  evidence  as  to  the  age  of  the  Series.  Species  of  Tceniopteris 
are  not  usually  to  be  regarded  as  reliable  indicators  of  geological 
age.  Of  the  species  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  some  appear  to  be 
confined  to  Australia,  while  others  of  them  occur  in  South  Africa 
and  India.  2\  Tenison-  Woodsi  and  7\  Carruthersi  are  found  in 
the  Stormberg  flora  (Molteno  Beds),  and  the  latter  also  in  the 
Burghersdorp  Beds  in  South  Africa;  T.  crassiuervis  occurs  in 
the  Rajmahal  Series  (Lias)  of  India.  Stenopteris  eloiigata occurs 
also  in  the  Stormberg  flora  of  South  Africa. 

The  accompanying  Table  (Table  iii.)  shows  the  relationships 
of  the  species  of  the  Ipswich  flora  to  species  in  other  floras.  The 
Table  is  arranged  in  four  columns,  column  1  showing  the  species 
with  affinity  to  species  older  than  Rhsetic,  column  3  those  with 
affinity  to  species  in  Rhsetic  floras,  and  column  4  those  of  Jurassic 
affinity.  The  Stormberg  flora  of  South  Africa  is  so  similar  in 
general  appearance,  that  the  species  common  to  the  two  are 
grouped  separately  in  column  2. 


70         GEOLOGY    OF    LOW  KR    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEEXSLAXD, 


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BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  71 

This  Table  at  oDce  shows  that  the  flora  of  the  Ipswicli  Series 
is  of  a  facies  at  least  as  old  as  Rhaetic.  In  addition  to  the  species 
occurring  in  Uhietic  floras,  there  are  also  a  number  of  species 
which  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  world  in  rocks  older  than 
Nhsetic.  The  number  of  species  in  the  Ipswicli  flora,  which 
represent  Jurassic  types,  is  not  large,  and  nearly  all  of  these 
are  examples  of  species  in  which  it  is  often  difficult  to  find  satis- 
factory distinctions  between  Rhsetic  and  Jurassic  species.  The 
only  two  species  of  the  Ipswich  flora,  which  are  characteristic  of 
Jurassic  rocks,  are  T'ceniopteris  crassinervis  and  Ginkgo  magtii- 
folia]  and,  regarding  the  latter  of  these,  I  have  a  slight  doubt 
as  to  the  determination  in  the  Ipswich  Series 

Of  twenty-two  species  in  this  'J'able,  eighteen  occur  in  Rhtetic 
floras,  six  occur  in  floras  older  than  Rhsetic,  and  seven  in  Jurassic 
floras,  only  two  of  the  latter,  however,  being  characteristic  of 
Jurassic  floras. 

The  Table,  together  with  the  foregoing  discussion,  shows  fairl}^ 
conclusively  that  the  flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  must  be  regarded 
as  at  least  as  old  as  Rhietic,  and  probably  somewhat  older. 

[h]  Walloou  Serias. — The  flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  comprises 
the  following  species  :  — 

Equisktales. 

Equisetifes  rotijerum  Tenison-Woods. 
Equisetites  cf.  rajinahalensis  Oldham  and  Morris. 
Schizoiieura  sp.a  Seward. 
Schizo'iieura  sp. 

Filicales. 

(1;Osmundaceye. 

C'lodophlebis  aiistralis  (Morris). 

C.  Roylei  Arber. 
{?)Matonineie. 

Phlebopteris  aleihopUroides  Etheridge  Jr. 
Dipteridinse. 

Dictyophyllum  riigosumil)  Lindley  and  Hutton. 

D.  Davidi  Walkom. 
UausmaniLia(\)  Buchii  (Andrjc). 


I         GEOLOGV    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEEXSLAS-D, 

Thiniifeldiese. 

Thiniifeldia  Feistmaitteli  Johnston. 

Th.  odontopteroides  (Morris;. 

Th.  Imtcifolia  (Morris). 
(IjHydropteridete. 

Sayenopteris  7'hoijolia  (Presl). 
Genera  incehtve  sedis. 

Spheiioi^teris  snperba  Shirley. 

Stenopteris  elongata  (Carruthers). 

Phyllopteris  Feistma/itteli  Etheridge  Jr. 

T(eiiiopteris  spatulata  McClelland. 

T.  spatulata  var.  ynajor  Seward. 

T.  Tenison-Woodsi  Etheridge  Jr. 

1\  Carrttthersi  Tenison- Woods. 

T.  lentricidi/orme  (Etheridge  Jr.). 

T.  crassiiiervis  (Feistmantel). 

GiNKGOALES. 

Ginkgo  magnifolia  Fontaine. 

Baiera  Simmoiidsi  Shirley. 
Cycadophyta. 
Bennettitales. 

Ptilophylluiu  (  WUliamsoiiia)  pecten  (Phillips). 
Cycadophyta  incert^.  sedis. 

Pterophylluni  ahuorme  Etheridge  Jr. 

P.  contiguum  Schenk. 

P.  Nathorsti  (Seward). 

Pseudoctenic  eathiensis  (Kichards). 

Otozatnites  queenslatidi  Walkom. 

0.  obtusus  (Lindley  and  Hutton). 

0.  Feistmanteli  Zigno. 

0.  Mandelslohi  Kurr. 
Coniferales. 

Araucarites  polycarpa  (Tenison-Woods) 

Br  achy phy  Hum  crassuia  Tenison-Woods 

Taxites  planus  Feistmantel. 
Genus  incert^  sedis. 

PhoRuicopsis  elongatus{])  (Morris), 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


73 


The  outstanding  feature  of  this  flora  is  the  large  increase  in 
the  number  of  cycads.  Other  noticeable  points  are  the  decided 
decrease  in  the  number  of  species  of  Ginkgoales,  and  the  presence 
of  a  few  Conifers. 

Arranged  in  tabular  form,  and  omitting  from  iht'Tshle  Schizo- 
neura  sp.,  which  may  possibly  be  the  external  casts  of  which 
S.  sp.  a  is  the  pith-cast,  and  also  Fhamicopsis  elongat2i,s,  whose 
position  is  quite  unknown,  the  following  result  is  obtained. 

Table  iv. 


•     1 

2 

3 

4 

No   of 

species. 

% 

% 

% 

lOqiiisetales 

8 

S 

8 

8 

Filicales 

10 

28 

1 
/ 

36 

Filicales  incertae  sediy 

3 

8 

53 

Taniiopteris 

6 

17 

} 

42 

Cycadophyta 

9 

25 

25 

(rinkgoales 

2 

6 

6 

6 

Coniferales 

3 

8 

8 

8 

Total 

SQ 

— 

This  Table  shows  distinct  difierences  from  that  of  the  Ipswich 
flora  (Table  i.,  p. 66),  and  when,  as  in  column  4,  the  species  of 
Tce7iiopteris  are  combined  with  the  Cycads,  the  percentages  agree 
quite  well  with  the  percentages  in  Jurassic  floras,  particularly 
with  the  Lower  Oolite  Hora  of  Yorkshire  {see  Table  ii.,  p,67). 

The  flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  may  now  be  discussed  in  more 
detail. 

Eqiiisetales.—M.em\)ers  of  this  group  are  not  of  uncommon 
occurrence  in  the  Walloon  Series.  Equisetites  rohferuni  is 
almost  indistinguishable  from  the  widely  spread  E.  columnaris 
of  Middle  Jurassic  floras,  and  Equisetites  cf.  rajmahalensis  is 
closely  comparable  with  the  species  in  the  Liassic  flora  of  India. 
Schizo7ieurafiij.a  is  identified  with  the  species  described  from  the 
Stormberg  Beds  of  South  Africa.  Pith-casts  of  Equisetales, 
however,  cannot  be  regarded  as  of  any  value  in  difi'erentiating 
between  Rhsetic  and  Jurassic  floras. 


74         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Filicales. — Tlie  ferns,  although  not  particularly  numeious, 
have  the  general  appearance  of  a  Jurassic  tiora.  Cladophlebis 
australis,  as  already  stated,  is  a  type  of  frond  of  widespread 
occurrence,  but  is  specially  close  to  the  C.  denticulata-iy^e,  a 
widespread  Jurassic  form.  Phlehopteris  alethopter aides  is,  in  all 
probability,  very  closely  allied  to  Laccopteris  polypodioides  from 
the  European  Lower  Oolite,  though  there  appears  to  be  a  differ- 
ence in  the  venation.  DiGtyophyllurti  rugosum  is  a  Jurassic 
type,  but  its  occurrence  in  the  Walloon  Series  is  doubtful. 
Hausmannia  Buchii,  with  which  some  specimens  from  the  Wall- 
oon Series  have  been  compared,  occurs  in  Jurassic  floras  of  both 
Liassic  and  Kimeridgean  age.  Sage7wpteris  rhoij'olia,  though 
itself  a  Rhsetic  species,  is,  at  times,  indistinguishable  from  the 
Jurassic  S.  Fhillipsi.  The  species  of  Thinnfeldia,  and  Stenopteris 
elongata  in  the  Walloon  Series  are  survivals  from  the  Ipswich 
flora.  The  survival  of  a  number  of  species  from  the  Ipswich 
flora  to  the  Walloon  flora,  and  even  to  later  floras,  in  Queens- 
land is  to  be  expected,  since  there  were  no  violent  earth-move- 
ments during  these  times,  and  no  marked  changes  are  known, 
which  might  have  been  expected  to  lead  to  any  unusual  dying 
out  of  the  older  flora.  It  is  indeed  fortunate,  for  stratigraphical 
study,  that  there  are  so  many  forms  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  which 
apparently  have  not  survived  into  the  AValloon  Series. 

Ginkgoales. — There  has  been  a  remarkable  change  in  the 
number  of  members  of  this  group.  In  the  Ipswich  Series,  we 
have  at  least  seven  species  represented,  while,  in  the  Walloon 
Series,  there  are  only  so  far  two.  Ginkgo  magnifolia  is  probably 
identical  with  Fontaine's  G.  IhUtoni  var.  magnifolia  from  the 
Jurassic  of  Oregon.  The  other  species,  Baiera  Sinimondsi,  is 
another  survival  from  the  Ipswich  Epoch. 

Cycadophyta. — Cycads  form  the  most  prominent  element  of 
the  Walloon  flora,  in  which  they  are  present  to  the  extent  of  at 
least  25  per  cent,  of  the  species,  and,  perhaps,  (if  Tceniojderis  is 
a  Cycad)  42  per  cent.  On  the  whole,  they  indicate  very  dis 
tinctly  the  aspect  of  a  Jurassic  flora.  Ftilojjhyllum  (  Williavi- 
soitia)  pecten  is  a  very  widespread  tjpein  Jurassic  (Oolite)  floras. 
Up  to  the  present,  there  is  no  indication  of  any  Williamsonia- 


BY    A.    fi.    WALKOM. 


75 


flowers  associated  with  these  sterile  fronds  of  FtMophyllum 
ppxten.  Pterophylhim  A'athorsli  occurs  in  the  Jurassic  of  Suth- 
erland, Scotland,  and  very  similar  forms  occur  in  the  Jurassic  of 
Oregon  ;  Ptenyphyll nni  contigiiuin  occurs  in  the  Jurassic  of 
Oregon,  and  also  in  the  Rhsetic  of  'J'onkin.  Pseiidoctenis  eathi- 
eiisis  is  practically  identical  with  specimens  from  tlie  Jurassic  of 
Yorkshire  and  Sutherland.  The  three  species  of  Otozamites,  0. 
ohtusiL.s,  0  Feisimariteli,  and  0.  Maiidelslohi  are  species  occurring 
widely  in  Jurassic  rocks,  and  0.  Mandehlohi  occurs  in  the 
Mixteca-Alta  flora  of  Mexico. 

Coniferales. —  Remains  of  Conifers  are  not  abundant  in  the 
Walloon  Series.  Cones  have  been  described,  and  referred  to  the 
genus  Araucarites,  indicating  that  they  are  similar  in  general  to 
cones  of  the  present-day  Araucatia.  A  few  fragments  have 
been  referred  to  the  genus  Br  achy phy  Hum,  and  some  specimens 
to  Taxites.  The  specimens  referred  to  Taxites  planus  show  a 
very  close  resemblance  to,  and  are  probably  identical  with,  that 
species,  as  described  from  the  Upper  Gondwana  Beds  (Liassic) 
on  the  Madras  coast  of  India.  Similar  forms  to  Brnchyphyllum 
crassutn  occur  in  the  English  Jurassic  floras. 

The  accompanying  Table  (Table  v.)  shows  the  flora  of  the 
Walloon  Series  arranged  in  two  columns,  column  1  including 
those  species  comparal)le  with  species  occurring  in  beds  older 
than  Jurassic,  and  column  2  those  comparable  with  Jurassic 
species. 

Tabi.e  v. 
Flora  of  ^Valloon  (Series,  showing  affinities  of  species  with  regard  to  age. 


Species  with  affinit}^  to    , 
Species  older  than  Jurassic. 


Species  u-jth  affinity  to  Jurassic 
Species. 


Equ  ixet ite><  rot iftra  m 

Schizoneara  sp.  a 

(J/ a.  doph  I  eh  is  a  ns(  ra/is 

C.  Roy  hi 

Th in  nfeJdia  Ftistma ntel i 

Th.  odontopteroides 

Th.  laiicifoUa 


Equisedtes  rofiferum  (M.  Jur.) 
E.  cf.  rajmahaltnsus  (Liassic) 
Cladopldehix  ausfra/is  (L.  Oolite) 
Phhhopferis  ahthopteroidt.^  (L.  Oolite) 
Dictyophylhim  rwjosum  (L.  Oolite) 
Htoi-^inaiiiiiii  (''.)  /Jiir/iii  {]j\tiHH\c;  Kimeridge) 
Sagtnopteris  rhoifolia  {S.  PJiiHipsi;  Oolite) 


76      GEOLoi'iV'  OF  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland, 
Table  v. — (continued). 


1 

Species  with  affinity  to 

■ 

Species  with  affinity  to  Jurassic 

Species  older  than  Jurassic. 

Species. 

Sagaiopferis  rhoifolia 

Phyllopteris  FeistmauteU 

Sttnopteris  e/oiif/afa 

Titmiopferii<  spatulata  (Lias) 

Tcvniopterl.^  Tenison-  Woodd 

T.  spatulata  var.  major 

T.  Carrufhersl 

T.  crassmerri.s  (Lias) 

G inkgo  maf/n  ifol ia 

Ghil-(jo  DtfKjnI/o/ia  (Jurassic  of  Oregon) 

Baiera  Simmoitdxl 

Ptilophylhnu  [  Williamsonm)  pecten  (Oolite) 

Pterophyllnm  ronti'juum 

Pterophyllum  confi;/iiiim  (Jm-dSBiG  of  Oregon) 

Otozamites  Mandelslohi 

P.  Xaihoysti  (Kimeridge) 

Pseudoctenis  eafhiensis  (Kimeridge) 

Otozamites  ohtusus  (L.  Oolite) 

0.  Feistmanttfi  (L.  Oolite) 

0.  Mandtlsfohi  (Lias) 

Brachyphyllum  crassum 

Taxites  planus  (Lias) 

The  ages  of  the  species,  or  of  very  closely  related  species,  in 
cohimn  2  are  indicated  in  brackets  after  each  one. 

Examining  this  Table,  we  find  that,  excluding  the  six  species 
common  to  the  two  lists,  there  are  nine  species  with  affinities  to 
species  older  than  Jurassic,  and  fifteen  species  with  Jurassic 
affinities.  Of  the  nine  species  regarded  as  older  than  Jurassic, 
eight  occur  also  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  and  are  the  species  which 
survived  from  the  Ipswich  to  the  Walloon  Epoch;  there  is  only 
a  single  species  (and  that  an  equisetaceous  pith-cast,  Schizo7ieura 
sp.a)  which  could  be  considered  as  an  argument  in  favour  of  an 
age  older  than  Jurassic  for  the  Walloon  Series;  whereas  there 
are  fifteen  species  characteristic  of  Jurassic  floras,  which  appear 
in  the  Walloon  Series,  and  were  not  present  in  the  Ipswich 
Series.  No  other  conclusion,  then,  seems  possible,  than  that  the 
flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  indicates  that  the  Series  is  homo- 
taxial  with  strata  of  Jurassic  age,  and  the  greater  number  of 
species  (see  Table  v.)  indicate  a  lower  Jurassic  age,  Liassic  or 
Lower  Oolite.  It  is  possible  that  the  Walloon  Series  represents 
deposition  over  a  period  covering  both  the  Liassic  and  Lower 
Oolite  of  Europe. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  /  / 

(c)  Ccmipariso'n  of  floras  of  the  Ipsivirh  and  WaUoon  Series.  —  - 
We  are  now  in  a  position  to  compare  the  fioras  of  the  Ipswich 
and  Walloon  Series.  As  a  result  of  all  previous  examinations 
of  these  floras,  it  has  been  observed  that  there  was  no  palseonto- 
logical  distinction  between  the  floras  of  the  two  Series;  e.g.^  Mr. 
Cameron  states  •*  "It  does  not,  however,  seem  possible  to  draw 
any  distinction  between  the  formations  from  pala?ontological 
evidence,  most  of  the  fossils  as  yet  found  in  the  Walloon  Beds 
occurring  also  in  the  Ipswich  Beds." 

The  failure  to  note  palseontological  distinction  between  the 
two  has  been  due,  however,  to  imperfect  collecting,  and  to  the 
fact  that  the  material  available  has  not  been  thoroughly  ex 
amined  since  the  examination  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  prior  to  the 
publication  of  the  "  Geology  and  Palaeontology  of  Queensland 
and  New  Guinea,"  in  1892.  In  1898,  Dr.  Shirley  examined  and 
described  a  number  of  specimens,  but  all  the  Lower  Mesozoic 
specimens  among  them  were  from  the  Ipswich  Series.  The  same 
author,  in  1902  recorded  a  few  more  specimens  from  the  Ipswich 
Series,  and  some  from  the  Stewart's  Creek  Beds  (of  Walloon  age). 
At  the  time  of  these  publications,  however,  there  was  no  subdivi- 
sion of  the  Ipswich  Formation  into  Ipswich,  Bundamba,  and  Wal- 
loon Series,  so  it  is  not  remarkable  that  no  distinction  of  horizons 
was  noted  in  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  Formation. 

A  glance  at  the  following  Tables  (Tables  vi.  and  vii.)  at  once 
shows  that  there  are  points  in  which  the  two  Series  can  be  dis- 
tinctly separated,  and  that  there  are  a  number  of  species  char- 
acteristic of  each.  These  species,  characteristic  of  only  one 
Series,  are  the  more  important  ones  from  a  stratigraphical  point 
of  view,  and  the  finding  of  some  of  them  may,  in  the  future,  be 
used  for  fixing  the  age  of  the  strata  in  which  they  occur. 


<^)ueensland  Ueol.  Surv.,  Publication  No.204,  p.  16. 


78         GE0L0r4Y    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 


Table  vi. 


Ipswich  Series. 

Walloon  Series. 

No 

of  species. 

No. 

of  species. 

Equisetales 

;■) 

3 

Filicales          

10 

10 

Cienera  incertte  sedis — 

a,  probably  Filicales 

^ 

3 

//,  Titniopteris  ... 

6 

6 

Cycadophyta 

9 

Ginkgoales     

/ 

2 

Coniferales     

83 

3 

36 

Table  vii. 

Table  sliowing  distribution  in  Queensland  of  the  Species  of  Fos.sil   Plants 

in  the  Lower  Mesozoic  roeks. 


i 

Walloon  Series. 

T. 

^ 
u 

s 

X 

2 

« 

=    ! 

ijB 

1 

ij 

02 

=1 

% 

5 

1 

^  ■ 

i 

IS 

o 

.5 

=     1 

i 

& 

xiS 

3i 

H 



c;    1 

Equisetales. 

Equisetitei^  rot i/h-um 

X 

X 

X 

(?) 

E.  cf.  rajmahalensis 

X 

PhyUotlieca  austral i^ 

X 

• 

Xeoca/amifes  lufrensis 

X 

X.  cf.  Carrerei 

X 

Schizoneura  cf.  africana 

X 

Schizoneura  sp.  a 

X 

X 

Filicales. 

CladophltbU  aiisfra/is 

X 

X 

X 

{•?) 

X 

X 

X 

(?) 

C.  Roylei         

X 

X 

Coniopteris  delicatitla 

X 

Ph/ebopteris  alethopteroides  . . . 

X 

X 

Dictyophyllum  rugosum 

X 

.(V) 

(?) 

D.  Davidi       

X 

i 

Hausmannia  Biichii{^.) 

X 

i 

TJi  hi  ii/e/dia  Feist  mantel  i 

X 

X 

i 

X 

Th.  odonfopteroides 

X 

X 

Th.  lancifolia              

X 

X 

Th.  acuta        

X 

Daiui'opsis  Hiiyhesi 

X 

Sagenopteris  rhoifoUa 

X 

X 

Genera  of  Ferns  and  Plants 

• 

incertae  sedis. 

Sphenopteris  lacunosa 

X 

I 

' 

BY    A.    B.    \YALKOM. 


79 


Table  vii. — {continued). 


.1 

Walloon  Series.                      ! 

to      1 

4i 

- 

2 

'  « 

5^ 

^ 

*> 

i 

1 

it 

a 

-5  « 

^1 

6 

.2 

5* 

.S 

-j 

Ik 

c 

iJ  ~. 

75 

* 

SI 

1 

E 
o 

-55 

& 

2^ 

It 

S 

Sphenopferi-'i  i^nperJ)a ... 

X 

(?) 

Sfenopferifi  eJongafa   ... 

X 

(?) 

1 

J'hi///opieris  Feistmanfe/i 

(?) 

X 

1 

Tiifntopteri-y  fipafuhifa 

X 

X 

K 

X 

X 

T.  ■•^patnlata  var.  major 

X 

(?) 

X 

T.  Ttni.<<on-WoocUi   ' 

X 

X 

X 

T.  CarrntherM 

X 

X 

T.  lenlricu/l/orme 

X 

(?) 

T.  Diinstani    ... 

X 

T.  icianamatfte 

X 

T.  crasMnern's 

X 

X 

X 

Ginkgoales. 

(rinh-io  a ntarctlca 

X 

G.  di  flit  at  a       

X 

G.  cf.  maynifoUa.       

X 

X 

Baiera  Simmond^i     ... 

X 

X 

B.hide».s         

X 

/>.  ip/.'^ricienM.'s 

X 

B.  i/inkyoides  ... 

X 

(?)Gink»oales. 

Staehi/opifi/--!  annjilarioide-^  . . . 

X 

S.  Simmond.'<i ... 

X 

Cycadophj'ta. 

Bennettitefi  (Widiamsonia)  sp. 

X 

PtUophyUnm  (  WiUiamsonla) 

ptcten       

X 

Pferophydnm  ahnormc 

X 

Ft.  coiififfiiKm 

X 

Ft,  innltilineatum 

X 

Ft.  Xathorsti              

X 

F.-<eudocteuis  eathieuMS 

' 

X 

Otozamites  queenslandi 

i 

X 

0.  ohtUSHS         

X 

0.  Fei.^t mantel i 

X 

X 

0.  cf.  Mandela/ ohi     

X 

Conifeiales. 

, 

A  raucarite-s  poJycarpa 

X 

Brachyp)hydum  crasmm 

X 

X 

:  (?) 

(?) 

Taxitex  planus            

1 

X 

X 

(?) 

Genus  ineertse  sedis. 

! 

Fhoenicopsis  elongatus 

X 

(4ymnospermous  seeds 

X 

i 

80        GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 


The  marked  difference  between  the  two  floras  shows  in  the 
Gyninosperms.  In  the  Equisetales  and  Filicales,  there  is  little 
difference  as  regards  number  of  species.  Only  two  of  the  species 
of  Equisetales,  and  seven  of  the  Filicales,  however,  are  common 
to  the  two  Series;  and,  of  the  others,  those  in  the  Ipswich  Series 
are  of  older  type  than  those  in  the  Walloon  Series.  When  the 
Gvmnosperms  are  examined,  however,  a  marked  distinction 
between  the  two  Series  is  to  be  observed.  Twenty-two  species 
are  described  from  the  Lowei*  Mesozoic  rocks,  and  only  two  of 
these  species  are  common  to  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series. 
These  two  species  are  Ginkgo  cf.  magnifolia  and  Baiera  Sim- 
mondsi.  Ginkgoales  are  abundant,  both  as  regards  number  of 
species  and  number  of  individuals,  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  but  are 
only  poorly  represented  in  both  respects  in  tlie  Walloon  Series. 
Cycads  are  represented  very  sparsely,  as  regards  number  of 
species,  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  whereas  they  constitute  perhaps 
the  most  prominent  feature  of  the  Walloon  flora,  being  very  wide- 
spread in  distribution  and  occurring  in  large  numbers  on  some 
horizons.  The  species  of  Otozamites  form  one  of  the  most  char- 
acteristic and  distinctive  features  of  the  Walloon  Series.  Up 
to  the  present,  no  Conifers  are  known  from  the  Ipswich  Series,"*^ 
whilst  there  are  three  species  representing  three  genera  from 
the  Walloon  Series. 

Table  viii.  shows  the  species  occurring  in  Queensland,  which 
are,  so  far  as  we  know,  found  only  in  one  Series  of  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks. 

Table  viii. 


Species  known  only  in  the 
Ipswich  Series. 

l^ltylJotlieca  australis 
Ntocalamiles  ha^renAii^ 
X.  cf.  Carrerei 
Schizoneura  cf.  a/ricana 
Coniopterift  delicatula 
Thinnfe/dia  acuta 
JJan(eop,sis  Hughesi 
!Spli  e.  nopt  1 1  •  /.v  lacunosa 
Tceniopttris  Dunstani 
T.  wianamattcE 


Species  known  only  in  the 
Walloon  Series. 


Ph/ehojjferis  al ethopterokles 
Dictyophyllum  Dacidi 
Ha usniannia{ V)  Buck ii 
PhyUopteri.s  FeiMmanfeii 
Twniopttrix  spatn/ata 
T.  spatidata  var.  major 
FtilophyUum  (  Wif/ia/n.-^oiiia)  ptcttn 
HtcropJiyllnm  alnionnc 
F.  contiguam 
F.  Nathorsti 


*  See  footnote  on  p.  65. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  (^  1 

Table  viii. — {continued) 


Species  known  onlj^  in  the 
Ipswinh  Sexies. 

(rinkffo  antarctica 
a.  dujitata 
Ha ( era  hkhn.'^ 

/>.  </ink!/otf/e-'< 

Sfarh  f/ojt/fi/'«  a n n u/a rioidc-< 

S.  Sim/nond><i 

Bennett  itex  {Will  iaui-^oiiiu)  sj).  '   Taxitea  planiu 

Fterophi/lliim  nudtilinea/ii/ii  \   Ph<eiiiropsi-'<  elon(/afii> 

(iyninospernious  seeds  i 


Species  known  only  in  the 
Walloon  Sei^ies. 

P'^endodenis  eathienm.^ 
Otozam ife-'i  qncen-'ilaiidi 

O.   ol>t)l.s,l.-< 

O.  Ftisfmaiitell 

0.  MandeJ.'^loli  i 

A  rancarites  pohjcarpa 

llrarhy Jill yll urn  crax'Oiin 


(d)  Age  of  the  Queensland  Loive^'  Mesozoic  Rocks. — The  evi- 
dence of  the  fossil  floras  of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series  is 
very  strongly  in  favour  of  a  Triassic  Age  for  the  former,  and  a 
Jurassic  Age  for  the  latter. 

The  flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  shows  marked  resemblance  to 
floras  which  are  regarded  as  Rhsetic  in  age  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  particularly  those  of  Tonkin  and  South  Africa.  Pvegard- 
ing  the  actual  position  in  the  Geological  P^ecord  of  many  of  the 
occurrences  classed  as  Rhsetic  from  their  fossil  flora,  I  have  re- 
ceived some  interesting  information  from  Dr.  A.  L.  du  Toit,  of 
the  South  African  Geological  Survey.* 

Dr.  du  Toit  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  some  of  the  so- 
called  Rhajtic  strata  would  be  better  placed  in  the  Upper  Trias 
( Keuper)  than  in  the  Rhsetic.  He  includes  among  these  the 
strata  in  South  Africa,  Tonkin,  and  Persia.  In  the  case  of  South 
Africa,  he  finds  this  is  borne  out  by  an  analysis  of  the  vertebrate 
fauna  of  the  Red  beds  and  Cave  sandstone  overlying  the  Molteno 
Beds,  which  is  of  Triassic  ati&nities.  He  concludes  that  the  Jiora 
of  the  Molteno  Beds  is  of  Keuper  Aye  and  not  younger. 

The  Ipswich  flora  is  undoubtedly  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
Molteno  Beds  (see  Table  iii.,  column  2),  but  the  finding  of  Gloss- 
opteris  in  the  latter  suggests  that  it  is  possibly  slightly  older 
than  the  Ipswich  flora. 

*  Letter  dated  2nd  December,  1916. 


82         GEOLOGY    OF    LOAYER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

From  the  evidence  available,  M'e  are  justified  in  stating  that 
the  flora  of  the  Ipswich  Series  indicates  distinctly  an  Upper 
Triassic  age,  possibly  Rhsetic,  but  probably  older. 

The  flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  is  decidedly  of  a  Jurassic  type, 
and  the  typical  Jurassic  forms  in  the  Series  seem  to  consist  of 
about  equal  numbers  of  species  characteristic  of  Liassic  and 
Lower  Oolitic  strata.  The  Walloon  Series  is  of  very  great  thick- 
ness (probably  of  the  order  of  10,000  feet),  and  when  it  has  been 
studied  in  greater  detail,  it  seems  quite  probable  that  it  may 
have  to  be  subdivided  into  a  number  of  stages.  For  the  present, 
we  may  regard  the  Walloon  Series  as  representing  a  portion  of 
the  Lower  Jurassic  System  corresponding  at  least  to  the  Lias 
and  Lower  Oolite. 

It  is  very  diflicult  to  draw  any  reliable  conclusion  as  to  whether 
the  Bundamba  Series  should  be  placed  with  the  Ipswich  Series 
in  the  'I'riassic,  or  with  the  Walloon  Series  in  the  Jurassic. 

There  is  no  fossil  evidence  which  may  be  taken  as  a  guide. 
Both  Mr.  Cameron  and  Mr.  Dunstan  have  drawn  my  attention 
to  the  usual  association  of  the  Bundamba  Series  with  the  Ipswich 
Series,  rather  than  with  the  Walloon  Series;  and,  on  this  account, 
it  is,  for  the  present,  tentatively  placed  in  the  Triassic  System 
with  the  Ipswich  Series. 

Correlation  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  Queensland 

WITH  those  of  other  AREAS  IN  AUSTRALIA. 

In  considering  the  correlation  of  the  Queensland  Lower  Meso- 
zoic rocks  with  those  of  the  other  States,  their  relations  with  the 
States  will  be  discussed  separately  in  the  first  place,  and  then 
the  results  summarised  by  drawing  up  a  table  indicating  the 
relative  positions  of  the  various  occurrences. 

(a)  New  South  Wales. — In  New  South  Wales,  the  strata  of 
Lower  Mesozoic  age  comprise  (a)  the  Hawkesbury  Series,  includ- 
ing the  Narrabeen  Stage,  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stage,  and 
Wianamatta  Stage,  to  which  a  Triassic  age  has  generally  been 
assigned;  (b)  the  Talbragar  Beds,  the  Clarence  Series,  and  the 
Artesian  Series,  which  have  been  regarded  as  of  Trias-Jura  age. 


BY    A.    B.    AVALKOM.  83 

The  Hawkesbury  Series  is  divided  into  tbi-ee  Stages,  viz.  : — 
Xarrabeen,  Hawkesbury  Sandstone,  and  Wianamatta.  in  ascend- 
ing order.  The  Narrabeen  Stage  consists  mainly  of  sandstones 
and  shales,  the  Hawkesbury  Stage  of  massive  sandstones  char- 
acterised by  current-bedding,  and  the  Wianamatta  Stage  mostly 
of  shales. 

This  Series  comprises  a  basin,  and  is  apparently  conformable, 
in  the  central  portion  of  the  basin,  with  the  underlying  Permian 
(Permo-Carboniferous)  System;  but,  in  the  marginal  areas,  there 
is  an  overlap  amounting  to  unconformity.  The  Hawkesbury 
Sandstone  Stage  rests  conformably  on  the  Narrabeen  Stage, 
while  the  Wianamatta  Stage  occupies  a  slightly  eroded  basin  in 
the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone.* 

The  Talbragar  Beds  cover  only  a  small  area,  and  occupy  a 
basin  eroded  in  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  of  an  unconformity,  stratigraphical  as  well  as  palseonto- 
logical,  between  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  and  the  Talbragar 
Beds. 

The  Clarence  Series  occurs  in  the  north-east  of  New  South 
Wales,  between  the  New  England  Tableland  and  the  coast;  and, 
at  its  northern  end,  it  is  continuous  with  the  Walloon  Series  of 
Queensland.  Reference  to  the  latest  Geological  Map  of  New 
South  Wales  shows  that  the  Clarence  Series  is  practically  con- 
tinuous with  the  Walloon  Series  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mt. 
Lindsay,  and  also  that,  further  west,  it  is  continuous  with  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  belt  of  Walloon  Series  on  the  Darling 
Downs,  extending  through  Warwick  and  Killarney  to  the  border 
of  New  South  Wales. 

The  Artesian  Series  of  New  South  Wales  exists  on  the  western 
margin  of  the  New  EngLind  Tableland,  and  extends  along  the 
eastern  margin  of  the  Great  Australian  Artesian  Basin.  It  is 
practically  continuous  into  Queensland  with  the  belt  of  Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  extending  past  Warwick  and  Toowoomba.  It  is 
seen,  then,  that  the  Clarence  Series  and  Artesian  Series  are  each 
directly  connected  with  the  belt  of  Walloon  Series  in  the  Darling 

"  See  Carne,  N.S.W.  Handbook,  B.A.A.S..  1914,  pp. 601 -607. 


84         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Downs,  and  they  must,  therefore,  be  identified  with  one  another 
as  regards  age,  on  the  evidence  of  their  field-occurrence  alone. 

Lithologically,  the  Clarence  Series  is  divisible  into  three  divi 
sions,  the  middle  one  consisting  of  a  series  of  massive  sandstones. 
This  lithological  division  led  to  a  consideration  of  the  possibility 
of  the  three  stages  being  the  equivalents  of  the  Narrabeen, 
Havvkesbury  Sandstone,  and  Wianamatta  Stages  of  the  Hawkes- 
bury  Series.  Mr.  Carne*  has,  however,  shown,  in  a  convincing 
manner,  that  this  is  not  the  case. 

Another  possibility  that  must  be  considered  is,  that  the  three 
stages  of  the  Clarence  Series  might  be  the  equivalents  of  the 
Ipswich,  Bundamba,  and  Walloon  Series  of  Queensland.  Un- 
fortunately, the  Clarence  Series  has  not  been  examined  in  great 
detail  geologically,  but  the  fact,  that  Carne  indicates  the  presence 
of  'Tcenioptey^is  spatulata  \T.  Daintreei]  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
Series,!  is  sufficient  to  render  the  correlation  of  any  part  of  the 
Clarence  Series  with  the  Ipswich  Series  improbable.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates  at  the  base  of  the 
Clarence  Series  may  be  the  equivalents  of  the  Bundamba,  but, 
on  the  present  evidence,  I  believe  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
Clarence  Series  (if  not  all  of  it)  is  to  be  correlated  with  the 
Walloon  Series  of  Queensland. 

Fossil  plants  are  present  in  varying  abundance  in  the  various 
Lower  Mesozoic  Series  of  New  South  Wales.  No  thorough 
examination  of  the  flora  of  the  three  Stages  has  been  undertaken, 
and,  therefore,  the  compilation  of  satisfactory  lists  of  the  floras 
of  the  different  Series  is  not  an  easy  matter.  The  following  lists 
have  been  drawn  up  from  descriptions  and  lists  published  from 
time  to  time,  the  majority  of  the  determinations  of  New  South 
Whales  Mesozoic  plants  having  been  made  by  Messrs.  R.  Ether- 
idge  Junr.,  and  W.  S.  Dun.  Names  included  in  square  brackets  in 
these  lists  are  concjusious  or  comparisons  suggested  by  myself  to 
bring,  where  possible,  the  New  South  Wales  determinations  into 
line  with  my  own  work  on  the  Queensland  flora. 

*  Carne,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.S.  Wales,  Geology,  No. 6,  1908,  pp.31-4n. 
t  Carne,  op.  cit.,  p.  34. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


85 


List  of  fossil  plants  recorded  from   the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks 
of  New  South  Wales  : — 

i.  Hawkesbury  Skries. 
(a)  Narrabeeii  Stage. 

77iinn/'eldia,  u.sp. 
Sphenopteris  sp. 
Oleaiidridium^ TcBuiopteris  sp.]. 
MacrotcBniopteris    \_TcBniopieris 

sp.]. 
Tffuiopteris  cf.  McClellandi. 
Ginkgo  dilatata  var.  lata. 
Ehipidopsis    ginkgoides    var. 

Suss7Jiih/i{. 
Araucarites  (cones). 
Ih'achyphylluni{%). 
(b)  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  vStage. 


Equisetiun. 
Phyllotheca. 
Schizoneura  aus trails. 
Alethopteris  sp. 
Cladophlebis  cf.  Roylei. 
Thinnfeldia  iiarrabee'n.ens  is 
T.  lancifolia. 
T.  odontopteroides . 
T.  oo?o?i^o^7>^e?-oic/(3s( Hawkesbury 
type)  [  =  T .  Fe{stniaiiteli\. 


Ottelia  prcEterita. 
Phyllotheca  concinna. 
P.  Hookeri. 
Equisetum. 
Aletliopteris. 

(c] 
Phyllotheca  Hookeri. 
P.  australis. 
Thinnfeldia  odontopteroides  [7'. 

Feistmanteli   and    T.  odonto- 

pteroides]. 
Thinnfeldia,    small    vai*.    lanci- 

folia-type. 
Cycadopteris  scolopendy'i^ia. 


T'hiiinfeldia  odontopteroides  \7\ 

Feistmanteli^. 
Macrot(E7iiopteris. 
M.  ^vianamattce. 
Oleandridium  lentriculiforme. 
Wianarnatta  Stage. 

Macrotmniop)te'  is  iviaiiamattcE. 
Sphenopteris 
Peco}>teris(^.)  tennifoUa. 
Gleichenia  ditbia{l). 
Alethoptei'is    australis    [Clado- 
phlebis australis] 
Baiera  7nultifda[ B. Sim mondsi] 
Pterophyllum{]). 


Talbragar  Skries. 


Thinnfeldia  odontoptei'oides. 
Thin7ifeldia  sp. 
JVeurojiteridiniii  australe. 
Sphe^iopteris  sp. 
'Tceniopte^'is  Davntreei  [T.   spa- 
tulata']. 


Podozainites  lattceolatus. 
/\  spathulatus. 
P.  lotigifolius. 
Podozamites  sp. 
Taxites  cf.  2\  plasms. 


>^  m    i^ 


86         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

iii.  Clarence  Series. 

Alethopte7'is     australis    [Clado-  Tceiiiopteris   Daitttreei  [7\   spa- 

phlebis  australis].  tulata\ 

Thinnfeldia  odoufopteroidas.  T.  Tenison-  Woodsi. 
Sphenopteris. 

iv.  Artesian  Series. 
Tceniopteris    Daintreei  [7'.  spxt-      Thinnfeldia  odontopteroides. 
tulata].  Baiera. 


The  plant  to  which  special  prominence  has  been  given,  in 
dealing  with  Australian  Lower  Mesozoic  strata,  is  TcEuiopleris 
spatulata  [T.  Daintreei],  This  plant  is  of  very  widespread  oc- 
currence in  Eastern  Australia,  and  seems  to  be  a  reliable  indi- 
cator of  age.  In  Queensland,  it  is  found  abundantly  in  the 
Walloon  Series,  but  not  in  the  Ipswich  Series.  In  New  South 
Wales,  it  is  found  in  the  Clarence  Series,  Artesian  Series,  and 
Talbragar  Series,  but  not  in  any  stage  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series. 
There  is  no  doubt  of  the  identity  of  both  the  Clarence  and  Arte- 
sian Series  with  the  >A  alloon  Series,  for  they  are  continuous  in 
the  tield.  The  Talbragar  Series  is  unconformable  on  the  Hawkes- 
bury Sandstone,  and  the  presence  of  Toiniopteris  spatnlata  in  the 
Talbragar  Series  indicates  the  relation  of  this  Series  to  the 
Walloon  Series:  the  occurrence  of  a  Taxites  comparable  with 
7\  planus  is  additional  evidence  for  assigning  the  two  Series  to 
the  same  period. 

The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  relation  of  the  rocks  of 
the  Hawkesbury  Series  to  the  other  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  is  older  than 
the  Talbragar  Series,  and,  therefore,  older  than  the  Walloon 
Series.  What  then  is  the  relation  between  the  Ipswich  Series 
and  the  Hawkesbury  Series  ?  In  the  following  Table  are  in- 
cluded the  species  of  plants  in  the  stages  of  the  Hawkesbury 
Series  which  are  identical  or  closely  comparable  with  species 
in  the  Ipswich  Series,  the  allied  species  in  the  Ipswich  Series 
being  indicated  in  square  brackets. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


87 


Table  ix. 

Table  showing  species  in  the  Hawkesbuiy  Series  identical  or  closelj^ 

comparable  with  species  in  the  Ipswich  Series. 


Narrabeen  Stage. 


Thinnfeldia  lancifoUa 

T.  odontopteroides 

T.  odoitfopteroides  (Haw 

kesbury  type)  [—  T. 

F<  isfmauteU] 
Cladophhiis  cf.  Royiti 


Hawkesbury  Sandstone 
Stage. 


Thinnfeldia  odontopteroides^ 
[=7^.  Feistniavfeli] 

Oleaiidridinm  [  Tfemopteris\ 
hntricaliforme 

Macrotamiopteris  [ T<vniop 
teris]  fvianamattce 


Wianamatta  Stage. 


Phyllotheca  an-sfra/is 
Thinnfeldia  odontopteroides 

[—  T.  odonfopteroide,s  and 

T.  Fei.stmanttfi] 
T.  lancifoUa 
Macrof<eniopttris  [ T<in iop- 

teris]  nnanamatta^ 
A  lethopteris   [  Cladoph  Jtbifi] 

austral  is 
Baiera  mid  t  if  da  {B.   Sim- 

7no)idsi] 
tPterophyJI inn[''.)  sp. 


It  must  be  admitted  that  the  flora  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series 
has  been  but  imperfectly  determined,  but  what  evidence  theie 
is,  goes  to  show  that  the  Ipswich  flora  is  much  more  closely 
related  to  that  of  the  Wianamatta  Stage  than  to  either  the 
Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stage  or  the  Narrabeen  Stage. 

Having  considered  the  evidence  of  the  fossil  plants,  we  may 
now  briefly  deal  with  the  evidence  provided  by  the  other  fossils 
in  these  Series. 

The  results  so  far  published,  of  the  examination  of  fossil 
insects*  from  the  Ipswich  Series  and  Wianamatta  Stage,  do  not 
give  promise  of  any  special  value  from  a  stratigraphical  point  of 
view,  though,  no  doubt,  they  are  of  interest  to  the  entomologist. 
However,  the  fact  that  insects  are  found,  more  or  less  abund- 
antly, in  these  two  Series,  and  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in 
the  other  Series  of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  with  tlie  exception 
of  Cicada  (?)  loivei  in  the  Talbragar  Beds,  is  a  point  which  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  when  discussing  the  correlation  of 
the  Series.  The  insects  in  the  Wianamatta  Beds  belong  to  the 
same  Orders  as  some  of  those  in  the  Ipswich  Series,  aud,  in  one 
case,  the  same  genus  is  present,  but  there  is  no  specific  identity. 


Queensland  Geol.  Surv.,  Publication  No.  253. 


S8         GEOLOGY    OP    LOWER    MESOZOlC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

One  species  of  Estheria  has  been  recorded  from  the  Ipswich 
Series  {E.  mamjaliensis  Jones),  and  one  from  the  Narrabeen 
Stage  {E.  Coghhini  Cox).  The  two  species  are  different,  and  the 
Ipswich  species  lias  been  identified  by  Etheridge*  with  E.  tnan- 
r/aliensif<  from  the  Damuda  Beds  (Permian)  of  India. 

Two  species  of  Unio  {U.  ijJsviciensis  and  U.  eyi'etisis)  have 
been  described  from  the  Ipswich  Series;  and  two  species  of  Unio 
(U.  wiaiiamatteiisis  and  U.  Dunstani)  together  witli  two  species 
of  Unionella  [U.  bowralensis  and  U.  Carnei)  from  the  Wiana- 
matta  Stage.  They  are  the  only  pelecypods  recorded  from  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland. 

Fosvsil  fish  have  been  found  somewhat  abundantly  on  certain 
horizons  of  the  Havvkesbur\^  Series,  and  in  the  Talbragar  Series: 
and  have  been  described  by  Dr.  A.  Smith  Woodward.! 

From  the  Talbragar  Series,  seven  species  were  described,  all 
being  new.  +  Regarding  the  age  of  this  fish  fauna,  Woodward 
concludes  {op.  cit.,  p. 26)  "  The  Talbragar  fish-fauna  is,  therefore, 
probably  not  earlier  than  the  Upper  Lias,  and  may  be  referable 
to  the  Lower  Oolites." 

The  results  of  his  examination  of  the  fossil  fishes  from  Gosford 
and  St.  Peter's  are  remarkable.  The  Gosford  horizon  is  about 
the  junction  of  the  Narrabeen  and  Hawkesbury  Sandstone 
Stages,  whereas  the  St.  Peter's  horizon  is  in  the  Wianamatta 
Stage,  and  is  some  900  to  1,000  feet  above  the  Gosford  horizon. 
Regarding  the  fish-remains  from  Gosford,  Wood\vard§  concludes: 
''  So  far  as  can  be  determined  from  the  fishes,  therefore,  the 
Hawkesbury  beds  may  be  regarded  as  homotaxial  with  the 
Keuper  of  Europe,  or,  at  latest,  with  the  Rhsetic;  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  present  writer  is  inclined  to  adopt  the  first  of  these 
interpretations." 

In  the  case  of  the  St.  Peter's  specimens,  the  fish  were  collected 
in  two  types  of  matrix,  viz.,  an  indurated  shale  or  claystone,  and 
a  grey  mudstone,   the  former  occurring  as  several   bands   sepa- 

"  (ieology  and  Palaeontology  of  Queensland,  p. 397. 
♦■  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Palaeontology,  Nos  4,  9,  10. 
t  IhicL,  Palaeontology,  No. 9. 
§  Ibid.,  p. 55. 


BY    A.    b.    WALKOM. 


89 


rated  by  the  latter.  Woodward  refers  to  the  fish  from  the 
indurated  sliale  as  indicating  a  distinct  Permo-Carboniferous 
age,  and  those  from  the  grey  mudstone  as  Triassic  or  Rhajtic* 
Obviously,  great  caution  must  be  exercised  in  using  these  results 
for  the  purpose  of  correlation. 

(b)  Victoria. — The  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Victoria  comprise 
series  of  shales,  felspathic  sandstones,  and  mudstones,  with 
occasional  conglomerates,  which  are  developed  in  three  areas, 
viz.,  South  Gippsland,  Cape  Otway,  and  Wannon  River.  Asso- 
ciated with  these  rocks  are  coal-seams  up  to  nine  feet  in  thick- 
ness. Analyses  of  the  coals  are  of  the  same  general  type  as 
analyses  of  the  Ipswich  coals.  The  flora  of  some  of  these  beds 
has  been  described  by  Seward,!  whose  conclusion  regarding  their 
age  is,  that  they  are  approximately  the  same  age  as  the  Inferior 
Oolite  of  England,  or  the  Rajmahal  Series  of  India. i  Occa- 
sional additions  to  the  species  described  by  Seward  have  been 
recorded  by  Chapman. 

The  following  list  comprises  the  species  described  by  both 
Seward  and  Chapman  :  — 


Marchantites  sp. 
j^Eqiiisetites  wonthaggieiisis 

Equisetites  sp. 
o.Lycopodiles  victorice. 

Adiantites  lindsayoides. 


Thianfeldia  AlcCoyi. 

Thinnfeldia  sp. 

HhizoynojHeris  Etheridgei. 
/:)Steiio2)teris  eloiujata. 
f^Steiiopteris  sp. 


aCoiiiopleviS    hynieiiophylloides     o.Gvukgo  sp. 


var.  australica. 
Sphenopteris  ampla. 
Sphenopteri.s  sp. 
T(Bniopteris  Daintreei. 
aT.  Daiiitrep.i  var.  major. 
[S7\  spaf.uhU'i  var.  crenafa. 
o.Cladophlebis   denficAilata  var. 

australis. 
ftThinnfeJdia  odontopter aides . 


(i.Baiera  australis. 
a  Ik  gracilis. 

Ginkgo  (female  flowers?). 
(i.Nilssonia  sp. 

Podozamit'<s  Barklyi. 

P.  ellipticus. 
ftp.  Kuisto'tii. 

P.  longij'oliu'i. 
ihAraiicarites  sp.A. 


Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Palaeontology,  No.  10,  pp. 
t  Rec.  Geol.  Surv.  Victoria,  Vol.  i.,  Pt.3,  1904. 
t  Op.  cif.,  p.  184. 


29. 


90         GEOI.OGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Araucarites  sp.B,  (SPalissT/a  australis. 

ftConites  sp.  ftChelrolepis  (1)  setosiis. 

cf.  Brachyphyllum  sp  fi  cf.  Albertia  austi'alis. 

ftB.  yippslandicum.  CarpoJithes  sp.A. 

aVaxites  sp.  Carpolithes  sp.B. 

The  species  marked  /i  are  recorded  by  Chapman,  in  addition 
to  those  described  by  Seward. 

Of  the  species  in  this  list,  those  marked  with  a  (10  in 
number)  are  similar  to  types  occurring  in  the  Lower  Oolite 
of  England. 

In  the  Victorian  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks,  a  tooth  and  scales  of 
Geratodus  have  been  found,  and  also  a  claw  of  a  dinosaur.  One 
species  of  Unio  {U.  stirlinyi)  occurs  in  these  beds. 

Although  the  number  of  species  of  plants  common  to  the  Vic- 
torian and  Queensland  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  is  small,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  Victorian  flora  resembles  the  Walloon  flora 
much  more  than  it  does  the  Ipswich  flora.  A  few  species,  e.y., 
I'ceniopteris  Daintreei  {  =  1\  spaiulata),  T,  Daintreei  var.  viajor, 
and  Cladophlehis  deiiticnlata  var.  a^Lstralis  (  =  C.  australis)  are 
identical  with  forms  of  the  Walloon  Series;  while  others,  as 
Sphenopteris  ampla,  Baiera  yracilis,  cf.  Brachyphyllum  sp.,  and 
Taxites  sp.,  are  closely  allied  to  forms  found  in  the  Walloon 
Seiies.  The  occurrence  of  Tceuiopferis  spatiilata  and  the  conifers, 
Araucarites,  Brachyphyllum,  and  Taxites  is  sufficient  to  show 
clearly,  that  this  flora  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
Ipswich  Series.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Victorian 
Mesozoic  Coal-Measures  are  to  be  correlated  with  the  Walloon 
Series  in  Queensland,  and  its  equivalents  in  ISew-South  Wales. 

(c)  South  Australia. — In  South  Australia,  the  strata  of  Lower 
Mesozoic  Age  comprise  the  south-western  margin  of  the  Great 
Australian  Artesian  Basin,  and  an  outlier  of  this  preserved  as  a 
faulted  basin  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Leigh's  Creek.  The 
Leigh's  Creek  basin  is  quite  isolated,  and  surrounded  by  rocks 
of  Upper  Cambrian  Age;  the  basin  is  16  miles  long,  and  has  a 
maximum  breadth  of  6  miles;  the  total  thickness  of  strata  in  it 
exceeds  2,000  feet  of  shales  and  carbonaceous  shale,  with  bands 
of  limestone  and  sandstone,  and  a  belt  of  very  hydrous  coal,  48 
feet  thick. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  91 

Recent  developments  in  Queensland  sliow  that  large  areas  of 
sandstone  on  the  margin  of  the  Artesian  Basin,  which  have  pre- 
viously been  regarded  as  of  Cretaceous  Age,  must  now  be  con- 
sidered as  equivalents  of  the  Walloon  Series.  Future  work  may 
show  that  the  marginal  portions  of  the  Artesian  Basin  in  South 
Australia  represent  the  same  sandstones,  though  these  are  all  at 
present  mapped  as  Cretaceous.  Near  the  margins  of  the  basin, 
the  water-bearing  sandstones  obviously  approach  close  to  the 
surface,  as  shown  from  bore-records,  and  it  seems  more  probable 
that  they  outcrop,  than  that  they  are  overlapped  by  the  Cre- 
taceous. 

The  fossil  plants  recoi'ded  from  the  South  Australian   Lower 
Mesozoic  rocks  are  :  — 
Thiiwfeldia  odontopteroides  Alefhopteins  sp. 

[?=7'.  Feistmaiiteil].  Equisetum  2  spp. 

T  media  [?  T.  lancifolia\.  Frenelopsif>{l). 

MacroUt^niopteris  iciaiiamatfxe.       AtifJirophyopaisd)  sp.ind. 
TiHiiiopteris  jiuctuans. 

Fhyllojderis  Feistmanteli  occurs  at  Ooroowilanie  Swamp,  about 
100  miles  north  of  Leigh's  Creek,  but  this  may  be  in  tlie  Creta- 
ceous rocks.  This  list  has  been  drawn  up  by  Howchin,*  maiiily 
from  determinations  by  Etheridge.  Unio  eyretisis  also  occurs 
abundantly  in  the  same  rocks. 

This  list  of  plants  does  not  provide  any  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence regarding  correlation  with  other  Australian  strata.  There 
seems  no  reason  for  not  considering  the  Leigh's  Creek  basin  as 
an  outlier  of  the  Artesian  Series:  and,  further,  the  identity  of 
the  Artesian  Series  with  that  of  New  South  Wales  and  the 
Walloon  Series  in  Queensland  is  hardly  open  to  question. 

{d)  Western  A  us  ti-alia.  ^V^  estevn  Australia  provides  the  only 
Australian  example  of  marine  and  freshwater  fossils  of  Lower 
Mesozoic  Age  occurring  in  association  with  one  another.  The 
exact  relation  which  the  plant-beanng  beds  bear  to  those  with 
marine  fossils  is  not  clearly  stated,  but  it  may  be  inferred  from 
a  study  of  Bulletins  36,  3y,  and  50  of  the  Geological  Sur^  ey  of 
Western  Australia. 


*  British  Assuc.  Adv.  of  .Science  :  Handbook  of  South  Australia,  1914,  p.22o. 


02         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAXO, 

The  marine  fossils  tix  the  age  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  of  Western 
Australia  as  Jurassic,  and  Etheridge  refers  those  from  the 
Greenough  River  to  the  Oolite.*  The  Jurassic  rocks  cover  a 
large  area  in  the  Champion  Bay  district,  near  Geraldton,  par- 
ticularly between  the  Greenough  and  Irwin  Rivers.  According 
to  Gibb  Maitland,  they  consist  of  "oolitic  limestones,  clays,  sand- 
stones (which  are  often  ferruginous),  grits,  conglomerates,  and 
lignites."!  Thev  are  horizontal  or  gentlv  undulating,  and  their 
thickness  has  been  proved  to  the  extent  of  2,000  feet,  by  bores 
in  the  Champion  Bay  district. 

From  these  rocks,  Arber^  has  described  Otozamites  Feist- 
mmiteli,  and  a  coniferous  fragment  from  near  Minginew:  and  he 
has  pointed  out  the  resemblance  of  these  to  fossils  from  lalgai, 
Darling  Downs,  and  Rosewood,  west  of  Rockhampton  in  Queens- 
land. 

Examples  of  fossil  plants  in  close  association  with  marine 
fossils  are  noted  by  Campbell. §  Speaking  of  Mt.  Hill.ji  he  says, 
''Fossil  stems  of  a  plant,  apparently  a  species  of  Equisetacese, 
and  Palm  or  Otozamites  stem-scales  and  pieces  of  wood  occur  in 
the  sandstones  and  grits  of  the  north  side." 

"A  limestone  band  occurs  at  about  100  feet  below  the  summit 
of  the  hill,  and  can  be  well  seen  on  the  fence-line,  10  chains 
west  of  the  summit.  Here,  numerous  Jurassic  fossils  occur  in 
an  excellent  state  of  preservation.  On  the  ridge,  also,  extend- 
ing north  from  the  summit,  there  is  a  fossiliferous,  fine-grained 
sandstone." 

The  results  of  Dr.  Arber's  examination  of  the  plants  froin 
Minginew  were  apparently  available  to  Mr.  Campbell,  since  he 
quotes  (p. 58)  Arber's  conclusions,  so  it  may  be  presumed  that 
the  plants  from  Mt.  Hill  are  similar  to  those  from  Minginew. 
On  Plate  5  of  the  same  work,  in  the  vertical  section  of  the  Don- 


*  Geol.  Surv.  West  Australia,  Bulletin  36. 

t  Geol.  Surv.  West  Australia,  Bulletin  50,  p.  21. 

t  Unci.,  Bulletin  36,  p. 25. 

%Ihid.,  Bulletin  38. 

il  Op.  cit.,  p.  60. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  93 

gara  bore,  "fossils"  are  indicated  in  shale  at  535  feet,  and 
"  plant- remains"  at  about  1,300  feet. 

Although  the  information  is  scanty,  it  niay  be  concluded  that 
comparatively  flat-bedded  rocks  of  Jurassic  Age,  and  of  con- 
siderable thickness,  cover  a  large  area  in  Western  Australia; 
that  these  beds  contain  both  marine  and  plant-fossils,  and  that 
the  plant-fossils  include  equisetaceous  stems,  Otozamitps  and 
coniferous  fragments,  and  also  petrified,  coniferous  wood. 

Where  definite  evidence  for  accurate  correlation  is  scant}',  as 
in  the  present  case,  all  possible  indications  must  be  considered: 
and,  at  the  same  time,  caution  must  be  exercised  in  drawing 
conclusions.  In  comparing  these  Western  Australian  Jurassic 
rocks  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  of  Queensland,  the  follow- 
ing points  stand  out  .—  {a)  In  the  Western  Australian  Jurassic, 
the  only  definitely  determined  plant  is  Otozamites  Feistmcmte/i, 
which  occurs  in  a  fine-grained,  ferruginous  sandstone,  possibly 
of  Oolite  age;  {h)  in  Queensland,  fossil  plants  are  abundant  in 
the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata,  but  the  genus  Otozamites  occurs  only 
in  the  Walloon  Series,  and  usually  in  a  fine-grained,  ferruginous 
sandst<jne,  which  is  of  very  wide  occurrence;*  (c)  the  species 
Otozamites  Feistmanteli  occurs  both  in  the  Western  Australian 
Jurassic  and  in  the  Queensland  Walloon  Series. 

The  indications,  then,  point  to  the  probability  that  the  AA'all- 
oon  Series  is  homotaxial  with  the  Jurassic  strata  of  Western 
Australia.  If,  as  the  author  believes,  the  development  of  the 
fine-grained,  ferruginous  sandstone  containing  Otozamites  Feist- 
manteli indicates  peculiar  conditions  under  which  deposition 
took  place,  then  there  is  the  further  indication  that  the  two 
Series  are  synchronous. 

(e)  'Tasmania. — A  rich.  Lower  Mesozoic  flora  is  present  in  the 
strata  of  that  age  in  Tasmania.  This  flora,  however,  has  been 
untouched  for  many  years,  and  the  existing  descriptions  and 
figures  by  Johnston  are  too  imperfect  to  be  used  for  any  purpose 
of  definite  correlation.  In  addition,  Mr.  Twelvetrees,  Govern- 
ment Geologist  of  Tasmania,  kindly  informed  me  that  the  rela- 

*  See  above,  p..')*). 


94         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWEK    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

tions  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  in  Tasmania  to  one  another 
are  not  yet  definitely  settled.  No  attempt  will  be  made  here, 
therefore,  to  correlate  any  of  the  Tasmanian  Lower  Mesozoic 
rocks  with  the  other  Australian  occurrences.  One  point  mav  be 
noted.  There  appears  to  be  an  absence  of  Tceniopteris  spatulata 
in  the  Tasmanian  strata,  and  this  may  indicate  that  they  are 
older  than  Jurassic. 

Opinions  have  been  expressed  regarding  the  age  of  Tasmanian 
strata.  Chapman*  suggests  that  it  may  be  possible  to  divide 
the  "  Upper  Coal-Measures"  of  Twelvetrees  into  an  older  and  a 
younger  series.  He  concludes,  "  The  Jurassic  flora  of  the  Tas- 
manian localities,  Jerusalem,  Fingal,  Spring  Hill,  York  Plain, 
Hamilton,  Richmond,  New  Farm,  Sandfly,  Recherche,  South 
Cape,  Longford,  etc.,  appears  to  contain  an  assemblage  which, 
with  some  few  exceptions,  as  Sageiwj^teris  and  Phfjenicopsis,  is 
practically  identical  with  that  of  the  plant-bearing  strata  of 
Jurassic  age  in  South  Gippsland,  Cape  Otway,  and  Western 
Victoria  " 

Professor  Davidf  classes  them  provisionally  "as  Upper  Trias 
or  Passage  Beds  into  the  Jurassic  proper,"'  whereas  \V.  S.  Duni 
regards  them  as  equivalents  of  the  Victorian  Jurassic. 

Mr.  Twelvetrees  points  out  that  the  evidence  of  the  fossil 
flora  in  Tasmania,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  slightly  in  favour  of  a 
Rhsetic  age.  He  also  considers  that  some  of  the  Tasmanian 
occurrences  are  the  equivalents  of  the  Clarence  and  Talbragar 
Series  in  New  South  Wales. § 

Lower  Mesozoic  fossil  plants  are  known  from  a  number  of 
localities  in  New  Zealand,  but,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  an  ex- 
amination of  them  has  recently  been  carried  out  by  Dr.  E.  A. 
Newell  Arber  (the  results  not  having  been  published  yet||),  it  is 
deemed  inadvisable  to  discuss  them  at  this  stage. 


*  Records  (xeol.  Surv.  Victoria,  iii.,  Pt.2,  1912,  p.223. 

t  British  Assocn.  Adv.  Science,  (4eoIoj^3'  of  the  Commonwealth,  p. 277. 

t  Ibid.,  p. 297. 

^  (jreol.  Surv.  Tasmania,  Bulletin  20,  191o,  pp.  14-16. 

I!  Issued  in   February,  1918,  too  late  for  considei^ation   in   tiie  present 

paper, 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


95 


(f)  Summary.  -  The  results  of  these  comparisons  of  the  Queens- 
land, Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  with  those  of  the  other  Australian 
States,  may  be  summarised  in  tabular  form  thus  :  — 


■II 

0)  ij^ 


^  S  ^  i  ^^.'^ 


H^   X   JS  C  ^  £ 


ew  Soutl 
Wales. 

(V 

o 

.2  .§ 

Series 

Talbraga 

Beds 

^ 

W  03 


^W 


.2^ 


5    O 


96-      geology  of  lower  mesozoic  rocks  of  queensland, 

Geological  History. 

In  discussing  the  conditions  which  existed  during  Lower 
Mesozoic  times  in  Queensland,  reference  must  be  made  to  the 
conditions,  as  far  as  we  know  them,  towards  the  close  of  the  preced- 
ing Permian  ( Perrao-Carboniferous)  Period.  The  latest  sediments 
of  this  latter  period  are  the  Upper  Coal- Measures  in  both  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland.  In  New  South  Wales,  the  New- 
castle or  Upper  Coal-Measures  were  formed  in  a  large  basin.  In 
an  earlier  paper,*  I  have  attempted  to  show,  in  a  general  way, 
the  distribution  of  land  and  sea  in  New  South  Wales  during  the 
various  stages  of  the  Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous)t  Period, 
and  have  suggested  that  the  successive  stages  within  the  period 
might  have  been  produced  by  a  tangential  force  acting  towards 
the  continental  mass  of  Australia  in  a  W.  b}^  S.  direction. 

The  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  in  Northern  New  South  Wales 
and  Southern  Queensland  was  accompanied  by  extensive  intru- 
sions of  granitic  masses.  In  the  New  England  and  Stanthorpe- 
Warwick  districts,  these  intrusions  have  resulted  in  extreme 
folding  of  the  Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous)  stiata,  but  have 
not  affected  the  sediments  of  the  Walloon  epoch.  The  age  of 
the  intrusions  is  definitely  between  the  upper  marine  sediments 
of  the  Permian  System  and  the  Walloon  Series.  The  Permian 
(Permo-Carboniferous)  sedimentary  strata  have  been  extremely 
folded  and  contorted,  and  converted  into  slates  resembling,  in 
general  appearance,  rocks  of  greater  age  than  Permian:  their 
age,  however,  has  been  fixed  beyond  doubt  by  the  occurrence  in 
them  of  marine  fossils  in  the  Drake  district,  and  near  Warwick. | 

*  Proc.  Linn.  Soe.  N.  S.  Wales,  1913,  xxxviii.,  pp.  139-145. 

t  It  has  recently  been  suggested  bj^  Professor  David  and  Mr.  W.  S.  Dun 
(British  Assoen.  Adv.  8ci.,  Australia,  1914:  Report,  p. 379;  and  Federal 
Handbook  on  Australia,  p.  267)  that  perhaps  the  term  Permo-Carboniferous 
in  Australia  should  be  replaced  by  the  term  Permian.  Without  going  into 
reasons  here,  it  maybe  stated  that  the  author  is  entirely  in  accord  with 
the  suggestion,  and,  for  the  purposes  of  this  paper,  proposes  to  write  the 
name  thus :  Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous). 

ij:  Andrews,  "Report  on  Drake  drokl  and  Copper  Field,''  Geol.  Surv. 
N.  S.  Wales,  Mineral  Resources,  No.  12,  1908. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  97 

Furtlier  north,  in  the  Gynipie  district,  rocks  of  similar  a,ue  are 
also  folded  and  metamorphosed  to  much  the  same  extent  as  in 
the  districts  just  mentioned. 

A  word  of  caution  must  be  expressed  here  regarding  the  so- 
called  "Gympie"  strata.  The  results  of  field  work  carried  out  by 
the  officers  of  the  Queensland  Geological  Sui  vey  tend  to  show 
that  many  rocks  have,  in  the  past,  been  referred  to  the  Gympie 
Series  without  sufficient  evidence;  these  are  gradually  being 
sorted  out  by  the  Geological  Survey,  and  put  in  their  proper 
position:  and  they  have  been  found  to  include  representatives  of 
the  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  Systems,  in  additi<m  to  true 
Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous)  strata.  Care  must  be  exercised, 
therefore,  when  dealing  witli   rocks  classed  as  Gympie. 

In  the  Gympie  district,  where  undoubtedly  Permian  (Permo- 
Carboniferous)  sedimentaries  are  much  altered,  there  are 
granitic,  intrusive  masses  whose  age  is  not  directly  determin- 
able. It  seems  a  reasonable  suggestion  that  they  are  of  similar 
age  to  the  New  England  intrusions,  and  that  they  have  been 
responsible  (at  least  in  part)  for  the  folded  and  altered  condition 
of  the  Gympie  rocks. 

Further  north  and  north-west  in  Queensland,  the  Permian 
(Permo-Carboniferous)  rocks  [Bowen  River  coalfield,  Dawson- 
AJackenzie  coalfield,  etc.]  appear  to  be  normal,  and  not  to  have 
suffered  any  considerable  folding  as  the  result  of  the  intrusion  of 
large  plutonic  masses. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous) 
rocks  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  then,  there  are  to 
be  noted  the  following  important  points.  Sediments  of  this  age 
are  known  from  Southern  New  South  Wales  to  Northern 
Queensland;  normally,  these  sediments  are  unaltered,  and  ap- 
parently have  not  been  subject  to  extreme  folding-forces;  in  the 
central  part,  however,  (from  New  England  to  the  Gympie  dis- 
trict) the  intrusion  of  extensive,  granitic  masses  has  resulted  in 
extreme  folding  and  metamorphism  of  sediments  of  this  age, 
which,  as  a  result,  resemble  strata  of  much  greater  age  than  the 
normal  Permian  (Permo-Carboniferous;  strata  of  Eastern  Aus- 
tralia. 


98         GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    KOCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

These  extensive  intrusions  probably  resulted  in  the  elevation 
of  the  areas  affected,  to  a  much  greater  altitude  than  the  neigh- 
bouring areas. 

The  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Eastern  Australia  appear  to  have 
been  deposited  in  a  series  of  basins,  which  were  not  all  developed 
at  the  one  time.  The  sediments  deposited  in  these  basins  are, 
with  a  single  exception  {supra,  p. 38),  freshwater  accumula- 
tions, and  this  fact  tends  to  show  that  the  basins  must  have  had 
some  outlet;  otherwise,  the  bodies  of  water  would  comparatively 
soon  have  become  salt.  Regarding  deposits  formed  in  basins  in 
this  manner,  we  may  note  that  Suess  quotes  Richthofen's  dis- 
tinction between  central  and  peripheral  types  of  drainage  as 
illustrated  by  salt  and  coal.  He  says,  "  Salt  with  gypsum  cor- 
responds to  a  closed  drainage  system  or  central  position;  coal, 
when  found  in  extensive  freshwater  basins,  corresponds  to  the 
open  outflow,  without  which  no  accumulation  of  water  could 
maintain  for  long  its  original  composition.""^  The  latter  part  of 
this  statement  seems  to  admit  of  no  contradiction,  and  it  applies 
to  the  basins  in  which  the  sediments  of  Lower  Mesozoic  age  in 
Eastern  Australia  were  deposited.  We  shall  consider  later  the 
positions  of  the  outlets  for  the  various  basins. 

The  earliest  basin  developed  was  that  in  which  the  Hawkes- 
bury  Series  of  New  South  Wales  was  deposited.  In  the  central 
portion  of  this  basin  there  appears  to  be  stratigraphic  conformity 
between  the  Upper  Coal- Measures,  and  the  Narrabeen  Stage  of 
the  Hawkesbury  Series.  Nearer  the  margins,  however,  there  is 
unconformity.  In  addition,  there  is  a  very  distinct  palaeonto- 
logical  break,  only  a  few  forms  persisting  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper.  The  unconformity  between  these  two  Series  is  one  which 
involves  a  detinite  interval  of  time,  but  not  any  considerable 
movement.  The  time-interval  must  have  been  sufficiently  long 
for  the  Mesozoic  flora  of  the  Narrabeen  Stage  to  have  almost 
completely  replaced  the  typical  Palaeozoic  flora  of  the  Upper 
Coal-Measures 

The  basin  in  which  the  Narrabeen  Stage  was  deposited  was 
produced  by  a  gradual  subsidence,  which  apparently  continued 
*  Suess,  "The  Face  of  the  Earth,'"  iii.,  p. 312. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  99 

throughout  a  long  period  during  which  the  Narrabeen  and 
Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stages  were  deposited.  The  area  of 
deposition  increased  gradually  during  this  time,  the  Hawkesbury 
Sandstone  Stage  covering  a  much  greater  area  than  the  Narra- 
been  Stage.  During  the  early  stages,  volcanic  activity  appears 
to  have  been  in  evidence,  as  indicated  by  the  development  of 
tufFaceous  rocks  in  the  Karrabeen  Stage.  The  thickness  of  the 
sediments  deposited  in  this  basin  reaches  a  maximum  of  about 
3,000  feet,  made  up  of  a  maximum  of  2,000  feet  of  the  Narra- 
been  Stage,  and  1,000  feet  of  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stage. 

The  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stage  is  apparently  conformable 
with  the  Narrabeen  Stage.  The  existence  of  breaks,  which  do 
not  show  as  very  marked  unconformities,  must,  however,  always 
be  borne  in  mind.      Writing  on  this  point,  Schuchert  remarks,* 

"  The  easily  seen,  marked  unconformities are  of  course 

accepted  at  full  face-value;  but  the  many  more  apparently  con- 
formable and  yet  broken  contacts,  the  disconformities,  are  gener- 
ally overlooked,  or  when  seen  are  generally  undervalued.  ...  In 
regard  to  the  breaks,  the  statement  can  be  made  that  there  are  at 
least  ten  disconformities  for  every  known  angular  unconformity." 

These  statements  may  be  applied  to  both  the  Permian  (Permo- 
Carboniferous)  and  Mesozoic  Systems  of  Australia,  within  which, 
apparent  conformity  appears  to  be  general,  but  where  there  are 
quite  a  number  of  palseontological  breaks. 

During  the  time  in  which  the  Narrabeen  and  Hawkesbury 
Sandstone  Stages  were  deposited,  probably  the  rest  of  Australia, 
which  at  that  time  was  of  greater  extent  than  to-day,  was  dry 
land. 

Between  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stage  and  the  Wiana- 
matta  Stage  there  is  a  distinct  break.  The  Wianamatta  beds 
have  been  deposited  on  the  eroded  surface  of  the  Hawkesbury 
Sandstone,  which  must,  therefore,  have  been  elevated,  exposed 
to  denudation,  and  again  submerged  before  the  succeeding  beds 
were  laid  down.  In  addition,  the  extent  of  the  Wianamatta 
beds  was  much  more  limited  than  the  Hawkesbury  Sandstone. 

*  Bulletin  Geol.  Soc.  America,  xxvii,  1916,  p.497. 


100      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

Our  studies  of  the  fossil  floras  indicate  that  the  Ipswich  Series 
in  Queensland  was  laid  down  at  the  same  time  as  the  Wiana- 
matta  Stage  in  New  South  Wales.  The  strata  of  this  Series 
were  laid  down  over  a  comparatively  restricted  area  in  Southern 
Queensland,  though  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  an  accurate  idea 
of  its  exact  extent.  Parts  of  the  areas  bordering  the  basin  in 
which  the  Ipswich  Series  was  deposited  were  probably  very 
elevated,  e.g.,  the  Stanthorpe-Warwick,  and  the  Gynipie  Dis- 
tricts, the  extent  of  the  elevation  having  been  due  to  the  exten- 
sive intrusions  of  granite  at  the  close  of  the  Palaiozoic  era. 

It  is  probable,  also,  that  part  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  sediments 
of  Tasmania  was  deposited  contemporaneously  with  the  Wiana- 
matta  Stage  in  New  South  Wales,  and  the  Ipswich  Series  in 
Queensland. 

The  Bundamba  Series,  which  follows  the  Ipswich  Series  in 
Queensland,  has  no  equivalents,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  Kew  South 
Wales  ;  apparently,  sedimentation  in  the  main  Hawkesbury 
Basin  came  to  a  close  with  the  end  of  the  Wianamatta  Stage. 
Later  sediments  in  that  State  were  laid  down  to  the  north  and 
north  west. 

In  Queensland,  the  dominant  movement  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Ipswich  epoch  was  a  subsidence.  This  movement  was  not 
continuous;  there  were,  at  least,  breaks  represented  by  the  base 
of  the  Bundamba  Series  and  of  the  Walloon  Series,  and  there 
may  have  been  further  breaks  within  the  Series.  At  the  time 
of  these  breaks  there  was  probably  a  cessation  of  sedimentation, 
accompanied  by  a  slight  uplift  before  the  downward  movement 
reasserted  itself;  the  predominance  of  the  downward  movement 
is  proved  by  the  ever-increasing  area  covered  by  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  sediments  until,  towards  the  close  of  the  Walloon 
epoch,  the  greater  part  of  Queensland  was  probably  covered  by 
enormous  stretches  of  fresh  water.  The  portions  of  Queensland 
which  were  not  submerged  during  the  Walloon  epoch  (Jurassic) 
include  the  north-western  corner  of  the  State,  an  area  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Hungerford  on  the  New  South  Wales  border, 
and  probably  areas  to  the  east  of  the  present  Main  Divide,  which 
had  been  considerably  elevated  as  a  result  of  movements  accom- 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  lOl 

panying  the  intrusion  of  extensive  granitic  masses  at  the  close 
of  the  Palaeozoic  era.  It  is  impossible  to  define  these  latter 
areas  at  present,  but  they  include  the  Stanthorpe  and  Gympie 
districts,  and  probably  some  of  the  present  coastal  portions  of 
Queensland  north  of  Rockhampton. 

The  area  over  which  deposition  of  the  Walloon  Series  took 
place  extended  into  New  South  Wales  and  South  Australia;  and 
its  boundary  probably  agreed  fairly  closely  with  the  margin  of 
the  Great  Australian  Artesian  Basin;  it  is  from  sandstones  in 
the  Walloon  Series  and  its  equivalents,  that  the  great  bulk  of 
the  artesian  water  is  obtained,  so  that,  although  these  are  not 
known  to  outcrop  along  the  southern  margin  of  the  Artesian 
Basin,  their  presence  is  known,  and  they  are  apparently  over- 
lapped by  the  J^ower  Cretaceous  strata. 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  it  is  only  comparatively  recent 
work  that  has  shown  the  sandstones  forming  the  intake  in 
Queensland  to  be  of  Walloon  age.  In  view  of  this,  it  is  possible 
that  outcrops  on  the  southern  and  western  margins  of  the  Basin 
may,  in  the  future,  be  shown  to  be  of  the  same  age,  though  at 
present  mapped  as  Cretaceous. 

The  Clarence  Series  represents  deposition  in  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  the  same  basin.  The  Talbragar  beds  seem  to  repre- 
sent depo.sition  in  a  small,  isolated  lake. 

In  South  Australia,  the  small,  faulted  basin  at  Leigh's  Creek 
probably  represents  an  outlier  of  the  main  occurrence  further 
north. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  Walloon  Series  also,  there  were 
deposited  the  Jurassic  sandstones,  etc.,  of  South  Gippsland,  Cape 
Otway,  and  the  Wannon  River  areas  in  Victoria,  and  possibly 
also  portion  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  of  Tasmania.  At  the 
same  time,  marine  sediments  were  laid  down  in  Western  Aus 
tralia,  and,  associated  with  these,  there  are  a  few  plant-remains. 

The  close  of  the  Jurassic  in  Australia  was  not  marked  by  any 
violent  movement.  In  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  and 
South  Australia,  the  Jurassic  rocks  are  followed  by  Cretaceous 
marine  strata  (Rolling  Downs  Series)  without  any  observable 
unconformity.       Palseontologically,    however,    there    is    a    very 


102      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

marked  break,  and  there  is  also  generally  a  lithological  distinc- 
tion. The  Cretaceous  sea  represents  a  transgression  from  the 
north,  and  covered  the  greater  portion  of  the  Jurassic  strata 
over  what  is  now  the  Great  Artesian  Basin,  and,  as  shown  in 
Text-fig. 6,  this  transgression  probably  divided  the  Australian 
continent  in  two.  The  present  Main  Divide  in  Queensland  was 
probably  elevated,  and  became  a  land-area  practically  throughout 
its  whole  length  in  Cretaceous  time,  and  has  remained  essentially 
so  to  the  present  day.  On  the  west,  the  Cretaceous  sea  covered 
the  area  of  the  Artesian  Basin  as  already  mentioned,  while,  on 
the  east,  there  are  Cretaceous  marine  deposits  between  Mary- 
borough and  Bundaberg  reaching  a  thickness  of  1,000  feet.  It 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  extent  of  these  to  the  east. 
The  marine  Cretaceous,  both  in  western  Queensland  and  in  the 
Maryborough  district,  are  followed  by  Cretaceous  freshwater 
deposits  known  as  the  Winton  Series  and  Burrum  Series, 
respectively. 

Lower  Mesozoic  Pal^eogeography  of  the  Australasian 

Region. 

Published  maps  indicating  the  geography  of  the  Australasian 
region  durins;  Mesozoic  times  are  fevv  in  number. 

Perhaps  the  oldest  is  that  of  Neumayr,  which  has  been  con- 
tinually quoted  and  figured  by  later  writers,  including  Jensen"^ 
and  Hedley.f  The  latter "|  also  prepared  a  map  to  show  the 
Queensland  coast  at  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  era.  Jensen^  has 
published  a  series  of  maps  showing  the  distribution  of  land  and 
sea  in  the  Australian  region  at  various  periods,  including  one  in 
Triassic  time.  Recently,  Schuchert||  has  published  a  series  of 
palseogeographic  maps  of  Oceania,  including  one  in  Triassic  time, 
and  one  in  Cretaceous. 

The  important  general  feature  of  these  maps  is  that  they  show 

"  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1908,  xxxiii.,  p.507. 

t  Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Science,  xii.,  1909,  p.  332. 

t  Op.  ciL,  p.  333. 

§  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Queensland,  xxiii.,  Pt.2,  1912. 

II  Amer.  Journ.  Science,  xlii.,  1916,  p. 99. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  103 

a  coast-line  not  a  great  distance  east  of  the  present  position  of 
the  eastern  coast  of  Australia.  This  coast-line  is  the  western 
shore  of  a  long  gulf  running  from  the  south  in  a  general  meri- 
dional direction  between  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Neumayr 
called  this  the  Gulf  of  Queensland.  Schuchert's  map  shows  the 
extension  of  this  gulf  further  north  to  about  the  latitude  of  New 
Caledonia,  when  it  turns  to  the  east  and  again  joins  the  ocean. 

Evidence  as  to  the  existence,  or  otherwise,  of  this  gulf  is  scanty. 
Hedley*  says,  "According  to  Neumayr,  a  meridional  crease  in 
the  earth's  crust  produced,  in  Jurassic  times,  a  gulf,  which  he 
called  the  Gulf  of  Queensland,  whose  western  shore  transgressed 
the  present  east  Australian  coast."  The  most  important  piece 
of  evidence  indicating  the  existence  of  this  gulf  is  the  presence 
of  an  impoverished  fauna  of  Foraminifera  and  Ostracoda  in  the 
upper  beds  of  the  Wianamatta  Stage  in  New  South  Wales  {supra, 
p. 38).  This  is  positive  evidence  of  marine  or  estuarine  condi- 
tions in  the  Wianamatta  Basin  (probably  during  late  Triassic 
time).  There  is  no  evidence  at  all  to  show  that  this  gulf  trans- 
gressed the  present  east  coast  of  Australia  during  Jurassic  time; 
it  is  certain  that  there  are  no  evidences  of  Jurassic  marine 
deposits  in  Eastern  Australia. 

The  gulf  was  probably  more  or  less  coincident  with  the  present 
position  of  the  Thomson  Trough;  but  whether  the  Thomson 
Trough  is  as  old  as  Lower  Mesozoic,  is  difficult  to  determine. 

The  palseogeography  of  the  Australasian  region  involves  a 
consideration  of  the  structure  of  the  south-western  Pacific  resrion. 
structural  studies  of  this  region  have  been  made  by  a  number  of 
geologists,  including  Dana,  Suess,  Gregory,  Marshall,  and 
Schuchert. 

Marshall  has  pointed  out  that  some  of  the  earlier  studies  were 
based  mainly  on  the  geographic  distribution  of  the  island-chains, 
without  much  knowledge  of  structure.  He  has  very  rightly  con- 
tended that  conclusions  drawn  from  such  distribution  mav  be 
quite  erroneous. 

Marshall   has  argued  that   "  the  real   boundary  of  the  south- 
west  Pacific  passes  through   New  Zealand,  Kermadec,  Tonga, 
*  Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Science,  xii.,  p.  331. 


104      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OP    QUEENSLAND, 

Fiji,  New  Hebrides,  Solomon,  and  on  to  the  Admiralty  Islands."* 
This  line  would  then  be  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  continental 
mass  of  which  Australia,  New  Caledonia,  New  Zealand,  etc.,  are 
remnants.  Within  this  continental  region  there  are  a  number 
of  great  deeps,  e.g.,  the  two  Solomon  Island  deeps  (the  northern 
one  named  the  Planet  Deep,  the  other  unnamed)  and  an  unnamed 
deep  between  the  New  Hel>rides  and  New  Caledonia.  A  discus- 
sion, which  the  author  had  recently  with  Rev.  Father  Pigot,  of 
Piverview  College,  produced  some  facts  which  seem  directly  to 
concern  the  question  of  these  deeps.  The  seismometers  at  the 
Riverview  College  observatory  have,  within  the  past  few  years, 
recorded  a  number  of  earthquake-shocks,  and  Father  Pigot  has 
calculated  the  positions  of  origin  of  these  shocks.  He  kindly 
informed  me  that  quite  a  large  percentage  of  the  shocks  recorded 
had  their  origin  along  a  line  from  Kermadec,  through  the  deep 
between  the  New  Hebrides  and  New  Caledonia,  the  Planet  Deep, 
and  the  Swire  Deep  (east  of  the  Phillipines).  The  prevalence  of 
earthquake- shocks  emanating  from  this  line  of  deeps  is  probably 
connected  with  faulting-movements,  and  it  may  reasonably  be 
argued  that  these  movements  are  probably  a  continuation  of 
those  which  produced  the  deeps,  and,  therefore,  that  these  deeps 
are  of  very  recent  origin.  If  this  is  so,  we  have,  in  these  earth- 
quake-records, evidence  wiiich  supports  Marshall's  contentfon  as 
to  the  true  margin  of  the  south-west  Pacific.  Marshall's  con- 
clusions in  this  respect  seem  reasonable;  and  Text-fig. 2  (p. 105) 
indicates  the  probable  limits  of  the  continental  mass  about  the 
beginning  of  Mesozoic  time;  this  map  has  been  drawn-up  mainly 
from  the  works  of  Marshall  and  Schuchert,  already  quoted. 

This  continental  mass  was  connected  with  Asia  about  tlie 
begitjning  of  Mesozoic  time,  and  it  may  have  been  continuous 
witli  Gondwanaland.  The  breaking  down  of  Gondwanaland 
commenced  in  early  Mesozoic  time,  and  the  permanent  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Pacific  basin  probably  commenced  about  the  same 
time.  There  are  marine  Triassic  rocks  both  in  New  Caledonia 
and  New  Zealand —evidences  of  epicontinental  seas— but  there 
is  no  marine  deposit  of  Triassic  age  known  on  the  present  Aus- 

*  Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Science,  xiii.,  1911,  p. 99. 


BY    A.    B.    AVALKOM. 


105 


tialiaij    CoMtiiient.       The  distribution  of  land    and    sea   during 
Triassic  time  in  this  region  appears  to  me  to  be  as  indicated  in 


Text-ti^'.2. 

Map  showinir  the  ai)pruxiiiiate  limits  uf  the  Continental  Mass,  of  which 

Australia,  New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia.  &c.,  are  remnants. 

Text-fig.3(p.l07).  Speaking  of  the  Triassic  marine  deposits  of  New 

Caledonia  and   New  Zealand,   Marshall"^  expressed  the  opinion, 

•  (;eolu>;y  of  New   Zealand,   11)12,  p.  18-j. 


106      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

that  it  cannot  be  definitely  decided  whether  they  represent 
coastal  deposits  on  an  eastern  or  western  coast.  If  the  boundary 
of  the  true  Pacific  basin  on  the  south-west  be  the  line  stated,  it 
seems  more  probable  that  they  represent  deposits  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  a  continent. 

The  evidence  for  the  existence  of  the  gulf,  which  Neumayr 
called  the  Gulf  of  Queensland,  is  not  very  definite. 

The  continued  deposition  of  freshwater  sediments  in  the 
Hawkesbury  basin,  indicates  a  continuance  of  freshwater  condi- 
tions in  this  basin  over  a  long  period,  and  there  must  have  been 
some  outlet,  as  noted  above  (see  p.  98).  As  far  as  we  know,  there 
is  no  possibility  of  an  outlet  to  the  north,  south,  or  west,  and,  in 
view  of  the  jDresence  of  a  foraminiferal  and  ostracodan  fauna  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  Wianamatta  Stage,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  outlet  connected  with  an  arm  of  the  sea,  such  as  the 
Gulf  of  Queensland.  The  exact  extent  of  the  gulf  is  purely 
conjectural. 

During  the  time  when  the  Wianamatta  Stage  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  the  Ipswich  Series  in  Queensland  were  being  de- 
posited, the  Gulf  of  Queensland  probably  had  its  maximum  ex- 
tension in  a  northerly  direction.  At  this  time,  there  were  two 
small  basins  in  which  the  Wianamatta  Beds  and  the  Ipswicli 
Series  respectively  were  deposited.  Both  these  basins  may  have 
had  outlet  to  the  Gulf  of  Queensland.  Text-fig. 4  (p.  109) 
indicates  a  probable  distribution  of  land  and  water  at  this 
time. 

In  Jurassic  time,  there  is  no  clear  evidence  to  show  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Gulf  of  Queensland.  There  are  marine  Jurassic 
rocks  in  New  Caledonia.  In  New  Zealand,  in  the  south  of  the 
South  Island,  there  are  freshwater  and  marine  strata  of  Jurassic 
age  associated  with  one  another,  indicating  probably  oscillation 
of  marine  and  fluviatile  deposition  in  a  coastal  region.  In  the 
North  Island,  in  the  Kawhia-Waikato  district,  there  are  marine 
Jurassic  rocks,  and  there  are  also  records  of  fossil  plants  (Jurassic) 
from  the  same  district.  This,  again,  indicates  a  probable  coastal 
region. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM 


107 


Text-fig.  3. 
Map  showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the   Australasian 
Region  in  early  and  middle  Triassic  time.       (Solid  black  represents 
the  present  known  extent  of  sti'ata). 


108      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

The  Jurassic  rocks  of  Victoria  and  Tasmania  are  freshwater 
deposits,  and  probably  extended  some  distance  east  of  the  present 
coast.  The  Jurassic  strata  of  New^  South  Wales  and  Queensland 
extend  right  to  the  extreme  north  of  the  latter  State,  and  there 
are  marine  Jurassic  strata  in  New  Guinea  (Strickland  River). 
This  seems  to  indicate  that  these  Jurassic  rocks  were  laid  down 
in  a  large  basin,  which  had  some  outlet  to  the  north.  Another 
point  which  strengthens  this,  and  is  against  the  existence  of  the 
Gulf  of  Queensland  during  the  Jurassic  period,  is  the  enormous 
amount  of  sediment  represented  by  the  continuous  Jurassic  strata 
of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland.  These  beds  must  average 
some  thousands  of  feet  in  thickness  over  an  area  of  some  hundreds 
of  thousand  square  miles,  and  must  represent  denudation  of  a 
large  area.  That  the  drainage  to  this  basin  was  limited  on  the 
north,  west,  and  south,  is  easily  shown,  for,  in  these  directions, 
we  know  the  regions  of  synchronous  deposition,  and  the  divides 
separating  these  from  the  Walloon  basin  do  not  allow  of  a  very 
extensive  area  from  which  the  sediments  may  have  been  derived. 
There  is  left,  then,  only  extension  to  the  south-east  and  east  to 
any  very  large  extent,  and,  if  this  was  the  case,  there  seems  little 
possibility  of  the  existence  of  the  Gulf  of  Queensland. 

These  considerations  have  governed  the  drawing  up  of  Text, 
fig. 5  (p. Ill)  showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  sea  during 
Jurassic  time. 

The  Thomson  Trough,  which  lies  to  the  east  of  Australia,  may 
have  been  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The  east  coast  of 
Australia  has  been  subject  to  folding  since  Lower  Cretaceous, 
and  to  considerable  faulting  during  Cainozoic;  and  it  does  not 
seem  improbable  that  the  Thomson  Trough  is  a  result  of  these 
movements.  Schuchert*  concludes  his  study  of  continental 
fracturing  and  diastrophism  in  Oceania  thus:  "To  sum  up,  we 
may  say  that  the  bottom  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the  region  of 
greater  Australasia  seemingly  became  more  and  more  mobile 
with  the  Lower  Carboniferous  and  especially  during  the  Jurassic 
and  Cretaceous.  During  this  very  long  time,  the  eastern  half  of 
*  Amer.  Journ.  of  Science,  xlii.,  1916,  p.  104. 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM. 


109 


Text-fig.  4. 
Map   showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  water   in  the   Australasian 
Region  during   Upper   Triassic   time  (?Keuper  or  Rhaitie).     (Solid 
black  represents  the  present  known  extent  of  strata). 


110      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

the  Australian  Continent,  a  land  about  1,800  miles  east  and 
west  and  2,200  miles  north  and  south,  was  folded  into  a  series 
of  parallel  ridges  trending  north-west  and  south-east,  nearly  all 
of  which  went  down  more  and  more  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea 
to  a  maximum  depth  of  about  four  miles  and  an  average  depth 
of  between  one  and  two  and  a  half  miles.  Small  parts  of  the 
ridges  still  protrude  above  the  ocean  (at  least  New  Caledonia), 
but  most  of  what  we  see  are  the  volcanoes  that  have  built  them- 
selves up  above  the  folded  rocks  to  the  level  of  the  sea." 

This  statement  gives  a  general  outline  of  the  geological  history' 
of  this  region,  but  the  stress  laid  on  the  Jurassic  as  a  period  of 
folding  does  not  appear  to  be  justified.  As  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  goes,  the  periods  during  which  folding-forces  have 
been  effective  since  the  Carboniferous  are  Permian  (Permo-Car- 
boniferous),  late  Cretaceous,  and  possibly  late  Cainozoic.  The 
Permian  strata  of  New  South  Wales  indicate  folding  with  axes 
approximately  N.  by  W.;  the  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Lower  Cre- 
taceous all  show  a  general  stratigraphical  conformity,  and  have 
all  been  affected  to  the  same  extent  by  a  folding  which  was  later 
than  Lower  Cretaceous  and  earlier  than  Cainozoic,  the  direction 
of  the  axes  of  folding  being  about  N.30°W.;  the  Cainozoic  rocks 
in  the  Ipswich  District  have  been  subject  to  a  minor  folding- 
movement  with  approximately  meridional  axes. 

It  is  also  noted  that,  in  New  Caledonia,  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
Cretaceous  strata  are  apparently  conformable,  and  have  all  been 
subject  to  subsequent  overthrusting  from  the  north-east.  This 
strengthens  the  conclusion  that  the  more  important  folding  did. 
not  take  place  till  after  the  deposition  of  the  Cretaceous. 

It  appears,  then,  that  there  were  transgressions  in  Triassic 
time  (1)  from  the  east,  extending  as  far  west  as  New  Caledonia, 
and  (2)  from  the  south,  forming  the  Gulf  of  Queensland.  During 
Jurassic,  the  eastern  coast  remained  in  much  the  same  position, 
the  Gulf  of  Queensland  disappeared  or  was  very  much  reduced, 
and  the  sea  transgressed  in  Western  Australia  parallel  to  the 
present  western  coast,  and  also  in  New  Guinea  to  the  Strickland 
River  district;  during  this  time,  also,  the  extent  of  the  basins. 


BY    A     B.    WALKOM. 


Ill 


i 


Text-fig.  5. 
Map   showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the  Australasian 
Region  in  Jurassic  time.      (Solid  black  represents  the  present  known 


Regie 

extent  of  strata). 


112      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    HOCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

in  which  freshwater  deposits  were  laid  down,  increased  enor- 
mously. The  early  Cretaceous  period  saw  very  great  changes  in 
distribution  of  land  and  ^vater.  The  sea  transgressed  from  the 
north  in  the  region  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  at  least  as  far  as 
Lake  Eyre;  Australia  appears  to  have  been  divided  into  two 
parts,  either  by  the  extension  of  this  transgression  to  the  south- 
west, or  by  meeting  another  from  the  south-west.  These  suc- 
cessive changes  are  shown  on  Text-figs.  3-6. 

Summary. 

The  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  of  Queensland  comprise  three  di^■i- 
sions,  namely,  the  Ipswich,  Bundamba,  and  Walloon  Series,  The 
Ipswich  and  Bundamba  Series  are  of  comparatively  limited  dis- 
tribution, and  are  confined  to  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
State.  The  Walloon  Series  has  a  much  greater  extent;  in  addi- 
tion to  occurring  in  South-eastern  Queensland,  in  association  with 
the  Ipswich  and  Bundamba  Series,  it  outcrops  in  a  belt  along 
the  western  slope  of  the  Main  Divide  from  the  New  South  Wales 
border  to  Cape  York,  dipping  westerly  beneath  the  marine  Cre- 
taceous. It  probably  underlies  the  Cretaceous  strata  over  the 
greater  part  of  Western  Queensland.  In  Eastern  Queensland, 
there  are  a  number  of  small,  isolated  occurrences  of  the  Walloon 
Series,  as  indicated  on  Plate  i.  The  thicknesses  of  the  three  series 
are  approximately  as  follows:  Ipswich  Series,  2,000-2,500  feet; 
Bundamba  Series,  3,000-5,000  feet;  and  Walloon  Series,  up  to 
10,000  feet. 

From  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks 
are  of  special  importance  in  three  respects,  namely,  (1)  the  greater 
part  of  the  coal  produced  in  Queensland  is  from  the  coal-measures 
of  the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series,  chiefly  the  former;  (2\  the 
large  supplies  of  artesian  water  are  obtained  from  sandstones 
which  are  the  equivalents  of  the  Walloon  Series  in  Western 
Queensland;  (3)  practically  all  the  Queensland  sandstone  used 
for  building  purposes  is  of  Lower  Mesozoic  age. 

In  South-eastern  Queensland,  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  (and 
also  the  Cretaceous  strata)  have  been  folded  into  a  series  of  anti- 


IJY    A.     li.    WALKOM. 


113 


Text-fig.  6. 

Map  showing  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the  Australasian  Region 
in  Lower  Cretaceous  time.  (Solid  black  represents  the  present  known 
extent  of  strata). 


114      GEOLOGY    OF    LOWER    MESOZOIC    ROCKS    OF    QUEENSLAND, 

clines  and  synclines,  whose  axes  are  in  a  general  N.30°W.-S.30°E. 
direction.  This  folding  is  sometimes  severe,  the  strata  having 
been  fractured,  the  folding  giving  place  to  distinct  faulting.  The 
age  of  this  folding  and  faulting  is  Post-Lower  Cretaceous  and 
Pre-Cainozoic ;  none  of  the  Cainozoic  rocks  in  south-eastern 
Queensland  have  been  affected  by  it. 

In  the  Ipswich  district,  Mr  Cameron  has  observed  a  sub- 
sequent folding-movement  with  approximately  meridional  axes; 
this  latter  folding  has  affected  the  Cainozoic  sedimentary  and 
volcanic  rocks,  as  well  as  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 

In  Western  Queensland,  the  Mesozoic  rocks  have  not  been 
subject  to  folding-movements. 

The  Bundamba  Series  is  practically  devoid  of  fossils,  but  both 
the  Ipswich  and  Walloon  Series  contain  abundant  plant-remains; 
there  are  also  numerous  fossil  insects  in  the  Ipswich  Series. 
Examination  of  the  fossil  floras  indicates  clearly  that  the  Ipswich 
Series  must  be  regarded  as  Triassic  in  age,  and  the  Walloon 
Series  as  Jurassic.  The  exact  position  of  the  Ipswich  Series  in 
the  Triassic  cannot  be  definitely  fixed  at  present,  but  it  seems 
certain  that  it  is  Upper  Triassic,  possibly  Rhsetic,  but  probably 
older.  The  flora  of  the  Walloon  Series  corresponds,  to  almost 
equal  extents,  with  Liassic  and  Lower  Oolitic  floras.  This  Series 
probably  corresponds  to  a  period  covering  these  two  epochs,  and 
when  the  Walloon  Series  is  known  in  greater  detail,  it  may  be 
possible  to  subdivide  it  accurately. 

The  exact  position  of  the  Bundamba  Series  in  the  Geological 
Record  cannot  be  fixed,  but  it  is  suggested  that  it  is  more  closely 
associated  with  the  Ipswich  Series  than  with  the  Walloon  Series, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  tentatively  placed  in  the  Triassic. 

A  comparison  of  the  Queensland  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  with 
other  occurrences  in  Australia  of  similar  age  seems  to  show,  (1) 
that  the  Narrabeen  and  Hawkesbury  Sandstone  Stages  in  New 
South  Wales  are  older  than  the  Ipswich  Series;  (2)  that  the 
Wianamatta  Stage  of  the  Hawkesbury  Series  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  also  possibly  part  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  strata  of 
Tasmania  are  of  the  same  age  as  the  Ipswich  Series;  and  (3)  that 


BY    A.    B.    WALKOM.  115 

the  following  series  in  the  other  States  are  of  the  same  age  as 
the  Walloon  Series:  the  Artesian  Series,  Clarence  Series,  and 
Talbragar  Beds  in  New  South  Wales;  the  Jurassic  strata  of  the 
South  Gippsland,  Cape  Otway,  and  Wannon  areas  of  Victoria; 
the  Leigh's  Creek  beds  in  South  Australia;  part  of  the  Lower 
Mesozoic  strata  of  Tasmania;  and  the  marine  Jurassic  series  in 
Western  Australia. 

An  account  has  been  given  of  the  probable  geological  history 
of  Eastern  Australia  between  the  close  of  the  Palaeozoic  era  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Cretaceous  period,  and  it  is  evident  that  the 
Lower  Mesozoic  rocks  are,  with  a  single  exception,  of  freshwater 
origin.  Their  exact  mode  of  origin  is  not  definitely  settled;  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  basins  in  which  they  were  deposited 
must  have  had  some  outlet;  deposition  may  tlien  have  been  in 
inland  lake-basins  with  a  river-outlet,  or  the  deposits  may  repre- 
sent accumulations  under  fluviatile  conditions. 

The  geological  history  of  the  area  is  illustrated  by  a  series  of 
palseogeographic  maps  of  Australia  and  the  South-western  Pacific 
region,  representing  the  probable  distribution  of  land  and  water 
at  different  stages  in  Lower  Mesozoic  time. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  I.-IL 
Plate  i. 
Map  of  Queensland  showing  the  distribution  of  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 

Plate  ii. 
Geological   Sketch-Map   of   South-eastern  Queensland  showing  the  areas 
occupied  by  the  Lower  Mesozoic  rocks. 


116 


STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  KEUROPTERA. 

No.  5.  The  Structure  of  the  Cubitus  ix  the  Wings  of  the 
Myrmeleonti  d^e. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(With  three  Text-figures). 

In  No.l  of  this  series  of  Studies,*  I  worked  out  the  wing- 
venation  of  2Iyrineleon  unise7'iatus  Gerst.,  from  the  pupal  wing- 
tracheation,  and  showed  how,  in  the  forewing,  the  apparently 
simple  vein  M  was  in  reality  a  forked  vein,  the  vein  usually  con- 
sidered to  be  Cuj  being  in  reality  the  cuhito-median,  Cu^  -1-  M.,,  and 
the  point  of  incidence  of  M2  on  to  the  line  of  Cuj  being  marked 
by  the  foot  of  the  oblique  vein  O.  The  branch  descending  from 
the  point  of  bifurcation,  which  I  called  the  cubital  fork  (cuf), 
was,  naturally  enough,  taken  to  be  Cuo.  It  was  on  the  lack  of 
specialisation  of  this  branch,  that  I  based  my  argument  for  the 
recognition  of  the  tribe  Protoplectrini,  of  which  the  correct  name 
should  be  Creagrini,  as  previously  given  by  Navas. 

In  No. 4  of  this  same  series  of  Studies,!  when  describing  the 
wing- venation  of  the  Hemerohiidce,  I  showed  how,  in  the  fore- 
wings  of  Drejmnepteryx  and  Drepanacra,  an  archaic  Cug  was 
present  close  to  the  base,  and  that,  in  addition  to  this,  Cu^  was 
strongly  branched  at  a  sharp  angle,  much  further  distad,  into 
two  veins  which  I  called  Cuj^  and  Cuu,  In  the  allied  genus 
Drepanomina,  the  archaic  Cuo  is  lost,  and  replaced  by  a  furrow. 
In  the  majority  of  the  smaller  Hemerobiidce,  even  the  furrow  has 
disappeared.  Thus,  in  the  most  highly  specialised  forms  of  the 
family  Hemerohiidce,  all  traces  of  the  original  C\x.^  are  lost,  and 

''  These  Proceedings,  1915,  xl.,  Pt.4,  pp. 734-751,  PL  Iviii. 
\0p.  cit.,  1916,  xli.,  Pt.2,  pp.269-332,  Pis.  xii.-xix. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  117 

there  is  left  only  the  distal  secondary  forking  of  Cui  into  Cuj^  and 
Cuiij,  the  point  of  bifurcation  being  properly  termed  the  i^pcondary 
cubital  fork  {ciif). 

Now  the  resemblance  between  the  condition  of  the  cubitus  in 
the  forewings  of  these  smaller  specialised  Hemprohiidce^  and  in 
the  forewings  of  the  Myrmelcontid(f,  is  too  striking  to  be  ignored. 
It  suggested  to  me  at  once  that  the  veins  which  I  had  named 
Cuj  and  Cu.2  in  the  Myrmflpontidcf  were  in  reality  only  Cuj^  and 
Cu]b  respectively,  and  that,  if  the  true  Cu"  still  existed,  it  must 
be  sought  for  near  the  extreme  base  of  the  wing.  1  therefore 
examined  a  considerable  number  of  MyvmpUontidw^  and  found 
that,  in  many  cases,  there  could  be  detected,  close  to  the  base  of 
the  wing,  a  semi-opaque  connecting-vein,  not  unlike  an  oblique 
vein,  (though  not  so  well  defined)  running  across  from  Cu^  to  1  A. 
This  appeared  to  me  to  be  the  remains  of  Cu.^.  With  a  view  to 
proving  this  point,  I  decided  to  examine  the  pupal  tiacheation 
of  some  of  the  older  Mynndpontidce,  belonging  to  the  suV)family 
Dendroleontince,  in  the  imagines  of  which  this  supposed  remnant 
of  Cu.2  appeared  to  be  much  more  evident  than  in  the  genus 
Myrmeleon  itself. 

Most  of  the  larva"  of  the  Dcndroleontince  do  not  make  pit-falls, 
but  must  be  sought  for  either  in  loose  sand,  or  in  rubble  or  debris 
collected  at  the  bases  of  large  trees.  During  the  winter  of  1916, 
larvte  of  several  genera  of  this  type  were  collected  around  Sydney. 
A  number  of  these  spun  up  in  the  following  September.  At  the 
end  of  a  fortnight,  three  likely-looking  cocoons  were  opened,  but 
were  found  still  to  contain  larvae.  They  were  then  placed  under 
close  observation  until  pupation  took  place.  The  first  pupa  ex- 
amined proved  to  be  very  recently  formed;  so  that,  although  a 
good  dissection  of  the  forewing  was  obtained,  the  structure  was 
so  exceedingly  delicate  that  all  the  air  passed  out  of  the  tracheae 
before  either  a  photomicrograph  or  a  camera-lucida  drawing  could 
be  obtained.  With  the  second  dissection,  I  decided  to  take  no 
risks,  but  removed  it  at  once  to  the  microscope-stage,  and  made 
a  camera-lucida  drawing  of  it.  Both  the  pupal  tracheation  and 
the  imaginal  venation  showed  up  very  clearly,  and  the  result  was 
9 


118 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  V., 


X  /  ////  /  /  / /ZZZZZ^^:^^  So 


Text-fig.  1. 
Traeheation  of  forewing  in  the  pupa  of  Xanthohon  hefinsi  Tillj^ard;  (  x  35). 


T-T  /    I     M//    /   /////, 


Sc 
R 
Rs 


Ml 


Text-fig.  2. 

Venation  of  Xanthohon  helmsi  Tillyard;  a,  basal  half  of  forewing,  (  x  4^); 

h,  basal  portion  of  same,  enlarged,  (  x  10);  c,  base  of  hindwing,  (  x  4iK 

LETTERING  OF  TEXT-FIGURES. 

lA,  2A,  3A,  first,  second,  and  third  analis,  respectively — lA-f  Cus, 
eubito-anal — C,  costa — Cu,  cubitus;  Cui,  Cuo,  its  two  principal  branches; 
Cuu,  Cuib,  the  two  principal  branches  of  Cui — Cuia-f-Mo,  cubito-median 
— cuf,  primary,  and  cnf,  secondary  cubital  fork— ^r,  vestigial  frenulum 
— M,  media;  Mi,  M„,  its  two  principal  branches — mf,  median  fork — Oc, 
cubital  oblique  vein — Om,  median  oblique  vein — R,  radius — Rs.  radial 
sector — 7'/,  radial  fork — Sc,  subcosta. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  119 

a  complete  success,  which  is  here  reproduced  in  Text-fig.  1.  As 
the  venation  was  complete,  and  even  the  delicate  pigmentation  of 
the  imaginal  wing  could  be  noted,  I  was  easily  able  to  determine 
this  wing  as  belonging  to  the  rather  rare  insect  Xantholeon 
hdmsi  Tillyard, — a  result  as  fortunate  as  it  was  unexpected,  since 
Xantholeon  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  archaic  of  our  Australian 
Myrnidpontid(e. 

The  result  of  this  examination  can  be  gathered  by  comparing 
Text-figs.  1  and  2.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  not  only  bears  out  in 
full  my  suspicions  concerning  the  real  position  of  Cuo,  but  shows 
also  a  further  unexpected  point  of  interest.  For  the  trachea 
Cu2  is  not  a  weak  remnant  descending  to  1  A,  as  the  examination 
of  the  imaginal  venation  had  led  me  to  suspect,  but  is  a  strong 
trachea  which  has  captured  the  line  of  lA,  in  the  same  manner 
that  M2  has  captured  the  line  of  Cui,,.  In  both  cases,  it  is  the 
upper  trachea  that  prevails,  the  lower  that  goes  under.  In  both 
cases,  the  crossing  of  the  upper  trachea  on  to  the  level  of  the 
lower  is  marked,  in  the  imaginal  venation,  by  an  oblique  vei7i, 
which  represents,  of  course,  the  actual  basal  piece  of  the  upper 
vein  in  question.  We  must  therefore  distinguish  in  future 
between  the  median  oblique  vein  {Om)  and  the  cubital  oblique 
vein  (Oc).  This  latter  is  very  clearly  marked  in  Xantholeon 
(Text-fig.  2),  also  in  Glenoleon,  Acanthaclisis,  and  other  genera; 
but  it  cannot  be  satisfactorily  made  out  in  our  Australian  species 
of  the  genus  Myrmeleo7i,  which  are  more  highly  specialised. 

The  process  by  which  M2  and  Cug  have  attained  their  present 
positions  may  be  described  as  a  process  of  "trachea-capture." 
The  two  tracheae  run  at  first  more  or  less  parallel.  As  the  wing- 
becomes  narrower,  they  come  to  lie  side  by  side.  The  oxygen- 
supply  conveyed  by  both  is  now  no  longer  fully  needed;  so  that, 
in  course  of  time,  the  weaker  (in  this  case  the  lower)  trachea 
becomes  aborted,  being  reduced  to  a  remnant  impinging  upon 
the  strong  upper  trachea  from  below.  In  the  resulting  imaginal 
wing-venation,  however,  where  the  determining  factor  is  not 
oxygen-supply,  but  the  wing-stresses  brought  about  during  for- 
ward flight,  the  vein  formed  along  the  coui'se  of  the  lower  trachea 


120 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  V., 


continues  the  line  of  the  stronger  upper  trachea  beyond  the  point 
where  the  partially  aborted  lower  trachea  ceases  to  exist,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  a  composite  vein,  whose  double 
origin  is  now  only  indicated  by  the  oblique  vein  placed  above  it. 
Thus,  in  the  case  under  consideration,  we  have  two  composite 
veins  formed,  viz.,  the  aubito-median,  Cuj^  +  M.,,  (whose  structure 
I  worked  out  in  No.l  of  this  series  of  Studies),  and  the  cnbito-anal, 

1 A  +  Cug,  whose  existence 
has  not  been  before  sus- 
pected. The  oblique  vein 
indicating  the  presence  of 
the  former  is  Om,  that  in- 
dicating the  presence  of 
the  latter  is  Oc.  The  com- 
plete, correct,  amended 
notation  for  the  forewing 
of  Xantholeon  helmsi  Till- 
yard,  is  given  in  Text-fig. 
2.  In  Text-fig.  3,  I  oflPer 
a  phylogenetic  series  of 
stages  to  show  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  Myrmeleontid 
type  from  the  original  archaic  formation  of  these  veins,  as  still 
preserved  for  us  in  the  archaic  Hemfirohiidce^  Drepanepteryx,  and 
Drepanacra. 

*  Phylogenetic  series  illustrating  the  evolution  of  the  cubitus  in  the 
wings  of  Hemerobiidoi  and  Myrine.Ieontiche. — Series  a,  h,  c,  three  stages 
leading  to  the  reduced  Hemerobiid  type,  also  to  the  type  found  in  hmd- 
n-inr/s  of  Xymphidce  and  MyrmeJeontidoe.  With  a,  compare  forewing  of 
Drepanepteryx',  with  b,  compare  hindwing  of  Drepanepteryx;  with  c,  com- 
pare wings  of  Drepanomina.  The  final  stage,  in  which  the  furrow  /  is 
completely  eliminated,  is  not  shown  in  this  figure. — Series  a,  b,  d,  three 
stages  leading  to  the  formation  of  the  cubito-anal  vein  in  the  forewing  of 
the  Myrmdeontidn',  by  fusion  of  the  veins  lA  and  Cuo.  In  c?,  the  basal 
part  of  Cuo  is  indicated  by  the  cubital  oblique  vein  Oc. 

Lettering  as  on  p. 118,  and,  in  addition,  k,  the  point  destined  to  become 
ciif,  and  s,  the  sector  of  Cu^  destined  to  become  Cuib. 


Cuib 


Text-fig.  3.* 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVARt).  121 

In  Text-fig.  2,  c,  I  have  figured  the  base  of  the  hind  wing  of 
Xantholeon  helmsi  Tillyard,  in  order  to  contrast  the  simphfied 
condition  of  this  wing  with  the  complicated  condition  of  the  fore- 
wing  discussed  above.  Since  the  MyrtuphMtntidm  are  admittedly 
derived  from  Nymphid-like  ancestors;  and  since,  in  the  Nymphidce 
themselves,  both  the  media  and  the  cubitus  of  the  hindwing  are 
already  simple,  unbranched  veins,  it  must  follow  that  this  con. 
dition  is  to  be  found  in  their  derivatives,  the  Myrmeleontidce.  It 
should,  however,  be  noted  that  there  are  signs  of  specialisation 
even  in  the  hindwing,  in  that  the  vein  lA  approaches  basally 
very  close  to  Cu,  very  nearly  fusing  with  it;  while  8c  and  R  are 
completely  fused  together  throughout  the  basal  portion  of  the 
wing. 

We  have  now  to  consider  whether  our  new  discoveries  on  the 
structure  of  the  cubitus  require  us  to  make  any  revision  in  the 
present  classification  of  the  Myrmdeontidiv.  Esben-Petersen,  in 
Part  iii.  of  his  "Australian  Neuroptera,""^  has  named  the  area 
between  Cuj^  +  Mo,  Cujb,  and  the  hindmargin  of  the  wing,  the 
intermibital  area,  and  has  pointed  out  that  a  Banksian  Line  is 
sometimes  developed  in  this  space;  such  a  line,  he  calls  the  inter- 
cubital  line.  With  this  I  am  in  agreement.  Now  the  develop- 
ment of  an  intercubital  line  is  evidence  of  high  specialisation  in 
this  area.  Therefore,  those  genera  in  which  it  occurs,  if  they 
have  hitherto  been  regarded  as  primitive,  must  have  their  posi- 
tion reconsidered.  In  the  tribe  Creag7^itii,  this  intercubital  line 
is  beautifully  developed,  and  is  correlated  with  a  condition  of 
parallelism  between  Cui^  +  Ms  and  Cujb-  It  was  natural,  so  long 
as  this  latter  vein  was  taken  to  be  Cuo,  that  this  condition  of 
parallelism  should  be  considered  primitive.  But  the  archaic 
condition  existing  for  Cujb  is  not  one  of  parallelism  to  Cuja^  +  M.,, 
but  rather,  as  may  be  seen  in  Xantholeon,  one  of  strong  diver- 
gence from  it,  Cujb  running  obliquely  to  the  margin,  and  parallel 
to  the  numerous  branches  descending  from  Cuia-fMa.  Xantho- 
leon^    Gymnocnemia^    Periclystus,    and  other   genera    show   this 

♦These  Proceedings,  1917,  xhi.,  Pt.l,  pp.203-219,  PI.  x.-xv.  (PL  x.,  fig. 
1,  Protoplectron  striatellum  Esb.-Pet. ). 


122  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  V. 

primitive  condition  well.      From  this  primitive  state,  two  lines  of 
development  may  follow: — 

(1)  Ciij^  may  become  fixed  in  its  divergent  position,  and  the 
intercubital  line  may  be  developed  in  the  usual  manner  between 
the  descending  branches  of  Cui;,  +  M..  Various  stages  in  this 
process  may  be  studied  \vithin  the  genus  Ghmoleon,  while  the  com- 
plete formation  may  be  seen  in  Acanthaclisis  and  ^lyrmdeoii. 

(2)  Cuib  may  become  straightened  out  parallel  toCuj, +  Mo,  the 
intercubital  line  becoming  developed  between  them,  and  parallel 
to  both.  The  beginning  of  this  line  of  evolution  is  evident  in 
the  forewing  of  Frotoplectron  striatellum,  Esb.-Pet.,  which  is, 
therefore,  fairly  primitive.  In  P.  venustum  Gerst.,  the  forma- 
tion is  practically  completed;  w-hile  in  Creagris  ^9/?*m6ews  01., 
(Palsearctic)  the  development  of  the  three  parallel  veins,  with  all 
connecting  structures  reduced  to  simple  series  of  cross-veins, 
reaches  the  highest  possible  stage  of  evolution  along  this  line. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  my  estimate  of  the  tribe 
Creayrini,  as  the  most  primitive  of  the  DendroleonthLce,  is  not 
correct.  They  form,  rather,  a  separate  side-line  of  development 
away  from  the  main  stem,  culminating  in  a  very  highly  specialised 
genus,  viz.,  Creayins.  It  should  be  noted,  in  this  connection, 
that  the  larva  of  Creagris  is  the  only  one  amongst  the  Dendro- 
leontince  that  is  known  to  make  pit-falls.  It  will  now  be  of 
special  interest  to  find  out  whether  the  larvte  of  Protoplectron  do 
likewise. 


123 


ON  THE  AFFINITIES  OF  TWO  INTERESTING  F088IL 
INSECTS  FROM  THE  UPPER  CARBONIFEROUS 
OF  COMMENTRY,  FRANCE. 

By  R    J.  TiLLYAKD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnkan 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(With  three  Text-figures). 

In  May,  1917,  Mr.  Herbert  Bolton,  M.Sc,  F.R.S.E.,  F.G.S., 
Director  of  the  Bristol  Museum,  England,  published  an  interest- 
ing paper  upon  the  "Mark  Stirrup"  Collection  of  Fossil  Insects 
from  the  Coal-Measures  of  Commentry  (Allier),  Central  France."^ 
As  is  well  known,  these  insect-beds  are  of  Upper  Carboniferous 
Age,  and  have  yielded  a  very  large  number  of  fossils,  most  of 
which  have  been  described  by  Brongniart  and  Meunier.  The 
chief  characteristics  of  the  assemblage  may  be  shortly  summed 
up  in  the  statement  that  they  appear  to  have  been  at  a  stage 
when  the  separate  Orders  known  to  us  to-day  were  only  beginning 
to  be  foreshadowed,  nearly  all  the  specimens  found  being  of  large 
size,  with  dense  wing  venation,  and  primitive  structure  of  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen.  The  dominant  group  was  the  Blattoidea. 
No  undoubted  Holometabolous  Insects  are  known  to  exist  from 
these  beds,  nor  were  any  such  known  from  any  Palaeozoic  rocks, 
until  the  discovery  of  Permochoi'ista,  a  genus  of  undoubted 
Mecoptera,  in  the  Permian  Coal-Measures  of  Newcastle,  N.S.W.f 

Eight  species  are  represented  in  the  "Mark  Stirrup"  Collec- 
tion. Five  of  these  are  Blattoids,  and  one  is  a  Palseodictyopteron. 
The  other  two  are  of  very  great  interest,  and  their  affinities  are 
certainly  problematical  enough  to  require  very  careful  investiga- 
tion before  they  can  be  settled  with  anything  approaching  finality, 

*  Mem.  Proc.  Manchester  Lit.  Phil.  Soc,  1916-17,  Vol.61,  Pt.l,  No.2, 
pp.1 -.32,  Pis.  i.-v.,  [May,  1917]. 

t  These  Proceedings,  1917. 


124  FOSSIL    INSECTS    FROM    COMMENTRY,    FRANCE, 

I  I'efer  to  Megctgnatha  odonatiformis  Bolton,  and  Sycopteroii 
symmetrica  Bolton.  Bolton  places  the  former  in  the  family 
Perlidce  (by  which  the  author  evidently  means  the  Ordei-  Perlaria, 
and  not  the  family  Perlido'  s.str.);  though,  in  a  note  added  to 
this  determination,  he  states  that  Dr.  A.  D.  Imms  suggests  that 
the  specimen  "may  possibly  come  nearer  to  the  Sialidce,''  by 
whicli,  I  take  it,  he  means  the  Order  Megaloptera,  rather  than 
the  actual  family  Sialidce  s.str.  As  for  Sycopferon,  this  is 
assigned  to  the  "family  Fanorpidce"  for  which,  again,  we  are 
evidently  intended  to  read  the  "Order  Mecoptera,"  since  the 
author  compares  it  with  Orthophlehia  of  the  Lias.  If  this  placing 
be  correct,  then  we  have  a  Holometabolous  insect  present  in  the 
Upper  Carboniferous — an  occurrence  whicli  is,  of  course,  not  im- 
possible, but  is  certainly  improbable,  in  view  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the  Insecta. 

I  have,  of  course,  no  opportunity  of  examining  the  specimens 
themselves;  but  Mr.  Bolton  has  given  us  such  excellent  photo- 
graphic reproductions  and  drawings  of  the  fossils  in  his  paper, 
that  one  would  certainly  scarcely  desire  anything  better.  As. 
the  determination  of  the  affinities  of  these  two  fossils  is  a  matter 
of  prime  importance  to  students  of  Insect  Phylogeny,  and  as  I 
have  already  informed  Mr.  Bolton  by  letter  of  the  views  that  I 
shall  here  express,  I  propose  now  to  state  my  reasons  why  these 
two  insects  cannot  be  accepted  as  belonging  to  the  Orders  to 
which  Mr.  Bolton  would  assign  them,  and  to  indicate  also  to 
what  known  Orders  they  may,  with  more  probability,  be  con- 
sidered to  belong. 

Megagnatha  oDONATiFORMis  Bolton.     (Text-fig.  1). 

Bolton,  op.  cit.,  pp.2-6,  PL  i.,  figs.  1-4. 

From  the  photograph  given  by  Bolton  in  PI.  i ,  fig.l,  and  from 
the  drawing  in  Fig. 3,  it  is  evident,  as  Bolton  himself  admits, 
that  any  reconstruction  of  the  wing-venation  of  this  fossil  must 
be  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture.  We  should,  therefore,  attempt 
to  find  other  characters  that  may  lead  to  a  solution.  The  figures 
show  that: — 

(1)  The  wings  were  either  absolutely,  or  approximately,  equal 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  125 

in  size,  and  of  similar  shape;  probably,  therefore,  the  venations 
of  fore-  and  hind  wings  were  the  same. 

(2)  The  insect  had  a  small,  elongated  head  and  prothorax. 

(3)  The  head  carried  a  pair  of  straight,  slender,  and  fairly  long 
antennse,  and  also  a  pair  of  shorter,  but  very  prominent,  some- 
what curved,  slender  appendages,  which  Bolton  considers,  with 
some  doubt,  to  have  been  the  mandibles. 

(4)  The  three  pairs  of  legs  were  well  developed,  and  placed 
far  apart  from  one  another. 

(5)  The  abdomen  was  also  moderately  short,  and  probably 
carried  two  very  short  cerci. 

In  the  Perlaria,  the  head  and  prothorax  are  neither  narrow 
nor  elongated,  but  are  always  more  or  less  flattened  down  dorso- 
ventrally,  more  or  less  widened;  and  the  prothorax  is  never  far 
removed  from  the  pterothorax.  The  antennae  are  very  long,  and 
the  cerci  also,  in  all  the  most  archaic  forms;  genero,  in  which  the 
cerci  are  shortened  are  demonstrably  descended  from  forms  which 
had  longer  cerci.  Further,  fore-  and  hindwing  are  never  equal 
in  size,  or  of  similar  shape;  and  forms  in  which  there  is  an  ap- 
proximation to  equality  are  demonstrably  derived  from  forms  in 
which  there  has  been  greater  inequality.  Nor  are  the  venations 
of  fore-  and  hindwing  ever  the  same,  but  differ  fundamentally, 
as  a  study  of  the  nymphal  tracheation  of  the  two  wings  clearly 
proves.  Finally,  the  Perlaria  have  mostly  reduced,  weak,  non- 
projecting  mandibles;  and  it  is  demonstrable  that  these  organs 
were  never,  within  the  limits  of  this  Order,  slender  and  project- 
ing, as  seen  in  Megagiiatha. 

Even  if  it  were  to  be  admitted  that  the  restored  venation  in 
Bolton's  Fig.  4  were  correct,  I  fail  to  see  in  it  any  true  Perlarian 
characters.  It  much  more  resembles  the  venation  of  an  archaic 
Termite  forewing,  such  as  Mastotermes. 

I  conclude,  therefore,  that  no  affinity  between  MeijayiuUha  and 
the  Order  Perlaria  can  be  shown  to  exist. 

The  only  possible  claim  to  affinity  with  the  Order  Megaloptera 
rests  upon  the  projecting  mandibles,  since  these  structures  also 
project  strongly  in   the   a,H!:haJ\c  Corydalus  and   allies.      But  the 


126 


FOSSIL    INSECTS    FRoM    COMMENTRY,    FRANCE, 


mandibles  of  these  latter  insects  are  much  more  strongly  built, 
and  are  attached  to  a  broad  and  massive  head  that  is  as  unlike 
that  of  ^fegagnatha  as  it  well  could  be.  We  may  well  ask,  are 
these  "mandibular-like  structures"  mandibles'?  Is  it  not  much 
more  likely  that  they  are  the  maxillary  jDalpi,  whose  joints,  like 
those  of  the  antennae,  have  become  obscured  in  the  fossil?  They 
are  too  slender  to  have  been  of  any  use  for  biting;  and  sucking 
mandibles,  such  as  we  find  in  the  Ant-lion,  do  not  occur,  as  far 
as  we  know,  in  any  imaginal  form  whatever;  nor  are  even  such 
suckin^i;  mandibles  ever  so  slender  as  in  this  fossil. 


Text-fig.  1. 
Mt(jagnatlui  odonatiformisl^ditoxi',  {y-i:2).     Upper  Carboniferous  of   Coni- 
mentry.     From  Bolton's  PI.  i.,  fig.  2.     The  short  cercus  on   the  left 
side  of  the  figure  is  not  shown  in  Bolton's  figure,  but  is  visible  in  his 
fig.  1  (photograph). 


T  am,  therefore,  forced  again  to  conclude  that  no  real  aliinity 
can  be  demonstrated  between  this  fossil  and  the  Megaloptera. 


BY    K.    J.    TILLYARD. 


127 


What,  then,  are  the  most  likely  affinities  of  this  peculiar  fossil? 
I  should  answer  that  it  shows  a  very  remarkable  resemblance  to 
the  very  ancient  and  mysterious  Order  Embioptera,  about  which, 
unfortunately,  we  know  very  little.  In  Text-fig.  1,  I  reproduce 
Bolton's  figure  of  Megaynathci,  and  place  opposite  to  it,  in 
Text-fig. 2,  a  drawing  of  an  Embid  {Oligotoma  sp.,  undetermined) 
which  I  happen  to  have  in  my  collection.  It  must  be  at  once 
admitted  that  the  resemblance  is  a  very  striking  one.  The  form 
of  the  head,  prothorax,  and  legs,  the  great  separation  of  the 
latter,  and  the  equality  of  the  wings,  are  characters  that  separate 


Text-fig.  2. 

Oliyotonm  sp., (undetermined)  in  Coll.  Tillyard;  {  x  7^).     Recent. 

Brisbane,  Queensland. 


out  the  Embioptera  very  distinctly  from  all  other  groups.  All 
these  characters  are  possessed  by  Megaynatha.  Further,  the 
Embioptera  possess  elongated  maxillary  palpi,  which,  in  the 
position  of  rest,  lie  projecting  in  front  of  the  head,  much  in  the 


128  FOSSIL    INSP:CTS    from    COMMENTRY,    FRANCE, 

manner  that  these  supposed  mandibles  of  Mpgm/nafha  do  in  the 
actual  fossil.  The  only  two  discordant  characters  are  the  much 
more  complex  venation  of  the  fossil,  and  the  closeness  of  its  wings 
at  their  bases.  The  latter  may  be  easily  explained  as  having 
been  due  to  unequal  crushing  of  the  thorax:  probably  the  wings 
were  actually  well  separated  at  their  bases,  as  the  structure  of 
the  thorax,  and  the  position  of  the  legs,  undoubtedly  suggest. 
As  for  the  venation,  it  is  quite  evident  that  recent  Embioptera^ 
like  uKJst  recent  Termites,  possess  a  very  reduced  venation,  con- 
taining only  very  little  of  the  original  elements.  We  see,  in 
JIastotermes,  how  complex  was  the  venation  originally  possessed 
by  the  Termites.  In  the  Embioptera,  the  analogue  of  Masto- 
termes  no  longer  exists;  or,  at  any  rate,  it  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered. But  I  have  seen  a  species  from  Australia  (of  which, 
unfortunately,  I  have  no  notes  or  figures)  with  a  venation  con- 
siderably more  complex  than  that  of  Oliyotoma.  All  students  of 
the  Embioptera  agree  that  they  represent  the  last  remnants  of 
a  peculiar  group  of  great  antiquity;  but,  so  far,  their  fossil  history 
has  been  almost  completely  missing.* 

Meyax/natha  is  larger  than  Oliyotoma',  but  this  is  what  we 
should  expect,  if  the  two  are  really  related.  For  OliyoUnna  is 
clearly  a  reduced  form,  as  its  venation  proves. 

T  would  suggest,  therefore,  that  Meyaynatha  odonatiformis  is 
in  reality  an  ancient  representative  of  the  Embioptera,  and 
should  be  placed  within  that  Order,  as  the  sole  known  type  of  a 
new  family,  the  J/egaynafhidft',  differing  from  all  known  members 
of  the  Order  by  its  greater  size  and  more  complex  venation,  as 
well  as,  probably,  by  tlie  shorter  comparative  distance  between 
the  bases  of  the  fore-  and  hind  wings. 

As  the  identification  of  the  "mandibular-like'"  structures  as 
true  mandibles  is,  at  the  best,  very  doubtful,  and  as  not  a  single 
Odonate  character  is  possessed  by  this  fossil,  it  is  much  to  be 
regretted   that  its  author   should   have  chosen   a  generic  name 

*  Two  doubtful  records  from  West  African  Copal  can  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  more  than  subfossil,  and  add  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
group.     A  single  species  from  Baltic  Amber  belongs  to  the  genus  Oliyotoma- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  129 

based   upon  the  former  character,   and   an   entirely  misleading 
specific  name,  neither  of  which  can  be  altered. 

Sycopteron  symmetricum  Bolton.     (Text-fig. 3,  6,  c). 

Sycopferon  symmetrica  Bolton,  oj).  cif.,  pp.6  8,  PI.  ii.,  figs.  1-2. 

If  this  fossil  could  be  proved  to  be  Mecopterous,  it  would  be 
one  of  the  most  striking  discoveries  in  Pal?Poentomology.  For 
that  reason  alone,  we  are  all  the  more  bound  to  examine  the 
evidences  of  its  supposed  Mecopterous  affinities  as  carefully  as 
possible. 

Text-fig.3,  b,  c,  are  portions  of  Bolton's  PI.  ii.,  fig. 2,  which,  as 
far  as  I  can  see  by  comparison  with  the  photograph  in  his  fig.  1, 
is  accurate  in  all  except  a  possible  minor  detail  or  two.  The  first 
thing  that  strikes  one,  on  examining  this  fossil,  is  the  way  that 
its  wings  are  folded  down  the  back  of  its  abdomen.  If  this  were 
the  natural  position  of  rest,  it  would  be  that  of  a  Dipteron  or  a 
Hymenopteron;  yet  both  these  Orders  are  excluded  from  the 
question,  for  reasons  that  must  be  sufficiently  obvious-  without 
stating  them.  We  have,  then,  to  conclude,  either  that  SycojJteron 
belonged  to  some  extinct  Order,  which  folded  its  wings  in  this 
position  (a  highly  improbable  theory),  or  that  it  belonged  to  some 
Order  in  which  the  wings  were  held  roof -like  over  the  abdomen; 
in  which  case,  the  flattening  down  of  the  wings  in  the  fossil 
may  well  have  caused  some  underfolding  of  either  the  costal  or 
the  posterior  border  of  the  wings,  or  both. 

Bolton  claims  for  his  insect  a  Panorpoid  venation,  stating  that 
its  nearest  approach  is  to  be  found  in  Orthophlehia  of  the  Lias. 
When,  however,  he  goes  into  detail,  it  is  quite  clear  that  he  is 
unable  to  homologise  the  separate  veins  of  Sycopteron  with  those 
of  Orthop)}dehia^  without  getting  into  very  serious  difficulties.  In 
order  to  show  this,  I  give  in  Text-fig.3,  «,  6,  the  venation  of 
Sycojiteron,  (h),  as  interpreted  by  Bolton,  and  the  venation  of 
Permochorista,  (a),  which  is  the  oldest  fossil  Mecopteron  known, 
and  the  venation  of  which  closely  resembles  that  of  Orthophlehia. 
It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  type  of  venation  present  in  the 
Mecoptera  (and  there  is  no  Order  in  which  the  venation  is  more 


130 


FOSSIL    INSECTS    FROM    COMMENTRY,    FRANCE, 


constant   in  character,   differing   little    right   through  from  the 
Permian   to   recent    times)   is   radically  different    from    that  of 


Text-fig.3. 
a,  Forewing  of  Permochorista  mitcheUi  Tillyard,  (restoration,  with  all 
the  cross- veins  omitted);  {  x  4).  Permian  of  Newcastle,  N.S.W.  h,  Fore- 
wing  of  Sycopteron  symmetricnm  Bolton,  with  his  naming  of  the  veins; 
(  X  7j).  Upper  Carboniferous  of  Commentry.  From  Bolton's  PL  ii.,  fig.2. 
c.  Head  and  thorax  of  same,  from  the  author's  same  figure;  (x7f).  d, 
Forewing  of  Amphientomum  paradoxnm  Br. ;(xl5).  Oligocene,  Baltic 
Amber.  From  Enderlein.  In  b,  the  dotted  vein  x  indicates  the  probable 
position  of  the  basal  piece  of  Rs,  not  shown  in  Bolton's  fig.2,  but  appa- 
i-ently  slightly  indicated  in  his  fig.  1  (photograph). 

Sycopteron^  this  latter  being  of  a  much  simpler  type,  which  does 
not  occur  in  the  Order   Mecoptera  at  all.     The  resemblance  is 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  131 

due  only  to  the  method  of  branching  dichotomously,  and  the 
absence  of  clearly-marked  crossveins, — characters  which  are  by 
no  means  confined  to  the  Mecoptera. 

I  would  suggest  that  the  true  costa  of  this  insect  has  become 
folded  under  in  the  fossil,  and  is  not  clearly  visible.  Bolton 
says,  "The  costal  margin  seems  to  have  been  extremely  delicate, 
and  to  have  left  very  faint  traces  of  its  position."  This  might 
well  be  true  of  the  subcosta,  which  is  frequently  a  weak  vein. 
In  the  Mecoptera,  the  costa  is  strongly  formed,  but  there  are 
other  insects  in  which  it  is  not  so.  This  suggestion  receives 
support  from  the  fact  that,  if  the  front  vein  preserved  in  this 
fossil  is  really  the  costa,  then  Sc,  R,  and  M  all  come  off  from  a 
common  stem,  in  a  manner  that  cannot  be  paralleled  except  in 
the  Homoptera,  and  certainly  never  occurs  in  the  Mecoptera. 

Whether  w^e  allow  that  the  costa  was  underfolded  or  not,  the 
following  dilemma  has  to  be  faced: — 

(1)  If  the  fossil  is  Mecopterous,  then  the  naming  of  the  veins 
by  Bolton  is  incorrect.  The  five-branched  vein  which  he  has 
distributed  between  R  and  Rs  is  certainly  the  media;  and  we 
are  then  driven  to  suppose  that  all  the  rest  of  the  venation, 
costad  of  this,  has  been  underfolded,  except  a  portion  of  Rs,  which 
would  be  Bolton's  Sc. 

(2)  If  Bolton's  naming  of  the  veins  is  correct  [or  even  if  the 
large  extent  of  underfolding  suggested  in  (1)  cannot  be  admitted], 
the  fossil  is  neither  Mecopterous,  nor  in  any  way  related  to  the 
Mecoptera,  since  the  typical  Sc,  R,  and  Rs  of  that  Order — the 
latter  alone  of  which  is  never  less  than  four-branched* — are  all 
absent. 

From  this  dilemma,  there  is  only  one  escape,  viz.,  to  admit  at 
once  that  the  Mecopterous  atiinities,  much  as  we  must  regret  it, 
cannot  be  proved,  and  to  seek  for  some  more  likely  solution  of 
the  problem. 

In  Text-fig.  3,  0?,  I  show  the  venation  of  the  forewing  of  the 
very  archaic  insect  Amphientomum  paradoxum  Br.,  from  Baltic 


*  Excepting  in  the  highly  reduced,  recent  XannochoristidiV,  where  it  is 
three-branched. 


132  FOSSIL    INSECTS    FROM    COM M ENTRY,    FRANCE, 

Amber.  This  insect  belongs  to  the  Order  Psocoptera  or  Copeo- 
gnatha,  an  Order  which  is  not  Holometabolous,  but  which  pos- 
sesses a  reduced  venation  very  closely  resembling  that  of  certain 
Holometabolous  Orders,  in  particular  the  Hymenoptera.  Nearly 
all  recent  Psocoptera  have  a  much  more  specialised  venation  than 
Amphit^nfomum;  but  close  relatives  of  the  latter  still  exist  in  the 
peculiar  genera  Echmepteryx  and  Ci/mafopsocus,  as  well  as  the 
genus  Amj)hi('7ifo7num  itself,  which  has  recently  been  rediscovered 
in  Ceylon. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  correspondence  between  the  wing-veins 
of  Sycopteroii  and  Ar)ip)hiento7nuin  is  exceedingly  close;  in  fact, 
they  can  be  completely  homologised,  provided  only  that  Sycopf- 
eron  possesses  the  short  basal  piece  of  Rs  which  is  absent  from 
Bolton's  figure.  A  close  examination  of  the  photograph  of 
Sycopteron,  in  Bolton's  PI,  ii.,  fig.  1,  suggests  to  me  that  this  piece 
actually  does  exist;  at  any  rate,  it  seems  to  be  clearly  indicated 
on  the  left  wing.  The  fossil  should  certainly  be  further  examined 
to  determine  this  point. 

In  Am^jhifiitoiHum,  the  subcosta  is  a  very  weak  vein,  merging 
into  the  costa  before  halfway.  The  radius  is  a  strong  vein,  forked 
distally,  and  giving  off  its  sector  far  distally,  at  a  point  only  just 
before  its  fork.  Rs  itself  is  forked,  as  in  Sycopteron  (the  vein 
Bolton  calls  R).  Further,  M  is  three-branched  in  Am^Dhientomum, 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  Sycopte7-on  (the  vein  Bolton  calls  Rs). 
In  Amphimfom^im,  the  cubitus  is  forked  far  distad,  and  is 
attached  to  the  stem  of  M  at  a  point  quite  one-third  of  the  wing- 
length  from  the  base;  in  Sycoptero7i,  the  attachment  and  forking 
lie  both  much  further  basad.  So  also  the  anal  veins  in  Amphi- 
entomum  are  less  primitive  than  in  Sycopteron,  being  shorter  and 
less  straight. 

Now  Amj^hientomum  is  evidently  specialised  in  the  following 
points : — 

(1)  The  shortening  of  Sc. 

(2)  The  removal  of  the  origin  of  Rs  far  distad,  and  consequent 
shortening  of  that  vein. 

(3)  The  close  union  basally  between  M  and  Cu. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  133 

(4)  The  removal  of  the  cubital  fork  far  distad. 

(5)  The  shortening  and  curvature  of  the  anal  veins. 

If,  then,  ancestors  of  this  insect  existed  in  Palseozoic  strata, 
we  should  expect  them  to  exhibit  a  generalised  condition  in  these 
five  characters.  This  is  exactly  what  Sycoptproit  does  exhibit. 
Without  stating  positively  that  Sycopteron  lies  in  the  ancestral 
line  of  Amphienfojnum,  yet  we  can  affirm  that,  as  far  as  its  vena- 
tion is  concerned,  the  two  are  certainly  closely  allied,  and 
Sycopteron  is  the  older  type. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  rest  of  the  fossil  for  clues  as  to  its 
affinities.  The  first  peculiarity  to  be  noted  is  the  huge  boss-like 
areas  upon  the  back  of  the  head  (Text-fig.  3,  c).  If  these  be  com- 
pound eyes,  then  Sycopteron  is  certainly  neither  a  Mecopterous 
nor  a  Psocopterous  insect;  but,  as  Bolton  mentions  no  facets  on 
these  areas,  we  may  confidently  take  it  that  they  are  not.  They 
must,  therefore,  be  epicranial  or  occipital  swellings.  Now  the 
head  of  Sycopteron  is  much  too  prominently  developed  to  agree 
with  the  Mecopterous  type.  But  almost  all  the  Psocoptera  have 
a  comparatively  large  head,  with  prominent  development  of  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  epicranium.  If  such  a  head  were  to  be 
crushed  somewhat  in  becoming  fossilised,  its  appearance  would 
certainly  closely  resemble  that  of  Sycopteron.  The  small  eyes 
would  probably  be  completely  covered  by  the  flattened  epicranium. 

The  structure  of  the  thorax  in  Sycop)teron  is  certainly  primitive, 
and  might  indicate  equally  well  affinities  with  several  Orders, 
including  both  Psocoptera  and  Mecoptera  (Text-fig.  3,  c). 

Again,  in  the  Psocoptera,  the  hind  wing  is  always  small  and 
weakly  chitinised.  Hence,  in  insects  of  this  Order  which  might 
become  fossilised  with  their  w^ngs  flattened  down  over  the  abdo- 
men, no  sign  of  the  hindwing  or  of  its  venation  would  appear. 
The  Mecoptera,  on  the  other  hand,  have,  of  all  the  insects,  except 
the  Odonata  and  Planipennia,  the  most  strongly  chitinised  hind- 
wings,  of  a  size  almost  equal  to  the  forewings,  and  with  a  strongly 
marked  and  closely  similar  venation.  Hence,  if  a  Mecopteron 
became  fossilised  in  the  position  we  are  supposing,  it  seems 
inevitable  that  traces  of  the  hind  wings  and  of  their  main  veins 
10 


134  FOSSIL    INSECTS    FROM    COMMENTRY,     FRANCE. 

must  be  present.  But  Bolton  mentions  nothing  of  this  sort,  and 
the  photograph  in  his  PL  ii.,  fig.l,  certainly  shows  nothing  that 
could  be  so  interpreted.  The  probability,  then,  of  this  fossil 
having  belonged  to  the  Mecoptera,  is  very  much  diminished  upon 
this  count  alone 

Taking  all  the  evidence  into  consideration,  it  seems  legitimate 
to  conclude  that  Sycopteron  is  most  certainly  not  a  member  of 
the  Order  Mecoptera,  but  that  it  is  very  likely  an  archaic  type 
of  the  Order  Psocoptera,  related  to  Anijyhientomum  of  the  Oligo- 
cene,  but  considerably  less  specialised,  in  that  it  lacks  all  five  of 
the  venational  specialisations  possessed  by  this  genus.  It  should 
certainly  be  placed  in  a  new  family  Sycopteridce,  having  the 
characters  already  mentioned.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the 
size  of  this  insect  (wings  9-10  mm.)  agrees  very  well  with  its 
inclusion  in  the  Order  Psocoptera,  all  the  known  members  of 
which  are  small,  ranging  from  a  wing-length  of  only  10  mm.,  at 
most,  down  to  very  minute  and  wingless  recent  forms. 


135 


ORDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

April  24th,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.8,,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Clyde  Douglas  Gillies,  M.Sc,  University  of  Queensland, 
Brisbane,  and  Dr.  Henry  Priestley,  B.Sc,  University  of  Syd- 
ney, were  elected  Ordinary  Members  of  the  Society. 

The  President  announced  that  the  Council  had  elected  Messrs. 
C.  Hedley,  F.L.S,,  W.  W.  Froggatt,  F.L.S.,  W.  S.  Dun,  and 
A.  G.  Hamilton  to  be  Vice-Presidents;  and  Mr.  J.  H.  Campbell 
[Royal  Mint,  Macquarie  Street]  to  be  Honorary  Treasurer — for 
the  current  Session,  1918-19. 

On  the  motion  of  Dr.  Cleland,  it  was  resolved :  that  the  con- 
gratulations of  Members  be  tendered  to  Dr.  S.  J.  Johnston,  B.A., 
on  his  appointment  to  the  Chair  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of 
Sydney. 

The  President  offered  the  congratulations  of  Members  to  Dr. 
R.  J.  Tillyard  and  Dr.  A.  B.  Walkom  (in  ahseiitid)  on  their 
attaining  the  Doctorate  of  Science. 

The   Donations   and    Exchanges  received   since  the  previous 

Monthly  Meeting  (27th  March,  1918),  amounting  to  51  Parts  or 

Nos.,  7  Bulletins,  2  Reports,  and  5  Pamphlets,  received  from  30 
Societies,  etc.,  were  laid  upon  the  table. 


136 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  YOLK  IN  THE  OVA  OF  AN 
ENDOPARASITIC  COPEPOD. 

By  H.  Leighton  Kesteven,  D.Sc,  M.B.,  Ch.M. 

(Plate  iii.). 

In  January,  1905,  Professor  J.  P.  Hill  presented  me  with 
material  for  the  study  of  the  morphology  and  development  of  an 
endoparasitic  copepod  infesting  Ftychodera  an.sfralu'usis  Hill. 
The  parasite  was  found  to  be  new,  and  was  subsequently  described 
under  the  name  of  Ubius  hilli  Kestv.,  in  1913(3).  The  following 
observations  were  made  on  the  developing,  ultimate  oogonium, 
and  primary  oocyte  at  the  time  U.  hilli  was  studied  (1908),  and 
were  submitted  to  Prof.  Hill  for  criticism.  At  his  suggestion, 
this  paper  was  withheld  from  publication  because,  at  that  time, 
the  material  on  which  the  observations  were  made  was  all  stained 
in  one  way.  Since  then,  I  have  obtained  fresh  material,  which 
was  fixed  in  {a)  5%  formaldehyde  in  seawater;  and  (h)  Miiller's 
bichromate-solution.  Specimens,  after  cutting,  were  stained  with 
(1)  Delafield's  htematoxylin,  (2)  in  Heidenhain's  haematoxylin, 
(3)  Mayer's  carm-alum,  (4)  Flemming's  method  for  karyokinetic 
figures. 

This  staining  was  done  over  three  years  ago,  but  press  of 
other  work  has,  till  now,  prevenced  me  from  examining  the 
results.  Recently,  I  have  found  time  to  go  over  these  sections, 
and  I  find  that  I  have  nothing  to  add  to  the  original  paper.  I 
am  satisfied,  that  the  observations  recorded  truly  represent  pro- 
cesses taking  place  in  the  developing  cell,  and  are  not  artifacts,  for 
I  find  the  cells  to  present  these  appearances,  not  only  in  different 
specimens  similarly  stained,  but  also  in  the  same  and  in  different 
specimens  dissimilarly  stained.  Were  I  situated  in  a  city  near 
a  library,  I  doubt  not   I  would   hnd   many  reasons  for  altering 


BY  H.  LEIGHTON  KESTEVEN.  137 

that  portion  of  the  following  paper  which  deals  with  the  litera- 
ture. This  paper  was  written  in  1908,  and  since  then  I  have 
had  no  opportunity  of  keeping  abreast  of  the  cognate  current 
literature,  and,  at  present,  T  am  beyond  the  reacli  of  a  libraiy, 
I  believe,  however,  that  even  though  this  contribution  is  thus 
nine  years  old  at  date  of  printing,  it  is  deserving  of  publication. 

The  ovarian  epithelium  in  the  young  female  is  composed  of 
fairly  regular,  cubical  oogonia.*  The  continued  division  of  these 
gives  rise  to  the  mass  of  ultimate  oogonia  which  fills  not  only 
the  lumen  of  the  ovary,  but  also  the  anterior  portion  of  that  of 
the  oviduct.  It  is  while  lying  free  in  the  lumen,  in  this  mass, 
that  the  ultimate  oogonium  advances  so  far  towards  maturity, 
that  it  may  thereafter  be  regarded  as  the  primary  oocyte. 

AVhen  first  shed  into  the  lumen  of  the  gland,  the  ultimate 
oogonium  is  a  small,  rounded,  hyaline  cell.  Its  comparatively 
lai'ge  nucleus  may  contain  only  one  karyosome,  or  it  may  contain 
two,  three,  or  four  of  approximately  equal  size.  The  size  of  the 
inicleus  is  defined  by  the  nuclear  membrane  alone;  that  is  to  say, 
the  nucleoplasm  is  hyaline,  and  takes  no  stain,  nor  is  it  difl^'eren- 
tiated  from  the  cytoplasm  by  the  presence  of  a  discernible  chro- 
matin-reticulum (Fig.  1).  In  those  cases  where  there  is  only  one 
karyosome,  I  am  unable  to  find  that  this  a»e  differs  from  the  three 
or  foul'  in  other  cases,  nor  among  these  is  there  any  difference 
inter  se. 

The  cell  now  enlarges.  The  nucleus,  increasing  in  size  at  a 
greater  rate  than  the  cell,  comes  ultimately  to  fill  nearly  the 
whole  cell. 

When  this  process  has  reached  the  stage  depicted  in  Fig.  2,  a 
chromatin-reticulum  is  well  established,  and  the  karyosomes  have 
increased  in  number.  In  short,  the  period  is  characterised  by  an 
increase  of  chromatin. 

As  soon  as  this  increase  has  reached  its  maximum,  the  reticulum 
becomes  broken  down,  till,  as  depicted  in  Fig. 3,  in  place  of  a 
network,  there   is  present  a  great  number  of  fine  granules  of 

*  The  description  is  of  material  stained  with  htematoxylin  without  any 
counter  stain. 


138       ORIGIN  OF  YOLK  IN  OVA  OF  AN  ENDOPARASlTIC  COPEPOD, 

chromatin,  and  the  kaiyosomes  He  free  in  the  nucleoplasm.  The 
period  is  characterised  by  the  disintegration  of  the  chromatin- 
reticulum  formed  during  the  last  period. 

The  fine  granules  of  chromatin  next  begin  to  increase  in  size, 
and  lose  in  depth  of  staining,  until,  instead  of  being  opaque 
black  points,  they  become  semi-translucent,  purple  spherules.  The 
karyosomes  meanwhile  remain  unchanged  (Fig. 4).  This  pheno- 
menon, I  regard  as  the  formation  of  the  first  yolk-granules. 
During  succeeding  stages,  they  continue  to  increase  in  size. 

The  karyosomes  very  soon  exhibit  signs  of  activity.  Each  of 
them,  from  a  solid  sphere  of  chromatin,  becomes  converted  into 
a  small,  spongiform  mass  (Fig. 5),  probably  due  to  the  formation 
of  vacuoles  within  them.  What  this  activity,  which  characterises 
the  period,  means,  I  am  quite  unable  to  say,  but  I  do  not  think 
that  it  can  affect  the  deductions  made  later. 

Meanwhile,  the  nucleus  has  so  increased  in  size,  that  it  is  now 
surrounded  by  a  mere  envelope  of  cytoplasm,  the  presence  of 
the  nuclear  membrane  being  evidenced  more  by  the  definite  out- 
line of  the  nucleus,  than  by  the  actual  visibility  of  the  membrane. 

The  next  period  is  characterised  by  the  formation  of  a  new 
and  much  smaller  nucleus  within  the  old.  This  takes  place  in 
three  steps. 

Around  one,  or  it  may  be  two.  or  three,  coalescent,  spongiform 
karyosomes,  there  becomes  recognisable  an  area  of  plasm  devoid 
of  the  spherules,  which  are  scattered  plentifully  throughout  the 
rest  of  the  nucleus,  and  this  area  of  plasm  takes  a  faint  purple 
stain  (Fig. 6). 

This  purple-staining  globule  of  plasm,  with  its  contained  karyo- 
some  or  karyosomes,  by  this  time  quite  coalesced,  is  next  enclosed 
in  a  distinct  membrane  (Fig.  7). 

The  karyosome  once  more  assumes  a  solid  spherical  form,  the 
surrounding  plasm  still  staining  purple. 

This  area  henceforward  constitutes  the  nucleus  of  the  cell;  it 
is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  which  is  a  section  of  a  mature,  primary  oocyte. 

Meanwhile  the  remaining  karyosomes,  scattered  throughout  the 
old  nuclear  area,  have  also  shrunken  to  their  previous  size  and 


BY    H.    LEIGHTON    KESTEVEN.  139 

shape,  and  aoain  become  solid;  during  this  time,  none  of  them 
were  surrounded  by  a  clear  area  of  plasm  staining  purple. 

The  old  nuclear  membrane  is  apparently  still  present,  in  some 
cases,  until  a  much  later  period;  but,  in  others,  it  seems  to  have 
broken  down  at  the  time  when  the  new  nucleus  first  develops  its 
membrane. 

Up  to  this  time,  the  ultimate  oogonium  has  lain  free  in  the 
lumen  of  the  gland  or  oviduct;  it  now  becomes  attached  to  the 
wall  of  the  latter,  either  to  one  cell  by  a  foot,  as  in  Fig.  9,  or,  in 
the  absence  of  the  foot,  to  several  cells. 

Growth  in  size  appears  now  to  take  place  verj^  rapidly,  and 
there  is  a  great  increase  in  the  quantity  of  yolk-spherules.  No 
changes  are  observable  in  the  new  nucleus. 

Concurrently  with  the  increase  in  size  of  the  cell  and  quantity 
of  yolk,  the  karyosomes  left  free  in  the  old  nuclear  area  appear 
to  be  dissolved  without  showing  any  further  signs  of  activity. 
When  the  cell,  now  to  be  regarded  as  a  primary  oocyte,  has 
reached  its  full  size,  it  is  once  more  set  free  into  the  lumen  of 
the  oviduct. 

There  is  present  in  the  mature  primary  oocyte  only  one  set  of 
spherules,  variable  in  size,  certainly,  but  differing  in  no  othei' 
way  from  one  another.  All  are  yolk-spherules  or  none  are  yolk- 
spherules.  The  spherules  which  were  formed  by  increase  in  size 
of  the  chromatin-granules  are,  therefore,  similar  to,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  being  the  same  as,  those  formed  later. 

After  these  observations  had  been  made,  and  the  conclusions 
given  below  had  been  deduced  from  them,  I  sought,  in  the  pub- 
lications of  previous  workers,  for  comparable  observations  and 
deductions.  I  cannot  better  give  the  results  of  my  examination 
of  literature  than  by  the  following  quotation  from  a  paper  by 
Caroline  McGill(5),  who,  on  p.  21 9  of  the  paper  quoted,  expresses 
the  opinion  that  "it  seems  probable  that  chromatin  may  have 
something  to  do  with  yolk-formation." 

Will  (7)  thinks  that  the  larger  nucleoli  of  the  amphibian 
germinal  vesicle  pass  out  into  the  cytoplasm,  and  there  become 
yolk-nuclei.      MacCallum(4)  concludes   that,  in  the  ova  of  Am- 


140       ORIGIN  OF  YOLK  IN  OVA  OF  AX   ENDOPARASITIC  COPEPOD, 

phibia,  the  peripheral  nucleoli  generate  a  substance  which  diffuses 
first  into  the  nucleus,  and  from  there  into  the  cytoplasm;  finally, 
it  combines  with  the  cytoplasm  to  form  yolk.  Henneguy(2)  be- 
lieves that  the  corpuscles  of  Balbiani  in  vertebrates  are  either 
parts  of  the  nucleolus,  or  the  entire  nucleolus,  which  pass  through 
the  nuclear  wall  into  the  cytoplasm.  Montgomery  (6),  in  Pisicola, 
describes  the  nucleus  as  contracting  in  volume,  and,  in  so  doing, 
discharging  all  except  one  of  its  nucleoli  into  the  cytoplasm. 
Goldschmidt(l),  in  active  gland-cells  and  in  muscle-cells  of  Ascaris, 
has  described  a  cytoplasmic  chi'omatin,  which,  instead  of  being- 
gathered  into  irregular  masses  as  in  the  Kissl  bodies  of  nerve- 
cells,  is  arranged  in  fibres  or  coarse  reticula.  In  most  instances, 
however,  this  chromatin,  which  he  calls  'Chromidialapparat,'  is 
not  derived  from  nucleolar  material,  but  represents  nuclear  chro- 
matin which  has  made  its  way  into  the  cytoplasm.  In  fact,  in 
many  cases,  the  chromatin-fibres  of  the  cytoplasm  extend  directl}' 
through  the  nuclear  membrane,  and  are  continuous  with  the 
chromatic  reticulum  of  the  nucleus.  Since  the  chromatic  appa- 
ratus is  more  highly  developed  in  active  than  in  resting  cells, 
Goldschmidt  concludes  that  it  umst  function  in  the  metabolism 
of  the  cytoplasm. 

My  own  deductions  may  now  be  put  very  briefly.     They  are : — 

1.  The  yolk-granules  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  a  cyto- 
plasmic constituent  with  chromatin. 

2.  The  first  yolk-granules  are  formed  within  the  nucleus. 

3.  The  formation  of  the  new  nucleus  is  a  pseudo-contraction  of 
the  overladen,  old  nucleus. 

4.  This  pseudo-contraction  leads  to  the  shedding  of  some  of  the 
karyosomes,  which  are  henceforward  to  be  regarded  as  yolk-nuclei. 

5.  These  yolk-nuclei  are  stores  of  chromatin,  which  are  to  con- 
tinue the  functional  activity  of  the  nucleus  of  the  growing  pri- 
mary oocyte,  that  is  to  say,  they  are  to  supply  chromatin  for 
that  combination  which  is  yolk-formation. 

6.  The  ultimate  oogonium  is  nourished  by  endosmosis,  the 
primary  oocyte  by  the  epithelium  of  the  oviduct.  In  both  cases, 
the  all-important  substance  recei\  ed  is  the  cytoplasmic  constituent 


B¥    H.    LEIOHTON    KESTEVEN.  141 

which  enters  into  yolk-formation.      Clii'omatin-constituents,  how- 
ever, must  be  derived  from  without  in  tlie  earliest  stages. 


LITERATURE. 

1.  (liOLDSCHMiDT — ■"  Dev  Clironiidialapparat   lehliaft  funetionierender  (le- 

webszellen."     Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxi.,  190."). 

2.  Henneguv — "Le  corps  vitellin  de   Balhiaiii  dans  Wvni  des   Vertebre.s." 

Journ.  Anat.  Physiol.,  xxix.,  1898. 

3.  Kesteven — A  new  Endopaiasitic  Copepod  :  M(>rpholo!j;y  and    Develop- 

ment.    Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1912,  xxxvii.U918). 

4.  MacCallum — "Contribution  to  tlie   Morphology  and  Physiolooy  of  the 

Cell.'"     Trans.  Canadian  Inst.,  i.,  1891. 

5.  McUiLL — "The  Behaviour  of   the  Nucleoli   durino-    Oogenesis    of    the 

Dragonti3'  with  special  reference  to  Synapsis.  "     Zool.  Jahrb.,  xxii. 
1906. 

6.  Montgomery — "Comparative  cj^tological   Studies,  witii  special  regard 

to  the  Morphology  of  the  Nucleolus."     Journ.  Morphoh,  xv.,  1899. 

7.  Will — "Ueber  die  Entstehung  des  Dotters  und  der  Epithelzellen  bei 

den  Amphibien  und  Insecten."     Zool.  Anz.,  vii.,  1884. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  III. 

Explanatory  letters, — K.,  kar3'osomes — Nu'.,  the  new  nucleus  in  process 
of  formation — Nu".,  the  new  nucleus  nearlj'-  formed — Nu.  memb'.,  the 
nuclear  membrane  of  the  old  nucleus — Nu.  memb".,  the  juielear  membrane 
of  the  new  nucleus. 

Fig.  1. — The  ultimate  oogonium  when  first  detached  from  the  wall  of  the 

ovary. 
Figs.2,  3,  4,  5. — Stages  in  the  growth  of  the  ultimate  oiigonium.  ,r^'-";: 

Figs.  6,  7. — Stages  in  the  formation  of  the  new  nucleus. 
Figs. 8,  9. — Sections  of  mature  primary  oueytes.  iO">:,^!, ''i^J  /.>'.  K 


142 


CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL- 
FERTILITY. 

No.  xvi.  The  Search  for  Toxin-Producers. 

By  R.   Greig-Smith,   D.Sc,   Macleay  Bacteriologist  to  the 

Society. 

In  the  earlier  papers  of  this  series,  it  was  shown  that  bacterio- 
toxie  substances  were  sometimes  present  in  the  clear  liquid  ob- 
tained by  shaking  a  soil  with  water  and  filtering  it  through 
porcelain.  The  toxins  were  potent,  for,  when  the  same  portion 
of  soil  was  extracted  a  second  time  with  water,  the  extract  was 
highly  nutritive.  The  first  extract  undoubtedly  contained  sub- 
stances which  functioned  as  toxins,  as  well  as  substances  which 
acted  as  nutrients,  and,  of  these  two,  the  toxins  were  the  more 
powerful. 

The  local  soils  were  found  to  be  toxic  during  the  cold  winter 
months  and  not  in  the  dry  summer.  The  toxicity  was  variable, 
and  even  in  the  favourable  season,  one  could  not  be  certain  that 
a  soil,  undoubtedly  toxic  at  one  time,  woiild  be  toxic  at  another. 
It  seemed  to  be  a  matter  of  chance,  but  this  was  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  cause  of  this  toxicity  was  unknown. 
With  the  elucidation  of  the  origin  of  the  toxins,  it  will  be  better 
understood  when  a  soil  is  likely  to  be  toxic  or  otherwise. 

Soil-toxicity,  as  exhibited  in  the  extracts  of  the  soils,  can  be 
demonstrated  directly  and  indirectly.  Directly,  by  adding  a 
certain  number  of  a  test-bacterium,  and  obtaining  a  diminution 
in  that  nnmber  after  an  incubation-period  of,  say,  20  hours  at 
22°.  Indirectly,  by  obtaining  an  increased  growth  as  a  result  of 
boiling  the  extract  and  also  of  diluting  it.  A  toxic  soil  exhibits 
all  three  characters.  There  are  other  points  connected  with 
toxic  soils,  and  these  will  be  found  in  my  former  papers. 

During  my  earlier  work,  I  was  led  to  believe  that  the  cause 
pf  the  toxicity  would  be  found  in  the  products  of  the  bacteria, 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  143 

and,  in  the  beginning  of  this  research,  into  the  etiology  of 
toxicity,  some  of  the  more  Hkely  bacteria  were  tested  with  more 
or  less  completeness.  The  work  was  tentative,  the  bacteria  were 
tried  one  way  and  another.  A  favourable  result  was  occasionally 
obtained,  which  led  to  repeated  trials  with  slight  variations,  but 
these  ended  in  failure  to  obtain  a  truly  toxic  condition.  Some 
moulds  were  also  tested,  but  the  experiments  with  these  did  not 
lead  me  to  believe  that  the  source  of  the  toxins  would  be  found 
in  the  flora  of  the  soil.  The  fauna  remained,  and  when  the 
amcebae  were  tested,  the  first  results  were  so  satisfactory  that  the 
source  of  the  toxins  seemed  to  have  been  traced.  Unfortunately, 
these  results  were  not  confirmed,  and,  as  the  work  proceeded,  it 
became  evident  that  the  toxic  effect  was  caused  by  the  produc- 
tion of  alkali  in  the  solutions  in  which  the  protozoa  were  growing. 
The  test-bacteria  were  very  sensitive  to  changes  of  reaction,  and, 
so  far  as  the  solutions  were  concerned,  it  was  made  clear  that  a 
perfectly  neutral  solution  was  exceedingly  difficult  to  maintain, 
and  that  any  departure  from  a  strict  neutrality  retarded  the 
growth  of  the  bacteria  and  exhibited  some  of  the  effects  of  a 
toxic  solution.  The  main  steps  of  the  work  that  led  to  this 
conclusion  are  recorded  in  the  following  pages.  Many  experi- 
ments have  been  omitted  because  the  results  did  not  appear  to 
justify  a  lengthening  of  the  paper.  They  were  either  indefinite 
or  confirmed  a  negative  result  previously  obtained. 

It  is  well  known  that  some  soil-bacteria  are  inimical  to  others, 
and  it  was  considered  that  some  one  group  might  be  specially  so 
to  bacteria  generally.  Instances  of  an  inhibiting  or  toxic  effect 
exercised  by  some  micro-organisms  against  others  are  familiar  to 
most  workers  in  soil-bacteriology.  It  is  an  ordinary  experience 
to  find  certain  colonies  of  bacteria,  such  as  Bac.  mycoides  and 
certain  moulds,  passing  over  or  through  other  bacterial  colonies 
when  spreading  over  the  surface  of  an  agar-plate.  Occasionally, 
they  are  seen  to  avoid  some  particular  colony,  and  we  find  these 
surrounded  by  a  clear  zone  of  agar,  across  which  the  wandering- 
mould  or  bacterium  will  not  pass.  Apparently,  the  colony  has 
sent  into  the  medium  some  toxic  substance,  and  there  does  not 


144    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

appear  to  be  a  thinning  away  of  the  toxin,  for  the  wandering- 
colony  generally  becomes  heaped  up  at  the  margin  of  the  toxic 
zone  and  then  spreads  round  and  eventually  encircles  the  colony. 
It  may  be  that  the  thickening  of  the  edge  is  caused  by  the  toxin 
becoming  so  weak  as  to  be  able  to  exercise  a  stimulating  action 
like  other  weak  poisons."^  The  Actinomyces-colonies  are  gener- 
ally toxic  to  such  wandering  moulds  and  bacteria. 

As  soil  contains  so  much  sand  and  inert  matter,  it  did  not 
appear  to  be  a  suitable  medium  for  experiments  with  these  pre- 
sumable toxin  formers,  and  it  was  considered  that  a  fluid  medium 
would  be  better.  With  regard  to  the  nutrient  added  to  the 
water,  Bottomley's  work  with  auximones  had  suggested  the  idea 
that  there  might  be  a  relation  between  them  and  decayed  soil- 
toxins.  Bottomley  used  moist  peat-moss  as  a  culture-material, 
but,  as  this  could  not  be  obtained,  the  first  experiments  were 
made  with  washed  sphagnum-moss  suspended  in  water. 

The  moss  was  picked,  dried,  cut  up,  washed,  and  again  dried. 
Ten  grams  were  put  into  a  flask  with  600  c.c.  of  tap-water  and 
sterilised. 

Two  bacteria,  T.P.2  and  T.P.4,  were  selected  as  being  possible 
toxin-producers.  They  were  not  identified  at  first,  for,  in  ex- 
periments such  as  these,  one  determines  the  value  of  the  bacte- 
rium first  and  identifies  it  afterwards,  if  its  activity  justifies  the 
identification.!     The  bacteria  were  seeded  into  the  flasks  of  sus- 

*  Journ.  Roy.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1916,  p.77. 
t  Bac.  T.P.2  is  a  short,  motile  rod  measuring  0"5  :  2yut.  Gelatine  is 
liquefied  slowl3%  the  colonies  being  round,  white,  and  slightly  raised  with  a 
ciliate  edge.  On  agar,  the  growth  is  ivory-white,  rough  and  cohesive. 
Long,  needle-shaped  crystals  are  quickly  formed  in  agar  containing  sodium 
phosphate,  and  these  are  fairly  characteristic  of  the  organism.  In  some 
media,  slime  is  formed  from  dextrose,  althougli  none  is  produced  on 
Lipman-Brown  agar.  In  bouillon,  the  groM  th  produces  turbidity,  a  film 
and  a  sediment;  nitrates  are  not  reduced.  Milk  is  coagulated  and  slowlj' 
peptonised.  On  potato,  the  growth  is  yellow-brown.  The  indol  test  is 
positive,  the  Gram  test  negative,  and  the  bacillus  produces  neither  gas  or 
acid  from  dextrose,  saccharose,  mannite,  or  glycerine.  Nitrate  is  not  pro- 
duced from  ammonia  salts.  It  appears  to  have  Bac.  imincHis  as  its  closest 
ally. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


145 


pended  moss,  which  were  incubated  at  22"  for  varying  periods. 

The  extract  was  prepared  in  the  usual  way  by  filtration  first 
through  paper,  then  through  porcelain.  One  portion  of  the 
extract  was  boiled  for  an  hour  under  an  inverted  condenser.  The 
various  portions,  generally  SOc.c,  of  the  raw,  boiled,  and  diluted 
extracts,  were  each  seeded  with  1  c.c.  of  a  suspension  of  Bac. 
2)7-odi(jiosus,  and  incubated  at  22°  for  20  hours,  when  counts 
were  made  by  the  plate-method.  The  numbers  of  bacteria  in  the 
raw  extracts  were  taken  as  1 00,  and  those  in  the  treated  extracts 
were  calculated  in  terms  of  this.  Fractions  were  omitted,  and 
numbers  less  than  1  were  taken  as  1.  The  actual  number  of  the 
water-control  can  be  found  by  dividing  the  extract  by  the 
extract/water  ratio,  for  the  latter  was  obtained  by  dividing  the 
extract-count  by  the  water-count. 

Experiment  i. 


Growth  of  Bac.  prodigiosus 

in  extract,  20  hours  at  22°. 

Penicillium  clado- 

Micro-organism. 

T.P.4 

T.P.'J 

sporioides. 

Nature  of  moss. 

new 

new 

old 

new 

old 

Duration  of  test;  days — 

29 

8 

12 

11 

10 

13 

10 

11 

Number  of  test. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Extract,  boiled 

766 

223 

72,000 

600 

5,500 

34 

184 

1,167 

Extract,  raw     ... 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

33 

54 

122 

92 

100 

479 

90 

48 

Extract,  raw,  60% 

15 

15 

133 

100 

100 

2,240 

67 

40 

Extract,  raw,  40% 

6 

4 

300 

107 

100 

600 

56 

14 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

2 

1 

167 

107 

135 

21 

36 

40 

Water-control  ... 

1 

1 

HI 

77 

88 

1 

25 

8 

Extract/water  ratio     ... 

417 

580 

0-9 

1-3 

1-2 

111 

4 

12 

In  looking  over  the  results  of  Experiment  i.,  it  is  seen  that 
moss  is  not  a  good  substance  for  determining  toxin-23roduction. 
When  new,  it  is  too  nutritive,  and  when  old,  that  is,  when  it  had 
been  used  and  washed  once  or  twice,  it  is  too  poor.  The  dilution- 
curves  of  tests  3,  4,  and  5  are  almost  horizontal  lines,  indicating 
that  the  extract  is  of  a  nature  similar  to  water.  The  results 
obtained  by  boiling  the  extract   in  tests  3  and   5  cannot  be  ex- 


146    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

plained;  they  certainly  indicate  a  degree  of  toxicity  which  is  not 
confirmed  by  the  dilution-numbers. 

The  numbers  Avith  Penicillium  cladosporioides  are  peculiar.  A 
flask  wdth  new  moss  had  been  sterilised  and  allowed  to  stand  for 
several  w^eeks  before  being  infected  with  Bac.  T.P.2.  At  the 
end  of  the  incubation-period,  the  mould  was  plainly  seen  growing 
as  a  floating  mass  upon  the  surface;  it  had  ousted  the  bacteria, 
for  few  bacterial  cells  were  obtained  from  the  fluid.  The  rise  in 
the  numbers  upon  dilution  is  typical  of  a  toxin,  but  the  reduction 
upon  boiling  is  not.  Again,  the  dilution-effect  was  not  obtained 
in  tests  7  and  8. 

On  the  whole  the  experiment  was  unsatisfactory,  and  con- 
sequently other  media  were  tried. 

Experiments  were  made  with  dilute  solutions  of  nitrogenous 
salts  such  as  ammonium  sulphate,  ammonium  phosphate,  and 
potassium  nitrate,  as  well  as  with  alkaline  salts  as  potassium 
phosphate,  but  there  was  little  sign  of  any  probable  formation  of 
toxin  with  any  of  them. 

The  USE  of  Collodion-Capsules. 

In  an  endeavour  to  improve  the  experimental  method,  use  was 
made  of  collodion-capsules,  as  it  w^as  considered  that  by  growing 
the  bacteria  outside  and  the  test-organism  inside  the  capsule,  the 
production  of  toxin  might  be  rapidly  determined.  Accordingly, 
capsules  were  prepared  by  coating  the  insides  of  3/4  in.  test-tubes 
with  4%  agar  in  w-ater.  After  drying  at  37",  they  received  one 
or  two  coats  of  thick  collodion,  and  a  narrow  paper- scale  was 
fixed  inside  near  the  middle,  and  a  short  length  of  thin  tubing 
with  a  thread  attachment  near  the  top.  The  separation  of  the 
capsule  from  the  tube  was  effected  by  filling  the  tube  with  water 
and  slowly  raising  it  to  near  the  boiling-point,  when  the  collodion 
separated  easily  from  the  glass.  The  capsules  were  washed  in 
changes  of  water,  steamed  to  get  rid  of  all  traces  of  alcohol,  and 
finally  inserted  in  wide  test-tubes,  which  were  plugged.  The 
medium  was  added,  20  c.c.  in  the  outer  tube,  and  5  c.c.  in  the 
capsule,    and   the  whole  was   sterilised.     The  outer   liquid   was 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  147 

seeded  with  soil-organisms  and  incubated  for  some  days,  when  a 
suspension  of  the  test-organism,  Bac.  prodiyiosus,  was  added  to 
the  capsule.  After  incubation  at  22°  for  a  day  or  two,  the  cells 
were  distributed,  either  by  blowing  air  through  the  culture  or 
by  repeatedly  drawing  up  and  blowing  out  the  liquid  in  a  pipette. 
Then  1  c.c.  was  abstracted,  and  a  count  of  the  bacteria  made. 
Previous  to  the  mixing,  the  height  of  the  liquid  on  the  paper- 
scale  was  read,  and  afterwards  the  volume  was  determined  by 
water  run  from  a  burette  to  the  same  mark. 

The  soil-organisms  were  obtained  from  a  garden-soil  that  had 
been  kept  some  time  in  the  laboratory.  The  numbers  of  bacteria, 
originally  high,  as  the  soil  had  been  heated,  had  fallen  to  that 
normal  for  the  soil,  viz.,  to  6  to  8  millions  per  gram.  Plates  of 
Lipman-Brown  agar  were  smeared  with  the  soil-suspension  in 
appropriate  dilution,  and,  after  several  days,  it  was  noted  that 
the  flora  consisted  roughly  of  30%  of  bacteria,  and  70%  of  Actino- 
myces-forms.  Of  the  latter,  17%  were  Actino.  chromogena^  which 
darkened  nutrient  agar  strongly;  and  23%  were  Actino.  odorifera, 
which  darkened  the  agar  slightly;  the  remaining  30%  were 
indefinite.  Many  colonies  were  picked  from  the  plates,  the 
micro-organisms  were  classified  or  grouped,  and  representatives 
of  the  groups  used  for  infecting  the  liquid  outside  the  collodion- 
capsules  in  the  tubes. 

The  experimental  results  were  noted  as  the  progeny  of  one 
test  bacterial  cell  originally  added  to  the  collodion-capsule,  but 
as  nothing  will  be  gained  by  giving  the  exact  numbers,  the 
general  indications,  as  compared  with  control-tests  obtained  from 
the  figures  in  the  various  experiments,  are  here  noted. 

Experiment  ii.      Soil-extract  [soil  1,  water  2  parts]. 

Soil-bacteria,  6  days  at  18°;  test-bacteria,  1  and  7  days  at  22". 
Inhibiting  strongly — Rhizobium  from  soil,  Bac.A7. 
Inhibiting  slightly — Various  (5)  Actinomyces-forms,  Bac.  A5. 
Accelerating  slightly — Aspergillus  sp.,  Bac.  A2, 
Accelerating  strongly — Bac.  Al. 

A.S  an  indication  of  the  value  of  the  terms,  it   may  be  said 


148    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-lJ-ERTlLITY,  XVI., 

that  the  control-test  showed  that  one  cell  had,  in  7  days,  in- 
creased to  118,000;  the  Rhizobium  had  multiplied  only  to  100; 
the  Actino. -forms  averaged  53,000,  Aspergillus  240,000,  and 
Bac.  Al  had  a  progeny  of  7 •'28  millions. 

Experiment  iii.      Gum-acacia,  0"2%. 
Soil-bacteria,  12  days  at  18";  test  bacteria,  5  days  at  22°. 
Inhibiting  slightly — Aajjeryillus  sp.,  Penicillium  sp.,  Actino.  chrom. 
Tnditferent — Actino.  odor.^  Bac.  Al,  Bac.  A5. 
Accelerating  strongly — Bac.  A17. 

Experiment  iv.      Hay-infusion,  0*05%. 
Soil-bacteria,  11  days  at  16°;  test-bacteria,  1  day  at  16°. 
Inhibiting — Bac.  B4. 
Inhibiting  slightly — Bac.  B5. 

Indifferent — Bac.  B2,  grey  and  white  Actinomycetes. 
Accelerating — Bac.  B8. 

Experiment  v.      Hay-infusion,  0"05%. 
Soil-bacteria,  11  days  at  16";  test-bacteria,  2  days  at  15°. 
Inhibiting  strongly — Bhizobium  (from  soil). 
Inhibiting  moderately — Bac.  Al,  Bac.  A2. 

Inhibiting  slightly — Various  Actinomycetes,  Bac.  A5,  Bac.  A7, 
Bac.  A9. 

Experiment  vi.      Albumen,  0-1%  in  tube,  water  in  capsule 

(albumen  coagulated  upon  steaming). 

Soil-bacteria,  7  days  at  15^;  test-bacteria,  1  day  at  22". 

Inhibiting  strongly — Rhizobium  (from  soil),  Bac.  A7. 

Inhibiting  slightly—Bac.T. P. 2,  Bac.B4,  Bac.C2,  Bac.C3,  Bac.Cl. 

Indifferent — Bac.  A17. 

Experiment  vii.      Soil-extract  [soil  1,  water  1  part]. 
Soil-bacteria,  11  days  at  15"";  test-bacteria,  1  and  3  days  at  22°. 
Inhibiting  strongly — Rhizobium  (from  the  Lupin),  Bac.  A7. 
Inhibiting  moderately — Bac.  C3. 
Inhibiting  slightly— Bac.  T.B.2,  Bac.  B8. 
Indifferent— Bac.  Al,  Bac.A17,  Bac.C2. 


BY  R.  GtlElG-SMITH. 


149 


Experiment  viii.      Hay-infusion,  0-1%,  with  dextrose  0-1%. 
Soil-bacteria,  12  days  at  16";  test-bacteria,  2  days  at  22". 
Inhibiting  moderately — Penic.  dadosporioides. 
Inhibiting  sHghtly— Actino.  11,  Bac.  A8,  Bac.T.P..^,  T.P.I, T.F.5, 

T.P.6,  T.P.7,S.B.2,  S.B.5. 
Indifferent— Actino.  10,  Bac.  S.B.I,  S.B.I. 

The  results  of  the  experiments,  as  a  whole,  showed  that  the 
action  of  the  soil-microbe  is  generally  irregular.  This  is  notably 
the  case  with  Bac.  A 17,  which  is  the  same  as  Bac.  Al.  In  some 
cases,  it  increased  the  growth  of  the  test-organism,  while,  in 
others,  it  had  an  indifferent  action.  In  the  case  of  Rhizobium 
and  of  Bac.  AT,  we  have  bacteria  which  produce  a  luxuriant  slime 
in  media  containing  sugar,  and  even  in  those  containing  merely 
a  trace  of  sugar  or  none  at  all,  the  inhibiting  property  is  seen  to 
remain.  I  cannot  but  think  that  they  acted  by  extracting  the 
nutrient  from  within  the  capsule  in  order  to  produce  their  slime, 
which  remained  in  the  outer  tube.  The  inhibition  is,  therefore, 
in  all  probability,  due  to  the  absence  of  nutrients  rather  than  to 
tlie  presence  of  toxins  in  the  collodion-capsule.  As  the  experi- 
ments did  not  promise  to  aid  the  investigation,  they  were  dis- 
continued. 

The  Use  of  vakious  Media. 

The  action  of  Bhizobium  led  to  its  being  tested  in  Hasks  of 
various  media,  and  the  tests  are  grouped  together  in  the  follow- 
ing Table. 


150    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

Experiment  ix. 


Soil-orcjanism 

Rhizobium. 

Derivation     

Soil. 

Soil. 

Lupin-nodule. 

Lupin-nodule. 

Medium          

Hay-infusion. 

0-1%. 

Gum-acacia, 

0-2%. 

Dried  blood, 

0-4%. 

Ammonium 

sulphate, 

0-1%  with  salts 

Duration  of  test 

3  days. 

16  days. 
15° 

6  days. 

11  days. 

Temp,  of  incubation 

16° 

15° 

16° 

Number  of  test 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Extract,  boiled 

Extract,  raw 

Extract,  raw,  80%   ... 
Extract,  raw,  60%   ... 
Extract,  raw,  40%  ... 
Extract,  raw,  20%   ... 
Water-control 
Extract/water  ratio... 

1,684 
100 
170 
106 

80 
175 
58 
1-7 

343 
100 

99 

69 

63 

44 

23 
4-3 

325 
100 
106 

96 

67 

49 

15 
6-5 

41 

100 
52 
15 

5 
18 
22 

4-6 

There  are  indications  of  the  formation  of  toxin  in  some  of  these 
tests,  although  it  must  be  said  that  they  are  not  very  pronounced. 
Test  1  shows  a  narrow  extract/water  ratio,  pointing  either  to  the 
possible  absence  of  nutrients  in  the  extract  or  to  the  presence  of 
toxins.  The  increases  obtained  in  the  boiled  and  in  the  diluted 
extract  lead  one  to  believe  that  toxins  were  present.  Test  2  had 
undoubtedly  been  incubated  for  too  long,  but  there  is  a  suspicion 
that  the  extract  is  of  the  same  nature  as  test  1.  Test  No. 4  is 
irregular,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  gives  us  no  information. 

In  these  tests,  the  growing  organism  had  undoubtedly  removed 
nutrients  from  solution,  and,  by  utilising  them,  had  prevented 
their  appearance  in  the  porcelain  filtered  extract.  This  was 
shown  by  an  extension  of  test  1 ,  in  which  the  raw,  uninoculated, 
filtered  hay-infusion  gave  666,800  cells,  and  the  same,  when 
boiled,  gave  379,600  cells  as  against  100  of  the  unboiled  bacterial 
extract. 

A  mixed  culture  of  bacteria,  existing  as  an  actively  nitrifying 
suspension  of  soil-bacteria,  was  seeded  into  a  solution  of  0*1% 
dextrose  in  0-1%  hay-infusion.  The  suspension  was  incubated 
at  15°  for  7  days.     On  preparing  and  testing  the  extract,  it  was 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


151 


found  to  give  the  boiling-  and  dilution-reactions.  The  original 
mixture  of  bacteria  was  plated  out  in  levulose  ammonium-sulphate 
agar,  and  the  flora  was  seen  to  consist  of  five  organisms  named 
provisionally  8.  B.1-5.  These  were  tested  with  the  same  hay-  and 
dextrose  solution,  but  as  they  showed  no  sign  of  toxin-formation, 
it  is  unnecessary  to  give  the  details.  The  original  experiment 
was  repeated,  but  the  result  was  quite  different  from  the  first. 
Experiment  x. 


Soil-organisms           

Mixed  bacteria. 

Medium          

Hay-infusion,  0'1%  with  dextrose  0'1%. 

Duration  of  test        

7  days. 

12  days  at  15°. 

Extract,  boiled     

Extract,  raw         

Extract,  raw,  80%            

Extract,  raw,  60%            

p]xtract,  raw,  40%            

P^xtract,  raw,  20%            

Water-control       

Extract/water  ratio         

917 
100 
176 
230 
615 
465 
28 
3-5 

96 
100 
92 
59 
31 
7 

1 
472 

The  differences  between  these  tests  is  marked,  and,  while  there 
probably  was  a  difference  in  the  kinds  of  bacteria  added  in  the 
two  cases,  there  is  the  suggestion  that  the  time  of  incubation 
may  have  an  influence  upon  the  result.*  In  the  12-days'  test,  the 
toxin  may  have  been  formed  on  or  about  the  7th  day,  and  have 

'■■"  The  experiment  was  repeated  some  months  afterwards,  with  the  fol- 
lowing results : — 


Soil-organisms. 

Mixed  bacteria. 

Duration  of  test. 

2 

7  days. 

Extract,  boiled 
Extract,  raw 
Extract,  raw,  80%   ... 
Extract,  raw,  60%    ... 
Extract,  raw,  40%   ... 
Extract,  raw,  20%   ... 
Water-control 
Extract/ water  ratio... 

188 

100 

32 

8 

] 

1 

1 

100 

165 

100 

48 

40 

34 

26 

9 

1-2 

The  previous  experiment  was  not  confirmed,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of 
toxicity  shown  by  the  dilution-curves. 


152    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  XVI., 

become  decayed  by  the  l'2th       It  appeared  advisable,  therefore, 
to  test  the  solutions,  from  time  to  time,  to  see  the  influence  of 
the  time-fa(;tor.      Tliis  was  done  in  the  following  experiment,  in 
which  Bac.  T.P.2  was  used  at  16°  to  1  8\ 
Experiment  xi. 


Soil-organism    

Bac.  T.P.2. 

Medium 

Hay-infusion,  0'1%. 

Haj^-infusion  and 
dextrose,  0*1%. 

Duration  of  test  in  days 

3 

5 

r  \   11 

3 

5 

11* 

Extract,  boiled 

Ratio  of  boiled  extracts 

450 

12-8 

100 
90 
48 
31 
16 
5 
18 

308 

8-8 

70         35 
2            1 

240 

1 

560 
2-3 

2,092 

8-7 

Extract,  raw     

Extract,  raw,  80% 
Extract,  raw,  60% 
Extract,  raw,  40% 
Extract,  raw,  20% 

Water-control 

Extract/water  ratio      . . . 

100 
80 

107 

111 
82 
56 
1-8 

100       100 
122         99 
118         76 
.159          63 
111          58 
122         32 
0-8          3-1 

100 

55 

32 

17 

8 

1 

113 

100 
36 
24 

19 

7 

9 

11-5 

100 
84 
107 
123 
73 
192 
0-5 

"  The  numbers  in  these  are  irregular,  largely  owing  to  the  counts  being 
low. 

During  the  filtration  of  the  infusions  through  the  porcelain,  it 
was  noted  that,  in  the  dextrose-media,  a  considerable  amount  of 
slime  had  been  formed.  Attention  was  not  called  to  this  in  the 
three  days'  culture,  but,  in  the  five  and  eleven  days'  culture,  the 
slime  was  pronounced.  It  is  clear  from  the  results  that  the 
organism  had  produced  a  certain  amount  of  toxin  about  the 
sixth  day  in  the  simple  hay-infusion,  and  that  it  had  largely 
disappeared  by  the  eleventh  day.  The  ratio  of  growth,  which 
is  a  rough  index  of  the  approximate  amounts  of  nutrients  in  the 
extract,  declined  as  time  went  on,  and  so  did  the  effect  of  boiling 
the  solution.  In  the  hay-  and  dextrose-solutions,  boiling  showed 
a  steady  increase  of  nutrient  produced  as  the  age  of  the  culture 
increased,  while,  without  dextrose,  the  reverse  was  the  case. 

The  organism  T.P.2  was  originally  obtained  upon  an  agar-plate 
which  had  been  seeded  with  a  suspension  of  soil-bacteria.  It 
was  conspicuous  in  producing  a  zone  across  which  neither  moulds 
nor  spreading  bacteria  would  go.  The  single  colony  upon  puri- 
fication was   found    to   consist   of   two   closely  allied   forms  pro- 


BY  R.   GREIG-SMITH. 


153 


visionally  named  T.P.  1  and  T.P.2,  the  former  producing  a  white 
colony,  the  latter  an  ivory-white  on  nutrient  agar.  T.P.I  lique- 
fies gelatine  quickly  and  foims  no  slime  on  dextrose- media,  while 
Bac.  T.P, 2  liquefies  gelatine  slowly,  and  forms  a  slime  from 
dextrose.  The  belief  was  raised  by  other  experiments  that  the 
formation  of  slime  withdraws  nutrients  from  the  medium,  and 
yields  a  poor  extract;  but  whether  the  toxin-formation  has  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  production  of  slime,  has  yet  to  be  deter- 
mined. Bac.  'J\P.l,  the  slime-free  ally  of  Bac.  T.P.2,  was  tested 
under  the  conditions  of  the  last  experiment,  viz.,  in  hay-infusion, 
with  and  without  dextrose,  and  at  periods  of  3,  6,  and  10  days, 
but  no  evidence  of  toxin-formation  was  obtained. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  slime-forma- 
tion upon  the  production  of  toxin  by  using  a  race  of  Rhizobium 
from  the  soil,  which  formed  a  luxuriant  slime  on  solid  dextrose- 
media. 

Experiment  xii. 


Medium. 

Hay- 

infusion. 

0-1%. 

Hay-infusion  with 
dextrose,  0-1%. 

Soil-organism. 

Rhizobium . 

Rhizobium . 

Duration  of  test  in  days. 

3 

6 

13 

3 

6 

Extract,  boiled  ... 
Extract,  raw 
Extract,  raw,  80% 
Extract,  raw,  60% 
Extract,  raw,  40% 
Extract,  raw,  20% 
Water-control     ... 
Extract/water  ratio 

82 

100 

13 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1,900 

5 
100 
10 
5 
4 
3 

9 

49 

205 
100 

84 
77 
58 
50 
35 
2-8 

20,840 
100 
3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
72 

45,030 
100 
40 
36 
49 
47 
37 
3 

A  13-days'  test  with  hay-infusion  and  dextrose  was  found  to 
be  sterile,  and  has  been  omitted.  Although  these  tests  were 
intended  to  see  the  effect  of  slime-production  upon  toxin- forma- 
tion, it  happened  that  no  slime  was  obtained  on  the  porcelain 
filter  from  the  dextrose  solution,  and,  but  for  the  growths  on 
agar-slopes,  one  would  have  thought  that  the  cultures  were  dead. 
However,  the  slow  reduction  of  the  extract/ water  ratio  as  time 
went  on,  and  the  great  increase  obtained  on  boiling  the  dextrose- 
solutions  were  again  noted. 


154    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi. 


1  have  found,  in  the  past,  that  soils  are  more  toxic  in  the 
winter  than  in  the  summer-months,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
temperature  will  have  some  influence  in  either  the  production  or 
the  decay  of  the  toxin.     The  influence  of  temperature  was  tested 


in  the  following. 


Experiment  xiii. 

Medium 

Hay-infusion,  0*1%. 

Soil-organism 

Bac.  T.P.2. 

Temperature 

15-5°. 

22°. 

Duration  of  test  in  days  . . . 

2 

4 

8 

2 

7 

Extract,  boiled  ... 

20 

74       1     123 

30 

16 

Extract,  raw 

100 

100            100 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

33 

77       t      48 

46 

29 

Extract,  raw,  60% 

12 

64       1       19 

26 

12 

Extract,  raw,  40% 

3 

45       ''       12 

1  / 

7 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

1 

45       ,       10 

13 

5 

Water-control     ... 

1 

53              11 

6 

5 

Extract/water  ratio 

248 

2               9 

15 

18 

The  experiment  was  rather  disappointing,  as  there  was  little 
evidence  of  toxin-formation  at  the  lower  or  the  higher  tempera- 
ture. In  four  days  at  15'5°  it  is  shown  by  the  low  extract/water 
ratio  that  much  of  the  nutriment  has  been  locked  up  in  the  bodies 
of  the  bacteria.  As  the  ratio  is  higher  on  the  eighth  day,  one 
would  imagine  that  there  had  been  some  dissolution  of  the  cells. 

In  an  earlier  experiment,  there  had  been  signs  that  some 
formation  of  toxin  had  occurred  in  a  solution  of  gum-arabic 
infected  with  Bac.  '1\P.2.  This  led  to  the  employment  of  an  old 
culture  of  Rhizobium  which  had  been  grown  in  hay-infusion  and 
dextrose,  and  which  contained  a  quantity  of  slime.  It  was 
sterilised  and  infected  with  Bac.  T.P.2.  It  showed  no  signs  of 
toxicity  on  the  third  day. 

An  old  culture  of  Bac.  T.P.2  in  hay-infusion  was  sterilised  and 
infected  with  Bac.  T.P.2,  but  there  were  no  signs  of  toxicity  on 
the  second  or  fourth  day. 

A  solution  of  Gum-Acacia,  0-2%,  when  infected  with  Bac. 
T.B.2,  showed  no  toxicity  on  the  second  or  fourth  day. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  155 

A  rod-sliaped  bacillus,  Bac.  A17,  which  had  appeared  to 
stimulate  the  growth  of  Bac.  prodigiosus  in  collodion-capsules, 
was  tested  in  hay-infusion,  but  there  was  no  evidence  of  toxin 
formation  in  the  boiled  or  diluted  extracts. 

In  view  of  the  indeterminate  nature  of  the  results  hitherto 
obtained,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  augment  the  intensity  of 
the  growth  of  the  bacteria  by  increasing  the  amounts  of  the 
nutrients  and  by  aerating  the  media  during  cultivation.  To  gain 
this  end,  beakers  containing  cotton-wool  were  sterilised,  and 
media,  such  as  1%  hay-infusion  with  and  without  1%  dextrose, 
which  had  been  seeded  with  various  organisms,  were  added  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  moisten  the  wool.  After  incubation  at 
22°,  the  cotton-wool  was  squeezed  and  washed,  and  the  liquids 
made  up  to  a  definite  volume  before  being  filtered  through 
porcelain. 

A  soil-Rhizobium,  Bac.  T.P.2,  Penicillium  cladosporioides,  and 
an  Actinomyces,  A 10,  were  tested  at  difierent  times,  such  as  3, 
6,  and  11  days;  but,  in  none  of  the  tests,  was  any  evidence  of 
toxin-formation  demonstrated.  This  also  applied  to  old  cultures 
of  bacteria  reinfected  with  moulds.  The  method  was  useless, 
therefore,  for  the  object  in  view. 

The  experiments,  however,  raised  the  idea  that  small  changes 
in  the  reaction  might  be  responsible  for  much  of  the  irregularity 
in  the  results.  Bacterial  cultures,  in  the  absence  of  a  ferment- 
able sugar,  are  generally  more  or  less  alkaline,  while  soil-extracts 
are  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  acid.  The  soils  used  in  this  set 
of  researches  were  acid,  that  is  to  say,  when  a  piece  of  litmus- 
paper  was  inserted  or  pressed  into  a  paste  or  porridge  made  by 
mixing  the  soil  with  water,  it  became  reddened  in  the  course  of 
a  few  minutes.  The  aqueous  extract  of  such  soils  should,  there- 
fore, be  acid,  and  it  appeared  that,  if  the  extract  could  be  pre- 
vented from  becoming  alkaline  through  the  action  of  bacteria, 
there  would  be  a  better  chance  of  demonstrating  any  development 
of  toxicity.  At  any  rate,  the  cultural  fluids  would  be  more  in 
harmony  with  the  conditions  that  pertain  in  the  soil.  To  efiect 
this  faint,  permanent  acidity,  it  would  be  necessary  to  add  some 
substance  which  would  absorb  any  alkalinity  produced,  in  the 


156     CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL  FERTILITY,  xvi., 

same  manner  that  chalk  maintains  a  faint  aciditv  in  feimenting 
solutions  of  sugar.  The  only  substance  that  promised  to  achieve 
this  purpose  was  humic  acid,  and  its  use  appeared  advisable,  as 
it  is  ever  present  in  soils. 

A  quantity  of  humic  acid  was  accoi-dingly  prepared  from 
rotted  bamboo-mould  by  treatment  with  sodium  h\'drate,  followed 
by  acidification,  washing  with  water  by  decantation,  filtration, 
and  finally  by  dialysis.  The  acids  were  dissolved  in  normal  soda 
and  sterilised. 

Tests  were  made  with  strung  hay-infusion  with  and  without 
dextrose  by  the  cotton-wool  method,  but,  although  several 
organisms  were  used,  no  results  of  any  importance  were  obtained: 
the  solutions  were  far  too  nutritive.  A  converse  test  with  tap- 
water  and  no  nutrient  showed  that  the  humic  acid  acted  as  a 
poison.  Although  an  opalescent  suspension  of  bacteria  had  been 
added,  no  living  bacteria  were  to  be  found  by  the  third  day.  In 
one  case,  a  pink  yeast  had  obtained  access  to  the  fiask,  and,  on 
the  thirteenth  day,  the  extract  showed  a  rise  upon  boiling;  and, 
upon  dilution  with  dilute  hay-infusion,  the  same  sterility, 
towards  the  introduced  bacteria,  was  noted  after  a  few  days. 
The  humic  acid  was  undoul)tedly  the  cause  of  the  plienomenon. 
It  had  been  dissolved  in  normal  soda,  and  the  solution  was 
added  to  the  flask  of  medium,  and  was  followed  by  the  quantity 
of  normal  hydrochloric  acid  necessary  to  neutralise  the  soda. 
The  humic  acid  remained  largely  dissolved,  and  acted  as  a  soluble 
acid.  In  one  test,  that  of  the  pink  yeast  on  the  thirteentii  day, 
the  acidity  of  the  extract  to  phenolphthalein  was  =  -t-0"5'  by 
Fuller's  scale,  that  is  the  extract  contained  Go  c.c.  of  normal 
acid  per  litre.  The  experiments  suggest  that,  to  beefiective,  the 
humic  acid  should  be  insoluble  in  water. 

Experiments  with  Humus. 

As  the  toxin-formation  in  soil  must  be  related  to  the  changes 
in  the  organic  matter,  an  attempt  was  made  to  see  in  how  far 
humus  would  be  useful  in  elucidating  the  problem.  Rotted 
bamboo-grass  was  sifted,  partly  dried,  mixed  and  sifted  again  to 
obtain  a  uniform  mould.  Portions  weighing  10  grams  were  put 
into  deep  Petri-dishes,  and  sterilised  by  heating  for  two  hours  at 


BY  R.   GREIG-SMITH. 


157 


130".  When  cold,  lOc.c  of  a  suspension  of  Bac.  T.P.2  were 
added  to  each  portion.  After  various  periods  of  incubation  at 
18**,  a  portion  was  transferred  to  a  shaking  bottle,  treated  with 
500 c.c.  of  distilled  water,  and  shaken  50  times  at  10-minute 
intervals  for  an  hour.  The  suspension  was  then  filtered  through 
paper  and  porcelain,  and  the  usual  procedure  followed. 
Experiment  xiv.a. 


Soil-organism 

Bac.  T.P.2. 

Duration  of  test 

3  days. 

3,870 
100 

50 

13 

9 

5 

1 

150 

6  days. 

Extract,  boiled 
Extract,  raw 
Extract,  raw,  80%    ... 
Extract,  raw,  60%    ... 
Extract,  raw,  40%    ... 
Extract,  raw,  20%    ... 
Water  control 
Extract/water  ratio... 

210 

100 

79 

50 

21 

4 

2 

52 

As  the  experiment  did  not  seem  to  be  going  to  give  any  useful 

information,  the  remaining  portions  were  extracted  with  different 

quantities  of  water  to  test  the  influence  of  various  strengths  of 

extract. 

Experiment  xiv.b. 


Growth  of  Bac.  prodigiosus  in  extracts  of  leaf- 
mould  infected  with  Bac.  T.P.2,  and  incubated 
for  11  days  at  18°. 


10 

gram 

portion 

to  water. 

500  CO. 

300  c.c. 

100  c.c. 

100 

100 

100 

35 

240 

487 

5 

276 

1,563 

23 

3 

46 

4 

36 

2 

Extract,  raw 
Extract,  raw,  80% 
Extract,  raw,  60% 
Water-control 
Extract/water  ratio 


The  results  of  Experiment  xiv.a,  are  much  the  same  as  have 
been  obtained  in  solutions,  viz.,  a  lessening  of  the  nutritive  and 
of  the  boiling  effects,  as  the  period  of  incubation  proceeded.  In 
Experiment  xiv.b,  we  have  the  dilution-effect  becoming  more  pro- 
nounced as  the  water  used  in  making  the  extract  became  less, 


12 


158    CONTItlBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILJTY,  xvi., 


Portions  of  the  air-dried  mould  containing  14  grams  of  dry 
matter  were  put  into  Petri-dishes  and  sterilised.  They  were 
infected  with  cultures  of  Bac.  T.P.2,  and  of  Actinomyces  10,  and 
the  moisture  raised  to  40%.  The  extracts  were  prepared  by 
shaking  each  portion  with  500  c.c   of  distilled  water. 


Experiment  xv 

Soil-organism 

Bac.  T.P.2. 

Actino.  10. 

Control. 

Duration  of  test  in  days 

4 

6 

18 

24t 

10* 

18t 

24t 

Extract,  boiled 

44 

164 

119 

47 

71 

90 

138 

Extract,  raw 

100 

100 

109 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80%      ... 

849 

532 

270 

66 

292 

171 

119 

Extract,  raw,  60%      ... 

3,710 

1,880 

1,845 

54 

574 

268  1       68 

Extract,  raw,  40%      . . . 

9,500 

3,090 

6,637 

37 

1,038 

160  j       57 

Extract,  raw,  20%      ... 

8,070 

2,500 

16,090 

17 

562 

o 

25 

Water-control 

47 

20 

153 

1 

2 

1 

1 

Extract/water  ratio    . . . 

2 

5 

0-6 

1,130 

44 

275       460 

Reaction 

+  0-6 

-I-0-6 

+  0-55 

+  0-3 

— 

-i-0-4     +0-2 

*  Growth  of  a  green 

Penicillium  at  edge  of  dish. 

tPeri 

neated 

with  P( 

snicillii 

im. 

The  growth  of  the  accidentally  introduced  Penicillium  resulted 
in  a  flattening  of  the  dilution-curves,  and  in  a  diminution  of  the 
acidity.  From  this,  it  must  be  inferred  that  the  acidity  was 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  toxicity  of  the  extracts.  To  test  the 
matter,  a  further  experiment  was  made  with  partially  neutralised 
mould,  and  with  neutralised  extracts. 

Four-punce  glass  bottles  were  used  instead  of  Petri-dishes,  and, 
into  each,  18-2  grams  of  mould,  containing  14  grams  of  dry 
matter,  were  introduced.  They  were  sterilised  at  130°  for  two 
hours,  moistened  with  3  c.c.  of  sterile  water,  and  steamed  for  an 
hour.  The  steaming  proved  to  be  unnecessary,  as  portions  of 
the  heated  soil  proved  to  be  sterile.  One  of  the  portions  was 
infected  with  a  Fusarium,  another  with  a  Rhizobium,  a  third 
served  as  a  control,  a  fourth  was  treated  with  enough  lime-water 
to  neutralise  the  apparent  acidity,  and  the  last  was  subjected  to 
the  vapour  of  ammonia  for  a  couple  of  hours.  The  moisture  in 
them  all  was  brought  to  40%.  The  extract  of  the  raw  mould 
was  found  to  be  very  acid,  1000  c.c.  containing  the  equivalent  of 


BY  R.   GRKIG  SMITH. 


59 


one  c.c.  of  normal  acid,  using  phenolpbthalein  as  an  indicator. 
The  extracts  were  neutralised  with  sodium  bicarbonate.  The 
Fusarium,  the  Rhizobium,  and  the  control-tests  were  incubated 
for  five  davs  at  22°. 


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The  point  to  be  noted  from  this  set  of  tests  is,  that  the  neu- 
tralisation of  the  acidity  of  the  extract  has  converted  the  toxic 


160    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OU  K  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

into  a  nutritive  condition,  not  only  in  the  raw  extract,  but  also 
in  the  80%  dilution.  The  numbers  obtained  in  the  extracts  of 
the  control  and  of  the  infected  leaf-moulds  are  of  the  same  order, 
and  indicate  that  the  toxic  property  is  inherent  in  the  sterilised 
medium.  The  suspicion  is  strengthened,  that  the  toxins  are 
really  acids  developed  during  the  sterilisation  of  the  organic 
matter.  It  is  evident  that  the  treatment  of  the  leaf-mould  with 
lime-water  or  with  ammonia  was  not  suflacient  to  neutralise  the 
excessive  acidity  of  the  humus,  for  the  numbers  show  a  position 
intermediate  between  the  acid  and  the  fully  neutralised  extracts. 

In  a  new  set  of  tests,  the  sifted  mould  was  treated  with  water 
to  eliminate  the  sand  with  which  it  was  mixed.  It  was  then 
dried,  and  again  sifted  through  a  finer  sieve  to  remove  the  bulk 
of  the  fine,  light  fibres.  It  contained  moisture  10-2%,  and  ash 
43-8%,  leaving  46%  for  the  organic  matter.  Portions  containing 
10  grams  of  organic  matter  were  put  into  4-ounce  bottles,  and 
sterilised  at  130°  for  two  hours.  During  the  sterilisation,  an 
odour  of  burnt  sugar  was  noticeable. 

A  portion  of  the  sterilised  leaf-mould  was  tested  against  a 
portion  of  the  unsterilised  for  acidity.  Each  was  shaken  300 
times  with  500  c.c  of  water,  and  filtered.  This  was  repeated  a 
third  time.  The  acidity  of  the  filtrates  was  tested  with  N/lOO 
soda,  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator.  The  figures  repre- 
sent the  number  of  c.c.  required  to  neutralise  the  500  c.c.  of  the 
extract. 


mould,  heated. 

mould, 
not  heated. 

difierence. 

1st  500  c.c. 
2nd  500  c.c. 
3rd  500  c.c. 

47-5 

16-25 

10-0 

7-5 
5-0 
375 

40-0 
11-25 
6-25 

The  curves  of  these  numbers  were  plotted,  and  it  was  seen  that 
the  curve  of  the  heated  mould  would  meet  that  of  the  unheated 
mould  at  the  fifth  500  c.c,  and  that,  at  the  fourth,  there  would 


BY  R.  GREiG-SMITtt. 


16; 


be  a  difference  of  3  c.c.  The  total  differences  would,  therefore, 
amount  to  60  5  c.c.  of  N/100  acid  for  the  total  acidity  developed 
during  sterilisation  and  removable  by  washittg  ivitk  icater.  In 
terms  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  mould,  this  means  that  100 
grams  during  sterilisation  developed  an  acidity  equal  to  605  c  c. 
of  normal  acid,  equivalent  to  0-36%  grams  of  acetic  acid. 

A  portion  of  the  sterilised  leaf-mould,  containing  10  grams  of 
organic  matter,  upon  being  gradually  moistened  with  water,  was 
found  to  form  a  fairly  coherent  ball  when  pressed  in  the  hand 
after  the  addition  of  1  5  c.c.  of  water  to  each  portion.  Accord- 
ingly, 15  c.c.  of  water  containing  6  c.c.  of  N/10  sodium  bicar- 
bonate were  added  to  each  portion,  which  was  thoroughly  mixed 
and  pressed  down.  Suspensions  of  the  bacteria  in  1  c.c.  of  water 
were  subsequently  added,  mixed,  and  pressed. 

After  an  incubation  of  five  days,  extracts  were  made,  and 
their  effect  upon  the  growth  of  Bac.  j^vodigiosus  noted. 


Experiment  xvii. 


Soil-organism... 

Bac.  T.P.2. 

Rhizobium.               None. 

i 

Reaction  of  extract 

acid,     neutral. 

acid. 

neutral,     acid. 

neutral. 

Extract,  boiled 
Extract,  raw  ... 

Extract,  raw,  80% 
Extract,  raw,  20% 
Water-control 
Extract/water  ratio 

106 

100 

132 

1,677 

1,471 

0-07 

77,930 

70,580 
4,390 

60 
100 
281 
5,342 
200 
0-5 

41,960 
35,420 
12,740 

152 

100 

108 

1,000 

1,316 

0  07 

85,800 

89,310 

9,950 

I 


The  numbers  in  the  control  and  in  the  T.P.2  tests  are  virtu- 
ally the  same,  and  evidently  no  growth  of  the  bacillus  had 
occurred.  The  numbers  with  Rhizobium  are  different,  not  only 
in  the  acid  extract,  but  also  after  it  had  been  neutralised  with 
soda.  The  fact  that  Rhizobium  can  grow  in  the  partially  acid 
leaf-mould  is  a  point  worth  noting.  It  is  needless  to  discuss  the 
possible  formation  of  toxins  with  these  leaf-moulds,  and  the  re- 


162    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-PERTILITY,  xvi., 

maining  portions  of  the  tests  were  discarded  until  further  work 
had  been  done. 

The  addition  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  the  portions  of  leaf- 
mould  did  not  neutralise  the  soluble  acidity,  for  when  the  raw 
extracts  were  tested,  it  was  found  that  the  T.P.2  test  had  an 
acidit}^  equal  to  +  0  62°  in  the  extract.  The  control  had  +0-63'', 
and  lihizobium  +0-35".  It  is,  perhaps,  to  be  expected  that,  in 
a  substance  like  rotted  leaf-mould,  there  will  be  a  mixture  of 
humic  acids,  some  soluble  in  water,  some  partially  soluble,  and 
some  insoluble  in  water.  The  humates  are  so  complex  that  it 
was  a  mistake  to  consider  that  even  all  the  water-soluble  acid 
would  have  been  obtained  by  water-extraction,  unless  the  time- 
factor  had  been  taken  into  account,  and  days  instead  of  hours 
been  occupied  in  the  extraction. 

The  necessity  for  having  a  neutral  vegetable-mould  was 
emphasised,  especially  in  the  last  two  tests,  and  some  experiments 
were  made  with  the  object  of  getting  a  better  idea  of  the  true 
acidity. 

The  Acidity  of  heated  Leaf-mould. 

A  number  of  portions  of  the  leaf-mould,  each  weighing  four 
grams,  were  bottled,  and  some  were  heated  for  two  hours  at  130°. 
A  sterile  and  an  untreated  portion  were  repeatedly  shaken  up 
with  a  standard  alkaline  solution  at  intervals  during  the  time 
of  contact,  and  filtered.  The  filtrates  were  tested  for  residual 
alkalinity  or,  when  neutral  liquids  were  used,  for  acidity.  'J'he 
numbers  represent  cubic  centimetres  of  normal  acid  in,  or  derived 
from,  100  grams  of  the  dry,  organic  matter  of  leaf-mould. 

Calcium  bicarbonate. — The  acidity  was  first  tested  by  the 
method  of  Hutchinson  and  MacLennan,*  which  consists  in 
having  the  portions  in  contact  with  a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of 
calcium  for  a  certain  time,  and  subsequently  determining  the 
amount  of  lime  that  had  been  removed  from  solution 

Heated  93-3 

Control  91-7 


*  Journ.  Agric.  Sci.,  vii.,  75. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMltH. 


163 


Sodium  bicarbonate.  —  Portions  were  moistened  with  10  c.c.  of 
alcohol,  and  treated  with  100  c.c.  of  water  containing  1  gram  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  for  five  days. 

Heated  165 

Control  121 

Other  portions  were  moistened  with  5  c.c.  of  alcohol,  and 
treated  with  200 c.c.  of  water  containing  0  8  grams  of  bicarbonate. 

Heated  82-4 

Control  ...  75-5 

Alcohol. — Portions  were  shaken  up  with  200  c.c.  of  neutral 
spirit  and  allowed  to  stand  overnight. 

Heated 9-4 

Control  4-0 

Water, — Portions  were  shaken  up  with  500  c.c.  of  water  and 
allowed  to  stand  overnight. 

Heated  241 

Control  9-2 

Liine-24jater.—V  ovtiow^  were  treated  with  200  c.c.  of  N/21 
lime-water  and  allowed  to  stand  overnight. 

Heated  383 

Control  362 

The  numbers  obtained  with  lime-water  were  so  high,  that  the 
experiment  was  repeated.  The  four  grams  of  leaf-mould  were 
shaken  with  300  c.c.  of  approximately  N/24  lime-water,  and  due 
allowance  was  made  for  the  amounts  removed  in  the  portions  of 
fluid  abstracted. 

Normal  alkali,  in  c.c,  absorbed  by  100  grams  of  dry  organic 
matter. 


Days. 

1/8 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7 

9 

Heated 

Control 

340 
35o 

403 
395 

423 
410 

432 
418 

442 
426 

448 
432 

4o« 
440 

4(32 
444 

This  confirms   the  previous  test  in  showing  that  a  compara- 
tively large  amount  of  lime  is  removed  from  solution,  and  that 


164    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLKDGE  OP  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

more  is  absorbed  by  the  sterilised  than  by  the  unsterilised  mould. 
The  organic  matter  has  absorbed  from  12  to  13%  lime  [CaO],  and 
about  90%  of  the  total  was  absorbed  within  two  days. 

The  difference  in  the  amount  of  base  absorbed  from  the 
hydrate,  as  against  the  bicarbonate,  led  to  a  test  being  made 
with  bicarl)onate  of  magnesia.  A  quantity  of  freshly  precipitated 
and  waslied  carbonate  was  suspended  in  water,  and  a  current  of 
carbon  dioxide  was  passed  through  for  several  hours.  The  solu- 
tion was  filtered,  and  200  c.c  were  added  to  4  grams  of  soil  in 
stoppered  bottles.  The  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  magnesia  was 
approximately  twelfth  normal  The  bottles  were  shaken  fre- 
quently, and  the  portions  abstracted  from  day  to  day  and  boiled 
with  an  excess  of  N/20  sulphuric  acid  for  ten  minutes,  and 
titrated  with  ]S'/20  soda  in  presence  of  phenolphthalein. 

Magnesium  bicarbonate'— l^ovmal  alkali,  in  c.c,  absorbed  by 
100  grams  of  dry  organic  matter. 


Days.          3 

5 

7 

10 

Heated... 
Control... 

99 
89 

99        105 
89         99 

104 
99 

The  numbers  are  closely  akin  to  those  obtained  with  calcium 
bicarbonate,  and  much  under  the  tests  with  lime-water. 

Baryta-water. — The  action  of  lime-water  was  controlled  by  a 
test  made  with 'baryta- water,  in  which  300  c.c.  of  approximately 
N/15  alkali  were  added  to  each  4-gram-portion  of  mould. 

Normal  alkali,  in  c.c  ,  absorbed  by  100  grams  of  dry  organic 
matter. 


Days. 

1    2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

12 

Heated... 
Control  ... 

389  408 
365  ,  382 

419 
391 

434 
400 

442 
405 

445 
417 

448 
418 

414 
425 

464 
433 

These  numbers  run  closely  with  those  of  the  lime-water  test 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  165 

The  set  of  experiments  show  that  vegetable-mould,  oiiginally 
of  ail  acid  reaction,  is  made  more  acid  by  the  action  of  beat, 
such  as  by  sterilisation  for  two  hours  at  130°.  The  acid  sub- 
stances are  partly  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  water.  They  consist 
of  two  kinds,  one  of  which  is  capable  of  being  neutralised  by  the 
bicarbonates  of  the  alkaline  earths.  The  other  makes  itself 
evident  when  in  contact  with  the  hydrates  of  the  earths.  The 
mould  which  was  examined  removed  from  four  to  five  times  more 
alkali  from  the  hydrate  than  from  the  bicarbonate. 

At  the  close  of  the  baryta- water  experiment,  the  control-soil 
was  rapidly  filtered  on  the  pump,  washed  with  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  transferred  back  to  the  bottle  and  shaken  with  300  c.c. 
of  water,  and  tested  from  time  to  time. 

3  hours  ...  ...  .  .      26*5 

1  day ...  ...  ...  ...      36 

2  days  36 

Of  the  433  c.c.  removed  from  100  grams  of  dry,  organic  matter^ 
36  were  given  up  to  water,  and  we  may,  therefore,  consider  the 
difference  of  roughly  400  c.c.  as  being  in  combination. 

The  sterilised  leaf-mould  was  also  filtered  and  shaken  with  200 
c.c.  of  twentieth-normal  hydrochloric  acid.  This  removed  the 
following  amounts  of  normal  lime. 

3  hours  ...  ...  ...      328 

1  day  ...  ...  ...  ...      343 

2  days 343 

Deducting  this  from  the  total  baryta  absorbed,  viz.,  464  c.c, 

we  have  120  c.c,  which  is  close  to  the  amount  absorbed  from  the 
bicarbonates.  It  is  evident  that  the  kind  of  humic  acid,  which 
fixes  the  bulk  of  the  lime  from  a  solution  of  the  hydrate,  forms 
with  it  a  feeble  combination.  This  is  destroyed  by  mineral  acids 
but  is  not  attected  to  any  extent  by  water.  The  combination 
seems  to  be  too  detinite  in  its  quantitative  relations  for  a  simple 
case  of  adsorption. 

From  the  experiments,  it  was  concluded  that  the  organic 
matter  of  the  leaf- mould  contained  humic  acids,  and,  of  these, 
about  one-quarter  were  capable  of  decomposing  the  bicarbonates 
of  the  earths,  while  three-fourths  were  too  weak  to  do  this  but 


166    CONTRIUUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

could  combine  with  the  earthy  hydrates.  Heating  the  mould 
increased  the  amount  of  acid,  and  the  increase  was  largely  soluble 
in  water. 

Humus  with  Calcium  Carbonate. 

According  to  the  earlier  lime-water  test,  in  which  100  grams 
of  dry  organic  matter  absorbed  383  c.c.  of  N/1  alkali  from  lime- 
water,  it  appeared  that  a  neutralisation  of  the  acids  of  the  leaf- 
mould  would  be  obtained  by  adding  2  grams  of  calcium  carbonate 
to  each  portion  containing  10  grams  of  dry  organic  matter,  and 
that  neutralisation  would  be  certain  if  2*5  grams  were  added. 
A  set  of  bottles  were  prepared,  each  receiving  the  equivalent  of 
10  grams  of  dry  organic  matter,  and  2*5  grams  of  calcium  car- 
bonate as  precipitated  chalk.  The  bottles  were  sterilised  for 
two  hours  at  130",  then  moistened  and  stirred  with  15  c.c.  of 
water,  and  steamed  for  an  hour.  Subsequent  tests  showed  that 
sterilisation  had  been  complete,  and  that  the  extracts  furnished 
by  the  tests  were  neutral  to  phenolphthalein.  Sets  were  infected 
with  certain  micro-organisms  and  incubated  at  laboratory  tem- 
peratures for  varying  times.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
organisms  T.P.2  and  Actino.  14  were  chosen  because  they  in- 
hibited the  growth  of  spreading  bacteria  and  moulds  on  agar- 
plates.  A  test  made  at  the  beginning  of  this  experiment  showed 
that  T.P.2  had  lost  its  toxic  power,  while  Actino.  14  had  not. 
In  view  of  this,  the  bottles  of  T.P.2,  which  had  been  infected, 
were  incubated  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbon  dioxide,  to  see  if 
this  would  have  any  influence  in  restoring  the  toxicity.  Several 
of  the  portions,  which  were  tested  on  the  eighteenth  day,  were 
unfortunately  destroyed. 


BY  I{.   GREIG-SMlTH. 


167 




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168    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi,, 

A  general  glance  over  the  results  leads  to  the  belief  that  no 
toxins  are  formed  by  the  organisms.  It  may  be  that  the  excess 
of  carbonate  of  lime  has  brought  about  a  condition  in  which  the 
preservation  of  the  toxins  is  not  possible.  The  outstanding 
feature  of  the  experiment  is  the  increased  nutritive  effect  ob- 
tained with  Fenicilliu'tit  dados  par  ioides.  The  extract/water 
ratio  increased  very  rapidly,  indicating  that  the  mould  had  been 
actively  attacking  the  organic  matter  and  producing  substances 
which  stimulated  the  test-organism,  Bac  prodigiosvs.  to  an  in- 
creased production. 

The  amount  of  unacted-upon  carbonate  in  the  treated  leaf- 
mould  led  to  the  belief  that  too  much  had  been  added,  and  that 
an  excess  of  carbonate  was  not  desirable. 

Humus  neutralised  with  Limk-water. 

A  quantity  of  sifted  leaf-mould  was  soaked  in  lime-water  for 
an  hour,  5  litres  of  lime-water  being  used  for  every  500  grams  of 
leaf-mould.  A  trial  test  showed  that  this  proportion  furnished 
a  neutral  extract,  although,  when  the  bulk  was  prepared,  the 
extract  of  the  mould  was  faintly  ncid.  This  was  possibly  caused 
bv  the  subsequent  sterilisation.  iVt  the  end  of  an  hour,  the  sus- 
pension was  stirred  and  decanted  on  to  a  filter,  and  the  organic 
matter  washed,  and  at  the  same  time  separated  from  the  heavier 
sand  b}'  repeating  the  procedure  with  water.  The  residual 
organic  matter  was  dried,  sifted,  and  bottled. 

At  this  stage,  the  mould  contained  moisture  40" 42%,  asli 
18-80%,  and  organic  matter  40'48%,  so  that  24-5  grams  contained 
10  grams  of  organic  matter.  This  quantity  was  put  up  into  a 
number  of  four-ounce  bottles,  which  were  heated  for  two  hours 
at  130°.  Most  of  the  moisture  was  driven  off  by  the  heating.  A 
test  showed  that  the  heated  mould  formed  a  coherent  mass,  upon 
being  pressed  in  the  hand,  when  a  weighed  portion  contained  20 
grams  of  water,  and  this  was  accepted  as  being  the  quantity 
requisite  for  a  full  bacterial  growth.  After  the  heating,  the 
water  was  raised  to  19c.c.,  the  remaining  1  c.c.  being  left  for 
the  infecting  suspension.  The  water  was  thoroughly  incorpo- 
rated, and  the  bottles  were  steamed  for  an  hour.  Sets  were 
infected  with  several  micro-organisms  and  kept  at  room-temper- 
ature, 15°. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


169 


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1  70    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

The  behaviour  of  Pen.  cladosporioiaes  was  different  in  tViis  ex- 
periment from  that  in  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  chalk.  It  did 
not  decompose  the  organic  matter  so  quick!}',  but  the  rise  in  the 
dilution-curve  was  more  pronounced.  This  suggested  the  idea 
that,  if  the  nutritive  effect  could  be  kept  down,  the  curve  might 
be  more  accentuated  Use  was  made  of  Rhizobium  for  growing 
with  the  Penicillium  because,  when  the  former  was  tested  at  the 
same  time,  viz.,  on  the  tenth  day,  the  nutritive  ratio  was  lower 
than  either  the  latter  or  the  control-test.  The  double  growth 
kept  down  the  ratio,  but  there  was  no  elevation  of  the  dilution- 
curve.  The  growing  Penicillium  brought  about  an  alteration  in 
the  reaction  of  the  extract.  The  reaction  of  the  control-test 
seems  to  indicate,  that  the  bacteria  and  moulds  cause  the  medium 
to  furnish  acid  extracts  which,  in  time,  may  become  alkaline. 

The  effect  of  using  different  amounts  of  water  in  preparing  the 
extract  was  shown  in  the  case  of  the  mould  infected  with  Fusa- 
rium  species.  Two  tests  were  extracted  at  the  same  time,  one 
with  500  c.c,  the  other  with  250  c.c.  of  water.  The  stronger 
extract  gave  the  higher  nutritive  ratio,  as  204  :  42,  while  the 
weaker  solution  showed  a  tendency  to  produce  a  rise  in  the 
dilution-curve. 

On  the  whole,  the  neutralised  leaf-mould  did  not  come  up  to 
expectations  in  serving  as  a  suitable  medium  for  the  demonstra- 
tion of  toxin-production  by  the  selected  micro-organisms. 

When  an  extract  is  diluted  and  subsequently  sown  with 
bacteria,  it  will  give  a  count  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
dilution.  But  if  the  extract  is  acid,  the  dilution  will  be  less 
acid,  and  the  count  will  not  be  in  proportion,  but  will  be  more 
or  less  according  to  the  effect  of  the  change  in  the  acidity  upon 
the  growing  bacterium.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  this 
difference  from  the  normal  would  be,  especially  with  such  weakly 
acid  extracts  as  in  Expt.  xix.  The  neutralisation  of  an  extract 
so  strongly  acid  as  -f  TO  is  well  seen  in  Expt.  xvi.,  in  which  the 
dilution  to  one-fifth  raised  the  count  from  150  to  300-fold.  A 
set  of  experiments  were  made  to  obtain  some  definite  informa- 
tion regarding  the  influence  of  slight  variations  in  the  reaction. 


hy  k.  gre1c4-smith.  171 

The  Influence  of  Pveaction  upon  Bacterial  Growth. 

An  extract  of  the  same  vegetable-mould  as  in  Expt.  xix.  was 
prepared,  and  the  acidity  was  determined  in  the  following 
manner.  Twenty-five  c.c  were  pipetted  into  a  beaker,  an  equal 
volume  of  distilled  water  was  added,  and  the  beaker  was  covered. 
It  was  boiled  for  ten  minutes  to  expel  the  carbon  dioxide,  and 
rapidly  cooled.  Three  drops  of  phenolphthalein  were  added,  and 
N/100  soda  was  run  in  until  a  difference  in  the  tint  was  manifest. 
An  end-point  was  not  aimed  at;  just  the  difference  in  the  tint 
from  a  yellowish  to  a  faint  brown.  From  the  reading,  0*05  c.c. 
was  deducted  as  being  necessary  to  produce  the  change  of  tint 
over  the  neutral  point.  For  example,  25  c.c.  of  an  extract  gave 
a  tint  with  015  c.c.  of  N/TOO  soda.  Deducting  0*05  c.c,  the 
reading  becomes  O'l  c.c.  for  the  neutral  point.  With  0-4  c.c, 
the  tint  was  a  pronounced  red,  and  the  final  deep  purple  was 
obtained  with  0-9  c.c.  The  neutral  quantity  0*1  c.c,  when  cal- 
culated to  normal  acid  per  litre,  gives  0-04  c.c,  which,  by  Fuller's 
scale,  is  represented  by  -f  0'04.  A  good,  white  light  is  required 
during  the  titration  to  observe  the  change  of  tint.  The  method 
appears  to  be  correct,  for  when  the  extracts  were  neutralised  by 
the  findings  of  the  method,  they  always  gave  the  highest  counts 
after  incubation  with  the  test-bacterium. 

After  determining  the  reaction  of  the  extract,  quantities  of 
100th  normal  lactic  acid  or  bicarbonate  of  soda  were  added  to 
10  c.c  portions  of  the  extract,  and  sterile  water  to  bring  the 
volume  up  to  1 1  cc.  One  c.c.  of  a  suspension  of  Bac.  jyrodigiosus 
was  added,  and  this  brought  the  volume  up  to  12  c.c,  upon  which 
the  quantities  of  acid  and  alkali,  which  were  added,  had  been 
based.  The  bottles  were  incubated  at  22"  for  20  hours,  when 
counts  were  made,  and  these  were  calculated  in  terms  of  the 
neutral  extract. 


172 


CONTRIBUTIONS    10  OUR  KNOWLKDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 


EXPEBIMENT   XX. 


Reaction  of  extract 

Grow 

'th  of  Bac.  pi'odigiosus,  20  hours  at  22^ 

(Fuller's  scale). 

a 

b 

e 

average. 

-0-3 

56 

43 

53 

50 

-0-2 

50 

67 

60 

60 

-0-1 

93 

71 

70 

78 

0  0 

100 

100 

100 

100 

+  0-1 

86 

88 

77 

83 

+  0-2 

33 

44 

21 

33 

+  0-3 

3 

10 

3 

5 

The  numbers  in  the  three  tests  are  not  uniform,  but  they  serve 
to  show  the  probable  variation  that  the  effect  of  dilution  has 
upon  an  acid  or  alkaline  extract.  For  example,  in  the  ten  days' 
test  with  Penic.  cladosj).  (xix.),  the  numbers  with  80%  w^ere  187, 
and  with  '20%,  38.  The  reaction-curve  passes  through  86  for 
+  0-1,91  for  +0-08,  and  99  for  +0-02.  A  slight  calculation 
shows  that  the  numbers  at  the  80%  dilution  are  higher  by  6%, 
and  at  the  20%  dilution  higher  by  15%  than  they  should  be  on 
account  of  the  reduction  of  the  acidity  by  the  mere  dilution.  In 
these  weakly  acid  extracts,  however,  small  differences  such  as 
these  are  negligeable,  as  the  counts  themselves  are  liable  to 
greater  fluctuations. 

A  stage  has  been  reached  in  the  investigation  at  which  it  is 
made  clear  that  bacteria  and  moulds  do  not  produce  toxins,  or, 
if  they  do,  the  toxin  is  not  capable  of  being  demonstrated  either 
in  nutrient  solutions  or  in  vegetable-humus.  Any  resemblance 
to  toxicity  is  probably  caused  by  an  alteration  in  the  reaction  of 
the  medium,  and,  to  such  alterations  of  reaction,  the  test-organ- 
ism is  very  sensitive. 

The  Growth  of  Amceb^e. 
The  attempt  to  obtain  toxic  substances  among  the  byproducts 
of  certain  bacteria  and  moulds  had  not  been  so  successful  as  had 
been  wished ;  in  fact,  it  had  been  decidedly  unsatisfactory. 
Either  the  methods  of  producing  the  desired  bodies  were  at  fault, 
or  the  micro-organisms  were  not  such  as  would  give  the  desired 
results,  although  they  had  been  selected  as  being  the  most  likely 
to  do  so.      It  is  known  that  bacteria  can  give  out  bacteriolytic 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  173 

substances,  as  for  example,  Bac.  pyocyaneus,  and  moulds  may  be 
capable  of  doing  the  same.  But  these  are  not  the  only  inhabit- 
ants of  the  soil.  There  are  certain  protozoa,  and  with  the  failure 
to  obtain  a  decided  and  undoubted  production  from  the  bacteria 
and  moulds,  the  attention  was  turned  to  the  soil-fauna. 

With  regard  to  the  possible  activity  of  the  members  of  the 
soil-fauna  in  this  direction,  we  are  faced  with  the  fact,  that  the 
introduction  of  certain  species  of  protozoa,  e.g.,  the  Amoebse  and 
Colpodse  into  sterile  soils,  does  not  bring  about  the  condition  that 
holds  before  sterilisation.  The  bacterial  numbers,  which  become 
greatly  increased  as  a  result  of  the  sterilisation,  do  not  become 
reduced  to  the  previous  level  when  the  protozoa  are  present. 
It  is  true  that  Goodey*  has  lately  shown  that  the  inhibiting 
factor,  which  determines  the  reduction  of  the  bacterial  numbers, 
becomes  evident  when  the  numbers  of  amoebae  approach  and 
exceed  50,000  per  gram  of  dry  soil,  but,  at  the  same  time,  he 
says  that  the  sterilised  or  disinfected  soils  are  not  suitable  media 
for  the  production  of  the  factor.  The  treatment  of  the  soil  with 
heat  or  with  the  volatile  disinfectants  so  alters  the  soil,  that  it  is 
not  immediately  suitable  for  developing  the  inhibiting  factor, 
whatever  it  may  be. 

I  had  considered  the  possibility  of  soil-amceba?  being  able  to 
produce  substances  akin  to  the  immune  bodies  of  the  animal 
pathologist,  but,  as  experimental  work  failed  to  reveal  any  sign 
of  toxic  substances,  and  such  immune  bodies  must  be  included 
in  this  category,  I  simply  record  the  fact  that  such  a  possibility 
had  been  entertained,  and  that  experiments  with,  and  without, 
"vaccines"  had  been  negative. 

Some  difficulty  was  met  with  in  obtaining  a  "pure"  culture  of 
soil-amoebse.  Upon  a  former  occasion,  they  had  been  cultivated 
in  quantity  in  1%  liay-infusion,  without  any  trouble,  but,  upon 
repeating  the  procedure,  it  was  found  that  the  medium  was  not 
well  adapted  for  the  purpose.  The  single  cells  generally  disap- 
peared overnight.  The  trouble  was  traced  to  the  medium  being 
too  nutritive,  thus  permitting  the  accompanying  bacteria  to 
become  too  numerous  and    render   the  medium  too  alkaline.     A 

*  Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  89  (B.616),  p.297. 


174    CONTRIBUTIONS  '10  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

hay-infusion,  in  which  the  bacteria  had  grown  for  some  time,  had 
changed  from  having  a  faint  original  acidity  of  -I-0-25  to  an 
alkalinity  of  —2*4.  It  was  naturally  assumed  that  the  alka- 
linity developed  overnight  had  been  the  cause  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  ama3b8e,  but,  when  either  saccharose,  lactose,  lactic 
acid,  humic  acid,  or  sodium  phosphate  was  added,  the  trouble 
still  remained,  although  it  was  not  so  pronounced  in  the  presence 
of  humic  acid.  The  addition  of  potassium  nitrate,  mono-  or 
di-hydrogen  phosphate,  or  ammonium  phosphate  to  make  a  005% 
solution  with  the  hay-infusion,  also  resulted  in  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  amcebse.  It  seemed  at  one  time  as  if  the  smallest 
droplets  gave  the  most  satisfactory  growths,  that  one  amoeba  in 
a  small  droplet  had  a  better  chance  of  growing  than  one  cell  in 
a  large  droplet,  and  it  was  concluded  that  the  hay-infusion  was 
too  strong.  It  is  a  recognised  rule,  in  growing  amoebae,  that  a 
poor  medium  should  be  used  in  order  to  prevent  the  protozoon 
being  overwhelmed  with  bacteria,  but  1%  hay-infusion  is  by  no 
means  considered  to  be  a  rich  medium,  especially  when  made 
from  a  rather  poor  sample  of  couch-grass.  However,  experiments 
j  showed  that  0-2%  hay-infusion  was  well  adapted  for  growing 
amoebae  in  mass-culture,  although  it  produced  rather  delicate 
forms  in  single-cell  work.  One  of  my  most  successful  starter- 
cultures  was  obtained  by  gradually  adding  1%  hay-infusion  so 
that  the  bacteria  were  kept  under  as  much  as  possible.  An 
equally  good  starter  was  obtained  by  growing  the  cells  in  a  2% 
infusion  of  exhausted  leaf-mould,  the  same  as  was  used  in  some 
experiments  about  to  be  recorded. 

During  this  part  of  the  investigation,  the  effect  of  adding 
sodium  chloride  to  the  hay-infusion  was  tested.  In  one  instance, 
the  addition  of  0-2%  was  beneficial,  while  a  larger  quantity  de- 
stroyed the  amoebae.  In  another  instance,  the  addition  was 
injurious.  A  good  culture-fluid  was  found  in  tap-water  contain- 
ing 0-05%  asparagin  with  0-11%  K^HPO^.  Although  two  of 
the  original  five  cells  died  overnight,  the  remaining  three  cells 
increased  to  39  in  another  day.  In  view  of  this,  an  experiment 
was  made  in  which  the  asparagin  was  replaced  by  chloride, 
sulphate  or  nitrate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of   potash  and  urea.      A 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH.  175 

number  of  amoebse  were  added  to  each  droplet,  and  a  trace  of 
chalk.  All  the  cultures  did  well,  and,  in  course  of  time,  the 
mobile  forms  encysted.  The  cells  of  the  urea-test  were  vegetat- 
ing long  after  the  others,  and  the  amoebse  in  the  ammonium 
chloride  test  also  persisted  longer,  and  finally  disappeared  with- 
out forming  cysts. 

A  preliminary  experiment  was  made  with  an  extract  of  a 
partially  exhausted  leaf-mould,  using  a  growth  of  amoebae  derived 
from  a  single  cell.  Although  the  solutions  were  tested  from 
time  to  time  in  the  customary  manner  for  the  influence  of  boiling 
and  dilution,  no  definite  information  was  obtained,  and  it  was 
concluded  that  the  culture-solution  was  too  poor  in  nutrients  to 
show  or  develop  any  signs  of  toxicity. 

Vegetable-mould  neutralised  with  lime  (p.  168)  was  then  used. 
Each  test  contained  the  equivalent  of  ten  grams  of  dry  organic 
matter  with  an  amount  of  water  sufficient  to  cause  the  soil  to 
adhere  loosely  to  the  sides  of  the  containing  bottle.  This  meant 
73%  of  moisture.  It  was  apparent  from  the  results  that  the 
mould  became  too  acid  for  the  continued  growth  of  the  amoebae. 
Forty  thousand  were  added  to  each  bottle,  and,  in  five  days,  they 
had  increased  to  1*6  millions,  in  twelve  days  they  had  decreased 
to  136,000  mobile  forms,  and,  by  the  twentieth  day,  they  all  had 
encysted.  While  this  was  going  on,  the  extract,  originally 
neutral,  became  more  and  more  acid,  doubtless  due  to  the  carbon 
dioxide,  produced  by  the  activity  of  the  bacteria  introduced  with 
the  amoebae,  reacting  with  the  calcium  humate,  and  liberating 
free  humic  acid. 

The  test  was  repeated  with  similar  results.  On  the  sixth  day, 
the  amoebae  had  increased  forty-four  fold,  and  the  reaction  of  the 
extract  was  -  0-04  ;  on  the  thirteenth  day,  the  amoebae  had 
encysted,  and  the  reaction  was  -i-O-l.  The  bacterial  numbers 
gave  no  information. 

Better  results  were  obtained  with  an  infusion  of  hay  made  b}^ 
diluting  a  1%  infusion  with  tap-water  to  make  a  0-2%  solution. 
Tests  were  made  on  the  sixth,  twentieth,  and  forty-second  days, 
but,  as  the  two  latter  gave  somewhat  normal  dilution-curves, 
they  are  not  recorded. 


176    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi. 
EXPERIMEJ^T   xxi. 


Soil-protozoon, 

Amoeha  Umax. 

Numbers  corrected 
for  alkalinity. 

Extract,  boiled 

575 

575 

Extract,  raw... 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

387 

277 

Extract,  raw,  50% 

962 

489 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

3,252 

1,205 

Water-con  tz^ol 

5,522 

1,821 

Bacteria  added  at  start 

712 

204 

Extract/water  ratio 

0-018 

— 

Reaction  of  extract 

-0-38 

-00 

The  figures  are  instructive,  inasmuch  as  they  show  a  consider- 
able reduction  in  the  number  of  bacteria  originally  added.  There 
was  something  in  the  solution  which  was  strongly  toxic  towards 
the  test-organism  added  to  the  extract.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
the  extract  was  so  alkaline,  for  this  undoubtedly  clouds  the  issue, 
but,  even  when  an  allowance  is  made  for  it,  according  to  the 
information  previously  obtained  with  extract  of  vegetable  mould 
(p.  J  72),  a  strongly  rising  dilution-curve  is  still  apparent. 

The  alkalinity  was  determined  by  boiling  25  c.c.  of  the  extract 
with  35  c.c.  of  distilled  water  and  1  c.c.  of  centinormal  sulphuric 
acid  for  ten  minutes,  rapidly  cooling  the  solution,  adding  1  c.c. 
of  centinormal  soda,  and  titrating  back  until  the  tint  became 
that  of  the  control.  Phenolphthalein  was  used  as  the  indicator. 
It  gave  a  true  indication  of  the  reaction  in  extracts  of  leaf-mould, 
but,  as  will  be  shown  subsequently,  it  is  not  so  good  for  solutions 
of  hay-infusion. 

The  experiments  so  far  showed  that  some  means  must  be 
adopted  to  eliminate  the  excessive  alkalinity  of  the  fermented 
cultures.  On  a  previous  occasion,  humic  acid  had  been  used, 
but,  as  it  had  been  soluble,  it  had  not  served  the  desired  purpose. 
On  standing,  however,  a  solution  of  the  acid  had  precipitated, 
and  this  precipitate  of  insoluble  humic  acid  was  washed  and 
used.  The  employment  of  soil  for  maintaining  a  neutral  reaction 
was  suggested  by  the  fact  that,  when  it  is  put  into  hay-infusion 
and  incubated,  there  is  developed  a  mixed  flora  and  fauna,  the 
appearance  of  which  is  so  healthy,  that  a  pronounced  acidity  or 
alkalinity  of  the  infusion  is  unlikely. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


177 


In  one  test,  a  small  amount  of  sodium  phosphate  was  added  to 
the  hay-infusion,  but,  from  the  appearance  of  the  amoeba?,  the 
salt  seemed  to  have  enhanced  the  alkaline  effect,  at  any  rate  it 
favoured  bacterial  growth  and  rapidly  destroyed  the  amoebae. 

The  neutralisation  of  the  alkalinity  with  lactic  acid  proved  to 
be  useless,  for,  in  three  days,  the  culture  was  as  alkaline  as 
before  the  addition. 

The  advantage  to  be  gained  by  using  insoluble  humic  acid  or 
soil  was  tested  with  solutions  obtained  by  diluting  a  1%  infusion 
of  hay  with  nine  volumes  of  water,  that  is  they  contained  one 
part  of  hay  per  thousand. 

Experiment  xxii. 


Protozoon 

Amreha  Umax. 

Medium 

Hay-infusion  with 
humic  acid. 

Hay-infusion  with  soil. 

Test 

1 

2      (      3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Duration  of  test  in  days 

10 

14     1     24 

8 

12 

15 

22 

36 

Extract,  boiled 

63o 

503 

869 

955 

1,749 

2,160 

637 

3,477 

Extract,  raw 

100 

100 

100  i 

100 

100 

100 

100 

,    100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

107 

115 

108 

117 

151 

106 

87 

122 

Extract,  raw,  50% 

104 

182 

117  ! 

160 

169 

313 

109 

190 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

89 

203 

129  1 

264 

451 

665 

156 

494 

Water- control 

55 

86 

137  ! 

302 

398 

1,036 

288 

332 

Bacteria  added  at  start 

9-6 

40         20 

52 

188 

99 

42 

35 

Extract/ water  ratio     . . . 

1-8 

ri 

0  09 

0-33 

0-25 

0-1 

0  34 

0-3 

Reaction  of  extract     . . . 

+  0-0 

+  0-02 

-0  04 

+0-02 

-0-02 

-0  02 

-0  05 

+0-03 

The  tests  were  started  with  500 c.c.  of  0T%  hay-infusion,  either 
a  small  quantity  of  washed  humic  acid  (about  0-03  gram)  or  25 
grams  of  sterile  soil  and  10  c.c.  of  an  amoeba-culture.  The  latter 
represented  from  30,000  to  50,000  mobile  forms  as  estimated  by 
the  counts  of  later  starter-cultures.  The  amoebae  in  the  earlier 
periods  were  not  counted,  but  they  grew  well,  and  a  count  made 
on  the  sixteenth  day  showed  10,000  per  c.c.  in  the  humic  acid, 
and  5,600  in  the  soil  test.  On  the  twenty-fourth  day,  the  flasks 
contained  6,600  and  3,600  per  c.c.  respectively. 

The  results  show  a  low  reaction,  and  it  was  assumed  that  the 
fluids  were  approximately  neutral.     The  humic  acid  tests  do  not 


178    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  Of  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 

exhibit  any  pronounced  degree  of  toxicity  as  judged  by  the  effect 
of  boiling,  or  dilution,  or  by  the  relation  of  the  raw  extract  to 
the  water-control.  They  are  of  the  indefinite  type  which  leads 
one  to  further  experimenting  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  something 
more  definite. 

In  the  soil-tests,  we  have  a  direct  evidence  of  toxicity  in  the 
twelve  days'  culture.  The  filtered  extract  was  directly  toxic, 
reducing  the  number  of  bacteria  added  at  the  start  from  188  to 
100.  The  effect  of  boiling  the  extract  for  an  hour  under  a  con- 
denser, and  of  diluting  the  raw  extract  is  also  well  shown  in  the 
increased  nutritive  effect.  The  toxic  nature  of  the  twelve  days' 
culture  is  confirmed  by  that  of  the  fifteen  days',  for,  although  the 
added  bacteria  are  not  decreased,  they  did  not  increase. 

A  trial  was  made  to  see  if  humus,  such  as  vegetable-mould, 
would  be  useful  for  maintaining  an  approximate  neutrality. 
Four  grams  of  lime-treated  mould  were  tried  against  50  grams 
of  sterile  soil.  In  fourteen  days,  the  humus  test  showed  a  reac- 
tion of  -  0-4,  and  the  soil  -  003.  Humus  was  therefore  useless 
for  the  purpose.  There  was  no  evidence  of  toxicity  in  the 
extracts. 

While  dilute  hay-infusion  has  been  found  to  be  very  good  for 
growing  the  amoebae,  and  for  obtaining  evidence  of  toxin-forma- 
tion, it  seemed  advisable  to  see  if  a  simple  nutrient  would  be  as 
good.  The  preliminary  tests  in  the  cultivation  of  the  amoeba- 
had  shown  that  they  grew  well  in  urea  and  ammonium  chloride 
and,  with  these,  calcium  nitrate  was  included  as  a  nutrient, 
which  would  probably  not  produce  an  alteration  in  the  reaction 
of  the  culture-medium.  Solutions  of  urea,  0*02%,  ammonium 
chloride,  0036%,  and  calcium  nitrate,  0-056%  in  tap-water,  were 
prepared.  These  contained  equivalent  quantities  of  nitrogen. 
To  500  c.c.  of  these  solutions,  50  grams  of  soil  and  25  c.c.  of  an 
amoeba-culture  containing  75,000  mobile  forms  were  added. 
Unfortunately  the  amoebae  did  not  increase  in  numbers  and  were 
rarely  more  than  330  per  c.c.  Extracts  were  prepared  on  the 
seventeenth  da}^  when  all  hope  of  their  increase  had  been  given 
up.  The  extracts  had  the  following  reactions,  urea,  -  1-36, 
ammonium  chloride,  +0*24,  and  calcium  nitrate,  +004.     There 


6Y  R.  GREIG-SMITtl. 


179 


was  no  evidence  of  toxicity  other  than  could  be  accounted  for 
bv  the  reaction.  The  experiment  did  not  indicate  that  any  of 
these  chemicals  would  be  of  any  value  in  the  research. 

The  Influence  of  Aeration. 
With  the  idea  of  determining  the  influence  of  aeration  upon 
the  production  of  toxin,  a  quantity  of  dilute  (0-2%)  hay-infusion 
was  infected  with  a  culture  of  ameebse,  50  grams  of  soil  were 
added,  and  the  bottle  containing  the  test  was  attached  to  an 
aspirator,  which  caused  a  few  bubbles  of  air  to  pass  through  the 
liquid  every  few  minutes.  A  control-bottle  was  allowed  to  stand 
in  the  laboratory.  They  were  ordinary  litre- bottles,  and  the  500 
CO.  of  infusion  was  2|  inches  deep.  Portions  of  the  fermented 
liquids  were  filtered  through  porcelain  on  the  fifth  day,  and 
again  on  the  eighth  day,  with  the  following  results. 

Experiment  xxiii. 


Treatment 

Aerated. 

Not  aerated. 

Duration  of  test  in  days  . . . 

5 

8 

5 

8 

Extract,  boiled  ... 

33 

122 

1,690 

9,550 

Extract,  raw 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

113 

126 

102 

137 

Extract,  raw,  50% 

117 

144 

160 

429 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

108 

356 

229 

600 

Water-control     ... 

74 

242 

152 

574 

Added  at  start   ... 

17 

21 

38 

49 

Extract/water  ratio 

1-3 

0-4 

0-6 

0.2 

Reaction 

+0-2 

+0-06 

-0-06 

-  0-02 

The  solutions  were  twice  the  strength  of  those  of  Experiment 
xxii.,  but  whether  this  accounted  for  a  slow  growth  of  amoebse  in 
the  non-aerated  test  or  not,  cannot  be  said.  None  were  seen  on 
the  fifth  day,  330  on  the  eighth,  and  2,300  per  c.c.  on  the 
twelfth.  In  the  aerated  test,  the  amcebge  grew  well:  3,000  were 
noted  on  the  fifth,  and  9,300  per  c.c.  on  the  seventh  day.  Aera- 
tion induced  an  acid,  and  its  absence  an  alkaline  reaction.  The 
acidity  was  so  high  on  the  fifth  day  that,  on  the  sixth,  the  aera- 
tion was  stopped.  This  appeared  to  have  had  an  effect  upon  the 
dilution-curve. 


180    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUtt  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTIMTY,  XVI. 


The  greater  growth  of  amoebie  and  the  smaller  probability  of 
the  production  of  a  toxic  effect  in  aerated  cultures  raised  the 
idea  that,  like  yeast-cells,  the  reproductive  may  be  inversely 
proportional  to  the  physiological  activity.  So  another  experi- 
ment was  started,  and,  as  a  variation,  a  flask  was  included 
which  was  infected  with  a  culture  of  bacteria  only,  derived  from 
a  protozoon-free  droplet  of  a  starter.  The  extracts  were  tested 
on  the  sixth  day. 

Experiment  xxiv. 


Micro-organism 

Amrebo 

.  liviax. 

Bacteria  only. 

Method 

Aerated. 

Not  aerated. 

Not  aerated. 

Extract,  boiled 

1,168 

2,039 

3,453 

Extract,  raw     ... 

100 

100 

100 

Extract,  raw,  80% 

7o 

109 

106 

Extract,  raw,  oO% 

99 

123 

87 

Extract,  raw,  20% 

103 

199 

260 

Water-control  ... 

87 

100 

78 

Added  at  start... 

15 

17-5 

13-7 

Extract/water  ratio 

115 

ro 

1-27 

Reaction 

-fO-04 

-0  05 

+0 

The  numbers  bear  out  the  contention  that,  if  toxicity  is  to  be 
obtained,  it  will  not  be  as  the  result  of  aeration.  The  reaction 
went  on  as  in  the  previous  case,  aeration  producing  acidity,  and 
no  aeration,  alkalinity  in  hay-infusion.  The  examination  of  the 
culture-fiuids  showed  that  the  am  eel  Ke  had  begun  to  encyst  in  the 
aerated,  and  that  1,000  mobile  forms  per  c.c.  were  in  the  other. 

A  further  test  was  made  upon  the  same  lines;  as  a  variation, 
a  deep  layer  of  fluid  was  used  without  aeration  in  order  to  accent- 
uate the  conditions.  The  method  at  this  time  had  been  to  use 
700  c.c.  of  fluid  contained  in  a  bottle  of  about  1,200  c.c.  capacit}', 
and,  in  this,  the  fluid  had  a  depth  of  9  cm.  In  the  deep  test, 
1,700  c.c.  were  used,  and  in  an  ordinary  Winchester  this  had  a 
depth  of  16  cm.  In  the  latter,  the  amoebae  grew  slowly,  the  first 
indication  being  obtained  on  the  thirteenth  day,  when  330  per 
c.c.  were  noted.  On  the  seventeenth,  they  had  risen  to  1,000. 
The  aerated  test  showed  5,300  on  the  fourth,  and,  without 
aeration,  the  first  evidence,  330  per  c.c,  was  obtained  on  the 
eleventh  day. 


BY  R.  GRKIG-SMirH. 


181 


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182    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  Xvi., 

Taking  the  figures  as  a  whole,  there  is  not  sufficient  difference 
between  them  to  justify  the  consideration  that  any  toxin  had 
been  produced  by  the  amcebse,  for  rises  in  the  dilution-curve  are 
obtained  in  their  absence.  In  view  of  later  experience,  the  rises 
might  well  have  been  caused  by  the  reaction  of  the  culture-fluid. 

About  this  time,  it  became  evident  that  the  method  of  de- 
termining the  reaction  by  the  use  of  phenolphthalein,  as  the 
indicator,  might  be  faulty  when  hay-infusion  was  used,  and  that 
results  based  upon  the  reaction  of  a  medium  such  as  extract  of 
vegetable-mould  did  not  hold  for  another  medium,  such  as  hay- 
infusion.  The  method  had  been  to  add  a  few  drops  of  phenol- 
phthalein to  a  portion  of  the  extract,  and  boil  for  ten  minutes. 
If  the  solution  became  purple,  another  portion  was  boiled  with 
acid,  and  titrated  back.  If  it  only  became  slightly  reddened  or 
tinted,  it  was  titrated  without  boiling  with  acid.  When  methyl- 
orange  was  employed  as  the  indicator,  the  reaction-numbers  were 
much  higl^er. 

It  became  necessary  to  examine  the  influence  of  various 
strengths  of  hay-infusion,  as  a  direct  toxic  action  had  been  found 
in  a  01%  solution,  and  had  not  again  been  obtained  in  0-2%  solu- 
tions. The  bottles  received  700  c.c.  of  infusion,  60  grams  of 
sterile  soil,  and  20  cc.  of  a  starter  containing  112,000  mobile 
amoebae. 


Experiment  xxvi. 


Strength  of  infusion     . . . 

0-05%. 

0-1%. 

0-2%. 

Duration  of  test 

5 

8 

7 

10 

7 

10 

17 

Extract,  boiled 

610 

135 

729 

353 

1,016 

2,038 

1,028 

,,         raw... 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

„    80% 

— 

111 

94 

219 

98 

425 

111 

,,           ,,    50% 

377 

118 

174 

216 

143 

586 

167 

,,           ,,    20% 

150 

69 

298 

28 

343 

136 

250 

Water-control 

122 

61 

219 

86 

400 

154 

181 

Added  at  start 

16 

8 

28 

11 

51 

20 

28 

React'n,  phenolphthalein 

-0-02 

-0-03 

-0  02 

-0-02 

-0  02 

-005 

-0  06 

, ,       methyl -orange . . 

-  0-52 

-0-23 

-  0-32 

-0-30 

-0-52 

-0-39 

-0-52 

Extract/water  ratio 

0-8 

1-6 

0-5 

11 

0-2 

0-6 

0-5 

Amtebsi  per  c.c. 

500 

1,000 

1,830 

2,000 

660 

5,600 

2,000 

6Y  R.  GREIG-SMITtt.  183 

There  was  no  direct  toxic  eflfect  in  any  of  the  tests,  and,  so 
far  as  the  possibility  of  obtaining  such  by  using  different 
strengths  of  infusion  are  concerned,  the  strongest  appears  the 
most  likely.  The  ten-days'  extract  of  the  0-2%  solution  gave  more 
favourable  numbers  than  any  of  the  others.  In  this,  the  amoebae 
were  the  most  numerous. 

A  further  test  with  0-1%  hay  infusion  was  made,  but  in  it  the 
amcebae  did  not  grow  quite  so  well  as  on  the  former  occasion 
when  the  direct  toxic  action  was  obtained.  The  counts  showed 
830  per  c.c.  on  the  seventh,  and  1,000  on  the  eighth  day.  No 
evidences  of  toxicity  were  obtained  on  the  eighth  or  twenty-first 
days,  and  it  must  be  concluded,  that  a  definite  toxicity  cannot 
be  demonstrated  by  growing  bacteria  or  amcebse  in  the  usual 
culture-duids. 

The  Influence  of  Reaction. 

Much  has  yet  to  be  found  out  regarding  the  influence  of  re- 
action upon  bacterial  growth,  and  the  reason  for  the  rise  in  the 
dilution-curves  of  th«  extracts.  As  the  infusions  and  culture- 
solutions  are  generally  made  with  tap-water  to  supply  a  small 
quantity  of  saline  matter  accepted  as  being  necessary  for  the 
growth  of  micro-organisms,  a  beginning  was  made  with  it.  Tap- 
water  is  known  to  be  alkaline,  but  the  extent  of  the  influence  of 
its  faint  alkalinity  is  not  know^n.  The  nutrients  were  increased 
by  preparing  infusions  of  hay,  and  these  were  made  sujQEiciently 
weak  to  enable  useful  counts  to  be  obtained.  A  1%  infusion  of 
hay  was  diluted  with  99  parts  of  porcelain-filtered,  distilled  and 
tap-water,  thus  obviating  heat-effects.  Portions  were  treated 
with  lactic  acid  and  with  ammonia  so  as  to  bring  up  the  final 
volume  to  a  definite  reaction,  and  sown  with  a  definite  number 
of  cells  of  Bac.  produjiosus.  They  were  incubated  at  22°  for  20 
hours,  and  counted.  In  tabulating  the  results,  the  highest 
counts  were  taken  as  100. 


184    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  UUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi., 


Experiment  xxvii. 


Reaction. 

Distilled  water. 

Tap-water. 

+  0-3 

11 

16 

+  0-2 

18 

29 

+01 

44 

100 

+0-05 

59 

— 

00 

100 

5 

-0  05 

44 

— 

-01 

28 

01 

-0-2 

7 

0-05 

-0-3 

0-6 

002 

Reaction  of  the  untreated  diluted  infusion 

to  methyl-orange  ... 

±0-0 

-0-20 

To  phenolphthalein,  direct 

— 

-0-03 

To  phenolphthalein,  indirect     ... 

— 

-014 

The  distilled  water  test  shows  that  the  bacteria  grow  best  in 
a  neutral  solution,  and  the  tap- water  test  that  neutrality  is  ob- 
tained when  approximately  +0-1''  of  acid  has  been  added.  The 
curves  of  these  numbers  are  steep  on  both  sides  of  the  approxi- 
mately neutral  line,  indicating  that  a  slight  difference  in  the 
reaction  of  an  extract  will  make  a  great  difference  in  the  growth- 
numbers.  As  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  neutral  reaction  in  the 
cultivated  extracts,  it  would  be  necessary  to  neutralise  them 
before  dilution  in  such  tests  as  have  been  made.  It  is  not  clear 
how  this  could  be  done,  for,  in  the  solution  under  examination, 
the  bacteria  showed  0'1°  of  alkalinity,  methyl-orange  showed  0-'2°, 
phenolphthalein  by  direct  titration  after  boiling,  003°,  and  by 
indirect  or  back  titration,  0*14°. 

The  experiment  would  be  incomplete  without  the  inclusion  of 
others  showing  the  influence  of  diluting  distilled  and  tap-water 
infusions  with  distilled  water,  as  is  customary. 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


185 


Experiment  xxviii 

. 

Distilled  water. 

Tap-water. 

Raw 

Boiled. 

a 

b 

a 

b 

Solution,  boiled   ... 
,,        unboiled 

„         80%       

50%       

„         20%       

Distilled  water-control 
Added  at  start     ... 
Solution/water-ratio 
Reaction  to  method-orange 
Reaction  to  phenolphthalein,  direct 
Reaction  to  phenolphthalein,  indirec 

26  — 
100           100 

75             86 

—  42 

27  18 
2            3-5 

0-4               2 
47             28 
-0            -0 

-  0            -  0 
-0            -0 

1,020 

100 

140 

1,160 

2,880 

263 

50 

0-4 

-0-16 

-0  05 

-0-16 

131 

100 

234 

207 

182 

32 

20 

2.5 

-0-24 

-0-11 

-0-24 

The  boiled  tap-water  infusion,  "b,"  was  boiled  three  times 
upon  successive  days,  as  is  usual  in  preparing  such  culture- 
media.  Tests  "a"  were  made  eleven  days  before  tests  "  b.''  Bv 
an  accident,  the  "b"'  tests  were  incubated  at  26°  instead  of  22" 
as  in  "  a,"  and  this  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  considering 
the  increase  of  the  unboiled  numbers  over  the  start. 

The  distilled-water  numbers  are  considered  to  be  normal,  for 
they  show  a  gradual  fall  as  the  nutrients  are  weakened  by  dilu- 
tion with  water.  The  tap-water  curves  rise  as  the  alkalinity  is 
weakened.  The  numbers  of  the  raw  tap-water  test  indicate 
that,  after  all  due  allowances  are  made,  it  is  of  a  toxic  nature, 
which  is  probably  not  entirely  traceable  to  the  alkalinity.  The 
numbers  of  the  boiled- water  test  are  not  so  pronounced,  and  are 
much  the  same  as  liave  been  obtained  in  previous  experiments 
with  bacterial  and  protozoon  cultures.  Tt  should,  however,  not 
be  forgotten  that  many  of  these  gave  normal  curves. 

A  set  of  experiments  were  started  when  it  had  become  evident 
that,  in  all  probability,  the  reaction  had  more  to  do  with  the 
symptoms  of  toxic  effect  than  anything  else.  In  the  endeavour 
to  get  round  any  individual  action  of  the  bacteria,  flasks  of 
dilute  (0-1%)  hay-infusion,  made  with  distilled  water  to  avoid 
the  action  of  tap- water,  were  seeded  with  an  amcebse-culture,  and 
with  a  bacterial  culture  derived  originally  from  a  protozoa-free 


186    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi,, 

droplet  of  soil-suspension.  The  latter  were  thus  controls.  The 
amoebEe-cultures  were  twice  seeded  with  amcebse,  once,  at  the 
start,  and  again  on  the  second  day,  as  the  first  seeding  did  not 
seem  to  have  been  successful.  They  grew  slowly  at  18"^  and 
exhibited  a  twenty-fold  increase  on  the  tenth  day,  and  a  fifteen 
and  ten-fold  increase  on  the  thirteenth  day  with  the  humic  acid 
and  humic  acid  -|-  soil  respectively.  They  were  tested  on  the 
fourteenth  day. 


Experiment  xxix. 

Humic  acid. 

Humic  acid  +soil. 

Amcebffi. 

No 
amoebse. 

Amoebfe. 

No 
amcebse. 

Extract,  raw 

„  50%                

Water-control     ... 

Added  at  start    ... 

Extract  neutralised  with  lactic  acid 

Extract/water-ratio 

Reaction  to  methyl-orange 

100 
192 
133 
16 
104 
0-75 
-0-15 

100 
125 

82 

10 

127 

1  2 

-0-28 

100 

184 

98 

11 

198 

10 

-0-21 

100 

183 

88 

10 

243 

ri 

-0-28 

The  addition  of  soil  to  the  culture-fluids  had  no  influence,  one 
way  or  the  other,  in  increasing  or  decreasing  the  numbers,  and 
its  use  appears  to  be  of  no  value.  The  experiment  shows  pretty 
clearly  that  any  toxic  effect  is  not  caused  by  the  amcebse,  but 
rather  by  the  bacteria  which  always  accompany  the  protozoa. 
It  is  doubtful  if  the  alkalinity,  as  indicated  by  methyl-orange,  is 
a  true  index,  but,  if  accepted  as  true,  the  neutralised  solutions 
were  certainly  more  nutritive  than  the  unneutralised,  for  the 
nnmbers  were  higher.  With  a  better  indicator,  a  lower  reaction 
might  have  been  obtained  and  higher  numbers  furnished  in  the 
neutralised  tests.  At  any  rate,  it  is  pretty  safe  to  conclude,  that 
the  rise  in  numbers  upon  dilution  is  largely,  if  not  entirely,  due 
to  the  lesseninof  of  the  alkalinity  of  the  filtered  extracts. 


Reaction-Experiments. 
The  reaction  of   the  soil-extract  is  never  constant,  but  varies 
from  day  to  day.  probably  within   certain  limits.      For  example, 
an  extract  was   made  on   November  30th,  1917,  by  taking  300 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


187 


grams  of  garden-soil  and  300  c.c.  of  distilled  water.  The  two 
were  shaken  300  times  during  an  hour,  and  filtered.  The  re- 
action to  methyl-orange  was  -0-14,  although  a  paste  of  the  soil 
was  acid  to  litmus. 

A  similar  extract,  made  on  December  6th,  had  a  reaction  to 
methyl-orange  of  -  0-24.  This  extract  was  examined,  with  the 
following  results. 


Experiment  xxx. 

Soil-extract,  boiled 

21 

,,            raw 

100 

„  80%       

100 

.  50%       

64 

„  20%       

12 

Water-control    ... 

0-5 

Added  at  start  ... 

0-7 

p]xtract/water  ratio 

206 

Quantities  of  lactic  acid  and  of  carbonate  of  soda  were  added 
to  vary  the  reaction,  and  the  treated  extracts  were  seeded  with 
the  test-organism  in  the  usual  manner.  The  following  numbers 
were  obtained  after  the  usual  20  hours'  incubation  at  22". 

Experiment  xxxi. 


Acid  or  alkali  added. 

Net  reaction. 

Bacterial  grow^th. 

+0-4 

+016 

1-5 

+0-3 

+006 

6-3 

+0-2 

-0-04 

17 

+0-1 

-0'14 

49 

+0-05 

-019 

100 

0-0 

-0-24 

81 

-0-05 

-0-29 

31 

-0-1 

-0-34 

15 

-0-2 

-0'44 

1-3 

The  true  neutral  point  was  reached  by  adding  006°  of  acid, 
that  is  to  say,  the  methyl-orange  indication  was  -  0-19  in  excess. 

The  effect  of  shaking  up  various  quantities  of  soil  and  water 
was  tested,  to  see  the  differences  in  the  reaction  of  the  extracts. 
Round  numbers  were  taken,  but,  as  the  solid  contained  8%  of 
moisture,  a  correction  was  made. 


188    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  XV: 


Proportion  of  soil  to  water,  round  numbers  ...    2:1  1:1  1:2 

Proportion  of  soil  to  water,  calculated  for  dry 

soil...  ...  ..  ...  ...    1  :0-63     1  :ri7     1  : 2-26 


Reaction  to  methyl-orange  ...  ...    —0-24       -0-18    i  —0-12 

Reaction  to  phenolphthalein,  direct  ...    -0*044  I  -0*016  |  -0*008 


2:1 
1  :0-63 

1  :1 

1  :ri7 

-0-24 
-0  044 

-0-18 
-0-016 

Curves  of  these  numbers  show  that  the  reaction  of  the  soil- 
water,  equivalent  to  a  ratio  of  1  :  0*087  for  the  dry  soil  to  8%  of 
moisture,  would  be  between  -0*4  and  -0-5  for  methyl-orange, 
and  about  -  0*09  for  phenolphthalein;  yet  the  soil  was  acid  to 
litmus. 

The  reaction  to  phenolphthalein  was  examined  somewhat 
closely,  after  the  suspicion  was  raised  that  the  reaction  of  the 
solution  had  more  to  do  with  the  phenomenon  of  toxic  action 
than  had  been  supposed  to  exist.  It  was  found  to  be  untrust- 
worthy, as  much  depended  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  solutions 
were  boiled,  previously  to  cooling  and  titration.  For  example, 
covered  beakers  containing  50  c.c.  of  tap-water  were  boiled 
slowly  and  rapidly,  cooled  and  titrated. 


Duration  in  minutes 

10 

20 

30 

Slow  boiling 
Rapid  boiling   ... 

-0  022 

-0-076 

-0-048 
-0-105 

-0-071 
-0-118 

Much,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  method  and  time  of  boiling 
in  expelling  the  carbon  dioxide.  In  the  tests  previously  recorded, 
the  extracts  were  boiled  in  an  open  beaker  for  ten  minutes  at  a 
speed  intermediate  between  slow  and  rapid  boiling.  They  pro- 
bably do  not  indicate  the  true  alkalinity,  but,  for  that  part,  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  same  would  have  occurred  by  using 
methyl-orange. 

A  twenty-one-days'  culture  of  bacteria  and  amcebse  was  filtered, 
and  the  extract  treated  with  lactic  acid  in  decreasing  quantities, 
seeded  with  tlie  test-organism,  incubated  and  counted.  It  had 
a  reaction  to  methyl-orange  of  -01 6°,  and  to  phenolphthalein, 
direct,  of  -  004". 


BY  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 
EXPKRIMKNT    XXxii. 


189 


Lactic  acid 

added. 

Neb  reaction. 

Bacterial  counts. 

0-31 

+  015 

s 

0-2« 

+  0-10 

19 

0-21 

+  0  05 

41 

016 

00 

46 

0  11 

-0  05 

40 

0  06 

-0  10 

100 

0  0 

-016 

53 

The  experiment  shows  that,  in  the  case  of  a  fermented  culture- 
fluid,  the  lessening  of  the  alkalinity  by  0*06°  produced  neutralitj'. 
The  methyl-orange  indication  was  -0'10°too  high.  A  high 
indication  was  also  obtained  with  soil-extiact  in  Experiment 
xxxi.,  and  with  tap- water  in  Experiment  xxvii. 

The  acidity  of  the  extracts  of  sterilised  vegetable-moulds  (Ex- 
periments XV.,  xvi.)  led  to  an  examination  being  made  of  the 
extracts  of  soil  which  had  been  sterilised  in  the  same  manner, 
viz.,  for  two  hours  at  1  30". 

Two  hundred  gram-portions  were  put  into  sterile  bottles  with 
10  c.c.  of  a  suspension  of  Amoeba  Umax,  containing  10,660  mobile 
forms  per  c c,  and  40  c.c.  of  water.  The  soil  thus  had  an  ex- 
cessive amount  of  moisture,  20%;  it  usually  contains  from  8  to 
10%.  The  bottles  were  kept  at  laboratory-temperature,  which 
varied  from  18-23°. 

Extracts  were  made  in  the  usual  manner  by  adding  200  c.c.  of 
distilled  water,  shaking  frequently  during  an  hour,  and  filtering 
through  porcelain.  Uhe  extracts  were  seeded  with  Bac.  pro- 
digiosus,  incubated  and  counted. 

Experiment  xxxiii. 


Duration  of  test  in  days   ... 

3 

63 

Extract,  raw 
Extract,  raw,  50% 
Waler-coiitiol      ... 
Added  at  start    ... 
Extract/water  ratio 
Reaction  to  methyl-orange 

100 
240 

1 

0-16 
110 
+  03 

100 
48 
1-2 
014 
153 
-0-8 

14 


190    CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  SOIL-FERTILITY,  xvi. 

The  point  to  be  noted  is  the  change  in  the  reaction  of  the  ex- 
tracts. It  changed  from  being  comparatively  strongly  acid  on 
the  third  day,  to  strongly  alkaline  on  the  fifty-third.  When  the 
extract  of  the  latter  was  treated  with  lactic  acid  to  neutralise 
the  apparent  alkalinity,  the  number  obtained  was  007  as  against 
100  for  the  non-neutralised  extract;  that  is,  for  every  seven 
bacteria  in  the  neutralised,  there  were  14,000  in  the  alkaline 
extract.  The  acid  had  clearly  been  added  in  excess,  tlie  —OS' 
being  far  from  a  true  indication. 

This  confirms  the  result  obtained  in  another  place,  that  the 
reaction  of  a  soil-extract,  as  judged  bj^  methyl-orange,  is  not  the 
true  reaction.  Mobile  amoebae  were  seen  in  the  soil  on  the  fifty- 
third  day. 

Conclusion. — It  has  been  shown  that  certain  soil-bacteria, 
moulds,  and  araoebse,  all  reasonably  supposed  to  be  capable  of 
furnishing  substances  of  a  toxic  nature,  were  grown  in  various 
media  and  under  varying  conditions;  and,  in  all  cases,  the  signs 
of  toxicity  which  became  manifest  could  be  attributed  to  an 
alteration  in  the  reaction  of  the  media. 

The  test-organism,  Bac.  prodigiosus,  grows  best  in  a  neutral 
medium,  and  an  indicator  is  required  which  will  indicate  strict 
neutrality.  The  methyl-orange  numbers  are  too  high,  and  the 
phenolphthalein  too  low.  Small  divergences  from  the  neutral 
point  strongly  affect  the  growth. 

The  humus  of  leaf-mould  contains  two  types  of  humic  acid; 
one  absorbs  alkali  from  alkaline  carbonates,  and  the  other  from 
alkaline  carbonates  and  hydrates.  These  were  present  to  the 
extent  of  one  part  of  the  former  to  three  of  the  latter.  Heating 
the  humus  increases  the  amount  of  acid,  and  the  increase  is 
largely  soluble  in  water. 

The  effect  of  reaction  is  quite  of  a  different  order  from  the 
evidence  of  toxic  action  obtained  in  former  researches. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  W.  W.  L'Estrange  for  kind  assistance 
during  the  later  stages  of  the  work. 


191 


ON  CERTAIN  SHOOT-BEARING  TUMOURS  OF  EUCA- 
LYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS,  AND  THEIR  MODI- 
FYING INFLUENCE  ON  THE  GROWTH-HABIT  OF 
THE  PLANTS. 

By  J.  J.  Fletcher  and  C.  T.  Musson. 

(Plates  iv.-xxvi.) 

