Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales

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VOL. LXII.

WITH NINETEEN PLATES
and 217 Text-figures.

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PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO, LTD,
Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney,

and
SOLD BY THE SOCIETY.
19387.

ii CONTENTS.

CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1937.

PARTS I-II (Nos. 269-270).
(Issued 15th May, 1937.)

Pages.

Pyesidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-second Annual Generali
Meeting, 31st March, 1937, by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch i-XXxX1li
Elections XXXili
Balance-sheets for the year ending 28th February, 1937 .. .. .. XXKXiV—xxxvi

The Structure of Galls formed by Cyttaria septentrionalis on Fagus

Moorei. By Janet M. Wilson, B.A. (Plates i-ii and twelve Text-
figures. ) 1- 8

Entozoa from the Australian Hair Seal. By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A.,
D.Se., F.L.S. (Twelve Text-figures.) 9-16

Notes on Genus Calliphora (Diptera). Classification, Synonymy, Distribu-
tion and Phylogeny. By G. H. Hardy. (One Text-figure.) 17-26

A Census of the Orchids of New South Wales, 1937. By the Rey.
H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. .. 27-31

Australian Hesperiidae. vi. Descriptions of New Subspecies. By
G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.K., F.R.E.S. 32-34

The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to certain Aspects

of their Physiology. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay
Fellow of the Society in Botany. (Plate iii and twelve Text-figures. ) 35-56

On the Histological Structure of some Australian Galls. By E. Kiister.
(Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.) (Fourteen Text-figures. ) 57-64

Final Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. By EH. C. Chisholm,
M.B., Ch.M. 65-72

Some Notes on the Nomenclature of certain Common Species of
Eucalyptus. By T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Plate iv.) .. 138-17

PARTS III-IV (Nos. 271-272).
(Issued 15th September, 19387.)

Two New Species and one New Variety of Drimys Forst., with Notes on

the Species of Drimys and Bubbia van Tiegh. of South-eastern

Australia and Lord Howe Jsland. By Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc.
(Plate v and two Text-figures.) 78— 84

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. vi. By A. Jefferis
Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.

85-106

CONTENTS.

Australian Hesperiidae. vii. Notes on the Types and Type Localities.
By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.H., F.R.E.S.

Revision of the Genus Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromyzidae). By
A. L. Tonnoir. (Communicated by Dr. G. A. Currie.) (Sixteen
Text-figures. )

Galls on Hucalyptus Trees. A New Type of Association between Flies
and Nematodes. By G. A. Currie, D.Se., B.Sc.Agr. (Plates vi-vii
and thirty-one Text-figures. )

Notes on Fossil Diatoms from New South Wales, Australia. i. Fossil
Diatoms from Diatomaceous Harth, Cooma, N.S.W. By B. V.
Skvortzov. (Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.) (Twenty-six
Text-figures. )

A Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae. By H. J. Carter, B.A.,
F.R.E.S., and E. H. Zeck. (Plates vili-ix and two Text-figures.)

The Occurrence of the Australian Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus
(Steind.), and its Spawning Season in New South Wales Waters,
together with brief Notes on other New South Wales Clupeids. By
Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. (Plate xi.)

Notes on the Biology of Tabanus froggatti, T. gentilis and T. neobasalis
(Diptera). By Mary EH. Fuller, B.Sc. (Plate x and thirteen Text-
figures. )

The Growth of Soil on Slopes. By Professor J. Macdonald Holmes, Ph.D.
(Plate xiii and three Text-figures.)

Arthur Henry Shakespeare Lucas. (Memorial Series, No. 7.) (With
Portrait)

PARTS V-VI (Nos. 273-274).
(Issued 15th December, 1937.)

On the Identity of the Butterfly known in Australia as Heteronympha
philerope Boisd., 1832. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sec., B.H., F.R.E.S. ..

Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part iii. The
Genus Aedomyia Theobald. By I. M. Mackerras, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc.
(Five Text-figures. )

The Petrology of the Hartley District. iv. The Altered Dolerite Dykes.
By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Se., Ph.D. ..

The Ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts.
i. Introduction. By Lilian Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery,
M.Se. (Plate xiv, two Maps and ten Text-figures.)

Notes on some Species occurring in the Upper Williams River and
Barrington Tops Districts, with Descriptions of two new Species and
two new Varieties. By Lilian Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery,
M.Se. (Two Text-figures. )

126-146

147-174

175-180

181-208

209-216

Z84—293

iv CONTENTS.

Pages.
Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part iv. The Genus

Theobaldia, with Description of a new Species. By D. J. Lee, B.Sc.

(Nine Text-figures.) 294-298
Notes on Australian Orchids. iii. A Review of the Genus Cymbidium in

Australia. ii. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. (Three Text-

figures.) 299-302
The Occurrence of Graptolites near Yass, New South Wales. By Kathleen

Sherrard, M.Sc., and R. A. Keble, F.G.S. (Plate xv and twenty-five

Text-figures. ) 303-314
The Ecology of the Central Coastal Area of New South Wales. i. The

Environment and General Features of the Vegetation. By Ilma M.

Pidgeon, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Soeiety in Botany.

(Plate xvi-xvii and six Text-figures.) 315-340
The Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin. By S. Warren Carey,

M.Se. (With Palaeontological Notes by Ida A. Brown, D.Sc.). (Plate

xvili and five Text-figures.) 341-376
A Note on the Ascigerous Stage of Claviceps Paspali S. & H. in Australia.

By W. L. Waterhouse, D.Se.Agr. .. 377
List of New Genera and Subgenera 379
List of Plates 380
Abstractwot #Proceedimess:).) \ ih) 7 Dien: Sis seas dnote te. ad ete oy ene XXXVil—xlv
Donations and Exchanges Beene eerie Ree ee ae) Lota eos wan 3 ot | Shall
TASC OE AMEND CLS in MMe at eee 2s, Rem seul eeu eta Mae ee te am area am Vale eL > Dox
Index Shoe NO fo So, HR Ah ROE LR Rae ee eae A ay aT oe lxiii-Ixxiv

CORRIGENDA.

(Volume Ixii.)
Page ix, line 14, for Fuviatile read Fluviatile
Page xviii, line 25, for determinaitons read determinations
Page 19, line 10 from bottom of page, for fulvithorar read fulvicoxa
Page 155, line 6 trom bottom of page, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi
Page 167, line 6, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi

Page 168, line 2, for brimblecombei read brimblecombi

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.
WEDNESDAY, 31st Marcu, 1937.

The Sixty-second Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms,
Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on Wednesday, 31st March, 1937.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceeding Annual General Meeting (25th March, 1936)
were read and confirmed.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Following a well-established practice, I will devote the first part of my address
to a brief review of the Society’s affairs during the past twelve months.

The concluding part of Volume 1xi of the Society’s ProcrEDINGS was issued in
December. The complete volume (360 plus Ixxxiii pages, seventeen plates and
196 text-figures) contains twenty-five papers and, in addition, the memorial
accounts of Charles Hedley and Tannatt William Hdgeworth David.

Exchanges from scientific societies and institutions totalled 2,156 for the
session, aS compared with 1,703, 1,795 and 1,865 for the three preceding years.
During the past year the following institutions have been added to the exchange
list: Centre National de Recherches agronomiques, Versailles; Lingnan Science
Journal, Canton; Société Royale Entomologique d’Egypte, Cairo; Station biologique
de Roscoff, Paris; and Takeuchi Entomological Laboratory, Tokyo.

Since the last Annual Meeting the names of thirteen members have been
added to the list, three members have been lost by death, three have resigned, and
the names of four have been removed on account of arrears of subscription.

ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE Lucas, who died at Albury, N.S.W., on 10th June,
1936, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, England, on 7th May, 1858. The son of Rev.
Samuel Lucas, F.G.S., a Methodist minister, with a sound knowledge of geology,
he grew up in a scientific atmosphere. He was educated at New Kingswood Schooi,
Bath, and at Oxford University, where he was an exhibitioner at Balliol College.
He obtained the degrees of Master of Arts of Oxford and Bachelor of Science of
London. After holding a mastership at the Leys School, Cambridge, under Dr.
W. F. Moulton, he came to Melbourne in 1883, and taught Mathematics and Science
to the senior classes at Wesley College and also lectured in Natural Science at the
University Colleges, Trinity, Ormond and Queen’s. In 1893 he moved to Sydney
as Headmaster of Newington College, from which post he retired in 1898 to become
Mathematics and Science Master at the Sydney Grammar School, where later he
became Headmaster. For a time he lectured in Physiography at the University
of Sydney. He retired from school work in 1923, but later, for two years (1924—
1926), he accepted appointment as Professor of Mathematics at the University of
Tasmania.

While he was in Victoria he was actively interested in the Field Naturalists’
Club, being the first editor of the Victorian Naturalist, and President of the Club
1887-1889.

A

ii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

He was President of this Society for the two years 1907-09, and was a member
of Council from 1895 until his death, with the exception of the two years he spent
in Tasmania.

The greatest part of his published work is contained in numerous papers
dealing with the Algae, on which he was a recognized authority. He was an
indefatigable collector, and after his retirement he spent several months each
year in collecting seaweeds from many parts of the Australian coast. He was
Honorary Curator of Algae at the Sydney Botanic Gardens for many years. His
own large collection of Australian Marine Algae, containing some 5,000 specimens,
he bequeathed to the Commonwealth Government.

Apart from his two Presidential Addresses, he contributed sixteen papers
(two in conjunction with C. Frost) to our PRocEEDINGS during the years 1894-1936.
Most of these papers were the results of his studies on Algae, but several of the
earlier ones dealt with Australian Lizards.

The range of his work is indicated by the fact that, apart from his work on
Algae, he published an ‘Introduction to Botany” (in collaboration with Professor
Dendy) and ‘The Animals of Australia” and “The Birds of Australia” (both in
collaboration with D. le Souef).

He was Local Honorary Secretary of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science for Victoria in 1892, and was President of the Geography
Section at the Brisbane (1909) meeting.

In addition to his scientific attainments he was an accomplished linguist,
having a sound knowledge of several modern languages (including Spanish,
Italian and Russian) as well as Latin and Greek. As a teacher he was lucid,
thorough, and inspiring, and his amazing versatility is indicated by the fact,
recorded by one of his biographers, that “in the days of the old Senior Hxamination
his boys won medals in thirteen different subjects, and it was his personal teaching
that produced so remarkable a result”. Notwithstanding his wide range of accom-
plishments, he was a remarkably modest man, and thus he deserved far more
public recognition than he ever got. Those who knew him, however, were able
to appreciate his lovable disposition, his kindness and sympathy, and his charming
modesty.

Rosin JOHN TILLYARD was born on 31st January, 1881, at Norwich, England,
and died in Goulburn District Hospital on 13th January, 1937, as a result of a
motor accident while driving from Canberra to Sydney. His early education was
at Dover College, from which he won scholarships to Oxford for classics and to
Cambridge for mathematics. He chose the latter and proceeded to Queens’ College,
Cambridge. He obtained his degree of Bachelor of Arts in mathematics in 1903,
and in the following year read Oriental languages and theology, but rheumatism
compelled him to leave England, and he accepted appointment as a master in
science and mathematics at Sydney Grammar School. He graduated Master of
Arts of Cambridge in 1907. In 1913 he was admitted as a Research Student in the
University of Sydney and awarded a Government Science Research Scholarship,
which he held for two years, graduating Bachelor of Science in 1914. He obtained
his Doctorate in Science at Sydney in 1918. He held a Linnean Macleay Fellow-
ship in Zoology from 1915 to 1920, in which year he was appointed Chief of the
Biological Department of the newly-established Cawthron Institute at Nelson, N.Z.
During his tenure of the Macleay Fellowship he was granted leave of absence for
a period in 1917 to act as Lecturer in Zoology at the University of Sydney. In
1926 he became Assistant-Director of the Cawthron Institute, and in 1928 returned
to Australia as Chief of the Division of Economic Entomology of the Council for

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. lil

Scientific and Industrial Research, from which he retired on account of ill-health
in 1934.

He had a brilliant career as an Entomologist, the results of his researches
appearing in his two books “The Biology of Dragonflies” (1917) and ‘The Insects
of Australia and New Zealand” (1926) and some two hundred papers in the
journals of scientific societies. His early work was mostly on the Odonata, while
during his term as a Linnean Macleay Fellow he worked on a wide variety of
entomological problems, including wing venation and other characters of the
Odonata, Australian Neuroptera, Australian Mecoptera, the Panorpoid Complex,
and fossil insects of Permian and Triassic age in Queensland and New South
Wales. In New Zealand, and subsequently at Canberra, he necessarily devoted a
large portion of his time to the measures necessary to combat a number of insect
pests, but, with his amazing energy, he continued his own work on various insect
groups, particularly those found abundantly as fossils. For several years he
collaborated with the late Sir Edgeworth David in investigating fossil remains,
from rocks of Pre-Cambrian age in South Australia, which they believed to be the
remains of primitive crustaceans. Some of their results have been published as a
Memoir on Fossils of the late Pre-Cambrian from the Adelaide Series.

His scientific publications brought to him many honours: he was elected
Fellow of the Royal Society, London (1925), Fellow of the New Zealand Institute
(1924), Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society, London (1921).
Cambridge University conferred on him its Doctorate in Science (1921), and
Queens’ College elected him an honorary Fellow. He was awarded the Crisp
Medal (1917) by the Linnean Society of London, the Trueman-Wood Medal (1926)
by the Royal Society of Arts and Science, London; the R. M. Johnston Memorial
Medal (1929) by the Royal Society of Tasmania; the Clarke Memorial Medal
(1931) by the Royal Society of New South Wales; and the Mueller Medal (1935)
by the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science.
He was president of the Zoology Section of the New Zealand Science Congress at
Dunedin in 1924, and of the Zoology Section of the Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of Science at Brisbane in 1930. He had been
a member of this Society since 1904, and contributed eighty-nine papers to the
PROCEEDINGS during the years 1905-1935.

WALTER WILSON FRocGATT, who died at Croydon on 18th March, 1937, was born
at Melbourne, 13th June, 1858. The son of George W. Froggatt, a mining engineer,
he was educated at the Corporate High School, Bendigo, Victoria. Both his
parents were keen nature lovers, and so he early developed his love of natural
history. On account of ill-health he spent some years on the Jand in north-west
Victoria, and droving in western New South Wales and Queensland. In Queens-
land he also spent some time on various goldfields—Mt. Brown, Cairns, Herberton
and Flinders. During this time in the country he developed his interest in the
study of insects, which he collected widely. Through this he met Baron F. von
Mueller, then Government Botanist of Victoria, and, partly as a result of the
Baron’s good offices, he was appointed entomologist and assistant zoologist to the
scientific exploring expedition to New Guinea despatched by the Royal Geographical
Society of New South Wales. After his return he was engaged by Sir William
Macleay, as collector for his private museum, from 1886 to 1888. During this
period he collected in northern Queensland, and also in north-western Australia,
in the back country of the Kimberleys. From 1889 to 1896 he was assistant and
collector at the Sydney Technological Museum under the late J. H. Maiden, and
in 1896 he was appointed Government Entomologist, which position he occupied

iv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

until he retired in 1923. After his retirement he was special Forest Entomologist
to the Forestry Commission of New South Wales from 1923 to 1927. For ten
years after the institution of the Faculty of Agriculture, he lectured in Entomology
at the University of Sydney.

He had been a member of this Society since 1886, was President 1911-1913,
and a member of Council from 1898 till his death. He contributed to the
PROCEEDINGS some forty-nine papers (one in conjunction with F. W. Goding) in
addition to his two Presidential Addresses.

He took the greatest interest in all naturalist societies, and was always an
active member of the Naturalists’ Society of New South Wales, of which he was
President for some years; he was a member of the Council of the Royal Zoological
Society of New South Wales, which elected him a Fellow in 1931. He was also a
member and one of the founders of the Wattle League, Wild Life Preservation
Society, and the Gould League of Bird Lovers. He was a member of the
Australian National Research Council, 1921-1932, and a Fellow of the Linnean
Society of London.

His scientific writings covered a wide range in entomology, and comprised
many departmental reports in addition to his contributions to the publications of
scientific societies. He was also the author of “Australian Insects” (1907), “Some
Useful Australian Birds” (1921), “Forest Insects of Australia” (1923), and ‘‘Forest
Insects and Timber Borers” (1927), as well as handbooks on Insects (1933) and
Spiders (1935). In the course of his work he was sent on a world tour to study
insect pests in general and fruit pests in particular for the Governments of South
Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland; in 1909 he visited the
Solomon Islands at the invitation of Levers’ Pacific Plantations, and in 1913 went
to the New Hebrides at the request of the French Planters’ Association.

During the past year the David Memorial Fund was closed, the result being
that a sum of £2,079 was handed to the Senate of the University of Sydney, which
has decided that the interest shall be used for the establishment of a post-graduate
travelling scholarship for Geology to be known as the Edgeworth David Scholar-
ship. The Senate of the University also decided that in future the Chair of
Geology shall be called the “Hdgeworth David Chair of Geology”.

The Council of the Society also gave its support to a proposal to obtain a
portrait of the late Sir Edgeworth David, to be hung in Science House. The
Committee appointed for the purpose of carrying out this project received
sufficient subscriptions from members of the societies associated in Science House,
and has commissioned Mr. Norman Carter to paint the portrait.

In an effort to expedite the appointment by the Government of Trustees for
the Sir Joseph Banks Memorial Fund, the Council arranged for a deputation to
wait on the Acting-Premier in May last year. The deputation was received by
Major Shand (in the absence of the Acting-Premier), and received a sympathetic
hearing, but I regret to say that the Government has not yet brought forward the
necessary formal legislation to enable the trust to be appointed.

The proclamation by which numerous wild flowers are afforded protection
was renewed for a further period of a year from 1st July, 1936.

With the object of ensuring that type material of species from Australia and
the Mandated Territories should be available for scientific workers in Australia,
your Council asked the Commonwealth Government to extend the principle
approved by it in 1923 for Australia, that the types of new species and duplicates
of rare species collected by expeditions should be deposited in an Australian

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vv

Museum, to the Mandated Territories. The Society was notified in September,
1936, that “in future special permits to collect in New Guinea will contain a
condition that types of new species and duplicates of any rare species obtained
must be donated to the Administration of the Territory”, and in December, 1936,
“That the Lieutenant-Governor of Papua proposes to declare all specimens of flora
and fauna to be prohibited exports except with the consent of the Treasurer, such
consent to be given after the collector has furnished an undertaking that he has
not collected any new or rare specimens or that he is sending or has sent certain
specimens to Canberra.”

The vacancy in the Council resulting from the death of Mr. A. H. §. Lucas
was filled by the election of Mr. R. H. Anderson, B.Sc.Agr.

The year’s work of the Society’s research staff may be summarized thus:

Mr. H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, continued investiga-
tions into nitrogen-fixation in wheat soils. In twenty-six soils to which no extra
source of energy was added, completely negative results were obtained. In soils
to which glucose or straw had been added, to test the potential N-fixing capacity,
only two out of sixteen soils gave a moderate N-fixation under aerobic conditions
with the addition of glucose; the addition of straw did not in any experiment
result in a measurable gain of nitrogen. Experiments with twelve wheat soils
exposed to daylight to test the possible importance of algae gave negative results,
but one other soil showed a significant gain of nitrogen. No aerobic organism
other than Azotobacter chroococcum (the only species of Azotobacter so far
encountered) has yet been found capable of fixing elementary nitrogen. Pure
cultures of this species were found capable of assimilating 12-15 mgm. of
elementary nitrogen per gram of glucose consumed. Since the assimilation of
10 mgm. N per gram of glucose is considered a normal amount, the lack of
N-fixation in the wheat soils cannot be ascribed to inefficiency of the Azotobacter
strains. Unfavourable soil reaction (acid) seems in most cases responsible for the
absence of N-fixation. Nitrification experiments with thirty soils have shown a
close correlation between total N-content and nitrate production. The conclusion
is indicated that it cannot be assumed that the processes of non-symbiotic nitrogen
fixation will suffice to compensate the wheat lands for the gradual removal of
nitrogen by continued cultivation of wheat, particularly if stubble-burning is
regularly practised.

Miss Lilian Fraser, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany,
continued her work on the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales, completing two
papers for publication and preparing a thesis containing results of all her work
on this subject. In this thesis she attempts to show (a) that there is a distribution
and typical assemblage of sooty-mould fungi which is dependent directly on the
ability of the individual species to resist heat and desiccation, and (0) to explain
the reason for the predominance of members of the Capnodiaceae and certain other
species in sooty-mould colonies, their absence from other habitats occupied by
decay-causing fungi, and the absence or relative unimportance of decay-causing
fungi in sooty-mould colonies. One paper, “Notes on the Occurrence of the
Trichopeltaceae and Atichiaceae in New South Wales” appeared in the ProcEEDINGS
for 1936, and another, “The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to
certain Aspects of their Physiology’, is complete and will appear in the
PROCEEDINGS for 1937. With the object of finding reasons for the composition of
sooty-mould colonies and the absence of common saprophytes, a series of experi-
ments was carried out to ascertain the effect in culture of the growth of individual
species upon the growth of other species. It was found that, whereas true sooty-

vi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

mould fungi do not retard each other’s growth to any great extent in culture, the
same species do retard the growth of Penicillium. This may in part explain the
ability of a large number of sooty-mould species to grow together in the one
colony, and also the absence of the common saprophytes. Studies of the behaviour
of gas bubbles in living sooty-mould cells have shown that the bubbles are within
the protoplast and controlled by its properties. The composition of the gas under
various conditions of desiccation has been determined, but further work is necessary
on this. It has been shown that gas must be able to diffuse slowly across the dry
cell-wall, that a certain amount of gas can accumulate in a cell which has never
had access to air, and that the cell-wall can absorb moisture from a nearly saturated
atmosphere in sufficient quantity to allow for growth of the hyphae. This latter
property is no doubt responsible for the ability of sooty-mould fungi to colonize
the habitats in which they are found. An ecological survey of the rain forests and
Eucalypt forests of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Plateau which
was undertaken in collaboration with Joyce Vickery, M.Sc., of the National
Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, is being completed.

Dr. I. V. Newman, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany, continued
genetical work by an examination of anthesis of Acacia discolor and by carrying
out experiments with pollination to find the time of ripening of the stigma and the
periods between pollinaticn, germination of pollen, and fertilization. This work
was incomplete at the time of his resignation from the Fellowship. A germination
test was made with seeds of Acacia Baileyana collected from two localities near
Cootamundra. The test gives no indication of segregation of widely divergent
foliar characters, the variations shown being such as might be expected from open
pollination in a wild species (without crossing). The recording of this test was
not completed at the time of resignation. The investigation of polyspermy was
retarded by considerable technical difficulties in handling and sectioning, at the
great thinness necessary, the carpels which are such small, hard objects. Dr.
Newman hopes to complete these investigations as opportunity offers.

Mr. R. N. Robertson, Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany, continued his
investigations of the gas of the intercellular spaces of leaves and made progress
on the problem of daylight movement of stomata and the changes of gas
composition with change in external factors. Mr. Robertson was awarded a
Science Scholarship by the Royal Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1851, and
resigned his Fellowship as from 31st July, 1936. He proceeded to Cambridge,
where he will continue this work on plant physiology, in which we wish him every
SUCCESS.

Miss Elizabeth Pope, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Socicty in Zoology,
has carried out dissections of the Port Jackson Shark, and has completed studies
of the external features and the exoskeleton. She has also made a study of the
anatomy of the digestive system and discovered the presence of 9% spiral folds
in the large intestine, and not 8% turns as stated by T. J. Parker. The muscle
system and the nervous system have been studied and dissections of the blood
vessels and skeleton are in progress. Miss Pope has carried out a preliminary
survey of the Ecology of a certain area at Long Reef. Some definite idea of the
animal communities has already been obtained and now it should be possible to
work out some of their inter-relations. During the coming year Miss Pope proposes
to continue the investigations on the Port Jackson Shark, and the ecological
problems in connection with the work at Long Reef.

Six applications for Linnean Macleay Fellowships were received in response
to the Council’s invitation of 30th September, 1936. I have pleasure in reminding

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vii

you that the Council reappointed Dr. I. V. Newman and Miss Elizabeth C. Pope
to Fellowships in Botany and Zoology respectively for one year from 1st March,
1937, and appointed Mr. Consett Davis, B.Sc., and Mr. A. H. Voisey, M.Sc., to
Fellowships in Zoology and Geology respectively for one year from 1st March,
1937. Shortly after the announcement of these appointments, Dr. I. V. Newman
was appointed Lecturer in Botany at Victoria University College, Wellington, N.Z.,
and resigned his Fellowship as from 30th November, 1936. The Council, there-
upon, decided to invite applications from qualified candidates to fill the vacancy
caused by Dr. Newman’s resignation. Three applications were received, and I
have pleasure in announcing the appointment of Miss Ilma M. Pidgeon, B.Sc., to
a Fellowship in Botany for the year 1937-88. We may wish all four Fellows a
successful year’s work.

Mr. Consett Davis, after a distinguished course, graduated in Science with
First Class Honours in Entomology (1934) and Botany (1935). During his Honours
course he carried out research on the Australian Embioptera and on the Plant
Ecology of the Bulli District, part of the results of which have already appeared
in three papers in the Procrrpines for 1936. For his work as a Linnean Macleay
Fellow he proposes to continue the work already commenced on the Embioptera,
and also to work on the respiration of the Dryopidae, the wing venation of the
Coleoptera and the anatomy of certain littoral Mollusca. As opportunity arises he
proposes also to study the general ecology of the Five Islands.

Mr. A. H. Voisey gained First Class Honours and the University Medal in
Heonomic Geology on graduation in Science in 1933 and also divided the John
Coutts Scholarship. During his University course and subsequently, Mr. Voisey
carried out a considerable amount of field investigation of the Upper Palaeozoic
rocks of north-eastern New South Wales, and he has thrown much light on
problems of the Carboniferous and Permian Systems which were hitherto obscure.
Several papers embodying results of this work have already been published by
our Society and by the Royal Societies of New South Wales and Queensland,
resulting in Mr. Voisey obtaining the degree of M.Sc., from the University of
Sydney in 1936. Mr. Voisey proposes to continue this work with the object of
elucidating the structures in the Permian System and ultimately obtaining strati-
graphical sequences which will permit of satisfactory correlation with the succes-
sions in other parts of Eastern Australia and perhaps with extra-Australian
successions.

Miss Ilma M. Pidgeon graduated in Science in the University of Sydney in
1936 with First Class Honours in Botany and was awarded a Government Science
Research Scholarship in 1936. During her final year and subsequently she carried
out work on the Ecology of the Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta Shale
Formations of the Sydney District, and has completed one paper entitled ‘Plant
Succession on the Hawkesbury Sandstone, Sydney District’, which has been
submitted for publication. A second paper on “The Hucalyptus Forests of the
Hawkesbury Sandstone” is approaching completion. She has also been working
on the Eucalyptus Forest Associations on the Wianamatta Shales, and the nature
and distribution of the brush forests. As a Fellow she proposed to extend the
work on the Hucalyptus Forest Associations of sandstone and shale and to complete
other aspects of the ecological work arising out of these studies.

viii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE CAINOZOIC HRA IN NEW SOUTH WALES.
Introduction.

For the scientific part of my address this evening I have chosen as my subject
a review of the geological history of the Cainozoic Hra in New South Wales. A
study of the published work on this subject shows that widely divergent views
have been expressed by the various writers, and it seems desirable, therefore,
to review the existing knowledge for the purpose of attempting to provide a more
satisfactory account of our Cainozoic history.

The absence of fossiliferous marine strata of Cainozoic age in New South
Wales, except for a small area in the south-west corner of the State, together
with the unsatisfactory evidence of geological age afforded by our Cainozoic fossil
plants, makes the accurate dating of such Cainozoic formations as do occur
practically impossible. In Victoria, however, marine fossiliferous strata of
Cainozoic age are widespread, and the association of these with other Cainozoic
formations, such as the volcanic rocks and their associated deep-leads, gives more
definite evidence of age than can be found in New South Wales; the writer has
found it necessary, therefore, to make an attempt to correlate the Cainozoic
formations of the two States in the hope that such a correlation would provide
evidence lacking in New South Wales. With this object in view the published
literature has been studied, certain areas in Victoria have been personally visited
and, in addition, a number of features have been discussed with some Victorian
colleagues who have cordially assisted in every way; in this connection I am
particularly indebted to Messrs. W. Baragwanath, F. A. Singleton and R. A. Keble.

Previous Observers.

C. §S. Wilkinson (1882) and EH. F. Pittman (1908) published very brief
summaries of the Cainozoic Hra in New South Wales, but the first real attempt
to interpret the history of this era was that made by H. C. Andrews. He was
the first geologist in Australia to study the origin of the existing land forms and
use that study in the interpretation of its Tertiary and Post-Tertiary history;
in making these physiographical studies he also, of course, made use of such
direct geological evidence as was available. The result of his work was published
in 1910 under the title of the Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late
Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Time (Andrews, 1910). His methods and conclusions
met with much criticism at the time and even to-day there are some Australian
geologists who disagree with some of his most important conclusions, but in
the writer’s opinion his interpretation of our Cainozoic history has proved to be
thoroughly sound and, apart from some very minor modifications, the succession of
events postulated by him and the geological ages assigned to them have proved
to be correct. In 1911 the present writer in his book on the Geology of New
South Wales (Sussmilch, 1911) gave a fairly detailed description of the Tertiary
formation of New South Wales, the chronological succession adopted being based
on Andrews’ published work of the previous year; and in 1925 (Sussmilch, 1925)
published a brief description of the topographical features of New South Wales,
which included a table showing the more important events of the Cainozoic. Era
arranged in chronological order.

T. W. E. David (1914), in a summary of the geology of Australia, included a
brief chapter on the Tertiary Period, and in his Explanatory Notes to accompany
a new Geological Map of Australia (David, 1932) included a fairly detailed

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ix

summary of the Cainozoic Era; in this account his dating of some of the
formations differs somewhat widely from that of previous writers.

R. Henry Walcott (1920) contributed a very useful paper dealing with the
evidence of age of some Australian gold-drifts, in which he reviews the whole
of the existing literature relating to this subject for both Victoria and New South
Wales; he gives full lists of the fossil plants and a very useful list of references.

F. Chapman and F. A. Singleton (1925) published a very useful summary of
the Tertiary Deposits of Australia, which deals with both the marine and non-
marine formations and includes a very complete bibliography.

A study of the above and other publications on this subject shows that wide
differences of opinion exist, not only as to the order of succession of events which
took place during the Cainozoic Hra, but also as to their actual geological age.

The interpretation of our Cainozoic history depends upon the following
evidences: (1). The Fuviatile Deposits; (2). The Volcanic Rocks; (3). The Marine
Formations; (4). The Existing Land-forms.

The Fluviatile Deposits of New South Wales.

At many places in New South Wales old river-channels of Tertiary age are
found partly filled with deposits of alluvium consisting of river gravels covered
by layers of sand and clay and, in some cases, beds of lignite. The bottom gravels
of many of these old river-channels contain alluvial gold, tinstone, gem-stones, etc.,
and are known to the alluvial miner as “deep-leads’. These fluviatile deposits are
usually well stratified and at most localities contain fossil fruits or fossil leaves or,
in some cases, both. At nearly all localities the alluvial deposits are covered by
contemporaneous flows of basalt and, in some instances, basalt flows are actually
interstratified with the fluviatile deposits. Similar deposits also occur in Queens-
land and in Victoria. A brief description of the best known of these deposits is
desirable and all of those selected for this purpose in this State have been visited
by the writer.

(a) The Emmaville (Vegetable Creek) Leads—These occur on the New
England Tableland in northern New South Wales, not very far from the Queens-
land border; they were first described in detail by T. W. E. David (1887), and
further descriptions were given by J. E. Carne (1911); as they have been described
in full detail they may be taken as a type of our Tertiary fluviatile deposits and
described more fully than those which follow. The Tableland at Hmmaville has
an altitude of about 2,900 feet and consists dominantly of granites and quartz-
porphyries, with which are associated subordinate areas of highly folded Upper
Palaeozoic strata; the surface of the tableiand is a peneplain cut out of these rocks.
Rising above the general level of the tableland is a monadnock called Mt. Battery,
3,970 feet in altitude, a residual of the older tableland, out of which the peneplain
was developed.

The fluviatile deposits and their associated lava flows lie in shallow valleys
about 300 feet deep incised in the surface of the tableland; a section of these
deposits showing their mode of occurrence is given in Figure 1. Two basalt-covered
leads, the Vegetable Creek Lead and the Graveyard Lead, are shown in this section.
At the right of the section is shown the valley of the Severn River, cut out during
the present cycle of erosion subsequent to the uplift of the tableland; it will be
seen that the development of this present-day valley has partly cut away one of the
valley walls of the old lead channel.

B

x PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

In describing these leads, David has shown that the fluviatile deposits under-
lying the basalts range from 25 feet to 79 feet in thickness, while the basalts range
up to 200 feet in thickness; he has also shown that there are two separate flows
of basalt, with evidence of an erosion interval between them; he states that:
“In Skinner’s Rock shaft there is conclusive proof of at least two flows of basalt
belonging to different periods. This shaft was sunk through 100 feet of soft basalt
on to beds of fine sand and clay 25 feet thick and the latter was found to rest
upon the waterworn surface of hard basalt.” David considered that the erosion
interval between the two basalt-flows represented a long period of time, and he
placed the main auriferous lead with its basalt cover in the Hocene Period, while
the overlying 25 feet of alluvium with its covering flow of basalt was considered
to be as young as Miocene or even Pliocene. In his latest writing on this subject
(David, 1932) he places the older deposits in the Oligocene and the newer in (?)
the Miocene Period.

A study of David’s sections will show that, even allowing for the erosion
interval between the two basalt-flows, there is no valid reason why the whole
series could not have been deposited not only in one geological period but even
in part of a period. J. EH. Carne was evidently of this opinion because, in the
geological map which accompanied his report on the Emmaville tinfield in 1911,
all of these deposits are included in the Hocene Period.

A large number of fossil leaves have been obtained from these fluviatile
deposits and these have been described by Baron von Httingshausen (1888); he
described 60 different species from the Old Rose Valley lead and 35 species from
Witherden’s Tunnel; both of these localities are from the same horizon, i.e., under
the lower basalt-flow, yet only one of the 95 species described is common to the
two localities. Sixteen species were described from Fox and Partridge’s claim,
obtained from a shallow lead above the lower basalt-flow, none of which is listed
from the localities previously mentioned. However, from collections of fossil
leaves obtained from one and the same lead at Newstead, near Hlsmore, about 20
miles from Hmmaville, 30 species have been described by EHEttingshausen and
others. Twenty-one of these species occur in Httingshausen’s lists from Hmmaville,
eight from the Old Rose Valley lead, nine from Witherden’s Tunnel, and four
from Fox and Partridge’s. There seems no doubt, therefore, that the fossil plants
obtained from Emmaville all belong to one and the same fossil flora. Ettingshausen
was of opinion that this flora deviates strikingly from the present-day flora and
assigned a Lower Eocene age to it; these opinions will be discussed in a later
section.

The history revealed by the Emmaville leads and their associated land-forms
indicates the following stages of development:

Development of a peneplain at sea-level;
Elevation of this peneplain by about 300 feet;
Development of valleys to a depth of 300 feet;
The partial filling of these valleys with the fluviatile deposits and lava
flows;
Continuation of valley development with the production of a system of
shallow mature valleys alike in the basalts and older rocks;
6. An uplift of about 2,900 feet to produce the existing tablelands;
7. Cutting out of the valleys of the present cycle of erosion.

(b) The Gulgong Leads.—These occur near the village of Gulgong, on a table-

land with an altitude of about 1,600 feet; the surface of this tableland is a

Lag) RO

ol

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xi

peneplain cut out of a series of highly-folded Palaeozoic strata and their associated
plutonic intrusions. The leads occur in shallow valleys incised in the surface of
this peneplain and are, for the most part, covered by basalt-flows; the fluviatile
deposits range from a few feet up to 200 feet in thickness, while the basalts range
up to 130 feet thick. Fossil fruits were obtained from the Home Rule Lead at a
depth of 126 feet; these were described by von Mueller (1876) and referred to the
Pliocene Period. C. S. Wilkinson (1878) reported that some bones of fossil
vertebrates had been obtained from the Magpie Lead at a depth of about 40 feet,
and included remains of Diprotodon, Halmaturus and Macropus.

SECTION AT EMMAVILLE
(T.W.e. DAVID)

VEGETABLE CREEK LEAD GRAVEYARD LEAD

Old Timber. Thin Veins
Thin Veins Shaft ¢7ft. Ue HEE Gra eg ard
of Tin Stone ———s

x.

S g
Sdivoni TAN ZL
=SSSAN DSTONE~

© 20 40 60 80 100 Chains ° 200 400 600 800 jooo Feet

Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale

SECTION ACROSS FOREST REEFS GOLD FIELD (rv.t.srown)

( Basalt

PTT ES
<9 ip sit DAS) A A
p a i) SD RSS

LLP
ZL SILURIAN 7S! 9
LIME STONE eis wane

2 to) 40 80 20 Feet ° 1000 2000 3000 Feet

Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale
=

SECTION AT WINGELLO
(J.B. JAQUET )

a

pI

Forest Reefs Lumpy Lead pBecalls overlying fluviatile deposits

( 1 2

Oatum 2000ft above sea level

3

° 8 16 24 Chains ° 200 400 600 Feet

Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale

(c) The Forest Reefs Leads.—These occur on the Central Tableland of New
South Wales not many miles from the town of Orange, and have been described
by H. Y. L. Brown (1882); a section showing their occurrence is given in Figure 2;
it will be seen from this that the surface of the tableland here is a peneplain
cut out of highly-folded Lower Palaeozoic strata intruded by basic granites and
porphyries; incised in its surface are a number of Tertiary stream channels now
partly filled with fluviatile deposits covered by basalt lava flows, the latter ranging
up to 200 feet in thickness. The alluvial deposits have yielded fossil fruits similar
to those obtained at Gulgong.

(d) The Warrumbungle Mt. Leaf-Beds.—At the Warrumbungle Mountains,
near Coonabarabran, thin beds of sand and clay have been found interstratified with
trachyte lava flows. The extinct volcanoes, of which these lava flows form a part,
stand upon a tableland about 2,000 feet in altitude. Fossil leaves have been

§ (Hawkesbury Sandstone

yee ey

Sat) PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

obtained from the shale beds and described by Henry Deane (1907), who states
that “the leaves are somewhat similar in character to many of those described by
Ettingshausen from the deposits from Dalton and Vegetable Creek’.

(e) The Wingello Leaf-Beds—These occur near the village of Wingello, on
the Mittagong-Marulan Tableland at an altitude of 2,200—2,300 feet, the surface of
which at this locality consists of Triassic sandstones (Hawkesbury Sandstones),
and have been described by J. B. Jaquet (1901). The fluviatile deposits consist
of ferruginous shales, sandy claystones and coarse-grained sands, deposited in
shallow valleys, about 300 feet deep, cut into the Hawkesbury Sandstones, as shown
in Figure 3. They are covered in part by basalt-flows and have yielded fossil
leaves which have been described by Henry Deane and obviously belong to the
same fossil flora as that obtained from Dalton and Emmaville.

(f) The Leaf-Beds at Dalton.—These occur at the village of Dalton, about 7
miles from the township of Gunning. The country here consists of a tableland
with a general altitude of about 1,900 feet. The surface of the tableland is a
peneplain cut out of a series of highly-folded Silurian strata intruded by granite.
Traversing the surface of the tableland is a series of mature valleys about 300 to
400 feet deep and with aggraded floors. Typical examples of these mature valleys
are given in Plate A. At Dalton deposits of cemented siliceous gravels and .;
sands occur some 50 feet above the floor of the valley and these contain abundant
fossil leaves. These have been described by Ettingshausen (1888) (27 species) and
referred by him to the Eocene Period.

(9g) The Kiandra Leads.—These occur near the village of Kiandra on the
Southern Tableland and have been described in detail by E. C. Andrews (1901).
The tableland here has an altitude of over 5,000 feet and its surface is a peneplain
cut out of highly-folded Lower Palaeozoic sediments (tuffs and slates) with
granite and syenite intrusions; above the tableland surface rise monadnocks, such
as Governor’s Hill (5,723 feet), residuals of the older tableland out of which
the peneplain has been eroded. The leads lie in shallow valleys cut into the
peneplain surface and consist of river gravels covered by layers of sand, clay and
lignite ranging up to 150 feet in thickness, the whole covered by a flow of basalt.
The main lead has been traced for a distance of about 20 miles and lies in a rock
channel about 10 chains in width. Present-day streams have cut their channels on
either side and well below the base of the lead, so that it now occurs on top of a
ridge; the upper surface of the basalt is, however, somewhat below the general
level of the tableland. No fossil leaves or fruits have been described from this
lead. Since its uplift, the Kiandra tableland has been deeply dissected; at the
fifteen-mile the Tumut River is entrenched in a gorge 2,500 feet deep, and where
this stream joins the Yarrangobilly River the gorge is 3,600 feet deep.

From the descriptions given it will be seen that all of these fluviatile deposits,
with their associated basalts, are similar in their geological characters and in their
physiographical setting; they differ only in the altitude of the tableland upon
which they rest; they would therefore appear to be all of the same geological age.

The Fluviatile Deposits of Victoria.

It is proposed in this section to describe briefly some of the Tertiary fluviatile
deposits of Victoria for the purpose of showing their close relationship to those
of New South Wales as well as their relationships to one another.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Xili

I. Hastern Victoria.

(a) The Leads of the Bogong and Dargo High Plains (Victoria).—These occur
in Eastern Victoria not many miles'from the New South Wales border, and have
been described by Stanley Hunter (1909). Their physiographic setting is identical
with that of the various leads described from New South Wales; the tableland on
which they occur has a general altitude of about 6,000 feet, but appears to have a
definite southerly tilt. The surface of this tableland is a peneplain cut out of
Lower Palaeozoic strata, and lying in shallow valleys cut into this peneplain
surface are fluviatile deposits covered by sheets of basalt. The higher points of
the tableland, such as Mt. Feathertop (6,303 feet), Mt. Fainter (6,160 feet), Mt.
Hotham (6,101 feet) and Mt. Cope (6,015 feet) all occur in the older rocks.

The basalts to-day cover a series of disconnected areas on or near the main
divide, and these areas are so level as compared with the rugged topography which
surrounds them that the more extensive areas are known as plains such as the
Bogong High Plains, the Baw Baw Plains and the Dargo High Plains. The basalts
reach an altitude of 5,935 feet at the northern end of the area (Bogong High
Plains), the altitude decreasing to 4,400 feet at the south end of the Dargo High

SECTION ACROSS DARGO HIGH PLAIN
(S. HUNTER)

-Basalts overlying fluviatile deposits

W. / / ry dts

Hee} fae / fe / iff ( i

y, v7. eff : J y / a Oh Te WE of

U, fi ji. y, vi y Vi ; j yf IG WA y/ y / / y, ,
Yi fe / ORDOVICIAN SHALES & SANDSTONES ee tox

Datum 2500Ft above sea Jeve/

4 fo} 3000 6000 sooo Feet ° 1000 2000 3000 Feet
eS!
Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale

SECTION ACROSS GOLDEN POINT LEAD, BALLARAT
(H. BARAGWANATH)

Basalts overlying
rfluviatile deposits Golden Point Lead Yarrowee Ck

FEES he

TLOCEP Pec re eer Reon Tr Pa Loot
7 COO Tr = /

!]]

ORDOVICIAN SHALES ETS

5 ° 16 32 48 Chains
Natural Scale
BS es A
Ads Kt
6 Oy
LENS)
INS
CZ AT
B F SD we S
S

ine
47
Awe

\N

F
F 8 B N

c P j ANS

ATION Atti S at LTR C NW
) D SST NACLANIE SS
a“ SEDIMENTARY. ROCKS TESS SUPT eG eG
ISS VSS SPOUSES ES
N TSS NM SD Sr Fe
Lbs TS es West
~S ISS \ OS Xo NT SRSA

A. Residuals. B, Younger Peneplain. C,Upland Valley. 0D, Present day Valley. E, Monadnock Basalts. fF, Plateau Basalts.

Fig. 6.—Ideal section across tableland, showing main physiographical features.

Xiv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Plains, a decrease in altitude of 1,500 feet in a distance of about 22 miles,
suggesting that the tableland was tilted during its uplift.

A study of Stanley B. Hunter’s sections (1909) on the State Geological Map
of the Dargo High Plains (see Fig. 4) shows that the fluviatile deposits with
their basalt cover are similar in all respects to those occurring in New South
Wales, while the tableland on which they occur has suffered a similar deep
dissection to that of the Kiandra Tableland of New South Wales.

Fossil leaves have been obtained from these deposits and were described by
F. McCoy (1876) who considered them to be of Lower Miocene age, and it is
upon this evidence apparently that these deposits have since been referred by most
Victorian geologists to the Miocene Period and the basalts referred to the Older
Basalt Series of Victoria.

(bo) Aberfeldy.—The geology and physiography of this area have been fully
described by H. Baragwanath (1925); according to his description there is in
this district a much dissected tableland ranging from 3,260 to 3,500 feet in
altitude, but with a definite tilt towards the south; the one-time surface of the
tableland is a peneplain cut out of Ordovician strata. Rising above the level of
this peneplain are two residuals, Mt. Baw Baw (5,130 ft.) and Mt. Useful
(4,765 ft.); these are remnants of the older tableland out of which the peneplain
was eroded. The two main rivers of the district are the Aberfeldy and Thompson
Rivers, and the divide between these two streams is capped at intervals along a
distance of about 20 miles by patches of basalt, under which in places occur river
gravels. No fossil plants have been described for these deposits. The physio-
graphic setting here is very similar to that of the Dargo High Plains.

(c) The Tangil Lead.—This has been described by R. A. Murray (1880) and
eccurs on the divide between the Tangil and Latrobe Rivers. The fluviatile
deposits here are about 40 feet thick and are capped with basalt, and from the
lead fossil fruits (Murray, 1887) have been obtained. These basalts were originally
classed as Newer Basalts by R. Brough Smyth (1874) because some of the fossil
fruits found were identical with those found in the Haddon Lead in the Ballarat
District, but later S. Hunter (1909) referred them to the Older Basalts (Miocene)
because he considered the physiographic setting of the Tangil lead to be similar to
that of the Dargo High Plains.

(ad) Tangil East and Narracan.—The geology of this region has been described
in detail by H. Herman (1922), and from his description the following important
features stand out:

1. The presence of a well-developed peneplain cut out of Silurian and
Jurassic strata;

2. The deposition on this peneplain of the following Tertiary formations:
firstly, fluviatile deposits consisting of quartz gravels, micaceous sands
and beds of lignite, followed, secondly, by basaltic lava-flows ranging
from 300 to 500 feet in thickness and, thirdly, deposited upon these
basalts are fluviatile deposits (perhaps lacustrine in part) consisting
of sands, clays and ferruginous conglomerates with a maximum thick-
ness of 100 feet.

Herman, following the general practice, referred the basalts to the Older
Basalt Series of Miocene age and the underlying fluviatile deposits were considered
to be of Miocene, Oligocene or Eocene age. At Narracan, in the southern part
of the area, these fluviatile deposits have yielded fossil leaves which have been
described by F. Chapman (1926), and his list of genera is included in Table IJ;
this fossil flora was considered by him to be the same as that obtained from the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XV

Dargo, Berwick, Bacchus Marsh and Pitfield localities. The fluviatile beds over-
lying the basalts were doubtfully referred by Herman to the Pliocene period;
they have yielded no fossils. In speaking of these latter beds Herman states:
“These deposits are evidently of fluviatile and in part at least of lacustrine origin.
They were laid upon the flattened surface following the filling of the (?) Miocene
river valleys by the volcanic accumulations.” Herman’s sections show very clearly
that the peneplain, with its covering of Tertiary deposits, was subsequently
uplifted to form the existing tabieland ranging up to 1,200 feet in altitude and
that the uplift was a differential one accompanied by faulting and the tilting of
the faulted blocks.

(e) Morweil—From the adjoining district of Morwell Herman (1922) has
recorded the existence of a freshwater series consisting of sands, clays and
lignites with a thickness of upwards of 1,000 feet; of this thickness 780 feet
consist of lignites. No marine strata are associated with these beds. At Yallourn
the topmost beds have yielded fossil leaves which have been described by H. Deane.

This freshwater series has been termed the Yallournian by F. A. Singleton
(1935), and he states that ‘‘though these coals have been referred to the Miocene
they appear to pass easterly, as shown by borings, beneath the Barwonian marine
sediments of Hast Gippsland whose lowest portion is not younger than the
L. Miocene and may even be Upper Oligocene’; he states further that ‘‘the aspect
of the flora which includes at Morwell (Yallourn) Banksia, Dryandra, Lomatia,
Cinnamomum, Phyllocladus and Ginkgo suggests it is not older than Oligocene”.

It has been well established by borings that lignites do occur under the
Lower Miocene marine strata of Hast Gippsland (Chapman and Crespin, 1932) at
depths of upwards of 1,000 feet, but these lignite beds are of no great thickness.
More recent borings in East Gippsland have also proved the existence of lignites
above Miocene marine strata, showing that the lignites are not limited to one
horizon. In the Parish of Glencoe, some 30-35 miles east of Yallourn, logs of bores
show the presence of lignite, 70 feet in thickness, beneath the earliest marine beds
at depths of from 1,200 to 1,400 feet. It is quite possible that these lignites are
directly connected with the lowermost freshwater beds at Morwell, but that does
not mean that the whole of the Yallournian series dips below the oldest of the
marine beds. The freshwater beds at Morwell and the marine beds in the Parish
of Glencoe are still practically horizontal, and it is difficult to imagine how the
former could dip under the latter as has been suggested by Singleton. There is,
further, no proof that any marine strata have ever existed above the Morwell
lignites; these latter are very hydrous, containing up to 60% of water, and they
could hardly have retained that amount of water if they had ever been overlain
by a thick series of marine beds.

The occurrence of lignites above marine strata of Miocene age, as well as
their occurrence below them, shows that there is an interdigitation of marine and
freshwater beds in this part of Victoria, and it would appear probable that a
continuous deposition of freshwater beds was going on at Morwell simultaneously
with the deposition of marine strata elsewhere. The thickness of the Yallournian
at Morwell is similar to that of the marine series in Hast Gippsland, and the
deposition of the one would surely demand at least as great a period of time as
that of the other.

With these facts in view there would seem to be no reason why the topmost
beds at Yallourn, which contain the fossil plants, might not be as young as Lower
Pliocene in age. It might also be noted that H. Herman (1922) states that “the

xvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

great mass of the Latrobe Valley brown coals appear to be stratigraphically
superior to extensive sheets of the ‘Older Basalt’ ’’.

(f) Berwick.—This locality lies some distance to the west of Morwell, and
here again fluviatile beds containing fossil leaves are found underlying basalts,
both resting upon Lower Palaeozoic strata. The basalts have been referred to the
Older Basalt Series, but the only proof of their age is the underlying fossil plants
which are listed in Table I, which were described by H. Deane (1902).

II. Western Victoria.

Basalt-covered fluviatile deposits similar in character to those just described
are extensively developed in Western Victoria.

A. Bacchus Marsh.—This lies at the eastern margin of the Ballarat Table-
land and there occurs here a series of fiuviatile deposits underlying the Newer
Basalts which have been described by R. Brough Smyth (1874) as follows: ‘At
Bacchus Marsh conglomerates, sandy clays and beds of ironstone ranging up to
200 feet in thickness are seen overlying an older volcanic rock such as that
occurring at Melbourne, Flemington, etc. The ironstone bands and ferruginous
sandstones are full of the impressions of dicotyledonous leaves.” The fossil leaves
that have been described are listed in Table I. These freshwater beds are in turn
overlain by basalts (Newer Basalts).

An excellent account of the physiography of this area has been published by
C. Fenner (1918).

B. The Ballarat District—The geology and physiography of this region have
been described in detail by H. Baragwanath (1923); he shows it to consist of
a tableland with an elevation of 1,500-1,600 feet, the surface being a peneplain
cut out of Lower Palaeozoic formations. Incised into the surface of this peneplain
is a series of broad valleys up to 500 feet in depth which are almost filled with a
succession of fluviatile deposits and lava flows (see Figure 5). At Ballarat, above
the lowest gravels, there are found four basalt-flows with interstratified fluviatile
deposits. Subsequently to the outpouring of these basalts, a series of wide shallow
mature valleys were cut out alike in the basalt and older rocks. At Haddon
(Smyth, 1874) the lead underlying the basalt has yielded fossil fruits and fossil
leaves, while at Guildford (Smyth, 1875) specimens of both fossil leaves and
fossil fruits have been obtained from a lead in the Meins Freehold Goldmining Co.
property, Guildford, at a depth of 198 feet below the surface (Smyth, 1874).

C. Pitfield—This occurs on the southern margin of the Ballarat District and
here the fluviatile deposits and their associated basalts rest upon marine strata of
Tertiary age. These conditions at this locality have been described by Stanley
Hunter who wrote (1909) as follows: “Bores put down show that there are
three distinct flows of basalt; between the 1st and 2nd flows lay lignitiferous
clays containing Tertiary leaves, between the 2nd and 3rd flows was wash similar
to that taken out elsewhere at Pitfield and which Mr. E. Lidgey considers to be
L. Pliocene.” Hunter states further that the bores passed a foot or so into under-
lying marine beds of supposed Eocene age, but the age of these marine beds has
since been determined by F. A. Singleton (1935) as being Lower Miocene. The
fossil leaves referred to have been described by Henry Deane (1902) and are listed
in Table I.

It will be seen from the descriptions given that the fluviatile deposits and
associated basalts of Western Victoria (Bacchus Marsh, Ballarat and Pitfield) are
quite similar in their nature and mode of occurrence to those of Hastern Victoria

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XVii

(Dargo, Aberfeldy, Tangil and Narracan), that both regions have yielded a similar
fossil flora (leaves and fruits), and that in both regions the physiographic setting
is the same, and this surely is sufficient evidence for considering them to be
of the same geological age. Yet most observers have considered those of Eastern
Victoria to be of Lower Tertiary age and those of Western Victoria to be of Upper
Tertiary age.

It is also obvious from the descriptions given that the Tertiary fluviatile
deposits of New South Wales, with their associated basalts, are similar in every
way to those of Victoria. The one point of real difference between the various
localities in both States is the elevation at which they stand to-day; both the
geological and the physiographical evidence indicate that these Tertiary deposits
were laid down on a peneplain elevated only a few hundreds of feet above sea-level
and that, subsequent to their deposition, both peneplain and Tertiary deposits
were elevated to form the present-day tablelands—probably at the close of the
Tertiary Era; the fact that the elevation was a differential one accounts for the
present difference in elevation at the various localities which have been described.
The high altitude of the Tertiary formations on the Dargo High Plains (6,000
feet), together with the profound gorges which surround them, may have suggested
to some of the earlier workers a high geological antiquity as compared with the
Ballarat occurrences, where dissection, owing to the lower elevation (1,600 feet),
is not so striking, but the difference is only one of altitude; the dissection of the
Ballarat Tableland at Bacchus Marsh is at a similar stage of development to that
of the Dargo High Plains. One concludes, therefore, that the Tertiary formations
of New South Wales and those of Eastern and Western Victoria described here are
all of one and the same geological age.

The Cainozoic Fossil Flora.

From the fluviatile deposits described in the last section there has been
obtained a number of fossil plants, including (a) fossil leaves, (0) fossil fruits;
the latter have been obtained from the coarse gravels at or near the base of the
deposits, while the fossil leaves have been obtained from beds of clay overlying
the gravels. The leaves and fruits have rarely both been obtained from the same
leads.

(a) The Fossil Leaves.—A large number of fossil leaves obtained from (1) the
Emmaville District and (2) the Dalton District have been described by Ettings-
hausen (1888), and were considered by him to be of Hocene age. Httingshausen
considered these fossil plants to represent a mixed flora consisting partly of species
related to plants still living in Australia and partly of genera and species whose
nearest allies were to be found in fossil plants from countries other than Australia.
Among the former he described species of Callitris, Dammara, Phyllocladus,
Casuarina, Santalum, Persoonia, Grevillea, Hakea, Lomatia, Dryandra, Caricoma,
Ceratopetalum, Boronia and Hucalyptus, and considered these to be more or less
closely related to living Australian forms. With regard to those he considered
to be foreign, he referred them to such genera as Sequoia, Myrica, Alnus, Quercus,
Cinnamomum, Sassafras, Aralia, Eleocarpus, Acer and Copaifera, and considered
the nearest relations of some of them to be species found in Europe and America,
with geological ages varying from Cretaceous to Miocene; it is upon this evidence
apparently that he gives an Hocene age to these fossils.

Ettingshausen’s determinations have been severely criticized by Henry Deane,
who (1896) wrote as follows: “I have carefully looked into the matter of the

xviii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Dalton and Vegetable Creek fossils, and I cannot agree with the crucial deter-
minations as to the character of the flora, and its resemblances to the flora of other
parts of the world are utterly wrong. With the aid of R. T. Baker I have made
comparisons with the fossil leaves and living ones, and so far as I have gone the
various types of fossil leaves are represented among existing plants and there is
no need to go outside Australia to look for them.” In his paper Deane gives
examples of some of what he considers to be Httingshausen’s faulty determinations,
and points out that all or nearly all of the fossil leaves described possess the
form and character of existing plants living in the “brush forests” of Hastern
Australia.

Deane (1900) returns to the attack after he had made a study of the fossil
leaves from Vegetable Creek (Emmaville), Gunning, Wingello and Bacchus Marsh
(Victoria), and reaffirms his previous view that all of the species are closely
related to existing Australian plants. He draws attention to the difficulty of
determining which existing plant a particular fossil leaf really resembles, and
states that it may resemble those of half a dozen plants belonging to widely
different groups.

R. H. Walcott (1920) has also questioned the value of these fossil leaves as
an evidence of geological age, and states that “when living species are never
determined by leaves alone, notwithstanding that they may be procured in
abundance and in perfect condition, it seems to be rather unwise for stratigraphical
purposes to place too much reliance upon specific determinations made from the
examination of perhaps imperfect fossil leaves or specimens of wood in various
conditions of preservation”’.

The above criticisms not only apply to Ettingshausen’s determinaitons of
New South Wales fossil leaves, but apply equally to McCoy’s determinations of
geologic age of similar fossil leaves obtained from the deep-leads of Victoria,
determinations which are apparently still being adhered to by workers in that
State. It is worthy of note that Baron von Mueller, one of the most eminent
botanists of his day, always refused to have anything to do with the determination
of fossil leaves.

In view of the above facts, the decisions of both Ettingshausen and McCoy
as to the Hocene-Lower Miocene age of the Australian Tertiary fossil leaves cannot
be accepted as reliable and, in view of the evidence put forward by Deane that
they are closely related to forms still living in the “brush forests” of to-day, it is
quite possible that they are no older than Pliocene in age.

Henry Deane, in criticizing the determinations of Ettingshausen and McCoy,
did not carry his views to their logical conclusion, because when he later described
some Tertiary fossil leaves from New South Wales and Victoria he referred
them to the Lower Tertiary. Deane as a botanist was primarily concerned with
the correct botanical classification of his specimens and apparently accepted the
views of the geologists of his day as to the Lower Tertiary age of the leads without
question, apparently overlooking the fact that their opinions as to age, at least
with regard to some of the leads, had been based on McCoy’s determinations of the
Lower Miocene age of the fossil plants.

(b) The Fossil Fruits—These were described by von Mueller (1874) and
considered by him to be of Pliocene age, and that determination has generally
been accepted by later writers. Some confusion of thought has been brought
about by the fact that fossil leaves and fossil fruits have usually not been found
in one and the same lead, and this has been accepted as further proof that the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. SX

leads containing the fossil leaves were geologically older than those containing
the fossil fruits. However, both fossil leaves and fossil fruits have been recorded
as having been obtained from some of the leads in the Ballarat district. Fossil
leaves and fossil fruits have also been obtained from the same deposit at Sandy
Bay, near Hobart, Tasmania (Wilkinson, 1882), and their association at other
localities in Tasmania has been recorded by R. M. Johnston (1879).

There is a possible explanation as to why both leaves and fruits are not usually
found together. Records show that the fossil fruits have usually been obtained
from the coarse gravels in the deepest part of the old river-channel, conditions quite
unsuitable for the preservation of leaves; these gravels are usually highly charged
with water, conditions which seem to have been particularly favourable for the
preservation of the fruits, because when such fossil fruits are removed from the
leads they quickly disintegrate unless preserved under water or some other
liquid; at any rate that has been the writer’s experience. The fossil leaves, on
the other hand, have usually been obtained from beds of fine sediment situated some
distance above the main gutter in which the gravels occur, conditions which may
not be entirely favourable for the preservation of the fruits.

In the Ballarat District of Victoria fossil fruits and leaves have been obtained
from the Haddon Lead, whereas fossil leaves only have been found in the leads
at Pitfield; both series of leads occur under the same series of basalts (the Newer
Basalts) and are undoubtedly of the same geological age. Fossil leaves have also
been obtained from the fluviatile deposits which occur under the Newer Basalts
at Bacchus Marsh, and these beds have always been considered to be of Pliocene
age. Similarly, in Eastern Victoria fossil fruits have been obtained from the
Tangil Lead, whereas fossil leaves have been obtained from the fluviatile beds
at Narracan, in both cases under the same series of basalts, but these basalts
have always in the past been referred to the older basalt series (Older Basalts)
considered to be of Oligocene or Lower Miocene age, apparently on the evidence
of the fossil leaves. It seems quite certain that the fluviatile beds of Tangil and
Narracan are of the same geological age.

R. A. Murray (1880) came up against this difficulty when describing the
Tangil Lead, and made the following remarks: “It may be noted that some of
the species of fossil fruits described by Baron von Miiller are common to both
Miocene and Pliocene drift, specimens having been found in the gravels beneath
the .Older Basalt at Tangil precisely identical in species with some obtained from
the lead gravels beneath the Newer Basalt at Haddon.” Smyth (1874) had
previously referred the basalts at Tangil to the Newer Basalts, and had correlated
the underlying leads with the leaf-beds at Bacchus Marsh; but Murray referred
the Tangil basalts to the Older Basalts because their mode of occurrence and
the physiography of the surrounding country resembled that of the basalts of the
Dargo and Bogong Plains, which were and are still considered in Victoria to be
Older Basalts, presumably because of McCoy’s determination of the Lower Miocene
age of the underlying plant beds.

Fossil leaves have been described from a number of localities in Victoria,
the more important of which are tabulated below; in this table the names of the
genera only are given, as the writer places very little reliance upon the deter-
minations of species from such material; however, had the species also been given
it would have made very little difference to the result. Those of the Victorian
genera which have been recorded also for New South Wales are indicated in the
right-hand column.

xX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

TABLE I.—Fossil Leaves recorded from Victoria. ‘
Dargo. Narracan. Morwell. Berwick. Bacchus Marsh. Pitfield. N.S.W.
DS x
xX

Cinnamomum .....
WGAUGUS ees neyen
IAI CUS aynccnayeencuereterenene
NGASELA Faria arate eae
IDKCRVRAOUOS soaccéc
SSC WUNEY So Gancoue
Mristanitesmre see
Hedycarya .......
Mollenedial js 5546
IMCGOINOGN “So aon00¢
Nothofagus .......
Argophyllites
Daphnandra ......
Carpolithes ss ss2.-
IDDOAADMWE, sooocc06
INeph elites =. .4 -4-
IPAMACIOAS saccoccc
TECOSPOGUMUN eee
Woma bia eect
IDHAUIAS “sooasacoc
Apocynophyllum
(Banksia eaves eee
Dryandra a
Gink Owe ceteris
Phyllocladus ......

After allowing for incomplete collecting, particularly from some of the
localities, there would seem to be little doubt that these genera all belong to one
and the same Tertiary flora, a view which appears to be generally accepted. As
the genus Cinnamomum appears to be the most widespread of these genera, it will
be convenient to refer to this flora as the Cinnamomum Flora.

It has already been shown that there is strong evidence in favour of the
belief that both the fossil fruits and the fossil leaves have been derived from
deposits of the same geological age; the fossil fruits were referred by Baron von
Mueller to the Lower Pliocene, and a Pliocene age has since been generally
accepted for them; the fossil leaves, on the other hand, have been given ages
ranging from Hocene to Pliocene, according to the locality from which they have
been obtained; those found under basalts believed to belong to the Older Basalt
series were considered to be Oligocene or Lower Miocene in age, whereas those
occurring under basalts hkelieved to belong to the Newer Basalt Series were
considered to be Pliocene in age. The value of the comparisons made by
Ettingshausen and McCoy with plants of Cretaceous, Eocene and Miocene ages
in other continents is very doubtful. Henry Deane has repeatedly referred to
the close resemblance of these fossil plants to plants living in our present-day
“brush forests’, and there appears to be no reason, therefore, why these fossil
leaves may not be as young as Lower Pliocene, that is, the same age as has
generally been accepted for the fossil fruits; other evidence in support of this
will be referred to later.

nA

PS Te a a al

A Aa TE tsrestistiates
| |

TAS ap etiatratesirstreticn || | es
J Sits isis estat at stilts] isl ttf
|
Pa rattan | tf] tates |p yl ia

1 MMS ES SS pad

bd ok bd Od |

The Marine Formations of New South Wales.

Strata of marine origin are limited in New South Wales to a small area in
the south-western corner of the State; they do not outcrop at the surface, being
covered by more recent deposits, and such knowledge as we have of them is limited
to information obtained from bore-holes put down in search of artesian water. A
bore-hole at Arumpo has penetrated these beds to a depth of 647 feet, showing that
they are upwards of 600 feet in thickness.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xxi

The Marine formations of Tertiary age in Australia have been classified by
Messrs. Chapman and Singleton (1923) as follows:
Upper Pliocene—Werrikooian Series.
Lower Pliocene—Kalimnan Series.
Upper Miocene—poorly developed.
Middle Miocene—polyzoal limestones of HE. Gippsland.
Lower Miocene—Janjukian Series (and Barwonian Series).
Upper Oligocene—Balcombian Series.
The marine strata of south-western New South Wales have been referred by
Chapman and Singleton mainly to the Janjukian, extending perhaps into the lower
part of the Kalimnan Series.

Relation of the Terrestrial and Marine Formations.

In view of the unsatisfactory evidence of geological age afforded by the
Tertiary fossil plants, it becomes necessary to find out what evidence can be
obtained from the association of the terrestrial formations with the Tertiary
marine beds.

No association of terrestrial and marine formations has been found so far
in New South Wales, but fortunately the two have been found in association at
several localities in Victoria.

(a) Pitfield Plains—The conditions at this locality have already been described,
and it has been shown that the fluviatile deposits containing fossil leaves and the
associated lava-flows overlie marine strata of Janjukian age (Lower Miocene) ;
obviously here the former are younger than the latter, but the question is how
much younger? The fluviatile deposits could not have been deposited in the sea,
and it would appear to be obvious that subsequent to their deposition the marine
deposits must have been elevated and the sea-bed converted into dry land before
the fluviatile beds were deposited. At no very great distance to the north, on the
Ballarat Tableland, similar fluviatile deposits and their associated basaltic lava
flows were deposited in definite valleys ranging up to 500 feet in depth, incised
into an uplifted peneplain; it is not unreasonable to assume that these valleys
continued southwards into the uplifted marine strata at Pitfield Plains and that
the fluviatile beds, therefore, were deposited in actual valleys, not necessarily as
deep as those at Ballarat. If this supposition is correct it implies that a consider-
able interval, accompanied by uplift and subsequent denudation, elapsed between
the deposition respectively of the marine strata and the fluviatile strata. Support
for this view is supplied by geological sections in the valley of the Moorabool
River some distance to the east of Pitfield Plains. The geology of this region
has been described by Hall and Pritchard (1897), who, in their geological sections,
show the Newer Basalts, the same basalts as those occurring at Pitfield Plains,
resting unconformably upon an eroded surface of the underlying Janjukian marine
beds.

The evidence from these two localities shows that the leaf-bearing fiuviatile
deposits and their associated lava flows are definitely younger than Lower Miocene
and quite possibly as young as Pliocene.

(b) The Hamilton District—The Newer Basalts of the Ballarat Tableland
continue westwards without a break to the Hamilton District, where they cap a
tableland about 600 feet in altitude, the tableland having a gentle tilt from Ballarat
(1,600 feet) westwards to Hamilton (600 feet). At Hamilton the basalts show
the same deep weathering and the same mature dissection as they do at Ballarat,
but here they rest directly upon marine strata.

XXii PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The marine strata consist of Janjukian beds capped by a few feet only of
Kalimnan marine beds, and the latter are capped in turn by the Newer Basalts.
The nature of the contact between the two latter formations is not very clear in
the field, but the evidence suggests that the Kalimnan sedimentation was inter-
rupted by the pouring out of the basaltic lavas over the sea-bottom; it is, how-
ever, possible that some erosion of the marine beds may have taken place before
the extrusion of the basalts. However, one fact is quite clear, and that is that
the basalts cannot be older than Lower Pliocene.

Besides the Newer Basalts just referred to, there occurs in this district a
still younger. series of basaltic lava flows which have always in the past been
grouped under the term Newer Basalts. At Byaduk, some few miles south of
Hamilton, these younger basalts may be seen as flows partly filling the mature
valleys which occur on the surface of the tableland. The Newer Basalts proper, in
which the mature valleys occur, are deeply weathered, the ridges between the
mature valleys are gently rounded, while rock outcrops are few and inconspicuous.
The still younger basalt flows which lie in, and have flowed down, the mature
valleys are but little weathered, there is very little soil, and consequently very
little vegetation on their surfaces, and typical lava tunnels exist underneath them.
When viewed from a short distance they give the impression of having flowed down
the valley only a few years ago.

From the description just given it will be obvious that quite a long erosion
interval exists between these two series of basalts, and the younger cannot be
older than Pleistocene and may even be Recent in age.

Drik-Drik District —The basalt-capped tableland extends south-westwards from
Hamilton to the Glenelg River and has here an elevation of about 500 feet, the
basalts themselves being about 250 feet in thickness. The writer is indebted to
Mr. R. A. Keble for the details of the geology of this district; he states that the
present-day valley of the Glenelg River is younger than the basalt which caps
the tableland and that this valley, since its first formation, has been partly
submerged beneath the sea and later uplifted; during the submergence, marine
strata of Werrikooian (Upper Pliocene) age were deposited in it and such strata
are, therefore, younger than the basalts. The succession of events as given by Mr.
Keble was as follows:

1. Extrusion of the basalts (Newer Basalts) which covered the ancient
valley of the Glenelg River.

2. Initial erosion of the present Glenelg Valley at the fringe of the
basalt sheet.

3. Submergence followed by the deposition of marine strata of
Werrikooian age.

4. Uplift bringing the Glenelg Valley again above sea-level.

This evidence gives an upward limit to the age of the Newer Basalts; they
are pre-Werrikooian.

From the evidence at Pitfield Plains, Moorabool River, Hamilton and Drik-
Drik, it seems quite certain, therefore, that the Newer Basalts of Western Victoria
and their associated fiuviatile beds containing fossil leaves and fossil fruits are
of Pliocene age, and most probably of Lower Pliocene age.

Having considered the upward limit of age of the Cinnamomum flora, attention
should now be given as to what evidence there may be as to its downward limit
of age.

F. A. Singleton (1935), in referring to the occurrence of the genus
Cinnamomum in the upper series of the marine beds at Beaumaris (Victoria),

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Xxiil

states that these beds have usually been referred to the Kalimnan (Lower
Pliocene), but gives some reasons for thinking that they may be Upper Miocene;
even if this suggestion should prove to be correct, it does not bring the genus
Cinnamomum lower than Upper Miocene.

At Sentinel Rock (Victoria) leaf-bearing beds overlie marine strata of
Barwonian (Lower to Middle Miocene) age. F. Chapman (1905) states that “this
flora is a very distinct one, the leaves being chiefly of the Coprosma (Coprosmo-
phyllum Hy. Deane) type; other genera present are the proteaceous Persoonia,
the coniferous Phyllocladus; Casuarina and Acacia are also present’. This flora
is certainly not the typical Cinnamomum flora, but in any case, resting as it does
upon marine Barwonian strata, it cannot be older than Upper Miocene and may
even be younger.

At Moorlands in South Australia (Mawson and Chapman, 1921) fossil plants
have been found occurring below marine Miocene strata, but only two genera have
been described, a Banksia and a Telopea; this again is not the typical Cinnamomum
flora.

More recently some fossil leaves have been found by Sir Douglas Mawson in
clay beds lying beneath marine strata of Janjukian age at Blanche Point, Aldinga,
in South Australia. These have been described by F. Chapman (1935), and include
the genera Ficonium, Pomaderris, cf. Banksia, Eleocarpus, Sterculia, similar,
according to Chapman, to species occurring in the Cinnamomum flora, but as to
whether these few fossil plants truly represent the Cinnamomum flora is a matter
for question.

From the Redbank Plains in south-eastern Queensland a fossil flora has been
found which includes the genera Sapindus, Ficus, Myrica, Banksia, Cinnamomum,
Diemenia, Eucalyptus and Apocynophyllum, and there would appear to be no doubt
that it is a similar flora to the Cinnamomum fiora of New South Wales and
Victoria. These same beds have yielded fossil fish which have been described by
E. S. Hills (1934); he has described four species, all new ones, as follows:

(a) Epiceratodus denticulatus, which Hills considers to be very close to

HH. forsteri, a species which ranges from Pleistocene to Recent;

(0) Phareodus queenslandicus—Hills states that the only other known
occurrences of this genus are in the Eocene of Wyoming and the Lower
Tertiary of Java; the Queensland example is, however, a new species;

(c) Notogoneus parvus.—The only other known fossils of this genus are stated
to range from Eocene to Oligocene. Hills, however, was doubtful as to
whether his Queensland specimens were really referable to Notogoneus,
and states that ‘better material may reveal differences sufficient to separate
from this genus”;

(ad) Percalates antiquus.—Hills’s conclusion was that there is an extremely
close resemblance between this species and the living P. colonomum.

It is obvious that the evidence of age given by these fossil fish is somewhat
conflicting; this was realized by Hills, and he referred them tentatively to the
Oligocene Period; the question may well be raised as to whether a younger age
is not suggested by these fossil fish in view of the fact that two of them are very
closely related to Pleistocene and living species, while, of the other two, one is a
new species, and of the other the true genus is in doubt.

From the above it will be seen that although some few fossil leaves have
been found in undoubted pre-Miocene strata, there is at present no certain
evidence, from association with marine strata, that the Cinnamomum flora as a

XXiV PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

whole is older than Lower Pliocene, while so far as the evidence of the associated
fossil fish in south-eastern Queensland is concerned, while it cannot be ignored,
it is at least doubtful. It is quite certain, of course, that some of the members
of this flora existed in pre-Pliocene times; perhaps they all did; but the only
thing that we can be really sure about at present is that this flora was abundant
and widespread in Pliocene times.

Reference should be made here to an association of marine strata with an
auriferous lead at the Welcome Rush near Stawell (Victoria). This occurrence
was first described by R. Brough Smyth in a letter to the Geological Magazine;
he stated that marine fossils had been obtained from a bed of ferruginous material
about thirty-eight feet below the surface of the ground and forty feet above the
Silurian bedrock upon which the auriferous wash rests. The few marine fossils
found here were described by F. McCoy, who referred them to the Lower Pliocene.
These fossils, which are few in number and most of them poorly preserved, have
since been re-described by F. Chapman (1905), who concluded that ‘“‘they repre-
sented a horizon near the summit of the Janjukian Series, but older than the
Kalimnan (Lower Pliocene) and younger than the Balcombian”; that is, about
Middle Miocene in age.

The strata associated with the auriferous gravels have not yielded any fossil
leaves or fossil fruits, and they do not appear to be associated with any of the
Tertiary Basalts; consequently there is nothing to enable any correlation to be
made with other Victorian fluviatile deposits, and they do not, therefore, afford any
direct evidence as to the geological age of the latter.

The Volcanic Rocks of New South Wales.

The Cainozoic volcanic rocks of New South Wales were described in some
detail by the writer (1923), and there is no need to add here to that description;
they were classified as follows:

The Alkaline Series—Late Tertiary.
The Plateau Basalts—Lower Pliocene.
The Monadnock Basalts—Upper Cretaceous or Hocene.

(a) The Monadnock Basalts——These occur as cappings on some of the physio-
graphical residuals (monadnocks) rising above the level of the adjacent tablelands;
the areas covered are relatively small.

(0) The Plateau Basalts.—These are the basalts covering extensive areas of
the surfaces of the present-day tablelands and which in places overlie the fluviatile
deposits already described. The term plateau basalt was used in a purely
geographical sense and was a very convenient one, but of late years this name
has, unwisely, been given a petrological significance which does not necessarily
apply to all basalts situated on tablelands. Reasons have already been given for
referring these basalts to the Lower Pliocene.

(c) The Alkaline Series.—These consist mainly of alkaline rocks ranging from
acid to basic in composition and include some basalts. The areas occupied are
relatively small.

The Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks were later referred to in some detail by
Dr. W. R. Browne (1933), who differed from the writer on a number of
points, the most important difference being with regard to the age of the Alkaline
Series; these he considers to be older than the Plateau Basalts; these differences
will not be discussed here, but will form the subject later of a separate paper. Dr,
Browne drew attention in his paper to one very interesting occurrence in the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXV

Moruya District of New South Wales, where Dr. Ida Brown had noted the
occurrence of basalts overlying beds of coarse grit containing fragments of
pelecypods, which F. A. Singleton had tentatively referred to the Upper Cainozoic.

The Cainozoic Volcanic Rocks of Victoria.

These have in the past been classified as follows, and a summary of their

occurrence has been published by E. W. Skeats (1909):
1. The Alkaline Series—Middle Cainozoic.
2. The Newer Basalts—Pliocene to Pleistocene.
3. The Older Basalts—Oligocene or Miocene.

The Older Basalts——In south central Victoria, but particularly in the districts
around and adjacent to Port Phillip, basalts occur which definitely underlie marine
strata of Lower Miocene age. In summarizing these occurrences, F. A. Singleton
states ‘that basalts have been found beneath Janjukian limestone at Airey’s
Inlet; beneath Lepidocyclina limestone at Flinders and Keilor; beneath Balcombian
marls at Balcombe Bay, and under beds of probably similar age at Curlewis and
Royal Park’. He considers these basalts to be Oligocene in age, since they
underlie the marine beds unconformably. It was to occurrences such as these that
the term “older basalts” was originally applied; there can, of course, be no doubt
as to their Lower Cainozoic age. Unfortunately, there has later been grouped
with them a series of basalts in Hastern Victoria which are not associated
with marine strata; these include the occurrences already described as occurring
at Dargo High Plains, Aberfeldy, Tangil, Narracan, Berwick, etc. The correlation
of these occurrences with the Older Basalts was apparently based upon McCoy’s
determination of the Lower Miocene age of the fossil plants found under the
basalts at Dargo High Plains, but, as has already been pointed out in an earlier
part of this address, it is much more probable that these plants are of Lower
Pliocene age, and, if this is correct, the basalts cannot be older than Lower
Pliocene.

One interesting example of basalts of two distinct ages occurs at Aberfeldy.
The geology of this district has been described by Mr. Baragwanath (1925); he
describes the existence of two peneplains, an older one now surviving only in the
form of residuals, of which Mt. Useful (4,760 feet) is one, and a younger one now
forming the surface of the existing tableland whose altitude near Mt. Useful is
about 3,500 feet. A basalt capping overlying what Mr. Baragwanath calls peneplain
gravels and which is therefore part of a one-time lava flow, occurs on top of
Mt. Useful, that is, on the older peneplain; basalts also occur on the surface
of the present tableland (with underlying river gravels), that is, on the surface
of the younger peneplain—this basalt was also a lava flow. It is obvious that the
basalt on top of Mt. Useful must be much older geologically than that on the
tableland below; the former would correspond with the Monadnock basalts of
New South Wales, while the latter would correspond with the Plateau basalts of
New South Wales. The possible age of the Mt. Useful basalt will be discussed
later.

Under the term “older basalt’? has also been included a flow which occurs
interstratified with Miocene marine strata at Maude in the Moorabool Valley
(Hall and Pritchard, 1895); this flow cannot be older than Lower Miocene.

It appears, therefore, that basalts of three distinct ages, Oligocene, Lower
Miocene and Lower Pliocene, have been grouped together under the term “Older
Basalts’’.

Cc

xXxvi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The Newer Basalts.——This term has been used to include the whole of the
basalts occurring in Western Victoria, and the age given by most writers has been
Pliocene to Pleistocene. In this region there are basalts of at least two distinct
geological ages, the two being separated by a wide erosion interval. The older
series is that which occurs in the more northern part of the area, and forms a
capping to the low tableland which extends from Bacchus Marsh to the Glenelg
River. These basalts have already been referred to in the description of the
fiuviatile deposits which in places underlie, or are interstratified with, them and
reasons advanced for considering them to be of Lower Pliocene age.

It has been pointed out by E. W. Skeats (1909) that wide mature valleys
have been incised in the surface of these basalts, and by the writer that at Byaduk
younger basalts have flowed down and partly filled these mature valleys, and that
these younger basalts cannot be older than late Pleistocene and may even be as
young as Recent in age. F. A. Singleton (1935) has referred to the existence at
Portland, in the far west of Victoria, of basalts overlying oyster beds of
Werrikooian (latest Pliocene) age; these basalts are probably also of Pleistocene
age. In the southern part of Western Victoria, particularly in the Colac and
Camperdown districts, there is an extensive development of basaltic lava flows,
beds of tuff and tuff cones. F. A. Singleton (1935) states that because of their
state of preservation these cannot be older than Upper Pleistocene; the writer has
visited this area and would go so far as to say that the vuleanicity may even
have continued into Recent times.

The newer basalts of Western Victoria, therefore, include (a) basalts of
Lower Pliocene age, and (U) basalts of Pleistocene age, perhaps extending into the
Recent Period.

The Alkaline Series—MThese have only a very limited distribution and
were originally referred by Prof. E. W. Skeats (1909) to the Middle Cainozoic, but
more recently F. A. Singleton (1935) has referred them to the Late Pliocene or
Pleistocene.

It will be seen, therefore, that the basalts of Victoria apparently belong to at
least four distinct geological periods, (a) Oligocene, (b) Lower Miocene, (c) Lower
Pliocene, (d) Pleistocene to Recent. Under these circumstances the use of the
terms Older and Newer Basalts is misleading, and has led to much confusion,
and it would be better if both terms were dropped.

The Huristing Topography of New South Wales and its Development.

No part of the State of New South Wales, except one small area in the south-
western corner, has been beneath the sea since the close of the Mesozoic Era, while
the greater part of it has not been beneath the sea since the close of the Palaeozoic
Era; the present topography, therefore, has been in course of development since
at least as far back as the Cretaceous Period.

It is not necessary to give here a detailed account of the existing topography;
that has already been fully done by HE. C. Andrews (1910), and nothing has been
published since which necessitates any serious modification of the views put
forward by him. It will be necessary, however, to refer to the more important
features for the purpose of showing their relation to such Cainozoic geological
formations as do occur; it will also be necessary to correlate the physiographical
features of New South Wales with those of Victoria.

The greater part of New South Wales to-day consists of tablelands with
altitudes ranging from as low as a few hundred to as high as 6,000 feet or more;
the exceptions to this generalization are the extensive alluvial plains which exist

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXVii

in the north-western and south-western parts of the State; similar tablelands
extend northwards into Queensland and southwards into Victoria. The original
surfaces of these tablelands were all parts of a great peneplain (the Great Hast
Australian Peneplain), developed probably during Lower Tertiary time and elevated
to form the existing tablelands at the close of the Cainozoic Era (the Kosciusko
Uplift). Since their uplift the tablelands have suffered considerable dissection,
particularly along their eastern and western margins, but there still remain to-day
extensive areas, particularly adjacent to the Main Divide, which are still undis-
sected; these undissected tableland remnants give us a picture of the late Cainozoic
land surface, as it existed before the uplift took place, and provide evidence which
helps us to interpret the geological history of that Era.

An ideal section across such a tableland remnant is given in Figure 6; it
shows the general level of the peneplain surface, above which rise residuals of
the older tableland out of which the peneplain was cut. In any one district the
more important of these residuals all rise to approximately the same altitude
above the peneplain surface, and this gives some measure (minimum, of course)
of the altitude of the older tableland. The altitude of these residuals varies from
district to district, ranging from 450 feet to 1,500 feet. It is highly probable, of
course, that the surface of this older tableland was also a peneplain, and this
older peneplain, now almost completely destroyed, was probably developed during
the Cretaceous Period, and may be tentatively referred to as the Cretaceous
Peneplain, while its successor, which forms the surface of the present tablelands,
may for convenience be referred to as the Lower Tertiary Peneplain.

In some districts, notably the Blue Mountain Tableland, the residuals above
referred to are capped with basalt, and in some cases river gravels underlie these
basalts.

When the surfaces of the present-day tablelands are studied in detail it is
found that the original peneplain surfaces have undergone certain modifications as
shown in Figure 2; it is found that, after its development, stream channels were
incised in its surfaces to depths ranging from 300 to 400 feet; for this to have
been possible an uplift of 300 to 400 feet must have taken place. Owing to some
change in conditions active erosion in these stream channels gave place to aggrada-
tion and they became partly filled with deposits of sand, clay and lignite. This
was followed in many districts by the outpouring of extensive flows of basalt
which covered up the fluviatile deposits, partly filled the already formed valleys
in some cases, and in others completely filled them and overflowed on to the
peneplain surface. After the volcanic outbursts ceased, erosion continued and
resulted in the production of a network of broad mature valleys over the peneplain
surface, cut alike out of the basalts and the older rocks; these valleys range up to
400 feet in depth and up to several miles in width and are separated from one
another by gently rounded ridges, but in places moderate areas of the original
peneplain surface still survive. Such an extensive development of wide mature
valleys in an area of low relief (300 to 400 feet) must. have required an extensive
period of time, amounting almost to a cycle of erosion. This incomplete cycle of
erosion was terminated by the uplift which produced the present-day tablelands,
and which elevated the system of mature valleys to their present high altitude;
because of their elevated position EH. C. Andrews has referred to them as the
“Upland Valleys’. At the present time the floors of these old Cainozoic valleys
are aggraded and no active erosion is taking place, but in many places the gorges
of the present cycle of erosion can be seen heading back along them, and in such

XXVili PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

places, of course, the valleys are being deepened and active erosion is taking
place.

For the production of a topography such as has just been described the
following succession of events would be necessary:

1. A cycle of erosion which produced the older peneplain (the ? Cretaceous
Peneplain) ;

2. An uplift of from 450 to 1,500 feet which converted this peneplain
into a series of tablelands;

3. A second cycle of erosion which produced the Lower Tertiary Peneplain
(Great Hast Australian Peneplain) ;

4. An uplift of from 300 to 400 feet producing low tablelands;

5. An incomplete cycle of erosion which produced the system of mature
valleys (the Upland Valleys) and which was accompanied by extensive
voleanie activity;

6. The Kosciusko Uplift which produced the existing tablelands of Hastern
Australia.

The Geomorphology of Victoria.

It is not proposed to attempt here a detailed account of the geomorphology of
Victoria, but merely to outline sufficient of its more important features to make a
comparison with that of New South Wales possible.

The most recent summary of the physiography of Victoria is that given by
E. S. Hills (1935); in this he divides the State into a number of physiographic
divisions with a general east-west trend; these divisions, starting from the north,
are as follows:

(a) The Murray Basin Plains province, a low-lying alluviated region lying
to the north of the main belt of tablelands; this is similar to and
continuous with the Riverina Plains of New South Wales;

(b) The Western and Eastern Highland Provinces which together form an
almost continuous belt of highlands lying along the main divide of the
State;

(c) A continuous belt of lowlands lying along the southern margins of
the highland provinces; this is the region called by Professor Gregory
the Great Valley of Victoria; much of it was covered by the sea
during a considerable part of Tertiary time;

(d) Two relatively small highland regions lying to the south of (c); the
eastern one is called by Hills the South Gippsland Highlands, while
the western one is referred to as the Otway Ranges.

The Eastern Highland Province ranges up to 6,000 feet in altitude, and at its
eastern end joins up and is continuous with the Southern Tableland of New South
Wales. Hills states that the dominant physiographic controls in these highlands
are differential erosion, late Tertiary warp movements and Older Basalts; these
latter he considers to be Oligocene to Miocene in age. He states that these flows
filled pre-existing depressions and that, upon the elevation of the tableland and
its subsequent dissection, they gave rise to lava residuals which occupy some of
the highest land.

A description of the details of the physiography of a portion of this region
called the Aberfeldy District by H. Baragwanath (1925) is very informative; he
shows the presence there of two distinct peneplains, a younger one which forms
the surface of the present-day tableland at an altitude of 3,000 to 3,500 feet and
an older one now surviving in the form of residuals ranging from 1,000 to 1,500

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. OX

feet above the general level of the tableland. These two erosion levels obviously
correspond to the two peneplains which exist across the border in New South
Wales. At Aberfeldy basalts occur on both peneplains; Baragwanath described a
small area of basalt overlying gravels on the top of Mt. Useful (4,760 ft.), a part
of the older peneplain and also the occurrence of basalts on the lower peneplain
level, obviously lying in a valley eroded in that level; these two basalt occurrences
are obviously of different ages and correspond to the Monadnock basalts and
Plateau basalts respectively of New South Wales.

The maps and sections published by R. A. Murray of the Bogong and Dargo
High Plains show the presence there, but at a higher altitude, of a peneplain
corresponding to that of the younger one at Aberfeldy, also with its basalt-covered
stream-channels.

The South Gippsland Highland has already been referred to in describing the
fluviatile deposits at Hast Tangil and Narracan, and differs from the highland
region to the north only in its lower elevation. Hills states that these highlands
owe their elevation mainly to Pliocene earth movements, and that faulting was
dominant during their uplift. The Western Highland Province has a much
lower general altitude than the Hastern Province, ranging from a few hundred up
to about 1,600 feet in altitude. Hills states that this province comprises ranges
and valleys resulting from the differential erosion of a region of complex geology
now partly buried beneath (?) Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent basalts, and
states further that prominent ranges rise above the general level of these highlands,
such as Mt. Macedon, Mt. Brangor, Mt. Farrangower and the Grampian Mountains;
these latter are considered by him to be residuals.

H. Baragwanath’s description of the geology of the Ballarat District (1928)
shows that the surface of the tableland there is a similar well-developed peneplain
to that. which occurs in Hastern Victoria, with similar valleys incised into its
surface containing fluviatile deposits with similar fossil leaves and fruits and the
whole partly covered by flows of basalt. The one important difference between the
eastern and western province is that the latter does not show such striking
dissection, but this is essentially a matter of altitude. The Western Tableland
Province is highest along its eastern margin (about 1,600 feet in altitude), and
here, for example at Bacchus Marsh, the dissection is relatively just as highly
developed as in the Eastern Tablelands. In all other directions, but particularly
westwards, this Western Highland Province is gently tilted and along its western
margin the altitude has fallen to 500 feet or less; the streams which drain it
have consequently relatively low grades and there has been no opportunity for the
cutting out of deep gorges. The average rainfall of this western region also is
much lower than that of the high tablelands in the Hastern Highland Province
with a consequent smaller volume of water in the stream-channels.

The profound dissection of the Eastern Highland Province, together with the
belief that the basalts capping the tablelands of that region were much older
than those of the western province, seems to have led to the belief that the two
regions have had a different physiographic history, but when one comes to analyse
the essential features of the two regions there appears to be no real difference
apart from that of altitude. In both regions the evidence shows (1) the presence
of a well-developed peneplain, now forming the surface of the tablelands, (2) an
elevation of this peneplain a few hundreds of feet followed by the cutting of shallow
valleys into its surface, (3) the partial filling of these valleys by fluviatile deposits
containing fossil leaves and fossil fruits, (4) outpouring of basalts covering the

xxXxX PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

fluviatile deposits, filling the valleys and in places overflowing on to the
surrounding peneplain surface, (5) subsequent to the vulcanicity the development
of wide shallow mature valleys alike in the basalts and older rocks, and (6) uplift
to form the present tablelands.

The above is exactly the succession of events recorded along the whole of
the tableland region of New South Wales.

The one important feature in which the Cainozoic history of Victoria differs
from that of New South Wales was in the development of subsidence areas which
allowed of marine sedimentation in such areas throughout a considerable part
of Tertiary time.

Summary.

From the evidence presented, one gathers that the more important events
of the geological history of the Cainozoic Era in New South Wales, including also
something of the Cretaceous Period, were as listed below. This succession of
events appears to hold good also for the highlands of the State of Victoria. The
suggested geological age for some of the items is, as will be pointed out later, only
tentative.

1. (?) Cretaceous Period. <A cycle of erosion which produced the older
peneplain.

2. (?) Late Cretaceous or Early Eocene Period. The Monadnock Basalts.
Epi-Cretaceous. An epeirogenic uplift which uplifted the older peneplain
and produced a series of tablelands ranging from 450 to 1,500 feet in
altitude.

4. Hocene to Miocene. A cycle of erosion which produced the younger
peneplain (Great Hast Australian Peneplain).

5. Epi-Miocene. An epeirogenic uplift which produced a series of low
tablelands averaging about 400 feet in altitude.

6. Lower Pliocene. The erosion of valleys followed by the deposition in
them of fluviatile deposits containing fossil leaves and fossil fruit.

7. Lower Pliocene. Widespread volcanic activity and outpouring of basalt
flows over very wide areas.

8. Upper Pliocene. Continuation of valley formation with the ultimate
development of a very widespread series of wide mature valleys—the
Upland Valleys.

9. Late Pliocene. Pronounced epeirogenic uplift (the Kosciusko Uplift)
with the production of the existing tablelands ranging up to 6,000 feet
in altitude.

10. Pleistocene Period. A cycle of erosion which is still in operation and
which has brought about the dissection of the existing tablelands.

The older peneplain has been, by most previous writers, referred to the
Cretaceous Period; extensive marine sedimentation was going on during that
period both to the west and to the east of the region now under discussion and
some large areas of land must have been undergoing denudation to produce the
sediments. The retreat of the sea from the Great Artesian Basin area and the
folding of the marine Cretaceous sediments of Hastern Queensland show that
pronounced earth movements occurred at the end of the Cretaceous Period; it seems
quite reasonable to suppose, therefore, that a peneplain had been developed in
Eastern Australia during the Cretaceous Period, and that it was elevated at the
close of that period in what are now the tableland regions of Hastern Australia.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXxi

The Monadnock Basalts, lying as they do on the surface of the (?) Cretaceous
peneplain, must be younger than that surface, and cannot, therefore, be older than
the late Cretaceous, but if poured out after the uplift they might be early Eocene
in age. They may possibly have some time relation to the basalts which underlie
the marine Janjukian beds of Victoria, but there is no evidence in support of that
available at present.

The cycle of erosion which produced the younger peneplain (the Great Hast
Australian Peneplain) ended at or near the close of the Miocene Period, but the
evidence as to just when it began is not so clear; quite possibly the epi-Cretaceous
uplift initiated this cycle and it continued throughout Hocene and Miocene time,
the development of the peneplain taking place more or less simultaneously with
the sedimentation which was taking place in that area which was undergoing
subsidence along the southern margin of Australia and in which the Oligocene and
Miocene formations of Victoria and South Australia were deposited.

Sufficient evidence has already been given to show that events 6, 7 and 8 took
place during the Pliocene Period and that a general uplift of the land followed
at or about the close of this period. This great uplift, called by E. C. Andrews
the Kosciusko Uplift, was an epeirogenic one, varying from a few hundreds up
to 6,000 feet in amount and produced the existing tablelands; the uplift, being a
differential one, was accompanied in many places by warping and block-faulting.
During this uplift certain areas lagged behind and remained practically stationary;
examples of such “still-stand” areas are the Clarence River Basin and Lower
Hawkesbury Basin of New South Wales, and that great belt of lowlands, sometimes
referred to as the Great Valley of Victoria, which extends from east to west along
the southern margin of the main belt of tablelands of that State. It is interesting
to note that the extensive development of Pleistocene and perhaps Recent basaltic
lavas and tuffs of Victoria are associated with the western part of this “still-stand”
area.

Following the elevation of the tablelands a new cycle of erosion was initiated
which is still in progress and which has brought about the dissection of the
tablelands as we see them to-day.

List of References.
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) Resources, No. 10, 1901.
———,, 1910.—The Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late and post Tertiary
Time. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xliv, 1910, p. 420.
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0B
,1925.—The Aberfeldy District. Dept. Mines Victoria, Memoir, No. 15, 1925.
Brown, H. Y. L., 1882.—Progress Report on the Geology of the Forest Reefs Goldfield.
Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W.
BROWNE, W. R., 1933.—An Account of the Post-Palaeozoic Igneous Activity in New South
Wales. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lxvii, 1933.
CaRNE, J. E., 1911.—The Tin Mining Industry. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Mineral Resources,
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CHAPMAN, F., 1905.—The Victorian Naturalist, xxi, 1905, p. 178.
, 1926.—On some Tertiary Plant Remains of Narracan. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.,
XXXwviil, 1926, p. 183.
,1935.—Plant Remains of Lower Oligocene age from Blanche Point, Aldinga,
S.A. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., lix, 1935, p. 237.
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Home Affairs, Canberra, Palaeont. Bull., No. 1, 1932.
, and SINGLETON, F.. A., 1923.—The Tertiary Deposits of Australia. Proc. Pac. Sci.
Cong. Australia, 1923, i, p. 985.

XXX1i PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Davip, T. W. E., 1887.—The Geology of the Vegetable Creek Tin-Mining Field. Mem.
Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Geol. No. 1, 1887.

————, 1914. Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Federal Handbook, Brit.
Asscn. Meeting. Govt. Printer, Melbourne, 1914.

, 1932.—Explanatory Notes to accompany New Geological Map of Australia.
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DEANE, H., 1896.—Pres. Add. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 2nd Series, x, 1895 (1896), p. 653.

, 1900.—Observations on the Tertiary Flora of Australia. Proc. LInn. Soc.

N.S.W., xxv, 1900, p. 463.
, 1902.—Notes on the Fossil Flora of Pitfield and Mornington. Rec. Geol. Surv.
We@los 15 Tt We UOOA, is 2%
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Suro. NISSW., vill, pt. 3; 19107; p. 189:
——_— —, 1925.—Fossil Leaves from the Open Cut, State Brown Coal Mine, Morwell.
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Soc. Vict., vii, 1895, p. 180.

, 1897.—Geology of the Lower Moorabool Valley. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., x, 1897.
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land Mus., x, pt. 4, 1934.
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in and around Launceston. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1873, p. 39.
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, 1874.—Prog. Rept. Geol. Surv. Vict., i, 1874, p. 38.

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~, 1923.—The History of Vuleanism in New South Wales. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.,
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Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE A.

Views at Emmaville (1) and Dalton (2) showing typical ‘‘upland valleys’.

BRERA Se 7

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXXili

WILKINSON, C. S., 1878.—Report Geol. Surveyor in Charge, Dept. Mines, N.S.W., Appendix
C, 1878, p. 164.
, 1882.—Notes on the Geology of New South Wales. Dept. Mines, N.S.W.,
Mineral Products, 1882, p. 5d.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A.
1.—View at Emmaville, showing typical “Upland Valley”’.

2.—View at Dalton, showing typical “Upland Valley’ with leaf-bearing beds in
foreground.

Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, Honorary Treasurer, presented the balance-sheets for
the year ended 28th February, 1937, duly signed by the Auditor, Mr. F. H. Rayment,
F.C.A. (Aust.); and he moved that they be received and adopted, which was
carried unanimously.

No nominations of other candidates having been received, the Chairman
declared the following elections for the ensuing session to be duly made:

President: E. C. Andrews, B.A.

Members of Council: R. H. Anderson, B.Sec.Agr., Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Se.,
H. S. Halcro Wardlaw, D.Sc., G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S., W. L.
Waterhouse, M.C., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C. (Lond.).

Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.A. (Aust.).

A cordial vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried by acclamation.

D

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“LNNOODOV ADOIOIALOVE

THE STRUCTURE OF GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS
ON FAGUS MOORE.

By JANET M. WILson, B.A.
(Plates i-ii; twelve Text-figures. )
[Read 31st March, 1937.]

The parasitic fungus Cyttaria has been found attacking different species of
Fagus in South America, Australia and New Zealand. Two species have been
recorded in Australia, Cyttaria Gunnii Berk., which grows on Fagus Cunninghami
Hook. in Victoria and Tasmania, and Cyttaria septentrionalis Herb. on Fagus
Moorei F.v.M. in New South Wales and southern Queensland. C. septentrionalis
was first described by Herbert (1932) from the MacPherson Ranges, on the southern
Queensland border, and was later recorded by the writer (1935) from Barrington
Tops, Mt. Royal Ranges, north-west of Newcastle, N.S.W.

Cyttaria has been placed in the tamily Cyttariaceae, an inoperculate family
of the Pezizales.

Materials.

The material used in this investigation was collected on 28th August and
6th October, 1935, near the summit of Barrington Tops, New South Wales. Micro-
tome sections of the gall were stained by the iron-alum haematoxylin method, and
with gentian violet and orange G. These showed the details of the mycelium.
Hand sections were also made and stained with lacto-phenol-cotton blue. By this
method the mycelium and cytoplasm stained a bright blue and were differentiated
from the host cells. The distribution of the fungus in the tissues could thus be
traced.

Gall Formation.

Infection by the fungus causes certain modifications of the host which result
in the formation of hard woody galls. Galls develop on all infected stems and
branches which are undergoing secondary thickening. Secondary tissues only are
infected.

Macroscopic Hxamination of Galls.

The galls vary from about haif an inch to a few feet in length, and from half
an inch to about eighteen inches in diameter. They may be long and narrow
(Plate i, figs. 1, 2) or short and round (Plate i, fig. 3). Long narrow galls are
the commoner, and their shape is due to the fact that infecting mycelium spreads
along the cambium chiefly in one direction, parallel to the long axis of the stem.
It extends further each year, so that the galls are widest in the centre, tapering
off towards each end. The long narrow galls are often somewhat twisted round
the stem, following the natural twist of the grain of the wood. In the round short
galls the parasitic mycelium has not travelled longitudinally to any extent from
the centre of infection.

E

2 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,

A transverse section across a gall shows that all the tissues of the stem are
not invaded (Text-fig. 1). One or more irregularly wedge-shaped areas of infected
tissue can be seen in the stem (A in Text-fig. ld) extending from the cortex nearly
to the pith. Each infected section of the stem is generally the result of one primary
infection, but compound galls, which owe their origin to two or more primary
infections close together, are not uncommon. This condition is shown by the gall
illustrated in Plate i, figs. 4a and 4b. This gall has four components which can be
seen externally at A, B, C and D as erumpent areas separated by normal bark.
The internal extent of the infected tissues is shown in Text-figure 1, a—h, repre-
senting transverse sections of the gall taken at intervals of one inch. Infected
tissues are shaded, the unshaded parts representing normal xylem. ‘The centre
of the stem is marked in each case by a small circle. It can be seen that each
infected area may be split up by narrow bands of normal xylem (A in Text-fig. 1a),
but all are the result of a single infection.

Usually the infected area or areas are on one side of the stem only, giving
it a very asymmetrical appearance. This is because infection causes an increase
in the size of the tissues near, but not in, these infected areas, making the wood
some distance from it on the infected side of the stem much thicker than on the
uninfected side (Text-figs. 1 and 2). The twisted appearance of some galls is
due to the occurrence of several infections fairly close together.

Age of Galls.

The mycelium is perennial and grows each year during the most active growth
period of the host tree. The annual rings are fairly well marked in the uninfected
wood of the gall (Plate i, fig. 5). Large vessels are formed each spring, but at
the end of the active period of growth thicker-walled tracheids and fibres are
formed. The age of any twig or branch can therefore be calculated. By making
transverse sections of a gall, a point can be found where the infected tissue most
closely approaches the pith. This has been taken to be the point at which infection
first took place. It has always been found that infected xylem is present in the
second annual ring, indicating that the fungus first becomes active at the
commencement of the second growing season. By tracing the inward extent of
the fungus in sections progressively nearer the ends of the gall, a region can
be found where the infected tissue extends only to the beginning of the third
annual ring (X in Text-fig. 2). The distance between this and the area of initial
infection gives the rate of growth of the fungus longitudinally along the cambium
in one year. Similarly the growth rate in subsequent years can be found. It was
found that the growth rate of the fungus in the stem varies considerably from a
few millimetres to over 1 centimetre per year.

Tissues Infected.

The tissues susceptible to infection are the cortex, phloem, cambium and
secondary xylem. Of these the xylem is the chief tissue infected and forms the
bulk of the gall.

(A). The Secondary Xylem.—Three types of cells occur in the secondary
xylem of the gall: (1) Normal xylem elements; (2) Cells which contain the
fungal hyphae; and (3) Cells which do not contain hyphae, but are modified in
such a way that they do not develop normally.

(1). Normal xylem consists of vessels, tracheids, fibres and a little
parenchyma, interrupted at intervals by xylem rays one or two cells wide and
about twelve cells deep (Plate i, figs. 5, 6, 7). Fairly well defined annual rings

BY JANET M. WILSON.
A -
A
Ho ea
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a fi c WY

d

La

Text-figs. 1-5.

1.—Series of transverse sections one inch apart from the compound gall shown in
Plate i, figs. 4a and 4b, to show the areas of the stem occupied by the various components
of the gall. Infected areas are shaded and the centre of the stem is marked by a small
circle. The various components are shown at A, B, C and D. x 0°5.

2.—Transverse section of a gall near the centre of infection. A, normal xylem;
B, cambium; C, infected tissue; P, primary xylem; X, point at which infection extends
to third annual ring. x 12.

3-4.—Sections of infected cells showing mycelium. x 720.

5.—Transverse section of portion of a gall showing tracheidal cells. x 720.

4 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,

are shown (A in Plate i, fig. 5), since there is a definite period of rapid growth
each spring following a period of inactivity of the cambium during the winter.
These cells in themselves are quite normal, but between infected areas, and for
a short distance on either side of infected areas, they are produced in greater
numbers than in other parts of the stem (Text-fig. 2), thus giving the increased
diameter referred to above. ;

(2). The tissues containing fungal mycelium resemble ordinary parenchyma.
The cells are isodiametric, with fairly thick, but not lignified, walls and they
show no prominent pitting (Text-figs. 3, 4; Pl. i, fig. 5; Pl. ii, figs. 8, 16). These
cells originate as xylem elements. They become infected with mycelium as they
are cut off from the cambium and their normal process of development is modified
by the presence of the fungus. Instead of acquiring lignified walls and losing
their contents and so becoming vessels, fibres or tracheids, or developing into
parenchyma or ray cells, they elongate slightly, but otherwise remain little
altered.

(3). The mycelium is not itself found in any other type of cell, but its
presence causes modifications in the adjoining xylem (B in Text-fig. 2). These
modifications become more marked as the gall increases in age. Young xylem
elements in the vicinity of infected cells develop into tracheid-like cells. In an
old gall these cells often occupy a larger area than do the infected cells, and it
is to them that the gall owes much of its increase in size over that of the stem
(Text-fig. 2). In the mature state these cells vary much in size and shape
(Text-figs. 5 and 12). The modified cells are usually several times longer than
broad (Plate ii, fig. 8). Plate ii, fig. 8 shows infected cells (A) bordered by
modified xylem (B) and finally unmodified xylem (C). Plate ii, fig. 12, shows
tracheidal cells at the upper edge of an infected area bordered on both sides by
normal xylem. These tracheidal cells tend to dove-tail into one another. This is
shown especially well in tangential section (PI. ii, fig. 9) and in transverse
section (Text-fig. 5). Their walls are lignified and show prominent scalariform
pits with very narrow borders (PI. ii, fig. 10 and Text-fig. 5). The direction of
growth of the tracheidal cells varies considerably as is shown in transverse
section (Pl. ii, figs. 10, 11, 8, 12) and longitudinal section (Pl. ii, fig. 9). In
these sections cells are seen both longitudinally and transversely arranged. The
radial arrangement of the xylem is therefore entirely lost in the region where
they occur, and it becomes more irregular the older the gall (PI. ii, fig. 13).

Starch grains are present in great abundance in some of the young tracheidal
cells (BE ai; figs) 14):

Areas of uninfected xylem are often seen arising in an area of infected xylem
(Text-figs. 1b, 1d, A in Plate i, fig. 5). These are mostly wedge-shaped with the
thin edge inward. Each must have originated from a cell of the cambium in the
infected region which by chance was uninfected and therefore able to give rise to
uninfected cells.

(B). The Cortex and Phloem.—tIn the primary cortex and phloem, infection
produces a result resembling in some respects that produced in the xylem. The
cells which contain the mycelium are similar in all respects to the infected cells
in the xylem. The reaction of the phloem and cortex to fungal invasion differs
from that of the xylem principally in that uninfected cells are in no way modified.
Infection of the phloem causes an increase in the number of normal cells in the
neighbourhood of the infected cells, thus increasing the size of the phloem tissue
(Plate i, fig. 7).

BY JANET M. WILSON. 5

The secondary cortex is lacking or only a few cells in width, and appears
never to be infected (Plate ii, fig. 15).

(C). The Cambium—The infected cells in the cambium are similar to
infected cells in other tissues (B, Plate i, fig. 5). Though the cambium seems
to be the centre from which other tissues are infected, the mycelium does not
spread in a lateral direction along it further than it does in the xylem or the
phloem, nor does it cause any modification of neighbouring cambial cells. Modified
tracheidal cells are derived from uninfected cambium which at the same time
produces uninfected phloem on the other side. In this case the phloem cells are
usually produced at a more rapid rate than in uninfected stems.

Text-figs. 6-12.
6.—Section of an infected cell showing intercellular mycelium. x 960.
7-12.—Sections of infected cells showing effects of haustoria (H) on host nuclei (N).
x 960.

The Mycelium within the Gall.

The vegetative mycelium of Cyttaria septentrionalis is fairly evenly distributed
throughout the tissues it invades, except just below fruiting bodies, where the
host cells are more or less completely filled with mycelium. Plate i, fig. 5, shows
that no massing of fungal mycelium occurs in the wood.

The mycelium is septate and moderately thin-walled (Text-fig. 3), but the
cells vary considerably in length. They usually appear to be uninucleate. This
condition does not always obtain in the haustoria, which frequently show the
presence of 2 or 3 nuclei (Text-figs. 8, 11, 12). The protoplasm is homogeneous
and not very dense (Text-fig. 3).

The mycelium seems to be able to make its way either between the cells
or across them, i.e., it is both intra- and inter-cellular (Text-figs. 4, 6). At the
point where it enters the cell through the wall it may show a slight constriction
(Text-fig. 7), but this is not invariable (see also Text-fig. 4). The intercellular
mycelium sends into the cells haustoria which are irregular in shape and often
prominently lobed (Text-figs. 9 and 10).

The Effects of the Mycelium on Host Cells and Tissues.

The hypha or haustorium, having entered the cell, usually approaches the
nucleus (Text-fig. 4) and finally comes into contact with it (Text-fig. 7), or coils

6 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS,

partially round it (Text-fig. 8). This causes, in most cases, considerable enlarge-
ment of the host nucleus. Sometimes a definite change in the shape of the nucleus
is apparent; it may become elongated, lobed or kidney-shaped (Text-figs. 9, 11, 12).
The fungus does not appear to destroy the nucleus of the infected xylem or phloem
cells, and, as far as has been observed, the host cells of these tissues are not
eventually killed. Just below a fruiting body, however, the cortical cells become
so filled with mycelium that the nucleus and all the contents are completely
absorbed and replaced by the fungal mycelium.

The result of infection on the tissues as a whole is a general enlargement of
part of the stem, i.e., the formation of a hyperplastic gall, which is due to increase
in the number of the cells and not to increase in size of the existing cells (i.e.,
hypertrophy).

The greatest increase takes place in the xylem and phloem, the primary cortex
seldom being heavily infected. Text-figure 2 shows the normal proportion of
infection in each tissue.

The increased rate of cell production in the phloem causes the bark covering
the gall outside an infected area to become thicker than outside normal wood
(Plate ii, figs. 15, 16), even when it contains no mycelium. It is, however,
frequently ruptured by the rapid expansion of the tissues beneath it, and, in ©
addition, shows various scars left by the fruiting bodies of previous years. The
phellogen is a very narrow band and is lacking over the ruptured areas.

Infection does not seem to cause the death of a tissue.

The Effect of Gall Formation on the Growth of Fagus.

The formation of galls on the branches of Fagus seldom seems to do the tree
serious injury. Since no tissues are killed and since, in most cases, there is a
considerable part of the stem at the level of the gall which contains normal tissues,
the passage of food materials and water up and down the stem is not unduly
restricted. Very large and apparently healthy trees were observed to be heavily
covered with galls (Plate i, fig. 1). In one case a large gall was observed on the
main trunk of a tall living tree within a few feet of the ground.

Suggested Means of Infection.

A macroscopic examination shows that large branches have only old galls,
never young ones. The young galls are found only on young stems, indicating
that primary infection takes place only when the stem is young. It would be
impossible for mycelium to penetrate the hard bark of an old stem. If an
invading hypha entered through a lenticel, it would still have to cross the cortex,
in which there are one to several bands of stone cells, and the phloem before it
could infect the cambium, which has been shown to be the centre of infection in
the gall.

There is no trace of fungal mycelium in the primary xylem or pith. In the
galls examined the first trace of infection occurs in the xylem and phloem of the
second year’s growth. These observations suggest the following hypothesis as to
how infection may take place. During the late spring and early summer, October
to early December at Barrington Tops, the spores of Cyttaria mature and are
blown through the air in great numbers. At the same time the young shoots of
Fagus are elongating and are still covered with a somewhat hairy epidermis.
Secondary thickening commences in these young shoots towards the end of the
zrowing season. The spore, alighting on the epidermis of the young shoots,
germinates and the germ tube penetrates the epidermis and the cortex. The

BY JANET M. WILSON. 7

mycelium then probably remains dormant until the beginning of the next spring,
either in the cortex or in one of the medullary rays, or, most probably, in the
young cambium. When secondary growth begins in the following year, it infects
the young xylem and phloem cells as they are developing, and this process goes
on yearly. The mycelium also infects the cambium in a longitudinal direction.

Summary.

Cyttaria septentrionalis Herb. is a parasitic fungus which infects the stems
of Fagus Moorei in New South Wales.

Infection results in the formation of galls very varied in shape and size.

Wedge-shaped areas of infection occur in the stem. Usually one side of the
stem is not affected, but contains normal tissue. A gall may be the result of
one or more infections and thus may be called simple or compound.

The age and growth-rate of an infected area can be calculated by observing
its relationship to the annual rings of the stem.

The tissues infected are the primary cortex, secondary phloem, cambium, and
secondary xylem. The xylem contains three groups of cells, normal elements,
parenchymatous cells containing mycelium, and tracheidal cells, containing no
mycelium but modified as a result of the infection of the neighbouring cells. Starch
is present in the young tracheidal cells.

The cambium, phloem and primary cortex consist only of normal cells and
parenchymatous cells containing mycelium. A smaller area in the cortex is
infected than in the xylem, but in old galls the increase in phloem tissue is
proportionate to that in the xylem.

The mycelium is septate, thin walled and 1- to 3-nucleate. It is both inter-
and intra-cellular, and produces irregularly-shaped haustoria. It is distributed
evenly throughout the tissue it invades, except just below the fruiting bodies,
where it almost completely fills the cells.

The haustorium approaches the nucleus and partially coils round it, causing
its enlargement or lobing, though it does not destroy it. The host cells are not
killed. In some eases cells appear to arise which are free of infection.

Infection of the stem causes enlargement due to increase in the number of
cells. This is most pronounced in the xylem and phloem, very little increase
taking place in the other tissues. The bark is thicker outside infected areas
because of the increase in the amount of the phloem, and is much ruptured and
scarred.

Galls do not appear to cause serious damage to, or restrict the growth of, the
trees on which they grow.

Macroscopic and microscopic examinations suggest that the mycelium from
the germinating spores enters the young stem during the late spring or early
summer, just before secondary thickening begins or while it is taking place. The
mycelium then probably remains dormant in or near the cambium until the
beginning of the second year’s growth. It then proceeds to infect the young xylem
and phloem cells and continues to do so from year to year. The mycelium also
travels along the cambium in a longitudinal direction.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank Assistant Professor J. McLuckie

and Miss Lilian Fraser for their interest and helpful suggestions throughout the
course of this work.

8 GALLS FORMED BY CYTTARIA SEPTENTRIONALIS.

Literature Cited.

HERBERT, D. A., 1930.—Cyttaria septentrionalis, A new Fungus attacking Nothofagus
Moorei in Queensland and New South Wales. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, xli,
158-161.

Wixbson, J. M., 1935.—A species of Cyttaria, apparently C. septentrionalis. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., Ix (5-6), pp. xlii-xliii.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES I-II.
Plate i.

1.—Small branch of Fagus Moorei, showing numerous galls. x 0:07.

2.—Part of a branch of Fagus Moorei showing a long, narrow gall. x 0:6.

3.—Part of a branch of Fagus Moorei showing a round, short gall. x 0:6.

4a, 4b.—Two views of a compound gall. The various components of the gall are
shown at A, B, C and D. a, b, c, ete., mark the places from which the sections repre-
sented diagrammatically in Text-figure 1 were cut. x 0:6.

5.—Portion of a transverse section of a gall showing areas infected by Cyttaria. A.
wedge-shaped area of uninfected xylem; B, infected cambium; C, annual rings; D,
infected xylem. x 37.

6.—Radial longitudinal section of portion of a young stem of Fagus showing normal
wood structure. x 210.

7.—Tangential longitudinal section of portion of a young stem of Fagus showing
normal wood structure. x 210.

Plate ii.

8.—Transverse section of portion of a gall. A, infected cells containing mycelium ;
B, tracheidal cells; C, normal xylem. x 865.

9.— Tangential longitudinal section of part of an old gall showing tracheidal cells.
Gols

10-12.—-Transverse sections of parts of galls showing tracheidal cells. 10, x 875;
iil, 3¢ Bas WA, 3c 4',

13.—Transverse section of part of an old gall showing the loss of radial arrange-
ment of the xylem. x 45.

14.—Transverse section of part of a gall showing starch grains in the young
tracheidal cells. x 45.

15.—Transverse section of part of a normal stem of Fagus showing phloem (P)
and phelloderm (X). x 85.

16.—Transverse section of infected phloem showing increase in number of cells due
to infection. x 8d.

PLATE I.

N.S.W., 1937.

Proc. Linn. Soc.

Se >

eee.

ya Ghee

Moorei.

agus

Galls on F

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE II.

Sections of galls on Fagus Moorei.

ENTOZOA FROM THE AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEHAL.
By T. Harvey JOHNSTON, Professor of Zoology, University of Adelaide.
(Twelve Text-figures. )

[Read 31st March, 1937.]

In January, 1923, Professor F. Wood Jones, F.R.S., led a small biological party
which visited Pearson Island, lying about twenty-five miles off the west coast of
Hyre’s Peninsula, South Australia. Amongst the material obtained were some
entozoa collected by Professor J. B. Cleland from the Australian hair seal,
Arctocephalus forsteri (Lesson). No species of parasite has, as yet, been recorded
from our pinnipeds. Amongst the ectozoa known to occur on the hair seal may
be mentioned a Pediculid, probably an undescribed species of Antarctophthirius
or Hchinophthirius. The entozoa referred to in this paper belong to three species,
namely, a cestode, Diphyllobothrium arctocephalinum, n. sp.; a nematode, Contra-
caecum osculatum (Rud.); and an echinorhynch, Corynosoma australe, n. sp. The
types of the new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum,
Adelaide.

DIPHYLLOBOTHRIUM ARCTOCEPHALINUM, nN. sp. Figs. 1-7.

In the intestine of Arctocephalus forsteri there was found a tangled mass of
cestodes whose separation resulted in some fragmentation. A specimen bearing a
scolex was 17 cm. long, the terminal 5 centimetres bearing eggs. A fragment of
another strobila was about 44 cm. in length, approximately 40 cm. of it being
ovigerous. If one matched these two fragments according to the sizes of their
segments and their reproductive condition, the total length of an unbroken strobila
would be not less than 54 cm., of which more than 40 cm. would probably be
egg-bearing. Segments which had just become ovigerous were nearly one milli-
metre long and 5 mm. broad, and sufficiently overlapping the succeeding proglottis
to give a slightly serrate margin to the strobila. In strongly contracted strobilae
the serrations were much more pronounced. Segments in the mid-region of the
scolex-less strobila, mentioned above, were about 5 mm. wide and 2°5 to 3:1 mm.
long, whilst those near the posterior end measured 6 mm. in width by 3:7 mm.
in length.

Another fragment, 36 mm. long, possessed a markedly crinkled margin and
all its segments were egg-bearing, but they were considerably wider and shorter
anteriorly, 6 mm. and 1-5 mm. respectively, than in the corresponding portion of
the other strobila. The length gradually increased to 3 mm. in segments at the
end of specimen, the breadth becoming 8 mm. Hence, at first sight, there appeared
to be two species represented in the material, but the anatomy was similar and
the differences in dimensions were due no doubt to the state of muscular contraction.

The scolex was narrower than the succeeding segments, but, when viewed
laterally, was seen to be at least twice as thick as the neck region. The dimensions
varied according to the state of contraction. When relaxed the breadth was

F

10 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,

0-65 mm. and the length from the tip to the posterior end of the bothrial groove
was 1:5 to 2 mm., the very thin edge of one bothrium slightly overlapping the
other (figs. 1, 2). The maximum dorsoventral thickness was 0:75 ecm. The groove
in some specimens extended back above the earliest segments. In one scolex the
bothria were rather wider and the groove shorter, the organ being 0-95 mm. in
breadth, 2:0 mm. in length, with a thickness of 1:5 mm. (fig. 3), the anterior
extremity thus being almost round when viewed laterally (fig. 4).

There is a very short unsegmented neck, but since the bothrial grooves enter
it, this region should perhaps be regarded more correctly as merely the narrowed

Figs. 1-7.—Diphyllobothrium arctocephalinum.

1, 2, Scolex, face and lateral views; 3, 4, a larger scolex, face and lateral views;
5, segment in which the uterus has just become egg-bearing, ventral; 6, mature segment,
ventral (scale above); 7, portion of transverse section of mature segment to show
relation of various glands and ducts.

(Figs. 1-5 drawn to scale indicated below Fig. 4.)

References to lettering.—aev, ? accessory excretory vessel; b, bothrium; bm, base-
ment membrane; c, cirrus; cya, common genital aperture; cs, cirrus sac; cu, cuticle;
d, tissue at side of scolex, between bothria; dev, dorsal excretory vessel; Im, longi-
tudinal musculature; m, medulla; ov, ovary; p, boundary (dotted) of vitelline zone;
rs, receptaculum seminis; sec, subcuticular cells; sclm, subcuticular longitudinal muscle
fibres; t, testis; tm, transverse muscles; wu, uterus; wa, uterine aperture; v, vagina;
va, vaginal aperture; vev, ventral excretory vessel; vs, vesicula seminalis; vt, vitelline
glands.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 11

portion of the scolex. The breadth of this part is from 0-7 to 1:9 mm., with a
thickness of 0-3 to 0-6 mm.

The common genital opening lies in the midline ventrally at, or just behind,
the mid-length of the segment. The opening is a transverse or rounded slit,
according to the degree of retraction or protrusion of the cirrus. Into the posterior
wall of the genital atrium there opens the much smaller slit-like vaginal aperture,
whose walls are well chitinized. Behind these openings is the tocostome or
uterine aperture situated a little to one or other side of the median line (or
sometimes in the mid-line) as a transverse slit at whose narrow base the metraterm
terminates. In whole mounts the mid-region of each ripe or maturing segment
shows the presence of differentiated tissue, apparently medulla, in front of the
cirrus sac and extending almost to the anterior end of the proglottis. A series
of short transverse grooves or folds are commonly associated with this region,
but no differentiated organs were noticed there.

Transverse sections reveal the presence of a thick cuticle below which is a
narrow, well-defined, less deeply staining, basement membrane, succeeded by sub-
cuticular structures, the very large elongate fusiform cells being a marked feature.
The sub-cuticular longitudinal muscle fibres are fairly well marked, but the
transverse fibres are very minute. The cortex is occupied largely by the abundant
vitellaria arranged in a single row dorsally and ventrally. The main longitudinal
musculature forms a wide zone, the individual fibres being powerful and arranged
more or less in small groups not completely separated to form distinct bundles.
The transverse muscles are much less deeply staining. Dorso-ventral fibres are
weakly developed. The medulla is relatively very narrow and contains many
ecaleareous corpuscles. It is occupied largely by the testes, ovary and uterus.

The main excretory canals are remote from the margins of the strobila, both
have a wavy course, and the narrower dorsal vessel lies nearer to the median
line of the segment. Both sets of canals have muscle fibres in their walls.
Transverse canals are absent, but small sinuous branching canals pass from the
main channels into the tissues. Sometimes these branches are large and, when
seen in transverse section, resemble the main canals in size. In addition to the
canals just referred to, there is, on either side, lying in the middle of the medulla
just inwardly from the level of the dorsal excretory canal, a very definite canal
with cuticular walls and abundant fine longitudinal fibres (apparently muscular).
It has a sinuous course like the other vessels and appears to be a supplementary
excretory canal, since communication with other systems has not been traced.
The ovarian lobes may extend laterally to the vicinity of these canals and actually
overlie them dorsally. The tissue surrounding them is more differentiated than
that around the ordinary excretory ducts. Their position suggested that they
might be the two vasa deferentia, but the failure to trace any connection with the
vesicula seminalis seems to negative the suggestion.

The testes did not stain in whole mounts, but were obvious in sections, though
the state of fixation of the material was not sufficiently good to allow one to study
these organs satisfactorily. They are very numerous and occupy most of the
medulla in the region where they occur, and they tend to approach its upper
border. Their boundary is much less sharply defined than that of the vitellaria.
They measure 0:03—0:046 mm. in diameter, these dimensions being based on their
appearance in transverse and horizontal sections. They are restricted to two
definite testicular fields which are widely separated in the mid-region of the
segment, but which join to form a very narrow band near the anterior margin.
The testicular and vitelline zones seem to coincide, except laterally, where the

12 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,

medulla is absent. The yolk glands lie above and below the testes and occur almost
to the lateral margin of the segment. A considerable pyriform area with its base
in the posterior part of the proglottis is devoid of both these glands, but is occupied
in its hinder half largely by the mature uterus.

Above the anterior portion of the uterus, as well as in front of that organ,
is the large, elliptical, rather thick-walled, vesicula seminalis, about 0:23 mm. long
and 0-015 mm. wide, lying somewhat obliquely. From it there issues a short
narrow ejaculatory duct surrounded by the large muscular, circular, or rather
spherical, cirrus sac whose outer boundary is ill-defined. This sac is ventral from
the vesicula. The everted cirrus is about 0:1 mm. long and 0:05 mm. in diameter,
narrowing towards its free end. There is a definite atrium when the organ is fully
retracted, the male pore lying in front of the vaginal aperture which is located
on its posterior wall.

The vagina is well chitinized in the vicinity of the genital pore and passes
backwards a very short distance and then upwards below the cirrus sac, becoming
suddenly widened and thrown into a number of very thin-walled convolutions in a
horizontal plane, but these coils do not extend very far on either side of the
midline as the organ makes its way posteriorly immediately below the uterus,
close to whose ventral wall it lies pressed. Just in front of the ovary, the vagina
forms a rather large receptaculum which is twisted or curved and extends below
and just behind the ovarian bridge to become connected with the fertilizing duct
by a very narrow short canal.

The ovary does not stain readily in whole mounts, and is best studied in
sections. It lies in the posterior portion of the segment, closely behind the uterus.
The main mass on either side is of a delicate branching structure whose branches
may unite to form a reticulum as they radiate outwardly and forwards. The
lobes extend practically to the testiculo-vitelline region and tend to occupy the
upper portion of the medulla, whereas those parts nearer the midline lie ventrally
in the medulla, the narrow ovarian bridge lying ventrally from the hind portion
of the uterus. An oocapt appears to be present. The short oviduct is soon joined
by the receptaculum and the fertilizing duct now formed is joined by the rather
wide yolk duct and then surrounded by the mass of shell glands. The canal now
becomes curved and bent on itself, and then suddenly widening into the uterus
which passes forwards and is thrown into a series of about eight to ten trans-
versely-lying coils or loops. As the organ becomes more densely packed with
eggs it becomes more rosette-like and swollen and the individual loops less distinct.
The terminal loop is surrounded by thickened walls as it passes directly ventrally,
the metraterm ending at the uterine pore some distance behind the common genital
opening, and frequently a little to one or other side of the midline. Eggs are
elliptical, measuring 0-052 to 0:057 mm. long by 0-035 to 0-038 mm. wide.

Yolk glands are extremely numerous and very small when seen in surface
view, where they are commonly elongate in the direction transversely to the
longitudinal axis of the segment. The vesicles are restricted to form two wide
lateral zones which approach in the anterior half of the segment and eventually
join to form a narrow band. They occupy a large part of the cortex ventrally
and dorsally between the inner ends of the subcuticular cells and the main longi-
tudinal musculature. They measure 0:030 to 0:057 mm. in maximum length by
0-01 to 0:013 mm. in width, and 0-030 to 0:040 mm. in dorsoventral diameter. The
two main vitelline ducts pass inwards just behind, or just below, the ovarian
bridge and unite to form a short common duct which enters the fertilizing duct.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 13

The present species can be separated readily from D. latum, D. cordatum,
D. fuscum, and D. ranarum, by the fact that in these species the uterine loops
extend forwards to the sides of the genital pore. Though our species resembles
D. mansoni and D. houghtoni in this feature, it differs from them in the arrange-
ment of the loops. From D. houghtoni it differs also in the distribution of the
testicular and vitelline fields, but it resembles D. mansoni in these respects. Baylis
(1929) stated that in D. mansoni the very numerous testes were not arranged in
distinct lateral fields, but Faust’s figure (1930) indicates that they are. The form
of the scolex and uterus, as well as the position of the genital pore, differentiate
D. arctocephalinum from D. reptans and D. ranarum as described by Meggitt
(1924; 1925). The shape of the scolex and of the neck region distinguishes our
species from D. cordatum, D. mansoni, and many others. In D. decipiens the
uterine loops are few and do not form a rosette. The dimensions of the strobila
distinguish the Australian species from the small species described from southern
seals.

The position of the common genital pore in relation to the length of the
segment differentiates the species from nearly all others, since in D. arcto-
cephalinum it lies either at, or behind, the midlength, whereas in others it is
situated in front. The presence of the modified tissue extending forwards along
the midline from the genital pore is a conspicuous feature in cleared, stained or
unstained preparations. The dimensions of the eggs are different from those of
all other species whose descriptions are available. The species which seems most
nearly related anatomically is D. mansoni, but the main points of difference have
been mentioned above. No cestode has been identified previously from Australian
pinnipeds, though many are known from antarctic and subantarctic species.

The keys to species given by Meggitt (1924), Baylis (1929) and Sprehn (1932)
have been consulted.

CONTRACAECUM OSCULATUM (Rud.).

This widely distributed nematode was represented by a young female specimen
which exhibited the characteristic structure of the lips and the abundant fine
striations at the anterior end. The species is known from northern seals as well
as from several species which occur in the Subantarctic and Antarctic. It had
not previously been recorded from Australian seals.

CoRYNOSOMA AUSTRALE, n. sp. Figs. 8-12.

This minute parasite of Arctocephalus forsteri measures about 3:5 mm. in
length, though specimens were examined ranging from 3 to 4 mm. Both sexes
are similar in size and general form. The anterior body forms a rounded disc-
like structure about 1:3 mm. in diameter, more or less flattened ventrally but
arched dorsally, this region bearing very numerous, small, regularly arranged,
spines. The rest of the body narrows rapidly and then becomes cylindrical for
the last third of the total body-length where the diameter is 0-:35-0-4 mm. The
posterior end is rounded and is provided in both sexes with two circlets of spines
(total 28-30) which are much larger than those on the rest of the body, and, as
in other species of the genus, they give rise to triangular projections of the cuticle.
Small spines similar to those on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the dise are
present on the ventral surface of the anterior part of the posterior body, the
terminal quarter or fifth of the body-length being devoid of them except for the
terminal group. The two best-known species, both occurring in eared seals
(amongst other hosts) in the northern hemisphere, are C. semerme (Forsk.) and

14 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL,

C. strumosum (Rud.). The Australian parasite resembles the former in general
form and size, but the distribution of the small spines is more like that in
C. strumosum where, however, from more than a half (Meyer’s figure, 1932) to
two-fifths (Ltihe’s figure, 1911) of the body-length ventrally is devoid of them.
The ratio of the diameter of the disc to that of the cylindrical posterior body
(based on figures published by Liihe and by Meyer) is about 2-4:1 in the case
of C. strumosum; about 2:1 in C. semerme; and 3:1 in C. australe. The ratio

fie a
HA a
i (MS

Vill

Figs. 8-12.—Corynosoma australe.

8, ventral view of male; 9, lateral view of male; 10, posterior end of male; 11,
posterior end of female (dorsal view); 12, rostellar hooks belonging to one longitudinal
row and marked i-xiii according to their position from the free end of the proboscis.

(Figs. 8 and 9 are drawn to the scale indicated beside 8; 10 and 11 to scale above 11.)

References to lettering.—b, bursa: cd, cement duct; cg, cement glands; ls, most
posterior spine on ventral surface; ms, muscular sac (‘‘markbeutel’’) ; p, penis; uw, uterus;
v, vagina; vd, vas deferens.

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. 15

of the length of the disc to the total body-length is about 1:2-3—2-6 in C. strumosum;
1:1-3-1:6 in C.. semerme; and 1:1-4 in C. australe. C. strumosum measures about
5 to 6 mm., but sometimes reaching 9 mm. in length; while C. semerme is only
about 3 mm. (3-5 mm.).

The arrangement of the caudal spines in C. australe resembles that in
C. constrictum as figured by Van Cleave (1918) and quite unlike that in C. semerme,
where they are very abundant and the series joins up with the ventral body
spines.

The proboscis in C. australe is about 0-7 mm. long, narrowed in its anterior
third, but widening to 0:2 mm. behind its mid-length and then narrowing only
slightly towards its base. The proboscis length is thus about one-fifth that of the
body, but in C. strumosum it is less than one-sixth, and in C. semerme it is more
than one-quarter. The form of the organ in (©. australe is rather slender, as in
C. strumosum. There are 18 longitudinal rows of hooks, 13 to 14 in each row, a
total of about 240. In C. strwmosum there are also 18 rows, but each has 10 to 12
hooks; in C. semerme there are 22 to 24 rows each with 12 to 13 hooks. The hooks
in C. australe are differentiated, the first four in each row being rather long,
narrow, and pointed, the free portion measuring about 0:04 mm. in each case,
while the basal part which lies in the proboscis is about 0:03 mm. in the first
hook, increasing in succeeding hooks to become as long as the free portion in the
fourth. From the fifth to tenth, the projecting portion is larger and more powerful,
and the base as long as, or slightly longer than, the free part, but there is little,
if any, increase in the length of the free portion (0:042 mm.; base 0:045 mm.).
The eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth hooks (and fourteenth, if present) in each
row are small and diminish slightly in length (0:025-0:023 mm.) and possess little
or no basal portion. The arrangement of the hooks and their relative sizes are
more like those of C. strumosum than those of C. semerme.

The proboscis sheath is double-walled, long and narrow (1:1 mm. by 0-25 mm.).
The ganglion is in the vicinity of its mid-length. The lemnisci are thin, narrow
structures each about half the length and breadth of the rostellar sheath. The
delicate net-like lacunar system in the skin is typical of members of the genus.

The testes, each 0:04 mm. in diameter, are arranged one just a little more
anteriorly than the other in that part of the body which contains the dise. The
three pairs of narrow cement glands have an arrangement and form very like
that in Corynosoma semerme. The lower end of the combined cement gland of
each side is considerably swollen to form a fusiform structure. The ejaculatory
duct opens into a short pointed penis projecting into an extensive bursa with
folded walls when introverted. There is a large muscular sac (‘“markbeutel’’).
The male system closely resembles that of C. semerme as described by Liihe (1911)
and Bieler (1914).

In the female, the uterus is long, narrow, and thick-walled, terminating in a
short muscular folded vagina which appears to be made up of three short sections.
The female aperture is terminal. In some specimens a ‘copulation cap” of cement
was present resembling that figured by Van Cleave for C. constrictum. Eggs from
the body cavity measure 0-075 to 0-085 mm. by 0-023 to 0:029 mm., with a short
broad polar process at each end of the middle shell like that figured by Liihe and
by Meyer.

In addition to C. semerme and C. strumosum, the following species have been
described from seals: C. hamanni Linst. (C. antarcticum Rennie, C. sipho Raill.
and Henry), and C. bullosum lLinst. from the Antarctic and Subantarctic;
C. reductum lLinst., a rather large immature form from the Arctic; and

16 ENTOZOA FROM AUSTRALIAN HAIR SEAL.

C. ambispinigerum Harada from a Japanese Phoca sp. An account of the last-
named is not available for comparison.

Corynosoma sp. is the only species of the genus recorded from Australian
waters, having been reported by Johnston and Deland (1929) from a dolphin,
Delphinus delphis, in St. Vincent’s Gulf. Lthe (1911) mentioned having met with
C. semerme in an immature condition once in Otaria jubata and once in
Spheniscus demersus. The former is one of the South American seals and the
latter is the South African penguin. C. strumosum is known from northern
European seals and cormorants; Ball (1930) identified it from the Californian
harbour seal (Phoca richardii), and Meyer (1932) stated that it occurred in
Phalacrocoraxz capensis in former German South-west Africa.

NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA (DIPTERA).
CLASSIFICATION, SYNONYMY, DISTRIBUTION AND PHYLOGENY.

By G. H. Harpy.
(One Text-figure.)
[Read 31st March, 1937.]

The difficulties met in taxonomic study are responsible for considerable
differences in the treatment of Australian species of Calliphora. Many promising
studies have proved inadequate to meet the needs of the research worker, and
although progress is being made in the study of details of morphology, so far
there is no generally accepted scheme for their classification.

Actually the work was undertaken first by Johnston and Hardy in 1922, but
hardly any progress could be made owing to the lack of a suitable method of
treating the terminalia. The problem was taken up again in later years by myself,
but in the meanwhile material had been sent to Malloch, resulting in a paper
that the late EH. W. Ferguson (These PROCEEDINGS, lii, 1927, p. xxiv) considered
would solve the problem.

Some progress in the taxonomy of Australian Calliphoras was made in my
paper of 1930, followed by another in 1932. The first of these brought considerable
adverse comment at the time, but the attitude I had taken up in my treatment
was subsequently acknowledged as leading somewhere. I do not think, however,
that it was sufficiently recognized that the specific identities I had given rested
largely on field observations which are difficult to set down in print. There were
certain biological features arising from my studies, and I concluded that there are
units in the Australian Calliphoras that cannot be isolated on terminalia alone,
as far as yet known, but can be ascertained on colour and small structural
characters that remain consistent for the species, not grading from one to another
as at first would be supposed. These cases are represented by C. rufipes Macq.
and fallax Hardy; by C. augur Fab. and nociva Hardy; by C. tibialis Macq. and
perida, a new species described below. I have not found any area where the first
two meet, but the distributions of the others overlap.

The arrangements of the species within this genus, given by Professor W. S.
Patton (1935) and by myself, are at variance. Patton makes three main groups
based on the type of terminalia the species exhibit. On the other hand, as will
be seen below, this is not so very different from my arrangement, the differences
lying mainly in the position where the dividing lines are to be drawn. The true
relationship will be gathered when all features of the fly are considered phylo-
genetically, and I would be in agreement with Professor Patton if he were to
limit his view on affinities and if he did not make the development of the
terminalia cover the whole species. There can be no doubt that Professor Patton,
in arranging his studies along the line he has taken, is making a very big step in
advance in our understanding of terminalia, but it is my impression that he
carries his conclusions to a stage that is a too liberal rendering of his discoveries.
A comparison of our respective methods of classification is to be gathered in the
following list, where I have marked with an asterisk (*) those species in which
I have an intimate knowledge of terminalia. The list is only complete as far as

G

18 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,

the subgenus Proekon. The remainder has been so confused in literature that I am
unable at present to give a satisfactory account of the species concerned.

Subgenus ApbIcHosIA Surcouf
ochracea-group.
*ochracea Schiner
nigrithorax Malloch

Subgenus CALLIPHORA Desvoidy
erythrocephala-group
*eyrthrocephala Meigen. (introduced)

Subgenus NEOPOLLENIA Brauer
stygia-group
*stygia Fabricius
*qustralis Boisduval
*laemica White

canimicans-group
*canimicans Hardy
*beszeit Hardy
auriventris Malloch

sternalis-group
*sternalis Malloch
*deflexra Hardy

rufipes-group
*rufipes Macquart
*fallax Hardy
*milleri, n. sp.
*fulvicoxa Hardy
sp. (from Western Australia)

tibialis-group
*tibialis Macquart
*perida, n. sp.

Subgenus PROEKON Surcouf
augur-group
*augur Fabricius
*nociva Hardy

centralis-group
*centralis Malloch

*falciformis Hardy
macleayi Malloch
*fuscofemorata Malloch

Subgenus Ones1a Desvoidy
dispar Macquart
australica Malloch
and others

These three sections form the erythro--
cephala-group of Patton.

Together with fuscofemorata, these
two sections form the canimicans-
group of Patton.

Together with australica Malloch,,.
these four sections form the augur-
group of Patton.

Forms not yet dealt with by Patton
mostly come here, but probably
would be placed in the augur-group
by him, or some separated into
another section, canimicans-group,
or elsewhere.

Key to groups and species in genus Calliphora

(combining Patton’s leading discoveries).

1. Eyes hairy. Strut of aedeagus free.*

Ovipositor long. Abdomen yellowish.
ADICHOSIA.—ochracea-group ...... 10:

* Patton states, under ochracea, that the strut is not free but “‘the end is attached
to membrane’. This must be an error, for on fresh material the struts will slip out of
their membraneous sockets quite readily, as in those of stygia.

i

a

10.

11.

16.

18.

il®s

BY G. H. HARDY. 19

Strutotsaed caplusetree Ovi posiLonplone mer oisiaiericeee eae eco 3
Strut of aedeagus fixed to other parts by membrane throughout its whole length.

Ovipositor possibly; ralwayse Shontwe eee eee eee eee 4
IBIUNEH SPECIES He ee anis SFG AL can terhe aCe eee CALLIPHORA.—erythrocephala-group.

(One species only, erythrocephala Meigen, introduced.)
Densely tomentose and hairy species; abdomen brown ................-++ee0eee:

Dita SG ISEOIGtS Eas GAS NERO ans ica NEOPOLLENIA.—stygia-group ...... 11
Densely tomentose species; abdomen brown ..................cceceeeeeececcs 5
Abdomen mothenwise scolour ed! a hyn apiece cee Ved Seis desea ied oaerd sa ease eee 8

Without secondary plates on male terminalia
With secondary plates developed on male terminalia, these lying adjacent to acces-
sory plates, closing the genital cavity. Ovipositor not examined ..............

a-Gidio. chold ososcto. 4.0. aloraireeiacita.c 8 omeanic:olo-clacch Sic Geer cee bron eis aL sternalis-group. ...... 15
Strut reaching almost to apex of aedeagus which lies considerably to the rear of
the strut. Ovipositor not examined .............. canimicans-group ...... 13

Strut short in relation to the length of aedeagus so that the tip of the aedeagus
(orifice) lies noticeably beyond the apex of the strut and almost in a line with

it eMOVIPOSItornd SHORE: adr eS eT RR here ae Son Ha De ehabene. ca pees 7%
Abdominal segment incorporated in the terminalia, of the typical broad type.
Abdomen always with yellow hairs ................ rufipes-group ...... 16
Abdominal segment incorporated in terminalia, of the narrow type (unique to
group). Abdomen never with yellow hairs. ........ tibialis-group. ...... 19
Abdomen mainly yellow with a blue central area on dorsum. Ovipositor short as
DIRS (AKIO WAT eg eapsye levee sure eh ot chs ee Renee eae Golo aaiee ai este see pilots Le PROEKON. ...... 9
Abdomen entirely blue, or rarely the last segment otherwise coloured ...... ? ONESIA

Frons on female much wider than long. Two presutural acrostichal bristles only.
By Ok BES) Choices Sta InECEeat ntl Rt rE cicnees & ei auch Ol ASIN G an ABer Gre paae Lea SRAM AL eed Om 8 augur-group
Frons on female about as wide as long. Three presutural acrostichal bristles
OEESEM Cnet cee re teacyroaepiekei-y oon Rete em ere eevee ies eitag Le L-aa sr cechertveed ire tere msieewer centralis-group

Subgenus ADICHOSIA.
Eyes on male almost contiguous. Thorax very densely covered with yellow, hiding

ThewSTroOuUnd=-COTOUM 6 chs sierra eae cratic enelae io) Sess etien era a leNeh sel ane lby oda sleeberaus ochracea Schiner
Eyes on male widely separated, almost as wide as on female. Thorax with a very
slight whitish covering not hiding the ground colour ...... nigrithorax Malloch

Subgenus NEOPOLLENIA.
On the male the facets of the eyes are enlarged on the upper area and hence the eyes
ATS MCOMCIEUOUS) hieteecirchcy cheueelensue reitewele ual siaoter Sus telrsnieuicn sya i jen ouenan slay cn seaitayis atevtemebcuarranattepsneyinrs 12
On the male the facets of the eyes are not enlarged above and hence the eyes are
conspicuously separated. Anterior clasper on male is exceptionally long at its

base, thus being about as long there as high .............. australis Boisduval
Anterior clasper normal at its base, being shorter than high .... stygia Fabricius
Anterior clasper long at its base, as in australis, being about as long there as its

JaWed FES heer ce eee CREE prety ane uae nC RRRER OREN CLA lat nto GL ais er A IaeC uO QUANG A earch hice saute laemica White
Abdomen iwatin eyelil Ome liaty; Siig seren s ciece suse sng erento weh auch ed cnsine teh anay AP Petite se wie Low ower escecatey «er eiel s 14
/Noyoloranern Walaa wie WOMlO Wy INEWIAS Solo gncpodods5oueHeouobaNGonoaDON auriventris Malloch
Strut of aedeagus, at centre, conspicuously bent forwards ............ bezzii Hardy
Strut of aedeagus very slightly bowed forward uniformly and without a marked

HOXeTOVOLL eS Arete Bote crramoncty a OREIAenS ELORB uci e eta foe cr choles. Geo IME id ee etcas 4 eemond yee canimicans Hardy
Eyes of male separated by one-eighth the width of an eye. Legs slightly stained

SVL Er CD ee ceeecey avon irarenrcrewerace reeredclianres oleracea Use) ac: SHCb taal rapep tte usae Cuiren ous deflera Hardy
Eyes of the male separated by one-seventh the width of an eye. Legs with the

Coxaewandsremonramentinelygblackarenesrcietrcierde tenet remeronenenereiciehe sternalis Malloch
Three presutural acrostichals present. Anterior coxae always yellow. Eyes of male

separated by. the width of two ocelli ................--..-.- fulvithorax Hardy
Only two presutural acrostichals present. Anterior coxae dark .............. il'7/
Strut of aedeagus reaching only half-way towards the orifice ........ milleri, n. sp.
Strut of aedeagus reaching two-thirds the distance towards the orifice .......... 18
Eyes of the male separated by the width of two ocelli .............. fallax Hardy
Eyes of the male separated by the width of only one ocellus ...... rufipes Macquart

Femora entirely black, tibiae more or less reddish-brown. All pleural hairs blacik
OTN ELE She ene eR Rhett Ma wen ata alle ta), ate taheahemerteieneiets cl aa Ass chal Cteret esos aire tibialis Macquart
Femora never entirely black, but brown and often more or less darkened over the
basal half or two-thirds. Some pleural hairs yellow ............ perida, n. sp.

20 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,

The synonymy of species in Neopollenia.

Malloch referred to ten species of Neopollenia in his papers, and his distin-
guishing characters are so unsatisfactory that I do not find it easy to determine
their exact identity. Below I give the evidence on which I have placed his forms.
Some are yet to be checked on Malloch’s original material, none of which has
come before me.

C. stygia—Malloch apparently had a complex under this name, judging on
localities alone, for the species is unknown from New Zealand. The locality from
which he illustrates the terminalia is not given, but probably this was somewhere
in eastern Australia. His second reference gives “Swan River’; that, if
adequately identified, must be C. australis. Only one specimen of C. stygia has ~
been captured in Western Australia, and this is recognized as being an abnormal
occurrence. Malloch’s third reference is without specified locality.

C. australis—The name is definitely rejected by Malloch on the view that
it is either a synonym of stygia or else unrecognizable.

C. fulvicoxa.—The name is accepted by Malloch, who admits having it confused
under hilli.

C. rufipes——This name is referred to in two places on the same page, the
remarks being ambiguous. First, he proposed dropping the name in favour of his
interpretation of hilli, which he erroneously claimed to be a well-established
species; then he says the species was originally described from Java, and referred
it to Hemilucilia, believing it to be not Australian. There is reason to suppose he
did not examine the description of Pollenia rujfipes Macquart, 1835, which is the
reference of the Australian species, the Javanese one being put into another
genus by its author.

Calliphora hili Patton (nec Malloch) .—It is advisable to state here that there
is no evidence to support the view that Malloch had seen this species and Malloch’s
references must be placed elsewhere.

C. hilli Malloch (nec Patton).—This was possibly based originally on C. fallaz,
and, as his material included three females from Eungella (Queensland), I was
able to recognize that these, at least, were probably ©. fulvicoxa, which later
Malloch admitted. However, he rejected the view that the other specimens he
had were C. fallax. I have seen no material from his locality “Barrington Tops’.
Malloch’s further reference to C. hilli occurring in New Zealand is also at fault,
and I have given this a new name below.

C. auriventris Malloch.— Known from a single female from the Fly River
district. The description being inadequate for its recognition, the name stands
in abeyance. There is known to me only one species that conforms to Malloch’s
description, and the specimens are from Tasmania, suggesting that I have not
identified the species with any degree of assurance. My own references under
the name belong to the Tasmanian species, and the determination is probably
erroneous.

C. sternalis Malloch.—I believe I have placed this species successfully. The
only character of importance that Malloch gives concerns the ventral plate of the
terminalia, the apical sternite being conspicuously lobed, otherwise the species
would have been quite unrecognizable.

C. tibialis——Doubtless there is some misunderstanding in the determination
of this well-recognized species, with which the original description does not agree.
Brauer referred it to Neopollenia, evidently relying on Schiner’s determination,
but Malloch states that Schiner has two species of villosa standing under the

BY G. H. HARDY. Al

name amongst his material. I have been very loath to accept the name as more
than a provisional one. Patton has compared specimens with the type, and it is
generally recognized under the name in Patton‘s sense. However, I have isolated
one form, giving it the name perida. This new form, apparently limited to
Queensland, could hardly have reached Macquart, and so the name seems warranted.

C. albifrontalis Malloch, 1932.—Regarded by me as being quite unrecognizable
from description, but Tillyard records it as a synonym of australis (Tillyard and
Seddon, Council Sci. and Ind. Res., Pamphl. 37, 1933, p. 11, footnote). Patton
claims that it is identical with fulvicora after examining the terminalia. Malloch
only had two males of it and Patton does not say if one of these formed the
determination of genital characters, or some other material. However, as Patton’s
view so readily coincides with the description, I believe it must be correct.

C. varifrons Malloch, 1932.—This is another species unrecognizable from the
description. Patton states it is rufipes, but there was only one male in Malloch’s
material and the description reads like australis in many respects. There is a
form corresponding to rufipes in Western Australia, but this does not agree with
Malloch’s description and perhaps Patton has this form confused owing to Malloch’s
comparisons with his hilli. The name varifrons can have no specific standing
at present, and any further data should be based on Malloch’s holotype specimen,
for it is quite conceivable that he has a complex in his material. At present the
name stands hardly more than a nomen nudum, and at best refers to australis with
only two acrostichals, a not uncommon occurrence in the stygia-group.

CALLIPHORA STYGIA Fab.

Musca stygia Fab. 1781; Wiedemann 1832.—Calliphora stygia Schiner 1868;
Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.—Calliphora villosa Desvoidy 1830.

A fly normal to the south-eastern quarter of the Commonwealth, mainly the
coastal region, including Tasmania, but also the sheep country of New South Wales
and Queensland, and Sydney and Brisbane. One specimen only is known from
Western Australia. It is well known to be associated with myasis, and occurs in
its greatest density over the coastal region, including Adelaide and Melbourne.

CALLIPHORA AUSTRALIS Boisd.

Musca australis Boisduval 1835.—Calliphora australis Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.

Apparently this species is confined to Western Australia, where it is associated
with myasis.

CALLIPHORA LAEMICA White.

Musca laemica White, Dieffenbach’s Travels in New Zealand, ii, 1843, 291.
(All New Zealand references to stygia must be referred here.)

As far as yet known, this species is limited to New Zealand where it is
associated with myasis. I have other specimens, females only, from Norfolk
Island which might possibly come here.

CALLIPHORA FULVICOXA Hardy.

Calliphora fulvicoza Hardy 1930; Malloch 1932; Patton 1935.—C. hilli Malloch
(nec Patton) in part, 1927.—C. albifrontalis Malloch 1932.

I have no personal knowledge of this occurring in Western Australia, but
Patton recognized it in a form that he regards, probably quite correctly, as
albifrontalis. It is common in the vicinity of Brisbane and Adelaide, showing
it to be possibly a north-western species in contrast with the range of C. rujipes,
the two meeting in Adelaide.

22 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,

Little is known concerning the economy of this fly, but during experiments
conducted by Miss Joan Cue, at the Queensland University, it was found to
Ooviposit on carrion that had been retained several days, whereas C. fallax only
oviposited in fresh carrion. It is unlikely that this fly will be found associated
with myasis, as it is not normally reared from carrion and does not seem to be
attracted to traps.

CALLIPHORA FALLAX Hardy.

Calliphora hili Malloch (nee Patton), in part, 1927; and in toto, 1932.—
Calliphora fallax Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.

This fly is only known definitely from Queensland and New South Wales,
being mainly a coastal fly, but found also in the sheep country in both States,
where it is associated with myasis.

CALLIPHORA RUFIPES Macquart.

Pollenia rufipes Macquart 1835.—Calliphora rufipes Hardy 1930; Patton 1935.—
Calliphora hilli Patton 1927 (nec Malloch).

The type localities given under the two original descriptions are practically
identical, a few miles only separating the recorded places, and I have material
before me from both. It is the common blowfly of that neighbourhood. Specimens
are before me from Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia, but from no other
State. Probably this species is capable of association with myasis, but the records
standing under the name hilli are likely to refer to fallax, on the mainland of
Australia, for the present fly seems strictly limited to the coastal region and is
likely to be found in the interior only as an occasional migrant.

CALLIPHORA MILLERI, 0. Sp.
Calliphora hilli Malloch (nec Patton), in part only, 1927.

This is the common blowfly of New Zealand that goes under the name Ailli,
and I am indebted to Dr. D. Miller for specimens. I also have seen his drawings
of terminalia which show quite distinctive features, the most noticeable being
a superabundance of bristles on the claspers, the more gently curved strut and the
much longer part lying beyond that relative to its two allies in Australia. It
is also distinguishable by the eyes being placed apart slightly in excess of that
found on rufipes. It is only known from New Zealand, where it is associated wita
the myasis of sheep.

CALLIPHORA PERIDA, Nl. Sp.

Closely related to C. tibialis, from which it may be distinguished by its brown
femora, typically brown but often more or less darkened from the base to about
half to two-thirds the length, being very variable in this respect. The only other
feature of difference that has been noted is in the pleura and anterior coxae,
both, or either, having yellow hairs, the number varying. No difference has been
found in the terminalia or in the width between the very closely set eyes.

This fly is only known to me from Queensland, being quite plentiful around
Brisbane, and occurs throughout the year, being associated during much of the
winter and spring periods with the typical C. tibialis. However, between these
two flies there is also a marked difference in habit, perida sporting on bushes
whereas tibialis is strictly confined to the ground. Through all the years that T
have been collecting and watching this fly and observing its habits, I have not
found any actual joining up of the two distinguishing characters. When the

BY G. H. HARDY. 23:

yellow pleural hairs are present, the femora are invariably brown in the main,
whereas when no yellow hairs are to be seen, no brown is noted on the femora.

Hab.—Queensland. Brisbane; about 100 specimens are selected for the type
series. Goondiwindi, 1 male.

Southern forms of the tibialis group also need close investigation, for I have
specimens strongly suggesting that a complex occurs around Adelaide, and this

pc.

apl.

Calliphora perida, n. sp.—aed., aedeagus; a.c., anterior clasper; p.c., posterior

clasper; f., forceps; a.pl., accessory plate. Note the long narrow shape of the

apical tergite; the lower figure shows the parts as seen on a mount, the forceps
being broader than appears in the lateral view, when unmounted.

possibly new species may be extending towards Melbourne. I judge this from 2
long series taken in the two States concerned. From Sydney and from Tasmania
I have seen only the typical form without marked variations.

CALLIPHORA AUGUR Fab.

Musca augur Fabricius 1775.—Calliphora augur Patton 1925, 1935; Hardy 1926,
1930; Malloch 1927 in part, and 1928 in part.

The synonymy that stands tentatively under this species is rather extensive
and it is possible the names do not all belong to the one species. On the published
evidence it is not possible to attach the names to any other species known to me.

The present species occurs in Tasmania, Victoria and perhaps in certain
mountain areas of New South Wales as a permanent resident; it is also found in
the southern coastal regions of Queensland and in the sheep country of the two
latter States as a seasonal fly only. The limit of its western occurrence is not
known. It is associated with myasis.

CALLIPHORA NocIvA Hardy.

Calliphora augur Malloch 1927 and 1928 in part only, and many references in
literature.—Calliphora nociva Hardy 1932; Patton 1935.

The permanent limits of this fly do not seem to extend eastward far beyond
South Australia along the coastal region, but it is found in Melbourne and in
Canberra. Its northern range includes Central Queensland, but apparently it does
not enter the coastal region of this State, nor yet of New South Wales. It is
associated with myasis. Possibly the fly is typical of the Mallee areas.

24 NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA,

CALLIPHORA CENTRALIS Malloch.

"Caliphora centralis Malloch, 1927; Hardy 1932; Patton 1935.

The range of this species is wide enough to suggest that an earlier name may
be found for it. It apparently occurs through the coastal region of New South
Wales, north of Sydney and far up into the Queensland coastal section. Normally
it is confined to timbered country of the plains and low hills, and appears also
to be a permanent resident in timbered districts of the western plains of
Queensland, 300 miles inland at least. It is not attracted by carrion, nor yet
caught in traps, as far as my experience goes.

CALLIPHORA FUSCOFEMORATA Malloch.

Calliphora fuscofemorata Malloch 1927.

I have a male of this species taken from very near the type locality (caught
by Miss V. Irwin-Smith) and have examined its terminalia. It would appear to
be a good species that cannot be confused with any earlier description. The form
is only known from the northern parts of Queensland, probably confined to the
rain-forest areas, just as C. falciformis Hardy may prove to be in the more
southern rain-forest areas. Judging from its terminalia, Patton was quite correct
in placing it with the canimicans-group in order to be consistent in his scheme of
classification. In accordance with my key to species under genus Proekon, it goes
into a new group characterized not only by the terminalia, but also in having
two presutural acrostichal bristles and the blue metallic margin at apex of
abdominal segments, but I list it for the time being in the céentralis-complex; it
does not agree with the definition of the group in the key given above.

Distribution.

The subgenus Adichosia is apparently limited to eastern Australia, and is
represented by only two forms.

Neopollenia occurs in North Queensland, Norfolk Island, New Zealand,
Tasmania, and Western Australia, which seem to.mark the limits of distribution.
South-eastern Australia and Tasmania are the areas of its greatest abundance.

Proekon is known from New Caledonia, Australia, Tasmania, and is recorded
from Timor; it may even occur in New Guinea. Queensland is the area of its
greatest abundance.

The coastal region of Australia, for the purpose of this account, may be
divided into four quadrants, north-west, south-west, north-east and south-east.

The north-western quadrant is practically an unknown region in regard to
Calliphoras as no systematic collecting has been done there. As seen below, it may
possibly prove to be the centre of distribution for C. fulvicora. The south-western
quadrant has been under investigation during recent years. The eastern side of
Australia has been well covered and is best known.

The data given in this paper suggest that each quadrant has its own particular
fauna in permanent residence, but is invaded periodically from some other region
by species that are unable to become permanently established.

ADICHOSIA.

This subgenus contains only two known species and is probably the most
primitive of the Calliphoras. One species, ochracea, breeds throughout the year in
the rain-forests within the north-eastern quadrant, and the other, nigrithorax, in
similar conditions in the south-eastern quadrant. Elsewhere it appears to be a
seasonal fly only.

BY G. H. HARDY. 25

NEOPOLLENIA.

The south-eastern quadrant has in permanent residence, stygia, rujipes and
tibialis, three of the four first-described species. In addition, this is the only area
in which bezzii and deflera are known, and there are other species (Tasmanian)
yet to be described. The north-eastern quadrant has canimicans, sternalis, fallax
and perida. The south-western quadrant has australis and a species near rufipes.
The north-western quadrant may possibly be the centre of the widely distributed
fulvicoxa, for this is unknown from the south-eastern quadrant except at Adelaide,
but is recorded from Perth and was described from Brisbane. But it might
similarly be regarded as a Central Australian species which reaches the coast at
the places mentioned.

PROEKON.

This subgenus: has one species each in the south-western and the south-eastern
quadrants, namely, nociva and augur respectively. The former extends its
permanent range eastward to the border country of Victoria. All the other species
known are practically limited to the north-eastern quadrant.

The two southern species may be breeding in different types of country, for
nociva seems to favour the mallee areas, whereas augur occurs in the other wooded
districts, the two meeting in the open plains.

Those species listed in the centralis-group and which are apparently restricted
to the one quadrant, seem to show a tendency to definite regional distribution
within that quadrant. The majority described and undescribed may be northern
flies, but centralis seems to be typical of the open forest and falciformis of the
rain forests, both occurring in the southern section of the quadrant.

PHYLOGENY.

Patton gives some phylogenetic ideas on the development of the terminalia,
which seem to be quite sound in principle but reversed in direction of presumed
development. Taking into account characters other than terminalia, it would
seem that Adichosia nigrithorax would be the most primitive Calliphora extant,
for it has hairy dichoptic eyes. The other species in the subgenus, also with hairy
eyes, has the holoptic form; this also is the form towards which the other two
subgenera trend. It seems to me probable that the terminalia of Adichosia may
also be of the primitive type and should be placed at the base of the Calliphorine
stem.

Patton, however, believes that the form of terminalia found on augur
(Proekon) is the primitive one, and if this be the case we would have the curious
incident of a primitive group being the one most abundant in species and the
most advanced forms in the numerical minority. Also, the advanced form would
have a restricted distribution, the primitive form a wide one.

Making the necessary adjustment, and accepting Patton’s main theme, 2
diagram of phylogeny may be built up, as shown in the adjacent arrangement.
I offer this diagram as a tentative one, but from data I have gathered by the
study of other genera of the Calliphoridae, I think the general trend of the subject
will be maintained. It may be shown that the ovipositor was originally long, and
the strut developed from an independent thin support to become thickened and
fused with other parts of the aedeagus later, the form taken in canimicans being
an intermediate stage.

H

26

NOTES ON GENUS CALLIPHORA.

rufipes-group tibialis-group
species emspecrcs

sternalis-group
2 species

cenimicans-group centrajis-

a /spleicile's group augur=
2) spiecile's group

stygia-group
3 species
fuscofemorata-
group

ochracea-group
2 species

Diagram of Phylogeny.

Patton places the sternalis-group as associated with the canimicans-group for

a reason unknown to me.

i)

Key to the Phylogenetical Considerations.
Eyes hairy, primitively dichoptic at least in part. Strut free and slender. Ovipositor

Ios ak = Relate RENEE ES e CAREER nen NE ARC | oat RUM aries en Nr eee JeRents Men is ran NS SPM a a ochracea-group
Eyes bare, the dichoptic nature strongly tends to disappear ................. 2
Strut still free and slender and the ovipositor long .................. stygia-group

Strut bound to other parts of aedeagus by membrane throughout its length. Ovi-
positor probably short in all cases or perhaps in some strongly tending that

WY ss ere ie ye luciseh auserscbistew oh outs strata c yeiel rolseutelas he-s:-a. ecuaybiatetreuces ieeia roimetss Utes he Weicouree suDI aoc terete cuanto some cee c etme 3
Struestillvislenderinnsscete see seo a oie canimicans-group; fuscofemorata-group
StLUty DGOAGeNEA ys sh ase eeu ence el ere a oe eke EE RAdS CoP, Opera tad eis eecyote GALGkS, 6 4
Strut normally broadened but curved at least at its apex; other characters of

terminaliaynormalomneceneralmtoOrimn ian tie cline nie ck noi nie ea ane 5

Strut abnormally broad and straight, only reduced at apex to a point not showing
a marked trend forwards. Other parts of terminalia showing abnormal develop-
ment at least in part, especially so in the development of secondary plates
sags Pie OAR pees eee his eR a Oe te ee) Ay EL LN ae = Se ety See sternalis-group

INfia A (Hees MCE! Wa lOEROhIN Gost odoabookocooogaduopoedousoudouoop rufipes-group

Ninth tergite elongate relative to its breadth being markedly longer than broad
PAE gh perry MECC ELE POO V RRC IR AT RANE EOE HOR CER ERT ORI Un RS a aes onan RA aaa tibialis-group

It will be noted that I use the name fuscofemorata for a group and place it in

the above key and diagram. I do not expect the name to remain permanently, for
the subgenus Proekon is not yet well understood. The centralis-group and the
augur-group fall into alignment with the rufipes-group and there are none known
to me within the subgenus Proekon that are comparable with the tibialis-group
and the sternalis-group.

The subgenus Onesia stands in relation to Neopollenia very much as Proekon

does, only it has more numerous species, some of which, like fuscofemorata, fall into
alignment with the canimicans-group and some with the ruficeps-group. The intro-
duced erythrocephala-group is in alignment with the stygia-group.

References.
PATTON.—Amnn. Trop. Med. and Parasit., Liverpool, xxix, 1955, 19-32.
Harpy.—Bull. Ent. Res. London, xxi, 1930, 441-8; and xxiii, 1932, 549-558.
MALLOCH.—Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 1927, 299-335; lili, 1928, 598-617; and Ivii,

1932, 64-8.

A CENSUS OF THE ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALHKS, 1937.
By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A.

[Read 28th April, 1937.]

The Census of New South Wales Plants, by J. H. Maiden and Ernest Betche
(1916), recorded 177 species of Orchids—an increase of only four since the publica-
tion of Moore and Betche’s ‘‘Handbook of the Flora of N.S.W.” in 1893. Recent
research has indicated that of these 177, at least four should be deleted from the
list. Mr. W. H. Nicholls has demonstrated (Vict. Nat., June, 1936) that no
authentic Australian specimens of Thelymitra longifolia Forst. can be discovered,
and it seems that this species is restricted to New Zealand. Mr. Nicholls has also
shown (Vict. Nat., June, 1934) that Fitzgerald’s 7. megcalyptra is really conspecific
with Lindley’s T. aristata. Fitzgerald’s Pterostylis striata is now generally
admitted to be P. alata Reichb. f.; and the present writer is convinced that
P. cucullata R.Br. has not yet been recorded in New South Wales. Brown’s name
has been mistakenly bestowed upon a very different species, P. falcata Rogers.
Some doubt exists in regard to a number of other species. No one has seen
Diuris dendrobioides Fitzg., or Pterostylis clavigera Fitzg., for over forty years,
and as no specimens are available, their validity cannot be tested. Several of
ihe same author’s Prasophyllum species are also quite unknown to the present
* generation, as also is his Anticheirostylis apostasioides. But of course these may
yet be re-discovered, and they should therefore be retained on the list. The
possibility of re-discovery is indicated in the fact that since Maiden and Betche’s
Census was published 45 species and one new genus have been added to the Orchid
flora of the State.

Alterations in nomenclature, due either to the application of the international
priority rule, the transference of species, or the deletion of genera, have become
necessary since the 1916 Census. Two of these—Dendrobium elongatum Cunn.,
instead of D. gracilicaule F.v.M., and Bulbophyllum crassulaefolium Cunn., instead
of B. Shepherdii F.v.M., are here published for the first time, on the authority of
Dr. R. S. Rogers of Adelaide. In both instances Cunningham’s description
preceded Mueller’s by many years. Dr. Rogers thinks Mueller may have suppressed
D. elongatum to avoid confusion with a non-Australian plant of Lindley’s; but
the latter’s D. elongatum is merely a synonym for his D. cymbidioides, and has no
standing. With regard to Bulbophyllum crassulaefolium, Dr. Rogers writes:
“Cunningham did not see the plant in flower, and apparently thought it might
prove to be a Dendrobium. His coloured drawing of it is preserved at Kew
Gardens; the habit of the plant agrees perfectly with Mueller’s B. Shepherdii,
and the locality (Blue Mountains) is identical.” This little Bulbophyllum is very
common in many parts of the State.

Deleting the four species cited above from Maiden and Betche’s Census, and
adding 45 to the remaining 173, we now have 218 Orchids on record for this State.
In the Census list below I have only given references to descriptions, ete., in the

28 CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1937,

case of those which are not listed in the 1916 Census. In all other cases Maiden

and Betche’s work should be consulted.

I have used the following abbreviations:

Fragm.—Mueller’s Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae.
Q. Fl.—_F. M. Bailey’s Queensland Flora (1902).

S.A. Orch.—Dr. R. S. Rogers’ South Australian Orchids.
Orch. N.S.W.—Rupp’s Guide to the Orchids of N.S.W.
Bot. Reg—Curtis’s Botanical Register (London).

* Denotes plants recorded since the 1916 Census.

7 Denotes an alteration in nomenclature.

LIPARIS Rich.
reflexa Lindl.
coelogynoides F.v.M.
*habenarina F.v.M., Fragm., iv, 131.
See Vict. Nat., May, 19385.
*Simmondsii Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1521, also
Botany Bulletin, Q’land. Dept. of
Agriculture, xix, 1917, p. 12 (J. F.
Bailey and C. T. White); see also
Aust. Orch. Review, March, 1937.
OBERONIA Lindl.
iridifolia Lindl.
Titania Lindl.
DENDROBIUM Swz.
speciosum Sm.
var. Hillii F.v.M.
*var. gracillimum Rupp, Proc. LINN.
Soe N.S.W., liv, 5, 1929.
*Kesteventt Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc
N.S.W., lvi, 2, 1931; Q. Nat., March,
1935.
falcorostrum Fitzg.
tetragonum Cunn.
aemulum R.Br.
Kingianum Bidw.
*var. Silcockii Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1528.
yelongatum Cunn., Bot. Reg., 1839.
(D. gracilicaule F.v.M., see above.)
monophyllum F.v.M.
*Schneiderae Bail., Q. Fl., p. 1531.
cucumerinum Macleay.
pugioniforme Cunn.
linguiforme Swz.
teretifoliwm R.Br. See Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 3-4, 1935.
var. Fairfaxii Fitzg. and F.v.M.
striolatum Reichb. f.
Beckleri F.v.M.
*tenwissimum Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., lii, 4, 1927.
Mortii F.v.M.
BULBOPHYLLUM Thou.
rerassulaefolium Cunn., Bot. Reg.. 1839,
Misc., p. 33. (B. Shepherdii F.v.M.
See above.)
tbracteatum Bail. (Adelopetalum brac-
teatum Fitzg. See Q. FIl., p. 1539.
It is generally recognized now that
Bailey’s treatment of this Orchid
is correct.)
aurantiacum F.v.M.
exiguum F.yv.M.
minutissimum F.v.M.

Elisae F.v.M.

*Weinthalii Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., lvii, 1933.

TAENIOPHYLLUM Blume.

Muelleri Lindl.

SARCOCHILUS R.Br.

divitifiorus F.v.M.

falcatus R.Br.
var. montanus Fitze.

*Weinthalii Bail., Q’land Agricultural
Journal, xiii (1903), 346, and
xxviii, Part 6 (June, 1912), 448.

*Hartmanni F.v.M. Fragm., viii, 248.
See Abstract Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., No. 482, Aug., 1935.

Fitegeraldii F.v.M.

olivaceus Lindl.

*spathulatus Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soe.
S. Austr., li, 1927.

*dilatatus F.v.M., Fragm., i, 191. See
also Rogers, loc. cit.

parvifiorus Lindl.

Ceciliae F.v.M.

Hillii F.v.M.

eriochilus Fitzg.

CLEISOSTOMA Blume.
tridentatum Lindl.
Beckleri F.v.M.

ORNITHOCHILUS Wall.
Hillii Benth.

GEODORUM Jacks.
pictum Lindl.

Dipop1uM R.Br.
punctatum R.Br.
*Hamiltonianum (Bail.) Cheel, Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1-2, 1923.
CYMBIDIUM Swz.
canaliculatum R.Br.
*forma aureolum Rupp, Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., lix, 1-2, 1934.
*jiridifolium Cunn., Bot. Reg., 1839,
Mise. 34. (C. albuciflorum F.v.M.
See Rupp, loc. cit.)
suave R.Br.
PHAtus Lour.
grandifolius Lour. (Now almost extinct
in N.S.W.)
CALANTHE R.Br.
veratrifolia R.Br.
GALEOLA Lour.
cassythoides Reichb. f.
Ledgeriana ¥F.v.M.

BY H. M. R. RUPP. 29

EXprpocguM Gmel.
nutans Lindl.
GASTRODIA R.Br.
sesamoides R.Br.
*CRYPTANTHEMIS Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., lvii, 1-2, 1932.
*Slateri Rupp, loc. cit. and lix, 3-4, 1934.
CHEIROSTYLIS Blume.
grandiflora Blume.
SPIRANTHES Rich.
sinensis (Pers.) Ames.
Lindl. )
CALOCHILUS R.Br.
campestris R.Br. (Doubt has been
expressed in regard to this species.
It is certain that in N.S.W. it was
long confused with the species now
known as C. cupreus Rogers. But
Brown recorded it both in N.S.W.
and Queensland. I believe it is
much less common than was
formerly supposed: but I have
collected it near Bullahdelah, and
have seen specimens from various
districts. )
*grandifiorus Rupp, Vict. Nat., Feb.,
1934, and Abstract, Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., Aug., 1935.
*cupreus Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Austr., xlii, 1918.
Robertsoni Benth.
paludosus R.Br.

THELYMITRA Forst.

ixioides Swz.

media R.Br.

circumsepta Fitzg.

aristata Lindl. (For the inclusion of
Fitzg.’s TT. megcalyptra in this
species see Nicholls, Vict. Nat.,
Oct., 19384, and for the association
of T. aristata and Dendrobium
Kingianum, see Rupp, Vict. Nat.,
Nov., 1934.)

*paucifiora, R.Br., Prodromus, p. 314.

nuda R.Br.

*chasmogama Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., li, 1927. See also Proce.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ix, 3-4, 1935.

carnea R.Br.

Hlizabethae F.v.M. See Rogers, Trans.
Roy. Soc. 8S. Austr., li, 1927.

venosa R.Br.

DiurRis Sm.

alba R.Br.

jpunctata Sm. (D. elongata R.Br.)

cuneata Fitzg.

spathulata Fitze.

*venosa Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
li, 3, 1926, and liii, 4, 1928.

dendrobioides Fitzg.

secundiflora Fitzeg.

tricolor Fitzg.

Sheaffiana Fitze.

maculata Sm.

(S. australis

aequalis F.v.M.

bracteata Fitzg.

platichilus Fitzg.

aurea Sm.

*palachila Rogers, S. Austr. Orchids,
1s Bs

*brevifolia Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Austr., xlvi, 1922.

sulphurea R.Br.

abbreviata F.v.M.

pedunculata R.Br.

pallens Benth.

ORTHOCERAS R.Br.

strictum R.Br.

CRYPTOSTYLIS R.Br.

ysubulata Reichb. f. (C.
R.Br.)

erecta R.Br.

leptochila F.v.M.

longifolia

PRASOPHYLLUM R.Br.

australe R.Br .

flavum R.Br.

elatum R.Br.

brevilabre Hook.

patens R.Br.

*Rogersii Rupp, Proc.
N.S.W., liii, 4, 1928.

*odoratum Rogers, S.
p. 15.

*gracile Rogers, loc. cit., p. 14.

*Frenchii F.v.M. See Pescott, Orchids
of Victoria, p. 31.

*Suttonii Rogers and Rees. See Vict.
Nat., July, 1933; but the Barring-
ton Tops record there given is a
mistake.

fuscum R.Br. (Mr. W. H. Nicholls
has recently reviewed this species
and found it to include more than
one. But his treatment of the
group has not yet been applied to
the N.S.W. forms. Maiden and
Betche recognized vars. alpinum
and grandiflorum, but for the
present it may be better to include
all forms under the specific name.)

striatum R.Br.

Baueri Poir.

Deaneanum Fitze.

longisepalum Fitze. ae |

nigricans R.Br. Ee:

transversum Fitze.

ansatum Fitzg.

laminatum Fitze.

rufum R.Br.

densum Fitzg.

viride Fitze.

filiforme Fitzg.

yArcheri Hook. (P. intricatum Stuart.
See Nicholls, Vict. Nat., Oct., 1931.)

*Morrisii Nicholls, loc. cit.

*Hopsonii Rupp, Proc.
N.S.W., lili, 4, 1928.

Woollsii F.v.M.

LINN. Soc.

Austr. Orch.,

és

LINN. Soc.

30 CENSUS OF ORCHIDS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, 1937,

reflexrum Fitzeg.
eriochilum Fitzg.
fimbriatum R.Br.
*acuminatum Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., li, 1927. See also Orch.
INES Wise Ds Ore
*Ruppii Rogers, loc. cit.; also Orch.
N.S.W., p. 88.
*Nublingii Rogers, loc. cit.; also Orch.
ISSN Wiles dh SB
ANTICHEIROSTYLIS Fitzeg.
apostasioides Fitzg.
Microtis R.Br.
*magnadenia Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc.
S. Austr., liv, 1930.
porrifolia Spreng.
parviflora R.Br.
*oblonga Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. 8.
Austr., xvii, 1923.
CORYSANTHES R.Br.
pruinosa Cunn.
fimbriata R.Br.
*diemenica Lindl. (See Proc. LINN.
S@Gh INESEW%5 ith, 924, LOPS. jo, Sls)
undulata Cunn. (See Rogers, Trans.
Roy. Soc. S. Austr., li, 1927, also
refer to Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
loc. cit., p. 88.)
bicalcarata R.Br.
unguiculata R.Br.

PTEROSTYLIS R.Br.

ophioglossa R.Br.

*var. collina Rupp, Proc. LINN.
Soc: IN.SW., liv, 5, 1929.
concinna R.Br.

acuminata R.Br.

Baptistii Fitzg.

curta R.Br.

nutans R.Br.
var. hispidula Fitzg.

clavigera Fitzg.

nana R.Br.

pedoglossa Fitzg.

pedunculata R.Br.

*furcillata Rupp, Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., lv, 4, 1930.

*furcata Lindl. (See Rogers, Trans.
Roy. Soc. Vict., xxviii [new series],
aig)

*alpina Rogers, loc. cit.

*faleata Rogers, loc. cit.

*pulchella Messmer, Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., lviii, 5-6, 1933.

grandifiora R.Br.

truncata Fitzg.

reflera R.Br.

*revoluta R.Br. (See Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., lili, 5, 1928, p. 553.)

coccinea Fitzg.

yalata Reichb. f. (P. praecogx Lindl.,
P. striata Fitzg.)

obtusa R.Br.

parviflora R.Br. (Maiden and Betche
record var. aphylla Ewart and

White. P. parviflora is so variable
a species, and, in N.S.W. at least,
the appearance of leaves is often
so much later than the flowers, that
the validity of var. aphylla seems
doubtful in this State.)
mutica R.Br.
cycnocephala Fitze.
rufa R.Br. (The group of which this
species is representative calls for
review, as there is considerable
confusion of forms.)
*nusilla Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Austr., xlii, 1918.
*var. prominens Rupp., Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., lvi, 2, 1931.
jMitchellii Lindl. (P. rufa var. Mit-
chellit. )
Tsquamata R.Br. (2. rufa var.
squamata. )
Woollsii Fitze.
Daintreyana F.v.M.
longifolia R.Br.
barbata Lindl.
CALEANA R.Br.
major R.Br.
minor R.Br.
*Nublingti Nicholls, Vict. Nat., May,
UW) Bile
*SPICULABA Lindl. (Dirakaea Lindl.)
irritabilis Reichb. f.
Huntiana F.v.M.
ACIANTHUS R.Br.
caudatus R.Br.
fornicatus R.Br.
exsertus R.Br.
freniformis R.Br. (Cyrtostylis reni-
formis R.Br.)
ERIocHILuS R.Br.
yeucullatus Reichb. f. (H. autumnalis
R.Br.)
LYPERANTHUS R.Br.
ellipticus R.Br.
suaveolens R.Br.
nigricans R.Br.

*BURNETTIA Lindl. (Lyperanthus, partly.)
ycuneata Lindl. (L. Burnettii F.v.M.)
CHILOGLOTTIS R.Br.
jreflera (Lab.) Cheel.
R.Br.)
trapeziformis Fitzg.
formicifera Fitzg.
trilabra Fitzg.
Gunnii Lindl.
ADENOCHILUS Hook.
Nortonu Fitzg.
CALADENIA R.Br.
filamentosa R.Br.
Patersonii R.Br.
dilatata R.Br.
*var. concinna Rupp, Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S:W.., lili, 5, 1928.
arenaria Fitzg.
concolor Fitzg.

(C. diphylla

BY

clavigera Cunn.

tesselata Fitzg.

*angustata Lindl. (See Rupp,
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, 5, 1931.)

*alpina Rogers, Trans.
Austr, li, 1927.

cucullata Fitzg.

testacea R.Br.

carnea R.Br.

*var. gigantea Rogers, Trans. Roy.

SoG Se Austin Lis 1920.

Proc.

Roy. Soc. 8.

M. BR. RUPP.

alba R.Br.
latifolia R.Br.
dimorpha Fitzg.
congesta R.Br.
*tutelata Rogers, S.A. Orch., p. 30.
caerulea R.Br.
deformis R.Br.
GLOSSODIA R.Br.
major R.Br.
minor R.Br.

32

AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VI.
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SUBSPECIES.
By G. A. WATERHOUSE, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.
[Read 28th April, 1937.]

During part of 1936 I spent some time at the British Museum of Natural
History in consultation with Brigadier W. H. Evans, who has been making a
study of the species of this family for the whole world. The following new races
are the result of part of my investigations in England. The types are all in the
Australian Museum. The next part will contain my notes on the Australian types
and their localities.

TRAPEZITES PHIGALIA Hewitson.

Hesperia phigalia Hew., 1868, Descriptions of 100 new species of Hesperidae, p. 32.
Hewitson described this species from his own’ collection, giving as locality
simply “Australia”. Kirby’s List of the Hewitson Collection mentions two
specimens, but I was only able to find one, which was labelled by F. A. Heron,
Hesperilla phigalia No. 2. This was a female and has been considered the holo-
type. It does not quite conform to the description, as it has a very small spot in
area la immediately below the large spot in 2, on the upperside of the forewing,
also the underside of the hindwing is not grey, but yellowish-brown. The size
given by Hewitson is slightly smaller than for his 7. eliena and slightly larger than
for his 7. petalia, both described on the same page as 7. phigalia. This suggests
that Hewitson was describing a male. I find it difficult to assign a type locality for
the specimen in the British Museum as the underside of this specimen does not
agree with any of the long series I have from South Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and South Australia. As there is evidence that Hewitson did not obtain
any of his material from New South Wales or Victoria, and the description does
not apply to the South Queensland race, I can only assign the type locality as near
Adelaide. There was a Hewitson specimen of TJ. petalia which bore a label
Hesperilla phigalia No. 1. The holotype of 7. petalia is labelled No. 2, Kirby listing
two specimens of this species in the Hewitson collection, both of which I found.

TRAPEZITES PHIGALIA PHILA, N. subsp.

The chief difference in this race is the decidedly pink tint on the apex of the
forewing and the hindwing on the underside. In addition, the broad orange band
on the upperside of the hindwing is divided by darker veins, in both sexes. These
characters are only found in specimens from South Queensland. The holotype
male from Stradbroke Is., caught in September, has the ring spots on the under-
side of the hindwing more indistinct than three other males from the same locality.
There are also one male and two females from Noosa, Qld., also caught in
September, but the pink on the underside is not quite so marked as in the
Stradbroke specimens. They are, however, not grey as in specimens from
southern localities.

[ou
eo

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE.

MorTaSINGHA ATRALBA Tepper.

Hesperilla atralba Tepper, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., iv, 1880-1, p. 33, Pl. 2, fig. 5.
The holotype is a female in the South Australian Museum from Ardrossan,
Yorke’s Peninsula, S. Aust., and now consists of two wings only. The male of
the typical race has an inconspicuous stigma, very different from the broad
stigma in males of the Western Australian races. Brigadier Evans has examined
the genitalia, but so far finds nothing to warrant separating the races as distinct
species. The race atralba has the spots whiter than the other races. It has two
broods, but most specimens have been caught in April. I have examined the
series of dactyliota Meyrick, 1888, in his collection. They consisted of two males
and a female from Geraldton, W.A., and a female from Port Lineoln, S. Aust.;
the latter belongs to typical atralba. Mr. Meyrick has presented one of his males
to the Australian Museum, and it is now before me. They are smaller than typical
atralba and, now I have seen this series, I find that those specimens from further
south in Western Australia, to which I applied the name dactyliota, are distinct
races. The race nila Waterhouse, 1932, from Dirk Hartog Is., W.A., in August, is
the same size as dactyliota, the spots on the forewing above are slightly smaller
and the hindwing beneath is yellowish-brown, unlike any of the other races.

MOoTASINGHA ATRALBA ANACES, Nn. Subsp.

M. atralba dactyliota, Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914, p. 196, figs. 648, 773; Waterhouse,
1932, “What Butterfly is That?”, p. 234, Pl. xxx, fig. 18.

This is the largest race yet known; on the upperside the spots on the fore-
wing in the male are proportionately smaller and there is rarely a spot in 2; the
blotches on the hindwing are more extensive and greenish-grey. On the under-
side the apex of the forewing and the hindwing have a pinkish tint and there
are usually two spots in 1a on the forewing; the spots on the hindwing are less
defined than in the other Western Australian races. In the female the spots on
the upperside are nearly as large as in the typical race.

Described from four males and one female from Hamel (R. Illidge) and five
males from Waroona (G. F. Berthoud), all caught from 15th to 30th Oct., 1913.
These localities are close together and somewhat south of Perth, W.A.

MovTASINGHA ATRALBA ANAPUS, nN. Subsp.

This race is the same size as dactyliota and nila. On the upperside the spots
of the forewing are smaller than in dactyliota and that in 3 is round, those in
4 and 5 small and placed directly under one another. On the underside the apex
of forewing is grey and in la there is an additional spot, the hindwing is grey
and the spots are much more distinct than those of anaces. The holotype is a
male from Stirling Ranges, W.A., caught in October with three other males in
poor condition. One of these has the spots in 4 and 5 of the forewing much larger
than in any male I have seen from Western Australia.

SUNIANA LASCIVIA LASUS, nN. subsp.

This is a very small northern race, the forewing in the male being less than
9 mm. and in the female less than 10 mm. The markings above are bright orange
and well defined, especially that along the lower margin and end of cell, the band
of the hindwing is proportionately broader than in lascivia from the south. On the
underside of the forewing, the cell is broadly orange, the three subapical spots
and the discal band are well marked, as is also the band on the hindwing. This
race is easily distinguished from typical lascivia from New South Wales and

I

34 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE, VI.

Victoria by its size and more prominent markings. It approaches nearer to the
race neocles Mabille, 1891, of which the type is said to come from Cooktown.
Described from two males and one female from Bathurst Is., N.T., in October.

SUNIANA SUNIAS SAUDA, nN. subsp.

This race from Port Darwin differs from the other Australian races in being
paler yellow both above and below.

TELICOTA EUROTAS Felder.

Pamphila eurotas Felder, Site. Akad. Wiss. Math.-Nat. Wien, x1, 1860, 462.

This species differs from the others in the genus in having the uncus undivided.
The race in northern New South Wales is eurychlora Lower, 1908. Mr. F. H.
Taylor has sent me specimens from the Cairns District, so this added material
shows that North Queensland specimens form a distinct race. The Australian
Museum has specimens from Aru, which have dark orange markings on the upper-
side and the markings on the underside usually more defined than in the
Australian races.

TELICOTA EUROTAS LACONIA, nN. Subsp.

In the male, this race differs from eurychlora in having the orange markings
above darker. On the forewing the three subapical elongate spots are not so
definitely connected with the costal streak; the spots in 4 and 5 are smaller
and the discal band from la to 4 narrower and with straighter edges, especially
on the inner side. On the upperside of the hindwing the cell spot is smaller
and in all specimens I have seen the broad band extends into 6. Beneath the
general colour is more orange and the markings more distinct than in eurychlora.
The female has the three subapical spots of the forewing quite separate from the
cell spot.

The holotype is from Cairns in May; three males and a female from Cairns in
September, and two males and a female from the Herbert River in September.

35

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI AND ITS RELATION TO
CERTAIN ASPECTS OF THEIR PHYSIOLOGY.
By LiniaAn Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany.

(Plate iii; twelve Text-figures.)

[Read 28th April, 1937.]

A sooty-mould colony usually consists of a number of different species
growing together, as has been described in a previous paper (Fraser, 1933).
The constituent fungi may be indiscriminately mixed, or may be more or less
segregated. On a leaf or on adjoining leaves there may be colonies of a single
species, and in other places several may be growing together.

The appearance of a sooty-mould colony is determined by the dominant
fungus. Capnodium salicinum, for example, forms a thin black colony. Limacinia
concinna and Capnodium moniliforme form thick felt-like moulds. C. elegans
forms a thin cottony mould on account of the upright nature of the hyphae.

The appearance of the colony may vary with the habitat. On stems
Capnodium mucronatum forms erect fascicles of hyphae up to 2 em. high. Such
a mass of mycelium could not be supported on a leaf, so that epiphyllous colonies
of C. mucronatum are relatively thin and consist of loosely interwoven hyphae.

Sooty-moulds are found in all sorts of localities but not all the species are
found throughout the whole range. Certain distinct associations are charac-
teristic of sunny, shaded and densely shaded, and of dry and moist localities.

In this paper an attempt is made first to interpret this distribution in nature
on the basis of the physiological properties of the individual species, and secondly
to examine the reason for the limitation of sooty-mould-forming fungi to the
excretions of scale insects.

Methods of Growth of Naturally-Occurring Sooty-Mould Fungi.

A property shared by all sooty-mould-forming fungi is the ability to make
use of intermittent moist conditions of the atmosphere for the purposes of
growth. It is apparent that this must be a physiological factor of great
importance.

If a fragment of sooty-mould is kept in a damp atmosphere or in water,
growth takes place at all hyphal apices (Text-fig. 1), and from broken ends
(Text-fig. 2). Text-figures 1 and 2 show the amount of new growth made in 12
hours by Limacinia concinna. The walls of the new cells are light coloured
and therefore easily recognizable. Text-figure 3 shows the amount of growth
made in 36 hours. Living sooty-mould cells contain large quantities of an oil-
like substance (A in Text-fig. 4). The amount of this substance present in the
cells behind the new growth is always found to be much decreased (Text-figs. 3,5).
Text-figure 5a shows a hypha as it appeared at the commencement of the growth
test. The oil-like substance is present in all the cells. Text-figure 5b shows the
amount of growth made in water after 12 hours, and Text-figures 5c and 5d show
the amount of growth after 36 and 60 hours in water respectively. The food

36 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

reserve is then seen to be entirely depleted. Loss of food reserve takes place
progressively from the cells nearest the new growth to those furthest from it.

If a sooty-mould mycelium growing under natural conditions is examined
microscopically after a dewy night, evidence of fresh growth can be seen in
the presence of thin-walled cells at the apices of the hyphae.

Text-figs. 1-5.

1.—A hypha of Limacinia concinna showing new growth (A) from the apex after
12 hours in water. x 285.

2.—Broken hyphae of Limacinia concinna showing new growth (A) after 12 hours
in water, and the jagged appearance of the broken walls (B). x 285.

3.—Hyphae of Limacinia concinna showing the amount of new growth made after
36 hours in water (A), and the reduction in the amount of oil-like substance in the old
cells adjoining the new growth. x 285.

4.Cells of Limacinia concinna showing the presence of drops of an oil-like substance
(Ae 3% UAW:

5.—A hypha of Limacinia concinna showing the disappearance of oil-like substance
from the old cells with increase in number of new cells. 5a, original hypha. 5b, after
12 hours in water. 5c, after 36 hours in water. 5d, after 60 hours in water. x 285.

Growth of a sooty-mould colony seems therefore to take place as follows:
the mould cell absorbs scale-insect excretion as it is available, and stores up
food materials. Then when sufficient water is available, during rain or on a
dewy night, growth is made and the reserve foods are drawn upon. It is
obvious that little growth can be made during hot or dry weather.

The growth rate of sooty-moulds over a long period is therefore necessarily
slow. This has been demonstrated in the case of Brefeldiella brasiliensis, for
the growth rate of which exact data have been obtained. Twenty-two thalli of
this species growing on leaves were measured at intervals. Measurements were
taken always along the same two diameters at right angles. The average
increase in diameter is given in Table 1.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 37

TABLE 1.
|
Time in weeks from the commencement of the |
experiment ee: 5a oe Be Bb 0 | 2 4 9 10 11
Average diameter of colony in mm. .. ots 0:87 | 0:96 1:0 12 1:24 1:27

Brefeldiella is specially suitable for such measurements as its flat thallus
grows at the margin only and not in thickness, so that the total amount of
growth made can be found by measuring the diameter from time to time. Exact
measurements can not be made in the case of the members of the Capnodiaceae,
which form mixed colonies growing in thickness as well as in diameter and from
many points. The growth rate, in the field, of the members of the Capnodiaceae
is faster than that of Brefeldiella. Limacinia concinna, for example, can form
a thin mould over the surface of a leaf 7 x 2:5 cm. in size in two weeks during
moist weather.

Natural Associations of Sooty-Mould Fungi.

The following situations are inhabited by characteristic associations of sooty-
mould fungi.

(1). Sunny open habitats where sooty-moulds are exposed to maximum heat,
light and desiccation.

Fungi: Capnodium salicinum, C. salicinum var. uniseptatum, C. Walteri,
C. anonae (imperfect stage only), C. fuliginodes (imperfect stage only),
C. australe, Atichia glomerulosa, Dematium pullulans and Cladosporium herbarum.

Hosts: Bursaria spinosa (attacked by Ceroplastes destructor and Eriococcus
eucalypti), Pittosporum wundulatum (Ceroplastes destructor), Eugenia sp.
(Ceroplastes rubens), Hucalyptus spp. (Ctenochiton eucalypti), Leptospermum
flavescens, L. scoparium, L. lanigerum (Tachardia melaleucae).

(2). Habitats which are moister than (1) and are exposed to light and
heat for shorter periods.

Fungi: Capnodium anonae (perfect and imperfect stages), ©. anonae var.
obscurum, C. fuliginodes (perfect and imperfect stages), OC. fuliginodes var.
grandisporum, Limacinia concinna, Aithaloderma ferruginea, Atichia Millardeti,
Caldariomyces sp. 1, Brefeldiella brasiliensis.

Hosts: Ceratopetalum apetalum (attacked by Dactylopius sp.), Hlaeodendron
australe (Ceroplastes destructor), Eugenia sp. (Ceroplastes rubens), Synoum
glandulosum (Ceroplastes destructor), rarely Bursaria spinosa (Ceroplastes
destructor).

All the fungi of (1) may also occur in this association, their fructifications
being characteristically larger than in more open situations.

(3). Habitats which are moister than the preceding, obtaining as a rule
in rain forests or in damp shady gullies where humidity is always high.

(a). Exposed to sunlight for at least part of the day.

Fungi: Capnodium elegans, C. mucronatum, C. moniliforme, Henningsomyces
affine, Scorias philippinensis, Microzyphium sp. 1, M. sp. 2, Caldariomyces sp. 2,
Atichia Millardeti. The fungi of (2) occur occasionally, those of (1) rarely.

Hosts: Rain forest trees attacked by the scale insects already mentioned,
especially Doryphora sassafras attacked by Aspidiotus rossi.

(b). Not or rarely exposed to sunlight, often at some distance from the
source of food.

38 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

Fungi: Chaetothyrium spp., Atichia Millardeti, Trichopeltis reptans, Tricho-
thallus hawaiiensis, Brefeldiella brasiliensis, Triposporium sp., Phycopsis vanillae.

Hosts: Rain forest trees attacked by the scale insects mentioned above.

Certain species of fungi are not often associated with each other, though
occurring in the same sort of situation. In some cases several species may occur
on the same leaf but their mycelium does not become mixed and the colonies
remain distinct though in contact at the edges. This has been observed in the
case of some species of Chaetothyrium, especially when C. fusisporum is present
(Plate iii, fig. 1).

In Table 2 a list is given of the species of sooty-mould fungi found growing
with a selected number of types, to illustrate the associations recorded above.

TABLE 2.
Number of | Total Number
Times of Times
Type. Associated Fungi. Association Type has
has been been
Found. Collected.
Capnodium anonae AG .. | Capnodium anonae var. obscurum 5 61
C. Walteri 21
C. salicinum aie a 3
C. salicinum var. uniseptatum 12
C. moniliforme 6
C. fuliginodes 15
C. australe 1
C. elegans 2
C. mucronatum .. 4 2
Aithaloderma ferruginea 9
Caldariomyces sp. 1 1
Caldarionyces sp. 2 .. dea Nee 10
Atichia Millardeti ; 5
Microxyphium sp. 1 a
Microxyphium sp. 2 3
Chaetothyrium fusisporum il
Henningsomyces affine .. 1
Limacinia concinna 6
Capnodium Walteri Shi .. | Capnodium anonae its BY ah 21 33
| C. fuliginodes ; ! 9
| C. salicinum var. uniseptatum 7
C. salicinum ae as 503 eye 3
| C. australe ie 2
| Limacinia concinna is Bs she 2
| Capnodium anonae var. obscurum 1
| Aithaloderma ferruginea ste BiG 1
Atichia Millardeti 1
Aithaloderma ferrugined .. .. | Capnodium anonae ato ac 9 42
| Atichia Millardeti we a ae 9
| Brefeldiella brasiliensis 6
| Limacinia concinna 5
Caldariomyces sp. 2 .. ae nie 3
Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum 3
| Microxyphium sp. 1... aes a5 3
| Henningsomyces affine 2
Capnodium moniliforme wie his 1
C. elegans 1
C. fuliginodes 1

BY LILIAN FRASER. 39

Capnodium elegans si .. | Capnodium mucronatum Ae sal
C. moniliforme

| C. anonae ae
Scorias philippinensis ..
Limacinia concinna
Aithaloderma ferruginea
Chaetothyrium roseosporum

10

Bee DNR

Capnodium moniliforme .. | Capnodium mucronatum
C. elegans

C. anonae :
Microxyphium sp. 1
Caldariomyces sp. 2... wie ns
Atichia Millardeti no ue doe ||
Trichopeltis reptans
Brefeldiella brasiliensis
Scorias philippinensis ..
Limacinia concinna

a OO ol ony a

Chaetothyrium roseosporum .. | Atichia Millardeti
Chaetothyrium cinereum
Capnodium elegans
Trichopeltis reptans
Chaetothyrium fusisporum

eR Re bo bo

Atichia Millardeti a .. | Chaetothyrium fusisporum
Brefeldiella brasiliensis
Aithaloderma ferruginea
Trichopeltis reptans
Chaetothyrium griseolum noe ||
Capnodium anonae

C. moniliforme

Phycopsis vanillae

Caldariomyces sp. 2 Ah an
Capnodium salicinum var. wniseptatum
C. mucronatum ..

C. Walteri

Microxyphium sp. 1

Limacinia concinna

Chaetothyrium depressum

C. fuscum

C. roseosporum ..

C. cinereum

0.6)
ou
io)

anoro

a Cee le te tO Oe S|

It has been found that Capnodium anonae is the commonest and most
widespread sooty-mould species. It is found growing in many localities in all
kinds of associations. This is shown in Table 2 by the number and variety of
fungi associated with it. Other species are seen to be more limited in their
associations. The species found growing with Capnodium Walteri, C. elegans,
C. moniliforme, Aithaloderma ferruginea, Chaetothyrium roseosporum, and Atichia
Millardeti are chiefly those of the same association class.

Heat Resistance of Naturally-Occurring Sooty-Mould Fungi.

As sooty-mould fungi show such a marked degree of natural grouping, an
attempt was made to trace the cause. One probable reason seemed to be that
some fungi might be more resistant to heat than others. Consequently as many
sooty-mould fungi as were available were tested for their reactions to heat.

Methods.—After some experimenting the following method was adopted as
being simple, quick and suitable for treating large numbers of fungi at the same

40 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

time. Fragments of the fungus to be tested were placed in four test-tubes, either
dry or in water, according to whether dry or wet heat was to be used. The test-
tubes were then placed in a water bath at the required temperature so that they
were immersed to about half their height. The tubes were removed from the
water bath after 5, 10, 20 and 40 minutes of heating. It was found that the
temperature inside the tubes reached that of the water bath in approximately
three and a half minutes, and this extra time was given in each case. Hanging-
drop cultures were made of the treated fragments of mycelium and they were
examined for signs of growth after one week.
In Tables 3 and 4 the results of these experiments are given.

TABLE 3.
Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi to Moist Heat.

Temperature in degrees Centigrade te ae 30 35 40
Time of treatment in minutes r 5 10 20 “40. 5 10 20 40 5 10 20 40
a Fungus.

Limacinia coneinna .. Si A Be its BB B, 8 3 8 8.8 Mo — =
Guenodian fuliginodes ae Be Ss an 3 8 8 8 3 8-9 8 8 Wo PA
fie Walteri .. ae ae es oa 3 8 8 |) B a 8 8 8 LS S =
Cipnadiun elegans... 25 ies ar ae OW Po eee Di 2 TL er
Gime moniliforme 2 2 12 Lye FS] HF] |] Fr Se =
Capnodi um mucronatum ae ses ous me 2 8 8 38 S&S BB 8 B 9} ML
Cai um salicinum . . a0: a a Ae BS BB Bx PQ) 3 A a a
Cah baton anonae.. 5 ae bi a 3 8 30 9.3} a. 8 8 2B 2 eel aie
Capnonian anonae var. obscurum .. ae BG Pe RI BO A Ib | =
Chieti fusisporum ite Ps an 50 a BB ood 8 ae 8 9B 2B Dy Dh ag
Mideoin ferruginea a0 ba 40 ae BB BB 3 B BB SU 27
Chitin cinereum ee nie oe dic BS Bi Bo w 3 Bo QZ = = =
Te a, SDeligaee LS Ae wee See 3 8 @. 3 8 Bo Bo B 8) 2) ——
Trichopeltis reptans .. te a8 oh mA @ Bh. BB 3 38 38 2);—- —- — —
Ghilsneh herbarum By. eye PB ry er Le Sh
Ee icillium expunsum ote 4 Pi as 3 Za Dien 1 —- —- —-}- -—-

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:
— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the
fungus is considered to be dead.

5 indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.

2 indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.

1 indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha
being alive.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 41

TABLE 4.
Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi to Dry Heat.

Temperature in degrees Centigrade. . 55 | 60 65 | 70 75
Time of treatment in minutes oO MeLO 20 40 5 10 20 40} 5 10 20 40 5) 10 20 40, 5 10 20 40
a | | |
Fungus.
Limacinia concinna .. x0 go Bo dS = SS = = = —
Capnodium fuliginodes a on See eo eS, e Diem 1 SEE 2 AO 9 1 1— j— — — —
@ipiodium Walteri .. ays Jo Be SP BS Be BB we Wes SS By al Sh ahs TL)
Capnodium aiaee, a op Ga BD BON BS. Ry oe | B I I es ==
Capnodium moniliforme dhs eS 5 doa |B wea ay @ ak aS eh a ah a Ss SS
Capnodium mucronatum % so oS OS Oo BOS SF Br Bil Ss 8 4 AB 8 4 a j= == —
Gatun, salicinum ee aa BB. BB 3 @ 8 96) a} 8 98} 33 38 PRE | Od, vl a aL
gc OO os Cicer ere ae eae
GE anonae var. obscurum 33 3 2 8 8 Boal By Bos | 2 al —
Chaetothyrium fusisporum .. oo 3 & 8 BB BB} Bs | BS 2 ee abe ee al oak al) Be a SS
Chaetothyrium cinereum ae oo 8 8 8 Bis B 2B Bis BB 2B | 22 2— |j— — — —
Chaetothyrium roseosporum so 3? 6B) SP Bi) BL BF By Be ey ah ab ak ah ee | ee
Aithaloderma ferruginea “is no 6) Bh Be BB BB ol “9 2 2— is —_—— eH
Microxyphium sp. 1 18 ee BO 2) Gale — — — am
Trichopeltis reptans .. ag so 8 BB Br Bj B Bs ayy Bo ws Bw al es = — —
‘inn GD. cs 6s of 8 SO BIS BH 8) eo @ |e oy wi =a —
Cladosporium herbarum rds is o 8 ae BB) DA ae Oe a Leen Lea a by a
Penicillium expansum eS weed 2s) 92 eal: I a |
| |

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:
— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the
fungus is considered to be dead.
3 indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.
indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.
1 indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha
being alive.

bo

These tables show that there is a striking difference between the resistance
shown by fungi to wet and dry heat. None of the fungi tested were able to with-
stand a temperature higher than 45°C. in water, even for so short a time as
5 minutes.

There does not appear to be any exact correlation between ability to resist
wet heat and ability to resist dry heat. For example, Limacinia concinna can
remain alive after 10 minutes’ exposure to a temperature of 40° C., wet heat,
but is killed by an exposure of 5 minutes to 60° C., dry heat, whereas Capnodium

J

42

DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

elegans and C. salicinum are killed after 5 minutes at 40° C., wet heat, but are
resistant to 65° C., dry heat, for 40 minutes.

The following classes of sooty-mould fungi can be distinguished on the basis
of their resistance to dry heat:

(1).—Very resistant, comprising species which can withstand a temperature
of 70° C. for 40 minutes.

Species: Capnodium Walteri, C. mucronatum, C. salicinum, Chaetothyrium
fusisporum, Triposporium sp.

TABLE 5.
Resistance of Cultivated Sooty-Mould Fungi to Moist Heat.

Temperature in degrees Centigrade is mls 30 35 40
Time of treatment in minutes ore as oe 5 10 20 40 5 10 20 40 yO) PAD) E40)
aces |
Fungus. | Medium.
Capnodium salicinum .. Ee ae S Sie 2 aie Dome, 2 2 ee Oi Nine 2 1 1— —
12 (Waxes 3 3B 2 2 2 2);— — — —
G [[eezte pane; 1 _ —
Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum | Ss 8B 3.8 3 9B a 9 Si Oi ae ee
| 1D 3° Poe wor aes) lege O' iO ie aoe
G 2 2— — 1— — — 1—- — —
Aithaloderma ferruginea S) are BB SEM Lo Ie, 3 1 — —
IP 3 33 2 2 Z il
| G 2 a 1 LS = 1 1— —
Capnodium fuliginodes .. Ss Bo 8 BB 3. 8 8. 2B ENRAGED Fron)
1p Ss 8 BB 8 8 8 8 2B PA Ney ee oT
G 3 BL Bae oe SO a ee eRe 1—- — —
Capnodium Walteri S SB BB 3 3 3 BB pa et tS 1
1p [on B aS eM SCS! eee we Ol Ot moe aaah | A eae
G SEDI oat Boe pee Reena 1—- — —
Chaetothyrium cinereum iS) 3 3 3 B® 3 > 8 2 3 8 il all
12 Ps ee nc
G il il = =
Timacinia concinna NS) 3 8 3 3 BB BB 3 Bal 1
1p Pye SN —
G 1 1 —
Triposporium sp. S BB Bo <8} DROITS 2
12 [iets wetter) mS amt: ON NT ae DEN iD, 2 1—- —
| G 38. 1- — i31i1—-_— — 1$1—- —
Dematium pullulans | Ss 3 8 Be 9B} 2 1 i = ==
Lite ae: By BO GE plies Veto
| G Bi 1B Be Bal Soe no O45 ee
The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:
— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the
fungus is considered to be dead.
> indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.
2 indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.
1 indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha

being alive.

P, potato glucose solution.—S, unpurified adonite solution.—G, glucose salts solution.

BY LILIAN FRASER.

43

(2).—Resistant, comprising species which can withstand a temperature of

65° C. for 20 minutes.
Species:

above 60° C. for more than 10 minutes.

Capnodium fuliginodes,

C.

elegans,

TABLE 6.

Resistance of Cultivated Sooty-Mould Fungi

C. anondae,

to Dry Heat.

C. moniliforme,
CO. anonae var. obscurum, Aithaloderma ferruginea, Chaetothyrium roseosporum,
C. cinereum, Trichopeltis reptans, Cladosporium herbarum.

(3).—Not resistant, comprising species which can not withstand temperatures

Temperature in degrees Centigrade 5d | 60 65 70
Time of treatment in minutes 5 10 20 40| 5 10 20 40) 5 10 20 40 5 10 20 40
1 PPS Cla wei &
Fungus. Medium. |
Capnodium salicinum Ss) B00, BB) FP Pa ee
12 SHOWS (ola ieeolee Aner el te oi amo al la
G 21 31— /— — —
Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum iS) BB Be By @ esr By PA BI Byes Bye) Bs By |G
P 8 8 Se) Bog Th ee |
G $9 LH|e GH} oOo g[— eS Se
Aithaloderma ferruginea iS) 3 8 8 2 | 82 22/41 1— — |— — — —
1p Ths, lp eal | —
G == |
Capnodium fuliginodes NS) B Be BiB | BB B. Qill BB 83 = |— — — —
12 38.3 3 3);3 3 2—)})3 3 2 — j— — — —
G sna ees Nee sake Mal
Capnodium Walteri s 3 3 81.912 9 872) 2 919 Ol ===] =
12 6} jetuereine Aa ease LS al ea Lica hea tes ake |— —-—_— —
G 1 — | | =e ae
—— — | i
Chaetothyrium cinereum S 3 3 3 Be Weal | —
12 a) 8) ah) (eal ahs al —
G i mW |
Limacinia concinna Ss B OB BS Bol B i ew | 1 1— — |— — — —
P ab De ac | | =
| | ~ SVS HL
G 1 |
Triposporium sp. s 88 3 IQ 2 Pil aod tei
P 3 33 2/2 2 21/2 2 2 1\|—~-—— —
G eal —
Dematium pullulans iS) By 4 al | 1
P BBs Th ae a |— —
G Bh 8) SSMS aS S048 138 88 Bw] —

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:
— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the

fungus is considered to be dead.

indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.
indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.
indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha

Re po co

being alive.

P, potato glucose solution.—S, unpurified adonite solution.—G, glucose salts solution.

44 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

Species: Limacinia concinna, Microxyphium sp. 1, Penicillium expansum
(control).

It can be seen from Table 3 that the distribution of sooty-mould fungi can not
be explained by their powers of heat resistance alone, for, although the species of
the non-resistant class occur in the less exposed situations in nature, others which
occur in similar situations are strikingly resistant to heat, e.g., Chaetothyrium spp.

Resistance of Cultivated Sooty-Mould Fungi to High Temperatures.

In this series of experiments three media were used for the cultivation of the
fungi, as it was thought that the composition of the medium might influence the
resistance of the fungus to some extent. The media were as follows:

(1) Unpurified adonite 2 gm., water 100 c.c. (S in Table 5).

(2) Standard potato glucose solution (P in Table 5).

(3) Glucose 2 gm., sodium nitrate 2 gm., potassium dihydrogen phosphate
0-5 gm., magnesium sulphate 0:25 gm., water 100 c.c. (G in Table 5).

The fungi were grown for three weeks on glass-wool soaked with the culture
medium in Petri dishes, and were then allowed to become air-dry at laboratory
temperature and humidity under aseptic conditions before testing for heat
resistance. The treatment adopted was the same as for the naturally-occurring
sooty-moulds. The results are given in Tables 5 and 6.

TABLE 7.
Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi Grown on Media of Different Concentrations to Dry Heat.

i}
Temperature in degrees Centigrade oe + | 5 50 55 60
Time of treatment in minutes 8 See -. | 5 10 20 40) 5 10 20 40) 5 10 20 40! 5 10 20 40
! | | —
| Concentration |
Fungus. ; Of Glucose |
| in Medium.
{ %
Caldariomyces sp. 1 | 0 Bo BF 26) A Ae ah ghey That a — —
| 0:5 3 By Bik ial ab ah @ 2 —!
| 2-0 SUIO Cie o ial oy ee elem Li Qe ellen
10-0 Bh 6 Pe al a a rh Ba EO
25:0 2) el le el a — —
Capnodium fuliginodes 0) 3. 3 8 8 | 2 3.3/2 1—— j— — — —
0:5 38 8 9/8 2 2 2/8 2a. ijie——
2-0 2 Ss B83 3 Ol so Waban e |
| 10:0 Bh. PA 1 Se eS ES
| 25-0 3 2 2— |— — — — J— — — — J —
Dematium pullulans oz ae | (0) 2 1——/]2 1 = 2 -—— — — —
| 0:5 22——]1— 1 —_— —_——
2-0 ies JarS Uees alae ia is es Wale I era es
10:0 18 B22 Bl so 1 lie @ 2 |e o——
25-0 | OSI Oa =

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:

— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the
fungus is considered to be dead.
indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.
indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.
indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha
being alive.

Rb &

BY LILIAN FRASER. 45

The results obtained for resistance to wet heat are similar to those obtained
for naturally-occurring sooty-mould species. All species except Dematium pullulans
showed greater resistance on unpurified adonite media than on potato solution
or glucose salts solution. From an examination of Table 7 it can be seen that
this was also the case when dry heat was tested.

On the whole, fungi in culture are less resistant to heating than are the
same species when growing in their natural habitat. An exception to this is
Limacinia concinna, which is more resistant in culture.

The Effect of Altering the Concentration of the Culture Medium on the Heat
Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi.

It is well known that certain higher plants, e.g., Rhus, Peganum, ete. (see
Maximov, 1929, p. 271 et seq.), which can endure long periods of desiccation
unharmed, are characterized by cell sap of high osmotic pressure. The osmotic
pressure of the cell sap of naturally-occurring sooty-moulds has been found to
vary from 70 to 95 atmospheres. If the high osmotic pressure has any direct
bearing on the heat-resisting powers of the cell, it should be possible, by raising
or lowering the osmotic pressure, to increase or decrease the degree of resistance.
This is most readily done by raising or lowering the concentration of the culture
medium. The powers of heat-resistance of mycelium grown in solutions of various
concentrations of glucose were therefore tested. Potato extract solutions were
used with 0%, 05%, 2%, 10%, and 25% sugar. The fungi used in these experi-
ments were Capnodium fuliginodes, Caldariomyces sp. 1, and Dematium pullulans.
One set of cultures three weeks old was used for tests with wet heat. Another
set of the same age was allowed to dry slowly at laboratory temperature and
humidity. These were then used for tests with dry heat.

In Table 7 the result is shown of experiments using dry heat. It can be seen
that resistance was slightly less in media of high and low sugar concentration
than in media of medium concentration in the case of Capnodium fuliginodes
and Caldariomyces sp. 1. For Capnodium the optimum concentration is 0:5-2:0%,
and for Caldariomyces 2-10%. In the case of Dematium pullulans low concentra-
tions reduced the powers of heat-resistance to a greater extent than in the other
species, but high concentrations reduced it to a lesser extent. The optimum
concentration was 10%.

Similar results were obtained using wet heat, but, as before, the temperature
necessary to cause death was lower.

It appears, therefore, that in the case of these fungi there is no direct relation-
ship between osmotic pressure and heat resistance. For each species there is an
optimum concentration of medium, above and below which heat-resistance falls off.

A series of experiments in which different concentrations of nitrogen were
used was made. The results showed that high and low concentrations reduced
the heat-resistance of all species to about the same extent.

Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi to Low Temperatures.

The species of naturally-occurring and cultivated sooty-moulds which had
been tested for heat-resistance were subjected to low temperatures to ascertain
their powers of resistance to cold. The procedure adopted was similar to that
used in the heat-resistance experiments. Pieces of mycelium were placed in test-
tubes, dry, or with a little water, according to whether dry or wet temperatures
were to be tested, and were partly immersed in a water bath. The temperature

46 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

of the water bath was controlled by the addition of ice and salt. The following
temperatures were used: -—15°C., 0° C., 2° C., 5°C.

All the species were able to withstand these temperatures without injury,
both in the wet and in the dry condition.

Resistance of Sooty-Mould Fungi to Desiccation.

Material of the species of fungi which had been collected for heat-resistance
tests was kept at laboratory temperature and tested weekly for viability. Material
of the cultivated species used in the heat tests was also treated in this way.

The results are given in Tables 8 and 9. From these it can be seen that the
naturally-occurring sooty-mould fungi can be grouped into the following classes
on the basis of their ability to resist periods of desiccation:

(1).—Very Resistant, comprising species viable after 10 weeks without water.

Species: Capnodium salicinum, C. Walteri, C. mucronatum.
(2).—Resistant, comprising species viable after 5 weeks without water.
Species: Capnodium elegans, C. anonae, C. moniliforme, Microxyphium
Spee

(3).—Not Resistant, comprising species which are dead after 4 weeks without
water.
Species: Limacinia concinna, Chaetothyrium roseosporum, C. fusisporum,
C. cinereum, Trichopeltis reptans, Aithaloderma ferruginea, Triposporium
sp.

It can be seen that with a few exceptions, the distribution of those species
whose associations could not be explained on the basis of their powers of heat-
resistance can be explained on the basis of their resistance or susceptibility to
desiccation.

TABLE 8.

The Resistance to Desiccation of Naturally-Occurring Sooty-Mould Fungi.

i

Period of desiccation in weeks og |p. oa 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 9 10 11

= | os 2S |

Fungus.
Capnodium salicinum .. an boi, @ 3 33 3 | 3 3 3 3 3 | =
Capnodium elegans oe Bee so |} oe WCB 3 2 2, 1 i ied — —
Capnodium moniliforme a ed || 2 3 2 2 1 1 1}/— |}— |— | —
Capnodium anonae 3 3 2 2 2, 2 2 1 | —_ —
Capnodium Walteri Boy Boi BP B 3 3 3 2 2 1 }—
Capnodium mucronatum Beal ne | B 3 2 2 deal cat 1 | 1
Timacinia concinna a ) 8 3. | il |
Chaetothyrium fusisporum an +a | 3) | = a
Chaetothyrium roseosporum 3 | 2 | =
Chaetothyrium cinereum yi a | | ——
Triposporium sp. ees ify al ee a |
Aithaloderma ferruginea 3 | By! Bho |
Trichopeltis reptans .. ae ive G3} all aoe — | |
|

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:
— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the
fungus is considered to be dead.
3 indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.
indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.
indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha
being alive.

m bo

BY LILIAN FRASER.

TABLE 9.

The Resistance to Desiccation of Cultivated Sooty-Mould Fungi.

47

|
|
|
|

Period of desiccation in weeks 1 2 3 4 5 GI) ev 8 9 10 11
Fungus. Medium. |
| | |
Capnodium salicinum s 3 3 | 3 3 3 | 3 3 3 2 )—
P 3 3 oll 8 3 2 || 2 iL 1 — i
G 3 — j= — — |— — — — — a
are
Capnodium salicinum var. S 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 — —
uniseptatum 12) 3 3 o 2 2, 2 1
G 3 2 iL ih 1 — — a — a —
Capnodium fuliginodes ) 3 2) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
G 3 3 iL — — — — aa — — —
Capnodium Walteri Ss 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
P 2 1 1 il 1 1 — — -= a —
G 2 2 1 1 1 — |— — — —_ —
Aithaloderma ferruginea Ss 83 2 2 2 2 = = — — — —
P 3 2 il = = =
G 3 2 1 | — ute sae aad
|
Limacinia concinna N) 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
12 2 2 1 1 1 il — — —_ — —
G 2 2 2 1 il
Chaetothyrium cinereum .. S 3 3 3 83 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
1p 2 1 1 1
G 2 1 1 —_ — — — — —- —— --
Triposporium sp. Ss 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 —_
12 3 3 2 2 2 2 il 1 1 1 —
G 3 2 = —
Dematium pullulans S 3 3 3 2 2 1 |
P BPS Oil B) I pe coe aie cut
G 3 3 3 3 3 PP i @ 2 2 2 2
|

The condition of the fungus after treatment is shown arbitrarily as follows:

— indicates that no growth has taken place in the hanging-drop culture and the

fungus is considered to be dead.

indicates that growth equal to that of the untreated control has taken place.

3
2 indicates that a fair amount of growth has taken place.

1 indicates that very little growth has taken place, only an occasional hypha

being alive.

P, potato glucose solution.—S, unpurified adonite solution.—G, glucose salts solution.

Reaction of Individual Species of Sooty-Mould Fungi to Special Conditions
of Nutrition.

It appeared significant that only a limited number of species of fungi should

occur

in sooty-mould colonies,

Penicillium spp. should be relatively unimportant.

possible reasons for the paucity of these common saprophytes.

and that most omnivorous moulds such as

There seemed to be several

Hither they might

not be able to utilize “honey dew”, on which sooty-moulds grow in nature, or they
might not be able to withstand the conditions of desiccation, high temperature

48 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

and strong sunlight to which they would be subjected in a sooty-mould colony,
or their growth might be prevented by the production of staling substances by
the sooty-mould fungi. It was thought also that there might be two reasons why
the Capnodiaceae, Atichiaceae and Trichopeltaceae are found only in sooty-mould
colonies. Hither they might be restricted to “honey dew” as a source of food,
or they might be too slow-growing to compete with mould fungi in any other
habitat.

Experiments have been recorded in an earlier paper (Fraser, 1934) which
showed that the limitation of most sooty-mould-forming species in nature to the
excretions of scale insects does not appear to be due to their inability to make
use of different types of food materials.

a. Reaction to Adonite.

The exact nature of the food materials available to the sooty-mould fungi was
apparently not known to previous workers. Arnaud (1911) alone referred to the
composition of “honey dew’. He considered it to be a watery solution of dextrin,
gums, etc. It has been shown by Dr. V. Trikojus* that the “honey dew” produced
by the scale insect Ceroplastes destructor is a nearly-pure aqueous solution of
adonite.

A small quantity of purified adonite was made available to the writer, and
preliminary experiments were made to ascertain its effect on the growth of
sooty-mould fungi. The results obtained indicated that adonite was probably a
specially suitable medium for the growth of sooty-mould fungi, but it did not
appear to be very suitable for the growth of Penicillium.

More extensive experiments were accordingly planned. Pure B.D.H. adonite
of plant origin was obtained. It was thought that it might also be necessary to
test adonite of scale-insect origin, so a large quantity of Ceroplastes destructor
growing on a host tree, Melia Azedarach var. australasica, was collected. The
insects were scraped off the host and heated until the wax melted and the
adonite solution present in its meshes was liberated. This was strained off,
filtered and evaporated to dryness. The residue consisted almost entirely of
adonite, and it was not considered necessary to purify it.

The following agars were used:

(1). Unpurified adonite agar.—Unpurified adonite extracted from Ceroplastes
destructor 2 gm., agar 2 gm., water 100 ec.c.

(2). Unpurified adonite agar with the addition of salts—Unpurified adonite
2 gm., sodium nitrate 2 gm., magnesium sulphate 0:25 gm., potassium dihydrogen
phosphate 0:5 gm., agar 2 gm., water 100 c.c.

(3). Purified adonite agar.—B.D.H. adonite 2 gm., sodium nitrate 2 gm.,
magnesium sulphate 0:25 gm., potassium dihydrogen phosphate 0:5 gm., agar
2 gm., water 100 c.c.

* Dr. Trikojus kindly made available to the writer the unpublished results of his
investigations on the excretions of Ceroplastes destructor. This insect is commonly
associated with sooty-moulds. It attaches itself at an early age to the leaf or twig
of a host plant and remains there throughout its life, absorbing food materials by means
of thin suckers called “stylets’’. It excretes a waxy covering of spongy texture, which
becomes several millimetres thick. The insect also produces a watery solution, the
“honey dew’, which contains certain by-products of its metabolism. The “honey dew”
fills the meshes of the waxy covering and runs out on to the leaf or twig. Adonite (or
adonitol) is a pentahydric alcohol of the constitution C,H,,0O,. In fresh “honey dew’’ it
occurs in a concentration of 6%.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 49

(4). Potato extract agar.—Sodium nitrate 2 gm., magnesium sulphate 0-25 gm.,
potassium dihydrogen phosphate 0:5 gm., agar 2 gm., potato extract (200 gm.
potato in 1 litre of water, boiled and filtered) 100 c.c. This was used as a control.

Petri dishes 9 cm. in diameter were poured with 10 c.c. of the required medium
and inoculated with the species to be tested. The cultures were incubated at
25° C. in darkness for 21 days. All experiments were made in triplicate and the
growth rate was obtained by measuring the diameters of the colonies in two
directions at right angles three times weekly.

The following fungi were chosen for experiment, as they represented the two
most important groups of sooty-mould fungi, the Capnodiaceae and the Fungi
Imperfecti: Capnodium fuliginodes, C. salicinum, Caldariomyces sp. 1, Aithaloderma
ferruginea, Chaetothyrium griseolum (Capnodiaceae), Dematium pullulans,
Penicillium expansum (Fungi Imperfecti). Penicillium was included as a control.

All the fungi used were able to make a certain amount of growth on the
agars on which they were tested.

30

20 [

Diameter of colony in mm.

Time in days from commencement of experiment.
Text-figs. 6-12.
6-12.—Graphs to show growth rates on adonite (A), unpurified adonite (S. 1),
unpurified adonite with the addition of salts (S. 2) and potato extract (P) agars:
6, Caldariomyces sp. 1; 7, Chaetothyrium cinereum; 8, Penicillium expansum; 9, Aithalo-
derma ferruginea; 10, Capnodium fuliginodes; 11, Capnodium salicinum; 12, Dematium
pullulans.

50 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

Unpurified adonite proved a very satisfactory source of food for all the sooty-
mould fungi except Chaetothyrium. It was found more satisfactory than the
control (potato extract) for Dematium (S.1 in- Text-fig. 12), Capnodium fuliginodes
(S.1 in Text-fig. 10) and C. salicinum (S.1 in Text-fig. 11). The growth of
Penicillium was poorer than on the control agar (Text-fig. 8).

The addition of salts (S.2 in Text-figs. 6-12) to unpurified adonite made it
less suitable for all the fungi except Caldariomyces (Text-fig. 7).

Purified adonite was found to be less suitable for growth than unpurified
adonite or potato extract (A in Text-figs. 6-12). In the case of Caldariomyces,
Aithaloderma and Chaetothyrium, staling became more pronounced after 14 days,
as shown by the flattening of the growth curve (Text-figs. 6, 7, 9).

Potato-extract agar was well utilized by all the fungi. Penicillium,
Caldariomyces, and especially Chaetothyrium (Text-figs. 6, 7, 8) made better
growth on this medium than on unpurified adonite.

10 $.1
ZAP
8 $.2
7
6
5 A
4
3
2
i S
7 ll 14 ie
S.1
70
= | /
= / a
By se 60
5.1
= 2B
© 26
ae 3 ey
ng Pp
mt
os 20 4
= A
S30 5.2
16
30 sue
14
12
A
10 24
% 10
6
10
4 le
2
7 il 14 Webs) pal iF MLA LO NEL

Time in days from commencement of experiment.
From these experiments it appears that adonite excreted by Ceroplastes

destructor is not a very suitable medium for the growth of the mould Penicillium,
which is not a common constituent of naturally-occurring sooty moulds. On the

BY LILIAN FRASER. 51

other hand, it was very satisfactory for the growth of all sooty-mould species
tested except Chaetothyrium. It is also apparent that purified adonite was not so
satisfactory as unpurified adonite.

So far the nature of the “honey dew” on one scale insect only has been deter-
mined, Ceroplastes destructor on Bursaria spinosa. It is quite possible that other
species of scale-insect may secrete slightly different substances and that some
species of sooty-mould fungi may grow particularly well on one special type of
secretion.

b. Staling Phenomena shown by Sooty-Mould Fungi.

In the case of soil fungi the influence of the species on each other’s growth is
well known. Garrett (1934) has recently summarized and extended the
knowledge on this subject. Comparatively little attention, however, has been paid
to the influence of other saprophytic fungi on each other in nature.

Many workers, notably Brown (1923) and Pratt (1924a, 1924b) have discussed
the problem of staling caused by the growth of fungi in agar media. As the fungus
grows it produces decomposition products which diffuse out into the surrounding
agar. These may accumulate in such quantities as to retard or finally stop the
growth of the fungus itself, and to retard or stop the growth of another fungus
growing near it.

When a fungus is grown on nutrient agar, growth takes place as a rule at the
margins only, so that a flat circular colony is produced. It has been shown by
Pratt (1924a) that the agar in the centre is not depleted of food materials but
contains staling substances which render it unfit for further growth.

As indicated here and in an earlier paper (Fraser, 1934), sooty-mould fungi
do not produce staling substances which retard their own growth to any great
extent, except when the nitrogen content of the culture medium is high, or when
unfavourable nitrogen compounds are present in the agar.

Many sooty-mould fungi do not form flat even colonies on agar media. They
may be ridged, domed or very much raised in the centre. Moderate examples of
this are shown in Plate iii, figures 2 and 4, where the colonies are domed and
furrowed respectively. In extreme cases the colony may become as thick as it is
wide. This is due to continued growth and branching of the hyphae in the older
parts, which seem to continue until all available food material is exhausted. The
formation of a thick colony is especially marked on agar containing a high
concentration of sugar. This method of growth furnishes additional proof that
the species of sooty-moulds do not form substances which stale their own growth
to any extent.

There is less likelihood of the accumulation of staling substances on a leaf
surface, where they could be washed off by rain, than in an agar medium. It is
evident, however, that if no rain were to fall over a period of a week or more,
and if sufficient dew for growth to be made were available each night, a consider-
able amount of staling substances could accumulate.

To obtain further light on the problem of staling reactions, sooty-mould species
were grown together in pairs on thin agar media, as staling is more readily
detected in thin agar than in thick.

A series of experiments was made using potato glucose agar. The results so
obtained were checked by an experiment in which unpurified adonite agar was
used.

Six possible types of reaction may result when fungi are grown together in
pairs on nutrient agar:

52 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

(1). A stops growth of B, but is not itself affected by B.

(2). A decreases the growth of B, but is not itself affected by B.

(3). A stops or nearly stops the growth of B, and is itself slowed down by B.

(4). A and B slow down and stop each other’s growth.

(5). A and B slow down each other’s growth, but do not stop, continuing to
grow over each other: 5a. Mutual effect slight; 5b. Mutual effect
fairly strong.

(6). A and B have no mutual effect, but grow over each other with
undiminished vigour.

On potato dextrose agar the reactions of the pairs of fungi fall into the

following classes:

Class 2. A B
Capnodium anonae and Penicillium expansum
Class 3. A B

Microzyphium sp. 1
Caldariomyces sp. 1
Dematium pullulans
Aithaloderma ferruginea
Triposporium sp.

and Penicillium expansum
: Dematium pullulans
5, Penicillium expansum
eo) ” 2
29 7 2

om)

Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum ,, Be 5
Capnodium fuliginodes PS a a
Timacinia concinna Fe a

Triposporium sp.

Class 4. A

Chaetothyrium cinereum
Aithaloderma ferruginea
Microxzyphium sp. 1

”

> Limacinia concinna
B

and Caldariomyces sp. 1
., Dematium pullulans

Triposporium sp.