The  Eucalypts,  representing  about  230  recognised  species, 
contribute  one  of  the  dominant,  phanerogamic  elements  to  the 
Australian  flora.  They  are  an  assemblage  of  plants  remarkable 
in  many  ways,  widely  distributed  over  an  entire  continent,  ex- 
tending also  to  the  circumjacent  islands;  and  now  acclimatised 
to  some  extent  in  other  countries.  One  of  the  astonishing 
things  about  them  is  the  liability  of  the  seedlings  of  so  many 
species  to  shoot-bearing  galls  or  tumours  of  an  uncommon  type. 

Their  specially  distinctive  characters  result  from  a  fortuitous 
combination  of  some  simple,  natural,  and  favouring  conditions 
present  in  quite  young  seedlings.  Firstly,  they  originate  in  the 
axils  of  the  cotyledons  only,  or,  in  addition,  in  a  few  pairs  of  leaf- 
axils  successively  above  these,  where  the  buds  are,  as  paired  but 
at  first  independent,  proliferating  outgrowths  of  cambium-tissue; 
and,  as  a  rule,  the  outgrowths,  or  the  axillary  stem-nodules,  as 
we  may  call  them  at  this  stage,  succeed  in  taking  possession  of 
the  dormant  buds,  and  incorporating  them  in  the  stem  nodules. 
This  is  how  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  composite  tumours  to  which 
they  may  give  rise,  come  to  have  buds  or  shoots. 

(Secondly,  the  young  seedlings  usually  have  opposite  and 
distichous  leaves;  and,  correspondingly,  the  stem-nodules  are 
also  opposite  and  distichous;  but  as,  under  favourable  conditions, 
the  latter  grow  faster  than  the  stem  thickens,  the  paired  nodules 
meet  and  fuse,  and  the  fusions  then  encircle  the  stem. 

Thirdly,  as  a  rule,  the  first  and  second  internodes  do  not  length 
too  much  or  too  soon  to  permit  of  the  concrescence  of  the  fused 


192        TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

pairs,  giving  rise  to  composite,  shoot-bearing,  stem-encircling 
tumours.  The  third  and  succeeding  internodes  are  metre  vari- 
able, but  often  permit  of  the  addition  of  a  fourth  and  a  fifth 
pair  of  fused  nodules  to  the  concrescence  of  the  first  three  pairs. 
More  than  five  pairs,  if  developed,  are  apt  to  be  left  isolated,  and 
are  only  of  minor  or  of  no  importance.  Three  to  five  pairs  are 
the  really  effective  and  important  ones. 

Fourthly,  the  hypocotyl  is  not  too  long,  so  that,  as  the  com- 
posite, stem-encircling  tumour  increases  in  size,  and  grows  down- 
wards, it  is  able  to  tamper  with  as  much  of  the  root-system  as  it 
encounters,  encircling  and  fusing  with  the  upper  portion  of  the 
tap-root,  and  the  proximal  portions  of  any  lateral  roots  that  come 
in  its  way,  intercepting  more  or  less  of  the  water  they  may 
contain,  at  the  expense  of  the  seedling-stem,  and  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  tumour  and  its  inhabitants.  In  this  stage,  they 
are  composite,  stem-encircling,  shoot-bearing,  root-incorporating 
[but  not  root  emitting]  tumours. 

The  stem-nodules  of  seedlings  of  refractory  species,  or  of  re- 
fractory individuals  of  any  species,  may  not  get  beyond  the  first 
stage.  In  such  cases,  the  proliferation  slows  down,  and  the 
axillary  stem-nodules  come  to  a  standstill.  A  mild  attack  has 
run  its  course  without  accomplishing  anything  of  importance,  or 
interfering  with  the  growth-habit  of  the  seedlings. 

Seedlings  of  susceptible  species,  from  accidental  or  other 
causes,  may  not  get  beyond  the  second  stage,  through  the  com- 
posite, encircling  tumours  failing  to  incorporate  roots.  In  such 
cases,  the  composite  tumours  may  last  for  some  time,  but  not  as 
long  as  those  which  can  complete  the  third  stage. 

In  the  Non  Mallee  Kucalypts,  the  last  stage  may  last  for  some 
years,  until  the  plants  are  getting  ready  to  enter  on  the  young 
sapling  stage,  but  not  indefinitely.  In  the  Mallees,  however,  it 
may  persist  throughout  life,  and  the  tumours  may  attain  an 
enormous  size.  But  the  distinction  between  the  two  groups  of 
Eucalypts  does  not  correspond  to  inherent  differences  in  their 
tumours,  as  such;  but  to  differences  in  the  kind  of  roots  incor- 
porated in  the  two  cases.  In  other  words,  the  Non-Mallees  have 
ordinary  roots;  the  Mallees  have  water-storing  roots. 


BY  J.  J.   FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  193 

In  all  three  stages,  the  buds  may  remain  dormant,  or  they 
may  develop  shoots,  according  to  circumstances.  In  the  fifst 
case,  an  appropriate  stimulus  will  readily  cause  shoots  to  develop. 
Anomalies,  eccentricities,  and  examples  of  erratic  behaviour  are 
common,  and  very  instructive. 

In  addition  to  the  axillary  stpm-nodules,  unpaired,  not  de- 
finitely localised  nodules  sometimes  develop  at  a  lower  level  than 
the  cotyledons,  either  on  the  hypocotyl  or  on  the  taproot,  of  some 
seedlings.  These  are  very  suggestive  of  wound-infection,  and 
are  sometimes  obviously  pathological.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  most  seedlings  of  two  of  the  Bloodwoods,  in  which  very 
extensive  root-invasion  may  take  place. 

In  all  these  cases,  we  can  find  no  escape  from  the  conclusion, 
that  the  exciting  cause  of  the  nodules  is  attributable  to  parasitic 
soil-organisms,  probably  of  the  same  species,  finding  vulnerable 
points  for  attack  under  slightly  different  conditions;  and  causing 
the  cambium-tissue  to  proliferate  and  grow  outwards.  The 
nodules  are  not  caused  by  insects,  or  other  visible  parasites.  They 
are  outgrowths  of  proliferating  tissue,  and  not  natural  growths. 
They  may  be  a  nuisance  to  the  plants,  and  may  temporarily  or 
permanently  interfere  with  the  natural  growth-habit.  More- 
over, if  possible,  when  opportunity  offers,  they  are  brought  to  a 
standstill. 

The  root-nodules  of  four  young  seedlings,  of  which  three  are 
figured,  in  every  case  have  incorporated  the  basal  portion  of  a 
young  root.  They  suggest  analogy  to  what  Beyerinck  has  ob- 
served in  studying  the  root-nodules  of  Leguminosse — "'J  he 
splitting  of  the  primary  bark  for  the  emission  of  the  side-roots  is 
the  special  means  of  entrance  of  JJ.  radicicola^'  [Erwin  Smith, 
"  Bacterial  Diseases,"  ii.,  p.l03J. 

The  vulnerability  of  the  axils  may  be  due  to  a  weak  spot 
which  arises  in  connection  with  the  differentiation  of  the  buds, 
or  which  is  exposed  about  the  base  of  the  petioles  when  the 
young  leaves  expand.  Until  serial,  transverse,  and  superficial, 
longitudinal  sections  through  the  axillary  region  of  series  of 
seedlings  have  been  studied,  it  is  useless  to  speculate  further. 

In  the  belief  that  soil-organisms  are  responsible  for  the  problem 


194        TUMOURS  OP  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

we  are  interested  in,  we  began  a  search  for  records  of  similar  or 
analogous  cases. 

Dr.  F.  Erwin  Smith,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  important 
treatise  on   "  Bacteria  in  relation  to  Plant- Diseases  "  (1911),  dis- 
cusses,   in   detail,    wound-infections  (p. 51 ),   and    also   infections 
through    natural    openings,    grouped    as    nectarial,    waterpore-. 
stomatal,  and  lenticellate  infections      But  we  failed  to  find  any 
reference  to  axillary  infections.      As   we  came  to  know  later, 
axillary  infections  had  not  then  come  under  the  author's  notice. 
It  was  with  great  interest  that  we  unexpectedly  met  with  a 
paper  by  Mr   Clayton  O.  Smith,  of  California,  in  which  he  not 
only  mentions  the  possibility  of  axillary  infection  in  the  axils  of 
the  cotyledons,  in  stone-fruits,  but  he  gives  particulars  about  the 
axillary  nodules  of  some  Eucalypt  seedlings  which  came  under 
his  notice.     We  quote  all  that  the  author  has  to  say  about  these, 
and  about  cognate  matters,  for  three  reasons.     The  paper  is  not 
contained  in  the  Society's  librar}',  and  we  know  of  only  one  copy 
of  it  in  .Sydney.     It  contains  the  first  satisfactory  record  known 
to  us  of  the  realisation  of   the  fact,  that  the  stem-nodules  are 
axillary;  as  well   as  the  only  records,  that  we  know  of,  of  the 
successful  inoculation  of  Austrahan  plants,  including  Eucalypts, 
from  cultures  of  soil-organisms.     It  is  also  of  interest  to  note 
what  an   experienced    plant-pathologist    thought    of   the   stem- 
nodules.     Mr.  Clayton  Smith  does  not  mention  the  fusion  of  tlie 
axillary  knots,  or  that  they  had  shoots,  or  that  they  incorporated 
roots.     E.  tereticornis  is  the  only  species  mentioned,  and  seed- 
lings of  this  species  are  sometimes  more  or  less  refractory.     It 
may  be,  therefore,  that  with  only  limited  macerial  available,  and 
without  Australian   experience  of  Eucalypts  to  guide  him,  he 
may  have  unknowingly  experimented  with  seedlings  that  were 
not  as  satisfactory  for  the  purpose  as  others  might  have  been. 

"Further  Proof  of  the  Cause  and  Infectiousness  of  Crown 
Gall.'  By  Clayton  O.  Smith.  Univ.  Cal.  Publications,  College 
of  Agric,  Agric.  Experim.  Station  Bulletin  No.235  (Dec.  191*2). 
"Bacterial  Kature  of  [the]  Disease"  (p. 534).— There  is  now 
abundant  proof,  that  these  knots  [Crown-Gall  on  the  30  Hosts 
enumerated]  are  caused  by  a  bacterial  organism  that  enters  the 


BY  J.  J.   FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.   MUSSON.  195 

tissue  through  some  injury,  or  possibly  at  the  point  where  the 
cotyledons  of  sucli  seeds  as  those  of  the  stone-fruits  are  attached 
to  the  young  plant.  In  Eucalyptus  seedlings,  the  natural  knots 
often  appear  opposite  each  other  where  the  cotyledons  have  pre- 
viously been  attached,  also  the  quince  knots  appear  first  at  the 
node  about  the  old  leaf-scar.  All  the  evidence  we  have,  goes  to 
show  that  some  injury  or  weakness  is  necessary  for  infection  to 
take  place.'' 

[Legend  of  Text-fig.21,  p.549].— "Artificially  caused  galls  on 
forest  red  gum  \^Eucalyptus  tereticornis].  Crown  Gall  has  not 
been  known  to  attack  the  various  species  of  Eucalyptus  in  nature. 
The  significance  of  swellings  found  frequently  at  the  crown  of 
young  gum  trees  is  not  yet  understood.  They  do  not  appear  to 
be  detrimental  to  the  tree. " 

Victoria  Bottle  Tree  {Stercnlia  diversifolia)  [tig.20],  and  Flame 
Tree  {S.  acerifolia)  were  successfully  inoculated  (p. 552). 

"Forest  Red  Gum  {E.  tereticornis)  [fig.21]. — Seedlings  of  from 
four  to  six  feet  were  inoculated.  The  first  successful  inocula- 
tions were  made  May  16,  1910.  On  March  25,  1912,  there  was 
one  large  knot  and  one  very  small  one  at  points  of  inoculation. 
September  2,  1911,  inoculated  a  seedling  about  one  half  inch  in 
diameter.  February  20,  1912,  there  were  two  small  knots.  On 
March  26.  1912.  one  of  these  knots  had  grown  rapidly  in  size, 
the  other  had  not  changed." 

"  Inoculations  were  made  on  small  seedlings,  July  20,  1910,  on 
the  branches.  Typical  roundish  knots  or  galls  had  developed 
on  September  5,  1910." 

[Silky]  Oak  {Grevillea  robusta)  (p.552),  gave  negative  results, 
"  This  is  probably  due  to  the  slow  growth  of  the  tree." 

Under  the  heading  of  Other  Galls  that  are  at  'present  little 
under  stood  {p. bb'2}.  —  ^'Eucalyptus  A''no^(pp. 55.3-554)—  Galls  occur 
frequently  on  the  small  seedlings.  These  are  hard  knots  that 
occur  always  at  the  nodes.  There  will  often  be  a  gall  on  each 
side  of  the  plant  where  cot3ledons  or  the  opposite  leaves  have 
previously  been.  We  have  had  small  seedlings  with  these  natural 
galls  under  observation  for  about  three  years.  In  some  cases 
there  is  an  increase  in  size  in  the  knots,  which  still  continue  to 


196        TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

be  hard,  and  do  not  in  any  way  appear  to  weaken  the  trees.  In 
many  cases,  the  diseased  trees  have  completely  outgrown  the 
disease,  and  in  these  instances  there  has  been  but  little  increase 
in  size  of  [the]  original,  knots.  From  our  observations,  the  dis- 
ease does  not  seem  to  seriously  injure  the  growth  of  the  tree. 
Numerous  attempts  to  isolate  a  pathogenic  organism  have  re- 
sulted in  failure,  although  we  still  believe  the  galls  may  be 
caused  by  such  an  organism." 

Quite  recently  three  papers  by  Dr.  Erwin  F.  Smith,  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  have  come  to  hand,  which  have 
a  very  important  bearing  on  the  problem  of  the  shoot-bearing 
tumours  of  Eucalypts.*  'J'hese  also  are  to  be  found  only  in 
a  few  libraries.  '1  hey  are  important  because  they  relate  to  the 
first  records  of  natural,  axillary,  shoot-bearing  tumours  caused  by 
soil-organisms;  and  axillary  and  other  special  tumours  produced 
by  artificial  inoculations.  We  give  the  following  extracts  from 
these : — 

Dr.  Erwin  Smith  says  in  his  paper  published  in  August,  1916: 
"  Last  winter,  I  discovered  that  when  growing  plants  are  inocu- 
lated in  the  vicinity  of  dormant  buds,  a  new  type  of  tumor  is 
produced.  This  tumor  bears,  on  its  surface,  diminutive  abortive 
shoots  (vegetative  or  floral)  and  in  its  interior,  along  with  the 
cancer-cells,  numerous  fragments  of  embiyonic  tissues,  variously 
fused  and  oriented,  often  upside  down  and  curiously  jumbled 
These  tumors  have  never  been  seen  by  the  writer  in  nature,  or 
at  least  if  seen,  not  recognised  as  crown-gall  tumors,  but  un- 
doubtedly we  shall  now  find  them."  [Then  follows  reference  to 
a  footnote  "As  this  goes  to  press,  I  have  had  confirmation  of 
this  belief,  having  received  from  a  florist  in  Massachusetts,  a 
crown-gall  of  the  rose  showing  abortive  shoots  growing  out  of 
stem-tumor."]     Dr.   Smith  continues— "  These  tumors  have  all 


*  ''Further  Evidence  as  to  the  Relation  between  Crown-Gall  and 
Cancer,'*  Proc,  Nat.  Acad.  Sci.  U.  S.  A.,  ii.,  p. 444  (August,  1916). 
"Mecanism  of  Overgrowth  in  Plants,"  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  Philadelphia, 
Ivi.,  No. 6,  p. 439  (August,  1917).  "Embryomas  in  Plants  (produced  by 
Bacterial  Inoculations),"  Bulletin  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  xxviii.,  No. 
319,  p.279  (September,  1917). 


BY  J     .f.   FLETCHER  AND  C.   T.   MUSSON.  197 

been  produced  with  Barter ium  tumefadens The  plants 

chiefly  experimented  on  have  been  Pelargonium,  Nicotiana,  T.y- 
copersicum,  Citrus,  and  Ricinus.  All  of  these  and  some  others 
(Mangifera,  Allamanda,  etc.)  have  yielded  teratoid  tumors 
from  inoculations  in  leaf-axils/' 

In  a  later  paper,  Dr.  Erwin  Smith  refers  again  to  the  acci- 
dental circumstance  which  suggested  to  him  the  desirability  of 
inoculating  plants  in  leaf-axils  and  growing-points,  in  addition 
to  internodes,  as  he  had  been  doing  for  years.  "  We  had  found 
indeed,  as  early  as  1908-9,  and  had  produced  by  bacterial  inocu- 
lation, plant-tumors  bearing  roots,  but  the  full  meaning  of  this 
discovery,  as  related  to  cancer,  did  not  occur  to  me  until  early 
in  1916.  when  I  found  crown-gall  tumors  bearing  leafy  shoots  on 
some  of  our  inoculated  hothouse  geraniums.  Beginning  with 
this  discovery,  I  made  numerous  inoculations  in  the  leaf-axils  of 
various  plants,  which  resulted  in  the  production  of  leafy  tumors, 
and  subsequently  I  produced  them  on  leaves  and  on  cut  inter- 
Tiodes  where  no  buds  occur  normally.  Tumors  bearing  roots  have 
also  been  produced  by  us  on  the  top  of  plants,  and  in  one  cut 
internode  of  Tobacco  I  succeeded  in  producing  a  tumor  which 
bore  flower-buds.  These  perishable  root-bearing  and  shoot-bear- 
ing tumors  I  regard  as  plant-embryomas,  and  have  so  described 
them  [Journ.  Cancer  Research,  April,  1916,  p. 241]." 

We  have  not  had  access  to  the  paper  last  mentioned.  Rut  in 
the  Johns  Hopkins  Bulletin  for  September,  1917,  Dr.  Erwin 
Smith  has  given  further  particulars,  and  numerous  illustrations 
of  the  embryomas  resulting  from  his  inoculations,  together  with 
two  (fig.63)  of  "Pelargonium  teratoid  tumors  originating  natu- 
rally ...  on  gardener's  cuttings  bedded  in  earth  for  propagation. 
The  specimens  came  from  a  gardener's  house  near  Jjaltimore." 

We  give  the  following  brief  extract  from  this  paper — "In 
April  1916,  I  announced  the  discovery  of  a  new  type  of 
crown-gall,  i.e.,  one  containing  numerous  leafy  shoots,  and  showed 
that  I  could  produce  it  at  will  by  making  my  bacterial  inocula- 
tions in  leaf-axils  where  there  is  a  dormant  bud I  have 

since  discovered  that  leafy  crown-galls  occur  in  nature  on  various 
plants,  e.g  ,  on  the  rose,  and  on  the  carnation." 


198        TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

If  the  shoot-bearingj  axillaiy  nodules  of  Austialian  Eucalypti 
are  caused  by  parasitic  soil -organisms,  under  natural  conditions, 
then  they  seem  to  be  comparable  with  the  five  cases  of  "  leafy 
tumours"  [on  Geranium,  Pelargonium  (two),  Rose,  and  Carnation] 
due  to  axillary  infection  by  the  organism  causing  Crown- 
Gall  under  natural  conditions  cited,  by  Dr.  Erwin  Smith. 

Were  it  not  that,  by  a  fortuitous  combination  of  circumstances, 
the  axillary  stem-nodules  are  able  to  fuse  in  pairs,  the  fused  pairs 
to  concresce,  and  the  re-inforced,  composite,  stem-encircling 
tumours  thus  enabled  to  incorporate  roots  and  so  last  for  some 
considerable  time  or  even  permanently,  both  the  nodules,  and 
any  shoots  they  might  develop,  would  be  short-lived  and  abortive: 
as  they  actually  are  in  refractory  seedlings;  and  as  the  shoots  on 
the  lower  pairs  of  concrescences  also  are. 

They  are  not  exactly  comparable  with  the  embryomas  pro- 
duced by  Dr.  Erwin  Smith's  inoculations  in  leaf-axils  and  grow- 
ing-points. But  the  circumstances  and  conditions  in  the  two 
cases  are  not  parallel.  Erwin  Smith's  experiments  were  mostly, 
but  not  entirely,  carried  out  with  soft-tissued  plants,  which 
responded  promptly;  the  organisms  were  introduced  by  needle 
inoculations  right  into  the  tissues  of  the  plants,  causing  profound 
disturbances;  and  the  inoculations  were  made  in  upper  axils. 

But  in  the  natural  inoculations  in  the  lower  axils  of  the  young 
seedlings  of  Kucalypts,  which  furnish  some  of  the  most  \alued 
hardwood  timbers,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  organisms  are 
confined  to  the  outgrowths,  and  the  encircling  tumours  to  which 
they  give  rise,  and  probably  do  not  invade  the  tissues  of  the  seed- 
lings. The  tumours  do  not  kill  the  seedlings,  or  even  seriously 
damage  their  tissues.  1  hey  are  a  drag  on  the  normal  develop- 
ment of  the  plants,  especially  so  when  shoots  do  not  develop,  and 
bv  interfering  with  the  water-supply,  and  also  by  iheir  shoots 
preventing  the  development  of  the  normal  branching.  In  the 
Mallees,  so  much  water  is  intercepted  by  the  tumours,  that  the 
seedling-stem  is  dwarfed;  and,  by  the  persistence  of  the  shoots, 
the  growth-habit  is  permanently  distorted,  so  that  the  plants  are 
prevented  from  realising  their  potentialities  as  trees.  The  seed- 
ling-stem may  possibly  be  sometimes  crowded  out  and  got  rid  of. 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  199 

But  the  stem-nodules,  as  well  as  the  composite  tumours  to 
which  they  give  rise,  are  complex  tumours,  composed  of  both 
somatic  cells  and  germ-cells  ;  and  the  latter  are  totipotent, 
because  in  the  persistent  composite  tumours  of  the  Mallees,  the 
tumour-shoots  complete  their  growth,  flower  and  fruit,  and  pro- 
duce seed.  Even  in  the  Non-Mallees,  if  the  seedling-stem  is  lost, 
two  tumour-shoots  may  take  its  place,  attain  to  tree-size,  and 
flower  and  fruit.  But  they  do  not  prematurely  disclose  their 
embryonic  possibilities,  in  the  way  that  some  of  Erwin  Smith's 
artificially  produced  monstrosities  did.  Also  the  production  of 
these  tumours  in  Eucalypts  under  natural  conditions  is  a  matter 
of  long  standing.  The  Mallee  Scrubs,  which  must  have  been 
the  developments  of  centuries,  were  in  their  prime,  when  civilised 
man  first  saw  them,  nearly  101  years  ago. 

We  may  next  briefly  review  the  Australian  contributions  to  a 
solution  of  the  problem  we  are  interested  in.  'Jhese  relate 
chiefly  to  the  Mallees.  The  earliest  descriptions  of  the  make-up 
of  these  curious  plants,  by  Allan  Cunningham,*  Tenison-W  oods,t 
and  Baron  von  Mueller,!  are  subject  to  the  drawback  that,  when 
these  botanists  visited  the  untouched  Mallee-Scrubs,  there  was  no 
o])portunity  of  seeing  uprooted  plants.  Two  of  the  Baron's  de- 
tinitions  will  suflfice.     Under  E.  oleosa  (Dec.  vii.) :  "  Shrubby  or 

somewhat  arborescent It  is  this  species  which  forms  a 

large  ingredient  of  the  '  Mallee-Scrub,'  constituting  tall  bushes 
branched  from  the  root."     Under  E.  striata  (Dec.  x.):   ".Shrubby 

or  somewhat  arborescent ;  habit  that  of  the  Mallee-Euca- 

lypts,  with  many  stems  from  one  root." 

Mr.  J.  Ednie  Brown, §  in  1882,  gave  his  interpretation  of  the 
"  root "  of  the  Mallees,  from  whicii  the  stems  are  said  to  rise,  as 
"being  apparently  a  kind  of  dwarf  trunk,  the  stems  of  our  de- 
scription [under  E.  gracilis.  "A  Mallee  tree  with  several  stems"] 
representing  its  branches." 

*  Oxley's  Journal  (in  the  entry  for  June  10,  1817),  p.63  (1820). 
t  ''Geological  Observations  in  South   Australia,"'  p. 83  (1862).       Also, 
Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  vii.,  p. 566  (1883). 

X  "Eucalyptographia,"  under  the  various  Mallees  (1879-84). 
§  Forest  Flora  of  South  Australia,  Part  v.  (1882). 


200         TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

A  little  later,  Mr.  Tepper,  of  Adelaide,  offered  another  ex- 
plaiiation  of  if*^ — ''Eucalyptus  oleosa  is  a  species  with  an  under- 
ground rootstoek,  from  which  numerous  small  stems,  generally 
crooked  and  semi-sarmentose,  spring.  When  these  are  destroyed 
by  fire,  &c  ,  a  host  of  fresh  ones  spring  up  from  the  caudex." 
But  no  details  are  given  of  the  characters  of  the  supposed  root- 
stock. 

We  owe  to  Mr.  N.  B.  McKayt  an  interesting  description 
of  tiie  underground,  composite,  stem-encircling  tumoui-  of  a 
Mallee,  even  though  it  is  incomplete,  inasmucli  as  no  particulars 
about  the  shoots,  or  the  incorporated  roots  are  given.  We  have 
looked  in  vain,  however,  for  a  more  satisfactory  one.  He  says 
—  '"Tlie  indigenous  timber-growths  on  the  Mildura  horticultural 
areas  consist,  for  the   most   part,   of   blue   bush,    'bull*   mallee, 

balar,  pine,  and  needle-bush A  well  established  bull  mallee 

is  a  problem  to  the  ordinary  grubbing  contractor.  The  butt  is 
a  great  flattened  bulb  of  curly  timber,  sometimes  8  or  1 0  feet 
through.  It  is  set  firmly  into  the  soil,  and  even  if  all  the  roots 
were  cut  off,  the  tree  would  stand  in  its  place  just  the  same,  as 
the  upper  growth  is  very  insignificant  compared  with  the  base. 
Chopping  mallee  out  is  an  obvious  impossibility,  and,  as  the 
wood  is  full  of  moisture,  it  would  be  an  endless  task  to  attempt 
burning  it  out.  Dynamite  and  rack-a-rock  have  proved  equally 
useless.  Before,  or  rather  behind,  the  traction-engine,  the  diffi- 
culty disappears When  all  the  stumps  are  uprooted,  the 

adhering  earth  is  knocked  off,  and  they  are  readily  burned." 

Three  items  in  this  are  worth  notice.  Firstly,  that  the  butt 
is  a  "  flattened  ''  bulb  :  that  it  is  to  say,  it  increases  in  size  hori- 
zontally rather  than  vertically,  Secondly,  it  is  a  bulb  of  "curly 
timber":  it  is  not  a  case  of  a  simple,  localised  thickenii  g  of  the 
stem,  but  results  from  the  proliferation  of  cambium-tissue. 
Thirdly,  '•  the  wood  is  full  of  moisture"  :  it  is  a  water-charged 
tumour,  because  of  the  incorporation  of  water-storing  roots. 

"  "Remarks  on  the  'Manna'  or  Lerp  Insect  of  South  Australia."  Journ. 
Linn.  Soc.  Lond.,  Zoology,  xvii.,  p.  109  (1883). 

t  Eighth  Progress  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  (of  Victoria)  on 
Vegetable  Products,  1 890. 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  201 

The  late  Professor  R.  Tate,  in  a  paper  entitled  "A  Review  of 
the  Characters  available  for  the  Classification  of  the  Eucalypts,' * 
etc.,  under  the  section  "  Habit,"  expressed  some  vie"\vs.  which 
should  have  provided  a  new  starting-point  for  considering  the 
make  up  of  the  Mallees.  Unfortunately,  they  were  so  severely 
condensed  as  to  be  cryptic,  and  quite  failed  to  influence  his 
successors.     Tate  says  — 

"  The  Eucalypti  comprise  two  habits  of  growth,  viz.,  trees  and 
shrubby  trees,  to  which  I  «pply  the  vernacular  names  of  Gums 
and  Mallees.  I  do  not  know  if  I  am  correct  in  so  doing,  as  I 
have  failed  to  find  any  definitions  of  these  well-l<nown  terms." 
"  I  have  constantly  observed  in  seedlings  and  growths  of  one  or 
two  years  of  such  gums,  as  E.  vostrata,  leucoxyloti^  virwinalis,  a 
large  inflation  of  the  base  of  the  stem,  either  at  the  surface  or 
just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  In  the  species  named,  this  is 
eventually  outgrown;  but.  in  the  mallees,  it  f  ersists  and  increases 
in  size  proportionately  with  the  development  of  the  branches 
which  are  emitted  from  it — in  the  mallee,  this  rudely  globose 
bole  is  partially  subterranean." 

It  is  the  third  and  fourth  sentences  that  are  important.  These 
embody  Tate's  version  of  the  problem  we  are  interested  in,  com- 
pressed to  an  irreducible  minimum.  The  chief  diflficulty  arises 
from  the  fact  that  no  attempt  is  made  to  explain  the  nature  or 
the  significance  of  the  basal  inflations.  A  non-committal  name 
is  given  to  them,  but  they  remain  of  problematical  import.  Nor 
is  any  reason  given  for  their  being  transient  in  the  seedlings  of 
Non-Mallees,  and  persistent  in  the  Mallees.  Nevertheless,  he 
recognised  the  dift'erence.  Apparently  his  seedlings  were  not 
young  enough  to  show  the  axillary  stem-nodules  before  they  had 
fused  in  pairs,  and  the  fused  pairs  had  Goncresced;  and  they 
were  not  old  enough  to  show  that  basal  inflations  were  able  to 
incorporate  roots.  Jt  was.  presumably,  from  necessity,  and  not 
from  choice,  that  he  confined  his  observations  to  seedlings  of 
"one  or  two  years."  If  he  had  mentioned  this,  and  supple- 
mented it  by  pointing  out  the  importance  of  studying  seedlings 
in  trying  to  understand  such  complicated  structures  as  the  adult 

*  Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  vii.,  p.544  (1898). 


202  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

Mallees  present,  those  who  came  after  him  might  have  been 
induced  to  follow  his  lead,  and  to  extend  his  incomplete  observa- 
tions. Even  what  he  actually  says  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  make 
anyone  cautious  about  identifying  the  persistent  basal  inflation 
of  the  Mallees  as  a  "  rootstock,"  without  first  investigating  the 
transient  basal  inflations  of  such  Non-Mallees  as  have  them. 

Unfortunately  his  excessive  reticence  obscured  what  merit 
his  observations  may  have;  and  his  successors,  in  attempting  to 
explain  the  make-up  or  constitution  of  the  Mallees,  either 
adopted  Mr.  Tepper's  idea  that  the  Mallees  have  "  rootstocks," 
without  offering  any  explanation  of  their  peculiarities;  or  else 
they  make  use  of  one  or  other  of  the  older  definitions,  which, 
though  excusably  deficient  when  they  were  first  offered,  are  now 
out  of  date. 

As  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  Mr.  Maiden  is  the  only  writer  who 
has  taken  any  notice  of  Tate's  statement  quoted  above.  On  the 
first  page  of  his  "Critical  Revision  of  the  Genus  Eucalyptus  " 
(1903),  the  author  gives  substantially  Tate's  views,  almost  in  the 
original  words,  but  without  any  comment  other  than  "  This 
classification  is  chiefly  of  practical  use  in  Professor  Tate's  own 
State  (South  Australia)  and  in  Western  Australia." 

In  Plate  57,  fig.  12  (of  Vol.  ii.)  of  the  same  work  (1911),  an 
illustration  of  a  young  seedling  of  E.  paniculata,  with  a  pair  of 
axillary  stem-nodules  still  unfused,  will  be  found.  'J his,  we 
belie^e,  is  the  only  illustration  of  a  Eucalypt  seedling  with  stem- 
nodules,  or  any  stage  of  them,  which  has  hitherto  been  published. 
In  the  explanation  of  the  Plate  (p.  131),  fig.  12  is  referred  to  as — 
"  Bulbous  swelling  in  seedling This  swelling  is  very  com- 
mon in  seedlings  belonging  to  this  genus,  and  the  cause  has  not 
been  investigated  so  far  as  I  am  aware.  It  is  presumably  to  be 
attributed  to  the  action  of  bacteria."  Allowing  for  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  pair  of  independent,  bulbous  swellings,  and  not  merely 
one,  and  that  they  are  the  first  stage  in  the  formation  of  Tate's 
transient  basal  inflation  of  a  Non-Mallee,  we  agree  with  Mr. 
Maiden  that  they  are  presumably  attributable  to  the  action  of 
bacteria.  But  we  should  say  exactly  the  same  about  a  similar 
seedling  of  a  Mallee,  with  the  first  pair  of  axillary  nodules  or 
bulbous  swellings  present. 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  203 

The  difficulty  which  confronts  anyone  who  tries  to  interpret 
the  axillary,  bulbous  swellings  of  seedlings  of  Eucalypts,  whether 
Mallees  or  not,  and  Angophoras,  from  the  standpoint  that  the 
Mallees  have  rootstocks,  is  exemplified  by  the  following  quota- 
tion from  a  recent  paper  by  Dr.  Hall* — "The  origin  of  the 
peculiar  rootstock  of  the  Mallee  can  be  well  seen  by  observing 
the  seedling.  In  nearly  all  the  Eucalyptus  seedlings,  and  also 
in  the  Angophoras,  there  is  developed,  especially  if  growth  is 
checked,  a  small  woody  swelling  in  the  stem  at  the  point  of 
attachment  of  the  cotyledons.  A  number  of  buds  will  develop 
on  this,  and  shoots  start  from  them.  Jf  the  growth  of  the  seed- 
ling proceeds  in  the  form  of  one  main  stem,  this  swelling  is  soon 
obliterated,  but,  in  the  Mallee,  these  secondary  shoots  grow 
almost  as  quickly  as  the  main  stem,  and  so,  instead  of  a  tree  in 
the  ordinary  sense,  we  have  an  enlarged  rootstock,  from  which 
spring  numerous  stems,  all  more  or  less  of  the  same  size."  The 
author  is  here  trying  to  explain  Tate's  problem  of  the  transient 
and  persistent  basal  inflations  of  the  Non-Mallees  and  the 
Mallees.  If  the  small  woody  swelling  at  the  attachment  of  the 
cotyledons  of  the  seedlings  of  Mallees  is  the  initial  stage  in  the 
formation  of  a  persistent  rootstock,  is  not  the  woody  swelling  of 
the  seedling  of  Non-Mallee  Eucalypts  and  Angophoras  also  the 
initial  stage  in  the  formation  of  a  transient  rootstock  ? 

The  following  statement  from  Tubeuf  and  Smith's  "Diseases 
of  Plants"  (p. 299)  may  be  mentioned.  "  In  the  Botanic  Garden 
at  Amsterdam,  the  roots  of  several  species  of  Eucalyptus  ex- 
hibited woody  tumours  from  which  proceeded  outgrowths  re- 
sembling 'witches'  brooms.'  'J  hese  contained  the  mycelium  of 
an  Ustilago  which  produced  spores  in  the  cortical  tissues."  If 
the  tumours  here  referred  to  are  of  the  same  kind  as  those  we  are 
interested  in,  we  consider  that  the  presence  of  Ustilago  under 
the  circumstances  mentioned,  is  to  be  regarded  as  merely  in- 
dicative of  a  saprophytic  intruder.  As  pointed  out  by  Erwin 
Smith  and  his  colleagues,  a  varied  assortment  of  lodgers  com- 
monly infest  crown-galls. 

*  "The  Evolution  of  the  Eucalj^pts  in  relation  to  the  Cotyledons  and 
Seedlings."     These  Proceedings,  1914,  p,ol7. 


204  tumours  of  eucalypts  and  angophoras, 

Non-Mallee  Eucalypts. 

Seedlings  of  some  species  of  Eucalypts  are  exempt  from 
tumours.  We  have  met  with  six  of  these,  referred  to  later  on. 
As  mentioned  in  our  introductory  remarks,  tumours,  which 
accomplish  all  they  can  do,  pass  through  the  three  stages  of — 
(1)  axillary,  shoot  bearing  stem-nodules;  (2)  composite,  shoot- 
bearing,  stem-encircling  tumours;  and  (3)  composite,  stem-encir- 
cling, shoot-bearing,  root-incorporating  tumours. 

Axillary  Stem-nodules. — Five  young  seedlings,  with  one  or 
more  pairs  of  stem-nodules,  with  the  cotyledons,  or  some  of  the 
leaves  in  situ,  are  shown  in  Plate  iv.  The  cotyledons  and  lowest 
leaves  have  usually  disappeared  by  the  time  the  nodules  become 
recognisable,  as  in  the  two  series  of  seedlings  shown  in  Plate  v. 
When  they  are  absent,  therefore,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the 
opposite  and  distichous  arrangement  of  the  nodul^-s  corresponds 
to  a  similar  arrangement  of  the  cotelydons  and  leaves,  in  whose 
axils  the  nodules  develof  ed.  Figs.  Al  and  A2  are  seedlings  of 
E.  corymbosa,  each  of  which  has  only  one  pair  of  nodules.  Both 
nodules  of  the  older  one  have  a  shoot  with  several  pairs  of  leaves. 
Older  seedlings  of  this  species  are  shown  in  Plate  xi.  Figs.  Bl, 
B2,  and  B3  are  seedlings  of  E.  hemiphloia,  one  with  two,  and 
two  with  four  pairs  of  stem-nodules.  These  supplement  the 
series  of  the  upper  row  of  Plate  v.;  they  are  shown  here  simplj^ 
because  they  happen  to  have  one  or  several  leaves  in  situ. 

The  upper  row  of  Plate  v.  shows  a  gradational  series  of  five 
voung  seedlings  of  F.  hemi])hloia  not  old  enough  to  show  more 
than  three  pairs  of  nodules.  The  three  youngest  (from  right  to 
left)  show  the  successive  development  of  one,  two,  and  three 
pairs  of  axillary  nodules.  The  first  pair  of  the  second  seedling- 
have  made  good  progress,  and  are  obviously  more  advanced,  that 
is  older,  than  the  second  pair.  This  is  not  so  evident  in  the 
third  seedling,  which  has  a  bend  in  the  axis.  The  fourth  ex- 
ample shows  a  further  advance.  The  nodules  of  the  first  pair 
have  grown  unequally,  so  that  one  is  bigger  than  the  other, 
though  of  the  same  age;  while  fusion  between  them  has  made 
some  progress.  The  second  and  third  pairs  have  made  fair 
progress.       The   fifth    example    shows    still    further    advance. 


BY  J.   J.   FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.   MUSSON.  205 

The  first  pair  have  nearly  completed  their  fusion,  except 
superficially;  the  second  pair  are  still  small;  while  the  presence 
of  the  third  pair,  in  the  axils  of  the  second  pair  of  leaves, 
can  be  made  out.  One  shoot  has  developed  on  each  nodule 
of  the  tirst  and  second  pairs.  Another  seedling  with  two 
pairs  (Bl),  and  two  older  ones  with  four  pairs  (B2  and  B3j  are 
shown  in  Plate  iv.  The  first  pair  of  B3  have  made  good  pro- 
gress, and  have  nearly  completed  their  fusion.  Another,  but  a 
rather  poor  specimen  which  could  not  be  photographed  while  it 
was  fresh,  with  five  pairs  of  stem-nodules,  and  three  root  nodules, 
is  shown  on  the  left  of  Plate  xii.  All  the  specimens  of  this 
series  were  nursery-seedlings;  and  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain, 
that  seedlings  3-4  months  old,  with  from  4-7  pairs  of  foliage- 
leaves,  may  or  may  not  have  one  pair  of  recognisable  nodules. 
Bush-seedlings  of  E.  corymbosa,  about  3-4  months  old,  with  four 
pairs  of  foliage-leaves,  will  usually  show  one  pair  of  recognisable 
nodules,  as  in  fig.  Al. 

The  lower  row  of  Plate  v.  shows  a  similar  series  of  bush- 
seedlings  of  E.  sideroxylon.  The  younger  ones  show,  in  order, 
one,  two,  and  three  pairs  of  stem-nodules.  The  fourth  shows 
a  more  advanced  stage  of  three  pairs,  the  nodules  of  the 
second  pair  being  about  as  large  as  those  of  the  first.  The  fifth 
seedling  has  four  pairs.  One  of  the  first  pair  has  grown  more 
than  its  fellow.  One  of  the  second  pair  seems  to  have  come  to 
a  standstill,  while  the  other  has  grown  downwards  into  the 
interval  between  the  nodules  of  the  first  pair,  and  shows  signs 
of  commencing  to  fuse  with  one  of  them.  The  third  and  fourth 
pairs  are  still  small. 

An  interesting  growing  seedling  of  E.  tereticornis,  with  three 
pairs  of  nodules,  and  no  shoots,  is  shown  in  Plate  vi.,  fig  2.  The 
opposite  and  decussate  arrangement  of  the  pairs  of  nodules  is 
well  seen.  The  first  pair  have  developed  well,  and  fairly  equally; 
and  have  fused  basally,  leaving  only  a  superficial  interval  still  to 
be  filled.  The  visible  member  of  the  second  pair-  is  small,  and 
seems  likely  to  fuse  with  the  first  pair  before  fusing  with  its 
fellow.  A  notched,  white  card  has  been  placed  in  position  to 
give  a  white  background. 

The  total  number  of  pairs  of  stem-nodules  present  in  seedlings 
depends  on  the  number  of  axils  aff'ected,  and  on  the  age  of  the 
seedling.  Seedlings  of  some  species,  as  a  rule,  may  have  more 
15 


206  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

than  those  of  other  species  at  about  the  same  stage;  but  seedlings 
of  the  same  species  may  similarly  differ.  Occasionally  one  maj' 
find  a  seedling  of  a  species  lia})le  to  have  them,  and  old  enough 
to  show  them,  without  any  at  all.  One  nodule  of  a  pair  is  often 
missing.  Apparently,  therefore,  sometimes  the  conditions  which 
lead  up  to  the  production  of  nodules  fail,  or  inoculation  was  pre- 
vented, or  did  not  take  place.  Sometimes,  after  the  first  pair, 
the  change  from  a  pair  of  opposite,  to  two  alternate  leaves  may 
result  in  the  appearance  of  two  incomplete  pairs. 

Plate  vii.  shows  a  set  of  miscellaneous,  hardy  bush-seedlings 
from  poor  virgin  soil,  which  are  remarkable  for  the  numbers  of 
pairs  of  axillary  stem-nodules  present:  for  the  slow  progress  of 
the  lower  pairs  in  most  of  them,  considering  how  many  pairs  are 
present,  and  consequently  for  delayed  fusions  and  concrescences; 
and  for  variation  in  the  lengthening  of  the  internodes.  The  first 
five  (left-right)  are  somewhat  older  than  might  be  expected  from 
their  small  size.  The  first  three  are  E.  eugetiwides,  the  third  of 
which  shows  fusions  and  concrescence  of  nodules,  while  the  other 
two  have  done  very  little  even  in  the  fusion  of  nodules  of  the 
same  pair.  Some  of  them  have  shoots.  One  nodule  on  the  lower 
side  is  missing  from  the  third  pair  of  the  first  seedling.  The 
fourth  and  sixth  are  JE.  j'iperita,  and  show  well,  what  is  very 
characteristic  of  seedlings  of  this  species,  numerous  pairs,  most 
of  which  are  crowded  up  through  the  non-lengthening  of 
other  internodes  besides  the  first  and  second.  A  later  stage  is 
shown  in  Plate  xii.,  tig.2;  but,  in  this  case,  matters  were  com- 
plicated by  the  death  of  the  seedling-stem  at  an  early  stage,  and 
its  replacement  by  two  tumour-shoots,  as  is  usual;  these  aie 
remarkable  for  having  pairs  of  axillary  nodules  (some  stage  of 
three  pairs  in  each  case)  the  lower  ones  fairly  close  together. 
Seedlings  of  this  species  sometimes  have  very  shapely,  large 
tumours. 

The  fifth  and  seventh  are  seedlings  of  E.  hcemastoma.  One 
nodule  is  missing  from  each  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  pairs  of  the 
smaller  specimen.  The  larger  one  shows  considerable  lengthening 
of  the  third  and  fourth  internodes;  also  a  root-nodule  (r.n.)  from 
which  on  one  side,  near  the  base,  a  root  (r.)  emerges,  which  does 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  207 

not  come  out  very  well  in  the  photograph.  The  nodules  of  the 
lowest  pair  furnish  a  good  example  of  unequal  progress. 

The  remarkable  seedling  in  Plate  x.,  fig.«,  has  eight  pairs;  the 
seventh  and  eighth  are  indicated,  but  had  not  completed  their 
growth  when  the  specimen  was  secured.  This  was  a  pot-seed- 
ling, about  2  feet  high,  and  somewhat  older  than  the  others 
shown  in  Plates  ix.  and  x.  It  is  the  most  remarkable,  refractory 
seedling  we  have  seen. 

The  remarkable  seedling  of  E.  euyenioides,  about  4  feet  high, 
shown  in  Plate  xix.,  has  twenty  nodules  (possibly  twenty-two), 
fourteen  stem-nodules,  in  addition  to  the  concrescence,  compris- 
ing at  least  three  pairs  (possibly  even  four):  four  pairs  are  in- 
complete, one  nodule  of  each  having  failed  to  develop — potenti- 
ally about  twelve  pairs.  The  nodule  marked  1  is  solitary,  and 
was  about  to  fuse  with  the  concrescence.  The  rest  were  not 
likely  to  have  accomplished  anything  whatever,  even  in  the  way 
of  fused  pairs.  Another,  fine,  but  much  younger  specimen  of 
the  same  species,  about  2  feet  high,  has  twelve  pairs,  but  the 
uppermost  are  not  very  far  advanced,  and  there  are  indications 
of  some  others  to  follow;  the  first  three  pairs  have  nearly  com- 
pleted their  concrescence.  This  specimen  was  obtained  too  late 
to  be  included  in  the  series  shown  in  Plate  vii.  For  its  total 
number  of  complete  pairs,  this  is  the  most  remarkable  seedling 
we  have  seen. 

Sometimes,  but  rarely,  an  extra  nodule  makes  its  appearance, 
so  that  instead  of  the  first  pair,  there  is  a  whorl  of  three.  When 
this  happens,  the  second  node  may,  or  may  not,  also  show  a  whorl 
of  three.  We  have  four  seedlings,  two  of  which  show  one  whorl 
of  three;  and  two  have  two  whorls  of  three.  'J  he  explanation 
of  this  condition  is  that  the  cotyledons  of  both  Eucalypts  and 
Angophoras  occasionally  show  anomalies,  such  as  three  cotyle- 
dons, fused  cotyledons,  or  with  one  cotyledon  partially  or  com- 
pletely "split."  When  this  happens,  the  first  pair  of  leaves  may 
be  normal,  or  dislocated,  or  replaced  by  a  whorl  of  three  leaves. 
The  significance  of  these  anomalies,  for  our  purpose,  is  the  pro- 
vision of  an  additional  one  or  two  axils  for  the  collection  of  soil 
or  dust;  or  the  loss  of  an  axil. 


208         TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

Plate  xi.  shows  a  series  of  seedlings  of  two  of  the  Bloodwoods 
{E.  corymhosa  and  E.  eximia)  which  differ  from  any  other  seed- 
lings of  Eucalypts  that  we  have  seen,  in  that  they  have,  usually, 
only  one  pair  of  effective,  axillary  nodules,  though  there  are 
sometimes  two,  and  occasionally  more  in  late  stages;  but  they 
almost  always  have  an  unpaired,  not  definitely  located  nodule 
below  the  level  of  the  cotyledons.  Figs.  1  and  2  represent  two 
young  seedlings,  somewhat  older  than  the  two  shown  in  Plate  iv. 
One  of  them  has  only  one  axillar}^  nodule;  we  have  other  seed- 
lings like  it.  Both  are  too  young  to  show  the  unpaired  nodule. 
When  it  does  appear,  it  is  sometimes  much  closer  to  the  axillary 
nodules  than  at  others.  Occasionally,  it  is  far  enough  away  to 
indicate  that  it  possibly  developed  on  the  taproot,  rather  than 
on  the  hypocotyl.  It  seems  to  be  probably  a  case  of  wound- 
infection  due  to  a  possible  tendency  of  the  bark  of  these  young 
seedlings  to  crack  in  growing.  The  nodule  extends  upwards, 
fusing  harmoniously  with  the  fused,  axillary  stem  nodules;  and 
grows  downwards  also,  partially,  or  by  degrees,  entirely  encircling 
the  axis.  The  fusion  usually  ends  abruptly.  It  may  be  an  inch 
long,  or  four  inches,  and  in  one  case  about  eight  inches.  In  late 
stages,  it  increases  in  diameter,  but  continues  to  be  cylindrical 
in  shape.  One  specimen  has  two  unpaired  nodules,  one  below 
the  other.     The  lower  one  is  evidently  a  root-development. 

The  presence  of  more  than  one  pair  of  axillary  nodules  is 
unusual  in  E.  corymhosa.  But  we  have  one  advanced  seedling 
which  has  five  pairs  [first  pair  (one  with  a  shoot)  fused,  and  the 
fused  pair  fused  with  the  unpaired  nodule,  as  usual;  one  nodule 
of  the  second  pair  with  a  shoot,  and  fused  with  the  concrescence, 
its  fellow  very  small,  and  solitary;  the  nodules  of  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  pairs  small,  unequally  developed,  and  not  fused]. 

One  seedling  of  E.  eximia  (Plate  xi..  No. 6)  has  two  pairs  of 
axillary  nodules,  which  is  unusual,  (though  we  have  another  like 
it)  and  a  pair  of  root-nodules;  but,  apparentl}',  the  unpaired 
nodule  is  absent  in  this  case,  unless  it  is  represented  by  one  of 
the  root-nodules.  Both  root-nodules  have  incorporated  a  root, 
but  that  of  the  smaller  one  was  accidentally  broken  ofi'  short, 
and  its  stump  is  hidden  from  view. 


BY  J.   J.   FLETCHER  AXD  C.   T.  MUSSON.  209 

In  seedlings  of  some  species  and  in  some  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  the  axillary  stem-nodules  appear  sooner,  and  pro- 
gress faster,  than  is  the  case  in  others,  or  the  period  of  incuba- 
tion is  shorter  Sometimes  this  may  be  due,  in  some  degree,  to 
unfavourable  conditions;  but  in  other  cases  it  seems  to  be  a  con- 
stitutional matter.  Hence,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  between 
susceptible,  and  resistant  or  refractory  species,  or  individuals. 
The  majority  of  the  species  whose  seedlings  are  known  to  us,  are 
susceptible,  some  more  so  than  others  The  best  examples  of 
refractory  species  that  we  have  met  with  are  E.  robusta  and  E. 
lo7i(/i/olia,  of  both  of  which  we  have  seen  nursery-seedlings  in 
quantity;  but  we  have  been  unable  to  get  bush-seedlings.  Ad- 
vanced seedlings  of  these  two  species  are  shown  in  Plates  ix  and 
X.  The  seedling  of  E.  robusta,  with  eight  pairs,  (Plate  x.,  fig.  a) 
is  the  most  remarkable  refractory  seedling  we  have  seen. 

Axillary  nodules  develop  not  only  on  the  stems  of  seedlings, 
but  also  on  tumour-shoots,  showing  that  the  first  few  leaf-axils 
of  tumour  shoots  repeat  the  conditions  («ffered  by  the  early  axils 
of  seedling-stems.  Fig.3  (not  numbered)  of  PI.  vi.,  shows  the 
tumour  of  a  seedling  of  E.  resini/era,  whose  stem,  with  one  pair 
of  unincorporated  nodules,  and  any  shoots  that  may  have  been 
present,  was  scorched  and  killed  b}-  a  bush-fire.  Two  tumour- 
shoots,  as  is  usual  in  such  a  case  if  the  seedling  stem  is  centrally 
situated,  replaced  the  stem;  these  were  about  7  and  10  inches 
high,  and  were  doing  well  when  the  specimen  was  taken.  Both 
have  the  first  pair  fused  with  the  tumour.  The  larger  has  a 
second  pair,  unfused,  and  unequally  developed.  The  smaller  has 
a  second  pair,  one  only  of  a  third  pair,  a  fourth  pair,  and  also  a 
fifth  pair.  [The  numbers  on  the  Plate  indicate  only  the  con- 
spicuous ones;  the  fifth  pair  of  the  smaller  one,  not  being  very 
well  shown  in  the  photo,  was  not  numbered].  The  tumour  itself 
may  represent  probably  three  fused  and  concresced  pairs. 

Another  ca.se  is  shown  in  fig. 2  of  PI  xii.  This  also  is  a  case 
of  two  tumour-shoots  taking  the  place  of  a  seedling  stem  after 
injury,  not  by  fire  in  this  case.  Each  of  them  has  three  pairs  of 
axillary  nodules. 

Still  another  case  is  illustrated  in  PI.  xviii.     The  large  tumour- 


2l0  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

shoot  at  the  back,  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  stem,  has  six  nodules, 
of  which  four  are  visible — the  first  pair  not  fused;  the  second 
pair  dislocated,  probably  due  to  a  pair  of  leaves  becoming  alter- 
nate; one  only  of  a  third  pair,  and  one  of  a  fourth  pair,  with  a 
shoot.  Another  tumour-shoot,  hidden  in  the  photo,  also  has  a 
good  pair. 

These  three  seedlings  show,  then,  that  axillary  nodules  may 
develop  on  tumour-shoots  which  develop  in  the  ordinary  way,  or 
on  second-growth  shoots,  whose  development  has  been  accident- 
ally stimulated. 

The  Nodule- Shoots.  —  Until  the  morphology  of  the  seedlings, 
and  the  histology  of  the  nodules  and  composite  tumours  have 
been  investigated,  one  can  attempt  to  interpret  macroscopic 
characters  only  with  reserve.  The  shoot-bearing  character  of 
the  nodules  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  axillary  outgrowths  take 
over  and  incorporate  thedormant  buds  (or  the  bud-forming  tissue), 
which,  otherwise,  would  be  smothered.  But  so  many  shoots 
sometimes  develop  on  a  single  nodule,  or  on  a  fused  pair,  that  we 
are  inclined  to  think  that  the  nodules  sometimes  carry  away 
bud-forming  tissue,  rather  than  simply  differentiated  buds;  and 
that  the  stimulus  which  is  responsible  for  the  proliferation  of  the 
cambium  to  form  the  nodules,  may  also  cause  the  bud-forming 
tissue  to  proliferate, and  spread. 

On  the  other  hand,  sometimes  the  growing  nodules  fail  to  take 
over  the  buds.  Three  good  examples  are  shown  in  the  two 
Stringybark  seedlings  in  PI.  xii.  Another  is  shown  on  the  stem 
of  the  seedling  of  fig.l  of  PI.  xiv.  Also  two  others  in  the  re- 
fractory seedling,  c2  of  PI.  x.;  for  the  two  futile  nodules  of  the 
third  pair,  and  the  two  branches  just  above  them,  belong  to  the 
same  pair  of  axils.  There  are  some  other  examples  on  the  re- 
markable seedling  in  PI.  xviii.,  particularly  the  pair  of  which 
one  is  numbered  4.  In  such  cases,  the  bud  and  the  nodule 
develop  separately;  if  the  bud  perishes,  the  nodule  is  left  stranded 
on  the  stem.  If  both  develop  successfully,  it  is  noticeable  that 
the  nodule  is  usually  on  the  outer  side  of  the  branch  in  the  ex- 
ternal angle  between  the  branch  and  the  stem,  fused  to  both. 
This  suggests  that,  as  the  nodule  develops  on  the  outside  of  the 


BY  J.  .1.   FLETCHER  AKD  C.  T.   MUSSOX.  211 

bud,  and  between  the  latter  and  the  attachment  of  the  peticle 
of  the  leaf,  the  supposed  weak  spot  in  the  axils,  which  makes 
inoculation  possible,  may  arise  in  connection  with  the  dijBferentia- 
tion  of  the  bud;  or  that  there  may  be  a  weak  spot  about  the 
attachment  of  the  petiole,  which  is  exposed  when  the  leaf  ex- 
pands; or,  perhaps,  both  are  concerned,  ►^erial,  transverse,  and 
longitudinal  sections  are  required  to  settle  the  matter. 

In  general,  the  conditions  which  favour  or  retard  the  develop- 
ment of  ordinary  branches  in  leaf-axils,  favour  or  retard  the 
development  of  nodule  shoots;  and,  particularly,  sufficient  room 
to  allow  of  free  exposure  of  the  plants  to  light:  and  damage  to 
the  growing-point,  or  removal  of  the  greater  part  of  the  stem. 
Defoliation,  under  some  conditions,  may  also  stimulate  the  pro- 
duction of  nodule-shoots. 

Two  very  young  seedlings  of  E.  hemiphloia,  with  only  the  first 
pair  of  stem-nodules  present,  are  shown  in  figs.  CI  and  C.2  of 
Plate  iv.  One  shoot  promptly  developed  on  each  nodule  after 
the  growing-points  suffered  injury,  in  each  case.  Sometimes  two, 
or  even  three,  shoots  will  develop  on  at  least  one  nodule  of  seed- 
lings like  these. 

PI.  xxv.,  fig.l,  shows  a  flourishing  pot-plant  of  E.  tereticornis, 
growing  under  very  favourable  conditions,  which  exhibits  pro- 
fuse branching,  as  well  as  nodule-shoots. 

An  advanced  pot-seedling  of  E.  hemiphloia^  with  a  well-devel- 
oped, complete  encircling  tumour,  without  any  shoots,  was  unin- 
tentionally neglected,  and  the  pot  allowed  to  become  so  dry,  that 
the  leaves  wilted,  and  were  cast  off.  On  receiving  attention,  the 
plant  revived;  but,  before  the  new  leaves  appeared,  five  young- 
shoots  promptly  developed  on  the  tumour. 

Though  the  buds  usually  remain  dormant  on  the  nodules  of 
refractory  seedlings  like  those  shown  in  Plates  ix.  and  x.,  injury 
to  the  growing-point,  or  removal  of  the  greater  port  of  the  stem 
will  cause  shoots  to  develop. 

The  presence  of  shoots  is  of  great  importance  both  to  the 
stem-nodules,  and  to  the  resulting,  composite  tumours,  for 
they  are  not  then  entirely  dependent  on  the  seedling-stem  for 
nutriment.     A  large,  revived,  belated  nodule  (A2),  whose  fellow 


212         TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

is  missing,  is  shown  on  the  advanced  seedling  in  PI.  xix.  The 
seedling-stem  (s.st.)  perished,  whereupon  the  main  nodule-shoot 
took  up  the  running,  and  this  gave  the  nodule  a  chance  of 
making  a  fresh  start.  This  is  the  largest,  individual  nodule  we 
have  yet  seen.  The  photo  is  reduced  by  somewhat  more  than 
one-third.  Composite  tumours  at  first  are  usually  more  or  less 
pyriform  in  shape,  especially  if  they  have  no  shoots,  or  only 
insignificant  ones  (PI.  xii.,  fig.  on  the  right).  Some  of  the  later 
stages  of  the  B.  sideroxy Ion-series  show  how  the  upper  portion 
of  the  tumour  fills  out  when  there  is  a  good  series  of  shoots 
round  the  summit.  As  long  as  the  shoots  last,  and  continue  to 
grow,  the  composite  tumours  may  be  expected  to  progress  pro- 
portionately. 

The  number  of  nodule-bearing  shoots  on  a  seedling,  like  the 
number  of  shoots  on  individual  nodules,  if  the  conditions  are 
favourable,  is  sometimes  surprising.  The  oldest  nodules  are 
likely  to  show  ihem  first,  and  to  have  most  shoots.  The  basal 
pair,  or  only  one  of  them,  will  very  often  show  one  or  more, 
when  the  others  are  without  them.  But  the  nodules  of  any 
pair,  or  one  of  them,  may  have  shoots,  when  the  others  have 
none.  Both,  or  one,  of  several  pairs  may  have  at  least  one  shoot. 
Or  the  buds  may  remain  dormant,  and  no  shoots  at  all  may 
develop,  as  in  most  refractory  seedlings. 

It  would  be  unusual  to  find  more  than  one  branch  in  a  leaf- 
axil,  though,  of  course,  there  may  be  reserve-buds.  Three  shoots 
are  often  present  on  a  single  nodule,  but  there  may  be  as  many 
as  seven,  or  even  more,  in  difi'erent  stages.  Fig.  1  of  PI.  vi.,  shows 
a  very  attractive  bush-seedling  of  Anyophora  lanceolata,  pro- 
bably not  under  two  years  old,  photographed  while  fresh.  As 
shown,  it  is  less  than  half  the  natural  size,  the  stem-height 
above  the  encircling  tumour  being  about  10^  inches.  The 
tumour  is  the  result  of  the  complete  fusion  of  the  first  pair  only. 
The  nodules  of  the  second  pair,  still  ver}^  small,  unfused,  and 
without  shoots,  are  to  be  seen,  rather  indistinctly,  a  little  above, 
but  there  is  no  third  pair.  Eight  shoots  are  present,  four  on 
each  side,  but  two  of  one  group  are  dead. 

An  inspection  of  the  figures  of  the  E.  sideroxylon-sevies  will 


fiY  J.   .1.    FLETrHEK  AND  C.   T.   MUSSOX.  213 

give  an  idea  of  the  way  in  which  shoots  develop  about  the 
summit  of  the  tumours,  when  they  are  complete  in  late  stages 
When  specimens  like  these  are  scorched  by  a  bush-fire,  and  the 
stem,  and  any  shoots  that  may  be  present,  are  killed,  provided, 
of  course,  that  the  underground  portions,  including  the  tumours, 
are  not  hopelessly  injured,  fresh  second  growth  shoots  may  come 
up  freely,  when  the  conditions  become  favourable.  Kig.3  of  PI. 
vi..  is  an  example  of  a  scorched  seedling.  Two  second-growth 
shoots  only  are  present  here.  The  growth-habit  of  such  plants, 
especially  if  they  are  scorched  a  second  time,  or  oftener,  and 
recover,  if  they  succeed  in  attaining  any  size,  necessarily  is  much 
modified.  In  the  quotation  from  Mr.  'J  epper's  paper,  the  second- 
growth  shoots  of  the  Mallees,  under  similar  circumstances,  are 
mentioned. 

The  shoots  of  all  the  pairs  except  those  which  supply  them  at 
the  summit  of  late  stages  of  the  encircling  tumours,  are  doomed 
to  perish  at  an  early  stage,  except  under  exceptional  circum- 
stances, because  the  tumours  are  gradually  pulled  underground. 
Even  those  on  the  summit  cannot  last  indefinitely,  as  a  rule, 
unless  water-storage  roots  are  incorporated. 

The  nodules,  when  quite  small,  are  smooth.  As  they  increase 
in  size,  the  surface  becomes  warty,  due  to  local  proliferation.  As 
the  warty  protuberances  increase  in  size,  they  meet  and  fuse,  and 
fill  up  the  vacant  spaces.  In  this  manner,  by  constant  local 
proliferation  at  the  periphery,  the  nodules,  or  the  composite 
tumours  to  which  they  give  rise,  increase  in  size.  The  latter, 
when  doing  well,  are  excessively  warty.  This  is  indicated  in 
some  of  our  illustrations,  but  the  warts  do  not  always  show  up 
as  conspicuously  as  they  do  in  the  specimens. 

The  nodules  and  the  surface  of  tumours,  when  fresh,  are  readily 
sliced  with  a  knife;  but,  when  dry,  they  are  hard  and  woody. 
The  tumours  when  fresh,  and  doing  well,  contain  a  good  deal  of 
of  moisture;  but,  when  drying,  gaping,  longitudinal  cracks,  often 
from  top  to  bottom,  appear. 

Later  Stages. — Growing  nodules  very  readily  fuse  with  any 
other   suitable  living  tissue  with  which    they  make  contact;  so 


214         TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

that  finally,  when  the  fusion  is  complete,  there  is  no  visible  line 
of  demarcation.  As  the  nodules  of  a  flourishing  pair  progress, 
they  increase  steadily  in  size,  growing  upwards  slightly,  but 
more  evidently  outwards,  backwards,  and  downwards,  until  they 
meet  and  fuse,  thus  encircling  the  stem.  Similarly  the  fused 
pairs  grow  downwards,  covering  up  and  fusing  with  the  portion 
of  the  stem  involved,  until  the  several  fused  pairs  have  con- 
cresced.  As  the  hasal  portion  of  the  concrescence  grows  down- 
wards, it  finally  encircles  and  fuses  with  the  upper  portion  of 
the  taproot,  and  the  proximal  portions  of  any  lateral  roots  that 
it  may  encounter.  We  have  an  example  of  two  seedlings  grow- 
ing so  close  together  that  the  encircling  tumours  came  into  con- 
tact and  fused.  If  two  such  seedlings  survived  and  attained 
tree-size,  they  might  furnish  an  example  of  apparently  one  tree 
with  two  stems. 

The  opposite  and  decussate  arrangement  of  the  stem-nodules, 
corresponding  to  the  disposition  of  the  cotyledons  and  leaves,  is 
ati  ideal  arrangement  for  the  production  of  well-balanced,  sym- 
metrical, composite,  encircling  tumours,  provided— (1)  that  all 
the  pairs  of  stem-nodules  are  complete;  (2)  that  the  nodules 
develop  promptly;  (3)  that  they  grow  comparatively  equally  and 
uniformly,  and  make  the  necessary  fusions,  and  the  fused  pairs 
the  necessary  concrescences,  at  the  right  time,  and  in  the  right 
way;  and  (4)  that  the  internodes,  especially  the  lower  ones,  do 
not  lengthen  too  soon  or  too  much.  But  if  one  or  several  of 
these  provisoes  fail,  the  final  result  will  be  correspondingly  modi- 
fied. If  plenty  of  material  is  available,  very  suggestive  and 
instructive  anomalies,  of  almost  every  conceivable  kind,  may  be 
obtained. 

Incomplete  pairs  of  nodules  are  common.  If  several  nodules 
or  pairs  are  missing,  any  resulting  composite  tumour  will  be 
correspondingly  smaller.  A  good  example  is  shown  in  PI.  xiii., 
fig.2,  of  the  E.  sideroxyloii-sevias  (about  half  nat.  size).  This  is 
a  concrescence  of  the  fused  first  pair  and  of  one  nodule  only  of 
the  second  pair,  and  this,  though  it  is  included,  did  not  make 
much  progress  and  contributed  very  little,  and  is  still  recognis- 
able (in  the  specimen  though  not  in  the  photograph). 


BY  .7.   .t.   FLETCHER  AND  C.   T.   MUSSON.  215 

One  nodule  missing  from  the  first  pair,  which  is  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  basal  portion  of  the  encircling  tumour,  is  a 
fruitful  cause  of  the  production  of  lopsided  tumours.  An  ex- 
ample is  shown  in  PI.  xiv.,  fig. 3,  in  which  the  left  nodule  of  the 
first  pair  is  missing.  Unfortunately  the  photograph  is  slightly 
blurred.  A  missing  nodule  from  the  uppermost  pair,  may  inter- 
fere with  the  symmetry  of  the  summit  of  the  tumour.  We  have 
a  seedling  with  three  incomplete  pairs  only,  one  nodule  from  the 
top  and  the  bottom  pairs  on  the  same  side  being  missing.  At 
the  best,  all  that  these  could  give  rise  to,  is  a  half-encircling 
tumour. 

Fig.  c  of  PL  viii.,  appears  to  be  a  case  in  which  one  nodule  of 
the  first  pair  (on  the  left)  did  not  develop.  The  seedling-stem 
having  been  broken  off,  a  normal  branch  in  the  axil  without  a 
nodule  then  assumed  the  erect  position,  and  took  the  place  of 
the  seedling  stem.  The  single  nodule  present,  made  fair  pro- 
gress. It  shows  indications  of  about  a  dozen  shoots,  some  of 
them  dead.  The  large  shoot,  just  to  the  left  of  the  stump  of 
the  stem,  belongs  to  the  latter. 

Sometimes  a  nodule,  instead  of  growing  downwards  and  fusing 
with  the  stem,  will  grow  downwards  and  outwards,  away  from 
the  stem,  even  in  erect  seedlings.  Three  bent  seedlings  are  shown 
in  PL  viii.  They  have  stem-encircling  tumours,  resulting  from 
the  fusion  of  the  first  pair,  which  has  grown  outwards  and 
downwards  away  from  the  stem.  There  is  only  one  pair  in  fig.a. 
Figs.  61,  62,  show  some  indication  of  others  poorly  developed. 
There  are  no  incorporated  roots  in  these  specimens,  nor,  we 
think,  was  there  any  likelihood  of  its  happening.  In  arranging 
the  specimens  for  being  photographed,  some  of  the  lateral  roots 
were  unintentionally  left  in  unnatural  positions. 

Inequality  in  the  comparative  rate  of  growth  of  the  nodules 
of  the  same  pair,  as  well  as  in  the  comparative  growth  of  suc- 
cessive pairs,  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  anomalous  developments. 
One  nodule  of  a  pair  may  come  to  a  standstill,  while  the  other 
goes  on  growing;  or  both  may  progress,  but  one  of  them  faster 
than  its  fellow  (as  in  No.7  of  PL  vii.).  Nodules  of  the  same  pair 
may  fuse  sooner  on  one  side  than  on  the  other;  or  they  may  fail 


216         TUMOURS  OP  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

to  fuse  at  all  on   one  side.      Encircling  tumours,  as  they  grow 
downwards,  may  progress  faster  on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 

If  the  nodules  do  not  develop  promptl}-,  while  the  tissues  are 
quite  young,  that  is,  if  the  period  of  incubation  is  longer  than 
usual,  the  nodules  seem  to  make  slower  progress,  when  they  do 
appear.  Meanwhile,  the  lower  internodes  may  have  lengthened 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  concrescence  of  pairs  may  be  delayed 
or  even  prevented.  Angophora  seedlings  frequently  oflfer  very 
characteristic  examples  of  this  kind  of  thing. 

The  E.  sideroxi/lon-series  (PI.  v.,  lower  row,  and  Pis.  xiii.-xvii.), 
of  which  the  earliest,  the  last,  and  as  many  intermediate  stages, 
as  space  will  allow,  are  shown,  are  intended  to  indicate  the  course 
of  events  in  a  susceptible  species,  W  ith  the  exception  of  the 
tumour  in  PI.  xvii.,  all  the  photographs  were  taken  when  the 
specimens  were  fresh.  They  are  variously  reduced,  from  about 
one-third  to  one-half,  or  even  more  in  the  larger  ones.  They  are 
intended  to  show  the  composite  tumours,  with  recognisable  por- 
tions of  the  seedling-stems  and  tumour-shoots,  and,  especially, 
various  stages  in  the  capture  of  lateral  roots. 

The  smaller  of  the  two  crossed  seedlings  (PI.  xiv.,  fig.2)  shows 
the  first  and  second  fused  pairs  of  nodules  concresced;  the  third 
pair  have  not  yet  completely  fused;  one  nodule  from  the  fourth 
pair  is  missing.  'Ihe  growing-point  was  injured.  The  taproot 
is  caught  between  a  lateral  root  and  the  tumour,  so  that  it  can- 
not be  freed  without  trimming  the  latter.  There  was  enough 
soil  between  the  two  tumours  to  prevent  fusion.  The  larger 
specimen  has  lost  its  seedling-stem,  and  two  of  the  tumour-shoots, 
one  on  each  side,  are  taking  the  lead.  No  roots  had  been 
incorporated  in  either  specimen. 

The  seedling  in  PI.  xiii.,  fig.  1,  with  a  stem-height  of  20  inches, 
has  three  pairs  almost  completely  concresced,  and  two  pairs  not 
yet  fused.  Two  roots  are  just  incorporated,  and  another  was 
ready  to  be. 

The  two  seedlings  on  the  right  (PI.  xiii.,  tig. 3)  show  incom- 
plete concrescences  at  the  top;  and  an  early  stage  of  the  incor- 
poration of  a  root. 

Fig.2  of  the  same  Plate  (reduced   by  nearly  one-half;  is  a  fine 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.   MUSSON.  217 

seedling,  with  a  stem-height  of  37  inches,  the  two  longest  tumour- 
shoots  about  13  inches.  It  is  a  good  example  of  a  small  tumour 
resulting  from  a  shortage  of  axillary  nodules.  OnU'  three  de- 
veloped, of  which  the  only  one  of  the  second  pair  (hidden  at  the 
back  of  the  photo)  made  little  progress,  and  contributed  practi- 
cally nothing  to  the  tumour.  Small  though  it  is,  the  tumour  has 
captured  three  good,  lateral  roots  Two  others,  which  were 
accidentally  broken  off,  and  whose  bases  are  hidden  by  the 
lateral  root  on  the  right,  were  about  to  be  captured.  The  seed- 
ling-stem had  a  good  canopy  of  foliage,  and  had  got  well  ahead 
of  the  tumour-shoots,  so  that  it  would  probab  y  have  got  rid  of 
the  latter  sooner  than  seedlings  with  larger  tumours. 

The  seedling  in  fig.  1,  PI.  xiv.,  (reduced  by  about  one-half)  has 
a  concrescence  of  probably  two  pairs,  with  three  incomplete  pairs 
above  (one  of  which  is  bidden).  The  downward  growth  of  the 
concrescence  on  one  side^  is  much  in  advance  of  that  of  the  other, 
as  shown  on  the  left.  The  uppermost  is  a  good  example  of  a 
belated  nodule  which  failed  to  get  possession  of  the  bud;  both 
it,  and  the  branch  above  it,  belong  to  the  same  axil.  Several  of 
the  shoots  have  done  well.  Two  lateral  roots  have  been  incor- 
porated; and  several  others  would  ha\e  been  later  on. 

Fig.3  of  PI.  xiv.,  is  an  example  of  a  lopsided  tumour  due  to  the 
absence  of  one  nodule  of  the  tirst  pair.  Unfortunately  the  photo 
is  slightly  blurred.  It  has  not  incorporated  an}^  roots.  Shoots 
are  numerous.      The  seedling-stem  may  possibly  be  missing. 

Fig.  1.  of  PI.  XV.,  is  a  very  complete  concrescence  (reduced  by 
somewhat  over  one-third).  Two  lateral  roots  are  just  incorpo- 
rated. 

Fig. 2  of  the  same  Plate  (only  slightly  reduced)  has  the  con- 
crescence incomplete  behind  except  at  the  top.  One  good  root 
has  been  incorporated  on  the  right.  The  root  on  the  left  with 
a  bifurcation,  and  the  one  above  it,  would  have  been  incorporated 
if  the  concrescence  had  been  complete  behind. 

Fig.3  of  PI.  XV.,  is  a  good  example  of  a  late  stage. 

Fig.l  of  PI.  xvi  ,  shows  a  fine  seedling,  with  a  stem  height  of 
5  feet  above  the  tumour.  The  latter  is  shown  (nat  size)  in  PI. 
xvii,     The  strongly  developed  taproot  is  now  well  established, 


218  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPT8  AND  ANGOPHORAS. 

the  lateral  roots  being  insignificant  by  comparison.  The  seed- 
ling-stem has  been  able  to  increase  its  initial  lead,  and  to  develop 
its  upper  branches,  so  that  their  crown  of  foliage  fairly  completely 
overshadows  the  tumour-shoots,  preparatory-  to  getting  rid  of 
them  by  the  process  of  natural  pruning.  The  lateral  roots  are 
so  insignificant  that  the  tumour  must  be  largely  dependent  on 
the  seedling-stem  for  most  of  its  water.  When  the  leaves  of  the 
crown  of  foliage  belonging  to  the  seedling-stem  and  its  branches 
have  overshadowed  the  tumour-shoots,  and  are  transpiring  freely, 
the  latter  seem  to  suff'er  in  consequence.  When  the  shoots  have 
been  got  rid  of,  the  tumour,  as  such,  gradually  comes  to  a  stand- 
still. The  tumour  of  this  example  is  shown  in  PI.  xvii.  (nat.  size). 
and  is  a  fine  specimen. 

Fig. 2  of  PL  xvi.,  shows  the  size  of  two,  more  advanced  seed- 
lings, 6-7  feet  high,  side  by  side.  The  one  on  the  left,  which  had 
got  rid  of  its  tumour-shoots,  was  dug  up  (inadvertently  the  tap- 
root was  cut  off"  rather  too  short),  and  held  beside  a  slightly 
taller,  undisturbed  specimen,  which  had  one  shoot  left.  This 
was  afterwards  uprooted  and  examined.  It  will  be  noticed  that, 
at  this  stage,  the  tumour  is  completely  out  of  sight  underground. 
These  photos  were  taken  early  in  October,  1914,  at  which  time 
the  plants  were  about  six  years  old.  Three  and  a  half  years 
later,  other  examples  of  the  same  batch  as  those  in  fig. 2,  were 
promising  saplings  9-12  feet  high. 

The  last  stage  of  an  advanced  seedling  of  E.  tereticorids  is 
shown  in  fig. 2  of  PI.  xxi.;  this  has  one  small  shoot  left.  The  plant 
was  uprooted  carefully,  placed  on  a  stump,  and  photographed 
immediately.  It  was  growing  near  the  specimens  shown  in  PI 
xvi.  In  this  case,  the  seedling-stem  appears  to  be  excentric, 
consequent  upon  lopsided  growth  of  the  tumour:  and  the  shoots 
were  all  on  one  side.  One  nodule  was  not  incorporated  in  the 
tumour.  The  difi'erence  in  size  between  the  taproot  and  the 
incorporated  or  other  lateral  roots  is  well  shown. 

PI.  XX.,  shows  another  but  older  stage  of  the  same  species;  but, 
in  this  case,  matters  are  complicated  by  the  death  of  the  seedling- 
stem.  A  few  inches  of  the  latter  were  in  situ  when  the  plant 
was  found,  but    were   accidentally  broken   ofi"  in  packing-up  a 


BY  J.   J.   FLETCHER   AND  C.   T.   MUSSON.  219 

number  of  specimens.  The  stump  of  it  is  just  discernible  in  the 
photo.  There  were  a  number  of  shoots,  but,  in  this  case,  one  of 
them  took  the  lead,  and  was  6  feet  high.  At  the  base  of  it  is  a 
remarkable,  encircling  insect-gall.  At  first,  we  took  this  to  be 
a  case  of  the  fusion  of  pairs  of  axillary  nodules  on  a  tumour- 
shoot,  followed  by  concrescence;  and  that  it  might  bean  example 
of  what  Tate  meant,  when  he  said  seedlings  and  ''growths"  have 
basal  inflations.  On  cutting  it  tiansversely,  four  radial  cavities 
were  exposed,  two  of  which  contained  living  coleopterous  pupae, 
one  in  each  cavity;  the  other  two  contained  only  exuviae  or 
excrement.  Apparently,  the  mother-insect  oviposited  at  intervals 
all  round  the  base  of  the  shoot. 

Of  the  two  advanced  seedlings  of  E.  eugenioides  in  Plates  xviii. 
and  xix.,  the  first  has  not  yet  got  rid  of  the  tumour  shoots,  which 
are  situated  at  the  back,  as  the  specimen  is  shown.  The  other 
one  had  got  rid  of  them;  in  this  case,  the  death  of  the  seedling- 
stem  gave  rise  to  complications. 

Tate,  in  his  brief  way,  said  that  Non-Mallees,  which  have 
basal  inflations,  grow  out  of  them.  Apparently,  he  was  relying 
on  experience,  and  not  speaking  from  observation.  The  only 
author  who  mentions  what  takes  place,  as  far  as  we  can  find,  is 
Ednie  Brown,  who  in  his  "Forest  Flora  of  S.A.",  under  E. 
leucoxylon  (Part  ii.),  says — "During  the  first  two  years  of  its 
growth,  the  plant  has  a  low-lying  or  spreading  habit,  not  at  all 
prepossessing  in  its  favour,  when  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  a 
future  timber-tree.  About  the  third  year,  however,  a  straight 
and  upright  'leader'  comes  away  from  the  centre  of  the  apparent 
bush,  which,  after  this,  soon  assumes  the  form  of  a  promising 
young  tree.'' 

What  is  here  described  as  a  straight  and  upright  leader,  is 
simply  the  seedling-stem  coming  into  its  own,  and  getting  rid  of 
the  tumour-shoots.  Otherwise,  it  the  seedling-sttm  is  destroyed, 
two,  strong  leaders  usually  come  away;  that  is  two,  tumour- 
shoots  take  the  lead,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out,  and  as  is 
shown  in  several  of  our  Plates.  'J  he  author  was  apparently  not 
aware  of  the  presence  of  what  Tate,  some  years  afterwards,  called 
the  basal  inflation  of  seedlings  of  this  species.  We  should  think, 
also,  that  he  probably  underestimated  the  age  of  his  plants. 


220  tumours  of  eucalypts  and  axgophoras,  " 

Mallees. 

The  Mallee-Scrubs  of  the  interior,  where  alone  fruitful  in- 
vestigation can  be  carried  out,  are  remote  from,  and  inaccessible 
to  us;  and,  consequent!}^,  our  material  for  the  study  of  the 
tumours  of  this  group  is  very  incomplete.  Nevertheless,  there 
is  something  to  be  learnt  from  it  We  regret  that  we  have  been 
unable  to  procure  seedlings  of  the  big  Mallees,  such  as  E.  oleosa^ 
E.  dumosa^  and  several  others 

Plate  XX.,  shows  four  advanced  seedlings  of  three  species. 
Figs.  \a  and  16  are  seedlings  of  E.  f^tricta  from  the  higher  part 
of  the  Blue  Mountains  (about  3,000  feet),  2^-3  feet  high,  from  a 
batch  of  seedlings,  that  we  had  had  under  observation  for  three 
years,  from  the  time  when  they  were  too  young  to  show  nodules. 
The  younger  one  (la)  has  five  pairs  of  axillar}-  stem-nodules,  the 
concrescence  of  the  three  oldest  pairs  not  yet  completed.  Ihe 
lengthening  of  the  third  and  fourth  internodes  has  kept  the  two 
upper  pairs  apart.  Another  example,  about  the  same  size,  has 
a  more  complete  concrescence  of  three  or  four  pairs,  then  two 
incomplete  pairs  separated  by  the  lengthening  of  the  internodes; 
and  above,  two  pairs,  close  together,  followed  by  an  incomplete 
pair;  but  all  these  are  small,  and  there  are  no  fusions  among 
them.  The  older  one  (16)  has  a  more  complete  concrescence  in 
the  aspect  shown;  but  one  nodule  of  the  first  pair  is  missing  (at 
the  back),  and  the  encircling  tumour  is  consequently  lopsided, 
and  smaller  than  it  otherwise  would  have  been.  Three  and  a 
half  pairs  seem  to  be  present,  and  a  fifth,  small  pair,  doing  little, 
are  indicated  at  a  higher  level.  One  shoot  is  present,  and  one 
root  was  in  process  of  incorporation. 

Fig. 2  is  a  seedling  of  E.  Moorei,  about  2  feet  high,  also  from 
the  Blue  Mountains,  The  concresced  portion,  not  quite  complete 
at  the  summit,  represents  three  or  possibly  four  pairs.  The 
uppermost  pair  is  incomplete,  the  nodule  at  the  back  missing. 
We  have  younger  seedlings  of  both  species  in  various  stages  with 
up  to  five  and  six  unfused  pairs.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that 
the  slovv  progress  of  t}ie  nodules  of  the  seedlings  of  these  two 
species  is,  in  some  degree,  due  to  the  low  ground-temperatures 
and  frequent  frosts  on  the  higher  part  of  the  Blue  Mountains 
during  the  months  of  April-October. 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  221 

Fig.  3  is  a  seedling  of  E.  fruticetonmi  from  Wyalong,  for 
which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Cambage — the  unh'  seedling  he 
could  find.  We  cannot  make  out  the  presence  of  more  than  one 
pair  of  stem-nodules,  which  fused  on  one  side  (in  front,  in  the 
photo),  but  not  on  the  other.  The  interval  separating  them  at 
the  back  is  about  \  inch  wide;  and  there  is  a  depression  at  the 
top  which  is  suggestive  of  the  loss  of  a  branch.  The  tumoui' 
had  about  eight  shoots,  and  there  are  three  branches  low  down 
on  the  stem.  No  roots  had  been  incorporated.  One  specimen 
is  not  enough  to  enable  one  to  Judge  whether  this  is  merely  an 
exceptional  case,  or  whether  one  pair  is  the  usual  number  for 
this  species.  The  "  Mallee-root "  shown  in  PI.  xxiv.,  also  from 
Wyalong,  likewise  has  a  tumour  of  one  pair  not  fused  on  one 
side.  We  do  not  know  the  species,  but  it  may  perhaps  be  E. 
fruticetoriim:  and  represent  the  latest  stage  of  a  seedling  like 
Fig.S. 

Plate  xxi ,  fig.3,  shows  the  most  satisfactory  example  we  have 
had  from  Wyalong  (much  reduced).  This  is  a  specimen  of  one 
of  the  small  Whipstick  Mallees  {E.  viridis)  locally  called  Blueleaf- 
Mallee.  For  the  stage  at  which  it  has  arrived,  it  may  probably 
be  regarded  as  a  fair  example  of  a  susceptible  Mallee  It  is  not 
as  plump  as  it  might  be,  but  it  was  collected  in  a  drought.  It 
was  trimmed  for  convenience  in  transmission  to  Sydney,  but  the 
following  dimensions  may  help  to  understand  its  importance  : 
stem-height  above  tumour,  about  6^  inches;  diameter  of  stem 
above  tumour,  ^;  length  of  tumour,  about  3|;  diameter,  1|; 
diameter  of  taproot  below  tumour,  y^^.  The  best  aspect  of  it  is 
shown;  at  the  back,  the  downward  growth  is  not  so  satisfactory 
as  in  front.  The  seedling-stem  appears  to  be  excentric  because 
of  the  smaller  development  on  the  right  side.  It  has  two 
branches  low  down;  and  there  are  three  tumour-shoots.  Four 
lateral  roots  have  been  incorporated;  but  they  are  insignificant 
in  comparison  w^th  the  well-developed  taproot.  All  the  stem- 
nodules  have  been  included;  the  concrescence  may  well  represent 
five  pairs;  there  is  a  cavity  near  the  summit,  which  appears  to 
have  been  caused  by  borers. 

Fig.l  of  PI.  xxi.,  shows  the  youngest  of  four  examples  of  E. 
Behriana,  received  from  Wyalong.  Unfortunately,  the  stem  of 
16 


222  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

every  one  of  these  was  hopelessly  damaged;  and  consequently 
the  specimens  are  not  typical  examples,  but  they  are  all  we  can 
get.  The  youngest  (  x  ^  about)  has  the  seedling-stem  broken  off 
short,  just  above  the  level  of  the  second  pair  of  stem-nodules,  one 
of  which  is  now  missing.  The  nodules  of  the  first  pair  are  back 
and  front,  and  unfused.  The  posterior  one  has  one  shoot.  The 
front  one  also  had  one,  but  this  was  broken  off  short.  The 
surviving  nodule  of  the  second  pair  developed  five  shoots,  the 
largest  of  which  has  two  branches,  and  made  good  progress.  It 
has  fused  with  the  nodules  of  the  first  pair,  and  has  grown  down- 
wards to  much  below  the  level  of  the  first  pair.  This  nodule  and 
its  shoots  w^ere  keeping  the  plant  going. 

Two  older  examples  differ  in  age.  The  smaller  has  half  an 
inch  of  the  stump  of  the  stem  left.  There  appear  to  be  two 
pairs  of  nodules.  The  first  pair  inade  some  progress,  but  did 
not  fuse.  One  of  them  has  three  shoots,  two  of  which  are  5- (5 
inches  long.  This  nodule  was  keeping  the  plant  going.  One  of 
the  second  pair  fused  with  the  nodule  with  shoots;  the  other 
made  little  progress.  The  bark  on  the  nodules  is  very  thick,  and 
adherent. 

The  larger  one  is  more  difficult  to  understand,  as  the  stem  is 
almost  completely  missing.  There  are  shoots  up  to  10  inches,  in 
two  places,  on  the  margin  of  what  is  left.  There  is  one  pair  of 
futile  nodules,  one  much  better  developed  than  the  other,  on 
opposite  sides  of  what  is  left  of  the  stem,  which  is  about  1  inch 
thick.  Both  this  specimen  and  the  preceding  one  have  a  long 
piece  of  the  root  intact.  The  smaller  one  has  two,  nearly  oppo- 
site, lateral  roots,  and  one  above  and  one  below  these,  not  far 
away.  But  the  larger  one  has  three  promising  lateral  roots  at 
different  levels,  two  on  opposite  sides  of  the  taproot,  and  a  middle 
one  in  a  direction  at  right  angles.  An  encircling  tumour  would 
have  to  make  considerable  growth  before  incorporating  all  of 
them. 

For  the  large  specimen  shown  in  PI.  xxiii.,  in  the  natural 
position,  as  we  think  (rather  than  view^ed  with  the  taproot 
vertical),  we  are  again  indebted  to  Mr.  Cambage.  The  best 
aspect  of  it  is  shown.  A  farmer,  in  grubbing  up  the  plant,  with 
one  blow  from  his  axe,  delivered  just  behind  the  base  of  the  big 


BY  J.  J.   FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  223 

shoot  shown  in  the  figure,  split  off  a  large  piece  at  the  back,  on 
which  there  was  probably  another  shoot,  situated  on  the  right 
of  the  base  of  the  dead  seedling-stem.  At  the  back,  just  to  the 
left  of  the  mark  X  on  the  photo,  there  is  a  longitudinal  concavity, 
showing  the  site  of  the  missing  shoot.  The  remains  of  the 
original  stem,  now  exhibiting  signs  of  decay,  indicate  that  it  must 
have  been  about  3  inches  in  diameter  when  it  perished.  The 
taproot  is  well  developed.  One  lateral  root,  with  a  branch,  is 
seen  to  the  right.  This  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  incorporated. 
At  the  back,  there  are  four  roots  or  indications  of  them,  one  of 
which  is  incorporated,  and  one  partially,  while  two  others  are 
too  low  down.  The  development  of  the  shoot  present  evidently 
stimulated  the  growth  of  the  tumour  all  round  its  base.  The 
rest  seems  to  have  come  to  a  standstill  after  the  death  of  the 
seedling-stem.  What  strikes  us  about  this  specimen,  is  the 
paucity  of  shoots:  and  that  there  is  not  such  a  satisfactory 
arrangement  of  lateral  roots,  at  about  the  same  level,  as  is  shown 
in  the  specimen  in  PI.  xxiv.  The  loss  of  the  seedling-stem  doubt- 
less complicated  matters,  and  makes  the  interpretation  of  this 
incomplete  specimen  difficult. 

E.  Bekriana  is  described  as  being  sometimes  a  Mallee,  8-15 
feet  high,  and  sometimes  a  tree  up  to  about  35  feet  high.  Our 
four  specimens  seem  to  us  to  be  more  or  less  refractory  cases, 
whose  root-system  is  not  quite  like  that  of  the  typical  Mallees, 
in  respect  of  the  main  lateral  roots  advantageously  situated  for 
incorporation  in  the  encircling  tumours.  If  either  or  both  these 
conditions  occur  often,  such  may  be  responsible  for  the  fact  that 
E.  Behriana  is  sometimes  a  tree.  This  species  is  well  worth  in- 
vestigation with  adequate  material. 

Magarey,*  in  describing  the  method  of  the  Blacks  in  obtaining 
water  from  the  roots  of  the  Mallees,  says — "  The  roots  of  these 
water-trees  run  out  from  the  stem  for  40  feet  to  80  feet,  and  lie 
at  a  depth  only  of  from  2  inches  to  9  inches  below  the  surface. 
The  position  of  these  lateral  roots  is  frequently  marked  by  a 
'rise'  or   'bulge'  of  the  soil  right  over  the  root.     The  roots  are 

*  "Australian  Aborigines'  Water-Quest."  Proc.  R.  Geog.  of  Aust., 
South  Australian  Branch,  iii.,  p. 67  (1899).  Also  Rept.  Aust.  Assoc.  Arlv. 
Sci.,  vi.,  1895,  p. 647. 


224  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

easily  raised.  A  native  goes  to  a  water-tree,  and  tries  the  ground 
at  from  4  ft.  to  5  ft.  from  the  stem;  or  if  guided  by  a   'bulge'  or 

a  'crack,'  finds  the  root  at  once"  (p. 69) "Each  such 

mallee  tree  has  usually  from  four  or  five  to  seven  or  eight  side- 
roots  running  out  from  the  stem  at  a  few  inches'  depth  from  the 
surface"  (p.70). 

Plate  xxii.  shows  a  "  Mallee-root."  We  do  not  know  the 
species,  but  it  was  one  of  the  smaller  ones,  and  may,  perhaps,  be 
E,  fruticetortim.  It  is  not  a  particular!}-  fine  specimen,  but  it  is 
the  only  one  we  can  get.  In  the  absence  of  any  published  illus- 
tration of  the  kind,  as  far  as  we  know,  we  make  no  apology  for 
showing  this  one;  as  there  is  something  to  be  learnt  from  it,  as 
there  is  from  any  undamaged  "Mallee-root."  The  specimen  was 
placed  on  its  side,  and  photographed  from  in  front.  The  scale 
is  shown  by  the  rule  at  the  bottom.  We  interpret  this  to  be  a 
case  of  a  not  quite  completely  encircling  tumour,  resulting  from 
one  pair  of  stem-nodules  which  fused  on  one  side  (at  the  top  of 
the  photo),  but  did  not  fuse  on  the  other  side;  hence  the  breach 
in  the  continuity  of  the  tumour  (at  the  bottom).  There  are  four, 
important,  more  or  less  horizontally  running,  lateral,  water- 
storing  roots,  two  (at  the  top)  coming  off  very  close  together; 
and  two  others  (below)  at  a  fairly  wide  angle.  They  are  almost 
on  the  same  level  round  the  taptoot.  The  tumour,  composed  of 
only  one  pair  of  nodules,  was  unable  to  encircle  any  of  them 
completely;  but  it  fused  with  the  upper  part  of  all  of  them, 
sufficiently,  probably,  to  tap  the  water.  The  site  of  the  seedling- 
stem  is  indicated  by  the  light  spot,  which  represents  the  posterior 
aperture  of  the  hollow,  flattened  taproot,  of  which  about  six 
inches  are  left.  The  site  of  one  shoot  is  well  shown,  over  the 
lower  lateral  root  on  the  right.  The  rest  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  tumour  was  so  badly  smashed,  that  it  is  difficult  to  locate 
exactly  the  situation  of  any  other  shoots  that  may  have  been 
present;  but,  notwitlistanding  the  fact  that  the  two  upper  roots 
are  very  close  together  at  their  junctions  with  the  taproot,  we 
believe  that  there  was  one  over  each  of  the  other  lateral  roots. 
It  seems,  to  us^  a  reasonable  conclusion,  that  an  uninjured,  flour- 
ishing Mallee  will,  as  a  rule,  have  as  many  shoots  as  there  are 
lateral,  water-storing  roots  wholly  or  partially  incorporated  in 


BY  J.   J.   FLETCHER  AXD  C.   T.   MUSSON.  226 

the  encircling  tumour,  and  that  the  former  are  situated  over  the 
latter. 

In  an  adult  Mallee,  the  shoots  and  the  stem,  if  present,  are 
all  approximately  the  same  height,  and  diameter.  But  in  the 
seedling  shown  in  PI.  xxi.,  fig.3,  the  seedling-stem  has  so  far 
maintained  its  initial  lead.  There  must  be  some  intermediate 
stage,  therefore,  when  the  shoots  are  able  to  overhaul  the  stem. 
Possibly  this  may  come  about  when  the  lateral,  water-storing 
roots  are  sufficietjtly  developed,  to  supply  more  water  in  the 
aggregate,  than  the  taproot  alone  is  able  to  do.  Such  questions 
as  these  cannot  be  profitably  discussed  without  satisfactory 
material,  and  observation  on  Scrub  plants. 

F.  Mueller,  Maiden,  and  Cambage,  and  others,  have  recorded 
instances  of  Eucalypts  of  species  which  are  ordinarily  Mallees, 
sometimes  being  trees;  but  we  have  failed  to  find  any  explana- 
tion of  such  cases.  From  our  point  of  view,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
understand  that  infection  may  fail  to  take  place  occasionally,  or 
that,  from  accidental  causes,  or  because  the  individuals  were  re- 
fractory, it  may  have  been  followed  by  little  in  the  way  of  results. 

The  root-waterstoring  arrangements  of  Eucalypts,  whether 
Mallees  or  not,  as  well  as  of  other  Australian  plants,  in  arid 
regions,  are  in  need  of  scientific  investigation.  Little  is  known 
of  this  important  subject,  beyond  what  explorers,  travellers,  and 
early  colonists  gleaned  from  the  Blacks,  and  have  put  on  record. 
Naturally  the  Blacks  chose  the  roots  of  the  big  Mallees. 
But  it  is  a  reasonable  supposition,  in  the  absence  of  scientific 
evidence,  that  the  smaller  VVhipstick  Mallees  also  stored  water, 
though  not  on  a  scale  sufficient  for  the  -Blacks  to  attempt  to 
exploit  it.  Inferentially,  all  the  Mallees  must  have  water-storing 
roots,  otherwise  it  is  inexplicable  how  the  tumours  of  the  Mallees 
can  keep  their  shoots,  and  persist. 

Eucalypts  may  have  water-storing  roots,  however,  without 
being  Mallees.  The  only  author  who  mentions  this  fact,  that 
we  are  aware  of,  is  K.  H.  Bennett.  In  his  description  of  the 
method  of  obtaining  water  from  Eucalypt  roots,  as  practised  by 
the  Aborigines  of  the  arid  country  between  the  Lachlan  and 
Darling  Rivers,*  he  says      "The  Eucalypti  consist  of  a  gum  (the 

*  These  Proceedings,  1883,  viii.,  p. 214. 


226  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

largest  of  the  back  country  trees),  a  box,  and  a  mallee.  The 
first-named  was  the  most  preferred,  as  yielding  the  greatest 
quantity."  The  name  of  the  species  is  not  given,  but  it  is  said 
somewhat  to  resemble  "the  red  gum  in  appearance — the  leaves 
being  narrower  and  of  a  silvery  colour,"  and  to  grow  "chiefly  on 
sandy  or  light  loamy  soil,  and  throws  out  numerous  lateral  roots 
at  a  depth  of  from  six  to  twelve  inches  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground."  As  the  Blacks  could  not  get  at  the  v/ater  in  the  water- 
charged  tumours  of  the  Mallees,  it  is  intelligible  enough  that 
they  preferred  to  operate  on  the  roots  of  a  water-storing  Gum. 
It  is  desirable  that  seedlings  of  this  species  should  be  examined, 
so  that  it  may  be  determined  whether  they  are  exempt  from 
axillary  stem-nodules,  or  refractory;  or,  if  susceptible,  how  they 
are  able  to  get  rid  of  the  tumour-shoots.  Seedlings  of  some  of 
the  Eucalypts  of  Central  Australia  mentioned  in  iSpencer  and 
Gillen's  "Across  Australia,"  also  are  well  worth  attention,  par- 
ticularly those  of  ^.  terniinalis  and  E.  eudesmoides,  because  these, 
perhaps,  may  be  examples  of  water-storing  Gums,  like  Bennett's. 

We  are  not  aware  that  analyses  of  the  root-water  of  the 
Mallees  have  been  published.  Magarey  mentions  that,  when 
freshly  obtained,  the  root- water  is  clear,  but  that,  after  standing 
for  some  time,  it  becomes  discoloured,  and  turbid  (^.c  ,  p.70).  Is 
the  turbidity  merely  due  to  a  chemical  precipitate  on  exposure 
to  the  air,  or  is  it  a  biological  phenomenon  ? 

Another  matter  that  is  deserving  of  consideration  is,  the  pos 
sible  significance  of  the  abundance  of  Lerp-manna  on  the  foliage 
of  some  of  the  Mallees,-at  certain. seasons  and  under  certain  con- 
drtions,  as. indicating  the  presence  o£ -some  form  of  sugar  in  the 
sap,  likely  to  be  a  source  of  nutriment  to  parasitic  micrabes. 
Particulars  about  its  occurrence  are  given,  by  Tepper,  in  the  paper 
already  mentioned;  and  in  the  Catalogue  of  tlte  Victorian  Ex- 
hibition, 1861,  Report  on  Class  iii.,-p.25,. under  the  head  of 
"  Manna." 

PI.  xxv.,  fig. 2,  and  PI.  xxvi.,  show  views  of  two  growing 
Mallees,  with  as  much  soil,  as  was  possible  with  pocket-knives 
and  hands,  scraped  away  from  the  base.  The  first  and  second 
of  the  three  probabh'  represent  E.  oleosa.  They  were  taken  in 
the  Scrub,  50  miles  north  of  Adelaide,  by  Mr.  A.  G.  Edquist,  to 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  227 

whom  we  are  indebted  for  them.  The  third,  in  which  the  hand- 
kerchiefs of  the  party  formed  the  background,  is  of  a  Mallee 
{E.  sp.)  at  Wyalong,  for  which  we  are  Indebted  to  Mr.  W.  J. 
Moffat,  who  also,  most  kindly,  did  his  best  to  obtain  seedlings 
at  Wyalong  for  us,  and  who  sent  us  the  Mallee-root  figured. 
The  published  illustrations  of  Mallees,  that  we  have  seen,  fail  to 
give  any  idea  of  what  is  out  of  sight  underground. 
Angophoras. 

We  have  obtained  good  series  of  seedlings  of  four  species,  A. 
cordi/'olia,  A.  r/ifermerlia,  A.  laiiceolata,  and  A.  suhvelutina. 
They  are  alike,  in  that  they  are  somewhat  refractory.  The  stem- 
nodules  are  slow  in  appearing,  that  is  the  incubation-period  is 
longer  than  in  the  Eucalypts  we  know  best.  Some  bush-seedlings 
of  a  batch,  that  were  over  a  year  old,  showed  just  recognisable 
steni-nodules;  but  others  showed  nothing  at  all.  Nevertheless, 
when  they  are  old  enough,  it  would  be  surprising  to  find  them 
without  some.  The  nodules  are  not  only  slow  in  appearing,  but 
they  grow  rather  slowly  after  they  do  appear.  Hence  it  is 
common  to  find  examples  on  which  only  the  first  pair  have  fused 
(PL  vi.,  fig.l);  and  one  of  these  often  grows  more  than  the  other, 
so  that  the  fusions  are  lopsided.  Meantime,  the  internodes  have 
had  time  to  lengthen,-  so  that,  even  if  there  were  fusions  of  the 
pairs  above  the  first,  there  is  little  chance  of  concrescences.  We 
have  some  advanced  seedlings,  however,  which  show  large  and 
complete  tumours.  Anomalies  are  common.  We  have  one 
seedling  with  six  incomplete  pairs,  and  nothing  else.  We  have 
not  seen  young  root-nodules,  like  those  figured  in  three  Eucalypt 
seedlings;  and  we  have  not  seen  later  stages  of  them  in  Euca- 
lypts. But  we  have  examples  of  Angophora  seedlings  with  what 
appear  to  be  late  stages,  unmistakably  on  the  root,  and  incor- 
porating roots. 

Though,  in  this  paper,  we  are  confining  our  attention  to  Euca- 
lypts and  Angophoras,  we  may  just  mention  that  we  have  speci- 
mens of  about  ten  species  of  other  genera  which  appear  to  be 
similarly  afflicted.  We  have  been  able  to  get  young  stages,  with 
paired,  a^^illary  nodules,  of  some  of  them;  but  it  is  difiicult  to 
get  young  enough  seedlings  of  the  others.  We  hope  to  offer 
some  observations  on  these  on  another  occasion. 


228  TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AND  ANGOPHORAS, 

List  of  Species,  exempt  or  liable,  as  far  as  known. 

We  give  a  list  of  the  species  of  which  we  have  seen  seedlings, 
or  in  two  cases,  of  seedlings  which  have  come  under  the  notice 
of  Mr.  Carabage.  We  offer  this  list  in  the  hope  that  biologists 
in  the  other  States  will  investigate  the  condition  of  the  seedlings 
of  Eucalypts  accessible  to  them,  which  we  cannot  get,  and, 
especially  seedlings  of  the  Mallees;  and  record  their  observations. 

Group  i.,  Exempt  *S'pecies.  — Six  species  are  known  to  us  at 
present— jE'.  oreades  from  the  Blue  Mountains,  E.  pilularis,  E. 
punctata,  E.  sp.,  from  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains  on  the 
western  side;  together  with  E.  gigantea  Hooker  {E.  Delegaiensis 
R.  'V.  Baker),  and  E.  fastigata,  both  from  the  Federal  Capital 
Territory  [collected  by  Mr.  Cambage].  We  have  obtained  seed- 
lings of  the  first  two  in  abundance;  of  the  third,  a  fair  number; 
of  the  fourth,  only  one,  but  it  is  a  fine  example.  Mr.  Cambage 
has  kindly  given  us  four  examples  of  E.  gigantea,  and  twelve  of 
E.fastigata,  most  of  them  quite  old  enough  to  show  that  they 
are  free  from  stem-nodules. 

The  seedlings  of  these  six  species,  as  far  as  we  have  seen,  are 
exempt  from  stem-nodules.  We  prefer  to  speak  of  them  as 
exempt,  rather  than  as  immune,  until  their  axillary  conditions 
have  been  investigated,  and  inoculations  carried  out.  The  seed- 
lings of  E.  oreades,  as  well  as  the  two  lots  of  Mr.  Cambage's 
seedlings,  up  to  the  stage  presented,  are  just  ordinary  seedlings, 
inviting  no  comment.  But  seedlings  of  E.  pilularis,  E.  punctata, 
and  E.  sp.,  as  they  increase  in  size,  invariably  as  far  as  we  have 
seen,  gradually  come  to  show  a  pyriform  thickening  of  the  base 
of  the  stem  (of  the  wood  to  some  extent,  but  especially  of  the 
bark,  as  may  be  seen  in  transverse  sections)  over  a  distance  of 
several  inches,  according  to  age.  This  is  not  pathological,  and 
seems  capable  of  a  simple  explanation.  The  capacity  of  the 
root-system  of  these  seedlings  for  receiving  the  elaborated  sap 
seems  to  be  unequal  to  the  capacity  of  the  stem  for  delivering  it; 
so  that  there  appears  to  be  a  stagnation  of  the  sap  about  the 
base  of  the  stem,  such  as  might  be  caused  by  a  constriction  or  a 
cincture.  The  enlargement  of  the  stem  ends  at  its  junction  with 
the  taproot,  and  does  not  involve  the  lateral  roots.  Transverse 
cracks  appear  in   the   bark,  and   flakes  often  come  away,  when 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  229 

large  specimens  are  dried,  though  tlie  wood  does  not  crack.  But 
the  large,  composite  tumours  of  seedlings  liable  to  them,  crack 
longitudinally,  sometimes  almost  to  the  centre,  when  drying,  as 
already  mentioned.  Mr.  Cambage's  specimens  are  not  old 
enough  to  show  this  development,  if  they  have  it  in  later  stages. 

Group  ii. — Two  l^loodwoods,  E.  corymbosa  and  E.  exiniia, 
which  have  but  one  efl'ective  pair  of  axillary  stem-nodules,  as  a 
rule;  though  other  unimportant  ones  may  appear  in  late  stages: 
but  the  fusion  of  this  pair,  almost  invariably  fuses  with  an 
indefinitely  located,  unpaired  nodule  at  a  lower  level;  and  the 
resulting,  composite  tumour  extends  downwards,  partially  or 
entirely  surrounding  the  axis,  and  incorporating  lateral  roots. 

Group  iii. — Species  liable  to  attack,  but  susceptible  or  refrac- 
tory in  varying  degrees.  This  group  will  include  all  the  Mallees, 
and  the  three  species  mentioned  by  Tate  (E.  viminalis,  E.  ros- 
trata,  and  E.  leucoxylon),  of  which  we  have  not  seen  specimens. 
'  County  of  Cumberland  and  the  Blue  Mountains. — E.  hcema- 
■Homa,  E.  tereticornis,  E.  Deanei,  E.  saligna^  E.  maculosa^  E. 
rubida,  E.  Luehmanniaria,  E.  squamosa,  E.  crebra,  E.  ^^aniculata, 
E.  siderophloia,  E.  sideroxylon^  E.  amygdalina,  E.  piperita,  E. 
hetniphloia,  E.  longifolia  (nursery-seedlings),  E.  i^esinifera,  E. 
robusta  (nursery-seedlings),  E.  cajntellata,  E.  eugenioides,  E. 
Sieberiana,  E.  Moorei,  E.  stricta:  and  seedlings  of  sevei-al  species 
not  identified.  We  have  not  been  able  to  get  seedlings  of  E. 
botryoides  and  E.  maculata. 

Berrima  and  Moss  Vale.  — ^.  amygdalina,  E.  coriacea,  E.  dives, 
and  E.  Macarthuri  [all  collected  by  Mr.  Cambage;  who  has  also 
given  us  two  specimens  of  E.  coriacea  from  Jindabyne,  K.S.W.I. 
We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  Cheel  for  a  fine  late  stage  of  E. 
6ieberiana  from  Hill  Top. 

Marulan, — E.  cinerea  (Argyle  Apple),  and  fine  seedlings  of 
three  unidentified  species  locally  known  as  Yellow  Box,  Broad 
Peppermint,  and  Snappy  or  Brittle  Gum  [collected  by  Mr.  H.  H. 
Solomon]. 

Wyalong,  N.S.W. — E.  Behriana,  E.  fruticetorum,  E.  viridis 
[collected  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Mofiat  and  Mr.  Cambage]. 

Queensland.— Axillary  stem-nodules  have  been  recorded  by 
Mr.  Cambage  on  a  seedling  of  E.  pallidifolia-*  and  he  has  in- 
*  Journ.  Proe.  R.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  xlix.,  p. 435  (1916). 


230  TUxMOURS  OF   EUCALVPTS  AND  ANGOPHOKAS, 

formed  us  that  he  has  a  plant  of  E.  pruinosa  with  stem-nodules, 
in  his  bush-house,  raised  from  seed,  which  he  collected  in  Tropical 
(Queensland. 

West  Australia. — A  pot-plant  of  E.  macrocarpa  (PI.  x.,  fig. 6) 
which  died:  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  G.  Hamilton  for  this 
specimen.  We  have  seen  a  flourishing  pot-plant  of  E.  ficifolia, 
with  two  pairs  of  stem-nodulesj  but  were  unable  to  see  how  it 
compares  with  the  two  Blood  woods  referred  to  above,  in  respect 
of  the  presence  of  an  impaired  nodule. 

New  Zealand. — In  reply  to  a  request,  addressed  to  a  friend 
in  New  Zealand,  for  information  about  Eucalypt  seedlings  raised 
from  seed  there,  we  were  kindly  supplied  with  five,  representing 
as  many  species,  from  the  nursery  of  T.  Horton,  Ltd.,  at  Hast- 
ings or  Pahiatua,  we  are  not  quite  sure  which.  They  are  seed- 
lings, from  10-18  inches  high,  of  species  that  we  had  not  pre- 
viously seen.  Three  are  labelled  E.  Gunnii,  E.  glohulns.  and  E. 
Stuartiana.  The  first  has  two  pairs  of  stem-nodules:  the  first 
pair  nearly  fused,  and  both  have  shoots;  the  stem  was  broken  off 
just  above  the  second  pair.  The  second,  though  it  is  the  largest 
seedling  of  the  lot,  has  only  one  pair,  unfused.  The  third  has 
the  first  pair  only,  fused  on  one  side.  The  fourth  is  wrongly 
labelled  E.  coriacea,  as  the  leaf-characters  are  different  from 
those  of  specimens  of  this  species,  from  two  localities,  given  to 
us  by  Mr.  Cambage.  This  has  the  first  pair  veiy  large  and 
warty,  not  completely  fused;  one  of  the  second  pair  very  small; 
and  a  third  pair,  very  small,  and  unequal  in  size.  The  fifth  is 
labelled  "  Ked-flowering  Gum,"'  with  an  unfamiliar  botanical 
name  that  we  cannot  trace  in  any  list  of  Eucalypts,  known  to 
us.  This  has  the  first  pair  large,  but  not  fused,  one  with  two 
shoots;  a  second  pair,  very  small,  one  with  a  shoot;  and  the 
third  pair  still  smaller. 

Th^se  are  the  first  and  only  seedlings  with  stem-nodules  from 
outside  Australia  that  we  have  seen;  or  that  we  know  of,  except 
Mr.  Clayton  Smith's  Californian  specimens,  already  mentioned. 
The  interesting  thing  about  them  is,  that  they  show  substantially 
what  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in  Australian  specimens.  We 
have  not  seen  any  Tasmanian  seedlings,  but  we  shall  expect  to 
hear  that  seedlings  of  E.  globulus  in  Tasmania  are  liable.     We 


BY  J.  ,1.   FLETCHER  AND  C.   T.   >JUSSON.  23 1 

appeal  to  biologists  in  other  countries,  where  Eucalypts  are 
acclimatised,  to  examine  seedlings  for  the  presence  or  absence  of 
axillary  stem-nodules;  and  to  record  their  observations. 

The  problem,  in  which  we  hope  our  illustrations  (certainly  an 
advance  upon  what  has  hitherto  been  attempted,  though  there 
is  scope  for  supplementing  them),  will  arouse  some  interest,  is 
not  a  simple  problem,  that  can  be  solved  by  anyone  single-handed. 
Even  when  the  systematic  botanist  has  done  his  share,  the 
problem,  in  its  entirety,  requires  team-work — the  active  co-oper- 
ation of  the  field-botanist,  the  phytopathologist  who  is  an  expert 
bacteriologist,  the  morphologist,  and  the  biochemist.  The  time 
is  ripe  for  its  consideration.  The  Mallee  Scrubs  are  steadily 
vanishing  in  the  more  accessible  districts  of  several  of  the  States. 
The  investigations  of  Erwin  Smith  and  some  of  his  colleagues, 
on  Crown-Gall,  reported  in  detail  as  to  technique,  the  histology 
of  the  tumours,  &c.,  and  well  illustrated,"^  are  available  for  the 
bacteriologist  as  a  starting-point.  In  addition,  there  are  Erwin 
Smith's  "  Bacterial  Plant-Diseases'"  (3  vols,  already  published), 
besides  his  numerous  papers  on  the  subject  of  plant-tumours,  as 
well  as  Clayton  Smith's  paper;  so  that  there  is  ample  literature 
to  begin  with. 

In  Coville  and  Macdougall's  "  Desert  Botanical  Laboratory  of 
the  Carnegie  Institution,"  in  Hornaday's  "Camp-Fires  on  Desert 
and  Lava,"  and  in  Vols.  xiii.,and  xvi.,  of  Contributions  from  the 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  a  number  of  characteristic,  North 
American  desert  plants  are  described,  and  in  many  cases  illus- 
trated. Some  are  said  to  have  thickened,  underground  trunks, 
or  to  be  shrubs  with  numerous  stems  from  a  single  root,  or  with 
several  stems  clustered  at  the  top  of  a  thick,  black  root,  or  with 
numerous  stems  given  off  from  a  thickened  root.  Some  of  them, 
to  us,  are  suggestive  of  the  appearance  and  habit  of  the  Austra- 
lian Mallees.  If  the  seedlings  of  the  most  remarkable  of  th^m 
have  not  been  investigated,  we  would  call  the  attention  of 
American  botanists  to  the  advisability  of  examining  these,  in 
order  to  test  the  current  interpretations  of  the  adult  condition; 

*  "Crown  Gall  of  Plants:  its  Cause  and  Remedy,"  and  "The  Structure 
and  Development  of  Crown-Gall:  a  Plant-Cancer."  Bulletin,  Nos.213 
(1911)  and  25o(1912),  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


2o2         TUMOURS  OF  EUCALYPTS  AXD  ANGOPHORAS, 

and  to  ascertain  whether  any  of  them  are  comparable  with  the 
Australian  Mallees. 

AVe  are  greatl}'  indebted  to  our  correspondents  at  a  distance, 
for  their  kindness  and  trouble  in  sending  us  such  material  as 
they  were  able  to  get.  But  we  are  specially  indebted  to  Mr. 
Cambage,  not  only  for  material,  but  for  his  valuable  help  in 
identifying  a  number  of  our  seedlings,  and  in  other  ways.  We 
have  also  to  thank  Principal  Potts  for  the  opportunity  of  getting 
samples  of  seedlings  of  four  species  ivom  seed-beds  at  the  Hawkes- 
bury  College  which  have  been  of  great  use  to  us:  and  to  Mr.  A. 
A.  Lawson  for  help  in  completing  our  series  of  photographs. 

Corrigendum. — Page  191,  line  31  - /or  length  read  lengthen. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  IV. -XXVI. 

Fig.s.Al,  A2.  — Nodules  in  axils  of  eotj'ledon.s  {£\  co)'i/inbo-<a). 
Eigs.Bl-B3 — Nodules  in  leaf-axils  {E.  hemtphloia). 

Fig.s.Cl,  C2. — Nodule-shoots  after  injur}'  to  growing-points   of  seedhng- 
.stems  (E.  hemiphloia). 

Plate  V. 
(Upper  row,  right-left). — Gradational  series  of  live  young  seedlings,  with 

from  one  to  three  pairs  of  axillary  nocUiles  {E.  hemiphloia). 
(Lower  row). — Five  similar  seedlings  of  E.  sideroxyhn. 

Plate  vi. 
Fig.  1. — Stem -encircling   tumour,    Mith  iihooti^  [Awjophora   kmceolata):  no 

roots  incorporated  yet. 
Fig-2. — Three  pairs  of  axillary  nodules  [E.  ftrtticornia). 
Fig. 3. — Second-growth  tumour-shoots Mith  axillary  nodules  (E.  rest iiif era). 

Plate  Ml. 
Miscellaneous,  remarkable  t^eedlings.     (Left-right),   1-3,  E.  euguiioidts;  -i 
and  6,  E,  piperita;  (j  and  7,  E.  ha^maftoina;  (nat.  size'. 

Plate  viii. 
Four  anomalous  seedlings   (a,    E.  r€'<in.ifera\  bL  b'2.  E.  /lemiphhia;  c,  E. 
fiideroxyloii);  nat.  size. 

Plate  IX. 
Refractory  seedlings  [E.  robnda^  with  from  one  to  six,  futile  nodules;  (nat. 
size). 

Plate  X. 
Another  series  of  refractory  seedlings.      (Left-right);  a,  E.  robusta;  b,  E. 
macrocarpa;  cl,  c2,  E.  longifoiia;  (nat.  size). 


BY  J.  J.  FLETCHER  AND  C.  T.  MUSSON.  233 

Plate  xi. 
(Left-right),  1-4,   E.  corymhosa',  5-8,  E.  eximia;  (a,  cotyledonaiy,  axillary 
nodules;  .r,  unpaired  nodule:  /•.??,.  root-nodule);  nat.  size. 

Plate  xii. 
(Left-right),  three  root-nodules, /-.??.  {E,  hemiphloia);  2,  two  tumour-shoots 
with  axillary  nodules  (E.  jjiperita);  three  examples  of  failure,   on 
the   part   of   the   nodules,    a',    to  capture  the  buds,    ax.  .■^h.,   {E. 
eugenioides). 

Plates  xiii.-xvii. 
E.  .^ideroxi/lon-sevies,   continued  from  the  lower  figure  of  Plate  v.     (See 
pp.216-219). 

Plate  xviii. 
E.  eugenioides:  belated,  axillary  stem -nodules  at  nine  levels,  in  addition 
to  the  concrescence  (a);  (  x  |), 

Plate  xix. 
E.  eugenioides:  a  belated  stem-nodule  (A2)  and  its  main  shoot,   getting 
their  chance  on  the  death  of  the  seedling-stem  (s.st.). 

Plate  XX. 
E.   tereticornis:   encircling   insect-gall  on  large  tumour-shoot    (after   the 
seedling-stem  perished);  nat.  size. 

Plate  xxi. 
Fig.  1. — E,  Behriana  (sometimes  a  tree). 
Fig. 2. — 'Non-MaWee  {E.  tereticoi-nis);  last  stage. 
Fig.  3. —A  Mallee  (E.  viridis). 

Plate  xxii. 
Mallees:  la,  lb,  E.  stricta;  2,  E.  Moorei;  3,  E.  fruticetorum. 

Plate  xxiii. 
Tumour  of  E.  Behriana-,  (  x  |). 

Plate  xxiv. 
A  small  ••Mallee-Koof  from  Wyalong,  N.S.W.  {E.  sp.). 

Plate  XXV. 
Fig.  1. — Seedling  of    E.   tereticornis,    with  nodule-shoots,   and   precocious 

branching. 
Fig.2. — A  Mallee  {E.  oleosa^);  photo  taken  50  miles  north  of  Adelaide, 

Plate  xxvi. 
Fig.  1. — A  nearer  view  of  the  basal  portion  of  the  Mallee  shown  in  Plate 

xxv.,  fig.2;  the  soil  has  been  scraped  away  from  the  base. 
Fig.2. — Basal  portion  of  a  Mallee  {E.  sp.)  at  Wyalong;  the  soil  has  been 

scraped  away.     White  background  furnished  by  handkerchiefs, 


234 


OE  BINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

May  29th,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Letters  were  communicated  from  Professor  S.  J.  Johnston, 
returning  thanks  for  congratulations  on  his  appointment  to  the 
Chair  of  Zoology  in  the  University  of  Sydney;  and  Dr.  A.  B. 
Walkom,  returning  thanks  for  congratulations  on  his  attaining 
the  Doctorate  of  Science. 

It  was  resolved  that  the  congratulations  of  the  Members  should 
be  tendered  to  Dr.  T.  Griffith  Taylor,  of  Melbourne,  on  the  award, 
to  him,  of  the  David  Syme  Prize  for  1918. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting ■(24th  April,  1918),  amounting  to  15  Vols.,  43 
Parts  or  Nos.,  7  Bulletins,  2  Reports,  and  7  Pamphlets,  received 
from  42  Societies,  and  two  private  donors,  were  laid  upon  the 
table. 

NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Mr.  Fred  Turner  exhibited  a  specimen  of  Peniiisetum  longi- 
stylum  Hochst.,  an  Abyssinian  grass  now  acclimatised  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Chats  wood.  More  than  twenty-five  years  ago 
the  exhibitor  found  this  highly  ornamental  grass  near  the  old 
battery  in  the  Sydney  Domain,  but  the  plants  were  afterwards 
destroyed  during  the  levelling  of  the  ground,  after  the  removal 
of  the  cannons. 

Mr,  Froggatt  exhibited  an  immature  specimen  of  the  Spinj^ 
Stick-Insect,  Extafosoma  tiaratum  Macl.,  from  Rollings  Plains, 
N.S.W.,  a  remarkable  example  of  protective  mimicry.  Also 
specimens  of  a  common  grass  in  the  Holbrook  district,  N.S.W., 
very  thickly  infested  with  the  larvse  of  a  Cecidomyia  fly,  allied 


NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS.  235 

to  the  Hessian  Fly.    Inspector  F.  F.  Foster,  of  the  Stock  Branch, 
wlio  collected  the  specimens,  reports  that  it  is  very  abundant. 

Mr.  Basset  Hull  showed  a  small  collection  of  Land  and  Fresh- 
water Molhisks,  obtained  by  Gunner  F.  B.  Hull  at  various  points 
in  France,  on  the  Western  Front. 

Mr.  E.  Cheel  exhibited  a  series  of  specimens. — (1)  Seedling- 
plants  of  Hakea  dactyloides  and  Banksia  serraUi  from  Hill  Top, 
Main  Southern  Line,  and  specimens  of  roots  from  full-grown 
plants  of  Grevillea  montana  from  Hill  Top,  and  G.  punicea  from 
the  Sydney  District,  to  show  their  peculiar  roots,  which  exhibit 
an  excessive  production  of  small,  fibrous  roots,  originating,  at 
intervals  along  the  main  roots,  in  clusters,  somewhat  resembling 
the  "Hairy-root  Disease  of  the  Apple-tree";  these  are  being  in- 
vestigated for  Mycorhiza.  — (2)  Seedling- plants  of  Tephrosia 
grandijlora^  which  have  a  simple  ovate  leaf,  followed  by  a  tri- 
foliate leaf,  then  a  pinnate  leaf,  although  only  about  2  inches 
high;  they  have  comparatively  large,  triangularly-shaped  nodules 
on  the  rootlets,  measuring  from  5-7  mm.  across.  —  (3)  Two  forms 
of  Oxalis  cornicidatus,  with  the  following  distinctive  characters: 
{a I  Plants  with  small,  pale  green  leaves,  and  small,  lemon-yellow 
flowers  :  {b}  Plants  with  larger  leaves,  which,  together  with  the 
stems,  are  of  a  purple  or  bronze-green  colour,  and  each  petal 
more  or  less  spotted  or  splashed  at  the  base  with  four  purplish 
marks.  Corolla  slightly  larger,  and  of  a  deeper  yellow  than 
those  of  (a).  It  is  interesting  to  note,  that  Sigeroka  Nohara,  in 
a  paper  entitled  "Genetical  Studies  on  Oxalis"  (Journ.  College 
of  Agric.  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo,  vi.,  p.  165,  1915),  has 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  0.  cornicidata  is  a  composite  species, 
which,  so  far  as  his  investigations,  extending  over  a  period  of 
about  six  years,  have  shown,  includes  at  least  four  different 
biotypes.  The  plants  common  in  the  Sydney  District  agree  in 
some  respects  with  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tokyo,  but 
the  small-leaved  form  seems  somewhat  different  from  those  men- 
tioned by  Nohara.  -(4)  Specimens  of  Ruhus  lacinialus  Willd., 
commonly  known  as  the  "Cut-leaved  or  Parsley-leaved  Bramble," 
from  near  Raymond  Terrace,  collected  during  a  recent  visit  to 


236  NOTES    AND    KXHIBITS. 

Newcastle.  The  plants  are  fairly  common  along  the  roadside, 
about  five  miles  out  on  the  Gloucester  Road,  and  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  collected  since  January,  1882,  when  the  late  Mr. 
E.  Betche  obtained  specimens  at  Gloucester. — (5)  Examples  of 
Rosa  hracteata  Wendl.,  from  near  Raymond  Terrace.  Specimens 
identical  with  the  above  were  exhibited,  and  recorded  from 
Kembla  Grange,  Cook's  River,  and  Armidale  (These  Proceedings, 
1912,  p.  137;  and  1916,  p.633),  under  the  name  Rosa  turhinata 
Ait.;  but  further  investigation  shows  that,  although  they  are 
identical  with  specimens  in  the  National  Herbarium  from  Mont- 
pellier  under  the  latter  name,  the  determination  is  erroneous. — 
(6)  Fresh  specimens  of  Styphelia  tubiflora,  from  Cronulla,  show- 
ing variation  in  the  colour  of  the  flowers,  from  creamy-white  in 
some  plants,  pink  and  cream  in  others,  and  the  normal  blood-red. 
Although  the  individual  plants  showed  the  above-mentioned 
distinctive  colours,  they  were  growing  within  a  radius  of  15  feet 
of  each  other,  and  were  very  marked. 

Mr.  Hedley  showed  a  photograph  of  the  cenotaph  in  memory 
of  Major  A.  C.  Innes  (ob.  1857),  and  Mrs.  Innes  (nee  Margaret 
Macleay,  daughter  of  Alexander  Macleay  :  ob.  1858j,  in  the  old 
church  at  Port  Macquarie.  References  to  Major  and  Mrs.  Innes, 
and  to  their  home  at  Lake  Innes,  in  1836,  will  be  found  in  James 
Backhouse's  "  Narrative  of  a  Visit  to  the  Australian  Colonies,'" 
p.406(1843). 

Mr.  A.  G.  Hamilton  communicated  some  particulars  about 
so-called  "glow-worms,"  probably  larvae  of  a  Tipulid  fly,  found 
on  damp,  rocky  ledges  on  the  banks  of  a  creek  near  Bundanoon. 
They  are  said  to  be  found  also  in  deserted  coal-mines. 

Mr.  Waite,  a  visitor  from  Adelaide,  called  attention  to  the 
first  Part  of  the  liecords  of  the  South  Australian  Museum,  at 
Adelaide,  recently  issued. 


tl'iinled  oti;  June  27tlK  lOlS.J 


The  Origin  of  Yolk  in  tl.e  ova  of  Ubrius  Idlll  Kestv. 


t:  .9- 


(Ipiier    rnw.    v\^\n    to    left).    Five   sec(lliu<;>.    with    fnnii    (Hic    to    three   paii-s   of   nodules 
IE.    Id  inipliloiaj.       (Lower    row).    Five    >iinilar    seedlings    of    E.    sidcroxijlon. 


P.L.S.N.S.W     1918 


1.   Steiii-onoircling   iimiMiir   with    shoots   (A.    lanccolata).      -1.   Three   p;nvs  ot    ii.xhiles    (E.    tereticonii.sj. 
(Lower    fiy.)    Seeund-gnAvtli    tuniuur-shonis    witli    axillaiy    iiofUiles    (E.    rrsinifrra). 


P.L.S.N.SW.    1919. 


llofractury  seedlings:   a,   E.   robusta  :    I.,   E.    inuvrocarini ;   cl,   c2,   E.   /■■ 


/■-'.    .y/(/(;v.*.c///o/(-.scric>,    Loiiclucled 


phiiit    sliuwii     ill     I'l.     xvi.,    t\ix.     1  ;     (nat.    sizcj. 


.L.S.N.S.W.  1918. 


/i,'.    I  ii(/rnt<>idrs:    helated,    axillary    stem-nodiiles    at    nine    levels,    irrespective    of    the  concrescence,   «. 


/•;.    <,i,l.ni.n,h 


Ix-lated    stciM-nodulc    (A2)    and   its   main   sliuot, 
of    the   seedling-stetii    Is.  st.) 


he    .l.atli 


P.L.R   N.S.W.  1918. 


E.  teretieornis:  encircling  insect-gall  on  large  tumour-shoot  (after  the  seedling-stem  perished) 

nat.  size. 


P.L.S.N.S.W. 


S^Skd^d) 


Tumour  of  E.  Behriana;   (xf), 


P.L.a.N.S.W.  1918. 


A  small  "Mallee-Root"  from  WyiiVma,  X.S.W.    {E.  s]).). 


.L.S.N.SiW.   1918. 


Fiji'.   1.  Xoarer  view  of  basal  portion  of  the  Malk'o  in  preceding  Plate. 
Fig.  2.  Similar  view  of  another  Mallee  (white  hackgronnd  furnished  by  handkerchiefs). 


237 


iilA'i' 


o:n"  the  seasonal  distribution  of  some 

QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF  ARCELLA  Ehrenbero-. 

By  C.  D.  Gillies,  M.Sc,  Biology  Department,  University  of 
Queensland. 

(Co'inmiinirafed  hi/  Dr.   T.  Ifarn^y  JiJinslmi. ) 

(With  foiu-  Text-fio'ures). 

(1.)  General 

The  Rliizopodan  genus  Arcella  Elirenberu-,  is  represented  in 
the  fauna  of  freshwater  pools  of  Queensland  so  far  investigated, 
l)y  four  well  difterentiated  forms,  viz.,  A.  viihfaris  Ehr.,  A.  dis- 
coides^hv.,  A.  mitr<Ua  T^eidy,  and  A.  artocrea  Leidy.  On  account 
of  the  present  condition  of  Rliizopodan  taxonomy,  these  terms 
are  to  be  interpreted  in  this  paper  as  follows  :  — 

A.  vulc/aris  Ehr.,  small,  hemispherical  forms  in  which  the  test 
may  be  either  smooth  or  gibbose. 

A.  discoides  Ehr.,  flat,  disk-like  species,  with  the  alveoli  of  tlie 
test  very  small. 

A.  mitrata  Leidy,  test  normally  polygonal;  alveoli  conspicuous; 
pylome  with  a  double  invagination. 

A.  artocrea  Leidy:  under  this  appellation  is  included  a  number 
of  large  forms  in  which,  typically,  the  basal  portion  of  the  test 
is  rim-like.  This  feature  ranges  from  being  well  developed  to 
absent,  but,  in  a  series,  there  is  no  questioning  the  identity  of 
the  latter  variant  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  the  rim.  The  fundus  of 
the  test  is  hemispherical,  and  the  alveolar  markings  are  con- 
spicuous. These  forms  may  be  regarded  as  the  Queensland 
representatives  of  the  species  described  l)y  Leidy  under  this  name. 

A.  dentata  Leidy,  has  not  been  observed,  though  it  has  been 
searched  for.      This  may  be  on  account  of  its  rare  occurrence,  for- 


238  QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF  ARCELLA, 

Leidy  [(2)  p.  177],  Kofoid  [iD  p.  100],  and  Wailes  [(3)  p.  129],  all 
refer  to  its  scarcity. 

In  this  paper  are  presented  the  results  of  a  preliminary  inquir}^ 
into  the  seasonal  distribution  of  the  four  forms  met  with  in 
Queensland.  The  various  collections  examined  were  preserved 
in  w^eak  formalin,  and,  for  identification  and  counting,  an  ocular 
of  medium  powder,  and  a  2  3  objective,  usually  w^ere  found  suffi- 
cient. In  this  investigation,  any  Arcelln-tes't  not  containing  the 
organism  was  rejected. 

Data. 

(1).  Brisbane  Botanical  Gardens. 

These  observations,  extending  from  ^^eptember  29th,  1916,  to 
29th  December,  1917,  have  been  made  by  the  monthly  examina- 
tion of  material  from  a  lagoon  near  the  old  Bird-House.  Gather- 
ings were  usually  taken  about  the  end  of  each  month,  but,  on 
6th  October,  1916,  and  12th  September,  1917,  supplementary 
material  was  obtained,  and,  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the 
introduction  of  disturbing  factors,  the  collections  were  made 
near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  major  axis  of  the  lagoon, 
which  is  elliptical  in  shape. 

(b)6th  Oct,  1916. 
Actual  No. 

counted.       Pei'centage. 

0  0 

0  0 

16  16 

84  84 

100  100 

(d)28th  Nov.,  1916. 

0  0 

43  86 

7  14 

0  0 

Total       ...  50  100  50  100 


A. 
A. 

(a) 

vulgaris 
discoides 

29th  Sept.,  1916 
Actual  No. 
counted. 
1 
3 

Percentage. 
2-5 
7-5 

A. 

mitrata 

2 

5 

A. 

artocrea 

34 

85 

Total 

40 

100 

A. 

A. 

(c)  30th  Oct.,  1916. 
vulgaris     ...               0 
discoides    ...              1 

0 
2 

A. 

mitrata 

20 

40 

A. 

artocrea 

29 

58 

BY  C.  D.  GILLIES. 


239 


(e) 

28th  Dec,  1916. 

(f)  30th  Jan., 

1917. 

Actual  No.    1 

Percentage. 

Actual  No.    Percentage 

A, 

vulgaris 

74 

71-85 

84 

84 

A. 

discoides 

5 

4-85 

0 

0 

A. 

tnitrata 

20 

19-42 

13 

13 

A. 

artocrea 

4 

3-88 

3 

3 

Total 

103 

100-00 

100 

100 

(g) 

28th  Feb.,  1917 

(h)29th  March, 

1917. 

A 

vulgaris 

37 

37 

67 

67 

A. 

discoides 

1 

1 

2 

2 

A. 

mitrata 

8 

8 

19 

19 

A 

artocrea 

54 

54 

12 

12 

Total 


Total 


100 


100 


100 


100 


(i)  2nd 
A.  vidgaris     ... 
A.  discoides    ... 

May,  1917. 

71 

4 

71 
4 

(J) 

31st  May,  1917 

77       '       77 
5                  5 

A.  mitrata 

19 

19 

10                10 

A.  artocrea     ... 

6 

6 

8                 8 

100 


100 


100 


100 


(k) 

23rd  June, 

1917. 

(1) 

1st  Aug., 

1917. 

A.  vulgaris 

41 

40-60 

31 

62 

A.  discoides 

0 

0 

3 

6 

A.  mitrata 

43 

42-57 

8 

16 

A.  artocrea 

17 

16-83 

8 

16 

Total 

101 

10000 

50 

100 

(m) 

31st  Aug., 

1917. 

(n) 

12th  Sept. 

,  1917 

A.  vulgaris 

82 

82 

35 

70 

A.  discoides 

0 

0 

0 

0 

A.  mitrata 

1 

1 

4 

8 

A.  artocrea 

17 

17 

11 

22 

Total 

100 

100 

'^ 

100 

240 


QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF   AHCKLLA, 


(o)  28th  Sept. 

,  1917. 

A. 

A. 

Actual  No. 
vulyaris     ...                    3 
discpides    ...                   1 

Percentage 
21-43 
7-14 

A 

mifrata 

3 

21-43 

A 

artocrea 

7 

50-00 

Total       ...  14  100  00 

Only  14  Aicella?  were  counted  on  tliis  occasion,  consequently 
tlie  percentage  values  are  not  so  significant  as  in  the  preceding 
tables. 

(p)  2nd  Nov.,  1917. 

Actual  No.     Percentage. 
A .  vulyaris     ...  G  18-18 

A.  discoides   ...  3  9-09 

A.mitrata      ...  15  45  45 

A.  artocrea     ...  9  27-28 


(q)30t.h  Nov.,  1917. 
Actual  No.    Percentage. 
1  20 

1  20 

2  40 
1  20 


Total 


33 


100-00 


100 


In  figs. 1-4,  the  lines  connecting  the  values  of  this  date  with 
those  of  2nd  November  on  the  one  hand,  and  30th  December  on 
the  other,  are  broken  to  indicate  that  little  importance  should 
be  as.sociated  with  them,  as  the  total  number  actually  counted  is 
too  small  to  convey  much  meaning.  On  this  occasion,  Arcella? 
for  counting  were  extremely  rare. 

(r)  29th  Dec,  1917. 
Actual  No. 
A.  vulgaris        ...  26 

A.  discoides       ...  5 

A.  mitrata         ...  14 

A    artocrea         ...  5 


Percentage. 
52 
10 

28 
JO 


Total 
(2).  Locality,  Bribie  Island. 

A .  vulyaris  . . . 
A.  mitrata    ... 


50 


100 


Date,  early  in  April,  1915. 

Actual  No.       Percentage. 
23  60-53 

15  39-47 


Total 


38 


10000 


6Y  C.   t».   GlLLtES. 


241 


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24: 


QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF  ARCELLA, 


(3).  Locality,  Beerburrum.     Date,  29th  June,  1917. 
Two  living  Arcellae  observed,  both  A.  vulgaris. 
(4).  Locality,  Chelmer.     Dale,  29th  Aug.,  1917. 
Eight  living  Arcellte  observ^ed,  all  A.  vulgaris. 
(5).  Locality,  Graceville.     Date,  29th  Aug.,  1917. 
Twenty-three  living  Arcellte  observed,  all  A.  vulgaris. 
(6).  Locality,  Cooroy.     Date,  6th  Oct.,  1917. 
Fifty  living  Arcellee  observed,  all  A.  artocrea. 
(7).  Locality,  West  Burleigh.     Date,  October,  1917. 
Twenty-three  living  Arcelhe  observed,  all  A.  artocrea. 
(8).  Locality,  Maryborough.      Date,  24th  Nov.,  1917. 
Twenty-two  living  Arcellffi  counted,  all  A.  vulgaris. 


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Oct.   Nov.    Dec  Ja-r).    Fet.    Mir    Apl.     Miy    Jun.   Jul.    /lu§.  Sep.    Oct.  Nov.    Dee. 

Fi^.  1. — Percentage -t'luqueuoy  of  ArcdJa  ru/gari.shi  Arcellaii  fauna.     Brisbane 
Botanical  (hardens:  Sept.  29th,  1916,  to  Dec.  29th,  1917. 

(3.)  Conclusions. 
Figs.  1-4  are  graphical   representations  of  the  data  given  in 
Table  i.,  and  each  species  is  graphed  separately.     It  will  be  seen 
that  the  polygons  are  constructed   on  percentages.     In  taking 


BY  C.   D.  GILLIKS. 


243 


the  observations,  when  the  Arcellse  were  sufficiently  abundant, 
100  counts  were  made;  but,  on  a  number  of  occasions,  this  was 
not  done  through  the  scarcity  of  the  genus,  the  extreme  case 
being  in  connection  with  the  gathering  of  30th  November,  1917, 
when  only  five  counts  were  recorded. 

Fig.  1,  A.  vulgaris.  The  graph  shows  two  primary  minimum 
periods  (29th  Sept. -28th  Nov.,  1916,  and  28th  8ept.-1  Nov.,  1917)^ 
and  a  long  maximum  period  (28th  Dec,  1916-12th  Sept.,  1917) 
with  three  secondary  maxima  (30th  Jan.,  31st  May,  31st  Aug., 
1917),  and  two  secondary  minima  (28th  Feb.  and  28th  June, 
1917).     The  highest  point  of  the  curve  is  84%  (28th  Jan.,  1917), 


fOO. 

m<l    1 

-he  1 

owes 

>t  zero  (b 

th  O 

ct.,  , 

Wth 

Oct. 

,  28 

th  ^ 

ov.. 

191fc 

>)• 

qo 

%0 

1 

10. 

\ 

\ 

.10 

r 

\ 

10 

/      r 

A 

/       ^ 

\ 

10. 

10 

/         ' 

A 

A 

<:'■ 

0. 

l^ 

'.  ^ 

:^ 

^ 

-v^ 

x^^ 

^ 

^ 

[s^ 

Ji 

Ox-j-v-; 

•'■■■:■:':'. 

;  i-  ■  '•"■ 

Oct.    Nov.  Dec.  Ja;n.  Feb.  Ma.r  Apl.  Ma.y   Jun,  Jul.   AuJ.    Sep.  Oct,    Nov.  Dee. 
Fig.2. — Percentage-frequency  of  A.  diacoides  in  Arcellan  fauna.      Ihisbane 
Botanical  Gardens  :  Sept.  29th,  191(3,  to  Dec.  291  h,  1917. 


It  seems  probable  that  the  primary  maximum  and  minimum 
periods  are  typical  for  the  species  in  Southern  Queensland, 
because,  in  the  occasional  material  collected  in  the  maximum 
period   Dec. -Sept.,  the  dominant  form  is  A.  vulgaris  {see  Bribie 


244 


QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF  ARCELLA, 


Island,  CheJiner,  Graceville,  Beerl)urrum,  and  Maryborough).* 
Fuithermoie,  material  gatheied  during  the  minimum  period 
Sept.- Dec,  sliows  a  different  dominant  form  (see  Cooroy  and 
West  Burleigh).  A  feature  of  considerable  importance  in  this 
connection  is,  that  the  most  southerly  and  .the  most  northerly 
locality  are  ai)Out  190  miles  apart,  viz.,  West  Burleigh  and 
Maryboi'ough 

Fig.2,  A.  discoides.  Tlie  values  in  this  graph  are  mostly  small, 
a!id,  out  of  eighteen  observations,  eleven  range  from  0  5%  (6th 
Oct.,  30th  Oct.,  28th  Dec,  1916;  30th  Jan.,  28th  Feb.,  29th 
March,  2nd  May,  31st  May,  28th  June,  31st  Aug.,  12th  Sept.. 
1917).  There  is  only  one  prominent  maximum  (86%,  2Sth  Nov., 
1916). 

Until  more  data  arc  (collected  in  the  case  of  this  species,  aiid 
of  A.  mitnUa.  it  is  considered  premature  to  draw  conclusions, 
though  there  is  reason  to  believe  November  is  a  maximuni  2)eriod. 


SO 


^0 


30 


to. 


10. 


Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Ja/n.  Feb.  Ma-r.  Apl.  Miy  Jan.  Jul.   Auj.  Sep.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 

Fi^'.o. — Percentage-frequency  (if  A.  mitrnta  in  Arcellan  fauna.      IJrisbanc 
IJotanical  (Jardens  :  Sept.  -illth.  lUlC,  to  Dec.  29th,  1917. 

Fig. 3,  A.  mitrafa.  Three  maxima  are  present  (30th  Oct.,  191G: 
28th  June,  2nd  Nov.,  1917)  and  of  these,  two  (30th  Oct.,  1916, 
and  2nd  Nov.,  1917)  occur  during  the  maximum  period  of  J. 
vulgaris.  On  only  one  occasion  did  the  percentage  fall  belo^^ 
0%  (1%  31st  Aug.,   1917).     It  is  the  most  consistent  form  of  the 


*  '24tli  Nov.  is  sntticientlj'  near  December  to  V)c  included  in  the  maxiunuii 
period. 


6Y  CD.  GILLIES. 


245 


four,  as  it  occurs  througliout    the  year,  and   its  numerical  range 
is  tlie  lea.st  {ser  Table  ii.). 

Table  ii. 


fOO 

Highest  values. 

Lowest  values. 

Range. 

A.  ruhjariK   ... 
A.  discoidis  ... 
A.  mitrata     ... 
A.  arfocrea 

84%  (30th  Jan..  1917) 
86%  (28th  Nov..  1917) 
46%  (2nd  Nov.,  1917) 
85%  (29th  Sept.,  1916) 

0% 

0% 

•  /c 

0% 

84 
86 
4o 

80 



p 

%0 

\ 

70 

\ 

CO 

A 

so 

I 

t^O 

•   ■ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

, 

\ 

A 

\ 

^o 

* 

\ 

■•\ 

•    \ 

?n 

- 

:i|. 

,.:S 

\.  > 

\ 

/  •  •  • .' 

M 

/= 

_ 

>-■'.  '■  ■■ 

■:•.'.•,;• 

;■  V 

'0 

c:^"' 

-^'^■V/ 

0 

J 

^ 

^B 

■:'■■  ' 

^^ 

M 

-•• 

■''.'■■  •'• 

:V'. .  "', 

-:-■, 

':  '^ ;  '\ 

'':'^' 

■jVv 

Oct,  Nov.    Dec.  Ja.n.    Feb.  Mtr,    Apl.     Miy.    Jun.   Jul.     Au6.   Jep.    Oct.    Nov.  Dec. 
Fig.4. ^Percentage-frequency  of  A.  arlocrca   in  Aicellan   fauna.      liiisljanc 
BotanicaKiardens:  Sept.  29th.  UlKi,  to  Dec.  29th,  1917. 


Fig.4,  A.  (trtocrea..  Tliree  maxima  are  present  ('l^i\\  8ept:., 
1916,  28tli  Feb.,  28th  .Sept.,  1017),  the  liigliesl  point  of  the 
curve  being  85%  (29t]i  Sept.,  I  916),  wliiie  the  lowest  is  zero  (28th 
Nov.,  1916)  The  period  September-October  seems  to  be  a 
dominant  one  foi-  this  foi-m  in  Southern  Queenshmd,  as  it  includes 
two  of  the  maxima,  viz.,  29th  Sejit.,  1916,  and  2Sth  Sept.,  1917; 
and  in  niaterial  from  Cooroy  and  West   Burleigh  (.vee  6,  1 )  gath- 


246  QUEENSLAND  SPECIES  OF  AKCELLA. 

ered  in  October,  1917,  the  only  living  Arcellm  present  were  A. 
(irtocrea.  Furthermore,  the  two  localities  are  about  130  miles 
apart.  Again  in  the  occasional  material  collected  outside  the 
period  September-October  \see  (2),  (3),  (4),  (5j,  (8),  the  dominant 
form  is  A.  vulgaris,  not  A.  artocrea. 

It  is  hoped  by  the  collection  of  more  data  that  deductions  may 
be  made  in  connection  with  A.  discoides  and  A.  mitrata,  as  well 
as  in  supplying  confirmatory  evidence  in  regard  to  A.  vulgaris 
and  A.  artocrea. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  KoFoiD,  C.  A.— "The  Plankton  of  the  lUinois  River,  1894-1899/'    Bull. 

Illinois  State  Lab.  Nat.  Hist.,  viii.,  Art.  1,  1908. 

2.  Leidy,  J. — "The  Freshwater  Rhizopoda  of  N.  America."     1879. 

3.  Wailes,  G.  H. —  "Freshwater  Rhizopoda  and  Heliozoa  f rom  the  States 

of  New  York,  New  Jersej',   and  Georgia,  U.S.A."     Journ.  Linn. 
Soc.  Lond.,  Zool.  xxxii.,   1912,  pp. 121-161. 


247 


ON  THE  LEAF-ANATOMY  OF  SC.EVOLA  CRASSIFOLIA, 
AVITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  EPIDERMAL 
8ECRETI0N. 

By  Mahjokie  Isabel  Collins,  B.Sc,  (•Syd.),  Demonstkatok  in 
Botany,   the  Uniyeksity  of  Adelaide. 

(Plates  xxvii.-xxviii.,  and  six  Text-figures.) 

Introduction. 

Sccevola  crassifolia  forms  a  prominent  element  in  the  sand-dune 
Hora  near  Adelaide,  where  it  occurs  in  association  with  Sjnnifex 
hirsutus,  with  such  shrubs  as  Olearia  axillaris,  Leucopogon 
Richei,  etc.,  and  with  smaller  plants  such  as  Pelargonium  aua- 
trale,  Lotus  australis,  (Eiiothera  6^e7^n^s  (introduced),  and  Senecio 
lautus  (3,  p.  584). 

In  habit,  .S'.  crassifolia  is  a  low,  spreading  shrub,  which  is 
able,  by  lateral  growth,  to  occupy  large  areas  of  the  dune.  Its 
older  woody  stems  form  a  dense  undergrowth,  in  which  a  quantity 
of  blown  sand  and  dried  leaves  of  Posidonia  are  accumulated, 
thus  helping  to  build  up  the  dunes.  6'.  crassi/olia  is  able  to 
survive  burial  in  sand  by  an  upward  elongation  of  the  stem,  and 
by  the  development  of  adventitious  roots. 

Owing  to  the  extreme  stickiness  of  the  buds  and  young  leaves, 
the  varnishing  or  lacquering  of  the  surface  of  older  leaves,  the 
dullness  of  surface,  and  the  succulence  of  mature  leaves,  it  was 
thought  that  an  examination  of  the  leaf-anatomy  would  prove 
interesting.  The  investigation  was  carried  out  in  the  Botanical 
Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Adelaide,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Professor  Osborn,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  for  his  constant 
help  and  encouragement. 

Summary  of  Previous  Investigations. 

Despite  its  particular  interest,  the  N.O.  Goodeniacea^  has 
received  but  scant  attention  at  the  hands  of  botanists.     As  early 


248  LEAF-ANATOMY  OF  SdiVOLA   CRASSIFOF.t A. 

as  1876,  Vesque{5)  published  an  account  of  the  anatomy  of 
Goodenia  ovata,  which,  however,  was  restricted  to  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  anomalous  stem-structure.  With  this,  he  compared 
the  stems  of  Scievola  crassi folio,,  S.  Pfuniieri,  S.  microca7'pa,  and 
S.  spinescens,  but  there  is  no  investigation  of  leaf-anatomy  in 
any  of  these  species. 

In  the  Systematic  Anatomy  of  the  Dicotyledons  (i.,  p. 471 ), 
Solereder  gives  a  Ijrief  account  of  the  leaf-structure  of  the 
Goodeniace*,  based  upon  his  own  observations  of  Goodenia 
ovata,  Selliera  radicans^  Screvola  Plumieri,  and  Damjnera 
Brownii,  and  upon  those  of  Briquet  in  the  case  of  Bninoiiia. 
He  records  that  the  stomata  may  occui*  upon  both  surfaces,  or 
upon  the  lower  surface  only,  and  that  the  number  of  subsidiary 
cells,  when  these  are  present,  is  four,  two  of  which  are  placed 
parallel  to  the  pore,  the  other  two  being  applied  to  the  narrow 
ends  of  the  guard -cells.  In  form,  the  leaf  is  found  to  be  typically 
bifacial,  as  exemplified  by  Daniprera  Brotvnii^  but  is  sometimes 
centric,  as  in  SccEvola  Vluinieri.  8ilicified  groups  of  cells  are 
common,  in  the  formation  of  which  certain  epidermal  and  the 
adjacent  mesophyll-cells  take  part.  As  well  as  the  ordinary 
clothing-hairs,  which  are  characteristic  of  most  members  of  the 
Order,  peltate,  glandular  hairs  have  been  (observed  in  Goodenia 
ovata  and  Sccevola  Fhtmierl.  These  are  described  as  being 
"  shortly  stalked,  peltate  glands,  the  shield  of  which  consists  of 
a  few  cells  separated  by  radial  walls." 

The  above  account  is  a  summary  of  our  present  knowledge  of 
leaf-anatomy  in  the  Goodeniacea'.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
in  none  of  the  plants  hitherto  investigated,  has  any  copious, 
epidermal  secretion  been  described.  In  *S'.  crassij'olia,  however, 
the  buds  and  young  leaves  are  coated  on  both  surfaces  with  a 
thick  layer  of  sticky  resin,  which  is  secreted  by  numerous, 
stalked,  glandular  hairs. 

The  secretion  of  mucilage  or  resin,  or  both  together,  has  long 
been  recognised  as  a  method  of  bud-protection.  Groom  (2)  has 
given  an  interesting  account  of  the  mucilage-  and  resin-secreting 
organs  of  buds.  'iliis  work  is  restricted  to  those  plants  whicli 
bear  "colleters"  or  "villi"  on  the  stipules.     These   "  colleters,"' 


BY   MARJORIE  ISABEL  COLF.TNS.  249 

wliich  are  almost  invariably  pear-shaped,  raiilticelliilar  bodies,  in 
Nvliich  a  peripheral  palisade-layer  secretes  the  miicila_<ie  or  i-esin, 
are  only  functional  in  the  bud,  and  fall  off  with  the  stipules. 
Only  in  one  case—  that  of  Woi-mia  Bvrhidyei  (Dilleniacese)—  does 
Groom  record  an  instance  of  the  secretion  being  derived  from 
glandular  hairs  on  the  leaves  themselves,  but,  of  this,  no  descrip- 
tion is  given.  Volkens(6),  however,  has  described  many  plants 
in  which  the  secretion  is  not  only  derived  from  glandular  haiis 
on  the  leaves  themselves,  but  is  also  produced  for  a  long  period 
of  time,  sometimes  till  maturity  of  the  leaf.  It  is  to  Volkens 
that  we  owe  what  knowledge  we  have  of  "leaf-lacquering  '  as  a 
xerophytic  adaptation. 

In  the  present  investigation,  the  development  of  the  leaf  is 
traced  from  the  earliest  stages  to  the  mature  condition,  with 
special  reference  to  the  glandular  covering  in  the  juvenile  state, 
the  function,  and  fate  of  its  secretion. 

MOKPHOLOm     OF    THK    ShOOT. 

A  shoot  of  Srcevola  crassifolia  is  characterised  by  the  vertical 
arrangement  of  the  leaves,  which  is  consistent  from  the  leaves  in 
the  bud  to  those  farthest  away  from  the  growing  apex.  I  he 
leaves  are  all  ovate,  moi-e  or  less  toothed,  petiolate,  the  base 
being  closely  applied  to  the  stem  on  its  upper  side.  The  leaf- 
teeth  are  more  marked  in  the  bud  and  young  lea\'es  than  in  the 
mature  leaves,  in  whicli  they  are  often  obliterated  by  secondary 
increase  in  thickness.  The  terminal  bud  is  small,  and,  durint/ 
the  growing  season  (August  toC)ctober,  the  Spring  months  about 
Adelaide)  it  is  hidden  by  the  rapidly  expanding  young  leaves. 
Later,  when  this  activity  ceases,  the  bud  is  hidden  at  the  base 
of  the  most  distal  leaf.  The  leaves  in  the  bud  are  not  folded 
about  one  another;  they  are  opposite  and  vertical,  the  morpho- 
logical upper  surface  of  one  leaf  being  closely  glued  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  next  youngest  leaf. 

The  whole  growing  region  of  the  shoot  in  S.  crassifolia  is 
covered  with  a  sticky  secretion,  which  gradually  dries  up  farther 
away  from  the  stem-apex.  As  the  leaves  become  expanded  from 
the   bud,   they  increase  rapidly  in  surface-area,  and   later  lose 


250  LEAF-ANATOMY  OF  SC.EVOLA  CRASSIFOLIA, 

their  extreme  stickiness.  'J'hey  are,  at  this  stage,  cliaracterised 
by  glistening  patches  of  drying  secretion,  which  give  them  their 
varnished  or  lacquered  appearance. 

The  mature  leaves  are  large,  thick,  and  succulent,  and  present 
a  dull  surface.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  secretion  tends  to  dry 
up  on  the  expanded  portion  of  the  older  leaves,  the  leaf-base  is 
always  distinctly  sticky,  even  in  the  mature  leaves.  In  this 
manner,  the  axillary  buds  are  covered  by  secretion. 

The  voung  flower-buds  are  borne  in  dense,  terminal  spikes. 
As  is  usual  in  the  Goodeniacese,  the  cah'x  is  inconspicuous,  and 
the  corolla  protects  the  essential  parts  of  the  flower.  In  S. 
crassifolia,  each  flower  is  situated  between  two  bracteoles,  and 
is  subtended  by  a  bract,  which  is  glued  to  the  exposed  surface  of 
the  bud  by  means  of  its  sticky  secretion.  The  glandular  hairs, 
from  which  the  secretion  is  derived,  are  of  the  same  nature  as 
those  on  the  leaves. 

DiSTKI BUTTON    OF    THE    ACTIVELY    SECRETING    GlANDS. 

It  is  in  the  buds  that  the  glandular  hairs  reach  their  maximum 
development.  Upon  examination  of  a  section  through  the  apex 
of  a  shoot,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  rudimentary  leaves,  even 
before  they  are  completely  differentiated  from  the  stem-apex,  are 
provided  with  numerous,  closely-set,  mature,  actively  secreting, 
glandular  hairs.  These  hairs  are  more  abundantly  developed  on 
those  surfaces  which  are  exposed  earliest.  In  the  bud,  there  is 
a  continuous  production  of  glandular  hairs,  the  various  stages  in 
development  being  found  mingled  with  the  mature  glands.  These 
developmental  stages  are  not  restricted  to  the  youngest  portions 
of  the  bud,  nor  to  any  particular  part  of  the  leaf,  but,  as  will  be 
seen  later,  apparently  any  epidermal  cell  up  to  a  certain  stage  in 
development,  may  form  a  gland  (PI.  xxvii.,  fig.l).  In  this 
manner,  new  glands  are  provided  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase 
in  surface  of  the  leaf,  the  secretion  of  which  will  prevent  the 
sticky  coat  from  being  broken  at  any  point. 

Once  the  young  leaves  are  freed  from  the  bud,  glandular  hairs 
are  no  longer  formed;  upon  such  leaves  only,  the  mature  con- 
dition  is  found.     The  distance  between  these  elands  tends  to 


BY   MAR.TORIE  ISABKL  COLLINS. 


251 


increase  as  the  leaf-surface  increases  in  area  by  the  differentia- 
tion of  the  leaf-tissues.  Tn  the  older  leaves,  the  glands  lose 
their  activity,  except  as  mentioned  above,  in  that  region  where 
the  leaf-base  clasps  the  stem.  There,  the  glands  remain  active 
throughout  the  life  of  the  leaf.  A  section  through  this  region 
shows  an  abundant  development  of  glandular  hairs  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  on  the  young  leaves.  By  the  activity  of  these 
glands,  the  axils  of  the  leaves  are  filled  with  secretion,  and  pro- 
vision is  made  for  the  protection  of  the  axillary  buds.  At  the 
junction  of  the  stem  and  leaf-base  is  a  circlet  of  long,  multi- 
cellular clothing-hairs  (PI.  xxvii.,  fig  2;.  These  were  tested  for 
resin  and  mucilage,  with  negative  result. 


The  Development  of  the  Glands. 
That  the  glands  are  hairs,  is  evinced  in  the  manner  of  their 
origin  from  a  single  epidermal  cell.  Any  epidermal  cell  may 
form  a  gland.  The-  cell  enlarges,  the  nucleus  divides,  and  a 
horizontal  wall  is  formed  separating  two  cells,  the  uppermost  of 
which  becomes  considerably  enlarged  and  spherical  in  outline 
(Text-fig.  1, a).     A  second,  horizontal  wall  cuts  off  the  rudiment 


Text-fig.  1. — Stages  (a-g)  in  the  development  of  the  glandular  hairs;  (  x  530). 
of  the  .stalk  at  the  base  of  the  spherical  cell,  which  latter  is 
destined  to  become  the  head-cell  of  the  gland  (Text-fig.  1,6).  At 
this  stage,  either  a  second  stalk-cell  is  formed  (Text-fig. l,c>,  fol- 


252 


LEAF-ANATOMY   OF  SC.F.VOLA  CHASSIFOLIA, 


lowed  by  a  median,  vertical  division  in  the  head-cell  (Text-fig. !/•), 
or  the  latter  division  takes  place  before  the  formation  of  the 
second  stalk-cell  (Text-fig.  \,d).  A  third  stalk-cell  is  now  formed, 
either  preceded  or  followed  by  the  ultimate  divisions  in  the  head, 
ceils  ( Text-fig.  1,/,  y). 


a  b 

Text-Hg.*2  :  II,  surt'aee-view  of  a  mature  ^laiid;  l>,  pait  of  section  through 
yount>;  leaf,  to  show  crowdinu'  of  niatuie  glands,  and  oveilappinsj;  of 
shields:  (  x -)8()). 

The  head  of  the  matuie  gland  forms  a  shield  of  eight  cells, 
only  four  of  which  are  .seen  in  transverse  section  (Text-fig. 2, n). 
The  shield,  which  is  ultimately  reflexed  at  the  sides,  is  borne 
upon  a  stalk  of  three  tiers  of  cells,  the  two  lower  tiers  being 
composed  each  of  a  single  cell,  while  the  upper  is  composed  of 
two  cells,  which  grow  out  laterallv  to  support  the  head-cells 
(Text-fig.2,6). 

The  Nature  of  the  Skcretion. 
The  secretion,  which  covers  both  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of 
the  leaf,  is  a  yellowish,  translucent,  homogeneous  substance, 
which  is  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  very  sticky  when  fresh,  and 
gives  the  characteristic  red  colouration  of  resin  when  tested  with 
Alkanna  root-extract.  A  test  for  mucilage,  carried  out  with 
corallin-soda,  gives  a  negative  result.  The  secretion  reaches  its 
maximum  thickness  in  the  bud,  every  available  space  between 
the  young  leaves  being  filled  up.  This  fact,  which  is  probably  a 
result  of  the  continuous  production  of  glands  in  the  bud,  indicates 


BY  MAR.TORIK  ISABEL  COLLINS.  '2i).^ 

that  tlie  secretion  of  resin  in  S.  crassifoHah  primarily  concerned 
with  bud-protection. 

Tlie  secretion  is  still  mobile  upon  the  X'oung  leaves  outside  the 
bud,  but  since  no  new  glands  are  being  formed  to  keep  pace  with 
the  increase  of  leaf-surface,  it  becomes  spread  out  over  a  greater 
area  and,  consequently,  more  attenuated.  The  thickness  of  the 
film  of  secretion  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  same  leaf,  in 
leaves  of  different  age,  and  in  diffeient  plants.  It  often  reaches 
a  thickness  nearly  twice  the  height  of  the  glands,  i.e.,  ab.mt 
7G/X.  (PI.  xxviii.,  fig. 3). 

In  the  older  leaves,  the  glands  lose  their  activity,  the  secretion 
becomes  less  mobile,  and,  in  drying  up,  oacks  along  radiating 
lines.  Tt  is  at  this  stage  that 
the  leaves  present  a  lacquered 
appearance.  The  glands,  being- 
no  longer  functional,  cease  to 
grow,  whilst  the  neigh  homing 
epidermal  cells  enlarge  consider- 
ably, and,  as  a  result,  the  glands 
ultimately  appear  to  be  sunken 
(Text-fig. 3).  The  dried  secre- 
tion   falls    off"    when    the    leaf 


0 


^/ 

&   0 

0 

^0 

(5  t) 

0 

0 

0    0 

0 

0 

ol    K     1) 

0    (^ 

reaches  its  succulent  condition,  Text-fi-.8.-Sunken,  olandular  hair  in 

,,  .    1  p  TIT  '^  mature  leaf:  (  xoRO). 

small     patches,    oi     negligible 

quantity,  being  restricted  to  the  region  of  the  glands. 

The  Development  of  the  Stomata. 

Tt  is  obvious  that  any  stomata  which  are  present  on  the  young 
leaf  coated  w^ith  its  sticky  secretion,  cannot  be  functional.  Tn 
correlation  with  the  rapid  growth  of  the  leaf-area,  new  stomata 
are  continually  being  formed.  Thus,  in  a  section  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  a  young  leaf,  all  stages  in  development  of  the  stomata 
may  be  studied,  as  well  as  a  small  percentage  of  stomata  which 
have  already  reached  maturity  (Text-fig. 4). 

Solereder  (4,  Vol.  ii.,  pp.  1079-1080),  wlien  classifying  stomata, 
refers  the  Goodeniacete  to  two  groups;  (1)  where  there  are  no 
subsidiary  cells,  and   ('2)  where  subsidiary  cells  are  formed  par- 


18 


254 


LEAF-ANATOMV  OF  SCEVOI.A  CRASSIFOLIA, 


allel  to  the  pore.  In  S  crassifolia  there  are  no  subsidiary  cells. 
A  single  epidermal  cell  divides  by  an  oblique  wall  into  two  cells 
of  unequal  size.  The  larger  of  these  cells  remains  an  epidermal 
cell,  while  the  smaller  is  the  mother-cell  of  the  guard-cells.  The 
only  further  division  which  takes  place  is  that  which  forms  the 
two  guard-cells.  The  mature  stoma  is  surrounded  by  a  variable 
number   of    epidermal   cells  ( Text. fig. 4 o?).       The   stomata   reach 


Text-fig.  4.  — Stages  {a-c)   in   the  development  of  the  stomata,  as  seen  in 
transverse  section  of  young  leaf :  a,  initial  stage,  showing  mother- 
cell  of  the  guard-cells;  Ji-r,  showing  development  of  two  guard-cells; 
no  pore  is   formed;  d,  sui'f ace-view  of  young  leaf,  showing  stages 
in  development  of  stomata;  (  x  300). 
their  full   development   when  the  flow  of  secretion   has  ceased. 
Those  which  mature  first,  are  lendered  functionless,  for  a  time 
at  least,  owing   to  the   blocking   of  their  pores  with   resin.      It 
seems  highly  probable  that  many  of  those  stomata,  in  which  a 
plug  of   resin   is   found  enclosed  in  the  stomatal  aperture,  will 
never  function  (PI.  xxviii.,  fig. 4).       Only   those  stomata   which 
are  belated  in  development,  and  are  freed  before  reaching  matu- 
rity, by  the  drying-up  and   cracking  of   the   resin,  are  entirely 
unblocked  by  the  secretion. 

In  those   plants  with    lacquered   leaves,  which  Yolkens(6)  de- 


BY  MAHJORIE  ISABEL  COLLINS. 


2oo 


scribed,  such  as  species  of  BrachylcEua,  Baccharis,  EscallonKt,  etc., 
the  stomata  are  belated  in  development:  and,  in  a  few  cases  in 
which  the  secretion  remains  active  until  maturity  of  the  leaf,  the 
stomata  become  elevated  until  they  project  above  the  surface  of 
the  secretion.  The  mature  stoma  of  .V.  crassifolia  remains  at 
the  surface-level  of  the  leaf.  There  is  little  of  interest  to  remark 
in  the  structure  of  the  mature  stoma,  a  small,  outer  chamber 
being  formed  in  the  usual  way,  by  an  overhanging  lip  of  cuticle. 
Internal  Development  of  the  Leaf. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  stomata,  the  development  of  the  leaf- 
tissues  is  belated.  In  a  young  leaf  just  freed  from  the  bud,  there 
is  no  internal  differentiation 
except  that  of  the  vascular  sys- 
tem. The  leaf,  at  this  stage,  is 
made  up  of  a  compact  mass  of 
rounded  cells,  the  vascular 
strands  occupying  a  median 
position.  It  is  only  when  the 
secretion  becomes  less  active, 
that  differentiation  of  the  leaf- 
tissues  takes  place. 

The  fully-grown  leaf  of  .S'. 
crafisi/olia  is  very  thick  and 
succulent,  owing  to  the  devel- 
opment of  secondary,  water- 
storage  parenchyma.  The  epi- 
dermal cell-walls  show  a  great 
development  of  cellulose,  but 
are  only  moderately  cuticular- 
ised.  There  is  no  si^ongy  meso" 
phyll,  the  greater  part  of  the 
leaf   being  made  up  of  several 


rows  of  palisade-cells.  A  tis- 
sue of  rounded  cells,  amongst 
which  are  situated  the  vascular 
strands,  occupies  a  median  posi- 
tion in  the  leaf,  and  is  bounded  on  either  side  by,  sometimes,  as 


Text -tig.  o. — Section  of  mature  leaf 
showing  occurrence  of  branched 
nnicilage-cells  in  the  palisade- 
tissue;  (  X  300). 


2o6 


LEAF-AKATOMY  OF  SCiEVOLA  CKASSIFOLIA. 


many  as  five  rows  of  palisade-celis.  This  central  tissue  is  re- 
markable in  the  ver\'  old  leaves,  as  its  cells  become  enlarged, 
lose  the  greater  part  or  all  of  their  chlorophyll,  and  take  on  the 
function  of  water-storage.  Those  cells  immediate)  v  surrounding 
the  vascular  strands  are  the  first   to   assume   the  new  function 


(PI.    XX 


tig. 5).      From   this  central,  water-storage  tissue  and 


from   the  palisade  tissue,  special   water-storage   organs,   such  as 
mucilage  cells  and  water-storage  tracheides  are  differentiated. 

Miic'daye  cells.  — lu  the  early  stages  of  differentiation,  certain 
cells,  particularly  in  the  palisade-region,  develop  mucilaginous 
walls.  These  cells  keep  pace  with  the  growth  in  thickness  of 
the  leaf  by  branching  in  all  directions,  producing,  thus,  a  peculiar 
and  striking  result  (Text-fig.5).  Text-fig. Gti  shows  one  of  tliese 
branched  mucilage-cells  swollen  after  treatment  with  potash,  and 
stained  with  corallin  soda  to  show  successive  deposits  uf  mucilage 
in  the  cell-wall. 


a.  b 

'IV-xt-H^^.d :  rt,  single  luucila^e-cell  cilter  tit'atiuent  with  potash,  and  stained 
with  curallin-soda,  to  show  strati tication  of  luuoilage;  (  x  230) :  /',  a 
group  of  water- storajfe  tracheides  from  the  central  tissue  of  the 
mature  leaf;  (  x  400). 


Water  star (iqe  tracheides.  —  llestricted  to  the  central  tissue  are 
special  water-storage  tracheides  occurring  both  at  the  bundle  ends, 
and  in  groups,  quite  independent  of   the  bundles.     They  are  of 


BY   MAR.TORIK  ISABEI.  COLLINS.  257 

the   type   uitli    thickened   walls   bearing  transversely  elongated 
pits  (Text-fig. 6,6'. 

At  the  midrib,  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  merge  into  a  compact 
chlorenchymaof  rounded  cells.  Tlie  vascular  strands  are  strengtli- 
ened  on  both  the  upper  and  lower  surface  Ijy  a  bundle  of   fibres. 

Crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  are  found  in  the  cells  of  the  leaf  in 
very  small  quantity. 

Conclusion. 

The  secietion  of  resin  by  glandular  hairs  in  the  bud  and  young 
leaves,  and  the  lacquering  of  older  leaves  by  the  ultimate  drying- 
up  of  this  secretion,  have  been  shown  by  Volkens(6)  to  be  peculiar 
to  some  xerophytic  plants.  Sccevola  crdsslfoiin,  being  a  sand- 
dune  [)lant,  may  be  regarded  as  a  xerophyte. 

The  chief  ecological  factors  with  which  a  dune-plant  has  to 
contend,  have  been  summarised  byCowles(2,  pp.  107-111).  They 
are,  (1),  intense  illumination,  both  direct  and  leHected;  (2),  the 
great  divergence  in  the  temperature-extremes,  which  is  still 
further  increased  by  the  low  specific  heat  of  sand;  (3),  the  drying 
action  of  the  wind,  and  the  injurious  effects  of  wind-blown  sand; 
(4),  the  porous  nature  of  the  sand,  and  its  consequent  low  water- 
capacity.  The  third  and  fourth  of  these  factors  are,  perhaps, 
the  most  potent.  Tn  South  Australia,  however,  the  first  factor 
may  have  some  considerable  importance,  since  there  are  often 
periods  of  several  days  with  cloudless  sky,  while  the  glare  from 
the  sun  is  still  further  intensified  by  the  whiteness  of  the  coastal 
sands. 

As  we  have  seen,  S.  crassij'olia  is  able  to  survive  burial  in  sand 
by  an  upward  elongation  of  the  shoot,  and  by  the  development 
of  adventitious  roots.  By  virtue  of  tlieir  thick,  sticky  secretion, 
the  buds  and  young  leaves  are  protected  from  desiccation,  as  are 
also  the  older  leaves,  owing  to  their  succulence.  A  further  pro- 
tection from  intense  illumination  is  suggested  by  the  yellow 
colouration  of  the  secretion.  The  polished  surface  of  older  leaves, 
caused  by  the  partially  dried  secretion,  also  serves  to  refiect 
certain  rays  of  light. 

The  low  water-capacity  of  the  sand  is  compensated,  to  some 
extent,  by  the  water-storage  tissues  of  the  older  leaves. 


258  leaf-anatomy  op  sc^vola  crassifolia, 

Summary. 
i.  Sccevola  crassifolia  is  characterised   by  the  development  of 
peltate,  glandular   hairs,  which   secrete  resin   in  great  quantity. 
The-^e  hairs  reach  tlieir  maximum  activity  in  the  buds  and  young 
leaves. 

ii.  As  the  leaves  become  older,  the  glands  become  less  active, 
the  secretion  loses  its  mobility,  dries-up,  and  gives  the  surface 
of  the  leaf  a  lacquered  appearance. 

iii.  The  mature  leaves  of  .S'.  crassifolia  are  thick  and  succulent. 
The  glands  are  sunken,  and  no  longer  functional  on  the  blade  of 
the  leaf.  They  retain  their  activity  only  in  the  region  of  the 
leaf-base,  protecting  the  axillary  buds.  Si^ecial  xerophilous 
adaptations  are  found  in  : 

[a).  The  secondary  increase  in  size  of  the  epidermal  cells. 

(6).  The  massive  development  of  palisade-tissue. 

(c).  The  development  of  special  water-storage  cells,  such  as 
mucilage-cells,  water-storage  tracheides,  and  ordinary,  thin- 
walled,  water-storage  cells. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XX VII. -XXVIII. 

All  tigiues  were  made  at  table-level,  with  the  aid  of  Zeiss*  camera  lucida, 
with  mirror  at  its  j^reatest  inclination,  and  with  tube  at  160  mm.  Leitz 
objectives  3  and  (J,  and  oculars  2  and  4  were  used. 

Plate  xxvii. 

Firf.  1. — A  slit^htly  oblique  section  throu^fli  a  bud,  to  show  development  of 
•glandular  hairs  :  a,  stem-apex;  h,  rudimentary-  leaf;  c,  leaf-base;  r/, 
petiole  of  slighth'  older  leaf;  c,  glandular  hair;  (  >  160). 

Fig. 'J. —Section  across  sheathing  base  of  a  mature  leaf,  to  show  develo})- 
ment  of  glandular  and  clothing  hairs;  (  x  1(50). 

Plate  xxviii. 

Fig.o. — -Part  of  .section  through  young  leaf,  to  sliow  depth  of  secretion  and 
outline  of  glandular  hairs;  (  x  o30). 

Fig.4, — Section  of  a  lacquered  leaf,  to  show  patch  of  secretion  blocking 
mature  stoma;  (  x  300). 

Fig. 5. — Section  of  a  mature  leaf  :  p,  palisade-tissue:  c,  central  water- 
storage  tissue;  m,  mucilage-cell;  f,  water-storage  tracheides;  (  x  100). 


BY  MAK.TORIK  ISABEL  COLLINS.  209 

LITERATURE  CITED. 

1.  CdWLES,  H.  C.  —  "The  Ecoloifieal    Relations   of   the  Vegetation  on  the 

Sand  Dunes  <»f  I^ake  Michigan. "'      iiotanical  (ia/ctte.  xxvii..  Nos.  "2, 
3,  4.  5,  1899. 

2.  (Jroo.m.  p.  —  "On    Hiul-]^'otection  in  the  Dicotyledons. '"     Trans.  Liim. 

Soc.  (2)  iii..  1S9-2. 

3.  OsBORN.  T.  (r.  B. — "  Types  of   Vegetation   on  the  Coast  in  the  Neicfh- 

hourhood  of  Adelaide.  S.A."     Report  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  1014. 
i.  SoLEREOEK. — Sj'stematic   Anatomy   of   the   l)ioot3'ledons.      Vols,   i.-ii., 
1908. 

5.  Vesqfe.  —  "The  Anatomy  of  (i'oofh)ii(i  omla."     Ann.  Sci.  Xat.,  Hot., 

Ser.  6.  iii.,  1870. 

6.  VoLKENS,  Ct.  -"  Ueber  Pflanzen   mit    lackirten    IJliittern."        Her.  der. 

Deutsch.  Hot.  Resell.,  1890. 


260 


A  F0S8IL    INSECT- AVTNG    FROM   THE   ROOF  OF  THE 

COAE  8EAM   TX  THE  SYDNEY  HARBOUR 

COLLIERY. 

Ry  R.  J.  TiLLYAHD,   M.A.,   D.Sc,  F.L.S..  F.E.S,  Linnean 
Maclkay   Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology 

(One  toxt-fiiiiire.) 

In  tlie  Journal  and  Proceed ins^s  of  tlie  Royal  Society  of  New 
South  Wales,  Vol.  xlv.,  1911,  p.r)5I,  Mr.  AY.  S.  Dun  records  the 
occurrence  of  a  species  of  Tceniopteris  in  the  roof  of  the  Coal- 
seam  in  the  Sydney  Harbour  Colliery  at  Balmain  (Copper  Per- 
mian). An  excellent  figure  of  the  actual  specimen,  reproduced 
from  a  photograph,  is  given  in  Plate  xli.,  in  the  same  paper.  The 
writer  concludes  with  the  following  note  :  —  "Associated  with 
the  leaf  is  the  impression  of  an  insect's  wing,  a  description  of 
which  will  be  submitted  later." 

Recently  Mr.  Dun  has  very  kindly  passed  this  specimen  over 
to  me  for  description,  and  I  desire  to  thank  him  for  the  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  it. 

The  wing  lies  upon  the  smooth  surface  of  a  very  dark,  hard 
shale.  Its  position  is  best  located  by  the  following  note. 
Measure  18  mm.  from  the  distal  preserved  end  along  the  mid-rib 
of  the  frond  of  Tcfiiiopteris,  and,  from  the  point  .so  obtained,  erect 
a  perpendiculai-  on  the  side  on  which  the  centre  of  curvature  of 
the  frond  lies.  The  distal  end  of  the  insect-wing  lies  at  a  dis- 
tance of  20  mm.  along  this  perpendicular. 

The  wing  can  be  actually  seen  in  the  reproduction  mentioned 
above,  but  it  is  so  faint  in  outline  that  it  would  not  be  noticed 
unless  some  measurements  were  given  to  assist  one  in  locating 
it.  The  same  may  be  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  actual  speci- 
men. Once  it  has  been  located,  a  careful  examination  with  a 
hand-lens  will  show  the  presence  of  the  main  veins,  and,  in 
certain  lights,  of  cross-veins  also.      All  of  these,  except  only  the 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  261 

radius,  are  exceedingly  delicate  in  outline,  so  that  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  make  an  accurate  drawing  of  the  fossil. 

The  portion  preserved  consists  of  a  considerable  part  (probably 
about  three-fifths)  of  a  slender  wing,  with  the  costal  margin  well 
marked  right  up  to  the  apex.  The  posterior  border  is  missing, 
except  for  a  short  piece  lying  towards  the  base  of  the  fossil. 
The  space  between  the  radius  and  the  costal  margin  is  distinctly 
coloured  brownish.  This  is  almost  certainly  due  to  the  preser- 
vation of  brown  pigment  originally  located  in  this  area  of  the 
wing. 

In  attempting  to  place  this  fossil  correctly,  I  have  had  to  rely 
upon  only  two  or  three  important  characters,  since  the  base  of 
the  wing,  which  may  be  presumed  to  have  held  the  most  definite 
venational  structures,  is  missing.  First  of  all,  I  have  relied 
upon  the  absence  of  the  subcostal  vein  from  all  the  distal  portion 
of  the  costal  space.  Secondly,  the  well  marked  radius,  evidently 
very  strongly  built,  has  running  below  and  parallel  to  it  a  well- 
developed  radial  sector,  giving  off  obliquely  descending  branches 
at  fairly  wide  intervals  Combining  these  characters  with  a 
third,  viz.,  that  the  cross-veins  are  fairly  wide  apart,  regular, 
and  somewhat  oblique,  we  should  have  little  difficulty  in  making 
a  very  close  comparison  between  this  fossil  and  the  interesting 
family  Elcanidce,  of  the  Order  Orthoptera,  from  the  Mesozoic 
strata  of  England  and  Germany. 

Handlirsch   defines   the  ElcanidcB    as  follows^  (his  text  is  in 

German)  : — This  family is  characterised  by  the  possession 

of  long,  typical  Locustoid  antennsCj  well-developed  jumping  legs, 
and  also,  in  the  female,  a  long  ovipositor.  On  the  other  hand, 
up  to  the  present,  no  wing  has  been  found  with  a  stridulating 
organ. 

The  wing-venation  resembles  in  many  respects  that  of  the 
Acridioidea  more  than  that  of  the  Locustoidea  existing  to-day. 

The  forewing  is  characterised  by  a  costal  vein  slightly  removed 
from  the  border,  and,  therefore,  by  a  precostal  area.  The  sub- 
costa  is  greatly  shortened;  the  radius  is  free,  and  sends  branches 
towards  the  free  anterior  border;  its  sector  arises  near  the  base, 


*  Die  Fossilen  Insekten,  p. 412. 
19 


262        FOSSIL  INSKCT-WING  FROM   SYDXKY  HARBOUR  COLLIERY, 

and  runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  main  stem  towards  the  tip:  it 
sends  a  variable  large  number  of  branches  sharply  from  below 
towards  the  apical  Imrder.  Media  and  cubitus  strongly  reduced, 
consisting  of  small  branches.  Anal  field  somewhat  small,  with 
few  veins. 

The  hind  wing  is  similar  to  the  fore  in  respect  of  the  structure 
of  the  radius,  media,  and  cubitus,  but  appears  to  lia\e  undergone 
a  vast  reduction  of  the  subcosta,  and  to  possess  no  precostal  area. 
Its  anal  field  is  large  and  fan-like. 

Stiff  cross-veins  divide  the  wing-areas  into  quadrilateral  cells. 
Most  of  the  wings  are  spotted. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  owing  to  the  fragmentary  nature  of  the 
wing,  many  of  the  above  characters  are  not  available  as  tests. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  the  part  preserved  agrees  very  closely  with 
the  definition.  The  small  portion  of  the  posterior  border  pre- 
served is  of  some  value  to  us,  since  it  points  to  the  fossil  repre- 
senting a  forewing.  For,  in  the  hindwing,  we  should  have  ex- 
pected to  see,  in  this  position,  part  of  the  anal  fan  which  is  so 
conspicuous  in  this  family,  but  which  is  evidently  absent  here. 

Handlirsch  lists  forty  species  of  the  family  Elcanidce  from  the 
Lias,  and  twelve  from  the  Upper  Jurassic.  All  but  one  of  these 
are  placed  in  the  genus  EJcana  Giebel,  the  only  other  genus 
being  Parelcana  Handl  I  propose  to  place  the  fossil  here  de- 
scribed in  a  new  genus,  Elcaiiopsis,  with  the  characters  given 

below. 

Order  ORTHOPTERA. 
Family  ELCANID.^. 
Genus  Elcanopsis,  n.g.     (Text-fig.  1). 
Characters  of  forewing  as  in  Elcana  Giebel,  except  the  fol- 
lowing : — Sc  towards   its  distal  end   lies  very   close   to  C,  not 
nearer  to  R  as  in  Elcana.      Wing  not  spotted,  but  marked  with 
brown  pigment  along  the  costal  space.     Branches  of  Rs  few  in 
number,    and  placed  fairly   wide  apart.       Cross-veins    not  very 
numerous  or  close  together. 

Genotype,  Elcanopsis  sydneiensis,  n.sp.  (Upper  Permian  : 
Balmain  Colliery,  Sydney  Harbour). 

The  occuri^ence  of  an  Elcanid  genus  in  the  Upper  Permian  is 


BY    R.    J      TILLYARD. 


263 


of  considerable  interest,  since  the  insect-fauna  already  known 
from  the  Upper  Permian  of  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales,  con- 
tains only  types  which  would  be  regarded  as  of  Mesozoic  age  if 
they  had  been  found  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  It  is  also 
interesting  to  note  that  the  Upper  Jurassic  members  of  the 
family  approach,  in  their  venational  type,  the  Acridiiihe  of  the 
present  day,  whereas  the  Liassic  species  differ  more  widely  from 
these  last,  in  that  the  number  of  branches  of  the  radial  sector, 
and  the  number  of  cross  veins,  is  considerably  less,  and  the  species 
are  of  a  smaller  size  In  these  characters,  the  new  genus  is  the 
most  reduced  of  all;  so  that  the  supposition  now  naturally  arises 
that  the  modern  Acridioid  type  of  venation  may  have  been 
formed  by  addition  of  new  elements  to  what  was  originally  a 
much  >-impler  and  moi'e  open  type  of  venation. 


Text-fig.  1. 
Elcanopsis  s?/fZ??e /ensjX  n.g.  et  sp.,  portion  of  forewing;  (  x  18*5).     Upper 
Permian  Coal-Measures  :  Balmain   Colliery,  S3'dne5'  Harbour.      C, 
costal  border;  R,  radius;  Rs,  radial  sector;   Sc,  subcosta;   the  area 
covered  bj-  the  brown  pigment  is  shaded. 

Elcanopsis  sydneiensis,  n.sp.     (Text-fig.  1). 

Total  length  of  fragment,  7  mm.      Greatest  breadth,  2*7  mm. 

Foreiving  with  the  distal  end  of  Sc  preserved,  and  apparently 
ending  up  on  ^)  at  about  the  middle  of  the  costal  border.  R 
very  strongly  built,  very  gently  curved,  the  tip  slightly  turned 
upwards.  Apparently  six  very  poorly  preserved  cross-veins 
between  R  and  C,  beyond  the  end  of  Sc,  and  two  oblique  ones 
between  Sc  and  R  basad  from  these.  Nine  or  ten  cross- veins 
preserved  between  Pt  and  Rs;  some  of  these  fairly  distinct.     Rs 


264       FOSSIL   INSECT-WING  FROM  SYDNEY  HARBOUR  COLLIERY. 

a  slender  but  well-preserved  vein,  parallel  to  R,  and  having  four 
descending  branches  placed  somewhat  wide  apart.  The  cross- 
veins  between  these  branches  mostly  not  visible,  but  indications 
of  them  here  and  there  in  a  good  light.  A  portion  of  a  fairly 
strong  vein  is  preserved  near  the  posterior  border,  but  this  vein 
cannot  be  named  with  certainty.  It  appears  to  be  connected 
with  the  border  by  means  of  a  series  of  oblique  cross-veins. 

Type,    in    Coll.    Geological    Survey    of    New    South   Wales, 
Sydney. 

Postsa'i}>t  (added  June  14th,  1918).^In  my  paper  on  the 
"  Permian  and  Triassic  Insects  from  New  South  Wales,  in  the 
Collection  of  Mr.  John  Mitchell,"  These  Proceedings,  1917,  xlii., 
Pt.  iv.,  p. 7 25,  I  named  Schizoneiira  as  one  of  the  genera  of  the 
fossil  flora  of  the  Upper  Coal-Measures  of  the  Newcastle  District 
The  name  was  taken  from  the  list  given  in  Siissmilch's  "Geology 
of  New  South  Wales,"  on  p.  135,  where  also  the  genus  Tceni- 
opteris  is  included.  As  several  geologists  have  taken  exception 
to  the  inclusion  of  this  genus  in  the  Permian  Flora,  I  take  this 
opportunity  of  pointing  out  that  I  did  not  state  that  the  genus 
Schizoneura  occurred  at  the  horizon  of  either  the  Belmont  or 
Newcastle  Insect-Beds.  I  have  to  thank  Mr.  W.  S.  Dun  for 
explaining  the  exact  state  of  the  case  to  me.  It  appears  that 
Schizoneura  is  found  only  at  the  very  top  of  the  Permian  Beds, 
in  beds  that  might  w^ell  be  considered  as  the  passage-beds  between 
the  Permian  and  Triassic,  but  which  should  be  classed  as  Per- 
mian as  long  as  we  define  the  presence  of  Glossopteris  as  the 
criterion  by  which  to  separate  the  Pala3ozoic  from  the  Mesozoic 
in  Australia.  The  same  is  true  of  7'ce7iiopteris,  which  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  insect-wing  described  in  this  paper;  it  should  be 
noted  especially  that  the  species,  though  unnamed,  is  certainly 
not  T.  Baintreei  McCoy,  ( =  T.  spatulata  McClelland),  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  Jurassic.  The  horizon  of  the  wing  described 
in  this  paper  is,  therefore,  some  600  feet  vertically  above  that 
of  the  Belmont  Insects  previously  described,  and  more  than  800 
feet  above  that  of  the  Newcastle  Insects.  Whether,  therefore, 
Elcanopsis  be  considered  to  be  a  Permian  genus  or  not,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  these  other  insects  are  such.— R.J.T. 


265 


THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX. 
A  Study  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the  Holometabolous  Insects, 
WITH  Special  Reference  to  the  Subclasses  Panorpoidea 

AND  NeUROPTEROIDEA.   [INTRODUCTION]. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S..  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

Introduction. 
Section  i. — Definition  of  the  Complex. 
In  his  great  work  upon  the  Phylogeny  of  the  Orders  of  Insects. 
Handlirsch  (2)  divides  the  whole  of  the  Holometabola  into  four 
Sub-classes,  as  follows  — 


Sub-class. 

Orders. 

Hymenopteroidea 
coleopteroidea 
Neukopteroidea 
Panorpoidea 

Hymenoptera. 

Coleoptera. 

Megaloptera,  Raphidioidea,  Neuroptera. 

PanorpatxV,    Phryganoidea,    Lepidoptera,    Diptera 
Aphaniptera. 

In  making  this  division,  Handlirsch  widely  separates  the  first 
two  of  these  Sub-classes  from  the  last  two,  placing  between  them 
not  only  what  we  may,  for  convenience,  term  the  three  Amplii- 
biotic  Orders  (Odonata,  Plectoptera,  and  Perlaria),  each  of 
which  he  elevates  to  the  rank  of  a  Sub-class,  but  also  the  Embi- 
daria,  which  he  also  considers  to  be  a  Sub-class.  For  the 
Hymenopteroidea  and  Coleopteroidea,  Handlirsch  indicates  a 
descent  from  a  JJlattoid  type  of  ancestor.  For  the  JMeuropter- 
oidea  and  Panorpoidea,  he  is  more  inclined  to  a  Palseodictyopt- 
erous  type  of  ancestor;  indeed,  he  definitely  states  his  belief  that 
the  Neuropteroidea  are  descended  directly  from  the  Palaiodicty- 
optera,  while  he  considers  the  Panorpatre,  and  hence  the  Panor- 


266  THK   PANORPOiD  coMPlp:x  (Introduction), 

poidea  also,  to  have  been  derived  from  the  obscure  Megasecoptera 
of  the  Upper  Carboniferous-  an  Order  which,  at  the  best,  can 
be  regarded  only  as  a  specialised  side-branch  of  the  Pal?eo- 
dictyoptera. 

AVe  are  thus  faced  with  the  fact  that,  in  Handlirsch's  opinion, 
the  Holometabola  are  a  composite  group  of  polyphyletic  origin. 
Such  a  view  is,  indeed,  fairly  generally  held  amongst  entomolo- 
gists; for  no  satisfactor}^  reason  seems  to  have  been  brought 
forward  why  the  evolution  of  the  resting-pupa  should  not  have 
been  accomplished  more  than  once,  along  several  quite  distinct 
lines  of  ascent. 

Having  for  a  very  long  time  carefully  read  and  studied  Hand- 
lirsch's views,  I  have  to  confess  that,  in  spite  of  many  excellent 
arguments  brought  forward,  there  seems  to  me  to  be  much  that 
is  unsatisfactory  in  them.  As  examples,  I  might  refer  to  his 
discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  Hymenoptera,  which  fails  to  con- 
vince me  in  a  single  point.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  sug- 
gestion that  the  Panorpatse  are  derived  from  the  Megasecoptera. 
It  seems  to  me  that  any  unbiassed  student  of  the  Phylogeny  of 
the  Holometabola  must  come  to  the  following  conclusions  : — 

(1)  That  the  origin  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  still  about  as  great 
a  m\^fetery  as  it  well  can  be;  and  that  Handlirsch's  solution  of 
this  problem  has  many  inherent  defects  that  make  it  unaccept- 
able. 

(2)  That  the  origin  of  the  Coleoptera  from  a  Blattoid  type  of 
ancestor  is  a  fair  prolmbilit}-;  but  that  much  more  research  of 
an  intensive  character  must  be  carried  out  before  this  theory  can 
be  either  proved  or  disproved. 

(3)  That  the  origin  of  the  Neuropteroidea  from  Palseodicty- 
opterous  ancestors  is  extremely  probable:  nevertheless  here  also 
any  researches  that  tend  to  strengthen  the  argument  would  be 
very  welcome. 

(4)  That  the  origin  of  the  Pauorpoidea  from  the  Megasecoptera 
is  not  supported  by  a  single  piece  of  evidence  worth  considering; 
but  that  the  possibility  of  the  relationship  between  Keuropter- 
oidea  and  Panorpoidea  being  exceedingly  close  requires  recon- 
sideration, and   the   coincident  possibility  of   the  Panorpoidea 


BY    R.    J.    TlLLYARt).  267 

having  had   Palifiodictyopterous  ancestors   also  requires  careful 
investigation. 

My  own  researches  upon  the  JSfeuropteroidea  and  Fanorpoidea, 
as  far  as  they  have  gone,  have  convinced  me  that  these  two  Sub- 
classes have  a  great  deal  in  common.  They  have  also  revealed 
the  possibility  of  the  Hymenoptera,  and  even  the  Coleoptera, 
having  a  closer  relationship  with  the  Fanorpoidea  than  is  gener- 
ally suspected.  Not  only  do  many  signs  point  to  the  Mecoptera 
(Fanorpatae)  as  being  a  central  Order  round  which  all  the  rest  of 
the  Holometabola  may  be  more  or  less  closely  grouped,  but  the 
Palseontological  evidence  also  points  unmistakably  in  the  same 
direction.  For  fossil  Mecoptera  of  the  genus  Pennochorista, 
closely  allied  to  the  existing  Australian  genus  TfEiiiochorista^ 
have  now  been  proved  to  exist  in  the  Fermian  of  Newcastle,  New 
South  Wales(6),;  whereas  no  other  Holometabolous  insects  are 
known  from  Falseozoic  strata  at  all.  Even  admitting  the  incom- 
pleteness of  the  fossil  record,  we  must  be  immediately  struck 
with  the  fact  that  the  Mecoptera  existed  in  Fermian  times  in 
Australia,  in  a  form  very  similar  to  that  of  to-day.  This  points 
to  the  Order  having  arisen  well  before  Fermian  times.  The 
earliest  known  Neuropteroidea  are  Upper  Triassic,  the  earliest 
Coleoptera  also  Upper  Triassic,  the  earliest  Trichoptera  the 
same,  and  the  earliest  Hymenoptera  Upper  Jurassic.  Even  if 
we  grant  that  it  is  a  reasonable  expectation  that  all  these  Orders 
will  one  day  be  found  to  have  had  representatives  in  earlier 
strata,  yet  the  same  probability  holds  for  the  Mecoptera. 

Reviewing  the  whole  case,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  time  is  ripe 
for  a  careful  study  of  the  whole  problem,  as  far  as  the  evidence 
will  admit,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Mecoptera  as  the 
central  Order;  that  is  to  say,  the  Order  which  has  preserved, 
both  in  its  larval,  pupal,  and  imaginal  structures,  the  largest 
number  of  archaic  characters  derived  from  the  original  ancestor 
or  ancestors  of  the  Holometabola,  whatever  they  may  have  been. 

It  is  to  suggest  this  point  of  view  that  1  have  selected  as  title 
the  somewhat  elastic  term  "  The  Fanorpoid  Complex."  By  this 
title,  I  intend  to  convey  that  the  research  entered  upon  in  this 
paper  has,  for  its  main  object,  the  complete  working  out  of  the 


268  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

relationships  of  the  Order  Mecoptera  to  those  other  Orders  which 
stand  in  closest  relationship  to  it.  In  accepting  Handlirsch's 
division  of  the  Holometabola  into  four  Sub-classes,  it  is  to  be 
understood  that  I  do  so  only  provisionally,  for  the  convenience 
of  sifting  and  allocating  the  evidence  that  this  arrangement 
naturally  offers.  And,  as  it  is  obvious  that  the  main  weight  of 
the  argument  must  centre  around  those  Orders  which  are  clearly 
most  closely  associated  with  the  Mecoptera,  so  it  will  be  clear 
that  the  Orders  comprising  the  Panorpoidea  must  be  most  fully 
reviewed.  There  is,  however,  a  great  deal  of  evidence  to  be  ob- 
tained from  a  study  of  the  Neuropteroidea;  and  this  Sub-class 
can  by  no  means  be  denied  full  consideration  in  the  argument. 
With  respect  to  the  Coleoptera  and  the  Hymenoptera,  the  evi- 
dence to  be  obtained  from  them  at  the  present  time  is  compara- 
tively scanty,  and  has  little  weight  compared  with  that  derived 
from  the  other  Orders,  though  it  may  help  to  throw  some  light 
upon  the  larger  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  Holometabola  as  a 
whole.  These  ideas  I  have  tried  to  convey  in  the  sub-title 
selected  for  this  paper. 

If,  then,  we  accept  provisionally,  for  clarity  of  argument,  the 
two  Sub  classes  Neuropteroidea  and  Panorpoidea,  in  the  sense 
that  Handlirsch  defined  them  (but  with  some  modiHcations  in 
the  nomenclature  of  the  Orders  composing  them),  we  may  then 
proceed  to  define  the  "  Panorpoid  Complex"  as  that  assemblage 
of  Orders  ichose  ancestral  characters  can  be  shown  to  possess  close 
ajfiniti/  with  the  characters  preserved  to  a  yreat  measure  itt  the 
Order  Mecojdera,  without  in  any  way  binding  ourselves  to  the 
inclusion  of  any  particular  Order  in  the  Complex.  The  Complex 
itself  is  an  elastic  assemblage  of  Orders;  and  any  particular 
Order  may  be  included  in  it,  or  removed  from  it,  according  as 
the  weight  of  evidence  may  determine. 

Throughout  this  paper,  I  shall  use  the  name  Mecoptera  for 
the  Panorpatte  of  Handlirsch,  and  Trichoptera  for  his  Phrygan- 
oidea.  The  Rapliidioidea  I  hold  to  be  not  sufficiently  distinct 
from  the  Megaloptera  to  deserve  ordinal  rank,  since  van  der 
Weele's  work  (7)  indicates  the  strong  probability  of  their  origin 
from  the  more  ancient  Sialoid  stem.     Hence  I  shall  merge  them 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  269 

into  the  Order  Megaloptera,  which  will  then  consist  of  two  Sub- 
orders, viz  ,  the  Sialoidea  (aquatic)  and  the  Raphidioidea  (terres- 
trial). The  term  Neuroptera  is  now  so  ambiguous,  being  still 
used  in  present-day  writings  to  indicate  so  many  different  and 
heterogeneous  groups  of  Orders,  that  I  have  no  hesitation,  for 
the  sake  of  clearness  of  argument,  in  substituting  the  name 
Planipennia  for  it,  although  I  do  definitely  subscribe  to  the 
opinion  that  the  name  Neuroptera  ought  by  now  to  be  strictly 
confined  to  this  Order  only. 

For  tlie  purposes  of  this  paper,  I  shall  definitely  include  my 
new  fossil  Order,  Protomecoptera,  within  the  Sub-class  Panor- 
poidea,  to  which  it  clearly  belongs.  The  type  (and  so  far  the  only 
representative)  of  this  Order  is  Archipanorpa  ma<j7iijica  Tillyard, 
from  the  Upper  Trias  of  Ipswich,  Queensland.  Whether  this 
type  should  constitute  a  new  Order,  or  only  a  Sub-order  within 
the  Order  Mecoptera,  it  will  undoubtedly  conduce  to  claritv  of 
argument  if  we  employ  the  term  Protomecoptera  in  the  sense  in 
which  I  originally  defined  it (5). 

The  scheme  adopted  in  this  paper  may  now  be  exhibited  as 
follows  :  — 

Sub  class  Panorpoidea  : 

Orders  Protomecoptera  (fossil  only),  Mecoptera,  Trichoptera, 
Lepidoptera,  Diptera,  and  Aphaniptera. 

Sub-class  Neuroptekoidea  : 

Orders  Megaloptera  (including  the  aquatic  Sub-order  Sialoidea, 
and  the  terrestrial  Sub-order  Ptaphidioidea)  and  Planipennia 
( =  Neuroptera,  s.str.). 

Section  ii.  —  General  Principles. 

Most  of  the  work  that  has  been  done  in  Entomology  upon  the 
Phylogeny  of  any  given  Order  has  naturally  been  carried  out  by 
experts  upon  the  Order  in  question,  with  litlle  reference  to  out- 
side Orders.  As  an  example  of  this,  we  may  cite  Meyrick's 
numerous  works  on  the  Lepidoptera,  which,  apart  from  their 
systematic  aims,  have  also  attempted  to  show  the  origin  of  the 
Order,  as  a  whole,  from  the  Trichoptera.  In  ihe  whole  of  this 
work,  Meyrick  makes  allusion    to  only  one  genus  [lihyacophila) 


270  THE  PANORtoiD  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

of  the  supposedly  ancestral  Order,  and,  indeed,  suggests,  in  more 
than  one  place,  that  the  whole  of  the  Lepidoptera  are  descended 
from  this  still  existing  and  abundant  genus  of  Caddis-flies. 
Throughout  the  work,  the  characters  of  the  Lepidoptera  are 
subjected  to  a  searching  scrutiny  and  criticism,  but  the  same 
tests  are  not  applied  to  the  Trichoptera,  which  are,  nevertheless, 
an  equally  important  factor  in  the  problem [3,  i\. 

Tt  has,  for  long,  seemed  to  me  that  a  problem  of  this  kind, 
attacked  in  this  manner,  i.e.,  by  intensive  study  of  the  internal 
differences  within  the  Order  in  question,  without  an  equally 
intensive  study  of  the  differences  existing  within  the  Oiders 
supposedly  ancestral  to  it,  could  not  possibly  yield  a  complete 
and  accurate  solution.  The  alternative,  chosen  by  some  few 
authors  in  recent  years,  has  been  to  pass  in  review  the  sup- 
posedly archaic  characters  of  related  Orders,  and  to  attempt  to 
derive  from  this  evidence  some  idea  as  to  the  standing  of  one 
Order  to  another.  As  an  example  of  this,  I  need  only  mention 
again  Handlirsch's  famous  attempt  to  give  us  a  complete  Phylo- 
geny  of  the  whole  of  the  Orders  of  Insects,  as  well  as  a  Phylo- 
geny  of  the  Class  Insecta  itself(2). 

It  will  be  at  once  admitted  that  this  second  method  is  the 
right  one.  It  has,  however,  one  obvious  disadvantage.  In 
order  to  carry  it  out  successfully,  the  author  should  be  equally 
expert  upon  all  the  Orders  that  he  reviews.  But  no  man  could 
hope  to  attain  the  knowledge  in  half-a-dozen  or  more  Orders 
that  can  be  attained  in  one  by  a  life-study  of  it.  Hence  we  see 
that,  while  the  outlook  of  such  an  author  will  be  a  broader  one 
than  that  of  the  expert  in  one  Order  only,  yet  the  evidence 
brought  forward  cannot  all  be  accepted  at  the  same  face- value; 
and  the  chances  of  misinterpretations  at  vital  points  is  evidently 
very  much  greater. 

As  an  example  of  this,  we  might  contrast  the  treatment  of 
the  Phylogeny  of  the  Lepidoptera  by  Meyrick  on  the  one  hand, 
and  by  Handlirsch,  on  the  other.  First  of  all,  Meyrick  confines 
himself  almost  entirely  to  wing-venation.  By  an  exceedingly 
full  analysis  of  the  different  types  within  the  Order,  he  arrives 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  homonomously -winged  Jugatse  repre- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYAPr).  271 

sent  the  oldest  type,  within  the  Order.  Having  then  discovered, 
in  the  living  genus  RhyacopJula  of  the  Order  Trichoptera,  a 
venation  with  apparently  all  the  essential  characters  of  the 
Jugatse,  he  claims  that  the  Jugatie,  and  therefore  all  the  Lepi- 
doptera,  are  to  be  regarded  as  having  had  a  Rhyacophilous 
ancestor. 

If  the  characters  considered  by  Meyrick  were  the  only  ones 
that  concerned  the  question,  and  if  the  Orders  Trichoptera  and 
Lepidoptera  were  so  isolated  from  all  the  other  Orders  of  Insects 
that  there  could  be  no  question  of  affinities  in  any  other  direc- 
tion, Meyrick's  solution  might  be  accepted  as  correct,  in  spite  o' 
its  having  been  based  mainly  upon  the  wing-venation  only.  But 
this  is  not  the  case.  As  we  shall  see,  the  Order  Mecoptera  has 
quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  claims  to  be  regarded  as  the  ancestral 
type  from  which  the  Lepidoptera  sprang,  while  the  claims  of  the 
Planipennia,  in  certain  directions,  may  by  no  means  be  over- 
looked. Moreover,  no  attempt  was  made  to  test  the  claim,  which 
surely  can  legitimately  )je  made,  that  the  Trichoptera  themselves 
are  a  by  no  means  unspecialised  Order,  with  almost  as  much 
right  to  being  considered  an  end-term  in  a  Phylogenetic  Series 
as  the  Lepidoptera  themselves. 

Many  of  these  objections  to  the  method  of  procedure  adopted 
by  Meyrick  are  overcome  by  the  method  which  Handlirsch  fol- 
lowed. This  author,  first  of  all,  considers  the  relationships  of 
the  Trichoptera  with  the  Mecoptera,  and  concludes  that  the 
former  are  an  offshoot  of  the  latter.  He  then  propounds  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  Lepidoptera  are  to  be  legitimately 
regarded  as  the  derivatives  of  the  Trichoptera  themselves,  or 
whether  we  are  compelled  to  go  further  back,  to  the  older 
Mecoptera,  in  order  to  indicate  their  ancestors.  His  review  of 
this  question  is,  in  its  way,  a  masterly  exposition  of  the  facts,  as 
far  as  he  knew  them;  and  his  conclusion,  that  the  Lepidoptera 
are  not  descended  from  the  Trichoptera,  but  directly  from  tlie 
older  Mecoptera,  cannot  fail  to  commend  itself  to  all  biologists, 
if  the  facts  that  he  quotes  are  really  correct. 

Here,  then,  comes  in  the  question  which  I  have  already  men- 
tioned, viz.,  the  amount  of  equipment  of  specialised  knowledge 


272  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

of  all  the  Orders  taken  into  consideration,  necessary  for  an 
author  who  would  decide  this  problem.  Having  carefully  read 
through  the  whole  of  Handlirsch's  work,  I  was  at  once  struck 
with  his  evident  lack  of  specialised  knowledge  of  the  two  Orders 
most  fundamental  to  the  whole  question,  viz.,  the  Triclioptera 
and  the  Mecoptera.  The  characters  of  these  two  Orders  are 
reviewed  very  superficially  in  comparison  with  those  of  the 
Lepidoptera  and  Diptera:  in  fact,  the  whole  of  their  phylogeny 
is  decided  within  the  limits  of  a  single  page  of  print.  And,  on 
that  one  page,  I  find  statements  made  which,  as  far  as  my  know- 
ledge of  these  Orders  goes,  are  incorrect.  Such,  for  example,  is 
the  statement  on  p  1254,  that  the  jugum  appears  in  the  Meco- 
ptera as  well  as  in  the  Lepidoptera,  and  that  on  p.  1253,  that  the 
Mecoptera  retain  the  archaic  homonomous  wings  and  archaic 
mouth-parts.  In  my  studies  of  the  Mecoptera,  I  have  found 
that  none  of  these  statements  are  justified,  and  I  shall  have  to 
deal  with  them  more  fully  in  the  part  of  this  paper  devoted  to 
that  Order. 

We  are  thus  faced  with  the  situation  of  having  to  choose 
between  the  limited  outlook,  but  greater  accuracy  in  detail,  of 
tlie  solution  offered  us  by  the  specialist  in  one  Order,  of  whom  I 
take  Meyrick  as  a  conspicuous  example,  since  he  shows  in  a  most 
remarkable  degree  the  combination  of  both  these  characteristics; 
and  the  wider  outlook,  but  occasional  inaccuracy  in  detail,  of  the 
solution  offered  us  by  the  non-specialist,  whose  aim  should  be  to 
regard  all  the  Orders  coming  under  his  review  as  equally  entitled 
to  careful  examination  and  consideration. 

It  will  he  at  once  obvious,  without  any  further  argument,  that 
neither  of  these  alternatives  is  entirely  satisfactory.  Before  we 
can  deal  satisfactorily  with  the  phylogeny  of  a  group  of  Orders, 
we  must  attain,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  specialist's  knowledge 
in  every  one  of  them.  Such  knowledge,  in  the  present  advanced 
state  of  Entomology,  is  unattainable  within  the  lifetime  of  any 
single  man.  We  must,  therefore,  ask  ourselves,  firstly,  whether 
we  may  legitimately  attack  a  problem  of  such  magnitude, 
equipped  with  anything  less  than  the  maximum  of  attainable 
knowledge  on  all   Orders;  and,  secondly,  whethei-,  if   this  first 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  273 

question  be  answered  affirmatively,  we  can  indicate  with  any 
certainty  which  portions  of  that  knowledge  are  essential,  and 
which  are  not. 

Now  there  will  be,  in  any  group  of  Orders,  some  which  show 
definite  specialisation  above  the  others:  as,  for  instance,  the 
Lepidoptera  and  Diptera  above  the  Trichoptera  and  Mecoptera. 
All  entomologists  are  agreed  upon  this.  Is  it  more  necessary  to 
attain  to  the  specialised  knowledge  of  the  lower  groups, or  of  the 
higher  groups  ?  It  will  be  seen  that  Meyrick  was  a  specialist  in 
the  higher  of  the  two  Orders  which  he  discussed,  while  the 
same  is  true  of  Handlirsch,  in  a  more  general  way,  since  he, 
everywhere,  shows  a  far  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Lepi- 
doptera and  Diptera,  but  especially  of  the  latter,  than  he  does 
of  the  Trichoptera  and  Mecoptera.  Would  it  not  be  preferable 
for  the  author,  who  is  to  attempt  a  satisfactory  solution  of  this 
problem,  to  throw  the  main  weight  of  his  studies  on  to  the  side 
of  the  more  archaic  Orders,  which,  unfortunately  for  the  progress 
of  Entomology,  have  been  so  neglected  for  many  years,  and  to 
be  content  to  attain  to  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  only  the  more 
archaic  types  within  the  more  highly  specialised  Orders? 

I  believe  that  this  question  must  be  answered  in  the  affirma- 
tive, for  some  very  good  reasons.  Firstly,  the  knowledge  of  the 
more  archaic  Orders  is  the  only  sure  foundation  upon  which  the 
Phylogeny  of  the  higher  Orders  can  be  built.  Any  attempt 
without  this  knowledge  is  merely  building  up  a  house  without 
la3'ing  secure  foundations.  Secondly,  the  connections  sought  for 
in  the  tracking  out  of  the  ancestry-  of  the  higher  Orders  must  be 
those  between  some  members  (either  existing  or  extinct)  of  the 
more  archaic  Orders  and  the  least  specialised  families  of  the 
higher  Orders.  Thirdly,  if  at  any  time  the  problem  transcends 
the  attainable  bounds  of  knowledge  of  the  investigator  who  has 
adopted  the  course  here  advocated,  he  can  always  call  in  the 
advice  of  "the  specialist,  who  possesses  just  that  very  type  of 
knowledge,  in  his  own  group,  which  would  render  the  Phylo- 
genist's  task  too  overwhelming  for  him,  on  the  principle  of  "not 
being  able  to  see  the  wood  for  the  trees.''  And,  finally,  there 
are  already,  in  Entomology,  specialists  enough  in  all  the  higher 


274  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

Orders;  so  that  the  chance  of  being  brought  to  a  full-stop, 
because  nobody  in  the  world  can  supply  the  gap  required,  is  so 
unlikely  a  possibility  that  it  may  be  dismissed  without  further 
thought. 

That  being  so,  T  decided  that  the  investigation  into  the  Phylo- 
geny  of  the  Panorpoid  Complex  was  a  task  that  I  might  venture 
to  undertake,  and  that  its  difficulty  and  immensity  would  be 
more  than  compensated  for  b\'  the  advantage  to  Entomology  in 
general,  if  a  satisfactory  solution  could  be  found.  Having,  then, 
decided  to  confine  mvself  to  researches  within  the  limits  indi- 
cated  in  the  previous  paragraph,  I  have  carried  out  an  exhaustive 
surve}"  of  the  older  Orders  under  review,  viz.,  the  Planipennia, 
Megaloptera,  Mecopteia,  and  Trichoptera,  and  have  been  content 
to  study,  in  the  immense  Orders  Diptera  and  Lepidoptera,  mainly 
the  older  families  only.  The  survey  has  been  extended  far 
enough  to  give  me  some  idea  of  the  position  and  inter-relation- 
ships of  all  the  important  families  of  each  of  these  Orders;  but 
intensive  study  has  l)een  chiefly  confined  to  the  older  families, 
together  with  other  more  specialised  types  in  which  I  thought  I 
could  recognise  characters  of  value  as  evidence  on  the  question 
at  issue.  Further,  it  will  be  at  once  evident  that  the  equipment 
of  the  author  who  attempts  to  solve  this  immense  problem  will 
not  be  complete  unless  he  masters  what  there  is  to  know  about 
the  Fossil  Record  of  the  Orders  in  question,  and  of  their  possible 
ancestral  Orders.  This  also  I  have  endeavoured  to  do.  The 
fortunate  circumstance  of  my  having  in  my  hands  a  large  amount 
of  new  and  unique  material  of  this  kind  from  the  Permian  and 
Triassic  strata  of  Eastern  Australia  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
factors  in  my  decision  to  undertake  this  task;  indeed,  it  has 
almost  imposed  the  obligation  upon  me,  since  nobody  who  has 
not  studied  these  fossils  could  possibly  be  so  favourably  placed 
for  discussing  this  question  as  I  happen  to  be,  simply  through 
this  great  good  fortune. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  readily  granted  that  the  Order  is  the  only 
satisfactory  unit  upon  which  a  study  of  this  kind  can  be  based. 
We  have,  therefore,  to  consider  what  view  of  an  Order  we  must 
take,  in  dealing  with  it  as  a  separate  unit  in  a  paper  such  as 
this. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  275 

Now  there  are,  in  any  given  Order,  many  diverse  groups. 
Some  of  tliCvSe  will  exhibit  very  high  specialisations  in  one  or 
more  directions:  others  wdll  show  unexpected  archaisms,  which 
may  make  it  exceedingly  awkward  to  frame  a  comprehensive 
definition  of  the  Order.  As  an  example  of  this,  we  may  take 
the  evolution  of  the  mouth-parts  within  the  Order  Lepidoptera. 
In  the  great  majority  of  the  families  within  this  Order,  the 
mandibles  are  absent,  the  maxillary  palps  absent,  the  galeae 
produced  into  a  long  sucking-tube  or  haustellum,  and  the  labial 
palps  present  and  more  or  less  highly  specialised.  But,  in  the 
Alirropterygidce,  the  mandibles  are  present,  as  are  also  the  typical 
maxillae  of  older  Holometabolous  Orders,  with  five-jointed  palpi, 
and  unspecialised  galeae  and  lacinise  There  is,  therefore,  no 
reason,  from  the  Phylogenetic  view-point,  why  we  should  not 
consider  the  Lepidoptera  as,  ot  bottom,  essentially  a  mandibulate 
Order,  when  we  come  to  discuss  its  relationship  with  the  other 
Orders  of  the  Panorpoid  Complex. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  evident  that,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
paper,  the  usual  definitions  of  Orders  to  be  found  in  text-books 
not  only  will  not  serve  our  purpose,  but  may  actually  be  mislead- 
ing. I  propose  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  the  use  of  Arche- 
types (German,  Ur-typns).  For  each  Order  that  comes  under 
review,  we  must  define  an  archetype,  which  shall  include  in  itself 
all  the  most  archaic  characters  found  within  the  Order.  Having 
done  this,  we  may  reasonably  discuss  the  relationships  of  the 
archetypes  of  the  various  Orders,  wuth  some  prospect  of  a  suc- 
cessful issue. 

In  following  out  this  line  of  argument,  we  can  lav  down  two 
guiding  principles  :  — 

(1)  The  Phylogeny  must  not  be  determined  from  one  set  of 
characters  only  (e.g.,  wing-venation),  however  important  that  set 
of  characters  may  be.  But  it  must  be  determined  by  a  review 
of  as  many  characters  as  possible. 

(2)  The  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  determination 
of  the  characters  of  the  Archetype.  For  instance,  in  the  case 
of  the  jugum  and  frenulum  in  Lepidoptera,  it  is  not  suflBcient  to 
adopt  the  jugum  as  the  more  archaic  character,  merely  because 


276  THE   PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

it  is  found  in  those  Lepidoptera  which  have  the  most  archaic 
wing-venation.  If  a  mistake  is  made  here,  the  whole  Phylogeny 
is  bound  to  go  wrong.  As  a  corollary,  it  should  follow  that 
characters  in  which  the  evidence  of  archaism  or  specialisation 
may  be  uncertain,  with  a  division  of  opinion  upon  the  point 
amongst  those  entomologists  who  have  studied  it,  must  be  either 
definitely  cleared  up  by  means  of  new  evidence,  or  they  must  be 
entirely  omitted  from  the  argument. 

The  Detej'mination  of  Archetypes. 

We  ma)^  exhibit  this  principle  as  follows  :  — 

Let  a,  b,  c,  d, etc.,  represent  a  series  of  characters  which 

are  constant  throughout  the  Order  in  question. 

Let  p,  q,  r,  s,  .  .  .  .  etc.,  represent  a  further  series  of  characters 
which  are  not  constant  throughout  the  Order,  but  show  definite 
lines  of  evolutionary  advance  in  one  or  more  directions. 

Taking  any  one  of  these  characters  ]>,  after  examination  of  its 
structure  in  various  families,  let  F  represent  the  most  archaic 
condition,  while  p',  ]"■>  ^t^.,  represent  various  specialised  condi- 
tions of  the  same. 

Any  family  within  the  Order  can  now  be  defined  by  the 
characters 

a,  b,  c,  d,  etc., p,  q,  r,  s, etc., 

where  p  can  have  any  of  the  values  F,  p',  p'\  etc.,  q  any  of  the 
values  (j>>,  5',  q\  etc.,  and  so  on. 

For  instance,  one  family  may  be  defined  by 
«,  ^,  c,  f/, ;y,  q\  R,  s"\ 

The  Archetype  of  the  Order,  which  may  or  may  not  still   be 
existing  (the  greater  the    number  of   characters   taken,  the  less 
likely  is  it  to  be  still  existing)  will  be  defined  by 
«,  6,  c,  c/, F,  Q,  F,  'S, 

77te  Determination  of  the  Fhylogeuy  of  separate  Orders. 

The  same  principle  as  above  may  be  followed  in  this  case,  pro- 
vided we  take  the  characters  of  the  ArcJietype  as  the  characters  of 
the  Order  it  represents,  for  the  purposes  of  the  Phylogeny. 

In  this  case,  the  characters  a,  b,  c,  d, etc.,  which  were 

constants  throughout  any  single  Order,  will  now  be  variables  for 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  277 

the  d liferent  Archetj^pes;  also  P,  Q,  B,  S, not  having  the 

same  values  for  different  Orders,  we  may  omit  these  letters,  and 
consider  that  the  whole  series  of  characters  is  comprised  in  a 

single   (longer)   series  of  variables  a,   b,   c,   d,   e,  J] etc. 

Taking  a  group  of  Orders,  we  may  now  represent  the  most 
archaic  value  of  the  character  a  hy  A,  while  «',  a\  etc.,  represent 
various  specialised  conditions  of  the  same.  Then  we  shall  be 
able  to  write  the  Archetypes  of  different  Orders  in  this  way 

Archetype  of  Order  1:  -  ^4,  h",  C,  d',  e,  F,  g"  .  .  .  (say). 

Archetype  of  Order  2: -a,  h\  C,  d",  EJ'\  G  .  .  .  (say). 

Archetype  of  Order  3:—^,  B,  c',  Z>,  e",f\  g'  .  .  .  (say);  and 
so  on. 

The  condition  that  any  one  Order  may  be  ancestral  to  another 
can  now  be  determined  by  comparing  the  Archetype  of  the 
supposedly  higher  Order  with  any  supposedly  ancestral  group 
lying  within  the  bounds  of  the  Lower  Order.  But,  as  the 
characters  of  the  Archetype  of  the  supposedly  ancestral  Order 
are  even  more  archaic  than  those  of  the  supposedly  ancestral 
group  lying  within  that  Order,  the  determination  may  be  made, 
once  for  all,  by  comparing  the  Archetypes  of  the  two  Orders. 
The  following  rule  may  be  laid  down : — 

The  condition  that  one  Order  may  be  truly  considered  ances- 
tral to  another,  is  that  there  must  not  exist  a  single  character  in 
the  Archetype  of  the  former,  ivhich  is  more  highly  specialised  than 
the  corresponding  character  in  that  of  the  latter. 

For  example,  consider  the  case  of  Orders  1  and  3  above.  The 
character  A  is  common  to  both  Archetypes.  For  the  character 
6,  the  Archetype  of  Order  3  is  the  older  {B  against  h").  But  for 
the  character  c,  the  Archetype  of  Order  1  is  the  older  (C  against 
c).  Hence,  clearly,  neither  of  these  two  Orders  can  be  con- 
sidered as  ancestral  to  the  other;  and  we  must  go  back,  for  their 
common  ancestor,  to  an  Order  (probably  no  longer  existing) 
whose  Archetype  shows  the  characters  A,  Jj,  C,  .  .  .  . 

The  Recognition  of  Embryonic  ^Structures. 
It  would   seem   necessary  here   to   call  attention   to  the  fact, 
which  seems  to  have  been  quite  ignored  by  most  of  those  ento- 
20 


278  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Tntroduction), 

mologists  who  have  not  studied  other  Classes  of  Animals,  that  it 
is  not  necessary  to  be  able  to  trace  back  a  structure  to  the 
embryo  without  a  break,  in  order  to  prove  that  it  is  derived 
from  an  embryonic  structure.  Particularly  does  this  apply  to 
appendages  within  the  Phylum  Arthropoda.  Examples  of  this 
are  the  well-known  observations  on  the  re-development  of  limbs 
from  latent  embryonic  rudiments  in  Crustacea,  e.g.,  the  man- 
dibular palp  in  Decapod  larvae,  and  the  maxillipedes  of  the 
Stomatopoda.  In  fact,  the  rudiments  may  appear  in  the  embryo, 
disappear  later  on,  and  then  reappear  again  in  the  imago,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  thoracic  legs  of  the  genus  Chalicodoma  and  other 
genera  in  the  Order  Hymenoptera. 

Thus  we  see  that  it  is  not  sufficient  proof  that  a  structure  is 
not  derived  from  an  embryonic  rudiment  to  show  that  it  does 
not  develop  directly  from  that  rudiment;  whereas,  it  is,  most 
certainly,  quite  sufficient  proof  that  it  is  so  derived,  if  we  can 
trace  it  up  from  the  embrj^o,  through  the  larva  and  pupa,  with- 
out a  break,  to  the  imago  (or,  if  the  structure  in  question  is  only 
a  larval  one,  then  it  need  only  be  traced  from  the  embryo  to  the 
larva). 

We  may  take,  as  an  example  of  this,  Lubbock's  observation 
upon  the  development  of  the  lateral  gills  in  Chloeon,  which,  he 
proved,  did  not  begin  to  develop  until  the  third  instar  of  the 
larva.  Many  entomologists  have  used  this  as  proof  that  these 
gills  cannot  be  homologous  with  the  original  segmental  abdominal 
appendages,  which  are  represented  in  the  embryo,  and  then  dis- 
appear. This  argument  is  quite  fallacious,  and  must  be  care- 
fully avoided,  since  it  is  a  frequent  temptation  to  use  it.  Further, 
there  is  another  potential  fallacy  in  this  kind  of  argument. 
Chloeon  is  a  highly  specialised  member  of  the  Order  Plectoptera. 
May  it  not  be  quite  possible  that  the  break  between  the  embry- 
onic appendages  and  the  formation  of  the  gills,  which  is  so  con- 
spicuous in  this  genus,  may  be  very  much  reduced,  if  not  com- 
pletely removed,  in  the  case  of  the  development  of  the  larva  of 
some  much  more  archaic  type,  such  as  Onisciy aster,  not  yet 
studied  ? 


13Y    R.    j.    TILLYARD.  279 

Meyrick's  Law. 

In  1893,  Comstock(l)  gave  the  name  "  Meyrick's  Law"  to  the 
following  statement,  which  was  first  enunciated  by  Meyrick  in 
1884: — "When  an  organ  has  wholly  disappeared  in  a  genus, 
other  genera  which  originate  as  oftshoots  from  this  genus  cannot 
regain  the  organ,  although  they  might  develop  a  substitute 
for  it." 

Stated  in  this  manner,  this  law  may  be  accepted,  provided  it 
is  clearly  understood  what  its  limitations  are.  These  mav  be 
stated  as  follows  : — 

(1)  It  must  be  capable  of  proof  that  the  organ  in  question  has 
ivholly  disappeared  from  the  assumed  ancestral  genus.  For  in- 
stance, a  concealed  rudiment  of  an  organ  may  reappear,  after  a 
more  or  less  lengthy  period  of  suppression  during  the  course  of 
evolution  of  the  group.  It  will  be  clear  that  this  fact  alone 
must  make  the  application  of  the  law  exceedingly  problematical, 
except  in  the  case  of  very  simple  and  easily  examined  structures 
or  organs. 

(2)  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  determining  what  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  substitute  ior  an  organ,  as  contrasted  with  an  actual 
redevelopment  of  the  original  organ  from  a  concealed  rudiment. 

(3)  The  converse  of  the  law  is  not  necessarily  true;  i.e.,  if  a 
genus  B  shows  the  loss  of  certain  organs  in  comparison  with 
another  genus  A,  we  are  not  entitled  to  state,  without  further 
evidence,  that  B  is  descended  from  A;  we  may  only  state  that  A 
is  more  archaic  than  B  in  respect  of  the  characters  in  question. 

How  little  the  importance  of  the  safeguards  in  the  original 
statement  of  this  law  has  been  regarded  may  be  gathered  from 
Meyrick's  own  later  work.  In  1895(3),  we  find  him  enunciating 
three  "laws"  as  his  guiding  principles  in  the  determination  of  the 
Phylogeny  of  the  Lepidoptera.     These  are  stated  as  follows  : — 

"(1)  A'o  new  organ  can  be  produced  except  as  a  modification 
o/ some  previously  eoiisti'ug  sti'ucture." 

"  (2)  A  Jost  organ  cannot  be  regained.'^ 

"  (3)  A  rudimentary  organ  is  rarely  redeveloped.^'  (p. 10). 

Of  these.  No. 2  is  Meyrick's  Law  restated  without  its  original 
safeguards.      This,    taken   in  conjunction   with   the   other   two, 


^80  THE  PAXORPOiD  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

forms  a  very  generalised  statement  covering  a  very  much  wider 
field  than  the  original  one,  and  open  to  far  graver  objections. 
As  regards  Law  No.  1,  this  can  only  be  accepted  as  true  in  its 
very  widest  sense,  i.e.,  that  there  must  be  pre-existing  living 
material,  or  cells,  as  a  basis  from  which  any  new  structure  is  to 
be  developed;  and,  in  that  sense,  it  ceases  to  have  any  value, 
and  becomes  a  truism.  With  respect  to  Law  No. 2,  this  ceases 
to  be  true  when  the  restrictions  contained  in  the  original  state- 
ment of  the  law  are  removed.  To  mention  only  one  obvious 
example.  The  thoracic  legs  of  certain  Hymenoptera  (e^g  ,  Chali- 
codoma)  appear  in  the  embryo;  they  then  disappear  throughout 
larval  life,  but  reappear  again  in  their  complete  form  in  the 
imago.  Thus,  in  this  case,  as  in  many  others,  "a  lost  organ  is 
regained";  and  a  bald  statement  to  the  contrary  is  not  only  not 
a  law,  but  it  is  not  true.  Moreover,  it  may  not  be  argued  that 
the  law  is  true  when  applied  to  Phylogenetic  problems  only,  and 
not  to  Ontogeny.  For,  if  there  is  any  truth  in  the  Biogenetic 
Law  at  all,  it  is  certain  that  what  occurs  in  Ontogeny  is  of  the 
same  nature,  and  governed  by  many  of  the  same  laws,  as  what 
occurs  in  Phylogeny;  and  if  we  frequently  find  that  lost  organs 
are  regained  in  the  course  of  Ontogeny,  then  it  follows  that  we 
may  by  no  means  assert  that  the  same  possilnlity  cannot  hold 
for  Phylogeny.  With  respect  to  Law  No. 3,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  remark  that  there  is  probably  no  Phylum  in  which  rudiment- 
ary organs  are  so  often  redeveloped  as  in  the  Arthropoda,  and 
that  this  is  particularly  true  of  appendages. 

It  would  seem  much  wiser  to  do  without  any  attempt  to  formu- 
late laws  (so-called)  for  the  solving  of  Phylogenetic  problems,  and 
to  treat  each  case,  as  it  presents  itself,  upon  its  own  merits.  In 
most  cases,  for  instance,  it  is  quite  capable  of  definite  proof  that, 
in  a  given  phyletic  series,  an  organ  originally  present  has  been 
lost,  and  never  regained  in  any  of  the  descendant  genera.  In 
other  cases,  not  so  numerous  it  is  true,  it  is  capable  of  proof,  by 
reference  to  palaiontological  evidence,  that  lost  organs  have  been 
regained,  or,  perhaps,  that  organs  which,  on  the  strict  applica- 
tion of  Law  No. 2,  would  have  to  be  regarded  as  originally  pre- 
sent and    subsequently  lost,    are   really  new   developments   not 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  281 

present  in  the  ancestral  form.  In  such  cases,  a  rigid  application 
of  the  law  would  result  in  a  complete  inversion  of  the  phylo- 
genetic  conclusion. 

Meyrick  liimself  applied  his  law  chiefly  to  the  problem  of 
wing-venation  in  the  Lepidoptera.  In  a  case  like  this,  where 
almost  the  whole  course  of  evolution  is  towards  reduction  and 
simplification,  tliere  is  not  much  danger  in  its  use.  Yet  even 
here  caution  is  necessary.  It  is  not  true,  for  instance,  that 
veins  which  have  once  been  lost  cannot  be  re-developed;  nor  is 
it  true  that  new  cross-veins  cannot  be  formed  in  a  wing-area  in 
which  no  such  structures  existed  in  the  ancestral  form.  One  has 
only  to  examine  the  tracheation  of  the  pupal  wing  in  the  Lepi- 
doptera to  see  that  there  is  an  immense  field  of  possibilities  in 
both  these  directions,  owing  to  the  persistence  of  the  finer 
tracheae,  ramifying  in  all  directions  beneath  the  wing-membrane. 
As  long  as  these  tracheae  persist,  so  long  must  the  possibility  of 
an  imaginal  venational  meshwork  reappearing  be  held  to  exist. 
Moreover,  in  a  case  in  which  the  wing  is  changing  its  shape,  so 
that  a  certain  part  of  it  may  become  broadened,  it  is  exceedingly 
likely  that  one  or  more  of  the  tracheae  underlying  the  veinlets 
of  this  area  will  become  lengthened  and  strengthened,  so  that  it 
may  eventually  lead  to  the  replacement  of  an  original  short  vein- 
let  by  a  longer  oblique  branch,  which,  on  Meyrick's  interpreta- 
tion, would  have  to  be  regarded  as  an  original  archaic  branch  of 
the  main  vein  from  which  it  springs  One  of  the  best  examples 
of  this  is  the  effect  of  the  widening  of  the  costal  area  in  the 
Psychopsidce,  in  which  an  originally  fairly  simple  series  of 
veinlets  has  become  greatly  lengthened  and  enlarged,  most  of  its 
units  branching  many  times;  and  all  of  them  connected  together 
by  newly  developed  series  of  cross  veins,  which  were  certainlv 
not  present  in  the  ancestral  form. 

The  above  example  shows  us  that,  even  in  so  restricted  a  study 
as  that  of  Wing- Venation,  Meyrick's  Law  can  only  be  used  with 
great  caution.  It  must  be  restricted  to  areas  of  the  ivirtg  that 
are  undergoing  reduction.  In  the  present  state  of  evolution  of 
the  Insect-Wing,  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  tendency  is  towards 
reduction  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.     But  this  cannot  always 


282  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction), 

have  been  the  case.  Bearing  in  mind  the  complex  nature  of  the 
win'^-venation  in  the  most  archaic  types  of  insects,  we  are  bound 
Xfo  conclude  that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  evolution  of  the  wing, 
there  must  have  been  a  period  of  great  enlargement,  with  a  rapid 
and  abundant  production  of  veins  in  all  parts  (following  upon 
the  rapid  increase  in  the  tracheation  of  the  developing  organ). 
After  this  had  reached  its  maximum,  there  began  a  period  of 
arrangement  and  reduction,  during  which  the  very  beautiful  and 
perfect  wing-types  at  present  existing  were  evolved.  We  may 
term  the  process  by  which  any  part  of  a  wing  becomes  broadened, 
with  consequent  production  of  further  venation  in  that  area, 
Platygenesis  (Gr.  TrAan's,  broad);  while  the  opposite  process,  in 
which  the  wing-area  in  question  becomes  reduced  or  narrowed, 
with  consequent  reduction  or  elimination  of  some  of  its  existing 
venation,  may  be  termed  Stenogenesis  (Gr.  (rTev6<;,  narrow).  The 
development  of  the  costal  space  in  the  Psj/chopsidce,  of  the 
enlarcred  anal  area  of  the  hindwing  in  Anisopterid  Odonata,  and 
of  the  wide  anal  fan  in  the  Orthoptera,  Perlaria,  and  other 
insects,  are  good  examples  of  Platygenesis;  while  the  process  of 
Stenogenesis  can  l)e  followed  out  very  fully  in  such  an  evolu- 
tionary series  as  the  Diptera  Nemocera. 

Scheme  of  the    Work. 

We  have  already  stated  that  phylogenetic  conclusions,  to  be 
acceptable,  must  be  based  upon  an  examination  of  as  many  char- 
acters as  possible.  In  undertaking  an  analysis  of  a  large  number 
of  characters,  two  methods  of  procedure  are  possible.  We  may 
either  select  each  Order  in  turn  and  study  its  characteristics 
fullv,  with  a  view  to  the  determination  of  its  Archetype:  or  we 
may  select  any  given  set  of  characters,  as,  for  instance,  those 
offered  by  the  Wing-venation,  and  study  them  as  they  are  ex- 
hibited throughout  the  whole  of  the  Orders  under  discussion; 
proceeding  to  deal  with  other  sets  of  characters  in  subsequent 
parts  of  the  work. 

This  second  method  must  obviously  be  the  one  chosen,  for 
only  by  it  can  the  necessary  comparisons  be  made  between  the 
same  sets   of   characters  in  different  Orders.      Thus  we  have  to 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  283 

postpone  the  definition  of  Archetypes  until  the  whole  of  the 
characters  selected  have  been  surveyed;  and  the  final  decision 
as  to  the  phylogenetic  relationships  of  the  various  Orders  will 
not  become  fully  apparent  until  the  work  is  completed.  Mean- 
while, it  seems  advisable  to  select  the  characters  for  study  in 
such  a  way  that  the  work  can  be  subdivided  up  into  a  series  of 
parts,  each  complete  in  itself,  and  suitable  for  separate  publica- 
tion. Working  on  these  lines,  we  may  conveniently  begin  with 
those  characters  which  have  been  most  used  in  phylogenetic 
discussions,  and  proceed  to  deal  with  the  rest  in  a  definite  order. 
Thus  we  shall  at  first  confine  our  attention  to  a  study  of  the 
Wings  alone,  and  these  will  occupy  two  or  more  parts  of  the 
work.  Next  to  these,  we  shall  take  the  Mouth-parts.  Sub- 
sequent parts  will  deal  with  other  imaginal  structures;  and, 
lastly,  the  structure  of  the  larva  and  pupa  will  be  reviewed.  As 
regards  the  structure  of  the  egg,  and  the  Embr^^ology,  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  so  little  is  known  about  the  latter  in  the  case  of 
the  more  archaic  Orders.  As  our  knowledge  stands  at  present, 
the  evidence  available  on  this  point,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
paper,  is  so  incomplete,  that  it  can  have  little  bearing  upon  the 
main  result. 

The  investigations  into  this  problem  were  actually  begun 
about  two  years  ago,  and  are  still  going  on.  I  feel  that  I  can 
safely  leave  the  completion  of  the  more  specialiseci  parts  of  the 
work  to  a  later  date;  because,  if  I  waited  until  they  were  all 
finished,  the  main  conclusions  of  this  work  would  not,  perhaps, 
see  the  light  of  publicity  for  some  years.  The  results  already 
attained  are,  to  my  mind,  of  such  importance  that  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  placing  them  in  the  hands  of  the  scientific;  public, 
and  their  value  will  not  be  lessened  )jy  delay  in  the  completion 
of  the  whole  fabric  of  my  woik. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  CoMSTOCK,  J.  H.,  1893. — Evolution  and   Taxonomy,  in    "The    Wilder 

Quarter  Centenaiy  Book."     Ithaca,  N.Y.,  ISl).').  pp..')?-!  14.     iMej-- 
rick's  Law,  p. 47). 

2.  Handlirsch,  a.,  1908.— Die  Fossilen  Insekten.     Leipzig,   1908.     (Die 

Phylogenie  der  Pterj'gogenea,  viii.  Abschnitt,  pp.  1228-1318). 


284  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX  (Introduction). 

3.  Meybick,  E.,  1895. — Handbook  of  British  Lepidoptera.     London,  Mac- 

niillan  and  Co.,  1895.     (See  p.  10). 
i. ,  1912. — Micropteryrjifhv  in    "(lenera  Insectonim,"  Fasc. 

132.     Brussels,  M.  P.  Wytsman,  1912.     (See  pp.  1-2). 
5.  TiJ.LYARD,   R.  J.,    1917.  — "  Mesozoie    Insects    of    Queensland.     No.  1. 

Planipennia,    Triehoptera,   and    tlie   new   Order   Protomecoptera." 

Proe.   Linn.  8oc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1917,  xlii.,  Pt.  i.,  pp.  175-200.      (See 

p.  188). 
6. .  1918. — "Permian  and  Triassic  Insects  from  New  South 

Wales  in   the  Collection  of  Mr.  John   Mitchell."     I.e.,  1917,  xlii., 

Pt.  iv.,  pp.  720-756. 
7.  Weele,  H.  W.  van  der,  1910. — Megaloptera,  in  Coll.  de  Selj^s,  Fasc. 

V.  Brussels,  1910. 
Note. — A  bibliographj' will  be  supplied  for  each  part,  with  the  reference 
numbers  running  consecutivelj';  but  those  papers  which  are  not  referred 
to  in  any  given  part  will  be  omitted  from  the  bibiiographj'  for  that  part. 


285 


ORDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

June  26th,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Cliapman,  M.D.,  B.S  ,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

A  letter  from  Dr.  T.  Gritiitli  Taylor,  Melbourne,  returning 
thanks  iov  congratulations  on  the  award  to  him  of  the  David 
8yme  Prize  for  1918,  was  communicated  to  the  Meeting. 

The  President  communicated  some  news  of  Lieutenant  Gold- 
finch, a  Soldier-Member  in  hospital  in  England,  forwarded  by 
Dr.  A.  J.  Turner.  It  was  resolved  that  a  friendly  message  of 
sympathy  should  be  sent. 


"o" 


The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (29th  May,  1918),  amounting  to  42  Parts  or 
Nos.,  8  Bulletins,  3  Reports,  and  12  Pamphlets,  received  from  39 
Societies,  Institutions,  etc.,  were  laid  upon  the  table. 


21 


286 


THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX. 
Part  i. — The  Wing-coupling  Apparatus,  with  special 

REFERENCE    TO    THE    LePIDOPTERA. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,   Linnkan 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plates  xxix.-xxx.,  and  sixteen  Text-figures.) 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in  the  original  Pterygote 
Insects,  fore-  and  hindwings  were  independent  in  tlight,  and  the 
muscles  controlling  them  were  innervated  from  two  separate 
sources,  viz.,  the  ganglia  of  the  meso-  and  metathorax  respect- 
ively. Coincidence  of  action  or  beat,  then,  between  fore-  and 
hindwings,  without  which  flight  would  scarcely  have  become 
possible,  must  have  been  maintained  through  coordination  of  the 
two  sets  of  nervous  impulses  sent  out  from  these  two  ganglia. 

Now,  in  those  Orders  in  w^hich  the  wings  were  more  or  less 
hairy,  the  development  of  a  fringe  round  the  border  of  the  wing 
would  undoubtedly  increase  the  sense  of  touch  in  these  organs; 
since  the  macrotrichia,  or  larger  seta?  of  the  wing,  are  of  the 
type  known  as  seufiilhe,  and  were  evidently  developed  at  first  as 
tactile  organs.  Hence  it  came  about  that,  in  the  course  of  evo- 
lution, a  further  coordination  was  able  to  be  established  between 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  base  of  the  forewing  and  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  base  of  the  hind."**"  Such  coordination  did  not,  at 
first,  take  the  form  of  a  definite  linking-up  of  the  two  wings,  but 

*  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  structures  here  to  be  discussed 
were  originally  present  on  both  wings;  e.(j.,  frenular  bristles  occur  at  base 
of  foreirinys  of  certain  Mecoptera,  as  well  as  of  hindwings;  and  a  jugal 
lobe  is  pi^esent  at  bases  of  hofh  wings  in  certain  Trichoptera  and  in  Micro- 
pterj/yldfc.  But  it  is  onlj'  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  forewing  and  the 
anterior  border  of  the  hind  that  thej^  can  come  into  contact,  and  so  develop 
into  a  coupling-apparatus. 


liY    R.    J.    TILLYAKD.  287 

consisted  merely  in  the  greater  development  of  the  sensilla?  of 
this  region  of  the  two  wings,  their  contact  acting  as  a  guide  in 
flight,  much  as  the  reins  act  in  the  driving  of  a  horse,  or  the 
touch  of  the  hand  of  one  person  in  guiding  another  in  the  dark. 

To  these  structures,  whether  they  act  merely  as  a  yiridf,  or 
whether  they  are  more  fully  developed  so  as  to  fink  the  two 
wings  quite  closely  together,  T  propose  to  give  the  name  "Wing- 
coupling  Apparatus,"  which  1  have  already  used  in  dealing  with 
the  Planipennia(12). 

The  complete,  archaic  wing-coupling  apparatus  consists  of  four 
distinct  parts,  two  belonging  to  the  forewing,  and  two  to  the 
hind.     These  are: — 

In  the  forew  ing 

(1)  The  area  of  contact  with  the  hind  wing  or  its  bristles. 

(2)  The  bristles  developed  along  the  border  of  that  area. 
In  the  hind  wing 

(3)  The  area  of  contact  with  the  forewing  or  its  bristles. 

(4)  The  bristles  developed  along  the  border  of  that  area. 
In  the  case  under  discussion,  i.e.,  when  the  two  areas  of  con- 
tact  are  located  at   the   bases   of  the  wings,  we   may  name  the 
parts  as  follows  : — 

(1)  The  area  of  contact  of  the  forewing  with  the  hind,  in  so 
far  as  it  projects  beyond  the  general  contour  of  the  posterior 
border,  may  conveniently  be  termed  the  jnyal  Johe,  a  term  I  have 
already  employed  in  the  paper  mentioned  abo\e(l2).  A  special- 
ised form  of  this  area,  in  which  it  becomes  an  elongated,  narrow 
process  passing  hplouo  the  costa  of  the  hind  wing,  is  termed  the 
juyum,  this  being  the  term  fii'st  applied  to  such  a  process  by 
Com  stock  in  the  Lepidoptera(l). 

(2)  The  bristles  projecting  from  this  area  towards  the  hind- 
wing  may  be  called  the  jnya/  hristlpg. 

(3)  The  area  of  contact  of  the  hindwing  with  the  fore,  in  so 
far  as  it  projects  beyond  the  general  contour  of  the  anterior  or 
costal  border,  may  be  termed  the  humeral  lobe.  I  had  previously 
employed  the  term  jnyal  jji-oce.s.<i  for  this  area  in  the  Planipennia 
(12).     But  I  now  consider  that  this  term  is  open  to  objection;  as 


288 


THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  1. 


it  would  certainly  conduce  to  clearness,  if  the  adjective  jncial 
were  to  be  employed  only  in  connection  with  the  forewing.  As 
authors  who  have  written  upon  the  Lepidoptera  have  generally 
alluded  to  this  part  of  the  hindwing  as  the  shoulder  or  humerus 
(a  somewhat  too  general  term),  there  can  be  little  objection  in 
replacing  it  by  the  term  here  proposed. 

(4)  The  bristles  projecting  from  this  area  towards  the  forewing 
may  be  called  the  fremihwi.  This  term  is  already  in  general  use 
in  the  Lepidoptera,  and  should  now  be  adopted  for  ihe  homo- 
logous structures  in  other  Orders, 

p  The  relationships  of  these 

four  parts  to  one  another,  in 
an  ideal  archaic  coupling-ap- 
paratus, may  be  seen  from 
Text-fig.  1,  it  being  under- 
stood that,  owing  to  the 
slightly  higher  level  of  the 
Text-fig.  1 .  *  forewing,  the  frenulum  passes 

beneath  the  jugal  lobe,  but  the  jugal  bristles  lie  above  the  costa 
of  the  hindwing. 

We  may  now  profitabl}^  study  the  formation  of  the  coupling- 
apparatus  in  the  wings  of  the  diiierent  Orders  comprising  the 
Panorpoid  Complex.  From  this  discussion,  we  are  compelled  to 
omit  the  Protomecoptera  (in  which  the  bases  of  the  wings  have 
so  far  not  been  discovered  in  the  fossils  known),  and  the  Aphani- 
ptera,  in  which  the  wings  have  been  lost. 

Order  MECOPTERA.  (Text-figs.  2-4). 
This  is  the  only  Order  extant  in  which  all  four  parts  of  the 
ideal  coupling-apparatus  can  still  be  recognised.  In  Text-fig. 2, 
I  have  figured  the  coupling-apparatus  from  the  wings  of  two 
very  archaic  families,  found  only  in  Austi-alia.  In  the  family 
Choristidce  (Text-fig.  2a),  there  is  a  slightly  projecting,  but  quite 

*  Ideal  archaic  wing-conpling  apparatus  at  bases  of  wings:  //•,  frenulum; 
Fw,  forewing;  ///,  humeral  lobe;  Hm,  hindwing;  jh,  jugal  bristles;  ,//,  jugal 
jobe.  (Jugal  bristles  rest  above  costa  of  hindwing,  but  frenular  bristles 
pass  beneath  jugal  lobe  of  forewing), 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


289 


definite,  jif{/a/  Johp  ( //),  from  the  more  distal  portion  of  whicli 
arises  a  set  of  about  a  dozen  small,  but  stiff  and  closely  set,  ji'(j<il 
J)ristlp)<  (jh),  which  make  contact  with  the  costa  of  the  hindwing 
in  flight.  In  the  hindwing,  there  is  a  small  but  quite  definite 
hiviupral  lobe  (hi),  from  which  spring  the  two  enormous  bristles 
of  the  frennl urn  (fr).  These  latter,  during  fiight,  joass  under — 
and,  indeed,  quite  beyond  the  interior  border  of — the  jugal  lobe 
of  the  fore  wing.  The  whole  apparatus  is  eminently  suital)le  for 
maintaining  contact  between  the  two  wings  in  flight,  without  in 
any  way  linking  the  hindwing /??•;?? /y  to  the  fore. 

In  the  wings  of  the  family  Xannoehorlstidiv  (Text-fig. 2/>),  which 
are   specialised  by  reduction,  w^e  ty. 

meet  with  much  the  same  struc-  il 

tures.  But  in  this  case  there  is  a 
single,  strong,  jugal  bristle  on  the 
forewing,  instead  of  a  set  of 
weaker  bristles.      The  flight  of  q^ 

these  insects  is  the  strongest  of  //    y\  ■■••...  r-' 

any  in  the  Order,  and  the  wings  J 

are  closely  linked  together.     The  jl 

linking   is   accomplished  by   the  /^ 

two  sets  of  bristles.  The  frenu- 
lum passes  under  the  jugal  lobe,  7  .  f  k/'"'"^^ -jb 
while  the  jugal  bristle  passes  ^' 
above  the  bases  of  the  frenular  ^^^,>'-^^:^:3^3Lijy'h<'^<^><K,^f 
bristles,  and  presses  down  upon 
the  costal  area  of  the  hindwing, 
thus  forming  a  very  neat  and 
perfect  coupling-apparatus.  ^^  '  ^'" 

In  the  archaic  J/^roy^?V/r^(Text-fig.3),  there  is  a  peculiar  special- 
isation not  found  anywhere  else,  to  my  knowledge,  within  the 
Insecta.  The  jugal  lobe  beai-s  a  very  distinct,  black  tubercle, 
projecting  from  its  border.      This  tubercle  appears  to  have  been 

*  Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Mecoptera.  a,  In  T<vniocliorisfa  pallida 
E.-P.,  wings  connected,  viewed  from  beneath.  I>,  In  Xannochorida  dipter- 
o/ri(N  Till. ,  wings  disconnected.      (Both  ;<  88).     Lettering  as  in  Text-fig. 1. 


290  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

formed  by  fusion  of  an  original  set  of  jugal  bristles,  as  seen  in 
Chorista.      A  frenulum  is  also  present,  but  reduced  in  size. 

In  all  other  representatives  of  this  Order,  the  jugal  bristles 
appear  to  be  either  absent  or  very  weakly  formed;  and  the  whule 
coupling-apparatus  shows  a 
gradual  reduction  from  dis- 
use, probably  owing  to  a  pro- 
gressive weakening  in  the  hi 
tlight  of  these  somewhat  lazy 
insects.  Text-tig.  3.  * 

The  culmination  of   this   tendency  is  to  be  seen  in  the  highly 
specialised  HUfaridce,,  in  which  fore-  and   hind  wings  have  again 
il       ^-ii-^i.*;-^^    returned    to   complete   independence   in 
"^"■''^'^^^^'         llight,  the  wings  becoming  greatly  nar- 
rowed   and    elongated,  with   petiolation 
'^      of  their  bases.      The  coupling-apparatus 
D •■'  ^^V/^  is  here  only  represented  by  a  vestige  of 

the  humeral  lobe,  from  which  projects  a 

W^  sinule  frenular  bristle,  which  ci-osses  a 

^S,..,^^  similar   bristle  developed   from  the  ex- 

Text-tif'.4.t  treme  base  of  the  forewing (Text-fig. 4). 

Reviewing  the  above  evidence,  it  is  clear  that  the  Archetype 
of  the  Order  Mecoptera  must  have  had  the  complete  archaic 
coupling  apparatus  fully  developed,  very  much  as  it  still  exists 
in  the  ancient  Choriatidm  to-day. 

Order  PLANIPENNIA.     (Text-fig.5). 
In  this  Order,  the  coupling-apparatus  is  again  best  developed 
in  the  more  archaic  families,  notably  in  the  Ilpvierubiicke  (Text- 
fif.5).     Jugal   bristles   are  absent;    but   the   frenulum   is  repre- 
sented either  by  one  or  two  strong   bristles  {Jr).     These  bristles 

*  Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Merope  tuber  Newm,,  viewed  from  above, 
showing  the  large,  black  tubercle  at  l^ase  of  forewing:  /;/,  humeral  lobe; 
(  X  40). 

t  Reduced  wing-coupling  apparatus  in  HarpobiUacus  tWyardi  E.-F  : 
}),  bristle  developed  from  extreme  base  of  forewing;  other  lettering  as  in 
Text-fig. l;(x  40). 


BV    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  291 

project  from  the  apex  of  a  very  strongly  developed  humeral  lobe 
(h/).  During  Hight,  this  latter  lobe,  together  with  its  frenulum, 
passes  under  the  jugal  lobe  of  the  forewing,  which  is  hollowed 
out  beneath  for  its  reception. 

The  same  type  of  coupling-apparatus  is  to  be  found  in  all  the 
other  families,  but  it  is  generally  much 
reduced  in  size,  and  does  not  appear  to  be 
functional.  The  tendency  in  the  evolution 
of  this  Order  has  been  to  combine  a  pro- 
gressive narrowing  of  the  wings  with  a 
gradual  return  to  complete  independence 
of  fore-  and  hindwing  in  flight.  In  the 
highest  families,  Mynnelaonfidce  and  Asca-  Text-fig.o." 

laphid(f.,  the  bases  of  the  wings  become  shortly  petiolate,  and  the 
original  coupling-apparatus  can  only  be  made  out  as  an  extremely 
reduced  renniant  at  the  very  bases  of  the  wings. 

For  this  Order,  then,  we  must  assume  an  Archetype  in  which 
the  archaic  coupling-apparatus  was  complete  in  all  except  one 
particular,  viz.,  that  the  jugal  bristles  were  absent. 

Order  MEGALOPTERA.     (Text-figs. 6-7). 

Throughout  this  Order,  the  hairy  vestiture  of  the  wings,  both 
macro-  and  microtrichia,  has  been  very  much  reduced.  The  most 
archaic  type  of  coupling-apparatus  known  to  me  within  the  Order 
is  to  be  found  in  a  genus  not  yet  described,  but  allied  both  to 
the  Corydalidce  and  the  Sialidcn.  This  possesses  both  jugal  and 
humeral  lobes,  of  small  size,  the  latter  with  a  few  small  hairs, 
the  remnants  of  the  frenulum.  In  Sialis,  the  two  lobes  are 
present,  but  apparently  hairless. 

In  the  Corydalidce  (Text-fig. 6),  as  exemplified  by  Archicha all- 
odes,  the  only  genus  that  I  have  been  able  to  study,  the  humeral 
lobe  is  much  reduced,  but  the  jugal  lobe  becomes  a  definite 
angular  projection  (,y7)  which  presses  down  upon  the  costa  of  the 
hindwing.      Further,  the  forewing  overlaps  the  hind  for  a  con- 

*  Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Drepanacra  humilis  McL.,  viewed  from 
beneath;  (  x  24:).      Lettering  as  in  Text-fig.  1. 


292 


THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  1. 


siderable  distance  beyond  the  base;  and,  by  pressing  down  upon 
it,  serves  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  coupling  in  this  rather 
puwerfully-riying  insect.  This  latter  type  of  wing-coupling, 
which  occurs  also  in  many  Trichoptera,  and  in  some  of  the  most 


Text-lig.CJ. 
Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Archichau/iode-'i  (jitftiftrns  Walk.,  viewed  from 
above;  (  x  12).     A,  beginning  of  amplexiform  overfold;  jJ,  jugal  lobe. 

highly  specialised  Lepidoptera,  I  propose  to  term  ainpl>;.rAjurm 
(Lat.  aiiiplf'.cits^  an  embrace).  It  is  always  correlated  with  the 
disappearance  of  the  frenulum. 


--^hT"^ 


Text-tig.  7. 
Reduced  wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Raphidia  macidicoUis  Steph. ;  (  x  40) : 
A/,  humeral  lobe;  ,//,  jugal  lobe;  f,  roughened  tubercular  patch. 

In  the  highest  family  uf  the  Order,  the  terrestrial  Iiaj>hidiid<p, 
both  jugal  and  humeral  lobes  are  present,  but  without  Ijristles. 
There  is,  however,  a  very  peculiar  patch  uf  roughened  tubercles, 
situated  on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  forewing,  just  beyond  the 
jugal  lobe  (Text-fig. 7,^)  This  may  })ossibly  help  in  njaintaining 
contact  between  the  wdngs  in  tlight. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVAHD.  293 

From  the  above  evidence,  we  iinist  presume  tliat  the  Archetype 
of  the  Megaloptera  possessed  a  somewhat  reduced  coupHiig-appa- 
ratus,  ill  which  the  two  lobes  were  present,  the  jugal  bristles 
absent,  and  the  frenular  bristles  probably  (piite  vestigial. 

Order  TRICHOPTERA.     (Text-figs.  8-9). 

In  this  Order,  the  original  wing-coupling  apparatus  undergoes 
some  remarkable  developments,  which  have  attracted  very  little 
notice  from  entomologists,  so  far.  In  all  the  oldest  families,  one 
can  only  recognise  the  jugal  lobe,  which  is  the  anal  lobe,  of  sys- 
tematists  in  this  Order.  This  appears  as  a  strongly  projecting 
lobe  at  the  base  of  the  forewing,  in  such  genera  as  EhyacophUa 
(Text-fig. 8,  J/).  There  are  neither  jugal  bristles  nor  frenulum; 
and  the  humeral  lobe  is  suppressed,  or  else  only  slightly  developed. 

In  no  case  does  this  jugal  lobe  pass  under  the  hindwing  during 
flight;  it  merely  rests  upon  the  costa  from  above. 

In  the  great  majority  of  genera,  the  jugal    lobe  is  absent  or 
vestigial,  and  new  elements  of  wing-coup-      ''**it5j— __^^<<^ 
ling  have  made  their  appearance.     This     \-  ;  7^^.,^. 
iieAv  type  of  wing-coupling  is  awy^/e-t^/orz/i,     i[-A;'','     y^ 
i.e.,  it  is  brought  about  by  an  overfold  of      ^..^""^^  "" 

the  whole  length  of  the  anal  area  of  the        *"  ~~" 

fore  wing  upon  the  costa  of  the  hind.    But 
besides    this,    there    are    many    cases    in  Text-tig.  8.* 

which  the  amplexiform  coupling  is  strengthened  by  one  of  two 
new  devices,  as  follows: — 

(1)  Between  the  anal  vein  of  the  fore  wing,  and  the  anal  border, 
there  may  be  developed  a  single  row  of  stiii"  hairs,  all  pointing 
forwards  and  outwards,  on  the  underside  of  the  wing.  The  row^ 
of  hairs  upon  the  costal  margin  of  the  hindwing  is  also  stiliened; 
so  that,  during  flight,  further  strengtli  is  given  to  the  amplexi- 
form coupling  by  the  intermingling  of  these  two  sets  of  stiif 
hairs.  I  have  seen  this  type  of  coupling  in  an  archaic  Austra- 
lian genus  of  tlie  family  Fhryyaiteidce,  not  yet  named. 

*  Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Rhyacopltila  dorsal U  Pict.,  viewed  from 
above;  (  x  12) :  jl,  jugal  lobe. 


294  THE  PAXORPOID  COMPLEX,  1., 

(2)  Much  more  commonly,  and  especially  noticeable  in  the 
families  Lppfocerid(P-  and  Sericostvmatiche,  is  a  type  of  coupling 
whicli  T  propose  to  term  multihamidate  (Text-fig. 9).  In  this, 
the  row  of  hairs  along  the  costa  of  the  hindwing  becomes  special- 
ised, for  a  greater  or  less  length,  by  the  de\'elopment  of  the  hairs 
into  stiif  hooks,  which  grapple  the  anal  margin  of  the  forewing, 
and  so  bring  about  a  very  perfect  form  of  wing-coupling.  Tliis 
type  will  be  recognised  as  that  which  also  occurs  universally 
throughout  the  Order  Hymenoptera. 


Text  tig. y. 

Row  of  booklets  developed  along  the  middle  portion  of  the  costal  margin 

of  the  hindwing  in  Otcefi-s  sp.,  (Australia);  (  x  83). 

There  are  many  genera  in  this  Order  in  which  certain  of  the 
macrotrichia  become  developed  into  series  of  large,  stiff  bristles, 
closely  resembling  those  of  a  typical  frenulum.  These  most 
frequently  occur  along  the  main  veins,  or  portions  of  them. 
Bearing  this  in  mind,  I  have  searched  very  carefully  for  a  true 
fienulum  in  this  Order,  but  I  have  not  succeeded  in  finding  one. 
In  tlie  males  of  the  remarkable  and  highly  specialised  genus 
Plectrotarsits,  whose  systematic  position  within  the  Suborder 
Inaequipalpia  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  I  have  found  a  set  of 
two  or  three  strong  bristles  in  the  position  of  the  frenulum.  But 
they  are  absent  in  the  female,  and  they  play  no  part  in  the 
coupling  of  the  wings,  which  is  of  an  advanced  amplexiform  type, 
with  the  jugal  lobe  quite  small  and  non-functional.  In  two  other 
very  spiny  genera,  viz.,  Chimari'ha,  and  an  unnamed  Australian 
genus  having  whorls  of  numerous  spines  upon  the  tibite,  there 
are  also  stiff"  bristles  in  the  position  of  the  frenulum,  at  least  in 
the  males.  Those  of  the  former  genus  are  long  and  slender,  and 
are  arranged  in  two  or  more  irregular  rows,  quite  unlike  a  true 
frenulum;  while  those  of  the  latter  are  also  very  long  and  slender, 
irregularly  placed,  and  lying  flat  along  the  wing,  parallel  to  the 
costa.     In  neither  case  do  they  play  any  part  in  wing-coupling. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  295 

These  developments  must  be  regarded  as  isolated  specialisations, 
which  must  be  expected  to  occur  throughout  an  Order  in  which 
all  parts  of  the  wing  remain  so  well  provided  with  hairs  as  in 
the  Trichoptera. 

From  the  above  evidence,  we  must  conclude  that  the  Arche- 
type of  the  Trichoptera  already  possessed  a  highly  reduced 
coupling-apparatus,  in  which  only  one  of  the  four  original  paits 
w  as  represented,  viz.,  the  jnyal  lob'-.  This  type  may  be  designated 
as  the  archaic  jnyati'  type  of  wing-coupling. 

Order  DIPTERA. 

In  this  Order,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  hind  wings,  there  is  no 
longer  any  need  for  a  coupling-apparatus.  But  we  can  recognise 
the  jugal  lobe  of  the  forewing,  in  the  form  of  the  basal  lobe 
known  as  the  aJala  in  this  Order. 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the  Archetype  of  the  Diptera  re- 
sembled that  of  the  Trichoptera  in  possessing  the  archaic  jugate 
tijpe  of  wing-coupling,  in  which  only  the  jugal  lobe  is  present. 

AVe  might  note  here,  parenthetically,  that,  in  the  other  Holo- 
metabolous  Order  (the  Coleoptera),  in  which  flight  is  carried  on 
by  only  one  pair  of  wings,  there  may  still  be  found  evidences  of 
the  original  presence  of  a  jugal  lobe;  e.g.,  in  certain  Hydro- 
philidfP,  where  this  lobe  is  quite  large  and  conspicuous,  though 
it  does  not  seem  to  perform  any  definite  function. 

Order  LEPIDOPTERA. 

(Text-figs.  10-16,  and  Plates  xxix.-xxx.,  figs.  18). 

We  have  kept  this  Order  to  the  last,  because,  within  it,  there 
are  developed  the  most  surprising  and  interesting  of  all  the 
specialisations  arising  from  the  old  type  of  basal  coupling-appa- 
ratus, which  we  have  already  studied  in  the  other  Orders  of  the 
Complex. 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  that  certain  families  of  INIoths, 
viz.,  the  JJicropterygidce  {sena.  /at.,  including  the  Eriocraniidcp) 
and  the  HepiaUdcH,  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Lepidoptera 
by  the  nature  of  their  wing-coupling  apparatus.  To  these,  Mey- 
rick(9)  has  lately  added  a  third  family,  the  Frutotheoridce,  which 


296  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  1., 

he  claims  to  be  intermediate  between  the  other  two.  These 
families  together  form  the  8uborder  Jiigatfp*  of  Comstock,  or  the 
group  Micropterygina  of  Meyrick.  The  latter  author (3,  p.  7 97) 
thus  defines  the  character  of  the  wing-coupling  apparatus  in  this 
group:— "Fore wings  with  an  oblique  membranous  dorsal  process 
( jugum)  near  base,  forming  with  the  dorsal  margin  a  notch  or 
sinus,  which  receives  the  costa  of  the  hindwings.  Hindwings 
without  frenulum." 

This  may  be  taken  as  a  standard  definition  of  the  jug<ife  type 
of  wing-coupling;  provided  that  we  add  what  is  perhaps  not 
quite  apparent  at  first  sight,  that  this  true  jugum  passes  under 
the  costa  of  the  hindwing,  and  so  forms  the  notch  or  sinus  above- 
mentioned,  in  which  the  costa  is  held  as  in  a  finger-and -thumb 
grip.  The  nature  of  this  coupling-apparatus  is  best  understood 
by  ref ei-ring  to  Text-fig.  1 1 . 

As  contrasted  with  this  J>'[/"-fe  type,  the  rest  of  the  Order  is 
usually  regarded  as  forming  a  single  Suborder  Frenatae,"^  in  which 
the  majority  of  the  families  possess  a  frenulum,  but  no  jugum.  A 
good  definition  of  this  character  has  been  given  by  Meyrick  (3, 
p. 4): — "Generally  from  or  near  the  base  of  the  costa  of  the  hind- 
wing  rises  a  stiff  bristle  or  group  of  bristly  hairs,  termed  the 
freiinlfon,  of  which  the  apex  passes  under  a  chitinous  catch  on 
the  lower  surface  of  the  forewing,  termed  the  retinaculum^  thus 
serving  to  lock  the  wings  together;  the  frenulum  is  commonly 
single  and  strong  in  the  male,  multiple  and  weak  in  the  female; 
the  retinaculum  in  the  female  is  commonly  represented  by  a 
group  of  stiff  scales." 

However,  certain  families  of  the  Frenata,  including  the  great 
division  Rhopalocera  or  Butterfiies,  do  not  possess  this  frenulum. 
In  these  forms,  the  coupling  of  the  wings  in  fiight  is  brought 
al^out  by  the  downward  pressure  of  the  posterior  margin  or 
dorsum  of  the  forewing  upon  the  costa  of  the  hind,  the  latter,  on 
its  part,  pressing  strongly  upwards  from  beneath.      The  humeral 

*  I  fail  to  understand  the  use  of  the  feminine  plural,  since  tliese  w'ords 
are  adjectives,  and  should  agree  with  the  neuter  phual  noun  Ltpidoptera. 
I  propose,  therefore,  in  future,  to  write  them  Jngata  and  Frenata,  respect- 
ivelj-. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  297 

lobe  of  the  hindwing  is  generally  fairly  large  in  these  forms,  thus 
allowing  a  greater  area  of  the  hindwing  to  pass  under  the  fore 
than  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  normal  in  size.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  type  of  coupling  here  represented  is  that  which 
I  have  already  termed,  in  the  Megaloptera  and  Trichoptera, 
amplexiform.  I  propose  to  use  this  term  to  distinguish  these 
groups  from  those  possessing  a  frenulum,  without  in  any  way 
thereby  indicating  a  belief  that  the  amplexiform  groups  in  the 
Lepidoptera  constitute  a  single  line  of  descent.  For  it  must  be 
evident  that  thei'e  is  no  reason  why  the  frenulum  may  not  have 
been  lost  independently  along  several  distinct  lines  of  descent, 
leaving  us  at  the  present  time  with  several  isolated  amplexiform 
groups,  each  of  which  has  its  nearest  relationship,  not  with  the 
other  Amplexiformia,  but  with  a  different  frenate  group. 

As  an  illustration  of  this,  we  find,  in  the  Ca^tiiiidce,  a  family 
in  which  both  the  frenulum  and  the  humeral  lol)e  are  well  de- 
veloped. From  such  a  group,  either  a  typical  Frenate  group  or 
a  typical  Amplexiform  group  might  be  descended;  the  former 
b}^  reduction  of  the  humeral  lobe,  the  latter  by  loss  of  the 
frenulum. 

Considering  that  the  condition  of  the  wing-venation  is  of 
greater  importance  than  the  structure  of  the  wing  coupling  appa- 
ratus, for  the  purposes  of  classification,  I  have  already,  in  a  pre- 
liminary leport  on  this  research (13),  suggested  that  the  primar}^ 
division  of  the  I^epidoptei-a  into  two  Suborders  should  be  based 
upon  the  former  instead  of  the  latter.  I  therefore  defined  two 
Suborders  as  follows: — - 

i.  Suborder  HOAIONEURA. 
Venation  of  fore-  and  hind  wings  closel}-  similar  and  of  primi- 
tive design.     (Families  Microjderyyidtt  {senst.  /at.),  I'rototheoridcf', 
and  Hepialidce). 

ii.  Suborder  HETERONKURA, 
Venation  of  hindwing  reduced,  and  difi'ering  widely  from  that 
of  the  forewing.      (All  the  other  families). 

The  reason  for  discarding  the  older  terms  Jugata  and  Frenata, 


298  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

in    favour  of   this   new  division,  will  be  more  fully  appreciated 
when  we  have  completed  our  study  of  the  Microptprycfidw. 

Adopting,  then,  the  above  terminology,  we  may  now  proceed 
to  study  in  more  detail  the  type  of  wing-coupling  apparatus  to 
be  found  in  the  two  divisions  or  Suborders. 

i.  Suborder  HOMONEURA. 

Family  Micropterygid^  i^»ens.  J  at.). 

(Plate  xxix.,  figs.1-4,  and  Text-fig.  10). 

In  this  family,  I  made  preparations  from  the  wings  of  all  five 
genera  available  to  me,  viz.,  Sahatinca,  Micro'ptfivyx,  Mnemonica, 
Eriocrania,  and  Mnefiarchcea. 

I  should  like  here  to  thank  the  many  kind  correspondents  who 
have  supplied  me  with  specimens  of  this  family,  at  all  times  diffi- 
cult to  obtain;  and,  in  particular,  Mr.  Meyrick,  for  a  series  of 
set  specimens  representing  all  five  genera;  Mr.  A.  Philpott,  for 
various  New  Zealand  species,  both  set  and  in  spirit,  and  for  his 
valuable  observations  on  the  flight  of  Sabatinca;  and  Mr.  K.  J. 
Morton,  of  Edinburgh,  for  a  large  number  of  spirit-specimens, 
which  yielded  excellent  mounts  and  dissections. 

In  dealing  with  this  family,  I  was  at  once  struck  by  the 
behaviour  of  the  so-called  jugum  in  cleared  and  mounted  speci- 
mens. Instead  of  arranging  itself  as  a  free  lobe  at  the  base  of 
the  dorsum  of  the  forewing,  I  found  that  it  always  insisted  upon 
remaining  twisted  under  the  wing  itself,  and  that  this  position 
could  only  be  altered  with  difficulty,  by  drawing  the  jugum  out 
from  under  the  wing  with  a  needle.  (Plate  xxix.,  fig.l,  and  Text- 
fig.  10a,  c/). 

Referring  to  figures  of  this  jugum  already  published,  I  found 
that  Comstock(l),  Forbes (8),  and  Meyrick (3,  4)  had  all  figured  it 
as  a  projecting  lobe,  whereas  Packard  (10,  11)  alone  had  depicted 
the  true  position;  though  without,  apparently,  any  idea  of  its 
significance. 

Turning  next  to  the  examination  of  cleared  and  descaled 
mounts  of  the  hindwing,  I  found  invariably  from  three  to  six 
lar^e  bases  of  insertion  (Plate  xxix.,  fig.3,  and  Text-fig.  10,  h.fr.) 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


299 


of  a  circular  shape,  situated  along  the  costal  border  in  the  region 
of  the  humeral  lobe,  this  latter  being  only  a  slight  prominence. 
Comparing  these  with  the  bases  of  insertion  of  neighbouring 
scales  (sc),  I  found  that  they  were  of  very  much  greater  size,  as 
well  as  of  more  regular  shape.  It  was  evident,  therefore,  that 
they  were  not  the  bases  of  either  typical  scales  or  of  hairs,  but 
that  they  must  belong  to  a  series 
of  strong  bristJpx,  which  had  been 
removed  during  the  process  of 
descaling.  This  led  me  to  infer 
the  presence  of  a  true  Jrenuhi 
in  this  family. 