39 2) LP)
Caldariomyces sp. 1 » Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatium
Class 5a. A B
Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Limacinia concinna
Dematium pullulans », Capnodium anonae
Cladosporium herbarum ;, -Aithaloderma ferruginea
4s a », Capnodium Walteri
Chaetothyrium cinereum 5, Penicillium expansum
Capnodium fuliginodes s, Capnodium Walteri
er 5 ;, Cladosporium herbarum
He 35 ;,, Capnodium fuliginodes
Limacinia concinna ;, Cladosporium herbarum
op 35 ,, Capnodium fuliginodes
Aithaloderma ferruginea 53 0 a3
“ 33 ;, Cladosporium herbarum
Penicillium expansum a a p
0 of ;, Penicillium expansum
Capnodium anonae ;, Cladosporium herbarum
a iA ;, Capnodium Walteri
C A 5 Capnodium fuliginodes
, ) 5, Dematium pullulans
5 é ;, Caldariomyces sp. 1
“r Ae 5, Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum
Chaetothyrium cinereum 5 Dematium pullulans
Microxyphium sp. 1 ;, Capnodium fuliginodes
7 s ;, Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum
59 Jaro Microzyphium sp. 1
P Bo ed Capnodium Walteri
Cladosporium herbarum Dematium pullulans
9 Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum

BY LILIAN FRASER. 53

Dematium pullulans ,, Capnodium Walteri
” ry s, Dematium pullulans

Class 5b. A nthe 83
Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Dematium pullulans
” 99 . Limacinia concinna
” 2099 ;, Capnodium Walteri
» 299 ,, Aithaloderma ferruginea
. ys :, DLriposporium sp.
50 or 6 :, Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum
” Prey) ,, Caldariomyces sp. 1
3 0 Op 5, Microxyphium sp. 1
59 ;, Capnodium fuliginodes
5p 5. D0 :, Cladosporium herbarum
Dematium pullulans ., Triposporium sp.
m0 96 ;, Capnodium fuliginodes
és a ,, Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum
Triposporium sp. » dAithaloderma ferruginea

- : Capnodium fuliginodes
Timacinia concinna ;, Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum
Capnodium fuliginodes ;; Chaetothyrium cinereum

” ’ .. Capnodium salicinum var. uniseptatum

Class 6. A B
LTimacinia concinna and Cladosporiwm herbarum
Capnodium Walteri ss Dematium pullulans
Chaetothyrium cinereum ;. Cladosporium herbarum

Capnodium anonae #3 = 56

From this it can be seen that the majority of sooty-mould fungi cause only
slight staling effects on each other. Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Microxyphium sp. 1
cause more staling than any other species.

Plate iii, figure 2, shows a colony of Cladosporium growing over a colony of
Capnodium anonae (Class 6). There appears to have been little or no slowing
down of the growth rate of either fungus.

Plate iii, figure 3, shows an example of slight staling. The growth rate of
both fungi, Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Limacinia concinna, has been slowed slightly
in the adjacent parts of the colonies (Class 5a). A slightly greater degree of
staling is shown in Plate iii, figures 4 and 5. In Plate iii, figure 4, Capnodium
fuliginodes and Caldariomyces sp. 1 are shown causing fairly strong mutual slowing
in adjacent parts of the colonies. In Plate iii, figure 5, Capnodium Walteri and
Caldariomyces show a similar effect (Class 5b).

An example of stronger staling is shown in Plate iii, figure 6, representative
of Class 4. Growth has almost entirely ceased in adjacent parts of the colonies.

In Plate iii, figure 7a, is shown an example of Class 3. Limacinia concinna
has caused the growth of Penicillium expansum to cease abruptly. Plate iii,
figure 7b, shows the same colonies two weeks later. It can be seen that the
Penicillium colony has not grown round the Limacinia colony to any extent. The
Limacinia colony, on the other hand, has continued to enlarge and is growing
over the edge of the Penicillium colony, but at a slightly slower rate than at the
edge farthest from it.

It is apparent that Penicillium is fairly strongly affected by the growth of most
sooty-mould fungi. Cladosporium is scarcely affected by the growth of the members
of the Capnodiaceae, Dematium is affected by some, but not at all by others.

Since staling is a function of the medium, it is not possible to assume from
their behaviour on potato glucose agar that the fungi will behave similarly on
“honey dew”.

54 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI,

Consequently a representative group of fungi comprising some found to be
mutually staling, slightly staling and not staling on potato glucose agar, were
grown on agar of the composition 2% unpurified adonite, 2% agar.

The results showed that mutual retardation of growth by sooty-mould species
on unpurified adonite is less marked than on potato glucose agar. Members of
the Capnodiaceae show little or no sign of mutual effect (Class 6, Plate iii, fig. 8,
Capnodium fuliginodes and Triposporium sp.; Plate iii, fig. 9, Capnodium
fuliginodes and Chaetothyrium cinereum). Only those species which show the
strongest effects (Class 5b) on potato glucose agar show slight retarding effects
(Class 5a) on adonite agar. The growth of Penicillium is retarded more or less
strongly by sooty-mould fungi on adonite agar.

CONCLUSIONS.

The distribution of each species of sooty-mould fungus appears to be dependent
on one or more factors. All the fungi occurring together in similar positions are
not limited to them for the same reasons. Capnodium salicinum, C. Walteri and,
to a less extent, C. anonae are resistant both to heat and desiccation, and in nature
occupy the most exposed habitats. Limacinia, Aithaloderma and Microvyphium
sp. 1 are limited to favourable habitats by susceptibility both to heat and
desiccation. The members of the Chaetothyrieae, Triposporium and Trichopeltis,
though strongly resistant to heat, are restricted to moist localities by their
susceptibility to desiccation.

Capnodium elegans, C. mucronatum and C. moniliforme form a group by them-
selves, since they are resistant both to heat and desiccation, yet in nature occur
in rain-forest areas only. Hither they may be restricted to the excretions of certain
specific scale insects of limited distribution, or they may require a very moist
atmosphere for growth. These species could not be obtained in culture and, there-
fore, experiments could not be made to test the hypotheses.

Heat and desiccation appear to be the most important factors influencing the
distribution of sooty-mould species in nature, cold evidently having no effect.

The results of the tests on the heat-resisting and desiccation-resisting powers
of sooty-mould species in culture largely confirm those obtained for naturally-
occurring material. Several species are, however, more resistant both to heat and
to desiccation in culture than in nature. It appears probable that the factors for
resistance are specific to each fungus species. It appears also from the experi-
ments that the composition of the media in which the fungi are grown may
considerably modify their powers of resistance both to heat and to desiccation.

True sooty-mould fungi are able to withstand very considerable temperatures
in the dry condition but are killed quickly by exposure to moist heat. This has
also been found to be the case with certain wood-destroying fungi by Snell (1923),
and is known to be the case with lichens (see Smith, 1921).

It seems reasonable to assume that when growing on excretions of Ceroplastes
destructor most true sooty-mould fungi do not form staling substances in sufficient
quantities to retard each other’s growth noticeably. Since the sooty-mould fungi
do produce staling substances which retard the growth of Penicillium strongly, it
seems probable that a colony of sooty-moulds, once established, could prevent to
some extent the growth of Penicillium in it.

It also appears likely that some of the Capnodiaceae could not invade a sooty-
mould colony in which Dematium is well established, but many species, such as
Capnodium anonae, could do so without difficulty.

BY LILIAN FRASER. 55

Several species of sooty-moulds have been found to be mutually antagonistic
in culture, notably Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Microxyphium sp. 1, and these have
not been found associated in nature. Some species, therefore, which belong to the
same ecological class, may not occur together because of their mutually antagonistic
effect.

The relative paucity of the common saprophytic moulds, of which Penicillium
expansum has been taken as the type, appears to be due to a number of causes.
The chief of these is probably their inability to withstand high temperatures and
prolonged desiccation. Another cause may be that the composition of the food
material available is not specially suitable for their growth. Finally it appears
that the staling substances produced by the true sooty-mould fungi have a retarding
effect on their growth. This effect may be lessened during periods of wet weather,
since the staling substances would be likely to be washed out of the mould.
Actually it has been found that Penicillium spp., Alternaria spp., Fusarium spp.,
ete., are most abundant in sooty-mould colonies in wet weather, and while this is
probably largely due to the absence of strong evaporation, it may in part be due
to the absence of staling substances.

The limitation of most sooty-mould-forming species in nature to the excretions
of scale insects appears to be due to their extremely slow growth rate. Sooty-
moulds appear to be specially adapted to an epiphytic life on account of their
ability to withstand heat and dryness, and to grow slowly, making use of any
slight amount of water available for this purpose.

It has been found by Zeller and Schmitz (1919), Asthana and Hawker (1936),
Mix (1933), and others, that the growth substances produced by a fungus in
culture may have the effect of increasing the sporulation of other species as well
as retarding their growth. This effect has been observed in mixed cultures of
sooty-mould fungi, and may be one of the reasons why, in nature, sooty-mould
fungi are mostly found in a fruiting condition. Another factor which is probably
of importance in this connection is the ultra-violet radiation of sunlight. Ramsey
and Bailey (1930), Stevens (1928), and others, have found that ultra-violet
radiation increases sporulation in fungi.

SUMMARY.

In nature sooty-mould fungi grow very slowly, as they can grow only during
periods of damp weather. They store up an oil-like substance, which is drawn
upon when growth is made.

Associations of sooty-mould fungi characteristic of certain habitats are
described.

The powers of resistance to heat, cold and desiccation shown by a number of
species are recorded, and their bearing on the distribution of the fungi in nature
is discussed.

The influence of different types and different concentrations of culture media
on the powers of resistance to heat and desiccation of sooty-mould fungi grown in
culture is described.

Adonite, the chief constituent of the “honey dew” of Ceroplastes destructor,
is very suitable for the growth of most sooty-mould fungi. It is not specially
suitable for the growth of Penicillium. Unpurified adonite of scale-insect origin
is more suitable for the growth of sooty-mould fungi than purified adonite of
plant origin.

Most true sooty-mould fungi do not stale potato glucose agar to any great
extent for their own growth. Caldariomyces sp. 1 and Microxzyphium sp. 1 cause

56 DISTRIBUTION OF SOOTY-MOULD FUNGI.

the greatest amount of staling, Capnodium anonae the least. On unpurified adonite
agar, staling is even less marked than on potato glucose agar.

Substances are produced by sooty-mould fungi in both media which retard
the growth of Penicillium fairly strongly. Some species retard the growth of
Dematium also.

Literature Cited.

ARNAUD, G., 1911.—Contribution 4 1l’étude des Fumagines. 2. Ann. Ecole nationale
Agric. Montpellier, Sér. 2, Tome xx (iii-iv), pp. 211-330.

ASTHANA, R. P., and HAWKER, L. E., 1936.—The Influence of Certain Fungi on the
Sporulation of Melanospora destruens Shear, and of some other Ascomycetes. Ann.
Bot., 1 (exeviii), pp. 325-344.

Brown, W., 1923.—Experiments on the Growth of Fungi on Culture Media. Ann. Bot.,
XXXVii (cxlv), pp. 105-129.

Fraser, L., 1933.—An Investigation of the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales.
i. Historical and Introductory Account. Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., Iviii (5-6),
pp. 375-395.

,1934.—An Examination of the Sooty Moulds of New South Wales. ii. An
Examination of the Cultural Behaviour of Certain Sooty Mould Fungi. JIJbid., lix
(3-4), pp. 123-142.

GARRETT, S. D., 1934.—Factors Affecting the Pathogenicity of Cereal Foot-Rot Fungi.
Biol. Rev., 1x (3), pp. 351-361.

Maximov, N. A., 1929.—The Plant in Relation to Water. Translated by R. H. Yapp.
London.

Mix, A. J., 1933.—F actors affecting the Sporulation of Phyllosticta solitaria in Artificial
Culture. Phytopath., 23 (6), pp. 503-524.

Pratt, C. A., 1924a.—The Staling of Fungal Cultures. 1. General and Chemical
Investigation of Staling by Fusarium. Ann. Bot., xxxviii (cli), pp. 563-595.

, 1924b.—The Staling of Fungal Cultures. 2. The Alkaline Metabolic Products
and their Effect on the Growth of Fungal Spores. Jbid., xxxviii (clii), pp. 599-615.

Ramsey, G. B., and Battery, A. A., 1930.—Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation on Sporulation
in Macrosporium and Fusarium. Bot. Gazg., 89 (2), pp. 113-136.

SmitTH, A. L., 1921.—Lichens.

SNELL, W. H., 1923.—The Effect of Heat on the Mycelium of certain Structural Timber
Destroying Fungi. Amer. Journ. Botany, 10,. pp. 399-411.

STEVENS, F. L., 1928.—Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation on Various Fungi. Bot. Gaz.,
86 (2), pp. 210-225.

ZELLER, S., and ScHmitz, H., 1919.—Studies in the Physiology of Fungi. VIII. Mixed
Cultures. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gardens, vi, pp. 183-192.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

Fig. 1.—Leaves of Cryptocarya glaucescens showing colonies of Chaetothyrium
fusisporum (A) and C. roseosporum (B). x 0:56.

Fig. 2.—Colonies of Capnodium anonae (A) and Cladosporium (B) showing no
mutual antagonism. x 0°8.

Fig. 3.—Colonies of Caldariomyces sp. 1 (A) and Limacinia concinna (B) showing
slight mutual antagonism. x 0°8.

Fig. 4.—Colonies of Capnodium fuliginodes (A) and Caldariomyces sp. 1 (B) showing
fairly strong mutual antagonism. x 0:8.

Fig. 5.—Colonies of Caldariomyces sp. 1 (A) and Capnodium Walteri (B) showing
fairly strong mutual antagonism. x 0°8.

Fig. 6.—Colonies of Caldariomyces sp. 1 (A) and Capnodium salicinum var.
uniseptatum (B) showing strong mutual antagonism. x 0:8.

Fig. 7a.—A colony of Penicillium expansum (B) whose growth has been checked
by the growth of a colony of Limacinia concinna (A). xX 0°58.

Fig. 7b.—The same colonies two weeks later showing that the colony of Limacinia
concinna has continued to grow and that the colony of Penicillium expansum has remained
almost stationary. x 0:8.

Fig. 8.—Colonies of Triposporium sp. (A) and Capnodium fuliginodes (B) showing
no mutual antagonism on unpurified adonite agar. x 0-8. :

Fig. 9.—Colonies of Chaetothyrium cinereum (A) and Capnodium fuliginodes (B)
showing no mutual antagonism on unpurified adonite agar. x 0°8.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE It.

Colonies of Sooty-mould Fungi.

ON THE HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN GALLS.
By E. Ktsrer, Hon. F.R.M.S. (London), Professor of Botany, Giessen (Germany).
(Fourteen Text-figures. )

[Read 28th April, 1937.]

The galls of the Australian flora have been often subjected to detailed
investigations—from Schrader (1863) and Rubsaamen (1894) to numerous studies
of Froggatt.

The interest taken in the Australian galls is founded not only on the novelty
of the objects, which promise a great many details yet undiscovered, compared
with the relatively well investigated European and North American galls. In
addition to the descriptive studies and catalogues there are important points of
view of general biology: the botanist is interested in the Australian galls because
they are associated with host-plants different from those in the Huropean and
North American floras; the zoologist confirms that Coccidae are responsible for a
great part of the Australian galls, but these play an unimportant part in the
northern hemisphere.

The general cecidology has developed through the study of the galls of the
European flora. The Cynipid galls of Quercus have made known a great many
highly complicated morphological and histological differentiations which cannot be
attained by the productions of other gall-making insects in Europe or in North
America, and they overshadow the productions of other host-plants of the
Hymenoptera through their variety of structure. Therefore we have long been
accustomed to consider the Cynipid gall of Quercus as the chief object of the
general cecidology.

The questions which concern the botanist have hardly been considered in
connection with the Australian Eucalyptus galls. The botanical communications
are hardly more than descriptions of the exterior form of the galls. Consideration
of the cytological and histological structure of the galls is completely wanting,
although most important results can be expected from their investigation.

Some results which concern the anatomy of the Australian galls are described
lierewith, although I know very well that distance hinders me from detailed
investigation of living and ontogenetic material, and so I can only touch on many
important questions.

A great many of the galls which I have studied belong to Coccidae. These
productions are not inferior to the highly organized productions of Cynipidae,
either in exterior form or in histological structure. The histological structure
of the galls of Coccidae promises important and surprising results, and so I
should like to recommend its study very strongly to Australian cecidologists and
phytopathologists.

The following pages perhaps give a few suggestions for future detailed
investigations.

K

58 HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN GALLS,

EHpidermis.

In the “inclosed” galls, 1e., in those whose epidermis develops ontogenetically
directly from the epidermis of the mother organ, the epidermis is usually equal
or very similar to the normal tissue. Noteworthy is often the strong upward
growth of the cells, so that they take the form of narrow palisades; it sometimes
happens that palisades divide themselves by pericline walls and the epidermis
becomes locally a double or multiple layer; figure 1 shows part of a gall, in which
the cells of the epidermis are highly developed and grow as a cushion in the
fundamental tissue. Such features are not common in galls.

The cuticle of many foliar galls is much thicker than the normal one. On
concavely curved divisions of a coccid gall I noticed the formation of folds of
the surface: there are narrow ridges consisting either of folded epidermis matter
rising from the fundamental tissue (Fig. 2a) or simply of cuticle which here and
there frees itself from the epidermis cells and rises in folds; under the cuticle
one sees small remains of membrane, lower still the epidermis (Fig. 2b).

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“Cuticularepithel” (Damm) has been observed sometimes in the galls (Kiister).
Especially strong, many-layered and varying, I have found it in many Coccid
galls of the eucalypts; particularly near small wounds, but apparently also inde-
pendent of such, the upper layer of fundamental tissue is cutinized; the cells become
similar to the epidermis so that one seems to see two typical and strongly
cutinized epidermis layers; also the third and fourth tissue layer may be
cutinized (Fig. 3).

An unusual form of “cuticularepithel” I have found in those leaf galls in
which the growth of the fundamental tissue is impeded here and there—perhaps

BY E. KUSTER. 59

through a small trauma—and a deep notch in the cushion of the gall tissue.
In the surface of the gall tissue brought together one finds a cuticularepithel
in further development (Fig. 4).

Free galls, i.e., such as develop from the interior of the mother and whose
epidermis may be considered as a new formation, do not seem to be lacking in
the Coccid galls of eucalypts. It seems impossible to work on this important
question without ontogenetic material. I recommend this problem for detailed
studies.

In galls which I supposed to be free, I have repeatedly noticed luxurious cork
formation in the physiological trauma of the point of rupture.

In comparison with the Quercus galls and many other features of the Huropean
gall flora, I mention that the Eucalypt galls are smooth; only in one gall have I
observed uni- or pluricellular, simple or rarely T-shaped, branched albuminous
hairs, developed on the interior surface. I am unable to say whether they arise
from a typical epidermis or from a fundamental tissue-like matter whose surface
cells sometimes stretch themselves tube-like (Fig. 5).

Bundles.

In many Hucalyptus galls the bundles have the same loose net-like distribution
which is well known from the Pontania galls and many Cynipidae productions of
the Huropean flora. I have nothing remarkable to report on the structure of the
delicate bundles as I have found them in many Australian galls.

In several Coccid galls the development of highly differentiated and characteris-
tically distributed bundles is surprising.

As first example, I mention the bundles of the long processes of the well-
known gall of Brachyscelis munita. In the cross section (Fig. 6) there are about
40 bundles regularly distributed and parallel to one another; one finds large
bundles next to small ones, single ones next to small groups composed of 2-4
bundles. The distribution is somewhat similar to the structure of monocoty-
ledonous stems; however, the frequent very striking accumulation of the bundles
in the periphery is lacking.

The structure of the single bundles is characterized by the collateral distribu-
tion of xylem and phloem; it is difficult to determine whether small phloem
divisions exist, corresponding to the intra-xylary phloem of the Myrtaceae and
to the structure of the bicollateral bundles; the bundles are too small; one can,
however, definitely say that sometimes isolated groups of phloem-like cells are
to be found (Fig. 7) between the sclerenchyma.

The orientation of the phloem is not determined by that of the bundles in
the cross-section of the gall-organs; the phloem is not always orientated outwards.
But when several bundles unite in a small group, the phloem of the single bundle
is always orientated toward the periphery of the small group.

All bundles are enveloped by bast fibres (Fig. 6). These form a ring,
mostly uninterrupted round the bundles, and sometimes enclose also the above-
mentioned isolated phloem-like groups (Fig. 7). The bast-fibre shoot is generally
one cell-layer thick; more rarely one finds two or three layers.

When the bundles unite in groups in this way, so that they touch one another,
and when no fundamental tissue layers remain between them, the bundle tissues
are divided from the bast-fibre layers in 2, 3 or 4 compartments; sometimes the
division remains incomplete, in which case one sees a bast-fibre septum push itself
only as far as the centre of the bundle tissue,

60 HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN GALLS,

As second example, I take the bundles of a gall which is similar to (or
identical with) the gall of Brachyscelis conica. In the urn-shaped body of the
galls, several centimetres long, numerous bundles are to be seen. These are remark-
able because of their richness in secondary tissues; they form radially-structured
concentric or excentric masses, which enclose in the centre of growth a very
small, perhaps phloem-like, cell-group. The wood-cylinder consists especially of
cells arranged in regular radial rows, and is streaked by pith rays (Fig. 8). In
the largest bundles the longest radii are about 20 cells long; it is difficult to
demonstrate phloem beyond the xylem cylinder; in many cases the outside xylem
cells touch directly fundamental tissue cells, in others a thin layer of a phloem-
like tissue is to be seen. To describe the ontogeny of the bundles was impossible
with my material; especially I was not able to decide whether, in the phase
before me, the bundles had everywhere finished the production of secondary tissue
or not.

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The histological structure of these bundles is characterized in the first place
by the regular radial distribution of the elements. There are found the charac-
teristics well known in many other wound-wood and gall-wood features (in
wood = knots and “Kugeltrieben”:; Kiister, 1925). Sometimes a difference is seen
between thin-walled exterior and thick-walled interior cells between which an
annular ring-like boundary line is noticed, In many other cases, single broad

BY E. KUSTER. 61

or narrow sectors are differentiated from the greater part of the bundles by their
structure orientating their elements, not in the longitudinal axes of the bundles,
but perpendicular to them.

If the thickening of the bundles is anywhere impeded, contours of the wood-
body arise as they are known from the carcinoma features of the trees.

Every bundle which is capable of such strong growth may be considered a
small stele. This form of anomalous thickening is unknown to me in other galls.

Stone cells.

As with the galls of many Diptera and Hymenoptera, also many of the Coccid
galls are very rich in stone cells.

As in those, we find also in Coccid galls stone cells of various forms and wall
qualities—relatively thin and thick-walled, thickened on all or one side. Stone
cells of the second species are known to the European and American cecidologists,
particularly from very numerous oak galls (Weidel), also from Salix and other
galls (Kiister). An ontogenetic examination of the stone cells of the Hucalypt
galls from Weidel’s point of view is greatly to be desired. I was not able to
determine from the material before me whether all galls provided with stone cells
thickened on one side are produced by Coccids; perhaps some of them were
produced by Cynipids; in any case, it is certain that stone cells thickened on one
side occur also in Coccid galls.

/ CY /

62 HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN GALLS,

I repeatedly noticed in Hucalypt galls stone cells, which were spherical or
palisade-like, formed and at some points were provided with long thread-like
processes (Fig. 9). It has been long known from normal and pathological anatomy
that stone cells push between neighbouring cells with pointed thorn-like forms;
the Australian specimens here in question were noticeable to me as the processes
developed in the direction perpendicular to the surface of the gall-bearing organ
and towards the strongest normal tissue growth.

Very striking is the circumstance in many Eucalypt galls, that in transverse
and longitudinal section the stone cells form round-contoured or spindle-like groups
(Fig. 10); there is no doubt that the cells united in a group are descendants
of one mother-cell.

The distribution of the stone cells in the tissues of the Coccid galls follows
the principle well known from many other anatomically carefully investigated
galls: either the stone cells are singly placed or united in small groups in the
thin-walled fundamental tissue or they form continuous zones (‘‘mechanische
Mantel’) in the later phases of the cecidogenesis. One often sees thin-walled
fundamental tissue become somewhat thick walled and equally lignified.

Figure 11 shows some Coccid galls and their mechanical zones. From the
ontogenetic point of view, especially interesting are the galls in which the larva-
cavities are surrounded by abundant thin-walled tissue and the exterior layers
are formed of parenchyma filled with oil receptacles. The stone-cell zones develop
at the junction between the exterior and interior parenchyma; noteworthy features
result, if an exaggerated growth of the exterior parenchyma compels the contour
of the mechanical zone to rupture or “Verwerfung” (Fig. 11a).

In some galls oil receptacles are found only beyond the thick-walled zones
and are very closely accumulated; the mechanical tissue layers push themselves
here and there between neighbouring oil receptacles and can enclose these
imperfectly (Fig. 12).

Oil Receptacles.

To the most important anatomical characters of Hucalyptus belong the oil
receptacles. They play a large part in the galls of Huwcalyptus. I have earlier
(Kuster, 1900) demonstrated that the Eucalypt galis are differentiated greatly
through the richness of their oil receptacles: I found galls containing only a few
receptacles or completely lacking in them—to the latter belong several foliar galls
of Eucalyptus which remind one, through the production of ‘‘emergences”, of the
“Erineum populinum” among others, and which may be considered through their
morphological characters—merely as conjecture—as mite galls.

The size of the oil receptacles in galls often exceeds the normal. I saw, in
some Coccid galls, receptacles of which the diameter was 380u; in oval receptacles
the longest diameter was even 540u. On the other hand, one also meets extra-
ordinary small receptacles in Eucalypt galls, and in some others large and small
ones irregularly mixed. An ontogenetic examination, particularly of the small
receptacles, would certainly be of great interest and promises various noteworthy
additions to Fohn’s results.

The position of the oil receptacles varies. I have found galls in which all
layers show receptacles, so that they lay, in some parts, in 6-8 layers. I found
others in which the receptacles are to be seen directly beneath the epidermis and
sometimes push it out hemispherically. Sometimes the receptacles lay so compactly
that only narrow tissue remains lay between them,

BY EL. KUSTER. 63.

The histology of the oil receptacles of Hucalyptus galls shows various notable
features. Their form is sometimes determined by the growth in the neighbour-
hood; between exceptionally elongated cells the receptacles assume a form in the
same direction extended, sometimes like a bottle-neck. The cells of the epithelium
are often very large and arched; they fill the lumina of the receptacles with ball-
or tube-like forms. It would be very important to examine the physiology of
those receptacles whose epithelium has become thick walled. I have never noticed
sclerosis, pits, lignification in the cells of the epithelium; in one of the galls
which I examined, the tissue surrounding the receptacles so perfectly devolved
on sclerosis that the receptacles were almost completely enclosed by thick-walled
lignified tissue (Fig. 12); however, the cells directly enveloping the lumina of
the receptacles (epithelium) take no part in the sclerosis.

The great abundance of receptacles in many galls suggests the importance of
a comparative chemical examination of the oil which is produced in the galls and
in the normal leaves of Hucalyptus (cf. Salgues, 1936).

Secondary tissues.

Voluminous masses of secondary tissues develop through the gall infection
out of the normal cambium ring of the stems. The abnormal wood forms thick
layers, the structure of which equals that of other gall-wood features and is
characterized especially by the shortness of its elements. Figure 13 shows a
longitudinal section of the secondary gall wood. A great part of the wood consists
of thick-walled parenchyma, between which run short fibre-like elements—some-
times straight, sometimes curved, rarely fork-like branched.

Also secondary phloem is formed abundantly through some gall infections;
sometimes I was struck by the very clear stratification; I counted 14 layers of
stone cells which alternated with thin-walled phloem.

Cork patches and spherical cork nests occur in the galls, as in the normal
Eucalyptus organs, after local necrosis and local trauma.

Necrosis; cytolysis.

Dry necrosis is in some galls the result of interior suberization, through which
the outward layers of gall tissues die off. Occasionally the symptoms of the dry
necrosis become especially interesting through position and form and through the
histological metamorphosis of the dying tissue divisions and the neighbouring
layers. Figure 14 shows in the vertex of the gall a stopper-like necrotic part
whose cells are very thick walled; the directly adjacent layer consists of long
palisade-like cells.

Lignification of tissues is by no means rare in galls (Lysenchyma—Weidel,
Kiister). In the galls of Hucalyptus one meets symptoms of lignification or
cytolysis very often. The cytolysis does not characterize fixed phases of the gall
evolution or fixed tissues; rather, one often sees small groups of primary and of
secondary gall tissues dead and lignified—similar to the case of the gummosis.
Detailed examination of the phenomena seems very desirable.

I am indebted to Miss Fawcett, of Melbourne, for the opportunity to examine a
great number of Australian Eucalyptus galls. I offer her my best thanks for her
kind assistance; she has sent me countless well preserved samples.

The above comments give a report on my investigation of the material
provided by Miss Fawcett. I publish them in the hope of giving my Australian
colleagues suggestions for more careful investigation of the galls of Australia
which have hardly been considered botanically.

64 ILISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME AUSTRALIAN GALLS.

Literature.

FouHN, N., 1935.—Zur HEntstehung und Weiterbildung der Exkretraume von Citrus
medica L. und Hucalyptus globulus Kab. Osterr. Botan. Zeits., Bd. 84, p. 198.
Froceatr, W. W., 1916.—A descriptive catalogue of the scale insects (‘‘Coccidae’’) of
Australia. Agric. Gaz. N. S. Wales, vol. 27, p. 425.
Houarp, C., 1922.—Les Zoocécidies des plantes d’Afrique, d’Asie et d’Océanie. Vol. 2.
Paris.
Kuster, E., 1900.—Beitrage zur Anatomie der Gallen. Flora, Bd. 87, p. 118.
—, 1911.—Die Gallen der Pflanzen. Leipzig.
, 1925.—Pathologische Pflanzenanatomie. 3rd edit. Jena.
, 1930.—Anatomie der Gallen. Linsbauer’s Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie.
Lief. 26, Berlin.
, 1935.—Die Pflanzenzelle. Jena.
RUBSAAMEN, Ew. H., 1894.—Uber Australische Zoocecidien und deren Erzeuger. Berl.
Entom. Zeits., Bd. 39, p. 199.
SALGUES, R., 1936.—Sur Vlhuile essentielle des hampes florales d’origine parasitaire.
C.R. Soc. Biol. Paris, vol. 121, p. 1074.
SCHRADER, H. L., 1863.—Uber gallenbildenden Insekten in Australien. Verh. Zool.-Bot.
Gesellsch. Wien, Bd. 13, p. 189.
WEIDEL, F., 1911.—Beitrage zur entwicklungsgeschichtlichen und vergleichenden Anatomie
der Zynipidengallen der Hiche. Flora, Bd. 102, p. 279.

65

FINAL ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU.

By EH. C. CHISHOLM, M.B., Ch.M.
[Read 28th April, 1937.

In These ProceEpines (1925, p. 284, 1927, p. 378, and 1934, p. 143) the writer
has previously recorded the Flora found on the Comboyne Plateau with notes on
the species. This final paper is a continuation of his observations, bringing the
record up to the middle of 1935.

CRYPTOGAMAE VASCULARES.
FILICALES.
HY MENOPHYLLACEAE.

Hymenophyllum australe Willd.—A small fern found growing on rocks in close
proximity to water and often in association with moss. The stems and branches
are flanged. It does not appear to be very plentiful.

Hymenophyllum tunbridgense (L.) Smith.—Found growing on rocks near
running water; distinguished by the stems and branches being cylindrical without
flanges. It grows generally in association with moss.

POLYPODIACEAE.

Dryopteris queenslandica Domin. (= Batleyi Maid. and Betche).—An
inhabitant of the floor of the brushes. It closely resembles D. decomposita and
D. acuminata, though the pinnules are broader. It has a creeping rhizome, but
no indusium, which distinguishes it from the other two species.

Diplazium japonicum (Thunb.) Bedd—A small fern usually found near
running water. A fertile frond is very characteristic. The sori are arranged in
diagonal lines; a row on each side of the midrib of the pinnule, and whitish
in colour.

Cheilanthes tenuifoia Sw.—Not common. Found in dry situations on moun-
tain slopes growing on rocks, occasionally in the company of Notholaena distans.

Adiantum diaphanum Bl—A maiden hair not often seen. It seems to prefer
the vicinity of water, and is found growing in association with other ferns.

Pteris umbrosa R.Br.—A tall fern and found in only one or two places, growing
on hillsides in the brushes.

Asplenium flaccidum Forst.—A rare form growing in damp situations.

ANGIOSPERMAE.
MoNOCOTYLEDONEAE.
CYPERACEAE.

Lepidosperma laterale R.Br.—One of the larger sedges, not very common, and
found in cleared land in hilly situations.

Carex appressa R.Br.—Grows mostly about low-lying land and often along the
course of creeks. Fairly common in these localities.

Carex longifolia R.Br.—This species seems to prefer cleared land on higher
elevations, where it is plentiful.

I

66 FLORA OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU,

COMMELINACEAE.
Aneitlema acuminatum R.Br—An inhabitant of the brushes, noticed particu-
larly in the Government Forest Reserve near the Rawson Falls. It does not
appear to be plentiful.

DIOSCOREACEAE.

Dioscorea transversa R.Br.—A climber growing at the borders of the brushes
on a mixed formation. It has shield-shaped leaves and hop-like fruit.

ORCHIDACEAE.

Liparis reflera Lindl—A yellow orchid resembling a Dendrobium, growing
on rocks in the vicinity of water. Found in association with Dendrobium
Kingianum.

Caladenia carnea R.Br.—A very uncommon orchid found on sandstone forma-
tion and only seen on the eastern side of the Plateau.

DICOTYLEDONEAE.
PIPERACEAE.
Piper hederaceum A. Cunn.—A climber festooning high trees. It has a large
palmate, fleshy leaf and is often met with in the brushes.

URTICACEAE.

Elatostemma reticulata Wedd—A low-growing plant with a large fleshy
reticulate leaf growing on rocky formations in damp situations in the close
vicinity of running water.

EHlatostemma stipitata Wedd.—This has a smaller leaf growing in the same
situations as the previous species and often in association with it.

LORANTHACEAE.

Viscum articulatum Burm.—aA mistletoe not often seen. Found on top of a
range growing on Cryptocarya Meissneri.

MENISPERMACEAE.

Sarcopetalum Harveyanum F.v.M.—Found growing in brush at the edge of
clearings. It is of low growth, climbing over shrubby plants.

Stephania hernandifolia Walp.—This is also a climber; on superficial inspec-
tion it is very like the previous species and is found in the same kind of situations.
The distinguishing feature is the peltately arranged stalk in this species, while in
S. Harveyanum the stalk joins the leaf at the hilus close to the edge.

LAURACEAE.

Endiandra Sieberi Nees—This tree is rather uncommon, and instead of being
widely branching, as it is on the sandstone of the coast, and moderately small,
it makes its growth upwards, becoming a tall tree in the brushes with small
canopy. It has a very cork-like bark, and the pale timber is of good quality.

SAXIFRAGACEAE.

Abrophyllum ornans Hook.—A small tree with a leaf like a Hydrangea. It
seems to prefer the vicinity of water. Not often seen.

LeGUMINOSAR.

Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. Black Bean.—The writer has had an
authentic account of this tree growing on both banks at the head of Thone Creek

BY E. C. CHISHOLM. 67

as late as nine years ago, when it was felled and burnt. Although it grew here
in clumps, it seems to have been restricted to the one locality, as nowhere else
on the Comboyne has it been known to occur. This is a very handsome tree
yielding very valuable timber.

Hovea acutifolia A. Cunn.—A plant growing to 3 or 4 feet high and liking
the neighbourhood of creeks. Found growing in a brush having leaves resembling
Lasiopetalum in some of its species.

HUPHORBIACEAE.

Phyllanthus gasstroemii J. Muell.—Not often seen; the flower and fruit hang
under the leaves, the fruit resembling a miniature tomato.

VITACEAE.

Vitis clematidea F.v.M—This is not a common grape and is only found
occasionally. It does not appear to attain large dimensions as do some of its
congeners. Found mostly climbing over shrubs or small trees.

Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnepain.—This is a very rare form here, and
was only found once. It festoons medium-sized trees and is a very graceful vine.
The leaves are large and shining. It flowers and fruits at the same time, in March,
April and May, though in May the flowering is finished. The crushed leaf has a
nasty smell. It keeps and carries badly if not preserved in some way. In a few
days, as it dries, it disintegrates, the leaves, flowers, and fruits all falling off the
branches, and the small twigs, too.

Cayratia sp.—This appears to have a very restricted range, being found plenti-
fully in the Rawson Forest Reserve on the west of the Plateau, but seen rarely
elsewhere. It seems to be fairly closely related to C. japonica, though quite distinct
specifically. It is a scabrous form, the stems, pedicels and main veins of the leaves,
especially on the underside, being very hairy. It is of large growth, climbing
to the tops of tall brush trees, the stem attaining at the base a diameter of about
3 inches. This is apparently a new species which, up to date, has not been
identified with any known form.

EILAEOCARPACEAE.

Sloanea austroqueenslandica Domin.—Under the heading S. Woollsii, n. var.
(These PrRocEEDINGS, 1934, p. 150), the writer mentions this tree as probably a new
variety, having a much larger area of dark wood than S. Woollsii. The bark of
this species is also very much thicker and rougher, attaining a thickness of an
inch at the height of a few feet from the ground in a tree of a diameter of 2 feet,
whereas in S. Woollsii at the same distance from the ground in the same diameter
of timber it is only about one-quarter of an inch. There is very little difference
in either the fruits or leaves between the two species. If anything, the fruits of
S. austroqueenslandica are slightly larger. This species remains longer while lying
on the ground before it disintegrates, due to the small amount of white sap-wood.

PASSIFLORACEAE.

Passiflora aurantia G. Forst.—This is an exceedingly rare form here and only
found in one locality amongst the secondary growth some years after the original
brush had been cleared.

MYRTACEAE.

Rhodomyrtus psidioides Benth.—A brush tree, liking the vicinity of water,
being found along the courses of creeks. Not very plentiful,

68 FLORA OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU,

Eucalyptus campanulata Baker and Smith.—This Hucalypt was mentioned
under the name of #. Andrewsi Maiden in the author’s first paper (PROCEEDINGS,
1925, p. 291). Later investigation has shown that this species has, among other
characters, the fruit more pyriform or bell-shaped than is the case with
HE. Andrewsi, whose fruit is more hemispherical. It differs also in bark.

Eucalyptus triantha Link.*—According to the latest nomenclature, this name is
synonymous with H#. acmenioides Schau., which name it replaces. It is already
dealt with under the latter name.

Eucalyptus wuwmbellata (Gaertn) Domin.*—This name likewise replaces
HH. tereticornis Sm. for the same reason, and likewise dealt with before.

Eucalyptus gummifera Gaertn.*—Replaces H. corymbosa Sm. under similar
conditions.

Kunzea corifolia Reichb.—When the last paper was written the species of this
form was undetermined, as it differed in some respects slightly from K. corifolia,
but the difference was not enough to propose a variety for it. (See These
PROCEEDINGS, 1934, pp. 151 and 155.)

ARALIACEAR.

Tieghemopanax elegans R. Viguier.—This is a rare species on the Plateau,
and has only been seen twice. It is an inhabitant of the brush forests.

Aralia cephalobotrys F.v.M.—A creeping form found on the floor of the brushes,
especially in the neighbourhood of running water. Not very often seen.

UMBELLIFERAE.

Hydrocotyle hirta R.Br.—A low-creeping species, liking damp situations and
fairly plentiful. The leaf is large, hairy, and divided into lobes somewhat
resembling the leaf of Geranium dissectum, though the divisions are not so fine.

Hydrocotyle geraniifolia F.v.M.—Found in the same situations and having the
same running habit as the preceding species. The leaf is divided into five distinct
narrow leaflets, each of which is deeply dissected. It does not appear to be
common.

EIPACRIDACEAE.

Styphelia lanceolata Sm. (Leucopogon lanceolatus R.Br.).—Very rarely seen
and only found by the writer on the eastern side of the Plateau. It is one of the
“whitebeards”.

MYRSINACEAR.

Rapanea Howittiana Mez.—A fairly common inhabitant of the brushes. It
appears to be a tree attaining no great height. It has a shiny stiff leaf of a light
green colour, the edge being entire. The small flowers encircle the medium-
sized twigs.

Embelia australasica Mez.—A climbing plant found in the brushes, with a
stiff, shiny Eugenia-like leaf. Fairly plentiful.

EBENACEAE.
Diospyros pentamera F.v.M.—A tall tree with very dark, almost black, bark
growing in the brushes but not common. Has small leaves, shaped like

Cryptocarya Meissneri, the underside of which is yellow. It has a slender trunk
for the height of the tree.

*“A Key to the Eucalypts’, W, F. Blakely, 1934,

BY E. C. CHISHOLM. 69

OLEACEAE.

Olea paniculata R.Br.—This tree grows in the brushes and appears to be
uncommon and to attain to a fair height. It possesses a rather large leaf with
lighter underside showing very reticulate veins, the upper surface being dark
green and shiny. The stems are covered with small rounded whitish pustules.

APOCYNACEAE.

Parsonsia ventricosa F.v.M—A small climber with elongated shield-shaped
leaves with entire edges, the stalks exuding a milky juice when broken. Not very
plentiful.

ASCLEPIADACEAE.

Tylophora paniculata R.Br—A small climbing form, fairly plentiful. The leaf,
which is entire, is sometimes deep purple underneath.

SOLANACEAE.

Physalis minima L.—Both this species and Ph. peruviana share the name of
“Cape Gooseberry’, which is incorrect, as the former is a native and the latter
was introduced from South America. This is a very common species found
growing all over the Comboyne after the original brush had been cleared. It has a
pretty yellow flower with a purple centre. It is edible and much used for jam
making.

SCROPHULARIACEAE.

Veronica calycina R.Br.—This is a very small plant running on the ground
with a blue-bell flower and very dissected leaf. Not often seen.

GESNERACEAE.

Fieldia australis A. Cunn.—A climbing and running growth inhabiting certain
brushes, and especially to be noticed in the Government Reserve near Rawson
Falls. The leaf is freely dissected and hairy; the undersurface has a white flannel-
like appearance. It is found growing over the rocks and bases of the brush trees.

COMPOSITAE.

Siegesbeckia orientalis L.—A plant growing very thickly in cultivated areas
and a pest to the farmer. It grows to a height usually of 3 or 4 feet. The
involucral bracts exude a sticky secretion, so that it adheres to clothing.

Senecio amygdalifolius F.v.M.—This is to be found growing in profusion in
certain parts of the Plateau which have been partially cleared and often found
in association with S. dryadeus. It has a larger yellow flower than the latter form,
with a dentate leaf.

My thanks are due to Mr. W. F. Blakely, Miss Lilian Fraser, and Miss Alma
Melvaine, for determination of plants, the last especially for that of the Ferns.

REVISED LIST OF THE PLANTS OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU, 1935.
PTERIDOPHYTA-FILICALES.

Osmundaceae: Todea barbara (l.) Moore.

Gleicheniaceae: Gleichenia circinata Sw.; G. flabellata R.Br.

Hymenophyllaceae: Trichomanes venosum R.Br.; Hymenophyllum australe Willd. ;
H. tunbridgense (.) Smith. :

Dicksoniaceae: Culcita dubia (R.Br.) Maxon.; Dicksonia antarctica Labill.; Hypolepis
punctata (Thunb.) Mett.; H. rugulosa (Lab.) J. Sm.

Cyatheaceae: Alsophila australis R.Br.; A. Leichhardtiana F.v.M.

70 FLORA OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU,

Polypodiaceae: Davallia pyxidata Cay.; Arthropteris Beckleri Mett.; A. obliterata
(R.Br.) J. Sm.; A. tenella (Forst.) J. Sm.; Pteridiwm aquilinum (1.) Kuhn. ;
Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J. Sm.; Pteris umbrosa R.Br.; P. tremula R.Br.:
Adiantum aethiopicum L.; A. formosum R.Br.; A. diaphanum Bl.; A. hispidulum
Sw.; A. affine Willd.; Pellaea falcata R.Br.; P. paradoxa (R.Br.) Hk.; Cheilanthes
tenuifolia (Burm.) Sw.; Notholaena distans R.Br.; Dryopteris decomposita (R.Br.)
O. Kuntz; D. acuminata (Lowe) Watts; D. queenslandica Domin; D. parasitica
(L.) O. Kuntz; Athyrium uwmbrosum (Ait.) Presl; A. wmbrosum var. semidivisum
EK. C. Chisholm; Diplazium japonicum (Thunb.) Beddome; Aspleniwm nidus L.;
A. flabellifolium Cav.; A. adiantoides (.) C. Chr.; A. flaccidum Forst.; Blechnwm
cartilagineum Sw.; B. serrulatum Rich.; B. Patersoni (R.Br.) Mett.; B. discolor
(Forst.) Keyserling; B. capense (l.) Schlecht.; Doodia aspera R.Br.; Pleopeltis
Brownii Wickstr.; P. diversifolia (Willd.) (Polypodium diversifolium Willd.) ;
Cyclophorus serpens (Forst.) C. Chr.; C. conflwens (R.Br.) C. Chr.; Platycerium
bifurcatum (Cav.) C. Chr. (P. alcicorne Desv.); P. grande (A. Cunn.) J. Sm.;
Polypodium Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. (P. australe Mett.).

PHANEROGAMAE-GYMNOSPERMAE.
CYCADALES.
Cycadaceae: Macrozamia Perowskiana Miq.

CONIFERAE.
Taxaceae: Podocarpus elata R.Br.
Pinaceae: Callitris Macleayana F.v.M.

ANGIOSPERMAE-MONOCOTYLEDONEAE.

Typhaceae: Typha angustifolia Linn.

Potamogetonaceae: Potamogeton tricarinatus F.v.M.

Cyperaceae: Lepidosperma concavum R.Br.; L. laterale R.Br.; Gahnia aspera Spreng. ;
G. psittacorum Labill.; Carex brunnea Thunb., C. appressa R.Br.; C. longifolia R.Br.

Palmae: Linospadix monostachyus Wendl. & Drude; Archontophoenix Cunninghamiana
Wendl. & Drude.

Araceae: Typhonium Brownii Schott.; Colocasia macrorrhiza Schott.; Gymnostachys
anceps R.Br.; Pothos longipes Schott.

Flagellariaceae: Flagellaria indica I.

Commelinaceae: Commelina cyanea R.Br.; Aneilema acuminata R.Br.

Philydraceae: Philydrum lanuginosum Banks.

Liliaceae: Kreyssigia multiflora Reichb.; Stypandra glauca R.Br.; Dianella coerulea
Sims; Xerotes longifolia R.Br.; Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers.; Cordyline stricta
Endl.; Dirymophila Moorei Baker; Geitonoplesium cymosum A. Cunn.; Hustrephus
latifolius R.Br.; Rhipogonum album R.Br.; Smilax glycyphylla Sm.; S. australis
R.Br.

Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea transversa R.Br.

Tridaceae: Libertia paniculata Spreng.

Orchidaceae: Liparis reflexa Lindl.; Dendrobium speciosum Smith; D. Kingianum Bidw. ;
D. gracilicaule F.v.M.; D. pugioniforme A. Cunn.; D. teretifolium R.Br.; Bolbo-
phyllum Shepherdi ¥.v.M.; Dipodium punctatum R.Br.; Spiranthes australis Lind ;
Diuris maculata Sm.; Microtis porrifolia R.Br.; Caladenia carnea R.Br.

i

DICOTYLEDONEAE.

Casuarineae: Casuarina suberosa Ott. & Dietr.; C. torulosa Ait.

Piperaceae: Piper hederacewm A. Cunn.

Fagaceae: Fagus Moorei F.v.M.

Ulmaceae: Trema aspera Blume (T. cannabina Lour.).

Moraceae: Cudrania javanensis Tréc.; Ficus Henneana Miq.; F. eugenioides F.v.M.;
Ficus rubiginosa Desf.; F. macrophylla Desf.; F. stephanocarpa Warb.

Urticaceae: Urtica incisa Poir.; Laportea gigas Wedd.; Elatostemma reticulata Wedd. ;
EB. stipitata Wedd.; Australina pusilla Gaud.

Proteaceae: Persoonia media R.Br.; P. linearis Andr.; P. sp.; P. mollis R.Br. var.?;
Helicia glabriflora F.v.M.; Orites excelsa R.Br.; Hakea saligna R.Br.; Lomatia
Fraseri R.Br.; Stenocarpus salignus R.Br.; Banksia spinulosa Sm,

Santalaceae: EBazocarpus cupressiformis La)ill.

Loranthaceae: Phrygilanthus celastroides Hichl. (Loranthus celastroides Sieb.) ; Visewm
articulatum Burm.; Loranthus dictyophlebus F.v.M.; lL. pendulus Sieb.

Polygonaceae: Polygonum hydropiper L.

Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium triangulare R.Br.

Phytolaccaceae: Codonocarpus attenuatus Hook,

BY E. GC. CHISILOLM. Fal

Ranunculaceae: Clematis aristata R.Br.; C. glycinoides DC.; Ranunculus lappaceus Sm. ;
R. rivularis Banks & Solander.

Menispermaceae: Legnephora Moorei Miers.; Sarcopetalum Harveyanun F.v.M.;
Stephania hernandifolia Walp.

Magnoliaceae: Drimys dipetala F.v.M.

Anonaceae: Hupomatia lauwrina R.Br.

Monimiaceae: Piptocalyx Moorei Oliv.; Wilkiea macrophylla A. DC.; Palneria scandens
BR.v.M.; Daphnandra micrantha Benth.; D. tenuipes Perk.; Doryphora sassafras
Endl.

Lauraceae: Cinnamomum Oliveri Bailey; C. virens R. T. Baker; Litsea dealbata Nees;
L. vreticulata Benth.; Cryptocarya patentinervis F.v.M.; CC. obovata R.Br.;
C. glaucescens R.Br.; C. erythroxylon Maiden & Betche; C. Meissneri F.v.M.;
Endiandra (virens F.v.M.?); E. Muellevi Meissn.; EH. Sieberi Nees; Cassytha
melantha R.Br.

Capparidaceae: Capparis nobilis F.v.M.

Saxifragaceae: Abrophyllum ornans Hook.; Cuttsia viburnea F.v.M.; Quwintinia Sieberi
A. DC.; Q. Verdonti F.v.M.; Polyosma Cunninghamii J. J. Benn.; Anopterus
Macleayanus F.v.M.

Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum wundulatum Andr.; P. revolutwn Ait.; Hymenosporwm
flavum F.v.M.; Bursaria spinosa Cav. var. incana Benth.; Billardiera scandens
Sm.; Citriobatus multiflorus A. Cunn.

Cunoniaceae: Aphanopetalum resinosum Endl.; Geissois Benthami F.v.M.; Ackama
Muelleri Benth.; Schizomeria ovata D. Don; Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don;
Weinmannia rubifolia Benth.; Callicoma serratifolia Andr.

Rosaceae: Rubus moluccanus L.; R. parvifolius L.; R. rosaefolius Sm.; R. Moorei
F.v.M.; Acaena ovina A. Cunn.

Leguminosae: Acacia juniperina Willd.; A. melanoxvylon R.Br.; A. binervata DC.;
A. floribunda Sieb.; A. Cwininghamiit Hook. var. longispicata Benth.; A. intertexta
Sieb.; A. mollissima Willd.; Cassia Sophera lL.; Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. ;
Oxvylobium trilobatum Benth.; Jacksonia scoparia R.Br.; Daviesia corymbosa Sm.
var. arborea Maiden; Gastrolobium Boormani Maiden & Betche; Hovea acutifolia
A. Cunn.; Goodia lotifolia Salisb.; Indigofera australis Willd.; Swainsona coronilli-
folia Salisb.; Glycine clandestina Wendl.; Kennedya rubicunda Vent.; Harden-
bergia monophylla Vent.

Geraniaceae: Geranium dissectum L.; Pelargonium inodorum Willd.

Oxalidaceae: Owxalis corniculata L.

Rutaceae: Bosistoa euodiformis F.v.M.; Pleiococca Wileowiana F.v.M.; Geijera salici-
folia Schott.; Hvodia micrococca F.v.M.; Zieria Smithii Andr.; Phebalium elatius
Benth.; Acronychia laevis R. & G. Forst.; A. Baweri Schott.

Meliaceae: Cedrela australis F.v.M.; Melia Azedarach L.; Dysoxylum Fraseranuwm
Benth.; D. rufwm Benth.; Synoum glandulosum <A. Juss.

Tremandraceae: Tetratheca thymifolia Sm.

Polygalaceae: Comesperma ericinum DC.

Kuphorbiaceae: Phyllanthus gastroemi J. Muell.; Breynia oblongifolia J. Muell.; Croton
Verreauasti Baill.; Claoxvylon australe Baill.; Baloghia lucida Endl.; Homalanthus
populifolius Grah.

Celastraceae: Celastrus australis Hary. & F.y.M.; Denhamia pittosporoides F.v.M.;
Elaeodendron australe Vent.

Icacinaceae: Pennantia Cunninghamii Miers; Chariessa Moorei Engler.

Sapindaceae: Gwioa semiglauca Radlk.; Diploglottis Cunninghamii Hook.; Sarcopteryx
stipitata Radlk.; Nepheliuwm leiocarpum F.v.M.; Dodonaea triquetra Wendl.

Akaniaceae: Akania Hillii Hook.

Rhamnaceae: Emmenospermum alphitonioides F.v.M.; Alphitonia excelsa Reiss.

Vitaceae: Vitis Baudiniana F.v.M. (V. antarctica Benth.); V. hypoglauca FT .v.M.;
V. clematidea F.v.M.; Cayratia Japonica (Thunb.) Gagnepain; C. sp. n.

Klaeocarpaceae: EHlaeocarpus vreticulatus Sm.; Sloanea australis F.v.M.; S. Woollsii
F.v.M.; S. Austroqueenslandica Domin.

Malvaceae: Sida rhombifolia L.; Hibiscus heterophyllus Vent.

Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton acerifolius F.v.M.; B. populneus R.Br.; Tarretia actino-
phylla Bailey; Commerconia Fraseri J. Gay.

Dilleniaceae: Hibbertia volubilis Andr.; H. dentata R.Br.

Violaceae: Viola betonicifolia Sm.; V. hederacea Labill.

Flacourtiaceae: Streptothamnus Beckleri F.v.M.

Passifloraceae: Passiflora alba Link. & Otto; P. aurantii G. Forst.

72 FLORA OF THE COMBOYNE PLATEAU.

Thymeleaceae: Pimelia ligustrina Labill.

Myrtaceae: Rhodamnia trinervia Blume; Myrlus Beckleri E.v.M.; Rhodomyrlus psidioides
Benth. ; Hugenia Smithii Poir.; H. corynantha F.v.M.; #H. australis Wendl. (EH. myrti-
folia Sims); EH. cyanocarpa F.v.M.; EH. coolminiana C. Moore; Syncarpia laurifolia
Ten.; Backhousea myrtifolia Hook. & Hary.; Tristania conferta R.Br.; T. lauwrina
R.Br.; Eucalyptus campanulata Baker & Smith; H. pilularis Sm.; FH. triantha Wink.
(EF. acmenioides Schau.) ; H. altior Maid. & Cambage (EF. oreades Baker) ; EF. micro-
corys F.v.M.; #. paniculata Sm.; BH. quadrangulata Deane & Maiden; E. saligna Sm. ;
EH. grandis Maiden; EH. propinqua Deane & Maiden; #. punctata DC.; EH. Shiressii
Maid. & Blakely; #. canaliculata Maiden; H. wnbellata (Gaertn.) Domin. (EH. tereti-
cornis Sm.); #H. amplifolia Naudin; EH. gummifera Gaertn. (H#. corymbosa Sm.) ;
Leptospermum flavescens Sm.; L. flavescens Sm. var. grandiflorwm Benth.; Kunzea
corifolia Reichb.; Callistemon lanceolatus DC. var.; Melaleuca lewcadendron L.; M.
styphelioides Sm.

Oenotheraceae: Epilobiwm glabellum G. Forst.; H. glabellum G. Forst. var. Billardieri-
anwn F.v.M.

Halorrhagaceae: Halorrvhagis (tetragyna (Labill.) Hook.).

Araliaceae: Tieghemopanax Murrayi R. Viguier; T. sambucifolius R. Viguier; T. clegais
R. Viguier; Aralia cephalobotrys F.v.M.

Umbelliferae: Hydrocotyle tripartita R.Br.; H. asiatica L.; H. hirta R.Br.; H. geranii-
folia F.v.M.

Cornaceae: Marlea vitiensis Benth.

Epacridaceae: Styphelia lanceolata Sm.; S. jwiniperina Spreng. (Leucopogon jwriperinius
R.Br.) ; Monotoca sp.?; Trochocarpa laurina R.Br.

Myrsinaceae: Rapanea howittiana Mez.; R. variabilis Mez.; Embelia australasica Mez.

Sapotaceae: Sideroxylon australe Benth. & Hook.

Ebenaceae: Diospyros cargilliia F.v.M.; D. pentamera F.v.M.

Oleaceae: Olea paniculata R.Br.; Notelaea venosa F.v.M.

Gentianaceae: Erythraea australis R.Br.

Apocynaceae: Chilocarpus australis F.v.M.; Alyxia ruscifolia R.Br.; Parsonsia veintricosa
F.v.M.; Lyonsia straminea R.Br.; L. largiflorens F.v.M.

Asclepiadaceae: Tylophora paniculata R.Br.; Marsdenia rostrata R.Br.

Borraginaceae: EHhretia acuminata R.Br.

Verbenaceae: Clerodendron tomentosum R.Br.; Gmelina Leichhardtii F.v.M.

Labiatae: Plectranthus parviflorus Henck.; Mentha saturejoides R.Br.; Brunella vulgaris
DC.: Prostanthera ovalifolia R.Br. var. latifolia Benth.; Ajuga australis R.Br.
Solanaceae: Solanum nigrum L.; S. opacum A. Br.; S. aviculare G. Forst.; S. sinvile
F.v.M.; S. verbascifolium L. var. auriculatum Ait.; S. psewdo-capsicum Ll. (Introd.) ;
S. stelligerum Sm.; S. pungetium R.Br.; Physalis minima L.; Duboisia myoporoides

RBr

Scrophulariaceae: Gratiola peruviana L.; Veronica calycina R.Br.

Bignoniaceae: Tecoma australis R.Br.

Gesneraceae: Fieldia australis A. Cunn.

Acanthaceae: Hranthemum variabile R.Br.

Myoporaceae: Myoporum acuminatum R.Br.

Plantaginaceae: Plantago varia R.Br.

Rubiaceae: Morinda jasminoides A. Cunn.; Psycholria loniceroides Sieb.

Caprifoliaceae: Sambucus xanthocarpa F.v.M.

Cucurbitaceae: Melothria Cunninghamii Benth.

Campanulaceae: Lobelia trigonocaulis F.v.M.; Wahlenbergia gracilis A. DC.

Goodeniaceae: Goodenia Chisholmi Blakely.

Compositae: Olearia dentata Moench.; O. ramulosa Benth.; Siegesbeckia orientalis L.;
Cassinia longifolia R.Br.; Helichrysum bracteatum Willd.; H. elatum A. Cunn. ;
Hl. Beckleri F.v.M.; HH. diosmifoliuwm Don; JI. ferruginewn Less.; Graphaliwin
japonicum Thunb.; G. purpureum lL.; Brechiltes prenanthoides DC.; Senecio anygdali-
folius ¥.v.M.; S. dryadeus Sieb.

CORRIGENDUM.
These ProcEEepinGs, 1, 1925, p. 295, and lix, 1934, pp. 1438, 153.
Omit Alsophila Cooperi F.v.M. from text and lists.
N.B.—A. Cooperi is not to be found on the Comboyne, though it has been seen
and collected for the National Herbarium at John’s River, less than 20 miles away.

73

SOME NOTES ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN COMMON SPECIES
OF HUCALYPTUS.

By T. G. B. Ossorn, Department of Botany, University of Sydney.
(Plate iv.)
[Read 28th April, 1937.]

In “A Key to the Eucalypts” (1934) W. F. Blakely not only describes many
new species and varieties in the large and perplexing genus Hucalyptus, but also
makes certain changes in the nomenclature of a few well known species. Some
of these changes had already been made by continental botanists during the
preceding few years, but had passed more or less unnoticed. Others were made
by Mr. Blakely himself.

The names which it is proposed to abandon are now in general use and have
been so for 50 years or more. Under these names some of the species are widely
known to foresters and timber merchants. Their change, then, is not a matter
lightly to be undertaken.

The changes are:

E. corymbosa Sm. to EH. gummifera (Gaert.) Hochr.
E. rostrata Schlecht. to H. camaldulensis Dehnh.

H. tereticornis Sm. to H. umbellata (Gaert.) Domin.
HH. crebra F.v.M. to HE. racemosa Cav.

E. coriacea A. Cunn. to EH. paucifiora Sieb.

E. robusta Sm. to H. multiflora Poir.

In 1935 an attempt was made to conserve the names by appealing to the
Nomenclature Committee of the International Botanical Congress to establish a
list of nomina specifica conservanda. This the Committee did not see its way to
recommend.

When in Europe during 1936, I took the opportunity of visiting certain
herbaria and consulting with the authorities about these changes. The following
notes have been compiled in the hope that they will be of service to workers on
the genus, especially in Australia. Two of the proposed changes are shown to be
invalid, and a third must await further evidence. In the remaining cases, the
validity of the change is upheld. Photographs of the herbarium sheets of two
important specimens are published. These specimens, though not actual ‘‘types’,
are probably as near to being so as we can hope after such a long interval of
time. In one case, the change of Hucalyptus rostrata to E. camaldulensis, it is
hoped that the evidence submitted will provide further argument for the conserva-
tion of certain long established specific names.

My thanks for facilities afforded me are due to the Director of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew; the Keeper of Botany, the British Museum of Natural
History; the Linnean Society of London; the Keeper of the Botanical Depart-
ment, Natural History Museum, Vienna; the Director of the Botanical Laboratory
of the National Museum of Natural History, Paris. I am specially grateful to

M

74 NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS,

Mr. V. S. Summerhayes for his kindness to me when working in the Herbarium
at Kew.

Eucalyptus gummifera (Gaert.) Hochr. replacing H. corymbosa Sm.

The synonymy is given by B. P. G. Hochrentiner in his paper “Plantae
Hochrentineranae II”, Candollea, vol. ii, 1924-5, pp. 317-5138. On p. 464 (publ.
Aug., 1925) he states: “H. gummifera, Hochr., comb. nov. = Metrosideros gummifera
Gaert., De Fruct. 1, 17 & 34 (1788) = EH. corymbosa, Sm., Bot. of N. Holl. 1, 438,
1793, id. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. iii, 287 (1797), .. .”

Hochrentiner notes: “Whilst it is very annoying to change a well-known
name, it is impossible here not take up Gaertner’s name which corresponds exactly
to our species. Maiden himself says in his Monograph about Gaertner’s drawing,
‘unmistakable drawings of the fruit’ [Maiden, Critical Revision, iv, p. 244] .. .”

In the Banksian Herbarium of the British Museum there is a single sheet of
this species collected by Banks and Solander at Botany Bay in 1770. By the
courtesy of the Keeper of Botany, I am able to reproduce a photograph (PI. iv,
fig. 1), which he kindly had made for me, of this specimen. It is labelled in
Robert Brown’s handwriting:

“Hue. corymbosa
Metrosideros gummifera
Gaert. Botany Bay. J.B. &D.S.”

Reference to the figure shows that the larger leafy shoot has only one mature
fruit, the smaller has immature fruits. That there are not flowers is hardly
surprising since Banks and Solander were at Botany Bay between 28th April and
8th May, which is after the usual flowering season, January—March.

The presence of but one ripe fruit may be due to the fact that a specimen
or specimens of the fruit had been sent to Gaertner from the Banksian collection.
These were evidently forwarded by Solander with the comment that the plant has
a rough bark. Gaertner writes: ‘“Metrosideros gummifera, cortice rugoso, Soland.
MSS. Ex herbario Banksiano cum sequentibus.” Then follows a full description,
in Latin, of the fruit, seed and embryo, together with a reference to the “‘unmis-
takable drawings” referred to above.

Sir E. J. Smith had much more adequate material. In the Smith Herbarium
at the Linnean Society, London, is a full sheet, with one panicle in full bloom,
another with buds and opened flowers and some immature fruits. It is labelled
in Smith’s handwriting:

“Port Jackson, N.S.W. Mr. White 1793
Euc. corymbosa Bot. of N. Holland p. 43.”
Further material distributed by Smith is in the British Museum (sheet numbered
124/32) and endorsed:
“N.S.W. Port Jackson. White (Dr. Smith)
Euc. corymbosa. Smith. New Holl. 43.v.6.”
Kew also has a specimen showing leaves and flower buds, with ‘‘Presented by
Sir E. J. Smith” written on the sheet.

The Banksian Herbarium is rich in specimens of this species. Some of them
are of great historic interest. In addition to the crucial specimen of Banks and
Solander, there are three sheets of R. Brown’s collecting at Port Jackson 1802-1805,
Caley’s specimens, with field labels, dated 1804-1807, and one collected by A.
Cunningham.

Maiden (l.c., p. 246) says he saw certain “historical specimens’. Two were
in the herbarium of the Botany School at Cambridge, and one at the Barbey-
Boissier Herbarium, Geneva. A fourth, in which herbarium he does not state,

BY T. G. B. OSBORN. 75

was of Robert Brown’s collecting. This, he says, is numbered 4777. A specimen
of Brown’s with this number is in the Banksian Herbarium. It has the field
label in Brown’s handwriting: ‘Eucalyptus blood tree Port Jackson 180477.

If this was the specimen of No. 4777 that Maiden saw, it is curious that he
did not notice the sheet in the same folder bearing Banks’ and Solander’s
specimen. It is a reasonable assumption that it was from this specimen that
Gaertner received his fruits.

In accepting Hochrentiner’s new combination in place of the better known
name for the common bloodwood of the Port Jackson district, one notes that the
original description is based on the fruits only, except for the field note that the
‘bark is rough’. It is perhaps some consolation that the name gummifera was
apparently suggested by Solander himself.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. replacing E. rostrata Schlech.

This plant was described by Frederick Dehnhardt on page 20 of his ‘“Catalogus
Plantarum Camaldulensis” published at Naples in 1832 (2nd edition). The
catalogue is a twenty-four page quarto pamphlet. It is apparently rather scarce,
but there are copies in the libraries of the Botanical Departments of the British
Museum, South Kensington, and in the Natural History Museum, Vienna.

Maiden (Critical Revision, iv, p. 66) quotes Dehnhardt’s Latin diagnosis in
full. He continues: ‘A specimen of the above in bud, communicated by Dehnhardt
himself to the Vienna Herbarium, and seen by me, is H#. rostrata.” In October
last, I visited Vienna to see this specimen. By kind permission of the Keeper,
Hofrat Dr. K. Keissler, I had the sheet photographed (PI. iv, fig. 2).

There are two leafy shoots, each with umbels of buds, but no expanded flowe1s
or fruits. The operculum is conical rather than rostrate, i.e., it agrees with the
conoid types figured by Maiden (l.c., Pl. 137, figs. 4a, 10, 12@) rather than the
typical acutely rostrate form. In the Vienna collection are specimens communi-
eated by Max Koch from Mt. Lyndhurst (S. Aust.) having the same type of bud.
Maiden had no doubts as to the identity of the plant. His pencilled note “rostrata’”’
appears on the sheet, as well as the printed label seen in the photograph.

There is also pasted on to the sheet a label in an old German script, possibly
that of Dehnhardt himself. Maiden (l.c., p. 46) gives a not quite accurate
translation of this. It is as follows: “Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.—Bekam
ich unter dem Namen Z£. persicifolia; da ich aber spaterhin den echten
E. persicifolia bekam, bemerkts ich eine himmelweite Verschiedehheit, habe ihn
auch an keinen anderen annahern konnen. Er is 40 fuss hoch. [Hort. Camaldul.
Dehnhardt].” The words in square brackets are added in a later hand.

A free translation of this note is: “I received this under the name of
E. persicifolia; then later on I received the true E. persicifolia, I noticed an
exceedingly great difference, further I could not approximate it to any other
species. It is 40 feet high.”

Maiden gives no reason for the suppression of Dehnhardt’s name, which was
validly published 15 years before Schlechtendahl’s. Ewart (Vict. Naturalist, lii,
1935, p. 64) says of H. camaldulensis, “The name appeared in a European Botanic
Gardens list before the plant was properly described”. This is hardly fair. A
Latin diagnosis was published and the author communicated a specimen to one,
at least, of the great herbaria of his time.

While the validity of the change is unquestionable according to the rules of
Botanical nomenclature, the complete evidence provides, it seems to me, a strong
argument for the establishment of a limited list of nomina specifica conservanda.

76 NOMENCLATURE OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS,

The plant known as Hucalyptus rostrata for the past 90 years is perhaps the
most widespread eucalypt in all Australia. It occurs in every State except
Tasmania. Under the name of rostrata it is cultivated in many parts of the world,
for it is a valuable forest tree. Yet, because an Italian garden about 110 years ago
received a batch of seed from some (today) quite unknown source under a wrong
name the apt name rostrata becomes a synonym and an awkward, and to a large
extent meaningless, name, camaldulensis, has to be substituted for it!

But, without special steps to conserve it, the name rostrata will have to go.
In 1797, Cavanilles (Icones, iv, p. 23 and fig. 342) described Hucalyptus rostratus,
which is a synonym of H. robusta, Sm. Under the International rules of nomen-
clature, Cavanilles’ grammatical mistake preempted the name; rostrata was not
available for use by Schlechtendahl in 1847.

Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm., Bot. New Holl., 1793, p. 41.

Domin in 1928 changed this to H. umbellata (Gaert.) Domin. (Bibl. Bot., 1xxxix,
p. 467, which is p. 1021 of Domin’s Beitrage zu Flora etc.). He cites:
“Leptospermem umbellatum (Gaertn.) Fruct., i, 174, t. 35, fig. 3, 1788.” and has
the following footnote: ‘“‘Non Dum.-Cours., species obscura, sec. Bentham omnio
neglegenda.” F

But, however obscure Dumont-Courset’s description of H. wmbellata may be,
it is still the technical description of @ eucalypt. The name umbellata, therefore,
is already occupied and Domin was not justified in his change.

Eucalyptus crebra F.v.M., Journ. Linn. Soc., iii, 1859, p. 87.

Blakely takes up Cavanilles’ name H. racemosa (Icones, iv, 1797, p. 24), but,
unless an authentic specimen of this plant can be found, there is not sufficient
evidence to do so. Bentham (FI. Austr., iii, p. 200) says, “far too imperfectly
described to render identification possible’. Maiden (Crit. Revis., ii, p. 63) agrees.
I made a search in the herbaria of Kew, the British Museum, the Linnean Society,
and Natural History Museum, Paris, for any specimen of Cavanilles’ H. racemosa
that might have been communicated by him, but without success. If the herbaria
in Madrid survive the present unhappy disturbances, it may be that one will be
found there. At present there is no justification for dropping von Mueller’s
name.

Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieber replacing HE. coriacea A. Cunn.

The description of Sieber’s plant, No. 470, was published in Sprengel Syst.
iv Cur. Post., 1827, p. 195. There are specimens of his collecting bearing this
number in the Kew and British Museum Herbaria. Maiden (Crit. Revis., i, p. 135)
states that he has also seen a specimen of 470 in the herbarium Barbey-Boissier,
and that it is #. coriacea A. Cunn.

Cunningham’s plant Muy Sao is in the Kew Herbarium, named in

Cunningham’s own hand-writing. But no description was published until 1843,
when Schauevr’s contribution to Walper’s Rep. Bot. Syst., ii, appeared.

It is hard to understand Maiden’s comment (l.c., p. 133) that Sieber’s name
has “doubtful priority”. It was properly published in 1827, whereas Cunningham’s
name did not appear in print until 16 years later. Maiden’s comments on the
suitability or otherwise of the names are irrelevant.

EHucalyptus robusta Sm., Bot. New Holland, 1793, p. 39.

Blakely changes the name to #. multiflora Poiret, giving the year 1785 as that
of publication. This is based on a misapprehension. Poiret’s description appears

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. MATAR. TRG

é
Botanical Name ue ~~ cata ta

WTR G:

Examined~J Ho MAIDEN,

Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

+ 8 Peano

1.—Eucalyptus gummifera (Gaert.) Hochr. (= H. corymbosa Sm.)
2.—Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (= HE. rostrata Schlech.)

“NI

: | * ; - 7 - | : ie ~ ae

_ 7 q Oi
: : & hay

om
y ~i : “a : iis 1
or ene ess a iar ;

BY T. G. B. OSBORN. aii

in the second volume of the Supplement to l’Encyclopédie Méthodique. The date
given by Blakely is that on the title page to this volume. But the volume appeared
in parts over a series of years, and page 594, that on which the description of
E. multiflora is printed, was not published till 1812 (cf. C. Davies Sherborn and
B. B. Woodward, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. vii, Vol. 17, 1906, p. 577, “On the
dates of publication of the Natural History portions of the Encyclopédie
Méthodique”). The change proposed by Blakely is not valid.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
Fig. 1.—Photograph of sheet in the Banksian Herbarium, British Museum of Natural
History. The label in Robert Brown’s handwriting reads:
“Eucalyptus corymbosa
Metrosideros gummifera
Gaert. Botany Bay. J.B. & D.S.”
Note the single ripe fruit surviving on the old inflorescence in the left hand specimen.
The fruits to the right are immature.
Fig. 2.—Photograph of sheet in the Herbarium of the Museum of Natural History,
Vienna. Dehnhardt’s note is in the bottom right hand corner, and the name “rostrata”
in pencil in Maiden’s handwriting above it. ;

78

TWO NEW SPECIES AND ONE NEW VARIETY OF DRIMYS FORST., WITH
NOTES ON THE SPECIES OF DRIMYS AND BUBBIA VAN TIEGH. OF
SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA AND LORD HOWE ISLAND.

By Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc., Assistant Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney.
(Plate v; two Text-figures. )
[Read 26th May, 1937.]

The genera Drimys Forst. and Bubbia V. Tiegh. are placed by Hutchinson
(Kew Bull., 1921, pp. 185-190) in the Family Winteraceae. This family had
previously been regarded as a tribe of the family Magnoliaceae, but it differs in
a number of features, which mark it as being more advanced from an evolutionary
point of view. This is shown particularly by the exstipulate leaves, the floral
axis short and never cone-like in fruit, and the carpels arranged more or less in a
single whorl. It contains about 7 genera with a more tropical and southerly
distribution than the true Magnoliaceae.

Drimys Forst.

The genus Drimys occurs in Eastern Australia, the Malay Archipelago, New
Caledonia, and South America. In New South Wales, the species are restricted
either to regions of high altitude or else to the rain-forest formations characteristic
of the gullies and river systems of the coastal and highland districts.

DRIMYS PURPURASCENS, nN. sp. Plate v; Text-fig. 1.

Frutex glaber, aromaticus, 1-2 m. altus; rami teretes, parum glauci, hebetes-
purpurelli iuvenes; gemmae foliorum terminales in bracteis caducis purpurellis
angustis ovatis acuminatis 10-15 mm. longis circumdatae; folia exstipulata, alterna,
in parte superiore approximata, oblanceolata, obtusa vel vix acuta, 5-16 cm. x 1-5
cm., sensim angustata ad basem sessilem 2—5 mm. latum, plana, tenuiter coriacea,
subter parum pallidiora; laminae punctis pellucidis multissimis parvissimis;
nervus primus purpureus in vivo, supra prominens et praesertim prope basem,
vix praesertim subter; nervi secundarii angulum 45° cum nervo primo efficientes;
nervi ultimi numerosiores ad marginalis; margines parum crassi; inflorescentia
primo pseudo-terminala, floribus emergentibus singulis in gemmarum bractearum
approximatarum axilibus, tandem post rami incrementum pseudo-verticillata;
alabastri ovato-globosi; flores in pedicellis 2-4 em. longis sub-validis 1:5 mm.
crassis, dioecis? vel flores staminales cum paucis carpellis; calyx disepalus; sepala
concava, orbiculata, 5-7 mm. diam., alba, petala circumdata; petala 2, raro 3,
ovata, obtusa, angustata ad basem, 10-12 mm. x 3-4 mm., alba; stamina numerosa,
interiora primo maturescentia, receptaculo subhemisphaerico inserta; filamenta
valida, parum compressa, 2-6 mm. longa, interius longiorum; anthera lata, brevia
fissuris longitudinalis dehiscentia; carpella 2-8, disiuncta, ovata, cirea 2 x 1 mm.
in floribus, brevissime stipitata, stigmate sessile lineaye introrso et rostro parvis-
simo excentrico; fructus carnosus bucculis disiunctis, 2-8 plerumque 3-4, fuscis
nigro-purpureis, oblongis-globosis, 10-15 mm. » 8-12 mm. maturis, stipitatis; stipes

BY JOYCE W. VICKERY. 79

1-3 mm. longus; semines multa (circa 10) nigra, disciformia, parum rugosa,
embryone prominente flexato. Mt. Royal Ranges habitat.

Text-fig. 1.—Drimys purpurascens, with mature fruit. A, x 0-4. B, x 1:2.

Barrington Tops: L. Fraser and J. Vickery, May, 1936 (Type), Nov., 1936,
7/1/1934; B. Veech, 20/11/1931; J. Hopson, Jan., 1924; L. Harrison, Jan., 1925;
J. L. Boorman, Dec., 1915.

Glabrous, aromatic shrub, 1-2 m. high; branches terete, slightly glaucous, dull
purplish coloured when young, smooth, or slightly rough when dry; terminal leaf-
buds enclosed in caducous, purplish, narrow ovate-acuminate scales, about 10-15
mm. long; leaves exstipulate, alternate, the lower ones distant, the upper ones
approximate, oblanceolate, obtuse or scarcely acute, 5-16 cm. long by 1-5 cm. wide,
tapering towards the sessile, 2-5 mm. wide base, flat, thinly coriaceous, very
slightly paler underneath; lamina with very numerous, very small, pellucid dots;
midrib purple-coloured when fresh, prominent and protruding on the upper surface,
especially near the base, scarcely protruding on the lower surface,. the secondary
veins making an angle of 45° with the midrib, the finer veins more numerous
towards the margins; margins very slightly thickened; inflorescence at first pseudo-
terminal, the flowers arising singly in the axils of the closely-spaced bud-scales,

80 DRIMYS AND BUBBIA OF SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA,

then by further growth of the shoot the inflorescence becomes pseudo-verticillate;
flower buds ovate globose; flowers dioecious? or the staminate flowers bearing few
carpels, on moderately stout pedicels 2-4 cm. long x 1:5 mm. thick; female flowers
not seen; calyx of 2 concave sepals enclosing the petals, the sepals orbicular, about
5-7 mm. diameter, white; petals 2, rarely 3, ovate, obtuse, slightly narrowed at the
base, 10-12 mm. x 3-4 mm., white; stamens numerous, inserted on the sub-
hemispherical receptacle, the inner ones ripening first; filaments stout, slightly
compressed, 2-6 mm. long, those of the inner stamens the longest; anthers broad,
short, opening by lateral, longitudinal slits; carpels 2-8, free, about 2 mm. x 1 mm.,
ovate, very shortly stipitate, with a sessile, linear, introrse stigma, and a very
small excentric beak; fruit succulent, of 2-8, usually 3-4, free berries, deep
blackish-purple in colour, oblong globose, about 10-15 mm. x 8-12 mm. at maturity,
each carpel shortly stipitate, the stipe 1-3 mm. long. i

So far this species has been found only in a restricted area on the Mt. Royal
Ranges in the vicinity of the Barrington Tops, where it occurs abundantly at an
altitude of about 4,500 feet, in a Hucalyptus coriacea—Poa caespitosa association.
It can be readily distinguished by its large oblanceolate leaves with purplish
midrib, and its large dark purple fruit consisting usually of several carpels, which
hang in handsome clusters.

DRIMYS STIPITATA, nN. sp. Text-fig. 2.
Frutex vel raro parum arborescens, glaber, 1-2-5 m. altus; rami teretes,

aliquantuli glauci, hebetes-purpurelli iuvenes; gemmae foliorum terminales in
bracteis caducis purpurellis ovatis acutis circa 5-12 mm. longis circumdatae; folia
exstipulata, alterna, in parte superiore approximata, sessila vel subsessila, lanceo-
lata, acuta, 5-13 em. x 0:7-2 cm., plana, parum pallida subter in sicco, reticulata;
laminae punctis pellucidis multissimis parvissimis, saepe non cernandis per
textum foliorum; nervus primus parum prominens utrinque prope basem; nervi
secundarii obliquissimi, angulum acutum cum nervo primo efficientes; inflores-
centia primo pseudo-terminalis, floribus emergentibus singulis in axilibus
bractearum gemmarum approximatarum, tandem post incrementum rami pseudo-
verticillata; flores in pedicellis aliquantis gracilibus circa 1-5-2 cm. longis vel ad
2-4 cm. posthac producentibus, dioeciae? vel flores staminales cum paucis
carpellis; calyx disepalus; sepala concava, late ovata, sub-acuta, circa
6 mm. x 4 mm., alba, petala circumdata; petala 2, ovata, angustata ad basem,
obtusa, circa 5-6 mm. x 1-5 mm., alba; stamina numerosa, interiora primo matures-
centia; filamenta aliquanta valida compressa, 1-5 mm. longa, interiosa longissima;
anthera lata, brevibus fissuris longitudinalibus dehiscentia; carpella 2-8, disiuncta,
longe stipitata, stigmate sessile lineare introrso; fructus carnosus, 2-8 bacculis
apocarpis stipitatis; stipes gracilis, 4-8 mm. longus; fructus maturus non visus;
fructus iuvenior circa 6 mm. x 4 mm., 12-15 seminibus 2 mm. diam. disciformibus
embryone prominente flexato. Declivitates orientes N.S.W. septentrionalis habitat.
(Synonym: D. aromatica var. pedunculata Maiden, Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., v, 1894, 600.)

Guy Fawkes, J. H. Maiden, Feb., 1895 (Type); Jeogla, L. Fraser and J. Vickery,
24/1/34; Dorrigo State Forest, C. T. White, 7572, 4/10/1930; Upper Hastings River,
J. H. Maiden, Nov., 1897; Walcha, J. F. Campbell, Nov., 1899; Backwater (without
flower or fruit), Rev. E. N. McKie, 29/9/1932; Clarence River, Wilcox, No. 1875;
Hastings River, Dr. Beckler.

Tall, glabrous shrub, or rarely somewhat arborescent, 1-2:°5 m. high; branches
terete, slightly glaucous and dull purplish when young; terminal leaf-buds enclosed
in caducous, ovate, acute, purplish scales, about 5-12 mm, long; leaves exstipulate,

BY JOYCE W. VICKERY. 81

alternate, the upper ones rather approximate, sessile or subsessile, lanceolate, acute,
5-13 cm. long by 0-7-2 cm. broad, flat, slightly paler underneath when dry, net-
veined, the midrib slightly protruding on each side near the base, the secondary
veins very oblique, making an acute angle with the midrib; pellucid dots very

Text-fig. 2.—Drimys stipitata, with immature fruit. x 0-4.

small, numerous, often invisible owing to the texture of the leaf; inflorescence at
first pseudo-terminal, the flowers arising singly in the axils of the closely-spaced
bud-scales, then by further growth of the shoot the inflorescence becomes pseudo-
verticillate; flowers on rather slender pedicels about 1-5-2 cm. long which elongate
to 2-4 cm. after flowering, dioecious? or the staminate flowers bearing few carpels;
calyx of 2 concave, broadly ovate, subacute, white sepals about 6 mm. x 4 mm.,
enclosing the petals; petals 2, ovate, narrowed at the base, obtuse, 5-6 mm. x 1:5
mm., white; stamens numerous, the inner ones ripening first; filaments fairly
stout, compressed, 1-5 mm. long, those of the inner stamens the longest; anthers
broad, short, opening by longitudinal slits; carpels 2-8, free, stipitate, with a
sessile linear introrse stigma; fruit succulent, consisting of 2-8 free, oblong,
stipitate berries, the stipe slender, 4-8 mm. long; mature fruits not seen; younger
fruiting carpels about 6 mm. x 4 mm., each with about 12-15 flat, discoid seeds,
about 2 mm. diam., with strongly curved embryos.

In his description of D. aromatica var. pedunculata Maiden states: “The umbels
are not only not sessile, but the peduncles are half to 14 inch long in my specimens,
while the pedicels are short (half an inch). In both D. aromatica and D. dipetala
the umbels are sessile and the pedicels are much longer than in my specimens.”
From an examination of the specimens described by Maiden, it is evident that
the above description is due to a misconception, the “peduncles” being the pedicels
of the flowers comparable with those of the other species mentioned, and the
“pedicels” the stipes of the numerous carpels, I have, therefore, considered it

82 DRIMYS AND BUBBIA OF SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA,

inadvisable to make use of the varietal name pedunculata when raising this form
to specific rank.

This species is found at an altitude of about 2,000—4,000 feet, on the eastern
slopes of the coastal range of northern New South Wales. It is characterized
particularly by the long stipes of the carpels, especially when in fruit.

Drimys INsrpipA Druce, Bot. Soc. and Exch. Club, 1917.

Synonyms: TJasnmannia insipida R.Byr., in De Candolle’s Regni Vegetabilis
Systema, 1, 1818, p. 445-6 —Jasmannia dipetala R.Br., in De Candolle’s Prod., 1,
1824, p. 78.—Drimys dipetala F.v.M., Plants Indigenous to the Colony of Victoria, 1,
1860-1864, p. 21; Bentham, Fl. Aust., 1, 1863, p. 49; Maiden & Betche, Census of
N.S.W. Plants, 1916, p. 79—Drimys insipida Domin, Biblioth. Bot., lxxxix, 1925,
p. 115.—Tasmannia monticola A. Rich., Sert. Astrolab., 1834, p. 50.

In his description of J. monticola, Richard states that it differs from
T. insipida in the more elongated leaves, more contracted at their base, and in
the hermaphrodite flowers, disposed in a simple umbel at the ends of the branches.
The staminate flowers of D. insipida, however, often show the presence of a carpel,
and, when first formed, the flowers arising in the axils of the bud scales do appear
to form a terminal umbel, but this appearance is altered when the terminal shoot
continues its growth. A specimen in the National Herbarium collected by Fraser
before 1833 is probably a cotype of YZ. monticola, and does not differ from
D. insipida.

DRIMYS LANCEOLATA Baill., Nat. Hist. Pl., 1, 1871, p. 154.

Synonyms: Winterania lanceolata Poiret, Encyel., viii, 1808, p. 799-800.—
Tasmannia aromatica R.Br. in De Candolle’s Regni Vegetabilis Systema, 1, 1818,
p. 455, and De Candolle’s Prodromus, 1, 1824, p. 78.—Drimys aromatica F.v.M.,
Plants Indigenous to the Colony of Victoria, 1860-1862, p. 20-21; Bentham, FI.
Aust., 1, 1863, p. 49; Maiden & Betche, Census of N.S.W. Plants, 1916, p. 79.

Winterania lanceolata Poir. and Tasmannia aromatica R.Br. have been regarded
as synonyms by De Candolle (1824) and by Baillon (1871), and it is probable that
these authors were able to compare the types. W. lanceolata was described from
fruiting but not flowering material, and in certain respects the description is
difficult to reconcile with 7. aromatica R.Br., viz., ... leaves opposite . .. petioles
searcely 6 lines long ... flowers lateral and terminal, situated in the axils of
the leaves and disposed in small simple clusters, almost umbels, scarcely longer
than the petioles . .. fruit of small, globular, three-lobed berries, with the
persistent calyx at their base. In other respects, however, the description appears
to agree with 7. aromatica.

In addition, the locality of collection of Winterania lanceolata, namely, the
coast of New Holland, makes it more than probable that the species concerned is
identical with 7. aromatica.

D. lanceolata is found in Tasmania, where it apparently grows almost at sea-
level, but in Victoria, and more especially in New South Wales, it is restricted to
higher altitudes. It is a common constituent of the flora of the Australian Alps,
extends along the eastern highlands of New South Wales at altitudes of 2,000—4,000
feet, as at Clyde Mt. and on the Blue Mountains, and occurs at an altitude of about
4,500 feet on the Barrington Tops. The specimens from the Australian Alps and
Tasmania often have distinctly thicker, more coriaceous leaves than those from
the Clyde Mt., Blue Mts., and Barrington Tops, but, as the specimens agree closely
in other respects, it is probable that the variation is due merely to habitat factors,

BY JOYCE W. VICKERY. 83

DRIMYS LANCEOLATA Druce var. PARVIFOLIA, Nl. val’.

Ab typo parvo habito, ramis concrescentibus, foliis approximatis parvis,
coriaceis, lanceolatis, vel spathulatis, plerumque obtusis, 8-23 mm. x 2-5 mm.,
et floribus parvioribus, petalis circa 2 mm. longis differt.

Localities: Upper Yarra, Victoria, J. Staer, April, 1911 (Type); Gippsland,
C. French, 1895; Mt. Mueller near Mt. Baw Baw, Melvin, 1889; Mt. Wellington,
Gippsland, Dr. Mueller, Nov., 1854; Summit of the Baw Baw Ranges 4-5,000 feet,
Dr. Mueller.

This variety differs from the type in its small habit, condensed branches,
approximate, small, coriaceous, lanceolate or spathulate, usually obtuse leaves
8-23 mm. long by 2-5 mm. wide, and small flowers with petals about 2 mm. long.
It appears very distinct from typical D. lanceolata, but as this species varies
considerably in leaf size and texture according to the degree of exposure and low
temperature to which it is subjected, field observations would be necessary before
it could be decided whether this variety is worthy of specific rank.

Imperfectly known species.

The following species were named apparently from material sent from Victoria
by von Mueller. In each case the descriptions are very brief, except in regard to
the anatomy. I have examined the Australian material of Drimys from the
Melbourne National Herbarium, and can find no specimens which could be regarded
as cotypes of these species.

Drimys xerophila Parmentier, Bull. Sc. France et Belg., xxvii, 1895, p. 225-226
and 299-300. This species is probably synonymous with D. lanceolata.

Drimys Muelleri Parmentier, Bull. Sc. France et Belg., xxvii, 1895, p. 227, 300.
As Van Tieghem (Journ. de Bot., xiv, 1900, p. 283-4) has pointed out, it is doubtful
whether this species belongs to the genus Drimys, since it was described as
showing vessels in the secondary wood.

Drimys intermedia Parmentier, Bull. Sc. France et Belg., xxvii, 1895, p. 223,
224. This species is probably synonymous with D. lanceolata.

Key to the species of Drimys in New South Wales.
Leaves 1-8 cm. long; petals usually more than 2; fruit globose consisting of
1 sessile carpel, bilobed, about 5 mm. diameter.
Leaves 2-5-8 cm. mostly about 5 cm. long, usually more or less acute,

TAVTN CE OLA Cre ee rere ae cae etre tanner eens Force may id nes ate coh Drimys lanceolata.
Leaves 1—2:5 cm. long, lanceolate or spathulate, usually obtuse. ..............
FEC EEG. GSES Ca BLO RE MRCOG SOOO OHA RATE Clee Drimys lanceolata var. parvifolia.

Leaves 8-20 cm. long, rarely less; petals usually 2; berries more or less oblong.
Fruit consisting of 1 sessile carpel, about 12-16 mm. long; blade distinctly
truncate and slightly auriculate at the base; petioles 2-4 mm. long; small tree
with lanceolate, acute or acuminate leaves, inhabiting brush forests. ........
ab obese SOM ORHIGRISS Sree e ester one sl rsa gt en MRE M Rene oy aioe cet minee ss tusk eee ce eMac nau ae Ye) Atv Drimys imnsipidda.
Fruit consisting of several carpels; blade not or scarcely truncate at the base,
sessile or subsessile.

Carpels shortly stipitate; leaves oblanceolate, broad, obtuse, the secondary
veins forming an angle of about 45° with the midrib. .. Drimys purpurascens.
Carpels on long stipes; leaves rather narrow lanceolate, acute, the secondary
veins oblique, forming an acute angle with the midrib. .... Drimys stipitata.

Bupsia Van Tieghem.
The genus Bubbia is distinguished from Drimys in having a small calyx which
exposes the petals in bud, while in Drimys the calyx encloses the petals in bud.

84 DRIMYS AND BUBBIA OF SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA.

It is further distinguished from the Australian species of Drimys by its inflores-
cence, which is in the form of a terminal cluster of many-flowered cymes.
(Hutchinson, Kew Bull., 1921, p. 189; Van Tieghem, Journ. de Bot., xiv, 1900,
p. 293.) It is a small genus occurring in Lord Howe Island, New Caledonia, and
New Guinea.

BusBIA HowkaAna V. Tiegh., Journ. de Bot., xiv, 1900, p. 293.
Synonyms: Drimys Howeana F.v.M., Fragm. Phytog. Austral., vii, 1869-1871,
p. 17—Drimys insularis Baill. of F.v.M., Fragm. Phytog. Austral., ix, 1875, p. 76.
Van Tieghem (1900, p. 292) recognizes a second species of Bubbia from Lord
Howe Island, viz., B. Miulleri V. Tiegh. This species was named apparently without
flowers or fruit, and no description is given by Van Tieghem. It is not represented
in the Sydney National Herbarium.

In conclusion, I desire to thank Mr. R. H. Anderson, Botanist and Curator
of the National Herbarium, Sydney, for his interest and assistance during the
progress of the work. I wish also to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr. F. J. Rae,
Director of the Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, in allowing me to examine the
Australian specimens of Drimys contained in the Melbourne National Herbarium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Drimys purpurascens, on the Barrington Tops Plateau.

PEATE! Ve

Soc. N.S.W., 1937.

Proc. LINN.

Drimys purpurascens, nN. sp.

a) & ote A ve
ary \
, ey
- Goris RAs tee
‘ . & o
+ ; 4
4 Pie
iD
: .
— “
"
_
: ine poe -*
‘ “» 9 a
-
& ~

eee
eg tinge

ane
pe

85

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI.*
By A. JEFFERIS TuRNER, M.D., F.R.E.S.

[Read 26th May, 1937.]

56. Gen. ISCHNOMORPHA, n.g. (loxvowopdos, Narrow.)
I substitute this name for /schnophanes, which is preoccupied.

63. Gen. ECDREPTA, 1.g. (€kdperros, picked out.)
I substitute this name for Hccrita, which is preoccupied.

65. Gen. MERMERISTIS Meyr.
Haxot. Micro., i, p. 298.

Tongue present. Palpi with second joint not reaching base of antennae,
somewhat thickened with appressed scales, terminal joint nearly as long as second,
slender, acute. Antennae with basal pecten, ciliations in male long. Forewings
with 2 and 3 separate, 7 and 8 coincident. Hindwings elongate-ovate: neuration
normal.

527. yspodiaea Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, p. 298 (Tasmania).

66. Gen. ANTIDICA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1883, p. 382. Latometus Butl., is preoccupied (Erichson,

Coleoptera, 1842).

Tongue present. Palpi much exceeding base of antennae, 24 times length of
face, moderately thickened with scales, which are slightly rough anteriorly,
terminal joint about two-thirds, slender. Antennae with basal pecten; in male
moderately ciliated. Abdomen stout; terminal segments broadened by small
lateral scale-tufts. Forewings narrow; 7 to apex. Hindwings as broad as fore-
wings; neuration normal.

I have satisfied myself that 7 of forewings runs usually to apex, though
sometimes slightly beneath. The peculiar abdomen sufficiently distinguishes the
genus from Hulechria.

Three species: 528. pilipes Butl., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), ix, p. 102 (Warwick,
Q., to Melbourne) = eriomorpha Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, p. 382.—529. pseudo-
morpha, n. sp. (Castlemaine).—530. barysoma Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, p. 382
(Deloraine, Tas.).

529. ANTIDICA PSEUDOMORPHA, Nl. SP. (Wevdouopdos, of deceptive appearance. )

6. 23-26 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-grey-whitish. Palpi fuscous.
Antennae grey; in male evenly ciliated, ciliations scarcely 1. Abdomen grey.
Legs fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen
very oblique; brown-whitish; a fuscous subcostal streak from base to apex,
becoming broader towards apex; cilia pale grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Very similar to A. pilipes, which is smaller, has whiter forewings, and whose
antennal ciliations are 143 and arranged in tufts.

Victoria: Castlemaine in February and March (Dr. W. E. Drake); three
specimens.

* Continued from These PROCEEDINGS, 1936, p. 317.
(6) 9

86 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

67. Gen. HuLecHRIA Meyr.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1882, p. 508.

Tongue present. Palpi recurved, ascending; second joint thickened with
smoothly appressed scales, sometimes slightly rough anteriorly, or with some
loose scales towards apex, sometimes not reaching, but usually reaching, base of
antennae, sometimes much exceeding this and 2 or 38 times length of face;
terminal joint usually shorter, but sometimes as long as second (4% to 1), slender,
acute. Antennae with basal pecten; ciliations of male short, moderate, or long.
Thorax not crested. Forewings with 7 to apex, or occasionally (in the same
species) just beneath apex. Hindwings elongate-oval; 3 and 4 usually connate,
rarely separate or stalked, 5 usually from middle of cell, but sometimes slightly
curved and approximated to 4 at origin.

Type, H#. exanimis Meyr. The species are abundant throughout Australia and
Tasmania, with a few stragglers elsewhere, one in New Zealand, a few in the
Archipelago and India, and one in South Africa. This very large genus shows
considerable diversity of structure, especially in the length of the second and
third joints of the palpi. Unfortunately it has not proved possible to make use
of these for generic subdivision. The species are mostly of cryptic coloration and
many are extremely similar, so that their discrimination needs careful study,
including such structural points as the relative lengths of the joints of the palpi
and of the antennal ciliations.

Within the genus are contained two large and several smaller groups of
species. The largest group is characterized by the presence of five or more discal
dots arranged in an irregular oval (foedatella, siccella, etc.); the next (convictella,
etc.) by three discal dots only. It is not certain that these two groups are really
monophyletic; where their markings are distinct there is no difficulty in separating
them; but in both groups there are unicolorous species, not so easily placed. If we
endeavour to divide the genus on characters derived from the palpi, we cut across
both groups. The resulting assemblages are certainly artificial, and not even
helpful in the determination of species.

Eulechria gives origin to various other smaller genera, of which Macronemata,.
distinguished only by its lanceolate hindwings, is the largest. Hulechria and
Philobota are very closely allied, the only distinguishing point being the termina-
tion of vein 7 of the forewing in the apex or termen. In most instances this is
easy to determine. In some species with rounded apices to the forewings the exact
position of the “anatomical apex” (These PROCEEDINGS, 1935, p. 1) is hard to fix.
When, as occasionally happens, vein 7 in the same species varies between this
apex and a point very shortly beneath, that species should, in my opinion, be
referred to Hulechria and not to Philobota.

Three hundred and sixty-two species.

531. EULECHRIA XANTHOSTEPHANA Meyyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 952 (Toowoomba to
Melbourne, Mt. Kosciusko, Mt. Lofty).

32. EULECHRIA METABAPTA Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, 164 (Cairns, Atherton, Innisfail).

33. EULECHRIA MONOZONA Meyy., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1888, 1582 (Perth, Waroona, York,
W.A.).

34. EULECHRIA HELIODORA Meyr., Ibid., 1887, 948 (Geraldton, W.A.).

35. EULECHRIA HYMENAEA Meyr., JTr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, 149 (Duaringa, Warwick,
Charleville).

536. EULECHRIA XANTHOPHYLLA, ND. Sp. (£avOoduddos, yellow-winged.)

g. 14 mm. Head yellow. Palpi with second joint just reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; yellow. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in

BY A. J. TURNER. 87

male 1. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen fuscous; beneath pale yellow. Legs fuscous;
posterior pair yellow. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded,
termen obliquely rounded; yellow; costal edge fuscous in basal fourth; a moderate
fuscous terminal band, paler posteriorly; cilia whitish, on tornus fuscous. Hind-
wings and cilia grey.
Smaller than H. malacoptera, the antennal ciliations shorter (in malacoptera
2), palpi wholly yellow, and thorax wholly fuscous.
Queensland: Coolangatta in April; one specimen.
537. HEULECHRIA MALACOPTERA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 948 (Stradbroke Is., and
Stanthorpe to Melbourne, Pt. Lincoln).
538. HULECHRIA XUTHOPHYLLA, Nl. Sp. (éo0vfopudAdos, tawny-winged. )
°. 16 mm. Head pale yellow. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; pale yellow, terminal joint and base of
external surface of second joint fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax fuscous.
Abdomen fuscous; apices of terminal segments whitish; underside yellowish. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair pale yellow. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-yellow tinged with brown; a
dark fuscous discal dot at two-thirds, connected by a fuscous suffusion with
tornus; cilia yellowish, on tornus fuscous. Hindwings grey; cilia grey, on apex
whitish-yellow.
New South Wales: Mittagong in January; one specimen.
539. HEULECHRIA MONOSPILA, 0. Sp. (fovoomtAos, One-spotted. )
6, °. 21-23 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-yellow. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-yellow, outer
surface of second joint except apex and apex of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen brownish-fuscous; apices of segments pale
grey; tuft ochreous. Forewings suboval, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded; ochreous-yellow; costal edge dark fuscous towards base; a
-short inwardly oblique dark fuscous mark from costa at four-fifths; cilia ochreous
yellow. Hindwings grey; cilia ochreous-grey.
Queensland: Toowoomba in November; four specimens received from Mr.
W. B. Barnard, who has the type.
540. EULECHRIA EURYCNECA, N. Sp. (evpuxvexos, broadly pale yellow.)
dg. 20-23 mm. Head ochreous. Palpi with second joint exceeding base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; dark fuscous, terminal joint whitish except
in front. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 3. Thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen
fuscous; tuft ochreous. Legs fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, slightly dilated,
costa straight except towards base and apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; pale yellow; a narrow blackish basal fascia prolonged sometimes along
costa to one-fifth; a broad grey terminal band; an apical grey blotch; cilia grey
on apical half of termen, pale yellow on tornal half, on tornus with bases blackish.
Hindwings pale yellow; a small fuscous basal patch; a grey band around apex;
cilia pale yellow.
Victoria: Daytrap near Sea Lake in September; two specimens received from
Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type.
541. EuLrecHRIA PHAEINA Turn., 77.R.S.S.Aust., 1896, 14 (Brisbane, Toowoomba).
542. HULECHRIA AXIERASTA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 357 (Tweed Heads,
Toowoomba, Bunya Mts., Stanthorpe).
543. EULECHRIA CURVILINEA Turn., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1896, 12 (Atherton, Rockhamp-
ton to Tweed Heads).

88 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

544. HULECHRIA DIPLOCLETHRA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 358 (Mt. Tambourine,
Macpherson Range).
545. +EULECHRIA EPIPHRAGMA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 954 (Quorn, S.A.).

546. HULECHRIA PLATYRRHABDA, 1. SP. (mAxtvepSaBd0c, broadly barred.)

°. 16 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
expanded towards apex, terminal joint three-fourths; white, base of second joint
fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax white; lateral and posterior margins broadly
fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft pale ochreous. Legs fuscous with whitish rings;
posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex
pointed, termen oblique; white with dark fuscous markings; a narrow basal
fascia; a broad transverse fascia before middle, expanded on costa and more
strongly so on dorsum; a third fascia from costa before apex inwards, bent in
dise at a right angle, ending on tornus moderately broad, its angle connected by a
narrow stria with costa; an elongate spot on termen; cilia fuscous, on apex white,
apices ochreous-whitish, on tornus wholly fuscous. Hindwings elongate-ovate;
5 from middle; grey; cilia grey.

Not unlike H. schalidota, but that species has no basal fascia in the forewings
and the thorax is white posteriorly.

Queensland: Westwood in October; one specimen received from Mr. G. M.
Goldfinch, who has the type.

547. HULECHRIA SCHALIDOTA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 955 (= dichroa Low.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1894, 95) (Townsville, Rockhampton, Duaringa).

548. EULECHRIA EPICAUSTA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 525 (Tweed Heads,
Toowoomba, Stanthorpe, Milmerran).

549. EULECHRIA TRIFERELLA WI1k., xxix, 684; Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 523 (Yeppoon
to Melbourne).

550. EULECHRIA TROPICA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 955 (Darwin, Thursday Is., to
Brisbane, New Guinea).

551. EULECHRIA NEPHOBOLA, N. Sp. (vedoBodos, clouded.)

6, @. 18-20 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, apex of second joint and terminal
joint except apex whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male two-thirds.
Thorax fuscous, with an anterior, sometimes also a posterior, spot. Abdomen
fuscous; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish.
Forewings moderate, costa rather strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen
obliquely rounded; white with more or less patchy fuscous irroration; markings
fuscous; a straight narrow fascia from one-third costa to two-fifths dorsum, variably
developed, sometimes not reaching costa, sometimes dilated on dorsum, and some-
times also on costa, a dot beneath costa at two-fifths, and another above dorsum
at three-fifths, but these may either be distinct, minute or obsolete; a second
fascia from two-thirds costa to tornus; a large costal spot near apex, giving rise
to a fine, sometimes interrupted, line to tornus; cilia whitish with an obscure
antemedian fuscous line. Hindwings with 5 from middle of cell; pale grey; cilia
pale grey.

Queensland: Southport in December. New South Wales: Tweed Heads and
Brunswick Heads in December and January. Six specimens.

2. EULECHRIA oMBRODES Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1897, 56 (Rockhampton, Miles).
EULECHRIA CHRYSOMOCHLA, Nn. Sp. (xpucovox dos, golden-barred. )

3, 2. 15-18 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; white, basal half of second joint and anterior

BY A. J. TURNER. 89

edge of terminal joint brown. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male two-thirds.
Thorax golden-brown. Abdomen brown. Legs brown; posterior pair whitish-
ochreous. Forewings moderate, not dilated, costa gently arched, apex rounded,
termen rounded, slightly oblique; white with golden-brown markings; a basal
costal spot: a moderate fascia from one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum, dilated on
dorsum; a similar fascia from three-fourths costa to tornus, dilated on costa; a
narrower terminal fascia; cilia golden-brown, apices whitish. Hindwings with 5
from middle of cell; pale grey; cilia pale grey.

Allied to EB. ombrodes and E. eurygramma. Distinguished from the latter by
the golden-brown colour of markings and by the postmedian and terminal fasciae
not being confluent.

Queensland: Chinchilla in October; Miles in November; Roma in September;
five specimens.

554. HEULECHRIA EURYGRAMMA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 359 (Atherton).
555. HEULECHRIA PEISTERIA, Nl. SP. (metorypios, persuasive.)

do. 20 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae
(terminal joint missing); white, base of second joint fuscous. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male two-thirds. Thorax white; anterior edge and a posterior spot
fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings moderate, not dilated, costa moderately arched, apex round-
pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white; markings brown, clearly defined; a
curved sub-basal fascia; a narrow fascia from one-fifth costa to one-third dorsum,
strongly dilated on dorsum; a discal dot beneath one-third costa, and a second
in middle above fold; a third rather broader fascia from beyond three-fifths costa
to tornus, interrupted beneath costa; an inwardly oblique streak from costa before
apex, angled in disc and continued as a curved line to tornus; cilia white, on
tornus brown. Hindwings with 5 from middle of cell; whitish-ochreous-grey; cilia
concolorous.

Queensland: Adavale in May; one specimen.

556. EULECHRIA COSMOSTICHA, N. Sp. (Kkoopoorexos, prettily lined.)

do. 19 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
terminal joint three-fourths; white. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 24. Thorax
white; anterior edge fuscous. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey. Legs white; tarsi
fuscous; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, costa slightly arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; white, markings brownish-fuscous; 2
small basal fascia with rounded edge, more developed towards costa; a narrow
fascia from one-third costa to one-third dorsum, slightly outwardly curved, dilated
on costa; a discal spot at two-thirds; a rounded apical blotch, partly whitish-grey,
almost touching discal spot, giving off a terminal line, from which proceeds a
small process towards, but not reaching, discal spot; cilia ochreous-grey. Hind-
wings with 5 from well below middle of cell (one-third); grey; cilia ochreous-grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in February; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard.

557. HULECHRIA CALOTROPHA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 536 (Brisbane and
Toowoomba to Sydney).

558. ,HULECHRIA ACERAEA Meyr., ibid., 1883, 324 (Birchip, Petersburg, S.A.).

559. HULECHRIA LEUCOPHANES Meyr., ibid., 1883, 320 (Pt. Lincoln).

560. HEHULECHRIA IRENAEA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 962 (Petersburg).

561. +EULECHRIA CHOLERODES Meyr., ibid., 1886, 963 (Carnarvon, W.A.).

90 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

562. HULECHRIA EPIBOSCA, N. Sp. (émiBooxos, upon the grass.)

3, 2. 16-22 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi with second joint reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, external surface of second
joint except apex, and apex of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae grey, towards
base whitish; ciliations in male slightly more than 1. Abdomen dark grey; apices
of segments and tuft paler. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Forewings elongate,
narrow, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique; white; base of
costal edge fuscous; cilia white. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; 5 from
middle of cell; dark grey, in female whitish-grey; cilia whitish.

Narrower winged than H#. candida, the hindwings of male darker grey, and the
antennal ciliations rather longer (in candida two-thirds), and, unlike that species,
the female is smaller, with paler hindwings.

Queensland: Toowoomba in September, October, and April; Bunya Mts.
(3,500 feet) in February and March; fifteen specimens.

563. EULECHRIA CANDIDA Turn., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1898, 206 (Brisbane, Toowoomba
and Bunya Mts., to Armidale).
564. HULECHRIA OMOPASTA, nN. Sp. (@uomacros, with peppered shoulders.)

6. 22-26 mm. 9. 28-30 mm. Head whitish, more or less ochreous-tinged.
Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths to
three-fourths; ochreous-whitish. Antennae whitish; ciliations in male 3. Thorax
ochreous-whitish; usually some fuscous or blackish scales at base of tegulae.
Abdomen ochreous-grey-whitish, bases of segments darker. Legs fuscous; posterior
pair ochreous-grey-whitish. Forewings moderately broad, not dilated, costa gently
arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish; costal
edge towards base blackish; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings with 5 from
middle; pale grey; cilia whitish.

Extremely like #. pallidella, but the head is more ochreous, antennal ciliations
much longer and females rather larger than males.

Queensland: Toowoomba in April; Stanthorpe in May; National Park (2,000
feet in open forest) in February; eleven specimens. An autumnal species.

565. EULECHRIA PALLIDELLA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 519.

3. 19-23 mm. 9. 17-22 mm. Antennal ciliations in male 2. Discal dots never
present in forewings. Females narrower-winged and on the whole smaller than
males. A species of the spring and earlier summer months. (Yeppoon to Tweed
Heads, Toowoomba, Warwick, Stanthorpe.)

566. +EULECHRIA MONODA Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1907, 115 (N.Q.).

567. EULECHRIA SALSICOLA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 162 (Gisborne, Birchip).

568. EULECHRIA NEBRITIS Meyr., ibid., i, 162 (Gisborne).

569. EULECHRIA CIRRHOPEPLA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 354 (Darwin).

0. EULECHRIA NIPHOGRAMMA Turn., ibid., 1916, 354 (Glen Innes).

(1. +EULECHRIA HELIOCOMA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 948 (Duaringa).

2. *EULECHRIA ALOPECISTIS Meyr., ibid., 1888, 1565 (Melbourne).

3. EULECHRIA SYNCHROA Turn., ibid., 1916, 353 (Glen Innes).

4. +*EULECHRIA HOMOTELES Meyyr., ibid., 1887, 947 (Duaringa).

5. EULECHRIA coNcoLor Turn., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1898, 206 (= aphanospila Turn.,

P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 353) (Warwick, Stanthorpe, Glen Innes, Bathurst).

Palpi with second joint exceeding base of antennae, slender, but slightly

expanded with loose scales towards apex; terminal joint one-half. Antennal

ciliations of male two-thirds.

576. EULECHRIA HOMOPHANES, DN. Sp. (duodarns, uniform.)

3. 26 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and legs pale brown. Palpi with second
joint exceeding base of antennae, rather stout and smooth-secaled throughout;

BY A. J. TURNER. 91

terminal joint three-fourths; brown. Antennae grey; ciliations of male one-half.
Forewings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen very
obliquely rounded; pale brown; cilia pale brown. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Larger than EH. concolor, from which it may be distinguished by the different
palpi.

Victoria: Gisborne; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell.

577. EULECHRIA SIMILIS, n. sp. (similis, like.)

6. 15 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; brown. Antennae brown; ciliations in
male 23. Abdomen brown. Legs brown; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Fore-
wings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen
nearly straight, oblique; pale brown; cilia pale brown. Hindwings with 5 from
middle of cell; dark brown; cilia brown.

Extremely similar to EH. concolor, distinct by the longer antennal ciliations
(in concolor less than 1).

North Queensland: Stannary Hills near Herberton; one specimen received
from Dr. T. Bancroft.

578. EULECHRIA HOMOPHYLA, 1. Sp. (duogudos, akin.)

6d. 24mm. Head and thorax greyish-brown. Palpi with second joint exceeding
base of antennae, slender, but slightly thickened and roughened anteriorly towards
apex, terminal joint one-half; fuscous, extreme apex of second joint whitish.
Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen fuscous-brown; apices of segments
and tuft grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings elongate,
costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; greyish-
brown; stigmata scarcely perceptible, first discal at one-third, plical beneath it,
second discal at two-thirds, a dot above and between discals; cilia pale greyish-
brown, on tornus grey. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.

Larger than H. concolor, the hindwings darker, terminal joint of palpi shorter,
and antennal ciliations distinctly longer. H. homoteles, which I have not seen,
should be distinguishable by the whitish head and antennae.

North Queensland: Ayr in June; one specimen.

579. HULECHRIA HAPLOSTOLA, N. SP. (amAooToXos, in simple robe.)

6. 26 mm. Head and thorax whitish-brown. Palpi with second joint
exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; whitish-grey. Antennae
whitish-grey; ciliations in male 1%. Abdomen ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-grey-whitish. Forewings elongate, costa gently
arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; whitish-brown: cilia
grey-whitish. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

Very like H. homophanes, but paler, terminal joint of palpi shorter, and
antennal ciliations much longer.

New South Wales: Glen Innes in March; one specimen.

580. HULECHRIA PERIXANTHA Turn., T7r.R.S.S.Aust., 1896, 24 (Brisbane, Toowoomba,
Tweed Heads, Macpherson Range).

581. HULECHRIA CEPHALANTHES Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 949 (Albany, W.A.).

582. HULECHRIA XIPHERES Turn., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1896, 23 (Yeppoon to Macpherson
Range).

583. HULECHRIA SCYTHROPA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, 339 (= lithodora Low.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1893, 178) (Caloundra to Tasmania. Mt. Lofty).

584. EULECHRIA BLOSYRODES, N. Sp. (fdAocvpwins, grim.)

6, 9. 21-26 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and legs fuscous. Palpi with second
joint exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous. Antennae

°

92 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Forewings elongate-oval, costa moderately arched,
apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; fuscous uniformly irrorated with grey-
whitish, appearing dark grey; cilia fuscous. Hindwings elongate-ovate, rather
narrow; apex pointed; grey; cilia grey.

Very sombre but very distinct from any other species.

Victoria: Kiata near Dimboola (C. Borch); seven specimens.

585. EULECHRIA SERICOPA Low., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1915, 482 (Broken Hill).

586. +EULECHRIA HYPERCHLORA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 962 (York, Geraldton, W.A.).

587. HEULECHRIA CHLORELLA Meyr., ibid., 1882, 526 (= byrsochra Meyr., Exot. Micro.,
i, 301) (Sydney, Bulli).

588. EULECHRIA SEMANTICA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 358 (Mt. Tambourine,
Macpherson Range).

589. HULECHRIA GYPSOMICTA, DN. Sp. (yupPourkros, chalky.)

¢g. 20 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
terminal joint three-fifths; white. Antennae whitish with blackish annulations;
ciliations in male 1. Thorax white; anterior edge narrowly fuscous. Abdomen
grey; tuft whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings dilated, costa
moderately arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique, white
with slight patchy fuscous suffusion; a fuscous spot on base of costa, and a larger
spot slightly beyond; discal dots at one-third and before two-thirds with an
additional dot between them, all small and obscure; plical slightly before first
discal; a large fuscous spot on four-fifths costa; a fuscous line from five-sixths
costa, inwardly oblique, sharply angled and continued near termen to tornus;
cilia grey-whitish. Hindwings and cilia white.

North Queensland: Kuranda in October. Queensland: National Park (3,000
feet) in November. Two specimens.

590. EULECHRIA ANOMOPHANES Turn., P.R.S.Tas., 1926, 144 (Mt. Wellington).

591. EULECHRIA HABROPHANES Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 532 (Stanthorpe to
Melbourne. Tasmania).

592. EULECHRIA POECILELLA Meyr., ibid., 1882, 531 (Sydney to Melbourne. Tasmania.
Mt. Lofty).

593. EULECHRIA FERVESCENS, Nn. sp. (fervescens, warm in colouring.)

3; 9. 18-21 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; white with more or less patchy fuscous
suffusion, external surface of terminal joint fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Thorax -
dark fuscous; outer edge and apex of tegulae white. Abdomen brownish-fuscous.
Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings narrow,
suboblong, costa nearly straight, apex pointed, termen oblique; dark fuscous;
markings white; a narrow costal and a broad median basal streak, both short; a
broad transverse fascia just before middle, interrupted in middle; a triangular
spot on three-fourths costa; a terminal line not reaching tornus; cilia white with
some fuscous bars, apices grey, on tornus wholly grey. Hindwings ochreous-
bronzy with slight fuscous suffusion towards apex and termen; cilia grey.

Queensland: Maryland, N.S.W., near Stanthorpe in November; Toowoomba in
September; three specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.
594. EULECHRIA LEUCOPELTA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 5380 (Stanthorpe to

Mittagong).
595. FXULECHRIA STEPHANOTA, N. Sp. (orepavoros, crowned.)

3. 20-22 mm. Head white more or less tinged with brownish-ochreous. Palpi
with second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous.
Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male one-half. Thorax fuscous with a central

BY A. J. TURNER. 93

grey-whitish spot. Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey. Fore-
wings elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen very oblique; fuscous
with more or less patchy whitish suffusion; sometimes a basal whitish blotch
not reaching costa; a dark fuscous costal streak from base to near middle;
stigmata dark fuscous, first discal at one-fourth, plical shortly beyond, second discal
at three-fifths, double, a dot between and above discals; second discal sometimes
connected by dark suffusion with costa and tornus; sometimes a whitish costal
spot at four-fifths; a terminal series of dark fuscous dots; cilia grey. Hindwings
and cilia grey.

Victoria: Moe in February; two specimens.

596. +HULECHRIA BRONTOMORPHA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 535 (Sydney).
597. HULECHRIA ORTHOLOMA, N. Sp. (6pAodrAwpos, Straight-edged. )

6. 30 mm. Head and thorax grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint not quite
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; pale grey. Antennae pale
grey; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen ferruginous; apices of segments and tuft
grey. Legs grey. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa straight from near
base almost to apex, apex round-pointed, termen very oblique; grey-whitish; cilia
grey-whitish. Hindwings with 5 from below middle; pale grey; cilia pale grey, on
tornus and dorsum whitish.

Queensland: Duaringa; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard.
598. HEULECHRIA EPICHRISTA, N. Sp. (émixypioros, anointed.)

6, 9. 25-30 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-whitish; sides of face fuscous.
Palpi with second joint much exceeding base of antennae, three times length of
face, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, inner surface and apex of second joint
and base of terminal joint whitish. Antennae grey, towards base whitish; ciliations
in male two-thirds. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair. except tarsi,
ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, slightly dilated, costa gently arched, apex
round-pointed, termen very oblique; glossy whitish; costal edge blackish in basal
fourth; cilia whitish. Hindwings with 5 from about middle; grey; cilia whitish.

Considerably larger than H. leucophanes, the forewings less strongly dilated,
the hindwings darker, and the antennal ciliations rather shorter.

Western Australia: Kalamunda near Perth in December; six specimens
received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

599. HEULECHRIA OXYPTILA, N. Sp. (dévmrTidos, Sharp-winged. )

6. 25-26 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-whitish. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-whitish. Antennae
grey, towards base ochreous-whitish; ciliations in male slightly more than 1.
Abdomen ochreous-brown; apices of segments and tuft grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-
whitish; anterior pair, except coxae, fuscous. Forewings elongate, costa slightly
arched; apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; whitish; costal edge near
base fuscous; cilia whitish. Hindwings whitish-grey; cilia whitish.

Best distinguished from EH. epichrista by the palpi.

North Queensland: Stannary Hills near Herberton; two specimens received
from Dr. T. Bancroft.

600. EULECHRIA PSAROPHANES Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 352 (Stanthorpe, Glen
Innes, Ebor).

601. HKULECHRIA CALAMAEA Meyr., ibid., 1883, 492 (Toowoomba, Bunya Mts., Glen
Innes).

602. EULECHRIA CRETACEA Meyr., ibid., 1883, 491 (Murrurundi, Newcastle, Sydney,
Mittagong).

603. EULECHRIA DELOCHORDA Turn., 77.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 58 (Toowoomba).

94 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

604. +HULECHRIA RUINOSA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 157 (Q.).

605. EULECHRIA XYLOPTERELLA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 543 (Brisbane to
Melbourne. Launceston).

606. EULECHRIA ENCRATODES Meyr., Haot. Micro. ii, 510 (Killarney, Stanthorpe.
Dorrigo. Gisborne).

607. EULECHRIA DIASTICHA, N. Sp. (dcaorcxos, With a streak right through.)

°. 22 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint exceeding base of antennae,
terminal joint 1; whitish, slight fuscous suffusion on outer surface of second
joint, terminal joint fuscous anteriorly. Antennae grey, becoming whitish towards
base. Thorax white; some fuscous scales on tegulae. Abdomen whitish; median
segments except apices grey. Legs whitish; anterior tibiae and tarsi fuscous.
Forewings narrow, not dilated, costa slightly arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen
very obliquely rounded; white; markings dark fuscous; a narrow streak from
base nearly to apex just above middle, its median portion indistinctly double; a
series of dots close to apical part of costa and termen; cilia white. Hindwings
whitish-grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Toowoomba in September; one specimen received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

608. EULECHRIA TANYSTICHA, 1. Sp. (ravvorixos, long-streaked. )

6, 9. 20-21 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi with second joint
exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, an oblique ring
on middle of second joint, and base and apex of terminal joint, dark fuscous.
Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male two-thirds. Abdomen brownish; apices of
segments and tuft pale grey. Legs whitish-grey; anterior pair fuscous. Fore-
wings elongate-oval, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely
rounded; whitish-grey; markings and some scattered scales brownish-fuscous;
some denser irroration towards base; stigmata blackish, first discal at one-fourth,
plical beneath it, second discal at middle, discals united by a dark streak, an
additional dot between and above discals; ill-defined streaks in terminal area
parallel to veins; a series of longitudinally elongate dots on termen and on costa
before apex; cilia grey-whitish with some fuscous points. Hindwings grey; towards
base whitish; cilia grey, on tornus and dorsum whitish.

Queensland: National Park (3,000 feet) in October and November; Stanthorpe
in October; four specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard.

609. EULECHRIA DYSCOLLETA, N. Sp. (dvoKoAAnTos, incongruous. )

dg. 22 mm. Head brown-whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi with second
joint much exceeding base of antennae, thickened and rough anteriorly, terminal
joint three-fourths; fuscous mixed with brown-whitish. Antennae fuscous; cilia-
tions in male 1. Thorax fuscous; tegulae partly brown. Abdomen brown-whitish.
Legs fuscous with brown-whitish rings; posterior pair mostly brown-whitish. Fore-
wings rather narrow, not dilated, costa slightly arched; apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded; pale brown; markings fuscous; a broad costal streak to one-
fourth; a sub-basal dorsal blotch anteriorly rectangular, upper posterior angle
with a short stout oblique process, which is really the first discal stigma; a
triangular mark on costa before middle, its apex formed by second discal; a
suboblong blotch on costa before apex, giving off a line running to tornus close
to termen; cilia brown, bases with obscure fuscous bars, apices grey. Hindwings
pale grey; cilia ochreous-whitish.

Western Australia: Collie in October; type in Coll. Lyell.

610. EULECHRIA AcERVATA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 161 (Perth, Waroona, W.A.).

BY A. J. TURNER. 95

611. EULECHRIA AERODES Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 18838, 321 (Bathurst, Gisborne,
Tasmania).

612. EuLecHrIA LEPTOocHORDA Turn., ibid., 1916, 354 (Magnetic Is.).

613. EULECHRIA ANTYGOTA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 161 (Perth, Waroona, W.A.).

614. EULECHRIA HomoxEstTA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 965 (Guildford, Waroona,
W.A.).

615. *HULECHRIA HOMOCHALCHA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 965 (York, W.A.).

616. EULECHRIA HOLOPSARA, N. Sp. (ddoWapos, Wholly grey.)

3, 9. 20-22 mm. Head and thorax grey; in female tinged brownish. Palpi
slender, in male with second joint exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint
one-half, in female with second joint shorter, terminal joint three-fifths; grey.
Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. Abdomen brownish-grey. Legs grey;
posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa gently arched,
more strongly in female, apex pointed, termen extremely oblique; grey, in female
brownish-tinged; some scattered fuscous scales; stigmata obsolete or minute, first
discal at one-third, plical beneath it, second discal at two-thirds, a dot beneath
second discal; cilia grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

A very obscure species. The very narrow elongate forewings and comparatively
short palpi should be noted.

Queensland: Talwood in April; eight specimens received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

617. EULECHRIA THRINCOTIS Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 965 (Cunderdin, Geraldton,
W.A.).

618. +HULECHRIA HALMOPEDA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 963 (Carnarvon, W.A.).

619. EULECHRIA FRIGESCENS Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 160 (Mt. St. Bernard).

620. HULECHRIA PULVIFERA, Nn. Sp. (pulviferus, powdered. )

6. 22 mm. 9. 25 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi with second joint
exceeding base of antennae, terminal joint one-half; whitish-grey. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male 3. Abdomen pale grey; bases of segments fuscous. Legs grey;
posterior pair whitish-grey. Forewings very elongate and narrow, costa moderately
arched, apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish sprinkled with
grey; an outwardly curved grey line from four-fifths costa to tornus; some grey
terminal dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Southport in July; two specimens received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

621. EULECHRIA LEPTOCHROMA, N. Sp. (Aertoxpwpuos, lightly coloured.)

9. 22 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint exceeding
base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; whitish, outer surface of second joint
except base and apex fuscous. Antennae grey, near base whitish. Abdomen
ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow,
costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; whitish-grey
faintly pinkish-tinged, sparsely sprinkled with fuscous; veins slenderly whitish;
cilia whitish, bases faintly pinkish-tinged. Hindwings pale grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (2,500 feet in open forest) in November; one
specimen.

622. HULECHRIA JuUGATA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 161 (Kerang, V.).

623. HEULECHRIA SEMNOSTOLA Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1901, 90 (Broken Hill).

624. HULECHRIA STYRACISTA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., ii, 370 (Hobart).

625. EULECHRIA PHAEOSCEPTRA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 964 (Waroona, Geraldton,
W.A.).

96 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

626. EULECHRIA CALLISCEPTRA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 964 (Perth, York, Cunderdin,
Geraldton, W.A.).

627. EULECHRIA COSMOCRATES Meyr., ibid., 1888, 1615 (= dulcescens Meyr., Hxot.
Micro., i, 130) (Atherton, Duaringa, Yeppoon, Tabulam, N.S.W.).

628. EULECHRIA GYPSOCHROA, N. Sp. (yupPoxpoos, chalky.)

9. 21-22 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint much exceeding base of
antennae, 2% times length of face, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, second
joint ochreous-tinged externally. Antennae grey. Thorax blackish; a large
posterior spot and bases of tegulae white. Abdomen brownish; apices of segments
ochreous-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior pair pale greyish-brown. Forewings
elongate-oval, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely
rounded; white; markings brown; first discal obsolete, plical at one-third, second
discal at two-thirds, connected by a coarse line with tornus; a fine interrupted
line close to termen from costa before apex to tornus; cilia white. Hindwings
ochreous-grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Talwood in November; five specimens received from Mr. W. B.
Barnard, who has the type.

629. HEULECHRIA CYCLOPHRAGMA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1888, 1581 (= holocycla Low.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1894, 98) (Toowoomba to Gisborne).

630. EULECHRIA PLAGIOSTICHA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 355 (= argyrodes Turn.,
Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 100) (Brisbane).

631. EULECHRIA INSTRUCTA Meyr., Exot. Micro., ii, 370 (Dalby).

632. EULECHRIA PYCNOGRAPHA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 355 (Ebor).

633. HEULECHRIA VARIEGATA Meyr., ibid., 1882, 528 (Brisbane and Bunya Mts., to
Gisborne and Sale).

634. EULECHRIA HEMIPHANES Meyr., ibid., 1882, 529 (Melbourne, Launceston).

635. +EULECHRIA AMPHILEUCA Low., T7r.R.S.S.Aust., 1903, 222 (Birchip).

636. EULECHRIA ELAEOTA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 957 (Perth, W.A.).

637. HEULECHRIA CATAPLASTA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 957 (Denmark, Perth, W.A.).

638. EULECHRIA PHAEOCHORDA, N. Sp. (aoxopdos, dark-streaked.)

6. 25 mm. Head white. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
terminal joint two-thirds; white, external surface of second joint except apex
fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 6. Thorax fuscous, with some central
whitish suffusion. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Fore-
wings somewhat dilated, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique;
white; markings dark fuscous; a broad costal streak from base narrowing to a
point at three-fifths; a dorsal streak from base, soon dilated to reach half across
disc, reaching tornus, its upper edge curved and surmounted by two blackish dots,
which are partly confluent with it; a double blackish dot at two-thirds with an
outwardly oblique extension to tornus; a large apical blotch containing some small
white marks on costa and termen; cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Tasmania: Bothwell in March; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard.
639. 7EULECHRIA CEPHALOCHRYSA Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1894, 95 (Duaringa).

640. EULECHRIA CALLIMERIS Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 958 (Busselton, Perth, W.A.).
641. EULECHRIA EGREGIA, Nn. Sp. (egregius, out of the common.)

dg, . 21-24 mm. Head and thorax fuscous with a few whitish scales. Palpi
with second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous,
second joint with lower and basal part of external surface white. Antennae
fuscous, ciliations in male two-thirds. Abdomen whitish-ochreous; bases of
segments on dorsum partly fuscous. Legs fuscous on dorsum, white beneath;
posterior pair pale ochreous. Forewings subrectangular, costa strongly arched,

BY A. J. TURNER. 97

apex rounded, termen moderately oblique; grey; a small fuscous basal patch; a
dark fuscous costal streak from one-fourth to two-thirds, broadest in middle,
diminishing gradually to each extremity; a broad suffused white streak beneath
this throughout and continued to apex; a fine fuscous line from three-fourths
costa cuts across this and is continued by a fine white line to tornus; stigmata
fuscous, minute, first discal at one-third, plical obsolete, second discal at two-thirds;
cilia grey with a darker sub-basal line. Hindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Cudgen, Tweed Heads, in October; two specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

642. +EULECHRIA ISCHNODES Meyr., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1902, 150 (Kewell, V.).

643. EULECHRIA CARBASEA Turn., ibid., 1917, 98 (Atherton).

644. EULECHRIA SCITULA Turn., ibid., 1917, 98 (Tabulam, N.S.W.).

645. fEULECHRIA XANTHOCROSSA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1887, 959 (Geraldton, W.A.).

646. EULECHRIA THIOCROSSA Turn., 7T7r.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 97 (Gympie to Tweed
Heads, Stanthorpe).

647. EULECHRIA TRANSVERSELLA WIk., xxix, 763; Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1882, 527
(Duaringa to Sydney).

648. HULECHRIA PREPODES, N. Sp. (mpetwdns, seemly.)

6. 18-22 mm. Head white, ochreous-tinged. Palpi with second joint reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous, extreme apex of second
joint and base of terminal joint whitish. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1.
Thorax ochreous-whitish; bases of tegulae dark fuscous. Abdomen grey; tuft
whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings sub-
oblong, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded;
whitish, more or less ochreous-tinged; markings blackish; a narrow outwardly
oblique fascia from base of costa to near base of dorsum, well defined and of
uniform thickness; a costal streak from base to two-thirds; stigmata obsolete or
represented by two dots placed transversely at two-thirds; a terminal series of
dots more or less developed; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey; cilia grey-whitish.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in January; two specimens received from
Mr. W. B. Barnard.

649. HULECHRIA PAROCRANA, 1. Sp. (mapoxpavos, with brown head.)

6, 9. 22-26 mm. Head pale brown; centre of crown and face grey-whitish.
Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths;
fuscous, terminal joint and apex of second whitish. Antennae grey, basal joint
fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax pale grey; anterior edge mostly fuscous.
Abdomen pale grey; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous with whitish rings;
posterior pair mostly whitish-ochreous. Forewings rather narrow, suboval; costa
moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish-grey;
markings fuscous; a large triangular spot on base of costa; another on midcosta;
stigmata small, dark fuscous, first discal at one-fourth, plical beyond it; second
discal beyond middle, a dot between and above discals touching apex of midcostal
spot, a dot beneath second discal; a short inwardly oblique streak from four-fifths
costa, soon angled and continued as a fine curved interrupted line to tornus; cilia
grey-whitish with a darker median line. Hindwings whitish-grey; cilia grey-
whitish.

Near #H. transversella, but with brownish head and without complete basal
fascia.

Queensland: Brisbane and Gympie in September, Bunya Mts. (3,500 feet) in
November. New South Wales: Lismore in October. Hight specimens.

98 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

650. HEULECHRIA TRANQUILLA, n. Sp. (tranquillus, calm, peaceful.)

3d; 2. 20-25 mm. Head white or grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; grey-whitish; external
surface of second joint except apex fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male
two-thirds. Thorax grey-whitish; anterior edge and bases of tegulae fuscous.
Abdomen grey, ferruginous-tinged; apices of segments and tuft grey-whitish. Legs
fuscous; posterior pair and dorsum of middle tibiae grey-whitish. Forewings
rather narrow, not dilated, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; grey-whitish; markings and slight irroration fuscous; a very distinct
basal fascia; first discal just before one-third, plical slightly beyond it, second
discal before two-thirds, a dot midway between and above discals, another just
beyond and above plical, a sixth beneath second discal, sometimes obliquely
crescentic, sometimes confluent; usually a suffused median costal spot; a short
inwardly oblique streak from costa before apex emitting a fine curved line to
tornus; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings elongate-ovate; grey; cilia pale grey.

Near #. foedatella, but with narrower forewings, sub-basal fascia entire,
straight, and of even thickness, not wedge-shaped, no defined dark costal triangle.
It cannot be EH. archepeda, which I have not seen, for that has antennal ciliations
14. The dot above and beyond plical distinguishes it from H. transversella.

Queensland: Byfield near Yeppoon in October; six specimens.

651. EULECHRIA PLESIOSPERMA, Nn. SD. (rdnovocmepuos, with approximated spots.)

6g. 21-22 mm. Head brown-whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint two-thirds; fuscous, extreme apex of second joint
whitish. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male three-fourths. Thorax whitish-
grey: bases of tegulae fuscous. Abdomen fuscous irrorated with grey-whitish;
apices of segments and tuft grey-whitish. Legs fuscous with ochreous-whitish
rings; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings with costa moderately arched,
apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded; grey-whitish with some grey
suffusion and scanty fuscous irroration; markings fuscous; an outwardly oblique
quadrate spot from base of costa to fold; stigmata nearly approximated, first discal
at two-fifths, plical beneath it, second discal at three-fifths, a dot above and
between discals, another above and beyond plical, a sixth beneath second discal,
and a seventh beneath and before sixth; suffused spots on two-thirds and five-sixths
costa sometimes suffusedly connected with mid-dorsum; a terminal series of dots;
cilia grey-whitish, bases ochreous-whitish.

Queensland: Malanda, Atherton Plateau, in September; two specimens.

652. EULECHRIA NAPAEA Turn. TJ7r.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 99.

This is certainly very similar to H. foedatella Meyr., and is best distinguished
by the shorter antennal ciliations, one-half in the former, 1 in the latter. In
E. napaea the first discal (at one-fourth) is nearly always closely followed by a dot
beyond and beneath; this is absent in #. foedatella.

(Brisbane, Rosewood, Mt. Tambourine, Macpherson Range. )

53. EULECHRIA FOEDATELLA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, 377 (Hungella to Sydney).
654. +EULECHRIA ARCHEPEDA Meyr., ibid., 1887, 960 (Sydney).
55. EULECHRIA TRIGONOSEMA, D. Sp. (Tpryovoonuos, with triangular markings.)

3, 2. 22-26 mm. Head whitish-ochreous; in female grey. Palpi with second
joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, extreme apex
of second joint and base of terminal joint ochreous-whitish. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male 1. Thorax fuscous, apices of tegulae and a posterior spot
ochreous-whitish. Abdomen fuscous; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous;
posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings rather broad, costa strongly arched,

BY A. J. TURNER. 99

apex rounded, termen moderately oblique; whitish or ochreous-whitish with some
fuscous sprinkling; markings fuscous; a small triangle on base of costa; another
on costa just before middle, somewhat equilateral; stigmata dot-like, first disca!]
at one-fourth, plical slightly beyond, second discal at three-fifths, a dot between
and above discals touching median triangle, and two conjoined dots beneath second
discal; a line from three-fourths costa, at first transverse, then bent outwards
and curved inwards to tornus; a terminal series of dots; cilia whitish with a pale
fuscous median line. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range in November; six specimens.

656. EULECHRIA STHENOPIS Turn., P.R.S.Tas., 1926, 145 (Mt. Wellington, Cradle
Mt., Strahan). r

657. EULECHRIA HyPopOoLIA Turn., T7.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 99 (Stanthorpe to Scone).

658. HFULECHRIA HETAERICA, N. Sp. (€Taprxos, Aa COMpanion.)

6. 24-26 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, extreme apex of second and base of
terminal joint whitish. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male 14. Thorax
whitish; bases of tegulae fuscous. Abdomen grey-whitish; bases of segments
ferruginous-fuscous. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair ochreous-
whitish. Forewings elongate, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; grey-whitish; markings and some irroration fuscous; a triangular spot
on base of costa reaching fold; another on midcosta less distinctly developed; first
discal about one-third, plical beneath it, second discal not much beyond middle, a
dot above and between discals, another beneath second; a slender line from five-
sixths costa, bent outwards beneath costa, then downwards and curved to tornus;
a terminal series of dots; cilia whitish, a suffused interrupted grey line before
middle. Hindwings and cilia whitish-grey.

Very like EH. trigonosema, but the forewings are longer and in proportion
narrower, less distinctly marked, and the antennal ciliations substantially longer.

North Queensland: Kuranda in September; five specimens.

659. HULECHRIA MACHINOSA Meyr., Exot. Micro., i, 159 (Dorrigo, Ebor).
660. HULECHRIA PLACOPHAEA, N. Sp. (mAakodatos, broadly fuscous.)

6. 22 mm. Head pale ochreous. Palpi with second joint just reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous, base and extreme apex of second
joint whitish. Antennae dark grey; ciliations in male 1. Thorax fuscous.
(Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings
with costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white
irrorated and suffused with fuscous; markings dark fuscous, broadly developed;
a broad streak from base of costa to fold, acutely toothed in middle and at apex,
continued by a broad bar along dorsum to middle, and touching plical dot; a costal
triangle from one-fifth to three-fifths, its apex rather posterior; first discal before
one-third, touching costal triangle, plical beneath it, second discal forming a
crescentic transverse mark before two-thirds, a dot beyond and above plical; a
large spot on costa before apex giving rise to an outwardly curved line and an
inwardly curved suffusion, which meet at tornus; a terminal series of dots; cilia
grey-whitish with a sub-basal series of fuscous bars. Hindwings grey-whitish,
towards apex pale grey; cilia pale grey, on tornus and dorsum ochreous-whitish.

Queensland: Toowoomba in September; one specimen.

661. *EULECHRIA MATHEMATICA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, 375 (Sydney).
662. EHULECHRIA CIRRHOCEPHALA Turn., T7.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 96 (Brisbane, Macpher-
son Range).

100 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

663. HULECHRIA CAPNOPLEURA, N. SP. (Kamvomdevpos, With smoky costa.)

6, 2. 25-30 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; grey, base and apex of second joint
whitish. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male 1. Thorax grey. Abdomen
ferruginous; apices of segments and tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish;
anterior pair fuscous. Forewings suboval, costa rather strongly arched, apex
pointed, termen oblique; whitish, with patchy grey suffusion; markings fuscous;
a darker basal spot produced to fold; a broadly suffused costal streak from near
base to three-fifths; first discal at one-third, plical beyond it, second discal before
two-thirds, a fourth dot above and slightly beyond plical, a fifth midway above
and between discals, confluent with costal streak, a sixth beneath second discal,
usually confluent with it to form a semilunar mark, in one example this is much
prolonged to include fourth dot; a much suffused broad inwardly oblique streak
from four-fifths costa to middle of disc; from its outer edge proceeds a fine strongly
curved line to tornus; a series of minute terminal dots; cilia pale grey, apices
whitish. Hindwings with 5 from middle or slightly below; whitish; apex with
slight grey suffusion; cilia whitish.

Very similar to Meyrick’s description of H. dedecorata, but in that species the
antennal ciliations are nearly 2, and the dot above and beyond plical is absent.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine in September, October; National Park (2,500
to 3,500 feet) in October, November and December; nine specimens.

664. }+HULECHRIA DEDECORATA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., i, 302 (Duaringa).
665. HEULECHRIA PERIOECA, N. Sp. (meptorxos, neighbouring. )

6. 22 mm. Head brown-whitish. Palpi with second joint exceeding base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; brown-whitish. Antennae pale grey; cilia-
tions in male 23. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-whitish, towards base of
dorsum greyish-tinged. Forewings rather narrow, costa moderately arched, apex
round-pointed, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish with a few fuscous ©
scales, but no fuscous suffusion; markings fuscous; a slender suffused bar from
base of costa obliquely outwards to fold; a suffused costal mark thickest in middle
and tapering at each end to costa at one-third and two-thirds; first discal at one-
fourth, plical distinctly beyond it, second discal before two-thirds, a dot between
and above discals touching costal mark, a dot beneath second discal prolonged
inwards to form a short slender streak, a dot above and beyond discal, not near
it, but almost beneath fourth dot; a slender line from four-fifths costa, at first
shortly inwards, then curved outwards and ending near tornus; a series of
minute dots on termen and terminal part of costa; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hind-
wings pale grey; cilia grey-whitish.

Not unlike EH. capnopleura, from which it is distinguished by the antennal
ciliations, which are even longer than in H. dedecorata. From the latter it differs
in the fuscous thorax, wholly brown-whitish palpi, and in the presence of a dot
beyond plical and almost beneath fourth dot.

Queensland: Rosewood in April; one specimen.

666. EULECHRIA PASTEOPTERA, D. Sp. (macreomtepos, With peppered wings.)

3d, 9. 24-26 mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi with second joint much
exceeding base of antennae (twice length of face), terminal joint one-half;
ochreous-whitish. Antennae pale grey; ciilations in male 1. Thorax whitish
sprinkled with grey. Abdomen ochreous-whitish; bases of segments ferruginous.
Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair grey. Forewings rather narrow, costa gently
arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; ochreous-whitish with some fuscous
irroration within cell and towards margins; an oblique fascia from near base of

BY A. J. TURNER. 101

costa indistinct beneath fold; a fuscous costal streak from one-fourth to middle;
stigmata dark fuscous, first discal at one-fourth, plical beyond it, second discal at
three-fourths, a fourth dot just above and beyond plical, a fifth midway between
and above discals, a sixth sometimes double beneath second discal; cilia whitish.
Hindwings with 5 from below middle; whitish; cilia whitish.
Very near H. capnopleura, but the difference in palpi appears conclusive.
North Queensland: Cairns in June; Cardwell in August; two specimens.
667. HKULECIIRIA XUTIIOCRANA, D. Sp. (fovdoxpavos, with yellowish head.)

od. 19-21 mm. Head pale ochreous. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-fuscous. Antennae ochreous-grey;
ciliations in male two-thirds. Thorax grey. Abdomen ferruginous; apices of
segments whitish-grey; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair
whitish-ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa rather strongly arched, apex
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; 2 and 3 connate; ochreous-whitish sprinkled
with fuscous, more densely towards margins; central area nearly clear; a suffused
basal transverse fascia; stigmata dark fuscous, distinct, first at one-fourth, plical
beneath it, sometimes elongate, second discal just beyond middle, a fourth dot
between and above discals, a fifth beneath second discal; usually a broad fuscous
suffusion on mid-dorsum; a line from costa before apex bent in disc and ending
in tornus; some indistinct terminal dots; cilia ochreous-whitish, bases with fine
fuscous bars. Hindwings with 5 from middle or below; grey-whitish slightly
darker towards apex; cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Millaa Millaa in September. Queensland: Bundaberg;
Bunya Mts. in October; Mt. Tambourine in October and November. New South
Wales: Lismore in October; Bulli. Nine specimens.

668. HULECHRIA MELICHYTA, N. Sp. (pmedcxuTos, honey-stained.)

dg. 16-18 mm. 9. 20-22 mm. Head orange-ochreous. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, apex of second and
base of terminal joint whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 13. Thorax
fuscous; posterior edge and apices of tegulae ochreous. Abdomen grey; tuft
whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous with whitish tarsal rings; posterior pair whitish-
ochreous. Forewings rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed,
termen very obliquely rounded; pale ochreous, sometimes with a few scattered
fuscous scales; markings fuscous; a short streak on base of costa; stigmata small,
sometimes partly obsolete; first discal at one-third, plical beyond, second discal
before two-thirds, a dot above and between discals; sometimes a suffused subapical
spot giving origin to a fine subterminal line; cilia pale ochreous. Hindwings grey;
cilia pale grey, bases ochreous-tinged.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (Binna Burra, 2,500 feet) in December; six
specimens.

669. EULECHRIA MYROCHRISTA Meyr., Hxot. Micro., ii, 371 (Nambour to Dorrigo).
670. HULECHRIA THIOBAPHES, N. Sp. (6ecoBadns, suffused with sulphur.)

6. 19-20 mm. Head orange-ochreous. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; fuscous, base of terminal joint whitish.
Antennae dark fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax pale ochreous; bases of
tegulae dark fuscous. Abdomen grey; apices of segments ochreous-whitish; tuft
pale ochreous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings narrow,
costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen oblique, whitish-ochreous;
markings dark fuscous; a broad costal streak from base gradually attenuating to
three-fourths; discals approximated, first discal beyond one-third, plical before it

P

102 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

or obsolete, second discal before two-thirds, transversely elongate, a dot between
and above discals; a short inwardly oblique streak from costa before apex; some
minute terminal dots; cilia orange-ochreous. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Macpherson Range in December; two specimens. My second
example has tegulae wholly dark fuscous and costal streak prolonged at base to
reach dorsum.

671. EULECHRIA PACHYCHORDA, Nl. SP. (maxuxopdos, thick-streaked.)

°. 20mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
terminal joint two-thirds; whitish. Antennae dark fuscous. Thorax dark fuscous.
Abdomen pale grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings
rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen oblique; whitish;
markings dark fuscous; a broad costal streak from base nearly to apex; first discal
at one-third, plical beneath it, second discal forming a short transverse mark at
two-thirds, a dot above and between discals touching costal streak; some fuscous
irroration on termen; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet) in March; one specimen.

672. HULECHRIA BASICAPNA, I. Sp. (Bactxamvos, smoky at the base.)

6. 16 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi with second joint just reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, external surface of second
joint except apex fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1. Thorax
whitish; patagia whitish-ochreous; tegulae fuscous. Abdomen grey, apices of
segments paler; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair
fuscous. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched near base, thence straight
to near apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish; markings and
some scattered scales fuscous; a sharply defined basal fascia extending further
on costa than dorsum; a suffused streak from above middle of dise shortly beyond
base to three-fifths costa; two adjacent dots placed transversely in dise at three-
fourths; a spot on four-fifths costa giving origin to outwardly and inwardly curved
lines, which join shortly above and are continued to tornus; a terminal series of
dots; cilia whitish, bases whitish-ochreous, with a grey antemedian line. MHind-
wings grey; cilia grey-whitish.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December; three specimens received
from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.

673. EULECHRIA HEXASTICTA, 1. Sp. (€faoreKTos, Six-Spotted.)

dg. 22-23 mm. Head grey-whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, external surface of second joint
except apex pale fuscous. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male 1. Thorax grey;
posterior apex and apices of tegulae whitish. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey, partly
ferruginous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings narrow,
costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish partly
sprinkled with pale fuscous towards dorsum and termen; costal edge fuscous; a
fuscous costal streak from one-third to two-thirds; stigmata small, blackish, first
discal at one-fourth, plical well beyond it, second discal at three-fifths, a fourth dot
immediately above and beyond plical, a fifth midway between and above discals,
a sixth sometimes double beneath second discal; cilia whitish. Hindwings with
5 from below middle; pale grey; cilia pale grey, apices whitish.

Queensland: Yeppoon in September; five specimens.

674. EULECHRIA SYNCOLLA Turn., 77.R.S.S.Aust., 1917, 97 (Ebor).

675. EULECHRIA VICINA Turn., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1916, 356 (Guyra, Ebor).
676. EULECHRIA BATHROPHAEA Turn., ibid., 1914, 562 (Ebor).

677. EULECHRIA LEUCOSTEPHANA Turn., ibid., 1916, 356 (Mt. Kosciusko).

BY A. J. TURNER. 103

678. HULECHRIA SYNNEPHES, Nl. Sp. (ocuvvedns, clouded.)

do. 18-20 mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint just reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish, outer surface partly grey-
suffused. Antennae pale grey; ciliations in male 1. Thorax whitish anteriorly
suffused with grey. Abdomen brown-whitish sprinkled with grey-whitish;
apices of segments and tuft grey-whitish. Legs pale fuscous; posterior pair
whitish. Forewings suboblong, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen
nearly straight, oblique; whitish, partly suffused and sprinkled with pale fuscous;
a large basal costal spot; a suffusion on midcosta reaching middle of disc; another
inwardly oblique from costa before apex; stigmata minute, first discal at two-
fifths, plical beneath it, second discal at two-thirds; some irroration before termen;
cilia whitish partly suffused with pale fuscous. Hindwings and cilia whitish-grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda in September; two specimens received from Mr.
F. P. Dodd.

679. EULECHRIA CNECOPASTA, 1D. Sp. (Kvnkotacros, sprinkled with pale yellow.)

6. 23 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi with second joint exceeding base
of antennae, twice length of face, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous, inner
surface of second and posterior of terminal joint ochreous-whitish. Antennae grey;
ciliations in male 1. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs
fuscous; middle pair partly and posterior pair wholly whitish-ochreous. Fore-
wings elongate-oval, costa strongly arched, apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded;
whitish densely sprinkled with whitish, appearing grey; patches of whitish-
ochreous suffusion on two-thirds costa and above tornus; markings dark fuscous;
an oblique quadrate mark on base of costa; stigmata slightly elongate, first discal
at one-third, plical beyond it, second discal before two-thirds, an elongate dot
before and beneath plical, one above and between discals, and another beneath
second discal; a short inwardly oblique streak from three-fourths costa, giving
origin to a fine curved dentate line to tornus; cilia whitish-ochreous with fuscous
bars, apices grey. Hindwings and cilia whitish-ochreous.

Queensland: Macpherson Range in December; one specimen.

680. EULECHRIA PHAEODELTA, N. Sp. (darodedros, With dusky triangle.)

do. 26mm. Head ochreous-whitish. Palpi slightly exceeding base of antennae,
terminal joint three-fifths; ochreous-whitish mixed with fuscous. Antennae
fuscous; ciliations in male 13. Thorax grey; tegulae except apices fuscous.
Abdomen grey; apices of segments whitish; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs fuscous
with obscure pale tarsal rings; posterior tibiae whitish-ochreous. Forewings
moderate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen very obliquely rounded;
whitish sprinkled with grey; markings fuscous, rather suffused; a sub-basal trans-
verse fascia; a large triangle extending on costa from one-third almost to two-
thirds, its apex confluent with first discal at one-third; second discal before two-
thirds, a dot above and between discals; a broad dorsal suffusion extending above
fold, and thence obliquely to four-fifths costa, this occupies the whole of terminal
area, but contains some whitish irroration; cilia pale fuscous. Hindwings elongate-
ovate; dark grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Magnetic Island in June; one specimen.

681. EHULECHRIA BRACHYSTOMA Meyr., Hot. Micro., i, 299 (Duaringa).
682. EULECHRIA HEPTASTICTA, N. Sp. (émracrixros, seven-spotted. )

6. 20 mm. Head whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous; inner surface mostly whitish.
Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male one-half. Thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey;
tuft whitish-grey. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish,

104 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI,

Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely
rounded; grey; a small oblong dark fuscous blotch on one-third dorsum surrounded
by whitish suffusion; stigmata dark fuscous, dot-like, mostly edged with whitish,
first discal at one-third, plical slightly beyond, second discal at three-fifths, a dot
between discals, another beneath and beyond first, a sixth above and beyond plical,
and a seventh beneath second discal; a fuscous line from four-fifths costa curved
outwards, then bent and inwardly curved to tornus; a terminal series of dots;
cilia -_pale fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Noosa in October; one specimen.

683. EULECHRIA CHRYSOLOMA Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1893, 179 (Melbourne, Gisborne,
Adelaide).
684. EULECHRIA MESAMYDRA, N. Sp. (eoauvdpos, dark in the middle.)

9. 14 mm. Head whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fifths; whitish, base and a subapical ring on second
joint, and terminal joint except base, fuscous. Antennae grey. Thorax fuscous.
Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair fuscous. Fore-
wings narrow, costa almost straight, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish
with a few fuscous scales; a broad fuscous transverse band, anterior edge straight
from midecosta to mid-dorsum, posterior edge suffused from three-fourths costa to
tornus, on costa this band is dark fuscous, elsewhere paler; a dark fuscous spot on
costa before apex; stigmata dark fuscous, first discal at one-third, plical beneath
it, second discal before two-thirds, a dot between, and in a line with, discals; cilia
whitish-grey. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine in November; one specimen.

685. EULECHRIA RHABDORA, Nn. Sp. (6adoe0c, streaked.)

do. 15 mm. Head white with a grey spot on crown. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint four-fifths; whitish. Antennae whitish
(broken off short); ciliations in male 1. Thorax white with a central fuscous
streak. Abdomen pale ochreous; apices of segments and tuft whitish. Legs
whitish. Forewings narrow, sublanceolate, costa strongly arched, apex pointed,
termen extremely oblique; white with numerous longitudinal fuscous streaks;
three long streaks from base, broadly interrupted; shorter oblique streaks run
into apical third of costa and into termen; a subdorsal streak near base; cilia
grey, bases whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in March; one specimen.

686. EULECHRIA POLYMITA, N. Sp. (7odvpiTos, With many threads.)

3, 2. 20-21 mm. Head whitish with a median fuscous line. Palpi with
second joint reaching base of antennae, terminal joint 1; whitish, base of second
joint, and subapical rings on second and terminal joints, fuscous. Antennae grey,
becoming whitish towards base; ciliation in male 14. Thorax whitish; tegulae
and three longitudinal lines fuscous. Abdomen whitish; bases of segments, except
first, pale ochreous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous internally: Forewings
narrow, suboval, costa straight to near apex, apex round-pointed, termen very
oblique; whitish with numerous fine longitudinal fuscous streaks; a subcostal
streak from base of costa to two-fifths; two slender streaks from base; a median
streak from one-third, bent upwards to costa before apex, with another closely
parallel above it; several shorter streaks in disc and toward dorsum; cilia whitish
with some basal fuscous bars. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

The narrow forewings and markings are probably adaptations for conceal-
ment, perhaps on Casuarina,

BY A; J. TURNER. 105

Victoria: Gisborne in December; two specimens received from Mr. Geo. Lyell,
who has the type.

687. EULECHRIA SPILOPHORA, 1. Sp. (amdodopos, spotted.)

dg. 14mm. Head whitish. Palpi with second joint reaching base of antennae,
terminal joint three-fifths; whitish, base and a subapical ring on second joint, and
some irroration, fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male 1. Thorax grey-
whitish with an anterior fuscous spot. Abdomen pale grey; tuft ochreous-whitish.
Forewings narrow, slightly dilated, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish; markings and some scattered scales dark
fuscous; costal spots at one-fourth, middle and before apex; first discal at two-
fifths, plical before it, elongated into a streak towards base, second discal at three-
fifths, rather large; a curved line from third costal spot to tornus; cilia ochreous-
whitish, bases with fine fuscous bars. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Herberton in March; one specimen.

688. EULECHRIA AMYDRODES, N. Sp. (duvdpwins, dark.)

3, g. 18-19 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi with second joint
reaching base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous mixed with
ochreous-whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 14. Abdomen grey with
several transverse brown bars on dorsum; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous
with whitish-ochreous rings; posterior pair mostly whitish-ochreous. Forewings
elongate, costa moderately arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; fuscous;
stigmata sometimes indicated—first discal at one-third, plical beyond, second
discal at two-thirds, a dot above and between discals; cilia fuscous. Hindwings
and cilia grey.

Queensland: National Park (2,500 feet in open forest) in November; nine
specimens.

689. EULECHRIA SCIOIDES, Nn. Sp. (oxtoedns, dark.)

9. 16 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi with second joint just reaching base of
antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous, inner surface whitish. Antennae
and thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey.
Forewings narrow, costa straight except near base and apex, apex rounded, termen
obliquely rounded; 2 and 3 connate; uniformly dark fuscous; cilia dark fuscous.
Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Western Australia: Mundaring near Perth in June; one specimen received
from Mr. J. Clark.

690. HKULECHRIA XIPHOLEUCA Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1901, 89 (Broken Hill. Birchip).
691. KULECHRIA STENOPTILA Turn., ibid., 1917, 101 (Adavale, Q.).

692. HEULECHRIA EPIPERCNA Turn., ibid., 1917, 100 (Dimbula, Sea Lake).

693. EULECHRIA BRACHYMITA, N. Sp. (fpaxuuitos, with short threads.)

6. 24 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi with second joint reaching
base of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; whitish-grey. Antennae whitish-
grey; ciliations in male slightly more than 1. Abdomen whitish-grey; tuft
ochreous-whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings very
narrow, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen very oblique; whitish sprinkled
with grey; markings fuscous; a short very oblique streak from base of costa; first
discal at one-fourth; plical beyond it, second discal at three-fifths, its lower edge
produced in a fine streak towards plical, two short streaks above and between
discals; a dot on three-fifths costa, from which proceeds a fine outwardly oblique
line, sharply angled before apex, and continued to tornus; a terminal series of
minute dots; cilia whitish, Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish,

106 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. OECOPHORIDAE. VI.

Queensland: Toowoomba in April; one specimen.

694. EULECHRIA OMBROPHORA Meyr., P.L.S.N.S.W., 1883, 322 (= actias Low., ibid.,
1899, 106) (Broken Hill, Quorn, Pinnaroo, Carnarvon, W.A.).

695. HULECHRIA SCIOPHANES Meyr., ibid., 1883, 323 (Talwood, Broken Hill. Quorn).

696. EULECHRIA ISCHNOPHANES, 0. Sp. (icxvodarvyns, narrow.)

6. 18 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi with second joint reaching base
of antennae, terminal joint three-fourths; fuscous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations
in male 13. Abdomen grey; bases of segments ferruginous. Legs fuscous; posterior
pair whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa moderately arched, apex pointed,
termen very oblique; whitish, rather densely but unevenly sprinkled with fuscous,
the centre of disc being clearer; markings fuscous; a large circular spot on base
of dorsum; a broadly suffused costal streak from one-sixth to two-thirds; first
discal at one-fourth, plical beneath it, second discal at three-fifths, elongate trans-
versely, a dot between and above discals, another beneath second discal, connected
by suffusion with tornus; a line from four-fifths costa inwards, then abruptly
angled outwards, and again inwards to tornus; cilia whitish with some fuscous
seales. Hindwings with 5 from middle; grey; cilia grey.

Not unlike E£. ombrophora, but that has much shorter palpi, second joint
reaching middle of face, terminal joint one-half.

Victoria: Sea Lake in March; one specimen received from Mr. D. Goudie.
697. HEULECHRIA DROSERODES Low., Tr.R.S.S.Aust., 1907, 116 (Broken Hill, Pinnaroo).
698. EULECHRIA AMPHISEMA Low., ibid., 1907, 117 (Broken Hill).

699. EULECHRIA MERACA, N. Sp. (meracus, unmixed.)

9. 32 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-whitish. Palpi slender, second joint
not exceeding middle of face, terminal joint three-fourths; ochreous-whitish.
Antennae ochreous-whitish. Abdomen brownish; apices of segments and tuft
ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair ochreous-grey-whitish.
Forewings elongate, oval, costa straight to beyond middle, thence strongly arched,
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-whitish; cilia ochreous-whitish.
Hindwings and cilia ochreous-grey-whitish.

Allied to H. autophyla Low., which has similar palpi, but the second joint is
longer, being about three-fourths length of face, and the terminal joint is one-half.

Queensland: Warwick in March; one specimen.

(To be continued.)

Note.—A complete alphabetical list of the species of Hulechria will be printed at the
end of the description of species.

107

AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII.
NOTES ON THE TYPES AND TYPE LOCALITIES.
By G. A. WATERHOUSE, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

[Read 30th June, 1937.]

During 1936 I spent a considerable time at the British Museum of Natural
History, South Kensington, London. There I was able to examine all the
Australian types of Hesperiidae in that vast collection and check over the results
with my friend, Brigadier W. H. Evans. As Evans had been working on this
family for several years, all the recent acquisitions had been put in their proper
places. Thus my task with regard to this family was made much easier.

Mr. N. D. Riley, the Keeper of Entomology, gave me every facility to study
the specimens and literature, and his advice on questions of nomenclature was
very valuable. Mr. A. G. Gabriel also was of great assistance to me.

Besides the types of species described by the Lepidopterists of the Museum,
all the types of Australian Hesperiidae described by Hewitson, many of those
described by Mabille (received through the Oberthiir collection) and a number of
Fruhstorfer’s are at the British Museum.

I had access to the registers, which in the case of specimens received many
years ago gave information not on the labels, and clues to localities and collector.
These registers go back to 1844, and record the origin of each batch of specimens
under a separate number. The individual specimens are not listed in the register,
but they bear a printed label with the year and acquisition number. In addition
there are still older registers from which Mr. Riley had abstracted all the
Australian references for me. I doubt if any important specimen escaped my
study.

As so many skippers had been described by Hewitson from Australia, I made
a special study of the specimens that had been in his collection and compared his
descriptions with what are considered to be his types. Hewitson bequeathed his
collection to the British Museum with the proviso that it be kept intact for 21
years and that a catalogue of it be prepared. This was done, and the list, prepared
by Kirby, 1879, has been of great help, as it contains the number of specimens
in the collection and their localities. I was able to find nearly all the Australian
specimens mentioned by Kirby, only one important specimen being missing. As
Hewitson, in many cases, did not publish all the information on his scanty labels,
I was able to find out many new facts. He also had more than one distinct species
under the one name, and apparently had very little knowledge of geographical
distribution.

It has been stated that Hewitson considered a large label a disfigurement to
a specimen. His labels are always small, and his localities, when given, always
abbreviated. Thus I never found Australia written in full, but as Austral.,
Austrl. or Austl. For Moreton Bay he had Moreton, Morton, Mort., Mort. B.,
Mort. Bay or Mor. Bay. There is sufficient evidence that Hewitson, although he

108 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

described Australian species from other collections from other localities, received
the bulk of his own Australian material from Swan River (Perth) and Moreton
Bay (Brisbane). As many of his Moreton Bay specimens have Strang. or Str.
added, it is almost certain that these were from Frederick Strange, who collected
extensively near Brisbane. It may also explain the few South Australian species
described by Hewitson, as Strange lived there for some time before going to
Brisbane.

Mr. A. G. Gabriel, who was at the British Museum when the Hewitson
collection was being labelled, has explained to me the procedure. A special label
was printed with Hewitson Coll. on one line and 79-69 on the line beneath.
79 is the year 1879, and 69 is the acquisition number for that year. Room for
writing was left both above and below the printing. Above the printing, Mr.
F. A. Heron wrote in ink the unabbreviated locality, if any, taken from the pin.
This small label was then gummed on the back of the printed label. If no locality
was on the pin, Heron wrote the probable locality in pencil. Below the printing
Heron then wrote in ink the name of the species taken from below the series in
the collection. A number was added to this, representing the position of the
specimen in the series. Hewitson rarely indicated a type and did not attach
names to the specimens in his own collection, although he did so to species
described from other collections. These details are important in arriving at a
locality for his types and also in some cases in determining his species. The
locality of Port Denison (Bowen) is wrong for many of his species, as I found
labelled Pt. Den., three species from Fiji, one from Aru and one found only in
south-western Australia. In consultation with Mr. Riley, it has been decided to
reject this locality of Port Denison, unless confirmed by other evidence.

It is unfortunate that so many specimens in the British Museum were
purchased in the past from dealers, as their localities are usually inadequate and
in many cases erroneous.

In England I examined the Australian skippers described by Mr. HE. Meyrick
and saw what was available at Tring, thanks to the kindness of Lord Rothschild
and Dr. K. Jordan. I have also seen the types of Miskin at Brisbane and Adelaide
and have been very carefully through the Lower collection at Adelaide. All but
two of my own types are in the Australian Museum, Sydney. I have copies of all
the paintings of the new Australian skippers described by Plotz. It is unfortunate
that, when these paintings were made from the originals in London, the other
eastern species were not copied at the same time. Many of the figures in Seitz
Macrolepidoptera, Vol. ix, are said to be taken from the unpublished drawings of
Plotz, and I am sure that many others are from the same source. The determina-
tions by Plotz of the older species are often inaccurate, and this accounts for
species figured in Seitz under wrong names.

Notes on life-histories are only given if the information is new. The following
notes, the result of my work in London last year, should bring the Australian
species of this family into as perfect a state as possible at the present time. I am
not giving references beyond the year of publication, as I have already published
full lists in papers in Tuese ProckepINGs for 1932, p. 238, and the Records of the
South Australian Museum, v, 1933, pp. 61-2.

The references in parentheses after the specific or subspecific name refer to
the figures in “The Butterflies of Australia”, by Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914 (cited
W. and L., 1914), in which the figures run consecutively from 1 to 888, and to “What
3utterfly is That?”’, by G. A. Waterhouse, 1932 (cited Waterh., 1932), in which the
coloured plates are numbered in roman. By this means the recent changes in

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 109

nomenclature will be recognized. The references to Seitz are to Vol. ix. As far
as possible I have commented on as many published figures as possible, especially
when they are incorrectly determined.

When I state that the types are in the British Museum or an Australian
Museum, it is to be understood that I have examined them. The meanings of the
various types are as follows:

Orthotype: Type of genus designated in original description.

Haplotype: Type by single reference (only species included).

Logotype: Type of genus by subsequent designation.

Holotype: The specimen of the species or race on which the description
was based.

When a type is stated to be at Sydney, it is in the Australian Museum; when
at Adelaide, it is in the South Australian Museum; and when at Brisbane, it is
in the Queensland Museum.

Subfamily HuSCHEMONINAE.
EuscHemon Doubleday, 1846.

Haplotype, Hesperia rafflesia W. S. Macleay, 1826.

EH. rafflesia rafflesia W. S. Macleay, 1826 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii, 1¢)—The
holotype has been lost and I have assigned (1932) Port Macquarie, N.S.W., as its
place of capture. A white aberration is albo-ornatus Olliff, 1891, from the Richmond
River, N.S.W. This specimen has also disappeared. In the British Museum are
two specimens of this aberration, both of which have some yellow scales on the
white spots on the upperside. These scales occupy different positions on right and
left wings. The first name given to the northern race was unfortunately applied
to a white form, alba Mabille, 1903, from Cooktown. Holotype male in the British
Museum. I have named the ordinary green form viridis Waterh., 1932 (W. and L.,
1914, 590g, 5914; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii, 2¢). Holotype male at Sydney.

Subfamily CELAENORRHINAE.

This subfamily, with the exception of #. rafflesia, contains all the Australian
species that rest with their wings flat. Some have vein 5 of the hindwing tubular.

CHAETOCNEME Felder, 1860.

Logotype, Chaetocneme corvus Feld., 1860 (= Papilio helirius Cram., 1775).
Synonyms: Casyapa Kirby, 1871, proposed by Kirby as he considered Chaetocneme
preoccupied by Chaetocnema Steph., 1831. Phoenicops Watson, 1893, orthotype
Netrocoryne beata Hew., 1867, is valid but not required as it only differs from
Chaetocneme in the absence of a costal fold on the forewing in the male. This
character is of little value for generic separation.

C. critomedia sphinterifera Fruhst., 1910 (W. and L., 1914, 5759; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxviii, 6¢')—Holotype male from Cape York in the British Museum from
the Fruhstorfer collection. It does not agree with my specimens from Cape York,
but is nearer to them than any of the other races in the British Museum. The
Australian race has only been taken on the Cape York Peninsula. Miskin’s record
of Brisbane is an error, as is the record of W. Australia in the British Museum
from the Godman and Salvin collection (ex Coll. Herbert Druce).

C. porphyropis Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 5784; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 5¢) —Holotype male from Johnstone River, N. Qld., at Adelaide. This
species has a very small costal fold in the male. It may possibly be an extreme
race of C. caristus Hew., 1867, but sufficiently distinct to be considered a species.

Q

110 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

One of the two specimens of the latter species in the Hewitson collection is
incorrectly labelled Port Denison.

C. beata Hew., 1867 (W. and L., 1914, 5763, 5772; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii,
3¢, 3A2).—Holotype male in the British Museum labelled Austr]. Str., so it must
have come from near Brisbane. It is No. 1 and not the specimen figured by
Hewitson, Exot. Butt., 1874, which is No. 3. The figures in Seitz Pl. 163 are too
highly coloured, especially the male.

C. denitza Hew., 1867 (W. and L., 1914, 5739, 5799; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii,
4g).—Holotype male from Brisbane in the British Museum. Port Darwin, given
by Lower, is a very doubtful locality. The figures in Seitz Pl. 163 are good.

ExomMetTorca Meyrick, 1888.
Haplotype, HE. nycteris Meyr., 1888. The only species in the genus.
E. nycteris Meyr., 1888 (W. and L., 1914, 5893, 8874, 888¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 79).—Holotype male from Albany in Meyrick collection. The species.
is confined to south-western Australia, and when at rest sits with its wings flat.

NETROCORYNE Felder, 1867.

Haplotype, N. repanda Feld., 1867.

N. repanda repanda Feld., 1867 (W. and L., 1914, 728¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl.
XXVili, 841) —Holotype male is at Tring, labelled Moreton Bay. Goniloba vulpecula
Prittwitz, 1868, from New Holland is a synonym of this race, which is found in
southern Queensland and New South Wales to Sydney. The holotype female of
the northern race expansa Waterh., 1932, from Kuranda is at Sydney. This race
is rare in collections.

TAGIADES Hubner, 1823.

Logotype, Papilio japetus Stoll, 1781.

T. japetus janetta Butl., 1870 (W. and L., 1914, 7249; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii,
9).—Evans considers the following eastern races of japetus to be inseparable:
janetta, holotype male in the British Museum, from Aru; gamelia Misk., 1889,
holotype male from Cape York at Brisbane; australiensis Mab., 1891, from Cape
York, holotype probably lost; louisa Swinhoe, 1907, holotype female from Rossel
Is. in the British Museum. As far as the specimens in the British Museum showed,
there is little difference between specimens from Cape York and the holotype of
janetta from Aru.

T. nestus curiosa Swinhoe, 1905 (W. and L., 1914, 780¢).—Evans has pointed
out to me that there are two very similar species in the Papuan area and, having
examined the male genitalia of the single specimen from Darnley Is., I find that.
it belongs to nestus Feld., 1860, and not to sem Mabille, 1883.

Subfamily HrrEROPTERINAE.
Only one genus of this subfamily is found in Australia and only one species.

Notocrypta de Niceville, 1889.

This genus replaces Plesioneura Feld., 1862 (preoccupied), with the same ortho-
type, P. curvifascia Feld., 1862.

N. waigensis proserpina Butl., 1883 (W. and L., 1914, 7369; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 162).—Evans considers that proserpina Butl., holotype male in the
British Museum from Aru, leucogaster Staudinger, 1889, from Cooktown, and
ribbei Fruhst., 1911, holotype male in the British Museum from Key, all belong
to the same race of N. waigensis Plotz, 1882. Mr. Manski has bred our race, the
larvae feeding on Alpina caerula (Wild Ginger). They are long, slender and pale

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 111

green in colour. The pupa is long and cylindrical and greenish in colour, the
proboscis is more or less free and extends beyond the posterior end of the pupa.

Subfamily RHOPALOCAMPTINAE.
This name must be used as Jsmene Swainson, 1820, is preoccupied.

Hasora Moore, 1881.

Orthotype, Goniloba badra Moore, 1865. Parata Moore, 1881, orthotype, Papilio
chromus Cram., 1780 (= Papilio alexis Fab., 1775), with sex mark on forewing in
male, is not considered sufficiently distinct.

H. hurama hurama Butl., 1870 (W. and L., 1914, 727g, 728¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 13¢').—Holotype male from Cape York in the British Museum and agrees
with the description, except that Butler does not mention the sex mark. The
locality Champion Bay (Geraldton, W. Aust.) is erroneous.

H. alexis contempta Pl6tz, 1884 (W. and L., 1914, 7294, 7302; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 14¢, 14A9).—The holotype is stated to have come from Cape York, and
I have specimens from there agreeing with the coloured figure of Plotz. The
holotype male of lucescens Lucas, 1900, from Cairns is at Adelaide and is a
synonym.

H. khoda haslia Swinhoe, 1899 (W. and L., 1914, 7250, 7262; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 129).—Holotype male in the British Museum from Brisbane and agrees
with the description, except that Swinhoe does not mention the sex scales along the
veins of the forewing in the male. Seitz does not mention khoda Mabille, 1876,
and erroneously puts haslia as a race of alexis Fab., 1775.

H. discolor mastusia Fruhst., 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 721¢, 722d; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 11¢') Holotype male in the British Museum labelled Queensland,
although Fruhstorfer gives Cape York in his description. It is in poor condition
and has a narrower band on the underside of the hindwing than in other specimens
I have seen.

ALLoRA Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

Orthotype, Zsmene doleschalli Feld., 1860.

The type of the Australian race, A. doleschalli simessa Fruhst., 1911 (W. and L.,
1914, 7194, 720¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii, 10¢), from North Australia could not
be found in the Fruhstorfer collection in the British Museum. I nominate Cape
York as the locality for this race.

BapDAMIA Moore, 1881.

Orthotype, Papilio exclamationis Fab., 1775 (W. and L., 1914, 733g, 7349, 7353;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxviii, 150, 15A?) is common throughout the Oriental and
Australian regions. The holotype is probably lost. It does not seem to have
developed into races, and in Australia occurs as far south as Sydney. In the
eastern Pacific another species, B. atrox Butl., 1877, occurs with exclamationis.

Subfamily TRAPEZITINAE.

This family is confined to Australia, except for three species from the New
Guinea area. On the hindwing the internal veinlet has a fork to the origin of
vein 4. Pl6tz, 1884, placed all the species he described and listed under Telesto
Boisd., 1832 (preoccupied). :

TRAPEZITES Hiibner, 1823.
Haplotype, 7. symmomus Hb., 1823. Patlasingha Watson, 1893, with orthotype
Hesperia phigaia Hew., 1868, is not distinct enough to warrant separation.
Steropes Boisd., 1832 (logotype Papilio iacchus Fab., 1775) is preoccupied.

ele? AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

Trapezites symmomus Hb., 1823 (W. and L., 1914, 7319, 732¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxviii, 172).—Described from New Holland; the figures in the second hundred
of the Zutrage are of a male and agree best with specimens from Sydney, which
must be taken as the locality of the holotype, which is undoubtedly lost. In 1932
I described the southern race soma from Frankston, Vict., and the northern race
sombra from Herberton, Qld. The holotype males of both are at Sydney. Miskin,
1891, in his catalogue, marked this species as unknown to him, but he had it in
his collection under the name iacchus Fab. This species has only one brood.

T. iacchus Fab., 1775 (W. and L., 1914, 5960, 5979; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix,
23).—Holotype a female in the Banksian cabinet in the British Museum. The
locality Cooktown must be assigned to this specimen. Donovan’s figure of the
holotype is faulty as it shows an extra spot on the underside of the hindwing.
This species is quite distinct from eliena Hew.; their ranges overlap for more
than 300 miles in Queensland and the male genitalia are different. Hewitson had
one male of this species and three males and one female of his eliena, all from
Brisbane, under the name iacchus, as he considered the two species the same.

T. eliena eliena Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 6044, 6059; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 1¢).—Holotype male in the British Museum from Brisbane. In his
collection Hewitson had sunk eliena to iacchus. Plotz, 1884, erroneously described
caecilius from India. His unpublished figure 798 shows this to be a male eliena,
as the orange band of the hindwing is divided by the veins. Plotz, 1884, sinks
eliena Hew. to iacchus Fab. and incorrectly places the figure of eliena given by
H-Sch., 1869, as a synonym of donnysa Hew. Meyrick and Lower, 1902, described
this species under iacchus, with eliena as a synonym. Lower, 1911, corrected this
mistake and gave a description of both. Figure 167h in Seitz is poor, especially
the underside. There is no authentic record of this species from Tasmania. The
second race of this species is monocycla Lower, 1911, from Mt. Gambier, S. Aust.,
holotype female at Adelaide. Most specimens have more than the central white
spot on the underside of the hindwing. The best character to distinguish
monocycla is the yellow colour of the hindwing on the underside. It is confined
to South Australia and western Victoria. The species has two broods. Anderson
and Spry, 1894, figure the race monocycla as iacchus.

T. iacchoides Waterh., 1903 (W. and L., 1914, 5984, 5994, 7389; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 3¢).—Holotype male from Katoomba, N.S.W., at Sydney. This distinct
species has one brood in the early spring. Probably other races occur, but, except
near Sydney and the Blue Mts., the material is insufficient. 7. maheta ab. obruta
Seitz, 1927, is probably this species.

T. maheta maheta Hew., 1877.—Holotype male from Queensland in the British
Museum. It agrees best with specimens from Brisbane which is nominated the
type locality. Both the coloured and uncoloured figures of Herrich-Schaeffer, 1869,
of phigalia represent the female of this species and fig. 167g in Seitz of phigalia
is also a female. As his coloured drawing 796 shows, praxedes Plotz, 1884, from
Sydney, in Berlin Museum, is the southern race (W. and L., 1914, 606%, 6072,
6149; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 4g, 4A9). The species has two broods.

T. phigalioides Waterh., 1903 (W. and L., 1914, 6159, 6244, 6254; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxix, 5¢).—Holotype male from Victoria at Sydney. Figured as phigalia
by Anderson and Spry, 1894. One brood in the early spring, sometimes found
flying with iacchoides.

T. phigalia phigalia Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 612%, 6139; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 6%).—This species was described from Australia and, although I have

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 113

an excellent coloured drawing of the female from the Hewitson collection, which
is considered the holotype, I have found a difficulty in assigning the type locality.
Kirby lists two specimens in the Hewitson collection, but only the female No. 2
could be found. A specimen of T. petalia Hew. labelled Hesperilla phigalia No. 1
was found, so some misplacement between these two species must have taken place,
since both the specimens of petalia listed by Kirby were found. The female
considered the holotype female does not quite agree with the description. I have
selected near Adelaide as the type locality, as Hewitson determined a specimen
for H. R. Cox, 18738, from there as phigalia. Comparing the expanses given by
Hewitson on the same page, we find for eliena 14 in., for petalia 1°/,, in., and for
phigalia 1°/.. in. I should think that Hewitson was describing a male. If Victorian
specimens are found to be distinct, the names phiaea Plotz, 1884, and phillyra
Miskin, 1889, are available. The holotype male of the latter is at Adelaide. The
race from southern Queensland with pinkish underside I have named phila, 1937.
Holotype male at Sydney.

T. sciron Waterh. and Lyell, 1914 (W. and L., 1914, 7464, 7472; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 7¢1).—Holotype male from Stirling Ranges, W. Aust., at Sydney. It is
the only species of the genus in Western Australia.

T. luteus luteus Tepper, 1882 (W. and L., 1914, 660¢, 7484; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 8¢')—Holotype male in poor condition from Ardrossan, S.A., at Adelaide.
It must be rare in South Australia, as I do not know of more than seven specimens.
Until more material is available from South Australia, I am keeping the specimens
from Victoria (2), N. S. Wales and S. Qld. under the typical race. In Tasmania
the race glaucus (W. and L., 1914, 661¢, 7399; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 94) occurs.
Holotype male at Sydney. This is listed by Plotz, 1884, as petalia and figured
by Seitz Pl. 167 as petalia.

T. petalia Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 6570, 6589, 659%; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 10¢:).—Holotype male in the British Museum from Brisbane. I found
the two specimens listed by Kirby that were in the Hewitson collection. In
Meyrick’s collection is a male with a Gayndah label. This must be the holotype
of his megalopsis, 1888, which he considered a female. It is a synonym of this
species. Although this species has a wide range in eastern Australia, it does not
seem to have developed races. It has two broods. The figure in Seitz Pl. 167 is
T. luteus glaucus.

T. heteromacula Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 6229, 623¢; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxix, 119).—Holotype male from Cooktown in the Macleay Museum,
Sydney. A rare species. The name is also spelt heliomacula in the table of
species.

ANISYNTOIDES Waterhouse, 1932.

Orthotype, Cyclopides argenteo-ornatus Hew., 1868. It is the only species
in the genus.

A. argenteo-ornatus argenteo-ornatus Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 7094, 7109;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 14¢).—Holotype female in the British Museum from
Swan River (Perth). This is the race on the mainland. The figure in Seitz
Pl. 167 of the underside is not good. The race from the islands, typically from
Monte Bello Is., is insula Waterh., 1932. Holotype male at Sydney.

PasmaA Waterhouse, 1932.

Orthotype, Hesperilla tasmanicus Misk., 1889. Two rather dissimilar species
are in this genus.

114 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

P. tasmanicus Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 7500, 7519; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 139)—Holotype male from Tasmania at Brisbane, not a female as
stated by Miskin. Holotype male, Telesto comma Kirby, 1893, from Victoria in
the British Museum, not a female as stated by Kirby. The lowest spot of the
subapicals of the forewing is produced like a comma, this is unusual. I cannot
see any subspecific differences in specimens from Tasmania, Victoria and
N. 8S. Wales.

P. polysema Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 7459, 754¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 12¢') —Holotype female from Petford, Qld., at Sydney. A rare northern
species.

ANISYNTA Lower, 1911.

Orthotype, Cyclopides cynone Hew., 1874. The species of this genus have
squarer wings and are not so robust as those of Trapezites.

A. cynone cynone Hew., 1874.—Holotype male in the British Museum with no
more definite locality than Australia. It is the only specimen in the Hewitson
collection listed by Kirby. The description agrees fairly well with the type, but
there are only six spots, not seven, on forewing upperside, one in the cell and
2 and 3 and three subapicals, also the central spot on the upperside of the hindwing
is a blemish. As it does not quite agree with specimens taken near Adelaide and
may possibly have been caught by Strange during his travels in South Australia, it
is perhaps best to keep it as a race from an unknown locality, probably on the
Murray River. The figure in Seitz Pl. 171d of the underside bears little
resemblance to the species. The race near Adelaide is gracilis Tepper, 1882
(W. and L., 1914, 7613, 76292, 763g; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 15¢'). Holotype
male at Adelaide from Salisbury, Adelaide Plains. Both Tepper’s specimens are
males. The holotype male of the Victorian race grisea Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix,
16g, is at Sydney from Kerang. This locality is in northern Victoria not far
from the Murray River.

A. sphenosema Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 6439, 6444, 645,
646¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 174, 17A?).—Holotype male (described as a
female) at Adelaide from Perth. Hewitson had a specimen in his collection with
the impossible locality Port Denison, Qld. Lower, 1911, sunk paraphaes Meyr. and
Lower, 1902, from Perth, under sphenosema, but the holotype could not be found
at Adelaide. There are specimens of sphenosema labelled paraphaes by Lower
in the Australian Museum. There is a female of sphenosema in the British
Museum from the Hewitson collection incorrectly labelled Port Denison.

A. tillyardi Waterh. and Lyell, 1912 (W. and L., 1914, 7673, 7689, 769;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 18¢') Holotype male from Ebor, N. S. Wales, at Sydney.
This species is only found above 2,000 ft.

A. monticolae Olliff, 1890 (W. and L., 1914, 7583, 7599, 760¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxx, 21¢')—Holotype male from Mt. Kosciusko, N. S. Wales, at Sydney. Only
occurs above 3,000 ft.

A. dominula dominula Plotz, 1884.—Plotz described his species from Tasmania
and his fig. 791 represents a male of the larger Tasmanian race, probably from
near Launceston. Seitz figures this on Pls. 168 and 171, the latter figures being
the better. The small mountain race is pria Waterh., 1932, from Cradle Mt., Tas.,
holotype male at Sydney. The race from Australia is drachmophora Meyr., 1885
(W. and L., 1914, 7644, 7659, 7669; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 200), from Mt.
Kosciusko. I saw the holotype male in Meyrick’s collection.

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 115

SIGNETA Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

Orthotype, Telesto flammeata Butl., 1882. The males have an ovoid sex
mark on the upperside of the forewing.

S. flammeata Butl., 1882 (W. and L., 1914, 6524, 6539, 6542; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxix, 203, 20A?).—Holotype female from Melbourne in the British Museum
with the holotype male of TJ. eclipsis Butl., 1882, the other sex. Hesperilla
atromacula Misk., 1889, is a synonym. I have seen the holotype male from
Victoria at Brisbane. This species is only found in the early autumn.

S. tymbophora Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 6624, 6639, 6644;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxix, 194) Holotype male from Mt. Kembla, N. S. Wales, at
Adelaide. Also an autumn species. It has recently been taken at Barrington Tops.

Dispar Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

Orthotype, Telesto compacta Butl., 1882. This species has the uncus in the
male sharply pointed, unlike any other Trapezitinae. The sexes are widely
different, so much so that Watson, 1893, considered they belonged to different
genera.

D. compacta Butl., 1882 (W. and L., 1914, 7054, 7069, 7074, 7089; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxx, 22g, 22A49).—Holotype male from Melbourne in the British Museum.
Holotype female, Telesto scepticalis Rosenstock, 1885, from Melbourne in the
British Museum is this species. Holotype male, Hesperilla melissa Mab., 1891,
labelled Sydney, is in the British Museum and is a synonym. A coloured drawing
of Hesperilla atrax Mab., 1891, shows that it is a female of this species. It is
described from Australia. Lower, 1911, states the holotype is in the Berlin
Museum (Coll. Staudinger).

Toxipta Mabille, 1891.

Haplotype, Toxidia thyrrhus Mab., 1891. The following genera are included
here: TJelesto Boisd., 1832, haplotype Hesperia peron Latr., 1824, preoccupied in
1812. Oxzytoxia Mab., 1904, logotype Telesto doubledayi Feld., 1862. Timoconia
Strand, 1909, orthotype 7. thielei Strand, 1909 (= Hesperia peron Latr.). Oxytoxia
and Timoconia are available if their genotypes are found to be generically different
from thyrrhus. T. thielei was described from a specimen supposed to come from
Africa.

T. peron Latr., 1824 (W. and L., 1914, 6204, 6219, 7429; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
133). —Holotype male in the Paris Museum from Australia. Considering the date, |
Sydney is nominated the type locality. The holotype of Telesto kochi Feld., 1862,
from Sydney could not be found at Tring. The figures in Seitz are stated to be
from cotypes in Koch’s collection. Holotype male of Hesperilla doclea Hew., 1868,
from Moreton Bay in the British Museum. In Exot. Butt., v, 1874, Hewitson
figured the female of this species as the female of M. halyzia. Holotype female
Telesto arsenia Pl6tz, 1884, in the Berlin Museum and his figure 805 show it to
be the female of this species. Evans has seen the holotype male of 7. thielei
Strand, 1909, in the Berlin Museum, described in error from Africa. It is this
species.

T. crypsigramma Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 639¢, 640¢; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxx, 15¢').—Holotype male from Herberton, Qld., at Adelaide. When its
larva and pupa are known it may be found to belong to Hesperilla.

T. doubledayi Feld., 1862 (W. and L., 1914, 608, 609¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
10¢)—The holotype male of this and that of the female 7. leachi Feld., 1862,

116 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

both from Sydney, could not be found at Tring. Carystus vallio Mab., 1891, repre-
sented by forewings in the British Museum, and vallio in Mabille’s writing is a
female of this species. Figure 803 of extranea Plotz, 1884, seems to represent
leucostigma rather than doubledayi. Herrich-Schaeffer, 1869, figures this as
H. dirphia Hew. In Seitz Pl. 167 the figures of the sexes are reversed.

T. leucostigma leucostigma Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 6162,
617¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 11¢).—Holotype male, from near Sydney, at Adelaide.
The northern race is parasema Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 637, 6389; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxx, 129). Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld., at Adelaide.

T. parvulus Plotz, 1884 (W. and L., 626g, 6274; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 8¢').—
Fig. 790 of Plotz shows the holotype is a male from New Holland. I nominate
Rockhampton as the type locality. Hesperilla humilis Misk., 1889, is the same
species, holotype male from Brisbane at Brisbane. Hesperilla ismene must date
from Anderson and Spry, 1894. The name ismene is said to have been given
by Newman, but, although used several times previously, no description appeared
until 1894.

T. thyrrhus Mab., 1891 (W. and L., 1914, 6184, 619%; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
93) —Holotype female from Cooktown in the Berlin Museum. A coloured drawing
of it shows it to be a female, and not a male as stated by Mabille. TJ. bathrophora
Meyr. and Lower, 1902, holotype male from Mackay at Adelaide is the same
species. Miskin in his collection had this species under halyzia, a species not
in his collection.

T. melania Waterh., 1903 (W. and L., 1914, 667%, 6689, 6694; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxx, 144!) —Holotype male from Cairns at Sydney.

NEOHESPERILLA Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

Orthotype, Hesperilla croceus Misk., 1889. The genus is found only in Queens-
land and North Australia and consists of four closely allied species.

N. croceus Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 6474, 6559, 753¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxx, 5¢).—Holotype male from Cooktown at Brisbane. Miskin described the
female of zanthomera as the female of this species. Hesperilla satulla Mab., 1891,
is a female from Cooktown in the Berlin Museum.

N. xiphiphora Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 656¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
6%) —Holotype male from Port Darwin at Adelaide.

N. senta Misk., 1891 (W. and L., 1914, 6659, 6669, 752¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
7g)—Holotype female from Herberton, Qld., at Brisbane.

N. zanthomera Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 673¢, 6744, 6759;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 3¢, 3A9).—Holotype male from Townsville, Qld., at
Adelaide. For an important note on this type see Records South Australian
Museum, v, p. 58, 1933.

Mrsopina Meyrick, 1901.

Orthotype, Hesperilla halyzia Hew., 1868. Lower, 1911, erroneously gives the
orthotype as M. aeluropis Meyr.

M. halyzia halyzia Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 688%, 68949; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxx, 1¢).—Holotype male in the British Museum labelled Port Denison. As
there are no other records from north of Brisbane and most of Hewitson’s
records of Port Denison are wrong, I nominate Brisbane as the type locality.
In Exot. Butt., v, 1874, Hewitson figured the female peron as the female of this
species and marked them so in his collection. Miskin applied this name to
thyrrhus. The figures in Seitz Pl. 171 are poor, especially that of the underside.

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 117

The race from Western Australia is cyanophracta Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914,
7743, 7752). Holotype male from Perth at Adelaide.

M. aeluropis Meyr., 1901 (W. and L., 1914, 698, 699¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
2¢).—I have seen the holotype male from Katoomba, N. S. Wales, in Meyrick’s
collection.

CroiraNa Waterhouse, 1932.

Orthotype, Cyclopides croites Hew., 1874.

C. croites croites Hew., 1874 (W. and L., 1914, 757¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
3¢).—Holotype female in the British Museum labelled Australia and no doubt
came from near Perth. The more interior race is pindar Waterh., 1932 (W. and L.
1914, 7553, 7569). Holotype male from Pindar, W.A., at Sydney. A very worn
male from Hermannsburg, Central Australia, probably belongs hére.

OREISPLANUS Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

Orthotype, Hesperilla munionga Olliff, 1890..

O. munionga Olliff, 1890 (W. and L., 1914, 6709; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 174). —
Holotype male from Mt. Kosciusko, N. S. Wales, at Sydney. :

O. perornatus Kirby, 1893 (W. and L., 1914, 5944, 5959; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 164).—Holotype female from Victoria in the British Museum. The
figures of ornata uppersides in Seitz Pl. 167f are this species.

HESPERILLA Hewitson, 1868.

Orthotype, Hesperia ornata Leach, 1814. The differences in the larvae and
pupae are the chief points to separate this genus from Towxidia, the larvae and
pupae of which are more like those of Trapezites. On this account malindeva was
placed here, and now, for the same reason, sexguttata comes into this genus.
Probably crypsigramma will be found to belong here.

H. ornata ornata Leach, 1814 (W. and L., 1914, 6024, 603¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 13¢). —Holotype could not be found in the British Museum. Sydney must
be the locality of the type. The figures in Seitz Pl. 167f of the uppersides of
ornata are perornatus and of the underside picta. The northern race is monotherm
Lower, 1907 (W. and L., 1914, 6359, 63692; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 142), holotype
female from Kuranda, Qld., at Adelaide.

H. picta Leach, 1814 (W. and L., 1914, 610g, 611¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii,
10¢).—Holotype could not be found at the British Museum. Sydney must be the
type locality. The figure of the underside of ornata is picta and the figures of
picta are very poor on Seitz Pl. 167.

H. crypsargyra crypsargyra Meyr., 1888 (W. and L., 1914, 6004, 601¢; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxii, 11¢)—I have seen the holotype male from the Blue Mts.,
N. S. Wales, in Meyrick’s collection. The northern race in New South Wales is
hopsoni Waterh., 1927 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 129). Holotype male from
Barrington Tops at Sydney.

H. mastersi Waterh., 1900 (W. and L., 6504, 651¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii,
93).—Holotype male from Clifton, N. S. Wales, at Sydney. This rare species has
recently been taken at Port Macquarie, N. S. Wales.

H. idothea idothea Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 7164, 7179, 718g; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxii, 84, 8A?).— Holotype female from Victoria at Adelaide. Holotype
male and allotype female of Trapezites dispar Kirby, 1893, from Victoria are
in the British Museum and are the same species. The South Australian race is
clara Waterh., 1932, holotype male from Mt. Lofty at Sydney.

118 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

H. andersoni Kirby, 1893 (W. and L., 1914, 770g, 7719, 772¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 741) Holotype male from Victoria in the British Museum.

H. chaostola chaostola Meyr., 1888.—I have seen the holotype male from
Blackheath, N. S. Wales, which was the only specimen in Meyrick’s collection.
The Victorian race is chares Waterh., 1933 (W. and L., 1914, 6909, 691¢, 700¢;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 14). Holotype male at Sydney.

H. chrysotricha chrysotricha Meyr. and Lower, 1902 (W. and L., 1914, 6312,
777g; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 50’, 5A?).—Holotype male from Albany, W. Aust.,
at Adelaide. The Victorian race is cyclospila Meyr. and Lower, 1902. Holotype
male also at Adelaide. In Records South Australian Museum, v, p. 56, 1933, I have
discussed this race. H. leucospila Waterh., 1927, is a synonym, holotype male in
National Museum, Melbourne. The Tasmanian race is plebeia Waterh., 1927 (W. and
L., 1914, 632¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 6¢). Holotype male at Sydney.

Hesperilla donnysa Hew., 1868.—I find it difficult to assign a locality for the
holotype male of this species in the British Museum from the Hewitson collection.
Hewitson described both male and female and gave as locality Australia (Moreton
Bay). He says: “Female without the small yellow spot of the anterior wing and
the central orange of the posterior wing.” These two characters are, however,
always found in females of all races of donnysa. Therefore, his female was not
this species. This is borne out by the fact that Hewitson, when figuring the
upperside of the male in Exot. Butt., v, 1874, omits any reference to the female.
Also in Kirby’s list only one specimen is mentioned with the locality Australia.
The holotype bears the label “Austl.” in Hewitson’s writing. It appears to me
that Hewitson transferred the locality Moreton Bay from his 1868 description
to his 1874 description without looking at the label, Moreton Bay being the locality
of his female. The species is very rare in the Moreton Bay district, as I have
only seen one specimen, and that a male, from Stradbroke Is. The excellent
coloured drawing I brought from London certainly agrees best with specimens from
eastern Australia, but there is evidence that Hewitson received his eastern material
only from near Brisbane. Perhaps for the present Moreton Bay may be retained
as the locality of the holotype.

H. donnysa donnysa Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 6330, 6349; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 21) —Holotype male in the British Museum from Australia. I have many
specimens from N. S. Wales and eastern Victoria. The race from Altona Bay, Vict.,
is flavescens Waterh., 1927 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 34); from Tasmania is
aurantia Waterh., 1927; from South Australia diluta Waterh., 1932; from S.W.
Australia albina Waterh., 1932 (W. and L., 1914, 7769; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii,
4%); from Geraldton, W. Aust., galena Waterh., 1927. The holotype males of these
races are at Sydney. In the Banksian Cabinet is a female donnysa labelled
Friendly Is. Nelson; this agrees with specimens I have taken near Botany Bay.
There are also in the British Museum two males from the New Hebrides, H.M.S.
Dart, acquired in 1892; one of these has a small label Mt. Wellgn. Feb. 1890, so
they must have come from Tasmania with other species under the registration
92-144.

H. malindeva Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 7400, 7419, 7494; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 15%, 15A9).—Holotype male from Herberton, Qld., at Adelaide.

H. sexzguttata sexguttata H.-Sch., 1869 (W. and L., 1914, 6414, 6422; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxx, 163) —Holotype female from Rockhampton, probably lost. The race
from Banks Is. is sela Waterh., 1932, holotype male at Sydney. The material
available of this species is still insufficient to determine the races and their range.

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 119

Dr. T. Guthrie and Mr. M. J. Manski have bred this species at Cairns, Qld.,
feeding on Cyperus pinnatus. The larvae are like those of the other Hesperilla
and the pupa has a headpiece somewhat like that of malindeva. It must therefore
be removed from Tozidia to Hesperilla.

MorasincHa Watson, 1893.

Orthotype, Hesperilla dirphia Hew., 1868. The early stages of the two species
in this genus are more closely allied to Hesperilla than to Toxidia.

M. dirphia dirphia Hew., 1868.—Holotype female from Swan River in the
British Museum, as well as the other female indicated by Hewitson in his
description. In Exot. Butt., v, 1874, the male is figured and is also in the British
Museum. The race from South Australia is trimaculata Tepper, 1882, holotype
male at Adelaide, together with the holotype female quadrimaculata Tepper, 1882,
the female of this race, which Tepper later (1890) called petalia Hew. Two races
occur in New South Wales, the holotype males being at Sydney. These are
dilata Waterh., 1932 (W. and L., 1914, 6284, 6299, 630%; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx,
194, 19A9), from Sydney and dea Waterh., 1933, from the Blue Mts.

M. atralba atralba Tepper, 1882.—Holotype female consisting of two forewings
at Adelaide. Tepper’s figures of this and the other species described by him are
very inaccurate. The typical race from South Australia is atralba (W. and L.,
1914, 6499; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 174). The male has a narrow inconspicuous
stigma unlike the broad stigma of the Western Australian races. These are
nila Waterh., 1932, holotype male from Dirk Hartog Is. at Sydney; dactyliota Meyr.,
1888, holotype male from Geraldton in Meyrick’s collection; the large race anaces
Waterh., 1937 (W. and L., 1914, 6489, 773¢'; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxx, 184), from
Hamel; and anapus Waterh., 1937, from Stirling Ranges. The holotype males of
anaces and anapus are at Sydney.

Subfamily HESPERIINAE.

As the type of the genus Hesperia Fab. has been determined to be Papilio
comma Linn., 1758, this subfamily name must be used in place of Pamphilinae.
The Australian species have mostly come here by way of New Guinea, where many
more species are found. To avery great extent I have to rely on Brigadier Evans
for information on the species that range beyond Australia. I begin with those
species with a pronounced headpiece in the pupa, in this way resembling the
Hesperilla.

PELOPIDAS Walker, 1870.

Haplotype, Pelopidas midas Walker, 1870 (= Celaenorrhinus thrax Hb.).
Unfortunately this name has to replace Chapra Moore, 1881, with orthotype
Hesperia mathias Fab., 1798. Evans has pointed out that mathias Fab. does not
occur in Australia, but there are two distinct species somewhat similar, but larger.

P. agna Moore, 1865 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv, 10¢)—This is the large
greenish species figured as Baoris mathias Fab. The tips of the antennae are
reddish and the lower spot in cell of the forewing, if present, is nearer the base
than in lyelli.

P. lyelli Rothschild, 1915 (W. and L., 1914, 7114, 7129, 713¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 10A9).—Holotype from Vulcan Is. This has a whiter sex mark, the tips
of the antennae are black. I have not yet had time to go through the large
number of specimens at Sydney to give the distribution of this and the previous
species.

120 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

P. impar Mab., 1883—This species is from New Caledonia (described from
Oceania). Two races are found in Australia. That from Port Darwin is lavinia
Waterh., 1932 (W. and L., 1914, 74389, 7449; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv, 11).
Holotype male at Sydney. Specimens from Banks Is. are contigualis Rothschild,
TIL},

P. cinnara Wallace, 1866 (W. and L., 1914, 778¢, 77938; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv,
13¢)—Evans considers this species has not developed races. It is figured (778-9)
as Parnara colaca Moore.

P. bevani Moore, 1878 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv, 144) —The three specimens
from Port Darwin are considered by Evans to have been introduced.

ParNARA Moore, 1881.

Orthotype, Hudamus guttatus Brem., 1853. Baorynnis Waterh., 1932, with
orthotype Pamphila amalia Semper, 1878, is a synonym.

P. bada sida Waterh., 1934 (W. and L., 1914, 714%, 7159; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 12¢) —Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld., at Sydney.

P. amalia Semper, 1878 (W. and L., 1914, 6860, 6879; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv,
9) —Holotype male is said to be in the Hamburg Museum. I have seen a drawing
of it sent to Lower; it is now without a head. The holotype male (not a female
as stated by Miskin) of fulgidus Misk., 1889, from Brisbane is at Brisbane, and
is this species. I once considered Pamphila sigida Mab., 1891, as this species.
The type is in the British Museum labelled Sydney. Evans finds it is Atrytonopsis
verna Edwards, 1862, from North America.

TARACTROCERA Butler, 1869.

Orthotype, Hesperia maevius Fab., 1793. Bibla Mab., 1904, haplotype Hesperia
papyria Boisd., 1832, is available for species with a stigma in the male.

T. papyria papyria Boisd., 18382 (W. and L., 1914, 580d, 5819; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxii, 18g, 18A?).—Holotype male probably in the Paris Museum and the
locality Sydney must be used for it. Holotype male of celaeno Cox, 1873, from
Nairne, S. Aust., is in the British Museum; fuwmosa Guest, 1882, is also from
S. Aust., holotype male at Adelaide, and alix Plotz, 1884, from New Holland. The
Western Australian race is agraulia Hew., 1868 (W. and L., 1914, 5850, 5869;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxii, 19¢), holotype male from Swan River in the British
Museum, together with another male from the same locality and a pair erroneously
labelled Moreton Bay, all from the Hewitson collection. Miskin’s species minimus,
1889, is a synonym of this race as, although he describes both races, his primary
description applies to agraulia. His holotype is at Brisbane. Lower always
considered that agraulia was the same as flavovittata Latr. So far this species
has not been found beyond Australia.

T. dolon dolon Plotz, 1884 (W. and L., 1914, 8760, 8779; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxili, 24, 2A9).—-I have never been satisfied that we have correctly determined
this species. It was described by Plotz as an MS. name of Herrich-Schaeffer and
Plotz’s figure 769, of which I have a copy, seems to be a female. The holotype
probably came from Rockhampton, Qld. The description and figure might apply
to the female of 7. ina iola Waterh., 1933, or a race of walkeri, indeed the former
is a better fit than what is known in Australia as dolon. The underside of the
hindwing with rings in 2, 3 and 6 and the centre belongs to no skipper I know of
in Australia. Mr. Max Day has extended its range to Port Macquarie, N.S.W. The
race from the Northern Territory is diomedes Waterh., 1933, holotype male at
Sydney.

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 121

T. ina ina Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 3¢—Holotype male from Port Darwin
at Adelaide. It is the specimen Lower described as the female anisomorpha Lower,
1911. When I described this species less than ten specimens were known. It is
not rare on the east coast of Queensland, especially at Mackay. I have named
these iola Waterh., 1933, holotype male from Hayman Is. at Sydney. Probably
this is the true dolon Plotz.

T. anisomorpha Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 883%, 8849; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxili, 4, 4A?) —Holotype male from Port Darwin at Adelaide. A rare species
with a wide range, but not yet caught commonly in any locality. Also found in
Timor.

T. ilia iia Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxili, 1¢.—-A very rare species from the Northern
Territory. Holotype male at Sydney. The race beta Evans, 1934, is found in
Dutch New Guinea.

OcyBADISTES Heron, 1894.

Orthotype, Ocybadistes walkeri Heron, 1894, from Damma Is., holotype male
in the British Museum. Seitz omits walkeri from the genus and places it in
Telicota. The species were formerly placed by me in Padraona Moore, 1881.

O. flavovittata Latr., 1824——This name has a very unfortunate history, and
at different times has been applied to almost every small brown and orange skipper
in Australia. Unless a definite description is given by the earlier writers, it is
impossible to know to which species they are referring. Semper, 1878, seems to
have made the best of the earlier attempts as he lists both flavovittata and sunias.
Miskin had but two specimens in his collection. Meyrick and Lower, 1902, used
flavovittata for the western agraulia, and under sunias included three species. In
my catalogue, 1903, I had at least four species under sunias and used flavovittata
for agraulia. Lower, 1911, still placed flavovittata as a Taractrocera, but made
sunias, rectivitta, walkeri, and hypomeloma distinct species. In 1914 it was
pointed out that flavovittata could only have come from Sydney and was not a
Taractrocera. To this Mr. N. D. Riley, 1926, agreed. In 1932 Brigadier Evans
pointed out to me that amongst my long series there were two distinct species,
one with a broad stigma in the male and one with a narrow stigma. This was
the first time that the number of somewhat similar brown and orange species
was definitely known. Acting on the report that a specimen with a Latreille
label “flavovittata’ then in Oberthtir collection (ex Coll. Boisduval) was the
species with a broad stigma, I described, in 1932, the species with the narrow
stigma as hespera. The Latreille specimen is now in the British Museum, and is
a female of the species with a narrow stigma in the male. It is undoubtedly one
of the females Latreille had before him and probably the only one of these now
in existence. It is strange that Latreille should have had only this species, as
its female is rarer than that of the species with the broad stigma. It is to be
hoped that confusion about this name is now finally settled. I agree to accept
the Latreille specimen in the British Museum as the probable holotype female.

O. flavovittata flavovittata Latr., 1824 (W. and L., 1914, 8662; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiii, 11¢, 11A9)—The name hespera Waterh., 1932, talls as a synonym,
holotype male at Sydney. The race from North Queensland is ceres Waterh.,
1933, and from Port Darwin is vesta Waterh., 1932 (W. and L., 1914, 858, 8659).
Holotype males of both at Sydney. This species has not yet been found beyond
Australia.

O. walkeri Heron, 1894.—There are four races of this species from Australia;
olivia Waterh., 1933, from Port Darwin; sonia Waterh., 1933, from Queensland;

122 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

sothis Waterh., 1933 (W. and L., 1914, 859¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 94, 9AQ),
from Sydney, the holotype males of which are at Sydney. The holotype male of
the South Australian race hypochlora Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 8600, 8679;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 100), is at Adelaide.

O. hypomeloma hypomeloma Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 5844, 873g, 8749;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 84, 8A?).—Holotype male from Sydney at Sydney,
together with the holotype male of the race vaga Waterh., 1932, from Prince of
Wales Is., Qld.

O. ardea heterobathra Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 872¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiii, 7¢)—Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld., at Adelaide. Other races
in New Guinea.

Sunranwa Evans, 1934.

Orthotype, Pamphila lascivia Rosenstock, 1885.

S. lascivia lascivia Rosenstock, 1885 (W. and L., 1914, 5874, 5884; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxiii, 14¢)—Holotype female in the British Museum from Victoria.
The North Queensland race is neocles Mab., 1891 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 15),
from Cooktown. The holotype could not be found in the British Museum and is
probably lost. The holotype male of lasus Waterh., 1937, from Bathurst Is. is
at Sydney. Other races occur in Timor and New Guinea.

S. sunias Feld., 1860.—The identity of this small and widespread skipper has
been a trouble for many years. Almost every small brown and orange eastern
Australian species has had this name attached to it. In my early days I had no
less than four different species under the name. Considerable advance was made
in 1914 and again in 1932. There seems to be no doubt that our northern race
is rectivitta Mab., 1878 (W. and L., 1914, 5829, 5834, 8759, 8824; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiii, 12¢'). This was described from Celebes and Australia, but in the
‘Genera Insectorum’, Celebes only is given. In the British Museum is a specimen
from Mabille’s collection with a Mabille label ‘‘P. rectivitta P.. Mb. Nov. Holl.”
This is very probably the male holotype and is certainly our northern race.
There is no race of sunias in Celebes. The other Australian races are nola Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxili, 13¢', 13A9, from New South Wales, and sauda Waterh., 1937, from
Port Darwin. Holotype males of both at Sydney.

ARRHENELLA, Nom. nov.

This name is introduced to replace Arrhenes as used by myself (Waterh., 1932,
p. 251) and Evans (Hntom., 1934, p. 206). Arrhenes was first mentioned by
Mabille in the Genera Insectorum, 1904, p. 142, as a manuscript synonym of
Ocybadistes Heron. Mabille does not mention O. walkeri, the genotype of
Ocybadistes, and his description is based on marnas. The use of Arrhenes by
Evans and myself is incorrect, as that name can only be considered as a Synonym
of Ocybadistes Mab., nec Heron.

Arrhenella differs from its allies in having much broader wings and in the
shape of the antennal club which is gradual and not sharply bent. The male has a
discal stigma. Genotype Pamphila marnas Feld., 1860.

A. marnas affinis Waterh. and Lyell, 1912 (W. and L., 1914, 885¢; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxiii, 67), is the Australian race. Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld.,
at Sydney. This is the smaller and rarer of the two similar species of the genus
found in Australia. Races of marnas are found in New Guinea and the Moluccas.

A. collatus iris Waterh., 1932 (W. and L., 1914, 704, 886¢; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiii, 57), is the Australian race. Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld., at

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 123

Sydney. Pl6tz described collatus from Delagoa Bay, but all the other species in
the same paper are eastern and his coloured drawing shows it to be from New
Guinea.

TexLicora Moore, 1881.

Orthotype, Papilio augiads Linn., 1767. For a short time Astycus Hb. was used
instead of Jelicota, but that usage has been shown to be incorrect. As these
species are very similar and difficult to distinguish from one another, I can only
follow Evans in his papers in the Hntomologist for 1934. Females are even more
difficult to separate.

A.—Uncus undivided.

T. eurotas Feld., 1860, from Amboina. The Australian races are eurychlora
Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 692g, 693¢, 861¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv, 8,
8A), from New South Wales, and laconia Waterh., 1937, from Cairns, Qld.
Holotype males of both at Sydney.

B—Uncus divided to base. Forewing vein 3 markedly nearer to vein 2 than
to vein 4.

T. adugias argeus Plotz, 1883 (Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv, 3¢, 3A9), from Cape
York, is the Australian race of this widely distributed species.

T. anisodesma Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 701, 8624; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiii, 184, 18A?).—Holotype male from the Richmond River, N. S. Wales,
at Adelaide. This rare species has not been found in North Queensland and the
sexes are very different.

O—Unecus divided to base. Forewing vein 3 about midway between veins
2 and 4.

T. kreffti kreffti Macleay, 1866 (W. and L., 1914, 868¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl.
xxxiv, 4(¢1).—Holotype male at Sydney. The unpublished fig. 705 by Plotz of
Hesperia augustula H-Sch., 1869 from Cape York is this species, which ranges
from China to Australia. The race from Port Darwin is argilus Waterh., 1933.
Holotype male at Sydney.

T. ancilla H-Sch., 1869 (W. and L., 1914, 683¢, 7020, 7039; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 50, 5A9).—The female is olivescens H-Sch., 1869. Both are described
from Rockhampton. The range of this species coincides with that of kreffti for
about 200 miles in Queensland and it extends to the south of Sydney.

D.—Uncus divided to base. Forewing vein 3 nearer to vein 4 than to vein 2.

T. mesoptis mesoptis Lower, 1911 (W. and L., 1914, 8699; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 6¢, 6A?).—Holotype male from Kuranda, Qld., at Adelaide. Typically
from North Queensland, but races occur in New Guinea, Key and Aru.

T. brachydesma Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 67104, 6729, 8784, 8799; Waterh.,
1932, Pl. xxxiv, 73, 7A9).—Holotype male from Cooktown at Sydney. A rare species,
confined to Australia.

T. ohara ohara Plotz, 1883 (W. and L., 1914, 685, 6964, 6979; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 2¢').—Described from a female from Cape York, holotype probably lost.
Occurs elsewhere in the New Guinea area.

CEPHRENES Waterhouse and Lyell, 1914.

This genus was proposed in place of Corone Mab., 1878, which is preoccupied.
Its genotype is ©. ismenoides Mab., 1878, a race of Pamphila augiades Feld., 1860.
C. augiades Feld., 1860.—Typically from Amboina, two races are found in
Australia. The southern is sperthias Feld., 1862 (W. and L., 1914, 6799, 6829;
Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 17A9). Holotype male from Sydney could not be found

124 AUSTRALIAN HESPERIIDAE. VII,

at Tring. The male has small spots in 4 and 5 on the upperside of the forewing.
The female is well marked on the upperside, although rarely specimens are found
with the markings reduced. These are uwlama Butl., 1870, holotype in the British
Museum. Mathew, 1888, described the early stages of this race under the name of
phineus Cram., a Surinam species. Olliff and Forde, 1891, used the same name in
the text and palmarum Scott on the plate. The northern race is ismenoides Mab.,
1878 (W. and L., 1914, 6784, 6809, 681¢; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiii, 17g, 17B?), based
on a female without markings on the upperside. This holotype is in the British
Museum, and I would assign the locality Cooktown for it. The male is without a
spot in 5 on the upperside of the forewing, and the spot in 4 is usually smaller than
in sperthias. This species has the end of the uncus bidentate.

C. trichopepla Lower, 1908 (W. and L., 1914, 6769, 6779; Waterh., 1932, Pl.
Xxxili, 16¢1)—Holotype male from Mackay, Qld., at Adelaide. This species has
the end of the uncus tridentate.

SABERA Swinhoe, 1908.

Orthotype, Hesperia caesina Hew., 1866. The three Australian species of this
genus are all different in appearance, but all have much longer antennae than the
others in the group. In the male, albifascia has a small patch of sex scales within
the white spot in la of the forewing above, autoleon a broken stigma, and fuliginosa
a complete stigma. Races of all are found beyond Australia.

S. caesina albifascia Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 566, 5694; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 1501) —Holotype male from Herbert River, Qld., at Brisbane.

S. orida fuliginosa Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 7379; Waterh., 1932, Pl. xxxiv,
16¢).—Holotype female from Cardwell, Qld., at Brisbane.

S. dobboe autoleon Misk., 1889 (W. and L., 1914, 694¢, 695%; Waterh., 1932,
Pl. xxxiv, 1¢).—Holotype female from Cardwell, Qld., at Brisbane, and not a male
as stated by Miskin. No mention is made of a stigma in his description.

The following species have been recorded from Australia with a definite
locality.

Pyrgus argina Plotz, 1884, Mitth. Nat. Ver. Neu-Pomm., p. 22, Brisbane.—
I have seen a copy of the coloured drawing of Plotz and also the figures in Seitz,
where it is stated to be a Bibla. It does not resemble any known Australian
skipper, and if it were from Brisbane it should have been found again.

Hesperilla rietmanni Semper, 1878, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy, xiv, p. 187.—A male
and a female described from Sydney, caught in February. It is a small species, but
I have never been able to determine what it is. It may possibly be compacta Butl.,
especially the female. Semper compares the male to picta, but he seems to have
identified that species wrongly.

Hesperilla bifasciata Tepper, 1882.—The figure is very poor and seems to
resemble a moth rather than a butterfly. In 1890 Tepper suggested it might be
flavovittata Latr., but the figure could not possibly be that species.

Oriens augustula H-Sch., 1869.—This was described from Fiji. The specimens
in the Hewitson collection labelled Port Denison are certainly from Fiji. The
Townsville male at Adelaide was no doubt caught at Townsville. An occasional
straggler may be caught in Australia, but it has failed to establish itself here.

Hasora celaenus lugubris Boisd., 1832.—There is a very poor male at Adelaide
from Cape York. If the record is correct, it is undoubtedly a straggler from New
Guinea where it is common.

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE. 125

Most of Mabille’s species described in 1891 have been mentioned above, except
the following:

Hesperilla eaclis is the common Baracus vittatus Feld. from Ceylon. Mabille,
1904, agrees to this.

Hesperilla sarula—Holotype female in Berlin Museum shows it is not
Australian.

Pamphila lagon.—Holotype male in Berlin Museum shows it is not Australian.

Padraona suborbdicularis Mab., 1904, is a Dalla from South America.

Ocybadistes sujffusus Mab., 1904, is the male of TYelicota melanion Mab., 1878,
from New Guinea and has not yet been caught in Australia.

126

REVISION OF THE GENUS FHERGUSONINA MALL. (DIPTERA,
AGROMYZIDAE).

By A. L. Tonnoir, Division of Economic Entomology, C.S.1.R., Canberra.
(Communicated by Dr. G. A. Currie.)

(Sixteen Text-figures. )
[Read 30th June, 1937. ]

Although the genus Fergusonina has been erected within recent years by
Malloch (1924), a revision of it has already become necessary on account of the
many species brought to light by the work of Dr. G. A. Currie on the early
stages of these interesting gall makers. No less than 19 species are now Known
to us, many of which would not have been easily detected but for the evident
specific characters exhibited in the larval stages and also, in many instances, by
the shape of the gall. There is no doubt that a large number of other species are
awaiting discovery, since each species of Hucalyptus seems to have its corres-
ponding species of Fergusonina, and even in some instances several of them,
according to the part of the tree on which the galls are found.

As many of the newly-discovered species could not readily be distinguished
from the seven known ones by means of the few characters, mainly of coloration,
used by Malloch in his descriptions, a more complete study, including the genitalia
of all the species, and especially of the known ones, became imperative. This
revision was greatly facilitated through Mr. Malloch’s kindness in making his
types available to the writer; they will eventually be returned to the institutions
from which he had received them for study.

The seven species described by Malloch are: F. microcera, genotype (9 1924,
dg 1926; gall unknown), F. atricornis (g 1925; gall unknown), F. flavicornis
(2 1925; gall unknown), F. scutellata (¢ 1925; gall unknown), F. biseta (¢ 1932,
from galls of #. maculata), F. gurneyi (3g, 2? 1932, from galls of H. maculata),
F. eucalypti (3, 2 1932, from galls of #. maculata).

All except the last two were described from single specimens; both sexes of
F. eucalypti and F. gurneyi were obtained through breeding from a certain type
of gall, but the two sexes of Ff. microcera have been collected in the field, in
different localities, near Sydney. It is therefore doubtful whether they actually
belong to the same species since the multiplicity of forms is so great. The flies
of both sexes given as belonging to the same new species described in this paper
have always been obtained from the same type of galls on the same host; it is,
therefore, very likely that the correlation is correct. All errors are, however,
not completely excluded by this method, since two species, such as F’. eucalypti
and fF. gurneyi, may sometimes breed in very similar galls on the same part of
the tree.

It is remarkable that none of the twelve new species bred recently from
known galls can be referred to any of the seven described species, yet the localities
of some of them are not so very far apart; this shows that the number of species
must be very large indeed.

-l

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 12

Genus FERGUSONINA.

The original diagnosis of the genus was made by Malloch (1924, p. 337) ona
single female specimen, the venation of which is very probably aberrant, and
the head chaetotaxy an exception among the many other species. This diagnosis
was supplemented and corrected further by that author in 1925 (p. 90) and then
in 1932 (p. 213), and it stands in need of further emendation and addition since
the discovery of many other new species. In view of these successive modifications,
it seems best here to give a full description of the generic characters as drawn
from the older species and those that have come to light recently.

Head.—Face conspicuously flattened, lunula unusually developed, antennae
small, separated by a strongly developed carina and inserted in deep pits at the
level of the lower margin of the eyes, but quite distant from these. Antennae
almost bare, a few tiny hairs and one stiff but short bristle on the 2nd segment.
Arista usually incrassate at base, more or less elongated and more or less stiff,
sometimes the distal part flagelliform, almost always distinctly pubescent.
Proboscis small, palpi moderate. Chaetotaxy: vibrissae always well developed;
parafacials, frons and vertex covered with small stiff hairs; almost always two
orbitals, seldom only one, the posterior ones larger; sometimes in between them
one or two short hairs, slightly larger than those of the vertex and pointing in
the same direction as the true orbitals; sometimes also one of these small hairs
in front of the anterior orbital, or behind the posterior one. Two pairs of verticals,
the inner ones smaller, convergent, the outer ones divergent; the ocellars proclinate
and parallel, the postverticals against the ocellar triangle, erect, parallel.

Thorax—Mesonotum with numerous small stiff hairs fairly regularly
distributed; almost always three, sometimes four, distinct prescutellar dorso-
centrals, the anterior ones sometimes very small and difficult to detect. One pair
of prescutellar acrosticals present, sometimes not much larger than the hairs
of the mesonotum; often another small bristle in between the acrosticals and the
last dorso-central. One or two prealar and postalar, one humeral, one post-
humeral and two notopleural bristles. Mesopleurae setulose, one larger bristle
on the upper margin, sometimes a second one, always smaller. Mesosternum
setulose with one larger bristle on upper margin.

Legs with tiny stiff hairs; a row of postero-ventral bristles on the anterior
femora; one large postero-ventral bristle on the hind femora.

Wing.—Costa apparently unbroken at base except near h, extending past the
tip of R.,, and sometimes reaching the tip of R,,;, but in that case its fine bristles
are not always present up to that point, so that the costa seems, at first sight,
to go only up to a little distance beyond the tip of R.,,. The two branches of
Rs are usually parallel, but may also be convergent. The posterior cross-vein may
be missing (as in Phytomyza) either completely or it may be represented by a
very small stump on M. The distance between the two cross-veins is usually
equal to the length of the posterior cross-vein, but it is, in a few instances, either
smaller or larger.

Abdomen fairly flattened ventro-dorsally. Hypopygium of male inconspicuous,
folded under the venter;* it is composed of a rounded capsule, the 9th tergite,+
with which the coxites are fused and are therefore not able to move independently.

* F. microcera may constitute an exception in this respect, since Malloch described
the forceps as being long and protruding; I have not seen this species.

7 In one species, F. newmani, the 8th tergite also enters in the composition of the
hypopygial capsule (fig. 11B).

128 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

These coxites assume the shape of ventro-lateral, more or less developed, lobes or
flaps which may or may not be divided by a deep cleft from the capsule of the
9th tergite. Sometimes these flaps, instead of being rounded, are provided with
a conspicuous apical tooth (figs. 9, 15, 16), and between them and the sub-
anal lobe there is at times a conspicuous, rather strongly sclerotized tooth
(figs. 11, 13). The flaps are often provided on their inner face with a number of
sensory setae. The dorsum of the 9th tergite carries a fair number of small
stiff bristles and a pair of very long ones at the base; they are usually cruciate
(figs. 11, 12, 16). The 9th tergite and its ventral flaps almost completely surround
the distal end of the aedeagus or intromittent organ. The aedeagus is composed
of a rather complex basal part comprising the ejaculatory apodeme which is not
an independent piece as in many Acalyptratae and in Agromyza for instance, but
it is attached by a transverse sclerotized bridge to a large shield-like piece
(fig. 3A) enclosed within the abdominal cavity and which I very doubtfully
consider as an apodeme of the 9th sternite; the intromittent organ is composed
of a median duct, evidently the penis, and a dorsal semi-cylindrical piece
apparently constituted by the longitudinal fusion of two symmetrical elongate
organs (the parameres?) which form the hypophallus; near the extremity of the
penis there is, on each side, an articulated, often toothed, organ which is analogous
to the titillator of certain chalcid wasps. When the intromittent organ is dissected
these two “titillators’” remain attached to the penis; I take them to be the
paraphalli. Normally they are also attached by their externo-basal corner to the
hypophallus, so that when the penis slides forward on the latter the paraphalli
are tipped sideways (figs. 2, 3); their function is apparently to serve as anchorage
during copulation. The shape and structure of these paraphalli are peculiar to
each species; they often offer a better means of identification than the ventro-
lateral flaps, which do not always come out well on the preparations; but to
obtain a good view of the paraphalli it is necessary to dissect the aedeagus out
of the 9th tergite before mounting.

In the female the distal end of the abdomen is highly modified, even the 6th
segment being involved in the formation of the ovipositor; this segment is sub-
cylindrical, its tergite and sternite being fused so as to form a strongly chitinized
tube without lateral suture; it carries a number of submarginal bristles arranged
in one dorsal and one ventral group, in which the number of bristles and their
arrangement differ according to species, or group of species. The 7th segment
is fusiform, still more strongly sclerotized; it also carries a number of sub-
apical bristles and, exceptionally, some more bristles on the bulb, either ventrally
or dorsally.

These two segments constitute the external part of the ovipositor, but
sometimes, at least after death, the 8th segment protrudes and the whole organ
assumes then a much more elongate appearance (figs. 4, 5,10). The 8th segment
is normally invaginated completely within the 7th; it is membranous, but most
of its surface is covered with dense triangular teeth directed backwards. The
9th segment is very long and stylet-like, gently curved, and ends in an acicular
point; its musculature is attached to a very long rod-like apodeme of the 7th
segment which projects a long way within the 6th segment.

Status of the genus Fergusonina.
In his first paper Malloch placed this genus in the Agromyzidae, subfamily
Agromyzinae, without discussing in any way the family or subfamily status of
his new genus.

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 129

If one is to follow Hendel in giving such a great importance to the breaks
in the costa in the taxonomy of the Acalyptratae, Fergusonina could not find
its place in the Agromyzidae because there is no such break in the vicinity of
the tip of R,. There is only one slight break, or trace of such, in the vicinity of h,
such as is found in the Trypetidae, Milichidae, Carnidae, and a few others, but in
all these families there is also a distinct break at R,.

Fergusonina stands apart among the Agromyzidae in the absence of the lower
orbital bristles; the post-vertical bristles sub-parallel, erect, not strongly divergent ~
and pointing backwards; by the conformation of the abdomen which has only
five visible segments before the genitalia in both sexes, since the 6th in the
female is, in a way, a part of the ovipositor. The conformation of the male
hypopygium is also quite different from that of the Agromyzidae; the female
ovipositor is more akin to that of the Trypetidae, but yet not fundamentally
different from that of Phytomyza, for instance (some species also lack the posterior
cross-vein as in this genus), in which the 8th segment is also of a raspy nature;
however, in Fergusonina the 9th segment is stylet-shaped as in the Trypetidae.

I am giving here a list of the characters of the Agromyzidae as set out by
Hendel (1928) and by Hering (1927), so that one might, by comparison with the
detailed description of the genus Fergusonina I have given above, easily appreciate
how far this genus differs from the other members of the family:

(1) Costa interrupted in front of tip of Sc or R,; (2) Se obsolete, ending in
costa or in R,; (3) costa reaching to R,,; or M,; (4) anal and anal cell always
present; (5) vibrissae and inferior orbitals always present; (6) when vibrissae
absent the costa only reaches the tip of R,,, and the lateralia and vertical plate
are widened in front and strongly hairy; (7) posterior cross-vein present or
absent; (8) several dorso-central bristles; (9) acrosticals present or absent;
(10) facial carina present; (11) antennal pit reaching the epistome; (12) palpi
small; (13) presutural bristles present; (14) prescutellar bristles present;
(15) postvertical bristles not convergent; (16) no bristle on frontal band (inter-
frontalia); (17) abdomen with six visible segments before the genitalia in both
sexes; the 7th segment forms the non-retractile part of the ovipositor, its tergite
and sternite being fused in a single tube in which the rasp-like 8th and the soft
9th segments are withdrawn.

Many “families” have been erected in the past in the Haplostomata with less
grounds than Fergusonina would have to be included in a family of its own; yet,
as its affinities evidently point to the Agromyzidae, I propose to erect only a
new subfamily within this group to receive this genus. This procedure will
more readily suggest the affinities, without introducing another family in this
already over-divided group.

To sum up, the new subfamily of the Fergusoninae is characterized as
follows: Costa without break at tip of Se or R,, but with a trace of one at h,
only two or even one posterior orbital bristle; antennae inserted very low
on the face; lunula extremely developed; only five abdominal segments before
the genitalia; 6th abdominal segment in the female forming part of the ovipositor,
the 9th segment stylet-shaped.

The key to species given below will only work for the species known to me;
it will have to be remodelled as further species are added to the list. It is almost
completely based on coloration; this is a serious weakness, but it will allow
identification of a fairly large number of species without dissection of the
genitalia. However, unless the specimens studied have been bred from galls of

130 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

a known species of Hucalyptus, dissection of the genitalia will have to be
resorted to in the end, in order to obtain an accurate identification. The grouping
of the species follows the order given in the key; it is purely artificial, since it
rests mostly on characters of coloration. No sound grouping could really be
attempted until most of the large number of species, which await discovery, are
brought to light.

At Dr. Currie’s request all the new species have been named after persons
“who have procured him material or have otherwise helped him with his work.

The types of F. microcera, atricornis, flavicornis and scutellata are in the
collection of N.S.W. Dept. of Health, Sydney; those of F. biseta, gurneyi and
eucalypti in the collection of the Entomological Branch, Dept. of Agriculture,
Sydney; and those of all the new species described in this paper in the collection
of the C.S. & 1.R. at Canberra.

Key to Species.

i, AMiEMIRAS pENAOAY lola ior Jomo soccoocksooeboaconveauonvoboboudoacepoeoovs 2
‘Antennae vcompletely: Fyellowmash Ai. fits ceed boo oat ee ae eee eee 4
2. Third antennal segment black or brown, orbital bristles very small ............ 3

Second antennal segment blackish-brown, sometimes rather faintly; four complete
dark vittae on the mesonotum and longitudinal blackish streaks on pleurae;

ORbitalebpristlesmwclimdevelOpedemnnee ni eanint er neeien ieee ee F. carteri, n. sp.

3. Mesonotum shining without dark vittae or markings; parafacials wide, with two
LOWS C1 SSHMASS VnhveSleMeN Bild, socbooboossuncovdes0ean F. eucalypti Mall.
Mesonotum dull, with dark markings on the side past the suture; wing-length

ZO} 5 001.00 Be kenya oh oka a dnncemcien Ragen GAG kcRO cee Rate oscar acca SRO OESC Stl ion cE IAS RN ISTE Gh F. atricornis Mall.

4. Posterior cross-vein missing or represented only by a very small stump on the
MIP OGTAM. SVT ES ek aicey sachecdtess each ewer Nee dN a ee ie Fick Shc ROTC ei EEA er a eC 5
IPFOSLEFIOL CLOSSAVEIN: CCOMDIST Eee ee Ne aise ctce sil egret cars acter are Fee per 6

He Gen TealTay eas uml Ses TAM a tanesone pete ra Ware ace NL eet tins SRG] UOTE ee aian aT rre eae ens F. evansi, n. sp.
Genitalia: jasmine fie ib) BOSS Ree ans Sd ochre orem ee rehearse F. davidsoni, n. sp.

6. Legs extensively dark or with a few small dark markings ..................--. 7
MESS MCOMPLELElY? VellO We ce sevcremerse repose, SGI te NGee ete Med Sete ante os gyn cg eee 9

7. Mesonotum black with exception of the side margins, dark markings on the femora
(670)) fa ent ne Oe e re cach icace ar oanech tet oh cn ORC ican taeMe cteEnt Rea rn ah tat ects F. scutellata Mall.
Mesonotum mostly yellowish-orange or else the four dark vittae are not fused
together and the area in front of the scutellum is yellow ................ 8

8. Legs with small dark markings on the tibiae only .......... F. brimblecombi, n. sp.
Legs with extensive black markings on the femora and tibiae, hypopygium blackish

SCL DSaee POR Ga once Cac Ee CRT TO ORICON Cyo cht caceat sated ceca cheno irurcuaro F. morgani, n. sp.

9. Mesonotum extensively dark or with four almost complete dark vittae .......... 10
Mesonotum without dark markings or at most with a few faint ones past the
SUBUTET ec ee tn Eh sy ees ais Uehae caper SHES Sues) ea stPahrs (ev lve. Geta Han ayran stn esrahehel Fused seems eaters arTis ect Reae eS 115)

10. Mesonotum extensively dark, the dark vittae being fused or almost fused and
extending ito: the. seutellamay tsi i. Sse a Sie ee Se ioe ee Fs ee aval

The dark yittae well separated, or if fused the area in front of the scutellum is
VSLLO WASH | voy seve be eileitelies zaulsute con otins peverceulemsee Us lealpeuabialccs avian (Geol cuore pest eure oe Rn tar one eG COR uGHa CE ever 12

ti Lhesmesonotall wvittae completely used. a cie aeesecienneiee cre F. scutellata Mall.
The vittae distinctly separated by very thin yellow streaks ........ F. gurneyi Mall.