The  next  step  was  to  examine 
set  specimens  from  the  underside, 
under  a  fairly  high  power  of  the 
microscope.  To  do  this,  I  clipped 
off  the  pin  close  to  the  underside 
of  the  thorax,  and  then  inserted 
the  head  of  the  pin  into  a  piece 
of  indiarubber,  so  that  the  moth 
was  exposed  ventral  side  upper- 
most. By  this  means  the  lens 
could  be  brought  close  down  upon 
the  wings,  without  touching  the 
pin.  Text-%.10." 

The  immediate  result  of  this  examination  was  the  discovery  of 
a  set  of  strong  bristles,  nearly  always  three  ov  four  in  number, 
more  rarely  two,  five,  or  six,  constituting  a  trufi  frenuJum,  but 
directed  outwards  and   upwards  at  a   very  slight  inclination  to 

"  Wing-coupling  apparatus  in  Sahatinca  inronnrueJla  Walk.,  (New  Zea- 
land, fam.  Micropterygicht') :  a,  base  of  dorsum  of  forewing  in  ?  ,  viewed 
from  beneath;  {  x  88):  J>,  base  of  costa  of  hinrlwing  in  ?  (descaled);  (  x  83): 
c,  portion  of  the  same  enlarged,  to  show  insertions  of  frenular  bristles 
[h.fr.)  and  insertions  of  scales  (.sf.)  from  a  part  of  the  same  wing  for  com- 
parison; (  x  320):  d,  bases  of  wings  in  6,  the  forewing  viewed  from 
beneath,  the  hindwing  from  above;  (  x83):  fr,  frenulum;  Id,  humeral  lobe; 
jl,  jugal  lobe.     {Cf.  Plate  xxix.,  figs.  1-4). 


b.fr 


300  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

the  costa  of  the  wino-  (Text-fig.  10,//-).  //  is  tJiPRc  brisfhs,  and 
not  tlip  cofifa  of  thp  hind?oing  ifi^elf]  ichirh  hpcomp  pnyagpd  in  fliP 
dit  or  sinus  formpd  hphvppn  the  juyum  and  dorsimi  of  tJiP  forpiciny, 
Altlioiigh  the  difficulty  of  setting  these  tiny  moths  in  the  natural 
position  must  be  veiy  great,  I  actually  found  three  specimens  in 
which  one  or  both  wings  had  become  engaged  in  the  natural 
manner;  and  one  of  these  came  from  Mr,  Meyrick's  own  col- 
lection. 

Wishing  to  have  my  result  tested  in  the  field,  I  wrote  at  once 
to  Mr.  A.  Philpott,  of  Invercargill,  X.Z.,  asking  him  to  investi- 
gate the  coupling-apparatus  in  the  wings  of  the  living  insect,  and 
sending  him  careful  drawings  of  my  results.  The  onlj^  species 
that  he  was  able  to  stud}^  was  a  new  species  of  Sabatinca,  of 
which  he  reported  that  the  coupling  apparatus  was  exactly"  the 
same,  in  structure  and  position,  as  that  of  >S'.  inconyrup/Ia,  repre- 
sented in  m}"  drawings.  He  also  added  some  valuable  notes  on 
the  habits  of  flight  and  rest  in  this  species.* 

We  come,  then,  to  the  following  conclusions  with  regard  to  the 
Jlicroptpvi/g  ida- : — 

(1)  In  so  far  as  it  is  a  fact,  that  a  definite  and  well-developed 
frenulum  is  present  in  this  family,  the}"  are  of  a  frpnate  rather 
than  lijngafp  type. 

(2)  In  so  far  as  the  so-called  jugum  does  not  pass  backwards 
under  the  hind  wing,  so  as  to  engage  the  costa  in  a  finger-and- 
thumb  grip,  it  is  not  a  true  jugum,  but  must  be  termed  a  juyal 
lobe;  also,  for  the  same  reason,  these  moths  are  not  true  jugate 
types. 

(.H)  Since  the  jugal  lobe  is  turned  forwards  under  the  forewing, 
and  acts  as  a  catch  for  the  frenulum,  it  is  clear  that  it  should  be 
regarded  as  an  archaic  form  of  rptlnacidum,  analogous  to,  but 
not  homologous  with,  the  retinaculum  found  in  the  true  Frenate 
forms. 

(4)  From  this,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Microptpvygida-  combine 
in  themselves  certain  characters  belonging  to  both  Jugate  and 
Frenate  types. 

*  These  are  given  in  an  Appendix  to  this  Part,  on  p..'J18. 


BY    R.    .1.    TILLYARD.  301 

I  propose,  therefore,  to  designate  the  kind  of  wino-coupHng 
apparatus  found  in  tliis  famil}^  as  Jugo-frenatt\ 

Apart  from  the  speciahsation  shown  in  the  actual  nnderfolding 
of  tlie  jugal  lobe,  and  the  consequent  alteration  in  the  direction 
of  tlie  frenular  bristles,  so  as  to  lie  more  nearly  parallel  with  the 
costa  of  tlie  hindwing,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  this  type  of 
coupling  is  the  exact  homologue  of  that  found  in  the  older  Orders 
^lecoptei-a  and  Planipennia.  It  agrees  more  closely  with  the 
latter,  since  both  have  lost  the  jugal  bristles;  but  differs  from  it 
in  the  larger  number  of  frenular  bristles,  and  in  the  less  definite 
development  of  the  humeral  lobe. 

Thus  we  come  to  the  logical  conclusion,  that  the  archaic  jugo- 
f  renate  type,  found  in  the  older  Orders  of  the  Panorpoid  Complex, 
is  represented,  at  the  very  base  of  the  Lepidoptera,  by  a  some- 
what more  specialised  jugo-f renate  type,  in  which  the  retinacular 
nature  of  the  jugal  lobe,  already  existing  in  the  Planipennia,  is 
more  accentuated  by  nnderfolding,  so  that  the  fienular  bristles 
are  held  in  a  firmer  grasp. 

Having  now  fully  reviewed  the  position  in  the  Micropfn'i/c/irhf, 
we  may  pass  on  to  consider  the  more  specialised  families. 

Families  H  E  p  i  A  L  i  d  je  and  P  k  o  t  o  t  h  e  o  r  i  d  ^ . 
(Plate  XXX.,  fig.5,  and  Text-figs.  11-1 2). 

In  the  J/ppia/id(f,  I  have  studied  all  the  Australian  genera 
available,  together  with  the  Pala^arctic  genus  IL-piahift,  of  which 
I  possess  a  number  of  specimens.  In  the  FrofofJiPorichf, 
through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Pc'ringuey,  Directoi*  of  the  South 
African  Museum,  Capetown,  I  have  received  two  specimens  for 
study,  one  of  which  proved  to  belong  to  Mr.  Meyrick's  Proto- 
tht'ora  pplroHoma  (9),  while  the  other  appears  to  represent  a  new 
species,  not  yet  described. 

The  typical  piyum  found  in  the  great  majority  of  the  Hepi- 
alidd-,  and  also  in  the  genus  Prototlipora,  is  shown  in  Text-fig.  11, 
and  also  in  Plate  xxx.,  fig.o.  It  is  a  long  and  fairly  stiff  finger- 
like process  (in  most  species  carrying  very  long  and  abundant 
hairs),  which  projects  well  below  the  costa  of  the  liindwing 
during  flight,  and  engages  it  in  a  strong  finger-and-thumb  grip. 
22 


302 


THE    PANOKPOID    COMPLEX,  1., 


The  resulting  flight  is,  in  most  cases,  exceedingly  swift  and 
strong;  indeed,  there  is  one  Australian  species  common  enough 
about  Sydney,  Perisspctii<  ausfralasice  Don.,  in  which  the  males 

fly  so  swiftly  as  to  be 
almost  invisible,  and 
are  most  difticult  to 
catch.  One  has  onl}^ 
to  watch,  too,  the  man- 
ceuvres  which  both 
sexes  carry  out  during 
courting,  to  be  con- 
vinced that  dexterity 
Text-fig.  11.*  of  flight  is  carried  very 

far  in  this  family,  and  is  certainly  not  surpassed  by  the  greater 
number  of  Heteroneurous  forms.  We  may,  therefore,  regard 
this  true  jugate  type  as  a  high  specialisation,  very  superior  to  the 
jugo-frenate  type  of  the  Micro2)terygidce. 

In  the  genus  Prototheora,  I  find  no  difference  from  the  typical 
jugate  type  of  the  Hppialidcf.  The  jugum  is  long  and  narrow, 
and  the  costa  of  the.  hind  wing  is  quite  devoid  of  bristles. 

In  the  new  (undescribed)  species  of  the  Prototheoridce  which  I 
examined,  there  is  a  more  primitive  type  of  jugum,  in  the  form 
of  a  triangular  lobe,  only  slightly  more  prominent  than  that  to 
be  seen  in  many  Trichoptera.  As  in  this  latter  Order,  this  lobe 
does  not  act  as  a  true  jugum,  but  appears  to  rest  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  hindwing,  just  overlapping  the  costa.  I  do  not 
know^  whether  this  character  is  a  constant  for  this  species,  having 
only  examined  one  specimen.  It  should  be  noted  that,  in  study- 
ing a  long  series  of  HepialidcE,  a  very  similar  development  mani- 
fests itself  occasionally  in  one  or  both  wings,  especially  in  the 
genera  Charagia  and  Poriiia.  Such  occasional  developments  are 
to  be  regarded  as  strictly  atavistic,  and  indicate  the  evolution  of 
the  highly  specialised  J^i^itwi  from  the  o\dev  jug cd  lobe. 

*  Wing- coupling  apparatus  in  Charagia  eximia  Scott,  viewed  from 
beneath,  with  hairs  removed;  (  x  12):  j,  jugum;  j*'^,  jugal  sinus.  [Cf.  Plate 
XXX.,  fig.o). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


303 


Some  interesting  deviations  from  the  normal  jugate  type  ma}' 
now  be  noted  in  the  Hejnalidce : — 

(1)  In  the  genus  Pielu.%  the  jugum  is  a  hard  chitinous  rod, 
somewhat  truncated  at  its  tip,  and  placed  so  as  to  project  de- 
finitely beneath  the  anal  area  of  the  forewing  (Text-fig.  12).  It 
is  quite  impossible  to  make  this  rod  pass  under  the  costa  of  the 
hindwing,  either  in  the  living  or  freshly-killed  insect.  But  it 
will  fit  quite  easily  abovfi  the  costa  of  the  hindwing,  near  the 
base,  where  there  can  be  found,  in  specimens  that  have  been  on 
the  wing,  a  deep  groove  worn  in  an  oblique  direction  in  the  dense 
hairs  that  clothe  the  area  around  the  humeral  cross- vein. 

It  would  appear,  then,  that  this  genus  differs  from  the  rest  of 
the  family  in  having  the  juguin  lesting  above  the  costa,  not 
beneath  it,  and  also  in  the  structure  and  position  of  the  organ 
itself.  We  should,  therefore,  regai'd  this  genus  as  highly 
specialised. 

(2)  l7i  the  genus  Lpfo,  some  specimens  show  a  very  weakly 
formed  jugum  of  very 

small  size  for  the  bulk 
of  the  insect:  while 
others  have  none  at 
all.  The  bases  of  the 
wings  are  densel}' 
clothed  with  long,  soft 
hairs.  The  method  of 
coupling  in  these  mag- 
nificent insects,  which 

are  said  to  have  great  Text-fig.  12.^ 

powers  of  flight,  appears  to  be  practically  amplpxiform,  the  anal 
field  of  the  forewing  being  bounded  anteriorly  by  a  ver}^  strongly 
developed  lA,  and  overlapping  the  costa  of  the  hindwing  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  flight. 

(3)  In  the  small  moths  of  the  genus  Frau.%  the  jugum  is  very 
short,  yet   it  undoubtedly  secures  the  costa  of  the  hindwing  in 


*  Jugum  of  P ie/ as  hi/a/inatii)i  Don.,   9  ,  viewed  from  beneath,  to  show 
natural  position  under  anal  area  of  forewing;  (  x  6). 


304  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

the  typical  manner.  Of  the  New  Zealand  Porina  nmhracnlata, 
Mr.  Philpott  writes,  "the  jugum  is  so  small  as  to  seem  worthless 
as  a  coupling  in  the  manner  of  finger-and-thumb." 

Thus  we  see  that  there  is  a  considerable  diversit\"  in  the  form 
and  function  of  tlie  jugimi,  as  developed  in  the  Hcpialklfc. 

The  discussion  as  to  how  the  highly  specialised  jugum  of  the 
Hefialidcv  is  related  to  the  jugo-frenate  type  of  coupling-appa- 
ratus found  in  the  Microptpryciicht'  is  best  left  until  we  have 
dealt  with  the  Heteroneura. 

ii.  Suborder  HETERONEURA. 
A.  Frenate  Types.      (Plate  xxx.,  figs.6-8,  and  Text-figs.  13-1 6). 

Mey rick's  excellent  definition  of  the  frenate  tj^pe  has  already 
been  quoted  on  p. 296.  We  ma)^  now  profitably  study,  in  more 
detail,  the  difi'erences  between  the  female  and  male  types. 

These  differences  are  clearly  correlated  with  differences  in  the 
power  and  frequency  of  flight.  In  those  forms  in  which  the 
female  flies  but  little,  the  frenulum  remains  small,  and  composed 
of  a  number  of  separate  bristles,  while  that  of  the  strongly-flying 
male  may  be  very  large  and  strong.  But  in  other  forms,  in 
which  both  sexes  fly  almost  equally  well,  the  frenulum  of  the 
female  may  be  almost  as  strongly  formed  as  that  of  the  male, 
though  never  consisting  actually  of  a  single  bristle. 


Text-fig.  13. 
Wing-eoupling  apparatus   of  Hippotion   i^cro/a  {Boisd.),    9  ,  showing  fren- 
ulum of  eight  separate  bristles,  and  retinaculum  of  hairs  arising  from 
cubitus  (C'?0;  viewed  from  beneath;  (  x  16):  h/,  humeral  lobe. 

Text-fig.  13  shows  the  frenulum  of  a  female  Sphingid  {Hippotion 
scrofa  Boisd.).     The   bristles  composing  it  are  eight  or  nine  in 


IBY    R.    J.    TILLYARb. 


305 


number,  all  quite  separate,  but  closely  set   together,  as  shown  in 
the  figure. 

The  ret'inaciihim^  or  catch,  whicli  holds  these  bristles  in  place, 
is  a  very  generalised  structure,  being  nothing  more  than  the 
somewhat  stittened  haii's  or  scales  which  arise  from  the  underside 
of  the  cubital  vein  of  the  fore  wing,  and  run  oblique!}^  forward 
and  distad.  The  manner  in  which  the  fi'enulum  is  held  in  place 
by  these  hairs  is  closely  similar  to  that  by  which  the  jugum  of 
Pirhis  is  held  in  its  groove  by  the  hairs  on  the  costa  of  the 
hindwinu'. 


Text-fig.  14. 
Wing-coupling  apparatus  of  Plusia  rerticillata  (Guer.),    ?  ,  showing  fren- 
ulum of  two  strong  bristles,  and  retinaculum  of  stiff  hairs  arising  from 
cubitus  [Cii);  viewed  from  beneath;  (  x30h  hi,  humeral  lobe. 

In  the  Noctuid  genus  Flusia,  in  which  males  and  females  fly 
almost  equally  well,  we  may  see  a  much  more  liighl}'  specialised 
coupling-ap[iaratus  in  the  female.  Here,  the  frenulum  is  com- 
posed of  only  two  (sometimes  three)  bristles,  apparently  formed 
by  the  fusion  of  an  original  greater  number,  and  almost  as  long 
as  those  af  the  male.  The  retinaculum,  too,  is  more  strongly  de- 
veloped, the  hairs  being  stiffer  and  more  closely  set,  so  as  to  form 
a  very  definite  catch  for  the  frenulum  (Text-fig.  14). 

Turning  next  to  the  males,  we  find,  in  every  case,  a  highly 
specialised  condition  present  (Plate  xxx.,  fig.8,  and  Text-fig.  15). 
Here,  the  frenulum  is  represented  by  a  single  huge  bristle, 
which  may  even  reach  to  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  wing, 
as  in  the  family  Fsychiche.      As  Packard  (10)  has  already  shown, 


306 


THE    PAXORPOID    COMPLEX,  1. 


if  this  apparently  single  bristle  be  cut  acnjss  near  its  base,  the 
separate  interior  channels  of  the  bristles  of  which  it  is  actually 
composed  can  be  easily  recognised.  Thus,  we  see  that  the  large, 
male  frenular  bristle  is  not  formed  by  liypertrophy  of  one  of  the 
original  series  at  the  expense  of  all  the  rest,  but  by  fusion  and 
lengthening  of  the  whole  set.  The  longitudinal  Huting  visible 
along  the  somewhat  fiatteiied  basal  part  of  this  bristle  is  also 
evidence  of  its  composite  nature. 


Text-tig.  J  d. 
A\'iiii;-coupling  apparatus  of  Hippotio)i  scro/a  (Buiyd.),    ^  ,  showing  single, 
strong,  frenular  bristle,  engaged   in   hasp-like  chitinou;;  retinaculum 
developed   from    the    radius  (B);    viewed   from    beneath;   (  x  14);    hi, 
humeral  lobe. 

The  ?rfi'nacii/fwi  in  the  male  is  a  highly  specialised  structure, 
having  no  homologue  in  the  female,  or  in  any  other  insect.  It 
consists  of  a  strong,  curved,  chitinous  catch,  directed  posteriorly 
towards  the  hind  wing,  and  developed  from  the  underside  of  the 
strong  radius  of  the  forewing,  not  very  far  from  its  base.  This 
structure  is  hasp-shaped,  and  forms  a  very  etiicient  catch  for  the 
frenulum,  which  is  able  to  slide  to  and  fro  within  its  grasp, 
during  ilight,  without  running  any  risk  of  becoming  detached 
(Text-fig.  15). 

It  is  curious  to  note  the  difference  in  action  required  for  the 
coupling  (jf  the  wings  in  the  two  sexes,  owing  to  the  difference 
in  position  of  the  retinaculum.  In  the  female,  we  must  move 
the  hindwiny  sharply  forward,  and  then  let  it  fall  gently  back, 
so  that  the  frenulum  may  become  engaged  in  the  catching  hairs. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  307 

But  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  foreiving  sharply  forward,  if  one 
desires  to  secure  the  coupling  of  the  two  wings  in  the  male.  In 
doing  this,  the  stationary  frenulum  is  caught  up  by  the  moving 
hasp-like  retinaculum;  and  the  grip,  once  effected,  is  not  easily 
lost. 

AVe  may  sunnnarise  these  results  briefly  as  follows: — 
Fetnale. — Unspecialisedyr('>i///?/?/iof  from  two  to  nine  separate 
bnstles  set  closely  together.      Unspecialised  retinacubim  of  stiff 
hairs  or  scales  directed  anteriorly,  and  developed  from  tlie  under- 
side of  the  cubitus  of  the  forewing. 

Male. — Specialised  frciiuluiit  of  a  single,  large,  composite 
bristle,  formed  by  fusion  of  the  original  series  of  separate  bristles. 
Specialised  retinacidnrn  in  the  form  of  a  chitinous  hasp,  directed 
posteriorly,  and  developed  from  the  underside  of  the  radius. 

B.  Amplexiform  Types. 

The  groups  which  haxe  lost  tlie  frenulum  and  adopted  the 
amplexAfomt  type  of  wing-coupling  (in  which  connection  is  main- 
tained simply  by  overlapping  of  the  anal  area  of  the  forewing 
upon  the  well  developed  costal  area  of  the  hind,  including  the 
enlarged  humeral  lobe)  may  be  arranged  in  three  super-families; 
viz.,  the  Saturniina,  the  Lasiocampina,  and  the  Papilionina  or 
Rhopalocera.  These  three  do  not  appear  to  be  very  closely 
related. 

The  Saturniina  comprise  the  large  and  highly  specialised  group 
of  the  Atlas  Moths  or  Emperors.  These  possess  neither  frenulum 
nor  proboscis,  and  have  a  highly  specialised  venation.  Meyrick 
places  them  as  the  last  of  his  series  Notodontina ;  but  this 
arrangement  does  not  seem  to  be  generally  accepted  by  other 
Lepidopterists. 

The  Lasiocampina  form  a  natural  group,  if  the  E upterotidoi 
and  DrepauidcB  be  included  in  them.  In  the  former  family,  a 
frenulum  is  present;  in  the  latter,  most  of  the  genera  show  a 
small  or  reduced  frenulum.  In  the  other  two  families,  the 
Bndromidie  and  Lasiocampidce,  the  frenulum  is  absent.  These 
last  show  a  very  high  specialisation  of  the  amplexiform  arrange- 
;enera.       For    instance,    in    Lasiocampja,    the 


308 


THE    PAXOKPOID    COMPLEX,  1. 


humeral  lobe  is  greatly  enlarged,  and  is  supported  by  a  series  of 
recently  funned  ribs  or  cross-veins. 

The  Papiliunina  furni  another  natural  grouj),  wliose  origin 
appears  to  be  nuich  in  douljt.  Meyrick  and  Hainpson  consider 
them  to  be  derived  from  the  Thyrldidiu.  The  Ilf^jjcriidai^  ho\\  - 
ever,  grade  so  closely  into  the  Castniidai  in  Australia,  ^Yhere 
forms  like  Eusckumou  are  of  Hesperiid  structure  in  all  but  the 
possession  of  the  frenulum,  that  it  is  ditlicult  to  cast  aside  the 
belief,  held  by  the  opposite  school  of  Lepidopterists,  that  the 
Co^fitluhe  closely  approximate  to  the  ancestral  form  from  which 
the  higher  ButterHies,  through  the  I/esjM'riid(e,  ha\e  been  derived. 

C.  The  Family  Castmid.e. 
j\[uch  light  can  be  thrown  upon  the  evolution  of  the  two  types 
of  frenulum,  in  the  male  and  female  of  Heteroneura  respectively, 
as  well  as  upon  the  origin  of  Amplexitorm  types,  by  the  study  of 


Text -%  1(5. 
\\'iH^-ci)upliU!4  appaialus  of   Sz/uemon  hesperoults  Feld.,    ,5  ,  vieAved  from 
beneath;  (  X  14) :  y'/-,   frenulum;  Fir,  forewing;  H>i\  liindwing;  /•/,   re- 
tinaculum developed  from  radius  (R);  rf\  retinaculum  developed  from 
cubitus  iCn)',  in   9  ,  this  latter  alone  occurs. 

the  family  Castaiidtf.^  In  this  family,  both  the  humeral  lobe 
and  tlie  frenular  bristles  may  be  seen  well  developed,  in  such  a 
genus  as  >Si/7iem(m  (Text-fig.  16).     In  the  males  of  this  genus,  the 

*  For  the  supply  of  material  for  study  in  this  famih%  I  am  indeljted  to 
Mr.  Geo.  Lyell,  F.E.8.,  of  Gisborne,  Vic. 


t3Y    R.    J.    TiLLYAftD.  30<) 

frenulum  is  of  the  usual  type,  i.e.,  elongated,  and  with  all  the 
bristles  fused  together  into  a  single,  strong  bristle.  In  the 
female,  there  are  two  long  and  delicate  l^ristles  (as  in  Pln^ia) 
accompanied  usually  by  several  sliorter  bristles  at  their  base. 
The  retinaculum  of  the  female  is  (jf  the  usual  type,  consisting  of 
a  patch  of  forwardly  projecting  scales,  developed  on  the  under- 
side of  the  cubitus  of  the  forewing;  but  this  retinaculum  is  situ- 
ated so  far  from  the  wing-base,  that  only  the  two  longer  bristles 
can  become  engaged  in  it,  and  tlie  connection  appears  to  be  easily 
lost  during  Hight  In  the  male,  this  retinaculum  of  scales  upon 
the  cubitus  is  refautrd  ([ii'ifr  cott.spicxoftslt/ {Text-^'^AG,  rt'),  to- 
gether with  an  additional  development  of  a  di(/ht  ovrr/o/diur/  of 
the  edge  of  the  radius  in  a  backward  direction  {rl).  Usually, 
during  Hight,  the  frenulum  of  the  male  is  caught  in  the  curve  of 
this  overfold,  as  sliown  in  the  figure.  But  if,  at  any  tijne,  the 
frenulum  slips  out  of  this  somewhat  precarious  hold,  it  is  then 
caught  up  by  the  still  existing  retinaculum  on  the  cubitus,  and 
the  insect  can  continue  its  Hight  in  the  manner  of  the  female. 

Thus  we  see  that,  in  St/tientoii,  the  type  of  coupling-apparatus 
for  the  wings  is  much  closer,  in  the  two  sexes,  than  it  is  in  other 
frenate  moths;  and  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that  the  condition  in 
tlie  male  of  this  genus  is  that  which  preceded,  in  the  males  of 
other  frenate  moths,  the  more  specialised  condition  that  we  tind 
in  them  at  present. 

If  now,  we  turn  to  the  genus  Enschemon^  which  is  claimed  by 
some  authors  as  a  moth,  by  others  as  a  buttertly,  we  Hnd  that 
the  male  has  a  well-developed  frenulum  and  retinaculum  of  the 
type  found  in  other  frenate  moths,  i.f.,  more  highly  specialised 
than  in  Syufinon.  But,  on  examining  the  female,  I  was  surprised 
to  find  no  trace  whatever  of  a  frenulum  or  retinaculum;  and  it 
it  is  evident  that  this  sex  couples  its  wings  in  the  amplexiform 
maimer  of  the  Butterflies,  by  means  of  its  large  humeral  lobe. 
Thus,  judged  only  on  the  form  of  its  wing-coupling  apparatus, 
the  male  of  Euscheinon  is  a  frenate  moth,  the  female  a  butterfly. 
This  genus,  then,  exactly  bridges  the  gap  between  the  old  sub- 
divisions Heterocera  and    Khopalocera.      That  this  is  not  a  mere 


310  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

chance  convergence,  I  shall  hope  to  prove  in  detail  later  on,  when 
we  come  to  consider  the  question  of  kirxal  forms;  the  larva  of 
Enschr}}io)i  being,  in  almost  exery  respect,  that  of  a  typical 
Hesperiid. 

From  the  above  evidence,  the  origin  of  the  Amplexiform  type 
of  wing-coupling  in  the  Butterflies  is  naturally  suggested  as  fol- 
lows. The  ancestors  of  the  Butterflies  must  have  had  a  wing- 
coupling  apparatus  of  the  type  seen  in  iSt/nrnuni  at  the  present 
day.  By  developing  a  manner  of  flight  differing  from  that  of 
the  moths,  principally  in  the  greater  amplitude  of  wing-stroke 
but  lesser  number  of  vibrations  per  second,  the  delicate,  elong- 
ated bristles  of  the  frenulum  in  the  female  first  began  to  fail  to 
hold  the  wings  in  position.  The  retinaculum  being  already  too 
far  out  for  the  shorter  bristles  to  be  of  any  use,  the  whole 
frenular  apparatus  would  then  rapidly  become  aborted,  and  the 
insect  would  depend  upon  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  large 
humeral  lobe  of  the  hindwing  for  keeping  the  wings  in  position. 
That  is  to  say,  the  Amplexiform  type  of  wing-coupling  first 
became  adopted  in  the  female  only,  as  we  see  it  in  Eui<che))Lon 
at  the  present  day.  Next,  considering  the  question  of  the  male, 
evolution  could  still  proceed  along  one  of  two  directions:  either 
the  overfolding  of  the  radius  might  continue  to  increase,  until 
an  efficacious,  hasp-shaped  retinaculum  (of  the  type  seen  in  most 
male  f renate  moths)  had  been  developed,  thus  saxing  the  stronger 
frenulum  of  this  sex  from  extinction;  or  the  line  of  evolution 
might  follow  that  of  the  female,  presumably  by  the  change  in 
the  method  of  Might  making  it  impossible  for  even  this  strong 
frenulum  to  continue  its  hold  upon  the  retinaculum,  at  a  time 
AS  hen  the  latter  had  not  yet  i-eached  the  hasp-shaped  stage.  In 
that  case,  frenulum  and  retinaculum  would,  in  the  end,  become 
aborted,  as  in  the  female,  and  we  should  arrive  at  the  full  Am- 
plexiform type  exhibited  by  the  Buttertlies  in  both  sexes. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


311 


The  following  Table  will  exhibit,  in  a  concise  manner,  the 
differences  in  the  c(jndition  of  the  wing-coupling  apparatus  studied 
above : — 


Group 

Sex 

Frenulum 

Retinaculum 
on  cubitus 

Ketinaculum 
on  radius 

Typical 
Heteroneura 

V 

9 
6 

short  unfused 
bristles 

sin;,de  lon^'  bris- 
tle (original 
bristles  fused) 

present 
absent 

absent 
present 

Ca. 

duiid't' : — 
'Syiitmon 

9 

two  long  and 
several  short 
biistles,  unfused 

present 

absent 

Syiitmon 

6 

single  long  biis- 
tle  (original 
bristles  fused) 

present 

present, 
weakly 
formed 

bJuschemou 

9 

absent 

absent 

absent 

Euschtmou 

6 

sin<j;le  long  bris- 
tle (ori<,'inal 
bristles  fused) 

absent 

present,  as  a 
strong  hasp 

Papilionina                     ^ 
iSaturniina*                     , 
Lasiocampiiia"  (par-     ' 
tim) 

9  6 

absent 

absent 

absent 

Form  of  the  Colpling-appakatus  in  the  Archetype  of  the 

Lepidoptera. 

Reviewing  all    the  above  evidence,  it   becomes  clear   that  the 

oldest  existing    form    of    coupling-apparatus,    viz.,    that    of    the 

Micro2)terygidce,  is  already  specialised  in  a  direction  from  which 

*  It  is  not  suggested  here  that  the  evolution  of  the  amplexiform  type  in 
the  iSaturniina  and  Lasiocanipina  has  been  along  the  same  lines  as  that  of 
the  Papilionina.  In  the  Lasiocanipina,  at  any  rate,  a  studj'^  of  the  con- 
ditions to  be  seen  in  the  Drtpanido'  would  suggest  a  direct  descent  from 
Eupterotid-like  ancestors  with  the  frenate  wing-coupling  apparatus  fully 
developed.  Thus  the  Papilionina  are  probably  of  remoter  origin  than 
either  the  Saturniina  or  the  higher  families  of  the  Lasiocanipina. 


312  l^Hli    PAXOHfOtD    COMPLEX,  i., 

the  true  Jugate  and  Freriate  types  cannot  possibly  be  deii\-ed, 
because  of  the  alteration  of  the  direction  of  the  frenular  bristles, 
and  the  turning-under  of  the  jugal  lobe.  We  must  conclude, 
therefore,  that  tlie  Archetype  of  the  Lepidoptera  possessed  a 
primitive  jugofrenate  type  of  coupling-apparatus,  of  the  form 
found  in  the  Planipennia;  i.'\,  with  all  parts  present  and  normal, 
except  the  jugal  bristles,  which  were  absent. 

General  Conclusions. 

Reviewing  the  evidence  afforded  by  all  the  Orders  of  the 
Panorpoid  Complex,  we  may  legitimately  arrive  at  the  following 
conclusions : — 

(1)  The  original  coupling-apparatus  was  situated  at  the  bases 
of  the  wings,  and  was  of  a  primitive  jnyo-frenate  type,  in  which 
each  wing  developed  a  slight  lobe  towards  the  other,  and  these 
lobes  bore  projecting  bristles  which  came  into  contact,  and  so  set 
up  a  tactile  connection  between  the  two  wings,  to  help  in  the 
coordination  of  the  act  of  Might.  By  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
lobes,  or  the  length  of  the  bristles,  the  connection  became  of  a 
more  intimate  kind,  a  certain  amount  of  pressure  being  exerted 
to  keep  the  wings  in  position  during  flight. 

In  this  primitive  type,  there  were  originally  four  elements 
represented,  viz.,  the  j/iy a/  lobe  with  its  juyal  bristleti  on  the  foie- 
wing,  and  the  hnuural  lobe  with  ita freyiulum  on  the  hind. 

(2)  The  only  Order  which  has  retained  this  ancient  type  of 
coupling-apparatus  in  its  entirety  is  the  Mecoptera;  and,  in  this 
Order,  the  apparatus  is  only  fully  functional  in  the  two  archaic 
families  Churisfiche  and  San ttochoriaf idee. 

(3)  By  loss  of  the  jugal  bristles,  and  by  increase  of  the  size 
of  the  two  lobes,  there  arose  the  modification  of  the  jugo-frenate 
type  seen  in  the  Planipennia.  This  also  is  only  fully  functional 
in  the  older  families,  such  as  the  Ilfnurobiida'. 

(4)  By  loss  of  the  frenular  bristles,  reduction  of  the 
humeral  lobe,  and  increase  in  the  size  of  the  jugal  lobe,  there 
arose  the  series  of  types  seen  in  the  Megaloptera,  Trichoptera, 
and  the  true  J  ugatc  Lepidoptera  {IL'jjLalldce  and  Frotothcoridoi). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  313 

These  parallel  reductions  must  be  coiiceiYed  of  as  haYing  taken 
place  quite  apart  from  one  another  phyletically,  and  probably  at 
quite  different  geological  periods.  Though  passing  through  the 
same  series  of  reductions,  these  three  groups  arrive  at  quite 
different  final  results,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  llapliidia 
(Text-fig.7)  with  Opcrfh  (Text-fig.9)  and  witli  Characiia  (Text- 
fig.  11). 

(5)  The  highest  specialisation  of  the  old  jugo-frenate  type,  still 
preserYing  the  original  characters  of  that  type,  is  the  jugo-frenate 
type  of  the  Microjyfprygidcp,  in  which  the  jugal  lobe  is  folded 
under  the  forewing,  so  as  to  become  directed  forward  and  out- 
ward, and  the  frenulum  becomes  engaged  in  the  groove  so  formed. 
Thus  the  jugal  lobe  functions  as  tlip  most  archaic  form  of  rctina- 
cnlnm  yet  discorcml. 

(6)  The  origin  of  the  specialised  jugum  of  the  HejnalidcE  and 
Protothcoridct  is  not  to  be  traced  dii-ectly  from  the  Micropterygid 
type,  but  fi'om  an  older,  unspecialisefl,  jugo-frenate  type,  such  as 
we  find  in  the  Planipennia.  The  jugal  lobe  remains  projecting 
outwards  and  downwards,  not  turned  forwards  to  pass  undei'  the 
forewing.  At  first,  it  rested  upon  the  ct)sta  of  the  hindwing,  as 
in  the  older  forms  of  Tiichoptera.  The  frenulum,  being  useless, 
disappeared.  A  later  and  higher  specialisation  led  to  the  length- 
ening and  narrowing  of  the  jugum,  and  finally  to  its  adopting 
the  position  seen  in  most  of  the  Hej^iaUdce. 

(7)  From  this,  it  follows  that  no  existing  type  within  the 
Lepidoptera  of  to-day  represents  the  true  ancestral  form  or 
Archetype  of  the  Ordei\  That  Archetype  must  have  possessed 
an  iiiisppcifdiKcd,  jayo-frpuatc  coapJuai-apparat^is^  probably  with- 
out jugal  bristles,  as  in  the  Planipennia  to-day.  The  de\elop- 
ment  of  the  specialised  jugo-frenate  type  of  the  M icropterycfidix, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  specialised  jayatc  type  of  the  Hcpi- 
alidce  and  Frotothcoridit  on  the  other,  must  have  pi'oceeded  upon 
diYergent  lines. 

(8)  The  frenate  forms  amongst  the  Lepidoptera  are  also  de- 
rived from  the  archetypic  jugo-frenate  foiin,  and  not  directly 
from  the  Microptn-yyidce,  as  is  pro^•ed  by  the  bristles  of  the 
frenulum    maintaininti-  their  original    direction.       This   line  was 


314  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  i., 

evolved  simply  by  loss  of  the  archaic  ju^al  lobe,  with  correlated 
reduction  in  size  and  strength  of  the  hindwing,  as  it  became 
more  and  more  dependent  upon  the  fore  in  fliglit. 

The  most  ancient  type  of  frenate  coupling  is  that  preserved 
for  us  in  the  females  of  the  whole  series,  where  the  bristles 
remain  short  and  unspecialised,  and  the  retinaculum  is  formed 
simply  from  the  brush  of  stiff  hairs  or  scales,  that  project  for- 
wards from  the  underside  of  the  cubitus  on  the  foi-ewing. 

In  the  males,  there  is  a  higher  degree  of  specialisation,  the 
frenular  bristles  becoming  fused  together  and  greatly  lengthened, 
while  a  new  and  more  effective  retinaculum  is  developed  from 
the  underside  of  the  radius  in  the  forewing,  in  the  form  of  a 
posteriorly  projecting  hasp  or  catch  of  chitin. 

(9)  The  amplexiform  types  amongst  the  Lepidoptera  Hetero- 
neura  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  series  of  separate  developments 
(probably  three  in  number)  from  originally  frenate  ancestral 
forms.  Of  these,  the  most  evident  connection  would  appear  to 
be  that  uniting  the  frenate  Ca^tiiiid(p,  with  their  well  developed 
humeral  lobe  and  clubbed  antennae,  with  the  very  similar  but 
non-frenate  IJpsiwriidfP. 

(10)  The  only  portion  of  the  original  coupling-apparatus  left 
in  the  highly  specialised  Order  Diptera  is  the  jugal  lobe,  which 
becomes  enlarged  to  form  the  aJula. 

We  may  now  exhibit,  in  the  form  of  a  short  Table,  the  state 
of  the  coupling-apparatus  in  the  various  existing  groups,  to  which 
we  must  add  the  Archetypes  of  the  several  Orders,  as  these 
results  will  be  required  in  the  final  discussion  on  the  Phylogeny 
of  the  Orders.      (See  pp.  3 16-3 17). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  315 

8uGf4ESTED    CLASSIFICATION    FOR    THK    LePIDOPTERA. 

The  characters  here  studied,  thongli  not  suitable  for  the  main 
subdivision  of  the  Order  into  two  Suborders,  may  be  legitimately 
used  for  the  subdivision  of  the  first  of  the  two  Suborders  which 
we  have  based  upon  the  wing-venation,  viz.,  the  Homoneura. 
They  cannot,  however,  be  used  in  subdividing  the  Heter<jneura, 
since  the  three  Amplexiform  groups  do  not  lie  along  one  single 
line  of  descent. 

We  may,  therefore,  adopt  the  following  classfication : — 
Order  LEPIDOPTERA. 

1.  Suborder  HOMONEURA. 

Venation  of  fore-  and  hind  wings  closely  similar  and  of  primi- 
tive design. 

Division  A.  Jugo-frenata. — With  archaic  jugo-frenate  coup- 
ling-apparatus consisting  of  jugal  lobe,  humeral  lobe,  and  frenu- 
lum; the  jugal  lobe  turned  under  the  forewing,  and  acting  as  a 
retinaculum  for  the  forewing Family  Microjytpvyyidcp  (s.lat.). 

Division  B.  Jugata. — With  specialised  jugate  coupling-appa- 
ratus; the  frenulum  absent,  the  jugal  lobe  elongated  and  nar- 
rowed, usually  passing  beneath  the  hindwing 

Families  HepiaJidce  and  Frototheoridce. 

•2.  Suborder  HETERONEURA. 

Venation  of  fore  and  hindwings  dissimilar,  that  of  the  hind- 
wing  being  strongly  reduced  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
forewing.  Coupling-apparatus  of  frenate  type,  except  in  three 
of  the  highest  groups,  in  which  the  frenulum  is  absent  and  the 
coupling  is  of  the  amplexiform  type. 

(Division  of  the  immense  number  of  forms  into  superfamilies 
and  families  must  be  based  upon  wing-v^enational  and  other 
characters). 


316 


THE    PAXORPOID    COMPLEX.  1., 


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318  the  panorpoid  complex,  i., 

Appendix. 
Note  on  the  habits  of  flight  and  resting  position  of  Sahatinca. 
The  following  note,  communicated  to  me  in  January  last  by 
Mr.  A.  Philpott,  of  Invercargill,  N.Z.,  throws  some  new  light 
upon  the  habits  of  this  archaic  genus: — "Since  returning  home, 
I  have  been  watching  for  the  new  species  of  Sahatinca  in  a  little 
bit  of  bush  near  my  house.  The  weather  is  still  broken,  but  on 
sunny  days  I  have  been  able  to  learn  a  little  about  this  species. 
I  have  seen  several,  always  on  or  near  certain  mossy  logs.  The 
moth  sits  with  its  wings  held  roof-wise  over  the  body.  The  head 
and  thorax  are  held  high  up,  as  if  ready  to  jump.  When  taking 
flight,  the  insect  seems  to  spring  into  the  air  with  closed  wings, 
and  then  to  fly  forwardi5  in  a  rather  feeble  and  fluttering  manner. 
They  do  not  fly  far;  five  or  six  feet  is  a  rather  long  distance  for 
them.  The  antennae  are  always  held  widely  separated,  pointing 
obliquely  forward  and  upward.  I  am  keeping  some  in  a  jar  with 
moss,  in  an  endeavour  to  get  some  eggs  and  larvee,  but  with  no 
result  so  far.  When  touched,  these  captives  spring  an  inch  or 
two  sideways,  backwards,  or  forwards  with  equal  ease.  The 
feeble  fluttering  flight  of  this  species,  and  I  suppose  it  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  the  genus,  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  strong, 
dashing,  swift  motion  of  the  Hepialidce.  The  jugal  lobe  is  folded 
back  as  in  S.  inconyruella\  the  frenulum  is  similar  to  your 
drawing. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(Of  Nos.1-7,  already  quoted  in  the  Introduction  to  this  work,  only  Nos. 
1,  3,  and  4  are  referred  to  in  Part  i. ). 
1.  CoMSTOCK,  J.  H.,  1893. — Evolution  and  Taxonomj^  in   "  The  Wilder 

Quarter  Centenary  Book."     Ithaca,  N,Y.,  1893,  pp.37-114. 
3.  Meyeick,  E.,   1895. — Handbook    of   British   Lepidoptera.       London, 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  1895. 

i. ,  1912. — Micropterygidm  in  "Genera  Insectorum,"  Fasc. 

132.     Brussels,  M.  P.  Wytsman,  1912. 


8.  Forbes,  W.  T.  M.,  1914.— "The   North  American  Families  of  Lepi- 
doptera."    Psyche,  1914,  xxi.,  No.2,  pp.53-65. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  319 

9.  Meyrick,  E.,  1917. — "Descriptions  of  South  African  Lepidoptera, " 
Ann.  S.  African  Mus.,  1917,  xvii.,  Pt.  i.,  No.l,  pp.  1-19.  (Proto- 
theoridce,  pp,  17-19). 

10.  Packard,  A.  S.,  1895. — "Monograph  of  the  Bombycine  Moths  of 
North  America."  Mem,  Nat.  Acad.  Sci.,  Washington,  1895,  vii., 
No.l,  pp. 5-390.     (8eep.62). 

11. ,  1898.     Textbook  of  Entomology.     New  York.     The 

Macmillan  Co.,  1898.     (See  p.  123). 

12.  TiLLYARD,  R.  J.  1916.—"  Studies  in  Australian  Neuroptera,  No.  iv." 
Proe.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1916,  xli.,  Pt.  ii.,  pp.269-332.  (See 
p.  286,  and  PI.  xiv.,  fig,  19). 

13. ,  1917.—"  The  Wing- Venation  of  Lepidoptera."  (Pre- 
liminary Report),  I.e.,  1917.  xlii.,  Pt  i.,  pp.  167-174. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XXLX.-XXX. 

Plate  xxix. 

Fig.  1, — Jugum  of  MicropUryx  aruucel/a  Scopoli,  viewed  from  beneath  ; 

(  X  150). 
Fig. 2. — Frenulum  of  same,  viewed  from  beneath;  (  x  125). 
Fig. 3. — Humeral  lobe  and  bases  of  insertion  of  frenular  bristles  in  Saba- 

tinea  inconr/ruel/a  (Walker);  (  x  250). 
Fig.  4. — Frenulum  of  Micropteryx  thunhergeUa  Fabr. ;  (  x  125). 

(Photomicrographs  from  descaled,  cleared  and  mounted  specimens. 
The  jugal  lobe  in  Fig.l,  and  the  humeral  lobes  in  Figs.  2  and  4,  have 
become  cracked  across  near  their  bases,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  cover- 
glass  upon  old  and  brittle  material.  Owing  to  the  same  cause,  the  frenular 
bristles  have  become  pressed  down  upon  the  hindwing,  and  their  correct 
directions  somewhat  altered). 

Plate  XXX. 
Fig. 5. — Jugum  of  Charagia  eximia  Scott,  viewed  from  beneath;  (  x  8). 
Fig.6. — Frenulum  and  retinaculum  of  Cephenodef^  janus  janu.^  Miskin,   9  , 

viewed  from  beneath;  (  x  5). 
Fig. 7. — Frenulum  and  retinaculum  of  Hippotion  scrofa  Boisd.,   9  ,  viewed 

from  beneath;  (  x  7). 
Fig. 8. —Frenulum  and  retinaculum  of  Hippotion  scrofa  Boisd.,   <J  ,  viewed 

from  beneath;  (  x  6). 
(Photomicrographs  from  set  specimens,    not  descaled.      In  Fig.  7,   the 
black  bristles  of  the  frenulum  appear  white,  owing  to  the  incidence  of 
strong  artificial  light  directly  upon  them). 


320 


THE  GEOLOGY  AND  PETROLOGY  OF  THE  GREAT 
SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

Part  vii.    The  Geology  of  the  Loomberah   District  and  a 

PORTION    OF    the    GoONOO    GoONOO    EsTATE. 

By  W.  N.  Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology 
AND  Mineralogy  in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late 

LiNNEAN  MaCLEAY  FeLLOW  OF  THE  SOCIETY  IN  GeOLOGY. 

With  two  PALiEONTOLOGicAL  Appendices  by  F.  Chapman, 
F.R.M.S.,  A.L.S.,  Palaeontologist  to  the  National 
Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Plates  xxxi.-xxxviii.,  and  five  Text-figures). 

contents.  page 

Introduction  AND  Acknowledgments 320 

Previous  Literature       322 

Physiography         323 

General  Geology: — Comparison  of   Stratigraphical  Succession  in 

Tam worth,  Loomberah,  and  Nundle  Districts      324 

Regional  Geology — 

Devonian  Sedimentary  Rocks  ...         ...         ...         ...  327-341 

Devonian  Igneous  Rocks        ...  ...         ...         ...         ...  341-345 

Igneous  Rocks  of  the  Western  Series  345-352 

General  Summary  of  the  Devonian  Stratigraphical  Succession       ...     352 

Petrology 363 

Bibliography  382 

Introduction  and  Acknowledgments. 
In  previous  papers  of  this  series,  the  writer  has  described  and 
given  geological  maps  of  the  Districts  of  Nundle  and  Tamworth 
(1,  3,  5,  and  6).  The  former  was  the  first  studied,  and  broad  sub- 
divisions only  were  made  in  the  stratigraphical  succession.  In 
the  latter,  every  zone  of  rock  of  any  importance  was  mapped,  in 
the  endeavour  to  obtain  as  detailed  a  knowledge  as  possible  of 


feY  W.  N.  BENSON.  32i 

the  exact  sequence  of  formations  and  tectonic  structures  devel- 
oped. The  present  communication  serves  a  twofold  purpose 
It  completes  the  preliminary  mapping  of  the  serpentines  of  the 
main  line  of  intrusions  from  Warialda  to  Hanging  Rock,  a  dis- 
tance of  over  130  miles;  and  secondly,  it  carries  the  detailed 
tracing  of  the  horizons  determined  in  the  Tamworth  District 
through  into  the  Nundle  District,  permitting  a  more  accurate 
correlation  of  the  several  formations  in  the  two  districts  than 
was  formerly  possible,  and  thereby  indicating  that  a  much 
greater  complexity  exists  in  the  Nundle  region  than  was  assumed. 

Several  features  of  interest  occur  in  this  district,  which  are 
but  barely  represented  beyond  it.  Firstly,  there  is  the  occur- 
rence of  the  Loomberah  Limestone,  which  runs  throughout  the 
length  of  the  district,  and  extends  into  the  Nundle  region.  It 
is  an  horizon  absolutely  distinct  from  that  of  the  Nemingha  or 
Moore  Creek  Limestones,  with  a  different  lithology,  and  a  different 
and  interesting  fauna  characterised  by  the  presence  of  numerous 
pentaraeroid  shells,  and  a  group  of  corals  which  do  not  occur  in 
the  limestones  of  the  two  other  horizons.  In  this,  and  in  the 
Nemingha  limestones  below  are  several  species  of  Tryplasma^ 
hitherto  very  rarely  observed  in  the  Devonian  rocks  of  this 
State,*  while,  in  the  latter,  is  a  very  rare  feature,  namely,  the 
occurrence  of  Foraminifera  in  Devonian  rocks. 

Apart  from  the  faunal  peculiarities  of  this  region,  the  devel- 
opment of  igneous  rocks  is  of  interest;  there  are  here  important 

■'■■  Other  recorded  occurrences  of  Tryplasma  in  Devonian  rocks  in  New 
South  Wales  are  as  folloMs : — 

1.  An  undescribed  species  found  by  Mr.  Surveyor  Campbell  in  the  Parish 
of  Cuerindi,  a  few  miles  south-east  of  Manilla  (Ann.  Rep.  Dept.  of  Mines, 
1915,  p.  189). 

2.  T.  lonsdalei  var.  8calariformis,  found  by  Cullen  and  the  writer  in 
Nemingha  Parish  (This  Series,  Part  v.     Set  Bibliography). 

3.  An  indefinite  species  in  the  Crawney  Limestone,  collected  by  Cullen 
(Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N  S.  Wales,  No.  13,  p.  101). 

The  second  of  these  belongs  to  the  horizon  of  the  Nemingha  Limestone. 
The  first  and  third  are  almost  certainly  on  the  Moore  Creek  Limestone 
horizon.  So  that  it  has  now  been  ascertained  that  Tryplasma  may  occur 
in  all  three  Middle  Devonian  Coral-limestones. 


322  GREAT  SERPENtlNE  BELT  OP  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

masses  of  keratophyre,  which  extend  into  the  Nundle  District, 
but  are  barely  represented  in  the  Tamworth  District.  Several 
varieties  of  dolerites,  not  yet  seen  elsewhere  in  the  Devonian 
rocks  of  New  South  Wales,  appear  in  this  area.  Again,  we 
have  the  most  typical  instance  of  highly  altered  pillow-lavas  yet 
discovered  in  the  Serpentine  Belt.  The  serpentine,  too,  is  by 
no  means  as  continuous  in  this  region  as  elsewhere,  but  is 
broken  into  small,  isolated  lenticles,  and  the  line  of  separation 
of  the  Eastern  and  \^'estern  series  becomes  obscure.  Finally, 
we  may  note  the  occurrence  of  peculiar  tectonic  features  in  this 
region,  developed  to  a  greater  degree  than  in  adjacent  areas. 

The  writer  is  much  indebted  to  Mr.  G.  McA.  King,  the 
General  Manager  of  the  Peel  River  Company,  for  permission  to 
enter  and  study  the  geology  of  portion  of  the  estate  of  that  Com- 
pany, and  to  numerous  farmers  in  the  Parish  of  Loomberah  for 
similar  kindness.  In  particular,  he  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Ponto, 
of  Pendene,  for  kind  hospitality,  and  to  Mr.  David  Carter  for 
help  in  securing  the  rich  collection  of  fossils  obtained  from  his 
property.  This  was  supplemented  by  specimens  from  the  collec- 
tion of  Mr.  S.  M.  Tout,  who  was  the  first  to  bring  the  Loom- 
berah limestones  under  scientific  notice. 

Mr.  Etheridge  has  very  kindly  examined  the  Tryplasmas  re- 
corded herein,  and  Mr.  F.  Chapman,  the  Chtetetesand  Foramin- 
ifera.  To  Mr.  Dun,  the  writer  is  indebted,  not  only  for  the 
determination  of  all  the  other  fossils,  aiid  the  valuable  notes 
included  in  this  paper,  but  also  for  his  constant  interest  in  the 
work,  and  helpful  discussion  of  the  stratigraphic  problems  that 
arose.  To  the  chemists  of  the  Geological  Survey  are  due  the 
analyses  of  the  limestones  cited  on  pp.334  and  338,  which  were 
obtained  from  specimens  collected  by  the  writer.  To  all  these 
gentlemen,  his  best  thanks  are  due.  Mr.  Mingaye's  very  com- 
plete rock-analyses,  cited  on  p. 368,  add  great  value  to  the  petro- 
logical  studies. 

Previous  Literature. 

The  references  to  this  region  by  previous  writers  have  been 
very  scanty.  It  was  visited  b}^  the  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke  in  1853, 
and  the  occurrence  of  Phillipsastrcea  on  Cope's   Creek   was  ob- 


BY  W.  N.   BENSON.  323 

served  (8).  Professor  De  Koninck  determined  this  as  P.  ver- 
neuilii{9).  The  duties  of  Mr.  F.  Odernheimer,  who  made  a  private 
survey  of  the  land  belonging  to  the  Peel  River  Land  and  Mineral 
Company,  must  have  involved  the  investigation  of  this  region, 
but  no  special  attention  is  directed  to  it  in  his  paper  "On  the 
Geology  of  a  part  of  the  Peel  River  District  in  Australia,"  pub- 
lished in  1855(10).  Stonier  mentioned  the  occurrence  of  serpen- 
tine near  Black  Jack,  1892(11).  The  present  writer  described 
the  southern  portion  of  this  district  in  1911(1),  and  1913(3)  in 
his  papers  on  the  Nundle  District,  gave  petrological  details  of 
the  occurrence  of  keratophyres  on  Silver  Gully,  and  the  pillow- 
lavas  near  the  Peel  River  in  1915(5),  and  included  the  northern 
edge  of  the  district  in  the  area  covered  by  his  paper  on  the  Tarn- 
worth  District,  later  in  the  same  year (6).  In  this  paper,  the 
position  of  the  Loomberah  Limestone,  as  a  definite  horizon  dis- 
tinct from  the  Nemingha  and  Moore  Creek  Limestones,  was  first 
remarked. 

Preliminary  notes  on  the  fossils  collected  from  the  limestones 
of  this  district  by  Mr.  S.  M.  Tout  and  the  writer  were  made  by 
Mr.  Dun (12);  and  a  number  of  analyses  of  specimens  of  this 
limestone  were  given  by  the  chemists  of  the  Geological  Survey 
(13).  Dr.  Jensen  cites  the  results  of  some  investigations  not  yet 
published  in  detail,  which  were  made  by  Mr.  Guthrie,  on  the 
nature  of  the  soils  in  the  regions  of  the  limestones  in  this 
district(14). 

Beyond  these,  no  references  to  the  district  in  geological  liter- 
ature are  known  to  the  writer. 

Physiography. 
The  region  lies  for  the  most  part  west  of  the  Peel  Ptiver, 
stretches  from  the  south  of  the  Parishes  of  Nemingha  and  Tam- 
worth,  and  includes  all  the  Parish  of  Loomberah  and  a  large 
region  comprising  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  Peel  River 
Company's  estate.  Its  eastern  margin  is,  in  fact,  marked  by 
the  deep  meandering  valley  of  the  Peel  River,  an  underfit  stream 
with  broad  alluvial  flats  between  spurs,  sometimes  sharpened, 
but  more  generally  blunted  (cf.  15 j.     To  the  east  of  this,  the  land 


324  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

rises  up  into  a  peneplain-surface  of  about  3,500  feet  in  height, 
cut  in  hard  rocks,  chiefly  siliceous  phyllites,  and  very  much  dis- 
sected by  deep  valleys,  some  following  the  structure  of  the 
country,  others  oblique  thereto.  West  of  the  river,  the  topo- 
graphy is  more  complex.  The  geological  formations  are  arranged 
in  parallel  zones  of  resistant  and  less  resistant  rocks,  so  that 
there  is  a  succession  of  ridges,  the  ridge  of  the  Eastern  series 
directly  west  of  the  Peel  River,  running  north  from  Wallaby 
Mountain  by  Woolomin,  composed  chiefly  of  siliceous  phyllites 
and  jasper,  the  ridge  of  tuffs  associated  with  the  Loomberah 
limestone,  and  the  ridge  of  tuffs  and  agglomerates  which  form 
the  Pyramid  Hill  Range.  To  the  south,  a  fourth  ridge  of  con- 
glomerate intervenes  between  the  last  two.  These  ridges  are 
separated  by  the  open  valleys  of  Sandy  Creek  and  Reedy  Creek 
respectively.  To  the  south  of  these  creeks,  there  is  a  series  of 
more  youthful  streams,  which  cut  athwart  the  grain  of  the  country, 
and  flow  generally  north  easterly  or  east-north-easterly  into  the 
Peel  River.  Of  these.  Cope's  Creek  is  the  most  important.  The 
lower  portion  of  the  creek  is  thus  roughly  parallel  to  the  series 
of  dip-faults  (see  p. 360)  which  cut  through  the  country  and  may 
originally  have  been  determined  b}^  one  of  these.  Pipeclay 
Creek,  Silver  Gully,  and  Hyde's  Creek  belong  to  the  same  trans- 
verse system  of  streams.  The  same  holds  even  more  clearly  for 
the  creek  north  and  west  of  Wallaby  Mountain. 

General  Geology. 

To  understand  the  significance  of  the  features  observed  in 
this  district,  those  to  the  south  and  north  must  be  reviewed. 
Along  a  line  of  section  drawn  westwards  from  the  serpentine 
near  Bowling  Alley  Point,  the  following  sequence  was  observed 
{see  3): — 

i.  The  Lower  Banded  Radiolarian  Claystones. 

ii.  The  Lower  Bowling  Alley  Tuffs  and  Breccias,  in  which 
there  are  numerous  intrusions  of  dolerite  and  spilite. 

iii.  The  Limestone. 

iv.  The  Upper  Banded  Radiolarian  Claystone,  interstratified 
with  a  large  amount  of  tuff  and  breccia,  and  abundant  intrusions 
of  spiiite  and  dolerite. 


BY  W.  N.  BENSON.  325 

V.  Upper  Bowling  Alley  Tuffs  and  Breccias,  with  some  cherts. 
With  these  are  two  lenses  of  limestone  considerably  west  of  the 
main  zone. 

vi.  Mudstonesof  the  Nundle  Series,  gradually  passing  up  from 
the  cherts  associated  with  the  Upper  Breccias  and  including  a 
conglomeratic  zone  which  forms  Nundle  Sugar  Loaf,  two  miles 
west  of  the  township. 

In  putting  forward  this  sequence,  it  was  noted  that  there 
seemed  a  possibility  of  considerable  repetition  occurring  within 
it.  The  distinction  between  the  phyllites  and  jaspers  east  of 
the  serpentine  (the  Eastern  or  Woolomin  Series),  and  the  rocks 
to  the  west  of  it,  seemed  very  clear. 

In  the  Tam worth  District,  however,  further  facts  were  dis- 
covered. Parts  of  the  Eastern  Series  were  recognised  as  being 
merely  infolded  and  highly  crushed  equivalents  of  western  rocks, 
and  the  Western  Series  itself  was  subdivided  as  follows (6): — 

(a)  The  Lower  Middle  Devonian  series  of  radiolarian  cherts 
and  claystones,  with  intercalated  tuffs  containing  the  Nemingha 
Limestone,  which  is  often  closely  associated  with  a  very  ferru- 
ginous tuff  or  agglomerate. 

(b)  The  Igneous  Zone,  consisting  chiefly  of  breccias,  agglomer- 
ates, and  tuffs  with  dolerites  and  spilites. 

(c)  An  Upper  Middle  Devonian  Series  of  radiolarian  cherts 
and  claystones,  containing,  in  its  lower  part,  the  Loomberah 
limestone,  and,  in  its  middle  or  upper  part,  the  Moore  Creek 
limestone.  In  the  portion  of  this  Upper  Middle  Devonian  Series 
which  lies  above  the  Moore  Creek  limestone  (as,  e.g.,  the  clay- 
shales  of  Tam  worth  Common),  the  cherty  character  of  the  sedi- 
ments is  entirely  lost. 

(d)  The  Baldwin  Agglomerates,  which  form  the  base  of  the 
Upper  Devonian  Series. 

(e)  The  Barraba  Mudstones,  forming  the  Upper  Devonian 
Series  proper.  These  are  often  difficult,  indeed  impossible,  to 
distinguish  lithologically  from  the  rocks  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Upper  Middle  Devonian. 

It  was  further  shown  that  there  are  several  repetitions  of  zones 
(a)  and  (6)  in  the  region  lying  immediately  west  of  the  Serpen- 


326  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BKLT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

tine.  When,  however,  we  attempt  to  trace  these  subdivisions 
through  the  Loomberah  District,  and  to  apply  them  to  the  suc- 
cession in  the  Nundle  District,  we  are  met  with  difficulties,  for 
the  new  factors  entering  into  the  geology  of  the  Loomberah 
District  add  to  the  complexity  of  the  problem.  Firstly,  there 
is  a  general  absence  of  serpentine  throughout  the  region,  so  that 
the  boundary  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Series  is  not  a 
distinct  and  unmistakable  line  of  fault  separating  altered  and 
unaltered  rocks,  but  merely  a  zone  of  transition,  crushing,  and 
silicification.  Secondly,  even  where  the  serpentine  does  occur, 
the  rocks  immediately  west  of  it  have,  in  many  cases,  as  highly 
altered  a  character  as  those  to  the  east.  Tliirdly,  there  is  de- 
veloped a  large  amount  of  keratophyre,  forming  an  intrusive 
mass  or  masses,  one  of  which  apparently  is  just  below  the  horizon 
of  the  Nemingha  limestones.  The  southern  end  of  this  zone  of 
keratophyre  lies  in  the  Hyde's  Creek  complex,  and  a  further 
occurrence  of  it  extends  from  Silver  Gully  to  Pipeclay  Gully 
(5,  pp.  133-137).  The  northern  end  of  the  zone  is  that  complex 
near  Macllveen's  homestead  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Tam- 
worth  District(6,  p.  572).  With  this  keratophyre  is  often  asso- 
ciated a  great  amount  of  ferruginous  and  chalcedonic  jasper 
derived  from  magmatic  solutions.  Finally,  there  is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  extremely  disturbed  and  broken  character  of  the 
faulting,  breaking-up  the  stratigraphical  succession,  so  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  determine  the  extent  of  repetition  of  series  that 
is  present. 

To  simplify  the  reading  of  the  detailed  discussion  of  the  several 
formations,  it  may  be  well  to  state,  at  the  outset,  that  the  facts 
appear  to  justify  the  following  conclusions  concerning  the  strati- 
graphical  relationships  of  the  rocks  in  the  Tamworth,  Loomberah, 
and  Nundle  Districts. 

L  That  tlie  lower  part  of  the  Nundle  Series  does  not  corres- 
pond with  the  Barraba  Series,  but  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
Tamworth  Series,  namely,  that  lying  between  the  Moore  Creek 
limestones  and  the  Baldwin  Agglomerates. 

2.  That  the  ridge  of  conglomerate  forming  Nundle  Sugarloaf 
west  of  that  township,  corresponds   to   the  conglomerate  which 


BY  W.  N.   BENSON.  327 

runs  along  tlie  eastern  foot  of  the  P\n-amid  Hill  Range  (the 
►Scrub  Mountain  conglomerate).  This  may  be  approximately 
coeval  with  the  Baldwin  Agglomerates. 

3.  The  mudstone  west  of  these  may  be  correlated  with  the 
Goonoo  Goonoo  or  Barraba  mudstones. 

4.  That  the  great  masses  of  agglomerate  and  tuff,  being  derived 
from  eruption  at  various  centres,  do  not  form  continuous  horizons 
except  in  rare  cases,  and  great  care  must  be  used  in  stratigraphi- 
cal  correlation  based  on  the  lithological  features  of  pyroclast'ic 
rocks.  Hence  arises  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  exact 
horizon  to  which  must  be  referred  the  Pyramid  Hill  group  of 
tuffs,  etc.,  or  of  recognising  definitely  the  horizon  of  the  Baldwin 
Agglomerates. 

5.  The  Moore  Creek  Limestone  is  not  represented  in  the 
2^undle  District,  but  its  appropriate  horizon  is  probably  not  far 
from  the  township  of  Nundle  itself. 

6.  TheLoomberah  Limestone  is  represented  by  the  two  western 
lenses  of  limestone  near  the  head  of  Silver  Gully,  to  which  special 
attention  was  called  during  the  first  survey  of  the  Nundle 
District(3,  p.574). 

7.  The  main  line  of  limestone  which  passed  through  to  iiowling 
Alley  Point  and  continues  to  Hanging  Rock,  belongs  to  the 
Xemingha  or  Lower  Middle  Devonian  Limestone. 

iS.  That  the  pyroclastic  rocks  which  lie  directly  above  the 
spilites  and  dolerite  of  the  Upper  Bowling  Alley  Claystones 
represent  the  "  Igneous  Zone''  of  the  Tamworth  District. 

9.  The  Lower  Bowling  Alley  Tuff-Breccias,  Dolerites,  etc.,  are 
a  repetition  of  the  same  "  Igneous  Zone  "'  and  its  associated 
intrusive  rocks. 

10.  Much  of  the  Middle  Devonian  (Tamworth)  Series  may  bt' 
recognised  in  an  altered  state  in  the  regions  east  of  the  serpentine 
in  all  three  districts. 

The  Eastern  Series. 

In  the  Loomberah  District,  we  will  describe  with  the  Eastern 

Series,  not  only  all  those  rocks  lying  east  of  a  line  joining  all  the 

outcrops  of  serpentine,  but  the  lithologically  identical  masses 

which  lie  to  the  west  of  that  line,  the  rocks  of  the  Transitional 


328  GRKAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

Zone  (a  name  indicating  a  local  feature  only),  distinguished  by 
their  greater  alteration,  fracturing,  and  silicification,  from  the 
normal  breccias,  tuffs,  and  cherts  of  the  rest  of  the  Tamworth 
Series.  The  actual  western  margin  of  the  Eastern  Series  is  thus 
difficult  to  define,  and  that  laid  down  on  the  map  (Plate  xxxii.) 
is  not  a  sharply  marked  feature.  There  is  clear  evidence  that 
very  much  of  this  Series  consists  of  merely  highly  altered  forms 
of  similar  types  of  rock  such  as  occur  in  the  Tamworth  Series; 
while  there  are  few  rocks,  if  any,  so  utterly  distinct  as  to  demand 
their  inclusion  in  a  definitely  older,  possibly  Lower  Devonian 
formation,  (the  suggested  Woolomin  Series,  a  term  we  have  now 
abandoned). 

Most  notable  are  the  masses  of  tuff  and  breccia,  which  occur 
in  the  hills  east  of  the  Peel  River,  between  Nemingha  Creek  and 
Dungowan,  continuing  those  already  noted  in  the  north-eastern 
portion  of  JSemingha  Parish (6,  p. 547).  These  cross  the  Peel 
River  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dungowan,  and  strike  through 
the  hills  west  of  the  river  till  they  come  to  the  Wallaby  Mount- 
ain and  Cope's  Creek.  Some  of  these  are  very  similar  indeed 
to  the  normal  tuff-breccias  of  Middle  Devonian  age,  while  others, 
notably  a  great  mass  of  almost  schistose,  highly  crushed  rock 
running  across  the  western  end  of  Wallaby  Mountain,  consist 
of  a  coarse  tuff  with  abundant  inclusions  of  limestone  drawn 
out  into  long  lenticles.  This  may  represent  the  Nemingha 
limestone,  but  there  are  also  instances  where  such  a  tuff  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  Loomberah  limestone.  Some  of  the  masses  of 
tuff  are  very  silicified,  and  one  instance  of  jasperised,  ferruginous 
agglomerate  appears  as  if  it  might  be  the  equivalent  of  the  red 
tuff  of  East  Gap  Hill,  described  in  Part  v.  (pp. 564-6).  This  is 
to  be  found  on  the  hills  east  of  the  Dungowan  Hotel,  associated 
with  a  little  vesicular  keratophyre. 

Again,  in  Portions  52  and  146  in  the  south-eastern  angle  of 
the  Parish  of  Nemingha,  three  hundred  yards  east  of  the  serpen- 
tine, is  a  large  belt  of  agglomerate,  together  with  porphyritic  or 
granular  spilite,  inclosing  a  lenticular  mass  of  limestone  a 
hundred  yards  long  and  twenty  yards  wide,  with  somewhat  the 
reddish  crystalline  character  of  the  Nemingha  marbles,  associated 


BY  W.  N.  BENSON.  329 

with  ferruginous  tuffs  with  limestone-fragments  such  as  have 
been  already  mentioned.  Traces  of  a  Stromatoporoid,  of  Favo- 
sites  multitabulata,  Heliolites,  and  a  large  cyathopbylloid  coral 
were  observed.  These  are  insufficient  to  determine  whether  the 
limestone  belongs  to  the  Nemingha  or  Loomberah  horizon.  It 
runs  due  north,  and  is  cut  off  to  the  south  by  a  marked  cross- 
fault,  which  also  truncates  the  adjacent  serpentine.  Limestone 
again  appears  on  the  ridge  in  Portion  52,  Loomberah,  associated 
with  chert  and  spilite,  all  in  a  very  shattered  condition.  This 
lies  in  the  transitional  region  between  the  Serpentine  Line  and 
the  Tamworth  Series,  but  probably  represents  an  altered  form 
of  the  Nemingha  Zone. 

The  great  masses  of  jaspers,  which  are  such  a  marked  feature 
of  the  Eastern  Series  in  the  Nundle  District,  are  especially  well 
developed  in  the  Wallaby  Mountain,  west  of  Woolomin,  where 
a  strong  band  strikes  across  the  mountain,  forming  the  long 
ridge  which  deflects  the  outlet  of  Cope's  Creek,  rising  into  the 
high  cliffs  that  form  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountain,  and  dying 
out  in  the  valley  to  the  north.  Other  jasper-belts  occur  east  of 
this,  nearer  to  Woolomin,  and  further  long  bands  traverse  the 
Parish  of  Woolomin,  and  others  occur  east  of  Dungowan,  though 
the  last  are  not  so  extensive  as  elsewhere.  They  result  from 
intense  silicification  along  zones  of  shattering,  and  are  not 
primary  deposits. 

The  igneous  rocks,  other  than  tuff,  namely  the  dolerites, 
spilites,  and  keratophyres,  occurring  east  of  the  serpentine,  and 
especially  in  the  transitional  zone  west  of  the  serpentine,  are  dis- 
cussed below  (p.342). 

The  Tamworth  Series. 

The  region  occupied  by  rocks  of  this  division  forms  the  greater 
portion  of  the  area  considered,  and,  throughout  this  area,  the 
dips  are  nearly  vertical  or  inclined  to  the  W.S.W.  at  angles  of 
about  60°-70°,  with  only  here  and  there  a  narrow  band  dipping 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  total  width  of  this  region  is 
over  four  miles,  so  that,  were  no  repetition  of  strata  present,  a 
thickness  of  nearly  20,000  feet  must  occur,  which  is  several  times 
greater  than  was  shown  to  be  probable  in  the  Tamworth  Dis- 


330  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii  , 

trict.  We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  considerable  repetition 
by  strike-faulting  is  present,  though  admitting  that  the  sequence 
from  east  to  west  is,  in  the  main,  an  ascending  one  in  the  time- 
scale. 

We  shall  now  endeavour  to  trace  through  from  the  Tamworth 
to  the  Nundle  District,  several  horizons  already  recognised  in 
the  succession  of  Middle  Devonian  strata. 

The  Nemingha  Limestone. — The  main  limestone  of  the  Loom- 
berah  District  is  clearly  a  continuation  of  the  mass  of  limestone 
which  runs  through  Beedles  Freehold  and  the  Gap  at  Nemingha 
(6,  pp. 587-9),  and  then  commences  by  the  eastern  corner  of 
Portion  60,*  Parish  of  Loomberah,  appearing  from  beneath  the 
river-alluvium,  and  running  thence  to  the  south-east  through 
Portions  59,  58,  and  57.  It  is  a  brecciated  pink  limestone  asso- 
ciated, in  Portion  59,  with  a  small  amount  of  very  ferruginous, 
more  or  less  brecciated  keratophyre  or  porphyritic  andesite,  lying 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  limestone;  and,  to  the  west,  is  an  intru- 
sion of  porphyritic  dolerite  with  phenocrj^sts  of  labradorite.  The 
outcropping  mass  of  limestone  is  77  yards  wide,  but  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  the  thickness  of  the  limestone  owing  to  the 
absence  of  any  evidence  of  the  angle  of  dip,  though  adjacent 
rocks  dip  at  high  angles.  It  is  broken  by  cross-faults,  throwing 
it  for  short  distances.  In  Portion  58  (Mr.  David  Carter's  pro- 
perty), the  limestone  has  been  duplicated  by  a  fault  or  faults, 
and  a  short  band  of  the  same  horizon  occurs  four  hundred  yards 
north-east  of  the  main  zone.  The  eastern  mass  is  the  more 
clearly  exposed,  and  covers  an  area  four  hundred  yards  long  by 
sixty  yards  in  width.  Both  bands  of  limestone  have  a  western 
wall  of  keratophyre-breccias,  ferruginous  rocks  apparently  greatly 
altered  by  percolating  solutions  (the  Nemingha  Red  Breccia). 
Both  masses  of  limestone,  for  the  most  part,  lie  in  ploughed 
land,  and,  in  the  boulders  of  limestone  brought  to  the  surface,  a 
large  series  of  fossils  was  obtained,  which  confirm  the  correla- 
tion of  this  limestone  with  the  Nemingha  horizon.     These  were 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated,  all  references  to  Portion-numbers  in  the 
sequel  refer  to  Portions  of  the  Parisli  of  Loomberah. 


BY  W.   N,   BENSON.  331 

determined   b}-  Mr.  W.   S.   Dun,    Mr.    Etheridge,  and   Mr.    F. 
Chapman.     The  following  forms  were  recognised  : — 
Protozoa. 

Foraminifera — 

I'samiinosphcera  neminghensis,  sp.nov\,  Chapman. 
Valvulina  plicata  Brady. 
V.  hulloides  Brady. 
V.  oblonga,  sp.nov.,  Chapman, 
Piilvinulina  bensoni,  sp.nov.,  Chapman. 
Radiolaria — 

An  indeterminate  species. 

CCELENTERATA. 

Zaphrentis  sp. 

Tryplasma  congregationis  Eth.fil. 

T.  lonsdalei  Eth.fil. 

T.  vermifoj'mis  Eth.fil. 

A  cystiphylloid  coral. 

Syringopora  porteri  Eth.fil. 

S.  auloporoides  Eth.fil. 

Favosites  gothlandica  Lamarck. 

F.  multitahulata  Eth.fil. 

F.  pittmani  Eth.fil. 

F.  crumrtieri  Eth.fil. 

Alveolites  sp. 

Heliolites  porosa  Goldf . 

//.  infersfincta  Linn. 

An  indeterminate  Stromatoporoid. 

ECHINODERMATA. 

Numerous  Crinoid  ossicles. 
Brachiopoda. 

'  A  try  pa  sp. 
Zygospira  sp. 
Concerning  the  Tryplasma  lonsdalei,  Mr.  Dun  remarks  that 
it  is  apparently  a  solitary  form  of  the  T.  lo7isdalei-t ype,  but  the 
tabulae  are  more  irregularly  and  widely  spaced  than  in  the 
normal  form.  The  wall  is  thick,  and  there  are  short,  septal 
spines.     The  diameter  of  the  corallite  is  5  mm. 


332  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OP  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii, 


Several  interesting  features  are  seen  in  this  Table.  The  two 
species  of  Syringopora  named  have,  so  far,  been  collected  only  from 
the  Moore  Creek  limestone,  to  which  also  F.  crummeri  has  hereto- 
fore been  confined.  The  recognition  of  three  definite  species  of 
Tryplasma  is  an  advance  on  the  single  form  recorded  previously 
from  this  horizon (6,  p. 552);  while  the  occurrence  of  Foraminifera 
is  a  very  welcome  feature,  since,  apart  from  forms  occurring  in 
the  Devonian  limestones  of  Germany  and  South  Devonshire,  no 
other  occurrences  of  Devonian  Foraminifera  are  known.  They 
were  found  in  a  small  mass  of  oolitic  limestone  about  four  inches 
in  diameter.  The  granules,  according  to  Mr.  Chapman,  form  a 
little  more  than  half  the  bulk  of  the  rock;  "they  vary  in  diameter 
from  0-46  to  0*7  mm.,  and  only  a  small  proportion  are  due 
entirely  to  oolitic  accretion,  whether  originally  of  algal  origin  or 
not  it  is  impossible  to  say,  on  account  of  their  present  mineral- 
ised condition.  The  nucleus  of  the  oolitic  grain,  in  more  than 
one  case,  was  seen  to  consist  of  an  ossicle  of  a  crinoid.  There 
is  a  fair  amount  of  iron-staining  in  the  rock-structure  which 
seems  to  be  entirely  secondary,  as  the  stain  is  de\  eloped  more 
strongly  along  incipient  fracture-lines  than  in  the  grains  them- 
selves." (See  Appendix  i.).  The  ferruginous  matter  has  doubt- 
less been  introduced  from  the  associated  NeminghaRed  Breccias. 

The  analysis  of  the  limestones  from  this  outcrop  are  given 
below  (p.334). 

Nearly  a  mile  south  of  the  occurrence  in  Portion  58,  the  lime- 
stone appears  again,  associated  with  red,  ferruginous  keratophyre- 
breccia  crossing  the  western  end  of  Portion  55;  this  outcrop  is 
nearly  half  a  mile  in  length. 

The  next  outcrop  is  considerably  to  the  east  as  well  as  south 
of  the  above,  and  is  probably  separated  from  it  by  considerable 
dip-fault,  though  the  intervening  alluvium  and  ploughed  land 
hide  the  details  of  the  outcrops.  This  mass  is  quite  small, 
occurring  near  the  corner  of  Portions  53  and  52. 

The  limestone  on  Portion  35  has  been  moved  still  further  to 
the  east,  and  is  separated  from  the  last-mentioned  occurrence  b}- 
a  large  intrusion  of  dolerite.  A  small  fault  traverses  this  mass, 
cutting  it  into  two  portions,  one  nearly  600  yards  long  and  60 


BY  VV.  N.   BENSON.  333 

wide,  the  other  300  yards  long  and  40  yards  wide.  The  chemical 
composition  of  a  specimen  of  this  mass  is  given  below  (No.  1787). 

A  small  mass  of  limestone  next  appears  a  mile  to  the  south, 
being  found  in  a  well  sunk  by  the  creek  in  Portion  32. 

No  more  limestone  appears  for  over  a  mile,  until,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Portion  31,  a  great  band  of  red  breccia  is  asso- 
ciated with  a  small  amount  of  limestone  on  its  eastern  side. 
The  red  band  broadens  as  it  continues  southwards  into  the  Peel 
River  Company's  Estate,  and  the  limestone  now  appears  to  the 
west,  as  well  as  to  the  east,  of  the  Red  Breccia,  which  is  here 
mor.e  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide.  An  important  mass  of 
limestone  lies  on  the  western  side  of  Sandy  Creek,  half  a  mile 
south  of  the  boundary  of  Loomberah  Parish.  It  consists  of 
three  portions,  largely  of  red  encrinital  limestone.  The  aggre- 
gate length  of  the  outcrop  is  600  yards,  and  the  width  80  yards. 
The  dip  is  apparently  W.40°S.  at  50°.  The  upper  portion  is 
rather  ferruginous;  the  lower,  grey  portion  is  either  massive  or 
brecciated.     {See  analyses  1785,  1786,  infra). 

At  the  foot  of  Black  Jack,  the  limestone  and  tuff  is  suddenly 
cut  off  by  a  fault,  which  throws  it  half  a  mile  to  the  east.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  fault,  the  two  masses  of  limestone,  separated 
by  the  breccia,  are  half  a  mile  apart,  but  very  soon  they  are 
brought  together  again  by  a  second  great  fault,  and  they  continue 
over  the  shoulder  of  Black  Jack,  making  bold  outcrops  (analysis 
1788),  and  pass  thence  down  into  Cope's  Creek.  The  limestone 
appears  on  the  other  side  of  the  valley,  and  continues  to  Pipe- 
clay Creek.  This  is  the  portion  of  the  zone  which  was  described 
when  considering  the  Geology  of  the  Nundle  District (3,  p. 574). 
In  Cope's  Creek,  the  limestone  occurs  in  rather  irregularly  placed 
masses  in  the  red  breccia,  and  one  large  lenticle  has  been  torn 
off  and  enveloped  in  keratophyre.  It  is  possible  that  Clarke's 
specimen  of  PhilUpsastrcea  verneuilii  was  obtained  here. 

Throughout  its  length,  this  limestone  keeps  the  characters 
which  mark  the  Nemingha  limestone.  It  is  usually  thorouo^hlv 
crystalline,  so  much  so  that,  except  for  the  fossiliferous  masses 
on  Mr.  Carter's  property  and  south  of  Cope's  Creek,  no  recc- 
nisable  fossils  have  been  obtained.     The  rock  is  generally  white7J  •  '^^V^ 


^"■♦■# 


334 


GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  Vll., 


pink,  reddish  or  mottled:  less  commonly,  it  is  grey.  It  is  often 
highly  brecciated,  and  in  particular  in  Cope's  Creek,  the  rock  is 
clearly  made  up  of  fragments  of  corals  and  of  crinoids.  The 
colouration  of  the  rock  appears  due  to  the  introduction  of  ferru- 
ginous solutions.  The  composition  of  the  stone  is  shown  in  the 
following  Table;  the  analyses  are  due  to  the  chemists  of  the 
Geological  Survey (13). 


1781 

1782 

1783 

1785 

1786 

1787 

1788 

CaCO,       

97-46 

98-21 

97-68 

94  03 

97-54 

97-55 

98-21 

MgCO^      

0-7 

0-69 

0-64 

0-90 

0-71 

0-79  1 

0-50 

MnCO^      

0-04 

0-06 

0-04 

0-08 

0  05 

0  04  1 

0  04 

Fe^Oa,  AUOo      ... 

0-32 

0-24 

0-18 

0-95 

0-17 

0-28 

0  24 

Gangue      

1-56 

0-98 

1-42 

4  02 

1-52 

1-48 

1-24 

100-09 

100-18 

99-96 

99-98 

99-99 

100-14 

100-23 

1781-2 — Red  Marble,  Portion  58,  Loomberah. 

1783 — Pink  Marble,  Portion  58,  Loomberah. 

1785— Pink  Marble,  U  miles  N.N.W.  of  Black  Jack  Mountain. 

1786— Red  Marble,  1^  miles  N.N.W.  of  Black  Jack  Mountain. 

1787 — Pink  Marble,  Portion  35,  Loomberah. 

1788 — Pink  Marble,  east  side  of  Black  Jack  Mountain. 

Concerning  the  depth  of  origin  of  this  limestone,  we  have  to 
note  the  absence  of  evidence  of  littoral  conditions  though  the 
limestone  is  often  brecciated.  Radiolarian  chert  is  directly 
associated  with  it.  Mr.  Chapman's  remarks  on  this  point  may 
be  noted.     {See  Appendix  i.). 

The  Loomberah  Limestone. 
A  second  definite  zone  is  that  of  the  Loomberah  Limestone. 
Just  beyond  the  north-western  corner  of  the  Parish  of  Loom- 
berah, namely,  in  Portion  10,  Parish  of  Calala,  is  a  belt  of  lime- 
stone about  a  hundred  yards  long  and  ten  to  twelve  feet  thick, 
containing  HelioliUs,  Tryiilasma.,  and  crinoids.  It  dips  W.5°S. 
at  70'.  To  the  east  of  it  are  several  bands  of  tuff  and  a  sill  of 
dolerite,  the  whole  lying  within  normal  radiolarian  cherty  clay- 
stones.  Followed  to  tlie  south  east,  the  limestone  ceases,  and 
the  tuff-breccia   becomes  ricli  in  fragments  of  limestone.      It  is 


BY    W.   N.   BENSON,  335 

displaced  by  several  cross-faults.  In  Mr.  Carter's  property 
(Portion  58),  the  limestone  comes  in  a»ain,  forming  a  very  im- 
portant band.  This  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length  and 
150  feet  thick.  Its  western  end  is  very  highly  crystalline,  so 
much  so  that  the  rock  has  passed  into  a  white  marble,  but, 
towards  the  east,  it  is  less  crystalline,  and  consists  of  an  extra- 
ordinary assemblage  of  broken  fossils.  Fragments  of  large 
pentameroid  shells  are  the  predominant  feature,  but  intermingled 
with  them  are  abundant  masses  of  Stromatnporoids,  of  fragments 
of  coral,  and  even  angular  or  rounded  pebbles  of  chert,  the  whole 
giving  very  clear  indication  of  rather  turbulent  conditions  of 
formation,  as  if  they  were  reef-breccias  (see  Plate  xxxiv.,  fig.l). 
In  spite  of  this,  there  is  no  indication  of  an  unconformity,  the 
radiolarian  cherts  which  lie  immediately  above  the  limestone 
dipping  W.25°S.  at  70°,  those  immediately  below  W.26''S.  at 
65°,  which,  considering  the  variability  of  the  dip,  may  be  taken 
as  proof  of  conformity.  Possibl}^  the  shallow-water  limestone 
indicates  the  occurrence  of  a  regression  of  the  sea.  In  cases 
such  as  this  there  is  no  reason  to. expect  a  mass  of  coarsely 
clastic  sediment  at  the  base  of  the  overlying  transgressive  sedi- 
ment {see  16,  p. 458). 

The  second  characteristic  of  this  limestone  is  its  remarkable 
fauna,  which  is  quite  unlike  that  of  any  horizon  yet  discovered 
in  the  Devonian  rocks  of  New  South  Wales.  The  following  list 
indicates  the  forms  recognised  by  Messrs.  Chapman,  Dun,  and 
Etheridge.  Of  particular  interest  is  the  presence  of  Tryplasma^ 
as  determined  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  and  Chretetes,  described  by  Mr. 
Chapman.* 

Zaphrentis^  sp.ind. 

Zaphrentis{^  sp.     (Sp.  et  subgen.  nov.]). 

Tryplasma  sp.     Intermediate  between  T.  delicatula  Eth.fxl., 
and  T.  vermiformin  Eth.fil. 

Cyathophyllum  sp. 

*  In  a  private  communication,  Mr.  Chapman  says — "It  is  interesting 
to  note  your  opinion  of  the  hj^drographic  conditions  at  Loomberah. 
Ch(xtetes,  to  my  mind,  played  the  same  part  in  the  coastal  reefs  of  the 
Palteozoie,  as  HtUoporu  does  at  the  present  day,"' 


336  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

Diphyphyllum,  rohushim  Eth.fil. 

D.  porteri  Eth.fi]. 

Form  allied  to  Omphyma. 

Spoiigophyllum,  sp.no v.,  Dun. 

Phillipsastrcea  grandis,  sp.nov.,  Dun. 

Favosites  gothhindica  Lamarck. 

F.  gothlandica  with  multitabulate  habit. 

F.  multitahiitata  Eth.fil.  (rare). 

Favosites,  sp.nov. (?),  a  form  with  very  irregular  habit. 

Favosites,  sp.nov.,  a  dendroid   form   distinct  from  those  in 
other  Devonian  horizons  in  this  area. 

Litophyllum  konincki  Eth.fil. 

Dania  sp. 

Chcpietes  stelliformis,  sp.nov.,  Chapman. 

Heliolites  porosa  Goldf. 

Plasmopora  sp. 

Stromatoporella  loomherensis,  sp.nov.,  Dun. 

S.  be7isoni,  sp.nov.,  Dun. 

Actinost7'oma  austraie,  sp.nov.,  Dun. 

A  Treptostomatous  Bryozoan. 

Pentameriis  [Conchidium)  cf.  kniuhtii. 

Pentamerus  cf.  sieheri. 

Strophomena  cf.  rugata. 

A  try  pa  sp. 

Murchisotiia  sp. 
The  band  of  tuff"  or  breccia,  directly  below  this  limestone,  may 
be  traced  south  almost  continuously  to  Cope's  Creek,  displaced 
here  and  there  by  cross-faults.  There  is  frequently  a  consider- 
able amount  of  limestone-fragments  in  this  tufi-breccia,  but  only 
occasionally  are  there  any  large  masses  of  limestone,  such  as 
those  in  Portions  23  and  33  (the  latter  of  which  contains  small 
forms  of  Favosites  multitahulata.  The  limestone  also  occurs  in 
Portion  32,  and  in  several  localities  west  of  Black  Jack.  One 
of  these  masses  has  a  maximum  width  of  sixty  feet,  dipping 
nearly  vertically  ,  and  contains  pentameroid  shells.  Cyatho- 
phyllum,  Heliolites,  a  Stromatoporoid,  globular  masses  of  Favosites 
gothlandica    and    Tryplasiuu(l)    which   characterise  the  horizon. 


BY  W.   N.    BENSON.  337 

and,  in  addition,  there  was  a  section  exposed  of  a  form  very 
similar  to  Cystiphyllum  vesicuiosum  which  unfortunately  could 
not  be  removed  for  more  careful  examination. 

South  of  this,  where  the  limestone  is  split  into  two  bands  bv 
a  zone  of  tuff,  the  feature  noted  in  Portion  d8,  namely,  the 
abundance  of  fragments  and  pebbles  of  chert  in  the  limestone,  is 
again  present.  It  must  also  be  mentioned  that,  throughout  the 
length  of  the  zone  of  the  Loomberah  limestone,  the  chert  over- 
lying it  contains  numerous  small  inti-usions  of  tuflP. 

The  tuff  associated  with  the  limestone  may  be  traced  down 
into  the  valley  of  Cope's  Creek,  and  beyond  it  to  the  south. 
Here,  probably,  was  obtained  the  specimen  of  Phillipsastrcea 
verneuilii  recognised  by  De  Koninck.  The  small  patch  of  lime- 
stone occurring  on  the  top  of  the  hill,  a  mile  and  a  half  W.S.W. 
of  the  Permo-Carboniferous  sandstone  at  ReicheFs  homestead, 
near  Bowling  Alley  Point,  probably  belongs  to  this  series.  Jt 
has  been  already  pointed  out  that  it  does  not  lie  on  the  same 
horizon  as  the  Nemingha  limestone.  .  A  lenticular  mass  of  lime- 
stone occurs  near  Cann's  Plains  Creek,  still  further  to  the  south, 
and  probably  belongs  to  the  same  horizon(3,  p.574).  Thus  we 
can  trace  the  Loomberah  horizon  intermittently  from  the  north- 
west of  the  Parish  of  Loomberah,  to  within  two  miles  of  Bowling 
Alley  Point,  and  have  thus  obtained  a  second  definite  horizon 
linking  the  geology  of  the  Tam  worth  District  to  that  of  Nundle. 
But  there  is  still  another  mass  of  limestone  that  may  possibly 
belong  to  the  same  horizon,  though  so  altered  by  recrystallisa- 
tion  in  the  region  adjacent  to  the  serpentine,  that  no  traces  of 
fossils  have  been  found  in  it.  This  is  the  lenticular  mass  of 
white  marble  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Parish  of 
Nemingha,  Portion  121,  mentioned  previously  {see  6,  p.560).  It 
is  about  four  hundred  yards  long  and  sixty  yards  in  width  as  a 
maximum  measurement,  the  main  visible  portion  being  only  two 
hundred  by  twenty  yards  in  length  and  breadth. 


338 


GREAT  SKRPENTIN^E  BELT  OV  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  Vll., 


The  chemical  composition  of  the  Loomberah  limestone  is  seen 
from  the  analyses  below,  which  were  made  by  the  chemists  of 
the  Geological  Survey(13). 


1395 

1220 

1784 

CaCO,       

98-85 

94-91 

95-43 

MgCO,      

0-42 

0-83 

1-27 

MnCO,       

0-04 



Oil 

FeoOs+AlaOg      

0-22 

0-80 

0-60 

Gangue      

0-64 

3-55 

• 

100  09 

2-45 

100-17 

99-86 

1395 — Limestone,  Portion  121,  Nemingha  (horizon  not  certain). 
1220 — Limestone,  Portion  58,  Loomberah. 
1784 — Limestone,  Portion  23,  Loomberah. 

Scrub  Mountain  Conglomerate. 

For  about  a  mile  west  of  the  zone  of  the  Loomberah  limestone, 
the  sediments  are  a  succession  of  cherts,  radiolarian  claystones 
and  tuff,  the  latter  sometimes  broadening  out  into  coarse  agglo- 
merates, as  in  the  case  of  the  agglomerate  to  the  west  of  the 
upper  portion  of  Cope's  Creek.  In  Reedy  Creek,  however,  the 
rocks  lose  their  cherty  nature  to  a  great  extent,  becoming  mud- 
stones  almost  indistinguishable  from  those  of  the  Barraba  Series. 

There  is  one  very  marked  horizon  in  this  portion  of  the  section, 
a  zone  of  conglomerate  which  may  be  termed  the  Scrub  Mountain 
Conglomerate.  It  commences  in  Portion  17  and  continues  to 
the  south-east.  It  is  made  up  of  usually  rounded  or  sub-angular 
pebbles  chieHy  of  a  richly  felspathic  keratophyre,  a  strongly 
trachytic  type  of  which  was  found  to  contain  phenocrysts  of 
felspar  with  abundant  minute  crystals  of  augite  in  the  base(1474); 
there  is  also  some  beautiful  granophyre(1477,  1479),  and,  most 
interesting  of  all,  an  angular  fragment  of  radiolarian  chert. 
This  last  is  not  like  the  usual  cherts  of  the  Tarn  worth  Series, 
being  free  from  any  sign  of  banding,  but  small  amounts  of  a 
rather  similar  rock  do  occur  here  and  there  in  the  Eastern  Series. 

All  these  lie  in  a  tuffaceous  matrix.  This  has  not  yet  been 
studied    microscopically,    but  from  a   macroscopic   examination 


BY  W.   N.   BENSON.  339 

there  did  not  appear  to  be  the  same  close  relationship  between 
the  tuffaceous  matrix  and  the  inclusions  (the  former  derived  by 
the  attrition  of  the  latter)  that  was  so  marked  a  feature  of 
Macllveen's  complex,  or  in  the  Baldwin  Agglomerates  {see  6, 
pp.573,  578).  This,  however,  requires  thorough  investigation. 
Should  the  matrix  really  prove  to  be  clastic,  not  merely  pyro- 
clastic,  the  occurrence  in  it  of  the  radiolarian  chert  and  the 
keratophyres,  etc.,  might  indicate  another  regression  of  the  sea 
at  this  point,  and  the  exposure  and  erosion  of  Lower  or  Middle 
Devonian  rocks  some  distance  east(?)  of  this  region.  The  pos- 
sible significance  of  this  is  considered  later  (pp.341,  355). 

The  zone  is  very  continuous.  It  forms  the  long  ridge  in 
Portions  17  and  18,  and,  southwards  from  thence,  it  makes  up 
the  little  hills  which  sharply  mark  the  ends  of  the  ridges  that 
separate  the  western  tributaries  of  Reedy  Creek.  About  four 
miles  south  of  the  boundary  of  the  Parish  of  Loomberah,  it  rises 
as  a  long  spur  into  Scrub  Mountain,  and  south-east  of  here  it 
forms  Rodney  Mountain,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  map  here- 
with, and  further  to  the  south-east  it  rises  into  Nundle  Sugar- 
loaf,  and  crosses  the  Peel  River  to  form  the  western  end  of  the 
Yellow  Rock  Hill  south  of  that  township.  The  last  three  occur- 
rences of  the  conglomerate  have  been  already  noted  (3,  p. 581). 
Thus  the  Conglomerate  affords  another  horizon  which  can  be 
traced  through  from  the  Loomberah  Parish  into  the  region 
mapped  in  the  JSundle  District.  Small  fragments  of  the  con- 
glomerate occur  here  and  there  adjacent  to  Reedy  Creek;  they 
are  perhaps  due  to  repetition  by  schuppen-i'a,\x\tm^.  Round 
Mountain,  which  rises  from  beside  the  Main  North  Road  on  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Goonoo  Goonoo  Estate,  ten  miles  due  south 
of  Tamworth,  is  apparently  composed  of  this  conglomerate. 

The  Pyramid  Hill  Tuff. 
West  of  the  Scrub  Mountain  Conglomerate  and  stratigraphi- 
cally  above  it,  the  mudstones  are  interstratified  with  numerous 
bands  of  tuffs  of  moderate  grain-size,  and  these,  being  resistant 
to  erosion,  form  the  long  ridge  which  runs  south-eastwards  from 
Pyramid  Hill.     This  structure  of  the  range  is  that  of  a  faulted 


340  GREAT  S£Rf  ENTINE  BELT  OF  KKW  SOtJTH  WALES,  vii., 

syncline.  To  the  west  of  it  there  extends  the  broad,  low,  undu- 
lating region  composed  chiefly  of  mudstones,  extending  to  the 
foothills  of  the  ridges  of  Carboniferous  rock  that  pass  through 
the  Currabubula  district.  These  are  the  mudstones  of  the 
Burindi  Series  (on  the  extreme  west),  and  the  Barraba  Series 
which  forms  the  greater  portion  of  the  Tamworth  and  Goonoo 
Goonoo  Plains.  To  the  south-east,  the  tulf  of  the  Pyramid  Hill 
Range  apparently  extends  into  the  hills  west  of  Nundle. 

The  Stratiyraphical  Position  of  the  NiLudle  Mudstones. 

The  difficult  question  to  be  decided  is  the  stratigraphical  posi- 
tion that  must  be  assigned  to  the  Pyramid  Hill  tuff.  The  syn- 
clinal structure  of  the  range,  the  lithological  character  of  the 
component  rocks  and  the  consequent  topographic  features,  recall 
the  tuffs  which  form  the  hills  west  of  the  Tamworth  Common. 
These  tuffs,  etc.,  have  been  correlated  with  those  occurring  south 
of  the  river  in  Portion  27,  Calala(6,  p. 580),  and  lie  near,  but  not 
on,  the  same  line  of  strike  as  the  Pyramid  Hill  tuff.  The  beds 
which  occur  between  the  tuff  of  Portion  27,  Calala,  and  the 
nearest  Loomberah  limestone,  are  quite  similar  to  those  between 
the  Loomberah  limestone  and  the  Pyramid  Hill  tuffs,  save  for 
the  absence  of  the  Scrub  Mountain  conglomerate.  The  first 
impulse,  therefore,  would  lead  one  to  correlate  the  Pyramid  Hill 
tuff  with  the  tuffs  in  the  Tamworth  Common,  and,  therefore, 
with  the  Baldwin  Agglomerate (6,  p. 579).  Such  a  correlation 
would  place  all  the  mudstones  of  the  Reedy  Creek  Valley, 
together  with  the  Nundle  conglomerate,  into  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Tamworth  (Middle  Devonian)  Series,  and  would  further 
demand  that  none  of  the  region  mapped  in  the  Nundle  district 
should  belong  to  the  Barraba  Series,  to  which  the  western  group 
of  mudstones  (the  Nundle  Series)  had  previously  been  referred. 

But  the  study  of  the  tuffs  and  breccias  within  the  Devonian 
Series  shows  that  they  do  not  always  form  on  a  single  horizon, 
but  (what  might  have  been  anticipated)  they  formed  at  different 
times,  spreading  out  on  either  side  of  their  centres  of  eruption, 
and,  therefore,  lie  at  varying  horizons.  Apparently  there  were 
epochs  when  eruption  was  more  continuous  and  widespread  than 


BY  W.  X.   BENSON.  341 

at  other  times,  giving  more  or  less  definite  igneous  zones,  l)ut 
stratigraphica]  correlation  on  tlie  petrological  features  of  pyro- 
clastic  rocks  alone  is  exceedingly  unsafe.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  the  Pyramid  Hill  tuff  belongs  to  a  period  of  eruption  rather 
more  recent  than  that  of  the  Baldwin  Agglomerates,  and  that 
the  true  horizon  of  the  base  of  the  Barraba  Series  lies  at  some 
indefinite  horizon  between  the  Loomberah  limestones  and  the 
Pyramid  Hill  tufi".  As  the  outbreak  of  the  huge  eruptions, 
which  formed  the  Baldwin  Agglomerate  of  the  Manilla-Bingera 
region,  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  have  been  associated 
with  some  crust-movement  in  adjacent  districts,  we  may  put 
forward  the  suggestion  that  the  Scrub  Mountain  conglomerate 
(the  lithology  of  which  seems  to  point  to  the  occurrence  of  some 
crust-movement)  might  be  considered  contemporaneous  with  the 
Baldwin  Agglomerates.  This  hypothesis  has  the  merit  of  in- 
volving a  less  radical  change  than  the  former  one  in  the  con- 
ception of  the  range  of  characters  of  the  Upper  Middle  Devonian 
rocks,  and  is,  therefore,  adopted  in  the  map.  But  it  cannot  be 
considered  as  more  than  tentative,  lacking  as  yet  confirmatorv 
evidence.  On  this  hypothesis,  the  portions  of  the  Nundle  Series 
lying  south-west  of  Nundle  Sugarloaf  and  Yellow  Bock  Hill  (3, 
Plate  xxii.)  belong  to  the  Harraba  Series. 

The  Devonian  Igneous  Rocks. 
Igneous  Bocks  in  the  Eastern  Series.  —  The  igneous  rocks  in 
the  Eastern  Series  must  be  first  briefiy  discussed,  before  passing 
on  to  the  more  important  rocks  west  of  the  serpentine.  They 
consist,  for  the  most  p^irt,  of  bands  of  more  or  less  schistose 
breccias  and  agglomerates,  which  are  fairly  abundant,  and  are 
particularly  well  seen  in  a  zone  which  runs  nearly  due  north 
from  the  western  end  of  Portion  42,  Loomberah,  to  the  eastern 
end  of  Portion  46;  while  less  noteworthy  masses  occur,  east  of 
the  Peel  River,  in  the  Parishes  of  Gill  and  Nemingha.  Massi^e 
igneous  rocks  have  a  more  restricted  occurrence.  Spilites  are 
found  a  mile  north  of  Dungowan  Hotel  in  Portion  52,  Gill. 
Vesicular  keratophyre  occurs  near  by  in  Portion  51,  and  in  Por- 
tion 43  of  the  Parish  of  Loomberah  is  a  very  small  lenticle  of  a 


342        GREAT  serI'p:ntike  belt  of  new  south  Wales,  \  ii., 

quartzose  dolerite*  with  zoned  andesine-felspar.  Larger  bands 
of  fine-grained  dolerite  and  spilite  cross  the  valley  north  of 
Wallaby  Mountain  and  the  hills  to  the  east. 

Lj neons  Bocks  in  the  Transitional  Zone  — More  complex  than 
these  are  the  features  of  a  series  of  igneous  rocks  which  lie  along 
the  zone  of  passage  between  the  Eastern  Series,  the  zone  else- 
where represented  by  the  Serpentine  Line.  The  most  northerly 
of  these  masses  are  the  group  of  dolerites  and  spilites  by  the 
Loomberah  Bridge  in  Portion  56,  which  occupy  the  greater  part 
of  the  small  spur  east  of  Sandy  Creek.  A  very  good  exposure 
of  the  spilite  is  seen  in  the  road-cutting  on  the  east  of  the  hill, 
in  which  typical  pillow-structure  is  exposed  {see  Plate  xxxiii.). 
The  pillows  are  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  have  generally 
a  number  of  vesicles,  often  filled  with  calcite,  arranged  in  con- 
centric rows  within  the  pillow.  The  rock  itself  is  greatly  altered, 
as  described  below  (p. 365).  For  this  reason,  the  pillow-lavas 
are  more  like  the  pillow-lavas  seen  by  the  writer  in  Cornwall f 
than  any  others  in  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt(5,  p.l31 ).  The 
dolerite  which  occurs  on  the  west  side  of  the  spur  is  also  greatly 
altered.  The  original  ophitic  structure  has  been  preserved  in 
spite  of  the  mineralogical  changes.  Magnetite  is  the  only 
original  mineral;  the  augite  has  become  platey  chlorite,  and  the 
felspar  has  been  changed  either  to  a  mass  of  calcite  with  a  small 
amount  of  albite;  or  to  much-strained  quartz  or  chalcedonj'  with 
chlorite,  spherulitic  if  in  large  patches,  and  sometimes  associated 
with  a  little  carbonate.  The  dolerite  itself  is  sometimes  slightly 
vesicular.  These  sills  of  spilite  and  dolerite  are  separated  by 
banded  jasperised  cherts  or  highly  siliceous  cherts  which  dip 
W.4''N.  at  60°  on  the  east  side  of  the  hill,  but  dip  E.  at  60°  on 
the  west  side  of  the  hill. 

Southwards  of  these,  in  the  eastern  end  of  Portions  bh  and 
54,  and  again  on  the  boundary  of  53  and  52,  are  further  intru- 
sive masses.  Spilite  occurs  on  either  side  of  the  hill  of  chert 
and  jasper  in  Portion  54,  but  further  to  the  east  keratophyres 
are  found. 

"  See  footnote  to  p. 364 
t  For  description  of  these  lavas,  see  (17). 


rJY  W.  N.  BKKSOX.  343 

Small  intrusions  of  rather  vesicular  spilite  occur  at  the  south- 
western corner  of  Portion  48,  but  the  next  important  mass  of 
spilitic  rock  is  the  complex  series  of  intrusions  which  runs 
through  the  western  ends  of  Portions  39,  38,  and  62,  and  are 
associated  with  serpentine  in  a  complex  fashion.  The  spilite 
occurs  in  a  series  of  overlapping  lenticles,  decreasing  in  size 
from  north  to  south;  the  rock  is  vesicular,  full  of  secondary 
chert,  in  most  irregular  strings  and  veinlets  {cf.  5,  p. 127).  These 
lenticles  are  separated  from  one  another  by  narrow  zones  of  more 
or  less  silicified,  crushed  chert,  into  which  the  serpentine  has 
been  injected.  In  one  instance,  on  the  northern  erid  of  the 
complex,  the  serpentine  appears  to  be  injected  into  the  spilite 
(though  the  abundance  of  drifted  blocks  makes  the  observation 
uncertain),  while  at  the  southern  end  a  small  patch  of  vesicular 
keratophyre,  10  yards  long  and  o  yards  wide,  has  apparently 
been  caught  up  and  included  in  the  ultrabasic  rock.  The  whole 
structure  seems  to  have  resulted  from  the  shattering  of  a  mass 
of  spilite  and  keratophyre,  by  a  series  of  oblique  faults,  into 
which  the  cherty  crush-breccias  were  dragged  and  the  ultrabasic 
rock  injected. 

South  of  these  are  the  long,  undisturbed,  lenticular  intrusions 
of  dense  spilite  on  the  western  slopes  of  Wallaby  Mountain,  and 
crossing  the  creek  at  its  base.  These  are  quite  typical  of  the 
non-vesicular  spilites  in  the  Eastern  Series. 

The  keratophyres  of  the  Transitional  Zone  are  tirst  seen  in  the 
eastern  end  of  Portions  53  and  54,  and  occur  again  on  the 
boundary  of  Portions  53  and  52.  (A  small  mass  of  Nemingha 
limestone  lies  just  west  of  this  last).  In  the  first  of  these,  they 
are  vesicular  with  amygdules  filled  with  quartz,  chalcedony, 
chlorite,  and  calcite.  They  become  abundant,  however,  in  the 
Water-Reserve  between  Portions  51  and  52,  are  vesicular  with 
abundant  quartz  in  the  amygdules,  and  microscopic  examination 
shows  the  abundance  of  quartz  in  the  groundmass.  To  the 
south,  the  mass  of  keratophyre  broadens  out  into  the  largest 
area  of  igneous  rock  within  the  limits  of  the  map.  Though  only 
about  two  hundred  yards  wide  at  the  northern  end  of  Portion 
35,  it  becomes  half  a  mile  in  width  to  the  south,  and  continues 


344        TtHEat  serpentink  belt  of  new  south  walks,  vii., 

thus  through  Portious  36  and  37,  at  the  southern  end  of  which 
it  is  cut  oif  by  a  fault,  which  throws  it  eight  hundred  yards  to 
the  east.  Thence  it  continues  for  a  mile  further,  exhibiting 
some  very  interesting  features  described  below  (p. 345).  This 
belt  of  keratophyre  forms  the  western  margin  of  the  Transitional 
Zone;  except  where  jasperised,  the  rocks  to  the  west  of  it  ob- 
viously belong  to  the  Tam worth  Series.  In  Portion  52,  a  small 
amount  of  such  jasperised  rock  occurs,  the  relations  of  which 
have  been  obscured  through  the  ploughing  of  the  land.  More 
distinct  is  the  small  mass  of  jasper  in  Portion  35,  in  contact 
with  a  keratophyre  rather  rich  in  magnetite. 

The  main  mass  of  the  keratophyre  is  a  rock  of  fine  to  medium 
grain-size,  consisting  chiefly  of  albite,  a  few  phenocrysts  lying  in 
a  trachytic  or  spongy  base,  dotted  with  finely  crystalline  mag- 
netite. A  little  quartz  is  present  in  the  base  together  with  some 
chlorite.  Occasionally,  the  rock  is  quite  coarseh^  crystalline, 
and  contains  a  little  augite,  approaching  the  character  of  albitic 
quartz-dolerite  (1414). 

Along  the  eastern  margin  of  this  intrusion  in  Portion  36,  the 
rock  is  distinctly  brecciated,  this  facies  passing  imperceptibly 
into  the  massive  rock.  In  microscopic  examination,  it  has  the 
character  of  a  flow-breccia,  and  sometimes  appears  to  have  been 
originally  more  or  less  glassy.  Fragments  of  albite  occur  with 
very  irregular  outline  and  often  slight  strain-structure,  also 
irregular  fragments  of  quartz  and  small  grains  of  uralitised 
augite,  lying  in  a  cryptocrystalline  base  (1411).  In  some  speci- 
mens, the  matrix  is  the  predominant  portion;  in  others,  the 
larger  fragments  of  crystals,  evidently  derived  from  a  shattered 
dolerite  and  quartz-keratophyre,  form  the  dominant  feature  of 
the  rock.  With  such  large  fragments  of  single  crystals  may  be 
associated  chips  broken  from  a  minutely  trachytic  keratophyre 
(1406),  such  as  are  so  abundant  in  the  keratophyre-breccias  of 
Pipeclay  Creek  (5,  pp.  15 1-156). 

In  places,  the  keratophyre  becomes  enriched  in  magnetite,  and 
a  dark  magnetite-keratophyre  occurs  by  the  jasper  in  Portion 
35,  as  noted  above,  and  in  the  south  of  Portion  37.  The  best 
examples  of  magnetite-keratophyre,  however,  are  to  be  found  in 


BY  W.   N.   BKNSON.  345 

a  small  complex,  half  a  mile  south  of  the  south-eastern  corner  of 
Portion  37,  on  the  head  of  Bog  Hole  Gully,  in  which  are  ex- 
hibited many  of  the  features  noted  in  the  Hyde's  Creek  complex 
(5,  pp.  133-4).  The  keratophyre  varies  from  a  purely  felspathic 
type  to  a  type  irregularly  blotched  with  areas  enriched  in  mag- 
netite, in  a  matrix  of  evenly  coloured  rock.  There  is  also  a 
mass  of  more  or  less  homogeneous  magnetite-keratophyre,  which 
is,  however,  rather  slaggy  or  vesicular,  the  openings  being  filled 
with  calcite  (see  p. 373).  The  margin  of  this  irregular  group  of 
intrusions  is  strongly  jasperised,  and  the  jaspers  contain  irregu- 
larly distributed  masses  of  haematite.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  here  also  the  ferruginous  jasper  has  been  developed  by 
solutions  emanating  from  the  keratophyre. 

Towards  the  southern  end  of  the  zone  of  keratophyre,  where 
it  is  sharply  cut  oflf  by  a  fault,  the  rock  becomes  much  brecciated, 
and  peculiar  spherulitic  masses  are  developed,  which,  when 
microscopically  examined,  prove  to  result  from  intense  secondary 
silicification  {see  pp. 374-375).  The  rock  is  traversed  by  numer- 
ous veins  of  quartz,  and,  in  optical  continuity  with  the  grains  in 
these  veins,  there  are  roughly  circular  areas  in  which  quartz  has 
entirely  replaced  the  minutely  granular  groundmass  of  the  rock, 
and  forms  a  matrix  in  which  lie  embedded  the  more  or  less 
idiomorphic  felspar-laths.  Each  of  these  areas  weathers  out  like 
a  spherule. 

►Some  long  strips  of  highly  silicified  claystones  are  enveloped 
in  this  mass. 

71ie  ly  neons  Hocks  of  the  Western  Series. 
1 .  The  Pyroclastic  Ptocks. 
The  Igneous  Zone.  —  One  of  the  most  continuous  and  strati- 
graphically  useful  lithological  horizons  in  the  Tamworth  Dis- 
trict is  the  Igneous  Zone,  which  there  lies  about  800-1,600 
feet  above  the  horizon  of  the  Nemingha  limestone.  This 
is  not  a  definite  horizon,  but  merely  a  lithological  zone  in 
which  pyroclastic  rocks  were  constantly  present,  and  were  often 
associated  with  intrusive  rocks.  This  zone  is  not  so  clearly 
marked  in  tlie  Loomberah  District,  but  seems  to  be  here  repre- 


34G  ORKAT  SKKPKN'I'INE  BELT  OF   NKW  SOUTH  WALKS,  vii.. 

sented  b}^  a  fairly  continuous  band  of  pyroclastic  rocks,  which 
lies  a  short  distance  below  the  Loomberah  limestone.  Sills  of 
dolerite  do  not  occur  in  this,  but  lie  a  short  distance  below  it 
as.  for  instance,  in  Portion  61,  Loomberah  (here  the  felspar  is  a 
labradorite  with  a  marginal  zone  of  oligoclase),  and  in  Portions 
59,  58,  24,  and  35,  in  which  also  the  felspars  are  free  from  albi- 
tisation.  The  tuffs,  however,  are  more  continuous  than  the  in- 
trusive rock,  and  may  be  traced  right  through  into  the  Nundle 
region . 

The  Nemingha  lied  Breccia. —  A  second  igneous  zone  occurs  in 
the  Loomberah  District,  which  is  of  more  distinctive  nature  and 
stratigraphical  value  than  the  one  last  noted.  It  is  in  close 
association  with  the  Nemingha  limestone,  and  may  be  termed 
the  Nemingha  Red  Breccia,  It  is  especially  marked  by  the 
presence  of  a  deep  red  colour.  The  breccia  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed has  evidently  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  solutions 
rich  in  iron,  soda,  and  carbonates,  which  have  introduced  much 
magnetite  and  htematite  into  the  rock-fragments,  and  converted 
their  felspars  into  albite  and  carbonates.  The  zone  appears  first 
well  developed  in  Portion  58  (Mr.  Carter's  property),  tlie  breccia 
lying  along  the  western  side  of  each  band  of  limestone  {see  p. 330). 

It  occurs  again  in  the  western  corner  of  Portion  55  near  the 
Jasper  Knob,  and  traces  of  it  are  seen  in  the  fields  south  of 
here.  It  does  not  form  a  definite  band,  however,  until  Portion 
32  is  reached,  and  there  it  is  marked  by  a  mass  of  porphyritic 
dolerite.  From  this  point,  it  extends  to  the  south,  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  limestone,  which  at  first  lies  on  the  east  side 
only,  but,  nearer  Black  Jack,  appears  also  west  of  a  band  of  red 
breccias  five  hundred  yards  in  width.  Half  a  mile  north  of 
Black  Jack,  the  limestone  and  breccia-zone  is  thrown  nearly  half 
a  mile  to  the  east  and  its  width  is  nearly  doubled,  but  a  second 
fault  crossing  the  northern  face  of  the  mountain  while  moving  the 
centre  of  the  band  of  breccia  about  a  hundred  yards  further  to 
the  east,  causes  it  to  return  to  a  width  of  approximately  three 
hundred  yards.  It  is  here  greatly  broken,  and  numerous  masses 
of  Nemingha  limestone  occur  in  it.  The  same  horizon  has  been 
traced  across  Cope's  Creek,  and   as  far  as  Silver  Gully.     Here, 


BY  W.  N.  BENSON.  347 

the  quartz-keratophyre  breccia,  associated  with  the  limestone, 
described  and  figured  in  a  previous  paper  (5,  p.  137),  belongs  to 
this  horizon.  In  the  southernmost  extension  of  the  zone,  the 
strong  impregnation  of  the  rock  by  ferruginous  solutions,  and 
its  consequent  red  colour,  are  not  always  present. 

We  find  in  this  another  zone,  which  can  be  traced  all  through 
the  Loomberah  District,  and  into  the  Nundle  District.  It  is 
also  seen,  in  all  probability,  in  the  Tam^\'orth  District.  The 
masses  of  red,  ferruginous  breccia  associated  with  the  southern- 
most masses  of  the  Nemingha  limestone  in  the  south-east  of  the 
Tamworth  Region,  doubtless  belong  to  this  zone,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty  to  determine  how  much  of  the  pyro- 
clastic  rocks  on  East  and  West  Gap  Hills  in  that  parish  rightly 
belong  to  the  Nemingha  Red  Breccias  or  to  the  Igneous  Zone. 

The  Silver  Gully  Agglomerate. — A  short  distance  westward  of 
this  zone,  commencing  at  Black  Jack,  is  a  second  mass  of  coarse 
breccia  associated  with  limestone,  which,  however,  is  nearly 
always  in  the  form  of  small  fragments  except  on  Black  Jack 
itself.  This  may  be  traced  southwards  across  Cope's  Creek,  and 
obtains  a  great  width  in  Silver  Gully.  A  small  lenticle  of  lime- 
stone appears  on  the  slope  to  the  north  of  this  creek.  It  is 
apparently  heavily  faulted  near  this  creek.  Beyond  Silver 
Gully,  it  continues  as  a  narrowing  band  containing  small  lenti- 
cular patches  of  limestone,  but  is  cut  off  by  a  fault  before  reach- 
ing Hyde's  Creek. 

Though  the  limestones  on  this  zone  are  of  the  Nemingha-type, 
though  in  small  lenses,  the  lithology  of  the  breccias,  the  occur- 
rence of  fragments  of  coarse  dolerite,  etc.,  and  the  absence  of 
red  colouring,  are  features  so  distinct  fiom  those  of  the  Nemingha 
Red  Breccias,  that  the  two  masses  cannot  be  considered  to  be 
on  the  one  horizon.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  Silver 
Gully  Agglomerate  is  a  third  horizon  of  pyroclastic  rocks,  inter- 
mediate in  position  between  the  Igneous  Zone  and  the  Nemingha 
Red  Breccias. 

This  intermediate  horizon  appears  to  be  repeated  on  the 
hills  west  of  Wallaby  Mountain.  It  commences  immediately 
south  of  the  fault  which  truncates  the  keratophyre,  and  here  is 


348  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  and  includes  a  band  of  a  peculiar  por- 
phyrite  (see  p. 369,  specimen  1435).  In  lithological  character, 
the  agglomerate  is  very  like  that  in  the  band  described  last.  It 
may  be  traced  continuously  to  the  south,  becoming  narrower  all 
the  way,  until  it  dies  out  near  the  Pipeclay  Gully. 

Massive  Igneous  JRocks. 

The  Keratophyres. —The  most  striking  feature  of  the  massive 
igneous  rocks  is  the  occurrence  of  a  second  long  zone  of  kerato- 
phyres  extending  from  near  the  northern  end  of  the  map  to  the 
southern.  The  northernmost  occurrence  in  this  zone  appears  to 
be  the  few  small  sills  at  the  head  of  Oakey  Creek,  in  the  Parish 
of  Nemingha;  but,  further  south,  there  is  the  keratophyre- 
complex  by  Macllveen's,  which  clearly  belongs  to  the  zone  here 
discussed.  It  has  been  already  described (6,  pp.57 1-3).  South 
of  the  Peel  River,  keratophyre  appears  again  in  Portion  55, 
Loomberah,  where  there  is  a  very  inconspicuous  outcrop  of  vesi- 
cular, magnetite-bearing  keratophyre  to  the  M'est  of  Sandy  Creek. 
Beside  it,  there  rises  Jasper  Knob,  a  huge  mass  of  jasper,  some- 
times almost  saccharoidal  or  miarolitic,  with  chalcedonic  quartz 
and  finely  divided  platey  haematite,  not  at  all  smooth  and  uniform 
like  the  jaspers  of  the  Eastern  Series.  The  hill  is  about  200 
yards  long  and  over  100  yards  in  width,  and  is  crowned  by  great 
crags  of  jasper  rising  about  150  feet  above  the  creek.  To  the 
north  and  south,  the  country-rock  is  more  or  less  jasperised 
claystone.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  presence  of  the 
jasper  is  due  to  the  impregnation  or  replacement  of  the  claystone 
by  ferruginous  solutions  emanating  from  the  keratophyre,  just  as 
was  shown  in  earlier  papers  {e.g.,  5,  pp.  133-4,  137,  164;  6,  p. 57 2). 
There  is,  however,  a  remarkable  disproportion  between  the  size 
of  the  mass  of  jasper  and  the  small  amount  of  visible  keratophyre. 

Passing  to  the  south,  no  more  keratophyre  belonging  to  this 
zone  appears  for  a  distance  of  about  four  miles.  Then  it  is  seen 
forming  the  low  ridge  in  the  east  of  Portion  31,  the  red  breccias 
and  Nemingha  limestone  occurring  along  its  western  margin. 
It  is  here  a  porphyritic  rock,  with  large  phenocrysts  of  acid 
oligoclase  in  a  finely  trachytic  base,  in  which  a  little  quartz  is 


BY  W.   N.   BENSON.  349 

present.  From  this  point,  it  may  be  traced  across  Reedy  Creek 
to  the  point  where  it  is  cut  off  by  the  important  cross-fault  men- 
tioned below  (.sec  p. 351).  This  portion  of  the  zone  includes  a 
very  unusual  fades  of  keratophyre,  namely,  an  aphanitic  rock 
with  a  semi-perlitic  fracture.  Microscopical  examination  proves 
that  this  is  a  minutely  crystalline  variolite(si?e  1405,  p. 369). 

The  zone  is  then  thrown  to  the  east,  about  600  yards,  by  the 
above-mentioned  fault,  but,  a  short  distance  further  to  the  south, 
it  has  been  thrown  back  to  the  west,  and  continues  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Nemingha  limestone  across  Cope's  Creek. 
In  this  portion  east  of  Black  Jack,  it  is  not  entirely  uniform, 
some  portions  being  rather  less  acid  than  others  (see,  e.g.,  the 
description  of  1383,  p.370). 

The  keratophyre  continues  south  of  Cope's  Creek,  its  intrusive 
nature  being  rendered  clear  by  the  large  block  of  limestone  600 
yards  south  of  the  creek,  which  has  been  torn  off  from  the 
Nemingha  horizon  and  enveloped  by  it.  It  may  be  traced  from 
this  point  down  to  Pipeclay  Creek,  where  it  is  extremely  sili- 
ceous, and  thence  to  Silver  Gully.  The  features  of  this  region 
have  already  been  briefly  described  (5,  pp.137  and  154-5).  Of 
particular  interest  in  this  southern  extremity  of  the  keratophyre 
zone  is  the  occurrence  of  the  Silver  Gully  keratophyre-complex 
(jaspers,  magnetite-keratophyre,  etc.)  which  is  intrusive  into 
the  limestone.  The  brecciation  of  the  keratophyre,  and  its  pas- 
sage into  what  seem  to  be  breccias  connected  with  the  Nemingha 
Red  Breccias,  are  subjects  well  worthy  of  detailed  study,  which 
the  writer,  by  his  removal  from  Australia,  is  unfortunately  pre- 
vented from  making. 

The  Dolerites. 

Three  separate  types  of  dolerite  occur  within  this  area, 
grouped  into  three  intermittent  lines  of  intrusion.  They  may 
be  termed —  reading  from  north  to  south — the  Hypersthene-,  the 
Porphyritic,  and  the  Albitic  Dolerite. 

The  Hypersthe7ie-Dolerite.  — Thin  belt  of  dolerites  has  been 
already  mentioned  as  lying  a  short  distance  below  the  Igneous 
Zone.     Its  northernmost  occurrence  is  by  the  river-bank  in  Por- 

25 


350  GREAT  SERPKNTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

tion  61,  whence  it  may  be  traced  througli  Portions  59,  58,  and 
57.  The  largest  mass  lies  nearly  three  miles  further  to  the 
south,  namely,  in  Portions  24  and  35.  This  is  an  almost  granit- 
oid rock  characterised  by  the  presence  of  strongly  zoned  plagio- 
clase,  chiefly  labradorite,  and  hypersthene  in  association  with 
augite  and  ilmenite.  An  analysis  of  this  rock,  1387,  is  given 
below  (p.368). 

It  is  not  clear  whether  any  of  the  dolerites  further  to  the 
south,  such  as  that  in  Portion  37,  should  belong  to  this  group, 
though  they  were  originally  possessed  of  basic  felspar,  now  partly 
changed  to  albite  and  prehnite. 

The  Porphy7'itic  Dolerite  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
Nemingha  Red  Breccias,  and,  therefore,  has  invaded  a  somewhat 
lower  horizon  than  the  hypersthene-dolerite.  It  appears  in 
typical  form,  east  of  the  limestone  in  Portion  59,  as  a  handsome, 
dark  green  rock  (1407).  It  has  pale  green  phenocrysts  of  acid 
labradorite  and  dark  chloritised  augite,  while  the  peculiar  spongy 
fabric  of  the  base  suggests  a  relationship  to  the  keratophyres. 
A  much  larger  mass  occurs  in  Portion  32.  This  occurs  intrusive 
into  the  Nemingha  Red  Breccia.  In  between  these  two  masses, 
the  large  and  small  fragments  of  porphyritic  rocks  in  the 
Nemingha  Red  Breccia  have  features  strongly  suggestive  of  close 
association  with,  if  not  original  membership  of  this  group  of 
intrusions.  The  ferruginous,  albitising  solutions  have,  however, 
strongly  attacked  the  rocks,  changing  pyroxenes  into  iron-ores 
and  carbonates,  while  plagioclases,  originally  basic,  have  passed 
into  albite  and  carbonates.  These  have  thus  become  kerato- 
phyres through  the  alteration  of  dolerite-porphyrites,  a  process 
analogous  to  that  described  by  Neithammer(18)  and  E.  B.  Bailey 
(19),  and  they  are  associated  with  fragments  of  normal  trachytic 
keratophyres,  more  or  less  impregnated  with  ferruginous  solutions. 

It  is  possible  that  these  porphyrites  may  be  connected  with 
the  porphyritic  spilites  on  East  Gap  Hill,  in  the  Parish  of 
Nemingha(6,  pp. 596-8).  The  latter  pass  without  break  into  a 
red  breccia  identical  in  all  respects  with  the  Nemingha  Red 
Breccia.  The  porphyritic  rocks  are  not,  however,  identical.  The 
East  Gap  Hill  rock  has  suffered  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  from 


BT  W.  N.   BENSON.  351 

metamorphosing  solutions,  which  have  replaced  the  basic  felspar 
by  albite  and  minutely  granular  quartz-mozaic. 

This  correlation  would  involve  some  alteration  in  the  details 
of  the  tectonics  and  stratigraphy  assumed  previously  for  the 
neighbourhood  of  East  and  West  Gap  Hills  (see  below). 

7%e  Albite- Dolerite. — This  zone  commences  to  the  west  of  the 
keratophyre  in  Portion  37,  and  occurs  first  in  a  series  of  small 
isolated  lenses  running  south-east  until  the  first  great  cross-fault 
is  reached.  No  more  appears  for  half  a  mile  to  the  south  of 
this,  but,  beyond  the  second  cross-fault,  a  large  sill  appears,  and 
continues  thence  without  a  break  across  Cope's  Creek  to  Pipeclay 
Creek,  a  distance  of  over  two  miles.  The  sill  is  nearly  200  yards 
in  width,  and  its  dip  is  approximately  vertical.  At  its  southern 
end,  the  dolerite  is  faulted  against  the  eastern  mass  of  the  Silver 
Gully  agglomerate,  and  a  great  ridge  of  coarsely  crystalline, 
ferruginous  jasper  has  developed  in  the  plane  of  movement.  (The 
appearance  of  this  ridge  would  lead  one  to  expect  that  a  little 
ferruginous  keratophyre  would  be  found  along  its  western  face. 
Time  has  not  permitted  the  writer  to  search  for  this). 

Petrologically,  this  zone  is  rather  varied;  a  specimen  taken 
from  the  northern  portion  shows  a  mixture  of  sub-ophitic  and 
sub-variolitic  textures,  with  clear  albite,  and  augite  (1378);  but 
west  of  Black  Jack,  in  the  main  zone  of  rock,  a  dolerite  occurs 
(1376),  the  albite  of  which  is  very  dusty  and  associated  with 
prehnite,  and  has  evidently  been  derived  from  a  more  basic 
felspar,  with  associated  alteration  of  the  augites  to  chlorite. 

This  zone  of  dolerite,  lying  as  it  does  between  the  Serpentine 
Line  and  the  Nemingha  Limestone,  is  probably  to  be  correlated 
with  the  dolerites  that  extend  from  the  mouth  of  Sheep  Station 
Creek  (three  miles  south-east  of  Pipeclay  Creek)  to  beyond 
Hanging  Rock  {see  3,  Plate  xxi.).  We  may  also  consider  that  it 
finds  a  repetition  in  the  zone  of  dolerites  and  spilites  that  lie 
west  of  the  Nemingha  Limestone,  and  extend  from  near  Bowlino- 
Alley  Point  across  Moonlight  Hill  and  Tom  Tiger  into  Swamp 
Creek.  In  these,  many  examples  of  the  sub-ophitic  to  sub- 
variolitic  albite-dolerites  have  been  observed  (5,  PI.  xxv.,  fig. 2). 


352  GREAT  SERPKNTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 


Summary  op  Devonian  Sthatigraphical  Succession. 

Before  attempting  to  draw  up  an  amended  columnar  section 

(Text-fig.  1 ;  see  also  6,  p. 549),  we  must  point  out  the  uncertainty 

of  some  of  the  data  upon  which  it  is  based.     Owing  to  the  rarity 

of  exposures  showing  the  angle  of  dip,  reliance  must  be  based 


TufF    Qnd 
MudsJ'one 

wil'h  Radiolar'ia 

OcruD    Mounlri 
Conclome''ahe  t 

"inl'o    C\uv)b^o•^e 

Loornberoli 
Uini«rsl"one 


Cfierr^  Radio-   i 

larian   flay^rooe ) 
Dolenfe ■ 

I  anon  C/ayslron 

KeratoV>h:<re  — > 

Cher/y   Radio 
I  a  nan  Clays  Tone 


Text-fig.  1. 
Generalised  cokunnar  section  of  the  Devonian  rocks  of  the  Loomberah 

District. 

upon  the  correlation  of  certain  leading  zones  with  other  zones, 
the  horizons  of  which  have  been  determined  in  the  Tamworth 
District.  This  correlation  is  often  lithologieal  only,  and  the 
zones  compared  are  sometimes  pyroclastic  accumulations,  which 
may  vary  greatly  when    traced   in  a  lateral   direction,  or  may 


BV  \v.  N.  6E*rsoN.  553 

completely  disappear,  or  they  may  even  be  sills,  which,  in  addi- 
tion, may  transgress  from  one  horizon  to  another,  while  the 
presence  of  an  indeterminable  amount  of  strike-faulting  permits 
frequent  repetition  or  complete  disappearance  of  some  beds. 
Hence  detailed  accuracy  is  impossible.  One  must  either  leave 
the  succession  a  chaos,  or  attempt  to  piece  together  the  isolated 
fragments  of  evidence,  making  as  few  and  as  reasonable  assump- 
tions as  possible.      The  latter  course  appears  preferable. 

If  reference  be  made  to  the  earlier  columnar  section  (loc.  cit., 
supra),  the  lowest  portion  of  phyllites,  jaspers,  etc.,  may  fairly 
be  correlated  with  such  rocks  in  the  Eastern  Series  as  are  not 
comparable  with  Western  types.  They  are  separated  from  the 
Neraingha  Limestone  by  the  intrusive  mass  of  the  eastern  kerato- 
phyre,  a  great  irregular  sill,  and  an  unknown  width  of  transi- 
tional rocks.  There  is  possibly  a  fault  west  of  this,  causing  the 
disappearance  of  all  but  the  small  mass  of  the  Nemingha  Lime- 
stone in  Portion  52,  which  itself  would  then  be  a  repetition  of  a 
portion  of  the  main  zone  of  the  Nemingha  Limestone.  Beneath 
this  main  zone,  there  is  also  keratophyre  closely  similar  to  that 
to  the  east  of  it,  and  tentatively  correlated  therewith.  The 
jSTemingha  Red  Breccia  reaches  its  maximum  thickness  near 
Black  Jack,  and  is  possibly  there  near  the  point  of  its  eruption. 
The  Nemingha  Limestone  is  not  confined  to  one  horizon  only, 
such  as  the  base  of  the  Red  Breccia,  but  may  occur  in  large 
lenses  at  various  levels  within  this  breccia,  though  since  the 
breccia  must  have  been  rapidly  formed,  all  such  lenses  of  lime- 
stone arc  practically  coeval  ((/.  6,  p. 575).  The  depth  of  the  sea 
during  the  deposition  of  these  limestones  must  have  been  con- 
siderable to  permit  of  the  rapid  accumulation  of  such  a  thickness 
of  breccia,  though  Mr.  Chapman's  remarks  suggest  (see  p. 390) 
that  this  locally  may  have  risen  above  sea-level  and  permitted  the 
foriiiation  of  oolitic  limestone.  Such  local  production  of  islands 
of  pyroclastic  material  was  shown  to  be  probable  in  the  Tam- 
worth  District.  The  intrusion  of  the  porphyritic  dolerite  seems 
to  have  been  closely  connected  with  the  formation  of  the 
Nemingha  Breccias. 

'J'he  deposition  of  radiolarian  cherts  and  claystones  followed 


354  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  Vli., 

but  was  shortly  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of  the  volcanic 
action  which  formed  the  Silver  Gully  Agglomerate  extending 
from  Black  Jack  to  Hyde's  Creek,  the  centre  of  eruption 
being  probably  near  the  southern  margin  of  the  map  herewith 
(Plate  xxxii.). 

Further  radiolarian  sedimentation  followed,  with  minor 
volcanic  outbreaks,  until  the  more  extensive  eruptions  occurred 
which  liave  produced  the  pyroclastic  rocks  of  the  Igneous  Zone, 
which  are  not  as  thick  in  the  region  under  discussion  as  they 
are  in  the  districts  to  the  north  and  to  the  south.  Associated, 
apparently,  with  this  eruption  was  the  intrusion  of  several 
dolerite-sills  lying  below  the  horizon  of  the  pyroclastic  rocks  of 
the  Igneous  Zone.  The  sills  exposed  within  the  Loomberah 
Parish  are  of  normal  composition,  that  to  the  south  of  Loomberah 
being  albitic.  Whether  the  keratophyres  below  the  Nemingha 
Limestone  were  injected  at  this  period  or  not,  cannot  be  deter- 
mined at  present;  they  were  evidently  formed  under  a  consider- 
able cover  of  sediment.  All  the  tuffs  contain  fragments  of  coarse- 
and  fine-grained  keratophyric  material  (but  not  fragments  of 
ferruginous  jasper). 

Radiolarian  sedimentation  ensued  once  more,  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  Loomberah  Limestone  followed,  the  limestone  rising 
in  places  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  so  that  it  has  distinctly 
the  features  of  a  littoral  formation.  Nevertheless,  the  radio- 
larian mudstones  above  and  below  it  are  quite  of  the  normal 
tvpe,  the  former  containing  abundant  small  intrusions  of  acid 
tuff 

Following  the  deposition  of  the  Loomberah  Limestone  is  a 
series  of  radiolarian  claystones  and  tuff.  The  most  important 
centre  of  eruption  was  near  the  head  of  Cope's  Creek,  the  bands 
dving  away  rapidly  to  the  north,  but  continuing  some  distance 
to  the  south.  A  less  important  centre  of  eruption  lay  near  the 
north-western  end  of  the  area  mapped,  in  Calala  Parish.  Above 
these  agglomerates,  the  radiolarian  clayslone  gives  place  to  a 
radiolarian  mudstone,  softer,  and  not  quite  so  finely  granular  as  the 
former  rock.  No  sign  of  the  Moore  Creek  Limestone  is  present, 
though  it  might  be  expected  near  this  region  of  change  in  char- 


feV  W.  N.   BEMSON.  355 

acter  of  sediment.  In  this  series  occurs  the  zone  of  the  Scrub 
Mountain  Conglomerate,  which,  commencing  in  the  south-west 
of  Loomberah  Parish,  may  be  traced  to  beyond  Nundle.  There 
is  at  present  no  evidence  to  show  the  change  in  geographic  con- 
dition which  led  to  the  development  of  this  formation,  but  the 
suggestion  has  been  made  above(p.341)  that  it  represents  a  con- 
glomerate laid  down  by  a  sea  transgressing  over  a  region  which 
has  been  upwarped  during  the  eruption  of  the  immense  masses 
of  pyroclastic  material  forming  the  Baldwin  Agglomerates,  which 
extend  intermittently  from  Tamwoj-th  to  Bingara.  If  this  be  so, 
the  Scrub  Mountain  Conglomerate  is  approximately  coeval  with 
that  outbreak. 

No  angular  or  lithological  unconformity,  however,  has  been 
recognised  between  the  mudstones  above  and  below  that  con- 
glomerate. The  mudstones  above  this  region  (which,  if  the  pre- 
sumed stratigraphic  position  of  the  conglomerate  is  correct, 
belong  to  the  Barraba  Series)  are  exactly  like  those  below.  They 
contain  the  Pyramid  Hill  tuffs,  the  centre  of  eruption  of  which 
was  near  the  Pyramid  Hill  Range,  for  they  die  out  to  the  north- 
west and  also  to  the  south-east,  as  is  indicated  by  the  topograjDhy 
of  the  regions  beyond  the  area  mapped.  Higher  beds  than  this 
have  not  been  tiaced  in  this  region. 

'I'lic  fSerpenliiie^^  etc. 
The  band  of  serpentine  in  the  south-eastern  c(n-ner  of  the  map 
of  the  Tam worth  district,  continues  for  nearly  a  mile  till,  near  the 
iiuiin  road  in  Portion  83,  Nemingha  (behind  Mr.  White's  resi- 
dence), it  is  sharply  cut  off  by  a  small  fault,  which  lias  displaced 
the  eastern  series  a  distance  of  about  100  yards  to  the  north-west. 
The  serpentines  of  the  above  band  ai-e  of  varying  width,  and 
largely  schistose,  and  do  not  show  an^^  relief.  A  notew^orthy 
feature  is  the  occurrence  in  the  serpentine,  in  Portion  105,  of  a 
very  coarse  pegmatitic  mass  of  albite  and  quartz,  which  has 
been  shattered  and  seamed  with  further  veins  of  quartz. 
Similar  albitic  veins  occur  elsewhere  in  the  serpentine  (4,  pp.69 1- 
2).  South  of  the  above-mentioned  fault,  no  continuous  zone 
of   serpentine  is  met  with.      A  small  lenticle,  about  60  yards  in 


356  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  Ot   NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

length  appears  in  Portion  54,  Loomberali,  and  then  no  sign  of 
serpentine  until  Portion  39.  Here,  nearly  six  miles  from  the 
last  occurrence,  the  serpentine  is  found  in  intimate  relation 
with  a  mass  of  vesicular  spilite.  A  single  band  of  spilite  has 
apparently  been  broken  by  oblique  faults,  and,  into  these, 
peridotite  has  been  injected.  The  northernmost  patch  appears 
actually  to  invade  the  spilite,  but  the  rubbly  nature  of  the  ex- 
posure renders  this  uncertain.  The  masses  of  serpentine  to  the 
south  have  been  thrust  between  the  fragments  of  the  sheared  mass 
of  spilite,  and,  beyond  these,  .serpentine  occurs  here  and  there  in 
the  line  of  shearing  passing  southwards  up  a  small  gully.  Again 
there  is  a  gap  of  two  miles  free  from  serpentine.  It  then  appears 
south  of  Cope's  Creek,  as  a  narrow  zone,  widening  to  the  south, 
extending  through  a  small  saddle  into  the  watershed  of  Pipeclay 
Creek.  This  mass  of  serpentine  contains  abundant  intrusions  of 
dolerite,  of  the  type  frequently  present  in  such  association,  already 
described  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Bowling  Alle3^  Point,  and 
Moonbi(5,  pp.156-7;  6,  pp.  6 15-6), 

No  further  serpentine  is  seen  till  on  tlic  soutbern  side  of  the  Hat 
t>l)ening  at  the  mouth  of  Hyde's  Creek,  when  a  small  patch  appears 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Peel  River  in  Portion  9,  Parish  of  Dun- 
gowan,  and  is  continued  south  of  the  river  for  a  couple  of  hundred 
yards,  until  it  is  cut  off  by  the  southern  boundary -fault  of  this 
ancient  senkungsfeld-area  (see  below,  p.  360).  Its  further 
development  commences  in  8heep  ^Station  Creek  a  mile  east  of 
here,  and  continues  to  Hanging  Rock,  as  already  described  (3, 
pp.  582-5). 

Gratioithjire. 

A  single  narrow  \ein  of  creamy-white  granophyre  occurs  in 
Portion  35,  and  is,  perhaps,  to  be  correlated  with  the  veins  of 
granophyre  and  porphyry  associated  with  the  gi-anite  in  the 
Nundle  District,  though  the  neare^^t  known  occurrence  of  this  is  ten 
miles  away.  It  consists  of  fairly  idiomorphic  but  very  kaolinised 
plagioclase,  zoned  but  appai*ently  acid  in  the  main.  These  form 
prisms  0-8  x  O'l  mm.  in  cross-section,  with  interstitial  quartz 
and    sometimes    granophyric    intergrowth.      Small,    brown-green 


BV  \\.  N.  BENSON.  357 

prisms  of  hornblende  alsu  occur,   with  fibrous  extensions,  and 
rarely  large  grains  of  magnetite. 

The  Penno-Curbonij'crous  Sandstones. 
Nothing  need  be  added  to  what  has  already  been  published  con- 
cerning these  rocks  (3,  pp. 586-7)  save  in  regard  to  their  relation 
to  the  faulting,  which  is  discussed  in  a  later  section  (p.  360). 

Tertiary  Basalt. 

The  occurrence  of  the  Tertiary  basalt  is  confined  to  a  few  locali- 
ties. It  is  found  only  in  necks  and  dykes.  The  largest  neck  is»  the 
mass  of  Black  Jack  itself,  a  roughly  circular  area  of  basalt  in 
which  a  thickness  of  about  300  feet  of  this  rock  are  exposed. 
There  is  absolutely  no  sign  of  underlying  gravels,  and  the  varying 
height  of  the  lower  limit  of  the  exposed  basalt  seems  to  depend  on 
the  relation  of  the  surface-topography  to  the  margin  of  a  vertical 
column  of  rock.  Half  a  mile  to  the  north  is  another  small  plug  of 
basalt  cutting  through  tlie  limestones.  This  is  only  100  yards  in 
diameter.  A  third  occurs  near  the  mouth  of  Hyde's  Creek  (5, 
p.  172). 

Finally,  a  small  dyke  of  basalt  has  been  noted  near  the  head  of 
Reedy  Creek,  running  in  a  direction  parallel  1o  tlie  trend  of  the 
dip-faults.  These  are  (piite  normal  olivine-basalts,  ccjiicerning 
which  no  special  petrological  features  are  Avorthy  of  record. 

Becettt  Drift  and  Allaviam. 

These  terms  are  employed  in  the  same  sense  as  before  (6, 
l)p.  590-51)2).  The  greatest  accunudation  of  drift  is  in  the  large 
Hat  near  the  head  of  Reetly  Creek,  a  topograpliic  feature  Avhose 
significance  is  not  quite  clear.  The  alluvium  of  the  flood-plain  of 
the  main  river  includes  about  eleven  feet  of  loam  lying  above 
gravel,  which,  in  the  single  test  known  to  the  writer,  reached  a 
thickness  of  thirty  feet.  The  thickness  of  tlie  upper  stratum  of 
loam  is  subject  to  rapid  variation.  ;Mr.  R.  H.  Dowe  informed  the 
Avriter  that  in  Portion  59,  a  fence  four  feet  in  height  was  com- 
pletely covered  in  twenty-five  years,  while  nearby,  in  the  hole  left 
by  a  tree  which  had  burnt  down  to  the  roots,  it  was  obvious  that 


358  GREAT  SERPE?JTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

the  lloo'l-plain  level  had  risen  at  least  eight  i'eet  durnig  the  life  ot 
that  tree. 

Foldinu  and  FaidtiiKj. 

A\  e  are  iiu\n  in  a  position  to  smnniarise  the  teetonic  struetuie 
of  the  district,  as  deduced  from  the  assumptions  made  in  our 
stratigraphical  correlations.  The  most  ob\ious  fact  is  a  general 
close  folding-  along  an  axis  ruiniing  in  a  direction  averaging  N.  22*^ 
W.-8.  22^  E.  (magnetic).  The  folding  force  came  from  the  east, 
and  the  eastern  side  is  most  affected.  There  is  a  median  zone  of 
great  crushing  into  which  the  serpentine.s  have  been  injected,  and 
a  western  zone  with  a  dip  at  first  nearly  vertical  though  predomi- 
nantly Avesterly,  decreasing  in  amount  as  we  pass  in  that  direction. 

East  of  this  Serpentine  Line,  however,  the  strike  N.22"W.  is  by 
no  means  universal,  but  a  more  nearly  meridional  strike  is  quite 
common,  as  shown  by  the  calcareous  breccia  on  the  i^outh-west  of 
Wallab}^  Mt.,  which  runs  obliquely  to  the  Serpentine  Line,  or  by 
the  tuffs,  etc.,  outcropping  by  the  roadside  in  Portion  43,  or  l)y 
the  northern  end  of  the  serpentine  mass  in  Cope's  Creek.  This 
recalls  the  virgatioii  of  strike  in  the  Parish  of  Nemingha  (6,  map), 
or  that  in  the  region  of  Mundowey  on  the  Namoi(2  or  7,  map). 
But  superposed  upon  this  oblique  strike  is  the  regional  strike 
shown  in  the  great  lines  of  shear  in  wliich  are  developed  the  red 
jaspers,  such  as  those  that  form  tlie  cliffs  of  AVallaby  ]Mt.,  and 
extend  to  the  mouth  of  Cope's  Creek. 

AVe  concluded  that  the  eastern  mass  of  keratophyre,  in  the  zone 
west  of  the  Serpentine  Line,  may  have  a  fault  along  its  western 
margin  concealhig  the  limestones,  for  the  -most  part.  Another 
])]-()l)ably  occurs  along  the  east  side  of  the  western  keratophyre. 
Between  these,  the  chert  dips  E.  SS'^X.  at  85°  in  places,  and  is, 
thei-efore,  slightly  overfolded  (see  Text-fig. 2).  West  of  the 
limestone,  the  beds  dip  to  the  west,  but  there  is  doubtless  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  repetition  by  strike-faulting,  with,  occasion- 
ally, a  reversal  in  dip. 

The  Pyramid  Hill  Range  structurally  is  a  great  syncline,  cut  by 
one  or  more  strike-faults.  Tlie  analysis  of  the  probable  folding 
and  strike-faulting  thus  indicates  a  structure  comparable  witli  that 
of  the  Tamwortli   District  and  regions  further  north. 


BY  W.  N.   ftENSON. 


359 


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\ — ■ 

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Text-fijr.-i. 

Geological  section  across  the  Loombeiali  District  along  tlic  line  AI5C 

on  Plate  xxxii. 


360  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  Oi    N'EAV  SOUIH  WALES,  Vli. 

We  lia\e  now  to  consider  a  second  group  of  faults,  conceriiiiig' 
wliicli  little  lias  yet  been  mentioned.  These  run  in  a  direction 
appro.ximately  at  right  angles  to  the  main  line  of  strike.  One  is 
thus  reminded  of  8uess'  discussion  of  Haw -faults  or  "blatter  "(20), 
and  might  suggest  that  they  were  here  caused  by  the  differential 
folding  thrust  exerted  between  the  Tamworth  region,  buttressed  by 
the  Moonbi  Granite,  and  the  Xundle  region  buttressed  by  the 
Duncan's  Creek  Granite;  for,  in  those  regions,  strike-faults,  such 
as  occur  in  the  Loomberah  region,  are  not  nearly  so  .strongly 
marked  a  feature.  Against  this,  however,  is  the  absence  of  any 
dehuite  evidence  as  to  the  relative  age  of  these  faults  and  the 
granite-masses,  and  the  certainty  that  considerable  vertical,  as  well 
as  horizontal,  movement  must  have  occurred  along  the  fault-planes. 
The  dip-faults  are  clearly  3'ounger  than  the  folding  and  strike- 
faulting,  and,  though  the  evidence  is  not  yet  conclusive,  the  dis- 
placement of  the  serpentine  from  its  position  on  the  Peel  River, 
near  AVarden's  (Portion  !),  Dungowan),  to  the  mouth  of  Sheep 
Station  Creek,  half  a  mile  to  the  cast,  may  well  be  due  to  the 
marked  dip-fault  which  runs  from  Hyde's  Creek  to  the  Peel  River, 
'file  dip-faulting  then  Avould  be  later  than  the  intrusion  of  the 
ultrabasic  rock.  Furthennore,  it  was  concluded  that  the  large 
open  area  at  the  mouth  of  Hyde's  Creek  owes  its  origin  to  the 
removal,  by  the  ri\er,  of  an  ui-faulted  block  of  soft  Permo-Car- 
boniferous  rocks  among  the  harder  Devonian  beds  (3).  The 
southern  boundary  of  this  area  is  marked  by  the  above-mentioned 
dip-fault;  the  northern  boundary  is  parallel  thereto,  and,  in  all 
probability,  has  been  determined  by  a  similar  fault.  The  eastern 
and  western  limits  of  this  area  are  suthciently  nearly  parallel  to 
the  main  strike  to  suggest  that  they  were  determined,  in  some 
degree,  by  movement  along  lines  of  strike-faulting.  Hence  part  at 
least  of  the  movement  along  these  fault-planes  must  have  occuiTed 
after  the  deposition  of  the  Permo-Carboniferous  Sandstones.  This, 
however,  was  perhaps  posthumous  movement  on  fault-planes  first 
formed  during  the  late  Carboniferous  folding.  The  author's 
removal  from  the  State  has  prevented  his  completing  the  detailed 
study  of  the  faults  around  this  down -thrown  area. 

(Coiitiimtd  oil  p.-li)-'>.) 


361 


NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Mr  T.  Steel  exhibited  the  gizzard  of  a  Muscovy  duck  with  a 
lateral,  vermiform  appendage,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Mr.  Fred  Turner  exhibited  a  specimen  of  Geranium  molle 
Linn.,  a  European  annual  weed,  found  growing  in  Moore  Park, 
in  1891,  a  species  not  included  in  the  late  Dr.  Woolls'  "Plants 
Indigenous  and  Naturalised  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Sydney  " 
(1891). 

Mr.  J.  L  Froggatt  showed  specimens  of  the  common  House-fly 
(Musca  domestica  Linn.)  bred  from  maggots  collected  from  stale 
and  rotten  liver  in  which  blowfly-maggots  had  previously  fed  and 
matured,  at  Moree,  N.S.  W.;  the  first  time,  as  far  as  the  exhibitor 
could  ascertain,  that  this  species  had  been  reported  as  breeding 
in  purely  animal  matter. 

Mr.  W,  W.  Froggatt  exhibited  specimens  of  three  introduced 
beetles  of  economic  importance  —  A^iobium  domesticiim  Fourer, 
a  wood-borer,  introduced  from  Europe  in  timber,  recently  found 
damaging  floors  in  several  localities;  Rhizopertha  dominica  Fabr., 
an  Indian  beetle,  becoming  a  serious  wheat-pest  in  South  Aus- 
tralia, and  at  Sydney;  Spheno])ho7'us  striatus  Fahrs.,  a  Brazilian 
beetle,  whose  larvse  attack  the  basal  portion  of  the  stems  of 
Banana-plants  in  Southern  Queensland  and  in  the  Tweed  River 
district.  Mr.  Froggatt  also  communicated  particulars  respecting 
recent  migrations  of  mice  in  inland  districts,  and  of  small,  car- 
nivorous Marsupials  {FhascogaJe  Jiavipes  Waterh.)  which  prey  on 
them. 

Dr.  Tillyard  showed  a  specimen  of  shale  with  a  fossil  insect- 
wing,  from  the  roof  of  the  coal-seam  of  the  Sydney  Harbour 
Colliery,  described  in  a  recent  paper. 

Mr.  Fletcher  showed  a  series  of  Brachyscelid  galls  from  one 
branch  of  a  tree  of  Eucalyptus  resinifera^  some  of  which  had 
incorporated  leafy  branchlets. 


362 


ORDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

July  31st,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Miss  Hkather  fSiLERRiE,  B.Sc,  Science  Research  Scholar, 
University  of  Sydney,  was  elected  an  Ordinary  Member  of  the 
Society. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (26th  June,  1918),  amounting  to  2  Vols.,  28 
Parts  or  Nos.,  1  Bulletin,  1  Report,  and  5  Pamphlets,  received 
from  27  Societies,  etc.,  were  laid  upon  the  table. 


363 


THE  GEOLOGY  AND  PETROLOGY  OF  THE  GREAT 
SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  80UTH  WALES. 

Part  vii.   The   Geolohv   of  the  Loomberah    District  and  a 

PORTION    OF    THE    GOONOO    GOONOO    ESTATE. 

By  W.  N.  Benson,  B  A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.8.,  Professor  of  Geology 
AND  Mineralogy  in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z  ,  late 

LiNNEAN   MaCLEAY  FeLLOW  OF  THE  SOCIETY  IN  GeOLOGY. 

With  two  Pal^.ontological  Appendices  by  F,  Chapman, 
F.R.M.S.,  A.L.S.,  Palaeontologist  to  the  National 
Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Plates  xxxi.-xxxviii,,  and  five  Text-figures). 

[Continued  from  p. 360]. 

Petrolooy ...  363 

Notes  ON  THE  Loo.MKERAH  Fossils         ...         375 

Bibliography          382 

PAL.i<:oxTOLoaicAL  Appendices 385 

Petrology. 

The  only  rocks  of  ypec-ial  interest,  to  which  attention  will  be 
devoted  in  the  sequel,  are  the  massive  Devonian  Igneous  rocks.  It 
was  hoped  to  make  a  complete  study  of  the  rocks  which  occur  as 
traginents  included  in  the  coarse  Silver  Gully  Agglomerate  and 
the  Scrub  Mountain  Conglomerate,  but  the  securing  of  sufficient 
material  was  prevented  by  want  of  time.  The  attention  of  future 
investigators  is  directed  to  this  point.  Of  the  massive  rocks,  we 
find,  in  this  region,  several  types  not  elsewhere  noted  in  the 
Middle  Devonian  Series,  namely,  hypersthene-dolerite ;  porphyritic 
dolerite  with  basic  felspar;  various  types  intermediate  between 
doleriteor  spilite,  and  keratophyre;  a  semiperlitic  variolite;  and  a 
peculiar  pseudospherulitic  or  blotched,  silicified,  pyroxenic  kerato- 


364  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

phyre.  The  conclusions  previously  reached,  as  to  the  mode  of 
origin  of  mag'netite-keratophyres,  and  their  relation  to  normal 
keratophyres,  and  jaspers  are  quite  confirmed. 

Dolerites^  and  Sjnlifes  of  the  Eastern  Series  and  the  Transitional 

Zone, 
In  Portion  43,  tliere  occurs  a  very  quartzose  dolerite,  No.  1398. 
The  felspar  occurs  in  perfect  prisms  and  prismoids.  It  is  an  ande- 
sine  only  slightly  zoned  and  very  turbid.  The  augite  is  in  idiomor- 
phic  grains,  with  a  normal  optic  axial  angle.  It  is  more  or  less 
replaced  by  chlorite.  Ilmenite  forms  large  angular  grains;  and 
quartz  is  very  abundant  in  large  interstitial  grains,  and  is  never 
granophyric.  The  spilite  (1390)  which  occurs  in  Portion  36  hy 
tlie  western  boundary  of  Portion  47,  is  a  very  fine,  even-grained 

*  In  a  review  of  the  earlier  parts  of  tliis  series  of  papers,  Professor 
Johannsen  (Journ,  of  Geol.,  1917,  p,494)  writes: — "The  term  dolerite 
is  apparently  used  in  a  diflerent  sense  from  that  common  in  the  United 
States,  where  it  signifies  a  coarse-grained  basalt  containing  a  basic  plagio- 
clase.  The  writer  speaks  of  albitization  proceeding  inwards  in  the  felspar, 
by  which  he  apparently  means  that  the  sodic  rims  are  secondary.  It  would 
seem  more  probable  that  the  zonal  rims  are  primary.  The  rock  thus  ap- 
pears to  be  an  augite-andesite."  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  to  state  that 
the  albitic  rocks  indicated  are  structurally,  and  in  their  mode  of  occur- 
rence, similar  to  those  termed  albite-diabases  by  Flett  and  Dewey  (Geol. 
Mag.,  1911),  and  differ  from  them  chiefly  in  the  better  preservation  of  the 
pjTOxene.  Subsequent  research  has  shown  that  they  are  associated  with 
rocks  with  basic  plagioclase,  which  are  quite  similar  to,  sa3%  the  Devonian 
diabases  of  Germany.  The  name  dolerite  was  adopted  in  conformity  with 
Dr.  Marker's  practice  (see  Petrology  for  Students,  4th  Edition)  to  indicate 
the  original  nature  of  the  rock.  The  term  augite-andesite  might  have  been 
misleading.  The  secondary  nature  of  the  albite  was  inferred  partly  from 
comparison  with  the  analogous  rocks  studied  by  Flett  and  Dewey.  Sub- 
sequent work  led  the  writer  to  doubt  the  universality  of  the  albitisation, 
and  the  present  investigation  leaves  him  with  the  feeling  that  the  albite 
may  sometimes  be  a  primary  magmatic  crystallisation,  sometimes  the 
result  of  secondary  post-volcanic  replacement  bj"  magmatic  solutions, 
Analj'ses  show  that  such  albitisation  is  accompanied  by  an  addition  of 
soda.  In  the  case  of  analcite,  it  has  been  shown  that  these  two  stages 
merge  into  one  another,  and  it  is  suggested  that  the  same  may  hold  in 
regard  to  albite, 


BY  W.   N.   REXSON.  365 

roc-k  with  small  phenocrysts  of  augite  and  albite.  lii  ;  trueture,  it 
is  closely  comparable  with  the  usual  types  of  spilite  in  the  Eastern 
Series,  but  it  ha.s  been  ratlier  crushed.  The  highly  altered  pillowy 
spilites  and  associated  dolerites  in  Portion  56  remain  to  be  men- 
tioned. The  dolerite  (1377)  was  originally  ophitic,  and  though  the 
rock  has  been  completely  decomposed,  the  structure  has  been 
retained.  The  felspar  has  been  replaced  by  strained  (juartz  and 
chlorite,  the  latter  when  forming  a  large  area  being  generally 
spiiernlitic.  Tiie  silica  is  sometimes  ehaleedonic,  and  may  have 
narrow  margins  of  carbonate.  A  second  form  of  alteration  is  to 
calcite,  with  a  small  amount  of  I'esidual  albite.  The  augite  is 
entirely  changed  to  platey  chlorite.  A  little  magnetite  remains. 
The  spilites  forming  the  pillows  are  represented  by  Nos.  1112  and 
1 1 24.  In  these,  the  original  structure  is  more  or  less  lost,  owing  to 
the  decomposition  of  the  constituent  minerals.  Traces,  however, 
indicate  that  the  felspar  formed  prisms,  which  are  now  replaced 
eitlier  by  chlorite  (1124)  or  a  clear,  colourless,  intermediate 
material  (1112),  which  is  perhaps  a  zeolite.  The  pyroxene  w^as 
idiomorphic  (1112)  or  ophitic  (1124),  and  is  now^  changed  to 
chlorite  in  green  plates  with  splierulites,  or  associated  with  dolerites 
or  calcite.  The  formation  of  chlorite  is  accompanied  by  the 
sejiaration  of  magnetite. 

TliP  Igncoiin  Rochs   in  tlip    Tmnwoiih  Serifs. 
The  Dolerites. 

The  Dfjleritrs  icit]i  hasic  felspar  occur  in  tlie  nortliern  of  the  tw^o 
series  of  intrusions  already  described,  those  with  albite  are  in  the 
southern  intrusions.  The  freshest  example  of  the  first  group  is  a 
rock  (1387)  from  the  large  intrusions  in  Portions  24,  35.  It  has 
a  structure  intermediate  between  the  granitoid  and  subophitic. 
The  felspar  is  strongly  zoned,  tlie  main  portion  being  labradorite. 
the  margins  of  the  grains  oligoclase.  The  ferromagnesian  minerals 
are  abundant,  augite  in  sub-idiomorphic  grains  being  predominant. 
Hypersthene,  however,  occurs  in  considerable  amount  in  large, 
roughly  idiomor]ihic  grains  (upon  which  tlie  augite  is  sometimes 
moulded),  occasionally    containing  idiomorphic    plagioclase.     Tlie 

26 


366  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

hyperstbene  is  decomposing  peripherally  in  the  usual  manner. 
Biotite  occurs  in  very  small  .amount  in  minute  plates.  Titaniferous 
magnetite  is  abimdant  in  irregular  masses  moulded  to  some  extent 
upon  the  felspar  and  pyroxenes.  Apatite  forms  abundant  large 
prisms,  and  quartz  occurs  in  a  considerable  amount  in  granular 
mass  in  interstices.  A  very  complete  analysis  of  this  rock  by  Mr. 
Mingaye  is  given  below.  It  is  of  particular  interest  as  being  the 
first  instance  of  a  hypersthene-})earing  rock  observed  in  the 
Devonian  series. 

Closely  related  to  this,  but  less  ricli  in  coloured  constituents  is 
the  coarsely  granular  dolerite  in  Portion  61  (138-1).  In  this,  the 
rhombic  pyroxene  is  entirely  decomposed,  and  is  represented  by 
pseudomorphs  of  talc  and  chlorite.  Prehnite  also  occurs  as  an 
alteration-product.  The  small  ])atch  of  dolerite  east  of  tlie  kerato- 
phyre  in  Portion  37,  is  apparently  of  compound  nature,  containing 
both  normal  and  albitic  dolerites.  The  first  of  these  is  exemplified 
by  specimen  No.  1 409,  a  coarsely  granular  dolerite,  with  a  felspar 
chiefly  labradorite,  though  clear  patclies  of  oligoclase-andesine 
occur.  The  felspar  is  largely  altered  to  prehnite.  The  augite  has 
been  partly  alteied  to  form  chlorite,  and  crystals  of  magnetite  are 
present.     Quartz  and  liypersthene  are  a])sent. 

The  Alhitie  Dolerites. — Tlie  albite-dolerite  in  the  occurrence 
mentioned  above  is  a  very  dear,  fresh  rock  (No.  1378),  fine- 
grained, and  with  a  glomero-porphyi'itic  to  ophitic  fabric,  with 
small,  fui^grained,  sub-variolitic  patches.  The  felspare  give  no 
sign  of  zoning;  they  are  quite  fresh  albite-oligoclase,  and,  in  the 
variolitic  areas,  there  are  skeletal  extensions  from  the  ends  of  the 
crystals  consisting  apparently  of  albite.  The  pjn^oxene  is  often 
quite  undecomposed;  at  other  times,  it  is  replaced  by  chlorite. 
There  are  peculiar  spherulitic  aggi-egates  of  haematite  in  the  vario- 
litic portions.  Ilmenite  occurs  in  small  crystals.  Closely  related 
to  the  above  is  the  dolerite  (No.  1394)  occurring  by  the  boundary 
of  the  Peel  River  Company's  Estate,  a  mile  due  south  of  the  last 
occurrence.  Tlie  felspars,  though  albite,  are  a  little  dusty.  The 
augite-crystals  are  partly  chloritised,  forming  irregular  crystals. 


BV  W.  X.   BKXSON.  367 

These  two  rocks  clearly  belong  to  the  same  group  of  dolerites  as 
figured  in  Part  iv.,  Plate  xxv.,  fig.  2. 

The  next  mass  of  dolerite  (No.  1393),  half  a  mile  to  the  south- 
east of  the  point  of  occurrence  of  No.  1394,  is  a  rock  of  medium 
grain-size,  with  all)ite-felspar,  intei*stitial  quartz  occasionally 
granophyric,  and  augite  almost  completely  changed  to  chlorite;  a 
little  magnetite  also  is  present. 

The  dolerite  in  the  belt  of  rocks  which  crosses  Cope's  Creek,  is 
exemplified  by  No.  1376.  Though  the  felspar  in  this  rock  is  now 
a  very  dusty  albite,  it  has  certainly  been  derived  from  a  more  })as:c 
mineral.  It  is  sometimes  a  little  spongy,  containing  prehnite,  wliieli 
also  occurs  interstitially  in  large  clear  patches.  The  augite  is 
entirely  replaced  by  cldorite;  ilmenite  and  apatite  occur  in  ratlier 
large  grains. 

The  Por])]i(/n'tic  Dolerites,  generally  closely  associated  with  the 
Nemingha  limestone,  may  be  illustrated  by  the  description  of  three 
specimens.  It  occurs  in  Portion  59,  immediately  east  of  tlie  lime- 
stones, and  is  a  fresh-looking,  dark  green  rock  with  phenocrysts  of 
felspar  and  augite(No.l407).  The  felspai*  is  an  acid  hibradorite 
and  is  only  slightly  zoned.  The  augite-phenocrysts  are,  in  parts, 
quite  fresh,  while  some  are  completely  changed  to  pseudomorphs  of 
chlorite,  and  carbonates  in  one  instance,  with  a  further  replacement 
of  the  centre  of  the  pseudomorph  by  quartz  and  chalcedony. 
There  are  also  small  phenocrysts  of  magnetite.  The  base  has  a 
spongy  fabric  similar  to  that  of  quartz-keratophyre.  It  consists  of 
short  laths  of  dusty  labradorite,  an  abundance  of  minute  crystals 
of  magnetite,  and  a  good  deal  of  inter.^titial  quartz. 


368 


GREAT   SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  Vll. 


The  following-  analj^ses,  generously  contributed  by  Mr.  J.  C.  H. 
Mingaye,  F.T.C.,  F.C.>S.,  show  the  composition  of  this  rock,  and 
also  that  of  the  dolerite  with  basic  felspars. 


No.  1887. 

No.  1407. 

SiO, 

51-14 

58-17 

AL03 

14-47 

16-07 

Fe„0, 

:vm 

2-60 

FeO     

8-28 

3-96 

MnO 

0-22 

0-18 

NiO,  CoO       

abs. 

abs. 

MgO 

5-80 

3-22 

CaO     

9-64 

8-18 

BaO 

■■trace 

0  07 

SrO      

tpresent 

•i-trace 

Na.O 

2-43 

2-22 

K,0 

057 

1-90 

Li„0 

abs. 

abs. 

h;o-         

0-34 

0-22 

H0O+             

2-52 

1-78 

COo     

F   '     

TiO. 

abs. 

0-93 

0-75 

0-55 

ZrO: 

abs. 

abs. 

p-o; 

0-08 

0-16 

Fe8. 

abs. 

007 

8O3' 

abs. 

abs. 

CI        

"trace 

* trace 

Cr,03 

"trace 

abs. 

V^03 

0  03 

0  02 

1 

99-87 

100-30 

i 

Specific  gravity 

2-929 

i                2-763 

No.  1387 — Dolerite  with  hypersthene  and  basic  felspar.  Portions  24,  35, 
Parish  of  Loomberah. 

No.  1407 — Porphyritio  Dolerite,  Portion  59,  Parish  of  Loomberali. 

These  analyses  should  be  compared  with  tliose  given  on  page  602 
of  the  fifth  paper  of  the  present  series  (6). 

No.  1416,  from  Portion  32,  is  very  similar  in  general  eliaraeter 
to  No.  1407,  though  rather  more  decomposed.  The  presence  of 
chlorite  replacing  the  inner  portion  of  a  zoned  plagiochise-pheno- 
cryst  is  a  noteworthy  feature. 

What  appear  to  liave  been  originally  similar  rocks,  thougli  now 


BY  W.  N.  BENSON.  369 

altered  by  the  ferruginous  and  albitic  solutions  which  traversed 
the  Neming-ha  Red  Breccia,  occur  in  fragmenta  by  the  limestone  in 
Portion  58.  Specimen  No.  1116  is  a  good  example. of  these.  It  has 
a  ijub-variolitic  to  pilotaxitic  base,  consisting  of  small  laths  of  acid 
plagioclase,  from  which  grow-out  skeletal  felspars  or  sub-radiating 
microlites,  with  finely  divided  interstitial  magnetite,  together  with 
larger  well-formed  magnetite  crystals,  interstitial  quartz,  and  a 
very  little  chlorite.  Here  and  there  are  irregular  areas  of  calcite. 
The  large  phenocrysts  of  felspar  are  entirely  replaced  by  albite, 
dotted  with  calcite.  The  trace  of  the  original  zoning  is  very 
obvious. 

A  peculiar  type  of  porphyrite  occurs  interstratified  in  the 
agglomerates  between  Black  Jack  and  Wallaby  Mountain.  It  is  a 
dense  fine-grained,  black  rock  (No.  1435)  with  phenocrj-sts  of 
fresh  augite,  usually  singly  twinned,  and  large  crystals  of  plagio- 
clase which  are  extremely  full  of  inclusions  of  chlorite,  apparently 
replacing  augite-grains,  or  portions  of  glassy  groundmass,  con- 
taining skeleton-crystals  of  ilmenite.  The  groundmass  of  the  rock 
luis  a  basaltic  texture  more  like  that  of  some  lamprophyres  than  of 
spilites.  It  consists  of  long  prisms  of  augite  and  of  plagioclase 
with  .skeleton-ilmenite,  together  wdth  a  considerable  amount  of 
platey  chlorite. 

Variolite  is  represented  by  a  single  example  (No.  1405).  It 
occurs  in  the  Peel  River  Company's  Estate  half  a  mile  to  the  south- 
west of  the  soutliern  corner  of  Portions  31  and  37  (Loomberah). 
It  is  a  dark  green,  apbanitic  rock  with  a  very  poorly  developed 
perlitic  fracture.  IMicroscopically,  it  proves  to  be  an  extremely 
finely  crystalline  rock,  composed  of  sub-radiating  sheafs  of  minute 
felsiDar-microlites,  with  fine  grains  of  magnetite  arranged  among 
them.     There  are  a  few  small  phenocrysts  of  albite  and  augite. 

Th  e  Ke ra  toph  i/res. 
The  keratophyres  may  be  grouped  into  five  main  divisions.  i.The 
pyroxenic  keratophyre.     ii.The  keratophyre  proper.     iii.The  mag- 
netite-keratophyre.     iv.The  nodular  siliceous  keratoph\Te.     v.The 
keratophyre-breccia.     These  pa.ss  into  one  another. 


370  UKEAT  SERPENTINE  BKLT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  \  li., 

The  jjijrojienic  keratoplii/res  are  those  line-  and  coarse-y rained 
types  of  rocks,  wliicli  are  intermediate  in  composition  between  tlie 
dolerite-spilite  group,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  t'elspathic  kera- 
tophyre  on  the  other.  They  may  or  may  not  contain  quartz.  As 
instances  of  these  may  be  deiicribed  specimen  No.  1414.  This  is  a 
pinkish  rock  of  medium  grainsize  and  syenitic  appearance,  occur- 
ring a  quarter  of  a  mile  soutii  of  the  point  where  Sandy  Creek 
enters  the  Parish  of  Loomberah.  It  is  granitic  in  texture,  con- 
sisting of  grains  of  albite  up  to  1  mm.  in  diameter,  irregular 
prisms  of  augite  partly  uralitised  or  altered  to  chlorite,  prisms  of 
apatite,  and  a  minor  amount  of  spliene  in  irregular  grains. 

The  western  keratophyre-zone  is  exemplilied  bj'  two  rocks,  which 
may  be  classed  with  the  pjroxenic  keratophyre-group.  At  the 
northern  end  of  this  zone,  in  Portion  31,  the  keratophyre  (No. 
141.3)  is  porphyritic  with  phenocrysts  of  albite,  augite,  now  com- 
pletely chloritised,  and  ilmenite  associated  with  small  crystals  of 
apatite  in  a  glomero-porphyritic  .aggregate  lying  in  a  pilotaxitic 
base  of  laths  and  .small  phenocrysts  of  albite  with  interstitial 
quartz.  Further  south,  on  the  same  belt,  just  east  of  Black  Jack, 
occurs  a  rock  (No.  1383)  rather  more  pyroxenic  than  this.  It  is 
dark  green  in  colour,  consisting  of  well  crystallised  albite-laths, 
generally  about  0*2  mm.  in  length,  together  with  small  phenocrysts 
of  the  same  mineral  1  mm.  in  diameter,  partly  replaced  by  chlorite 
zonally  arranged.  Interstitially  between  the  felspar-laths  is  a 
small  amount  of  devitrified  glass.  The  augite  occurs  in  small 
grains  often  more  or  less  chloritised,  and,  in  addition,  there  is  a 
fair  amount  of  magnetite.  The  keratophyre  of  this  zone  is,  how- 
ever,  usually  more  acid  than  this,  as  instanced  by  specimens 
described  below,  and  the  highly  siliceous  rocks  near  Pipeclay 
Creek. 

Bearing  in  mind  Neithammer's  suggestion  (18),  supported  by 
E.  B.  Bailey  (19),  that  keratopliyres  are  often  only  albitised 
porphyrites,  we  may  include  in  this  group  specimen  No.  1123  from 
the  Nemingha  Red  Breccias  (Portion  58).  It  is  closely  alHed  to 
No.  1116  described  above  (p.  369),  and  contains  idiomorphic 
l)henocrysts  of  plagioclase,  in   wliicli    a    little  original    andesine 


BY  W.    N.   BENSON.  371 

remains,  though  most  is  replaced  by  albite  or  calcite.  There  are 
also  small  pheiiocrysts  of  fresh  augite  and  magnetite.  The  ground- 
mass  is  extremely  tine-grained,  witii  a  traehytic  structure  dotted 
with  tlnely  crystalline  magnetite. 

The  karaiophyrrs  proper^  which  consist  essentially  of  acid  plagio- 
clase,  are  rather  less  abundant  than  other  rocks.  They  usually 
have  present  in  them  some  other  mineral,  and  as  this  becomes  suf- 
ticiently  important  to  distinguish  the  rocks,  the  necessity'  arises  of 
adding  a  qualifying  mineral  name  to  the  term  keratophyre.  The 
keratophyre  on  the  border  of  Portions  35  and  36,  Loomberah,  is 
one  of  these  containing  the  least  amount  of  minerals  other  than 
albite.  It  consists  of  minute  laths  of  albite  in  pilotaxitic  to  traehy- 
tic groundmass,  in  which  a  few  small  phenocrysts  of  albite-mag- 
netite  and  chlorite  apparently  replace  augite.  The  felspars  of  the 
groundmass  are  also  associated  with  a  very  small  amount  of  inter- 
stitial quartz,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  small  intergrowth  of  the 
felspar-laths  with  quartz,  forming  little  irregularly-shaped  patches 
with  the  same  optical  orientation  throughout.  The  groundmass  is 
cut  by  a  few  fine-gTained  veins  of  clear  albite.  The  most  felspathic 
of  the  keratophyres  associated  with  the  Nemingha  Red  Breccia 
(No.  1123) is  a  highly  porphyritic  rock  with  phenocrysts  of  plagio- 
clase,  now  albite,  with  a  large  amount  of  calcite,  a  little  perfectly 
fresh  augite,  and  *i  few  large  grains  of  magnetite  lying  in  a 
groundmass  of  very  finely  traehytic  felspar,  dotted  with  magnetite 
dust  and  containing  a  very  little  interstitial  quartz.  Finely  divided 
calcite  is  also  distributed  in  cloudy  masses  throughout  the  rock, 
which  has  evidently  been  gi-eatly  affected  by  carbonating  solutions. 
No.  1413.  from  near  the  head  of  Bog  Hole  Gully,  indicates  the  most 
felspathic  member  of  the  group  of  ferruginous  keratophyres, 
recalling  the  features  of  the  brecciated  keratophja-es  from  Hyde's 
Creek  (No.  1296,  described  in  an  earlier  paper;  5,  p.  151),  though 
the  nodular  structure  is  not  so  well  developed.  It  conies  from 
near  the  southern  end  of  the  eastern  mass  of  keratophyre.  The 
more  ferruginous  types  of  this  series  are  considered  below. 

Qu((rtz-l'eratoi}]ii/res  are  more  numerous.  Some,  such  as  No. 
1134  from  the  mass  of  keratophyre  east   of  Black  Jack,  contain 


372  GREAT  SEKPENTIXE  BELT  OF  NEW   SOUTH   WALES,   vii., 

small  plieiiociysts  of  albite  in  a  base  of  not  very  tine  grainsize. 
This  is  spongy  in  texture,  consisting-  of  laths  of  albite,  with  a  small 
amount  of  magnetite-dust;  rather  larger,  well  formed  laths  lie  in 
the  mass  of  microlites,  together  with  large  grains  of  quartz  often 
with  chalcedonic  margins.  Exactl}'  similar  rocks  have  been 
described  from  Pipeclay  Creek,  a  mile  and  a  half  further  to  tlie 
south-east  along  the  same  band  of  rock(5,  pp.  155-(3).  Another 
type  of  quartz-keratophyre  occurs  in  the  creek  in  the  Water 
Iveserxe  between  Portions  ol  and  o3.  This  is  exemplitied  by 
specimens  Nos.  1388  and  1421.  The  former  contains  quartz,  form- 
ing a  general  groundmass,  in  which  are  laths  of  albite  with  a 
general  trachytic  aTrangement,  .sometimes  less  abundant  than  the 
quartz,  but  generally  more  so.  Scattered  about  is  chlorite  (rei)lae- 
ing  augite),  and  crystals  of  magnetite.  J^inesof  shearing  traverse 
the  rock,  and  the  magnetite  is  often  congregated  in  these. 

As  a  final  example  of  siliceous  keratojjliyres,  we  may  instance 
Xo.  1401,  from  the  extreme  southern  end  of  the  eastern  mass  of 
keratophyre.  This  is  a  very  fine-grained  rock,  crushed  slightly 
and  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz,  often  very  narrow.  The  ground- 
mass  consists  of  irregular  patches  of  minutely  granular,  untwinned 
grains  of  felspar,  in  wliicli  are  embedded  innumerable  minute  laths 
of  acid  plagioclase  with  a  more  or  less  trachytic  arrangement; 
between  these  is  a  small  amount  of  Hnely  divided  magnetite-dust, 
and  small  irregular  grains  of  quartz  occur  among  this.  There  are 
phenocrysts  of  albite,  and  a  few  irregular  patches  of  chlorite.  The 
magnetite  also  occurs  in  the  lines  of  crushing,  being  evidently 
introduced  secondarily. 

The  mafjnetife-l-eralophi/res  may  be  subdivided  into  those  whicli 
contain  quartz,  and  those  which  do  not.  We  will  consider  the  latter 
first.  Near  the  head  of  Bog  Hole  Creek,  in  the  south-eastern  end 
of  Portion  37,  is  a  small  mass  of  htematitic  iron-ore,  and  by  it  is  a 
very  liaematitic  keratophyre  (No.  1427),  which  consists  of  fine- 
grahied,  tracliytic  albite-latlis,  witli  small  phenocryst-laths  0-5  mm. 
in  length,  densely  impregnated  with  more  or  less  oxidised  mag- 
netite. The  rocks  contain  angular  patches  of  trachytic  kerato- 
phyre, almost  free  from  iron-ore.     The  latter  is  aggregated  in  the 


BY  W.  X.   BENSON.  373 

cracks.  Analogous  specimens  occur  elsewhere,  generally  not  so 
oxidised. 

The  complex  of  magnet  it  e-keratopliyres  at  tiie  liead  ol  Bog  Hole 
Gully,  contains  the  same  \  ariety  of  rocks  as  does  that  near  Hyde's 
Creek,  previously  described  (5,  pp.  150-151).  2\odular  kerato- 
pliyres  occur  (No.  1410),  in  which  the  rock  is  made  up  oi'  frag- 
ments oi'  trachytic  keralophyrc,  \ery  euriched  in  magnetite  in  the 
centre  oi'  each  iragment,  but  Tree  Irom  it  at  the  margin.  Between 
the  fragments  are  strings  of  more  coarsely  crystalline  keratophyrc 
and  calcite,  apparently  introduced  at  tiie  same  time  as  the  second- 
ary magnetite,  i.e.,  during  or  inmiediately  after  the  brecciation. 
Theealeite  is  thus  to  be  considered  as  derived  from  the  magmatie 
solutions.  In  another  example  (No.  1120),  the  magnetite-kerato- 
phyi'e  is  amygdaloidal,  the  vesicles  containing  calcite  or  quartz,  and 
deep  green  epidote,  and  occasionally  large  grains  of  magnetite. 
The  magnetite  is  i-ather  une\enly  distributed,  but,  in  the  irregu- 
larly bounded  regions  in  which  there  is  very  little  finely  divided 
magnetite,  there  Is  a  roughly  proportional  amount  of  large  ragged 
aggregates  of  magnetite,  sometimes  surrounded  by  calcite,  and  in 
particular,  the  magnetite  is  aggregated  into  crevices  and  around 
the  vesicles  as  described  from  Macllveen's  complex  (6,  p. GOO). 
Associated  with  this  same  complex,  is  the  quartz-bearnig  kerato- 
phyrc very  poor  in  magnetite  (No.  1113)  tlescribed  above. 

The  Qaarlz-maynetite-kendophijres  are  of  several  types.  The 
most  common  is  exemplified  by  specimens  from  the  \\'ater 
Reserve,  betAveen  Portions  51  and  52,  by  one  (No.  1117)  Irom 
near  the  Jasper  Knob  in  Portion  55,  and  by  No.  1101  in  Portions 
35,  3G.  All  these  rocks  are  vesicular,  the  vesicles  being  tilled 
usually  with  (piartz  and  chalcedony,  together  with  a  little  epidote 
and  occasionally  felspar.  Karely,  they  are  filled  with  chlorite  and 
quartz.  The  groundmass  of  the  rock  consists  of  a  spongy  mass  of 
laths  of  acid  i)lagioclase  with  interstitial  quailz,  dotted  with 
minute  crystals  of  magnetite.  The  pheiuxnysts  are  albite  some- 
times undergoing"  replacement  by  f|uartz,  magnetite,  rarely  augite 
(No.  1101).  A  fi-e(iuent  feature  occui-s  around  the  margin  of  the 
vesicles  or  in  large  irregular  ci-acks.     The  spongy,  texture  of  the 


374  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vil., 

grouiidmass  here  becomes  exceedingly  minute  in  grainsize,  and 
^e^y  dark  with  finely  divided  magnetite.  The  groundmass  is  a 
mosaic  of  minute  interlocking  grains  of  quartz.  If  felspar  be 
present,  it  is  entirely  untwinned,  and  the  abundance  of  the  mag- 
netite prevents  its  recognition  by  the  bright-line  method.  The 
distribution  of  lath-shaped  areas  in  the  rock  free  from  magnetite, 
which  w^ere  doubtless  originally  felspar,  indicates  a  general  poorly 
developed  trachytic  structure.  Lai-ge  areas  rich  in  magnetite 
appear  to  replace  pyroxene-phenocrysts,  and,  in  addition,  there 
are  abundant  phenocrysts  of  albite.  This  rock  is  possibly  an 
altered  form  of  an  augite-porphyrite. 

The  group  of  the  Silicified-Nodular  or  Blotched  Keratoplinres 
comprises  a  series  of  very  remarkable  rocks  occurring  in  the 
southern  end  of  the  eastern  zone  of  keratophyre.  In  hand-speci- 
men, they  are  very  fine-grained  or  aphanitic  green  rocks  with 
masses  of  silica,  weathering  out  into  beads  set  irregularly  or  in 
long  rows  as  in  spherulitic  rliyolite,  or  covering  the  whole  surface 
of  the  rock  with  a  network-pattern  of  cracks  weathered  out  between 
more  resistant  silicitled  patches.  Microscopically,  the  rock,  in  its 
unaltered  state,  Avould  be  classed  among  the  more  basic  pyroxenic 
keratophyres.  It  1ms  a  trachytic  base  of  small  laths  of  acid  felspar, 
with  an  abundance  of  chlorite  pseudomorphs  after  granular  augite, 
and  scattered  small  grahis  of  magnetite.  In  this  base  are  pheno- 
crysts of  albite,  sometimes  arranged  in  groups  (the  glomero- 
porphyritio  structure),  a  few  irregular  masses  of  chlorite,  which 
possibly  represent  original  pyroxene-phenocrysts,  and  some  small 
phenocrysts  or  aggregates  of  magnetite.  Well  defined  prisms  of 
apatite  often  appear  in  the  vicinity  of  the  phenocrysts.  The 
resistant  portions  of  the  rock  prove  to  be  rounded  or  irregular 
regions  in  which  the  pyroxene  has  been  completely  removed,  and 
the  felspar-laths  remain  apparently  unaltered,  lying  in  a  matrix  of 
quartz  which  is  in  optical  continuity  over  an  irregularly  bounded 
area.  Each  resistant  region  or  "pseudospherulite"  may  consist  of 
several  such  areas  of  quartz.  Where  the  rock  is  traversed  by  a 
small  vein  of  quartz  cutting  through  one  of  these  replacement- 
areas,  the  quartz  in  the  matrix  of  the  rock,  on  either  side  of  the 


BY  W.  X.   BKNSOX.  375 

vein,  will  often  be  in  optical  continuity  with  that  in  the  vein. 
►Sometimes,  the  rock  contains  only  a  few  of  such  replacement- 
areas  ('^.^.,  No.  1408),  which  are  generally  rather  sharply  bounded, 
but,  in  other  specimens,  the  whole  of  the  groundmass  is  replaced 
(No. lttL'5),  and  very  little  indeed  of  the  coloured  constituents 
remain. 

In  addition  to  these  ^■eins  oi'  quartz,  there  are  occasionally  [e.g., 
in  No.  138G)  to  be  found  veins  less  than  0-3  nmi.  in  diameter,  which 
consist  of  a  line-grained  mosaic  of  water-clear  albite,  which  may  be 
associated  with  a  little  calcite. 

The  brecciated  keralophijres  Avhicli  occur  along  the  eastern  mar- 
gin of  the  eastern  keratophyre  zone,  have  already  been  sufficiently 
described  {see  p. 344). 

No  further  remarks  need  be  added  to  the  description  of  the 
Devonian  pyroclastic  rocks  given  in  previous  papers.  A  number 
of  peculiar  forms  of  alteration  of  the  rock-fragments  in  the 
Nemingha  Red  Breccia  have  been  noted,  but  the  general  conditions 
attending  the  development  of  that  formation  are  now  sufficiently 
well  estaldished,  and  these  details  are  merely  confirmatory. 

Notes  on  the  Loombekah  Fossils. 

As  pointed  out  above,  the  fauna  of  the  Loomberah  limestone  has 
been  found  by  JNlr.  W.  S.  Dun  to  contain  a  number  of  new  and 
interesting  forms,  concernmg  which  he  has  kindly  contributed  the 
following  valuable  notes,  and  to  these  are  added  further  remarks 
by  tlie  [)resent  author,  which  are  placed  between  brackets: — 

"This  limestone  is,  in  most  cases,  of  detrital  origin,  and,  especi- 
ally in  the  ease  of  the  Rugose  Corals,  the  preservation  is  so  unsatis- 
factory that,  although  manv^  of  the  forms  are  new,  the  specimens 
are  so  imperfect,  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  sufficient  evidence 
to  make  the  diagnosis  proper  to  a  new  species." 

"Zaphrentis,  sp.  ind. — One  specimen.  The  transverse  section 
shows  61  septa,  with  a  dense  psendocolumella,  and  limited  stereo- 
plasma.  (See  Plate  xxxv.,  fig. 6.)  The  longitudinal  section  shows 
very  irregularly  placed  tabulae  strongly  concave." 

^^Zaphrentis,  (?)sp. — A  single  specimen  of  a   very  interesting 


376 


GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF   NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  Vll. 


Zaplireutuid  coral.  It  is  .simple,  with  a  diameter  of  13  mm.  There 
arc  08  septa,  with  tliick  septal  walls.  The  eosta?  are  very  pro- 
nounced, projecting  for  about  2  mm.  The  bases  of  the  septa  are 
thick  for  a  limited  distance,  the  greater  extent  being  free  from 
stereoplasma,  Ihietuate,  and  not  (juite  reaching  to  the  centre.  This 
is  a  most  distinct  form,  and  may  constitute  a  new  subgenus  of 
Zaphrentis,  but  the  material  available  is  too  limited  to  enable  a 
satisfactory  diagnosis  to  he  drawn  up.''  {See  Plate  xxxiv.,  lig.  1, 
and  Text-liu'.  \\.) 


Milhmel"re 


Tfxt-lig..S. 

Tianfjver.sc  and  uhliijuc  sectiuiis  of  Z«;>/<re/<//s- s}).ii(j\'.(?suhgcii.iiov.),  (  x  4), 

Loomhcrah  Liniet>toiie. 


^'Cyathophijlh(m,  sp.  ind. — A  large,  simple  type,  the  transverse 
section  only  being  available.  Diameter,  16 '5 mm.  The  septa  have 
limited  stereoplasma,  and  there  are  58,  comprised  in  two  cycles. 
The  shorter  septa  are  irregular  in  length,  and  frequently  anasto- 


BY  W.   N.   BENSON, 


^77 


inose  witli  the  primaries.  The  dissepimeiitul  stnietiires  are  limited 
in  number  and  irregular  (^'"c  Te<t-fis'.4).  There  is  no  Australian 
Cyathophylloid  of  this  type  hitherto  described.  The  specific 
characters  are  the  sparse  de-  x'^^^Si^^'^ 

velopment    of    dissepimental 
tissue,  the  steroplasmic  layer     ,^^\^ 
on  all  septa  being  developed 
to  a  rather  abnormal  extent." 


Text-fig.  4. 

rraiisverse  section  of  Cyal]iOphullnm  sp. 

iiov..  (  X  2),  Looniherah  Limestone. 


'■''S'pon<.io2)hjjlhim,  (?)  sp.nov. 
— An  aberrant  type  of  S'pou- 
yopJiyllnm,  in  which  the 
structure  of  the  corallite-wall 
is  masked,  its  place  being- 
taken  by  dense  vesicular  tis- 
sue. (8ee  PI.  XXXV.,  figs. 2  and 
?u  and  Text-fig.5).  The  septa 
are  more  persistc^nt  than    in 

other  Australian  Spongophylloids,  and,  in  most  cases,  spring  from 
the  replaced  wall,  there  being  a  space  of  ai^out  omm.  of  vesicular 
tissue  separating  the  se[)t;il  ends  of  adjoining  corjUHtes,  Dissepi- 
mental tissues  are  dense,  and  the  \esicles  are  small.  The  septa  in 
tlie  central  area  are  24-:i0  in  number.  To  the  naked  eye,  this 
remarkable  coral  has  the  general  appearance  of  a  l'hi/li]jsastrcca 
hut,  under  the  lens,  the  septa  are  seen  to  be  non-contluent.  The 
absence  of  a  true  wall  ma}^  not  necessarily  separate  it  from  the 
Spongophyllums,  as  specimens  of  the  typical  S.  biparlUa  from  the 
Silurian  of  Yass,  have,  in  some  cases,  a  portion  of  the  corallite- 
wall  undeveloi^ed.  It  is  even  possible  that  this  may  represent  a 
stage  l)etween  Spornjojili/fUum  (sensu  stricto),  and  Endophylhim.'' 

[A  recent  statement  by  Dr.  S.  Smitli  appears  to  illustrate  this 
remark (21) — "Among  the  Rugose  colonial  corals  there  are  cer- 
tain genera,  or  certain  species  within  a  genus,  in  which  the  eoral- 
lites  have  lost  their  epitheca,  and  are  united  by  their  dissepimental 
tissue.  The  septa  of  adjacent  corallites  in  the  astraeiform  colony 
tend  to  become  confluent,  but  all  stages  of  this  development,  from 


378  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

that  in  which  it  is  incipient  to  that  of  perfect  confluence,  are  to  be 
found.  In  some  eases,  on  the  other  hand,  the  septa  of  one  eoralUte 
do  not  extend  to  those  of  another,  and  leave  an  intervening  space 


Text-fig.  5. 
Transverse  section  of  Sponyophylhim  sp.nov.,  (  x  4),  Loomberah  Limestone. 

to  tlie  sole  occupation  of  the  dissepiments.  AstrcTiform  colonies 
make  their  appearance  in  widely  divergent  stocks,  and  at  different 
periods  of  time;  being,  it  w^ould  seem,  the  ultimate  terms  in  a  pro- 
gressive development  along  a  w^ell-defined  line."] 


BY  W.   X.    BENSON.  379 

^^Phillipsastnea  (jrandis,  sp.nov. — A  very  large  type  of  Phillip 
sastrma,  the  centre  of  the  coralHtes  being  2 cm.  apart"  [2'5,  1*7, 
and  1*6  cm.  in  three  adjacent  eorallites  in  the  specimen  illus- 
trated in  Plate  xxx\-.,  figs.  4  and  o.]  ''The  septa  are  variable  in 
length  and  number;  there  are  23-28  of  the  longer,  and  the  shorter 
reach  to  the  limit  of  the  central  area.  This  species  is  quite  distinct 
from  any  of  the  Australian  forms  1  have  seen,  and  no  closely  allied 
species  from  extra-Australian  i-egions  are  known  to  me."  [There 
is  a  .species,  P.  gifias,  occurring  in  the  Lower  and  Upper  ]\Iiddle 
Devonian  beds  of  North  America,  Onondaga  and  Hamilton  Series, 
in  whicli  the  centres  of  adjacent  eorallites  are  more  tlian  2  cm. 
apart  (22);  but  further  details  concerning  this  form  are  not  avail- 
able liere.  P.  vernp/nilii,  which  was  recognised  by  De  Koninck(9) 
in  a  specimen  obtained  l)y  the  Rev.  AV.  B.  Clarke,  from  Cope's 
Gully,  near  Hanging  Rock,  had  from  28-32  septa,  and  the  centres 
of  the  adjacent  eorallites  are  10-12  mm.  apart.  It  is  extremely 
pro])able  tliat  this  form  came  from  a  flevelopmeut  of  the  Loom- 
herah  limestone  near  the  head  of  Cope's  Creek,  just  outside  the 
limits  of  the  area  mai)ped  in  Plate  xxxii.] 

''Favofiltes  gotJilandica/' 

"Fuvosites^  sp.  ind.  (sj).  nov. f). — Transverse  sections  of  one 
specimen  oidy  are  available.  Tliis  form  is  distinct  from  any  of  the 
types  of  the  Au.stralian  Devonian  rocks,  and  is  remarkal^le  for  the 
very  irregular  form  of  the  eorallites.  (See  Plate  xxxv.,  fig. 7). 
Additional  material  will  probably  prove  it  to  be  a  new  species." 

[In  addition  to  the  forms  recognised  by  IVIr.  Dun,  mention  may 
be  made  of  a  very  interesting  slide,  which,  unfortunately,  has  been 
mislaid,  and  cannot  here  be  figured.  It  was  cut  from  a  form, 
apparently  F.  gotldandica,  but  in  whicli  the  wide  spacing  of  the 
tabulas  was  replaced  for  a  distance  of  about  fi  mm.,  by  closely 
])acked  tabulae,  as  near  together  as  in  F.  multitahulata.  The 
change  occurred  quite  .sharply  on  one  side,  and  more  gradually  on 
the  other,  and  at  the  same  level  in  adjacent  eorallites,  as  if  brought 
out  by  a  rapid  change  and  slower  reversion  in  the  local  conditions.] 

^^Plasmopora  sp. — A  single  specimen  of  a  small  Plasmopora  is 
contained  in  the  collection.     It  is  quite  indeterminable  specif!- 


380  GREAT  SERPI^XTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH   WALES,  vii., 

cally,  though  distinct  from  forms  in  the  Nemingha  limestont%  and 
the  Mur  rum  bid  gee  beds." 

[Ileliolitpfi  2^orosa. — This  occurs  in  numerous  large  masses,  the 
exact  shape  of  which  is  not  apparent.  Measurements  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  parts  of  the  form  agree  exactly  with  those 
given  by  Mr.  Etheridge  for  corals  of  this  species  in  the  limestone 
of  Moore  Creek  (23). 

CJutiHps  .^tdliforriiU,  sp.nov.,  Chapman. — An  account  of  this 
form  is  given  in  Mr.  Chapman's  interesting  note  in  the  second 
appendix  to  this  paper.  While  he  refers  to  the  rarity  with  which 
it  occurs  out  of  the  Carbonifei'ous  system,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  De  Koninck  remarks  that  the  specimen  of  Campo- 
phyUiim^tJpxiiOfiimi  received  by  him  from  Quadong  was  enveloped 
in  a  mass  of  some  size  of  Cluefetes  (/o/d/)issi(9,  p. 54)]. 

"The  Stromatoporoids,  w^hich  form  the  best  index  of  the  age 
of  the  Loomberah  limestone,  are  well  preserved.  They  are  re- 
presented by  the  forms  StromafojwrpJIa  loomhprfii^i^,  S.  hensoni, 
and  Acfinoi^froma  aiisfralp,  all  new  forms,  and  an  indefinite  species. 
The  appearance  of  these  is  distinctly  Devonian,  the  forms  closely 
resembling  typically  Middle  Devonian  species.  As  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Heinrich  (24),  the  discrimination  of  the  different 
species  of  Stromatopora  is  extremely  diHicult,  and  the  final  test 
is  the  conventional  use  of  measurements  of  the  interlaminar 
spaces,  and  the  spacing  of  pillars.  Numerous  averages  of  mea- 
surements have  been  taken  in  the  case  of  Professor  Benson's 
specimens,  and  it  is  thought  that  the  erection  of  new  species  is 
justified."  [As  will  be  seen  from  the  photographs  in  Plates 
xxxvi.,  xxxvii.,  and  xxxviii.,  all  enlarged  two  and  a  half  diame- 
ters, and  from  macroscopic  examination,  the  f<il lowing  appear  to 
be  the  characteristics  of  these  species: 

SfromafopovpUa  loomhi'vensis. — The  coenosteum  is  roughl}^  hemi- 
spherical, sometimes  reaching  as  much  as  20  cm.  in  diameter.  It 
is  divided  into  concentric  latilaminie,  about  ."1  nnii.  wide.  The 
vertical  section  (Plate  xxxvi.)  shows  that  the  lamin.'e  aie  very 
definite  and  continuous,  except  for  the  occasional  presence  of 
crossinu'  zooidal  tubes.     There  are  about  sixteen  lamime  in  the 


HV  \\.  \.   BKNSON.  381 

space  of  a  centimetre.  They  are  connected  by  radial  pillars, 
whicli  extend  pei'pendicularly  across  all  the  lamina?  making  up  a 
latilamina,  and  may  continue  even  beyond  these.  These  pillars 
also  lie  about  sixteen  in  the  space  of  a  centimetre.  Occasionally, 
there  are  Caunopora-tubes,  one  of  which  (appearing  in  figure  8) 
is  about  3  mm.  in  greatest  diameter.  A  tangential  section  shows 
the  presence  of  astrorhizte. 

StromatirporpJIa  benaoitl  (Plate  xxxvii.). — The  shape  of  the 
ccenosteum  cannot  at  present  be  stated.  The  latilaminif  are  less 
definitely  marked  than  in  the  preceding  species.  The  lamina.' 
are  so  spaced  that  about  fifty  occur  in  a  centimetre,  while  the 
radial  pillars  are  also  about  the  same  distance  apart.  They  con- 
tinue across  several  laminae,  at  times  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty. 
The  nariow,  tabulate,  zooidal  tubes  also  continue  across  as  many 
as  ten  laminje,  but  are  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  ordinary 
intei'pillar  spaces.  Small  astrorhizse  are  recognisable  in  the 
vertical  section.  The  Caunopora-tubes  are  abundant,  and  have 
a  diameter  of  about  0'5  mm.,  and  show  infundibuliform  tabulse. 
This  form  appears  to  be  similar  in  some  respects  to  FaraUel(ypora 
dartinijtonensis  (Carter),  from  the  Middle  Devonian  of  Devon- 
shire. 

Both  these  forms  of  HtvomatoporeJla  show  a  more  definite  net- 
work, and  more  continuous  radial  pillars  than  the  majority  of 
the  forms  discussed  by  Nicholson  (25). 

The  ccenosteum  of  *S'.  loomherensis  is  unusually  large,  and  its 
lamina?  and  pillars  are  unusually  far  apart;  in  S.  bensoni,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  appear  to  be  closer  together  than  is  normal  for 
the  genus.  In  addition  to  the  two  forms  mentioned,  there  is  a 
large  form  apparently  belonging  to  this  genus,  in  which  the  pre- 
servation is  less  perfect.  In  this,  the  laminai'  and  pillar-spacing 
is  farther  apart  than  in  the  case  of  S.  loombereiisis,  there  being 
about  ten  laminte  and  nine  pillars  in  the  space  of  a  centimetre. 
The  pillars  are  apparently  short. 

Actinostroma  aiisfrale  (Plate  xxxviii.)  is  characterised  by  well 
developed  horizontal  or  slightly  wavy  laminse,  with  scarcely 
noticeable  latilamination.     The  type-specimen  is  a  Hattish  frag- 


382  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  vii., 

ment,  so  that  the  form  of  the  Cffinosteuni  is  not  ascertainable. 
There  are  thirty-eight  laminiie  in  the  space  of  a  centimetre, 
joined  by  pillars  extending  across  as  many  as  fifty  lamina?,  in 
some  instances.  The  lamina?  and  pillars  together  form  a  recti- 
linear meshwork.  There  are  about  thirty-five  pillars  in  a  centi- 
metre. No  zooidal  tubes  are  recognisable,  but  there  are  numer- 
ous Caunopora-tubes,  about  0*25  mm.  in  diameter,  with  infuii- 
dibuliform  tabulae.  This  form  is  extremely  like  A.  clathratmn 
Nich.,  and  especially  that  variety  of  the  species  which  occurs  in 
the  Middle  Devonian  rocks  of  Germany.  This  latter  species  has 
also  been  recognised  by  Professor  Nicholson  in  the  Devonian 
rocks  of  Western  Australia.  Until  the  publication  of  his  Mono- 
graph (25),  it  was  usually  considered  to  be  Stromatopora  concen- 
trica  Goldfuss.  The  specimen  here  described  as  A.  austraJe  may 
•come  from  the  Loomberah  limestone,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  was  found  in  Portion  163  of  the  Parish  of  Nemingha,  "Beedle's 
Freehold,"  in  the  Nemingha  limestone.] 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
1.  Benson,  W.  N. — "A  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Geolog^^  of  the  Nundle 

District."     Report  Aust.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  1911,  pp.  100-106. 
2. "The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  8eipentine 

Belt  of  New  South  Wales."     Part  i.   General.     Tliese  Proceedings, 

1913,  pp.  490-517. 

3. Part  ii.   Nundle  District,  ihkl.,  pp.569-o96. 

4. Part  iii.  Petrology,  IhkL,  pp. 662-724. 

5. Part  iv.    Spilites,    keiatophj^res,    etc.,    ibid.,    1915, 

pp.  121-173. 

6. -— Part  v.   Tamworth  District,  ibid.,  pp.540-624. 

7. Part  vi.   Western  New  England,  'dtid.,  1917,  pp. 223- 

282. 

8.  Clarke,  The  Rev.  W.  B. — Remarks  on  the  Sedimentary  Formations 

of  New  South  Wales.     Fourth  Edition,  1878,  p.  132. 

9.  De  Koninck,  Prof.  L.  G. — Descriptions  of  the  Pala?ozoic  Fossils  of 

New  South  Wales.     Memoirs  (4eol  Surv.  N.  tS.  Wales,  No. 6. 

10.  Odernheimer,  F. — "On  the  (Geology  of  part  of  the  Peel  River  District 

in  Australia."     Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  1855,  pp. 399-400. 

11.  Stonier,  G.  A.^ — "The  Geology  of  Swamp  Oak  and  Niangla."    Records 

Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  1892,  p.64. 


BY  W.   X.   BEXSON,  383 

12.  Dun,  W.  S. — PaLvontologist's  Report.     Aim.   Kept.   Dept.   Mines  N. 

S.  Wales,  1915,  p.  189;  1916,  p.218. 

13.  MiNGAYE,  J.  C.  H. — Chemist's  Report.     Ann.  Rept.  Dept.  Mines  N. 

S.  Wales,  1915,  pp. 193-4. 

14.  Jensen,  H.  I.— The  Soils  of  New  South  Wales.     Sydney,  1914,  p.  16. 

15.  Dayis,  W.  M. — "  Meandering  Valleys  and  Underfit  Rivers."     Annals 

of  the  Assoc,  of  American  (iieographers.  Vol.  iii.,  1914,  pp. 3-28. 

16.  Ulrich,  E.  0.  —  "Revision   of  the  Palwozoic  Systems."      Bull.  Geol. 

Soc.  America,  1911,  pp.281-680. 

17.  Dewey  and  Reid — "The  Origin    of  the    Pillow-lavas    in   Cornwall." 

Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  Vol.  Ixiv.,  1908,  pp.264-272. 

18.  Neithammer,  G.  —  "Die   Eruptivgesteine  von   Loh   Oelo  auf  Java." 

Tschermaks  Min.  Petr.  Mitth.,  1908,  p. 21 8. 

19.  Bailey  E.  B. — (In)  "  The  Geology  of  the  Glasgow  District."     Memoir 

Geol.  Survey  of  Scotland,  1911,  p.  127. 

20.  SuESS,  E. — The  Face  of  the  Elarth.    Sollas'  Translation,  Vol.  i.,  p.  120. 

21.  Smith,    S.  —  "On     AuUna    rotiformis,     PhiJIijjsastrwa    hennahi,    and 

Orionastnva.'''     Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  Vol.  Ixxxii.,  1917,  p.281. 

22.  Grabau  and  Shimer — North  American  Index  of  Fossils,  Vol.  i.,  p. 69, 

23.  Etheridge,  R.  —  "On  the  Corals  from  the  Tam worth  District,  chiefly 

from  the  Moore  Creek  and  Woolomol  Limestone.'"     Records  Geol. 
Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  vi.,  1899,  pp.  151-182. 

24.  Heinrigh,  M.  — "On  the  Structure  and  Classification  of  the  Stroma- 

toporoidea."     Journ.  of  Geol.,  Vol.  xxiv.,  1916,  pp.57-60. 

25.  Nicholson,  Prof.  H.  A. — "A  Monograph  of  the  British   Stromato- 

poroidea."     Monographs  of  the  Palipontographical  Society. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XXXI. -XXXVIII. 

Plate  xxxi. 
Topographical  Map  of  the  Loomberah  District. 

Plate  xxxii. 
Geological  Map  of  the  Loomberah  District. 

Plate  xxxiii. 
Pillow-lavas  exposed  in  the  road-cutting  by  the  Loombeiah  Bridge,  eleven 
miles  south-east  of  Tamworth. 

Plate  xxxiv. 
Fig.  1. — Section    of    the    Loomberah    Limestone,   showing   its   fragmental 
chai'acter;  and  transverse  sections  of  Zaphrentis,  sp.nov.,  (?subgen. 
nov.),  Z,  Treptostomatous  Bryozoans,  B,  valves  of  Fenfamenis,  P, 
and  indeterminate  fragments;  (  '<  3/2). 


384  (iREAT  SERPKXTIXE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOLTTH  WALFIS,  vii. 

Fig.'i. — Transverse  section  of  SpoiujopliylhmK  {?)sp.nov. ,  frcmi  the  Looiii- 

berah  Limestone;  (  x  3/2). 
Fig.3. — Longitudinal  section  of  S.{'t),  sp.nov,;  (  x  3/2). 

Plate  XXXV. 

Fig.  4. — Approximately  longitudinal  section  of  PhiUipsaMrfva  ;/ rand  is,  sp, 
no  v.,  Dun;  (  x  3/2);  Loomberah  Limestone. 

Fig. 5. — Transverse  section  of  P.  qrandis,  sp.nov,;  (  x  3/2). 

Fig.6. — Transverse  section  of  Zaphrenfis,  sp.ind.;  (x3/2);  Loomberah 
Limestone. 

Fig. 7. — Transverse  section  of  FarosUes,  sp.nov.;  {  x  3/2);  Loomberah  Lime- 
stone. 

Plate  xxxvi. 
Fig. 8. — StromatoporeUa  /oomherensis,  sp.nov..  Dun;  vertical  section;  (  x  5/2). 
Fig.  9. — S.  loomberensis,  transverse  and  partially  tangential  section  showing 
astro rhizfe;  (  x  5/2), 
Both  from  the  Loomberah  Limestone. 

Plate  xxxvii. 
Figs.  10-11. — StromatoporeUa  hensoni,   sp.nov,,    Dun;    transverse  sections 
showing  Caunopora-tubes;  {  x  5/2). 

Plate  xxxviii. 
Fig.  12. — Actinoxfroma  aiistrale,   sp.nov.,    Dun  ;    transverse  and  partially 

tangential  section  showing  Caunopora-tubes;  (  x  5/2), 
Fig.  13. — A.  austrah,  vertical  section;  (  x  5/2).     Probably  from  the  Nemin- 

gha  Limestone. 


385 


Appendix  i. 

Devonian   Foraminifera  ;    Tamworth  District,    Xew    South 

Wales. 

By  Fredk.  Chapman,   A.L.S.,   F.R.M.S,,  Palaeontologist  to  the 
National  Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Plates  xxxix.-xli.) 

Introduction. 
At  the  request  of  Dr.  AV.  N.  Benson,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  I  am  giving 
the  details  of  foraminiferal  evidence  which  I  noticed  whilst 
examining  some  micro-sections  of  limestone  from  the  Nemingha 
horizon  of  the  Tamworth  Series  The  method  of  studying  fora- 
minifera from  rock-slices,  without  accompanying  specimens  show- 
ing the  exterior  of  the  test,  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  but  the 
fact  that  these  organisms  are  of  Devonian  age  is,  in  itself,  of 
sufficient  importance  to  merit  a  record  of  the  occurrence,  fora- 
minifera being  extremely  rare  in  Devonian  faunas. 

The  Rock-structure  and  its  Stratigraphical  Association. 
The  foraminifera  under  notice  occur  in  a  well-developed  oolitic 
limestone  in  which  granules  form  a  little  more  than  half  the 
bulk  of  the  rock.  The  granules  vary  in  diameter  from  046  to 
0*7  mm.,  and  only  a  small  proportion  are  entirely  due  to  oolitic 
accretion;  whether  originally  of  algal  origin  or  not  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say,  on  account  of  their  present  mineralised  condition. 
The  nucleus  of  the  oolite-grain  in  more  than  one  case  was  seen 
to  consist  of  an  ossicle  of  a  crinoid.  The  majority  of  the  grains, 
however,  are  microgranulitic  in  structure,  either  in  the  nucleus, 
or  more  rarely  throughout  the  entire  granule.  Certain  of  these, 
from  their  more  irregular  outline,  and  often  without  an  external 
coat  of  concentric  oolitic  deposit,  led  me  to  suspect  their  fora- 
miniferal relationship,  which  conclusion  is  borne  out  by  further 
study  of  the  specimens.     Some  of  the  perfectly  spherical  grains 

28 


386  DEVONIAN  FORAMINIFKRA.  TAMWORTH   DISTRICT, 

are,  I  feel  convinced,  of  a  radiolarian  nature,  and  here  and  there 
one  can  detect  a  central  sphere.  There  is  a  fair  amount  of  iron- 
staining  in  the  rock-structure,  which  seems  to  be  entirely 
secondary,  as  the  stain  is  developed  more  strongly  along  incipient 
fracture-lines  than  in  the  grains  themselves. 

From  Dr.  Benson's  work  on  the  rocks  of  the  Tamworth  Dis- 
trict,* it  is  seen  that  the  Nemingha  horizon  can  be  correlated 
with  the  lower  part  of  the  Middle  Devonian. 

Previous  Records  of  Devonian  Foraminifera. 
Tn  turning  to  consider  the  occurrence  of  foraminifera  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  we  find  only  one  authentic  record  of  these 
minute  fossils,  viz.,  that  of  Terquem's,  who  figured  and  described 
a  few  forms  from  the  Middle  Devonian  of  Paff'rath  in  the  Eifel.f 
On  p. 41 7  of  Terquem's  note,  he  states  that  the  foraminifera  were 
found  in  some  sand  contained  in  a  Megalodon-^heW.  They  were 
in  the  condition  of  casts.  The  material  was  probably  referable 
to  foraminifera  and  ostracoda,  but  generally  indeterminable. 
Some  spheres  covered  with  thick  and  sharply  pointed  spines  he 
referred  to  Orhnlina.  These  were  very  common,  and  measured 
0-48  mm.  in  diameter.  A  pyriform  cast  was  referred  to  Lagemi- 
lina  (a  subgenus  of  Lagena).  A  cristellarian  w^as  also  noticed 
by  Terquem,  presenting  the  arrangement  of  chambers  seen  in 
CristeUaria  vetusta  from  the  Lias.  A  fusiform  cast  was  com- 
pared to  Fusulina;  and  numerous  globular  casts,  consisting  of 
two  or  three  chambers,  were  identified  as  Glohigerina.  Judging 
from  my  own  observations  of  radiolarian  structures  in  the 
Devonian  of  Silesia  and  Bavaria,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
Terquem's  prickly  Orbulinse  may  have  more  than  a  fancied  re- 
lationship to  the  orbicular  radiolarians.  In  connection  with  the 
present  work,  I  have  recently  examined  some  disintegrated  lime- 
stone from   Paffrath,  from  shells  in  the  National  Museum,  and 

*  "  The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of  New 
South  Wales.  Part  v.  The  Geology  of  the  Tamworth  District."'  Proe. 
Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1915,  Vol.  xl.,  Pt.3,  pp.  540-624,  Pis.  xhx.-lviii. 

t  Terquem,  O. — "Observation  sur  quelques  fossiles  des  epoques  pri- 
maires."  Bull.  Soc.  Geol.  France,  .ser.3,  Vol.  viii.,  1880,  pp. 414-418, 
PI.  xi. 


BY  F.  CHAPMAN.  387 

have  succeeded  in  finding  a  small  but  representative  series  of 
foraminifera,  radiolaria,  and  ostracoda  which  I  hope  to  describe 
shortly. 

The  only  other  allusion  to  Devonian  foraininifera  that  I  have 
so  far  come  across,  is  that  by  E.  Wethered,  in  his  paper  on  the 
limestones  of  South  Devon.*  In  speaking  of  the  organic  con- 
stituents of  the  Gouiatite  limestone  (Upper  Devonian)  from  a 
quarry  at  Whiteway  Farm,  near  Chudleigh,  Mr.  Wethered  says 
— "  The  specimens  collected  as  typical  of  this  limestone  show  it  to 
be  quite  different  in  structure  from  the  beds  below.  There  is  a 
fine  crystalline  groundmass  in  which  are  several  fragmentary 
remains  of  organisms.  One  of  these  appears  to  be  a  foraminifer, 
and  it  is  especially  interesting  as  being  the  only  one  found  in 
my  slides  of  the  South  Devon  limestones.  The  Goniatite  lime- 
stone seems  to  have  been  formed  by  an  accumulation  of  small 
shells,  foraminifera,  etc.,  which  have  been  filled  in  with  a  fine 
calcareous  mud."  Wethered  does  not,  however,  refer  the  fora- 
minifer he  saw  to  any  particular  genus. 

Description,  of  the  Foro,rtiini/era. 

Fam.   ASTRORHIZID^. 

Subfam.  SACCAMMININ.E. 

Genus  PsammospH/Era  Schulze. 

PsAMMOSPH.ERA  XEMINGHENSI8,  n.sp.      (Plates  xxxix  ,  figs.  1-2; 

xl,  fig.lO;  xli.,  figs.11-12). 
Description.  — Tent  rudely  spherical  to  elongate  Hask-shape. 
Wall  composed  of  granular  particles  neatly  fitted  together,  form- 
ing one  or  two  layers,  and  distinct  from  the  large  crystalline 
grains  of  the  matrix  more  or  less  completely  infilling  the  cavity 
of  the  test.  Apertures  apparently  between  the  components  of 
the  test- wall  or,  more  rarely,  as  a  slight  protuberance  on  the 
surface. 

Diameter,  circ.  0*4  to  0'75  mm. 

Observations. — The  above  form   has  a  certain  resemblance   to 

*  "On  the  Microscopic  Structure  and  Re.sidue.s  Insoluble  in  Hydro- 
chloric Acid  in  the  Devonian  Limestones  of  South  Devon."  (^uart.  Journ. 
Geol.  Soc,  Vol.xlviii.,  1892,  pp.377-387. 


388  DEVONIAN  FORAMINIFERA,  TAMWORTH  DISTRICT, 

Saccamndna,  but  it  never  has  the  orifice  so  strongly  protuberant. 
Psammosphcei'a,  as  a  genus,  has  not  been  found  in  fossil  deposits 
older  than  the  Jurassic,  from  which  system  Dr.  Haeusler*  has 
recorded  the  living  species  P.  fusca  Schulze.  Tlie  present 
species  is  less  than  half  the  size  of  the  Jurassic  and  recent  forms. 
P.  nemiiighensis  is  by  far  the  commonest  foraminifer  in  the 
Nemingha  limestone,  representing  about  90  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  foraminiferal  remains 

Fam.  TEXTULARTID^. 

Genus  V  a  l  v  u  l  i  n  a  d'Orbigny. 

Valvulina   PLicATA,  Brady.     (Plate  xxxix.,  figs. 3,  4). 

Vaivnlina  plicata  Brady,  1873,  Mem.  Geol.  8urv.  Scotland, 
Expl.  Sheet  23,  pp. 06,  95,  etc.:  Idem,  Pal.  8oc.  Mon.,  Vol.  xxx., 
1876,  p.88,  PL  iv.,  figs.lO,  11.  Chapman,  1907,  "Notes  on 
Fossils  from  the  Collie  Coal-field,"  Bull.  Geol.  Surv.  W.  Austr., 
No.27,  p.l6,  PI.  ii.,  figs.lOa-c. 

Observations. — Several  specimens  occur  in  the  microscope- 
slides,  which  compare  closely  with  Brady's  species  from  the 
Lower  and  Upper  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  England  and 
Scotland,  as  well  as  in  the  Fusulitta-heds  (Carboniferous)  of  Iowa, 
U.S.A.  The  writer  has  described  a  diminutive  specimen  of  the 
above  species  from  the  Carbopermian  Sandstone  associated  with 
Glossopteris  leaves  from  Collie,  W.  Australia. 

An  example  occurs  in  one  of  the  slides,  which  indicates  a 
plastogamic  union  of  two  individuals,  as  frequently  seen  in  Bis- 
corbina,  Vaginulina,  and  other  genera. 

Valvulina  bulloides  Brady.     (Plate  xxxix.,  figs.5,  6,  7). 

Vaivnlina  bulloides  Brady,  1876,  Pal.  Soc.  Mon.,  Vol.  xxx  , 
p.89,  PL  iv.,  figs.12-15.  Chapman  and  Howchin,  1905,  "Mon. 
Foram.  Peimo-Carboniferous  Limestones  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  Mem. 
Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.,  No.14,  p.l3,  PL  i.,  tigs.9a-c. 

Observations.  —This  species  closely  resembles  a  high  and  tumid 
Globigerina,  but  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  open  umbilical 
cavity  on  the  lower  surface,  and  the  valvuline  aperture. 

*  Quart.  Journ.  Geol  Soc,  Vol.  xxxix.,  1883,  p.26,  PI.  ii.,  fig.l. 


BY  F.   rHAPMAN.  389 

V.  bulloides  was  previously  confined  tu  the  Carboniferous  and 
Carboperinian.  Dr.  H.  B.  Brady  records  from  the  Futtulitia-hed^ 
of  the  Upper  Coal- Measures  of  North  America,  the  Calcaire  de 
Naraur  of  J^elgium,  and  the  Fusulina-Limestone  of  Miatschkovo, 
near  Moscow.  The  same  species  was  described  by  Mr.  Howchin 
and  the  writer  from  the  Carbopermian  limestone  (Branxton  Stage 
of  the  Upper  Marine  Series),  of  Wollongong,  N.  8.  Wales. 

Not  uncommon  in  the  Nemingha  Limestone. 

Valvulina  oblong  a,  sp.nov.     (Plate  xl.,  fig.  8). 

Description. — Several  examples  of  an  elongated  valvuline  type 
occur  in  the  slides.  They  remind  one  of  a  short,  stout  Haplo- 
phraginium,  or  the  Lituola  nautiloidea  Lam.,  figured  by  Dr.  Brady 
from  the  Carboniferous  of  Northumberland,*  but  show  the  de- 
pressed base  and  characteristic  aperture  of  these  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  modifications  of  Valvulina. 

The  longer  diameter  of  a  fairly  complete  specimen  in  section 
is  1  mm.;  the  shorter  diameter,  0*65  mm. 

PuLViNULiNA  BENSOM,  sp.nov.      (Plate  xl.,  fig. 9). 

Description. — This  species  differs  from  the  majority  of  the  test- 
sections  in  the  micro-slides  of  the  Nemingha  limestone  in  having 
a  finely  granulate  shell-wall,  which  may,  at  one  time,  have  been 
of  hyaline  structure.  The  section  figured  shows  a  certain  amount 
of  depth,  although  sliced,  and  indicates  a  pulvinuline  type  of 
shell  with  few,  lobulate  chambers,  and  a  wavy,  peripheral  margin. 
Jt  was  probably  depressed  on  the  superior  face,  and  slightly 
conoidal  on  the  inferior. 

The  nearest  Palaeozoic  form  to  this  seems  to  be  P.  hrorchijana 
Brady,t  from  the  Carboniferous  Limestone  of  Namur,  Belgium, 
but  diifers  essentially  in  its  rounder  outline  and  less  inflated 
chambers.  It  belongs  to  the  Fii/viiiulina  eleyaiis  group,  and, 
from  its  size  and  contour,  indicates  a  shallow-water  variant  of 
that  type  of  shell. 


*  Pal.  Soc.  Mon.,  Vol.  xxx.,  1876,  p.63,  PI.  viii.,  figs. 7a,  b. 
t  Pal.  8oc.  Moil.,  Vol.  xxx.,  1876,  p.l40,  PI.  vi.,  tigs.r2a-t'. 


390  DEVONIAN  FORAMINIFERA,   TAMAVORTH    DISTRICT, 

Summary. 

The  components  of  the  Nemmgha  limestone  appear  to  be 
largely  foraminiferal,  comprising,  so  far  as  the  evidence  from 
microscope  rock-sections  shows,  an  abundant  species  of  Psammo- 
sphcera  —P.  neminghensis;  and  the  following  more  or  less  sparsely 
represented — Valvulina  plicata  Brady.  V.  hnlloides  Brady,  and 
V.  oblouya,  sp.nov.;  whilst  Pulvinulina  appears  to  be  present  in 
P.  bensoni,  sp.nov. 

The  genus  Psainmosphcp.ra  is  more  at  home  in  deep  rather  than 
in  shallow  water,  though  it  has  been  found  in  depths  as  little  as 
45  fathoms.  The  other  genera  indicate  a  fairly  shallow-water 
habitat. 

One  special  point  of  interest  stands  out  conspicuously  in  the 
f <n-aminifera  of  this  limestone,  viz,,  the  rather  strong  resemblance 
of  the  rare  Devonian  foraminiferal  fauna  to  the  Carboniferous 
and  higher  beds  of  the  Palaeozoic. 

Radiolaria  seem  to  form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
granules  in  the  Nemingha  limestone,  but  their  mineralised  con- 
dition precludes  any  reference  to  definite  genera. 

As  regards  the  probable  depth  at  which  the  rock  was  formed, 
one  might  reasonably  assume  it  to  be  of  moderately  deep  water 
origin  from  the  occurrence  of  Psavimosp/ict^ra  and  the  radiola- 
rians.  On  the  other  hand,  oolitic  grains  are  indicative  of  quite 
shallow-water  areas,  though  this  latter  constituent  is  by  no  means 
predominant,  and  may  not  materially  affect  the  above  conclusion. 
The  general  condition  of  deposition  must  have  been  such  as 
would  obtain  in  a  moderately  deep  inland  gulf  with  quiet  sedi- 
mentation and  accumulation  of  ooze-forming  organisms:  and  it 
is  just  possible  that  the  oolite-grains  may  have  been  blown  into 
the  area  of  deposition  from  dunes  of  shore-sand  origin  in  the 
vicinity. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  tender  my  sincere  thanks  to  Dr.  Benson 
for  giving  me  the  opportunity  of  examining  this  interesting  lime- 
stone, and  facilitating  this  attempt  to  describe  a  unique  faunula 
by  furnishing  the  microscope  preparations. 


BY  F.  CHAPMAN.  391 

EXT>LAXATIOX  OF  PLATES  XXXIX.-XLI. 
Plate  xxxix. 

Fig.  1. — P.^ammospJiii  ra  iH//iiit;/htn.-^l.^,  sp.nov.     Section  through  test  show- 
ing shell-wall  and  introverted  aperture. 

Fig,2. — P.  nemitif/henms,  sp.nov.     Section  showing  interior  thickened  with 
secondarj'^  ealcitic  deposit. 

Fig. 3. —  Valni/ina  ;>/?Va/o  Brady.     Section  through  and  a  little  above  the 
hase. 

Fig.4. —  r.  plicata  Brad3'.     Two  tests,  probahlj-  in  plastogamie  union. 

Fig.o.— r.  biUloide-^  Brady.     Flattened  and  almost  complete  test. 

Fig.O. —  r.  /)«//o/c/es- Brady.     ^Median  section. 

Fig.  7. —  r.  IndlokleM  Brady.     Nearly  complete  test. 
All  figures  magnified  Trl  diams. 

Plate  xl. 
Fig. 8, —  Vulrnltna  oh/oiu/a,  sp.nov.      Basal  section;  (  x  .Vi). 
Fig. 9. — Pith'inu/lna  h('n-<ou't,  sp.nov.     Almost  complete  test;  (  x  .12). 
Fig.  10. — Section  through  P>iainmof<p]ufra  nem i nf/hensls,  ^howmyr  relative 
thickness  of  test;  (  x  144). 

Plate  xli. 
Fig.  1 1. — Section  of  Nemingha  limestone  with  oolite-grains,  Psiuninosplntra, 

and  (V)radiolarian;  (  x  2S). 
Fig.  12. — Ditto,  with  oolite-grains  and  Pscuninosplittra;  (  x  28). 


392 


Appendix  ii. 

Note  on  a  new  Species  of  CHiETETES. 

By  Fredk.  Chapman,  A.L.8.,  F.R.M.S.,  Palaeontologist  to  the 

National  Museum,  Melbourne. 

(Plate  xlii.) 

Introduction. 

The  genus   CJuptetes,   founded  by  Fischer  in  1837,*  is  almost 

entirely    confined    to    the    Carboniferous.       Nicholson,     in    liis 

'•Tabulate  Corals  of  the  Palaeozoic  Period,*'!  says  "The  species 

of  ChfHetes  as  here  defined,  are  not  known  to  occur  out  of  the 

Carboniferous  (and  possibly  the  Devonian)  rocks,''  but  he  does 

not  specify  any  occurrence  from  the  latter  system.     Zittel  states 

that  the  genus  is  also  found  in  the  Lias  and  Upper  Jurassic; 

It  is,  therefore,  deeply  interesting  to  find  an  Australian  species 
of  the  C.  radians  type  in  the  f^oomberah  Limestone,§  which,  if 
Dr.  Benson's  final  conclusions  bear  out  his  preliminary  investi- 
gations, belongs  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Middle  Devonian.  The 
peculiar  habit  of  the  corallites  in  this  genus,  in  showing  partial 
fission  of  some  of  the  calices  by  imperfect  partitions  which  are 
tooth-like  projections  in  horizontal  section,  is  well  shown  in  the 
present  species.  Further,  it  is  important  to  note  that  our  species 
shows  the  presence  of  a  dark  line  in  the  septal  wall,  notwith- 
standing its  supposed  absence  from  that  of  C.  radians.\\ 

*  Oryet.  de  Gouv.  de  ^Sloscou,  p.  159. 
t  London,  1879,  p. 266. 

:::  See  Zittel.  Traite  de  Paleontologie,  1888,  Vol.  i.,  Pt.  i.,  p. 628.     Also 
Eastman-Zittel,  Text-book  of  Paleontologj-,  Vol.  i.,  1918,  p.  118. 
§  See  Proc.  Linn.  Soe.  N.  8.  Wales,  1915,  xl.,  Pt.8,  pp.546,  549,  and  559. 

I  Eastman-Zittel  says  {op.  cit.,  pp.  117)  — "  Walls  thoroughly  amalga- 
mated, common  to  adjacent  corallites.*'  Nicholson  [op.  cit.,  p.263)  says 
'•  Rough  fractures  (generally,  but  not  always)  expose  the  interior  of  the 
tubes;  and  thin  sections,  whether  transverse  or  longitudinal,  show  that 
the  walls  of  contiguous  corallites  are  entirelj'  and  undistinguishabl^-  amal- 
gamated or  fused  with  one  another,  the  originallj'  duplex  character  of  the 
partition  between  neighbouring  corallites  being  in  no  case  recognisable." 


BY  F.  CHAPMAN.  393 

Ch^etetes  stelliformis,  sp.nov.     (Plate  xlii.,  figs.  1-3). 

Description. — Corallum  mas.sive,  moderately  large.  Corallites 
crowded,  .slender,  and  gently  curved.  In  cro.ss-.section  roundly 
polygonal  and  occasionally  elongated,  averaging  about  0-5  mm. 
in  diameter;  with  one  to  four,  but  generally  three,  blunt  peg- 
like teeth  projecting  into  the  cavity,  representing  imperfect 
fission  of  the  calices  by  longitudinal  partitions  on  the  calicular 
wall.  Tabulai  well  developed,  from  05  mm.  to  1-5  mm.  apart, 
sometimes  in  continuous  planes  across  the  corallum,  but  often 
more  irregular  and  strongly  curved.  Unlike  other  species  of 
ClKtfples,  a  fine  but  distinct  dark  line  is  seen  dividing  the  walls 
of  the  cells  (see  remarks  antea). 

Observations.  —  This  coral  is  of  the  type  of  the  abundantly  dis- 
tributed Cluvietes  radians  Fischer,  from  the  Lower  Carboniferous 
of  Hussia,  England,  and  elsewhere,*  but  is  distinct  in  many 
points,  as  in  the  more  roundly  polygonal  calices,  the  more 
numerous  longitudinal  partitions  appearing  as  projecting  tooth- 
like processes  in  cross-section,  and  in  the  strong  fusion-points 
where  calice-wall  and  tabulae  meet.  In  longitudinal  section,  this 
latter  feature  is  verj^  marked,  and,  at  the  point  of  junction,  forms 
a  stout  cross  with  pointed  arms. 

ChceteteK  depressus,  Fleming  sp.,t  is  characterised  by  much 
smaller  calices,  measuring  0*2  mm.  to  0'26  mm.,  or  about 
one-half  the  diameter  of  C.  stelliformis.  The  diameter  of  the 
calices  in  C.  radians,  on  the  other  hand,  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  in  C.  stelliformis,  viz.,  about  0  5  mm.  In  the  excellent 
figures  of  C.  radians  given  by  Dr.  Nicholson  in  his  "  Tabulate 
Corals,";  those  of  the  Russian  Carboniferous  specimens  show  a 
much  thicker  calicular  wall  than  in  C.  stelliformis,  whilst  the 


»  Oiyct.  de  Gouv.  de  Moscou,  1837,  p.  160,  PL  xxxvi.,  fig. 6.  See  also 
Lonsdale,  in  Murchison,  Verneuil  and  Keyserling,  Geol.  Russia  in 
Europe,  Vol.  i.,  1845,  p.595,  PI.  A,  fig.9. 

t  Favosites  depressns  Fleming,   Brit.  Anim.,  1828,  p.  529.      F.  capillar  is 
John  Phillips,   Geol.    Yorkshire,   2nd  Pt.,    1836,   p. 200,  PI.  iii.,  figs. 3-5. 
Alveolites  clepressa  Fleming  sp.,    Edwards  and   Haime,  Mon.  Brit.  Foss. 
Corals,  Pt.  iii.;  Mon.  Pal.  Soc,  1852,  p.  158,  PI.  xlv.,  figs. 4,  4a. 
:*;  Supra  cit.,  PI.  xii.,  figs. 4,  ^a-d. 

29 


394  NOTK  ON  A  NEW  SPECIES  OF  CHiETETES. 

tabula?  are  remarkably  regular  and  horizontal,  as  distinguished 
from  the  irregular  and  strongly  curved  tabulae  in  the  Australian 
Devonian  species.  On  the  same  Plate,  Nicholson  has  figured 
(fig.  4c,d)  sections  of  a  coral  from  the  Carboniferous  of  Shap, 
Westmoreland,  which  he  refers  to  C.  radians,  and  which  ap- 
proaches the  Australian  species  in  its  thin  walls  and  more  con- 
spicuous projections. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XLII. 

Chcetetefi  stelUformif^,  sp.nov. 
Fig.  1. — Exterior  of  fractured  surface  of  specimen,  showing  small  size  of 

corallites,  their  gentlj^  curved  habit  and  interrupted  platforms  of 

tabulse;  1|  nat.  size. 
Fig.  2. — Transverse  section  of  corallum,  showing  strong  development   of 

partitions  and  occasional  fission  of  corallites;  (  x  16). 
Fig. 3. — Longitudinal  section,   showing  complex    nature  of    wall,    curved 

tabulse  and  longitudinal  partitions;  (  x  16). 


395 


STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA. 

No.  ii.  The  Wing-venation  of  Chorista  australis  Klug. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plate  xliii.;  and  four  Text-figures). 

In  collecting  the  evidence  required  for  my  work  upon  the 
Panorpoid  Complex,  it  was  found  necessary  to  examine  the  pupal 
tracheation  of  examples  of  all  the  Orders  there  studied.  The 
only  Order  in  which  this  had  not  yet  been  done  (for  at  least  one 
example  of  the  Order)  was  the  Mecoptera;  in  which  so  little  is 
known  of  the  life-histories,  that  it  appears  that  only  two  observers, 
Brauer  in  Austria  and  Miyake  in  Japan,  have  ever  succeeded 
in  following  up  the  complete  life-history  of  any  single  species. 
Neither  of  these  authors  was  seized  with  the  importance  of 
making  a  study  of  the  pupal  wing-tracheation,  although  it  is 
evident  that  the  opportunity  was  offered  to  both  of  them."*^  The 
work  of  both  was  carried  out  upon  the  genus  Panorpa,  which  is 
abundant  enough  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  but  does  not 
occur  in  Australia. 

It  was  therefore  necessary  for  me  to  set  about  the  discovery 
of  the  pupa  of  some  Australian  representative  of  the  Order.  The 
only  species  that  is  at  all  common  round  Sydney  is  Harpohittacus 
tiUyardi  Esb  -Pet.  But  this  belongs  to  a  family  that  is,  in  man}'' 
ways,  the  most  highly  specialised  of  all  the  Mecoptera;  whereas, 
for  my  purposes,  it  was  clear  that  an  archaic  representative  of 
the  Order  was  to  be  preferred.  I  therefore  decided  to  follow  up 
the  life-history  of  the  rare  Chorista  australis  Klug,  of  which  I 

*  Brauer's  work  was  done  long  before  theComstock-Needham  Theorj'  of 
Venation  saw  the  light.    Mij^ake's  work  is  of  recent  date,  but  its  objective 

was  not  venational,  and  the  pupal  wings  were  not  examined. 


396  STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA,  ii., 

had  obtained  only  about  seven  specimens  in  the  course  of  as 
many  years. 

Last  year,  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  find  this  rare  species 
fairly  commonly,  for  the  first  time  since  I  had  begun  collecting 
insects  around  Sydney  (about  fourteen  years).  More  fortunately 
still,  the  area  in  which  they  occurred  was  a  very  restricted  one, 
only  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  my  house  at  Hornsby.  In 
this  locality,  I  took,  in  the  course  of  three  weeks'  collecting  in 
April,  1917,  nearly  one  hundred  specimens  of  this  species. 
Several  of  the  females  laid  eggs,  but  unfortunately  none  of  these 
were  fertile.  I  therefore  watched  carefully  to  see  where  the 
females  appeared  to  be  ovipositing,  and  determined  to  select  a 
small  area  where  there  would  seem  to  be  a  probability  of  finding 
the  larv?e  in  February  and  March  of  this  year. 

As  nothing  is  know^n  of  the  life-history  of  this  species,  I  worked 
upon  the  supposition  that  its  larva  would  behave  much  as  that 
of  Panorjm;  i.e.,  that  it  would  become  rapidly  full-fed,  and  then 
burrow  into  the  ground  and  remain  there  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  only  pupating  a  week  or  two  before  the  emergence  of 
the  imago.  This  supposition  proved  to  be  fairly  correct. 
Digging  and  sifting  of  the  soil  in  which  the  larva  was  expected 
to  occur  was  begun  in  February  and  continued  into  March.  The 
details  of  this  arduous  but  interesting  work  are  best  left  to  be 
given  in  a  full  account  of  the  life-history,  which  I  hope  to  pub- 
lish later  on.  Meanwhile,  it  will  be  sufiicient  to  say  that,  one 
day  in  March,  freshly  turned  pup?e  were  obtained,  and  that  these 
were  at  once  made  use  of  for  the  purposes  of  this  paper. 

Owing  to  the  shape  of  the  pupa,  and  the  direction  of  the  wing- 
sheaths,  which  are  laid  more  parallel  to  the  abdomen  than  is  usual 
in  pupse,  it  was  not  found  practicable  to  use  the  method  adopted 
previously  in  the  case  of  Chryso'pa.  It  \vas  necessary  to  separate 
the  wings  from  one  another  carefully,  and  to  cut  them  off  at  their 
extreme  bases  with  sharp  scissors.  As  the  wings  are  excessively 
delicate,  this  was  not  easy  to  do  successfully.  The  photomicro- 
graphs obtained  show  how  the  delicate  wings  became  creased 
near  their  middles,  in  the  endeavour  tu  separate  the  glued  ex- 


fiY    R.    J.    TILLYARb.  397 

tremities;  and  also  how,  in  the  forewing,  a  portion  of  the  fat- 
body,  lodged  in  the  extreme  base  of  the  wing,  got  carried  over 
on  to  the  wing  wjien  the  cover-slip  was  let  down  upon  it.  Apart 
from  this,  the  residts  obtained  were  quite  satisfactory. 

The  Mecoptera  are  generally  regarded  as  being  an  extremely 
archaic  Order  of  Insects;  and  I'ightly  so,  for  both  in  their  general 
structure  and  in  their  Palpeontological  record,  the  evidence  tends 
to  emphasise  the  fact  that  they  are  quite  as  old  as  any  existing 
Holometabola,  if  not  older.  Within  the  Order,  the  genus 
Chorista  is  one  of  the  most  archaic  types  still  extan^,  and  shows 
close  relationship  to  forms  found  in  the  Permian.  I  was  there- 
fore quite  prepared,  and  indeed  expectant,  to  find  a  very  primi- 
tive and  complete  tracheational  development  in  the  pupal  wings 
of  this  insect;  and  I  was  relying  upon  this  to  solve  certain 
problems  concerning  the  fusion  of  some  of  the  main  veins  near 
the  base  of  the  wing,  which  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty 
from  the  imaginal  venation.  But  the  result  obtained  was  quite 
different  from  what  was  expected;  and,  if  there  is  any  truth  at 
all  in  the  Comstock-Needham  Theory  of  Wing- Venation,  we  must 
regard  Chorista  as  a  very  highly  specialised  type  in  this  one  par- 
ticular, if  not  in  any  other. 

The  facts  of  the  case  can  be  gathered  very  readily  from  a 
reference  to  the  photomicrographs  in  Plate  xliii.,  as  well  as  the 
drawings  in  Text-fig.  1.  There  are  only  tioo  inain  trachea'  enter- 
ing the  winy-radiment.  One  of  these  belongs  to  the  costo-radial 
group,  and  passes  into  the  main  stem  of  the  radius.  In  the  fore- 
wing,  after  giving  off  a  very  short  and  slender  branch  to  R^,  it 
passes  on  along  the  radial  sector.  At  the  forking  of  Rs  into 
R2+3  and  R4-f-5,  it  follows  the  upper  branch,  giving  oft'  a  fairly 
strong  branch-trachea  along  the  lower.  Arriving  at  the  forking 
of  R.^  from  R3,  it  bends  weakly  down  into  the  latter,  and  does  not 
reach  the  tip  of  the  wing.  The  lower  branch  of  this  trachea  passes 
along  Ri^o  into  R5,  giving  oft"  a  short  branch  to  R4,  and  finally 
ends  up  by  bending  down  into  Rgt-  In  the  hindwing,  there  is 
only  a  minute  vestige  of  the  branch  into  Rj.  The  main  trachea 
passes  on  into  Rs;  arriving  at  the  fork  of  the  sector,  it  gives  oft' 


398 


STtJDlES  In  AUSTRALIAN  *IECOPTERA,  ii. 


only  a  weak  branch  into  R2+35  and  passes  on  into  R44-5.  Branches 
of  about  equal  strength  are  given  off  to  both  R4  and  Rg.  The 
former  passes  up  along  a  cross- vein  into  R^,  while  the  latter  per- 
forms a  similar  evolution  nearer  to  the  apex  of  the  wing,  ending 
up  in  R4. 


lA     Cuj   Ca,   M4b  l^+a 


w 


•   Text-fii 
ings  of  a  pupa  of  Ghorista  auKtralis 


King,  9,  freshly-tunied;  (  x21). 
Senii-diagranimatic,  the  tracheation  represented  by  continuous  black 
lines,  the  imaginal  venation  b^^  dotted  lines;  k,  the  point  at  which 
Cuj  meets  a  short  cross-vein  from  M,  eventually  fusing  with  M  in  the 
imaginal  venation  :  ^[t,  median  tiacliea;  Rf^  radial  trachea.  For  rest 
of  lettering,  see  p.  408. 

The  second  main  trachea  of  the  wing  is  of  smaller  calibre,  and 
belongs  to  the  cubito-anal  group.  It  enters  the  wing-rudiment 
along  the  media.  In  the  forewing,  it  is  quite  unbranched,  and 
passes  finally  into  M3  in  an  almost  straight  line.  In  the  hind- 
wing,  it  gives  off  short  branches  to  the  cubital  fork  and  also  to 
M3_^4,  and  its  distal  end  passes  into  a  cross-vein  below  M.^. 

A  second  pupa  was  examined  and  its  wings  photographed,  but 
the  negatives  obtained  were  not  very  satisfactor3\      In  this  case, 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  399 

the  distal  endings  of  some  of  the  tracheje  were  different  from  those 
recorded  above;  e.g.^  tlie  trachea  in  R.j  of  the  forewing  passed 
down  into  R4  via  a  cross-vein.  The  median  trachea  of  the  fore- 
wing  also  gave  out  a  short  branch  to  the  cubital  fork. 

Only  two  pupje  were  available  for  study.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  further  minor  variations  would  have  been  found  had 
a  longer  series  of  puppe  been  examined. 

There  is  only  one  conclusion  to  be  come  to  from  this  result. 
It  is,  that  the  Mecoptera,  as  exemplified  by  the  archaic  genus 
Cho7'ista — and,  therefore,  presumably,  by  other  existing  genera — 
are  highly  specialised  as  an  Order  along  the  same  lines  that  we 
find  in  the  Hymenoptera,  Trichoptera,  and  Diptera,  viz.,  by  the 
reduction  of  their  wing-tracheation.  The  cause  of  this  reduction 
is  almost  certainly  the  same  in  all  four  Orders,  viz.,  that  the 
trachese  do  not  grow  into  the  wing-rudiment  until  the  latter  has 
been  fully  formed,  with  the  venational  scheme  completely  laid 
down.  In  such  a  case,  there  is  no  longer  any  need  for  a  trachea- 
tional  scheme,  to  guide  in  the  laying  down  of  the  venational 
scheme  originally  based  upon  it;  the  only  necessity  is  to  supply 
the  wing  with  oxygen.  Consequently,  there  will  be  a  tendency 
to  reduce  the  tracheal  supply  to  the  minimum  necessary  for  this 
purpose;  and,  also,  for  the  tracheae  to  cease  to  follow  their 
original  paths,  and  to  take  instead  the  path  of  least  resistance. 
Both  these  tendencies  are  well  illustrated  by  the  case  here 
studied. 

The  same  tendency,  with  many  stages  still  preserved  to  us,  has 
been  noted  already  in  the  Order  Plectoptera;  an  Order  which, 
curiously  enough,  approaches  most  closely  to  the  Holometabola, 
in  that  it  possesses,  in  its  sub-imaginal  stage,  what  appears  to 
have  been  Nature's  first  attempt  to  evolve  a  true  resting-stage  or 
pupa.  The  pupa  of  the  archaic  Mecoptera  closely  resembles  the 
imago  in  everything  except  tlie  form  of  its  mouth-parts  and  the 
non- expansion  of  its  wings.  Thus  it  only  differs  from  the  sub- 
imago  of  the  May-flies  in  being  unable  to  fly,  and  in  slightly  less 
mobility  of  its  free  appendages.  In  the  Order  Plectoptera,  there 
are  a  number  of  genera  known  in  which   the   remaining  wing- 


400  STUDIES  iX  AUStRALlAS'  MECOPTERA,  ii., 

ti'aclieEe  all  come  off  from  a  single  stem.  This  must  be  regarded 
as  a  higher  specialisation  than  that  found  in  the  Mecoptera,  or 
in  any  Holometabolous  Ordei'.  For,  in  all  of  these,  it  would 
appear  that  tu-o  is  the  minimum  number  of  wing-tracheae  yet 
reached  in  the  course  of  evolution,  i.e.,  one  from  each  of  the  main 
tracheal  groups. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  courses  of  these  two  trachea^ 
in  the  four  Holometabolous  Orders  which  show  reduction.  Of 
the  four,  the  only  one  which  retains  the  media  intact  and  separate 
from  the  base  onwards  is  the  Mecoptera.  In  this  Order,  the 
trachea  belonging  to  the  cubito-anal  group  passes  into  the  media, 
which  is  as  far  forward  as  it  could  possibly  get.  This  shows 
clearly  that,  in  the  ancestral  form  of  the  Mecoptera,  the  median 
trachea  had  already  become  attached  to  the  cubito-anal  group,  as 
it  has  in  most  Orders  of  Insects.  In  the  Hymenoptera,  the  media 
is  suppressed  in  the  imaginal  venation,  and  only  a  bare  vestige 
of  its  trachea  is  to  be  seen  in  a  very  ancient  family,  the  Siricidce. 
The  principal  trachea  of  the  cubito-anal  group  passes  along  the 
cubitus,  and  may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  a  separate  anal 
trachea  behnv  it.  In  the  highest  forms,  this  latter  becomes  fused 
with  the  cubital  trachea;  so  that  the  condition  of  two  trachea? 
only,  in  the  wing-rudiment,  is  there  fully  reached.  In  the 
Trichoptera  and  Diptera,  in  which  the  media  is  fused  basally 
with  either  the  radius  or  the  cubitus  for  a  greater  or  less  dis- 
tance, the  trachea  of  the  cubito-anal  group  passes  likewise  along 
the  cubitus. 

From  a  study  of  this  character  only,  then,  it  is  clear  that  the 
Mecoptera  present  a  more  archaic  stage  than  that  seen  in  the 
Trichoptera  and  Diptera;  and  hence  there  is  no  evidence  here 
against  the  presumption  that  both  these  Orders  are  derived  from 
the  older  Mecoptera,  as  Handlirsch  supposed.  The  Hymenoptera, 
on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be  derived  from  the  Mecoptei-a,  since 
they  show  a  more  archaic  stage  in  the  Siricida'  and  some  other 
families  (where  more  than  two  trachea3  are  still  present),  even 
though  they  stand  far  in  advance  of  the  Mecoptera  in  having  the 
media  eliminated  from  their  venational  scheme. 


BY    R.    J.    TlLLYARlJ.  401 

Turning  now  to  the  Orders  Lepidoptera  and  Planipennia,  we 
see  that  both  of  tliese  preserve  the  complete  set  of  tracheie  in  the 
pupal  wing.  In  this  character,  then,  they  are  both  of  them 
much  more  archaic  than  the  Mecoptera  and  the  other  three 
Orders  discussed  above.  It  must  be  clear,  therefore,  on  this 
character  alone,  that  the  Lepidoptera  cannot  be  descended  either 
from  the  Mecoptera,  as  Handlirsch  supposed,  or  from  the  Tri- 
choptera,  as  Meyrick  would  have  it. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  question  of  the  interpretation  of  the 
imaginal  wing-venation  in  Chorista.  The  tracheation  having 
failed  us,  what  other  evidence  have  we  to  go  upon  in  working 
this  out? 

First  of  all,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  main  scheme  of  venation 
in  Chorista^  like  that  of  the  Trichoptera,  is  so  primitive  that 
there  can  be  no  hesitation  in  naming  the  veins,  even  though  we 
cannot  call  upon  the  trachea?  as  evidence.  The  subcosta,  the 
radius,  the  radial  sector  with  its  dichotomous  branches,  and  the 
anal  veins  can  all  be  named  without  any  misgivings.  It  is  only 
the  media  and  cubitus  that  offer  a  difficult  problem.  By  re- 
ferring to  Text-fig.  1,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  main  stem  of  the 
media,  in  both  fore-  and  hind  wings,  is  continued  straight  on  by 
a  strongly  convex  vein  right  to  the  wing-border.  All  the  rest 
of  the  media  lies  anteriorly  to  this.  The  media  being  properly 
a  concave  vein,  it  follows  that  there  is  at  once  a  strong  supposi- 
tion that  this  straight  prolongation  of  the  media  is  really  Cuj, 
and  that  the  result  has  been  brought  about  by  a  fusion  of  this 
latter  vein,  not  far  from  its  original  at  the  cubital  fork,  witli  the 
main  stem  of  the  media. 

If  we  examine  the  imaginal  venation  carefully,  we  shall  see  at 
once  strong  evidence  in  favour  of  this  view.  Picking  up  the 
base  of  the  cubitus,  which  is  a  very  weakly  chitinised  vein,  and 
following  it  to  the  cubital  fork  (en/),  we  see  that  the  apparent 
cross-vein  from  this  point  to  the  media  may  very  well  be  the 
basal  portion  of  Cuj,  arching  up  to  unite  with  the  media  at  the 
point  k;  and  then  leaving  it  again  as  the  straight,  strong,  convex 
vein  in  question.      If  that  be  so,   then  Cuo  hi  the  forewing  is  the 


402 


STUDIES  IX  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA,  II. 


vein  that  continues  the  hue  ut"  the  stem  of  Cu;  while,  in  the 
liimlwing,  it  must  fuse  with  lA  for  a  short  distance,  and  then 
separate  from  it  again  towards  the  wing-margin. 

We  must  now  ask  for  definite  proof  that  this  supposition  is 
the  correct  one.  That  proof  is  forthcoming  from  two  separate 
sources,  viz.,  the  pupal  wing-venation,  and  the  imaginal  wing- 
venation.     We  may  take  these  two  separately. 

(1)  Evidence  from  the  papal  wing-venatwii: — In  the  freshly 
turned  pupa,  less  than  one  day  old,  the  fusions  of  veins  that  take 
place  in  the  imaginal  venation  are  not  completed,  but  only  just 
beginning.  (The  photomicrographs  in  Plate  xliii.,  are  from  a 
pupa  at  least  three  days  old;  those  taken  from  a  freshly  turned 
pupa  showed  the  separate  veins  much  more  distinctly,  but  unfor- 
tunately the  negatives  were  partially  spoilt  through  the  use  of 
stale  developer,  and  are  not  good  enough  to  reproduce). 


Text-fig.  2. 
Basal  part  of  hindMing  of  same  pupa  as  in  Text-fig.  1,  {  x  43),  to  show  the 
radial  {Rt),  and  median  {Mt)  tracheie,  the  approach  of  Cui  to  M,  and 
the  partial  fusion  of  Cuo  with  lA. 

Text-fig.  2  shows  a  camera-lucida  drawing  of  the  basal  part  of 
the  hind  wing  of  a  freshly-turned  pupa.  In  this,  the  separate 
veins  Cu.,  and  lA  can  be  clearly  seen  running  alongside  one 
another  for  some  distance,  and  then  diverging  again  towards  the 
wing-margin.     This  fixes  the  position  of  cuf  dX  the  point  already 


BY    R.    J.    llLLYARD. 


403 


selected.  The  upwardly  arching  branch  above  ctif  is  seen  to  be 
connected  witli  the  media  by  a  i<hort  crobS-rcAn,  descending  from 
the  latter  vein.  In  this  pupal  tracheation,  then,  the  line  of  the 
median  stem  is  not  continued  by  Cui,  but  by  the  true  media;  it 
is  only  a  rearrangement  of  the  positions  of  these  parts  in  the 
imaginal  venation  that  brings  Cuj  into  the  position  of  continuing 
the  line  of  M.^ 

The  case  for  the  forewing  is  still  simpler.  Here  there  is  no 
fusion  of  Cuo  with  lA,  and  the  parts  of  the  cubitus  can  be  seen 
to  be  quite  separate  from  both  M  and  lA. 

{'2)  Evidence  from  the  imaginal  venation: — The  evidence  that  I 
propose  to  bring  forward 
here  is  of  quite  a  novel 
kind,  and  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  used 
hitherto  in  any  research 
upon  wing- venation;  yet 
it  is  of  the  utmost  vahie. 

In   the   wings   of    all 

Holometabolous  Insects, 

two    kinds   of   hairs  or         j  /-x- 

setyy      are      developed.   \  L-^L_^___         2A. 

These  I  have  called  ma- 

crotrichia  and  mic7'otri-  Text-tig.o. 

chia  respectively,  t     The  Part  of  the  imaginal  venation  of  the  forewing 
former      are      in     most        ^^  Chorista  australis  Kkig,  in  the  region  of 
..,-,,      ,1  the  cubital  fork  (c?//),  to  show  distribution 

cases,   restricted  to  the         „  ^,  -  •  i-     /    .,^\     i    4-\        ■  *-    ^ 

'  of  the  niacrotnchia;  (  x  27) :  k,  the  ponit  at 

veins;  the  latter  are  which Cui  has  fused  with  M;  .r,  cross- veins. 
spread  indiscriminately, 

and  much  more  abundantly,  over  the  whole  of  the  w  ing.  In  the 
Mecoptera,  the  macrotrichia  are  found  upon  all  the  main  veins 
and  their  branches,  but  never  wpott  the  true  cross-veins.      Hence 


'"■  Compare  the  somewhat  analogous  condition  in  the  forewing  of  Myr- 
meleontidte,  where  Cuia  captures  Mo  close  to  its  origin. 

t  "Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland,  No.l.''  These  Proceedings,  1917, 
xHi.,  Part  1,  p.  195. 


404  STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA,  ii., 

we  have,  here,  a  fine  criterion  for  determining  whether  any  sup- 
posed cross-vein  is  really  such,  or  not. 

Let  us  apply  this  to  the  basal  portion  of  Cuj,  which,  arching 
up  in  the  imaginal  wing-\  enation  to  meet  M,  might  well  be  mis- 
taken for  a  cross- vein.  From  Text-fig. -3,  we  see  that  all  the 
cross-veins  around  it  are  destitute  of  macrotrichia.  Not  so  this 
vein,  however;  for  it  is  seen  to  carry  a  series  of  closely-set  macro- 
trichia, which  are  continued  along  the  rest  of  Cuj. 

Further,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  macrotrichia  de\eloped  upon 
the  media  are  less  in  number  than  those  upon  the  cubitus,  for 
any  given  length;  those  upon  the  cubitus  being  about  twice  as 
luunerous.  In  this  character  also,  the  continuity  of  Cuj  from 
cuf'u])  to  its  fusion  with  M,  and  thence  along  the  strong,  con%ex 
vein  already  mentioned,  is  clearly  indicated. 

Putting  the  two  sets  of  evidence  together,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  condition  of  the 
media  and  cubitus  is  that  which  is  given  in  the  Text-figures. 

Descrijytion  of  the  Wing-Venation.      (Text-fig.  4). 

Having  solved  the  above  problem,  we  can  now  name  all  parts 
of  the  wing-venation  without  any  doubt  whatever.  The  result 
is  shown  in  Text-fig. 4.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  wing-\'enational 
type  is  essentially  similar  to  that  of  the  Lepidoptera,  Trichoptera, 
and  Diptera,  except  for  the  fact  that  a  considerable  number  of 
unspecialised  cross-veins  are  developed  as  supports  between  the 
main  veins.  These  cross-veins  cannot  be  regarded  as  part  of 
the  original  venation,  since  they  do  not  carry  macrotrichia,  and 
are  absent  or  very  weakly  developed  in  the  oldest  genera,  both 
fossil  and  recent. 

The  Sabcosta  {Sc)  is  a  straight  \  ein  terminating  about  halfway 
along  the  costal  margin  in  the  hindwing,  somewhat  beyond  half- 
way in  the  forewing.  In  Chorista,  it  gives  off  only  a  single 
cross-vein  in  the  costal  space,  near  the  base  (occasionally,  as  in 
Text-fig. 4,  a  second  near  its  distal  end).  This  is  the  homologue 
of  the  humeral  cross-vein  in  Lepidoptera  and  Trichoptera,  and  is 
a  true  cross-vein,  since  it  does  not  carry  macrotrichia. 


BY    R 


TILLYARD. 


^A 

in 

M 

\ 

405 


406  STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA,  ii., 

Tlie  Radius  {R)  is  a  strong  convex  vein  branching  at  the 
radial  fork  {rf)  into  Rj  and  Rs.  The  main  stem,  Rj,  reaches 
the  wing-margin  well  before  the  apex.  Around  its  distal  end  is 
formed  the  pierostigma  {'pt),  a  hardened  membranous  area 
bounded  by  the  costal  margin  above  and  the  pApvostuimatic  furrow 
{ptf)  beneath.  Within  this  area  are  sometimes  developed  one 
or  more  ptpvostiy mafic  vpinhfs,  which  are  also  parts  of  the 
original  venation,  not  cross-veins,  but  true  branches  of  Rj,  since 
they  carry  macrotrichia.  The  Radial  St^cfor  (Rs)  has  the  typical 
dichotomous  branching  seen  in  the  Trichoptera,  giving  rise,  in 
each  wing,  to  four  branches,  R.,,  R3,  R4,  and  R.,  respectively. 
The  separation  of  R.,  from  R;.  takes  place  far  distad,  under  the 
pterostigma;  that  of  R^  from  R5  much  further  basad,  not  far 
from  the  first  forking  of  Rs  into  R2-1-3  and  R4_|^5.  All  these 
branches  are  connected  and  strengthened  b}'  a  number  of  cross- 
veins,  whose  position  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals. 

The  .]ffidia  (M)  resembles  the  radial  sector  in  the  manner  of 
its  branching,  as  in  Trichoptera;  except  that,  in  the  forewing  of 
Chorista,  the  most  posterior  of  its  four  branches,  M^,  divides 
into  two  parts,  M.^^  and  Mj,^.  The  cross-vein  connecting  M^  near 
its  base  with  Cuj  carries  no  macrotrichia.  and  must,  therefore, 
be  regarded  as  a  true  cross-vein,  and  not  a  branchlet  from  Cu^ . 
Hence  there  is  no  evidence  for  the  existence  of  the  two  branches 
of  Cuj,  which  I  have  called  Cuj^  and  Cun,,  and  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  most  archaic  Lepidoptera  and  in  the  Planipennia, 
but  not  in  the  Trichoptera. 

The  Cubitus  (Cu)  is  two-branched,  as  in  Trichoptera.  The 
anterior  branch,  Cuj,  arches  upwards  to  connect  with  M,  and 
then  continues  the  line  of  M  to  the  wing-margin  as  a  strong, 
convex  vein.  The  posterior  branch,  Cua,  in  the  forewing,  simply 
continues  the  line  of  the  main  stem  of  Cu.  In  the  hindwing, 
however,  it  fuses  for  some  distance  with  lA,  and  then  separates 
from  it,  and  runs  beneath  Cu,  to  the  wing-margin,  at  about  half- 
way along  the  wing. 

Three  Anal  Veins  are  developed  in  each  wing.      These  remain 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  407 

quite  distinct  throughout  theii-  courses,  except  for  the  partial 
fusion  of  1 A  with  Cuo  ah-eady  mentioned  in  the  liindwing. 

A  number  of  cross-veins,  irregularh'  placed  and  excessively 
variable  in  different  individuals,  are  developed  as  supports 
between  the  branches  of  the  media,  the  cubitus,  and  the  anal 
veins. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  in  the  imaginal  venation,  the  main 
stem  of  the  media  is  fused  with  the  radius  for  a  short  distance. 
In  the  pupal  venation,  these  can  be  seen  to  be  quite  distinct. 

►Summary. 

(1)  The  tracheation  of  the  pupal  wing  of  Chov'if^ia  aia^t rails  is 
highly  specialised  by  reduction,  there  being  onl}-  two  main 
trachete  entering  the  wing.  Of  these,  one  belongs  to  the  costo- 
radial  group  and  passes  into  the  radius;  the  other  belongs  to  the 
cubito-anal  group  and  passes  into  the  media. 

(2)  In  the  freshly-turned  pupa,  the  fusions  of  veins  that  are 
found  in  the  imaginal  venation  are  not  accomplished,  and  hence 
it  is  possible  to  interpret  the  whole  of  the  venation  with  certainty. 

(3)  Main  veins  and  their  branches,  in  the  imaginal  \  enation, 
carry  macrotrichia;  cross-veins  do  not.  From  this,  it  is  de- 
monstrable that  an  apparent  cross-vein  below  M  is  in  reality  the 
basal  portion  of  Cuj. 

(4)  The  imaginal  venation  is  specialised  in  having  M  fused 
basally  with  R  for  a  short  distance;  in  having  Cu,  continuing 
the  line  of  the  main  stem  of  M,  the  short  basal  portion  of  Cuj 
resembling  a  cross-vein  below  M;  and  also  in  the  partial  fusion 
of  Cug  with  lA  in  the  hind  wing. 

(5)  The  rest  of  the  venation  is  of  a  generalised  type,  closelj" 
resembling  the  typical  Trichopterous  plan,  but  with  an  extra 
branch  to  M4  in  the  forewing.  Cross-veins  are  fairly  numerous, 
but  variable  in  position  and  number  in  difterent  individuals. 


408  STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  MECOPTERA,  ii. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XLIII. 

Fitf.  I. — Wings  of  a  pupa  of   Chorista  aujif m/ is  Klu^r,    9,  three  cla3's  old; 
(xl8). 

Fig.2. — Basal  part  of  forewing  of  same;  (  x  48).     Note  the  Alar  Trunk- 
Trachea  at  extreme  base  of  wing,  giving  off  the  two  wing-traehea?. 

Fig.3. — Basal  part  of  hindwing  of  same;  (  x  32). 

(Photomicrographs  of  tlie  freshly  dissected  wings  in  water). 


Explanation  of    CoMSTOfK-NEEDHv^M  Venational   Notation,  as  t^sed 
IN  the  Text-fk hires. 

lA,  2A,  3 A,  the  three  anal  veins — C,  eosta — Cu,  cubitus;  Cuj  its  upper, 
and  Cu2  its  lower  branch — ruf,  cubital  fork— ^/V,  frenulum — M,  media; 
Mj,  M„,  M3,  M4,  its  four  branches,  the  last  of  which  divides  into  ^1^  and 
M4b  in  the  forewing  —;??/,  median  fork — pf,  pterostigma — ptf,  pterostig- 
matic  furrow — R,  radius,  dividing  into  Rj,  its  main  stem,  and  Rs,  the 
radial  sector;  this  latter  has  four  branches.  R.,,  R„.  R^.  and  Rg — /•/",  radial 
fork — rf,  fork  of  radial  sector — He,  subcosta. 


409 


THE  "SPRINGING"  OF  TINS  OF  PRESERVED  FRUIT. 

By  W.  W.  L'Estrange  and  R,  Greig-Simith,  D.Sc,  Macleay 
Bacteriologist  to  the  Society. 

It  occasionally  happens  in  the  canning  of  fruit  that  some  of 
the  tins,  after  a  time,  begin  to  swell.  -Normally,  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  container  are  slightlj^  concave,  indicating  a  partial 
vacuum  within  If,  however,  one  or  both  is  convex,  the  tin  is 
abnormal  and  is  alluded  to  as  a  "springer."  Such  cans  are 
rejected,  and,  as  there  may  be  many  sprung  tins,  the  loss  may  be 
considerable  to  the  canner.  The  cause  is  generally  ascribed  to 
leaking  containers,  but  as  some  fruits  are  more  prone  to  produce 
"  springers  "  than  others,  it  appeared  that  much  might  be  gained 
from  a  study  of  the  phenomenon.  It  is  certainly  curious  that, 
while  pears  and  some  varieties  of  plums  with  tight  stones  are 
frequently  aftected  in  this  way,  peaches  and  other  stone-fruits 
are  but  rarely  so,  even  when  they  are  processed  or  manufactured 
in  precisely  the  same  way.  Our  attention  was  called  to  the 
matter,  and  an  examination  was  made  of  some  of  the  affected 
tins. 

But  before  dealing  with  the  results  of  this  examination,  it  may 
be  well  to  briefly  describe  the  method  of  processing  the  fruit. 
The  pears,  generally  the  Bartlett  variety,  are  picked,  pared,  cut 
in  two,  cored,  in  some  cases  sliced,  and  washed  in  running  water. 
They  are  then  put  into  empty  containers,  and  placed  on  a 
travelling  belt  which  carries  them  past  a  tap  from  which  boiling 
syrup  is  run  in  up  to  within  a  quarter  or  half-an-inch  of  the  top. 
They  pass  on  to  a  machine  which  automatically  fits  on  the  lids 
and  turns  the  edges.  The  cold  pears  reduce  the  temperature  of 
the  syrup,  which  is  generally  at  lbO°F.,  when  the  lid  is  fixed 
and  the  container  made  tight.  The  tins  are  put  into  baskets 
and  passed  through  a  boiler.  The  passage  occupies  24  minutes, 
and  the  tins  are  in  the  boiling  water  zone  for  16  minutes.     On 

30 


410 


THE  SPRINGING  OF  TINS  OF  PRESERVED  FRUIT, 


emerging  from  the  boiler,  the  ends  are  bulged,  but  they  become 
concave  as  the  tins  cool,  while  stacked  on  the  floor  near  the 
boiler.  When  cold,  they  are  taken  to  the  store,  and  built  up  in 
tiers  so  that  any  springers  may  be  detected.  After  a  time,  they 
are  labelled  and  despatched. 

The  springers  appear  to  be  of  two  kinds.  One  contains  syrup 
in  an  actively  fermenting  condition:  the  other  is  quite  still,  but 
the  syrup  has  a  sharp,  slightly  acid  taste  noticeable  only  to  the 
expert  taster,  and  the  fruit  is  apparently  quite  fit  for  human 
consumption.  The  fact  that  one  or  both  ends  of  the  container 
are  bulged  is,  however,  sufficient  to  cause  the  condemnation  of 
the  tin. 

The  time  during  which  the  fruit  is  cooked  seems  to  he  suffi- 
cient to  thoroughly  pasteurise  the  (contents  of  the  tins,  but  to 
gain  some  definite  information  upon  the  matter,  two  tests  were 
made  in  the  laboratory  with  fresh  pears.  These  were  peeled, 
halved,  and  cored.  'J'he  bulb  of  a  thermometer  was  inserted  in 
the  body  of  one  of  the  halves  and  the  tin  was  filled  up  with  boil- 
ing syrup,  and  put  into  boiling  water.  The  temperatures  of  the 
pear  and  of  the  syrup  were  read  off'  at  intervals. 


At  start 
2  minutes 
5  minutes 
10  minutes 
15  minutes 
20  minutes 
24  minutes 


Temperature  in  °C.  of  the 


pear 


syrup 


18° 
27° 
42-5' 
65-5' 

78° 
85° 
89° 


81° 
84° 
87° 
90- 
92° 
94- 
95° 


Container  taken  out  and  placed  on  bench 

28  minutes       

90° 

87-5° 

30  minutes       

90° 

85-5° 

35  minutes       

88° 

78-5° 

40  minutes       

85° 

74° 

The  conditions  were  not  quite  the  same  as  in  processing  under 
factory-conditions,  inasmuch  as  there  was  no  lid  on  the  con- 
tainer, and  it  was  not  completely  submerged  in  the  boiling  water. 


BY  W.   VV.  L  ESTRANGE  AND  R.  GREIG-SMITH. 


411 


For  this  reason,  these  temperatures  are  k)wer  than  would  occur 
in  practice,  but  even  as,  in  the  experiment,  the  pears  and  the 
syrup  were  over  70°C.  for  at  least  30  minutes,  and  over  85*  for 
20  minutes,  the  exposure  was  quite  sufficient  to  pasteurise  the 
contents 

One  point  about  the  experiment  was,  that  the  tin  was  put 
into  the  boiling  water  immediately  the  syrup  was  added;  whereas 
in  practice,  a  certain  time  must  elapse  before  the  tin  is  capped, 
put  into  a  basket  and  pushed  into  the  boiler,  where  it  is  some 
four  minutes  before  the  zone  of  boiling  water  is  reached.  It  was 
considered  that  an  interval  of  ten  minutes  would  completely 
cover  this  interval,  and,  accordingly,  in  another  laboratory-test, 
the  container  was  allowed  to  stand  for  ten  minutes  after  receiving 
the  boiling  syrup,  and  before  it  was  put  into  the  boiling  water. 


Temperature  in  ""C.  of  the 

pear 

syrup 

At  start          

5  minutes       

10  minutes       

15  minutes       

20  minutes       

24  minutes       

45° 
50° 
67° 

76° 

80-5° 

83° 

47° 

67-5° 

80° 

85° 

88° 

89-5° 

Container  taken  out  and  placed  on  bench 

28  minutes       

84° 

87-5° 

30  minutes       

83-5° 

86° 

40  minutes       

79° 

78° 

Even  with  the  ten-minute  interval  before  placing  the  tin  in 
the  boiling  water,  the  fruit  and  the  syrup  were  well  over  70°  for 
at  least  25  minutes,  and  this  should  be  enough  to  destroy  all 
vegetating  yeasts  and  bacteria. 

A  number  of  faulty  tins,  ten  in  all,  were  received  in  October, 
1916.  They  consisted  of  pears,  greengages,  and  plums.  They 
were  examined  bacteriologically,  and  no  growths  were  obtained 
from  the  contents  of  seven.  A  tin  of  pears  contained  a  small 
active  yeast,  Saccharoinyces  Zopfii,  which  has  been  shown  to  be 
responsible  for  the  "puffing"  of  tins  of  golden  syrup  in  America. 


412  THE  SPRINGING  OP  TINS  OF  PRESERVED  FRUIT, 

It  actively  fermented  fruit-syrup,  and  was  undoubtedly  the  cause 
of  the  springing  of  this  particular  tin.  Another  tin  of  pears 
contained  a  mixture  of  inactive  yeasts  and  moulds.  As  the}' 
did  not  ferment  fruit-syrup,  it  was  clear  that  the  cause  of  the 
trouble  had  disappeared.  A  tin  of  greengages  contained  inactive 
bacteria  and  moulds,  and,  as  in  the  previous  case,  the  agent 
which  had  caused  the  fermentation  had  died  or  had  been  killed. 
Several  of  the  containers  showed  clear  evidence  of  having  leaked 
at  some  time. 

A  second  lot  of  six  faulty  tins  of  pears  was  obtained  in  June, 
1917,  and  the  notes  upon  these  are  as  follows. 

No.l.  The  container  had  a  faulty  lid,  the  tinplate  was  spong\', 
and  foaming  syrup  was  oozing  out  of  a  central  pin-hole.  'J'he 
syrup  was  actively  fermenting  and  contained  yeasts. 

No.2,  The  container  had  a  small  quantity  of  syrup,  the  bulk 
having  apparently  leaked  out.  The  syrup  contained  yeasts  and, 
when  set  aside  under  aseptic  conditions,  it  fermented  vigorously. 

No. 3.  The  contents  appeared  to  be  normal,  but  the  syrup  con- 
tained bacteria  and  yeasts. 

No. 4.  The  fruit  appeared  normal,  but  the  syrup  was  thin,  and 
contained  bacteria  and  yeasts. 