12. No dark markings on pleurae or alae, or else they are small and faint ........ 33
Darizanarkines on Pleura esiextenSives mereeacch-p-ucle\cuclek ici Macc ck McRae ieee nea innate me mente 14

13. Four complete dark vittae on the mesonotum, the lateral ones not split longitudinally
past the suture and not extending on the alar callus ........ F. pescotti, n. sp.

The four dark vittae somewhat interrupted before the suture, the lateral ones split
past the suture so that there appear to be six vittae across the middle of the

PLOUUUTIN ge see ae sira oli osse\ a, inylogs Vereen. ousne ss kensosialgevohexenewe tee eve) Suvden nasty cues ten cnenere F. flavicornis Mall.

14. Median vittae of mesonotum interrupted in their middle, area in front of scutellum
and sides of the latter infuscated; mesopleurae almost completely dark; 8th
abdominal tergite present in male and as big as the 9th .... F. newmani, n. sp.

F. microcera, whose type is the only known specimen, has the posterior cross-vein
obsolete on one wing only; it is not placed in this section.

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 131

Median vittae complete and fused with the lateral ones; area in front of scutellum
yellow; mesopleurae dark on their upper and lower margins; 8th abdominal

segment apparently missing in the male .................. F. lockharti, n. sp.

15. Thorax entirely yellowish or orange without trace of darker vittae on the mesonotum
past the suture or dark markings on the pleurae .....................0-. 16
Mesonotum with a few dark markings past the suture* ...................... 9

16. Orbital and ocellar bristles very small, distance between the two cross-veins shorter
thanethexanterlonuCross=veinisncemieeenicceeciciiereneneieneinicn | cieesieieiee es F. frenchi, n. sp.

These bristles of normal length, distance between the two cross-veins sub-equal to
theslene thor the posterionicross=vielnriaene as eee cece se nie © cieleieieiaiacieieaae al'7/

iPr OnlvnOneKonpital (bristle vey es acne sweaters (oreii-) bse sins wus bhai cascushs F. microcera Mall.
Iw OMOLRD Leap ristlesmpresem tty www mince uci orek auch chcenaieheMal euciceebta ast) austieusuene ou oueuciens welen 18

18. Femora rather incrassate, wing length 2:5 mm.; hypopygium as in fig. 13 ........
ONO Oy iay6 Ee ereere pe eebie aeaiey Ue uttOnG chee teen irae 2 cna de ER si Pa RI Rw RC eh F. biseta Mall.
Femora normal, wing length 2 mm.; hypopygium as in fig. 14 .... F. nicholsoni, n. sp.

19. Wing-length 2-5 mm. in male, 3 mm. in female, dorsum of abdomen nearly completely
black; 6th abdominal segment mostly black in female; hypopygium as in

Safe TES) 2 ence aOR GOT ECD OTS RUT GRD CRG Sie CHIE ONCE A CORSE Occ aes F.. curriei, n. sp.
Wing-length 2:2 mm., dorsum of abdomen mostly yellow, base only of tergite brown;

6th abdominal segment mostly yellow in female; hypopygium as in fig. 16

BipLaIy GOratp Alt COI Busacte ore Benin ah ocr toes TG IERo done Uni ereiCL nlc ono Ib 8 ce otcr Cnet mea F. tillyardi, n. sp.

1. FERGUSONINA CARTERI, Nl. Sp.

6. Head lemon-yellow, ocellar triangle brown, frons very slightly infuscated
anteriorly. Base of antennae deep black, 3rd segment orange, arista black, rather
thick and long, sub-nude. Vibrissae and all the hairs of the face and frons black.
Two supra-orbitals somewhat longer than the ocellars; sometimes a very small
bristle between them pointing outwards. Upper part of occiput behind each eye
brownish. Thorax: Mesonotum orange-yellow, somewhat shining, slightly grey-
pruinose when seen from in front, with four wide blackish vittae, the lateral
ones split longitudinally behind, the median ones reaching posteriorly to the last
third of notum. Scutellum lemon-yellow; pleurae yellow with a well-marked
longitudinal black streak; hypopleurae with a small and slight infuscation; post-
notum blackish. Three pairs of dorso-ventral bristles and only one pair of
prescutellar acrosticals. Legs completely yellow, all the hairs and bristles entirely
black. Wing: Costa almost reaching tip of R,,;, but devoid of setulae soon after
tip of R.,.; the two branches of Rs parallel; the distance between the two cross-
veins equal to the length of the posterior cross-vein. Abdomen dull black dorsally
except at base and on posterior half of 5th segment; 4th segment very narrowly
margined with yellow; hypopygium yellow. Flap of the 9th tergite not divided
from it; paraphalli with four teeth, one large apical one and three smaller lateral
ones and without any sensory pits or pores (fig. 1B). Wing-length 3 mm.

©. Completely similar to male; hind margin of 5th abdominal segment broadly
yellow, the 6th completely dull yellow, the 7th shining black; the chaetotaxy as
in fig. 1C. Type, allotype and numerous paratypes bred from leaf galls of
HE. Stuartiana in Canberra in July, 1934.

A number of specimens bred from galls of H. amygdalina from Emerald (Vic.)
by Mr. C. French on 11th October, 1906, appear to belong to this species; the
genitalia of both sexes correspond well, but the second segment of the antennae
is sometimes only slightly infuscated and not deep black. The same species
has been obtained from an undetermined species of Hucalyptus in Adelaide by
Mr. J. W. Evans.

* The alternative should always be tried, as these markings may be absent in less
mature specimens.

132 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

2. FERGUSONINA EUCALYPTI Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1932, p. 214.

6. Head yellow, ocellar triangle with black spots on the inside of each
ocellus; 3rd antennal segment black, the arista entirely black, thin, not incrassate
at base, distinctly pubescent. The orbital bristles are very small, scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the other hairs of the vertex; they are, however, as long as
the ocellars and the inner verticals. Vibrissae very small, entirely black, all the
hairs of cheeks, face and frons, black; three rows of hairs on the parafacials
which are correspondingly wider than usual. Thorax: Mesonotum brightly
shining rufous-orange, without dark vittae except on the anterior margin, just
above the neck, where there is a trace of the fused median vittae. Pleurae
without dark markings, postnotum brown. Only two distinct dorso-centrals; four

ANS
ya in

- 2285 -=]-—=- - 2 =

7,

Fig. 1.—Fergusonina carteri, n. sp. A, male hypopygium from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ; C, ovipositor.

Fig. 2.—Fergusonina eucalypti Mall. A, male hypopygium from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ, the paraphalli exserted.

Fig. 3.—Fergusonina atricornis Mall. A, male hypopygium from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ, the paraphalli exserted.

Fig. 4.—Fergusonina evansi, n. sp. A, ninth tergite of male from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ; C, ovipositor with the 8th segment protruding.

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 133

other prescutellars, a short setulose hair behind the supra-alar. Legs yellow.
All the hairs and bristles, even those of the coxae, black; the hind femora
with the usual preapical antero-ventral bristles. Wing: Costa actually reaching
the tip of R,, but appearing to stop in between the two branches of the radial
sector because its black spinulae do not reach any further; the branches of Rs
slightly convergent in distal half; distance between the two cross-veins distinctly
greater than the length of the posterior cross-vein. Abdomen with a large
transverse black band in the middle, which spreads on the dorsum of the second
to fourth tergites. Hypopygium yellow, its ventral flaps much developed and
distinctly separated from the 9th tergite; the paraphalli are multidentate distally
and have three sensory pores arranged as shown in figure 2B (these organs
are represented there somewhat extruded, not in their normal position); between
the two distal lobes of the hypophallus there is a number of characteristic sensory
cones. This hypopygium is very similar to that of atricornis on account of the
development of the flaps; the distal strongly sclerotized pieces shown in figure 3A
are also present here, but are not figured as they are hidden by the flaps on
account of the position of the whole organ in the preparation. Wing-length 3 mm.

®. Three orbitals very small and near each other; there is no trace of reddish
vittae on the mesonotum. The abdomen is brown on the dorsum of segments II
to IV and base of V, the sixth slightly infuscated at the base dorsally, the
seventh rather dull black. The vestiture of ovipositor is unusual; on segment VI
there are 6 submarginal dorsal bristles, the outside ones being larger, and 4 to 5
submarginal dorsal; besides these there are, on each side before the submarginal
bristles, two groups of small setulose hairs; one dorso-lateral, of 4 to 5, and one
ventro-lateral, of 5 to 6 hairs. On segment VII, besides the usual long apical
bristles, there are some fairly numerous smaller bristles on the bulbous part
of the segment, about 20 above and 10 below.

This species was obtained from bud galls of H. maculata at Bodalla, N.S.W.,
in October, and at Bateman’s Bay, also in October, by W. L. Morgan. I have
seen the holotype male, the allotype, and another female paratype; there is no
distinct trace of reddish vittae on the mesonotum, as stated by Malloch; what
may appear to be such are the muscular bundles visible through the rather
transparent integument of the notum.

3. FERGUSONINA ATRICORNIS Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 1925, pp. 91, 92, fig. 7.

6. Head yellow, ocellar triangle shining black; base of antennae yellow, 3rd
segment deep black, arista entirely brown. - The chaetotaxy of the head is remark-
able because of the small size of all the bristles except the outer verticals;
however, all the usual bristles, as indicated in the generic diagnosis, are present,
although difficult to make out. The type shows three orbitals, the median one
being somewhat larger than the others and about equal to the inner verticals;
the ocellars are a little longer. Only one row of setulae on the lower part of the
parafacials which are narrow at that spot. All setulae of face and frons black.
Vibrissae entirely black. Thorax yellow, mesonotum orange, with four very
indistinct rufous vittae, visible only in certain positions; the median ones are
brown on a small space right above the neck, the lateral ones brownish past
the suture; they are divided longitudinally so as to present each the appearance
of two narrow dark streaks, the internal one being placed just outside the dorso-
central row of bristles. No dark markings on the pleurae; postnotum blackish;
three dorso-centrals present, prescutellar acrosticals not distinct. Legs: Hind

134 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

femora with the usual bristles anteriorly and sub-apically (not posteriorly as
given by Malloch). Wing: The two branches of the radial sector somewhat
convergent (loc. cit., fig. 7), the distance between the two cross-veins equal to the
length of the posterior one. Abdomen fuscous above, basal segment pale on the
middle and on the sides. Hypopygiwm (fig. 3) remarkable by the development
of the ventral flaps of the 9th tergite and the presence of the sclerotized rods
near the apex of this tergite. The paraphalli (shown somewhat extruded in
figure 3B) are characterized by the three distal triangular teeth and the four
sensillae arranged in groups of two. Wing-length 2-2 mm.

The type, from Sydney (20th October, 1924), in the collection of the Health
Department, Sydney, is so far the only specimen known.

The above description differs somewhat from that given by Malloch, especially
in the coloration of the mesonotum, which he describes as having six vittae;
the splitting of the two lateral vittae into two dark streaks, as I have observed
in other species, may be purely an individual character; moreover, the anterior
part of the lateral vittae does not show any signs of longitudinal division. The
position of the strong setulae of the hind femora is decidedly anterior and not
posterior; Malloch has been deceived here by the position of the median legs
which extend towards the back over the hind one; on the mid-femora the setulae
are as stated by him.

This species was probably collected with the net by the late EH. W. Ferguson;
the type of gall it makes is, therefore, not known.

4. FERGUSONINA EVANSI, n. sp.

6. Head yellow, ocellar triangle shining black, arista thin, sub-naked, rufous
on basal third, then brown; vibrissae and all hairs of face and frons black; two
orbital bristles present, the posterior ones slightly longer. Thorax yellow,
mesonotum rufous with small brownish markings just above the neck and six
small dark spots on the posterior half; the median ones are on the middle of the
disc, the next ones further back on the outside of the row of dorso-central bristles,
and the outer ones on the sub-alar callus; these spots are the dark pigmented
posterior ends of the vittae which are completely coloured in darker species. These
markings may be completely or partly absent in paler specimens. Scutellum and
pleurae completely yellow, postnotum brown. Usually three pairs of dorso-centrals
and two pairs of prescutellars, the median ones larger. Legs entirely yellow,
all their bristles completely black, including the long ones on the posterior femora.
Wing: Costa stopping a little beyond the tip of R.,,; wing apex rather pointed
at the tip of R,,;; the two branches of Rs sub-parallel; posterior cross-vein missing
altogether or at most represented by a very faint trace of a spur on M,. Abdomen
dull brown on the dorsum except at base and tip; no pale margins on tergites 2,
3 and 4, the fifth with a very wide yellow margin. Hypopygium yellow, its
latero-ventral flaps well separated from the capsule of the 9th tergite and with a
group of 8 to 10 setulae on their inner side away from their margin. Aedeagus
as in figure 4B, the paraphalli provided with five sensory pits and with only one
apical tooth, no lateral ones. Wing-length 3 mm.

°. As male, but the mesonotum not marked with brown in the five specimens
examined, except right above the neck; the 5th abdominal segment brown at base
only and the 6th with a small dorsal brownish patch; the 7th completely black.
On segment VI there are 8 dorsal submarginal bristles, the median pair being
small, and 4 or 5 ventral bristles. Segment VII with 2 ventral and 2 dorsal pairs.
Wing-length 2-7 mm.

p=
~~)
oO

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 35
Type, allotype and paratypes bred from leaf galls of H. meliodora collected
at Canberra; emerged in October, 1934.

5. FERGUSONINA DAVIDSONI, n. gp.

6. Head yellow, frons rufous, ocellar triangle brown; all the hairs of face
black, vibrissae rufous at base. Antennae yellow, arista orange-yellow on basal
third which is incrassate, the rest brown, not very distinctly pubescent. All the
bristles of the vertex, except the outer verticals, of about the same length;
in front of the orbitals are 2 to 3 hairs in the same row and of the same size
as those of the frons but more rigid. Thorax yellow, mesonotum rufous with four
dark vittae, the median ones interrupted so that they form two spots, one above
the neck and one on the middle of the disc; the lateral vittae narrow and
starting from the suture only; pleurae devoid of dark spots; sides of scutellum
slightly infuscated, postnotum brown. Only two distinct dorso-centrals. Legs
yellow. Wing: Costa reaching but very little over the first branch of Rs; posterior
cross-vein absent on one wing, on the other represented by a small stump on M,.
Abdomen blackish on the dorsum, posterior margin of 5th segment and hypo-
pygium yellow; lateral lobes of 9th tergite well divided from the tergite with a
number of submarginal setulae on their inner face (fig. 5B); paraphalli much
more elongate than usual, their apex in form of hook (fig. 5C).

Q. Similar to the male, vibrissae entirely black, the markings of the
mesonotum almost obsolete, especially those on the disc; posterior cross-vein
represented on both wings only by a very small stump on M,. Sixth abdominal
segment extensively infuscated at the base dorsally and much less ventrally, seven
dorsal submarginal bristles (six is probably the normal number), the median and
outside ones larger, and six ventral, the two median pairs smaller; seventh segment
black with 3 pairs of dorsal and 2 pairs of ventral bristles (fig. 5D). Wing-length
2-5 mm.

Holotype and allotype from Adelaide, 16th October, 1931, J. Davidson, from
Hucalyptus gall, species not mentioned.

This species is quite distinct from all others here described by the hypopygial
structure of the male. The absence of the posterior cross-vein should not be
considered as a very safe specific character since it may be absent or present
according to the individual, as appears to be the case for the genotype.

6. FERGUSONINA SCUTELLATA Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 1925, p. 92, fig. 9.

6. Head yellow, ocellar triangle shining black, frons infuscated anteriorly,
occiput extensively brown on each side. Antennae yellow, arista completely black,
rather thick, distinctly pubescent. Vibrissae entirely black, as well as all the hairs
on the face. All the bristles long, the posterior orbital somewhat longer than
the inner vertical. Thorax: Mesonotum entirely black with slightly dusty surface,
its sides, including the humeri, yellow, base of scutellum blackish, postnotum
black, pleurae extensively fuscous or black with exception of upper part of meso-
pleurae, sternopleurae deep black. Three distinct dorso-central bristles, acrostical
prescutellar present. Legs yellowish, a slight dark marking on the anterior side
of the middle and hind femora. Wing: Costa prolonged a little over the tip of
R,,,; the two branches of the radial sector sub-parallel.* Abdomen: Dorsum

* These two veins are but slightly converging and not strongly as shown in Malloch’s
fig. 9; it is much more like his fig. 7 (atricornis). If the wing is not viewed perfectly

flat these veins may appear more convergent than they actually are.

136 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

black with exception of the middle of the 1st segment, a narrow posterior margin
on segment 4 and the posterior half of segment 5, which is yellowish. On the
sides and ventrally the tergites are more widely margined with yellow, but
their base is fuscous. Hypopygium black, 9th tergite rather elongate, its side
flaps small, rounded (fig. 6A); aedeagus characterized by the very long and sharp
upper tooth of the paraphalli (fig. 6B). Wing-length 2:5 mm.

Holotype: Sydney, N.S.W., 1st January, 1925, E. Ferguson in Coll. Health
Department, Sydney. Gall and host unknown.

ye

Fig. 5.—Fergusonina davidsoni, n. sp. A, ninth tergite of male from below; B, one
ventro-lateral flap seen from inside; C, tip of intromittent organ; D, ovipositor with the
8th segment extruded.

Fig. 6.—Fergusonina scutellata Mall. A, male hypopygium from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ.

Fig. 7.—Fergusonina brimblecombi, n. sp. A, ninth tergite of male from below;
B, tip of intromittent organ; C, one of the paraphalli dissected out.

Fig. 8.—Fergusonina morgan, n. sp. A, ninth tergite of male from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ; C, ovipositor.

co |

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 13

7. FERGUSONINA BRIMBLECOMBI, 0. Sp.

6. Head yellow with a ferruginous orange crescent above the antennae; ocellar
triangle black; antennae completely yellow, arista ferruginous at base on one-sixth
of its length, rather thick and short, gradually tapering, not flagelliform, distinctly
pubescent. Hairs of face and anterior part of frons pale, vibrissae somewhat
infuscated. Two orbital bristles present, the anterior one half the size of the
posterior one and sub-equal to the ocellars. Thorax: Mainly yellow; anterior half
of the mesonotum orange and with one large brown spot split longitudinally just
above the neck, a much smaller dark spot on each side just above the shoulder;
these spots are the beginning of the four vittae which are completely black in
some species; in this one the posterior part of these vittae is ferruginous. Meso-
pleurae with a longitudinal blackish streak, sternopleurae marked with brown,
postnotum black rather shining, pteropleurae and hypopleurae sometimes also
brownish. Chaetotaxy of the thorax as usual, the prescutellar acrosticals not
conspicuous. Legs yellow with a small median black spot on the front and
mid-tibiae, more distinct on their anterior side. Wing as in F. pescotti. Abdomen:
General coloration yellow with a transverse dorsal brown band across the middle
and an apical roundish dark spot; first tergite completely yellow, the 2nd to 4th
brownish with narrow pale margin, the 5th narrowly brown at base and with
a roundish apical brown spot; hypopygium yellow, ventro-lateral flaps not divided
from the 9th tergite, of moderate size and angular at apex with about three
sensory setae at base on internal side (fig. 7A), intromittent organ as in figure 7B,
paraphalli with two sub-apical teeth inserted somewhat dorsally (fig. 7C). Wing-
length 2 mm.

©. As in male; the 4th abdominal segment with a rather broad posterior
margin, the 5th nearly completely yellow but with a median dark vitta which
does not extend to the margin; the 6th fuscous at base on both sides of dorsum,
not in the middle; chaetotaxy of these two segments as in F.. morgani.

Holotype, allotype and numerous paratypes bred from flower-bud galls of
fi. melanophioia in December, 1934, at Canberra, by Dr. Currie.

Two female specimens bred from similar galls on H. crebra may belong to
this species; they correspond in every point, with the exception of the 6th
abdominal segment, which is mostly black up to the submarginal bristles.

8. FERGUSONINA MORGANI, Nn. sp.

3. Head yellow, area above lunula orange, ocellar triangle blackish, a dark
patch on the occiput behind the upper corner of each eye. Antennae yellow, arista
black except at the very base, rather thick and gradually diminishing in thickness,
the distal part not flagelliform, distinctly pubescent. Hairs of face and anterior
part of frons pale, including the vibrissae. Two supra-orbital bristles, the anterior
ones smaller than the ocellars. Mesonotum extensively dark anteriorly, the four
vittae being almost fused, the lateral ones are somewhat interrupted at the suture
and are split longitudinally past the suture. The median vittae do not extend
beyond the middle of the notum. There is a longitudinal dark streak on the meso-
pleurae; the ptero-, hypo- and sternopleurae are blackish like the postnotum;
scutellum lemon-yellow. Three dorso-central bristles present and a pair of very
small prescutellar acrosticals. Legs yellow with fairly extensive dark markings;
femora blackish except at base and apex, the anterior one yellowish on internal
face, tibiae with fairly wide median black ring, tarsi yellow. Wing as in F. pescotti,
but the costa distinctly prolonged to the tip of R,,:, although thinner from a little
distance after tip of R..,. Abdomen: Tergites almost completely black except on

138 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

either side of the dorsum of the first one and on the curved lateral part of the
second to fourth, where the margin is narrowly yellow and where there is a little
yellow patch more ventrally; hind margin of fifth with two very small yellowish
areas; 9th tergite blackish. Hypopygium with ventro-lateral flaps not divided
from the 9th tergite, their apex angulous, 3 to 4 sensory setae on their internal
face (fig. 8A), intromittent organ as in figure 8B, the paraphalli with a bilobed
apex, no lateral teeth. Wing-length 2 mm.

g. As in male; the lateral mesonotal dark vittae sometimes rather narrow
after the suture, not split. Fifth abdominal tergite yellow with a black roundish
median marking, 6th segment completely black with exception of posterior margin
and provided with four long dorsal bristles and six ventral bristles, the 4 median
ones being smaller; 7th segment completely black, with two ventral and two
dorsal bristles (fig. 8C).

Holotype, allotype and several paratypes from flower-bud gall of H. hemiphloia.
Collected in Victoria; emerged end of March, 1935.

9. FERGUSONINA GURNEYI Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1932, p. 215.

6d. Head yellow, a fuscous anterior margin on the frons, ocellar triangle
completely shining black; occiput fuscous on each side. Antennae yellow, arista
completely black, distinctly pubescent. Vibrissae very small, entirely black; all
the hairs on the face black. Orbitals of equal length, a little longer than ocellars
and postverticals. Thorax: Mesonotum with four wide dull-black vittae, leaving
only the side margins and very narrow streaks between them yellowish. Median
vittae fused in front, somewhat paler brown past the disc, but distinctly reaching
the scutellum; lateral vittae also somewhat paler on the alar callus; sides of
scutellum brown; postnotum black. A sharp black streak on the mesopleurae
(not on anepisternites), mesosternite mostly brown. Three distinct dorso-
centrals, two pairs of prescutellars. Legs yellow, the longer bristles of femora
entirely black. Wing: Costa reaching only a little way over tip of R.,,; the two
branches of Rs subparallel; distance between the cross-veins equal to length of
posterior cross-vein. Abdomen: Base of tergites broadly black dorsally; distal
half of the fifth yellow. Hypopygium yellow; the flaps of the 9th tergite distinctly
separated from the latter distally, their apex acute (fig. 9A). The paraphalli
broadly triangular without distinct lateral teeth, but with four sensory pits
(fig. 9B).

9. Similar to male; the abdominal tergites more widely margined with yellow;
the 6th segment scarcely infuscated dorsally. Chaetotaxy of the ovipositor as
follows: on 6th segment 6 dorsal submarginal bristles, the outer and median ones
being larger; further, 6 ventral bristles, the two median pairs much smaller; on
7th segment 2 dorsal pairs, the internal and more distal ones longer, 3 ventral
pairs, the proximal pair smaller, the two other pairs at same level, the external
ones longer. Wing-length 2 mm.

Holotype and allotype from Hucalyptus maculata bud gall, Bateman’s Bay,
N.S.W., 15th October, 1931 (W. L. Morgan).

All the pale parts of the body of these specimens are dirty yellow as
mentioned by Malloch; this is due to their general condition; there is no doubt
that the mature individuals are just as bright yellow as usual.

10. FERGUSONINA PESCOTTI, nN. Sp.
dg. Head yellow, face and anterior part of frons orange, ocellar triangle
brown; hairs of face and lower part of frons paler than elsewhere but not very

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 139

markedly, vibrissae black. Antennae yellow, arista orange on its thicker basal
part, which is less than one-sixth of the dark, flagelliform and distinctly pubescent
distal part. Two orbital bristles present, sometimes one, or even two, very small
setae in between them. Thorax: Mesonotum yellowish-orange with four brown
vittae, the median ones extending from the neck to the middle of disc. The
lateral ones rather narrow posteriorly (not split as usual). Pleurae orange without
brownish markings; postnotum brown. Three dorso-central bristles, the pre-

Fig. 9.—Fergusonina gurneyi Mall. A, male hypopygium from below; B, tip of
intromittent organ.

Fig. 10.—Fergusonina pescotti, n. sp. A, ninth tergite of male from below; B, C,
and D, various shapes of the ventro-lateral flaps; EH, tip of intromittent organ; F,
ovipositor.

Fig. 11.—Fergusonina newmani, n. sp. A, male hypopygium from below; B, 8th
and 9th tergites from above; C, tip of intromittent organ; D, ovipositor.

Fig. 12.—Fergusonina lockharti, n. sp. A, 9th tergite from below; 6, the same from
above; C, tip of intromittent organ; D, ovipositor.

140 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

seutéllar acrosticals fairly large. Legs yellow with black pubescence, bristles
of posterior femora slightly pale at base. Wing: Costa reaching a little way over
the tip of R.,,; the two branches of Rs subparallel; the distance between the two
cross-veins a little greater than the posterior cross-vein. Abdomen with the dorsum
of segments 2 to 4 dark, the posterior margin of the 5th broadly orange, the ist
only partially blackish on the sides. Hypopygium: Latero-ventral flaps completely
fused with the capsule of the 9th tergite, each with a strong apical more or less
curved tooth and an irregularly dentate process underneath. The outline of this
process is very variable, as can be seen from figures 10B, C and D. Tip of the
intromittent organ as in figure 10H; paraphalli with one large apical tooth, but
no lateral ones and provided with four sensory pits, the two outer ones with setae.
Wing-length 2:3 mm.

°. Similar to male, but the median dark vittae of the mesonotum interrupted
in the middle then leaving only two round brown spots on the middle of the disc.
Sixth abdominal segment infuscated on the dorsum only and with two pairs of
dorsal and of ventral bristles; 7th segment black with two pairs of dorsal and
three of ventral bristles. There is some variation in the number of these bristles;
the proximal ventral pair of the 7th segment may be missing.

Holotype, allotype and 38 paratypes from Emerald, Victoria, 6th December,
1906, C. French; bred from leaf-gall of #. amygdalina. Also, 3 female paratypes
from the same locality on 29th March, 1907, and very numerous specimens from
Warrandyte (Victoria) bred from unidentified galls by G. F. Hill.

11. FERGUSONINA FLAVICORNIS Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 1925, p. 92.

2. Head yellow, ocellar triangle brown, an infuscated area on each side of
occiput; all the hairs of face and frons, including the vibrissae, dark. Antennae
yellow, the arista orange on its incrassate basal quarter, the rest thin brownish,
distinctly pubescent. Two orbital bristles, the anterior one smaller, sub-equal to
the ocellars. Thorax yellow, ground-colour of the anterior part of the meso-
notum reddish-orange and with brown vittae; both the lateral and the median
vittae are paler on a small space just before the suture, the lateral ones are split
longitudinally after the suture so that there appear to be six vittae towards the
middle of the mesonotum; postnotum brown; a very faint brownish spot on the
anepisternum and pteropleurae. Chaetotaxy of the thorax as usual, three pairs
of dorso-central bristles. Legs completely yellow with all bristles and hairs black.
Wing with costa reaching just a little over the tip of R.,,, branches of Rs
parallel, distance between the cross-veins equal to the posterior cross-vein.
Abdomen: Dorsum of all the tergites dull blackish with exception of a very
narrow hind margin; the 6th segment brownish dorsally with four dorsal and
four ventral submarginal bristles, the median pair of the latter small; 7th segment
black, rather elongate, with four dorsal and four ventral bristles. Wing-length
2 mm.

Holotype and unique specimen, Sydney, 30th November, 1924, KH. Ferguson.

Malloch described this species as having six black vittae; this is true if one
considers only the part immediately behind the suture. Further, he states that
there is only one orbital bristle; the unique specimen is not in very good con-
dition—there is on each side only one orbital bristle left, but on one side it is
the anterior one and on the other the posterior one; the pores of the missing
ones are plainly visible.

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 141

This species is not at all characteristic and, as the host species is not known,
it may not be easily identified again. It comes very near to F. pescotti, and it
is possible that this species will prove to be identical with flavicornis. However,
as only one sex of the latter is known and as galls on Hucalyptus anygdalina have
not yet been recorded but from Victoria, I think it is advisable for the present
to consider both forms as distinct species.

12. FrERGUSONINA NEWMANI, Nl. Sp.

¢. Head yellow, ocellar triangle fuscous with a blacker ring round each ocellus.
Antennae yellow, avista rather short, its base rufous; vibrissae and all the hairs
of the face black. Two upper orbitals not much longer than the ocellars. Thorax:
Mesonotum rufous with four brown vittae, the median pair extending to the middle
and markedly paler midway between the anterior border and the dise where they
appear as two round, blackish spots; area in front of the scutellum fuscous, the
latter has the same coloration and its sides have brownish markings at the base.
Mesopleurae almost all brownish except in the middle; steino-, ptero- and hypo-
pleurae marked brownish; postnotum black; halteres yellow.* Three dorso-
central bristles; prescutellar acrosticals very small. Legs: Yellow, all the hairs
and bristles black. Wing: Costa reaching the tip of R,.; but its black setulae
stopping well before that, the two branches of the Rs parallel, distance between
the two cross-veins equal to the length of the posterior one. Abdomen almost
completely black dorsally, the first segment with a few yellowish markings at the
base. Hypopygium yellow, its lateral lobes or flaps well developed but not divided
from the 9th tergite (fig. 11A); paraphalli with four teeth, the two apical ones
elongate (fig. 11C); eighth tergite present, small, and forming with the ninth the
hypopygial capsule (fig. 11B).

©. Similar to male; sixth abdominal segment blackish from the base to
somewhat below the level of the sub-marginal bristles, both dorsally and ventrally;
seventh segment black, short and bulbous; chaetotaxy of these two segments is
depicted in figure 11, which shows them in profile; there is in the allotype a single
ventral bristle on the bulb which may not be usually found there. Wing-length
2mm.

Type and allotype from King’s Park, Perth, W.A., bred from gall on leaf-bud
of Hucalyptus gomphocephala by G. A. Currie, 10th August, 1933. Also, one female
paratype from the same locality, rather immature. The type and allotype are
preserved in spirit, their genitalia on slides.

13. FERGUSONINA LOCKHARTI, D. Sp.

S$. Head yellow, ocellar triangle black; antennae yellow; arista relatively
short, rufous on the basal quarter; vibrissae and all the hairs of the face black.
The posterior orbital is distinctly longer; between the two orbitals there is a small
coarse hair similar to those of the vertex but it points outwards. Oeciput fuscous
on the sides. Thorar: Mesonotum yellow with four wide black vittae. The median
hair on the anterior half of the notum only; lateral vittae split longitudinally after
the suture. Mesopleurae with extensive fuscous markings composed of a longi-
tudional upper streak, some dark blotches underneath and a dark lower margin.
Sternopleurae with a large squarish fuscous spot; pteropleurae and hypopleurae
partly brownish. Post-notum black. Scutellum lemon-yellow. Four distinct dorso-
centrals; two pairs of prescutellar acrosticals of equal length. Legs: Yellow, all
the hairs and bristles black. Wings: Costa reaching the tip of R,.; but its setulae

* This coloration is described from specimens in spirit.

142 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA,

stopping just a little over the tip of R.,, so that, at first sight, the costa may seem
to stop there. The two branches of Rs parallel; distance between the two cross-
veins equal to or a little less than the length of posterior cross-vein. Abdomen:
Whole dorsum black, only a small median area on first segment and a very narrow
posterior margin on segments 4 and 5 yellowish; venter and hypopygium yellow.
Lateral flaps not separated from the 9th tergite, rounded and provided with about
nine sensory setae on the inside (fig. 12A). Intromittent organ shown in figure
12C; paraphalli with small widely-spaced teeth and one or two sensory pits. The
structure of this hypopygium is exceedingly close to that of tillyardi, but in the
latter the teeth of the paraphalli are relatively larger, more closely placed, and
somewhat curved backwards; moreover, the dorsal setae of the 9th tergite are
weaker and there is more than one setula on the distal edge of the tergite between
the median dorsal tubercle and the lateral lobes. Wing-length 2-4 mm.

°. Similar to male, the sternopleurae not so conspicuously marked with brown.
Fifth abdominal segment with a wider yellow margin; the 6th segment blackish
dorsally and ventrally at the base, nearly to the level of the submarginal bristles,
tour of these dorsally and four ventrally; seventh segment black, fairly elongated
with two pairs of bristles above and two below. In one female the four black
vittae are widely interrupted midway between the neck and suture, the mesonotum
is there of a rufous colour.

Holotype, allotype and several paratypes of both sexes in alcohol from
Mundaring, W.A., July, 1933, bred from leaf gall of Hucalyptus rudis by G. A.
Currie.

14. FERGUSONINA FRENCHI, Nn. Sp.

°. Head ochraceous-orange, ocellar triangle brown, frons and vertex dull orange;
all the hairs and bristles black, vibrissae small. Antennae yellowish, arista orange
on inecrassate part of base, remainder brown, thin, not distinctly pubescent. The
two orbital bristles are very small yet quite distinct from the coarse hairs of the
vertex, they are very close to each other (on one side there is a third smaller one
posteriorly, in the type). Ocellar bristles of the same size as the orbitals and
curved forward in the same way as the other hairs of the vertex, not strongly
proclinate; a pair of small setulae right in the middle of the triangle; post-
verticals erect and longer than the orbitals. Thorax shining, completely
ochraceous-orange, no trace of vittae on notum, the postnotum brown; two large
dorso-central bristles and two small ones, prescutellar acrostichals quite
conspicuous, a further bristle of same size between these and the dorso-centrals.
Wing: The two branches of the sector very slightly convergent; the costa ending
at the tip of R, and bristly up to that point; the distance between the two cross-
veins shorter than the length of the anterior cross-vein. Abdomen: Dorsum dull
black, the posterior corners and hind margin of fifth segment narrowly yellow; the
sixth segment dull brownish-black above and below, with six dorsal bristles and
four ventral ones, the median pair smaller; seventh segment shining black, with
five dorsal pairs of bristles, the two proximal ones small and one of them missing
on one side, two ventral pairs. Wing-length 3 mm.

Holotype and unique specimen bred from small leaf galls on H. amygdalina
from Emerald, Victoria, in October, 1906, by Mr. C. French. This species is similar
in size and general coloration to I’. eucalypti Mall., but it differs from it, at first
sight, by completely yellow antennae and the entirely dark sixth abdominal
segment, and further by the seventh with a limited number of bristles (four pairs) ;
the orbital bristles are longer, although more reduced than in the majority of

species.

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 143

15. FrRGUSONINA MICROCcERA Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, 1924, p. 338; 1, 1925, p. 91, fig. 6.

9. Head yellow, a narrow black ring round each ocellus, the rest of the ocellar
triangle yellow; antennae yellow; arista slightly rufous at base and distinctly
pubescent. One large orbital only, behind which there is a small coarse hair
directed outwards instead of forwards like all the other hairs of the vertex, it is
also a little thicker than these and may represent the posterior orbital bristle.
Vibrissae ochraceous at base, hair of face with a rufous tinge. Thorax completely
rufous-yellow, contrasting with the bright yellow of the head, the postnotum some-
what infuscated. A row of five dorso-central bristles, the two anterior ones very
small but yet distinct from the coarse hairs of mesonotum; prescutellar acrosticals
longer than usual, somewhat more than half as long as the largest dorso-central.
Legs yellow, the longer bristles of the femora rufous at base, hind femora not
more incrassate than in other species. Wing: Costa extending only a little way
over R.,,, and the two branches of the radial sector distinctly divergent. Posterior
cross-vein obsolete on one wing, nearly complete on the other; distance between
the two cross-veins equal to length of the posterior one. Abdomen: Dorsum of the
first five abdominal tergites fuscous; posterior border of the fifth and the sixth
completely dull orange; the seventh glossy-black, except on basal half on the sides
where it is luteous. Sixth segment with six dorsal submarginal bristles, the two
outside ones being larger than the median ones; there are also numerous small
bristles on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of these segments. The seventh segment
carries many small bristles on all its surface proximal to the pairs of long sub-
apical bristles. Wing-length 2 mm.

Holotype: North Harbour, Sydney, 30th March, 1923, EK. Ferguson. In coll.
N.S.W. Dept. of Health, Sydney.

I have not seen the male which was described by Malloch (loc. cit., p. 92),
who may have retained this specimen. This male was collected by Dr. Ferguson
at Sydney on 2nd October, 1924. As it was not bred from a gall with the female,
it is somewhat doubtful, in view of the numerous species of this genus, whether
it belongs to the same species as the female redescribed above. The only characters
which may allow their being linked together are those of coloration: all yellow,
the ocelli ringed with black. The hypopygium of this specimen, as described by
Malloch, is quite different from that of the other members of the genus since
“its forceps are long, slender, heavily chitinized and directed forward below the
venter” (1921).

16. FERGUSONINA BISETA Mall.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1932, p. 215.

¢. Head yellow, the ocellar triangle not actually brown but the ocelli
surrounded by brown. Antennae yellow, arista yellow on its basal third, distinctly
pubescent, not at all distinctly incrassate at the base as is usually the case, thin
on its whole length. Orbital, ocellar and post-vertical bristles rather small; smaller
than the inner verticals. Vibrissae completely yellow, hairs of the face black,
except those on the cheeks. Thorax rufous-yellow, mesonotum with a small vague
fuscous marking just behind the humerus, postnotum yellowish. Three dorso-
central and two pairs of prescutellar bristles, the median pair longer. Hairs on
mesopleurae numerous, covering almost all its surface; bristles and hairs of
sternopleurae all yellow. Legs with femora rather incrassate, all the longer
bristles on front and hind femora extensively yellow at the base. Wing: All the
veins yellow; costa reaching the middle of the distance between the two branches

144 REVISION OF GENUS TERGUSONINA,

of Rs, these two veins slightly divergent, the distance between the cross-veins equal
to the posterior one. Abdomen entirely yellow; hypopygium (fig. 13) remarkable
for the strong distal tooth on each side of the ninth tergite, lateral flaps with
concave inner border; aedeagus with very small paraphalli which are provided
with sensory setae. These and the penis are probably not so withdrawn basally as
represented in figure 13 of the holotype and unique specimen. Wing-length 2:5 mm.

rig. 123.—Fergusonina biseta Mall. Male hypopygium from below.
Pig. 14.—Fergusonina nicholsoni, n. sp. A. male hypopygium from below; £6, tip of
intromittent organ, % view; C, ovipositor.

Pig. 15.—Fergusonina curriei, n. sp. A, ninth tergite from helow, somewhat tilted
Bb. tip of intromittent organ; C., ovipositor.
hig. 16.—Fergusonina tillyardi, n. sp. A, male hypopygium from below; B, ninth

tergcite from above; C. tip of intromittent organ; D. ovipositor,

rc

BY A. L. TONNOIR. 145

Holotype: Bodalla, N.S.W., October, 1929, bred from flower galls of FE. maculata.
In Coll. Department of Agriculture, N.S.W., Sydney. This specimen is rather
teneral; when fully mature this species may have a more definite dark pattern
on the mesonotum.

17. FERGUSONINA NICHOLSONI, nh. sp.

36. Head yellow, ocellar triangle orange, with a trace of brown in close
proximity to the ocelli. Antennae yellow, basal third of arista orange, the rest
infuscated, not flagelliform, distinctly pubescent; hairs of face and anterior part
of frons paler, the vibrissae pale at base. The two upper orbital bristles are
sub-equal. Thorar dull ochraceous-orange, mesonotum with a very small dark
spot just above the neck, postnotum very faintly brownish. Only two dorso-
central bristles; the prescutellar acrosticals not distinct. Legs yellow, all hairs
and bristles black. Wing as in F. pescotti. Abdomen: Dorsum of first four tergites
very slightly infuscated at base; the fifth with a small faint brownish median basal
area. Hypopygium yellow, its latero-ventral flaps large, distinctly divided from
the ninth tergite with an acute basal corner and three internal sensory setae
(fig. 14A), intromittent organ as in figure 14B, which shows a three-quarter view
of it; paraphalli with three lateral teeth and a very blunt apical one, no pores or
sensory setae on them. Wing-length 2 mm.

°. As in male, sixth abdominal segment completely pale, with four dorsal
and four ventral submarginal bristles, the median pair of the latter smaller;
seventh segment black, with only two pairs of bristles.

Holotype, allotype and a number of paratypes bred from flower-bud galls of
EH. macrorrhyncha by Dr. G. A. Currie, in December, 1932, at Canberra.

18. FERGUSONINA CURRIEI, nN. Sp.

3. Head yellow, ocellar triangle brown. Antennae completely yellow; basal
fourth of arista yellowish, the rest infuscated, very thin and distinctly pubescent
(at x 24). Vibrissae and hairs of face and of part of the frons pale. Two orbital
bristles present, the anterior ones noticeably shorter, sometimes a very small
bristle between the two. Thorax: Mesonotum dull orange-yellow with anterior
dark markings just above the neck and short lateral fuscous vittae past the suture
and rather faint median, dark, almost circular markings in centre of the disc.
These two pairs of markings are sometimes obsolete. Scutellum and pleurae
yellow, postnotum brown. Three pairs of dorso-central bristles and one pair of
prescutellar acrosticals. Legs completely yellow, the large bristles of posterior
femora partly yellow. Wing: Costa reaching a little over the tip of R...; branches
of Rs sub-parallel, distance between the cross-veins a little longer than the
posterior cross-vein. Abdomen: Dorsum of the first five segments dull, dark brown;
this dark area interrupted by a yellow patch in the middle of segments one to
three, fourth segment very narrowly margined with yellow, the fifth with a very
wide margin. Hypopygium directed very much more downward and backward
than usual, the whole of the aedeagus being bent almost at right angles in its
middle; six flaps of ninth tergite well delimited from the capsule, and provided
with a strong curved apical tooth (fig. 144A). Tip of intromittent organ as shown
in figure 14B, the paraphalli with one blunt apical tooth, no lateral ones, and
provided with five sensory pits, the three outer of these with setae. Wing-length
2-5 mm.

°. Similar to male, dark markings of the mesonotum more often missing.
Sixth abdominal segment dull brown except on posterior margin, the seventh

146 REVISION OF GENUS FERGUSONINA.

shining black; the sixth with three dorsal pairs of submarginal bristles and
two ventral pairs; the seventh with three dorsal and four ventral pairs. Wing-
length 3 mm.

Holotype, allotype and paratype bred from leaf-bud galls of Hucalyptus
macrorrhyncha by G. A. Currie, 18th. April, 1934, in Canberra.

19. FERGUSONINA TILLYARDI, N. Sp.

6. Head lemon-yellow, ocellar triangle brown; hairs of face and anterior
part of frons yellow, but the vibrissae completely black. Antennae yellowish,
arista yellowish at the very base only, not elongate, its basal third incrassate, its
distal part not flagelliform, sub-naked. Two large supra-orbital bristles sub-equal
to the inner-verticals. Thorax yellow, mesonotum orange-yellow with a black
marking just above the neck; sometimes a slight brown vitta on the outside of the
dorso-central bristles; in these darker specimens there is also a small round
brownish spot on the middle of the disc and a faint streak on the mesopleurae;
scutellum lemon-yellow, postnotum brown. The dorso-central bristles are long,
especially the last ones, but the acrosticals are scarcely distinguishable from the
other hairs of that region of the thorax. Legs yellow, all the hairs, including
the bristles of the posterior femora, completely black. Wing: Venation as in
F. pescotti. Abdomen yellow; base of dorsum of tergites two to five narrowly
brownish, a dark area on each side of the first tergite; the band of the second
tergite often interrupted in the middle. In the darker specimens the whole disc
of the abdomen is blackish with very narrow, yellow margins to the tergites.
Hypopygium yellow, its latero-ventral flaps not divided from the capsule of the
ninth tergite, small and rounded and provided on the inside with three to
four sensory setae (fig. 16A); tip of the intromittent organ as in figure 16C,
paraphalli with one apical and three lateral teeth, no sensory pits. Wing-length
2 mm.

9. Similar to male; darker specimens with lateral dark vittae on mesonotum
and on mesopleurae are scarcer; these specimens have also the base of the dorsum
of the sixth abdominal segment dark; usually this segment is completely yellow,
it is provided with four large submarginal dorsal bristles and four smaller ventral
ones. Wing-length 2-2 mm.

Holotype, allotype and numerous paratypes bred from flower-bud gall of
Eucalyptus Blakelyi in Canberra by Dr. G. A. Currie, 19th December, 1933. Four
specimens bred from galls of H. camaldulensis by Mr. J. W. Evans at Naracoorte,
S.A., apparently belong to the same species; there are, however, no dark markings
on the thorax, but the male genitalia correspond in every respect with those of
the typical form.

References.
HENDEL, F., 1928.—Die Tierwelt Deutschlands, 6 Teil, I.
HERING, M., 1927.—Die Tierwelt Deutschlands, 11 Teil, Il, Jena.
MALLOCH, J. R., 1924.—Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, pp. 337-338.
—_—_——, 1925.—-Ibid., 1, pp. 90-92.
——_———., 1932.—Ibid., lvii, pp. 213-216.

‘

‘GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES.
A NEW TYPE OF ASSOCIATION BETWEEN FLIES AND NEMATODES.

By G. A. Currin, D.Sc., B.Sc.Agric., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Canberra.

(Plates vi-vii; thirty-one Text-figures. )

[Read 28th July, 1937.]

Introduction.

The flower buds of many Hucalyptus trees, particularly Hucalyptus camal-
dulensis Dehn. and H. hemiphloia F.v.M., are galled during certain seasons to
such an extent that very few of them develop into normal flowers. Whole branches
may break under the weight of galls. The trees named, and others, are the source
from which much of the Australian honey is harvested, so galling restricts the
honey output.

Galls of similar type were found affecting the flower buds of Hucalyptus
maculata Hook., a valuable timber tree, so that the production of seeds was
reduced. Morgan (1933) discovered that the organisms causing the galls on
these trees were small nematodes and Agromyzid flies of the genus Fergusonina.
Working independently, the writer had meanwhile been studying the galls on the
flower buds of H. macrorrhyncha F.v.M. and found that they were caused by flies
of the genus Fergusonina working in symbiotic association with small nematodes
which were found to be closely allied to certain small plant-parasitic genera.
Further work revealed that galls caused by the flies and nematodes, always asso-
ciated, were common in all parts of Australia on many Hucalyptus trees. Galls
were present on leaf buds, axil buds, stem-tips, and flower buds. In the photo-
graph (PI. vi, fig. 1), the difference between galled and ungalled flower-buds is
clearly discernible, while the photograph of H. macrorrhyncha (Pl. vi, fig. 2)
shows to what an extent galling may affect trees.

A review of literature on Australian galls disclosed that Riibsaamen (1894)
had recorded dipterous larvae in flower-bud galls from Queensland. The species
of tree is not stated, but the illustration resembles flower-bud galls found on
H. melanophloia F.v.M. Cambage (1918), writing on the flora of the Federal
Capital Territory, records finding galls caused by the larvae of Agromyzid flies
on flower buds of EH. dealbata (probably this was H#. Blakelyi Maiden), the galls
being about 14 mm. in diameter, whereas the normal flower bud was only about
2mm. wide. Beuhne (1923), in the “Honey Flora of Victoria’, refers to flower-
bud galls on H. camaldulensis, but does not mention the cause.

Below are given the results of some five yeai's’ study of the gall-producing
insects, the associated nematodes, and of the galls they produce.

148 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

Life History of Fly and Nematode.

There ave many species of Fergusonina flies which attack Hucalyptus trees,
and all are associated in the galls with nematodes. The fly which causes the galls
on #. macrorrhyncha was studied most intensively, so the life history of that fly
is presented here.

Adult flies emerge from the galls in summer, and the females, after mating,
proceed to lay eggs in the young flower-buds which are appearing at that time.
With each egg, any number of larval nematodes from one to fifty is passed into
the cavity between the operculum and the floor of the inside of the bud. Many
eggs may be laid in the same bud by a single fly or by several flies, and as many
as 74 eggs and 227 nematode larvae have been found in a single bud.

Embryonic development within the egg of the fly proceeds during the next
six weeks (eggs which were laid on 15th December hatched on ist February).
During that period the larval nematodes feed vigorously on the primordia of the
stamens and cause a rapid proliferation of cells which form irregular masses
inside the galled bud.

On hatching, the fly larvae make their way between two contiguous masses
of cells and tear out small erypts in which to lie. The larval nematodes join
them in their several crypts and develop rapidly to the adult stage. The
nematodes of that generation are all parthenogenetic females which lay eggs in
the gall cavity alongside the fly larva, with which they lie in contact. The fly
larva passes through three instars, all in the crypt inside the galled bud, obtaining
its food from the plant cells surrounding it. During the first and second instars
it feeds on the gelatinous cell-sap, some of which oozes from the cells after they
have been punctured by the stylets of the nematodes. The third instar larva
tears down the walls of the cavity in which it lies and feeds on the ruptured
cells.

The nematodes breed parthenogenetically in the cavity during the larval life
of the fly without harming it in any way, males appear in numbers in the autumn
and winter, and when the female fly larva is about to pupate, two fertilized female
nematodes enter its body cavity, probably through the skin. There, during the
pupal period of the fly, the female nematodes change from the free-living form to
a much enlarged parasitic form which has no stylet or gut, the whole of its
internal space being filled by a much enlarged ovary. Male flies are never
parasitized in this way by the nematodes, female flies invariably so. By the
time the female fly emerges adult the parasitic nematodes are discharging large
numbers of segmenting eggs inside its body cavity. On hatching, larval nematodes
make their way to the ovary, penetrate into the oviduct, and there await the
passage of an egg down the chitinous ovipositor, whence they accompany it into
the young flower-bud to start the cycle anew.

This life history can be taken in its broad outlines as typical for the whole
series of flies. The time of year when adults emerge and the point of the tree
attacked vary, but young growing tissue is always selected by the flies for
oviposition, and the nematode larvae which are always deposited with the eggs
of the fly are active before the eggs hatch.

Methods.
Larvae of flies —Larvae of different ages were dissected alive from the galls
and the natural outlines drawn with the camera lucida. For detailed study of
skin structures and mouth parts, larvae were boiled in caustic potash, then the

BY G. A. CURRIE. 149

skins were washed, cleared in glacial acetic acid, stained with acid fuchsin and
mounted in Canada balsam.

The adults—Female flies bred out in the laboratory were dissected daily in
saline to study the development of the ovaries and of the parasitic nematodes.
Others were placed in organdi sleeves enclosing young flower-buds so that
oviposition could be observed and buds labelled with the date on which eggs had
been laid in them.

The nematodes—Minute studies of the internal organization of the free-
living nematodes were made on fresh material just immobilized by heat. A small
cell on a glass slide was found to answer well for this purpose. Parasitic females
had to be studied in normal saline; in water they rapidly swell up and burst.
Semi-permanent mounts were made with glycerine.

The galls—Fresh galled buds were collected and studied throughout the years
and much information was obtained in this way. Some sections of the galls were
kept for permanent record, but no wholly satisfactory technique was discovered
to fix and preserve equally well the vegetable tissues, the nematodes and the fly
larvae. Alcoholic Bouin penetrated rapidly in vacuo and the material stained,
dehydrated, cleared, and mounted in hard paraffin gave some reasonably good
sections.

ELEMENTS IN THE ASSOCIATION.
We FOG: IHD

The adult flies bred out from galls during the investigation have been
described by my colleague, Mr. A. L. Tonnoir (1937), who has revised the genus
Fergusonina. Malloch named the genus for the noted Australian dipterist, Dr.
Ferguson, and classified it in the family Agromyzidae; the genus is somewhat
aberrant, however, and Tonnoir has decided to place it in a subfamily by itself.
All the flies are small, with a wing span ranging from 5 mm. to about 7 mm.,
and are of a mottled yellow and black colour. The females have strong ovipositors
similar to those of the Trypetidae (PI. vii, fig. 1). They were found to be
rather weak fliers and did not readily take wing.

In warm weather mating takes place about 48 hours after emergence, but
is delayed in cold weather; the adult flies live in the summer months from about
6 to 20 days only. They have not been seen feeding in the open, but in captivity
they suck up water or sugar syrup readily. Egg-laying generally takes place
during the hours from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. The females appear to lay equally in
shade or in the sun during warm weather, but during cool weather the ovipositing
females congregate on the sunny side of the trees. Owing to this habit it was
observed that, when the weather was colder than usual during the period when
flies were most common, the northern side of the trees was more heavily galled
than the southern; when temperatures were fairly high, however, most of the
buds on the tree were galled. When the galls mature, and just for a few weeks
afterwards, the flies are extremely common, and the fact that they have not been
taken and described more frequently than has been the case in the past is probably
due to four factors: (1) Their small size; (2) their short life as adults; (3) their
habit of clinging closely to the branches and not flying readily; (4) that little
attention has been given by collectors in Australia to the small diptera.

Emergence of Adult Flies from Galls.
A considerable number of different methods for the emergence of the adult
flies from the galls have been developed by the different species of flies.
TF

150 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

F. nicholsoni, which has been discussed earlier, emerges when the operculum
of the galled flower-bud lifts. When the flower-bud galls of HE. Blakelyi are fully
mature the inner portions dry up and break up into a powder, through which the
adult flies (F. tillyardi) escape to the exterior; the galls frequently drop to the
ground at maturity and the flies escape from them there. The larvae of F. curriei
living in the community leaf-bud galls of HE. macrorrhyncha burrow when full fed
to a point just under the skin of the gall and there pupate; the adult fly can then
push its way readily to the exterior. The larva of F. greavesi cuts a round hole
in the wall of the gall chamber before it pupates, leaving only the epidermis
unbroken; through this the fly escapes at emergence. This last method of
emergence is commonly used by the various larvae inhabiting leaf and stem-tip
galls.

The puparia which inhabit the leaf, axil bud, and stem-tip galls are all found
attached to the wall of the galls by a transparent elastic jelly fixed to the anal
end. This gelatinous material, which is voided by the full-fed larva just before
pupation, holds the puparium in position at the anal end while the adult fly bursts
its way through the anterior end. This substance is absent from most of the
puparia found in the flower-bud galls.

Description of immature stages of FERGUSONINA NICHOLSONI Tonn.

This species from flower-bud galls on H. macrorrhyncha is taken as a type to
illustrate the stages in the life history of flies of the genus Fergusonina.

Hgog—tThe egg is a spindle-shaped, transparent, glistening body. It tapers
to a sharp point at one end and to a more rounded tip covered by a cap at the
micropylar end (Fig. 1). Length of egg, 0-33 to 0-4 mm.; width of broadest
part, 0-1 mm.

First instar larva (Fig. 2)—At hatching the larva is shorter than the egg
from which it hatches. The mouth parts are 0:04 mm. long at this stage. No
signs of spiracles or tracheae have been observed in this instar. Rows of papillae
are clearly distinguishable along the line of junction of segments on the dorsal
surface. Length, 0:23 mm.; width, 0:07 mm.

Second instar larva (Fig. 3).—This larva is immobile and lives in a small
close-fitting cavity surrounded by nematodes bathed in a mucilaginous fluid
apparently exuded by the cells lining the gall cavity. Its skin is extremely
delicate and transparent, all the internal organs are easily distinguishable, and
the papillae marking the junction of the segments of the dorsum are very
pronounced. The mouth parts are minute in proportion to the bulk of the larva
and do not appear to be used for tearing, the larva imbibing the fluid in which
it lies. The actual size of the mouth parts is less than that of the first instar,
a contradiction to the normal rule, the length being only 0:024 mm. No sign
of a tracheal system can be distinguished in this instar. Length, 0:9 mm.; width,
0-7 mm.

Third instar larva (Fig. 4).—From the delicate 2nd instar larva the 3rd
instar emerges aS a vigorous, tough-skinned larva, with strong mouth-parts and
heavily-chitinized spiracles opening into a well-defined tracheal system. The
respiratory system is amphipneustic. The mouth parts are 0-133 mm. long. On
the dorsal surface is a strongly-chitinized dark-brown plate not present on the
first and second instars which, for the sake of convenience, one may call the
“dorsal shield’, extending from the first thoracic segment over the first and
second abdominal segments. The general shape of the larva is sub-ovate, but

BY G. A. CURRIE. 151

many other species of Fergusonina have pyriform larvae. Length, 1:3 mm.; width,
0-9 mm.
Structure of spiracles and mouth parts of Fergusonina larvae.

The spiracles are fairly similar in shape throughout the series of larvae
discovered so far. The three slits of the spiracles are raised on protruding lips
resembling the corolla of a flower (Fig. 22). The anterior slit of the anterior
spiracles is nearly as big as the other two slits combined. Small elliptical
perforations through the slits allow air to enter the felt chamber, which is walled
with brown chitin, and this in turn leads into a large trachea. The posterior
spiracles are remarkably similar to the anterior, both in size and shape.

Figure 22 illustrates, by camera lucida drawings, the spiracle of 3rd instar
larvae from leaf galls on H. maculosa and the spiracle of 3rd instar larvae of
F. tillyardi. Such: differences as can be observed between these two represent the
amount of difference to be seen between the most dissimilar pair of the series
of larvae.

The larvae from the flower-bud galls of H. pauciflora have smaller spiracles
than the others, and the chitin forming them is not so deeply pigmented, but
otherwise the structures are very similar.

The mouth parts (bucco-pharyngeal apparatus) are fairly regular in shape
throughout the series. Two sets are illustrated in Figures 23 and 24. Figure 23
is a drawing of the mouth parts of F#. tillyardi Tonn., and Figures 24 and 25 of
those of F. eucalypti Mall. These two sets have been chosen because they show
as great a difference between them as can be found between any two species of
the genus.

The Puparium.

The puparium lies in the eaten-out cavity of the gall until the emergence of
the adult fly. In form it is the typical barrel-shaped dipterous puparium of the
Cyclorrhapha, with no distinctive characters, and varies in colour from light
straw on pupation to dark brown just before emergence of the fly.

Description of 3rd Instar larvae of Fergusonina species with special reference to
the dorsal “shield”.

The mouth parts of spiracles did not appear to have diagnostic value, but the
dorsal shield on the various larvae proved to be a useful diagnostic feature. The
sequence in which the third instar larvae are described indicates the possible
direction of the evolution of this organ.

The dorsal shield, which is considered to be the most primitive of those
discovered, consists merely of scattered spots of chitin on the terga of the 2nd
and 38rd thoracic and ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th abdominal segments. A series
of shields of increasing complexity then follows, culminating in one which consists
of a black plate from which a strong rake-like organ, carrying from 5 to 7 teeth,
projects outwards.

1. Fergusonina sp. 1- (Fig. 5).—From stem-tip gall on H#. paucifilora, Mount
Kosciusko, N.S.W., June, 1935; galls collected by M. J. Mackerras. This larva
carries small spots of chitin over the greater part of the dorsum. Long narrow
patches, composed of closely-set spots of chitin, are present on the 2nd and 3rd
thoracic and the ist to the 6th abdominal segments. These patches are on the
most projecting parts of the convex segments, so that they come into contact
frequently with the walls of the gall in which the larvae live. Paired papillae
are present on each of the three thoracic segments, two pairs on the first and
one pair each on the other two segments. The spiracles are prominent, and open

GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

152

BY G. A. CURRIE. , 153

into the amphipneustie respiratory system. The adult has not yet been described.
Length of full-grown larva, 5 mm. approx.; width of full-grown larva, 1:6 mm.
approx.

2. Fergusonina sp. 2 (Fig. 6)—From stem-tip on #. macrorrhyncha, Black
Mountain, F.C.T., Sept., 1934; collected by the author. This 3rd instar larva
carried a dorsal shield formed of scattered spots of chitin on the dorsum. There
are chitinous cones on the 2nd and 3rd thoracic and on the Ist, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
abdominal segments, each cone being surrounded at its base by smaller spots of
chitin. Paired papillae are present, as in the species just described, and the
spiracles are very similar. Length of full-grown larva, 1:7 mm. approx.; width
ot full-grown larva, 1:0 mm. approx.

3. Fergusonina curriei Tonn. (Fig. 7).—From leaf galls on EH. macrorrhyncha
(see photo, Pl. vi, fig. 5), Canberra, F.C.T., Oct., 1933; collected by the author. In
this larva the dorsal shield is present on the same six tergites as in the former
species, and sometimes extends to the fifth abdominal segment. The chitinized
spots are somewhat irregular and coalesce on each segment to form a more or
less coherent plate; this distinguishes it from the species previously described.
The papillae on the thoracic segments are somewhat smaller than those of the
preceding species, and the larva is much larger. Length of full-grown larva, 3:7
mm.; width of full-grown larva, 2:3 mm.

4. Fergusonina sp. 3 (Fig. 8) —From leaf galls on EH. sideroxylon, EH. maculosa,
HE. melliodora and E. macrorrhyncha in Victoria and in New South Wales, 1933-34.
In this species the dorsal shield represents a further step in specialization.
Coherent chitinized patches are found in two places, the anterior at the junction
of the third thoracic segment with the first abdominal, and the posterior, at the
junction between the second and third abdominal segments. Chitinous spots are
scattered round both areas. The adult of this species has not yet been bred out
and, as the larva is not very different from others which follow, it is not
considered desirable to name it at present. Length of full-grown larva, 2 mm.;
width of full-grown larva, 1-4 mm.

5. Fergusonina sp. 4 (Fig. 9).—From leaf galls on H. maculosa, Black
Mountain, Canberra, F.C.T., July, 1934; collected by the author. “This larva is
very like the preceding, but has a regular slight difference in the shape of the
dorsal plates, and has fewer spots around the shield. It may be a variety of the
preceding species, but the adults have yet to be bred to give evidence on this
point. Length of full-grown larva, 2-3 mm.; width of full-grown larva, 1-4 mm.

6. Fergusonina evansi Tonn. (Fig. 10).—From leaf galls on an unidentified
Hucalyptus tree in Adelaide, South Australia, August, 1933; collected by J. W.
Evans; and from leaf galls on H. melliodora at Canberra, October, 1934, by the
author. The dorsal shield differs somewhat in shape from the foregoing species,
and the papillae on the thoracic segments are elongated, apparently in adaptation
to the comparatively large gall-cavity in which the larva lives. Length of full-
grown larva, 2:7 mm.; width of full-grown larva, 1:5 mm.

Text-figures 1-21.

1-4.—Fergusonina nicholsoni Tonn. 1, egg, x 50; 2, first instar larva, x 50; 3, second
instar larva, x 45; 4, third instar larva, x 25.

5-21.—Third instar larvae of Fergusonina species.

5, Hergusoniuva sp. i, x 33 6; H.sp. 2; x 183 7, H. curme: Tonn., x 8; 8, A sp. 4, x 18:
9, F. sp. 5, xX 18; 10, F. evansi Tonn., x 12; 11, F. carteri Tonn. x 28; 12, F. greavesi,
is Sih, GS Us, I, Goxoaloneums Witewllon s< alee alee yal yok IO, s< GS Ils, yal yo, alate Se TLS als TAG Kio
12, x 16; 17, #. newmani Tonn., x 16; 18, F. brimblecombei Tonn., x 22; 19, F. lockharti
Tonn., x 12; 20, F. tillyardi Tonn., x 22; 21, F. tillyardi Tonn., x 14.

Fig. 16a is a repetition of Fig. 4 in its place in the series.

154 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

7. Fergusonina carteri Tonn. (Fig. 11).—From leaf galls on H#. Stuartiana
F.y.M., Canberra, F.C.T., November, 1933; collected by the author. The dorsal
plates are clearly defined in the larvae of this species and not surrounded by
spots of chitin. The papillae are very large, the larvae living in gall cavities
which are large relative to the size of the larvae. Length of full-grown larva,
1-2 mm.; width of full-grown larva, 0-4 mm.

8. FERGUSONINA GREAVESI, n. sp. (Fig. 12).—From stem-tip galls on H. polyan-
themos Schau., Black Mountain, Canberra, July, 1934; collected by the author.
The 3rd instar larva of this species is comparatively large, found rather rarely
in stem-tip galls of H. polyanthemos Schau. The adult fly has not been reared,
but the larva is so distinct in size, and in the character of the dorsal shield, that
it is felt that the species may be described from the larva without danger of
creating difficulties for later workers. It is anticipated, moreover, that the adult
flies of this species will be bred out from the galls by. the author at some later
date, and can then be described in association with the larvae, so that no confusion
of identification may arise. The full-grown larva is smooth, clearly segmented,
yellowish, with four chitinous plates, in two pairs, on the dorsal surface. One
pair is in contact at the junction of 3rd thoracic segment with the Ist abdominal,
the other pair is in contact at junction of Ist with the 2nd abdominal segments.

Size of plates approximately: (1) Plate on 3rd thoracic segment, width
0-25 mm., depth (i.e., anterior to posterior margin) 0:12 mm.; (2) Anterior plate
on ist abdominal segment, width 0-2 mm., depth 0-033 mm.; (3) Posterior plate on
ist abdominal segment, width 0:2 mm., depth 0-075 mm.; (4) Anterior plate on
2nd abdominal segment, width 0-25 mm., depth 0:06 mm. Length of full-grown
larva, 4:3 mm.; width at widest part, 1:8 mm.

Holotype and paratype on slides in museum of Division of Economic
Entomology, C.S.1.R., Canberra, F.C.T., Australia. :

9. Fergusonina eucalypti Mall. (Fig. 13)—From flower-bud gails of
£. maculata Hook., Bateman’s Bay, N.S.W., September, 1930; collected by W. L.
Morgan. In the 3rd instar larva of this species the chitinous dorsal shield is made
up of four plates, relatively much larger than those of the foregoing species, and a
fifth smaller plate situated at the posterior margin of the 2nd abdominal segment.
Rows of chitinized spots surround the plates extending on to the 3rd and 4th
abdominal segments. The thoracic tubercles are short, the larvae inhabiting gall
cavities into which they fit fairly tightly. Length of full-grown larva, 3 mm.;
width of full-grown larva, 1:8 mm.

10. Fergusonina sp. 5 (Fig. 14)—From flower-bud galls on H. pauciflora,
Mount Kosciusko, N.S.W., June, 1935; collected by M. J. Mackerras. The dorsal
shield is a more complicated structure than any of those described already. There
is a thin sheet of chitin on the 3rd thoracic segment, which thickens towards the
point of junction with the 1st abdominal segment and forms a concave plate there.
At the anterior edge of the 1st abdominal segment a convex chitinous hump
covered with small protuberances is hinged to the chitinous concave plate
described above. Any curling movement of the larva caused the convex portion
to fit into the concave, but the function is unknown. The concave plate is repeated
at the posterior portion of the 1st abdominal segment, and into it fits a convex
portion from the anterior edge of the 2nd abdominal. Both sets are loosely
connected by thin plates of chitin which have a reticulated structure. The
spiracles of this larva are neither so prominent nor so complicated in their
structure as any of the other larvae described. Length of full-grown larva,
4-3 mm. approx.; width of full-grown larva, 1-5 mm. approx.

BY G. A. CURRIE. 155

11. Fergusonina sp. 6 (Fig. 15).—From axil-bud galls (Fig. 31) on
EH. maculata, Bateman’s Bay, N.S.W., July, 1934; galls collected by Dr. Jacobs.
The adult fly has not yet been reared. The larva is pearly-white with a well-
defined dorsal shield. This shield is formed of four small dense plates of chitin
in pairs, as in the species just described, but easily distinguished from them by
the irregular area of coalesced chitinous spots surrounding the plates. Outside
this area of less dense coalesced spots of chitin are isolated spots of chitin on the
2nd and 3rd abdominal segments. This structure presents a possible transitional
stage between the separated plates of F. eucalypti Mall. and the coherent shield
made up of plates all fused together in Ff. nicholsoni Tonn. The dorsal shield,
measured at the widest point of the irregularly fused chitin, is about one-fourth
the width of the larva at its widest point, and is about the same length as it is
wide. Length of full-grown larva, 2:8 mm.; width of full-grown larva, 1:6 mm.

12. Fergusonina sp. 7 (Fig. 16).—From the leaf and leaf-stem galls on
H. Stuartiana, Black Mountain, Canberra, F.C.T., March, 1935; collected by the
author. The dorsal shield of this larva is composed of four loosely-joined plates which
give the effect of a single plate. There are rows of strong black spines surrounding
the shield on the ist, 2nd, 3rd and 4th abdominal segments and on the 38rd thoracic
segment, all the spines pointing inwards towards the shield. The shield measures
approximately 0:4 mm. in width and 0-4 mm. in length. There is an extra plate
on some specimens on the 3rd abdominal segment near its anterior margin.
Length of full-grown larva, 2:1 to 2:3 mm. approx.; width of full-grown larva,
1-2 mm. approx.

The galls which this species inhabits are quite different from leaf galls on
the same tree harbouring F. carteri.

13. Fergusonina nicholson Tonn. (Figs. 4 and 16A).—From flower-bud galls
on #. macrorrhyncha, Canberra, F.C.T., November, 1930; collected by the author.
The 3rd instar larva of this species has been described in some detail earlier in
this paper, but it fits here into its place in the evolutionary series based on the
complexity of the dorsal shield. All the plates which, in species described earlier,
were separate, are fused in this larva to form a coherent shield. This shield is
set on the top of a hump formed by the slightly protruding dorsal segments. The
thoracic tubercles are not developed in this larva, as it lives in a cavity into
which it fits tightly. Length of full-grown larva, 1:3 mm.; width of full-grown
larva, 0-9 mm.

14. Fergusonina newmani Tonn. (Fig. 17).—From leaf-bud galls on
EH. gomphocephala DC., Perth, Western Australia, August, 1933; collected by the
author. The 3rd instar larva of this species has the chitinous shield developed
as in the foregoing species, but in addition, rising from the point of junction of
the Ist and 2nd abdominal segments on the shield, there are two strong black
hooks. These hooks appear to be used for tearing down the walls of the gall
chamber for food, and their number may vary from two to three in this species
of larva. The thoracic tubercles are longer than they are on the two species
last described. Length of full-grown larva, 1:9 mm.; width of full-grown larva,
1:0 mm.

15. Fergusonina brimblecombei Tonn. (Fig. 18).—From flower-bud galls of
H. crebra, Queensland; H. melanophloia, Queensland; EH. odorata, South Australia;
and H. hemiphloia, Victoria, June and July, 1934; collected by A. Brimblecombe,
J. W. Evans and W. W. Morgan. In the 3rd instar larva of Ff. brimblecombei Tonn.
the chitinous shield is similar in shape to that of the preceding species, but in
addition to two hooks, which are also present in this larva, there is a strong

156 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

scoop-like projection rising from near the base of the hooks. This projection rises
to about one-third of the height of the hooks. Small tubercles are present on the
thoracic segments. Length of full-grown larva, 1:3 mm.; width of full-grown
larva, 0-8 mm.

16. Fergusonina lockharti Tonn. (Fig. 19).—From globular, irregular, stem-
tip galls on #. rudis Endl., Mundaring, Western Australia, August, 1933; collected
by the author. In the 8rd instar larva of F. lockharti Tonn. the dorsal shield.is
relatively larger than that of the preceding species and the hooks which rise from
the shield near the posterior margin of the 1st abdominal segment are shorter
and stouter. There are three to five hooks in this larva, the usual number (as
illustrated) being four. Length of full-grown larva, 2-2 mm.; width of full-grown
larva, 1-2 mm.

17. Fergusonina tillyardi Tonn. (Figs. 20, 21)—From flower-bud galls on
#. Blakelyi, Canberra, F.C.T., H. camaldulensis, Victoria and South Australia, and
EH. tereticornis, Victoria. The 3rd instar larva of F. tillyardi Tonn. has the most
complex dorsal shield of the whole series. From the strong dorsal plate rises
a rake formed of hooks, the number of these varying from five to seven. The
relative size of the structure can be seen from the illustration. Figure 20 shows
the larva newly moulted into the 3rd instar, so that the proportions of the
mechanism relative to the body are exaggerated. Figure 21 shows a side view
of a larva nearly full grown, so that the disproportion is not so great. Length
of full-grown larva, 2-6 mm.; width of full-grown larva, 0:85 mm.

Function and Evolution of Dorsal Shield.

The first and second instar larvae, which feed on the contents of the soft
cells lining the inner wall of the gall cavity, do not carry a dorsal shield, nor is
such a shield known from any related dipterous larvae. Observation of the third
instar larvae shows clearly that those larvae which possess hooks on the shield
use them to tear down the walls of the galls, which begin to harden at this stage,
for food. The function of this chitinous armature on the types which are not
armed with hooks is unknown. The author has observed, however, that the
3rd instar larvae described above in Fergusonina sp. 7, from the leaf-stem galls of
#. Stuartiana, void their faeces continually on to the dorsal shield. The nematodes
are found concentrated there and apparently feeding on the faeces, but, owing to
the quantity, not able to keep pace with the supply.

Faeces are practically absent in the galls made by other species of the same
genus of flies, so the assumption is that the nematodes remove them as they are
produced. The voiding of the faeces on the dorsum, and the feeding of the
nematodes there, may be connected in some way with the presence of the chitinous
patches forming the shield. When a larva bends its head backwards the axis of
the body is the 1st abdominal segment and the parts just in front and behind this.
This is the area which carries the dorsal shield, so that although the association
between the defaecation on the dorsum, the nematodes feeding, and the presence of
the chitinous shield is conjectural, it is at the same time highly suggestive.

Shields ranging from the scattered conical projections found on F. curried
Tonn., through the various stages of increasing complexity to the highly specialized
rake carried on the dorsum of F. tillyardi Tonn., form a linear series which may
indicate the direction of evolutionary development. In general, the types of galls
formed by the more advanced larvae (as judged by the complexity of the dorsal
shield) are of a more complex nature than those of the more primitive types.
The relationship with the nematodes, which are found always associated with the

~]

BY G. A. CURRIE. 15

larvae, and which, in all cases so far studied, are transmitted by the adult female
flies from one gall to the next, is also more highly adjusted in most of the species
having the more advanced type of dorsal shield than in those carrying the simpler
shields.

The simpler types of shield are found on larvae inhabiting leaf, stem, and
stem-tip galls, while the more complicated shields are found mainly on larvae
which inhabit galls on the flower buds. Purely as a matter of conjecture based
on observations of these larvae, it seems that the primitive ancestor of these
forms was a tunneller in the vegetative parts of the Hucalyptus trees. Scattered
spots of chitin were replaced in some species by more and more coherent plates
of chitin situated at the points of junction of the last thoracic and the first
abdominal segments and of the 1st and 2nd abdominal segments. Having
developed into a coherent shield, the next step forward to the development of
the rake on the shield is more easy to interpret on the basis of function.

Text-figures 22-31.

22.—Anterior spiracle of larvae of Fergusonina spp. (1, Fergusonina No. 4; 2,
F. tillyardi Tonn.), x 100.

23.—Mouth parts of F. tillyardi Tonn., x 60.

24, 25.—Mouth parts of F. eucalypti Mall. (24, x 60; 25, dorsal view, x 60).

26.—Anguillulina (Fergusobia) tuwmifaciens (1, male; 2, free-living female; 3, male,
ventral view of anal end. x 100). V, vulva; A, anus; E.P., excretory pore; C.A., caudal
alae.

27.—Parasitic female (1, side view; 2, tip of ovary; 3, oviduct expanded forming a
receptaculum seminalis. Mature eggs ready to be laid lying in uterus. x 40).

28.—Anterior end of free-living female of A. tumifaciens. x 270. S, stylet; O.P.,
oesophageal pump; N.R., nerve ring; H.P., excretory pore; D.G., dorsal gland; G, gut.

29.—Cross-section of galled flower-bud of H. macrorrhyncha. Semi-diagrammatic,
showing stalked gall-lets inside the galled flower bud. x 2.

30.—Gall on H. polyanthemos. EE, point at which fly will emerge. x 0:2.

31.—Axil bud galls on E. maculata. G, galls. x 0:2.

158 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

The great variety of Hucalyptus species provided opportunity for variation
in the flies. Adaptation to galls which harden and dry out fairly rapidly at
maturity would be successfully attained by species which developed a mechanism
to tear down the hardening tissues for food. Forms carrying hooks would survive
more readily than others not so well equipped.

It is necessary here to point out that the degree of adaptation of the larva to
a special environment need not be, and indeed is not, reflected in the adult fly
which has to meet a totally different set of conditions. Tonnoir, in describing
the adult flies, could not find any characters which would suggest that the flies
from the more primitive types of larvae were more primitive in structure than
those from the more highly adapted larvae. The larval environment induces
reaction in structure which have no apparent counterpart in the structure of the
adult fly.

Il. The Associated Nematode.

The nematodes described below were taken from leaf galls of H. Stuartiana
in which they were found associated with F. carteri Tonn. They were chosen
because large numbers of them were available at a time when it was convenient
to study them in the laboratory. The parasitic female nematodes were derived
from the body cavities of females of F’. carteri Tonn.

ANGUILLULINA (F'ERGUSOBIA) TUMIFACIENS, Nn. Subgen. et sp.

The egg (Pl. vii, fig. 4)—There is no apparent difference between the eggs
laid by the free-living females in the gall and the parasitic females inside the
Fergusonina flies. The eggs of both types of females are already segmenting
when laid and, prior to hatching, the larva can readily be seen moving round
inside the shell. The outer skin of the egg is tough and translucent, without
sculptural markings, and its shape is nearly cylindrical with both ends rounded.
Length of egg, 0:05 to 0:055 mm.; width of egg, 0-018 to 0-025 mm.

The larva (PI. vii, fig. 4).—The newly-hatched larva measures 0-14 to 0:19 mm.
long and 0-009 to 0-011 wide. It has a well-developed stylet carrying three basal
swellings and measuring 0:006 mm. in length. The number of larval instars
has not been determined accurately, but at least four instars are discernible.

The adult.—The free-living form (actually a plant-parasite in the leaf galls of
E. Stuartiana) may be treated as the normal form and will be described first.

(a). Male (Fig. 26, 1).

Principal measurements: Length, 0-415 mm.; width, 0-049 to 0:05 mm.; anterior
end to end of oesophageal region, 0-124 mm.; anterior,end to excretory pore,
0-089 mm.; anus to tip of tail, 0:04 mm.; length of buccal stylet, 0-012 mm.;
length of spicules, 0:021 mm.; proportions: length to breadth, 8—-9:1; length to
length of oesophagus, 3—4:1; length to length of tail, 10-12:1.

The cuticle is finely striated transversely. The head is separated from the
body by a very slight constriction, has rounded sides, and shows no sign of
separate lips or papillae. The body tapers slightly towards the head from the
posterior end of the oesophageal region, but tapers much more abruptly towards
the tail. The oesophageal region is well defined. The dorsal pharyngeal cell is
very prominent, with a large nucleus, and opens by a short duct just behind the
stylet. No gubernaculum has been seen in any specimen examined. The paired
spicules are in contact distally, but are separated at their proximal extremities.
They show a distinct elbow bend when viewed laterally and taper to a rounded
point. The gonad is unpaired and in mature specimens it can be seen lying with

BY G. A. CURRIE. 159

its origin in the oesophageal region, thence running backwards without reflexing
to open in the cloaca. The tail tapers to a rounded point. The cuticle is
expanded laterally to form two alae arising well in front of the cloaca and
extending round the tail tip (Fig. 26). The margins of the alae are slightly
crenate.

Spermatozoa: Under high magnification the globular spermatozoa were
observed to possess a number of processes which looked like amoeboid strands
with their distal portions slightly clubbed. When stains were applied the globular
portion took up the stain, but the strands did not do so, or did so to a less extent.
(bd). Free-living female (Fig. 26, 2).

Principal measurements: Length of body, 0-415 mm.; width of body, 0-056 mm.;
length, anterior end to end of oesophageal region, 0:123 mm.; length, anterior
end to excretory pore, 0:09 mm.; anus to tip of tail, 0:039 mm.; vulva to tip of
tail, 0:08 mm.; buccal stylet, 0-019 mm.; proportions: length to breadth, 7—8:1;
length to length of oesophagus, 3—4:1; length to length of tail, 10—11:1.

The female is more bluntly rounded anteriorly than the male, but tapers
more rapidly posteriorly. The head and oesophagus are similar to those of the
male. The single ovary arises near the nerve ring and opens into an oviduct in
which there is no post-vulval pouch. One to three fully developed eggs may lie
in the oviduct. The lips of the vulva are prominent in mature females but not
in immature specimens.

(c). Parasitic female (Fig. 27).

Principal measurements: Length of mature female, 0:69 to 0:87 mm.; width of
mature female, 0:12 to 0:14 mm.; length of ovary removed from body and stretched
out straight, 3:0 mm.; vulva to posterior tip of body, 0-15 to 0-22 mm.

When the fertilized female enters the haemocoel of the fly larva, she carries
the stylet and oesophagus of the free-living form. Growth is rapid, however, the
female soon loses the stylet, and the gut shrinks as the rapidly expanding, much
coiled, ovary grows to fill almost entirely the whole space inside the skin. Just
under the cuticle in this stage a layer of polygonal pavement cells can be seen,
which, according to Goodey (1930), allow a great increase in size without further
moulting.

Some of the parasitic females could flex their bodies until head and tail nearly
met, while in others the power of movement had been lost entirely. Those from
the body of F. nicholsoni retained the power of movement only up to the stage at
which egg-laying commenced; after that, movements of the body as a whole
ceased.

Development of the Parasitic Nematode in the Flies.

The parasitic female nematodes live in the haemocoel of the larval, pupal,
and adult female flies. On entering the female fly larvae the nematode still
possesses all the free-living characters, including the stylet (Pl. vii, fig. 7). About
the time at which the fly larva pupates the nematodes grow rapidly, lose their
stylet, and develop a great reserve of food, before their ovaries become apparent
(Pl. vii, fig. 10). At the stage when the fly larva has pupated, the nematode
female can be seen lying in the finely disintegrated fat-body of the insect with
multitudes of the small particles of the fat-body so firmly adherent to the outside
of the skin that it requires some force to remove them. At this stage the ovary
of the nematode develops and becomes differentiated at a very rapid rate, while
the ovary of the fly is only beginning to develop. It looks as if the same factors
which lead to the growth of the fly ovary have caused a parallel rapid develop-

160 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

ment in the nematode ovary. The nematode ovary develops much more rapidly
than that of the fly, however, so that, before the eggs of the fly can be seen
taking shape in the ovarian tubules, the nematode has started to lay eggs
(Pl. vii, fig. 12). By the time eggs can be seen in process of formation in the
ovary of the nematode, the granules of fat-body of the host insect are no longer
adherent to her skin, and the fat-body of the fly has become reorganized into
large compound globules. :

The adult Fergusonina flies do not feed to any great extent, though they have
been seen sucking up moisture, so it is evident that the fat-body of the fly has to
supply all the nutriment for the growth of its own ovary (it is mature at
emergence) and that of its contained nematodes. It is likely that the parasitic
nematodes affect the egg-producing capacity of the fly in proportion to the number
and size of individuals present. It happens, therefore, that, in the example dealt
with in detail (Fergusonina nicholsoni), where only two nematodes are found
normally in each female fly, an equilibrium has been reached at which the egg-
laying power of the fly may be depressed, but is not impaired seriously. In other
flies of the same genus, usually of larger size, the nematodes are, in some instances,
bigger and more numerous. AS many as seven large nematodes have been
dissected out from a female fly of a leaf-gall species in which the ovaries were
found to be complete, but, owing to the scarcity of fat-body, not capable of
producing many eggs. The larval nematodes in the fly probably feed to some
extent in their turn, but not enough to interfere materially with the development
of the eggs of the fly.

The sequence of events just described forms a contrast with the state of
affairs found by Goodey in his study of the Frit fly-nematode association. He
found that the presence and development of the parasitic nematodes in male
and female flies inhibited the development of the gonads of the hosts. When
the host was able to develop its gonads to some extent before the influence of
the nematodes could be felt, then the further development of the nematodes was
checked—presumably by some inhibiting factor produced by the developing gonad.
Just such a difference in the physiological reactions between Frit fly and
Eucalyptus-gall fly, to a nematode parasite, might go far to explain why in the
former case a destructive parasitic association only is reached, whereas in the
latter, a Symbiosis has been attained.

Nematodes Associated with Other Species of Fergusonina.

It is probable that further work will show that the nematodes associated with
the different flies have differences in structure which entitle them to be considered
as different species. There is, for instance, a considerable variation in the point
of origin of the lateral alae between males derived from different types of galls.
On males from the leaf galls of H. macrorrhyncha, the alae extend from
a point opposite the nerve ring to the tail tip, whereas in the species just described,
they are much less extensive. The position and size of the oesophageal glands
also vary between nematodes from different galls and the parasitic females
yary considerably in size in the different species of flies. The largest parasitic
nematode female discovered, taken from females of F. curriei Tonn., measured
2.16 mm. long by 0-166 mm. broad.

TAaLOnomics.

The well-developed buccal stylet (Fig. 28) and the plant-parasitic habit, clearly
indicate that the nematode which is being described has origin and affinities with

BY G. A. CURRIE. 161

the plant-parasitic nematodes. A much enlarged parasitic female phase occurs
in a number of nematode genera found in insects, so a consideration of each of
those described previously is necessary for comparison with Angwillulina
(Fergusobia).

(a) Tylenchenema Goodey has no buccal stylet in the male, so this leading
feature may be regarded as clearly separating the new nematode from that genus.

(0) Sphaerularia bombi Dufour and (c) Atractonema gibbosum Leuckart
are totally different in the form of the parasitic female.

(d) Howardula benigna Cobb.—The life history of Howardula resembles that
of the new nematode in some particulars (Cobb, 1921), but the ‘“onchium” which
Cobb describes as non-bulbous is a good character for definite differentiation.

(e) Allantonema Leuckart and (f) Bradynema von Strasson have been
considered as synonyms by Bayliss and Daubney. The paired, opposed, reflexed
ovary of the free-living females of these genera serves to distinguish them from
the new nematode.

The nematodes from Hucalyptus galls can, therefore, readily be distinguished
from other known nematodes parasitic in insects, but they have strong affinities
with the plant-parasitic group, so some consideration must be given to the genera
in that group which they approach most closely.

(a)* Heterodera Schmidt.—Anguillulina (Fergusobia) can be distinguished
from Heterodera, the former having a single ovary, contrasted with the paired
ovary of Heterodera. In addition, the dorsal gland of Heterodera opens at some
distance from the base of the stylet, while in the other nematode the opening is
close to the base of the stylet.

(b) Aphelenchus Bastian.—There are no knobs on the base of the stylet in
this genus, a feature which serves to distinguish it from - Anguwillulina
(Fergusobia).

(c) Aphelenchoides Fischer.—In this genus the opening of the oesophageal
gland is at some distance from the base of the stylet and the spicules are thorn-
shaped.

(d) Anguillulina Gervais and v. Benedin.—There are many characters, such
as the knobbed stylet, the position of the opening of the dorsal oesophageal gland,
the caudal alae of the male, and other characters common to both, which show
affinities between the new nematode and Anguillulina. There are also characters
such as the absence of a gubernaculum in the nematode under discussion, and
the presence of an inflated degenerate female as a phase of the life-history cycle,
which suggest differences almost of generic rank. In order to indicate the
supposed origin and affinities of the nematode the generic name Anguwillulina is
applied, but to show the relationship with flies of the genus Fergusonina the name
Fergusobia is suggested as a subgeneric title.

Diagnosis: ANGUILLULINA (FERGUSOBIA), h. Subgen.

Plant-parasitic forms—Small slender worms, sub-genotype described in the
foregoing, about 0-4 mm. long, living in leaf galls of H. Stwartiana in association
with larvae of flies of the genus Fergusonina.

6. With well-developed stylet, the anterior part cylindrical, the base with
three distinct swellings. Tail tapering behind anus and bearing caudal alae.
Spicules paired and shaped like those of Angwillulina. Gubernaculum absent.
Testis single, anterior.

* Generic characters of these genera are from Goodey, 1933.

162 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

2. Stylet as in male. Ovary single, anterior, without post-uterine sac.
Oviparous, 1 to 3 mature eggs visible in oviduct at one time, eggs segmenting
when laid, sometimes ready to hatch. Free-living female in galls parthenogenetic
in first generation.

Insect-parasitic forms: Sausage-shaped, much enlarged females with greatly
developed ovary much coiled and filling nearly whole body space. Stylet absent
in mature female. Spermatozoa visible in widened portion of uterus which acts
as a receptaculum seminis. Oviparous, eggs segmenting when laid, and any
number up to ten lying mature in oviduct ready to be laid.

The sub-genotype is parasitic in the body cavity of F. carteri Tonn. The
measurements have already been given above in descriptions of stages.

Types of Association Between Nematodes and Insects.

Various types of association between nematodes and insects have been
described and all instances recorded before 1927 have been collected into one
publication by Van Zwaluwenburg (1928). He recognizes five types of association
as follows: (1) Primary parasitism; (2) secondary parasitism; (3) internal
mechanical association; (4) external mechanical association; (5) commensalism.

The nematode association with flies which we are considering does not fall
into any of the foregoing categories, but it resembles, to some extent, the type of
association described by Goodey (1930) between Tylenchenema oscinellae Good.
and the Frit fly Oscinella frit L.

The association in the Hucalyptus galls is not purely parasitic, however, as
it is in the example cited above, but may be regarded as a symbiosis which may
have developed from a pre-existing parasitism.

Origin of Fly-Nematode Association.

The data available warrant some speculation on the probable origin of the
association between the flies and nematodes in Hucalyptus galls.

The close affinities with modern plant-parasitic forms make it almost certain
that the ancestors of the nematodes in the galls were plant parasites, and probably
gall-formers closely related to Anguillulina.

The ancestors of the associated flies (Fergusonina spp.) were probably leat-
miners (leaf-mining forms are common in the family Agromyzidae), living first
in the leaf and, later, in the leaf and stem-tip tissues, as these are less specialized
and more available throughout the year than the flower buds. At first the asso-
ciation between the fly and nematode would be of an accidental type resembling
the association of the nematode and Frit fly already mentioned. In such an
accidental association, eventually some nematodes would penetrate the body of
the fly larva, and in the highly nutritious and easily assimilable food medium,
develop an enlarged and degenerate type of female, capable of producing a great
number of eggs; there are many examples in the animal kingdom of this reaction
to the parasitic mode of life. This very large increase in egg-laying power,
together with the automatic transmission of the progeny of such a female from
one generation of buds to the next, could well explain the survival of the
nematodes which had developed this stage in their life history. A necessary
condition for the survival of such an association, if it were to affect all of the
flies, would be that the nematodes should not render their hosts totally infertile.

The foregoing sequence of events would explain the survival of those
nematodes which developed this association with flies, but it does not explain
why the flies containing nematodes could survive, rather than the flies acting

BY G. A. CURRIE. 163

alone. In nature at the present time the association is complete, all fly-galls
discovered up to the present containing nematodes.

It is necessary, therefore, to examine the effect of the association on the fly.
In the forms studied in the present paper it was discovered that the nematodes
were actively feeding and causing proliferation of the plant tissues around the
egg of the fly before it hatched; and that when the fly larva did hatch, it fed
on those abnormal tissue growths. This suggests the value of the nematode to
the insect. From what was probably a leaf-mining form, the fly developed into a
gall-living form, finding, on hatching, a suitable and easily available pabulum
already provided for its first needs through the activities of the larval nematodes.
A slightly higher survival rate for the newly-hatched larvae associated with the
nematodes than for the larvae in plant tissues not associated with nematodes
would lead ultimately to the displacement of the latter ‘‘free”’ types by the former
“associated” types. Once the association had become established in the vegetative
parts of the trees, some flies could readily attack the flower buds and establish
themselves there to give rise to new species in time. Refinements in the adjust-
ments of the nematode to the fly and of both these to the galled tissues would
naturally follow. Some of the trends of these refinements are indicated by the
following notes. In Oscinella frit, Goodey found that the nematode rendered its
host infertile and that a percentage ranging from 1% to 14:7% of the flies were
infected. Nematodes were found to enter and to render infertile both males
and females. In all the species of Fergusonina the nematodes are found in the
galls associated with both male and female larvae, but they are never found in
the parasitic form in the male adult flies, and are always found in the female
adult flies.

In the “lower” types of association, as illustrated by leaf-gall forms of
Fergusonina, the number of female nematodes in an adult female fly may vary
from three to seven, whereas in the flower-bud form already described in detail
the number of parasitic nematodes is almost consistently restricted to two. There
is therefore considerable evidence to support the view that the association of flies
and nematodes in the galls of Hucalyptus trees was at first an accidental
parasitism which has now developed into a symbiosis, and that the association
existing at the present day in galls on the vegetative parts of the trees represents
a slightly more primitive stage in the development of the symbiosis than that
in the galls on the flower buds.

Ill. The Galls.
Gall Formation in HE. macrorrhyncha.

The flower buds generally appear in January and February on trees of this
species, although there may be some variation both in the time and the amount
of flower buds which the trees produce, especially under erratic rainfall conditions.
The buds appear about the same time as the adult flies of Fergusonina nicholsoni
are leaving the mature galls. The punctures made by the ovipositors of the
female flies can be seen for some days after they have been made, but they do not
seem to cause any special distortion of the tissues by the mechanical rupturing
of the cells in their path. Eventually they heal and show only a slight scar on
the operculum where they were made.

' Immediately they enter the bud cavity, the larval nematodes start to feed on
the ring of anther primordial cells which form a circle round the inner wall of
the bud cavity. The anther primordia proliferate rapidly, forming shapeless
masses of large, thin-walled, parenchymatous cells, full of mucilaginous cell-sap.

164 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

The outer wall of the bud grows in proportion to the inner proliferation, so that
about a month after the nematodes and the eggs of the fly have been deposited
in the buds, the galled buds can be distinguished from the ungalled buds. By
the time the eggs of the fly hatch the masses of galled tissues are already present
in the bud.

Evidence that the nematodes start the galling before the eggs of the fly hatch
was found in the following observations. In some galled buds which were opened
it was found that the fly eggs were infertile (the embryo is easily seen in fertile
eges) but the galling had already been started by the nematodes. In all such
eases the galls aborted at an early stage, while the nematodes failed to reproduce
and died after some months. No fly larvae have yet been found unaccompanied
by nematodes, so that the fate of a fly larva, if unaccompanied by nematodes,
could not be observed. Attempts to inject living nematode larvae artificially into
flower buds failed.

The photo-micrograph (Pl. vi, fig. 8) of a longitudinal section of a galled
flower-bud of H#. macrorrhyncha shows the state of affairs before the egg of the
fly hatches. The masses of tissue proliferating under the stimulus of the nematode
irritation can be distinguished clearly.

On hatching, the fly larvae ensconce themselves between two firmly apposed
masses of tissues, and there cut out small crypts. The larval nematodes migrate
to these crypts to join the fly larvae, and thenceforward the fly larvae and their
accompanying nematodes are to be found only in these crypts, and always together.
In a single galled flower-bud there may be twenty or more of these gall-lets, each
with its single fly larva and associated nematodes (Fig. 29). The crypt becomes a
separate unit by the fusing of the vegetable tissues around the larva to make a
spheroidal gall-let and the gall-let is attached to the wall of the bud by a strong
stalk through which nourishment passes to the developing cells. A section
through one of these gall-lets during the second instar period of the larva
(Pl. vi, fig. 12) discloses the following formation: A distinct wall of flat cells
forms the outer covering, and inside these are many layers of thin parenchymatous
cells, well filled with protoplasm and mucilaginous cell-sap. On the inner surface,
which is in contact with the nematodes and the fly larva, the cells are small and
full of protoplasm. From these cells a mucilaginous fluid is exuded into the
cavity of the gall.

This state of affairs persists through the autumn, winter, and early spring,
but with the onset of summer conditions, the galls begin to mature. The outer
layer of flat cells on the gall-lets becomes somewhat lignified and when the
larva enters its third and final instar, it tears down the inner layers for food.
At this stage the free-living nematodes are destroyed by the drying up of the
gall tissues, but fertilized females have already entered the female fly-larvae.

Plate vi, figures 6-9, are photomicrographs of the different stages in the
growth of the galls, while Plate vi, figure 10, shows a cross-section of a normal,
ungalled flower-bud.

The photomicrograph (Pl. vi, fig. 6) shows a section of a flower bud of
BE. macrorrhyncha measuring about 1 mm. across at its widest part. Hggs had
been laid in this bud by the fly, three days prior to fixation. At A can be seen
the outer layer of the operculum or bud cap which, morphologically, represents
the sepals. At B the inner layer of the operculum, which is considered to represent
morphologically the petals of a complete flower, can be distinguished. This cap
is shed at flowering, the remaining flower consisting of a multiple ring of stamens

BY G. A. CURRIE. 165

with long filaments supporting the anthers, arising from near the lip of a cup
above the ovary. At C in the section can be seen the ring of primordial tissues
which give rise to these stamens. Lying in the cavity between the operculum
and the base of the bud are a number of larval nematodes, N, which have already
started to feed on the rapidly developing anther primordia.

Plate vi, figure 7, illustrates a more advanced stage in the development of
the gall. Large irregular masses of cells can be seen proliferating into the bud
cavity, where normally the stamens should be developing regularly.

Plate vi, figure 8, shows a still later stage in development of the gall. About
this stage the eggs of the flies hatch and the larvae proceed to ensconce them-
selves between two masses of cells which are in contact. The cell masses
anastomose round the crypts containing the larvae of the flies and the nematodes
which have joined them. The cells immediately surrounding the larvae differ
somewhat from the rest; the cell contents have a mucilaginous character, while
more distant cells are more watery; likewise, the layers just round the cavity are
full of protoplasm and are meristematic in character. Plate vi, figure 9, represents
a still later stage in the development of the gall. At this stage the bud can be
recognized from external examination to be definitely galled when compared with
the normal bud. Large masses of galled tissues fill the bud cavity. Plate vi,
figure 10, is a photograph of a longitudinal section of a normal bud of exactly the
same age as the bud shown in Figure 9. The normal stamens can be seen lying
in the bud cavity, the filaments in the upper part, and the anthers under them,
while the ovules are seen in the chamber of the ovary below.

All the sections described so far have been longitudinal; the following are
cross-sections: Plate vi, figure 11, illustrates a galled bud about six months old.
This bud was chosen because it contained but a single gall-let and some of the
stamens developed normally. This gall-let is cut through in the section at a point
where the larva of the fly was not included. Nematodes can be seen lying in the
cavity. In Plate vi, figure 12, the most common condition of a galled bud six
months old is shown in cross-section. On this section thirteen gall-lets have been
cut through at different points, eleven of them being F'ergusonina, the other two
larval wasps, shown at 1 and 4. Plate vi, figure 13, shows a single gall-let of
Fergusonina and a single wasp chamber, for purposes of contrast.

At A can be seen the dense protoplasm-filled cells surrounding the nematodes
and the fly larva. An ooze of glutinous fluid covering the surface of the cells
can also be distinguished in the photograph. At B the cells are fairly dense,
somewhat hexagonal, soft, and filled with clear, slightly glutinous cell sap. At C
there is a layer of thick-walled cells which form the outer wall of the dipterous
gall-let. They contain some brown coloration and are not sclerotized at this
stage. At D is seen the larva of the fly, shrunken from the wall of the cavity by
the fixing and dehydration processes. The nematodes can be seen at N surrounding
the larva.

When the larva has finished feeding, only the outer lignified shell of the gall-let
remains. Galled buds vary in size with the number of gall-lets contained, the
normal mature flower bud measuring about 3 mm. in diameter, while a galled
bud may be 14 mm. The average size of 200 galled buds of EH. macrorrhyncha
containing fly larvae and no hymenopterous insects was 5-7 mm. When hymenop-
tera are present as well, the galls are much larger, the average diameter for 300
galled buds containing both diptera and hymenoptera being 9:3 mm.

166 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

Comparison of wasp galls and fly galls.

Many galls were found on flower buds of Hucalyptus trees which had been
formed by small hymenoptera alone, while in other instances both hymenoptera
and diptera occupied the same galled buds. The short discussion which follows
deals with galled buds on EH. macrorrhyncha, which contained at the same time
larvae of Fergusonina spp. and small hymenopterous gall-forming species.

It is of some interest to compare the type of gall tissue produced by the gall
wasps with that produced by the fly larvae. This comparison will be restricted
to tissues produced in the same galled bud by the two organisms, as the wasps
frequently oviposit in buds already beginning to show signs of the galling caused
by the flies. The cross-section (Pl. vi, fig. 13) shows, in juxtaposition, tissues
galled by the wasp and those galled by the fly. The wasp larva produces a gall
with a thick outer wall of heavily lignified cells and an inner mass of large
thin-walled cells of spongy parenchyma, full of a watery cell-sap, and the cavity
in which the larva lives is very much larger than the larva itself.

Whereas it is considered that the beginning, and a good part of the later
growth, of the Fergusonina gall is caused by the nematodes, the wasp gall starts
to form before the egg of the wasp hatches. Apparently there is some chemical
stimulus to gall production, either in the egg itself or in a fluid injected by the
parent wasp during oviposition. The gall reaches its full size before the larva
has passed its first instar so that, after active feeding commences, there is little
increase in the size of the gall, though there is probably a change in the
composition of the cell contents.

Many gall-forming wasps appear to inject a fluid with their eggs, which
causes the formation of the gall, while in other instances the egg itself, either
by its mechanical properties or some chemical on its surface, gives origin to the
galling. In the flower buds of H. macrorrhyncha galling started where nematodes
were actively feeding and not particularly round the eggs of the flies. Moreover,
the character of the gall changed after the fly larva had hatched and commenced
to feed, so that apparently the first proliferation of cells was caused by the
nematodes working alone, and the later development by the nematodes and fly
larva working in conjunction. The ultimate cause of gall making, be it chemical
or mechanical, has not been studied and no theory to explain it is advanced here.
For theories on this subject, see Goodey (1935).

Gall Formation in Other Hucalyptus Trees.

Having treated the galls on H. macrorrhyncha in some detail, a little must be
said about gall formation in other Hucalyptus trees and on situations other than
the flower buds. The following table sets out the species of the genus Fergusonina,
the larvae of which have been described in the present paper, and the species of
adults which have been described by Tonnoir (1937), together with the species of
trees and the situations on which they have been found.

TABLE 1.—(Genus) Fergusonina.
Species. Tost. Galls. Adult. Larva.
microcera Mall. (Genotype) — = 7 =
atricornis Mall. — = }
flavicornis Mall. — = +
scutellata Mall. — as |
biseta Mall. BR. maculata ? flower-bud + =
gurneyi Mall. BK. maculata ? flower-bud |
eucalypti Mall. KH. maculata flower-bud |

BY G. A. CURRIE. 167

TABLE I.—Continued.

Species. Host. Galls. Adult. Larva.
carteri Tonn. EB. amygdalina a + +
EH. Stuartiana leaf
evansi Tonn. Hucalyptus sp. leaf + +
davidsoni Tonn. F. sp. ? leaf + —
brimblecombei Tonn. E. melanophloia flower-buds + ao
EH. hemiphloia ”
EF. crebra »”
#. odorata ”
morgani Tonn. EH. hemiphloia flower-bud + —
pescotti Tonn. EB. amygdalina leaf + —
newmani Tonn. Hy, gomphocephala leaf-bud + aa
lockharti Tonn. E. rudis stem-tip + +
frenchi Tonn. #H. amygdalina leaf + —
nicholsoni Tonn. E. macrorrhyncha flower-bud + -
curriei Tonn. EH. macrorrhyncha leaf + +
tillyardi Tonn. EH. Blakelyi flower-bud + oo
HH. camaldulensis 30
#H. tereticornis ”
greavesi Curr. E. polyanthemos stem-tip — st
sp. 1 EB. pauciflora stem-tip = ~
sp. 2 EH. macrorrhyncha stem-tip — +
sp. 3 EH. sideroxylon leaf == +
EH. maculosa ”
E. melliodora 2p
E. macrorrhyncha ”
sp. 4 E. maculosa leaf = “
sp. 5 E. pauciflora flower-bud — aL
sp. 6 EB. maculata axil-bud — +
sp. 7 H. Stuartiana leaf and leaf-stem — +

The flower buds of H. Blakelyi, H. camaldulensis, and EL. tereticornis are all
galled by the same species of fly, F. tillyardi Tonn., and the galling proceeds as
follows:

The nematodes start the galling and the fly larvae hatch out afterwards and
commence to feed, then the nematodes join them in their small crypts and the
galled buds increase in size. Whereas in #. macrorrhyncha, the crypts are each
separated into gall-lets by the formation of a layer of flat cells making a limiting
membrane, no such membrane is formed in the flower buds of the other trees
mentioned, but the whole of the tissues on the galled buds fuse together into a
mass which is bounded only by the outer walls of the flower buds. Inside this
more or less homogeneous matrix of soft parenchymatous tissues, and scattered
through the whole, are to be found the erypts in which larvae and nematodes
live. In cross-section it is seen that some layers of cells surrounding each of the
larval crypts are filled with more dense protoplasm and cell-sap than the tissues
of the matrix.

During the first and second larval instars in autumn, winter, and spring, the
galled tissues are soft and glutinous. With the advent of summer and the larval
change to the third instar, the tissues begin to harden and to dry up. When the
larvae are full fed, the tissues forming the matrix between crypts dry up and the
whole gall disintegrates rapidly, so that there are numerous avenues of escape
for the adult flies. The photographs (Pl. vi, figs. 3 and 4) show the galled,
contrasted with the ungalled, buds of H. Blakelyi. Galled buds of the three trees
mentioned may reach a diameter of 18 mm., while the ungalled buds average
about 3 mm. in diameter. The galled buds of #. maculata are similar in develop-
ment and structure to those of H. Blakelyi.

168 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

Next to F. tillyardi, which is found on #. camaldulensis, HE. tereticornis and
f. Blakelyi, the most common fly found so far in flower buds is F'. brimblecombei
Tonn., which is found in #. hemiphloia, and EH. odorata, H. crebra and EH. melano-
phloia. The galls formed by this fly are somewhat different in structure from those
formed on H. camaldulensis. Instead of forming a homogeneous mass inside the
galled bud as in #H. camaldulensis, the stamens in the species of Hucalyptus trees
named above develop to some extent. The tissues which hypertrophy in this
instance belong to the walls of the calyx-cup and the ovary. At maturity, the
operculum, which is not fused to the rest of the gall, opens and the flies escape
into the space occupied by the stamens by the break-down of the galled tissues,
and thence, via the opercular opening, to the exterior. Galled buds of H. hemiphloia
are about 8 mm. in diameter, while H. maculata and H. odorata produce galls up
to 20 mm. in largest diameter.

The galls formed on leaf and stem-tip tissues are generally irregular and
warty in appearance. They are simple in construction, each larva occupying an
individual chamber in which it lives with the nematodes. Examples of this type
are found on the leaf tips of #. gomphocephala and EF. maculosa.

Another type of gall is formed on the shoot tip of H. macrorrhyncha and on
H. rudis. This consists of a large mass of spongy tissue containing a number of
larvae and surrounded by a clearly-defined, pigmented, tough outer skin (PI. vi,
fig. 5). The larvae and accompanying nematodes live near the centre of the galled
mass until the former are near the point of pupation, when each larva tunnels
an individual track to just under the skin, where it pupates. On the leaves of
#. Stuartiana and other Hucalyptus trees, the galls are formed between two
developing leaves which, on fusing together, form the upper and lower ends of a
series of gall cavities (Pl. vi, fig. 5).

Regular Galls—All the galls mentioned so far are shapeless and irregular,
but two examples of regular, though not complex, galls have been observed. One
of these is a stem-tip gall formed on H. polyanthemos (Fig. 30). The gall illus-
trated shows clearly, when mature, the light patch on the side which is to be the
emergence hole of the adult fly. The other example is provided by the axil buds
of £. maculata (Fig. 31). These are individual spherical galls with emergence
holes prepared by the full-fed larvae before pupation.

There are no rich architectural designs produced by Fergusonina spp. to
compare with those made by the many gall-making coccids of the genus
Apiomorpha, so well known on Hucalyptus trees in Australia.

FLUCTUATIONS IN THE NUMBERS OF GALLS FROM SEASON TO SEASON.

During certain years galling of the flower buds of some eucalypts was
extremely heavy, particularly on H. camaldulensis, EH. hemiphloia, H. tereticornis,
BE. Blakelyi, and E. macrorrhyncha. In other years considerable areas had to be
searched before galls could be discovered, even when flower buds were abundant.
These violent fluctuations in numbers were much more evident in the flower-bud
galls than on the stem and leaf-tip galls, and the latter were never seen in such
overwhelming numbers as the flower-bud galls. In examining the causes of this
phenomenon it would appear that there is a more constant high level of parasitic
control on the less specialized stem-tip, and leaf-tip galls, than on the relatively
more specialized flower-bud galls. The incidence of parasites will be considered
separately, but it is necessary to mention it here because there is no doubt that
parasites exercise considerable influence in deciding the amount of galling under
certain conditions.

BY G. A. CURRIE. 169

As an actual observation of the fluctuation of the numbers of galls the
sequence of events on a single tree of H. macrorrhyncha may be quoted:

During 1930, although buds were present in fair numbers, there were no
galls formed on the tree.

In 1931 there were fewer flower buds formed but only a small number of
these were galled.

In 1932 there was a heavy crop of flower buds and the galling was so complete
that scarcely a bud reached the normal flowering stage. Galls were mostly of
mixed origin, flles and wasps both being present.

In 1933 the galls containing wasps still hung on the tree from the previous
year, but only a very small number of new buds were formed. These were galled
by the flies which were then emerging in large numbers, but hardly any of the
galls reached maturity.

In 1934 there were many flower buds on the tree, but none was galled.

Early in 1935 new buds formed and none of them was galled, but the tree died.
The extremely heavy galling in 1932, especially the excessive number of wasp
galls, which seemed to take more out of the tree because of their longer (2 year)
duration, appears to have weakened the tree, which had also been attacked by a
fungus, thus contributing to its death.

The setting of flower buds on Hucalyptus trees is not very regular, the amount
of bud setting being dependent on the locality, the amount and distribution of
rainfall during the previous and in the current year, and the other climatic
conditions during the period. Buds may be formed every year on HH. macror-
rhyncha, or, in unfavourable seasons, scarcely any buds may form on the trees at
all. Flowering takes place in the Federal Territory generally during February or
March, and the young buds which will flower during the year following usually
appear earlier in the year. One may frequently see, in March, a single tree
carrying flowers fully out, flower buds which had set the previous January, and
flower buds six months old.

The conditions necessary for heavy galling of flower buds in any one year
are: (1) The trees must bear a heavy crop of flower buds; (2) large numbers of
gall flies must be present near the trees (the gall flies are not strong fliers) ;
(3) the flles must emerge from last year’s galls just at the same time as the young
flower-buds are appearing on the same, or on other trees.

Taking these conditions in order, we see that owing to the erratic flowering
of the Hucalyptus trees, a year or two may pass before a heavy crop of buds
appears, so that the possible total number of flies may be regulated by the number
of flower buds available. In particularly bad years, buds may be so scarce that
the fly population is reduced to a very low level.

The second condition (No. 2 above) has a twofold demand. First, large
numbers of flies must be present in galls from the previous year, which means
that the previous year must have produced a fair number of galls, and second,
the flies must be within range of the new buds. It is a matter of common
observation that certain localities have a somewhat different flowering rhythm
from others, so that these districts may, under certain adverse circumstances,
become so unfavourable for the flies that they cease to exist there, and the areas
have to be slowly re-colonized from elsewhere. Speaking very broadly, it is true
that whole climatic regions in Australia have regular fluctuations in the numbers
of flower buds present, but, within these, smaller localities do exist which vary
away from this regular sequence. As an example of the possible non-fulfilment
of the condition named in (2), it was observed that a group of trees of the species

170 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

EH. Blakelyi bearing many buds was untouched by galling in 1932, while only a
mile away galling was heavy on another group of trees of the same species. The
following year the group of trees which was carrying a heavy crop of galls
produced vast numbers of flies, but no tree of that group produced any flower
buds, and trees only a mile distant, which bore buds, were not galled.

The third condition is a most important one which is frequently not fulfilled.
In #. macrorrhyncha the buds galled by the fly open to permit the escape of the
flies before the normal flowering time of the trees, and just before young buds
appear. The short life of the adult fly makes it imperative that the interval
between emergence and the appearance of the buds should be not more than a
month, so that if the tree from which the flies emerge does not bear young buds
that year, then neighbouring trees must bear buds about the same time to allow
survival. Normally, trees of the same species flower, and bud, about the same
time, but, for reasons not as yet explained, the flowering time may be spread
over a long or a short period. The ideal conditions for heavy galling in any -
year occur when trees bud simultaneously, and when budding corresponds to the
time of emergence of the flies.

A year of heavy budding may give a heavy galling, but very seldom do succes-
sive seasons produce heavy crops of buds in most districts, so a maximum galling
year produces flies which usually find the following year a restricted number of
buds in which to lay, and so may be reduced in numbers that year to a minimum.
This minimum is in no danger of complete annihilation as there are always some
trees, or at least some branches on certain trees, which produce buds out of
season, or during a season when other trees fail to do so. From this minimum a
series of moderate budding years followed by a well-timed, maximum budding year
are required for the flies to reach maximum abundance again, and it most
frequently happens that some vicissitude, such as the non-fulfilment of correlation
in time or space between flies and buds, prevents the flies from having maximum
numbers in each year of maximum buds. Fortunately for the beekeeper who
depends on a heavy crop of blossom for his honey harvest, it is the exception
rather than the rule to get maximum galling coincident with maximum flower-bud
production.

In some districts in which conditions are very favourable to H. camaldulensis,
a good deal of bud formation takes place every year, with a certain biennial
maximum budding, super-imposed on the annual. In such a district a good deal of
galling is always present, with an occasional heavy maximum.

The biennial life cycle of some of the wasps so frequently associated with the
flies in galling complicates the matter further. Many years of quantitative study
would have to be made, however, before an authoritative statement about the
relative importance of the roles played by the various insects concerned in the
galling could be arrived at. The availability of suitable breeding places is
considered by the author to be the principal factor contributing to the big
fluctuations in the numbers of flies from year to year in the flower-bud-galling
species.

The flies using leaf bud, shoot tip, and other vegetative parts of the tree on
which to form galls have never been seen to reach the same great abundance as
the flower-bud-galling species, although they may often be common, as they are
sometimes on the leaves of HW. Stuartiana. The reason for this is probably twofold.
In the first place, suitable young shoots o1 leaf-buds are subject to wide variations
in abundance from year to year but not to the same extent as the flower buds.
In the second place, parasites appear to play a bigger part in keeping the number's

BY G. A. CURRIE. U7/aL

to a more even, steady density on the vegetative than in the reproductive galls.
The part played by parasites may therefore be considered as a separate section.

PARASITES AND OrHeEerR INSECTS IN RELATION TO ABUNDANCE OF FLIES.

Some chalcid gall-formers have been bred out from the same galls in
EH. macrorrhyncha as the Fergusonina flies. These insects were not direct parasites
but competitors within the galls, the effect of their inhabiting the same galls
affecting the numbers of flies emerging. The gall wasps lay their eggs, mostly
in buds already galled by the flies, and the larvae hatching from the wasp eggs
produce separate gall chambers which have already been described in detail. These
chambers have strong, hard walls which were impenetrable barriers to gall flies
ready to emerge if they happened to be in their path. In addition to this, all the
buds galled by the wasps became very woody so that the operculum was fused
to the body of the gall, and consequently could not open to release the flies at
the appointed time. Large numbers of flies were entombed in the galls by this
means, and died there. The only chance they had of emerging was when a wasp,
more advanced in its life history period than the others, cut a tunnel to the
exterior through the wall of the gall, so that flies which happened to be mature
at the time this hole was cut, and which were close to the hole, could squeeze
through. The wasps have not been found in such great numbers on many trees,
but on one tree observed, the branches were weighed down with galls and about
60% of the flies were unable to emerge owing to the presence of the wasps. The
chief wasps concerned in this galling were Hpimegastigmus quinquesetae Gir.,
Ditropinotella compressiventris Gir., Hurytoma varirufipes Gir., and an unidentified
species of Megastigmus.