Nos.5  and  6.  The  contents  were  normal,  and  the  syrup  con- 
tained bacteria  only. 

All  the  containers,  with  the  exception  of  No. 6,  showed  signs 
of  having  leaked  at  some  time.  No. 6  was  the  only  one  that  ap 
peared  to  be  intact. 

The  bacteria  in  the  tins  were  the  same.  On  dextrose  ajjar, 
they  grew  as  short,  irregular  rods,  and  hs  chains,  especially  in 
the  condensed  water.  They  were  Gram-positive,  and,  as  they 
had  no  action  upon  any  sugar,  they  could  not  have  been  respon- 
sible for  the  springing  of  the  retainers. 

The  yeasts  w^ere  all  of  the  culture-type,  that  is,  they  were 
varieties  of  Saccharomyces  cereinsice.  This  type  is  associated 
with  the  manufacture  of  beer,  and  one  would  not  expect  to  find 
it  in  a  factory  where  there  is  so  much  fruit  utilised.  In  a  factory 
such  as  a  fruit-cannery,  wild  yeasts  and  torulse  should  be  present 
in  abundance,  and   it  certainly  was  extraordinary  to  find  only 


BY  W.  W.   i/eSTRANGE  AND  R.  GREfG-SMlTH.  413 

culture-  or  beer-yeasts  in  the  preserved  pears.  It  was  subse- 
quently discovered  that,  adjoining  the  cannery,  there  is  a  factory, 
where  a  large  amount  of  ginger-beer  is  produced.  It  is  safe  to 
conclude  that  the  yeasts  came  from  this  source. 

In  October,  1917,  a  third  lot  of  six  tins  of  pears  was  examined, 
and,  with  one  exception,  all  of  them  showed  signs  of  leakage. 
The  contents  were  sterile,  and,  from  the  presence  of  soldered 
vent-holes  on  two  of  the  containers,  it  was  concluded  that  the 
lot  had  been  reprocessed,  that  is  to  say,  they  had  been  put 
through  the  boiler  after  evidence  of  springing  had  been  detected. 
One  of  the  tins  contained  a  strongly  foaming,  sterile  syrup,  and 
as  this  was  oozing  from  one  of  the  ends,  it  was  evident  that  the 
re-processing  had  been  of  recent  date. 

We  had  an  opportunity  of  inspecting  the  processing  of  pears 
in  February,  1918,  and,  from  our  observations,  we  concluded 
that  the  root  of  the  trouble  lay  with  the  closing  of  the  containeis. 
l  he  margin  of  the  lid  is  painted  with  a  mixture  containing  Hour 
or  starch,  and  when  the  closing  machine  overlaps  the  edges  of 
lid  and  container-top,  the  mixture  fills  up  the  spaces  between 
the  interlocked  edges.  The  joint  appears  to  be  tight,  and  doubt- 
less the  starchy  mixture  makes  a  good  lute.  But  the  pressure 
exerted  by  the  air  contained  in  the  tin  (it  constitutes  from  one- 
twelfth  to  one  twenty-fourth  of  the  contents)  must  be  consider- 
able during  the  passage  of  the  container  through  the  boiler.  The 
luting  mixture  is  supposed  to  form  a  jelly  in  contact  with  the 
hot  water,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  hot  syrup  on  the  other,  and 
it  is  quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  jelly  may  be  forced  out 
of  the  joint  by  the  pressure  of  the  contents.  The  tins  appear  to 
be  sound  immediately  after  processing:  it  is  when  they  are 
stacked  in  the  store-room,  that  they  show  signs  of  leakage.  In 
the  case  of  pears,  about  every  second  tin  leaks  more  or  less; 
with  plums,  about  every  tenth  tin  is  faulty;  and,  with  peaches 
and  apricots,  the  leaks  are  few  in  number.  As  the  processing  is 
the  same  in  all  cases,  one  is  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
juice  of  pears  and,  in  less  degree,  that  of  plums,  has  a  solvent 
action  upon  the  luting  jelly,  and  that  another  mixture  should  be 
employed. 


414  THE  SPKIVGING  OF  TINS  OF  PRESERVED  FRUIT. 

The  experimental  evidence  shows  that  the  duration  and  tem- 
peiature  of  the  processing  are  suflBcient  to  absolutely  free  the 
contents  from  active  yeasts.  Their  entry  into  the  containers  is 
most  likely  to  occur  while  the  tins  are  cooling  down  or  shortly 
after.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  original  air  of  the 
tin  has  been  partly  or  entirely  expelled  during  processing,  and 
the  vacuum  created  during  cooling  draws  in  the  air  of  the  factory 
with  its  suspended  yeasts  and  other  organisms.  It  is  entirely  a 
matter  of  chance  as  to  the  number  of  organisms  and  the  activity 
of  the  organisms  that  may  be  in  the  indrawn  air.  There 
may  be  none,  or  they  may  be  inactive,  and  the  tin  will  not  leak. 
There  may  be  one  or  more,  and,  if  these  are  active  gas-producers, 
the  tin  will  "  spring.  '  It  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  the  tins 
might  be  so  imperfectly  closed  that  they  would  leak  under  any 
circumstances,  but  the  scarcity  of  leaks  and  springers  among  the 
tins  of  stone-fruits  shows  that  this  is  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

The  behaviour  of  the  pears  and  plums,  as  compared  with 
apricots  and  peaches,  points  to  the  use  of  a  more  insoluble  luting 
material,  and,  failing  this  method  of  overcoming  the  trouble, 
there  is  the  alternative  and  probably  better  plan  of  allowing  the 
tins  to  cool  after  processing  in  a  current  of  filtered,  sterile  air, 
and,  when  cold,  painting  the  joints  with  a  lacquer- varnish.  Thus 
the  entry  of  yeasts  into  the  tins  would  be  prevented  during  the 
cooling,  and  the  varnish  would  make  them  germ-tight  and  germ- 
proof. 


415 

NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Dr.  Cleland  exhibited  the  first  four  parts  (VoL  i.)  of  " Epi- 
graph ie  Medical  e  :  Corpus  I  nscriptionum  ad  JVlediciiiam  Hiolo- 
giamque  Spectantium,"  publie  par  Professeur  Raphael  Blanchard 
(Paris,  1909-15).-  Also  specimens  of  Anestellorhina  augu7' (Cct/li- 
phora  ocea'iiice),  one  of  the  Australian  Blowflies  troublesome  to 
sheep,  bred  from  an  Agaric  {Pletirotus  sp.)  which  had  probably 
been  infected  during  exposure  for  two  days  in  a  room — the 
interest  of  the  exhibit  being  that  the  Hies  had  been  reared  on  a 
purely  vegetable  medium.   « 

Mr.  Steel  communicated  the  following  Note  on  the  abnormal 
gizzard  of  a  Muscovy  duck,  exhibited  at  the  last  Meeting  {antea, 
p. 361).  "On  subsequent  dissection  of  the  exhibit,  it  was  found 
that,  while  the  organ  was  of  the  usual  shape  and  dimensions  ex- 
ternally, the  internal  cavity  was  only  about  one-third  of  the 
normal  capacity,  and  the  gizzard- walls  correspondingly  thick. 
The  vermiform  appendage  was  hollow,  and  was  tightly  packed 
with  a  hard,  brown  substance,  which  broke  up  on  treatment 
with  hot  sodium  hydrate,  but  exhibited  no  traces  of  vegetable 
tissue,  nor  of  definite  structure,  being  apparently  a  secretion 
from  the  walls  of  the  appendage.  The  appendage  was  completely 
isolated  from  thu  cavity  of  the  gizzard  by  a  layer  of  white,  fibrous 
tissue,  about  \  inch  in  thickness,  this  being  the  thickness  of  the 
side-walls  of  the  gizzard  at  the  area  of  attachment.  'I  he  speci- 
men has  been  placed  in  the  Museum  of  the  Department  of 
Veterinary  Science,  University  of  Sydney." 

Mr.  Fletcher,  on  behalf  of  Mr.  Musson  and  himself,  showed 
seedlings  of  a  number  of  species  of  plants,  not  Eucalypts  or 
Angophoras  —  including  EUeocarpus  cyaneus^  Leptospermum 
JlavesceiLS,  Callistemon  phii/olius  and  C.  saliynus,  Melaleuca 
nodosa  and  M.  yenistifolia,  Trrstania  iieriifoiia^  Syiicarpia 
laurina,  Backhousia  myrtifolia,  Casnariiia  sp.,  Santalum  obtusi- 
folium,  and  several  not  identified — which  seem  to  be  afflicted,  in 
a  similar  manner,  with  composite,  shoot-bearing  tumours. 


The  President  offered  a  cordial  welcome  to  Mr.  R.  VV.  Bretnall, 
a  Soldier-Member  recently  returned  after  service  abroad. 


416 


ORDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

August  28th,   1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Messrs.  John  Hopson,  Junr  ,  D^alkeith,  Eccleston,  N.8.W.; 
and  Frederick  P.  Dodd,  Kuranda,  Nortli  Queensland,  were 
elected  Ordinary  Members  of  tlie  Society. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (31st  July,  1918),  amounting  to  2  Yols.,  44 
Parts  or  Nos.,  7  Bulletins,  1  Report,  and  5  Pamphlets,  received 
from  37  Societies,  etc.,  and  two  private  donors,  were  laid  upon 
the  table 

NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Mr.  ^Y.  W.  Froggatt  showed  a  fine  series  of  Coeeid  galls  on 
Eucalypts,  commonly  know^n  as  Brachyscelid  galls,  attributable 
to  members  of  the  genus  Apiomorpha:  a  remarkal)le  gall  due  to 
Cynips  on  Live  Oaks  in  California;  and  an  undetermined,  living 
snake  from  Moree,  N.S.W. 

Mr.  Fletcher  exhibited  specimens  oi  Melaleuca  Deanei  F.v.M., 
and  photographs  of  the  largest  plants  seen  (about  8-9  feet  high, 
and  4-5  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base) ;  and  specimens  of 
Petrophila  sessilis  Sieb. — two  of  the  rarer  plants  of  the  Lane 
Cove  District,  to  be  met  with  only  in  small,  isolated  groups. 

The  Secretary  communicated  a  letter  from  the  Dalley  Branch 
of  the  Australian  Society  of  Patriots  at  Newcastle,  advocating 
the  reservation  of  Pulbah  Island  in  Lake  Macquarie.  Mr.  J. 
Mitchell,  who  had  visited  the  island,  offered  some  favourable 
remarks.      Further  consideration  was  postponed. 

[Printed  otf,  September  4th,  1918.J 


e  L.S  N.S.W.  1913. 


G>      O 


O, 


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Fig  1.  A  slightly  ohliquc  sertioM  tlir..uj;li  a  hw\  of  S,H-roln  erassifolia,  to  sliow  .levelopinent  of 

glandiilar  hairs. 
Fig.  2.  Section  across  sheathing  base  of  a  mature  leaf,  to  show  development  of  glandular  and 

clothing  hairs. 


B-    ^ 


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S.N.S.W.  1918. 


Vig.  5.  Jugate  (HepialiOiE),  Figs.  6-8,  Freuate  (Sphimjids:)  Wiug-coupliug  Apparatus. 


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Fig.  1.  Zaphrentis  sii>.  u.  i?  subgen.  uov.).  Fig.  2.   SpongophyUum,  (?)  sp.  n. 

Fig.  3.  fci.  (?)  sp.  n. 


P.L.s  N.s.w.  -rei«. 


Figs.  4-5.  PhiUipsastrxaffrandis,  sp.  u.         Fig-.  6.  Zaphrentis  si^. 
Fig.  7.  Favosites,  sp.  n. 


PL.S  N.S.W.  1918 


Figs.  8-9.  Stroiiiatoporella  loombcrensis,  sp.  n. 


1t. 


Figs.  10-11.  Stroinatoiiordla  bensoni,  sp.  u. 


.L.S.N.S.W.    1013. 


Fi^si.  VI  16.    Acttno6t.-->iiia  un^trulc,  Pp.  u. 


.L.S.N.S.W.  1911 


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Chu^tftt'S  stcHijonius.  tii>.  u. ;  Loomberali  J^iiuesloue. 


..S.N.S.W.  1918. 


i'uiutl  WiiJK-tiaelieutiuii  vi  Llan-iala  oust ,<il i>i  Kl 


417 


ME80Z0IC  IN8ECT8  OF  QUEENSLAND. 

No. 3.  Odonata  and  Protodonata. 

By  R.  J.  Tillyard,   M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fkllow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plates  xliv.-xlv.,  and  Text-fionres  11-16). 

Since  the  publication  of  No. 2  of  this  Series (4),  Mr.  Dunstan 
has  completed  the  delainination  of  the  rock  taken  from  the 
Ipswich  Fossil  Bed,  in  the  course  of  gathering  together  the 
material  forming  the  third  collection (3)  of  these  fine  fossils.  The 
whole  of  this  collection,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  Coleop- 
terous elytra,  is  now  in  my  hands  for  study.  Amongst  the  very 
fine  material  received  in  the  last  consignment  are  two  interesting 
fossil  Odonata,  these  being  the  only  Dragonflies  found  at  Ipswicli 
since  the  discovery  of  Mesophlehia  antinodalis  Till.,  described  \w 
a  former  paper (2). 

The  former  consignment  also  contained  a  very  fine  fossil,  whicli 
is  of  such  unique  structure  that  it  is  not  easy  to  place  it  in  any 
of  the  accepted  Orders,  either  fossil  or  recent.  This  fossil  has 
been  studied  b}^  me  for  a  long  time;  and  I  have  definitely  con- 
cluded that  it  is  best  placed  in  the  Protodonata,  of  which  it 
must  form  a  new  Suborder.  The  present  paper  deals  with  this 
fossil  and  the  two  Dragonflies  above-mentioned. 

Recently,  Dr.  A.  B.  Walkom,  of  the  University  of  Queensland, 
Brisbane,  has  published  his  thesis  upon  the  Lower  Mesozoic 
Rocks  of  Queensland  (5),  in  which  he  discusses  very  fully  the  age 
of  the  Ipswich  Beds.  There  can  be  very  little  doubt  that  his 
placing  of  these  beds  as  Upper  Triassic  is  correct,  and  as  such  I 
am  content  to  accept  them.  It  will  be  more  and  more  evident, 
as  the  description  of  the  fossil  insects  proceeds,  that  they  consist 
of  a  definitely  Mesozoic  Fauna,  not  unlike  that  of  the  Lias  of- 

31 


418  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iii., 

England,  together  with  a  number  of  older  forms,  apparently  relics 
of  the  old  Carboniferous  Fauna,  such  as  we  know  from  Commentr}^ 
in  France.  The  three  insects  described  in  this  Part  illustrate 
this  intermingling  of  forms  very  clearly. 

Order  ODONATA. 

Suborder  Zygoptera. 

Family   LESTID^. 

Subfamily  TRIASSOLESTIN.E,  n.subfam. 

Wings  with  the  bases  strongly  reduced,  petiolate;  the  whole 
of  the  area  between  Cu  and  the  posterior  margin,  below  the 
quadrilateral,  free  of  veins;  and,  hence,  no  anal  bridge  present. 
Quadrilateral  narrow,  placed  very  obliquely  to  the  long  axis  of 
the  wing;  its  upper  side  short,  its  lower  long,  and  hence  its  distal 
angle  very  acute;  Cuj  and  Cuo  arising  together  from  this  angle, 
Arculus  complete,  with  Mj.^  arising  from  the  top  of  the  quadri- 
lateral. 

Genus  T  r  i  a  s  s  o  l  e  s  t  e  s,  n.g.     (Text-figs.  11,1 2/>). 

A  complete  antenodal  cross-vein  in  line  with  the  arculus;  (this 
is  probably  the  second  of  the  series).  Distal  side  of  quadrilateral 
continued  straight  to  the  posterior  border  of  the  wing,  by  an 
oblique  cross-vein.  M^.o  arching  slightly  upward  as  each  branch 
is  given  off;  M^  arises  about  six  cells  distad  from  the  level  of  the 
quadrilateral;  Ms  arises  from  Mj.o  about  four  cells  further  distad 
than  Mg.  Discoidal  field  fairly  wide,  with  M^  and  Cuj  slightly 
divergent;  a  single  row  of  cells  to  beyond  the  level  of  the  origin 
of  Ms,  followed  further  distad  by  two  rows.  Between  Cuj  and 
Cuo,  a  single  row  of  cells  at  first,  to  about  level  of  origin  of  Ms. 
Cug  curves  strongly  do\vnwards  distally  to  meet  the  posterior 
border  of  the  wing;  between  it  and  the  wing-border,  one  row  of 
cells  basally,  increasing  to  two  distally.  [Anterior  and  distal 
portions  of  the  wing  missing,  including  nodus  and  pterostigma]. 

Genotype,  Trlassolestps  epiophJehw'kdps^  n.sp.  (Upper  Tri- 
assic,  Ipswich,  Queensland). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


19 


TrIASSOLESTES    EPIOPHLEBIOIDES,  n.sp.       (Textfigs.  1 1,  \2b). 

A  well-preserved  fragment,  18-5  mm.  long,  greatest  width  (dis- 
tally)  8-5  mm.;  consisting  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  basal  half 
of  the  wing,  but  without  the  extreme  base.  The  anterior  part, 
including  the  costa,  subcosta,  and  ladius,  missing.  The  presei-^ed 
portion  includes  the  quadrilateral,  the  media  and  cubitus  with 
their  branches,  and  the  posterior  border  of  the  wing.  The  anal 
vein  appears  to  be  completely  fused  \\  ith  the  latter. 


Text-fig.  11. 
Trias.'^olesfes  epioph/ebio'ide-'^,  n.g.  et  sp.,  (Triassie,  Ipswich,  Q.).  preserved 
portion  of  wing;  (  x  5).     Cui,  Cui,  branches  of  cubitus;  M,.o.  upper, 
and  M4,  lower  sector  of  arculus;  Ms,  Z3'gopterid  sector:  p,  petiole; 
q,  quadrilateral. 

The  appearance  of  the  fossil  may  be  seen  from  Text-fig.  11.  The 
veins  are  all  beautifully  preserved,  but  unfortunately  the  wing 
lies  upon  some  plant-remains,  which  appear  to  have  been  hard 
twigs  or  stems,  and  which  have  caused  the  fossil  to  rest  upon  a 
very  uneven  surface;  with  the  result  that,  in  one  place  at  least, 
the  wing  has  become  crumpled  or  torn  transversely,  so  that  the 
continuity  of  the  main  veins  is  badly  broken.  The  veins  can, 
however,  be  followed  across  the  break,  and  picked  up  on  the 
other  side  of  it.  Distally  also,  in  the  region  of  M1.2,  the  wing 
lies  upon  an  uneven  surface,  and  the  position  of  both  main  veins 
and  cross- veins  is  somewhat  distorted. 

Eliminating  the  effect  of  these  inequalities,  it  is  not  a  ditlicult 


420 


MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  111. 


task  to  restore  the  wing  to  its  correct  form,  as  far  as  it  is  pre- 
served for  lis.  The  result  is  to  be  seen  in  Text-fig.  1 2i,  to  whicli 
I  have  added  the  probable  courses  of  the  veins  that  are  missing 
in  the  fossil.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  I  have  shown  also  the 
N M,.3  K^ 


Text-fig.  12. 

(rt)  Epiophhhia  superstea  (Selj's),  (Recent,  Japan),  forewing;  h\  region  of 
quadrilateral  of  hindwing  of  same.  [h).  Triasso/e-^fes  epiophlehioide><, 
n.g.  et  sp.,  (Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q.),  restored  wing,  with  missing  parts 
shown  by  dotted  lines,  (c)  Synlestes  ireyerni  Selys,  (Recent,  Australia), 
forewing.  The  basal  portions  of  all  three  wings  shown  for  comparison 
with  one  another,  (all  x  4).  Ab,  anal  bridge;  C,  costa;  N,  nodus;  R, 
radius;  sq,  subquadrangle.     Rest  of  lettering  as  in  Text-fig.  11. 

corresponding  areas  of  the  forewings  of  U2^iophlebia  superstps; 
(Selys),  and  Synlestes  tveyersi  Selys,  both  of  which  show  certain 
points  of  resemblance  with  this  interesting  new  fossil. 

Comparing  the  fossil  first  of  all  with  Rpiophlebia,  we  note  that 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


421 


the  fossil  wing  was  considerably  broader,  and  proljably  also  some- 
what longer.  The  region  of  the  quadrilateral  is  closely  similar 
in  both,  but  the  quadrilateral  of  the  fossil  wing  is  placed  more 
transversely  to  the  wing-axis,  and  the  lower  })ortion  of  the  arculus 
is  much  more  transversely  placed  than  in  Eplophlebia.  The 
quadrilateral  of  the  fossil  resembles  that  of  the  forewing  of 
Ejnophlebia  (Text-fig.  12a)  nmch  more  than  it  does  that  of  the 
hindwing  (6');  but,  in  other  respects,  particularly  in  the  strong 
distal  curvature  of  Cuo,  the  fossil  wing  more  resembles  the  hind- 
wing.  A  close  rese)nblance  to  E^nophlebia  is  shown  in  the  levels 
of  the  origins  of  the  branches  of  M,  and  in  tlie  shape  and  vena- 
tion of  the  discoidal  field  and  the  two  longitudinal  areas  of  the 
wing  lying  below  it. 

The  fossil,  however,  differs  entirely  from  Epioph/ebia,  and, 
indeed,  from  all  known  Lestidie^  in  possessing  a  broad  and  abso- 
lutely free  area  between  Cu  and  the  posterior  border,  below  the 
quadrilateral.  As  the  wing  is  excellently  preserved  in  this 
region,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  this  character,  which  places 
the  fossil,  in  this  respect,  as  more  highly  specialised  by  reduction 
than  any  known  Zygoptera,  except  only  the  subfamily  Froto- 
tieurince  of  the  family  Ayrionid(e. 

Where  the  nodus  was  placed,  we  cannot  tell  for  certain.  But, 
if  we  were  agreed  that  the  comparison  with  Ejnophlebia  would 
hold  also  for  this  character,  we  might  expect  that  it  was  situated 
somewhere  near  the  extreme  distally  preserved  portion  of  the 
fossil,  i.e.,  considerably  distad  from  the  level  of  the  origin  of  Ms. 

The  comparison  with  Synlestfs  is  by  no  means  so  close,  as  can 
be  seen  from  Text-fig.  1  'Ic.  The  wing  of  Synlet^tps  is  exceedingly 
narrow,  and  difiers  from  that  of  the  fossil  in  having  Ms  arising 
from  Mg  close  to  its  origin,  in  the  very  narrow  (juadrilateral,  in 
the  upward  arching  of  Cuj  from  the  distal  angle  of  the  quadri- 
lateral, in  the  consequent  narrowing  of  the  discoidal  field,  and  in 
the  length  and  straightness  of  Cu  .  But,  in  its  extreme  reduc- 
tion of  the  anal  bridge  (Ab),  Synlestes  shows  the  nearest  existing 
approach  to  the  high  specialisation  seen  in  the  fossil;  and,  on 
this  account,  the  comparison  is  of  value. 


422  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iu., 

While  placing  this  fossil  as  more  closely  allied  to  Epiophfebia 
than  to  any  known  Dragonfly,  fossil  or  recent,  it  seems  to  me 
that  the  characters  exhibited  by  it  require  its  elevation  to  sub- 
family rank.  But,  if  the  area  below  the  quadrilateral  had  pos- 
sessed an  anal  bridge,  I  should  have  been  content  to  place  it  in 
the  subfamily  EpiojMehiiiuf. 

The  Lestid  affinities  of  the  fossil  appear  to  me  to  be  beyond 
doubt.  As  it  appears  that  some  students  of  the  Odonata  have 
been  unwilling  to  accept  my  removal  of  Epiophlehia  to  the  family 
Lesticke^  I  should  now  like  to  draw  their  attention  to  this  fossil, 
which  was  unknown  at  the  time  that  I  made  this  suggestion. 
The  combination  of  Epiophlebiine  characters  from  the  quadri- 
lateral distad,  with  the  extreme  reduction  of  the  base,  which 
characterises  this  fossil,  should  surely  be  regarded  as  a  further 
link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  for  the  Lestid  affinities  of 
Epiophlebia. 

Type,  Specimen  No.  205rt,  (Coll.  Queensland  Geological 
Survey). 

Horizon:   Upper  Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q. 

Odonata  iNCEKTiE  sedis. 
Genus  Perissophlebia,  n.g.      (Text-fig.  13). 

Between  C  and  R,  beyond  pterostigma,  an  irregular  double  row 
of  cells.  Between  R  and  Mj,  beyond  level  of  pterostigma,  at 
first  an  irregular  triple  row  of  cells,  followed  by  a  more  regular 
double  row.  Below  Mj,  a  strong  convex  sector  is  developed 
towards  the  apex  of  the  wing,  three  rows  of  cellules  from  it. 
This  is  probably  Mja-  Close  below  this  sector,  and  only  a  single 
row  of  cells'  width  from  it,  there  is  a  parallel  concave  sector. 
Both  the  above  sectors  converge  towards  M^  as  they  approacli 
the  apex  of  the  wing.  Some  three  or  four  rows  of  cells  below 
the  concave  sector,  there  is  a  divei-ging  convex  sector,  which  is 
probably  Mo. 

[Only  a  fragment  of  the  wing  is  preserved,  embracing  a  por- 
tion beyond  the  pterostigma]. 

Genotype,  Perissophlebia  midtiseriata,  n.s^.  (Upper  Tri- 
assic, Ipswich,  Q.). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  423 

So  little  of  the  wing  of  this  fine  Dragonfly  is  preserved,  that  it 
would  be  inadvisable  to  name  it,  were  it  not  for  the  very  remark- 
able characters  exhibited  by  the  preserved  portion  of  the  wing. 
It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule,  both  for  recent  and  fossil 
Odonata,  that  the  spaces  between  C  and  R,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  between  R  and  Mj ,  on  the  other,  from  the  level  of  the  ptero- 
stigma  to  the  apex  of  the  wing,  are  only  filled  by  a  single  row  of 
cells.  As  exceptions  to  this,  we  may  note  the  Liassic  genus 
Petrothnnis  Handl.,  in  which  the  distal  portion  of  the  space 
between  C  and  R  is  filled  with  three  rows  of  minute  cells,  and 
the  basal  portion  of  the  space  between  R  and  Mj  carries  two 
ro%\  s  of  cells  near  the  pterostigma,  decreasing  to  one  row  only 
towards  the  apex;  and  the  very  densely-veined  Aeschnidiidce,  in 
which  the  upper  of  the  two  spaces  in  question  has  only  one  row 
of  cells,  but  the  lower  has  two. 

Hence  we  see  that,  on  this  character  alone,  Perissophlehia 
stands  as  the  most  densely  veined  of  all  known  Odonata. 

A  second  character,  that  is  very  exceptional  in  Odonata,  is  the 
arrangement  and  direction  of  the  longitudinal  veins  lying  below 
Mj.  These  are  so  strongly  developed  that  they  would  appear,  at 
first  sight,  to  be  portions  of  main  veins.  But  a  little  considera- 
tion of  the  position  <jf  the  pterostigma  shows  us  that  the  pre- 
served portion  of  the  wing  represents  only  a  very  small  piece  of 
a  very  large  wing.  The  lowest  of  the  three  sectors  seen  below 
M]  in  the  fossil  is  concave,  and  may  very  probably  be  M.^;  the 
other  two  are  almost  certainly  not  l)ranches  of  M,  but  intercalated 
sectors.  Of  these  latter,  the  upper  one,  being  strongly  convex, 
very  probably  corresponds  with  the  postnodal  sectur,  M,a,  found 
in  recent  Zygoptera  and  in  Petcdura;  while  that  below  it  might 
be  either  a  concave  supporting  sector,  or  a  branch  from  Mo  itself. 
In  any  case,  the  directions  of  these  three  veins,  two  being  parallel 
to  one  another  but  converging  towards  Mj  distally,  and  the  third 
being  parallel  to  Mj,  are  quite  exceptional  in  the  Odonata. 

It  is  clear  then  that,  in  spite  of  the  small  amount  of  the  wing 
preserved,  the  characters  there  shown  are  quite  marked  enough 
to  warrant  the  i-ivini;  of  a  name  to  the  fossil. 


424 


MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  111., 


Pekissofhlebia  multiseriata,  11. sp.     (Text-fig.  13). 

Total  length  of  fi-agnieiit,  8*5  mm.;  greatest  breadth  of  same, 
8*5  mm. 

A  small  portion  of  the  pterostigma  preserved  appears  to  point 
definitely  to  the  fact  that  it  was  sharply  angulated  at  its  upper 
distal  angle;  a  character  that  is  exceptional  amongst  fossil 
Odonata. 

Most  of  the  fragment  is  very  well  preserved,  with  the  cross- 
veins  clearly  visible;  but,  in  the  lower  portion,  they  are  partly 
obliterated. 


Text-%13. 

Perissophlehia  mnltheriata,  ii.g.  et  sp.,  (Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q.K    Preserved 

portion  of  wing,  (  x  7{.).     Mi,  postnodal  sector. 

The  distance  from  the  tip  of  the  pterostigma  to  the  apex  of 
the  wing,  and  the  great  width  of  the  wing  beyond  the  level  of 
the  pterostigma,  both  point  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a  fragment  of 
a  very  large  wing,  probably  as  large  as,  or  larger  than,  that  of 
Petalura  yigmUea  Leach. 

Type,  Specimen  No.203  «^7>  (part  and  counterpart).  (Coll. 
(Queensland  Geological  Survey). 

It  is  impossible  to  place  this  fragment  definitely;  but  I  would 


BY    K.    J.    TILLYAKD.  425 

suggest  a  likely  relationship  with  Fpfrofheinis  ^iv<inlnris  Haud- 
lirsch,  which  is  itself  unplaced,  owing  to  absence  of  the  basal  half 
of  the  wing.  A  figure  of  this  latter  fossil  is  given  in  Handlirsch's 
Atlas (1),  Plate  xlii.,  fig. 9.  Jt  is  a  much  smaller  wing  than  that 
of  Fei'itisoph/ehia,  and  comes  from  the  Upper  Lias  of  Dobl)ertin, 
Mecklenberg. 

Order  PROTODONATA. 
Suborder  Aeroplanoptera,  subordo  nova. 

Insects  with  strongly  veined  wings,  traversed  by  numerous 
parallel  longitudinal  veins,  with  a  network  of  irregular  cross- 
veins,  well  developed  near  the  base  only;  in  the  rest  of  the  wing, 
the  cross-veins  tend  to  become  weak,  and  almost  disappear  dis- 
tally.  Costal  border  strongly  developed,  coriaceous  at  base. 
Radius  with  a  single  sector.  Media  with  many  dichotomous 
branches.     Cubitus  two-branched. 

This  Suborder  is  at  once  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  of  the 
Protodonata  (which  may  be  termed  the  Suborder  Meganeuro- 
ptera,  from  the  dominant  family)  by  the  close,  parallel  veining 
of  the  wings,  the  dichotomous  branchings  of  the  media,  and  the 
two-branched  cubitus.  In  this  latter  character,  it  agrees  with 
the  Order  Odonata;  whereas  the  rest  of  the  Protodonata  have 
only  a  simple  cubitus. 

Family  AEROPLANID^,  fam.nov. 

Wings  excessively  elongated  and  narrow,  the  parallel  longitu- 
dinal veins  strongly  developed  and  close  together.  Subcosta 
weak,  in  a  deep  groove  just  in  front  of  the  exceedingly  strongly 
developed  radius.  The  single  radial  sector  arising  from  near  the 
base  by  a  double  root.  Media  seven-branched  in  both  wings,  but 
the  method  of  branching  is  different  in  fore-  and  hindwings. 
Radius  and  media  just  fused  at  bases.  Cubitus  with  its  two 
branches  arising  close  to  the  base  and  diverging  gradually.  A 
single  anal  vein  present,  below  which  is  developed  an  anal  field 
with  irregular  veining,  supported  by  a  curved  recuri-ent  sup- 
plement. 


426  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  Hi., 

Genus   Aero  plan  a,   n.g.     (Plates  xliv.-xlv.,  Text-figs.  14,  15). 

Characters  of  the  family,  with  the  following  additions.  First 
and  second  origins  of  Rs  arising  not  far  apart,  the  portion 
between  them  somewhat  curved  concavely  to  R.  First  dichotomy 
of  M  at  same  level  as  first  origin  of  Rs.  In  forewing,  the 
anterior  branch  of  M  gives  rise  to  thi-ee  branches,  by  two  dicho- 
tomies which  take  place  at  some  distance  from  the  first;  the  pos- 
terior branch  also  gives  rise  to  three  branches,  which  arise  much 
closer  to  the  original  forking.  The  middle  of  these  three  last 
branches  forks  again,  a  little  further  distad.  Thus  there  are 
seven  branches  in  all,  three  arising  from  the  anterior  branch,  and 
four  from  the  posterior.  In  the  hindwing,  the  anterior  branch 
of  M  remains  simple  for  a  considerable  distance,  but  finally 
divides  into  two  only;  the  posterior  branch,  on  the  other  hand, 
soon  divides  again  into  two,  of  which  the  upper  branch  gives 
rise  to  three  branches  by  two  separate  dichotomies,  the  lower  to 
two  only.  Thus  there  are  also  seven  branches  of  M  in  the  hind- 
wing,  but  of  these  only  two  arise  from  the  anterior  branch,  and 
five  from  the  posterior. 

The  two  branches  of  Cu  diverge  very  slightly  from  one  another 
at  first,  both  tending  to  diverge  also  from  the  radius,  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  media  does.  A  little  further  distad,  close  to 
the  level  of  the  first  origin  of  Rs,  Cuo  begins  to  curve  strongly 
away  from  Cuj,  forming  a  wide  bend,  and  later  on  again  ap- 
proaches Cu],  to  run  parallel  to  and  beneath  it. 

Just  distad  from  the  first  dichotomy  of  M,  in  the  hindwing 
only,  a  weak,  curved  supplement  runs  back  obliquely  to  join  Cuj, 
resembling  in  form  the  anal  supplement  below  A,  but  on  a 
smaller  scale. 

(Jenotype,    Aeroplana    lulraljilis,   n.sp.       (Upper  Triassic, 
Ipswich,  Q.). 
Aeuoplana  mirabilis,  n.s}).      (Plates  xliv.-xlv..  Text-figs.  14,  15). 

Total  length  of  fossil  as  preserved,  from  base  of  hindwing  to 
end  of  isolated  piece  of  forewing,  41-5  mm.  Total  length  of 
preserved  portion  of  hindwing,  26mm.;  greatest  breadth  of  same, 
5  mm. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


427 


The  insect  lies  upon  the  somewhat  uneven  surface  of  a  dark 
grey  shale,  in  such  a  position  that  it  is  crushed  down  somewhat 
dorso-laterally,  the  hindwing  apparently  covering  the  thorax,  and 
having  its  costal  margin  passing  under  the  posterior  border  of 
the  forewing.  This  latter  wing,  however,  lies  at  a  slightly  higher 
level;  so  that,  in  the  process  of  delamination,  its  posterior  border 
was    lifted    off,    exposing  the  whole  basal   portion   of   the   costal 


Text-fig  U. 
Ai'ropkuia  mirabilis,  ii.g.  et  sp.,  (Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q. ).  Sketch  of  the 
whole  fossil  in  situ,  (  x  2)  to  show  the  relative  positions  of  the  different 
parts.  A,  A,  principal  portions  of  the  fore-  and  hindwings,  figured  in 
Plate  xHv.,  fig  12;  B,  distal  portion  of  forewing,  figured  in  Text-fig. 
lo.  To  the  left  of  the  wings  are  shown  the  crushed  portions  of  the 
head  and  thorax.  The  fossil  remains  are  left  unshaded,  the  rock 
itself  is  lightlj'  shaded,  and  the  deep  break  between  the  parts  A  and 
B  is  shown  in  black.  The  rock  around  B  has  been  partly  cut  away 
with  a  penknife. 

margin  of  the  hindwing.  Around  the  bases  of  the  wings  there 
are  scattered  a  number  of  chitinous  pieces,  some  belonging  to 
the  head,  and  some  to  the  thorax  of  the  insect.  These  are  so 
much  crushed  that  they  cannot  be  recognised  witli  certainty;  but 
there  are  two  very  concave  impressions  close  together,  one  circular 
and  the  other  an  irregular  oval,  which  may  represent  portions  of 
the  compound  eyes.  Below  the  hindwing,  there  are  two  narrow 
elongated  fragments,  one  about    14  mm.    long,    the  other  about 


428  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  Hi., 

11  mm.,  which  appear  to  represent  tlie  broken-off  costal  borders 
of  the  other  pair  of  wings. 

]Mr.  Dunstan  tells  me  that,  in  the  search  for  this  fossil,  the 
rock  broke  transversely  across  the  two  wings,  leaving  a  consider- 
able gap  between  them.  On  the  other  side  of  this  break,  Mr. 
Dunstan  prospected  with  his  penknife,  and  was  fortunate  in 
picking  up  a  further  (more  distal)  portion  of  the  forewing,  lying 
exactly  in  line  with  the  more  basal  portion.  This  part  was 
glued  into  position  on  gardboard  with  the  rest  of  the  fossil,  as 
shown  in  Text-fig.  14.  Mr.  Dunstan  assures  me  that  this  part  is 
not,  at  the  most,  more  than  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  out.  If  that 
be  so,  as  it  certainly  would  appear  to  be  from  the  shape  of  the 
w4ng,  then  it  is  clear  that  the  wings  of  this  insect  were  exces- 
sively long  and  narrow-,  being  in  shape  not  unlike  the  planes  of 
a  modern  aeroplane.  This  character  suggested  to  me  the  name 
of  the  genus. 

The  general  character  of  the  wings  of  the  fossil  can  be  well 
seen  from  Plate  xliv.,  fig.  12.  The  hindwing  is  very  complete  as 
regards  its  basal  portion,  and  exhibits  a  large  number  of  in- 
teresting characters.  We  may  most  profitably  study  this  wing- 
first. 

The  costal  space  appears  to  be  strongly  convex,  and  was  pro- 
bably formed  of  very  hard  chitin,  since  the  few  cross-veins  in  it 
are  indistinct,  and  the  whole  area  appears  to  have  been  coriaceous 
in  texture.  The  convex  curvature  of  this  area  ends  posteriorly 
in  the  deep  groove  of  the  subcosta,  behind  which  the  radius  rises 
strongly  up  again  as  a  convex  \ein.  The  two  separate  bases  of 
Pvs  are  both  strongly  marked  \eins,  but  the  base  of  the  media 
appears  as  a  very  weak  vein  diverging  from  R.  The  bases  of  Cu 
and  A  are  strong  veins. 

In  tlie  whole  of  the  basal  region  of  the  wing,  up  to  a  level 
just  beyond  the  second  origin  of  Rs,  the  cross- veins  are  strongly 
marked  and  easily  followed.  The  meshwork  here  is  of  a  typical 
Paheodictyopterous  type,  the  cells  formed  being  very  irregular  in 
shape.  The  development  of  the  recurrent  supplements  between 
M  and  Cu,  and  again  between  A  and  the  posterior  border,  in  the 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


429 


hindwino-,  are  clearly  interestino-  attempts  to  strengthen  the  wino- 
in  the  region  of  greatest  curvature  of  the  main  veins. 

Beyond  the  level  of  the  origin  of  Rs,  the  ci-oss-veiiis  liecome 
weaker,  and  are  ditHciilt  to  make  out.  In  the  figure  in  Plate 
xliv.,  I  have  indicated  every  possible  cross-vein  of  which  I  can 
find  traces,  by  examination  in  lights  of  different  directions  and 
intensities.  8ome  of  these  may  not  be  true  cross-veins,  while 
tliere  may  be  others  present  whicli  I  have  missed. 


Text -fig.  1.-). 
Ai'/'oplana  nv!rahilis,  n.g.  et  sp.,  (Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q.).     Distal  portion  of 
forewing  beyond  the  transverse  fracture  of  the  rock  shown  in  Text-fig. 


The  preserved  part  of  the  forewing  is  very  similar  to  the  hind, 
except  for  the  different  manner  of  branching  of  the  media, 
which  has  been  already  mentioned.  Careful  measurements  of 
corresponding  portions  of  fore-  and  hindwings  show  that  theii- 
widtlis  are  almost  the  same,  the  forewing  being  slightly  wider 
than  the  hind,  as  judged  by  the  perpendicular  distance  between 
Rs  and  Cuj.  But  this  may  have  been  offset  by  a  somewhat  wider 
anal  area  in  the  hindwing. 

The  isolated  distal  portion  of  the  forewing  is  shown  in  Text- 
fig.  15.  The  main  veins  are  well-preserved,  yet  there  are  few 
indications  of  cross-veins.  It  seems  probable  that  the  cross-veins 
became  weaker  and  weaker  towards  the  distal  end  of  the  win^- 
and  finally  became  obsolescent  near  the  tip,  so  that  most  of  them 
are  not  preserved  in  the  fossil.      It  will  be  seen  that  there  are 


430  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iii., 

two  bifurcations  in  this  distal  part  of  the  wing;  these  have  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  restoration  of  the  fossil,  which  I  have 
attempted  below. 

Type,  Specimen  No.  126^.  (Coll.  Queensland  Geological 
Survey). 

Horizon:  Upper  Triassic,  Ipswdch,  Q. 

Restoration  of  the  Wings  ^>/ Aeroplana  mirabilis,  n.s]!. 
(Plate  xlv.,  figs.  13-1 4). 

In  attempting  to  restore  the  complete  wings  of  this  remarkable 
fossil,  I  have  made  two  assumptions  which  appear  to  be  fairly 
well  justified,  viz.,  that  the  shape  and  venation  of  the  fore-  and 
hind  wings  were  approximately  the  same  (with  the  principal 
differences  preserved  to  us  in  the  fossil  as  it  stands),  and  that 
the  isolated  portion  of  the  forewing,  shown  in  Text-fig.  15,  lay 
close  to  the  apex  of  the  wing. 

Even  with  this  latter  proviso  accepted,  and  taking  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  possibility  of  an  error  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  Mr.  Dunstan's  placing  of  this  fragment,  it  will  be  apparent 
that  the  length  of  the  wings,  in  comparison  with  their  breadth, 
is  enormous,  the  ratio  being  approximately  7:1. 

In  filling  in  the  gap  between  the  basal  half  of  the  forewing 
and  the  distal  preserved  portion,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
the  possibility  of  one  or  more  veins  having  reached  the  costal  or 
posterior  border,  respectively,  in  the  interval.  To  determine 
this,  I  examined  the  veins  in  the  distal  fragment  carefully,  with 
the  result  that  I  found  the  uppermost  to  be  more  strongly  built 
than  the  others.  This  should,  therefore,  be  the  radius,  as  is  also 
evident  from  its  level  on  the  wing  itself.  Hence,  if  we  assume 
that  there  have  been  no  other  dichotomies  of  veins  in  the  missing- 
part  of  the  wing,  the  veins  below  R  in  this  part  of  the  wing 
must  be,  in  consecutive  order,  Rs  and  the  seven  branches  of  M. 
Of  these  last,  it  will  be  seen  that  M^  and  M7  branch  again.  There 
remain,  then,  as  veins  that  have  reached  the  posterior  border  of 
the  wing  before  this  level,  the  two  branches  of  Cu,  and  A.* 

"  This  interpretation  assumes  no  further  dichotomies  of  M  in  the  missing 
portion  of  the  wing. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


431 


On  the  above  suppositions,  we  may  restore  the  two  wings  as 
shown  in  Plate  xlv.,  fios.13-14,  the  missing  portion  of  each  wing 
being  made  approximately  the  same  as  the  corresponding  portion 
present  in  the  other. 

The  total  length  of  the  wings,  as  restored  above,  would  be 
about  46  mm.  each.  If,  then,  the  insect  were  of  slender  build, 
with  a  narrow  thorax,  the  total  expanse  of  the  wings  must  have 
been  about  96  nnw.,  or  nearly  four  inches.  This  is  very  small  for 
a  Protodonate;  but  the  fossil  beai's  the  marks  of  a  reduced  type. 

Affinities  of  the  Fossil. 

This  fossil  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  puzzling  of  all  the 
Ipswich  Insects.  As  far  as  I  know,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
whole  range  of  insect- venation,  either  fossil  or  recent,  that  shows 
any  close  relationship  to  it.  In  finally  determining  to  place  it 
in  a  new  Suborder  within  the  Protodonata,  the  following  points 
have  weighed  w^ith  me: 

(1).  The  differences  in  the  branchings  of  the  media,  in  the  two 
wings  preserved,  are  suflicient  proof  that  we  have  a  fore-  and  a 
hindwing  preserved,  not  two  forewings  or  two  hindwings. 

(2).  Which  wing  is  the  fore  and  which  is  the  hind,  is  nof 
capable  of  absolute  proof.  But,  unless  the  insect  is  altogether 
twisted  out  of  shape,  the  more  anterior  one  should  be  the  fore- 
wing,  as  I  have  assumed  it  to  be. 

(3).  The  close  similarity  evident  between  fore-  and  hindwing 
in  venation,  as  well  as  in  shape,  puts  several  Orders  out  of  court  at 
once;  notably  the  Orthoptera,  the  Perlaria,  and  the  Homoptera."*^ 

(4).  In  considering  the  type  of  venation  exhibited,  there  would 
appear  to  be  characters  belonging  to  three  Orders,  viz.,  the  Pro- 
todonata, Planipennia,  and  Mecoptera.  These  characters  had 
to  be  carefully  weighed,  with  reference  to  known  types  of  each 
Order. 

"  We  might  note  here  the  existence,  in  Australia,  of  Homoptera  belong- 
ing to  the  subfaniil}'  Derhiiice  of  the  family  Fit/goridce,  with  the  forewing 
narrowly  elongate  as  in  Acroplana;  also,  a  similar  elongation  occurs  in 
both  wings  in  the  genus  StenobieUa  of  the  family  Tt-icJiomatidcf,  in  the 
Order  Planipennia. 


432  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iii., 

(5).  In  the  above  compaiison,  due  allowance  must  be  made  for 
reduction  of  the  original  venation,  owing  to  the  extreme  narrow- 
ing of  the  wing. 

Taking,  then,  the  Mecopteran  characters  first,  it  will  be  seen 
that  these  may  be  practically  summed  up  in  the  dichotomous 
nature  of  the  branchings  of  the  media.  But,  in  the  Mecoptera, 
the  radial  sector  undergoes  a  similar  series  of  dichotomous 
branchings.  We  must  assume,  then,  that  this  type  of  branching 
is  not  in  itself  evidence  of  Mecopteran  affinities,  unless  accom- 
panied by  other  definite  characters.  That  this  is  certainly  so  is 
shown  by  the  'Avchsiic  Pf^i/chopsis  illidypi,  which  belongs  to  the 
Planipennia,  but  which  has,  nevertheless,  a  media  dichotomously 
branched,  in  a  manner  not  unlike  that  of  the  fossil. 

The  Planipennian  affinities  suggested  are  the  general  appearance 
of  the  wings  as  being  those  of  a  "lacewing,"  with  their  numerous 
parallel  longitudinal  veins  supported  by,  for  the  most  part, 
delicately  formed  cross- veins;  the  great  strength  of  tlie  radius, 
and  the  close,  parallel  situation  of  the  subcosta  in  a  deep  groove 
in  front  of  it;  and  also  the  correspondence  between  the  branch- 
ings of  M  in  the  fossil  and  in  Psychopds  il/idgei,  already  men- 
tioned . 

The  principal  characteristic  of  all  known  Planipennia,  however, 
is  the  large  number  of  descending  branches  of  the  radial  sector. 
It  is  these  veins  that  form,  in  this  Order,  the  majority  of  the 
parallel  longitudinal  or  oblique  veins  traversing  the  wing.  But, 
in  the  fossil,  Rs  is  unbranched.  This  alone  seems  quite  sufficient 
to  prevent  us  placing  the  fossil  within  the  Planipennia.  Further, 
in  all  archaic  Planipennia,  the  series  of  cross- veins  between  C  and 
Sc  is  oblique;  whereas,  in  the  fossil,  those  that  can  be  seen  are 
at  right  angles  to  the  main  veins,  as  in  Odonata  and  Protodonata. 

A  further  argument  against  both  Mecopteran  and  Planipennian 
affinities  for  this  fossil  is  the  absence  of  any  signs  of  macrotrichia 
upon  the  main  veins.  Even  the  strongly  built  radius,  which  is 
exceptionally  well  preserved,  shows  no  signs  whatever  of  having 
carried  these  structures. 

The  Odonata  themselves  cannot  be  brought  into  consideration. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVARD. 


433 


since  the  fossil  evidently  lacks  the  essential  discoidal  cell,  not  to 
mention  a  nodus,  which  is  almost  certainly  absent  also.  We  are 
therefore  driven  back  to  consider  the  claims  of  the  Protodonata. 
The  strongly  built,  probably  coriaceous,  border  is  already 
known  in  the  Carboniferous  genus  Meganeura.  The  new  fossil 
also  resembles  this  genus  in  the  manner  in  which  M  appears 
basally  as  a  very  weak  vein  diverging  gently  from  the  strongly 
built  R.  The  Protodonata,  like  the  Odonata,  are  notable  for 
the  unbranched  condition  of  Ks.  Now,  in  Jleganeiira,  there  are, 
in  the  forewing,  f^'o  radial  sectors  arising  fairly  close  together, 
and  running  closely  parallel  for  a  considerable  distance.  If, 
owing  to  the  narrowing  of  the  wing,  in  the  course  of  e\'olution, 


Text-tig.  U). 
Diagrams  to  show  the  structure  of  tiie  radius  and  media  in  Protodonata: 
a,  suggested  ancestral  condition,  from  which  there  can  be  derived: — h, 
the  condition  found  in  Ai'.roplana  mirahilis,  n.g.  et  sp.,  bj' fusion  of 
the  two  radial  sectors  (Rsj,  Rso)  near  their  bases;  c,  the  condition 
found  in  the  forewing  of  Meijaneura  monyl  Brongn.,  with  radial 
sectors  still  separate,  but  anterior  branch  of  media  (M,)  eliminated; 
and  d,  the  condition  in  the  hindwing  of  the  same  species,  witli  the 
ladial  sectors  eliminated  but  the  media  not  reduced. 

these  two  sectors  were  to  fuse  together,  we  might  expect  to  get 
some  such  formation  as  we  find  in  this  new  fossil,  viz.,  a  single 
Rs  with  two  origins.  In  the  hindwing  of  Meyaneura,  however, 
we  find  that  Rs  is  entirely  absent.  But  there  is  a  pecidiar 
anterior  branch  of  M,  which  takes  its  place,  and  which  branches 
dichotomously  exactly  in  the  same  way  that  the  corresponding- 
branch  of  M  in  the  hindwing  of  the  new  fossil  does.      All 


32 


434  MKSOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iii., 

conditions,  viz.,  that  in  the  forewing  of  Mp(janevra,  tliat  in  the 
hind  wing  of  the  same  genus,  and  that  in  tlie  hind  wing  of  Aero- 
plana,  can  be  easily  obtained  by  reduction  from  the  type  of 
venation  shown  in  Text-fig.  16,  a,  as  may  be  seen  from  b,  c,  and  d 
of  the  same  Text-figure. 

Tlie  rest  of  the  media  in  Jleyanenra  differs  widely  from  that 
of  Aerophvtia,  as  is  only  to  be  expected  when  one  considers  the 
difference  in  the  shape  of  the  wings. 

The  cubitus  in  J/ef/cmeuirt  (and  probably  in  other  Protodonata 
so  far  known)  is  simple.  But  it  is  a  sinuously  curved  vein, 
resembling  the  Cuo  of  Aet'oplana  in  its  general  course  basally. 
Both  genera  have  only  a  single  main  anal  vein.  But  in  Mfga- 
neura,  as  in  other  Protodonata,  both  Cu  and  A  give  off  numerous 
descending  branches,  which  are  absent  from  A'eroplana. 

AVe  can  only  conclude  that  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
evidence  of  affinity  betw^een  J/egauf^ura  and  An'opJaim,  though 
that  evidence  is  by  no  means  strong.  The  numerous  points  of 
difference  are  so  evident  that  it  will  scarcely  be  necessary  to 
enumerate  them.  There  are,  then,  only  two  courses  open  to  us: 
either  we  must  place  Aeroplana  in  the  Order  Protodonata,  as  a 
very  highly  specialised  member,  far  removed  from  any  known 
type  of  that  Order;  or  we  must  make  a  new  Order  for  it.  In 
choosing  the  forme'r  alternative,  while  at  the  same  time  empha- 
sising the  unique  character  of  the  new  fossil  by  placing  it  in  a 
new  Suborder,  Aeroplanoptera,  I  have  taken  a  course  which  will 
serve  to  indicate  the  degree  of  affinity  of  the  fossil  to  the  rest  of 
the  known  Protodonata,  while  leaving  it  open  to  any  other  ento- 
mologist, if  he  considers  this  affinity  insufficiently  established,  to 
raise  the  new  Suborder  to  the  status  of  an  Order. 

In  conclusion,  it  seems  to  me  quite  possible  that  this  extra- 
ordinary fossil  may  have  held  much  the  same  position  in  the 
Order  Protodonata,  with  respect  to  the  Megmipuridfp,  that  the 
advanced  Agrionidfa  hold  to-day,  within  the  (^rder  Odonata, 
with  respect  to  such  gigantic,  archaic  types  as  Fetalnra.  If 
that  be  so,  its  existence  in  the  Upper  Triassic — at  a  time  when, 
it  is  U)  be  presumed,  the  rest  of  the  Order  had  died  out — need 


BY    R.    J.    TILL  YARD.  435 

occasion  US  no  surprise,  but  is  rather  to  be  expected;  just  as  we 
may  expect  that  the  more  advanced  ])ragoiiflies  of  to-day  will 
remain  in  existence,  loni;:  after  Petahira  has  become  extinct. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Handliksch,    a. — Die  Fossileii    Insekten,    etc.,   arid   Atlas.       Leipsic, 

1908. 
TiLLYARD,  R.  J. — '*  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  Insects  of  Queensland  and 

New   South   Wales."'      Queensland  Geological  .Survey,  Publication 

No.2."i.3,  IDie;.     (Me.sophleJna,  p.24). 
"Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland. ""     No.  1.   Planipen- 

nia,  Trichoptera,  and  the  new  Order  Protomecoptera."'     Proc.  Linn. 

Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1917,  xlii.,  Part  1,  pp.  175-200. 
"Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland.     No.2.  The  Fossil 


Dragonfly  ^Esdinidiopsis  ( .Eschna)  flindersien.s'ts  (Woodward),  from 
the  Rolling  Downs  (Cretaceous)  Series.  Op.  cit.,  1917,  xlii.,  Part  4, 
pp.  (576-692. 
Walkom,  a.  B.  — "  The  (Geology  of  the  Lower  ^fesozoic  Rocks  of 
Queensland,  with  special  Reference  to  the  Distribution,  Fossil  Flora, 
and  their  Correlation  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  other  parts 
of  Australia."  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  X.  S.  Wales,  1918,  xliii.,  Part  1, 
pp.37-ll."5. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XLIV.-XLV. 

Plate  xliv. 
Fig.  12. — Ai'i'opldiia  niirahilia,  n.g.  et  sp.     Principal  preserved  portions  of 

the  wings;  (  x  7). 

Plate  xlv. 
Figs.  18-14. — Airoplana  mi  nihil  i-<,   n.g.   et  sp.      Restoration  of    fore-  and 
hindwings;  (  x  4K     Fig.  13,  forewing;  fig.  14,  hindwing. 
lA,  analis;  C,  costa;  Cu^,  Cu2,the  two  branches  of  the  cubitus;  Mi-M-, 
the  seven  principal  branches  of  the  media;  R, ,  main  stem  of  radius;  Rs, 
radial  sector;  Sc,  subcosta. 


Postscript  {added  Jul u  1  ith,  I'.JhS). — The  following  important 
changes  of  nomenclature  have  to  be  made: — 

Jhsopanorpa  Tillyard,  1918  (Type,  J/.  irianamaUeusis  Till- 
yard,  Upper  Triassic  of  Glenlee,  N.S.AV.,  Mecoptera,)  becomes 
Mps<>panorpode>^,  n.n.;  preoccupied  by  Mesopauorpa  Handlirsch, 


436  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  ill. 

1908  (Type,  J/,  harfum/i  Bi-auer,  Redtenb.  c^-  Gaiigll).,   Middlf^ 
Jurassic  of    Ust    Balei,    Siberia).       The    family   MesopanorjndfF 
Tillyai"d    becomes  tlie  family  Mpscqxinorjtodidfc^  ii.n.      {Set"  Till 
yard.  These  Proceedings,  1917,  xlii.,  Pt.4(1918),  pp.746-7). 

Creagris  Hagen,  1860  (Type,  C.  plumhfus  Oliv.,  Neuroptera 
Planipennia,  Europe)  becomes  Creo/pon,  n.ii.;  preoccupied  by 
Cvpayris  Nietner,  1857,  a  genus  of  Coleoptera,  Fam.  Canihidm. 
I  am  indebted  to  Mr,  T.  G.  Sloane  for  this  discover}-.  (aS'^^ 
Tillyard,  These  Proceedings,  1918,  xliii.,  Pt.l,  p.l22).  The 
tribe  Creayrini  becomes  the  tribe  Creoleonfini,  n.n. — R.J.T. 

Postscript  {add^d  August  7th,  1U18). — The  title  of  Part  ii.  of 
this  series  of  Studies  should  be  amended  as  follows:— 

For  ^^uEschnidiojJsis {.Eschna)  fiiiidersienms ( AVoodward)",  write 
'■^^Eschnidioi^sis  flindersiensis  (Woodward),  [^^Eschna]^  It  was 
never  intended  to  convey  the  suggestion  that  ^Eschna  is  a  sub- 
genus of  ^Eschnidiopsis,  and  hence  the  order  of  the  names  must 
be  altered  as  here  shown. — R.J.T. 


437 


THE  CARBONIFEROUS  TRTL0RTTE8  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

By  John  Mitchell,  late  Principal,  Technical  College  at 
Newcastle,  New  South  Wales. 

(Plates  xlvi.-liii.) 

Introduction. 
For  many  years,  m\'  collection  has  contained  a  number  of 
Carboniferous  Trilobites  new  to  science.  When  the  opportunity 
of  describing  tliem  presented  itself,  my  first  intention  was  to 
confine  myself  to  these  specimens.  On  subsequent  consideration, 
it  occurred  to  me  that  palaeontoloi^ical  knowledge  would  be 
increased  by  extending  the  scope  of  my  paper  so  as  to  embrace 
all  previous  work  on  the  Carboniferous  Trilobita  of  Australia, 
to  describe  all  new  forms  that  might  be  available  from  other 
sources,  and  review,  redescribe,  and  redetermine,  where  it  might 
seem  necessary,  those  species  referred  to  by  previous  authors. 
It  will  be  found,  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  that,  in  a  number 
of  instances,  my  views  are  widely  divergent  from  those  of  pre- 
vious authors;  and,  while  regretting  this  divergence,  it  has  not 
arisen  through  rashness  or  want  of  reflection  on  my  part;  and  I 
may  candidly  affirm  that  my  inability  to  reconcile  the  deter- 
minations of  previous  authors  with  my  own,  in  some  cases,  was 
the  only  unpleasant  part  of  the  work  expended  on  this  paper. 
My  aim  is  to  clear  the  literature  on  the  Australian  Carboniferous 
Trilobita,  to  date,  of  errors  which  have  undoubtedly  become  in- 
corporated therein.  This  aim  is  one  not  likely  to  be  fully 
realised,  but  it  will  be  my  endeavour  at  least  to  lessen  them, 
and,  if  I  succeed  in  doing  this,  I  shall  be  satisfied.  That  the 
present  paper  is  free  from  errors  is  not  one  of  my  expectations, 
for  with  reference  to  my  conclusions  in  respect  to  F.  woodivardi, 
I  am  not  by  any  means  satisfied;  and  I  shall  await  with  some 
anxiety,  the  discovery  of  better  petrifactions  of  the  remains  of 
this   species,  to  make   certain  what  its   complete  form   actually 


33 


438  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

The  discovery  of  the  genus  Brachymetopus  in  the  Mount 
Morgan  district  will  be  of  much  assistance  in  establishing  the 
geological  age  of  that  area,  and  also  in  correlating  its  sedimentary 
rocks  with  those  of  other  localities.  For  reasons  which  will  be 
obvious,  the  name  Phillij^sia  dubia  has  been  discarded  by  me. 

To  Messrs.  W.  S.  Dun,  Palaeontologist,  Department  of  Mines, 
Sydney,  B.  Dunstan,  Chief  Government  Geologist,  Brisbane,  and 
H.  A.  Longman,  Director  of  the  Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane, 
I  am  indebted  for  specimens  placed  with  me  for  inspection  and 
description,  and  for  which  I  tender  to  them  my  thanks.  To  Mr. 
R.  Etheridge,  J. P.,  Director  and  Curator  of  the  Australian 
Museum,  and  to  Mr.  Dun,  my  thanks  are  tendered  for  affording 
me  access  to  literature.  I  am  very  grateful  to  General  A.  W. 
Vogdes,  of  San  Diego,  U.S. A,  Bibliographist  and  Authorit}^  on 
Palaeozoic  Crustacea,  for  supplying  me  with  notes  on  the  classifi- 
cation, and  a  list  of  the  Carboniferous  Trilobites  described  to 
date.  Lastly,  I  wish  to  express  my  thanks  to  Mr.  F.  K.  Cowper 
Heed,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  Acting  Keeper  of  the  Sedgwick  Museum, 
Cambridge,  England,  for  supplying  me  with  a  number  of  liis 
valuable  papers,  from  which  I  have  received  much  help. 

Bibliography  of  Australian  Carboniferous  Trilobites. 

(I).  — 1847.  Prof.  McCoy  (^.im.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  xx.,  p.231, 
PI.  xii.,  fig.  1)  described  Brachymetopus  strzehckii  and  referred  to 
the  occurrence  of  the  genus  Fhil/ipsia  in  Australian  Carbonifer- 
ous rocks. 

(2). — 1872.  R.  Etheridge,  Senr.,  (Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc, 
Vol.  xxviii.,  p  338,  PL  xviii.,  fig.7)  described  Griffithides  dubins, 
which,  from  the  description,  would  appear  to  be  an  abnormal 
species. 

(3).  — 1877.  De  Koninck  (Foss.  Pal.  Nouv.  Galles  du  Sud, 
Pt.  3,  p.  348,  etc.,  PI. 24,  figs.  8,  9,  9a,  10,  10a,  106,  and  10c)  de- 
scribed and  figured  Griffithides  (PhiUipsia)  elchwaldi  Fischer, 
Phillipsia  (Griffithides)  seminifera  Phillips,  and  Brachymetopus 
strzeleckii  McCoy. 

(4)._1892.  R.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  (Geo),  and  Pal.  Queensland 
and   New  Guinea,  pp.  214-216,  PI.  xxi.,  figs.U-H;  PI.  viii.,  figs. 


BY   JOHN    MITCHEJ.L. 


439 


5,  6;  and  PI.  xl.,  figs.  4,  5,  6)  described  the  following:  —  PluUipsid 
dubia,  P.  woodwardi  Eth.  fil.,  PhiUipsia{h  sp.  ind.,  for  wliich  he 
suggested  the  specific  name  Griffithides  fieininiferus  vai*.  (lus- 
tralasicd,  from  Queensland.  Also  in  the  same  year  [Mem  Geol. 
Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.,  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  pp. 126-1 30,  PI.  xxi.,  figs. 
1-4,  5  (and  Text-fig.  f)),  6,  7,8;  Pi.  xxii.,  figs.  12-15],  the  same 
author  described  PhiUipsia  dubia,  P.  grandts,  J'hillipsia  spp. 
ind.  (two,  a  and  b),  and  Grijfithides,  sp.  ind. 

(5). -1903.  F.  R.  C.  Reed,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  (Geol.  Mag.,  Dec.  iv., 
Vol.x.,  No. 467,  pp. 193-197)  redescribed  BracJtymetopus  strzeleckii 
McCoy,  and  added  valuable  remarks  on  its  generic  and  specific 
position. 

(6). — 1917.  R.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  (Geol  Surv.  of  Queensland, 
Publication  No.260)  made  additional  reference  to  the  occurrence 
of  PhiUipsia  grandis  in  Queensland. 

(7).  —  Besides  the  above  descriptions  and  determinations,  R. 
Etheridge,  Junr.,  referred  a  fragment  of  a  pygidium  from  West 
Coerdawandy  and  the  Yaltra  Mtns.,  on  the  Gascoigne  River, 
W^est  Australia,  to  his  species  PhiUipsia  grandis  (MS.). 

Critical  Review  of  the  Carboniferous  Trilobites  of 
Australia,   previously  described. 

Order  TRILOBITA. 

Family  PROETID^. 

Genus  Brachymetopus  McCoy,  1847. 

1.  Brachymetopus  strzeleckii  McCoy,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist., 
XX.,  1847,  p.231,  PI.  xii.,  fig.l. 

Since  this  species  was  described  by  McCoy,  no  specimens  of  it, 
or  of  any  other  member  of  the  genus,  appear  to  have  been  found 
by  collectors,  though  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  find  at  Dun- 
vegan,  N.  S.  Wales,  quite  a  number  seem  to  have  been  obtained. 

Genus  P  h  i  l  l  i  p  s  i  a  Portlock,  1 843. 
To  Prof.  McCoy  we  owe  the  first  reference  to  the  occurrence 
of  this  genus  in  Australia  {loc.  cit.  antea). 


440  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

2.  Phillipsia  eichwaldi  De  Kon.,  (non  P.  eichwaldi  Fischer) 
Foss.  Pal.  Nouv.  Galles  du  Sud,  1877,  Pt.3,  p.348,  t.24,  f.9. 

Under  the  name  of  Griffithides  {Phillipsia)  eichwaldi,  De 
Koninck  described  a  trilobite  from  Colo  Colo,  N.S„W.,  and  de- 
termined it  to  be  P.  eichivaldi  Fischer;  but,  as  the  writer  points 
out  further  on,  this  determination  was  evidently  incorrect.  Mr. 
Etheridge,  Junr.,  expressed  a  similar  view  (Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem. 
Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.l24).  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  presence  of  this  trilobite  in  Australia 
remains  yet  to  be  established. 

3.  Phillipsia  dubia  Etheridge,  Junr.,  (non  Griffithides  diihins 
Etheridge,  Senr.)  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New  Guinea, 
1892,  pp.214-215,  PL  vii.,  fig.5;  PL  xliv.,  fig.4. 

Phillipsia  dubia  Etheridge,  Junr.,  (non  Griffithides  dnhiiis 
Etheridge,  Senr.)  Mem.  Geol.  8urv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No. 5,  Pt.  ii., 
1892,  p.l26,  PL  xxi.,  figs.1-4,  PL  xxii.,  figs.l2,  13. 

The  above  two  forms  were  considered  bv  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr., 
to  be  specifically  identical  with  Griffi'thides  dnhiiis  Etheridge, 
Senr.;  and  the  latter  to  be  generically  misplaced.  The  writer 
regrets  that,  with  this  determination,  he  cannot  agree  with  Mr. 
Etheridge.  It  appears  to  him  that  neither  of  the  above  trilobites 
is  specifically  identical  with  Grijfithides  duhius  Eth.  Senr.,  nor 
with  each  other.  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  wlien  describing  the 
trilobite  from  Binge  Berry,  Rouchel  Brook,  New  South  Wales 
iloc.  cit.  antea)  pointed  out  that  it  diftered  from  the  Queensland 
form  in  having  eighteen  to  twenty  axial  rings  in  the  pygidium 
instead  of  eight  to  ten,  which  is  the  number  in  that  of  the 
Queensland  form.  This  alone  is  suflficient  to  separate  them 
specifically;  but  the  head-shields  of  the  two  also  differ.  Both 
forms  are  here  treated  as  separate  species.  The  writer's  view 
regarding  the  Queensland  Phillipsia  dubia  is,  that  it  cannot  at 
present  be  generically  or  specifically  joined  with  Griffithides 
dubius;  and  that  the  latter  species  must  still  be  recognised. 
Only  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  specimens  of  this  form,  show- 
ing the  stages  of  development  from  the  immature  to  the  mature 
state,  can  satisfactorily  establish  the  proper  position  generically 
and  specifically  of  Griffithides  dubius  Eth.  Senr. 


fiY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  44l 

4.  Phillipsia  grandis  Etheridge,  Jurir.,  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queens- 
land and  New  Guinea,  1892,  p.215.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem. 
Geol.  8urv.  N.  S  Wales,  Pal.  No.o,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  Text-6g.5,  and 
Pi.  xxi.,  fig. 5.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Geol.  Surv.  Queensland,  Pub- 
lication No.260,  pp.11-12,  PI.  iii.,  fig  3. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Mr.  Etheridge  placed  tliese  two  forms 
specifically  together.  They  are  quite  difterent,  and  are  so 
treated  by  the  writer..  In  describing  them,  their  differences 
will  be  fully  shown.  As  the  Queensland  form  was  the  one  for 
which  the  specific  name  grandis  was  first  suggested  by  Mr. 
Etheridge,  it  is  proposed  that  it  should  continue  to  be  known  by 
this  name.  To  tlie  New  South  Wales  one,  a  new  specific  term 
will  be  given. 

The  name  grandis  is  quite  appropriate  for  either  of  the  forms; 
because  their  pygidia  are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  known 
Carboniferous  trilobite. 

5.  Phillipsia  woodwardi  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Geol.  and  Pal. 
Queensland  and  New  Guinea,  1892,  p.  215,  PI.  7,  figs.  11,  13;  PL 
44,  figs.  5,  6. 

This  is  a  singular  species,  to  which  some  reference  will  be 
made  later  on. 

6.  Besides  the  foregoing  species  of  Phillipsia,  which  have  been 
specifically  determined,  Mr.  Etheridge  described  two  pygidia 
from  Binge  Berry,  Rouchel  Brook,  and  near  Paterson,  respect- 
ively, and  referred  them  to  this  genus,  but  did  not  give  them 
specific  rank. 

7. (a)  Phillipsia  sp.  ind.  (a),  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem.  Geol. 
Surv.  N  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No.  f.,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.  1  29,  PL  xxi  ,  figs. 
6-8. 

(b).  Phillipsia  sp.  ind.  (6),  Etlieridge,  Junr.,  op.  cit.,  p.  129, 
PL  xxiL,  fig.  14. 

Both  of  these  jvill  be  redescribed  and  named. 

Genus  G  R  i  f  f  i  t  h  i  d  e  s  Portlock,  1843. 
8.  (^iRiFFiTHiDES  DUBius  Etheridge,  Senr.,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol. 
Soc,  1872,  xxviii.,  p.338,  t.l8,  f.7. 


442  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OP    AUSTRALIA, 

The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  species  should  still  be 
recognised.  Its  description  is  the  first  record  of  the  genus  in 
Australian  rocks. 

9.  Gkiffithides  skminiferus  De  Koninck  (non  Pliillips, 
species)  Foss.  Pal.  Nouv.  Galles  du  Sud,  1877,  Pt.3,  p.348,  t.24, 
f.9,  9a. 

That  this  determination  on  the  part  of  ])e  Koninck  was  in- 
correct, there  is  really  no  doubt.  It  is  fully  dealt  with  in  the 
observations  on  the  relationship  of  Phi/lipsia  collitisi  to  other 
species,  described  further  on. 

10.  Gkiffithides  seminifeuus  var,  austkalasica  Etheridge, 
Junr.,  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New  Guinea,  1892,  p. 216, 
PI.  vii.,  fig. 14. 

The  material  used  by  Mr.  Etheridge  for  his  description  of  the 
above  is  before  me,  and,  after  close  examination  of  it,  I  am 
doubtful  of  the  correctness  of  Mr  Etheridge's  conclusions.  The 
pygidia,  by  which  his  conclusions  were  greatly  influenced,  have 
each  thirteen  and  eleven  axial  and  pleural  divisions  respectively; 
and,  in  this  respect,  agree  with  pygidia  }>laced  by  me  with  his 
P.  woodwardi.  All  these  pygidia  agree  in  tlieir  ornamentation. 
As  regards  the  cephalon  associated  on  the  specimen  with  these 
pygidia,  it  does  not  appear  to  differ  in  any  essential  from  two  of 
those  included  by  Mr.  Etheridge  in  his  F.  ivoodwardi,  except 
that,  in  the  latter,  the  granulation  has  been  worn  off  by  weather- 
ing. On  the  glabella  of  the  former,  it  is  true,  no  anterior  or 
ftiesial  glabellar  furrows  are  visible,  but  this  glabella  is  a  very 
imperfect  intaglio.  If  it  should  ultimately  be  shown  that  this 
fossil  is  a  good  species,  it  will  not,  even  then,  be  closely  related 
to  Gr.  semitiiferns,  because  it  possesses  supplementary  basal 
lobes,  and  the  latter  does  not.  This  difference  certainly  places 
them  specifically  apart.  It  may  be  stated  that,  so  disposed  was 
I  to  the  opinion  that  this  was  a  separate  species,  that  I  had 
written  a  description  of  it  under  a  new  name,  but  not  being  able 
to  discern  any  difference  in  the  pygidia  now  under  discussion, 
and  those  I  have  placed  with  F.  woodtvardi,  I  deferred  final 
judgment. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELr..  443 

11.  Griffithides  sweeti  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc. 
N.  S.  Wales,  1894,  p. 528,  PI.  xxxix.,  f.3. 

The  writer  lias  not  seen  the  original  specimen.  Judging  from 
the  description  and  illustration,  it  is  a  very  unusual  type.  See 
description  further  on. 

12.  Griffithides  sp.  ind.,  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv. 
N.  8    Wales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.l30,  PI.  xxii.,  figs.lo,  16. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  this  may  be  identical  with  Phillipsia 
collhisi. 

From,  the  foregoing  review,  the  following  conclusions  have 
been  drawn,  viz. :  — 

i.  That,  of  the  nine  species  of  Australian  Carboniferous  trilo- 
bites  previously  described  and  named,  only  the  five  following  are 
worthy  of  recognition. 

1.  lirachymetojnis  strzeleckii  McCoy. 

2.  Griffithides  dubius  Eth.  8enr. 

3.  Griffithiiies  sweeti  Eth.  Junr. 

4.  PhiUipsia   icoodfvardi   Eth.  Junr.,   Geol.  et  Pal.  Queens- 

land and  New  Guinea,  p. 215,  PI. 7,  figs. 11,  13. 
b.  PhillijJsia  yrandis  l^lh.  iuin\,  oi   which    the   type   is  the 
Mt.  Morgan  form.      Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.S.  Wales,  Pal. 
No.5,  Pt,  ii.,  1892,  p.  128,  PI.  xxi.,  fig.5. 
ii.  That   the   two  determinations   made   by  the  late  Prof.  i)e 
Koiiinck  are  incorrect,  and  scientifically  valueless. 

Family  PROETID^  Steiiib. 
Genus  Phillipsia  Portlock,  1843. 
Dr.  H.  Woodward's*  description  of  the  genus  is  as  follows:  — 
"General  form  oval;  glabella  with  nearly  parallel  sides,  marked 
by  either  two  or  three  pairs  of  short  lateral  furrows;  the  posterior 
angles,  forming  the  basal  lobes,  always  separated  by  a  circular 
furrow  from  the  rest  of  the  glabella;  eyes  large,  reniform,  surface 
delicately  faceted;  cervical  furrow  deep;  free  cheeks  separated 
from  the  glabella  by  the  axal  (facial)  suture,  which  forms  an 
acute  angle  with  the  circular  border  of  the  cheek  in  front  of  the 

*  Moil.  Brit.  Carb.  Trilobites,  1883-4,  p.  11. 


444  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OP    AUSTRALIA, 

glabella;  whilst  the  facial  suture  cuts  obliquely  across  the  pos- 
terior margin,  just  behind  the  eye,  leaving  a  small  pointed  por- 
tion fixed  to  the  glabella  b}'  the  neck  lobe;  angles  of  the  cheeks 
more  or  less  produced,  mart^in  of  head  incurved,  forming  a 
striated  and  punctured  rim.  Thoracic  segments  nine  in  number, 
the  axis  distinctly  marked  off  from  the  side-lobes  or  pleurae  by 
the  axal  furrows;  the  abdomen  or  pygidium  usually  with  a 
rounded  border,  the  axis  composed  of  from  12  to  18  coalesced 
segments." 

Phillipsia  collinsi,  sp.nov. 
(PI.  xlvi.,  figs.  1-5;  PI.  xlviii.,  figs.  8,  9;  PL  lii.,  fig. 4). 

Sp.  CVtars.  — Complete  form  elongately  ellipsoidal. 

Cephalon  sub-semielliptic,  moderately  inflated,  densely  tuber- 
culated;  glabella  sub-oblong  or  sub-bellshaped,  narrow,  upper 
surface  flat,  steep  and  straight  sided,  densely  crowded  with  pro- 
minent tubercles  of  variable  sizes;  medially  the  tubercles  are 
arranged  in  four  sublongitudinal  rows,  those  on  the  anterior  pari 
are  subconcentric;  front  gently  rounded  and  bearing  a  concentric 
row  of  tubercles;  lateral  lobes  and  furrows  distinct,  the  basal 
pair  altogether  circumscribed,  and  bearing  a  varying  number  of 
tubercles,  one  usually  much  larger  than  the  others;  limb  narrow, 
witli  a  gentle  upward  turn,  smooth  or  very  finely  granulate; 
neck-furrow  distinct,  narrow,  and  deep  behind  the  basal  lobes; 
neck-ring  strong,  moderately  arched  and  tuberculate,  its  lateral 
extensions  being  narrow;  fixed  cheeks  very  small,  eye  or  palpe- 
bral lobes  bounded  by  tubercles;  eyes  apparently  crescentic;  free 
cheeks  unknown.  Axial  furrows  distinct;  facial  sutures  ante- 
riorly very  gently  sinuate  (almost  straight)  and  close  to  the 
axial  furrows;  posteriorly  straight,  and  almost  at  right  angles  to 
the  axial  line,  and  at  last  cutting  the  fixed-cheeks  with  a  sharp 
backward  turn. 

TJiorax  oblong,  moderately  inflated  and  granulated;  axis  pro- 
minent, the  rings  centrally  and  at  the  bases  mildly  curve  forward; 
bases  feebly  tuberculated,  width  equal  to  that  of  one  side-lobe, 
median  sulci  of  the  rings  narrow;  pleura?  convex,  medial  furrows 
of  each  segment  wide  and  shallow,  and  reaching  the  distal  end. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  44  5 

which  is  rounded;  each  posterior  segmental  ridge  bears  a  row  of 
tubercles,  as  du  also  the  axial  rings;  axial  furrows  distinct. 

Pygidinvi  semi-ellipsoidal,  moderately  tumid  and  strongly 
tubercuJate;  proportion  of  length  to  width  equals  3  :  4  approxi- 
mately; axis  has  fourteen  rings,  prominent,  dorsally  depressed, 
sides  steep,  contracting  very  gradually  posteriorly  to  about  half 
the  anterior  width,  terminating  bluntly  and  somewhat  overhang- 
ing the  border,  the  rings  bearing  tubercles  which  vary  in  number 
with  their  spread  from  two  or  more  on  the  posterior  ring,  to 
eight  on  the  anterior  ones,  and  not  exactly  forming  longitudinal 
rows;  axial  furrows  pronounced;  pleurae  very  convex,  arching 
from  the  axial  grooves  at  first  gently  and  then  steeply  to  the 
narrow  furrow  separating  them  from  the  border,  where  all  the 
segments,  except  the  anterior  pair,  end,  segments  ten  in  number, 
each  succeeding  one  having  a  gently  backward  trend,  and  dimin- 
ishing in  length  till  the  last  two  pairs  are  represented  by  mere 
tubercles.  Each  segment  bears  a  row  of  tubercles  along  the 
posterior  ridge  varying  in  number  with  its  length,  from  one  to 
ten,  and  perhaps  in  some  instances  more;  medial  segmental 
furrows  wide  and  shallow,  reaching  to  the  faint  furrow  within 
the  border;  the  border  itself  is  fairly  wide,  and  thickened,  and- 
in  normal  specimens,  has  the  same  convexity  as  the  pleura]  ribs; 
it  bears  a  row  of  conspicuous  tubercles  usually  placed  in  line 
with  each  rib,  and  three  to  five  behind  the  axis,  these  tubercles 
being  occasionally  elongated  or  double;  when  the  thickened  por- 
tion is  removed,  the  undersurface  shows  concentric  striations, 
which  is  a  common  feature  in  the  Proetidte.  Only  the  first  pair 
of  the  pleural  segments  interrupts  the  continuity  of  the  l)order. 

Ohs  —This  species  is  (juite  singular.  Its  outstanding  features 
are:— 1.  The  narrow,  straight-sided  glabella.  2.  'J'he  crowded 
and  conspicuous  tuberculation  uf  the  glabella.  3.  The  equality 
of  the  lengths  of  thepygidium  and  thorax.  4.  The  width  of  the 
thorax,  which  equals  half  the  total  length  of  the  complete  indi- 
vidual. 5.  The  closeness  of  the  eyes  to  the  axial  groove.  G.  The 
straightness  of  the  anterior  branches  of  the  facial  sutures,  and 
their  parallelism  to  the  axial  furrows. 

Dimensions:   total  length  of   an  individual   not  quite  mature. 


446  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA 

one  inch:  widtli,  half  an  inch;  cephalon,  one-quarter  inch:  thorax 
and  pygidiuH),  each  three-eighths  of  an  inch. 

In  the  proportions  of  length  to  width,  and  the  character  of 
the  pvgidial  granulation,  this  trilobite  agrees  with  P.  gemmu- 
lifera  Phillips,  with  which  it  also  agrees  in  the  equality  of  the 
lengths  of  the  thorax  and  pygidium.  In  other  specific  features, 
thev  differ.  In  the  cephalons  and  pygidia  of  F.  collinsi  and  F. 
truncdtuld,  there  is  much  common  to  the  two.  They  agree  in 
possessing  narrow,  straight-sided  and  tul)erculate  glabella,  eyes 
close  to  the  axial  furrows,  and  similarly  tuberculated  pygidia: 
but  the  tuberculation  on  the  glabella  of  the  former  is  much  more 
pronounced  than  it  is  on  the  latter,  and  the  sinuate  course  of  the 
anterior  branches  of  the  facial  sutures  of  the  latter  is  more  pro- 
nounced than  that  of  the  former.  Thepj^gidium  of  F  truncatula 
has  seventeen  or  eighteen  annulations  in  the  axis,  and  fourteen 
divisions  in  each  pleura  ;  but  in  F.  collinsi^  these  parts 
number  fourteen  (or  thirteen  and  a  terminal  piece),  and  ten 
respectively.  In  the  former,  the  pygidium  has  no  border,  and 
the  pleural  ribs  extend  to  the  periphery;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
latter  species  has  a  very  distinct  pygidial  border,  which,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  anterior  pairs,  the  pleural  ribs  do  not  cross. 
The  tubercles  of  the  pygidial  axis  of  the  former  are  arranged  in 
longitudinal  rows;  this  is  not  quite  so  with  those  of  the  latter. 
Of  the  North  American  Phillipsif^,  the  nearest  relative  to  ours 
appears  to  be  P.  insignis,  which  apparently  has  the  same  number 
of  divisions  in  the  axis  and  pleurae  of  the  pygidium,  as  are  in 
the  similar  parts  of  P.  collinsi.  The  tuberculation  of  the  axial 
rings  is  much  alike  in  the  two  species.  In  other  respects,  they 
differ  rather  widely.  The  only  Australian  Carboniferous  trilobite 
fragments  bearing  any  resemblance  to  P.  collinsi  are  two  pygidia 
described  and  figured,  but  not  named,  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr.* 
The  one  pygidium  he  placed  in  the  genus  FhiUipsia  {loc.  cit.,  PI. 
xxii.,  fig.  14).  It  agrees  with  F.  collinsi  in  possessing  fourteen 
rings  in  the  pygidial  axis,  and  in  having  a  tuberculate  test;  but 
differs  in   having  a  continuous,  smooth,   flattened   border,  and 

'"  R.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem.  Geol.  8urv.  N.  8.  Wales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii., 
1892,  pp.  129-130,  PI.  xxii.,  figs. 14,  15. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHKLL.  447 

twelve  pleural  segments,  and  less  disparity  between  length  and 
width  of  the  pygidium. 

The  pygidium  {loc.  cit.,  PI.  xxii.,  fig.  15)  placed  by  Mr  Ether- 
idge  in  the  genus  Grijfithides,  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  present 
species  in  the  character  of  its  border  and  granulation,  and  in 
having  the  same  number  of  pleural  segments;  but  its  axis  has 
less  rings,  and  ends  in  a  sharp  point. 

Lastly,  referring  to  De  Koninck's  P.  {Grijjithides)  seinhiifera 
{noil  Phillips  sp.)*  from  Colo  Colo.  The  dimensions,  number  of 
rings  in  the  axis  of  the  pygidium,  character  of  the  granulation 
generally  on  the  pygidium  and  thorax  agree  closely  with  similar 
features  of  F.  collinsi:  but  the  two  forms  widely  differ  in  the 
outlines  of  their  glabellse  and  pygidia,  if  De  Koninck's  figures 
are  to  be  relied  upon,  which  is  doubtful,  as  they  do  not  agree 
with  the  text.  In  the  former,  the  glabella  is  represented  as 
being  conical  in  outline;  and,  in  the  latter,  it  is  said  to  have  an 
anterior  width  slightly  less  than  that  of  its  base.  Whatever 
Phillipsia  [Grijfithides)  seminifera  De  Koninck,  may  have  been, 
it  is  practically  certain  it  was  not  Grijjithides  seminiferus 
Phillips;  but  it  may  have  been  identical  with  the  present  species. 

Named  after  Mr.  Collins,  C.C.M.,  Lecturer  in  Coalmining  and 
Mine  Surveying  at  the  Newcastle  Technical  College. 

Loc.  and  H or. — Glen  AVilliam  Road,  one  mile  from  Clarence- 
town,  Parish  Parr,  County  Durham.      Lower(?)  Carboniferous. 

Philijpsia  coulteri,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlvi.,  figs  6-10;. 

Sjo.  Chars. — Complete  form  subelliptic. 

Cej^halon  sub-semielliptic,  fairly  inflated,  finely  granulated  : 
glabella  subrectangular,  rounded  in  front,  lateral  furrows  and 
lobes  not  visible,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  part  bearing  them,  and 
the  exposure  of  the  hypostome;  neck-furrow  shallow,  its  lateral 
extensions  across  the  cheek.s  shallow  and  wide;  neck-ring  narrow; 
axial  furrows  faint.  Fixed  cheeks  small.  Free  cheeks  relatively 
large,  strongly  inflated,  steep  between  the  eye  and  border-furrow, 
which  is  wide  and  shallow,  outer  edge  of  border  only  moderately 

*  Pal.  Foss.  Nouv.  Galles  du  Sud,  1877,  p.'267,  PI.  xxix.,  figs.  9,  9m. 


448  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBlTfiS    Of    AUSTRALIA, 

thickened.  Eyes  prominent,  large,  crescentic  and  faceted. 
Genal  angles  rounded.  Hypostome  alate,  shield  like,  and  striated 
in  tiie  fashion  common  to  Phillipsise. 

Thoi'dx  11  mm.  wide  and  9  mm.  long,  appearing  to  have  been 
finely  granulated,  with  a  few  scattered  tubercles;  straight-sided. 
Axis  very  strongly  and  acutely  arched,  rings,  centrally  and 
basally,  strongh^  inclined  anteriorly,  each  one  bearing  along  the 
medial  line  a  rath--r  prominent  tubercle,  giving  the  axis  through- 
out a  serrated  character:  spread  equal  to  that  of  one  side-lobe, 
mildly  tuberculate,  height  and  width  diminishing  gradualh*  pos- 
teriorly, axial  grooves  faint.  Pleurae  gently  rising  from  the 
axial  grooves  to  the  fulcra,  thence  steeply  deflected,  mesial  fur- 
rows of  the  somites  shallow  and  wide,  and  reaching  the  extremi- 
ties, which  are  rounded:  along  the  fulcral  line  each  rib  bears  a 
tubercle  on  the  posterior  ridge,  and  there  is  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  general  fine  tuberculation  or  granulation. 

Pygidium  semielliptic,  length  8  mm.,  width  10  mm.  Axis 
very  prominent,  the  first  ring  having  a  medial  forward  trend, 
rings  eight  or  nine,  counting  the  end-piece,  which  is  buttress- 
like, and  ends  at  the  border  in  a  rather  fine  point,  and  bears  a 
subconspicuous  tubercle.  Pleuriie  with  seven  divisions,  all  rather 
inconspicuous  in  the  specimen  (decorticated)  serving  for  this  de- 
scription, moderately  convex;  mesial  furrows  very  shallow  and 
reaching  to  the  faint  furrow  within  the  border,  each  segment 
bearing  a  tubercle  at  the  fulcral  angle,  and  showing  traces  of 
other  tuberculation,  as  do  also  the  axial  rings;  the  border  is 
relatively  wide,  steep,  gently  thickened,  and  bounded  inwardly 
by  a  faint  furrow,  and  is  crossed  only  by  the  first  pair  of  ribs. 

(9^^^ —Though  the  glabellar  furrows  and  lobes  are  not  visible 
in  the  specimen  described,  the  shape  of  the  glabella  and  character 
of  the  hypostome  leave  no  doubt  as  to  its  being  a  Phillipsia,  and 
the  specimen  is  one  of  the  finest  of  this  genus  yet  discovered  in 
Australia.  It  difiers  so  widely  from  other  Australian  species 
that  there  is  no  need  to  detail  its  relationship.  It  bears  no  close 
relationship  to  any  of  the  American  Phillipsiai  referi-ed  to  in 
Brigadier  General  A.  W.  Vogdes'  Monograph.* 

*  "  The  Genera  and  Species  of  North  American  Carb.  Trilobites,"' 
Amialb  N.  Y.  Acad.  Sci.,  1888,  vi. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  449 

The  species  has  been  named  after  Mr,  E.  Coulter,  of  Katoomba, 
an  enthusiastic  student  of  geology,  who  discovered  and  presented 
the  specimen  to  the  author. 

Loc.  and  /To?*.  — Stroud-Dungog  Road,  near  Dungog,  Parish 
Howick,  County  Durham.     Lower  Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia   brkvickps,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlvi.,  figs.ll,  12;  and  Plate  li.,  fig.2). 

S]).  CAars.  —  Complete  form  unknown. 

Cephalon  apparently  subsemicireular,  finely  granulated.  Gla- 
bella straight-sided,  rounded  in  front,  very  gently  convex, 
highest  just  in  front  of  the  neck-furrow,  smooth,  though  a  lens 
shows  evidence  of  microscopic  granulation,  two  pairs  of  lateral 
furrows  visible,  basal  and  mesial.  'J'he  former  very  shallow  and 
circumscribing  the  basal  lobes,  which  are  large  and  pyriform; 
the  other  narrow;  neck-furrow  narrow  and  shallow;  neck-ring 
relatively  wide,  decidedly  arched  back  ward  ly  and  lobed  at  its 
l)ases;  frontal  limb  narrow  and  gently  recurved.  Fixed  cheeks 
very  small,  eye-lobes  small,  and  abutting  the  axial  furrows. 
Facial  sutures  anteriorly  rather  straight  and  close  to  the  axial 
furrows;  eyes  of  moderate  size  only,  judging  by  the  size  of  the 
palebral  lobes. 

Thorax  unknown. 

Pygidium  sub-semielliptical,  moderately  convex,  very  fineh' 
granulated;  width  10  mm.,  and  length  7  mm.  respectively.  Axis 
prominent,  consisting  of  thirteen  rings,  and  a  very  narrow  end- 
piece,  spread  equal  to  that  of  each  side-lobe,  contracting  very 
gradually  posteriorly,  and  terminating  short  of  the  border, 
rounded  and  bluntly,  with  half  its  anterior  width;  some  of  the 
rings  bear  very  fine  tubercles,  barely  distinguishable  without 
the  aid  of  a  lens;  side-lobes  moderately  convex,  with  ten,  or 
doubtfully  eleven,  pairs  of  segments,  of  which  the  medial  furrows 
are  distinct,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  four  anterior  pairs,  at  least 
reach  the  edge  and  interrupt  the  narrow  border;  a  few  of  the 
posterior  segments  bear  very  small  tubercles  at  their  junction 
with  the  border,  and  three  similar  tubercles  occur  behind  the 
axis,  on  the  axis  itself  centrally  the  posterior  ridges  also  bear 
fine  tubercles. 


450  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

6)6s.  — Aswill  be  apparent  from  a  comparison  of  the  above 
description  with  that  of  P.  derbieitsis  Martin,  the  two  fossils 
agi-ee  in  several  important  features.  For  example,  in  both  the 
glabella  is  parallel-sided  and  practically  smooth,  anterior  facial 
sutures  rather  straight  and  close  to  the  axial  furrows,  eyes  reni- 
form,  pygidial  axis  with  thirteen  rings,  and  ten  segments  in  the 
pleur?e;  and  the  pygidial  borders  obsolescing  before  reaching  the 
articulating  face;  in  the  equality  of  maximum  widths  of  the  axes 
and  pleurae  of  the  pygidia  (this  is  only  true  in  the  case  of  the 
above  species  when  the  pleurae  are  measured  obliquely,  and  not 
the  actual  horizontal  widths:  if  measured  in  the  latter  way,  the 
axis  is  wider  than  one  pleura)  and  the  faint  tendency  to  orna- 
mentation on  these  parts.  Against  these  resemblances,  there 
are  the  following  differences  to  be  considered.  The  length  of 
the  glabella  of  the  local  species,  measured  from  the  neck-furro\v 
to  its  front,  is  equal  to  its  width  between  the  axial  furrows 
across  the  basal  lobes;  in  that  of  J\  derbiensis,  these  dimensions 
are  respectively  about  4  :  2.  The  eye-lobes  are  shorter,  and  the 
frontal  border  wider,  neck-ring  more  intensely  arched  posteriorly 
in  the  local  form  than  in  the  British  one.  The  distinct  lobation 
of  the  bases  of  the  neck-ring,  relatively  short  cephalon,  and  the 
almost  equality  of  the  lengths  of  the  cephalon  and  tail  are  very 
marked  features  in  the  local  species,  separating  it  from  the  other. 
Then  tliere  is  the  distinct,  though  fine,  granulation,  more  or  less 
tuberculation  of  the  pygidium  of  the  form  now  described,  as 
against  a  practically  smooth  one  in  the  other.  Further,  judging 
from  the  anterior  pair  of  pleural  segments  of  the  pygidium,  the 
thoracic  pleural  ribs  were  not  imbricated,  in  the  case  of  the  local 
species.  Although  undoubtedly  closely  related  to  each  other,  I 
have  concluded  that  the  differences  between  them  are  sufficient 
to  justify  their  separation  specifically. 

The  glabellie  of  the  above  species  and  Proetus  inissourieiisis 
are  much  alike.  I  am  indebted  to  J^rigadier  General  Vogdes' 
paper  [op.  cit.,  antea)  for  the  references  made  to  American  Car- 
boniferous trilobites. 

Lvc.  and  Uor. — Neighbourhood  of  Port  Stephens,  probably 
from  near  Bulladelah.      Carboniferous. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  451 

Philltpsia   proxima,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlvi.,  figs.lf),  16). 

Sp.  Chars.  —  Pygidinm  semielliptical,  fairly  convex,  practically 
smooth,  so  fine  is  the  granulation.  Length  12  mm.,  width  15 
mm.  Axis  strongly  convex,  rings  twenty,  tapering  posteriorly 
very  gradually,  and  ending  bluntly  at  the  border,  with  a  spread 
of  about  half  that  of  the  anterior  ring;  axial  furrow  shallow,  but 
distinct.  Pleurje  gently  convex,  consisting  of  twelve  pairs  of 
ribs,  the  last  one  or  two  very  shoit  and  faint,  all  terminating  at 
the  border,  which  is  continuous  to  the  articulating  face  and  sub- 
depressed:  medial  furrows  of  the  segments,  except  in  the  cases 
of  a  few  of  the  posterior  pairs,  well  defined,  anchylosing  ridges 
also  fairly  prominent;  furrow  separating  border  and  pleural  ribs 
distinct. 

Ohs.  —  This  p3"gidium  agrees  with  that  of  PhiUipsia  eiehivaldi 
Fischer,  in  the  continuous  smooth  and  somewhat  depressed 
border,  and  the  character  of  the  pleural  segments.  The  most 
important  differences  between  them  are— (1)  the  pygidium  of 
F.  eichivaldi  is  just  as  wide  as  long,  is  distinctly  granulated,  and 
the  distal  axial  end  does  not  seem  to  be  prominent.  The 
pygidium  above-described  has  a  length  only  four-fifths  of  its 
width,  and  is  practically  smooth.  The  total  length  of  the  pygidia 
of  mature  individuals  of  the  former,  as  shown  by  the  beautiful 
figures  in  Dr.  H.  Woodward's  work*  is  9-5  mm.,  that  of  the 
latter  is  12  mm.  The  large  number  of  rings  in  the  axis  of  ours 
places  it  far  apart  from  the  other.  Named  because  of  its  close 
resemblance  to  P.  eichivaldi  Fischer,  in  shape. 

Loc.  and  H or. — Glen  William  Road,  near  Clarencetown,  Parish 
Parr,  County  Durham.      Lower  Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia('?)  robusta,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlvii.,  figs.l  and  8). 
Phillipsia  graridis  Eth.  fil.,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  No. 
5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.l28,  text-fig.5  {non  PI.  xxi.,  fig.5). 
Sp.  Chars. —  Cephaloji  and  thorax  unknown. 
Pygidium  subsemicircular,  strongly  convex,  very  finely  granu- 

*  Mon.  Brit.  Carb.  Trilobites,  1883-4,  PI.  iv.,  figs.  9  and  1.3. 


452  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITKS    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

late,  greatest  width  44  mm.,  length  26  mm.,  (the  width  here  given 
is  what  the  writer  considers  to  be  the  normal,  and  is  calculated 
from  the  width  of  the  left  side-lobe  and  half  the  spread  c)f  the 
axis,  because  the  right  side-lobe  is  distorted).  Axis  fairly  pro- 
minent, evenly  arched  without  any  decided  backward  or  forward 
inclination  of  the  annulations,  of  which  there  are  fourteen:  the 
furrows  of  these  are  wide  and  V-shaped  in  section,  ridges  high, 
edged,  and  bore  some  small  tubercles,  bases  not  tuberculate. 
Axial  furrows  shallow.  Pleurae  very  convex,  arching  strongly 
from  the  axial  furrows,  and  showing  no  decided  fulcra;  segmental 
divisions  twelve  pairs,  which  reach  to  the  border,  and  are  only 
wently  directed  posteriorly,  except  in  the  case  of  the  last  two 
pairs;  their  mesial  furrows  are  V-shaped,  wide,  and  reach  to  the 
border,  ridges  high  and  chisel-edged,  and  show  no  sutures,  hence 
the  pleural  segments  in  this  oygidium  were  very  completely 
fused:  some  of  the  ridges  exhibit  evidence  of  very  fine  and  sparse 
tuberculation,  anterior  pair  facetti.  Border  continuous,  wide, 
steep,  and  its  undersurface  concentri  -ally  striated. 

Qf)s. — 11iis  pygidium  was  described  and  figured  by  R.  Etheridge 
Junr.,*  and  considered  by  him  to  be  identical  with  a  pygidial 
fragment  from  near  Mt.  Morgan,  Queensland,  and  for  which  he 
had  previously  suggested  the  name  Fhillipsia  gi-andis.j  Mr. 
Etheridge  figured  this  Queensland  specimen,  when  dealing  with 
some  New  South  Wales  trilobites.|  The  writer  is  unable  to 
accept  Mr.  Etheridge's  determination  of  the  identity  of  these 
two  pygidia,  for  the  following  reasons.  1.  The  part  of  the 
pleural  lobe  preserved  on  the  Queensland  pygidium  shows  fifteen 
segments,  and,  when  complete,  without  doubt  had  several  others, 
as  against  twelve  in  the  New  South  Wales  one.  2.  Though  the 
Queensland  tail,  when  complete,  was  apparently  longer  than 
that  of  the  New  South  Wales  specimen,  the  greatest  Midth  of 
its  pleural  lobes  was  only  10  mm.,  as  against  15  mm.  for  that  of 

"  Mem.  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No.o,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.  128,  text- 
fig.  5  {uoii  PI.  xxi.,  fig. 5). 

t  Jack  and  Etheridge,  Cleol.  and  Pal.  of  Queensland  and  New  Guinea, 
1892,  pp.2irj,  216. 
X  Mem,  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  PI.  xxi.,  fig.o. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL  453 

the  latter.  3.  In  the  Queensland  one,  the  pleural  segments 
along  the  ridges  are  separated  by  very  distinct  sutures;  in  the 
other,  this  is  not  so,  4.  In  the  Queensland  one,  the  border  is 
not  nearly  continuous,  for  the  three  anterior  pairs  of  pleural 
segments  reach  to  the  edge  of  the  lobes,  and  these  are  the  only 
ones  which  are  perfect  on  the  portion  of  the  left  and  pleural  lobe 
of  the  specimen.  5.  The  mesial  furrows  and  ridges  of  the  pleural 
segments  are  not  alike  in  the  two.  6.  In  the  Queensland  tail, 
there  were  not  less  than  sixteen  or  more  axial  rings,  but  fourteen 
only  in  that  of  the  other.  7.  The  axial  grooves  are  deeper  in 
the  specimen  from  Queensland,  than  in  the  one  from  New  South 
Wales.  The  two  agree  in  the  character  of  their  granulations; 
but  that  of  the  Queensland  one  is  the  coarser. 

That  the  Queensland  pygidial  fragment  represents  a  new 
species  of  either  Phillipsia  or  Griffithides.  there  is  no  doubt; 
and,  to  it,  my  proposition  is  to  apply  the  name  Phillipsia  grandis, 
first  suggested  for  it  by  my  friend,  Mr.  Etheridge. 

P.i'ohnsia  differs  from  all  species  of  this  genus,  or  of  Griffith- 
ides known  to  me.  Mr.  Etheridge,  too,  noted  (loc.  cit.)  how 
different  it  was  from  foreign  Carboniferous  trilobites. 

Loc.  and  Hor. — Swain's  Conditional  Purchase,  seven  miles 
south-east  of  Carroll,  County  Buckland  (D.  A.  Porter).  Car-, 
boniferous. 

Phillipsia(?)  stroui>e;nsis,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlvi.,  fig.14;  Plate  li.,  fig.ll), 

Sp.  Chars.-^Cephalon  and  thorax  unknown. 

Pygidium  semielliptic,  densely  and  finely  granulate,  moder- 
ately convex;  greatest  width  17  mm.,  length  15  mm.  Axis  only 
moderately  convex.  Consists  of  twenty  annulations,  a  few  of 
the  anterior  of  which  have  a  very  gentle  forward  inclination, 
centrally  and  basally  ;  contraction  posteriorly  very  gradual, 
terminating  bluntly,  and  rounded  at  the  border,  with  half  the 
anterior  width  (3  mm.),  medial  furrows  of  the  rings  wide  and 
shallow;  anchylosing  ridges  not  very  prominent,  but  distinctly 
granulated,  anterior  spread  slightly  less  than  that  of  one  side- 
lobe.  Axial  furrows  faint.  Pleurae  moderately  convex,  seg- 
ments fifteen,  the  last  faint,  anterior  pair  faceted,  all  finely  and 

34 


454  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

distinctly  granulate,  reaching  to  the  border,  and  gently  inclined 
backward  (falcate).  Medial  furrows  wide  and  shallow,  reaching 
the  border,  ridges  low.  Border  continuous,  narrow  anteriorly, 
gently  increasing  in  width  posteriorly,  flat,  densely  and  finely 
granulate. 

O65.  — This  is  a  fairly  large  pygidium,  as  the  dimensions  given 
will  show;  but  it  is,  in  this  respect,  exceeded  by  both  of  the 
forms  placed  by  Mr.  R.  Etheridge  Junr.,  under  the  name  of  P. 
yrandifi;  but  it  has  no  specific  relations  with  either  of  them.  In 
the  number  of  axial  rings,  it  agrees  with  P.  elongata,  but  not  in 
other  features.  It  is  different  from  all  the  British  Phillipsise 
the  writer  has  been  able  to  compare  it  with;  and  the  same  is 
true  as  far  as  the  North  American  species  are  concerned. 

Log  and  Hot. — Stroud,  County  Gloucester,  N.S.W.,  associated 
with  Orthis  resupiiiata  and  Spirifer  striattis.  Lower(?)  Car- 
boniferous. 

Phillipsia  superba,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlviii.,  fig. 15:  Plate  Hi.,  fig.3). 
Complete  form  unknown. 

Sp. Chars.—  (7</?Aa?o?z  semicircular  or  very  nearly  so,  microscopi- 
cally granulate,  practically  smooth;  length  6  mm.,  width  just  on 
double  its  length.  Glabella  subfiddle-shaped,  orsuboblong  with 
a  very  gently  rounded  front,  practically  smooth,  very  slightly 
convex,  and  decidedly  contracted  at  the  middle;  three  glabellar 
furrows  (doubtfully  four),  anterior  pair  or  pairs  very  short,  mesial 
pair  falcate  and  very  faint,  posterior  pair  faint  at  their  origin; 
inwardly  wide  and  deep.  Anterior  and  mesial  lobes  ill-defined, 
the  latter  indistinctly  separated  from  the  basal  pair,  which  are 
small,  reniform,  and  prominent,  standing  out  from  the  posterior 
part  of  the  glabella,  like  tubercles.  Neck-furrow  distinct,  with 
a  decided  central  and  basal  forward  curve,  its  lateral  extensions 
straight  and  well-defined,  joining  with  the  lateral  furrows  of  the 
free  cheeks  within  the  genal  angles.  Neck-ring  strong,  convex, 
centrally  and  basally  anteriorly  inclined,  bases  also  gently  tuber- 
culate;  lateral  extension  narrow  and  not  prominent.  Axial 
grooves  relatively  narrow,  deep,  and  sinuate.  Limb  narrow, 
with  gently  thickened  and  mildly  raised  margin.     Facial  sutures 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  455 

anteriorly  gently  sinuate,  and  posteriorly  shortly  obliquely 
curved.  Fixed  cheeks  very  small,  palpebral  lobe  almost  linear, 
but  convex.  Free  cheeks  relatively  fairly  large,  subdepressed, 
border  wide,  depressed;  margin  very  slightly  thickened,  furrow 
shallow,  linear;  bands  just  within  the  border,  and  the  similar 
bands  under  the  shallow,  wide  furrows  beneath  the  eyes,  bear 
rows  of  granules.  Genal  angles  apparently  rounded.  Eyes 
relatively  large,  reniform  and  faceted. 

Obs. — This  cephalon  is  clearly  separated  from  all  other  known 
Australian  Phillipsise.  In  the  shape  of  the  glabella  and  possibly 
in  the  possession  of  four  glabellar  furrows,  relative  size  and 
situation  of  the  eyes,  it  bears  likeness  to  P.  eichivaldi;  but  it 
differs  from  that  species  in  having  a  nearly  semicircular  cephalon, 
rounded  genal  angles,  and  in  the  absence  of  distinct  cephalic 
granulation,  and  of  genal  spines.  Also,  it  resembles  P.  derhiensis 
Martin,  in  the  form  of  the  glabella,  small  free  cheeks,  and  char- 
acter of  its  facial  sutures,  small  palpebral  lobes,  rounded  genal 
angles,  and  widely  differs  in  other  respects.  No  North  American 
Phillipsi?e  known  to  the  writer,  have  any  close  relationship  with 
this  one. 

Loc.  and  Hor. — Supposed  to  have  been  obtained  near  Dungog, 
N.S.W. 

Phillipsia(?)  waterhousei,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlviii.,  figs.16-18:  Plate  Hi.,  fig.7). 

Complete  form  oval. 

Sp.  Chars.  —  Cephalon  subsemicircular,  greatest  length  and 
width  approximately  2  mm,,  and  4  mm.,  respectively;  finely  and 
densely  granulated.  Glabella  subcylindrical,  narrow,  very  convex, 
anteriorly  sloping  to  the  border  rather  steeply,  basal  glabellar  fur- 
rows small;  the  anterior  and  mesial  pairs  are  visible  on  the  cover, 
basal  lobes  small,  neck-furrows  wide  and  deep,  lateral  extensions 
similar;  neck-ring  strong,  very  convex,  its  lateral  extensions  also 
strong;  frontal  limb  narrow  and  close  to  the  glabella.  Facial 
sutures,  anteriorly,  only  gently  diverging  laterally  in  their  course, 
posteriorly  short  and  oblique.  Fixed  cheeks  small.  Free  cheeks 
moderately  large  and  strongly  inflated,  borders  relatively  wide 
and  depressed;  genal  angles  produced  into  spines  apparently  ex- 


456  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

tending  almost  to  the  distal  end  of  the  thorax.     Eyes  crescentic, 
relatively  large,  faceted  and  depressed.     Axial  grooves  shallow. 

Thorax  apparently  has  the  normal  number  of  somites,  eight 
being  plainly  recognisable  by  the  aid  of  a  lens,  the  whole  surface 
finely  granulated.  Axis  strongly  and  rather  acutely  arched,  as 
wide  anteriorly  as  one  side-lobe;  posteriorly  diminishing  gradu- 
ally, the  fourth  ring  appears  to  be  much  stronger  than  the  others, 
and  resembles  in  this  respect  the  neck-ring;  all  the  rings  are 
directed  anteriorly,  and  bear  a  row  of  very  fine  granules  on  the 
ridges.  Side-lobes  strongly  convex,  ridges  and  valleys  of  the 
segments  strong  and  deep  respectively,  ridges  bearing  rows  of 
fine  granules;  segmental  extremities  faceted.  Axial  furrows 
narrow. 

Pygidium  subtriangular,  fairly  inflated,  granular  throughout 
in  a  way  similar  to  the  thorax;  axis  prominent,  diminishing 
rapidly  posteriorly,  and  terminating  at  the  border  with  a  moder- 
ately fine  point;  the  rings  appear  to  be  eight  in  number.  Side- 
lobes  convex,  made  up  of  six  pairs  of  segments,  apparently. 
Border  narrow,  steep  and  continuous. 

Obs.  —  In  so  small  a  specimen,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  clearly 
distinguish  its  features;  but,  under  a  lens,  they  become  discerni- 
ble. The  glabella  in  shape  slightly  resembles  that  of  a  Griffith- 
ides;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  presence  on  it  of  three  pairs  of 
glabellar  furrows,  I  would  have  placed  it  in  this  genus.  It  is 
the  smallest  and  most  perfect  Carboniferous  trilobite  belonging 
either  to  Phillipsia  or  Griffithides  obtained  in  Australia.  It 
may  represent  only  an  immature  individual,  but  still  mature 
enough  to  have  all  its  chief  parts  developed. 

In  the  shape  of  the  glabella  and  of  the  pygidium,  this  species 
is  not  unlike  Phillipsia  leei  Woodw.,  and  P.  7ninor  Woodw. 

Dedicated  to  J.  Waterhouse,  M.A.,  Government  Inspector  of 
Schools. 

Log.  and  Hor. — Probable  Paterson  or  Dungog  District,  N.S.  W. 
Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia  elongata,  sp.nov. 
(PL  xlvii.,  figs.3-5;  PI.  xlviii.,  fig.14;  and  PI.  1.,  figs.4-7) 

Phillipsia  duhia  Eth.  fil,,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  457 

No.  5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  pp.126,  127,  PI.  xxi.,  figs.  1-4,  and  PI.  xxii., 
figs.  12,  13. 

Complete  form  elongately  oval. 

Sp.  Chars. —  Cephalon  sub-semielliptic,  smooth,  only  moder- 
ately inflated,  greatest  length  12  mm.,  width  between  the  genal 
angles  18  mm.  Glabella  long,  narrow,  sub-bellshaped,  convex 
and  prominent,  highest  between  the  anterior  lateral  furrows,  and 
from  thence  sloping  to  the  front,  which  is  gently  rounded;  lateral 
furrows  distinct,  first  pair  short,  linear  and  gently  curved, 
middle  pair  linear  with  a  posterior  curve,  posterior  pair  wide, 
shallow  and  circumscribing  the  basal  lobes,  which  are  relatively 
small  and  suboval.  Neck-furrow  shallow,  its  lateral  extensions 
shallow.  Neck-ring  narrow,  with  a  strong  forward  inclination, 
its  lateral  extensions  also  narrow.  Frontal  border  fairly  wide, 
especially  at  the  antero-lateral  angles.  Facial  sutures  strongly 
sinuate  anteriorly,  and  posteriorly  obliquely  crossing  the  fixed 
cheeks  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  thorax.  Axial 
furrows  deep.  Fixed  cheeks  small.  Eye-lobes  small,  crescentic 
and  elevated.  Free  cheeks  relatively  large,  depressed,  border 
wide,  space  between  the  border  and  furrow  beneath  the  eyes 
short  and  steep;  and  immediately  under  the  eye  is  a  groove. 
Eyes  large,  subcrescentic,  very  distinctly  faceted,  and  wider 
behind  than  in  front.  Genal  angles  spinate,  the  spines  evidently 
long.  Thorax  with  the  normal  number  of  somites;  length  two- 
thirds  of  the  greatest  width,  sides  subparallel,  surface  smooth  or 
very  linely  granulate.  Axis  prominent,  rings  with  a  distinct 
forward  inclination  centrally,  and  showing  slight  indication  on 
the  ridges  of  granulation,  spread  equal  to  one  side-lobe;  axial 
furrows  faint;  side-lobes  sloping  gently  from  the^axial  furrows 
to  the  fulcra,  thence  sloping  fairly  steeply.  Mesial  furrows  of 
the  somites  distinct,  and  reaching  to  the  extremities,  the  anterior 
somites  shorter  than  the  posterior  ones. 

Fyyidiuin  sub-semielliptic,  convex,  greatest  width  nearly  equal 
to  the  greatest  width  of  the  thorax,  and  consequently  just  on 
one-third  greater  than  the  thoracic  length.  Axis  very  prominent, 
tapering  gradually,  and  ending  just  within  the  border  at  half 
the  anterior   width,   rather   prominently  and  rounded;  annula- 


458  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OP    AUSTRALIA, 

tions  twenty,  strongly  arched;  axial  furrows  distinct;  side-lobes 
strongly  convex,  their  greatest  width  equals  the  anterior  spread 
of  the  axis;  segments  fourteen,  all  terminating  at  the  inner 
boundary  of  the  narrow  border. 

Ohs. — This  very  fine  trilobite  was  described  by  Mr.  K.  Ether- 
idge,*  and  was  determined  by  him  to  be  identical  with  his  P. 
dubia,j  remarking,  however,  that  the  form  now  dealt  with 
differed  from  the  Queensland  one  in  the  possession  of  eighteen 
to  twenty  annulations  in  the  pygidial  axis,  while  the  former  had 
only  eight  to  ten.  This  of  itself  appears  to  the  writer  a  sufficient 
difference  to  justify  the  separation  of  the  two  forms  specifically, 
for,  in  no  instance,  has  he  found  any  Phillipsia,  or  indeed  any 
meinber  of  the  Proetidse,  presenting  such  a  wide  variation  in  the 
axial  annulations  of  its  pygidium  as  is  exhibited  by  these  two 
forms.  But  there  are  other  differences  between  the  two  forms 
of  even  greater  specific  importance  than  this  one.  The  eyes 
and  front  limb  of  the  glabella  of  P.  elovigata  are  relatively  very 
much  larger  than  those  of  P.  stanvelleiisis  [P.  dubia  Eth.  til.). 
In  the  former,  the  facial  sutures  are  more  sinuate,  the  free 
cheeks  more  depressed,  eyes  more  squat  on  the  cheeks,  lateral 
furrows  of  the  free  cheeks  wider  than  they  are  in  the  latter.  The 
neck-ring  and  thoracic  axial  rings  in  the  former  are  non-tuber- 
culate  basally;  in  the  latter,  these  are  tuberculate;  the  glabella 
of  the  former,  too,  is  relatively  longer  and  straighter- sided  than 
is  the  case  in  the  latter.  The  former  has  a  relatively  narrower 
pygidial  border,  and  is  of  a  much  larger  growth  than  the  other. 

The  two  forms,  in  many  of  their  features,  belong  to  the  same 
typical  group  of  Phillipsise,  in  which  the  glabellte  diminish  in 
width  anteriorly,  and  are  sub-bellshaped,  and  the  facial  sutures 
strongly  sinuate  in  front  of  the  eyes.  The  British  P.  Lruncatula 
is  a  good  representative  of  the  group. 

Log.  and  Hor.  —  Binge  Berry,  Rouchel  Brook,  Hunter  River, 
County  Durham:  (IjAllyn  River,  half  a  mile  north-east  of  Gres- 
ford;  County  Durham  (Cullen). 


*  Mem.  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  pp.  126-8. 
t  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New^  Guinea,  p.  215,  PL  8,  fig.  o. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  459 

Phillipsia  rockhamptonensis,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlix.,  figs.  9,  10;  Plate  1.,  figs.  8,  9). 

Phillipsia  dubia  Etheridge,  fil.,  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and 
New  Guinea,  1892,  pp.214-215,  P1.44,  fig.4. 

P.  woodwarai  Eth.  fil.,  op.  cit,  p.  215,  PL 4 4,  fig. 6. 

Complete  form  oblong-ovate. 

*S'^.  Chars.  — Cephalon  sub-semicircular,  appearing  to  have  been 
very  finely  granulated.  Glabella  subcylindrical  or  conical, 
widest  across  the  basal  lobes,  two  lateral  furrows  visible  on  the 
left  side,  basal  pair  wide,  deep,  and  very  distinctly  joining  the 
neck-furrow,  basal  lobes  small,  very  prominent  and  sub-pyriform; 
neck-furrow  deep  centrally  and  shallowed  laterally  by  a  very 
mild  swelling  behind  the  basal  glabellar  lobes,  which  can  barely 
be  said  to  be  supplementary  lobes,  its  lateral  extensions  shallow; 
neck-ring  stronger  and  more  convex  than  any  of  the  axial  rings, 
very  faintly  tuberculate  at  its  base,  front  limb  narrow,  the 
margin  being  upturned  and  gently  thickened  ;  axial  grooves 
narrow;  fixed  cheeks  small;  eye-lobe  relatively  large  and  gran- 
ulated; free  cheeks  fairly  large,  only  moderately  tumid,  depressed 
but  posteriorly  high  and  sloping  steeply  into  the  posterior 
furrow,  distinctly  channelled  under  the  eyes,  lateral  furrows 
wide,  lateral  borders  of  moderate  width,  mildly  tumid,  under- 
surface  striated;  facial  sutures  not  distinguishable  anteriorly, 
and  posteriorly  obliquely  crossing  the  fixed  cheeks  rather  close 
to  the  axial  grooves;  eyes  of  medium  size,  reniform,  faceted, 
prominent  and  vertically  narrow,  genal  angles  bearing  Ion"- 
spines. 

Thorax  oblong,  length  equal  to  the  width  of  the  axis  and  one 
side-lobe,  granulations  microscopic,  somites  of  the  normal  num- 
ber, axis  strongly  convex,  wider  than  one  side-lobe,  diminishing 
posteriorly  very  gently  and  uniformly,  anterior  width  in  the 
specimen  under  notice  being  5  mm.,  and  the  posterior  width 
4  mm.;  each  individual  ring  has  a  decided  anterior  trend  cen- 
trally and  tuberculate  bases,  ridges  and  valleys  narrow,  and  on 
the  former  the  articulating  seams  are  plainly  visible;  side-lobes 
convex,  steeply  deflected  from  the  fulcra,  segmental  ends  strongly 
faceted,  axial  grooves  narrow. 


460  CARBONIFKKOUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Pygidiuin  sub-semicircular  or  sub  semielliptic,  length  7  ram., 
greatest  width  12mm.,  convex,  distinct  indications  of  granulation 
present;  axis  prominent,  strongly  convex,  diminishing  rapidly 
posteriorly,  ending  prominently  near  the  margin  of  the  border 
with  about  one-fourth  of  its  anterior  spread,  its  rings  are  twelve; 
axial  grooves  distinct;  side-lobes  convex,  consisting  of  eight 
pairs  of  segments,  the  last  two  pairs  being  rather  indistinct,  first 
pair  faceted;  border  of  moderate  width,  gently  tumid,  continuous 
to  the  anterior  pair  of  segments;  undersurface  striated. 

Obs. — This  fossil  was  included  by  Mr.  Etheridge  with  his 
species  Phillipsia  diihia  {op  cit.},  but  not  separately  described. 
For  so  placing  it,  there  appears  to  me  to  be  insufficient  reason. 
That  the  trilobite  here  described  is  not  identical  with  Mr. 
Etheridge's  P.  duhia  {P.  stanvelleiisis  mihi)  may  be  made  plain 
by  an  explanation  of  their  differences. 

(1 ).  The  free  cheeks  and  eyes  are  different,  as  are  their  glabella?; 
for  though  the  glabella  of  the  present  species  is  not  perfect, 
there  is  sufficient  of  it  preserved  to  show  that,  anteriorly,  it 
neither  contracts  nor  droops  as  does  that  of  P.  duhia  [P. 
staiivellensis). 

(2).  The  neck-furrows  of  the  two  also  differ. 

(3).  The  axis  of  the  former  is  wider  than  one  side-lobe;  in  the 
latter,  the  axis  is  narrower  than  one  side-lobe. 

(4).  The  axis  of  the  former  is  much  less  prominent  than  that 
of  the  latter. 

(5).  Tn  the  former,  the  length  of  the  thorax  is  much  greater 
than  its  cephalic  or  pygidial  length;  in  the  latter,  both  the 
cephalon  and  pygidium  are  longer  than  the  thorax. 

(6).  In  the  latter,  the  anterior  pleural  segments  of  the  pygidium 
show  distinct  bifurcation;  this  is  not  visible  in  the  former. 

(7).  The  genal  angles  of  the  former  are  strongly  spinate;  those 
of  the  latter  are  not  yet  proven  to  be  so. 

(8).  The  middle  lobe  of  the  one  is  wide  and  moderately  convex; 
that  of  the  other,  narrow  and  very  convex. 

(9).  The  angulation  of  the  free  cheeks  of  the  former  posteriorly, 
and  their  steep  slope  into  the  furrow  are  very  marked,  but  this 
is  not  so  ill  the  latter. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  461 

The  above  differences  clearly  separate  the  two  species.  From 
all  other  Australian  species,  it  is  easily  distinguished. 

Loc.  and  Uor. — Rockhampton  district,  Corner  Creek,  Great 
Star  River,  Queensland.     Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia  stanvellensis,  sp.nov. 
(Plate  xlviii.,%s.lO-13;  Plate  li.,  figs. 8-10). 

Phillipsia  dubia  Eth.  fil.,  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New 
Guinea,  1892,  pp.214-215,  P1.8,  tig.o. 

Complete  form  elongately  ellipsoidal. 

Sp.  Chars. — Cephaloii  sub-semielliptic,.  strongly  inflated,  prac- 
tically smooth,  length  6  mm.,  width  between  the  genal  angles 
9  mm.  Glabella  bell-shaped  or  subconical,  liigh  posteriorly,  with 
a  steep  anterior  droop  to  the  front  limb,  microscopically  gran- 
ulated, three  pairs  of  lateral  furrows,  basal  pair  shallow,  the 
others  faint;  basal  lobes  very  prominent,  relatively  small  and 
round,  mesial  pair  subquadrate  and  about  equal  in  size  to  the 
basal  pair,  front  pair  well-defined.  Neck-furrow  shallow  cen- 
trally, but  rather  deeper  behind  the  basal  glabellar  lobes,  its 
lateral  extensions  across  the  fixed  cheeks  shallow;  neck  ring 
narrow,  strongly  arched,  and  its  bases  tuberculated,  lateral  ex- 
tensions weak;  front  limb  narrow,  gently  thickened,  and  turned 
almost  on  to  the  front  of  the  glabella;  facial  sutures  anteriorly 
only  moderately  sinuate,  posteriorly  oblique  and  crossing  the 
fixed  cheeks  in  a  line  with  the  fulcra  of  the  thoracic  segments. 
Free  cheeks  relatively  large  and  steep,  border  moderately  wide 
and  strong,  lateral  furrows  linear  and  faint.  Eyes  of  moderate 
size,  densely  and  finely  faceted,  subcrescentic,  and  rising  steeply 
from  the  shallow  grooves  of  the  cheeks  just  below  them.  Genal 
angles  acute,  but  apparently  not  spinate. 

Thorax:  length  two-thirds  of  width  approximately,  and 
anterior  and  posterior  widths  equal;  number  of  somites  small, 
smooth.  Axis  very  prominent,  rings  arched  forward  both  cen- 
trally and  basally,  bases  also  tuberculate,  centrally  each  ring  is 
rather  acute,  which  gives  to  the  axis  when  viewed  sideways  a 
mildly  serrated  aspect;  ring-furrows  rather  deep,  ridges  high  and 
narrow  (in  decorticated  specimens),  greatest  width  3  m-m.,  and  is 


462  CARBONIFEROUS    TKILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

wider  than  the  pleurse  if  measured  horizontally.  Axial  grooves 
linear.  Side-lobes  between  the  axial  grooves  and  fulcra  almost 
horizontal,  thence  nearly  perpendicular ;  somites  apparentl}^ 
faceted,  medial  grooves  very  shallow,  ridges  feeble. 

Pygidiuni  semielliptic,  length  6  mm.,  width  7  mm.,  smooth. 
Axis  very  prominent,  made  up  of  twelve  if  not  thirteen  annula- 
tions,  but  not  more  than  ten  usually  visible  owing  to  the  slender- 
ness  of  the  posterior  ones.  Posteriorly  it  contracts  gradualh', 
and  ends  a  little  short  of  the  border  with  about  half  the  anterior 
width;  in  some  specimens,  the  rings  centrally  show  emargination 
and  other  indications  of  having  borne  fine  tubercles.  Axial 
grooves  faint  Side-lobes  convex,  consisting  of  eight  pairs  of 
segments  whose  valleys  and  ridges  are  inconspicuous,  and  the 
ends,  as  they  approach  the  border,  bifurcate,  or,  more  correctl}^, 
the  sutures  widen  out  and  make  the  segments  appear  to  have 
free  ends;  the  individual  segments  have  little  or  no  backward 
curve,  and  the  last  two  pairs  are  indicated  merely  by  a  very  faint 
ridge  and  tubercle;  border  continuous  and  relatively  wide,  con- 
centrically and  finely  striated  underneath,  only  slightly  thickened 
and  separated  from  the  segments  by  a  fine  suture. 

06s.  —  This  beautiful  trilobite  was  originally  described  by  K. 
Etheridge,  Junr.,  and  with  it  was  joined  Griffithides  dubiiis  Ether- 
idge,  Senr.,  for  reasons  not  explained.  All  the  evidence  avail- 
able leads  me  to  conclude  that  the  two  are  not  specifically  the 
same,  and  to  regret  that  this  very  typical  Phillipsia  above-de- 
scribed should  have  been  in  any  way  linked  with  Griffithides 
diihius  Eth.  Senr.  An  examination  of  the  figure  given  of  this 
latter  trilobite  reveals  that  the  glabella  has  three  continuous 
lateral  furrows,  and  a  shape  altogether  unlike  the  former  species; 
and,  further,  the  latter  is  represented  as  having  thirteen  or  four- 
teen axial  rings,  and  an  equal  number  of  pleural  segments  in  its 
pygidium;  while  the  former  has  only  twelve  and  eight,  respect- 
ively, in  the  similar  parts  of  the  pygidium.  These  differences 
place  the  two  apart. 

As  may  be  observed  (antea,  under  the  description  of  P. 
elonyata  mihi),  I  have  had  to  disagree  with  Mr.  Etheridge  in 
determining  that,  and  the  above  form  to  be  specifically  the  same, 
for  which  divergence  of  opinion  reasons  are  given. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  4€3 

P.  stanveUensis  is  so  different  from  all  foreign  and  other  Aus- 
tralian species  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  detail  its  relationships 
with  them. 

The  outstanding  features  of  the  species  are.  1.  The  dunce's 
hat-shaped,  prominent,  smooth  and  anteriorly  drooping,  and 
narrow  glabella.      2.  The  slightly  elevated  glabellar  basal  lobes. 

3.  The  moderate  size,  and  fine  but  distinct  faceting  of  the  eyes. 

4.  The  very  prominent  axis.  5.  The  shallowness  of  the  medial 
furrows,  and  slenderness  of  the  ridges  of  the  pleural  segments. 
6.  'J'he  bifurcation  of  the  pleural  segments  of  the  pygidium.  7. 
Twelve  and  eight  divisions  in  the  axis  and  pleural  segments, 
respectively,  of  the  pygidium.  8.  The  equality  of  the  lengths  of 
head  and  pygidium. 

Loc.  a7id  Hor.  —  Corner  Creek,  Great  Star  River,  Queensland. 
Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia  grandis  Eth.  til. 
(Plate  xlvii.,  fig.2;  Plate  1.,  tigs.1-3). 

Phillipsia  grandis  Eth.  fil.,  Geol.  and  Pal.  of  Queensland  and 
New  Guinea,  1892,  pp.215-216. 

Etheridge,  Junr.,  Mem.  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Wales,  Pal.  No. 5, 
Pt.  ii.,  1892,  PI.  xxi.,  fig.5  (non  text-fig.5,  p.l28). 

Etheridge,  Junr.,  Geol.  Survey  of  Queensland,  Publication  No. 
260,  pp.11,  12,  PI.  iii.,  tig.3. 

Complete  form  unknown. 

Sp.  Chars. — What  appears  to  be  a  portion  of  a  cephalon  of 
this  species  is  preserved  on  a  rock-fragment  from  near  Mt. 
Morgan,  Queensland,  associated  with  a  very  nearly  perfect 
pygidium,  free  cheeks,  a  small  portion  of  the  anterior  of  the 
glabella,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  hypostome  (m  situ),  but  so 
little  of  the  glabella  remains  that  none  of  its  features  can  be 
recognised;  except  that  it  was  sparsely  granulated,  sloped  gradu- 
ally anteriorly,  and  was  of  unusual  size.  The  hypostome  was 
large,  striated,  and  apparently  granulated;  free  cheeks  very  large, 
strongly  granulated,  the  granules  in  many  instances  joining  and 
producing  rugosity;  posterior  furrows  very  wide  and  shallow; 
lateral  border  very  wide;  and  the  undersurface  bearing  six  or 
seven  concentric  stride,  posterior  border  narrow;  the  genal  angles 


464  CARBONIFRItOUS    THILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

appear  to  have  been  spinate.  The  length  of  the  cephalic  shield 
was  approximately  30  mm. 

Thorax:  greatest  width  approximately  45mm.,  length  27mm., 
finely  granulated.  Axis  moderately  convex,  and  had  a  spread 
of  15  mm.,  and  hence  equal  to  one  side-lobe.  These  lobes  were 
fairly  convex,  greatest  width  15  mm.,  and  the  mesial  furrows  of 
each  pair  of  the  segments  were  wide  and  shallow  along  the 
articulating  faces  (ridges),  the  sutures  are  plainly  visible  in 
decorticated  specimens. 

Pygidiuyn:  greatest  width  41  mm.,  length  34  mm.;  serai-elliptic, 
moderately  convex;  axis  mildly  convex,  tapering  very  gradually 
posteriorly,  ending  bluntly  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  border,  much 
narrower  than  one  side-lobe,  practically  two-thirds  as  wide  as 
one  side-lobe,  the  width  being  11  :  15,  rings  apparently  eighteen, 
strong,  densely  and  finely  granulated,  valleys  narrow  :  axial 
furrows  narrow  and  distinct;  pleurae  moderately  convex;  ribs, 
fifteen  pairs,  reaching  to  the  thickened  outer  margin  of  the 
border,  and  having  a  decided  backward  curve  in  the  portions 
traversing  the  border;  mesial  valleys  fairly  deep,  ridges  strong, 
and  bearing  two  or  more  rows  of  closely  placed  granules,  and 
articulating  sutures  plainly  visible^  each  succeeding  pair  gradu- 
ally inclining  posteriorly,  border  wide  but  ill-defined,  not  con- 
tinuous and  concave,  margin  thickened  and  upturned. 

Q})s — The  first  fragment  of  this  gigantic  Carboniferous  trilo- 
bite  was  briefly  described  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr.,*  and  for  it 
he  suggested  the  specific  name  gratidis.  Subsequently,!  he  de- 
scribed a  pygidium  from  New  South  Wales,  which  he  placed 
specifically  with  the  Queensland  pygidial  fragment.  Very 
reluctantly,  I  have  to  disagree  with  this  latter  determination  of 
Mr.  Etheridge,  and  am  compelled  to  give  the  New  South  Wales 
fossil  separate  specific  rank.  A  recent  discovery  of  a  nearly 
perfect  tail,  portions  of  a  cephalic  shield,  and  thorax,  in  the  Mt. 
Morgan  area,  Queensland,  has  much  simplitied  the  task  of 
separating  the  two  forms.      This  recently  discovered  specimen 

*  Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New  Guinea,  1892,  pp. 215-216, 
t  Mem.  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Whales,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.  128,  text- 
fig. o,  and  PI.  xxi.,  fig. 5. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  465 

was  submitted   by  Mr.  Dunstan,   Chief  Government  Geologist, 
Department  of  Mines,  Brisbane,  to  Mr.  Etheridge,  who  described 
it  briefly,*  placing  it  with  P.  yrandis.     This  same  specimen  has 
been  used  for   the  above  description.     It  will    be  seen  that,  in 
the  description  of  the  parts  of  the  fossil,  we  are  not  in  agreement, 
our  dimensional  estimates,  strangely,  differing  rathei-  widely. 
The  dimensions  arrived  at  by  myself  are  :~ 
Cephalic  shield,  length  30  mm. 
Length  of  thorax,  20  mm. 
Greatest  width,  45  mm. 
Length  of  tail,  34  mm. 
Greatest  width,  44  mm. 

Total  length  of  trilobite,  84  mm.,  or  nearly  3i  inches,     A  giant,  cer- 
tainly, among  Carboniferous  trilobites. 
The  reasons  for  separating  the  pygidium  from  Swain's  Selec- 
tion, near  Carroll,  N.S.W.,  from  the  Queensland  forms,  are  fully 
entered  into  under  the  re-description  of  the  New  South  Wales 
form,  under  the  name  of  PJiillipsia  robusta  mihi. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  the  present  species  are — 1.  Its 
great  size.  2.  The  largeness  of  the  free  cheeks,  their  ornamenta- 
tion, and  great  width  of  their  borders.  3.  The  relatively  narrow 
pygidial  axis.  4.  The  mild  tuberculation  of  the  bases  of  the 
thoracic  and  pygidial  axial  rings.  5.  The  slight  tuberculation 
of  the  pleural  segment  at  the  inner  margin  of  the  border,  and 
their  claw-like  shape,  as  they  cross  the  border.  6.  The  plainly 
visible  sutures  along  the  articulating  ridges  of  the  pleural  seg- 
ments, and  the  fine  and  close  granulation  of  these  ridges.  7.  The 
strongly  ridged  and  furrowed  somites  of  the  pygidium. 

As  Mr.  Etheridge  has  pointed  out,  it  is  uncertain  still  whether 
this  trilobite  belongs  to  the  genus  Phillipsia  or  to  Griffithides, 
but  the  evidence  available  indicates  the  former. 

Loc.  and  Uor. — Crow's  Nest,  near  Mt.  Morgan,  Queensland. 
Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia  woodwardi  Eth.  fil. 
Phillipsia  woodwardi  Eth.  fil.,  Geol.  and  Pal,  Queensland  and 
New  Guinea,  1892,  p.215,  PI,  vii.,  figs.ll,  13;  PI.  viii.,  fig.6;  and 
PI.  xliv.,  figs.5-6. 

*  Geol.  Survey  Queensland,  Publication  No.260,  1917,  pp. 11-12,  PI.  iii., 
fig.  3. 


466  CARBONIPKROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Oriffithidea  seminiferus  vslv.  ausiralasica  Eth.  fil.,  (in  part)  op. 
cit.,  p.216. 

(PL  xlvii.,  fig.9;  PI.  xlix.,  figs.  1-8,  13-14;  PI.  1.,  6gs.lO-ll;  PI.  li., 
figs.12-14;  PI.  lii.,  fig.l;  PI.  liii.,  figs.8-9). 

Here  is  Mr.  Etheridge's  description  of  this  species  (loc.  cit.): — 
"/S/>.  Char.  Glabella  round,  without  any  lateral  inflection  of  the 
margin,  moderately  convex  in  the  middle  line,  and  a  little  arched 
posteriorly;  neck  furrow  strong  and  deep,  with  more  or  less  com- 
plete basal  furrows;  anterior  furrows  present,  but  faint;  anterior 
border  thick  and  upwardly  turned,  leaving  a  wide  depression 
between  it  and  the  front  of  the  glabella." 

In  his  observations,  Mr.  Etheridge  remarks: — "The  pygidium 
referred  to  is  much  larger  than  that  described  as  P.  dubia,  but 
otherwise  resembles  it."  In  the  text,  there  is  nothing  to  show 
what  pygidium  is  here  referred  to,  for  no  description  of  it  is 
given;  but  no  doubt  he  refers  to  the  pygidium  illustrated  in 
Plate  xliv.,  fig. 6;  and  if  so,  the  determination,  in  my  opinion,  is 
incorrect.  This  pygidium  belongs  to  the  trilobite  described  by 
me  as  Phillipsia  rockhamptonensis,  and  is  shown  in  PI.  1.,  fig.8. 

The  following  is  a  more  amplified  description  of  the  type- 
cephalon  of  the  species.  Outline  subsemicircular,  surface  gran- 
ulated. Glabella  wider  across  the  basal  lobes  than  it  is  long, 
very  convex  both  transversely  and  longitudinally,  the  front  lobe 
(the  portion  anterior  to  the  anterior  pair  of  the  lateral  furrows) 
semicircular,  highest  between  the  mesial  pair  of  lateral  furrows. 
Three  pairs  of  lateral  furrows  present,  anterior  and  mesial  rela- 
tively wide,  shallow  and  straight,  basal  pair  wide  and  deep; 
anterior  and  mesial  lobes  narrow,  basal  pair  large,  subfusiform, 
much  lower  than  the  glabellar  centre,  overhanging  the  axial  and 
neck-furrows;  limb  very  large,  border  strongly  thickened  and 
upturned,  furrow  wide  and  deep.  Neck-furrow  deep;  neck-ring 
strong,  convex,  sharply  curving  anteriorly,  as  it  approaches  the 
axial  furrows;  sides  gradually  thickening  towards  their  origin. 
Frontal  limb  very  wide,  border  strongly  thickened  and  upturned, 
and  separated  from  the  glabella  by  a  wide  and  pronounced 
furrow,  strongly  expanded  antero-laterally.  Facial  sutures 
anteriorly  directed  outwards  at  an  angle  of  about  25°.     Fixed 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  467 

cheeks  appear  to  have  been  small,  and  strongly  tumid.  Axial 
furrows  deep.     Other  parts  not  known. 

As  Mr.  Etheridge  pointed  out,  this  head-shield  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  that  of  some  Proeti.  The  enormous  limb  is  its 
most  striking  feature.  The  discovery  of  a  complete  specimen 
will  be  of  much  scientific  interest.  It  may  be  noticed  here  that 
neither  of  the  figures,  PL  vii.,  fig.  13,  PL  xliv.,  figs. 5,  6  {loc.  cit.) 
are  correct  representations  of  the  fossils  they  are  intended  to 
depict.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  the  first  of  these,  the 
glabella  is  much  too  blunt  in  front;  and  supplementary  lobes, 
which  are  present  on  the  fossil,  are  not  shown  in  the  figure. 
With  reference  to  figs.  5  and  6  of  PL  xliv.,  in  the  case  of  fig.  5, 
the  glabella  is  represented  as  of  a  battle-axe  shape,  instead  of 
being  rather  quadrate,  or  only  gently  rounded  in  front,  and  the 
glabellar  basal  lobes  are  exaggerated  in  size.  In  fig. 6,  the  axis 
is  shown  terminating  much  too  short  of  the  border,  and,  in  the 
pleural  lobes,  too  many  segments  are  shown.  Photographs  of 
the  original  specimens,  from  which  the  drawings  of  the  figures 
above  referred  to  were  made,  will  be  found  in  the  Plates  of  this 
paper. 

At  present,  I  hesitate  to  recognise  the  portion  of  a  cephalon 
determined  by  Mr,  Etheridge  to  belong  to  this  species,  and  re- 
presented in  PL  vii.,  fig.  13,  for  the  following  reasons.  The 
glabella  of  this  specimen  is  much  more  convex  and  narrower  in 
front  than  the  type-specimen.  Further,  this  glabella  is  just  as 
long  as  wide  across  the  basal  glabellar  lobes.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  typical  glabella  of  the  species  is  much  wider  across 
these  same  lobes  than  it  is  long.  The  glabella  in  question  is  not 
correctly  represented  by  the  figure  above  referred  to,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  photos  of  it  now  produced. 

Since  Mr.  Etheridge  described  this  species,  much  additional 
material  has  been  secured,  and  this  has  been  placed  with  me  by 
Mr.  Dunstan,  Chief  Government  Geologist,  Brisbane,  for  classi- 
fication. Included  in  the  collection  is  a  large  number  of  pygidia, 
all  possessing  similar  specific  features;  and  these  were  collected 
from  the  same  localities  from  which  all  the  known  cephalic  frag- 
ments of  the  species  have  been  obtained.      In  pait,  owing  to  the 


468  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

association  in  this  way  of  these  heads  and  tails,  and  because  the 
great  convexity  of  the  pygidia  referred  to,  which  would  indicate 
the  possession  of  a  very  convex  cephalon  by  the  species  they 
belong  to,  and,  further,  because  no  other  head-shields  reasonably 
preserved  occur  in  association  with  these  remains,  with  whicli 
they  appear  to  have  near  relationship,  I  liave  determined  to  place 
them  with  Mr.  Etheridge's  }\  tvoodwardi,  and,  for  this  reason, 
the  species  is  redescribed  hereunder. 

Complete  form  not  yet  certainly  known,  but  it  may  be  assumed 
to  have  been  oblong-ovate. 

Cephalon  sub-semicircular,  highly  inflated,  surface  granulated 
throughout.  Glabella  subquadrate,  wide  and  mildly  rounded  in 
front,  strongly  convex,  highest  between  the  mesial  lobes,  sloping 
strongly  anteriorly,  and  overhanging  the  furrow  of  the  limb  in 
front;  three  pairs  of  glabellar  furrows  present,  the  anterior  and 
mesial  pairs  rather  wide,  shallow  and  straight;  basal  pair  wide 
and  deep;  anterior  and  mesial  lobes  narrow;  basal  pair  large, 
subfusiform,  much  lower  than  the  glabellar  superficial  centre, 
overhanging  the  axial  and  neck-furrows  latero-posteriorly;  limb 
very  large,  border  strongly  thickened  and  upturned,  furrow  wide 
and  deep;  neck-furrow  wide  and  deep;  neck-ring  strong,  convex, 
bases  strongly  curving  anteriorly  under  the  glabellar  basal  lobes; 
supplementary  lobes  present,  though  tjot  conspicuous  in  the  most 
typical  specimen.  Facial  sutures  anteriorly  directed  outwards 
at  an  angle  of  about  25°.  Fixed  cheeks  would  appear  to  have 
been  of  moderate  size,  and  posteriorly  strongly  inflated.  Free 
cheeks  fairly  large,  strongly  and  thickly  granulated,  especially 
on  the  part  between  the  lateral  and  ocular  furrows;  this  part, 
too,  is  high,  and  rather  acutely  angulate  postero-laterally,  flat 
superficially,  laterally  and  posteriorly  steeply  falling  into  the 
lateral  and  posterior  furrows,  which  are  wide  and  deep;  border 
much  thickened  and  upturned,  striated,  posterior  border  (exten- 
sion of  the  neck-ring)  strong,  genal  angles  apparently  blunt; 
eyes  of  moderate  size,  apparently  crescentic  and  faceted,  some- 
what sunk  into  the  ocular  furrow. 

I'horax :  for  certain  not  known,  but  the  following  is  the  de- 
scription of  one  attached  to  a  pygidium  identical  with  a  number 


BY    JOHN    MITCHKLL.  469 

of  others  assumed  to  belong  to  this  species  :  suboblong,  gi-aii- 
ulated,  longer  than  the  p\^gidium,  all  the  segmental  ridges  appear 
to  have  borne  tubercles;  number  of  segments  normal.  Axis 
prominent,  ring-bases  non-tuberculate,  with  a  strong  anterior 
inclination  centrally,  ridges  and  valleys  well  defined,  apparently 
as  wide  as  one  side-lobe.  Side-lobes  strongly  convex  and  steep 
between  the  fulcra  and  margins,  all  parts  densely  granulated, 
segments  anteriorly  angulate  at  the  fulcra;  mesial  furrows  wide, 
ridges  relatively  narrow  and  faceted,  and  mildly  thickened 
posteriorly. 

Pygidivm  very  strongly  convex,  length  to  width  approximately 
2  :  3,  granulated;  axis  prominent,  evenly  arched,  anterior  spread 
about  equal  to  the  greatest  width  of  one  side-lobe,  posteriorly 
diminishing  in  width  very  gradually,  and  ending  prominently 
and  bluntly  a  little  short  of  the  bordei-;  number  of  rings  thirteen, 
and  each  bore  a  row  of  small  tubercles  quite  conspicuous  on 
unweathered  specimens;  axial  grooves  wide  and  deep.  Side, 
lobes  convex,  consif^ting  of  eleven  pairs  of  segments,  the  lidges 
of  each  pair  bearing  rows  of  small  tubercles  varying  from  two  or 
three  on  the  shorter,  to  eight  or  perhaps  nine  on  the  longer  ones. 
Border  continuous,  mildly  thickened,  convex  and  steep. 

Ohs.  —  At  the  outset,  I  admit  that  the  pygidia  here  joined  with 
Mr.  Etheridge's  tj'pe-cephalon  of  the  species  may  yet  prove  to 
be  a  wrong  conclusion;  but  should  it  happen  so,  T  am  inclined 
to  believe,  too,  that  the  heads  (PI.  li.,  figs.  1*2,  13)  will  also  prove 
not  identical  with  the  type  one;  but  should  that  happen,  I  am 
fully  satisfied  that  these  latter  heads,  and  the  tails  here  dealt 
with,  will  prove  to  ijelong  to  the  one  species.  The  heads  now 
joined  with  the  typical  one  possessing  the  very  characteristic 
frontal  limb,  cannot,  for  certain,  in  the  absence  of  this  limb,  be 
said  to  belong  to  the  species. 

While  completing  the  above  description,  the  specimen  No.712, 
belonging  to  the  Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane,  is  before  me; 
and  the  trilobite  fossil  remains  on  it  consist  of  two  pygidia,  one 
thorax  and  pygidium  conjoined  but  incomplete,  a  fragmentary 
head  in  intaglio,  and  a  part  of  a  free  cheek.  (On  the  same 
specimen,  occurs  the  tail  of  a  Brachymetopus,  the  first  recorded 

35 


470  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

from  Queensland).  These  fossils  weie  those  which  chiefly  served 
Mr.  Etheridge  to  found  his  varietal  species  Griffithides  aemini- 
ferus  var.  australasica  on.  After  a  close  study  of  these  remains, 
I  am  compelled  to  dissent  from  his  conclusions  concerning  them. 
They  cannot  belong  to  the  above  species,  because  the  glabella 
possesses  supplementary  basal  lobes,  a  feature  by  some  palaeon- 
tologists thought  to  be  of  generic  significance,  and  which  G. 
seminiferus  does  not  possess.  Again,  these  pygidia  have  thirteen 
rings  in  their  axis,  and  eleven  pairs  of  segments  in  the  pleursp. 
In  these  parts,  G.  seminiferus  has  twelve  and  nine  respectively. 
These  differences  alone  would  render  the  specific  identity  of  the 
two  forms  invalid,  but  these  are  not  the  only  differences  between 
them.  As  far,  then,  as  the  fossils  under  present  consideration 
afford  evidence,  Mr.  Etheridge's  varietal  species  fails.  The  part 
of  the  cephalon  on  this  same  specimen  of  rock  is  very  imperfect, 
but  it  shows,  on  the  glabella,  similar  but  clearer  granulation, 
because  the  granules  are  not  worn  off  by  weathering,  similar 
glabellar  basal  and  supplementary  lobes  lo  that  and  those 
respectively  found  on  the  cephalons  here  determined  to  belong 
to  Phillipsia  vjoodwardi.  The  only  features  not  visible  on  the 
glabella  of  the  fragmentary  cephalon,  to  make  its  identity  with 
the  latter  certain,  are  the  mesial  and  anterior  glabellar  furrows; 
but  these  are  barely  visible  on  some  glabellse  of  P.  woodwardi. 
Lastly,  the  pygidium  represented  in  Plate  viii.,  fig. 6  (oj).  cit.), 
which  was  considered  by  Mr.  Etheridge  to  be  a  normal  pygidium 
of  his  P.  duhia  (P.  stanvellensis  mihi)  is  here  joined  with  the 
present  species  by  me.  It  is  undoubtedly  inseparable  from  the 
other  pygidia  now  joined  with  the  species  above  described,  and 
certainly  is  not  at  all  closely  related  to  the  pygidia  of  P.  stan- 
vellensis mihi  [P.  duhia  Eth.  fil.,  op.  cit.,  PI.  viii.,  fig.o). 

Mr.  Etheridge  has  already  called  attention  to  the  Proetus-like 
aspect  of  the  cephalon  of  the  present  species.  The  singular  form 
of  this  part  of  the  fossil  makes  it  unnecessary  to  point  out  in 
detail  the  features  which  separate  it  from  other  species  of 
Phillipsia. 

Log.  and  Hor. — Stoney  Creek,  Stanwell;  Crow's  Nest  and 
Trilobite  Ridge,  Mt.  Morgan,  Queensland,  etc.     Associated  wit  |i 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  471 

Brachymelopus  dniififani.      Middle  or   Lower  Carboniferous  pro- 
bably. 

Phillipsia  morganensis,  sp.  nov. 
(PI.  xlix.,  figs.ll,  12;  PI.  li.,  6g.l). 

.S';;.  CAa/-6\  —  6V/?/irt/o?i  sub-semicircular,  very  finely  granulated, 
greatest  length  and  width  8  mm.,  and  16  mm.,  respectively. 
Glabella  subconical  or  sub-bellshaped,  mildly  convex,  finely  and 
densely  granulated,  longer  than  wide  ;  three  pairs  of  lateral 
furrows  distinctly  shown,  basal  pair  very  deep  and  wide,  anterior 
and  mesial  pairs  short  and  only  gently  curved  posteriorly: 
anterior  and  mesial  lobes  of  moderate  size,  basal  pair  fairly 
large,  with  small  complementary  lobes  present;  neck-furrow  deep 
and  wide,  the  extensions  laterally  also  fairly  deep  and  wide; 
neck-ring  strong,  moderately  convex,  strongly  curving  anteriorly 
at  its  bases;  facial  sutures  anteriorly  very  straight,  posteriorly 
short  and  oblique,  frontal  limb  narrow  and  close  to  the  glabellar 
front;  fixed  cheeks  very  small,  with  small  eye-lobes.  Free  cheeks 
rather  large,  only  moderately  tumid,  finely  granulated,  both 
borders  and  lateral  furrows  large,  the  former  being  moderately 
thickened,  finely  granulated  on  the  upper  and  striated  on  the 
undersurface,  the  latter  being  shallow,  ocular  furrow  wide  and 
shallow.  Eyes  of  moderate  size,  finely  faceted,  vertically  narrow, 
and  decidedly  higher  behind  than  in  front.  Genal  angles  obtuse. 
Hypostome  shield- like,  narrow,  not  alate,  posteriorly  glossiform 
and  corrugated,  no  striae  visible,  widest  at  two- thirds  of  its  length 
from  the  front  edge. 

Thorax  not  known  in  a  complete  state,  but  one,  on  which  a 
pygidium  and  a  free  cheek  rest,  shows  the  following  features — 
moderately  convex,  finely  granulated.  Axis  moderately  convex, 
diminishing  in  width  and  height  gradually  posteriorly,  wider 
than  one  side-lobe,  rings  strong,  valleys  narrow  and  having  an 
anterior  inclination,  bases  non-tuberculate,  axial  furrows  linear. 
Side-lobes  not  well  shown,  but  the  segmental  ridges  and  furrows 
were  strong  and  deep  respectively. 

Pygidium  widely  triangular,  mildly  convex  and  granular, 
length  7  mm.,  and  greatest  width  12  mm.  Axis  mildly  and 
evenly  convex,  anterior   width   equal   to  that  of  one  side-lobe, 


472  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

diminishing  gradually  in  width  and  height  posteriorly,  and  end- 
ing short  of  the  margin  inconspicuously  with  about  half  its 
anterior  width,  rings  apparently  eleven;  ridges  not  prominent, 
furrows  also  faint,  some  of  the  anterior  ones  have  centrally  a 
backward  trend.  Axial  furrows  linear.  Side-lobes  convex,  con- 
sisting apparently  of  nine  pairs  of  segments  (eight  only  are 
visible  on  the  best  available  specimen),  front  pair  faceted,  ridges 
and  furrows  fairly  distinct,  and  having  successivelv  onlv  a 
moderate  backward  trend. 

Obs. — This  trilobite  belongs  to  the  ty^pe  oi  Phillipsia  which 
had  the  glabella  narrower  in  front  than  posteriorly,  which  seems 
a  common  characteristic  among  the  Australian  members  of  the 
genus,  and,  in  this  respect,  shows  a  closer  relationship  to  the 
typical  genus  of  the  Proetidse,  than  do  the  Phillipsiie  of  Europe, 
and,  perhaps  also,  America.  A  singular  feature  in  the  present 
species  is  the  form  of  the  hypostome  assumed  to  belong  to  it. 
None  similar  to  it  has  come  under  my  notice.  The  one  nearest 
to  it  is  one  figured  by  Dr.  H.  Woodward*  with  other  illus- 
trations of  Phillipsia  eichivaJdi,  but  evidently  not  belonging  to 
that  species.  'J  he  straightness  of  the  anterior  branches  of  the 
facial  sutures,  and  their  mild  outward  divergence  as  tiiey  reach 
the  frontal  limb,  are  striking  features  of  the  species.  A  study 
of  the  description  and  illustrations  of  the  species  will  render  its 
separation  from  other  Australian  Phillipsise  simple.  In  contour, 
the  glabella  is  not  unlike  what  that  of  the  glabella  placed  with 
P.  woodtvardi  (PI.  xlix.,  fig. 7)  would  be,  were  it  not  so  convex; 
but,  in  the  former,  the  glabella  is  longer  than  it  is  wide  across 
the  basal  glabellar  lobes;  in  the  latter,  these  dimensions  are 
equal.  No  foreign  species  has  come  under  my  notice  witli  which 
it  seems  necessary  to  compare  it. 

Loc.  and  Hor. — Trilobite  Ridge,  Mount  Morgan,  Queensland. 
Carboniferous  (Lower'?). 

Phillipsia  connollii,  sp.nov. 
(PI.  li.,  figs.4-7). 
Phillipsia  grandis  Eth.  fil.  (MS.). 
Only  an  incomplete  pygidium  known. 

*  Mon.  Brit.  Carb.  Trilobites,  1883-4,  PI.  iv.,  fig.  7. 


6Y  JOHN  Mitchell.  4/3 

Sp.  Chars.  —  Pyyidiuiu  semielliptic,  moderately  convex,  and 
microscopically  granulated.  Axis  very  prominent,  consisting  of 
ten,  possibly  eleven  rings,  not  as  wide  as  one  side-lobe,  evenly 
arched,  and  slightly  flattened  dorsally,  ending  at  the  border  very 
prominently  and  rather  acutely,  ridges  and  valleys  of  the  rings 
quite  distinct.  Axial  grooves  shallow.  Side-lobes  mildly  convex, 
consisting  of  eight  or  nine  pairs  of  segments,  -which  are  only 
very  gently  directed  backward,  and  terminating  at  the  border, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  anterior  pair,  which  encroaches  on  it. 
Mesial  furrows  and  the  ridges  of  the  segments  moderately  defined. 
Border  proportionately  wide  and  continuous,  mildly  convex, 
horizontal,  and  apparently  wider  laterally  than  behind,  separated 
from  the  ribs  by  a  shallow  furrow.  Greatest  width  13  mm., 
length  9  mm.,  anterior  width  of  axis  3  mm. 

Obs. — Thispygidium  was  placed  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  with 
his  Fhillipsia  grandis,  but  to  this  species  I  find  it  has  no  close 
relationship.  In  its  wide  border,  and  the  number  of  axial  rings 
and  pleural  segments,  it  bears  strong  resemblances  to  our 
Gri(tithides  conveoncaudatus,  but  its  axis  is  much  more  prominent 
and  relatively  narrower,  than  is  that  of  the  latter.  The  axial 
and  pleural  divisions  are  more  clearly  defined  in  the  former  than 
they  are  in  the  latter;  the  border  in  the  former  is  ilat,  and  in  the 
latter  very  steep.  The  shape  or  outline  of  the  pygidia  of  these 
species  is  very  different.  In  number  of  axial  and  pleural 
divisions,  this  species  is  related  to  both  i".  cordteri  and  /-*.  staii- 
reUensls,  but  not  otherwise.  In  possessing  very  prominent  and 
relatively  nai-row  axes,  P.  stanvellensis  and  the  present  species 
agree.  I  am  not  aware  of  any  foreign  Carboniferous  trilobite 
having  a  pygidium  closely  resembling  this  one. 

Named  after  Mr.  Connolly,  wlio  discovered  it. 

Loc.  and  llor. — Gascoigne  River,  AN'est  Australia  (Connolh'). 
Carboniferous. 

Phillipsia   kouchklensis,  sp.nov. 

PkUiipsui  sp.,  ind.  {a),  Eth.  til.,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wale.s, 
Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  1892,  p.l29,  PL  xxi.,  tigs.  6,  7. 
(PI.  xlviii.,  figs.  4,  5,  6,  7). 


474  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Cephaloii  and  thorax  unknown. 

Sp.  Chars. — Py^ic<t?AWi  sub-semicircular,  width  15  mm.,  length 
11mm.;  smooth  and  moderately  inflated.  Axis  moderately 
convex,  tapering  very  gradually,  and  terminating  bluntly  with 
a  spread  rather  greater  than  half  that  of  the  first  ring;  anterior 
width  about  equal  to  that  of  one  side-lobe;  consisting  of  eighteen 
rings,  some  of  which  show  traces  of  having  been  very  mildly 
tuberculated;  axial  furrows  faint.  8ide-lobes  convex,  with  no 
decided  fulcra,  segments  thirteen,  or  doubtfully  fourteen,  mildly 
recurved,  not  crossing  the  border;  border  of  moderate  width, 
steep,  smooth,  and  separated  from  the  pleural  segments  by  a  fine 
suture. 

Ohs. — This  pygidium  was  briefly  described  by  Mr.  Etheridge 
{loc.  cit.),  but  not  specifically  named,  though  he  stated  that  it 
possessed  certain  features  which  clearly  indicated  that  it  was 
a  new  species.  It  differs  from  all  other  species  of  Phillipsia  and 
Griflithides  known  to  me. 

Loc.  and  IIor.~  Binge  Berry,  Rouchel  Brook,  near  Muswell- 
brook:  County  Durham. 

Phillipsia  dungogensis,  sp.nov. 

Phillijjsia  sp.  ind.  {b),  Eth.  fil.,  Mem.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales, 
Pal.  No.5,  Pi.  ii.,  1892,  p.l29;  PI.  xxii.,  fig.14. 
(Plate  xlvii.,  figs.6,  7). 

Complete  form  unknown. 

Sjy.  Chars.  —  Fygidium  sub-semicircular,  very  moderately  con- 
vex, finely  granulated  throughout,  greatest  width  22  mm.,  length 
16  mm.  Axis  mildly  convex,  consisting  of  fourteen  annulations, 
the  furrows  and  ridges  of  which  are  respectively  shallow  and 
low,  diminishing  very  slightly  in  width  posteriorly,  the  end 
being  wide  and  rounded,  bases  of  the  rings  not  tuberculate, 
anterior  width  less  than  one  side-lobe:  axial  furrows  fairly  dis- 
tinct. Pleui-ie  gently  inflated  and  sloping  from  the  axial  furrows; 
segments  twelve  pairs,  which  are  very  completely  fused,  the  four 
anterior  pairs  reaching  to  the  outer  margin,  medial  furrows  wide 
and  shallow,  ridges  not  prominent  and  showing  no  sutures  : 
border  narrow  and  continuous. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  475 

Obs. — This  is  another  of  the  pygidia  described  by  Mr.  Ether- 
idge,  Junr.,  {loc.  cit.)  but  which  he  did  not  specifically  name. 
It  resembles  no  other  Australian  Carboniferous  form  at  all 
closely;  and,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  it  stands 
apart  from  the  pygidia  of  foreign  species  of  the  genera  Phillipsia 
and  Griffithides. 

Loc.  and  Hor. — Greenhills,  near  Dungog;  County  Durham. 
Carboniferous. 

Genus  Griffithides  Portlock,  1843. 

Geol.  Report,  Londonderry,  &c.,  p. 3 10, 

The  following  is  Portlock 's  original  description  of  the  genus — 
''Cephalothorax  semi-oval,  longitudinal:  glabella  strongly  marked 
and  gibbous,  rounded  in  front,  narrowed  posteriorly  into  an  ob- 
solete neck  with  a  furrow  more  or  less  distinct  on  each  side. 
Cheeks:  triangular  spaces  very  slightly  convex.  Wings  either 
ending  in  an  angle  posteriorly  or  prolonged  backwards  in  a 
tlattened  spine.  Eyes  near  the  axis,  not  large,  lunate,  smoothC?). 
The  minute  neck  tubercle  sometimes  present. ' 

"  Thorax. — The  pleuripedes  are  compound,  in  number  nine,  or 
with  the  neck  segment  ten." 

^^Fygidium. — Fully  developed  and  strongly  resembling  that  of 
Phillipsia." 

General  A.  W.  Vogdes  {loc.  cit.)  gives  the  following  brief 
summary  of  the  generic  features  of  this  genus: — 1.  Glabella 
short,  tumid.  2.  No  short  lateral  furrows  on  the  glabella.  3. 
Basal  lobes  distinct.  4.  Eyes  small,  placed  close  on  the  glabella, 
reniform.      5.  Axis  of  pygidium  has  10  to  17  segments. 

Griffithides  convexicaudatus,  sp.nov. 
(PI.  xlvi.,  tig.l3;  PI.  xlviii.,  figs.1-3;  PI.  lii.,  figs.5,  6;. 
Sp.  Chars. — Complete  form  suboval  with  straight  sides 
Cephalon  sub-semicircular,  apparently  finely  granulated  and 
strongly  inflated.  Glabella  subpyriform,  tumid;  basal  furrows 
faint;  basal  lobes  relatively  small;  neck-furrow  shallow,  its  lateral 
extensions  deeper,  and  communicating  with  the  lateral  furrows 
of  the  free  cheeks;  neck-ring  wider  than  the  axial  rings  of  the 


476  CARBOMFEtlOtS    TKILOfilTES    OF    AOsTRALtA, 

thorax,  its  lateral  extensions  narrow  but  prominent.  Axial 
grooves  faint  Fixed  cheeks  very  small  and  high;  palpebral  lobe 
high,  narrow,  convex,  and  very  faintly  separated  from  the  basal 
lobe.  Free  cheeks  iiigh,  sharply  rising  from  the  narrow  lateral 
furrows,  lateral  border  narrow,  thickened  and  raised.  Eyes 
reniform,  short  fore  and  aft,  high  and  prominent,  separated  from 
the  upper  and  flattened  part  of  the  cheeks  by  a  faint  sulcus,  ap- 
parently faceted.  Facial  sutures  anteriorly  follow  the  course  of 
the  axial  grooves,  posteriorly  oblique  passing  out  in  a  line  with 
the  fulcra  of  the  thoracic  pleurae.  Limb  narrow  and  pressed 
to  the  front  of  the  glabella.     Genal  angles  bear  very  short  spines. 

Thorax  fairly  convex,  finely  granulated,  rectangular,  length 
practically  two-thirds  of  greatest  width,  anterior  and  posterior 
widths  approximately  equal,  somites  nine.  Axis  prominent, 
widely  and  evenly  arched  transversely,  width  or  spread  through- 
out about  equal,  the  last  two  rings  only  being  slightly  contracted, 
a  little  wider  than  one  side-lobe,  centrally  the  rings  have  a  gentle 
forward  arch,  and  bear  a  row  of  inconspicuous  granules,  bases 
non-tuberculate:  axial  furrows  shallow.  Side-lobes  sloping  very 
gently  from  the  axial  furrows  to  the  fulcra  and  thence  fairly 
steeply,  median  furrows  of  each  segment  narrow  and  shallow, 
but  reaching  just  to  the  margin,  ends  faceted. 

Fygidiiun  sub-semicircular,  evenly  and  very  convex,  finely 
granulate,  length  equal  to  length  of  thorax,  and  to  about  three- 
fourths  of  its  own  greatest  width  (9:13):  axis  convex,  bearing 
eleven  annulations,  diminishing  posterioily  very  gradually  in 
width  and  prominence,  ending  bluntly  and  rounded  a  little  short 
of  the  border.  Its  length  equals  seven-ninths  of  the  pygidial 
length,  annulations  faint,  especially  towards  the  distal  end. 
Side-lobes  strongly  convex,  anteriorly  having  a  spread  approxi- 
mately equal  to  that  of  the  axis,  possessing  eiglit  ribs,  only  the 
first  three  pairs  being  at  all  conspicuous:  all,  except  the  first 
pair,  stop  at  the  faint  furrow  separating  them  from  the  wide, 
convex,  smooth  border. 

Obs.  —The  individual,  whicli  served  for  the  above  description, 
measured  25  mm.,  of  which  the  cephalon  was  7  nnn.,  the  thorax 
and  pygidium  9  mm.  each;   width  of  thorax  14  mm.      The  speci- 


fiY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  477 

men  was  not  quite  complete,  being  minus  part  of  the  right  front 
quarter  of  the  cephalon. 

This  fossil  agrees  very  closely  with  one  described  by  De 
Ivoninck  from  the  Upper  William  River,*  and  determined  by 
him  to  be  Grijfithides  (Phillipsia)  eichwaldi.  'Jhe  total  lengths 
of  the  two  fossils  exactly  agree,  as  also  do  the  widths  of  the 
thoraces;  but  there  are  some  discrepancies  in  the  dimensions  of 
the  separate  parts.  De  Koninck  gives  10  mm.  and  8  mm.,  re- 
spectively, for  thorax  and  pygidium  of  his  specimen;  whilst  9mm. 
is  the  length  of  each  of  these  parts  in  the  specimen  under 
review.  The  two  hav^e  nearly  the  same  number  of  annulations 
in  the  pygidial  axis,  and  probably  the  same  number  of  pleural 
ribs,  a  similar  wide  pygidial  border:  also  the  same  relative 
length  to  width  of  their  pygidia,  and  an  identical  frontal  pro- 
jection of  the  glabella  on  to  the  border.  In  the  characters  of 
granulation  and  of  thoraces  and  pleural  ribs  of  the  pygidia,  thev 
also  agree.  If,  at  this,  the  discussion  of  their  relationship 
stopped,  the  identity  of  the  two  would  have  to  be  accepted  as 
conclusive,  as  I  believe  it  actually  to  be.  But  against  these 
agreements  have  to  be  placed  some  important  differences,  which 
make  their  specific  identity  difHcult  to  reconcile.  For  instance, 
T>e  Ivoninck  states  that  his  specimen  has  only  eight  thoiacic 
segments,  that  tlie  anterior  annulation  of  the  thoracic  axis  has  a 
widthf  of  3  mm.,  and  not  one  of  the  annulations  has  a  width 
less  than  1  mm.  The  present  specimen  has  the  normal  nine 
somites,  and  the  widest  annulation  of  the  thoracic  axis  does  not 
exceed  1  mm.  De  Konincks  figure  of  his  specimen  shows  it  to 
have  had  a  \'ery  globular  frontal  glabellar  lobe,  and,  in  this,  differs 
from  the  one  above  described.  Again,  De  Konincks  text  does 
not  agree  with  his  illustiation.  The  former  indicates  his  speci- 
nien  to  have  eight  thoracic  somites,  and  the  pleural  lobes  to  have 
a  width  equal  to  that  of  the  thoiacic  axis;  but  his  figure  shows 
nine  somites,  and  pleural  lobes  much  narrower  than  the  axis. 
These  important  discrepancies  make  it  impossible  to  accept  his 


"  Foss.  Pal.  Nouv.  (dalles  du  Sud,  Pt.  i.,  1870,  pp.278-9,  PI.  xxiv.,  tig.8. 
I  The  writer  assumes  the  width  of  tlie  axial  rings  to  be  their  measure- 
ment alonj.;  the  lonifjtudinal  line  of  the  axis. 


478  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

description  as  having  any  scientiHc  value,  for  there  is  no  evidence 
to  show  whether  his  text  or  figure  is  correct,  the  tj^pe  specimen 
having  been  destroyed  in  the  Garden  Palace  fire  of  1882. 

The  next  consideration  is  whether  the  present  fossil,  or  even 
De  Koninck's,  is  specifically  identical  with  P.  eichwaldi  Fischer. 
Accepting  the  types  given  by  Dr.  H.  Woodward*  as  fully 
reliable,  the  author  does  not  believe  it  a  difficult  task  to  prove 
the  aegative. 

1.  Dimensions. — The  relative  lengths  to  widths  of  the  parts  of 
the  author's  fossil  and  that  of  P.  eichwaldi  Fischer,  are,  respect- 
ively, for  cephalon  14  :  28  and  17  :  27;  thorax  17  :  28  and  17  :  31 ; 
pygidium  9:13  and  1:1. 

The  dimensional  differences,  as  these  measurements  show,  place 
the  fossils  apart;  but  these  are  not  nearly  so  important  specifi- 
cally as  the  following.  The  pygidium  of  F.  eichwaldi  is  semi- 
elliptical,  and  the  length  equal  to  the  width:  that  of  the  author's 
is  sub-semicircular;  that  is,  if  the  centre  of  the  junction  of  the 
second  axial  ring  with  the  third  be  taken  for  centre,  the  portion 
of  the  pygidium  posterior  to  this  forms  a  semicircle;  and  the 
length  is  only  two- thirds  of  the  width,  approximately.  There  are 
up  to  sixteen  rings  in  the  axis,  and  twelve  to  fourteen  pleural 
divisions  in  the  pygidium  of  P.  eichwaldi;  while,  in  the  local 
one,  these  divisions  are  eleven  and  eight,  respectively.  Then,  in 
the  former,  the  pygidial  border  is  depressed;  in  the  latter,  tlie 
curve  of  convexity  of  the  pleurae  continues  uninterruptedly  across 
the  border  to  the  outer  edge.  In  the  former,  also,  the  genal 
spines  are  long;  in  the  latter,  very  short,  only  extending  past 
the  first  thoracic  segment.  These  differences  are  sufficient  to 
prove  that  the  author's  specimen  is  not  F.  eichwaldi  Fischer,  and 
the  same  conclusion  may  be  drawn  in  respect  to  De  Konincks 
fossil. 

In  several  respects,  this  species  resembles  G'rij/ithides  ylobiceps 
Phillips;  but  the  proportionate  lengths  of  the  thorax  and  pygidium 
of  the  latter  are  different  from  those  of  the  former;  as  also  is  the 
proportionate  length  of  the  cephalon  to  these  same  parts.  In 
the  former,  there  is  no  lobe  connecting  the  eye-lobe  with  the 
*  Mon.  British  Trilobites,  Pt.  i.,  1883. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  479 

glabella,  though,  indeed,  tlie  eye  or  palpebral  lobe  is  very  close 
to,  and  only  faintly  separated  from,  the  basal  lobe  of  the  glabella. 
The  eye,  too,  is  relatively  larger,  the  pygidial  border  is  wider, 
and  the  glabellar  frontal  lobe  less  globular  ;  the  free  cheek- 
border  and  glabellar  limb  narrower,  and  the  eyes  less  prominent 
and  more  posteriorly  situated  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter. 
Tiie  British  species,  too,  was  much  larger  than  the  New  South 
Wales  one. 

The  specific  name  was  chosen  for  it  because  of  the  strong  con- 
vexity of  its  pygidium. 

Log.  and  I/or.  —Glen  WilUam,  about  two  miles  from  Clarence- 
town,  Parish  Parr,  County  Durham.      Lower  Carboniferous. 

Griffithides  sweeti  Eth.  fil. 

Grijfithides  siveeti  Eth.  fil.,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  (2), 
Vol.  ix.,  Pt.3,  pp.5-28-9,  PI.  xxxix.,  fig.3,  1894. 
(PI.  liii,  figs.1,2). 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  G.  Sweet,  of  Melbourne,  the 
type-specimen  of  the  species  is  before  me,  and  I  regret  that, 
owing  to  the  incompleteness  of  its  cephalon,  it  fails  to  elucidate 
certain  difficulties  met  with  in  considering  the  thoraces  and 
pygidia  from  the  Mt.  Morgan  area,  assumed  to  belong  to 
PhiUipaia  woodtrardi  Eth. fil.,  or  to  settle  whether  G.  siveeti  Eth. 
fil.,  and  that  species  are  not  identical.  All  the  numerous  pygidia 
obtained  from  the  Mt.  Morgan  area,  except  those  which  belong 
to  P.  siaitvellensis,  P.  rockltatnptonensis,  and  P.  inoi-yaiietLsis. 
have  thirteen  axial,  and  eleven  pleural  divisions;  and,  aftermost 
careful  and  repeated  inspection,  1  have  to  conclude  that  Mr. 
Etheridges  G.  sweeti  has  the  same  number  of  divisions  in  the 
axis  and  pleurie  of  its  pygidium;  also  the  same  kind  of  pygidial 
border  and  furrow:  and,  in  fact,  its  pygidium  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated from  pygidia  which  are  the  most  plentiful  in  the  Mt. 
Morgan  distiict,  and  which  I  have  tentatively  considered  to 
belong  to  P.  woodwardi,  or  at  least  to  those  cephalons  represented 
on  PI.  li.,  figs.  12  and  13,  l)ecause  these,  too,  were  the  most 
plentiful  cephalons  occurring  in  the  same  area.  As  regards  the 
head-shield  of  G.  sweeti.,  sufficient  of  it  has  not  been  conserved 


480  CARBOKiFEKOUS    TRlLOBlTES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

to  enable  one  to  say  positively  whether  its  features  place  it  with 
the  Phillipsia  or  the  Griffithides  type;  but,  except  for  the  un- 
certainty of  the  presence  on  its  glabella  of  the  normal  lateral 
furrows  of  the  Phillipsian  genus,  it  does  not  differ  from  the 
head-shields  above  referred  to,  which  are  considered  to  belong  to 
P.  looodwardi  Eth.  fil.  Further,  it  will  be  found  that  G.  sweeti, 
as  far  as  present  evidence  admits,  cannot  be  separated  from 
Grlffitliides  semi)iifenis  var.  australasica  Eth.fi].  This,  I  think, 
will  be  con(;eded  after  the  description  and  figures  of  the  latter 
have  been  studied  in  conjunction  with  my  remarks  on  the  latter, 
under  P.  iroodivardi:  and  an  examination  of  Plate  li.,  fig. 14^ 
which  is  a  photo  of  Mr.  Etheridge's  type  specimen,  which  shows 
two  tails,  the  greater  portion  of  a  thorax  and  tail  conjoined,  an 
intafylio  of  a  portion  of  a  head,  and,  between  the  two  tails  and 
on  the  left  top  corner,  is  a  view  in  relief  of  this  intaglio. 

We  are  up  against  a  problem  here,  wliich  can  be  solved  only 
Ijy  the  discovery  of  better  material:  and  when  it  is  solved,  it 
seems  to  me  that  a  new  genus  or  subgenus  will  be  needed  for 
the  reception  of  tliis  trilobite  with  the  ten  thoracic  somites. 

The  following  is  a  fuller  description  of  the  species  than  is 
given  bv  Mr.  Etheridge  It  will  be  seen  fronj  the  photograplis 
of  this  species  now  given,  that  it  was  not  as  correctly  figured  as 
it  might  have  been. 

Complete  form  suboval. 

^}i.  Chars.  —  Cephalon  incomplete,  apparently  granulated 
throughout,  with  grHiiules  of  uniform  size.  Glabella  incomplete, 
moderately  tumid,  mesial  and  anterior  furroAvsnot  visible  (though 
there  appears  to  be  a  faint  trace  of  the  mesial  pair):  basnl 
furrows  deep,  joining  the  neck  furrow:  basal  lobes  fairly  large, 
suboval:  supplementary  lobes  of  moderate  size,  and  suboval  : 
neck-furrow  wide  and  fairly  deep:  neck-ring  stronger  than  any 
of  the  axial  rings  of  the  thorax.      Fixed  and  free  (;heeks  absent. 

Thorax  consisting  of  ten  segments,  finely  and  evenly  gran- 
ulated: axis  prominent,  diminishing  posteriorly  very  little  in 
prominence,  and  barely  at  all  in  spread:  each  ring,  except  the 
last,  has  centrally  a  slightly  forward  direction,  the  last  ring  is 
stron<ier  than  the  others,  non-tuberculate;  axial  furrows  shallow. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  481 

Side-lobes,  between  the  axial  furrows  and  fulcra,  rising  verv 
gently,  and  thence  are  depressed  almost  at  right  angles,  seg- 
mental ends  strongly  faceted,  and  the  ridges  and  vallevs  strong 
and  deep  respectively,  segments  strongly  angulate  at  the  fulcra, 
the  whole  thoracic  surface  was  finely  granulated. 

Pygidium  subelliptic,  finely  granulated,  strongly  convex:  axis 
prominent,  rings  thirteen,  the  anteiior  one  being  somewhat  over- 
lapped by  the  last  thoracic  one,  decreasing  in  spread  gradually  and 
ending  prominently  at  about  half  of  its  anterior  spread,  a  little 
short  of  the  border;  axial  furrows  distinct,  side-lobes  stronglv 
convex,  granulated,  consisting  of  eleven  segments,  each  verv 
gently  and  increasingly  curving  posteriorly,  segmental  ridges 
strong,  valleys  deep;  -border  entire,  steep,  very  finely  granulated, 
middle  thickened  and  relatively  wide,  separated  fi-om  the  pleural 
segments  by  a  narrow  furrow,  accentuated  by  punctations  at 
each  segmental  end. 

Ghiffithides  dubius  Etheridge  Senr. 

Griffithldes  dubius  Etheridge  Senr.,  Qiuu't.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc, 
1872,  Vol.  xxviii.,  p.338,  PI.  xviii.,  fig.7. 

Fhillipsia   dubia  Eth.   fil  ,    Geol.   Pal.    Queensland   and    New 
Guinea,  1892,  pp.2U,  215,  PI.  7,  fig.l2. 
(PI.  liii.,  fig,7). 

The  original  description  is  as  follows: — 'vHody  elongated,  oval, 
length  about  twice  the  width,  sides  parallel.  Axis  width  of 
pleurje.  Thoracic  segments  10  to  12.  Pygidium  rounded, 
margins  entire;  axis  composed  of  ten  segments,  not  extending 
quite  to  the  posterior  margin.  Cephalic  portion  much  crushed; 
glabella  small  and  round  anteriorly,  furrows  indistinct.  Owing 
to  the  crustaceous  test  being  removed,  we  have  no  means  of 
arriving  at  the  condition  of  the  original  ornamentation;  there 
are,  however,  indications  of  tubercles  upon  the  axis  of  the 
pygidium." 

"Zoc.  Don  River,  Queensland.     Form.  Carboniferous." 

The  whereabouts  of  the  type-specimen  I  have  not  been  able  to 
discover,  and,  consequently,  cannot  add  anything  to  the  above 
description. 


482  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Tn  the  possession  of  ten  or  more  segments  in  the  thorax,  it 
resembles  G.  sweeti  Eth.  fil.,  and,  certainly,  in  this  respect,  is 
not  a  normal  Grijfithides  or  Phillipsia.  This  peculiarity,  too, 
very  decidedly  separates  it  from  P.  stam'ellensis  mihi  {P.  dnhia 
Eth.  .fil.). 

Family  PROETID^. 
Genus  B  r  a  c  h  y  m  e  t  o  P  u  s   McCoy,  1 847. 

Ann.  Macr.  Xat.  Hist.,  xx.,  p  229,  PI.  xii.,  figs. la,  \h. 

McCoy's  description  of  the  genus  is  as  follows  : — ^'•Gen.  Clear. 
Cephalothorax  truncato-orbicular:  limb  narrow,  produced  back- 
wards into  flattened  spines:  glabella  smooth,  cylindrical  or  ovate, 
about  twice  as  long  as  wide,  not  reaching  within  about  its  own 
diameter  of  the  front  margin:  one  pair  of  small,  basal,  cephalo- 
thoracic  lobes,  or  none.  Eyes  reniform,  in  the  midst  of  the 
cheeks  (1  smooth);  eye  lines  unknown.  Surface  strongly  gran" 
ulated:  one  tubercle  on  each  side  of  the  anterior  end  of  the 
glabella,  the  marginal  row  and  a  circle  round  each  eye  being 
larger  than  the  rest.  Body-segments  unknown.  Pygidium 
nearly  resembling  the  cephalothorax  in  size  and  form,  rather 
more  pointed,  strongly  trilobed,  and  with  a  thickened  prominent 
margin;  axal  lobe  about  as  wide  as  the  lateral  lobes,  of  about 
seventeen  narrow  segments  ;  lateral  segments  about  seven, 
divided  from  their  origin,  each  terminating  in  a  large  tubercle 
at  the  margin.'"     Genotype,  Br.  slrzehckii. 

In  this  description,  characters  are  included  which  are  merely 
specific.  H.  Woodward*  supplies  the  following  amended  de- 
scription of  the  genus  :  —  "  General  form  elliptical:  headshield 
semicircular  and  slightly  pointed,  about  one-third  wider  than 
long;  glabella  small,  somewhat  elevated,  one-third  the  width  of  the 
entire  shield  and  about  one-half  the  length,  having  a  basal  lobe 
on  each  side,  but  no  short  lateral  furrows  on  the  glabella:  neck- 
furrow  distinctly  marked,  equal  in  width  to  the  posterior  border 
of  the  free  cheeks:  eyes  small,  smooth,  equal  to  half  the  length 
of  the  glabella;  no  facial  sutures  visible,  only  the  axal  furrow 
surrounding  the  glabella  and  the  neck-furrow;  free  cheeks  slightly 

^  Mom,  Brit,  C^^rb,  Tnlobites,  1883-4,  pp. 46-7. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  483 

convex,  nearly  twice  as  long  as  they  are  broad,  with  no  visible 
suture  separating  them  from  one  another  in  front  of  the  glabella: 
margin  broad  and  slightly  grooved,  angles  of  cheeks  produced 
posteriorly  into  spines.  The  entire  surface  of  the  head  covered 
irregularly  with  a  small  bead-like  ornamentation." 

"Thoracic  segments  unknown,  probably  nine."' 

"  Pygidium  consisting  of  a  vai  iable  number  of  segments,  from 
ten  to  seventeen,  according  to  species,  the  axis  tapering  rapidly 
to  a  bluntly  rounded  extremity,  each  segment  of  axis  ornamented 
with  bead-like  granulations,  ribs  with  a  double  furrow  extending 
nearly  to  the  border  which  is  smooth  and  rounded."' 

This  description  also  includes  quite  a  number  of  features  that 
possess  only  specific  significance. 

(General  A.  W.  Vogdes*  summarises  the  characters  of  the 
genus  thus: — 1.  Glabella  short,  tumid.  2.  No  short  lateral 
furrows  on  the  glabella.  3.  Basal  lobes  distinct.  4.  Eyes  small, 
placed  close  to  the  glabella.  5.  Axis  of  the  pygidium  has  ten  to 
seventeen  segments. 

To  this  may  be  added  —6.  Facial  sutures  absent.  7.  Axial 
furrows  continue  round  the  glabella-front.  8.  Ornamentation 
bead  like. 

R.  F.  Cowper  Reedf  has  suggested  a  genus  or  subgenus 
{Brachymetopina)  for  the  European  forms  without  defined 
cephalic  margins,  and  non-spinate  pygidial  margins. 

Brachymetopus  STRZELKCKii  McCoy,  1847. 
Brachymetopus  strzeleckii  McCoy,  1847,  ojk  cit.,  p. 231,  PI,  xii., 
fig.l.     De  Koninck,  Foss.  Pal.  Nouv.  Gallesdu  Sud,  1877,  p.352, 
PI.  xxiv.,  figs. 10,  10a,  b,c.     Vogdes,  Trans.  Acad.  Sc.  St.  Louis, 
Vol.  V.  (1892),  p.617.     Etheridge,   R.,  Junr.,   Mem.  Geol.   Surv. 
N.  S.  Wales,  1892,  Pal.  No.5,  Pt.  ii.,  p.l24.      Reed,  Geol.  Mag., 
N.S.,  Dec.  iv..  Vol.  X.,  1903,  pp.193-196. 
(Plate  liii.,  figs.3-6). 
McCoy's  brief  description  is  as  follows  : — "»S'p.  Cha?-.  Glabella 

*  "North  American  Carboniferous  Trilobites."  Ann.  New  York  Acad. 
Sci.,  vi.,  1888,  p.70. 

tGeol.  Mag.,  N.S.,  Dee,  iv.,  Vol.  x.,  p.i96, 


484  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRAfJA, 

widest  at  the  base,  with  one  verv  minute  obscurely  marked 
cephalothoracic  furrow  at  the  base  on  each  side;  all  the  segments 
of  the  pygidium  with  an  irregularly  tuberculated  ridge  along  the 
middle;  lateral  segments  forming  large  tubercles  where  they  join 
the  thickened  limb,  opposite  each  of  which  there  is  a  short 
slender  spine  projecting  from  the  margin.  " 

The  following  is  a  fuller  description  of  the  species  by  F.  ]>.  C. 
Reed  {op.  ci^.) :—"  Head-shield  semicircnlai',  moderately  convex, 
with  strong  raised  rounded  border  increasing  slightly  in  width 
towards  the  front,  and  separated  off  by  a  deep  furrow.  Genal 
angles  furnished  with  slender  divergent  smooth  spines,  less  than 
half  the  length  of  the  head  shield.  At  its  base  is  a  pair  of  small 
nodular  basal  lobes,  in  most  specimens  quite  inconspicuous. 
Two  large  tubercles  are  situated  in  a  line  down  the  middle 
of  the  glabella,  followed  by  a  similar  median  one  on  the  occipital 
segment.  Occipital  segment  strong,  rounded,  separated  off 
by  a  deep  furrow.  On  cheeks  at  anterior  end  of  glabella  is  a 
pair  of  large  tubercles  one  on  each  side.  No  facial  sutures 
visible.  Eyes  prominent,  reniform,  less  than  half  the  length  of 
the  glabella,  distant  from  the  axial  furrows  about  one-third  the 
width  of  the  cheeks,  and  about  their  own  length  from  posterior 
margin.  Surface  of  head-shield,  including  glabella,  border  and 
neck-segment,  rather  coarsely  tuberculated.  An  indistinct  ring 
of  larger  tubercles  surrounds  the  eyes,  and  a  large  tubercle  is 
situated  at  each  end  of  eyes  on  innei-  side.  Thorax  unknown. 
Pygidium  semicircular,  slightly  convex,  with  spinose  maigin. 
Axis  broad,  conical,  about  one-third  the  width  of  the  pygidium 
at  front  end,  tapers  rather  rapidly  to  obtuse  point,  nearh^  touch- 
ing the  border:  consists  of  9-10  segments,  of  which  eight  rings 
are  distinct  and  completely  tuberculated  across  :  the  1st,  3rd, 
5th,  and  7th  have,  in  addition,  a  large  median  tubercle.  Lateral 
lobes  consist  of  six  (\  seven  in  some)  pairs  of  pleurae,  of  which 
the  last  pair  is  very  small:  each  pleura  is  gently  curved  and  is 
divided  unequally  by  a  strong  longitudinal  furrow  into  a  broader, 
raised,  rounded,  posterior  ridge,  and  a  narrower  anterior  ridge. 
The  posterior  ridge  of  each  pleura  crosses  a  distinct,  raised, 
rounded  bordei;,  which  surrounds  the  pygidium  and  bears  a  large 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  485 

tubercle  at  the  spot  where  it  crosses,  and  a  single  median  one 
behind  the  axis.  The  posterior  pleural  ridges  are  prolonged  into 
short,  recurved,  equidistant,  and  subequal  spines,  projecting 
beyond  the  margin.  (In  one  specimen  there  seems  to  be  a 
median  spine  behind  the  axis.  In  another  immature  example 
the  anterior  two  or  three  pairs  of  spines  are  half  as  long  as  the 
whole  pygidium).  Surface  of  pygidium  rather  coarsely  tuber- 
culated:  the  posterior  ridge  of  each  pleura  bears  4-5  tubercles, 
and  the  anterior  ridge  5-6  smaller  ones.  The  axial  rings  bear 
each  5-7  tubercles." 

"  Dimensions:  — 

Length  of  head-shield     ...  ...  ...  ..     8 'Omni. 

Width  of  head-.'^hield       ...  ...  ...  ...     4'omm. 

Length  of  pyoidiuni         ...  ...  ...  ...     2*5  mm. 

Width  of  pygidium  4 "0  mm. 

For  affinities,  see  op.  cit. 

To  quote  Reed  further,  he  remarks  that  "  McCoy  gave  as 
generic  characters  the  circle  of  tubercles  round  the  eyes  and  pair 
of  large  tubercles  at  the  front  end  of  the  glabella,  but  these  may 
well  be  considered  as  of  lower  classificatory  value,  and  likewise 
the  relatively  greater  length  of  the  glabella  as  compared  with 
the  European  species.  It  does  not,  however,  seem  possible  to 
regard  tlie  peculiar  pygidial  characters  in  the  same  light,  though, 
as  Vogdes  (Trans.  Acad.  So.  St.  Louis,  Vol.  v,  (1892),  p,  617) 
.says,  we  have  many  other  genera  of  trilobites  with  spinose  and 
non-spinose  representatives.  The  fewer  number  of  segments  in 
the  p\'gidium,  and  the  rai.sed  spinigerous  boi'der  separate  it  from 
all  the  European  forms.  " 

"  The  genus  or  subgenus  Phcetonides,  as  now  understood,  is 
partly  distinguished  for  analogous  reasons  from  the  typical 
Proetus;  and  it  seems  open  to  question  whether  the  European 
species  of  Brachymetojnis  should  not  be  regarded  as  constituting 
a  distinct  group  or  subgenus  for  which  the  name  of  Brachymeto- 
pina  may  be  suggested." 

Personally,  I  do  not  think  that  pygidial  characteristics  alone 
are  sufficient  grounds  upon  which  to  found  even  a  5^ubgenus 

Loc.    and   Hor.  — Dunvegan,    Burragood,    and    Glen    William, 

36 


486  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRAF.IA, 

N.S.W.  (Etheridge,  Junr.,  Cat.  Austr.  Foss.,  Camb.,  1878,  p.41). 
Carboniferous. 

Bkachymetopus  dunstani,  sp.iiov. 
(PI.  xlix.,  figs.15,  16:  PI.  lii.,  figs.l,  2). 

Complete  form  unknown. 

Sp.  Chars.  —  Cephalon  :  length  and  width  3  mm,  and  4  mm., 
respectively;  semielliptic,  surface  covered  with  tubercles  of  vary- 
ing size,  only  mildly  convex;  glabella  conical,  densely  and  evenly 
granulated,  very  mildly  convex,  basal  furrows  well  defined  and 
joining  the  neck-furrow,  basal  lobes  small,  greatest  width  about 
one-fourth  that  of  the  cephalon,  length  about  half  that  of  the 
cephalon;  the  surrounding  axial  furrow  relatively  deep,  cheeks 
gently  convex,  bordering  the  furrow  surrounding  the  glabella; 
they  bear  eleven  tubercles  of  uniform  size,  and  follow  a  course 
inside  of  the  eyes  to  the  posterior  margin:  from  the  front  of  the 
eyes  there  branches  from  this  main  bead-like  chain  of  tubercles 
two  other  sets  (one  on  each  side)  of  five  each,  which  are  arranged 
along  the  outer  boundary  of  the  eyes;  the  one  or  two  tubercles 
in  front  of,  and  the  one  in  line  with,  the  back  of  each  eye,  appear 
to  be  larger  than  the  others  of  these  sets:  besides  these  rows 
there  are  a  few  tubercles  bordering  the  inner  edge  of  the 
marginal  furrow,  and  the  thickened  border  bears  a  chain  of 
these  small  bead-like  tubercles  of  uniform  size,  and  about  twenty- 
five  in  number,  the  rest  of  the  surface  being  finely  granulated. 
The  eyes  are  small,  crescentic,  close  to  the  glabella  and  posterior 
margin;  neck-furrow  shallow,  as  are  also  its  lateral  extensions: 
neck-ring  fairly  robust  and  granulated,  lateral  extensions  rela- 
tively strong  and  narrow;  border  furrow  wide  and  deep:  border 
strongly  tumid  and  tuberculate;  angles,  if  not  spinate,  are  acute. 

06s.  —  The  above  Brachymetopus  is  the  first  and  only  specimen 
of  the  genus  collected  from  the  Carboniferous  rocks  of  Queens- 
land. It  occurs  at  Trilobite  Ridge,  Mt.  Morgan,  Queensland, 
associated  with  other  genera  of  trilobites.  In  several  features 
it  resembles  lir.  strzeleckii  Mc(Joy,  the  prototype,  and  agrees  with 
this  species  and  Br.  Muccoyi  in  possessing  a  well-defined  cephalic 
marginal   border,  bounded  inwardly   by  a  well-defined   furrow. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL.  48? 

The  tuberculation,  too,  on  this  border  is  similar  in  the  three 
species.  Dimensionally,  this  species  agrees  closely  with  Br. 
strzeleckii,  judging  from  the  dimensions  given  by  Reed,"^  so  also 
does  it  in  part  in  the  character  of  the  ornamentation,  but  in 
part  in  this  respect,  it  differs  very  widely,  as  the  description 
shows. 

The  chief  differences  between  our  species  and  Br.  strzeleckii 
are — 1.  The  character  of  the  ornamentation.  2.  The  more  conical 
shape  of  the  glabella  in  ours,  and  the  absence  of  the  large  longi- 
tudinally placed  tubercles  on  this  part.  3.  The  more  acutely 
rounded  cephalon,  particularly  at  the  front.  4.  The  eyes  are 
situated  closer  to  the  posterior  border,  and  perhaps  to  the 
glabella.  5.  The  lateral  extensions  of  the  neck-ring  are  narrow 
and  prominent.  Without  doubt,  the  two  forms  are  closely 
related. 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  found,  on  some  of  the  Queens- 
land specimens  from  Rockhampton  and  Mt.  Morgan  districts, 
several  pygidia  and  a  portion  (cheek)  of  a  cephalic  shield,  which 
belong  to  the  genus  Brachymetopus.  One  of  these  pygidia, 
which  is  fairly  well  preserved,  I  am  assuming  to  be  specifically 
identical  with  the  cephalon  above  described.  Its  description  is 
as  follows. 

Pygidium  semicircular,  only  mildly  convex,  strongly  tuber- 
culate.  Axis  moderately  prominent,  contracting  gradually  pos- 
teriorly, ending  short  of  the  border  bluntly,  with  less  than  half 
its  anterior  width:  it  bears  five  longitudinal  rows  of  tubercles, 
the  individuals  of  the  middle  row  being  much  larger  than  those 
in  the  rows  on  each  side  of  it.  There  are  at  least  twelve  or 
thirteen  rings  in  the  axis,  and  a  central  tubercle  on  ten  of  these 
can  be  clearly  seen;  this  applies  also  in  the  case  of  each  row 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  central  one.  Axial  furrows  deep. 
Side-lobes  consist  of  six  (?  seven)  pairs  of  segments,  the  ridges  of 
which  are  very  prominent,  and  bear  several  relatively  large 
tubercles  and  some  of  smaller  size:  each  of  the  posterior  pair 
merely  consists  of  a  tubercle,  and  each  ridge  of  the  anterior  pairs 
bears  several  tubercles  varying  much  in  size,  the  larger  being 

'■'  Geol.  .^Ja.^,  X.S.,  Dec.  iv.,  Vol.  x..  IIMKS.  pp.  llKMUfJ. 


488  CARBONIFEKOUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

situated  near  the  axial  furrowy  and  border;  the  ribs  apparently 
extend  into  spines  beyond  the  border,  mesial  furrows  of  the  ribs 
deep.  Border  of  moderate  width,  and  apparently  only  mildly 
thickened. 

This  pygidium,  though  it  presents  in  a  general  way  a 
strong  resemblance  to  that  of  Br.  strzeleckii,  exhibits  features 
which  help  to  separate  the  two  forms.  The  chief  differences 
between  their  pygidia  are  —  l.  The  axis  of  Br.  dunstani  consists 
of  twelve  or  thirteen  rings,  as  against  ten  in  the  other.  2.  Five 
longitudinal  rows  of  tubercles  traverse  the  axis  of  the  former, 
while  seven  rows  occur  on  the  latter  on  the  same  part.  3.  A 
large  tubercle  is  situated  centrally  on  each  axial  ring  of  the 
former,  but  only  on  every  alternate  axial  ring  in  the  latter. 
4.  There  is  a  smaller  number  of  tubercles  on  each  pleural  seg 
ment  of  the  former  than  on  the  similar  segments  of  the  latter. 
The  pygidial  ornamentation  of  our  species  agrees  closely  with 
Br.  lodiensis  Meek. 

Dedicated  to  Mr.  B.  Dunstan,  Chief  Government  Geologist, 
Brisbane,  whose  palyeontological  discoveries  have  been  numerous 
and  important. 

Loc.  and  Hor. — Trilobite  Ridge,  Mt.  Morgan,  Queensland, 
associated  with  P.  ivoodivardi.  Lower  or  Middle  Carboniferous. 
Specimens  Nos.F1031,  F 1007,  Geological  Museum,  Dept.  of 
Mines,  Brisbane;  and  No.712,  Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane. 

Brachymetopus,  sp.  indet. 

\\\  addition  to  the  head  and  tail,  which  served  for  the  descrip- 
tion of  Br.  daiisfaui,  there  occur  on  specimen  No.  712  of  the 
Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane,  no  less  than  three  pygidial  frag- 
ments of  Brachymetopi,  besides  the  pygidium  which  served  for 
the  foregoing  description  of  Br.  dunstani.  In  the  case  of  two, 
one  is  partially  superimposed  on  the  other,  and  the  tliird  is 
almost  touching  these.  On  specimen  F  1007  is  a  portion  of  a 
right  cheek,  which  presents  features  evidently  unlike  either  Br. 
strzeleckii  or  Br.  dunstani.  Two  of  the  fragmentary  pygidia 
also  appear  to  be  new,  and  maybe  specifically  identical  with  the 
individual  to  which  the  cheek-fragment  belonged.     The  material. 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL,  489 

liowever,  is  too  fragmentary  to  describe  and  figure.  The  occur- 
rence of  three  pygidia  in  a  launch  indicates  that  they  may  be 
plentiful,  and  careful  search  may  bring  better  specimens  to  light. 


KXI^LANATION  OF  PLATES  XLVI.-LIII. 

Plate  xlvi. 
PliWiima  colfinsi  Mitchell. 
I^'ig.s.  1,  2,  o,  4.  .">. — Fin.  1  i«  a  photo  (  x  S)  made  froni   the  specimen  repre- 
sented in  Fig.'i.     The  glabellar  features  are  plainly  visible.     Figs. 
.'i,  4,  T)  represent   pygidia.    and   shoM"   their  characteristic   featui-es 
very  well.     Figs.4  and  ">   x  |  (about).      (Coll.  Mitchell). 
PhUlipsia  coulteri  Mitchell. 
Figs.  ().  7,  S.  *•.  10.  —  Different  views  of  one  individual.      Fig.H  x  4,  and  Fig. 
10  nearly  natural  size.      In  Figs.  8  and  9,  the  mild  dorsal  serration  is 
visil)le.      In  Fig.  10.  the  hypostome  is  plaiidj^  seen,  and  the  latlier 
large  tubercle  of  the  terminal  axial  ring.      (Coll.  Mitchell). 
PJi///ip-^ia  hftricejjs  Mitchell, 
Figs.ll.  12.— Cephalon  and  tail     (Colh  Mitchell). 

Grijfit hides  conrexicaiidatus  Mitchell. 
Fig.  18.— Dorsal  view.     (Coll.  Mitchell). 

PJii//ip)<ia  xfroHdeii.-!(s  Mitchell. 
Fig.  14. — The  specific  features  clearly  represented;  (  x  :]).     (Coll.  Mitchell). 

Phillipxiu proxlnm  ^litchell. 
Figs.  IT),  16. — ^Two   views  of  a   pygidium,   the  lattci'  alxjut    naUnal  size. 
(Coll.  Mitchell). 

Plate  xlvii. 
PhiUipuKt  rohnsta  Mitcliell. 
l''ig.  1. — The  pygidium  originally  described  l)y  Mi'.   W.  Flhcridge.  Junr..as 
/'.  <irandi-<.      II  shows  the  important  features  rather  clearly-.      (Coll. 
< Geological  and  Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.    No.  14'.»2). 
Pl,llli)>s;n  (iruiidi.s  Ftli.  Hi. 
l''ig.2. — Piioto  of  the  specimen  originally  descrihetl   hy  Mr.'  H.  Flhcridge. 
Junr. ,  and  for  which  the  specific   nam3  r/y-rt/Af//.*.- was  first  suggested 
by  him.      The  figure  shows  how  different  in  character  arc  the  pleural 
ribs  from   those  of  P.  rohiisfa;  the   sutures   along   the   aitit-ulatijig 
ridges,  and  the  crossing  of  the  border  by  the  anterinr  ril»s.      (Coll. 
Geological  and  Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.     Xo.l.lKO). 
PhiUij,xi<i  cloiKjald  Mitchell. 
Figs. 8,  4. — ^Casts   from   an   almost  perfect  mould  (jr  cover.      They  exhil)it 
clearly  the  features   of   this  fine  trilobite.      [Coll.  (reological  and 
Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.     No.  I.IOO,  (cover)]. 


490  •      CARBONIFKHOUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Fig.  5. — The  natural  cast.     Part  of  the  right  side  of  thecephalon  is  absent. 
Shows  traces  of  the  left  genal  spine.     (Coll.  Geological  and  Mining 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sj^dnej-.     Fig. 3,  FloOO,  etc.). 
Phillipsia  dimgof/ensis  Mitchell. 
Fig. 6. — Part  of  a  pygidium,  showing  the  continuous   border,   and  other 
essential  features.      (Coll.  Geological  and  Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of 
Mines,  Sydney.     Xo.  1494). 
Fig. 7. — A  smaller  and  nearly  perfect  pygidium;  (x^).      (Coll.  Geological 
and  Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.     No.  1494). 
Phi/Npsia  rohusta  Mitchell. 
Fig. 8. — Another  view  of  the  pygidium,  only  less  enlarged. 

Phillipsia  ivoodwai^di  Eth.fil. 
Fig. 9. — Medial  portion  of  a  cephalon  much  weathered.      (Coll.  Geological 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No.F.  1017). 

Plate  xlviii. 
All  figures  on  this  Plate  x  %  about. 
Griffith  ides  conrexicaiidatus  Mitchell. 
Figs.l,  2. — Dorsal  and  side-view. 

Fig, 3. — Pygidium  and  free  cheek,  with  the  ej'e  of  a  young  individual:  the 
free  cheek  partly  covering  the  tail.     (Coll.  Mitchell). 

Phillipsia  rouchelensis  Mitchell. 

Figs.  4,  ."),  (>,  7. — Four  p3-gidia.  Thej'  exhibit  the  specific  features.  Figs. 
o  and  7  are  photos  of  the  specimens  used  bj^  Mr.  Etheridge  for  his 
figures  (PL  xxi.,  figs.  6-7,  opj.  cit,  antea).  (Coll.  Geological  and 
Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sj'dney.  Nos.  E  1495,  3534  (2), 
F  1595). 

I^hiUipsia  colli n-'<i  Mitchell. 

Figs. 8,  9. — Fragmentary  head-shield,  and  faint  outline  of  a  poorly  pre- 
served l)ut  almost  complete  individual.  In  Fig. 8,  all  the  glabellar 
features  are  visible.      (Coll.  Mitchell). 

Phillipsia  staiirellensis  Mitchell. 

Figs.  10.  1 1,  12. — Three  different  views  of  a  mature  individual.  The  speci- 
men represented  by  these  figures  was  used  bj^  Mr.  Etheridge  for  his 
Queensland  type  of  P.  dubia  (PL  viii.,  fig.5,  op.  cit.).  (Coll.  (geolo- 
gical Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No.F9«i9). 

Fig.  13. — On  this  photo  are  the  middle  pait  of  a  cephalon  and  a  pygidium 
of  an  immature  individual.  The  former  shows  the  normal  and 
dunce's  hat-like  shape  of  the  glabella,  globular  basal  glabellar  lobes, 
and  the  relatively  strong  neck -ring.  The  pygidium  shows  the  iiar- 
row,  prominent  axis,  etc.,  characteristic  of  the  species.  (Coll.  Geo- 
logical Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No.F  980). 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL. 


491 


Phillip-na  eJom/afa  Mitchell. 
Fig.  14. — Portion  of  a  head-shield,  thorax,  and  tail.  The  markings  on  the 
basal  glabellar  lobes  are  accidental.  The  normal  glabellar  frontal 
limli  and  anterior  courses  of  the  facial  sutures  are  shown.  (Coll. 
Geological  and  Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.  No.ri498; 
Pal.  Mem.  Pt..!.  No.2,  PI.  xxi.,  fig.2). 

PJullipsia  superlKi  Mitchell. 
Fig.  lo.^Cephalon   minus  the  right   free   cheek.       (Coll.    (ieologieal    and 
Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydnej-.     No.'24). 
Phillipsia  iraterhoHsei  Mitchell. 
Figs.  16,  17,  18. — The  first  and  second  of  these  are  from  an  intaglio,  and 
the  other  is  from  a  squeeze  from  it.     With   the  aid  of  a  lens,  the 
features  can  be  made  out.      (Coll.  Geological  and  Mining  Museum, 
Dept.  of  Mines.  Sydney.     Nos.  28  and  30). 

Plate  xlix. 
PhiUipsia  iroodnrirdi  Eth.fil. 

Figs  l-fi. — Pygidia,  all  assumed  to  belong  to  this  species.  All  show  prac- 
ticallj'  the  same  features.  Figs.  3  and  4  are  more  strongly  gran- 
ulated than  the  others;  but  this  difference  probablj^  arises  from 
degrees  of  weathering.  Fig. 5  was  figured  by  Mr.  Etheridge  {op.  cit. 
PI.  viii.,  fig. 6)  as  the  normal  tail  of  his  P.  dubia.  (Coll.  (geological 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.  Nos.  F  985,  F  1024,  F  995, 
F  1026,  F  968,  F  993). 

Figs.  7-8. — Photos  of  a  fragmentary  cephalon,  about  which  I  am  doubtful 
that  it  is  rightly  placed  here.      It  is  one  of   Mr.  Etheridge's  types 
(Geol.  and  Pal.  Queensland  and  New  Guinea,  PI.  vii.,  fig.  13).     (Coll. 
(Geological  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.      No. 967). 
Phi//ipsia  roekhamp)toHensi-s  Mitchell. 

Figs.9-10. — Two  prints  of  a  nearly  complete  specimen.  Fig.  10  has  some 
of  its  features  intensified.  This  specimen  was  figured  by  Mr. 
Etheridge,  Junr.,  and  determined  to  belong  to  his  P.  duhia  {op.  cit., 
PL  xliv,,  fig, 4).  This  figure  very  indifterently  represents  the 
original,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  it  with  the  present  photos, 
which  show  its  chief  characteristic  features  clearly.  (Coll.  Queens- 
land Museum,     No.  716). 

Phillipsia  morgane.nsis  Mitchell. 

Figs.  11-12. — Fig.  11  represents  portions  of  a  cephalon,  thorax,  pygidium, 
and  a  hypostome.     Fig.  12  is  a  rough  sketch  of  part  of  a  cephalon. 
(Coll.  Geological  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane,     No.F  1000). 
Phillipsia  woodwardi  Eth.fil. 

Figs.  13-14. — Photos  of  the  type-specimen.  Fig.  14  has  the  outline  traced 
in,     (Coll,  Geological  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No,966). 


492  CARBONIFEROUS    TRILOBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA, 

Brachymetapv.^  dnvsfani  Mitchell. 
Ficrs.  15-16. — Showing  the  cephalon  and  pyoidium  of  the  species.     (Coll. 
(geological    Museum,    Dept.    of  Mines,    Brisbane,   No,  F  1031;    and 
Queensland  Museum.  Brisbane,  No. 712). 

Plate  1. 
All  figures,  except  2  and  H,  whieli  are  about  nat.  size,    x  #. 
Phillipsia  (iramlis  Eth.  fil. 
Figs.  1.  "2,  3. — Photos  of  a  pygidium.     Figs. 2  and  3  are  from  casts  of  No.  1 
in  Fig.  1.      Besides  the  pygidium,  parts  f)f  at  least  three  free  cheeks, 
etc.,  are  visible.     One  cheek  shows  within  it  tlie  hypo-stome.     The 
borders  of  these  cheeks  are  remarkablj-  Luge.      (Coll.    (geological 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No. F 027). 

Phinipsia  eloiKjata  Mitchell. 
Figs. 4,  5,  6,  7. — Figs. 4  and  7  represent  pygidia.  Fig.  .3  is  a  side-view  of  a 
very  fine  specimen,  and  shows,  besides  other  features,  the  squatness 
of  the  eyes.  Fig.  (>,  a  pygidium  and  a  portion  of  a  head-shield. 
(Coll.  (Geological  and  ■Mining  Museum.  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney. 
Nos.  F  14!>6,  1.-)(I0.  and  l.)0()). 

J^hi/h'p.-n'a  rockhaniptoiitnsis  M itchell. 

Figs.S,  9. — Two  pygidia.  Fig. 8  is  a  photo  of  the  specimen  sliown  in  (U'ol. 
and  Pal.  (Queensland  and  New  (Guinea,  Pl.xliv.,  fig.G.  Fig.9  repre- 
sents a  young  individual.  (Coll.  (Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane, 
No.833:  and  (Jeological  Museum.  Dept.  of  Mines,  l>risbaiie,  No. 
F7i>2). 

PhiUipsiai'i)  woodwardi  Eth.  fil. 

Fig.  10,~(3n  this  specimen  are  several  pygidia  and  a  remarkable  iiypostome, 
doubtfully  assumed  to  belong  to  this  species;  and,  in  addition,  the 
greater  part  of  a  cheek  of  a  Hrachymetopiis;  the  position  of  which 
is  indicated  by  an  arrow.  (Coll.  (Geological  Museum,  Dept.  of 
Mines,  Brisbane.     No.  1007). 

Fig.  11. — Glabella;  one  of  Mr.  Etheridge's  types.  (Coll.  (Queensland 
Museum,  Brisbane.      No. 707). 

Plate  li. 
If  not  otherwise  indicated,  all  the  figures  are  x  'i  (about). 

Phillipsia  mori/anensis  Mitchell. 
Fig.  1. — A  photo,  in  two  sections,  of  a  specimen  on  which  are  parts  of  at 
least  three  individuals,  all  assumed  to  belong  to  this  species.  The 
glabellar,  pygidial,  ocular,  and  hypostomal  features  are  all  dis- 
cernible, as  are  also  those  of  the  thorax.  (Coll.  Geological  Museum, 
Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.     No.F  1000), 


BY    JOHN    MITCHELL 


49:; 


rhilli)>sia  brevictp-^  Mitchell. 

Fi<;K.2,  3. — Photo  of  a  specimen  showinj;  portions  .of  two  cephalic-shielda 
and  a  very  perfect  pyicidiiini,  whose  characteristics  are  represented. 
Mark  the  peculiar  contraction  near  the  middle  of  the  tail,  which 
suggests  a  short  tail,  and  a  portion  of  a  thorax.  Fig.3,  a  portion 
of  a  cephalon.  shoN\  inu-  limb,  mesial  furrow  on  the  right,  etc.  (Coll. 
Mitchell). 

riifUipsia  connollii  Mitchell. 

Figs. 4-7- — ^A  doisal  and  side-view  of  the  only  pygidium  known.  The  pro- 
portionately very  wide  border,  pi^ominent  axis,  granulation,  and 
other  features  are  faii-lj-  well  shown.  In  Fig.  6,  the  axial  and  pleural 
divisions  have  been  intensified  slightl3'.  (Coll.  (Geological  and 
Mining  Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Sydney.  No.  F  1497). 
Philllpsia  sfanvel/ensis  Mitchell. 

Figs.S-lO. — Dorsal  and  side-view  of  a  very  perfect  tail,  and  showing  the 
very  prominent,  mildly  serrated  axis  clearlj'.  In  this  specimen,  all 
the  axial  rings  (12.  doubtfully  13)  are  visible,  as  also  are  eight 
pleural  segments,  and  the  steep  striated  border.  (Coll.  (Geological 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.  No.F977). 
PIn/lipsia  xfroiidennx  Mitchell. 

Fig.  11. — A  medium-sized  tail,  having  the  dorsal  part  of  the  axis  damaged; 
but  other\\ise  exhibiting  the  normal  fetitures.      (Coll.  Mitchell). 
Phillipsia  icoodicardi  Eth,  fil. 

Figs.  12-13.— Portions  of  cephalons.  Fig.  12  shows  the  glabellar  furrows, 
strong  neck-ring,  and  supplementary  lobes,  etc.,  very  well.  Fig,  13 
exhibits  these  features  less  clearly.  Fig.  12  is  from  the  same  speci- 
men as  that  figured  by  Mr.  Etheridge,  Junr.,  {op.  cit.,  PI.  xliv., 
fig.5).  (Coll.  Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane,  No.707;  and  Geological 
Museum,  Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane,  No.F  1017). 
PhiUipsia  vmodu:ardi{''.)  Eth.  fil. 

Fig.  14. — This  photo  shows  the  fragments  of  trilobite-remains,  on  which 
Mr.  Etheridge  chietly  founded  his  species  G.  >*emmiferus  var.  au8- 
tralasica.  On  this  specimen  also  occurs  the  tail  of  Brarhymetopus 
dunstani.  It  remains  to  be  proven  that  they  are  not  portions  of  the 
above  species.  The  tails  shown  on  this  specimen  have  the  same 
number  of  axial  and  pleural  divisions,  and  kind  of  granulation  as 
those  included  with  the  cejihalons  of  P.  ivoodwardi.  (Coll.  Queens- 
land Museum.  Brisbane.     No. 712). 

Plate  lii. 
Phillipsia  inoodwardi{'t)  Eth. fil.,  and  Brachymetopus  dwnstani  M'ltaheW. 
Fig.l. — This  represents  a  portion  of  specimen  No.712  of  the  Queensland 
Museum,  Brisbane.      On   it  is   the  pygidium  assumed  to  belong  to 
P.  iL'OodAi-a rdi ,  and  a  pygidium  of  Jir.  davMani  in  front  of  the  arrow; 
(  X  3). 


494  CARBONIFEKOUS    TRir.OBITES    OF    AUSTRALIA. 

Brai-liyine.topus  diinstani  Mitcliell.  etc. 
Fig.2. — Enlarged  poitjon  of  specimen  No.  F  1017,  (reological  Museum, 
Dept.  of  Mines,  Brisbane.  Oh  it  is  the  intaglio  of  Br.  dnnstani, 
showing,  fairly  well,  the  chief  specific  features.  The  other  pygidial 
and  cephalic  imprints  are  assumed  to  belong  to  P.  iwodirardi  Eth. 
fil. ;  (  X  3). 

Phi/npsia  HHperha  Mitchell. 
Fig.3. — Head-shield  (  x4)  from  the  same  specimen  as  PI.  xlviii.,  tig.  15. 

PliiUipskt  coUinsi  Mitchell. 
Fig. 4. — A  perfect  tail  of  an  immature  individual;  (  x  f ), 
Grijfithides  convexicaudatust  ^Mitchell. 
Figs. 5,  6. — Tails  about  complete.     Fig.5  is  that  of  a  young  individual.  Init 
shows  all  the  axial  and  pleural  divisions. 

PliUUpsia  waterhoiisei  Mitchell. 
Fig. 7. — From  a  cast;  it  shows  tlie  glabellar  furrows  plainly:  and  other 
features. 

Plate  liii. 
Griffi.thidef>{1)  sweet  I  Eth.  fil. 
Figs.  1,2. — Dorsal  aspect,      rraces  of  glabellar  furi-ows  are  visible,  especi- 
ally on  the  right  side  generalh'.     The  important  features  are  well 
shown.      The  photos  are  from    the    type-specimen;  (x2).       (Coll. 
Sweet). 

Brachymetopus  strzeJeckil  McCoj'. 
Figs. 3,  4. — Photos  of  the  enlarged  figures  of  McCoy  (lor.  cit.). 
Figs.5,  6.— Photos  of  Reed's  figures  of  the  species  (/or    rif.). 

Grijfif hides  dnhins  Eth.  Senr. 

Fig. 7. — Copy  of   the  figure  given  by   R.  Etheridge,  Junr..  (in  (^eol.  Pal, 

Queensland  and  New  Guinea,  1892,  PI.  vii.,  fig.  12). 

Phif/ipsia  iroodwardi  Eth. fil. 

Figs.8,  9.— Copies  of  Mr.  Etheridge's  figufes  (op.  cit.,  PI.  vii..  figs.  13,  15). 

Griffithidesi'i)  seminiferus  var.  anstralasica. 
Fig.  10. — Copy  of  Mr.  Etheridge's  original  figure  of  a  free  cheek. 


495 


ORDINARY  :M0NTHLY  MEETING. 

September  25tb,   1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Gliapiiicui.  ^[.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  tlie  Cliair. 

The  Piesident  announced  tliat  tlie  Council  had  (;ome  to  the 
conclusion,  that  tlie  proposed  scheme  "to  create  a  miniature 
Australia  in  its  primary  conditions,"  on  Pulhah  Island  in  Lake 
Macquarie,  as  mentioned  at  hist  Meeting,  was  not  a  matter  in 
wliich  the  Society  could  move  with  advantage,  at  present. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (28th  August,  1918),  amounting  to  4  Yols.,  38 
Parts  or  Nos.,  5  Bulletins,  1  Report,  and  2  Pamphlets,  received 
from  30  Societies,  etc.,  were  laid  upon  the  table 

NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Dr.  J.  B  Oleland  mentioned  that,  on  two  consecutive  days  in 
August  last,  he  had  heard  and  seen  a  Little  Penguin,  Eiidpytula 
minor,  off  Kurraba  Point,  in  Neutral  Ba^^ 

Dr.  R.  J.  Tillyard  exhibited  a  slide  of  some  transverse  sections 
of  the  Saccoid  Caudal  Gills  of  the  larva  of  the  Dragoni^y  Fseudo- 
phcea  sp.,  (Fam.  CalopterygidcE)  from  Java,  sent  by  Dr.  F.  Ris,  of 
Rheinau,  Switzerland.  In  this  preparation,  the  alveoli  show 
some  remarkable  structures,  described  originally  by  Dr.  Ris  as 
'"moss-like  branching  tufts  of  standing  fibrils,"  and  considered 
by  him  to  be  special  respiratory  organs  of  the  gill.  From  the 
photographs  which  Dr.  Ris  published  of  these  sections,  Dr. 
Tillyard  concluded  that  thny  were  artefacts,  a  conclusion  which 
Dr.  Ris  is  unwilling  to  accept.  He  therefore  sent  the  slide  in 
support  of  his  opinion.  The  slide  shows  many  alveoli  in  which 
the  fibril-tufts  project  considerably  beyond  the  boundary  of  a 
single  alveolus.     They  were  examined  under  the  microscope  by 


496  NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

biologists  and  ph3'siologists  present  at  the  Meeting,  ail  of  whoin 
agreed  tliat  they  were  artificial  products:  thougli  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  say  definitely  what  caused  them,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
no  information  is  available  as  to  the  method  of  fixation  used  by 
the  collector  who  took  the  larva  in  Java.  (These  Proceedings, 
1917,  xlii.,  pp.51-54,  and  Pl.iv.,  figs.31-33). 

Mr.  Fletcher  exhibited  five  portions  of  typical,  water-storing 
Mallee-roots,  and  one  of  two  bottles  of  root-water  from  South 
Australia,  received  from  Mr.  H.  S.  Crummer,  through  the  kind 
co-operation  of  Mr.  T.  Gill,  of  Adelaide,  and  Mr.  G.  Murray,  of 
Fowler's  Bay,  S.A. 

Dr.  R.  Greig-Smith  oflt'ered  some  observations,  based  on  a  pre- 
liminary examination  of  one  of  the  two  samples  of  water  obtained 
from  Mallee-roots. 


497 


NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^. 

By  G.  I.  Playfair,  late  Science  Research  Scholar  op  the 
University  op  Sydney. 

(Plates  liv.-lviii.;  and  eleven  Text-figures.) 

In  the  following  notes  are  embodied  observations  on  a  number 
of  new  and  rare  freshwater  alg?e,  that  have  come  under  my  notice 
during  the  last  few  years.  Of  those  mentioned,  a  little  over  two- 
thirds  of  the  new  forms,  and  about  half  the  others,  are  from 
Lismore,  the  gleanings  of  23  gatherings  made  during  the  summers 
of  1916  and  1917:  to  be  precise,  from  Sept.  16th,  1916,  to  May 
Uth,  1917,  and  from  Sept.  21st,  1917,  to  Feb.  10th,  1918.  During 
the  colder  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  very  little  of 
interest  is  to  be  found.  The  others  are  from  older  samples,  also 
locally  obtained,  or  out  of  still  earlier  gatherings  from  Sydney. 
In  all,  66  new  forms  are  described  and  figured,  28  being  ad- 
mitted to  specific  rank,  29  classed  as  variations,  and  9  as  forms; 
una  new  genus  is  proposed.  The  figures  are,  of  course,  all  drawn 
from  Australian  specimens. 

Habitats. — The  districts  from  which  the  various  forms  have 
been  obtained  are  purely  of  local  interest,  but  more  general  value 
attaches  to  the  character  of  the  habitat.  The  numbered  gather- 
ings, referred  to,  are  accordingly  classified  as  follows.  Plankton : 
80,  81,  90,  99,  100,  115,  121,  136,  258,  265,  266,  311,  316,  327, 
328,  332,  340«,  347,  362.  Out  of  weeds  (practically  plankton): 
3,  26,  50,  158,  184,  189,  193,  272,  317.  Mucous  strata:  306, 
323,  326.  Ponds,  lagoons,  and  swamps  account  for  the  remain- 
ing twenty. 

One  of  these  last,  a  swampy  pool  formed  entirely  by  surface- 
water,  deserves  special  mention;  during  the  two  smnmers,  it  was 
responsible  for  30  out  of  the  64  new  forms  here  described.  The 
samples  which  refer  to  it  are  284,  286,  298,  302,  308,  311,  312, 

38 


498  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGiE, 

316,  317,  327,  337,  340a,  345,  347,  352.  The  pool  is  the  drain, 
age  of  a  considerable  area  of  ground  swampy  after  rain,  and  is 
about  2  feet  deep  in  the  centre;  in  droughty  weather,  it  is  often 
entirely  dry."*^ 

On  account  of  its  unpromising  appearance,  and  to  secure  ever}^- 
thing  that  might  be  present,  a  quantity  of  water  was  taken  from 
a  spot  where  there  was  a  growth  of  coarse  weeds,  the  weeds  being 
well  shaken  up,  and  the  bottom  disturbed  also  to  some  extent. 
This  water  was  strained  through  a  plankton-net  of  common  calico, 
ground-samples  from  the  swamp  being  sometimes  added.  Several 
gallons  would  be  treated  in  this  way,  and  the  last  quart,  or  so, 
of  water  and  sediment  taken  home  in  a  tin  and  decanted. 

During  the  periods  mentioned  above,  a  gathering  was  taken, 
on  an  average,  once  a  month,  the  main  portion  of  the  water  being 
drawn  from  the  same  spot.  The  results  show  the  importance  of 
a  regular  periodic  examination  of  a  pond.  The  desmids  and 
diatoms  were  fairly  constant,  but  the  Myxo2:>hyceai,  Volvocacece, 
and  Protococcoidece  presented,  from  month  to  month,  an  ap- 
parently endless  succession  of  forms,  new,  uncommon,  or  not 
previously  recorded.  Rarely  could  any  of  these  be  noted  in  two 
successive  gatherings,  and  very  often  they  were  never  seen  again. 
For  instance,  of  Chlamydomonas,  10  different  forms,  new  or  rare, 
were  noted;  of  Carteria,  5;  of  Phacotus,  2;  of  Volvox,  2;  of 
Oocystis,  7;  of  Tetraedy^on,  7;  of  Geminella,  4.  Yet,  in  two 
summers,  the  most  that  could  be  said  was,  that  a  few  of  them 
had  been  recorded  a  second  time. 

Of  course  the  swamp,  with  its  ever-changing  conditions  of  life, 
is  the  real  breeding-ground  of  all  these  forms,  the  pool  being 
only  the  repository  of  them,  Chlamydomonas  and  Gay-teria  are 
notoriously  dependent  on  rainfall,  and  are  very  sensitive  to  stag- 
nation; but  I  find  that  forms  of  Oocystis  and  Tetraedron  are 
just  as  irregular  in  their  appearance.      Probably,  the  reason  is 


*  Swampy  pools  of  this  sort  are  the  best  places  to  search  for  new  and 
rare  forms  of  microscopic  life;  permanent  waters,  on  the  other  hand,  can 
generally  be  relied  on  to  jaeld  a  micro-flora  and  fauna  of  unvarying 
character. 


BY  G.  I.   PLAYFAIR.  499 

to  be  found  in  the  propagation  of  all  tliese  genera  by  autospores. 
To  l)egin  with,  the  autospores  differ  sHghtly  (and  sometimes  more 
tlian  slightly)  from  the  parent-cell,  and  their  subsequent  develop- 
ment along  diverging  lines  will,  no  doubt,  result  in  more  oi'  less 
widely  differing  forms. 

Another  interesting  point  to  be  noted  is,  that  now  and  again 
one  or  other  of  these  forms  would  be  recorded  at  the  scmip  time 
from  some  other  pool  connected  with  an  entirely  different  water- 
shed, or  even  in  another  part  of  the  neighbourhood,  but  thev 
were  just  as  evanescent. 

MYXOPHYCE^. 

Syn.  Phycochromojjhycefe^  Cyanophycece,  Schizoi^hycpw. 
Fam .  CHROOCOCCACE.^J . 
Genus  Syxechococcus  ^ag. 
Syxechococcus  grandis,  n.sp.      (Text-fig.  1 ). 

Cellulse  magnse,  crasspe,  oblongo-o vales;   apicibus 
late-rotundatis ;    lateribus    arcuatis  ;    cytoplasmate    l^'^'^'. 
jeruginoso,  gi-anuloso.  /l;'\^«-'*-i"4;^l 

Long.  33,  lat.  L>3//.  Lismore  (345). 

Of  Nageli's  three  species  (Gatt.  einz.  Alg.,  p. 5 6, 
T.  i.E,    f.1-3),    none  are   over   20/x  long.       S.  major 
Schroter,  the  nearest  in  size,  is  cylindrical.     See  G.     Text-fig.  1." 
8.  West,  Br.  Frw.  Alg.,  p. 347,  f.l61D,  E. 

Genus  M  e  r  i  s  M  o  p  e  d  i  u  m  Meyen. 
Merismopedium  punctatum  Meyen.     (Text-fig. 2^). 

In  Wiegm.,  Archiv,  1839,  p. 67,  sec.  Rabenhorst,  Fl.  Eur.  Alg.^ 
ii.,  p. 57.  »Syn.,  J/.  KiUzingii  Nag.,  I.e.,  p.55,  T.  i.D,  f.2.  Con- 
tents generally  pale  blue.  Usually  found  in  our  waters  in  isolated 
sets  of  four  cells.  As  figured,  however,  out  of  weeds  in  the  river, 
the  cells  were  in  large  sheets  but  still  semi-detached  in  coenobia 
of  4. 

Cell.  diam.  2/x.  Lismore,  Richmond  R.  (272). 

*  Synechococciis  grandis,  n.sp.,  (  x  660), 


500 


NKW   AND  RARE  FRKSHWATP^R   ALGiE, 


Var.  OBLOXGUM  Playf.      (Text-fig. 25,  c). 
Biol.  Richm.  River,  p.  135.     Generally  sparsely  distributed  in 
isolated  sets  of  4,  or  more  rarely  of  16.     The  latter  were  frequent 
in  plankton  from    the  Nymboidia   River,  near  Grafton,  where  I 


0181  18  1® 

01  m  iiii 

00  80  0i8i 
GO 


nng 


Text-fig.  2. 
(a)  Merismopedium  punctatum  Meyen,  forma,  (  x500);  (h,  c)  var.  oblongum 
•Playf.,    [h   X  1000,    c  x6fi0);    (cZ,  e)   var.    vacuolatum,  n.var.,  (  x660); 
(/)  M.  cyaneitm,  n.sp.,  (  x  660);  ig)  M.  elegans  var.  constrictum,  n.var., 
(  x  660);  (A)  M.  duplex,  n.sp.,  (  x  1330). 

even  noted  a  large  coenobium  (30  x  20/x)  of  four  sets  of  16  cells 
each.     The  cells  are  irregularly  oblong,  the  contents  pale  blue. 

Cell.  long.  2-3,  lat.  l-|-2/x  (plerumque  3  x  2/x). 

Lismore(350);  Grafton  (265,  266). 

Var.  VACUOLATUM,  n.var.      (Text-fig. 2c/,  e). 
Cellulae  globoste  vel  oblongie;  media  cellula  loco  vacuo  magno 
occupata. 


Cell,  diam.  2/x;  vel  long.  3,  lat. 


Lismore  (350). 


The  cells  are  irregularly  globose  or  oblong,  and  the  centre  is 
occupied  by  a  large  vacuole  giving  each  cell  the  appearance  of  a 
ring 
coenobium 


Globose  and  oblong  cells  are  sometimes  mixed  in  the  same 


UY  G.  J.   PLAYFAlU.  501 

Merismopedium  cyaneum,  11. sp.     (Text-fig. 2/). 
Celluh«  o vales  vel  oblong^e;  cytoplasmate  cyaneo. 
Cell.  long.  5-6,  lat  3/x.  Potts  Hill  (121). 

Ccenobium  of  4  cells  measured  12  x  6/i,  the  cells  not  quite 
divided;  the  colour  of  the  cell-contents  a  strong  bright  blue. 

Merismopedium  elegans  v.  constrictum,  n.var.    (Text.fig.2r/). 

Ccenobium  membranaceum,  extensum,  e  cellulis  permultis,  con- 
fertis,  compositum;  cellulis  oblongis  medio  constrictis;  cytoj^las- 
mate  dilute  Cc^^ruleo  vel  dilute  viridi. 

Ctenob.  long.  c.  300,  lat.  c.  200;  cell.  long.  6-7,  lat.  4-5/x. 

Lismore,  Richmond  R.  (184,  193). 

The  crenobia  were  wide-spreading,  containing  1024  cells  (32  x 
32)  or  so.      Cells  oblong,  constricted  in  the  middle,  pale  blue  or 
pale  green.      A   few    cells  of  the   type  present,  oblong,  not  con- 
stricted, 6  X  4//. 

Merismopedium  duplex,  n.sp.     (Text-fig. 2A). 

Cellulfe  sph£ericc\3  vel  ovales,  remotte  ;  cytoplasmate  dilute 
creruleo. 

Cell.  long.  4,  lat.  3/i  Coogee  (4). 

Coenobia  small,  about  30  x  25f(.,  consisting  of  8-32  cells  gener- 
ally found  half -divided,  remote.      Contents  pale  blue. 

Fani.   08CILLAT0RIACE.*:. 
Genus  Oscillatoria   Vaucher. 

OSCILLATORIA    FLEXA,   n.Sp.        (PI.   Hv.,   fig.l). 

►Stratum  mucosum,  foliaceum,  saturate  viride;  fills  arete  in- 
tricatis  rectis,  juxta  apices  subito  deflexis,  baud  attenuatis, 
apicibus  rotundatis,  vaginis  tenuissimis;  trichomatis  dilutissime 
ferugineis,  ad  genicula  baud  constrictis;  articulis  subquadratis 
vel  cylindraceis;  dissepimentis  fegre  cernendis,  haud  granulatis; 
cytoplasmate  tenui-granuloso. 

Diam.  fil.  21-3,  cell.  alt.  2-8/x.  Lismore  (317). 

A  mucous  stratum  of  dark  green  flakes  in  shallow  water  at 
the  grassy  edge  of  a  swampy  pool,  in  quantity.  The  filaments 
were  very  lively  under  the  microscope,  as  is  usual  with  species  of 


502  \EW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGiE, 

this  genus;  and  the  sheath,  though  very  delicate,  was  quite  dis- 
tinct in  broken  filaments.  I  have  always  found  it  so,  even  in 
the  finest  species  of  Oscillatoria.  The  filaments,  in  general  quite 
straight,  were  bent  suddenly  about  10//  from  the  end,  which  was 
not  attenuated. 

Oscillatoria  simplicissima  v.  granulata,  n.var.     (PL  liv.,  f.2). 

Forma  dissepimentis  tenuissime  granulatis. 

Diam.  fil.  8,  cell.  alt.  4-6  (plerumque  4/i,). 

Lismore  (327). 

Filaments  free-floating  in  prodigious  quantities,  colour  pale 
grey-green,  contents  finely  granular,  as  also  are  the  dissepiments. 

Var.  CONSTRICTA,  n.var.      (PI.  liv.,  f.3). 

Forma  trichomatis  ad  genicula  levissime  constrictis. 

Diam.  fil.  13,  cell.  alt.  4-8/x.     Lismore  (350). 

Filaments  free-floating,  more  than  half  as  bi'oad  again  as  in 
the  type,  with  the  cells  slightly  constricted,  a  mere  nick  at  the 
edge.  Colour  pale  blue,  contents  homogeneous  not  granular. 
Type  in  Gomont,  Monog.  d.  Oscillariees,  p.  2 19,  PL  vii.,  f.l. 

Oscillatoria  princeps  Vauch.     (PL  liv.,  f.4). 

Diam.  fil.  30-57,  cell.  alt.  4-8/x.  Lismore  (350,  352). 

Colour  pale  grey-blue  or  grey-green.  I  mention  this  species 
for  the  sake  of  giving  a  figure  of  a  piece  of  empty  sheath  show- 
ing fixed  dissepiments  right  across,  with  incipient  intermediate 
ones.  In  surf  ace- view,  the  septa  appeared  as  faint  transverse 
lines,  but,  in  optical  section,  they  showed  bulging  to  one  end,  as 
if  the  cells  had  been  violently  forced  out. 

Genus  P  h  o  r  m  i  d  i  u  m  Kiitz. 

Phormidium  GRANDE,  n.sp.  (PL  liv.,  f.5). 

Stratum  papyraceum  olivaceum;  fills  rectis,  apicibus  rotundatis, 
calyptra  nulla,  vaginis  plerumque  crassis;  trichomatis  saturate 
viridibus  interdum  luteolo-viridibus,  ad  genicula  baud  constrictis; 
articulis  brevissimis;  dissepimentis  latis,  baud  granulatis;  cyto- 
plasmate  tenui-granuloso. 


6Y  G.  I.  PLAYFAiR.  503 

Diam.  fil.  21-23,  trich.  19-20,  cell.  alt.   li-2i  (plerunique  2/x). 

Lismore  (32.3). 

An  olive-green  papyraceous  stratum  in  great  cjuantities  on  the 
surface  of  a  creek-pool,  after  heavy  rain  followed  by  heat.  The 
trichomes  under  the  microscope  were  of  a  brilliant  green  colour 
(very  unusual  in  this  family,  but  found  also  in  0.  nigro-viridis) 
or  sometimes  yellow-green.  The  tips  of  the  filaments  were  some- 
times rounded,  but  generally  slightly  constricted  at  the  terminal 
cell  so  as  to  be  subcapitate. 

Phohmidium  numarium,  n.sp.  (PL  liv.,  f.6,  7). 

Stratum  papyraceum  olivaceum;  filis  angustissimis  ai'cte  in- 
tricatis,  vaginis  tenuissimis,  apicibus  rotundatis  ;  trichomatis 
dilute  Ccoruleis,  ad  genicula  valde  constrictis,  articulis  brevissimis 
disjunctis;  cytoplasmate  homogeneo. 

Diam.  fil.  2,  cell.  alt.  J-lJ/>t.  Lismore  (326). 

An  olive-green  papyraceous  stratum  on  the  curb-stone  near  a 
down-pipe.  The  cells  of  the  trichomes  are  disjoined  and  are  of 
the  palisade-type,  reminding  one  of  a  rouleau  of  coin,  at  most 
quadrate  before  division,  only  to  be  distinctly  made  out  with 
the  yV  obj.,  the  contents  homogeneous,  pale  blue  with  a  darker 
band  at  the  sides. 

Fam.  NOSTOCACE/E. 
Genus  A  n  a  b  ^  n  a   Bory. 

ANABiENA    AUSTRALICA,   n.Sp.  (PI.  liv.,  f.8,  9). 

Trichouiata  angusta,  recta,  libere  natantia,  ad  genicula 
levissime  constricta;  cellulis  rectangularibus,  adpressis,  apicibus 
truncatis;  cytoplasmate  dilutissime  cseruleo  jjiene  hyalino,  homo- 
geneo vel  rainutissime  granulato;  heterocystidibus  angustis  cylin- 
draceis,  apicibus  rotundato-truncatis  ;  gonidiis  angustis  cylin- 
draceis,  apicibus  rotundatis,  lateribus  parallelis,  juxta  hetero- 
cystides  ordinatis;  cytoplasmate  pulchre  cyaneo,  granulato. 

Cell.  diam.  3-1,  alt.  6-10,  plerumque  8;  heterocyst.  diam,  4-5, 
alt.  10^-15;  gonid.  diam.  5-7,  alt.  19-32/x. 

Lismore  (327,  337). 

Found    free,    floating.       Trichomes    narrow,    very    pale    blue, 


504  NEW   AND   UARE   FKESIIWATKR   ALG.'E, 

almost  liyaliiie,  witli  cells  so  strictly  rectangular  and  so  closely 
adpressed  that  the  trichoine  has  the  appearance  of  an  Oscillatoria\ 
the  slight  constriction  at  the  joints,  a  mere  nick  at  the  edge,  is 
discernible  only  with  the  yV  obj.  (often  the  dissepiments  also): 
contents  homogeneous  or  finely  granular.  Heterocysts  narrow , 
strictly  cylindrical.  Gonidia  one  or  two  on  either  side  of  a 
heterocyst,  narrow,  cylindrical;  contents  bright  blue,  granular. 

Var.  CONSTRICTA,  n.var.  (PL  liv.,  f.lO). 

Forma  gonidiis  in  medio  constrictis.  Cell.  diam.  o,  alt.  (S-lO; 
heteroc^^st.  diam.  4,  alt.  11;  gonid.  diam.  4-6,  alt.  19-21/x. 

Lismore  (350). 

A  form  with  rather  short  gonidia  somewhat  constricted  in  the- 
middle. 

Anab^na  variabilis  var.  cylindracea,  n.var.    (PI.  liv.,  f.  11-1 3). 

Trichomata  Hexuosa,  dilute  cterulea,  ad  genicula  constricta; 
cellulis  stricte  rectangularibus,  disjunctis,  apicibus  truncatis; 
cytoplasmate  minute  granulato  ;  heterocystidibus  oblongis  vel 
oblongo-cylindraceis,  apicibus  rotundatis;  gonidiis  doliformibus, 
quadratis  vel  oblongis,  disjunctis,  apicibus  truncatis. 

Cell.  diam.  3,  alt.  4-6;  heterocyst.  diam.  4-5,  alt.  7^-10^;  gonid. 
diam.  6,  alt.  7-lOJ/x.  Lismore  (316). 

Easily  recognised  as  A.  variahilis  by  its  catenate  gonidia  remote 
from  the  heterocysts,  differing  from  the  type,  however,  in  its 
rectangular  cells.  All  parts  of  the  trichome  also  seem  to  be 
slightly  more  slender  than  usual.  The  gonidia  were  perhaps 
immature,  and  would  probably  become  oblong  with  rounded  ends. 

Anab^na  oscillarioides  var.  crassa,  n.var.     (PL  liv.,  f.l4). 
Forma  cellulis   crassioribus,  globosis  (e  divisione  oblongis  vel 
oblongo-constrictis)  ;    cytoplasmate  teruginoso  ;    heterocystidibus 
interdum  minoribus,  sphgericis;  gonidiis  oblongis,  apicibus  rotund- 
atis, cytoplasmate  seruginoso  granulato. 

(1).  Cell.  diam.  6-8;  heterocyst.  4;  gonid.  diam.  9,  alt.  22-23/x. 

Lismore  (298). 
(2).  Cell.  diam.  8-9|;  heterocyst.  8;  gonid.  diam.  12,  alt.  25/x. 
Lismore  (337). 


1?Y  G.  i.  PLAYFAIR.  505 

111  this  form,  the  cells  are  broader  aud  the  heterocysts  some- 
times narrower  than  in  the  type  (cell.  diam.  4-6,  heterocyst.  6-8, 
gonid.  8-10/x);  c/'.  Hornet  et  Flahault,  Kevis.  d.  Nostoc.,  p.'233; 
Tilden,  Minnesota  Algtp,  i.,  p.  193,  PI.  ix.,  f.l9. 

Anab.ena  laxa  \ar.  hortkxsis,  n.var.      (PI.  liv.,  f.  15,  16). 

Forma  heterocystidibus  cylindiaeeis  :  g()ni(his  cvlindraceis 
elongatis. 

Cell.  diam.  6-7,  alt.  8-12;  heterocyst.  7,  alt.  14-16;  gonid.  7, 
alt.  33//. 

Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney  (158). 

Cf.  iSpha'rozyc/a  {Anahfcua)  Jaxa  Habenhoi'st,  Fl.  I'^ur.  Alg.,  ii., 
p.  193;  Tilden,  I.e.,  p.  192,  PI.  ix.,  t'.i8.  In  the  type,  the  hetero- 
cysts  are  spherical,  and  the  gonidia  are  shorter.  Cell-contents, 
in  our  form,  pale  blue,  in  the  heterocysts  and  gonidia  a  deeper 
blue.  Ptabenhorst,  I.e.,  gives  '■^frichomatibtis  .  .  .  liUeo-fernyineis" 
and  ^'sporis  .  .     so.tjirate  luteo-virldihus^''  for  the  type. 

(jienus   C  Y  L  I  X  D  R  O  S  P  E  R  M  u  M    Kiltz. 
Cylindrospekmum  stagnale  v.  australe,  n.var.   (PI. liv., f.  17-21). 

Forma  cellulis  cylindraceis,  disjunctis,  apicibus  truncatis  ; 
heterocystidibus  oblongo-cylindraceis  vel  conicis  ;  gonidiis  ob- 
longis  vel  oblongo-cylindraceis,  apicibus  rotundatis,  cvtoplasmate 
pulchre  cyaneo  vel  dilute  viridi. 

(1).  Cell.  diam.  4-5,  alt.  5-10  (plerumque  7-8);  heterocyst.  diam. 
4-6,  alt.  8-11;  gonid.  diam.  9-13,  alt.  18-30/x.  Lismore  (302). 

(2).  Cell.  diam.  3,  alt.  4  10  (plerumque  4-5);  heterocyst.  diam. 
3-4,  alt.  7-14;  gonid.  diam.  7^-9^,  alt.  11-12//.  Lismore  (306). 

Cf.  G.  S.  West,  Br.  Frw.  Alg.,  p.328,  f.l50;  Tilden,  Minnesota 
Algie,  i.,  p.  198,  PI.  X.,  f.2.  The  type  has  oblong  cells;  in  this 
form,  they  are  quadrate  or  cylindrical.  1  found  it  once  (sample 
306)  as  a  grey-green,  foliaceous,  mucous  stratum  at  the  grassy 
edge  of  a  swampy  pool.  Though  the  cells  and  heterocysts  of  the 
interlaced  trichomes  were  all  of  the  same  size  and  shape,  there 
were  intermingled  in  this  one  stratum  three  distinct  tyjjes  of 
gonidia.  The  most  frequent  answered  exactly  to  C.  stagnale; 
another  I   have  already  described   as   C.  rectangalare;  and   the 


506  XEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^E, 

third  seems  to  be  a  form  of  C.  Goetzei  Schmidle.  T  have 
accorded  these  forms  specific  rank,  as  it  is  the  general  practice, 
and  cumenient  for  classification:  besides,  what  should  be  char- 
acteristic of  a  species  in  these  plants,  if  not  the  shape  of  the 
gonidia!  Nevertheless,  their  being  intermingled  in  one  mucous 
stratum  indicates  that  they  are  merely  allotropic  forms  of  one 
plant,  brought  about  by  different  modes  of  growth. 

Most  of  the  trichomes  in  the  mucus  were  merely  interlaced, 
but  here  and  there  they  were  closely  coiled  in  a  spiral  manner 
(PL  liv.,  f.21).  This  is  not  uncommon  in  free-swimming  filaments 
of  the  plankton,  but  very  unusual  in  mucous  strata. 

Cylindrospermum  rectangulare  Playf. 

(1).  Gonidia  thin-walled,  rectangular:  heterocysts  oblong  or 
acutely  conical. 

Cell.  diam.  3,  alt.  4-10;  heterocyst.  3-4,  alt.  7-14:  gonid.  4, 
alt.  14/x. 

Lismore  (306).  (PI.  liv.,  f.22). 

(2).  Gonidia  thick- walled,  cylindrical:  heterocysts  oblong. 

Cell.  diam.  4,  alt.  5-10  (plerumque  7);  heterocyst.  4-6,  alt.  8|- 
\0h;  gonid.  diam.  9i-12,  alt.  29-38/x. 

^   Lismore  (302).  (PI.  liv.,  f. 23). 

Cf.  Frw.  Algfc  of  the  Lismore  Distr.,  these  Proceedings,  1915, 
p.349,  f.A. 

Var.  PARVICELLULA,  n.var.      (PI.  liv.,  f.24,  25). 

Forma  cellulis  minimis,  plerumque  adpressis,  quadratis  vel 
diametro  brevioribus,  cellula  apicali  acute-conica;  heterocystidi- 
bus  oblongis;  gonidiis  interdum  lateribus  paullo  arcuatis. 

Cell.  diam.  2-2|;  heterocyst.  3i,  alt.  7;  gonid.  10,  alt.  24/x. 

WoyWoy(270). 

In  a  gathering  kindly  sent  me  by  Mr.  A.  H.  8.  Lucas.  The 
cells  are  unusually  small  for  plants  of  this  family:  it  should  be 
noted,  too,  that  the  gonidia  are  not  any  smaller  on  that  account. 
The  walls  of  the  latter  were  incrassate,  rufescent  and  scrobicu- 
late;  this  takes  place  with  age,  however,  in  the  gonidia  of  every 
species. 


BY  G.   I.  PLAYFAIR. 


507 


Cylindrospermum  Goetzei  Schm.,  forma.      (PL  liv.,  f.26,  27). 

Trichoniata  cUigusta,  ad  genicula  constricta;  cellulis  quadratis 
vel  cyliiidraceis,  disjunctis:  heterocy«tidibus  oblongis  vel  conicis; 
goiiidiis  laiiceolati.s  vel  subdoliformibus,  apicibus  arigustis  truii- 
catis. 

Cell,  diaiii.  .'^5,  alt.  4-10;  heterocyst.  3-6,  alt.  6-14;  gonid.  7-10, 


alt.  14-2: 


Lismore  (306). 


C  rectangulare  Flayt,  parthn,  Frw.  Alg.  Lismore,  p. 349,  f. A. 
Of.  Schmidle,  Schiz.  Conj.  Chlor.  in  Engler's  Flora  von  Afrika, 
H.  xxii.,  p. 2 4 5,  T.  iv.,  f.5.  In  this,  as  in  all  other  species  of  the 
family,  the  cells  and  heterocysts  may  vary  much  in  shape  and 
size,  but  the  form  of  the  gonidia  is  characteristic.  With  the 
three  species  of  Cylindrospermjim  mentioned  above,  compare 
Anah(Hna  oscUlarioides  (type),  its  var.  stenosj^oi-a  Born.  <fe  Flah., 
and  A.  Volzii  Lemm.  These  show  the  same  three  allotropic 
forms  of  gonidia  in  what  is,  biologically,  one  species;  they  are  all 
found  here  with  the  same  (quadrate  or  cylindrical)  cells  and 
heterocysts,  very  often  also  accompanying  one  another. 
Fam.  SCYTONEMACE.^. 

Genus  T  o  l  y  p  o  t  h  r  i  x  Kiitz. 
ToLYPOTHRix  LANATA  (Desv. )  Wartmanii. 
(Text-fig.  3). 
Diam.  fil.  15-17,  trich.  14;  cell.  alt. 4-8 
(plerumque  4);  heterocyst.  15  x  14//. 
Grafton,  Nymboidia  R.  (265). 
Our    specimens    agree  in   dimensions 
fairly  well  with   those  given  by  Raben- 
horst,  Fl.  Eur.  Alg.,  ii.,  p. 277  (fil.  diam. 
14-181-,  trich.  11-15/x),  but  the  cells  are 
much  shorter  (equal  to,  slightly  less  than, 
or  half  as  long  as  the  diameter — Rabh.). 
Hheatli  colourless,  J  to  IJ/x  thick,  trich- 
omes  constricted  at    the    dissepiments, 
cytoplasm  pale  green  or  pale  grey-green, 
very  finely  granular. 
Text-fig. 3.  —  Tolypothrix  lanata  (Desv.)  Wartmann;  (  x  660. 


508  nkw  and  rare  freshwater  alg^, 

FLAGELLATtE. 
Fani.   HYMENOMONADACE.^-:. 
Genus  8  y  n  u  r  a   Ehr. 
Synuka  (GRANULOSA  Playf.  (PL  Ivi.,  f.  1-3). 

I  give  another  figure  of  the  cells  of  this  species,  that  in  Fi-w. 
Alg.  Lismore,  PL  xlv.,  £.3,  being  shown  too  finely  granulate.  The 
granules  are  quite  coarse,  no  more  than  16  being  visible  at  the 
edge,  round  the  anterior  margin.  Home,  that  T  noted  lately,  had 
from  1  to  8  minute  dark  red,  or  nearly  black,  irregular  granules 
at  the  base  of  the  fiagella;  or,  sometimes,  one,  larger,  simulating 
a  stigma,  in  the  gap  between  the  chloroplasts  (PL  Ivi.,  f.2,  3). 
The  chromatophores  in  this  case  were  a  very  pale  green  with(jut 
any  trace  of  yellowness,  and  the  crenobia  peculiar  in  being  oblong 
(not  globose  and  stellate),  with  the  cells  attached  round  a  central 
peduncle.  The  origin  of  these  oblong  ccenobia  becatne  clear 
later,  when  I  found  a  long  cylindrical  ccenobium  (80/x  long  by 
30/x  broad,  cells  long.  12-20,  lat.  6-10/x)  with  a  central  mucous 
or  membranous  peduncle  (PL  Ivi.,  f.  1).  The  latter  being  gradu- 
ally drawn  apart  by  the  perpetual  twisting  of  the  cells,  the 
c<enobium  broke  up  into  two  oblong  colonies.  In  the  same  way, 
these  probably  break  up  into  smaller  groups,  which  become 
regularly  stellate  by  cell-division.  The  formation  of  the  ccenobia 
in  this  genus  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be  on  somewhat  the 
same  lines  as  in  Anthophysa  vegetans. 

Genus  T  e  s  s  e  l  l  a  r  i  a  Playf.,  nom.  emend. 
Cf.  Frw.  Alg.  Lismore,  p. 3 15.      I  find  that   ^^TesselW^  is  pre- 
occupied by  Ehrenberg  for  a  genus  of  diatoms;  I  hav^e  altered 
the  name  of  my  new  genus,  therefore,  to  Tessellaria. 

Tessellaria  volvocina  Playf. 
In  PL  Ivi.,  f.I,  I  give  a  figure  of  a  yellow-green  fiagellate  evi- 
dently belonging  to  this  family,  which  I  think  is  very  probably 
a  free  zooid  of  this  organism.  In  shape  globose,  truncate  in 
front,  diam.  10/x,  with  two  long  fiagella,  two  small  yellow-green 
chromatoiDhores  confined  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  cell,  and  a 
number  of   relatively  large   refractive  globules  scattered  round 


BY  G.   T.  PLAYFAIR.  509 

just  inside  the  membrane:  moml:)rane  very  delicate.  One  e.v. 
was  noted  at  the  side,  but  perhaps  more  were  present  concealed 
by  the  globules. 

This  organism  in  its  early  stages  seems  to  be  distinctly  a 
plankton-form  and  to  have  a  fondness  for  the  surface-layer  of 
water.  Only  later,  when  the  coenohia  have  become  heavier,  do 
they  fall  to  the  bottom  and  become  ground-forms.  On  the 
surface  of  a  gathering  which  was  being  decanted,  T  was  able  to 
descry,  with  the  help  of  a  Coddington  lens  and  a  ray  of  direct 
sunlight,  quite  a  miniature  world  of  micro-Hora  and  fauna, 
among  which  there  turned  out  to  be  numbers  of  TpsspJlavia 
ccenobia  of  varying  sizes  but  all  small. 

Incertce  sedis. 
Genus  Xanthodiscus  Schew. 
Xanthodiscus  Lauterbachi  Schew.  (PI.  Ivi.,  f.5,  6). 
Schewiakow,  Geogr.  Verbreit.  d.  Siisswasserprotozoen,  Mem. 
Acad.  sc.  de  St.  Petersbourg,  Ser.  7,  T.  xli.,  1893.  A  rare 
flagellate,  about  whose  position  and  characteristics  there  seems 
to  be  some  uncertainty.  Wille,  Conj.  und  Chlorph.,  p. 21  (in 
Engler  k,  Prantl,  Die  naturlichen  Pflanzenfamilien)  has  placed  it 
as  a  doubtful  genus  of  the  Volvocacece,  relying,  apparently,  on  a 
certain  similarity  to  Ghhiinydomojias  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
cell-contents  (fig.7D,  E).  T  first  obtained  it  in  great  abundance 
out  of  M yriophylliinn  in  the  Orj^han  School  Creek,  near  Canley 
Vale  Railway-station  (March,  1909),  and  afterwards  from  Fair- 
field; I  have  noted  it  also  frOm  Gardener's  Road,  Botany.  Un- 
fortunately, the  disposition  of  the  contents  was  vague,  and  my 
lenses  at  that  time  not  good  enough  to  distinguish  any  details. 
My  recollection  is,  that  the  chromatophores  were  pale  yellow- 
green  (not  brown-green  as  described).  One  point,  however, 
which  is  quite  certain,  has  not  been  noted  either  in  the  figure  or 
description  (/.c),  viz.,  that  the  cell-wall  is  in  two  parts,  as  in 
Phacotns,  merely  agglutinated  together.  Tlie  organism  appeal's 
to  be  a  freshwater  survival  of  a  large  mai'ine  family  of  flagellates 
— the     Frorocentracece — distantly     related     to     the    Peridiniect, 


510  NEW  AND  RARK  FRPISHWATER  AhdM, 

Stein,  in  Naturg.  d.  Flagell.,  ii.,  T.  i.,  f. 27-38,  figures  it  as  Dino- 
pyxis  fcevis  Stein.  He  shows  a  pair  of  c.v.  in  front;  the  large 
posterior  globule,  he  considers  the  nucleus;  and  the  smaller  central 
bodies,  pyrenoids  (two  appear  in  his  figures).  Lemmermann, 
however,  Reise  n.d.  Pacific,  p.  361,  mentions  Dinopyxis  /cevis  as 
a  synonym  of  Exnviella  Lima  (Ehr.)  Schtitt,  {Crypfomonas  Lima 
Ehr.),  quoting  Schtitt,  G^^mnodiniacese,  p. 8,  fig. 9  (in  Engler  c^- 
Prantl,  I.e.).  Schewiakow's  genus  and  species,  therefore,  would 
seem  to  be  invalid.  As  a  freshwater  form,  it  is  kno^n  only 
from  Australia. 

CONJUGATE. 

Genus  S  p  i  r  o  g  y  r  a  Link. 
Spirogyra  Lismorensis  Playf. 
Biol.   Richm.  River,  p.28,  PI.  iii.,  f.  1.      Noted  also  from  the 
Nymboidia  River  (Grafton  Water-supply),  infertile.       It   seems, 
therefore,  to  be  a  plankton-form. 

Spirogyra  mirabilis  (Hass.)  Kutz.     (Text-fig. 4). 

Diam.  cell.  veg.  15-23,  alt.  230-245:  cell.fruct.  max.  25-42,  alt. 
180-190;  zygosp.  21-34,  alt.  44-93/x. 

Lismore  (308). 

Cf.  Petit,  Spir.  de  Paris,  p.  14,  PL  iii.,  f.3,  4;  Borge  (in  Pascher, 
Susswasserti.  Deutschl.)  Zygnemales,  p.21,  f.l7.  This  seems  to 
be  the  first  record  of  the  conjugation  of  Sp.  mirahilis,  as  Borge, 
I.e.,  1913,  says  ^'ICopulation  nicht  hekaimt''  The  vegetative  cells 
were  very  long,  10-16  times  the  diameter;  there  was  one  chloro- 
plast  making  3 J- 4  turns.  With  this  species  should  be  compared 
Sp.  Spreeiana  Rabh.  The  two  are  so  very  much  alike,  both  in 
characteristics  and  dimensions,  that,  in  spite  of  the  replicate  cell- 
ends  of  the  latter,  I  am  not  convinced  that  they  are  distinct 
species.  Moreover,  Hirn,  Finlandischen  Zygnemaceen,  p.ll,  f.4, 
in  Sp.  kuusamo'ensifi  (  =  a  more  slender  form  of  Sj^.  Sjyyeeiana) 
and  in  /Sp.  Spreeia7ia  itself.  I.e.,  p.  12,  f.5,  shows  both  simple  and 
replicate  septa  in  the  same  filament.  So  also  Borge,  in  Spirogyra 
spp.,    Sibiriens  Chloroph.,  p.  8,    f.  2,  3  {  =  Sp.   SpreeAana  stouter 


BY  G.  T.   PLAYFAIR. 


511 


form.      For  convenience  of  comparison,  T   append  a  Table  of  the 


Text-fig.  4. 
Sipirotjyra  mirahilis  (Hass. )  Kiitz  ;  (a)  conjugated  cells  (  x  330);  {h,  r)  two 
sizes  of  zj'gospore,  {h   x  660,  c  x  500);  {d)  form  with  broader  filaments 
and  larger,  more  slender  zygospore,  (  x  330), 

dimensions  of  all   these  forms;    in  the  characters  of   the  cells, 
chloroplasts,  and  zygospores  tiiey  are  all  one. 


Diam. 

Zygo. 

cell.  veg. 

cell,  fruct. 

diam. 

alt. 

.S^.  mirahilis 

18-27 

•  —42 

24-29 

U-2plo. 

aplanc 

Ours           

15-23 

25-42 

21-34 

{ 

44-93 

2-3  plo. 

Sp.  Spreeiana        \ 

18-24 

30-42 

30-36 

2-3  plo. 

(Borge,  Zygnem.)i 

Sp.  kunsamoensis... 

13-17 

25-40 

23-33 

45-75 

2-3  plo. 

Spirogyra  spp. .      \ 

26-31 

•'.  40-48 

.30-46 

( 

07-118 

Borge         J 

I 

2.^  plo. 

Let   Sp.  kuusamoensis  be  united   with  Sp.  Spreeiana,  and  ou] 


512  NEW  AND   RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGiE, 

specimens  agree  perfectly  with  them  in  all  points,  as  well  as  with 
Sp.  mirabilis. 

SpiROGVRA  NEGLECTA  (Hass.)  Klltz.      (PI.  Iviii.,  f.l  13). 

A. — Cell.  veg.  diam.  46-57,  alt.  53-360;  cell,  fruct.  diam.  ad 
dissep.  46-57,  ad  inflation.  65-68,  alt.  42-125/^.  Zygospora^  ut 
sequitur: — 

a.  Zygo.  late  ovales,  long.  52-66,  lat.  42-49//.     (PI.  Iviii.,  f.3). 

h.  Zygo.  longiiis  ovales,  long.  64-74,  lat.  45-51/j(..    (PI.  Iviii.,  f.4). 

c.  Zygo.  elliptic^,  long.  78-91,  lat.  46-51/x.      (PI.  Iviii.,  f.5). 

cL  Zygo.  oblongse,  long.  75-80,  lat.  45-51/x.      (PI.  Iviii.,  f.6). 
Lismore  (353). 

Cf.  Petit,  Spirog.  d.  Paris,  p. 26,  PL  ix.,  f.l -5;  Borge,  Zygne- 
males,  p. 2 9,  f.3 6.  In  the  very  short  cells,  there  are  generally  3 
chloroplasts  making  1  turn:  in  the  long  cells,  3-5  chloroplasts 
making  2-3  turns.  Three  forms  of  chloroplast  also  were  noted 
intermixed;  all,  however,  had  the  central  ridge,  which  is  said  to 
be  characteristic  of  the  species: — 

(1).  As  in  Petit,  /.c,  a  narrow  delicate  band  with  minutely 
irregular  edges,  and  very  small,  almost  indistinguishable,  pyre- 
noids.  Only  noted  in  uncopulated  cells  of  fertile  filaments. 
(PI.  Iviii.,  f.7,  8). 

(2).  A  very  delicate  band  with  finely  fimbriated  edges;  also 
with  very  minute  pyrenoids.      (PI.  Iviii.,  f.9,  10). 

(3).  A  more  robust  band  with  edges  irregularly  scalloped,  not 
fimbriated,  and  with  large,  distinct  pyrenoids.    (PI.  Iviii.,  f.  1 M3). 

Four  distinct  shapes  of  zygospore  were  noted  in  this  one 
sample,  and,  in  such  profusion,  as  to  be  all  present  under  the 
cover-glass  at  one  time.  Inflated  sporangial  cells,  and  uninflated, 
were  noted  in  the  same  conjugated  filament  (PI.  Iviii.,  f.l,  2). 

B. — Cellular  vegetativse  paullo  crassiores  ;  zygosporis  paullo 
majoribus;  chloroplastidibus  tenuibus  laciniatis. 

Cell.  veg.  diam.  62-64,  alt.  70-120;  zygo.  long.  94-100,  lat. 
52-56/x.  Lismore  (297). 

A  broader  specimen  than  usual,  with  slightly  larger  zygospores. 
In  gatherings  of  Sp.  neglecta  there  may  generally  be  noted  a  few 


BY  G.  T.   PLAYFAIR.  513 

filaments  of  Sp.  nitida,  easily  (listingiiishecl  l)v  their  greater 
l)i-eadth:— diam.  cell.  veg.  95-116,  alt.  84-360;  3-5  ehloroplasts 
making  '!-?>  turns,  edges  scalloped,  a  central  ridge  evident  here 
and  there,  large  pyrenoids  6-10  to  the  half  tuiii.  (Lismore,  352, 
353,  358).  It  is  not  unlikely  that  they  really  form  one  species. 
Sj).  FulJebonnl  8chm.,  Alg.  aus  Nyassasee,  p. 76,  T.  iii.,  f.2  (fil. 
diam.  40-42,  zygo.  64-80  x  40//)  seems  to  me  a  somewliat  narrower 
form  of  Sj).  neglecta. 

Var.  AMYLACEA,  n.var.  (PI.  Iviii.,  f.  14-1 6). 

Oelluhe  vegetativte  chloroplastidibus  amvlo  suflusis,  in  granula 
fractis;  pyrenoidibus  maximis,  granulosis. 

Cell.  veg.  diam.  46  54,  alt.  60-260:  zygo.  long.  74-90,  lat.  48-50//.. 

Lismore  (271). 

In  this  form,  the  chloroplasts  have  become  impregnated  with 
amylum,  and  have  broken  up  into  minute  irregulrir  gi-ains.  The 
central  ridge,  however,  is  generally  still  noticeable,  and  the 
pyrenoids  are  very  large  (up  to  10-1 2/x),  and  gr^-nular  as  in 
Closterium  hinula.  The  whole  of  this  gathering  was  of  the  same 
character.  The  zygospores  present  were  long-elliptic  with 
pointed  ends,  lying  diagonally  in  short  oblong  cells  which  were 
not  inflated  (as  in  PI.  Iviii.,  f.  1).  Probably,  however,  all  the 
various  forms  of  zygospore  detailed  above  for  the  type  will  be 
found  also  in  this  variation.  Chloroplasts  2-3,  making  1|  to  3| 
turns  in  the  cell. 

Genus  Mougp]otia  (Ag.)  Wittr. 
MouGEOTiA  L^TEViRENS  (A.Br.)  Wittr.  (Text-fig. 5). 

Cell.  veg.  diam.  27-44,  alt.  255-408;  zygo.  long.  61-63,  lat.  42-53//. 

Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney  (158);  Lismore  (328,  332). 

Cf.  Borge,  Zygnemales,  p.40,  f.62.  In  our  specimens,  the 
chloroplasts  generally  have  a  large  number  of  p3^renoids,  either 
irregularly  scattered  or  arranged  in  two  lines  at  the  edges.  This 
is  the  only  species  of  Mougeotia,  as  fai-  as  I  know,  in  which  this 
occurs.  The  pyrenoids  are  sometimes  compai'ati\'ely  small  (2-4/x) 
but  occasionally  very  large,  diam.  10//.     The  contents  of  the  cyst 

39 


14 


NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^, 


are  generally  retracted  into  an  oval  (53  x  32/x),  oblong  (53  x  4:2/x) 
or  more  rarely  globular  (diam.  42/x)  zygospore. 


Text-fig.  5. 
Mougeotia  Icetevirens  (A.Br.)  Wittr. ;  (a)  conjugating  filaments  with  unusu- 
ally large  pyrenoids;  {h,  c,  d,  e)  types  of  zygospores;  (all  x  330). 

CHLOROPHYCE^. 
Fam.  VOLVOCACE^. 
Genus  C  a  r  t  e  r  i  a  Diesing. 
Carteria  rugulosa,  n.sp.      (PI.  Iv.,  f.l^  2). 
Cellulse  reniformes,   in  fronte    acuminatse,   a    tergo    concavse, 
angulis  posterioribus  rotundatis.     A  vertice  late  ellipticse.     Meni- 
brana  paullo  rufescens,  jugis  granulatis  convergentibus  12,  longi- 
tudinaliter    dispositis,    ornata.        Cytoplasma    retracto    gioboso, 
stigmate  juxta  apicem. 
Long.  17,  lat.  23,  crass,  17/x.  Lismore(311,  312). 

A  most  curious  form,  noted  in  some  numbers.  The  cell- wall 
is  much  larger  than  the  mass  of  cytoplasm,  and  is  reniform  or 
rather  broadly  obcordate  in  shape,  with  12  coarse  longitudinal 
ridges  bearing  a  series  of  granules.  The  ridges  converge  to  a 
point  in  front  and  behind.      The  cell-wall  was  rufescent,  and  the 


BY  G.  I.  PLAYFAIR.  515 

arrangement  of  the  chloroplasts  could  not  be  discerned;  a  distinct 
stigma  near  the  apex  was  noted,  but  no  pyrenoid. 

Var.  ANGULATA,  n.var.       (PI.  Iv.,  f.3). 

Forma  ad  apicem  depressa,  in  medio  depressione  papilla  in- 
structa;  lateribus  inferne  paullo  angulatis;  ceteris  ut  in  forma 
typica. 

Long.  17,  lat.  23/jt,  Lismore.     Cum  pi-iori. 

A  cup-shaped  depression  with  central  papilla  replaces  the 
pointed  apex  of  the  type.  The  sides  run  back  to  a  slight  angle 
in  the  hinder  portion. 

Var.  IN.EQUALIS,  n.var.       (PI.  Iv.,  f.4). 

Forma  major,  ovata,  in  fronte  acuminata,  a  tergo  late-rotund- 
ata.      Membrana  luteo-fuscescens:  ceteris  ut  in  forma  typica. 

Long.  30,  lat.  21-25J/X.  Lismore.     Cum  priori. 

In  all  specimens  of  this  form  there  was  a  minute  projection  at 
one  side  of  the  apex.  Undoubtedly,  I  think,  this  variation  is 
produced  by  uneven  growth,  only  one  lobe  of  the  cell-wall  devel- 
oping; the  small  subapical  projection  is  the  remains  of  the  un- 
developed lobe. 

Carteria  multifilis  (Fresen.)  Dill.  (PL  Iv.,  f.5,  6). 

Cellulse  parviB  sph^ericse;  membrana  tenuissima  vel  interdum 
crassa;  papilla  nulla  nee  cytoplasmatis  projectione;  chloroplastide 
crasso  parietali;  pyrenoidi  in  media  cellula. 

Diam.  cell.  8-11;  pyrenoid.  3/^.  Lismore  (345). 

Cf.  Fresenius,  Beitr.  z.  Kenntn.  mikrosk.  Organism.,  Abh.  d. 
Senckenb.  Gesells.,  1856,  p.235.  Goroshankin,  Morph.  u.  System, 
d.  Chlamyd.,  ii.,  1891,  p.  120,  reproduces  Fresenius'  original  de- 
scription of  the  type,  the  chief  points  of  which  are: — cell  spher- 
ical or  oval,  length  10-16/x,  pyrenoid  in  the  centre  of  the  cell, 
cytoplasm  minutely  granular,  stigma  between  the  apex  and  the 
middle,  membrane  very  delicate,  close-fitting. 

I  have  not  seen  Fresenius'  figure  of  the  type,  but  our  specimens 
seem  to  me  in  some  respects  to  tally  with  his  description  better 
than  other  published  figures,  and  specially  in  this,  that  they  have 


516  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGvE, 

a  massive  parietal  chloroplast  with  a  central  globular  locellus  in 
which  the  pyrenoid  (when  present)  is  situated.*  Excellent 
figures  are  given  by  Goroshankin,  I.e.,  PL  ii.,  f.l4,  and  by  G.  S. 
West,  Br.  Frw.  Alg.,  p.  18 8,  f.73A,  B,  but  in  each  case  the 
pyrenoid  is  eccentric.  Fresenius  says  '■'■In  der  Mitte  p'ln  scharf 
umschriehener  Kern.^'  Ours,  on  the  other  hand,  are  smaller, 
(Rabenhorst,  however,  rejDorts  specimens  of  6-8/x  diam.)  quite 
spherical  and  without  any  apical  protuberance.  The  cell-wall, 
generally  very  thin,  is  sometimes  stratified.  This  species,  con- 
sidered the  most  common  in  Europe,  is  very  rare  here,  in  my 
experience.  I  obtained  it  (the  only  time)  from  two  local  ponds 
in  October,  1917,  after  the  spring  rains,  in  some  quantity- 
Though  I  had  assiduously  worked  these  pools  for  five  years  pre- 
viously, I  had  never  seen  a  sign  of  it  before,  nor  have  I  noted  it 
since  from  either. 

Carteria  bullulina,  nom.nov. 
Syn.,  Carteria  multifilis,  forma,  Australian  Frw.  Phytoplankt., 
these  Proceedings,  1917,  p. 824,  PL  Ivi.,  f.1-4.  The  expression 
"closely  fitting  membrane"  {dicht  anliegenden  Hant)  in  Frese- 
nius' description  of  C.  imdtifilis  rules  out  this  form  from  any 
connection  with  the  latter.  My  description.  I.e.,  applies  to  the 
cell-membrane  ;  the  mass  of  cytoplasm  is  much  smaller  and 
attachea  at  the  apex  (fig.l).  The  details  of  the  chloroplast,  I 
have  not  yet  noted. 

Carteria  granulosa,  n.sp.         (PL  Iv.,  f.7,  8). 

Cellula  compressa,  fronte  visa  psene  circulata,  superne  fissura 
obliqua  instructa;  a  latere  valde  compressa,  superne  in  cornua 
duo  divisa,  cornibus  evolutis.  Membrana  rufescens,  granulosa. 
Cytoplasma  retractum,  ad  cellulse  apicem  affixum,  a  latere  com- 
pressum.      Pyrenoidis  nulla  nee  stigma  (in  speciminibus  notatis). 