In addition to those chalcid wasps which lived in the same galls as the flies,
many true parasites were bred out. One of the commonest chalcids was Coelocyba
eucalypti Gir. Others have not been identified yet.

One of the larger insects bred out was a braconid wasp, the larva of which
was found to feed indiscriminately on gall tissues and fly larvae. A full study of
the hymenopterous fauna of the galls is reserved for a future occasion, so only
the general observations can be recorded here.

It was found that in the bigger flower-bud galls the small chalcid parasites
occurred mainly on larvae situated in the loculi near the outer surface of the bud.
The larvae living deeper in the gall were free from most types of parasites,
although they were preyed on by some predators, such as the braconid already
mentioned. The parasites did not appear to be able to reach such a large percen-
tage of the fly larvae in the flower-bud galls as in the leaf and stem-tip galls.

During 1934 a large number of galls were found on the leaves of EH. Stwartiana.
Parasites were common on them, so that from the galls about equal numbers of
hymenopterous parasites and flies emerged. Galls were scarcer on trees of this
species during 1935, in spite of the fact that much young growth appeared on the
trees, growth which appeared suitable for galling. It was observed, however,
that most of the flies emerged in 1934 during May, when there was little young
growth available, so that a failure of co-ordination in time took place. Those
galls which did appear in 1935 were examined, and in most of them nematodes
were found with hymenopterous larvae or pupae. The empty skin of a larval fly
of Fergusonina was found in each gall chamber, so it was clear that parasitism
was very heavy.

From observation over a considerable period, and over a wide area, it would
appear that parasites play an important role in controlling the steady density of

2, GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES,

these leaf-galling species because, although they are liable to fluctuations, due to
changes in the amount of available suitable vegetative parts in which the larvae
can develop, those fluctuations do not bring them either to such large or to such
small numbers as the flower-bud species.* They are able always to maintain a
widespread rather low density and the continuous availability of hosts gives the
parasites opportunity for a fairly constant measure of control.

Summary and Conclusions.

Many galls on leaves, stem tips, leaf buds and flower buds of Hucalyptus trees
are caused by the combined action of nematodes and small flies of the Agromyzid
genus Fergusonina. The flies and nematodes are invariably found together in the
gall, and their relationship is described as a true symbiosis.

The association is clearly of long standing and probably originated in an
accidental parasitism by the ancestors of the nematodes which had been plant-
parasites, on the ancestors of the flies which were probably leaf-tunnellers.

The life histories of the flies and the nematodes have been worked out and
their interdependence revealed.

The fly larvae, which are described for the first time, carry chitinous
structures on the dorsum which are of great taxonomic value and phylogenetic
interest.

The nematodes are found in the galls as free-living females and males. The
first generation living in the galls is composed of parthenogenetic females, and
there is an alternation of generations during which a generation of fertilized
temales is parasitic in the adult fly. The adult fly deposits the nematode larvae
in buds with her own eggs.

The taxonomics and affinities of the nematodes are discussed and a new
subgenus Anguillulina (Fergusobia) is erected to contain them.

Insect parasites of the flies are common and their significance in controlling
the numbers of flies is discussed.

Large fluctuations in the number of gall flies occur from season to season.
In the flower-bud gall-forming species the erratic bud formation of the Hucalyptus
is considered to be the factor mainly responsible for the fluctuations. In the leaf
and stem-tip gall-formers, which are nowhere so plentiful as the flower-bud types,
although availability of suitable young growth controls the numbers to some
extent, parasites are thought to effect a considerable measure of control.

Acknowledgements.

Thanks are due to Dr. A. J. Nicholson, Chief of the Division, and Dr. I. M.
Mackerras, for critical revision of the manuscript and for considerable help in
the presentation of material; to Mr. J. W. Evans for giving up material on which
he had started to work when he knew the author was making a special study of
the problem; and to my colleague, Mr. A. L. Tonnoir, for describing the adult
flies. To all those throughout Australia who supplied material I express my
thanks.

My colleagues of the Division have assisted generously in many ways during
the progress of the investigation, and their lively interest gave me continual
encouragement; to Mr. W. J. James I am indebted for taking the photographs
which have been presented in the plates.

*TFor a full discussion of the subject of fluctuations in animal populations due to
various causes reference should be made to Nicholson (1933).

cs

BY G. A. CURBIE. 1

Literature Cited.

Bayuis, H. A., and DAUBNEY, R., 1926.—A Synopsis of the Families and Genera of
Nematoda. Brit. Mus., London.

BEUHNE, F. R., 1923.—The Honey Flora of Victoria. P. 28. Govt. Printer, Melbourne,
Victoria.

CAMBAGE, R. H., 1918.—Notes on the Native Flora of New South Wales. Part X. The
Federal Capital Territory. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xliii, Pt. 4, pp. 674-711.

Coss, N. A., 1921.—Howardula benigna. A New Nema Parasite of the Cucumber Beetle.
Science, liv, No. 1409, pp. 667.

GoopEy, T., 1950.—Cn a remarkable new nematode Vyleinchenema oscinellae gen. et sp. n.
parasitic in the frit fly Oscinella frit L. attacking oats. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 218,
Series B, pp. 315-348.

, 1933.—Plant Parasitic Nematodes and the Diseases they cause. London,

Methuen & Co.

,1935.—The Pathology and Aetiology of Plant Lesions caused by Parasitic
Nematodes. Publi. Imp. Bur. Ag. Parasit., p. 34.

MorGan, W. L., 1933.—EF lies and Nematodes Associated in Flower Bud Galls of Spotted
Gum. Ag. Gaz. N.S.W., xliv, Pt. 2, pp. 125-127.

NicHOoLson, A. J., 1933.—The Balance of Animal Populations. Jowrn. Anim. Ecol., Supp.,
Vol. ii, No. 1, May, 19338, pp. 132-178.

RUBSAAMEN, E. H., 1894.—Ueber australische Zoocecidien und deren Erzeuger. Berliner
Ent. Zeits., 39, pp. 199-234.

Tonnoir, A. L., 1937.—Revision of the genus Fergusonina Mall. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
Ixii, pp. 126-146.

VAN ZWALUWENBURG. R. H., 1928.—The Inter-relationships of Insects and Roundworms.
Bull. Haw. Sug. Pl. Assn., Hawaii, No. 20.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI-VII.
Plate vi.

Fig. 1.—Galled (left) and young ungalled (right) flower-buds of #. macrorrhyncha.
x O04.

Fig. 2.—Branches of #. macrorrhyncha carrying many galls. x 0:06.

Fig. 3.—Normal flower-buds of H. Blakelyi. x 0-6.

Fig. 4.—Galled flower-buds of EH. Blakelyi. x 0-09.

Fig. 5.—Leaf-galls on H. Stuwartiana (centre and left); shoot-galls on EH. macror-
rhyncha (right). x 0:2. .

Figs. 6-13.—Photomicrographs of galled flower-buds of HE. macrorrhyncha.

Figs. 6-12: A, outer layer of operculum; B, inner layer of operculum; C, anther
primordium; N, nematode larvae; L, larva of fly; 1 and 4, wasp gall cavities.

Fig. 13: A, inner layer of cells with dense protoplasm surrounding fly gall cavity;
B, middle layer of cells in fly gall cavity; C, outer limiting layer of cells in fly gall
cavity; L, fly larva; N, nematodes; H, thin-walled parenchyma in wasp gall cavity;
W, outer woody layer of cells bounding wasp gall cavity. Figs. 6, 13, x 12; figs. 7-12, x 6.

6. Young flower bud in which eggs of fly and nematode larvae had been laid three
days previously. 7. Flower bud with tissues proliferating. 8. A more advanced stage.
At this stage the eggs of the fly hatch. 9. More advanced stage of galling. 10. Normal
flower bud same age as galled bud in Fig. 9. 11. Cross-section of galled flower-bud with
only one gall cavity containing nematodes. This section misses the fly larva which
accompanied nematodes. 12. Cross-section of galled flower-bud showing many gall
cavities containing fly larvae and nematodes, and two wasp gall cavities. 13. Cross-
section showing contrast between vegetable tissues surrounding the fly larva and
nematodes, and the wasp larva.

Plate vii.

F.O., ovary of fly; F.E., egg of fly; N, larval nematodes; HE, egg of nematode;
F, globule forming part of fat body of fly.

Fig. 1.—Adult female of Fergusonina. x 13.

Fig. 2.—Ovaries of fly dissected out showing nematode larvae protruding from torn
oviduct. x 17.

Fig. 3.—Photomicrograph showing eggs of fly in ovary and a nematode larva
between them. x 100.

Fig. 4.—Photomicrograph of elements from haemocoel of fly. x 100.

174 GALLS ON EUCALYPTUS TREES.

Figs. 5-12.—Photomicrographs of nematodes:

5. Free living female, x 125. 6. Male, x 100. 7. Parasitic female from body of fly
larva which was about to pupate moulting into final instar, x 150. 8. Parasitic female
growing rapidly; stylet in this stage still apparent, x 75. 9. Parasitic female nearly full
grown; stylet has disappeared and gut almost completely atrophied. From puparium of
fly, x 100. 10. Parasitic female at later stage than Fig. 9. From puparium of fly, x 50.
11. Parasitic female fully developed and most of her eggs already laid. From adult
female fly F. tillyardi, x 35. 12. Fully developed female from body cavity of adult fly
F. carteri. x 50.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE VI.

Galling of Hucalyptus species.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE VII.

Fly and nematodes causing galls on Eucalypts.

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NOTES ON FOSSIL DIATOMS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA. I.
FOSSIL DIATOMS FROM DIATOMACEOUS EARTH, COOMA, N.S.W.

By B. V. Skvorrzov, Harbin, Manchoukuo.

(Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.)
(Twenty-six Text-figures. )
[Read 28th July, 1937. ]

The diatomaceous remains found in siliceous earths, clay, sands and similar
deposits of the later geological periods have recently become of great importance
in deciding whether these deposits were formed under marine, brackish-water or
freshwater conditions, and even in ascertaining the proportion of salt contained
in the water in which they were deposited. Moreover, as the geographical distri-
bution of the living species of diatoms becomes known, valuable indications may
be obtained from the presence of their remains, as to the climates that prevailed
while the deposits which contain them were being laid down. The recent and the
fossil diatomaceous floras of Australia have not yet been extensively studied.
Investigations of the recent and fossil freshwater diatoms of Australia include
those of G. I. Playfair (1915) on the diatomaceous flora of the Lismore district,
G. S. West (1909) who described some forms from the environs of Melbourne, and
Tempere and Peragallo (1915) on collections of fossil diatoms from Brunswick,
Victoria, from Lake Mari, and from Talbot, Melbourne, and of fresh and brackish-
water species from the Yarra River, Melbourne. A detailed investigation of the
marine diatoms from the water off the coast of New South Wales has recently
appeared (Dakin and Colefax, 1933). The present note is the result of the
examination of diatomaceous earth from Cooma kindly sent to me by Mr. F. S.
Mance of the New South Wales Department of Mines, Sydney. This deposit is
situated about five miles from Cooma, and one and a half miles from Bunyan
Platform, N.S.W. The following description of this deposit is given by Dr.
W. R. Browne (1914, p. 205): “From test-holes which have been put down, the
deposit is believed to cover an area of 30 acres. It is situated in a hollow on the
western side of Middle Flat, surrounded on the north and west by a ridge of
slates and mylonized quartz-porphyry capped by Tertiary basalt. The deposit is
close to the surface, being covered by 18 inches to 2 feet of alluvium, chiefly
basaltic soil. Under this is about 2 feet of very hard buff-coloured ‘‘mullock”’, a
kind of travertine containing numerous angular fragments of quartz and of
diatomaceous earth. This is succeeded by another 2 feet of massive tripolite of a
pale creamy-white colour, then comes 3 feet of layered tripolite—‘‘slate”’, as it is
called—which is slightly denser than the other and shows stratification. Under
this the deposit is alternately massive and stratified. At intervals, pipes of roughly
elliptical section occur, filled with a hard, brittle brown clay, in which remains of
bones, ete., are often found. Veins of wood opal are fairly frequent, yellow, red,
and green in colour, and very light and brittle.’ KE. J. Kenny (1924, p. 12) gives
analyses of three diatomites from Cooma. The diatomaceous earth from Cooma is
whitish-cream in colour, very light, porous, somewhat friable, resembling chalk in
general appearance. The study of the sample was done in my private laboratory

176 FOSSIL DIATOMS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, I,

at Harbin. The crude material was first broken into small pieces and pulverized
with Glauber’s salt. For this the material was mixed with Glauber’s salt and
boiled several times during a week. The rapid crystallization of the salt breaks
the pieces of diatomaceous earth into fine powder. Then the material was washed
in distilled water and boiled in commercial hydrochloric acid, then washed again
and boiled in commercial sulphuric acid. Then powdered potassium chlorate was
slowly added to the boiling acid until the black colour gave place to white. Very
thorough washing followed this to remove the last trace of acids and salts. The
coarse pieces, as spicules of sponges and like impurities, are now removed by
rotating the material in a glass tube. The diatoms were then preserved in 96%
alcohol and mounted in Piperin-Cumaron and HglI., proposed by Dr. R. W. Kolbe
of Berlin.

The following general features may be pointed out in connection with the
examination of the algal flora of the Cooma diatomaceous earth:

1. The Cooma diatomaceous earth is probably of middle Tertiary age and of
distinct lacustrine origin. In this earth ten species of diatoms have been recog-
nized, together with many sponge spicules, some cysts of Chrysomonads and
auxospores of undetermined diatoms. Most of the diatoms were present only as
small filaments and could not be identified. Of the diatoms found, 25% are new;
60% of the algae belong to recent species, 30% are known as fossil from Lower
Tertiary deposits.

2. In external appearance the diatomaceous earth exhibits a great degree of
uniformity and consists of a large number of Melosira granulata and var.
angustissima, a freshwater species reported as recent from the plankton of large
lakes of temperate regions of Europe, America and Asia, and known as fossil in
neogene deposits from Europe, Korea, Nippon, and North America. The other
species are all infrequent and rare in the material from Cooma.

3. Melosira undulata var. spiralis is also a freshwater species reported as
recent from tropical districts as Malaya, India, West India, Nippon, South China
and Africa, and is widely known as fossil from neogene deposits from Europe,
America, Northern China and Nippon. Our Cooma specimens differ from the
type only in the structure of the frustules.

4. EHunotia valida, Pinnularia viridis var. intermedia and Gomphonema
longiceps var. subclavata are all freshwater. Stauroneis (Pleurostauron) Play-
fairiana is a distinct species, probably also freshwater.

5. Large numbers of fragments of several kinds of diatoms belonging to the
genera Synedra, Fragilaria, Pinnularia, Cymbella and others have been observed
in the material but are not identifiable. They are all freshwater.

6. Three distinct marine diatoms have been recognized from Cooma. Melosira
sulcata is common in Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic oceans and also reported as fossil
from Lower Tertiary deposits from New Zealand, Tertiary deposits of Hungary,
and from marine deposits of Simbirsk, Russia. Coscinodiscus Wittianus Pantocsek
has been reported from Lower Tertiary deposits from Simbirsk, Russia, and
Coscinodiscus subconcavus is also known from Tertiary deposits of Huropean
Russia. Future investigations may show whether the occurrence of these marine
diatoms in the lacustrine diatomaceous earth is accidental.

Description of the species.
MELOSIRA GRANULATA (Ehr.) Ralts. Text-figs. 1-6, 9, 11, 19.

Hustedt, Bacillar., 1930, pp. 87-88, fig. 44; Hustedt, Die Kieselalgen, 1927,
Lief. 1, pp. 248-249, fig. 104 a-c, e, f.

BY B..V. SKVORTZOV. LTT,

Text-figs. 1-26.

1-6, Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs.—7, 8, MWelosira granulata (Bhr.) Ralfs var.
angustissima O. Mull.—9, Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs.—10, JWelosira granulata
(Bhr.) Ralfs var. angustissina O. Mull.—11, Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs.—12,
Sporangial frustule of an unidentified diatom.—13, Welosira granulata (BKhr.) Ralfs var.
angustissima O. Mull.—14, 15, Gomphonema longiceps Ehr. var. subclavata Grun. ?.—
16, Huwnotia valida Hustedt.—17, 18, Sporangial frustule of unidentified diatom.—19,
Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. Sporangial frustule.—20, Melosira sulcata (Ehr.)
Kutz.—21, Stauroneis (Pleurostauron) Playfairiana, n. sp.—22, Coscinodiscus subconcavus
Grun.—23, 24, Melosira wndulata (Ehr.) Kutz. var. spiralis, n. var.—25, Pinnularia
viridis (Nitzsch.) Ehr. var. intermedia Cleve ?.—26, Coscinodiscus Wittianus Pant.

The drawings were made with E. Leitz Apochromat 2 mm, and compens. ocular 4,

Hb
-]
oa)

FOSSIL DIATOMS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, I,

Valve cylindrical with distinct pseudosulcus and sulcus. Edge of disc with
spines, usually small, sometimes large. Frustule membrane thick, with large
granules in longitudinal, sometimes spiral, lines. Frustule height 0:0085 to
0:02 mm.; breadth, 0:0068 to 0:0187 mm. Rows of granules 9 to 10, granules in
rows 9 to 13 in 0:01 mm. Abundant. A freshwater diatom reported from plankton
of lakes. Known as fossil from neogene deposits of Europe, North America, and
recently from Korea, and Nippon (Saga Prefecture).

MELOSIRA GRANULATA (Ehr.) Ralfs var. sNGuSTISSIMA O. Mull. Text-figs. 7, 8, 10, 13.

Hustedt, Bacillar., 1930, p. 88, fig. 45; Hustedt, Die Kieselalgen, 1927, p. 250,
fig. 104d. :

Valve linear-cylindrical. Frustule height 0:02 to 0:022 mm.; breadth, 0-0034
to 0:005. Rows of granules 9, granules in rows 10 to 12 in 0:01 mm. Common
with the type. Reported from plankton of large lakes, and fossil from neogene
deposits. Recently found in neogene deposits. of Chosen, Korea, Nippon.

MELOSIRA UNDULATA (Ehr.) Kutz. var. SPIRALIS, n. var. Text-figs. 23, 24.

Differt a typo striis spiralis non parallelis, 18 in 0:01 mm. Punctis 20 in
0:01 mm. Punctis robustis solitariis juxta discum absunt. MHabit.: In stratis
tertiaris aquae dulcis prope Cooma, New South Wales, Australia.

Frustules single or in twos, usually longer than broad, with thick membrane
constricted near the margin. Pseudosulcus and sulcus indistinct. Surface of the
valve with spiral lines of puncta. No large puncta near the edge of the disc.
Frustule height 0-025 to 0:027 mm.; breadth, 0:01 mm. Rows of puncta 18, puncta
in rows 20 in 0:01 mm. Differs from the type and varieties in its spiral, not
parallel, lines of puncta and by the absence of large puncta near the edge of the
disc. Infrequent. Melosira undulata is a freshwater form and is common in
tropical districts; it is also known as fossil in neogene deposits of Europe, North
America, Shantung, N. China, and Nippon.

MELOSIRA SULCATA (Hhr.) Kutz. Text-fig. 20.

Van Heurck, Synopsis, 1881, Taf. 91, figs. 15, 16; A. Schmidt, Atlas Diatom.,
1882, Taf. 176, figs. 28, 32-39, 42-44, 46; Taf. 178, figs. 1-5, 7-19, 22-24——Melosira
sulcata Ehr. var. sibirica Grun., Witt, Ueber den Polierschiefer von Archangelsk-
Kurojedowo im Gouvern. Simbirsk, 1885, 28, Taf. X, fig. 2—Melosira sulcata
Ehr. f. radiata Grun., Peragallo, Les Diatomées Marine de France, 448, Pl. 119,
fig. 12:

Valve circular, robust, 0-068 to 0:075 mm. in diameter, separated into three
areas. The marginal area, about one-ninth of the diameter of the valve, is formed
of robust radiating plates, shorter and longer, striped lengthwise with a series of
large rounded dots between the large plates in the inner part of the area. Marginal
plates 4 to 5 in 0:01 mm. The median area, also about one-ninth of the valve
diameter, is hyaline, and the central area, about two-thirds of the valve diameter,
is covered with fine radiating rows, about 8 to 9 in 0:01 mm. Infrequent. A
marine species, recent and fossil. Reported from Lower Tertiary deposits from
New Zealand, also from Tertiary deposits of Hungary and of Simbirsk, European
Russia.

Coscinopiscus WirrrAnus Pant. Text-fig. 26.
Beitrage zur kenntniss der Fossilen Bacillarien Ungarns, 1903, 120.—
Coscinodiscus lineatus O. Witt (nee Ehrenberg), Uber den Polierschiefer von
Archangelsk-Kurojedowo im Gouvern, Simbirsk, 1885, 23, Tab. I, fig. 6.

BY B. V. SKVORTZOV. 179

Valve circular. Surface towards the centre flat, slightly convex near the
border. Markings hexagonal, 2-5 to 3 in 0-01 mm., subequal, at border 8-9 in
0:01 mm. Central dots of the markings indistinct; apiculi absent. Border narrow,
with small markings, without radiating striae. Diameter 0-119 to 0:122 mm.
Infrequent. Differs from the type in larger size of the valve and more robust
markings.

COSCINODISCUS SUBCONCAVUS Grun. Text-fig. 22.

Rattray, A revision of the Genus Coscinodiscus Ehr. and of some allied genera,
1890, 466; A. Schmidt, Atlas Diatom., 1878, Pl. 59, figs. 12, 13.

Frustule convex, about 0:037 mm. in diameter. Valve circular, covered with
large hexagonal markings, decreasing but slightly from the centre outwards, about
2 in 0-01 mm. Central dots distinct. Border narrow, showing evident short radial
lines. Rare. Reported from Lower Tertiary deposits of Simbirsk, European
Russia.

EUNOTIA VALIDA Hust. Text-fig. 16.
Hustedt, Bacillar., 1930, 178-179, fig. 229.
Valve linear, slightly curved, with parallel margins and slightly capitate ends.
Length, 0-045 mm.; breadth, 0-005 mm. Striae about 12 in 0:01 mm. Infrequent.
A freshwater species reported from Europe.

STAURONEIS (PLEUROSTAURON) PLAYFAIRIANA, nN. Sp. Text-fig. 21.

Valvis lanceolatis angustis, ad medium modice inflatis cum polis cuneatis et
subacutis. Area axillaris angustis linearis ad polos laculamentis ornatis, area
centralis ad porum centralem transverse dilatatus. Striis transversis radiantes,
punctatis, 16-18, punctis 15 in 0:01 mm. Polos hyalinis, raphe derectis. Valvis
longis 0:075—-0:09 mm.; latis 0:009-0-:01 mm. MHabit.: In stratis lacustris tertiaris
prope Cooma, New South Wales, Australia.

Valve linear-lanceolate, tapering from the middle part to the long acute ends.
In the middle part of the valve the margin slightly interrupted. Both ends with
transverse round siliceous ribs. Median line straight. Central pores distinct.
Axial area narrow linear, central area a transverse dilated fascia. Striae radiate,
16-18 in 0:01 mm. Puncta distinct, about 15 in 0:01 mm. Length, 0-075 to 0-09
mm.; breadth, 0-009 to 0:01 mm. Differs from Stauroneis (Pleurostauron) acuta
in its long acute ends. Infrequent. Named in honour of the late G. I. Playfair.

PINNULARIA Viripis (Nitz.) Ehr. var. INTERMEDIA Cleve (?). Text-fig. 25.

Cleve, Synopsis of the Navicul. Diatoms, 1894, I, 91; Pantocsek, Beitrage zur
kenntniss der Fossilen Bacillarien Ungarns, 1903, iii, Pl. 7, fig. 119.

Valve elliptical-linear with margins attenuated towards rounded ends. Length,
0-072 mm.; breadth, 0:0186 mm. Median line robust, indistinctly complex.
Terminal fissures comma-shaped. Axial area linear, about one-fourth of the breadth
ot the valve, widened around the central nodule. Striae 8 in 0-01 mm., divergent
in the middle and convergent at the ends. Longitudinal band distinct. Infrequent.
A freshwater diatom, reported also as fossil.

GOMPHONEMA LONGICEPS Ehr. var. SUBCLAVATA Grun. (?). Text-figs. 14, 15.
Hustedt, Bacillar., 1930, 375, fig. 705—Gomphonema subclavatum Grun., Van
Heurck, Synopsis, 1880, Pl. 23, fig. 37.
Valve lanceolate, clavate, with one end broader than the other. Apex attenuate
and acute. Length 0:0357 to 0:0476 mm.; breadth 0-005 to 0:006 mm. Striae robust,

180 FOSSIL DIATOMS FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, I.

almost parallel, at the end slightly radiate, 6 to 10 in 0:01 mm. Infrequent. A
freshwater diatom common in mountain districts, and also reported as fossil.

Sporangial frustules of an unidentified diatom, probably of ArtTiuryaA sp.
Text-figs. 12, 17, 18.

Cells in front view barrel-shaped, in side view elliptical, with thick smooth
membrane. Cell in front view 0-009-0:01 to 0-005-0:0068 mm., in side view
0:0042—0:0051 to 0:0085—-0:0187 mm. Common.

Literature.

BROWNE. W. R., 1914.—Geology of the Cooma District, New South Wales. Jowrn. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W., xlviii.

CLEVE, I. T., 1894-1895.—Synopsis of the Naviculoid Diatoms. J-II. Stockholm.

Dakin, W. J., and Couerax, A. N., 1953.—Marine Plankton of the Coastal Waters of
N.S.W. PRoc: LINN. Soc: N-S.W., Ivill, 1933.

Hustept, F., 1927.—Die Kieselalgen. Leipzig. 1927.

—, 1930.—Bacillariophyta. Jena. 1930.

Ikenwny, I. J., 1924.—Diatomite, Siliceous Earths and Sands. Bull. Geol. Surv. New South
Wales, No. 15. ;

PANTOCSEK, J., 1903.—Beitrage zur kenntniss der Fossilen Bacillarien Ungarns. Berlin.

PERAGALLO. H., and M., 1897-1908.—Diatomées Marines de France. Paris.

PuAYFAIR, G. I., 1915.—Freshwater Algae of the Lismore district. Proc Linn. Soc.
INES Se Part 2:

RATTRAY, J., 1890.—A Revision of the Genus Coscinodiscus Ehr., and of scme allied
Genera. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., xvi, 1888-1889 (1890), p. 449.

ScHm™ipT, A., 1875-1931. Atlas Diatomaceenkunde. Leipzig.

SkvortTzov, B. V., 1936.—Neogene Diatoms from Environs of Gensan, the Ampen District,
S. Kankyo-Do, Eastern Coast of Tyosen, Korea. Bull. Geol. Survey Tyosen, Vol. xii.

~~, 1937a.—-Neogene Diatoms from Saga Prefecture, Kiushiu Island, Nippon. Men.
Coll. Sci. Kyoto Imp. Univ., Ser. B, Vol. xii, No. 2.

— , 1937b.—Neogene Diatoms from Wamuta, Nagano Prefecture, Central Nippon.

—_——_———, in press.—Neogene Diatoms from Hastern Shantung, China.

—_.—_, in press.—Contribution to our Knowledge of the Fossil Diatomaceous Flora
of South Africa. I. Fossil Diatoms from Diatomaceous Limestone from Pan near
Franzenkop and Pieska, Cape Province, South Africa.

TEMPERE and PERAGALLO, 1915.—Diatoms du Monde Entier. 2nd Edition. Gironde.

Van HeEurck, 1880-1881.—Synopsis des Diatomées de Belgique. Anvers.

Wast, G. S., 1909.—The Algae of the Yan Yean Reservoir, Victoria. Jowrn. Linn. Soc.
Lond., xxxix, Botany, No. 269.

Witt. Orro N., 1885.—Ueber den Polierschiefer von Archangelsk-Isurojedowo im Gouvern.
Simbirsk. Schrift. Russ. Mineral. Ges. St. Petersburg.

181

A MONOGRAPH OF THE AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE.
By H. J. Carter, B.A., F.R.E.S., and E. H. Zeck.
(Plates viii-ix; two Text-figures. )

[Read 25th August, 1937.]

The accumulation of unnamed material and the need for greater accuracy in
the nomenclature make it desirable to attempt a survey of this group, a work
approached with much diffidence, but rendered possible by the courteous and able
help of K. G@. Blair and J. G. Arrow of the British Museum, who have identified
and compared with type many examples sent to them. This has been supplemented
by the gift or loan of specimens that illustrate genera rare or unknown in
Australian collections. We are also indebted to Mr. Womersley and the Trustees
of the South Australian Museum for the loan of a large collection of this family,
which includes some cotypes of Blackburn and Lea. Also the National Museum,
Melbourne, the Macleay Museum and the Australian Museum, Sydney, the Queens-
land Museum, Brisbane, and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Canberra, have all helped by the loan of material. We are also indebted to F. E.
Wilson, whose specimens, being in perfect order, simplified their examination.

Previous work in this family has been of a somewhat intermittent kind.
Amongst Australian authors, Blackburn is the most prolific. Two genera,
Deretaphrus and Bothrideres, are especially common and widely distributed
throughout Australia, under the bark of suitable Eucalyptus trees. As with other
common insects, they are subject to great variations of size and colour. The
many minute members of the family are much neglected except by expert
collectors. The labels of the late A. M. Lea and Dr. E. W. Ferguson, and of our
friends F. H. Wilson, Dr. K. K. Spence and J. Armstrong, abundantly show this
amongst the many hundreds of specimens examined.

A remarkable feature is the very wide distribution of species. Species
described by Sharp from Japan, by Pascoe from Malaya, by Grouvelle from
Ceylon and elsewhere, occur in Australia. This probably accounts for much of
the synonymy in the family. There is no evidence of this wide distribution being
otherwise than natural.

Classification of the Australian Colydiidae.
Grouvelle included the sub-families Euxestinae and Murmidiinae in this
family. The former is not included in our Monograph through lack of material
and the existing doubt as to its correct family position. The latter contains no

Note by H. J. Carter: The greater part of the systematic work of the following
has been done by myself. But I am greatly indebted to E. H. Zeck for his dissections
of tarsal and other structures in the smaller species; for his inimitable drawings of
these and of the figures of the new species; also for much helpful advice. These things
have so much added to the value and accuracy of the paper that it is right to include
his name as joint author.

Ww

182 : AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

recorded Australian species. With these omissions the family is subdivided into
two sub-families, distinguished as follows:

Insertion of the antennae hidden by the lateral border of the front ...... I. Colydiinae.
IGE EY SHON Toye Wave, EWayrerMineVe WENO so sacdboacousoosssccsnotnsnusoduoceu II. Ceryloninae.

I. Colydiinae. Table of Tribes.

122 PAMPETITIAE CA LETS pine sat hres say oka brastan aa eh Ea hisaat oe CORE aoe Cane Hell sie Der Ears ph reuse aa ie eee 2,
AMLENNAETWN OF UCADILACEs consecrate ae anise See yE ee OU RO atin, See aire panne) ea a ee 5
25 PANTErIOL=anG BDOSt (CORA SUClOSE: imuc Caer we eee ce a seletnee ate Ua ar mel Uae racer ene gee Synchitini
AnteriorNCoxae gars tamty Ass 6cs ab afe Baa et oA ele eae Eb AES a RES rei Et wht eg oe eae er gv ie ee emer 3
Bo IMASE WAN GeySieneine TaOE JOE Woe SACOM Goabsendnooecue ase neconneeacenoce 4
Hirstwcanrsalesesmentwongersthangsecondp ancien | ec eee nena ee Acropini*
AT SCutellume preset rs pyettescis ck Git orate my wise bie chien Be oabi an TA clans) ae Sosa ree eee Eee, Pycnomerini
Scutellum absent (in the only Australian genus) ........................ Coxelini
bee Antennae: el da rticuilatey) sya ysoste Acca a oes, ee ha ets ulee Teeth eee susie AU ete SRS a 6
AntennaemlO-articulatem (LUS1FOGIN) marin aeei I eneEeerione tinier einen eae Orthocerini
6; Antennae? sperfoliate: Wiiaie cicnesere siemens \eusi nistauey ehsicerenche Gos) ari cud py cies aeepon eee Rhagoderini;

II. Ceryloninae. Table of Tribes.

itwApi calesesimentmotsantennaemn otra Cleularsanrre eine iti aa ieee eee ee 2
Apicalmseaimentmotmantenimlaem.a-ClC Il aia mre saat irie mi tenen en nae Cerylonini
Qe ront COAG "CLOSE wan aisles ie a totchtics Se atnre. tee erie tat Sy auat Newey Palla Ae TIER BW IPA earn ee Deretaphrini
Mronercoxaendistanty (ay see ae Oe ed ae © a eee ee ee 3
Be BMOnmMpelOnN ater SLAW LOUS api a-c sunken eel ae cesses sae eptelacats aN Ls el eee uo ET oS Bothriderini
MonmM ovate ewithvelwietys deria, fis. su secret er-eus Greys Paces PLease La EEN eae Dastarcini

Of the sub-family Colydiinae the majority of Australian genera are included
in the Synchitini and may be tabulated as follows:

Synchitini.
1 Antennal telubt B=clawates) ties eda GAR ese, hae eka tetied nites ce pase OAS RI tone eee 2
Antennalimgelubye2-clawatemnn cn ciereiee iti ei cae obEdHpadoODoIH Odd De DDO oDad OC OR 3
2a Anterior scoxalcavities 1OD CN sg Kacy mask ik See pie sioner yea aoe sienna ee ena Sparactus
ANterior (COxall: CAWAtIES GClOSE Meas era cac te csc tel cnet) cane eecnisee cue eaeci he aaron Larinotus
3H eAntennalivapicaluscsmentnwell-definedirer mm ee eae eee ee ene 4
Antennal apicalisesmentaverya smallaandwobScunes pa tieriaeit. einen tient ne eae 12
4 EProthoraxanad) elytra COStATES pcos is cya toast syecnno deamon tacioe tase rtye be lee erate tore.) Syeapeias pecan eee ea 5
Prothorax and elytra not both costate ....... PAL) Akeley owt Ja dle Reani r 7
Re ID bre ORK TAs (CUueonieanbioGl))) oaosucdocabeassabconeedagobooacaceuace 6
Hivtral costae irresulareand sinterrupceai reer ote en eno Phorminag, n.g.
6. Margins of prothorax narrow, antennal sulcus ill-defined .................. Bitoma
Margins of prothorax wide, antennal sulcus well-defined ................ Phormesa
{fare ded Xo id oy ets auto gil higurcKols{ueN (ama a gabeciorea DGG aiplolo orci ola e ole miele aaokae orgie era a orGlo" Gr Synagathis, n.g.
Neither, prothorax NOrM elytra (COSCATC. Bruce com slo ies ceca cre incle ek crore eneteke Tartana oR nee 8
8. Form narrow, prothorax with narrow lateral foliation ......................... 9
Horm WwAaderprovhorasxanwithewideslateralstoliation an ariaiecine neers cieieieininne 10
9. Body pilose, base of prothorax without border .................. wate see Neotrichus
iBodyaSsetuloses bascsofeprocthora xs DOLCE ede eaecisicie: ieee n ete Sympanotus
Oy istteralmMarcinsTOfplotuoraxmMonrenOlLmessmlObaA tema renter orient nett Ablabus
Lateral “mMarecins' entire sty, ees Says hl he Dae ree ERIE es I Dar Sees a Renae Ga ee 11
id erornorax andeelytra with sparallelesi@esm nmr snrieria nite ic rere eee eee Cebia
MOM LOVALe PLOLLOLassiwithiwellaroundedssidesi ae arene Colobicus
125) Tarsal tormula monmalys—4 Ass trea) bel: il Verret eka Piacente aaicnene irene: Bupala
Marsal FOVINULA 43 =3= 9 cov: eh To a Seatac eae amie Th aints ay ane Ol cae frets Treen Pabula, n.g.i

* The two genera placed under Acropini in the Junk Catalogue are so different as io
suggest a reclassification, thus—

Meryxz: Antennae perfoliate, all coxae close.
Todima: Antennae bi-clavate, all coxae distant.

+ Ocholissa is unclassified (Incertae sedis) in Junk, but the perfoliate antennae,
their insertion distant from the eyes and not retractile under the head, the head some-
what narrowed behind, and anterior coxae open, suggest inclusion under Rhagoderini.

t Pabula would seem to require a special Tribe for its reception. For the present
it is sufficiently distinguished here.

BY H. J. CARTER AND EK. H.-ZECK. 183

- The Tribe. Devetaphrini includes the following genera which may be tabulated
as follows:

1. Antennae with 11th segment a mere excrescence on the 10th, form cylindric ......

LG oD IA EG Ol RPP EL Aas OPA OIE CIPRO Lon Ota -cecid ni ottr o fod ieac tea it Beane ek rec err eS RTE ES fy Oxylaemus
ANSGRAST OD OEE Pe OKO} RMON ES Se A ee haere Oa co Oe ake Suid Oba Co Eo Okino rod cme marc caper 2

2. Basal segment of tarsi elongate, antennal club ovate ................... Metopiestes
Basal segment of tarsi short, antennae subclavate ..................... Deretaphrus

The two genera of the Tribe Bothriderini, Bothrideres and Machlotes Pasc.,
are readily distinguished by the strong transverse sulcus near the base of the
prothorax, in the latter.

The two genera of the Cerylonini may be tabulated thus:

Amtennaemial-articulate; (b1-Clayvate msn eye psiocie s)ackeuaeaaged susie.) sicaw-weus, s/o seule Philothermus
AMtehnaecw apparently 0=anticulatensuni—Clawjalterwas seciatese clo deine she cle is eres Cerylon

Brroma Herbst.

The distinction between Bitoma and Phormesa is very finely drawn by the
absence or presence of an antennal sulcus and the less defined prothoracic margins
of the former; but the exact constitution of the former of these features is not
easy to define.* In every insect of the group Synchitini that we have examined
there is a depression between the eye and submentum in which the basal part of
the antennae rests. Authors write of this sulcus as obsolete, short or long. We
have not met with the first; in Bitoma angustula Motsch., B. serricollis Pase., and
B. costata Macl. (the last incorrectly placed, we think, under Phormesa in the
Junk Catalogue), this depression is at its minimum. To the above three species
we add three new ones, cylindrica, occidentalis and puteolata. B. villosa Lea is an
Ablabus. P. (B.) parva Blkb. is either a Phormesa or requires a separate genus
(see below).

Table of species of Bitoma.

Me EL OunOna xn ON Sere Ane wilGeacs ccoseteeie hone tee lc Aeon tate alee cae cst SUE NSE! chile ie Reet cathe roca Pea eed 2
TEAEOUE SION RE TD:< > JOKOLG FISKOL uch. oo enol OO Beton RECT OT OTS CRT OLOae tc KE GSS AARC EH DROS Ran one DRotn Nido Go clas: coi Goud clo bio. b 3
A> IJPOMOUD! COMES Sogn Aiaol ERNIE Goons accoakdcoobenaednuonac occidentalis, n. sp.
GIO WHIP TCOGAS TRIM, CoMmlngeueel Goaccancoeucauseecouunuuucancas cylindrica, n. sv.

Pronotum deeply excavate along middle

oo

ENS OPE LN Ve, Senet. SA ee Mee puteolata, n. sp-

IRRONOCUM nO La S OMe Ohare hee Ter tren sae hd OR NE) GEES EET ES LIS wal eae ch ee ener eas 4
4. Margins of prothorax and elytra sharply serrate ................. serricollis Pasc.
MIWA OIE jorROWaore< Elaxel Gye) wuaAMOhy Orne ooacesosovgoavcorcaosecoo4aee 5
H Ider Ceoressecl U2 poOrmesaaike) scoddebocdtcdovoccoeesoddocedoudses costata Macl.
InGaN Kulocwhiinchawe (AEM IMNK)). sececooobocnbob moor panics bedeoboeoooonebouulds 6

6. Pronotal costae bent outward (Inner costae bifurcate at apex)

Synonymy.—B. serricollis Pase. = lineatocollis Blkb.
2B. angustula Motsch. = parallela Shrp.
B. siccana Pasc. = rujfina Pase. = maura Pasce.
The briefly described angustula Motsch. is suggested by Grouvelle as synony-
mous with parallela Shrp., but the type is apparently lost.

BITOMA CYLINDRICA, n. sp. Plate viii, fig. 4.

Elongate, parallel; head and pronotum nitid black, elytra, appendages and
underside reddish.

* See also Grouvelle’s note (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1918, p. 10) on Ditoma crenata
Herbst. ‘‘type du genre Ditoma’’... “en réalité cet insecte a des rudiments de sillons
antennaires qui permettent aux antennes de venir s’étendre dessous la téte pendant la
position de repos”.

184 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

Head subquadrate, with raised lateral edges; finely punctate, antennae having
two basal segments stout and cylindric, 3-9 moniliform and closely set, 10-11
forming a compact oval club. Prothorax convex, parallel, longer than wide, apex
and base bisinuate, anterior angles well advanced and acute, posterior angles
produced but blunted; surface consists of 10 carinate ridges, the two interior
curved and lyriform, produced along apical and basal border to meet the 4th,
subplanate on apical region, here bifurcating to form the 2nd parallel carina,
these not extending to base or apex, 4th and 5th sharply carinate, forming a
concave lateral edge; the 3rd sinuous and less conspicuous in the wide sulcus
between the 2nd and 4th ridges; the raised area formed by the junction of 1st
and 2nd sparsely punctate. Scutellwm oval with a wide triangular excavation
behind it. Hlytra convex, cylindric, seriate-punctate, the punctures close, large
and square, separated by cancellate ridges, the alternate intervals raised, forming
carinae at base and on apical declivity. Head with a minimum of antennal
grooves, palpi subulate at apex. Prosternum transversely striolate, metasternum
sparsely, abdomen more closely punctate, the punctures on abdomen diminishing
in size and density towards apex, abdominal segments subequal. Dim.—33—5 x 1:3
mm. (approx.).

Hab.—Queensland National Park (H.J.C., also in. Queensland Mus.), Cairns
(A. M. Lea), Dorrigo (Heron), Illawarra (H. Cox and J. J. Walker), Richmond R.
(A. M. Lea).

HKighteen examples, varying in size, have been examined that belong to Pascoe’s
Xuthia group of Bitoma. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

BITOMA OCCIDENTALIS, h. Sp. Plate viii, fig. 1.

Elongate, subcylindric, chocolate-brown; antennae and legs red.

Head subquadrate, clypeus truncate, diagonally impressed at front corners;
frontal surface with flattish pustules, sides raised, eyes moderately prominent;
antennae: 1 and 2 stout, 3-9 small and close, 10-11 forming a large, loose club.
Prothorax longer than wide, as wide as head at eyes; parallel, apex with discal
part carinate and subtruncate, front angles subacute, lightly advanced, hind
angles subrectangular, lateral margins convex between two narrow carinae, base
with discal part carinate and lightly produced backward; disk with six subparallel
and lightly raised costae (besides the two lateral), the 1st and 3rd (from middle)
continuous with apical and basal carinae, the 2nd not meeting either, the two
innermost lightly diverging in front and behind, interspaces irregularly rugose-
pustulose. Scutellum oval; a sutural excavation behind it. Hlytra parallel,
searcely wider than prothorax, each with 4 costae, the Ist (sutural) meeting
2nd at apex, 3rd and 4th not extending to apex; between each pair of costae a
double row of large square punctures; the sutural costae lightly diverging behind
scutellum, leaving room for a short extra row of punctures. No defined antennal
sulcus, but antennae when at rest partly contained in hollow inside eye. Dim.—
4 mm. long.

Hab.—Western Australia: Mount Barker (A. M. Lea); Tasmania: Launceston
(British Museum).

Two examples, in the South Australian Museum and the British Museum
respectively, show an ally of B. cylindrica in form, but differ in colour and in the
less deeply sculptured pronotum, the costae being clearly separated and parallel,
besides other differences noted above. Holotype in S. Australian Museum.

BITOMA PUTEOLATA, nh. Sp. Plate viii, fig. 12.
Short, oblong, castaneous; pronotal costae edged with black.

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 185

Head subquadrate and concave, with a triangular clypeal area raised, the
lateral margins sharply carinate, surface finely granulose; antennae: basal segment
hidden, 2 and 3 longer than 4, 4-8 close, 9 wider than 8, 10-11 forming a stout
club, 10 lunate, 11 round. Prothorar: apex strongly sinuate, the medial discal
margin with a concavity, the front angles lightly advanced and subacute, base
with medial lobe forming a short rectangle behind the hind angles; widest in
front, sides feebly arcuate, narrowed from apex to base, foliate margins sub-
horizontal, below the plane of disk, extreme margins crenulate; disk quadri-
costate, the two interior costae sinuately widened at middle, narrowed at base
and apex, two exterior costae straight, rounded in front to meet interior costae,
at base the interior costae turn outwards to meet the exterior; medial area deeply
excavated, with a double row of rugose punctures on each side of excavation, the
intercostal spaces and foliate margins also rugose-punctate. Hlytra wider than
prothorax at base, sides subparallel, feebly widened behind middle; each with
three sharp costae besides the less raised sutural margins; interspaces with a
double row of large, round punctures. Prosternum densely punctate; metasternum
finely setose, abdomen minutely granulose-setose. Dim.—2% mm. long.

Hab.—Queensland National Park, MacPherson Range.

Two examples are remarkable for the deeply pitted pronotum. MHolotype in
the Queensland Museum.

SYNAGATHIS, nov. gen. Synchitinorum.

Oblong, moderately convex; eyes large and prominent, palpi simple, pointed
at apex, mentum transverse; antennae stout, 1l-articulate, biclavate, 10th and
11th segments large and loosely connected. Tibiae, triangularly enlarged at apex,
with small apical spine. Antennal sulcus scarcely defined. All coxae approximate,
post intercoxal process triangular. Prothorax with lateral margins crenulate, disk
formed by two rounded costae enclosing two dumb-bell-like impressions. Elytra
parallel, striate-punctate.

A genus near Bitoma.

SYNAGATHIS KAURICOLA, n. sp. Plate viii, fig. 5.

Oblong; prothorax lightly, elytra more strongly convex, above and below red,
glabrous and nitid, cavities of pronotum partly black.

Head subquadrate, clypeus semicircular, surface uneven, with large, irregularly-
placed punctures; sides raised behind eyes and hollowed within the lateral
ridges; antennae stout, 1 hidden, 2-3 rather tumid, 2 larger than 3, 4-9 moniliform,
close, lightly, successively enlarged, 10-11 forming a loose club, 10 wider than 11.
Prothorax subquadrate, subtruncate at apex and base, sides, in general, nearly
straight (in one example the right-hand side is irregularly incurved near the
middle), margins regularly crenulate, anterior angles rounded off, posterior sub-
rectangular a little blunted at tip; disk on higher plane than margins, with
rounded, rib-like lateral costae, rounded in front, produced behind beyond margins,
with blunted rectangular hind-angles; medial area occupied by two dumb-bell-like
impressions, with deep arcuate cavities, a small, granulose ridge within the sub-
lateral cavities connected with lateral costae. Scutellum globular; a triangular
area hollowed out behind it. Elytra little wider than prothorax, sides parallel,
apices conjointly rounded; striate-punctate, a double row of deep punctures between
subcostate intervals, four on each, including raised suture. Underside lightly,
sparsely punctate. Dim.—3 mm. long.

Hab.—N. Queensland (C. French Junr.).

186 - AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

Three examples from the South Australian Museum bear a label “Under bark
of Kauri logs from Cairns, at Melbourne. C-F.Jr.” A second label, in the hand-
writing of the late A. M. Lea, states: “Queensland. C. French Jr. obtained in Q.
logs at Melbourne”. The Queensland Kauri (Agathis robusta) suggests the generic
name. Holotype.in the South Australian Museum.

LARINOTUS, n. gen. Synchitinorum.

Head wide; antennae apparently 10-11 segmented, triclavate; antennal sulci
distinct. Body short, stout, oblong, strongly convex laterally, pilose; all coxae
moderately close; anterior acetabula closed.

An anomalous genus, in form suggestive of Cicones and its allies, but with
wider head and different antennae.

LARINOTUS UMBILICATUS, nN. sp. Plate viii, fig. 12; Text-fig. A.
Oblong, transversely convex; subnitid brown to black above, nitid black
beneath, palpi, antennae and tarsi red; strongly pilose.

' Head subvertical, clothed with rough derm, setose, clypeus subtruncate, eyes
large and prominent; antennae: basal segment very stout, 2 smaller, oval, 3-7
small, close and round, 8-10 forming a robust, compact club. Prothorax strongly
transverse, medial lobe produced over head, anterior angles obtuse, not prominent;
widest behind middle, sides lightly rounded, foliate margins obliquely depressed,
border crenulate, disk closely covered with rounded pustules, each bearing a
long, upright hair, some coarser hair on front border. Scutellum transverse, oval,
pustuliform. Hlytra wider than prothorax at base, sides sub-parallel, whole -

Text-figure A.—Larinotus wmbilicatus: 1st, 2nd and 3rd tarsus drawn from micro-slide.
Details of claw attachments and setae omitted.

surface with longitudinal series of umbilicate pustules, with signs of striae
connecting these; each pustule with a small puncture bearing a pale, upright
hair; those on medial region sparse or abraded, longer and more evident laterally.
Anterior coxal cavities closed behind, mandibles bifid, maxillary palpi with last
segment ovate-acuminate: antennal suleus short. Prosternum rugose-foveate-
punctate; anterior coxae widely separate; mesosternum and episterna with coarse
punctures; metasternum with deep oval sulcus in middle; post coxae rather close,
its process rhomboidal, abdomen with scratch-like markings, clad with long hairs;
tibiae with short apical spur, tarsi (post) with first 3 segments short and subequal.

Hab.—N. S. Wales: Dorrigo (W. Heron). Two examples. We can not make
out more than 10 segments to the antennae. Its 3-segmented club, short tibial
spurs and other details suggest its position. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

BY H. J- CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 187

SPARACTUS Hr.

Illestus Pase. (vide Blackb., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1902, p. 315).

The Australian species are singularly varied in size and form, elongatus
Blkb. being more than twice the size of interruptus Er., while pustulosus Blkb.
might well be generically separated. Lacordaire’s tabulation of the genera would
place elongatus under Pristoderus Hope, a genus now placed as a synonym of
Ulonotus and sufficiently distinguished from Sparactus by the form of the head.
Two new species are added below to the five recorded by Junk. The following
will help to separate the species:

Sparactus Er.

imViarainsTofsprothorax divided) (Gobate)) ar aseciacieriote loci) sie cbse. ie pustulosus Blkb.
MarcinsnorepLothonaxnotidividedum nye tuce icici eileen cistciisiclonsiedencieleremeneie 2
2 SIZ CMA TENN DMT LON Sy) lie a uci wa asm a ahada easet sie chest exchehans iansiuete elongatus Blkb.
SZ SaeSTVa hl Cre ierreg cog. ey nesee aay cerae pee asi ee gee proce treet aac vione vole A exdgoain Ceemuens eee essnen shaw enie ge teviogs 3
Salvin avmwlchinCOStates INtEnValSy rect cus Gee ee ere awemeicl «Ran se chin eMeekaieiene ci iemeie ei cimelioeteltenettons 4
Miyvtramwilthivnodulose datermviail Sass) eae neae te euece ea cieeuerh Rtey uy cheuragetolicr bboy ae ieiioars fey/ebrciaadl saleuebe ts 5
Ameya Chisels tromawathy iv COStAl unos ce. ccd cant spree eee oe Meher iver ein es cusutebenrcits productus Reit.
Each elytron with 2 costae and a row of granules ............ queenslandicus, n. sp.
See Marcinsnoroprothoraxsanucha widened at: apexamiy ce aortic tciereiee ier sksltet sted clte) <itepen siete 6
Margins of prothorax little widened at apex ........................ proximus Blkb.
6. Elytra lightly convex, punctate between nodules .................... interruptus Er.
Elytra strongly convex, granulose between nodules .................... leai, nN. sp.

Synonymy: S. interruptus Er. = growvellei Reitt.
S. productus Reitt. = costatus Blkb.

SPARACTUS LEAI, Nn. sp. Plate viii, fig. 6.

Ovate; dark brown above, appendages and underside red.

Head subquadrate, slightly widened in front of eyes, and with a pronounced
latero-basal tubercle above the eyes, surface granulose, antennae as in the common
S. interruptus Er. Prothorax convex, widest in front, the apex strongly bisinuate,
acutely and obliquely produced at the angles, also produced strongly in middle,
sides arcuately narrowed and concave to base and rather irregularly crenulated by
blunt pustules; hind angles acute and pointing outward, base strongly bisinuate,
the medial lobe widely arched; disk strongly raised by ridges forming four sides
of a hexagon, with an elongate depression at middle, narrowed in front to form a
wide open sulcus and meeting near base, the ridges here again bifurcating triangu-
larly to base; whole surface strongly granulose. Hlytra convex, much wider
than prothorax at base, shoulders rather square, slightly widened behind middle,
each with rows of elongate nodules, the first row containing three, of equal length,
the basal one extending to front margin; the second row with 3 or 4 shorter
nodules, the third row, extending from the shoulders, forming more or less a
subcontinuous costa, the suture little raised. Between the rows are two lines of
seriate granules, alternating with depressions simulating punctures. Pro- and
meta-sternum also finely granulose and very sparsely pubescent. Dim.—3 mm.
long.

Hab.—North Queensland: Cairns district (A. M. Lea).

Several examples, taken by the late eminent entomologist, are in the collection
of Colydiidae sent from the South Australian Museum. The species is of the
S. interruptus type, but differs in (1) its much more convex form, (2) the more
defined sculpture of prothorax, (3) the pronounced nodule above eyes, (4) different
elytral sculpture. Holotype, marked on card of series of 6, in South Australian
Museum.

[N.B.—S. interruptus HEyr., described as from Tasmania, occurs commonly in
all the States on the mainland of Australia.—H.J.C.]

188 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,
SPARACTUS QUEENSLANDICUS, n. sp. Plate viii, fig. 2.

Opaque; brownish-black above, underside and appendages red.

Head quadrate, sides with raised parallel ridges, surface finely pustulose-
punctate, antennae stout, club formed by two transverse cup-shaped segments and
a large oval terminal one. Prothorax widest at front, anterior angles lightly
produced, subacute, sides arcuately narrower from apex to base; base feebly
bisinuate, hind angles widely obtuse, foliate margins serrulate; disk with a
rounded (sub-rhomboidal) depression at middle, bounded by obscure ridges, these
narrowed to meet apex and base in subparallel lines, the basal pair narrower
than apical. Hlytra seriate-punctate, the seriate punctures large, round and
regular, with three equidistant intervals slightly raised above the rest, at extreme
base becoming short costae, also a little prominent on apical declivity, the two
intervals nearest suture formed by rows of granules. Prosternum transversely
rugose, the rest of underside finely granulose; prosternum with a small process
jutting beyond the coxae. Dim.—4-5 x 13-2 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Yeppoon (H. J. Carter).

Two examples taken under bark, in October, 1924 (H.J.C.). By Lacordaire’s
table the species should be a Pristoderus, but it is, we consider, congeneric with
S. elongatus Blkb. and NS. proximus Blkb. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

PHORMESA Pasc. :

In this genus the antennal sulcus is well defined. Thus in P. prolata Pasc.
it is emphasized by a ridge which follows its internal border for some distance.
In repose the antennae lie along this, the apical club being folded horizontally
at base of head.

[I think I know all the recorded species from Australia (except P. thoracica
Blkb.), together with two others, prolata Pasc. and lunaris Pasc. that were
described from Malaya or New Guinea.—H.J.C. ]

The only species that corresponds, in dimensions, to thoracica amongst
Australian species, is prolata Pasc., but this is more strongly sculptured than .
torrida Blkb., with the posterior angle of prothorax acute, both characters incon-
sistent with Blackburn’s notes. We are thus compelled to omit P. thoracica from
our table.

P. prolata Pase. is very common in the Cairns district. [I have seen many
examples in the various collections.—H.J.C.]

P. lunaris Pase.—A single example from Cairns is hypothetically determined
for a species, in the South Australian Museum, that is of a pale ferruginous colour,
of wide form, with discal costae little developed and an undefined pattern on the
elytra that may be the “semi-lunar band” of the author.

The distinction between Microprius Grouv. and Phormesa Pase. seems so
tenuous as to require justification. We have not been able to find this distinction
classified. Grouvelle does not include Phormesa among the Colydiidae of the
Indian Region, while Sharp does not include it among the Colydiidae of Ceylon
or Japan; yet he erected a new genus Jrionus which, by figure and description,
appears inseparable from Phormesa, but is placed under Microprius in the Junk
Catalogue. Three examples from Cairns, in the material before us, that corres-
pond with the excellent figure of Trionus opacus Shrp. are included in the following
table, together with two new species.

Table of Phormesa Pasc.
Ll; Upper. surface warierated (ore MaACcuUlatey Fj. ctaic o.cietecacievtieheue Gh escuela Nome: eke ceae mateaC 2
Upper surface: CONCOLOrOUS! © dais sesielshe te ro csg plolies Hs (a) hla is somecal ten custemeueeelol chem enews ree tor Reutaee een 9
2. Elytral markings more or less fasciate
Elytral markings with maculae

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 189

3. Sides of prothorax well rounded, form wide ................+-.0000- lunaris Pasc.
Sides of prothorax nearly straight, form marrow ..............20+2sceeevccrecs 4

4, Elytra largely occupied by two red fasciae ..................... carpentariae Blkb.
Elytra chiefly dark, with vague, transverse maculae ................ torrida Blkp.

Hee readuwith lAteralelobe: 275 We saa cetain settee cist eh aitetelalcteln le: ad: atone Susie acts Slayeite cha suadedglelsrelare 6
Ie AGe with oultySUcheslO be maria ae eek ee eerie a nearer ey See capp eh Spee PPT Acca gale 7
GueEslytralmapices produced) (sublobate) iy weenie ciel: eins oie eee) eae tele) eos caudata, n. sp.
lV trale AVLCESMTONIMA MT fo ocsncrsicrc on seclew steno een sy casein ere ey enel Sley. > falas tiepeiiete, eit uel ons parva Blkb.

7. Prothorax widest at base, thence arcuately narrowed to apex ........ prolata Pasc.
Sidesmot prothoraxan Canby S&ral chiar ware rr ire nen neh met ene neircisraiee sits cheat ou cnenen siete te 8

SMP rothoraxsnwildestwa tap ex ies varias Pt nen aie wt wseel bit arpa on cian aw ttsms (ier Srch-cl eye flake hilaris Blkhb.
IProthorass widest atid QLeSy ye vey ccs yepencnewokosicsu Meph ae wou e testsie sas es sidevin usher cosa ietyene notata, n. sp.

9. Pronotum with four strong costae, with other elevations .................... 10
Pronotum with two moderate costae and rudiments of two others, without other
CLEVAGLOTISH Fe act teas, tk aeons aay aCe ceredays MAN Me) iltveliotian ccchebay ie vob crtetiete fell toigs epitheca Oll.

10. Sides of prothorax rounded, elytral intervals granulose .......... growvellei BlkKb.

Sides of prothorax nearly straight, elytral intervals cancellate-punctate ............
eae V Mera etc Ne ae aN aL CER Wee Retire (akeus: ch shay or eee OMe RRP a Mek eae aus aaits (Trionus) opacus (?) Shrp.
Synonymy: ? Phormesa (Holopleuridia) imperialis Reitt. = P. torrida Blkb.

P. prolata Pase. = P. heros Pase. = P. varia Pasc.

PHORMESA (?) CAUDATA, n. Sp. Plate viii, fig. 8.

Narrowly oblong, attenuate at apex; subnitid brownish-black, raised parts
piceous, antennae and legs, also margins of thorax, red, elytra with pale spots.

Head elongate-subrectangular, asperate from its scaly hirsute clothing, lateral
margins raised, eyes prominent, a lobate process protruding beyond hind half of
eyes; antennae: basal segment hidden, 2 thicker than 3; 3-8 small, closely set;
9 rather larger than 8, 10-11 forming a club, 11 much smaller than 10. Prothoraz
subquadrate, discal area roundly produced and raised at apex, merely produced
at base; anterior angles lightly advanced, rounded at tips, the posterior sharply
rectangular. The horizontal foliate margins on a lower plane than disk, and
slightly enlarged in front, its margins nearly straight, and sharply serrated. Disk
with costate lines forming an oval ‘plaque’ from apex to basal fourth. From
here two short costae form a basal triangle, the exterior margin of disk also
marked by crenulate costae, more or less parallel to the foliate margins, but
narrowed and rounded at apex. Elytra slightly wider than prothorax, narrowed,
sublobate and separately rounded at apex; each with four strong costae, besides
the less raised sutural margins, the latter diverging to form a narrow triangle
near scutellum; the costae crenulated by deeply impressed punctures on each side,
the exterior costa forming a sharply serrated margin, depressed intervals with a
variable number of testaceous spots (in the most clearly marked example two on
the sutural, four on each of the two succeeding intervals). Dim.—23-3 mm. long.

Hab.—Adelaide (Sharp Coll.), also Pascoe Coll. without locality label.

Four examples examined are among the British Museum examples sent. It
is clearly allied to P. (Bitoma) parva Blkb. by antennal structure and the lobate
process at base of eye, but also clearly separated from that species by the curious
apical structure, narrow form, and spotted elytra. There is a distinct antennal
sulcus. Holotype in the British Museum.

N.B.—The distinction between Microprius, Trionus and Phormesa seems to
be very finely drawn. Trionus has been already merged with Microprius in the
Junk Catalogue.

PHORMESA NOTATA, nN. sp. Plate viii, fig. 11.

Oblong-ovate; dark brown, clypeus, foliate margins of prothorax and appen-
dages red. Elytra with testaceous spots.

190 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAER,

Head flat and subquadrate, minutely granulose and sparsely pubescent;
antennae: segments 1 and 2 wide, evident from above, 3-9 moniliform and close,
9 slightly larger than 8, 10 and 11 forming a stout club. Prothorax strongly
transverse, apex bisinuate, front angles advanced and acute, the medial part well
advanced, sides nearly straight, arcuately narrowed to both angles, posterior
angle obtuse, base lightly bisinuate; foliate margins rather wide, extreme border
minutely crenulate, disk lightly convex with a medial round, concave lozenge,
bounded by vaguely raised lines, open in front and behind, the lines in front
parallel, those behind approximate and parallel for a short way, then diverging
to the base, the hinder lines forming two smaller loops at the base of the medial
lozenge; sides of disk limited by sinuate costae, having a wide re-entrant angle
at the middle; general surface asperate and subopaque, very minutely granulose.
Elytra slightly wider than prothorax, each with the suture and three other
intervals costate, the sutural costa divaricate behind the scutellum; between the
costae two rows of punctures, having two elongate maculae, somewhat variable
in number but placed on the intercostal spaces as follows (in a well-marked
example): on subsutural interval one at middle, another near apex; on 2nd
interval one on apical and basal third respectively; on 3rd interval one in advance
of those on 2nd interval; on 4th interval one slightly behind those on 3rd. Under-
side opaque and almost impunctate, a few small punctures on prosternum.
Dim.—4-5 mm. long.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Kindee (H. J. Carter), Sydney (Dr. K. K. Spence), Richmond
R. (in Brit. Mus.), Bogan R. (J. Armstrong); Queensland: Cairns (A. M. Lea),
Goodna (F. E. Wilson); N.-W. Aust. (in National Museum).

Nineteen examples before us are allies of P. torrida Blkb., from which it
differs by its much less strongly sculptured thorax and elytra, with a somewhat
similar pattern; also, in torrida the red marks on elytra are _ subfasciate.
P. prolata Pase. is a larger species with strongly raised ridges and vaguely
maculate elytra; P. hilaris Blkb. is a narrower species in which the maculae are
round and red and the pronotum without a defined pattern. Holotype in Coll.
Carter.

Var.—The single example from N.-W. Aust. is almost black, more nitid, and
with fewer maculae than in other examples, but is clearly conspecific.

PHORMINX, nov. gen. Synchitinorum.

Oblong-obovate; surface asperate and opaque, with thick derm, scale-like hairs
and granules. Eyes not prominent. Antennae 1l-articulate, the two apical
segments forming a large, compact club. Antennal sulcus well defined. All coxae
approximate, legs stout, tibiae rounded, not greatly enlarged at apex, without
apical spur. Prothorax very convex, foliate margins irregularly serrate, disk with
two irregular, longitudinal ridges. Elytra somewhat violin-shaped, with numerous
costae irregular in length.

A genus perhaps nearest Phormesa, with a unique sculpture.

PHORMINX LYRATA, nN. Sp. Plate viii, fig. 9.

Oblong-obovate; opaque chocolate-brown; antennae, tarsi, margins of prothorax
and the depressed parts of elytra red.

Head subquadrate, clypeus subtruncate; surface granulose; antennal segments
1-2 stout (1 unseen from above), 3-9 subequal, 10-11 forming a stout club.
Prothoraz convex, especially towards apex. Apex moderately bisinuate, angles
slightly advanced and directed diagonally outward, base rather strongly produced
backward in the middle, the obtuse posterior angles considerably in advance of

BY H. J. CARTER AND E.-H. ZECK. 191

the medial lobe; sides subparallel, deeply, irregularly serrated, with about 5 or 6
teeth of variable width; foliate margins moderately wide and horizontal; disk
uneven and convex, medial area with two confusedly arcuate ridges with elongate
depression between them on apical half, approximate and parallel on basal third,
again bifurcating to form a triangle at base; surface irregularly granulose. Hlytra
somewhat compressed at middle, widened at shoulders and, more strongly so,
behind; with 6 short costae on basal fourth, the exterior one following the
squarish humeral curve, the interior one extending from base to basal fourth
and strongly raised on its hinder part; between the two former a short, less
evident costa near base; two arcuate costae near the exterior of convex portion
of elytra, extending from behind the basal costae and terminating in a prominent
ridge on apical declivity; another pair of short, prominent ridges on apical
declivity, half-way between suture and exterior ridge; suture lightly raised;
general surface with series of large punctures separated by transverse rugosities
with some granules here and there. Underside scabrous and impunctate;
abdominal segments of equal width. Dim.—3-8—5 mm. long.

Hab.—N.S.W.: Williams River (Lea and Wilson) in Coll. Wilson, Dalmorton
and Wollongong (A. M. Lea) in S.A. Mus., Raymond Terrace (J. Armstrong) ;
Queensland: Tambourine Mt., Nanango, and Maleny (H. Hacker).

Fourteen examples examined deserve generic distinction by their unusual
sculpture. Holotype in Coll. Wilson (his specimens being in perfect condition).

BuPpALA AUSTRALIS, nh. sp. Plate viii, fig. 3.

Oblong, convex; reddish-brown above, with short, white, scaly bristles, under-
side darker.

Head subquadrate, subvertically placed, eyes large, rather prominent, surface
dotted with fine, white scales; antennae 10-articulate, two basal segments stout,
3-8 equal and close, 9 slightly larger than 8, 10 forming a large round club.
Prothorax widest at base, thence lightly narrowed to apex; discal part of apex
produced over head, the angles emarginate, subacute (blunt at tips), base arcuately
produced backward, post angles obtuse and slightly rounded, sides nearly straight,
margins subfoliate, the foliation only evident near front, extreme border finely
serrate and ciliate; disk convex, with a feeble depression near middle, surface
everywhere with short, pale, scaly bristles. Hlytra of same width as prothorax,
with about 10 rows of ill-defined punctures, separated by narrow lines of closely
set, scaly bristles (Somewhat as in Colobicus parilis Pasc., but more uniform).
Underside subglabrous, opaque; prosternum asperate, margins with fine, transverse
rugae, rest of underside smooth. Tibiae with short apical spines. Penultimate
segment of abdomen about half as long as each of the preceding. Dim.—4 x 1-5 mm.

Hab.—Queensland: Tambourine Mt. (H. Pottinger).

There is no evidence of an 11th antennal segment. Holotype in the Queenslana
Museum.

BUPALA FASCIATA, nh. sp. Plate ix, fig. 13.

Shortly oblong-ovate; head, except clypeus, and pronotum dull black. Elytra
black with shoulder spot, postmedial fascia and an interrupted preapical fascia
red, clypeus, underside and appendages red; upper surface clothed with white
scaly bristles.

Head subquadrate, sides straight, surface with short white recumbent scale-
like hair; antennae short, basal segment invisible from above, 10-11 of the typical
form (i.e., 11th inconspicuous). Prothorax transverse, wider than usual, base
roundly advanced in middle, all angles rounded off, sides nearly straight, the

192 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

marginal serrulations partly concealed by scaly hairs; base a little produced
backwards; disk asperate, without evident punctures, subrecumbent hairs chiefly
obvious on apical half. Hlytra convex, ovate, slightly wider than prothorax at
base; seriate-punctate, the seriate punctures large, the series separated by very
narrowly raised lines on which are scale-like hairs, the scaly clothing more
upright than on head and pronotum. Dim.—2 mm. long.

Hab.—N. S. Wales: Bogan River (J. Armstrong).

We have seen only one example of this little species. It is relatively wider
than dentata Blkb., with an unmistakable colour pattern that should render it
easy to recognize. Holotype in Coll. Carter.

BUPALA VARIEGATA, nN. sp. Plate viii, fig. 10.

Shortly oblong-ovate; head and pronotum piceous, elytra piceous, largely
variegated with testaceous; margins of prothorax, underside and appendages red;
upper surface with white bristly hairs, more or less recumbent on head and
thorax, forming series on elytral intervals.

Head subquadrate, clypeus rounded, eyes prominent, antennae short, basal
segment unseen from above, 2 wider than 3, 3-9 small and close, 10-11 of
typical form, 11 large and round. Prothorax transverse, base bisinuate, the medial
area and anterior angles lightly advanced, the latter subacute; base widely
produced backwards, posterior angles subrectangular, sides nearly straight,
marginal serrulations emphasized by bristles, foliate margins scarcely defined;
disk very lightly convex, scabrous and thickly clothed with bristles, save on a
few denuded areas, aS on two round depressions near base. Elytra slightly
wider than prothorax at base, widest behind middle; seriate-punctate, the seriate
punctures large and round, the series separated by thin lines bearing subrecumbent
white scaly bristles. The testaceous markings occupying a considerable area,
consisting of a large medial subquadrate patch sending off four oblique branches
from its corners, to the shoulders and the apical declivity respectively and an
arcuate subapical fascia. Dim.—2 mm. long.

Hab.—N. Queensland: Cairns district (A. M. Lea).

A single example in the South Australian Museum is similar in form to
B. fasciata, but is quite distinctively patterned as above. Holotype in South
Australian Museum.

The three Australian species of Bupala may be distinguished as follows:

AF SOM COLGEOUSMH ens ees Sore ees oe Ae mee Ree en Slat bl aitetes, cues ycul es, Suen cS ae ree ent australis, n. sp.
More sor lessivarniecated ion area cidners Wiebe ofthe Greleeb aia at aa cyan ayore muse ein chotaiak otal cheat eeemcaeas 2
Tae Black -selytirale tasciaesandsniumeralyspotece duran ieee eine nerene fasciata, n. sp.
Piceous; elytra widely variegated with testaceous .................. variegata, n. sp.

We do not know B. pullata Pase. from Saylee, or B. elongata Grouv. from
Sumatra.

Note.—The question of the generic distinction of Bupala from Synchita needs
consideration, but in the absence of material of this Europo-American group its
discussion cannot be undertaken here.

Bupala perforata Blkb. = B. dentata Blkb. (PI. ix, fig. 20; Text-fig. B).—This
species cannot be retained in this genus, having the tarsal formula 3-3-3. Both
were described from Adelaide and the same dimensions were given for both. Mr.
Blair has taken much trouble in comparing examples with the types, which have
been placed in the British Museum as synonymous. He writes: “though dentata
is smaller, with the hairs of the elytra a little longer and the thorax slightly
sinuate at the sides, I do not regard them as specifically distinct”. We now
propose the generic name Pabula for this. Since the Colydiidae already contain

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 193

tri-tarsal forms (e.g., Langelandia and the New Zealand genus Lithostygnus),
we consider that it is still a member of this family, the cephalic and antennal
structure being obviously Colydiid.

PABULA, nov. gen. Synchitinorum (?).

Tarsal formula 3-3-3. Other distinctions from Bupala Pase.: (1) Head with
postocular tooth, as noted by Blackburn in B. dentata only; (2) longer and more
slender antennae; (3) narrower form, the prothorax widened at apex; (4) elytra
with large, round, seriate punctures; sparsely pubescent.

Bupala bovilli Blkb.—This also must be included under Pabula, since the tarsi
are also 3-3-3. Mr. Blair has kindly sent an example from Port Darwin, compared
with type. This was very dirty but, when cleaned, it showed an extremely close

B

Text-fig. B.—Pabula dentata: 1st, 2nd and 3rd tarsus drawn from _ micro-slide.
Details of claw attachments and setae omitted.

likeness to perforata [so close indeed that Zeck stated that he would be unable to
bring out any distinction in a drawing, except the absence of the small tooth behind
the eye]. There is, however, a small pustule very close to the base. We note,
also, slight differences in sculpture, the Port Darwin insect having the pustules
of pronotum and of elytral intervals more obvious than the punctures, the reverse
being the case in perforata. Until more material is available, bovilli may be
considered as specifically distinct, as follows:

Headmwithwsmallelateraletoothmatpasemotsey.ecmemreicrieiieicicreieienl nich east nacicncicnenereicrisneiceeneneiene

enteh ey race uienra apie Was eerisy eniesstsstioerer op ey Seen urha be? sites perforata Blkb.; dentata Blkb. (PI. ix, fig. 20)
EAC mWwilthoutslaterallecoounee-myncrpecirates cheer cic tesieie ior chcle sit cp aenshetcr enor bovilli Blkb.

Cepia Pasce.

We have not seen an authoritatively named example of this genus. A compara-
tively common species of wide distribution in Hastern Australia seems to corres-
pond with the description of C. scabrosa Reitt. from Cape York. Dr. Walther
Horn has very kindly attempted to track the elusive type of this, but so far in
vain. It is not in the Stettin Museum or Berlin Museum. Another species from
New Guinea, in the latter Museum, may be C. rugosa Pasc. The three species
described here may be tabulated as follows:

i, Colour lnbhels Gihaies, Witla Gel PRWEAN Gon poco sn con acvoucacnnebance rufo-notata, n. sp.
CS OLOUMEMEUSCOUS ee ayer eee eR erro aan oe Fee atsitas ROT ee sic egish se Filey loco tee ae el eayatie ysUevratientener emedawewe sate ce 2
7, Inhnoe, yarn Bloooks, 10) Shlosockiiey wenn oo codccceocondodudno0uaccd tumulosa, n. sp.

IK AGrA, Kel ooiabioracnlky fAeNMMOSS .ohooadabosoncunubcneucobeadobusse communis, N. Sp.

194 ‘AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

Eba cerylonoides Pasc. = Palorus exilis Mars. (Tenebrionidae) = P. minor
Waterh. (fide K. G. Blair).
Pseudeba novica Blkb. = Palorus eutermiphilus Lea (Tenebrionidae).—A

cotype of Pseudeba novica Blkb. from the South Australian Museum exactly
corresponds with a cotype of Palorus eutermiphilus Lea in Coll. Carter. (Curiously
we had noted this synonymy before receiving Mr. Blair’s note on Hba). -

CEBIA COMMUNIS, Nl. sp.

Narrowly oblong; variably fuscous (often with reddish patches on the elytra),
antennae and legs red.

Head subquadrate, granulose, clypeus arcuate, eyes not prominent, terminal
segments of palpi oval; antennae: basal segment hidden from above, 1-2 wide,
3 longer than 4, 4-8 subequal, 9 larger than 8, 10-11 forming an abruptly widened
club. Prothorax: base arcuately advanced in middle, anterior angles acutely
produced, sides nearly straight, with a narrow foliation, widening in front,
strongly fringed at border with scaly bristles, base lightly produced backward in
middle, hind angles subrectangular, disk subdepressed, variably canaliculate, in
general medial line lightly impressed throughout; rather closely scalose-granulose
with pale, scaly bristles. Hlytra of same width as prothorax at base, subparallel,
striate-punctate, the punctures almost hidden by granulose, bristly clothing of
the lightly-raised intervals, the coarser granules near suture giving the appearance
of transverse rugae. Under-surface closely granulose, tibiae not evidently spined
at apex. Dim.— 3-5 mm. long.

Hab.—Hastern Australia, from N. Queensland to South Australia. Found in
nearly all collections; 52 examples have been examined; Cairns (Lea), Brisbane
(Hacker), Pine Mt. (Aust. Mus.), Tambourine Mt. (Lea), Clarence River (Lea),
Wahroonga (Carter and Spence), Sydney (Lea), Illawarra (Carter), Victoria
(Wilson and Blackburn), S. Australia (Macleay Mus.). ci

At first diagnosed as Cebia scabrosa Reitt. (described from “Cap York’), but
certain discrepancies suggest distinction: (a) Absence of reference to strongly
granulose prothorax; (0b) “elytris . . . interstitiis angustis, subrugosis”’; (c)
“humeris lateribusque indeterminate dilutioribus”’; (d@) locality. With regard to (b)
we have noted above “the appearance of transverse rugae’”’. With regard to (c)
we have noted “the occurrence of red patches’. The wide distribution of the
species discounts the value of locality. Thus there is an element of doubt, only
to be cleared by comparison with type. Unfortunately it has been difficult to find
the whereabouts of this. Our friend Dr. Horn writes that the type is not in the
Stettin Museum or the Berlin Museum, “Where the type might be now is very
doubtful as Reitter ... sold his collections a dozen times’”’.

CEBIA TUMULOSA, nn. sp. Plate ix, fig. 16.

Oblong, convex; chocolate-brown, antennae, legs and oral organs red.

Head granulose and scabrous with scaly hair, clypeus subtruncate, sides very
lightly raised and widened in front of eyes, these evident from above, medial
region divided from the sublobate sides by sulci; antennae with two basal segments
incrassate, 3-9 closely set, submoniliform, 10-11 forming a stout compact club.
Prothoraz: apex and base strongly bisinuate, both arcuately extended in the
middle, front angles well advanced and acute, sides nearly straight, their extreme
border fringed with scales, foliate margins continuous with and scarcely distin-
guished from disk; hind angles subrectangular, a little blunt at tips; disk every-
where scabrous and covered with bristly scaly clothing; medial line a variably
wide and deep depression, not extending to basal or apical border, these both

BY H. J. CARTER AND E.:H. ZECK. 195

defined by rather deep sulci. Scutellum triangular. Hlytra of same width as
prothorax, everywhere margined, like prothorax, with bristly. scales, surface
scabrous and uneven, through the symmetrically placed, low tumuli, sometimes
ill-defined, but in general consisting of about ten, of which two are sutural, the
others more or less in two rows, surface also striate-punctate where discernible
beneath clothing. Underside finely granulose, legs also fringed with fine scales,
tibiae with short terminal spine, basal tarsi short. Dim.—33-4 mm. long.

Hab.—Victoria: Millgrove and Warburton (F. HE. Wilson), Fernshaw and
Dandenong Ranges (in Nat. Mus.). In tussocks or moss.

Ten examples, six taken by that keen observer, F. E. Wilson, differ from the
species determined by us as OC. scabrosa Reitt. in the slightly wider form, the even
more roughly scabrous clothing, and the uneven surface of the elytra. Holotype
in Coll. Wilson.

CEBIA(?) RUFONOTATA, N. SD.

Oblong; head and disk of pronotum opaque black, elytra black with red
markings; foliate margins of prothorax, underside and appendages red.

Head subquadrate, clypeus rounded, sides straight, surface with recumbent
white scaly hairs. Eyes prominent; antennae: basal segment hidden, 2 stout, 10-11
clavate, 11 smaller and narrower than 10. Prothorax very lightly bisinuate,
medial region and angles feebly advanced, the latter subacute (blunt at tips); base
widely but little produced, posterior angles subrectangular, sides nearly straight,
foliate margins moderately wide, extreme border serrulate; disk convex, uniformly
and densely granulose. Hlytra rather wider than prothorax at base, sides nearly
straight, a little divergent to behind middle; seriate-punctate, the seriate punctures
moderately large and separated by light transverse ridges, the series separated by
narrow longitudinal intervals; the red markings as follows: four equidistant,
medial, patches—basal, medial, post-medial and apical; half-way between these
and sides three more, humeral, premedial and postmedial; extreme border with
line of short bristles. Dim.—2 mm. long.

Hab—Swan River (Lea).

Two examples in the South Australian Museum must, we think, be referred
to this genus. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

NEOTRICHUS ACANTHACOLLIS, n. sp. Plate ix, fig. 15.

Elongate, parallel; opaque black, antennae dark red.

Head subquadrate, granulose, clypeus truncate, sides with a row of small
blunt scales, terminating at the antennal orbits, and behind the eyes in triangular
teeth, eyes prominent; antennae: basal segment hidden, 2 stout, 3-9 moniliform,
10-11 forming a compact club. Prothorax: apex irregularly produced over head
and sub-bilobed from the extension of two divergent ridges, base rounded, sides
widening from base to front angles, strongly so near front, margins denticulate
with row of scales extending to the two anterior ridges, basal half with strong
medial depression; general surface strongly granulate, transversely rugose near
base. Hlytra parallel, basal third depressed, more convex behind this; seriate-
punctate, the intervals with rows of minute tubercles, becoming spicules on lateral
outline. Tibiae also with serrulate edges. Dim.—3 mm. long.

Hab.—N. S. Wales: Springwood, Blue Mts. (A. Smith).

A narrow species with head and thorax suggestive of Acantholophus
(Curculionidae). A single example given to us by Mr. J. Armstrong. Holotype
in Coll. Carter.

196 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

CoLosicus Latr.

Colobicus parilis Pase.—This species has a wide dispersion in northern
Australia. We have examples from Port Darwin, Cairns, Townsville and other
parts of N. Queensland; also from Moa Island (Torres Str.) and Honolulu
(Hawaii). Arrow records it from Damma Is., Ceram, Mysol, Timor, Lombok,
Batchian, Borneo, Andaman Is., Penang, Assam and Hong Kong.

ABLABUS Broun.

We have before us examples of all the recorded Australian species of this
genus, to which three new species are added. An example of Ditoma villosa Lea
has been compared with type and found to belong to this genus. The species may
be tabulated as follows:

Lee SICES Ot LO UNOLA TEMbIGe sees cies erat rere oko eRe al Si ee ea a IER TIE Rete TNE integricollis, n. sp.
Sides! OF “prothorax JOthWerwiSes, coors sche ais Cosas ie Glee eee ale sn 2
21 Sides, Of sprothorax \lobates fe her; Aiea eens Sea ys A Sis Bad il Bee eee ee 3
SIdESMO fs PEOENOTAK AS PIN OSE oi doce se sace ees sc ee eerste risk a fsa ePrW ONS MN SE US ERR ee 5
Sides Of -prothoraxs Serrwlate Me sc kare yas ence eae cs iad ae te se Neh cere) eas ORE eee ee 6
3. (‘Colour red: withidarks markings ya set ale steel sche: uote aes eae en IE a nee 4
Colour black, sides of prothorax trilobate ...................... tuberculatus, n. sp.

4. Sides of prothorax lobate anteriorly, posterior part serrate ..................0..00-
PON oe Oe Or RNC Ce ORE Or OST OOO Ot eID ED Mt ceo crcerroceO ero pulcher Blkb., Pl. ix, fig. 19

Sides of prothorax bilobate, with medial tooth ...................... mimus, nN. SD.
5. Sides trispinose, anterior spine sublobate; glabrous .............. blackburni Grouv.
Sides multispinose (about 9); surface pilose .......................... villosus Lea
6 Colounmmblacks sides vcoarselyg ISCrrace) pacino eiciee obscurus Blkb.
Colouceredisides sveryatinelyasernulates oan ca eerie ieee ice nic nivicola Blkb.

ABLABUS INTEGRICOLLIS, Nn. sp. Plate ix, fig. 21.

Ovate, convex; dark brown, appendages red.

Head: clypeus arcuate, sides with wide triangular lobe, slightly obliquely
raised, in front of eyes; surface minutely granulose, eyes round and prominent;
antennae with basal segments narrower than usual, 3-9 moniliform, 9 larger than
8, 10-11 forming a stout club. Prothorax: apex strongly advanced in middle and
slightly raised over head, angles strongly advanced and acute, widest near base,
sides widely rounded, foliate margins wide, border entire, hind angles quite
rounded off; base less strongly bisinuate than usual. Disk raised by two undulate
ridges, irregularly narrowed towards apex and base and forming an oval depres-
sion in middle, and a smaller oval at base, divided from medial oval by transverse
ridge. Whole surface finely granulose. Scutellum transversely triangular. Elytra
as wide as prothorax at its widest, ovate, with narrow horizontal margin, consider-
ably widened at shoulders and at apex, apices separately rounded; disk with three
rows of elongate nodules, the exterior of these consisting of two, the two inner
ones with about three in each, besides smaller tubercles at apex; whole surface
with series of larger granules and some undefined punctures. Dim.—4 mm. long.

Hab—Tasmania: Hobart (in British Museum).

A single example is amongst those sent for examination. Holotype in the
British Museum of Natural History.

ABLABUS MIMUS, n. sp. Plate ix, fig. 17.

Short, ovate, convex; red, base of head black.

Head widened in front of eyes, clypeus arcuate, forehead bipustulate, surface
sparsely clad with short white hair; antennae: basal segment hidden, 2 stout,
3-9 small and close, 10-11 forming a stout club. Prothorar very uneven and
convex, medial part of apex sub-bilobed through the extension of discal crest,

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 197

front angles well advanced, foliate margins in three parts, (1) a wide anterior,
securiform lobe, its border lightly triramose, (2) a medial triangular tooth, (3) a
short, narrow, posterior area with serrate border and a small rectangular hind
angle; the raised disk chiefly consisting of a medial depression bounded by
undulate ridges, these meeting near base and again diverging to form a small
triangle at base; surface finely granulose and sparsely pubescent. Hlytra consider-
ably wider than prothorax at base, margins strongly serrate, apices divergent and
sharply angulate; disk convex (concealing narrow margin, except near apex),
with ridges and tubercles. Of the former the more prominent enclose a pentagonal
area at base; small ridges at shoulders; of the tubercles, four elongate ones on
the 2nd interval, two at middle and two on apical declivity; exterior to these
about eight conical tubercles in alternating rows of four. General surface with
series of large, round punctures. Dim.—2-25 mm. long.

Hab.—N. Queensland: Cairns (Ferguson Coll., Canberra Museum).

Two carded examples form a curious mimic of A. pulcher Blkb. The chief
distinctions are: (1) size much smaller—about half as long, (2) foliate margins
with anterior lobe itself triramose at margin—entire in A. pulcher, (3) discal
ridges of pronotum, also ridges and pustules of elytra, similar in pattern but much
more strongly raised and occupying a relatively greater area than in A. pulcher.
Holotype in Canberra Museum.

ABLABUS TUBERCULATUS, n. Sp. Plate ix, fig. 18.

Oval, convex; subnitid black, the tarsi red, a fringe of white hair at apex of
prosternum and along femora, elytral tubercles capped with reddish hair.

Head: clypeus rounded, hollowed within, sides widened and raised into a
lobe in front of eyes, two nodules near base, eyes round and prominent, surface
strongly granulose; antennal segments 1-2 very stout, 3-9 submoniliform, 3 rather
longer than 4, 9 larger than 8, 10-11 forming a stout club. Prothorax: apex with
medial lobe advanced and strongly raised, with a slightly undulate outline, angles
also strongly advanced and acute, foliate sides trilobate, the first largest, hatchet-
shaped, the medial widely rounded with a horizontal base, the third lobe (much the
smallest) forming a wide triangular hind angle; base with medial lobe widely
rounded and produced backward. Disk strongly raised by two undulate ridges,
starting from the anterior lobe, rising to a tubercle midway, thence narrowing and
meeting near base to bifurcate again, forming a small triangle at base; medial
area depressed, forming an oval between tubercles and front lobe; whole surface
coarsely granulose. Scutellum subcircular. Hlytra as wide as prothorax at its
widest (the middle); ovate, very convex, each with three strong tubercles near
base, the humeral and the innermost of these forming short ridges to the basal
border, the middle one smaller and conical; these generally capped with a tuft
of short, reddish hair; the rest of elytra with three rows of large tubercles (here
and there showing traces of the hairy cap), the inner two rows containing three
each, the exterior (forming the margin as seen from above—the real margin
hidden) containing six at least, smaller tubercles on apical declivity; interspaces
with closely-set, rounded, large granules. Underside finely granulose, tibiae with
a short terminal spine, tarsal segments short and subequal. Dim.—3-4 mm. long.

Hab.—Tasmania: Frankford and Wilmot (A. M. Lea).

Six examples in the South Australian Museum show a very distinct member
of the genus, both by its sombre colour and striking sculpture. Holotype in the
S. Australian Museum.

198 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

ORTHOCERINI.
ORTHOCERUS Latr. (Sarrotrium Ill.).

O. (Sarrotrium) australis Blkb. is the only Known Australian species of this
genus. Four examples have been examined—three from the South Australian
Museum, labelled Hobart and Forest Reefs, N.S.W. (Lea), N.S.W. (in Blackburn’s
handwriting, probably co-type), and one in the National Museum, from Mt. Wilson,
N.S.W. (Carter). The “bright red” fascia, noted by the author, fades to a dull,
inconspicuous brown. It is fantastically like Latometus pubescens Hr. (Hlascus
crassicornis Pase.), so that a close examination of the tarsi is necessary to
distinguish them, though there is also a slight difference of elytral sculpture.
This similarity is carried even to the post-ocular tooth of the pronotum.

EPISTRANUS TIBIALIS, 0. sp. Plate ix, fig. 22.

Oval, very convex; subnitid black, depressed areas brown.

Head: labrum prominent, clypeus subtruncate (lightly incurved at middle),
hinder half of head with wide lateral lobe, partly concealing eyes, surface roughly
granulate; antennae rather long, segment 1 very wide, 2 elongate, piriform, 3
intermediate in size between 2 and 4, 4-9 subequal moniliform, 10-11 forming a
loose club. Prothorax very wide and convex, apex with strongly raised medial
lobe produced over head, its margins serrate and ciliate, the widely arched and
serrated foliate margins on a lower plane, anterior angles dentate, sides sinuate
near base, their border ciliate, posterior angles obtuse, base with discal part
produced backwards. Disk with two prominent ridges throughout, formed by
rows of close pustules, the ridges diverging anteriorly, a second and sinuate row
of pustules forming external ridge of discal area. Scutellum wanting. Hlytra
strongly convex, little longer than combined head and thorax, and as wide as
the latter, extreme border coarsely serrate, each tooth with a single scale-like
cilia; each with four irregular rows of rounded pustules, the sutural rows
diverging at base and terminating in larger pustules, corresponding with pro-
thoracie ridges, a second larger pair of pustules terminating the 3rd row; whole
surface coarsely rugose-punctate, with many large foveate punctures. All tibiae
ciliate, with wide triangular lobe .on external edges and fitted with grooves for
reception of tarsi; without apical spur. Underside remarkable for raised medial
area of head, prosternum and intercoxal region, leaving deep lateral hollows. On
head a deep antennal groove, the wide lateral hollow of prosternum receiving the
apical part of antennae and the anterior legs, intermediate and post tibiae
similarly received into hollows behind coxae. All coxae rather widely separated,
the post coxae more widely than the others. Front coxae closed. Apical segment
of palpi elongate-ovate, mentum transverse, subrectangular, with rounded angles.
Dim.—4 x 14 mm.

Hab.—Victoria: Lakes Entrance (F. EH. Wilson).

A single ¢ (aedeagus exposed) of this remarkable insect was taken by sifting
ieaf refuse. It follows closely Broun’s diagnosis of HWpistranus, a genus placed
under Coxelini, which is scarcely consistent with Grouvelle’s tabulation of that
group “cavités des hanches antérieures en partie ouvertes” (Soc. Ent. Fr., 1908,
p. 398). Holotype in Coll. Wilson.

Note.—No mention of a scutellum occurs in Sharp’s generic diagnosis, nor in
the descriptions of the five New Zealand species in Broun’s excellent manual.

PYCNOMERINI.

We have followed Pascoe in placing the species with 11-segmented antennae

under Penthelispa. Possibly Blackburn was technically correct in stating that

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 199

these formed the 1st group of Hrichson’s genus. Yet the distinction deserves a
special name, and time and custom are in favour of this retention of Penthelispa
tor the known Australian species. Of the nine names only four, we think, will
stand, i., fuliginosa EHr., interstitialis Blkb., blackburni Hetschko, and secuta
Pase. We do not know the second of these; the other three may be tabulated thus:

Table of Penthelispa Pasc.

Pe OUGE ACE ODAC ce erect ie feet in oe comel eens an MM Me sens utente. eee uametaer tells a Merensharciiatsielitiieren tis ener etemsrcie, 2
SHED CIE GYEY TOUT EKG Ln ies tala ea peek ok ae ere iee Cerise Sere Sarrrsees charac Pie er meal eect no CCR Parc As ee secuta Pasc.

%. Inihinieenl wreeyenis sien Ehool @ieEnAhy jobbCHENG® SocgooncudeuousuanoeobuoUS fuliginosa Er.
Hlytral. intervals convex and not clearly punctate .............. blackburni Hetsch.
Synonymy:

P. fuliginosa Er. = obscura Pasec. = robusticollis Blkb. (fide K. G. Blair).
P. blackburni Hetsch. = sulcicollis Blkb. (nom praeocce.).
P,. secuta Pasec. = polita Lea = picea Lea.

P. secuta is very widely distributed and variable in size and colour. P. robusti-
collis Blkb. alone of the Australian species has been freakishly placed under
Pycnomerus in the Junk Catalogue.

Gempylodes tmetus Oll. (misspelt ‘tinctus’ in the Junk Catalogue), described
from Lord Howe Island, is not rare on the mainland of Australia. [I have an
example from Dorrigo, N.S.W., and another from Millaa Millaa, N. Queensland.—
H.J.C.]

Todima Grouv.—The four species recorded are before us and may be tabulated
as follows:

(oneoOchonaxswidenedwanteriorl\vaeu acini iiees cementite cis ei cucele cieiene fulvicincta Elst.
iE LOthora xen otwidenedmamniterl orien a arcs suc peroeleroence ieee eminent cacnens Bete ener 2
2%, WWiIDTGP Gee CoOMmeEmlorOns (CEA) Sontoaoscoobvonunbodduocuoob dso mus fusca Grouv.
UIP PEuMSUTEACESMUC OO OMS Wicca baksnce sheadic: ou SS ess ek ue rey ate avecice ie Aspe honerauics mach Se neues ymeen Seo) ci Depene ets 3
3. Sides of prothorax and elytra yellow, seriate punctures small ........ lateralis Blkh.
Hlytra variably yellow, seriate punctures large ................0+.00. rufula Grouvy.

But for the striking difference in the size of the seriate punctures, at least
in the medial area, the last two species might be confused, since the colour seems
variable. My examples are localized as follows: fulvicincta Elst. (Mt. Remarkable,
South Australia), fusca Grouv. (Allyn River, N.S.W., and Mt. Barker, W.A.),
lateralis Blkb. (Myponga and other parts of S. Aust., Macleay River, N.S.W.),
rufula Grouv. (Beverley, W.A., and N. Queensland).

Meryx Latr.—The two species of this genus are so well known as to need
little comment, with the synonymy:

M. rugosa Latr. = areolata (Rhyssopera) Pase. = illota (Rhyssopera) Pasce.

DERETAPHRUS Newm.

The insects of this genus are moderately common, very widely distributed
over the continent, variable in size, and in colour from immaturity. It has been
dificult to initiate a clear tabulation of the genus since the genotype, D. fossus
Newm., is apparently missing. Of D. fossus Mr. K. G. Blair writes as follows:

“An example determined by C. O. Waterhouse, compared with the common
D. ignarus Pasc., has the pronotum more cordiform, with the anterior angle
clearly seen from above, the pronotal sulcus broader, almost double (wedge-
shaped), elytra with ist and 2nd intervals flat, 3rd feebly carinate (rather a
row of shining points than a carina, except at apex), 4th flat, 5th carinate,
6th traces of a carina near base and beyond middle, 7th carinate. D. ignarus
Pase. has the elytra dull, with all intervals, except 1st and 2nd, more or less
carinate, 4th and 6th less so and obsolete behind. The example determined
as fossus Newm, corresponds with Blackburn’s type of cordicollis,”

200 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

An example, labelled ‘fossus’ by Blackburn in the South Australian Museum,
is clearly ignarus Pase.

D. erichsoni Newm. and D. piceus Germ. are easily recognized, the former
by its cylindric form and ill-defined pronotal sulcus, the latter by its fine pronotal
sculpture.

In 1862 Pascoe described bakewelli, colydioides, ignarus and viduatus.

bakewelli = piceus Germ.—Pascoe himself only distinguished these in his table
by colour and size.

colydioides Pasc. is probably a small viduatus Pase. The other two are well
known and widely distributed. D. pascoei Macl. is clearly identical with ignarus
Pase.

In 1898, Lea described analis, parviceps, puncticollis and xanthorrhoeae. We
have not been able to identify parviceps from Western Australia. The other three
are quite distinct: analis by its large size, nitid and scarcely punctate pronotum
(found at Dorrigo, Queensland National Park and Southern Queensland) ;
puncticollis is rare in collections, from the interior of New South Wales and
South Australia. Its pronotum is crowded with coarse punctures, its sulcus only
vaguely defined; xanthorrhoeae Lea is from Western Australia, with a pronotal
sculpture intermediate between that of picews Germ. and ignarus (nearer the
former than the latter).

In 1903, Blackburn described eight species, aequaliceps, cordicollis, cribriceps,
gracilis, iridescens, popularis, sparsiceps and thoracicus, the types being in the
British Museum: cordicollis = fossus Newm. (as above); thoracicus = piceus Germ.;
sparsiceps = ? viduatus Pasce.

[I have hypothetically identified aequaliceps and cribriceps and have satisfac-
torily verified gracilis and popularis. My example of popularis (compared with
type) came from Roma, Q. In the description the author says, “not sure of exact
habitat”.—H.J.C.]

There is a cotype of sparsiceps among those sent from the South Australian
Museum. It is not in good condition, but seems indistinguishable from viduatus
Pase. Mr. Elston has courteously sent his type of D. bucculentus for examination.
It is identical with puncticollis Lea, of which an example is in the Ferguson
collection at Canberra, with the name label in Lea’s well-known handwriting.
The two descriptions by Lea and Elston respectively are almost identical in
essential characters. Descriptions of two new species are appended.

Table of Deretaphrus Newm.

I eronotim: without medias cuss esac incultus, n. sp.
IPronotimei with waciuelya definedmswlCusa ce sci ichereicioieel sie heen neleneten easton 2
LeFosaKoiehan \ainoy \ecssul volsyaheVeyol KRONOS Coootcineooodvogoon0G0bR00000K0000R000000000 3

Zeon cylindric elytral costae Sranulose Spinone cited crt erichsoni Newm.
Horm explanate,, elytralcostaew entire wy ciaere ciacicl oie cveiene eieneacmenoneiclen ele meis puncticollis Lea

Os JETONOLAL iSculpture Wey. sinew cate eta ea alee ee ORI neuer ee seelieiet cutee cel ionteticn sh teh eke 4
EPronotal sculpture moderatelya times «ce encase niencieaonyenNenetcheonee-lctRen-icmrnc memes 5
Pronotali sculptures (COALS! ioe pers tle wile ere ctaitel o otcce oleate chen chel helclsra-yaiclch ee ytos meiremene 6

AP Se Viralintervals ToUunded nots caninates ys ieileereneieda eile ene eiel netomat analis Lea
Abb yolehatsl Gohywar ThantsiAeHKe! (oH ONIEUKe, aod ous sb ooD a OO Oto UDO On DOOD OO OMOD piceus Germ.

jy MAlyiral Intervalsiic, 4,0, IMOresor Jess icarinares) | miucriete irene: wanthorrhoeae Lea
lytralintervalsusn4s. Do mlaAcnOrenearlvyaSOls co - niloietne cen cme esi cl sierencmnrerene gracilis Blkb.

6. Pronotal punctures contiguous (alveolate) ........5.......-cc0c00- alveolatus, n. sp.
Pronotal puiutictures 20t Contistousiivtaet. > le civie ieteuphe © eheheneae a soue) elo eneler cacy tenn mallets ene ftens Ul

i. ilytra each with: iat least, 3 (well-raisediicarindes ci) cic era iushon nee 8
Blytra, each with 4.interior intervals) flat, or nearly. SO) sec ciedicier) sites clench 9

¥. AMILETIOY AneSles Of PLONUOLII Well GEN Ca. ieites ciersiciel incites ciecenecuees fossus Newm.

Anterior angles of pronotum rounded off and depressed ............. ignarus Pase.

BY H. J. CARTER AND E. H. ZECK. 201

ELC AG mMMpLESSCAMOTT SULCAILSS scntpanst cus even cians uc emeunt oieisliobeuoladgne 31h hateteue..o “owanel cba fel: ero trait eM re 12 10
TOCA AMSE NVC Migr OT VCR asa ca ioc padesies cick eMo TOPS ae ced ECB sce Las Rod Suse NDny suanee duane veins uate heneas 11
HOC ly pPCusmlLonoitudin a lihvanSulCatemerrerierneecinieicnacicicncinecnaiciats cicioierarciarsne viduatus Pasc.
CV MEUSH IM DRESSCOM ces a cicrsuerererttebehe a NESE ooo Mare dareh es lie tauehe. Ae rere ara averon popularis Blkb.
itewAnTerlonianelesnotprochonax Cefnedmnnreenicioeieierici cei iaaa ieee aequaliceps Blkb.
ANMUGMOO ENNIS Ot Torro NOM < iowhnClel MIE GooaccatcoondoucdusobDOUK cribriceps Blkb.

Not included in table, parviceps Lea.

Synonymy.—D. fossus Newm. = cordicollis Blkb.

. piceus Germ. = bakewelli Pasc. = thoracicus Blkb.

. viduatus Pase. = colydioides Pase. = sparsiceps Blkb.
. ignarus Pase. = pascoei Macl.

. puncticollis Lea = bucculentus Elst.

. gracilis Blkb. = iridescens Blkb.

Sle) ts) Shs)

DERETAPHRUS ALVEOLATUS, Nn. Sp.

Elongate, subcylindric; head subnitid, pronotum and elytra opaque black,
antennae, legs and underside red.

Head: clypeus rounded, its outline entire, closely punctate on forehead, more
sparsely and finely on epistoma, eyes clearly evident from above, antennae
unusually stout, segment 1 bulbous, 2 beadlike, 3-8 closely set, 9-11 strongly
transverse, 9 and 10 wider than 11. Prothorax longer than wide (2 x 1:6 mm.)
anterior angles depressed and rounded off, sides lightly narrowed to basal third,
here feebly sinuate and subparallel to the widely obtuse hind angle, base arcuately
produced behind; whole surface alveolate-punctate, with rather small cell-like
punctures closely fitted together, here and there confluent, a medial elongate area
lightly flattened, a short, wide, shallow sulcus near base. Scutellum circular.
Hlytra cylindric, as wide as prothorax at its widest and 2% times its length,
striate-punctate, seriate punctures small and close near suture, larger and more
distant elsewhere, two sutural intervals depressed and almost imperceptibly
punctate, 3-7 finely carinate and impunctate, the carinae more marked at base
and apex. Dim.—S& x 1:6 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Cue (H. W. Brown).

A single example is among the Colydiidae sent from the South Australian
Museum and is so distinct as to be worth naming, the delicate reticulation of the
pronotum being in strong contrast with the coarse, close punctures of D. puncti-
collis Lea. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

DERETAPHRUS INCULTUS, Nl. SD.

Depressed; black, elytra brown.

Head coarsely punctate. Prothorax subcordate, rather flat, anterior angles
widely obtuse and vaguely defined, sides narrowed from apex to base, only slightly
sinuate behind, base lightly excised near angles, these obtuse, with a minute tooth
pointing outwards. Disk rather closely and coarsely punctate, without a sign of
medial sulcus; the punctures more sparse towards the centro-basal area, dense
towards sides. Hlytra wider than prothorax at base, epipleural fold forming a
light dentate ridge at humeri; strongly striate-punctate, the strial punctures close
and round, intervals lightly convex and clearly punctulate; 3rd, 5th and 7th finely
carinate. Underside coarsely and closely punctate; abdomen rather less coarsely
than the rest. Dim.—8 x 2 mm.

Hab.—Western Australia: Coolgardie and Beverley (Du Boulay and H.J.C.),
also Kellerberrin (in the S. Aust. Museum).

Four examples examined are very distinct from all described species by their
entirely non-suleate prothorax, D, erichsoni Newm, most nearly approaches in

202 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

this respect, but is very convex, with a characteristic elytral sculpture with |
granulate intervals and quite different seriate punctures. Holotype in Coll.
Carter.

OxXYLAEMUS Er.
Oxylaemus leae Grouv.—An example of this cylindric species is in the collection
of F. E. Wilson from Warburton, Victoria. It was described from Tasmania.

METOPIESTES STRIGICOLLIS, nN. Sp. Plate ix, fig. 24.

Subcylindric; subopaque, dark chestnut-brown, antennae and tarsi red.

Head slightly concave, finely and densely punctate, with short red pubescence;
antennae rather short, two basal segments tumid, biclavate, 10-11 forming a large
round club. Prothorar ovate, apex arcuately advanced in middle, rounded and
recessed at sides, all angles widely rounded off, base truncate, sides a little
sinuately narrowed behind; disk with fine longitudinal strigae, coarser near
middle, finer near sides. Scutellum ovate. Hlytra wider than prothorax, sides
parallel, each with three well-raised carinae, the lateral and sutural margins also,
put more narrowly, carinate; the depressed intervals with irregular rows (about 3)
of round punctures; underside glabrous, closely punctate. TJibiae widened at apex,
post-tarsi with 1st segment nearly as long as the rest combined. Dim.—4% mm.
long.

Hab.—N. S. Wales: Sydney (Macleay Museum).

A single example in the Macleay Collection, labelled as above, is clearly
separated from Pascoe’s three species, M. tubulus Shp. and M. indicus Grouv. by
the sculpture of the pronotum, which is nowhere punctate. Holotype in the
Macleay Museum.

BOTHRIDERES Er.

The insects of this genus are amongst the commonest of Australian Coleoptera,
subject to extreme variation in size and colour. This has led to great redundancy
in nomenclature, though much of this could have been obviated by a more careful
identification by later authors of the earlier recorded species. Twenty-three names
occur, for which we can find only seven distinct species. The genus is also widely
found in Africa, America, Ceylon, New Guinea, Philippines, Formosa, New Zealand
and New Caledonia, one species occurring in Spain and the south of France.

In 1842 Newman described illusus, puteus and vittatus. Lea seems to have
known vittatus, but both Macleay and Lea redescribed puteus as rectangularis and
opacus respectively. Blackburn explicitly states, “I am not acquainted with
B. illusus Newm.’’, while three of his four species are, we consider, repetitions of
Newman’s and Pascoe’s species, e.g., an example of variabilis Blkb., labelled cotype,
in the South Australian Museum is identical with one sent from the British
Museum as illusus Newm. The identity of B. anaglypticus Germ. with puteus
Newm. is clear from its description, and not, as Lea suggested, with mastersi
Macl. The words “contertim et pro parte rugoso-punctatus” of the thorax and
“opaca” of the elytra cannot apply to mastersi, but do apply to puteus.

With regard to Pascoe’s species, Arrow (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1909) has
already pointed out that four of these are redundant or mere variations. We
consider further that taeniatus Pase. is a variety of equinus Pasc., only separated
in his table by colour.

Macleay’s two names, pascoei and kreffti, again represent slightly different
forms of the same common species, while a cotype of intermedius Lea is a typical
equinus Pase,

BY H. J. CARTER

AND E. H. ZECK. 203

B. illusus Newm., lobatus Pase. and tibialis Blkb. have been very difficult to

clarify by constant characters.

After an exhaustive examination of long series,

our conclusions lead us to consider these three names as of two distinct species

characterized as follows:
illusus Newm.

Din.—d-7 mm. long.

Colour.—Opaque brown.

Prothorav.—Margins with wide, but
distinct angulation at middle, disk with
coarse, subconfluent punctures longi-
tudinally rugose in places.

A smooth medial line connecting a
vague premedial depression with a
small fovea near base, 2 short sub-
costate impressions behind this fovea.

Hlytral intervals 3, 5, 7 sharply
costate, 2, 4 flat, not visibly punctate.

Front tibiae longer, little widened at
apex.

lobatus Pase.; tibialis Blkb.
Dim.—2-5%4 mm. long.
Colour.—Subnitid, piceous to red.
Prothoray.—Margins generally with-

out, or with vague angulation, disk
with finer longitudinal system of
punctures.

No smooth line; premedial and post-
medial depressions superficial, some-
times obsolete; no prebasal costae.

Hlytral interval 3 feebly raised, 5, 7
costate. All intervals clearly punctate.

Front tibiae shorter, strongly widened
at apex.

Prosternum subconfluently
#x punctate.

B. ustulatus Lea is a good species found widely in the interior of New South
Wales and Victoria as well as in Western Australia.

A single example sent from the British Museum, bearing a locality label
‘Champion Bay’ and a MS. name by Pascoe appears to be an undescribed species.
Its characters suggest a relation with B. bifossatus Grouv. from New Caledonia.
We think it is well to withhold this from publication until further material can
be examined and its separation from Grouvelle’s species maintained. The
Australian species may be thus tabulated:

Prosternum moderately punctate. densely,

Bothrideres Er.

1. Pronotum with a single: elonsates ide pressvomy yyy a )Seis sce atelal cis sne lets ab Season «lehebaledssieest ake i, 2
ON OU OU eT WiSe) bw jeyaugetaraiclar tas: qiceaveneuetclomacohene eimai rer eieaaissakau day ageileusuenae Rie ct egw sb tuay eis 3
Zo OWDACIIS lorOywAa, TOO Moe < COeesehy joRINOCULENWKS GoootodoosgdoganngubuddKS puteus Newn..
INiiidereddishs prothorax pineliy, punctate aru acre -icleie cise cieieis eee ie ci mastersi Macl.
Bo JETOOUINCG MB OTE: “SiG Golo dddratu to oro ota o.b-6 BicyosG.oto blo o1d-Gabln. a uo crows oO orcoiLo Doo aid 6 00 cD clo Dio 4
IPA OD ONS PHT PAL aA era am at ore Aras oin tase 4 G OF Ois OMe] DAR ORO Teruo rot oto oie: Oicich DEG EERO LO OHO ORR OLe Gio OI ond bend it)
4+. Sides of prothorax angulate, disk coarsely rugose-punctate .......... illusus Newm.
Sides of prothorax not, or vaguely angulate, discal punctures less coarse ........ 5
5. Pronotal sculpture longitudinal, front tibiae much widened ........ lobatus Pasce.
Pronotal sculpture not longitudinal, tibiae normal .................. ustulatus Lea
6. Elytra reddish or vittate, prothoracic margins angulate ............ vittatus Newm.
BElytra opaque brown, prothoracic margins not angulate ............ equinus Pasc.

Synonymy.—B. puteus Newm. = anaglypticus Germ. = rectangularis Macl.
= opacus Lea.
B. illusus Newm. = variabilis Blkb.
B. vittatus Newm. = suturalis Macl. = merus Pase. = musivus Pase.
= costatus Blkb. = victoriensis BIKb.
B. equinus Pasc. = taeniatus Pase. = pascoei Macl. = kreffti Macl.
= intermedius Lea.
B. lobatus Pase. = servus Pasc. = versutus Pase. = tibialis Blkb.
= aberrans Lea.
N.B.—The variation in size is well exemplified in B. vittatus Newm. Examples
before us vary from 6 mm. to 2 mm. long.

204 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

Machlotes (Hrotylathris) costatus Shp—An example of this Japanese insect,
labelled ‘Queensland’, was among the British Museum Colydiidae sent. Other
examples are in the Macleay and South Australian Museums, both from Cairns.
From their descriptions it is difficult to separate this from Machlotes porcatus
Pase. from Penang, but the testimony of both Sharp and Grouvelle stand to the
contrary.

“Hrotylathris costatus Shp. is a Machlotes, very near porcatus Pasc., but differs
in its somewhat more elongate form and more closely punctured elytral series; in
porcatus there are about 9 in the anterior half of the 2nd interval, whereas costatus
has about 12. Sharp appears to have misunderstood Hrotylathris when putting
his species into it—he was obviously uncertain about it.” (Note by Mr. K. G.
Blair.)

Leptoglyphus foveifrons Grouv. is another of the British Museum specimens
examined. This bears the label ‘Port Darwin’, while another example carries
labels ‘cotype’ and ‘Nilgiri Hills, India’.

Dastarcus Walk. (= Pathodermus Fairm.).—There appears to be little doubt
as to the synonymy of D. decorus Reitt. = D. (Pathodermus) rufosquameus Fairm.,
a common species in N. Queensland, also found in New Guinea and Malacca.

D. confinis Pase. is chiefly distinguished from the former by its much smaller
size (9 mm. instead of 14 mm. long).

Two examples in the Macleay Museum, from Hall Sound, New Guinea, are
probably D. vetustus Pasc. and .D. pusillus Pasc., respectively 7 mm. and 4% mm.
long; the latter distinguished, as the author states, by its “peaked” elytra. We
have not enough material to attempt a tabulation; moreover, the scales and
fascicles on -the upper surface of these insects are readily abraded, so that worn
examples present a very different aspect from fresh ones.

CERYLON Latr.

Only one species, C. alienigenum Blkb., has, so far, been described from
Australia. The description is largely a comparison with a Huropean species,
CO. ferrugineum Steph.—a method very unhelpful to Australian students. Moreover,
a mistaken determination has occurred in an example sent from the South
Australian Museum, labelled C. alienigenum Blkb. [not, I think, in Blackburn’s
handwriting—H.J.C.]. This example is clearly Ocholissa nigricollis Grouv., as
figured by that author. Mr. Blair has now courteously sent an example of
C. ferrugineum Steph., which enables us to determine, with a query, CO. alienigenum
Blkb. for a species taken by one of us at Otford, and by Lea at Richmond River,
N.S.W., and possibly some half-dozen examples taken by Lea at Tambourine
Mountain, S. Queensland. It must be a close ally of C. tibialis Shp. and C. pusillum
Pasc.

The following tabulation, at least, separates the 5 species before us.
C. humeridens Grouy. is hypothetically determined from description. This seems
a better course than adding further to a possible synonymy, the distribution of
small Colydiidae making such determination possibly correct.

Cerylon Latr.

le (Shjitjihe Jue satan oodeaounapoeeDoano dodo DOD ODM OOD oD GOOD O10 D0 nigrescens, N. Sp.
(Gyaykoyst te aisle ee ots eee Re ee oe een me aE MASS NS Simones o DVO Go OCIA D ODO ODO Gon 66000 2
ye Was NI VII GashogpoudovooondobojooddoMo Ob b ooo obo adaodoud ODO GOOD OND 3
FET EN Gy oo) 5 (ls eo te by Ae Ra ici Eh schon oD. Cae GIO CUTE OG GENEIO OG Goto Olt HOO oon 0.010 'd 5 4
35 HOLM OVAL UAITS LONE) sana ds ceeet-Uel tole ela nett CM Rrerche dace nCra-aieiaas longipilis, n. sp.
IWoymeel “oj ajloprt=p, ibaVjhi/ golly pon gone sodosoOOO CUNO GdOd07000000000 2? humeridens Grouvy.
4. Horm oblong-ovate, elytra widest at middle ..............+..0++ee0> parviceps, n. sp.

Horn ‘Oplonge, SUDPAaArallel ve joer alte Nolet tntien nomena anare roses 2? alienigenum Blkb.

BY H. J. CARTER AND KE. H. ZECK. 205

Philothermus Aube.—Two species of this genus are before us. Of these, 12
examples from Tasmania (A. M. Lea) exactly correspond with 4 examples sent:
from the British Museum. Of these four, two are labelled ‘Picton, New Zealand,
taken by Helms’, with the name-label ‘Philothermus nitidus Shrp’. The other two,
labelled ‘Hobart’, are, we consider, identical with the New Zealand examples.
This is an interesting fact of distribution, the insects common to Australia and
New Zealand being few.

A single specimen of a Philothermus from Glen Innes, N.S.W., also taken
by Lea, has been hypothetically determined as P. sanguineus Broun. from
description.