Long.  31|,  lat.  29|,  crass,  10/x.  Lismore. 

A  compressed  form,  with  granulate  cell-wall.  Above,  the  cell- 
wall  is  divided  into  two   rounded  overlapping  heads   by  a  deep 

*  When  the  pyrenoid,  as  in  this  ease  and  manj'  others  that  I  have 
noticed,  is.  central,  it  would  seem  to  enclose  the  nucleus. 


ftT  G.  I.  PLAT  FAIR.  517 

oblique  cleft.  In  sideview,  both  cell-wall  and  green  cell  are  seen 
to  be  compressed,  the  cell-wall  cleft  above  and  the  two  heads 
turned  outwards.  No  pyrenoid  in  the  specimens  observed. 
Nucleus  and  stigma  not  visible,  the  membrane  strongly  rufescent. 

Genus  C  h  l  a  m  y  d  o  m  o  n  a  s  Ehr. 
Chlamydomonas  reniformis,  n.sp.         (PL  Iv.,  f.  9,  10). 

Cellula  compressa;  fronte  visa  reniformis  ubique  rotundata, 
pone  indentata.  A  latere  compressa,  ovalis  vel  ovata.  Membrana 
tenuissima  glabra,  cytoplasmati  arete  adhaerens.  Pyrenoidis 
nulla  nee  stigma  (in  specimine  notato). 

Diam.  10^,  alt.  8-|//..  Lismore  (312). 

A  very  curious  form,  of  which  I  saw  but  one  specimen.  It 
ver}^  much  resembles  Garteria  rugulosa,  and  might  possibly  be  a 
young  form  of  that  species.  The  flagella  (2)  were  very  distinct 
and  unusually  thick.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cell-wall  is  closely 
adherent  to  the  cytoplasm,  perfectly  smooth  and  hyaline. 
Chlamydomonas  Lismorensis  v.  gracilis,  n.var.       (Pl.lv.,  f.ll). 

Cellula  anguste  cylindracea,  pone  rotundata,  fronte  conica, 
lateribus  parallelis.  Chloroplastis  parietalis ;  pyrenoid e  nulla 
visa;  stigmate  distincto  inter  apicem  et  medium  posito;  granulis 
paucis  juxta  apicem. 

Long.  9J,  lat  2J/x.  Lismore  (345). 

The  type  (these  Proceedings,  1917,  p.827,  PI.  Ivi.,  f.l8)  is  ob- 
long-cylindrical with  rounded  ends,  and  proportionately  broader. 
This  form  is  narrower,  and  conical  in  front.  Chloroplast  bright 
green,  homogeneous,  parietal;  no  pyrenoid  seen;  stigma  wick- 
shaped,  very  distinct,  halfway  between  the  apex  and  the  middle. 

Chlamydomoxas  rotula,  n.sp.  (PI.  Iv.,  f.  12). 

Cellula  oblonga  (vel  globosa  ?)  ubique  rotundata;  in  media 
cellula  pyrenoide  magna;  chloroplastide  in  discos  teiiues  parietales 
multos  diviso,  discis  singulis  ad  pyrenoidem  taenia  chlorophyllacea 
connectis;  stigmate  nullo  viso. 

Long.  19-21,  lat.  15;  pyrenoid.  6/y..  Lismore  (345). 

Easily  recognised  by  reason  of  the  extraordinary  disposition  of 


518  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGM, 

the  endochrome.  The  chloroplast  is  broken  up  into  a  number  of 
very  delicate  parietal  discs,  each  connected  with  the  large  central 
pyrenoid  by  a  filament  narrowing  from  without  inwards.  There 
are  about  seven  discs  visible  round  the  margin  in  optical  section. 
C£.  Chi.  stellata  Dill,  Gatt.  Chlamyd.,  p.l7,  T.  v.,  f.31-36;  Wille, 
Alg.  Notizen  ix.-xiv.,  p.  134,  T.  iv.,  f.4.  The  latter,  however,  has 
a  massive  chloroplast,  and  differs  considerably  in  appearance. 
Chi.  rotida  also  has  a  papilla  or  apical  protuberance.  A  Glmo- 
cystis-stage  was  noted,  eight  cells  in  a  mucous  sphere;  the  cells 
were  in  every  respect  the  same  as  the  zoospore.  I  have  given 
this  species  the  name  '^rohda,"  as  1  have  my  suspicions  that 
Oocystis  rotula  Playf.,  is  a  young  Gloeocystis-^tagQ  of  it. 

Chlamydomonas  alpina  (Wille)  mihi.  (PI.  Iv.,  f.l3). 

Chloromonas  alpina  Wille,  Alg.  Notizen  ix.-xiv.,  p.  152,  T.  iii., 
f.24-34. 

Cell.  long.  10 J,  lat.  7/x.  Lismore. 

Noted  both  with  and  without  a  pyrenoid,  the  latter  situated 
close  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  cell.  The  chloroplast-discs  are 
about  2-3/x  in  diameter.  Two  c.v.  observed,  and  an  oval  orange- 
coloured  stigma  in  the  middle  of  the  cell  (near  the  apex  in  the 
type).  In  the  specimen  measured,  the  Hagella  were  very  long, 
quite  twice  the  length  of  the  cell,  but  I  did  not  notice  if  they 
were  so  in  every  instance.  Noted  in  winter,  among  fungoid 
growth  on  a  rotten  stick  in  swamp-water. 

Chlamydomonas  caudata  Wille.      (Pl.lv.,  f.l4). 

Algologische  Notizen  ix.-xiv.,  p.  135,  T.  iii.,  f.4-11.  The  only 
tailed  species  of  Chlamydomonas;  it  is  impossible  to  make  any 
mistake  in  the  identification.  Yet  there  was  not  a  trace  of  n 
pyrenoid,  though  the  body  was  very  transparent,  and  the  nucleus 
distinctly  visible.      Stigma  wanting. 

Cell.  long.  30,  lat.  18;  corp.  long.  20,  lat.  12//.     Lismore  (344). 

Chlamydomonas  maculata,  n.sp.      (PI.  Iv.,  f.  15-17). 
Cellulse  sphaericie,  papilla  nulla   nee   projectione  apicali;  mem- 
brana    crassa    interdum    lamellosa ;     vacuolis    contractilibus    2  ; 
stigmate  distincto,  hemisphserico,  luteo-fusco,  paullo  supra  medium 


BY  G.  I.  PLAYFAli?.  519 

posito;  niicleo  in  media  cellula.  Chloroplastide  valida  parietali, 
inaculata  (superficie  externa  scrobiculata);  pyrenoide  plerumque 
nulla  (in  speciminibns  notatis). 

Diam.  15-25;  membr.  2-4;  cell,  matric.  40,  aiitosp.  11-13//. 

Lismore  (345,  350). 

Compare  Chi.  subcaudata  Wille,  Alg.  Notizen  ix.-xiv.,  p.  11 8, 
T.  iii.,  f.  12-1 8;  W.  &  G.  S.  AVest,  Frw.  Alg.  Brit.  Antarct.  Exp., 
p.274,  PI.  xxiv.,  f.25-29.  Generall}^  spherical  without  apical 
projection;  membrane  thick,  sometimes  lamellar  in  two  layers. 
It  is  distinguished  from  Chi.  glohulosa  Perty,  by  the  massive 
parietal  chloroplast  evenly  distributed  round  the  cell-wall  except, 
of  course,  at  the  apex,  and  particularly  by  the  fact  that  the  outer 
surface  of  the  chloroplast  is  pitted,  giving  it  a  spotted  appear- 
ance all  over.  The  central  locellus  is  globular.  Nucleus  central; 
stigma  orange-coloured,  a  little  above  the  middle  ;  pyrenoid 
generally  wanting.  A  mother-cell,  however,  was  noted,  contain- 
ing four  autospores,  of  which  one  had  a  distinct  pyrenoid;  in  two 
others,  it  was  faintly  indicated,  and,  in  the  fourth,  it  was  entirely 
absent. 

Var.  OBLONGA,  n.var.       (PI  Iv.,  f.l8), 
Cellul*  oblongi^;  ceteris  ut  in  forma  typica. 
Long  16,  lat.  13|-/>t.  Lismore  (350). 

Var.  PLANKTONICA,  n.var.       (PL  Iv.,  f.l9). 

Celluhe  oblongje,  interdum  apicem  versus  modice  angustatse; 
humili  projectione  apicali  instructye,  membrana  tenuissima  arete 
adh^rente;  stigmate  nuUo  nee  pyrenoidi  (in  speciminibus  notatis); 
ceteris  ut  in  forma  typica. 

Long.  20-26,  lat.  13-17/x.  Lismore  (347). 

This  form  has  the  same  parietal  chloroplast  with  scrobicula? 
on  the  outer  surface,  but  the  membrane  is  very  thin;  there  is  a 
slight  apical  protuberance,  and,  in  specimens  observed,  the  stigma 
and  pyrenoid  were  absent. 

Chlamydomonas  metastigma  Stein.       (PI.  Iv.,  f.20). 
Forma  stigmate  luteo-fusco,  bacillari,  subapicali. 
Long.  26,  lat.  13/x.  Lismore  (327). 


520  NEW  AND   RAIiE  fRESHWATER  ALG/£, 

Cf.  Stein,  Natiirg.  d.  Flagell.,  i.,  T.  xv,,  f.46  :  Gorushankiii, 
Morpb.  11.  System,  d.  Chlamyd.^  ii.,  p. 131,  PL  iii.,  f.26:  Wille, 
Alg.  iS'otizen  ix.-xiv.,  p.  146,  T.  iv.,  f.22.  Goroshankins  figure 
(reproduced  by  Wille)  differs  from  the  type  in  being  a  short  oval: 
whereas  Stein's  figure  is  a  long  oval,  subcylindrical.  Our  speci- 
mens agree  with  the  type  in  outline  and  in  proportions  (Steiiis 
figure  works  out  at  20  x  11/x),  but  differs  in  the  position  of  the 
stigma,  which  is  near  the  end  in  the  type,  but  subapical  in  ours. 
Goroshankin  makes  it  hemispherical,  here  it  was  wick-shaped. 
The  upper  pyrenoid  was  laterally  disposed,  and  perhaps  was 
geminate,  or  becoming  so;  Goroshankin  notes  the  occuri'ence  of 
two  pyrenoid s  in  front. 

Chlamydomonas  paupercula,  n.sp.      (PL  Iv.,  f.21,  22). 

Cellulae  longo-ovata?,  subelliptica?,  in  medio  latissimte,  pone 
paullo  angustatsB,  fronte  conicae;  apice  obtuso  paullo  producto; 
membrana  tenuissima  inconspicua  arete  adhterente;  chloroplastide 
crassa  parietali,  granulis  sparsis  superficie  exteriore  vel  interiore 
dispositis;  stigmate  nullo  nee  pyrenoidi  (in  speciminibus  uotatis). 

Long.  14-17,  lat.  6-8//.  Lismore. 

In  shape  and  size,  very  like  Chi.  alboviridis  Stein,  Naturg.  d. 
Flagell.,  i.,  T.  xiv.,  Abt.  vi.,  f,l,  2,  21;  (figures  1,  2  work  out  at 
26  X  13//,  fig. 21  at  17  X  8/x).  The  cell  is  elliptic,  conical  in  front, 
the  apex  obtuse  and  slightly  produced;  membrane  very  thin. 
The  chloroplast  is  massive  and  parietal,  with  scattered  granules 
sometimes  on  the  outer  surface,  sometimes  on  the  inner.  Though 
viewed  with  the  yV  obj.,  the  nucleus  was  not  discernible;  pyre- 
noid and  stigma  absent. 

Chlamydomonas  pusilla,  n.sp.       (PL  Iv.,  f.23). 

Cellula3  ovata?,  ubique  rotundatJie;  apice  obtuso  baud  producto; 
membrana  tenuissima,  inconspicua,  arete  adhjerente;  chloroplast- 
ide crassa,  parietali;  intus  granulata;  nucleo  in  media  cellula; 
stigmate  mediano;  pyrenoidi  nullo  viso. 

Long.  30,  lat.  20//.  Lismore  (350). 

Cell  broadly  ovate,  rounded  off"  everywhere,  obtuse  in  front 
and  without  projection.      Chloroplast  massive,  parietal,  granulate 


ftY  G.  t.  PLAYFAItf.  621 

oil  the  inner  surface,  no  pyienoid  in  the  specimens  observed, 
stigma  median.  The  nearest  form  seems  to  be  Ghl.  media 
Klebs,  Beding.  d.  FortpHanz.,  p.425,  f.l2,  (Wille,  Alg.  Notizen 
ix.-xiv.,  p.  140,  T.  iv.,  f.ll)  which,  however,  is  more  pointed  in 
front,  and  has  a  siibapical  stigma  and  a  pyrenoid  at  the  side  in 
the  middle. 

Chlamydomoxas  angulosa  v.  obesa,  n.var.      (PI.  Iv.,  f.24). 

Cellulae  prje  latitudine  breviores,  crasste,  subglobosse;  de  singuHs 
rebus  ut  in  forma  typica. 

Long.  16,  lat.  14/jt.  Lismore  (350). 

Cf.  Dill,  Gatt.  Chlamyd.,  p.l5,  T.  v.,  f.21-25;  Wille,  I.e.,  p.l41, 
T.  iv.,  f.1.3.  Oiu"  form  agrees  in  all  details  with  Dill's  type,  but 
in  shape  it  is  subgiobose,  almost  subquadrate,  instead  of  oval. 
Dill's  figure  works  out  at  20  x  14/^.. 

Chlamydomonas  pisiFORMis  V.  ocELLATA,  n.var.      (PL  Iv.,  f.25). 

Cellulw  ambitu  formte  typical  consimiles;  chloroplastide  autem 
parietali;  in  media  cellula  locello  magno  pyrenoideiii  continente: 
stigmate  nullo  viso. 

Long,  17,  lat.  8i:  cell,  matric.  long.  25,  lat.  19//. 

Lismore  (350). 

Cf.  Dill,  I.e.,  p.l4,  T.  5,  f.  13-19:  Wille,  I.e.,  p.l3S,  T.  iv.,  f.  8. 
Only  noted  as  autospores,  2,  4,  8  to  the  mother-cell.  In  shape, 
they  agree  exactly  with  the  type,  even  to  the  slight  curve  to  one 
side,  and  the  apical  projection,  broad  from  the  front  and  wick- 
like from  the  side.  The  chloroplast,  however,  is  parietal,  and 
the  centre  of  the  cell  occupied  by  a  large  locellus  containing  a 
pyrenoid  (diam.  5/x).     No  stigma,  and  the  nucleus  not  discernible. 

Genus  C  h  l  o  r  o  (i  o  n  i  u  .-si  Ehr. 
Chlorogonium  minimum,  n.sp.  (Pl.lv.,  f.26). 
Cellula?  minutte,  gracillimae,  fusiforines,  pone  acutisshna^  froiite 
rostrat?e;  membrana  tenuissima,  arete  adhyerente;  chloroplastide 
tenuissima,  homogenea,  parietali;  in  media  cellula  locello  hyalino 
(hiucleum  contingente);  flageUis  2,  ex  apice  oblique  orientibus; 
stigmate  distincto,  bacilliformi,  subapicali;  pyrenoide  nulla. 


522  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGA, 

Long.  oO,  lat.  2-3/7..  Auburn;  Lismore  (350). 

A  minute  and  very  slender  species,  rostrate  in  front  and  \'ery 
acute  behind;  membrane  very  delicate.  Chloroplast  also  very 
delicate,  homogeneous,  parietal,  without  pyrenoids.  A  hyaline 
space,  probably  containing  the  nucleus,  in  the  centre  of  the  cell. 
Stigma  very  distinct,  wick-shaped,  some  distance  down  from  the 
apex.  Contractile  vacuoles  not  noted.  Flagella  2,  going  off  at 
right  angles  close  to  the  tip. 

Genus  Pteromonas  Seligo. 

PterOxMONAs  angulosa  v.  australis  Playf. 

Syn.,  Pt.  alata  v.  australis  Playf.,  Frw.  Alg.  Lismore,  p. 335, 
PI.  42,  f.l4.  Pt.  alata  Seligo,  is  a  synonym,  it  appears,  of  Pt. 
angulosa  (Carter)  Dang.,  {Cryptoglena  anyulosa  Carter,  Ann.  Nat. 
Hist.,  1859,  T.l,  f.l8a-6').  The  side-view  (PI.  Iv.,  f.28)  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  type  and  all  its  forms,  cf.  Chodat,  Alg.  vertes, 
p.  144,  fig. 68  E. 

Forma.  (PI.  Iv.,  f.27,  28). 

'  Membrana  a  tergo  incisa.     Long.  22J,  lat.  15/x.     Lismore(312). 

Var.  8CUTIF0RMIS,  n.var.  (PI.  Iv.,  f.29). 

Cellulie  membrana  oblonga,  fronte  paullo  angustata;  lateribus 
inferne  rectis,  levissime  convergentibus,  apicem  versus  incurvis; 
apice  levissime  concavo ;  augulis  posterioribus  rectis ;  basi  in 
medio  inllata. 

Long.  16,  lat.  11;  corp.  lat.  8/v..  Lismore  (344). 

The  enveloping  membrane  is  oblong,  with  straight  sides  con- 
\  erging  slightly,  and  drawn  together  in  front,  the  apex  a  little 
concave.  Lower  angles  square,  and  at  the  base  convex.  In  all 
these  forms  observed  here,  the  chloroj^lasts,  though  very  pale  and 
thin,  showed  the  characteristic  cup-shape.  No  stigma,  however, 
was  present,  nor  pyrenoid. 

Var.  VEXiLLiFORMis,  n.var.      (PI.  Iv.,  f.30). 
Cellulse  membrana   fere  quadrata;  lateribus   rectis,   parallelis: 
apice  piano;  angulis  superioribus  oblique  truncatis;  basi  convexa; 


6Y  G.  I.  PLAY  FAIR.  523 

angulis  inferioiibus  obtusis.  Pyrenoides  parvse  2,  pauUo  supra 
cellulam  mediam  ad  latera  disposit?e. 

Long.  20,  lat.  16,  crass.  <'^:  corp.  lat.  11//.  Lismore  (344). 

The  eavelope  is  quadrate  with  convex  base,  straight  parallel 
sides,  fiat  apex,  and  the  upper  angles  obliquely  truncate.  A 
specimen  was  noted  w  ith  two  small  pyrenoids,  on  either  side  one, 
a  little  above  the  centre  ot"  the  cell.  No  stigma  present.  For 
another  example  of  a  pyrenoid  on  each  side,  see  Chi.  longistigma 
Dill,  (Wille,  I.e.,  T.iv.,  f.21). 

Genus  Phacotus  Perty. 
Phacotus  crassus,  n.sp.  (PI.  Ivi.,  f.7,  8). 

Cellulae  fronte  visse  fere  circulat?e,  margine  aspera,  ad  apicem 
papilla  instructse;  a  latere  paullulo  compressa;,  oblongae,  lateribus 
arcuatis,  apicibus  late-rotundatis,  papilla  instructis.  Membrana 
crassa,  aspera.  Cytoplasma  in  globo  retractum,  densum,  crasse 
granulosum  ;  vacuolis  contractilibus  2  ;  stigmate  nullo  nee 
pyrenoidi. 

Long.  22,  lat.  19,  crass.  14/x.  Lismore  (311). 

Nearly  circular  in  face-view,  with  apical  papilla;  oblong  some- 
what compressed  from  the  side,  with  broadly  rounded  ends  and 
arched  sides.  The  membrane  is  thick,  and  rough  with  irregular 
asperities.  The  cytoplasm  is  retracted  into  a  globe  beneath  the 
apex,  contents  dense,  coarsely  granular,  two  contractile  vacuoles 
noted  but  no  stigma  or  pyrenoid. 

Phacotus  glaber,  n.sp.     (PL  Ivi.,  f.9,  10). 

Cellulai  fronte  visse  fere  circulate,  ad  apicem  concavie,  papilla 
instructse;  a  latere  modice  ovato-oblongse,  ad  apicem  truncatse,  a 
tergo  fere  hemisphiiericse,  lateribus  levissime  arcuatis.  Membrana 
crassa,  glabra,  dilute  rufescens.  Cytoplasma  in  globulo  parvo  ad 
apicem  retractum;  stigmate  nullo  nee  pyrenoidi. 

Long.  22,  lat.  21;  cytopl.  glob.  diam.  9^/x.  Lismore  (312). 

In  face-view,  nearly  circular  with  a  slight  concavity,  and  a 
papilla  at  the  apex;  ovate-oblong  from  the  side,  sides  slightly 
arched,  apex  truncate,  hemispherical  behind.     Membrane  smooth, 


524  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^t. 

thick,  slightly  coloured.      Green  cell   remarkably  small,  retracted 
to  the  apex:  no  stigma,  no  pyrenoid. 

Forma.  (PI.  Ivi.,  f.ll). 

Celluhe  fronte  A'is?e  liaiid  circiilatse  sed  modice  quadratae, 
iibique  rotundatse;  ad  apicem  qiiam  levissime  concavpe,  papilla 
nulla;  ceteris  ut  in  forma  typica. 

Long.  21,  lat.  19,  crass.  14:;  corp.  13/^.  Lismore  (312). 

Rather  rounded-quadrate  than  circular  in  face-view,  apex  very 
slightly  concave,  no  papilla;  other  details  as  in  the  type. 

Forma.  (PI.  Ivi.,  f.l2). 

Cellulye  ad  apicem  paullo  quadratai,  pone  circulat?e;  membrana 
crassa,  saturate  rufescente;  cytoplasmate  in  massa  ovata  retracto; 
chloroplastide  parietal!  intus  granulis  amylaceis  magnis  ornata; 
vacuolis  contractilibus  distinctis  2;  stigmate  mediano. 

Long.  21,  lat.  20;  corp.  long.  12,  lat.  10//.  Lismore  (345). 

In  shape,  intermediate  between  the  two  forms  (sicpra),  being 
broad  and  "shouldered"  above,  and  circular  below.  Membrane 
deeply  rufescent:  cytoplasm  retracted  into  a  small  ovate  mass; 
chloroplast  parietal,  granulate  on  the  inner  surface  with  large 
granules;  stigma  distinct,  median;  two  contractile  vacuoles  dis- 
tinctly visible.  These  details  are  very  rarely  observable  in 
PhacotnK. 

Phacotus  australis,  n.sp.      (PI.  Ivi.,  f.  13,  14). 

Cellulie  fronte  vis;e  fere  circulatfe,  ad  apicem  concaxie,  papilla 
insti-uctte;  a  latere  valde  compressse,  ellipticse,  apicibus  acute- 
I'otundatis.  Membrana  tenuis,  glabra,  dilutissime  rufescens. 
Cvtoplasma  in  massa  apicali  retractum,  a  latere  visum  com- 
pressum,  ovatum;  stigmate  nullo  nee  p^'renoidi. 

Long.  20,  lat.  21,  crass,  c.  8//.  Lismore  (350). 

Almost  circular  in  face-view  with  a  slight  apical  concavity  and 
papilla ;  from  the  side  very  compressed,  elliptic  with  acutely 
rounded  ends.  Membrane  thin,  smooth,  pale  biscuit-colour,  with 
a  matt  surface.  Cytoplasm  retracted,  compressed,  ovate,  in  side- 
view:  no  stigma  nor  pyrenoid. 


BY  G.  I.   PLAYFAIR.  525 

Genus  8  p  o  n  d  y  l  o  m  o  r  u  m   Ehr. 
Spondylomorum   quaternarium  Eh  J. 

Ehrenberg,  Beob,  zweier  generisch.  neuei'  Fornien  d.  Frilhlings- 
gewassers  bei  Berlin,  Monatsber.  d.  Berl,  Acad.  d.  Wissensch., 
1848.  CJ\  Stein,  /.c,  T.  xviii.,  f. 30-34.  8yn.,  EnrkiRia  cornuta 
W.  &  G.  S.  West,  Frw.  Alg.  Biuma,  p.L>28,  PL  xii.,  f.19-21:  Uva 
Casinoensis  Playf.,  Biol.  Richm.  R.,  p.l08,  PI.  ii.,  f.l3. 

This  flagellate  seems  to  be  very  little  known;  it  is  not  men- 
tioned either  by  Chodat  in  Alg.  vertesde  la  Suisse,  1902;  nor  by 
G.  S.  West  in  Br.  Frw.  Algae,  1904.  Lemmermann  reports  it 
from  a  single  locality  in  Sweden,  but  it  is  not  included  in  Bach- 
mann's  Das  Phytoplankton  des  Siisswassers,  1911.  In  my  former 
paper,  I  had  not  the  assistance  of  Stein's  excellent  illustrations; 
also  the  figure  and  description  of  this  organism  published  in  the 
Micrographic  Dictionary,  p.721,  PI. 3,  f.23,  are  entirely  incorrect 
and  misleading.  The  figure  here  given  agrees  almost  exactly 
with  that  by  Stein,  I.e.,  f.30,  save  that  the  stigma  is  above,  not 
below%  the  centre. 

The  coenobia  are  generally  oblong,  consisting  of  rings  of  four 
cells,  arranged  one  above  another.  They  easily  break  up  either 
longitudinally  or  transversely;  in  the  latter  case,  the  resulting 
coenobia  are  often  hemispherical  or  rosette-shaped.  The  cells, 
originally  globose,  very  soon  become  broadly  oval  or  ovate;  the 
hiembrane  is  very  delicate,  and,  by  reason  of  their  very  rapid 
movement  through  the  water,  it  is  generally  drawn  out  at  the 
back  into  a  short  pointed  sac,  at  first  very  indistinctly  outlined. 
Later,  however,  it  becomes  stouter  and  more  evident.  The  chlo- 
roplast  is  cup-shaped,  generally  without  a  pyrenoid;  there  is  a 
central  nucleus,  two  apical  contractile  vacuoles,  and  a  stigma, 
median  or  a  little  above  or  below  the  midline.  The  internal 
details,  however,  are  not  easily  seen,  as  the  cytoplasm  is  gener- 
ally very  dense.  In  a  zooid  which  became  detached  from  a 
coenobium,  I  was  able  to  see  distinctly  that  there  are  two  un- 
usually long  apical  flagella.  Noted  from  at  least  four  different 
spots  round  Lismore. 

Ccenob.  long.  28-40,  lat.  22-27:  cell.  long.  10-20,  lat.  6-12/x. 


526  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^, 

Merrylands  (8ydney) ;  Casino  (189):  Lismore  (237.  246,  307, 
344). 

Yar.  ROSTRATUM,  n.var.      (PI.  Ivi.,  f.l6,  17). 

Cellulse  plerumque  4-8  in  fascina  conjunctse,  t'ronte  globosoe, 
pone  in  rostrum  acutum  levissime  curvatum  productae.  Cum 
forma  typica  atque  ejusdem  dimensionis. 

Coenobia  generally  small,  with  a  few  cells  in  a  bunch  or  rosette; 
cells  globose  in  front,  and  behind  drawn  out  into  a  sharp-pointed 
slightly  curved  beak;  cytoplasm  and  chloroplast  filling  the  whole 
cell,  only  the  tip  hyaline.      Generally  no  pyrenoid  or  stigma. 

Genus  Volvulina  Playf . 
VoLvuLiNA  Steinii  Playf.  (PI.  Ivi.,  f.l8). 

Coenob.  diam.  70,  cell.  diam.  15,  alt.  12/a.  Lismore  (350). 

In  a  coenobium  of  the  type  with  very  transparent  pale  green 
cells,  a  minute  central  nucleus  could  be  observed.  The  flagella 
originated  close  together,  and,  at  their  base,  two  contractile 
vacuoles,  as  in  8tein,  I.e.  In  some  cells,  a  large  orange-coloured 
stigma  on  the  margin  in  front.  The  inv^esting  membrane  of  the 
coenobium,  as  usual,  very  delicate,  and  the  cells,  which  were 
nearly  spherical,  were  pressed  close  against  it. 

Genus  V  o  l  v  o  x  Linn. 
VoLvox  AUREUS  var.  HEMisPHiERicus,  u.var.     (PL  Ivi.,  f.l9,  20). 

Coenobium  rauco  investiente  tenui;  cellulis  vertice  visis  circu- 
latis,  diametro  inter  se  distantibus;  a  latere  plus  minusve  hemi- 
sphsericis,  basi  plana.  Cytoplasma  granulis  magnis  amylaceis 
singulis  instructum,  stigmate  ad  marginem;  vacuolis  contractili- 
bus  3  circa  marginem;  pyrenoidi  nulla. 

Cell.  diam.  ^-^|x.         Lismore  (311,  328). 

The  investing  mucus  of  the  coenobium  very  thin,  cells  quite 
close  to  the  edge.  From  above,  the  latter  are  circular,  about 
one  diameter  apart,  with  a  large  amylaceous  granule  towards  the 
centre,  stigma  at  the  margin,  and  three  contractile  vacuoles  at 
intervals  round  the  circumference.  In  side-view,  the  cells  are 
more  or  less  hemispherical,  with  a  flat  face  closely  adpressed  to 


BY  G.   I.  PLAYFAIR.  527 

the  investing  mucus.  The  connecting  filament  arises  at  the 
angle.  Tn  the  shape  of  the  cells,  this  form  i-ecalls  VolvuHna 
Steinii,  which  also  has,  sometimes,  a  series  of  c.v.  i-ound  the 
circumference. 

VoLvox  Carteri  stein.     (PI.  Ivi.,  f.21,  22). 

Coenob.  diam.  ad  900;  cell.  diam.  4-5,  inter  se  distant.  7-10; 
zygo.  immat.  diam.  44-46,  matur.  ad  60/j-. 

Lismore  (311,  327,  328). 

Cf.  Carter,  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Ser.  2,  Vol.  iii.  1  have  not 
access,  unfortunately,  either  to  Carter's  paper  or  to  that  of  Stein 
(the  species  is  not  mentioned  in  his  Naturg.  d.  FlagelL);  but 
Lemmermann,  Das  Plankton  schwedischer  Gewasser,  p.  105,  in 
one  of  his  very  useful  little  reviews  of  various  genera,  gives  the 
name,  with  the  remark  that  the  zygotes  "are  said  to  possess  an 
undulate  membrane."  By  this  character,  I  was  able  to  recognise 
the  species.  The  ccenobium  is  like  that  of  V.  tertius  Meyer,  with 
globular  cells  which,  even  under  the  yV  obj.,  show  no  signs  of 
connecting  filaments.  It  is  the  immature  zygote  which  has  an 
undulate  membrane  (cell.  diam.  31-33,  lat.  max.  44-46/>t);  when 
mature,  the  undulations  have  been  produced  into  stout,  slightly 
curved  spines  (cell.  diam.  36-37,  lat.  max.  53-60/x).  Several  dozen 
zygotes  in  the  ccenobium.  I  have  the  species  from  two  places  at 
Lismore;  it  would  appear  to  be  the  first  time  that  this  Volvox 
has  been  recorded  since  Carter  discovered  it  in  India,  fifty  years, 
or  so,  ago. 

Fam.  PLEUROCOCCACE.E. 

Genus  Elakatothrix  Wille. 

Elakatothrix  gelatinosa  Wille.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.l,  2). 

Cell.  long.  15,  lat.  3/x.  Sj^dney  Water-supply  (100). 

Cf.  Wille,  Conj.  u.  Chloroph.,  p.38,  fig.l8A-E  ;    W.  k  G.   S. 

West,  Phytoplankton  Eng.  Lake  Distr.  (Naturalist,  1909),  p. 291, 

f.6.      A  ccenobium   of  four  lately-divided   cells   (8  x  2/jt),   and  a 

single  full-grown  cell  (15  x  3//.)  noted  in  the  filtrates  of  the  Sydney 

Water-supply.     This  organism  bears  a  suspicious  resemblance  to 

Spirotcenia  acuta  Hilse  {see  W.  k  G.  S.  West,  Brit.  Desm.,  i.,  PI, 


528 


NEW  AND  RARK  FRESHWATER  ALG.E, 


iii.,  f.  14,  15).      Known  liitherto  only  from  Norwegian  and  English 
lakes. 

Genus  D  a  c  t  y  l  o  t  h  e  c  e  Lagerh. 
Dactylothece  arcuatum,  n.sp.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.:3,  4). 

Cellulfe  sparsie  in  muco  amorpho  involutse;  fronte  visie  lineari- 
ellipticie,  quam  levissime  arcuatje,  apicibus  obtusis;  a  latere  rectai, 
lineari-ellipticae,  lateribus  quam  levissime  convexis,  apicibus  ob- 
tusis; membrana  tenui;  chloroplastide  tenuissima,  parietali,  minute 
granulosa,  interdum  in  medio  di^•isa:  pyrenoidibus  nullis. 

Cell.  long.  14  15,  lat.  3-4/x.  Lismore  (302). 

About  30  cells  in  a  clump,  irregularly  disposed,  enveloped  in 
mucus.  Cells  linear-elliptic,  straight  in  side-view  but  from  the 
front  arcuate,  one  side  slightly  concave,  almost  tiat,  the  othei* 
distinctly  convex,  ends  obtuse.  "Membrane  thin  ;  chloroplast 
delicate,  parietal,  pale  green,  minutely  granular,  sometimes 
divided  in  the  middle,  no  pyrenoids. 

Fam.  PROTOCOCCACE^. 
Genus  C  h  a  r  a  c  i  u  m  A.Br. 
Characium  guttula,  n.sp.     (Text-fig. 6rt). 
Cellulsp  corpore  ovato  levissime  curvato,  supra  rotundato,  subter 


Text-fig.  6. 

(a)  Characi  am  </Hf  til/a,  n.sp.;  {h,  c)  Oh.  cer'assiforme  var.  minimum,  ii.var. : 

id)  Ch.  ornithocephalum  A.Br.;  (all  x  1000). 

rostrato  in  petiolum  longum  tenuissimum  protracto;  membrana 
tenui;  chloroplastide  interdum  pyrenoidibus  singulis  continente. 

Cell.  long.  max.  25-40:  corp.  long.  12-16,  lat.  6-8//. 

Lismore  (284,  286). 


BY  G.  I.  PLATFAIR.  529 

Cells  drop-shaped,  rounded  above,  pointed  below,  and  drawn 
out  into  a  slightly  curved  hyaline  beak,  which  merges  into  a  long 
thin  hyaline  stalk  as  in  Ch.  lougipps:  Membrane  thin,  chloro- 
plasts  sometimes  containing  a  pyrenoid.  Noted  from  two  spots 
at  Lismore,  singly,  or  several  in  a  clump,  on  filamentous  algie. 

Characium  cerassiforme  v.  minimum,  n.var. 

Cellular  minutne,  supra  rotundatse  nee  deplanata?;  petioloparvo 
aut  nullo;  magnitudine  formae  typicfe  triens. 

Long.  1418,  lat.  10/x.  Lismore. 

Cf.  Ch.  ceraHdformp.  Eich.  cfe  Racib.,  Nowe  gat.  zielenic,  p.l, 
T.  iii.,  f.l2;  also  Ch.  pyrifurmp  A.  Braun,  Alg.  unicell.,  p.40, 
T.  v.B.  About  one-third  the  size  of  the  type,  and  not  flattened 
above.  Ch.  cera-^si/nrme  is  more  globose  in  tlie  bod}^  of  the  cell 
than  Ch.  lyyviformp.      On  Trihoripma;  (Text-fig. G/),  (■). 

(•HARACIUM    ORNITHOCEPHALUM  A.Br.        (Text  fig. 6^). 

Long.  Corp.  23,  lat.  74;  petiol.  long.  l^jx.  Lismore. 

Fani.  HYDROGASTRACE.E. 
Genus  U  r  x  e  l  l  a,  gen.nov. 
Character  idem  ac  speeiei. 

Urnella  terrestris,  sp.unica.     (Text-fig. ?«-<:•). 

Cellulse  primum  clavatse,  deinde  dehiscione  anguste-urniformes; 
lateribus  subparallelis;  ore  everso;  basi  rotundata  ;  aut  humo 
sedentes  aut  tubulo  insequali  longo  erectae.  Membrana  tenuis, 
hyalina.  Chloroplastis  parieialis  in  extrema  cellula  contracta : 
pj^-enoidibus  plurimis. 

Corp.  urniform.  long.  00-90,  lat.  12-20;  tubul.  lojig.  ad  150,  lat. 
7-8/ji.  Auburn. 

Noted  in  a  green  growth  on  a  garden-path  (clay)  in  verv  wet 
weather.  The  important  part  of  the  plant  seems  to  be  the  long 
clavate  cell  which,  at  dehiscence,  becomes  a  slender  urn-shape, 
rounded  below,  with  sides  almost  parallel,  and  the  rim  everted. 
This  cell  is  sometimes  seated  on  the  ground,  sometimes  erected 
at  the  end  of  a  fairly  long  irregular  tubule  of  which  it  really 
forms  the  infiated  head.      Membrane  thin  and  hyaline,  the  chlo- 

40 


530 


NKW  AND   KARE  FRESHWATER  ALG^., 


roplasts  deep  green,  parietal,  collected  at  the  end  of  the  cell,  and 
containing  several  pyrenoids.  R^eproduction  apparently  by  zoo- 
gonidia.  The  plant  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  Protosiphon 
Klebs,  but  it  does  not  form  a  series  of  t/emmce,  nor  does  the  apical 


Text-fig.  7. 

(a)  UrndJa  terresh'i.^,  gen.nov.  et  sp.,  (x500);  {h,  c)  tubular  form  (x  880); 
id)  var.  ahnormi.^,  n.var.,  (x.500);  (r)  akinetes  ?,  (  x  500). 

cell  multiply  by  division,  but  seems  to  be  entirely  a  gonidangium 
There  is  also  a  great  likeness  to  Codiolnm  grey  avium  A.Br.,  but 
the  latter  has  a  thick  cell-wall  and  a  laminated  stipes — ^''stipitem 
elongatum  hyalinnm  soHdum  {gelatina   indurata  farchi/niy' — A. 
Braun,  Alg.  unicell.,  p. 20,  T.  i. 


BY  G.  T.  PLAYPAIR.  531 

Yar.  ABNORMis,  n.var.      (Text-fig.To?). 

Cellula  tota  tubifoniiis,  loni^-e  pi'otracta  noc  corporo  nrniformi 
ill  extremo  instructa. 

Cell.  lon^.  e.  1.50-200,  lat.  7-10//.  Auburn. 

In  this  form,  found  with  the  t\'pe,  the  cell,  probably  bj-  excess 
of  I'ain,  is  drawn  out  into  a  simple  irregular  tube,  dehiscing  at 
the  end.  There  are  none  of  the  inflations  in  the  tube  which 
evidence  previous  attempts  at  forming  the  gonidangium.  Repro- 
duction probably  by  zoogonidia,  and  perhaps  also  by  akinetes; 
(Text-fig.  7/'). 

Fani.  OOCYSTACE.E. 
Genus  E  r  r  m  o  s  p  ii  je  r  a  De  By. 

Eremosph.f.ra  viRinis  v.  tetraedrica,  n.var.      (PI.  Ivii.,  f.5). 

Forma  tetraedrica,  lateribiis  valde  arcuatis,  nodibus  4  levissime 
angulatis. 

Cell.  diam.  110//.  Lismore  (308). 

A  curious  form,  in  which  the  cell  looks  as  if  it  were  an  inflated 
tetraedron.  TIk^  sides  are  well  arched,  and  the  angles  only 
slightly  marked. 

The  hypnospore  of  E.  viridis,  which  was  described  and  figured 
by  me  in  Oorf/t^fis  and  JiJr/miosjjhcera,  p.  11 6,  f.G,  I  have  lately 
noted  again  in  a  fresh  gathering  (316)  from  Lismore.  Outer  cell 
diam.  120,  hypnospore  97/^.  The  scrobiculations  are  closer  even 
than  figured,  being  only  about  their  diameter  apart,  and  the 
scrobiculate  membrane  is  backed,  apparently,  by  the  thick  muci- 
laginous lining  often  found  in  Er^'mosphcera.  The  contents  were 
green,  but  the  chlorophyll  seemed  to  be  diffused  in  an  even 
parietal  layer,  no  distinct  chloroplasts  being  visible. 

Genus  O  o  c  v  s  t  i  s  Nag. 
OocvsTis  ROTULA  Pla.yf.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.fi,  7). 

Ccenob.  diam.  oO,  aiitosp.  diam.  12/^.  Lismore. 

Cf.  Chodat,  Entwickl.  d.  Erem.  virid.,  f.  13,  21  ;  Playfair, 
Oocystis  and  Evpmosjjh.,  p.  130,  PI.  vii.,  f.31.  Coenobium  spheri- 
cal, thin-walled,  containing  8  spherical  antospores.  The  latter 
are  thick-walled,  each  with  a  central  pvrenoid  and  cuneate  chlo- 


532 


NEW   AND  RARE  FRESHWATER   \LG.V.. 


roplasts  radiating  out  from  it,  six  visible  in  optical  section.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  see  how  they  show  at  the  surface,  probably  as 
delicate  discs.  I  had  hardly  finished  congratulating  myself  on 
this  find,  when  a  Chlamydomonas  wdth  similar  cell-contents 
turned  up  (from  a  different  pool,  however)  and  cast  great  sus- 
picion on  its  validity  as  an  Oocystis;  (see  Chi.  rotula). 

OocYSTis  NODULOSA  v.  CRASSA,  n.var.     (Text-fig. 8). 

Forma  prse  longitudine  crassior, 
subglobosa;  membrana  crassa;  apici- 
bus  et  interiore  incrassatis  et  exteriore 
tuberculatis  ut  in  forma  typica. 

Cell.  long.  35,  lat.  '2^-•2^\  cell, 
matric.  84-7  4/a. 

Lismore  (308). 

Cf.  W.  West,  New  Brit.  Frw.  Alg. 
(J.R.M.S.  1894),  Pl.ii.,  f.  31.  Our 
specimens  are  larger  than  the  type, 
and  proportionately  \  broader,  which  Text-fig.  8. 

makes  them,  therefore,  subglobose,  Oocystk  nodulosa  var.  crassa 
not  oval.      W.  West  gives  long.  25-26,      "-^^^r.,  mother-cell  with  two 

^    J     T  n  T  >~  J.1      J-  •  autospores;  (  x  500). 

lat.  1d-1//x  as  the  dimensions.  ^ 

Oocystis  lacustris  v.  natans  (Lemm.)  Plaj-f.      (PI.  Ivii.,  f.8,  9). 

Coenob.  long.  57,  lat.  38;  cell.  long.  23,  lat  121/x. 

Lismore  (316). 

Cf.  Oocysth  and  Eremiosph..,  p.  125,  i.\ih.  Our  specimens  are 
the  same  diameter  as  the  type,  but  a  trifle  longer;  the  chloroplast 
also  is  more  reticulate.  The  shape  of  the  mother- cell  is  charac- 
teristic of  0.  lacustris,  as  also  the  arrangement  of  the  autospores, 
I.e.,  PI.  vii.,  f.20. 

Genus  Franc  ei  a  Lemm. 
Franceia  oblonga,  n.sp.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.lO). 
Cellulse  oblongse  nee  ovales;  membrana  crassa;  setis  tenuissimis 
ubique  vestitis. 

Cell.  long.  15,  lat.  10;  set,  long.  15/x.  Lismore  (332). 


BV  G.  1.  PLAYrAlR.  533 

Cf.  Vnuicput  oralis  (France)  Lemni.  in  AMlle,  Conj.  u.  Chloropli., 
p.59,  £.31,  wliicli  works  out  at  25  x  15J/x.  Our  form,  however, 
is  distinct!}'  oblong.  The  contents  are  deep  green,  showing 
signs  of  division  into  four  parts. 

Genus   L  A  g  e  r  h  p:  i  m  i  a   Chodal. 
Lagerheimia  elliptica,  n.sp.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.ll). 

Cellulse  exacte  ellipticse,  graciles,  utroque  polo  setis  longis  sub- 
apicalibus  binis  instructse.     Cell.  long.  12 J,  lat.  6:  set.  long.  2()/x. 
Sydney  Water-supply  (100). 

The  nearest  form  to  this,  I  know  of,  is  L.  geneveiisis  v.  (jracilU 
Playf.,  {L.  ciliata  v.  (jracilis)  Plankt.  Sydney  Water-supply,  PI. 
liii.,  f.  10-1 2.  The  latter,  however,  is  narrowly  cylindrical,  while 
this  form  is  a  perfect,  slender  ellipse. 

Genus  Bernardia  Playf. 
Bernardia  tetraedrica,  n.sp.  (PI.  Ivii,,  f.l2). 

Cellulcie  sphfericse,  spinis  longis  cavis  gracillimis  4,  tetraedrice 
ordinatis  instructfe;  spinis  basi  valde  inflatis,  apice  obtusis. 

Diam,  c.  spin.  30;  cor^^.  5//.  Lismore  (351). 

This  species  consists  of  a  single  spherical  cell  with  (apparently) 
the  membrane  drawn  out  into  four  long  very  slender  hollow 
spines,  arranged  tetraedrically.  The  spines  are  blunt  at  the 
extreme  tip,  not  acutely  pointed,  and  at  the  base  are  greatly  in- 
flated. Chloroplast  delicate,  pale  green,  parietal,  confined  to  the 
central  part  of  the  cell.  Cf.  Bernardia  Chodati  (Bernard)  Playf., 
Austral.  Frw.  Phytopl.,  PI.  lix.,  f.5,  6. 

Genus  Kirchneriella  8chm. 
IviRCHNERIELLA  OBESA  W    tt.  G.  S.  West.      (PI.  Ivii.,  f  13-16). 
Cell.  lat.  G-10,  alt.  6-8,  crass.  3i-5/x.        Clyde,  Duck  Creek(26). 
Cf.  W.   A:    G.   S.   West,    New    Brit.    Frw.  Alg.,    p.  16.       Syn., 
>S''lenasfrniu  ohesum  W.  West,  Alg.  Eng.  Lake  Dist.,  p. 22,  PI.  x., 
f. 50-52;  K.  mibmlifaria  G.  S.  West,  Some  Critical  Green  Alg{«, 
p.  285,  PI.  20,  f. 20-30.      Dimensions  of  the  type,  "diam.  max.  6-9/x, 
crass,  cell.  3-4 •2/a";    of   K.   subsolitaria,    "diam.  max.  6-7/x,  crass, 
cell.  2 '9-3 -2/7-."     I  have  found  this  form  only  once. 


534  New  and  hare  freshwater  alg^ 

Genus  T  e  t  k  a  e  d  r  o  n   Kiitz. 
Tetraedron  granulosum,  11. sp.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.17,  l>^). 

Cellulpe  plaiise,  parvse,  triangulares;  lateiibus  rectis  in  medio 
levissiineconNexis;  angulis  acutis  haud  iiitiatis;  membrana  grosse 
g]-aiiulata,  granulis  in  quincuncein  ordinatis.  A  latere  visa", 
mudice  cuinpressie,  elliptico-lanceolata^,  angulis  acuminatis. 

Cell,  diain.  21,  crass.  11/x.  Lismore  (302): 

The  specimens  noted  were  Hat,  not  tetrahedral,  triangular  with 
straight  sides  shghtly  convex  in  the  centre;  angles  acute,  not 
inflated;  membrane  coarsely  granulate  in  (|uiiicunx.  From  the 
side,  elliptic-lanceolate  with  pointed  ends.  In  the  centre  of  the 
cell  might  be  discerned  a  minute  nucleus  enclosed  in  a  pale  brown 
globule  (?pyrenoid).  ►Sometimes  the  nucleus  was  entirely  hidden 
Ijy  the  globule,  which  then  had  the  appearance  of  a  large  brown 
pyrenoid;  cf.  Oocyst  is  and  Bremosj^hcera,  p.  126,  remarks  on  0. 
lacustris  \.  pahtdeiisis;  and  p.  137  on  0.  oirdis  y.  cf/Zindracra, 
where  the  same  phenomenon  occurs. 

Tetraedron  (iUADRATUMf.3iiN0R  Keinsch.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.lD). 

Cellula  plana;  diau].  sine  spiiiis  17/x.  JJsmore. 

Forma  excavata,  n.f.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.2()). 

Forma  plana,  lateribus  alternantibus  conca^  is,  alteris  levissime 
convexis;  angulis  spinis  brevibus  acutis  singulis  armatis. 
Cell,  diani.  19,  alt.  Ib/i,  s.sp.  Lismore.  Cum  priori. 

Cf.  Pveinsch,  Monog.  Folyedrimn,  p.500,  T.  iv.,  fig.7r/.  This  is 
a  variant  of  f.  inlnor  with  alternate  sides  conca\  e,  the  other  sides 
generally  somewhat  convex.    , 

Tetraedkon  caudatum  v.  australe,  n.var.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.21,  22). 

Celluky  inaiqualiter  pentaedricic;  angulis  acutis,  spinulis  min- 
utis  singulis  armatis;  lateribus  coiicavis;  utrinque  infra  marginem 
angulis  mainmillatis  armatis  singulis  instructa;.  A  latere,  plaiue 
(ichnographia  universa  respecta),  lanceolato-elliptica^  apicibus 
acutis  armatis;  altero  latere  convexai,  altero  autem  angulis  main- 
millatis armatis  binis  projicientibus,  instructjv. 

Cell.  lat.  max.  c.  spinis  21/x.  Lismore.  Cum  priori. 


BY  G.  I.  PLAYFAIR.  535 

Cf.  Polyedrium  pentagonum  Reinsch,  Algenfl.  v.  Frank.,  T.iii., 
fig.  ii.c(  =  Tetr.  caudatum  Corda)  which  is  exactly  the  same  shape 
but  without  the  two  niamniillate  angles  which  jut  out  from  one 
side. 

Tetraedron  regulare  v.  octaedricum  (Rein.)  mihi. 

Cellulse  angulis  senis  octonisve  praeditae.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.23). 

Cell.  diam.  1  7/x.  Lismore. 

Cf.  Polyedrium  octaedricum  v.  spinosum  Reinsch,  Algenfl.  v. 
Frank.,  p. 78,  T.  v.,  fig.  v.,  1867.  In  this  place,  Reinsch  has 
united  two  distinct  types  under  onename"^  {P.  octaedricum  Rein., 
Monog.  Polyedr.,  p. 507,  1888).  The  first  of  these.  T.  v.,  fig.  iv., 
must  retain  the  specific  name,  while  the  other,  T.  v.,  fig.  v.,  is 
evidently  a  form  of  I'etr.  regulare  Kiitz.  (  =  P,  tetra'edricum  Nag.), 
with  from  six  to  eight  angles  instead  of  four.  Our  specimens 
are  the  same  shape  as  Reinsch's  fig.  v. 6,  but  very  much  smaller; 
he  gives  lat.  38-47/x. 

Tetraedrox  hastatum  v.  elegaxs  Playf. 
Cell.  diam.  c.  proc.  30/x.      Noted  lately  at  Lismore  (362),  only 
known  previously  from  Parramatta.     Cf.  Austral.  Frw.  Phytopl., 
p.845,  PI.  Iviii.,  f.27. 

Tetraedron  acutum  v.  rectilineare  Playf. 
Cell.  diam.  c.   spin.   34-40/x,    sp.  long.  1 0/x.      Confirmed  from 
Lismore  (362),  only  recorded  previously  from  Enoggera;  ibidem, 
p.8-45,  PI.  Iviii.,  f.26. 

Tetraedron  conicum,  n.sp.     (}'l.  Ivii.,  f.24). 

Celkdjc  tetraedricai;  angulis  conicis  vix  inflatis;  apicibus  mu- 
ticis,  obtuse-rotundatis;  lateribus  levissime  conciivis. 

Cell.  diam.  19-25//,.  Lismore  (362). 

The  cells  are  tetrahedral,  composed  of  four  conical* angles 
meeting  in  the  centre.  The  angles  can  hardly  be  called  inflated, 
the  sides  of  the  cones  being  almost  straight.  The  apices  are 
bluntly  rounded,  without  point  or  spine. 

"  Polyedrium  acuminatum  spino8iun  at  the  bottom  of  Plate  v.,  I.e.,  is 
either  a  slip  of  tlie  pen  or  a  priiiter'.s  error. 


536  NKW  ANr)  RAKR  FRESHWATER   ALC.X,. 

Tetraedron  minimum  V.  RECTiLixEARE  Plavf.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.25). 
Cell.  long.  11  J,  lat.  lOJ/x.  Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney  (3). 

Cf.  Australian  Freshwater  Phytoplankton,  these  Proceedings, 
1917,  p. 842,  PI. 58,  f.l6,  17.  Known  to  me  previously  only  from 
Guildford.     A  rare  form. 

Tetraedron  obtusum,  n.sp.     (PL  Ivii.,  £.26). 

Cellulas  tetraedricai:  lateribus  rectis;  angulis  rostratis;  rostris 
crassis  quadratis,  brevibus;  apicibus  truncatis. 

Cell.  diam.  21/x.  Lismore  (362). 

Cell  tetrahedral,  sides  straight,  angles  produced  into  a  siiuV^ 
nosed  rostrum,  the  latter  broad,  quadrate,  truncate. 

Tetraedron  trigonum  Nag.,  forma      (PI.  Ivii.,  f.27,  28;. 

Forma  lateribus  in  medio  quam  levissime  retusis;  spinis  bre- 
vissimis  oblique  recurvis;  membrana  crassa. 

Cell.  diam.  36,  crass.  20/x.  Lismore  (345). 

Svn.,  Polycdrium  tetragonum  f3  piinctatum  (Kirchn.)  Lag., 
Bidrag  till  Sveriges  Algflora,  p. 62,  T.  i.,  f.28.  P.  trigonum  e 
pu7ictatum  Kirchii.,  Alg.  v.  Schles.,  p.  104  (sec.  Lagerheim,  I.e.). 
The  type  has  sides  simply  arched,  with  or  without  a  small 
straight  spine  at  the  angles.  In  this  form,  the  sides  are  slightly 
flattened  or  retuse  in  the  middle,  and  the  spines  are  obliquely 
recurved.  Our  specimen  was  not  punctate.  For  the  type,  cf. 
Nageli,  Gatt.  einz   Alg.,  T.  iv.B,  figs-ln-  and  3«,  b  only. 

Fam.  HYDRODICTYACE/E. 
Genus  P  e  d  i  a  s  t  r  u  m   Meyen. 
Pediastrum  simplkx  Meyen.     (PI.  Ivii.,  f.29,  30). 
Ccenob.  (cell.  4)  c.  proc.  long.  35-50,   lat.  33-48;  s.  proc.  long. 
17-24,  lat.  16-22;  cell.  long.  24-34,  lat.  12-17/x.     Ca?nob.  (cell.  8) 
diam.  50-64;  cell.  long.  18-24,  lat.  8-1 2/x. 
Parramatta  Park  (99,  136). 

Meyen,  Beob.  ub  einig.  nied.  Algenf.,(  1829)  T.xHii.,  f.l.  8yn., 
P.  simplex  var.  radians  Lemra.,  Zeitschrift  f.  Fischerei,  1897;  P. 
s im])le.i:  fS  aiinulatum  Choda^t,  Alg.  vertes,  p.225,  1902;  P.  simplex 
V.  clathratum  f.  radians  (Lemm.)  G.  J-^.  West,  Third  Tanganyika 
Exp.,  p.l34,  1907. 


BY  G.  1.  PLATFAIR. 


537 


Meyeii  gives  five  fig\ii'es  in  illustration  of  his  P.  simplex,  and 
these  have  since  been  arranged  as  three  difterent  variations. 
His  fig.l  is  var.  radiaiiH  Lemni.(1897);  figs. 2,  5  are  f.  orata  (Ehr.) 
llacib.,  {Asterodiction  ovatu/ni  Ehr.,  1845);  while  figs.  3,  \  arc 
f.  dathrata  Schroter  (1883).  One  of  his  figures,  liowever,  must 
be  left  to  represent  the  type,  and  it  falls  to  fig.l  to  do  this,  var. 
radians  Lennn.,  being  the  last  in  order  of  priority.  It  seems  to 
have  been  overlooked  also,  that  Meyen  himself  arranged  it  so 
in  the  text.  He  says  {I.e.,  p. 4)  "c^ie  unter  Fiy.l  mochte  als  die 
Norm  zu  betrachten  seyn.''  The  8-celled  ccenobium  without 
central  cells  is,  therefore,  the  type  of  P.  simplex,  and,  incident- 
ally also,  of  the  genus  Pediastrum. 

Forma  clathrata  (Schroter)  Rac.     (Text-fig.9). 
Cienob.  diam.  60-92;  cell,  periph.  long.  26-28,  lat.  12//. 
Parramatta  Park  (99,  136). 


Ptdiastrum  ximjilc 


Text-fig.  9. 
f.  cloJhrala  (Schroter)  Rue. 


(  -  ()()()). 


Schroter,  in  Jahresbericht  d.  Schles.  Gles.  fiir  vaterland. 
Cultur,  1883, p.  182;  llaciborski,  Gatunki  rodz. Pediastrum,  1889, 
p. 8.  Syn.,  P.  enoplou  W.  ifcG.  S.  West,  Frw.  Alg.  Madag.,  1895, 
p. 81,  T.  5,  f.1,2;  P.  dathratum  (Schrot.)    Lemm.,   For.<ch.   Biol. 


538 


NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALGM, 


Stat.  Plon,  vii.,  1899,  p. 20.  A  name  that  would  take  priority 
of  8chroter"s  is  P.  duodenarium  (Bail.)  Rabh.,  Fl.  Eur.  Alg.,  iii.. 
p.71,  1864,  but,  from  Raciborski's  notes,  it  would  appear  to  in- 
clude several  different  forms,  I.e.,  pp.9,  10. 

Forma  ovata  (Ehr.)  Rac.  (PI  Ivii.,  f.31). 

CcEnob.  (cell  4)  diam.  53;  cell,  long.-  25,  lat.  16/y-. 

Parramatta  Park  (136). 

Raciborski,  Gatunki  rodz.  Pediastrum,  1  889,  p  8.  Syn.,  As- 
terodiction  ovatum  Ehr.,  Ber.  iib.  d.  Verb.  d.  Akad  ,  1845,  p. 71: 
P.  ovatum  (Ehr.)  A.Br.,  Alg.  unicell.,  1855,  p. 81;  P.  Sturmii 
Reinsch,  AlgenH.  v.  Frank  ,  p. 90,  T.  vii.,  f.l;  P.  Schroteri  Lemm., 
Forsch.  Biol.  8tat.  Plon,  vii.,  1899,  p. 20,  T.2,  f.33;  /'.  dathratum 
f.  ovatum  (Ehr.)  8chm.,  in  Eng.  Bot.  Jahrb.,  xxxii.,  1902,  p.84 
T.3,  f.l8. 

All  forms  of  P.  simplex  are  very  rare  here;  I  have  them  from 
one  spot  only. 

Pediastrum  duplex  v.  rkticulatuiM  Lag.  (Text-tig.  10). 

Coenob.  (cell.  4)  diam.  52;  cell.  long.  16,  lat.  14/x.  Ccenob.  (cell, 
permult.)  long.  90-130,  lat.  90-120:  cell.  long.  26-30,  lat.  15-23/x. 

Sydne\'  AVater-supply ( 80, 
81,  90,  100,  115);  Botany 
(50). 

Lagerheim,  Stockholms 
Pedi.,  Protococc,  o.  Palm., 
p.56,  T.  ii.,  f.  1.  Syn.,  /'. 
dnjylex  v.  clathratuin  Schro- 
ter,  SchwebeH.  uns.  Seen,  p. 
37,  f.86.  This  form  is  com- 
mon enough  in  the  Sydney 
Water-supply,  but  rare  else- 
where here.  In  the  large 
coenobium  figured,  the  two 
dead  cells  on  the  left  show 
that  the  early  stage  of  the 
plant  was  more  akin  to  P. 
JJoryaituni. 


Text -fig.  1(1. 

Ptdia-strnm  dt(p/e,v  var.  r(JicuJafii/ii 

Lagerh. ;  (  x  500). 


BY  G.  I.  PLAYFAIR.  539 

Pediastrum  Boryanum  (Tuip.)  Menegh.     (Pl.lvii.,  f.32). 
Forma;  coenobium  e  cellulis  4  exstructuiii.     Ccenob.  diam.  40/x. 
Botany  (15). 

Var.  Haynaldii  (Istv.)  mihi.  (PI.  Ivii.,  f.33). 

Coenobium  long.  180,  lat.  155;  cell.  diam.  32//. 

Botanic  Gardens  (3). 

P.  n<iynaldi%  Istvanffi,  Jel.  Magyar.  Alg.,  1888,  p.  252,  T.  ii., 
f.  38.  Syn.,  P.  angidosum  v.  araneosum  Rac,  Gatunki  rodz. 
Pediastrum,  1889,  p.  18,  T.  ii.,  £40.  This  form  is  characteri.sed 
by  the  fine  ridging  on  the  cell- wall.  There  is  no  difference 
between  Racil)orski's  form  and  that  of  Istvantii,  save  that  in  the 
latter  the  lines  on  the  cell  are  granulate. 

Var.  AUSTRALE,  n.var.  (Pl.lvii.,  f.31). 

Cellula3  perimetri  cornibus  pleiumque  brevibus:  incisuris  altis, 
oblongis,  intus  rotundatis,  lateribus  parallelis. 

Ccenob.  long.  116-150,  lat.  1 00-127;  diam.  cell.  12-20//. 

Botanic  Gardens  (3). 

A  form  of  P.  Bori/anum  common  and  widespread  here,  but 
apparently  not  so  elsewhere.  It  is  characterised  bv  the  shape 
of  the  marginal  incisions,  which  are  in  the  form  of  the  letter  U, 
oblong  with  rounded  ends  and  parallel  sides.  Tlie  horns  are 
generally  short.  The  margin  between  the  horns  of  the  two 
adjacent  cells  is  very  slightly  concave. 

Pediastrum  biradiatum  var.  Braunii  (VVarim.)  (Jhud. 

Cell. long.  24,  lat.  12/x.  Kyogle(219).  (PL  Ivii.,  f.35). 

C/'.  Chodat,  Alg.  vertes,  p. 230.  >Syn.,  P.  Praionii' Wiirlnrdiun, 
8chw.  Crypt.  No. 32."^  P.  rotula  Ehr.,  {no7i  Nageli)  in  A.  Braun, 
Alg.  unicell.,  T.  vi.,  figs. 2,  5,  6.  The  dimensions  of  the  peripheral 
cells  of  Braun's  fig. 5  work  out  at  long.  22,  lat.  13/x.  P.  biradi- 
atum Meyen,  is  extremely  rare;  1  have  never  come  across  the 
type,  and  only  one  specimen  of  the  variation.  The  lobules  of 
the  cells  are  bifid  in  this  form,  only  incised  in  the  type. 

^  Not  having  seen  Waitniann's  t3'pe,  I  .siniplj^  follow  Chodat  in  the 
.synonymy.  Latter] lei in,  however,  Veg.  siissw.  plankt.  Biiren-Insel,  p.  10, 
and  Borge,  Algentl.  v.  Schweden,  p. 00,  identify'  it  with  P.  trirormifum 
Boriie. 


540 


NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALG.?:, 


Pediastrum  tetras  var.  Crux  MiCHiELi  (Rein.)  Playf. 

Cell.  diam.  18//.  Botany  (109).  (PL  Ivii.,  f.36). 

Noted  also  in  the  Sydney  Water-supply,  these  Proceedings, 
1913,  p. 518,  PI. 56,  f.6.  In  the  specimen  here  figured,  the  cells 
were  closely  appressed,  and  the  slits  were  observable  through 
w^iich  the  zoogonidia  had  escaped. 

Fam.  CCELASTRACE.^. 
Genus  Tetrastrum  Chodat. 
Tetrastrum  elegans  V,  DENTATUM  Playf. 
Coenob.  c.  spin.  diam.  32:  corp.  8;  sp.  long.  12;  dent.  long.  2-3/z. 
Lismore  (258). 

CJ\  Austral.  Frw.  Phytopl.,  p.  833,  Pi.  Ivii.,  f.  7.  Hitherto 
known  only  from  Parramatta:  this  form  is  now  confirmed  from 
Lismore. 

Genus  Ccela  strum  Nag. 
Ccelastrum  reticulatum  (Dang.)  Senn.  (Text-fig. 1 1 ). 

Cellulae  matric.  diam.  14/x;  cell, 
coenob   filial.  6/x. 

Parramatta  Park  ( 1  36). 
Syn.,  Hariotina  reticulata  Dan- 
geard,  Mem.  s.  1.  algues,  ii.,  1889. 
Generally  found  in  plankton-gath- 
erings as  broken  coenobia.  Tn  this 
case,  six  cells  were  noted,  partially 
united  by  their  processes,  each 
with  a  perfectly  formed  autocolony 
Text-fia.ll.*  within. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  LIV.-LVIll. 

Plate  liv. 
Y'\g.\.~(Mdllaloria^ticxa,  n.sp.:  (  x  (iHO). 
Fig.'i. — O.  simplicissimn  v.  'irmntldfa,  n.var. :  (  x  100<3). 
Fig.3. — O.  simplicisftima  v.  roiislrirhi.  n.var.;  (  x  HHO). 
Fig. 4. — O.  princeps\-A\\>Aw\-\  ])(>rli(jii  of  an  empty  filament,  shoAving  the 

thick  sheath  and  permanent  dissepiment.s;  (  k  880). 
Fig. 5. — FhorinidiHin  t/rande,  n.sp.;  (  x500). 

*  Coelastrum  reticidatam  {Daxig.)   Senn,   three  isolated  cells  of  a  ctjeno- 
bium,  each  containing  an  autocolonj^;  (  x  1000). 


BY  G.  T.   PLAYFAIR.  541 

Figs  6,  7.— Ph.  immarium,  n.sp.;  (0)  x  1330,  (7)  x  2000. 

Figs. 8,  9. — Auabcena  auMralica,  n.sp.,(  x  1000);  (8)  cells  and  heterocyst  of 
infertile  trichome;  (9)  pai't  of  a  fertile  triclioiiie;  the  r^onstrictions 
of  tlie  cells  can  be  discerned  only  with  the  /.j  in.  obj. 

Fig.  10. — A.  aufifraJica  var.  conffricta,  n.var. ;  (  x  1330). 

Figs.  1 J -13. — A.  rariahih's  xar.  cyiindrncea,  n.var.  (x  1000);  ill)  cells  and 
heterocj'^st;  (12)  immature  catenate  gonidia;  (13)  matuie  spore. 

Fig.  14. — A.  oarlUarioides  var.  cyas-m,  n.var.;  (  x  6f)0). 

Figs.  15.  16. — A.  /a.t-a  var.  hoiieih^i>i,  n.var.,  (  x  1000);  (!,'))  cells  and  hetero- 
cyst: (16)  cells  and  spore. 

Figs. 17-21. — Cyllndrospennnm  sta>/iui/e  var.  nn-^fra/e,  n.var.;  (17,  IS)  with 
conical  heterocysts(  x  1000);  (19.  20)  with  ol)long  ]ieterocysts(  x  660); 
(21)  coiled  trichome. 

Figs.  22,  23. — ('.  rerfani/ii/rtrf  Plaj'f. ;  (22)  tricliome  with  thin-walled  iiinna- 
ture  spore  (  x  10(M>);  (23)  with  mature  thick- walled  spore  (  x  660). 

Figs.24,  2o. — C.  i-ectaiKjnlare  var.  parvicellHla,n.xM\  (  x  1000);  (25)  trichome 
with  apical  cell. 

Figs.26,  27.— C.  GoeJzei  Schm.,  forma:  (  x  KM)). 

Plate  Iv. 

Figs.  1,  2. — Carteria  ruynlosa,  n.sp.;  (2)  endview;  (  x  1000). 

Fig. 3. — C.  ruf/ulosa  var.  angidata,  n.var.;  (  x  1000). 

Fig  4. — ('.  ragidosa  var.  inrt^qualis,  n.var.;  (  x  1(X)0). 

Figs.5,  6.-6'.  mulfifdis  (Fresen.)  Dill,  formed;  (  x  1330). 

Figs. 7,  8. — C.  granulosa,  n.sp.;  (8)  sideview;  (  x  660). 

Figs. 9,  10. — Chlamydomonas  reniformis,  n.sp.;  (10)  sideview;  (  x  1000). 

Fig.  11. — Chi.  Lismorensis  var.  gracilis,  n.var.;  (  x2000). 

Fig.  12.  -Chi.  rotida,  n.sp.;  (  x  1000). 

Fig.l3.— C7</.  alpina  Wille;  (  x  2000). 

Y\g.U.—ChI.  caudata  Wille;  (  x  1000). 

Figs.  15-17.-67;/.  timcidata,  n..sp.;  (15)  x  1330;  (16)  with  stratified  cell-wall 
(  xt)60);  (17)  mother-cell  (  x  660),  autospores  (  x  1000);  for  conveni- 
ence, the  ccpnobium  is  drawn  smaller,  and  the  autospores  therefore 
appear  more  crowded  than  natural;  the  latter  are  in  optical  section, 
the  spotted  surface  of  the  chloroplast  being  omitted;  the  tiagella 
were  just  as  figured. 

Fig.  18. — Chi.  macidata  var.  ohlonga,  n.var.;  (  x  1330), 

Fig.  19. — Chi.  macniata  var.  planktoaicu,  n.var.;  (  x  1000). 

Fig.20.— CA/.  mefastigma  Stein;  (  x  1000). 

Figs,21,  22.-67?/.  paupercnla,  n.sp.:  (21)   x  2(100:  (22)   x  1800. 

Fig. 23.— 6'/i/.  pvsHIa,  n.sp.;  (  x  660). 

Fig.24. — Chi.  angidosa  var.  ohesa,  n.var.;  (  x  13.30). 

Fig.25. — Chi.  pisiformis  \nr.  orellafa,  n.var.;  mother-cell  and  autcxspores; 
(x  1000). 


542  NEW  AND  RARE  FRESHWATER  ALfiiE, 

Fij^.'iG. — CJifo/'Oj/oniitm  minimnm,  n.sp. ;  (  x  1330). 

ritf;s. 27,  "28. — Pfei'omona.-<  am/ulom  var.  auMraJis  Playf..  foniia;  (  x  1000). 

ri,i^.29. — /-*/.  anfjiilo>ia  var.  ■■<cn1ifornu>i.  n.var. ;  (  x  1330). 

Fi,u'..3(».  —  Pt.  (iiKjulo.sn  var.  i-f.vi1Hforini-<,  n.var.:  (  x  1330). 

Plate  Ivi. 
Fit's.  1-3.— .S'?///»/v/  ;/raini/o-^<i   Playf.:    (1)  elongate  Cienobium   witli   zooids 

attaclied   to  a  central   mucous  peduncle  (  x  060) ;.  (2,  3)  individual 

zooids  showing  one  or  moie  dark  red  granules  near  the  anterior  end 

(  X  1000). 
Fig. 4.  —TexseJIarla  ro/rocina  Pla3'f.,  supposed  free  zooid;  {  x  loOO). 
Figs. 5,  6. — Xanfhod/^iciis  Luuferbadii  Scliew.,  (so-called);  (o)  face-view  of 

a   preserved    specimen    with   shrunken    contents    showing   central 

nucleus,  but  no  chlamydomonadine  arrangement  of  the  chromato- 

phore;  (G)  sideview;  (  x  1000). 
Figs. 7.  H.  —  Phacotn.^  rra.^-sii>i,  n.sp.,  (  x  1000);  (S)  sidevicAv. 
Figs.9,  \().  —  fVi.  (ilaher,  n..sp.,  (  x  1000);  (10)  sideview. 
Figs.  11,  Vl.~Pk.  cj/aher,  formc-e;  (  x  1000). 
Figs.  13,  14.— PA.  anstralk,  n.sp.,  (  x  100(»);  (14)  sideview. 
Fig.  15, — Spondi/Iomorum  qnaternarinm  Rhr. :  (  x  1000). 
Figs. 10, 17 — Sp.  quale rnarhim  var.  roslrahiin,n.ya.\\,[  x  1000);  (10)  bunched 

ecenobium;  (17)  rosette-form. 
Fig.  18. —  Vol  I'll/ i  na  Steinii  Pla,yi.,  single  cell  of  a  crcnobium,  in  sideview, 

showing   nucleus,   contractile  vacuoles,    and    stigma    in    the    usual 

chlamj'domonadine  positions. 
Figs.  19,  20.  —  Volrox  aureus  var.   hemiyj/uericn.^,    n.var.  ;    (19)  cells  from 

above  (  x  660);  (20)  three  cells  in  sideview  (  x  1000). 
Figs.21,  22  — Volrox  Carte.ri  Stein;  (21)  immature  zygote  as  described  by 

Carter  (  x  660);  (22)  mature  zygote  (  x  oOO). 

Plate  Ivii. 

Fig.l. — EJakatothrix  (lehitinom  Wille,  isolated  cell;  (  x  1330). 

Fig.2. — E.  gekitiiiosa,  mucous  matrix  with  newly  divided  cells;  (  x  1000). 

Figs. 3, 4. — Dactyl othecearciiatiLm,\\.^\).,  two  cells,  of  many  noted,  involved 
in  a  mucous  matrix  (  x  1330);  (3)  face-view;  (4)  sideview. 

Fig. 5. — E7'emosphc(ira  viridis  yslv.  tetraedrica,  n.var.;  (  x  270). 

Figj^. — Oocystis  rotnla  Playf.,  mother-cell  with  autospores;  (  x66<)). 

Fig. 7- — 0.  rotnla,  autospore;  (  x  1100). 

Fig.8. — 0.  /acmtris  var.  nafaus  (Lemm.)  Playf  ,  mother-cell  with  auto- 
spores; (  X  660). 

jritr.9. — 0,  (acnstris  var.  natans,  autospore,  showing  fragmented,  reticu- 
late chloroplast;  (  x  1000). 

Pig.  10. — Franceia  ohhnga,  n.^i).;  the  settv  are,  for  convenience,  figured 
much  shorter  than  natural  ;  they  should  be  as  long  as  the  cell  ; 
(  X  1330). 


BY  fi.   I.   PLAY  FAIR.  543 

Fig.  11. — Lafjerheimia  eUiptica,  n.sp. ;  (  x  1330). 

Fig  12.  —  Bernardia  fetraiidrka,  n.sp.;  {  XlOOO). 

Figs.l3-1().— A'//r/<7K'?vV7/rt  o^ft.^Y<  W.  &  G.  S,  West;  (xlOOO. 

Figs.  17,  IS.  —  Titrai'drou  ;/raiii(/o.siun,  n.sp.:  '17)  face-view;  ( IS)  sidevieM' 

(  X  1000). 
Fig.  19. — Tetr.  qiiadrdlnin  f.  minor  Keiiiseli:  (  X  SOO). 
Fig.2(>.  — T^//-.  qnadra/nm  f.  <jrara/(i,  n.f. ;  {  X  SOO). 
Figs. 21,  22.  —  Tifr.  r((iidafv/N  xar.  a it.-<l rah  .  ii.var.:  (21)  face-view;  (22)  side; 

(  X  1000). 
Fig.23.  —  Tefv.  rej/n/are  var.  ortal-dricnrn  (Keinscli)  niilii;  (x  1000). 
Fig.24.— 7'(>//-.  conirum,  n.sp.;  (  X  1000). 
Fig.2o. — Tetr.  minimum  var.  rectiliiieare  Playf.:  (x  lOOO), 
Fig.26.— Te/r.  oUnmm,  n.sp.;  (  x  1000). 

Figs. 27,  2S.  —  T(tr.  friyonnm  Niig.,  forma;  (27) face- view;  (2S)  side;  (  XfifiO), 
Figs. 29,  30.  —  Pediafffrnm  simp/ex  Meyen,  4-eelled  forms;  (  Xf)60). 
Fig.31,— f*ef??.  mn2)Iex  f.  orata  (Ehr.)  Pvacib.;  (x660). 
Fig..S2.  —  Pedi.  Boryanum  (Turp. )  Menegh.,  4-celIed  form;  (X.3(K)). 
Fig. 33. — Pedi.  Dorijannm  var.  llayiaddii  (Istv. )  milii:  (  X  ilOO). 
Fig.34.  —  Pedi.   Boryanum  var.  anMrale.,  n.var. ;  (x(IHO). 
Fig.3r>.  —  Pfdi.  hiradiafii/ii  var.  /jVavr^r/ (Wartm. )  Cliodat ;  (X(]r.O). 
Fig.36.— P^r//.  fefnts  var.  C'riiu-  Mirluwli  (Reinsch)  I'layf.:  (  X  l(>Ol>). 

Plate  Iviii. 

Spiroijyra  nef//ecfa  (Hass. )  Kiitz. 

Fig.  1. — Conjugated   filaments   with   elliptic    /.j'gospores    and    non-inHated 

sporangia!  cells;  (X220). 
Fig.2. — Conjugated  tilaments  witii  oval  zygospores  and  inflated  sporangial 

cells;  (  X  220).      Figs.  1   and  2  formed   part   of  one  and  the  same 

scalariform  filament. 
Figs.3-6. — Four  types  of  zygospore  in  the  one  gathering  (X  400)  ;    fig.  .") 

(xr)00). 
Figs. 7,  8.  — Unaltered  cells  of  a  conjugated  filament,  with  simple  delicate 

chloroplast;  (8)  x  330;  (7)  chloroplast  much  enlarged. 
Figs. 9,  10. — Long  cell  of  a  vegetative  filament,  with  delicate,  fimbriate 

chloroplast  and  minute  pyrenoids;   (9)  chloroplast  much  enlarged; 

(10;x330;  the  fringed  edge  of  the  chloroplast  is  tof)  delicate  to  be 

seen  under  this  low  magnification. 
Figs.  11-13, — Cells  with  more  robust,  scalloped  chloroplast;  (11)  chloroplast 

much  enlarged;  (12)  short  infiated  cells  probably  about  to  conjugate 

(X  330);  (13)  long  uninflated  cell  of  vegetative  filament  (x330). 
V\^sA4:-\6.- -Spirofjyra  ne(j/ecfa  var.  amylacea,  n.var.,  vegetative  filaments 

and  chloroplast;  (14)  long  cell  (  x330,';  (1.))  short  cells  (  x330);  (16) 

chloroplast  enlarged        Conjugating   cells   and    zygospores  of   this 

variation  as  in  fig.  1, 


544 


THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLAND. 

By  Dr.  Y.  F.  Brotherus  and  the  Rev.  AY.  Walter  Watts. 

Foreword. 
(By  the  Rev.  W.  W.  Watts.) 

The  following  paragraph  is  reprinted  from  my  paper,  "  Some 
Notes  on  the  Ferns  of  North  Queensland"  (These  Proceedings, 
1914,  Yol.  xxxix.,  Part  4,  p.7o6).  "  In  the  winter  of  1913  (July- 
August),  I  spent  a  month  in  the  Cairns  district  in  search  of 
Ferns  and  Mosses.  I  collected  in  the  rich  scrub-lands  between 
Bartle  Frere  and  the  Russell  River,  more  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Josephine  Creek;  around  Babinda  also,  and 
up  Frenchman's  Creek  to  beyond  the  Second  Falls.  -  Babinda 
and  Frenchman's  Creek  lie  at  the  base  of  Bellenden  Ker,  along 
the  coastal  railway.  Following,  later,  the  main  line,  I  visited 
Stoney  Creek,  Kuranda,  Atherton,  Malanda,  Yungaburra,  Lake 
Barrine,  and,  last  and  best  of  all,  Ravenshoe  and  the  Tully 
Falls." 

The  mosses  of  North-east  Queensland  being  essentially  Malay- 
sian, rather  than  Australian,  in  their  affinities,  specimens  from 
all  my  packets  were  submitted  to  the  distinguished  expert.  Dr. 
Y  F.  Brotherus.  Despite  the  war,  with  its  submarine  dangers, 
every  parcel  reached  Helsingfors  in  safety,  and,  by  the  end  of 
1917,  full  reports,  in  return,  came  to  hand.  The  number  of  new 
species  is  smaller  than  I  anticipated,  owing,  in  part,  to  the  zeal 
of  the  late  Government  Botanist  of  Queensland,  Mr.  F.  Manson 
Bailey,  C.M.G.,  F.L.S.,  but  mainly  to  the  aforesaid  Malaysian 
affinities  of  the  flora.  The  chief  feature  of  the  following  pages 
is  the  large  number  of  new  records.  No  less  than  seventeen 
genera  new  to  Australia  are  listed,  and  some  thirty  known 
species.  One  new  genus,  Pterohryidinni,  is  described,  and  there 
are  fourteen  new  species.  In  addition,  many  of  the  species 
recorded  are  new  for  tropical  Queensland,  though  not  new  for 
Australia.     The  new  genus  was  first  found  by  me,  in  1913,  at 


BY  V.  F.   BROTHERUS  AND  W.   W.  WATTS.  545 

Raveiishoe,  North  Queensland;  but,  curiously  enough,  was  col- 
lected, in  1916,  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Boorraan,  of  the  Sydney  Botanic 
Gardens,  on  Mt.  Lindsay  on  the  border  between  Queensland  and 
New  South  Wales. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  few  species,  the  occurrence  of 
which  in  Australia  was  regarded  as  doubtful  by  Watts  and 
Whitelegge  (Census  Muscorum  Australiensium)  are  now  definitely 
recorded,  such  as  Leucobryurn  sanctum^  Arthronormus  Schimperi, 
Leucophanes  octoble'pharoxdes^  and  CalymiJerHH  molucceiise. 

It  remains,  on  behalf  of  Australian  botanists,  to  express  sincere 
thanks  to  Dr.  Brotherus  for  his  continued  and  generous  assist 
ance;  and  also  to  thank  the  Director  of  the  Sydney  Botanic 
Gardens  for  the  facilities  afforded  me  at  the  National  Herbarium 
for  working  up  my  material. — W.W.W. 

Note.— The  sign  *  before  a  generic  or  specific  name  denotes 
that  it  is  new  for  Australia;  and  the  sign  t  that  it  is  new  for 
tropical  Queensland. 

A.  ACROCARPI, 
Dicranaceae. 

Trematodon  Michx. 

fT.  LONGESCENS  CM. 

Barron  River,  n.386;  Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  419. 

[Note.  —Trematodon  Baileyi  Broth.,  belongs  also  to  the  Cairns 
district  (Mulgrave  River),  but  appears  not  to  have  been  collected 
since  Bailey  found  it  in  1889.] 

Pleuridium  Brid. 
Pleurid.  sp.  ster.  incerta. 
Track  down  to  Red  lynch  Railway  Station,  near  Cairns.      No 
Pleuridium  previously  recorded  for  Queensland. 

*G  A  R  c  K  e  A  CM. 
*G.  PHASCOiDES  (Hook.)  CM. 
Babinda,  n.  326  e.p.     Previous  record,  "Southern  Asia." 

D  I  T  R  I  c  H  u  M  Timm. 

D.  AFFINE  CM. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  457. 
41 


546  THE  MOSSES  OF  XORTH  QUEEXSLAND_, 

DiCRANKLLA     Schillip. 

D.  DiETRiCHiiE  (CM.)  Jaeu. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  447-8. 

I).  PYCNOGLOSSA  (Brotli.)  Par. 
Stoney  Creek:  Babinda;  Malanda.     F\uranda:  Mrs.  Brotherton. 
First  found  by  Mr.  F.  M.  Bailey  on  the  Mulgrave  River  in  1  889. 
Var.  LONGIFOLIA  Broth,  et  Watts,  var.nov. 
Street's  Gnllyj  Kuranda,  n.  265. 

H  o  Lo  M  I  T  Ri  u  M    Brid. 
H.  MuELLEKi  Hampe. 
Ravenshoe,   n.  573  e.p.      Previous  records,  Rockingham    Bay: 
Dallachy,  1868;  Bellenden  Ker  :  S.Johnson,  1891. 

H.  PERiCHiETiALE  (Hook.)  Brid. 
Ravenshoe  and  Malanda  (several  nos.). 

DiCRANOLOMA  Ren . 
D.  DiCARPUM  (Hsch.)  Par. 

Ravenshoe,  several  nos. 

D.  SERRATUM  (Bfoth.)  Par. 

Malanda,  n.  494,  615  e.p.  (Previous  Queensland  record,  Mt. 
Mistake  :   Bailey,  1885). 

D.  Wattsii  Broth.,  n.sp. 

Dioicum;  ^lauco-viride,  nitidiusculum;  can/is  usque  ad  5  cm. 
longus,  adscendens,  inferne  denudatus,  dein  dense  foliosus,  sim- 
plex vel  parce  ramosus;  folia  horride  patula,  stricta,  late  lanceo- 
lata,  breviter  acuminata,  4-4  5  mm,  longa  et  2-2'5  mm.  lata,  mar- 
ginibus  erectis,  summo  apice  conniventibus  ibidemque  argute 
serratis,  ubique  hyalino-limbata,  limbo  latissimo,  apicem  versus 
sen.sim  angustiore,  nervo  tenui,  continuo,  dorso  superne  argute 
serrato,  cellulis  chlorophyllosis,  elongate  et  anguste  linearibus, 
apice  brevioribus,  alaribus  numerosis,  quadratis,  fusco-aureis, 
ssepe  decoloratis:  bractese  perich^tii  interna'  e  basi  longe  \agi- 
nante  convoluta  subito  in  pilum  longiusculum  contractse;  setae 
binre  ex  eodem  perichsetio,  tenues,  vix  ultra  5  mm.  alta3,  fusci- 
dulfe:  theca  oblonga,  obliqua,  subcernua,  collo  strumuloso;  oper- 
culum e  basi  conica  longe  et  oblique  subulatum. 


BY  V.   F.  BROTHERUS  AXD  W.   W.  WATTS.  547 

Ravenshoe,  n.  534rt  (type). 

Species  D.  austro-scopario  (C.  Muell.)  affinis,  sed  foliis  latiori- 
bus,  brevius  acuminatis,  setis  binis  ex  eodem  perichiPtio,  brevi- 
oribus  et  tenuioril)ns  dignoscenda. 

[Note.  — Z>.  aiistro-scoparinrn  (CM.)  was  collected  by  Bailey, 
in  1889,  on  tbe  summit  of  Bellenden  Ker.] 

Leucoloma   Brid. 
L.  8ip:berianu>[  (Hornscb.)  Par. 
Ravenshoe  (several  nos.). 

L.   SUBINTKGRUM   Brotb. 

Babinda:  Frenchman's  Creek:  Malanda:  Ravenshoe  (frequent). 
[Originally  found  at  Palm  Camp,  Bellenden  Ker,  by  Bailey 
(1889)J. 

[Note.  —  L.  clarvuerve  CM..,  is  recorded  for  "Tropical  Queens- 
land "  in  Bailey's  Suppl.  to  his  Synopsis,  1888.] 

C  A  M  p  Y  L  o  p  u  s  Brid. 
C.  {Rigidi)  Wattsii  Broth.,  n.sp. 

Dioicus;  robustiusculus,  csespitosus,  csespitibus  densis,  viridis- 
simis,  subopacis;  caulis  adscendens,  usque  ad  3  cm.  longus,  fere 
ad  apicem  rubro-tomentosus,  simplex  vel  furcatus;  folia  sicca 
imbricata,  humida  patentia,  canaliculato-concava,  lanceolato- 
subulata,  c.  6  mm.  longa  et  c.  08  mm.  lata,  superne  margine  et 
dorso  serrata,  ner\T3  basi  dimidiam  partem  folii  latitudinis  occu- 
pante,  dorso  lamelloso,  lamina  usque  ad  apicem  distincta,  cellulis 
minutis,  rhombeis,  baud  incrassatis,  basilaribus  in  seriebus 
pluribus  quadratis,  alaribus  teneris,  fuscis,  auriculas  distinctissi- 
mas  efformantibus.      Csetera  ignota. 

Cairns  district.  Frenchman's  Creek,  Second  Falls,  n.  360  ; 
Ptavenshoe,  on  rocks  al)Ove  Falls,  near  Major's,  n.  484  e.p.  : 
Watts,  1913. 

fC.  WooLLSii  (CM.)  Par. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  452,  459,  532. 

EUCAMPTODON   Mont. 
fE.  MuELLKHi  Hpe.  et  CM. 
Ravenshoe  and  Malanda, 


548  THE  MOSSES  OF   NORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

Leucobryacese. 

Leucobryum  Hampe. 
fL.  BALLiNENSE  Bi'oth.,  A.M.,  vi.,  1916,  n.l99. 
Ravenshoe,  ii.534f,  cZ;  Malanda,  ii.550  e.p.     Ballina,  N.S.W., 
the  only  previous  record. 

L.   BRACHYPHYLLUM   Hpe. 

Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Ravenshoe. 

L.  CANDiDUM  Brid. 
Frenchman's  Creek,  n. 397  e.p.;  near  Babinda,  n. 445  e.p.     Ap- 
parently the  first  record  for  N.Q. 

Ij.  sanctum  (Brid.)  Hampe. 
Kuranda ;     Bartle    Frere  ;    Babinda ;     Frenchman's    Creek  : 
Malanda.      Widespread  "from  Nepal  to  Malesia"  (teste  Broth.). 

fL.  STRiCTiFOLiUM  Broth. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  469,  672.  Previously  limited  to  N.  S.  Wales 
and  S.  Queensland. 

[L.  vesiculosiim CM.,  was  collected,  at  Whelanian  Pools,  Palm 
Camp  and  Harvey's  Camp,  Bellenden  Ker,  by  F.  M.  Bailey,  in 
1889;  and  at  Trinity  Bay,  by  Mrs.  (or  Miss)  Cribble,  in  1894. 
L.  viride  Mitt.,  is  recorded,  in  Herb.  Melb.,  for  Daintree  River, 
Q.,  but  information  regarding  this  sp.  is  needed.  L.  Wattsii 
Broth.,  was  collected  by  Dallachy  at  Rockingham  Bay,  Q.,  but 
named  L.  sanctum  var.  in  Hb.  Melb.] 

Leucophanes  Brid. 
L.  AUSTRALE  Broth. 
Kuranda,  n.435.     Previously  recorded  for  Freshwater  Creek, 
near  Cairns,  and  "Ker  Range"  (teste  CM.). 

L.  OCTOBLEPHAROIDES  Brid. 

Kuranda;  Bartle  Frere;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Babinda;  Malanda. 
Previously  recorded,  in  Hb.  Melb.,  for  Johnstone  River  (Berth- 
aud),  and  Daintree  River  (Pentzske).  Distrib.  "from  Nepal  to 
Pacific  Islands." 

OCTOBLEPHA  HUM    Hcdw. 

O.  ALBiDUM  (L.)  Hedw. 
Cairns;   Kuranda;  Malanda;   Ravenshoe. 


BY  V.  F.  BROTHERUS  AND  W.  W.  WATTS.  549 

Arthrocormus  Doz.  et  Molk. 

A.  ScHiMPERi  D.  et  M. 

Babinda,  n.  422,  4  38.      In  the  Melb.  Herb.,  there  is  a  doubtful 

record  of  ''■Leucobryuiri'  Schimperi  for  the  Johnstone  River.     A. 

Schimperi  is  found  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the  New  Hebrides, 

etc. 

*ExoDiCTYON  Card. 
*E.  SUBSCABRUM  (Broth.)  Card. 
Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  3946.      Previous  record,  Papua. 

Fissidentaceae. 

F  I  s  s  I  D  E  N  s  Hedw. 
IF.  ARBOi^Eus  Broth. 
Stoney  Creek;  Babinda;  Lake  Barrine;  Raven  shoe. 

fF.  ASPLKNioiDEs  (Sw.)  Hedw. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  471,  533  e.p. 

F.  {Semilimhidium)  cairnensis  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Dioicus(?):  gregarie  crescens,  pallide  viridis,  opacus;  caulis 
usque  ad  5  mm.  longus,  cum  foliis  usque  ad  1  9  mm.  latus,  inHma 
basi  fusco-radiculosus,  dense  foliosus,  simplex  vel  furcatus;  folia 
sicca  hoiiiomallula,  humidastricta,  erecto-patentia,  infimaminuta, 
dein  subaequalia,  ligulata,  breviter  acuminata,  acuta,  c.  1*3  mm 
longa  et  c.  0"38  mm.  lata,  marginibus  supeine  minutissime  serru 
latis,  lamina  vera  ad  medium  folii  producta,  basi  limbo  albido, 
e  cellulis  angustissimis  constructo,  lamina  dorsali  e  basi  nerv: 
enata,  ibidemque  rotundata,  nervo  crassiusculo,  lutescente 
infra  summum  apicem  folii  evanido,  cellulis  rotundato-hexagonis 
0-007-0-OlOmm.,  pellucidis,  papilla  media  instructis;  seta  termin 
alls,  solitaria,  rarius  binse  ex  eodem  perichsetio,  usque  ad  2  mm 
alta,  tenuis,  rubra,  levissima;  theca  inclinata  vel  nutans,  minuta 
ovalis,  pallida;  operculum  e  basi  conica  recte  rostratum;  calyptra 
ignota.     Planta  mascula  ignota. 

Near  Hotel,  Babinda,  Cairns  district,  on  rotten  logs,  n.  332a 
(leg.  Watts).       ^ 

Species   limbo   brevi  cellulisque  pellucidis,  papilla  media  in- 
structis dignoscenda. 


550  THE  IMO.S.SES  OF  NORTH  (^UEEK.SLAND^ 

IF.   DlETRICHI^ CM. 

Raveiisljoe,  11.-465  e.p.,  528  e.p.,  5*29  e.p. 

¥.   KERIANUS  CM. 

Cairns,  n.  2Sia,  243;  Stouey  Creek,  n.  252. 

F.  (Aloina)  kurand.e  Broth,  et  Watts,  ii.sp. 

Corticola,  gregarie  crescens,  pallide  viridis;  caulis  adscendens, 
usque  ad  8  nun.  longus,  cum  foliis  c.  15  mm.  latus,  basi  fusco- 
radiculosus,  dense  foliosus,  simplex;  folia  usque  ad  18-juga,  sicca 
liomomalla,  humida  erecto-patentia,  infima  minuta,  dein  sub- 
sequalia,  ligulata,  breviter  acuminata,  obtusiuscula,  apiculata,  c. 
1  mm.  longa  et  c.  0*25  mm.  lata,  elimbata,  Integra,  lamina  vera 
ad  medium  folii  producta,  lamina  dorsali  e  basi  nervi  enata, 
ibidemque  rotundata,  nervo  pallido,  in  apiculo  folii  evanido, 
cellulis  valde  pellucidis,  rotundato-hexagonis,  0*01 0-0-015  mm., 
ad  basin  laminae  vertB  paucis,  elongatis,  limbum  inframarginalem 
valde  indistinctum  efformantibus.     Csetera  ignota. 

Kuranda,  n.  273  (leg.  Watts,  1913). 

Species  habitu  F.  Holliano  Doz.  et  Molk.,  similis,  sed  cellulis 
pellucidis,  malto  majoribus  jam  dignoscenda. 

IF    PALLIDUS  H.f.W. 

Raven  shoe,  n.  470;  Malanda,  n.  512. 

IF.  TKNELLUS  H.f.W. 

Ra.venshoe,  n.  500  e.p. 

*F.  ziPPELiANUS  Bryol.  jav. 

Babinda,  n.  308  e.p.,  343.  Previous  records,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Hongkong. 

[A'o^e.— The  following  also  is  recorded  for  N.Q.:  F.  micro- 
lecythis  CM.  (Trinity  Bay),  but  the  name  alone  has  been  pub- 
lished (CM.,  Genera  Muscorum,  p. 59). J 

Calymperacese. 

Syrrhopodon  Schwgr. 
*S.  AMCENUS  Broth. 
Frenchman's  Creek,   n.  368  e.p.,   385,   393;    Babinda,  n.  439. 
Previous  record,  Papua. 


BY  V.   V.  BROTHERUS  AND   W.   W.   WATTS.  551 

S   (Cavi/olii)  cairnensis  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Dioicus;  tenellus,  cpespitosus,  CiBspitibus  laxiusculis,  pallide 
viridibus;  caulis  erectus,  vix  ultra  4  mm.  lougus,  basi  fusco- 
radiculosiis,  dense  foliosus,  simplex  vel  ramosus ;  folia  sicca 
circinato-incurva,  dorso  nitidiiiscula,  humida  erecto-pateiitia,  e 
basi  paulum  latiore  ligulata,  obtusa,  mucroiiatula,  usque  ad  1-7 
mm.  longa,  superne  0-25-0-27  mm.  lata,  lirabata,  limbo  aiigus- 
tissimo,  hyalino,  infra  apicem  minute  serrulatam  evanido,  in 
parte  superiore  basis  ciliato-serrato,  nervo  crassiusculo,  infra 
summum  apicem  folii  evanido,  inferne  levi,  dein  parce  aculeato- 
papilloso,  cellulis  laminalibus  acute  et  elevato-papillosis,  basilari- 
bus  laxis,  inanibus,  breviter  rectangularibus  vel  subquadratis. 
Csetera  ignota. 

Cairns  district,  Babinda,  on  tree-trunks,  n.313rt(leg.  Watts, 
July,  1913). 

Species  distinctissima,  a  S.  fiynbriatulo  Sauerb.,  foliis  multo 
brevioribus,  nervo  inferne  levi,  superne  parce  aculeato-papilloso 
facillime  dignoscenda. 

*S.  CROCEUS  Mitt. 

Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  418  e. p.     An  Indo-Malayan  species. 
8.  FASCicuLATus  Hook.  et  Grev. 

Base  of  Bartle  Frere ;  Babinda ;  Frenchman's  Creek,  etc. 
Previous  record,  Johnstone  River  :  Berthaud,  Dec,  1882.  A 
widespread  tropical  species. 

tS.  FiMBRiATULUS  Sauerb.     S.Jimbriatus  (J.M.,  non  Mitt. 

Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  408;  Tully  Falls,  n.  462. 

*S.  MuELLEiii  (l)oz.  et  Molk.,  Galymjyeridium)  Lac. 

Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  361,  368  e.p.  An  Indo-Malayan-Poly- 
nesian  species. 

S.  NoViE  Valesi^  cm. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  461,  468,  53 1<'..      A   forma  inicrocarpa  was  col- 
lected at  Trinity  Bay  by  Saver,  in  1886;  otherwise  new  for  Q. 
S.  UNDULATULUS  Broth. 

Babinda,  n.  313  e.p.;  Frenchman's  Creek,  n.421  e.p.;  Kuranda, 
n  427.  Previous  record,  Bellenden  Ker  :  Mrs.  Uribble  (Herb. 
Melb.). 


552  'THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QtTEEKSLAND_, 

*S.  UNDULATUS  (Doz.  et  Molk.)  Lindb. 

Base  of  Bartle  Frere,  n.293;  Babinda,  n.  310;  Frenchman's 
Creek,  n.  405,  412,  414,  420  e.p.,  421.  Previous  record,  Sunda 
Islands. 

[Note.— 5.  i Thy ridium )  humile  Mitt.,  is  recorded  in  the  Melb. 
Herb,  for  Johnstone  River  (leg.  Berthaud).] 

C  A  L  Y  M  P  K  R  E  S    Sw. 
tC   MOLUCCENSE  Schwgr. 

Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  372.  Hampe,  in  PL  Preiss  ,  recorded 
it  for  West  Australia,  but  this  record  is  not  found  in  Mitten's 
Catalogue,  nor  in  Jaegers  xA.dumbratio.  It  is  almost  certainly 
new  for  Australia.      Previous  range,  the  Moluccas. 

C.  NiGRESCENS  Broth.  et  Geh. 
Cairns:   Allen,  Sept.,  1906  (Herb.  J.  M.  Murdoch).      Earlier 
record,  Bellenden  Ker  :  Mrs.  Gribble  (Herb.  Melb.). 

*C.  SERRATUM  A.Br. 
Malanda,  n.  497,  530.     Previous  records,  Java,  New  Hebrides, 
etc. 

*(/.  TENERUM  CM. 

Fig-tree,  Police  Paddock,  Cairns,  n.  226-8,  230,  232:  base  of 
Bartle  Frere,  n.  285.      Previous  range,  Tndo-Malaysia. 

[Note. — C.  Motleyi  Mitt.,  is  recorded  for  Cape  Yorke  (leg. 
Micholitz,  1897):  and  C.  Keunedyo.num  Hampe,  (1876)  was  found 
at  Rockingham  Bay  by  E.  B.  Kennedy,  and  at  Goode  Island  by 
Powell  in  1883.] 

Pottiaceoe. 
W  E  I  s  I  A  Hedw. 
W.  viRiDULA  (L.)  Hedw. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  475  (f.  eperistomata). 

H  Y  0  p  H  I  L  A   Brid. 
*H.  MiCHOLiTZii  Broth. 
8toney  Creek,  n.  237  e.p.,  261.     Previous  record,  Papua. 

B  A  R  B  u  L  A  Hedw. 
B.  CALYCiNA  Schwgr. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  464  e.p. 


BY  V.  V.  BROTHERUS  AND  W.   W.   WATT8.  553 

Gpimmiaceae. 

G  L  Y  P  H  O  M  I  T  R  I  U  M    Bl'id. 

to.  COMMUTATUM  (CM.)  Broth. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  463  e.p.,  488,  532  e.p. 

Orthotrichaceae. 

M  A  c  R  o  M  I  T  R  I  u  M  Brid . 
tM.  Daemelii  cm. 
Baveiishoe,  n.  490,  536,  616  e.p. 

tM    DIMORPHUM  CM. 

Stoney  Creek,  n.  258;  Ravenshoe,  n.  485;  Malaiida,  ii.  491; 
Kurauda,  n.511,  6076. 

M.   HEMITRICHODES  Schwgr. 

Ravenshoe,  several  nos. 

fM.   PUGIONIFOLIUM  CM. 

Malanda,  n.493,  495;  Ravenshoe,  n.506;  Yungaburra,  n.520. 
Earlier  records  limited  apparently  to  K.S.W. 

tM.  ScoTTi^  CM. 

Ravenshoe,  n.481,  486,  5346.  Previous  record,  N.S.W.,  from 
Monga  and  Nowra  northwards  to  the  Richmond  River. 

[Note.  —  J/,  anrescens  Hpe.,  is  recorded  from  Mt.  Archer,  near 
Keppel  Bay  (leg  F.v.M.j;  J/,  micro stomum  {lA.ook.  et  Grev.),  for 
Rockingham  Bay  (Dallachy,  1868);  M.  pusillunt.  Mitt.,  from 
Tringilburra  Creek,  Bellenden  Ker  (F.  M.  Bailey);  J/.  Sayeri 
Mitt.,  from  the  Russell  River  (W.  A.  Sayer,  1886,  Herb.  Melb.), 
and  M.  Whiteleygei  Broth,  et  Geh.,  from  BeJlenden  Ker  and 
Bartle  Frere  (S.  Johnson,  1891).] 

Schlotheimia  Brid. 
S.  Baileyi  Broth. 
Ravenshoe,  several   nos.     The  original   recoi'd   was  Bellenden 
Ker;  the  species  spreads  south  well  into  N.S.VV.,  and  probably 
into  Victoria. 

Splachnaceae  and  Funariaceae. 
These  two  families  are  quite   unrepresented  in  my  N.Q.  col- 
lection, but  the  following  record  may  be  noted  :   Goniomitriwm 
acuininatuin  H.f.W.,  (Clermont,  Miss  Gore).  —  W.W.W. 


554  THE  MOSSES  OF  KORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

Bryaceae. 

B  K  A  C  H  Y  M  K  N  I  U  M    Schwgl'. 

B,  {Dicrauobryum)  Wattsii  Broth.,  sp.ii. 

Dioicum;  gracilesceiis,  cfiespitosum,  ca^spitibus  densis,  lutes- 
centi-viridibus,  sericeo-nitidis  ;  caulis  erectus,  vix  ultra  1  cm. 
longus,  interne  fusco-radiculosus,  dense  t'oliosus,  simplex;  folia 
imbricata,  ovata,  breviter  acuminata,  aristata,  marginibus  basi 
recurvis,  integris,  nervo  lutescente.  in  aristam  denticulatam  ex- 
cedente,  cellulis  superioribus  elongate  et  anguste  rhomboideis, 
basilaribus  et  alaribus  quadratis.      Csetera  ignota. 

Ravenshoe  (Millstreara),  n.  489  and  527  (leg.  Watts,  1913;. 
Species  Br.  acuminato  Har\ .,  valde  atiinis,  sed  statura  paulum 
robustiore,  foliisque  brevius  acuminatis  dignoscenda. 

*  A  NOMOBRYUM  Schimp. 
*A.  CYMBiFOLiUM  (Lindb. )  Broth. 
Ravensiioe,  n.464  e.p.,  5216,  532  e.p.      Previous  range,   India 
to  Java  and  Amboina. 

B  K  Y  u  M  Dill,  emend.  Schimper. 

fB.   AKGENTEUM  L.,   var.   NIVEUM   H.f.W. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  463  e.p,,  521  e.p. 

fB.  ERYTHKOCARPOIDES  Hpe.  et  CM. 
Kuranda,  n.  429:  Malanda,  n.  521  e.p. 

B.  (Alpiniformia)  kurand^e  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 
Dioicum:  gracilescens,  caespitosum,  csespitibus  densiusculis, 
pallide  lutescenti-viridibus,  nitidis:  caulis  vix  ultra  5  mm.  longus, 
basi  radiculosus,  dense  foliosus,  innovationibus  pluribus  erectis, 
vix  ultra  5  nnn  longis,  strictis,  julaceis,  obtusis:  folia  caulina 
erecto-patentia,  carinato-concava,  oblongo-lanceolata,  breviter 
acuminata,  acuta,  marginibus  anguste  recurvis,  apice  minutissime 
serrulatis,  nervo  tenui,  brevissime  excedente,  cellulis  elongate 
et  anguste  hexagono-rhomboideis,  basilaribus  laxioribus,  alaribus 
breviter  rectangularibus;  seta  l-l'5cm.  vel  paulum  ultra  alta, 
tenuissima,  fuscescenti-rubra;  theca  nutans,  minuta,  cum  collo 
sporangii  longitudinis,  pyriformis,  c.  2omm.  longa  et  c.  0-95 mm. 
crassa,  sicca  deoperculata  sub  ore  baud  constricta,  macrostoma, 


BY   V'.   F.   BROTH ERIJS  AND   W.   W.   WATTS.  555 

fusca;  exostomii  dentes  lineari-laiiceolati,  subulato-acuminati, 
rufi,  apice  hyalini,  dense  laniellati;  endostoiiiium  luteum,  rainu- 
tissime  papillosum,  membraua  basilaris  ultra  medium  dentium 
producta:  processus  lanceolati  late  feriestrati:  cilia  tcrna  bene 
evoluta,  longe  appendiculata.      Csetera  ignota. 

Damp  wall  of  creek  Ijy  Railway  line,  near  Kuranda,  n.  498 
(leg!  Watts,  1913;. 

Species  innovationibus  julaceis,  tlieca  minuta,  macrostoma 
oculo  nudo  jam  dignoscenda, 

IB.  PIMPAM.E  CM. 

Wall  of  creek  by  railway,  near  Kuranda,  n.  679. 

IB.  SUBATROPURPURKUM   CM. 

Malanda,  n.  505:  Millstream,  Ravenshoe,  n.  521a. 

IB.   SUBOLIVACEUM  CM. 

Millstream,  Ravensliue,  n.  525  e.p  ;  Kuranda,  n.  535. 

B.  SUBPACHYPOMA  Hampe. 
8toney  Creek,  n.  249,  255,  259       Earlier  record,  Rockingham 
Bay  (Dallachy,  1869). 

\_Note. — The  following  records  should  be  noted  :  B.  Baileyi 
Broth.,  (Freshwater  Creek,  near  Cairns,  Bailey,  1889;  Bellenden 
Ker,  8.  Johnson);  B.  leptothrix  CM.,  (Trinity  Bay,  Karsten, 
1881).] 

Rhodobryum  (8chimp. )  Hampe. 

jR.  OMVACEUM  Hpe. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  506. 

fR.  SUBCRISPATUM  (CM.)  Bar. 
Yungaburra,  on  hillside,  n.  501. 

Mniacese. 

M  N  I  u  M  (Dill,  exp.)  L.,  emend.  Schimper. 
Mn.  sp.(?). 
Ravenshoe,  n.  517  e.p. 

Mn.  sp.(?),  probably  sp.nov. 
('?)Loc.,  n.  522. 


556  THE  M()S8F»S  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLAND, 

Rhizogoniacese. 

R  H  I  z  o  G  o  N  I  u  M    Brid. 
fR.H.  Geheebii  cm. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  483.  502. 

Rh.  parramattense  cm. 
Ravenshoe,   n.  523,   615  e. p.;  Malanda,  n.  618c.     A   southern 
species,  but  already  recorded  (in  Hb.  Melb.)  for  Bellenden  Ker. 

Rh.  spiniforme  (L.)  Bruch. 

Malanda,  Kuranda,  and  Ravenshoe,  including  f.  minor,  n.482, 
492  (previously  recorded  from  N.S.W.,  and  S.Q.). 

[Note. — Rh.  brevifoliuin  Broth.,  was  collected  on  Bellenden 
Ker  by  F.  M.  Bailey  (1889),  also  by  S.  Johnson,  on  the  same 
range,  and  on  Bartle  Frere  in  1891.] 

M  E  s  o  c  H  iE  T  e  Lindb. 
M,  UNDULATA  Lindb. 
Babinda,  n.  387.     Common  in  the  south,  with,  also,  a  record 
for  Port  Denison  (Birch,  1889). 

Bartramiaceae. 
Philonotis  Brid. 
*Ph.  laxissima  (CM.)  Bry.  jav. 
Babinda,  n.  334;  forma,  Ravenshoe,  n.  517,  524. 

tPh.  pseudOxMollis  (CM.)  Jaeg. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  489  e.p.,  516:    Barron  River,  n.  496,  534(7. 

Polytrichaceae 

POLYTKICHUM   Dill. 

P.  JUNiPERiNUM  Hedw. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  519. 

B.  PLEUROCARPL 

Cryphseaeese. 

C  R  Y  p  H  yE  A  Mohr. 

C  TEN  ELLA  Hornsch. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  610  e.p.,  616  e.p. 


BY  V.   F.  BROTHERUS  AND  W.   W.  WATTS.  557 

C  R  Y  p  H  I  D  I  u  M  fMitt. )  Broth. 
C   MoELLERi  (Hampe)  Par. 

Ravenshoe  (Millstreani,  etc.),  several  nos. 

Cyrtopodaeese. 

B  E  S  C  H  E  R  K  L  L  K  A    Dub. 

B.  Cyrtopus  F.  v.^r.:   B.  hrevifolia  Hpe. 
Ravenshoe,  several  nos. 

Ptyehomniacese. 

H  A  M  P  E  E  LL  A    CM. 

H.  FALLENS  (Lac  ,   Cladomiiioii)  Fleisch.;  Lepidopihi.m  aiistrale 
Broth.;   HampeeUa  Kurzii  CM. 
Tally  Falls,  ii.591.     [Previously  recorded  from  Harvey's  Creek: 
Bailey,  1889]. 

(Edieladiaeese. 

"*M  Y  u  R  I  u  M  Schiinp.,  Fleischer. 

*M.  RUFESCKNS  (Hsch.  et  Reinw.)  Fleisch. 

Ravenshoe,  n.534«  (f.  depauperata).     Range,  Indo-Malaysia. 

Neekeraeeae. 
T  K  A  c  H  Y  L  o  M  A   Brid. 
T.  PLANIFOLIUM  (Hook.)  Brid. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  543;  Malanda,  n.  650  e.p. 

Endotrichella  cm. 

E.   DlETRICHIiE  CM. 

Babinda,  n.  440;    Ravenshoe,  n.  558,  5726,  616  e.p.;    track  to 
TuUy  Falls,  n.  561. 

E.   LEPIDA  CM. 

Frenchman's  Creek,  417  e.p.;   Kuranda,  511  e.p.,  607«;  Ravens- 
hoe, 476  e.p.,  564  e.p. 

Garovaglia  Endl. 
G.  MuKLLERi  (Hpe.)  Mitt. 
Kuranda;  Babinda;  Malanda;  Ravenshoe,  etc. 

MUELLERIOBRYUM    Fleisch. 

.M.  Whiteleggei  (Broth.)  Fl. 
Stoney    Creek  ;     Babinda  ;     Frenchman's    Creek  ;    Malanda  ; 
Ravenshoe, 


558  THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

*Pterobryopsis  Fleisch. 
P.  FiLiGEHA  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Dioica:  gracilis,  ij;regarie  crescens,  Ifete  viridis,  nitidiiiscula; 
caiiles  secundarii  usque  ad  3  em.  loiigi,  inferne  simplices,  nudi, 
dein  densissime  pinnatim  raniosi,  filis  elongatis,  sat  nuinerosis, 
articulatis,  papillosis  instructi,  ramis  erecto-patentibus,  vix  ultra 
6  mm.  longis,  complanatulis,  simplicibus,  obtusis;  folia  imbricata, 
subcymbiformi-concava,  dorso  Ijfpvia,  ovato-oblonga,  breviter 
acuminata,  acuta,  marginibus  erectis,  ubique  serrulatis,  Tiervo 
tenui,  subcontinuo,  dorso  superne  serrato,  cellulis  aiigustissimis, 
apice  papillose  exstante,  basilaribus  infimis  laxioribus,  alaribus 
sat  numerosis  quadratis.      Cnetera  ignota. 

Malanda,  on  trunks  of  trees,  n.  549;  Ravenshoe,  on  trunks  of 
trees,  n.  605a. 

P  T  E  R  o  B  R  Y  I  D  I  u  M  Brotli.  et  Watts.  n.gen. 
Pt.  australe  B.  et  W.,  n.gen.  et  sp. 
Dioicum;  robustiusculum,  Isete  viride,  setate  lutescens,  nitidum; 
caulis  primarius  longe  repens,  plus  minusve  fusco-radiculosus: 
caules  secundarii  conferti,  rigidi,  superne  ssepe  arcuati,  usque  ad 
12  cm.  longi,  dense  foliosi,  plerumque  obtusi,  rarius  tiagelli- 
formiter  attenuati,  inferne  simplices,  dein  plus  minusve  regu- 
lariter  pinnati,  ramis  patulis,  teretibus  arcuatulis,  usque  ad 
2cm.  longis,  obtusis  vel  plus  minusve  longe,  rarius  flagelliformiter 
attenuatis,  simplicibus,  rarius  longioribus,  parce  ramulosis;  folia 
caulina  infima,  minuta,  dein  sensim  accrescentia,  cochleariformi- 
concava,  sicca  imbricata,  Isevia,  late  ovalia,  apiculo  lato,  obtuso, 
recurvulo  terminata,  nervo  simplici  basi  validiusculo,  dein  raptim 
tenuiore,  ultra  medium  folii  evanido,  cellulis  inter  se  porosis, 
linearibus,  chlorophyllosis,  basilaribus  infimis  fusco-aureis,  alari- 
bus numerosis,  subquadratis;  bractese  perichaetii  erectse,  concavse, 
internse  oblongaj,  raptim  breviter  acuminatse,  c.  5mm.  longse  et  c. 
1*5  ram.  latse,  integrse,  nervo  tenui,  vix  ad  medium  bracteie  pro- 
ducto,  cellulis  linearibus,  inter  se  valde  porosis,  basilaribus  laxi- 
oribus; seta  c.  1  mm.  alta,  stricta,  fusca;  theca  immersa,  breviter 
ovalis,  sicca  deoperculata  siib  ore  paulum  constricta,  c.  2  mm. 
longa  et  c.    090  mm.   crassa,   fusca;    peristomium   duplex,  infra 


BY  V.  F.   BROTHERUS  AXD  W.   W.   WATTS.  559 

orifieinm  oriundum,  rufaii),  la^ve,  cum  praeperistomio;  exostomii 
dentes  angiiste  lanceolati,  linea  dorsali  recta,  articulationibus 
lamelliformibus:  corona  hasilarisrudimentaria:  processus  angusti; 
sublineares.     Csetera  ignota. 

North  Queensland:  Malanda,  n.  619a;  Ravenshoe  in  scrub, 
n.551e.p.,r)5o,  556,  557  e.p.,  (Watts,  1913).  Queensland-N.8  W.: 
Mt.  Lindsay  (J    L.  Booiman,  n.l522  in  Herb.  S3^dn.). 

Genus  novum  insigne,  habitu  foliorumque  structura  speciebus 
nonnullis  Pterohryopsidis  simillimum,  sed  theca  immersa  nee 
non  peristomio  dignoscendum. 

P  A  P  I  L  L  A  R  I  A    (CM. )  CM. 
P.  AMBLYACIS  (CM.)  Jaeg. 
Lake  Barrine,  n.  636. 

P.  FLEXiCAULis  (Tayl.)  Jaeg. 
Ravenshoe,  n. 556  e.p.,  610  e.p.,  654a;  Malanda,  n. 619  e.p.,  647. 

P.  KERMADECENSis  (CM.)  Jaeg. 
Babinda;   Malanda;  Ravenshoe;  several  nos. 

fP.  NiTiDiuscuLA  Broth. 
Malanda,  n. 618  e.p.,  6196.      Previous  records,  N.S.W. 

M  E  T  E  o  R  I  u  M   Doz.  ct  Molk. 
M.  Baileyi  (Broth.,  Papillaria)  Broth.,  Bryales,  p. 818. 
Ravenshoe;  Malanda;  Yungaburra;  several  nos. 

*M   MiQUELiANUM  (CM.)  Fleisch. 
Malanda;  Ravenshoe;  several  nos. 

Akrobryopsis  Fleisch. 

A.  SIGMATOPHVLLA  (CM.). 

Base  of  Bartle  Frere;  Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Malanda; 
Lake  Barrine;  Ravenshoe:  many  nos. 

■''"F  L  O  K  I  B  U  N  D  A   K  I  A    CM. 

*Fl.  floribuxda  (Doz.  et  Molk.,  Mfteorinm)  Fleisch. 
Malanda,  n.  4946,  619^;   Yungaburra,  n.  668  e.p.;   Ravenshoe, 
n.579. 

■*Fl.  pseudofloribunda  Fleisch. 
Malanda,  n.651  e.p.,  655;  Ravenshoe,  n.582,  624  e.p.,  656. 


560  THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

Fl.  robustula  Broth,  et  Watts,  n  sp. 

Dioica;  robustiuscula,  palHde  lutescenti-viridis,  opaca:  caulis 
secundarius  breviusculus,  dense  pinnatim  ramosus,  ramis  patulis, 
usque  ad  2  cm.  longis,  apicem  versus  decreseentibus,  laxiuscule 
foliosis,  simplicibus,  obtusis;  folia  ramea  horride  patula,  e  basi 
cordatoovata  lanceolato-subulata,  comalia  in  pilum  tiexuosum, 
denticulatum  attenuata,  marginibus  basi  uno  latere  inflexis, 
apice  crenulatis,  nervo  tenui,  ultra  medium  folii  evanido,  cellulis 
elongatis,  angustis,  seriatim  papillosis.      Csetera  ignota. 

N.  Queensland  :  Malanda,  on  tree-trunks,  n.618rt. 

Species  statura  robustiuscula  foliisque  horride  patulis  oculo 
nudo  jam  dignoscenda. 

Bakbella  (CM.)  Fleisch. 
B.  ENERVis  (Thw.  et  Mitt.)  Fl.;  Neckera  trichophoroides  Ilpe. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  558,  624,  628  e.p. 

*M  ETEORioPSis  Fleisch. 

*M.  RECLINATA    (CM.)    Fl. 

Malanda,  604,  etc.;  Yungaburra,  n.626a;  Ravenshoe,  541,  etc. 
*T  RACK  Y  PUS  Reinw.  et  Hornsch. 

*T.   NoViE  CALEDONIiE  CM. 

Malanda,  n.  633. 

Orthokrhynchium   Reichdt. 

O.  CYMBIFOLIOIDES  CM. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  600,  605  e  p.,  611  e.p. 

Calyptothecium  Mitt. 
C  acutum  (Mitt.)  Broth. 
Babinda,  n.  317;  Ravenshoe,  n.  551,  etc. 

C  HUMiLE  (Mitt.)  Broth. 
Ravenshoe,  n. 557 e.p.;  Yungaburra,  612,etc.;  Malanda,  n. 61%. 

0.  RECURVULUM  (CM.,  Trachylomo)  Broth. 
Babinda,  n.  312  e.p. 

Neckeropsis  Reichdt.,  emend.  Fleisch. 
N.  Lepineana  (Mont.)  Broth. 
Malanda;  Ravenshoe;  Yungaburra:  several  nos. 


BY  V.  F.  BROTHERUS  AXD  W.   W.  WATTS.  561 

*HiMANTOCLADiUM  (Mitt.,  Neckero)  Fleisch. 
*?[.  LORIFORME  (Bryol.  jav.)  Fl. 
Base  of  Bartle  Frere,  n.  294;  Babinda,  n.  437. 

*H  OMALIODENDRON    Fleisch. 

*H.  EXIGUUM  (Bryol   jav.,  Homalia)  Fl. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  546,  576e. 

*H.  FLABELLATUM  (Dicks,  8m.,  Hookevia)  Fl. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  547-8,  564  e. p.,  G09. 

*PiNNATELLA  (CM.)  Fleisch. 

*P.   INTRALIMBATA  Fl. 

Ravenshoe,  n.  600a,  611,  632,  667  e.p. 

Lembophyllaeese. 
C  A  M  p  T  o  c  H  ^  T  E  Reichdt. 

C.    BRLSBANICA  (CM.). 

Ravenshoe,  ii  542,  595,  648  e.p.;  Lake  Bairine,  n.  636. 

C  VAGA  (Hornsch.)  Broth. 
Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek:  JVIalanda  :  several  nos. 

Entodontaeese. 

*C  A  M  P  Y  L  O  D  O  N  T  I  u  M   Doz.  et  Molk. 
*C.  PLAVESCENS  (Hook.,  Ptevogonium)  Bryol.  jav. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  538,  581  e.p. 

Fabroniacese. 

*A  U  S  T  IN  I  A   CM. 
*A.  LUZONENSis  Broth. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  667  e.p. 

Hookeriaeese. 

DiSTICHOPHYLLUM    Doz.  et  Molk. 
D.  Baileyanum  CM. 
Kuranda;  Ravenshoe;  Yungaburra  :  several  nos. 

Cyclodictyon  Mitt. 
C  LEPIDUM  (Mitt.);  Hookevia  karsteniana  Broth.  Geh. 
Yungaburra,  n.  576a,  674. 
42 


562  THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

Callicostella  (CM.)  Jaeg. 

■*C.   KiERNBACHII  Broth. 

Kuranda,  n.  266,  272;   Babinda,  332  bis. 

Ch^etomitrium  Doz.  et  Molk. 
Ch.  entodontoides  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Dioicum;  gracile,  ca)spitosum,  csespitibus  laxis,  mollibus,  de- 
pressis,  lutescenti-viiidibus,  nitidiusculis;  caulis  lepens,  fusco- 
radiculosus,  dense  et  complanate  foliosus,  dense  pinnatim  ramosus, 
ramis  vix  ultra  1  cm.  longis,  complanatis,  obtusis;  folia  erecto- 
patentia,  concaviuscula,  ovato-oblonga,  rotundato-obtusa,  dorso 
Isevia,  marginibus  erectis  vel  basi  anguste  recurvis,  superne 
argute  denticulatis,  nervis  binis,  brevibus,  indistinctis,  cellulis 
angustissimis,  linearibus,  infima  basi  brevioribus  et  latioribus, 
aureis,  omnibus  l?evissimis.     Caetera  ignota. 

North  Queensland:  Frenchman's  Creek,  Cairns  District,  n.352. 

Species  distinctissima,  habitu  entodontoideo  foliorumque  forma 
facillime  dignoscenda. 

Ch.  Geheebii  Broth. 
Babinda,  n.  336^. 

Ch.  nematosum  Broth. 
Babinda:  Frenchman's  Creek;  Ravenshoe  :  several  nos. 

Lepidopilu7n  austral e.     See  Hampeella  pallens. 

Hypopterygiaeese. 
H  ypoPTERYGiUM  Brid. 
H.  Muelleri  Hpe.  et  CM. 
Lake  Barrine,  n.  643. 

Helieophyllaeese. 

P  0  W  K  L  L  I  A    Mitt. 

P.  AUSTRALis  (Hpe.,  Helicophyllum)  Broth. 
Frenchman's   Creek,  n.  401.      Found   earlier  by  Dallachy   at 
Rockingham  Bay. 

Rhaeopilaeese. 
Rhacopilum  Palis. 
Rh  convolutaceum  cm. 
Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Malanda;  Ravenshoe. 


BY  V.   F.   BROTHERUS  AND  W.   W.  AVATTS.  563 

Leskeaeese. 
*H  ERPETiNEURON  (CM.)  Cardot. 
*H.  ToccOiE  (Sull.  et  Lesq.,  Anomodon)  Card. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  o98  e.p. 

T  H  u  I  D  I  u  M    BryoL  eur. 
ITh.  lilliputanum  Broth. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  648,  665. 

Th.  plumulosiforme  (Hpe.)  Jaeg. 
Stoney  Creek;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Kuranda;  Ravenshoe. 

ITh.  suberectum  (Hpe.)  Jaeg. 

iStoney  Creek;  Malanda;  Ravenshoe. 

\^Note. — The  following  species  have  also  been  recorded  for 
N.Q.:  Til.  rameihtosum  Mitt  ,  (  Bellenden  Ker:  Karsten);  Th.  spar- 
simi  (Bellenden  Ker  :  Karsten),  and  perhaps  others. — W. W.W.J 

Hypnaeese. 

StereodontecE. 

E  C  T  K  O  P  O  T  H  E  C  I  a  M    Mitt. 

E.  SERRIFOLIUM  Broth.  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Dioicum  (1)  :  gracile,  csespitosum,  c?espitibus  densiusculis^ 
rigidis,  depressis,  Isete  viridibus,  nitidiusculis;  caul  is  elongatus, 
repens,  fusco-radiculosus,  dense  subpinnatim  raniosus,  ramis  vix 
ultra  5 mm.  longis,  strictis,  dense  et  complanate  foliosis,  simplici- 
bus,  obtusis;  folia  erecto-patentia,  caulina  superiora  plus  minusve 
distincte  homomalla,  concava,  caulina  ovato-lanceolata,  plus 
minusve  longe  acuminata,  marginibus  inferne  indistincte  re- 
curvis,  superne  erectis,  argute  serratis,  nervis  binis,  brevibus, 
cellulis  anguste  linearibus,  apice  distinctissime  papillose  exstante, 
marginalibus  in  serie  unica  brevioribus,  ramea  breviter  et  late 
acuminata.     Csetera  ignota. 

Cairns  District  :  Millstream  Falls,  Ravenshoe,  n.  528  (leg.  Dr. 
Joynt). 

Species  E.  Zollingeri  (CM.)  Jaeg.,  affinis,  sed  foliis  argute 
serratis  jam  dignoscenda. 

E.  UMBICULATUM  (CM.,  Hyjmuni)  Par. 
Stoney  Creek;  Kuranda;  Babinda;  Ravenshoe,  etc. 


564  I'HK  MOSSES  01'  NORTH  QUEENSLAND^ 

*E.  VERRUCOSUM  (Hpe.j  Jaeg. 
Raveiislioe,  n.  539  e. p.,  606,  653  e. p.,  661. 

►Stereodon  Mitt. 
S.  MOSSMANNIANUS  (CM,,  Hypnum)  Broth, 
Millstream,  Ravenshoe,  ii.  521  e.p, 

fS.   SUBCHRYSOGASTER  Brotll, 

Rocky   Hill,    Kuranda,    n.  680  e.p.      Previous  loc,    Blackall 
Range:  leg,  WhitteroD. 

A  C  A  N  T  H  O  C  L  A  D  I  U  M    Mitt. 

A.  EXTENUATUM  (Brid.)  Mitt. 
Frenchman's  Creek;  Malanda;  Ravenshoe;  Tully  Falls. 

A.  sp.? 
B-avenshoe,  n.  605  e.p. 

Flagiotheciece. 

I  S  0  P  T  E  R  Y  G  I  U  M    Mitt. 

I.  AusTRo-PusiLLUM  (CM.)  Jaeg. 
iStoney  Creek;  Kuranda;  base  of  Bartle  Frere;  Babinda. 

I.  CANDiDUM  (CM.)  Jaeg, 
Kuranda;  Mai  and  a. 

I.  SUBLATIFOLIUM  Broth. 

Base  of  Bartle  Frere,  n.  299  e,p.,  305. 

Taxithelium  Sprue. 
T.  KERIANUM  (Broth.,  Trichosieleum)  Broth.,  Bryales. 
Base  of   Bartle   Frere,  n.  285  e.p.,  298;    Babinda,  n.  320  e.p.; 
Tully  Falls,  n.  591  e.p.,  597. 

fT.  Nov^  Valesi^  (Broth.,  Isopterygium)  Broth. 
Babinda;  base  of   Bartle  Frere:  Malanda;  Yungaburra;  Tully 
Falls,  etc. 

*T.  PAPILLATUM  (Harv.)  Broth.,  Bryales. 
Babinda,  n.424;  Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  362a. 


BY  V.  F.  BROTHERtTS  AND   W.  W.   WATTS.  565 

T.  (Poli/stigma)  Wattsii  Broth.,  n.sp. 

Dioicum;  robustiusculum,  csespitosum,  csespitibus  densis,  de. 
pressis,  viridibus,  nitidis  :  caulis  elongatus,  repens,  per  totam 
longitudinem  fusco-radiculosus,  dense  pinnatim  ramosus,  ramis 
patulis,  valde  complanatis,  dense  foliosis,  obtusis,  rarius  f^agellis 
microphylliiiis  instructis,  cum  foliis  c.  1  7  mm.  latis,  vix  ultra 
5mm.  longis,  siinplicibus  vel  longioribus,  pinnatim  ramulosis; 
folia  ramea  lateralia  patentia,  valde  concava,  e  basi  paulum 
angustiore  oblonga,  sensim  lanceolato-acuminata,  marginibus 
erectis,  apice  minute  serrulatis,  nervis  binis  brevibus  vel  nullis, 
cellulis  angustissimis,  seriatim  minutissirae  papillosis.  basilaribus 
infimis  vesiculosis,  hyalinis.     Caitera  ignota. 

Babinda,  North  Queensland,  on  living  tree-trunks,  n.  441. 

Species  valde  peculiaris,  cum  nulla  alia  commutanda. 

Vesiculauia  (CM.)  CM. 
tV.  RiVALis  Broth. 
Stoney  Creek,  n.  256  e.p.      A   second    locality.     The  type  was 
collected  by  Watts  on  the  Richmond  River  (Whian  Creek). 

Sematophyllacese. 

M  E  I  O  T  H  E  C  I  U  M    Mitt. 

M.  Brotheri  Watts;  M.  tenerum  B.P.,  non  Mitt. 

Cairns  (Police  paddock,  on  tig  tree),  n.  227,  228,  230;  Street's 
Gully,  Kuranda,  n.  270«,  607. 

fM.  Wattsii  (^Broth.,  Ptcrogoniella)  Broth.,  Bryales. 
Kuranda,  n.  607^,  642. 

R  H  a  p  h  I  d  o  s  t  e  g  I  u  m  Schimp. 
Rh.  aciculum  (CM.). 
Stoney  Creek;  Kuranda;  Ravenshoe,  etc. 

\iu.  OVALE  Broth. 
Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek;  Ravenshoe. 

Rh.  pseudo-homomallum  (CM.). 
Kuranda;  base  of  Bartle  Frere;  Babinda;  Frenchman's  Creek; 
Ravenshoe. 


566  THE  MOSSES  OF  NORTH  QUEENSLANd^ 

*Rh.  saproxylophilum  (CM.)  Jaeg. 
Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  362;  f.  rohnsta  (n.  415). 

Sematophyllum  (Mitt.)  Jaeg. 
8.  ERYTHKOPODiuM  (Hpe.)  Jaeg. 
Malanda,  n.  625  e.p.       Previous    record,    Rockingham    Bay  : 
Dallachy. 

S.  sp.'?  (ster.):   Ravenshoe,  n.  588. 

S.  sp.]  (ster.):  Tally  Falls,  n.  591  e.p. 

*T  R  I  c  H  o  s  T  E  L  E  u  M  (Mitt.)  Jaeg, 
T.  ( Papillidiu77i)  elegantulum  Broth,  et  Watts,  n.sp. 

Autoicum;  tenellum,  csespitosum,  ca^spitibus  densis,  pallide 
viridibus,  retate  lutescenti  —  vel  fuscescenti- — viridibus,  nitidi- 
usculis;  caulis  breviusculus,  per  totam  longitudinem  f usco-radicu- 
losus,  dense  ramosus,  ramis  adscendentibus,  complanatis,  brevi- 
bus,  simplicibus  vel  longioribus  plus  minusve  ramulosis;  folia 
erecto-patentia,  concava,  e  basi  anguste  oblongo-elliptica  sensim 
lanceolata  vel  lanceolato-subulata,  raargiriibus  late  recurvis, 
superne  argute  serratis,  enervia,  cellulis  anguste  ellipticis,  superi- 
oribus  papilla  media  altiuscula  instructis,  infimis  aureis,  alaribus 
magnis  vesiculosis,  hyalitiis  vel  aureis;  bractea^  pericheetii  internee 
erect?e,  e  basi  vaginante  in  acumen  loriforme,  argute  serratum 
sensim  attenuatte ;  seta  vix  ultra  8  mm.  alta,  tenuis,  rubra, 
ubique  mammillis  humilibus  latis,  luteis  obtecta;  theca  suberecta, 
majuscula,  ovalis,  fusco-rubra,  Isevis;  operculum  ignotum. 

Cairns  District  (Frenchman's  Creek),  n.  382. 

Species  distinctissima,  foliis  angustis,  nee  non  theca  majuscula 
oculo  nudo  jam  dignoscenda. 

T.  HAMATUM  (Doz.  et  Molk.)  Jaeg. 
*Var.  SEMiMAMMiLLOSUM  (CM.)  Par.  "" 

Babinda,  n.  3  19  e.p.,  337«;  Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  3626,  383. 
The  var.  previously  recorded  for  Papua  and  the  New  Hebrides. 

RhegmatodontaeesB. 

*M  A  C  R  O  H  Y  M  E  N  I  U  M    CM. 

*M  RUFUM  (Reinvv.  et  Hornsch.)  CM. 
Malanda,  n.  623;  Ravenshoe,  n.  657,  660,  662. 


BY  V.   F.  BROTTTERI^'^  AXD  TV.   W.  WATTS.  567 

Braehytheciaceae. 

Rhynchostegiella  (Bryol.  eur. )  Limpr. 
Rh.  convolutifolia  (Hpe.)  Broth. 
Base  of  Bartle  Frere,  n.  297  e.p. 

R  H  Y  N  c  H  o  s  T  E  G  I  u  M  Bryol.  eur. 
Rh.  nano-pennatum  (Broth.)  Par. 
Base  of  Jiartle  Frere,  n.  285  e.p.,  296-7;  Babinda,  n.  320  (bis); 
Frenchman's  Creek,  n.  416. 

Rh.  tenuifolium  (Hedw.)  Jaeg. 
Ravenshoe,  n.  425  e.p.,  476  e.p.;  Yungaburra,  n.  601. 

Hy  pnodendraeese . 

H  Y  p  N  o  1)  E  N  D  R  o  N  (CM. )  Lindb. 
H.  SPININERVIUM  (Hook.)  Jaeg. 
Kuranda;  Babinda;  Yungaburra;  Ravenshoe. 

Mniodendkon  Lindb. 
Mn.  comatulum  Geh.  in  Herb.  Brotii. 

l)ioicum;  gracilescens,  viride,  setate  fuscescens,  nitidiusculum; 
caules  secundarii  approxiniati,  usque  ad  4  cm.  longi,  a  foliis 
squama^formiV)us,  remotis,  patentissimis,  reflexis,  tomento  den- 
sissimo  fusco-purpureo  occultis  obtecti,  superne  verticillatim 
ramosi,  ramis  1-1  5  cm.  longis,  gracilibus,  arcuatulis,  undique 
dense  foliosis,  simplicibus;  folia  caulina  e  basi  late  cordata,  tri- 
angularia,  longe  aristata,  marginibus  erectis,  basi  minute  denti- 
culatis,  superne  argute  et  insequaliter  serratis,  nervo  longe  ex- 
cedente,  cellulis  angustissimis,  alaribus  sat  numerosis,  ovali- 
hexagonis,  fusco-aureis;  folia  ramea  patentia,  ovato-lanceolata, 
breviter  acuminata,  marginibus  basi  integris,  superne  argute  et 
iiia3qualiter  serratis,  nervo  apice  evanido,  superne  dorso  serrato; 
seta  usque  ad  2  cm.  alta,  flexuosula,  tenuis,  fuscidula;  theca 
horizontalis,  oblongo  cylindrica,  c.  3  mm.  longa  ;  operculum  e 
basi  convexo-conica  longe  rostratum. 

Charmellan's  Creek,  on  Gordon's  track  from  Ravenshoe  to 
TuUy  Falls,  n.  676.      Mt   Armit :    Pentzke  in  Herb.  Melb.(type), 


568 


MESOZOIC  INSECTS  OF  QUEENSLAND. 

No. 4.    Hemiptkra   Hkteroptera  :  The  Family  Dtnstaxiid^'E. 
With  a   Note  on  the  Origin  of  the  Hkteroptera. 

By  R.  J.  Tillyard,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plate  lix. ;  and  Text-figures  17-22). 

In  1916,  I  described (3)  the  l)eautifull\'  preserved  wing  of 
Dunstanio,  pulchra  Till.,  from  the  Upper  Trias  of  Ipswich, 
Queensland,  and  placed  it  as  the  sole  representative  of  a  new 
family  D\i7istaiiiid(E  within  the  Order  Lepidoptera.  This  deci- 
sion had  the  concurrence  of  Dr.  A.  Jefferis  Turner,  of  Brisbane, 
and  was  based  mainly  upon  the  presence  of  eight  longitudinal 
veins  in  the  fossil,  this  being  the  number  found  in  the  hind  wings 
of  Frenate  Lepidoptera. 

While  the  description  of  this  fossil  was  going  to  press,  I  hap- 
pened to  be  on  a  visit  to  Brisbane.  A  day  or  two  before  I  left, 
Mr.  Dunstan  showed  me  four  other  specimens  bearing  the  label 
*^  Du7ista7iia ''  in  pencil;  these  had  just  been  discovered  at 
Ipswich.  Two  of  them  were  broad  wings  resembling  the  type, 
and  two  were  much  longer  and  narrower  wings.  Thinking  that 
these  latter  must  be  the  forewings  of  the  same  insect  as  that 
whose  hindwdng  I  had  assumed  the  type  to  be,  I  added  the  note 
on  p. 32  of  the  paper  quoted  above.  However,  when  I  received 
from  Mr.  Dunstan,  later  on,  the  complete  collection  of  Ipswich 
Insects  of  which  these  wings  formed  a  part,  and  had  time  to 
work  at  them  in  detail,  I  soon  found  that  the  two  narrow  wings 
did  not  belong  to  Dutistania  at  all;  so  that  there  remained  onl}" 
the  two  broad  wings  for  study  in  connection  with  the  original 
type.  Neither  of  these  is  in  anything  like  as  good  a  state  of 
preservation  as  the  type  is,  and  one  of  them  is  very  poorly  pre- 
served indeed. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  569 

Meanwhile  the  publication  of  the  original  description  had 
created  considerable  interest  amongst  entomologists,  and  discus- 
sion soon  became  rife  as  to  its  true  affinities.  In  August,  1916, 
Mr.  E.  Meyrick,  F.R.S.,  contributed  a  paper  on  the  subject*  (2), 
in  which  he  argued  strongly  against  the  admission  of  Diinstania 
to  the  Order  Lepidoptera,  and  suggested  that  its  affinities  might 
rather  be  with  the  Homoptera.  He  reasoned  as  follows  :— "In 
order  to  appreciate  the  position,  I  looked  up  the  record  of 
Palfpontina  oolitica  Butl.,  from  the  Jurassic,  hitherto  the  oldest 

known  Lepidopteron, ;  T  must  express  my  opinion  that 

there  is  little  doubt  it  belongs  to  the  Ilepialidce Now  it 

is  clearly  proved  on  structural  grounds  that  the  Micropterygina 
(the  small  group  to  which  the  Hepialidre  belong,  otherwise 
termed  Jugatse)  were  the  primitive  form  of  the  Lepidoptera,  and 
the  nature  of  Palceontina  is  in  accord  with  this  conclusion  and 
confirmatory  of  it.  Parenthetically,  I  take  occasion  to  notice 
that  Goss,  Tillyard,  and  others  are  troubled  as  to  what  the  early 
Lepidoptera  can  have  fed  upon,  when  Howering  plants  were  not 
yet  in  existence,  and  honey  was  not  available;  it  is  a  problem 
easy  of  solution,  since  the  more  primitive  forms  (including  the 
Hepialidce)  have  in  general  no  proboscis  or  feeding  apparatus, 
and,  therefore,  fed  on  nothing  in  the  perfect  state." 

"  With  the  evidence  recounted  above,  Dmistaiiia,  if  regarded 
as  Lepidopterous,  is  violently  discordant  As  the  hind  wing 
possesses  neither  frenulum  nor  prominent  basal  angle  of  costa, 
it  must  be  assumed  that  the  forewing  was  furnished  with  a 
jugum;  all  existing  Lepidoptera  exhibit  one  or  other  of  these 
structures.  But  all  jugate  Lepidoptera  have  the  hindwing 
similar  in  neuration  to  the  forewing,  with  at  least  1 1  veins, 
whereas  this  wing  seems  to  be  of  the  modern  8- veined  type, 
though  conspicuously  different  from  any  known  form,  and  in  fact 
quite  as  highly  specialised  as  any  now  existing.  Finally,  there 
is  the  apparently  corneous  margin  round  the  costa  and  termen, 
which  is  altogether  abnornial,  no  other   Lepidoptera  showing  a 

*  See  also  "  Nature,"  No.  2488,  Vol.  99,  Sept.  28tli,  1916,  p. 75,  where 
this  paper  is  reviewed. 

44 


570  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

trace  of  it,  and  in  my  estimation  a  far  more  important  systematic 
character  than  the  two  which  the  author  lays  stress  on." 

"It  appears  to  me,  then,  that  this  specimen  can  only  be 
regarded  as  Lepidopterous  on  the  theory  that  it  is  a  member  of 
an  entirely  unknown  line  of  development  of  that  Order,  which 
had  attained  a  high  degree  of  specialisation  at  a  period  far 
anterior  to  the  earliest  certainly  Lepidopterous  insect  known, 
itself  a  lowly  organised  form;  this  cannot  be  termed  impossibffe, 
but  it  involves  a  very  great  improbability.  The  alternative  view 
that  the  resemblances  are  accidental  and  the  insect  not  Lepi- 
dopterous seems  to  me,  on  the  whole,  less  improbable." 

"  I  cannot  venture  to  express  any  positive  opinion  on  its  pos- 
sible relation  to  other  Orders,  but  I  suggest  that  theie  are  some 
points  of  resemblance  to  the  Hemiptera-Homoptera,  some  species 
of  which  have  a  semi-Lepidopterous  facies.  The  corneous  margin 
of  the  wing,  the  central  cell  (usually,  it  is  true,  much  larger),  and 
approximate  number  of  veins  rising  from  it,  and  even  the  curious 
dark  banding  of  the  membrane  alongside  the  veins,  can  all  be 
paralleled  in  this  group,  which,  moreover,  is  already  known  to 
have  been  in  existence  since  the  Carboniferous  period."* 

Mr.  Meyrick's  criticism  led  me  to  study  intensely  the  various 
types  of  Lepidopterous  wing-venation  extant,  about  which  1 
knew  very  little  at  the  time  that  I  first  described  the  fossil.  I 
very  soon  became  convinced  that  Dunstania  was  not  a  Lepidop- 
teron;  but  that  conviction  was  not  based,  for  the  most  part,  on 
the  argument  set  forth  by  Mr.  Meyrick,  which  I  regard  as  un- 
sound in  several  important  particulars. 

Firstly,  as  regards  Palceontina.  The  latest  authority  on  the 
family  to  which  this  fossil  belongs  is  Handlirsch(l),  who  gives  a 
masterly  treatment  of  this  and  allied  fossils,  with  photographs 
and  restorations  of  a  number  of  types,  in  some  of  which  the 
hindwing  is  complete  enough  to  allow  of  definite  proof  that  the 
Falceoniinidce  were  most  certainly  not  Hepialidm,  as  Meyrick 
avers,  nor  even  Jugatse  of  any  kind,  but  definitely  Frenatse  allied 

*  This  is  surely  an  error.  No  true  Homoptera  were  known  below  the 
Lias,  until  I  described  Mesojassus  from  the  Ipswich  Trias,  and,  later  on, 
two  new  genera  from  the  Permian  of  Newcastle,  N.S.W. 


IBY    n.    J.    TiLLYARt).  571 

to  the  Limacodidce.  If  Mr.  Meyrick  "  turned  up  the  record  of 
Palceontina  oolitica,''  how  is  it  that  he  ignored  Handlirsch's 
epochal  work,  which  does  not  fit  in  with  his  own  opinions  1 

I  accept  without  any  doubt  whatever  Handlirsch's  proof  that 
the  PalcEontinidcE  were  Frenate  moths,  though  I  take  leave  to 
doubt  that  they  were  as  closely  allied  to  the  Limacodidce  as  he 
imagined.  The  evidence  of  the  hindwings,  which  are  small,  with 
only  eight  or  nine  veins,  is  conclusive  on  the  point.  Conse- 
quently, there  is  no  absurdity  in  supposing  that  Frenate  types 
might  have  existed  also  in  the  Lias,  or  in  the  Upper  Trias  of 
Australia.  That  being  so,  all  this  part  of  Mr.  Meyrick's  argu- 
ment rests  upon  an  unsound  basis. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  a  priori  reason  why  a  Frenate  moth,  of 
a  type^a?'  removed  from  those  we  know  at  the  present  day,  might 
not  also  have  been  in  existence  in  the  Upper  Trias  at  Ipswich, 
though  I  am  quite  willing  to  admit  that  it  might  not  be  a  very 
probable  supposition. 

(Secondly,  as  regards  the  "apparently  corneous  margin"  round 
the  costa  and  termen.  In  my  description,  I  simply  called  this 
"  a  wide  margin  without  pits,"  and  added  that  "  the  external 
border,  or  termen^  shows  signs  of  a  delicate  transverse  ribbing  " 
which  "  extends  also  somewhat  indistinctly  round  the  apex  on 
to  the  costa."  I  purposely  refrained  from  suggesting  that  it  was 
a  corneous  margin,  as  it  seemed  to  me  to  be  equally  likely  that 
it  had  been  formed  by  the  crushing  down  of  the  deep  bases  of 
insertion  of  a  series  of  stiff  and  closely  packed  marginal  hairs  or 
bristles,  such  as  one  sees  in  many  Diptera,  for  instance.  There 
was  no  inherent  improbability  that  such  a  margin  might  not  bo 
found  on  a  strongly-built  and  hairy-winged,  primitive  Lepi- 
dopteron. 

If,  however,  the  margin  be  really  corneous,  then  I  admit  that 
the  character  is  of  great  importance,  and  definitely  rules  Dun- 
stania  out  of  the  Lepidoptera.  In  the  actual  fossil,  the  appear- 
ance of  this  margin  is  certainly  not  such  as  to  suggest  a  positive 
solution  to  this  question,  one  way  or  another;  but  Mr.  Meyrick, 
of  course,  had  only  my  drawing  to  go  upon. 

Thirdly,  I  should  like  to  reply  to  Mr.  Meyrick's  parenthetical 


572  MESOzoic  Insects  of  Queensland,  iv., 

statement  tliat  the  early  ancestors  of  the  Lepidoptera  took  no 
food  in  the  iraaginal  condition.  This  argument  defeats  itself. 
For,  if  these  insects  took  no  food  as  imagines,  then 'surely  their 
descendants  must  have  even  more  aborted  mouth-parts  than 
their  ancestors,  and  thus  they  should  all  be  either  Hepialidce  or 
Saturniidcp.  I  Surely  the  ancestors  of  those  Lepidoptera  that  are, 
to-day,  of  the  haustellate  type  were  originally  of  the  weak  man- 
dibulate  type  still  preserved  in  Micropteryx  and  allies,  and  were, 
therefore,  pollen-feeders  and  lappers-up  of  dew  and  rain-drops, 
as  the  great  majority  of  the  Planipennia,  Mecoptera,  Trichoptera 
and  Diptera  are  to  day  ! 

To  my  mind,  the  great  argument  against  Diinstania  being  a 
Lepidopteron  is  simply  this,  that  the  venation,  quite  apart  from 
the  mere  number  of  the  veins,  does  not  show  any  of  the  typical 
arrangements  of  that  Order,  whether  Frenatae  or  Jugatpe.  As 
soon  as  I  had  sufficiently  mastered  the  wing-venation  uf  the 
Order,  I  became  convinced  of  this,  and  definitely  rejected  my 
original  placing  of  the  fossil.  It  is  part  of  the  object  of  this 
paper  to  relate  how  the  opinions  of  different  entomologists,  look- 
ing at  the  problem  from  different  points  of  view,  favoured  the 
claims  of  various  Orders  to  receive  this  fossil;  but  none,  includ- 
ing myself,  who  had  the  type-specimen  itself  to  study,  succeeded 
in  finding  the  true  solution,  which  was  at  last  given  by  the 
study  of  the  new  material. 

Starting  from  Mr.  Meyrick's  suggestion  that  Dunstania  might 
be  Homopterous,  I  find  that  a  number  of  correspondents  enter- 
tained this  idea,  the  strength  of  which  lies,  of  course,  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  margin  of  the  wing  as  corneous.  However, 
Mr.  J.  Edwards,  of  Cheltenham,  England,  an  acknowledged 
expert  upon  this  Order,  wrote  to  Mr.  Meyrick,  and  also  to  me, 
strongly  opposing  the  idea,  on  the  ground  that  he  could  see 
nothing  in  the  fossil  to  indicate  such  a  relationship.  As  the 
Homoptera  are  well  represented  in  the  Ipswich  Trias  by  forms 
differing  entirely  from  Dunstania,  and  as  I  was  unable  to  estab- 
lish a  single  venational  character  common  to  the  two  types,  I 
soon  abandoned  any  idea  of  relationships  in  this  direction. 

In  correspondence,  other  entomologists  discussed  with  me  the 


tiV    R.    .t.    TlLLYARt).  573 

probable  affinities  of  Dunstania,  but  their  opinions  were  not 
published.  Jn  particular,  I  desire  to  mention  Mr.  Herbert 
Campion's  share  in  the  clearing  up  of  the  mystery.  It  was 
through  his  unfailing.courtesy  that  I  was  kept  in  touch  with 
the  trend  of  opinion  in  England  on  the  fossil,  and  from  him  I 
obtained  valuable  suggestions  as  to  clues  that  were  worth  follow- 
ing out.  One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these,  originating  with 
Mr.  Durrant  of  the  British  Museum,  and  stated  in  publication 
by  Dr.  Bather,  F.R.8.,  in  the  course  of  a  short  review  of  my 
paper  in  "  Nature,"*  was,  that  the  venation  of  Duiistnida  might 
be  compared  with  that  of  certain  groups  of  Diptera,  such  as  the 
Fsycliodidce.  At  about  the  same  time.  Dr.  C.  J.  Gahan,  of  the 
British  Museum,  had  before  him  a  small  collection  of  insects 
from  New  Zealand,  and  suggested  to  Mr.  Campion  that  the  fossil 
should  be  compaied  Avith  the  Anthomyiid  Exsul  sing^day'is 
Huttou,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  the  shape  and  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  wing. 

Acting  on  these  suggestions,  I  put  myself  into  communication 
with  several  New  Zealand  entomologists,  in  the  endeavour  to 
obtain  material  of  Exsul.  This,  however,  was  not  easy  to  get, 
as  the  fly  is  exceedingly  rare,  and  regarded  as  a  great  prize. 
After  a  considerable  time,  I  ol)tained  two  specimens,  one  from 
Mr.  David  Miller,  Government  Entomologist  of  New  Zealand, 
and  an  expert  Dipterologist,  and  another  from  Mr.  G.  V.  Hudson, 
of  Wellington.  To  both  of  these  gentlemen  I  offer  my  cordial 
thanks  for  their  generosity  in  sending  me  such  valuable  material. 

While  I  could  not  admit  any  affinity  between  Dunstania  and 
the  Psychodid(e^  I  was  impelled  to  study  more  closely  its  possible 
affinity  with  Exsul.,  in  spitn  of  some  cardinal  differences  in  the 
venational  scheme,  which  would  be  hard  to  explain  on  any 
hypothesis.  Believing  that  I  had  here,  at  last,  a  good  solution 
of  the  problem,  and  wishing  to  give  due  credit  to  those  to  whom 
the  suggestion  was  originally  due,  1  wrote  to  "Nature,"!  stating 
ray  adherence  to  the  probable  Dipterous  nature  of  Diuistaida. 
However,  it  was  necessary  to  carry  out  a  very  detailed  studv  of 

*  "  Nature,"  No.  2441,  Vol.  97,  Aug.  10th,  1916,  p. 489. 

t  "  Nature,"  No.  2488.  Vol.  90,  July  8th,  1917,  p..373. 


574  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

the  fossil  before  anything  could  be  published.  Here  I  was 
helped  and  guided  by  a  regular  correspondence  with  Mr.  Miller. 
He,  like  other  entomologists,  found  in  the  supposed  corneous 
border  of  the  wing  a  stumbling-block  to  the  acceptance  of  any 
theory  of  Dipterous  affinity  for  the  fossil.  He  also  pointed  out 
the  remarkable  difference  between  the  structure  of  the  costal 
vein  in  Dunstania  and  in  Exsul,  and  finally  declared  his  belief 
in  the  Homopterous  nature  of  the  fossil. 

The  only  other  possibility  that  occurred  to  me  was,  that  Dun- 
siania  might  be  the  wing  of  a  large  Oligoneurous  Mayfly.  The 
shape  and  venation  of  the  wing  made  this  likely;  but  I  was 
unable  to  follow  this  line  of  research  far,  as  I  soon  became  con- 
vinced that  the  evident  toughness  and  strength  of  build  of  the 
Dunstania  wing  could  not  possibly  have  belonged  to  the  wings 
of  any  representative  of  the  Order  Plectoptera. 

Here,  then,  after  having  reviewed  possible  affinities  with  four 
Orders,  Lepidoptera,  Diptera,  Homoptera  and  Plectoptera,  I 
abandoned  the  study  of  this  puzzling  fossil  for  a  time,  in  the 
hope  that  a  respite  from  the  work  might  rid  my  mind  of  any 
preconceived  notions,  that  were  bound  by  now  to  be  present, 
after   so  long  a  time   spent  in  thinking  over  the  problem,  and 


misfht  allow  some  new  lierht  to  come  in. 


In  the  meanwhile,  I  had  received  from  Mr.  Dunstan  the  com- 
plete series  of  fossils  found  at  Ipswich  since  my  firbt  paper  had 
been  published,  and  had  been  arranging  these  for  study.  For 
some  months,  I  had  put  the  new  material  of  Dunstania  by,  as  it 
was  evidently  in  very  poor  preservation  compared  with  the  type, 
and  I  did  not  expect  to  get  any  new  evidence  from  it.  It  was, 
however,  from  this  new  material  that  the  solution  of  the  problem 
came;  and  that  solution  was  of  such  a  nature  that  it  could  have 
scarcely  been  suggested  as  a  possibility,  on  the  evidence  of  the 
type  alone. 

The  number  of  the  type-specimen  was  2a;  the  two  wings  of 
Dunstania  received  after  the  type  had  been  described  were 
numbered  107a  and  147  respectively.  In  the  present  paper,  I 
propose  to  give  a  complete  description  of  the  new  material, 
together  with  a  re-examination  of   the  type   in  the  light   of  the 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  575 

new  evidence,  and  an  attempt  at  a  complete  restoration  of  the 
wing. 

Specimen  No. 147  is  in  a  very  poor  state  of  preservation,  and 
represents  practically  the  same  area  of  the  wing  as  is  found  in 
the  type.  It  clearly  belongs  to  a  somewhat  larger  insect  than 
the  type;  and,  as  the  venation  differs  from  that  of  the  latter  in 
some  important  respects,  it  will  form  the  type  of  a  new  genus 
within  the  family  Duiistaniidce. 

Specimen  No.l07«  is  in  much  better  preservation  than  No. 
147,  but  it  is  not  so  well  preserved  as  the  type.  The  apical  part 
of  the  wing  is  missing,  but  the  whole  of  what  was  taken  to  be 
the  basal  part  in  the  type  is  fairly  well  preserved.  On  the  other 
side  of  this  there  is  preserved  a  large  flattened  area,  with  only 
traces  of  disconnected  venation.  On  making  a  careful  drawing 
of  this,  and  trying  to  establish  its  connection  with  the  rest  of 
the  wing,  on  which  the  venation  is  well  preserved,  it  became  at 
once  apparent  that  this  new  fossil  represented  almost  the  whole 
{excluding  the  base  and  apex  only)  of  a  huge  Heteropterous 
hemelytron,  and  that  the  supposed  almost  complete  wings  pre- 
served in  the  type-specimen  and  in  No.  147  were,  in  reality, 
nothing  more  than  the  distal  membranous  half  of  the  hemelytron, 
which  is  separated  anteriorly  from  the  basal  half,  or  coriwm,  by 
a  strongly  developed  node  upon  the  costa. 

With  this  new  and  unexpected  light  upon  the  problem  that 
had  been  exercising  me  for  so  long,  the  mystery  of  the  affinities 
of  DuiisUmia  became  cleared  up  in  a  moment.  There  cannot 
now  be  any  doubt  that  these  fossils  are  Heteropterous;  the  only 
question  that  remains  for  discussion  is  as  to  what,  if  any,  recent 
or  fossil  families  of  Heteroptera  show  any  affinity  with  them. 

Before  the  fossils,  including  the  type,  can  be  correctly  de- 
scribed in  terms  suitable  to  their  new  position,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  examine  them  very  carefully,  with  a  view  to  trying  to 
establish  the  homologies  of  their  unique  venation  upon  the 
Comstock-Needham  system.  This  is  a  difficult  task.  I  propose, 
therefore,  to  use  the  new  names  under  which  I  shall  describe  the 
two  new  fossils  at  the  end  of  this  paper,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  discussion  that  must  take  place  before  those  descriptions  can 
be  properly  given. 


576 


MESOZOIC  INSECTS  OF  QUEENSLAND, 


Specimen  No.  107a  is  to  be  made  tlie  type  of  a  new  genus  and 
species,  Dunstaniopsis  triassica,  n.g.  et  sp.,  while  specimen  No. 
147  will  also  be  the  type  of  a  new  genus  and  species,  Paradun- 
stania  affinis,  n.g,  et  sp.  All  these  are  evidently  members  of 
the  same  family,  Bunstaniidff,  the  venational  differences  being, 
at  the  most,  only  of  generic  value. 

Tn  discussing  the  venation  of  the  Bunsfaniidce,  we  shall  make 
use  of  the  most  complete  specimen,  Duiistaniopsin  triassica,  n.g. 
et  sp.,  supplemented  by  the  type  of  the  family,  Dnii^tanui 
pidchra  Till.  It  will  be  necessary  to  compare  the  venation  on 
the  corium  of  the  former  with  the  tracheation  to  be  found  on  the 
same  area  of  the  hemelytta  of  recent  Heteroptera.  Unfortu- 
nately, few  reliable  figures  of  the  latter  are  available.  I  have 
selected  as  the  most  suitable  for  our  purpose  the  excellent  figure 
of  the  tracheation  of  the  nymphal  fore  wing  of  Syromastes  {idixnWy 
Coreidcp)  given  by  Handlirsch  (1,  Atlas,  PI.  vii.,  fig. 3).  It  is 
not  necessary  to  figure  the  corresponding  venation  in  the  imago, 
as  it  onl}'  differs  from  that  of  the  nymph  in  the  greater  differ- 
entiation Ijetween  corium  and  membrane^  the  dividing  line 
becoming  a  complete  whole,  and  effectually  concealing  the  con- 
nections between  the  veins  on  the  corium  and  those  on  the  mem- 
brane. Consequently,  such  an  archaic  type  as  Dunstaniopsis  is 
more  closely  comparable  with  the  tracheation  of  the  nymphal 
wing  of  Syromastes  than  with  the  venation  of  the  imaginal  wing. 


Text-fig.  17. 
Tracheation  of  forewing  of  iiympli  of  Syromastes  sp. ;  (  x  8).     After  Hand- 
lirsch.    For  lettering,  see  p.  592, 
Text-tig. 1 7   shows   the  tracheation   of   the   nymphal    wing  in 
Syromastes.     The  wing  consists  of  a  hard  coriaceous  basal  half, 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


577 


called  the  corfwm  (co),  and  a  softer  membranous  distal  half,  called 
the  meAnhrane  (ni).  These  are  separated  by  the  dividing  line, 
running  somewhat  obliquely  across  the  wing  from  the  node  (n) 
on  the  costa  to  the  antinode  (n)  on  the  dorsum.  Posterior  to 
the  corium  is  a  narrow  projecting  anal  area,  known  as  the  cl(wiis 
(cl).  Around  the  membrane  is  a  complete  coriaceous  harder  (e.b.), 
such  as  we  have  already  noticed  very  prominentlv  in  the  tvpe- 
specimen  of  Dnnst<iiiia. 


Text-fig.  18. 

Hemelytron  of  Dunstaniopsis  triamica,  n.g,  et  sp.;  {  x2*S).     Upper 
Triassie,  Ipswich,  Q.     For  lettering,  see  p. 592. 

Turning  next  to  Dunstaniopsis  (Text-fig.  1  8)  we  see  that  the 
node  is  more  prominent,  but  that  the  dividing  line  is,  on  the 
whole,  not  so  clearlv  marked,  and  its  course  is  far  more  irregular. 
This  line  also  runs  more  transversely  across  the  wing  in  Dun- 
staniopsis than  in  Syromastes-,  but,  in  many  recent  Heteroptera, 
especially  in  the  family  Pentatomidce,  it  takes  a  similar  trans- 
verse course,  though  much  straighter  than  m  Dutistaniopsis.  A 
further  point  of  difference  is  that  no  true  claval  area  can  be  seen 
in  Dunstaniopsis.  But,  as  the  extreme  base  of  the  wing  is  not 
preserved,  there  may  well  have  been  a  short  elavus  present  on 
the  lost  part. 

Turning  next  to  the  venation,  we  notice  that,  in  Syromastes, 
the  corium  is  crossed  by  four  longitudinal  veins,  not  counting 
the  analis,  which  borders  the  elavus  anteriorly.     By  reference 

44 


578  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

to  the  precedent  traeheation,  these  veins  are  shown  to  be  the 
subcosta,  radius,  media,  and  cubitus  respectively.  As  in  most 
Heteroptera,  the  subcostal  trachea  lies  close  up  to  the  costal 
border;  in  the  imago,  the  subcostal  vein  becomes  more  or  less 
fused  with  this  border.  The  radius  and  media  are  fused  for 
some  distance  from  their  bases,  and  then  diverge  gradually  at  an 
acute  angle.  The  cubitus  is  a  separate  vein,  lying  about  half- 
way between  the  media  and  analis. 

Having  made  the  above  comparison  with  Syromastes,  it  now 
becomes  an  easy  task  to  name  the  radius,  media,  and  cubitus  in 
the  corium  of  Dunstaniopsis.  This  is  shown  in  Text-fig.  18. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  bad  state  of  preservation,  in  this  fossil, 
of  the  dividing  line  between  corium  and  membrane,  we  cannot 
proceed  to  name  the  numerous  veins  in  the  latter  area  with  any 
certainty.  Here,  however,  we  may  fall  back  upon  the  type- 
specimen  of  Du7istania,  in  which  there  is  just  enough  of  the 
corium  preserved  to  enable  us  to  make  the  necessary  connections. 

In  my  original  description  of  Dunstania,  I  paid  little  atten- 
tion to  this  part  of  the  wing,  believing  it  to  represent  only  a 
small  flattened-out  portion  of  the  thorax  of  the  insect.  I  now 
give,  in  Text-fig.  19,  a  careful  drawing  of  the  region  of  the  node 
and  dividing  line  in  this  fossil.  From  the  figure  of  Dunstani- 
opsis, it  will  be  seen  that  Pv  and  M,  after  diverging  from  one 
another  in  the  middle  of  the  corium,  again  begin  to  converge, 
and  are  then  unfortunately  lost  in  a  break  in  the  rock-surface. 
In  Dunstania,  however,  we  are  able  to  pick  up  these  two  veins 
as  they  approach  the  dividing  line.  R  is  seen  to  be  just  dividing 
into  Rj  and  Rs,  while  M  converges  towards  the  latter  as  a  stout 
vein  from  below.  Sc  is  fused  with  the  costa,  as  in  Dunstaniopsis. 
Between  Sc  and  R  there  are  a  number  of  oblique  ribs,  half  fused 
into  the  corium;  these  can  also  be  seen  in  Dunstaniopsis,  further 
basad  along  the  same  area. 

Just  before  the  level  of  the  node,  Rs  turns  upwards,  and 
partially  fuses  with  R^.  From  the  combined  stem  thus  formed, 
three  branches  pass  out  into  the  membrane,  viz.,  Rj,  R.^,  and  R3.5. 
Of  these,  Rj  is  a  short  vein  lying  close  alongside  the  costal 
jnargin,  and  supporting  it  from  below;  it  ends  up  at  about  one- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVAIID. 


579 


third  of  the  length  of  the  membrane,  upon  the  costal  margin. 
The  second  branch,  R,,  is  a  longer,  gracefully  curved  vein, 
running  below  Rj  and  parallel   to  the  costal  margin  for  most  of 

[f*+lS(J  ^^^  length,  and  finally 
curving  up  to  meet  the 
margin  at  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  length  of 
the  membrane.  The  last 
branch,  Rs.s,  gives  off  R., 
close  to  its  base,  and  im- 
mediately after  divides 
into  R4  and  R.,.  Ro  passes 
in  a  gentle  curve  beneath 
Ro,  and  ends  up  just 
above  the  apex  of  the 
wing.  Rj  and  Rg  meet 
again  (in  Dimstania  OT\\y) 
beyond  the  middle  of  the 
membrane, and  from  there 
on  continue  straight  to 
the  termen  as  a  single 
vein  R4+5.  In  Dunstan- 
Rii^  is   a   sincrle   unbroken   vein  from   its  origin  to  its 


Text-fig.  19.- 


lOpSlS,     iV4^5 

termination. 

Returning  to  the  corium  of  Dunstania  (Text-fig.  19  and  Plate 
lix.,  fig.  15),  we  can  pick  up  M  converging  towards  R  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  membrane.  On  the  dividing  line,  it  is  connected 
with  R  by  a  short,  stout  cross-vein,  forming  portion  of  the 
dividing  line  itself.  From  the  swollen  root  of  M  upon  the 
dividing  line,  two  branches  pass  out  into  the  membrane.  Of 
these,  the  upper,  Mj,  arches  gently  upwards,  so  as  to  approach 
close  to  R3.5,  and  is  connected  with  R5,  just  distad  from  its  origin, 
by  a  short  cross-vein.  Thence  onward,  Mj  runs  with  a  slight 
double-curving  to  the  termen.     The  lower  branch,  M2+3,  almost 

"  Region  of  node  and  dividing  line  in  hemelytron  of  DunManla  pnlchra 
Till.,  showing  the  small  anterior  portion  of  the  coriuin  preserved  in  the 
fossil;  (  X  7'«3).     Upper  Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q. 


580  MESOZOIC    INSKCTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

immediately  divides  into  two;  of  these,  the  upper,  Mg,  runs  to 
tlie  termen  on  a  similar  course  to  that  of  Mj,  but  well  below  it; 
while  the  lower  branch,  M3,  diverges  from  M2  for  some  distance, 
until  it  gives  off  a  backwardly  descending  vein,  whose  destina- 
tion cannot  l)e  followed  out  in  Dunstania\  at  this  point,  M3  is 
bent  at  a  very  oblique  angle,  and  passes  on  probably  to  near  the 
tornus  of  the  wing. 

From  the  base  of  M3,  in  Vutisfania,  a  very  weakly  indicated 
vein,  M4,  can  be  made  out,  passing  downwards,  about  midway 
between  Mg  and  the  dividing  line;  it  can  be  seen  to  be  con- 
verging towards  the  cross-vein  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph; but  the  fracture  of  the  rock  hides  its  further  course  from 
our  view. 

In  order  to  follow  out  the  further  structure  of  the  w'ing,  pos- 
teriad  to  the  region  of  M,  we  must  now  turn  again  to  Duiistati- 
iopsis  (Text-fig.  18),  in  which  mast  of  this  part  of  tlie  wing  is 
fairly  well  preserved.  In  this  genus,  we  can  easily  pick  up  the 
cubitus,  running  with  a  gentle  curve  upon  the  corium,  well  below 
M.  In  Syroinastes^  we  see  that  M  and  Cu  are  connected  by  a 
short  cross-vein,  not  far  from  the  dividing  line.  In  Dunstan- 
iopsis^  Cu  gives  off  an  oblique  anterior  branch,  which  approaches 
closely  to  two  oblique  posterior  branches  given  off'  by  M  at  about 
the  same  level;  these  two  branches  of  M  unite  close  to  the 
dividing  line,  at  a  point  where  the  branch  from  Cu  lies  very  close 
below  them.  Here  there  is  a  break  in  the  rock-surface;  but  we 
can  pick  up,  on  the  other  side  of  the  break,  a  single  weak  vein 
curving  into  M4.  This  is  evidently  the  prolongation  of  the 
united  branches  from  M  and  Cu. 

Turning  now  to  the  main  stem  of  Cu,  we  can  follow  it,  in 
Dunstaniopsis^  up  to  the  dividing  line  between  corium  and 
membrane,  where  it  gives  off  an  oblique  anterior  branch,  Cuj^; 
this  branch  meets  M4,  the  weak  vein  already  mentioned  as  de- 
scending from  the  base  of  Mo.  At  the  angle  formed  by  these 
two,  which  is  almost  a  right  angle  in  Dunstaniopsis,  a  third  vein 
comes  in  from  the  membrane;  following  this  distad,  we  see  that 
it  arises  from  M3,  which,  in  this  genus,  is  a  straight  vein  running 
to  near  the  toruus  of  the  wing. 


nv    R.    j.    TILLYARt).  58l 

We  can  now  complete  this  part  of  the  wing  in  Dunstania. 
The  descending  vein  from  M3  must  be  the  homologue  of  the 
corresponding  vein  in  Dunstaniopsis ;  the  only  difference  is  in 
the  angle  of  departure  from  M3.  On  this  difference,  as  well  as 
upon  its  more  numerous  and  slightly  more  divergent  veins,  we 
see  at  once  that  D unsiania  had  a  broader  and  shorter  membrane 
than  Dunstaniopsis. 

Following  the  main  stem  of  Cu,  which  I  call  Cun,,  across  the 
dividing  line  in  Dunstaniopsis,  we  see  that  it  continues  in  a 
gentle  curve,  until  it  ends  up  on  the  dorsum  of  the  wing,  not  far 
from  the  tornus.  Below  Cu^,,  another  branch  of  Cu,  Cu„,  arises 
on  the  dividing  line,  and  passes  into  the  membrane  as  a  curved 
vein  running  to  the  dorsum  below  Cuj. 

The  dividing  line  hereabouts  is  not  well  preserved,  but  its 
ending  up  on  the  dorsum  can  be  just  made  out.  The  division 
between  corium  and  membrane  is  clearly  noticeable  in  the  fossil 
on  account  of  the  difference  between  the  colour  of  the  rock  and 
the  fossil  itself.  The  former  is  a  dark  grey;  the  latter  a  pale 
brown,  'i'he  vvhole  of  the  corium  is  coloured  pale  brown,  and  is 
Hat  and  smooth.  The  membrane,  on  the  other  hand,  is  vari- 
coloured, showing  pale  veins  bordered  by  narrow  bands  of  dark 
brown  pigment,  and,  between  these,  areas  of  the  darker  rock- 
colour  on  those  parts  where  no  veins  are  present.  Also,  the 
membrane  is  lightly  pitted  all  over,  whereas  the  corium  is  quite 
smooth  in  this  genus. 

Sufficient  will  now  have  been  said  to  make  it  abundantly  clear 
that  we  have,  in  Dunstania  and  its  allied  genera,  a  primitive 
type  of  Heteropteron,  of  large  size,  and  very  probably  of  amphi- 
biotic  habits.  From  recent  Heteroptera,  such  as  the  Lyyceidce 
and  PyrrJiocorid(e^  in  which  some  of  the  venation  is  still  pre- 
served upon  the  corium,  the  DunstaniidcB  differ  in  the  incom- 
pleteness and  tortuosity  of  the  dividing  line  between  corium  and 
membrane:  and  they  show  us  how  the  anterior  portion  of  this 
dividing  line  has  been  evolved,  apparently  in  a  most  complicated 
manner,  from  a  series  of  cross-veins  and  branches  of  main-veins 
linking  up  at  different  angles.  Tiie  process  by  which  the  straight 
division  between  corium   and   membrane,  found   in  most  recent 


582  MESOZOIC     INSECTS    Of    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

Heteroptera,  has  been  evolved  from  the  stage  seen  in  the  Dun 
st'aniidce,  is  simply  one  of  reduction  and  alignment  of  parts. 
When  it  is  completed,  as  in  recent  Peiitatomidce,  the  clue  to  the 
venation  of  the  membrane  would  be  quite  lost,  were  it  not  for 
the  preservation  of  the  tracheae  in  the  nymphal  wing.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  find  a  single  existing  type  of  Heteropteron  in 
which  this  venation  is  at  all  closely  comparable  with  that  of 
Dunstania.  In  the  aquatic  forms,  especially,  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  clue  at  all.  Judging  chiefly  by  the  shape  of  the 
wing,  and  the  condition  of  the  venation  of  the  corium,  I  am 
inclined  to  regard  the  Coreidce,  Lygceidce,  and  Pyrrhoeoridce  as 
the  nearest  relatives  of  the  Dunstaniidtfi  at  the  present  day. 
These  three  families,  and  no  doubt  also  the  Peniatomidce,  may 
well  lie  almost  in  a  direct  line  of  descent  from  the  Dunstaniidce. 
We  should  have  to  suppose,  in  restoring  the  latter,  that  the 
development  of  the  scutellum  had  advanced  very  little  beyond  a 
normal  size;  and  consequently,  that  the  clavus,  which,  in  the 
position  of  rest,  borders  the  scutellum,  was  also  very  short.  As 
no  anal  vein  or  clavus  can  be  seen  in  the  preserved  portion  of 
the  hemelytron  of  Bunstaniopsis,  this  was  almost  certainly  the 
case. 

In  Plate  lix.,  fig.  15,  I  offer  a  restoration  of  the  complete 
hemelytron  of  Dunstania  pulchr a  TiW.,  based  upon  the  preserved 
portions  of  the  type  and  of  Bunstaniopsis  triassica.  The  poorly 
preserved  Paradunstania  ajfinis  has  not  been  brought  into  the 
discussion  at  all,  and  its  only  use  in  the  restoration  is  to  indicate 
the  course  of  the  wing-border  below  the  tornus. 

It  now  remains  for  me  to  revise  my  original  definition  of  the 
family  Bunstaniidce  in  the  light  of  our  new  knowledge,  and  to 
give  definitions  of  the  type-genus,  and  of  the  two  new  genera 
here  proposed,  and  descriptions  of  the  new  species. 

Order  HEMIPTERA. 
Suborder  Heteroptera. 
Family  DUNSTANIID^. 
Large  bugs,  with  hemelytra  more  than  30  mm.  long.     Hemely- 
tron  suboval,   about   half  as   wide  as   long,    the  corium   either 
smooth  or  lightly  pitted  (hairy),  the   membrane  pitted  (hairyj. 


BY    ft.    J.    TILLY ARD.  583 

Veins  present  on  the  coriiim  are  R,  M,  and  Cii;  no  clavus  visible 
in  the  preserved  portion,  but  the  base  of  the  wing  is  incomplete 
posteriorly  in  all  known  specimens.  8c  fused  with  costal  margin. 
Costa  broken  between  corium  and  membrane  by  a  strongly  de- 
veloped node.  Dividing  line  between  corium  and  membrane 
crosses  the  wing  from  node  to  antinode  in  a  very  irregular 
manner,  being  formed  anteriorly  by  short  cross-veins  and  por- 
tions of  main  veins,  posteriorly  by  a  sinuous  line  not  made  up 
of  veins.  On  the  membrane  there  are  either  eight  or  nine 
longitudinal  veins,  of  which  either  three  or  four  arise  from  R, 
three  from  M,  and  two  from  Cu;  these  veins  runs  distad  in  a 
slightly  diverging  manner,  Rg  ending  up  at  or  near  the  apex,  and 
Cui  at  or  near  the  torn  us.  From  M3  a  downward  and  back- 
wardly  running  branch  passes  to  the  dividing  line,  where  it 
meets  the  intersection  of  M4  and  Cui^.  Few  cross-veins  present 
on  membrane.  Veins  of  the  membrane  pale,  generally  bordered 
on  either  side  by  a  band  of  dark  brown  pigment.  A  fairly  broad 
border  without  pits,  and  probably  coriaceous,  runs  completely 
round  the  membrane. 

Horizon,  Upper  Trias  of  Ipswich,  Queensland. 

The  genera  comprised  in  this  family  are  Danstania  Till., 
Dunstaniopsis,  n.g.,  and  Fai^adunatania,  n.g. 

Key  to  the  known  genera  of  Dunstaniidc'. 
f'S]  1  connected  with  the  lowest  branch  of  R   by  a  short  cross- 

I      vein,  not  far  distad  from  the  dividing  line  1 . 

I  No  cross-vein  present  at  this  level   between   Mi   and   lowest 

I      Ijrancli  of  R  PavoAlunstania,  n.g. 

I ''Four  branches  of  R  crossing  the  membrane,  viz.,  Rn  to  R5  ;   R4 
and  R5  unite  a  little  beyond  half-way,  forming  a  closed  cell 
Dunstania  Till . 

Tluee  branches  of  R  crossing  the  membrane,  viz,  Ro,  R.t,  and 
R4+5;  the  last  a  single  straight  vein  connected  with  M,  near 

its  origin Dunstaniopsis,  n. g. 

Genus  Dunstania  Tillyard. 
(Plate  lix.,  fig.15,  and  Text-fig.l9). 
Membrane  and  a  very  small   portion  only  of   the  corium  pre- 
served.     Preserved  portion  of  corium  distinctly  pitted  all  over. 
Membrane  about  as  broad  as  long,  the  apex  prominent  but  grace- 


584  MESOZOIC  INSECTS  OF  QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

fully  rounded.  Node  exceediDgly  prominent.  Rj  a  weak  vein 
fused  with  costal  margin  from  below  node  up  to  about  one-tbird 
the  length  of  the  membrane.  Kg  ending  well  before  the  apex, 
R3  at  tlie  apex  itself.  Between  K  and  M,  at  the  base  of  the 
membrane,  a  closed  cell  is  formed,  bounded  by  the  dividing  line 
basally,  by  R..^  anteriorly,  by  Mj  posteriorly,  and  by  a  short 
cross-vein  connecting  these  two  veins  distally.  Distally  from 
this  cell  a  second  closed  cell  is  formed  between  R^  and  R5,  these 
two  veins  at  first  diverging,  and  then  converging  to  meet  again 
at  a  point  beyond  the  middle  of  the  membrane.  M,  and  M.^ 
united  distally  for  a  short  distance  upon  the  membrane.  The 
backwardly  projecting  branch  from  M3  comes  off  almost  at  right 
angles  from  the  main  stem.      (Rest  of  hemelytron  missing). 

Genotype,  Dunstania  pulchra  Till.,  (3,  p. 32,  and  Plate  iii., 
fig.  6). 

Genus   D  u  N  s  t  a  x  i  o  p  s  i  s,  n.g.     (Text-fig.  18). 

Hemelytron  completely  preserved  except  for  the  extreme  l)ase 
of  the  corium  (including  the  clavus,  if  present)  and  the  apical 
portion  of  the  membrane.  A  longer  wing  than  that  of  Dun- 
stania^ and  narrower  in  proportion.  Differs  from  Dunstania  as 
follows: — Corium  smooth,  membrane  lightly  pitted  all  over. 
Coriaceous  border  narrower  and  less  defined;  node  somewhat  less 
prominent.  R4-1-5  a  single  straight  vein,  and  hence  no  closed 
cell  formed  between  R4  and  R5.  The  basal  cell  completed  by 
the  presence  of  the  short  cross  vein  betw^een  M^  and  lowest 
branch  of  R  is  present,  but  is  much  shorter  than  in  Dunstania. 
The  backwardly  projecting  branch  from  M3  to  the  junction  of 
Mj  and  Cuj^^  comes  off  from  the  main  stem  at  an  angle  of  about 
30^,  and  runs  almost  parallel  to  the  posterior  border  below  it. 
On  the  corium,  M  curves  upward  distally,  converging  towards 
R,  and  giving  off  posteriorly  two  branches  which  unite  further 
distad  and  then  meet  an  anterior  branch  given  off  from  Cu;  this 
latter  vein  divides  at  the  dividing  line  into  three  branches,  CU)^, 
Cujb,  and  Cun,  of  which  the  first  runs  to  the  intersection  of  M4 
and  the  backward  branch  fi  (jm  M3.  Cu^,  ends  up  at  or  near  the 
tornus. 

Genotype,   Duiiatniiioijsis  triassica^  n.sp. 


fiY    il.    J.    TiLLYARl).  585 

DuNSTANioPSis  TRiAssiCA,  n.sp.      (Text-fig.  1  8). 

Greatest  length  of  fragment,  31  "5  mm.;  breadth  across  the 
dividing  line,  loo  mm  Esiiniated  total  length  of  hemelytron, 
40  mm. 

'J'he  specimen  is  only  moderately  preserved,  and  would  appear 
to  have  been  much  torn  distally  before  it  became  fossilised,  since 
a  part  of  a  frond  of  Thinnfeldia,  lying  upon  the  same  rock- 
surface,  projects  well  into  the  gap  where  the  missing  distal  por- 
tion ought  to  Ije,  and  is  embraced  on  one  side  by  the  projecting 
torn  costa,  without  appearing  to  overlie  the  wing  in  any  way. 
Also  the  beautiful  pattern  of  brown  pigmentation  bordering  the 
veins  of  the  membrane,  though  it  can  be  seen  to  be  present,  is 
not  by  any  means  so  well  preserved  as  in  Dutistmda.  The 
corium  appears  to  have  been  hard,  and  is  fairly  well  preserved; 
the  veins  lying  upon  it  are  not  so  distinct  as  those  upon  the 
membrane. 

The  venational  characters  being  considered  as  of  either  family 
or   generic  importance,    they    will    be   found    in   full  in  the  de- 


T  V  p  e.  Specimen  No.  107rt,  in  the  Queensland  Geological 
Survey  Collection. 

Genus  P  A  R  A  D  u  N  s  T  A  X  I  A,  n.g.     (Text-fig. 20). 

Portion  of  membrane  only  preserved,  and  in  very  poor  condi- 
tion. Apparently  a  hemelytron  of  somewhat  larger  size  than 
that  of  Duustaiiia.  No  cross-veins  basally  between  Mj  and 
lowest  branch  of  R.  Cross-veins  developed  not  far  from  dividing 
line  between  Rj  and  Ro,  atjd  also  between  R;;  and  K4  .-5.  This 
last  vein  receives  a  curved  branch-vein  from  above,  at  about 
the  same  point  as  where,  in  Diiiistania,  R^  and  P.,  unite  distally; 
but  a  break  in  the  rock-surface  prevents  us  from  determining 
whether  this  branch  is  really  R4  or  not.  At  about  the  same 
level,  Mj  receives  a  curving  branch  from  above;  this  branch  ap- 
pears to  come  from  R44.5,  but  its  origin  is  not  determinable  with 
certainty.      Rest  of  venation  similar  to  that  of  Dunstania. 

Genotype,   Faradunsiania  afjittis,  n.sp. 


586 


MES0Z(JIC    INSECTS    OP    QUEENSLAND,  iv. 


Paradunstania  affinis,  11. sp.     (Text  fig. 20). 

Greatest  length  of  fragment,  17  mm.  ;  greatest  breadth, 
14-5  mm.  A  very  poorly  preserved  specimen,  with  very  little 
trace  of  the  brown  pig- 
mentation bordering  the 
veins.  A  large  and  deep 
triangular  break  has  cut 
out  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  courses  of  all 
the  branches  of  R;  the 
rest  of  the  veins  present 
can  be  traced  out  by  the 
use  of  careful  lighting. 

This  specimen  appears 
to   represent  a  hem  ely- 
tron     intermediate     in  Text-fig.  20.'^' 
size  between  that  of   Duni<fania  pidchva   Till.,  and  the   much 
larger  hemelytron   of   Dunstaniopsis   triassica,   n.g.  et  sp.      In 
shape,  also,  it  was  probably  intermediate  between  these  two. 

Type,  Specimen  No.  147,  in  the  Queensland  Geological  Survey 
Collection. 

JVote  on  the  Origin  of  the  Heteroptera. 
In  dealing  with  the  phylogeny  of  the  Order  Hemiptera,  Hand- 
lirsch(l,  pp.  1244-1 249)  rightly  insists  upon  the  clear-cut  dicho- 
tomy between  the  two  Suborders  Heteroptera  and  Homoptera. 
Neither  of  these  two  Suborders  can  be  derived  from  the  other: 
for,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Homoptera  have  preserved  the  more 
primitive  wing-form  and  venation,  while,  on  the  other,  the 
Heteroptera  have  preserved  the  more  archaic  form  of  the  head 
and  antenniB.  As  the  direct  ancestors  of  both  these  recent  Sub- 
orders, Handlirsch  indicates  some  known  Hemipterous  fossils  of 
the  Upper  Permian  and  Lias  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  which 
he  places  in  a  distinct  Order,  Paleeohemiptera,  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  demonstrate  that  they  are  definitely 
either  Heteropterous  or  Homopterous.     The  Palseohemipteia  he 


Paradiimtaula  njini^,  n.g.  et  sp. ;  (  x2'8).      Upper  Triassic,  Ipswich,  Q. 


BY    R.    .).    TILLYARD.  587 

would,   in    turn,  derive   from   the   Lower    Permian   fossil    genus 
Eugereon,  wliich  he  places  in  a  third  Order,  Protohemiptera. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  preservation  of  its  mouth-parts,  which 
form  a  primitive  elongated  sucking  beak,  Euyereon  would  never 
have  been  considered  to  have  any  relationship  whatever  with 
the  Hemiptera.  It  was  a  huge  insect,  with  primitive  densely 
veined  wings  that  were  held  out  away  from  the  body;  the  pro- 
thorax  had  lateral  expansions  suggestive  of  rudimentary  wings, 
as  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  Carboniferous  fossils.  Apart  from 
the  dense  venation,  it  is  not  possible  to  establish  any  close  re- 
lationship between  the  venational  plan  of  Euyereon  and  that  of 
primitive  Hemiptera;  although  it  might  be  admitted  that  such 
a  connection  may  possibly  have  actually  taken  place  in  the 
course  of  evolution,  between  Eugereon  and  the  most  densely 
veined  types  of  Fulgoridcn^  if  the  venation  of  the  former  had 
undergone  a  great  deal  of  reduction  and  fusion  of  parts.  That 
being  so,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  Protohemiptera  are  best  re- 
garded as  a  separate  Order  lying  right  off  the  main  line  of  descent 
of  the  Hemiptera  proper;  the  connection  between  the  two  being 
only  establishable  through  a  lost  Carboniferous  ancestor  common 
to  both. 

The  Palseohemiptera,  on  the  other  hand,  are  so  obviously 
Hemiptera,  that  there  seems  to  be  no  point  at  all  in  erecting  a 
separate  Order  lo  contain  them.  Most  of  the  Liassic  fossils 
known  are,  in  fact,  definitely  placed  within  tiie  Homoptera  by 
Handlirsch;  and  it  is  quite  evident  that  they  rightly  belong 
there.  Only  the  genus  Dysmorpho}>tila  Brodie,  is  retained  within 
the  Palseohemiptera;  and,  as  this  is  probably  a  fragment,  we 
may  disregard  it.  Turning  to  the  Permian  fossils,  we  find  two 
beautifully  preserved  wings,  Scytinojytera  kokeni  Handl.,  and 
Prosbole  hirsuta  Koken,  which  are  placed  together  in  the  Order 
Palpeohemiptera.  The  former,  I  would  regard  definitely  as  an 
Homopteron;  the  latter  most  certainly  comlnnes  the  wing-char- 
acters of  both  Heteroptera  and  Homoptera,  and  could  not  well 
be  placed  in  either  Suborder  without  disregarding  its  evident 
affinity  to  the  other.  I  propose,  therefore,  to  sink  Handlirsch's 
Order  Palseohemiptera  to   the  status  of   a  Suborder  within  the 


588  Mesozoic  inskcts  oP  Queensland,  iv., 

Order  Hemiptera,  this  Suborder  representing  the  original  main 
stem  of  the  Order,  while  the  Heteroptera  and  Homoptera  repre- 
sent two  distinct  branches  evolved  from  it. 

Let  us  now  compare  Proshole  (Text-tig.21)  witli  the  restored 
wing  of  Dunsfania,  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  a  more 
complete  phylogeny  of  the  Heteroptei-a. 

n 


Text-fig.21. 

Proshoh  hirsuta  Koken,  hemelytron,  after  Handlirsch;  (  x2"l). 

Upper  Permian,  Kama  River,  Russia;  n,  node. 

We  notice,  at  once,  that  Dunstania  is  much  more  definitely 
Heteropterous,  in  that  it  shows  the  distinction  between  corium 
and  membrane  much  more  plainly  than  Proshole  does.  More- 
over, the  corium  of  Proshole  is  strongly  pitted,  while  the  mem- 
brane is  smooth.  In  Dunstania,  both  are  strongly  pitted,  while, 
in  Dunstaniopsis,  the  corium  is  smooth  and  the  membrane 
pitted.  If,  then,  these  genera  had  a  common  ancestor,  it  must 
have  had  a  wing  pitted  all  over,  such  as  we  find  still  preserved 
in  many  Homoptera.  In  most  recent  forms,  the  pits  are  swollen 
into  tubercles,  and  no  longer  carry  hairs;  but  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  from  the  nature  of  the  pits  in  Dunstania,  that,  originally 
at  any  rate,  they  were  the  bases  of  insertion  of  macrotrichia. 
As  we  have  already  seen  in  the  Protomecoptera,  the  macrotrichia 
were  originally  carried  upon  a  dense  meshwork  of  veinlets  all 
over  the  wing.  If,  then,  the  wings  of  the  Protohemiptera  were 
also    hairy,    we    are    led    to    suggest    that   the  true   Hemiptera 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYAKD.  589 

diverged  from  them  by  a  reduction  of  tlie  original  meshwork,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  pits,  or  bases  of  insertion  for  the  maci-o- 
trichia,  became  seated  upon  the  membrane  of  tlie  wing;  just  as, 
in  the  Lepidoptera,  the  scales  have  appeared  in  a  similar  manner. 

The  original  pitted  wing  of  the  true  Hemiptera  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  given  origin  directly  to  the  various  wing-types 
still  extant  amongst  tlie  older  families  of  recent  Homoptera;  the 
main  developments  in  this  latter  Suborder  are  not  to  be  found  in 
the  wing  at  all,  but  in  the  specialisation  of  the  head  and  antennae, 
and  in  the  development  of  the  power  of  leaping.  In  this  con- 
nection, we  should  bear  in  mind  that  a  number  of  Homoptera, 
especially  in  the  Cicadidat,  still  show  the  dividing  line  between 
corium  and  membrane. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  origin  of  the  Heteroptera.  For 
this,  we  cannot  take  Prosbole  itself  as  a  starting  point;  but  we 
must  go  back  a  little  way  beyond  this  type,  and  assume  a  closely 
similar  ancestral  form  with  a  wing  pitted  all  over.  Keeping  the 
main  scheine  of  venation  unaltered,  we  may  now  see  the  origin 
of  the  Heteroptera  in  a  form  in  which  tlie  tendency  of  evolution 
in  the  basal  half  of  the  wing  was  towards  suppression  of  the 
venation  and  hardening  of  tlie  wing-membrane  (with  or  without 
loss  of  the  pits);  while,  in  the  distal  half  of  the  wing,  the  cross- 
veins  of  dense  Fulgorid-like  venation  still  preserved  in  Prosbole 
become  obsolete,  and  the  remaining  venation  becomes  greatly 
altered,  in  correlation  with  the  differentiation  of  the  dividing- 
line  between  corium  and  membrane. 

I  think  that  a  very  little  consideration,  aided  l)y  a  comparison 
of  the  figures  of  Prosbole  smd  Dunsiania  here  given,  must  con- 
vince us  that  Dunstania  represents  a  very  typical  immediate 
derivative  from  the  hypothetical  ancestor  oi  Prosbole,  from  which 
we  started  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  along  the  lines  there 
indicated  as  leading  directly  to  the  Heteropterous  type.  That 
is  to  say,  Dunstania,  though  not  directly  derivable  from  Pros- 
bole,  is  nevertheless  closely  related  to  it;  but,  while  Prosbole 
itself  cannot  be  accepted  as  having  advanced  along  the  line  of 
the  true  Heteroptera,  and  must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  separate 
Suborder  PaUeohemiptera,    Dunntdnia,   on   the  other  hand,   has 


590  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUEENSLAND,  iv., 

advanced  far  enougli   to   be  considered   a  definite  Heteropteron 
of  a  primitive  type. 

Let  lis  now  consider  the  very  interesting  question  of  the 
evolution  of  the  dividing  line  between  corium  and  membrane  in 
the  Suborder  Heteroptera.  Dunstania  shows  us  this  h'ne  in  an 
exceedingly  primitive  condition.  From  it,  we  see  that  its 
anterior  portion  was  originally  composed  of  either  branches  of 
main  veins,  or  cross-veins.  But,  as  the  main  veins  are  all  pro- 
ceeding more  or  less  distad,  it  is,  therefore,  inevitable  that  these 
various  parts  should  meet  at  difterent  angles,  as  we  see  so  de 
finitely  shown  in  Dunstania. 

The  parts  of  the  dividing  line  may  be  shown  as  follows,  start- 
ing from  the  node  or  costal  end  (see  Plate  lix.,  fig.  15,  and  Text- 
figs.  18-1 9):— 

A.  Anterior  Division,  formed  from  cross-veins  and  branches 
of  main  veins  : 

1.  The  node,  formed  from  the  fused  C  and  Sc. 

2.  Radial  portion,  formed  from  short  parts  of  Rj  and   R.^, 

partially  fused  together. 

3.  A  short  cross-vein  connecting  the  radial  portion  with  the 

median  portion. 

4.  Median  portion,  consisting  of  a  swollen  root  on  M,  from 

which  the  three  branches  of  M  are  given  off. 

B.  Posterior  Division,  consisting  of  a  sinuous  line  crossing  the 
wing  more  or  less  transver.sely,  and  not  carrying  either  cross- 
veins  or  parts  of  main  veins  : 

5.  Medio-cubital  portion,  from  the  swollen  root  of  M  to  Cu; 

the  curvature  of  this  part  is  concave  to  the  corium. 

6.  Cubito-anal  portion,  from  Cu  to  the  antinode;  the  curva- 

ture of  this  part  is  slightly  convex  to  the  corium. 

In  the  evolution  of  such  a  type  as  a  recent  Lygseid  or  Penta- 
tomid  Bug,  all  these  diverse  parts  have  to  become  aligned  and 
fused  into  one  harmonious  whole.  Probably  a  careful  study  of 
existing  types  amongst  the  Heteroptera  would  reveal  many  traces 
of  the  method  by  which  this  change  has  been  brought  about. 

The  other  point  of  outstanding  interest  in  the  evolution  of  the 
Heteropterous    hemelytron   is   the   development   of    the   clavus, 


• 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


591 


which  is  correlated  with  the  growth  of  the  scutelluni.  We  are 
bound  to  assume  that,  in  the  original  Hemiptera,  the  scutellum 
was  of  more  normal  size  than  it  now  is;  and,  consequenth%  the 
wings  v/ere  not  so  completely  folded  over  one  another  distally  as 
they  now  are.  In  fact,  we  have  to  start  from  the  normal  type 
of  scutellum  and  the  roof-like  position  of  holding  the  wings,  still 
to  be  found  in  many  Homoptera  of  the  present  dav.  From  this, 
a  gradual  enlargement  of  the  scutellum,  together  with  a  close 
folding-down  of  the  wings  upon  one  another,  leads  us  to  the 
condition  found  in  recent  Heteroptera.  Here  the  dividino-  line 
marks  the  limit  of  the  portions  of  the  wing  that  are  folded  upon 
one  another;  while  the  anal  area,  or  clavus,  borders  the  two  pos- 
terior sides  of  the  large  triangular  scutellum.  Thus  we  have  to 
correlate  the  length  of  the  clavus  with  the  size  of  the  scutellum, 
the  tendency  being  towards  enlargement  as  evolution  progresses. 
►Since,  in  Du7istaniopsis,  there  is  no  trace  of  a  clavus  in  the  pre- 
served part  of  the  wing,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  Prosbole,  we  have  to  conclude  that 
both  these  forms  had  only  a  small  or  moder- 
ate-sized scutellum,  bordered  by  a  corres- 
pondingly short  clavus,  or  even,  perhaps, 
by  scarcely  any  claval  area  at  all. 

As  soon  as  the  overlapping  of  the  two 
distal  parts  of  the  wing,  or  membranes,  has 
been  brought  about,  it  will  be  clear  that 
these  two  parts  will  in  future  act  (while 
the  insect  is  at  rest)  as  one  only;  whereas 
the  coria  of  the  two  wings  remain  separate. 
There  will,  therefore,  be  little  tendency 
towards  the  thickening  of  the  membrane  Text-fag. 2i.. 

at  all,  and  the  "  heteroptery"  might  be  expected  to  advance 
more  quickly  than  ever.  The  line  of  evolution  would  then 
culminate  in  forms  having  a  thick   corium,  from  which  all  traces 


*  Diagram  of  a  Shield-bug,  family  Pentatomidce,  to  show  the  five  parts 
of  the  shield,  viz.,  1,  the  pronotum,  pn;  2,  the  scutellum,  .sc;  'A  and  4,  the 
right  and  left  coria,  co;  and  5,  the  two  completely'  overlapping  membranes, 
7nh,     The  clavus,  cl,  borders  the  scutellum  on  either  side. 


592  MESOZOIC    INSECTS    OF    QUKKXSLAND,  iv. 

of  venation  had  been  eliminated,  and  a  tliin  membrane,  in  which 
the  veins  were  arranged  more  or  less  parallel  to  one  another  and 
to  the  wing-border.  Probably  the  highest  point  reached  by  this 
line  of  evolution  to-day  is  to  be  seen  in  the  dominant  family 
Pentatomidrt',  in  which  the  shield-shaped  or  "  cut-into-five  "  ap- 
pearance of  the  insect  becomes  perfected,  and  is  often  enhanced 
by  bizarre  sculpture  and  brilliant  colouration.  Text-fig. 22  shows 
the  outline  of  such  an  insect,  with  the  five  separate  areas  of  the 
shield-design  named. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  Handlirsch,  A.,  190S. — Die  Fossilen  lusekten,  etc.    Leipzig.     {Pahvon- 

tinklce,  pp.  018-627,  and  Atlas,  Plates  xlix.-l. ;  Phjdogeny  of  Hemip- 
tera,  pp.  1244-1249;  Piotoliemiptera,  p. 387,  and  Atlas,  Plate  xxxvii., 
figs.  21-23,  Plate  xxxviii.,  figs.  1-4;  Pala?ohemipteia,  p.  390,  and 
Atlas,  Plate  xxxvii.,  figs.  24-27. 

2.  Meyrick,  E.,  1916. — "Note  on  Some  Fossil  Insects."'     Knt.  Mo.  Mag., 

3rd  Ser,,  No.20,  (No.627),  Aug.  1916,  pp.  180-182. 

3.  TiLLYARD,  R.  J.,  1916. — "  Mesozoic  and  Tertiaiy  Insects  of  Queensland 

and  New  South  Wales."  Queensland  Cleol.  Survey,  Publicatioii 
No. 253,  pp.31 -33,  and  Plate  3,  fig. 6. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  LIX. 

Fig.  la. — Restoration  of  right  hemelytron  (forewing)  of  Daastania  pulchra 
Till.,  based  upon  the  preserved  portions  of  this  fossil  and  of  the 
allied  Dmistaniopsis  triassica,  n.g.  et  sp. ;  (  x  ,■>), 

Letterimi  of  Text-Jlynrefi. 
A,  analis — C,  costa — c.h.,  coriaceous  border — d,  clavus — co,  coriuni — 
Cu,  cubitus;  Cuia,  Cuib,  Cu.j,  its  branches  on  the  membrane^-wi  or  w?/>, 
membrane — M,  media;  Mj  to  M4,  its  branches  on  the  membrane — n,  node 
— n  ,  antinode — pn,  pronotum — R,  radius;  R^  to  Rg,  its  brandies  on  the 
membrane — Rs,  radial  sector — sc,  scutellum — Se.  subcosta. 


593 


THE  GEOLOGY   AND    PETROLOGY    OF    THE    GllEAT 
SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  AY  ALES. 

Part   viii.    The  Extension   of  the  Great    Serpentine   Belt 

FROM    THE    NUNDLE    DISTRICT    TO    THE    CoAST. 

By  W.  N.  Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology 
AND  Mineralogy  in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late 

LiNNEAN  MaCLEAY  FeLLOW  OF  THE  SOCIETY   IN  GeOLOGY, 

(With  one  Text-figure). 

Tlie  previous  parts  published  liave  described,  in  greater  or  less 
detail,  the  whole  of  the  country  along  the  Serpenthie  Belt,  ex- 
tending from  Warialda  to  I  fanging  Rock,  a  distance  of  nearly 
150  miles.  Some  facts,  however,  have  been  collected  with  regard 
to  the  further  extension  of  the  Belt,  which  may  be  wortljy  of 
record  before  this  series  of  papers  is  concluded. 

Somewhat  to  the  west  of  the  Serpentine-line,  and  about  twelve 
miles  south  of  Nundle,  commences,  on  Wombramurra  Creek,  one 
of  the  largest  masses  of  limestone  in  the  State,  which  mass  con- 
tinues for  some  miles  across  the  Main  Divide,  at  Crawney  Pass, 
into  the  head  of  the  Isis  River.  This  has,  as  yet,  been  little 
studied.  It  was  briefly  described  by  Phillips,  in  1875(1).  Mr. 
Etheridge  described  a  new  coral  therefrom,  in  1898(2);  and  Mr. 
Dun,  two  years  later,  determined  a  large  collection  of  fossils  ob- 
tained by  Mr.  Cullen(3).  It  was  visited  by  the  writer  in  1910, 
and  has  recently  been  studied  by  Mr.  Came,  and  is  to  be  de- 
scribed in  his  forthcoming  account  of  the  limestones  of  New 
South  Wales (4).  Yery  little  is  known  of  its  stratigraphical  re- 
lationships to  the  other  Devonian  rocks;  it  seems  to  occur  among 
a  series  of  banded  claystones  like  those  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Taraworth  Series,  or  even  of  the  Barraba  Series,  though,  as 

45 


594       GREAT  sp:hpentink  belt  of  new  south  wales,  viii., 

pointed  out  in  previous  papers,  the  lithology  of   the  Tarn  worth 
Series  is  not  very  constant,  an(]  tlie  chertvfacies  is  more  marked 


MVJOO 


in  the  Tamworth-Nundle  region  than  elsewhere.  The  following 
fossils  were  found  to  be  present  in  this  limestone,  the  letters  M., 
L.,  and  N.  indicating  whether  the  forms  are  also  present  in  the 


BY  W.  N.  BENSON.  595 

Moore  Creek,  Loomberah,  or  Nemingha  horizons  respectively. 
Favosites  gothlatidica  ... 
F.  basaltica  var.  '^yiooiibiensis 
F.  salebrosa 
F.  multitabulata 
A  Stromatoporoid 
Diphyphyllum  porteri ... 
D.  sp.nov. 
* Sanidophyllum  davidis 
IVyplastna,  sp.nov. 

*  Spongophyllani  yiyanteum 
*AcHnocystis  cornubovis 

Cyathophyllum  sp. 
Cystiphyllwn  auslralasiciim 

*  Microplasma  parallehtm 
Heliolites  po7'osa 

*Sy7'ingopo7-a  auloporoides 

Litophylhiin  konincki  ... 

Alveolites  sp.     ... 

Endophyllum  schlueteri. 

Atrypa  sp. 

Euomphalus  sp. 

The  association  of  tlie  species  marked  with  an  asterisk,  and 
the  abundance  of  Heliolites  are  features  very  characteristic  of 
the  Moore  Creek  limestone,  with  which  the  great  development 
of  pure  grey  or  white  limestone  also  accords.  The  absence  of 
the  great  abundance  of  Stromatoporoids,  or  Pentameroid  shells, 
or  of  the  signs  of  shallow  water,  distinguishes  this  from  the 
Loomberah  Limestone;  and  the  want  of  association  with  frag- 
mental  igneous  rocks,  or  with  banded  cherts,  separates  it  from 
the  Nemingha  Limestone.  It  seems  permissible,  therefore,  to 
correlate  it  with  the  Moore  Creek  Limestone. 

East  from  here,  across  the  Main  Divide,  the  (Serpentine  Belt 
extends  across  the  headwaters  of  the  Manning  River,  through 
extremely  rugged  and  broken  country.  It  is  the  deeply  dissected 
remnant  of  a  plateau,  over  which  extends  a  widespread  series  of 
more  or  less  alkaline  basic  rocks,  which  were  described  by  Mr. 


M., 

N. 

N. 

M., 

N. 

M?, 

L., 

N. 

M., 

L., 

N. 

M., 

L., 

N. 

M., 

N. 

(rare). 

M.I 

,  L.],  N.I 

M. 

M. 

L.I 

L.I 

M. 

M., 

L., 

N.  (rare), 

M. 

M., 

L., 

N. 

M.? 

,  N, 

.? 

M.T 

,  N. 

? 

M.? 

596  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  viii., 

Andrews,  at  the  head  of  the  Hunter  and  Manning  Rivers,  as 
being  of  two  types,  "one,  a  holocrystallinerock  with  large  augite 
crystals  so  abundantly  scattered  throughout  its  mass  as  to  obtain 
for  it  locally  the  name  of  'plum-pudding  stone.'  Other  types 
found  there  are  dense,  fine-grained,  vesicular  olivine-basa]ts"(5). 
The  writer  has  shown  that,  among  these,  are  to  be  found 
various  types  of  basalt,  basanite,  dolerite,  essexite,  teschenite, 
and  theralite,  with  sometimes  an  abundance  of  nepheline  (6,  7). 
Indeed,  there  is  an  assemblage  of  basic  rocks  quite  analogous  to 
those  of  the  Bohemian  Mittelgebirge,  which  Becke  described  as 
a  typical  instance  of  an  assemblage  of  Atlantic  rocks.  The 
shapely  cone  of  Wombramurra  Peak,  a  few  miles  east  of  the 
Pass,  was  not  visited  by  the  writer,  but  is  very  analogous  to  the 
conical  Gragin  Peak  near  Delungra,  Wariakla,  which  Mr.  Carne 
believes  to  be  a  centre  of  intrusion,  and  in  which  Mr.  Card  found 
olivine-dolerite.  Mount  Jellore,  near  Mittagong,  80  miles  S.W. 
of  Sydney,  may  possibly  be  of  a  like  nature. 

Serpentine  occurs  on  this  line  at  the  Barry,  at  the  head  of  the 
Barnard  River,  twelve  miles  distant  from  Nundle,  and  was  here 
observed  by  Mr.  Andrews,  W'ho  remarked  on  the  association  with 
it  of  "diorites  and  basic  rock-types,"  probably  dolerites,  and 
spilites(8).  Mr.  Longrigan,  of  the  Barry,  informed  the  writer 
of  the  occurrence  of  limestone  east(?)  of  the  serpentine  on  his 
property:  and  Mr.  Stonier  records  the  finding  of  Favosites  in 
limestone  on  the  Pigna  Barney  Ptiver,  two  miles  above  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Manning  (9).  Serpentine  occurs  again  at  Glenrock, 
some  twenty-five  miles  south-east  of  Nundle (8),  and  local  pros- 
pectors say  that  it  is  also  present  at  the  old  "  Polly  Fogal  " 
Diggings,  which  are  not  marked  on  any  map,  but  are  stated  to 
be  sixty  miles  east  from  Scone,  and  forty  south-east  of  Nundle. 
An  analysis  of  chromite  obtained  from  here  has  been  recorded (10). 
This  must  be  near  the  Curracaback  River,  which  is  crossed  by 
the  serpentine  (8). 

North-east  from  this  line,  serpentine  has  been  recorded  from 
Nowendoc(8),  doul)tless  among  rocks  of  the  Eastern  Series,  and 
will  thus  probably  be  on  or  near  a  line  extending  from  the  belt 
of  serpentine  recorded  by  Stonier  (11),  which  extends  from  near 


fJY  W.   N.   BENSOX.  597 

Duiigowan  Creek,  at  a  point  about  six  miles  south-east  of  Dun- 
go  wan  township,  across  to  the  Mulla  Creek,  east  of  Moonbi.  At 
the  south  end  of  this,  the  writer  found  antigoritic  serpentine, 
and  various  intrusive  doleritic  rocks.  A  further  nortliern  con- 
tinuation of  this  beyond  the  Moonbi  granite  is,  perhaps,  to  be 
seen  in  the  serpentine  which  occurs  {fide  D.  A.  Porter)  near  the 
liead  of  Moore  Creek,  from  which  a  nickelifeious  opal  was  ob- 
tained (12). 

Further  to  the  south-east,  Mr.  Siissmilch  and  the  writer(13j 
have  observed  the  occurrence  of  serpentine  at  Mt.  George, 
on  the  Manning  River,  and  have  remarked  on  the  presence 
of  the  same  rock  at  Glen  Lewis,  five  miles  to  the  n'orth  of 
this  spot,  and  at  Bow  Bow  near  Tinonee,  south  of  the  Manning 
River,  twelve  miles  to  the  south-east  of  the  last-mentioned  oc- 
currence. This  last  record,  we  owe  to  Mr.  Card,  who  received 
specimens  therefrom.  Between  this  group  of  intrusions  of  ser- 
pentine and  Gloucester,  to  the  south-west,  there  is  a  great  de- 
velopment of  Middle  and  Upper  Devonian  and  Lower  Carboni- 
ferous rocks,  extremely  like  those  in  the  areas  to  the  north, 
described  in  the  preceding  parts  of  this  series.  The  strike  is 
generally  N .W.-S.E.,  with  a  S.W.  dip.  In  the  Middle  Devonian 
beds  thei-e  is  an  immense  development  of  spilite  with  pillow- 
structure,  rising  to  form  Kangat  Mountain.  The  geology  is 
further  complicated  by  the  presence  of  an  infaulted  outlier  of 
Permo-Carboniferous  rocks,  perhaps  analogous  to  that  recorded 
from  the  Nundle  district(14).  What  exactly  is  the  relationship 
of  this  district  to  those  further  to  the  north,  has  yet  to  be  dis- 
covered. It  lies  rather  too  far  to  the  east  to  be  in  the  direct 
continuation  of  the  main  Serpentine-line,  unless  (as  is  quite  pos- 
sible) the  direction  of  that  line  has  been  bent  to  the  E.iS.E.  in 
the  Manning  River  valley.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  deflection, 
it  may  be  suggested  that  the  George  Town  serpentine  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Mulla-Nowendoc  line  of  intrusions,  and  that 
the  southerly  continuation  of  the  main  Serpentine-line  is  indi- 
cated by  the  serpentine  and  chromite,  which  occurs  near  Barring- 
ton  (15).  and  the  serpentine  recorded  by  Mr.  Andrews,  on  the 
Myall  River(8).     If  this  be  so,  however,  the  Carboniferous  and 


598  GREAT  SERPENTINE  BELT  OF  NKW  SOUTH   WALES,  viii., 

Devonian  rocks  of  this  region  are  so  remarkably  little  altered, 
for  rocks  east  of  the  main  Serpentine-line,  as  to  indicate  some- 
what different  conditions  from  those  which  have  prevailed  in 
the  districts  north  of  Nundle.  In  either  case,  it  is  probable 
that  the  Serpentine-line  will  eventually  be  traced  from  Nundle 
down  to  the  coast,  thus  adding  another  hundred  miles  to  the 
hundred  and  fifty  already  mapped,  and  thus  forming  one  of  the 
most  continuous  structural  lines  in  the  State. 

A  few  words  may  "be  given  with  respect  to  the  serpentines  of 
Port  Macquarie,  which  were  described  by  Mr.  Carne(16).  In 
this  region,  the  predominant  strike  is  to  the  N .N.E.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  serpentines  here  lie  on  the  same  line  as  those 
of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt,  which  has  swung  round  from  the 
S.S.E.  to  the  S.E.,  and  eventually  into  the  N.N.E  direction, 
and  thence  swings  further  round  to  include  the  serpentines  of 
the  Clarence  River,  recorded  by  Professor  David  and  others(17). 
The  Serpentine-line,  on  this  hypothesis,  forms  a  discontinuous 
ring  about  the  strongly  compressed  Permo-Carboniferous  rocks 
and  the  great  granitic  masses  of  north-eastern  New  South 
Wales(18).  The  writer  has  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  pre- 
sence of  a  N.W.  to  N.N.W.  strike  so  close  to  the  coast  as  the 
Gloucester  District  renders  this  suggestion  improbable,  and  in- 
dicates rather  that  the  Port  Macquarie  N.N.E.  line  of  strike  is 
more  likely  to  be  on  a  virgation  passing  off  from  the  main  N.N.W. 
direction.  Several  such  virgatious  have  been  noted  between 
Binsara  and  Nundle,  notably  at  Mundowev  on  the  Namoi 
Pviver(19),  though  they  have  not  been  traced  into  a  greater 
divergence  from  the  main  direction  than  a  N.-S.  line  of  strike. 
Such  an  hypothesis,  however, involves  a  much  simpler  distribution 
of  folding  forces  than  that  necessary  to  explain  the  discontinu- 
ous ring  of  intrusions,  though  the  latter  would  not  be  entirely 
without  analogies.  A  comparison,  though  an  extremely  strained 
one,  might  be  made  with  the  discontinuous  line  of  serpentine- 
intrusions  around  the  Central  Granite  of  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  but 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  such  a  comparison  would  indicate 
any  real  analogy,  so  diverse  are  the  other  features  in  the  two 
areas  ( see  20) . 


BY  W.   N.    HKNSON.  599 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
1.  Phillips — Mines  and   MintMal   StatiRtics   of   New  South  Wales,  IS?-'), 

pp.  149-151. 
•2.  Etheridoe — "On  the  Occurrence  of  the  Genus   Endophyllum  in  the 

Lower  Pah«ozoic  Rocks  of  N.  S.  Wales,"     Ree.  Geol.  Snrv.  N.  S. 

Wales,  Vol.  vi.,  1898,  pp.  43-46. 

3.  Dun— Ann.  Report  Dept.  of  Mines  N.  S.  Wales,  1900,  p.  195. 

4.  Carne  and  Jones — "  The  Limestone  Deposits  of  N.  8.  Wales.''     Min- 

eral Resources,  No.  24. 

5.  Andrews — "The  Tertiary  History  of  New  England."      Rec.  Geol. 

Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  vii.,  1903,  p. 63. 

6.  Benson — "  Preliminary  Note  on  the  Nepheline-bearing  Rocks  of  the 

Liverpool  and  Mount   Royal   Ranges."      Journ.    Proc,    Roy.   Soc. 
N.  S.  Wales,  1911,  pp.  176-186. 

7.  "  The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of 

New  South  Wales."     These  Proceedings,  1913,  pp.593,  701-3. 

S.  Andrews — "  The  Geology  of  the  New  England  Plateau,  with  special 
reference  to  the  Granites.  "  Parts  ii.  and  iii.  Rec.  Geol.  Suiv. 
N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  viii.,  pp.  108-152,  especially  118,  146-7. 

9.  Stonier— Ann.  Report  Dept.  of  Mines  N.  S.  Wales,  1894,  p.  150. 

10.  Analyst's  Report.     Ann,  Report  Dept.  of  Mines  N.  S.  Wales,  1915. 

11.  Stonier — "The  Geology  of  Swamp  Oak  and  Niangla."'      Rec.  Geol. 

Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  iii.,  1892. 

12.  Porter — "  Note  on  the  Occurrence  of  a  Niekeliferous  Opal  near  Tam- 

worth,  N.S.W."     Journ.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1897(1898), 
pp.  xxviii.-xxxix. 

13.  Benson   and  Sussimilch — "The  General  Geology  of  the   Gloucester 

District."     Journ.    Proc.   Roy.   Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,    1916,   pp.   xxxi.- 

XXXV. 

14.  Benson—"  The  Geology  of  the  Nundle  District.'"     These  Proceedings, 

1913,  pp.586-7. 

15.  Analyst's  Report.     Ann.  Report  Dept.  of  Mines,  N.  S.  Wales,  1906. 

16.  Carne — "Geology  of  the  Coast  between  Port  Macquarie  and  Cape 

Hawke."     Rec.  Geol.  Surv.  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  v,,  pp.  53-64. 

17.  David— Annual  Report  Dept.  of  Mines  N.  S.  Wales,  1891,  p.208. 

18.  Handbooks  for  the  Meeting  of  the  British  Association,  1914.     Austra- 

lian Federal  Handbook,  p.308;  N.  S.  Wales  State  Handbook,  p.619. 

19.  Benson — "The  Geology  of  the  Western   Slopes  of   New  England,'' 

These  Proceedings,  1917,  p.  223. 

20.  Becke  and  Loewl — Exkursionen  im  westlichen  und  mittleren  Abschnitt 

der  Hohen  Tauern.     Livret-Guide  s.  Congr^s  Internationale  Gt'o- 
logique,  Vienna,  1903.     Map. 


600 


THE  STEMS  OF  CLIMBING  PLANTS. 

By  John  Shirley,  D  Sc,  and  C.  A.  Lambert. 

(Plates  Ix.-lxvi.). 

In  botanical  excursions  with  the  Field  Naturalists'  Club  or 
Royal  Society,  it  has  been  a  constant  source  of  interest  that 
climbing  plants  of  the  Orders  Bignoniacese  and  Menispermacese 
could  be  partly  determined  by  studying  the  cut  ends  of  their 
stems.  This  determination  extended  only  to  the  Order,  and  not 
to  the  genus  or  species.  In  Bignoniacere,  the  determining  factor 
was  the  arrangement  of  the  bast  in  four  masses,  or  in  multiples 
of  four,  each  mass  usualh'  presenting  rectangular  outlines  in 
transverse  section.  In  Menispermacese,  the  rays  of  wood  and 
bast  have  usually  a  stellate  arrangement,  the  vascular  bundles 
being  separated  by  broad,  multiseriate  medullary  rays,  which,  in 
transverse  sections  of  the  stem,  appear  club-shaped  from  dilation 
of  the  last-formed  cells. 

To  test  whether  similar  peculiarities  marked  the  structure  of 
climbing  plants  of  other  Orders,  some  tifty-three  stems  were 
sectioned,  and  their  slides  photographed  by  my  colleague,  Mr. 
C.  A.  Lambert. 

List  oj' Species  examined. 

AcANTHACEiE. —  Thunhevgia  yrandijiora  Roxb.,  T.  laurifolla 
Lindl. 

Ampelide^. —  Vifis  hypoylauca  F.v.M.,  V.  opaca  F.v.M.,  V. 
sterculifolia  F.v.M. 

APOCYNACEiE. — Beaiiinontia  yratidifiora  Wall.,  Alelodrims  acu- 
tijiorns  F.v.M.,  yVachelos^jei'mum  jasmitioidea  Lindl. 

AsCLKPEDiACEiE.  —  Cr'i/])tostegia  yra7idiflora  R.Br. 

BiGNONiACKiE.  —  Adeitocalymma  nitidnm  Mart.,  Bic^iiottiaJJori- 
bunda  H.B.&  K.,  B  picta  Lindl.,  B.  Tweediana  Lindl.,  H.  venusta 
Ker,  Tecoma  Hillii  F.v.M.,  T .  jasminoides  Lindl. 


BY    JOHN    SHIRLEY    AND    C.    A.     LAMBERT.  601 

CoMBRETACEi^.  —  Qiiisqualis  itidica  Roxb. 

CoMPOSiTiE. — Senecio  tanwides  DC. 

(JoNVOLVULACE.E.  —Ipomcea  Horsfallice  Hook. 

CucuRBiTACEiE.  —  Bryonia  laciniosa  Linn. 

Leguminos^.  —  Ahrus  precatoi-his  Linn.,  Bauhinia  scandens 
Burni.,(  =  B.  corymhosa  Roxb.),  Derris  scandens  Benth.,  Lathyrus 
odoratus  Linn.,  Milletia  australis  F.v.M.,  M.  megasperma  F .\ .M.., 
Wistaria  chinensis  DC. 

LoGANiACEiE. — Buddleia  niadagascariensis  Vahl. 

MALPiGHiACEiE. — Banisteria  chrysophylla  Linn.,  Riptage  Ma- 
dahlota  Gsertn.,  Stigmaphyllon  jatrophcefolium  Juss. 

MENiSPERMACEiE. —  Carrouia  mnUisepalea  F.v.M.,  Legnephora 
Moorii  Miers,  Stepha7iia  hernandicefolia  Walp. 

^ YCT AGINEJE. —  Bougainvillea  lateritia  Hort.,  B.  Sanderiana 
V.  variegata  Hort,,  B.  spcctahilis  Juss. 

PASSiFLOREiE. —  Fassiflora  suberosa  Linn. 

PiPERACEiE.  —  Piper  nigrum  Linn. 

y O'LY GO^ A.CY.IE.  —  Antigonon  leptopus  Hook. 

RuBiACEiE. — C(elosj)ermuin  paiiimdatum  F.v.M. 

SoLANACEiE. — Solauum  Wendlandii  Hook.  f. 

URTiCACEiE.  —  Ficus  pumila  Linn. 

VERBENACEiE. — Faradaya  splendida  F.v.M.,  Petrcea  volubilis 
Linn. 

AROiDEiE. — Monstera  acicininata  C.  Koch,  Pothos  aureus 
Linden. 

Flagellarie^. — Flagellaria  indica  Linn. 

L1LIACE.E. — Asparagus  racemosus  Willd.,  Geitonoplesium  cymo- 
sum  A.  Cunn.,  Ehipogonum  albnm  R.Br.,  Sniilax  australis  R.Br. 

ORCHiDACEiE.—  Galeola  cassythoides  Reichb. 

The  study  had  not  proceeded  far.  when  it  was  seen  that  any 
grouping  in  Natural  Orders  was  impossible,  as  similar  character- 
istics were  common  to  plants  of  many  different  families,  especi- 
ally among  Dicotyledons.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  to  create 
classes,  among  which  the  stems  could  be  distributed,  and  the, 
following  are  submitted. 

46 


:C 


I  g  R  A  R  YI30I 


602  THE    STEMS    OF    CLIMBING    PLANTS, 

Suljclass  i,  DICOTYLEDONES. 

1.  Normales. — The  stem  shows  a  single  cambium-ring,  with 
the  wood  and  bast  of  each  bundle  lying  along  the  same  radius, 
the  exterior  outlime  of  the  bast  approximating  to  a  circle. 
Type,  CirJospermum  paniculatum  F.v.M. 

2.  Chiastoxylon. — A  single  zone  of  cambium,  with  anomalous 
distribution  of  tissues  in  young  stems  into  four  rays,  each  of  alter- 
nating wood  and  bast,  the  bast  reaching  (a)  partly  to  the  pith, 
or  (h)  stopping  short  of  it.  T^^pe  2  (<x),  Bignonia  Tiveediana 
Lindl.,  2(6),  B.  jncta  Lindl. 

3.  Astroxylon. — Normal  cambium,  with  definite  and  continu- 
ous separation  of  fibro-vascular  bundles  by  means  of  pluriseriate 
medullary  rays,  that  present,  in  transverse  section,  a  stellate 
arrangement.      Type,  Carroiiia  multisepaJea  F.v.M. 

4.  Endophloia.— Besides  the  normal  bast,  a  second  develop- 
ment of  bast  occurs  at  the  inner  margin  of  the  ring  of  wood, 
forming  bicollateral  bundles.      Type,  Bryonia  lo.ciniosa  Linn. 

5.  Exoeyela.  — Besides  the  normal  cambium-ring,  new  cam- 
bium-zones appear  successively  in  centrifugal  order.  Type, 
Wistaria  chinensis  DC. 

6.  Phloioeyela.  — New  zones  of  bast  produced  in  each  period 
of  vegetation  in  centripetal  order.  Type,  Vitis  sterculifolia 
F.v.M. 

7.  Polycyela. — The  oldest  vascular  bundles  lie  in  the  pith; 
outside  the  pith,  a  normal  zone  of  wood  and  bast  is  formed,  or 
alternating  rings  of  wood  and  bast  may  be  formed.  Type,  Boii- 
gainvillea  spectabilis  Hort. 

Subclass  ii.  MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

1.  Vulgares. — Possessing  the  usual  rind,  hard  ground-paren- 
chyma, and  scattered,  closed  bundles  of  the  ordinary  mono- 
cotyledon. 

2.  AbnOPmales-  —Differing  from  the  typical  monocotyledonous 
stem  in  one  or  other  of  the  above  peculiarities. 

Subclass  i.  DICOTYLEDONES. 
L  Normales. — To  this  section  belong  Banisteria  chrysophylla 
L.,  Ccelosjjermum  2^<^^i'iculatum  F.v.M.,   Cryptostegia  grandijiora 
R.Br.,  Faradaya   splendida   F.v.M.,   Hiptage  Madablota  Gsertn., 


BY    JOHN    SHIRLEY    AND    C.    A.    LAMBERT.  603 

Milletia  australis  F.v.M.,  M.  megasperma  F.v.M.,  Se^iecio  tamoides 
DC,  Solanum  Wendlandii  Hook,  f.,  and  2'ecoiiia  jasminoides 
Lindl ,  etc.,  etc. 

(a.)  CCELOSPERMUM    PANICULATUM    F.V.M.    (Plate    Ix.,    fig.l). — 

Although  this  stem  is  normal  in  having  a  single  ring  of  cambium, 
and  in  regard  to  the  formation  of  secondary  wood,  the  pith  pre- 
sents peculiarities.  It  is  made  up  of  two  elements;  one,  the 
ordinary  pith-cell,  containing  starch:  and  the  other,  found  mainly 
in  the  centre  of  the  pith,  a  thick-walled,  sclerotic  cell.  The 
latter  form  strands  which  do  not  extend  to  the  circumference  of 
the  pith.  They  are  akin  to  the  gum-resin  sacs,  described  by 
Karsten,*  in  the  allied  genera,  Cinchona  and  Ladenbergia. 

(b.)  Milletia  australis  F.v.M.  (Plate  Ix.,  fig.2).  — Although 
normal  in  the  development  of  its  cambium-ring,  this  stem  shows 
some  special  features.  The  pith  is  of  very  large  cells,  and,  in 
transverse  section,  these  seem  to  be  radially  arranged,  forming 
conical  masses.  In  the  rays,  the  cells  are  elongated,  and  have 
not  the  usual  hexagonal  outline.  The  cambium-ring  is  very 
well  defined,  and,  outside  the  bast,  is  a  sclerenchymatous  ring,  6 
to  8  cells  in  depth,  with  intervals  in  which  are  inserted  a  few, 
much  larger,  thinner- walled  cells,  evidently  a  transfusion-tissue. 
Sacs  containing  single  crystals  abound  in  the  cortex,  and  others 
with  much  larger  single  crystals  are  scattered  through  the  pith. 

Milletia  megasperma  F.v.M.  —  The  arrangement  of  the  pith 
is  normal.  The  wood- vessels  form  radial  rows,  with  large  masses 
of  murally  arranged  wood-fibres  between  them.  There  is  a  thick 
sclerenchymatous  ring  outside  the  bast,  with  transfusion-tissue 
at  intervals;  but,  in  this  species,  the  thin-walled  cells  are  oval, 
and  elongated  along  radii  passing  through  the  transfusion-tissue. 
A  second,  much  narrower,  sclerenchymatous  ring  separates  the 
periderm  from  the  cork.  The  medullary  rays  differ  little,  in  a 
transverse  section  from  the  wood-parenchyma. 

(c.)  Solanum  Wendlandii  Hook,  f.,  (Plate  Ixi.,  fig. 3). —The 
central  pith  is  of  large  cells.  The  ring  of  wood  is  very  regular, 
the  wood-fibres  showing  very  even  ranks,  the  cells  increasing  in 
size  towards  their   inner   boundary,  and  gradually  merging  in 

'"  Karsten,  Die  medic.  Chiiia-rindeu  Neu-Grenadas,  Ges.  Beitr.,  p. 382. 


604  THK    STEMS    OF    CLIMBING    PLANTS, 

those  of  the  pith.  Outside  the  bast  is  a  ring  of  sclerenchymatous 
cells,  that  apparently  acts  as  an  endoderniis  also,  The  bark 
shows  all  the  usual  tissues  excellently  — phelloderm,  phellugen, 
cork,  and  epidermis  with  cutin.  Scattered,  sclerenchymatous 
elements  are  found  also  in  the  circumferential  parts  of  the  pith. 

•2.  Chiastoxylon. 

(a.)  BiGNONiA  TwEEDiANA  Lindl.,  (Plate  Ixi.,  fig  4).— In  trans- 
verse section,  the  pith  is  roughly  square  in  outline,  and  a  rect- 
angular ray  of  bast  strikes  the  centre  of  each  side  of  the  square 
at  right  angles  or  nearly  so.  From  the  inner  end  of  each  bast 
ray,  a  small  cone  of  wood  (protoxylem)  penetrates  the  pith  to 
about  one-sixth  of  its  diameter.  The  pith-cells  are  filled  with 
starch-grains.  The  wood  is  continuous  round  the  pith,  but  forms 
a  very  narrow  connecting  band  at  the  base  of  each  bast-ray,  near 
the  protoxylem-masses  already  mentioned.  The  vessels  occur  in 
V-shaped  bands,  which  are  most  definite  near  the  bast.  The 
wood-parenchyma  forms  irregular,  radiate  rows.  The  bast-rays 
project  into  the  cortex  at  their  circumferential  limit,  and  pre- 
serve their  shape  as  rectangular  masses.  Their  bast  consists  of 
alternating  strips  of  hard  and  soft  bast,  the  latter  of  more  rows 
of  elements.  The  bast  rays  are  connected  by  a  bast-ring  sur- 
rounding the  four  masses  of  wood,  and  showing  alternate  strips 
of  hard  and  soft  bast,  as  in  the  rays.  There  is  an  incomplete 
circle  of  sclerenchyma  within  the  phellogen,  beyond  which  are 
6-7  tiers  of  cork-cells  bounded  by  dead  bark. 

[b.)  BiGNONiA  PiCTA  Lindl.,  (Plate  Ixii.,  fig.oj. — The  bastforms 
four  square  masses  of  five  thin  layers  of  hard  bast,  alternating 
with  five  broader  layers  of  soft  bast.  Where  these  masses  occur, 
the  wood-tissues  have  about  half  their  usual  depth,  and  press  on 
the  central  pith,  giving  it  almost  a  square  outline.  The  cambium 
is  thick  and  definite.  It  is  depressed  at  each  of  the  bast-patches, 
so  that  the  cambium-ring  has  a  crenulated  outline.  On  a  circle 
outside  the  bast  are  a  number  of  roughly  elliptical  masses  of 
thick-walled  sclerenchyma.  A  second  narrow  and  almost  com- 
plete ring  of  sclerenchyma,  bounding  the  cork-cambium,  is 
constructed  of  brick-shaped  cells,  whose  cavities  are  almost 
obliterated. 


BY    JOHN    SHIRI,EY    AND    C.    A.    LAiMBERT.  605 

3.  Astpoxylon.  — Type,  Carronia  multisepalea  F.v.M.,  (Plate 
Ixii.,  fig.6).  — The  stele  consists  of  a  central  pith,  composed  of 
very  fine  polygonal  cells  in  which  a  few  thick-walled  ducts  are 
inserted  at  irregular  intervals.  Of  wood  and  bast,  there  are 
about  thirty  fibro-vascular  bundles,  each  showing  six  to  eight 
large  vessels,  increasing  in  size,  as  usual,  from  the  centre  out- 
wards. Bordering  the  pith  in  each,  is  a  cluster  of  mainly  spiral 
vessels.  Each  medullary  ray  is  well  defined,  and  shows  five  to 
eight  rows  of  brick-shaped  cells,  parting  at  the  circumferential 
end  to  send,  right  and  left,  divisions  round  the  separated  bundles. 
The  bast-masses  are  oval  and  well  defined.  They  are  flanked 
outwardly  by  older  bast-tissues,  now  changed  into  sclerenchyma, 
to  be  finally  cast  off  with  the  outer  bark.  The  different  layers 
of  the  bark  are  well  defined,  and  the  phelloderm  assumes  a  wavy 
outline,  parallel  to  the  outward  curves  of  the  various  bundles. 

Lighter  in  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  stele,  the  medullary  rays 
present  a  stellate  pattern  on  a  freshly  cut,  transverse  section  of 
the  stem. 

4.  Endophloia.  —  Bryonia  laciniosa  Linn. .(Plate  lxiii.,fig.7).— 
The  development  of  the  stem  is  apparently  normal,  but  the 
vascular  bundles  are  bicollateral,  having  bast  on  both  inner  and 
outer  faces.  The  vessels  of  the  xylem  are  unusually  large  for  a 
young  stem  in  its  second  year  of  development.  A  large  pad  of 
cork  is  seen  on  the  side  of  the  stem  that  has  flattened  by  pressure 
against  the  supporting  plant.  Very  little  pith  is  to  be  noted, 
and  the  cells  of  the  medullary  rays  are  peculiarly  large  and  broad. 
There  are  signs  of  the  production  of  interfascicular  bast  from 
the  sides  of  vascular  bundles. 

5.  Exoeyela. — Wistaria  chinensis  DC,  (Plate  Ixiii.,  fig.S). — 
The  medullary  rays  are  exceedingly  well  defined,  usually  of  2-6 
rows  of  radially  elongated  cells.  At  their  outer  extremities,  the 
cells,  lying  in  the  bast,  are  of  larger  size.  The  cambium-ring  is 
also  clearly  defined,  and  outside  it  are  6-8  ranks  of  thin-walled 
bast-cells.  The  older  bast-cells,  pushed  out  towards  the  circum- 
ference, have  most  of  their  cavities  obliterated  by  internal  thick- 
enings. The  phellogen-ring  is  also  well  marked,  and  3-5  layers 
of  dead  cells  lie  outside  the  cork.     Cortex  and   pith   show  sacs 


606  THE    STEMS    OF    CLIMBING    PLANTS, 

containing  single,  lozenge-shaped,  octahedral  crystals.  The 
remains  of  a  former  cambium- ring  are  seen  in  the  wood  about 
one-third  of  the  distance  from  pith  to  cortex.  A  third  cambium- 
ring  is  seen  forming  in  the  bast,  from  which  additional  rings  of 
xylem  and  phloem  will  be  created. 

6.  Phloioeyela.  — ViTis  sterculifolia  F.v.M.,  (Plate  Ixiv.,  fig. 
9).  —The  pith  appears  homogeneous.  The  medullary  rays,  2-8 
rows  of  radially  arranged,  brick-like  cells,  contrast  clearly  with 
the  murally  arranged  wood-fibres.  The  vessels  are  large,  and 
evidently  capable  of  division.  The  medullary  rays  are  as  well 
defined  between  the  bast-masses  as  between  the  wedges  of  wood. 
They  increase  in  size  towards  the  circumference  of  the  transverse 
section,  and  take  a  clavate  outline.  The  bast  is  composed  of 
8-10  rows  of  thin-walled  cells,  with  a  terminal,  almost  circular 
mass  of  sieve-tubes.  Outside  the  stele,  the  remains  of  former 
bast-masses,  now  sclerotic,  form  a  strengthening  layer  in  the 
cortex.  A  few  sacs  containing  raphides  may  be  noted  here  and 
there;  others  contain  single,  larger,  flattened  crystals,  and  others, 
again,  store  starch-grains. 

7.  Polyeyela. 

(a.)  BOUGAINVILLEA    SPECTABILIS  JuSS.,  (PI.  Ixiv.,   flg.lO).  — The 

centre  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  stem  contains  the  largest 
vascular  bundles,  scattered  through  the  pith.  The  xylem  and 
phloem  portions  of  each  bundle  are  clearly  defined,  but  the 
cambium  is  usually  marked  by  a  scar,  where  it  has  torn  under 
the  knife  of  the  microtome.  Outside  these  older  and  scattered 
bundles,  is  a  clearly  defined  ring  of  two  years'  growth  of  younger 
bundles,  normally  dicotyledonous  in  general  appearance,  but 
having  alternate  circles  of  wood,  bast,  wood,  bast.  J^etween  any 
two  bundles  of  the  outer  ring  are  well  defined  medullary  rays; 
but,  at  the  interior  end  of  each  ray,  the  cells  composing  it  become 
roughly  polygonal,  and  merge  into  the  pith-cells.  When  a  new 
cambium  appears,  outside  the  last  ring  of  bundles,  the  cells  of 
the  outer  ends  of  the  rays  unite  round  the  outer  extremity  of 
each  bundle,  so  as  to  isolate  the  ring  previously  formed  b}^  a 
definite  wavy  circle  of  parenchymatous  tissue.     The  bast  arising 


BV    JOHN    SHIRLEY    AND    C.    A.    LAMBERT.  607 

from  this  latest-formed  cam])ium  consists  of  6-8  rows  of  lii-ick- 
like,  tbin-walled  cells,  outside  of  wliich  is  a  single-rowed  circle 
of  sclerencb\'ma. 

(b.)  BouGAiNViLLEA  LATERITIA  Hort.,  (Plate  Ixv.,  fig.  1 1 ),  differs 
little  from  Z>.  spectabilis  and  B.  tSatideriana,  except  that  numer- 
ous sacs  containing  clinorhombic  crystals — raphides — are  found 
in  the  periderm  and  pith.  Where  a  bud  is  formed  on  the  stem, 
the  tissues  entering  the  bud  from  the  stele  are  full  of  these 
needle-crystal  sacs. 

(c.)  BouGAiNViLLEA  Sanderiana  Hort.,  (Plate  Ixv.,  fig.l2).— 
This  section  (  x  90)  shows  the  central  and  first-formed  vascular 
bundles  isolated  in  the  pith,  as  in  the  case  of  its  allies;  and  four 
annual  zones  of  alternating  wood,  bast,  and  encircling  medullary 
ray-tissue.  This  last  might  be  taken  for  cambium,  but  is  quite 
distinct  in  the  character  of  the  cells  composing  it,  from  that  of 
the  last-formed  cambium-ring.  Periderm,  cork,  and  the  dead 
cells  of  the  outer  bark  are  well  shown. 

(d.)  Piper  nigrum  Linn.,  (PI.  Ixvi.,  fig.  13).  — The  general  struc- 
ture of  this  stem  is  similar  to  that  of  Bougainvillea.  The  first- 
formed  set  of  bundles,  seven  in  number,  develops  cambium  within 
each  bundle,  but  not  between  them.  These  bundles  are  further 
isolated  by  the  growth  of  the  pith.  Circumferential ly,  other 
cambium-tissues  form,  making  a  complete  wavy  ring,  and  give 
rise  to  a  normally  developed  set  of  vascular  bundles  of  the  usual 
dicotyledonous  arrangement.  Lying  in  the  pith,  outside  each 
of  the  original  isolated  bundles,  is  a  resin-duct;  and  a  larger  one 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem.  Bounding  the  outer,  normal 
ring  of  vascular  bundles  on  the  inner  side,  is  a  complete  wavy 
ring  of  sclerenchyma,  of  about  six  irregular  rows  of  thickly 
strengthened,  polygonal  cells.  An  indefinite  ring  of  sclerenchyma, 
its  cells  elongated  circumferentiall}',  surrounds  the  outer  ring  of 
wood  and  bast. 

Stephania  HERNANDiiEFOLiA  Walp. — In  a  first  year's  shoot, 
there  is  a  remarkable  similarity  between  the  cells  of  the  pith, 
medullary  rays,  and  periderm.  As  in  Piper  nigrum,  the  stele  is 
bounded  by  a  scolloped  line,  outside  of  which  new  cambiums 
arise,  and  new  ringS  of  wood  and  bast  are  developed. 


608  THE    STEMS    OF    CLIMBING    PLANTS, 

ii.  MONOCOTYLEDONES. 

1.  Vulgares,  —  To  this  section  belong  Asparagus  racemosus 
Willd.,  Flayellaria  indica  Linn.,  Geitonoplesium  cymosum  A. 
Cunn.,  Rhipogonum  album  R.Br.,  and  Sviilax  australis  R.Br  ,  tfec. 

2.  Abnormales. — Galeola  cassythoides  Reichb.  f.,  (PL  Ixvi., 
fig. 14). —  In  this  leafless,  climbing  orchid,  the  bundles  are  numer- 
ous, and  contain  six  large  vessels,  with  a  few  smaller  marking 
the  protoxylem.  In  each  vascular  bundle  there  is  a  limited 
quantity  of  soft  bast,  and  a  few  sieve-tubes.  The  ground-paren- 
chyma is  formed  of  larger  cells  than  usual,  and  these  are  massed 
round  the  bundles,  forming  bundle-sheaths.  In  transverse  sec- 
tions of  the  stem,  a  roughly  radiate  arrangement  of  the  cells  of 
the  ground-parenchyma  is  evident,  in  some  sections  showing  four 
rays,  in  others  with  more  and  irregular  rays.  Numerous  sacs 
containing  raphides  are  seen  in  the  ground-tissue.  The  contents 
of  cells  lying  immediately  within  the  bark  show  a  brown  dis- 
coloration; these  are  evidently  attacked  by  a  parasitic  fungus, 
whose  hyphte  can  be  seen  within  the  brown  cells. 

Conclusion. — The  whole  of  the  abnormal  stem-structures  in 
climbing  plants  have,  for  their  object,  the  free  flow  of  elaborated 
sap  in  the  bast-tissues.  In  Chiastoxylon,  the  stem  so  presses  on 
the  support  as  not  to  put  pressure  on  the  bast-masses ;  in 
Astroxylon,  the  broad  medullary  rays  ensure  the  nutrition  of 
the  stele;  in  Hiptage,  Bryonia,  and  Solanum  Wendlandii,  a  thick 
pad  of  elastic  cork  is  developed  on  that  side  of  the  stem  subject 
to  pressure,  and  so  on. 


Reference  letter.^. — h.,  Bast — c,  Cambium — c.c,  Cork-cambium — ck., 
Cork — cr.,  A  crj^stal— ec. ,  Protoxylem— //>. ,  Fibro-vascular  bundle — //., 
Hair — m.r.,  Medullary  ray— ^.,  Pith^pA.,  Phelloderm — r.d.,  Resin -duct 
— ry.,  (Fig.  14),  Three  of  the  four  rays  traversing  the  ground-parenchj^ma 
— .§.,  Sclerotic  cells — sc,  Sclerenchyma — 4.y.6.  (Fig.  14),  Secondary  vascular 
bundles — t.t.,  Transfusion-tissue — c,  Vessels  of  wood — i:.h.  (Fig.  14),  Vas- 
cular bundle  with  apparent  bundle-sheath — w..  Wood — x  (Fig.  14),  Traces 
of  fungal  hypha;. 


BV    JOHN    SHIRLEY    AND    C.    A.    LAMBERT.  609 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATKS  LX.-LXVI. 
Plate  Ix. 
Fig.  I .  — T.  S.  C'l-lospenn iim  pan/ritJafiim  F.  v.  M . ;  (  x  24).      ( 1 .  Normales]. 
Fio-.-2.— T.S.  Mllletia  au-^fra/!.^  F.v.M. ;  (  x  17).     [1  .Normales]. 

Plate  Ixi. 
Fig.o. — T.S.  Solaitiim  Weiidlandii  Hook.  f. ;  (  x  90).     [1. Normales]. 
Fig. 4. — T.S.  B/';/iioiiia  Tireediana  Lindl. ;  (  x  17).     [2  Chiastoxylon]. 

Plate  Ixii. 
Fig.o. — T.S.  /J i(/iio)i id picf a  h\nd\.;  (x23).     [2. Chiastoxylon]. 
Fig.O. — T.S.  Carronia  mnlti.'<e.palea  F.v.M.;  (  x  lo).     [H. Astroxylon]. 

Plate  Ixiii. 
Fig. 7.  —  r.S.  Jir//oiu'a  /acinio>!a  hinn.;   c/j. ,  cork-la^eis  on  side  facing   sup- 
port: (  x  23).     [4.  EndophloiaJ. 
Fig.S. — T.S.    Wixtaria  rhinensis  DC;  (  x  40).     [.l.Exocycla]. 

Plate  Ixiv. 
Fig.U.— T.S.   17//^'  stirred  [folia  F.v.M. ;  (  x  40).      [6.  Phloiocycla]. 
Fig.  10. — T.S.  l)On<ia'nirillea  Kpertahilis   .Tuss. ;    ck.,    pad  of  cork   opposite 
supporting  branch;  (  x  28).     [7.  Polycycla]. 

Plate  Ixv. 
Fig.  1 1. — T.S.  JJou;/ainril/ea  laterkia  Hort. ;  (  x  90).     [7.  Polycycla]. 
Fig.  12. — T.S.  /j.  Sanderianax.  ran'ef/ata  Hort.;  (x  90).     [7.  Polycycla]. 

Plate  Ixvi. 
Fig.  18.  -T.S.   Piper  ui(/rum  Linn. ;  (  x  40).      [7.  Polycycla]. 
Fig.  14. — T-S.    UaJeola    cassythoide-^  Reichb.  ;    (xl9).     [Monocotylei)0>' : 
2.  Abnormales]. 


610 


OEDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

October  SOth,    1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.D.,  B.S.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  President  announced  that  the  Council  was  prepared  to 
receive  appHcations  for  four  Linnean  Macleay  Fellowships, 
tenable  for  one  year  from  April  1st,  1819,  from  qualified  Candi- 
dates. Applications  should  be  lodged  with  the  Secretary,  who 
would  afford  all  necessary  information  to  intending  Candidates, 
not  later  tlian  30th  November,  1918. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (25th  September,  1918),  amounting  to  3  Yols., 
50  Parts  or  Nos.,  11  Bulletins,  1  Report,  5  Pamphlets,  and  1  Map, 
received. from  43  Societies,  etc.,  were  laid  upon  the  table 

NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Mr.  Fred  Turner  exliibited  a  specimen  of  a  very  rare  plant, 
IWichi Ilium  corymhosum  Gaud.,  var.  parvijiora  Benth.,  from  near 
Barringun,  the  only  specimen  he  had  seen  in  New  South  AA^ales. 

Mr.  Froggatt  showed  specimens  of  an  Indian  wood-borer 
[BostrychuH  cequalis  Jud.)  introduced  in  the  wood  of  boxes  con- 
taining helmets;  and  likely  to  cause  trouble  unless  looked  after. 

Mr.  E.  Cheel  exhibited  specimens  of  two  distinct  forms  of 
plants  commonly  known  as  "Cobblers'  Pegs''  {Frig e7'on  linifolius 
Willd.)  showing  the  following  characters :— (a)  Plants  with 
lacinated,  basal  leaves,  and  narrow,  linear,  upper  leaves;  and  with 
comparatively  small  Howers;  the  commonest  form,  (h)  Plants 
with  very  large,  basal  leaves,  more  or  less  serrated  or  toothed; 
and  with  much  larger  fiower-heads  than  in  (a).  The  two  forms 
had  been  noted  for  the  past  five  years  in  gardens,  and  on  vacant 
land  at  Wynyard  Square  and   other  places  in  the  city  and  sub- 


NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS.  611 

urban  districts.  He  suggested  tliat  they  were  two  distinct 
species,  or  it  may  be  that  one  or  othei-  of  tiie  forms  is  heterozy- 
gous, Botli  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  "Canadian  Flea- 
bane"  {E.  canadensis  Linn.)  found  at  Cronulla,  but  comparatively 
rare  in  this  State;  as  well  as  from  E.  honariensis,  recently 
brought  under  notice  by  Mr.  A.  A.  Hamilton,  which  is  fairly 
common  in  New  South  Wales.  —  Also  a  series  of  seeds  of  "Soy 
Beans"  {Glycine  hispida),  which  originated  from  a  form  known 
in  the  trade  as  "  Ebony  Soy."  The  mother-plant  "  Ebony  Soy," 
is  a  black-seeded  form,  which  had  been  cultivated  for  four  years, 
and  had  bred  true.  In  the  tifth  year,  one  of  the  plants  gave 
seeds  of  a  greenish-yellow  colour  and  distinctly  green  seeds  in 
the  same  pods.  This  was  distinguished  under  the  name  "Aus- 
tralia." When  seeds  of  "Australia"  were  sown,  the  resultant 
Fj  plants  gave  seeds  of  the  following  colours  :  — (1 )  Plants  with 
light  brown  pods,  and  seeds  similar  to  those  of  the  parent.  (2) 
Plants  with  dark  brown  pods,  and  seeds  similar  to  those  of  the 
parent.  (3)  Plants  with  dark  pods,  and  black  seeds.  (4)  Plants 
with  ginger-coloured  pods,  and  brown  seeds,  (a)  Plants  with 
brown  pods,  and  dark  brown  seeds.  When  samples  of  the  above 
were  sown,  the  resultant  plants  (F.^)  gave  the  following  results. 
No.l  gave  plants  yielding  greenish-yellow,  black,  brown,  and 
green  seeds  similar  to  those  of  "Australia."  The  seeds  of  No. 2 
were  similar  to  those  of  No.l.  No. 3  produced  plants  yielding 
some  brown  seeds,  and  others  with  black  seeds,  the  pods  and 
seeds  in  both  instances  varying  in  colour  and  in  the  shape  of  the 
seeds  of  different  plants.  No. 4  gave  plants  yielding  all  brown 
seeds.  No. 5  produced  results  similar  to  No. 4.  Some  distinctly 
green  seeds  were  separated  from  No.  1 ,  and  sown  separately,  and 
these  yielded  distinctly  green-coloured  seeds.  The  behaviour  of 
these  plants  is  very  similar  to  that  noted  in  certain  "  French 
Beans  "  (PAft.s'eo^ws  vidgaris),  recorded  in  these  Proceedings  1914, 
xxxix.,  p.l60;  and  1916,  xli.,  p.l92. 

Dr.  A.  J.  Turner  exhibited  a  collection  of  J^epidoptera  made 
on  the  journey  across  Canada,  on  his  way  back  to  Australia 
from  Enijfland. 


612  NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

Dr.  Tillyard  showed  a  collection  of  Canadian  Lacewings  and 
Caddisfiies,  presented  to  him  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Turner.  Also  a  large 
Dragonfly  {Petahira  gigantea  Leach),  picked  up  on  the  pavement 
outside  the  Society's  gate  on  the  25th  inst.,  in  an  exhausted,  but 
otherwise  uninjured  condition  — a  stray  from  the  Blue  Mountains 
under  the  influence  of  westerly  winds. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  on  behalf  of  Miss  M.  Lilley  and 
himself,  exhibited  some  samples  of  yeast,  on  which  observations 
had  been  made  on  the  rate  of  multiplication  of  the  yeast-cells, 
on  the  amount  of  sugar  present,  and  on  the  production  of  alcohol 
and  carbon  dioxide.  The  figures  obtained  showed  that  most  of 
the  growth  of  the  yeast  occurred  before  the  decomposition  of 
crlucose  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  fjas. 


613 


THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE  FAT-CONTENT  AND 
THE  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK. 

By  H.  S.  Halcro  Wardlaw,  D.Sc,  Linxean  Macleay  Fellow 
OF  THE  Society  in  Physiology. 

(From  the  Physioloyical  Laboratory  of  tJie  University  of  Sydney.) 

Milk  consists  of  water  containing  substances  in  solution,  in 
the  colloidal  state,  and  in  suspension.  The  electrical  conduc- 
tivity of  milk  is  due  to  the  presence  of  ionised  salts  among  the 
substances  in  solution.  The  colloidal  and  the  suspended  matter, 
the  protein  and  the  fat,  do  not  contribute  appreciably  to  the 
transport  of  electricity.  These  substances,  in  fact,  depress  the 
conductivity,  for  they  displace  a  certain  amount  of  conducting 
material. 

The  eftect  of  protein  on  the  conductivity  of  milk  has  been 
studied  bv  Jackson  and  Rothera  (1913).  They  removed  the 
proteins  from  separated  milk  by  dialysis,  and  found  that  each 
gram  of  protein  in  100  cc.  of  the  separated  milk  depressed  the 
electrical  conductivity  by  2 •76%. 

The  effect  of  fat  on  the  conductivity  is  shown  by  the  figures 
given  by  Taylor  (1913).  He  found,  as  an  average  of  five  ex- 
periments, that  the  removal  of  5%  of  fat  from  milk  caused  an 
increase  of  electrical  conductivity  of  11  4%.  This  increase  of 
conductivity  is  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that  which  would  be 
accounted  for  by  the  increased  concentration  of  electrolyte  due 
to  the  removal  of  the  fat.  The  excess  is  ascribed  by  Taylor  to 
the  removal  of  the  mechanical  obstruction  which  the  fat-globules 
may  offer  to  the  movement  of  the  ions. 

The  object  of  the  present  work  was  to  investigate  more  closely 
the  relation  between  the  fat-content  of  cows'  milk  and  its  elec- 
trical conductivity. 

48 


614       FAT-CONTENT  AND  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK, 

Tt  has  been  found  that,  in  a  given  sample  of  milk,  the  depres- 
sion of  conductivity  is  directly  proportional  to  the  fat-content; 
but  tliat,  in  different  samples  of  milk,  the  removal  of  equal 
amounts  of  fat  does  not  lead  to  equal  increments  of  conductivity. 
Various  other  properties  of  the  milk  have  been  examined  in  the 
endeavour  to  account  for  this  difference  between  samples,  but  no 
definite  correlation  has  been  found. 

1.  Itelati07i  between  the  fat-content  of  a  sample  of  milk  and  its 
electrical  cond/activity.— Mixtures  of  the  same  sample  of  milk 
with  different  percentages  of  fat  were  prepared  by  spinning  the 
.samples  in  a  centrifuge  to  remove  as  much  of  the  fat  as  possible, 
and  mixing  various  proportions  of  the  spun  and  the  whole  milk. 
The  conductivities  of  these  mixtures  of  known  fat-content  were 
determined. 

The  percentages  of  fat  in  the  spun  and  whole  milk  were  de- 
termined by  the  Rose-Gottlieb  method;  the  percentages  of  fat 
in  the  various  mixtures  were  obtained  by  calculation.  The 
results  have  errors  of  not  more  than  2%. 

The  electrical  conductivities  were  determined  at  25''C.,  by  the 
Kohlrausch  method;  a  Wolff's  Wheatstone-bridge  was  used,  with 
a  telephone  as  a  null  instrument  The  determinations  were 
made  in  a  conductivity- vessel  provided  with  vertical  electrodes. 
The  measurements  obtained  were  concordant  to  0*5%.  The 
details  of  these  methods  are  given  in  a  previous  paper  (Wardlaw, 
1917). 

As  the  effect  of  the  fat  on  the  conductivity  is  probably  related 
more  closely  to  the  volume  occupied  than  to  the  weight  in  a 
given  quantity  of  milk,  some  preliminary  determinations  were 
made  of  the  density  of  the  fat  in  the  samples  examined;  from 
these  figures,  the  volumes  can  be  calculated. 

The  density  of  the  milk-fat  was  calculated  from  the  densities 
of  the  spun  and  the  whole  milk.  The  figures  obtained  are  given 
in  the  accompanying  Table. 


BY  H.   S.   HALCRO  WARDLAW. 


615 


Table  i. 
DtTmity  of  fat  remoi'ed  from  cows'  milk  hy  spinning. 


Sample. 

Density 

of  milk. 

Percentage  of  fat. 

Den.sity  of 
fat! 

Spun. 

Whole. 

Spun , 

Whole. 

5 

10312 

1  '0349 

3-ol 

0-19 

0-933 

7 

10307 

I  '0347 

8-98 

O'lG 

0-938 

S 

I  '030S 

r0352 

3-78 

017 

0-923 

9 

ro30(; 

1  '0849 

4  03 

0-13 

0-933 

10 

1  '0812 

1  '0854 

3-80 

0-18 

0-9'29 

11 

1  -0310 

J -085 1 

3-78 

0'17 

0-927 

12 

1  -0808 

1  -0847 

4-0o 

0-17 

0'922 

18 

I  -0308 

I  0302 

3-70 

016 

0-921 

21 

r0317 

1  -0351 

3ol 

0-13 

0  934 

Mean 

0-929 

The  determinations  of  density  were  made  as  described  in  a 
previous  paper  (Wardlaw,  loc.  cit.),  water  at  25°C.  being  taken 
as  standard.     The  results  have  an  error  of  al^out  1  in  10,000. 

If  the  two  errors  are  maximal  and  fall  in  opposite  directions, 
the  calculated  density  of  the  fat  will  have  a  possible  error  of 
about  2%  The  actual  values  obtained,  as  shown  above,  have 
an  extreme  range  of  rather  less  than  this,  from  0-921  to  0-938, 
and  the  variation  from  the  mean  is  less  than  1%. 

The  above  results  show  that  the  densities  of  the  fat  removed 
by  spinning  from  the  samples  of  milk  examined  varied  between 
0-921  and  0-938;  0-93  has  been  taken  as  the  mean  value  in  the 
subsequent  calculations.  This  value  agrees  well  with  that  ob- 
tained by  previous  investigators  (Fleischmann,  1885). 

The  following  Table  shows  the  percentages  of  fat  and  electrical 
conductivities  (K)  of  various  mixtures  in  whole  and  spun  milk  in 
the  case  of  different  samples,  and  the  ratios  of  the  decrements  of 
conductivity  to  the  corresponding  increments  of  fat-content. 

If  the  decrement  of  conductivity  is  directly  proportional  to 
the  increment  of  fat,  these  ratios  will  be  constant  for  each 
sample  of  milk. 


ni6         FAT-CONTENT  AND   ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK, 


Table  ii. 

Relation  hefirefii  fleet, -leal  conductivity  and  fat-content  of  indiridual 

.samples  ofcoics'  milk. 


Sample. 

Percent. 
iii  fat 

Increment 

K  X  10"^ 

Decrement 

D.KxlO-" 

bj'  vol. 

of  fat. 

of  K  X  10-- 

D.Fat. 

1 

87.-) 

2-60 

4-72 

2-9 

11 

8-42 

2-27 

47« 

2-5 

11 

3  12 

1-97 

479 

2  2 

11 

2-8-) 

1-70 

4-83 

1-8 

115 

2-60 

r4o 

4-85 

1-6 

\'\ 

2-38 

1-24 

4-87 

1-4 

11 

2-19 

ro4 

4-88 

1-3 

1  -25 

ri.") 

0 

5  01 

^» 

2 

0-29 

() 

5-43 

0 

1-57 

1-28 

5 -30 

1-3 

ro 

205 

1-76 

5-25 

1-8 

ro 

2-45 

2-16 

5-23 

20 

0-95 

2 -76 

2-47 

5-19 

2-4 

roo 

2-98 

2-69 

5-18 

2-5 

10 

3-59 

3-30 

515 

2-8 

0-85 

4-01 

3-72 

5  06 

37 

ro5 

6 

0-23 

0 

5-38 

0 

1-78 

1-55 

5-26 

1-2 

0-8 

2-42 

2-19 

5  20 

1-8 

0-85 

2-80 

2-57 

5-18 

2  0 

0-8 

3-38 

3  15 

5-15 

2-3 

075 

7 

017 

0 

5-40 

0 

1-65 

1-48 

5-28 

1-2 

0-8 

2-18 

2-01 

5-26 

1-4 

07 

3  02 

2-85 

5-20 

2  0 

07 

3 -53 

3-35 

5-18 

2 '2 

0-65 

4*28 

4-11 

5-10 

3-0 

07 

The  values  of  K  in  this  Table  have  a  possible  error  20  to  50 
times  that  of  the  corresponding  measurements  of  conductivity. 
The  above  figures  shoM^  that  the  ratio  of  decrement  of  conduc- 
tivity to  increment  of  fat  is  constant  to  within  the  limit  of  error 
of  the  determinations  for  the  samples  of  milk  examined. 

From  these  results,  it  will  be  seen  that,  for  a  given  sample  of 
milk,  the  depression  of  conductivity  is  direcitly  proportional  to 
the  percentage  of  fat. 


BY  H.  S.  HALCRO  WARDLaW. 


617 


2.  Relation  betiueen  fat-cotUent  and  conductivity  of  different 
samples. — The  above  figures  also  indicate,  however,  that  the 
depression  of  conductivity  due  to  a  given  increase  of  fat-content 
is  not  the  same  for  different  specimens  of  milk.  To  confirm  this 
observation,  a  number  of  determinations  have  been  made  of  the 
percentage-decrease  of  conductivity  of  spun  milk  due  to  the 
addition  of  1%  of  fat.  These  figures  are  given  in  the  last  column 
of  the  following  Table. 


Table  iii. 

PerceiUaye-depi'essioii  of  etecfricaf  conduct ir if i/  due  to  f/ie  addihon  of  1  c.c. 

of  fat  to  different  samples  of  cowk''  milk. 


Percent. 

1 

Sample 

of  fat 
by  vol. 

D.Fat. 

1 

D.KxlO-'. 

DKxlO-^ 

1)K%  for 
1  c.c.  fat. 

•         1 

3- 75 

4-72 

1-15 

2 -(50 

5-01 

2-9 

2-25 

2 

4-01 

5-06 

0-29 

3-72 

5-43 

37 

1-8 

8 

3-87 

4-84 

0-19 

3-68 

5-10 

2-0 

1-3 

4 

4-15 

5-07 

0-18 

3-97 

5-37 

3  0 

1-4 

5 

3-78 

5  10 

0-23 

3-55 

5-41 

3-1 

1-65 

6 

3-38 

5-15 

0-23 

3-15 

5-38 

2-3 

1-35 

7 

4-28 

5-10 

0-17 

4-11 

5-40 

3-0 

1-35 

S 

4 -OK 

5-11 

0-18 

3 '88 

5-42 

31 

1-5 

9 

4-33 

5-07 

0-16 

4-17 

5-37 

3-0 

1-35 

10 

4-09 

5-08 

♦ 

0  19 

3-89 

544 

3  •<) 

17 

11 

4-01 

5-09 

0-18 

3-83 

5-37 

2-8 

1  -35 

12 

4-36 

5-05 

0-18 

4-17 

5-3(5 

3-1 

1-4 

18 

3-98 

5-07 

0-17 

3-81 

5-39 

3-2 

1'55 

14 

3-92 

5 -OS 

0-20 

372 

5-41 

3-3 

1-65 

15 

3-84 

4-99 

0-16 

3-68 

5-35 

3  (J 

1-8 

618       FATL-CONTENT  AND  ELKCTKICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK, 
Table  iii.  — (conllnmd). 


Sample. 

Percent, 
(jf  fat. 
by  vol. 

D.Fal. 

U.K  X  10  ". 

D.Kx  10  -. 

D.Xr  for 

1  c.c.  fat. 

Ki 

3*98 

o'Oo 

0-U 

3-84 

.V33 

2-8 

1  •3.-) 

17 

4 -39 

O-02 

0-17 

4-11 

o'32 

3  0 

1-4 

I-"* 

370 

-vol 

<ri7 

3  03 

.5-42 

41 

2- 1.3 

19 

3-90 

5-21 

0-1-") 

3-81 

4-93 

2-8 

1-4 

2(J 

3-97 

5-81 

0-12 

3  •8.1 

0-47 

3-4 

r.3 

21 

3H.i 

-3-37 

0'14 

3ol 

0.71 

3-4 

17 

'I'l 

3 -09 

5-43 

0-is 

3-41 

572 

2*9 

r.j 

•23 

3-8H 

5-49 

Olo 

3-71 

5-83 

3-4 

r(i 

24 

3-70 

o.4(5 

0-14 

3 -0(3 

5-83 

37 

1-8 

'2o 

3-80 

0-48 

o-ir» 

3  •().') 

.V85 

37 

1  7.3 

2(3 

4-10 

5 '51 

0-13 

3-97 

0-89 

3-8 

1  -(33 

27 

3-45 

0-88 

(rlO 

3-29 

(J-21 

3-3 

\ry 

2S 

3-9(5 

5-34 

O-lo 

3-81 

o-(37 

3-3 

1  -33 

29 

3-7r> 

o'oO 

017 

3 -08 

5-81 

3-1 

1-3 

3(J 

3-72 

0-48 

0-10 

3-56 

o78 

30 

1-45 

31 

3-o5 

o*o.> 

o-k; 

3-37 

5-89 

3-4 

17 

32 

3-67 

4-47 

O-K) 

3-51 

5-81 

3-4 

1  '(33 

Mean 

1  -38 

The  figures  in  the  above  Table  show  that  1  c.c,  of  fat  in  100 
c.c.  of  milk  depresses  the  conductivity  2-3  to  1*3%  of  the  value 
for  spun  milk  in  the  samples  examined,  the  mean  depression 
being  1"58%.  The  eftectof  fat  on  the  conductivity  in  these  cases 
is  thus  30  to  120%  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the 
amount  of  conducting  material  displaced. 


BY   H.   S.   HALCRO  WARDLAW.  619 

It  was  thought  that  this  variable  efi'ect  upon  the  conductivity 
might  be  due  in  some  way  to  the  method  of  removal  of  the  fat 
from  the  milk.  The  milk  might  be  concentrated  slightly  by 
evaporation  during  the  process  of  spinning  in  the  centrifuge. 
The  conductivity  of  the  spun  milk  would  then  be  greater  than 
could  be  accounted  for  by  the  removal  of  the  fat.  Or,  substances 
other  than  fat  might  be  removed  by  spinning.  In  this  way  also 
the  electrolytes  of  the  spun  milk  might  become  more  concen- 
trated, and  the  effect  of  the  removal  of  the  fat  would  be  ex- 
aggerated. 

To  test  the  first  of  the  above  suppositions,  the  conductivity 
of  samples  of  milk  which  had  been  spun  covered  to  prevent 
evaporation  was  compared  with  the  conductivity  of  samples 
spun  uncovered  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  results  obtained  are 
lifiven  below. 


Electrical  conductivity  of  milk  after  spinning  in  covered  and 
uncovered  tubes. 


Conductivity. 

Sample. 

Covered. 

Uncovered . 

3 

5-08 

5-08 

-t 

5-37 

5*35 

o 

5-39 

5-40 

These  results  show  that  there  is  no  appreciable  increase  of 
conductivity  due  to  the  concentration  of  the  milk  by  evaporation 
during  spinning. 

To  test  the  second  hypothesis,  the  amounts  of  total  solid 
matter  as  well  as  of  fat  in  the  milk  were  determined.  The 
following  Table  gives  the  weights  of  fat  and  of  total  solids  in 
100  c.c.  of  milk  before  spinning,  and  in  the  volume  obtained 
after  spinning  (100  c.c  less  volume  of  fat). 


620       FAT-CONTENT  AND  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY   OF  MILK, 


Table  iv. 
]Vci;/hfs  of  fat  and  of  tolal  solid  matter  remored  from  100  c.c.  of  milk 
hy  spmnhuj  in  a  cenlrifiifje. 


Fat  in 

100  c.c. 

Solids  in  100  c.c. 

Wt.  from  100 c.c. 

Solids. 

Sainplo. 

— 

Whole. 

Spun. 

Whole. 

Spun. 

Fat. 

Solids. 

Fat. 

8 

3-78 

017 

! 

1  12  70 

8  91 

3-61 

3-79 

1-05 

9 

4  03 

015 

1  12  76 

8-54 

3-88 

4-22 

109 

10 

3-80 

018 

12-72 

9-07 

3-62 

3-65 

1-01 

11 

3-73 

017 

12-66 

8-94 

3  56 

3-72 

1-05 

12 

4  05 

017 

12-95 

8-82 

3-88 

413 

106 

13 

3-70 

0-16 

12-60 

8-95 

3-54 

3-65 

103 

14 

3-65 

019 

12-58 

8-92 

3-46 

366 

106 

15 

3-57 

015 

12-88 

8-95 

3-42 

3-83 

1  12 

16 

3-70 

013 

12-72 

8-92 

3-57 

3-80 

I  06 

17 

4-08 

016 

13-00 

8-96 

3-82 

4-04 

1-06 

18 

3-44 

016 

12-39 

8-99 

3-28 

3-40 

104 

20 

3-80 

0-11 

,  12-85 

9  00 

3-69 

3-85 

1-04 

21 

3-39 

013 

1  12-40 

9-01 

3-26 

3-39 

1-04 

22 

3-44 

017 

12-45 

9-09 

3-27 

3-36 

1-03 

23 

3-70 

014 

12-72 

8-97 

3-56 

3-75 

1-05 

24 

3-54 

0  13 

12-56 

9-00 

3-41 

3-56 

1-04 

25 

3-64 

014 

12  57 

9-05 

3-50 

3-52 

101 

26 

3-92 

0  12 

12-99 

9  00 

3-80 

3-99 

105 

27 

3-31 

015 

12-01 

8-85 

3  16 

316 

TOO 

28 

3-79 

014 

12-80 

8-86 

3-65 

3-94 

1-08 

29 

3-59 

016 

12-59 

9  08 

3-43 

351 

1-02 

30 

3  55 

015 

12-51 

9-00 

3  40 

3-51 

103 

.•^l 

3-40 

015 

12  35 

8-96 

3-25 

3-39 

104 

32 

3  51 

0  15 

12-57 

i 

9  06 

3-36 

3-51 

1  05 

The  above  figures  show  that  a  certain  amount  of  material 
other  than  fat  is  removed  from  milk  by  spinning.  Tliis  is  the 
material  adsorbed  by,  and  adherent  to,  the  fat-globules,  and  as 
would  be  expected  from  the  rather  indefinite  nature  of  its  asso- 
ciation witli  the  fat,  its  amount  is  rather  variable,  ranging  from 
12%  to  1%  of  the  weight  of  fat  removed.  If  this  material  be 
assumed  to  have  the  average  density  of  the  solids  other  than  fat 
of  milk,  1-6,  then  the  volume  occupied  by  it  will  be  only  0-6  to 
7%  of  the  total  volume  removed.  This  increase  of  volume  is 
quite  insufficient  to  account  for  the  excess  of  the  efibct  of  the 
fat  on  the  conductivity  over  the  volume-effect  (30-120%). 

3.  Effect  of  degree  of  siihdivision  of  fat.— ^t  was  thought  that 
some  light  might  be  thrown  on   the  variable  effect  of  fat  on  the 


BY  ti.  S.  HALCRO  WARDLAW.  62l 

conductivity  of  milk  by  examining  the  relation  l)et\veen  this 
effect  and  the  number  of  fat-globules  in  a  given  volume  of  fat. 

The  effect  of  non-conducting  suspended  matter  on  the  con- 
ductivity of  electrolytes  has  been  studied  by  Oker-Blom  (11)00). 
He  determined  the  conductivity  of  suspensions  of  sand  in  jellies 
made  up  with  salt  solutions,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
size  of  the  particles  (between  2  and  under  05  mm.)  made  no 
difference  to  their  effect  on  the  conductivity,  but  that  the  sand 
depressed  the  conductivity  less  when  uniformly  distributed 
through  the  jelly  than  when  collected  into  one  layer.  These 
conclusions  are  to  a  certain  extent  contradictory,  however,  as 
the  difference  between  the  first  and  second  cases  is  mainlv 
one  of  aggregation.  Further,  the  range  of  size  of  particles  ex- 
amined in  the  first  case  was  not  very  great. 

The  sizes  of  the  fat-particles  even  in  one  sample  of  milk  vary 
enormously.  But  each  sample  contains  a  certain  average  size  and 
number  of  particles  in  a  given  volume,  and  well-defined  diff'er- 
ences  exist  between  the  sizes  and  numbers  for  samples  of  different 
origin,  ^trippings,  for  instance,  contain  larger  fat-globules  than 
first  milk,  and  the  milk  of  Jersey  cows  contains  larger  particles 
than  the  poorer  milk  of  Shorthorn  cows. 