For the sake of Australian collectors a few details are given of these two
species.

P. nitidus Shrp.—Oblong-navicular, elytra sharply narrowed behind. Form
rather wide, elytra irregularly striate-punctate, antennal club, 10th cup-
shaped, 11th ovoid; 2—2% mm. long.

? P. sanguineus Broun.—Narrowly oblong, elytra deeply striate, with half-
concealed punctures, antennal club with 11 little larger than 10; 13 mm.
long.

Both species are of a deep-red colour, the pronotum coarsely, sparsely punctate.

Euxestinae.—This group is included in the Colydiidae by Hetschko (Junk Cat.).
The late A. M. Lea considered Huxestus as belonging to the Erotylidae. We have
had no opportunity of studying his types and omit this group from discussion.

Ocholissa Pase.—We have mentioned above the example sent as Cerylon
alienigenum Blkb. Numerous examples from Cairns are in the various collections
examined. The majority of these are clearly O. humeralis Fairm., but a few
have the elytra wholly black, without the yellow shoulder spot. This is apparently
the variety atra Grouv. A few others (including the mis-labelled example) have
the elytra more or less wholly pale, which is, almost certainly, the form named
O. nigricollis Grouv. We think, therefore, the following synonymy is established:
O. humeralis Frm.: Var. 1. atra Grouv.; Var. 2. nigricollis Grouv. The distribution,
given in Junk, is Madagascar, E. Africa, E. Indies, Ceylon, Borneo, Batchian,
Tahiti; to which North Australia must now be added.

Ocholissa leai Grouv.—Three examples are in the Lea Coll. from Mt.
Wellington, Tasmania, also one labelled Sydney, N.S.W.

CERYLON LONGIPILIS, n. sp. Plate ix, fig. 14.

Short, ovate; nitid dark red, antennae and legs pale red, antennal club
testaceous. _

Head with a few large distant punctures, eyes large and prominent, antennal
basal segment very tumid, about twice as long as 2, 2 and 3 subequal, each longer
than 4, 4-8 small and closely set, 9 larger than 8, 10-11 forming a large ovoid
club, strongly pubescent and elongate towards apex. Prothorax strongly trans-
verse, apex arcuate, front angles advanced but obtusely blunted; base subtruncate,
its angles sharply rectangular, sides lightly rounded, arcuately narrowed in front,
horizontal margin narrow, its border entire; disk very coarsely, sparsely and
rather irregularly punctate, without sign of medial line, basal foveae large and
deep. Scutellum large, triangular, with one or two punctures. Elytra rather
convex and oval, of same width as prothorax at base, humeri with a small
projection; striate-punctate, the striae shallow, the punctures coarse and irregular
in size, intervals in places subconvex, with a single line of fine punctures, with

Y

206 AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE,

sparse, pale, upright hairs much longer than on prothorax. Underside everywhere
coarsely punctate. Tibiae strongly and roundly widened. Dim.—1? mm. long.
_Hab—S. Queensland: Tambourine Mountain -(A. M. Lea). ; ee
Three examples—or more correctly 23, since one example is only represented
by the hinder half—are under examination. One of these is probably immature,
being pale yellow in colour. On a visit to the above district in 1914, Lea did-a
good deal of sifting leaf refuse, in which these insects occur. It differs from other
species seen by us in the sparse, long hairs of the upper surface, the coarse, not
close punctures and the dentate humeri. It must be near C. setulosum Champ.
(from Assam), and C. humeridens Grouv. (from India). The following details
in their respective descriptions point to distinction: ‘antennae 10-11 fused into

a larve oval club... prothorax closely punctate ... smooth medial line” of the
former species and “prothorace ... disco basin versus utrinque subimpresso .
elytra ... Suturo basin versus recesso” in the latter. In each case only a single

example is known, so that the possibility of synonymy of all three species cannot
be dismissed. Holotype in the South Australian Museum.

N.B.—A single example from Cairns (N.Q.) before us must be still closer to
C. humeridens Grouv., so that.at present it cannot be described as distinct. It
differs clearly from C. longipilis by flatter form, shorter pilosity, and the more
regularly and deeply striate-punctate elytra.

CERYLON NIGRESCENS, Nn. Sp.

Subconvex, oblong; subnitid black above, the narrow margin of pronotum and
elytra, underside and appendages red.

Head: Clypeus rounded, eyes prominent, surface densely and finely punctate;
antennae: segment 1 stout, 2 globose (beadlike), 3 twice as long as 4, 4-8 small
and close, 9 larger than 8, 10 clavate and oval. Prothorax subquadrate, slightly
widest near front, apex arcuate, anterior angles advanced but rounded, base very
lightly bisinuate, sides nearly straight, arcuately narrowed in front, a narrow
suleate margin; disk rather depressed, closely, rather finely punctate, a feeble
suggestion of a smooth medial line behind middle; without basal foveae. Scutellwm
transversely oval. Elytra of same width as prothorax at base, sides subparallel
tor the greater part, bluntly rounded at apex; striate-punctate, the striae well
impressed, except at extreme apex, the punctures therein close, regular and of
moderate size; intervals flat, each with a single row of minute punctures. Under-
side finely and sparsely punctate. Femora stout, tibiae little widened. Dim.—23
mm. (approx.) long.

Hab.—Queensland National Park.

Two examples, sent by Mr. Hacker of the Queensland Museum, differ from all
Australian Cerylon spp. seen, by the dark upper surface, the fine, close punctures
of thorax and its straight, oblong form. We cannot make out any dentation of the
humeri, the thorax being closely applied to the elytra along its whole width.
Holotype in the Queensland Museum.

CERYLON PARVICEPS, nh. Sp. Plate ix, fig. 23.

Oblong-ovate; castaneous, very nitid and glabrous.

Head unusually small, straight-sided, but for the prominent eyes, clypeus
lightly arcuate, finely and sparsely punctate; antennae longer and stouter than
usual, 1 stout, 2 longer than 3, cupuliform; 3 slightly longer than 4, 4-8 close,
9 larger than 8, 10-11 elongate-oval, apical half pubescent. Prothorax subconvex,
apex lightly arcuate, anterior angles wide and blunt, base very lightly bisinuate,
posterior angles subrectangular, sides nearly straight on basal half, arcuately

BY H.: J. CARTER “AND: E. H. ZECK. 207

narrowed on apical, without defined marginal area, disk finely and rather sparsely
punctate, without sign of medial line, a smooth foveate depression near base on
each side. Scutellum large, transverse, oval and punctate... Hlytra closely applied
to and of same width as prothorax, humeri with a blunt, subdentate process;
lightly ovate, widest at middle, thence narrowed to apex; substriate-punctate, the
sutural stria only clearly defined, punctures round and distinct, 5th interval
lightly convex, the rest flat, with a few minute punctures discernible here and
there. Pro- and meta-sternum rather’ strongly; distantly punctate, abdomen
sparsely and finely so; femora very stout, tibiae lightly widened at apex, fore
tibiae curved. Dim.—3 mm. long.

Hab: Launceston, Tasmania (Lea).

A single example in the Lea Coll. is distinct by the combination of red
colour, with appendages and underside concolorous, stout antennae and unusually
narrow head, and fine, sparse sculpture. Holotype in the South Australian
Museum.

CHECK-LIST OF THE AUSTRALIAN COLYDIIDAE.

Bitoma angustula Motsch ? = parallela Ablabus nivicola Blkb.
Shrp. ; obscurus Blkb.

costata Macl. pulcher BIKb.
cylindrica, n. sp. tuberculatus, n. sp.
occidentalis, n. sp. villosus Lea.
puteolata, n. sp. Orthocerus australis Blkb.
serricollis Pasce. Epistranus tibialis, n. sp.
siccana Pasc. Penthelispa blackburni Hetsch.

Synagathis kauricola, n. gen and sp. fuliginosa Er.

Larinotus umbilicatus, n. sp. interstitialis Blkb.

Sparactus elongatus Blkb. secuta Pasc.
interruptus Hr. Gempylodes tmetus Oll.
leai, n. sp. Todima fulvicincta Elst.
productus Reitt. fusca Grouv.
proximus Blkb. lateralis Blkb.
pustulosus BIKb. rufula Grouv.
queenslandicus, n. sp. Meryxs aequalis Blkb.

Phormesa carpentariae Blk). rugosa Latr.
caudata, n. sp. Deretaphrus aequaliceps Blkb.
epitheca Oll. alveolatus, n. sp.
grouvellei BlkKb. analis Lea.
hilaris Blkb. eribriceps Blkb.
lunaris Pasc. erichsoni Newm.
notata, n. sp. fossus Newm.
opacus Shrp. (Trionus) ? gracilis BlKb.
parva Blkb. ignarus Pasc.
prolata Pasc. incultus, n. sp.
torrida Blkb. piceus Germ.

Phormin« lyrata. n. gen. and sp. popularis Blkb.

Bupala australis, n. sp. puncticollis Lea.
fasciata, n. sp. viduatus Pasc.
variegata, Nn. sp. wvanthorrhoeae Lea.

Pabula perforata Blkb., n. gen. Oxylaemus leae Grouv.
bovilli Blkb. Metopiestes strigicollis, n. sp.

Cebia communis, n. sp. Bothrideres equinus Pasc.
rufonotata, n. sp. illusus Newm.
scabrosa Reitt. lobatus Pasc.
tumulosa, n. sp. mastersi Macl.

Neotrichus acanthacollis, n. sp. puteus Newm.

Colobicus parilis Pasc. ustulatus Lea.

Ablabus blackburni Grouv. vittatus Newm.
integricollis, n. sp. Machlotes costatus Shrp.
mimus. N. Sp. Leptoglyphus foveifrons Grouv.

Dastarecus confinis Pasc.

208 AUSTRALIAN: COLYDIIDAE.

Dastarcus decorus Reitt. Cerylon parviceps, n. sp.
pusillus Pasce. Philothermus nitidus Shrp.
vetustus Pasce. sanguineus Broun. ?

Cerylon alienigenum Blkb. Ocholissa humeralis Fairm.
humeridens Grouv. ? humeralis var. atra Grouvy.
longipilis, n. sp. var. nigricollis Grouv.
nigrescens, Nn. Sp. leai Grouv.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII-IX.
Plate viii.

1.—Bitoma occidentalis, n. sp. 7.—Larinotus umbilicatus, n. sp.
2.—Sparactus queenslandicus, n. sp. 8.—Phormesa (?) caudata, n. sp.
3.—Bupala australis, n. sp. 9.—Phorminae lyrata, n. sp.
4.—Bitoma cylindrica, n. sp. 10.—Bupala variegata. n. sp.
5.—Synagathis kauricola, n. sp. 11.—Phormesa notata, n. sp.
6.—Sparactus leai, n. sp. 12.—Bitoma puteolata, n. sp.

Piate ix.

13.—Bupala fasciata, n. sp. 19.—Ablabus pulcher Blkb.
14.—Cerylon longipilis, n. sp. 20.—Pabula dentata Blkb.
15.—Neotrichus acanthacollis, n. sp. 21.—Ablabus integricollis, n. sp.
16.—Cebia tumulosa, n. sp. 22.—Epistranus tibialis, n. sp.

17.—Ablabus mimus, n. sp.

23.—Cerylon parviceps, n. sp.
18.—Ablabus tuberculatus, n. sp. 24

.—Metopiestes strigicollis, n. sp.

t VIII.

PLATE

N. Soc. N.S.W., 1937.

Proc. Lin

at
Fe a

a
t

TETAS

ia

ta)
oT s..
ORT
RAMS to ae elalal

G

eeatel Baas ages @ ai

rer

wim

Australian Colydiidae.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 193 PLATE IX.

3
N A
Rcd ntsd

Se

FF Flay)

,
’
n
,

Australian Colydiidae.

THE OCCURRENCE OF THE AUSTRALIAN PILCHARD, SARDINOPS

NEOPILCHARDUS (STEIND.),* AND ITS SPAWNING SEASON IN

NEW SOUTH WALES WATERS, TOGETHER WITH BRIEF NOTES
ON OTHER NEW SOUTH WALES CLUPEIDS.

By Witniam J. Dakin, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology,
University of Sydney.

(Plate xi.)
[Read 25th August, 1937. ]

It is trequently stated that nothing is known of the shoals of pelagic fish
(including the pilchard) in Australian coastal waters. As this statement is
certainly incorrect for part of the coast of New South Wales at least, and as the
matter of the distribution of this species may be of considerable commercial
importance in the near future, the following notes are set out on the discoveries
which have recently been made, despite the inefficient means of ocean investigation
at our disposal.

During the past five years, whilst accumulating data on the Biology and
Hydrography of the coastal waters of New South Wales, the eggs and larvae of
the pilchard have been discovered and identified, a piece of work involving a
considerable constancy of effort at sea in a small boat. And this has not been
confined to one year, or been a matter of accident. The occurrence of these eggs
and larvae has been deliberately followed week by week, and at more than one
place (at Port Stephens, off Broken Bay, off Port Jackson, and off Port Hacking),
and the duration of the spawning season elucidated.

The New South Wales pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steind.) is a
medium-sized species of the herring group found at certain seasons in coastal
waters in enormous shoals, after the habit of members of this group. Systematists
have indicated the resemblance of this species to the true pilchard, Sardinia
pilchardus of Europe, as well as to Sardinops coerulea of the North Pacific Coast
of America (now captured in enormous numbers in the great Californian “sardine”
industry), to Sardinops sagrax (Jenyns) of the coast of Peru, and to Sardinops
melanosticta (Temminck and Schlegel) of Japan.

The Australian species is not confined to New South Wales waters. It has
been recorded as far south as Hobart in Tasmania, and shoals have been recorded
as occurring in Tasmanian waters (Johnston, 1882). In Southern Victoria it
was noted at an early date, McCoy recording that hundreds of tons were captured
in Hobson’s Bay as far back as 1864-66 (in August). It has also been taken as

* Sardinops neopilchardus (Steind.) see Whitley (1937); Sardinia neopilchardus
(Steind.) see McCulloch (1919); Clupea neopilechardus Steindachner, Denkschr. Akad.
Wiss. Wien, xli, 1, 1879, p. 12.

The possibility of making the observations, on which this paper is based, was due
in the main to grants for marine research from the Commonwealth Government. I have
also to thank Mr. G. Kesteven, Biologist, Fisheries Department, New South Wales, for
able assistance at Port Hacking.

210 OCCURRENCE OF THE AUSTRALIAN PILCHARD,

far north as Hervey Bay in Queensland. The species is also abundant 1,000 miles
eastward, on the New Zealand coast, where it has been systematically fished
during the winter.

To return to the Australian coast, we find that steady reports of pilchard
shoals have been made since the first records. In 1879 Macleay quoted McCoy’s
descriptions of how in three successive years (1864-66) in the same month of
the year (August) thousands of specimens appeared in Hobson’s Bay, southern
Victoria, and hundreds of tons were sent to the country markets. “Ships entering
the bay passed through closely packed shoals ‘of them for miles.” Macleay adds
that on the coast of New South Wales it is June and July which are the months
of great frequency, but that it is not easy to fix the time within a few weeks. The
shoals were described as enormous, covering miles of sea, and accompanied by
flights of birds and. numbers of large fishes. The shoals were generally observed
from one to three miles from the land, and always proceeding in a northerly
direction. Probably these records of Macleay are reliable by reason of his
knowledge of the subject, but it will be seen later that fishermen frequently make
mistakes in their diagnosis of shoals.

Stead, as far back as 1911, in referring to the possibilities of pelagic fisheries,
describes the use of a purse seine net, and remarks that records of prodigious
shoals on the New South Wales coast have frequently been made. It is also
stated that millions have been washed up on the beach at Yamba, Clarence River.
Whitley (1937) quotes the date of this occurrence as May, 1911, and this is
interesting since a shoal, reputed to be S. neopilchardus, came close inshore at
Yamba in May, 1937, whilst the author was at that place.

In his previous work (1908) Stead remarks that the shoals are usually of
greatest magnitude during spring and early summer and from his personal
experience, in September.

Before touching on the more definite findings which have been made by myself
whilst working with the research yacht “Thistle’’, it will be useful to indicate
the records of pilchard shoals which have been sent in by the State Fisheries
Department’s Inspectors stationed along the coast of New South Wales.

Returns are sent in monthly from the fisheries inspectors. From these it
would appear that pilchards are seen regularly every month over a long season
at some stations. Occasionally notes of great shoals are piesent.

Records of occurrence of pilchards off coast of N.S.W. by Inspectors of Fisheries.

1934 1935 1936-37
Tweed River ... Apr.-Sep. Apr.-June. ; Sep., Nov. —
Richmond River — a Aug.,1936-Jan.,1937
Manning River.. May-Sep. Apr.-Aug. May-Aug.,1936
Wallis Lake ... May-Sep. Mar.-Nov. All year
Port Stephens .. Aug.-Sep. — = Jan.-Feb.,19386; Oct.,’36-Apr.,’37
Lake Macquarie a= Sep.,19386-Apr.,1937
Merrigaly Yep. — Mar.-May, Aug.-Nov. —
Botany Bay .... May.-Sep. — —
Port Hacking .. May-Sep. Mar.-June July-Nov.,1936; Mar.-Apr.,1937
Lake Illawarra.. = = Oct.,1936-Mar.,1937
Clyde River .... Oct., Nov. Sep.,1936-Mar.,193

The problem of the correct interpretation of these eee is twofold. Of
course definite captures of pilchards, from which authoritative diagnosis of
specimens has been made, would put certain records out of all doubt. But
unfortunately these seem few and are, on the whole, isolated cases, and in any
case they supply little or no indication of the length of time the pilchards
remained in quantity at the place of observation.

BY W. J. DAKIN. 211

-From the point of view of industry, one wants to know for how long and in

what sort of quantity the shoals of pilchards remain within any certain limited
area of coastal water. A fishery cannot be built up on occasional shoals of pelagic
fish whose occurrence might be limited to a week or a few weeks every year, and
at varying times.
: Some of the Inspectors’ reports leave no room for doubt and are extremely
valuable in conjunction with our findings. Thus on more than one occasion
quantities of pilchard have been driven into the surf by tunny and kingfish and
picked up in baskets full. They have also frequently been taken inside snapper
when schools were observed.

One Inspector reported that the pilchard worked in towards the coast in April,
May and June and described examination indicating that the fish were in roe.
He adds that they usually come to the surface at nightfall and are seen by their
“phosphorus” (luminescence).

Several reports refer to the tunny, Spanish mackerel, and bonito coming with
the pilchard, also to pilchard having been found in salmon and jew-fish.

A more serious criticism applies to the records from fishermen on the coast—
the shoals seen from the shore or even from a boat and said to be pilchard may
be of some other clupeid species. This criticism receives strong support from the
fact that on two occasions within the last six months samples of shoaling clupeids
which have been sent in to us by fishermen as pilchards have turned out to be
(1) the Maray, and (2) the Sandy Sprat. It is, incidentally, difficult in this
connection to see how any safe records could be made from the air unless
specimens were being captured at the same time. :

One answer to the question asking what amount of absolutely reliable
knowledge exists concerning the duration of the occurrence of pilchards in shoals
in any one-area off our coasts, seems to us to turn on our discoveries of pilchard
eges and larvae. Apart from the published evidence that between May and
September shoals of pelagic fish occur, not unlike pilchards in size, and from the
capture now and then of fish from these shoals, putting their isolated occurrence
as beyond question, there is no real published evidence of continuity. And there
was no evidence of the duration of the spawning season before the publication of
the paper by Dakin and Colefax (1934).

The first information regarding the spawning places of our pelagic fishes came
from the discovery of clupeid eggs in the plankton taken off the coast during the
winter months. About the same time, the early stages of clupeid larvae appeared
in the catches. Now the recognition of the pilchard eggs in the catches from the
coastal waters off Broken Bay, off Port Jackson, off Port Hacking and off Port
Stephens, is linked up with the identification of the clupeid larvae (of various
stages) which were associated with them.

The capture of clupeid larvae presented more than the usual problem of
identification for, whilst the recognition of the larvae as those of a clupeid was
not difficult, there are five or six species of Clupeids off this coast, of which the
young stages are likely to be extremely similar. None of these early stages had
ever been obtained before, and it must be remembered that, since no commercial
fishing of these species is taking place even now, no hints for identification could
be obtained from the presence of spawning adults. The Clupeids in question are
the Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steind.); the Blue Sprat, Stolephorus
robustus (Ogilby); the Sandy Sprat, Hyperlophus vittatus (Castelnau); the Maray,
EHtrumeus jacksoniensis Macleay; the Herring, Harengula castelnaui (Ogilby) ;
and the Freshwater Herring, Potamalosa novae-hollandiae (Cuv. and Val.}.

212 OCCURRENCE OF THE AUSTRALIAN PILCHARD,

It was presumed that, although unlikely, the freshwater herring might produce
-eggs in the estuaries, which could be carried out to sea. Since the first investiga-
tion was made, specimens of this fish with mature reproductive organs have been
obtained. They were captured in the Clarence River near Grafton (about 60 miles
inland from the sea). The spawning season of this fish is evidently in July and
August. It is extremely probable that these eggs are not pelagic at all, but laid
on the bottom or attached to other objects. The ovarian eggs in the specimen
examined were 1 mm. in diameter.

The method adopted for identification of the larvae was to continue their
capture and to collect together a series from which some definite counts of fin
rays and vertebrae could be made. This postulated the capture of stages
sufficiently developed to indicate certain adult characters useful for this means of
diagnosis. Whilst the existing systematic literature gives on occasion the number
of fin rays in the fins, the counts often appear to have been made on a single
specimen or one or two from the same locality and taken at the same time.
Counts of the number of vertebrae are either missing or very unreliable. It was
necessary, therefore, to re-examine a number of specimens of the Clupeids
concerned in order to obtain more accurate information. The figures given in the
table below show the result of this investigation. These figures do not exclude a
wider range of variation—examination of a large number of individuals of each
species would be required in order to determine such range with absolute certainty.
Indeed, there may be different races of the species in Australian waters. With this
indication of the need for caution it will be seen that the characters chosen were
such as would put the recognition beyond the limits of experimental error.

| |
| | Number of Vertebrae.
| if

| Dorsal Fin. | Anal Fin. |

| Number of Rays. | Number of Rays. | Counts Stated

| | Our Counts. by Other

| | Observers.

}
ae | | oh

j |

| | |
Pilchard au ES P| 18 18 | 50 45 and 49
Blue Sprat bb nd 12 | 10-11 | 47 45
Sandy Sprat St hase 15 | 19 | 47-48 | 46
Maray ss Fe Ne 19-21 11 53
Herring oe a Eyl 16-18 | 18-19 41 | 39
Freshwater Herring | 15-16 | 15-18 | 44-46 | 46

In the matter of the Herring, Harengula castelnawi, the figures for the fin rays
given by the original author of the species, Ogilby, are Dorsal 17-19, and Anal
19-21. We have not obtained the highest of these figures in any specimen
examined, but it is noteworthy that the number is only 16 for a specimen from
the Clarence River and 18 for a specimen from Lake Illawarra. There is remark-
able difficulty in obtaining specimens of this fish, although it must be abundant.

The first character to be noted in the small larvae is that the number of
vertebrae is 50. Actually the number in front of the anus varies during develop-
ment—a character noted in other parts of the world for certain Clupeids. It will
also be noted (see Dakin and Colefax, 1934) that the dorsal fin gradually moves
forward during development.

a)

BY W. J. DAKIN. a PA

On the basis of vertebral counts one might, at the outset, eliminate all but
the Maray. Actually, however, the vertebral numbers recorded for the Blue Sprat
and the Sandy Sprat were regarded as close enough to make other identification
characters essential for a reliable diagnosis.

Now, even in larvae of 18 mm., the number of fin rays in the anal fin is
sufficient to cut out the Blue Sprat and the Maray. At any larger size the number
of fin rays in the dorsal fin cuts out the Sandy Sprat and the Freshwater Herring.
The fin rays alone might leave us unable to distinguish between an early stage
of the Pilchard and one of the Herring, although, the latter larva not yet having
been identified, it is impossible to define its characters. However, the number of
fin rays and vertebrae, taken together, leave the result without doubt, for the
number of vertebrae in the Herring is the lowest of all the Clupeids concerned.

One reason still to be mentioned for a careful re-examination of the data given
above was the discovery of pilchard larvae off the entrance to Broken Bay. These
were obtained much earlier in the year than those which were first recognized
by us from the coast off Port Jackson, and they presented a slight difference in
appearance due to the fact that a conspicuous swelling of the swim bladder was
to be noted. It is now assumed that this difference was an effect of the methods
of capture: the larvae had previously been taken in surface waters, but the
Broken Bay haul was pulled up rather suddenly in a net used for a bottom haul,
albeit the depth fished could not be great at this locality owing to the shallowness—
10 fathoms.

Comparison of all our larvae set aside as possible pilchard now shows that
there is no doubt of the identification. The fact that clupeid eggs formerly
identified as pilchard were found in October as well as in the winter months begin-
ning with May led us to a careful measurement of a considerable number of eggs.
The range of diameters was exactly the same for the samples concerned.

It is clear, therefore, that the spawning of the pilchard which takes place off
the coast of New South Wales occurs over a long season. We can also add that
the larvae occur between places as far apart as Port Stephens and Port Hacking,
and, since eggs were discovered in large numbers at the latter place, spawning
must occur throughout this length of coast at least. A clear indication of the
peak of the season, as of the detailed understanding of the length of time the
fish may be captured at any one place in quantity, will await the further investiga-
tion of an ocean-going research vessel.

Small pilechard larvae varying between 8 and 20 mm. in length have now been
taken in the months of April, May, June, July, August, September, October and
November. In our first paper on the eggs of the pilchard, we referred to catches
made in June, July and August. Since then we have obtained large catches of
eggs at the beginning of May (at Port Hacking), and some very large catches in
October (off Broken Bay). Since, however, we have obtained larvae in April,
it might be assumed that some spawning takes place in February. Possibly eggs
may be taken in every month of the year. We have now taken eggs from March
to October, with large catches in May, July and October.

In a report of the Marine Station of Portobello, New Zealand, for the year
‘ending March, 1936, it is stated that pilchards are found throughout the year, and
it is assumed, from the fact that all sorts of sizes appear, that the breeding season
is an extended one. There is, however, no mention of scientific evidence. Another
‘reference gives November and December as the spawning season.

It is interesting to make some comparison with the Californian pilchard
whose habits are now comparatively well known. According to Dr. Frances

214 OCCURRENCE OF THE AUSTRALIAN PILCHARD,

Clark, the maximum area of spawning of the Californian pilchard occupies a
region 200 miles north and south and 100 miles in width, although a general
spawning takes place over 1,600 miles of coast (measured north and south). The
spawning season extends from February to August with peaks in April and May.
But as this is the Northern Hemisphere, the months correspond, in Australia, to
the period from August through the summer to February, with a peak in October
and November. It is difficult for us to make accurate comparisons because, though
we have taken a great haul of eggs as late as October. our work at sea has been
least intense in summer owing to various difficulties associated with our oceano-
graphical work. ;

It would appear, however, that the spawning season of the Australian pilchard
off the coast of New South Wales definitely extends over quite as long a period
as that of the Californian pilchard. It has been noted above that spawning
pilchards have been recorded at Portobello, New Zealand, in November and
December. The latitude of this place is considerably south of Sydney. Another
New Zealand reference (Report on Fisheries, N.Z., 1933) states that pilchard eggs
were taken during December and January by tow-netting. It is interesting to note
that whilst the European pilchard has been observed to spawn off the English
Channel in the summer months of July and August, the same species spawns in
the Mediterranean during the winter. In this case, however, the spawning season
lasts practically the whole year, with a maximum from December to February—
i.e., a Maximum in the three winter months.

Strictly speaking, the term ‘Sardine’ should be confined to the young of the
pilchard. In California it is used for the adult pilchard as well. Now one of the
most interesting discoveries bearing on the occurrence of pilchard eggs and
larvae in New South Wales waters was the catching of a shoal of small sardines
inside the estuary of the Hawkesbury—well up in the Pittwater to be exact, on
3rd October, 1936. The specimens (see Plate xi, fig. 1) were obtained with a hand
net by my Research Assistant, Miss I. Bennett. At 4 o’clock in the afternoon (low
water 3.57 p.m.) a small shoal of these young fish, which must have contained
millions, appeared along the beach. The visible area extended about 400 feet in
the direction along the beach and 50 feet outwards. This was merely the area
where they were breaking water. The water ranged from a foot in depth to
about ten feet. The fish were crowded together so that a scoop with a bucket
was like scooping out the contents of a fishing net. The length of the specimens
obtained varied from 38 mm. to 56 mm. Since these individuals might be regarded
as two-three months old, the observations indicate that considerable numbers of
eggs were spawned off our coast in June-July, 1936, fitting in excellently with
our captures of eggs and larvae in 1932, 1933 and 1934. This discovery also
indicates how some of the early stages may enter into inshore estuarine waters.
It is still unknown to what extent this migration is typical of the life-history of
our fish and, although we have been specializing for several years on the planktonic
and post-larval stages, it is significant that we have never observed such a shoal
of small sardines in these inshore waters before. The difficulty of the non-
systematist distinguishing between the small fish species which are abundant in
the same localities renders observations by fishermen once again of very little
count. The discovery was, in any case, a very valuable one in providing further
support for the diagnosis of the pilchard larvae.

It is noteworthy that in 1935 we sailed through shoals of pilchard at the
entrance to Broken Bay in the month of May (four consecutive weeks). The fish
were packed in shoals over an area of two or three square miles, often breaking

BY W. J. DAKIN. 215

water and making the sea surface look as if struck by gusts of: wind. Large
numbers of gulls and terns were diving after the fish.

In 1937 nothing of this kind appeared at Broken Bay during the same period,
although odd eggs and pilchard larvae were being taken. But large numbers of
the eggs were captured at Port Hacking during these weeks, and the activity of
the gulls was noted off Port Jackson at the same time.

On the 18th of July (that is, about two months later) shoals of fish eee
at Broken Bay, and with them the gulls and terns performing the same feats
of diving. Plankton catches were made and the results were striking; we had
one of the largest hauls of pilchard eggs we had ever taken. The sequence of
dates seems worthy of record.

It is worth recording here that shoals of Maray were seen and fish captured
near the entrance of Sydney Harbour (off the Quarantine Station) in the month
of August. These fish had undeveloped reproductive organs. They averaged 16
centimetres, say 64 inches, in length. It is rather surprising to find in McCulloch’s
“Fishes of New South Wales” (1934) a statement to the effect that the Maray is a
southern fish, not common in New South Wales waters. It would appear that
this is decidedly not the case.

Shoals of Sandy Sprat, 34 inches in length, were about the entrance to Port
Jackson in June (1937). Specimens of these were captured by fishermen and
sent in to market where they were sold as Sardines! The reproductive organs
were on their way to maturity.

Finally, catches of Freshwater Herring were sent from Grafton on the
Clarence River to the Sydney markets in July (1937) and sold as Herring, without
any qualifying adjectives. These were absolutely mature, the gonads being
completely ripe. There is little or no evidence to indicate that these fish deposit
their eggs in ocean water, even in the estuary mouths, and it would appear very
likely that the eggs of this Clupeid are demersal.

The locality of capture was actually twenty—thirty miles up-river from Grafton.
Analyses of the river water at Grafton at the time showed that the salinity was
only 0°54%, at low water and 1:57%, at high water as compared with 35%, for
ocean water.

Confirmation of the above in regard to the Freshwater Herring is also to be
obtained from the fact that McCulloch (1917) noted that specimens taken from
fresh water in the Hastings River in March, 1916, had developed milt and roe.
The length of these fish was 8 inches; ours from Grafton ranged from 10 to 12
inches in length (Plate xi, figs. 3, 4).

SUMMARY.

1. Further observations are set out concerning the diagnosis and identification
of the larvae of the Australian Pilchard taken in New South Wales coastal waters.

2. Evidence is produced to show that the breeding season of the Pilchard
extends through a very long period and that probably eggs are obtainable in every
month of the year.

3. A shoal of young sardines, length 38-56 mm. and probably only 2-3 months
old, was investigated, occurring in October inside the estuary of the Hawkesbury
River.

4. Shoals of Sandy Sprat occur close in to the coast and enter the estuaries
in June. The gonads in that month are approaching maturity.

5. Shoals of Maray have entered Sydney Harbour in August-September. The
fish had undeveloped reproductive organs—probably spent.

216 OCCURRENCE OF THE AUSTRALIAN PILCHARD.

6. .The Freshwater Herring in the fully mature state has been taken at
Grafton, Clarence River, in fresh water. The eggs are very likely demersal.

Bibliography.
CLARK, FRANCES N., 1935.—A Summary of the Life-History of the California Sardine
and its influence on the Fishery. California ish and Game, Vol. 21, No. 1, Jan., 1935.
DakKIN, W. J., and CoLEerax, A. N., 1934.—The Eggs and Barly Larval Stages of the
Australian Pilchard—WSardinia neopilchardus (Steind.). Rec. Aust. Museum. xix,
No. 2, March, 1934.
JOHNSTON, R. M., 1882.—General and Critical Observations on the Fishes of Tasmania.
Proc. Royal Society of Tasmania, 1882. ©
MACLEAY, W., 1879.—On the Clupeidae of Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., iv, 1879.
McCuLiocH, A. R., 1917.—Studies in Australian Fishes, No. 4. Ree. Aust. Musewm. xi,
INO, , Uwe.
, 1919.—Studies in Australian Fishes, No. 5. Rec. Aust. Muwsewm, xii, No. 8, 1919.
, 1934.—The Fishes and Fish-like Animals of New South Wales. 3rd ed. 1934.
OciLpy, J. D., 1893.—Edible Fishes and Crustaceans of New South Wales. Sydney. 1893.
STEAD, D. G., 1908.—Edible Fishes of New South Wales. Sydney, 1908.
, 1911.—The Future of Commercial Marine Fishing in New South Wales, 1911.
WHITLEY, G. P., 1937.—Further Ichthyological Miscellanea. Jen. Queensland Museum,
Sct, JEG, Pa dfn, IBZ.
Also New Zealand Government, Marine Department, Reports on Fisheries.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.
Fig. 1.—Part of catch of Sardines (young of pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus
(Steind.) ), from Pittwater, New South Wales.
Fig. 2.—Pilchard larva 17 mm. in length (stained by Van Wijhe method).
Figs. 3, 4.—Mature Freshwater Herring (Potamalosa novae-hollandiae) from the
Clarence River, Grafton, N.S.W. 3, Male; 4, Female.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE XI.

tt i NNR
- 3 SN uni fe
nal me CG ps: ee ae
~ é 3 :
4

Mgr TTTTYOTETYECTTROOTTYTETEPEOCOY ETE TTYOTTTY TTT TET] HTN} TTTL tHHI)IITL Sil
1 2 3 4 6 7 8) 9 1 2 3 ih '

CENTIMETRES

1, 2.—Sardinops neopilchardus (1, young; 2, larva). 3, 4.—Potamalosa novae-hollandiae.

bo
—
-1

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF TABANUS FROGGATTI, T. GENTILIS, AND
T. NEOBASALIS (DIPTERA).

By Mary E. Futter, B.Sc., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Canberra, F.C.T.

(Plate x; thirteen Text-figures.)

[Read 25th August, 1937.]

TABANUS FROGGATTI Ric.
Systematics and Distribution.

Tabanus froggatti is a small, dark, hairy-eyed species, which was described
by Ricardo (1915) from a female from Mr. Froggatt’s collection. My specimens
agree closely with one from Mr. Froggatt’s series, and also with Miss Ricardo’s
description. But, in addition to the markings described by Ricardo, all specimens
of T. froggatti which I have seen possess a large, triangular, tomentose, grey spot
each side of the median spot on the second abdominal segment. This occurs in
both sexes, but is obscured in greasy o1 rubbed specimens. The male, of which I
have not been able to find a published description, differs from the female chiefly
in having the upper facets of the eyes enlarged, the eyes densely clothed with
black hairs, with some gold intermingled on the lower half, and in the possession
of very long black hairs on the first two antennal segments. The whitish
pubescence of the female is replaced by gold in the male, and the small median
spots on the abdominal segments are clothed with gold hairs. The eyes of the
female are bronzy green, and of the male bright emerald-green when alive. In
general the male has a darker appearance than the female, owing to the profusion
of black hair on the thorax and abdomen, and is larger, although there is consider-
able variation in the size of both sexes. The largest male was 14 mm. long, and
the smallest female § mm.

The type and another specimen from Mr. Froggatt’s collection are from the
south coast of New South Wales. The only other distribution record known to
me is Canberra.

Notes on Life-History and Habits.

The adults of Tabanus froggatti are on the wing in Canberra during October
and November. They are very numerous in the vicinity of Black Mt. (2,668 ft.)
during these months. Both sexes may be taken feeding on small flowers among
the pasture, and also on low-growing Leptospermum on the hill slopes. The
females attack cattle and humans, but are not as quick and strong in flight as
many other biting species. They hover over and alight on swampy ground,
crawling over mud and grass, and do not appear to drink while flying but when
standing on the edge of small pools. During the second week in October, 1936,
the flies were extremely numerous, swarming on the grass and worrying cattle.
They were only active on bright, calm days.

215 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

Females bred in captivity refused to bite, and only a small proportion of the

captured flies kept in cages bit readily. One female fed to repletion on my arm
on 20th Oct., took a smaller feed on 21st and 22nd, but would not feed again
(Plate x, fig. 2). A number of captured flies of both sexes were put into a field
cage with food and water, and a rat was provided for blood feeds. Under these
conditions the flies lived no longer than 8 or 9 days, and no egg masses were
produced. Cameron notes that in British and North American Tabanids only
fertilized females will bite, and in the case of Haematopota pluvialis ’ it is excep-
tional for the female to bite more than once before oviposition, which takes
6 to 12 days after the feed.
The larvae of T. froggatti were found in the soil on the slopes of Black Mt.
(Plate x, fig. 1). They were most abundant in the banks of a permanent swamp
caused by the outflow from a septic tank, but were also found adjacent to small
transient swamps produced by.the drainage from taps. They live below the soil
from just under the grass to a depth of two inches, and somewhat deeper on the
banks of drains. When about to pupate they may be right on the surface among
grass and debris. The larvae were found at various stages of development,
indicating that they are never aquatic, but live in more or less moist soil all
their lives. The larvae of T. froggatti were much more abundant than
T. neobasalis, which occurred with them, and have not been found elsewhere than
Black Mt. They were always obtained by digging and turning the soil, and
breaking the clods. None were found by sieving wet mud, or by netting in the
water among weeds and algae. =

The larvae were present in the soil from 15th August to 10th October, 1935,
and during September, 1936. As many as 20 may be dug out in half an hour
near the permanent swamp. For the last week of collecting, practically all the
larvae found were prepupal, and later digging yielded only pupae, which could be
found until November. During May and June, 1936, a few large larvae were dug
from the soil beneath sheep carcases which had been lying since March on a
higher, dry slope of the mountain. This part receives no drainage, and in
summer is very dry, although the soil under the carcases where the larvae were
found was naturally somewhat moist.

The soil in which the larvae occurred harboured also numerous earthworms,
a few Calliphorid larvae, and some larvae of the Tipulid, Jschnotoma species.
T. froggatti attacked earthworms and soon destroyed those supplied as. food.
When kept in one container they readily bite and feed on each other, and when
handled struggle vigorously, thrusting out the mandible and maxilla on one, or
occasionally both, sides with a distinct clicking sound.

The length of the larval life is not known, but the evidence available indicates
that the life cycle occupies one year. The larvae seem to reach full growth in
summer and autumn, remain in a dormant state through winter, then feed again
in’spring before pupating.

The Larva (Plate x, figs. 5, 6).

The smallest larva was 11 mm. and the largest 22 mm. in length, with every
gradation between. They were measured after being killed, being slightly longer
when alive and fully extended. The following description is taken from a live
larva: The skin is shining, and strongly, evenly and coarsely striated. It is
sufficiently transparent for the internal organs to be visible. There is no pigment
in the skin, which is uniformly cream to pale yellowish, often with a greenish
tinge. The spiracle is orange, and the mouth parts brownish in colour. The

BY MARY E. FULLER. 219

complete head is visible through the skin of the thorax, and Graber’s organ is
readily distinguishable beneath the dorsal surface of the eighth abdominal segment.
Certain rugose portions of the skin appear to be pale brown on freshly collected
larvae, but this is due to the particles of soil adhering to them. The dorsal vessel
contains a bright green granular material, which gives the appearance of a green
median stripe. The stomach contents are the reddish colour of earthworms.

The larva is narrow and elongated, tapering both ends, but more noticeably
at the anterior end. The thoracic segments have a band of finely rugose skin
round the anterior border, that on the first segment being widest (Text-fig. 1). In
each segment the dorsum is marked off by a pair of narrow projections of rugose
skin running back from the anterior band, and the lateral areas are marked off
from the ventral in a similar manner. The first segment has a central projection
on.the ventral area, whilst the second and third have a pair of ventral projections.
The abdominal segments have not a complete anterior ring of rugose skin as have
the thoracic segments, but there is a slightly raised transverse ridge, both dorsally
and ventrally, just behind the anterior margin in the first seven abdominal
segments. This ridge is covered with rugose skin, and on the ventral surface
bears a pair of blunt prominences. In some larvae each of these is divided into
two by a slight depression. lLaterally there is a strong, blunt, rugose papilla, the
pair on the first and seventh abdominal segments being less prominent than the
others. The abdominal segments are divided into dorsal, lateral and ventral areas
by fine lines of dots situated in slight furrows. These are spots where muscles
are attached to the skin. The eighth abdominal segment is short and broad,

‘ Text-figs. 1-5.—Tabanus froggatti.
1. Anterior end of larva (stained), x 20.—2. Posterior end, x 20.—3. Posterior
spiracle, x 200.—4. Graber’s organ, x 200.—5. Antenna, x 140.

220 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

being a little less than half as long as the others (Text-fig. 2). The skin is more
coarsely striated than the rest of the body. The large anus, situated ventrally,
has prominent swollen lips, and is surrounded by a fleshy ridge of rugose skin.
The segment slopes backwards from the anus to the small postero-dorsal
prominence which bears the spiracle, and which represents the siphon of aquatic
Tabanid larvae. The spiracular prominence is surrounded by a circle of rugose
skin. A pair of small pilose patches occurs dorsally, with another pair laterally.
In some larvae there is another very small patch anterior to and between the
dorsal and lateral patches. The rest of the segment is evenly striated.

On the ventral surface of each thoracic segment and about the centre, a pair
of small hairs arise, one each side of the mid-line. There are also a few minute
hairs on the dorsal and lateral areas of the thoracic segments. The abdominal
segments, with the exception of the last, bear a transverse series of six hairs
ventrally, in the anterior half, and there is a similar series of weaker hairs
dorsally, and four on the lateral areas.

The spiracles. (Text-fig. 3.)

The tracheal trunks converge towards the spiracular prominence in the eighth
abdominal segment. When they enter the prominence each ends in a large,
laterally compressed felt-chamber, these being closely coherent. Through a vertical
slit in the skin of the prominence the stigmata emerge as a pair of curved ridges
crossed by a series of chitinous bars, giving them a ‘“‘scalloped” appearance. The
edges of the slit are marked by a row of tiny finger-like protuberances. These,
with the stigmata and the felt-chambers, are coloured orange. The slit may be
closed against the stigmata or expanded outwards, allowing an air passage down
each side, called the ‘‘Vorraum des Stigmas’” by Stammer (1924). The spiracular
prominence bears small setae in groups of three. A pair of these occur at the
upper and lower corners, and a smaller one just below the middle, each side of
the spiracle.

The anterior spiracles are only visible with the naked eye when the larva
is about to pupate, and the head is permanently withdrawn. They are a pair of
slender lateral tubes projecting straight out from the first thoracic segment near
its posterior margin. The surface shows a curved stigma with a scalloped appear-
ance as in the posterior spiracle. The felt-chamber runs the length of the external
tube.

The skin of the larva is of three layers: the outer thick striated skin, a
median smooth glassy layer and a thin elastic inner layer. Special muscles
attached to the skin cause a pattern of small dots on the surface in the slight
furrows separating the various regions of the segments. The other muscles
are attached beneath the rugose parts of the skin. The rugose skin is formed by
the pinching up of the surface into wavy ridges, each ridge being finely papillate,
with some approaching more to setose, the small projectidns varying from blunt
to sharp pointed. All are directed backwards. The form of this skin is the same
in every part where it occurs, but in places it is more finely ridged and papillate
than in others.

Graber’s organ. (Text-fig. 4.)

This is visible under the skin of the dorsal surface of the eighth abdominal
segment, just anterior to the spiracular prominence, and opens to the surface
through a tiny funnel-shaped depression at the junction of the eighth segment
and the prominence. The surface of the body is curved here and the opening

BY MARY E. FULLER. 221

is only visible from the posterior view. The organ consists of a small terminal
chamber divided into two by a longitudinal vertical wall, each division containing
a round black body attached to the top end by a stalk. Behind the terminal
section is an empty pear-shaped chamber from which a long narrow tube runs
to the opening, and contains two detached black bodies near the posterior end.
All the black bodies are the same size. In all the Tabanid larvae examined
Graber’s organ was the same, probably the normal condition for the last instar.

The head.

The head when withdrawn reaches the posterior edge of the second thoracic
segment, and when the segments are also contracted and telescoped it reaches the
first abdominal segment. When fully extended it just projects into the second
thoracic segment. There is an extension of the finely rugose skin of the fore-
border of the first thoracic segment, which forms a thin membrane over the head
to the base of the mouth parts. When the head is withdrawn, this membrane
forms a long invaginated tube with the mouth parts at the bottom.

The epicranium consists of smooth chitin, heavily pigmented in the posterior
two-thirds, especially towards the sides, and with the dark brown marking
produced back into two fine points posteriorly where the plate fuses with the
ends of the tentorial rods. Anteriorly the epicranium curves round the sides to
form the lateralia, and medianly it is produced into the rostrum. There is a
black eye-spot on either side beneath the surface of the lateralia and on a level
with the gular plate.

The hollow tentorial rods run the length of the head from the base of the
mouth parts. They converge and take an upward curve near the anterior end
just above the eye spots, and in this region are connected with the epicranium
by a curved chitinous bar. Just behind the mouth parts the rods fork, the outer
and shorter branch, which is strongly chitinized at the end, articulating with the
base of the maxilla, and the inner and longer projects into the back of the closed
buceal cavity. At the posterior end they expand into a thin wing-like portion
which joins the end of the epicranium.

The chitinous pharynx runs from the labium beneath the tentorial rods in
the centre of the head ventrally, for half the length of the head and then between
the rods to the end, where it expands slightly. The floor is most heavily chitinized,
appearing as a bar from the side. In cross-section the pharynx is V-shaped. The
salivary pump is situated ventrally near the middle of the head. It is large, oval
with a concave, strongly chitinized, upper surface and a thinner convex lower
surface, A wide duct connects with the labium at the anterior end, and from the
posterior end a duct leads to the glands. There are valve structures where these
ducts join the pump.

The antenna (Text-fig. 5) arises from the end of an elongated plate of the
lateralia. This plate projects from the surface and has well-defined limits, giving
it the appearance of a basal segment of the antenna. The first antennal segment
is elongate and cylindrical, with the apical segment very fine, pointed and bifid.
The clump of spines which appears as a brown spot behind the base of the
antenna is close to the inner side of the antenna.

Mouth parts.

With the exception of the mandibles the mouth parts are of transparent,
nearly colourless chitin. The most anterior point of the head is the up-turned
tip of the labrum, which projects out between the mandibles. The labium, in
touch with the lower surface of the labrum, does not extend so far forward. The
mandibles lie close to the median labrum and labium, and outside and a little

Z

222 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

below these are the maxillae, their palps extending in front of, below and slightly
inside the antennae. Dorsally, between the base of the mandibles and the
antennae, are the two bunches of “piercing spines”.

The labrum (Text-fig. 6) is laterally compressed, with the upper edge most
strongly chitinized and consisting of a down-curved narrow trough continuing
from the rostrum. The anterior extremity is a small up-turned tip. On the
ventral surface there is a small invagination where an upgrowth from the labium-
pharynx projects. Just in front of this there is a region covered with hairs and
small furrows. On the edges of the upper curved surface there are four pairs of
sensory hairs arising from tiny pits.

The labium (Text-fig. 6) is a delicate dorso-ventrally flattened plate ending
anteriorly in two pointed glossae, and bearing on the ventral suiface near the

:

Text-figs. 6-9.—Tabanus froggatti and T. gentilis.

Labrum and labium, x 100; lp, labial palp; ph, pharynx; sd, salivary duct; fr,
tentorial rod.—7. Mandible and maxilla, x 140; 0, mandibular orifice; mp, maxillary
palp.—8. Posterior end of male pupa, x 60; dc, dorso-lateral comb.—9. Mandible of

T. gentilis, x 140; h, hair above orifice.

bo
bo
co

BY MARY E. FULLER.

posterior extremity a pair of slender forwardly-projecting palps. The palp is
one-segmented with a group of sensillae at the apex. The labium bears a few
fine hairs on an upgrowth of the dorsal surface near the glossae. A large duct
from the salivary pump runs into the labium and opens between the glossae on
the dorsal surface. The upper surface of the labium is fused with the anterior
end of the pharynx, there being a peg-like projection just behind the glossae
attached to the lower surface of the labrum.

The mandible (Text-fig. 7) is composed of heavy black chitin, is slightly
curved and has a blunt apex, behind which the longitudinal canal opens on the
dorsal surface. It is strongly toothed along the lower concave surface. The
maxilla (Text-fig. 7) is triangular in shape, of thin chitin, with the short rounded
tip extending a little in front of the mandible. The anterior edge below the tip
is fringed and haired. A large palp arises from the lower anterior edge. It has
a short wide basal segment with an upgrowth bearing a hair on the outer side, a
median elongated segment, and a short blunt apical segment. There are two thick
chitinous sclerites at the base of the maxilla connected with the tentorium. <A
short curved bar, running from the outer surface at the back of the maxilla, also
connects them with the bunch of spines, which are stiff, light brown, and simple
or bifid.

The Pupa. (Plate x, fig. 3.)

The pupa is slightly curved throughout its length, the dorsal surface being
convex. It is 14 to 16 mm. in length. When newly formed the colour is bright
bluish-green, which changes with development to dull whitish-green on the
abdomen and dark brown on the thorax and head. A few days prior to emergence
the whole pupa becomes black. It is slender, the greatest width being
approximately 4 mm. The shell left after emergence of the fly is of delicate, semi-
transparent chitin.

The chitin of the head and thorax is wrinkled all over. On top of the head
is a pair of prominences, each bearing a double bristle. On the back of the head
there is another pair. Below the antennae on the ventral surface are two pairs
of bristles, the upper pair being the further from the centre. Near the base of
the leg-sheaths each side is a prominence bearing a double bristle, and laterally
there is a bristle at the base of each wing-sheath.

The prominent ear-shaped mounds of the thoracic spiracles are dorso-lateral
and just behind the eyes. The slit is in the form of a wide C. On the dorsum
of the thorax are two pairs of large bristles. The narrow metathorax bears three
pairs of bristles laterally. The tips of the wing-sheaths reach to the second
abdominal segment. Hach of the abdominal segments except the last is divided
into dorsal, lateral and ventral areas by longitudinal furrows. The lateral region
appears as a narrow ridge running the length of the abdomen. Near the centre
of each segment on this lateral ridge is a spiracle in the form of a small backward-
pointing projection, with a curved scroll-shaped slit, the opening of the scroll
being anterior. Hach segment except the last bears a girdle of spines on the
posterior half. The first segment has only two pairs of spines dorsally and three
laterally, in place of the complete circle of spines. Between the setose girdle and
the posterior border of the segment the chitin is finely rugose, and there is a
similar rugose band at the anterior border. The rest of the segment is much
more coarsely wrinkled. The spines are long, stiff and straw-coloured, somewhat
variable in length, with a series of very short spines in front of them,

224 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

The last abdominal segment bears the typical aster (Text-fig. 8) of six large
pointed projections. The two lower and side arms are approximately the same
size, with the upper pair slightly smaller. In the male the dorso-lateral combs
have three bristles, two large and one small. These vary to some extent. There
is a large anal tubercle with a continuous row of spines beneath. In the female
pupa the arms of the aster are smaller and not so spreading, the bristles of the
dorso-lateral combs are equal in size, the anal tubercle is small, and there is a
median gap in the row of bristles beneath.

TABANUS GENTILIS Hrich.
Systematics and Distribution.

Tabanus gentilis is very similar to T. froggatti, and doubtless often confused
with it. The differences in the two species have been pointed out by Ricardo
(1915). It appears to have a wider distribution than 7. froggatti, being recorded
from Barrington Tops, Kiandra, Kosciusko and Countegany, N.S.W.; Mts. Tidbin-
billa and Tinderry, F.C.T.; and Tasmania. Taylor (1918) also records it from
King George Sound, W.A.

Notes on Life-History and Habits.

T. gentilis has only been observed on the wing at Countegany (4,000 ft.
approx.). It was abundant at the end of January, flying low over grass and
swamps in a similar manner to 7. froggatti, although it gave the impression of
being a lighter-coloured fly. It was active only in bright sunlight, and attacked
cattle and humans, being rather more persistent and stronger in flight than
T. froggatti. This species was also collected feeding on Leptospermum and Epacris
flowers in the swamps.

The larvae were only collected once, during October, 1936, near the summit
of Mt. Tinderry (5,307 ft.). They occurred in dry soil, above and to the side of a
swamp. The soil contained no earthworms, but numerous Bibionid larvae were
present. They were very close to the surface under short grass, in the driest
parts. Their remarkable abundance may be judged by the fact that an area
approximately 15 by 4 feet yielded 36 larvae in an hour’s digging.

The Larva.

The larva is very similar to that of 7. froggatti, being distinguishable chiefly
by the chalk-white colour, all the 7. froggatti larvae seen being cream or yellowish.
It differs also in being slightly more robust, in having more opaque skin, which is
rather more coarsely striated, and in the rugose girdles and patches being more
distinct and obvious. The details of the rugose marks and patches are the same
as in 7. froggatti. A close examination of the head and mouth parts revealed no
essential differences from TJ. froggatti, with the exception of a small structure on
the mandible (Text-fig. 9). This was noticed in 7. gentilis only, and consists
of a delicate setose-like projection arising from the posterior margin of the
aperture on the dorsum of the mandible. It projects forwards across the pore,
and has a series of fine hairs on the underside. It is frequently depressed, lying
flush with the surface or pressed into the aperture. Although this structure has
not been described in any other Tabanid mandible it is possibly present, being
extremely difficult to detect when depressed into the pore. It could not be discerned
with certainty in 7’. froggatti or T. neobasalis.

The Pupa.

This is essentially the same as in. 7’. froggatti. The spines encircling the

segments are slightly longer, The aster is the same in shape and structure, but

BY MARY E. FULLER. 225

the dorso-lateral combs are larger, with the three spines approximately the same
length, and longer than in 7. froggatti. The distinguishing feature, however, is
the presence of lateral combs, which are entirely lacking in T. froggatti. They
are small rounded swellings, with ten to twelve short bristles.

TABANUS NEOBASALIS Tayl.
Systematics and Distribution.

T. neobasalis, which was redescribed from the type female and another
specimen from Tamworth by Ricardo (1915), was originally given the name
basalis by Walker. Taylor (1918) pointed out that Macquart had previously used
basalis, and changed the name to neobasalis. Ferguson and Henry (1920) note
that 7. neobasalis is not always easy to distinguish from 7. circumdatus in the
field, but is usually rare.

My bred specimens agree with Ricardo’s description. The male, which has
not been described, differs from the female in having densely pubescent eyes,
with the facets of the upper two-thirds enlarged. The hairs on the lower third
are shorter and blacker, whilst those on the upper part are longer and browner.
The whole body is more densely haired, especially on the thorax which, in addition
to the appressed gold hairs of the female, has a thick covering of long yellow and
black hairs. The median pale marks overlying the black stripe of the dorsum of
the abdomen are not usually so noticeable in the male as in the female. The
eyes of both sexes are always dull brown. The length varied from 11 to 14 mm.

The species has been recorded from Canberra, Brindabella, Tidbinbilla, Wee
Jasper, Yarrangobilly, Alpine Creek, Tamworth, Wolseley and Kendall.

Notes on Life-History and Habits.

Tabanus neobasalis is not so abundant in Canberra as 7. froggatti, only
occasional individuals having been observed and collected in the field. They
occur in December and January. Females attack cattle, and are more elusive
and swift in flight than 7. froggatti. One fly was observed attempting to bite a
sheep carcase.

The larvae were found in company with those of 7. froggatti from 14th August
to 18th November, 1935, being present after JT. froggatti had all pupated. They
were more numerous in September, 1936, as many as six being dug up in half
an hour. They were also found on the edges of swamps at Mt. Tidbinbilla
(5,124 ft.), Mt. Coree (4,663 ft.), and Mt. Tinderry (5,307 ft.). Like 7. froggatti,
they were found only in soil and never in mud. The feeding habits were not
observed, but the larvae were always associated with earthworms.

Of several pupae collected in the field one produced a small parasite, which
was later identified as a species of Spilomicrus.

The Larva. (Plate x, figs. 7, 8.)

The larva is thicker and more robust in appearance than that of T. froggatti.
The length of those examined varied from 14 to 23 mm., and the greatest width
was 5 mm. The colour is deep cream to pale yellow, the skin is transparent and
strongly and evenly striated all over except in certain hirsute areas. The striations
are coarser than in 7. froggatti, but the dark brown marks on the dorsal surface
readily distinguish it from 7’. froggatti. There is no pigmentation as in Scaptia
larvae, the colour of the marks being due entirely to the close massing of fine
hairs, which vary from straw colour to a deep brown according to their position.
The thoracic segments (Text-fig. 10) each have a wide, light brown hirsute band
at the fore border, that on the first segment being much narrower than in

226 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

T. froggatti. In all the abdominal segments there is a posterior band of hairs as
well. The marks on the thorax correspond to the pale lines in 7. froggatti, which
in that species are only clearly visible when stained. In 7. neobasalis they are
dark brown, the dorso-lateral pair being especially well developed.

Text-figs. 10-13.—Tabanus neobasalis.
10. Anterior end of larva, x 20.—11. Posterior end, x 20.—12. Antenna, x 140.—
13. Posterior end of male pupa, x 60; de, dorso-lateral comb; Ic, lateral comb.

On the abdominal segments there is a mid-dorsal dark brown spot on the
anterior hirsute band, extending the width of the band and projecting on to the
striated surface posteriorly, and the hind border of the previous segment
anteriorly. Corresponding to the dorso-lateral lines in 7’. froggatti there are dark
brown triangular marks projecting back from the hirsute band and forwards
from the posterior border of each segment, their points approaching and in some
old larvae and prepupae joining to form a longitudinal stripe. In most larvae
they form a stripe on the seventh segment. The eighth abdominal segment
(Text-fig. 11) has a pair of large dorsal patches corresponding in position to the
dorso-lateral marks on the other segments, and a smaller central patch near the
fore-border. In old larvae the dorsal patches extend to join the wide dark ring
of hirsute skin surrounding the spiracular prominence. In all larvae a lateral

laf

BY MARY. E. FULLER. 227

band connects this ring to the skin around the anus, which is hirsute, but lighter
in colour than the dorsal patches. The anus and surrounding ridge is much
larger and more prominent than in 7. froggatti.

The spiracular prominence is striated, the striae curving and twisting in many
directions. The hairs have the same arrangement as in 7’. froggatti, and are also
in groups of three. The spiracles and felt-chambers are dark brown.

The rows of dots representing muscle attachments on the skin occur in the
same position as in 7. froggatti, and are associated with the dark brown marks.
The actual spots are much larger. The rows of delicate hairs on the thorax and
abdomen are similar to those in 7. froggatti. Graber’s organ is the same as in
T. froggatti, and is visible from the dorsal surface, except in old larvae with
extensive marks, lying between the posterior ends of the dorsal marks and in
front of the ring round the spiracular prominence.

The head.

In general, the features of the head, tentorium and mouth parts are the same
as in TJ. froggatti. There are, however, some slight differences in detail. The
head and mouth parts are rather more strongly chitinized and are larger and
stronger. The eye-spots are darker and more conspicuous. The salivary pump
is larger and more elongated. The mandibles are longer, narrower and darker.
The ‘piercing spines” form a larger and more noticeable spot, and they are
individually longer and denser. Whereas these spines are simple or bifid in
T. froggatti, in T. neobasalis they are bifid, trifid, and a few have four points, the
main fork being long and the others smaller and spread out fan-wise. The
wing-like posterior end of the tentorial rod has a thin strip of the chitin on its
dorsal surface darkened, making a distinct mark. The labium has a more
pronounced dorsal projection associated with the end of the pharynx, and the
glossae are narrower and more pointed. The up-turned tip of the labrum is
slightly different in shape, the dorsal trough is deeper, and the hairs longer.
The under surface is much more hairy, there being a long fringe projecting from
each side of the small pad infront of the junction with the pharynx, and a row
of hairs along the sides where it roofs the buccal cavity. The antenna (Text-fig. 12)
is similar to 7. froggatti, but the first segment is slightly longer and narrower,
and the bifid apex longer and stronger.

The Pupa. (Plate x, fig. 4.)

The pupa has the same shape as in TJ. froggatti, and is 15 to 17 mm. long
and 5 mm. at its greatest width. It is darker in colour, has greenish tinges on
the abdomen and dark brown to black shadings on the head and thorax. The
chitin is thicker and firmer, and is shining and glossy, that on the thorax being
smoother than in 7. froggatti. The spines on the head and thorax are the same,
but the anterior ring of smaller spines in front of the girdle of larger ones on the
abdominal segments is better developed and more conspicuous, and the larger
spines are longer and denser.

The chief differences are in the shape and size of the thoracic spiracles,
which are larger and flatter than in 7. froggatti, and of smoother, shining chitin,
and in the details of the aster (Text-fig.13). The slits of the abdominal spiracles are
in the form of a wide C, rather than scroll-shaped as in 7. froggatti. The dorso-
lateral combs bear six bristles, and lateral combs also bearing six bristles are
present in addition.

228 BIOLOGY OF TABANUS SPECIES,

DISCUSSION.

The Tabanus larvae described above differ in three major characteristics from
European and American species.

1. All other species described have the thoracic segments unstriated on the
dorsum. Stammer (1924) uses this character in a key to genera. Under Tabanus
he says, “the dorsal face of the thorax less striated than the rest of the body or
completely free from longitudinal striations”. Under Hezxatoma he says, ‘“‘thorax
striated like the rest of the body”, which latter description agrees with my larvae.
Marchand (1920) states that the thorax is striated above in Chrysops and smooth
or nearly so in Tabanus. In his general description of Tabanid larvae, Stone
(1930) says that the striae of the skin are lacking in the dorsum of the thorax
in Tabanus, and uses this character in a key to genera. Hill (1921), who described
Queensland Tabanid larvae more like the Huropean forms than mine, does not
mention whether any of the species had the dorsum of the thorax smooth or
striated. All his larvae were aquatic.

2. Another peculiar feature of the larvae of TJ. froggatti, T. gentilis and
T. neobasalis is the truncated posterior end. All other Tabanus larvae described
are pointed posteriorly, most having long siphons. Neave (1915) states that the
abruptly truncated siphon is peculiar to the genus Haematopota, whilst in Tabanus
the end of the anal segment forming the base of the siphon is long and tapered.
The Australian Tabanus larvae figured by Hill and by Johnston and Bancroft
(1920) have long siphons.

3. The larvae are definitely terrestrial, specimens of JZ. froggatti and
T. gentilis even having been taken in quite dry soil, whereas most other known
Tabanus larvae are aquatic, or at least semi-aquatic. It is possible that the first
two peculiar features of the larvae are expressions of their unusual environment.

The Australian species of Tabanus fall into two main groups—the bare-eyed
group which forms part of the Indo-Malayan element, appears to be related to the
old world species, and to which the larvae described by Hill and by Johnston and
Bancroft belong, and the hairy-eyed group constituting the sub-genus Therioplectes,
which has a more southern distribution and would appear te belong to the
Antarctic element of the fauna. It is difficult to find reliable adult characters to
justify the separation of the two groups, the hairs on the eyes being exceedingly
minute and sparse in certain species. The species described in this paper are
typical Therioplectes, and the larval characters discovered support the separation
of the hairy-eyed group, at least sub-generically.

Acknowledgements.
The author is indebted to Dr. I. M. Mackerras for information on the
Tabanidae, and for assistance in the preparation of the paper, and to Mr. W. J.
James for the photographs.

Bibliography.

CAmMbrRON, A. E., 1934.—The Life-History and Structure of Haematopota pluvialis Linné
(Tabanidae). Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, lviii, 1, p. 211. ;

FERGUSON, E. W., and Henry, M., 1920.—Tabanidae from Camden Haven District, N.S.W.,
with Descriptions of New Species. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xliv, 4, p. 828.

Hiuu, G. F., 1921.—The Bionomiecs of Tabanus aprepes and other Australian Tabanidae.
Bull. Ent. Res., xvi, 4, p. 293.

JOHNSTON, T. Harvey, and Bancrorr, M. J., 1920.—Notes on the Life History of certain
Queensland Tabanid flies. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queewsland, xxxii, 10, p. 125.

MARCHAND, W., 1920.—The Early Stages of Tabanidae (Horse-flies). Monographs of the
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, No. 13, New York.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PEATE xX.

Tabanus froggatti (figs. 2, 3, 5, 6) and JT. neobasalis (figs. 4, 7, 8).

BY MARY E. FULLER. 229.

Neave, 8S. A., 1915.—The Tabanidae of Southern Nyasaland with Notes on their life-
histories. Bull. Hnt. Res., v, p. 287.

Ricarpo, G., 1915.—Notes on the Tabanidae of the Australian Region. Ann. Mag. Nat.
HiSts,.7 SCL) (8s) ovis Ds DO:

SramMMeEr, H. J., 1924.—Die Larven der Tabaniden. Zeitsch. fiir Morph. und Okologie der
Tiere, I Band, Berlin, p. 121-170.

Stone, A., 1930.—The Bionomics of Some Tabanidae (Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc. America,
S15) 2) DP. Zo:

Taytor, F. H., 1918.—Studies in Australian Tabanidae. Rec. Aust. Mus., xii, 5, p. 53.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1.—Slope of Black Mt., Canberra, where the larvae of Tabanus froggatti and
T. neobasalis occur.

Fig. 2.—Female T. froggatli in the act of biting. « 4 (approx.).

Fig. 3.—Pupal shell of T. froggatti. x 4 (approx.).

Fig. 4.—Pupal shell of 7. neobasalis. x 4.

Fig. 5.—Larva of 7. froggatti. x 4 (approx.).

Fig. 6.—Larva of 7. froggatti (stained) showing rugose bands.

Figs. 7, 8.—Larva of JT. neobasalis. x 4 (approx.).

230

THE GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES.*
By J. MacponaLtp HormeEs, Ph.D., Professor of Geography, University of Sydney.
(Plate xiii; three Text-figures.)
[Read 28th July, 1937.]

Progress in soil science has been rapid and revolutionary. Changes have taken
place, not only in soil description, but in the sources from which the knowledge
has been forthcoming. Formerly advances were made through geomorphology,
but now they are greatest in the realms of chemistry and biology.

Soils have been divided into mature and immature soils, and for the most
part soil science has confined itself to mature soils. This paper deals with the less
mature soils which are characteristic of very large areas in eastern Australia.

Soil and Slope.

In any topographic unit, and irrespective of rock homogeneity, such, for
example, as a major drainage area, there occurs a series of soils which bear some
relation to each other; such a group we have called a soil assemblage. In any
section of that unit, for example, a valley side, there is a sequence of soils down
the slope; such a sequence we have called a soil succession. Such succession is
characteristic of all ‘“‘slopes country” and is developed step by step clearly in
certain topographic situations. Theoretically the change down the slope, i.e., the
outline, is the profile of the land surface in all geographical literature, and that
is the English use of the word, though ‘profile’ is used for an outline of a transverse
section of an earthwork showing the thickness at various heights. In soil science,
‘soil profile’ has been used for what is really ‘soil cross-section’, i.e., change with
depth. Milne (Nature, Vol. 138, No. 3491) comments on this and has used the
word ‘“catena” for soil changes down the slope.

Several diagrams have been prepared to represent such a generalized soil
succession for the majority of the inland slopes country of eastern Australia, and
more partieularly the New England, Tamworth, Mudgee, and Bathurst districts
of New South Wales. The overall distance apart of these districts is 250 miles,
which makes a region large enough to test the universality of the processes
mentioned.

The slope and site factors of these soil groups (Text-fig. 1) are fundamental;
one might call it topographic inertia in soil formation.

Group 1 are hilltop soils of increasing maturity.—They are always stony and
shallow, and rock outcrops frequently. Bore materials show a lessened amount
of stony material at first, but an increasing frequency towards the parent rock.
At shallow depth there is a deepening of colour and apparent increase in clay,
but always with grittiness. The deeper layers, after about two or three feet, show
surprisingly fresh rock-fragments. The colours of the hilltop soils vary consider-

* Field work in the Tamworth district associated with this paper was made possible
by a grant made to the University of Sydney by the Carnegie Corporation of New York.

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES. 231

ably in apparent relation to the immediate parent rock. Shales give grey colours,
slates red and brown to almost purple colours, and basalts generally chocolate to
black. Since these soils are on hilltops or in exposed positions, colour-spread is
common, especially if the area has been ploughed over. Profile characteristics are
only slightly developed.

5
SE
Se

Text-fig. 1.—Soil succession with slope (middle horizontal distance greatly
shortened). 1. Immature, stony soil; 2. Red loams; 3. River silts; 4. Black, heavy clay;
5. Light grey clay loam.

Text-fig. 2—Junction of 2 and 3 (dotted line suggests interdigiting).

Text-fig. 3.—(right) Section represented by Profile 1. Note sharp. junction
between C.p. and X horizons; (left) Continuation up hill from photograph on
right. Top, A2 horizon, then B horizon, C.p. (white), X (columnar), Y (undercut).

Group 2, in which middle slopes initiate aggregation and differentiation.—
Over much of the Western Slopes of New South Wales and especially on the hills
around Tamworth, the characteristic soils are deep, red loams. They form, for
the most part, the great wheat-belt soils and some of the best pasture land. These
reddish soils vary from chocolate colour, through red to brown and even to light
brown. They are often very stony, invariably containing high silty zones, and can
frequently be called ‘sandy loams’. These “red loams’” vary in depth on the upper
middle slopes from three to ten feet, and on the lower slopes to greater depths.
They form most frequently the convex surface, and often join the neighbouring
plain or flood plain in a slight break of slope. Since these slopes are of continuous
grade, and because the geological grain is often across country and the dip of

ERY GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES,

the rocks.is frequently at a high angle to the topographic surface, there is consider-
able variety of colour. tone in soils, but not related to the immediate underlying
rock type because of past denudation history. In general the darker colours are
on the lower aspects of the slope, except where recent rainwash, accelerated by
ploughing, has been active and exposed the deeper red-brown horizons, or where
the line of a little runnel has accumulated the rainwash of residual light-grey
soils. The profiles of these loam soils are complex, colour deepening with depth,
and also clay content. At the position of what might be expected to be C horizon,
there is increasing stoniness, but on boring deeper this is followed by a fresh
increase in clay content, which occurs in different physical condition from the
first clay zone. The change in the structural appearance is noteworthy: Profile 1
from Woolomin Parish, Portion 66 (five miles west of Tamworth), can be considered
as typical:

Profile 1.*
0”— 10” A horizons.—Light brown sandy loam.

10”’— 55” B horizons.—Reddish, then yellowish-brown sandy loam, increase in
clay and iron content, gritty, a few gravel zones.

55”— 67” C.p. horizons.—Sandy and pebbly, hardened, whitened, very abrupt lower
boundary. 53% coarse sand, 24% fine sand.

67’— 75” X horizons.—Grey-yellow columnar sandy clay, very distinctive zone.
16% coarse sand, 22% fine sand, clay content higher than above.

75’— 87” Y horizons.—Similar to X, less columnar, gravel increasing.

87”-107” Z horizons.—Continuation of gravel and clay zone, much compacted,
lighter in colour, and a basal zone of fresh slate pebbles, probably
underlain by disintegrated shale.

The topmost layer is hardened (other than the immediate ploughed surface,
which is loose) and stands out like a kerbstone. The B horizons are looser at
first, then more compact, while C.p. horizon is loose again. The chief contrast
is in the X horizon where the structure is distinctly columnar with sometimes
spaces between the columns, especially in a gully face. The Y horizon is compacted
and not columnar, while the Z horizon is often very compact and impregnated
usually with lime.

This repetition in the profile is widespread and has not been described before.+

The ordinary terms for description of depth profile therefore are inadequate
because of this ‘‘profile repetition’, and we use C.p. for pseudo-C because it is best
described as a false C. Further, there is probably something omitted between the
C.p. horizon and the X horizon—a likelihood of contemporaneous erosion.

Topographically these middle-slope soils lie as if filling in wide undulations.
Frequently the generalized surface is so smooth when ploughed that all evidence
of the streams which supposedly brought the material is obliterated. The total
situation suggests a wide filling in by sheet wash and under climatic conditions
more intensive than at present obtain.

At one time the whole of these slopes were covered with trees, possibly some
grassland, and since clearing, perfectly fresh gullies made by new assembly of
rain-water and by torrential rain wash have been formed, in some cases cutting

* The standard notation for A and B horizon differentiation has been used in these
profiles, though probably a different notation could be devised for still less mature soils.

+ Leeper, Nichols and Wadham, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. xlix (N.S.), Pt. 1, p. 113.
“The percentage of coarse sand passes from a maximum of 26 at the surface to a
minimum of 14 at 2 ft. and rises again to a second maximum of 23 at 3 ft., below
which it falls again.”’

Co

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES. 23

to a depth of five or six feet, and having a well-formed contributory stream
pattern, all having vertical wall sides. These types of gullies can be considered
as giving a good cross-section of the soil. At other places somewhat similar
gullies, but of an earlier phase, have been filled in and recut to rock level. These
later types of gullies can be used to give an indication of the nature of the
denudation repetition of the area.

The kind of accumulation that has gone on in these middle slopes and the
stratification of the deposits is not found to be happening anywhere in the district
at the present time. Further, any easy explanation of delta fan formation is
inadequate, as the scale of flattening from the width across the slopes in propor-
tion to the length down the slopes does not warrant such a conclusion. Again, the
present lie, convexity, and middle-slope position, and their occupation as wheat
and pasture lands make these red loams hazardous soil zones, that is to say,
easily erodable when ploughed; this state of affairs in itself suggests instability
of lie and a deposition under conditions not now obtaining.

Group 3, in which flood plains stabilize silt—This group of soils occupies a
practically flat surface bordering the middle-slope soils and forms river banks,
e.g., Peel River and its tributaries. This flood-plain landform occurs on most
creeks and rivers in eastern Australia, and the soils thereof are sometimes known
as ‘lucerne’ soils.

Now these flood-plain soils are light brown river silts, dark at top, occasionally
interstratified with blacker clay layers, and sometimes a thin pebble or gravel
bed. Such soils vary in depth from one or two feet to 15 feet, and are being
actively eroded at the present time. Although accumulation is taking place at
certain points, nothing comparable to the present soils for their depth is being
formed. Also some areas of these valuable dark soils are being deteriorated by
down wash and even by cutting from the middle slopes. The deeper layers below
the grey-black silts are often reddish, and bear some relation to the middle-slope
red loams. The very lowest layers are often of a yellowish to grey-blue clay,
underlain by large well-worn river pebbles. The whole profile shows several
phases of recurrent deposition in quiet water, but very little of what is usually
termed false bedding. Where the middle-slope soils and river-plain silts have been
found in close contact, it becomes obvious that the river silts are, in general, a
later deposit (Dungowan Creek Section), though sometimes interdigited.

The upper surface of these flood-plain soils slopes from the present river bank
inwards towards the middle slope. The junction zone at the surface is often a
depression filled with swampy, black, stiff clays (Text-figs. 1-3). These depressions
are rain-wash swamp pools and may coalesce, with the help of occasional ponded-
back flood river water, to become miniature creeks. The chief point is that they
are filled with stiff black clays, rarely silts. Less frequently a backwater or
flood distributary from a river occupies and may have formed this zone.

In the smaller and now almost dry creeks which, for the most part, are wide-
spread throughout the area, and such as occur in the Loomberah and Bective areas
(near Tamworth), the flood-plain soils are not dark alluvial, but yellow-brown
sands. They have been carried from some distance upstream and deposited against
the red loams. The boundary of the soil junction is often difficult to determine,
but usually the farmer has planted his fence with some degree of accuracy along
it, the red loam being good wheat land, and the yellow sand forming grazing and
treed land. Frequently the upper parts of these creeks have been themselves filled
in, usually by a very friable, dry, grey, silty loam. This latter soil probably

234 GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES,

represents savannah grey soil washed in after extensive clearings of the
surrounding country.

Groups 4 and 5.—Two other important soil types, not of great extent, have
developed in special topographic sites. The black, swampy clay has already been
mentioned; partly overlapping it and the middle-slope red loam is a light grey
rain-wash soil. These two soils (Text-fig. 2, Nos. 4 and 5) are found between
Nos. 3 and 2. The grey soil often forms a “line” up a middle slope where a slight
depression occurs, showing that it is superficial, and associated with recent wash
and possibly with the former woodland.

The further description of these soils and profiles necessitates structural,
mechanical and chemical analysis. This is being done in conjunction with a soil
survey at present being carried out in the Tamworth district by W. H. Maze,
Lecturer in Geography, University of Sydney.

Slope, Site, and Situation Factors in Soil Description.

From the previous description it is obvious that more than the immediate
first few feet of soil is worthy of attention if even the topmost layers of the soil
are to be understood, especially since those less mature soils characterize most,
if not all, of eastern Australia.

Now Text-figures 1-3 and Table 1 indicate, in ‘slopes’ country, firstly, that
changes in slope set soil boundaries, secondly, that many of the chief properties
of a soil type are given to it by its topographic site, and thirdly, that there is a
“state of being” in soil, which is not related to the immediate underlying rock,
but to the past history of the denudation of the region in which it is found.

The boundaries of soil in any succession are very important from the point
of view of mapping, though the precise boundary of the major soil-type is not
always observable at the surface. In Text-figure 1, for example, the points R, S,
are of extraordinary interest because the changes taking place in the succession
and in regional distribution can be so readily observed there. Perhaps the greatest
value of these critical points lies in the way in which they lend themselves to
speedy soil mapping. At once broad zones of a common “state of being” and of
like continuity and behaviour are delineated almost by eye, and certainly with only
a few borings.

At point R, in the Tamworth District, there is a line of change of maturity
at the surface. This is brought about at first by overlapping downwash and later
by gullying and sheetwash as a whole, so that Zone 1 is often being intensively
eroded and point R is being moved downhill, with the placing of the lower soil
regions of Zone 2 on top of that zone further down. In the past there was soil
accumulation in Zone 2 which was expanding uphill. Further, at point R, there
is a division of types of surface and sub-surface drainage of the soil.

At point S there are several types of change. If a slight hollow has been left
at this point, then a stiff, black swamp clay has formed (soil type 4), but this is
being altered at the surface by the formation of a lighter phase (soil type 5), and
both may be obliterated by extreme downwash from above (soil type 2) if excessive
cultivation has permitted gully erosion in the middle slope. Usually the boundary
between soil types 2 and 3 is quite sharp, often with a slight break of slope
(Text-fig. 2). With ploughing or excessive grazing, the silts are being over-
burdened with the coarser fraction of soil type 2, and the boundary is very
obscure. These breaks of slope and changes of soil are obviously of great
importance in soil-profile formation and in farm practice.

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES. 235

-Slope then has this immediate significance, that there are critical points on
the slope, usually breaks of slope, which have fixed the soil boundary, and this is
easily recognized for mapping purposes with a minimum of profile determination.

Again, irrespective of climate or of vegetation, but having certain modifica-
tions for different climatic types, the degree of slope determines the rate of
maturing of the soil, steep slopes possessing always immature soils, while more
gentle slopes, if undisturbed by human activity, have soils which reach maturity.
Furthermore, the nature of the slope may determine the mineral content by
continued and selective downwash. On slopes of more than 10° invariably there
is permanent immaturity, i.e., indefiniteness in profile subdivision, and a recog-
nizable rock character. On slopes of less than 10° there is something
of an equilibrium, less on convex, more on concave, providing there is a fair
vegetation covering. On slopes of the order of 2°, especially if forming general
concavity, great maturity and high clay content are common. In regions of
moderate rainfall, i.e., 20 to 35 inches per annum, we have noted that the clay
content increases with distance down the slope, provided, of course, the slope
angle is decreasing regularly (Table 1).

TABLE 1.

Land use type | Tree covered, | Cleared for | Ploughed for | Regular annual | Lucerne growing

partly cleared. grazing. wheat and wheat crops. | varying in in-
| lucerne. | tensity.
Tree type* .. | white box. | white box——-———>yellow box———————>apple. river gum.

Soil type (A | stony grey sandy | yellow-brown to red-brown | clay loam _ to | river silts.

horizon only) loam. | sandy loam to loam. | heavy black
clay.

Soil group and | steep slopes. middle slopes decreasing to flat. | Concave to flat >
slope (as in Group 1. Group 2. Groups 4 Group 3
Text-fig. 1) | | and 5.

Average land | about 1. | as low as 5, increasing to 20. 30 to 60 according to heaviness
value (£A) | and uniformity.

per acre (if | |
all of one | |
type) ..

* White box—Eucalyptus albens; Yellow box—E. melliodora; Apple—Angophora intermedia; River
gum—E. camaldulensis.

In brief, then, on exposed places, hilltops, spurs and rises, soil is becoming
increasingly immature, because of physical mobility. This is a persistent tendency.
On middle slopes, soils are aggregates derived from several rock types and from
several vegetation formations, all of which have come from measurable and
limited areas. This is still true even when there is a general homogeneity of rock
type, since the geological history of eastern Australia is very varied.

Flood-plain soils have cumulative and specialized silt characteristics, high
humus content, and are re-sorted so that the rock origin is unrecognizable and
the clay content is at a minimum. Plain soils in continued liability to flooding
are an anomaly in the sense that recurrent floods may alter the maturity or
immaturity according as the flood brings down coarse or fine silt, or even soil
from a neighbouring zone. Ancient flood plains, not now being flooded, will have
a soil-type distribution in relation to their past flooding history and to their lie
with relation to the immediate local source of the flood material and to the
vegetation developed upon the flood plain. Further, the present method of profile

236 GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES,

description is not nearly adequate in view of the repetition and the “arranged”
character of most of the slopes and flood-plain soils of eastern Australia. Perhaps
the most significant point about slope and soil is that there is a relationship
between the soils down the slope, and like slopes have many like properties.

Secondly, much can be said about the soil type from its topographic site.
Invariably the red loams lie on the middle slope and have experienced erosion
and subsequent accumulation, so that the unconsolidated material shows a
repetition, and even the topmost layers frequently exhibit that character. The
last major phase has been one of accumulation. This is shown by the fresh nature
of the repeated layers and the convexity of the surface as distinct from the
concavity of the underlying rock surface. Thus there is a speedier run-off in the
“slopes” area than one might expect, a more complete drainage, and although
much iron is present, there is rarely an iron pan, and aeration is comparatively
high. Thus, in the Tamworth District, for example, the middle-slope soils, which
cover the largest area, show accumulated characteristics, repetition in the profile
and a “convex lie”, a condition of affairs we have called ‘‘the state of being”.

From the point of view of soil classification and soil behaviour, the recog-
nition of a “state of being’ seems more important than determining the under-
lying rock. These middle-slope soils could be stated to have a false C horizon
(pseudo-C), and a mineral content recognizable only from an examination of the
soil-itself. Is this ‘‘state of being” of such universality that all, or nearly all,
upper, middle and lower slope soils bear a precise relation to each other, and are
characterized thereby, and that a new nomenclature needs to be added to soil
science?

From this evidence two major ideas are derived: (1) That the rock debris
and mineral content of the soil for most of the Tamworth region have been accu-
mulated from a wide zone and from regions of considerably different geological
history; and (2) that the present position of soil on any slope and the nature
of that slope are very important factors in bringing soil to its present “state of
being” and so contributing largely to the trends for change, both in the surface
and in the profiles of the soils. For these reasons any classification has to give
prominence to topographical site and slope, and the geomorphological history.
After much reconnaissance and trials, we consider that any regional grouping
should show (1) soil properties which obtain over all the area or large divisions
of it, (2) properties of many of the topographic divisions, and (3) special
properties of very limited regions. Bearing this principle of decreasing generaliza-
tion in mind, the following working schedule gives (from an examination of the
soil itself) an adequate basis for soil description and mapping:

1. The “state of being” of the soil (total unconsolidated layer), simple or
complex history, the recognition of soil assemblage and soil succession.

2. Evidences in the topmost layers of climatic boundaries (non-lime-forming

or lime-forming, degree of podsolization).

Boundaries of vegetation formations, or approximation thereto if land is

greatly cleared.

4. Recognition of major soil-type boundaries by topographic factor (following
on 1).

5. Further subdivision, by regional sampling, especially of topmost layers,
on basis of colour, texture and structure (as in standard soil science
practice for fully mature soils).

eo

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES.

bo
oo
-~]

In addition, still further subdivisions or separate units could be made in
regard to erodability, behaviour sequence, and other life history and biological
properties.

Although this might appear to be much more than is wanted by a soil survey,
it is necessary when one comes to inquire into the meaning of physical things and
the bearing of one soil type to its neighbour. At any rate, these are the steps as
they came to be recognized and their relative importance impressed upon us.

Now the Western Slopes country of New South Wales lends itself to such an
examination, but over wide, extensive plains, such a soil description may be
immensely more difficult to unravel. Nevertheless, as our observations show, the
above categorical schedule would function for some regions more than others, but
for practically all of eastern Australia, since eastern Australia is a land of
plateaux and uplands, of long, gentle convex slopes and wide valley plains. Further,
even in the far western plains (for example, in the Western Division of New South
Wales, which is the western half of the State, and what is there would apply to
western Victoria, northern South Australia, and south-western Queensland) much
gentle convexity is the commonest aspect of the landscape; and it is more than
an impression that the wide, extensive red soils characteristic of these western
regions bear some relation to this type of slope, especially when contrasted with
the equally extensive and slightly concave areas of grey soils, and the less
frequent, so-called, black soil plains.

There is some virtue in the above scheme. It lends itself to progressive
development with each fresh examination, for the generalized framework remains
constant and gains in value as each section of any area becomes more intensively
mapped, whether now or in the future.

Further, soil mapping requires to be expedited if it is to keep pace with
vegetation mapping and resources mapping generally, not to speak of agriculture
and road engineering progress. Soil mapping for resources purposes and for all
governmental work should be up-to-date in scientific procedure, but requires only
a certain scale of correctness (varying with the type of area), so that all major
points and boundaries of groups are fixed and general characteristics established.
Detailed soil queries in regard to a particular property will always require
visitation, and also in regard to scientific problems, but these are not reasons
why all soil work should be suspended until a highly trained staff of experts
working a few paddocks per day can traverse Australia. Soil science has
proceeded far enough now to allow fresh maps to be prepared by decades, the
lesser map incorporated in the greater. Further, whole new sets of facts about
climate-topography-soil, these three taken together, are required if farming is to
progress, and soil mapping of this more generalized kind is both adequate for
description and effective in application.

Some Interpretations.

In soil as in landform science, many of the observations can only be inter-
preted. There is no system of absolute proof, since much of the evidence has
been removed, and only the result is observable.

Now the most significant feature in these lesser soils, shall we say, is the
profile periodicity. More knowledge is needed than we can present here. In the
most frequent cases the stony or sandy layer in the middle position occurs only
once and we have called it a pseudo-C horizon (C.p.). It would most certainly be
mistaken for a C horizon if, say, a four-inch auger were in use. Although the
pseudo-C horizon is observable best in the gullies which truncate ploughed

238 GROWTH OF:SOIL ON SLOPES,
paddocks, the general smoothness of the whole surrounding filled-in middle slope
indicates that the repetition must be applied to more than a very localized profile.
In several cases these red middle-slope gravelly clays are used by brickworks,

and so a

wide selection of profiles is easily observable. In other cases road-

making operations and well-digging offer similar opportunities.

Profile 2. West Tamworth Brickfields.
0-12”. A horizons.—Dark grey to light fawn sandy loam (stony).
12”— 30”. B horizons.——Yellow to yellow-brown gravelly loams.
30”— 32”. C.p. horizons.—This is the termination of the B horizon, which makes

32”— 41”.

an abrupt junction with the X horizons below.
X horizons.—Dark yellow layer, columnar, ancient plant roots, highest
clay content of whole profile.

41”— 55”. Y horizons.—Red-brown sandy layer, not columnar.
55”— 67”. Z horizons.—Purple-tinted gritty layer overlying shale.
Profile 3. Bective Parish. Portion 100.
0 — 12”. A and B horizons.—Fine light grey sandy loam.
12”— 30”. .C.p. horizons.—Soil with angular pebbles.
30”— 36”. X horizons.—Clay and less pebbles, terminating abruptly.
36”— 47”. Y horizons.—Deposition zone of iron, clay and lime, hardened, also
ending in a sharp break.
47”— 65”. Z horizons.—Fine dark brown sandy clay chiefly, no stony material,
columnar.
Profile 4. Denistone Station, near Werris Creek.
0 — 36”. A and B horizons.—Typical black soil, high clay content.
36”— 60”. C.p. horizons.—Light brown sandy loam ending abruptly in fine gravel.
60”— 84”. X horizons.—Dark brown soil, columnar, high clay content, lime pipes
very well developed, not terminating in decomposed rock since
underlain by several gravel and pebble beds.
Profile 5. Ploughed area seven miles from Somerton on Gunnedah Road.
0— 6”. A horizons.—Fawn sandy loam.
6”— 54”. B horizons.—Similar to above, darker, slightly columnar.
54”— 66”. Light brown sandy soil.
66”— 72”. Soil and pebbles.

72”-108”.

108”—156”.
156”-168”.

C.p. horizons.—Brown soil ending in a sharp, but undulating line of
fine sand.

xX horizons.—Dark columnar, grey-brown soils of river silt type.

Y horizons.—Silt deposit, conspicuous lime pipe deposition, and large
pebbles at the base.

Z horizons.—Very compacted layer

of disintegrated rock, cemented

with spongy limestone, has the appearance of an artificially
cemented rubble.
Profile 6. Mudgee.
0 — 12”. A and B horizons.—Light brown sandy loam.
12”— 24”. C.p. horizons.—As above with increase in light gravel and pebbles.
24”— 42”, X horizons.—Columnar structure, increase in red iron.
42”— 60”. Y horizons.—As in X, absence of columnar structure, increase in
gravel.
Profile 7. Bathurst.
0 — 34”. Brown silty loam, lucerne.

34”

97”
oe

lwhlA
ie

Cia

Zone of quartz pebbles.
Brown silt.

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES. 239

67”— 77”. Black silt, very noticeable at a distance.

77”— 97”. Brown silt as above, but shaded into by black silt.
97”-121”. Slaty pebbles and silt.

121”-133”. Large pebbles in layers.

The above profiles (2-7), and our observations over the 2,000 square miles of
the Tamworth district, the Mudgee, Bathurst, New England, Lake George, and
Broken Hill areas, and the region from Adelaide to Tapley’s Hill, South Australia,
indicated wide universality of the pseudo-C horizon (C.p.). In some cases charred
wood remains are present, which indicate that the several feet of soil overlying is
of comparatively recent deposition, though before the time of the present tree
growth and well before cultivation. Where much accumulation has gone on in
the middle slope of recent date, due to ruthless clearing of the upper slope, or for
some reason where a new cycle of erosion has commenced, as in the Dungowan
Creek (Tamworth) district, the profile shows a very great degree of immaturity
and an irregularly mixed character.

The stony or gravelly nature of the pseudo-C horizon indicates a change in
the kind and rate of deposition. The layer below the pseudo-C horizon is a stiff
clay and may represent an old B, or even an A, horizon, now overlain by several
feet of soil which has been long enough in position to have its own A, B, horizons.

Why this change in deposition should have taken place is harder to explain,
yet it must have taken place before Huropean occupation of Australia, which in
many of the areas under discussion has only become intensive in the present
century.

The pseudo-C horizon, the soil-type distribution patterns, their depth in
certain areas, and the absence of depth where depth might be expected, and the
inability of the present forces to form such soils to-day, suggest past conditions
of slope and climate, perhaps of elevation, different from those of to-day. There is
recent acceleration of erosion (a new cycle some would call it), apart from that
additional erosion brought about by man-made factors of clearing, cultivation, etc.
This is confirmed by a statistical examination of erosion on upper, middle, and
lower slopes, where many fresh evidences are apparent, by erosion on both banks
simultaneously and on the beds of creeks, and by the advance of the hill slope
against the flood plain at all re-entrants. Further, there is a general convexity of
the aspect of the elements of landscape. This, of course, in addition to the long
period of erosion to form the general drainage pattern already mentioned.

It is fair speculation that an examination of the soil profile and the classi-
fication of soils as above may give information which will help in the solution of
the immediate past climate of Australia and confirm other meagre evidence that
Pleistocene times were more pluvial than the present. The periodicity in the
profiles and the widespread distribution of deep middle-slope soils, and the extent
of the valley floors indicate a greater period of deposition over the area than
obtains at present.

The sequence of events from the deposition evidence suggests a development
of the landscape over so long a period of time that the stream pattern bears little
relation to the geological grain of the country, for example, streams traverse
anticlines and synclines indiscriminately (Currabubula Creek, the Peel tribu-
taries). During this period a soil surface was developed. At a very much more
recent date, and somewhat cataclysmic in its incidence, increased denudation
took place which involved a smoothing of the landscape, greatly increasing
deposition eventually on the middle slopes. There was greater flow in the rivers
and, as this flow decreased, wide silt plains were built up. This increased

240 GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES,

deposition throughout the slopes country was not a single event but a period of
events which slowed down. Yet more recently, and accelerated by land usage of
to-day, denudation has become revived and is removing the previous widely-spread
deposition. It is possible from this evidence that the land was more rugged and
at greater elevation than at present, or that, in view of the comparative flatness
of the New England area, and other areas in eastern Australia at a high elevation,
there was in recent geological times a general uplift of considerable amount, and
the effect of this uplift has made itself felt most in slopes country.*

In early determinations of soil, rock character was given pride of place, and
as long as the A and B horizons can be shown to be directly related to a C horizon
which is being formed from disintegrating rock in situ, then the rock-type name
will indicate the soil-type name, and in very immature soils no better classification
can be suggested. From the previous discussion, however, it is obvious that the
disintegrated rock spreads from one rock type to the next, and in the case of the
middle-slope soils, as already stated, the soil type bears little relation to the under-
lying rock type, and the rocky character of most silt soils cannot be given an
immediate origin.

One tendency on slopes is towards uniformity of soil type, since forces making
for erosion and transfer are obliterating the distinctions outlined above (Table 1);
the grey hilltops merge into the red loams and both encroach on the river silts,
which in themselves are being eroded away. This is so not only in the realm of
soil but in land valuation. Loams (soil type 2) are valuable wheat soils, while
river silts are still more valuable lucerne soils. If erosion continues there will
be a general uniformity of soil type and a reduction in value throughout to the
lower level (Table 1).

In the Western Slopes of New South Wales, with the initiation of a fresh
cycle of activity the natural tendency would appear to be towards increasing
immaturity, which is the real issue in soil erosion as distinct from the part played
by farm husbandry.

In Text-figure 1, soil types 4 and 5 are a light covering (No. 4 may be three
or four feet deep) of more recent soils, and are a continuation of that process of
smoothing out the topography which was begun many decades ago, though the
greater processes of erosion are going on alongside. This is where the complexity
lies, namely, the relative value to be attached to contradictory processes going on
simultaneously.

There is still another aspect. In the International Soil Classification, colour
is given a high place as a soil indicator, and to a great extent soils are classified
on their colours. It has been shown already that the soils in the Tamworth
District take their colour to a great extent from their topographic position, the
general mass of soils being dark flood soils and red loams, though in the neighbour-
hood of rock outcrops the rock type may be said to determine the soil colour. For
example, shales give grey soils, basalts dark red-brown to black, slates red, granites
yellow to brown soils. Where the land has been only recently ploughed there is a
thin remnant of colour, probably derived from the nature of the primeval
vegetation. Further, the chocolate, red and brown colours are very difficult to
distinguish because of frequent ploughing, frequent burning of stubble and
especially because lateral soil wash spreads the material from the topmost zone
and also frequently exposes the deeper reds and yellows of the B horizon.

*W. H. Maze is testing this by making a Slope Variation Map of part of the Western
Slopes of New South Wales.

BY J. MACDONALD HOLMES. 241

It is this very variety of colour-change which gives many clues to soil
behaviour, so that to average the colour for a single paddock destroys the very
evidence one requires. The usual method of colour determination as an indicator
of soil type when applied to moderately mature soils would appear to be rather
ineffectual.

As mentioned at the beginning of this paper, soils must be described from
their inherent qualities, and with world-wide possibilities of correlation, yet
climate-topography-soil are inseparable, and if soil is to be considered one thing,
and not a multitude of different things, they dare not be divorced. Furthermore,
climate-topography-soil conjointly are the basis of regional policies of land usage,
and perhaps even of farm husbandry—but that argument must await another
occasion.

In summary, then, soil can be considered as the end point of landscape develop-
ment and the idea of growth, separate and contemporaneous, used as a basis of
classification. Further, soil types have persistent characteristics due _ to
topographic inertia. Thus do major soil groups become recognizable in the field.
In the topographically less stable soils physical change is the most important
feature, but in the more stable the chief changes are chemical. These changes,
too, vary in given sequences with soil depth, according to the original and accumu-
lated mineral content, the vegetation formation, and the present climatic régime.
Thus depth profile gives a further basis for group subdivision, though these profile
ehanges themselves promote soil uniformity over any given climatic region where
soil accretion is nil.

Again, if the soil growth be periodic in well-defined stages—a feature
observable best in the less mature soils—changes in the type and rate of denudation
are indicated. This periodicity may make possible the measurement of changes in
tectonic forces and/or long-range climatic succession.

In eastern Australia soils are still forming. In some localities this is recog-
nizable by a planing-off of a convex and still unstable slope and the filling-in of an
equally unstable concavity. This smoothing-out of the topography is not likely to
be completed since statistical counts of these apparently contradictory processes,
in conjunction with hilltop erosion and changes in river behaviour, favour a wide-
spread rejuvenation of the whole denudation processes.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

The four colour photographs in Plate xiii in conjunction with Text-figure 3
are a pictorial conspectus of the types of country in the Western Slopes of New
South Wales. The Dufay Colour Film used has over-emphasized the blue tones,
especially in the reflected colour of the river water (Fig. 4); otherwise the colours
are typical.

Fig. 1.—Soil cross-section as in Text-figure 3. Shows especially columnar clay
zone undercut in middle position and the pseudo-C horizon above it.

Fig. 2.—Typical agricultural occupation on soil group 2. Foreground shows
grazing land fully cleared; a few dead trees still stand. Middle distance shows
lower convex slope with typical tree types remaining from original open woodland,
and young wheat (green). The far middle distance shows a typical low, stony
rise, with sufficient soil on it for ploughing, on which high wheat yields are possible
in years of good rainfall.

Fig. 3.—A small section of country shown in Fig. 2, representing a convex slope
in young wheat, but eroded by gully formation. The A and B horizons in the soil
are shown by light and dark tints in the red. This was taken following a good
rainy season and the floor of the gully is occupied by weeds. Typical grazing and
treed slope in background.

242 GROWTH OF SOIL ON SLOPES.

Fig. 4.—This shows the typical lucerne flat bordering the Cockburn River and
also the other rivers of the district. The flat nature of the surface is indicated
and the depth of silt; the vertical cross-section is typical and is due to under-
mining and collapse. The surface covering is lucerne. At this point a river flood
had carried away much valuable lucerne area, as indicated by the fresh cross-
section and the lucerne growing right up to the edge.

For geographical accuracy Figures 1 and 4 should be reversed. They have
been processed from the wrong side of the positive colour film.

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243

ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.
1853-1936.

(Memorial Series, No. 7.)
(With Portrait.)

Lucas came into the world on 7th May, 1853, at Stratford-on-Avon, where his
father, the Rev. Samuel Lucas, F.G.S., was a Wesleyan Minister with a passion
for Natural Science, whose calling took him over the greater part of Hngland
and Wales, holding short tenancies in various towns. Lucas may thus be said
to have been nursed in the lap of science and intellectual traditions, which he
appears to have assimilated with gusto at an early age. At Brynmawr (S. Wales)
and Helston (Cornwall), where his father was superintendent of the Wesleyan
circuit of the district, the small boy revelled in wild flowers and sea shells, and
even in old age recalled ‘the daffodil covered meadows’ and ‘the clear pools among
the rocks, themselves covered with hbladder-wrack. I can smell the penetrating
odour to-day’. Launceston, Stow in the Wold, where father and two boys collected
Liassic fossils, High Wycombe (Bucks), Longton (Stafford), Scorton (Lancashire),
Methwold (Norfolk), St. Neots (Huntingdon), and finally Cambridge were succes-
sive homes. Though the Wesleyan Conference looked askance at this dallying
with a dangerous science, the small boy Arthur was a doughty champion of his
parent, when, as a lecturer on ‘Geology and Genesis’, the Rev. Samuel became
embroiled with the local inquisitors. A strange boyhood, through which a clearly
unusual parentage prevented the production of a prig or a pedant, that might
have evolved from such environments. This notable father seldom had more than
£150 a year as stipend, though getting certain allowances and making a little by
the sale of fossils. In the very interesting Autobiography, written in recent years,
Lucas wrote: “As a very small boy of four to six years, he would show me the
specimens he obtained from the mines, and made me a little cabinet of my own
in which I kept my small specimens of Quartz, Galena, Towanite (my favourite
for its brilliant colours), Iron Pyrites, Serpentine from the Lizard, and so on. He
made assiduous search for plants, and named with strange names, which, however,
gradually came to stick in my memory. This kind of guidance was continued in
later circuits, until I became familiar with most of the fossiliferous strata in
England and with the majority of the plants of the British Isles.”

The practical knowledge gained in these early years, with little aid of text-book
or formal teaching, enabled him to win the Burdett Coutts Geology Scholarship
in the University of Oxford, and as a medical student in London, the Gold Medal
awarded for Botany by the Apothecaries Society (T. H. Huxley won only the
Bronze Medal in his day).

At the New Kingswood School, Bath, where Lucas spent seven years—the
seventh under the Scholarship awarded as Head Boy of the previous year, Science
had no place and he never had a lesson in Science. This school, founded by
John Wesley for the ‘sons of the prophets’, imposed an iron discipline in which

244 ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.

‘Thou shalt not Play’ appeared to be the first commandment. The only playground
was asphalted, where a favoured few could play cricket, and there was a moderate
gymnasium. Chunks of dry bread and a pannikin of milk for breakfast and for
tea, with a little meat at dinner, constituted the Plain Living. “Never allowed
outside the school precincts alone, we worked in half-years, with five weeks’
vacation at Xmas and five in the Summer.” Yet the teaching was good, for it
turned out a Senior Wrangler in J. F. Moulton and a great engineer in Sir Robert
Perks. In the later days of his school life the Spartan system of early days was
greatly modified. Dr. C. J. Prescott, who succeeded Lucas at Newington, was a
small boy in the school in Lucas’s time. Annually they were entered for the
Oxford Local Examinations. In the Senior Exam., at the age of 15, Lucas came
14th, and next year 2nd in all HEngland—a position which won for him an
Exhibition at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was enrolled eighteen months later.
His last year at school, as also his last year at Oxford, was interrupted by a severe
attack of pneumonia—the second of these gravely threatening his career. Balliol
College in 1870 was under the great Benjamin Jowett. Asquith (later Harl of
Oxford), Alfred Milner, R. H. Roe (the greatest of Australian schoolmasters),
W. H. Mallock (the novelist), were fellow undergraduates. But, though a new
world was opened to him, he was amongst men of a different upbringing, and as a
shy boy of 17, poor and poorly clad, he was unable to indulge in the social life of
Oxford, unable even to subscribe to the sports clubs. At one time he even thought
of trying for a scholarship at Magdalen, of higher value than his Balliol Exhibition.
On consulting Jowett he was met by “You are quite right not to come on your
father and you mustn’t go to Magdalen”, and was straightway helped with cheques
that enabled him to continue his course. A first class in Mathematical Mods. was
followed by a course for Finals in Mathematics and Natural Science, but the
catastrophe of a chill and pneumonia led to a special aegrotat degree. Actually
he was given a short Honour paper containing the more difficult questions from
the examination of the year, and awarded fourth class Honours. This, however,
was counterbalanced by the Burdett Coutts Scholarship, an open University
prize, with considerable emolument, that enabled him to pay his medical fees. He
had followed his older brother to London, where he promptly won the Entrance
Science Scholarship at the London Hospital. Half-way through his course, owing
to the death of his father and the dangerous illness of his brother, who was ordered
to leave England, he sacrificed his medical career and shouldered the financial
responsibility for his brother’s three young children—their mother had died—
and accepted a mastership at the Leys School, Cambridge, where he taught
Mathematics and Science for five years. Here he founded a Natural History
Society and a Museum, to which he presented the valuable collection of fossils
inherited from his father, as well as the family collection of plants, comprising
1,200 out of the 1,400 described species of British Flowering Plants and Ferns.
This Museum acquired quite a reputation later, when one of the boys made great
finds in the Pleistocene beds of the Cam valley. Lucas made full use of his
Cambridge period, working at the Cavendish Laboratory, under Clerk Maxwell,
and Glazebrook, and under M. Garnett at the Woodwardian Geological Museum,
and attending Professor Bonney’s lectures. As a result he was commissioned to
investigate the plutonic rocks of Guernsey and to report on some strata in the
Isle of Wight, where he spent a winter vacation with a Leys boy. His paper on
this was published in the Geological Magazine and alluded to with approbation by
Robert Etheridge in his Presidential Address to his Section of the British Asso-
ciation. He was also elected a Fellow of the Geological Society, his sponsors

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 245

being Sir Joseph Prestwich and Professor Boyd Dawkins. At the Leys School
Lueas played with the Rugby Football Team with some success—the only recorded
instance of his share in any field sports.

In 1883 Lucas was appointed Mathematics and Science Master at Wesley
College, Melbourne, the Head Master of which, A. S. Way, had been a boy and
Master at Kingswood. The journey across Hurope to join the S.S. Cuzco at Naples
was a belated honeymoon, for he had married in 1882. His brother, Dr. T. P.
Lucas, was already in Melbourne, and he was mightily attracted by the prospect
of studying a new fauna and flora. The Orient boats then used to coal at Diego
Garcia, a coral island in the Indian Ocean, where he went ashore and, charac-
teristically, nearly got left behind through his intense interest in his first coral
beach combing. He was rescued by the Orient Manager getting him back to ship
and wife in a dug-out paddled by Mauritian natives. Lucas gives an amusing
account of the science teaching and equipment at Wesley in 1883. Of course he
started a Natural History Society and Museum, making lifelong friends, including
Herbert Brookes, who wrote a delightful appreciation of his old Master in the
Wesley College Chronicle (August, 1936). Lucas was probably the first teacher to
introduce Field Study of Nature into a school. Taking an ad eundem degree, he
became a member of the Melbourne University Senate, and, by his efforts, a
motion was carried to establish a separate Chair of Biology, and the appointment
of Baldwin Spencer followed. He became President of the Field Naturalists’ Club,
founded by his brother, and edited the Victorian Naturalist for some years. He was
a close friend of Baron von Mueller, who presided at a farewell gathering on the
eve of his departure for Sydney.

With J. Burslem Gregory, Lucas went for a 200-mile tramp through hitherto
untramped country to Wilson’s Promontory, collecting plants and shells, after
which the Field Naturalists’ Club—at Lucas’s suggestion—persuaded the Govern-
ment to proclaim the Promontory a Reserve. The Journal of this Club, which
Lucas edited till 1892, is still a model of its kind, while the Club has a member-
ship of 300, with a monthly attendance of 50 to 70.

Besides his school work in the mornings, Lucas engaged in Tutorial work
at Ormond and Trinity Colleges at the Melbourne University, and was largely
instrumental in the foundation of Queen’s College, of which he was Senior Fellow
and Tutor in Science, his colleagues being A. W. Howitt, Rev. Lorimer Fison and
Professor Dendy. He also found time to work up the Lizards of Australia, to
publish papers on the Amphibia and Fishes of Victoria, and to start the Port
Phillip Biological Survey. In this he was greatly aided by Baldwin Spencer, and
together they persuaded the Ministry to erect a Biological Laboratory at a cost
of £10,000. Only after some consideration did he decline Spencer’s offer to become
Lecturer in Biology; otherwise his course of life would have been materially
different from that actually followed. It was at Spencer’s suggestion that the
“Introduction to Botany” by Dendy and Lucas was written, a work that has been,
and still is, in much use amongst students.

From 1892 to 1898 Lucas was Head Master of Newington College, Stanmore,
during which period the school enrolment increased by 50 per cent., and a high
University honour roll ensued. In Sydney he at once joined our Society, whicn
then had five members who achieved their F.R.S. (David, Haswell, Hill, Maiden,
and Wilson). He went on geological excursions with David, and became the close
friend of J. J. Fletcher, with whom he explored the wonderful sandstone areas of
Sydney and the Blue Mountains. On one of their trips they left Sydney in the

BB

246 ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.
evening, walked 10 miles from Bell, to reach the summit of Mt. King George at
6 a.m.

His first papers in the Linnean Proceedings were mostly on Lizards.
Altogether he contributed 14 papers, those of the last ten years chiefly on Marine
Algae, of which he was the acknowledged Australian authority. Two papers also
were written in conjunction with others. A member of our Council from 1894
till his death (with the exception of two years, 1924-26, spent in Tasmania), he
was President 1907-09. His Presidential Address of 1908 is a model of sane
pleading for the proper relation of the State to Science, and should be read by
those who did not have the privilege of hearing it. In 1909 he set a useful example
in laying on the table the MS. of his ‘Revised List of the Fucoideae and Florideae
of Australia’ as a substitute for less concrete matter.

He was specially selected to give the Memorial Lecture to his brother botanist
and friend J. J. Fletcher, and his own words on this subject fitly describe himself
as teacher: “There is perhaps one word only in which may be summed up both
his discipline and his instruction — sincerity. He hated all humbug and shams, but
he loved all that is true or beautiful or good in nature, in literature and in human
character.”

In 1899 Lucas became Mathematical and Science Master of the Sydney
Grammar School. Here he worked for 25 years; was acting Head Master during
the war years—when Mr. Sloman was at the front—and, after the resignation of
Mr. Sloman, in his own right till 1923. As a sideline in 1906 he assisted with the
lectures in Geology and Physiography at the Sydney University, during the absence
of Professor David. He also, for many years, was Examiner in Chemistry for the
Technical College, Sydney.

As a teacher, Lucas possessed a phenomenal versatility of knowledge which,
combined with unusual patience, equability of temper, and a genuine love of the
young, made him notable in his profession. During his career at Newington and
the Grammar School his personal pupils won the medals, given for the best
candidate in the University Senior Examinations, in no less than 13 different
subjects. One of these fell to a lad who, short of a subject, took up Physiology,
and sat in Lucas’s classroom during certain hours picking up the intellectual
crumbs that fell during the few available spare moments of class teaching.

Besides the Sciences—including Mathematics—Greek, Latin, German, Ancient
History, and especially English Literature, came with equal facility, and he would
discuss some French verses he had written with the French Master, or compose
an English sonnet to illustrate its earlier form. A ripe English scholar, he was
especially selected at Wesley to take the VIth Form in English, whom he regaled
on a wide range of reading, from ‘Ralph Roister Doister’ to ‘The Ring and the
Book’. With a rich fund of quotations, often humorously applied, with a twinkle
in his eye, he would poke fun at an entomologist friend with lines from Browning
or satirize a piano-playing nuisance with a clever parody on Walt Whitman. In
(or about) 1900 he gave, by special request, two memorable lectures before the
Teachers’ Guild of New South Wales on ‘Maximum and Minimum Temperature’,
with impressive experiments carried out on the platform on steel welding and
liquid air respectively. One of the most remarkable fruits of his learning was his
linguistic powers. From school he brought a sound scholarship in the classics
and French, with some proficiency in German. With little continental travel, or
other inducement than the desire for information from foreign books of Science,
Lucas set himself to master a difficult language as a holiday pastime. Thus, while
spending a summer vacation with him at Twofold Bay, the writer found him

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 247

reading Don Quixote in the original Spanish. He acquired Italian in order to
study the ‘Sylloge Algarum’ of De Toni. He took up Russian in order to read a
Russian author on Lizards; and this was no light dalliance, having its practical
application during war years, when he was the only available interpreter who
could attend a law court and help some Russian refugees in trouble. He also
gave a lecture at the school on modern Russian Literature.

With a backward pupil he, on one occasion, not once or twice, but five times,
explained the working of a problem in Algebra. When someone commented on
his patience he answered simply, “If I hadn’t done it the fifth time the other
four times would have been wasted.’ Herbert Brookes says of him, “he had a new
way otf teaching in those far off days. I question whether any other teacher in
Australia has touched so intimately and deeply the lives of so many young
Australians’, and he quotes as appropriate to Lucas, “Knowledge may be gained
from books, but the love of knowledge is transmitted only by personal contact’.
Of his modesty one may quote his own words on J. J. Fletcher: “His aim was
not to be talked about for doing something, but to do something great because it
was a fruitful thing to do.”

In 1923 he retired from school work, but not to rest. On Professor Carslaw’s
recommendation he accepted the Chair of Mathematics in the University of
Tasmania, as Acting Professor; surely a unique performance for a man of 70.
To quote Dr. Prescott, “Few men would have cared, or dared, to take such a
responsibility at his age. But in his quiet way he was a daring soul’. In
November, 1924, he wrote: “It has been an interesting experience, and I have
enjoyed the work, though it has been rather strenuous, as I was very rusty. They
have asked me to take similar work through next year and I have agreed, but I
think I shall be glad actually to begin to rest.” Again, in October, 1925, he wrote:
“Tasmania has, I believe, rejuvenated me, and I shall part from her, and the folk
here, with much reluctance.” Amongst these folk were Mr. and Mrs. L. H.
Lindon—the former Head Master of Geelong and an old Grammar School
colleague—and Mr. and Mrs. Perrin, who shared in his algae hunting. During
the last decade of his life Lucas showed his ‘rejuvenation’ by his active research
on the Algae. He wrote the article ‘Algae’ for the Australian Encyclopaedia. With
Mrs. Perrin he collected the seaweeds of the Barrier Reef and of Lord Howe
Island. As Curator of the Algae he was allotted a special room at the Botanic
Gardens. The Commonwealth Government sent him on a special mission to report
on the economic possibilities of the seaweeds of Western Australia. Paying a
visit to Rottnest Island, by special permission—for this island is wholly reserved
as a penal settlement—he stayed for a week in the Governor’s quarters and “was
driven from point to point of the coastline in the prison van and assisted in the
collection by two convicts. These men so enjoyed their association with him that
they continued to collect for him and communicated with him afterwards”. Such
was his power in winning affection from all sorts and conditions of men. “It
was the response to his own genuine affection for all humanity, birds, insects and
plants. He was, in very truth, one of the world’s great lovers and recalls the
spirit of St. Francis.” (H.B.)

Since the death of his wife, Lucas lived at Roseville with his daughter, Mrs.
Cortis-Jones, and her husband. Here he loved to grow the native shrubs, flowers
and ferns collected in his rambles. Every summer was spent in Victoria and
Tasmania collecting Algae and knowledge to the end. He published classified
lists of the Algae of Tasmania, Tropical Queensland and of Australia in general,
also of Lord Howe Island. Since his death, Part 1 of ‘The Seaweeds of South

248 ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.

Australia’ has been issued by the South Australian Branch of the British Science
Guild (June, 1936).

In this Handbook, besides enumerating and classifying, with copious illustra-
tions, the Green and Brown Seaweeds, he gives (1) An Outline of the Progress of
Phycology in Australia, (2) Hints on Collecting and Preserving Seaweeds, (3)
General Notes on the Classes of Sea Plants, (4) The Work of Seaweeds in Nature,
(5) The Uses of Seaweeds to Man. In common with many other scientific men—
notably with his fellow Linneans David and Tillyard—Lucas was a skilful
draughtsman and photographer; and the illustrations of this and other works are
from his own drawings or slides.