The  number  of  fat-globules  in  the  milk  was  counted  Vjy  the 
method  of  Babcock  (1886)  as  modified  by  Shaw  and  Eckles 
(1909).  One  volume  of  milk  is  diluted  to  50  with  water.  The 
mixture  is  drawn  up  into  capillary  tubes,  the  internal  diameters 
of  the  tubes  are  measured,  and  the  numbers  of  globules  in  a 
known  length  are  counted.  From  the  figures  obtained,  the 
numbers  of  globules  in  a  known  volume  of  the  undiluted  milk 
may  be  calculated.  The  measurements  are  made  with  an  ocular 
micrometer.  The  workers  quoted  made  the  optic  measui-ements 
with  the  capillaries  immersed  in  glycerine.  It  was  found  in  the 
present  work,  however,  that  owing  to  the  differences  between 
the  refractive  index  of  glycerine  and  that  of  glass,  the  values  of 
the  diameter  of  the  capillaries  measured  in  this  wa}-  were  too 
high.  The  present  measurements,  therefore,  were  made  with 
the  tubes  immersed  in  a  solution  of  chloral  hydrate  in  glycerine 
(7:1).     This  solution  has  a  refractive  index  of   1'508,  which  is 


622       FAT-CONTENT    AND  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK, 

very  close  to  that  of  the  glass  used.  The  measurements  were 
checked  by  weighing  the  amount  of  mercury  contained  in  a 
known  length  of  the  tube.  The  accompanying  figures  show  that 
the  optical  measurenients  of  diameter  agree  well  with  those 
calculated  froni  the  weij^hts. 


Tube, 

Wei-ht  of  Hg. 

Length. 

Diameter 
from  weight.           optically. 

1 
2 

4 

r3o    m-. 
I  07.5    ,, 
0'9.3.5    ,, 

1-22     ,, 

13 ■57  mm. 
17-3.5    ,, 
16-15    ,, 
22-2      „ 

0-0U7    mTii. 
0-074.5     .. 
0-74        „ 
0-071       „ 

0-01M>    mm, 
0073.5     .. 
0  072      ,, 
0  072      „ 

These  figures  show  that  the  results  obtained  by  the  two 
methods  are  concordant  to  within  their  limits  of  error. 

In  the  following  Table  are  shown  the  ratios  of  percentage  of 
fat  to  the  percentage-decrease  of  conductivity,  and  the  numbers 
of  fat-globules  in  1  cu.mm   for  different  samples  of  cows'  milk. 

Table  v. 
De;/ree  of  subdivision  of  milk-fat  and  its  effect  on  the  electrical  conductivity. 


Sample. 

Fat  in  100  c.c. 

D.K%for 
1%  fat. 

Globules 
cu.mm,  milk 

per 
X  10-6 

Globules  per 
cu.mm.  fat  x  IQ-*, 

19 

1-36 

1  92 

4-85 

20 

1-36 

194 

4-86 

21 

1-71 

1-96 

5-40 

22 

1-44 

1-72 

4-65 

23 

l-o3 

1-79 

4-51 

24 

1-73 

1-98 

5-20 

25 

1-69 

2  02 

5-17 

26 

1-58 

1-89 

4  47 

27 

1-57 

2-27 

6-38 

28 

1  49 

2  10 

5  15 

29 

I  4.5 

2  02 

5-22 

30 

1-42 

1-95 

5  09 

31 

1-65 

1-77 

4-84 

32 

1-62 

212 

5-61 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  figures,  no  simple  relation  ap- 


BY  H.   S.   SALCKO  WARDLAW.  623 

pears  to  exist  between  the  (lepressioii  of  conductivity  due  to  1  c.c. 
of  fat  in  100  c  c.  of  inilk  and  the  average  number  of  globules 
into  which  this  amount  of  fat  is  divided,  or  the  average  size  of 
the  globules.  The  degree  of  subdivision  of  the  fat  thus  does  not 
seem  to  influence  its  effect  on  the  conductivity  in  excess  of  the 
effect  due  to  the  volume  displaced. 

4.  The  relation  between  the  increase  of  inscosUij  due  to  the  fat 
of  milk  and  its  effect  on  the  electrical  conductivity.  —The  electrical 
conductivity  of  a  solution  of  electrolytes  depends  on  the  velocity 
and  concentration  of  its  ions.  One  factor  which  determines  the 
velocity  of  the  ions  is  the  resistance  which  the  liquid  of  the 
solution  opposes  to  their  movement.  In  the  case  of  aqueous 
solutions  of  salts  only,  this  resistance  is  measured  by  the  vis- 
cosity. In  the  case  of  systems  which  are  not  homogeneous,  how- 
ever, the  viscosity  of  the  system  as  a  whole  is  not  a  measure  of 
the  resistance  offered  to  the  passage  of  ions.  The  addition  of 
gelatine  to  a  salt  solution,  for  example,  may  increase  the  vis- 
cosity enormously,  while  the  resistance  to  the  movement  of  ions, 
as  measured  by  the  conductivity,  is  hardly  afiected.  The  system 
is  no  longer  homogeneous,  but  consists  of  two  phases. 

Milk  is  such  a  heterogeneous  system,  and  contains  at  least 
three  phases.  No  simple  relation  is  to  be  expected,  therefore, 
between  the  viscosity  of  milk  as  a  whole  and  its  electrical  con- 
ductivity. It  was  thought,  however,  that  these  two  properties 
might  be  connected  in  some  regular  manner  which  would  explain 
the  disparity  between  the  volume  occupied  by  the  fat  of  milk 
and  its  efiect  on  the  conductivity. 

In  the  following  Table  are  shown  the  effect  of  the  removal  of 
measured  amounts  of  fat  on  the  conductivity  and  viscosity  of 
milk.  The  viscosities  were  measured  in  an  Ostwald  viscosimeter 
at  25''C.  The  values  given  are  those  compared  with  water  as 
unity.     The  results  have  a  maximum  relative  error  of  1%. 


624       FAT-CONTENT  AND  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTIVITY  OF  MILK, 


Table  vi. 
Effect  offal  on  condnrjlrihj  a\id  rhros^lly  of  milk. 


.Sample. 

Decrement 

Increment 

Viscosity. 

DK% 

DV% 

of  tat. 

of  K. 

Whole. 

Spun. 

DFat% 

DFat% 

28 

3 -92 

3-3 

\m 

r.V) 

1-38 

ro7 

29 

3-«9 

3'1 

174 

1  TV.) 

1  •3r> 

ro3 

30 

3-83 

3  0 

1-84 

1  MU 

1  -32 

ro3 

31 

3-49 

3-4 

1-86 

1  -59 

ro3 

105. 

32 

3-61 

3-4 

1-81 

r(3i 

I'ol 

103 

The  above  figures  show  that  in  these  samples  of  inilk  a  de- 
crease of  1  gm.  of  fat  ill  100  c.c.  diminished  tlie  viscosity  from 
3  to  7%.  The  corresponding  increases  of  conductivity,  however, 
are  from  30  to  50%  above  the  values  due  to  the  volume  occupied 
by  the  fat.  The  diminution  of  viscosity  is  thus  quite  insufficient 
to  account  for  the  discrepancy  between  the  volume  occupied  by 
the  fat  and  its  effect  on  the  conductivity.  It  will  be  seen,  too, 
that  the  increase  of  conductivity  is  not  proportional  to  the  de- 
crease of  viscosity. 

These  results  also  indicate  that,  in  the  samples  of  milk  ex- 
amined, the  effect  exerted  on  the  conductivity  by  1%  of  fat  by 
volume  is  as  variable  as  the  effect  exerted  on  the  conductivity, 
and  does  not  show  that  constancy  which  Taylor  {loc.  cit.)  found 
in  the  samples  examined  by  him. 

5.  The  behaviour  of  fat-globules  in  an  electric  field. — If  the  fat- 
globules  of  milk  carry  an  electric  charge,  they  may  retard  the 
movement  of  ions  in  their  vicinity,  and  in  this  way  be  responsi- 
ble for  the  variable  effect  that  fat  exerts  on  the  conductivity  in 
addition  to  the  effect  due  to  the  volume  displaced.  The  attempt 
was  made  to  observe  whether  the  fat-globules  were  charged  by 
placing  milk  in  a  shallow  cell  less  than  1  mm.  deep,  provided 
with  platinum  electrodes  (("hick  and  Martin,  1912).  A  current 
was  passed  l)etween  the  electrodes,  and  the  fat-globules  were 
watched  under  the  microscope.  No  movement  was  observed 
with  a  fall  of  potential  below  about  3  volts  per  cm.  With  higher 
voltages,  bubbles  oi  gas  were  formed  at  the  electrodes,  and 
caused  movement  of  the  globules  mechanically.  These  experi- 
ments do   not   show  conclusively  that  the   fat-globules  of  milk 


BY  H.   S.   FIALCRO  AVARDLAW.  625 

are  not  charged  electrically.  They  indicate,  however,  that  any 
charge  carried  must  be  small;  much  smaller,  for  example,  than 
that  carried  by  the  particles  of  a  suspension  of  coagulated  pro- 
tein, which  show  verv  evident  movement  in  an  electric  field 
under  conditions  similar  to  tliose  described. 

Summary. 

(1).  Removal  of  fat  from  milk  increases  the  electrical  con- 
ductivity. 

('2).  In  a  giv^en  sample  of  milk,  the  increase  of  conductivity  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  volume  of  fat  removed. 

(3).  The  increase  of  conductivity  due  to  the  removal  of  a  given 
amount  of  fat  is  not  the  same,  however,  in  different  samples  of 
milk.  The  average  increase  of  conductivity  due  to  the  removal 
of  1%  by  volume  of  fat  is  1*5%. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  express  my  indebtedness  to  Sir 
Thomas  Anderson  Stuart,  in  whose  laboratory  this  work  was 
done. 


REFERENCES. 

Babcock. — Ann,  Rep.  New  York  Agrie.  Expt.  Station,  1885,  298,  1886. 

Chick  and  Martin. — Journ.  of  Physiol.,  45,  261,  1912. 

Fleischmaxn. — Journ.  f.  Landwirts.,  33,  251,  1885.     Quoted  in  Somnier- 

feld's  Handbuch  der  Milohkunde,  269,  1909.      Wiesbaden  :   Berg- 

mann. 
Jackson  and  Rothera. — Biocheni.  Journ.,  8,  1,  1914, 
Oker-Blom.— Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  79,  510,  1900. 
Shaw  and  Eckels. — U.S.  Uept.  Agric,  Bur.  Anim,  Industrj',  Bui.  Ill, 

1909. 
Taylor.— Journ.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  47,  174,  1913. 
Wardlaw. — These  Proceedings,  1917,  xlii.,  815. 


626 


THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX. 

Part  2.  The  AViNn  Trichiation  and  its  Relationship  to  the 
General  Scheme  of  Venation. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYAHD.  M.A..  D  8c.,  F.L.S.,  F.E.8.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plates  Ixvii.-lxix.,  and  Text-figures  17-^14). 

If  we  cut  off  a  small  portion  of  the  wing  of  any  archaic  Holo- 
metabolous  Insect,  such  as,  for  instance,  Archichaiiliodes  guttiferufi 
Walk.,  (Text-fig. 22)  of  the  Order  Megaloptera,  and  make  a 
cleared  mount  of  it,  ^ve  shall  find  that,  when  it  is  examined 
under  a  high  power,  both  veins  and  membrane  of  the  wing  are 
covered  with  hairs.  These  hairs  will  be  seen  to  be  developed 
equally  abundantly  upon  the  upper  and  under  sides  of  the  wing. 

This  covering  of  hairs  may  be  spoken  of  collectively  as  the 
Winy-trichiatimi.  Though  it  is  to  be  found  in  all  Orders  of  the 
Holometabola,  it  does  not  occur  in  all  Orders  of  Insects.  It  isj 
for  instance,  entirely  absent  from  the  wings  of  the  Odonata. 

Generally  speaking,  there  may  be  found  upon  the  wing  of  any 
Holometabolous  Insect  two  types  of  hairs,  which  I  have  already 
named  microtrichia  and  macrotrichia  respectively  (5).  These  may 
be  defined  as  follows: — 

Microtrichia  (Gr.  [xiKpo's,  small;  and  Opi^,  r^txos,  a  hair)  are 
minute  hairs,  generally  much  curved  or  hooked,  which  are  de- 
veloped in  connection  with  every  unspecialised  hypoderm-cell  of 
both  upper  and  under  surface  of  the  wing.  Hence  the}^  occur 
indiscriminately  and  exceedingly  abundantly  upon  veins  and 
membrane  alike.  Theii-  bases  of  insertion  appear  as  simple 
circular  pits,  in  which,  under  a  very  high  power,  a  central  per- 
foration leading  into  a  very  small  lumen  in  the  interior  of  the 
hair  can  be  made  out.      They  vary  in  length  from  under  l/u  to 


r»v   II. 


TILLYARD. 


0-27 


a. 


d. 


about  30/x,  lint  in  most  cases  lio  between  10/x  and  20/x.  Similar 
hairs  are  frequently  present  upon  the  softer  parts  of  the  bod}-, 
as,  for  instance,  on  the  abdominal  sutures  and  pleurto.  (Text- 
fig.  17,  a,  cZ). 

Macrofrichia  (Gr.  fiaKpo^,  large;  and  Opi^)  are  much  larger 
and  stronger  hairs,  much  less  abundant,  and  oidy  developed  from 
large  specialised  hypoderm-cells  (trichogen  cells)  in  connection 
with  special  nerve-endings.  They  are  thus  of  the  nature  of 
i^ptisillfp,  and  homologous  with  similar  hairs  on  othei*  parts  of  the 
body.  Their  bases  of  insertion  are  in  the 
form  of  raised  circular  rings,  enclosing  an 
opening  in  the  cuticle,  which  is  continued  as 
a  very  definite  lumen  within  the  hair,  almost 
to  its  very  tip.  These  hairs  are  almost  uni- 
versally present  upon  the  main  veins  and 
their  branches,  less  frequently  upon  the 
membrane  of  the  wing,  and  only  in  very 
special  cases  upon  the  true  cross-veins.  In 
several  Orders  they  become  evolved,  in  cer- 
tain cases,  by  a  process  of  flattening,  into 
scales;  but  this  development  is  only  spasmodic 
except  in  the  Order  I.epidoptera,  where  scales 
are  found  universally.  (Text-fig.  17,6, c,  e,/). 

Those  macrotrichia  found  upon  the  veins 
are  usually  somewhat  larger  and  stronger  than  those  found  upon 
the  membrane,  and  both  series  may  vary  c(msiderably  in  size 
upon  the  same  wing.  In  different  insects,  the  limits  of  variation 
of  these  hairs  may  be  placed  at  from  40/x  to  over  200/x.  Text- 
fig.  17  shows  two  sets  of  fairly  normal  hairs,  one  from  Panorpa, 
and  one  from  Rhyphus. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  Part  to  study  the  evolution  of  the 
Wing-Trichiation  in  the  various  Orders  of  the  Panorpoid  Com- 
plex.    As  this  is  partly  dependent  upon  the  state  of  evolution  of 

*  Hairs  from  the  wings  of  Panorpa  confitsa  VVestw.,  (a-c),  and  Rhyphus 
brecis  WaAk.,  {d-f);  a,  d,  microtrichia;  b,  e,  macrotrichia  from  wing-mem- 
brane; f,  /,  ditto,  from  main  veins;  (  x  375). 


a  (U) 


h  ^  I 


c.    e. 

Textfiir.l'; 


f. 


628  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

the  general  plan  of  the  wing-venation,  it  will  be  necessary,  first 
of  all,  to  define  the  composition  of  this  venation  somewhat  more 
strictly  than  is  usual. 

According  to  the  well  known,  and  b}^  now  generally  accepted, 
theory  of  Comstock  and  Needham  (14),  the  venation  of  an  insect's 
wing  has  been  original^  determined  by  the  courses  of  the  pre- 
cedent tracheae,  which  supply  the  growing  wing-rudiment  of  the 
larva  or  nymph.  From  the  six  main  trachete  that  enter  the 
growing  wing,  tliere  are  thus  developed  six  maiv  i^eiiis,  known 
as  the  costa,  subcosta,  radius,  media,  cubitus  and  analis,  respect- 
ively. Some  of  these  main  veins  may  be  branched;  such  primary 
brandies  are  termed  sectors. 

In  the  case  of  a  main  vein  which  branches  and  rebranches 
several  times,  it  is  clear  that  the  final  branchlets  may  be  botli 
very  small  and  very  numerous.  T  propose  to  term  such  branch- 
lets  rciuhts.  They  are  to  be  distinguished  from  cross-veins  (see 
below)  by  the  fact  that  they  are  always  preceded  by  definite 
tracheae. 

In  contradistinction  to  a  veinlet,  I  propose  to  restrict  the  term 
cr^ss-veiit  to  a  short  connecting  vein  which  does  not  form  part  of 
the  branching  system  of  any  main  vein,  and  is  developed  inde- 
pendently of  the  precedent  tracheation. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  there  is  no  reason  why 
such  true  cross-veins  should  not  be  developed  upon  any  portion 
of  a  wing,  and  at  any  thnc,  provided  the  need  for  them  arises. 
There  is  thus,  in  reality,  no  difference  between  true  cross-veins 
and  the  so-called  false  cross-veins,  which  appear  occasionally  in 
newly-expanded  areas  of  the  vyings  of  highly  specialised  genera; 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  enlarged  humeral  area  of  the  hindwing  of 
Lasiocampa.  The  only  difference  between  these  newly  formed 
cross-veins  and  those  found  in  older  wings  is  one  of  time;  where 
the  geological  record  is  available  to  us,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Psychoj)sida',  the  rise  of  the  true  cross- veins  from  a  similar  origin 
is  clearly  indicated. 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  difference  between  veinlets  and 
cross-veins  more  clearly,  I  have  figured  the  tracheation  and  oor- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


629 


responding  venation  of  a  portion  of  the  costal  area  of  the  fore- 
wing  of  PsycJiopsis  degans  Guerin,  (Text-fig.  18),  in  which  this 
difference  is  very  clearly  shown.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  branches 
passing  into  the  costal  area  from  the  main  subcostal  vein  (Sc) 
are  all  of  the  nature  of  opinleU  {ci'l),  since  they  are  all  preceded 
by  trachefe.  These  veinlets  are,  however,  supported  by  true 
eross-vpins  {x),  which  have  arisen  independently  of  the  trachea- 
tion.  Also,  the  narrow  areas  between  tSc,  R,  and  Rs  are 
strengthened  by  true  crogs-i'plns  (a*). 

In  the  known  fossils  of  the  Psychopsidcv  and  allies,  we  find  the 
costal  veinlets  present  as  in  recent  forms.  I^ut  there  are  no 
connecting  cross-veins.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  these  latter  are 
a  later  development,  called  into  existence  by  the  need  for 
strengthening  the  enlarged  costal  area  of  the  wing. 


-^^<^^ 


Text-fig.  18. 
Portion  of  enlarged  costal  area  of  fore  wing  of  P.^ychopsis  efer/an-'^  Guer., 
(  x27),  with  the  corresponding  tracbeation  (to  the  left)  of  the  pupal 
wing,  (  X  60).     C,  costa;  cf,  trachet^   preceding  the  costal  veinlets; 
crl,  costal  veinlets;  R,  radius;  Rs,  radial  sector;  Sc,  subcosta. 


Referrins:  aoain  to  Text  fio.  18,  we  notice  a  further  difference 
between  the  veinlets  and  the  cross-veins.  The  former,  like  the 
main  veins  of  which  they  are  branchlets,  carry  a  regulai* 
series  of  macrotrichia,  ^\'hereas  the  latter  have  no  macrotrichia 
at  all.  This  distinction  holds  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
Holometabola,  with  only  two  exceptions,  viz.,  the  Raphidioidea 
49 


630  THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  ii., 

and  the  higher  faniihes  of  tlie  Planipennia,  in  which  the  macro- 
trichia  appear  upon  the  cross-veins  as  well  as  on  the  veinlets. 

Having  now  clearly  explained  the  difference  between  veinlets 
and  cross-veins,  let  us  now  go  back  to  the  most  primitive  fossil 
insects,  and  study  the  venational  scheme  that  they  present  to  us. 
In  the  oldest  known  Orders,  the  Palteodictyoptera  and  their 
allies  of  the  Upper  Carboniferous,  we  find  the  same  scheme  of 
main  veins  as  in  recent  insects.  The  spaces  between  these  main 
veins  and  their  branches  are,  however,  filled  up  with  an  irregular 
meshwork  of  cellules,  quite  unlike  anything  to  be  seen  in  the 
Holometabola  of  to-day,  though  very  probably  homologous  with 
the  still-existing  dense  meshwork  of  cellules  to  be  found  in  certain 
Orders  of  Hemimetabola,  such  as  the  Odonata.  To  this  oriyinal 
meshwork  of  cdhdes,  as  developed  in  the  Palseodictyoptera  and 
their  allies,  I  propose  to  give  the  name  archedictyon.  A  portion 
of  a  typical  archedictyon  is  shown  in  Text-fig.  19. 


Text-fig.  10. 
Portion  of  wing  of  the  fossil  Hypermegethes  shuckerti  Handl.,  (Order  Palaso- 
dictyoptera),  to  show  the  archedictj^on;  (nat.  size). 

It  is  here  necessary  to  disabuse  our  minds  at  once  of  the  idea, 
if  it  exists,  that  the  dense  venation  found  in  certain  Planipennia 
is  an  archedictyon.  Practically  all  known  fossils  of  this  Order 
(Triassic,  Liassic,  and  Jurassic)  have  either  no  or  few  cross- 
veins,  and  the  spaces  between  their  numerous  main  veins  and 
branches  are  devoid  of  any  meshwork.  Further,  the  oldest  types 
still  extant,  such  as  the  Fst/chopsidte,  If/io)ddce,  etc.,  have  no 
meshwork   present;    and   it   is  demonstrable    that   the  apparent 


BY    R.    J.    TILL  YARD.  63] 


f'U'(ni- 


meshwork  present  in  the  newer  families,  such  as  the  Mijrmfh 
iid(P.  and  Asmla^^hidce,  is  to  be  traced  back  to  a  simpler  arrange- 
ment of  numerous  parallel  sectors  supported  b}'  cross-veins  at 
intervals.  It  is  by  the  zigzagging  of  these  sectors,  and  the  con- 
sequent production  of  innnerous  polygonal  cellules,  that  a  mesh- 
work  appearance  has  been  produced. 

The  essential  characters  of  the  original  archedictyon,  as  we 
find  it  preserved  in  the  Paljeodictyoptera,  are  its  irregularity,  and 
the  delicacy  of  the  cemiles  (I  use  this  tei'm  as  distinct  from  vein- 
lets  or  cross-veins)  that  form  it.  Whether  these  first  arose  in 
connection  with  precedent  fine  trachete  in  the  wing-rudiment,  or 
entirely  independently  of  them,  or  perhaps  partly  in  one  way 
and  partly  in  the  other,  we  have  now  no  sure  means  of  proving. 
We  can  only  say  that  the  irregularity  of  their  courses,  and  the 
fact  that,  in  one  fossil  at  least,  macrotrichia  hav^e  been  found  to 
exist  upon  them,  strongly  suggest  a  tracheal  basis. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  show  the  inter-relationship  between  the 
archedictyon  proper,  the  veinlets  and  cross-veins  of  the  wing,  and 
the  trichiation.  Fortunately  all  these  are  preserved  together  in 
the  fossil  Order  Protomecoptera,  from  the  Trias  of  Ipswich, 
Queensland. 

Plate  Ixvii.,  figs.  9-10,  show  portions  of  the  wing  of  Archipanoiya 
magnijica  Till.,  the  only  knosvn  representative  of  this  Order. 
Here  we  may  see  the  archedictyon  still  complete,  but  evidently 
in  a  stage  preparatory  to  becoming  completely  merged  into  the 
wing-membrane.  The  venules  of  the  archedictyon  are  not  de- 
finitely marked  out,  as  in  such  fossils  as  HyjJennegethes  (Text-fig. 
19),  but  appear  rather  as  simple  ridges  of  the  cuticle,  not  showing 
any  definite  venular  structure.  In  many  places,  but  chiefiv  close 
to  the  main  veins,  and  at  the  angles  of  the  mesh  work,  there  can 
be  seen  rounded  or  slightly  oval  tubercles,  of  a  diameter  con- 
siderably smaller  than  those  seen  upon  the  veins  themselves,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  less  clearly  preserved.  These  are  evidently 
the  bases  of  insertion  of  macrotrichia;  but,  partly  owing  to  the 
weak  development  of  the  mesh  work  that  carries  them,  and  parti)' 
because  they  apparently  lay   more  fiatly  along  the  wing-surface, 


632  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

their  bases  are  not  preserved  as  well  as  those  on  the  veins,  and 
very  rarely  show  the  two  concentric  circles  which  characterise 
the  base  of  a  stiff  and  more  upright  bristle.  In  ray  original  de- 
scription (5.  PI.  viii.,  fig. 6),  I  gave  a  diagrammatic  figure  of  a 
small  portion  of  the  archedictyon  of  this  fossil,  much  enlarged. 
I  now  consider  this  figure  to  be  somewhat  misleading,  in  that  it 
made  the  macrotrichia  of  the  mesh%vork  appear  as  large  and  as 
clearly  marked  as  those  of  the  veins,  whereas  they  are  always 
smaller,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  wing  more  difficult  to  make  out. 
It  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  photomicrographs  that  it  is  not 
an  easy  matter  to  give  a  correct  drawing  of  this  meshwork,  and 
I  think  it  better  simply  to  give  the  photographs  in  this  paper. 

So  w^ell  is  this  fossil  preserved,  that  I  have  been  able  to  find, 
in  several  parts  of  the  wing,  by  the  use  of  careful  lighting, 
definite  indications  of  the  fine  pitting  due  bo  the  presence  of 
microtrichia.  Their  bases  of  insertion  are  of  about  the  same 
diameter  as  that  of  the  average  particle  in  the  grain  of  the  rock, 
viz.,  from  2  to  3/a.  From  a  comparison  with  the  microtrichia  of 
Panorpa,  we  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  length  of  these 
microtrichia  was  40/x  or  more;  i.e.,  considerably  larger  than  an}^ 
to  be  seen  in  existing  Holometabola. 

Measurements  of  the  beautifully  preserved  bases  of  insertion 
of  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  main  veins  of  this  fossil  show  that 
the  outer  diameter  of  most  of  them  lies  between  30  and  40/x. 
This  is  much  in  excess  of  the  size  to  be  found  in  the  wings  of 
existing  Orders,  which  seldom  exceeds  10/x.  Allowing  some 
expansion  due  to  the  pressure  upon  the  wing  during  fossilisation, 
it  would  still  appear  that  this  insect  i30ssessed  macrotrichia  very 
much  stouter  and  longer  than  any  now  known  to  exist;  their 
probable  length  was  between  300  and  400/^.  The  macrotrichia 
upon  the  archedictyon  were  evidently  smaller,  and  probably  did 
not  exceed  200/x,  their  bases  of  insertion  averaging  only  20/v.. 

The  cross-veins  in  the  fossil  are  clearly  seen  to  be  developed  as 
strong  struts  between  the  main  veins,  and  are  quite  independent 
of  the  archedictyon.  With  the  exception  of  <me  or  two  macro- 
trichia that  appeal'  to  have  strayed   on  to  them  from  the  latter, 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  633 

they  are  found  to  be  quite  free  from  these  hairs.  Hence  they 
show  no  evidence  whatever  of  liaving  been  developed  ])y  straight- 
ening out  of  any  portion  of  the  archedictyon.  If  they  had  been 
so  developed,  it  is  clear  that  they  nuist  have  carried  macrotrichia, 
which  they  would  receive  from  the  archedictyon  itself. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  the  fossil  Ao'chipanorpa,  that  the  macro- 
trichia occurred  originally  only  upon  the  main  veins  and  their 
branches,  including  the  true  veinlets,  and  upon  the  archedictyon. 
Cross-veins  and  membrane  of  the  wing  are  alike  free  from  them. 
When,  however,  the  archedictyon  is  abscjrbed  into  the  membrane 
(as  it  is  on  the  point  of  being,  in  this  fossil),  it  is  evident  that 
the  macrotrichia  that  originally  occurred  upon  the  archedictyon 
nuist  then  become  seated  upon  the  membrane.  This  will  explain 
their  appearance  upon  the  membrane  in  many  Orders  of  Holo- 
metabola.  But,  if  this  explanation  be  correct,  then  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  macrotrichia  might  be  expected  to  show  some  signs 
of  the  original  design  of  the  archedictyon.  If  we  draw  the  posi- 
tions of  a  number  of  macrotrichia  in  any  of  the  older  Holometa- 
bola,  we  shall  see  that  this  is  the  case.  For  this,  it  will  only  be 
necessary  to  refer  again  to  Text-fig. 2 2,  in  which  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  macrotrichia  below  the  main  vein  there  figured  tend  to 
lie  along  oblique  lines  similar  to  the  courses  of  the  venules  running 
out  from  the  main  veins  in  the  fossil  wing  shown  in  Text-fig.  19; 
and,  like  them,  are  connected  by  shorter  cross-branches,  indicated 
by  the  presence  of  macrotrichia  lying  in  intermediate  positions. 
(See  also  Text-figs.  21,  26,  30,  34). 

Further  evidence  as  to  how  the  macrotrichia  first  appeared 
upon  the  membrane  of  the  wing  may  be  obtained  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  pterostigmatic  region  in  the  Planipennia.  Text-fig. 
20  shows  this  region  in  Micromm^  tasmanicn  Walk.  '  The  series 
of  costal  veinlets,  that  fills  the  costal  space  in  all  Planipennia, 
originally  extended  into  the  pterostigmatic  region.  Here  there 
is  a  gradual  thickening  of  the  membrane  taking  place,  with  a 
correspondingly  gradual  absorption  of  the  veinlets;  all  stages  of 
this  process  can  still  be  seen  going  on  by  studying  various  species 
in  the  families   Hemerohiidoi,  Chrysojndce,  and  Manfispidce.      As 


634  THE  PAKORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii,, 

these  veinlets  cany  loacrotricliia,  it  will  be  obvious  that,  as  they 
disappear,  the  iiiacrotrichia  will  become  seated  upon  the  mem- 
brane. 


Text-tig.  20. 
Pteiostigmatic  area  of  forewing  of  Micromua  tasiiuini(x  Walk,,  showing 
aphantoneuric  condition  of  the  veinlets;  {  x  15).    C,  costa;  R,  radius; 
Sc,  subcosta. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  evidence  both  of  the  fossil  Order  Proto- 
mecoptera  and  of  the  recent  Planipennia  agrees  in  pointing  to 
the  same  conclusion: — Macrotrichia  icere  oriyinaUy  carried  only 
upon  the  main  veins  and  their  branches^  and  upon  the  archedictyon; 
they  ajypear  upon  the  membrane  by  absorption  of  the  veinlets  or 
venules^  carrying  thein^  into  the  membrane  of  the  iviny. 

From  this  we  come  to  the  further  conclusion  that: — The 
2)resence  of  macrotrichia  upon  the  inembrane  of  ivings  of  oai  open- 
veined  type  (i.e.,  one  ichich  has  no  close  meshivork  of  numerous 
veins)  is  to  be  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  descent  of  sack  forms 
from  more  deitsely  veined  forms. 

The  process  by  which  the  archedictyon,  or  any  series  of  vein- 
lets,  becomes  merged  into  the  membrane,  may  be  termed  aphan- 
toneurisnt,  and  veins  which  are  in  process  of  disappearing  in 
this  manner  may  be  called  aphantoneuric.  It  is  often  possible 
to  reconstruct  the  aphantoneuric  meshwork,  merely  by  plotting 
the  positions  of  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  membrane,  and  join- 
ing them  up  into  a  polygonal  meshwork.  Text-fig.  21  shows  a 
reconstruction  of  a  small  portion  of  the  aphantoneuric  meshwork 
of  the  Hawk-moth  Cceqnosa  triangularis  Don. 

Having  now  explained  how  the  Wing-trichiation  is  connected 
with  the  venation  in  general,  we  may  proceed  to  trace  out  the 
various  lines  of  evolution  within  the  Orders  of  the  Panorpoid 
Complex. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  635 

Order  PROTOMECOPTERA.      (Plate  Ixvii.,  fig,s.9-]0). 

We  have  already  described  above  the  condition  of  the  trichi- 
atioii  in  the  wing  of  the  Triassic  fossil  ArrhipaH.orpa,  the  only 
known  representative  of  this  Ordej". 

It  will   be   seen  that 
this  wing  differs  from  all  .'.*       -'•*       ;•'  ;-'  *:•.''•' 

known  Holometabola  at      ''.      .  :  -  ;    .':..;,.*         .-*■.*  .'•;        ■'. 

present  existing  in  hav        V'"         •.    v-      '  l',;*      •_';.         •'■' 
ing     the     archedictyon       ;       '...•'     V.         '.\-  \'     ■;'■':'.    ■'/. 

still    present,    upon    all       •,•  •'.      ;.;'•.      •;.'         ••.■••.."'.•       '.'■!■ 

parts  of  the  wing-mem-       •/:.     •'.■      .. ..-.      .v.-';        "''    .•/•/. 
l)rane,    in    an    aphanto-      .'       v;.        '.•:v.*';-.      '-':      ':'/''     \: 
neuric     condition,     and      .*.'.      V'v         '.  •         J;       ;,         ■•;         •'•., 
carrying      macrotrichia      '    •',•; •    '■'.'    .'•:-        ':;-.'r'^r-'     -'/'.' 
upon   it,  mostly  at   the  *;;      vv     '•/.''      \:'       •'.'■       •••*. 

junctions  of  two  or  more  ;•'        V-. ■;*":'..■        .'         .•'.        ;;  -^ 

venules.  '":^ '.'''•''  V         .."        ••:         ■:'..    '.V 

Further,  it  should  be  ',"        '.•  •.'  •'}'      /.'  "'■',' 

noted  that  both  macro-  V!      .'.•."'■- '*•"■.•         ::•'.*'  '•■■ 

trichia  and  microti'ichia 

are  considerably  largei-  Text-fig. 21.* 

in  this  fossil  than  in  other  Holometabola.  The  tendency  towards 
reduction  in  size  can  be  seen  to  be  operating  independently  in  all 
Orders;  it  culminates,  in  the  case  of  tlie  microtrichia,  in  their 
complete  elimination  from  the  wings  of  the  higher  families  of  the 
Planipennia  and  Lepidoptera;  and,  in  the  case  of  the  macrotri- 
chia, in  a  great  reduction  in  their  number  and  shortening  in  tlieir 
length,  in  the  case  of  the  Diptera  and  certain  Mecoptera. 

Order  MEGALOPTERA.     (Text-fig. 22), 

The  most  archaic  members  of  this  family  exhibit  a  near  ap- 
proach, in  arrangement  of  the  trichiation,  to  that  seen  in  the 
Protomecoptera,      We  have  selected  the  genus  Archichau/lodes  as 


*  Arrangement  of  the  bases  of  insertion  of  the  scales  on  a  small  portion 
of  the  wing  of  the  Hawk- Moth  C'crqaosa  triangidaris  Don.,  to  show  the 
pattern  of  the  lost  archedictyon;  {  x  50). 


636 


THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  11, 


ail  illustraticju  (Text-fig. 22);  it  belongs  to  the  most  archaic  family 
Corijdali.d<t\  of  the  Suborder  Sialoidea. 

The  arrangement  of  the  trichiatioii  differs  from  that  of  Archi- 
panorpd  only  in  the  complete  loss  of  the  archedictyoii,  and  in 
the  smaller  size  of  both  macrotrichia  and  microtrichia.  As  has 
been  already  pointed  out,  if  the  macrotrichia  on  any  area  of  this 
wing  be  plotted  out,  they  will  still  show,  by  their  positions  on 
the  membi-ane,  the  pattern  of  the  lost  archedictyon.  There  is  a 
well  dcA-eloped  series  of  strong  cross-veins  supporting  the  main 

A'eiris    at    wide    intervals. 


;V;V;>;\Y;^^  fW  ^'v''*'V,;'V^\;      of  the  wing  all  show  macro 

^y!M^f^!y^    ^(M  'i"}\'^^U\\      trichia  well  developed . 
Wm^i^^^xi^^:^^^  When    we   turn    to   the 


the 

specialised  genera,  we 

great  advance  over 

condition  seen  in  Archi- 

hanliodes.       Take,  for  in- 


still present  abundantly  all 
over  the  wing,  yet  the  mac- 
lext-tig.-i-J.  rotrichia    have    quite    dis- 

appeared, except  round  the  fringe  of  the  wing,  and  on  the  ptero- 
stigmatic  area. 

An  advance  in  a  different  direction  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Sub- 
order Raphidioidea,  of  which  the  genus  Raphidia  will  serve  as 
an  example.  Here  the  mici-otrichia  have  completely  disappeared, 
but  the  irregular  thickening  of  the  wing-membrane  remains  as 

""  Portion  of  a  main  vein  and  surrounding  membrane  from  the  wing  of 
Archichaidiodes  giittiferm  Walk.,  to  show  the  trichiation;  (  x  100). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  637 

an  indication  of  that  disappearance.  The  macrotrichia  have  also 
disappeared  from  the  niejiibrane,  but  are  still  present  on  the 
veins.  As  a  high  s})ecialisation,  only  to  be  })aralleled  in  the 
highest  families  of  the  Planipennia,  we  note  also  thai  the- macro- 
trichia appear  for  the  first  time  upon  the  true  cross-veins,  thus 
rendering  them  indistinguishable  from  veinlets  except  by  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  preceded  by  tracheae  in  the  pupal  wing. 

We  may  sum  up  the  tendency  of  evolution  of  the  trichiation 
in  this  Order  by  saying  that  both  njacrotrichia  and  microtrichia 
appear  to  have  been,  from  the  \  ery  first,  of  small  size;  and  that, 
although  the  most  archaic  genera  still  show  the  original  arrange- 
ment of  the  trichiation,  preserved  almost  in  full,  yet  reduction 
set  in  very  early,  leading  to  the  loss  of  one  or  other  series  oi 
hairs  in  all  the  higher  types  of  the  Order. 

The  wing-trichiation  of  the  Archetype  of  this  Order  will  be 
taken  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the  archaic  genus  ArchLchaull(/dt'^, 
but  with  hairs  of  somewhat  larger  size. 

Order  PLANTPENNTA.     (Text-figs.  I'O,  2:),  24). 

The  oldest  known  types  of  this  Order  show  a  wing-trichiation 
already  specialised  in  certain  directions.  Ko  traces  of  the  arche- 
dictyon  are  to  be  found,  and  macrotrichia  have,  in  every  case, 
been  eliminated  from  the  membrane  of  the  wing  (Text-fig. 2 3). 
This  is  easily  understood,  when  we  remember  that  the  wing- 
venation  of  the  Order  early  underwent  a  unique  specialisation, 
in  the  form  of  a  ra})id  proliferation  of  sectors  of  the  main  veins, 
and  especially  of  the  branches  of  the  radial  sector.  This  pro- 
duced the  "Prohemerobiid"  type  (still  to  be  seen  in  recent  Psi/- 
chupsid(r)  in  which  the  whole  of  the  wing  is  covered  with  numer- 
ous parallel  longitudinal  veins,  with  few  or  no  cross-veins  sup- 
porting them.  In  the  very  narrow  spaces  between  these  veins, 
it  was  clearly  impossible  for  the  archedictyon  to  exist,  and  the 
macrotrichia  upon  it  probably  disappeared  with  it. 

►Starting,  then,  from  a  type  having  no  macrotrichia  upon  the 
membrane  of  the  wing,  we  find  a  furtlier  specialisation,  in  the 
higher  families  of  this  Order,  in  the  complete  elimination  of  the 


638  THE  PAXOEPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

micrutrichia.  Thus  we  may  (H^•ide  the  Order  into  two  groups, 
as  follows: — 

(1  ).  'J'he  more  archaic  families,  with  microtrichia  still  present. 
These  are  the  Ithoiildw,  IIe7)u>rohiidie,  Dilaridct,  Sisyridcf,  Conio- 
pteiyyidfc,  Fsychojjsidct!,  Folystcechetidce^  and  Osmylidce. 

(2).  The  more  specialised  families,  witli  microtrichia  absent. 
These  are  the  TrichomatklfP,,  Bei'othkln',  Chrysopidce,  Apochrysidf^', 
Mantisjjidff,  Nynqjhidce^  Xemopieridie^  Mynnelpontidce,  and  Asca- 
laphidw. 


r-^     -_»        '^ 


'rL-xi-ii-.-i;:;. 

Portion  of  a  main  vein  and  sunoundint;  membrane  from  the  win*;  of  Mirro- 
nms  tasinrunrr  Walk.,  to  .show  the  triehiation:  (  x  200). 

Ill  the  first  group,  macrotrichia  are  never  found  upon  the  true 
cioss  \eins.  In  the  second,  we  find  in  the  Trirhvmatidw  and 
Bci-dfli'uhv  forms  showing  the  passage  of  the  macrutrichia  from 
the  main  veins  on  to  the  cross-veins.  For  instance,  in  the  geiuis 
Stt'iiohlplla,  the  cross  veins  remain  without  macrotrichia,  as  in  the 
first  group.  In  SpermophorHla,  (jne  or  two  isolated  macrotrichia 
may  be  found  upon  most  of  the  cross-veins.  In  Trichoma,  there 
is  an  intense  proliferation  of  mao'otrichia  upon  the  main  veins; 
and  they  overflow,  not  only  on  to  the  cross-veins,  but  also,  in 
some  places,  even  on  to  the  membrane  itself.  .Vs  this  genus  is 
evidently  specialised  in  its  excessive  hairiness,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  this  latter  occurrence  is  in  the  nature  of  a  ca:'nogenetic 
development,  and  is  not  to  be  cjnsidered  as  an  archaic  survival 
of  macrotrichia  from  an  original  archedictyon. 


BY    n.    .1.    TILLYAKD. 


639 


A[)art  from  the  two  t'anulies  dealt  with  in  tlie  i)recec]iijti-  }»ara- 
giaph,  all  those  listed  in  the  second  group  have  the  inacrotiiehia 
well  developed  upon  the  cross-veins. 

Another  interesting  specialisation  in  this  Order  is  iJic  dt-Nel- 
opment  of  .scales,  which  occur  in  the  family  Berothido'  Thev 
occur  upon  a  more  or  less  restricted  area  of  the  hind  wing,  in  the 
females  only,  of  the  genus  Spermoj^horella  (Text-fig. 24),  and  upon 
the  fringe  of  the  wing  in  the  genus 
Isoscelipteroit.  They  are  clearly  only 
modified  macrotrichia. 

The  Archetype  of  this  Order,  then, 
may  be  defined  as  having  had  the 
archedictyon  and  its  macrotrichia  com- 
pletely eliminated,  owing  to  the  unique 
specialisation  of  the  venation  :  the 
macrotrichia,  consequently,  only  oc- 
curring on  the  main  veins  and  their 
branches,  but  well  developed :  and  the 
microtrichia  also  present  and  of  normal 
size.  From  this  original  type,  the  line 
of  evolution  runs  forward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  complete  elimination  of  the 
mici'otrichia,  with  subsequent  invasion 
of  the  cross-veins  by  the  macrotrichia, 
and  with  the  occasional  formation  of  scales  (in  two  cases  only). 


Text-tig.  24. 


Order  MECOPTEKA.      (Text-fig. 25). 

In  this  (Jrder,  microtrichia  are  always  exceedingly  well  de- 
veloped all  over  the  wing.  Macrotrichia  are  found  upon  the 
main  veins  and  their  Ijranches,  but  never  upon  the  true  cross- 
veins.  The  archedictyon  has  been  completely  eliminated,  but  its 
macrotrichia  still  persist  upon  the  wing-membrane.  (Text-fig. 25). 
OwiniT,  however,  to  the   small  number  of   macrotrichia  that  can 


*  Portion  of  a  main  vein  fioni  middle  of  hindwing  of  Sptrmojihorefia 
dUiitminata  Till.,  ?  ,  showing  normal  macrotrichia  interspersed  with  seed- 
Hke  scales;  (  X  90). 


640 


THK    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  11. 


l)e  accoiiuiiodated  in  the  somewhat  narrow  spaces  between  the 
main  veins,  the  original  pattern  of  the  archedictyon  tends  to 
bc'cumc  lost,  and  the  maci'otriehia  of  the  membrane  tend  to 
become  arranged  in  regular  sets  occupying  the  central  part  of 
any  closed  area  of  the  wing. 

The  line  of  evolution  in  this  Order  is  towards  a  gradual 
elimination  of  the  macrotrichia  from  the  membrane  of  the  wing, 
and  a  reduction  in  their  size  elsewhere.  In  the  most  archaic 
families,  such  as  .Ueropidce  (Text-fig.  25)  and  ChoristidfP.  (Plate 
Ixix.,  fig.  13),  these  hairs  are  still  to  be  found  upon  the  membrane, 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  wing.  In  the  Panorjndce,  we  may 
see  the  stages  of  gradual  elimination  from  the  basal  areas  of  the 


Text-fig. 25. 
A  single  areole  from  the  wing  of  M<rope  tiilx  r  Newni.,  to  show  the  Irichi- 
ation;  (  x  100).      Note  the  absence  of  luacrotrichia   from    the  two 
cross- veins  bounding  the  aieole. 

wiiK^  while  those  left  in  the  more  distal  areas  become,  for  the 
most  part,  very  regularly  arranged  in  rows  parallel  to  the  main 
veins.  In  the  Naivnochoristida'^  we  see  a  further  stage  of  reduc- 
tion reached,  the  macrotrichia  being  here  entirely  absent  from 
the  membrane  of  the  hindwing:  while,  in  the  forewing,  they  only 
remain  upon  the  anterior  portion  of  the  pterostigma.  Finally, 
in  the  highly  specialised   Bittacidce,   all   the   macrotrichia  have 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVARD.  641 

disappeared  from  the  membrane,  while  tliose  left  upon  the  main 
veins  have  become  short,  stont  spines,  resembling  those  found  in 
many  Diptera. 

As  the  true  cross-veins  are  always  weakly  chitinised,  and 
entirely  free  from  macrotrichia  in  this  Order,  we  have,  in  the 
macrotrichia,  a  valuable  aid  in  the  tracing  out  of  the  courses  of 
the  main  veins.  In  many  genera,  the  extreme  base  of  Cuj  is 
sharply  bent  up  to  join  M  not  far  from  its  origin,  and  so  takes 
on  the  appearance  of  a  cross-vein.  But  the  true  nature  of  this 
vein  is  still  proclaimed  by  the  pi'esence  of  well-developed  macro- 
trichia upon  it. 

To  sum  up,  then,  we  may  characterise  the  Archetype  of  this 
Order  as  differing  from  that  of  the  Protomecoptera  only  in  the 
complete  loss  of  the  archedictyon.  While  the  microtrichia  remain 
constant  throughout  the  course  of  evolution,  the  macrotrichia 
undergo  a  gradual  reduction  in  size  and  number. 

Order  DIPTERA. 

(Plate  Ixviii.,  fig.  12;  Plate  Ixix.,  fig.  14,  and  Text-figs. 26-29). 

We  take  this  Order  next,  since  it  appears  to  be,  on  the  evidence 
of  the  wing-trichiation,  a  direct  evolutionary  derivative  from  the 
base  of  the  Order  Mecoptera. 

Throughout  the  Order,  microtrichia  are  present  upon  the  wing. 
Macrotrichia  are  to  be  found  upon  the  main  veins  and  their 
branches;  they  tend  to  become  reduced  both  in  size  and  number. 
In  only  one  family  that  I  have  examined  are  macrotrichia  to  be 
found  upon  the  membrane,  viz.,  in  the  Rhyphidcp  (Plate  Ixviii., 
fig.  12,  and  Text-fig. 26).  In  this  family,  the  structure  and  size 
of  the  macrotrichia  are  closely  similar  to  those  of  the  older 
Mecoptera.  The  arrangement  of  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  wing- 
membrane,  however,  shows  the  pattern  of  the  archedictyon  much 
more  definitely  than  in  any  existing  Mecopteron;  so  that,  on  this 
character,  the  Rhyphidce  can  only  be  derived  from  a  very  early 
form  of  Mecopteron,  if  they  are  to  be  derived  from  that  Order 
at  all.  In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
family  RhypJiidct  combines  within  itself  characters  of  both  the 
Nemocera  and  Brachycera.      This  accords  well  with  the  condition 


642  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

of  tlie  wiiig-trichiation;  and  the  two  characters  taken  together 
suggest  that  this  family  represents  one  of  the  most  archaic  types 
of  Dipteron  still  existing.* 


Text-fig.  26. 
Portion  of  two  main  veins  and  the  included   membrane  from  the  wing  of 
Rhyphus  hreris  Walk,,  to  show  the  trichiation;  (  x  l.SO).     (See  also 
Plate  Ixviii.,  fig.  12). 

From  the  type  of  trichiation  still  existing  in  the  Rhyphidcf,  all 
other  types  to  be  found  within  the  Order  are  derivable,  by 
elimination  of  the  macrotrichia  from  the  wing-membrane.  There 
are,  however,  two  distinct  lines  of  evolution  to  be  traced,  in  one 
of  which  the  macrotrichia  tend  to  become  slender  and  elongated, 
and  finally  develop  into  scales;  while,  in  the  other,  they  tend  to 
become  short  and  stout  spines,  and  also  become  gradually 
eliminated  from  all  except  the  anterior  veins  and  costal  border 
of  the  wing. 

As  conspicuous  examples  of  the  first  line  of  evolution,  we  may 
take  the  Moth  Midges  or  Psychodkhf.  (Text-fig.  27).  Here  we 
see  the  macrotrichia  as  slender  hairs  abundantly  present  upon 

"  In  this  connection,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  short  vein  usually  con- 
sidered as  a  cross-vein  connecting  Cuj  with  M.  in  Rhyphn-s  is  reallj-  the 
basal  piece  of  M^,  since  it  carries  macrotrichia.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
vein  below  it,  usually  considered  to  be  the  basal  portion  of  Cuj  ,  is  a  true 
cross- vein  and  carries  no  macrotrichia. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


643 


all  the  main  veins  and  their  branches.  Here  and  there  these 
hairs  are  seen  to  be  slightly  flattened  out,  forming  delicate  and 
narrowly  lanceolate  scales.      The  culmination  of  this  same  line  of 


Text-fig.  27. 
Two  portions  of    a    single  main   vein    from   the   wing   of   Psi/choda   sp., 
(Hornsby,  N.S.W.),  to  show  the  triehiation.     On  the  left,  normal 
maei'otrichia,  one  or  two  slightly  flattened:  on  the  right  (distal  end 
of  vein),  narrow  lanceolate  scales;  {  x  875), 

evolution  is  to  be  found  in  the  Ciilicidce  (Text-fig. 28),  in  which 
all  the  macrotrichia,  even  those  along  the  wing-border,  have 
become  scales;  and  these  scales,  in  most  cases,  are  of  broad  form 
and  specialised  sculpture. 

Along  the  second  line  of  evolution,  which  has  been  followed 
by  many  families  of  Nemocera,  and  also  by  the  whole  series  of 
the  Brachycera  and  Cyclorrhapha,  we  can  follow  out  the  gradual 
elimination  of  the  macrotrichia,  through  such  forms  as  the 
Tah(iuid<p,  where  they  are  still  present  in  large  numbers  on  the 
more  anterior  veins  of  the  wing,  to  the  higher  Cyclori'hapha, 
wliei-e  they  finally  cease  to  exist  anywhere  except  upon  tlie  costal 
border  of  the  wing.  Text-fig. 29  shows  the  type  of  short,  stifle* 
seta  into  which  the  macrotrichia  develop  in  this  line  of  evolution. 
It  should  be  noticed,  also,  that,  concurrent]}'  with  the  broadening 
and  strengthening  of  certain  veins,  the   macrotrichia  upon  them 


644 


THE    PAVORPOID    COMPLEX,  11., 


liecome  arranged  two,  three,  or  even  four  rows  deep,  so  that  the 
whole  vein  takes  on  a  spiny  appearance.  Concurrently  with  this 
chanue  in  the  macrotrichia,  we  find  two  lines  of  evolution  of  the 

inicrotrichia.  They  either  undergo 
gradual  reduction  also,  until  they 
become  partly  or  entirely  eliminated, 
as  in  the  family  Syrphichf:  or  they  may 
remain  well  developed,  with  a  differ- 
entiation setting  in  in  the  size  of  the 
two  series  on  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  the  wing.  In  this  latter  case, 
the  microtrichia  on  the  upjjcr  surface 
increase  considerably  in  size,  while 
those  of  the  lower  surface  remain  fairly 
constant.  This  de\'elopment  takes 
place  in  the  Myiodaria,  and  is  especi- 
alty  Nvell  shown  in  the  Muscidce.  in 
the  Blowfly,  for  instance,  the  micro- 
trichia of  the  upper  surface  of  the  %ving 
are  quite  30/x  in  length,  and  are  set  in 
large,  swollen  bases,  while  those  of  the  lower  surface  are  only 
about  half  as  long,  and  have  the  usual  small  bases  of  insertion. 
(Plate  Ixix.,  fig.14). 


Text-fig.  28. 


Text-fig.  29. 

Small  portion   of  a  main  vein   from  the  win^i;  of  Tabanu.^  sp.,  (Hornsbj', 

N.S.W.),  to  show  the  trichiation:  (  x  200). 


While,  therefoi-e,  the  main  mass  of  the  Diptera  shows  consider- 
able specialisation  in  its  wing-trichiation,  we  have  to  postulate 

*  Small  portion  of  a  main  vein   from   the  wing  of  a  Mosquito,  Mncidni< 
alternans  Westw.,    9  ,  to  show  scales;  {  x  200). 


BY    R.    J.    TILLVARD. 


645 


for  tliis  Ordei",  on  account  of  the  existence  of  the  arcliaic  Rhi/- 
phidit',  an  Archetype  similar  to  tliat  of  the  Mecoptera,  but  with 
the  microtrichia  somewhat  smaller  than  in  that  Order. 

Older  TRICHOPTEHA.  (Text-fios.:^(),  :',1). 
In  this  Order,  the  most  archaic  tj^pes,  such  as  tlie  Rhyacophil- 
id(f,  alread}'  show  considerable  specialisation  in  their  wing--ti'i- 
chiation.  The  archedictyon  is  always  absent,  but  its  macrotrichia 
are  present  upon  the  wing-membrane,  and  remain  there,  on  the 
whole  with  ever  increasing  abunrlance,  as  we  pass  to  the  highest 
types  within  tiie  Order.  Microtrichia  are  present  throughout 
the  Order,  but  are  always  small,  averaging  about  5//.  in  length. 
Macrotricliia  are  present  upon  the  main  veins  and  their  branches, 
but  never  upon  the  few  and  weakly  developed  cross-^'eins,  except 
in  the  cases  where  the  proliferation  of  these  hairs  upon  the  mem- 
brane leads  to  a  secondary  invasion  of  all  parts  of  the  wing. 


Text-fig.  80. 
Portion  of  two   main  veins  and   the  included  menibiane  from  the  win^  of 
Rhyacopltila  f/o/-s«//.9 Curtis,  to  show  the  tHehiation;(  x  10")).   (Micro- 
trichia are  slio;litly  exaggerated  in  this  figure). 

Tn  describing  the  macrotrichia  of  the  Protomecoptera,  we  have 
already  mentioned  that  those  found    upon  the  archedictyon  were 

50 


G46  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

somewlmt  smaller  in  size  than  those  upon  the  veins.  This  differ- 
ence is  also  to  be  seen,  somewhat  more  intensified,  in  the  oldei- 
types  of  Trichoptera,  as  may  be  seen  in'  the  figure  taken  from 
lihyacophihi  dor^<ilis  (Text  fig. 30).  Not  only  are  the  macrotrichia 
of  the  veins  larger,  but  they  remain  for  the  most  part  straight 
and  stifi:',  whereas  those  of  the  membrane  (derived  originally  from 
the  arched ictyon),  are  slenderer,  and  inclined  to  be  slighth^ 
curved. 

A  single  line  of  evoluti(m  maybe  said  to  characterise  the  whole 
Order.  It  consists  in  the  gradual  greater  and  greater  prolifera- 
tion of  the  macrotrichia  of  the  membrane,  togethei'  with  various 
specialisations  of  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  veins.  Thus  there 
is  produced  that  excessively  hairy  type  of  wing  that  is  especially 
associated  with  this  Order.  In  many  genera,  the  stiff  bristles  of 
the  veins  become  reduced,  either  in  part,  or  altogether,  to  the 
same  type  of  slender  flexible  hairs  that  we  find  upon  the  mem- 
brane; in  others,  certain  sets  of  hairs,  especially  at  the  base  of 
the  cubitus,  become  erect  and  bristly.  In  the  Hydroptilid(€,  all 
the  macrotrichia  of  the  forewings  become  erect  and  thickened, 
while  the  hindwing  develops  an  exceedingly  long  fringe. 


h 

Text-lig.81. 
Forms  of  scales  found  in  Trichoptera  :  n,  a  narrow,  lanceolate  scale,  with 
sini^le  longitixdinal  stria,  from  wing  of  an  unnamed  Leptocerid 
(Broken  Hill,  X.S.W.);  (  x350):  h,  a  lanceolate  scale  with  three 
longitudinal  striie  from  wing  of  Plectrofarsns  (jravenhori^ti  Kol. ; 
(  X  400). 

The  slender,  flexible  macrotrichia  of  the  membrane  found  in 
the  wings  of  Trichoptera  are  exactly  comparable  with  those  of 
the  PsijckodidcH  in  the  Order  Diptera  (Text-fig. 27).  Like  them, 
thev  are  easily  converted  into  elongated  lanceolate  scales.  The 
simplest  type  of  such  a  scale  is  one  in  which  the  flattening  pro- 
duces only  suflicicnt  width  to  allow  of  the  development  of  a  single 


fiy    R.    J.    TILLYARb.  <^47 

longitudinal  stria  (Text-tig.31/c.).  Such  scales  may  be  found  in 
([uitc  a  number  of  isolated  genera  within  the  Order.  Further 
broadening  leads  to  the  addition  of  a  second,  third,  or  even  a 
fourth  parallel  stria.  The  best  developed  scales  known  to  me  in 
this  Order  are  those  of  the  pecuhar  genus  Plpcfrofrirf<ufi(Text-i\g. 
'U,/)),  which  always  show  three  or  four  stria\ 

Certain  groups  of  genera  show  a  tendency  to  the  reduction  of 
the  hairiness  of  the  wings,  which  is  evidently  of  a  secondary 
nature.  In  the  subfamily  Macro neii tat iiixf,  this  culminates  in 
the  exolution  of  a  numbei- of  forms  with  the  wings  almost  devoid 
of  macrotrichia. 

In  conclusion,  the  Archetype  of  this  Order  must  evidently 
have  had  a  wing-trichiation  closely  resembling  that  of  Ehya- 
cojjhila,  i.e.,  with  the  archedictyon  absent,  its  macrotrichia  pre- 
sent uj^on  the  membrane,  and  already  differing  considerably,  in 
their  smaller  size,  and  slighter,  more  flexible  build,  from  the 
larger  and  more  bristle-like  macrotrichia  of  the  veins,  Macro- 
trichia were  absent  from  the  cross-veins,  and  the  microtrichia 
were  already  reduced  to  a  small  size. 

Order  LEPIDOPTEllA. 

(Plate  Ixviii.,  fig.ll,  and  Text-figs.  21,  32-34). 

In  this  large  Order,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  study  fully 
the  most  archaic  types;  in  the  higher  families,  only  the  general 
trend  of  the  evolutionary  effort  need  be  considered. 

We  take,  then,  first  of  all,  the  three  families  of  the  Suborder 
Homoneura,  viz.,  the  Micropterygidce,  Prototheoridoi,  and  Hepi- 
alidce.  In  all  (jf  these,  microtrichia  are  present,  but  exceedingly 
minute,  never  exceeding  2/a  in  length.  They  have  been  called 
(i.ndexp,  in  this  Order,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  class 
together  all  those  families,  in  which  they  occur,  as  the  "Aculeate" 
Lepidoptera.  They  occur  in  a  number  of  the  older  families  of 
the  Heteroneura,  as  well  as  in  the  Homoneura.  Hence  it  will 
be  seen  that  this  method  of  classification  is  faulty,  and  should 
not  be  persisted  in.  In  all  the  higher  families,  microtrichia  are 
no  longer  present;  but  it  is  evident  that  their  loss  has  been 
effected  along  many  lines  of  advance;  and  that  an  association  of 


(348 


THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  11, 


all  '•iKJii-aculeate'  funiisinto  one  Suborder  would  be  as  unnatural 
a  grouping  as  it  would  also  be  in  the  Order  Planipennia. 

The  most  striking  character  of  the  Order  Lepidoptera  is  the 
specialisation  of  the  niacrotrichia  as  scales,  throughout  the  whole 
Order,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  forms.  Although,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  scales  are  to  be  found  on  the  wings  of  other 
Orders  of  Holometabola  (Planipennia,  Diptera  and  Trichoptera), 
vet  in  each  case  they  only  occur  spasmodically,  as  cases  of  high 
specialisation  in  one  or  more  isolated  groups.  But,  in  the  Lepi- 
tloptera,  the  scale-bearing  habit  is  an  ordinal  character,  the  only 
exceptions  to  which  can  be  traced  definitely  to  retrogression 
(e.^.,  in  the  Fsyrhid(t'). 


%.:.Q.:. 


V  . 


Text-%.32. 
.Sniall  |)ortion  of  a  main  vein  and  adjacent  menilnane  from  tlie  forewing  of 
rrofof/i«:ora  pefrosemfi   Meyr.,  (8.  Africa),   to   sliow  the  trichiation; 
(  X  200 1.     (From  a  partiall}^  descaled  specimen). 

In  order  to  establish  the  proof  that  these  scales  are  modified 
macrotrichia,  it  is  only  necessary  for  us  to  study  such  an  archaic 
type  as  FrofotJwora'''  (Text-fig. 3 2),  in  which  the  macrotrichia 
upon  the  veins  remain  in  their  original  state  of  somewdiat  flexible 
hairs,  while  the  arrangement  of  the  bases  of  insertion  of  the 
scales  upon  the  membrane  can  be  seen  to  correspond  wdth  the 
pattern  of  an  original  archedictyon.      It  will  also  be  noticed  that 

*  For  the  supply  of  material  of  this  rare  genus,  I  have  to  thank  Dr. 
Peringuey,  Director  of  the  South  African  Museum,  Capetown. 


BY    n.    J.    TILLYARD. 


649 


the  scales  that  lie  closest  to  the  veins  are  elongate  and  narrow; 
and  tluit,  tlie  further  we  go  away  from  a  vein,  the  hroader  and 
shortei-  the  scales  become.  Thus  we  can  find,  in  this  one  insect, 
all  stages  in  the  evolution  (^f  a  scale  from  a  macrotrichion  present 
upon  different  parts  of  the  wing. 

Similar  variations  in  the  form  of  the  scales,  (X)nnected  with 
their  positions  in  relation  to  the  veins,  are  to  he  found  in  the 
Micropfj'ruyidit'  (Text-iig..i.S);  Init,  in  this  family,  the  broader 
scales  ai-e  much  more  abundant,  and  may  frequently  be  seen  (juite 
close  up  to  the  veins. 


a 


Text-tig.  33. 
Three  types  of  scales  found  in  the  family  Micropfery<jid<P',  (  x  400) :  a,  from 
Eriocrania  ■sttnipurpvref /a  Hteph.;  h,  from  Mnemonica  Hnhpurpurella 
Haw,;  c,  from  Sahatliica  inroii(/nfe//fi  Walk.     (All  three  types  may 
be  found  upon  any  one  genus). 

In  the  JIf'pialidcc,  both  narrow,  lanceolate  scales  and  moder- 
ately V)road,  oval  ones  are  scattered  all  over  both  membrane  and 
veins,  interspersed  with  fairly  runnerous,  slender,  flexible  hairs, 
or  macrotrichia  which  have  remained  unaltered  in  form. 

It  vvill  not  be  necessary,  foi-  the  purposes  of  this  paper,  to 
follow  out  the  many  specialisations  to  be  found  in  the  scales  of 


650  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

tlie  Hetereiieura.     Tliese  liave  already  been  very  fully  dealt  with 
by  many  authors. 

Returning*  to  the  Froiofheoridit,  it  is  of  the  very  greatest 
interest  to  note  that  traces  of  the  original  archedictyon  are  still 
to  be  found  in  this  archaic  family.  In  Text-fig. 34,  and  Plate 
Ixviii.,  Hg.  1 1,  J  show  the  very  definite  archedictyon  that  is  to  be 
seen  above  the  radius.  Here,  not  only  do  the  macrotrichia 
(which,  in  this  region  of  the  wing,  are  all  scales,  not  hairs)  show 
very  clearly  the  original  arrangement  of  the  mesh  work,  but  there 
is  actually  a  sliglit  thickening  and  darkening  of  the  membrane 
forming  the  archedictyon  itself.  Allowing  for  the  difference  in 
the  sizes  of  the  two  wings,  this  condition  in  Prototheora  is  closely 
similar  to  that  preserved  in  ArchijKinorpa.      Though  I  have  not 

.       X>""Vv.)»^:.  k       ^'  ■■:■■  .A       .9 


fl 

Cl 

A 

A 

">'"' 

^'' 

*<■ 

%  .^' 

9. 

D 

9 

4            ; 

;/>, 

\ 

'•■^: 

Ji 

>-^ 

-K  / 

^ 

t 

Text-fig.  84. 
Portion  of  the  aphantoneuric  archedictyon  preserved  above  the  radius  of 
the  forewing  in    Profotheora  petrosema  Meyr. ;  (  x  180).     (>See  also 
Plate  Ixviii.,  fig.  11). 

been  able  to  find  so  good  an  example  of  an  aphantoneuric  arche- 
dictyon as  this,  anywhere  else  within  the  Order,  yet  there  are 
numerous  cases  in  which  what  appears  to  be  the  last  remnant  of 
the  archedictyon  can  be  seen  in  proximity  to  the  veins,  usually 
in  the  form  of  a  series  of  slightly  darkened  and  thickened  spurs 
projecting  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  main  vein  upon  which 
they  abut. 

Reviewing  the  above  evidence,  it  would  seem  that,  in  the 
Lepidoptera,  the  foi-mation  of  scales  must  have  begun  befoi-e  the 
complete  disappearance  of  the  archedictyon.  This  suggests  that 
the  scales  in  this  Order  must  be  an  exceedingly  archaic  character, 
originating  in  a  specialisation  of  some  type  belonging  to  an 
ancestral  Order  in  which  the  archedictyon  still  persisted. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLY ARD.  651 

Hence  we  conclude  tliat  tlie  Archetype  of  this  interestinij 
Order  must  have  possessed  at  least  some  portions  of  the  aphanto- 
neuric  arcliedictyon;  that  it  also  possessed  inicrotrichia  of  small 
size;  and  that  the  maci'otrichia,  though  remaining  as  slender, 
flexible  hairs  upon  the  veins,  were  largely  interspersed  with  true 
scales  upon  the  wing-membrane,  such  scales  being  of  elongate, 
lanceolate  form,  with  few  stride. 

We  have  now  to  review  the  above  evidence,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover what  light  it  throws  upon  the  Ph^^logeny  of  the  Orders 
included  in  the  Panorpoid  Complex. 

First  of  all,  it  must  be  evident  that,  as  far  as  the  Wing-tri- 
chiation  is  concerned,  all  six  Orders  may  well  have  been  derived 
from  a  single  ancestral  Order  characterised  by  the  following- 
points:  presence  of  an  aphantoneuric  archedictyon,  presence  of 
microtrichia  all  over  the  wing,  and  pi-esence  of  well-developed 
macrotrichia  upon  the  main  veins  and  their  branches,  and  upon 
the  archedictyon,  but  not  upon  the  true  cross-veins. 

Such  a  type  is  preserved  in  the  fossil  Archipanorpa  from  the 
Trias  of  Ipswich,  Queensland.  This  fossil  itself,  however,  cannot 
have  been  the  ancestral  form,  since  the  Mecoptera,  Trichoptera, 
and  Planipennia,  at  any  rate,  are  contemporaneous  with  it,  while 
the  first  of  these  three  Orders  goes  ])ack  also  into  the  Permian. 
For  the  actual  ancestor  we  must  postulate  some  unknown  type 
of  the  Lower  Permian,  or  possibly  even  of  the  Upper  Carbon- 
iferous; and  whether  this  ancestor  is  to  be  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Protomecoptera  or  not,  will  have  to  depend  upon 
other  characters  not  dealt  with  in  this  Part. 

Let  us  now  follow  the  evolutionary  changes  of  the  various 
structures  of  the  wing  separately. 

The  Archedictyon  : — This  undergoes  complete  suppres- 
sion in  all  recent  Orders,  except  only  in  a  few  Lepidoptera,  where 
distinct  traces  of  the  mesh  work  in  an  aphantoneuric  condition 
(but  not  so  well  marked  as  in  Archipanorpa)  are  still  to  be  found. 
This  is  well  shown  above  the  radius  in  the  forewing  of  Proto- 
tkeora  pHrosema  Meyr.      (Text-fig.34,  and  Plate  Ixviii.,  tig.  1  I). 


652  THE  PANORPOID  COMPLEX,  ii., 

After  the  elimination  of  tlie  arcliedictyon,  the  hases  of  inser- 
tion of  the  macrotrichia  left  upon  the  membrane  of  tlie  wing  still 
show,  fairly  plainly,  the  original  pattern  of  the  lost  meshwork. 
A  study  of  the  meshwork  in  the  figures  of  Prototheora  ali-eady 
referred  to  will  soon  convince  us  that  it  is  possible  to  reconstruct 
the  course  of  the  meshwork  with  fair  accuracy,  by  joining  up 
the  bases  of  the  macrotrichia  along  the  lines  which  they  still 
indicate.  The  resulting  figure  will  not  be  correct  in  all  parti- 
culars, since  some  of  the  cross- venules  of  the  mesh  do  not  carry 
any  macrotrichia  at  all,  and  would  therefore  be  onntted  in  the 
reconstruction;  while,  in  a  few  cases,  the  positions  of  the  macro- 
trichia are  more  or  less  misleading. 

In  specialised  cases  where  the  macrotrichia  proliferate  freely 
on  the  veins  and  membrane,  as  in  the  case  of  the  higher  Hetero- 
neurous  Lepidoptera,  there  are  always  more  than  sufficient  macro- 
trichia to  ensure  an  accurate  tracing  of  the  original  pattern  of 
the  archedictyon.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  figures  of  the  Hawk- 
Moth  Cmqiiosa  triangularis  Don.,  (Text- fig. 21).  Here  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  meshwork,  probably  while  it  was  still  aphantoneuric, 
tended  to  become  arranged  into  almost  parallel  lines  connected 
by  irregular  cross-pieces.  It  is  this  tendency,  carried  to  its 
highest  development,  that  gives  the  very  regular  arrangement  of 
the  scales  seen  in  the  Butterflies.  But  in  all  cases,  by  careful 
study,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  arrangement  is  a  modification  of 
an  original  meshwork,  and  not  a  series  of  unconnected  straight 
lines. 

The  evidence  afforded  by  the  archaic  Bhi/phas  in  the  Diptera, 
and  by  both  the  Homoneura  and  the  older  types  of  the  Hetero- 
neura  in  the  Lepidoptera,  points  definitely  to  the  conclusion  that 
these  two  Orders,  like  the  less  highly  specialised  Orders  of  the 
Panorpoid  Complex,  had  their  macrotrichia  arranged  upon  the 
membrane  in  the  original  positions  which  they  occupied  upon 
the  aphantoneuric  archedictyon. 

The  M  i  c  r  o  t  r  i  c  h  i  a  : — Though  absent  in  the  higher  types 
of  some  Orders,  ^.y.,  Megaloptera,  Planipennia,  Diptera  (a  few), 
and  Lepidoptera  (the  great  majority),  yet  they  are  found  to  be 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  653 

present  upon  the  wings  of  archaic  types  of  all  the  Orders  of  the 
Panorpoid  Complex.  The  line  of  evolution  is  towards  reduction 
in  size  in  all  the  Orders,  with  the  single  exception  of  tlie  Myio- 
daria  in  the  Diptera,  where  there  is  an  increase  in  size  of  the 
microtrichia  upon  the  ujyper  surface  of  the  wing  only,  resulting 
in  the  interesting  condition  found  in  the  Blowfly  and  allies  (Plate 
Ixix.,  fig.  14). 

The  Macrotrichia  : — A  study  of  archaic  types,  includ- 
ing the  fossil  Archijyamnya,  shows  us  that  these  were  originally 
present  upon  both  archedictyon  and  main  veins,  but  not  upon 
cross-veins.  Moreover,  probably  because  of  the  comparative 
weakness  of  the  venules  of  the  archedictyon,  there  was,  from  the 
very  first,  a  considerable  difference  in  size  between  the  macro- 
trichia of  the  veins  and  those  of  the  mesh  work.  The  macrotrichia 
of  the  veins  also  tended  to  be  more  erect  than  those  of  the  mem- 
brane; so  that,  in  the  fossil  ArchijKinorpa,  their  bases  of  in- 
sertion show  the  two  concentric  circles  of  the  raised  disc  very 
clearly,  while  those  of  the  meshwork  rarely  do  so. 

We  are  thus  led  to  expect  the  following  lines  of  evolution, 
which  do,  in  fact,  actually  take  place  in  the  various  Orders  of 
the  Complex : — 

(1)  If  the  direction  of  the  evolutionary  effort  be  towards  re- 
duction, then  the  macrotrichia  on  the  meshwork  should  be 
affected  first,  since  they  are  smaller  in  size  from  tlie  first,  and 
inserted  in  less  strongly  built  bases. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tendency  towards 
reduction  in  the  smaller  macrotrichia  becomes  accelerated  in  the 
course  of  evolution;  so  that,  in  many  cases,  they  become  quite 
eliminated,  while  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  veins  may  even  pro- 
liferate, though  usually  undergoing  some  reduction  in  size  as 
well,  as  in  the  higher  Diptera. 

(2)  If  the  direction  of  the  evolutionary  effort  be  towards  the 
formation  of  scales,  then  the  macrotrichia  of  the  meshwork  should 
be  affected  first,  since  they  are  in  a  more  favourable  condition, 
both  as  regards  their  delicacy  of  structure  and  the  condition  of 
their  bases  of  insertion,  to  undergo  this  change. 

51 


654  THE    PANORPOID    COMPLEX,  ii., 

The  formation  of  scales  in  the  Lepidoptera  and  Trichoptera 
agrees  with  this;  since,  in  archaic  famiHes  of  the  former  Order, 
and  in  all  scale-bearing  genera  of  the  second,  we  can  still  find 
some  at  least  of  the  macrotrichia  on  the  main  veins  remaining 
in  the  form  of  hairs.  Judging  also  from  the  tendency,  in  the 
Lepidoptera,  for  the  broadest  (most  highly  evolved)  scales  to 
appear  furthest  from  the  veins,  while  narrow  lanceolate  scales 
are  found  nearest  to  the  veins,  we  are  led  to  the  same  conclusion. 
Actually,  the  covering  of  scales  is  not  needed  so  much  upon 
the  veins  as  upon  the  membrane,  and  the  original  condition  of 
the  macrotrichia  is  such  that  the  need  of  the  insect  is  to  be  met 
along  the  easiest  line  of  specialisation;  i.f\,  those  macrotrichia 
whose  alteration  into  scales  would  most  benefit  the  insect  also 
happen  to  be  those  in  the  best  condition  to  undergo  the  change. 

In  the  other  Orders  in  which  scales  appear  (Diptera,  Plaiii- 
pennia)  it  should  be  noticed  that  they  ai'e  a  comparatively  late 
effort,  which  takes  place  after  the  macrotrichia  have  been  com- 
pletely eliminated  from  the  membrane  of  the  wing.  The  scales, 
in  these  cases,  are  formed  from  the  macrotrichia  left  on  the 
veins.  If  these  are  still  somewhat  bristly,  as  in  the  Planipennia, 
a  hard,  seed-like  scale  is  produced  (Text-fig. 24);  if,  however, 
they  have  become  slender  and  delicate,  as  in  the  Psychodidoi  and 
CnlicidcB,  then  the  resulting  scales  will  resemble  very  closely 
those  of  the  Lepidoptera  and  Trichoptera. 

The  changes  in  position  of  the  maci'otrichia,  in  connection 
with  the  disappearance  of  the  archedictyon,  have  been  already 
dealt  with  above. 

Taking  all  the  above  evidence  into  account,  we  may  reason- 
ably come  to  the  following  conclusions,  as  far  as  the  limitations 
of  this  Part  of  our  study  permit: — 

(1)  The  fossil  Order  Protomecoptera  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
archaic  type  known  within  the  Panorpoid  Complex,  as  regards 
the  characters  of  its  Wing-trichiation. 

(2)  A  single  line  of  descent  from  the  Protomecoptera  to  the 
Mecoptera,  and  from  the  very  base  of  this  latter  Order  to  the 
Diptera,  is  strongly  indicated  by  the  uniform  type  of  trichiation 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  655 

found   in   these  three  Orders,   togetlier   with   tlie  very  definite 
evolutionary  trend  towards  reduction. 

(3)  A  second  line  of  descent  is  less  definitely  indicated,  com- 
prising the  Megaloptera  and  Planipennia,  in  which  the  evolu- 
tionarv  tendency  runs  towards  early  complete  suppression  of 
the  inacrotrichia  upon  the  membrane  of  the  wing,  and  a  later 
invasion  of  the  macrotrichia  from  the  main  veins  on  to  the  cross- 
veins,  culminating  in  the  Kaphidioidea  on  the  one  hand,  and  in 
the  higher  Planipennia  on  the  other.  Both  Orders  may  well 
have  been  derived  from  an  early  type  of  Protomecopteron,  but 
neither  of  them  can  be  derived  from  the  other.  For  the  oldest 
Planipennia  have  the  largest  microtrichia,  while  the  oldest 
Megaloptera  still  retain  the  macrotrichia  upon  the  membrane,  a 
€ondition  which  is  not  to  be  found  within  the  Planipennia. 

(4)  As  the  Trichoptera  show  a  more  archaic  condition  of  the 
macrotrichia  upon  the  membrane  than  do  most  of  the  Mecoptera, 
they  can  only  be  derived  either  from  the  very  base  of  this  latter 
Order,  or  from  the  preceding  Protomecopterous  type. 

(5)  In  the  Lepidoptera  there  exist  certain  types  that  show 
portion  of  the  archedictyon  still  present  in  an  aphantoneuric 
condition:  while,  in  many  others,  the  pattern  of  the  archedictyon 
is  well  preserved.  Botli  the  oldest  Trichoptera  and  the  oldest 
Mecoptera  are  in  advance  of  these  types.  Hence  we  can  only 
trace  back  the  Lepidoptera  to  tlie  Protomecopterous  or  some 
similar,  extinct  type,  and  may  not  derive  them  either  from  the 
^lecoptera  or  from  the  Trichoptera. 

Tliough  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  structures 
studied  in  this  Part  are  somewhat  indefinite  in  thejnselves,  they 
will  be  found  to  be  of  considerable  value  wlien  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  evidence.  Also,  in  the  study  of  the 
Phylogenies  of  the  families  of  each  separate  Order,  (which  lies 
outside  the  actual  scope  of  this  paper),  a  great  deal  of  vevy  valu- 
able evidence  may  be  gathered  from  the  Wing-trichiation. 

We  may  conclude  this  Part  by  giving,  in  taljular  form,  the 
principal  characters  of  the  Wing-trichiation  for  the  different 
Orders — 


656 


THE    PANOKPOID    COMPLEX,  11., 


Table  of  the  Condition  of  the  Wino-trichiation 
Panorpoid  Complex. 

*  indicates  well-developed. 


in    the    Orders  of  the 
present  in  reduced  form,    -  absent. 


Macrotrichia. 


Orders  and  (t roups. 

Micro- 
trichia. 

On  main 
veins  and 

On  cross - 

On  arche- 
dictyon  or 

Arche- 
dictyon. 

branches.  . 

membrane. 

Protomecoptera 

i 
i 

* 

present, 

aphanto- 

neuric. 

Megaloptera  : — 

t 

Archetj^pe 

*■ 

*                      — 

* 

- 

Corydalkhf  

.= 

* 

- 

Sialidd' 

* 

_                     _ 

(A) 

- 

Bap/tldilda  ... 

- 

* 

* 

- 

- 

Planipennia: — 

Archetype 

* 

- 

- 

- 

Archaic  types 

*  or   X 

*                      - 

- 

— 

Higher  types 

" 

(B) 

- 

Mecoptera  : — 

Archetype 

* 

:*.:                                             — 

* 

- 

Archaic  types 

>;: 

• 

*  or  X 

- 

Nannodioristid(f'      \ 
and  Bittacid(f       j 

* 

* 

(C) 

- 

Diptera :— 

Archetype 

^ 

• 

* 

- 

Ehyphkbe 

* 

* 

* 

- 

Psychodidfe 

X 

some  scales           - 

- 

- 

Cidicidce        

X 

all  scales 

- 

- 

Other  types 

*,  X  or  -  , 
(1)) 

*   or  X 

"~ 

"~ 

Trichoptera  :— 

Archetype    ... 

X 

1 

*                     !                   — 

* 

- 

Recent  families 

X 

I 

very  abun- 
dant, some- 
times 

~ 

scales.  (F) 

Lepidoptera  :— 

Archetype 

X 

* 

hairs  and 
scales 

at  least 

partially 

present, 

aphanto- 

neuric. 

Profotheorid" 

X 

*  (hairs 
and  scales) 

scales 

partially 
present, 
aphanto- 
neuric. 

Other  Homoneura  ... 

X 

- 

- 

hairs  and 
scales 

- 

Archaic  Heteroneura 

X 

,, 

- 

J  J 

- 

Higher  Heteroneura 

scales 

scales 

Special  References:— (A)  Only  present  on  fringe  and  pterostigma— (B)  Some 
scales  developed  on  hindwing  of  SpennophoreUa  9  ?  and  fringe  of  Isosce/ipferon 
— (C)  A  few  present  on  pterostigma  of  forewing  in  Xanyiochori.^tida' — (D)  Absent 
in  some  Si/rphldip;  enlarged  on  upper  surface  of  wing  in  Myiodaria — (E)  Absent 
except  as  a  late  invasion  from  the  membrane— 'F)  Spar.se  or  absent  in  Macro- 
nemaihxv  and  some  other  forms. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  657 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(Xofe. — The  refei'ence-numbers  are  made  consecutive  from  Part  to  Part, 
hut  only  those  referred  to  in  any  ^iven  Part  are  printed  with  that  Part). 
5.  Ttllyard,  R.  J.,   1917. — "  Mesozoie  Insects  of  Queensland.      No.  1. 
Planipeimia,    Trichoptera,    and   the  new  Order   Protomecoptera. '" 
These  Proceedings,  IHIT,  xlii..  Part  1,  pp.l7o-20(),  PI.  vii.-ix. 
14.  CoMSTOf'K,    J.    H.,    and    Needham,    J.    G.,    1898. -"Tlie    Win^s    of 
Insects."     American  Naturalist,  1898,  xxxii. 

EXPLANATION  OF  PfyATKS  LVII.-LXIX. 

Plate  Ixvii. 

Fi2;.9. — Portion  of  forewin^  of  tlie  fossil  Arrliipanorpa  /nat/niffra  Till., 
showing  the  aphantoneurio  arohedietyon  witli  tubercles  representing 
the  bases  of  insertion  of  the  macrotriehia;  also  showing  portion  of 
the  main  veins  R„  and  R^,  with  clearly  marked  l)ases  of  insertion 
of  larger  macrotriehia,  and  ci'oss-veins  Mithout  tlie  same;  (  x  27). 

Fig.  10.— Part  of  rig.9.  further  enlarged;  (  X  4.S). 

Plate  Ixviii. 

Fig.  1 1 . — Portion  of  forewing  of  Protofhconi  petro-sema  "Sleyr.,  (Lepidoptera; 
S.  Africa),  showing  the  radius,  with  the  aphantoneurio  arohedietyon 
above  it,  cai-rying  scales  (macrotriehia);  from  a  cleared  mount  of  a 
partiallj'^  de-scaled  specimen;  (  X  50). 

Fig.  1'2. — Portion  of  forewing  of  Rhypltu-^  Itreris  Walker (Diptera),  showing 
distribution  of  microtrichia  and  macrotriehia;  most  of  the  latter 
have  become  detached  from  their  bases  of  insertion;  (  X  400). 

Plate  Ixix. 

Fig. l.*i — Apical  portion  of  forewing  of  Chorlsia  anst rails  King,  (Mecop- 
tera),  showing  distribution  of  microtrichia  and  macrotriehia;  notice 
the  absence  of  the  latter  from  the  cros.s- veins;  (  X200). 

Fig.  14. — Portion  of  forewing  of  Blowfij^  [Galliphora  n/losa  Desv. ;  Diptera), 
showing  the  two  types  of  microtrichia;  the  larger  ones  are  on  the 
upper,  the  smaller  on  the  undersurface  of  the  wing;  (  X  60). 

(All  figures  are  from  photomicrographs,  Figs.  9- 10  from  the  actual  fossil. 
Figs.  11-14  from  cleared  mounts  of  wings*. 


52 


658 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  EXTERNAL  BREATHING-APPA 
RATU8  OF  THE  LARV^  OF  SOME  MUSCOID 
FLTES. 

By  John  L.  Froggatt,  B.Sc. 

(Plate  Ixx.) 

Heretofore,  in  the  identification  of  different  species  of  liies 
from  maggots  collected,  the  perfect  flies  have  had  to  be  bred-oiit. 
But,  in  the  course  of  the  work  of  the  Government  8heep-Fly 
Experiment  Station,  this  method  was  often  impossible,  when 
packets  of  maggots  were  received  dead  or  rotten.  By  means  of 
the  microscope,  I  have  found  that  an  examination  of  the  spiracles, 
in  particular  the  posterior  spiracles,  gives  a  sure  and  certain 
means  of  identifying  the  different  species  here  dealt  with.  As 
their  description  has  not  been  published  heretofore,  the  results 
are  here  recorded.  In  every  case,  the  tj'pes  were  procured  from 
eggs  deposited  by  each  species  of  fly,  on  meat  in  the  field - 
laboratory. 

The  species  dealt  with  in  this  paper  are: — 

Anastellorhina  augur  {Calliphora  oceanuf^). 

Pollenia  stygia  {Calliphora  villosa). 

Pycnoso7na  rufifacies  {Calliphora  rujifacies). 

Pycnosoma  varipes  (Calliphora  raripes). 

Lucilia  sericata. 

Ophyra  nigra. 
The  spiracles,  in  all  probability,  exercise  a  most  important 
function  in  the  destruction  of  maggots  by  poison.  Careful  ex- 
amination of  the  skin  does  not  reveal  the  presence  of  any  pores; 
the  organs  of  the  maggot  may  be  looked  upon  as  being  enclosed 
in  an  india-rubber-bag,  the  only  openings  into  which  are  the 
cfuUet  and  anus — the  extremities  of  the  alimentary  tract — and 
the  anterior  and  posterior  spiracles— the  extremities  of  the 
respiratory  system.  These  anterior  and  posterior  spiracles  are 
connected  by  two  main   tracheae,   from   which   branches   ramify 


BY  JOHN  L.   FKOGGATT.  659 

throughout  the  body.  Absorption  will,  in  all  probability,  take 
place  slowly  through  the  skin;  l)ut  the  action  of  some  liquids  is 
far  too  rapid  to  admit  of  this  happening,  so  that,  in  these  cases, 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  openings  into  the  body.  I  am  not 
at  present  in  a  position  to  point  out  more  than  the  possibilities 
of  this  point,  but  it  is  receiving  further  attention. 

The  absence  of  pores  in  the  skin  of  the  maggots  of  these  species 
is  extremely  interesting  as  well  as  curious,  because  the  larvae  of 
most  other  insects,  and  even  diptera,  show  definite,  well-marked 
pores. 

The  anterior  and  posterior  spiracles  are  totally  different  from 
one  another,  the  most  marked  specific  differences  being  given  by 
the  latter. 

The  anterior  spiracles  are  situated  one  on  either  side  of  the 
body,  on  the  first  thoracic  segment.  In  shape,  thev  resemble  a 
cap  with  "a  sharp  upper  edge,  and  a  row  of  tassels  along  this  edge. 
The  caps  are  chitinised  pi-ojections  of  the  two  main  tracheie  on 
wliich  they  fit  Ijy  a  thickened  ring;  and  it  is  from  this  demarca- 
tion-line that  all  measurements  are  taken.  In  some  species,  the 
cap  is  differentiated  into  a  thicker  lower  part,  and  a  thinner 
upper  part.  The  tassels  or  tubules  are  hollow,  the  open  ends 
ha\'ing  a  much-strengthened  chitinous  rim  to  keep  the  apertures 
open.  The  number  of  tubules  varies  in  different  species,  and 
within  certain  limits  in  the  same  species,  and  even  between  the 
right  and  left  anterior  spiracles  in  the  same  maggot. 

The  tracheae  terminate  posteriorly  on  the  anal  segment  in  two 
spiracular  plates  or  stigmata,  the  posterior  spiracles.  These  are 
slightly  raised  above  the  sui'face  of  the  truncated  end  of  the 
maggot.  The  position  of  these  plates  on  the  body  is  such  that 
the  bases  of  the  plate,  l.t^.,  the  spaces  in  the  band,  point  obliquely 
tow^ards  the  median  perpendicular  plane  of  the  body,  and  with 
the  median  horizontal  plane  of  the  body  passing  through  the 
lower  portion  of  the  plates. 

As  both  spiracular  plates  are  alike  for  each  species,  a  general 
description  of  the  characters  of  one  will  serve  equally  for  the 
other. 


660  BREATHING-APPARATUS  OF  LARViE  OF  MUSCOID   FLIES, 

The  plate  is  siirroanded  by  a  strong  band  of  chitin,  varying  in 
thickness  and  in  outline  in  different  species.  At  the  base  is  a 
space  or  opening  in  the  band;  in  Opliyra  nigra,  however,  this  is 
closed  up:  and,  in  Pycnosoma  rnjifacips  and  P.  raripcs,  it  is  open, 
forming  a  break  in  the  band.  This  space  appears  to  carry  some 
soft  structure  in  life,  but  which  is  destroyed  in  preparation. 
Within  this  band  are  three  structures  radiating  slightly  from  the 
base;  on  subjection  to  strain,  it  is  seen  that  these  are  slits,  the 
openings  being  crossed  by  bands  of  chitin,  either  straight  or 
anastomosing.  The  side-walls  of  the  slits  are  xevy  much 
strengthened  with  chitinous  blocks,  and  the  'ends  are  always 
rounded.     Thej^  are  also  concave  from  side  to  side. 

In  some  species  here  dealt  with,  there  is  an  intermediate  struc- 
ture lying  between  the  middle  and  inner  slits — "inner"  referring 
to  the  side  nearest  the  median  line  of  the  body.  This  is  a 
shallow  groove,  somewhat  V-shaped,  coming  to  a  more  or  less 
definite  point  towards  the  bottom,  and  rounded  at  the  top.  The 
rounded  end  encloses  a  clear  space,  the  margin  of  which  shows, 
under  a  low  magnification,  a  "sun-ray"  effect.  This  is  due  to 
fine  bands  of  chitin  radiating  outwardly  to  the  band.  The  inner 
ends  of  these  chitinous  bands  project  over  the  rim  of  the  clear 
space,  and  would  seem  to  support  some  soft  structure  in  life,  but 
which  is  destroyed  by  the  preparation.  In  some  species,  also,  a 
spaQe  resembling  a  blister  occurs  on  the  side  of  the  slits;  when 
present,  it  is  always  on  the  outer  side  of  the  outer  and  middle 
slits,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  the  inner  slit.  This  "blister- 
structure"  also  shows  the  "sun-ray"  effect  referred  to  in  the 
' '  intermediate-structure. " 

The  length  and  breadth  of  all  the  spiracular  plates  include  the 
width  of  the  band. 

I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Wheeler,  of  Harvard  University, 
U.S.A.,  for  the  method  of  preliminary  preparation  of  the  maggots. 
Full-grown  maggots  are  dropped  into  water  heated  to  SO'C.  A 
few  seconds  in  water  at  this  temperature  is  sufficient  to  kill 
them,  and  has  the  great  advantage  of  stretching  the  maggots  to 
their  full   length;  by  killing   in   alcohol,  the    maggots  generally 


6Y  JOHN  L.  FROGGATT.  661 

contract,  and  often  curve  the  l>()dy.  The  maggots  are  then 
placed  in  35%  alcohol,  and,  after  about  14  hours,  they  are  trans- 
ferred to  75,/  alcohol,  in  which  they  can  be  preserved.  Asa 
general  rule,  the  maggots  are  left  perfectly  white  by  this  prepara- 
tion, excepting  occasionally  when  they  have  been  feeding  on 
niaterial  rich  in  blood.  When  ready  for  preparation  as  micro- 
scopic specimens,  the  body  of  the  maggot  is  slit  along  the  median 
basal  line,  and  boiled  in  10%  KOH  until  only  the  integument 
remains.  This  is  then  put  through  the  usual  process  for  such 
preparations,  and  mounted  in  Canada  Balsam.  All  measure- 
ments are  in  fractions  of  a  millimetre. 

The  bibliography  on  the  spiracles  of  dipterous  larvye  is,  so  far 
as  I  have  been  enabled  to  trace  it,  very  scanty.  Figures  of  the 
spiracles  of  different  species  have  been  given  on  a  number  of 
occasions;  but  when  a  description  is  given,  it  is  brief  and  with- 
out detail. 

Nielsen(l)  figures  the  spiracles  of  certain  species  of  Tahanidie^ 
but  goes  no  further. 

Froggatt(2)  figures  the  spiracle  of  a  dipterous  larva  found 
parasitic  in  locusts  at  Minimbah  Station,  near  Singleton,  N.S.W. 
A  curious  feature  in  this  species  was  an  elongated,  cone-shaped 
tail  fitting  over  the  anal  portion  of  the  abdomen.  This  was 
doubtless  to  protect  the  spiracles,  and  prevent  the  maggot  from 
being  smothered  when  the  legs  and  wings  were  folded.  The 
perfect  tiy  was  never  bred  out,  so  that  it  could  not  be  identified. 

GurneyO)  figures  the  spiracles  of  three  species  of  fruit-Hies, 
and  states  that  the  identification  of  the  different  species  can  be 
thus  determined,  but  gives  no  description. 

Banks(4)  gives  a  slightly  more  extended  account  of  the  spiracles 
of  the  different  species  he  deals  with,  but  gives  very  little  detail. 
He  refers  to  what  I  am  calling  the  space  in  the  band  of  the  anal 
spiracular  plate,  as  a  "button"';  in  which  I  do  not  agree  with 
him.     He  does  not  say  how  the  spiracles  were  examined. 

As  extreme  forms  of  spiracles,  the  following  may  be  given. 
Eristalis  tenax,  "  The  Common  Drone-Fly,"  an  introduced  species 
common  in  gardens,  is  the  parent  of  curious  rat-tailed  larvae 
which  can  live  not  only  in  putrid  but  even  in  salt  water.     The 


662  BREATHING-APPARATUS  OF  LARV^  OF  MUSCOID  FLIRS, 

posterior  spiracles  are  projected  into  a  long  tail  in  order  to  enable 
it  to  breathe  while  completely  submerged. 

The  larvte  of  Stratiomya  chamc^ho,  another  European  fly 
which  swarms  in  water,  have  a  similar,  elongated,  tail-like  pro- 
jection of  the  spiracles.  The  larva?  of  a  Tachinid  fly  {Gymnosoma 
rotwiidatum)  live  in  and  feed  on  tiie  body  of  a  Shield-Bug,  and,  in 
order  to  breathe,  have  an  elongated,  hook-like  projection  of  the 
spiracles,  which  is  pushed  through  one  of  the  spiracles  in  the 
side  of  the  body  of  the  bug. 

Anasteij>okhina   auguk.     (Plate  Ixx.,  figs. 4,  4a). 

Anterior  S'plracles. — Cap  differentiated  into  two  parts.  Tu- 
bules very  strong. 

Posterior  Spiracles. — The  band  strong,  complete,  nut  markedly 
thick,  showing  no  differentiation  into  two  parts  as  in  P.  rujifacies 
and  P  varipes.  The  band  is  thickened  round  the  space  which 
projects  the  contour  outwards  at  this  point.  The  band  is  drawn 
in  slightly  between  the  slits,  giving  the  contour  a  slightly  scal- 
loped appearance.  The  inner  margin  of  the  band  projects  very 
sli'ditlv  between  the  outer  and  middle  slits,  and  less  marked! v 
between  the  middle  and  inner  slits.  The  slits  are  fairly  close 
together  at  the  base,  but  are  well  separated  otherwise,  and  do 
not  run  quite  the  full  length  of  the  plate.  The  outer  and  inner 
slits  are  fairly  straight  throughout  their  whole  lengths.  The 
middle  slit  is  straight  for  about  two- thirds  of  its  length,  and 
then  inclines  inwards.  "Intermediate  structure'"  always  present 
between  the  middle  and  inner  slits.  "  Blister-structure  '  well 
marked  on  all  three  slits. 

PoLLKNiA  STYGIA.     (Plate  Ixx.,  figs.6,  6«). 

^?i<erior  tSpirac'/es.  —  Cap  differentiated  into  two  parts.  Tu- 
bules broad  compared  with  tlieir  length,  and  strong. 

Posterior  Spiracles. — Band  strong  and  complete.  Space  at 
base  completely  enclosed  in  the  band,  which  is  not  projected 
outward  to  such  an  extent  as  in  A.  augur.  The  band  is  only 
slightly  drawn  inwards  between  the  slits.  The  inner  margin  of 
the  band  projects  strongly  downwards  between  the  middle  and 


I 


BY  JOHN  L.   FROGGATT.  663 

outer  slits,  and  somewhat  less  strongly  between  the  middle  and 
inner  slits;  in  the  latter  case,  this  projection  usually  forms  a 
hollow  above  the  space  in  the  upper  end  of  the  "  intermediate 
structure."  Slits  fairly  close  together,  and  running  practically 
the  whole  length  of  the  plate.  Outer  and  inner  slits  fairly 
straight  througliout  their  whole  lengths.  The  lower  half  of  the 
middle  slit  is  fairly  straight,  from  which  point  it  bends  slightly 
inwards.  "  Blister-structure  "  usually  situated  just  above  the 
point  of  curvature.  "  Intermediate  structure  "  always  present 
between  the  middle  and  inner  slits,  and  well  developed.  In  a 
few  cases,  a  similar  structure  has  been  noticed  between  the  outer 
and  middle  slits,  but  then  the  "  blister-structure"  on  the  middle 
slit  is  absent.  "  Blister-structure"  well  developed  on  the  slits. 
The  "sun-ray"  effect  is  particularly  well  marked  on  the  "  blister- 
structures"  and  on  the  space  in  the  top  of  the  "'intermediate 
structure." 

Pycnosoma  rufifacies.     (Plate  Ixx.,  figs.5,  5a). 

Anterior  Spiracles. — Cap  differentiated  into  two  parts.  Tu- 
bules long. 

Posterior  Spiracles. — Band  very  strong,  often  differentiated 
into  two  parts,  the  chitinous  material  being  thinner  on  the  outer 
portion.  It  would  seem  that,  when  the  maggots  are  young,  the 
differentiation  in  the  band  is  most  marked,  but  as  development 
is  carried  on,  this  differentiation  decreases  until  the  two  parts 
become  either  fused  or  the  outer  becomes  the  thicker  and  stronger. 
There  is,  of  course,  no  space  between  these  two  parts  in  the  band. 
The  band  is  broken  at  the  base,  leaving  the  space  open  and  in- 
completely surrounded.  The  band  is  always  much  thicker  at 
the  base.  The  inner  edge  of  the  band  projects  downwards 
slightly  between  the  middle  and  inner  slits,  and  less  markedly 
between  the  middle  and  outer  slits.  The  outer  margin  of  the 
band  is  regular  in  outline.  The  slits  run  the  full  length  of  the 
plate,  abutting  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  band  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  spiracular  plate.  The  outer  slit,  in  shape,  is  fairly 
straight  on  the  inner  side,  the  outer  side  being  slightly  convex, 
following  the  outline  of  the  inner  margin  of  tlie  band.  The  lower 
part  of  the  middle  slit  is  fairly  straight,  and  close  against  the 


664  BREATHING-APPARATUS    OF  LARV^.  OF  MUSCOIt)  FLlES, 

base  of  the  outer  slit.  About  the  middle  of  its  length,  it  bends 
inwards  slightly.  "  Blister-structure,  "  when  present,  generally 
situated  about  the  point  where  the  inward  bend  takes  place.  The 
outer  edge  of  the  inner  slit  is  fairly  straight;  the  inner  edge  fol- 
lows more  the  contour  of  the  inner  margin  of  the  band.  It  is 
slightly  convex.  "  Blister-structure"  at  approximately  the  maxi- 
mum point  of  curvature.  The  "  intermediate  structure  '  occurs 
between  the  middle  and  inner  slits,  but,  in  many  cases,  it  is  but 
slightly  developed.  The  "blister-structure"  is  generally  present 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  inner  slit,  and  absent  on  the  other  two 
slits.     It  may,  however,  be  seen  on  all  three  slits. 

Pycnosoma   varipes.     (Plate  Ixx.,  figs. 3,  Sa). 

Anterior  Spiracles.  Cap  differentiated  into  two  parts.  Tu- 
bules much  shorter  than  in  F.  rufifacies. 

Posterior  Spirxccles.  —  Band  extremely  thick  and  strong,  and 
showing  the  same  differentiation  into  two  parts  as  in  P.  rufifa'-ies; 
the  same  remarks  apply  equally  in  this  case  as  in  the  previous 
one.  The  inner  margin  of  the  band  projects  slightly  downwards 
between  the  outer  and  middle  slits.  The  band  is  broken  at  the 
base,  leaving  the  space  open  and  incompletely  surrounded.  On 
the  inner  side  of  the  spiracular  plate,  the  band  shows  a  develop- 
ment of  chitin  like  a  square  flag  —the  minimum  distance  between 
the  plates  has  been  taken  from  the  edges  of  these  flags.  The  slits 
run  the  whole  length  of  the  plate.  'J  he  outer  slit  is  fairly 
straight  and  regular  throughout  its  whole  length,  although  the 
outer  margin  conforms  more  or  less  to  the  contour  of  the  inner 
margin  of  the  band.  The  "intermediate  structure"  is  only  very 
slightly  developed  between  the  middle  and  inner  slits,  and  is 
apparently  only  noticeable  in  the  later  stages  of  the  growth  of  the 
maggot.     The  "blister-structure"  on  the  slits  is  absent. 

LuciLiA  sericata.     (Plate  Ixx.,  figs. 2,  2a). 

Anterior  Spiracles. — Cap  not  differentiated  into  two  parts. 
Tubules  short  and  slender. 

Posterior  Spiracles.  —  Band  fairly  thin  and  entire,  pinched  in 
between  the  slits  as  in  A.  augur.  The  space  in  the  band  is  com- 
pletely enclosed   by  the  band,  which   is  thickened   at  this  spot; 


Bt  JOttN  L.  FROGGATT.  6(>5 

the  space  generally  tends  to  project  the  inner  side  of  the  band 
inwards.  Tliere  is  no  projection  of  the  inner  margin  of  the  band 
between  the  slits.  The  slits  radiate  out  from  the  base,  and  fill 
the  greater  part  of  the  spiracular  plate,  but  do  not  run  the  full 
length  of  it.  In  shape,  the  slits  are  all  very  similar,  being,  as  a 
rule,  fairly  straight  and  regular.  The  "intermediate  structure" 
is  well  developed,  and  always  present  between  the  middle  and 
inner  slits.  The  "blister-structure"  is  always  present  on  the 
slits,  and  well  developed.  The  blister  seems,  more  noticeably  in 
this  species,  to  be  contained  in  a  sheath  which  generally  runs  a 
long  way  along  the  slit  on  either  side  of  the  blister:  this  is 
generally  more  pronounced  on  the  middle  slit. 

Ophyka  nigra.     (Plate  Ixx.,  ligs.l,  \a). 

Anterior  S]) ir acles.—  Csup  not  divided  into  two  parts.  Tubules 
long  and  slender. 

Posterior  Spiracles.  —  Band  complete,  and  comparatively  thick 
and  strong.  It  is  differentiated,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  maggot,  into  two  parts,  the  inner  part  being 
the  broader  and  stronger.  It  is  regular  in  outline.  The  space 
is  not  in  the  band,  but  is  surrounded  by  a  development  of  cliitin 
at  the  base  of  the  plate,  resting  against  the  band.  The  space  is 
almost  completely  filled  by  a  development  of  cliitin.  The  bases 
of  the  inner  and  outer  slits  rest  against  this  ingrowth  of  cliitin. 
Compared  with  the  size  of  the  spiracular  plate,  the  slits  are  small, 
and  appear  to  be  well  separated  from  one  another.  This  is  due 
to  each  slit  being  surrounded  by  an  envelope  of  hyaline  material, 
which  envelopes  are,  however,  lying  up  against  one  another.  The 
inner  margin  of  the  band  does  not,  as  a  rule,  project  downwards 
at  all  between  the  slits  The  outer  and  inner  slits  are  usually 
fairly  straight  and  regular  to  almost  the  upper  end,  where  they 
bend  over  slightly  outwards  an3  inwards  respectively.  Thev 
may,  however,  present  a  slightly  wavy  appearance.  The  middle 
slit  is  always  wavy  in  outline,  with  the  tip  of  the  upper  end 
bending  slightly  over.  "Intermediate*  and  "blister-structures" 
are  absent. 


666 


BREATHING-APPARATUS  OF   LARViE  OF  MUSCOID  FLIES, 


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BY  JOHN  L.   FROGGATT.  667 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(1)  Nielsen,  J.  C.  —  "Om  Gyniuosoiiia.     Aiteners  Biolo^n  (Dipt.  Tachin). 

Undersogelser  over  entoparasitiske  Muscidelaiver  lios  Aithropodur 
vi. 

(2)  Fko(;(;att,  W.  W.— "  Eastern  Plaj^^ue-Locust.'"     Aj,aic.  (Gazette  N.  S. 

AVales,  June,  1907. 

(3)  GuRXEY,    W.    B.  — "Fiuit-FIies  at    Xaiaia."      Aoiic.   Gazette  N.   S. 

Wales,  1912. 

(4)  IJanks,  N. — "Structure  of  certain  species  of    Dipterous  Larwe,  witli 

particular  reference  to  those  in  human  Foods."      U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Entoni.  Bureau,  Januarj%  1912. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  LXX. 

Anterior  and  posterior  spiracles  of  Ophyra  iwjra  (Figs.  1,  la) — Lacilia 
xe/'/c«/a(Figs.2, 2«) — Pycuo.soma  raripes (Figs. 3, 8a) — Anastellorhina 
f(n;/nr  (Figs.  4,  ia) — Pyriioxoiini  rii/ifdcles  (Figs.  5,  oa) — Pollenia 
■^fyijki  (Figs,  (j,  G(/). 


668 


NOTES  ON   AUSTRALIAN    SAWFLIES 
(  TENTHRhWIXIDJ:). 

By  Walter  W.  Fruggatt,  F.L.S.,  (Iovernment  Entomologist. 

The  Sawtiies  are  well  represented  in  Australia  by  a  number 
of  handsome  insects  belonging  to  very  distinctive  genera  peculiar 
to  our  insect-fauna. 

While  enormous  numbers  of  the  gregarious  larva?  of  several 
species  of  the  genus  Per^a  are  common  at  certain  seasons  (March 
and  April  in  particular),  feeding  upon  the  foliage  of  young  gum- 
trees  {Eucalyptus)  wherever  there  is  plenty  of  young  growth, 
the  perfect  insects  are  comparatively  rare.  In  breeding-out 
specimens  from  the  pupae,  one  finds  that  a  large  percentage  of 
them  never  reach  maturity,  because  they  are  attacked  in  the 
larval  stage  by  many  dipterous  and  hymenopterous  parasites 
which  develop  after  the  sawfiies  have  pupated.  A  great  number 
also  fall  victims  to  a  mould-fungus,  which  destroys  them  in  the 
cocoons. 

Perga  dorsalis  Leach  :  The  Steel-Blue  Sawfly. 

Zoological  Miscellany,  iii.,  p.  11 7,  t.l48,  fig.l,  1817. 

This  handsome  sawfly,  one  of  the  largest  and  best  known 
species  of  the  typical  Australian  genus  Perya,  has  an  extended 
range  round  the  coast,  and  is  common  in  Victoria  and  New 
South  Wales. 

The  gregarious  larvje  feed  at  night,  and  rest  during  the  day, 
clustered  together  in  an  oval  mass,  on  the  stem  of  the  gum-tree 
upon  which  they  are  feeding.  When  disturbed,  they  exude  a 
sticky  yellow  substance  from  the  mouth,  at  the  same  time  raising 
the  tip  of  the  body,  and  tapping  it  down  on  the  foliage.  The 
leaves  are  devoured  from  the  top  of  the  young  gum-trees;  and, 
when  the  larvae  are  full  fed,  they  crawl  down  the  stem  to  pupate. 
I  have  found  them  fully  developed  in  the  middle  of  April;  but, 


BY    WALTER    W.    FROGGATT.  669 

when  they  descend  from  their  resting-place,  thev  wander  about 
over  the  grass  for  several  days  before  thf^v  finally  select  a  place 
in  which  to  pupate,  generally  the  softer  soil  against  a  tree  trunk. 
Into  this  they  burrow  to  a  depth  of  three  or  foui-  inches,  mass- 
ing their  large,  oval  cocoons  in  rows,  one  against  the  other  I 
watched  several  large  swarms  feeding  upon  the  Peppermint-gums 
{ Encalyptnii  novce-angliff')  at  our  Experiment  .Station  at  Uralla, 
and  afterwards  in  their  erratic  wanderings  over  the  grass;  and 
marked  down  their  final  resting  place  and  dug  up  the  cocoons. 
At  Binalong,  in  April,  I  observed  two  large  swarms  marching  in 
massed  formation  :  the  heads  of  the  hind  rows  always  rested 
upon  those  in  front  as  they  moved  along  steadily  together. 
Every  now  and  then,  the  front  rank  came  to  a  dead  stop,  when 
they  all  rested  for  three  or  four  minutes;  then  a  number  began 
raising  up  and  tapping  down  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  whereupon 
the  whole  band  took  up  the  motion:  the  leading  ranks  made  a 
fresh  start,  and  all  moved  along  again.  In  the  largest  band,  T 
counted  two  hundred  and  tifty  caterpillars 

Larvfe  that  pupated  in  the  soil  in  the  middle  of  April,  pro- 
duced the  perfect  sawflies  in  the  Insectarium  in  the  early  part 
of  October. 

The  pupation  of  this  sawfly  is  very  remarkable.  Under  natural 
conditions,  the  long,  oval  cocoons  are  formed  one  above  the  other 
into  a  solid  mass  like  honeycomb.  When  the  full-fed  hawse  are 
placed  in  a  jar  of  sawdust,  each  forms  a  separate  oval  cocoon  up 
to  ]J  inches  in  length  and  J  inch  in  diameter.  The  walls 
are  very  thin,  composed  of  a  tough,  sticky,  papier-mache-like 
material,  the  inner  surface  smooth  and  black,  with  the  anterior 
end  rounded,  and  the  apical  cut  off  from  a  false  end  (containing 
the  cast  larval  skin  loosely  attached  to  the  true  cocoonj  by  a 
slightly  convex  partition  or  cap  of  a  greyish-brown  colour,  except 
for  the  black  centre  just  behind  the  head  of  the  semipupa:  the 
outer  side  of  this  cap  is  fiat,  black,  and  thickly  impressed  like 
the  surface  of  a  thimble. 

The  first  moult  leaves  a  very  wrinkled,  pink  and  yellow,  naked 
pupa,  with  all  the  outlines  of  the  larva,  and  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments curled   in    underneath    the    hindlegs.       This    stage  may 


670  NOTES    ON    AUSTRAMAN    SAWFLIES, 

remain  from  two  to  three  months,  wlien  the  pupa  undergoes  a 
second  transformation.  A  fine,  almost  black,  soft  but  closely 
felted,  fibrous,  inner  cocoon  is  spun,  within  which  the  pupa, 
now  an  elongate,  very  wrinkled,  white  creature,  without  an}' 
outlines  of  head  or  appendages,  is  enclosed.  There  must  be  a 
third  change,  when  the  typical,  true  pupa  develops,  but  this  has 
not  yet  been  w^orked  out.  Probably,  like  some  moths,  this  will 
not  take  place  until  a  month  or  two  before  the  emergence  of  the 
perfect  sawfly. 

Pterygophorus  bifasciatus  Brulle. 

Hist.  Nat.  Insect.,  Hymen.,  Vol.iv.,  p.660,  PI. 46,  fig.l,  9, 1846. 

This  handsome  species  is  easily  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
species  by  the  dark  marking  on  the  forewings.  The  type,  a 
female,  was  described  from  Tasmania.  Mr.  Rowland  Turner 
informs  me  that  it  was  unique;  he  had  never  seen  this  insect 
until  I  sent  specimens  to  the  British  Museum.  My  specimens 
were  collected  in  the  pupal  state:  a  colony,  containing  about 
twenty  cocoons  imbedded  in  soft  wood  from  the  stem  of  an  un- 
determined tree,  was  sent  by  Mr„  Harold  Brooks,  from  Dungay, 
Tweed  River,  N.S.W.  The  larvie,  when  received  in  the  cocoons, 
were  in  a  semi-pupal  state,  but  showed  that  they  were  typical  of 
the  genus  Pterygophorus.  The  perfect  sawflies  emerged  from 
the  cocoons  early  in  September. 

X.  Shining  blue-black,  variegated  with  dull  yellow.  Length, 
}. :  exp.  wings,  |  inch.  Head  and  thorax,  with  the  exception  of 
a  yellow  blotch  on  the  sides  of  the  latter,  shining  dark  blue. 
Legs  black,  variegated  on  the  tarsi.  Basal  half  of  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  abdominal  segments  black,  with  the  whole  of  the 
ventral  surface  and  apical  portion  of  the  dorsal  surface  yellow. 
Forewings  hyaline,  richly  variegated  with  chocolate-brown,  form- 
ing a  clouded  costal  nervure;  hind  and  marginal  band,  and  an 
outer  transverse  baud  crossing  the  centre  of  the  wing,  so  that 
there  are  three  semiopaque  areas  on  the  basal  half  of  the  wing 
enclosed  in  clouded  bands.      Hindwings  slightly  fuscous. 

9.  Larger  than  ^J;  of  the  same  shining  blue-black  colour,  but 
having  the  face,  a  large  blotch  on  the  shouldeis,  scutellum,  post- 


BV    WALTER    W.    FKOGHATT.  671 

scutelhmi,  and  tlie  whole  of  the  abdomen  dull  yellow.  Antennae 
composed  of  eleven  joints;  1st  and  2nd  small,  3rd-10th  rounded, 
bead-shaped.  Eyes  large,  projecting.  Centre  of  the  median 
]oV)e  of  the  mesothorax  with  a  lateral  depression.  8cutelluni 
large,  rounded.     Length,  ^:  expanse  wings,  i  inch. 

Philomastix  MACLEAii  Westwood. 

Perga  macleaii  Westwood,  Proc.  Zool.  8oc.,  1880,  p.  372,  PI. 
XXXV.,  f.2,  (J.  Philomastix  ylaber  Froggatt,  Proc.  Linn.  8oc. 
N.  S.  Wales,  (2;,  Vol.  v.,  p.489,  1890. 

The  type  was  described  from  a  male  specimen  whose  antennae 
were  wanting,  and  thus  Westwood  made  the  mistake  of  placing 
it  in  the  genus  Perga. 

I  have  collected  a  large  series  of  both  sexes,  with  the  curious 
double-tailed  green  larvae,  upon  the  wild  raspberiy-plants  on  the 
Tweed  River,  N.S.W.  When  visiting  the  British  Museum  in 
1908,  I  went  through  the  cabinets  of  sawflies,  and  recognised  mv 
species  under  the  name  of  Perga  macleaii. 

Pterygopiiorus  analis  G.  Costa. 

Ann.  Mus.  Zool.  Napoli,  Vol.  ii.,  p.66,  1864. 

A  number  of  cases  have  been  recorded  from  the  Roma  and 
Mitchell  districts,  Southern  Queensland,  of  the  death  of  cattle 
that  have  acquired  the  abnormal  habit  of  eating  the  larv?e  of 
these  sawflies.  The  sawflies  appear  in  the  early  summer  in  the 
open  forest-country  in  enormous  numbers,  and  deposit  their  eggs 
on  the  foliage  of  the  ironbark-trees.  The  resultant,  long-tailed, 
slender,  green  larvae  are  so  numerous,  that  they  completely  strip 
all  the  foliage  off  the  trees  over  a  large  extent  of  the  ironbark 
forests.  When  full}'  fed,  they  crawl  or  fall  to  the  ground,  and 
congregate  at  the  base  of  the  tree-trunks  in  regular  heaps. 

The  cattle  running  in  infested  country  have  acquired  the  habit 
of  licking  up  these  moribund  larvne;  and  quite  a  number  of  the 
young  stock,  in  these  particular  areas,  have  died  from  their  par- 
tiality to  this  change  of  diet. 

Mr.  Moore,  the  owner  of  "The  Peaks,"  Marbango,  Southern 
Queensland,   has  sent   me   the  following  notes.      "  These  cater- 


672  NOTES    ON    AUSTRALIAN    SAWFLIES. 

pillars  mature  on  the  leaves  of  the  Iron  bark-trees,  and,  when 
numerous,  as  thev  were  last  season  (1917),  do  not  leave  a  leaf 
on  the  trees.  When  full\^  matured,  they  come  down  and  die 
all  round  the  trunks  of  the  trees:  and  it  is  at  this  stage  that 
cattle  lick  them  up:  an  overdose  is  fatal,  particularly  to  young 
stock,  such  as  weaners,  nine  to  twelve  months  old,  and  calves. 
I  fancy  that  acute  inflammation  of  the  bowels  causes  death:  and 
the  beast  appears  to  be  in  terrible  pain  towards  the  end.  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  a  good  deal  of  sand  is  licked  up  with  the 
caterpillars,  and  this  may  add  to  the  irritation." 

"  The  adult  sawtlies  emerge  and  are  active  all  through  April, 
the  caterpillars  feeding  upon  the  foliage  through  the  winter.  Tn 
August,  the  full-grown  caterpillars  come  down  the  trunks  of  the 
trees,  and  die  in  heaps;  and,  for  about  three  weeks,  are  a  danger 
to  the  young  cattle  in  the  paddocks.  I  think  it  must  be  a  craving 
for  salt  that  attracts  them,  and  we  have  laid  rock-salt  round  the 
trees,  but  once  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for  the  caterpillars 
they  will  rush  round  the  Ironbarks  to  lick  them  up.' 

"  r  have  had  to  remove  all  my  cattle  into  the  open  country 
away  from  the  iron  bark-forest,  or  my  losses  would  have  been 
very  heavv.  As  it  was,  I  lost  eighty  head  out  of  a  mob  of  four 
hundred,  sixty  weaners  and  twenty  cows.  Twenty  per  cent,  is 
very  heavy  in  a  week,  and  all  the  beasts  that  died  were  in 
splendid  condition;  in  fact  the  fattest  seemed  to  suffer  most." 

In  my  opinion,  this  caterpillar-pest  is  going  to  prove  a  very 
serious  matter;  and  the  only  remedy  will  be  to  ringbark  the 
ironbark-trees  in  some  of  the  paddocks,  so  that  the  cattle  can  be 
kept  away  from  the  infested  areas. 


[Printed  off,  l)eoeml>er  Utli,  1<>IS. 


r  XZ:^ 


.S.N.S.W.  1918. 


16        9^ 

Carbouiferous  Trilobites  of  Australia  (P/u7fi>s(V/,  (inffitlu<l, 


PIS  N.8.W.   191P 


Cai'boniferouB  Trilobites  of  Australia  (P/n7/ii'!<i«) , 


"^.L.S.N.S.W,  191 


CarbuiiUerous  TriluLite.s  of  Australia  (Griffithidcs,  PhiUipsia). 


PIS  N.S.W.    191P 


Carboiiit'erous  Trilobites  of  Australiu  (PhiHiiii<ia) . 


L.S.N.S.W.  1QI8f 


PL    XLVIM 


Carbouil'eroixs  Trilobites  of  Australia  (Griffithides,  fhillipsia). 


i 


P.L.S.N.S.W.  19 


l6Cx6) 


I2M 


13     , 

ii-bouiferous  Trilobites  of  Australia  (PltiUip>ii(i,  Bniclnnnctopiiti) . 


5(x4) 


P.L  S.N.S.W.  19I8-, 


C'ai'bouiferoiis  Trilobites  of  Australia  [PhiUi))sia,'-Bra(:]i]iinetoi>us). 


P...S.,N.S,W.    t'J;3. 


CarVjoiiiferous;  Triloljites  ui  Avistialia  (FltUliiinia,  Brachyinetopus). 


P  L.S  N.S.W.   1919. 


3' 


Cai'bouiferous  Trilobites  of  Australia  (PhilUpsiu,  Biuchymetopus,  Griffitliidesj. 


8 


Carboniferous  Trilobites  of  Australia  (Griffitkides,  Brachynutoinis,  Pldllipsia). 


^ 


fL.S  N.S.W.   191S. 


0 


10  fi'^-' 


^"  8  8  8=/  B"  H"  8 


J5 


/^%    *'' 


□ 

D 
n 


M 


Tmw;^ 


7 


7 


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LAJi 


« 


/S 


IDC7DCZ)(-~]C      )(ZDGI3CZ3Cr 


X3D:  3©Q©G 


i^.. 


y^ 


Myxophycese. 


P.L.S.N.S  W.    1918. 


Volvocacese. 


P.1.8   N.S.W.    1918. 


Volvocaceae  and  Flagrellatse. 


P.L.S.N.S.W.    1918. 


Protoooccoideae. 


'L.S  N.S.W.   1918. 


Spirogyra  neylecta  :  a  study  iu  variation. 


"x 


"^ 


Vi 


,/ 


.L  S.NS.W. 


1,  Ccelospermumpaniculatuiii  F.v.ai.:  (x24).        2.  Milhtia  australis  F.v  M.;  (xl7). 


.L,S.N.8,W.  19ia. 


r-- 


Co 


.^ 


'''#''5'i4S'i.^"-.So\| 


Solanum  Wendlandii  Hook,  f.;  {x90).         4.  Bignonia  Tweediana  Lindl.;  (Xl7). 


^'^  :.M^'St^. 


y'V 


'%^,,^^^.;:,Jl2S*^ 


5.  Bignonia  picta  Lindl.;  (X-23).  6.  Carrottia  laultisepalea  hindl.;  (Xl3). 


P.L.S.N.S.W.  19li 


7.  Bryonia  laciniosa  Linn.;  (x-23).  8,   Wistaria chinensis  DC.;  {XiO) , 


P.L.S.N.S.W.   1918. 


..^' 


K.    /• 


I ; 


V 


%. 


cH-. 


10 

9.   Fitis  stercuZi/olia  F.T.M.;(x40).  10.  _6ougauifiltea  spectabih's  JusB,;(x23), 


P.L.S.N.S.W.   1918. 


vb.        ''WiM 


12 


11,  Bou'jainvillea  lateritia  Hort.;  (x90).  12.  B.  6andrrinn(L  v.  variegata  Hort.;  {x90). 


^.L.S.N.S.W.  iai8. 


14 


13.  Piper  nigrum  Linn.;  {x4^J) .         14.  Galeola  cassijtlioides  Reichh.;  (xl9) 


'.L.S.N.SW     1918. 


^ 


9.-10.  ArchirKitiorixt  ninginjicn  TiU. 


P.L    S.N.S.W.    1918. 


"^12 


II.  Profotheorapetrosema  Meyr.,  (Lepiduptera) .         12.  Rhyphris  l>revis  Walli..  (I>ii'tera), 


P.L.SN.S.W.   1913. 


13.  ChoristaaustralisKlng,  (Mecoptera).  14.  CaZhp/iora  r (7 ?oso  Desv.,  (Dipteru). 


p.L.s.N.SiW.  loia.. 


E.  H.  Zeck,  del. 


Spiracles  of  larvse  of  Muscoid  Flies. 


673 


NOTES  ON  THE   NATIVE   FLORA  OF  NEW  80UTH 
WALES. 

Part  x.    The  Federal  Capital  Territory. 

By  R.  H.  Cambage,  F.L.S. 

(Plates  Ixxi.-lxxiv.) 

(Continued  from  Thesp  Proceedings,  191^2,  p.6ol.) 

Synopsis. 


Area  and  Situation  .. . 

Early  Explorers  in  the  Locality   ... 

Elevation  and  Topography 

Geological  Formations 

Climate  and  Rainfall 

Absence  of  Trees  from  Canberra  Plains  . 

Insect- Action  on  Twigs  and  Buds 

Plants  absent  from  the  Federal  Territory 

General  Remarks  on  Various  Species 

List  of  Plants 

Comparison  with  Tasmania 


PAUE 

.  673 

.  673 

.  679 

.  680 

.  682 

.  684 

.  688 

.  688 

.  689 

.  701 

.  709 

Area  and  Situation. 

The  Federal  Capital  Territory  contains  an  area  of  about  900 
square  miles,  and  is  situated  between  latitude  35°  and  36°  south. 
Its  greatest  length  north  and  south  is  upwards  of  50  miles,  while 
its  average  width  is  under  20  miles. 

Early  Explorers  in  the  Locality. 

The  first  explorer  to  reach  the  Federal  Capital  Territory  was 
Charles  Throsby,  of  Bong  Bong  and  Glenfield,  and  he  was  pro- 
bably accompanied  by  Joseph  Wild,  a  constable  of  the  district  of 
Argyle,  and  a  notable  bushman,  who  discovered  Lake  George,  not 
many  miles  distant,  on  19th  August,  1820. 


^3 


674  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OP  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 


BY   H.   H.  CAMBAGE.  675 

In  October,  1820,  Lake  George  was  visited  by  Governor  Mac- 
quarie,  who  then  named  it  after  His  Majesty  George  IV.  He 
also  named  Goulburn  Plains  during  the  same  visit.  The  Gover- 
nor arrived  at  Lake  Bathurst,  from  Parramatta,  with  Deputy 
Surveyor-General  James  Meehan,  Charles  Throsby,  Joseph  ^^'ild 
and  others,  and  was  there  joined  by  Commissioner  Bigge,  Siii'- 
veyor-General  John  Oxley,  and  Charles  Fraser  (Colonial  Botanist), 
who  had  journeyed  from  Bathurst  up  Campbell's  River  and 
across  the  Abercrombie  River.*  The  party  travelled  to  Lake 
George  from  Lake  Bathurst,  which  latter  was  discovered  by 
James  Meehan  and  Hamilton  Hume  on  3rd  April,  1818  (Field 
Book  143,  Lands  Department). 

On  28th  October,  1820,  the  Governor  and  party  ascended  a 
high  hill  to  the  eastward  of  Lake  George,  evidently  EUenden, 
and  viewed  the  high  land  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Capital 
Territory,  though,  owing  to  an  intervening  range,  they  would 
not  have  been  able  to  see  the  plains  at  the  northern  end.  That 
they  were  not  impressed  with  the  potentialities  of  the  future 
Federal  Territory  is  evident  from  the  following  entry  made  by 
Oxley  : — "The  whole  extent  between  the  S.E.  and  West  may  be 
properly  described  as  rocky,  broken,  and  mountainous,  and  no 
feature  or  object  in  the  prospect  offered  any  reasonable  expecta- 
tion that  a  good  or  even  tolerable  country  could  have  existence 
in  those  quarters."  How  little  could  they  foresee  that  they 
were  gazing  over  what  \Vas  to  become,  not  only  the  spot  where 
William  James  Farrer  'was  to  carry  out  his  great  wheat-giowing 
experiments,  which  would  do  so  much  towards  producing 
drought-resisting  wheats,  and  revolutionise  wheat-production  in 
a  dry  climate,  but  that  they  were  also  viewing  portion  of  the 
site  of  the  future  capital  of  all  Australia. 

Macquarie  refers  to  "anew-discovered  river,"  and  mentions 
that  "  Mr.  Throsby  tried  to  get  hold  of  some  of  the  natives  of 
this  part  of  the  country  to  serve  as  guides  to  conduct  them  to 
the  new  River  Murrumbidgee,"  but  the  Governor's  party  could 

*  See  Governor  Maequarie's  Journal — Report  by  Commissioner  of  In- 
quiry Bigge  (Mitchell  Library).  Oxley's  Field  Book  No,  17"2,  Lands  De- 
partment, 


676  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.   S.   WALES,  X., 

not  find  time  to  visit  it,  though  Throsby  did.  They  were  under 
the  impression  that  the  new  river  flowed  towards  the  south-east 
into  the  ocean,  which  suggests  that,  although  they  were  aware 
of  the  presence  of  the  river,  no  white  man  had  actually  visited  it. 

It  was  in  April,  1821,  that  Throsby  visited  the  locality  of  the 
present  Federal  Territory,  and,  after  going  southerly  from  Lake 
George,  he  wrote  :— "  I  passed  over  two  rivers,  exclusive  of  the 
one  I  discovered  and  on  the  banks  of  which  I  passed  a  night  at 
the  time  the  Governor  was  at  Lake  George." 

The  two  rivers  referred  to  would  be  the  Molonglo  and  Quean- 
beyan,  and  the  one  he  discovered  previously,  the  Murrumbidgee. 
He  met  with  vast  quantities  of  limestone,  and  a  good  quantity 
of  open  forest  and  plains.* 

On  the  31st  May,  1823,  Captain  Mark  John  Currie,  Brigade- 
Major  Ovens,  and  Joseph  Wild  reached  the  vicinity  of  what  is 
now  known  as  Queanbeyan,  and,  Currie  writes,  "encamped  by 
the  side  of  the  South  Fish  River  (as  called  by  our  attendant, 
Joseph  Wild),  on  the  edge  of  Lime-stone  Plains,"  They  travelled 
thence  south-westerly  towards  the  Morumbidgee  (as  it  was 
usually  spelt  in  those  days),  and  named  the  Isabella  Plain  after 
Governor  Brisbane's  daughter.  This  plain  is  largely  included 
within  Portions  190  and  203,  Parish  of  Tuggeranong.  They 
followed  up  the  right  bank  of  the  Morumbidgee,  finally  crossing 
the  Umaralla,  thinking  it  was  the  Morumbidgee,  and  discovering 
the  Monaro  Plains  or  Downs.  On  the  way  up,  they  mention 
having  seen  pine-trees  of  about  2  feet  in  diameter.  These  would 
be  the  species  now  known  as  Callilris  calca7'ata,  Black  or  Moun- 
tain-Pine. 

In  returning,  the  party  for  some  distance  kept  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Federal  Territory,  and,  on  the  8th  June,  1823,  "met  with 
large  rocks  of  limestone,"  discovering  what  is  now  known  as 
London  Bridge,  "  a  natural  bridge  of  one  perfect  Saxon  arch, 
under  which  the  water  passed." 

Settlement  followed  this  visit  within  the  next  few  months,  for 
among  the  records  of  the  Chief  Secretary's  Department  is  a  letter 

*  The  Australian  Magazine,  1821,  Vol.  i.  (Public  Library). 


BY  K.  H.  CAMBAGE.  b/  I 

from  Joshua  John  Moore,  a  retired  Lieutenant,  dated  16th  De- 
cember, 1826,  in  which  he  expresses  his  desire  to  proceed  with 
the  purciiase  of  1000  acres,  "  situated  at  Canberry,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  river,  which  waters  Limestone  Plains,  above  its 
junction  with  the  Murrumbeeja."  He  mentions  that  he  had 
been  in  possession  of  the  land  for  upwards  of  three  years.  This 
appears  to  be  the  first  reference,  in  an  official  document,  to  the 
name,  which,  with  a  slight  alteration,  was  to  be  selected  for  the 
capital  city  of  Australia. 

In  a  letter  dated  14th  September,  1831,  Moore  says  :— "It  is 
called  and  known  by  the  name  of  Canburry,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  Molongoo  River,  and  on  the  west  by  Canburry 
Creek." 

This  area  is  now  Portion  52,  Parish  Canberra,  County  Murray, 
and  permission  to  purchase  was  granted  by  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane 
on  3rd  May,  1825.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  the  original  was 
a  native  name,  but  its  meaning  is  unknown. 

What  is  now  Portion  58,  of  4000  acres,  Parish  Canberra,  and 
known  as  Duntroon,  was  promised  by  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane  on 
the  18th  May,  1825,  and  Portion  181,  of  1000  acres,  by  Lieu- 
tenant General  Darling  on  the  22nd  March,  1830,  to  Robert 
Campbell,  pursuant  to  instructions  from  the  Right  Honorable 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  in  part  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  a  certain  ship  called  "  The  Sydney  ''  while  employed  by 
the  Government  of  the  said  territory  in  the  year  1806. 

Portion  51,  of  640  acres,  Parish  Canberra,  was  promised  to 
John  McPherson  on  or  before  the  10th  September,  1831,  as  a 
Primary  Grant.  The  name  of  the  farm  was  Spring  Bank,  and 
it  was  stated  to  be  at  Canbury,  Limestone  Plains 

An  area  of  2560  acres,  said  to  be  at  Yarralumla,  now  Portion 

4,  Parish  Narrabundah,  was  promised  by  Governor  Darling  to 
Edward  Weston,  of  Horsely,  Liverpool,  on  or  before  the  5th 
September,  1831. 

An  area  of  2560  acres,  said  to  be  at  Yarralumla,  now  Portion 

5,  Parish  Narrabundah,  was  promised  to  Henry  Donnison  on  or 
before  the  15th  August,  1828,  by  Governor  Darling,  but  finally 
granted  to  Terence  Aubrey  Murray  and  Thomas  Walker. 


678  NOTKS  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.   S.  WALES,  X., 

Portion  203,  of  2000  acres,  Parish  Tuggeranoiig,  at  Isabella 
Plain,  was  promised  to  Peter  Murdock  on  or  before  tlie  14tli 
February,  1827;  and  Portion  190,  of  2560  acres,  adjoining,  to 
John  McLaren,  un  or  before  the  21st  February,  1829. 

In  May,  1829,  Surveyor  Robert  Dixon  traversed  the  Molonglo 
River  from  near  Queanbeyan,  across  the  "  Limestone  Plains  to 
the  Morumbidgee  River."  (Field- Book  317,  Lands  Department). 

The  position  of  the  junction  of  the  Queanbeyan  and  Molonglo 
Rivers  is  shown,  and  on  one  side  of  the  former  is  written 
"  Medora  C/reek,"  and  on  the  other  "Quinbean," 

The  position  of  "Tim  Beards'  Station"  is  shown  on  the  south 
side  of  Molonglo  River  near  "  commencement  of  plains." 

To  the  west  of  where  Canberra  Church  now  stands,  Dixon 
shows  the  position  of  a  fence,  and  the  initials  J.J.M.,  which 
latter  evidently  refer  to  Joshua  John  Moore,  the  first  owner  of 
of  Portion  52,  Parish  of  Canberra. 

The  entry,  "Taylor's  Hut,"  appears  near  the  junction  of 
Yarrolumla  Creek  and  Molonglo  River. 

On  the  15th  May,  1832,  Surveyor  Robert  Hoddle  commenced 
a  survey  at  "  Malonglo  River  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  land 
at  Limestone  Plains."  (Field  Book,  No. 375).  Portions  were 
measured  for  Robert  Campbell,  George  Thomas  Palmer,  Joshua 
John  Moore,  John  McPhei'son,  John  Stephen,  and  Edward 
Weston. 

He  refers  to  Majoura,  Ainslie's  Hill,  Black  Mountain,  Queen- 
beeann,  Pialligo,  and  II.  Campljell's  Cattle  Station  on  Portion  181. 

On  the  16th  May,  1832,  when  measuring  J.J.  Moore's  Portion 
52,  of  1000  acres,  Hoddle  noted,  on  page  50,  the  position  of 
several  "huts"  and  some  "  limestone  rocks  "  at  a  bend  in  the 
river  at  the  spot  since  named  Acton,*  and,  near  them,  entered 
the  name  Canburry,  which  he  afterwards  altered  to  Canberry, 
the  latter  name  appearing  on  his  plan.  The  site  near  the  huts 
is  now  occupied  by  an  old  stone  cottage,  built  in  the  early  days 

*  These  identical  lime.stone  rocks  are  shown  on  the  extreme  left  in 
photograph  No.l,  in  the  "Report  on  a  Geological  Reconnaissance  of  the 
Federal  Territory"  by  D,  J.  Mahony,  M.Sc,  &c.,  and  T.  (Iriffith  Taylor, 
B.Sc,  &c.  (1913). 


BY   R.    II.   CAMBAGE.  679 

of  settlement.  On  the  same  day.  lie  traversed  the  creek  which 
flows  south-westerly  past  the  eastern  slopes  of  Black  Mountain, 
and,  on  pages  52  and  53  of  his  Held-book,  entered  the  name  as 
Canbury  Creek.* 

Elevation  and  Topography.! 

The  elevation  of  the  Federal  Capital  Territory  above  sea-level 
ranges  from  something  under  2,000  feet  along  the  valleys  in  the 
northern  portion,  including  part  of  the  proposed  Federal  City  of 
Canberra,  to  upwards  of  6,000  feet  in  the  south-western  portion, 
the  highest  point  being  Mount  Bimberi,  which  reaches  an  eleva- 
tion of  6,264  feet,  giving  the  Territory  a  range  of  elevation  ex- 
ceeding 4,000  feet. 

The  western  boundary  follows  a  range  northerly  from  Mount 
Bimberi  to  Mount  Coree  or  Pabral,  the  elevation  of  the  latter 
being  4,657  feet  Dividing  the  Cotter  from  the  Murrumbidgee 
River  is  another  range  running  north  and  south,  one  of  the 
highest  points  of  which  is  Tidbinbilla,  said  to  be  a  slightly  altered 
native  name  which  signified  a  snow-capped  mountain,  and  which 
reaches  an  elevation  of  5,115  feet.  These  high  points  are  all 
visible  from  many  spots  on  the  north  side  of  the  Molonglo  River. 

The  area  east  of  the  Murrumbidgee,  which  is  regarded  as  a 
fault-block,  is  generally  lower  than  that  on  the  western  side, 
and  ranges  between  about  2,000  and  2,800  feet  above  sea-level, 
the  vegetation  being  of  an  open  forest  character.  Around  the 
Federal  City  site  and  Duntroonare  the  Canberra  Plains,  formeiiy 
known  as  the  Limestone  Plains,  naturally  almost  treeless,  and 
through  which  the  small  Molonglo  River  flows. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  Territory  is  largely  composed  of 
a  network  of  broken  mountains,  though,  in  a  few  places,  as  near 

*  In  1837,  Surveyor  Hoddle  had  charge  of  the  laying-out  of  the  City  of 
Melbourne,  and  in  1851  became  the  first  Survej^or-General  of  Victoria. 

t  See  "Notes  on  the  Physiography  of  the  Southern  Tableland  of  New 
South  Wales,"  by  C  A.  Siissmilch,  F.G.S.,  Journ.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  N.  S. 
Wales,  Vol.  xliii.,  p.331  (1909).  Also  "The  Physiography  of  the  Proposed 
Federal  Territory  at  Canberra,"  Commonwealth  Bureau  of  Meteorology, 
Melbourne,  by  Griffith  Tajdor,  B.Sc.  (1910). 


680  NOTES  ON  THE   NATIVE  FLORA   OF  N.  S.   WALES,  X., 

Gudgeiiby,  there  are  fairly  level  interspaces  showing  little  or  no 
dissection,  and  in  some  cases  containing  swampy  areas. 

If  we  block  out  a  model  in  the  form  of  a  great  irregular 
wedge,  and  consider  the  Molonglo  River  as  the  northern  edge  of 
the  wedge,  a  horizontal  section  the  full  width  of  the  Territory 
and  extending  south  to  the  southern  boundary  would  give  us  the 
length  of  the  wedge,  the  length  of  the  base  would  be  the  width 
of  the  Territory  in  the  south,  while  the  width  (depth  in  this 
case)  of  the  base  would  vary  from  perhaps  3,000  to  about  4,300 
feet  in  the  south-west  corner.  In  viewing  this  great  irregular 
so-called  wedge,  which  is  higher  along  the  western  side,  we  find 
it  is  scored  longitudinally  into  more  or  less  deep  ravines,  along 
which  flow  the  Cotter,  Paddy's,  Gudgenby,  and  Murrumbidgee 
Rivers.  The  deepest  of  these  gorges  is  occupied  by  the  Cotter 
River,  which  at  Thomas  Oldfield's  (Portion  2,  Parish  Fergus, 
County  Cowley)  is  roughly  3,600  feet  above  sea-level,  so  that 
the  river  has  here,  under  Mount  Bimberi,  entrenched  itself  to  a 
depth  of  nearly  2,700  feet.  The  Murrumbidgee  occupies  the 
shallowest  of  these  channels,  and,  in  parts  of  its  upper  portion, 
around  Tharwa,  flows  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  mountains 
through  an  almost  mature  valley,  so  far  as  the  eastern  side  is 
concerned,  while  it  has  cut  gorges  of  varying  depths  down 
stream. 

Geological  Formations.* 

Quoting  from  Mr.  Pittman's  map,  it  may  be  said  that  the  rocks 
within  the  Federal  City  Site  consist  of  Upper  Silurian  sand- 
stones, quartzites,  shales,  tuffs,  clay-slates,  and  several  outcrops 
of  limestone,  while  the  igneous  rocks  are  crystalline  tuffs  and 
lavas,  quartz-porphyries,  and  quartz-felsites. 

In  the  western  and  southern  portions  of  the  Federal  Territory, 
a  considerable  area  is  composed  of  granite  of  a  fairly  siliceous 
character.       Granite   rocks   are   common   around    Tharwa,    Boo- 


*  See  a  detailed  "Geological  Survey  of  the  Site  of  the  Federal  Capital 
of  Australia,"  by  Edward  F.  Pittman,  A.R.S.M.  (1910).  Also,  a  "Report 
on  a  Geological  Reconnaissance  of  the  Federal  Territoiy,"  by  D.  J. 
Mahony,  M.Sc,  &c.,  and  't.  Griffith  Taylor,  B.Sc,  &c.  (1913). 


feY  R,  H.  CAMBAGE.  681 

roomba,  the  Gudgenby  River,  in  places  alternating  with  slate,  on 
the  range  separating  the  Upper  Gudgenby  waters  from  those  of 
the  Cotter,  and  on  the  summit  of  Birnberi  Peak  or  Mountain. 

No  evidence  of  glaciation  was  noticed  on  Birnberi,  but  it  was 
not  specially  searched  for.  The  absence  of  a  suitable  gathering 
ground,  however,  would  alone  probably  be  sufficient  to  account 
for  its  absence. 

The  valley  of  the  Cotter,  in  the  vicinity  of  Bimberi,  and  the 
side  of  Bimberi,  up  to  at  least  the  5,000  feet  level,  are  of  slate 
formation,  probably  Upper  Silurian,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
great  denudation  which  has  been  effected  by  the  Cotter  River 
operating  on  the  softer  rocks,  for  it  was  noticed  that  the  highest 
hills  in  the  locality  are  granite. 

The  summit  of  Tidbinbilla  was  found  to  consist  of  quartzite 
and  slate,  the  former  supplying  the  resisting  qualities. 

The  central-eastern  portion  of  the  Territory  consists  largely 
of  quartz-porphyries,  and  produces  an  open  forest  vegetation. 

Mount  Coree  is  composed  of  igneous  rocks,  a  specimen  from 
the  summit  being  considered  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Card,  A.R.S.M., 
without  critical  examination,  as  of  the  rhyolite  or  rhyolite-tuft' 
class.  This  rock  splinters  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  under 
the  bluff  at  the  south-west  end,  narrow  strips  may  be  seen  up  to 
10  feet  long. 

A  few  miles  south  of  Coree,  and  also  where  the  main  road 
crosses  Coree  Creek,  the  forn)ation  is  slate. 

A  good  example  of  the  effect  of  geological  formations  on  the 
vegetation  may  be  seen  from  the  City  site.  To  the  north  east 
are  the  slopes  of  Mount  Ainslie  (2,762  feet),  composed  largely  of 
volcanic  tuffs,  and  clothed  with  open  forest,  while  to  the  north- 
west is  the  coarse  sandstone-hill  known  as  Black  Mountain 
(2,658  feet).  The  name  of  the  latter  was  suggested  by  the  dark 
appearance  of  the  more  dense  foliage  of  this  hill  as  compared 
with  that  on  the  surrounding  elevations,  but  this  mass  of  vege- 
tation is  a  direct  response  to  the  more  siliceous  sandstones  of 
wliich  the  eminence  is  composed. 


682 


NOIES  ON  THE   NATIVK  FLORA  OF  N.   S.  WALES,  X.. 


^  Climate  and  Eainfall.* 

If  tlie  flora  of  the  area  be  classified  under  the  heading  of  either 
a  warm-  or  a  cool-country  flora,  its  proper  place  is  certainly  under 
the  latter.  There  are  a  few  western  or  warmth-loving  plants 
found  there,  one  in  particular  {Casuarina  Luehmaniii)  raising 
an  interesting  point  in  the  study  of  distribution,  but  the  great 
bulk  of  thera  are  such  as  may  be  expected  in  our  cool  mountain- 
areas.  Judging  from  the  native  vegetation,  therefore,  the 
climate  of  the  Federal  Capital  Territor}^  may  be  designated  as 
cool. 

According  to  the  Commonwealth  Bulletin  No. 7,  and  further 
information  kindly  supplied  by  Mr.  H.  A.  Hunt,  Commonwealth 
Meteorologist,  and  Mr.  D.  J.  Mares,  Divisional  Officer,  Sydney, 
the  following  are  the  mean  temperatures  at  a  few  stations,  and 
the  average  annual  rainfalls  at  some  localities  in  and  around 
the  Federal  Territory,  including,  for  comparison,  Cootamundra 
towards  the  foot  of  the  western  slopes,  and  Milton  to  the  east 
on  the  coast. 


Wettest 

Driest 

Years. 

Rainfall 

Years. "' 

Mean 

month. 

month. 

in  inches. 

temp. 

Braidwood 

January 

September 

39 

27  3 

55 '4 

Buiigendorc     ... 

January 

May 

27 

23  0 

—     ' 

— 

Carwoola 

June 

February 

27 

24-9 

— 

— 

Collector 

— 

. — 

17 

26-4 

— 

— 

Cooma 

February 

August 

02 

191 

44 

54-2 

Cootainu'idra  ... 

Jiuie 

February 

28 

22-9 

16     ' 

59-6 

Duiitroon 

June 

February 

19 

20  1 

4       : 

56-6 

Goulburn 

JaiRiary 

April 

-yZ 

25-0 

46 

56  1 

Gudgeiiby 

January 

February 

27 

31-8 

— 

— 

Guudaroo 

June 

February 

40 

24-2 

— 



Kiandra 

June 

February 

42 

63-8 

—     ' 

44-4 

Lake  George    ... 

j  June 

February 

33 

26-4 

19 

58-1 

Majura... 

January 

February 

30 

24  1 

—     , 

— 

Milton 

i         



25 

44-2 

— 

— 

Quean  Ue^-au    ... 

January 

August 

40 

22-3 

— 

561 

Uriarra 



— 

15 

32-9 

i 

— 

From  the   above,  it  may  be  seen  that  January  and  June  are 

*  See  Bulletin  No. 7,  "On  the  Climate  of  the  Yass-Canberra  District," 
by  H.  A.  Hunt,  Commonwealth  Meteorologist.  (1910). 


BY  R.   H.  CAMBAGE.  683 

the  wettest  months,  while  Fehruai-y  is  usually  the  driest.  The 
annual  rainfall  at  the  Capital  City  site  may  be  estimated  at 
somewhere  about  21  or  22  inches. 

The  effect  of  climate  upon  the  native  vegetation  is  largely 
regulated  by  the  question  of  aspect.  Broadly  speaking,  Eastern 
New  8outh  Wales  has  two  dominating  aspects,  the  eastern  or 
moist,  and  the  western  or  dry. 

The  rain  comes  chieHy  from  the  eastern  or  ocean-side,  and  is 
precipitated  by  the  cooling  or  ascending  clouds  on  the  mountain- 
sides and  summits;  when  the  clouds  pass  beyond  the  summits 
and  commence  to  descend,  the  precipitation  is  reduced.  This 
applies  also  to  clouds  coming  from  the  west.  The  result  of  this 
natural  law  may  be  seen  in  the  Braid  wood  district,  about  40 
miles  nearer  the  coast  than  Canberra,  and  at  a  distance  of  only 
35  miles  from  the  ocean,  for  Braid  wood  is  largely  shut  off  from 
full  coastal  influence  by  a  mountain-range  a  dozen  miles  away 
and  known  as  Budawang,  to  the  east  of  which  the  rainfall  is 
(juite  40  inches,  while  at  Braid.wood  it  is  only  about  27  inches. 
Similar  conditions  are  found  at  many  places  towards  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  plateau  in  this  State. 

A  great  portion  of  the  Capital  Territory,  especially  along  the 
depressed  iMurrumbidgee  valley,  is  sheltered  by  north  and  south 
ranges  on  either  side,  as  well  as  for  the  most  part  on  the  south, 
the  result  being  that,  to  a  large  extent,  it  is  the  descending  clouds 
from  east,  west,  and  south  which  pass  over  this  area,  and  the 
rainfall  in  the  valley  is,  in  consequence,  less  than  on  the  hill- 
sides. Evidence  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  resultant  flora. 
Moreover,  the  clouds  from  the  coast,  after  passing  over  the 
Territory,  encounter  the  high  range  known  in  part  as  Brinda- 
bella  Mountain,  forming  the  western  boundary  extending  from 
Bimberi  to  Coree,  and  on  its  slopes  deposit  much  of  their 
load.  Asa  result,  this  is  the  area  in  which  is  found  the  most 
robust  and  comparatively  luxuriant  vegetation  in  the  Capital 
Territory,  including  splendid  examples  of  tree-ferns  (Dicksoiiia 
antarctica),  ten  feet  high,  which,  at  about  3,000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  are  nestling  under  the  shelter  of  Mount  Coree,  and  facing 
the  eastern  or  moist  aspect. 


684  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.   WALES.  X., 

My  view  is  that  the  luxuriant  forests  on  the  mountain  side 
are  tlie  result  of  a  high  rainfall  induced  chietly  by  the  position 
of  such  mountains,  rather  than  that  the  rainfall  is  a  consequence 
of  the  presence  of  the  forest.  Judging  by  the  vegetation  on  the 
higher  land  towards  Bimberi  and  Coree,  it  is  probable  the  annual 
rainfall  there  reaches  40  inches,  and  on  Bimberi  itself,  which 
intercepts  clouds  from  every  direction,  it  possibly  amounts  to 
quite  50  inches 

Absence  of  Trees  from  Canberra   Plains. 

The  reason  why  many  thousands  of  acres  of  almost  level  or 
slightly  undulating  land  should  be  naturally  destitute  of  trees  is 
difficult  to  explain.  The  question  is  a  universal  one,  and  Aus- 
tralian examples  have  been  much  discussed  between  botanists. 
The  instances  are  many,  and  include  those  from  the  extensive 
plains  of  the  interior  with  a  meagre  rainfall,  whei-e  treeless 
stretches  of  upwards  of  fifty  miles  are  not  uncommon,  to  those 
on  the  highlands  with  a  rainfall,  in  exposed  situations,  as  around 
Kiandra,  of  sixty  inches  per  annum,  and  also  such  spots  as  those 
on  the  upper  Dorrigo,  where  the  brush  or  jungle  in  places  ceases 
abruptly  and  forms  a  fringe  on  the  edge  of  an  open  plain. 

My  own  observations  lead  me  to  suggest  that  the  explanation 
will  yet  be  found  in  many  cases  by  an  examination  of  the  soil, 
or,  in  other  words,  that  it  is  from  this  source  that  we  shall  obtain 
our  best  knowledge  of  the  subject,  studied  in  relation  to  topo- 
graphy, rainfall,  and  aspect.  Whether  the  feature  is  chiefly 
regulated  by  the  chemical  constituents  or  the  physical  properties 
of  the  soil  is  difficult  to  decide,  but  it  is  probably  in  some  degree 
the  result  of  both  factors. 

In  These  Proceedings  (1909,  p. 3 10),  I  discussed  the  question 
of  the  absence  of  trees  fiom  the  Monaro  Tableland,  and  pointed 
out  that,  where  the  hills  were  composed  of  siliceous  formations, 
they  were  more  or  less  tree-clad,  while  those  made  up  of  basic 
soils  were  bare,  except  for  some  scattered  trees  of  Eucalyptus 
coriacea  and  Acacia  ruelaHoxylou  on  a  few  basalt-summits. 


BY   R.   H.  CAMBAGE. 


685 


T  am  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  C.  H.  Mingaye,  F.C.S,  for  the  follow- 
ing analyses  of  soils  and  quartz-porphyry  from  the  Canberra 
Plains, 


A.    From    crest   of   low,    treeless   elevation  at   6;^  miles  from 
Queanbeyan. 

Mechanical  Analysis. 

Coarse  particles  of  stone        ...  ...  ...  19 *o8  per  cent. 

Stone  left  on  20-mesh  sieve 9  "87         ,, 

Stone  left  on  30-mesh  sieve 3 '92         ,, 

Stone  left  on  60-mesh  .sieve 7 '83         ,, 

Root-fibre  0-59 


Chemical  composition    of  soil    passing  through  60-mesh  sieve 
soluble  in  warm  hydrochloric  acid  : — 


Insoluble  in  acid            

82-04%* 

tFerric  oxide  alumina    ...          

10-56% 

Lime  (CaO)         

0-06% 

Silica  iSiOo)        

0-25% 

Magnesia  ( Mg( ) )            

0-16% 

Potash  (K^O)      

0-34% 

Soda  (NaaO)       

0-13% 

Phosphoric  anhydride  (P., Og ) 

0-095% 

Manganous  oxide  (MnO)          

trace 

Water      

5-70% 

Organic  matter 

0-81% 

100  145 

*  Containing  silica  78-21%. 
t  Including  a  small  amount  of  Titanium  dioxide  (TaOj). 


B,  From  shallow  valley  at  5  miles  from  Queanbeyan. 

Mechanical  A  nalysis. 

Coarse  particles  of  stone  0*11  per  cent. 

Stone  left  on  20-mesh  sieve  3 '07         ,, 

Stone  left  on  30-mesh  sieve  ...  ...  ...  nil 

Stone  left  on  60-mesh  sieve  9-38         ,, 


686 


NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 


80-11%* 

5-13% 

012% 

0-61% 

0-29% 

0-88% 

0-13% 

0-()7% 

trace 

3-38% 

0-51% 

100-23 

Chemical   composition  of  soil   passing  through   60-mesh  sieve 
soluble  ill  warm  hydrochloric  acid  :   - 
Insoluble  in  acid 
fFerric  oxide  alumina     ... 

Silica  (SiO.,)        

Lime  (CaO)  

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Potash  (K2O)      

Soda  (Na.,0)       

Phosphoric  anhj'dride  (P„Oji)... 
Manganous  oxide  (MnO) 

Water       

Organic  matter  ... 


*  Containing  silica  76-62%. 
t  Including  a  small  amount  of  titanium  dioxide  (T.^O.J. 

The  major  portion  of  the  soil  which  passed  through  a  60-mesh 
sieve,  and  used  for  the  analysis,  consists  of  fine  particles  of 
broken-up  stone 

No. 2124/18.  Quartz-porphyry,  Canberra  Road,  on  treeless 
plain  2|  miles  from  Queanbeyan. 

Chemical  Composition. 

Moisture  at  100°C 

Water  above  lOO'C 

Silica  (SiOa)  

Alumina  (AloO-) 

Ferric  Oxide  (Fe.,03) 
Ferrous  oxide  (FeO) 
Manganous  oxide  (MnO)   ... 
Nickel    and    cobalt   oxides 

(NiO-CoO)        

Calcium  oxide  (CaO) 
Magnesium  oxide  (MgO)  ... 
Barium  oxide  (BaO) 


0-52 

Soda(Na„0)           r37 

2-66 

Potash  (K.,0)          2-76 

64-64 

Lithia  (LoO)            absent 

14-49 

Titanium  dioxide  (TiOa)  ...       0'65 

2-30 

Zirconium  dioxide  (ZrOa)..  absent 

3-69 

Iron  sulphide  (FeS 2)          ...  absent 

0-12 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3)      ...       0-08 

Phosphoric  anhydride (PoOe)     O'll 

001 

Vanadic  oxide (VoOy)  minute  trace 

3-42 

Chromium  sesquioxide  (Cr^Os )  ditto 

2-93 

Chlorine  (CI)            absent 

0-06 

Strontium  oxide  (SrO) 


.  present" 


99-81 


*  Spectroscopic  reaction  only.  Specific  gravity  of  rock -2-735. 

The  soils  of  these  plains  around  the  Federal  Capital  are  sili- 
ceous rather  than  basic,  and  the  feature  which  is  noticeable  at 
Canberra,  and  other  similar  plains,  is,  that  if  there  are  any  con- 


BY   R.   11.  CAMBAGE. 


687 


siderable  elevations,  of  say,  200  feet  or  upwards,  rising  above 
the  plain,  then  such  elevations  produce  trees.  The  inference  is, 
therefore,  that  there  is  some  difference,  either  chemical  or  physi- 
cal, between  the  soils  on  the  well  drained  hills,  and  the  soils  of 


Text-tig.  2. 
Buds  of  Eiiralypftt.s  dea/hafa  enlarged  by  dipteious  laivie. 

the  lowland;  and  it  may  be  that,  even  though  the  geological 
formation  is  the  same  from  which  the  soils  of  hill  and  valley  are 
originally  produced,  certain  salts  are  leached  out  from  the  high 
land  and  carried  down  to  the  lower,  thus  differentiating  the 
characters  of  the  two  soils. 


688       NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALKS,  X., 

Tt  is  usual,  of  course,  for  both  valley  and  height  to  produce 
trees,  the  differences  in  soil  accounting  perhaps  for  different 
local  species,  but  this  does  not  apply  to  the  Canberra  Plains, 
which,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  are  for  the  most  part  tree- 
less, though  all  the  considei-able  elevations  around  are  clad  with 
forest-growths. 

Insect  Action  on  Twigs  and   Buds. 

Some  gouty  swellings  were  found  at  the  Cotter  River  on  fruit- 
ing twigs  of  Encalyptus  hcemaatoma  (Brittle  Guni),  which,  Mr. 
W.  W.  Froggatt,  F.L.S.,  informs  me  are  caused  by  the  attack 
of  small  chalcid  wasps  (Chalcididse),  some  of  wiiich  are  plant- 
feeders  and  deposit  their  eggs  just  under  the  bark.  The  effect 
on  these  twigs  was  such  that,  in  some  cases,  for  a  length  of  15*3 
cm.  (about  6 J  inches),  they  had  been  increased  in  diameter  from 
2"5  mm.  to  16  cm  ,  or  about  6^  times  their  original  diameter. 

In  November,  1911,  great  numbers  of  very  interesting  insect- 
galls  were  found  within  the  City  site  on  manv  trees  of  Euca- 
lyptus  dealhata  (Red  Gum).  The  flower  buds  were  aborted  by  a 
dipterous  larva  which  Mr.  Froggatt  has  kindly  identified  as 
belonging  to  the  family  Agromyzidae.  By  the  action  of  these 
larv£e,  the  buds  had  been  increased  in  diameter  from  2  mm.  to  as 
much  as  1'2  cm.,  or  six  times  their  original  size  (Text-fig. 2).  In 
some  cases,  five  out  of  six  buds  in  the  umbel  were  affected.  The 
effect  of  this  swelling  of  the  buds  so  greatly  increased  their 
weight,  that  broken  branches  were  to  be  seen  in  many  directions, 
reminding  one  of  the  result  of  a  snow-storm. 

Plants  absent  from  the  Federal  Territory. 
Owing  largely  to  climatic  reasons,  several  groups  of  plants 
are  absent  from  this  district,  the  locality  being  too  cold  for 
them,  though,  in  more  northern  latitudes,  they  may  ascend  to 
greater  elevations  than  2,000  feet.  No  species  of  Angophora, 
the  coastal  Apple-Tree,  was  seen,  and  its  absence  from  the  south- 
western district  was  commented  upon  by  Hume  and  Hovell,  in 
their  overland-journey  in  1824  {ibid.,  p.87).*     No  representative 

*  For  previous  remarks  in  regard  to  distribution  of  this  species,  see 
these  Prooeediugs,  1905,  xxx,,  p. 207. 


BY  R.   H.   CAMBAGE.  689 

was  seen  of  that  large  genus  Melaleuca,  which  generally  prefers 
a  wanner  climate.  The  whole  of  the  Ironbark-trees  are  absent, 
these  forming  a  group  which  avoid  the  cold,  no  species  of  tiue 
Tronlmrk  occurring  in  Tasmania.  No  species  of  White  Box  was 
noticed,  not  ev^en  Eucalyptus  <dhens,  which  creeps  up  the  western 
slopes  wherever  it  can  find  sufficient  warmth,  and  may  be  found 
in  isolated  cases  near  Yass.  The  absence  of  E  rostrata,  the 
Murray  or  River  Red  Gum,  was  noticed,  but  I  was  informed 
that  it  ascends  the  Murrumbidgee  to  Umburra,  some  few  miles 
below  tlie  Federal  Territory,  though  it  is  unable  to  face  the  cold 
within  the  Territory  itself.  E.  globulus,  the  Tasmanian  Blue 
Gum,  was  not  seen,  although  the  climatic  conditions  are  suitable, 
and  it  occurs  lower  down  the  Murrumbidgee,  at  Burrinjuck,  and 
may  possibly  yet  be  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Cotter. 

Genkkal  Remarks  on  various  Species. 

The  notes  for  this  paper  were  obtained  during  short  visits  to 
the  locality  in  November  and  December,  1911,  and  January, 
1912.  In  addition  to  the  area  immediately  surrounding  the 
City  site,  the  routes  examined  were  the  following : —  Canberra 
to  Queanbeyan  and  along  the  Bungendore  Road;  the  Gundaroo 
Road;  Canberra  to  the  junction  of  the  Cotter  and  Murrumbidgee 
Rivers,  and  up  the  Cotter  just  above  the  dam;  Canberra  to  the 
summit  of  Mount  Coree;  to  Tharwa,  Booroomba,  and  the  summit 
of  Mount  Tidbinbilla;  Tharwa  to  Gudgenby,  thence  up  Middle 
Creek  across  to  the  Upper  Cotter,  and  to  the  summit  of  Bimberi 
Peak.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  were  many  spots  not  visited, 
so  that  the  list  of  plants  must  be  regarded  as  incomplete. 

Mount  Tidbinbilla. — Within  a  radius  of  20  yards  around  the 
actual  summit  of  Tidbinbilla  (5,115  feet),  the  following  plants 
were  noticed  :  — 

Gramine^e  :  Poa  crespit'jsa  (Snow-Tussock  or  Snow-Grass). 

JuNCACEiE  :  Luzula  campesfris. 

LiLiACEiE  :  Bulbiiie  bulbosa,  Dianella  tasmanica. 

OrchidacEjE  :   Caladenia  dimorpha. 

CARYOPHYLLACEiE  :  SteUaria  pwni/eus,  Sderanthns  bifiorus. 

54 


690       NOTES  ON  THK  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 

LEGUMiNOSiE  :  Acacia  penninervis  (Mountain  Hickory),  Oxy- 
lobium  procu77ibens{1),  Daviesia  ulicina,  Hovea  linearis. 

RuTACK^  :  Eriostenion  myoporoides. 

ViOLACEiE  :    Viola  hetonicoifolia  (Native  Violet). 

THYMELiEACEiE  :  Pimelea  sp. 

MYRTACEiE  :  Eucalyptus  coriacea  (Snow-Gum),  Kunzea  pechm- 
cularis,  Callistemon  lophanthiis,  Bceckea  Gunniana. 

Epacridace^  :  Leucopogon  hiflorus,  L.  Fraseri  (prostrate), 
Acrotriche  aggregata. 

ScROPHULARiACEiE  :    Vcronica  perfoliata. 

GooDENiACEiE  :   Goodcnia  hederacea. 

CANDOLLEACEiE  :   Candolha  serrulata  (Trigger-Flower). 

C0MPOSIT.E  :  Br  achy  come  sp.,  Helipterutn  incanurti,  Microseris 
Forsteri. 

Bimberi  Peak.  —  Writing  from  memory,  the  summit  of  this 
granite-mountain  is  approximately  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  by 
about  200  or  300  yards  wide,  the  highest  point  being  6,264  feet 
above  sea-level. 

On  viewing  the  flora  of  this  elevated  spot  on  the  15th  January, 
1912,  the  feature  which  impressed  me  most  was  the  high  colour- 
ing of  the  flowers  and  their  great  numbers.  Masses  were  to  be 
seen  of  flowering  examples  of  Brachycome  scapigera  (a  Yellow 
Daisy),  and  these  were  blended  with  others  of  Senecio,  Podolepis, 
and  Helichrysum,  the  hill  being  charmingly  crested  and  bright- 
ened with  a  profusion  of  yellow  and  white,  distributed  amongst 
a  groundwork  of  countless,  graceful,  grey  flowers  of  the  Snow 
Grass. 

The  only  species  of  Eucalyptus  found  on  the  summit  was  F. 
coriacea  (No. Si70),  occurring  as  spreading,  dwarfed  trees  of  from 
1 0  to  20  feet  high,  and  flowering,  the  branches  being  intensely 
glaucous.  This  species  grows  at  a  slightly  higher  level  on 
Kosciusko,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  other  Eucalypt  grows  at  an 
elevation  exceeding  that  of  Mount  Bimberi.  This  was  also  the 
only  Eucalyptus  found  on  the  summits  of  Tidbinbilla  and  Coree. 
Helichrysum  ledifolium  was  seen  only  on  the  summit,  and  this 
species,  which  occurs  in  Tasmania,  had  not  been  previously  re- 
corded for  New  South  Wales. 


BY  R.   H.   CAMBAGE.  691 

The  following  is  a  list  of  plants  noticed  on  Bimberi,  and  in 
most  cases  also  collected,  above  the  6,100  feet  level,  though  doubt- 
less several  species  were  overlooked  : — 

PoLYPODiACEiK  :  Polystichum  aculeatum  (a  common  fern  in  the 
cold  areas  of  Southern  New  South  Wales). 

GRAMiNEiE  :  Poa  ccespiiosa  (Snow-Tussock,  or  Snow-Grass,  in 
flower  all  over  the  summit). 

RESTiONACEiE :  Festuca  Hookeriana,  Hypolcena  lateriflora  (a 
weak,  straggling,  wiry  plant  of  a  few  feet  high,  growing  in  masses 
in  damp  or  swampy  places,  and  slightly  resembling  Caiistis  flex- 
uosa,  a  common  Sydney  plant). 

ORCHiDACEiE  :  Thelymitra  venosa  (a  blue  Orchid). 

PROTEACEiE  :  O^ntes  lancifolia,  Grevillea  aitstralis  (a  very  nar. 
row-leaved  form.  This  is  the  only  Grevillea  which  occurs  in  Tas- 
mania, the  genus  being  one  which  favours  a  warm  climate). 

PiTTOSPORACEiE  :  Mariauthus  procumhens. 

PoLYGALACEiE  :   C omesperma  retusum. 

THYMKLiEACEiE  :  PimeUa  ligustrina. 

MYRTACEiE :  Eucalyptus  coriacea  (Snow-Gum),  Callistemon 
Sieberi  (the  flowering  was  just  over),  Bceckea  Gunniana. 

Umbellifer^  :  Aciphylla  si77iplici folia. 

EPACRiDACEiE :  Epacris  paludosa,  E.  microphylla,  Richca 
Gunnii. 

Labiat^e  :  Prostanthera  cuneata  (with  whitish  flowers). 

RuBiACEiE  :  Asperula  oligantJia. 

CoMPOSiTiE  :  Olearia  stellulata,  Celmisia  longifolia  (Silver 
Daisy),  Brachycome  scapiyera,  B.  discolor,  Podolepis  longipedata, 
Leptorrhynchos  squamatus,  Helichrysiwi  scorpioides,  H.  ledi- 
folium,  Erechtites  quadrideutata  (a  broad-leaved  form),  Senecio 
pectinatus,  Microseris  Forsteri. 

Thirteen  species  of  ferns  were  found  within  the  Territory,  the 
most  of  them  being  in  sheltered  portions  of  the  mountain-slopes. 

Of  the  Graminese  or  grasses,  twenty-one  species  were  noticed, 
four  of  which  were  naturalised.  Probably  several  native  species 
escaped  notice  during  my  hurried  visits.  Boa  ccespitosa,  the 
Snow-Grass  or  Snow-Tussock,  is  an  interesting  plant  in  view  of 


692       NOTES  ON  THK  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 

its  very  wide  range  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  its 
adaptability  to  environment.  Along  the  coast  it  is  often  known 
as  "  White  Tussock,"  because  of  its  pale  grey  colour,  and  is 
regarded  as  an  indication  of  good  forest-land;  it  may  occur 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  ocean,  and  sometimes,  in  favoured 
situations,  grows  into  robust  plants  of  three  to  four  feet  high. 
It  shows  its  disregard  for  climatic  effect  b}^  climbing  from  sea- 
level  to  upwards  of  6,000  feet,  where,  owing  to  the  influence  of 
more  rigid  conditions,  it  becomes  matted  and  dwarfed,  losing- 
much  of  the  tussocky  form,  and  in  summer  is  most  useful  as 
sheep-fodder. 

Among  the  Liliacese,  the  somewhat  succulent  little  plant, 
Bulhine  bulbosa,  was  found  in  various  places,  including  the 
summit  of  Tidbinbilla.  This  species  has  an  exteirded  range  in 
Eastern  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  in  addition  to  being  found 
at  elevations  of  5,100  feet,  as  in  this  case,  its  yellow  flowers  are 
conspicuous  every  spring  in  the  much  drier  interior  at  such 
places  as  the  Macquarie  and  Lachlan  Rivers. 

The  little  terrestrial  orchid,  Caladenia  dimorpha,  was  only 
noticed  within  a  few  yards  of  the  actual  summit  of  Tidbinbilla, 
while  C.  alba  was  seen  a  few  hundred  feet  lower, 

Casuarina  stricta  (She-Oak)  was  found  on  various  hills,  in- 
cluding Ainslie,  Majura,  Stromla  (2,560  feet),  and  Mugga  Mugga 
(2,662  feet),  near  Tharwa,  and  also  to  the  west  of  the  Naas  River 
on  the  ascent  to  Gudgenby,  where  it  was  growing  on  the  northern 
or  warm  side  of  granite-hills  at  elevations  up  to  3,000  feet.  I 
have  not  found  it  at  an  altitude  exceeding  this.* 

Casuarina  Cunnhighamiaiia  (River-Oak)  occurs  along  the 
banks  of  the  Murrumbidgee  up  to  within  about  four  miles  of 
Tharwa;  above  this  point,  the  country  is  evidently  too  cold  for 
it.  This  is  an  attractive-looking  tree  and  always  grows  within 
reach  of  fresh  water,  but  is  restricted  in  the  extent  of  river  it 
will  follow,  by  the  degree  of  cold  in  the  highland  and  warmth 
in  the  lowland.  This  Oak-tree  may  be  found  on  the  rivers  from 
Tropical   Queensland   southerly  to  the   Murrumbidgee  and    its 


For  previous  remarks,  see  These  Proceedings,  1909,  Vol.  xxxiv.,  p.;^26. 


By  k.  h.  cambage,  693 

tributaries,  but  is  not  recorded  from  Victoria.  The  first  refer- 
ence to  its  absence  from  the  Murray  or  Hume  River  is  tliat  by 
Hovel]  and  Hume  in  the  report  of  their  exploration  fi'om  Goul- 
burn  to  Port  Phillip.*  When  referring  to  the  river,  their  note 
reads  :  "  but  there  was  no  swamp-oak,  the  tree  so  universal  on 
the  rivers  to  the  northward  and  eastward  "  (p.44).t 

A  small  clump  of  Casuariua  LueJnnanni^  the  Bull  Oak  of  the 
interior,  was  found  near  where  the  Gundaroo  Pvoad,  at  about  2^ 
miles  from  Queanbeyan,  passes  the  Molonglo  River.  The  trees 
were  confined  to  a  high,  steeply  sloping,  volcanic  tuff"  bank  of  from 
40  to  70  feet  deep,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  River,  and,  while 
facing  a  northern  aspect,  were  well  sheltered  from  the  cold  south- 
erly influence  (Plate  Ixxi.).  Although  the  branches  and  stems 
of  some  of  the  Oak-trees  reached  above  the  bank,  it  was  noticed 
that  their  bases  were  all  below  the  summit,  which  signifies  that, 
in  the  early  seedling-stage,  the  plants  require  shelter  to  allow 
them  to  become  established.  -The  finding  of  these  trees  in  the 
Territory  was  a  matter  of  great  surprise,  for  the  nearest  locality 
where  they  are  known  to  me  is  between  Cootamundra  and 
Temora,  a  distance  of  about  80  miles  in  a  direct  line,  though 
some  may  possibly  have  occurred  at  intervening  spots  along  the 
valley  of  the  Murrumbidgee.  The  species  is  one  having  a  very 
wide  distribution,  extending  from  the  south-eastern  portion  of 
South  Australia,  across  part  of  Victoria  and  the  whole  of  Central 
and  part  of  AVestern  New  South  Wales,  continuing  along  the 
eastern  portion  of  Queensland  at  least  as  far  as  Biboohra,  west 
of  Cairns,  in  latitude  17°;  and,  in  places,  pushing  through  low 
gaps  in  the  mountains,  towards  the  east  coast,  but  usually  select- 
ing a  warm  climate.  It  comes  through  the  Cassilis  Geocol  and 
down  the  Hunter  Valley  to  near  Ravens  worth  and  Pokolbin, 
where  it  overlaps  the  coastal  salt  or  brackish-water  Swamp-Oak 
(C.  ylaiica),  and  it  may  be  seen  from  the  train  between  Bunda- 
berg  and  Gladstone  in   Queensland.      In  1899,  a  few  trees  of 


*  Journey  of  Discovery  to  Port  Phillip,  N.  S.  Wales,  in  1824  and  1825, 
by  W.  H.  Hovell  and  H,  Hume. 

t  For  some  previous  remarks,  see  Journ.  Proc.  Ro3^  fSoc.  N.  S.  Wales, 
Vol.  xlix.,  p.399(1915).     Also,  These  Proceedings,  1901,  Vol.  xxvi.,  p. 685. 


694  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.   S.    WALES,  X., 

dwarfed  Bull  oak  were  seen  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Fish 
River,  near  O'Connell,  in  the  Bathurst  district,  and  these  were 
growing  under  somewhat  similar  conditions,  and  at  approxi- 
mately the  same  elevation,  about  2,100  feet,  as  those  under  dis- 
cussion on  the  Molonglo  River,  which  are  also  rather  diminutive 
specimens,  ranging  from  12  to  20  feet  high,  with  a  stem-diameter 
up  to  9  or  10  inches  in  a  few  cases. 

The  question  that  naturally  arises  is,  how  did  these  trees  find 
their  way  to  this  spot  so  far  froui  their  congeners  1  Dispersal 
of  seeds  by  wind  can  probably  be  ignored  in  this  case,  and  dis- 
persal by  birds,  though  much  more  likely,  can  scarcely  be  shown 
to  account  for  it,  although  this  possibility  calls  for  consideration. 
There  are  very  few  spots  within  the  Federal  Territory  where 
seedlings  of  this  species  Avould  survi-ve  without  special  care, 
owing  to  the  coldness  of  the  winter  climate.  The  birds  which 
chiefly  feed  on  Casuarina  seeds  by  tearing  open  the  small  cones 
are  of  the  cockatoo-family,  Calyptorhynchus  viridis,  the  Glossy 
Cockatoo  or  so-called  Macaw,  and  there  would  be  nothing  re- 
markable in  finding  that  one  of  these  birds  had  visited  both  the 
Cootamundra  and  Queanbeyan  districts  within  a  few  days.  At 
the  same  time,  there  is  the  coincidence  to  be  accounted  for  that 
a  seed  should  be  deposited  in  one  of  the  few  spots  which  would 
result  in  the  production  of  a  mature  tree.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  is  a  dioecious  species,  the  male  and  female 
flowers  occurring  on  separate  trees,  so  that  it  would  be  necessary 
that  seeds,  producing  a  pair  of  trees,  should  reach  the  same 
locality  before  the  species  could  become  established. 

It  may  be  considered  possible  that  the  seeds  were  conveyed 
by  natives,  but  the  seeds  ripen  in  midsummer  and  fall  out  of  the 
cones  within  a  few  days  (usually  two),  after  being  gathered,  and 
the  natives  would,  therefore,  have  required  closely  woven  bags 
to  retain  them. 

The  genus  is  known  to  be  an  ancient  one,  having  been  identi- 
fied in  fossil  form  in  the  Tertiary  flora. ''^     This  particular  species 

*  Ettingshausen,  "  Contributions  to  the  Tertiary  Flora  of  Australia," 
p.  107. 


nv  R.  H    CAMBAGE.  695 

is  probably  old,  considering  its  wide  distribution,  and  if  repre- 
sentatives had  been  growing  in  this  vicinity,  at  the  time  of  the 
Eastern  Australian  uplift  in  late  Tertiary  time,*  which  seems 
quite  possible,  some  plants  may  have  survived,  during  the  gradual 
upheaval,  and  their  descendants,  on  finding  the  new  conditions 
too  cold,  would  gradually  have  become  restricted  to  the  warmer 
and  more  sheltered  nooks  where  the  geological  formation  was 
favourable  to  their  growth,  and  would,  thereby,  come  under  the 
heading  of  relics  or  stranded  plants.  A  difficulty  about  accept- 
ing this  explanation  is  that  this  Oak  is  a  warmth-loving  species, 
and,  at  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet,  would  have  found  it  difficult 
to  survive  the  Pleistocene  glacial  period  which  is  generally  re- 
garded as  of  subsequent  date  to  the  uplift  that  formed  the  pre- 
sent mountains.  The  fact  is  clear,  however,  that  these  particular 
Oak  trees  are  now  growing  near  the  Molonglo  River,  and  although 
they  certainl}^  appear  to  be  stranded  plants,  the  process  by  which 
they  reached  this  spot  must  remain  unsolved,  at  least  for  the 
present. 

Grevillea  juniperina  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  shrubs 
within  the  Federal  Territory,  chiefly  because  of  its  beautiful, 
red,  spider-like  flowers.  It  was  noticed  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Murrumbidgee  near  its  junction  with  the  Cotter,  growing  as 
thick  spreading  bushes  up  to  10  feet  high  (Plate  Ixxii.).  It  was 
flowering  in  November,  and  among  the  birds,  which  were  evi- 
dently after  its  honey,  were  the  Leatherheads  {Tropido7'hy7ichus 
corniculatus).  At  Mongarlowe,  near  Braidwood,  this  species 
was  seen  in  November,  1908,  with  yellow,  as  well  as  red  flowers, 
and  in  several  cases  both  colours  were  noticed  on  the  same  plant. 
The  feature  has  been  observed  by  others. 

Batiksia  marginata  (Honeysuckle)  was  seen  in  many  portions 

of  the  Capital  Territory,  ascending  to  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet, 

and  occurring  chiefly  in  the  granite  or  somewhat  siliceous  areas. 

The  trees  appear  toreach  greater  dimensions  than  do  those  of 

this  species  in  the  Sydney  district,  and  examples  were  seen  with 

*  "Geographical  Unity  of  Eastern  Australia,"  by  E.  C.  Andrews,  B,A., 
Journ.  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  xliv.,  p. 420(1910). —Presidential 
Address  by  C.  Hedley,  F.L.S.,  These  Proceedings,  1911,  Vol.  xxxvi.,  p.  13. 


696  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.   S.  WALES,  X., 

trunks  up  to  two  feet  in  diameter  and  a  heiglit  of  twenty  feet. 
Some  of  the  finest  are  growing  in  granite-formation  around  JBoo- 
roomba  (Plate  Ixxiii.).  Although  this  Honeysuckle  always 
avoids  soils  derived  from  basic  rocks,  it  has  a  wide  range,  and 
is  doubtless  the  species  referred  to  by  Hume  and  Hovell  as 
occurring  on  the  Yass   Plains  in  1824. 

The  genus  Loranthus  (Mistletoes)  appears  to  be  only  sparsely 
represented  in  the  Territory,  and  is  practically  confined  to  the 
levels  below  about  3,000  feet.  The  Loranthus  is  not  a  lover  of 
extreme  cold,  and  its  general  absence  from  part  of  the  southern 
hiiihlands  was  noticed  some  vears  af^o,*  while  there  is  no  record 
of  the  genus  occurring  at  all  in  Tasmania. 

Two  species  of  Drosera  (Sundews)  w^ere  collected,  and  from 
the  paper  in  which  they  were  pressed,  it  has  since  been  noticed 
that  when  drying,  specimens  of  D.  peltata  from  Gudgenby  at 
4,500  feet,  dyed  the  paper  pink  leaving  the  impression  of  stems 
and  flowers. 

Of  the  family  Leguminosie,  fifteen  species  of  Acacia  (Wattles) 
were  seen,  and  next  after  the  Eucalypts  this  was  the  greatest 
number  of  species  found  of  any  genus. 

The  plants  identified  as  A.  obtusata,  from  Black  Mountain, 
sometimes  reach  7  or  8  feet  high.  Around  Mount  Coree,  they 
are  locally  known  as  Blue  Wattle,  from  the  slight  colouring  some- 
times appearing  on  the  leaves  and  stems,  though  on  many  plants 
the  bark  is  reddish-brown. 

Acacia  pravissima  grows  to  a  height  of  from  6  to  10  feet,  with 
somewhat  pendulous  branches.  The  pods  ripen  during  the  latter 
part  of  December. 

Oxylobium  alpestre  was  seen  as  spreading  shrubs,  semi-pros- 
trate, above  the  5,500  feet  level  on  Bimberi,  and  it  was  noticed 
that  the  womhats  {Phascolomys  mitchelli),  which  are  fairly  plenti- 
ful at  many  places  on  these  highlands,  had  undermined  many  of 
these  plants,  upon  the  roots  or  possibly  root-nodules  of  which 
they  evidently  feed. 

*  "  Eastern  Monaro,"  by  R.  H.  Cambage.  These  Proceedings,  1909, 
Vol.  xxxiv,,  p.  331. 


CY  R.    H.  CAMBAOE.  697 

Tetratheca  ericifolia  was  found  near  Coree  and  Booioomba. 
It  has  been  noticed,  over  many  years  of  collecting,  that  flowers 
of  this  species  and  its  variety  thijmifolia  keep  their  pinkish 
colour  for  years,  oi-  ver}^  much  longer  than  those  of  the  majority 
of  Australian  plants,  and  it  seems  evident  that  these  flowers 
contain  some  dye  of  a  fixed  nature  which  is  probably  worth 
investigating. 

Five  species  of  Pomaderris  were  seen,  distributed  over  various 
portions  of  the  Territory.  Unless  some  disinfectant  is  used  in 
herbaria,  the  flowers  of  most  plants  are  attacked  by  insects, 
orchids,  for  instance,  being  devoured  in  a  very  short  time;  but 
plants  of  the  genus  Pomaderris  seem  to  possess  some  resisting 
qualities,  as  its  flowers  may  remain  intact  for  several  years  with- 
out any  special  care. 

Brachy chiton  ])0)>ul7ieiis  (Kurrajong)  is  not  common  within 
the  Capital  Territory,  the  locality  being  rather  cold  for  it.  There 
is  one  fairly  large  tree,  however,  on  the  summit  of  a  quartzite 
hill  within  the  Capital  Cit^  site,  and  from  which  the  hill  has 
taken  its  name.  This  species  is  a  lover  of  limestone-formation, 
and  in  places  on  the  Western  Slopes  may  occupy  almost  exclu- 
sively certain  areas  where  there  is  a  considerable  outcrop  of 
limestone.  It  is  remarkable,  therefore,  that  it  should  flourish 
on  this  quartzite-hill,  the  rocks  of  which  contain  only  a  trace  of 
lime,  according  to  Mr.  J.  C.  H.  Mingaye,  but  have  a  high  per- 
centage of  silica,  a  constituent  which  this  plant  does  not  favour 
when  present  in  large  quantities.  A  few  Kurrajcmgs  were 
noticed  at  other  spots,  notably  between  the  Naas  Iliver  and 
Gudgenby,  in  which  locality  they  were  chiefly  on  the  north  or 
warm  sides  of  the  hills,  and  by  this  means  were  able  to  grow  at 
higlier  altitudes  than  usual  in  this  latitude,  one  tree  being  seen 
at  an  elevation  of  about  2,600  feet  above  sea-level. 

Viola  betonicce/olia  and  V.  hederacea,  commonly  known  as 
Wild  Violets,  were  seen  in  many  shady  nooks  throughout  the 
Territory,  and  the  beautiful  dark  blue  flowers  of  the  former  were 
noticed  as  far  up  as  between  the  5,500  and  6,000  feet  levels 
on  Bimberi  Peak. 


698       NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 

Of  the  Eucalypts  seen  within  the  Federal  Territory,  none  has 
so  great  a  vertical  range  as  E.  coHacea,  which  extends  from  the 
City  site  at  about  2,000  feet,  to  the  summit  of  Bimberi  at  6,264 
feet.  On  the  lower  land,  it  is  often  known  as  Scribbly  Gum 
from  the  insect-markings  which  appear  like  scribbles  on  the 
bark,  a  feature  not  confined  to  this  species,  but  on  the  high 
mountains,  where  it  is  dwarfed  and  grows  as  a  spreading  plant 
with  several  stems,  it  is  usually  known  as  Snow-Gum. 

The  largest  trees  within  the  Federal  Territory  are  E.  ijigantea 
and  E  fastigata,  and  both  are  common  on  Brindabella  Mountain 
near  Coree,  the  former  being  known  as  White,  and  the  latter  as 
Black  Mountain  Ash. 

E.  giyautea  was  described  by  Hooker,*  but  there  seems  no 
doubt  that,  when  doing  so,  he  had  in  his  mind  the  present  tree, 
and  also  a  previously  described  Stringybark,  E.  ohliqua  L'Herit., 
both  occurring  in  Tasmania,  the  latter  being  the  more  common 
of  the  two.  When  the  identity  of  E.  ohliqua  was  afterwards 
placed  beyond  doubt,  E.  gigantea  was  accepted  as  a  synonym. 
In  1900,  Mr.  R.  T.  Baker,  F.L.S  ,  described  this  tree  under  the 
name  of  E.  Delegatensis,  from  Southern  New  South  Wales,!  and 
pointed  out  its  specific  characters.  In  1913,  Mr.  Maiden  repro- 
duced Hooker's  figure  of  E.  gigantea  as  given  in  the  Flora  of 
Tasmania  (Vol.  i.,  p.  136),  and  showed  how  the  confusion  between 
E.  obliqua  and  E.  gigantea  had  arisen.  J  In  Hooker's  figure,  the 
fruils  depicted  appear  to  be  those  of  the  Mountain  Ash,  and  not 
those  of  E.  ohliqua. 

The  bark  of  this  Ash  for  about  half-way  up  the  trunk  is 
fibrous,  while  the  upper  portion  and  the  branches  are  smooth 
and  white,  hence  the  prefix,  white,  before  the  name  of  Ash  or 
Mountain  Ash.  The  timber  of  this  species,  though  very  valu- 
able, is  known  to  be  light  and  fissile,  and,  on  examining  seedlings 
of  4-5  feet  high,  on  Brindabella  Mountain,  it  was  noticed  that 
the  wood    was   exceptionally  soft  and    would   snap  with  only  a 

*  Lond.  Journ.  Bot.,  vi.,  479  (1847). 

t  These  Proceedings,  1900,  Vol.  xxv.,  p.305. 

X  "  Forest  Flora  of  New  South  Wales,"  Part  li. 


BY  R.  H.  CAMBAGE.  699 

gentle  pressure.     So  far  as  I  know,  the  most  northern  tree  of  this 
species  is  about  three  miles  north  of  Mount  Coree.* 

Eucalyptus  fastiyata  is  very  plentiful  along  the  mountain  sides 
under  C'oree  and  Tidbinbilla,  and  as  its  trunk  and  large  branches 
are  covered  with  fibrous,  brown  bark,  it  is,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  White  Ash,  called  Black  Mountain  Ash.  Its  great  affinity 
with  the  giant  gumtree  of  Victoria,  E.  regnans  F.v.M.,  is  well 
known,  and  since  E.  fasiigatawa^s  described  by  Deane  &  Maiden, 
the  latter  has  expressed  the  view  that  it  is  only  a  form  of  the 
former.!  At  the  same  time,  it  appears  as  a  distinct  tree  when 
seen  in  the  forest,  for  while  the  Victorian  and  Tasmanian  repre- 
sentatives of  E.  regnans  are  tall  gumtrees  with  fibrous  bark  for 
only  10  or  20  feet  at  the  base,  E.  fastiyata.  wherever  it  has  been 
seen  over  its  wide  range  in  this  State,  has  fibrous  bark  on  its 
trunk  and  large  branches. 

E.  dives  and  E.  maculosa  are  often  found  in  association,  and 
both  will  thrive  in  soils  heavily  charged  with  iron. 

E.  macrorrhyyicha  (Red   Stringybark)  is  not   uncommon,  and 
with  E.  Juemastoma  (Brittle  Gum),  and  a  few  trees  of  Exocarpus 
cnpi-essi/ormis  (Wild  Cherry),  takes  possession  of  the  higher  por- 
tions of  the  Black  Mountain,  all  three  being  lovers  of  a  siliceous 
formation. 

Eucalyptiis  j^ohjanthemos  {Ked  Box)  is  fairly  common  through- 
out the  lower  levels,  and  is  the  form  (E.  ovalifolia  R.  T.  Baker) 
with  smooth  gum-tree  bark,  except  that,  in  many  cases,  the  bark 
is  flaky  for  a  few  feet  at  the  base,  and  as  forest-trees  are  dis- 
similar to  the  rough-barked  ]led  Box  of  Victoria  and  around 
Albury.  The  great  lasting  qualities  of  Red  Box  posts  are  well 
known  throughout  the  Federal  Territory. 

E.  elceophora  {E.  Cambagei,  Mountain- Apple,  No. 3000)  occurs 
at  various  points,  and  around  Tharwa  and  Booroomba  appeared 
almost  white  in  November,  with  its  intensely  glaucous  fruits 
and  branchlets. 

*  For  previous  remarks  ou  this  species  under  the  name  of  E.  ddeyateusis, 
occurring  near  Tumbarumba,  see  These  Proceedings,  1904,  Vol.  xxix., 
p,690. 

t  See  "A  Critical  Revision  of  the  Genus  Eucalyptus,"  by  J,  H.  Alaiden, 
Part  vii.  (1905). 


700  NOTES  ON  THK,  N\TIVK  FLOKA  OF  N.   S.   WALES,  X., 

E.  camphora  (8wamp  Gum,  No. 3342)  was  seen  only  on  Coree 
Creek,  near  S.  A.  Shannon's,  though  it  has  a  considerable  range 
on  the  highlands  of  New  South  Wales,  southwards  from  the 
Kylstone  district.  In  January,  1913,  it  was  found  at  various 
points  on  the  Omeo-Mount  Hotham  Road,  in  Victoria,  between 
the  3,000  and  4,000  feet  levels  (No.3682). 

The  plants  identified  as  L6ptos2Jermum  aUenuatutn  were  seen 
up  to  12  feet  high,  chiefl}^  on  the  banks  of  streams,  and  have 
hard,  firm,  grey  bark,  and  not  scaly  or  tlaky  baric  such  as  is 
found  on  plants  recognised  as  of  this  species  occurring  around 
Sydney  and  on  the  Blue  Mountains. 

Kuiizea  Muelleri  was  observed  in  the  driei-  portions  of  swamjw 
areas  on  the  highlands  around  the  Upper  Cotter,  growing  in 
small  masses  of  about  a  foot  high,  and  having  whitish  flowers. 
These  plants  are  associated  with  Aciphylla  simplicifolia,  Epacris 
paludosa,  Juncus  falcatus,  and  perhaps  Celmisia  loiiyifolia  (Plate 
Ixxiv.). 

Kunzea  ^^edunciUdris  was  seen  up  to  15  feet  high,  with  some- 
what flaky  bark,  on  the  river-banks,  and  it  occurs  on  some  of  the 
mountain-summits  as  a  tough,  stunted  plant  of  a  few  feet.  Mr. 
John  Blundell,  of  Coree,  informed  me  that  the  blacks  formerly 
split  pieces  of  the  wood  of  this  highland  form,  which  they  called 
Budawang,  and,  after  hardening  it  by  fire,  used  it  as  needles  to 
pierce  holes  in  the  skins  of  various  animals  so  that  such  skins 
might  be  sewed  together  for  use  as  rugs. 

Richea  Guniiii  was  found  only  on  the  summit  of  Bimberi  Peak, 
and  is  an  alpine  plant  with  very  beautiful  clusters  of  flowers 
somewhat  resembling  those  of  Dracophyllnin  secundum,  which 
grows  along  the  coastal  districts. 

Pomax  umbellata  is  growing  on  the  northern  slopes  of  Black 
Mountain,  selecting  a  similar  highly  siliceous  formation  to  that 
which  it  favours  around  Sydney  and  on  the  Blue  Mountains. 

Wahlenberyia  yracilis  (Blue  Bell)  and  Candollea  serrulata 
(Trigger-Flower)  were  seen  at  their  best  at  elevations  between 
(4,000  and  5,000  feet.  Their  colours  were  deeper  than  usual,  a 
common  feature  with  plants  at  high  altitudes,  and  the  two  species 
formed  separate  masses  of  most  charming  deep  blue  and  red,  the 


BY  R.   H.  CAMBAGE.  701 

distant  blending  of  wliicb  gave  a  brightness  to  the  open  forest, 
and  formed  a  beautiful  setting,  in  one  of  Nature's  many  artistic 
designs. 

Olearia  argophyUa  (Musk-Tree),  which  grows  to  a  height  of 
over  20  feet,  and  is  regarded  as  the  largest  Composite  in  the 
world,  is  growing  in  the  sheltered  portions  of  Mount  Coree, 
associated  with  Dicksonia  antarctica  and  Bedfordia  salicitia,  tiius 
showing  that  the  locality  is  not  exposed  to  the  western  or  drv 
atmosphere,  but  is  in  a  zone  of  moisture  resulting  from  a  good 
rainfall  on  the  mountain-side.  In  this,  and  similar  sheltered 
situations  within  the  Federal  Territory,  the  Lyre  Bird,  Menura 
siiperba,  has  its  home. 

List  of  Plants. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  plants  seen  within  the  Federal  Capital 
Territory  : — 

HEPATlCEiE  :  Marchanfia  polyiHorpJia  L.,  (a  cosmopolitan 
species). 

GvATHEACE.E  :  Dicksouia  antm'ctica  Labill.,  (Tree-ferns  on 
Mount  Coree). 

POLYPODIACE^  :  Dryopteris  punctata  (Thunb.)  C.  Chr.,  {Poly- 
podium  puuctatnm  Thunb.  j,  Polyslichum  acnleatum  (L.)  Schott, 
[Aspidium  aculeatum  Swartz),  Aspleuium  flahellifolium  Cav., 
Pleurosorua  i  uti/oliics  (H.Br.),  Jj/echuwm  cartilagineuni  iiw.,  B. 
discolor  (Forst.)  Keys.,  {Lomaria  discolor  Willd),  B.  penua- 
marina  (Foir.)  Kuhn,  [Lonuwia  alpiiia  Spreng.j,  B .  capeiise  (Li.) 
Schlecht.,  {L.  capensis  Willd.),  Cheilauthes  tenuifolia  Sw.,  (plants 
up  to  1  foot  9  inches  on  Black  Mountain),  Adiantum  cethiopicum 
L.,  (Maiden-Hair  Fern),  Pteridium  aquilinum  L.  Kuhn.,  {Pteris 
aquiliiia  L.,  Bracken),  Pulypodiiun  diver sifolium  Willd.,  (P. 
scandeiis  Labill). 

PiNACEiE  :   Callitris  calcarata  R.Br.,  (Black  or  Mountain  Pine). 

TypHACEiE :  Typha  augitsti/olia  L.,  (Bullrush,  in  Canbury 
Creek  and  other  streams). 

PoTAMOGEToNACEiE :  Fotamoyeton  tricarinatus  F.v.M.  &  A. 
Benn.,  [P.  natans  Benth.,  non  L  ),  P.  perfoliatus  L. 

JuNCAGiNACEiE  ;  Tviglochin  proceva  R.Br. 


702       NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVK  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 

ALlSMATACEiE  :  AHsma  plantago  L.,  (along  the  banks  of  the 
Molonglo  River,  and  flowering  in  December). 

GRAMiNEiE :  Andropogon  ajjiiiis  R.Br.,  A.  refractus  R.Br., 
ThfAneda  Forshalii  Hack.,  {Anihisiiria  ciliata  Benth.,  Kangaroo 
Grass),  Panicum  effusu^n  R.Br.,  Stipa  scahra  Lindl.,  (Silver 
Grass),  Uchino^jogon  ovatus  Beauv.,  (Saw  Grass),  Calainagrostis 
cemula  Steud.,  {Deyeuxia  Forsteri  Kunth),  Holcus  lanatus  L., 
(naturalised),  Aira  caryoy)hyllea  L.,  (Fairy  Grass),  Danthonia 
carphoides  F.v.M.,  D.  penicillata  F.v.M.,  var.  semiannul avis 
F.V.M.,  Cynodon  dactylon  Rich.,  (Couch  Grass,  common  in  hot 
and  some  temperate  countries),  Chloris  truncata  R.Br,,  (Umbrella 
Grass),  Pappophomm  commune  F.v.M.,  Phragmites  commimis 
Trin.,  (^Arundo  Phragmites  L.),  Koeleria  phleoides  Pers.,  (natural- 
ised), Poa  ccespitosa  G.  Forst.,  (White  or  Snow  Tussocks),  Fes- 
tuca  Hookeriana  F.v.M.,  [Schedonorns  Hookeriana  Benth.),  F. 
hromoides  L.,  (naturalised),  Bromus  maxim,us  Desf.,  (naturalised), 
Hoi'deum  mnrinum  L.,  (Barley  Grass;  naturalised). 

Cyperace^  :  Kyllingia  hiterinedia  R.Br.,  (A",  brevi/olia 
Rottb.),  Cyper2is  sanguineo-fuscus  Nees,  C .  Guiinii  Hook.,  (C. 
lucidus  R.Br.),  Eleocharis  acuta  R.Br.,  E.  cylindrostachys  Boeck., 
Scirpus  cernuus  Vahl,  {A.  riparius  Benth.),  >S'.  inundatus  Poir., 
S.  stellatus  C.  B.  Clarke,  (S.  cartilagi7ieus  Benth.),  jS".  lacustris  L., 
S.  polystachyus  F.v.M.,  Carex  te^-eticaidis  F.v.M.,  C.  appressa 
R.Br.,  C.  Gaudichaudiana  Kunth,  C.  p)seudo-cyperus  L. 

RfiSTiONACEiE  :  Restio  ausfralis  R.Br.,  (at  Gudgenby),  Hypo- 
Icena  lateriflora  Benth. 

JuNCACEiE  :  Luzula  campestris  DC,  Juncus  hufonius  L.,  J. 
plebeius  R.Br.,  (J.  homalocaulis  F.v.M.),  J.  paUidus  R.Br.,  J. 
radula  Buch.,  J.  vaginatus  R.Bi-.,  J.  polyanthemos  Buch.,  J.  pi'is- 
m,atocarpus  R.Br.,  ./.  Fockei  Buch.,  J.  lamjyrocarpus  Ehr.,  J. 
falcatus  E.  Mey. 

LiLiACEiE:  Aiiguillaria  dioica  R.Br.,  (  Wurinhea  dioica  F.v.M.), 
Bulhine  hulhosa  Haw.,  Thysanotus  tuherosus  R.Br.,  (Fringed 
Violet),  Arthrojjodiura  panicnlatum  R.Br.,  Tricoryiie  elatior 
H.Hr.,  Stypandra  glauca  R.  IJr.,  Dianella  tasvianica  Rook.,  D. 
revoluta  R.Br.,  Xerotes  longifolia  R.Br.,  X.  multifiora  R.Br., 
X.  filiformis  R.Br.,  X.  glauca  R.Br.,  Xanthorrhcea  sp.  (Grass- 
Tree,  at  Lower  Cotter  and  Booroomba). 


BY  R.   H.  CAMBAGE.  703 

AMARYLLiDACEiE  :  Hypoxis  hygvometrica  Labi)]. 

Orchid ACEiE  :  Gastrodia  sesamoiaes  R.Br.,  I'helymitra 
venosa  R.Br.,  Diuris  maculata  Sm.,  (Spotted  Orchid),  D.  sul- 
phured R.Br.,  Prasophyllum  fuscum  R.Br.,  Q.) Pterostylis  cu7'ta 
R.Br.,  {l)P.  ohtusa  R.Br.,  (near  Gudgenby,  at  4,700  feet),  P.  rufa 
R.Br.,  (at  Booroomba,  a  form  with  very  short  points  to  the 
sepals  and  petals),  Caladenia  testacea  R.Br.,  C.  alba  R.Br.,  (on 
side  of  Tidbinbilla),  C.  dimor'pha  Fitzg.,  (on  summit  of  Tidbin- 
billa). 

Casuarine^  :  Casiiarina  stricta  Ait.,  (She-oak,  C.  quadri- 
valvis),  C.  Luehmanni  R.  T.  Baker,  (Bull-Oak),  C.  Cunning- 
hamiana  Miq.,  (River-Oak). 

Urticace^e  :  Urtica  incisa  Poir.,  (Nettle),  Australina  pusilla 
Gaud. 

PROTEACEiE  :  Persoouia  chamcepeuce  Lhotsky,  (Prostrate  Gee- 
bung,  at  Gudgenby),  Orites  lancifolia  F.v.M.,  (on  Mount  Bim- 
beri),  Grevillea  lanigera  A.  Cunn.,  G.  jwinperina  R.Br.,  (at  junc- 
tion of  Murrumbidgee  and  Cotter  Rivers),  G.  ausiralis  R.Br.,  (a 
very  narrow-leaved  form),  Hakea  sericea  Schrad.,  (//.  acicularis 
R.Br.),  H.  inicrocarj^a  R.Br.,  Lotnatia  longifolia  R.Br.,  Banksia 
marginata  Cav.,  (Honeysuckle). 

SANTALACE.E  :  Exocarpus  cupressifo7"mis  Labill.,  (Native 
Cherry),  E.  stricta  R.Br.,  Choretrum  spicatum  F.v.M.,  Ompha- 
comeria  acsrba  A.  DC. 

LoRANTHACE^  :  Lovauthus  pendulus  Sieb.,  (Mistletoe,  with 
Eucalyj^tus  dives  as  host). 

PoLYGONACEiE  :  Ruwiex  Brownii  Campd.,  E.  acetosella  L., 
(Sorrel;  naturalised),  Polygonum  2^'^'ostratum  R.Br.,  P.  minus 
Huds.,  (Smart-Eye,  in  bed  of  Murrumbidgee  and  other  streams). 

CHENOPODiACEiE  :   Che7iopodium  triangulare  R.Br. 

CARYOPHYLLACEiE  :  Sileue  gallica  L.,  (naturalised),  Cerastium 
vulgatum  L.,  (Mouse-ear  Chick-weed,  naturalised),  Stellaria 
pungens  Brong.,  Spergida7'ia  rubra  Camb.,  Tunica  prolifera 
Scop.,  (Dianthus,  naturalised),  Scleranthus  bijlorus  Hook., 
(Cushion- Plants  forming  green  compact  mats). 

RANUNCULACEiE:  Clematis  aristata  R.Br.,  C.  microphylla  DC, 
Ranuncidus  aquatilis  L.(?),    H.  lappaceus  Sm.,  (Buttercup),  R. 


704  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLOIJA   OF  N.   S.  WALKS,  X., 

AiHws Banks  and  Sol  ,  (K.  plebeiv.s  R.Br.),  R.  rivularis  Banks  and 
Sol.,  R.  parvifloi'ns  F.. 

Magnoliace^  :  Drimys  aromatica  F.v.M.,  (Peppercorn). 

MoNlMiACEiE  :  Iledycarya  angiistifolia  A.  Cunn.,  {H.  Cmniivg- 
hamii  Tul  ,  Native  Mulberry). 

LaukacEjE  :  Cassytha  pJuwlasia  F.v.M.,  (Dodder),  C.  melaiifha 
R.Br. 

Crucifer.^  :  Cardamine  hirsuta  L.,  var.  tenuifolia  F.v.M.,  (C. 
teniiifo/ia  Hook. ). 

Duoserace^  :  Drosera  peltata  Sni.,  (Sundew  or  Fly-catcher), 
D.  miriculata  Backh 

CkassulacE/E  :   Tillcea  verticiUaris  DC. 

PiTTOSPORACEiE :  Marianthus  procumbe'HF!  Benth.,  Biirsaria 
spmosa  Cav.,  (Whitethorn),  Billardiera  ^canden^  Sm.,  (Roly-Poly 
Vine). 

RoSACEiE  :  Rubus  parvifoliiis  L.,  (Redherry),  Acrcna  ovina 
A.  Cunn  ,  A.  sangidsorbcB  Vahl,  (Burr). 

LEGUMiNOSiE  :  Sub-family  Mimosoideae:  —  Acacia  lanigera  A. 
Cunn.,  var.  vemdosa,  {A.  venulosa  Benth.,  on  Black  Mountain), 
A.  siciiliformis  A.  Cunn.,  (at  Tidbinbilla  and  Gudgenby),  A. 
diffusa  Edw.,  (Prickly  Wattle),  A.  armata  R.Br.,  (Kangaroo- 
Thorn,  on  Mount  Ainslie),  A.  vertdcijiua  A.  Cunn.,  A.  peiini- 
nervis  Sieb.,  (Mountain-Hickory),  A.  obtusata  Sieb.,  (on  Black 
Mountain  and  Coree),  A.  rubida  A.  Cunn.,  (Red-leaved  Wattle), 
A.  buxifolia  A.  Cunn.,  A.  pravissima  Y.v.M.,  (Cotter  River  near 
the  dam,  and  on  the  divide  between  the  Gudgenby  and  Cotter 
waters,  at  4,500  feet),  A.  Dawsoiii  R.  T.  Baker,  (near  Gundaroo 
Road  from  Queanbeyan),  A.  melanoxyloit  R.Br.,  (Hickory  or 
Tasmanian  Blackwood),  A.  implexa  Benth.,  A.  decurrens  Willd., 
var.  mollis,  (Green  Wattle,  seen  only  in  the  northern  or  lower 
portion  of  the  Territory),  A.  dealbata  Link,  (Silver  Wattle). 
Sub-family  Papilionatse : — Trifoliutn  arvense  L.,  (Hare's-foot  Tre- 
foil, naturalised),  Oxylobium  ellij^licum  R.Br.,  var.  alpinum,  (on 
Tidbinbilla  at  4,500  feet,  and  on  Bimberi  at  5,300  feet),  0. 
alpestre  F.v.M.,  0.  Pulteneoi  DC,  0.  procumbens  F.v.M. (?), 
Mirbelia  oxylobioides  F.v.M.,  Gompholobium  Htiegelii  Benth., 
G.  grandijlorura  Sm.('?),  G.  unciiiatum  A.  Cunn.,  Daviesia  corym- 


BY  R.   H.  CAMBAGE.  705 

hosa  Sm.,  D.  nlicina  Sm.,  PiiUeiupa  Muelleri  Bentb.C?),  (on  Brin- 
dabella  Mountain),  P.  j^rocumhens  A.  Cunn.,  (at  Boorooniba,  on 
granite  at  3,700  feet),  P.fascicuJata  Bentli.,  (at  4,500  feet,  Giid- 
genby  to  Cotter  River,  rare  in  New  South  Wales),  Dillwynia 
eriQifolia  Sm.,  var.  iihylicoides^  Platylohiiim  formoHum  Sm., 
(around  Coree),  Bossicea  buxifolia  A.  Cunn.,  (at  Booroomba),  B. 
Walkeri  F.v.M.,  (5  feet  high,  with  a  cluster  of  from  30  to  40 
stems;  at  junction  of  Murrumbidgee  and  Cotter),  Hovea  linearif< 
R.Br.,  Lohis  comiculatush.,  (Upper  Cotter),  L.  aust7'alis  A ndr., 
(Upper  Cotter,  flowers  purple  to  pink).  Indigo/era  australis 
Willd.,  (Indigo),  Psoralea  adscendens  F.v.M.,  Swainsoita  tephro- 
tricha  F.v.M.,  Zornia  diphylla  Pers.,  Desmodinm  varians  Endl., 
Glycine  clandestiiia  Wendl.,  G.  Latroheaiia  Benth.,  (with  blue 
flowers  among  the  grass,  on  the  City  site),  Hardenheryia  mono- 
phylla  Benth.,  (False  Sarsaparilla). 

GEKANiACKiE :  Gevaiiunn  dissectum  L.,  Urodimn  cygnorum 
Nees,  E.  cicnfarium  Willd.,  (naturalised).  Pelargonium  australe 
Willd. 

OxALiDACEiE  :   Oxalis  corniculata  L.,  (Sour  Grass). 

RuTACEiE  :  Boronia  polyyalifolia  Sm.,  Eriostemon  myoporoides 
DC,  Phebaliam  squmnulosiim  Vent.,  var,  alpinum,  fat  4,500 
feet  on  Coree),  Correa  s])eciosa  Andr. 

Tkemandkace.*:  :    7'etrathec<i  ericifulia  Sm. 

PoLYGALACE.^^.  :   Gotnesperma  velnsnrri  Labill. 

EuPHOKBiACEiE  :  Phyllauthus  thymoides  Sieb.,  Euphorbia 
Drammondii  Boiss.,  E.  Lathyrus  L.,  (naturalised),  Poranthera 
microphylla  Brongn.,  Bertya  ohiefolia  Planch.,  (near  Murrum- 
bidgee and  Cotter  junction). 

STACKHOUSlACEiE  :  Stackhousia  linariifolia  A.  Cunn.,  [S. 
monogyna  Labill  ),  S.  viminea  Sm. 

Sapindack.e  :  Dmhuiea  viscosa  L.,  D.  attenuata  A.  Cunn. 

Rhamnace^e  :  Pomaderris  elliptica  Labill.,  (on  Black  Mount- 
ain), P.  apetala  Labill.,  P.  prunifoli(t  A.  Cunn.,  P.  raceinosa 
Hook.,  P,  pliylicifoHa  Lodd.,  Cryptandra  spinescens  Sieb.,  Dis- 
caria  anstralh  Hook.,  (low  prickly  bushes,  with  sickly-sweet 
flowers  j. 

Malvaceae  :  Playianthus  pulch'Uus  A.  Gray,  also  var. 
55 


706  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.   WALES,  X., 

tomentosns  Hook.,  Malva  rotundifolia  L.,  (naturalised),  Modiola 
multifida  Mcench.,  (naturalised). 

Sterculiace.^^  :  Brachychiton  populyieiis  R.Br.,  (Sterculia 
diversifolia  G.  Don,  Kurrajong). 

Dilleniace^  :  Ilibhertia  stricta  R.Br.,  H.  sevpyllifolia  R.Br., 
H.  linearis  R.Br.,  var.  ohtusi.folia. 

Guttifer^  :  Hypericum  japonicnm  Thunb.,  also  var.  arami- 
neum  F.v.M. 

Violace^  :  Viohi  betonicce/oha  8m.,  (Native  Violet),  V. 
hederacea  Labill. 

THYMELiEACE^E :  Pimeleci  glauca  R.Br.,  a  form  with  very 
narrow  and  acute  involucral  bracts,  P.  colorans  A.  Cunn.,  P. 
linifolia  Sm.,  P.  ligustrina  Labill.,  also  var.  hypericina  Benth., 
P.paiiciflora  R.Br.,  P.  curviflora  R.Br.,  (No.  3473,  three  feet 
high,  near  Gudgenby). 

Lythrace.¥.  :  Lythrum  salicaria  ]j.,  (a  swamp-plant),  Z. 
hyssopifolia  L. 

Myjitace^  :  Eucidy])ius  steUulata  Sieb.,  (Sally),  E  coriacea 
A.  Cunn.,  (Snow-Gum),  E.  amycjdcdina  Labill.,  (Peppermint  or 
Messmate),  E.  fastiyata  Deane  and  Maiden,  (Black  Mountain 
Ash;  around  Mounts  Coree  and  Tidbinbilla),  E,  dives  Schauer, 
(Peppermint),  E.  gigantea  Hook  ,  (E.  Delegatensis  R.  T.  Baker, 
White  Mountain  Ash),  E.  inacrorrliyncha  F.v.M.,  (Red  Stringy- 
bark),  E.  hfemastoma  Sm.,  (Brittle  Gum),  E  melliodora  A.  Cunn., 
(Yellow  Box),  E.  jwlyarUhemos  Schauer,  (Red  Box),  E.  rubida 
Deane  and  Maiden,  (a  White  Gum,  with  orbicular  reversion- 
foliage),  E.  maculosa  R.  T.  Baker,  (a  gum-tree,  slightly  spotted, 
but  distinct  from  the  Spotted  Gum  of  the  coast),  E.  camphora 
R.  T.  Baker,  (on  Condore  Creek  near  Mount  Coree),  E.  aggregata 
Deane  and  Maiden,  (a  few  trees  seen  on  a  flat  on  western  side 
of  Bungendore  Road,  between  the  48  and  49  mile  posts  from 
Goulburn),^.  eheophora  F.v.M  .,(£".  Cambayei  Deane  and  Maiden, 
Mountain  Apple),  E.  Bridgesiana  R.  T.  Baker,  (Apple-Tree  or 
WooUybutt;  recognised  by  Mr.  Maiden  as  E.  Stuartiana  F.v.M.), 
E.  inminalis  Labill.,  (White  or  Manna  Gum),  E.  Blakelyi  Maiden, 
(Forest  Red  Gum),  E.  dealbata  A.  Cunn.,  Leptospermum,  Jiaves- 
cens  Sm.,  var.  obovatura  F.v.M.,  (near  summit  of    Mount  Coree), 


BY   R.  *H.   CAMBAGE.  707 

Tj.  scopariitm  Forst.,  (Tea-tree,  the  narrow-leaved  form),  L.  lani- 
rjerum  Sm.,  (along  the  banks  of  creeks;  trees  30  feet  high  along 
the  damp  gullies  on  the  slopes  of  Bimberi,  just  above  the  5,000 
feet  level),  L.  stellatn,m,  Cav.,  L.  attenuatnm  Sm.,  L.  Diyrtifolhtm 
Sieb.,  L.  triloculare  Vent.,  (with  silky-hairy  calyx-tubes  and 
leaves,  on  Black  Mountain),  Kimzea  Muelleri  Bentli.,  (at  4,500 
feet,  oji  divide  between  Gudgenby  and  Cotter  Rivers),  K.  parvi- 
folia  Schauer,  (between  the  7  and  8  mile  posts,  Queanbeyan  to 
Tharwa  Road),  K.  peduncularis  F.v.M.,  (on  banks  of  Murrum- 
bidgee  and  other  streams,  also  near  the  summits  of  Coree  and 
Tidbinbilla;  in  full  flower  early  in  December),  Callistetnon  palu- 
dosus  F.V.M.,  in  bed  of  Molonglo,  Murrumbidgee,  Paddy's  and 
Cotter  Rivers,  flowering  early  in  December,  flowers  creamy- 
purple),  C.  lophanthus  Sweet,  (near  the  summit  of  Mount  Tid- 
binbilla), 6'.  Sieberi  DC,  near  the  summit  of  Mount  Bimberi), 
Bceckea  Guiiniana  Schauer,  Ccdycothrlx  {Calythrix)  tetragona 
Labill. 

OENOTHERACEyE  :  Epilobitim  (jlahdhim  G.  Forst.,  Oenothera 
hieihiiis  L.,  (Primrose,  naturalised). 

Halorrhagace/E  :  Halorrliagis  titragyna  (Labill.)  Hook.,  //. 
)iucrantha  (Thunb.)  R.Br.,  Myriophyllum  propinquu'm  A.  Cunn. 

Araliace^:  Tieghemopanax  samhucif  liusl^.  V^iguier,  [Panax 
samhucifolius  Sieb.),  Astrotricha  ledifolia  DC,  (on  Black  Mount- 
ain and  Coree). 

Umbellifer.e  :  II ydrocotyle  laxijiora  DC,  (//.  Candollei 
F.v.M. ),  Didiscas  hiimilis  Hook.,  {Trachymene  huniilis  Benth,), 
Trachyiiiene  Billardieri  F.v.M,,  [Siebera  Billardieri  Benth,  on 
Tidbinbilla),  Oreoinyrrhis  atidicola  Endl.,  (Native  Carra way-seed), 
Aciphylla  simplicifolia  F.v.M,,  (in  damp  spots  on  the  highlands 
around  Gudgenby  and  Bimberi),   Daucus  br'achiatiis  Sieb. 

EpACRiDACEiE  :  Styphel la  triflora  Audv.,  Melichrus  iirceolaluH 
R.Br.,  Lissanthe  strigosa  Sm.,  Leucopogon  laiiceolatus  Ji.Br.,  L. 
virgatus  R.Br.,  L.  llookeri  Sond.,  L.  bi^orus  R.Br.,  L.  Fraseri 
A.  Cunn.,  Monotoca  scoparia  R.Br.,  Acrotriche  agyregata  R.Br., 
A.  serr^datal^,.\^v.,  lirarJiyloma  daphnoides  'Benth.,  E]jacris  palu- 
dosa  R.Br.,  E.  brevi/olia  Stapf,  (at  3,000  feet  on  Mount  Coree), 
K,  serpyllifolid  R.Br.,  E.  microphylla  R.Br.,  Richea  Gu7t7iiiIiook. 


708       NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA  OF  N.  S.  WALES,  X., 

Pkimulace^:  AnngnJlis  arvfiisis  L,,  (Pimpernel,  natiualised). 

Ghntianace.e  :  Erythrcna  australis  R.Br.,  LiinitaiiAheiimni 
creuatinn  F.v.M.,  (an  aquatic  plant,  with  beautiful  yellow,  large, 
fringed  Huwers:  in  Molonglo  Hiver). 

Convolvulace.e  :   Couvolvidus  eruhescens  Sims. 

BoKRAGiNACEiE  :   Ci/uoijlossntn  australe  R.Br. 

Labiate  :  Mentha  laxijiora  Benth.,  J/,  aastralis  R.Br.,  (Penny 
Royal),  JJ.8aturejoides  J\.hi\,  Salvia  verbenacea  L.,  (naturalised), 
BruneUa  {Frunella)  vulyaris  DC,  Scutellaria  hmnilis  R.Br., 
Prostanthera  lasianthos  LabilL,  (Native  Lilac,  called  Turpentine- 
Bush  at  Coree),  F.  cuneata  Benth.,  Wesfriugia  ereniicola  A. 
Cunn.,  (white  flowers;  opposite  junction  of  Murrumbidgee  and 
Colter),  Ajnya  aastralis  R.Br. 

►SoLANACE.E  :  Solauum  uhjrum  L.,  *S'.  simile  F.v.M.,  S.  ojjacunt 
A.Br.,  (naturalised).  Datura  stramoniuvi  L.,  (naturalised). 

ScROPHULARiACE.E  :  Mimulus  moschatus  Dougl.,  (naturalised), 
Gratiola  Feruviana  L.,  (Brook-Lime),  G.  nana  Benth.,  Veronica 
perfoliata  R.Br.,  (on  the  highlands,  with  beautiful  blue  flowers), 
r.  Derwentia  Littlej.,  V.  (jracilis  R.Br.,  V.  calycina  R.Br., 
Eaphrasia  Fyroionii  F.v.M.,  (on  Coree,  and  at  4,500  feet  on  Tid- 
binbilla),    Vcrhasemii  hlattaria  L.,  (naturalised). 

Lentibulariace.e:  Utricnlaria  dichotoma  LabilL,  var.  unijlora 
Benth. 

Plantaginace^  :  Flantago  varia  R.Br. 

RuBiACEiE :  Coprosnia  hirtella  LabilL,  (at  4,000  feet,  on 
granite,  at  Booroomba,  also  towards  the  summit  of  Tidbinbilla), 
Foutax  muOellata  Sol.,  Asperula  oliyantha  F.v.M.,  also  var. 
scoparia  F.v.M.,  Galiani  niubrosani  Sol. 

Caprifoliace.e  :   Sambncas  Gaudichaudiana  DC. 

CucuRBiTACE.E  :  Cacunds  my?'iocai'pas  Naud.,  (small  melons, 
naturalised). 

Campanulace^  :  Lobelia  dentata  Cav.,  L.  pedunculata  R.Br., 
Isotomajluviatilis  F.v.M.,    Wahlenheryia  yracilis  DC. 

Goodenlvce/e  :  Velleia  paradoxa  R.Br.,  Goodenia  hederacea 
Sm.,  G.  pinnatijida  Schlecht. 


BY  R.   H.  CAMBAGE.  709 

Candolleace.t:  (Stylidiaeete) :  CandoUra  sprrulafa  Labill., 
[StylidiuAn  tjraniiitijhflnnt  Sw.,  Trigger-Flowei"). 

CoMPOSiTiE  :  Olearia  mcAjalophylla  F.v.M.,  (around  Coree  and 
Tidbiubilla),  0.  chrijsophylla^iinih.,  0 .  anjopht/lht  Labill.,  (Musk- 
Tree),  0.  stellulaia  DC,  Cehn'isia  loiKjifolia  Cass.,  (Aster  celmisia 
F.v.M.,  Silver  Daisy),  VUtadinia  australis  A.  Rich.,  Calutis 
scabiosi/olia  .Sond.  and  F.v.M.,  var.  intec/ri/olia,  Lagenophora 
Billardierl  Cass.,  Brachyctmie  scapiyrra  DC,  B.  scapn/onnis  DC, 
(on  Coree  and  near  Gudgenby  at  4,500  feet),  />'.  Sieberi  DC.(?), 
B.  discolor  C  8tuart,  Cotala  Jilicida  Hook,,  CeiUipeda  C anuing- 
hamii  F.v.M.,  Craspedia  Richea  Cass.,  (Bachelors'  Buttons), 
Casslnia  amdcata  R.Br.,  (at  Boorooniba  and  Coree),  C  lonyifolia 
R.Br.,  (at  Gudgenby),  C  quinquefaria  R.Br.,  Podolepls  loiaji- 
pedata  A.  Cunn.,  also  var.  robusta  Maiden  and  Betche,  P. 
cauescens  A.  Cunn.  Lepjtorrhynchos  squamatus  Less.,  HeHchrysuDi 
scorpioides  Labill.,  II.  Incidum  Henck.,  and  vai-.  viscosimi,  (H. 
bracteatum  Willd.,  "Everlasting  Flower"),  H.  apiculatuin  DC, 
//.  semipcqjposuin  DC,  II.  ledifolium  Benth.,  //.  rosinari'ulfolimn 
Less.,  var.  thyrsoldeum  Benth.,  (at  5,000  feet  on  Bimberi),  II. 
Stirlingii  F.v.M.,  (at  4,000  feet  on  Bimberi),  //.  baccharoides 
F.v.M.,  Heliptevimi  anthemoides  DC,  H.  incannm  DC,  //.  di- 
morplwlepis  Benth.,  Gnaphalium  japonicmn  Thunb.,  G.  purpa- 
reniu  L.,  Staarfiana  Aluelleri  Sond.,  Erechtites  luixta  DC,  B. 
qiradridentata  DC,  Seiiecio  pectiuatus  DC,  S.  dryadens  Sieb.,  [S. 
<iii.stralis  A.  Rich.),  /^ed/ordia  salicina  DC,  (near  Mount  Coree, 
and  locally  called  Adam's  Flannel  from  its  tomentose,  Hannel- 
like  leaves),  Cyinbonotus  Laivsonianus  Gaud.,  Centaurea  calci- 
^/Yi/X6L.,  (Star-Thistle,  naturalised),  C.  solsf it i(dis  J^.,  (imtuvAliiHid), 
Microseris  Forsteri  Hook.,  (a  yam,  with  yellow  flowers),  Hypo- 
chmris  radiataJ^.,  (Dandelion,  naturalised),  Ficris  hierat-ioides  1j., 
(naturalised),  Cardnus  pyciiocephalus  L.,  (naturaliseti). 

Comparison  with  Tasmania. 
Although  the  plant-associations  found  on  tlie  high  points  appear 
to  disclose  certain  facts,  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  an  assem- 
blage of  plants  is  not  only  regulated  by  climate,  but  by  geological 
formations  as  well.      In  discussing  those  plants  noticed  on  Tid 


710  NOTES  ON  THE  NATIVE  FLORA   OF  N.   S.   AVALES,  X  , 

biiibilla  at  5,100  feet  and  on  Bimberi  at  6,200  feet,  some  inter- 
esting features  are  brought  out.  On  Tidbinbilla,  the  Families 
with  most  representatives  were  Myrtacete  and  Leguminosa?,  with 
four  species  each,  while  Compositjc  had  three  species.  Curiously 
no  species  whatever  uf  Leguminosjc  was  noticed  on  the  summit 
of  Bimberi,  while  Myrlacea^  had  three,  but  Compositai  had 
eleven. 

Before  conclusive  deductions  could  be  drawn  from  a  record 
such  as  this,  it  would  be  desiral)le  to  have  a  more  systematic 
examination  carried  out  than  time  permitted  me  to  make,  and 
over  a  greater  number  of  levels.  It  is  not  remarkable,  however, 
that  this  limited  record  shows  that  the  Composita\  which  are 
considered  to  be  the  largest  Family  among  flowering  plants,  should 
be  the  most  numerous  at  the  higher  levels,  for  they  are  known 
to  be  able  to  resist  the  cold.  On  the  other  hand,  masses  oi  a 
few  species  of  Composit«e  may  be  seen  on  the  hot  western  plains 
of  this  State,  in  places  forming  the  dominant  vegetation. 

In  coiniection  with  distribution,  it  is  of  interest  to  make  a 
comparison  with  Tasmania.  There  the  Family  Composite  pre- 
dominates, and  contains  more  species  than  Leguminoste  and 
Myrtaceie  combined,  the  figures  being  approximately — Compositfe 
110,  Leguminosie  60,  and  Myrtaceie  40* 

From  the  list  of  plants  collected  by  me  within  the  Federal 
Capital  Territory,  the  Families,  according  to  numbers  of  species, 
are  arranged  in  the  following  se([uence — Leguminoste  13  species, 
Compositte  42,  and  Myrtaceie  ol.  These  figures  maybe  modified 
by  further  discoveries,  and  the  first  two  Families  may  even 
change  places. 

The  genera  are  represented  in  the  following  order :  Eucalyptus 
(Myrtaceiti)  19  species.  Acacia  (Leguminosa?)  15,  Juncus  (Jun- 
cacete)  10,  and  Helichrysum  (Compositie)  8. 

Out  of  27  species  noticed  on  the  summit  of  Tidbinbilla,  at 
5,100  feet,  15  of  these,  or  55%,  occur  in  Tasmania;  while  on 
Bimberi,  at  6,200  feet,  22  out  of  30  species,  or  73%,  are  found 
in  Tasmania. 

*  "The  Tasinanian  Flora,"  by  Leonard  Rodway,  C.M.G.,  (1903). 


BY   R.    H.  CAMBAGK.  711 

As  an  evidence  of  considerable  similarity  in  climate,  it  is 
pointed  out  that,  in  the  whole  of  tlie  Federal  Capital  Temtoiy, 
'^>C)  1  native  species  were  noticed,  of  which  233,  or  65%,  are  also 
indigenous  in  Tasmania. 

T  wish  to  express  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden, 
F.R.8.,  the  late  Mr.  E.  Betche,  and  Mr.  E.  Cheel  for  assistance 
and  corrolwi^ation  in  the  identification  of  plants.  To  Mr.  C.  R. 
Scrivener,  I.S.O.,  Director  of  Commonwealth  Lands  and  Sur- 
veys, 1  am  grateful  foi-  having  afforded  me  the  opportunity  and 
facilities  for  visiting  the  various  points  witliin  the  Fedei'al  Ter- 
ritory; while  to  Messrs.  Charles  H.  McKeachnie,  of  Booroomba, 
and  Marmaduke  W.  Lee,  of  Gudgenby,  my  thanks  are  due  foi- 
hospitality  and  personal  guidance  to  the  summit  of  Tidbinbilla, 
and  the  head  of  the  Cotter  River  respectively;  also  to  Mr.  John 
Blundell  for  his  escort  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Coree.  T  have 
also  to  thank  Mr."  A.  J.  Hare,  Under  Secretary  for  Lands,  and 
Mr.  E.  B.  Harkness,  Under  Secretary,  Chief  Secretary's  Depart- 
ment, for  information  concerning  the  early  records  of  settlement 
in  the  locality. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  LXXI.-LXXIV. 

Plate  Ixxi. 
Ca/^iiarina  Lnthmanni  R.   T.  Baker;  growing   under  shelter  of   bank   on 
Molonglo  River. 

Plate  Ixxii. 
Grej'illea  jitnipe:nn((  R.Br.;  near  Cotter  and  Murrumbidgee  Rivers. 

Plate  Ixxiii. 
Baiiksia  marguKita  Cav. ;  in  open  forest  granite-country  at  Booroomba. 

Plate  Ixxiv. 
iSwanipy   plain,    with   Kniizta   Muelleri,    Aciphylla  mmp/lcifo/ia,   Epacris 
pa/udoi^a,  J  uncus  falcafus,  and  Eucalyptus  coriacea;  between  Gud- 
genby and  Cotter  River,  at  about  4,500  feet  level. 


712 


OEDINARY  MONTHLY  MEETING. 

November  27th,  1918. 

Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M.I).,  B.8.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  formal  business  of  the  Meeting, 
the  President  reminded  Members  of  the  supremely  important 
events  that  had  transpired  in  the  interval  since  the  last  Meeting 
^the  signing  of  the  Armistice  presaging  a  victorious  peace,  and 
the  vindication  of  the  strenuous  efforts  of  the  Allied  Nations  to 
re-establish  Right  and  Justice,  as  opposed  to  Might  and  Cunning, 
as  the  basic  principle  of  International  relations. 

The  President  moved  the  following  resolution,  which  was 
carried  by  acclamation,  the  audience  rising: — "That  the  Members 
present  at  this  Meeting  desire  to  atiirm  their  loyalty  to  the  King 
— to  record  their  thankfulness  for  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  as 
the  prelude  to  a  triumphant  peace :  their  gratitude  for,  and  ap- 
preciation of,  the  services  rendered  to  the  cause  of  humanity  by 
the  Allied  Armies  and  Navies  (including  those  who  have  so 
worthily  represented  the  Commonwealth),  and  by  those,  both 
women  and  men,  who  have  co-operated  with  them:  and  their 
sympathy  with  the  bereaved." 

The  National  Anthem  was  sung,  and  cheers  given  for  the  King. 

A  letter  from  Lieutenant  G.  Goldfinch  (written  from  Havre, 
18th  September,  1918)  returning  thanks  to  Members  for  greet- 
ings and  a  friendly  message  of  sympathy  when  he  was  in  hospital 
in  England,  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  was  communicated  to 
the  Meeting. 

The  list  of  the  names  of  Members  on  the  Honour  Roll — only 
three  of  whom  had  yet  returned — was  read  by  the  Secretary,  the 
audience  standing.  Mr.  F.  Turner  and  Dr.  C.  Hall  expressed 
the  hope  that  the   Honour  Roll  would  take  a  permanent  form — 


NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS.  713 

a  matter  that  lias  not  been  overlooked,  but,  at  present,  the  records 
available  are  incomplete. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Campbell,  Hon.  Treasurer,  said  that,  as  tlie  only 
way  open  to  the  Society  in  its  corporate  capacity,  to  help  the 
cause  of  the  Allies,  it  had  subscribed  to  all  the  War  Loans,  the 
total  amount  beins:  £37,000. 


The  President  reminded  Candidates  for  four  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellowships,  1919-20,  that  the  30th  inst.  was  the  last  day  on 
which  applications  would  be  received. 

The  Donations  and  Exchanges  received  since  the  previous 
Monthly  Meeting  (October  30th,  1918),  amounting  to  3  Vols., 
38  Parts  or  Nos.,  7  Bulletins,  1  Rt^port,  and  i  Pamphlets,  received 
from  33  Societies,  etc.,  and  one  private  donor,  were  laid  upon  the 
table. 

NOTES    AMD    EXHIBITS. 

Mr.  Fred  Turner  exhibited  a  teratological  specimen  of  the 
European  Plantago  lanceolata  Linn.,  from  Chatswood,  in  which 
all  the  spikes  or  heads  had  developed  a  number  of  secondary 
spikes,  in  a  way  that  he  had  not  previously  observed  in  this 
species  in  Australia. 

Mr.  E.  Cheel  exhibited  a  species  of  Callisf*'inon  pachyphylhi.^ 
showing  the  delayed  dehiscence  of  the  fruits,  corresponding,  to  a 
certain  extent,  to  those  of  C.  rigidus  described  by  Professor  A. 
J.  Ewart  (Annals  of  Botany,  xxi.,  p.  135,  1907).  The  specimen 
exhibited  was  taken  from  a  plant  cultivated  at  Ashfield,  and  is 
7  feet  long.  It  was  originally  raised  from  seed  collected  at 
Bullahdelah,  in  August,  1911.  The  seed  was  sown  on  29th 
October,  1912,  germinated  on  6th  November,  1912,  and  the  plant 
flowered  for  the  first  time  in  October,  1914,  but  no  fruits  were 
set.  In  October,  1915,  it  flowered  for  the  second  time,  and 
several  fruits  set;  these,  in  October,  1918,  were  apparently  fully 
developed,  and  measured  5  mm.  in  diameter.  In  October,  1916, 
the  plant  flowered  for  the  third  time,  and  again  in  April  of  the 
same  year;  the  individual  fruits  of  both  of  these  clusters  measure 

50 


714  NOTES    AND    EXHIBITS. 

from  7  to  9  mm.  in  diameter.  In  October,  1917,  a  normal  crop 
of  flowers  was  produced;  and  a  few  spikes  appeared  in  December, 
and  again  in  April  of  the  same  year,  so  that  there  were  three 
flowering-periods.  In  October,  1918,  the  plant  had  a  profusion 
of  spikes,  and  a  branch  (exhibited)  was  cut  below  the  fruiting- 
spike  of  1915.  It  will  be  seen  from  this,  that  the  fruits  were 
normally  delayed  for  three  years;  and  those  of  1916  for  two 
years,  as  the  valves  were  unopened;  but,  ten  days  after  the 
branch  was  cut,  the  seeds  freely  escaped,  and  some  of  them, 
when  sown,  readily  germinated.  The  fruits  of  the  October,  De- 
cember, and  April  (1917)  flowers  were  not  sufticiently  matured, 
as  no  seeds  have  fallen  from  the  fruits.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  character  of  the  delayed  dehiscence  is  similar  in  all 
species  of  Callistemon,  except  C.  viminalis,  in  which  species  the 
fruits  are  fully  developed  about  ten  months  after  the  flowering- 
period;  and  the  seeds  germinate  freely  as  soon  as  the  twigs  are 
cut,  and  the  seeds  liberated.  Prof.  Ewart's  observations  were 
made  in  connection  with  C.  rigid^is,  cultivated  in  Melbourne;  but, 
so  far  as  the  exhibitor  knew,  C.  rigidus  is  confined  to  the  Port 
Jackson  district,  and  is  not  a  native  of  West  Australia,  as  stated 
by  Prof.  Ewart. 


15 


DESCRIPTIONS   OF  NEW  SPECIES   OF  AUSTRALIAN 
COLEOPTERA.     Part  xiv. 

By  Arthur  M.  Lea,  F.E.S. 

LUCANID^. 

LiSSOTES    C4RAMMICUS,   11. Sp. 

(J.  Black,  shining;  parts  of  appendages  obscurely  diluted  with 
red.  Sides  and  undersurface  very  sparsely  clothed,  the  legs 
moderately  setose. 

Head  gently  and  almost  evenly  convex,  a  fairly  large  notch  on 
each  side,  front  incurved  to  middle  and  almost  impunctate;  with 
large,  round,  dense  punctures  at  sides  and  about  eyes,  becoming 
smaller  towards  middle  of  base.  Mandibles  not  very  large  and 
almost  simple.  Eyes  small,  round,  completely  enclosed,  and  four 
in  number,  the  lower  ones  slightly  smaller  than  the  others. 
Antennje  with  three  apical  joints  moderately  large,  the  apical 
one  truncated.  Prothorax  with  sides  and  base  margined,  sides 
lightly  sinuous,  dilated  to  near  apex;  with  large,  round,  dense 
punctures  on  sides,  becoming  smaller  towards  middle,  the  middle 
itself  almost  impunctate  and  evenly  convex.  Elytra  scarcely 
longer  than  head  (including  mandibles)  and  prothorax  combined; 
each  with  four,  rather  wide,  shining,  impunctate  lines  from  base 
to  beyond  the  middle,  elsewhere  with  crowded  and  comparatively 
small  punctures,  but  a  few  larger  ones  at  sides  of  the  smooth 
lines  Front  tihice  with  two,  strong,  obtuse,  apical  teeth,  and 
three  smaller  and  still  more  obtuse  ones.     Length,  16  mm. 

ffab.~New  South  Wales:  Bodalla  (Dr.  R.  H.  Pulleine). 
Unique. 

No  other  Australian  species  of  Lissotes,  except  L.  Inteus  {which. 
by  the  figure  looks  like  a  Lissotes,  and  was  doubtfully  referred 
by  Westwood  to  Dorcus;  it  was  omitted  from  Masters'  Catalogue), 
has  been  described  as  having  four  eyes;  Westwood  regarded  the 


716  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

type  of  that  species  as  a  male,  despite  the  feminine  appearance 
of  the  mandibles:  but  it  was  described  and  figured  as  having  six 
impressed  striae  on  each  elytron;  on  the  present  species  there  are 
no  striae,  their  places  being  taken  by  smooth,  shining  lines  not 
interrupting  the  general  convexity;  there  are  also  many  other 
differences  in  the  head,  antennae,  etc.  On  account  of  its  eyes, 
the  species  should  perhaps  liave  been  referred  to  Lissapterus 
{how  lit  anus  of  that  genus  has  sometimes  been  referred  to  Lissofes), 
but  the  head  and  mandibles  are  very  different  from  those  of  the 
species  at  present  referred  to  that  genus.  The  mandibles  of  the 
type  are  touching  at  their  tips,  and  enclose  a  top-shaped  space; 
each  has  an  obtuse  swelling  about  the  middle  of  the  upper 
surface,  and  is  obtusely  bicuspidate  at  the  apex. 

SCARAB^ID^. 

LiPARETRUS    MA.TORINUS,   n.Sp. 

Black,  shining;  elytra  and  appendages  reddish-castaneous. 
Front  of  head,  pronotum  (including  disc),  and  elytra  at  base  and 
near  suture,  with  rather  long,  erect,  and  rather  sparse  whitish 
hair;  undersurface,  hind-parts,  and  legs  with  dense  clothing. 

Head  wntli  crowded  (but  not  confluent)  and  not  very  large 
punctures,  becoming  larger  and  sparser  on  clypeus,  sides  of  the 
latter  conspicuously  narrowed  and  sinuous  to  apex,  which  is 
evenly  and  moderately  incurved  to  middle.  Antennae  nine- 
jointed.  Prothorax  with  strongly  rounded  sides,  hind  angles 
rounded  off,  front  ones  produced  and  acute,  median  line  vague 
and  traceable  only  towards  base;  punctures  of  somewhat  uneven 
size,  but  mostly  rather  large,  and  not  very  crowded.  Elytra 
with  punctures  moderately  large,  becoming  smaller  and  more 
crowded  posteriorly,  geminate  striae  feebly  defined.  Hind-parts 
with  rather  dense  punctures,  smaller  and  denser  on  propygidium 
than  on  pygidium.  Front  tibicB  strongly  and  obtusely  tridentate; 
hind  tarsi  with  basal  joint  distinctly  shorter  than  second. 
Length,  9  mm.  • 

Hah. — Queensland  (unique). 

The  erect  pilosity  is  continued  on  to  the  elytra  from  the  pro- 
notum, but  is  not  very  don.se  there;  regarding  the  species,  how- 


BY    A.    M.    r.£A.  717 

ever,  as  belonging  to  Group  1,  of  Blackburn's  Tal)le,*  it  would  be 
associated  with  L.  fuh-ohirtus,  from  wliicb  it  differs  in  being 
larger,  with  the  prothoracic  punctures  considerably  larger,  and 
the  surface  more  shining:  regarding  it  as  belonging  to  Group  2, 
it  would  not  fit  into  either  F  or  F¥,  as  the  clypeus  is  neither 
truncate  nor  rounded  in  front.  It  is  larger  than  any  previously 
described  black  species  with  red  elytra  from  Queensland.  Some 
parts  of  the  pronotum  are  very  obscurely  diluted  with  red;  the 
elytra  of  the  type  are  without  a  membranous  fringe. 

LiPARETRUS    ACUTANGULUS,  n.sp. 

(J.  Black:  elytra  (base  narrowly  black),  hind-parts  and  append- 
ages (most  of  femora  excepted)  bright  reddish-castaneous. 
Undersurface  and  legs  with  long,  pale  hair,  a  fringe  of  similar 
hair  on  each  side  of  prothorax,  but  becoming  darker  in  front, 
rest  of  upper  surface  glabrous. 

Head  with  rather  small  and  crowded,  but  not  confluent  punc- 
tures, becoming  larger  and  less  crowded  on  clypeus;  sides  of 
clypeus  lightly  elevated  and  strongly  narrowed,  apex  strongly 
elevated,  lightly  emarginate  and  acutely  produced  at  sides. 
Antennae  nine-jointed.  Prothorax  with  sides  strongly  rounded, 
hind  angles  widely  rounded  off,  front  ones  acute  and  produced, 
median  line  very  feeble;  with  dense  and  sharply  defined  but 
rather  small  punctures,  less  numerous  along  middle  than  else- 
where. Elytra  with  fairly  large  punctures,  becoming  crowded 
towards  sides  and  smaller  posteriorly;  geminate-stria?  well-de- 
fined. I/ind-parts  with  punctures  as  on  pronotum.  Front  tibice 
strongly  but  obtusely  tridentate;  front  tarsi  rather  thick,  basal 
joint  keeled  internally,  claws  thickened  at  base;  hind  tarsi  with 
first  joint  conspicuously  shorter  than  second.     Length,  7-7|  mm. 

^.  Difters  in  having  the  clypeus  short,  truncate  in  front,  with 
the  sides  not  produced,  abdomen  more  convex,  legs  shorter,  and 
front  tarsi  thinner. 

i^a6.  —  Queensland  :  Brisbane  (T.  McGregor). 

Belongs  to  Blackburn's  Group  4,  and  there  would  be  referred 
to  JJ,   but   the  median   line   of   the  pronotum,  although   faii'ly 

*  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  S.  Aust.  1905,  pp, 287-296. 


718  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

distinct,  is  feeble  even  at  the  base;  but  regarding  it  as  belonging 
to  K,  it  would  be  associated  with  L  incerius^  from  which  it 
differs  in  the  acutangular  clypeus  of  the  male,  larger  punctures 
of  pronotum,  and  glabrous  hind-parts;  if  referred  to  KK,  it 
would  be  readily  distinguished  from  L.  vicarius  by  the  clypeus. 
Its  front  tarsi  and  clypeus  are  much  as  in  L.  phodyiicopterus,  of 
Group  1  (with  which  it  would  be  associated  in  Macleay's  system), 
but  which  has  very  different  clothing.  On  the  male,  the  club 
is  slightly  infuscated;  on  the  female,  it  is  no  darker  than  the  rest 
of  the  antennae;  on  the  female  also,  the  whole  of  the  abdomen 
and  legs  are  reddish;  on  the  male,  manv  of  the  elytral  punctures 
are  transversely  confluent  towards  the  sides,  but,  on  the  female, 
this  appearance  is  less  evident.  On  both  specimens,  there  are  a 
few  hairs  at  the  tip  of  the  pygidium,  but,  except  for  these,  the 
hind  parts  are  quite  glabrous;  both  specimens  are  without  a 
membrane  at  the  apex  of  the  elytra. 

LiPARETRUS    MIXTUS,   n.Sp. 

(J.  Black;  elytra  and  appendages  (parts  of  the  legs  deeply  in- 
fuscated) bright  castaneous.  Undersurface  with  long,  pale  hairs, 
a  fringe  of  similar  (but  darker)  hair  on  each  side  of  pronotum; 
hind-parts  with  short,  dense,  erect  set;e  in  addition  to  long  hair. 

Head  with  rather  small,  crowded,  and  more  or  less  transversely- 
confluent  punctures,  becoming  sparser,  non-confluent,  and  slightly 
larger  on  clypeus;  clypeus  with  sides  moderately  elevated, 
strongly  decreasing  and  incurved  to  apex,  apex  rather  strongly 
but  obtusely  tridentate.  Antenna?  nine-jointed.  Prothorax 
with  sides  rounded  and  rather  strongly  produced  towards  base, 
hind  angles  widely  rounded  off,  front  ones  slightly  produced 
and  somewhat  acute,  median  line  feeble;  punctures  small  and 
rather  sparse,  but  more  numerous  towards  sides  and  front  angles. 
Elytra  with  punctures  of  moderate  size  and  not  very  numerous; 
geminate-strite  fairly  well-defined.  Uiiid-parts  with  dense  sub- 
asperate  punctures  of  moderate  size.  Front  tibicB  strongly  and 
acutely  tridentate;  basal  joint  of  hind  tarsi  slightly  shorter  than 
second.     Length,  6  mm. 

Hah. — New  South  Wales  (unique). 


6Y    A.    Jt.    LEA.  719 

At  first  glance,  the  second  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  appears  to 
be  distinctly  longer  than  the  first,  but  in  reality  it  is  very  little 
longer.  Regarding  the  species  as  belonging  to  Blackburn's 
Group  4,  it  would  be  associated  with  L.  dii<tans^  which  is  a  much 
larger  species  with  all  parts  more  or  less  reddish;  if  not  to  Group 
4,  it  could  only  be  referred  to  Group  7,  and  there  associated  with 
L.  iridipeiiiiis,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  bright  red  elytra  and 
clothing  of  hind  parts  (the  setae  of  these  are  very  short  and 
partially  concealed  by  the  hairs,  but  they  are  very  distinct  from 
the  sides):  each  lateral  fringe  of  the  pronotum  is  partly  pale  and 
partly  dark,  and  although  Blackburn  tabulated  Z.  iridipeniiis 
as  having  the  fringe  whitish,  it  is  almost  as  often  dark  or  partly 
dark  as  whitish;  at  first  glance,  it  appears  to  be  close  to  L. 
perkinsi  of  Group  10,  but  the  clypeus  has  less  acutely  projecting 
teeth  (the  type  is  certainly  a  male),  and  the  hind  parts  are 
densely  clothed;  L.  hihiherculatus  (also  of  Group  10)  also  differs 
in  the  hind  parts  and  in  the  considerably  longer  basal  joint  of 
hind  tarsi.  Most  of  the  upper  surface  is  brightly  iridescent;  the 
femora  are  almost  black;  the  elytra  (of  the  type)  are  without  an 
apical  membrane. 

LiPARETRUS    INTERMEDIUS,  n.Sp. 

^.  Black;  elytra  (except  for  a  narrow  space  at  base),  most  of 
tarsi,  parts  of  front  tibiae,  antenna)  and  tarsi,  more  or  less 
castaneous.     With  long  hair  on  most  parts,  but  elytra  glabrous 

Head  with  crowded  and  small  punctures,  but  a  few  of  larger 
size  scattered  about;  clypeus  with  sparser  punctures  than  between 
eyes,  and  smaller  than  the  large  ones  there;  sides  moderately 
elevated  and  decreasing  (with  curved  outlines)  to  apex,  which  is 
strongly  but  obtusely  tridentate.  Antenna?  nine-jointed.  Pro- 
thorax  with  sides  strongly  rounded,  hind  angles  widely  rounded 
off",  front  ones  subacute  and  scarcely  separately  produced;  with 
comparatively  large  and  not  very  dense  punctures,  mixed  with 
smaller  ones;  median  line  represented  by  a  feeble  basal  depression 
only.  Elytra  with  not  very  dense  punctures,  no  larger  than  the 
larger  ones  on  pronotum,  and  becoming  smaller  and  more  crowded 
on  sides ;  geminate-striaj  fairly  well-defined.     Hind-parts  with 


720  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

rather  dense  punctures,  slightly  larger  on  pygidiurn  (where  they 
are  as  large  as  on  pronotuni)  than  on  propygidiuni.  Front  tibUn 
strongly  tridentate;  basal  joint  of  hind  tarsi  distinctly  longer 
than  second.     Length,  7  mm. 

Ilab.  —  Queensland  :  Cunnamulla  (H.  Hardcastlei;  unique. 

Belongs  to  Group  8,  of  Blackburn's  Table,  but  could  hardly  be 
associated  with  L  h-identaius,  as  tlie  clypeal  teeth  are  much  less 
acute  and  less  produced:  it  differs  from  that  species  also  in  the 
clothing  of  the  pronotum  being  quite  as  dense  at  the  base  as  in 
front,  and  in  the  clothing  of  the  pygidium;  the  punctures  of  the 
pronotum  are  also  sparser  and  considerably  larger.  The  clothing 
of  the  head  and  base  of  prothorax  is  much  paler  than  on  most 
of  the  prothorax,  where  it  is  black  or  blackish  (it  is  uniformly 
coloured  on  Z.  pa7'tn(i ens  a.nd  L.  ohhisideiis)]  irom  L.  parvideits  h 
differs  also  in  having  the  clypeus  more  conspicuously  tridentate 
(both  sexes  of  that  species  are  before  me),  and  from  L.  obtusidens 
in  having  rather  larger  punctures  (on  the  elytra  as  well  as  on 
other  parts).  The  antennae  are  paler  than  the  other  reddish 
parts,  but  the  outer  parts  of  the  club  are  lightly  infuscated.  The 
elytra  are  terminated  by  an  extremely  short  membrane. 

LiPARETRUS    QUINQUELOBATUS,    n.Sp. 

(J.  Black;  elytra,  antennye  and  palpi  bright  flavo-castaneous, 
legs  of  a  darker  red.  Sterna  with  rather  long  pale  hair,  abdomen 
sparsely  clothed,  clypeus  with  a  few  hairs,  a  pale  fringe  on  each 
side  of  pronotum.  and  extended  on  to  sides  of  front  margin,  rest 
of  upper  surface  glabrous. 

Head  with  crowded  and  small,  non-contluent  punctures,  an 
irregular  row  of  larger  ones  near  clypeal  suture;  clypeus  with 
sparser  and  larger  punctures  than  between  eyes,  sides  strongly 
narrowed  and  suddenly  incurved  near  apex,  which  is  strongly 
and  acutely  tridentate.  Antenn<v?  nine-jointed.  Prothorax  with 
sides  strongly  rounded,  hind  angles  widely  rounded  off,  the  front 
ones  acute,  median  line  shallow:  with  dense  and  sharply  defined 
but  rather  small  punctures.  Elytra  with  rather  sparse  punc- 
tures of  moderate  size,  becoming  smaller  and  denser  at  the  sides 
and  apex;  geminate-stria?  well-defined,  apical  membrane  narrow 


BY    A.    M.    LEA.  7^1 

but  conspicuous,  lluid-parts  with  dense  punctures,  much  as  on 
pronotuni,  but  a  few  of  larger  size  scatteretl  about.  Front  tibui^ 
strongly  but  obtusely  tridentate:  basal  joint  of  bind  tarsi  con- 
spicuously longer  than  second.      Length,  8-8 1  nnn. 

Ilab.  —  Queensland:  Cloncurry(H.  Hacker). 

In  Blackburn's  Table,  would  be  associated  with  L.  perkinsi, 
but  ditfers  from  that  species  in  being  much  larger,  non-iridescent, 
prothoracic  punctures  considerably  larger  and  niore  sharply 
defined,  and  elytral  punctures  larger.  L.  trideiUahis,  which  has 
a  sornewhit  similar  clypeus  and  is  similarly  coloured,  has  the 
front  half  of  the  pronotum  densely  clothed;  from  L.  inifirmedius, 
it  differs  in  being  larger,  clypeus  strongly  incurved  before  the 
apical  teeth,  prothorax  glabrous  on  disc,  and  with  smaller  and 
much  denser  punctures,  elytra  entirely  pale,  etc.  The  clypeus  is 
conspicuously  tridentate  in  front,  but  the  sides  near  the  apex  are 
strongly  incurved,  so  that,  when  viewed  obliquely  from  behind, 
it  appears  to  consist  of  five  almost  equal  lobes;  immediately 
behind  its  suture,  the  surface  is  shining  and  sparsely  punctate, 
with  large  punctures  marking  the  position  where  the  sparse  and 
dense  punctures  meet.  On  the  two  specimens  before  me,  the 
hind  parts  are  entirely  glabrous,  except  for  a  few  hairs  on  the 
pygidium. 

Haplonycha  coi.ossa,  n.sp. 

Bright  reddish-castaneous,  elytra  paler.  Undersurface  and 
legs  with  dense,  golden  hairs,  a  few  similar  hairs  at  sides  of  eves, 
and  forming  a  thin  row  in  each  lateral  gutter  of  pronotum;  mem- 
branous fringes  of  elytra  very  short;  pygidium  glabrous. 

Head  with  rather  small  but  sharply  defined  punctures,  becom- 
ing somewhat  larger  and  more  numerous  (but  not  confluent) 
about  clypeal  suture ;  front  face  of  clypeus  with  numerous 
setiferous  punctures  on  sides,  but  aetse  confined  to  a  single  row 
across  middle.  Antenna?  with  fourth  joint  slightly  longer  than 
third,  the  five  following  joints  forming  a  club.  Maxillary  palpi 
rather  long,  penultimate  joint  slightly  longer  than  antepenulti- 
mate, and  scarcely  shorter  than  apical,  Prothorax  more  than 
thrice  as  wide  as  long,  sides  rather  strongly  rounded  and  feeblv 
arcuate  to  base  and  apex,  front  angles  somewhat  produced,  hind 


722  NEW  specik:s  of  Australian  coleoptera,  xiv., 

ones  obtuse  and  not  completely  rounded  off;  with  rather  small 
but  distinct  punctures,  sparser  in  middle  than  elsewhere.  Elytra 
moderately  dilated  to  about  the  middle:  punctures  fairly  numer 
ous,  except  between  the  geminate  strite  (these  very  close  together); 
suture  very  feebly  mucronate.  Fygidium  shining,  lightly  con- 
vex; with  rather  small,  scattered  punctures.  Basal  joint  of  hind 
ta7'si  distinctly  shorter  than  second.      Length,  32  mm. 

Hab.  — Western  Australia. 

I  have  had  the  type  for  many  years  under  the  name  of  H. 
gigmitea,  but  although  looking  like  a  large  specimen  of  that 
species,  it  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  the  maxillary  palpi: 
on  ff.  gigaiitea,  the  antepenultimate  joint  is  slightly  longer  than 
the  penultimate,  hence  Blackburn  referred  it  to  his  Group  5. 
On  the  present  species,  the  penultimate  is  slightly  the  longer, 
hence  the  species  must  be  referred  to  CC,  of  his  Group  4,  and 
there  associated  with  N.  nobilis,  from  which  it  differs  in  having 
the  prothorax  more  transverse,  and  the  fifth  joint  of  the  antennae 
(instead  of  the  sixth)  the  first  of  the  club.  The  rami  of  the  club 
are  decidedly  long,  but  as  that  of  its  first  joint  is  only  about  half 
the  length  of  the  second,  the  type  appears  to  be  a  male.  From 
some  directions,  the  pronotum  appears  to  have  a  fine,  iridescent 
bloom. 

Nova  PUS  parvus,  n.sp. 

(J.  Keddish-brown,  head  and  parts  of  legs  black.  Under- 
surface,  legs,  and  upper  part  of  pygidium  with  dense,  rusty-red 
hair,  upper  surface  glabrous. 

Head  with  crowded  and  irregular  punctures:  with  a  sharp, 
short,  oblique,  simple  horn.  Antennae  ten-,  club  three-jointed. 
Prothorax  about  one-fourth  wider  than  long,  hind  angles  rounded 
off,  front  ones  produced  and  acute,  with  a  large  discal  excavation, 
its  front  part  with  transverse  sculpture;  with  punctures  of 
moderate  size,  but  very  irregularly  distributed.  Elytra  with 
sutural  and  lateral  striie  well-defined,  but  the  others  represented 
by  feeble  depressions  or  oblique  scratches;  punctures  small  and 
sparse,  but  becoming  immerous  at  apex  and  sides.  Pygidiiiin 
with  numerous  rather  small  punctures,  becoming  larger  and 
crowded  at  base.     Length,  15  mm. 


6y  a.  m.  lea.  723 

Hab.  —  Western  Australia:  Swan  River  (A.  M.  Lea);  unique. 

Much  smaller  than  any  previously  described  species,  with  the 
prothoracic  excavation  unusually  small  and  shallow  (it  scarcely 
occupies  one-third  of  the  width  of  the  prothorax),  and  the 
cephalic  horn  very  small  and  simple  (scarcely  half  the  length  of 
that  of  N.  simplex).  At  first  glance,  the  type  bears  a  strong 
superficial  resemblance  to  the  males  of  Isodon  pecuarius,  but  the 
horn  is  on  the  head,  not  on  the  prothorax. 

Cryptodus  aberrans,  n.sp. 

Black,  not  very  highly  polished  (the  elytra  subopaque;,  parts 
of  undersurface  and  of  legs  obscurely  diluted  with  red,  club  of 
antennae  paler.  Upper  surface  almost  glabrous,  undersurface 
sparsely  and  irregularly  clothed,  pygidium  with  a  few  short  set?e. 

Head  with  rather  large  but  not  very  dense  punctures;  clypeus 
with  front  margin  rather  strongly  elevated  and  truncate,  lateral 
inargins  lightly  elevated  and  oblique,  suture  well  defined  towards 
sides  but  obsolete  in  middle,  where  the  surface  is  slightly  elevated; 
iiientum  large,  with  large,  shallow  punctures,  depressed  in  front, 
base  rather  lightly  notched,  with  a  few  setfe  and  long  bristles. 
Antenna?  apparently  nine-jointed,  club  three-jointed.  Prothorax 
rather  strongly  convex,  about  once  and  one-half  as  wide  as  long, 
sides  strongly  rounded,  base  bisinuate,  front  angles  obtusely  pro- 
duced, the  hind  ones  rounded  ofl:*,  median  line  rather  vague;  with 
fairly  large  but  nowhere  crowded  punctures.  Elyti-a  at  base  the 
width  of  prothorax,  slightly  dilated  to  beyond  the  middle;  surface 
finely  shagreened,  with  well-defined  rows  of  fairly  large  punc- 
tures towards  suture,  but  becoming  smaller  and  irregular  towards 
side  and  apex.  Pygidium  with  fairly  large  but  rather  shallow 
punctures.  Four  hind  tihicH  strongly  serrate  or  digitate  at  apex, 
each  notch  with  a  seta;  front  claws  simple.      Length,  11  mm. 

Hah. — Northern  Territory:  Darwin  (N.  Davies);  unique. 

In  its  comparatively  small  size,  convex  body,  and  general 
appearance,  the  present  species  certainly  does  not  look  a 
CryjHodus;*  but  the  wide  mentum  concealing  all  the  mouth-parts 

*  Neither  does  C.  yrossipes,  at  first  glance,  appear  to  belong  to  the  genus, 
but  its  remarkable  mentum  is  almost  exactly  as  in  C.  caviceps,  which  is 
quite  an  ordinary  species  of  Cryptoda-^. 


724  NEW    SPKCIES    OF    AUSTKALIAX    CoLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

is  like  tliat  of  Cryptodus,  and  utterly  different  from  that  of  any 
otiier  Australian  genus  of  Dynastides:  the  projection  in  front 
of  the  prosternuni,  and  the  triangularly  dilated  liasal.  joint  of  the 
antennae  are  also  as  in  Cryptodas\  the  four  hind-tihiie  are  digitate 
instead  of  truncate  at  apex,  and  are  certainly  not  fringed  with 
setse  (as  on  normal  Dynastid'is),  but,  at  the  base  uf  each  notch, 
there  is  a  seta;  smaller  and  less  distinct  setie,  however,  are  pre 
sent  on  several  other  species  of  Cryptodus  (e.g.,  C.  tasmaaiamis)^ 
although  they  need  to  be  closely  looked  for.  The  base  of  the 
mentum  is  less  deeply  notched  than  is  usual  in  those  having  it 
notched,  in  this  respect  agreeing  with  6'.  gly(f'S:  in  C.  tasmanianus, 
it  is  truncate:  and,  in  C.  carioeps  and  C.  grosslpes,  it  has  a  long 
and  almost  vertical  process  ;  the  apex  of  the  basal  joint  of 
antennae  is  less  conspicuously  produced  over  the  following  joints 
than  is  usual  in  the  genus,  but,  from  some  directions,  it  entirely 
conceals  the  two  following  joints.  The  elytra,  at  first  glance, 
appear  to  be  glabrous,  but,  on  close  examination,  some  very  fine 
setie  become  visiVjle;  there  are  three  or  four  interstices  on  each 
elytron  slightly  more  prominent  than  the  others,  but  not  one  is 
conspicuously  elevated.  The  sex  of  the  type  is  doubtful,  as  many 
males  of  Cryjytodus  have  the  front  claws  simple. 

CORYNOPHYLLUS  INTEROCULARIS,  n.Sp. 

^.  Black:  antennae,  most  of  legs  and  of  undersurface  more  or 
less  castaneous-brown.  Undersurface  and  legs  with  rather 
dense,  rusty-red  hair;  upper  surface  and  pygidium  glabrous. 

Head  concave,  and  with  irregular  (but  not  very  dense)  trans- 
versely-contluent  punctures  between  eyes  ;  clypeus  moderately 
long,  punctures  more  or  less  confluent,  apex  and  sides  rather 
strongly  elevated,  basal  carina  strongly  elevated  (sub-tuberculate) 
in  middle;  mentum  gently  convex.  Antennae  ten-,  cluV)  three- 
jointed,  rami  large,  about  as  long  as  head  is  wide.  Prothorax 
not  twice  as  wide  as  long,  sides  strongly  rounded,  apex  bisinuate, 
front  angles  produced,  hind  ones  rounded  off',  a  rather  small 
excavation  in  front,  the  middle  of  its  front  margin  with  a  small 
tubercle,  basal  gutter  distinct  at  sides,  but  not  traceable  across 
middle;  with  small  and  sparse  punctures,  becoming  more  numer- 


BY    A.    M.    LKA.  725 

ous  on  sides  and  larger  in  excavation.  Elytra  the  width  of  pro- 
thorax;  with  irregular  rows  of  large  punctures  in  distinct  striae, 
hut  becoming  very  irregular  about  apex.  Pygidinm  with  vario- 
lose  punctures,  almost  absent  along  middle,  but  crowded  in  upper 
corners.  Spurs  of  hind  tibice  stout,  and  very  unequal.  Lengtii, 
15|-17  mm. 

Hab.  —  ^ew  South  Wales  (Dr.  E.  AV.  Ferguson),  Jenolan  (J. 
C.  Wiburd). 

With  the  general  outlines  of  C.  modestus,  but  elytra  dark  and 
club  of  antennse  considerably  smaller  than  in  the  male  (although 
much  larger  than  in  the  female);  from  the  dark  form  of  C.  fvrf- 
numi,  it  is  at  once  distinguished  by  the  very  different  clypeus 
and  single  cephalic  elevation;  C.  andersoni  has  the  clypeus  dif- 
ferent, and  the  club  much  larger.  One  of  the  specimens  before 
me  has  the  upper  surface  entirely  deep  black,  but,  on  the  other, 
it  is  obscurely  diluted  with  red;  on  the  latter  specimen,  the 
clypeus  is  distinctly  bilobed  in  front,  but,  on  the  other,  it  is 
almost  simple  there.     Some  of  the  elytral  stria^  are  irregularly 


EUCNEMID^. 

MiCRORHAGUS    RUFICOLLIS,  n.sp. 

Black  ;  prothorax  and  legs  red,  tarsi  paler,  antennse  dull 
piceous-brown,  the  two  basal  joints  somewhat  brightei-.  Some- 
what irregularly  clothed  with  depressed,  more  or  less  stramineous 
pubescence. 

Head  with  dense,  partially  concealed  punctures;  with  a  fine 
transverse  carina  near  the  base,  and  a  very  feeble  longitudinal 
one  near  each  eye;  these  large  and  prominent.  Antennae  long 
and  thin,  second  joint  very  short,  third  slightly  shorter  than 
first,  and  slightly  longer  than  fourth,  fourth  to  sixth  somewhat 
wider  than  the  others,  fourth  to  tenth  slightly  produced  on  one 
side  at  apex,  eleventh  very  thin,  and  conspicuously  longer  than 
tenth.  Prothorax  at  base  almost  twice  as  wide  as  the  median 
length,  front  angles  rounded,  hind  ones  strongly  produced  and 
acutely  carinated:  front  margin  carinated,  the  carina  on  each 
side  with  a  short  spur  extended  towards  but  not  meeting  the  one 


726  NEW    SPKCIKS    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

on  the  basal  angle ;  with  a  vaguely  impressed  median  line, 
becoming  carinated  at  base;  punctures  moderately  dense.  Elytra 
parallel-sided  from  near  shoulders  almost  to  apex;  with  punctures 
of  moderate  size  about  base,  becoming  smaller  posteriorly,  but 
about  tip  decidedly  coarse.     Length,  3  J  mm. 

ZTaS.— N.S.W. :  National  Park  (A.  M.  Lea);  unique. 

The  second  joint  of  antenna^  has  a  curious  appearance  as  of 
being  forced  out  of  alignment.  The  elytral  punctures  are  more 
or  less  lineate  in  arrangement,  but  not  placed  in  stride,  the 
sutural  stria  (and  that  only  from  about  the  middle)  is  the  only 
distinct  one  on  each  elytron;  elsewhere  there  are  but  vague 
remnants  of  striation,  or  none  at  all.  The  prosternal  sulci  are 
deep,  parallel-sided  to  near  the  base,  and  somewhat  narrower  than 
the  propleural  parallelograms,  which  are  about  once  and  one-half 
as  long  as  their  basal  width. 

Hemiopsida  longicornis,  n.sp. 

Dull  castaneous-brown;  head,  basal  joint  of  antennae,  junction 
of  prothorax  and  elytra,  sterna,  and  hind  coxse,  black  or  blackish. 
Rather  densely  clothed  with  moderately  long,  stramineous 
pubescence. 

Head  densely  granulate  punctate;  with  a  subfoveate  impres- 
sion between  antennary  sockets;  clypeus  widely  depressed  in 
middle.  Antennae  long,  slightly  passing  elytra,  second  joint 
very  short,  third  slightly  longer  than  first  and  distinctly  longer 
than  fourth,  fourth  slightly  shorter  than  fifth,  fifth-tenth  sub- 
equal  in  length,  eleventh  almost  as  long  as  ninth  and  tenth  com- 
bined. Prothorax  strongly  convex,  front  angles  rounded,  hind 
ones  acute  and  obliquely  produced  on  to  shoulders,  with  a  very 
feeble  median  line;  with  dense,  rugose  punctures.  Elytra  slightly 
wider  than  hind  angles  of  prothorax,  parallel-sided  to  beyond 
the  middle;  with  rather  dense  and  irregular,  but  sharply  defined 
punctures,  becoming  crowded  about  base;  striation  well-defined 
throughout,  but  especially  on  apical  fifth.  Abdomen  with  a  deep, 
conspicuous,  hairy  depression  on  each  side  of  middle,  extending 
from  tip  of  first  segment  to  tip  of  fourth.     Length,  6-6^  mm. 

Hah. — Queensland:  Mount  Tambourine  (H.  Hacker's  No.895). 


BY    A.    M.    F.EA.  727 

Readily  distinguished  from  all  other  species,  except  H. 
ventralis,  by  the  abdominal  depressions;  the  antennae  are  also  of 
unusual  length;  H.  ventralis  has  the  abdominal  depressions  com- 
mencing nearer  the  base  of  the  first  segment,  and  not  continued 
beyond  the  third,  and  its  antennae  are  shorter  and  more  con- 
spicuously (although  not  strongly)  serrated. 

Dyscolocerus  porosus,  n.sp. 

(J.  Black;  undersurface,  antennae,  and  legs  obscurely  reddish. 
With  very  short  pubescence. 

Head  with  crowded  punctures,  with  a  very  feeble  depression 
on  clypeus.  Antennae  rather  stout,  eight  basal  joints  densely 
punctate,  second  joint  slightly  longer  than  fourth,  third  slightly 
longer  than  two  following  combined,  fourth  to  eighth  equal  and 
strongly  transverse,  ninth  about  as  long  as  three  following  joints 
combined,  and  conspicuously  wider,  slightly  longer  and  wider 
than  tenth  and  much  shorter  and  distinctly  wider  than  eleventh, 
three  apical  joints  as  long  as  the  seven  preceding  combined. 
Prothorax  with  sides  rather  strongly  rounded  in  front,  hind 
angles  acute,  with  the  outer  side  of  each  somewhat  oblique, 
median  line  rather  shallow  but  well-defined;  with  crowded  punc- 
tures of  moderate  size.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to  beyond  the 
middle;  punctures  at  base  as  on  prothorax,  becoming  somewhat 
smaller,  but  almost  as  crowded  posteriorly;  striation  well-defined 
throughout,  becoming  deep  posteriorly.     Length  {$<^),  7-1 1mm. 

9.  Diifers  in  being  slightly  more  robust,  antennae  shorter,  the 
three  terminal  joints  distinctly  shorter  than  the  seven  preceding 
combined,  the  ninth  scarcely  shorter  than  the  eleventh,  and  the 
fourth-eighth  not  transverse. 

Hab.     N.S.  W.:  Forest  Reefs.— W.  A.:  Swan  River  (A.  M.  Lea). 

The  antennae  and  sterna  are  somewhat  darker  than  the  abdo- 
men and  legs,  but  no  parts  are  conspicuously  reddish;  the  front 
of  the  prothorax  of  several  specimens  is  very  obscurely  diluted 
with  red.  The  pubescence  of  the  upper  surface  is  black  and 
very  short,  but  on  the  head,  and  base  and  apex  of  prothorax,  it 
becomes  longer  and  greyish,  on  the  undersurface  it  is  uniformly 
pale.     On  one  specimen,  the  head  appears  to  have  a  feeble  median 


728  NEW    SPEC'IKS    OF    AUSTRAIJAN    fOLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

line,  but  it  is  quite  absent  from  the  five  others  before  me.  The 
Swan  River  specimen  has  the  sterna  and  femora  quite  black.  In 
some  respects,  the  female  is  close  to  the  description  of  Lycaon 
ater,  but  the  fourth  joint  of  the  antennse  is  no  shorter  than  the 
fifth,  and  the  prothorax  has  a  conspicuous  median  line.  The 
types  were  taken  in  cop. 

Dyscolocerus  rubriventris,  n.sp. 

(J.  Black  ;  abdomen  and  legs  bright  red,  antennae  reddish, 
becoming  darker  towards  base,  with  the  basal  joint  black. 
Clothed  with  blackish  and  ashen  pubescence,  becoming  palei-and 
more  uniform  on  the  undersurface. 

Antenufe  with  second  joint  slightly  longer  than  fourth,  third 
slightly  longer  than  fourth  and  fifth  coml)ined,  fourth-eighth  sub- 
equal  in  length,  ninth-eleventh  as  long  as  first  seven  combined, 
ninth  slightly  wider  than  the  following  ones,  almost  as  long  as 
the  four  preceding  combined,  about  one-third  longer  than  tenth, 
and  about  two-thirds  the  length  of  eleventh.     Length,  5J-6mm. 

9.  Differs  in  having  the  fourth-eighth  joints  of  antennie  slightly 
wider  than  long,  the  ninth-eleventh  scarcely  as  long  as  the  seven 
preceding  combined,  and  the  eleventh  very  little  longer  than  the 
ninth. 

//rtfc.—N.S.W.:  Jenolan  (J.  C.  Wiburd). 

The  description  of  the  sculpture  of  the  preceding  species, 
except  of  the  antenna?,  applies  exactly  to  the  present  species,  but 
besides  the  conspicuously  red  abdomen  (in  striking  contrast  to 
the  black  sterna)  it  differs  from  that  species  in  having  the  three 
terminal  joints  of  antennae  longer  (in  both  sexes)  and  the  fourth- 
eighth  joints  of  the  antennte  of  the  male  much  less  conspicuously 
transverse. 

DiCTYEUCNEMIS,   n.g. 

Head  moderately  large,  antennary  sockets  comparatively  small 
and  widely  separated.  Mandibles  large,  prominent,  strongly 
curved,  their  hind  outline  straight.  Antennae  thin  and  rather 
long.  Prothorax  moderately  transverse,  hind  angles  small,  pro- 
duced slightly  outwards  but  not  backwards,  and  not  embracing 
the  elytra.     Scutellum   subquadrate.       Elytra   strongly   convex, 


BY    A.    M.    LEA.  729 

distinctly  wider  than  elj^tra,  parallel-sided  to  near  apex,  epi- 
pleural  fold  narrow  but  traceable  almost  to  apex.  Prosternum 
with  propleural  triangles  each  with  a  narrow  carina  internally, 
and  a  still  finer  one  externally,  the  two  touching  the  apex  at  a 
slight  distance  (about  equal  to  the  length  of  the  second  joint  of 
antennte)  from  each  other.  Metasternum  with  episterna  narrow 
and  parallel-sided.  Abdomen  with  first  .segment  at  the  side 
about  as  long  as  the  fifth  along  middle.  Legs  rather  long:  inner 
half  of  hind  coxa?  moderately  long  (about  half  the  length  of 
.second  segment  of  abdomen),  then  strongly  narrowed  to  sides; 
tarsi  moderately  long,  second,  third,  and  fourth  joints  of  exactly 
the  same  shape  but  decreasing  in  size;  claws  each  with  an  obtuse 
swelling  at  base. 

The  prothorax  is  very  aberrant  for  the  family,  but  the  com- 
bination of  entire  absence  of  a  visible  labrum,  mandibles  closely 
applied  to  the  breast  and  concealing  the  palpi  within  the  buccal 
cavity,  intercoxal  process  of  prosternum  narrow  and  received 
into  a  deep  groove  in  the  mesosternum,  and  abdomen  with  five 
segments,  forbid  its  being  placed  in  any  other  family.  The  face 
is  vaguely  suggestive  of  some  females  of  the  Rhijndoceridcc.  In 
Blackburn's  Table,  the  genus  would  be  associated  with  Lycaon 
( =  Hemiopsida),  with  some  features  of  which  it  agrees,  but  the 
base  of  the  prothorax  is  at  once  distinctive  from  that,  as  from 
all  other  Australian  genera.  There  is  nothing  at  all  approaching 
it  in  the  Plates  accompanying  Bonvouloir's  monograph.  The 
punctures  of  the  head  and  prothorax  are  remarkable.  The  ex- 
ternal face  of  the  mandibles  ^s  densely  punctate,  the  punctures 
(except  towards  the  base)  within  a  depression  enclosed  by  shining 
carinse,  which  meet  near  the  tips. 

DiCTYEUCNEMIS    MIRUS,  n.sp. 

Blackish-brown,  or  castaneous-brown,  appendages  somewhat 
paler.     With  not  very  dense,  and  very  short,  whitish  pubescence. 

Head  with  large,  shallow,  net-like  punctures,  margined  by  fine 
carinse,  and  with  the  inner  part  of  each  puncture  flat  and 
shagreened;  antennary  sockets  almost  as  far  apart  as  the  length 
of  the  three  basal  joints  of  antenna?.     Antennae  extending  almost 

56 


730  XEW    SPKCIKS    OF    AUSTKALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

to  hind  coxse,  first  joint  not  carinated,  and  slightly  longer  than 
third,  second  about  half  the  length  of  fourth,  third  about  as 
long  as  fourth  and  fifth  combined,  fifth  to  tenth  very  feebly 
decreasing  in  length,  eleventh  slightly  longer  than  tenth,  and 
about  the  length  of  ninth.  Prothorax  truncate  in  front,  front 
angles  rather  strongly  rounded,  sides  thence  feebly  undulated  to 
base,  a  transverse  impression  near  base,  marking  off  a  wide  and 
short  median  lobe,  with  vague  remnants  of  a  median  line,  aud  a 
vague  foveate  impression  on  each  side  of  middle;  punctures  as 
on  head.  Scutellwin  with  apical  half  polished  and  almost  im- 
punctate.  Elytra  about  one-fourth  wider  than  prothorax,  and 
about  five  or  six  times  as  long;  with  numerous  distinct  punctures 
and  small  round  granules,  becoming  more  crowded  about  base; 
striation  well  defined.  Frosternum  with  moderately  large  punc- 
tures, each  with  a  central  pit,  on  middle  portion,  the  propleural 
triangles  with  punctures  much  as  on  upper  surface,  but  less 
defined.  Apical  segment  of  abdomen  with  dense,  asperate  punc- 
tures, each  side  with  a  shallow  depression.  Legs  densely  asperate- 
punctate;  first  and  fifth  joints  of  tarsi  of  equal  length,  and  each 
about  as  long  as  third  and  fourth  combined.     Length,  7-lOJmm. 

Hab.—W.A.:  Mullewa  (IMiss  J.  F.  May). 

The  two  specimens  taken  by  Miss  May  are  evidently  con- 
specific,  but  the  larger  one  is  much  darker  than  the  other,  with 
some  parts  almost  or  quite  black. 

Nematodinus,  n.g. 
Head  short,  mandibles  strongly  sinuous  posteriorly,  antennary 
sockets  short  and  widely  separated.  Antennse  short,  first  and 
third  joints  long.  Prothorax  subquadrate,  entirely  concealing 
head  from  above.  Scutellum  subquadrate.  Elytra  with  an  epi- 
pleural  fold  at  apex,  and  with  suture  armed.  Prosternum  with 
a  vague  longitudinal  impression  towards  each  side,  the  impres- 
sion bounded  outwardly  by  a  fine  carina  (representing  the  pro- 
sternal  suture),  then  with  a  narrow,  almost  parallel-sided  space 
between  the  carina  and  margin  of  pronotum  (this  represented  by 
a  thin  but  not  continuous  carina).  Metasternum  elongate  ; 
episterna  very  narrow.     Abdomen  evenly  convex,  apex  evenly 


BY    A.    M.     LEA.  731 

rounded.  Legs  not  very  long;  hind  coxse  moderately  long  near 
where  they  touch,  suddenly  narrowed,  and  then  almost  parallel- 
sided  to  sides;  tarsi  thin,  fourth  joint  very  small  and  simple; 
claws  thin,  with  a  slight  basal  swelling. 

The  only  species  known  has  the  top-heavy  appearance  of 
Nematochfi  and  7ricjo7io2)hu?'us,  but  it  differs  strikingly  from 
these  genera  in  the  prosternal  sclerites,  and  in  the  tips  of  the 
abdomen  and  of  the  elytra.  Although  the  prosternal  sutures 
are  not  deeply  impressed  (they  are,  however,  almost  parallel  with 
each  other)  as  they  are  in  Microrhagus  and  Entomophthalmus, 
the  side-pieces  may  be  regarded  as  propleural  parallelograms,  as 
in  those  genera;  whilst,  in  Nematodes  and  Trigonophuriis,  the 
side-pieces  are  decided  triangles.  Tn  Blackburn's  Table,  the 
genus  would  be  associated  with  Hypoccelus,  from  which  it  is  at 
once  distinguished  by  the  elytra.  The  only  genus  at  all  ap- 
proaching it  in  the  tips  of  the  elytra  is  Galba,  with  which  it 
has  scarcely  anything  else  in  common.  In  catalogues,  it  may 
be  placed  near  Nematodes. 

NeMATODINIIS    ARMIPENNIS,   11. sp. 

Of  a  dull  castaneous  brown,  legs  and  antennae  somewhat  paler. 
Moderately  clothed  with  short,  stramineous  pubescence. 

Head  with  crowded  but  not  very  large  punctures.  Antennae 
not  passing  middle  coxae,  second  joint  very  short,  third  about  as 
long  as  the  three  following  combined,  fourth  slightly  longer  than 
wide,  fourth-tenth  subequal  in  length  but  feebly  dilated  till  the 
tenth  is  feebly  transverse,  eleventh  scarcely  wider  but  distinctly 
longer  than  tenth.  Prothorax  about  as  long  as  wide,  front 
straight  across  middle,  with  a  fine  marginal  carina  curved  at 
each  side,  and  then  continued  parallel  with  the  prosternal  suture 
till  it  obliquely  diverges  to  margin  the  hind  angle,  with  a  feeble 
medio-basal  carina,  each  side  of  base  depressed ;  densely  granulate- 
punctate.  Elytra  with  outlines  continuously  parallel  with  those 
of  prothorax  to  near  the  apex,  with  crowded  granulate-punctures 
about  base,  somewhat  sparser  elsewhere;  tips  with  an  epipleural 
fold  from  about  level  with  base  of  fifth  segment  of  abdomen, 
densely  granulate  and  each  with  an  oblique  projection  at  the 
suture;  striation  feeble. 


732  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

^«6.— Queensland:  Cape  York  (H.  Elgner).— Northern  Terri- 
tory: Darwin  (N.  Davies). 

Seen  directly  from  behind,  the  tips  of  the  elytra  appear  to 
enclose  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  and  each  to  have  a  short  semi- 
upright  process  at  the  suture.  On  one  specimen  there  is  a  con- 
spicuous carina  on  the  prosternum  extending  from  the  left  eye 
to  the  middle  of  the  intercoxal  process,  but  it  is  accidental,  as  it 
is  not  represented  on  the  right  side,  and  is  absent  from  two  other 
specimens. 

Arisocephalus,  n.g. 

Head  wide,  antennary  sockets  large  and  moderately  close 
together,  clypeus  sinuous  in  front,  its  edge  finely  carinated. 
Antennse  v^ariable.  Prothorax  moderately  transverse,  basal 
angles  not  very  long  but  acutely  carinated.  Elytra  subparallel- 
sided,  with  a  wide  epipleural  enlargement  from  base  to  hind 
coxae.  Prosternum  with  a  conspicuous  carina  marking  the  suture 
on  each  side  from  front  coxa  to  level  with  middle  of  eye,  pro- 
pleural  triangles  bounded  externally  as  well  as  internally  by  a 
conspicuous  carina.  Metasternum  with  episterna  rather  narrow 
and  parallel-sided  for  some  distance,  but  dilated  posteriorly.  Ab- 
domen with  fifth  segment  about  as  long  as  the  two  preceding  com- 
bined. Hind  coxce  (except  for  an  incurvature  at  trochanters) 
almost  parallel-sided  from  inner  to  outer  margins;  tarsi  com- 
pressed, fourth  joint  small  and  feebly  produced  on  lower  surface, 
claws  each  with  an  obtuse  basal  swelling. 

In  Blackburn's  Table,  this  genus  would  be  associated  with 
Microrhagus  and  Entomophthalmus,  but  the  propleural  triangles 
(instead  of  parallelograms)  and  prosternal  sutures  not  sulcate, 
make  it  certain  that  the  genus  is  not  even  close  to  these.  The 
tricarinated  clypeus  of  two  of  the  species  is  suggestive  of  affinity 
with  Ainsus,  but  that  genus  has  prosternal  lateral  sulci,  and 
metasternal  sulci;  the  general  outlines,  however,  and  especially 
the  head,  are  much  the  same.  The  propleural  triangles  are 
without  the  least  traces  of  longitudinal  sulci,  but  are  gently 
concave,  or  flat  throughout;  the  carina  marking  the  prosternal 
suture  touches  the  front  margin  inwards  of  the  point  where  the 
marginal  carina  touches  it,  instead  of  meeting  it  there  as  on  most 


BT    A.    M.    LEA.  733 

genera  of  the  family;  in  consequence,  the  triangles  are  not  acutely 
pointed.  The  hind  coxae  are  very  distinctive,  being  slightly 
wider  at  their  outer  than  their  inner  margins;  the  tarsi,  when 
viewed  from  the  sides,  appear  to  be  moderately  wide,  but  very 
thin  from  above  or  below.  In  A.  basalts,  the  fifth  segment  of 
the  abdomen  is  somewhat  shorter  than  in  the  other  species,  but 
its  tip  is  somewhat  produced  (although  much  less  conspicuously 
so  than  in  Neinatodes  and  IVigotiopleur^ts).  The  size  and  general 
appearance  of  all  the  species  are  suggestive  of  Cardiophorus  of 
the  Elateridcc.  Type-species,  A.Jiavipes. 
Second  joint  of  antenni^  (viewed  from  above)  distinctly  shorter 

than  tliird    flavipes. 

Second  joint  distinctly  longer  than  third. 

Elytra  entirely  reddish     rufipemiis. 

Elytra  reddish  only  about  base  hasalis. 

Arisocephalus  flavipes,  n.sp. 

Black;  extreme  apex  and  base  of  prothorax,  apex  of  scutellum, 
and  antennae  (basal  joint  darker)  reddish,  elytra  (base,  suture, 
and  sides  excepted)  and  undersurface  (parts  of  abdomen  paler) 
of  a  dingy  reddish-brown,  legs  (hind  cox£e  excepted)  flavous. 
Densely  clothed  with  short,  more  or  less  upright  pubescence, 
sooty  on  the  head  and  prothorax,  mostly  paler  elsewhere. 

Head  with  crowded  and  rather  small  punctures;  with  a  con- 
spicuous median  carina  from  near  base  almost  to  apex;  antennary 
sockets  bounded  by  a  curved  carina,  the  same  joined  in  front  to 
the  side  of  the  clypeal  margining  carina.  Antennae  extending 
to  about  hind  coxse,  second  joint  of  antennae  (as  viewed  from 
above)  somewhat  shorter  than  third,  third  distinctly  shorter 
than  fourth,  its  apex  somewhat  produced  to  one  side,  fourth- 
eighth  strongly  serrate  (almost  pectinate),  ninth-tenth  less 
strongly  so,  eleventh  distinctly  longer  than  tenth.  Prothorax 
not  much  wider  than  long,  sides  rather  strongly  rounded  in 
fi-ont,  hind  angles  feebly  directed  outwards,  the  carina  on  each 
acute  and  about  once  and  one-half  the  length  of  the  scutellum; 
with  a  rather  feeble  median  line,  altering  at  the  base  to  a  feeble 
carina;  punctures  crowded  and  small,  becoming  smaller  and  still 
more  crowded  on  sides.     Scutellum  with  moderately  dense  punc- 


734  NEW    SPEClKS    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv  , 

tures,  and  a  feeble  median  carina.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to  about 
the  middle,  thence  gently  decreasing  in  width  to  apex;  densely 
granulate-punctate  throughout,  l)ut  more  densely  about  base 
than  elsewhere;  striation  well-defined  throughout.  Metasterninn 
with  a  rather  wide,  shining,  median  line,  lightly  impressed  along 
its  middle.  Tip  of  abdomen  rather  densely  granulate-punctate. 
Length,  5  mm. 

Hah. —  N.S.W.:  Sydney  (A.  M.  Lea);  unique. 
From  some  directions,  the  pubescence  of  the  elytra  appears  to 
be  as  dark  as  that  of  the  prothorax,  but,  from  others,  most  of  it 
is  seen  to  Vje  paler:  the  front,  produced  portion  of  each  of  the 
fifth-eighth  joints  of  antennae  is  not  much  shorter  than  the 
joint  itself. 

Arisocephalus  rufipennis,  n.sp. 
Black;  extreme  apex  and  base  of  prothorax,  elytra,  abdomen 
(in   places  feebly  infuscated),   legs   (hind   coxae   and  femora  ex- 
cepted),  and  antennae   red   or   reddish.       Densely  clothed   with 
short  pubescence. 

Head  with  crowded  and  rather  small  punctures;  with  a  con- 
spicuous median  carina  traceable  to  near  base,  but  not  on  to 
clypeus;  antennary  sockets  each  with  a  narrow  margining  carina 
from  eye  to  side  at  apex  of  clypeus.  Antennae  moderately  long, 
second  joint  distinctly  longer  than  third,  and  almost  as  long  as 
fourth,  fourth-tenth  equal  in  length,  but  fourth-seventh  wider 
and  more  strongly  serrated  than  the  ninth  and  tenth,  eleventh 
almost  as  long  as  the  ninth  and  tenth  combined.  Prothorax 
slightly  more  transverse,  but  otherwise  much  as  in  preceding 
species.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to  beyond  middle,  with  dense 
punctures  about  base,  becoming  less  crowded  (but  quite  sharply 
defined)  elsewhere;  striation  lightly  impressed  and,  in  places, 
scarcely  traceable.     Length,  5  mm. 

Hah. — Tasmania:  Southport  (John  O.  Dawson);  unique. 
In  general  appearance  close  to  the  preceding  species,  but  elytra 
more  brightly  coloured,  and  with  different  punctures  and  striae, 
second  and  third  joints  of  antennae  difierently  proportioned,  the 
following  ones  much  less  conspicuously  serrated,  and  the  median 
line  on  the  metasternum  less  conspicuous.     The  clothing  on  the 


BY    A.    M.    LEA.  735 

pale  parts  is  somewhat  stramineous;  on  the  dark  parts,  it  is  darker. 
In  this  and  the  following  species,  the  hind  coxa;  at  the  sides  are 
a  trifle  longer  than  the  second  abdominal  segment;  in  the  pre- 
ceding species,  they  are  of  exactly  the  same  length. 

ArISOCEPHALUS    BASALIS,  n.sp. 

Black;  basal  fifth  of  elytra  reddish,  tibia?  reddish,  femora  and 
coxie  darker,  tarsi  paler,  antennae  dull  reddish-brown,  second  and 
third  joints  and  the  tips  paler.  Clothed  with  very  short  and 
mostly  stramineous  pubescence. 

Head  with  crowded  and  rather  small  punctures;  with  a  con- 
spicuous median  carina  from  base  to  apex,  an  oblique  carina  on 
each  side  of  clypeus  from  apex  to  base,  where  they  almost  touch 
the  median  line  between  the  antennary  sockets.  Antennae  not 
very  long,  second  joint  short  but  distinctly  longer  than  third, 
the  two  combined  slightly  loijger  than  fourth,  fourth-tenth  equal 
in  length,  but  decreasing  in  width  from  the  sixth,  and  rather 
feebly  serrated,  eleventh  about  once  and  one-half  the  length  of 
tenth.  Prothorax  much  as  in  A.  Jfavipes  except  that  the  punc- 
tures are  smaller.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to  about  the  middle; 
with  rather  dense,  well-defined  punctures,  becoming  crowded  at 
base;  striation  fairly  well  defined.  Abdomen  with  fifth  segment 
somewhat  produced  at  apex,  and  densely  granulate-punctate 
there.     Length,  3J  mm. 

^a6.— N.S.W.:  Galston  (A.  M.  Lea);  unique. 

The  third  joint  of  the  antenna?,  although  very  short,  is  not 
"  excessively  minute  "  as  in  Entomophthahnus;  and  the  fourth 
joint,  although  somewhat  larger  than  the  fifth,  is  scarcely  longer. 
The  carination  of  the  head  is  more  pronounced  than  in  the  other 
species  of  the  genus,  and  is  much  as  on  Arisus  carinatice2ys. 

Fornax  nicer,  n.sp. 

Black.  Clothed  with  short,  depressed  pubescence,  paler  about 
base  of  prothorax  and  of  elytra  than  elsewhere. 

Head  with  crowded  subasperate  punctures;  with  a  feeble  longi- 
tudinal carina,  and  a  conspicuous  interocular  one.  Antennae 
moderately  long,  first  joint  about  as  long  as  three  following  com- 
bined, second  shorter  than  third,  and  third  than  fourth,  fourth- 


736  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTKALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

tenth  equal  in  length,  eleventh  somewhat  longer.  Prothorax 
with  front  angles  somewhat  rounded,  sides  thence  parallel  to 
base ;  with  punctures  as  on  head  ;  median  line  well  defined 
tow^ards  base,  but  feeble  in  front.  Elytra  with  crowded,  asperate 
punctures  about  base,  becoming  less  crowded  and  more  sharply 
defined  posteriori}^;  striation  distinct  throughout.  Hind  cooi:(e 
evenly  and  strongly  narrowed  to  sides,  greatest  length  about 
equal  to  that  of  second  abdominal  segment;  basal  joint  of  hind 
tarsi  about  as  long  as  the  rest  combined.     Length,  4|  mm. 

Hab.  —  W.A. :  Mount  Barker  (R.  Helms);  unique. 

In  general  appearance,  strikingly  close  to  F.  siUuralis,  but 
readily  distinguished  by  the  comparative  lengths  of  the  third 
and  fourth  joints  of  antennae.  The  pubescence  on  the  under- 
surface  appears  ashen  or  blackish  according  to  the  point  of  view; 
on  the  upper  surface,  it  is  almost  entirely  dark. 

Fornax  castaneus,  n.sp. 

Castaneous,  tarsi  somewhat  paler.  Densely  clothed  with 
short,  stramineous  pubescence. 

Head  strongly  convex;  with  crowded  but  rather  small  punc- 
tures; inter-anteni)ary  carina  not  continued  beyond  antennary 
sockets.  Antennae  not  very  long,  second  joint  slightly  longer 
than  fourth,  third  almost  as  long  as  fourth  and  fifth  combined, 
fourth-tenth  subquadrate,  fourth  and  fifth  short,  but  combined 
considerably  longer  than  sixth,  sixth  to  tenth  subequal,  eleventh 
distinctly  longer.  Prothorax  with  sides  rounded  in  front,  thence 
almost  parallel-sided  to  base;  with  dense  and  sharply-defined  but 
rather  small  punctures,  becoming  crowded  on  sides.  Elytra 
parallel-sided  to  near  apex;  base  with  crowded  subasperate  punc- 
tures, becoming  smaller  and  more  sharply  defined  posteriorly; 
striation  well-defined.  Hind  coxte  strongly  and  evenly  narrowed 
to  sides,  which  are  very  short,  greatest  length  slightly  more  than 
that  of  second  abdominal  segment;  basal  joint  of  hind  tarsi  dis- 
tinctly shorter  than  the  rest  combined,  fourth  slightly  narrower 
than  third,  and  scarcely  produced  on  lower  surface.  Length, 
6  mm. 

i^a6.  — N.S.W.:  Sydney  (A.  J.  Coates). 


feV    A.    M     LEA.  737 

In  general  appearance,  strikingly  close  to  some  of  the  larger 
specimens,  that  I  have  referred,  with  doubt,  to  F.  parvulus,  but 
the  fourth  and  fifth  joints  of  antennae,  although  short,  are  (com- 
bined) distinctly  longer  than  the  sixth:  the  hind  tarsi  are  some- 
what aberrant  for  the  genus. 

A  smaller  (4|  mm.)  specimen  from  Queensland  (Dalby,  Mrs. 
F.  }{.  Hobler)  appears  to  belong  to  the  species,  but  is  more 
lightly  coloured,  with  a  vague  remnant  of  a  median  line  on  the 
prothorax  (completely  absent  from  the  type)  and  with  slightly 
shorter  antennae  and  legs. 

Fornax  majorinus,  n.sp. 

Dark  castaneous  brown,  antennse  and  legs  paler.  Very  densely 
clothed  with  rather  short,  stramineous  pubescence. 

Head  with  dense  but  not  very  large  punctures;  inter-antennary 
carina  widely  interrupted  in  middle.  Antennae  moderately  long, 
second  joint  slightly  longer  than  fourth,  third  almost  as  long  as 
fourth  and  fifth  combined,  fourth  slightly  shorter  than  fifth,  and 
fifth  than  sixth,  sixth-tenth  subequal  in  length,  eleventh  almost 
as  long  as  ninth  and  tenth  combined.  Prothorax  with  sides 
strongly  rounded  in  front,  thence  parallel-sided  to  base;  punc- 
tures dense,  rather  small  and  subasperate,  becoming  crowded  on 
sides.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to  beyond  the  middle;  with  dense 
asperate  punctures  about  base,  becoming  smaller  posteriorly; 
striation  well  defined.  Hind  coxce  produced  to  points  at  the 
sides,  greatest  length  distinctly  more  than  that  of  second  ab- 
dominal segment;  hind  tarsi  with  basal  joint  as  long  as  the  rest 
combined.     Length,  ^\  mm. 

Hah. — N.S.W.:  Byron  Bay  (C.  Watson);  unique. 

A  comparatively  large,  robust  species. 

Dystrigonisthis  laticollis,  n.sp. 

Of  a  rusty-castaneous,  appendages  somewhat  paler.  Densely 
clothed  with  short,  rusty  pubescence. 

Head  with  rather  coarse,  crowded  punctures;  clypeus  shallowly 
concave.  Antennte  with  second  joint  short,  third  about  as  long 
as  fourth  and  fifth  combined,  fourth-eighth  subequal  in  length 
and  with  rounded  sides,  ninth  almost  as  long  as  three  preceding 


738  NEW    SPECIBS    OP    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

combined,  slightly  shorter  than  eleventh  and  slightly  longer  than 
tenth.  Prothorax  with  sides  strongly  rounded  in  front,  and  then 
increasing  in  width  to  base,  extreme  base  distinctly  wider  than 
elytra,  and  about  twice  the  width  of  apex,  with  a  rather  feeble 
median  line  disappearing  before  apex;  with  very  dense,  and 
moderately  large,  round  punctures;  with  a  small,  round  fovea  on 
each  side,  close  to  middle  of  base.  Elytra  parallel-sided  to 
beyond  the  middle,  base  densely  granulate-punctate,  elsewhere 
with  fairly  dense  but  smaller  and  more  sharply  defined  punctures; 
striation  w^ell-defined,  first  and  second  striae  on  each  elytron 
opening  out  into  a  short,  deep,  oblique  sulcus  close  to  apex. 
Hind  coxcfi  with  greatest  length  about  equal  to  that  of  second 
abdominal  segment,  oVjliquely  decreasing  to  each  side,  which  is 
about  one-third  the  greatest  length.     Length,  15  mm. 

/ya6.— N.S.W.:  Mount  Irvine  (Dr.  E.  W.  Ferguson);  unique. 

The  prothoracic  punctures,  although  dense,  are  quite  sharply- 
defined  on  the  disc;  on  the  sides,  they  are  more  crowded  and 
irregular.  From  some  directions,  the  basal  fifth  of  the  elytra 
appears  to  be  closely  covered  with  fine,  transverse  corrugations. 
The  three,  long,  terminal  joints  of  antennae  are  suggestive  of  (the 
Australian  species  of)  Dyscolocer^is,  but  the  deep,  lateral  channels 
of  the  prosternum  at  once  exclude  it  from  that  genus. 

It  is  with  some  doubt  that  I  refer  this  and  the  following  species 
to  Dyst7'iy()7iislhis,  with  w^hich,  however,  they  would  certainly  be 
associated  in  Blackburn's  Table;  the  antenme  of  the  two  species 
dififer  considerably  from  each  other,  and  also  from  those  of  B. 
paiadoxus,  and,  in  other  families  of  beetles,  these  differences 
would  almost  certainly  be  regarded  as  of  generic  importance; 
but  as  IJonvouloir,  and  other  workers  at  the  family,  have  allowed 
ail  even  greater  range  of  variation  in  the  antennae,  it  does  not 
appear  desirable  to  propose  a  new  genus  (or  new  genera)  for 
them  at  present.  The  lateral  channel  on  each  side  of  the  pro- 
sternum  is  deep  and  conspicuously  closed  posteriorly  (and  receives 
the  antenna  throughout  its  length);  on  the  basal  third  of  the 
inner  side,  it  is  distinctly  carinated,  but,  from  the  basal  third  to 
its  front  margin,  the  side  is  gently  rounded,  without  the  least 
trace  of  a  carina.     Although  Blackburn  separated  Dystriyoiiisthis 


BY    A.    M.    LKA.  739 

from  Phceaocerus  by  tlie  former  having  "  Prosieinal  sulcus  mar- 
gined within  by  an  elevated  line  only  in  its  hinder  part''  as 
against  "  a  continuous  elevated  line,"  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
Bonvouloir  says  of  PJuenoc-erus  ^^Sillon-viargiiial  .  .  .  etunt  borde 
en  arriere  inter ieurenwnt  par  une  ligne  eleve'e.^^  Quite  possibly 
the  following  species  should  have  been  referred  to  Phca^iocerus, 
but  it  is  evidently  distinct  from  P.  siibclavatus  by  its  larger  size, 
and  different  antennte  and  hind  cox?e. 

Dystrigonisthis  ferrugineus,  n.bp. 

Dark  rusty-castaneous,  appendages  somewhat  paler.  Densely 
clothed  with  short,  rusty-red  pubescence. 

Head  with  crowded  punctures  of  moderate  size;  with  a  short 
and  rather  wide  median  line;  clypeus  shallowly  concave.  An- 
tenna3  rather  stout,  second  joint  short,  third  cylindrical,  almost 
as  long  as  the  three  following  combined,  fourth-eighth  short, 
subequal  and  distinctly  transverse,  ninth  and  tenth  somewhat 
longer  and  wider  (and  with  small  fovese  at  apex),  eleventh  about 
as  long  as  the  three  preceding  combined.  Prothorax  with  sides 
rather  strongly  rounded  in  front,  and  then  obliquely  increasing 
in  width  to  near  base,  which  is  somewhat  wider  than  elytra,  and 
almost  twice  the  width  of  apex;  with  dense  punctures  of  moder- 
ate size,  smaller  in  middle  than  elsewhere,  and  becoming  crowded 
on  sides.  Elytra  feebly  decreasing  in  width  from  base;  densely 
granulate-punctate  about  base,  punctures  becoming  smaller  and 
sparser  posteriorly;  striation  as  in  preceding  species.  Hind  coxie 
with  greatest  length  about  equal  to  that  of  second  abdominal 
segment,  curvilinearly  decreasing  to  sides,  which  are  very  short; 
basal  joint  of  hind  tarsi  somewhat  shorter  than  the  rest  com- 
bined; second,  third,  and  fourth  regularly  decreasing  in  length 
and  width,  fourth  not  bilobed  and  scarcely  produced  on  under 
surface.     Length,  11-12^  mm. 

Uab. — Tasmania  :  Hobart  (A.  M.  Lea). 

The  antennie  so  regularly  increase  in  width,  that  the  three 
apical  joints  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  forming  a  club;  from 
above,  the  second  joint  appears  to  be  slightly  shorter  than  the 
fourth;  but,  from   below,  it  is  seen  to  be  slightly  longer.     The 


740  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

general  outlines  of  the  prothoi-cax  and  elytra  are  much  as  figured 
for  those  of  Phcenocerus  subdavatus  (Bonv.,  Mon.,  PI.  xiii.,  fig.l). 
On  one  specimen,  the  eighth  and  ninth  joints  of  each  antenna 
appear  to  be  combined  to  form  but  one  (with  the  suture  com- 
pletely obliterated  in  places);  but,  as  the  antennae  of  the  type 
are  normal,  this  would  appear  to  be  accidental.  On  this  speci- 
men, also,  there  is  a  short,  shining,  median  line,  and  two,  small, 
medio-discal  fovese  on  the  pronotum  (quite  absent  from  the  type). 

Ph^nocekus  clavicornis,  n  sp. 

Black,  antennae  and  legs  somewhat  obscurely  diluted  with  red, 
tarsi  paler.     Rather  densely  clothed  with  short,  ashen  pubescence. 

Head  with  small,  crowded,  partially  concealed  punctures,  inter- 
antennary  carina  not  continued  across  middle.  Antennae  stout 
and  not  very  long,  first  joint  as  long  as  the  three  following  com- 
bined, second  short,  third  slightly  longer  than  fourth  and  fifth 
combined,  fourth  slightly  longer  than  fifth,  fifth-eighth  short  and 
transverse,  ninth-eleventh  forming  a  conspicuous  club,  ninth  and 
tenth  each  conspicuously  wider  and  longer  than  eighth,  eleventh 
as  wide  as  tenth  at  ba^se,  but  rapidly  narrowing  to  apex.  Pro- 
thorax  with  sides  strongly  rounded  in  front,  thence  parallel-sided 
to  base,  with  a  slight  but  almost  continuous  median  line;  with 
dense  and  rather  small,  but  sharply  defined  punctures,  becoming 
crowded  on  sides.  Elytra  feebly  diminishing  in  width  from  near 
base  ;  densely  granulate  punctate  about  base,  elsewhere  with 
small  but  sharply  de6ned  punctures;  striation  well-defined 
throughout.  Hind  coo:(e  at  sides  about  one- third  their  greatest 
length,  this  slightly  more  than  that  of  second  abdominal  seg- 
ment; basal  joint  of  hind  tarsi  about  as  long  as  the  two  apical 
joints  combined.     Length,  1\  mm. 

Hab. — Tasmania:  Hobart  (A.  M.  Lea);  unique. 

The  antennae  have  a  distinctly  three-jointed  club,  a  character 
which  excludes  the  species  from  all  the  genera  noted  by  Bon- 
vouloir,  except  Phceuocerus;  but  the  club  is  even  more  distinct 
than  as  figured  for  P.  subdavatus;  from  the  description  of  that 
species,  also,  it  differs  in  being  somewhat  smaller,  much  darker, 
and  prothorax  with  a  conspicuous  median  line.     In  Blackburn's 


BY    A.    M.    LKA.  741 

Table,  Phcenocerus  is  placed  with  three  other  genera  distinguished 
by  having  "  Prosternal  sulcus  margined  within  by  a  continuous 
elevated  line."  Tliis,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  the  present 
species,  whose  lateral  channel  is  carinated  on  the  posterior  half, 
but  gently  rounded  in  front;  its  posterior  end  is  also  open. 

Galea*  Australia,  n.sp. 

Black,  appendages  reddish.  Densely  clothed  with  golden 
pubescence,  becoming  golden-red  in  places;  on  the  undersurface 
somewhat  ashen. 

Head  with  crowded  punctures  mostly  concealed,  but  more  dis- 
tinct on  clypeus  than  elsewhere;  with  a  very  thin,  median  carina 
from  base  almost  to  apex.  Antennae  rather  short,  second  joint 
short,  curvilinearly  triangular,  third-tenth  each  with  a  long 
ramus,  that  of  third  somewhat  shorter  and  thicker  .than  the 
others;  eleventh  joint  slightly  longer  and  thicker  than  the  ramus 
of  the  tenth.  Prothorax  gibbous,  not  much  wider  than  long, 
sides  rounded  in  front,  thence  almost  parallel  to  base;  disc  with 
irregularly  granulate  (in  places  vermiculate)  elevations;  the  sides 
with  irregular,  more  or  less  concealed  punctures.  Elytra  nar- 
rowed from  base  to  apex,  tips  obliquely  carinated  and  produced; 
with  series  of  fairly  large  punctures,  becoming  smaller  posteriorly, 
but  close  to  apex  becoming  larger.  Hind  coxcb  with  posterior 
edge  somewhat  sinuous,  outer  edge  quite  as  long  as  elsewhere; 
tarsi  with  second,  third,  and  fourth  joints  each  with  a  wide  and 
conspicuous  lamella.     Length,  ll-14mm. 

//a6.— Queensland  :  Coen  River  (H.  Hacker). 

The  first  of  its  genusf  to  be  recorded  by  name  from  Australia, 
although  Bonvouloir  (Mon.,  p. 807)  stated  that  the  genus  occurs 
there;  Blackburn,  however,  thought!  that  this  may  have  been 
due  to  confusion  with  Galbodema,  there  recorded  as  a  synonym 
of  Gcdha^  but  elsewhere  (Mon.,  p. 442)  treated  as  distinct.  The 
beautiful  pubescence  on   the  whole  of  the   upper  surface  has  a 

*Gu6r.-Men.,  Voy.  Coq.,  Entom.,  p.68;  Bonv.,  Men.,  p.806. 
+  Readily  recognisable  by  the  large  size  and  robust  form  of  its  species, 
with  three  tarsal  joints  conspicuously  lamellate. 
%  Manuscript  note. 


742  NEW    SPECIES    OF    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

curious  waved  or  mottled  appearance,  due  to  the  varying  direc- 
tions in  which  it  is  applied  to  the  derm;  thus,  the  elytra,  when 
viewed  from  behind,  appear  to  have  two  golden  fasciae  alternated 
with  brownish  ones;  on  altering  the  point  of  view,  the  brownish 
ones  become  golden,  and  vice-versd,  whilst,  from  other  jdirections, 
the  clothing  appears  to  consist  of  irregularly  mixed  golden  and 
brownish  spots.  The  third  joint  of  the  antennae  is  about  as  long 
as  the  two  following  combined,  and  its  ramus  is  slightly  shorter 
than  the  first  joint,  the  rami  of  the  other  joints  being  slightly 
longer  and  subequal  inter  se.  The  elevations  on  the  prothorax 
may  be  regarded  as  forming  an  irregularly  lobed  mass,  of  which 
the  median  lobe  is  the  most  conspicuous,  appearing  as  an  abrupt, 
obtusely  pointed  elevation  near  the  scutellum  (from  the  sides, 
its  posterior  end  appears  vertical),  then,  towards  the  middle,  it 
bifurcates,  each  arm  being  irregularly  continued  to  near  the 
apex;  on  each  side  of  it  there  are  two  other  elevations  feebly 
connected  with  it,  the  front  one  somewhat  oval,  the  back  one 
concave  inwards  and  almost  right-angled  outwards;  of  the  species 
figured  by  Bonvouloir,  the  nearest  approach  to  this  structure  is 
that  of  G.  wallacei  (PI.  xL,  fig.l),  but  the  elevations  are  all  some- 
what different;  they  are  clothed  with  more  ruddy  pubescence 
than  on  the  adjacent  parts.  The  rows  of  elytral  punctures  are 
in  very  feeble  striae,  but,  about  the  tip,  the  striae  become  deep; 
the  derm  is  densely  covered  with  minute  punctures,  but  these 
become  visible  only  after  abrasion;  the  sides  of  the  elytra,  from 
the  base  of  the  fifth  abdominal  segment,  are  obliquely  flattened, 
so  as  to  appear  as  enlargements  of  the  (elsewhere  extremely 
narrow)  epipleurae,  with  the  upper  edge  acutely  ridged,  and,  at 
the  suture,  rather  acutely  produced. 

PYTHID^. 

NOTOSALPINGUS    BRUNNEUS,  n.Sp. 

Obscure  piceous-brown,  basal  half  of  antennae  and  legs  some- 
what paler.  Clothed  with  short  and  sparse  but  fairly  distinct 
puljescence,  more  noticeable  about  apex  of  elytra  than  elsewhere. 

Head  wide  and  gently  convex,  with  two  shallow  depressions  in 
front,  separated  by  a  short,  shining  space;  with  crowded,  sharply 


BV    A.    M.    LEA.  743 

defined  punctures.  Antennae  rather  thin,  extending  to  base  of 
prothorax,  slightly  dilated  to  apex.  Prothorax  lightl}'  trans- 
verse, sides  regularly  increasing  in  width  from  base  to  near  apex, 
and  then  rather  abruptly  narrowed,  on  apical  half  with  several 
very  feeble  denticulations;  with  dense  and  moderately  coarse 
punctures,  more  crowded  on  sides  than  on  middle.  Elytra  at 
V)ase  slightly  wider  than  head  across  eyes,  shoulders  square,  sides 
subparallel  or  feebly  dilated  to  near  apex,  and  then  widely 
rounded:  with  distinct  rows  of  fairly  large  punctures,  larger  and 
more  irregular  about  base  than  elsewhere,  and  becoming  rather 
small  posteriorly.     Length,  1^-2  mm. 

Hah. — Tasmania:  Hobart,  Launceston,  Bruni  Island. — AVestern 
Australia:  Swan  River,  Newcastle  (A.  M.  Lea). 

A  depressed,  densely  punctate  species,  readily  distinguished 
from  all  others  of  the  genus  by  the  uniformly  dingy-brown  elytra. 
The  apical  joints  of  the  antennae  are  gradually  enlarged,  not 
abruptly  clavate  as  in  Neosalpinyns.  The  denticulations  on  the 
sides  of  the  prothorax  are  so  very  feeble  that,  from  most  direc- 
tions, they  are  quite  invisible;  one  specimen  has  a  shining  median 
line  on  the  basal  half  of  the  pronotum;  and,  on  several,  there 
are  two  vague  basal  depressions;  the  elytra  are  without  striae, 
although  their  punctures  are  in  very  evident  rows. 

Tasmosalpingus,  n.g. 

Head  wide,  obtusely  produced  in  front.  Eyes  small,  lateral, 
prominent  and  coarsely  faceted .  Antennae  inserted  considerably 
in  front  of  eyes;  with  a  conspicuous,  three-jointed  club.  Pro- 
thorax wide,  sides  acutely  margined.  Scutellum  small  and 
strongly  transverse.  Elytra  short.  Metasternum  elongate. 
Leys  not  very  long;  front  coxae  rather  widely,  the  others  moder- 
ately separated,  front  coxal  cavities  open  behind;  tibiae  dilated 
towards,  and  minutely  spurred  at  apex;  tarsi  moderately  long, 
two  basal  joints  of  hind  pair  and  three  of  the  others  moderately 
wide  and  close  together,  penultimate  small  and  simple,  claw-joint 
rather  stout,  almost  as  long  as  the  rest  combined;  claws  swollen 
towards  base  but  not  dentate. 

The  acutely  carinated  margins  of  prothorax,  each  separated  by 


744  NEW    SPECIES    OP    AUSTRALIAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv., 

a  narrow  gutter  from  the  disc,  and  rather  widely  separated  front 
cox^e,  read il}"  distinguish  the  genus  from  Notosalpinyua,  to  which, 
at  first  glance,  the  two  species  appear  to  belong.  Type  of  genus, 
T.  quadrispilotais. 

Tasmosalpingus  quadrispilotus,  n.sp. 

Brassy-black;  undersurface,  legs,  and  antennae  (club  excepted) 
paler,  elytra  piceous-brown,  with  four,  large,  pale  spots.  Head 
and  prothorax  with  distinct  but  somewhat  straggling  pubescence, 
elytra  glabrous. 

Head  obliquely  flattened,  as  wide  across  eyes  as  length  of 
antennae,  with  a  shallow  depression  on  each  side  in  front;  punc- 
tures dense  and  sharply  defined  but  not  very  large,  becoming 
smaller  in  front.  Antennae  with  second  joint  almost  as  stout  as 
first  but  distinctly  shorter,  third-eighth  small.  Prothorax  at 
widest  (which  is  near  the  apex)  slightly  wider  than  head,  apex 
distinctly  wider  than  base,  each  side  of  base  distinctly  impressed, 
margins  rather  acutely  carinated  throughout  but  incurved  at 
base;  punctures  much  as  on  head.  Elytra  at  base  about  the 
width  of  prothorax  at  its  widest,  feebly  dilated  to  beyond  the 
middle  and  then  widely  rounded;  with  rather  coarse  punctures 
in  distinct  but  irregular  series  near  base,  becoming  smaller  and 
irregularly  disposed  elsewhere.     Length,  1^-1 1  mm. 

Hab. — Tasmania:  Mount  Wellington,  in  moss;  Launceston  (A. 
M.  Lea). 

A  short,  dumpy  species,  with  prothorax  rather  conspicuously 
clothed,  and  elytra  glabrous.  On  the  type,  the  first  spot  on  each 
elytron  is  a  large,  irregular  one,  commencing  on  the  shoulder 
and  obliquely  directed  towards  the  suture,  near  which  it  termin- 
ates at  the  basal  third;  the  second  one  commences  just  beyond 
the  middle,  and  is  obliquely  subtriangular.  On  one  specimen, 
the  pale  markings  are  considerably  enlarged,  so  that  they  appear 
to  be  the  ground-colour,  with  the  infuscate  portions  marginal, 
sutural,  and  forming  three,  large,  median  spots;  the  smaller  one, 
on  the  suture,  narrowly  connected  with  the  others,  and  these 
connected  with  the  marginal  infuscation. 


BY    A.    M.    LEA.  74.7 

Tasmosalpingus  promiscuus,  n.sp. 

Dark  piceous-brown,  mitennse  (club  excepted)  and  legs  slightly 
paler,  elytra  with  obscurely  flavous  markings.  Head  and  pro- 
thorax  with  rather  conspicuous  pale  pubescence,  elytra  glabrous. 
Length,  1^-1 1  mm. 

Hab.  -Tasmania:  Hobart,  Swansea  (A.  M.  Lea). 

Structurally,  close  to  the  preceding  species,  but  elytral  punc- 
tures distinctly  smaller  and  nowhere  seriate  in  arrangement. 
The  elytral  markings,  although  conspicuous,  are  not  sharply 
defined,  and  consist,  on  each  elytron,  of  a  humeral  spot,  lightly 
or  not  at  all  connected  with  a  small  subsutural  one  at  the  basal 
third;  and  a  larger,  post-median  spot,  fairly  wide  near  the  suture, 
and  strongly  narrowed  obliquely  upwards  and  outwards. 

Neosalpingus  brevis,  n.sp. 

Black,  appendages  (club  excepted)  obscurely  paler;  head  and 
prothorax  with  a  slight  bluish  or  greenish  gloss. 

Hedd  wide,  gently  convex  between  eyes,  and  somewhat 
flattened  in  front,  with  very  minute  punctures.  Eyes  very 
widely  separated,  and  almost  basal.  Antennae  moderately  long, 
third-eighth  joints  small,  the  three  following  forming  an  abrupt 
and  conspicuous  club.  Prothorax  widely  transverse,  rather 
strongly  convex;  base  and  apex  of  subequal  width,  sides  rounded, 
and  each  with  four,  small,  unisetose  denticulations,  each  side  of 
base  with  a  small  depression;  with  numerous,  small  but  rather 
sharply  defined  punctures,  becoming  somewhat  crowded  and 
larger  on  sides.  Elytra  short,  at  base  slightly  wider  than  pro- 
thorax, sides  distinctly  dilated  to  about  the  middle,  and  then 
widely  rounded  to  apex:  smooth  and  apparently  impunctate. 
Length,  1-1 1  mm. 

Hah. — Queensland:  Cairns  (Macleay  Museum,  and  E.  Allen). 

In  general  appearance,  like  small,  dumpy  specimens  of  N. 
politus,  but  prothoracic  punctures  considerably  smaller,  basal 
impressions  smaller  and  oblique,  head  smoother,  and  elytra  con- 
siderably more  dilated.  The  upper  surface  is  entirely  glabrous, 
the  undersurface  almost  so.  The  head,  when  seen  from  the  front, 
appears  to  be  of  subtriangular  shape,  but  with  sinuous  sides;  the 

58 


74  6  NEW    SPECIKS    OF    AUSTRAI>IAN    COLEOPTERA,  xiv. 

elytra  might  fairly  be  regarded  as  impunctate.  as  tlie  punctures 
are  so  extremely  small  that  it  is  only  from  certain  directions,  and 
in  a  good  light,  that  they  may  be  seen  under  a  ^'oddington  lens. 

CURCULIONID^. 
Cyrotyphus  variegatus,  n  Sp. 

Black,  parts  of  tarsi  obscurely  diluted  with.  j>'d.  Densely 
clothed  with  variegated,  depressed  pubescence  or  setfie,  the  elytra 
with  numerous,  small  fascicles. 

Head  and  base  of  rostrum  with  dense,  normally  concealed 
punctures  of  moderate  size,  apical  half  of  rostrum  with  small, 
dense  punctures.  Antennte  moderately  long,  third  joint  twice 
the  length  of  second,  and  distinctly  longer  than  fourth,  eleventh 
about  once  and  one-half  the  length  of  tenth.  Profhorax  about 
as  long  as  basal  width,  which  is  considerably  more  than  that  of 
apex,  sides  bisinuate,  with  an  irregular  ridge  on  each  side  of 
middle,  rising  into  a  small  tubercle  near  base,  each  side  with  a 
feeble,  granulate  elevation:  with  dense,  more  or  less  concealed 
punctures,  and  a  few  scattered  granules.  Elytra  much  wider 
than  prothorax,  almost  parallel-sided  to  near  apex,  each  elytron 
with  two  obtuse  ridges  near  base,  the  inner  one  moderately 
elevated  about  summit  of  apical  slope  ;  with  small,  distinct 
granules  about  base,  but  other  granules,  and  dense  punctures, 
normally  concealed.  FHmora  stout,  rather  lightly  but  distinctly 
dentate.     Length,  13  mm. 

Hah. — Tasmania  (J.  E.  Philp);  unique. 

Readily  distinguished  from  C  fasc'Cidaius,  by  the  prothorax 
being  without  a  conspicuous,  transverse  series  of  four  tubercles; 
the  elytra  also  are  much  more  conspicuously  variegated.  The 
apical  half  of  the  rostrum  is  glabrous,  but  all  other  parts  are 
more  or  less  densely  clothed,  the  pubescence  being  mostly  stra- 
mineous, but  varving  to  white  (there  is  a  conspicuous,  bisinuate, 
white  mark  traversing  the  suture  slightly  beyond  the  middle) 
and  black;  on  the  elytra,  there  are  numerous,  small  fascicles 
(especially  along  the  suture),  all  of  which  are  black:  the  abdomen 
has  a  vaguely  striped  appearance. 


74 


OX  A  NEW  SPECIES  OR  FORM  OF  EUCALYPTUS. 
By  Cuthbert  Hall,  M.D..  Ch.M.,  Parramatta. 

(Plate  Ixxv.) 

Eucalyptus  Marsdeni,  f.  vel  sp.nov. 

Arbor,  30'-50'  altitudine,  eortice  fibrose  inferne  superne  kievi, 
foliis  petiolatis,  lanceolatis,  acuminatis,  falcatis,  obliquis,  fere 
membraneis;  cyiiiis  axillaribus;  pediiiiculis  4'"  loiigis,  pedicellis 
Ih" ',  operculo  hemisplia?ric'o,  uniboiiato;  fructibus  hemisphiiericis, 
valvis  par u 111  exsertis. 

A  tree,  30  feet  high  in  specimen  observed,  and  probably  would 
attain  a  height  of  60-80  feet  when  fully  grown. 

Seedling. — Cotyledons  ver}^  small,  orbicular-reniform,  entire, 
purplish  on  undersurface,  glabrous.  Leaves  oj^posite,  decussate, 
obtuse,  shortly  petiolate,  lanceolate,  venation  pinnate,  rather 
oblique,  edges  sinuate.  Stem  reddish,  and  both  it  and  the  leaves 
covered  with  fine,  stellate  hairs. 

Jdvenile  leaves  of  a  more  advanced  stage  than  in  the  small 
seedling  are  alternate,  petiolate,  narrow-lanceolate,  acuminate, 
glabrous.  Mature  leaves  alternate,  petiolate,  lanceolate,  falcate, 
acuminate,  obli(jue,  greyish  on  dryiiig,  almost  membranous,  occa- 
sionally shiny,  and  having  a  pleasant,  aromatic  scent.  Lamina? 
6"-8"  long  by  j"  broad,  petiole  slender,  .V"  long.  Lateral  veins 
oblicjue,  alternately  fine,  intramarginal  vein  fairly  distant  from 
€dge. 

Inflorescence  axillary,  peduncles  h'  long,  with  rather  few 
flowers  in  head,  6-9;  buds  turbinate,  5'"  long,  operculum  hemi- 
spherical, shortly  acuminate.  Stamens  all  fertile,  anthers  kidney- 
shaped.  Fruits  hemispherical,  3'"  in  diameter,  rim  domed,  valves 
small,  slightly  exserted. 

Jiark  of  an  unusual  character  for  a  Eucalypt.  While  it  falls 
in  the  group  of  the  stringy-barks,  yet  it  is  laminated,  with  a  sort 
of  ochreous  deposit   on   the  outer  surface  of   each  layer.      Inner 


748  NEW    SPECIES    OR    FORM    OF    EUCALYPTUS, 

bark  very  hard  and  compact.  But  while  the  trunk  and  lower 
branches  have  such  bark,  that  of  the  upper  branches  and  branch- 
lets  is  smooth  and  greyish,  so  that  the  tree  is  really  a  half  Vjark. 

Timber  light  brown  in  colour,  fairly  heavy,  close,  straight  in 
the  grain,  annual  rings  prominent  in  the  young  stage,  planes 
and  dresses  well,  and  should  be  useful  for  technical  purposes; 
gum-veins  few. 

Locality. — Toongabbie,  New  8outh  Wales,  at  the  rear  of  the 
Public  School,  on  the  Wianamatta  clay. 

Remarks. — As  seen  from  the  description,  this  form  of  Euca- 
lypt,  on  a  cortical  classification,  seems  intermediate  between  the 
smooth-barks  and  the  stringy-barks.  The  timber  has  not  the 
texture  of  that  of  the  stringy-barks,  but  more  nearly  resembles 
that  of  E.  viminalis  in  physical  characters.  The  early  buds 
resemble  those  of  E.  obliqua,  but  there  is  no  resemblance  in  the 
mature  stage.  The  mature  leaves  are  generally  markedly  oblique. 
The  fruit  resembles  that  of  E.  eugenioides,  but  it  tapers  more 
into  the  pedicel,  and  is  not  so  flat;  nor  are  the  fruits  so  clustered 
on  the  peduncle.  The  seedling  is  intermediate  between  those  of 
E.  eugenioides  and  E.  Jloorei;  and,  in  its  hair}'  seedling-leaves 
and  reniform  cotyledons,  approximates  strongly  to  the  string- 
barks.  The  reniform  anthers  also  place  it  in  that  category,  but 
the  bark,  timber,  and  oil,  are  quite  distinct  from  those  of  this 
class.  As,  so  far,  only  a  single  tree  is  known,  one  is  strongly 
inclined  to  conclude  that  it  is  either  a  hybrid  or  a  sport.  Strong-^ 
colour  is  lent  to  the  hybrid  theory  by  the  fact  of  its  possessing 
so  many  of  the  characters  of  the  stringj^-barks,  especially  in  the 
seedling-stage;  yet  differing  from  them  in  others  in  the  mature 
stage,  as  for  instance  in  the  bark,  oil,  and  timber.  Since  the 
only  known  tree  has,  unfortunately,  lately  been  cut  down,  further 
comparison  is  at  present  impossible.  Now  that  a  description 
has  been  published,  search  may  reveal  further  specimens,  and 
more  definitely  establish  its  status.  The  tree  was  a  young  one, 
about  12-15  years  old,  and  growing  on  land  that  had  been  mostly 
cleared,  but  with  a  few  well  grown  trees  of  E.  hcemastom'f,  E. 
resinijh'a,  and  E.  siderophloia  in  proximity.     Other  trees  near  l)y 


BY    CUTFIRKRT    HALL.  749 

were  E.  crehra,  E.  eugenioides,  E.  hemlphloia,  E.  i->nnctata^  and 
E.  tereticornis .  I  have  named  this  form  or  species,  tentatively, 
E.  Marsdeni,  after  the  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden,  the  first  incumbent 
of  St.  John's  Church,  Parramatta. 

Oil. — Mr.  H.  G.  Smith  reports  tliat  the  oil  of  this  Eucalyptus 
was  obtained  by  steam-distillation,  in  the  ordinary  way,  from  the 
leaves  and  terminal  branches.  It  was  somewhat  thick  and  vis- 
cous, having  almost  the  viscosity  of  castor  oil.  It  has  little 
resemblance,  either  in  appearance  or  constitution,  to  the  majority 
of  ordinary  Eucalyptus  oils,  but  is  more  closely  allied  to  the  oils 
distilled  from  E.  nova-anylica  and  a  few  others.  It  has  no  re- 
semblance to  the  oils  of  the  members  of  the  E.  tereticm^nis-gvow^. 
Cineol  was  practically  absent,  and  phellandrene  could  not  be 
detected.  The  amount  of  oil  available  did  not  permit  of  the 
active  terpene  being  isolated  in  a  pure  condition,  but  it  is  pro- 
bable that  dextro-rotatory  pinene  occurs  in  small  amount. 

Only  38  pounds  of  material  were  received  for  distillation,  from 
which  4  ounces  of  oil  were  collected,  equal  to  0'66  percent.  The 
oil  was  but  little  coloured,  and  had  a  fairly  pleasant  odour.  It 
gave  the  following  results: — 

Specific  gravity  at    15°C.  =  0"9469. 

Rotation  aD  =  +4-8°. 

Refractive  index  at  •20°C.  =  1-4989. 

Insoluble  in  10  volumes  80  per  cent  alcohol  at  16°C. 

Saponification  number  of  esters  and  free  acid  =  2,  so  that 
esters  were  practically  absent.  The  small  amount  of  free  acid 
was  removed,  and  this  gave  a  strong  odour  of  butyric  acid. 
The  phenol  gave  the  reactions  for  Tasmanol,  but  it  is  probable 
that  both  phenols  occur.  The  indications  are  that  the  oil  con- 
sists largely  of  sesquiterpenes.  Probably  some  high-boiling 
alcohols  are  also  present,  as  indicated  by  the  odour. 

I  have  to  record  my  sincere  thanks  to  Messrs.  R.  T.  Baker 
and  H.  G.  Smith  for  much  help  in  preparing  this  paper. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  LXXV. 
Portion  of  branchlet  of  Emalyptns  Marsdeni,  f.  \el  sp.n. 

59 


750 


STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  NEUROPTERA. 

No.  6.  The  Family  Psycho psid.f.,  with  Descriptions  of  new 
Genera  and  Species. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(Plates  Ixxvi.-lxxviii.;  and  four  Text-figures.) 

In  No.4  of  this  series  of  Studies (15,  pp.271,  289),  I  gave  my 
reasons  for  considering  the  Psycho2)sid(e  to  be  a  separate  family, 
and  stated  that  it  was  my  intention  to  deal  with  these  insects  in 
a  monograph  to  follow  later. 

In  a  paper  read  in  October,  1915(13),  but  unfortunatel}^  not 
bearing  upon  it  any  indication  of  the  actual  date  of  publication, 
Navas  published,  in  Spain,  a  monograph  of  these  insects,  and 
classified  them  as  a  separate  family.  This  paper  has  only  recently 
reached  me,  and  I  cannot  tell  whether  it  should  take  priority 
over  mine  or  not;  however,  in  view  of  the  earlier  date  of  reading 
of  Navas'  paper,  I  feel  that  I  must  give  him  the  credit  of  having 
first  raised  these  insects  to  family  rank. 

The  conditions  arising  from  the  War  have  made  it  impossible 
for  me  to  receive,  for  study,  the  material  that  I  had  hoped  for, 
in  the  non- Australian  species  of  this  family.  For  this  reason, 
as  well  as  because  of  the  publication  of  Navas'  paper,  I  have 
decided  to  abandon  my  projected  monograph,  and  to  confine 
myself  mainly  to  a  study  of  the  Australian  species.  Only  in  so 
far  as  this  study  aflfects  the  classification  of  the  family,  will  it  be 
necessary  to  discuss  the  other  genera  and  species. 

During  the  past  three  years,  a  large  amount  of  work  has  been 
carried  out  upon  this  family.  Of  special  importance  has  been 
the  working-out  in  detail  of  the  life-history  of  one  species, 
Psychopsis  flegans  (Guerin),  and  the  dissection  and  photographing 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  751 

of  the  wings  of  the  pupa,  in  order  to  study  the  tracheation. 
Including  a  considerable  number  of  bred  specimens  of  this  species, 
I  have  had  through  my  hands  for  study,  at  one  time  or  another, 
about  one  hundred  examples  of  these  rare  insects,  and  have  thus 
been  enabled  to  gain  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  all  the  Australian 
species  except  one.  That  exception  is  Psi/chopsis  meyricki 
McLachlan,  of  which  the  only  known  specimens  are  in  the 
McLachlan  Collection,  and  are,  therefore,  not  available  for  study. 

In  the  present  paper,  I  propose  to  deal  fully  with  the  wing- 
venation  of  the  family,  firstly  by  a  study  of  the  pupal  wing- 
tracheation,  and  secondly  by  applying  the  results  so  obtained  to 
elucidating  the  best  method  of  founding  genera  in  the  family. 
This  matter  is  one  of  considerable  difficulty,  owing  to  the  essen- 
tial variability  of  the  characters  selected  for  this  purpose  by 
Navas,  viz.,  the  amount  of  cross- venation  present.  Descriptions 
of  new  genera  and  species  will  also  be  included,  together  with  a 
general  discussion  of  the  relationships  of  the  family.  The  full 
account  of  the  life-history  of  Psychopsis  eleyans  (Guerin)  will 
form  a  separate  paper,  No.  7  of  this  series  of  Studies. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  R.  Hamlyn  Harris,  Mr.  H.  Long- 
man, and  Mr.  H.  Hacker,  for  the  three  fine  photomicrographs 
reproduced  in  Plate  Ixxvi. 

The  Venation  of  Psy  chop  sis  eleyans  (Guerin). 

In  Text-fig.  1,  the  complete  venation  of  Psychojjsis  eleyans 
(Guerin),  is  shown.  Text-figs.  2, 3 A,  give,  for  comparison,  portions 
of  the  precedent  tracheation  of  the  pupal  wing,  drawn  by  means 
of  the  camera  lucida  from  freshly  dissected  pupal  wings. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that,  broadly  speaking,  the  venation 
and  the  precedent  tracheation  agree  remarkably  closely,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  the  more  archaic  members  of  the  Order  Planipennia. 
Tracheae  precede  every  main  vein,  right  down  to  its  tiniest 
branchlets;  but  no  tracheae  precede  the  cross-veins,  which  are 
only  lightly  indicated  on  the  pupal  wing.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
necessary  that  we  should  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  the 
true  cross-veins  in  the    imaginal   wintj,   and    those    veinlets  (or 


752 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  VI. 


Text-fig.  1. 
Psychopsis  elegans  (Guerin).  Wing-venation;  (  x  5).  lA,  first  analis;  2A, 
second  analis  or  basilar;  3 A,  third  analis  or  axillary;  ap,  apex;  C, 
costa;  cov,  costal  gradate  series  of  cross- veins;  cr,  recurrent  costal  or 
humeral  veinlet;  Cu,  cubitus;  Cuj,  Cus,  its  branches;  gi,  discal  gra- 
date series  of  cross-veins;  ^2»  internal  gradate  series  of  cross-veins; 
M,  media;  Mi,  M.^,  its  branches;  M^-Cui,  anastomosed  portion  of 
M2  withCui;  R,  radius;  Rs,  radial  sector;  Si -Si  3,  its  branches;  tji, 
tornus;  fr,  terminal  gradate  series  of  cross- veins. 


BY    R.    j.    TILLYARb. 


753 


braiichlets  of  main  veins)  which  arc  preceded  by  trache.T.  For 
example,  the  veinlets  passing  from  8c  to  the  anterior  border  are 
true  veinlets  or  branches  of  Sc;  but,  in  families  where  they  are 
not  so  prominently  developed  as  in  the  l\sijchoj)sid(e,  they  are 
frequently  spoken  of  as  cross-veins.  The  small  veins  which  join 
these  veinlets  together,  forming  a  longitudinal  series  of  gradate 


Text-fig.2. 
P-sf/rhopsIs  eJegans  (Giierin).     Tracheation  of  basal  half  of  pupal  wing; 

(  X  18).  Lettering  as  in  Text-fig.  1. 
veins,  are  true  cross-veins,  and  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
paratively late  acquisition,  correlated  with  the  broadening  out 
of  the  costal  area  in  this  family.  So,  also,  the  three  other  series 
of  gradate  veins  are  true  cross-veins,  not  being  preceded  by 
tracheie.  A  further  point  of  distinction  between  veinlets  and 
cross- veins,  in  this  and  all  other  archaic  families  of  Planipennia, 
is  that  the  veinlets,  like  the  main  veins  of  which  they  are  part, 
are  hairy,  whereas  the  cross-veins  are  not. 


754 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 


The  most  stiiking  specialisation  in  tlie  venation  of  the  Psych- 
ojysidce,  apart  from  the  great  enlargement  (jf  the  costal  area,  is 
the  manner  in  which  the  three  parallel  main  veins,  8c,  R,  and 
Rs,  have  become  strengthened,  for  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
quarters  of  their  lengths,  to  form  a  kind  of  midrib,  from  which 
the  rest  of  the  wing,  apart  from  the  much  reduced  median, 
cubital  and  anal  areas,  is  supplied  with  numerous,  delicate, 
radiating  veins.  I  propose  to  term  this  strengthened  portion  of 
these  three  veins  the  vena  trip/ lea;  its  distal  end  is  already  known 
as  the  anastomosis.  In  order  to  understand  this  structure,  we 
must  consult  the  precedent  tracheation.     There  (Text-fig.  3,  A)  we 


Text-fig. 3. 
P.^f/cJiopsIs  ehf/ans  (Guerin).     The  radial  anastomosis  in  the  forewing.     A, 
pupal  tracheation;  E,  imaginal  venation;  .Vj,  .I'a,  the  two  cross-veins 
which  join  the  distal  ends  of  the  vena  triplica. 

shall  find  that  the  trachete  run  normally  through  the  anastomosis, 
without  any  thickening  basad  to  it,  and  without  any  true  anasto- 
mosing between  them.  The  strengthening  of  these  veins,  from 
the  base  to  the  anastomosis,  to  form  the  vena  triplica,  their  ap- 
parent unions  at  the  anastomosis,  and  the  strong  differentiation 
of  their  distal  portions  so  as  to  appear  exactly  the  same  as  the 
branch-veins  above  and  below  them,  are  purely  imaginal  special- 
isations, peculiar  to  this  family,  and  not  found  elsewhere  in  the 
Planipennia.     The  development  of  the  irregular  series  of  cross- 


BY    K.    J.    TILLYARD.  755 

veins  between  So,  R,  and  Rs  may  also  be  correlated  with  the 
development  of  the  vena  triplica,  as  an  additional  strengthening 
for  the  midrib. 

Let  us  now  study  the  so-called  anastomosis  more  fully.  In 
Text-fig. 3,  A  and  B,  I  have  contrasted  the  pupal  tracheation 
with  the  imaginal  venation  in  this  region.  It  will  be  seen  at 
once  that  the  actual  termination  of  the  vena  triplica  is  not 
accomplished  by  means  of  an  anastomosis  between  any  of  the 
main  veins,  but  by  the  interpolation  of  the  two  cross-veins,  x^  and 
.x'2,  together  with  the  bending-down  of  the  portions  of  Sc  and 
Ri  preceding  them.  We  must  contrast  this  strongly  with  the 
condition  to  be  seen  in  the  Osmylidce,  where  Sc  and  Rj  approach 
one  another  distally  at  a  very  slight  angle,  and  then  fuse  together, 
without  the  iiitervention  of  an  auxiliary  cross-vein,  for  a  consider- 
able distance.  There  is  then,  in  the  Osmylidcn,  a  true  anasto- 
mosis between   these  two   veins;  whereas,  in   the   Psychopsidce, 


l-i 


M; 


■Ml 


Text-fig.  4. 
Types  of  anastomosis  between  IVI  and  Cu  in  Psychojjxis.     a,  usual  type  in 
Ps.  mimica  Newman,  forewing;  h,  usual  type  in  Ps.  elegans  (Guerin), 
forewing.     In  Ps.  i)iso/e)is  McLach.,  there  is  usuallj^  no  anastomosis  in 
this  region  at  all.     Lettering  as  in  Text-fig.  1. 
there  is  no  true  anastomosis,  and  it  would  appear  to  be  somewhat 
misleading  to  term  it  so,  as  Navas  has  done.      However,  the  term 
has  already  been  applied,  in  Perlaria  and  Trichoptera,  to  junc- 
tions between  main  veins,  brought  about  by  means  of  cross- veins 
in   line  with  one  another;  so   that    we  may  allow  it  to   remain, 
provided  that  we  understand  that  we  are  speaking  of  a  junction 
of  this  type,  and  not  a  true  anastomosis  between  two  or  more 
main  veins. 


756  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi,, 

Turning  next  to  the  region  of  the  media  and  cubitus,  on  the 
character  of  wliich  Navas  attempts  to  divide  the  Australian 
species  from  the  African,  as  two  separate  tribes,  on  the  ground 
that  the  former  have  no  anastomosis  in  this  region,  the  condition 
to  be  seen  in  PsychopsU  eletjans  is  shown  in  Text-fig.  1  and  Text- 
fig.  4,  b.  In  the  tracheation,  M._,  approaches  Cu^  very  closely  for 
a  considerable  distance,  and  then  diverges  from  it  again.  In  the 
corresponding  venation,  M2  fuses  with  Cu^  for  this  same  distance, 
and  the  parts  of  Mg  just  before  the  fusion,  and  of  Cuj  just  after 
it,  are  bent  so  as  to  appear  like  oblique  cross-veins.  It  is  cleai' 
that  here  we  have  a  true  anastomosis,  comparable  with  that 
between  Sc  and  R  already  mentioned  in  Osmylidce.  But  this 
anastomosis  is  not  a  constant  character,  either  for  the  species 
elegans  or  for  the  genus  Psychopsis,  as  I  have  noted  more  fully 
on  p. 761.  The  type  of  anastomosis  in  this  region  in  Psychojysis 
inimica,  in  which,  usually,  Mj  just  anastomoses  with  Mo  at  a 
point,  and  Mg  in  its  turn  with  Cuj,  is  shown  in  Text-fig.  4,  a.  In 
other  species,  such  as  Ps.  insolens,  there  may  be,  in  the  majority 
of  specimens,  no  anastomosis  whatever  in  this  region. 

The  arrangement  of  the  cross-veins,  which  are  not  represented 
in  the  precedent  tracheation,  is  of  great  interest.  In  Ps.  elegans 
(Text-fig.  1),  we  note,  first  of  all,  the  presence  of  a  gradate  series 
closing  the  disc  distally  (f/i).  This  may  be  termed  the  diseal 
gradate  series.  Internally  to  this,  and  crossing  the  disc  not  far 
from  its  middle,  there  is  another  series  {g^,  which  may  be  called 
the  iiiternal  gradate  series.  These  two  series  will  be  at  once 
recognised  as  the  homologues  of  the  two  gradate  series  normally 
present  in  the  wings  of  (Jhrysopid(e.  Besides  these,  there  will  be 
seen  a  long  series  of  cross-veins  connecting  the  veinlets  of  the 
costal  space,  and  extending  right  from  near  the  base  to  the  apex. 
This  may  be  termed  the  costal  gradate  series  (cov).  Below  the 
apex,  this  series  is  continuous  with  a  gradate  series  roughly 
parallel  to  the  discal  series,  but  lying  between  it  and  the  termen 
of  the  wing.  This  may  be  called  the  terminal  gradate  series  {tv). 
Except  for  a  slight  development  of  costal  cross- veins  in  such 
genera  as  Drepanepteryx,  the  costal  gradate  series  does  not  appear 


bV    R.    .t.    TiLLYARD.       '  /0< 

in  any  of  the  lower  Plaiiipeiinia;  the  terniiiial  gradate  series  is 
absolutely  peculiar  to  the  Faychojjsidw. 

Of  these  series,  only  the  discal  is  invariably  present.  The 
internal  series  is  usually  present  also,  but  not  always.  The  costal 
and  terminal  series  are  later  developments,  confined  to  the  larger 
species,  and  evidently  correlated  with  the  greater  expansion  of 
the  areas  which  they  help  to  support.  Further,  there  is  great 
\  ariability  in  the  condition  of  these  series  in  almost  all  species. 
As  an  example  of  this,  T  would  point  out,  in  Text-fig.  1,  the 
presence  of  a  single  cross-vein  in  the  forewing  between  the 
anterior  ends  of  the  internal  and  discal  series.  This  is  frequently 
absent;  but,  in  some  specimens,  it  may  be  replaced  by  either 
half  of  an  extra  series,  in  others  by  a  complete  series  of  as  many 
as  thirteen  cross-veins,  crossing  the  disc  between  the  internal 
and  the  discal  series !  In  one  case,  I  noted  the  presence  of  this 
extra  series  upon  one  forewing  of  a  specimen,  while  it  was  absent 
upon  the  other  I  It  will  be  at  once  obvious  that  attempts  to 
define  genera  on  such  variable  characters  as  these,  are  foredoomed 
to  failure. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  regarded  as  a 
whole,  the  wing  of  Psychopsis  presents  a  very  close  analogy  in 
structure  to  the  feather  of  the  wing  of  a  bird — an  analogy  which 
is  also  suggested  by  such  wings  as  that  of  Drepant'ptery.n^  but  by 
no  means  so  closely.  The  vena  triplica  corresponds  with  the 
rachis,  forming  the  main  support  or  midrib  in  both  cases;  the 
position  of  this  support  is  the  same  in  both  cases,  viz.,  nearer  to 
the  anterior  than  to  the  posterior  margin.  The  numerous  veins 
radiating  out  from  both  sides  of  the  vena  triplica  are  the 
analogues  of  the  barbs  of  the  bird's  feather;  and  the  series  of 
connecting  cross-veins,  or  gradate  series,  are  analogues  of  the 
barbules,  which  serve  to  connect  the  barbs  together. 

Classification  of  the  Family. 

We  are  now  in  a  better  position  to  consider  the  true  value  of 
the  various  venational  structures  which  have  so  far  been  used  in 
subdividing  it  into  tribes,  and  in  defining  genera. 


758  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vl., 

Our  study  of  the  venation  shows  us  that  the  cross-veins  are 
not  preceded  by  trachejt?,  and  that  they  are  to  be  considered  as 
a  later  addition  to  the  main  sclieme  of  venation.  This  appUes 
more  especially  to  the  costal  series  of  cross-veins  and  its  continu- 
ation, the  terminal  gradate  series,  which  are  not  fully  developed 
in  any  other  family,  and  are  evidently  comparatively  recent 
acquirements,  correlated  w  itli  the  great  enlargement  of  the  costal 
area.  With  regard  to  the  discal  and  internal  gradate  series,  it 
must  be  evident  that  vaiiations  in  the  amount  and  position  of 
the  cross-veins  formijig  them  will  depend  partly  on  the  size  of 
the  insect,  and  partly  upon  the  number  of  branches  of  the  radial 
sector  possessed  by  it;  we  should,  therefore,  be  prepared  to  find 
a  great  deal  of  variation  in  these  characters.  If,  then,  the 
present  system  of  classification  should  fail  to  stand  the  test  that 
we  propose  to  apply  to  it,  we  shall  be  faced  with  the  problem  of 
finding  more  reliable  characters,  on  which  to  rebuild  a  sounder 
arrangement  of  the  species. 

Though  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  deal  exhaustively 
with  the  non- Australian  species,  it  will  be  first  of  all  necessary 
to  call  attention  to  certain  errors  and  omissions  in  Navas'  most 
recent  work.  A  paper  that  claims  to  be  a  monograph  of  a  family 
should  surely  contain  a  complete  bibliography  of  all  the  more 
important  papers  concerning  it,  and  should  also  at  least  list,  if 
not  describe,  all  the  known  species.  But  I  find  that  Navas 
omits  from  his  work  all  reference  to  two  of  McLachlan's  most 
important  papers  (9,  10),  in  which  that  fine  entomologist  described 
a  new  South  African  species  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  only 
known  Burmese  species  on  the  other  (Fsi/chopsis  mar  shall  i^oLi., 
and  Ps.  binnana  McL.,  respectively).  Consequently,  Navas 
gives  only  four  species  instead  of  five  for  South  Africa  (unless, 
indeed,  one  of  his  own  species  is  synonymous  with  McLachlan's  I), 
and  is  quite  unaware  that  a  Burmese  species  exists  at  all  I  As 
there  are  only  fifteen  species  known  altogether,  it  will  be  seen 
that  these  omissions  are  veiy  serious  for  a  monograph. 

We  must  now  note  some  further  errors  of  equal  gravity.  In 
1910,  Navas  described  specimens  of  Pst/chopsis  elegans  (Guerin), 


fiV    R.    J.    TtLLYARb.  759 

surely  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  typical  species  of  the 
family,  as  a  new  genus  and  species  of  Jlenierob'ddai^  under  the 
name  ZygoiMebius  rrrnaitxlniis  Navas{ll).  The  description 
clearly  shows  that,  at  the  time,  Navas  was  quite  unaware  that 
there  was  such  a  genus  as  Fsychopsis,  though  it  had  been  pro- 
posed nearly  seventy  years  before,  and  its  type-species  was  one 
of  the  most  striking  of  all  known  Planipennia.  Later  in  the 
same  year,  N.  Banks(l)  pointed  out  that  Zijijophldnus  was  clearly 
synonymous  with  FsychopsU',  whereupon,  in  his  next  publication, 
Navas  suppressed  his  generic  name  in  favour  of  Fsychopsis.  If 
he  had  stopped  there,  all  would  have  been  well.  But,  in  his 
monograph  (13),  he  proceeded  to  resurrect  Guerin's  old  generic 
name  Arteriopteryx  (given  by  that  author  in  ignorance  of  New- 
man's then  quite  recently  published  name,  Psychopsis),  the  type 
of  which  is  eleymis  Guerin,  synonymous  with  vei-reauxinus  Navas. 
He  then,  quite  illegally,  further  resurrects  his  generic  name 
Zygophlehius,  of  which  the  original  type  was  verreauxinus  Navas 
( =  elegans  Guerin),  and  proceeds  to  redefine  it,  and  to  give  it  a 
new  genotype,  Psychopsis  zebra  Brauer,  from  South  Africa.  At 
the  same  time,  he  forms  the  tribe  Zyyophlebini  to  receive  the 
whole  of  the  South  African  species,  leaving  eleyans  Guerin, 
together  with  all  the  other  Australian  species,  in  the  tribe 
Psychopsini ! 

Now  Zyyophlebius  was  proposed  by  Navas  as  a  monotypic 
genus,  and  hence  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  which  species 
was  its  type.  Hence,  whether  Navas  was  correct  in  placing  that 
species  in  Psychopsis,  as  he  did  in  191 2,  or  in  Arteriopteryx,  as 
he  did  in  1916,  is  immaterial  to  the  question.  In  either  case, 
Zyyo2)hlebius  sinks  as  a  synonym,  either  of  Psychopsis  Newman, 
or  of  Arterio2)teryx  Guerin.  As  a  nomen  niidain,  it  may  not 
again  be  resurrected  in  the  form  of  a  new  genus,  to  receive,  as 
its  type,  another  species  of  Psychopsis,  viz.,  Ps.  zebra  Brauer. 
Further,  the  tribal  name  Zygophlebhii  must  sink  with  it.  If 
Ps.  zebra  Brauer,  is  really  generically  distinct  from  Ps.  niiniica 
Newman,  it  now  requires  a  new  name.  I  therefore  propose  the 
name  Notopsychop>s,  n.n.,    to  replace   Zygophlebias  Navas,  1916, 


760  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

(type  zebra  Br.),  invalidated  by  ZyyophlpMns  Navas,  1910,  (type 
verranxinus  Navas  =  eZe^mii?  Guerin)  itself  a  synonym  for  Arteri- 
opfery.v  Guerin,  synonymous  with  P^ychopsis  Newman. 

Having  thus  cleared  the  ground  to  some  extent,  let  us  now 
pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  division  of  the  family  into  tribes, 
as  proposed  by  Navas  in  1916  (13,  p.  188).  I  give  herew^ith  his 
key,  translated  from  the  original  Spanish : — 


(1) 


(2) 


Costal  area  of  both  wangs  divided,  at  least  partly,  by  a  median 
longitudinal  series  of  gradate  veinlets  {reniUas  en  esculinata)      2. 

Costal  area  simple  or  totally  undivided  in  both  wings.     Asiatic 

species 3.  Balmesini,  nov. 

Two  anastomoses  in  both  wings;  the  anterior  formed  by  the 
subcostal,  the  radius  and  its  sector,  which  are  united  in  the 
region  of  the  stigma,  the  posterior  by  the  procubitus  {  =  M), 
the  cubitus  and  its  sector,  which  are  connected  in  a  similar 
manner.     African  species 2.  Zygophhhini  Navas,  restr. 

One  evident  anastomosis,  viz.,  the  anterior  or  radial,  formed  by 
the  three  veins  mentioned;  the  others  run  parallel  without 
bending  manifestly  in  an  anastomosis.     Australian  species... 

1 .  Psychojjsmi,  nov. 

In  his  description  of  Psychopsis  hirmana{2),  which  Navas  has 
evidently  not  seen,  McLachlan  says: — "It  differs  from  all  Aus- 
tralian species  except  Ps.  7ney?'icki  in  the  absence  of  a  line  of 
oblique  connecting  nervules  in  the  costal  area" ;  and,  lower  down, 
he  divides  the  known  species  of  Psychopsis  into  two  groups,  of 
which  the  first,  consisting  of  Ps.  meyricki  and  Ps.  hirmana,  is 
defined  by  the  words  "No  line  of  oblique  nervules  in  costal  area, 
only  two  series  of  transverse  gradate  veins." 

The  facts  of  the  case  are  that  Ps.  meyrirkl  normally  lacks  the 
costal  series  of  cross-veins,  as  McLachlan  here  states.  Navas, 
however,  who  admits  that  he  has  never  seen  this  species,  is  com- 
pelled to  place  it  in  his  geiuis  Magallanes,  together  wdth  Ps. 
hisohns  McLach.,  though  he  defines  this  genus  as  having  the 
costal  space  of  the  forewing  subdivided  by  the  presence  of  the 
series  of  costal  cross-veins,  which  Ps.  meyricki  lacks.  For,  if  he 
had  anywhere  mentioned  this  character,  which  McLachlan 
emphasises,  his  tribe  Balmesini  at  once  breaks  down ! 


BV    R,    J.    TILLYARD. 


61 


Here,  then,  we  have  an  instance  of  an  entirely  artificial  sub- 
division into  two  tribes,  Balmesini  and  Psychopsini.  We  may 
well  ask,  what  is  the  essential  point  in  the  subdivision"?  Is  it 
to  divide  the  Asiatic  from  the  Australian  species'?  If  so,  then 
the  division  on  the  character  of  the  costal  space  breaks  down, 
and  Ps.  meyricki,  agreeing  with  the  Asiatic  species  in  this 
respect,  must  nevei'theless  stand  apart  from  them  in  the  tribal 
division.  But  if  it  is  the  character  of  the  costal  cross-veins  that 
is  the  essential  matter,  the  case  becomes  even  worse;  for  then 
the  Australian  species  Ps.  meyricki  must  at  once  be  removed 
from  the  tribe  Psychopsini  to  the  tribe  Balmesini  (all  the  rest  of 
which  are  Asiatic  species),  and  must  also  be  removed  from  the 
genus  J/agallanes,  of  which  its  close  ally,  Ps.  insoJens  McL.,  is 
the  genotype,  and  find  its  proper  place  in  the  Asiatic  genus 
Bahnes ! 

There  is  only  one  escape  from  this  dilemma,  and  that  is,  to 
admit  that  the  tribal  characters  here  under  discussion  are  of  no 
value,  and  to  suppress  the  tribe  Balmesini  altogether. 

Turning  next  to  the  characters  of  the  tribe  Zygophlehini  Navas, 
as  here  defined,  it  is  only  necessary  to  draw  attention  to  my 
remarks  on  the  condition  of  the  venation  of  Psychopsis  elegans 
in  the  region  of  M  and  Cu  (p. 756).  Navas'  definition  for  the 
tribe  Zygophlehini  indicates  the  presence  of  an  anastomosis  in 
the  region  of  these  two  veins  for  this  tribe,  but  the  absence  of 
the  same  anastomosis  in  the  tribe  Psychojysini.  One  would  have 
Mttle  hesitation  in  deciding  that  both  Psychopsis  mimica  New- 
man, and  Ps.  elega7is  Guerin,  must  go  into  the  tribe  Zygoj^hlehini, 
on  this  definition.  Whether  the  form  of  anastomosis  is  the  same 
in  these  species  as  it  is  in  the  African  ones,  I  am  not  able  to 
say;  the  point  is,  that  the  amount  of  anastomosis  in  this  region 
is  very  variable,  not  only  for  diff'erent  species,  but  also  for  dif- 
ferent individuals  of  the  same  species.  There  is  only  one  species 
known  to  me,  viz.,  Ps.  insolens  McL.,  in  which  it  can  truly  be 
said  that  the  great  majority  of  the  known  individuals  have  no 
anastomosis  in  this  region;  hence,  strictly  speaking,  this  is  the 
only    species    that    can    be    rightly    admitted    into    the    tribe 


762  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

Psychopsini,  as  defined  by  Navas.  Thus  we  come  to  a  rpductio 
ad  ahsurditm,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  pursue  any  further. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  admit,  at  once,  that  the  tribal  characters 
under  discussion  are  of  no  value,  and  to  suppress  the  tribe  Zygo- 
phlebini  altogether.  We  are  then  left  with  only  the  tribal  name 
Psychopsini,  which  ceases  to  have  any  value  as  restricted  by 
Navas'  definition,  and  may  be  disregarded;  leaving  us  with  a 
single  family  of  closely  united  species,  the  Psychopsidce,  within 
which  no  legitimate  tribal  divisions  can  so  far  be  recognised. 

Having  settled  these  questions,  we  may  now  proceed  to  define 
the  family  Psychopsidce  afresh,  and  to  deal  more  fully  with  the 
Australian  genera  and  species.  This  will  necessitate  a  discussion 
of  the  validity  of  the  genera  proposed  by  Navas  for  the  Austra- 
lian species,  a  re-grouping  of  the  species,  and  descriptions  of  two 
new  genera  and  species. 

Family  PSYCHOPSID^. 

Head:  size  small  or  medium;  eyes  large  and  rounded,  well 
separated,  projecting  laterally  ;  ucelli  absent  or  vestigial  ; 
antenncB  short,  set  fairly  close  together,  many-jointed.  Mandihles 
small,  with  only  a  single  internal  tooth  below  apex;  ma.vilke  with 
five-jointed  palpi;  labial  palpi  three-jointed. 

Thorax:  broad  and  strongly  built;  ])7'olho7'ax  short  and  com- 
paratively narrow;  mesothorax  very  broad  and  large;  metathorax 
also  broad,  much  shorter  than  mesothoi-ax,  and  not  fused  with 
it.  Legs  short,  the  tibiae  with  a  pair  of  terminal  spurs,  the  tarsi 
five-jointed,  with  small  terminal  claws  and  a  broad  empodium. 

Wings  very  broad,  with  broadly  rounded  apices.  Costal 
space  excessively  widened  from  base  to  apex  without  any  dif- 
ferentiated pterostigma;  the  costal  veinlets  numerous  and  fre- 
quently branched,  generally  connected  by  a  more  or  less  complete 
series  of  longitudinal  cross-veins  (absent  or  reduced  in  the  smaller 
species);  a  recurrent  vein  at  the  base  of  the  costal  space.  8c,  R, 
and  Rs  are  strong  veins,  and  run  closely  parallel,  forming  a  strong- 
midrib  to  the  wing,  the  cena  tripHca,  supported  by  numerous 
cross-veins;  this  formation  ends  at  a  point  between  one-quarter 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  763 

and  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  wing  from  the  apex,  where  So, 
R,  and  Rs  become  joined  by  strong  cross- veins,  forming  the 
anastomosis;  from  this  point  onwards,  these  three  veins  continue 
only  as  weak  branching  veins,  indistinguishable  from  those 
around  them.  Branches  of  Rs  very  numerous,  closely  parallel 
to  one  another,  their  direction  almost  parallel  with  that  of  the 
dorsal  border  of  the  wing.  Central  area  of  wing  marked  off  as  a 
disc,  bounded  anteriorly  by  Rs,  posteriorly  by  Cu,  and  distally 
by  a  series  of  gradate  cross-veins,  the  discal  series.  Other  series 
of  gradate  cross-veins  may  also  be  developed;  in  particular,  an 
internal  series  crossing  the  disc  near  its  middle,  and  a  terminal 
series,  lying  between  the  discal  and  the  termen,  and  continuing 
the  line  of  the  costal  cross- veins;  apart  from  these,  there  is  little 
or  no  development  of  cross-veins  upon  the  wing.  M  variable, 
but  always  with  its  branches  closely  parallel,  and  occupying  only 
a  little  of  the  wing-space.  Cu  either  two-branched  or  simple, 
with  or  without  a  variable  amount  of  anastomosis  with  M.  Anal 
veins  short,  three  in  number,  mostly  much  branched. 

Abdomen  short,  moderately  stout,  completely  covered  by 
the  wings  in  the  position  of  rest.  Ap])e7idages  variable,  usually 
either  forcipate  or  valve-like  in  the  males. 

Eggs  oval,  with  rounded  ends;  laid  separately  and  attached 
by  one  side. 

Larva  very  distinct  on  account  of  its  large,  squarish  head, 
from  which  the  enormous  jaws  project  like  a  pair  of  calipers; 
mandibles  without  internal  teeth;  the  body  somewhat  flattened, 
of  moderate  width,  fairly  long,  tapering  posteriorly  to  the  anal 
sucker ;  the  legs  short  and  formed  for  running  backwards. 
Colouration  greyish-brown,  with  pruinescence.  Inhabits  crevices 
in  the  bark  of  large  forest-trees;  fiercely  carnivorous. 

Cocoon  spherical,  or  nearly  so,  resembling  a  large  pearl; 
spun  from  the  anus,  of  fine  cream-coloured  silk,  in  crevices  of  the 
bark. 

Pupa  short  and  stout,  of  normal  Planipennian  form.  Active 
at  metamorphosis,  when  it  cuts  open  the  cocoon  and  ascends  the 
tree  for  some  distance  before  disclosing  the  imago. 


764  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

(A  full  account  of  the  egg,  larva,  and  pupa  will  be  given  in 
dealing  with  the  Life-History  of  Psychojwis  elegans  Guer.,  which 
will  form  the  next  of  this  series  of  Studies). 

Distribution:  Australia  (but  not  Tasmania),  South  Africa, 
Burma,  Thibet,  and  China;  suggesting  a  Gondwanaland  origin 
for  the  family  Close  relatives  of  the  family  were  present  in  the 
Trias  of  Ipswich,  Q. 

The  Fsychopsidft"  are  at  once  distinguished  from  all  other  Plani- 
pennia  by  their  shortened  antennae,  the  joints  of  w^hich  remain 
distinct  and  similar,  and  by  their  remarkable  wing-structure,  in 
which  the  most  striking  characters  are  the  great  enlargement  of 
the  costal  area,  with  formation  of  the  connecting  costal  cross- 
veins;  the  strengthening  of  Sc,  R,  and  Rs  to  form  the  i'>ena 
triplica,  supported  by  cross-veins  between  them;  the  strong  dif- 
ferentiation betw^een  the  vena  triplica  and  the  parts  of  Sc,  R,  and 
Rs  lying  beyond  the  anastomosis;  the  formation  of  the  anasto- 
mosis by  interpolation  of  two  small  cross-veins;  and  the  great 
abundance  and  closeness  of  the  branches  of  Rs. 

As  regards  the  definitions  of  the  four  Australian  genera,  I  give 
herewith  Navas'  key  to  them  (13,  p.  188),  translated  from  the 
original  Spanish: — 

'Forewing  with  four  transverse  series  of  gradate  veinlets,  three 
in  the  disc  and  one  the  external  continuation  of  the  costal 
series;  hindwing  with  only  three  such  series,  two  discal  and 
the  external  one  which  continues  that  of  the  costal  field  par- 
allel to  the  external  margin  of  the  wing. ...  1.  Psychopsis  Newman. 

Forewing  with  only  three  series  of  transverse  veinlets 2. 

'Both  wings  with  three  series  of  gradate  veinlets,  two  in  the  disc 
between  the  radial  sector  and  procubitus  (  =  M),  and  the  ex- 
ternal one  which  is  continuous  in  a  curve  with  that  of  the 
costal  field 2.  Arteriopteryx  Gu6r. 

.Hindwing  with  two  or  one  series  of  gradate  veinlets 3. 

I ''Three  transverse  series  of  gradate  veinlets,  very  distinct  and 
complete,  in  forewing;  only  two  in  hindwing...  3.  Wernzia  Navas. 
^.i;  -  Disc  of  forewing  with  two  complete  series  of  gradate  veinlets, 
at  times  a  trace  of  a  third  in  continuation  of  the  costal  series; 
\      hindwing  with  only  one 4.  Maoallanes  Nav^as. 

According  to   Navas,  the  arrangement  of  the  gradate  series 


(1) 


(2) 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  765 

shown  ill  Text  fig.  1,  determines  the  insect  as  belonging  to  tlie 
genus  Arteriopteryx  Guer.  If,  however,  the  forewing  has  an 
extra  series  interpolated  in  the  disc,  between  the  internal  and 
discal  series,  then  the  insect  belongs  to  Ptii/chopsis  Newman.  If 
the  arrangement  for  the  forewing  remains  as  in  Text-fig.  1,  but 
the  hind  wing  has  one  series  missing,  then  the  insect  goes  into 
Wernzia  Navas.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  the  terminal  series  in 
the  forewing  is  absent,  or  only  partially  formed,  then  the  insect 
belongs  to  Magcdlanes  Navas. 

A  complete  study  of  the  whole  of  the  cross-veins  in  the  speci- 
mens in  my  collection  has  been  carefully  carried  out.  The  total 
number  of  specimens  studied  was  sixty-four;  but  many  of  these 
have  since  been  given  away  or  exchanged.  They  represent  eight 
species,  two  of  which  are  new.  The  following  very  interesting 
and  instructive  results  are  here  given : — 

Pt^ychopsis  illidyei  Froggatt. — The  male  in  my  collection  has 
three  complete  series  in  all  four  wings.  In  the  forewings,  there 
are  numerous  scattered  cross-veins  in  the  upper  distal  portion  of 
the  disc  (Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig. 4),  but  no  sign  whatever  of  a  fourth 
series  between  </i  and  g^.  Hence,  according  to  Navas,  this 
insect  belongs  to  Arteriopteryx  Guer. 

In  a  large  female  of  the  same  species,  which  I  examined  in  the 
Queensland  Museum,  and  of  which  photographs  are  given  in 
Plate  Ixxvi.,  figs.  1-3,  there  are  only  three  series  in  the  forewings, 
and  no  irregularly  placed  cross-veins  elsewhere  in  the  disc.  This 
specimen,  then,  also- goes  into  Arteriopteryx^  according  to  Navas. 

Of  two  specimens  in  Mr.  Froggatt's  Collection,  one  has  three 
complete  series  of  gradate  cross-veins  in  all  four  wings.  The 
other  has  four  complete  series  on  the  left  forewing,  and  only  three 
on  the  right.  Hence,  according  to  Navas,  the  first  specimen 
belongs  to  Arteriopteryx^  the  second  partly  to  that  genus  and 
partly  to  Psychopsisl 

Psychopsis  mimica  Newman. — I  have  examined  seven  speci- 
mens altogether.  The  forewing  shows  also  three  complete  series; 
in  addition,  there  are  a  variable   number  of  cross-veins  in  the 

60 


766  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi. 

disc,  between  (/,  and  g.^,  numbering  from  four  to  thirteen.  In 
only  one  specimen  do  these  form  a  complete  fourth  series;  in  the 
rest,  they  form  either  an  incomplete  series,  or  are  just  scattered 
irregularly.  In  the  hindwing,  the  terminal  and  discal  series  are 
complete,  but  the  internal  series  is  very  variable,  being  some- 
times complete,  and  sometimes  very  incomplete,  with  as  few  as 
seven  veins  in  it. 

This  is  the  type-species  of  the  genus  Psychopsis.  Of  the  seven 
specimens  examined  by  me,  Navas  would  place  only  one  definitely 
within  Psi/chopsis;  the  rest  are  either  intermediate  between 
Psychopsis  and  Arteriopteryx,  or  between  Psychoj^sis  and  Wernzia. 
Psychopsis  gracilis,  n.sp.,  (Plate  Ixxviii.,  fig.  10). — -The  only 
known  specimen  shows  the  three  series  of  the  forevving  complete, 
together  with  a  very  irregular,  incomplete  fourth  series  in  the 
disc  between  ^j  and  (/._,.  In  the  hindwing,  the  discal  and  terminal 
series  are  practically  complete,  but  tlie  internal  series  consists  of 
only  four  cross- veins,  not  forming  a  continuous  series,  and  not 
close  together  in  line.  One  would  like  to  know  where  Navas 
would  place  this  specimen. 

Psychopsis  elegans  (Guer.),  {  =  Ps.  newmani  Froggatt). — 
Twenty-eight  specimens  of  this  species  have  been  examined,  most 
of  them  bred  specimens.  The  cross-venation  is  very  variable. 
In  the  forewing,  the  three  series  are  always  complete;  but  there 
may  or  may  not  be  a  fourth.  In  some  specimens,  this  fourth 
series  is  complete,  consisting  of  as  many  as  thirteen  veins  in  line; 
in  others,  there  is  only  half  a  series;  in  others  again,  only  three 
or  four  irregular  veins;  while,  in  the  majority  of  specimens,  there 
is  only  one  intermediate  cross-vein  (as  in  Text-fig.  1),  or  none  at 
all.  I  have  seen  one  specimen  having  four  complete  series  in  one 
wing,  and  only  three  in  the  other  I  In  the  hindwing,  the  ter- 
minal and  discal  series  are  always  complete,  but  the  internal 
series  is  very  variable,  being  sometimes  a  complete  series  of  from 
eight  to  ten  veins  in  line,  and  sometimes  merely  from  three  to 
five  irregularly  placed  cross-veins.  Thus,  different  specimens  of 
this  species  might  almost  be  placed  in  three  of  Navas'  genera, 
and  we  are   not   surprised   to   find   this   author  himself   placing 


RY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  767 

pjpgan^  in  A7'ferioptery:i\  and  neumiani  in  Psychopsis,  altliough 
they  are  one  and  the  same  species !  I 

Piii/chopt^i:^  ccelivagus  (Walker). — Five  specimens  have  been 
examined.  The  forewing  has  the  terminal  and  discal  series  com- 
plete, the  internal  series  eithei'  complete  or  incomplete.  In  the 
hind  wing,  the  internal  series  is  absent,  the  terminal  series  is 
complete,  and  the  discal  series  is  very  variable.  It  may  he  com- 
plete and  in  normal  position,  or  it  may  be  remo\'ed  inwards  to  a 
position  midway  between  the  normal  positions  of  the  discal  and 
internal  series,  or  it  may  be  entirely  replaced  by  irregular  cross- 
veins;  in  one  specimen,  the  disc  is  covered  nearly  all  over  by 
ii'regular  cross-veins,  not  forming  any  gradate  series  at  all.  This 
xariability  should  be  contrasted  with  Navas'  definition  of  the 
genus  Wernzia,  of  which  this  species  is  the  genotype. 

Psyrhopsis  inmlens  Walker. — Twenty-one  specimens  have  been 
examined.  In  this  species,  the  forewing  has  the  discal  series 
complete,  the  internal  either  complete  or  nearly  so.  The  terminal 
series  is  usually  quite  absent;  but,  in  some  cases,  there  are  from 
one  to  five  cross-veins  belonging  to  the  upper  end  of  this  series. 
In  the  hindvving,  the  discal  series  is  complete,  the  internal  series 
very  variable.  Normally  either  absent  or  represented  by  only 
one  cross- vein,  it  is  nevertheless  present  in  a  fair  percentage  of 
specimens,  either  as  an  incomplete  series  of  two  or  three  veins,  or 
as  a  complete  series  of  four  consecutive  veins;  further,  right  and 
left  wings  do  not  always  show  the  same  condition.  The  terminal 
series  is  absent  in  the  hindwings;  and  the  costal  series,  which  is 
complete  in  both  wings  of  all  the  preceding  species,  is  here 
reduced  to  a  shorter  series,  running  from  the  base  outwards  for 
a  variable  distance,  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  the  entire  length 
of  the  costal  area.  Thus  we  see  that  Navas  definition  of  the 
genus  Mayalhtnes,  of  which  this  species  is  the  genotype,  will  not 
include  the  whole  of  the  specimens  examined. 

Finally,  in  a  single  specimen  of  a  new  species  (Plate  Ixxviii., 
fig.  11),  which  will  form  the  type  of  a  new  genus,  we  find  the 
discal  and  internal  series  present  on  both  fore-  and  hindwings, 
the  discal  series  of   the  hindwings  being  not  quite  complete,  and 


768  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

removed  somewhat  inwards  from  the  normal  position.  The  mar- 
ginal series  is  absent  from  both  wings,  and  there  is  only  a  mere 
vestige  of  the  costal  series,  at  the  base  of  the  wing. 

(Psychopsis  meyricki  McLachlan,  which  I  have  not  seen,  is 
stated  by  its  describer  to  have  both  discal  and  internal  series 
present  in  the  forewing;  but  nothing  is  said  as  to  the  condition 
of  the  hindwing;  the  costal  series  is  absent). 

Reviewing  the  above  evidence,  it  is  clear  that: — 

(1)  The  genus  Psycho^ysis  Newman,  being  founded  upon  Ps. 
mimica  Newman,  a  species  which  itself  shows  great  variability 
in  the  number  of  its  series  of  cross-veins,  cannot  be  restricted  by 
any  definition  which  attempts  to  limit  this  variability. 

(2)  The  genus  Artej'iopteryx  Guer.,  founded  upon  P.s\  elegans 
Guer.,  a  species  very  closely  allied  to  P><.  mimica,  and  with  almost 
equally  variable  cross-venation,  must  be  suppressed  entirety,  and 
its  type-species  retained  within  Psychopsis  Newman. 

(3)  The  genus  Wernzia,  as  defined  by  Navas,  does  not  even 
include  all  the  specimens  of  its  type-species.  If,  however,  the 
definition  of  the  genus  be  widened,  then  it  at  once  forms  a  part 
of  the  Psychopsi^-sei-ies  of  species,  and  should  be  included  in  that 
genus. 

(4)  The  genus  MagaUanes  is  founded  upon  a  type-species  which 
grades  into  Wernzia  in  the  characters  of  some  of  its  individual 
members.  This  should  also,  therefore,  be  removed  back  to 
Psychopsis. 

If  these  conclusions  be  accepted,  the  genus  Psychop)sis  will 
include  forms  showing  a  gradual  transition,  from  four  series  to 
two  in  the  forewing,  and  from  three  series  to  one  in  the  hind, 
with  scarcely  a  break  anywhere  in  the  series.  Bearing  in  mind 
that  the  gradations  are  not  specific  constants,  but  essentially  of 
individual  value  only,  it  must  be  evident  that  any  attempt  to 
subdivide  this  genus,  upon  the  basis  of  these  variable  characters, 
is  bound  to  fail. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  ask  whether  we  should  be  content  to 
leave  all  the  Australian  species  in  the  genus  Psychoj^sis,  or 
whether  we  should  seek  for  some  new  division. 


BY    K.    .1.    TILLYAKb.  769 

I  believe  that  a  natural  division  t)f  the  Australian  species  is 
possible,  without  attempting  to  make  use  of  characters  so  essen- 
tially variable  as  the  cross-venation.  Anyone  who  has  studied 
these  insects  at  all  fully  will  be  at  once  struck  with  the  very 
great  difference  exhibited  between  Psychojyds  illidyei  Froggatt, 
and  all  the  other  species.  This  may  be  seen  at  once  by  com- 
paring Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig.i,  with  Text-fig.  1  and  Plate  Ixxviii.,  fig. 
10.  Apart  from  its  much  greater  size,  Ps.  illidgei  differs  from 
all  the  other  species  by  the  shape  of  the  wings,  in  which  (but 
more  especially  in  the  forewing),  the  dorsal  margin  is  strongly 
exca\ated,  so  that  the  torn  us  projects  very  prominently  beyond 
the  rest  of  the  wing-area.  This  species  is  also  unique  in  possess- 
ing raised  or  embossed  areas  upon  the  forewing.  Further,  there 
is  a  gj-eat  difference  in  the  venation,  in  that  the  branches  of  the 
radial  sector  are  far  more  numerous  and  closely  set  in  this  species 
than  in  any  other,  giving  the  wings  the  appearance  of  having 
been  made  from  spun  silk  or  some  other  fine  material.  Finally, 
if  we  examine  the  condition  of  the  median  vein,  we  shall  find 
that  it  has  from  four  to  six  branches  within  the  disc;  whereas, 
in  all  the  other  species,  it  is  only  two-branched.  These  differ- 
ences are  so  striking,  that  I  have  no  hesitation  in  separating  out 
Fd.  iUirhjei  from  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  to  form  the  type 
of  a  new  genus  Megajysychops,  whose  full  definition  will  be  found 
below. 

All  the  Australian  species  left  over  in  the  genus  Psychopsis 
agree  in  possessing  a  moderate  number  of  branches  of  the  radial 
sector,  in  having  a  hindwing  about  two-thirds  as  wide  as  the 
fore,  and  with  a  very  characteristic,  dark,  round  spot  upon  it, 
towards  the  apex.  But  I  have,  in  my  collection,  a  small  i\e,\w 
species,  in  which  the  hindwing  is  much  narrower,  being  only 
about  half  as  wide  as  the  forewing,  and  the  dark  spot  is  absent. 
Though  these  characters  do  not  separate  this  species  so  distinctly 
from  the  rest  as  do  those  of  Ps.  illidyei,  yet  they  have  the  merit 
of  being  obviously  constants.  Hence  I  propose  to  describe  this 
new  species  under  a  new  generic  name,  P sychopsella,  of  which  it 
will  form  the  type.  The  full  definition  of  this  genus  is  given 
below. 


770  STUOIKS    IN    AUSTRALIAX    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

There  now  remain  within  the  genus  Psi/chopsis  the  six  Austra- 
lian species  Dihuica  Newman,  (jracilis,  n.sp.,  eleyans  Guer., 
cwlwof/iis  Walker,  insohns  Walkei',  and  meyricki  McLach.  Of 
these,  the  first  three  are  distinguished  by  their  usually  larger 
size,  the  somewliat  angulated  tornus  of  the  wings,  and  the  pink 
or  red  colouration  of  the  markings  above  the  tornus  of  the  fore- 
wing.  Contrasted  with  these,  tlie  other  three  are  usually  of 
smaller  size,  with  more  rounded  wings,  the  tornus  not  prominent, 
and  the  colouration  either  fawn,  brown,  or  black.  It  would 
appear  at  first  sight  that  these  two  groups  suggest  a  natural 
division  of  the  genus  into  two.  But,  unfortunately,  tlie  species 
elegans  Guer.,  is  so  variable  that  it  forms  a  connecting  link 
between  the  two  groups.  I  have  a  number  of  specimens  that 
are  no  larger  than  well-sized  examples  of  y*-.  insolens',  moreover, 
the  smaller  the  specimen,  the  more  rounded  does  the  wing 
become;  so  that  my  series  of  elegans  offers  almost  a  complete 
transition  from  the  angulated  tornus,  seen  in  mhnica,  to  the 
rounded  toriuis  of  iusoleus.  There  remains,  therefore,  nothing 
but  the  colour  to  go  upon.  The  only  conclusion  I  can  legiti- 
mately come  to  is,  that  these  six  species  form  a  natural  assem- 
blage, which  is  best  expressed  as  a  single  genus.  But,  having 
said  that,  it  should  also  be  remarked  that  all  six  species  are  very 
distinct  forms,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  whatever  in  separating 
them  at  sight.      A  key  to  these  species  will  be  found  below. 

Key  to  the  x\  u  s t  r a  1  i  a n  Genera. 

Ocelli  vestigial.  Fore  and  hindwings  of  almost  equal  width, 
with  the  branches  of  Rs  excessively  numerous  (27  to  32 
in  forewing,  18  to  24  in  hind),  exceedinglj'  close  together,  so 
as  to  give  tlie  wing  the  appearance  of  the  close  texture  of  spun 
silk;  dorsal  margin  strongly  excavated  before  the  tornus,  the 
latter  very  prominent,  especially  in  the  forewing.  M  at  least 
four-branched.  Forewings  with  raised  or  embossed  areas,... 
ME<;ArsYCHOFS,  n.g.      (Type,  Psychopsis  illidgei  Yvogga,tt). 

Ocelli  absent.  Hindwing  distinctly  narrower  than  fore. 
Branches  of  Rs  moderately  numerous  (from  7  to  16),  not  ex- 
cessively close  together;  Al  only  two-branched;  dorsal  margin 
straight  or  only  slightly  excavated;  no  i-aised  or  embossed 
areas  on  forewing 2. 


(1] 


(2) 


BY    R.    J.    TtLLYAKb.  7*71 

Hind  wing  about  two-thirds  as  broad  as  fore  wing;  and  with  a 

distinct  dark  rounded  spot  towards  apex  or  ternien 

PsYCHOPSis  Newman. 

Hindwing  only  just  over  one-half  as  wide  as  forewing,  and 

without  any  such  spot 

PsYCHOPSELLA,  n.g.     (Type,  Pi^i/chojjsef/a  gallardi,  n.g.  et  sp.). 


Me  G  APS  Y  CHOPS,  n.g.      (Plates  Ixxvi.,  Ixxvii.). 

Characters  as  given  above.  Large  insects,  expanse  over 
50  mm. 

G  e  n  o  t  y  p  e,  Fsychopsis  illidgei  Froggatt. 

Megapsychops  illidgei  (Froggatt).     (Plates  Ixxvi.,  Ixxvii.). 

Psychoftsis  iUidyei  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1903,  xxviii., 
p. 455,  PI.  xxi.,  figs. 7,  9.  Kavas,  Congreso  de  Yalladolid,  1916, 
p.191,  fig.2. 

There  is  no  need  to  add  very  much  to  the  excellent  description 
given  by  Froggatt.  The  insect  is  so  distinct  and  remarkable, 
that  it  cannot  fail  to  be  recognised  at  sight. 

Hah. — Mount  Tambourine,  Soutli  Queensland  ;  1,900  feet. 
Exceedingly  rare,  only  five  specimens  having  l)een  taken  during 
twenty  years,  all  attracted  to  light. 

Plate  Ixxvi.,  fig.2,  is  a  very  fine  photograph  of  the  magnificent 
specimen  in  the  galleries  of  the  Queensland  Museum.  This 
specimen  is  an  exceptionally  large  female.  Plate  Ixxvi.,  figs.l,  3, 
show  the  venation  of  the  fore-  and  hindwings  of  the  same  speci- 
men. 

Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig. 4,  shows  the  venation  of  the  small  male  in 
my  collection.  This  is  apparently  the  only  known  male  of  this 
species.  A  short  description  of  the  points  in  which  it  differs 
from  the  female  is  here  given: — 

Total  letugth,  \3'b  mni^;  forefcitig,  26  mm.;  hindwitig,  22  mm.; 
expanse,  51 '5  mm.  Colouration  not  quite  as  dark  as  in  female; 
the  spots  near  tornus  of  hindwings  pale  and  semi-transparent. 

A  b  d  o  m  e  n  very  short,  only  7 '5  mm.  long,  narrowed  at  base, 
but  much  swollen  anally.  A2:)pendages  consisting  of  a  pair  of 
superior   and   a   pair  of   inferior,   broadly  triangular,    valve-like 


772  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

lamina?,  forniiiig  a  pyramid,  which  ahiiost  completely  hides  the 
end  of  the  abdomen  from  view  (Plate  Ixxa  ii.,  fig.5). 

Type,   in  Coll.  Froggatt. 

As  the  extinction  of  this  fine  insect  would  seem  to  be  only  a 
matter  of  a  few  years,  owing  to  the  gradual  clearing  of  the 
mountain  which  is  its  only  known  home,  the  following  account 
of  its  habits  and  resting  position,  taken  from  notes  supplied  by 
Miss  M.  Davidson,  of  Cedar  Cottage,  Mount  Tambourine,  will 
be  of  considerable  interest  to  all  entomologists.  The  figures 
given  on  Plate  Ixxvii.,  figs. 6-7,  were  drawn  from  pencil-sketches 
of  the  living  insect  made  by  Miss  Davidson. 

At  rest,  the  position  of  the  wings  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
surface  on  which  the  insect  is  placed.  When,  as  usual,  it  rests 
upon  the  bark  of  a  tree,  or  some  fairly  wide  and  flat  surface,  the 
wings  are  held  roof-wise  over  the  body,  but  inclined  wide  apart, 
at  an  obtuse  angle,  as  is  shown  in  Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig. 6.  In  this 
position,  the  resemblance  to  a  Reptilian  head  is  very  striking,  as 
is  also  said  to  be  the  case  with  the  gigantic  Hepialid,  Leto  staceyi 
Scott.  Both  insects  have  the  embossed  area  in  much  the  same 
position,  resembling  a  pair  of  wide-open  eyes.  But,  in  Meyapsy- 
chops,  there  is  the  additional  suggestion  of  the  forwardly  project- 
ing snout,  formed  by  the  coalescence  of  two  dorsal  bands  I'ight 
up  to  the  head. 

The  local  name  for  this  insect  on  Mount  Tambourine  is,  as  I 
am  informed  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Davidson,  the  "Cross-bones."  This 
would  appear  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  resemblance  of  the 
transverse  band  on  the  forewing,  with  its  somewhat  narrow 
stalk,  terminated  at  either  end  by  an  enlarged  embossment,  to 
the  crossed  femoral  bones  in  the  traditional  pirate's  emblem  of 
the  "skull  and  cross-bones." 

When  resting  on  a  tw^ig,  the  w  ings  are  brought  closer  together, 
so  as  to  form  a  steep  roof  o\er  the  body,  as  may  be  seen  in  Plate 
Ixxvii.,  fig.7.  The  head  is  almost  completely  retracted,  and  the 
antennae  folded  beneath  it  out  of  sight.  At  night-time,  when 
the  insect  becomes  active,  or  when  feeding,  the  head  is  protruded 
and  raised  up,  w^hile  the  antennae  are  held  almost  vertically 
upwards. 


BY    n.    .t.    TiLLYAtlt).  /  io 

111  either  position  of  rest,  Miss  Davidson  states  that  tlie  re- 
semblance of  the  insect  to  a  moderate-sized  fungus  is  very  marked. 
Certainly,  the  white  colour  of  the  wings,  with  their  yellowish- 
in-own  markiny:s,  would  sujxirest  this;  but  I  do  not  know  whether 
there  is  actually  any  fungus  growing  on  the  mountain  for  which 
the  insect  might  be  readily  mistaken.  Unless  there  is,  we  can- 
not say  that  the  appearance  of  the  insect  is  such  as  to  aftbrd  it 
readily  any  protection  from  birds.  From  the  fact  that  its  wings 
have  been  seen  several  times  lying  upon  the  ground,  the  insect 
having  evidently  been  seized  and  eaten  by  a  bird,  and  also  that 
Mr.  Davidson  himself  lost  a  fine  female  from  his  verandah, 
through  a  bird  seizing  it,  there  would  seem  to  be  prwia  facie 
evidence  that  its  appearance  affords  it  no  protection  whatever. 
Birds  may,  therefore,  have  been  one  of  the  main  factors  in  the 
reduction  of  the  Psychojysidm  to  a  mere  remnant  since  Jurassic 
times,  and  also  in  the  total  extinction  of  their  Jurassic  allies,  the 
Proheynerobiidai  and  the  gigantic  KaWgrammatidce. 

Miss  Davidson's  sketches  were  made  from  the  specimen  in  my 
collection,  which  was  captured  on  Dec.  7th,  1916,  and  was  kept 
alive  for  about  a  fortnight  on  sugar  and  water,  in  the  hope  that 
it  might  lay  some  eggs.  Unfortunately,  it  proved  to  be  a  male. 
A  fine  female,  which  was  apparently  attracted  to  it  one  night, 
was  seen  in  the  early  morning  resting  upon  the  verandah;  but, 
as  already  recorded,  was  seized  and  carried  off  by  a  bird,  before 
Mr.  Davidson  could  secure  it. 

PsYCHOPSis  Newman. 

Newman,  Entomologist,  1842,  p. 4 15.  Hagen,  8tett.  ent.  Zeit. 
1867,  p.375. 

Arteriopteryx  Gueriii,  Iconographie  du  Regiie  Animal,  1845^ 
iii.,  p.389. 

Arttrr'wptery.K  (partim)  Navas,  Coiigr.  Valladolid,  1916,  p.  189. 

Zyyophlebias  Navas,  Broteria  Braga,  1910,  p. 82. 

Wernzia  (partim)  Navas,  Mem.  R.  Acad.  Ci.  Art.,  Barcelona, 
1912,  X.,  p.l95. 

Maycdlanes  (partim),  Navas,  Mem.  R.  Acad.  Ci.  Art.,  Barce- 
lona, 1912,  X.,  p.l97. 


774  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTEKA,  vi., 

Characters  as  given  in  the  key  on  p. 771,  with  the  following 
additions: — Moderate-sized  insects,  expanse  varying  from  25  to 
50  mm. ;  with  or  without  anastomosis  between  M  and  Cu  in 
fore  wing. 

Genotype,  Psychopsis  mimica  Newman. 

With  rejxard  to  the  variable  character  of  the  amount  of  anasto- 
mosis  between  M  and  Cu  in  forewing,  Text-fig. 4  shows  two  of 
the  variable  conditions  to  be  found  in  the  genus.  In  the  type- 
species,  Ps.  mimica,  the  most  frequent  condition  is  that  shown 
in  Text-fig. 4rt;  but  a  condition  resembling  that  shown  in  h  may 
also  occur  in  one  or  both  wings.  In  Ps.  elegans,  the  commonest 
condition  is  that  shown  in  h,  but  there  are  many  irregularities 
in  one  or  both  wings.  In  Ps  coelivarjiis,  either  of  the  two  con- 
ditions shown  in  a  and  b  may  be  present,  or  the  anastomosis  may 
be  complicated  by  the  presence  of  numerous  cross-veins,  or  there 
may  be  no  anastomosis  at  all;  this  last  condition  is  the  most 
usual  one  for  Ps.  insolens. 

Not  having  seen  any  of  the  African  species,  I  cannot  say 
whether  the  type  of  anastomosis  on  which  Navas  bases  his  separa- 
tion of  these  species,  as  a  tribe  separate  from  the  Australian  ones, 
is  of  the  type  here  shown  or  not:  but,  as  he  qualifies  his  statement 
that  M,  Cu  and  its  sector  (by  which,  I  presume,  he  means  Cu,.) 
are  anastomosed,  by  the  phrase  "magis  vel  minus  sensibili'"  (13, 
p.  199),  I  anticipate  that  here,  as  almost  everywhere  else,  he  has 
failed  to  select  a  constant  character  for  his  subdivision,  and  that 
a  thorough  revision  of  the  African  species  will  result  in  the  com 
plete  collapse  of  his  tribal  distinctions. 

Key  to  the  ►Specie  s  o  f  P  s  y  c  h  o  p  s  i  s . 

Larger  species,  expanse  83  to  oUnini.,  with  detiiiite,  transverse 
fasciie  in  forewing,  and  pink  or  red  markings  near  toriuis; 
forewing  with  more  or  less  prominent  tornus.  Dark  spot  on 
hind  wing  placed  well  helotr  the  anastomosis  of  8c,  R,  and  Rs.      2. 

Smaller  species,  expanse  25  to  36  mm.,  with  tesselated,  fawn- 
coloured,  grey  or  black  markings  on  forewing;  tornus  well 
rounded.  Dark  spot  of  hindwing  placed  either  upon  the 
anastomosis  itself,  oi-  between  it  a'ld  the  apex 4. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  775 

TFasciie  of  forewing  very  distinct;  no  blood-red  patch  situated 
about  one-fourth  of  the  wing  length  from  the  base 3. 

(2)  -11-  no 

^   '  '  T^Vscia?  less  distinct;  a   blood-red   patch  on  forewing,  at  about 


1  Fascij 
1^     one 


(3) 


(4) 


one-fourth  of  the  wing-length  from  base  Ps.  elKjaui^  (Guer. ). 

^Two  very  distinct  and  well  separated  black  spots,  of  moderate 
size,  situated  near  tornusof  forewing;  at  least  five  transverse 
fascia?,  of  which  the  tirst  ends  in  a  dark  blotch  overlying  Sc, 
R,  and  Rs  at  about  one-fourth  of  the  wing-length  fioni  tlie 

base,  while  the  last  three  converge  towards  the  tornus 

Ps.  mrm/ca  Newman. 

Two  very  minute  black  spots  close  together  at  tornus  of  fore- 
wing; only  four  transverse  fasciw,  of  which  the  first  com- 
pletely crosses  the  wing  to  the  dorsum,  while  the  third  and 
fourth  converge  to  meet  above  the  tornus Ps.  (/racifis,  n.sp. 

iSpot  of  hind  wing  covering  the  anastomosis 5. 

8pot  of  hindwing  placed  about  half-way  between  anastomosis 
and  apex;  colouration  of  forewing  yellowish-brown  or  fawn- 
colour Ps.  t nsolens  Mohach. 

TForewing  heavily  marked  with  black;  spot  of  hindwing  black... 

_    j  Ps.  Cii>lira<ins  { Walker) , 

I  Forewing    tesselated   with   pale  grey;    spot  of  hindwing  pale 

I      fuscous Ps.  wjcyr/'f^-/ McLach. 

PsYCHOPSis  MiMiCA   Newmaii. 

Newman,  Entomologist,  1842,  p. 4 la. 

Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1903,  xxviii.,  p. 454,  PI.  xxi.,  figs. 
3-0  (nee  Psychopsis  inimica  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1902, 
xxvii.,  p  367). 

Navas,  Congr.  Valladolid,  1915,  p.  190,  fig.l. 

Ilemerobins  mimicns  Walker,  Cat.  Neuroptera  Brit.  Museum, 
1853,  p.  27 9. 

Type,  in  British  Museum. 

Tliis  is  tlie  most  widely  distributed  of  all  the  known  species, 
but  by  no  means  the  commonest.  I  have  seen  specimens  from 
several  localities  in  the  south-west  of  Western  Australia,  fronj 
South  Australia  (including  several  taken  at  light  in  Adelaide), 
from  Victoria,  and  from  the  western  parts  of  New  South  Wales. 
Along  the  coastal  strip  of  New  South  Wales,  it  is  replaced  by 
Ps.  eleyaiis;  but  it  reaches  the  coast  again  around  Brisbane,  Q., 


776  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  VI., 

where  a  number   have  been  taken  at  electric  lights.     I  know  of 
no  record  furtlier  north  than  this. 

PsYCHOPSis  GRACILIS,  n.sp.      (Plate  Ixxviii.,  fig.  10). 

(J  Total  length,  11  mm.;  abdomen,  5-5mm.;  /oi'ewhig,  20  5mni  : 
hiadwing,  17*5  mm.:  expanse,  42-5  mm. 

Head  pale  brownish  in  colour,  1*8  nnn.  wide,  eyes  black, 
antenme  pale  ochreous,  4  mm.  long. 

T  h  o  r  a  X  :  prothorax  pale  ochreous,  06  mm.  long  by  1*2  unn. 
wide.  Pterothorax  pale  ochreous  anteriorly,  shading  to  dark 
greyish-brown  behind,  irregularly  marked  with  brown  blotches: 
greatest  width  2  mm.  Legs  very  short,  very  pale  ochreous  in 
colour,  slightly  darker  on  tibiae  and  tarsi. 

Wings  with  a  general  resemblance  to  those  of  Ps  miinica, 
but  much  more  transparent,  more  delicately  built,  and  less  hairy. 
If  placed  upon  a  dark  background,  the  wings  of  Ps.  mhnica 
appear  white,  with  their  pattern  of  dark  fasciae  and  other  mark- 
ings showing  up  very  distinctly;  those  of  Ps.  gracilis,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  very  transparent,  so  that  neither  tlie  venation 
nor  the  colour-pattern  shows  up  well  under  these  conditions. 
Forewings  more  triangular  in  shape  than  those  of  Ps.  miinica, 
more  narrowed  towards  the  base,  and  slightly  wider  at  the  level 
of  the  tornus.  Only  four  distinct  transverse  fasciae,  of  which  the 
first  two  are  only  lightly  indicated  in  the  costal  area  (those  of 
Ps.  mimica  are  most  strongly  marked  in  this  area);  the  most 
basal  fascia  runs  as  a  slight  arc  from  Sc  to  the  dorsum,  at  about 
one-fourth  of  the  wing-length  from  the  base;  the  second  is  incom- 
plete, and  passes  from  Sc  transversely  only  half-way  across  the 
disc,  a  little  basad  of  the  middle  of  the  wing;  the  third  is  well 
marked  on  the  costal  area,  slightly  broken  as  it  approaches  Sc, 
then  well  marked  as  it  passes  downwards,  somewhat  obliquely, 
to  meet  the  fourth  above  the  tornus;  the  fourth  fascia  is  also 
well  marked  in  the  costal  area,  and  passes  just  outside  the 
anastomosis,  transversely  downwards,  to  meet  the  third  at  an 
angle  of  about  50°.  On  this  fourth  fascia,  just  before  it  meets 
the  third,  are  two  distinct  blackish  spots;  below  the  union  of  the 
fascia,  and  extending   to  the   tornus,  is  a  broad  pinkish  band, 


BY    H.    .1.    TILLYAKD.  /  /  t 

carrying  two  small  black  spots  at  the  tornus  itself.  All  the 
above  fasciie  are  formed,  as  in  Ps.  mimica,  of  two  more  or  less 
parallel  dark  lines  placed  fairly  close  together,  and  enclosing  a 
paler  area.  The  only  other  markings  are  an  irregular  brownish 
area  close  to  the  base,  between  R  and  Cu,  a  series  of  irregular 
markings  along  the  dorsum,  and  indications  of  an  extra  fascia 
lying  below  the  apex  of  the  wing,  parallel  and  close  to  the  ternien 
(as  also  in  Ps.  mimica).  Hind  wing  quite  differently  shaped 
from  that  of  Ps.  mimica,  the  base  being  much  narrower,  the 
terminal  border  cut  off  straight,  and  the  tornus  approaching  a 
right  angle;  hind  border  or  dorsum  slightly  excavated.  Dark 
spot  somewhat  larger  than  is  usual  in  Ps,  mimica,  less  definite  in 
shape,  and  brownish  instead  of  black. 

Abdomen  pale  brownish,  with  darker  markings,  somewhat 
narrowed  basally  (apparently  much  shrunken),  enlarged  anally. 
Appendages  (Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig.8)  consisting  of  a  pair  of  superior 
and  a  pair  of  inferior,  triangular,  valve-like  laminae,  partly  em- 
bracing the  terminal  segment,  but  with  their  apices  not  meeting 
together  in  the  middle  line. 

Type,  (J,  in  Coll.  Tillyard. 

i^a6.  — Booyong,  N.S.W  ,  Nov.  1904  (S.  W.  Jackson).  There 
is  also  a  very  damaged  specimen  in  the  Queensland  Museum, 
Brisbane,  from  Mount  I'ambourine. 

This  very  delicate  and  graceful  species  is  easily  distinguished 
from  all  the  known  species  except  Ps.  m-imica;  the  differences 
which  separate  it  from  this  latter  species  have  been  emphasised 
in  the  key  and  in  the  description  given  above. 

PsYCHOPSis  ELEGANS  ((iuerin).     (Text-figs.  1-3). 

Arteriopteryx  eleyans  Guerin,  Iconographie  du  Regne  Animal, 
1845,  iii.,  p  389.     Navas,  Congr.  Yalladolid,  1916,  p.  193. 

Zyyo2>hlehins  verrauxinus  Navas,  Broteria  Braga,  J  910,  p. 84, 
fig.23. 

Psychopsis  Tuimica  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1902,  xxvii., 
p.367. 

Psychopsis  netvmani  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1903,  p. 454, 
PI.  xxi.,  tigs.  1-2.     Navas,  Congr.  Valladolid,  1915,  p. 191, 


778  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

Type,   in  Paris  Museum. 

Hah  — Eastern  coast  of  Australia,  from  Sydney  to  North 
Queensland  (Cairns,  Kuranda,  Herberton). 

This  species  is  occasionally  taken  at  light,  or  beaten  from 
bushes,  but  was  considered  quite  a  rarity  until  Mr.  Luke  Gallard, 
of  Epping,  N.S.W.,  discovered  the  larva.  Since  then,  he  has  suc- 
ceeded in  bleeding  a  number  from  larvie  found  around  Epping, 
and  I  have  bred  out  nearly  two  dozen  from  larviB  taken  in  various 
localities,  including  Hornsby  and  Berowra,  in  the  Sydney  dis- 
trict, Wauchope  on  the  North  Coast  of  New  South  Wales,  Bris- 
bane, Stradbroke  Is.,  Caloundra,  Caboolture,  Landsborough  and 
Mount  Tambourine,  in  Queensland  Mr.  F.  P.  Dodd  has  taken 
the  insect  at  Kuraiida  and   Herberton,  N.  Queensland. 

From  larvae  taken  on  One-tree  Hill,  Brisbane,  under  the  bark 
of  an  Ironbark  tree  (Eucalyptus  leucoxylon  F.v.M.),  I  bred  both 
Ps.  eleyans  and  Ps.  cfelivagus.  There  is  so  little  difference 
between  the  two  larvae,  except  in  size,  that  I  was  not  able  to 
distinguish  which  was  which.  This  seems  to  me  to  be  a  further 
argument  against  removing  Ps.  cctlivagus  from  the  genus 
Psychopsis. 

PsYCHOPSis  ccELiVAGus  (Walker). 

Hemerobius  aelivayus  Walker,  Cat.  Neuroptera  Brit.  Mus., 
1853,  p.279. 

Psychopsis  ccelivag\is  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1903,  xxviii., 
p. 455,  PI.  xxi.,  fig. 8  (nee  Froggatt,  /.c,  1902,  xxvii.,  p. 368). 

Wernzia  coelivaya  Navas,  Mem.  R.  Acad.  Ci.  Art ,  Barcelona, 
1912,  X.,  p.l95.     Navas,  Congr.  Valladolid,  1916,  p.l94. 

Type,  in  British  Museum. 

JJab. — Queensland  coast,  from  Brisbane  to  Kuranda  and  Her- 
berton.    A  rare  species. 

This  exceedingly  striking  species  is  at  once  distinguished  by 
the  remarkable  metallic  black  markings  of  the  forewings,  as  well 
as  by  the  pure  whiteness  of  the  venation,  which  gives  it  a  most 
striking  appearance.  Some  years  ago,  it  was  not  uncommon  on 
One-tree  Hill,  Brisbane:  but  recent  severe  bush-fires  seem  almost 
to  have  extei^minated  it. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  779 

PsYCHOPSis  INSOLENS  McLachlan. 

McLachlan,  Journ.  Entomology,  1866,  ii.,  p. 114. 

Pst/chopsis  aelu-aga  Froggatt,  These  Proceedings,  1902,  xxvii  , 
p.367. 

Fsychopsis  riisolens  Froggatt,  I.e.,  1902,  xxvii.,  p.367;  Froggatt, 
I.e.,  1903,  xxvii.,  p.454,  f.6. 

Mayallanes  insolens  Navas,  Mem  R.  Acad.  Ci.  Art.,  Barcelona, 
1912,  X.,  p.l97.     Navas,  Congr.  Valladolid,  1916,  p.l96. 

Type,   in  British  Museum. 

Hab. — New  South  Wales  and  Queensland;  not  uncommon 
It  occurs  only  sparingly  in  the  Sydney  district,  but  is  commoner 
on  the  tablelands,  particularly  on  the  Queensland  border.  I 
have  good  series  from  Killarney,  also  from  Mount  Tambourine. 
It  has  been  taken  as  far  north  as  Herberton  (F.  P.  Dodd).  Most 
of  the  specimens  appear  to  have  been  taken  at  light.  Nothing 
is  known  of  its  life-history. 

This  species  is  less  beautiful  than  any  of  the  others,  but  freshly 
emerged  specimens  are  of  a  very  effective  fawn  colour,  which 
fades  considerably  with  age. 

PsYCHOPSis  MEYRiCKi   McLaclilan. 

McLachlan,  Ent.  Mo.  Mag.,  1887,  xxiv.,  p.30. 

Magallanes  meyrieki  Navas,  Congr.  Valladolid,  1915,  p.  197. 

T  y  p  e,   in  Coll.  McLachlan. 

^a6.  — Jindabyne,   N.S.W.,  2,800  feet. 

I  have  not  seen  this  species,  of  which  the  unique  series  of  seven 
specimens  taken  by  Mr.  Meyrick  on  Jan.  20th,  1885,  is  in  the 
McLachlan  Collection.  McLachlan  gave  the  habitat  as  "Kos- 
ciusko, 2,800  feet,''  but  this  is  evidently  an  error.  Mr.  Meyrick 
informs  me  {in  litt.)  that  the  specimens  were  actually  taken  near 
Mr.  Body's  Station  at  Jindabyne.  This  latter  township  is  on 
the  main  route  to  Mount  Kosciusko,  but  more  than  thirty  miles 
from  its  summit;  the  Kosciusko  Range  does  not  begin  to  rise 
from  the  Monaro  Plateau  until  the  junction  of  the  Snowy  and 
Thredbo  Rivers  is  reached,  and  this  is  some  miles  beyond  Jinda- 
byne. It  seems  desirable  to  point  this  out,  since  the  type  of 
country  in  which  the  insect  was  taken  dififers  very  greatly  from 
that  found  at  higher  elevations  on  the  Kosciusko  Range. 


780  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

PsYCHOPSELLA,  n.g.     (Plate  Ixxviii.,  fig.l  1 ). 

Characters  as  given  in  the  key  on  p. 771.  Small  insects,  with 
an  expanse  of  about  an  inch;  the  hind  wings  very  much  shorter 
than  the  fore. 

Genotype,   PsychopseUa  gallardi,  n.sp. 

PsYCHOPSELLA  GALLARDI,  n.sp.     (Plate  Ixxviii.,  fig.  1 1 ). 

^.  Unique.  Total  length,  7*8  mm.;  abdomen,  5mm.;  forewivci, 
12"5  mm.;  hindwing,  95  mm.;  expanse,  245  mm. 

Head  1-3  mm.  wide,  pale  ochreous:  eyes  dark  grey;  antennae 
dull  brownish,  very  short,  18  mm. 

Thorax:  prothorax  pale  ochreous.  Pterothorax  dull  brown- 
ish, with  darker  markings.  Legs  very  short,  with  pale  ochreous 
femora,  slightly  darker  tibise  and  tarsi. 

Wings:  foreiving  with  discal  and  internal  gradate  series 
complete,  the  former  consisting  of  fifteen  cross-veins,  the  latter 
of  nine.  Costal  series  of  cross- veins  rudimentary,  consisting  of 
only  about  six  cross-veins  near  base,  and  a  single  one  about  half- 
way along  the  costal  area;  marginal  series  absent.  Colouration 
a  very  pale  ochreous,  tesselated  all  over  with  slightly  darker 
markings,  and  here  and  there  small  dark  brown  patches;  of 
these,  the  most  prominent  are  three  sets  along  the  vena  triplica, 
another  just  beyond  the  anastomosis,  one  near  the  middle  of  the 
discal  series,  two  in  the  marginal  area,  and  some  irregular  dark 
markings  along  Cu.  Hindivhig  with  short  discal  and  internal 
gradate  series,  not  complete,  the  former  of  six  or  seven  cross- 
veins,  the  latter  of  only  four;  no  marginal  series,  and  only  one 
or  two  costal  cross- veins  near  base.  iVo  markings  at  all  upoot 
the  hindtving,  which  is  dull  whitish  and  quite  transparent. 

Abdomen  pale  ochreous,  prettily  marked  with  a  mid-dorsal 
series  of  dark  spots  and  smaller  lateral  spots  on  each  segment. 
Appendages',  superior,  a  pair  of  very  conspicuous,  depressed,  sub- 
triangular  processes,  laterally  flattened,  and  appearing  somewhat 
forcipate  from  above;  these  project  well  beyond  the  tip  of  the 
abdomen;  each  one  has  its  apex  rounded,  and  carries  near  its 
base,  on  the  outer  side,  a  raised  embossment;  the  whole  of  the 
appendage  above  the  embossment,   and   outwards    to    the    tip, 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  781 

carries  long,  ciu-ved,  wliitisli  hairs.  Veiitrally,  these  appendages 
are  separated  by  a  broad,  sliort,  tiapezoidal  inferior  apj^endaye, 
wliitish  in  colour  (Plate  Ixxvii.,  fig. 9;. 

Type,    in  Coll.  Tiliyard. 

Ilah. — ^The  specimen  carries  no  label;  but  Mr.  Gallard,  from 
whom  I  obtained  it,  informs  me  that  he  bred  it  from  a  larva 
found  near  Gosford,  N.S.W. 

At  first  sight,  this  species  appears  to  resemble  a  small  speci- 
men of  Ps.  insolens.  It  may  readily  be  separated  from  the  latter 
species  by  the  much  more  delicate  build,  the  much  shorter  and 
narrower  hindwings,  with  any  markings  on  them,  and  the  more 
delicate,  paler,  narrower,  and  less  strongly  marked  forewings. 

Relationships  of  the  P  s  y  c  h  o  ]>  s  i  d  fH  . 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  nearest  relatives  of  the 
Psychopsidce  are  to  be  found  in  the  Mesozoic  Fossil  families  Pro- 
hemerobiidm  and  Kalliyraminatidce.  The  formei',  which  verv 
probable  represent  the  original  type  of  the  Order  Planipennia, 
are  known  from  the  Upper  Trias  of  Ipswich,  Queensland,  and 
from  the  Lias  and  Upper  Jurassic  of  Europe.  The  genus  Proto- 
psychopsia  Tiliyard,  appears  to  connect  the  Prohnmerobiidcp.  with 
the  Psychojfsidce  very  closely.  This  relationship  has  since  been 
further  emphasised  by  the  discovery  of  a  second  fossil  from  these 
beds,  differing  very  little  from  Megapsychops  illidyei  itself.  This 
fossil  will  shortly  be  described  by  me  in  Part  5  of  my  "Mesozoic 
Insects  of  Queensland."  The  differences  between  the  Psychopsidce 
and  the  Prohemerobiidce  are  simply  those  in  which  the  formei- 
family  shows  specialisation,  viz.,  the  enlargement  of  the  costal 
area,  with  development  of  a  series  of  connecting  cross-veins,  the 
formation  of  the  vena  triplica  and  anastomosis,  and,  very  pro- 
bably, the  shortening  of  the  antennae.  In  all  known  Prohemero- 
biidce,  the  costal  space  is  either  quite  narrow,  or  only  moderately 
wide,  for  its  whole  width,  or  only  widened  at  the  base;  costal 
veins  are  never  developed:  Sc,  R,  and  Rs  run  close  together,  but 
quite  separate,  to  the  apex  of  the  wing,  without  being  partially 
strengthened  and  separated  oft"  to  form  a  vena  triplica,  as  in 
Psychopsidce:  cross-veins  apj  ear  to  be  entirely  absent  from  most 

61 


782  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NKUROPTERA,  vi., 

species,  but  may  be  very  weakly  indicated  between  Sc,  R,  and 
Rs,  and  also  in  the  position  of  the  gradate  series  (these,  though 
shown  in  my  figure  of  P^^otopsychopsis,  are  so  faintly  indicated, 
that  I  have  been  doubtful  how  far  they  really  existed).  The 
oldest  forms  of  Prohemerohiidce  were  only  of  small  to  moderate 
size,  with  only  moderately  numerous  branches  of  Rs;  specialisa- 
tions in  this  family  appear  to  have  led  to  the  development  of 
forms  with  an  immense  number  of  closely-set  branches  of  Rs. 
The  Upper  Jurassic  forms  are,  on  the  whole,  considerably  larger 
than  the  Liassic  forms. 

As  regards  the  Kalligrammatidcp,  these  gigantic  insects  differ 
from  the  Prohemerobiidce  only  in  the  development  of  a  close 
series  of  connecting  cross- veins  all  over  the  disc;  in  the  beginning 
of  an  anastomosis,  by  connection  of  Sc  with  R  distally  by  means 
of  a  short  cross-vein,  very  much  as  in  Psychopsis;  and  in  the 
development  of  the  large  eye-spots  on  the  wings,  recalling  those 
of  Alegapsychops  illidgei.  'J'he  rise  and  fall  of  this  wonderful 
family  was  probably  very  quick;  for.  if  their  larvae,  as  is  pro- 
bable, were  at  all  like  those  of  Psychopsin,  they  could  scarcely 
have  attained  to  dominance  before  the  rise  of  the  Birds  must 
have  quickly  exterminated  them. 

Here  let  it  be  noted  that  Megapsychops  illidgei  shows,  in  the 
possession  of  a  media  with  more  than  two  branches,  a  character 
that  was  evidently  possessed  by  the  Kalligrainmatidce  (the  true 
M  of  this  family  is  labelled  Cu  by  Handlirsch),  and  by  certain 
of  the  Liassic  Prohemerohiidce,  if  not  by  all.  Combining  this 
fact  with  another  obvious  one,  viz.,  that  the  development  of 
numerous  branches  of  Rs,  occupying  a  very  large  area  of  the 
wing,  is  a  specialisation  confined  to  the  Planipennia,  and  must, 
of  necessity,  have  caused  a  squeezing  out  and  consequent  reduc- 
tion of  the  media,  we  are  bound  to  conclude  that  the  ancestors 
of  the  Planipennia  approached  more  closely  to  the  Panorpoid 
type,  as  regards  the  structure  of  Rs  and  M,  than  they  do  to-day, 
and  that  the  many-branched  media  of  Alegapsychops  illidgei  is  an 
archaic  survival  that  stands  to  remind  us  of  this  fact. 

I  regard  the  Psychopaidm  as  a  Mesozoic  remnant,  considerably 
isolated,  at  the  present  day,  from  all  other  existing  families.     Ii^i 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  783 

order  to  understand  their  position,  it  must  be  emphasised  that 
they  have  closest  affinity  witli  those  groups  in  which  the  cross- 
venation  is  limited  to  gradate  series,  and  Sc  is  not  united  with 
R  in  a  true  anastomosis  (i.«.,  by  actual  fusion  of  the  two  main 
veins).  Thus  they  show  affinity,  on  the  one  hand,  with  the 
Hemerobiidce  (s.str.)  and  Dilaridce,  but  remain  more  primitive 
than  either  of  these,  on  account  of  the  single  radial  sector  of  the 
forewing;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  related  to  the  Tri- 
chomatidxfi^  Apochrysidce,  and  Chrysopidcf.  The  7richoviatidce, 
like  the  Psychopsidce,  appear  to  be  a  direct  offshoot  of  the  old 
Prohemerobiidcp;  but  their  tendency  has  been  towards  reduction 
and  narrowing  of  the  wings;  whereas  that  of  the  Psychoj^sidm 
has  proceeded  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  the  Apochrysidce, 
we  recognise  a  group  of  insects  with  certain  cliaracters  of  the 
wings  strongly  suggestive  of  Psychopsid  affinities,  viz.,  the  widen- 
ing of  the  costal  area  and  the  extreme  differentiation  of  the  disc. 
Bearing  in  mind,  however,  the  slender  build  and  elongated 
antennae,  and  their  evident  close  relationship  with  the  Chryso- 
pidce,  I  am  inclined  to  regard  these  venational  characters  as  the 
result  of  convergence,  rather  than  of  true  relationship.  Both 
the  ApochrysidcE  and  the  Chrysojndce  differ  radically  from  the 
Psychopsidce  in  the  manner  of  development  of  the  branches  of 
Rs,  which  tend  to  cross  the  wing  transversely,  and  have  thus 
brought  about  new  tendencies  in  the  development  of  the  gradate 
series,  and  finally  the  unique  formation  of  the  pseudomedia  and 
pseudocubitus. 

The  larval  form  of  Psychopsis  is  such  that,  from  it,  there  can 
be  equally  easily  derived  the  small-jawed  series  of  larva?  found 
in  the  Hemerobiidce,  Chrysopidw,  etc.,  or  the  long-jawed  series  of 
the  Bei'othidce  and  Osmylidce,  or  the  large-jawed  series  of  the 
Nymphidce,  Myrmeleoiitidce,  etc.  In  the  last  series,  there  has 
been  a  gradual  addition  of  internal  teeth  to  the  mandible, 
beginning  with  one  only  in  Nymphidce,  and  passing  up  to  three 
or  more  in  MyrmeleoididcB.  Hence  we  shall  probably  be  on  safe 
ground,  if  we  regard  the  larval  type  found  in  Psychopsia  as 
closely  similar  to  that  of  the  extinct  Prohemerobiidce. 

From  the  Berothidct  and   Osmylidce,   the  Psychopsidce  are  at 


784  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vi., 

once  distinguished  by  the  lack  of  a  true  anastomosis  between  Sc 
and  R.  The  Berothidcv.  are  clearly  a  specialisation  from  the 
older  Trichomatidce,  the  Osmylidce  from  a  type  resembling  the 
still  existing  PoJystcechofes,  which,  to  my  mind,  will  go  well 
enough  into  the  BerotJiidcF  as  at  present  defined.  It  should  be 
noted  that  both  palseontological  and  morphological  evidence 
tends  to  show  that  the  groups  with  numerous  cross-veins  in  the 
disc  are  of  more  recent  origin  than  those  without;  it  is  only  by 
stressing  this  point  that  we  can  be  sure  of  obtaining  a  correct 
view  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the  Planipennia,  which  are  an  essential 
portion  of  the  Panorpoid  Complex,  and  originated  from  more 
open- veined  ancestors. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

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Philadelphia,  1910,  p. 389.  {ZyyophJehia  and  Bahnes  Navas  con- 
sidered to  be  synonyms  of  Psychopsis  Newman). 

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Trans.  Anier.  Ent.  Soc,  1913,  xxxix.,  pp.201 -242.  (Subfamily 
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(Ins.  Near.).'"  Asoc.  Espanola  para  el  Prog,  de  las  Ciencias  :  Go)i- 
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described). 

15.  TiLLYARi),  1916. — "  Studies  in  Australian  Neuroptera,"  No.  iv.     Proc. 

Linn.  Soc.   N.  S.  Wales,  1916,  xli.,  pp.  269-332,  PL  xii.-xix.      (See 

pp.271  and  289). 
16. ,   1917. — "Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland,"  No.  1.     Ihid., 

1917,  xlii.,  p.  178,  PI.  viii.,  fig.3.      (Gemis  Protopsf/chopsis  defined, 

and  Ps.  venosa  described. 
17.  Walker,  1853. — Catalogue  of  the  Neuroptera  in  the  British  Museum. 

1853,  p,279. 

Xote. — This  Bibliography^  is  not  intended  to  be  a  complete  one,  but  onh- 
to  list  the  papers  actually'  mentioned  in  this  work.  The  references  to 
Australian  species  are,  however,  complete. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  LXXVL-LXXVIII. 

Plate  Ixxvi. 

Me(japsy chops  i/lidgti  (Froggatt). 

Fig.l. — Venation  of  forewing  of  large  ?  in  Queensland  Museum;  (  x  about 

2i). 
Fig.2. — Large  9  in  Queensland  Museum;  (  x  about  H). 
Fig.3. — Venation  of  hindwing  of  same  specimen;  (  x  al)Out  2j). 

(Photomicrographs  of  figs.  1  and  3  taken  by  Mr.  H.  Hacker,  Entomolo- 
gist to  the  Queensland  Museum,  and  sent  by  Mr.  H.  Longman,  F.L.S., 
Director  of  the  Queensland  Museum.  That  of  fig.2  sent  by  Dr.  R.  Handyn 
Harris,  late  Director  of  the  same  Institution). 


1S6  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTEKA,  vi. 

Plate  Ixxvii. 
Mtga-'^ychops  iUidgei  (Frot^gatt). 
Fit;. 4. — Complete   venation   of   both   wings   of  small   6   in  Coll.  Till3'aicl; 
(x4).     (Compare  with  Plate  Ixxvi.,  and  conti'ast  with  Text.fig.I  : 
tn,  tornus;  venational  notation  as  in  Text-fig.  1). 
Fig,5. — Appendages  of  the  same  6  ,  postero-doisal  view;  (  x  IH). 
Fig.G  — The  same  insect,  alive,  resting  upon  a  flat  surface.     Dorsal  view; 

(;<U). 

Fig.7. — The  same  insect,  alive,  resting  upon  a  twig.     Lateral  view;  (  x  H). 

Psychopsis  gracilis,  n.sp. 
Fig. 8.  —Appendages  of  6  .     Postero-dorsal  view;  (  x  IH). 

P)<ycho}jsdla  (jallardi,  n.g.  et  sp. 
Fig.9.  —Appendages  of  6  .     Postero-dorsal  view;  (  x  27). 

(Figs.  6-7  drawn  from  pencil-sketches  sent  by  Miss  M.  Davidson,  of 
Cedar  Cottage,  Mount  Tambourine,  Q.  The  dark  colouration  is  a  lich 
brown,  and  resembles  a  fairly  thick  layer  of  A'arnish.  In  fig. 4,  the  dotted 
double-arc  indicates  the  external  raised  edge  of  the  lai'ge  embossment  in 
the  forewing;  the  dotted  oval  represents  the  area  covered  by  the  dark 
spot  in  the  hindwing.  In  fig.7,  the  abdomen  of  the  insect  is  slightly 
visible  through  the  semitransparent  wings). 

Plate  Ixxviii. 
Fig. 10. — Pi^ychopsis  (jracilis,  n.sjj.,    6  ,  in  Coll.  Till3^ard;  (  x  4). 
Fig.  11. — Psychopsella  ycdlardi,  n.g.  et  sp.     Unique  J   in  Coll.   Till^'ard; 
(x6). 


781 


STUDIES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  iVEUROPTERA. 

No. 7.  The  Life-History  of  Psycuopsis  elegans  (Guerin). 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,   M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  ix  Zoology. 

(Plate  Ixxix.,  and  twelve  Text-figures). 

The  only  account  of  the  life-history  of  any  species  of  the  family 
Psyckopsid(e  is  the  short,  popular  account  of  the  life-history  of 
PsychopsU  eleyans  Guerin,  given  by  Mr.  Luke  Gallard  in  the 
"Australian  Naturalist"  of  1914.*  From  this  we  learn  that 
Mr.  Gallard  captured  a  female  of  Ps.  elegans  (he  uses  the  syno- 
nym newmani  Froggatt,  throughout,  for  this  species)  at  Kent- 
hurst,  N.S.W.,  in  1904.  This  insect  laid  over  fifty  eggs,  some 
of  which  Mr.  Gallard  raised  to  about  one- third  of  the  full  larval 
size.  Mr.  Gallard  informs  me  that  it  was  one  of  these  specimens, 
newly  hatched,  which  is  figured  on  p. 62  of  Mr.  Froggatt's  "Aus- 
tralian Insects"  as  the  larva  of  Pfiychopsis  nii'niica  Newman. 

Mr.  Gallard  did  not  succeed  in  rearing  the  imago  until  1911. 
A  larva  taken  in  March,  1911,  by  Mr.  J.  Blake,  of  Narara,  near 
Gosford,  N.S.W.,  was  kept  alive  by  Mr.  Gallard  until  December 
11th  of  the  same  year,  when  it  spun  a  cocoon  in  the  box,  the 
imago  emerging  on  January  16th,  1912.  Since  then,  Mr.  Gallard 
has  discovered  the  larvae  in  many  localities  round  Sydney,  and 
has  bred  a  number  of  specimens. 

In  1915,  when  I  had  begun  the  study  of  the  Neuroptera 
Planipennia,  and  was  very  anxious  to  study  the  Psychopsidce  in 
particular,  Mr.  Gallard  very  generously  invited  me  to  accompany 
him  in  the  field,  and  showed  me  the  ingenious  ways  by  which  he 
found  these  larvae.  I  shall  never  forget  the  skill  and  energy 
that  he  displayed  in  this  work.  As  the  whole  credit  for  the 
discovery  of  this  larva  rests  with  him,  and  is   simply  due  to  his 

*  "Notes  on  Psychopsis  newmani.''''  By  Luke  (lallard,  Australian 
Naturalist,  iii.,  Part  3,  1914,  pp.29-32. 


788  STUDIES    I\    AUSTRALIAX    NEUROPTEUA,  vii., 

persistence  and  keenness  in  following  up  clue  after  clue  fof  many 
years,  I  should  like  to  take  this  opportunity  of  congratulating 
him  upon  th^  fine  results  of  his  work,  and  of  thanking  him  very 
heartily  for  tli '.  help  offered  to  me,  without  which  I  feel  quite 
certain  that  neither  T  nor  anyone  else  could  possibly  have  hit 
upon  the  track  of  such  a  remarkable  larval  form  as  this. 

Since  Mr.  Gallard  first  taught  me  how  to  find  this  larva,  I 
have  discovered  it  in  many  localities  around  Sydney,  also  near 
Wauchope  on  the  North  Coast  of  N.S.W.,  and  in  many  places 
in  S.  Queensland,  including  Brisbane  (One-Tree  Hill),  Strad- 
broke  Island,  Mount  Tambourine,  Caboolture,  Caloundra,  and 
Landsborough.  It  probably  occurs  all  along  the  Eastern  Coast- 
line of  Xew  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  wherever  there  are 
suitable  rough-barked,  Myrtaceous  trees  for  the  larva  to  hide  in. 

In  the  present  paper,  1  propose  to  give  a  full  description  of 
the  egg,  larva,  and  pupa,  together  with  an  account  of  the  habits 
of  the  larva,  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon,  the  emergence  of  the 
imago,  and  some  details  about  the  latter  that  have  not  yet  been 
carefully  investigated. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  my  wife  for  the  execution  of  Plate  Ixxix., 
from  the  living  larva  and  pupa,  in  collaboration  with  myself. 

The  Life-cycle  of  Psychopsis  elegans  (Guerin). 
The  complete  life-cycle  of  this  species  occupies  about  two 
years.  The  larva,  like  almost  all  others  of  this  Order,  has  only 
three  instars,  during  each  of  which  an  enormous  increase  occurs 
in  the  size  of  the  body,  the  size  of  the  head  remaining  constant 
in  the  meanwhile.  The  following  Table  exhibits  the  duration  of 
each  period  : — 


Period.               ! 

Duration. 

Eyg              ...             ■■■\ 

i  About  twelve  day.s. 

First  far  ml  insfar     .. 

About  ei^lit  months,  including  hibeination.    (Feb  - 

Sept.). 

SeroiKl  larra/  iiif<tar  ... 

From   four  to  tive   months,    without  hiljernation. 

(Sept. -Feb.  or  March). 

Third  kirral  instar    ... 

About  nine  months,  including  a  second  hibernation, 

and   a    fortnight    to    three   Aveeks   within    the 

cocoon  before  pupation.      ( March -Nov. ). 

Pupa 

About  three  weeks. 

Imago 

About  two  months.     (Dec. -Feb.) 

6Y    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  789 

The  Egg.      (Plate  Ixxix.,  H-.  1 ;  Text-fi^^l). 

The  eggs  are  laid  separately,  or  only  two  or  three  together,  at 
considerable  intervals  of  time;  probably,  in  the  natural  state, 
upon  the  bark  of  Myrtaceous  trees,  especially  Eucalypts.  In 
captivity,  most  of  the  eggs  were  laid  upon  cottonwool.  Thev 
are  not  stalked,  and  are  laid  upon  one  side,  which  is  attached  to 
some  object  by  a  slight  secretion  of  gelatinous  matter. 

The  egg  itself  is  oval,  about  1  mm.  long  by  04  5  mm.  wide  in 
the  middle,  and  is  of  a  semi-opaque  creamy 
colour,  tinged  with  pale  green.  At  its  anterior 
end  there  is  a  distinct  micropylar  projection, 
as  shown  in  Text-fig.  1.  The  egg  is  quite 
smooth,  without  any  pattern  or  sculpture. 

The  eggs  are  usually  laid  in  January  or  Feb- 
ruary. At  the  end  of  about  twelve  days,  thev 
hatch.      The  young   larvae,  hitherto   curled  up  ^  '  ' 

inside,  crawl  straight  out  of  the  broken  shell,  and  at  once  make 
for  some  small  crack  or  crevice  in  the  bark,  where  they  may 
escape  the  numerous  enemies  that  would  otherwise  speedily 
compass  their  destruction. 

First  Larval  Instar.     (Plate  Ixxix.,  tigs. 2-8;  Text-H^^2). 

The  newly-hatched  larva  is  somewhat  more  than  three  times 
as  long  as  the  egg  in  which  it  was  confined,  the  measurement 
being  taken  from  the  tip  of  the  mandible  to  the  anal  papilla. 
As  with  all  Planipennia,  such  a  comparatively  large  larva  can 
only  be  contained  within  tiie  egg  by  considerable  folding  of 
parts;  the  head  being  tucked  down  below  the  breast,  and  the 
posterior  half  of  the  abdomen  being  again  folded  forwards  under 
the  head. 

At  first,  before  the  larva  has  taken  any  food,  the  head  is  very 
large  in  comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  body.  P)Ut,  after  one 
or  two  large  meals,  the  abdomen  begins  to  be  distended  with 
food,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  larva  undergoes  a  great 
alteration,  as  can  be  seen  by  compai-ing  Plate  Ixxix.,  tigs.  2  and  3. 
This  change  takes  place  in  every  instar  of  all  Neuropterous  larvae 

*  Two  eggs  of  Psydiopais  dtyans  vGuer. );  (  x  2(J). 


790 


STUDIES    IN    AtJSTRAMAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 


known  to  ine.  The  reasons  for  it  are  two;  firstly,  that  there  are 
onl}^  three  or  four  larval  instars  in  this  Order;  and,  secondly, 
that  no  food  at  all  is  excreted,  the  waste-products  being  stored 
in  a  special  sac  or  cham- 
ber of  the  alimentary 
canal,  which  is  not  cast 
out  until  the  emergence 
of  the  imago.  Hence  it 
is  clear  that  a  large  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the 
abdomen  is  inevitable 
during  each  larval  in- 
star,  whereas  the  size  of 
the  head  can  only  be  in- 
creased at  ecdysis. 

The  head  of  the  young 
larva  is  somewhat 
flattened,  trapezium- 
shaped,  and  wider  in 
front  than  behind  ; 
length  about  0'6mm., 
breadth  in  front  about 
the  same.  At  the  two 
anterior  angles,  which 
are  somewhat  rounded, 
are  the  two  groups  of 
simple  eyes,  occupying  vv\- — -  —  7 
the  area  from  which  the 
compound    eyes   of    the  .    ^'"^  "  ^'~" 

pupa  and  imago  are  latf^r  developed.  There  are  five  ocelli  in 
each  group.  The  anterior  border  of  the  head  projects  in  the 
middle  to  form  the  prominent  triangular  labrum,  on  either  side 
of  which  lie  the  long,  slender  antennm,  which  are  eight-jointed. 
The  mouth-parts  are  very  extraordinary,  consisting  of  a  pair  of 

*  Newly-hatched  larva  of  Ps.  elegant  (Guer.);  (  x  30):  />,  part  of  hind  leg 
of  same,  to  show  tarsal  claws  and  enipodiuni,  tlie  latter  in  the  form  of  an 
elongated  process  terminating  in  a  sucking-disc;  (  x  87)- 


a 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  791 

enormous  caliper-like  mandibles,  0-7  mm.  long,  a  similar  but 
slenderer  pair  of  maxillae  without  palpi,  and  a  suiall  triangular 
labium  carrying  a  pair  of  four-jointed  palpi.  There  are  no  teeth 
on  the  mandibles. 

The  segments  of  the  thorax  are  slightly  narrower  than  the 
head,  and  subequal,  the  prothorax  being  the  longer,  but  some- 
what the  narrower.  The  legs  are  short,  the  femora  being  fairly 
stout,  the  tibi?e  shorter  and  slenderer,  and  the  tarsi  veiy  short 
and  unjointed.  Distally,  the  tibiae  are  armed  with  a  pair  of 
strong  spurs.  The  tarsi  end  in  a  pair  of  short,  strong  claws, 
between  which  there  projects  a  long,  slender  empodium,  ending 
in  an  enlarged  suction-disc,  and  closely  resembling  the  same 
structure  in  the  larva  of  Chrysopidce.  The  larva  is  able  to  crawl 
forward  slowly,  but  prefers  to  walk  backwards,  which  it  can  do 
with  considerable  speed,  using  its  anal  papilla  as  well  as  its  legs. 

The  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  nine  in  number,  together 
with  a  terminal  anal  papilla,  which  represents  the  reduced  tenth 
segment  and  the  anal  appendages.  These  segments  are  narrow, 
and  taper  from  before  backwards.  The  whole  of  the  abdomen, 
as  well  as  the  head  and  thorax,  is  clothed  with  short,  stiff  hairs. 

The  spiracles  in  the  newly-hatched  larva  are  eighteen  in  num- 
ber, there  being  a  pair  upon  the  prothorax,  and  also  upon  each 
of  the  first  eight  abdominal  segments.  They  are,  however,  very 
difficult  to  make  out,  the  spiracular  openings  being  small  and 
devoid  of  armature. 

When  first  hatched,  the  larva  is  semi-transparent,  with  very 
little  colour-pattern.  Later  it  darkens  to  a  greyish-brown,  which 
tends  to  become  overlaid  with  a  whitish  pruinescence.  These 
changes  become  more  marked  in  the  following  instars. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  instar,  the  larva  has  about  doubled  its 
length,  and  the  segments  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen  have 
increased  greatly  in  width  and  length,  so  that  the  head  now 
appears  very  small  in  comparison. 

As  soon  as  the  cold  weather  sets  in,  in  May  or  June,  the  larva 
ceases  to  feed,  and  remains  motionless,  hiding  away  in  a  crevice 
of  the  bark,  until  the  warmer  weather  begins  in  September.  It 
then  becomes  active  again;  but,  after  one  or  two  good  meals,  it 


792  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NFUROPTEKA,  vii., 

again  rests  for  some  days,  and  tlien  undergoes  its  first  ecdysis. 
This  appears  to  bn  fatal  to  many  of  tlie  larvye,  cbietiy  owing  to 
the  great  difficulty  experienced  in  removing  the  head  from  the 
very  hard  shell  of  the  cuticle  enclosing  it. 

Second  Larval  Instar.     (Plate  Ixxix.,  fig.4;  Text-ti<5,3). 

At  the  tirst  ecdysis,  there  is  a  great  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
head  of  the  larva,  which  now  becomes  about  14  mm.  long  in  an 
average-sized  larva.  (There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  sizes 
of  individual  specimens,  and  this  is  not  rectified  in  the  imagines, 
which  also  vary  greatly  in  size).  The  head  becomes  more  de- 
finitely trapezium-shaped  than  before,  owing  to  the  increased 
definiteness  of  the  four  angles;  its  colour  is  a  rich  brown.  An 
extra  joint  is  added  to  the  antennse,  which  are  now  nine-jointed, 
and  to  the  labial  palps,  which  become  five-jointed.  The  man- 
dibles and  maxill?e  are  almost  as  long  as  the  head,  shaped  as  in 
the  first  instar,  but  of  stronger  build.  The  ocelli  become  more 
plainly  marked,  each  set  of  five  being  placed  upon  an  irregular 
darkened  area  just  behind  the  base  of  the  antenna. 

Text-fig. 3  shows  the  cast  skin  of  the  head  of  the  larva  at  the 
end  of  this  instar.  The  armature  of  the  head  is  very  remarkable, 
consisting  of  numerous  raised  papillae,  from  each  of  which  a  tiny 
hooked  hair  projects:  these  are  especially  conspicuous  upon  the 
sides  of  the  head,  and  upon  the  projecting  triangular  labrum. 
The  figure  shows  very  plainly  the  mid-dorsal  and  lateral  splits 
which  take  place  in  the  cuticle  at  ecdysis. 

As  at  hatching,  so  also  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  instar, 
the  three  thoracic  segments  are  approximately  equal  in  size,  the 
prothorax  being  somewhat  longer  and  narrower  than  the  other 
two.  After  a  meal,  the  meso-  and  metathorax  swell  up,  like  the 
abdomen.  But  the  prothorax  can  only  swell  up  posteriorly,  the 
neciv-constriction  remaining  unchanged;  so  that  this  segment 
soon  becomes  much  narrower  than  the  other  two.  The  legs 
remain  small,  and  formed  as  in  the  first  instar,  with  un jointed 
tarsi. 

The  abdomen  is  at  first  fairly  slender  and  tapering  towards 
the  anus.      As  the  larva  feeds,  it  swells  up  rapidly,  and  assumes 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


793 


the  somewliat  broad,  flattened  shape  shown  in  Plate  Ixxix.,  fig.4. 
A  slight  pattern  becomes  noticeable  upon  the  abdomen  and 
thorax,  more  markedly  in  some  individuals  than  in  others.  This 
is   mainly  due   to   the  onset  of   pruinescence,  which    leaves  the 


Text-fig.  3. 
Cast  skin  of  head  of  larva  of  Ps.  elegans  (Guer.),  at  second  eedysis;  (  x  30). 

original  dull  brownish  colour  of  the  body  more  definitely  marked 
mid-dorsally  and  in  the  sutures.  A  pair  of  darkish  spots  can  be 
made  out  on  the  meso-  and  metathorax,  marking  the  positions  of 
the  pinacula  of  these  segments  (see  p. 800). 

At  the  end  of  the  second  instar,  the  larva  has  increased  to 


794  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 

about  8  mm.  in  length,  and  is  very  stout.  As  this  instar  lias 
been  passed  entirely  in  the  summer-months,  with  an  abundance 
of  food  and  warmth,  growth  is  comparatively  rapid,  and  the 
second  ecdysis  usually  takes  place  during  February  or  March  of 
the  second  year  of  larval  life.  This  ecdysis  does  not  appear  to 
be  such  a  crisis  in  the  life  of  the  larva  as  was  the  first  one:  pos- 
sibly because  the  larvae  are  more  active  in  the  warm  weather, 
and  make  greater  efforts  to  free  themselves  from  the  hard  cuticle 
of  the  head,  which  is  again  the  principal  cause  of  any  mortality 
that  occurs  at  this  period. 

Third  Larval  Instar.  (Plate  Ixxix.,  fig. 5;  Text-figs.4-9), 
As  before,  this  second  ecdysis  results  in  a  great  increase  of 
the  size  of  the  head,  which  broadens  considerably,  becoming 
squarish,  as  shown  in  Plate  Ixxix.,  fig.5.  The  increase  in  length 
is  only  a  moderate  amount,  but  in  breadth  it  is  more  than  50 
per  cent,  of  the  width  at  the  end  of  the  second  instar.  The 
labrum  broadens  with  the  head,  and  loses  its  triangular  shape, 
as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Text-figs.  3  and  6.  The  antennae 
sometimes  become  ten-jointed,  but  I  have  only  been  able  to 
count  nine  in  several  specimens.  The  labial  palps  remain  five- 
jointed,  and  there  is  no  change  in  the  shape  of  mandibles  or 
maxillae. 

Thorax,  legs,  and  abdomen  remain  of  the  same  shape  as  in  the 
second  instar.  The  pattern  varies  greatly  for  different  indi- 
viduals, some  being  brown  all  over,  others  brown  with  grey 
pruinescence,  and  others  entirely  grey,  or  almost  white,  and 
strongly  pruinescent  all  over.  The  head  usually  remains  a  rich 
dark  brown;  but  I  have  seen  specimens  with  strong  pruinescence 
upon  the  head  also. 

During  March  and  April  of  its  second  year  of  existence,  the 
larva  feeds  up  rapidly,  and  many  specimens  become  apparently 
full-fed  by  the  time  winter  sets  in.  None,  however,  attempt  to 
spin  up,  but  remain  dormant  in  crevices  of  the  bark  until  the 
warmer  weather  of  the  Spring  returns.  During  this  second 
hibernation,  great  mortality  occurs,  many  larvae  being  attacked 
by  some  obscure  fungoid  disease,  and  others  apparently  dying  of 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


795 


cold.  Out  of  thirty  larvae  brought  from  Wauchope,  N.S.W.,  in 
February,  1917,  I  succeeded  in  rearing  only  six  to  maturity. 

Before  describing  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon,  we  may  profit- 
ably study,  somewhat  more  minutely,  certain  of  the  lai-val  struc- 
tures, as  they  are  to  be  seen  at  the  end  of  the  third  instar. 

The  Mandibles  (Te.Kt-fig.4,  a,  h)  are  a  pair  of  huge  curved  jaws, 
immensely  strong,  and  of  a 


rich  dark  brown  colour. 
They  are  smooth  in  outline, 
and  without  visible  teeth; 
but  an  examination  under  a 
higher  power  will  show  the 
presence  of  about  six  small, 
backwardly  directed  serra- 
tions on  the  inner  edge,  close 
up  to  the  tip,  as  in  Text- 
fig.  4,  6.  These  undoubtedly 
help  in  preventing  the  escape 
of  the  prey,  when  once  it  has 
been  pierced  by  these  power- 
ful jaws.  On  the  ventral 
side  of  each  mandible,  there 
is  a  very  definite  groove  {gr) 
which  receives  the  maxilla, 
lying  directly  below  it.  The 
length  of  the  mandible  is 
2-7  mm. 

The  J/axiZ^fc  (Text-fig. 4, cj 
are  not  unlike  the  mandibles 
in  size  and  shape,  but  are 
slenderer,  and  slightly  more 
curved  towards  the  tip.  They  are  entirely  devoid  of  armature, 
except  for  their  very  sharp  points.  Each  maxilla  carries  a  very 
faint  groove  upon  its  dorsal  surface,  a  little  wider  than  the  groove 


Text-fig.  4. 


*  a,  Mandible  of  larva  of  Pst/chopsis  ekgam  {Guer.),  third  instar;  (  x  30). 
b,  Tip  of  same,  to  show  the  series  of  fine  serrations;  (  x  87).  c,  Maxilla  of 
same;  c,  cavdo;  p,  palpiger;  st,  stipes;  (  x  30). 


796  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 

of  tlie  inaudible.  In  the  living  larva,  the  maxilUe  ma}^  be  seen 
at  times  playing  freely  forwards  and  backwards  beneath  the 
mandibles;  so  that  it  is  evident  that  tliey  have  considerable  free- 
dom of  movement,  in  spite  of  being  designed  to  act  as  a  pair  of 
complete  sucking-tubes  in  conjunction  with  tliese  latter. 

Whereas  the  groove  in  the  mandible  can  be  followed  with  ease 
right  up  to  tlie  tip,  that  of  the  maxilla  cannot  be  so  followed, 
and  is  evidently  of  a  much  more  imperfect  nature.  Hence  the 
complete  sucking-tube  must  be  formed  at  least  partly  by  pressure 
of  the  two  paiis  of  jaws,  one  upon  the  other,  and  not  by  a  close 
interlocking  of  parts.  I  have  frequently  seen  the  tips  of  the 
maxillae  pushed  a  considerable  distance  forward  beyond  the  tips 
of  the  mandibles;  this  could  scarcely  happen  unless  the  fit  of  the 
maxilla  upon  the  ventral  surface  of  the  mandible  were  a  some- 
what loose  one,  seeing  that  the  calibre  of  the  groove  varies 
greatly  from  base  to  tip. 

When  the  maxilla  is  dissected  out,  it  is  seen  to  be  considerably 
swollen  near  the  base,  and  to  carry,  below  the  swollen  part,  three 
flat,  chitinised  plates,  two  of  which  ai'e  broadly  triangular,  the 
third  very  narrow.  These  are  placed  in  the  positions  of  cardo^ 
sti^jes,  and  palpiger  of  a  normal  maxilla,  and  appear  to  represent 
those  three  sclerites.  As  regards  the  elongated  spear  that  forms 
the  principal  part  of  the  maxilla,  this  would  appear  to  be  the 
galea.  But,  unless  the  transformation  of  these  parts,  from  their 
abnormal  form  in  the  larva  to  their  normal  form  in  the  pupa, 
can  be  followed  out  at  metamorphosis,  in  such  a  way  that  there 
can  be  no  doubt  upon  the  matter,  I  do  not  think  that  we  can  be 
sure  of  their  homologies. 

7'Ae  Lahritm  and  Clypens  (Text-fig. 5).  These  together  form 
one  piece  in  the  larva,  indistinctly  divided  transversely,  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  clypeus  is  covered  with  the  usual  hooked 
hairs,  set  upon  raised  papillae  The  labrum  is  a  strongly  pro- 
jecting curved  lobe,  carrying  only  three  rather  large  hooked 
hairs  on  either  side. 

The  Labium  (Text-fig.6).  This  consists  of  an  undivided  tri- 
angular basal  portion,  from  the  two  anterior  angles  of  which 
project   the  five-jointed    palpi.        The   basal    joint   of   each   palp 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD, 


797 


carries  a  single  hooked  liair  on  its  inner  side,  and  there  is  a 
larger  one  situated  just  below  it.  Five  or  six  smaller  hooked 
hairs  are  situated  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line,  upon  the 
basal  portion  of  the  labium. 

This  basal  portion  of  the  labium  remains  undivided  through- 
out all  stages  in  Psychopsis,  and  probably  represents  both 
inentum  and  subinentum  combined. 


Text-fis.'").^ 


Text-fi.i^.O.t 


7'he  Body- Armature  (Text-figs.  7,  8).  We  have  already  de- 
scribed the  peculiar  hooked  hairs,  set  upon  raised  papillae,  which 
are  found  upon  the  head  of  the  larva.  They  also  occur  upon  the 
hard  tergal  plate  of  the  prothorax,  which  is  formed  of  tough 
dark  brown  chitin,  like  that  of  the  head.  Upon  the  rest  of  the 
thorax,  and  upon  the  abdomen,  these  hairs  are  almost  entirely 
replaced  by  more  highly  specialised  structures,  which  I  shall  call 
dolichasters  (Greek  SoA-iyo?,  long;  and  da-ri'ip,  a  star).  The  doli- 
chaster  is  a  more  or  less  elongated,  hollow,  chitinous  structure, 
set  upon  a  definite  papilla;  it  is  very  narrow  at  the  base,  but 
expands  distad  in  narrow  pyramidal  form,  and  ends  distally  in 
from  four  to  nine  sharply  projecting  points,  which  pass  beyond 
the    general    periphery  of   the   enclosing   chitinous   membrane. 


Labium  and  clypeus  of  larva  of  Ps,  eleyans  (Guer,),  third  instar;  (  x  30). 
t  liabium  of  larva  of  P.s.  e/egaiis  (dui'-r. ),  third  instar;  (  x  30i. 


b'2 


798 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vll., 


Viewed  end  on,  it  is  more  or  less  star  shaped,  being  in  the  form 
of  a  fairly  regular  polygon  with  concave  sides.  Typical  doli- 
chasters  are  shown  in  Text-fig.  7,  a,  b,  and  c.  These  structures 
are  very  abundant  all  over  the  abdomen  and  thorax,  excepting 
upon  the  hard  tergal  plate  of  the  pro  thorax,  on  which  only  an 
occasional  one  can  be  seen. 

The  dolichaster  is  clearly  a  specialisation  from  a  normal  hollow 
sensory  hair  or  macrotrichion.  This  may  be  proved  by  a  study 
of  the  eighth  and  ninth  segments  of  the  larva.  On  the  ninth 
segment,  the  macrotrichia  are  of  normal  form.     On  the  eighth, 

yv  there  are  a  few  of  normal  form, 
but  most  of  them  are  slightly 
"^  thickened  and  blunted  at  the  tips, 
and  a  few  can  be  seen  having  the 
projecting  distal  points  or  angles 
of  the  true  dolichaster-form.  On 
the  seventh,  the  dolichaster-form 
is  fully  established,  but  remains 
very  elongated,  for  the  most  part. 
On  the  rest  of  the  abdomen,  all  stages  from  a  very  narrow, 
elongated  dolichaster  with  only  four  or  five  rays,  to  a  shorter 
and  stouter  dolichaster  with  from  seven  to  nine  rays,  can  be 
easily  followed. 

Dolichasters  vary  from  40  to  over  100/x  in  length,  and  from 
about  20  to  30/x  in  extreme  width  distal ly. 

We  may  compare  the  dolichaster  with  the  bulla,  such  as  is 
found  in  the  larva  of  Micropteryx  (Order  Lepidoptera).  In  the 
bulla,  the  macrotrichial  chitin  becomes  very  soft,  and  the  internal 
cavity  is  enlarged  so  that  the  hair  expands  into  the  form  of  a 
soft,  swollen  bulb.  Weak  longitudinal  supporting  rays  are,  how- 
ever, present,  as  may  be  seen  by  a  careful  examination  of  the 
bulla  under  a  high  power.  Moreover,  when  the  bulla  is  viewed 
end   on,  it,  too,  like   the  dolichaster,   exhibits  the  star-shaped 

*  Dolichaster.s  from  integument  of  larva  of  Ps.  elegans  (Gii^r. ),  third 
instar;  (  x  330).  a.  Long,  five-ra3'ecl  form;  h,  four-rayed  form;  c,  shorter, 
seven-raj'ed  form.  Above  h  and  c  are  shown  four  examples  of  micrasters, 
also  X  330. 


Text-fig.  7." 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  799 

distal  end,  thougli  tlie  peripliet-yof  the  soft  cliitinous  bulb,  in  this 
case,  projects  out  well  beyond  the  outline  of  the  star.  Tlius  the 
bulla  is  a  higher  specialisation  from  the  original  macrotrichion 
than  is  the  dolicliaster,  and  can  be  developed  from  the  latter  by 
further  softening  of  the  chitin  forming  it,  and  further  swelling 
up  of  the  internal  cavity. 

The  dolichaster  may  also  be  compared  ver}'^  closely  with  a 
typical  scale,  such  as  is  found  upon  the  bodies  of  Collembola,  or 
upon  the  wings  of  Lepidoptera.  If  the  dolichaster  were  to 
become  flattened  down  upon  itself  symmetrically  from  the  side, 
it  would  differ  ver}^  little  from  a  scale;  the  longitudinal  edges  or 
rays  would  become  the  longitudinal  stride  of  the  scale,  and  the 
sharp  distal  points  of  the  dolichaster  Avould  remain  as  a  series  of 
distally  projecting  angles,  such  as  are  very  commonly  found  in  a 
large  number  of  Lepidopterous  scales,  particularly  amongst  the 
Heteroneura. 

Besides  the  dolichasters,  the  body  of  the  larva  in  Psychopsis 
carries,  in  a  number  of  places  where  the  chitin  is  very  soft,  an 
immense  number  of  minute,  star-shaped  structures,  which  I  shall 
call  micrasters  (Greek  iJ.iKp6<i,  small;  and  wrri'jp).  Where  they 
occur,  they  are  developed  from  every  single  hypoderm-cell  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  are  thus  many  times  more  numerous  than 
the  dolichasters  of  the  same  region.  The  micraster  is  a  minute, 
sessile,  flattened  stai-,  not  set  upon  any  definite  papilla,  and 
raised  but  little  above  the  general  surface  of  the  integument. 
Text-flg.7  shows  a  set  of  four  micrasters  with  four,  five,  six,  and 
seven  rays  or  points  respectively. 

The  micrasters  vary  from  1  to  3/x  in  height,  and  from  8  to  12/x 
in  extreme  width.  Thus  they  are  always  smaller  than  the  basal 
papillse  of  the  dolichasters,  which  range  from  12  to  over  20/x  in 
width. 

It  can  be  easily  seen  that  the  micraster  is  simply  a  specialisa- 
tion of  the  minute  microtrichia  which  occur  normally  upon  many 
parts  of  the  body  of  an  insect,  especially  in  the  sutures  and 
other  places  where  the  chitin  is  soft,  in  the  form  of  tiny  hooked 
hairs.  A  search  over  the  larval  integument  of  Psychopsis  shows 
that,  for  the   most   part,  these   njicrotrichia  are   only  feebly  de- 


800 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vll. 


velopecl,  as  miiiute  processes  flattened  down  close  to  tlie  integu- 
ment itself.  In  other  places,  they  can  be  seen  to  be  divided 
into  two  short  processes  at  an  obtuse  angle  to  one  another. 
From  this  form,  the  transition  to  a  four-ra\'ed  micraster  is  quite 
a  simple  one.  As  microtrichia  are  developed  from  every  single 
unspecialised  hypoderm-cell,  in  the  regions  in  which  they  occur, 
it  follows  that  the  same  will  be  true  of  the  micrasters  in  any 
given  region,  as  we  find  to  be  the  case  here. 

Piiiacida,  or  small  plates  of  hardened  brown  chitin,  carrying 
one  or  more  hairs  or  setie,  occur  upon  the  meso-  and  metathorax, 
and  also  upon  the  sixth  to  eighth  ab- 
dominal segments.  Each  segment  men- 
tioned has  a  single  pair  of  pinacula  placed 
more  or  less  dorso-laterally. 

The  simplest  pinacula  are  those  of  the 
abdomen,  of  which  one  is  shown  in  Text- 
fig.  8,  together  with  its  corresponding- 
spiracle  It  is  a  somewhat  irregular  oval 
patcli,  which  carries  a  single  excessively 
elongated  and  slender  hair,  quite  unlike 
any  other  hair  to  be  seen  in  this  larva, 
and  about  one-third  of  a  millimetre  long. 
The  two  pinacula  of  the  eighth  segment 
are  placed  rather  close  together,  on  either 
side  of  the  mid-dorsal  line.  Those  of  the 
J  "p*^     seventh  segment  are  placed  further  apart. 

Those  of  the  sixth  are  much  smaller,  and 
•  Sp  still  further  apart.     Sometimes  a  vestige 

of  a  similar  pinaculum  may  be  observed 
Text-fig  8.*  upon    the    fifth    segment    also,    in    good 

chitin-preparations. 
The  pinacula  of  the  meso-  and   metathorax  are  much  larger 
and  darker  areas,  whose  position  has  been  already  indicated  in 

'  Details  from  the  integument  of  seventh  abdominal  segment  of  larva 
of  Ps.  eJ e ff cms  {Gwer.),  third  instar.  d,  A  dolichaster;  pn,  pinaculum  with 
long,  slender  macrotrichion;  s]!,  spiracle,  in  situ;  (  x  167).  Three  other 
dolichasters  surrounding  the  spiracle  are  omitted. 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  801 

f] -scribing  the  colour  pattern  on  p.793,  since  they  occupy  the 
darkisli  spots  tliere  mentioned,  and  shown  in  Plate  Ixxix.,  figs. 4, 
5.  Each  pinaculum  carries  from  two  to  four  dolichasters,  and  a 
single  small  seta  upon  a  raised  papilla.  In  specially  good  pre- 
parations, I  have  seen  the  blind  ending  of  a  small  trachea  upon 
the  integument  close  to  the  pinaculum;  this  would  appear  to 
indicate  the  original  position  of  the  meso-  or  metathoracic 
spiracle,  which  has  evidently  become  suppressed. 

The  Sjnracles. — In  all  three  larval  instars,  the  number  of 
functional  spiracles  is  eighteen,  viz..  a  pair  upon  the  prothorax, 
and  a  pair  upon  each  of  the  first  eight  abdominal  segments.  They 
are  all  very  small,  simple  openings,  the  rim  of  which  is  slightly 
strengthened  and  darkened.  As  far  as  I  can  see,  the}^  are  quite 
devoid  of  armature  or  ornamentation  of  any  sort.  A  single 
trachea,  whose  calibre  is  approximately  equal  to  that  of  the 
spiracle  itself,  passes  inwards  from  it  to  the  main  tracheal  trunk 
on  each  side.  The  prothoracic  spiracles  are  the  largest  pair: 
next  in  size  are  those  of  the  eighth  segment,  with  those  of  the 
seventh,  sixth,  etc.,  in  descending  order  of  magnitude  up  to  the 
first.  Text-tig. 8,  .<?/;.,  shows  one  of  the  spiracles  of  the  seventh 
segment  in  situ,  with  its  corresponding  pinaculum  (all  but  one 
of  the  surrounding  dolichasters  removed).  Owing  to  the  great 
number  of  these  latter,  it  is  always  difficult  to  locate  the  spiracles 
in  this  larva. 

The  Anal  Papilla  (Text-fig.9).— The  last  two  segments  of  the 
abdomen,  viz.,  the  ninth  and  tenth,  are  much  narrower  than  the 
rest,  and  are  more  or  less  retractile  within  the  eighth.  They  do 
not  carry  dolichasters,  but  only  very  delicate,  slender  macro- 
trichia  of  reduced  size.  The  tenth  segment  forms  the  anal 
papilla  or  sucker,  by  means  of  which  the  larva  is  enabled  to  move 
rapidly  backwards,  or  to  hold  on  tight  when  attacking  its  prey. 
This  segment  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  dorso-lateral  curved 
processes,  probably  representing  the  original  cerci,  and  a  pair  of 
ventral  processes,  somewhat  cornute  in  shape,  and  curving  out- 
wards to  meet  the  incurving  tips  of  the  dorsal  processes.  These 
latter  are  armed  with  two  series  of  closely  set,  short,  sharp  setaj, 
one  set  directed  outwards  and  the  other  inwards.      I  have  found 


802 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vll. 


it  impossible  to  observe  how  these  organs  are  used  by  the  larva; 
but  the  result  is  certainly  to  give  it  a  very  powerful  grasp  upon 
anything  that  they  grip,  and  the  whole  papilla  appears  to  act  as 
forcefully  as  a  true  sucker.  Whether  there  is,  besides  the  actual 
grasping  effected  by  these  appendages,  any  sucking  action  per- 
formed by  the  tenth  segment,  I  cannot  say.  Remembering  that 
the  silk  for  the  cocoon  is  spun  from  the  anus,  it  seems  possible 
that  an  exudation  of  the  same  nature  may  help  in  the  action  of 
the  anal  papilla  as  a  grasping  or  sucking  organ. 


Text-fig.  9. 
Anal  papilla  of  larva  of  Z^-,  c/egans  (Guer.),  third  instar;  ventral  view; 

(  X  87). 

Habits  of  the  Larva. 

In  order  to  discover  the  larva  in  its  natural  haunts,  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  oneself  with  a  stout,  wide-bladed  chisel,  or 
some  other  instrument  that  will  act  as  a  lever  for  removing  the 
bark  of  Myrtaceous  trees.  The  ordinary  methods  of  bark-collect- 
ing, as  practised  by  ColeopUrists,  are  useless  in  this  case.  All 
old  trees,  in  which  the  bark  is  hanging  in  shreds  or  long  strips, 
or  is  dry  and  attacked  by  white  ants,  are  of  no  use  in  searching 
for  Pttychopsis  larvie.  Instead,  it  is  necessary  to  select  healthy, 
medium-sized  trees,  in  which   the  sap   is  running  freely,  and  in 


6y  r.  j.  tillyard.  803 

which,  consequently,  tlie  l>ark,*\vhen  torn  away,  is  found  to  be 
slightly  moist  inside.  The  best  trees  are  those  in  which  the 
bark  is  thick  and  rough,  with  many  crevices,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Ironbark  {Eucalyptus  siderophloia  Bentli.)  and  Blood  wood 
{E.  corymbosd  8ni.).  Probably  the  Ironbark  is  one  of  the  best 
trees  of  all  for  this  larva;  but  it  is  so  difficult  to  work,  on  account 
of  the  extreme  toughness  of  its  bark,  that  it  is  best  to  leave  it 
alone,  unless  one  sees  a  piece  of  bark  that  can  be  levered  off 
without  damage  to  one's  tools.  Around  Sydney,  one  of  the  very 
best  trees  is  the  Bloodwood;  but  in  Queensland,  where  the  bark 
of  this  tree  is  thinnei"  and  more  scaly,  I  met  with  little  success 
in  exploring  it.  Another  excellent  tree  is  the  Forest  Apple 
(Aitgophora  inter meaia  DC).  Trees  in  which  the  bark  comes 
away  in  long  strips  of  considerable  thickness,  such  as  the  Tallow- 
wood  (E.  microcorys  F.  v.M.),  Turpentine  {Syncarpia  laurifolia 
Ten.),  and  Stringy-bark  {E.  oapitellata  Sm.),  generally  provide 
very  good  hunting  also:  but  those  with  thin  bark  are  useless. 

In  searching  for  the  larva,  of  which,  probably,  not  more  than 
five  or  six  at  the  most  would  be  found  on  any  given  tree,  even 
if  all  the  bark  were  to  be  stripped  from  it,  much  time  and  trouble 
may  be  saved  if  one  watches  for  likely  places  where  the  larva 
may  be  expected  to  hide.  Such  are,  for  instance,  particularly 
thick  or  richly  creviced  portions  of  bark;  and,  above  all,  the 
cracks  and  crannies  surrounding  a  gum-flow.  Many  insects 
come  at  night  to  taste  this  gum;  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
the  Psychopsis  lar\a  takes  up  his  station  near  by,  with  the  special 
object  of  attacking  these  insects.  On  One  Tree  Hill,  Brisbane, 
I  noticed  a  rather  small  Ironbark-tree,  in  which  there  was  a 
good  gum-flow,  caused  by  a  small  cut  with  an  axe.  By  levering 
up  the  two  tough  projecting  ends  of  the  bark,  above  and  below 
this  cut,  r  secured  four  larvte  of  Ps.  elegans  and  two  of  Ps.  atdi- 
vagus  —  th^  best  haul  I  ever  obtained  from  a  single  tree. 

When  a  piece  of  bark  is  removed,  the  Psychopsis  larva  will 
almost  always  be  found  upon  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  with  its  body 
flattened  down,  and  quite  motionless.  Thus,  the  trunk  and  its 
exposed  crevices  should  be  examined  first;  then,  if  nothing  is 
seen   there,  the  piece   of   bark    may  be  likewise   examined,  and 


804  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 

sometimc'tj  vields  a  larva.  Veiy*soon  the  larva  will  begin  to 
move  rapidly  backwards,  feeling  all  the  time,  with  its  mobile 
anal  papilla,  for  a  suitable  crevice  in  which  to  hide.  Jf  once  it 
succeeds  in  reaching  one,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  secure  it.  Hence 
it  should  be  picked  up  at  once  with  the  forceps,  and  transferred 
to  a  glass-tube,  whose  open  end  should  be  stopped  up  with  cotton- 
wool. Not  more  than  one  larva  must  be  put  into  one  tube, 
unless  each  is  separated  from  the  next  by  a  plug  of  cotton-wool; 
for  one  is  sure  to  attack  the  other  and  suck  him  dry. 

The  larva  may  be  reared  right  through,  in  a  single  SRiall  glass- 
tube.  The  best  food  for  the  earlier  stages  is  white-ants.  These 
should  be  given  alive,  but  with  their  heads  crushed;  otherwise 
there  will  be  a  fight  between  the  larva  and  its  intended  victim, 
in  which  the  tables  may  be  turned.  In  the  second  and  third 
instars,  the  larvae  of  the  Oodlin  Moth  make  excellent  food;  but 
these  also  must  be  offered  with  their  heads  crushed,  unless  one 
is  willing  to  take  the  risk  of  damage  to  the  Psychopsis  larva  from 
the  strong  mandibles  of  the  Codlin  grub.  Under  natural  con- 
ditions, the  Psychopsis  larva  guards  himself  from  attacks  of  this 
kind  by  retreating  into  a  crevice,  after  he  has  seized  his  prey. 
With  his  body  thus  covered,  and  only  his  large  jaws  projecting, 
he  is  perfectly  safe.  But  it  is  different  in  a  glass-tube,  where 
the  whole  of  the  larva's  soft  body  is  exposed  to  attack  from  the 
jaws  of  his  writhing  victim. 

The  larvae  feed  but  seldom;  each  meal,  however,  is  a  very  sub- 
stantial one.  A  larva  supplied  with  a  Codlin  grub  will  usually 
attack  it  at  once,  advancing  cautiously  with  its  jaws  wide  apart, 
until  they  are  well  placed  on  each  side  of  its  victim.  Then,  with 
a  sudden  vicious  snap,  the  jaws  are  driven  home,  and  the  victim 
is  secured.  If  the  victim  struggles  furiously,  the  Pyychopsis 
larva  will  frequently  let  go  its  hold,  and  retreat  into  a  corner, 
with  every  sign  of  fear;  nor  will  it  be  induced  to  attack  the  same 
victim  a  second  time.  Generally,  however,  the  larva  is  able  to 
hold  on,  until  the  loss  of  blood  occasioned  by  the  wound  weakens 
the  victim  sufficiently  to  prevent  its  struggling  further.  Then 
the  jaws  are  driven  far  in,  and  the  play  of  the  maxillae  to  and 
fro  beneath  the  grooved  mandibles  shows  that  the  larva  is  suck- 


BY    R.    .1.    TILI.YAKD.  805 

iiig  vigorously  at  its  victim.  It  may  take  some  hours  before  the 
latter  is  completely  emptied  of  its  juices.  By  this  time,  the 
Psychopsis  larva  will  have  swollen  out  to  a  very  great  extent, 
and  will  frequently  be  quite  torpid,  like  a  snake.  After  such  a 
meal,  no  food  should  again  be  offered  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
Larv?e  that  are  overfed  usually  die  from  the  effects  of  it;  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  a  strict  watch  on  the  feeding,  and  only  to 
offer  food  to  those  that  are  really  in  need  of  it. 

The  Cocoon.     (Plate  Ixxix.,  fic^ji). 

When  the  larva  is  full  fed,  it  remains  torpid  for  a  considerable 
period,  usually  two  or  three  weeks.  It  then  sets  about  con- 
structing its  cocoon.  First  of  all,  a  number  of  loose  and  irregular 
threads  are  spun  from  the  anus,  making  an  irregular  mesh  work, 
the  size  and  appearance  of  which  depends  entirely  upon  the  place 
selected  for  the  cocoon.  Under  natural  conditions,  the  cocoon 
is  spun  in  a  crevice  of  the  bark,  which  is  usually  barely  wide 
enough  to  contain  it.  In  such  a  case,  the  preliminary  meshwork 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  only  consists  of  a  slight  scaffolding 
or  anchorage  for  the  cocoon.  But,  in  such  an  artificial  condition 
as  in  a  glass-tube,  the  larva  may  expend  a  considerable  amount 
of  skill  upon  this  meshwork,  before  it  is  satisfied  that  conditions 
are  satisfactory  for  the  actual  building  of  the  cocoon. 

Having  selected  the  exact  position  for  the  cocoon,  the  larva 
next  spins  a  small  platform  within  the  meshwork  already  men- 
tioned. Upon  this  it  lies,  back  downwards,  while  it  weaves 
around  itself,  with  mar\ellous  dexterity,  the  beautiful  spherical 
cocoon.  The  outer  sheath  of  the  cocoon  is  mostly  composed  of 
fairly  loose  and  irregular  threads;  as  these  are  spun  in  larger 
and  larger  number,  the  spherical  shape  of  the  cocoon  begins  to 
take  shape.  Within  tliis  loose  outer  covering,  the  threads  are 
spun  with  wonderful  accuracy  and  closeness,  so  that  the  larva  is 
finally  enclosed  in  a  dense  white  or  cream-coloured  ball  of  silk, 
which,  when  cleared  of  its  outer  and  looser  threads,  closely  re- 
sembles a  pearl.  As  the  spinning  proceeds,  the  larva  shrinks 
more  and  more  in  size,  and  becomes  doubled  right  over  upon 
itself.     When  the  cocoon  is  finished,  it  becomes  almost  impossible 


806  STUDIES     IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUHOPTERA,  vii., 

to  conceive  how  so  large  a  larva  could  have  managed  to  encase 
itself  in  it. 

As  regards  the  actual  mode  of  spinning  the  thread,  the  mobility 
of  the  anal  papilla  is  very  marvellous.  Lying  upon  its  back,  the 
larva  can  protrude  this  papilla  to  a  great  distance,  and  spin  silk- 
all  round  itself,  even  behind  its  head  and  thorax,  with  very  little 
effort.  Most  of  the  threads,  however,  ai'e  spun  transversely 
across  the  larva,  beginning  with  a  small  arc  at  the  anal  end, 
then  swinging  out  into  a  longer  arc  across  the  middle  of  the 
abdomen,  and  finally  making  shorter  arcs  behind  the  back  of  the 
thorax.  All  these  transverse  strands  appear  to  be  carefully  con- 
nected, on  both  sides,  with  the  small  platform  already  mentioned, 
which  itself  is  made  to  form  a  part  of  the  outermost  coat  of  the 
cocoon.  When  the  first  complete  layer  of  the  sphere  is  finished, 
the  larva  has  its  head  bent  over  so  as  almost  to  touch  the  tip  of 
its  abdomen:  but  the  mobility  of  the  anal  papilla  appears  to  be 
but  little  decreased  in  this  position.  In  spinning  tlie  inner  layers 
of  the  cocoon,  the  larva  changes  its  position  every  now  and 
then,  so  that  the  anal  papilla  may  cover  all  parts  of  the  sphere 
with  an  equally  thick  layer  of  silk. 

As  found  under  natural  conditions,  the  cocoon  is  an  oblate 
spheroid,  with  the  two  poles  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the 
crevice  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  the  larva  lying  so  that  its 
sagittal  section  is  in  the  equatorial  plane  of  the  spheroid.  When 
spun,  however,  in  an  open  tube,  the  cocoon  is  practically  a  sphere. 
It  closely  resembles  the  cocoon  of  a  Chrysopid,  particularly  that 
of  the  genus  Nothochrysa,  from  which  it  would  not  be  possible 
to  distinguish  it  for  certain.  But,  unlike  most  of  the  Chrysnpidoi, 
Psi/chojjsis  does  not  attempt  to  spin  any  external  matter  into 
the  outer  mesh  of  the  cocoon.  Such  a  proceeding  is,  of  course, 
unnecessary,  considering  the  position  in  which  it  is  placed.  The 
diameter  of  the  cocoon  varies  with  the  size  of  the  larva,  but  is 
usually  about  5  mm.  (Plate  Ixxix.,  fig. 6). 

The  Pupa.      (Plate  Ixxix.,  %. 7;  Text-tig.  10). 
As  far  as  the  external  form  is  concerned,  the  true  metamor- 
phosis is  that  between    larva  and  pupa.     The  latter  is  a  pnpa 


BY    R.    J.    TILLTARD.  807 

libera,  closely  reseiiibliug  the  imago  in  everything  except  its 
uuexpanded  wings  (Plate  Ixxix.,  fig. 7).  At  the  metamorphosis, 
the  pupa  experiences  a  great  difficulty  in  casting  oflP  the  hard 
larval  head,  and  a  number  perish  from  inability  to  do  so.  The 
rest  of  the  larval  skin  is  soft,  and  shrivels  up  into  a  minute  mass 
within  the  cocoon;  the  head  may  be  found  sometimes  almost 
intact,  sometimes  with  the  mandibles  and  maxilhv  broken  off 
from  it.  The  splitting  of  the  head  is  mid-dorsal ly  and  postero- 
transversely,  as  in  the  other  larval  ecdyses  (Text-fig. 3). 

The  change  from  larva  to  pupa  does  not  take  place  until  a 
considerable  time  after  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon,  generally 
from  a  fortnight  to  three  weeks.  At  first,  the  fresh  pupa  is 
almost  colourless,  the  body  having  a  slight  greenish  tinge,  the 
head  and  wings  cream-coloured.  The  compound  eyes  are  large, 
and  soon  become  dark  brown  and  functional.  If  the  cocoon  be 
opened,  the  pupa  watches  every  movement  with  anxiety,  and 
can  be  made  to  turn  round  and  round,  merely  by  the  movement 
of  a  pin  held  at  a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  head. 

The  antennce,  are  fairly  short  (Plate  Ixxix.,  fig. 7),  but  are  com- 
posed of  a  large  number  of  joints,  there  being  thirty-five  in  the 
pupa  which  I  dissected.  Each  joint  is  less  than  half  as  long  as 
wide,  except  only  the  first  three;  of  these,  the  basal  joint  is 
stouter  than  the  rest.  Unlike  those  of  the  imago,  the  antennte 
in  the  pupa  are  devoid  of  hairs. 

The  mouth-parts  are  of  considerable  interest  (Text-fig.  10;.  The 
lahruin  is  distinctly  bifid,  and  carries  numerous  hairs  on  small 
raised  bases.  Below  the  labrum,  on  either  side,  are  the  large 
and  very  strongly  chitinised  mandibles.  Each  of  these  consists 
definitely  of  two  lobes,  separated  by  a  narrow  slit.  The  outer 
or  distal  lobe  has  a  sharply  pointed,  tooth-like  apex,  and,  below 
it,  a  more  or  less  broad  and  fiat  cutting-area,  forming  a  right- 
angled  projection.  The  inner  or  basal  lobe  is  rounded,  and  much 
less  prominent.  The  two  mandibles  are  not  similar  in  shape. 
The  right  mandible  has  the  smaller  basal  lobe,  but  the  broader 
and  flatter  cutting-surface;  wliereas  the  left  mandible  has  the 
cutting-area  narrower,  and  the  apical  tooth  raised  above  it  on  a 
high  ridge.     Thus,  in  the  action  of  cutting  open  the  cocoon,  for 


808 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vll. 


which  tliese  strong  mandibles  are  employed,  it  is  evident  that 
the  apex  of  the  right  mandible  phiys  in  and  out  of  the  groove 
formed  between  the  apical   ridge  of  the  left  mandible  and  the 


Texl-ti.u-.  10. 
Mouth-paits  of  pupa  of    /^.  <:lc<ians  ((Ua-r.).      »,   Lal>ruiii  (///r)  and   nvAU- 
(lil)les  (wcZ).      /),    Right  maxilla  and   labium;  cd  cardo,  ya  galea,  la 
lacinia,  Ip  labial  palp,  ml  median  lobe  of  labium,  mxp  maxillary  palp, 
8t  stipes;  (  x  48). 

rectangidai-  shelf  below  it.  This  is  also  proved  by  the  fact  that 
the  cutting-edge  of  the  distal  lobe  of  the  right  mandible  is  very 
sharp,  whereas  that  of  the  left  mandible  is  thicker  and  blunter, 


BY    R      J.    TILLY  A  RD. 


809 


and  is  evidently  formed  more  as  a  pad  or  receptacle,  against 
which  the  I'ight  mandible  can  work. 

The  maxilhe  and  labinni  lesemble  those  of  tlie  imago  fairly 
closely,  hut  are  broader  and  softer,  as  if  the  parts  were  all 
swathed  in  whitish  bandages.  The  principal  differences  are  that 
the  galea  of  the  maxilla  is  a  broad  rounded  lobe  without  a  small 
distal  joint,  and  the  median  lobe  of  the  labium  is  simply  bifid, 
instead  of  being  formed  as  in  the  imago. 

After  about  a  week,  the  imaginal  colon  is  loegin  to  appear  upon 
the  body  and  wings  of  the  pupa.  Before  emergence,  the  whole 
beautiful  pattern  of  the  wing-colouration  becomes  set  fortli  upon 
the  wings  of  the  pupa.  It  was  by  this  means  that  I  was  able  to 
recognise  the  pupa  of  Ps.  ccelivagus,  with  its  intensely  black  wings, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  failed  to  complete  its  emergence, 
after  escaping  from  its  cocoon. 

Emergence  of  the  Imago.     (Text-fig.  11). 

The  pupa  emerges  from  the  cocoon  by  cutting  it  neatly  open 
with  its  sharp  mandibles,  whose  scissor-like  action  is  specially 
adapted  to  this  purpose.  Alwut  one-fourth  of  the  circumference 
is  left  uncut,  forming  a  strong  hinge.  The  pupa  pushes  up  the 
lid  of  the  cocoon,  and  climbs  out. 

On  Dec.  1st,  1915,  at  5.30  p.m.,  I  noticed  a  pupa  emerging 
from  its  cocoon,  which  was  placed  upon  some  sand  in  a  glass-jar. 
The  pupa  crawled  along  the  sand  to  a  strip  of  blotting-paper, 
placed  nearly  vertically,  near  by.  Up  this  it  climbed  to  a  height 
of  about  one  and  a  half  inches,  and  then  took  a  firm  grip  of  the 
blotting-paper  with  its  claws,  and  remained  resting  for  a  few 
minutes.  During  this  time,  it  gradually  swelled  up  and  became 
very  taut,  as  shown  in  Text-fig. 11,  a.  At  5.37  p.m.,  it  began  to 
work  its  abdomen  and  wing-sheaths  about;  so  that,  in  a  few 
seconds,  the  fine  pupal  skin  split  dorsally  down  the  thorax,  tlie 
abdomen  became  straightened  out,  and  the  imago  began  to 
emerge  from  the  pupal  skin.  During  emergence,  the  wings  begin 
to  expand  at  once,  the  insect  arching  tliem  strongly  outwards,  as 
may  be  seen  in  Text  fig.  1  ],  c,d.  The  basal  portions  of  the  wings 
begin  to  enlarge  before  the  apical  portions  are  freed  from  the 


810 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  Vll., 


pupal  wing-sheaths.  Consequently,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Stone- 
flies  or  Perlaria,  the  wings,  when  finally  withdrawn,  have  the 
distal  portion  bent  at  an  angle  to  the  basal  portion,  as  sliown 
in  Text-fig.ll,  d.  This  applies  more  to  the  forewing  than  to  the 
hind,  which  becomes  freed  with  less  difficulty. 


e. 

Text-fig.ll. 
Emergence  of  the  imago  of  Ps.  ehyans  {Gu^r.).  a,  Pupa  just  before  meta- 
morphosis, 5.36  p.m.  h,  Imago  emerging,  5.40  p.m.  c.  Imago  freed 
from  pupal  skin,  5  42  p.m.  d,  Imago  expanding  its  wings,  5.47  p.m. 
e,  The  same  at  5.49  p.m.  /,  Imago  resting  with  wings  fully  expanded, 
6.8  p.m.  (Drawn  from  sketches  made  while  watching  the  actual 
emergence  on  Dec.  Ist,  1915;  d,  dorsal  view,  the  rest  lateral). 

As  soon  as  the  imago  was  quite  free,  it  climbed  upwards 
further  away  from  the  pupal  skin,  the  latter  being  left  clinging 
to  the  blotting-paper,  as  shown  in  Text-fig.ll,  c.  Having  taken 
up  a  position  well  above  the  pupal  skin,  the  imago  remained 
stationary  with  its  wings  arched  strongly  outwards,  the  forewing 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  811 

at  first  complete!}'  hiding  the  liindwing.  While  the  basal  half 
of  the  forewing  expanded  rapidly,  the  distal  half  remained  bent 
under  it  for  some  time.  Meanwhile,  the  hindwings  expanded 
rapidly,  and  their  apical  portions  appeared  beneath  the  still 
bent  forewings,  as  seen  in  Text-fig.ll,  d.  Next,  the  distal  por- 
tions of  the  forewings  became  straightened  out,  though  at  first 
they  remained  full  of  longitudinal  rucks,  as  seen  in  Text-fig.ll,  e. 
The  wings  were  held  well  away  from  the  abdomen  up  to  5.49 
p.m.,  by  which  time  they  were  about  three-fourths  expanded. 
Then  the  apical  rucks  became  rapidly  smoothed  out,  and  the 
wings  were  arched  forwards,  forming  a  steep  roof  over  the  body, 
so  that  the  costal  margins  of  the  forewings  come  almost  into 
contact  with  the  blotting-paper  (Text-fig.ll,/").  From  the  time 
of  leaving  the  cocoon  to  the  time  that  the  wings  were  fully  ex- 
panded, only  thirty  eight  minutes  elapsed.  After  resting  for 
some  time  in  the  position  shown  in  Text-fig.  1 1,/j  until  its  wings 
were  sufficiently  hardened,  the  imago  spread  them  out  in  the 
broad,  flattened,  roof-like  manner  usually  adopted  in  this  family. 

The  pupal  skin  left  behind  is  a  flimsy,  wliite  structure.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  detach  from  its  position.  But,  when  once  this 
has  been  done,  the  slightest  breath  of  air  causes  it  to  move 
readily,  so  light  and  delicate  is  its  construction.  The  thorax 
and  base  of  the  abdomen  are  flattened,  and  wide  open  dorsally. 
From  the  prothoracic  spiracles,  two  long  threads  stand  up;  these 
are  the  intima  of  the  tracheal  trunks,  withdrawn  through  these 
spiracles  when  the  imago  emerges.  The  back  of  the  head  is  split 
open,  and  the  large  dark  brown  pupal  mandibles  are  left  gaping 
wide  apart. 

The  Imago.     (Text-fig.  12). 

A  few  details  about  the  imago  which  have  not  been  published 
may  suitably  be  given  here. 

The  mouth-parts  are  figured  in  Text-fig.  12.  The  lahrum  re- 
sembles that  of  the  pupa,  but  is  not  definitely  bifid,  there  being 
only  a  very  slight  indication  of  the  division  into  two  distinct 
lobes.     It  carries  numerous  hairs,  not  set  upon  raised  bases. 

The  mandibles  ai-e  smaller  and  weaker  than  in  the  pupa,  and 
show  considerg^ble   modification  in   shape.     The  ri^ht  mandible 


812 


STUDIES    IN    AUSTRAIJAV     XEUROPTKRA,  VU., 


in  the  imago  has  only  a  single  lobe,  with  a  less  prominent  apical 
tooth  and  a  broader  cutting-blade.  The  left  mandible,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  still  bilobed,  the  basal  lobe  being  rounded  as  in 
the  pupa,  but  the  distal  lobe  forming  a  single  strongly  projecting 


Text-fig.  12. 
Mouth-parts  of  imago  of  Ps.  ehfjans  (Guer.),  9  .     a,  Labruni  and  mandibles. 
/>,  Left  maxilla  and  labium;  A/?  hypopharjnix;  rest  of  lettering  as  in 
Text-fig.  10;  (X  48). 


tooth,  whose  internal  border  is  definitely  hollowed  out.  Thus, 
in  the  imago,  the  cutting-edge  of  the  right  mandible  works  into 
the  groove  of  the  left  in  a  very  simple  manner.  These  mandibles 
may  possibly  be  used  for  feeding  upon  gum-exudations.      In  cap- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  813 

tivity,  the  insects  feed  willingly  upon  sugar  moistened  with  water 
and  spread  upon  cottan-wool,  using  their  mandibles  to  chew  the 
sticky  crystals. 

The  maxiUfe  are  of  a  very  generalised  type,  with  complete  and 
separate  galea  and  lacinia,  and  an  elongated,  five-jointed  palp. 
The  stipes  is  long,  the  cardo  very  short.  The  lacinia  arises  from 
a  broad  oblique  base,  in  the  form  of  a  simple  elongated  lobe  with 
rounded  apex,  and  carrying  numerous  hairs.  The  galea  is 
remarkable  in  being  set  well  above  the  lacinia,  upon  a  short 
transverse  base  formed  as  a  definite  projection  from  the  stipes, 
and  also  in  carrying  a  small  but  very  definite  distal  joint.  The 
basal  joint  is  somewhat  club-shaped,  and  carries  numerous  hairs 
upon  its  distal  half.  It  is  possible  that  the  existence  of  a  distal 
joint  is  an  archaic  feature,  and  that  it  ma}'  prove  to  be  of  import- 
ance in  the  study  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the  Holometabola. 

The  maxillary  palp  is  carried,  in  the  position  of  rest,  winh  its 
distal  joint  turned  inwards  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  other 
four,  as  shown  in  Text- fig. I'J,  h.  The  first  and  second  joints  are 
shoi-t,  the  third  twice  as  long  as  the  second,  the  fourth  shorter 
than  the  third,  and  the  distal  joint  longer  than  any,  with  a 
somewhat  pointed  tip. 

The  labium  is  in  the  form  of  a  broad!}'  rounded  median  lobe, 
on  each  side  of  which  there  is  a  narrower  lobe,  also  rounded,  but 
folded  over  above  the  median  lobe,  between  it  and  the  hypo- 
pharynx.  The  median  lobe  carries  hairs  on  either  side,  distally; 
the  two  lateral  lobes  carry  numerous  hairs  upon  their  upper 
surfaces.  The  palps,  which  arise  low  down  towards  the  base  of 
the  median  lobe,  are  three-jointed,  the  basal  joint  being  the 
shortest,  and  the  distal  the  longest;  each  joint  carries  a  few  hairs. 

In  the  natural  position,  if  the  mouth  be  opened,  there  will  be 
seen  abroad  sub-triangular  lobe  projecting  outwards  and  slightly 
upwards  above  the  labium.  This  is  the  hypopharynx  (Text-fig. 
\2,hp).  Its  distal  border  is  well  rounded,  rather  strongly 
chitinised,  and  curved  over;  it  carries  no  hairs. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  Psychopsidce  are  the  most 
ancient  of  existing  l^lanipennia,  as  far  as  the  Palieontological 
record  of  this  Order  is  known,  it  would  seem  that  much  valuable 

63 


814  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 

evidence  should  be  obtainable  when  a  careful  comparison  can  be 
made  between  the  mouth-parts  here  described  and  those  found 
in  other  families  of  the  Order.  This  research,  I  hope  to  carry 
out  later  on. 

Habits  of  the  Imago. 

During  the  day-time,  the  imagines  rest  concealed  and  motion- 
less, either  upon  the  underside  of  a  leaf,  or  hidden  away  in  debris 
of  dead  leaves  and  sticks.  Hence  they  are  seldom  captured, 
though  occasionally  one  may  be  taken  by  beating. 

At  night  time,  they  become  comparatively  lively.  Ps.  eUyans, 
kept  in  a  large  glass-jar,  was  watched  by  me  for  several  nights 
from  8  to  10  p.m.  During  this  time,  it  fluttered  about  the  jar, 
visited  the  moist  sugar  supplied  as  food  for  it,  and  fed  upon  it 
for  periods  up  to  half-an-hour  in  duration.  The  third  night, 
after  all  the  insects  had  fed,  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  see  the 
process  of  pairing.  The  female  took  up  a  position  upon  a  strip 
of  bark,  resting  with  her  wings  in  the  usual  position,  but  con- 
tinually vibrating  them.  A  male,  after  several  short  flights, 
at  last  alighted  upon  the  same  piece  of  bark,  lower  down,  and 
began  to  climb  up  towards  the  female,  also  vibrating  his  wings. 
At  last  he  arrived  alongside  her,  on  her  right  side.  The  female 
then  raised  her  right  pair  of  wings,  and  the  male  moved  in 
towards  her  from  the  side,  so  that  the  abdomens  of  the  two 
insects  were  almost  parallel,  and  the  right  pair  of  wings  of  the 
female  covered  the  left  side  of  the  male.  In  this  position  they 
remained  for  pairing,  occasionally  vibrating  their  wings.  It 
was  not  easy  to  make  out  exactly  how  copulation  was  effected; 
but  it  appeared  that  the  male  bent  the  tip  of  his  abdomen  round 
towards  the  female,  and  seized  her  with  his  anal  appendages,  at 
the  same  time  pulling  the  tip  of  her  abdomen  partly  round 
towards  him.  Thus  they  remained  for  some  twenty  minutes, 
until  a  second  male  came  and  alighted  close  to  them,  and  began 
to  flutter  around  and  over  them. 

The  female  apparently  did  not  lay  any  eggs  until  some  time 
after  pairing,  as  I  searched  the  jar  the  following  morning  and 
found  none.  However,  during  the  next  few  days,  she  deposited 
eggs  singly,  and  at  long  intervals  of  time  apart,  in  the  cotton- 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD.  815 

wool  which  I  had  supplied  for  that  purpose.  She  also  explored 
the  bark,  but  found  it  for  the  most  part  unsuitable,  laying  only 
one  egg  there,  as  against  eleven  laid  on  the  cotton- wool.  The 
two  eggs  shown  in  Text-fig.  1  were  laid  close  together  as  drawn, 
but  all  the  rest  were  quite  separate.  This  female  may,  of  course, 
have  laid  other  eggs  which  I  failed  to  find.  I  should  say  that  a 
single  female  must  contain  at  least  fifty  eggs;*  but  it  is  possible 
that  they  would  not  usually  all  be  laid  after  a  single  pairing. 

The  males  were  kept  alive  for  periods  varying  from  ten  days 
to  three  weeks.  The  females  live  longer,  and  one  was  kept  alive 
for  over  a  month,  by  which  time  her  wings  were  considerably 
torn.  The  only  nourishment  given,  during  all  this  time,  was 
sugar  and  water,  which  I  find  sufficient  for  most  Planipennia 
and  Mecoptera.  A  very  slight  degree  of  moisture  is  required  in 
the  jar.  Either  excess  of  moisture,  or  exposure  to  a  hot  drying 
wind,  is  equally  injurious  to  these  insects  The  same  may  be 
said  of  all  Planipennia,  although  the  MyrmeleontidcH  and  Ascala- 
phidce  can  stand  greater  heat  and  desiccation  than  any  of  the 
others. 

The  Economic  Value  of  the  Psychopsidae. 

There  is  no  Order  of  Insects,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Hymenoptera,  whose  members  are  so  generally  beneficial  to  man- 
kind as  the  Planipennia.  It  seems,  therefore,  of  considerable 
importance  that  we  should  now  attempt  to  estimate  the  value  of 
the  Psychopsidce  in  this  respect. 

From  the  account  of  the  life-history  here  given,  it  will  be  seen 
at  once  that  these  insects  are  entirely  beneficial  to  man  through- 
out their  whole  life.  The  preference  shown  by  the  larva  for 
feeding  upon  such  obnoxious  insects  as  the  larv?e  of  Codlin 
Moth,  and  other  of  the  smaller  Lepidoptera,  at  once  establishes 
it  as  potentially  a  very  useful  factor  in  the  checking  of  insect- 
pests.  Hence,  if  colonies  of  Psychopsis  could  be  established  in 
our  apple-,  pear-,  and  quince-orchards,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
they  would  help  very  materially  in  checking  the  Codlin  Moth 
and  other  Lepidopterous  pests  that  still  do  so  much  damage 
therein. 

*  Mr.  Gallard's  original  female  laid  over  fifty  eggs.     See  p.  787. 


816  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTERA,  vii., 

In  attempting  to  estimate  the  practicability  of  sucli  a  sugges- 
tion, we  have  to  bear  in  mind  certain  factors  that  must,  at  the 
best,  very  much  limit  tlie  efficacy  of  the  Psychopsidce : — 

(1)  Although  a  single  larva  of  Ps.  eleyans,  during  its  life, 
would  most  certainly  consume  a  considerable  number  of  Codlin 
Moth  larvae,  yet  the  value  of  this  is  much  discounted  by  the 
long  life  of  the  larva,  which  takes  up  the  best  part  of  two  years. 
The  economic  value  of  this  insect  would  be  many  times  enhanced 
if  it  were  al^le  to  pass  througli  all  three  larval  stages  in  a  few 
weeks,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Chrysopidce  and  Hemerobiidce. 

(2)  The  larva  requires  rough-barked  trees  to  live  in.  Thus  it 
would  seem  that  it  could  only  be  successfully  introduced  into 
orchards  in  which  the  trees  were  of  considerable  age.  Such  trees 
would  probably  afford  the  requisite  amount  of  shelter  to  tlie 
larva,  which  would  certainly  take  heavy  toll  of  anj"  other  insects 
that  attempted  to  hide  away  in  the  crannies  and  crevices  of  the 
bark. 

(3)  As  an  archaic  survival  of  a  very  old  stock,  the  Psychopsidce 
could  scarcely  be  expected  to  show  that  readiness  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  new  conditions,  that  is  to  be  found,  for  instance,  in  the 
more  specialised  Chrysopidce  and  Nemerobiidce.  Many  of  our 
Australian  species  of  these  two  families  have  readily  established 
themselves  in  our  orchards  and  gardens,  without  any  attempt  on 
the  part  of  entomologists  to  place  them  there;  and  are  already 
acting  very  effectively  as  checks  upon  Aphidse  and  Scale  Insects. 
So  far,  no  similar  tendency  has  been  noted  in  the  Psychopsidce; 
unless,  indeed,  the  apparent  increase  in  the  numbers  of  Ps. 
insolens  in  such  districts  as  Killarney  and  Mount  Tambourine, 
in  South  Queensland,  where  orchards  are  rapidly  replacing  the 
original  bush,  is  an  indication  that  this  species  is  beginning  to 
accommodate  itself  to  new  conditions.  It  would  be  natural  to 
suppose  that  insects  which,  in  a  state  of  nature,  are  so  rare  as 
the  Psychopjsidce,  would  not  take  kindly  to  a  change  of  environ- 
ment which  man  might  attempt  to  force  upon  them.  Thus,  if  a 
selected  orchard  of  old  trees  were  to  be  well  stocked  with  Psy- 
chopsis-hdYvse,  one  would  anticipate  that  the  resulting  imagines, 
after  pairing,  would   return  to  the  nearest  pifece  of  untouched 


BY    R.    J.    TILLYARD. 


817 


l)ush,  and  lay  their  eggs,  as  usual,  on    the  hai'k  of  Myrtaceous 
trees. 

(4)  The  apparent  association  of  the  FsycJtoiJsidre  with  trees 
belonging  to  the  Natural  Order  Myrtacene  nnist  be  considered  as 
a  disadvantage,  if  it  is  actually  a  fact.  But,  so  far,  we  do  not 
know  the  life-histories  of  most  of  the  VsyrJiops\dm\  and  it  may 
well  be  that  this  supposed  limitation  does  not  hold  for  most  of 
the  species.  Moreover,  it  is  noteworthy  that,  although  Fs. 
insolens  is  our  commonest  species,  no  larva  of  this  insect  has  yet 
been  found  under  Eucalyptus-bark.  If  the  life  history  of  this 
species  can  be  worked  out,  it  seems  probable  that  it  might  prove 
to  be  of  considerable  value  as  a  beneficial  insect  in  checking 
orchard-pests.* 

(5)  The  small  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  females  is  a  distinct 
disadvantage  economically.  Against  this,  however,  we  may 
place  the  fact  that  the  females  live  a  long  time,  and  deposit  their 
eggs  singly  in  many  different  places,  instead  of  all  in  a  lum}>. 
Thus  the  maximum  effect  is  produced  for  the  small  number  of 
larvte  hatched,  and  the  danger  of  a  quick  reduction  through 
cannibalism  is  eliminated. 

Taking  all  these  factors  into  consideration,  I  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that,  although  the  Psychopidce  do  not  offer  us  the 
pi-omise  of  such  immediately  beneiicial  results  as  could  be  ob- 
tained by  a  scientific  breeding  and  distribution  of  Chrysojyidtr. 
or  Hemer'obiidce,  yet  they  are  a  group  that  most  certainly  ought 
not  to  be  neglected  by  economic  entomologists.  A  few  carefully 
devised  experiments  upon  old  and  badly  infected  orchards,  either 
with  the  larvte  of  Fs.  elegans,  or  with  those  of  Fs.  insolens.,  if 
they  can  be  obtained  by  pairing  the  imagines,  should  be  well 
worth  carrying  out,  and  might  conceivably  yield  results  much 
superior  to  the  expectations  that  I  have  here  indicated.  There 
is  also  the  possibility  that  these  insects,  like  so  many  other  Aus- 
tralian animals,  would  do  exceptionally  well  in  some  new  region, 

*  Ff<ychopsid(i;  occur  also  in  Africa  and  Asia,  but  nothing  is  known  of 
their  life-histories  in  these  regions.  Large,  rough-barked  Mj'rtaceous 
trees,  like  the  P]ucalypts,  being  absent  from  these  regions,  it  is  evident 
that  they  must  be  associated  with  trees  of  other  Orders. 


818  STUDIES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    NEUROPTEKA,  vii. 

such  as  California  or  South  Africa.  As  they  are  entirely  bene- 
ficial, I  would  call  the  attention  of  entomologists  to  their  possible 
value  in  this  respect;  particularly  as  there  would  not  be  the 
slightest  difficulty  in  sending  the  larvse  to  any  part  of  the  world, 
since  they  are  very  hardy,  and  will  go  without  food  for  several 
weeks  at  a  time. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  LXXIX. 

Psychopsis  elegans  (Guer.). 
Ficr.L— Two  eggs;  (  x  /). 
Fig.2. — Newly  hatched  larva;  {  x  7). 
Fig.3. — The  same  larva  at  end  of  first  instar;  (  x  7). 
Fig. 4. — The  same  larva,  at  end  of  second  instar;  (  x  7). 
Fig. 5. — The  same  larva,  at  end  of  third  instar;  full-fed;  (  x  7). 
Fig. 6. — Cocoon;  (  x  4). 
Fig. 7. — Pupa,  ten  days  old,  extracted  from  cocoon;  (  x  7). 


819 


AUSTRALIAN  MEGALOPTERA  OR  ALDER-FLIES, 

With  Descriptions  of  new  Genera  and  Species. 

By  R.  J.  TiLLYARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 

(With  three  Text-figures.) 

The  Megaloptera  are  an  archaic  Order  of  Holometabolous 
Insects,  which  contains,  at  the  present  day,  only  about  one 
hundred  known  species,  all  of  them  of  large  or  moderate  size. 
The  Order  is  divisible  into  two  very  distinct  Sub  orders,  viz., 
the  Sialoidea,  or  true  Alder-flies,  and  the  Raphidioidea,  or  Snake- 
flies.  Of  these,  the  aquatic  Sialoidea  are  clearly  the  more  archaic, 
the  terrestrial  Raphidioidea  being  a  highly  specialised  offshoot 
from  them. 

The  Raphidioidea  are  not  represented  in  Australia,  their  place 
in  the  economy  of  Nature  being  already  occupied  by  the  older 
Fsychopsidm  of  the  Order  Planipennia.  whose  larvae,  though 
differing  in  the  nature  of  their  mouth-parts,  live,  like  those  of 
the  Snake-flies,  in  crevices  of  the  bark  of  trees,  and  prey  upon 
the  insects  frequenting  them. 

The  Sialoidea,  or  true  Alder-flies,  are  represented  by  some 
sixty  species  throughout  the  world.  They  may  conveniently  be 
divided  into  two  very  distinct  families,  according  to  the  follow- 
ing key  :— 

'Large  insects  (expaii.se  -loto  100 mm.  ^,  with  three  ocelli  present; 
fourth  joint  of  tarsus  not  bilobed;  venation  regular,  with 
cross-veins  weakly  formed,  Larvfe  with  eight  pairs  of  lateral 
gills  and  a  pair  of  hooked  anal  prolegs,  but  without  any  ter- 
minal filament    CORYDALID.^;. 

Much  smaller  insects  (expanse  20  to  40  mm.),  without  ocelli; 
fourth  joint  of  tarsus  strongly  bilobed;  venation  less  regular, 
Avith  strongly  developed  cross-veins.  Larvie  with  only  seven 
pairs  of  lateral  gills  and  a  terminal  filament,  but  without 
any  anal  prolegs   . .  Sialid.i;. 


820  AUSTRALIAN    MEGALOPTEtlA    OR    ALDER-FLIES, 

Of  these  two  families,  the  Corydalidce,  containing  the  great 
majority  of  the  genera  and  species  of  the  Sub-urder,  may  be 
again  divided  into  two  subfamiHes,  as  follows:  — 

'More  than   three  cross- veins  between   R  and  Rs;  head  quad- 
rangular      CORYDALIN.i:. 

Onh'  three  cross-veins  between  R  and  Rs;  head  triangular 

Chauliodin.i;. 

Up  to  the  present,  only  one  species  of  Alder-fly  has  ]>een  re- 
corded from  Australia,  viz.,  Archichauliodes  guttiferus  (Walker). 
It  is  a  large,  dull- coloured  insect,  recorded  occasionally  from 
many  localities  in  Eastern  Australia,  but  nowhere  very  common. 
Both  in  size  and  markings,  it  is  ver}^  variable,  some  individuals 
having  large  black  spots  on  the  wings  (especially  on  the  hind- 
wings)  and  others  having  none  at  all.  The  larva  is  a  familiar 
oljject  to  naturalists  in  the  Sydney  district,  being  found  under 
rocks  and  stones  in  small  rocky  creeks.  In  New  Zealand,  the 
allied  species  A.  dubitatus  (Walker),  is  very  abundant,  and  its 
larva  is  much  esteemed  as  bait  for  trout,  being  known  as  the 
"  Black  Creeper,"  a  name  that  would  suit  the  larva  of  the  Aus- 
tralian species  equally  well.  , 

Turning  now  to  the  smaller  family  Sialidce,  of  which  no  repre- 
sentatives have  hitherto  been  found  in  Australia  or  New  Zealand, 
we  find  that,  of  the  two  known  genera,  Sialis  is  Holarctic,  reach- 
ing from  Canada  through  Europe  and  Siberia  to  Japan,  and 
down  into  Asia  Minor;  while  Frulosialis  is  confined  to  the  New 
World,  one  species  being  found  as  far  south  as  Chili. 

It  would  thus  appear  that,  as  the  SialidcG  do  not  occur  in  the 
Oriental  region,  there  is  no  possibility  of  their  ever  having 
reached  Australia  from  the  North.  But,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
admittedly  archaic  forms,  and  one  species  is  recorded  from  Chili, 
it  has  to  be  admitted  that  there  is  a  bare  possibility  of  their 
having  been  able  to  reach  Australia  from  the  South,  provided 
that  we  admit  the  truth  of  the  Antarctic  Theory  so  ably  cham- 
pioned by  Mr.  Hedley. 

That  being  so,  I  have  always  kept  in  mind  the  possibility  of 
a  true  Sialid  being  discovered  in  Tasmania,  or  on  some  isolated 
mountain-top  in  Eastern  Australia.     I  now  have  the  pleasure  of 


BV    R.    J.    TILLVAHb.  821 

recording  the  discovery  of  two  very  distinct  new  species  of  this 
family,  each  of  which  will  form  the  type  of  a  new  genus.  The 
first  of  these  was  taken  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Hardy,  late  of  the  Tas- 
manian  Museum,  Hobart,  during  a  visit  to  Maria  Island  in 
December,  1915.  Only  a  single  specimen  was  taken;  but  it  is 
in  good  condition,  except  for  the  loss  of  the  antennae.  The 
second  is  a  remarkable  slender  form,  taken  at  light  in  December, 
1916,  on  Mount  Tambourine,  South  Queensland  (elevation  1900 
feet)  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Davidson.  Not  realising  what  a  prize  he 
had  got,  Mr.  Davidson  unfortunately  enclosed  this  specimen  in 
an  envelope  with  a  letter  to  me;  with  the  result  that,  when  I 
received  it,  the  insect  was  completely  flattened  out,  and  other- 
wise damaged.  However,  I  managed  to  relax  and  set  it,  though 
the  pin  had  to  be  inserted  through  the  thorax  from  side  to  side, 
the  wings  being  extended  at  right  angles  to  the  flattened  thorax. 

I  have  delayed  publishing  these  fine  discoveries,  in  the  hope 
that  further  material  might  be  obtained  in  better  condition. 
Mr.  Hardy  again  visited  Maria  Island  last  year,  but  he  failed  to 
find  any  further  specimens  of  the  new  Sialid;  likewise  Mr. 
Davidson,  who  has  kept  a  sliarp  look-out  for  his  new  species,  has 
met  with  no  further  success.  As  the  new  insects  are  of  great 
scientific  interest,  further  delay  is  no  longer  justified. 

The  following  key  will  enable  the  two  new  genera  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  and  from  the  two  genera  already 
described,  at  a  glance  :  — 

Wings  about  one-third  a.s  broad  as  long,  tlie  costal  Held  of  the 

forewing  noticeabl3- broadened    ..  2. 

Wings  much   narrower,   the   costal  field   of   the  fore  wing  not 
noticeablj'^  broadened 3 

THindwing  with  M1+2  ^^d  M3  f  4  both  simple  veins  Sin/is  Latr 

(2)  - 

jHindwing  with  M1+2  forked,  M3  ,  ^  simple Aas(ro^iui/,s,  u.ir. 

ith  K2-f3  and  K4  f  5  both  forked   Sltnosial it<,  n.g. 

with  R2-}-3  simple,  and  Ri-fo  forked    ...  Profo^ia/is  Weele. 


(1) 


TBoth  wings  w 
j  Both  wings  w 


AusTROsiALis,  n.g.     (Text  figs.  1-2). 

Closely   related    to   Sialis  Latr.      General   colouration  black, 
with  orange-red  prothorax  and  smoky  wings.       Forewing  with 


822 


AUSTRALIAN    MEGALOPTERA    OR    ALDER-FLlES, 


about  ten  veinlets  in  costal  space,  hindwing  with  about  six.  In 
forewing,  Cu^  unites  with  M  for  a  space,  the  short  basal  free 
portion  of  Cu^  resembling  an  oblique  cross-vein.  The  fused  por- 
tion, M  +  Cui,  is  continued  by  Cu^  itself  as  a  stout  vein  in  line 
with  it,  whereas  M  departs  from  it  anteriorly  at  a  sharp  angle. 
In  hindwing,  Cu  remains  quite  distinct  from  M.  In  forewing, 
the  full  complement  of  branches  is  present  for  both  Rs  and  M; 
in  hindwing,  there  is  one  less  for  M,  M3_|.4  remaining  unbranched. 
Neither  R2  J^oi'  1^3  is  secondarily  forked,  as  is  the  case  with  one 
or  both  in  Sialis. 

Genotype,   Aiistrosialis  Ignicollis,  n  sp. 

Hab. — Tasmania. 


M3>4 
Text-fig.  1. 
Wings  oi  Anstrosicdis  ignicoUis,  n.g.  et  sp.     In  forewing,  M  +  Cui   is  the 
fused  portion   of   M  and  Cu,.     Rest  of  notation  as  usual  in  the 
Comstock-Needham  system.     The  small  forking  distallj'  on  R^  does 
not  occur  on  the  left  forewing.      (Hindwing  12  mm.  long). 

The  black  and  orange  colouration  is  also  that  of  P^'otosialis, 
to  which  the  Chilian  species  belongs.  It  is  also  interesting  to 
note  that,  in  the  number  of  its  branches  to  Rs  and  M,  the  new 


BY    K.    J.    TlLLYARD. 


823 


genus  offers  an  exact  parallel  to  the  oldest  Trichoptera,  in  which 
Ms^-i  is  always  a  simple  vein  in  the  hind  wing. 

AusTROSiALis  iGNicoLLis,  n.sp.     (Text-figs.  1-2). 

Total  length,  8  mm.;  abdomen,  4  mm.;  foreiving,  14  mm.;  hind- 
tving,  12  mm.;  exjyanse,  28-5  mm. 

Head  shining  black,  smooth  anteriorly,  with  a  shallow  mid- 
dorsal  depression;  the  large  occipital 
region  curiously  sculptured,  with  raised 
longitudinal  and  circular  areas,  ar- 
ranged as  shown  in  Text-fig. 2.  Aii- 
tennoi  with  large,  stout  basal  joint, 
black ;  the  rest  missing.  Mandibles 
black,  tipped  with  orange-red. 

Thorax:  prothovcix  bright  orange- 
red,  flattened  cylindrical  in  shape,  with 
slightly  indicated  mid-dorsal  groove; 
less  than  half  as  long  as  wide,  the 
width  being  slightly  less  than  that  of 
the  occiput.  Pterothorax  jet  black. 
Legs  black,  of  medium  length  and  slenderness. 

Abdomen  [shrivelled]  dull  blackish. 

Type,  in  Coll.  Tillyard. 

Hab.  —  MdLv'ia,  Island,  East  Coast  of  Tasmania.  A  unique 
specimen,  probably  a  female,  taken  on  Dec.  29th,  1915,  by  Mr. 

G.  H.  Hardy. 

• 

Stenosialis,  n.g.     (Text-fig.3). 

Closely  related  to  Protosialis  Weele.  General  colouration 
brown,  with  pale  smoky-brown  wings.  Forewing  with  narrow 
costal  space  containing  only  four  veinlets,  the  hindwing  with 
only  two.  The  arrangement  of  the  veins  M  and  Cu  is  the  same 
as  described  for  Austrosialis  above,  and  the  number  of  branches 

The  cross- 


Text-tig.2. 


for  the  veins  Rs  and  M  is  the  same  as  in  that  genus 


*  Head  and  prothorax  of  Austrosialis  ignicoUis,  n.g.  et  sp.,  to  show 
sculpture  of  the  occiput;  the  light  arranged  so  as  to  fall  nearl^^  horizon- 
tally; {  X  15). 


824 


AUSTRALIAN    3IEGAL0PTERA    OR    ALDER  FLIES, 


vein  between  R2+3  ^^^^  ^4-1  5  is  exceptionally^  oblique  in  direction. 

Genotype,   Steiwsialis  aitstraliensis,  n.sp. 

JI(tb       South  Queensland. 

As  with  Aitstrosialis,  so  with  this  genus;  the  arrangement  of 
the  branches  of  Rs  and  M  corresponds  exactly  with  that  of  the 
oldest  Trichoptera,  M3_|_4  being  branched  in  the  forewing,  but 
simple  in  the  hind.  One  is  tempted  to  ask,  is  this  merely  the 
result  of  a  chance  convergence,  or  does  it  indicate  a  closei"  rela- 
tionship between  the  two  Orders  Megaloptera  and  Trichoptera 
than  has  hitherto  been  suspected  1 


Text-tig.  3. 
Wings  of   Stenosialis  aastrallensi-^,  n.g.  et  sp.      Notation  as  in  Text-tig.  1. 
(The  wings  of  the  type-specimen  being  considerably  torn,  the  figure 
was  completed  by  combining  portions  of  both  right  and  left  pairs  of 
wings).     (Hindwing  10  mm.  long). 


Stenosialis  australiensis,  n.sp.     (Text-fig. 3). 

7'otal  length,  8  mm.;  abdomen,  4  mm. ;  forewing,  11 -5  mm.; 
hindiving,  10  mm.:  expanse,  25  mm. 

Head  brownish,  a  darker  area  posteriorly  on  occiput,  isolat- 
ing several  paler  raised  circular  areas  placed  close  together  on 
either  side  of  the  mid-dorsal  depression.  Eyes  dark  brown. 
Antennm  dark  brown,  the  basal  joint  large  and  stout,  the  second 
joint  small;  the  rest  missing. 


BY    K.    J.    TILLYAHD.  825 

Thorax  dark  brown.  Prothorax  apparently  slightly  wider 
than  occiput.  Legs  brown.  [Too  crushed  for  accurate  descrip- 
tion]. 

Abdomen  [shrivelled]  blackish  basally,  shading  to  brown 
anally. 

Type,   in  Coll.  Tillyard. 

Hah. — Mount  Tambourine,  South  Queensland  (1900  feet).  A 
unique  specimen,  probabl}'  a  female,  taken  on  Dec.  17th,  at 
light,  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Davidson. 

In  concluding  this  paper,  I  desire  to  record  my  grateful 
thanks  to  Mr.  Hardy  and  Mr.  Davidson  for  these  two  fine 
species,  and  to  congratulate  them  on  their  discoveries.  The 
knowledge  that,  in  this  Order,  archaic  forms  of.  great  scientific 
value  are  still  to  be  found  in  isolated  places  in  Australia,  should 
stir  up  other  entomologists  to  look  out  for  these  insects,  which 
are  easily  cautjht  and  recognised. 


826 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO   A    KNOWLEDGE    OF    AUSTRA- 
LIAN CULICID.E.     No.  iv.* 

By  Frank  H.  Taylor,  F.E.S. 

(From  the  Australian  Institute  of  Tropical  Medicine,  Townsville). 

(Plates  Ixxx.-lxxxiii.) 

This  paper  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  synonymical  and 
descriptive,  with  notes  on  previously  described  species. 

Two  species  described  by  me  from  the  Northern  Territory 
belong  to  species  recorded  from  extra-Australian  localities; 
their  distribution  is  noted  in  the  text.  The  Australian  Anopheles 
are  also  tabulated.  It  will  be  seen  that  very  few  of  the  Ano- 
plieline  genera  are  recognised,  and  those  only  as  subgenera, 
except  in  the  case  of  Bironella. 

The  new  species  are  distributed  in  the  following  genera  :  — 
Pseudoskusea  (one),  Mimeteomyia  (tw^o),  Culicada  (one),  Lof>ho- 
ceratoiyiyia  (one),  Uranotcenia  (four),  and  Hodgesia  (one). 

The  type-specimens  are  contained  in  the  Institute  Collection. 

The  following  tabulation  of  the  Australian  Anopheles  is  given 
in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  useful  in  the  determination  of  the 
species  in  question. 

Anopheles  corethroides,  A.  stiymatiats,  and  B.  gracilis  have 
been  tabulated  from  descriptions  only,  as  the  Institute  does  not 
possess  specimens  of  them.  A .  pu7ictulatus  Donitz,  is  omitted 
from  the  Table,  as  it  is  unknown  to  me  either  from  specimens  or 
description. 

It  will  be  seen  that  all  the  species,  except  B.  gracilis,  are 
placed  in  the  genus  Anopheles.  This  is  best  explained  by  re- 
ferring the  reader  to  a  paper  by  A.  Alcock,t  which  deals  with 
the  "Classification  of  the  Culicidse,"  and  with  which  the  writer 

*  Continued  from  these  Proceedings,  1916,  p.  574. 
+  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  (8),  viii.,  p. 240  (1911). 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  827 

entirely  agrees,  as  the  genera  cannot,  in  some  cases,  be  regarded 
even  as  subgenera;  while,  in  others,  they  form  convenient  sub- 
generic  or  group-names. 

Alcock*  retains  the  following  as  subgenera  :  Aiiopliiles  (s.r.), 
Myzorhynchus,  Myzomnyia^  and  N yssorhynchus.  I  would  add  to 
these  the  genus  Bironella,  as  valid  on  venational  characters— if 
it  really  be  an  Aiiopheline.  Theobald,  himself,  throws  doubt  on 
its  systematic  position. 

AXOPHELES. 

A.  Wings  spotted, 
i.  Legs  unhanded. 

a.  Wings  with  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  long  veins 

brown-  and  white-scaled.     No  costal  spots  afratipes  Skuse. 

//.  Wings  with  one  fringe-spot JtarhiroatrisY.  d.  Wulp. 

hh.  Wings  with  several  fringe-spots..  J>a/'6//'067r/.'^  var.  />a?icro/i!t  Giles, 
ii.  Legs  handed. 

a.  AVings  with  numerous  light  and  dark  spots. 
Costa  with  six  spots. 
Femora  and  tibiae  with  numerous  pale   bands,  tarsals  1-4 

Avith  apical  and  basal  banding annul ipes  Walker. 

B.  Wings  unspotted, 
i.  Legs  unhanded. 

rt.  Thorax  with  long,  curved,  hair-like  scales...  corethroidej^  Theobald. 
aa.  Thorax  with  three  rows  of  golden-j'ellow,  narrow-curved 

scales .^figiuaticns  8kuse. 

BiRONELLA. 

A.  Wings  unspotted,  third  long  vein,   stem   of  second  fork-cell, 
and  fifth  long  vein  curved, 
i.  Legs  unhanded. 
a.  Fi rst  fork-cell  very  small yracilis  Theobald. 

Anophkles  (Myzorhynchus)  barbirosthis  Yan  d.  Wulp, 
var.  BANCROFTi  (Giles). 
(Plate  Ixxx.,  fig.l). 
Theobald,  Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p. 50  (1910;;  Taylor,   Proc.  Linn. 
Soc.  N.  8.  Wales,  1915,  xl,  p.l76. 

This  is  a  common  and  widely  distributed  species,  extending 
from  Darwin,  N.  Territory,  to  Eidsvold,  8.  Queensland. 

The  male  is  evidently  very  retiring,  as  the  only  known  speci- 
mens have  been  bred  from  larvae. 

*  Journ.  Lond.  8ch.  Trop.  Med.,  ii.,  p.  153  (1913). 


828  AUSTRALIAN    CUIJCIDiE,  iv., 

Anopheles  (Nyssorhynchus)  annulipes  Walker. 

Ins.  Saund.,  p.  133  ( 1 850);  Theobald,  Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p.oT 
(1910);  Taylor,  Proc.  Linn.  8oc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1914,  xxxix.,  p.454; 
Quarantine  Service  Publication,  Melbourne,  No. 12,  1917. 

/frt^>.— N.S.W.:  Hay  (W.  W.  Froggatt).  -Victoria:  Melbourne 
(Dr.  J.  H.  L.  Cumpston);  K37abram,  Bamawm,  Echuca,  Swan 
Hill,  Mildura,  Cohuna,  Lake  Boga  (F.  H.  Taylor).— S  Australia: 
Renmark,  Cobdogla,  Pompoota  (F.  H.  Taylor).— W.  A. :  Perth, 
Kalgoorlie  (Dr.  Atkinson). 

This  mosquito  is  probably  the  most  widely  distributed  species 
in  Australasia,  as  it  extends  from  Darwin,  in  the  North,  across 
to  Papua,  throughout  the  mainland,  and  southward  to  Tasmania. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  this  species  will  be  found  in  the  Pacific 
Islands. 

ToxORHYNCHiTES  INORNATUS  (Walker). 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc  Lond  ,  viii.,  p.l02  (1865);  Theobald,  Mon. 
Culicid.,  i.,  p.223  (1901);  op.  cit.,  v.,  p.llO  (1910). 

Two  male  specimens,  one  of  which  is  quite  typical;  the  other  has 
the  mij^  cross- vein  confluent  with  the  posterior  cross- vein  instead 
of  not  meeting  it,  and  also  has  the  second  tarsals  of  the  hindlegs 
with  a  broad,  white,  almost  basal  band,  which  occupies  more 
than  half  tlie  joint.  It  agrees  in  all  other  points  with  Theobald's 
description  of  this  .species. 

//a6.— Papua:  Itikinumu  Plantation  (F.  P.  Dodd). 

ToxoKHYNCHiTES  sPECiosus  (Skuse).     (Plate  Ixxx.,  fig.2). 
Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1888,  xiii.,  p. 1722  (1889);  Theo- 
bald, Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p.l08  (1910). 
ffab.  —  Q.:  Townsville  (Dr.  A.  Breinl). 

MUCIDUS    ALTERNANS  (Westwood). 

Ann.  Soc.  Ent.  Fr.,  iv.,  p. 681;  Taylor,   Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S. 
Wales,  1914,  xxxix.,  p.455;  op.  cit.,  1915,  xl.,  p. 176. 
//a6. —Victoria  :   Kyabram  (F.  H.  Taylor). 
This  species  is  known  to  range  from  Darwin  to  Victoria. 

Armigeres  bkkinli  Taylor;   Neosquamomyia  hreinli  Taylor. 

(Plate  Ixxx.,  fig.3). 
Trans.  Ent.  Soc,  London,  1914,  Pt.  i.,  p.l86. 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  829 

The  genus  Neosqtiamomyia  was  founded  partly  on  the  male 
genitalia,  the  other  characters  agreeing  with  Armigeres. 

When  proposing  the  genus,  I  was  unaware  that  similar  char- 
acters were  to  be  found  in  species  of  the  genus  Arniiyeres^  notably 
A.  malayi  Leicester. 

Edwards*  notes  the  similarity  of  A.  malayi  Leic,  and  K. 
breinli  Taylor,  and  suggests  that  the  correct  position  for  the 
latter  species  is  in  Armiyeres,  a  decision  with  which  I  quite  agree. 
The  two  species  are  distinct,  but  certainly  closely  related. 

PSEUDOSKUSEA    CAIRNSENSIS,  Sp.n. 

9.  Head  clothed  with  black,  flat,  and  upright-forked  si'ales; 
palpi  dusky;  antennae  dark  brown;  proboscis  black. 

Thorax  dark  reddish-brown  with  brown  scales,  scutellum 
similar;  pleurae  brown,  with  white,  flat  scales. 

Abdomen  black-scaled,  unhanded,  segments  three  to  the  apex 
with  basal,  lateral,  white  patches;  venter  pale-scaled. 

Legs  black,  unhanded;  ungues  equal  and  simple. 
•  Wings  brown-scaled;  first  fork-cell  longer  and  narrower  than 
the  second,  its  base  nearer  the  base  of  the  wing;  stem  of  first 
fork-cell  one-third  the  length  of  its  cell,  stem  of  second  fork-cell 
slightly  more  than  half  the  length  of  its  cell;  anterior  basal  cro.ss- 
vein  longer  than,  and  twice  its  own  length  distant  from,  the 
anterior  cross- vein.     Length,  1 

/Tafe.  — Queensland  :  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Described  from  a  single  specimen  bred  from  a  mixed  lot  of 
larvae.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  P.  multij^hx  Theobald, 
on  venational  characters,  ungues,  and  the  abdominal  spots.  It 
differs  from  P.  basalis  Taylor,  in  not  having  a  banded  abdomen. 

MlMETEOMYIA  ATRIPES  (Skuse). 

Stegomyia  punctolateralis  Theobald. 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1888,  xiii.,  p.lToO  (1889);  Theo- 
bald, Mon.  Culicid,  iv.,  p.l90(1907);  Taylor,  Proc.  Linn.  8oc. 
N.S.Wales,  1914,  xxxviii.,  p.750  (191 5)  (.S'c'?t^omyut);  o/y.  cit., 
1915,  xl.,  p.  177  (Steyomyia). 

It  is  quite  evident,  from  specimens  recently  collected  by  myself, 

*  Bull.  Ent.Res.,  vii.,  p.207  (1917). 


830  AUSTRALIAN    CULICIDiE,  iv., 

that  Skuse's  species  has  the  apical  lateral  spots  on  all  the 
abdominal  segments,  and  not  only  on  the  sixth  to  eighth  seg- 
ments, as  stated  in  ray  paper  (1914).  The  Ingleburn  specimens 
show  that  the  spots  vary  somewhat  in  size  on  the  basal  segments, 
so  that  they  were  either  overlooked  in  the  type,  or  the  abdomen 
was  partially  abraded. 

There  is  also  no  doubt  at  all  that  Stegomyia  punctolateralis 
Theobald,  is  the  same  as  M.  cUripes  (Skuse).  ^S'.  punctuIateraHs 
Theob.,  was  unknown  to  me,  except  from  description,  when  I 
stated  (1914)  that  the  two  were  different  species;  but,  since  then. 
Dr.  Bancroft  has  presented  a  series  of  both  sexes  to  the  Institute, 
which  clearly  show  they  are  the  same  as  Skuse's  species. 

Theobald  states  that  the  mid-ungues  of  the  male  are  unequal 
and  simple;  this  is  an  error,  as  the  larger  is  uniserrate. 

Neveu-Lemaire*  places  J/,  atripes  in  llieohaldia,  and  records 
it  from  Guyane.  He  states  that  the  fore-  and  mid  ungues  of  the 
female  are  uniserrate;  and  he  gives  a  figure  of  the  wing-scales  of 
his  specimens,  which  proves  conclusively  that  he  was  notdealino; 
with  Skuse's  species.  He  also  states  that  the  palpi  are  four- 
jointed. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  it  belongs  to  the  genus  Mimeteomym, 
as,  inter  alia,  the  apex  of  the  abdomen  is  very  bristly. 

Hab.—  Q.:  Eidsvold  (Dr.  Bancroft),  Burketown,  Townsville 
(F.  H.  Taylor).— N.S.W.:  Milson  Island  (Dr.  Ferguson),  Black- 
heath  (W.  A.  Thompson),  Ingleburn  (F.  H.  Taylor).  -Vic.  : 
Miidura  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

MiMETEOMYiA  ATRA  (Taylor). 

Stegomyia  at7'a  Taylor,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1914,  p.  190. 

A  re-examination  of  the  type  of  this  species  reveals  the  fact 
that  it  should,  more  correctly,  be  placed  in  the  genus  Mimeteo- 
myia,  on  account  of  its  bristl}^  and  truncated  apex  of  the  abdo- 
men, among  other  points  of  agreement  with  the  genus. 

MlMETEOMYIA    PULCHERRIMA,  sp.n. 

^.  Head  covered  with  brown,  fiat  scales,  with  a  median  row 
of  white  ones,  and  white  ones  laterally;  antennae  pale,  nodes  and 

*  Arch.  Parasitologie,  vi.,  p. 615  (1915). 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  831 

plumes  brown,  basal  lobes  with  white,  flat  scales;  eyes  winered; 
palpi  brown-scaled,  first  segment  with  two  prominent  white 
bands,  penultimate  and  apical  segments  with  white,  basal  bands. 

'J'horax  with  dark  brown  scales,  and  ornamented  with  a  lyre- 
shaped  pattern  of  small,  white,  flat  scales;  prothoracic  lobes  with 
white  scales  and  black  bristles;  scutellum  with  white,  flat  scales; 
pleurae  brown,  with  patches  of  white,  flat  scales. 

Abdomen  brown-scaled,  expanded  apically,  segments  one  to 
six  with  small,  median,  white,  basal  patches;  all  segments,  except 
the  first,  with  white,  lateral,  basal  patches,  prominent  in  the  last 
three  segments;  genitalia  with  numerous  black  bristles;  venter 
brown-scaled,  with  median,  white,  basal  patches  on  the  first 
seven  segments. 

Legs  brown,  knees  white,  first  and  second  fore-  and  mid-tarsals 
with  basal,  white  banding,  posterior  tarsi  one  to  three  with 
broad,  white,  basal  bands,  fourth  white,  with  a  narrow,  brown, 
apical  band,  fifth  white;  ungues  of  fore-  and  mid-legs  unequal, 
the  larger  with  a  distinct  notch,  hind  equal  and  simple. 

Wings  :  bases  of  fork-cells  equal,  first  longer  and  narrower 
than  second,  stem  of  first  fork-cell  not  quite  half  the  length  of 
its  cell,  stem  of  second  slightly  more  than  half  the  length  of  its 
cell,  anterior  basal  cross- vein  longer  than,  and  twice  its  own 
length  from,  the  anterior  cross-vein;  vein-scales  brown. 

Length,  3  mm. 

Hab.~Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Described  from  a  single  specimen,  bred  from  a  collection  of 
larvae.  It  is  abundantly  distinct  from  all  other  Australian 
species  of  Mimeteomyia. 

MlMETEOMYIA    DODDI,    Sp.n. 

(J.  Head  covered  with  black  scales,  a  median  row  of  white,  flat 
ones,  and  white,  flat  ones  laterally;  antennas  brown,  plumes  brown, 
internodes  pale;  palpi  brown,  penultimate  segment  basally  banded 
white,  apical  segment  white-scaled;  eyes  silvery. 

Thorax  covered  with  dusky-brown  scales;  scutellum  with  brown 
scales;  pleurae  brown,  with  patches  of  white,  flat  scales. 

Abdomen   covered  with  coppery-brown   scales,   first  segment 


832  AUSTRALIAN    CULICIDiE,  iv., 

brown-scaled,  second  with  a  median,  basal,  white-scaled  spot, 
third  to  fifth  and  apical  segments  with  white,  basal  banding,  all 
segments  with  white,  lateral,  basal  spots;  venter  brown,  with 
white  basal  banding  and  numerous  pale  hairs. 

Legs  dusky-brown,  first  tarsals  of  forelegs  basally  banded 
white,  the  rest  unhanded,  first  tarsals  of  mid-legs  basally  banded 
white  [tlie  rest  broken  off],  posterior  tarsi  one  to  three  basally 
banded  white,  fourth  unhanded,  fifth  white:  ungues  of  forelegs 
unequal,  the  larger  with  a  tooth,  hind  equal  and  simple. 

Wings  :  first  fork-cell  longer  and  narrower  than  the  second, 
its  base  nearer  to  the  base  of  the  wing;  stem  of  first  fork-cell 
one-third  the  length  of  its  cell,  stem  of  second  slightly  more 
than  half  the  length  of  its  cell,  anterior  basal  cross-vein  longer 
and  twice  its  own  length  from  the  anterior  cross-vein. 

9.  Similar  to  (J.  Antennae  brown,  basal  half  of  first  joint 
yellow;  apical  third  of  palpi  white.  Abdomen  :  fourth  and  fifth 
segments  with  basal,  white  banding,  apex  of  abdomen  white- 
scaled,  and  with  numerous  pale  bristles,  all  the  segments,  except 
the  first,  with  lateral,  white,  basal  spots;  second  segment  with  a 
white,  median,  basal  spot;  venter  pale-scaled,  apical  segments 
black-scaled. 

Legs  similar  to  those  of  ^,  second  tarsals  of  mid-legs  with  white 
basal  banding;  ungues  equal  and  simple.      Wings  as  in  ^. 

Length  :  ^,  2*5;  9,  3-5  ram. 

//a6.  — Papua  :  Itikinumu  Plantation  (F.  P.  Dodd). 

A  very  distinct  species,  readily  distinguished  from  J/,  p-iil- 
cherrima  mihi,  by  its  palpi,  thoracic  and  abdominal  markings. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  female  belongs  to  the  same  species. 

It  affords  me  mucli  pleasure  to  name  it  in  honour  of  its 
discoverer. 

Grabhamia  theobaldi  Taylor.     (Plate  Ixxxi.,  fig. 4). 

Theobald,  Mon.  Culicid.,  iv.,  p. 304  (1907).  C  flavifrons 
Theob.,  nee  Skuse,  Proc.  Linn.  80c.  N.  S.  Wales,  1913,  xxxviii., 
p.Tol  (1914). 

Were  it  not  for  intergrading  forms,  it  would  be  possible  to 
make  two  distinct  "species"  out  of  the  series  of  specimens  before 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR. 


833 


me,  on  abdominal  markings  alone,  as,  in  some  specimens,  the 
abdomen  is  quite  typical,  whilst,  in  others,  it  varies  from  speci- 
mens with  distinct  basal  banding  on  the  first  two  segments  of 
the  abdomen,  and  the  remainder  with  more  or  less  indefinitely 
banded  and  mottled,  to  those  with  indefinite  basal  banding  and 
dense  mottling  of  creamy  scales  on  all  the  abdominal  segments. 

The  base  of  the  second  fork-cell  is  slightl}^  nearer  the  base  of 
the  wing  than  that  of  the  first,  while  they  are  nearly  level  in 
the  type. 

Specimens  from  Eidsvold,  Queensland,  show  similar  inter- 
gradient  forms  to  the  above  Victorian  specimens. 

Hal).  —  Vic:  Bamawm,  Kyabram,  Mildura,  and  Echuca  (F.  H. 
Taylor). 

CuLiCADA  wiLSONi,  n.sp.     (Plate  Ixxxi.,  figs. 5,  6,  7). 

(J.  Head  black,  covered  with  yellowish,  narrow-curved  and 
upright-forked  scales,  with  a  few  yellowish  hairs  projecting  over 
the  eyes,  sides  of  head  with  flat  ones;  palpi  longer  than  proboscis, 
black,  first  joint  pale-scaled,  except  the  apical  fourth,  pubescence 
black  on  the  apical  segment,  and  apex  of  first,  yellowish-brown 
on  the  penultimate  segment;  antennse  pale,  nodes  dark,  plumes 
brownish-black,  dense. 

Thorax  black,  covered  with  yellowish,  narrow-curved  scales; 
prothoracic  lobes  with  flat  ones;  scutellum  similar;  pleura?  black, 
with  flat  scales. 

Abdomen  black,  first  segment  pale-scaled,  second  to  seventh 
with  broad,  yellowish,  basal  banding;  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
mottled;  some  specimens  show  median  pale-scaled  bands  on  most 
of  the  segments;  genitalia  with  some  long,  black  hairs,  latera\ 
pubescence  dense,  yellowish;  venter  pale. 

Legs  black,  femora  pale  beneath;  femora,  tibise,  and  tarsi 
mottled;  fore-ungues  unequal,  uniserrate,  mid  unequal,  the  larger 
deeply  notched,  the  smaller  uniserrate,  hind  equal  and  simple. 

Wings  with  brown  scales;  first  fork-cell  longer  and  narrower 
than  the  second,  base  of  latter  nearer  the  base  of  the  wing,  stem 
of  the  first  almost  as  long  as  its  cell,  stem  of  second  as  long  as 
the  cell;  anterior   basal   cross-vein  about  as  long  as,  and  nearly 


834  AUSTRALIAN    CULlCID^,  iv., 

its  length  from,  the  anterior  cross-vein;  second  incrassation  well 
marked, 

^.  Similar  to  ^  ;  antenna^  black,  basal  lobes  black,  with 
creamy-yellow  scales,  basal  half  of  second  joint  pale,  verticillate 
hairs  black,  pubescence  pale;  palpi  four-jointed,  black-scaled, 
with  intermixed,  scattered,  pale  scales;  proboscis  black;  fore 
femora  pale-scaled,  mid  and  hind  pale,  with  an  apical  black  ring, 
tibiae  and  first  tarsals  mottled  with  pale  scales;  fore-  and  mid- 
ungues  equal,  uniserrate;  penultimate  abdominal  segment  creamy- 
scaled  except  for  a  small  oblique  apical  line  of  dark  scales,  apical 
creamy-scaled.  Wings  similar  to  those  of  the  male;  but  fork- 
cells  relatively  longer,  stem  of  first  fork-cell  two-thirds  the  length 
of  its  cell,  that  of  second  about  three-fifths  of  the  cell. 

Length:  (J,  7-5;  9,  6  mm. 

Hab. — Vic.-:  Kyabram,  Echuca,  Bamawm,  Swan  Hill,  and 
Mildura  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

This  appears  to  be  a  well-defined  species  related  to  C.  tasrna- 
niensis  Strickland,  differing,  i')Uer  alia,  in  the  wing-venation, 
and  the  mottled  femora,  tibitie,  and  first  tarsals.  C.  tvHsoid  was 
present  in  enormous  numbers  in  the  Goulburn  Valley  district, 
Kyabram  and  Bamawm  being  inundated  with  them.  There  is  a 
small  area  of  cypress-pine  {Callitris  sp.)  at  Bamawm,  and  it  was 
impossible  for  man  or  beast  to  remain  in  it  for  even  a  few 
minutes,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  this  mosquito. 

I  have  much  pleasure  in  dedicating  this  species  to  Mr.  Wilson, 
of  Bamawm,  who  rendered  me  much  help  and  kindly  service 
while  I  was  in  that  district. 

OCHLEROTATUS    NOTOSCKIPTUS  (Skuse). 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1888,  xiii.,  p.r738  (1889)  [CWex]; 
Theobald,  Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p.200  (1910)  [Scutomyia'\\  Edwards, 
Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  (8),  ix.,  p.523  (1912). 

Hah.     N.S.W.:  Ingleburn.— Vic:  Swan  Hill  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

CuLEX  siTiENS  Wiedemann. 
Aussereurop.  zweiflug.  Ins.,  p. 544  (1828);  Theobald,  Mon.  Culi- 
cid., v.,  p.331  (1910);  Taylor,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1916, 
xli.,  p. 570. 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  835 

Hab  — Q.:  Cairns,  Innisfail  (F.  H.  Taylor).— Papua  (F.  P. 
Dodd). 

This  common  mosquito  enjoys  a  wide  distribution^  being  found 
from  Java  through  Papua  and  Torres  Straits  to  Victoria. 

CuLEX  CONCOLOR  Desvoidy. 

Mem.  Soc.  d'Hist.  Nat.  Paris,  iv.,  p.405  (1825);  Edwards, 
Bull.  Enb.  Res.,  ii.,  p.262  (1911). 

Hab.-Q:  Innisfail  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

A  short  series,  bred  from  larvae,  have  been  compared  with 
specimens  from  other  Australian  localities,  and  also  with  speci- 
mens of  G.  concolor,  C.  tigri2:)es,  C.  consiniilis,  and  the  form  de- 
scribed as  C.  tiginpes  var.  Jusca,  which  have  been  received  from 
the  Imperial  Bureau  of  Entomology;  and  there  is  absolutely  no 
doubt,  as  Edwards  states,  that  the  Australian  form  belongs  to 
6'.  concolor. 

All  references  dealing  with  C.  tigrvpes,  as  from  Australia, 
should,  therefore,  refer  to  C.  concolor^  and  G.  tigripes  should  be 
expunged  from  the  Australian  list. 

CULEX    BITiENIORHYNCHUS  GileS. 

Journ.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc,  xiii.,  p.607  (1901);  Edwards, 
Bull.  Ent.  Res.,  iv.,  p. 231  (1913).  G.  ahdomhialis  Taylor,  Rep. 
Aust.  Inst.  Trop.  Med.,  1911,  p.53  (1913). 

Edwards  gives  several  synonyms  of  G.  bitcKniorhyiichiis  Giles, 
in  his  paper,  and  mentions  Guliceha  abdominalis  Taylor,  also  as 
a  possible  synonym. 

I  have  compared  specimens  of  my  species  with  six  specimens 
of  C.  bitamiorhyiichus  Giles,  from  Hong  Kong,  and  can  see  no 
valid  reason  for  treating  them  as  a  distinct  species,  thus  con- 
firming the  opinion  held  by  Edwards. 

CuLE}^  viSHNUi  Theobald. 

Mon.  (JuHcid  ,  i.,  p.355  (1901)  (9  only);  Edwards,  Bull.  Ent. 
Res.,  iv.,  p. 233  (1913).  G.  parvus  Taylor,  Bull.  N.  Territory,  la, 
p.27  (1912). 

Edwards  included  G.  jmrvus  Taylor,  as  a  probable  synonym  of 
G.  vishiiui,  when   dealing   with   its  synonymy  in   his  paper.     I 


836  AUSTRALIAN    CULICIDiE,  iv., 

quite  agree  with  tliis,  and  place  C.  ^;arv?ts  definitely  as  a  synonym 
of  C .  vishnai  Theobald. 

It  seems  to  me  that  C.  vishimi  1'heobald,  is  closely  related  to 
C.  silietis  Wied. 

CuLEX  TOWNSViLLENSis,  nom.nov. 
Culicelsa  fusca  Taylor. 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1914,  p.699. 

A  change  of  name  is  necessary,  as  fnscus  is  preoccupied  in 
Culex. 

The  sixth  and  seventh  segments  of  the  abdomen  have  the 
sides  covered  with  white  scales,  except  the  apex;  eighth  pale- 
scaled,  unhanded.  The  fore-  and  mid-ungues  are  unequal,  and 
not  equal,  as  stated  in  the  description,  the  mid  more  so  than  the 
fore.  There  is  also  a  small  branched  process  on  the  undersurface 
at  the  base  of  the  ungues  in  both  legs.  Genitalia  of  male  of 
typical  Culex -form. 

9.  Similar  to  ^.  Palpi  brown-scaled;  apex  of  abdomen  hairy. 
First  fork-cell  longer  and  narrower  than  second,  its  base  nearer 
the  base  of  the  wing  than  that  of  the  latter,  stem  of  the  first 
about  one-third  the  length  of  the  cell,  stem  of  the  second  slightly 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  cell;  hind-tibia?  the  same  length 
as  first  tarsals;  ungues  equal  aiid  simple. 

Ilab.  —  Q.:  Townsville  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

The  above  corrections  in  the  description  of  the  male  are  based 
on  fresh  material,  which  agrees  perfectly  with  the  type.  It 
appears  to  be  an  uncommon  species. 

(JULEX    FATIGANS   Wied. 

Aussereurop.  zweiflug.  Ins.,  p. 10  (1828);  Taylor,  Trans.  Ent. 
Soc.  London,  1914,  p.  197. 

//rt6.— N.S.W.:  Sydney  (F.  H.  Taylor).— Vic:  Melbourne  (Dr. 
Cumpston),  Kyabram,  Echuca,  Mildura,  Bamawm,  Swan  Hill 
(F.  H.  Taylor).  —  S.  Australia  :  Kenmark,  Cobdogla,  Overland 
Corner,  Pompoota,  Adelaide  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

C.  fatiyans  is  a  common  mosquito  in  Southern  Australia.  It 
occurred    abundantly  at  Kyabram   and   Echuca,   where  it   was 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  837 

breeding   in   enormous  ninnhers   in   the  irrigation-channels  and 
street- watertables. 

LoPHocEKATOMYiA  CAiKNSENSis,  sp.n.     (Plate  Ixxxii.,  figs. 8,  9). 

(J.  Head  clothed  with  brown,  narrow-curved,  and  black, 
upright-forked  scales;  antennse  pale,  apical  segments  and  nodes 
dark  brown,  plumes  brown,  accessory  organs  long  on  segments 
five,  eight,  and  ten,  apices  spoon-shaped  on  eighth,  short  on  sixth 
and  seventh;  palpi  black,  penultimate  and  apical  segments  with 
black  hairs  beneath,  thumb-like  process  dark  brown;  eyes  black. 

Thorax  and  scutellum  with  brown,  narrow-curved  scales  ; 
scutellar  bristles  black,  long;  pleurpe  brownish. 

Abdomen  black-scaled,  unhanded,  apex  bristl}^,  segments  three 
to  seven  with  faint,  lateral,  basal  spots;  venter  dark. 

Wings  :  first  fork-cell  longer  and  narrower  than  the  second, 
the  former  nearer  the  base  of  the  wing;  stem  of  first  fork-cell 
about  half  the  length  of  its  cell,  stem  of  second  about  two-thirds; 
anterior  basal  cross-vein  longer  than  anterior  cross-vein,  and 
nearly  thrice  its  own  length  distant  from  it;  scales  brown. 

Legs  black,  unhanded;  ungues  of  forelegs  unequal,  the  larger 
uniserrate,  mid-ungues  unequal  and  simple,  hind  equal  and  simple. 

9.  Similar  to  (J.  Palpi  black-scaled,  firsi  segment  with  a  few 
black  bristles;  clypeus  black;  antennae  brown;  ungues  all  equal 
and  simple;  abdominal  spots  well  defined. 

Length:  ^,  3*5;  9,  4mm. 

Hab. — Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  'J'aylor). 

Described  from  seven  males  and  ten  females,  bred  from  larvae. 
It  is  abundantly  distinct  from  L.  anuulata  Taylor,  and  L.  cylin- 
drica  Theobald. 

Two  males  and  one  female  have  the  bases  of  the  fork-cells 
almost  level,  but  there  are  no  other  difterences  from  the  typical 
specimens. 

LoPHOCERATOxMYIA    ANNULATA  Taylor. 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S.  Wales,  1916,  xli.,  p.57L 
Ilab.  —  Q.'.  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

A  single  specimen,  bred  at  the  same  time  as  L.  cairnsensis 
mihi;  it  agrees  with  the  type  in  all  respects. 


838  AUSTRALIAN    CULICID^,  iv., 

LoPHOCERATOMYiA   CYLiNDRiCA  Theobald. 

Mon.  Culicid.,  iii.,  p. 202  (1903)  [Cidex\  PI.  ix.;  o}?.  cit.,  v., 
p.361  (1910);  Edwards,  Bull.  Ent.  Res.,  vii.,  p.228  (1917). 

Hab.~Q.:  Eidsvold  (Dr.  T.  L.-  Bancroft). 

I  quite  agree  with  Edwards  in  placing  this  species  in  Lopho- 
ceratoniyia.  It  is  typical  in  every  respect.  The  figure  of  the 
head  of  the  male  on  Plate  ix.,  though  small,  shows  the  plates  on 
the  antennae. 

Mansonoides  uniformis  (Theobald). 

Theobald.,  Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p.i-lS  (1910);  Edwards,  Bull.  Ent. 
Res.,  ii.,  p.253  (1911). 

Hab.~N.  Territory:  Darwin  (G.  F.  Hill).— Q.:  Eidsvold  (Dr. 
Bancroft),  Cairns,  Townsville.  —  N.S.W  :  Newcastle  (Dr.  Dick). 

This  is  a  very  abundant  and  widely  distributed  species,  being 
found  from  Africa  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  New  Guinea  across 
to  Darwin,  and  extending  as  far  as  Newcastle,  N.S.W. 

Finlaya  poicilia  Theobald. 
Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p. 464  (1910);  Taylor,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.  S. 
Wales,  1914,  xxxix.,  p.465. 

Ilab.  —  Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

MoLPEMYiA  PRiESTLKii  (Tavlor).      (Plate  Ixxxii.,  fig. 10). 
Calomyia  priestleii  Taylor. 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1913,  Part  iv.,  p.684  (1914). 

Calomyia  cannot  be  retained  as  distinct  from  Jlolpemyia,  there 
being  no  structural  differences.  The  writer  was  in  error  in 
describing  the  scales  on  the  centre  of  the  liead  and  bordering 
the  eyes  as  spindle-shaped,  as  they  are,  in  reality,  only  large 
narroiD-curved  scales. 

The  species  seems  to  be  somewhat  variable,  as  a  specimen, 
taken  at  a  later  date  than  the  type,  shows  complete  broad  band- 
ing on  the  abdomen,  whereas,  in  the  type,  the  abdomen  has  large, 
basal  spots  on  the  segments. 

Skusea   pseudomediofasciata  Theobald. 
Mon.  Culicid.,  v.,  p.489  (1910). 
Ilab.—Qr.  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 
Two   specimens,  both    males,  before   me,   agree   perfectly  with 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  839 

the  descriiDtion  of  tliis  species      They  were  bred  from  larvte.      It 
was  originally  described  from  Ceylon. 

Uraxot.enia  albescens  Taylor. 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1914,  Pt.  i.,  p. 705. 

Hab.-Q,.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

The  fourth  segment  of  the  abdomen  is  more  correctly  described 
as  brown,  with  a  median,  apical,  white-scaled  area.  The  Cairns 
specimens,  bred  from  larvse,  show  the  fourth  segment  entirely 
black. 

Uranot.enia  cairnsensls,  sp.n. 

2-  Head  with  dusky-brown,  flat  scales,  with  a  fairly  broad 
band  of  bluish-white  scales  round  the  eyes;  antennae  dark  brown, 
])asal  lobe  and  base  of  first  segment  yellowish,  palpi  black; 
clypeus  dark  brown;  eyes  silvery;  proboscis  dusky-brown. 

Thorax  brown,  with  brown  scales  and  black  bristles;  scutellum 
with  flat,  black  scales;  pleurte  with  white,  flat  scales;  there  is  a 
short,  pre-alar,  white  line  of  scales. 

Abdomen  with  dusky-brown  scales,  all  the  segments  with 
lateral,  white  scales;  venter  with  white  scales. 

Legs  dark  brown,  femora  pale  beneath,  ungues  very  small, 
equal  and  simple. 

Wings  longer  than  abdomen;  first  fork-cell  shorter  and  nar- 
rower than  second,  latter  considerably  nearer  the  base  of  the 
wing,  stem  of  first  more  than  twice  the  length  of  its  cell,  stem 
of  second  slightly  longer  than  its  cell;  anterior  basal  cross-vein 
longer  than  the  anterior  cross-vein,  and  nearly  twice  its  length 
from  it;  halteres  pale,  with  black  knobs. 

Length  1-5  mm.  (vix). 

IJab.  —  Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor;  July,  1917). 

Described  from  two  specimens,  bred  from  larva\  It  is  easily 
separated  from  other  Australian  species  by  its  venational  and 
abdominal  markings. 

XJRANOTiENiA  TIBIALIS,  sp.n.      (Plate  Ixxxii.,  fig. 11). 
(J.  Head  clothed  with  white  scales,  except  in  the  centre,  where 
they  are  brown;  antennae  brown,  basal  lobes  black,  basal  half  of 
first  segment  pale;  palpi  dark  brown;  eyes  black;  proboscis  brown. 


840  AUSTRALIA??    CULICID.E,  iv., 

Thorax  with  brown  scales,  and  long,  black  bristles,  apparently 
in  four  rows;  a  short,  pre-alar  line  of  bluish-white  scales;  scu- 
tellum  with  brown  scales,  pleurae  brownish,  with  bluish-white, 
flat  scales. 

Abdomen  covered  with  black  scales;  venter  brown-scaled. 

Wings  longer  than  abdomen;  first  fork-cell  shorter  and  nar- 
rower than  second;  base  of  latter  much  nearer  the  base  of  the 
wing;  stem  of  the  first  nearly  twice  the  length  of  its  cell;  stem 
of  second  about  the  length  of  its  cell;  anterior  basal  cross- vein 
longer  than  anterior  cross- vein,  and  once  and  a  half  its  length 
from  it. 

Legs  dusky-brown,  femora  basally  pale  beneath;  apex  of  fore- 
tibiai  with  a  tuft  of  long,  brown,  hair-like  scales,  second  tarsal 
clothed  with  fairly  long  scales,  tarsi  three  to  five  pale;  ungues 
of  forelegs  simple,  rectangular,  mid  apparently  the  same. 

9.  Similar  to  male  Scales  on  the  costa,  subcostal  and  first 
longitudinal  veins  duskv  as  in  male.      Fore  tibipe  normal. 

Length:  ^,  1-75;  9,  1-5  mm. 

Hab.—  Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Described  from  one  male  and  two  female  specimens,  bred  from 
larvae.  The  black  abdomen,  venation,  and  fore-tibiaa  of  the  male 
render  this  species  distinct  from  its  Australian  congeners.  The 
lengths  are  only  approximately  correct,  as  the  specimens  are 
doubled  up. 

Uranot^nia  propria  Taylor. 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1914,  Ft.  iv.,  p.704. 

Q,  Similar  to  male.  First  fork-cell  shorter  and  narrower  than 
second;  stem  of  former  nearly  twice  the  length  of  its  cell,  stem 
of  latter  slightly  longer  than  cell,  anterior  basal  cross-vein  longer 
than  anterior  cross-vein,  and  once  and  one-half  its^  own  length 
from  it.      Legs  normal. 

Hab.     Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

This  species  was,  previously,  only  known  from  the  male. 

URANOTiENIA    ANTENNALIS,  Sp.n. 

Q.  Head  with  pale  scales  in  the  centre,  blackish  elsewhere; 
eyes  black;  antenna?  brown,  basal  lobes  yellowish,  first  segment 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  841 

very  long,  about  twice  the  length  of  the  second,  its  base  pale: 
palpi  blackish. 

Thorax  brown,  with  brown  scales  and  black  bristles,  and  a 
short,  narroM%  pre-alar,  white  line  of  scales;  scutellnm  with  black 
scales;  pleuriB  brown,  with  white  scales. 

Abdomen  covered  with  black  scales;  venter  brown-scaled. 

Legs  dusky-brown;  femora  pale  beneath,  apical  tarsi  pale. 

Wings :  first  fork-cell  shorter  than  second,  stem  of  first  fork- 
cell  about  twice  and  one-half  the  length  of  the  cell;  stem  of  the 
second  slightly  longer  than  the  cell;  anterior  basal  cross- vein 
longer  than  anterior  cross-vein,  and  twice  its  own  length  from 
it;  scales  on  the  costa,  subcostal,  and  first  long  vein  dusky,  paler 
elsewhere. 

Length  175  mm. 

Hab.  —  Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Described  from  two  specimens,  bred  from  larvae.  The  first 
joint  of  the  antennae,  and  the  venation  separate  this  species  from 
other  described  Australian  species. 

IjRANOTiENiA  HiLLi,  sp.n.      (  Plate  Ixxxiii.,  fig. 12; 

(J,  Head  covered  with  brown,  flat  scales;  antennae  pale,  nodes 
brown;  eyes  black  and  silvery;  palpi  brown,  slightly  longer  than 
usually  found  in  the  genus. 

Thorax  covered  with  dusky-brown  scales,  prothoracic  lobes 
prominent,  dark-scaled;  scutellum  dark,  denuded  of  scales;  pleurae 
yellowish-brown. 

Abdomen  with  black  scales;  venter  pale-scaled. 

Legs  dark  brown;  femora  pale  beneath. 

Wings  :  fork-cells  the  same  length,  base  of  the  second  nearer 
the  base  of  the  wing;  stem  of  the  first  fork-cell  slightly  shorter 
than  its  cell,  stem  of  second  not  quite  one-third  shorter  than  its 
cell;  anterior  basal  cross-vein  longer  than  the  anterior  cross-vein 
and  about  once  and  one-half  its  own  length  distant  from  it. 

Length  2  mm. 

Hab.—^.  Territory:  Darwin  (G.  F.  Hill;  No.321). 

Described  from  two  specimens.  The  length  of  the  first  fork- 
cell  is  relatively  longer  in  comparison  with  the  second  than  is 


842  AUSTRALIAN    CULICID^,  iv., 

found  in  Uranotceniaj  but  I  prefer  to  regard  this  species  as 
belonging  to  that  genus. 

Mr.  Hill  notes  "larvae  in  crab-holes  in  mangrove-swamps."  It 
affords  me  much  pleasure  to  dedicate  this  species  to  its  discoverer. 

Paratype  in  Coll.  Hill. 

HoDGEsiA  CAiRNSENSis,  sp.n.     (Plate  Ixxxiii.,  figs. 13,  14). 

Head  with  black  and  bluish  scales.  Thorax  orange,  witii  pro- 
minent black  markings.  Abdomen  l)lack-scaled,  fifth  segment 
apically  white,  the  second  to  sixth  segments  laterally  white. 
Legs  unhanded. 

9.  Head  with  black  scales,  with  a  triangular  patch  of  bluish- 
white  scales  on  the  occiput  and  on  the  sides  towards  th^  base; 
eyes,  palpi,  and  proboscis  black;  antennae  black,  first  joint  long, 
ba.sal  half  yellowish. 

Thorax  orange,  with  a  prominent  black  spot  above  the  wing- 
roots,  and  a  broad,  median,  brown  stripe  from  the  centre  to  the 
posterior  margin  of  the  scutellum,  sparsely  covered  with  sliort, 
hair-like  scales:  scutellum  pale  on  the  sides,  covered  with  small, 
black  scales;  prothoracic  lobes  with  pale,  flat  scales. 

Abdomen  with  black  scales,  first  segment  paler,  segments  two 
to  six  with  lateral,  white  patches,  fifth  with  a  broad,  white- 
scaled,  apical  band,  apex  bristly;  venter  pale-scaled,  apical  seg- 
ment dark. 

Wings  considerably  longer  than  abdomen,  black-scaled;  first 
fork-cell  longer  and  narrower  than  second,  base  of  the  latter  a 
little  nearer  the  base  of  tlie  wing:  stem  of  the  first  fork-cell 
about  three-quarters  the  length  of  the  cell,  stem  of  second  about 
two  thirds  of  its  cell;  base  of  second  long  vein  carried  well  beyond 
the  transverse  vein;  halteres  pale,  with  black  knobs. 

Legs  black;  femora  wdth  the  basal  half  above,  and  the  under- 
surface,  creamy;  ungues  very  small,  equal  and  simple. 

Length,  1  -5  mm. 

Hab.-Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Described  from  a  long  series  taken  in  shady  situations,  on  the 
edges  of  swamps,  mainly  sheltering  in  tree-holes,  It  is  readily 
distinguished  from  //.  trianynlata  Taylor,  by  its  thorax  and 
abdominal  bandiiiii'. 


BY    FRANK    H.    TAYLOR.  843 

HoDGESiA  TRIANGULATA  Taylor.      (Plate  Ixxxiii.,  fig. 15). 

Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  London,  1914,  Pt.  i.,  p. 204;  Proc.  Linn.  Soc. 
N.  S.  Wales,  1915,  xl,  p.l84. 

Hah.-Q.:  Cairns  (F.  H.  Taylor). 

Fresh  specimens  show  that  segments  two,  three,  five,  and  six 
have  white,  lateral  spots,  and  that  the  venter  is  white-scaled. 

This  species  is  wrongly  recorded  as  Hodyesia  trlmaculatus  in 
the  Zoological  Record,  li.,  Insecta,  xii.,  p. 277,  1914(1916). 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  LXXX. -LXXXIIL 

Plate  Ixxx. 

Fig.l. — Anopheles  {Myzorliynchu-i)  harhirostri--^  var.  haucrofti  ((lile.s);  head 

of  male. 
Fig. 2. — Toxorhynchifes  speciosus  (8kiise);  head  of  male. 
Fig.3.  —  Armiyeres  hreinli  Taylor;  genitalia  of  male. 

Plate  Ixxxi. 
Fig. 4. — Grnhhamia  theohaldi  Taylor;  wing. 
Fig. 5. — CiiUcada  icUsoni,  sp.n. ;  head  of  male. 
Fig. 6. — CuUcada  wilsoni,  sp.n.;  genitalia  of  male. 
Fig. 7. — Cidkada  wilsoni,  sp.n.;  wing  of  female. 

Plate  Ixxxii. 
Fig. 8, — Lophoceratomyia  cairnMenms,   sp.n.;    head  of  male,    showing   an- 

tennary  organs. 
Fig. 9. — Lophoceratomyia  cairnsensis,  sp.n.;  wing. 
Fig.  10. — Molpemyia  pi'iestJeii  Taylor;   wing  of  female. 
Fig.  11.  —  Uranotcenia  tibialis,  sp.n.;  wing. 

Plate  Ix^xiii. 
Fig.  12.  —  Uranotoinia  hilli,  sp.n.;  wing. 
Fig.  18. — Hodgesia  cairnsensis,  sp.n.;  wing. 

Fig.  14. — Hodgesia  cairnsensis,  sp.n.;  portion  of  wing  under  high  power. 
Fig.  15. — Hodgesia  triangidata,  sp.n.;  wing. 


844 


N(yrE  ON  THE  TEMPERATURE  OF  ECHIDNA 
ACULEATA. 

By  H.  8.  Halcro  Wardlaw,  D.Sc,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow 
OF  THE  Society  in  Physiology. 

(From  the  Physiological  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Sydney.) 

(Witli  two  Text-figures). 

In  a  previous  communication,  the  present  writer  has  recorded 
a  number  of  observations  of  the  rectal  temperature  of  Echidna 
ac.nl eata  (Wardlaw,  1915).  The  observations  were  made  at 
different  times  of  the  day,  and  during  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  As  the  temperatures  showed  considerable  variations,  even 
outside  of  th6  periods  during  which  the  animals  were  hibernating, 
some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  arriving  at  an  estimate  of 
their  normal  waking  temperature.  Average  values  calculated 
from  results  varying  like  those  obtained  have  no  precise  meaning. 
Yet  to  give  the  range  of  variation  alone  is  hardly  sufficient :  a 
central  value  is  necessary  as  a  point  of  departure. 

These  results,  therefore,  have  been  submitted  to  a  further  ex- 
amination, in  which  the  graphic  method  of  statistical  analysis, 
due  to  Galton,  has  been  applied  in  the  manner  described  in  a 
former  paper  (Wardlaw,  1917).  Tn  this  w^ay,  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  observations  of  temperature  are  not  distributed  at 
random  over  their  whole  range  of  variation,  but  occur  more  fre- 
quently in  the  vicinity  of  certain  values,  and  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  this  animal  has  certain  definite  most  probable  values  for 
different  times  of  the  day  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  the  accompanying  diagrams  (Text-figs.  1  and  2),  the  fre- 
quency of  occurrence  of  different  temperatures  of  Echidna,  outside 
of  the  periods  of  hibernation,  have  been  plotted.  Temperatures 
of  the  animals  are   measured  along   the  abscissae.     The  relative 


BY    H.    S.    HALCRO    WARDLAW. 


845 


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65 


846 


TEMPERATURE  OF  ECHIDNA  ACULEATA, 


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BY    H.    S.    HALCRO    WARDLAAV.  847 

frequencies  of  occurrence  of  the  vari<ju8  temperatures  are  pro- 
}»orlional  to  the  ordinates.  Autunni  and  winter  temperatures 
are  given  in  Text-fig.  1;  spring  and  summer  temperatures  are 
given  in  Text-fig.  2.  The  morning  and  aftei-noon  temperatures 
are  plotted  separately  in  each  diagram.  The  mean  air-temper- 
atures, corresponding  to  each  range  of  I'C.  of  the  animal's  tem- 
peratures, are  also  shown.  The  mnnhers  of  results  represented 
by  each  of  the  four  pairs  of  curves  aie  as  follows;  autumn-winter 
period,  morning,  188,  afternoon,  242  ;  spring-sununer  period, 
morning,  98,  afternoon,  102.  Ah  these  numbers  are  different, 
the  ordinates  of  the  different  curves  are  not  directly  comparable 
with  each  other.  This  does  not  matter,  however,  as  only  the 
different  ordinates  of  the  same  curve  require  to  be  compared. 

Curve  A,  Text-fig.  1,  shows  the  ogive  of  the  morning  temper- 
atures of  Echidna  during  the  autumn-winter  period.  Each 
ordinate  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  observations  occurring 
at  and  below  the  corresponding  temperature.  Curve  A'  is  the 
derived  or  frequency-curve;  each  ordinate  is  proportional  to  the 
number  of  observations  occurring  at  the  corresponding  temper- 
ature. It  will  be  seen  that  the  maximum  of  this  frequency-curve 
lies  at  29'7 C;  this  is  the  most  probable  morning-temperature  of 
Echidna  during  the  autunni-winter  period.  It  will  also  be  noticed 
that  the  curve  A'  flattens  out  and  becomes  almost  horizontal 
below  a  t{!m})erature  of  about  27 "GX'.  This  portion  of  the  curve 
continues  tlown  to  about  8*0 C,  but  has  not  all  been  shown.  The 
curve  indicates  that,  below  27'6 C,  Echidna  allows  its  tenqjer- 
ature  to  vary  at  random,  and  displays  no  tendency  to  bring  it 
towards  a  definite  value.  By  the  time  its  b(xly-tenqjerature  has 
fallen  to  27 '5C.,  Echidna  has  thus  become  a  completely  poikilo 
thermal  animal. 

The  line  A"  joins  the  mean  air-temperatures  corresponding  to 
the  different  body- temperatures  of  Echidna,  and  is  marked  by 
circles. 

Curxe  B,  Textlig.  1,  is  the  ogive  of  the  afternoon-temperatures 
of  Echidna  during  the  autumn- winter  period.  Curve  B'  is  the 
corresponding  frequency-curve.     Its  maximum  occurs  at  32*3°C., 


84:8  TEMPERATURE    OF    ^:CHiD^~A    ACULEATA, 

and  tliis  is  the  most  probable  afteinoon-leinperature  of  Echidna 
(hiring  the  pcnod  in  question.  I'he  line  B'  joins  the  air-teniper- 
atiires  corresponding  to  the  diii'crent  temperatures  of  Echidna, 
and  is  indicated  by  dots. 

Curve  C,  Text-fig. 2,  is  the  ogive  of  the  morning-temperatures 
of  Echidna  during  the  spring  sunnner  period.  C  is  the  corres- 
ponding fre([uency-curve.  Its  maximum  lies  at  .'^OO C,  and  this 
is  the  most  piobable  morning-temperature  of  Echidna  during 
spring  and  summer.  The  line  0"  joins  the  average  air-temper- 
atiu'es  as  before,  and  is  indicated  by  circles. 

Curve  D,  Text-fig. 2,  is  the  (jgive  of  the  afternoon-temperatures 
of  Echidna  during  the  spring-sunnner  period.  D'  is  the  corres- 
})onding  frequency-curve.  The  curve,  it  will  be  noticed,  does 
not  fall  after  rising  to  its  maximum,  but  remains  constant.  The 
maximal  value  is  reached  at  a  temperature  of  32  6°C.  Above 
this  temperature  the  frequency-curve  is  horizontal,  and  tlie  tem- 
perature of  Echidna  varies  at  random.  These  facts  indicate  that 
there  is  an  upper,  as  well  as  a  lowei-,  limit  of  temperature  beyond 
which  the  temperature-regulating  mechanism  breaks  down,  and 
Echidna  behaves  as  a  poikilothermal  animal.  This  mechanism 
is  only  etfective  while  the  animal's  body-temperature  lies  between 
about  27 "6  C.  and  -Vi'G'C,  that  is,  over  a  range  of  variation  of 
about  5  C. 

The  line  D'  joins  the  average  air-temperatures  corresponding 
to  the  dili'erent  aftei'noon-tcm}»eratures  of  Echidna  during  the 
spring-summer  period. 

The  four  curves  show,  that  most  probable  temperatures  of 
Echidna  are  2*6'C.  lower  in  tlie  morning  than  in  the  afternoon 
during  both  of  the  periods  in  which  the  observations  were 
made. 

The  most  }n-obal)le  temperatures  of  the  spring-summer  period 
were  very  slightly  (0'3'C.)  higher  than  the  corresponding  tem- 
peratures of  the  autumn-winter  period.  The  average  air-temper- 
atures were  about  5"C.  higher  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter 
period. 


by  h.   s.   halceo  wardlaw.  849 

Summary. 

The  iiiufit  piubablc  tcinpcraturt's  of  Echidna  are:  in  the  morn- 
ing, 29  TX'.  during  autunni  and  winter;  300'C.  during  spring 
and  summer.  In  the  afternoon,  32-3°C.  during  autunni  and 
winter;  32'6°C.  during  spring  and  summer. 

The  temperature-regulating  meclianism  of  Echiihia  is  only 
ertecti\e  wliile  the  body-temperature  lies  betweeji  •27'6°C,  and 
32  fi"!/.  Outside  of  these  limits,  Echidna  behaves  as  a  poikilo- 
ihermal  animal. 


KEFERENCE.S. 
(iALTON. — Natural  Inheritance.      London.  1880. 
Wakdlaw.— Pioc.  Linn.  Sou.  N.  8.  Wales,  19L3,  xl.,  p.231, 
Ibid.,  1917,  xlii..  p.Slo. 


LEGENDS  OF  TEXT-FK^UKES. 

Text-%.1  (p.  845). 
Kolalixc  frequency  of  (occurrence  of  ditFerent  autunni  and  w  inter  temper- 
atures of  Echidna.  Ahscissie,  Ijodj'-teinperatiu-es  of  Echidna. 
Ordinates  of  curves  A  and  !^  are  proportional  to  inu!d)ers  of  ob- 
servations at  and  below  the  corresponding  temperatures.  Ordinates 
of  curves  A'  and  B'  are  proportional  to  numbers  of  observations  at 
the  corresponding  temperatures.  The  points  joined  by  the  lines  A " 
and  B"  indicate  the  average  air-temperatures  corresponding  to  each 
degree  range  of  body-temperature.  Letters  A,  A',  A"  refer  to 
morning-temperatures;  letteis  B,  B',  J5"  to  afternoon-temperatures. 

Text-tig. 2  (p  847). 
Rclalivc  f'requenc,y  of  occurrence  of  different  spring  and  summer  temper- 
atures of  Echidna.  Abscissje,  body-temperatures  of  Echidna. 
Ordinates  of  curves  C  and  IJ  are  proportional  to  numbers  of  ob- 
servations at  and  below  corresponding  temperatures.  Ordinates  of 
curves  C  and  D'  are  proportional  to  numbers  of  ol)servations  oc- 
curring at  the  corresponding  temperatui-es.  The  points  joined  by 
the  lines  C"  and  D"  indicate  the  average  air-temperatures  corres- 
ponding to  each  degree  range  of  body-temperature.  T-ietters  C,  C", 
C"  refer  to  morning-temperatures:  letters  1),  D',  D"  to  afternoon- 
temperatures. 


850 


THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  METHYL  L^VO-INO.STTOL  IN 
AN  AUSTRALIAN  POISONOUS  PLANT. 

Bv  .Iamivs  M.  Pktkik,  D.Sc,  F.I.C,  Linxkan  Maclhay  Fellow 
OF  THE  Society  in  Biochemistky. 

(With  two  Text-figures.) 

(From  the  P/njsioloyicaf  Lcihoralory  of  the  University  of  Sydney.) 

Heterodendron  olecefolmm  Desf.,  (Family  Sapindace?e)  is  a  large 
shrub  growing  on  the  plains  of  the  Western  and  Northern  In- 
terior of  New  South  Wales,  and  is  also  found  in  all  the  other 
States  of  Australia.  It  has  been  described  as  a  valuable  forage- 
plant  in  the  stock  country  because  of  its  drought  resistant 
character. 

Some  time  ago  this  plant  was  suspected  to  be  the  cause  (jf 
certain  fatalities  among  cattle  and  horses,  and  a  sample  was 
received  by  the  writer  U)v  chemical  in\ estigation.  It  was  found, 
when  examined,  to  be  a  strongly  cyanogenetic  plant. 

The  main  object  of  the  extensive  investigation  cariied  out  on 
this  plant  was,  therefore,  the  attempt  to  isolate  the  cyanogenetic 
principle  and  to  study  its  pro[)erties.  During  the  course  of  the 
work  there  was  separated  a  reuiarkable  and  intei'esting  comp(jund 
of  hcvo-inositol,  and  this  })aper  will  be  confined  to  an  account  of 
the  method  by  which  it  was  obtained,  and  a  general  description 
of  its  characteristic  features. 

The  material  for  the  in\  estigation  was  c»^llected  near  Coonamble 
by  Stock  Inspector  E.  W.  Procter,  and  forwarded  to  the  Uni- 
versity through  the  kindness  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Stock,  Mr. 
S.  T.  D.  Symons,  M.R.C.V.S.,  to  whom  the  author  expresses  his 
indebtedness  and  thanks. 


BY    .lAMKS    M.    PETRIE.  851 

Method  of  Extraction. 

The  plants  were  air-fhned,  and  then  tlie  leaves  were  separated, 
crushed,  and  afterwaids  fhu^ly  powdered.  Of  this  air-dried  leaf- 
powder,  2' 5  kilos,  corresponding-  to  about  1 1 -5  kilos,  of  fresh 
leaves,  were  extracted  with  f<()%  alcohol.  The  extraction  was 
continued  until  almost  complete;  and  the  alcoholic  fluid,  measur- 
ing 31  litres,  was  distilled  under  diminished  pressure,  and  at  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  .'^)0  C.  The  distillation  was  continued 
till  the  residue  was  free  from  alcohol,  and  C(mcentrated  to  a  thick 
syrup.  This  viscous  residue  was  treated  with  warm  water, 
filtered  through  calico,  and  the  residue  washed  until  no  more  \vas 
dissoh  ed.  There  was  collected  on  the  cloth-filter  a  black,  sticky 
mass,  consisting  mostl}'  of  chlorophyll  and  resins,  and  weighing, 
when  dried,  200gms.,  or  8%  of  the  air-dried  leaves.  The  aqueous 
filtrate,  aftei*  standing  in  tall  cylinders  for  a  few  days,  deposited 
a  considerable  quantity  of  brown,  amoi-phous  resin.  The  lattei' 
was  removed  and  washed  with  cold  watei*. 

The  opaque,  dark  brown  solution  was  next  purified  by  the 
addition  (1)  of  an  equal  volume  of  10%  lead  acetate  solution, 
and  (2)  of  an  excess  of  basic  lead  acetate,  after  removing  the 
previous  bulky  deposit.  These  very  voluminous  yellow  precipi- 
tates were  separated  by  spinning  in  the  centrifuge,  and  were 
washed  in  the  same  manner  with  cold  water,  and  reserved.  Next, 
the  solution  was  made  free  from  lead  by  saturation  with  hydrogen 
sulphide,  and  the  precipitate  removed  and  well  washed. 

The  aqueous  solution,  measuring  18  litres,  was  now  concen- 
trated by  distillation  at  a  low  temperature,  to  a  volume  of  about 
2  litres.  At  this  stage,  the  solution  was  thoroughly  extracted 
by  shaking  out  with  ether,  and  in  this  wa}^  the  free  acetic  acid 
was  removed. 

Crystallisation. 
Two  volumes  of  strong  alcohol  were  then  added  to  the  solution, 
and,  on  standing  to  settle,  a  dark  syrupy  deposit  formed,  from 
which  the  solution  was  decanted.  The  latter  was  then  concen- 
trated by  evaporation  to  a  viscous  mass,  and  on  the  addition  of 
95%  alcohol   to  this  residue,  an  insoluble  viscous  substance  re- 


852  METHYL    L.EV0-IN0SITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

mained.  The  alcoholic  fluid  was  allowed  to  stand  for  some  days, 
when  there  was  formed  a  considerable  quantity  of  clear  glassy 
crystals.  On  evaporation  at  35°C.,  and  again  treating  with 
alcohol,  a  further  separation  of  crystals  took  place.  This  evapo- 
ration and  treatment  with  95%  alcohol  was  repeated  three  times, 
the  mass  of  crystals  was  drained  on  a  Buchner  funnel,  and 
washed  with  alcohol.  The  whole  was  then  recrystallised  from 
dilute  alcohol,  and  the  crystals  dried.  The  weight  of  this  sub- 
stance, with  the  addition  of  a  smaller  amount  obtained  in  the  sub- 
sequent treatment  of  the  solution,  was  15gms.,  equivalent  to — 

0*65  per  cent,  of  the  dried  (at  100°)  leaves. 

0*60  per  cent,  of  the  air-dried  material. 
Purificatio7i  of  the  crystals. — The  whole  of  the  substance  was 
now  dissolved  in  water,  in  which  it  was  exceedingly  soluble,  and 
alcohol  was  carefully  added  to  the  point  of  incipient  precipitation. 
On  cooling  the  solution  to  0°C.,  the  substance  slowly  separated 
in  fine  transparent  crystals.  During  this  separation,  the  super- 
fluid  was  decanted  at  intervals,  till  finally  there  were  obtained 
twenty  separate  fractions.  The  first,  tenth,  and  twentieth  frac- 
tions, when  dried,  gave  melting-points  between  188°  and  189'5°C. 
(uncorrected),  thus  proving  the  presence  of  a  single  substance 
onl^^  The  combined  fractions  were  recrystallised  three  times, 
and  dried  in  a  desiccator. 

Properties  of  the  Crystals. 

The  following  tests  are  described  in  the  order  in  which  they 
were  performed,  and  show  the  method  by  which  the  constitution 
of  the  compound  was  gradually  elucidated. 

Preliminary  tests. — (1)  On  fermentation  with  a  very  active 
preparation  of  emulsin,  no  hydrocyanic  acid  was  evolved.  The 
compound  is,  therefore,  not  the  active  principle  of  the  plant. 

(2)  When  heated,  the  substance  melted,  charred,  and  burned 
entirely  away  without  residue. 

It  consisted  of  the  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
only.  The  crystals  possessed  a  very  sweet  taste,  and  were  ex- 
(;essi\'ely  soluble  in  water;  from  which  facts  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  compound  contains  a  nunlbei'  of  hydroxyl  groups.    When 


BY    JAMES    M.    PETRIE.  853 

examined  by  the  microscope,  the  crystal  form  was  similar  to  that 
of  cane  sugar. 

Molisch's  reaction  with  sulphuric  acid  and  </.-naphthol  or 
thymol  gave  no  colour,  and  Fehling's  solution  was  not  reduced. 
The  compound  is,  therefore,  not  a  sugar. 

(3)  The  melting-point,  taste,  and  crystalline  form  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  hexahydric  alcohol,  dulcitol;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, yields  mucic  acid  when  oxidised  with  nitric  acid,  whereas 
no  mucic  acid  could  be  obtained  from  this  substance. 

(4)  By  treatment  of  the  solution  with  phenylhydrazin  acetate, 
no  hydrazone  or  osazone  could  be  obtained. 

Silver  nitrate  in  ammoniacal  solution  gave  no  precipitate  in 
the  cold;  but,  on  warming,  the  solution  slowly  darkened  with 
precipitation  of  the  silver. 

On  boiling  witli  dilute  acids  and  alkalies,  and  subsequently 
recovering  the  compound,  no  apparent  change  in  its  properties 
was  noted. 

{h)  Quantitative  determinations. — The  crystals,  which  had  been 
formed  in  dilute  alcoholic  solution,  and  dried  in  a  desiccator  at  the 
oi'dinary  temperature,  were  heated  at  110°C.  for  two  hours,  but 
showed  no  decrease  in  weight,  and  then  at  150°C.  for  30  minutes, 
with  a  similar  result.  The  substance,  therefore,  contains  no 
water  of  crystallisation. 

The  solubility  showed  that  1  gm.  required  l"9c.c.  of  water  at 
2rC.,  or  53%. 

(6)  The  melting-point,  as  carefully  determined  on  a  standard 
Anschiitz  thermometer  wholly  immersed,  was  190°C. 

(7)  Ultimate  analysis  of  the  substance  yielded  the  following- 
results  : — 

0-1262gm.  gave...  0-083  H.,0  and  0-1983  CO.. 

Equivalent  to      ...  7-3%  H  and  42-9%  C. 

C-Hi^O,.  requires  7-2%  H  and  43-3%  C. 
This  formula,  which  conforms  most  closely  to  the  figures  ob- 
tained foi'  the  substance,   is   possessed  by  the   meth^d-hexoses, 
simple  glucosides,  and  certain  derivatives  of  benzene. 

(8)  A  determination    was   made  of  the   number  of   methoxy 

66 


854  METHYL    LiEVO-INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

groups  present  in  tlie  molecule,  by  Perkin's  modification  of  the 
method  of  Zeisel.  By  heating  in  pure  liydriodic  acid,  methyl 
iodide  distilled  over  into  silver  nitrate  solution. 

0*2  gm.  gave        ...  0-2315  gm.  silver  iodide. 

Representing       . . .  00306  gm.  CH...O. 

C.Ji^  ^0^.  requires  0'0310  gm.  for  one  CH.jO  group. 

Tlie  substance  can,  therefore,  be  represented  by  the  foi-mula 
CH..  -C^^H^  ^O,;,  and  the  residue  remaining  in  the  Zeisel  apparatus 
should  possess  the  formula  C^HjoOg.  In  order  to  recover  this 
substance  for  examination,  the  solution,  from  which  the  methyl 
iodide  had  been  driven  off,  was  lieated  on  the  water-bath  to 
remove  hydriodic  acid,  and  then  ev^aporated  to  dryness.  By 
extracting  this  residue  with  alcohol  and  cooling  to  0°C.,  white 
crystals  were  recovered. 

Crystals  dried  in  desiccator  and  weighed...  OvlGOgm. 
Crystals  dried  at  llO^'C.  and  weighed  ...  0"160gm. 
C-H^^O,. — 0-2  gm.  requires  ...  ...      O'lSGgm. 

The  crystals  are,  therefore,  without  water  of  crystalli.sation. 
The  low  yield  may  be  accounted  for  by  partial  decomposition 
during  the  boiling  with  hydriodic  acid,  as  the  odour  of  benzene 
and  phenol  was  distinctl)^  detected. 

(9)  Pro])erfieti  of  the  demethylatfd  substance. — After  three  crys- 
tallisations, the  substance  gave  a  melting-point  of  238°C.,  and 
charred  at  239X\,  carefully  determined  on  an  Anschiitz  standard 
thermometer  with  the  column  submerged. 

This  substance  also  gave  a  negative  result  with  Molisch's  test, 
proving  the  absence  of  all  open-chain  carbohydrates;  and  since 
benzene  and  phenol  were  identified  as  decomposition-products  of 
the  ester,  the  possible  cyclic  compounds  may  next  be  considered. 

The  formula  C,;Hj^Og  is  contained  in  the  inositol  ring,  for 
the  identification  of  which  the  following  reactions  are  specific: — 

{a)  Scherer's  test  gave  positive  reactions  with  this  substance, 
and  likewise  with  the  original  methyl  derivative.  When  a  little 
of  the  solution  is  evaporated  with  nitric  acid,  neutralised  with 
ammonia,  and  calcium  or  barium  chloride  added,  a  brilliant  rose- 
red  colour  appears.  (Liebig's  Annalen  der  Chemie  u.  Pharm.  81, 
1852,  375). 


BY    JAMES    M.    PKTRIE.  855 

(b)  Gallois'  test  gave  positive  results  witli  both  substances. 
When  the  crystals  are  treated  with  mercuric  nitrate,  a  yellow 
precipitate  first  forms,  which,  on  evaporating  to  dryness,  gives  a 
deep  red  colour;  on  cooling,  this  colour  slowly  disappears,  to 
return  on  being  reheated.  (Fres'.  Zeitschrift  fur  anal.  Cheniie, 
iv.,  1865,  264). 

These  two  charactei'istic  reactions  are  due  to  the  oxidation  of 
inositol  to  a  (luinonoid  substance  known  as  rhodizonic  acid,  whose 
salts  with  calcium,  barium,  and  mercury,  possess  the  bright 
colours  described. 

The  reduced  substance  is  thus  proved  to  be  one  of  the  inositols, 
and  the  original  compound  isolated  from  the  plant-extract  is  its 
methyl  ester. 

(10)  Optical  propfrfifis. — A  polarimetric  determination  of  the 
two  substances  was  made  with  a  Schmidt  and  Haensch  polari- 
meter  reading  to  one-hundredth  of  a  degree. 

Methyl  inositol  0"5gm.  was  dissolved  in  10  c.c.  of  distilled 
water  at  16°C.,  and  a  Ijevo  rotation  w^as  recorded  of  -  4*01  in  a 
1  dcm.  tube. 

The  specific  rotatory  power  [o]^-  =  -  80-2;  [MJ^J-  =  -  155-0. 

The  solution  was  boiled  for  two  minutes,  and  after  cooling  to 
16°C.,  was  again  read  in  the  polarimeter.  No  change  was  ob- 
served, such  as  is  due  to  mutarotation  among  the  hexoses. 

Inositol,  the  de-methylated  compound,  0"0741gm.  was  dissolved 
in  10  c.c.  of  water  at  16°C.,  and  showed  a  Ifevo  rotation  of 
-  0'48°  in  a  1  dcm.  tube. 

Specific  rotatory  power  [a]^'  =  -  64-8;  [MJ^J'  =  -  116'7. 

(11)  Hydration. — The  Isevo-inositol  was  obtained  by  crystallisa- 
tion from  cold  aqueous  alcohol,  and  contained  no  water  of  crys- 
tallisation. When  crystallised  from  water,  it  was  also  obtained 
in  anhydrous  crystals. 

Now  Maquenne  and  Tanret  have  described  some  important 
differences  with  regard  to  the  water  of  crystallisation  in  the 
isomeric  inositols."^     They  found  that — 

*  Reeherches  sur  I'inosite,  Maquenne — Annales  de  ehemie  et  de  physique, 
xii.,  1887,  94;  Comptes  lendus,  ex.,  1890,  87. 


856  METHYL    L.EVO-INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

Inactive-inositol 

from  dil.  alcohol,  or  M-ater  under  50°C.,  gave  ...  crysts.  with  2H2O. 

from  dil.  aleoliol,  or  water  above  50°C.,  gave  ...  aiihj'drous  cry.stis. 

Dextro-inositol 

from  dil.  alcohol,  or  cold  water,  gave     ...  ...  anhydrous  crj'sts. 

from  cold  water  seeded  with  hydrate  crysts. ,  gave  crystal  with  2H.,0. 

from  hot  water,  gave  ...  ...  ...  ...  crysts.  with  2H..0. 

L;evo-inositol 

from  cold  water,  gave         ...  ...  ...  ...  crysts.  with 'iH.^O. 

from  hot  water,  gave  ...  ...  ...  ...  crysts.  with 'iH.^O. 

from  dil.  alcohol,  gave        ...         ...  ...  ...  anhydrous  crj-sts. 

Dl-inositol 

from  cold  water,  gave         ...  ...  ...  ...  anhydrous  crysts. 

It  is  to  be  pointed  out  that  the  inactive  and  dextro  forms  give 
reverse  results  with  the  same  treatment.  Maquenne,  in  com- 
paring the  dextro-  and  l^evo-isomers,  could  always  obtain  the 
former  from  cold  water  in  anhydrous  crystals,  but  was  quite 
unable  to  obtain  the  same  with  the  hi^vo  form. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  with  the  k«vo-inositol 
from  Heterodendron,  and  are  of  interest  when  compared  with  the 
figures  in  the  previous  table. 

gm. 

1 .  Heated  at  1 1 0°C.  for  1  hour  0  'oSOo 

2.  Dissolved  in  cold  water,  dried  in  desice.  at  25^C.  for  2  daj^s    ..     0'5522 

,,  ,,  ,,  25°C.  for  1  day     ...     O'ooll 

25°C.  for  1  day     ...     0*5o08 

3.  Dissolved  in  water  at  70°C.,  crystd.  at  70'C.,  dried  in  desice. 

at  25°C.  for  2  days         0'5678 

at  2o°C.  for  1  day  0-5650 

at  15°C.  for  3  days         0-5530 

at  15°C.  for  3  days         0-5512 

4.  Heated  at  100°C.  for  3  hours  ..."        0*5508 

5.  Diss,  in  water,  dried  in  the  open  at  \ai°C.  ...         ...         ...  0'5508 

Inositol  ■2H2O  requires  ...  ...  ...         ...         ...  0-5660 

The  crystallisation  from  cold  water,  therefore,  left  anhydrous 
inositol  when  kept  over  sulphuric  acid,  or  dried  in  the  open. 

When  cr3'stallised  at  70'C.,  and  subsequently  kept  over 
sulphuric  acid  for  two  days,  the  crystals  contained  an  equivalent 
of  two  molecules  of  water;  but  since  this  water  was  graduall)' 
lost  at  the  ordinary  temperature  standing  over  sulphuric  acid,  or 


BY    JAMES    M.     PETRIE.  857 

ill  the  open,  appai'ently  it  was  uul  coinl)iiied  as  hydrate  in  the 
crystals. 

Tlie  liy(h-ates  <)l)tained  by  Ma<|ueiiiie  and  others  were  only 
decomposed  at  100°C.  If  the  hydrate  exists  in  the  above  case, 
it  is  decomposed  by  drying  at  the  ordinaiy  temperature. 

The  l;*^vo-inosit()]  of  this  research,  therefore,  was  obtained  in 
anhydrous  crystals  only.  The  hydrates  prepared  Ijy  the  French 
chemists  could  not  be  obtained. 

The  substance  isolated  from  HebrorhDidron  olcrvfoliiDit  is  thus 
})roved  to  be  the  methyl  ester  of  l(e.vo-rof(Uor}j  inositol. 

(12)  Crystal  Form, — -The  outward  structure  and  measurements 
of  the  crystal  forms  are  intimately  related  to  the  internal  struc- 
ture of  the  isomeric  molecules,  and,  therefore,  form  an  essential 
part  in  the  elucidation  of  the  individual  members  of  a  group. 
The  methyl  inositols  apparently  have  never  been  examined  by 
crystal lographers,  and  indeed,  as  far  as  the  author  can  ascertain, 
only  inactive  inositol  crystals  have  been  examined  by  the  goni- 
ometer. 

The  goniometric  determinations  of  the  crystal  forms  of  1. -methyl 
inositol  were  kindly  made  by  Dr.  C.  Anderson,  Mineralogist  to 
the  Australian  Museum,  and  are  here  included. 

CrYvStal  Measurements  of  Methyl  L.Evo-ixosrroi.. 
By  Charles  Anderson,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 
The  crystals  are  small,  the  largest  being  about  2  mm.  in  length. 
They  belong  to  the  orthorhorabic  system  and  are  very  uniform 
in  development  and  habit:  of  the  five  crystals  measured,  fuur 
sliow  the  forms  a(lOO),  6(0 10),  m(llO),  ^(011),  wdiile  one  has,  in 
addition,  one  face  of  the  form  /'(lOl),  and  they  are  all  tabular 
on  a.  The  faces  are  by  no  means  perfect,  being  interrupted  and 
wavy,  the  signals  are  only  fair,  and,  consequently,  the  measure- 
ments are  not  m  close  agreement.  The  crystals  were  measured 
on  a  two-circle  goniometer,  the  reducing  lens  being  used. 


858  METHYL    L^VO-INOSITOL    IN    A    POlSONOtTS    PLANT, 

m" 


in 


a 


Text-tig.  1. 
The  axial  ratios  were  talculated  from  the  following  angles. 


<^ 

P 

i  No.  of 
I     obs. 

Form. 

Mean. 

Limits. 

Mean. 

Limits. 

wllO 

52°44' 

5Vm'—o3°2T 

39°26' 

39°0'— 39°49' 

'      17 

,        8 

The  elements  deduced  from  these  angles  are 
a:b:c  =  0-7609:l:0-8224. 


BY   JAMES    M.    PKTRIE. 


859 


Forms  and  angles. 


Measured. 

Calculated. 

Form. 

Symbol. 

<t> 

P 

(ji           j            p 

ft 

100 

S9°o4' 

90°4' 

WO' 

900' 

1, 

010 

0°o' 

90°22' 

0°0' 

go'^o' 

nt 

110 

o2°44' 

90°2' 



90°0' 

q 

Oil 

OW 

39°26' 

0°0' 



r 

101 

88°33' 

47°48' 

90°0' 

47^13' 

The  Inositols. 

Position  of  the  group. — The  relative  positii^ii  of  the  group,  and 
the  mode  of  occurrence  of  its  members  in  nature,  are  of  consider- 
able interest  to  the  biochemist,  especially  since  the  discovery  of 
"phytin"  in  plants  by  Paladin,  in  1895. 

The  basis  of  inositol  is  the  hexamethylene  ring  (CH..),.. 
Hexamethylene,  C„H^^  (Text-fig.  1 ),  occurs  only  in  the  hydro- 
carbons of  the  petroleum  of  Russia,  Galicia,  Baku,  East  Indies, 
and  California,  in  the  fraction  boiling  about  80°C.  It  has  not 
been  detected  in  plants  or  animals. 

By  the  substitution  of  hydroxy!  groups  (OH)  in  the  hexametliv- 
lene  ring,  the  following  series  of  compounds  is  obtained: — 
(OH),  (OH).^,  (OH).. — synthetic  compounds  only. 
(OH)^ — betite,  isolated  from  beet  sugar  residues. 
(OH)- — quercite,  in  oak  and  other  plants. 
(OH),; — inosite,  in  many  animals  and  plants. 

Inosite,  or  inositol,  has,  therefore,  the  constitution  ^)i  a  liexa- 
hydroxy  hexamethylene  C,.H,. '  (OH),.,  and  although  its  formula 
may  be  written  C\;H^^O,.,  it  is  nevertheless,  in  its  relationships, 
far  removed  from  the  carbohydrates. 

Tha  couistituJion  of  Inositol. — The  configuration  of  the  inositol 
molecule,  or,  in  other  words,  the  arrangement  of  its  at<jms  in 
space,  admits  of  eight  different  geometrical  groupings  resultinij 
in  eight  possible  isomeric  foi-ms.  When  these  and  their  mirror- 
images  are  built  up  in  models,  it  is  found  that  seven  of  the  forms 
may   be   superimposed    on,   and,    therefore,   coincide   with,   their 


860 


METHYL    L^VO  INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 


mirror-images.  Tliis  condition,  arising  from  a  certain  degree  of 
molecular  symmetry,  is  accompanied  by  inactivity  towards  polar- 
ised light.  Tliese  seven  forms  having  their  asymmetric  carbon 
atoms  internally  compensated,  are,  therefore,  optically  inactive 
in  the  polarimeter.  One  form  alone  is  found  to  possess  an 
entirely  asymmetric  molecule,  and,  in  consequence,  this  arrange- 
ment can  exist  as  active  dextro  and  lt«vo  compounds,  and,  in 
addition,  their  (f/-  or  racemic  inactive  combination  may  also  exist. 

Constifution  of  the  methyl  psters. — As  has  just  been  stated,  the 
active  forms  of  inositol  are  the  result  of  one  particular  arrange- 
ment of  the  hydroxy  1  groups.  This  arrangement,  which  may  Ije 
readily  discovered  in  the  models,  is  that  where  the  six  hydroxyl 
groups  occupy  the  positions  1,  2,  4,  on  each  side  of  the  ring. 
This  form  (Fig. 2)  and  its  mirror-image  (Fig. 3)  constitute  the 
dextro-  and  l?evo-inositols. 

Fig.  1.  Fig.2,  Fig.3.  Fig.  4. 

H  H  OH  OCH, 


and 

inositol. 

Text-fig.  2. 


methyl  leevo- 
inositol . 


The  methyl  ester,  C^H,(OH)-  (OCH..^)  is  obtained  by  sub- 
stitution of  a  methyl  group  in  one  of  the  hydroxyl  groups,  and 
again  from  the  models  it  can  be  proved  that  substitution  in  tlie 
hydroxyl  1,  2,  or  4  results  in  three  possible  and  different  com- 
pounds being  obtained.  The  first  of  these  is  represented  by 
Fig. 4.  The  corresponding  three  positions  in  the  mirror-image 
(Fig. 3) — which  are  identical  with  the  alternate  three  positions 
below^   in   the  other  form   (Fig. 2) — produce    their  optical  anti- 


BY    JAMES    M.    PETRIE.  861 

podes.  The  possible  existence  of  three  dextro-  and  three  Ifcvo- 
inethyl  esters  is  thus  deteimined.  It  now  remains  to  ascertain 
(a)  whether  tlie  few  inositol  esters  wiiicli  have  been  is(jlated  up 
to  the  present  time,  represent  the  same  stereo-isonier,  (6)  whether 
the  compound  obtained  h'om  Ifeterodendroii  is  identical  with  any 
of  the  others,  t)r  represents  the  second  or  third  isomer. 

Occurrence  in  iiafure. — It  has  been  previously  stated  that 
theoretically  there  can  exist  ten  stereo-isomeric  forms  of  inositol 
as  a  maximum  possible  number: — - 

7  inactive  by  internal  compensation  (meso), 

2  active,  dextro  and  Ipevo, 

1  inactive,  racemic  or  dl, 

10  isomeric  forms. 

Only  the  inactive  inositols  have  yet  been  found  existing  in  the 
free  state  in  nature,  but  esters  of  both  active  and  inactive 
inositols  are  found. 

{a)  Inactive  inositol. — This  form,  widely  distributed  in  animal 
tissues,  and  already  well  known  to  physiologists,  possesses  the 
formula  of  one  or  other  of  the  seven  internally  compensated 
molecules,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  is  the  only  form 
found  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  has  always  been  referred  to  in 
physiological  chemistry  as  one  substance,  with  definite  and  con- 
stant general  properties.  But  no  one  so  far  has  troubled  to  ex- 
amine minutely,  material  from  widely  different  sources  or  organs, 
as  to  the  particular  properties  which  would  differentiate  these 
inactive  isomers,  such  as  crystallographic  measurements,  or  optical 
properties. 

It  was  discovered  in  animals,  in  1850,  by  Scherer,  in  extracts 
of  flesh,*  and  in  plants,  six  years  later,  by  Vohl.f  This  author 
was  examining  the  sap  of  unripe  pods  of  Fhaseolus  vulgaris,  and 
after  completely  fermenting  the  sugars,  and  distilling  off  the 
alcohol,  he  found  that  the  solution  still  possessed  a  very  sweet 
taste.     He  then  separated  a  manna-like  substance, 

*  Liebig's  Annalen  der  Chemie  und  Pharni.,  Ixxiii. 
t  Ibid.,  xcix.,  1856,  125. 


which  he  called 

,  1850,  322. 

R  A  R 

862  METHYL    LiKVO  INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

phaseo-maniiite.  In  the  following  year,  the  same  chemitst  proved 
the  itlentity  of  his  maniiite  with  Scherer's  inosite  from  animals. 

The  occurrence  has  been  recorded  of  three  other  substances, 
which  are  believed  to  be  isomeric  with  inactive  inositol,  since 
they,  although  differing  widely  in  crystalline  form,  melting-point, 
and  solubility,  possess  the  same  general  characters.  These  are 
the  scyllite  of  Stfedeler,  from  certain  elasmobranch  fishes,  the 
quercinite  of  Delachanel,  from  the  oak,  and  the  cocositol  of 
Mueller,  from  the  cocoanut. 

The  compounds  of  inactive  inositol  which  have  been  found  in 
nature  are : — 

Bornesite — the  methyl  ester,  obtained  from  caoutchouc. 

Dambonite — the  dimethyl  ester,  obtained  from  caoutchouc. 

Phytin — the  phosphate  ester,  an  essential  constituent  of  all 
plants  and  animals. 

(h)  Dextro-inositol  occurs  only  as  the  methyl  ester,  pinite.  It 
was  discovered  by  Berthelot,"^  in  1<S56,  in  the  resins  from  Oregon 
pine,  and  has  since  been  found  in  senna  leaves,  and  caoutchouc. 

(c)  Lcevo-iiiositol  is  likewise  found  only  as  the  methyl  ester, 
and  the  following  is  a  complete  record  of  its  occurrence: — 

1.  In  quebracho  bark,  Aspidosppnna  quebrarho  (Apocynacete), 
discovered  by  Tanret,  of  Paris,  in  1889,t  and  named  by  him 
quebrachite. 

2.  In  Hevea  brasUiensis  (Euphorbiaceae),  in  the  aqueous  solu- 
tions of  the  latex  after  coagulation  of  the  rubber,;  and  in  Para 
rubber.  § 

3.  In  Grevillea  robusta  (Proteacea3).||  It  is  associated  in  the 
lea\es  with  the  glucoside  arbutin. 

4.  In  Heterodendron  o/ece/olimn  (Sapindacete),  this  paper. 

(d)  Racemic  inositol  was  discovered  in  mistletoe  by  Tanret  in 


*  Annales  de  chiniie  et  de  physique,  xlvi.,  1856,  60. 
1  Coniptes  rendus  de  I'Aead.  des  Sciences,  cix.,  1889,  908. 

+  de  Jong,  1906,  thro.  Wehmer's  "Die  Pflanzenstoffe."' 
§  Pickles  and  Whitfield,  Proe.  Cheni.  8oc.  Lend.,  1911,  54. 
Bouiquelot  et  Fichtenholz,   Journ.    pharni.   et  de  chirnie,  Paris,  vi., 


1912,  346. 


BY    JAMES    M.    PKTRIE. 


8H3 


1907.*  It  was  found  to  exist  free  in  the  berries  and  leaves,  and 
associated  with  much  (uieso)  inactive  inositol,  but  no  active 
isomers  were  present. 

The  Active  Forms  of  Inositol. 
The  following   Table  shows   the  physical   constants   Ijy  which 
the  active  forms  and  their  compounds  are  identified. 


melting-point. 

spec.  rot. 

power. 

(1)  Dtxtro- methyl  ester. 

From  Pinus  (Maquenne) 

186°C. 

+  65 '5 

Pinus  (Combes) ... 

18(5 -.1 

657 

caoutchouc  (Combes)     ... 

187 

66 

caoutchouc  (Girard 

181 

64-7 

{'!)  L<vro-methyI  ef<ter. 

Fiom  Quebracho  (Tanret) 

190X\ 

-80 

Rubber  (Pickles  and  Whittield) 

191-2 

80 

Gievillea  (Bourquelot) ... 

190 

80-3 

Heterodendron  (this  paper) 

190 

80  2 

(8)  Dtxtro- 1 11  osito/. 

From  pinite  (Maquenne) 

247°C. 

+  65 

pinite  (Berthelot) 

•245 



caoutchouc  (Combes)     ... 

240 

67  6 

caoutchouc  ( Gi  rard ) 

28.-) 

64-7 

(4)  Litro-inositol . 

From  Quebraclio  (Tanret) 

288  C. 

-  (>5 

Quebracho  (Maquenne) 

247 

65 

Rubber  (Pickles  and  Whithi 

-Id) 

237 

— 

Grevillea  (Bourquelot) ... 

247 

65 

Heterodendron  (this  paper) 

238 

64-8 

Table  showing  the  amount  of  metliyl  Ipevo-inositol  obtained 
from  the  difterent  sources: — 

Aspidosperma  quebracho  ...      0*1%  of  dried  leaves, 

Hevea  hrasiliensU  rubber  ...     (2 "5%  of  the  rubber). 

GrerifJea  rofmsfa ...  ...  ...       0*4%  of  dried  leaves. 

Hettrodendroii  ole.<i'folinm  ...       0"65%  of  dried  leaves. 

From  the  first  Table,  it  is  apparent  that  the  It^vo-methyl 
inositols  (2)  from  the  four  difierent  sources,  have  identical  melt- 
ing-points and  specific  rotatory  powers,  and  therefore,  in  all 
probability,  represent  one  only  of  the  three  possible  stereo- 
isomers previously  mentioned, 

*  Comptes  rendus  de  I'Acad.  des  Sciences,  cxlv.,  1907,  1196. 


864  METHYL    L.EVO-INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

AV'heii  converted  to  hevo-iiiositul  (1),  however,  there  would 
a}>}>e;ir  to  be  two  groups  of  melting-point  figures,  one  10°  higher 
lljcin  the  other,  but  since  there  can  be  only  one  possible  /-inositol, 
this  dili'erence  nuist  be  otheiwise  explained. 

The  Table  also  shows  that  while  the  dextro-  and  Itevo-inositols 
(3  and  4)  are  optical  antipodes  of  one  another,  their  esters  (1  and 
2)  are  not.  The  optical  properties  especially  ai'e  so  very  diver- 
gent that,  in  all  probability,  the  methyl  group  occupies  a  different 
position  in  the  two  compounds.  Tlie  compound  isolated  from 
Heterodendron  is,  therefore,  shown  not  to  be  an  optical  isomer 
of  Maquenne's  pinite. 

Biochemical  Relationships  and  Significance. 
(a)  The  chemical  aspect. — Since  the  researches  of  Maquenne, 
cited  in  the  previous  paragraphs,  no  subsequent  w^ork  has  shown 
any  relationship  between  the  inositols  and  the  carbohydrates, 
other  than  the  sweet  taste  and  the  molecular  formula  common  to 
both.  Perhaps  one  exception  to  this  is  found  in  Neuberg's  iden- 
tification of  furfural  among  the  products  of  decomposition,  when 
inositol  is  boiled  with  acids."^  Although  furfural  is  also  obtained 
from  the  hexoses  and  heptoses  in  small  amounts  (about  0'2 /^),  it 
is  characteristic  of  the  pentose  sugars.  It  must  be  also  remem- 
bered that  the  production  of  furfural  is  the  basis  of  Molisch's 
group-test  for  all  carbohydrates,  and  with  this  reagent  the 
inositols  gave  negative  results. 

However,  it  seems  probable  from  the  results  of  many  workers 
that  the  hexamethylenes  form  a  kind  of  stepping-stone  between 
the  open  chain  compounds  and  the  true  benzene  ring  derivatives. 
Ojjoi  chain  camps.  Closed  ring  camps. 

hexose  sugars  hexamethylene  derics.  Benzene  derivs. 

dulcitol  (juercitols  phenols 

mannitol  inositols 

sorbitol 
The  hexamethylene  derivatives  are  much  more  easily  decom- 
posed than  the  simple  benzene  compounds.     In  fact,  it  has  been 

*  Biocheni.  Zeitschrift,  ix.,  1908,  551. 


BY    .TAMKS    M.    PETRIE.  865 

found  byDrechsel  that  fungi  and  bacteria  maybe  grown  in  solu- 
tions of  the  former,  especially  the  oxidised  forms  (juercitol  and 
quinic  acid.  It  has  also  been  proved  that  when  phenol  is  ex- 
posed for  some  time  to  the  alternating  electric  current,  it  is  first 
comerted  to  hexamethylene  derivatives,  before  being  finally 
oxidised  and  split  up  into  various  fatty  acids.* 

Though  there  are  many  instances  of  the  closing  up  of  open 
chain  carbon  compounds  into  ring  compounds,  such  as  the  con- 
version of  citral  into  C3^mol,  the  cyclo-citrals,  and  terpenes; 
geraniol  into  dipentene,  etc.;  yet  no  such  conversions  have  been 
accomplished  between  the  carbohydrates  and  the  inositols 
Griffin  and  Nelson,  in  their  researches  on  inositol  and  pinite, 
tried  by  various  methods  to  close  up  the  hexose  chain,  and  to 
open  out  the  inositol  ring,  but  were  entirely  unsuccessful. t 

{/))  TJiP  biochemical  aspect. — On  the  other  hand,  in  favour  of 
the  biochemical  possibility,  there  exist  the  important  observa- 
tions of  Neuberg:  that  quercitol  and  inositol  may  be  reduced  in 
a  few  minutes  to  open  chain  carbohydrates  (reducing  Fehling's 
solution,  etc.)  by  the  action  of  sunlight  and  a  catalyser  such  as 
uranium  salt,  also  by  the  action  of  the  alternating  current.! 

These  processes,  however,  are  all  reverse  reactions,  resulting 
in  cleavage  of  the  hexamethylene  ring.  Concerning  the  direct 
synthesis — carbohydrate  to  inositol,  we  have  no  evidence  at  all, 
and  Maquenne  had  no  experimental  basis  for  his  belief  that  the 
alcohol  mannitol  was  the  source  of  inositol. 

Rosenberger  observed  tlie  appearance  of  inositol  in  post  mortem 
tissues,  where  previously  no  inositol  existed;  and  he  assumed  the 
pre-existence  of  an  "inositogen"  from  which,  by  enzyme-action, 
the  inositol  was  formed. v^ 

The  inactive  inositol  combines  with  inorganic  phosphates,  and 
in  this  form  exists  as  "phytin"  in  nearly  all  living  organisms. 
This  substance   is   always  accompanied  by  the  enzyme  phytase, 


*  Journ.  fiir  prakt.  Chemie,  xxxviii.,  1888,  60. 
t  Journ.  Amer.  Chem.  Soc,  xxxvii.,  1915,  bjo'i. 

X  Biochem,  Zeitschrift,  xiii.,  1908,  308. 
§  Zeitschrift  fur  physiol.  Chemie,  Ivi.,  1908,  373. 


866  METHYL     L.EVO-INOSITOL    IN    A    POISONOUS    PLANT, 

which  effects  its  cleavage  and  yields  inositol  again,  in  the  free 
state.  Starkenstein's  investigations  show  that  the  source  of  free 
inositol  in  tissues  is  the  pliytin,  and  that  inositol  is  a  decompo- 
sition-product of  the  phosphoric  acid  metabolism  in  both  plants 
and  animals."^  Indeed,  much  work  has  been  done  in  elucidating 
the  conditions  of  this  transformation  on  the  side  of  the  phosphoric 
acid,  but  again,  as  to  the  inositol  side,  nothing  is  known. 

The  few  definite  observations  concerning  the  part  played  in 
metabolism,  by  inositol,  are  here  summarised : — 

1.  In  iin7'ipe  seeds,  inositol  and  quercitol  accumulate  just  at 
the  time  when  the  transport  of  carbohydrates  to  the  fruit  begins. 

2.  As  the  fruit  7'ipens,  Vohl  observed  that  inositol  and  quercitol 
disappear,  and  are  changed  into  "phytin"  (not  carbohydrate). 

3.  On  the  yerinination  of  the  seeds,  inositol  again  makes  its 
appearance,  both  when  grown  in  the  dark  and  in  the  light. 

4.  During  the  metabolism  of  the  growing  ptmit,  inositol  disap- 
pears gradually  with  the  rest  of  the  reserve-substances. 

Thus  it  comes  in  at  the  beginning  and  later  passes  out  again, 
without  a  clue  to  its  precursors  or  katabolites. 

AVhen  fed  to  animals,  or  injected  into  the  blood-stream,  inositol 
is  about  three-fourths  decomposed,  and  the  remainder  may  be 
recovered  from  the  urine  unchanged.  Mayer  injected  large  doses 
into  rabbits,  and  obtained,  from  the  urine,  racemic  lactic  acid. 
It  is  likewise  decomposed  by  fungi  into  butyric  and  lactic  acids. 

This  inactive  inositol,  which  occurs  so  widely  in  fresh  green 
plants,  has  been  shown  by  many  workers  to  be  present  in  much 
larger  quantities  in  young  growing  plants  (and  animals)  than  in 
the  adult  forms.  It  almost  entirely  disappears  from  plants  when 
they  are  slowly  dried. 

The  esters  of  active  inositol,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not  vanish 
on  drying  the  plants.  When  we  consider  the  great  rarity  of 
their  occurrence,  and  the  fact  that  the  active  forms  have  never 
been  identified  in  nature  as  free  inositol,  it  almost  leads  one  to 
assume  for  them  a  different  origin.  Such  an  origin  would  be 
more  in   common   with  that   of  certain  well   known   plant-con- 


*  Biochem.  Zeitschrift,  xxx.,  1911,  98. 


BY    JAMES    M.    PETRIE.  867 

stituents,  which  also  possess  side-chains  in  the  1.  2.  4.  positions 
on  the  benzene  ring,  corresponding  to  the  positions  of  the 
hydroxy!  groups  of  tlie  active  inositol  esters:  a  few  of  these  ma\^ 
be  mentioned,  such  as  vanillin,  eugenol,  safrol,  coniferyl  alcohol, 
protocatechuic  and  caffeic  acids. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness 
to  Professor  Sir  Thomas  Anderson  8tuart,  in  whose  laboratory 
this  work  has  been  done. 

►Summary. 

The  endemic  Australian  plant,  Hetprodendron  oleccfoliuin  Desf., 
Family  Sapindacea?,  contains  the  methyl  ester  of  Ifevo- rotatory 
inositol. 

The  amount  isolated  was  equivalent  to  0'65%  of  the  dried  (at 
100X\)  leaves. 

This  substance  is  not  optically  isomeric  with  the  pinite  of 
Maquenne,  which  is  the  methyl  dextro-inositol,  possessing  a 
different  melting-point  and  optical  rotation. 

It  is  apparently  identical  with  Tanret's  quebrachite,  and  has 
been  previously  recorded  from  three  plants  only — Aspidosperma 
quebracho  (iVpocynacere),  Ilfivpa  brasiliensis  (Euphoi-biacea?),  and 
GreviUea  rohusta  (Proteacene). 

The  occurrence  of  this  compound  is,  therefore,  exceedingly  rare, 
and  is  in  great  contrast  to  the  occurrence  of  inacfii^p  inositol, 
which  exists  as  a  plastic  substance  in  most  plants. 

HeterodendroH  also  contains  a  cyanogenetic  glucoside. 


868 


AN^  ACCOUNT  OF  80ME  OBSERVATIONS  UPON  THE 
LIFE-HISTORY  OF  FHOMA  CITRICARPA  McAlp., 

The  Cause  of  the  ''Black  Spot"  Disease  in  Citrus  Fruit  in 
New  South  Wales. 

By  G.  p.  Darnell-Smith,  D.Sc,  F.I.C. 

(Plates  Ixxxiv.-xc.) 

Historical. 

A.  H.  Benson (1)  briefly  described  the  symptoms  of  a  disease, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Black  Spot  disease  of  the 
Orange,  in  1895.  He  stated  that  it  was  probable  that  it  was 
identical  with  a  disease  of  the  orange  in  Europe,  that  had  been 
alluded  to  by  Sorauer,  under  the  name  of  "Schwartz"  or  black 
disease  of  the  orange.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  from  his 
figure,  that  it  was  the  disease  caused  by  Phoma  citricarpa 
McAlp.,  with  which  Benson  was  dealing.  Benson  records  the 
disease  as  occurring  at  Seven  Hills,  Castle  Hill,  Dural,  the 
Kurrajong,  and  Emu  Plains. 

N.  A.  Cobb (2)  described  the  Black  Spot  Disease  of  the  orange 
in  1897.  He  gave  some  excellent  figures  of  affected  fruit.  He 
also  figured  the  spores.  According  to  Cobb,  "these  spores  arise 
after  the  manner  of  those  of  the  genus  Glceosporium.  It  is  pos- 
sible, therefore,  that  the  Australian  form  is  the  C olletotriclmm 
adustum  of  Ellis."  He  further  stated  that  the  spores  were  borne 
in  large  numbers  in  tandem-fashion  from  the  mycelium  at  the 
base  of  the  interior  of  the  pycnidium  in  a  manner  entirely  similar 
to  those  of  the  Bitter  Rot  of  the  apple,  and  gave  the  size  of 
spores  as  7-8  x  10-15/x. 

The  fungus  causing  the  Black  Spot  Disease  of  Citrus  fruit  was 
described  as  a  new  species  under  the  name  of  Phoma  citricarpa 
by  D.  McAlpine,  in    "  The  Fungus   Diseases  of   Citrus  Trees  in 


BY    G.    P.    DAHNELL-SMITH.  869 

Australia,"(3)  November,  1899,  and  recorded  in  Vol.  xvi.,  854, 
of  Saecardo's  Sylloge  Fungorum(4).  IMc Alpine  appears  to  have 
written  a  letter  to  Saceardo,  in  which  he  stated  tliat  the  Phoma 
looked  somewhat  like  a  Phyllosticta. 

In  the  Melbourne  Herbarium  there  area  number  of  specimens 
marked  Phyllosticta  citricarjxi — see  Phoma.  As  no  Phyllosticta 
citricarpa  appears  to  have  been  described,  it  is  probable  that  it 
is  to  the  letter  written  by  Mc Alpine  that  Saceardo  i-efers  in  his 
footnote.* 

McAlpine  .states  that  the  Anthracnose  di.sease  in  Florida,  due 
to  C olletotrichum  adiistum  Ellis,  and  the  black  disease  of  oranses 
in  Italy  known  as  *'La  Xebbia,'  due  to  the  fungus  Pleospora 
hesperidearum  Oatt,  are  quite  distinct  from  the  Black  Spot  dis- 
ease of  Oranges  found  in  New  South  Wales,  due  to  Phoma 
citricarpa  McAlpine. 

He  states  that  the  disease  has  not  been  met  with  in  Victorian 
orchards. 

Mc  Alpine's  description  of  the  fungus  is  as  follows  :  Phoma 
citricarpa,  n.sp.  — "  Spots  dark  brown,  at  first  whitish  or  greyish 
towards  centre,  but  may  ultimately  become  of  one  uniform 
colour,  round,  sunken,  solitary  or  confluent,  varying  in  size  from 
1  mm.  to  5  mm.,  and,  when  confluent,  forming  large  irregular 
patches  (fin.  or  more)." 

"  Hyphae  permeating  rind,  hyaline,  septate,  branched,  4-5A//. 
broad." 

"  Perithecia,  solitary  or  in  groups,  somewhat  circularly 
arranged,  minute,  black,  but  dark  brown  by  transmitted  light, 
punctiform,  globular,  erumpent ;  pore  about  20/x  diameter, 
although  it  may  be  somewhat  elliptical,  100-120//.  diameter. 
Sporules  hyaline,  somewhat  variable  in  shape,  elliptical  to  ovate 
or  even  pear-shaped,  with  conspicuous  granular  contents,  8-11  x 
4J-6/X,  average  9J  x  5|/x.  (Stained  a  light  green  by  potassium- 
iodide-iodinej;  basidia  hyaline,  slender,  about  6/>.  long." 

"  On  ripe  or  still  green  Oranges,  Lemons,  and  Mandarins, 
winter,  spring,  and  summer.  New  South  Wales." 

*  For  this  information,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  O.  C.  Brittlebank,  Plant 
Pathologist  to  the  Department  of  Aj^rieulture.  V'ietoria. 


870  LIFE-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA, 

"The  round,  sunken,  conspicuous  spots  are  generally  of  a 
ruddy-brown  tint,  and  paler  in  the  centre  where  the  pustules  are 
seated." 

"  This  is  a  distinctive  species  in  the  small  size  of  the  perithecia, 
as  well  as  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  sporules." 

N.  A.  Col)b(5),  in  1904,  described  some  attempts  to  germinate 
the  spores  of  Phoma  citricarpa.  He  states  that -"  The  spores 
of  this  disease  do  not  germinate  under  the  laboratory  conditions 
ordinarily  brought  to  bear  in  their  examination,  and,  in  this 
respect,  they  differ  from  most  spores  found  in  connection  with 
prevalent  fungus  diseases.  The  following  observations,  though 
they  are  inconclusive,  are  inserted  here  out  of  regard  to  the 
rarity  with  which  I  have  observed  these  spores  to  germinate.  .  .  . 
Spores  of  this  fungus  were  ringed  in  a  small  supply  of  water  and 
numerous  air-bubbles.  After  twenty-four  hours,  the  spores  had 
failed  to  germinate  in  those  parts  where  they  were  completely 
surrounded  with  water.  Spores  located  at  the  edges  of  air- 
bubbles  where,  on  one  side,  they  had  access  to  air,  each  sent  out 
into  the  air  a  single  very  fine  unbranched  mycelial  thread  about 
one  micromillimetre  wide,  though  slightly  wider  at  the  free  end. 
The  mycelium  was  colourless,  and  so  fine  as,  under  the  circum- 
stances, to  preclude  observation  as  to  septa;  none  were  seen.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  length  of  these  hyphje  averaged 
several  times  the  length  of  the  spores." 

General  Symptoms  of  the  Disease. 
The  disease,  which  is  now  commonly  known  in  New  South 
Wales  as  Black  Spot  or  Anthracnose  of  Citrus  Fruit,  appears  as 
minute  black  spots  upon  the  foliage  throughout  the  year.  Upon 
the  fruit,  it  is  seldom  seen  till  the  beginning  of  August.  In 
September,  particularly  after  hot  westerly  winds,  it  may  quite 
suddenly  make  its  appearance  upon  the  fruit  throughout  an 
orchard.  Dark  brown,  irregular  spots  first  make  their  appear- 
ance upon  the  skin.  The  spots  vary  in  size  from  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  or  less  to  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  Later,  these 
become  depressed,  and  some  may  become  confluent.  The  inner 
part  of  the  spot  next  becomes  of  a  light  cream-colour,  and  some- 


BY    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  871 

what  parchment-like  in  texture.  Shortly  after,  minute  black 
pycnidia  are  formed  beneath  the  surface;  and,  breaking  through, 
form  small  irregular  fissures  or  minute  holes,  at  which  points  the 
spores  are  discharged  through  the  necks  of  the  pycnidia. 

The  disease  almost  invariably  makes  its  appearance  on  the 
sunny  side  of  the  tree,  and  upon  that  side  only  of  the  fruit  which 
is  exposed  to  the  sun.  So  constantly  is  this  the  case,  that,  in 
an  affected  orange,  it  is  almost  always  possible  to  draw  an  equa- 
torial line  dividing  the  sunny  from  the  shaded  side  of  the  fruit, 
and,  on  the  former  side  only,  will  black  spots  be  found.  Even 
on  the  sunny  side  of  the  tree,  if  the  fruit  is  well  shaded  by 
foliage,  it  is  seldom  affected  by  the  disease,  even  when  exposed 
fruits  around  it  are  badly  marked. 

That  the  rind  has  some  principle  that  may  inhibit  the  growth 
of  spores,  is  suggested  by  the  incidence  of  the  disease  in  the 
various  varieties  of  citrus  fruit.  It  is  common  on  the  orange 
(navel,  valentia,  siletta),  it  is  found  less  frequently  on  the 
Emperor  mandarins,  and  quite  exceptionally  upon  the  thorny 
mandarin. 

The  infection  of  the  fruit  only  upon  one  side  of  the  tree  sug- 
gests that  it  may  be  related  to  the  prevailing  wind,  or  to  the 
effect  of  too  much  sunlight  or  heat  upon  the  rind. 

The  development  of  the  disease  only  upon  the  sunny  side  of 
the  tree  indicates  that  it  is  the  sun,  rather  than  the  wind,  that 
exerts  an  influence. 

To  test  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  amount  of  sunlight  fall- 
ing upon  the  trees,  and  to  protect  them  from  scorching  winds, 
two  trees  in  an  orchard  were  completely  covered-in  with  hessian 
in  the  form  of  a  tent.  They  were  covered  in  at  the  beginning 
of  June,  that  is,  at  the  commencement  of  the  ripening  period. 

The  fruit  on  these  trees  did  not  show  black  spot  on  the  fruit 
for  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  uncovered  ones,  and  then  the 
spots  developed  very  slowly,  remaining  a  dull  brown  colour;  and 
they  did  not  pit  the  fruit  to  such  an  extent  as  fruit  exposed  to 
the  weather.  The  spots  upon  uncovered  fruit  soon  become  black. 
The  following  season,  two  trees  were  protected  from  the  sun  by 
putting  up  a  screen  of  hessian  upon  the  sunny  side  only.     Here 


872  LIFK-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA, 

again,  the  disease  was  slower  in  developing  upon  the  fruit,  and 
the  spots  remained  of  a  dull  brown  colour.  Since  dew  would  be 
just  as  heavy  upon  one  side  of  the  tree  as  another,  its  action, 
except  in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  may  be  left  out  of  account. 
As  regards  the  wind,  the  prevailing  winds  would  tend  to  blow 
spores  upon  the  east  side  of  a  tree  in  the  Gosford  district,  where 
these  observations  were  carried  out:  there  is  very  seldom  a  north- 
west wind. 

The  spores  from  infected  leaves,  falling  upon  the  fruit,  become 
uniformly  distributed  in  the  dew-drops.  This  uniformity  of  dis- 
tribution is  shown  in  the  equidistant  positions  that  the  ripe 
spores  take  up,  when  introduced  into  hanging  drops. 

From  the  foregoing  considerations,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
spores  distributed  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit  effect  an  entrance, 
with  their  germ-tubes,  into  the  rind,  when  its  natural  inhibiting 
power,  due  to  physical  or  chemical  causes,  has  become  impaired 
bv  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Culture  op  the  Fungus. 

By  successive  transportation  of  groups  of  spores  to  sterile 
drops  of  water,  isolated  spores  were  obtained.  These  were  trans- 
ferred to  various  culture-media,  and  pure  cultures  in  Petri-dishes 
or  test-tubes,  were  at  length  obtained.  These  were  grown  in  an 
incubator  at  a  temperature  of  22''C.  The  media  in  which  the 
fungus  was  most  successfully  cultivated  were  ordinary  nutrient 
agar,  glucose-agar,  and  agar  impregnated  with  watery  extract  of 
orange-peel.  The  growth  of  the  fungus  upon  each  of  these  three 
media  is  very  different. 

Upon  ordinary  nutrient  agar,  growth  proceeds  very  slowly. 
Little  patches  of  dark  brown  hyphie  arise,  creep  over  the  medium, 
and  penetrate  it.  But  they  seldom  travel  far  from  the  site  of 
inoculation,  and,  if  several  spores  have  been  intr(^uced  into  a 
Petri-dish,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  several  isolated  plants  before 
the  hyphse  have  become  interlaced. 

Upon  glucose-agar,  the  other  extreme  is  reached.     The  plant 

•  (M'ows  so    luxuriantly,    that,    in    a    test-tube,   the    agar    quickly 

becomes  a  carbonaceous-looking  mass,   tilled  with  quantities  of 


BY    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  873 

dark  brown  liyphfe;  on  tlie  sin-face,  aerial  liyplifp  are  sent  up, 
covering  the  wliole  witli  a  light  grev  nivceliuni  (Plate  Ixxxiv., 
fig.l). 

Upon  agar  impregnated  with  water-extract  of  orange-peel,  an 
intermediate  type  of  growth  was  obtained  (Plate  Ixxxiv.,  fig. 2). 
The  fungus  grew  well  but  not  luxuriantly,  and  there  was  little 
production  of  aerial  hyplije. 

In  these  cultures,  pycnidial  formation  began  after  about  seven 
days,  and  ripe  spores  were  obtained  after  thirteen  days:  but,  in 
the  glucose-agar,  where  growth  was  luxuriant,  spore-produotion 
was  much  delayed. 

Production  of  Pycnidia  and  Spokes. 

When  grown  upon  a  medium  that  is  thoroughly  moist,  the  spores 
that  are  formed  in  the  pycnidia  are  expelled,  and  appear  upon 
the  ostiole  in  a  mass.  This  mass  is  whitish  in  colour,  viscid  and 
semi-translucent.  Usually  it  is  globular,  but  it  may  take  the 
form  of  a  truncated  cone.  When  placed  in  water,  the  spores  do 
not  readily  separate  from  the  mass,  'i'hese  spore-masses  may  be 
found  in  nature  if  the  fruit  is  continually  surrounded  by  a  damp 
atmosphere.  Much  more  generally,  however,  the  spores  are 
produced  in  pycnidia  surrounded  by  a  dry  atmosphere.  They 
do  not  then  emerge  till  a  drop  of  moisture  falls  upon  the  pycni- 
dium,  whereupon  tliey  escape  in  a  thin  stream.  Observed  in  a 
hanging  drop,  they  are  seen  to  separate  and  spread  themselves 
at  spaces  almost  equidistant  from  one  another  over  the  surface 
of  the  drop,  as  if  they  were  mutually  repellant;  and  no  two 
spores  are  found  to  remain  in  juxtaposition.  This  separation  is 
probably  brought  about  by  surface-tension.  Normally,  the  pyc- 
nidia are  produced  upon  the  peel  of  oranges,  and  tlie  ostioles 
open  at  the  surface.  A  .surface-view  of  a  pycnidium,  with  an 
ostiole  in  the  centre,  is  shown  in  PI.  Ixxxv.,  fig.3. 

If,  however,  affected  oranges  be  kept  under  a  bell-jar,  and 
remain  free  from  attack  by  other  fungi,  they  shrink  somewhat, 
and  the  peel  becomes  harder.  The  mycelium  of  the  fungus 
penetrates  the  whole  of  the  pulp,  which  becomes  black  in  colour, 
and  pycnidia   are  formed   in   abundance  throughout  the  tissue. 


874  LIFE  HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA, 

The  hypliae  even  penetrate  the  outer  coat  of  the  testa  of  the 
seed,  and  pycnidia  are  there  produced  (PL  Ixxxv.,  fig. 4).  A 
somewhat  similar  phenomenon  is  observed  when  the  fungus  is 
grown  upon  an  orange  rind-extract  agar-slope  in  a  test-tube.  At 
first,  the  mycelium  grows  near  the  surface,  and  pycnidia  are 
produced  tliere;  but,  later,  the  hyph?e  produce  submerged  pyc- 
nidia, which  may  eject  their  spores  as  spore-masses  into  the 
surrounding  medium;  in  these  cases,  the  ostiole  appears  to  have 
no  particular  orientation. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  oranges  affected  with  Phoma  citricarpa 
and  free  from  any  other  disease,  if  kept  under  a  bell-jar,  give  off, 
in  the  course  of  several  days,  very  little  moisture;  but  if  they 
are  attacked  by  Penicillium  italicum  (to  which  attack  they  are 
peculiarly  liable  in  the  presence  of  Phoma  cit7'icarpa),  a  large 
quantity  of  moisture  condenses  upon  the  surface  of  the  bell-jar 
in  a  few  hours. 

Structurk  of  the  Mycelium. 
The  mycelium  exhibits  much  diversity.  The  extreme  tips  may 
be  pointed  or  round,  the  hyphse  being  thin,  hyaline,  and  almost 
devoid  of  septa.  Further  back,  the  liyphse  become  somewhat 
suddenly  thicker,  the  septa  become  more  numerous,  and  the 
colour  is  olive-green.  In  the  older  hyphse,  the  septa  are  very 
numerous,  the  colour  is  dark  greenish-brown,  and  the  contents  of 
the  cells  granular;  the  cells  may  be  oblong,  or  round,  and  often 
carry  numerous,  short,  round,  protuberances  (PI.  Ixxxv  ,  fig. 5; 
PI.  Ixxxvi.,  fig.6). 

Structure  of  the  Spores. 
Two  kinds  of  spore  are  produced.  Both  kinds  may  be  pro. 
duced  in  a  pycnidium  or  one  kind  only.  They  differ  considerably 
in  size.  The  large  spores  are  those  described  by  McAlpine^ 
whose  measurements,  in  regard  to  the  size  of  these  spores  and 
the  pycnidia,  T  can  confirm.  These  spores  are  usually  hyaline, 
with  granular  contents;  they  have,  however,  frequently  a  greenish 
hue.  The  cell-wall  is  very  thin.  They  may  have  one  or  two 
nuclei,  generally  there  are  two,  and  these  are  placed  opposite  to 
one  another  adjacent  to  the    cell-wall   in    the    region    midway 


BY    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  875 

between  the  ends  of  the  cell;  frequently  they  are  joined  together 
by  a  narrow  band  which  stains  deeply  with  hsematoxylin.  When 
the  spore  is  about  to  germinate,  the  protoplasm  becomes  much 
vacuolated  and  the  nuclei  appear  to  fragment  (PL  Ixxxvi.,  fig.7). 

The  second  kind  of  spore,  which  has  not  been  previously  de- 
scribed, is  much  smaller,  measuring  only  7-5  x  1 -G/x. 

The  extremities  are  usually  slightly  thicker  than  the  middle, 
the  spores  being  somewhat  dumb-bell  shaped. 

The  spores  have  the  following  dimensions  : 

L.=  length,    c.  =  centre-width.      E.  broadest-end. 

Range:  (L.)  6-0  -  9-3  x  c.  (1-0- 2-0)  xE.  1-3  x  20/x. 

Average  :  (L.)  7'5  x  c.  1-3  x  E.  1-6/ji. 

A  highly  refringent  granule  is  usually  present  at  each  end. 
Sometimes  there  are  three  or  four  granules  present,  or  there  may 
be  none  at  all.  The  spores  themselves  occasionally  have  the  form 
of  simple  rods,  or  they  are  moniliform  or  hourglass-shaped.  If 
present,  they  are  discharged  from  the  pycnidia  with  the  larger 
spores  in  the  viscid  masses  previously  referred  to,  or  they  may 
be  discharged  in  a  stream  from  a  ripe  pycnidium  when  moistened 
(PI.  xc,  fig. 25).  They  do  not  separate  from  one  another  in  the 
manner  of  the  larger  spores;  indeed,  they  sometimes  lie  side  by 
side  like  rouleaux  of  red  blood-corpuscles  (PI.  Ixxxvi.,  figs. 8,  9). 

As  I  have  not  been  able  to  induce  these  spores  to  germinate, 
or  to  determine  their  functions,  I  shall  speak  of  them  as  "x" 
spores. 

The  presence  of  "x  '  spores  in  the  pycnidia  of  various  Sphce- 
ropsidce  is  known  in  a  few  genera. 

F.  A.  Wolf  (6),  in  describing  Ascochyla  hoi'torum,  which  was 
formerly  known  as  Phoma  solani,  states  that,  in  the  pycnidia,  he 
finds  typical  conidia,  6-10  x  2"5-4//,,  together  with  "a  second  type 
of  spore  which  is  hyaline,  continuous,  frequently  curved  or 
hooked  at  one  end,  14-17  x  2-2  S/y..  These  spores  may  occur  in 
the  pycnidium  together  with  the  pycnospores,  or  alone  in  other 

pycnidia." He  continues,  "Morphologically,  at  least,  they 

are  identical  with  the  stylospores  of  Nitschke  in  Diaporthe,  the 
"  B  "  spores  of  Diedicke  in  Phoniopsis,  the  scolecospores  of  Spear 
and  the  paraphyses  of  Reddick  in  Fusicocann,  the  pycnidial  form 


^76 


LIFE-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICAHPA. 


of   Cytosporella  vitiada.      Only   failure    lias   thus    far   met    the 
various  attempts  to  germinate  these  bodies." 

Gehmination  of  the  Spores. 

The  normal  pycnospores  do  not  germinate  readily  in  water. 
After  several  days,  a  few  may  send  out  an  attenuated  hypha, 
which  seldom  develops  branches,  and  soon  ceases  to  grow. 

In  a  nutrient  solution  (containing  amm<niium  nitrate,  10  gram; 
dihydrogen  potassium  phosphate,  Go  gram;  magnesium  sulphate, 
0*25  gram;  iron  chloride,  trace;  cane  sugar,  5'0  grams;  water, 
100  c  c.)  the  spores  assumed  a  dark  olive  green  colour,  and  only 
a  few  commenced  to  germinate  after  several  days.  The  hyphse 
produced  were  a  very  dark  green  colour;  they  appeared  stunted 
and  unable  to  elongate  (PI.  Ixxxvi.,  fig.lO).  When  a  solution  of 
equal  parts  of  peptone-water  and  this  solution  was  tried,  ger- 
mination was  somewhat  better,  but  unsatisfactory.  In  an 
aqueous  extract  of  orange-peel,  however,  the  spores  germinated 
freely.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  spores  germinated  in  this 
medium  appeared  to  depend  largely  on  the  age  of  the  spore  If 
placed  in  the  solution  immediately  they  were  discharged  from 
the  pycnidium,  the  spores  had  produced  a  germ-tube  in  twelve 
hours.  If,  however,  the  spores  were  three  days  old,  they  took 
several  days  to  germinate;  and,  if  much  older,  many  of  them 
failed  to  germinate  at  all.  The  germinating  spore  usually  sends 
out  a  germ-tube  from  the  side,  but  it  may  produce  a  germ-tube 
from  one  end,  or  from  both  ends  simultaneously.  The  granules 
in  the  spore  assume  a  greenish  hue,  and  pass,  for  the  most  part, 
into  the  germ-tube.  A  septum  may  be  produced  in  the  germ- 
tube  early,  or  the  production  of  septa  may  be  deferred  (PI.  Ixxxvi., 
tig.  11).  The  hyphai  soon  branch,  their  ends  being  at  first  lound, 
and,  innnediately  behind  the  tips,  the  cell-contents  are  usually 
highly  granular  (PI.  Ixxxvi.,  fig.  12). 

By  taking  special  pre(;autions  to  prevent  the  hanging  drop 
from  drying  up,  and  to  have  every  part  of  the  apparatus  and 
instruments  used  sterile,  T  have  been  able  to  follow  the  develop- 
ment of  a  spoi-e  in  a  hanging  drop  from  the  production  of  a  germ- 
tube  to  the  formation  of  a  pycnidium  by  the  mycelium,  and  the 


IBT    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  877 

discharge  of  spores  from  tins  pycnidiuni.  Such  a  pycniflium  is 
shown  in  PI.  Ixxxvii.,  Hg.l3.  A  noticeable  feature  of  theliyphtv 
is  the  ease  with  which  they  anastomose.  Anastomosis  may  occur 
in  two  ways.  A  branch  from  one  hypha  may  grow  out  and  fuse 
with  another  lying  parallel  or  nearly  parallel  to  the  one  from 
which  the  branch  originated,  or  branches  may  arise  from  two 
adjacent  hyphjf,  approach  each  other,  meet,  and  fuse.  Examples 
of  this  are  seen  in  PI.  Ixxxvii.,  fig.  13.  The  pycnidium  hero 
figured  took  a  little  over  three  weeks  to  form,  and  ultimately 
discharged  "x"  spores  only.  In  other  hanging  drop  cultures, 
where  noimal  pycnospores  have  been  discharged,  they  have  never 
been  observed  to  germinate,  without  transference  to  a  fresh 
medium,  the  mycelium  having  apparently  exhausted  the  medium 
upon  which  it  was  growing  before  the  production  of  pycnidia. 

Development  of  the  Pycnidia. 

By  means  of  cultures  in  hanging  drops,  and  serial  sections  of 
cultures  upon  agar,  it  has  been  possible  to  follow  tlie  develop- 
ment of  the  pycnidia  in  detail. 

The  beginning  of  pycnidia-formation  consists  in  one  or  more 
adjacent  h37phaj  producing  lobulated  branches  of  much  greater 
diameter  than  the  ordinary  hyphie  (PI.  Ixxxvii.,  figs.  14,  15). 
These  lobulated  branches  stain  rather  more  deeply  with  hsema- 
loxylin  than  the  ordinary  hyphjfi.  'J'he  lobulated  branches  become 
greater  in  number  and  interwoven,  and  many  septa  develop  (PI. 
Ixxxviii.,  figs.  16,  17).  This  leads  to  the  formation  of  a  firm,  com- 
pacted pseudoparenchyma;  the  protoplasm  which  lines  the  cell- 
walls  contains  numerous  deeply-staining  particles,  and  becomes 
especially  distinct  (PI.  Ixxxviii.,  fig.  18). 

Soon,  the  parenchymatous  body  ig  distinguishable  int(j  outer 
layers  of  small,  thick-walled,  brownish  cells:  and  an  inner  region 
of  larger,  thin-walled,  parenchymatous  cells.  In  the  inner  region, 
we,  later,  find  groups  of  hypha3  with  thin  lumina,  and,  in  their 
place,  arise,  at  a  later  date,  the  loculi  of  the  pycnidia. 

In  the  transition-stage  from  parenchyma  to  hyphte,  the  walls 
of  the  parenchyma  cells  frequently  appear  to  be  dissolved,  and  a 
mass  of  naked  protoplasm,  with  deeply  staining  granules,  is  seen 
(PL  Ixxxix.,  fig.l9). 


878  LIFE-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA, 

The  following  stages  may  be  distinguished  in  the  production 
of  a  pycnidium  :— 

1.  Production  of  lobulated  hypliae,  which  become  interwoven. 

2.  Formation  of  a  pseudo-parenchyma. 

3.  Dissolution  of  cell-walls  of  the  pseudo-parenchyma  at  certain 
foci,  followed  by  formation  of  hyphse. 

4.  Establishment  of  loculi  at  these  foci,  into  which  spores  are 
abstricted  from  the  hyph^e. 

5.  Gradual  replacement  of  the  pseudo-parenchyma  by  spore- 
bearing  hyphie. 

6.  Shrinkage  of  the  spore-bearing  hyphae. 

7.  Pycnidium  completely  full  of  spores  borne  upon  attenuated 
stalks. 

The  transition  from  pseudo-parenchyma  to  spore-bearing  hyphie 
is  shown  in  PL  Ixxxix.,  figs. 20,  21.  A  portion  of  the  pseudo- 
parenchyma  frequently  lines  the  pycnidium  until  a  late  stage. 

In  the  natural  state,  when  growing  upon  the  orange,  the 
pycnidiaaregenerally  unilocular  (PL  xc,  fig. 22).  But,  in  cultures 
upon  orange-agar,  they  are  frequently  bi-  or  trilocular,  in  which 
case,  the  loculi  are  surrounded  by  a  common  wall  (PL  xc,  fig.23). 

In  bilocular  pycnidia,  portions  of  the  inner  parenchymatous 
tissue  have  become  firm,  and  the  groups  of  thin-walled  hyphse 
have  become  separated. 

Pycnidial  formation  has  been  briefly  described  in  the  case  of 
Diplodia  zece  by  Van  der  Bijl(7),  and  in  the  case  of  Phoma 
lavamluhe  by  W.  B.  Brierley(8). 

The  origin  of  the  pycnidium  by  the  interlacing  of  lobulated 
hyphse  with  the  formation  of  a  pseudo-parenchyma  is  very  similar 
in  Phoma  cilricarpa  and  I'h.  lavaaduUn.  The  later  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  pycnidium  of  Ph.  citricarpa  resemble  the 
description  given  of  that  of  Diplodia  zece.  The  marked  visiijility 
of  the  protoplasm  lining  the  cells  of  the  pseudo-parenchyma,  and 
the  disappearance  of  the  cell- walls  previous  to  the  formation  of 
hyphae,  described  in  the  case  of  Fh.  citricarpa,  is  not  mentioned 
by  the  authors  quoted. 

The  formation  of  hyphse  from  naked  protoplasm  is  not  un- 
known, as  it  occurs   in  the   Myxomycetes,  when  the  capillitium, 


BY    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  879 

consisting  of  a  system  of  solid  or  of  tubular  threads,  appears 
before  the  spores  are  formed.  The  capillitium  has  l)een  described 
by  Harper  &,  Dodge(9),  as  originating  in  vacuolar  spaces  in  the 
cytoplasm,  which  elongate  and  take  on  the  tubular  form  of  young 
capillitial  threads.  They  find  that  the  capillitium  is  formed  by 
the  deposit  of  materials  in  the  vacuoles  from  which  the  capillitial 
threads  are  formed;  and  that  radiating  threads  run  out  from 
the  larger  granules,  which  are  deposited  by  the  process  of  intra- 
protoplasmic  secretion.  These  radiating  fibrils  suggest,  rather 
strongly,  that  they  are  cytoplasmic  streams  which  are  bringing 
materials  for  the  formation  of  the  capillitial  wall  and  its  thick- 
enings, which  are  laid  down  as  spirals,  suggesting  that  the  pro- 
cess is  comparable  with  the  ordinary  process  of  cell-wall  forma- 
tion, but  along  internal  plasma-membranes,  rather  than  external. 

Development  of  the  Spores. 

The  stalks  bearing  the  normal  spores  are  unicellular,  hyaline, 
and  rich  in  protoplasmic  contents,  sometimes  excessively  so. 

Paraphyses  have  not  been  distinguished,  though  stalks  vary 
much  in  length;  and  sometimes  old  stalks,  or  stalks  upon  which 
the  spores  have  not  developed,  have  the  appearance  of  paraphyses. 
The  spore  develops  as  follows  :  — 

The  stalk  elongates,  and  the  spore  is  abstricted  from  its  end; 
at  this  stage,  the  spore  is  pear-shaped.  'I'he  stalk  is  slightly  cup- 
shaped  at  its  extremity  occasionally,  and  uni-nucleolate  (PL  xc, 
fig.24).  The  spore  increases  in  size,  and  becomes  binucleolate; 
at  the  same  time,  the  stalk  shrinks  to  a  mere  thread.  On  their 
discharge,  the  spores  may  show  no  traces  of  their  point  of  attach- 
ment; or  each  spore  may  have,  still  joined  to  it,  a  minute  thread. 
The  "x"  spores  develop  by  abstriction  in  concatenation  from 
minute  hyphaj  bordering  the  loculus  of  the  pycnidium  (PL  xc, 
fig.24). 

I  am  indebted  to  my  assistant,  Mr.  VV.  A.  Birmingham,  for 
much  careful  work  during  the  progress  of  this  investigation. 

Summary. 
1.  "  Black  Spot"  is  a  serious  disease  of  Citrus  fruits  in  New 
South  Wales,  due  to  the  fungus  Phoma  citricarpa. 


880  LIFE-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA, 

2.  It  develops  only  on  the  sunny  side  of  trees,  and  upon  the 
parts  of  the  fruit  exposed  to  suidight. 

3.  Pkoma    citricarpa   produces   two   kinds    of    spores,    normal 
pycnospores,  and  "x"  spores. 

4.  Normal  pycnospores  germinate  readily    in  suitable  media: 
it  has  not  been  possible  to  induce  the  ''x"  spores  to  germinate. 

5.  The  details  of    the   formation   of   the  pycnidia,  anfl   of  the 
pycnospores  have  been  worked  out. 

6.  Spraying  with   Bordeaux  (6  -  4  -  50;  followed   up  by  spray- 
ings with  weaker  solutions,  controls  the  disease. 

7.  A  study  of  the  life-history  of  the  fungus  indicates  that  spray- 
ing need  not  commence  till  the  fruit  is  half  grown. 


LITERATURE  CITED. 

1.  Benson,    A.    H. — "Black   Spot  of   the   Orange."     Agric.    (iaz.  X.    S. 

Wales,  Vol.  \i.,  Pt.4,  p.249  (1895). 

2.  UoBB,  N.  A.— "Black  Spot  of  the  Orange."     Op.  ell..  Vol.  viii.,  Pt.4. 

p.  229  (1897). 

3.  Mc Alpine,  D.— The  Fungus  Diseases  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Austialia  (1899). 

4.  Saccardo — Sylloge  Fungoruni,  Vol.  xvi.,  854. 

5.  Cobb,    X.   A. — Letters   on    Diseases    of    Plants.     Second   Series,    p.  72 

(1904). 

6.  Wolf.    F.    A.— ''Egg-Plant   Rots"      Mycol.   Central!)..    Vol.4,   p.  27S 

(1914). 

7.  Van  der  Bljl.  Pail  A.  —  "A  study  of  the  "Dry  Rot"  disease  of  Maize. 

caused  by  Diplodia  zt<f."      Science  Bulletin,   Xo.7.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture, Union  of  S.  Africa, 

8.  Briekley,  \V.  B.— Kew  Bulletin,  1910,  Xo.5. 

9.  Annals  of  Botany,  xxviii.,  1-18,  Jan.  1914. 

KXIVLAXATIOX  OF  PLATES  LXXXIV.-XC. 
Plate  Ixxxiv. 
Fhoma  cifric((rpa. 
Fig.  1. — Pure  cultuie  in  gluco.se-agar.      The  cidture  grows  ver^^  rapidly, 
produces  numerous  aerial  hj'plije,  forming  a  grey-coloured  felt,  but 
does  not  readilj'  produce  pj'cnidia. 
Fig.2. — Pure  culture  growing  upon  orange-rind-extract  agar.    The  culture 
grows  at  a  moderate  rate,   remains  dark  in  colour,  produces  few 
aerial  hj'plue,  and  forms  pycnidia  readily. 


BY    G.    P.    DARNKLL-SMITH.  881 

Plate  lxxx\  . 
Fi.i^.3. — Smfaee-view  of  a   pyrnidiuni.  sliowint^  the   ostiole  in  the  centred 

(  >  480). 
Fig.  4. — Section  of  the  testa  of  an  orange -seed  which  has  been  penetrated 

bytlie  liypha^  of  P/ionta  cift-intr/ia,  and  in  which  two  small  pycnidia 

have  been  produced. 
Fig..>. — Young  hj'phte,  showing  elongated  cell;  (  x  4S0). 

Plate  Ixxxvi. 
Fig.6. — Old  hyphre,  showing  dark  brown-coloured  cells,  which  are  more  or 

less  circular,  Mith  numerous  protul)eranees;  (  x  480). 
Fig. 7. — Spores  in  various  stages  of  growth  :  a,  a  j'oung  spore  showing  two 

nuclei;  b,  c,  d,  spores  about  to  germinate,  .showing  vacuoles  and 

fragments  staining  deeplj'  with  hfcmatoxylin. 
Fig.8. — "x"  spores  arranged  in  rouleaux. 
Fig.9.  —  "x"  spores  showing  highly  refringent  dots. 
Fig.  10. — Pycnospores  germinating  in  nutrient  solution,   showing  stunted 

hyph^e  with  a  tendency  to  bud;  (  x  480). 
Fig,  11. — Pj'cnospores  germinating  normally  in  orange-rind-extract,  shoM - 

ing  germ-tubes,  septa,  and  granular  contents;  (  x  480). 
Fig.  12. — Establishment  of  a  mycelium  from  a  germinating  spore;  (  x  480). 

Plate  Ixxxvii. 

Fig.  13. — Formation  of  a  pycnidium  from  the  mycelium  growing  in  a  hang- 
ing drop.  The  hyph^  of  the  mycelium  are  shown  anastomosing  b^' 
the  union  of  adjacent  branches  or  by  the  direct  fusion  of  one  hypha 
with  another  by  a  branch;  (  x  480), 

Figs.  14,  15. — Formation  of  lobulated  branches,  first  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  pycnidium;  (  x  480). 

Plate  Ixxxviii. 

fie/.  IH. — Formation  of  lobulated  branches,  first  stages  in  the  development 
of  a  p3''cnidium;  (  x  480]. 

Fig.  17. — Section  through  a  young  pycnidium,  showing  the  development  of 
septa  in  the  lobulated  branches,  and  the  establishment  of  a  pseudo- 
parenchyma;  (  X  480), 

Fig.  18. — Section  through  an  older  pycnidium,  showing  the  protoplasm, 
with  granular  contents,  lining  the  cell-walls  of  the  pseudo-paren- 
chyma; (  x480). 

Plate  Ixxxix. 
Fig.  19. — Section  through  a  pj'cnidium  at  a  later  stage  showing  dissolution 
of  the  cell-walls  of  the  pseudo-parenchyma  before  the  establishment 
of  spore- bearing  hyphte;  \  x  480). 


882  LIFE-HISTORY    OF    PHOMA    CITRICARPA. 

Figs. 20,  21. — Portions  of  sections  through  a  mature  pycnidium,  showing 
the  outer  layers  of  dark  brown,  thick-walled  cells,  lined  bj'  the 
remains  of  the  pseudo-parenchyma  from  which  the  spore-bearing 
hyph£fi  arise;  (  x  480). 

Plate  xc. 

Fig.  22. — Section  through  a  pycnidium  upon  orange  rind.  The  pycnidium 
contains  mature  spores.  The  slightly  increased  development  of  the 
outer  layers  of  thick-walled,  brown  cells  just  beneath  the  ruptured 
epidermis,  is  noticeable;  (  x  480). 

Fig.23. — Section  through  a  trilocular  pycnidium  grown  upon  orange-rind- 
extract  agar.  There  is  a  common  outer  covering,  and  the  loculi 
are  separated  by  walls  composed  of  fine  hj'phai;  (  x  120). 

Fig.24. — Section  through  a  pycnidium  in  which  "x'  spores  are  being 
abstricted  from  fine  hyphfe;  (  x  120). 

Fig. 25. — (Iroup  of  normal  p3'cnospores  and  "x"  spores  discharged  from  a 
pycnidium;  (  x  480). 


883 


THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  AN    INVERTED    HYMENIUM 
IN  AGARICUS  CAMPESTBIS. 

By  G.  p.  Darxell-Smith,  D.Sc,  F.T.C. 

(Plates  xoi.-xciii.) 

In  1917,  some  inuslirooiii-growers,  who  were  growing  mush- 
rooms on  a  large  scale  in  an  old  disused  railway-tunnel,  brought 
to  me,  for  examination,  a  number  of  mushrooms  that  were  un- 
saleable on  account  of  their  appearance.  The  mushrooms  were 
grown  upon  large  beds  of  manure,  the  making  of  which  I  had 
superintended.  The  manure  was  fairly  moist,  it  was  lightly 
compacted,  and  the  average  temperature  was  22''C.  Both  the 
stipe  and  the  cap  of  the  specimens  were  somewhat  tough.  The 
cap  was  quite  unusual  in  appearance.  Instead  of  having  the 
normal,  comparatively  smooth  skin,  its  surface  was  broken  by 
one  or  mor^  black  protuberances,  1*25  cm.  or  more  in  diameter, 
that  looked  like  boils  (Plate  xci.,  fig.l).  It  was  this  appearance 
that  spoilt  the  sale  of  the  mushrooms.  Samples  of  mushroom- 
spawn  from  Sydney,  from  Adelaide,  and  from  France,  were  grow- 
ing in  the  same  tunnel,  and  providing  normal  mushrooms;  it  was 
only  a  particular  sample  of  spawn  imported  from  France  that 
was  giving  rise  to  these  abnormal  specimens.  A  close  inspection 
of  the  black  protuberances  showed  that  they  were  composed  of 
sinuous,  labyrinthiform  gill-lamellse  (PI.  Ixci.,  fig.2).  They  had 
the  appearance  of  small  inverted  caps,  but  no  appearance  of  a 
stipe  could  be  found.  Sections  through  the  cap  showed  that 
these  structures  were  quite  separate  from  the  normal  hymenium, 
which  was  present  on  the  undersurface  of  the  cap  (PI.  xcii.,  fig. 3). 

Sections  for  microscopical  examination  were  prepared  and 
stained.  They  showed  that  the  structure  of  the  hymenium  on 
the  undersurface  of  the  cap  was  quite  normal. 

Sections  through  the   hymenium   on   the  upper  surface  of  the 


884  AN    INVERTKD    HYMENIUM    IK    AGARICUS    CAMPESTRIS, 

cap,  however,  showed  it  to  be  quite  abnormal  in  character  (PL 
xcii.,  fig. 4).  They  showed  that  the  "gills"  had  a  most  irregular 
outline,  that  they  varied  much  in  width,  and  that  many  of  them 
were  hollow.  Spores  in  abundance  were  produced,  both  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  gills,  and  on  the  walls  lining  the  internal 
cavities.  These  spores  were  produced  upon  enlarged  cells,  and 
borne  upon  sterigmata,  as  in  the  case  of  normal  gills.  While, 
however,  the  normal  number  of  sterigmata  is  four,  cells  bearing 
only  one,  or  only  two  sterigmata  were  found,  as  well  as  cells 
bearing  the  normal  number  of  four  (PI.  xciii.,  figs. 5,  6,  7).  Crops 
of  mushrooms,  showing  the  abnormal  development  above  de- 
scribed, are  not  unknown.  W.  A.  Smith,  according  to  Wors- 
dell(l),  found,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  crops  of  mushrooms, 
every  individual  of  which  had  an  inverted  cap  on  its  surface. 
According  to  Worsdell,  an  inverted  hymenium  may  arise  (1) 
through  the  congenital  formation  of  an  inverted  cap,  or  caps, 
from  the  earliest  stage  onwards  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
primary  cap;  (2)  through  the  formation  of  inverted  caps  by  local 
invagination  of  the  margin  of  the  primary  one.  It  is  held,  how- 
ever, that  these  two  valuations  really  represent  the  same  pheno- 
menon, of  which  (1)  represents  the  final  and  completed  stage  of 
(2)  arising  congenitally  and  isolated. 

In  my  specimens,  no  trace  of  the  formation  of  inverted  caps 
by  local  invagination  could  be  found.  Moreover  careful  examina- 
tion of  mushrooms  in  the  "  button  "-stage  showed,  that  these 
irregular  gill-lamellae,  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  cap,  were  in 
process  of  formation  in  the  very  earliest  stages,  and  long  before 
the  velum  had  separated  from  the  stipe  (PI.  xciii.,  fig. 7).  There 
can,  therefore,  be  no  question  of  invagination  of  the  cap  in  these 
specimens. 

The  question  arises,  what  light,  if  any,  does  this  inversion  of 
the  hymenium  throw  upon  the  phylogeny  of  the  Agaricacese?  Is 
it  an  expression  of  a  partial  reversion  to  an  ancestial  character^ 

That  certain  spawn  has  particular  characters  peculiar  to  it,  is 
the  experience  of  professional  mushroom-growers.  In  commer- 
cial practice,  under  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  heat 
of  the  manure-beds,  the  mycelium  gets  weaker  and  weaker,  and 


BY    G.    P.    DAUNEr,L-SMITH.  885 

eventually  perishes.  "Virgin  spawn"  obtained  fiom  tlie  fields  is, 
therefore,  transferred  to  beds  of  manure,  wliere  it  spreads  and 
supplies  the  grower  with  a  "frank  spawn"  for  growing  the  edible 
mushroom.  But  "often  twelve  to  fifteen  kinds  of  vii-gin  spawn 
as  found  in  the  fields  or  on  heaps  of  refuse  are  discarded  as  use- 
less before  a  good  strain  is  obtained "(2).  That  the  production 
of  inverted  caps  was  a  feature  inherent  in  the  spawn  under  dis- 
cussion, is  shown  by  tlie  fact  that  all  mushrooms  developed  from 
it  produced  abnormal  caps,  whereas  mushrooms  produced  fiom 
other  spawn,  under  identical  conditions,  did  not. 

This  phenomenon,  together  with  the  characters  of  the  spoi"0- 

phores,    lends   support   to   the  hypotheses  that   have    been    put 

forward  as  to  the  evolution  of  the  cap,  and  as  to  the  probable 

origin  of  the  Agaricaceie,  which  may  be  stated  briefly  as  follows: 

(a).  Evolution  of  the  ca-p 

1.  The  production  of  the  horizontally  extended,  llatteued  cap- 
form  of  fruit  from  an  original,  cylindric,  dome-shaped  form. 

2.  The  relegation  of  the  hymenial  tissue  to  the  lower  surface 
of  the  cap. 

3.  The  formation  of  "gills  "  from  the  original  pore  or  alveolar 
structure. 

(6).  Evolution  oj  the  Agaricacea^. 

The  most  primitive  type  of  fructification  is  probably  that  of 
Glavaria,  in  which  a  cylindric  or  club-shaped  branch  is  uniformly 
covered  with  hymenium,  which  extends  down  the  stalk  as  well 
for  some  distance. 

"Cases  in  which  the  hymenium  covers  the  whole  of  the  upper 
exposed  surface,  in  the  form  of  a  semi-alveolar  structure,  or 
labyrinthiform  gill-formation,  are  seen  in  Tremella  and  Ncema- 
telia,  and  these  plants  pertain  to  the  Protobasidio-Mycetes;  the 
Tremellinese  have,  according  to  Maire's  classification,  branched 
off  laterally  from  the  Auriculariacese,  and  it  is  from  these  latter 
that  the  Agaricacese  and  Polyporace?e  have  descended. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  in  one  of  my 
specimens  that  was  fairly  large,  but  was  obtained  in  the  "button- 
stage"  before  rupture  of  the  velum,  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface 
of  the  cap  is  covered  with  sporogenous  tissue  (PI.  xciii.,  fig. 9). 

68 


886  AN    INVERTED    HYMENIUM    IN    AGARICUS    CAMPESTRIS, 

Moreover,  this  sporogenous  tissue  is  completely  covered  by  a  thin 
membrane,  so  that  there  can  be  no  question  of  its  having  attained 
its  position  through  invagination. 

The  examination  of  these  abnormal  mushrooms,  therefore, 
leads  to  the  conclusion,  that  they  represent  a  partial  reversion  to 
an  ancestral  character.  One  would  hardly  expect  a  complete 
reversion;  and  that  it  is  only  partial,  is  demonstrated  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  spores  are  borne. 

The  discharge  and  disposal  of  the  spores  in  the  Agaricaceje, 
according  to  Buller(4),  are  brought  about,  as  follows  :  — 

The  special  conidiophore,  or  basidium,  usually  bears  four 
spores,  which  are  discharged  successively,  and  each  spore  becomes 
violently  detached.  The  violent  discharge  of  the  spores  prevents 
the  adhesive  spores  from  massing  together,  and  from  sticking 
fast  to  the  gill-surface.  At  first,  the  spore  is  shot  out  horizon- 
tally; then,  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  it  describes  a  sharp 
curve,  and  then  falls  vertically.  The  path  described  by  the 
falling  spore  has  been  appropriately  called  a  sporabola.  After 
falling,  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  in  the  still  air  between 
the  gill  lamellae  till  they  reach  the  exterior,  the  spores  are  borne 
away  by  the  breeze.  Basidia,  being  four  sterigmata  with  four 
spores  attached,  were  found  in  my  specimens  in  the  inverted 
hymenium;  and  it  is  obvious  that,  if  the  spores  were  discharged 
in  the  normal  way  from  the  sterigmata  and  then  started  to  fall 
under  the  action  of  gravity,  they  would  not  get  free  from  the 
hymenium  at  all,  but  would  fill  up  the  spaces  between  the  gills 

We  have,  therefore,  a  reversion  to  an  ancestral  condition  so 
far  as  the  macroscopic  characters  are  concerned,  with  a  retention 
of  the  modern  condition  so  far  as  the  microscopic  characters  are 
involved. 


LITERATURE  CITED. 

1.  WoRSDELL,  W.  C.  -  Principles  of  Plant  Teratology,  Vol.  i.,  p,33  (191o). 

2.  Aquatias,  p. — Intensive  cultui'e  of  Vegetables  on  the  French  Sj'steni, 

p.153  (1913). 

3.  WoRSDELL,  W.  C— Principles  of  Plant  Teratology,  Vol.  i.,  p.3U(191o). 

4.  BuLLER — Researches  in  Fungi,  p.  144  (1909). 


BY    G.    P.    DARNELL-SMITH.  88  < 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES  XCI.-XCIII. 

Plate  xci. 

Fig.  1. — Abnormal  mushroom,  showing  protuberances  of  the  cap.      At  the 

4)ase  of  the  stipe,  two  small  "buttons"  are  seen. 
Fig.2. — Abnormal  mushroom,  showing  hymenium  on  the  surface  of   the 
cap. 

Plate  xcii. 
Fig. .3. — Section  of  the  same. 

Fig. 4. — Transverse  section  through  the  liymenium  on  the  surface  of  the 
cap,  showing  the  irregular  character  of  the  gills,  and  the  large 
spaces  in  their  interior;  (  x  120). 

Plate  xciii. 
Figs.S,  6,  7. — Basidia  bearing  varjnng  numbers  of  sterigmata  (4,  2,  1)  from 

the  hymenium  in  the  surface  of  the  cap;  (  x  480). 
Fig. 8. — Section  of  small  "button"  much  enlarged,  showing  the  formation 

of  lens-shaped  areas  in  the  cap  containing  sporogenous  tissue  before 

the  separation  of  the  velum. 
Fig. 9. — Section  of  a  large  "button"  (nat.  size),  showing  sporogenous  tissue 

covered  with  a  membrane  over  the  whole  upper  surface  of  the  cap. 

The  velum  has  not  yet  split. 


886 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

Received  during  the  period  November  '28th,  1917, 
to  November  27th,  1918. 

( Frotn  the  respectivp.  Societies,  etc.^  unless  other^cise  mentioned.) 

Accra. 

Geological  Survey  of  thk  Gold  Coast  of  W.  Africa — 
Report  for  the  Year  1916(1918). 

Adelaide. 

Department  of  Chemistky  of  South  Australia  — 
Bulletin,  No.7(1917). 

Department  of  Forestry,  University  of  Adelaide  — 
Bulletin,  No.6(1918). 

Department  op  Mines:  Geological  Survey  of  S.Australia  — 
Annual  Report  of  the  Government  Geologist  for  191  6(191 7). 
Review  of   Mining  Operations  in  the   State   of  South  Aus- 
tralia during  the  Half-years  ended  December  31st,  1917, 
and  June  30th,  1918,  Nos.27-28(1918). 

Public  Library,  Museum,  etc.,  of  South  Australia  — 

Records  of  the  S.A.  Museum,    i.,  1(1918). 

Report  of  the  Board  of  Governors  for  1916-17(1917). 

Royal  Society  of  South  Australia  — 

Transactions  and  Pi'oceedings,  and  Report.    xli.(1917). 

Albany,  N.Y. 

New  York  State  Library  — 

Annual   Report  of  the   N.  Y.  State   Museum.    Ixviii.,   1914 
(1916). 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES.  889 

Ann  Arbor. 

Michigan  Academy  of  Science — 

Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Annual  Repoils,  1915,  1916 
(1916). 

Baltimore. 

Johns  Hopkins  University — 

Hospital  Bulletin,  xxviii.,  321,  322;  xxix.,  323-332(  1917-18). 

Barcelona. 

Junta  de  Ciencies  Naturals  de  Barcelona — 

Musei  Barcinonensis  Scientiaruni  Naturalium  Oijeva.  Series 
Biologico-Oceanographica,  i.  (1917)^Ser.  Botanica,  i -ii. 
(1917) — Sei'.Geologica,  i.(1918)  — Ser.  Zoolugica,  xi.(1917). 

Basle. 

Natukforschende  Gesellschaft  in  Basel — 
Verhandlungen.    xxviii.(19l7). 

Berkeley,  Cal. 

University  of  California — 

Publications.— ^oton2/,  v.,  12-14;  vi.,  15-16(1 918).  — ^n«5o- 
mology,  i.,  8;  ii.  (complete)  [1  917-18].— (reo^y/,  x.  13,  18, 
20-28;  xi.,  l--2{\m-U).~Physwlo<jij,  v.,  3(1918).— ^o- 
oloyi/,  xvii.,  13-16,  18;  xviii.,  2,  5-12,  15,  16  (1917-18). 
Five  Reprints  :  (a)  "  Non-influence  of  Injections  of  pure 
Proteins,"  &c.,  by  E.  S.,  and  C.  L.  A.  Schmidt  [Journ. 
Immunology,  ii.,  No.4,  June,  1917].— (6)  "Stability  of 
Emulsions,"'  lirc,  by  I.  C.  Hall  [Journ.  Phys  Chem.,  xxi., 
No.8,  Nov.,  1917]. — (c-)  "  Note  on  the  aerobic  Culture  of 
Anaerobes,"  l^c,  by  L.  J.  Ellefson  and  I.  C.  Hall  [Science, 
N.S.,  xlvi  ,  No.  1197,  Dec,  1917].  — (c^  "Occurrence  of  a 
Positive  Intracutaneous  Reaction,"  etc.,  by  F.  P.  Gay  and 
A.  J.  Minaker  [Journ.  Amer.  Med.  Assocn.,  Ixx.,  Jan  , 
1918].— (e)  "Automatic  Water- Level  for  Arnold  Steril- 
isers," Ijy  I.  C.  Hall  [Journ.  Bacteriology,  iii.,  No.  1 ,  Jan. 
1918]. 

Brisbane. 

Botanic  Gardens,  Brisbane — 
Botany  Bulletin,  No.  xx.(1918). 


donations  and  exchanges. 

Department  of  Agriculture  and  Stock  — 

Queensland  Agricultural  Journal,  N.S.  viii.,  6;  ix.,  1-6;  x., 
1-5(1917-18). 
Geological  Survey  of  Queensland  — 

Publications.    Nos.255,  256,  258,  261,   262  (1917-18)— List 
of  the  Queensland  Geological  Survey  Publications,  1879- 
1918(1918). 
KoYAL  Society  OF  Queensland  — 
Proceedings,  xxviii,,  xxix. (1916-1 7). 

Buenos  Aires. 

Sociedad  Argentina  de  Cibncias  Naturales — 
"Physis."i.,  1,  6,  8(1912-15). 

Calcutta. 

DiRKCTOu  OF  Fisheries,  Bengal,  Bihar,  and  Orissa — 

Two  Reprints  :  (a)  "  Notes  from  the  Bengal  Fisheries  Labo- 
ratory. No. 4.  Cestode  Parasites  of  Hilsa,"  by  T.  South- 
well and  B.  Prashad  [Records  of  the  Indian  Museum,  xv., 
Pt.  ii.,  No.9,  April,  1918];  (b)  Methods  of  Asexual  and 
Parthenogenetic  Reproduction  in  Cestodes,"  by  T.  South- 
well and  P.  Prashad  [Journal  of  Parasitology,  Vol.  iv., 
March,  1918]. 
Geological  Survey  of  India  — 

Memoirs,    xlii.,  2(1917). 

Palseontologia  Indica.    N.S.,  Vol.  iii.,  Mem.  No.2(1917). 

Records,    xlviii.,  1-4;  xlix.,  1(1917-18). 

Cambridge,  England. 

Cambridge  Philosophical  Society — 
Proceedings,    xix.,  2-4(1917-18). 

Cambridge,  Mass 

MusKUM  OF  OoxMparativk  Zoology  at  Harvard  College  — 
Annual  Report  of  the  Director,  1916-17(1917). 
Bulletin,  liv.,5;  Ivii.,  5;  Ixi.,  13-15, T.p&c;  Ixii.,  1-5(1917-18). 

Cape  Town. 
Royal  Society  of  South  Africa  — 
Transactions,    vi.,  2-4;  vii.,  1-2(1918). 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCflANGES.  891 

South    African    Association    for    the    Advanckmknt   of 
Science — 
South   African  Journal   of   Science,    xiii.,  11,  T.p.&c;  xiv., 
2-12,  T.p.&c.(1917-18). 

South  African  Museum — 

Annals,   ix.,  7;  xi.,  T.p.&c;  xii.,  5;  xiv.,  3;  xv.,  T.p.&c;  xvii., 

2-3(1917-18). 
Report  for  the  year  1917(1918). 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Cincinnati  Society  of  Natural  History— 
Journal,    xxii.,  2(191  7). 

Cold  Spring  Harbour. 

Dept.  of  Experimental  Evolution  of  the  Carnegie  Insti- 
tution of  Washington  — 
Annual  Report  of  the  Director  for  1917  [Reprint  from  Year 
Book  No.  16  for  1917]. 

Colombo,  Ceylon. 

Colombo  Museum — 

Spolia  Zeylanica.    x..  No. 39;  xi.,  No.40(1917-18). 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Acad.  Sci.  and  Biological  Club  of  the  Ohio  State 
University  — 
Ohio  Journal  of  Science,    xviii.,  1-7(1917-18). 

Ohio  State  University — 

University  Bulletin,    xxii.,  11(1917). 

Copenhagen. 

ACADEMIE    RoYALE    DES    SCIENCES    ET    DES    LeTTRES    DE    DaNE- 
MARK  — 

Biologiske  Meddelelser.    i.,  1-2(1917). 

Bulletin.    1916,  1-6,  T.p.  Slg.;  1917,  Januar-Juni(1916-17). 

Decatur,  111. 

American  Microscopical  Society — 

Transactions,    xxxvi.,  2-4;  xxxvii.,  2-3(1917-18). 


I 


892  DONATJONS  AND  EXCHANGES 

Edinburgh. 

Royal  Physical  Society  of  Edinburgh — 

Proceedings,    xx.,  3(1917). 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh — 

Proceedings,    xxxviii.,  1(1918).  | 

Geneva 

SociETE  de  Physique  et  d'Histoire  Naturellk  i>e  Geneve — 
Compte  Rendu,  xxxiii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxv.,  1-2(1917-18). 
-Meinoires.    xxxviii.,  6,  T.p.ifc;c.(1916). 

Ginneken  (Holland). 

Instituut  voor  Phytopathologie  te  Ginneken  — 

Xaamlijst  der  in  de  Ichneumonen-Collectie  van  iiet  Rijk 
aanwezige  Genera  en  Species  der  Familie  Ichneumonid?e, 
door  C.  A.  L.  Smits  van  Burgst  (n.d.). 

Hague. 

Nederlandsche  Entomologische  Verekniging — 

Entoraologische  Berichten.  iv.,  Nos.91-96,  T.p.&c.(1916-17). 

Hobart. 

Department  of  Mines — 

Geological  Survey  Bulletins.    Nos. 26-27(1918). 

Geological  vSurvey  :  Mineral  Resources,  No.5(1917). 
Field  Naturalists'  Club  of  Tasmania — 

"  Easter  Camp  out,  1918:  General  Report,  Botanical  Notes, 
Geological  Notes  "  (1918). 
Royal  Society  of  Tasmania — 

Papers  and  Proceedings,  1917(1918). 

Honolulu,  T.H. 

Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum — 

Memoirs,    iv.,  3,  T.p.&c;  vii.,  1(1917-18). 

Indianopolis,  Ind. 

Indiana  Academy  of  Sciences — 
Proceedings,  1915(1916). 

La  Payette,  Ind. 

Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  — 
Bulletin.    Vol.    xx.,    Nos.  201-205  (1917).- Circular   No.  75 
(1917). 


J 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES.  893 

Liverpool. 

LivKKPooL  Biological  Society  — 

Proceedings  and  Transactions.    xxxi.(1917). 

London. 

Board  of  Aguiculture  and  Fisheries — 

Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  xxiv.,  7-12;   xxa.,  1-5 
(1917-18). 

British  Museum  (Natural  History) — 
Guides:    Economic    Series,     Nos.  3-7  (1916-17). —Fly-   and 
iMosquito-Posters.— [War-Literature]. 

Geological  Society — 

Quarterly  Journal.    Ixxii.,  3-4:  Ixxiii.,  1-2(1917-18). 

LiNNEAN  Society — 
Journal.    Botany,   xliv.,  No. 295(1917). 
List  of  the  Society,  1917-18(1917). 
Proceedings,  129th  Session,  1916-17(1917). 

Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  KeW' — 

Bulletin  of  Miscellaneous  Information,  1917(1917). 

Royal  Microscopical  Society — 

Journal.  1917,  5-6:   1918,  1-2(1917-18). 
Royal  Society — 

Philosophical  Transactions.    Series  B.  ccviii.,  Xos.B  355-357 
(1917-18). 

Proceedings.    Scries  B.  xc,  Nos.B  623-628(1917-18). 
Zoological  Society — 

Abstract  of  Prftceedings.    Nos. '  72-183(1917-18). 

Lyons 

Societe  Botanique  DE  LyON' — 
Annales.    xxxix.(1916). 

Madrid. 

Real  Sociedad  Espanola  de  Historia  Natural — 
Boletin,  xvii.,  8-10,  T.p.dsc;  xviii.,  1-6(1917-18). 
Memorias.    x.,  9-10;  xi.,  1(1918). 


894  DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

Manchester. 

Manchestek  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society— 
Memoirs  and  Proceedings.    Ixi.,  2-3,  T. p. Ac. (1918). 

University  of  Manchester  :  Manchester  Museum— 
Publications  of  the  Manchester  Museum.    Nos. 80-81(191  7). 

Manila,  P.I. 

Bureau  of  Forestry  :  Dept.  of  the  Interior — 

Annual  Report  of  the  Director  for  the  year  1917(1918). 
Bureau  of  Science  of  the  Government  of  the  Philippine 
Islands — 
Philippine  Journal  of  Science.    Section  A,  xii.,  2-6;  xiii.,  1-3 
— Sec.  B,  xii ,  5-6;  xiii.,  1-5  — Sec.  C,  xii.,  3-6;  xiii.,  1-4 — 
Sec.  D,  xii.,  4-6;  xiii.,  1-5(1917-18). 
Contents  and  Index  of  Vols,  i.-x.,  1906-15(1917). 

Marseilles. 

Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle  de  Marseille — 
Annales.    T.xiii.(1914);  xv. (1915-16). 

Massachusetts. 
Tufts  College  — 

Tufts  College  Studies  (Scientific  Series),    iv.,  5(1917). 

Melbourne. 

Australasian    Journal    of    Pharmacy  — Vols    xxxii.,    384  ; 

xxxiii.,  385-395(1917-18).      From  the  Publisher. 
Commonwealth  of  Austrat.ia  :  Advisory  Council  of  Science 
and  Industry — 
Report  of  the  Executive   Committee  for  the  Year  ended 
June  30th,  1918(1918).  ^ 

Commonwealth  of  Australia:  Dept.  of  Trade  and  Customs  — 
Fisheries  :  Biological   Results  of   the  Fishing  Experiments 
carried  on  by  the  F.I.S.  '*  Endeavour,"  1909-14.   Vol.  iv., 
Parts  5-6;  v.,  1(1918).      \^Received  through  the  Australian 
Museum^  Sydney\ 
Commonwealth  Bureau  of  Census  and  Statistics — 

Official  Year  Book  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.   No. 
10(1917). 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES.  895 

Pocket  Compendium  of  Australian  Statistics,  1918(1918). 
Department  of  Agriculture  of  Victoria — 

Journal,    xv.,  12;  xvi.,  1-11(1917-18). 

Report  of   the  Council  of   Agricultural   Education,  and  of 
Dookie  and  Longerenong  Agricultural  Colleges  (1918). 
Field  Naturalists'  Club  of  Victoria — 

"Victorian  Naturalist."    xxxiv.,  8-12;  xxxv.,  1-7(1917-18). 
Public  Library,  Museums,  &c.,  of  Victoria — 

Report  of  the  Trustees  for  1917(1918). 
Royal  Australasian  Ornithologists'  Union— 

"The  Emu,' xvii.,  3-4;  xviii.,  1-2(1918). 
Royal  Society  of  Victoria — 

Proceedings.    New  Series,  xxx.,  2(1918). 
University  of  Melbourne — 

Calendar.    1918(1917). 

Mexico 

Instituto  Geologico  de  Mexico — 
Anales.    Nos.  ii.-iii. (191  7-18). 
Boletin.    Num.36(  19lJ>). 

Modena. 

La  Nuova   Notarisia — From  the  Editor,  Dr.  G.B.De  Tom 
Serie  xxix.,  Gcnnaio,  1918(1918). 

Monaco. 

Musee  Oceanogkaphique  de  Monaco — 
Bulletin.    Nos.326-339(1917  18). 

Nantes. 

Societe  des  Sciences  Natuiielles  dh;  l'Ouest  dv.  la  France  — 
Bulletin,  3"'^Serie,  iv.,  1-4,  T.p..i:c.(19H). 

Ne"w  Haven,  Conn. 

Connecticut  Academy  of  Ahts  and  Sciknces — 

Transactions,   xxi.,  T.p.ttc;  xxii.,  pp.249  267,  T. p. itc.(  1918). 

Ne^v  York. 

American  Geographical  Society — 

Geographical  Review,  iv.,  5-6;  v.,  1-6;  vi.,  1-3(1917-18). 


896  DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History —  . 

Bibliography  of  Fishes,  by  B.  Dean,  enlarged  and  edited  V)y 
C.  R.  Eastman.      V^ol  ii.(iyi7). 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences — 

Annals,    xxvii.,  pp.215-243(  191  7). 

Ottaw^a. 

Geological  Survey  of  Canada — 

Map   of   Whiteburn  Gold    District,  N.S.  (Piibln.  No.  1690) 

[1917]. 
Memoirs.    Nos.95,  99-103(1917-18). 
Museum  Bulletin,  No  27(1918).- 

Paris. 

"Journal  de  Conchyliologie.''    Ixiii.,  2-4(1917-18). 
Museum  d'Histoire  Naturellk  de  Paris — 

Bulletin,    xl.,  7,  T.p.itc:  xli.,  1-7,  T.p.itc;  xlii.,  1-8,  T.p.ii:c.; 
xlii.,  1  :  1914-17(1914-17). 

SOCIETE  EnTOMOLOGIQUE  DE  FrANCE 

Bulletin,  1917,  15-21,  Tp.JL-c:  1918,  5-14(1917-18). 

SOCIETE   ZOOLOGIQUE   DE    FrANCE 

Bulletin,  xxxix;xl.,  1-10,'r.p.ctc.:  xli.    1-10, T.p.itcd  914-16). 

Pavia 

IsriTUTO  Botanico  dell"  R.  Universita  di  Pavia^ 
Atti.    ii.  Serie.     Vol.  xv.,  l(  1  918). 

Perth,  W.A. 

Geological  Survey  of  West  Australia' — 

Bulletin,  Nos.71  (Text  and  Atlas),  73,  74,  76(1917). 

Government  Statistician,  West  Australia — 

Quarterly  Statistical  Abstract.    Nos.207-21 1(  1917-18). 

Philadelphia. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences — 

Proceedings.    Ixix.,  1-2;  Ixx.,  1(1917-18). 
Entomological  News,  and  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological 
Section   of   the    Academy  of    Natural    Sciences,  xxix.,    1 
(1918). 


donations  and  exchanges.  897 

American  Philosophical  Society — 

Proceedings.    Ivi.,  1-7,  List,  T.p.ctc:  Ivii.,  2-4(1917-18). 

Zoological  Society  of  Philadelphia  — 

Forty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  April, 

19^8(1918). 

Plymouth. 

Makink  Biological  Association  of  thk  United  Kingdom — 
Journal.    N.S.  xi.,  3-4(1917-18). 

Pusa,  India. 

Agricultural  Research  Institute — 

Memoirs  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in  India. — Bac- 
teriological Series,  i.,  7(1917). —  Botanical  Series,  ix.,  2 
(1917).  -  Entomological  Series,  v  ,4(1  917).— Bulletin,  Nos. 
72,  76,  77(1917-18).— Report  of  the  Agricultural  Research 
Institute  and  College,  Push,  1916-17(1917).  — Report  on 
the  Progress  of  Agriculture  in  India  for  1916-17(1918). — 
Report  of  Proceedings  of  Second  Entomological  Meeting, 
February,  1917(1917). 

Richmond,  NSW, 

Hawkesbury  Agricultural  College — 

H.  A.  C.  Journal,    xiv.,  12:  xv.,  1-11(1917-18). 

Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Escola  Supekiok  de  Agkicultura  e  Medicina  Veterinaria— 
Archivos.    i.,  1(1917). 

Instituto  Oswaldo  Ckuz — 

Memorias.    viii.,  2-3;  ix.,  1(1917-18)- 

Riverside,  Cal. 

Graduate  School  of  Tropical  Agriculture,  and  Citrus 
Experiment  Station  (College  of  Agriculture,  Uni- 
versity OF  California)  — 
Publications.  Vols.  i.-ii.(15  Nos.) — Bulletin  No. 23a,  College 
of  Agriculture,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Uni- 
versity of  California  Publications  (1912;. 


898  DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

San  Francisco. 

California  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences — 

Proceedings.  Fourth  Series,  ii.,  Pt.  i.,  No.U;  Pt.  ii.,  No.  12; 
T.p.  of  Vols,  iv.-v.;  vi.,  8-9,  T.p.&e.;  vii.,  1-13;  viii.,  1-4 
(1917-18). 

Sendai,  Japan. 

ToHOKu  Imperial  University — 

Science  Reports.  Second  Series  (Geology),  iii.,  2,  T.p.tfec; 
iv.,  3;  v.,  1(1918). 

Stockhoim. 

Entomologiska  Foreningen  I  Stockholm — 
Entoinologisk  Tidskrift.    xxxviii.,  1-4(1917). 

Sydney. 

Australasian  Antarctic  Expedition,  1911-14 — 

Scientific  Reports.  Series  C :  Zoology  and  Botany.  Vols, 
iii.,  2;  iv.,  3;  v.,  2-6;  vi.,  1  (1918).  [deceived  through  the 
University  of  Sydney\ 

Australian  Museum  — 

Annual  Report,  1916-17(1917) 
Records,    xii.,  1-6(1917-18). 

Botanic  Gardens  and  Domains,  Sydney  — 
Annual  Report  for  1916(1918). 

Flora  of  the  Northern  Territory.  By  A.  J.  Evvart  and  O. 
B.  Davies.  With  Appendices  by  J.  H.  Maiden,  A.  A. 
Hamilton,  and  E.  Cheel.  (Melbourne,  1917) 
Critical  Revision  of  the  Genus  Eiicalyptus .  iii.,  T.p.&c; 
iv.,  3-5(1917-18).  By  J.  H.  Maiden,  Government 
Botanist,  (fee. 

Bureau  of  Statistics — 

Official  Year  Book  of  New  South  Wales,  1916,  Nos.17-20; 
1917,  Nos.l-16(1917-18). 

Chief  Secretary's  Department  :  Fisheries  — 

Report  on  the  Fisheries  of  New  South  Wales  for  the  Year 
1917(1918). 


donations  and  exchanges.  899 

Department  of  Agriculture,  N.S.W. — 

Agricultural  Gazette  of  New  South  Wales,    xxviii.,  12,  T.p. 
ifec.;xxix.,  1-11(1917-18).— Science  Bulletin.  No.l5(1918). 

Department  of  Public  Health— 

Report  of  the  Director  General  for  the  year  1916(1918). 

Education  Department  — 

Education   Gazette  of  New   South  Wales,  xi  ,  12;  xii.,  1-11 

and  two  Supplenieiits(19  17-18j. 

Education  Department  :  Teachers'  College  — 

Records  of   the   Education   Society.     Nos.28,  31-34,    36,  38 
(1917-18). 

Education  Department:  Technical  Education  Branch  — 

Annual  Report,  1916(1917). 

Technical   Gazette  of   New   South    Wales,     vii  ,   2;  viii.,    1 
(1917-18). 
Forestry  Commission  of  New  South  Wales — 

Australian  Forestry  Journal,    i.,  1-4(1918). 

Bulletin.    No.l3(Aug.,  1918). 

Maiden's  "Forest  Flora  of  New  South  Wales."  vii. ,2(  1918). 

Report,  1916-17(1918). 

"Sylviculture."    Chapter  i.(1918). 

Microscopical  Society  of  New  South  Wales — 

Rules,  cfec.(1918). 
New  South  Wales  Naturalists'  Society  — 

"Australian  Naturalist,"  iii.,  15;  iv.,  2-4(1917-18). 
Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales — 

Journal    and    Proceedings,     li.,    1917  (1918). —  Presidential 
Address  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Cleland,  May  1st,  1918(1918). 

Royal  Zoological  Society  op  New  South  Wales  — 

"Australian  Zoologist."  i.,  4-5(1917-18). 
"Scientific  Australian,"  xxiii.,  2-4;  xxiv.,  1(1917-18).    From 

the  Publishers  (Bishop  Bros.). 
University  of  Sydney — 

Calendar,  1918(1918). 


900  DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

Taihoku. 

Bureau  OF  Productive  Industries,  Government  of  Formosa, 
Japan — 
Icones  Plaiitarum  Formosanarum.    Vol.  vii.(1918). 

Tokyo. 

College  of  Science,  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo — 
Journal,    xxxvii,,  9-10,  T.p.&c;  xxxviii  ,  6,  T.p.tfcc;  xxxix., 
7  8;  xL,  1-6,  8;  xli.,  1-3(1917-18). 

Tokyo  Zoological  Society — 

Annotationes  Zoologicje  Japoneiises.    ix.,  4(1918). 

Toronto. 

Royal  Canadian  Institute — 

Transactions,    xi.,  2,  T.i).ci:c.(  1  917). 

ToTvnsville. 

Australian  Institute  of  Tropical  Medicine — 
Collected  Papers,  No.2(1917). 

Tring,  Herts. 

Zoological  Museum — 

Novitates  Zoologicae.    xxiv.,  3(1917). 

Tunis. 

Institut  Pasteur  de  Tunis— 
Archives.    T.  x.,  3(1918). 

Urbana,  111. 

University  of  Illinois  — 

Illinois  Biological  Monographs,    iii.,  2-4,  T. p. c^l^c. (1916-17). 

List  of  Books  and  Articles  published  by  the  Corps  of  In- 
struction, University  of  Illinois,  May,  1915-April,  1916 
(n.d.). 

Washington,  D.C 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology — 

Bulletin.    Nos.63,  66(191  7-18). 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Washington — 

Department  of  Experimental  Evolution:  Annual  Report  of 
the  Director,  1917  [Reprint  from  the  Year  Book,  No.  xvi  J 
(1917). 


DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES  901 

Depaktmkxt    of    rioMMRRCE :    U.   S,   Coast    and    Geodetic 
Survey — 
Hypsometrv  :  "  Use   of   mean    Sea-level    as  the   Datum  for 
Elevations."     By  E.  Lester  Jones.     [Serial  No. 60:  Special 
Publication  No.41](1918). 

National  Academy  of  Sciences  — 

Proceedings,    iii.,  11-12;  iv.,  1-9(1917-18). 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture— 

Bulletin.    Nos4S0,  491.  535,  536,  564,  571,  598,  G09,   616, 

640,  643,  645,  647,  671,  689,  707,  723,  731(1917-18). 
Entomological    llepiints  (13)  from   the  Journal   of   Agiicul- 

tural  Research,  xi.,  3,  8:    xii.,  2,  5,  9;  xiii.,  l(two),  3,  1 1 ; 

xiv.,  2,  3,  5,  9(1917-18). 
Separate,    No.747  :    "  A    wasted    Sugar-Supply,"   hy    E.   F. 

Phillips  [Year  Book,  1917]. 
Year  Book,  1917(1918), 

U.  S.  National  Museum- 

Bulletin.    Nos.71  Pt.  vi.,  98,99  Pt.  i.,  100  Vol.  i.,  Pts.  i.-iii., 

101,  102  Pts  i.-iii.,  vi.,  104  Pt.  i.(1917  18). 
Contributions  from  the  U.  S.  National    Herbarium.   T.p.ttc. 

of  Vol.  xviii.(1914-17);  xx.,  3(1918). 
Proceedings.    li.-liii.(1917). 
Report  for  Year  ending  June  30th,  1916(1917). 

Wellington,  N  Z. 

Dkpartment  of  Minks:  Nkw  Zkalano  GeolocxIcal  Survky  — 
Bulletin.    N.S.  Nos.  19-20(1 9  I  8). 
Palseontological  Bulletin.    No.6(1917). 

New  Zealand  IJoard  of  Science  and  Art  — 
Bulletin,  Xo.l(1918). 
N.Z.  Journal  of  Science  and  Technology,  i.,  1  4(1918). 

New  Zealand  Institute  — 

Transactions  and  Proceedings,    xlix.,  ].,  1916-17(1917-18). 


902  DONATIONS  AND  EXCHANGES. 

PRiVATK  DONORS  (and  authors,  unless  otherwise  stated). 
Janet,  C,  Paris.  -Four  Pamphlets:  (a)  "L'Alternance  Sporo- 
phyto-Gametophytique  de  Generations  chez  les  Algues " 
(Limoges;  1914). — (b)  "  Documents  sur  la  Guerre,  Bulletin 
d'information  public  par  la  Chambrede  Commerce  de  Paris," 
Nos.20,  21  (1915).— (c)  ^'Note  preliminaire  sur  I'Oeuf  du 
Volvox  globator"  (Limoges,  1914). 

Meyrick,  E.,  B.A,  F.R.S.,  Marlborough,  England —"  Exotic 
Microlepidoptera."     Vol.  ii.,  1-5(1916-18). 

RoBKRTSON,  Professor  T.  Brailsford,  University  of  California, 
Berkeley — Two  Reprints  :  (a)  "  The  Strategics  of  Scientitic 
Investigation"  [Scientific  Monthly,  Dec.  1916];  (b)  "The 
Utilisation  of  Patents  for  the  Promotion  of  Research  " 
[Univ.  of  California  Chronicle,  Vol.  xix.,  No. 4]. 

Smith,  R.  Greig,  D.Sc,  Sydney  (donor)  — Report  of  the  Dove 
Marine  Laboratory,  Cullercoats,  Cumberland,  1916-17 
(1917);  Pamphlet:  "Agriculture  in  Japan,"  by  Professor 
Koide  (Sydney,  1918). 

Veitch,  R.,  B.Sc,  F.E.S.,  Fiji— Agricultural  Report  No.3,  of 
the  Colonial  Sugar-Refining  Company,  Ltd.,  Fiji  ["The 
Cane  Beetle  Borer  in  Australia"]  (Sydney,  1917). 

Waters,  A.  W.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  Bournemouth — One  Reprint: 
"  Some  Collections  of  the  Littoral  Marine  Fauna  of  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  &c. — Bryozoa"  [Journ.  Linn.  Soc,  Zoology, 
XXXV.,  May,  1918]. 


[Printed  off,  March  21st,  1919. 


(liJlS.) 


(a) GENERAL  INDEX. 


Address,  Presidential.  Afareh  27tli, 
1918,  1. 

Agaric,  blowflies  bred  from,  ex- 
hibited, 415. 

Asariens,  inverted  hymeninm  in, 
883. 

Alder-flies,  descriptions  of  Aus- 
tralian, 819. 

Algje.  new  and  rare  freshwater. 
497. 

Angophoras,  shoot-bearing  tnm<jnrs 
of,  191. 

Apparatus,  wing-coupling  of  Lepi- 
doptera.  etc..  286  —  External 
brea tiling-,  of  larvre  of  jNfuscoid 
flies,  658. 

Arcella,  seasonal  distribution  of. 
237. 

Armistice,  and  the  cessation  of 
war,  712. 

Australia,  Lower  Afesozoic  Rocks 
of,  37 — Carboniferous  Trilobites 
of,  437 — Proposed  "miniature" 
on  Pulbah  Island,  416,  495. 

Australian  Alderflies,  819 — Coleop- 
tera.  673— Culicidte,  826 — ^Nlecop- 
tera,  395— Megaloptera,  819— 
Neuroptera,  No.  5,  116;  No.  6, 
750;   No.   7,   787— Sawflies,  668. 

Balance  Sheet,  etc..   1917,  30. 

P>anksia.  peculiar  roots  of.  exhibit- 
ed, 235. 

Beans.  Soy.  seeds  of.  exhibited. 
611. 

Beetles,  introduced,  of  economic 
importance,  exhibited.  361. 

Benson,  W.  N..  Geology  and  Petro- 
logy of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt 
of  N.S.  Wales.  Pt.  vii..  The 
Geology  of  the  Loomberah  Dis- 
trict and  a  portion  of  the  Goonoo 
Goonoo  Estate.  With  two  Pa- 
Ifeontological  Appendices  by  F. 
Chapman,     320,     363— Pt.      viii.. 


The  Extension  of  the  Great  Ser- 

l^entine    Belt  from    the    Nundle 

District  to  the  Coast,  593. 
"Black"  Si)ot  of  Citrus  fruits,  868. 
Blowflies,  bred  from  an  Agaric,  ex 

hibited.  415. 
Brachyscelid   galls,  exhibited.  361. 

416. 
Bramble,  cut-leaved,  exhibited.  235. 
P.reathing-apparatus.  external,    of 

la r Vie   of  ^Nluscoid  flies,  658. 
Bretnall.  P.  W.,  welcomed  on  his 

return  from  the  War,  415. 
Brotherus,  V.  F.,  and  W.  W.  Watts, 

The   Aiosses    of   N.    Queensland, 

544. 

Caddisflies.  Canadian,  exhibited, 
612. 

Callistemon  fruits  showing  de- 
layed dehiscence,  exhibited,  713. 

Cambage.  E.  H.,  Notes  on  the 
Native  Flora  of  N.S.  Wales.  Pt. 
X.,  The  Federal  Capital  Terri- 
tory, 673. 

Campbell,  J.  H.,  Hon.  Treasurer's 
Financial  Statement,  and  Bal- 
ance Sheet,  30,  31— Re-elected 
Hon.  Treasurer,  135. 

Canada,  Lepidoptera.  Caddisflies. 
and  Lacewings  from,  exhibite<l. 
611.  612. 

Carboniferous  insects,  affinities  of. 
123— Trilobites  of  Australia,  437. 

Chactctes,  Note  on  a  new  species 
of,  392. 

Chapman,  F..  Devonian  Foramini- 
fera.  Tamworth  District,  N.S.W., 
385 — Note  on  a  new  species  of 
Chaetetes,  392. 

,     H.     G.,     Presidential 

Address,  1 — See  Exhibits. 

(heel.  E.,  sec  Exhibits. 


11. 


INDEX. 


Chorhta  aiistraUs,  win.2:-venatioii 
of.  395. 

Citrus  fruits.   Black   Spot  of.   868. 

Cleland.  J.  P>..  remarks  on  a  Little 
Peng-uin  seen  in  Xeutral  Bay, 
495— A'sJre  Exhibits. 

("limbins  Plants,  stems  of.  600. 

Coal-seam,  fossil  insect-wins  from 
roof  of.  260. 

"Cobblers'  Pegs"  (Erif/rrnn).  two 
forms  of,  exhibited.  610. 

Coleoptera,  descriptions  of  new 
Species.  715. 

Collins,  ]\[iss  ^[.  I..  On  the  leaf- 
anatomy  of  f^raerola  era ssi folia, 
with  special  reference  to  the 
Ei)idermal  Secretion.  247. 

Connnentry.  affinities  of  fossil  in- 
sects from.  123. 

Complex,  Panorpoid.  Introduction. 
265:  Pt.  i..  286:  Pt.  ii..  626. 

Coi)epod,  ori.irin  of  yolk  in  the  ova 
of  a.  136. 

Correlation  of  Lower  ^Niesozoic 
liocks  of  Australia,   37. 

Cubitus,  structure  of.  in  win.2:s  of 
^Fyrmeleontidpp,  116. 

Cnlicidre.  contril»utions  to  a  know- 
led.2:e  of.  826. 

Dehiscence,     delayed,   of     Cnlliste- 

,  mon-fruits,   712. 

Devonian  Poraminifera,  385. 

Distril)ution  of  Lower  IMesozoic 
Pocks  of  Queensland.  37  — Sea- 
sonal, of  Arcella.  237. 

Dodd.  F.  P..  elected  a  Member,  416. 

Donations  and  Exchanges.  36.  135. 
234,  285,  362,   416,  495,   610.   713. 

Dragonfly,  sections  of  caudal  gills 
of.  exhibited.  495 — Large,  picked 
up  on  the  pavement.  612. 

Duck,  abnormal  gizzard  of,  ex- 
hibited. 361— Xote  on.  415. 

Dun.  W.  S..  re-elected  a  Vice-Pre- 
sident. 135, 

DunstaniidtH.  the  family,  568. 

Efhidna,  Note  on  the  temperature 

of,  844. 
Elections.  135.  363,  416. 
Elcftrical     conductivity     of     milk. 

613. 


Eiiidermal  secretion    of    t^rarmla. 

247. 
"  Epigraphie      Medicale,"     exhibited. 

415, 
Erifirrov.  two  foi'ms  of,  exhibited. 

610. 
Eucalypts.   shoot-])earing    tumours 

of,   191. 
Eucalyptus,  a  new  Species  or  Form 

of,  747, 
Exhibits  : — 

Chapman,     H.     C     samples    of 

yeast  612. 
Cheel.     E.,     ])eculiar     roots     of 
Fakca.  Banksia.    and     CrcrU- 
Ica  :     seedlings   of   TcphroRia  : 
two    forms  of  O.ralia  conucii- 
lata :    cut-leaved    or    parsley- 
leaved  bramble  ;    /?o.*f<  hrarfeafa: 
flowers  of  ^ti/phelia  tuhi flora. 
varying  in     colour,     235-236 — 
T'\^'o      forms      of      "Cobblers' 
Pegs" :    seeds    of    Soy    Beans. 
610-611  —  C  alii  fit  r  m  o  n     />  a  oh  //- 
phifllN!^.  showing  delayed     de- 
hiscence of  the  fruits.  712. 
Cleland,    J.    B„    four    Parts    of 
Blanchard's     "  Epigraphie    Mtkli- 
cale":  blowflies  bred  from  an 
Agaric,  415, 
Fletcher,    J.      J.,     Brachysctdid 
galls.  361 — Plants,  other  than 
Eucalyjits     and      Angophoras. 
with     shoot-bearing    tumours. 
41.5 — Melaleuca        Deanei       and 
Petrophila  .<<e.'^.<iilis,   416  —  Water- 
storing        Mallee-roots,        and 
water  therefrom,  496. 
Froggatt.  .T.  L.,  House-flies  bred 
from  rotten  liver,  361. 

,  W.  W..  Immature  Spiny 

Stick-Tnsect ;  grass  infested 
with  larv.ne  of  a  Cecidomyid 
fly,  234 — Three  introduced 
beetles  of  economic  import- 
ance, 816 — Brachyscelid  galls  ; 
a  Californian,  Cynipid  gall  ; 
and  an  undetermined  living 
snake.  416 — An  Indian  wood- 
borer  introduced  in  the  wood 
of  boxes,  610. 


I 


tNDtX. 


Exhibits  :— 

Hedk-y.  C,  i>lH.t(.,-r;ii)li  <.f  ilic 
cenotaph  in  iin'iiiory  of  Major 
and  Mrs.  limes,  in  the  old 
churcli  at   Port  .Ma((iuarie.  2;;i). 

Hull.  A.  F.  15..  a  collection  of 
Land  and  I'resh  water  Mol- 
lusks  collected  in   France,  .'ioj. 

8teel.  T..  an  abnormal  j;izzard  of 
a  Muscovy  duck,  301.  415. 

Tillyird.  II.  J.,  win^'  of  fossil  in- 
sect from  (  oal-seam,  361 — 
Sections  of  the  Saccoid  Caudal 
CJills  of  tlie  larva  of  a  Java- 
nese Dragonfly,  49o — (  anadian 
Lacewiufjs  and  Caddisflies ;  a 
larj;e  Dragonfly  ] ticked  up  on 
the  pavement.  012. 

i'urner.  A.  J.,  a  collection  of 
Canadian    J>epidoptera.    01  J. 

,     F..     an     acclimatised. 

Abyssinian  grass,  234 — An  in- 
troduced, European  (ieraniuni. 
301 — A  rare  Xew  South  Wales 
plant  {TrkninUnn),  010  — 
A  teratolo.gical  specimen  of  aji 
introduced  IMantago.  713. 

W  aite,  E.  E.,  the  first  J'art  of  the 
Kecords  of  the  S.  A.  Museum. 
230. 

Fat-content  of  milk,  013. 

J'ederal  Capital  lerritory.  flora  of, 
673. 

Fellows.  Finnean-Macleay,  sum- 
maries of  yeai's  work,   11-13. 

J'ellowships.  appointments  to,  13 — 
Announcements.  610.  713. 

Fletcher,  J.  J.,  scv  Exhibits. 

— and  C .  T.  Musson,  On  cer- 
tain Shoot-bearing  Tumours  of 
JCucalypts  and  Angophoras;  and 
their  mo<lifying  influence  on  the 
natural  (irowtli-lial)it  of  the 
IMants.  I'Jl. 

Flies.  House,  lued  from  liver,  ex- 
hibited, 301 — Flies,  Muscoid,  ex- 
ternal breathing-apparatus  of 
larvjc  of,  658. 

Flora  of  Lower  Mesozoic  Hocks.  37 
-Of  New  South  Wales,  073— Of 
Federal   Capital    territory,  073. 


Foraminifera,  Devonian,  385. 

France,  mollusca  from,  exiiibited. 
235. 

Froggatt.  J.  L..  A  Study  of  the 
External  rji-eathiug-appai-atus  of 
ilie  la rv;r  of  some  ]Muscoid  F'lies, 
05S— ,svr  Flxhibits. 

.  W.  W..  re-elected  a  Vicc- 

Tresident.  135  —  Remarks  on 
migrations  of  Mice,  preyed  ui'on 
ly  Marsupials.  361 — Notes  on 
Australian  Sawfiies  (Tciithrcdi- 
iiidar).    668,— >S'cc   I'lvhibits. 

!  luii.  i>ies(rved.  springiuir  of  tins 
of,  409. 


on   Live     Oak,     ex- 


<iall.   (  ynipid 
hibited.  416. 

(ialls.  Brachyscelid.  exhibited.  36  1 
416. 

Oeology  of  the  Lowei-  Mesozoi*- 
Kocks  of  Queensland.  37--Of  the 
(ireat  Serpeiitine  Delt  of  N.  S. 
Wales.  320.  363.  593— Of  th<' 
Loomberah  District  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  (Joonoo  (Jooiioo  F^s- 
tate.  320.  363. 

<l(raniu)ji  niollc.  spe'imen  of.  ex- 
hibited. 361. 

<iillies,  C.  D..  elected  a  Afember. 
135 — On  the  Seasonal  Distrilm- 
tion  of  some  Queensland  Species 
of  Arcclla.  237. 

(.ills,  section  of  (  audal.  of  Drag- 
onfly, exhibited.  495. 

(iizzard.  abnormal,  of  a  du<k.  ex- 
hibited. 361 — Note  on.   415. 

•*(;iow-worms.'"  remarks  on.  236. 

(ioldflnch.  Lieut.,  (i.,  news  of,  285 
-   Letter  from.  712. 

(Joonoo  (ioonoo  Estate,  geoloirv  of, 
320.  363. 

(irass.   Abyssinian. 

(Ji-ass-fly.  larv;c  of. 

(irevilk'fi.    peculiar 
hibited.  235. 

(irowth-habit  of  plants  modified  b\ 
slioot-bearing   tumours,   191. 


Hakea,  peculiar  roots  of.  exhibited. 

2  3  5 
Hall.  ('..  On  a  new  Species  or  Form 

of  Eucalyptus,   747. 


exhibited.    234. 

exhibited.  234. 

roots     of,   ex- 


IJ^DEX. 


Hallmaiiii.  E.  F..  Liiniean  Maeleay 
Fellow  ill  Zoology  :  summary  of 
year's  work,  11 — lietiremeut,  11. 

Hamiltoii.  A.  G.,  elected  a  Vice- 
J 'resident,  135  —  llemarks  on 
"Cjlow-worms,"  236. 

Hedley,  C,  elected  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent, 135.— See  Exhibits. 

Jlvniiptera  Heteroptera,  fossil,  of 
Queensland,  568 — Note  on  the 
origin  of  the  Heteroptera,  568. 

llolmetabola.  phylogeny  of,  265, 

Hopson,  J.,  Junr,,  elected  a  Mem- 
ber, 416, 

llouseflies  bred  from  liver,  exhibit- 
ed, 361. 

Hull,  A,  F.  U.,  ,b'ct'  Exhibits. 

Hymeuium,  inverted,  in  Agaricus. 
883. 

India,  wood-borer  introduced  from, 
exhibited,  610. 

Innes.  Major  and  Mrs.,  photograph 
of  cenotaph  in  memory  of,  ex- 
hibited, 236. 

Inositol  from  an  Australian  plant, 
850. 

insects,  Carboniferous,  from  Com- 
meiitry,  123  —  Holometabolous, 
phytogeny  of,  265 — Mesozoic,  of 
Queensland,  117,  568, 

Insect-wing,  fossil,  from  roof  of 
coal-seam,  260. 

Johnston.  S,  J,,  congratulations  to, 
135;  thanks  from,  234, 

Kesteveii,  H.  L.,  The  Origin  of  Yolk 
in  the  Ova  of  an  Endoparasitic 
C'opepod,  136, 

Lacewiiigs,     Canadian,     exhibited, 

612, 
Lambert,    C.    A.,    and    J.    Shirley, 

The  Steins  of    Climbing    I'lants. 

600. 
Larvie  of  Muscoid    Hies,    external 

breathing  api)aratus     of,     658— 

Feeding  on  liver,  361, 
Lea,  A,  M.,  Descriptions    of    new 

Species    of    Australian     Coleop- 

tera,  xiv.,  715. 
Leaf-anatomy  of  Scaevohi,  247, 


Lepidoptera,  wing-coupling  appa- 
ratus of.  286 — Canadian,  ex- 
hibited, 611. 

L'Estrange,  W.  W,,  and  Iv.  G, 
Smith,  The  "Springing  of  Tins 
of  Preserved  Fruit,  409. 

Life-history  of  Psychopsia  eltfjuns, 
787. 

Loomberah  District,  geology  of, 
320,  363. 

iMacquarie.  Lake,  proposed  "minia- 
ture Austa-alia"  at,  416,  495, 

Mallee,  water-storing  roots  of,  and 
water  therefrom,  exhibited,  496, 

Marsupials  reported  as  preying  on 
mice,  361. 

^Nlecoptera.  studies  in,  395, 

Megaloptera,  Australian.  819. 

Melaleuca  Deanei,  exhibited,  416. 

Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland, 
No.  3,  417  ;  No.  4,  568. 

Mesozoic,  Lower,  Eocks  of  Queens- 
land, 37. 

Methyl  Ifjevo-inositol  from  an  Aus- 
tralian plant,  850. 

Mice,  recent  migrations  of,  report- 
ed, 361. 

Milk,  relation  between  fat-content 
and  electrical  conductivity  of. 
613. 

Mitchell,  J,,  The  Carboniferous 
Trilobites  of  Australia,  437, 

Mollusca  from  France,  exhibited, 
235, 

.Mosses  of  North  Queensland,  544, 

Museum,  South  Australian,  Pe- 
cords  of,  exhibited,  236, 

Musson.  C,  T.,  and  J.  J.  Fletcher, 
On  certain  Shoot-bearing  Tum- 
ours of  Eucalypts  and  Ango- 
phoras;  and  their  modifying 
influence  on  the  natural  Growth- 
habit  of  the  Plants,  191, 
Myrmeleontidie,  structure  of  cubi- 
tus in,  116. 

Neuroptera,  studies  in  Australian, 

116.  750,  787. 
Neuropteroidea,  phylogeny  of,  265. 
New  South  Wales,  Serpentine  Belt 

of,  320,  363,  593-  Notes  on  flora 

of,  673. 


INDEX. 


Xote  oil  a  new  species  of  Chactctcs, 
392—011  the  origin  of  the  Hete- 
roptera,  568 — On  the  tempera- 
ture of  Echidna,  84-t. 

Notes  and  Exhibits.  235,  361,  415, 
416,   495,   610,  713. 

Notes  on  native  Flvni  of  New 
South  Wales,  673. 

Odonata,  Mesozoic,  417. 

Origin  of  yolli  in  ova  of  a  Cope- 
pod,  136— Of  the  lleteroptera, 
note  on.  568. 

Ova  of  Copepod,  origin  of  yolk  in, 
136. 

Odalis  condculata,  two  forms  of. 
exhibited,  235. 

J'anorpoid  Complex.  265,  286,  626. 
Panorpoidea.  phylogeny  of,  265. 

JVtrel.  Little,  seen  in  Neutral  liay, 
495. 

I'etrie.  J.  M.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  in  Biochemistry :  sum- 
mary of  year's  work,  11 — lie- 
appointed.  1819-19.  13. 

.  The  Occurrence  of  JNIethyl 

Lievo-inositol    in  an    Australian 
Poisonous  Plant.  850. 

i'etrology  of  the  Cireat  Serpentine 
Belt.  320,  363.  593. 

I'ctroijhUu-  aesiiUiff,  exhibited,  416. 

I'lwma  vitricarpa,  life-history  of. 
868. 

Phylogeny  of  Holometabolous  in- 
sects. 265. 

Plantago,  teratological,  exhibited, 
713. 

]*lants.  Climbing,  stems  of.  600 — 
Exhibited,  sec  Exhibits. 

Playfair,  Cr.  I.,  New  and  rare 
Freshwater  Alga?,  497. 

i^oisonous  plant  yielding  inositol. 
850. 

l*riestley,  H.,  elected  a  Member. 
135. 

I'rotodonata.  Mesozoic.   417. 

Psychopsidic.  the  family,  750. 

Psj/chopsis  (Jcquns,  life-historv  of. 
787. 

Pulbali  Island,  proposed  "minia- 
ture Australia"  on,  416,  495. 


(Mieensland.  Lower  :Mesozoic  Ilocks. 
37— Species  of  Arcella,  237  — 
Mesozoic  Insects,  417,  568— 
North,  Mosses,  544. 

Becords  of  S.  A.  Museum,  exhibit, 
ed,  236. 

Boots,  peculiar,  exhibited,  235— 
Waterstoring,  of  a  Mallee,  ex- 
hibited, 496. 

Ifom   hracteafa.  exhibited,  236. 

Sawtlies.  Australian,  notes  on,  663. 

Scievola.  leaf-anatomy  of,  247. 

Search  for  toxin <i)roducers,  142. 

Secretion,  epidermal  of  Sctevola, 
247. 

Seedlings  with  peculiar  roots,  ex- 
hibited ;  of  Tephrosia.  exhibited. 
235— Of  other  plants  than  Euca- 
lypts  and  Angophoras.  with 
shoot-bearing  tumours,  exhibit- 
ed. 416. 

Serpentine  Belt  of  N.  S.  Wales, 
320,   363,   593. 

Sherrie.  ]\Iiss  H.,  elected  a  Mem- 
ber, 362. 

Shirley.  J.,  tind  C.  A.  Lambert,  The 
Stems  of  Climbing  Plants,  600. 

Smith.  (;.  P.  D.,  An  Account  of 
s(m»e  Observations  upon  the 
Life-history  of  Phnma  citricarpd 
McAlp..  the  cause  of  the  "Black 
Spot"  of  Citrus-fruit  in  N.  S. 
^\'ales,  868— The  Occurrence  of 
an  inverted  Hymenium  in  Agari- 
cus  cam  pest  ri.s,  883. 

..  B.  CU-eig.    Macleay    Ba<- 

teriologist  to  the  Society:  sum- 
mary of  year's  work.  11 — Con- 
tril»utions  to  our  Knowledge  of 
Soil-fertility.  No.  xvi.  "  The 
Search  for  Toxin-producers,  142 
-  IJemarks  on  water  from  Mal- 
lee-roots,  496. 

•    and     W.     W. 

L'Estrange.  The  "Springing"  of 
Tins  of  Preserved   Fruit.  409. 

Snake,  livhig.  exhibited.  416. 

Soil-fertility,    contributions     to     a 

knowledge  of.    142. 
Soy  Bean  seeds,  exhibited,  611. 


i^DEX. 


"Sprin^^iiij;"    of  tins  of    iireserved 

fruit.  401). 
Steel.  T..  note  on  an  abnormal  giz- 
zard of  a     duck.     415 — »Vrc     Ex 

liibits. 
Stems  of  climbiny:  plants.  GOO. 
Stick-inseet.  immature,     exhibited. 

234. 
Studies  in  Australian  Xeuroptera. 

116,   750,  787— ^te<X)ptera.  395. 
i<t!ii)h('}i<i     tiihiflora,     flowers     of. 

variable     in     colour,    exliibite<I. 

236. 
Sydney    Harbour    Colliery,     fossil 

insect-wing  from.  260. 

'lamwortli  district,  Devonian  Fora- 
minifera  from  the,  385. 

Taylor.  F.  H..  Contributions  to  a 
knowledge  of  Australian  Culi- 
cida?,  No.  iv..  826. 

T.  C,    congratulations  to, 

234~thanks  from,  285. 

Temperature  of  Echidna.  844. 

Tephrosia,  seedling  of,  exhibited, 
235. 

Tillyard.  E.  J.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  in  Zoology:  summary  of 
year's  work.  12 — Ke-appointed. 
1918-19,  13— Congratulations  to, 
135— aS'cc  Exhibits. 

Studies  in  Australian 

Neuroptera.  Xo.  5.  The  Struc- 
ture of  the  Cubitus  in  the  Wings 
of  the  Myrmeleontid;e,  116 ;  N(*. 
6.  The  Family  Psychopsidie. 
with  Descriptions  of  new  Cenera 
and  Species,  750;  Xo.  7.  Tlie 
Life-history  of  Psi/rhopsis  vl'  - 
(jana,  787— On  the  Affinities  of 
two  interesting  Fossil  Insects 
from  the  Upper  Carlxmiferous  of 
('(mimentry.  France.  123 — A  Fos- 
sil Insect-wing  from  the  roof  of 
the  Coal-seam  in  the  Sydney 
Harbour  Colliery,  260— The 
I'anorpoid  C  omplex  :  a  study  of 
the  Phylogeny  of  the  Holometa 
bolous  Insects,  with  special  re 
ference  to  the  Subclasses  Panor- 
poidra  and  yeuropteroidca  [In- 
troduction], 265;  Pt.  i..  The 
Wing-coupling   Apparatus,     with 


special  reference  to  the  Lepidop- 
trra.  286;  Pt.  ii.,  The  Wing-tri- 
chiation  and  its  Eelationship  to 
the  Ceneral  Scheme  of  Venation, 
626  —  Studies  in  Australian 
Mecoptera.  No.  ii..  The  Wing- 
Venation  of  Chorista  australia 
Klug.  395 — Mesozoic  Insects  of 
(Queensland.  No.  3,  Odonnta 
and  Protodouata.  417;  No.  4. 
ffoniptera  Heteroptera :  The 
Family  Dunstaniidae.  With  a 
Note  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Ifctcrnptcra,  568  —  Australian 
Mcf/aloptera  or  Alder-flies;  with 
Descriptions  of  new  Genera  and 
Species.  SI 9. 

Toxin-producers,  search  for,  142. 

Trichiation  of  insect-wings.  626. 

Trichinium.  a  rare  species  of,  ex 
hibited.  610. 

Trilobites.  Carboniferous.  437. 

Tumours,  shoot-bearing.  191,  415. 

Turner.  A.  J.,  ace  Exhibits. 

,  F.,  sec  Exhibits. 

Waite.  E.  U..  sec  Exhibits. 

Walkom.  A.  B.,  The  Geology  of  the 
Fower  ^lesozoic  Eocks  of 
Queensland,  with  special  Kefer- 
ence  to  their  Distribution  and 
Fossil  Flora,  and  their  (  orrela- 
tion  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic 
Kocks  of  other  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia. 37 — Congratulations  to, 
135;  thanks  from.  234. 

Ward  law,  H.  S.  H..  Linnean  ISIac- 
leay  IVllow  in  Physiology:  sum- 
mary of  year's  work,  12 — Re 
appointed.  13. 

— .  'i'he  IJelatiou  be- 
tween the  Fat-content  and  the 
Electrical  C  onductivity  of  Milk. 
613 — Note  on  the  Temperature'of 
Evhidna  uculcata,  844. 

Water  from  ^Iallee-rt>ots.  exhibit- 
ed. 496;  remarks  ou,  496. 

Water-storing  roots  of  Mallee.  ex 
hibited.  496. 

Watts.  W.  W..  and  ^'.  F.  J3rotherus. 
The  Mosses  of  N.  Queensland, 
544. 


INDEX.  ni. 

Wiiit:  of  fossil  iiis«^<t    from    C'oji]  Myrmeleontidce.  116. 

seam.  :.'60  ;  t'.xliibittMl.  :{(51.  \\  <»o<lI><M-er.  iiitro(lu<e«l.  Indian,  ex- 

\Vin:z-coui)lin;r     apparatus     of     in-  Inlnted,  610. 

se<ts.  :,'S6 — Winir-trichiation  and 

venation.  G:.M»     Win  ^'-venation  of  ^'east.  samples  of.  exhibited,  612. 

Choriata.   :59.').  "^'olk.  ori;rin  of.  in  ova  of  a  Cope- 

W  inu's.  structure  of  cubitus  of.  in  pod,  136. 


(/>)  BIOLOGICAL  INDEX. 

Names  in  italics  are  synonyms. 

I'AGE.  Page. 

Abrus  i»recatorius 601     Adenocalymma  nitidum  ..    ..     600 


A( 

acia 

710 

armata 

704 

buxifolia 

704 

Dawsoni 

704 

dealbata    

.. 

704 

decurren.s  r.  mollis  . 

704 

diffusa . .          ... 

704 
704 

implexa 

.. 

laniirera  r.  venulosa  . 

.   .  . 

704 

nielaiH»xylon 

684. 

704 

obtusata   

696. 

704 

)>enninervLs 

690, 

704 

jtravissima 

,    696, 

704 

rubi<la 

704 

sicnliformis 

704 

rvuulo>i<i     

704 

verui<iflna 

704 

,\( 

•;ena   ovina 

704 

sanjzuisorbie     

704 

A( 

antbaceie 

600 

A( 

■antliaclisis 

119. 

122 

A( 

•antliocladium   extenuatum, 

561 

sp.   (?) 

561 

A( 

•ilihylla   simplicifolia . . 

691. 

700. 

707, 

711 

\< 

•ri<lii<he      

'^63 

\( 

ridioidea 

■'61 

A( 

•rotriche  a;jj;rewita 

690, 

707 

serrulata    

707 

A< 

•t inocystis   cornu-bovis 

595 

A( 

tinomyces    ..    117.   149. 

1.55, 

166 

cbromojrena 

147. 

148 

odorifera 

147, 

148 

A( 

tinostroma    australe.  . 

336, 

380. 

381. 

382, 

384 

clatliratum      

382 

.\dia utiles  lindsa.voides  ....        89 

Adiantum  a*thiopicum      . .    .  .      701 

Aeroluyopsis    sijrmatopbylla. .    559 
Aeroplana . .    . .    . .    . .  426,  431,  434 

mirabilis  . .   426,  427,  429,  430, 
433,  435 

Aeroplauida' 435 

Aeroplanoptera 425,   434 

.ll^schna 436 

flinder^^ii  HHis 436 

.Eschnidiid.'B       423 

^^i^schnidiopsis 436 

flindersiensis 435,436 

Agaricace;e 884.    885,    886 

Apiricus  campestris 883 

Agrionidie 421,  434 

A.irr<»myzidtp 688 

Aira  caryophyllea 702 

Ajuixa   australis 708 

Albertia  australis 90 

Alethopteris 56 

australis 85.  86,  87 

sp 85.  91 

Aljrie 497 

Alisma   i>lantaj:o 702 

Alismatace-cV 702 

Alveolites  depressa 393 

sp 331,   595 

Amaryllida<ea' 703 

Amceba 172,  173 

Umax.    176.    17  7.    180.    181,    189 

\m|»elidea> 600 

Amphientomum. .    ..    132.   133.   131 

paradoxum 130,131 

Amplexiformia 297 


Vlll. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Aimbieiia 5<>3 

australica 503.  541 

r.  coiistricta    . .    . .    504,   541 

laxa 505 

V.  hortensis 505.  541 

oscillarioides 507 

r.  crassa     504.  5  41 

r.  steiiospora 507 

variabilis 504 

r.  cyliiidracea . .    ..   504.  541 

Volzii 507 

Aiiaj;allis  arveiisis     708 

Aiiastellorhina  aiij;iir    . .   415.  658. 
6G2.  664.  666,  667 

Amlropogon  affinis     702 

refractus 702 

Aiigophora 191,   227,   688 

c'ordifolia 227 

iiitormedia 227.  803 

laiiceolata    ..    ..    212,  227,  232 

siibvelutina 227 

Aiijruillaria  dioii-a 702 

Aiiobium  domesticum      .  .    . .      361 
Aiioniobryiim  <-ymbifoliimi   . .      554 

AnomodoH    Torcoac 563 

Anopheles 826,  827 

aiiniilipes 827,  828 

atratipes 827 

barbirostris 827 

r.  bancrofti      .  .    . .    827,  843 

corethroides 826.  827 

puiHtiilatiis 826 

stij^matieus 826,   827 

Anthistifiii  cilkitti      702 

Aiithophysa  vejj;etaiis  ....  508 

Aiitliropliyojtsis  sp 91 

Anti^'oiioii   leptopus 601 

Aphaniptera 265.  269.  28S 

Apochrysidje 638.  783 

Apocyiia<-ea« 600,  862,  867 

AraUa<eiH 707 

AraiK-aria 75 

AraiK-arioxyloii  spp 05 

Araiiearites 75,  90 

polyearpa 72.  79.  SI 

sp 85 

sp.  A S9 

sp.  B 90 

Arcella 237,  238 

artot-rea..    237,   238.   239.   240. 

241,  242,  245,  246 

deutata 237 


Page. 

Areella  discoides    . .    237,  238,  239. 
240,  241,  243,  244.  245,  246 

mitrata,  237,  238.  239,  240,  241, 
244,   245,   246 

vulgaris    .      237,  238,  239,  240, 

241,  242,  243,  245,  246 

Arcliicliaiiliodes,  291,  635,  636,  637 

dubitatiis 820 

.irnttiferus,     292,  626,   636,  820 

Arcliii)anorpa,    633,    635,    636,    650, 

651,  653 

maguiiiea      ,  .    ,  .   269,  631,  657 
Arisoceplialus 732 

basalis 733,  735 

flavipes 733,735 

rufipeiiiiis 733,  734 

Arisiis 732 

carina  ticeps 735 

Armigeres 829 

breinli 828,  843 

inalayi 829 

Aroideae 601 

Artcriopterij.v,    759,    760.    764,   765, 
766,  768,  773 

chyaus 767,   777,   784 

Artliroiormiis  Scliimperi,   545,   549 

Arthropoda 278,280 

Artliro]K)diuiii  i)aiiiciilatum    ..   702 

Artnulo  /'hnif/niites     702 

Ascalaphidie  \  .    291.   631,   638,   815 

A.scaris 140 

Aselepediaeeic 600 

Ascochyta   hortoruiii 875 

Asparagus  ra<eun)siis.  .    ..  601,608 

Aspfi-gillus  sp 147,  14S 

Asperula  oligantha    , .    , ,    691,  708 

r.  S(x>i)aria 708 

Asi)i(liKiH   <icul((iti(ni 701 

Aspidosperma  (luebraclio,  862,  863, 

867 
Asplenium  liabellifolium . .    ..    701      j 

Aster  crlmi.sia 709      | 

AntcrfKlictioii  orafiim     ..    537,  538 

Astrorliizidu' 387 

Astrotriclia   ledifolia 707 

Atrypa  sp 331,336,595 

Auliiia   rotiformis 383      ^ 

Auriculariacoje 885      J 

Austinia   luzonensis     561    M 

Australina  pusilla 703    ■ 

Austrosialis 821,  823,  824    ■ 

ignicollis 822,  823     j 


INDEX. 


IX. 


Page. 


JJacilliis  iiiuiR-tiis 144 

mycoides 143,  169 

l»rodi;j:iosiis.  14o.  147,  155.  157, 
101.  108  171.  172,  18:J.  189. 
190. 

pyotyaueus 173 

si».      ..    148.    149.   15:3.   153.   154. 
155.    157,    158,    161.   169 

Ijackliuiisiu  myrtifolia 415 

JJacterium  tiimefacieus     . .    . .   197 
r.cwkea  Ciuimiana,..    690,  691,  707 

iiaiera  aiistralis 89 

bideiis    .  .    .  .    65,  68,  70,  79,  81 

j^'inkgoides 65,  79.  81 

gracilis 89,  90 

ipsvicieii.sis .  .   65.  69,  70.  79,  81 

miiltifida    .  .    .  .    69,   70,   85.  87 

Simmoudsi,   65,  69,  72.  74,  76, 

79,  80.  85,  87 

SI) 86 

stormbergeiisis 68,  70 

Balmc>i 760.  761.  784,  785 

liahnviiini   .. 760,  761 

Baiiisteria  chrysopbylla  . .  601,  602 
LJaiiksJa  margiiiata..  695,  703.  711 

serrata 235 

JJarbella  eiRTvis 560 

I'.arbiila   calyciiia 552 

IJartrauiiaccte 556 

Jiaidiinia  corymbom 601 

scaiideiLS       601 

Beaiimoiitia  graudifiora    . ,    . .    600 
Bedfordia  saliciiia     . .    . .   701.  709 

Beiiiiettitales 65,  72 

Beiiiiettites 65.  69,  79 

Carriitbersi 69 

.SI) 81 

Ijernardia  Chodati 533 

tetraedrica 533.  543 

Ijerotbida-    .  .    .  .    638.  639.  783,  784 

iJertya  ok'a'folia 705 

Jiescberolhi   brvrifoliu 557 

(  yrtopiis 557 

Bigiioiiia  fioribuiida     600 

picta    .  .     .  .    600.    602.   604,   609 
Tweediaiia .  .  600,  602,  604,  609 

veiiusta 600 

LUgiiouiacete 600 

Billardiera  scaudeus 704 

Biroiiella 826.   827 

gracilis 826,  827 


Page. 

lUttacidcC 290,  640,  656 

lUecbiiiim  cai)eiise 701 

cartilagiueiim 701 

discolor 701 

peiina-mariiia 701 

Borragiiiaceie     708 

Bossiur'a  buxifolia 705 

Walkeri 705 

Bostrychiis  icqualis      610 

Bougainvillea  lateritia..    601,  607, 

609 

Sanderiana 607 

r.   variegata    . .    . .    601,   609 

spectabilis.    601.    602,    606.   609 

Bracbycbitoii   popiilneus,     697,   706 

I '.racbycome  discolor. .    ..   691,709 

scapiformis 709 

scapigera     . .    . .   690,  691,  709 

Sieberi 709 

sp 690 

Bradiyhcna 255 

Brachyloma  dai)liii< tides    . .    . .    707 
Bracliymeiiinm  acuminatum  . ,   554 

Wattsii 554 

P.rachymetopiiia 483,  485 

Bracbymetopus.   438,   439.   482.  485 

duustaiii..    471,   486.   488,   492, 

493.  494 

lodiciisis 488 

^Nfaccoyi 486 

SJ).  iud 488,  492 

strzclcckii.    438.   439.    443,   482. 

483.  486.  487.  488,  491 

l!racbyi>byllum.  .    ..    56,  75,  85.  90 

cra.ssnm  . .    .  .  72.  75,  76,  79,  81 

gippslaudicum 90 

SP 90 

Brachytbeciaceic 567 

Bromus  maximus r02 

Brunelbi  vulgaris 708 

Brunonia 24S 

Bryaceu- 554 

3>i\voiiia 608 

laciiiiosa    . .    601,  602,  605,  609 
Bryum  argeuteum  v.  iiiveum..    554 

Baileyi 555 

erythrocarpoides 554 

kurambc 554 

leptotbrix 555 

l)impamic     555 

subatropurpureum      ..    ..    555 
subolivaceum 555 


a. 


IKDEX. 


Page. 

Bryiim  siibpathyiKuna 555 

Biuldleia  inadajjcastarensis  . .  601 
BiilMiie  bulhosa..    ..    689.  692,  702 

BinhUUa  lornnta 525 

Bursa ria  spiiiosa 704 

• 

C'aladeiiia  alba 692,703 

(limorplia 689.692,703 

testacea 703 

C  alama.irrostis  anuula 702 

Callicostella  k;erni)a(liii  . .  . .  562 
CaUiphoni  occanhic   .  .    .  .   415,  658 

nififacUs 658 

rariix  s 658 

viUom 657,  658 

Callistemon  lopliaiitluis. .    690,  707 

pachyphylhis 713 

paliulosus 707 

piiiifolius 415 

rigidus 713,  714 

saligims 415 

Sieberi 691,  707 

vimiiialis 714 

Callitri.s  cakarata    ..     ..    676,   701 

sp 834 

Calomf/ui 838 

prk'.stlrii 838 

C'alopteryiridu* 495 

Calotis  scabiosifolia      709 

/•.  inU'^rifolia 709 

Calycothrix  tetraj,'(>iia 707 

Calymperai  ea'     55<> 

C'alymperes  Keiiiiedyanum     . .    552 

molucceiiso 545,    552 

Motleyi 552 

iiigresceiis 553 

serratnm 552 

teiiernm 552 

(alifmiKridiiini  Mudlcri  ..  ..  551 
C  alyptoiliyiK'lius  viridis  .  .  . .  694 
(■alyi)t<>tbe(iniii  a<iitnm     ..    ..    560 

himiile 560 

('alffthrir  f<tni(/oii(( 707 

CampaimbKoa' 708 

(  amphoiiliylliim  tiexuosum  ..  380 
Camptocha-te  biisbanka   . .    . .    561 

vaga 561 

Campylodontiimi  Haves<eiis   . .   561 

Campylopus  Wattsii     547 

Woollsi 547 

Caiid<>llea  senulata.  690,  700,  709 
Caiidulleacea.- 690,  709 


Page 

(  aprifoliaceiE 708 

Carabida" 436 

(  ardamine  liirsiita     r.     teiiiii- 

folia 704 

tntififolia     704 

(  ardiophoriis 733 

Cardiiiis  pycnocephalus     ..    ..    709 

Carex  apiu'essa 702 

(iaiidichaiidiaiia     702 

pseudo-cyperiis 702 

tereticaiilis 702 

(  ari»olithes  spp 90 

Carroiiia   multisepalea. .    601.^602. 
605'  609 

Carteria 498,  514 

bulhilina 516 

granulosa 516,  541 

multifilis 515,  516.  541 

nignlosa 514,  517,  541 

r.  angulata 515,  541 

r.  iuiP(iiialis     ..    ..    515,  541 

(  aryophyllacea^ 689.703 

(  assiiiia  aciileata 709 

longifolia 709 

quiiiqiiefaria 709 

(  assytha  melaiitha 701 

pha'olasia 701 

Castiiiida-..     ..    297,   308.  311.    314 
I'asiiariiia     Ciuiiiinghamiaiia,     692. 

703 

glaiK-a 693 

Luohmaiiiii.  682,  693.    703.  711 

(juadrivalvis 703 

sp 415 

strict.a 692,  703 

(  asuariiiOce 703 

Caiistis  fiexuosa 691 

{  ocidomyia   s\> 234 

Celmisia  longifolia..   691.  700,  709 

Centanrea  calcitrapa 709 

solstitialis 709 

Centipeda  (unninghamii   . .    . .    709 

Cephenode.s  jauus 319 

(  erastium   vulgatiim 703 

(■(MaUKUis 9t) 

C  luetetes 335,  392,  393 

depre.ssiis 393 

Coldfussi 380 

radians 392.  393,  39J 

stelliformis.  .  336.  380.  393.  o'.)i 

(  lurtomitrinm  entodonloides. .    562 

Cieheebii 562 


INDEX. 


XI. 


Page. 

(  luetomitrium  nematosiim     ..    .")6"2 

(halkodoma 278.280 

(  li:irn<'ium  cernssifonne   ..    ..    529 
r.  miniminii      .  .    .  .    528.  529 

uiittiila 528 

lonsj;ii>es 529 

oniithooephalnni. .    ..   528.  529 

l»yi-if(>rine 529 

Charajria :}02.  313 

eximia 302,  319 

Chauliodina' 820 

(  heihmthes  tennifolia 701 

('lieii-(>lepis(  ■?)    setosus      ....      90 

(  henoi»<)diaceip 703 

(  henoiKtdiuin   tl•ian^'lllal•e      ..    703 

(himariha 394 

(hlamvdoimnias.  498.  509.  517,  518, 

532 

alboviridis 520 

alpina 518,  541 

anjiulosa    /•,  obesa    ..    521,  541 

raiidata 518.  541 

ijlobulosa 519 

Lismorensis     /•.     i?ra<ilis.   517, 

541 

longistigma 523 

maculata 518,  541 

r.  oblonga 519.  541 

r.  pbuiktonica. .    ..519,  541 

media 521 

metasliicma 519,  541 

paupercula 520,541 

pisiformis  r.  ocellala.  521.  541 

pusilla 520.  541 

reiiiforinis 517.  541 

rotiila    ..    .  .    517.  518.  532.  541 

stellata 518 

subcaudata 519 

( hloeoii 278 

Chloiis  truiuata 702 

(  hloroj;onium  minimum..   521,  542 

Chloronionas  alpma     518 

Chlorophyceie 514 

(  horetrum  spicatum 703 

Chorista..    290.   397,   399,   401,   404. 

406 

aiistralis..    395.   398,   403,   405. 

407,  408,  657 

(  boristida?..  288,  290,  312,  316.  640 

Cbrooeoecaeete 499 

(  hrysopa 396 

Chiysopida%  633,  638.  756,  783.  791. 
806,  816,  817 


Page. 

Cicada  (?)    lowei 87 

Cicadid.'i- 589 

Ciiicbona 603 

Cla<lomiiioii  palleiis 557 

Cladopblebis  australis,   64.   68.   70. 
71.  74,  75.  78,  85.  87.  90 

denticulata 74 

y.  australis 89.  90 

Koylei..    64.  68,  70.  71.  75,  78. 
85,   87 

sp 68,  85,  87 

C'lavaria 885 

Clematis  aristata 703 

microphylla 703 

Closterium   lunula 513 

Codiolum  i^r 'jj:aiium     530 

('(jf'lastraceu' 540 

('(TelastiMim  reti<ulatum  . .  , .  540 
('(plospermum  paniculatum. .  601. 
602,  603,  609 
CflEHiuosa  trianjiularis.  634.  635,  652 
Coleoi»tera.  265.  266.  267.  268,  295, 

715 

Coleopteroidea 265 

Collembola 799 

Colletotriehum  adustnm..  868.  869 

Coml)i'etaee;p 601 

Comes])erma  retusum..    ..  691,  705 
Compositje,   601.   690.   691.   709,  710 

Coui-bidium   kniubtii 336 

Coniferales   ..    ..   72.  73,  75,  78,  79 
Coniojjtei'is  delicatula   ..  64.  78,  80 

bymenophylloides    r.  aus- 

tralica 89 

Coniopterygida^ 638 

Conites  sp 90 

ConjugatiF 510 

ConvolvulaceiP 601,  708 

Convolvulus  erubescens     . .    . .   708 

Copeognatha 132 

Coprosma  hirtella 708 

Coreida? 576,  582 

(  orydalidsp.  291.  316.  636.  656,  819 

Coi-ydalime 820 

Corydalns 125 

Corynopbyllus  andersoni..    ..   725 

fortnumi 725 

interoeularis 724 

modestus 725 

Cotula  lilicula 709 

Craspedia  Eichea 709 

Crassulaeeae 704 

Creagrini    ,.    ..    116.  121,  122,    130 


xu. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Creagris 436 

Crcagris 12?-,  436 

plumbeus 123,  436 

Creoleon ^36 

Creoleontini -136 

(ristellaria  vetiista 386 

Crncifersp      T04 

Crustacea 278 

rryphsea  tenella 556 

(ryphfpacesp 556 

Crypliidium  ^[nelleri 557 

Cryptandra  spineseens 7()5 

Cryptodus 723,  724 

al>errans 723 

cavioeps 723,724 

gigas 724 

grossipes 723,  724 

tasmaniaiius 724 

Crifptof/k'iia  an(/iilo,m 522 

('nipiomo)ias  Lima 510 

(  ryptostegia   grandiflora,  600,  602 

Ciu-umis  myriocarpus 708 

f'liciirbitai-epe 601.  708 

Cn]ex  ahdominalia 835 

bitjeiiiorhyiichus 835 

foncolor 835 

consimilis 835 

(■)/Ut)(i)ieii.<^ 838 

fatigans 836 

flnrifroiis 832 

fnsous 836 

notoftcriptux 834 

parr  us 835,  836 

sitiens 834.  836 

tigripes 835 

r.  fusca 835 

tigripes 835 

townsvillensis 836 

vishnui 835.  836 

C'ulioada 826 

flavifroDS 832 

tasmaniensis 834 

wilsoni 833.  834,  843 

Culiccisa  ahdominalis 835 

fusca 836 

("nlieidit^ 654.  656,  826 

Curculionidae 746 

('  lianophuccae 499 

Cyatheaeete 64.  701 

C'yathophyllnm 336 

sp 335,   376.   377,  595 

Cycadophyta.  65,  66.  69,  72,  73.  74, 

78,    79 


Page. 
Cycadopteris  soolopendrina   . .     85 

Cyclodictyon  lepidum 561 

('ylindrospermum 505.507 

Goetzei 506.  507.  541 

rec'taiigiilare.  505.  506.  507,  541 
r.  parvicelUila      . .   506.  541 

stagnale 505 

r.  australe 505.  541 

Cymatop.sociis 132 

Cymlxmotus  Lawsonianus. .   ..   709 

("ynodou  daet.ylon 702 

Cynoglossum  australe 708 

Cyperaeefp 702 

Cyperus  Gunnii 70™* 

lucidus 702 

sanguineo-fuscus 702 

Tyrotyphus  fascieulatus   . .    . .   746 

vai'iegatus 746 

Cyrtopodacete 557 

Cystiphyllum  australasioum. .    595 

vesuulosum 337 

Cytosporella  viticola 876 


Daetylothece  arcuatum.. 

Dampiera  Brownii 

DauaM»psis  Uugliesi,  64,  68 


528. 


Dania  sp 

Danthonia  carphoides 

penieillata     r.     semiannu- 

laris 

Datura   stramonium 

Daucus  braehiatus 

Daviesia   corymbosa 

ulieina 690, 

Dendroleoiitiiine 117, 

Derbinae 

Derris  scandens 

Desmodium  varians     

Dei/eaiia  Forsteri 

Dianella  revoluta 

tasmaniea 689, 

Diaporthe 

Difksonia  antarctica. .    ..  683. 

Dicranaceie 

Bkranella  Dietriohitp 

pycuoglossa 

r.  longifolia 

Dieranoloma  austro  ,seopari- 
um 

dicarpum 

serratum 

Wattsii 


542 
248 

78. 

80 
336 
702 


702 
708 
707 
704 
705 
122 
431 
601 
705 
702 
702 
702 
875 
701 
545 
546 
546 
546 

547 
546 
546 
546 


INDEX. 


Xlll. 


Page. 

Diotyeiicnemis 728 

minis 729 

DiotyophylUim 68 

Davidi 71.   78.  SO 

niirosnm,  64.  6S,  70.  71.  74.  7"). 

78 

Diflisciis  humilis     707 

Dilarid.'v 638.  783 

DilleniaeejH 249.706 

Dilhvynia     erioi folia    r.  phyli- 

coides 705 

Dittoijj/.ris  hicrifi      510 

I)il»hyi»hyllum  porteri     .  .   336,  595 

I'oldistiim      336 

8p 595 

Diplodia  zese 878.  880 

Diptera    .  .    265.  269.  272.  273.  274. 
282.  294.   314,   317.  399,  400.   404, 

572,  574.  635,  641.  648.  652,  653. 
654.   656. 

Dii)teridinjp 64,  71 

Di>4faria   australis 705 

Disforbiiia 388 

Distichophylliim  Baileyaiium . .    561 

Ditriclinm  affine 545 

Dinris  maculata 703 

sulpliurea 703 

Dodonrpa  attenimta     705 

viscosa 705 

DorcHH   luteus 715 

Dracophyllum  sefiindura . .  ..  700 
Drppanacra 116,  120 

luimilis 291 

Drepanepteryx  ..  116.  120,  756,  757 

Drepaiiidse 307.  311 

Drepanomina 116,  130 

Drimys  aromatica 704 

Drosera  aurieiilata 704 

peltata 696.  704 

Droseraepfp 704 

Dryopteris  punctata 701 

Dimstania.  568.  569,  570,  571.  572. 

573,  574.  575,  577.  578,  579,  580. 
581,  582,  583,  584,  585,  588,  589. 
590 

pulehra    . .    568,  576,   579,   582. 

584.   586,  592. 

Dunstaniidfie   .  .    568.  575.  576.  581. 

585,   583 

Dimstauiopsis,    576,   577,    578,   579. 

580,   581,   582.  583,   584,   588.   591 

triasslca   .  .   576.  577.  582,  584, 

585,  586,  592 


Page. 

Dynastides 724 

Dyscolocerus 738 

porosus 727 

rubriventris      728 

Dysmorphoptila      587 

Dystrigonistliis 738 

feri'ujjjineus 739 

laticollis 737 

paradoxus 738 

r^cliidna  aculeata 844 

Eoliinopogon  ovatus 702 

Eflimepteryx 132 

Ectropotliecium  serrifolium  . .   563 

umbifulatum 563 

verrutosum 564 

zollinjjeri 563 

Eht^ocarpus  cyaueus     415 

J^Hakatothrix  jjelatinosa . .   527,  542 

Elateridfp 733 

Eloana 262 

Elcanida- 261,  262 

Elcanopsis 262,  264 

sydneiensis     262,  263 

Eleoeliaris  aouta     702 

cylindrostachys     702 

Embidaria 265 

Embioptera 127.  128 

Endopliyllum 377,  599 

schlueteii 595 

Endotric'liella   Dietriohiiv . .    ..   557 

lepida 557 

Endromida^ 307 

Entodoutaceti* 561 

Entomophthalmus,. .    731.  732,  735 

Epacridacea- 690,  691,  707 

Epacris  brevifolia 707 

micTophylla 691,  707 

paludosa   . .    691,  700,  707,  711 

serpyllifolia 707 

Epilobium  glabellum 707 

Epioplilebia 420,  421,  422 

superstes 420 

Epiophlebiina^ 422 

Equisetales  . .  64,  66,  67,  71,  73,  78 

Equisetites  columnaris  . .   . .  70,  73 

('/.    rajmahaleiisis,    71,   73.    75. 

78 

rotiferum..    64.  68,  70,  71,  73, 

75,  78 

sp 64,   89 

wonthaggiensis 89 

Equisetum  spp.   . .    . .    , .  67,  85,  91 


XIV. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

l^roihtites  mixta     709 

quadrulentata 691.700 

ICremosphi^ra 53].  o:>4 

viridis 531 

r.  tetraedrica   ..    ..  5?>1.  .)ir.' 

Erijieron  bonarionsis 611 

canadensis 611 

linifolius 610 

Eriorrania 29S 

semipurpurella 649 

Eriocraniidje •^9') 

I'^riostemon    niyoporiodos.   690.    705 

lOristalis  tenax 661 

i:rodium   ciciitariuni 705 

cyjjjnorum 705 

Krythrjpa  aiistralis 70S 

Esrallonia 255 

l':stheria 38 

Cofrhlani 88 

manj^aliensis 88 

Eucalyptus 195.  203.  710 

agrgresata 706 

albens 689 

amv^dalina 229.   70<i 

Beliriana   ..   221.  223.  229.  233 

Blaklelyi 706 

botryoides 229 

Bridgemana 706 

Cambagci 699.  706 

camphora 700,  7o6 

capitellata 229,  S03 

eiuerea 229 

coriaeea..    229,  230.   684.   69o. 

691,  698,  706.  711 

eoi-vmbosa.  204.  205.  208.  229. 

232  803 

ciebi-a 229.749 

dealbata 687.  688.  706 

Deanei 229 

DrlegatfHsiH.  228.  698.  699,  706 

dives 229.  699.  706 

dumosa 220 

elaeophora 699.  706 

eudesmoides 226 

eugenioides.  206,  207,  219,  229. 
232,  233,   748,   749 

eximia 208,  229,  232 

fastigata    . .   228,  698,  699,  706 

ficifolia 230 

fnitieetorum    ..    221,  224.   229. 

233 
gigantea 228,  698,  706 


Page. 
I':ii(aly])tns  .uiobiilns  ....  230.  689 

gracilis 199 

(lunnii 230 

b:eniast<»ma.  206.  229.  232.  68S. 

699,  706.  748 

beniipbloia.  204.  211.  229.  232. 

233.  740 

leucoxylon,   201.    219.    229.    778 

longifolia 209.229.232 

Lnehnianniana 229 

:Nracartbiiri 229 

inacrocarpa 230.   232 

macroriliyncha    .  .    .  .    699.  706 

macula  ta      220 

maculosa 229.  609.  706 

^farsdeni 747,   7i9 

melliodora 706 

microcorys 803 

Moorei..    ..    220,  229.  233,  748 

n<>va-angli<a 669.  740 

Obliqua 698.    74S 

oleosa  .  .  199,  200.  220.  r>26,  233 

oreades 228 

oralifolia      699 

pallidifolia 229 

lianiculata 202.  229 

pilularis 228 

piperita  ....  206.  229.  232,  233 

polyantliemos 699,  706 

pruinosa 230 

punctata 228,   749 

regnans 699 

resinfera   .  .   209,  229,  232.  361. 
748 

robusta 209,  229,  232 

rostrata 201,  229,  680 

rubida 229.  706 

saligna 229.  803 

sideropbloia 229,  748 

sideroxylon.  205,  212,  214,  216. 
229,  232,  233 

Sieberiana 229 

sp 203.  227.  228.  233,  668 

scpiamosa      229 

stellulata 706 

Stricta..    ..    199,  220,  229,  233 

Stuartiana 230,   706 

tereticornis.  194.  195,  205,  211. 
218,  229,  232,  233,  749 

terminalis 226 

vimiualis  ..  201,  229,  706,  748 
viridis 221.  229.  233 


INDEX. 


XV, 


Page. 

Eiioamptodon  Ahielleri o47 

Encnemid.'v 72.") 

Eiulyptnla  minor     495 

Eiisrereon 587 

Enomi>halii.s  sp 505 

Enphorlda   Drnmmonrtii    . .    . .    705 

Lathynis 705 

Euphorbia cejip    . .    . .    705.   863.   867 

Euphrasia  Rrowuii 708 

EupterotifUip 307 

Eusc'hemon..  ..  308.  309.  310.  311 
Exoc-arpus  cupressiformis.  699,  703 

stricta 703 

Exodictyon  snbscabruni  . .  . .  549 
Exsul 573.  574 

singularis 573 

Extatosoma   tiaratum 334 

Exuviella  Lima 510 

Fabrionaeeae 561 

Faradaya  splendida  ....  601.  603 
Favosites     basaltiea    7-.   moon- 

biensis 595 

r-apillaris 393 

orummeri 331.  333 

depressus     393 

Gothland ica.  331.  336.  379.  595 

multitabulata  .  .    339,   331.   336. 

379.  595 

plttmani 331 

salebrosa 595 

sp 336.  379.  384 

Festuca  bromoides 703 

Hookeriana 691.  703 

Ficus  pumila 601 

FiUcales.  64.  66.  67,  68,  71,  73.  74, 

78,  80 

Finlaya  poicilia 838 

Fissidens  arboreus 549 

asplenioides 549 

cairnensis 549 

DietrichijF 550 

Hollianus 550 

kerianus 550 

kurandae     550 

microleeythis 550 

pallidum 550 

tenellus 550 

zippelianus 550 

Fissidentacese 549 

Flagellaria  indiea 601.  608 

Flagellariere 601 


Page. 

Flagellata- 508 

Florilmudaria  floribuuda  ....    559 

pseudofloribunda 559 

robustubi 560 

Fornax  castaneus 736 

ma.1orinus     737 

niger 735 

parvulus 737 

suturalis 736 

Franeeia  oblonira 533,  543 

ovalis 533 

Fraus 303 

Frenata 296.  297 

Frenatdc 296 

Frenelopsis(?) 91 

FulgoridtP 431,  587 

Funariac^iie 553 

Fusarium  sp 159,  169 

Fusicoeoum 875 

Fusulina 386,  388,  389 

Calba 731,  741 

australitp     741 

waHacei 743 

(lalbodema 741 

Galeola  oassythoides.  601.  608.  609 

Galium  umbrosum 708 

Garclvea  pliascoides 545 

Garovaglia  ]\ruelleri 557 

Gastrodia  sesamoides 703 

(ieitonoplesium  cymosum.  601.  608 

Geminella 498 

Gentianaceae 708 

Geraniaceap 705 

Geranium  dissectum 705 

moUe 361 

sp 198 

Ginkgo  antarctiea.. .  65.  68,  79,  81 
digitata    .  .    65,   68,   70.   79.    81 

dilatata  r.  lata 85 

Huttoni  r.  magnifolia     . .      74 

magnifolia,  65,   68,   70,  71,   72, 

74,  76,  79,  80 

sp 80,  89 

Ginkgoales,   65,   66,   67,   68,   73,   73. 
74.   78,   79 

Gleichenia  dubia 85 

Glenoleon 119,  122 

Globigerina 386,388 

Gloeocystis 518 

Gloeosporium 868 

Glossopteris 45,  81,  264 


70 


XVI. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

CJIycine  olandestiiia 705 

hisi)i(lji 611 

Latro)>e{iiia 705 

(ilyphomitrinm  coinmutatum.  .    55.3 
(JiiJiplialium  .iapoiiicuin     ..    ..    709 

piirpu  renin 709 

(iom])h<»l()l)iiim  .urandiHoriim. .    704 

Hiie.i^elii 704 

iincinatiiiii 704 

(iuiiomitiiuiii  ;i<-iimiiiat um      . .    553 
(ioodeiiia  lio<l(M-acea .  .    ..    690.   708 

ovata 248,  259 

piiiiiatifida 708 

(ioodeniaf-eie. .    247.   248,   250.   253, 

690,  708 

rirahhamia  theo])aldi  ....  832,  843 

Graminea^ 689.  691.  702 

(iratiola  nana 708 

Pernviana 70S 

Grevillea  anstralis    . .    . .    691,  703 
jnniperina    ..    ..    695,  703,  711 

lani;L!:era 703 

montana 235 

punicea 235 

rolm.sta     .  .     195.    862.    863,    867 

(irjffithides    ..    441.    447,    465,    475 

ronvexicandatns.  473,  475,  489, 

490,  491 

dnhius,  438.  440,  441,  443,  462, 

481.  494 

fluhius     440 

eiehiraldi ..    438.  477 

globieeps 478 

seminiferns,  438.  442.  447,  470 

Sf'miniferuH 442,  447 

V.   aiistrala,n<'(i    ..    439.   442, 
466,   470.    480,   493,   494 

sp.  ind 439,  443 

svveeti.  .   443.  479,  480,  482,  494 

Crimmiaeere 553 

(iuttiferae 706 

(iymnocnemia 121 

(rynniosoma  rotundarnm  ....    662 

JTakea   acicnlaris 703 

dac-tyloides 235 

microcarpa 703 

sericea 703 

Halorrhasacetp 707 

TTalorrhagis   micrantha    . .     .  .  707 

totragyna 707 

Hampeella  Kurzii 557 

pallens 557,  562 


Page. 

Haplonyrha  rolossa      721 

gigantea 722 

nobilis 722 

Haplophragmium 389 

Hardenl)ergia  monopliylla      . .    705 

lluriotuia  rcticuhtta 540 

Harpobirtacns  tillyardi  . .   290,  395 
Ifansmannia  P>nchii.  71,  74,  75,  78, 

80 
ITedycaria     angnstifolia    . .    . .   704 

('nnninghaniii 704 

Tleliclirysnm 710 

apienlatnm 709 

baofharoides 709 

hnif'teatnni 709 

ledifolinm    ..    ..    690,  691,  709 

liicidiim 709 

r.  viscosnm 709 

I'Oi^marinifolinm     r,    thyr- 

soidenm 709 

scoi'pioides 691.    ;o9 

seniipapposnm 709 

Stirlingii 709 

Helicophynaceje      562 

HcliroijJufninn  (iii>iU'(ih'     ..    ..    562 
ilelioliti's    .  .    .  .    329.   334.   336,   595 

interstincta 331 

porosa,.    ..    331.   336,   380.   595 

Heliopora 335 

Ifolii>ternni  antliemoides  ..    ..    709 

diinoipholepis 709 

in<annm 690,  709 

Hemorobiidte.  .  116.  117.  120,  290. 
312,  633,  638,  759,  783,  784.  816. 
817. 

Hemerobins  enelivagns 778 

mimicns 775 

Hemiopsida 729 

longicoruis 726 

ventralis 727 

ITemiptera.  568.  570,  582,  586,  587. 
588,   589,   591,   592 

Hepatica^ 701 

liepialidie,  295,  297,  301,  302,  303. 
304,  312,  313,  315,  318,  569,  570. 
572,  647,  649. 

Hepialus 301 

IIeri)etineni'on  Tocco.np 563 

Hes])eriidii' 308,  314 

Heterocera 309 

nctei'odendi'on  olesefolinm  .  .  850. 
856,   857,   861,   862,   863,   864,  867 


INDEX. 


XVll. 


Page. 

TTptoronenra,  ..    297.  .304.  .308.  :ill. 

314,  31.-),  317.  647.  0.52 

Heteroptera    . .    568.   575,  576.   578. 

581.   582.   586.   587.   588.   589.   590. 

593. 

Hovea   hrasiliensis.  .    862.   863.   867 

[lihliertia     lim^ai'is     r.    ohtusi- 

f(»lia 7()<') 

soi'ityllifolia      7o6 

stricta 706 

Hiiiiaiitdcladium  loriforme  .  .  561 
llil>l>(>lh)ii  scrofa  ..  304.  306,  319 
IIil»ta^v 608 

Mada biota 601.  602 

Hoduesla 826 

caii-iisensis 842.    843 

triaii.i,nilala 842.    843 

TTolciis  laiiatus 702 

Holomotahola.    265.    266,    267.    268. 
397.   399.  626,  629.  630.   632.   633. 
635.    648,   813. 
Hoh.uiitrium   Mnellcri 546 

l>ericlia'tial«^ 54() 

Ifitttnilia  <.ii(/u(i 561 

Honiaii(>(UMi(li(>ii    «'.\liinHin      ..    561 

H.ibeilatiiui 561 

lloinolKMira.  297.  298.  315.  317.  (U7. 

652 

lT<.)ii(>i»l(M-a.   131.  431.  569,  570,  572, 

574.    586.    587.    588.    58<).    591 

Haohcrio  fhibclldtd      .  .    .  .     .  .    561 

kdrstcnitDKi 561 

Ilookeriacejv 561 

Uordeiini    mniiiuiin 702 

Ifovea  linearis 69o.  705 

HydviK-otyle  (.'(indollci 707 

laxiHora 707 

irydrodictyaceje 536 

lfydi'(»t;astrace;e      529 

HydroidiilidiP 295 

Hydropteridea' 64.  72 

liydroittilidii^      646 

Hymeiioinoiuidacefe 508 

Ilymenoptera.    132.   265,    266.    267. 
268,   278,   280,   294,   399,   400,   815 

Ifymenopteroidea 265 

ny()i)hila   Midiolitzii 552 

Hyperifiim  japoiiifiim 706 

r.   jiramiiieiim 706 

Hyperme^ethes 631 

shnckerti 630 

Tlyitnacwe 563 


Page. 

iryi)ii<)d(Midi-acea^     567 

IlyjuuMkMidi'oii  s]»iiiiiierviniii.  .  567 

II  jllttuim  niossnidHiautuii  .  .    .  .  564 

iimhiciilatimt 563 

iryiHxlKrris   radiata 709 

Hypocct'lns 731 

llyixMjeiia   lateriflora 691 

Hyi>oi>lei-y,2ia<'e;v 562 

Tlypoprei-yiciiim  Mnelleri    ..    ..  562 

Hypoxis  liynroiuetrica 703 

InaMpiipalida 294 

Indii^ofera   aiisti'Mlis 705 

Ipoiiiiea   Horsfaliia'      601 

Isodoii   iteeuarius 723 

Isoptery^iuni    .-lust  ro-piisilliiin  564 

<an<lidiiiii 564 

uordc-idh'HUK- 564 

sii  I  ilati  folium 564 

rsosceliideroii 63!).  656 

Tsotoma  flmiatilis 708 

Ithonidie r)30,  638 

.Tiigata 296,  297 

J  iif/dtdc 296 

Junoaceu' 689,  702,  710 

Jiincajj:inaee:e 701 

.Iniiciis 710 

bufoniiis 702 

falcatns 700.  702.  711 

Foeljei 702 

liomaloeanlis 702 

laiuin'ocai'itiis 702 

pallidiis 702 

Itleheins      702 

l)olyaiithemos 702 

]>rismatocarinis 702 

radiila 702 

va.iiinatus 702 

Kalli.m-ammitidje     .  .    773.  781.  782 

]\ircliiieriella   ohesa    .  .    . .    533,  543 

sultsoiitaria 533 

Koderia  plileoides 702 

Ivniizea   Miielleri      ..    700.  707,  711 

parvifolia 707 

pediUKiilaris    . .    690.   700,  707 

Kylliiiiiia   hnrifolid      702 

intermedia 702 

Lahiata- 691,  708 

T,aceo])teris   ]iol.viK»di<^ides      ,  .      74 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Ladenbergia 603 

Lagena 386 

Lageiiophora  Billardieri   . .    . .   709 

Lageniilina 386 

Lagerheimia    filiata   v.    f/rari- 

iis 53?. 

elliptica o33,  543 

genevensis  r.  gracilis      . .   533 

Lasiocampa 307.  628 

Lasiocampidsp 307 

La  sicca  mpina 307,  311 

Latliyrns  odorat\is 601 

Lauracefe 704 

Legnepliora  Moorii 601 

Legiiminosa-    ..    601.   690,   704.   710 

Lembopliyllacea? 561 

Lentibulariacene 708 

Lrpidopilum  auatralc  ..  557,  562 
Lepidoptera.  265.  269,  270,  271.  272. 
273.  274.  275.  276.  279,  281.  286. 
287,  288.  292,  295.  296.  297.  301. 
311,  312,  313.  314,  315,  317,  401, 
404,  406,  568.  569,  571.  572.  574, 
635.  647.  648.  650,  651,  652.  654. 
655.    656,   799 

Leptoceridie 294 

Leptorrhynchos  sqiiamatus    . .    709 
Leptospermiun    attennatum. .    700, 

707 

flavescens     415 

r.  obovatum 706 

lanigerum 707 

myrtifoliura 707 

scopariiim 707 

stellatiim • '   '^^l 

triloculare    707 

LeskeacejTp 563 

Lestidae 418,  421,  422 

Leto 303 

staceyi 772 

Leucobryacese 548 

Leucobryum   ballinense    . .     . .   548 

brachyphyllnm 548 

candidum 548 

sanctum     545,  548 

var 548 

Scbimperi 549 

strictifolium 548 

vesiculosum 548 

viride 548 

Wattsii 548 

Leucoloma   clavinerve        .  .    . .    547 
Sieberianum     547 


Page. 
Leucoloma  subiiitegrum    , .    , .   547 

Leucoplianes  australe 548 

octoblepharoides  ....  545.  548 
Leucopogon  biflorus  . .    . .   690.  707 

Fraseri 690 

Hoolveri 707 

lanceolatus 707 

Richei 247 

virgatus 707 

Liliacejp 601.  689.  692,  702 

LimacodidiP 571 

Limnanthemum  crenatum      . .   708 
Liparetrus   acutangulus    . .    . .    717 

bituberculatus 719 

distans 719 

fulvoliirtus 717 

incertus 718 

intermedius 719,  721 

iridipennis 719 

majorinus     716 

mixtus 718 

obtusidens 720 

parvidens 720 

perkinsi 719.    721 

plioenicopterus 718 

quinquelobatus 720 

tridentatus 720,   721 

vicarius 718 

Lissanthe  strigosa 707 

Lissapterus 716 

howittanus 716 

Lissotes 715 

grammicus 715 

howittanus 716 

luteus 715 

Litophyllum  konincki     . .   336,  595 

Lituola  nautiloidea 389 

Lobelia  dentata 708 

peduuculata 708 

Locustoidea 261 

Loganiaceae 601 

Lomaria  alpina 701 

capensis 701 

discolor 701 

Lomatia  longifolia 703 

Lo]>li<x-eratomyia 826,838 

amiulata 837 

cairusensis 837,   843 

cylindrica 837,838 

Loranthacese 703 

Loranthus 696 

pendulus 703 


INDEX. 


XIX. 


Page. 
J.otiis  australis 247,   705 

corniculatus      70o 

LiK'aiiida^ 71,3 

Liicilia  sericata,  058.  GG4.  GGO.  GG7 

J.iiznla  campesti-Ls 689,702 

Lycaoii 729 

ater 738 

J^.v<'oiK)dite,s  virturuo       89 

Lyj;ieidie 581,  582 

Lythracew 70G 

J^ythnim  liy.ssopifolia 70G 

salkaria 70G 

JMacrohymeiiium   rufiiui    .  .    . .    5GG 
Macriunitriiiin  aiirescens  ..    ..    553 

Daeiuelii 553 

dimori»lmm 553 

liemitrichodes 553 

microstomum 553 

imgioiiifoliimi 553 

imsilhim 553 

Sayeri 553 

Scottiie 553 

Wliitelejj:j;ei 553 

Macroiiciuatiiue 647,   656 

Maerotteiiioyteris     85 

.sp 85 

wiauamatUe    .  ,     . .    85.    87,    91 

.Mai;allaiies,.  .     760.    761,    764,    765, 

767,  768,  773.  785 

insolcn.s 779 

mcifricki      779 

Maj-'iioliaceie 704 

Malpijihiacea' 601 

Malva  rotiiiidifolia 706 

Malvarefv 705 

Maiisoiioides   imiformis    ..     ..    838 

Maiitispida' 633,638 

MarattiacecO 64 

Marcliaiitia  polymurplia    . .    . .    701 

Marc-liantites  sp 89 

.Mariaiithus    prucumheiis.    691.    704 

Mastoteruies 125,   128 

MatoJiiiia^ 71 

Mecoptera,  123.  124.  129.  130.  131. 
133,  134,  267,  268,  269.  271,  272. 
273,  274.  286,  288.  290,  301.  312. 
316.  395.  397,  399,  400.  401.  403. 
431,  572,  635.  639,  641,  645,  651. 
654.  655.  656,  815. 
.Me.uaj;iiatlia  ..  125,  126.  127,  128 
odouatif ormis . .    124,   126,    128 


Page. 

^Mejjairiiatliida'     128 

.Megalodoii      386 

:\lepil()ptera  ..  124.  125,  126,  265, 
268.  269.  274.  284,  291,  293,  297, 
312,  316.  626.  635.  652,  655.  656. 
819 

Megaiieura 433.  434 

monyi 433 

^leganeuridu- 434 

Megapsycliops,    769,    770,    771,    772 
illidgei.  771.  781,  782,  785,  786 

Megasecoptera    .. 266 

^Jeiotliccium  IJrotlieri 565 

teiieruiu 565 

Wattsii 565 

.Melaleuca 689 

genistifolia 415 

nodosa 415 

]\Jeliclinis  urceolatus 707 

]\relodiiiiis  aeiitifolins 600 

Meiiispermacea' 600,   601 

Mentha  australis 708 

laxiflora 708 

satureioides 708 

.Menura  superba 701 

Merismopedium 499 

cyaneum 500.  501 

duplex 500.  501 

elegans  r.  const  rictum   ..   500, 
501 

Kuiiingil 499 

puuctatuni 499,   500 

/".   oblongnni 500 

r.  vacuolatuni 500 

-Merope  tuber 290,  640 

^Nleropidie 289,  316,  640 

Mesocluete  undulata 556 

Alesojassus 370 

Mesopanorpa 4:j5 

liartungi 436 

M<'.sof)an(tri)a 435 

iridiHUHdttcK.'ii.'i      435 

M  cxKUxuiorp'uJac 436 

Mesopanoi-podes 4;j."i 

wiaiianiattensis 435 

Mesopaiioi-podida>     436 

]\Iesopli]er>ia 4;5.5 

antino<lalis 417 

Meteoriopsis  reclinata 560 

Meteoriuni  lUiileyi 559 

floribundum     559 


xJc. 


INDEX. 


Page. 
jMeteoriuiii  Mi(iiieliaiiimi  .  .  . .  559 
Micromns  tasmaiiia».  OoS.  634.  638 
.Mi( Toplasma  parallelnm  ..  ..  595 
Microi>tery.iii(bp.  275,  284,  286.  295. 
297.  298.  299.  300,  301.  302.  304, 
311.   313.   315.  318.  647,  649. 

^Nlicroptei-y.iriiia 296.569 

:Micr()i)teryx 298,  798.  572 

arnncella 319 

t]iniil)er.i;ella 319 

^licroi'lia^iis 731,    732 

niticollis 725 

:^ri(■r(>seris  lM>rstt'ri  .  .  090,  691,  709 
:Mill€tia   aiistralis    .  .    601,   603.  609 

lue.i^aspeniia 603.    603 

]Mliiieteoinyia    ..     ..    826.    830,    831 

atra 830 

atrijH^s 829,  830 

doddi 831 

piilcherrinia 830.   8:52 

]Mimnlns  luoschatiis      708 

]Miiemo]iu-a 298 

subpurimrolla 649 

:NJiiesarclia'a 298 

Miuaccie 555 

^Iiiiodciulroii  coiualuluin  ..    ..    567 

Mniiiin  si> 555 

^lodiola  multiHda 70(i 

MoljxMnyia 838.  843 

Iirii^stloii 838 

]\i«>iiiiuia<'e;r 701 

Moiiotoca    scoparia       707 

M(»iisfera   aciimiiiala 601 

Moiiireofia 513 

lirlpviroiis 513,  514 

MiK-idns  alcniaiis 644.  828 

^lulloriohryinn  Wliitelejigei    ..    557 

Mnrcliisonia   sp 33() 

Miisca  doiiu'stica      :'.61 

Muscida'     6U 

Myi«»daria 644.  653.  (556 

Myriophylliiin  ]>n»i)iii(|uiiin     ..    707 

s]> 509 

MynneltM.n 117,   119,   122 

uiiiseriatiis 116 

MyiinelfM)iitidJt%  116,  117,  119.  120, 

121.  291,  403.   631.   638,   783,   815 

Myrtaco;e.    690.   691,    706.    710.    817 

]Mynriinii   nifesceiis      557 

MyxophycojH 498,  499 

Aly/<»inyia 827 

Myzorliyiichus 827,  843 


Page. 

X:eii)al('lia 885 

Xaiiiiocliorista   dipteroides     . .    289 

Xamioclioristidai    ..    131,  289.   312, 

316,   640.   656 

Xcckcra 561 

trichophoroldes     560 

Xeckeraceit' 557 

Xeckeropsis 560 

Nematodes 731.  733 

Nematodimis 731 

armipennis 731 

NeniopteridiF 638 

Xeocalamites   Carrerei,   64,  67.   70. 

78.   80 

lut^reiisis  ,.  6  4,  67.  70,  78.  80 
Xeosalpiiiiius 743 

brevis 745 

politns 745 

XcosfjiKinioniijia 829 

Jirrinli 828 

Xonroptera.  116.  265,  268.  269.  750. 

784,  785,  787 

Xeiiropteridinm    an st rale       . .     85 

Xeuropteroidea.  265.  266,  267.  268. 

269 

Xilssoiiia  sp 89 

X'ostocact'ji' 503 

X<.th(M]jrysa 806 

Xdtodoutina 307 

AOtopsycliops    .  .    . 759 

Xotosalpiii,mis      744 

]>ruiiiiOTi.s 742 

Xovapus  ])arviis 722 

simplex 723 

\y<tai,'ine;e 601 

Xyini»iiida«  ....  120.  121.  638,  783 
Nyssorliyiicluis 827,    828 

Ochlerotatus   notuscriptiis      ..   834 

Octoblephariim  all)idum    ..    ..    548 

Odoiiata,    133,    265.    282,    417,    418. 

422,  423,  425,  432.  630 

Oeretis  sp 294  313 

(Edicladiacea-      557 

(Eiiotheia  biennis       247 

(Enotheraceie      707 

()leandri<num     leiitricnliforme,   85. 

87 

sp 85 

Olearia  arjr()]»hylla    ..    ..    701,  709 

axillaris 247 


INDEX, 


Page. 

Olearia  clirysophylJa 709 

mepilopliylla     709 

stelliilata G91,  709 

()lit;(»t(>ma T.    ..    128 

sp 1:37 

Ompliacomeiia  acerba 703 

Omphyma.. 336 

Oiiiscif,'aster 278 

Oocystaeete 531 

Oocystis 498.  o31,  532,  534 

laciistris 532 

r.  iiataiis 532,  543 

r.  paliidensis 534 

532 
534 
542 
666, 


uodvilosa    r.   crassa    . .     . . 
ovalis  r.  cyliiidratea  . .    . . 

rotiila 518,   531^ 

Ophyra  iiij^ra..   658,  660,  665, 


667 

Orlnilina 386 

Orchidarea^    ..    601.    689,    691,    703 

Oreouiyrrhis  aiidicola 707 

Orioua  strata 383 

(Jrites  laiicifolia 601,  703 

Ortliis  resiipiiiala 45  1 

Orthophlolda J  24,   129 


Orllioplera  .  .    ..   261. 

.   262,   282.   431 

Orthorrhyiicliiiim 

cyinbifoli- 

oides 

560 

OrthotricluK-ea-   . .    . . 

553 

Oscillatoria 

502 

■  liexa 

.     .  .    501.   540 

.  .    . .   502,  540 

simplicis.sima    r. 

cons  trie 

ta     

,  .     . .    502,    540 

r.  irrauiilala 

. .     . .    502,   540 

Oscillate )ria< vie   . .    .  . 

501 

Osmuiidarea:' 

64,   71 

()smylida\    638.    755, 

756.    783,    784 

Otozamit^s 

50,   80,   92,   93 

Feistmaiiteli,  72, 

75,  76,  79,  81.- 

92,   93 

Maiidelslchi.  72. 

75,   76.   79,   81 

obtnsus  .  .    .  .   72 

,  75.  76,  79,  81 

(liieeiislaiidi.  .    .. 

..    72,   79,   8J 

Ottelia   prteterita    .. 

85 

Oxaiidacca- 705 

Oxalis  coruii-ulahi 235,  705 

Oxylobium  alpestre 696 

ellipticniu  r.  alpiiniiu  .  .  704 
prociiiiiboiiS((  V)  ..  ..  690,  704 
Tiiltenece 704 


Page. 

Pala-odictyoptera. .    265,    266,    630, 

631 
PalceoluMinplei-a.  586.  587,  589,  592 

Paheontiiia 569,  570 

oolitica 569,  571 

Pakeoiitiiiidic 570,571,592 

Palissya  austialis 90 

Panax  sambucifolius 707 

Paiiicimi  efl"\isiiiii 702 

Paiiorpa 395,   396,   632 

coiifusa 627 

Paiiorpata^   .  .    .  .   265,  266,  267,  268 

Paiiorpida- 124,  640 

Paiiorpoidea    . .    265,  266,  267,  268, 

269 

Papilioiiiiia 307,  308,  311 

Papillaria  amblyacis 559 

BaiUi/i 559 

flexieaiilis 559 

keriuadeceusis     559 

iiitidiuscula      559 

Pappoplutnim  (•(aumiiiio    ..    ..    702 
J'ai-adimstaiiia    ..    ..    576,  583,  585 

atiiiiis 582,  585,  586 

Parallelopora    dartiii.utouciisis   381 

I'areleaiia 262 

I'assiflora  suberosa 601 

Passiflorea* 601 

Pecopteris  (  ? )    tcnnifolia   ..    .,     85 

Pediastnim 537,  538,  539 

aiijjciilosiim  /•.  areiiosiim  ..    539 

biradiatiim 539 

/•.   Piaunii 539,  543 

JSoryaiiimi    .  .    .  .    538.   539,   543 

r.  austrak' 539,  543 

r.   Hayiiaidii    .  ,    .  .    539,   543 

lirainrii 539 

clathratiuH 537 

duodena  rium 538 

ilu]>\ex  V.  (kit hra turn.  .    ..    538 

r.   ivticulatinn 538 

viKqthjn 537 

Udi/nahlii ,  .     . ,    53!> 

or  at  urn 538 

rotula 539 

Schrbterii        538 

simplex    .  .    536,    537,    538,    543 

/.  clathrata 537 

V.  clathratHin      536 

V.  nutlanii 536,   537 

^iunnii 538 


XXll. 


INDfeX. 


Page. 

IVdiastriim     tetras      r.     Crux 

Midicf li 540,  543 

tricorinitiim 539 

Pelarfroiiium 197,   198 

australe 247,  705 

Peukillium  eladosporioides,  145, 
146,  149,  155,  167,  168,  369,  170 
172 

italkiim 874 

sp 148   158 

reiiiiisetiim  loiigistyliim    . .    . .    234 

Peiitameriis  kiiiirhtii 336 

sieberi 336 

sp 383 

VeiitatomuUe   . .    577,  582,  591,   592 

Terga 668.  671 

dorsalis 668 

macleaii 671 

rericlystus 121 

Peridiuiese 509 

Perissectis    australasite    . .    . .    302 

Peri8Soi)hlel)ia 422,   423,   425 

miiltiseriata 422,  424 

Peiiaria.    124,    125,    265,    282.    431. 

755 

Perlida- 124 

J'ermocliorisfa    ..    ..    123.  129,  267 

mitclielli 130 

Per.sooiiia  ehama^peiK-e      . .    . .    703 

Petaliira 423,  434,  435 

jlLijaiitea 424.  612 

Petripa    volnbilis    ..     ....     ..    601 

Pftrothemis 423 

siiijiiilaris 425 

Pliaeotns    .  .     .  .    498.   509.   523.  524 

australis 524,  542 

crassiis 523,  542 

.U'laber 523.  524.  542 

IMia'iiocerus 739,   740.  741 

clavicoriiis 740 

subclavatus 739,  740 

Phii^toiiides 485 

Pbasco^'ale  fiavipes 361 

I  Mia  scolomys  mitclielli 696 

IMiaseoliis   vulgaris    ..    ..    611.  861 
riicbalium  scpiaimilosum  r.  al- 

piinim 705 

Phillipsastriea.  .     ..    322,    377,    379 

giiras 379 

graiidis 336,  379,  384 

heimalii 383 

verneuilii  . .   323.  333.  337,  379 


Page. 
Philippsia    ....    438,  439.  443.  465 

breviceps 449,489,493 

colliiisi    ..    442,    443,    444.    446, 
447,   489,   490,  494 

coiiiiollii     472,  493 

roiilteri 447,  473,  489 

derbiensis 450,  455 

duhku  438,  439,  440,  456,  458, 
459.  460,  461,  466,  470,  481, 
482,  490,  491 

duiigogeiisis 474,  490 

eichwaldi  . .  438,  440,  451,  455, 
472,    478 

ckhiraUU 440,  477 

elongata..    454,   456,   458.   462. 
489,  491,  492 

gemmiilifera     446 

graiidis.  439.  441.  443,  453,  454. 

463,  464,  465,  489,  492 

(jrandi!^,  441,  451,  452,  454,  472, 

473 

iusigiiis 446 

leei 456 

minor 456 

morgaiieiisis,  471,  479,  491,  492 

proxima     451,  489 

robiista.  451,  453,  465,  489.  490 

rockhamptonensis   . .    459,  466. 

479,  491,  492 

roiulieleiisis 473,  490 

seminifera 438 

.'■icminifera 447 

spp.   iml.    .  .    439,  441,  446,  473 

staiivelleiisis    . .    458.   460.  461, 

463,    470,   473,   474,   479,   482, 

490,  493. 

stroiuleiisis    ....  453,  489,  493 

superba 454,  491,  494 

trinicatula      446,   458 

waterliousei.  .    ..  455.  491,  494 

woodwardi.  437.  439,  441,  442, 

443,  465,   468,   470,   472,   479, 

480.   488,   490,   491,   492,   493, 

494. 

iroodiranJi 459 

Pbilomastix  i^/(/Z;cr 671 

macleaii 671 

Philoiiotis  laxissima 556 

pseiidomoUis     556 

I'lilebopteris  aletliopteroides. .    71. 

74,   75,   78,   80 

Phoeiiicopsis 94 


INDfiX. 


Page. 
J^li(jeiii<-oi>sis  elonjxatus.   72.  73.   79, 

81 

J'li<»ma 8GU 

citrk-arpa,    808.    809.    870.   874, 
878.  879,  880.  881 

lavaiuliihe 878 

solaiii 875 

J'liomopsis 875 

I'hormidium  jrraiide  ....  502,  540 

iiumarium 503,  541 

I 'lira  jrmites  communis 702 

l'hryy:aiieidce 393 

I'liry^'aiioidea 205,  208 

J'hinochronKjphifvvae 499 

rhyllaiitliiis   tliymoides    ..     ..    705 

J'liyllopteris    Feistmauteli,    40,    72. 

70,  79,  80,  91 

Phyllosticta 809 

citricarpa 809 

I'hyllotheca 50,  85 

aiistrali.s,  04,  07.  70,  78,  80,  85, 

87 

coiiciniia 85 

Hookeri 85 

Pkris  hieracioides 709 

Pieliis 303,  305 

byaliiiatus 303 

I'imelea  coloraus 700 

turviflora 700 

jLTlauca     700 

ligustriiia 091,  700 

/•.  hypericiiia      700 

linifolia 7O0 

paiK'iflora 700 

sp 090 

I 


iiiaceit' 701 

iiiiiatella   iiitralimbata    ..    ..501 

inns  sp 803 

iper  iiijj:riim    . .    . .    001.    007.   009 

iperaceie 00 1 

isicola 140 

ittosporacfje 091.   704 

Iaj;iantliiis  pulchellns      . .    . .    705 

r.  tomeiitosus     700 

lau'iutliociete 504 

laniponnia.  133.  209.  271.  274,  284. 
287,  290,  301.  312,  313,  310,  401, 
400,  431,  432.  572,  030,  034,  035. 
037.  048.  051.  652.  055.  656,  657. 
753.  754.  757.  759.  781.  784.  787. 
813.   815,   819. 

Plaiitairinace.'ie 708 

riantajxo  laiKOolata      713 

varia 708 


Page. 

l^lasmupura 330,  379 

IMatylobiiim  formosiim     ..    ..  705 

I 'kHtoptera . .    ..    205.  278,  399,  574 

Plectrotarsiis 294,  047 

^'raveiihorsti 040 

PJeospora  hesiKiridearum  . .   ..  809 

Pleiiridiiim  .sp 545 

Pleurocarpi 550 

J'leiirococraeeie 527 

I'leiirosorus  riitifolius 701 

Pleiirotus  sp 4l5 

J'lnsia 305,  309 

vertk-illata 305 

Poa  ciespitosa    . .    . .   089,  091,  702 

Podolei)is  caiiesceiis     708 

loiijripedata 091 

r.  robiista 709 

I'odozamites  ]>arklyi 89 

.    elliptk-us 89 

Kklstoiii 89 

lam-eolatus 85 

loiiju'ifoliiis 85.89 

spathiilatiis 85 

sp 85 

Polleiiia  stygia  . .  058.  002,  060,  007 

i'olyedrium 534 

aciimiiiatiim 535 

octaedricuin        535 

r.  spiiiusum 535 

ix  Htat/oninn 535 

tetraediicuin       535 

tcfnifjonNm 530 

trigomim 530 

IV»I.v.ij:alare;e 091,705 

I Vdy;j:oiia(eie 001,  703 

l*oly;Lroiiiim  minus 703 

prostratum 703 

J'olypodiacwr 091,  701 

J*olypodium  diversifolium      . .  701 

l)inirtattnH 701 

scanilcH^ 701 

Polyporacea' 885 

Polystiflium  atideatum  ..   091,  701 

I'<»lyst(e<lu'ti«l;i>. 038 

IN>lyst<jechotos 784 

IVdytricliacwe 550 

J*olytri(lium  jiiniperinnm. .    ..  550 

I'omaderris 097 

apetala 705 

elliptica 705 

j)liyli(if<)1ia 705 

juMinifolia 705 

ratemosa 705 


XXIV 


INDEX. 


c*AGE. 

I'omax   viinbfllatJi 700,  708 

PorantlKM-a   micropliylla   . .    . .    705 
IN.rina 302 

umi>ra<ulata 304 

l\»si<l<>iiia 247 

rotamoju'etoii  iiataiis 701 

natan.s 701 

perfoliatus 701 

tricariiiatiis 701 

lV)tam<>^etoiuK-ea' 701 

J'othos  aureus 601 

I'ottiaceje ^•^~ 

JV)\vellia   australis ^62 

I'rasophyllum  fuscum 703 

I'rimiilacetf 708 

Pioetidjv -139,   443.   482 

Proetus     ^^'^ 

mi.ssourieiisis 450 

l*rohemerobiidci\  773.  781,  782,  T83 

rroroceiitraeea^ 509 

rrosbole 588,  589,  591 

hirsuta 587,  588 

rrostaiitliera   cuiieata    .  .    691,   708 

lasiaiithos 708 

Proteaceie   ....    091.  703,  862,  867 

ProtiK()<<acea* • .    528 

ProtocoicoideiJe 498 

Prutodonata    ..    4  17,   425.  431.   432. 

433,   434 

i'rotoheiuiptei'a  .  .    ..    587,  588.  592 

I'roti»mec«.i»t('ra.  209.  284.  288,  316, 

588.   631,   634.   035,   641.   645,   651. 

054.   650.   657. 

Protoiieuriii;e 421 

I»rotui>le(tiiiii     116 

I'rotoplectixdi      122 

.stria  telhim 121.  122 

veiuistum 122 

Protoi>sy<lu)l»si.s.  .    ..   781.  782.  785 

veiiosji 785 

I'rotusialis..    ..    820.   821.   822.   82:; 

Protosinlion 530 

Prototheora.  301.  302,  648,  650,  652 

petroseuia,    301,   648,    650.    651. 

057 

Prototheoridie.   295.   297.   301.   302. 

312.   313,   315.   319.    647.    650.   050 

PntnrUn      rnhjarifs 708 

Psaumiospluera 388,  390 

fusca 388 

iiemiiigheiisis . .    331.   387,   388. 
390,  391 


Page. 
JNc'udiKteiiis  fathieiisis,  72.  75.  76. 

79,  81 

Pseud(>i»lia'a  sp 495 

Pseudosknsea .    . .   820 

l»asalis 829 

cairnsensis 829 

mnltiitlex 829 

Psocoptera 132,   133,    131 

Psoralea   adsceiideiis 705 

Psydiida' 305,   048 

Psyclioda  sp 043 

J»sydiodida\  573,  042.  646,  651.  650 
Psychopsella      ..     ..    769,   771,   780 

.i^allardi 771.  780,  786 

J'sychopsidie  .,  281,  282,  628,  02'.). 
030.  637.  638.  750,  753,  754,  75f., 
757.  762,  764.  773,  781,  782,  783. 
787,  813,  815,  816,  817,  819. 

J'syfh<»])siiia' 784 

I'sychopsiiii,  759.  760,  761.  762,  771, 

785 

I'.sychopsis.  755,  756,  757.  759,  760. 

764.   765,   7G6,  767,  768,   769,   770. 

771.  773.  774,   778.  782,   783,  784. 

785,   797,   799,  802,  804.  806,  815 

l>irinaiia 758,  760,  781 

fo<  lirnfjii 779 

(■(i-Ii\"a;:;us.  .    767.  770.  774,  775. 

778,   803,   804,   805,   809 

ele.uaii.s    ..    629,    750,   751,    752. 

753.    754.    755,    756,    758,    760, 

761,   764,   766,   767,   768,   770, 

774,   775,   777.   778,   787,   788. 

789,   790,    793,   794,   797,   798, 

800.    802.    803.    808.    810,    812, 

814,   816,   818. 

irrarilis.  766,  770,  775,  776,  786 

illi<lfjri..    ..    765,  769,  770,  771 

iiis«»leiis    ,  .    755,  756,   760,   761. 

767.   770.   774.   775,   779,   781. 

784.  816.   817. 

iiiarslialli 758.  781 

iiieyrkki..    751.   700.   701,   768, 

770.   775,  779,   784 

mimica.  755.  756.  759.  761,  765, 

708,   770,    774,    775,    776,    777, 

785.  787. 

tniinUa       775,   777 

)i(inmuii    .  .    760.   707,  777,  787 

zel.ra 759 

I'UMidiiim  a(|uiliiiuin 701 

Ptirin  aquillmi 701 


INDEX.  XXV 

Page.  p^^jp 

J'lcrohryidinm 544     JJaphidia 313,630 

192 


IMer..l.ryoi.sis .^3!)      Kapliidiuhp 392,310,650 

fihgora          .            558  Kajiliidioidea . .    :.^05.   208.   20'.),  029. 

rtcrof/oniclJa  M  attsii 50o  g^g    g.J    „. 

I'trrof/oniMm  flarcsccm    ..    ..501     jjestio  australis '..''"'  702 

rteromoiias 522  ,,     ^. 

(//./fa 522       :f-^f'''":i<-^^^ 691.    702 

V.  an-sfralis 522     J^li'i^<'l»ila<ea- 502 

aii,:,'iil<»sa 522  JJ'if«<<'pil"ni   coiivolutareiiiu    ..    502 

r.  aiistralis      ..    ..    522.   542      Kliaimiactw 705 

r.  scutiformis   ..    ..   522.542  Ifliaphidosteuriuni      acirulum. .    505 

r.   vexilliformis    .  .    522.    542  ovale ,505 

lM(>r<»i»liylUiiii   almorme.   72.   79.    80  J'seiKlo-lKnnoiDalliim   ..    ..    505 

coutijiinim .  .    72.   75.   70.   79,  SO  saitn.xylopliihim 500 

miiltiliiieatimi.    05.    09,    70.   79,     Ivhe^'iiiatcMlontaceie 560 

81     Jlliijn'docerida' 7;mj 

Nathorsti    .  .    72.  75.  70.  79.  80  lvMii]>idoi)sis  -inkiroidos   r.  lata     85 

^1» 85.  87  KMiii)<»j;(>inim  allnim    ..    ..    001,  0O8 

Pfen.stylis  curtaC') 703  KliizohiuDi    sp..    148,    149.    150.    153, 

<>''tnsa    (V) 703  154.   155.   158.   159.   161.  107,   109 

i'"f'^ ''•'•'^      iniizo^roiiiarea' 556 

J'teryp.i.honis 670  |;iiiz,,i;(,niuin  lnvvif(,lium.  .    '.'.    556 


ijialis 671 

>ifas(iatns 070 


(ioheebii 556 

pairainaltoiiso 556 


Jnil(M»liylluin    JWillianisuina)                      si»ii,iforim. 55( 

KMiizonioptoris    l':tlu>rid-ei      ..  89 

Ivliizopprtlia   dojiiinica 361 

KMiodohryiiiii   olix  a<riim    .,     ..  55. » 

snltciispalniu 555 

i;ii<»i>alo<(M-a 296,   307.  309 

Uhyac<>j>lii!a    ..    269.   271.   293.  64  7 

dorsalis -nro.  645 

J{hya<<n>liili<la' 645.646 


|ie<-1('n    ..     72.    74.    75.    70.    79.    So 
Pty<li<Mk>ia    austialii'usis. .     ..    136 

rtythoiniiiacoa' 557 

i'ultciura  fasciculata 705 

MiK'lleri 705 

l)ro<  uiiiboiis 705 

I'ulviiinliiia 390 

ln'iisoni   .  .    .  .   331.  389.  390.  391 

bnjM-kijana 389     ,,,         ,      ,     ■   ,,  ... 

^I^,p,„^  l-v.;,,      I'Jiynchosti— iclla  ••(•nv«.hil]f()lia  567 

Pvaiosoma   nitifaciVs  '.".    658."  660.     'Jl».vn<hosl(-iniii      nano-pcima- 


663.   664,  666.  66^ 
varipes.  658.  660.  664.  666,  66, 


t'liii 567 

tonuifoliimi 567 


rvnh.)(<.rid;r..     ..     ..     ..    581.  582  l''l».vplii«ln'    ....    041.   042,  045.  650 

I'Vthida- 742      IJI'M/Jnis 027.    642,  052 

bnnis 627,  642,  657 

.  K'iclica    (inniiii    ..    ..    691,  700.  707 

Quisqualis  mdi<a ooi      ,.,,^.,    h,.;„.(t.ata ..  236 

tnrltiiiata 236 

KaiiniicniaccH' 703      Kosacca' 704 

Kainniciilus  a<iuatilis(  V)    ....  ;o3      K'oltiaica' 601.691,  708 

liirtiis 704      Kulms  lacinialus 235 

lappaceus 703             j)arvif()lins 704 

parviflorus 701      iJiimcx  atotosella 703 

ph'fxiii.s 701              Prownii 703 

rivularis 704     llutaceie 690 


XXVI. 


IND6X. 


Page. 

Sabatiiica 208.300,318 

iiK'oiiirruellti    ..    299,    300.   318. 
319,   G49 

Sarcammiim 388 

Saccammiiiiiice 387 

Saccharoinyoes  cerevesiie.  .    ..    412 

Zopfii 411 

JSageiiopteris 94 

J'hillipsi 68,  74,  75 

rhoifolia,  04.  68,  70,  72,  74.  75. 
76,    78 

Salvia  verbenacea 708 

SambiKus  (laiidicliaiuliaiia    . .    708 
Saiiidopliylliim    davidis    . .    . .   595 

Santa  lace;e 703 

Saiitalum  obtiisifolium      ..    ..   415 
Sapindaeeie. .    ..   703.  850,  862.  867 

Saturniidce 572 

Saturniiua 307,  311 

Scievola   erassifolia,  247,   248,   249. 
250.  253,  254,  255,  257,  258 

microcarpa 248 

i'lumieri 248 

spiuesceiis 248 

Scarabieidie 716 

S<h((lonorii><  llookvriunu  . .    . .    702 

Schizoneiira 264 

af  ricaiia 68 

(•/.  afrkaiia    .  .   64.  70,  78,  80 

australis 85 

j^oudwaneiisis 68 

sp.a        ..    ..    71,   73."  75,   76,   78 

sp 71,  73 

Schizot)h!/r«ar 499 

Schlotlieimia   Haileyi 553 

Seirpiis  mrtUuf/UK'Ha 702 

teriiuus 702 

iiiuiidatus 702 

laciistris 702 

p<»lystacbyu8 702 

riparina 702 

stelbitus 702 

Srlerantbus  bifionis  ....   689.  703 
Scruphidariaeeie   .  .    ....   690,  708 

Scutellaria  hnmilis 708 

>'<(utonuila  atriprs 829 

notoffcriijtfi 834 

Scytiiioptera    kokeiii 587 

S<ytoiiemaceie 507 

Scl(  naiitrinn  obrsum 533 

Selliera   radieaiis 248 

Seinatopliyllacea? 565 


Page. 

Sematophyllum  erythropodiuiii  566 

Seiieoio  ai(&truU!i 709 

dryadeiis 799 

lautiis 247 

pectiiiatns 691.  709 

tamoides 601,   603 

Serieo«tomatida.^ 294 

Sialidie    ..    124,   291,   316,   636,   656. 

819.  820 

Sialis    .  .    .  .    291,  636.  820.  821,  822 

Sialoidea 269,  636,  819 

Hk'bvra  BUlurdicri 707 

Sileiie  jrallica 703 

Siricidie 400 

Sisyrida? 638 

Sl^usea  i>seiidomediofa.sciata . .   838 

Smilax  anstralis 601,  608 

Solaiiacete 601,  708 

Solaiiiim  iiijj;rimi 708 

opaeum 708 

simile 708 

Wendlaiidii     601.  603.  608,  609 

Siiei'iiriilaria  rubra 703 

Spermopliorella.  .     ..    638,   639,   656 

disseminata 639 

Splueropsidio 875 

Spluerozya  laxa 505 

Sphenolepis   rhtetiea 69 

Sphenopluu'us   striatus      . .    . .    361 

Spheuupteris 69,  85,  86 

ampla 89,  90 

laeiuiosa 65,  78,  80 

sp 85,89 

superba 65,  72,   79 

S]>inifex  hirsutus 247 

Si>irifer  striatus 454 

Si»iroi:yra 510 

Fullebornii 513 

kuusanioensi.s     510,  511 

J  Jsmorensis  . . 510 

mirabilis 510,  511,  512 

ne^'lecta 512,513.543 

r.  amylaeea      . ,    . .   513.  543 

nitida 513 

spp 510.  511 

Spreeiana 510.  511 

Si>irottenia   acuta 527 

Sphnlinacea' 553 

Spondylomorum      quarternari- 

um 525,  542 

r.  rostratum 526,  542 

Spongophyllum    bipartitum    . .    377 


INDEX. 


xxvn. 


Page. 

Spon.ijophy  11 11111  Lciuanteum     .  .    ."iO.'j 

sp :]?>6.  p.TT.  nrs.  :!st 

Star-hyoi>itys 66 

.'iiinularioidos.  ().').  ()9.  TO.  79.  SI 

SiiuiiioiKlsi ().■),   79.   SI 

sp 69.   70 

Rtiukhousia  liiiariifolia    . .    . .    70") 

nionof/iittd 70"i 

viiiiiiioa 70."') 

StacklKnisiacoa^ 7o") 

Stoijouiyia 829 

iitni 830 

f)ini(t(i]atrr<ili.9    ..     ..    829.   830 

Stcllaria  piiiii^eiis 689.  703 

Steiiohiolla 43J.  638 

Stonoi»teris  eloiiicata.  6."j.  69.  70.  72. 
74.  76.  79.  89 

si» 89 

Stoiiosialis 821.   823 

aiistralieiisis 824 

Stei)liaiiia  lieniaiidiiefolia.  601.  ()07 

Steniilia  acerifolia 19.') 

(livei'sifolia 19.5.  706 

Sterol!  liacoa- 706 

Stereodon    mo>;.>^inaiiiiiaiiiis    ..    061 

.siilu-lirysoiraster .564 

StertHKloiitea' .563 

Stij;iiiapliylkui  .iati(»i>ha»f(tliiim  601 

Stipa  scahra 702 

Stomat()|K>(la 278 

Stratioiiiyia  fliamivleo 662 

Stroma  topoia      380 

coiiceiitrka 382 

Stromatoi»orella   )>eiisoiii.  336.   380. 

381.  381 

loombereii.sis.  336.  380.  381,  384 

Stroi»homona  of.  ruirata    . .    . .    336 

Stiiartina  Mueller! 709 

Stylidiaoesp 709 

Stylidium  sramiiiifolluiii. .    ..    709 

Stypaiulra  j^laiica 702 

Styphelia  triflora 707 

tiibiflora 236 

Swaiiisona  teidirotriclia    . .    . .    70,5 

Sy<-oi»teri(l;e 134 

Syeopteroii,  124.  129.  130.  132.  133. 

134 

i<iimm(tnc(i 124,  129 

symmetrkiim 129,  130 

Syiioarpia  lanrifolia..    ..   415.  803 

Syiiechoooeous  jjrandis     . .    . .   499 

major 499 


Page 
Synemoii 308.  309.  310,  311 

hesperoides 308 

Synle.'^te.^ 431 

weyersi 420 

Syiiiira  sraiinlosa 508.  542 

Syriiiiropora 332 

aiiloi»oi<)ides 331.  595 

porteri 331 

Syromastes   sj»..   576.   577.   578.  580 

Syri>hid;e 644.  656 

Syrrhoitodoii  aiiKPinis    550 

<airneiisi.'< 551 

croceus 551 

fasHculatiis  . .    ._, 551 

fimhriatiilns 551 

fiml»riatiis 551 

hiimilis ;552 

^riielleri 551 

Xova'  Vales;ia> 551 

uiidulatiiliis 551 

iiiidiilatns 552 

Tabaiiida^ 643,  661 

'I'ahaiiiis  sp 644 

'r:eiiior-hori.«<ta 267 

palUda 289 

'IVeiiiopteris.   56.   66.   67.   69.   73.   74. 

78.   264 
Carruthorsi.  65.  69.  70.  72.  76. 

79 

orassiiiervis.  65.  69.  70.  71,  72. 

76,   79 

Daintreei.  58.  84,  85.  86,  89,  90, 

264 

r.  major 89,  90 

Diiiistaiii 65.    79,   80 

fliKtiians 91 

leiitrk-iiliforme.   65,   72,  79,   87 

MeClellandi 85 

sp 56,  85,   260 

spatulata.    58.    72,    76.    79,    80, 
84.  85,  86,  90,  94,  264 

r.  ereiiata 89 

r.  major  . .    . .  72,  76,  79,  80 

Teni.soii-Woodsi.  65,  69,  70,  72, 

76,  79.  86 

wiaiiamattie    . .    65.  79,  80,   87 

Tasmo.salpiiigus 743 

promisciuis 74  5 

qiiadrispilotiis 744 

Taxites 56.  75,  90 

planus.   72,   75.   70.   79,   81,   35, 

86 


XXVlll. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Taxites  sp 90 

Taxithelium  kerianiim      . .    . .   564 

Xovjp  Valesi.ne 564 

papillatnm 564 

\Vatt<;ii 565 

'IVcoma  Hillii 60() 

Jasmiiioides 600,  6();! 

'l\'iirhi'*Mlini<lje 668 

'JVidirosia  liraiidifiora 2?)'i 

'IVssHlla 508 

TrxH(Uu 508 

'IVssellaria 508,  509 

volvociiia 508,  54:2 

Tetiaedron 498.  534 

a<umiiiatiini    spino.siim    . .    5.35 
acutiim    r.   re<tilineare    . .    535 

caiulatum     535 

r.  ausrrale 534.  54:'. 

coiikiim 535,   543 

Lira  nil  l«»siim 534.   543 

hastatiim  r.  elegaiis   .  .    . .    535 
uiiiiimiim    /.    rertilint^are.   536. 

543 

obrusnm 536,   543 

Muadratiiia  f 534.543 

re^ulare 535 

r.  octaedricniii    •  •    .  •   535,  543 

trij?omim 536,  543 

'IVtrastniiii  eleiians     r.  deiita- 

tiiiu 540 

'LVtratheca  ericifolia   ....  697.  705 

r.  thymifolia 697 

Texmlariida^ 388 

Thelymirra   veiio.sa    ..    ..    693.   7o:> 

Themeda  Forskalii 70:3 

'J'heobaldia 830 

atripes 830 

Thlnnfeldia 68,  74 

acuta 64,  78,  80 

Feistmaiiteli.  56.  64.  68,  70,  12. 

75,  78,  85,  87,  91 

lancifolia.  .    64,  68,  70,  72,  75, 

78.  85.  87,  91 

^rcC'oyi 89 

media 91 

narraltoeiiensis 85 

(Mlontopteroides  . .  56,  58.  64. 
68,  70,  12,  75.  78,  85,  86,  87, 
89,  91. 

sp 85.   89.   585 

Thiiinfeldieje 64,  7:2 


Page. 

'riuiidiiim  lillipiitannm 563 

plumulosiforme      563 

rameiitosiim 563 

sparsiim ,  .    .  .    563 

s\d>ere<tiim 563 

Til  nil  he  rui  a  .i;randitl<>r;i      ..    ..    600 

lanrifolia 600 

'riiymeheacea'    ..     ..    690,   691.    706 

Thyrididjc 308 

Th  i/rifliiim  hiiniilc 552 

riiysanotns  tuberosns 702 

'rie^heiiKtpanax    sainlmcifolins  707 

Tilla'a   verticillaris 704 

'I'olypothiix  lanata 507 

roxorliyncliires    inoinatns..     ..82S 

spe<-i<>sns 828.   843 

'l'ia<liel()si»eiimini   jasminoides  600 
'I'rafhylonia  planit'olinm  . .    . .    557 

rcciirriilinn 560 

'ri-a<liyinene    P.illardieii    . .     .  .    707 

Jtu  mills 707 

Irarliypns    Xovie   Caledonia^..    560 

'l'remaiidi'a<e;e 705 

rieinatodon  P>aileyi      545 

lonii-escens 545 

Tremelia 885 

'rienielliiue 885 

Tiiassolestes 418 

epiophlebioides        MS.    419.    420 

Triassolestiiue 4  is 

'I'libonema 529 

Tric-hinuim      corymbosniii      r. 

parviflora . .    610 

'I  riclioma 638 

Trk-homatidie.  .  431.  6:J8.  783,  784 
'Iriehoptera,  267.  268.  269.  270,  271. 
272,  273.  274.  284,  286.  292,  293. 
295,  297,  302,  312.  313,  317.  399. 
400  401.  404,  406.  572.  645,  646, 
648,  651,  654,  655,  656.  657,  755 
Trichosteleum  elegaiitnlnm   . .   566 

.  liamatiim 566 

r.  semimammillosiim    .  .    566 

kerUumin 564 

Tricoryne  elatior 702 

'I'rifoUnm  arveiise 704 

'rriillocbiii  procei'a 701 

'I'rigonoplenrns 731.   733 

Trilobita 439 

Tristaiiia  neriifolia      415 

rropidorhynchus    corniculatu.s  695 
'rry)»lasma,   321,   332,   334,  335,  336 


INDEX. 


XXIX. 


Ti'yi)lasma  conjjreixationis 

(lelicatuhi 

lonsdalei 

r.  scalarifonnis 

sp 335 


Page. 

.    331 

.    3.'!  5 

ijol 

.    321 


vt^rmifoi'uus  , . 
Tnni<a  prolitVra  . 
Typha  aiijj^ustifolia 
Typhaceje 


331, 


Ihiu.s  liilli 

riiihellitVra' 091, 

I  iiio 38 

Duiistani     

eyreiisi.s 88. 

iljsvicieiisis 

Stirliii.sj:! 

wiaiiamatreiisis     

(  uioiu'lbi 

howralensis 

(  arnei 

I.  i'aii(>t;eiiia 826. 

albescens    

antenna  lis 

•  airnsensis 

liilli 841, 

Id'opria 

tibialis 839. 

LTrnella 

terrestris .*)29, 

/•.  al»norniis     . .    . .    .■>3o. 

I 'rti<a  incisa 

Li'ticaceje 

rstilaj;(» 

I'lricnlarla    dicliotonia    /•.   \ini- 

iiora 

Ura  CaMiiioi^'ufiis     


703 
701 
701 

130 

707 

,  88 

88 

91 

88 

9(1 

88 

38 

88 

88 

842 

839 

840 

839 

843 

840 

84;i 

529 
530 
531 
70;i 
703 
203 


Vaji:innlina    . 

Valvnlina    .. 

biill<)i(le>- 


388. 

331.    388.    389, 


oldons'ji    .  .    331,    389, 
plica ta.  .    ..    331,  388 

Wlleia   paiadoxa    ..    .. 

\'erl>ascum  blattaria    . . 

Veibenace.'B 

N'ei'onica  calycina   . .    . . 
Dei'wentia 


390, 
390 


708 
525 

388 
389 
390. 
391 
391 
391 
708 
708 
601 
708 
708 


Page. 
Veronica  ?:racilis 708 

perfoliata 690,  708 

N'esicnlaria  rivalis 505 

Viola  betonic.-efolia  . .  090,  697,  706 

lied  era  <ea 697,  7()6 

\'iolacea' 690,   700 

Vitis  liyitojjjlauca Goo 

opjica 600 

sterculifolia,  000.  002,  600,  009 

Vlttadinia  anstralis     709 

Volvocaceie 498,  509,  514 

N'ovlox 498,   526 

aurens  r.  hemispluericus,  526, 
542 

Carteri 527,  542 

tertins 527 

Volvullna 526 

Steinii 526,  527,  512 

Walilenbergia    .i?ra<ilis. .     700,    708 

Weisia  viridula 552 

\V«Mnzia,  764.  765,  706,  707,  708. 
773,  785 

cocJiraga 778 

Westrin^ia  eremicola 708 

WillUnn.sonia  pcdrn,  72,  74.  79,  80 

.S7; 65,    69.    79 

Wistaria    chinensis.   601,   602.   605. 

609 

Wormia  P.urbidgei 249 

Wiinnhra    dioica 702 

Xantliodiscns  Lanterl)aclii,  509,  542 

Xantlioleon 119,  121 

lielnisi   ....   118.  119,  120,  121 

Xantliorrluea   sp 702 

Xerotes  tiliformis 702 

trlauca 702 

lonjiifolia 702 

ninlliflora 702 

Zaphrentis  sp.,  331,  335,   375,  376. 

383,  384 

Zornia  dipliylla 705 

Z}loi)hhhihu    ..    759.   760,   761,  762 

Zi/f/ophlchia 784 

Zm/oijhlchiiiH    ..    759   700,   773,  785 

rcrndK.iinuR    ..    759.   777,  785 

zehra 760 

Zygoptera 418 

Zyj;ospira  sj* 331 


[Printed  off"  March  21.st,  1919.] 


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P.L.S.N.S.W.    1918. 


EueuJiiptus  Marsdoil,  f.  vel  sp.  n. 


PL.s  N.s.w.  taia. 


PL.    LXXVIs 


Megapsychops  iUidgei  (Froggatt). 


P.L.S.N.S  W.    1918. 


PL.    LXXVIU 


4-6.  MajapsycJtops  illidgei  (Froggatt) .         8.  Psijchopsis  <jracilis,  ii.  sp. 
9.  Psychopsella  gallardi,  n.g.  et  sp. 


P.L.S.N.S.W.   1918. 


PL.    LXXVMI. 


10.  Pstjchopsis  (/racilis,  ii.  sp.  11.  PsychopticJla  rjallardi,  n.g.  et  sp 


•L.S.N.S.W.  1818. 


0 


s. 


Psychopsis  elegans  (Gfier.). 


■  L.S   N.S.W.   1918. 


1.  Anophdesbarbirostris  v.'hancro/ti  (Giles).     2.  Toxorhyachites  speciosus  (Skuse). 
3.  Arinigeres  breinJi  Taylor. 


P.L^.N.S.W.  19I9- 


PL.   LXXXI. 


4.   Grabhamia  theohaldnajloY.  5-7.  Cidicada  icilsoni,  s'p.  n. 


t'.L.S.N.SW.    191 

r 


PL.     LXXXIII. 


12 


12.   U runotx Ilia  hill i,  ait.  11.  13-J5.   Uvd(jcsiu  trianijiilataTajloY. 


P.L.9.N.S.W.  19(8t 

PL.    LXXXIV. 

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Phoiiin  i.itncarpa  McAli>, 


PL.   I  XXXV. 


Phoina  citricai-jia  McAlp. 


.S.N.S.W.   19 


Phoma  ciiricarpa  McAlp 


P.L.S.N.S.W.   19!! 


PL.    LXXXVII 


Plioina  citvicarpa  McAlp. 


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P.L.S  N.S.W.   A913. 


PL.    LXXXVII 


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w'^  V  /yy  ,.'N^^-^-^ /, — I-'  f  f\  i  ..  f — -^-; — ^^  ^\    ">  ^ 


Plioma  citricarpa  McAlp. 


.L.S.N.S.W.    1913. 


P/io/utt  cltiitarpa  McAlp. 


P.L.S.N.S.W.   1B18. 


22 


L^-f*. 


24- 


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25 

Pitoiiia  citricarpa  McAlp. 

Aoaricus  cmapestris. 


.S  N.s.W.  1918. 


A'jaricas  cam  pest  ris. 


f".L.S.N.S  W.    191£ 


A<jaricus  campt'sfi 


Issued  Srd  July,   1918. 


»m 


■:^Vol.  XLIII,  "W 

^  Part  1. 


No.  169 

THE 


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PROCEEDINGS,  1918,  PART  1. 

CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Presidential  Address  delivered  at  the  Forty-third  Annual  Meet- 
ing, M^rch  27th,  1918,  by  Professor  H.  G.  Chapman,  M,D., 
B.S.,  President       1-30 

The  Geology  of  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  Queensland,  with 
special  Reference  to  their  Distribution  and  Fossil  Flora,  and 
their  Correlation  with  the  Lower  Mesozoic  Rocks  of  other 
parts  of  Australia.  By  A.  B.  Walkom,  D.Sc,  Assistant 
Lecturer  in  Geology,  University  of  Queensland.  (Plates 
i.-ii.,  and  six  Text-figures)  ...  ...  ...  37-115 

Studies  in  Au8ira.\ia,n  Neuroplera.  No.  5.  The  Structure  of  the 
Cubitus  in  the|  Wings  of  the  Myrmeleontidce.  By  R.  J. 
TiLLYARD,,  M. A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.     (With  three  Text-figures)    116-122 

On  the  Affinities  of  two  interesting  Fossil  Insects  from  the  Upper 
Carboniferous  of  Comm  entry,  France.  By  R.  J.  Till  yard, 
M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the 
Society  in  Zoology.     (With  three  Text-figures)  123-134 

Tha  Origin   of  Yolk  in  the   Ova  of  an   Findoparasitic  Copepod. 

By  H.  Leighton  Kesteven,  D.Sc,  M.B.,  Ch.M.    (Plate  iii.)    136-141 

Contributions  to  our  Knowledge  of  Soil-Fertility.  No.  xvi.  The 
Search  for  Toxin-Producers.  By  R.  Greig-Smith,  D.Sc, 
Macleay  Bacteriologist  to  the  Society 142-190 

On  certain  Shoot-bearing  Tumours  of  Eucalypts  and  Angophoras; 
and  their  modifying  influence  on  the  natural  Growth-habit  of 
the  Plants.  By  J.  J.  Fletcher  and  C.  T.  Musson.  (Plates 
iv.-xxvi.)      191-233 

Hon.  Treasurer's  Financial  Statement  and  Balance  Sheet  30-34 

Elections  and  Announcements        ...  135,234 

Notes  and  Exhibits  ...       ' 235-236 


Issued  ISth  September,  1918. 


Vol.  XLIII.  VW 

Part  2.  No.  170       ^ 

THE 

PROCEEDINGS 

OF   THE 

LiNMEnn  Society 


OF 


New    South    Wales 


FOR    THE   YEAR 


y0m 

1918  /§- 


PART  II.  (pp.  237-416)      V^^^ 
Containing    Papers  read    in       x^^    ''^  ^^  * 


MAY- JULY, 

WITH   SEVENTEEN    PLATES 

[Plates  xxvii.-xliii.] 


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Proceedings  for  1918— Part  1,  20s.;  Part  2,  14s. 

The  Macleay  Memorial  Volume  [issued  October -IStli,  1893]. 
Royal  4to.,  li.  and  308  pages,  with  Portrait,  and  forty-two  plates. 
Price  £3  3. 

Descriptivk  Catalogue  op  Australian  Fishes.  By  William 
Macleay,  F.L.S.  [1881].      A  few  copies  only.      Price  £1,  net. 

The  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  New 
South  Wales,  2  vols.,  8vo  [Vol.  i.  five  Parts,  1863-66;  Vol.  ii. 
five  Parts,  1869-73;  all  published],  price  £>2,  net,  are  also  obtain- 
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PROCEEDINGS,  1918,  PART  2. 

CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

On  the  Seasonal  Distribution  of  some  Queensland  Species  of 
Arcella  Ehrenberg  [Rhizopoda].  Bj^  C.  D.  Gillies,  M.Sc, 
Biology  Department,  University  of  Queensland.  (Four  Text- 
figures)         237-246 

On  the  Leaf- Anatomy  of  SccEvola  crassifolia  [Goodeniace^],  with 
special  reference  to  the  Epidermal  Secretion.  By  Marjorie 
Isabel  Colli>'S,  B.Sc,  Demonstrator  in  Botany,  University' 
of  Adelaide.     (Plates  xxvii.-xxviii.;  and  six  Text-figures)  ...    247-259 

A  Fossil  Insect-wing  from  the_roof  of  the  Coal-seam  in  the  Syd- 
ney Harbour  Colliery.  By  R,  J.  Tilly ard,  M.A.,  D.Sc, 
F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in 
Zoology.     (One  Text-figure)        ''...    260-264 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  A  Study  of  the  Phylogeny  of  the 
Holometabolous  Insects,  with  special  Reference  to  the  Sub- 
classes Panorpoidea  and  Neuropteroidea.  [Introduction]. 
By  R.  J.  Tilly  ARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology        ...         ...         ...    265-284 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  Part  i.  The  Wing-Coupling  Apparatus, 
with  special  Reference  to  the  Lepidoptera.  By  R.  J.  Till- 
YARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S..  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow 
of  the  Society  in  Zoology.  (Plates  xxix.-xxx. ;  and  sixteen 
Text-figures)  286-31g 

The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of  New 
South  Wales.  Part  vii.  The  Geology  of  the  Loomberah  Dis- 
trict and  a  portion  of  the  Goonoo  Goonoo  Estate.  By  W, 
N.  Bexsox,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy  in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Geology.  (Plates  xxxi.- 
xxxviii. ;  and  four  Text-figures) ...         ...         ...  320-360,363-384 

With  two  Palseontological  Appendices  by  F.  Chapman,  F.R.M.S., 
A.L.S,,  Paleontologist  to  the  National  Museum,  Melbourne. 
(Plates  xxxix.-xlii.)  " 385-394 

Studies  in  Australian  Mec.opfera.  No.  ii.  The  Wing- Venation  of 
Ghorista  austral  is  Klug.  By  R.  J.  Tilly  ard,  M.A.,  D.Sc, 
F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in 
Zoology.     (Plate  xliii.,  and  four  Text-figures)  ,    395-408 

The    "Springing"   of    Tins   of   Preserved   Fruit.      By    W,    W, 

L'EsTRANGE  and  R.  Greig-Smith         ...    409-414 

Elections  and  Announcements        285,362,416 

Notes  and  Exhibits 361,415,416 


Issued  18th  December,  1918. 


^  Vol.  XLIII. 

^  Part  3,  No.  171 

THE 

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The  Maclkay  JMemokial  Volume  [issued  October  13th,  1893]. 
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Price  £3  3. 

Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Australian  Fishes.  By  William 
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The  Transactions  op  the  Entomological  Socieiy  of  New 
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PROCEEDINGS,   1918,  PARTS. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGES 


Mesozoic  Irisectsof  Queensland.  No. 3.. Oc?ontti!a  and  Protodonata. 
By  R.  J.  Till  YARD,  M.A.,  D,Sc.,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoologj''.  (Plates  xliA'.-xlv., 
and  Text-figures  11-16) 417-436 

The  Carboniferous  Trilobites  of  Australia.  Bj^  John  ^Mitchell, 
late  Principal,  Technical  College  at  Newcastle,  N.S.W. 
(Plates  xlvi,-liii.) 437-494 

New  and  rare  Freshwater  Algie.  By  G.  I.  Playfaik,  late  Science 
Research  Scholar  of  the  University  of  Sydney.  (Plates  liv.- 
Iviii.,  and  eleven  Text-figures)    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...    497-543 

The  Mosses  of  North  Queensland.     By  Dr.  V.  F.  Brotherus  and 

the  Rev.  W.  Walter  Watts 544-567 

Mesozoic  Insects  of  Queensland.  No. 4.  HtmijMra  Heitroptera  : 
the  Family  DiinstajiUda'.  With  a  Note  on  the  Origin  of  the 
Heteroptera.  By  R.  J.  Tillyard,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S., 
F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology. 
(Plate  lix.,  and  Text-figures  17-22)        ' 568-592 

The  Geology  and  Petrology  of  the  Great  Serpentine  Belt  of  New 
South  Wales.  Part  viii.  The  Extent  ion- of  the  Great  Serpen- 
tine Belt  from  the  Nundle  District  to  the  Coast.  By  W.  N. 
Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Min- 
eralogy in  the  University  of  Otago,  N.Z.,  late  Linnean  Mac- 
leay Fellow  of  the  Societj'  in  Geology.      (One  Text-figure)  ,..  -593-599 

The  Stems  of  Climbing  Plants.     By  John  Shirley,  D.Sc,  and 

C.A.Lambert.     (Plates  Ix.-lxvi.) 600-609 

The  Relation  between  the  Fat-Content  and  tlie  Electrical  Con- 
dulfetivity  of  Milk.  By  H.  S.  Halcro  Wardlaw,  D.Sc, 
Linnean  Maeleaj' Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Physiology  ...    613-625 

The  Panorpoid  Complex.  Part  2.  The'Wing-Trichiation  and  its 
Relationship  to  the  General  Scheme  of  Venation.  Bj'  R.J. 
Tillyard,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S. ,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoology.  (Plates  Ixvii.-lxix.,  and 
Text-figures  17-34)  626-657 

A  Study  of  the  External  Breathing-Apparatus  of  the  Larvtv  of 
some  Muscoid  Flies.  Bj- John  L.  Froggatt,  B.Sc  (Plate 
Ixx.) ...         658-667 

Notes  on  Australian  vSa-wflies  {Tcnthredinidrv).     By.  Walter  W. 

Fro(m;att,  F.L.S.,  Government  Entomologist  668-672 

Elections  and  Announcements         ...  ...  ...  ...  ...495,610 

Notes  and  Exhibits 495,610 


Issued  26 fh  March,   1919. 


(c^  :~'"^'>/ /■^'^i'^VTj^ 


^m-^ "m 


•iiyy«- 


#7voi  xLiii.  TSl 


Part  4,  No.  172        %^ 

THE  i 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF    THE 


LinriEnri  Society 


OF 


New    South    Wales 

FOR    THE   YEAR 

1918 


PART  IV.  (pp.  673-902,  i.-xxix.) 

Containing    Papers  nead    in 
OCTOBER  (in  p(irt)-J^ OVEMBER, 

WITH   TWENTY-THREE   PLATES 

[Plates  Ixxi.-xciii.] 


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Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Australian  Fishes.  By  William 
Macleay,  F.L.S.  [1881].     A  few  copies  only.      Price  £1,  net. 

The  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society  op  New 
South  Wales,  2  vols.,  8vo  [Vol.  i.  five  Parts,  1863-66;  Vol.  ii. 
live  Parts,  1869-73;  all  published],  price  £2,  net,  are  also  obtain- 
able, but  neither  the  Parts  nor  the  Volumes  are  sold  separately. 


PROCEEDINGS,   1918,   PART  4 

CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Notes  Oil  the  Native  Flora  of  New  South  Wales.  Part  x.  The 
Federal  Capital  Territory.  By  R.  H.  Cambage,  F.L.S. 
(Plates  Ixxi.-lxxiv.)  ...  ...  ...  (573-711 

Descriptions  of  new  Species  of  Australian  Gohopttra.     Part  xiv. 

By  Arthur  M.  Lea,  F.E^S 71o-746 

On  a  new  Species  or  Form  of  Eucalyptus.     By  Cuthbert  Hall, 

M.U.,  Ch.M.     (Plate  Ixxv.y        ...  747-749 

Studies  in  Australian  Xenroptera.  No. 6.  The  Family  Psycliop- 
■^idte,  with  Descriptions  of  new  Genera  and  Species,  By  R. 
.J.  Till  YARD,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay 
Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Zoologj'.  (Plates  Ixxvi.-lxxviii. ; 
and  four  Text-figures) ...    750-786 

Studies  in  Australian  Newroptera.  No.7.  The  Life-history  of 
Psychopsls  dtyaus  ((^luerin).  By  R.  J.  Tilly ard,  M.A., 
D.Sc,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society 
in  Zoolog}'.     (Plate  Ixxix.,  and  twelve  Text-figures)...  ...    7S7-<S18 

Australian  Jhyalopttra  or  Alder-Flies,  with  Descriptions  of  new 

Genera   and   Species,'    By  R.  J.   Till  yard,    M.A.,   D.Sc,  * 

F.L.S. ,  F.E.S.,  Linne^xn  Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Soeiety  in 
Zoology.      (Three  Text-figures) 81!J-82o 

Contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  Australian  Culicidfv.      No.  iv. 

By  Frank  H.  Taylor,  F.P],S.     (Plates  Ixxx.-lxxxiii.)         ...    826-843 

Note  on  tiie  Temperature  of  Echidna  aadeata.  By  H.  S.  Halgro 
Wardlaw,  D.Sc,  Linnean  Macleay  Fellow -of  the  Society  in 
Physiology.      (Two  Text-figur§s)  "...     * 844-841J 

The  Occurrence  of  Methyl  L;evo-Inositol  in  an  Australian  Poison- 
ous Plant.  By  James  M.  Petrie,  D.Sc,  F.I.C,  Linnean 
Macleay  Fellow  of  the  Society  in  Biocheniislry.  (Two  Text- 
figures)         850-867 

An  Account  of  some  Observations  upon  the  Life-history  of  Phoma 
cif ricarpa  McAlji. :  the  Cause  of  the  "Black  Spot"'  Disease 
in  Citrus  Fruit  in  New  SoutK  Wales.  By  (i.  P.  Darnell- 
S.MiTH,  D.Sc,  F.I.C.      (Plates  Ixxxiv.-xc.)       ...    868-882 

■TheOccurrenceof  an  inverted  Hj'menium  in  Aijuricn-^  ('(nupeMrl^, 

liy(^.  P.  Darnell-S.hitii,  D.Sc,  F.I.C.      (Plates  xci.-xciii.)    883  887 

Notes  and  Exhibits 713-714 

Donations  and  Exchanges    ...          ...          .  .                      . .  888-902 

Title-page        ...          ...          ...           ..                                    '■ 

Contents           ...          ...          ...          ■■ .                                    ■•  ■           ■  •  iii- 

Corrigenda       ...          ...          ...          ...                      ••           •■■           •■  vii. 

Li.st  of  New  Generic  and  other  Names      -  vii 

List  of  Plates viii- 

Index i.-xxix. 


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