Alas! he overtaxed his waning strength when, at 83, he faced stormy weather
on the rocks of Warrnambool in May, and a cold developed into pneumonia. On
the train journey homeward he collapsed at Albury and died in the Albury
Hospital three weeks later (10th June, 1936) from heart weakness. A large
gathering paid their last homage at the service, held in the Roseville Methodist
Church. Here his old schoolfellow and fellow Head Master, Dr. C. J. Prescott,
gave an eloquent address. Representatives of every class of the community were
there, including many old colleagues in Science and Education and the prefects
of the two schools where he had held sway. Hulogistic notices have appeared in
the Wesley College Chronicle and the Sydneian—in the latter from four sources,
and these have been quoted freely in the present Memorial. Perhaps the most
outstanding characteristic in him was that self-effacement that sprang from
extreme modesty and a humility learnt from his Puritan forbears. ‘Lucas helps
you to believe in Christians’, said Mr. Weigall to Dr. Prescott. It was this
common heritage, as much as scientific sympathy, that was the bond between
Lucas and Fletcher. They were alike in their scorn of material profit. Fletcher’s
refusal of higher salary or assistance when he considered that the Society couldn’t
afford it is matched by the refusal of Lucas to accept more than £1,000 a year as
Head Master of the Sydney Grammar School, though offered £1,500, for a similar
reason. This self-effacement also formed a veil which dimmed the radiance of
his work in the public eye. His name does not appear in the Australian Who’s
Who, though its pages are filled with the names of lesser men. The great sacrifice
of his medical career in the interest of his brother has been already noted. Other
acts of unselfishness were almost every-day features of his life. Here is one
that was clearly impressed on the writer’s mind at the time.s AS a rare indulgence,
Lucas, together with Fletcher, joined a botanical expedition to Mt. Kosciusko,
organized by the late J. H. Maiden. On the first day, wandering in this floral
Elysium, he and Fletcher became separated towards the evening; Lucas—always
a poor bushman and, as on Diego Garcia, lost to the world in the worship of
Pan—was veritably bushed, and unable to find the camp. He managed, however,
to find his way to the Observer’s hut on the summit, where he was detained for
48 hours by a dense fog. Unfortunately a returning horseman passed the Maiden
Camp that evening, heard that Lucas was lost on the mountain, and spread the
news. This obtained headlines in the Sydney evening papers, and an Over-
zealous cleric took it to Mrs. Lucas. Lucas hastened home to console a harassed
wife, giving up a well-earned holiday. Reference has already been made to the
Autobiography written in his late years which it is hoped will see the light of
publication. Here is told the brave struggle of a gifted lad who, under the rare
teaching and example of a splendid father, chose to scorn delights and lead
laborious days, careless of reward but ambitious in effort. Some verses written
recently by Lucas and quoted in full in the Wesley College article may be given
here in part to show the strength of this early influence,

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 249

Stow on the Wold, Gloucestershire. 1862.

“Of a year of my childhood the scenes I behold
Where we lived on the hillside of Stow on the Wold,
For its fields and its faces remain with me yet,

And the folks and the flowers I never forget,

Where the wind blows cold
On old Stow on the Wold.

In the white quarries of fossils a store,
In the deep railway cuttings a hundredfold more,
How the navvies delighted tobacco to spy
When they saw the good parson advancing to pry
In the clay stiff and cold
Of old Stow on the Wold.

For a bargain in fossils the parson was keen,
And he knew them, from Cambrian to Post-Pliocene,
When he lectured, the Clergy looked wise as they knew,
For the Squire in the Chair gave the Clergy the clue—
We must Science uphold
In old Stow on the Wold.”

Some of his friends lamented that his gifts would have more appropriately
adorned a University Chair than the Schoolmaster’s desk. Yet, while it is clear
that he could have filled almost any Chair of Science as efficiently as he did that
of Mathematics, he himself was well content to be employed usefully; cheerfully
carrying out the drudgery that went with the endless looking over of examination
papers—elsewhere described as soul-destroying work; ever holding aloft the lamp
of lofty aims and noble ideals. His portrait by Hanke—a tribute of admiration
from Old Boys—hangs in the Assembly Hall of the Sydney Grammar School. It
is a great thing to have passed on such a record. Few men have earned so
thoroughly the title ‘scholar’ as he whose whole life was spent in the pursuit of
knowledge: and this, not to be stowed away in some mental lumber room, but
to be utilized to the full for the benefit of his fellow men.

Of his family his daughter Ida married Mr. H. F. Cortis-Jones of the Newington
College Teaching Staff; a second daughter, Grace, married Dr. J. O’Keefe. Three
grandchildren are living.

As an appropriate ending to the Memorial of a great Linnean I am permitted
to quote the spontaneous homage of an eminent Melbourne citizen, whose heart,
as well as his hospitable home, was so freely open to the loved teacher of earlier
years.

To A.H.S.L.
When at the last, as that great tide of God
Sweeps on me with its never ending flow,

And I am lifted up and borne along
Upon its buoyant breast, as all must be;

And gently flung upon some quiet shore, tT os

And tranquil inlet of those Happy Isles: /O
There on that golden strand, full well I know, pg = i
I shall behold that old familiar form ; =
Of him I learned to cherish in this life,
Bending as was his wont above the weeds, *
Shaking their beauty forth from foreign dross, -
And fondling with an earth-begotten love.
There shall I join his club of kindred souls,
Formed to prospect that other Out-of-Doors.
Still, still, he shall reveal to me those dear
And precious things, that are not for the mart,
To which my untrained eyes are mostly blind.

Herbert Brookes.

H.J.C,

250 ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.

LIST OF PAPERS BY A. H. S. LUCAS.
1882.
On the Headon Beds of the Western Extremity of the Isle of Wight. Geological
Magazine, n.s. Decade ii, Vol. ix, p. 97.

1885.

Charles Darwin in Australia. Vict. Nat., ii, p. 20.
1886.

Note on the Habits of Hermit Crabs. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxii, p. 61.
1887.

On the Sections of the Delta of the Yarra, displayed in the Fisherman’s Bend Cutting.
Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxiii, p. 165.
On the Sound Organs of the Green Cicada. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxiii,

p. 173.
On the Production of Colour in Birds’ Eggs. Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxiv (1),
p. 52.
1888.
Presidential Address. Vict. Nat., v, p. 1.
1889.

Victorian Sharks. Vict. Nat., v, p. 175.
Presidential Address. Vict. Nat., vi, p. 45.

1890.

Short Address on Recent Progress in Biology. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) ii, p. xvii.

A Systematic Census of Indigenous Fish, hitherto recorded from Victorian Waters.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) ii, p. 15.

On the Occurrence of Kraussina lamarckiana (Davidson), at Williamstown, with a
Census of the Victorian Brachiopoda. Proc. Roy. Soa Vict., (N.S.) ii, p. 48.

On some Additions to the Fish Fauna of Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) ii, p. 63.

Notes from the Biological Laboratory of the Melbourne University. (1) On the Occur-
rence of a Partially Double Chick Embryo. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) ii, p. 111.

Zoology: Vertebrata. In ‘“‘Handbook of Victoria’, Aust. Assen. Adv. Sci., Melbourne
Meeting, 1890.

The Geographical Distribution of Land and Fresh-water Vertebrates in Victoria. Rept.
Australasian Assocn. Adv. Sci., ii, p. 558. (Title only.)

1891.
On the Occurrence of certain Fish in Victorian Seas, with Descriptions of some New
Species. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) iii, p. 8.
A Visit to Lake Nigothoruk and the Mount Wellington District, Gippsland. Vict. Nat.,
vill, 17. (With A. W. Howitt and A. Dendy.)

1892.
A New Species of Fresh-water Fish from Lake Nigothoruk, Mount Wellington, Victoria.
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) iv (1), p. 27.
Note on the Distribution of Victorian Batrachians, with Descriptions of two New
Species. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. (N.S.) iv (1), p. 59.
An Introduction to the Study of Botany, with a Special Chapter on some Australian
Natural Orders. (With A. Dendy.) (Melbourne, 1892.)

1894.
On a new Skink Lizard from Tasmania. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, viii, 1893,
pt. 2; p» 227. (with GCG Frost.)
The Lizards indigenous to Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) vi, p. 24. (With GC.
Frost.)

1895.
Preliminary Notice of certain New Species of Lizards from Central Australia. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) viii, p. 264. (With C. Frost.)
On the Formation of a Mackerel Sky. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ser. 2, ix, 1894,
pt. 3, p. 551.

1896.
Further Preliminary Notice of certain Species of Lizards from Central Australia,
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) viii, p. 1. (With C. Frost.)

MEMORIAL NOTICE. 261

Descriptions of a new Species of Ablepharus from Victoria: with Critical Notes on two
other Australian Lizards. Proc. LINN. Soc: N.S.W., xxi, pt. 3, p. 281. (With GC.
Frost.)

1897.
On some Facts in the Geographical Distribution of Land and Fresh-water Vertebrates
in Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) ix, p. 34.
Description of two new Species of Lizards from Central Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Vict., (N.S.) ix, p. 54. (With C. Frost.)

1898.
Contributions to a Knowledge of the Fauna of British New Guinea. Lacertilia and
Batrachia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxiii, p. 357.
Distribution of Lizards in the Pacific. Rept. Australasian Assocwmw Adv. Sci., vii, p. 663.
(Title only.)
Histology of Podocarpus. Rept. Australasian Assocn. Adv. Sci., vii, p. 664. (Title
only.)

1900.
Description of a new Lizard from Northern Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.)
xii (2), p. 145. (With C. Frost.)
1901.
A Census of Australian Lizards. Rept. Awstralasian Assocn. Adv. Seci., viii, p. 256.
(With C. Frost.)
1902.
Descriptions of some New Lizards from Western Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict.,
(N.S.) xv (1), p. 76. (With C. Frost.)

1903.
Description of two new Australian Lizards, Varanus spenceri and Diplodactylus
bilineatus. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (N.S.) xv (2), p. 145. (With C. Frost.)

1908.
Presidential Address. The Relations of Science and Government. Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., xxxiii, p. 1.
1909.
Presidential Address. Revised List of the Fucoideae and Florideae of Australia. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv, p. 1.
The Animals of Australia. (With W. H. D. Le Souef.) (Melbourne, 1909.)
The Future of the Pacific. Rept. Australasian Assocn. Adv. Sci., xii, p. 385.

1911.
The Birds of Australia. (With W. H. D. Le Souef.) (Melbourne, 1911.)

1912.
The Gases present in the Floats (Vesicles) of certain Marine Algae. Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., xxxvi, 1911, pt. 4, p. 626.
Supplementary List of the Marine Algae of Australia. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxvii,

its db, To ale,
ISLS }a
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. i. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxviii, pt. 1, p. 49.
1914.
Marine Algae. N.S.W. Handbook, B.A.A.S. Meeting, Australia, 1914, p. 459.
1916.

Notes from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney: Parthenogenesis in Aquatic Phanerogams.
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xli, pt. 3, p. 417.

1917.
An Efflorescence on some New Zealand Kelps. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xli, 1916, pt. 4,
p. 676.
1919.

The Algae of Commonwealth Bay. Australasian Antarctic Hxpedition, 1911-14,
Scientific Reports, Series C, vii, 2.

Notes on Australian Marine Algae. ii. Description of four new Species. Proc. LINN.
SOG UNESAWss XLiva Dpto en tlai4Ar.

A Week among the Sea-weeds at Portsea. Vict. Nat., xxxvi, p. 60.

Ferns grown in the Open. Vict. Nat., xxxvi, p. 89.

252 ARTHUR HENRY SHAKESPEARE LUCAS.

1925.
Algae. The Illustrated Australian Encyelopaedia. Vol. i, p. 47.

1926.
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. iii. The Australian Species of the Genus
Nitophyllum. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., li, p. 594.

UDA
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. iv. The Australian Species of the Genus Spongo-
clonium. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lii, p. 460.
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vy. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lii, p. 555.
On an additional Occurrence of Bythotrephis in Victoria. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne,
No. 7, p. 157. :
1929.
The Marine Algae of Tasmania. A Classified List of the Algae which have been recorded
from Tasmania and the Adjacent Islands. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas., 1928, p. 6.
A Census of the Marine Algae of South Australia. Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., liii,
yo, Gh),
1930.
Joseph Henry Maiden. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lv, p. 355.
Fletcher Memorial Lecture, 1930. Joseph James Fletcher, an Idealist Secretary. Proce.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lv, p. 738.
UO ayal.
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vi. Descriptions of six New Species. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., lvi, p. 407.
The Marine Algae hitherto recorded from North-east Australia. Reports Great Barrier
Reef Committee, iii, p. 47.
The Caulerpas of Victoria. Vict. Nat., xlviii, p. 84.
HS BBF
An Australian -Sea Rover. [Asparagopsis armato.] Vict. Nat., 1, p. 133.
A Pioneer Botanist in Victoria. [Dr. W. H. Harvey.] Vict. Nat., 1, p. 186.
1934.
Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vii. The Algae of the Low Islands. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., lix, p. 348.

1935.
The Marine Algae of Lord Howe Island. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lx, p. 194.

1936.
The Seaweeds of South Australia. Part i. Introduction, and the Green and Brown
Seaweeds. (Adelaide, June, 1936.)

bo

ON THE IDENTITY OF THE BUTTERFLY KNOWN IN AUSTRALIA AS
HETERONYMPHA PHILEROPEH BOISD., 1832.

By G. A. Warrertwousr, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.
[Read 29th September, 1937.]

One of my tasks, when in London during 1936, was to ascertain, if possible,
the precise locality in Australia at which the species described by Boisduval in
1832 as Satyrus philerope was obtained. This name has been applied to a species
of Heteronympha allied to H. merope Fab., 1775. My investigations, however,
have led me to the conclusion, as shown below, that the name philerope cannot be
used for the species to which it has been applied for about 80 years and, indeed,
must sink as a synonym of Satyrus klugi Guér., 1831.

It is well known that considerable confusion has arisen in regard to the insects
obtained during the French voyages in the Pacific during the early years of last
century. The localities are often interchanged, and sometimes the specimens
collected on one voyage are mixed with those of another voyage. Then, again,
different entomologists wrote on different voyages almost contemporaneously. The
two voyages which form the basis of this discussion are the voyage of the ‘Coquille’
and the voyage of the ‘Astrolabe’. L

The only port in Australia touched at by the ‘Coquille’ was Sydney, from
17 January to 22 March, 1824. Whilst at Sydney an excursion was made across
the Blue Mts. to Bathurst. (Narrative of Voyage of ‘Coquille’, Vol. 1, p. 240, by
Lesson.) The butterflies of this expedition were first figured in colour on Insect
Plates 13 to 18 in the years 1830 and 1831. The figures on the plates are very
good, and there is no difficulty in recognizing the species. The names are given
at the bottom of the plates and the new species are attributed to Guérin. The
text was not published until 1888, when the descriptions are given in Zoology II,
pt. 2. On page 272 Guérin states that Boisduval had at his disposal the specimens
from the ‘Coquille’.

In Australia the ‘Astrolabe’ called at King George’s Sound, 7-25 Oct., 1826;
Western Port, 12-19 Nov., 1826; Jervis Bay, 26-29 Nov., 1826; Port Jackson, 1-19
Dec., 1826; Hobart, Tasmania, 16 Dec., 1827, to 5 Jan., 1828. The butterflies were
described by Boisduval in 1832 and, in addition to the species collected on the
voyage of the ‘Astrolabe’, he included species from other French voyages and the
species described by Fabricius, Donovan, Leach, W. S. Macleay and others. He
indeed produced a descriptive catalogue of the butterflies of the South Pacific as
then known. In the text he mentions all the Pacific species of Guérin, figured
on Plates 14, 15 and 16, using Guérin’s names excepting Argynnis gaberti. He
credits the names to Guérin, but does not quote the plate or figure. Of the figures
on Plate 18 of the ‘Coquille’, Boisduval mentions coritus and poeta, both of which
he attributes to Guérin. It is an open question whether he actually saw these
plates of the ‘Coquille’ before he wrote the ‘Astrolabe’ text or the specimens in the
Paris Museum labelled by Guérin. I believe the first to be the case. Then, while

cc

254 ON HETERONYMPHA PHILEROPE BOLSD.,

the catalogue of Boisduval was in the press, Plates 13, 14bis, 17, and probably 18
were published. The species on these plates are referred to in an ‘Avis’, a page
inserted, without pagination, just after the title page. Here Boisduval identifies
some of his new species with those figured by Guérin on these plates, and says
SN. klugi Guér. is the same as VS. philerope Boisd. He mentions that he had seen
in the Museum the specimen of cleotas labelled poeta by Guérin, and is at a loss
to understand why Guérin changed the name. When the text of the ‘Coquille’
was published in 1838, Guérin used the names given by Boisduval in preference
to his own. On page 279 he gives S. philerope Bois. with S. klugi Guér. as a
synonym.

On placing the above before Mr. F. Hemming, he gave it as his opinion that,
as Boisduval himself had stated that his 8. philerope was identical with S. klugi
Guer., the name plilerope must sink to klugi. This is confirmed by Guérin in
1888, and there seems to be no doubt that both Guérin and Boisduval saw the
types. In all cases where the new species were given as identical in the two
voyages by Boisduval, it should be noted that the name given by Guérin now
takes precedence, excepting in the case of klugi and philerope, the name philerope
being applied to a Heteronympha and not used as a synonym of klugi. Also, if
Plate 17 of the ‘Coquille’, on which klugi is figured, had appeared earlier, Boisduval
would have adopted that name in place of philerope.

It was then necessary to examine all the specimens that may have been
obtained during the voyages of the ‘Coquille’ and the ‘Astrolabe’. Fortunately,
many years ago the Boisduval collection had become part of the Oberthur
collection which, in 1927, was purchased by the British Museum of Natural History.
The old specimens labelled klugi, singa (the male of klugi) and philerope were
carefully examined, as well as five specimens from the Paris Museum, sent by
M. F. le Cerf, who said that beyond these five specimens there were no other
specimens unquestionably taken on the voyages of the ‘Coquille’ or ‘Astrolabe’.
Photographs of the labels in the British Museum were taken by Mr. N. D. Riley
and submitted to M. R. Oberthur and M. F. le Cerf for their opinion on the hand-
writing.

It remains to be seen how the name philerope came to be used for an Australian
species of Heteronympha. These species are all single brooded and have very
definite times of appearance on the wing. The following are pertinent to the
discussion.

Satyrus klugi Guér. first appears on Insect Plate 17, fig. 2, 1831, in the ‘Coquille’
Atlas. No sex is stated, but the figure is of a female and must have come from the
Blue Mts., as the figure agrees best with my series from there.

Satyrus singa Boisd. is described from a single specimen in the ‘Astrolabe’,
p. 145, 1832. This is a male and the other sex of klugi. It, no doubt, came from
near Sydney as, with the exception of Hobart, the other ports of call by the
‘Astrolabe’ were too early for it to be on the wing. It is stated to resemble merope,
and no ocelli are mentioned on the underside of the hindwing. There is a male
in the British Museum labelled singa B.d. nlle. holl., in what I believe to be
Boisduval’s writing, to which has been added, at a later date, klugi Gr. This is
without doubt the holotype male of singa.

Satyrus philerope Boisd. was described in the ‘Astrolabe’, two pages after
singa, and is also stated to have a great resemblance to merope. The Latin and
French descriptions do not quite accord. There is one ocellus on both wings on
the upperside and on the underside of the forewing in the male, but the Latin
description seems to suggest no ocellus on the underside of the hindwing, and the

bo
ol
oO

BY G. A. WATERHOUSE.

French two ocelli. The female has definitely one ocellus on the upperside and
underside of the forewings and two ocelli on both sides of the hindwing. The
types are not available and are probably lost. Boisduval states in the ‘‘Avis”
that this species is the same as S. klugi Guér.

When the text of the ‘Coquille’ appeared in 1838, Guérin adopted the name
philerope Bois. (Zoology, Vol. II, pt. 2, p. 279) and placed klugi as a synonym
and copied Boisduval’s Latin description only, giving the locality as near Port
Jackson. Guérin also used Boisduval’s names for other species in preference to
his own.

In the Voyage of the ‘Favorite’, Suppt., Pl. 3, Feisthamel gives a good figure
of the male of singa, which is correct. Boisduval’s description is copied, but the
third word “fuscis” of the Latin description is inadvertently omitted. Regarding
philerope, of which a figure is also given on Pl. 3, Boisduval’s Latin description
is copied, but the French is considerably altered. The male description does not
refer to the Heteronympha. but the female description and figure certainly do.
The figure is stated to be of a female variety, but it is a normal mainland female.
On p. 16 the ‘Coquille’ figure of klugi is incorrectly said to be a male.

In Annals Magazine Nat. Hist., (3), xix, p. 125, 1867, Butler considered
philerope Bois. to be a composite species, and incorrectly calls the ‘Favorite’ figure
of philerope a male. He then describes and figures what he considers the female
philerope. His figure, description and the specimen still in the British Museum
show it to be the female of H. merope duboulayi Butl., 1867. In a note to his
male he states: “Dr. Boisduval, Guérin and Westwood have agreed in considering
this to be the female of klugi, which belongs to another genus”.

In his Catalogue of the Satyridae in the British Museum, 1868, Butler still
considers philerope Boisd. a composite species (p. 100 and p. 166) and still
considers the ‘Favorite’ figure a male.

It will be seen from the above that there has been considerable confusion
and the sex of various specimens has been incorrectly given. The puzzle is
cleared up when it is seen that Guérin and Boisduval, and certainly Feisthamel,
incorrectly considered the ‘Coquille’ figure of klugi a male.

The specimens examined in London were as follows:

1. The holotype male XS. singa Boisd. from the Boisduval collection, now in the

British Museum.

2. A male from the Paris Museum with an old label by H. Lucas singa Bdy.
This may be the original of the ‘Favorite’ figure. It, like No. 1, is the
male of klugi.

A female in the British Museum from the Boisduval collection with a label

Philerope B. nlle. Holl. This is not in the handwriting of Boisduval. It

may be the specimen figured in the ‘Favorite’ and is the female of the

Heteronympha from the mainland. It has been incorrectly considered the

allotype female in the British Museum.

4. A male of the Tasmanian race of the Heteronympha in the British Museum
from the Boisduval collection with a label n. holland and a manuscript
name in Boisduval’s writing.

5. A female in the Paris Museum of the same race as No. 4 with the same
manuscript name in the handwriting of H. Lucas.

6. A male from the Guenée collection in the British Museum with a label
Satyrus klugi Guér. which is almost identical with No. 4 and is not klugi
Guér. The label is in the handwriting of Guenée.

The available data as set out above lead to certain conclusions,

Co

256 ON HETERONYMPHA PHILEROPE BOISD.,

There is no evidence to show that the butterfly at present called philerope is
really Boisduval’s species. No example has been found in the Boisduval collection
nor in the Paris Museum so labelled by him. Boisduval’s description of his male
philerope agrees better with the female of klwgi in having one ocellus on the hind-
wing above and the colour of the hindwing below. Both male and female of the
Heteronympha have two ocelli on the hindwing above, excepting in two specimens.
The wavy lines are not black in the Heteronympha but, when they are present,
are black in the female hklugi.

It is my opinion that philerope Boisd. has for its male the female klugi and
for its female either the male or the female of the Heteronympha. This will
explain why Boisduval considered his philerope the same as klugi Guér. and also
Feisthamel considering his figure of philerope to be a variety.

Since philerope is not a valid name, the Heteronympha that has for a long
time borne that name requires a name, which is given below. The synonymy
of the species concerned is also given.

XENICA KLUGI Guérin.

Satyrus klugi Guérin, 1831, Voy. Coquille, Atlas Plate 17, fig. 2 (female) ;
SN. singa Boisd., 1832, Voy. Astrolabe, Lep., p. 145 (male); S. philerope Boisd., 1832,
l.c., p. 147 (part. female as male); Xenica klugi Guér., Waterh. and Lyell, Butter-
flies of Australia, 1914, p. 44, figs. 137, 138, 825 (males); Y. klugi Guér., Seitz
Macrolep., 1911, Vol. ix, p. 304, Pl. 93c.

This is one of the commonest Satyrids in Australia. It is found from southern
Queensland throughout N. S. Wales within 150 miles of the coast, Victoria, South
Australia, and coastal Western Australia. In more southern localities it occurs
near the sea. It is also plentiful in Tasmania. I have recently examined more
than 300 specimens, and in only two cases do I find a subapical ocellus on hind-
wing above. Although the two ocelli are present below, they are usually indistinct.
This species does not show any marked geographical variation, but specimens from
Western Australia are usually smaller than those from the east. The type locality
is the Blue Mts., N. S. Wales.

In Western Australia an allied species, Y¥. minyas Waterh. and Lyell, 1914,
is found. It has the dorsum of forewing above yellow instead of brown-black. It
is found earlier in the year than klugi and shows marked geographical variation.

HETERONYMPHA PENELOPE, N. Sp.

H. philerope, auctorum; Satyrus philerope Boisd., 1832, female only; H.
philerope, Butl., 1867, male only.

The male of this species can be readily recognized by the prominent sex mark
occupying more than the basal half of the cell of the forewing above and reaching
a prominent black cell spot. In bred specimens this sex mark is black, but it
becomes duller with age. The upperside of the forewing is black with orange
spots and a subapical ocellus. The hindwing is orange with termen and a short
band beyond cell black, a prominent subtornal ocellus and a variable smaller
subapical ocellus. Beneath, the forewing is paler than above, with apex darker
and with black spots, but without the sex mark so that the black cell spot is very
conspicuous; a ringed subapical ocellus. Hindwing orange-brown with three red-
brown wavy lines; a prominent ringed subtornal ocellus and a smaller ringed
subapical ocellus.

The female is somewhat similar to the male, but without the sex mark; there
is a black basal streak in cell and another below cell, The spots above are usually

od

BY G. A. WATERILOUSE. 257

paler and smaller, that between the apex and subapical ocellus of forewing usually
much darker. Ocelli as in male. Beneath, somewhat similar to the male, with
the apex of forewing and the hindwing with a violet, pinkish or yellowish tint.
The anal angle of the hindwing is slightly produced and the termen of hindwing
wavy in Australian specimens.

Both sexes have a general resemblance to H. merope Fab., but it has not so
extensive a range. It is found in the mountains of N. S. Wales and Victoria.
Also at an altitude and at sea-level in Tasmania. It has not been found in South
Australia or Western Australia as stated in Seitz, Vol. ix. It has developed races
both in Australia and in Tasmania. It has only one brood and rarely appears
on the wing before the middle of January. My earliest dates are Dec. 30 from near
Dorrigo, N.S.W., 4,800 ft.; Jan. 23 from Hobart and Cradle Mt., 2,000 ft. in
Tasmania. I have examined 50 specimens from N. S. Wales, 40 from Victoria and
40 from Tasmania.

The types of all the races are in the Australian Museum, Sydney.

H. PENELOPE PENELOPE, nN. subsp.

Satyrus philerope, Feisthamel, 1839, Voyage Favorite, Suppt., p. 16, Pl. 3,
fig. 2, female; H. philerope, Waterh., What Butterfly is That?, 1932, Pl. xv, fig. 4A,
female.

This is the largest race. The male is much brighter than specimens from
Victoria. The orange spot at end of cell of forewing is separated from the large
subdorsal spot by a black bar; the subapical ocellus of the hindwing is sometimes
without the white pupil. Beneath, the apex of forewing and the hindwing orange-
brown, the remainder of the forewing yellow-brown with black spots; ocelli
prominent.

The female above is much darker than the male and the spots are smaller
and paler. The basal streaks in and below the cell of forewing are well defined,
as is also that of the hindwing; ocelli as in male. Sometimes there is an additional
small ocellus in area 5 of hindwing. Beneath, the markings as in male, but the
apex of forewing and the hindwing usually with a purplish or pinkish tint of
varying intensity, rarely yellowish-brown.

I have found this race commonly at Barrington Tops during the latter part of
January and early in February. It was not seen during a visit in the middle of
December. Holotype male, allotype female and paratypes are from this locality.
I have a few specimens from New South Wales from Stonehenge (Mar.); Ebor
4,800 ft. (Dec. 30); Blue Mts. (Feb., Mar.); Moss Vale (Apr.) and Mt. Kosciusko
5,000 ft. (Feb.).

H. PENELOPE STEROPEH, nN. subsp.

H. philerope, Waterh. and Lyell, 1914, Butterflies of Australia, figs. 112-4,
figs. 99, 116 aberrations; Waterh., What Butterfly is That?, 1932, Pl. xv, fig. 4,
male.

The male of this race is shaped like that of the previous race, is smaller, the
orange on the upperside is paler, and the spot at end of cell of the forewing is
usually connected with the large subdorsal spot in la. The subapical ocellus of
hindwing is small and in one case absent. Beneath, the colour is not so deep
as in the typical race nor is there so much difference between the basal two-thirds
of the forewing as compared with that of the hindwing. The figure in ‘What
Butterfly is That?’ is much too dark.

The female has the spots of the upperside the same shade or darker and larger

than those of the typical race, The spot between the apex and the subapical ~~

me
@” 9
> Oe *

258 ON HETERONYMPHA PHILEROPE BOISD.

ocellus of forewing above is darker than the other spots. Beneath, the purplish
or pink tint is not so pronounced, most specimens having the apex of forewing
and the hindwing yellowish-brown. The female has a greater resemblance to the
male than is the case in the typical race. Several melanic specimens are known.

Holotype male, allotype female and paratypes from Gisborne, Victoria, where
it is usually common from Jan. to March. I have it also from Fern Tree Gully.

H. PENELOPE ALOPE, nN. subsp.

This is a still smaller race in which the black of the upperside is still further
reduced. Both males in the Museum are without the subapical ocellus on the
hindwing above. Beneath, the general colour is yellow-brown. I have only seen
one female which approaches the more eastern Victorian race. It has a pale
spot below the subapical ocellus of forewing above, a character sometimes found
in females from Gisborne. Beneath, the spot below the subapical ocellus is almost
white and the hindwing has a faint tint of purple. The ocelli are proportionately
smaller than in sterope.

Two males and one female from Lorne, Victoria, in February and March.

H. PENELOPE DIEMENI, nN. subsp.

This race resembles sterope, but the forewing is not so narrow nor the apex
so pointed. The anal angle of the hindwing in the female is not so drawn out as
in Australian specimens. It is also smaller.

In the male the spots above are not so bright as in the mainland races, the
pale spot at end of cell of forewing is not connected to the large subdorsal spot
in holotype but is connected in four of the fifteen males before me from the type
locality. On the hindwing the subtornal ocellus is prominent, but the subapical is
small, without a pupil in the holotype, in two specimens it is absent and in six
specimens an additional small ocellus is present in area 5. Beneath, this race is
paler than the others, being yellowish-brown with the wavy lines on hindwing
indistinct.

The female resembles the male much more than in the other races and has a
cream spot below the subapical ocellus of forewing above. Two of the three
females from the type locality have the underside of the hindwing yellowish-brown,
the other suffused purple.

I have used the name diemeni as it was on some of Boisduval’s labels on his
Tasmanian specimens.

Holotype male, allotype female and paratypes from New Norfolk near Hobart
in February; also from Hobart, Jan. 23; Mt. Wellington, 2,000 ft., in March;
Dunally and Maria Is., in Feb.; I also place here a female from Launceston (F'eb.)
and a poor pair from Burnie (Mar.).

H. PENELOPE PANOPE, Nn. Subsp.

This is the smallest and darkest race of all, and I have only males before me.
On the upperside the orange spots are reduced in size and the spot below the
subapical ocellus of the forewing is almost white in most specimens. Seven of the
eight males before me have an additional ocellus in area 5 of the hindwing, and
these both have a white pupil. On the underside the ocelli are well defined and
are ringed and are the same number as above, the pale spot below the subapical
ocellus of the forewing is even more prominent than above. The general colour
of the apex of the forewing and the hindwing is reddish-brown. In the forewing
the apex is less acute and the termen more bowed than in the Australian races.

Eight males from Cradle Mt., Tasmania, 2,000 ft., in January, and one male
from Mt. Magnet, also in January.

259

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE).
PART Ill. THE GENUS AEDOMYIA THEOBALD.
By I. M. Mackrrras, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc.
(Five Text-figures. )
[Read 29th September, 1937. ]

The genus Aedomyia includes a small number of rare, ornate species, well
separated from other genera, and forming such a compact group that at one
time African, Oriental, and Australian specimens were all included in one species.
Edwards (1929), however, recognized four species, one South American, two
African, and one common to the Oriental and Australian regions. In the present
paper, a fifth species is recognized, the distribution of the genus being:
A. squamipennis Arrib. (South America: British Guiana), A. africana Nev.-Lem.
(Africa: Uganda, Nyasaland), A. furfurea End. (Africa: Kamerun, Dar-es-
Salaam), <A. catasticta Knab (Oriental: widespread; Australia: Northern
Territory, Queensland), A. venustipes Sk. (Australia: New South Wales).

AEDOMYIA CATASTICTA Knab.

Several adults were bred from larvae collected at Hidsvold, South Queens-
land, in April, 1924. They agree with previous descriptions (Taylor, 1916;
Edwards, 1924; Barraud, 1927), and I have no doubt that they are identical with
the true Oriental A. catasticta. The larvae were collected in an extensive swamp,
and were extremely difficult to find, as they were almost transparent, pale green
in colour, and clung tenaciously to the aquatic vegetation (Nitella). In captivity,
they were observed to cling for prolonged periods to the smaller stems of the
plants, from which they evidently obtained their oxygen, as they only came to
the surface when dislodged by violent shaking or stirring. Thus, in habits, as
in general morphology, these larvae resemble those of Mansonia, with which
they are sometimes associated (Edwards, 1932). Predaceous insects were
extremely abundant in the swamp, but seemed to have little or no effect on the
Aedomyia larvae.

The general appearance of Aedomyia larvae is very striking and charac-
teristic. They may be readily recognized with the naked eye by the extraordinary
length of the thoracic and abdominal plumes, and by the enormously swollen
antennae. In addition, the structure of the antennae, the very large, unusually
formed, pendulous palpi, the absence of a pecten on the siphon, the peculiar
structure of the comb on the eighth abdominal segment, and the presence of
soft hairs dorsally on the anal saddle, are characters which, so far as I can
determine, are found in no other larvae. The presence of a pair of hooks at
the tip of the siphon is also rather characteristic, but similar hooks also appear
in the genus Taeniorhynchus and in certain species of Culex (C. basicinctus Hdw.,
and others). They are evidently an adaptation to a clinging habit, and have been

260 NOLES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES. III,

evolved independently in the different groups, for the bristles which are modified
to form them are not the same in all species.

The larvae of A. catasticta from India have been described already by
Barraud (1923), but the Queensland specimens do not agree entirely with his
description and figures, so it would seem well to figure them and give a short
deseription. Antennae with all three terminal bristles of approximately equal
length, and all plumed; antennal plume consisting of ten plumose hairs all
markedly longer than the shaft of the antenna. Post-antennal hairs arranged in
an oblique row of three on each side, with a stellate tuft of seven or eight short
hairs lying anterior and slightly medial to the inner of the three; outer tuft
consisting of nine long, dark, heavily plumose hairs; middle tuft of six or seven

Text-figs. 1-5.—Full-grown larva of A. catasticta. 1. Head, 2. Antenna.
3. Labial plate. 4. Terminal segments. 5. Comb.

BY I. M. MACKERRAS. 261

hairs, which are pale in colour, about half the length of the outer, and finely
plumed; inner tuft composed of three stout, long, dark, heavily-plumed hairs.
Siphon uniformly covered with short, soft hairs, which are not specially developed
on any part; siphonal tuft composed of five or six plumed hairs; siphonal index
approximately 38. The three more dorsal hair tufts on the eighth segment are
plumed, as is the tuft of three hairs arising from the saddle of the anal segment.

The Indian larva described by Barraud differs chiefly in that the hairs
composing the antennal tuft are shorter, being noticeably shorter than the shaft
of the antenna; the apical hairs are, however, similar. One cannot tell from the
description whether the post-antennal tufts are similar or not. The characters
of the terminal segments appear to be similar, though this would not be apparent
from a study of the drawings alone. There are certainly no recorded differences
of sufficient magnitude to warrant separating the Australian form specifically
from the Indian.

AEDOMYIA VENUSTIPES Skuse.

The type of A. venustipes, a female from Elizabeth Bay, Sydney, remains
unique; it appears to be somewhat faded, but is in quite good condition. The
late Dr. R. J. Tillyard collected some Aedomyia larvae in National Park, N.S.W.,
in February, 1917, which are presumably referable to this species, but I have
been unable to rediscover it in this or any other locality.

Taylor (1914), after examining Skuse’s types, considered that the Queens-
land species was the same as A. venustipes, and Knab’s name, catasticta, has
since then been regarded as a synonym. A comparison of the specimens from
Hidsvold with Skuse’s type, however, showed differences, which warrant specific
distinction, particularly as they are in characters that are quite constant in the
Hidsvold series. The two species may be separated as follows:

A. catasticta Knab.—Wings with four large, white costal spots, the third from
the base oblong and extending half across the field of the wing. Abdomen
brown; with a pair of round, subapical spots on tergites 3 to 6; with narrow
lateral zones of yellow scales on the third and subsequent segments,
expanding right across the apical edge of the eighth segment; and with a
pair of oblique white patches on the basal half of each segment. Second,
third, and fourth segments of hind tarsi black, with broad basal and narrow
apical white rings (together forming a series of broad white rings on the
legs); fifth segment white, with the apex narrowly black.

A. venustipes Skuse.——Wings with only three small, rounded costal spots.
Abdomen brown, irregularly mottled with creamy scales, which do not form
any definite pattern; there are no prominent yellow markings. Second
segment of hind tarsus similar to the above, but with the pale rings
narrower; third segment entirely pure white; fourth white, with a narrow
brown apical ring; fifth black, with a narrow white basal ring.

The larvae from National Park differ from those of A. catasticta in several
respects. The middle of the three post-antennal hair tufts consists of eight plumed
hairs, which are as long and as prominent as the outer and inner. The inner
hair tuft is composed of six or more, never less, plumed hairs, which are as
long as the other tufts. The siphon is distinctly longer and more slender, the
index being 3-5 or more. If these larvae are really those of A. venustipes, and
it is reasonable to suspect that they are, their characters support the specific
distinction from A. catasticta.

DD

262 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES. III.

References.

BarraupD, P. J., 1923.—A revision of the Culicine mosquitoes of India. Part Vil.
Mid, dts WCC IHESq >i DOD.

—— , 1927.—A revision of the Culicine mosquitoes of India. Part XIX. Ind. JI.
Med. Res... Xiv, d23-525.

Epwarps. F. W., 1924.—A synopsis of the adult mosquitoes of the Australasian region.
Bull. Ent. Res., xiv, 364.

—————,, 1929.—-Mosquito notes. VIII. Bull. Ent. Res.. xx, 325-326.

—, 1952.—Diptera. Fam. Culicidae. Wytsman’s Genera Insectorwm, 194th Fasce.,

121-122.

Taytor. F. H., 1914.—A revision of the Culicidae in the Macleay Museum, Sydney
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., XxXx<vili, 760.

———_—, 1916.—Contributions to a knowledge of Australian Culicidae. No. iii. Proc.

INN, Soc. NESIW., xi, S73-574-.

263

THE PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT. IV.
TILE ALTERED DOLERITE DYKES.

By GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, B.Sc., Ph.D., Department of Geology,
University of Sydney.

[Read 29th September, 1937.]

A study of the petrology of the Hartley District is incomplete unless mention
be made of the numerous basic dykes that occur in the area.

In an introductory summary of the general geology of the area (Joplin, 1931),
these dyke rocks were erroneously referred to as keratophyres. At that time only
two specimens had been sectioned, and they contained albite and quartz. The
writer was thus misled in considering them to be acid alkaline rocks. It is now
known that the albite is deuteric, that the quartz grains are xenocrysts, and
that the rocks have no affinities to the keratophyres.

Field Occurrence.

The dykes are very numerous and appear to form a swarm which invades
members of the plutonic complex and the hornfelses of its contact aureole. They
are rarely more than four feet in width and often considerably narrower, and
the length of any single continuous mass is usually less than sixty feet, though
side-stepping is frequent and several discontinuous outcrops may extend for longer
distances.

The dykes follow prominent joint directions in the igneous or metamorphic
rocks and they usually have plane parallel sides bounded by the joints in the
country rocks. In such cases there is little doubt that the method of intrusion
has been simple displacement or the widening of the joint fissure. There are
a few dykes, however, notably one behind the Royal Hotel and a smaller one on
Moyne Creek, which show transgressive relations and some evidence of stoping,
and it is apparent that the igneous mass has come into its present position partly
as the result of replacement of the country rock (Culey and Joplin, 1937).

The dykes that have been studied petrographically occur on Campbell’s Creek
and its eastern tributary, on the River Lett and its tributary behind the hotel,
and on Moyne Creek. Others, however, are Known to outcrop on Grant’s Creek
and south-west of Cox’s River on the property of Mr. Chris. Commens. Frequently
the dykes are much altered and appear as elongated masses of dark soil or as
spheroidally weathered boulders.

Petrography.

In the hand-specimen the rocks are fine-grained and often somewhat stony.
They vary from dull green to dark grey, the colour depending on the amount of
chlorite present. Occasionally small pink phenocrysts of plagioclase are visible
and specks of pyrites and calcite are not infrequent, Many of the dykes, especially

264 PETROLOGY OF ILARTLEY DISTRICT. Ty,

the one behind the hotel, contain xenocrysts of quartz and felspar (Culey and
Joplin, 1937), which are usually about 2 mm. across, but may measure half an
inch or more.

Under the microscope the rocks exhibit a variable grainsize, and consist of
plagioclase phenocrysts in a groundmass of plagioclase, augite, iron-ore, brown
hornblende and sometimes a little biotite, apatite and quartz. Chlorite, carbonates,
sphene, haematite, prehnite and a zeolite may occur as deuteric minerals.

All the dykes have suffered deuteric alteration, and a single intrusion may
show varying degrees of, and a patchy distribution of, the alteration.

The rocks are slightly porphyritic and the groundmass may be intersertal
and/or subophitic or intergranular. In some cases the phenocrysts and larger
felspars of the groundmass occur in a mass of chlorite and the rock has the
appearance of a fine-grained porphyritic volcanic rock. This peculiar type, how-
ever, is associated with the normal rocks and appears to represent an advanced
stage in the alteration of the groundmass.

Tabular phenocrysts of plagioclase measure 1 to 2 mm. and are often twinned
according to the Carlsbad and Albite laws. In most cases the phenocrysts show
incipient albitization along cleavage cracks (Bailey and Grabham, 1909), and the
whole phenocryst is often entirely replaced. The original composition of the
felspar appears to have been labradorite (Ab,,An;,). The phenocrysts not only
show alteration to albite, but also to chlorite and/or calcite, and the chlorite may
occur in selective zones in the felspar. The small plagioclase laths in the ground-
mass are andesine, varying in composition from Ab,,An,, to Ab,;-An,, and are
often altered to chlorite.

Augite occurs in stout prisms or rounded grains measuring up to 0:3 mm.
These often mould the felspars, but may occur in small independent grains. The
pyroxene is pale green in colour, Z/\C=40°, and multiple twinning is often
developed. 2V is small, but hardly small enough to justify the assumption that
the pyroxene is approaching enstatite-augite. The mineral shows alteration to
carbonates, chlorite or an amphibole, the two first being the more common. In
many of the altered rocks no pyroxene is present at all, but its original presence
is suggested by masses of carbonates and chlorite.

Brown hornblende is present only in the less altered types and occurs only in
small amount. It forms slender idiomorphic prisms measuring 0:3 mm. X = pale
yellow, Y = pale brown, Z = dark brown (Z>Y>X); Z/AC=17°. It is optically
negative and the elongation is positive.

Biotite is occasionally present in small brown flakes, and contains lenses of
prehnite (Joplin, 1936). JIron-ores are abundant in small rounded grains or
octahedra and their form suggests magnetite, but the percentage of titania in the
analysed rock indicates that it is probably a titaniferous magnetite; moreover,
sphene is a common alteration product.

Chlorite varies in amount. In the less altered types it may be seen filling
cracks and fringing pyroxenes and often replacing certain zones in the plagioclase
phenocrysts. In the more altered types the rock may be almost completely
chloritized and appears distinctly green in the hand-specimen. More than one
variety of chlorite is present, but the rocks are very fine-grained so that the
chlorites cannot be separated and their refractive indices determined. A variety
commonly associated with augite, however, has a yellowish-green colour, is optically
negative, the elongation is positive, and the interference colours are low first order.
It thus appears to be a variety containing very little alumina and a large propor-
tion of iron and magnesia. Masses of chlorite, showing the characteristic ultra-

BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 265

blue of pennine, seem to have developed from the felspars of the groundmass. The
rocks often contain solution-cavities filled with this mineral in association with
carbonates and sometimes with a zeolite.

Apatite is very sporadic in its development. In some rocks it is entirely absent,
and in others is quite abundant and occurs as slender prisms or needles included
in the minerals of the groundmass.

Quartz occurs either as xenocrysts which show corrosion, or as a released
mineral among the alteration products. It seems unlikely that any of the quartz
is of primary consolidation.

Some of the rocks are more albitized than others; in some there is a greater
abundance of carbonates or of chlorite, and it is evident that widely different
results would be obtained if these extreme types were analysed. All types, how-
ever, show characteristic deuteric alteration, and in the rock chosen for analysis
(column I below) no one of these processes has gained ascendancy over another.

Although the alteration of the Hartley rock is deuteriec and characteristic, it
is too altered for the norm to serve any useful purpose.

| |
Te Il. | IIL. | IV. | V.
|
| |
SiO, 46°84 46-02 48°07 50°60 49-50
Al.O; 18°59 18-03 19-02 17-40 14-37
Fe.0, 5:75 7-17 7-65 4-57 6°55
FeO 4°86 2-78 | 4°83 6-29 5-84
MgO 3°89 | 4-83 3-30 4°89 7:75
Cad 9-06 Seas | Oy | 8-09 9-96
Na.O 2-21 3°31 | 2°84 | 3-23 2-50
k.0 0-80 | 1:33 | 0:63 1-76 0-84
! | 9-47 | | r
il Ae | 3-22 ae 1-83 0-66
TiO. 1°35 0:95 1:72 0-68 1:42
P.O; | abs. 0-35 abs 0-20 O-44
MnO by be ut 0-10 | = 0-21 0-46 0-17
CO, a 1 re os 2-81 | 2-90 abs. | — | _
Other Const. .. bed 2 | zee | — | 0:33 | == | —
ao ae
99-58 | 99-57 100°56 100-00 | 100-00

IT. Altered Dolerite. Dyke on River Lett, between Lett and Glenroy Bridges.
Anal. G. A. Joplin.

Il. Melaphyre. Sommerberg, Thuringerwald. Anal. G. F. Steffen. In W.T., p. 876,
No. 110.

Til. Altered Diabase. Tamarack, Minnesota. Anal, A. W. Johnston. Tinea Vienne
p. 868, No. 36.

TV. Osann’s average melaphyre (Daly, 1914, p. 27).

V. Osann’s average dolerite (Daly, 1914, p. 27).

Name of the Rock.

It is evident from the foregoing petrography and from the chemical analysis
that the rocks have suffered much deuteric alteration, and this must be taken into
consideration in naming the rock.

The chemical and mineral composition and the mode of occurrence suggest
some type of dolerite,

266 PETROLOGY OF HARTLEY DISTRICT. IV,

As quartz occurs either as xenocrysts or as a released mineral, its presence
cannot be taken into account; moreover, there is nothing else to suggest that the
rocks may have been quartz-dolerites.

Many of the less altered types, however, contain small quantities of brown
hornblende, and the dolerites may thus be called hornblende-dolerites or protero-
bases. The proterobase is regarded as a member of the spilite suite (Dewey and
Flett, 1911) and, like all members of this suite, they are characteristically albitized
and chloritized. These alteration products are quite common among normal basic
rocks, and even if there be a spilite suite, there seems no reason why the Hartley
dykes should not be regarded simply as deuterically altered dolerites, which some-
times contain a little primary hornblende.

Similar Dykes elsewhere in New South Wales.

In the three granite areas examined by the writer, namely, Hartley, Sodwalls
and Gumble, altered dolerite dykes have been found associated with granite.

At Sodwalls one such dyke cuts the granite near Wilson’s Quarry on the Old
Railway Line just north-east of Sodwalls'station. In the hand specimen and under
the microscope this rock is identical with one from Hartley. Other similar dykes
occur in the Sodwalls granite, but they have not been observed among the sedi-
mentary rocks outside the contact aureole.

At Gumble only one basic dyke is recorded. This may be observed cutting
acid dykes about 800 yards from the granite contact in Portion 21, Parish of
Gumble. Petrographically this rock also compares closely with Hartley and
Sodwalls types.

L. A. Cotton (1915) has described two large dolerite dykes at Copeton in the
New England. These were investigated for an economic reason, as two diamonds
in a doleritic matrix had been found in the area. The present writer has had the
privilege of examining Professor Cotton’s slides, and has found that the Copeton
and Hartley rocks compare very closely. The Copeton dolerites contain a little
quartz and, though some of it appears to have been derived from the granite, as at
Hartley, a part of it may be primary and the rocks may have affinities with the
quartz-dolerites. At Copeton the dykes invade the acid granites of the New
England Complex and are partly overlain by Tertiary basalts with which they
have no petrological connection.

Geological Age of the Dykes.

The geological age of the Hartley dykes is uncertain. They are post-granite
and pre-Kamilaroi, but that is all that can be deduced from the field evidence,
although the fact that they are never found outside the contact aureole may have
some significance. At Hartley, however, the Kamilaroi overlies the Upper Devonian
Series on the north and east, and it is impossible to examine the older formation
at any great distance from the contact-zone. Nevertheless, similar dykes at
Sodwalls, at Gumble, and at Copeton, appear to be restricted to an area close to
the granite.

This slender evidence suggests that the dyke swarm belongs to the plutonic
complex and it is pertinent to examine the chemical evidence.

It has been pointed out that the analysed rock is characteristically altered and
that, with its rather low magnesia, it compares with other altered doleritic rocks.
Magnesia, therefore, appears to be lost during the process of alteration, and local
concentrations of chloritized dolerite (see p. 265) suggest that MgO is subtracted
from one part of the dyke and accumulated in another,

BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 267

The Hartley dykes show three types of alteration—albitization, chloritization
and alteration to carbonates, and the rock chosen for analysis was one in which
all three types were present in about equal amount. To some extent, therefore,
the low magnesia must be regarded as an inherent property of the magma.

In column II below, the dolerite has been re-calculated to 100% omitting
carbon dioxide and water, both of which play an important part in the deuteric
processes. Column III represents the composition of a hypothetical rock inter-
polated from the variation-diagram of the Hartley plutonic series (Joplin, 1931,
1933). The high Al.0O, and MgO < FeO is noteworthy in the two analyses, and
their close correspondence is suggestive, but not entirely convincing. Neverthe-
less, in the absence of other evidence as to the age of the basaltic dykes, it seems
reasonable to consider them as a late phase of the plutonic intrusion, which would
correspond to the normal lamprophyric end-phase.

Th, | Init, Ill.
=

SiO, MM RieE atreng A de 46-84 | 50-12 50°10
A105 ks i rm = 18:59 19-39 | 19-90
FeO; i as 316 a rl ons | || GolB. Woy oe eA Wow.
FcO .. 486 | Songer eo BeTOM Me
MgO Hi a o. - el 3.898 | 4-16 | 4°40
Cao .. u ¥ s as Ren 9-06 9-69 | 9-80
Na,O Ye: Ye ‘ os eh 2-21 2-36 | 2°15
TKO 4 « of; oe V3 5 om 0-80 0-86 | 0°80
HO + ps Be = ie nie Die eal — | =
H,0— nS * oS = nl 0:87 — | —
TiO, Ks ay er we ceaal 1°35 1:45 | 0-80
P.O; bn a ae xi fy abs. abs. | 0°35
MnO ee a cf th ill 0-10 0-10 | 0:15
CO; .. is * oe a sau oth) | — | —

99°58 | 100-00 | 99°35

e ae |

I. Altered Dolerite. Dyke on River Lett between Lett and Glenroy Bridges,
Hartley. Anal. G. A. Joplin.
Il. Column I re-calculated to 100% omitting carbon dioxide and water.
Ill. Hypothetical rock interpolated from variation-diagram of the Hartley plutonic
series (Joplin, 1931).

The Possibility of a Basaltic End-phase.

The grain-size of the dolerites and their method of emplacement indicate
that the granite was solid before the invasion of the dykes. The assimilation of
some of the granitic material (Culey and Joplin, 1987), however, suggests that
the plutonic rock may have been still hot when it was engulfed by the basic
magma.

Bowen (1915, 1928) has pointed out that the sinking and resorption of biotite
and hornblende crystals during the granite stage of differentiation of a basaltic
Magma will cause an enrichment of alkalis in the melt. The resorption of horn-
blende crystals in the ‘hot liquid” will give rise to a series of more basic minerals
such as olivine, augite and anorthite, and these will be precipitated, since they
are not in equilibrium with the liquid phase. In this way it is possible to account
for the late formation of basic lamprophyres in plutonic complexes.

268 PETROLOGY OF HARTLEY DISTRICT. IV.

It seems not unreasonable to suppose that a doleritic rock may be derived
from these basic constituents, and instead of the parallel development of an inde-
pendent alkaline rock, it is possible that the concentrated alkalis and volatiles will
react with the dolerite, causing albitization and other deuteric phenomena.

Furthermore, Bowen (1928, p. 270) explains that the “hot liquid” necessary
for the resorption of hornblende must be of the nature of a basaltic liquid, and if
such be available at this late stage in the differentiation process, it is not unlikely
that it could be injected without differentiation as basalt or dolerite dykes.

Summary and Conclusion.

A series of altered dolerite or proterobase dykes are described. These invade
granite and the metamorphic rocks of its contact aureole, and it is suggested
that the dykes may be an end-phase of the plutonic intrusion. Chemical evidence
is adduced to support this suggestion, and the possible type of differentiation is
briefly discussed.

In conclusion, it is suggested that basaltic dykKe-rocks may take the place of,
or occur with, lamprophyres as an end-phase in a plutonic series. In view of the
fact that altered dolerite dykes have been found associated with granites in the
only three granitic masses examined by the writer, it seems possible that careful
search may reveal them in other areas. Granites and associated dyke-rocks are
described from numerous mining regions, but in many cases the reports do not
concern themselves with petrological detail and most of the basic dykes are said
to be lamprophyres. It seems not unlikely that, if more detailed petrographic work
be carried out, some of the “lamprophyre”’ dykes may prove to be of a basaltic
nature.

References.

BaiLey, HE. B., and GRABHAM, G. W., 1909.—Albitization of the Basic Plagioclase Felspars.
Geol. Mag., vi, 250.

Bowgrn, N. L., 1915.—The Later Stages of the Evolution of the Igneous Rocks. Jow7n.

Geol., Supplement xxiii, No. 8, 56.

——, 1928.—The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks, p. 269.

Cotton, L. A., 1915.—The Diamond-Deposits of Copeton, N.S.W. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
SOodbs, IP, Ho SA, SSA, was.

CULEY, ALMA G., and JOPLIN, GERMAINE, A., 1937.—Evidence of Magmatic Stoping in a
Dyke at Hartley, N.S.W. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., |xx, 327-331.

Dauy, R. A., 1914.—Igneous Rocks and Their Origin, p. 27.

Dewey, H., and FuietrT, J. S., 1911.—On Some British Pillow Lavas and the Rocks asso-
ciated with them. Geol. Mag., viii, 207.

JOPLIN. GERMAINE A., 1931.—The Petrology of the Hartley District. I. The Plutonic
and Associated Rocks. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, Pt. 2, 17, 39.

, 1933.—Idem, II. The Metamorphosed Gabbros and Associated Hybrid and
Contaminated Rocks. Ibid., lviii, Pt. 3-4, 148.

— , 1986.—The Ben Bullen Plutonic Complex, N.S.W. Jowrn. Proc. Roy. Soc.
IER Mivion Ibis Tbe

269

THE ECOLOGY OF THE UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON
TOPS DISTRICTS. I.

INTRODUCTION.
By Linian Fraser,* D.Se., and Joyce W. VicKERY,} M.Sc.
(Plate xiv, two maps and ten Text-figures.)

[Read 27th October, 19387.]

The coastal districts of New South Wales are largely occupied by a forest
formation dominated by species of the genus Hucalyptus. Two additional forma-
tions are present, the sub-tropical and the sub-antarctic rain-forests. These occur
east of the Great Dividing Range in sheltered areas of good soil and a high
rainfall. Both these formations are usually to be found in isolated areas in river
and mountain valleys or on soil derived from basalt. The sub-tropical rain-forest
is found chiefly in the northerly parts of the State, and the sub-antarctic rain-
forest at high elevations in the centre and north, and in Victoria.

Hach isolated area of rain-forest is relatively homogeneous and usually has a
characteristic composition, differing slightly in this from neighbouring areas.
Those furthest south are depauperated and mixed with EHucalypt forest components.
As one progresses north the forests increase in richness of species, and in
complexity and density.

Parts of the Eucalypt forest formation have been described in detail by
Petrie (1925), Patton (1933), Petrie, Jarrett and Patton (1929), and Davis (1936).

The only ecological work on New South Wales rain-forests is that of Brough,
McLuckie and Petrie (1924), who examined an area of impure sub-tropical rain-
forest on basaltic soil at Mount Wilson. A comprehensive account of the distri-
bution of rain-forests in eastern Australia and the soil on which they occur is
given by Francis (1929). Apart from these nothing has been published on the
New South Wales rain-forests except lists of species found in localized areas
(Maiden, 1894, 1895, 1898; Chisholm, 1934, 1937).

Petrie, Jarrett and Patton (1929) described the impure sub-antarctic rain-
forest of Victoria, and recently Tommerup (1934) described the sub-tropical rain-
forest and Hucalypt forest formations in southern Queensland. Herbert (1935)
has defined the area in Australia which should be suitable for the development of
rain-forest, basing his calculations on temperature and effectiveness of precipita-
tion. According to Herbert most of the coastal rain-forest of New South Wales
occurs in the area of mild mesothermal climate, and the conditions of precipitation
effectiveness favourable to the development of rain-forest are shown to be
discontinuous.

* Most of this work was carried out while the writer held a Linnean Macleay
Fellowship in Botany.
yj Assistant Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney; previously Demonstrator in
Botany, University of Sydney.
EE

270 ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

Very little planned ecological work has been attempted on tropical rain-forests.
The most important in recent years is that of Davis and Richards (1933-4) and
Richards (1936) on the rain-forests of British Guiana and North Borneo. THarlier
investigators have paid special attention to the climatic features of the environ-
ment, and to the reaction of the individual species to these, or to the morphology
of the component species, or to the general description of plant structures.

The reasons for the lack of intensive work on rain-forests are the inacces-
sibility of most areas, their complexity, and the difficulty of identification of the
component species. The New South Wales rain-forests are, on the whole, accessible
and their component species are moderately well known.

In this series of papers a description is given of an area in the Williams and
Allyn River valleys (latitude 32° S., longitude 151:5° HK. approx.) in which Eucalypt
forests, and sub-tropical and sub-antarctic rain-forests occur. The structure and
composition of these forests and the relationships of the rain-forests to the
surrounding Hucalypt forest formation are discussed. Regeneration within the
forest and along the margins is also described. For comparison brief accounts
are given of rain-forests developed in the valleys of associated river-systems.

Except for the Barrington Tops Plateau, the area studied forms part of the
Chichester State Forest Reserve. This reserve includes the upper valleys of the
Paterson, Allyn, Williams, Chichester and Wangat Rivers. Part of its southern
boundary is shown in Map 1. Outside this boundary the country has been exten-
sively cleared for grazing, but inside it is relatively untouched except for some
areas in the lower sub-tropical rain-forest and Hucalyptus saligna forest where
some timber has been cut. The northern limit of the Forest Reserve is the
southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops Plateau.

A small amount of grazing by cattle and horses during the summer is carried
on on the Barrington Tops Plateau, but grazing is never heavy and does not
seem to have caused any important change in the flora.

The Williams River rain-forest area has been found especially interesting
for study because it shows the following features:

(i). The contiguity of two different rain-forest formations and their inter-
actions with each other and with the Eucalypt forest formation.

(ii). It is further inland than any other important area of rain-forest in
New South Wales, and is separated from the coastal rain-forests by a zone of low
rainfall. With the exception of the Gosford and Illawarra sub-tropical rain-
forests it is also the most southerly development of this formation of any consider-
able size. It is, therefore, in a position to yield interesting data relative to
distribution and migration of rain-forest species from the north and east.

(iii). There is relatively little variation in rainfall and soil fertility within
the area occupied by the rain-forests.

(iv.) Timber cutting has not yet been so severe as to destroy large tracts
of the original flora. Before settlement, the Williams River rain-forest was fairly
well stocked with good timber of large size. The most important economic species
were: red cedar (Cedrela australis), rosewood (Dysoxylum Fraseranum), white
beech (Gmelina Leichhardtii), and brown beech (Litsea reticulata). Most such
valuable timber has been removed from the accessible parts, together with some
sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), and blue gum (Hucalyptus saligna). The more
inaccessible parts of the forest towards the head-waters of the river are, however,
as yet relatively untouched.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 271 Os

FAcTorRS OF THE ENVIRONMENT.
Physiography. 4 LIBRARY
(a) General. . in A te
The main dividing range, which for the most part is parallel with the coast- CON TULA
line, has been cut back considerably by the western tributaries of the upper Hunter ? Pir \ >
River, so that here it is further west than elsewhere in New South Wales. This ~ 2 La
part of the range is also much lower than the areas to the north and south, and
thus forms a gap 1,800 feet above sea-level which has been called the Cassilis
Geocol. At the point where the main range swings west around the Hunter
valley, a branch, the Mount Royal Range, diverges from it, trending south by
south-east. This, increasing from about 2,000 feet to a maximum of about 5,000
teet, culminates in a plateau region, the Barrington Tops Plateau (Map 2). To
the south the plateau has a decided margin or edge in the form of an escarpment
(Plate xiv, fig. 2), and its boundary is also well defined te the west (Plate xiv,
fig. 3), but in other directions the boundaries are less sharp.
The western part of the Mt. Royal Range and the Barrington Tops separate
the upper Hunter River and its tributaries from the southern tributaries of the
Manning River (Map 2). From the southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops
Plateau there runs a very striking series of parallel and relatively simple ridges
which separate the Paterson, Allyn, Williams and Chichester Rivers, tributaries
of the lower Hunter River (Plate xiv, figs. 1 and 2). To the east, ranges of
decreasing size separate the head-waters of the Karuah and Gloucester Rivers.
The topography of the Barrington Tops Plateau is of a mature nature, its
height above sea-level being about 4,500-—5,000 feet. It extends about 6-10 miles
in an east-west direction by about 15 miles in a north-south direction. It is part
of a late Tertiary peneplain which once extended over the whole of eastern
Australia, which has been raised and almost completely eroded. This small
residual area is, however, partly undissected and must show in places much the
same topography as it did before the uplift. On the plateau towards its southern
extremity the landscape is characterized by undulating country with gently
rounded hills rising to a height of 200 feet above the general level, and consider-
able swamps which occupy the low ground between (Plate xiv, fig. 7). These
swamps form the head-waters of the Barrington River, which flows in a general
easterly direction. After leaving the plateau the Barrington River plunges into
a deep, narrow chasm which is gradually cutting back and draining the swamps.
To the south the plateau ends abruptly in the escarpment overlooking the heads
of the Williams, Allyn and Paterson Rivers (Plate xiv, fig. 4). The northern
part of the plateau is drained by the Pigna Barney, Tomalla, Gummi (Upper
Manning), Dilgry and Morpey Rivers, whose courses show a sequence similar to
that of the Barrington River. The only streams of any size which drain the
plateau to the west are the tributaries on the eastern bank of the upper Hunter
River, the Rouchel, Moonan and Stewart’s Brooks. In their upper parts these
are entrenched to a considerable extent.

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(b). Detailed description of the area studied.

The valleys of the Paterson, Allyn, Williams and Chichester Rivers, which
arise from the southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops Plateau, are separated
by ridges which are at first flat topped and fairly wide (Plate xiv, fig. 2). These
diminish in height from 5,000 feet to 1,600 feet at Salisbury in the Williams River
valley and Eccleston in the Allyn River valley, becoming progressively narrower
as the valley floors increase in width and become flatter (Plate xiv, fig. 4). The

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ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

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274 ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

rivers have few affluents of any size, but the dividing ridges are dissected by
numerous small creeks and therefore have a complex system of spurs (Map 1).
The lateral slopes of the ridges are very steep, 15°-45° or more, being steepest
near the plateau (Plate xiv, figs. 1 and 2). In the upper parts of the Allyn and
Williams valleys occasional vertical rock faces occur. These are not numerous,
as the nature of the rock causes it to weather into steep slopes. The lower parts
of the main spurs and the lower spurs are less steep, and the small creeks which
drain them are entrenched to a depth of 100-200 feet, so that their beds and sides
are more sheltered than the crests of the spurs. The upper courses of the creeks
which drain the flat parts of the ranges near the Barrington Tops Plateau have a
tendency to be swampy. On leaving the tops of the ridges they become very
steep and the creeks are deeply entrenched.

The valley of the Williams River is 24 miles wide from ridge to ridge at the
southern limit of the rain-forest (X in Map 1), and narrows gradually towards
its source. It is enclosed by ranges averaging about 700-1,000 feet higher than
the river bed, trending south-south-east and north-north-west. The valley floor
and lower slopes are therefore shaded from the sun and sheltered from the winds
to a greater degree than the upper slopes and crests of the ridges. Towards the
head-waters of the river the country is very rough and its detailed topography is
unmapped. The whole course of the river is marked by cataracts and falls as far
south as Salisbury, so that the upper part is not much more entrenched in the
mountains near its source than it is at 1,000 feet.

The Allyn-Williams divide (the Williams Range) is uniformly high and
protects the Williams valley from westerly winds. The Allyn River valley is
rather wider than the Williams (about 3 miles) and the westerly mountain range
is less uniformly high than the Williams Range, so that the lower part of the
valley is less sheltered than that of the Williams at a corresponding point south.

The head-waters of the Allyn River are entrenched about 3,000 feet below the
southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops Plateau; this upper part of the valley
is therefore as shaded and sheltered as any part of the Williams valley (Plate xiv,
figs. 1 and 4).

The Chichester-Williams divide (the Chichester Range) is more broken than
the Williams Range, and the Chichester valley is therefore slightly less sheltered
and shaded than the Williams and upper Allyn valleys. The valley is wider
than that of the Williams, the slopes less steep, and the actual floor of the valley
less flat. The head-waters are very sheltered.

The different degrees of shelter met with in the three valleys have a marked
influence on the vegetation.

Geology.

The writers are indebted to Dr. G. D. Osborne, of the Department of Geology,
University of Sydney, for the following information.

A large area of the Barrington Tops Plateau is occupied by quartz-monzonite
and associated plutonic types in the form of a batholith. The remainder is
composed of flows of basalt and sheets and sills of dolerite. This basalt also
forms the tops of the ranges diverging from the plateau. The base of the basalt
flows varies in height, but in the vicinity of the Williams River stands at about
1,800-2,000 feet above sea-level (Map 1).

Below the basalt, occupying the valley floors and sides of the ridges, are
Carboniferous sediments, chiefly impure limestone and mudstone.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 275

Dr. Osborne concludes that after the Carboniferous sediments were laid down
they were subjected to folding, and then eroded in the late Tertiary to a peneplain
having as its surface Carboniferous sediments and some dioritic and monzonitic
masses intrusive into the Carboniferous rocks and standing above them. Tertiary
flows of basalt were poured on this, and later plugs and sills broke across the
flows. The plutonic rocks outcropping on the plateau are evidently part of an
old residual around which the flows of basalt were poured out.

The great difference in the elevation of the plateau and the lowlands to the
south has been attributed by some geologists to step faulting, throwing to the
south, but no evidence has been found by Dr. Osborne in support of this view.
He considers that the condition is due mainly to erosion.

Soil.

The Carboniferous sediments outcropping in the Williams and Allyn River
valleys and ridges weather to form a light-coloured clay. Along the valley floor
the soil may be of considerable depth and greyish to blackish-brown in colour
with humus and material derived from the basalt rocks on the ridge tops. The
usual soil of the valley sides and spurs is a yellowish clay which appears to be of
considerable depth, while rock outcrops are rare.

The basalt capping the ridges weathers to a chocolate-brown or dark grey,
loamy clay. On the flat ridge tops and on the plateau, rock outcrops are very
rare and the soil appears to be deep. On the steep upper sides of the ridges
approaching the plateau, outcrops of partially decomposed basalt and occasional
roek faces can be seen. The soil is deep in pockets, and does not appear to be
washed off to any great extent because of the continuous vegetation cover.

On the dioritic part of the plateau occasional rounded boulders occur as in
typical granite country; for the most part the soil is a deep, slightly sandy loam.

No detailed study of the soils derived from the various rock formations has
been made. From field observations it appeared improbable that the nature of the
soil or parent rock was a limiting or deciding factor in the distribution of the
plant formations or the species within the area, except perhaps in rare instances.
On the other hand, certain aspects of the soil, such as the humus content, were
very obviously governed by the plant cover. It was therefore considered necessary
at this stage to make only a few comparative tests on a number of representative
samples from different localities and from the different plant formations, as illus-
trations of the edaphic conditions of the area. The soil samples were all taken
from about 5 cm. below the surface of the soil.

Table 1 summarizes the results of analyses of the humus content, water-
retaining capacity, pH, and some mechanical features of the soils tested. The
soil textures were determined according to the method of Hardy (1928). The
humus content was estimated by the hydrogen-peroxide method (Prescott and
Piper, 1928). The pH was determined by the quinhydrone electrode method.
The water-retaining capacity was obtained by estimating the percentage loss of
weight from a saturated soil sample dried at 25° C.

No. 1 soil sample is a chocolate-coloured fine silt taken from a typical part
of the valley floor covered by sub-tropical rain-forest—No. 2 is a greyish-brown
fine silt taken close to a small creek, and covered by sub-tropical rain-forest.—
No. 3 is a yellowish fine silt taken from the lower slopes of a spur covered by
sub-tropical rain-forest.—No. 4 is a greyish-brown fine silt taken near a creek,
supporting Tristania conferta and some rain-forest trees.—No. 5 is a greyish-brown
heavy loam from an area occupied by the margin of the sub-tropical rain-forest.—

276 ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

No. 6 is a greyish-brown fine silt taken from a ridge near No. 7, but from an
advancing margin of the sub-tropical rain-forest.—No. 7 is a yellowish-brown heavy
loam taken from the top of a ridge, supporting Eucalypt forest.—No. 8 is a
greyish-brown fine silt taken high up on the slopes of the Williams-Allyn ridge
and supporting a Eucalypt forest association.—No. 9 is a dark chocolate clay from
the top of an exposed ridge, about 3,500 feet altitude, supporting Eucalypt forest.—
No. 10 is a dark chocolate-coloured clay supporting sub-antarctic rain-forest, at an
altitude of about 4,000 feet.

No. 1 is river alluvium, No. 2 is derived from limestone, Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
from mudstone, and Nos. 9 and 10 from basalt.

The soils vary in texture from a heavy loam to clay, and have a fairly high
water-retaining capacity. The marked difference between the figures for the loss
on ignition and the humus content of most of the soils is accounted for by the
presence of a considerable amount of finely-divided organic matter which cannot
be separated from the soil, but which is as yet only partially decomposed. In
some instances the soils were of such a peaty nature that on ignition they burned
with a pronounced flame, e.g., sample No. 10.

TABLE 1.
Water-
Soil Sand. retaining Loss at Loss on Humus
Number. | Soil Type. Or Capacity. 100° C. Ignition. | Content. pH.
| %. %- %. %.
}
1 Fine silt 0 44 4-1 15°8 11-2 5:75
2 Fine silt Wow 34 2:5 10:7 6:7 4-45
3 Fine silt 5:5 38 5-2 Neer | 0°83 5:3
4 Fine silt £3 13:0 | 35 20 10-2 6-7 4-9
5 | Heavy loam .. 0 | 8:8 | 26 2-9 8:3 4-2 5-4
6 Fine silt | OlF2; | 42 4:5 18:6 10:9 4-9
7 \Eeimplntim se so.) Weer |) so 3-0 9:8 5-2 5:0
8 Fine silt ae ap | 11-4 | 35 4:7 11-8 7:0 5:2
9 Clay .. st aoe | 0:7 39 12-1 24-0 10-9 5°65
10 Clay pal. aU) lee pmetS 14-2 | 44-9 20°5 4-5
} i |

| | | \

The surface of the soil in the sub-tropical rain-forest is covered by a layer of
partly-decayed leaves and twigs to a depth of 1-3 cm. or more, depending on the
position. An even greater amount is present in the sub-antarctic rain-forest,
where, owing to the lower temperature, decay is probably slower. A considerable
accumulation of dry and partly-decayed leaves and twigs is also present on the
surface of the ground in the Eucalypt forest.

The soil of the rain-forests is continuously damp, the more so at the higher
levels. The soil of the Eucalypt forests is frequently dry. The upper Eucalypt
forests are moister than the lower.

Climate.
(a). Rainfall and Winds.

No rainfall data are available for the Barrington Tops Plateau, or for the
upper parts of the river valleys draining it. The stations nearest to the area
under investigation at which rain records have been taken are Wangat (6,017
points p.a., average for 6 years only) to the south-east of the plateau on the upper
Chichester River, and Stewart’s Brook (5,704 points p.a.) to the west.

Ratntall in pocats

Rainfall wn points

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BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 277

OCTOBER

Racnfall in points

Text-figures 1-6 show the average monthly rainfall recorded for stations in the
vicinity of the Barrington Tops.

Text-fig. 1.—Stations east and south-east of the plateau in the dry belt. A, Stroud
(average of 46 years); B, Dungog (average of 37 years); C, Gresford (average of
38° years).

Text-fig. 2.—Stations in the Upper Hunter Valley west of the plateau. A, Moonan
Flat; B, Rouchel Brook; C, Scone (average of 59 years).

Text-fig. 3.—Stations north-west of the plateau, near the Mount Royal Range or
Main Dividing Range. A, Murrurundi (average of 64 years); B, Nundle; C, Barry.

Text-fig. 4.—Stations nearest to the plateau. A, Wangat (average of 6 years);
B, Stewart’s Brook.

Text-fig. 5.—Stations on highland areas to the north of the plateau. <A, Dorrigo
(average of 19 years) ; B, Comboyne (average of 30 years).

Text-fig. 6.—Stations on or near the coast, east of the plateau. <A, Taree (average
of 52 years) ; B, Port Stephens (average of 44 years); C, Maitland (average of 68 years).

Text-fig. 7.—Average mean maximum (A) and average mean minimum (B) tempera-
tures for stations nearest to the Barrington Tops Plateau at which records are kept.

Scone (height above sea-level, 6&2 feet) ; — — — Taree (height above sea-
level, 31 feet).

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ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

The rainfall is chiefly due to the north-east monsoons which operate during
the late summer and autumn. A certain amount of rain is also received from
southerly rain-bearing winds which blow chiefly during the winter and, approaching
the plateau along the parallel valleys of the Allyn, Williams and other rivers,
precipitate their moisture on the southern margin of the plateau and dividing
ranges. Though no data are available, it seems probable that the greatest amount
of rain is received by the south-eastern and north-eastern margins of the plateau
at about 4,500-—5,000 feet.

An attempt has been made to plot from records available the distribution of
rainfall in the districts surrounding the plateau (Map 2). It can be seen that
the annual rainfall decreases from the coast inland, rising again as the highlands
are approached, so that there is a zone including the lower Williams and Paterson
River valleys which is comparatively dry. Wangat, with an altitude of about
1,000 feet, receives the highest rainfall recorded, viz., 6,017 points. The rainfall
is probably high along the whole of the Mt. Royal Range, but owing to the
direction of the rain-bearing winds the greatest rainfall must be received by the
south-easterly and southerly margins of the plateau. By analogy with the
similarly-placed highland masses of the Comboyne and Dorrigo plateaus to the
north, and from the appearance of the vegetation, it seems likely that the plateau
itself must receive considerably more than this, probably more than 8,000
points p.a.

The amount of rain received diminishes very rapidly to the west of the
plateau region. In the region of the Cassilis Geocol the Dividing Range does not
appear to be an effective barrier to rain-bearing winds and consequently this
region receives a relatively small amount of rain. The dryness of this area is,
no doubt, in part due to the sheltering action of the Barrington Tops Plateau.

The distribution of rainfall throughout the year in the area surrounding the
plateau is shown in Text-figures 1-6. It can be seen that a well-defined dry
season is not experienced in any of the localities; a fairly even amount of rain
is received throughout the year. There is a slight tendency for a maximum in
the autumn in the Dungog, Clarencetown and coastal districts (Text-figs. 1 and 6),
but this is not shown in the upper Hunter River district (Text-figs. 2 and 3).
Stewart’s Brook appears to receive its greatest rainfall in the late summer and
autumn, but at Wangat no well-defined maximum occurs (Text-fig. 4). This is
not in agreement with the records from Dorrigo and Comboyne (Text-fig. 5), which
show a well-marked maximum in the autumn, and a minimum in the late winter
and early spring. It is possible that a similar distribution of rainfall may occur
on the Barrington Tops Plateau itself.

Throughout the summer and autumn mists are common at 4,000 feet altitude
and above. These keep the upper forest permanently very wet, and encourage
the growth of epiphytic lichens and mosses. The eastern parts of the plateau
(2,500 feet and above) are within the sphere of influence of the sea breeze, which
often causes the precipitation of light showers in the very early morning.

The only desiccating wind in the region under discussion is the westerly,
which blows chiefly in the autumn, winter and early spring.

(b). Temperature and Humidity.
No continuous temperature data are available for the area investigated.
Text-figure 7 shows the mean maximum and minimum temperatures for Scone
and Taree, the nearest places to the area for which records are available.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 279

Within the sub-tropical rain-forest the temperature does not vary as much as
it does in the Hucalypt forest; high temperatures are uncommon. This is due to
the insulating effect of the very dense canopy. The thickness of the canopy means
that there is practically no wind in the rain-forest, and hence the evaporation
rate is very low and the humidity is high. This is especially noticeable as the
small drop of temperature consequent on the setting of the sun behind the ridges
results in a heavy dew within the rain-forest causing the trunks of the Hucalyptus
saligna trees to become wet to a height of 30-40 feet.

Since the Eucalypt forest is relatively open the evaporation rate is much
higher than in the rain-forest, and the humidity is lower.

Some isolated observations on temperature and humidity have been made in
the lower rain-forest and adjacent cleared areas in the Williams River valley.

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MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY SUNDAY
6810 24681 24680 246380 246802468 10 2468170 246810 24680, 24658 10 246 810 246810 24681,.,246810 24

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Text-figures 8-10 are Thermohygrograph records. The upper line indicates humidity,
the lower line temperature.

Text-fig. 8.—Record in the lower sub-tropical rain-forest, 22nd to 28th January, 1935.

Text-fig. 9.—Record in a clearing near the sub-tropical rain-forest, 10th to 17th
January, 1935.

Text-fig. 10.—Record in the lower sub-tropical rain-forest, June, 1935.

280 ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

Some of these are shown in Text-figures 8-10, and illustrate the effect on the
humidity of the rain-forest canopy. These were recorded by an Edney Thermo-
hygrograph during summer and winter months. It was not possible to have
records taken simultaneously in the rain-forest and in the cleared area, but the
records shown in Text-figures 8 and 9 represent consecutive weeks of similar
weather in summer. It can be seen that the daily variations are much more
extreme in the cleared area. For comparison, Text-figure 10 shows a typical
record for humidity and temperature for a week in June (winter) in the rain
forest. It is evident from the records taken that the humidity is more uniformly
high in the winter than in the summer.

No records were taken of variation of humidity from ground level to the top
of the canopy. It has been found elsewhere (e.g., Davis and Richards, 1933) that
in rain-forests the humidity falls off rapidly from the ground to the level of the
canopy.

Frosts occur occasionally during the winter at ground level in cleared areas
below the rain-forest, at about 1,000 feet altitude, but the forest cover prevents
their formation in uncleared areas below about 2,000 feet. Above this altitude
frost forms at ground level within the forest, the actual height at which it occurs
being to some extent dependent on the degree of shelter from the west and the
type of cover.

During the winter months, June to August, some falls of snow are customary
on the plateau and ridges down to 4,000 feet, rarely to 3,000 feet on exposed
places. The snow does not lie long on the ground, especially at the lower levels.
On the plateau it is exceptional for it to remain for more than a week. It does
not lie as long on swamp as on forest and grassland country.

The climate of the plateau approximates to the microthermic type similar to
that responsible for the beech forests of Western Tasmania.

(ce). Sunlight.

Crests of the spurs and the upper parts of slopes exposed directly to the west
receive maximum sunlight, and high temperatures are probably experienced there;
but they also experience maximum evaporation and consequently lowest tempera-
ture. The valley floor and sheltered gullies on northerly slopes probably experience
least extremes of temperature.

Direct sunlight leaves the upper Williams River valley at about 2.30 p.m.
during the winter months, and at about 4.30 p.m. during the summer months,
and correspondingly earlier on the sheltered slopes. (In Sydney the sun rises at
6.58 a.m. and sets at 4.54 p.m. on the shortest day, 21st June, and rises at 4.41 a.m.
and sets at 7.06 p.m. on the longest day, 21st December.) Some of the entrenched
creeks on the northern slopes must receive only a few hours direct sunlight
per day.

In the Eucalypt forest a considerable amount of sunlight reaches the ground
level, as the canopy is thin. In the rain-forest, especially the sub-tropical rain-
forest, only small flecks of sunlight reach the ground and the general lighting is
very diffuse.

STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT FORMATIONS.

Throughout the area studied the plant cover, of whatever kind, is continuous.
Very little exposed rock surface occurs, except on the very steep upper slopes of
the range near the plateau, where the basalt outcrops in the form of angular
boulders, which support a rich flora of lichens and mosses. Elsewhere the soil is
deep and rich and supports a complex flora of trees, shrubs and herbs.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 281

There are, in the area, three distinct types of formation: The Eucalypt forest,
the sub-antarctic rain-forest and the sub-tropical rain-forest as defined below.

Hucalypt forest formation—Canopy continuous or nearly so, rather thin; trees
50-180 feet high according to locality; shrubs scanty to numerous, with herbs and
grasses forming a continuous ground cover. This formation extends over the whole
eoast and adjacent highlands of New South Wales, Eucalyptus being the dominant
genus.

Sub-tropical rain-forest formation.—Canopy continuous, very dense, moderately
deep; trees very numerous, 60-120 feet high; shrubs and young trees fairly
numerous; ground flora mostly ferns with few herbs, scanty except in light breaks;
epiphytic ferns and Angiosperms and lianes numerous, giving this forest a
characteristic appearance; trees belonging to a large number of different genera.

The same general type of formation is found throughout the moist areas of the
tropics and extends to sub-tropical countries. The sub-tropical rain-forest of
eastern Australia has closest affinities with that of the Indo-Malayan Islands.
Its composition is less rich and dense, however, and it has few actual species and
genera in common with it.

As understood in this paper, the term sub-tropical rain-forest is synonymous
with the term brush as used in New South Wales, but not in Queensland, and with
the terms scrub and jungle as used in Queensland.

Sub-antarctic rain-forest formation.—Canopy continuous, fairly dense, very
deep: trees 90-150 feet high; one species often dominant; tree-ferns and ferns
very numerous in damp places, otherwise the ground flora rather scanty; lianes
and epiphytic ferns and Angiosperms very few. It is part of the formation
extending into Tasmania, parts of New Zealand and South America. The number
ot species present is smaller than in the sub-tropical rain-forest.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION OF THE AREA.

The upper sheltered parts of the valleys of the rivers draining the south-east,
east, and north-east of the Barrington Tops Plateau are occupied by the sub-tropical
rain-forest formation. Its extent in any particular area depends on the degree
ot shelter from the west, and on the rainfall. In no case in this district does the
formation extend below about 1,000 feet altitude, as below this level not only are
the valleys wider and more sunny, but also, being further from the plateau, the
total rainfall is less. The sub-tropical rain-forest occupies the floors and sheltered
sides of the valleys and the beds of creeks which drain the spurs. Towards the
lower margin it does not occupy the whole valley floor, but is present only on the
banks of the river. In favourable places it extends upwards to a height of 3,000
feet. At this height it gives place gradually to the sub-antarctic rain-forest which
extends to 5,000 feet along creeks and sheltered slopes, having its maximum
development at 4,000—4,500 feet.

The amount and character of the rain-forest in the different valley systems
depends on their aspect and on the rainfall. Its greatest development appears to
be in the valleys of the upper Paterson, Allyn and Williams Rivers.

The lower valleys of Stewart’s, Moonan and Rouchel Brooks, which are
exposed to the west and receive a lower rainfall, do not support a true rain-forest.
Their upper courses, which are slightly entrenched in the plateau and are there-
fore sheltered, appear to support a few patches of sub-antarctic rain-forest.

The upper parts of the Barrington, Manning, Tomalla and Curriecabark Rivers,
where they are entrenched in or near the plateau, support both sub-tropical and
sub-antarctic rain-forest.

bo

82 ECOLOGY OF UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS. I,

The lower valley of the Manning, into which these streams flow, is wide and -
relatively open (Plate xiv, fig. 6), but a considerable amount of rain-forest is
present as far down as Coneac (but only at a level of about 400 feet above the
river bed) on sheltered slopes and in the beds of creeks where the soil is moist
(Plate xiv, figs. 5 and 6). Plate xiv, figure 6, shows the development of rain-
forest on the north-east-facing slope of the valley and its absence from the west-
facing slope). This extends in discontinuous patches to Gloucester, linking up
there with the rain-forests of the Kramback region described by Maiden (1895).

The valley of the upper Barnard River, which drains the northern part of the
Barrington Tops Plateau and the Mount Royal Range, appears to be much drier
and does not support a rain-forest vegetation.

The extent of the rain-forest in the upper Karuah and Gloucester River
valleys has not been determined.

The valleys below the rain-forest, the crests and upper slopes of ridges, the
plateau region, and upper valleys of the western and north-western rivers except
actually on the plateau, are occupied by Eucalypt forest. The character of the
Eucalypt forest and nature of the undergrowth alter with increasing altitude.
The trees reach their maximum height in the valleys, and are smallest on the
Barrington Tops Plateau.

The lower lying ground of the plateau is occupied by extensive swamps, and
between the swamps and the Eucalypt forest is a grassland community of varying
width, from which trees and large shrubs are absent (Plate xiv, fig. 7). The
swamps are gradually being drained by the cutting-back action of the Barrington
River, along part of whose course the change of vegetation from swamp to grass-
land and from grassland to forest can be traced.

Literature Cited.

BrouGH, P., McLuckikz, J., and Perriz, A. H. K., 1924.—An Ecological Study of the Flora
of Mount Wilson. Part I. The Vegetation of the Basalt. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
xlix (4), pp. 475-498. ; :

CHISHOLM, E. C., 1934.—Further Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lix (3-4), pp. 143-155.

————.,, 1937.—F inal Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. Proc. LINN.
Soc N.S.W., Ixii (1-2), pp. 65-72.

Davis, C., 1986.—Plant Ecology of the Bulli District. Part I. Stratigraphy, Physiography
and Climate; General Distribution of Plant Communities and Interpretation. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ixi (5-6), pp. 285-297.

Davis, T. A. W., and RicHArpDs, P. W., 1933.—The Vegetation of Moraballi Creek, British
Guiana: An Ecological Study of a Limited Area of Tropical Rain Forest. Part ff.
Journ. Ecology, xxi (2), pp. 352-384.

, 19384.—Part II. Ibid., xxii (1), pp. 106-155.

FrRANcIS. W. D., 1929.—Australian Rain Forest Trees. Brisbane.

Harpy. F., 1928.—An Index of Soil Texture. Journ. Agric. Science, xviii, pp. 252-256.

HERBERT, D. A., 1935.—The Climatic Sifting of Australian Vegetation. Rept. Aust. N.Z.
Assoc. Adv. Sci., xxii, pp. 349-370. .

MAIDEN, J. H., 1894.—The Dorrigo Forest Reserve. Part II. <A List of the Plants
Collected, with Descriptive Notes of those of Economical and Botanical Interest.
Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., v (9), pp. 599-633.

~, 1895.—Notes of a Trip to the North-Central Coast Forests of N.S.W. Ibid.,
vi (9), pp. 583-612.

————, 1898.—Mount Seaview and the Way Thither. Ibid., ix (6), pp. 579-606.

PATTON, R. T., 1933.—Ecological Studies in Victoria. Part II. The Fern Gully. Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vic., 46 (n.s.) (1), pp. 117-129.

PETRIE, A. H. K., 1925.—An Ecological Study of the Flora of Mount Wilson. Part I!1.
The Hucalyptus Forests. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1 (2), pp. 146-166.

PETRIE, A. H. K., JARRETT, Phyllis H., and Parron, R. T., 1929.—The Vegetation of the
Blacks’ Spur Region. A Study in the Bcology of some Australian Mountain

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. PLATE XIV.

Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 28

iv)

Eucalyptus Forests. I. The Mature Plant Communities. Journ. Ecology, xvii (2),
pp. 223-248.
Prescort, J. A., and Piper, C. S., 1928.—Methods for the Examination of Soils. Common-
wealth Council Sci. Indust. Res., Pamphlet No. 8.
RicHaArRpDs, P. W., 1936.—Ecological Observations on the Rain Forest of Mount Dulit,
Sarawak. Part I. Journ. Ecology, xxiv (1), pp. 1-387.
, 1986.—Part II. Ibid., xxiv (2), pp. 340-361. '
TomMeERvpP, E. C., 19384.—Plant Ecological Studies in South-East Queensland. Proc. Roy.
Soc. Queensland, xlvi, pp. 91-118.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

1.—View from the southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops Plateau, showing
the diverging ridges; the upper valley of the Allyn River is shown in the foreground,
with the Allyn Range and upper Paterson River valley beyond.

2.—The upper Williams Range near the Plateau, showing its flat top, and steep
slopes and spurs.

3.—Part of the western edge of the Barrington Tops Plateau, east of Moonan Flat,
showing the steep slope from the plateau, and the relatively sparse nature of the
vegetation.

4.—The Allyn River valley, with the southern escarpment of the Barrington Tops
Plateau in the background.

5.—Sub-tropical rain-forest on a sheltered north-east slope in the Manning River
valley near Coneac. The rain-forest can be seen in the gullies, the Eucalypt forest on
the spurs.

6.—Valley of the Manning River near Coneac, showing the development of rain-
forest on a north-east slope (left-hand side), and of Eucalypt forest on west and south-
west slopes (right-hand side).

7.—Part of the Barrington Tops Plateau, showing the mature topography and
presence of swamps. Hucalyptus paucifiora trees occur on the left.

284

NOTES ON SOME SPECIES OCCURRING IN THE UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER
AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW
SPECIES AND TWO NEW VARIETIES.

By LitiaAn FRAserEr, D.Se., and Joyce W. VickEry, M.Sc.
(Two Text-figures.)
[Read 27th October, 1937.]

During an ecological survey of the rain-forests of the upper Williams River
valley, and the montane and sub-alpine vegetation of the Barrington Tops districts,
a number of species were collected which appeared worthy of record.

As has been described in a previous paper (Fraser and Vickery, 1937), the
Barrington Tops is a more or less isolated plateau region rising to an altitude of
5,000 feet. It forms a part of the Mount Royal Ranges, but is surrounded on all
sides by considerably lower ground. At the highest points it supports a mixed
montane and sub-alpine vegetation, some species of which are identical with or
show a close connection with those of the Kosciusko Plateau (7,000 feet) in the
south of New South Wales, and in some cases with those of Tasmania. A few
species occurring here have apparently not been found anywhere between the
Barrington Tops and the Kosciusko Plateaus, which are several hundred miles
distant. Many others are not known north of this district. The floristic relation-
ships of the vegetation will be discussed more fully in a subsequent paper on the
ecology of the district, but the remarkable distribution of some species made their
occurrence here worthy of special comment.

The upper courses of the river valleys draining the Barrington Tops Plateau
are partly occupied by sub-tropical rain-forest of Indo-Malayan affinities. This
formation is best developed and most complex in structure on the coast of
Queensland and northern New South Wales, becoming considerably attenuated in
its floristic composition towards its southern limits, at about the Illawarra district
of New South Wales. The gradual disappearance of the component species is, no
doubt, largely due to temperature. Several species of this formation are not
known to extend southwards beyond the Williams River Valley and associated river
systems.

As a result of its rather isolated position, the flora of the Barrington Tops
Plateau shows a degree of endemism, four species (Diuris venosa Rupp, Prasophyl-
lum Rogersii Rupp, Drimys purpurascens J. Vickery and Plantago palustris, n. sp.)
being known only from this district. Other species also, e.g., Gentiana diemensis,
and Acacia Clunies-Rossiae, are represented by distinctive forms, which on further
study may prove to be worthy of varietal or specific rank.

In this paper two new species and two new varieties are described from the
Williams River and Barrington Tops district.

PTERIDOPHYTA.
Family PoLyPoDIACEAE.
Blechnum penna-marina Kuhn. occurs near creeks at an altitude of about
4,600-5,000 feet on the Barrington Tops Plateau. It occurs in Victoria and

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 285

Tasmania, and on the Kosciusko Plateau and southern tablelands of New South
Wales, but is mot recorded north of this area.

Family LYCOPODIACEAE.
Lycopodium clavatum var. fastigiatum Benth. has been previously recorded
only from the Kosciusko Plateau in New South Wales, and extends to Tasmania.

MONOCOTYLEDONS.
Family GRAMINEAE.

Calamagrostis breviglumis Hackel is stated, in Moore and Betche’s Handbook
of the Flora of New South Wales, to be of rare occurrence. It is abundant in the
grassland and near the swamps of the Barrington Tops Plateau, and has been
observed by the writers to be plentiful on the Comboyne Plateau to the north, and
on the Clyde Mountain to the south. The Barrington Tops Plateau is probably
near its centre of distribution.

Hierochloa redolens R.Br. occurs occasionally beside creeks at an altitude of
4,800 feet. It has been previously known only from the Kosciusko Plateau in New
South Wales, and from Victoria at high altitudes, and Tasmania.

Panicum lachnophyllum R.Br. has not previously been recorded from New
South Wales, but occurs in Queensland. It occurs in the Williams River rain-
forest in areas where sufficient light reaches to the ground stratum, but is rather
rare. It has also been observed by the writers in the rain-forest at Mount Warning,
close to the Queensland border.

Pollinia nuda Trin-—This exotic species has not previously been recorded from
New South Wales. It extends from South Africa to India, China and Japan, as a
shade-loving species. It occurs abundantly in the Williams River district as a
river-bank species in the sub-tropical rain-forest, scrambling between the river
boulders just above water level, where it receives a moderate amount of sunlight
during the middle of the day. It is peculiar to find this exotic species naturalized
in such an isolated district. It has not been observed by the writers in any other
locality.

Family CyPprrACEAE.
Carex cernua Boot. var. lobolepis F.v.M. has been known only from the New
England district at the head of the Macleay and Bellinger Rivers.
Uncinia riparia R.Br. occurs in Tasmania, but has previously been recorded
only from Yarrangobilly in this State.

Family JUNCACEAE.

Juncus falcatus EK. Mey. has previously been recorded only from the southern
highlands in the vicinity of Kosciusko, and on the Brindabella Ranges. It also
occurs in Tasmania. On the Barrington Tops it occurs at an altitude of about
4,800 feet.

Family LILIACEAE.

Lomandra montana (R.Br.), nov. comb. Syn.: Xerotes montana R.Br. Prod.,
1810, p. 262. Xerotes montana R.Br. was included by Bentham (Fl. Aust., vii,
p. 98) under X. longifolia R.Br. It differs from this species, however, in having a
shorter and unbranched inflorescence, and fruits which are bright orange coloured
and slightly succulent when fresh. It appears to be quite worthy of specific rank.
Lomandra montana inhabits the rain forests and other shady places in the eastern
parts of New South Wales. It is a common constituent of the ground flora in the
rain-forest of the Williams River district.

EE

286 NOTES ON SPECIES IN UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS,

Lomandra Hystrix (R.Br.), nov. comb. Syn.: Xerotes Hystrix R.Br. Prod.,
1810, p. 262. Xerotes Hystrir R.Br. was also included by Bentham (FI. Aust., vii,
p. 98) under X. longifolia R.Br., from which it differs in the very large, much
branched inflorescence. Lomandra Hystrix is found from the Hunter River north-
wards to Queensland in coastal districts. Im the Williams River district, and
probably also elsewhere, it occurs as a rain-forest margin species, and is not
uncommon in sunny areas within the forest, especially in very moist situations.

Family IRIDACEAE.

Libertia pulchella Spreng.—This district appears to be the northern limit of
this species, which is known from the Blue Mountains and southwards to Tasmania.

Family ORCHIDACEAE.

In addition to Diuris venosa Rupp and Prasophyllum Rogersii Rupp, which
are known only from the Barrington Tops Plateau, Rupp (1930 and 1937) records
the Barrington Tops as the most northern known locality for Adenochilus Nortonii
Fitzg., Prasophyllum fimbriatum R.Br. and Pterostylis coccinea Fitzg. Pterostylis
decurva Rogers, Pterostylis falcata Rogers and Chiloglottis Gunnii Lindl. have
been found only on the Barrington Tops and at Kosciusko in this State (or else in
Victoria) and are also common in Tasmania. Prasophyllum Hopsonii Rupp is
known only from the Allyn River valley immediately south of the Plateau.

DICOTYLEDONS.
Family FAGacraLr.

Nothofagus Moorei Oerst.—It is well known that the Barrington Tops Plateau
is the southern limit of the antarctic beech. It is well developed at an altitude of
about 4,000-—4,500 feet, where it forms an extensive formation in any sheltered
locality. It is also well developed on the MacPherson Ranges and at high altitudes
in Queensland.

Family PRoTEACEAE.
LOMATIA ARBORESCENS, nN. sp. Text-fig. 1.

Arbor parva 4-10 m. alta in locis protectis vel frutex 1-4 m. altus in locis
apertis; rami teretes, tenuiter pubescentes vel glabrescentes maturi, summae
iuvenes ferrugineo-pubescentes; folia alterna, petiolaria; petioli 1-4 cm. longi, saepe
puberuli praesertim ad basem; laminae lanceolatae vel ovato-lanceolatae, plerumque
longiorae 3—4-plo aliquando 2-plo latis, 6-18 cm. x 1:5-6 cm. sed aliquando parviores,
acutae vel obtusae, contractae gradatim ad petiolos marginibus paulum dentatis,
raro sub-laevis, nunquam lobatis, firmae, sub-coriaceae, saepe aliquanto palidiores
raro glaucae subter, paulum lucentes supra, glabratae vel pilis paucis subter
praesertim in nervo primo, nervis propinquis reticulatis manifestis supra, nervo
primo prominento subter; racemi axillares, aliquando secundi, haud vel vix folia
excedentes; pedunculi 8-16 cm. longi, nudi ad basem, simplices vel raro folium
parvum ramo secundario in axillaro ferentes, floribus binariis puberulis; pedicelli
pubescentes, graciles, 4-8 mm. longi; flores cremei in vivo, nigri in sicco; perian-
thium circa 7 mm. longum glabratum vel puberulum parte exteriore, glabratum
parte interiore, tubiformum, oblique flexum ad apicem, disiunctum 4 segmentis
maturitatum; segmenta angustata ad partem mediam, sed dilatata concavaque ad
apicem; anthera sub-sessiles in apicis concavis segmentorum, lati, 1-1-5 mm. longi;
glandes hypogynae 3, prope partem anteriorem floris, plus vel minus globosae,
circa 1 mm. diam., persistentes; ovarium uni-carpellaris, polyspermum, super
gynophorium circa 4 mm. longum ex quo tempore pollinationis; stylus 4-5 mm.

i)
(oa)
“]

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY.

longus, persistens, ex parte posteriore emergens ante liberationem stigmatis; stigma
obliqua, dilatata, aliquando conica; folliculus ovato-oblongus, 2:5—3°5 em. x 1-1:2 cm.
nigro-fuscus, parte interiore rectus; semina circa 10, planiusculi, 5-6 mm. diam.,
cum alis tenuibus membranaceis margine crassis 8-24 x 5-7 mm. Williams River:
in rain-forest (L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 12/1/1934, Type); at about 3,500 feet
(L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 9/1/1934); Barrington Tops: below Carey’s Peak
(L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 8/1/1936); at 5,100 feet (J. L. Boorman, December,
1915); Nundle (M. H. Simon, July, 1913, No. 21); Comboyne, in rain-forest
(L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 21/1/1934); Noorabark Station, New England Table-
land (G. R. Brown, Nov., 1909); Coolpi Mountains (J. L. Boorman, October, 1909) ;
Mt. Lindsay, Nandewar Ranges (H. M. R. Rupp, Nov., 1912, No. 28); at 4,500 feet
(R. H. Cambage, Nov., 1909, No. 2421); Wilson’s Peak at Summit (Macpherson
Range) (J. H. Maiden, Dec., 1907).

Text-fig. 1.—Lomatia arborescens. x 0-4.

A small tree 4-10 m. high in sheltered situations, or a shrub 1-4 m. high in
more exposed situations; branches terete, sparsely pubescent or almost glabrous at
maturity, the young tips rusty pubescent; leaves alternate, petiolate; petioles
1-4 em. long, often somewhat pubescent, especially at the base; laminae lanceolate
to ovate-lanceolate, usually 3-4 times, sometimes only 2 times as long as broad,
usually 6-18 x 1-5-6 cm., but sometimes smaller, acute or obtuse, narrowing rather
gradually into a petiole, slightly dentate, rarely almost entire, never lobed, firm
to almost coriaceous in texture, often rather paler, rarely glaucous underneath,
glabrous or with a few hairs on the under surface, especially along the midrib, with
closely reticulate veins conspicuous on the rather shiny upper surface, the midrib

288 NOTES ON SPECIES IN UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS,

protruding on the lower surface; inflorescence an axillary raceme, somewhat one
sided, not or scarcely exceeding the length of the leaves; peduncle 8-16 cm. long,
naked in the lower part, simple or rarely bearing a small leaf with a secondary
branch in its axil, bearing flowers in pairs, sparsely pubescent; pedicels pubescent,
rather slender, 4-8 mm. long; flowers cream-coloured in vivo, black when dry;
perianth about 7 mm. long, glabrous or sparsely pubescent outside, glabrous within,
tubular, curved to one side at the apex, separating into 4 segments at maturity, the
segments narrow at the centre but dilated and concave at their tips; anthers sub-
sessile in the concave tips of the perianth segments, broad, 1-1-5 mm. long;
hypogynous glands 3, situated towards the anterior side of the flower, more or
less globular, about 1 mm. diam., persistent; ovary consisting of one carpel, many
seeded, on a gynophore about 4 mm. long at the time of pollination; style 4-5 mm.
long, persistent, breaking out through the posterior side of the flower before the
stigma is liberated; stigma oblique, dilated, the stigmatic surface somewhat cone-
shaped; fruit a follicle, oval-oblong, 2:5-3:5 x 1-1-2 cm., very dark brown, straight
along the anterior side, bearing the persistent style and stigma; seeds about 10,
rather flat, 5-6 mm. diam. with a fine membraneous wing, 8-24 x 5-7 mm. with
thickened margins.

This species inhabits the rain-forests, or moist situations in open forests at
rather high altitudes in north-eastern New South Wales.

The species of Lomatia all show considerable variation, so that it is at times
difficult to delimit them, and the situation is further complicated by hybridization
which frequently appears to occur when two species are found associated in the
field.

L. arborescens, however, appears to be specifically distinct from any of those
previously described, and no intergrading forms are known. It is perhaps most
closely related to L. longifolia R.Br., which is also somewhat arborescent in habit,
and has short axillary racemes, but is readily distinguished from it by the much
broader, lanceolate leaves. It differs from L. Fraseri R.Br. in the more glabrous
leaves, branches and perianth, the more simple and shorter inflorescence, and the
arborescent habit, and from L. ilicifolia R.Br. in the arborescent habit, less harsh
leaf texture and lateral instead of terminal inflorescence with smaller and more
slender flowers.

The leaves are somewhat variable in this species, being large, fairly evenly
dentate in the shelter of rain-forests, and smaller, more ovate-lanceolate, some-
times glaucous, and less regularly toothed in more exposed situations.

Family SANTALACEAR.

Ezocarpus nana Hook. f., a very small shrub only a few inches in height, has
been previously recorded in New South Wales only from the Kosciusko Plateau.
It also occurs in Tasmania. On the Barrington Tops it occurs chiefly in the grass-
land association between the swamps and the Hucalyptus paucifiora forest at an
altitude of about 4,800 feet.

Family WINTERACEAE.

Drimys purpurascens J. Vickery.—This shrub appears to be endemic to the
Barrington Tops Plateau, where it occurs between 4,500 and 5,000 feet. It is
common over a small area in the vicinity of Carey’s Peak in a Hucalyptus
pauciflora—Pou caespitosa association, but is not very widely distributed over the
Plateau.

Drimys lanceolata Baill.—This locality is about the northern limit of this
species. It occurs chiefly on the southern tablelands of New South Wales and

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 289

in Victoria and Tasmania. The form occurring here differs somewhat from the
typical D. lanceolata in the tendency sometimes to have two carpels in the flower
instead of one only, and in the sub-sessile, spathulate leaves. We have no complete
flowers, nor mature fruits of this form, but in other respects it appears to be very
close to the variable D. lanceolata. It occurs here associated with D. purpurascens,
but is rather more widely distributed over the plateau.

Family MONIMIACEAE.

Atherosperma moschatum Labill. occurs on the Barrington Tops Plateau at
4,000-5,000 feet along sheltered creeks. This is probably the most northerly locality
at which it grows. It occurs chiefly at high altitudes in the Blue Mountains and
southern parts of New South Wales, and in Victoria and Tasmania.

Family LAURACEAE.

The Williams River rain-forest is about the southernmost limit for Cryptocarya
erythrozylon Maiden and Betche, C. obovata R.Br., and Endiandra Muelleri Meissn.
These three species are found in the sub-tropical rain-forests of the northern parts
of New South Wales and in Queensland.

F Family PiIrroSPORACEAE.
Billardiera longiflora Labill. has previously been recorded only from the Blue
Mountains in this State, and from Victoria and Tasmania.

Family LEGUMINOSAE.

Acacia elata A. Cunn. is at about the northern limit of its range here. It is
best developed in the impure sub-tropical rain-forests of the Blue Mountains, and
is not common in the Williams River district. ‘

Acacia Clunies-Rossiae Maiden was described from Yerranderie, and appears
to have been collected previously only from near that district. The specimens
from Barrington Tops agree very closely with the type in all respects, except in
the fruit, which is considerably broader and slightly shorter, i.e., about
2-4-5 x 0:9-1:1 cm., with a stipe about 3-4 mm. long. (In the typical A. Clunies-
Rossiae the fruit is about 3-7 x 0-5-0-7 cm., with a stipe about 3-4 mm. long.)

Pultenaea fasciculata Benth. has not been found between the Kosciusko
Plateau and the Barrington Tops. It is present also in Victoria at high altitudes
and in Tasmania.

Family RUTACEAE.

Pleiococca Wilcoxiana F.v.M. is at about its southern limit in the sub-tropical
rain-forest of the Williams River.

EvopIA micrococca F.v.M. var. PUBESCENS, n. var.—Ab typo foliis molliter
pubescentibus subter etiam saepe supra, et superficientibus externis petalorum
plerumque pubescentibus differt. Bellingen (lL. Fraser and J. Vickery, 26/1/1936,
Type); Little River (Swain, 3/1910; L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 31/12/1934) ;
Williams River (L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 8/1930); Ourimbah (J. L. Boorman,
1/1903). This variety differs from the type in the softly pubescent undersides and
often also the upper surfaces of the leaves, and in the usually pubescent outer
surfaces of the petals.

This variety is very easily distinguished in the field, the pubescent character
of the leaves giving them a soft, velvety texture. The variety and the type are not
infrequently found growing together in some districts. In the Williams River
sub-tropical rain-forest this variety only has been found.

290 NOTES ON SPECIES IN UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS,

Family PoLyGALACEAE.
Comesperma sylvestre Lindl. is at about its southern limit on the Barrington
Tops. It is found chiefly on the northern highlands of New South Wales and in
Queensland.

Family SAPINDACEAE.
Arytera foveolata Radlk. is at about its southern limit in the sub-tropical
rain-forests of the Williams River.

Family VITACEAE.

Cayratia sp—A species of Cayratia Juss. (Cissus L.) which was stated in a
communication from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, during 1936, to be probably
an undescribed species near Cissus (Cayratia) japonica (Thunb.) Willd., occurs
in the rain-forest of the Williams River district. This form has already been
recorded from the Comboyne Plateau by Chisholm (1937), and has also been
observed by the writers on the Dorrigo Plateau.

Family FLACOURTIACEAE.

Streptothamus Beckleri F.v.M. is found at high altitudes in northern New
South Wales and Queensland. The Barrington Tops is the most southern locality
from which it has been recorded. It occurs here in the sub-antarctic rain-forest
associated with Nothofagus Moorei at an altitude of about 4,000 feet.

Family MyYRrTackAk.

Syncarpia laurifolia Ten. var. glabra Benth. was described from the Hastings
River (Flora Australiensis, iii, p. 266). It is apparently a rare tree, as there is no
material in the Sydney National Herbarium. A very few plants only have been
observed in the Williams River rain-forest, where the normal Syncarpia laurifolia
is common.

Myrtus Beckleri F.v.M. is at about its southern limit in the Williams River
sub-tropical rain-forest.

Baeckea Gunniana Schau. var. latifolia Benth. occurs mainly on the Kosciusko
Plateau and other southern highlands of New South Wales. It is probably at its
northern limit on the Barrington Tops Plateau.

Family HALORRHAGACEAE.

Myriophyllum pedunculatum Hook. f. occurs in the creeks of the Barrington
Tops Plateau up to about 4,800 feet. It occurs in Tasmania, and at Kosciusko,
and has not previously been recorded north of the Blue Mountains.

Family ERICACEAE.

Gaultheria appressa A. W. Hill (Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Bot. xlix, 1935,
p. 622).—This species had previously been included with G. hispida R.Br. (Prod.,
1810, p. 559). G. hispida, however, was described from Tasmania, and as it differs
in several respects from the form occurring on the Australian mainland, that name
is now restricted to the Tasmanian species. G. appressa is recorded from the
Australian Alps and environs, the Blue Mountains and Barrington Tops, which is
apparently its northern limit. In this district it is a common shrub at an altitude
of about 4,500 feet.

Family EPACRIDACEAR,
EPACRIS MICROPHYLLA R.Br. var. RMOMBIFOLIA, n. var.—Ab typo foliis manifeste
et breviter petiolaribus, plus vel minus appressis, sub-acutis nunquam acuminatis,

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 291

eallo parvissimo ad summam, haud vel vix caudatis ad basem, rhomboidalibus;
sepalis minus incurvatis ad corollam, et habito elatioro erectioro differt. Barring-
ton Tops: 4,500 feet (L. Fraser and J. Vickery, 7/1/1934, Type); 5,100 feet (J. L.
‘Boorman, 12/1915; L. Harrison, 1/1925) ; Wingello (J. L. Boorman, 12/1899). This
variety differs from the type in the leaves, which are distinctly but shortly
petiolate, more or less appressed, sub-acute with a very small callous point, never
acuminate, not or scarcely cordate at the: base, rather rhomboidal in shape, and in
the sepals which are less incurved towards the corolla, and in the taller, more
erect habit. It occurs beside creeks on the Barrington Tops Plateau usually at an
altitude of 4,500—4,800 feet.

Family MyrsSINACEAE.

Embelia australasica Mez, a liane of the northern sub-tropical rain-forests,
occurs in the Williams River rain-forest at about its southern limit.

Family LoGANIACEAE.

Mitrasacme serpyllifolia R.Br. occurs also on the Blue Mountains and in
Victoria and Tasmania. The Barrington Tops is probably the most northern
locality of this species.

Family GENTIANACEAE.

Gentiana diemensis Griseb.—Specimens from the Barrington Tops differ from
those of the Australian Alps in being larger and stouter, of annual habit, the
lateral branches terminated by long (3-13 cm.), single-flowered pedicels, and the
apex terminated by a corymb of four flowers in two opposite pairs, and by the
longer calyx segments. Further study of more extensive material may show that
this is a distinct variety. In New South Wales Gentiana spp. are only known from
the Australian Alps and the Barrington Tops.

Family APOCYNACEAE.
Parsonsia velutina R.Br. has not been recorded south of the Williams River

valley. It occurs in the sub-tropical rain-forests of the north coast and in
Queensland.

Family RUBIACEAE.

Coelospermum paniculatum F.v.M. is a species of the northern sub-tropical
rain-forests which has not been recorded south of the Williams River.

Family PLANTAGINACEAE.
PLANTAGO PALUSTRIS, n. Sp. Text-fig. 2.

Herba perennis acaulis, collo brevissimo crasso; collum stuppis fuscis densum;
folia stellatim patentia vel adscendentia, aliquando tenuia, nunquam carnosa, paulo
pilosa praesertim ad basem, vel tandem glabrescentia ad summam, lanceolata,
acuta, integra, 3- vel sub-5-nervata, ad basem in petiolum planum vaginatum
margine scariosum contracta; laminae cum petiolis 2°5-8 x 0:4-1:5 em.; vena prima
et venae tenues laterales paulo prominentes subter; pedunculi brevissimi, 1-4 mm.
longi cum floribus, postea elongati, 8-15 cm. longi cum fructibus maturescentibus,
molliter pubescentes, dense pubescentes sub spicam; spica paucis- (2—6-plerumque
3-) floribus, capitata 3-5 mm. diam., stuppis inter flores; bracteoli 1-2 mm. longi,
duplo breviores vel raro sub-aequilongi sepalis, late ovati, acuti, carinati, margine
scariosi, glabrescentes; sepala 4, ovata, acuta vel brevissime mucronata, carinata,
2-5 mm. longa; tubus corollae glabrescens, sepalis aequilongus, segmentis 4 acutis

292 NOTES ON SPECIES IN UPPER WILLIAMS RIVER AND BARRINGTON TOPS DISTRICTS,

angustato-ovatis, patentibus vel sub-refractis, duplo brevioribus tubo; stamina 4,
exserta, filamenta sedentia ad mediam corollam; anthera 0-5 mm. longa, ovata,
mucrone breve; ovarium globosum vel aliquando sub-tetragonale, 1:2 mm. diam.,
bilocularis, 4-ovulatum; loculus 2-ovulatus; stylus 9 mm. longus, pubescens praeter
ad basem; pyxidium sub-globosum vel paulo conicum ad summam, mucro breve,
9-5-3 mm. diam., plerumque 4-Seminis; semina ovalia, plana,,2 x 1 mm., fulva.

Loc.—Barrington Tops in swamp, at 4,800 feet (L. Fraser and J. Vickery,
7/1/1934, Type).

Rosette perennial with a very short, rather thickened stem crowded with
tufts of long brownish hairs; leaves stellately spreading or ascending, rather thin,
never fleshy, slightly hairy, especially towards the base, or sometimes becoming
almost glabrous towards the tip, lanceolate, acute, entire, 3- or sub-5-nerved,
becoming narrowed at the base into the flat, sheathing petiole which has scarious
margins: laminae with petioles 2-5-8 x 0-4-1:5 cm.; midrib and the fine lateral
veins slightly prominent on the lower surface; peduncles very short, 1-4 mm. at
the time of flowering, but elongating up to about 15 cm. as the fruit matures,
softly pubescent, densely so immediately under the spike; spike few- (2—6- usually
3-) flowered, capitate, 3-5 mm. diam., with tufts of hairs between the flowers;
bracteoles 1:2 mm. long, shorter than or rarely subequal to the calyx, broadly
ovate, acute, keeled, with scarious margins, glabrous; sepals 4, ovate, acute or very
-shortly mucronate, keeled, 2-5 mm. long; corolla tube glabrous, equalling the calyx,
with four acute, narrow ovate, spreading or slightly reflexed segments half as
long as the tube; stamens 4, exserted, the filaments fused to the corolla tube half-
way down; anthers 0-5 mm. long, ovate, with a short point; style 9 mm. long,

NU
} Wy ys i

Sway,

Wy!
M7,

Text-fig. 2.—Plantago palustris. A, plant showing elongated peduncles bearing the
fruit, ~ 0-4; B, plant showing rosette form, and extremely short peduncles bearing the
flowers, x 0-4; C, inflorescence at anthesis, x 5:6; D, inflorescence showing fruit, x 5-6;
Bf, gynaecium, ~ 8-5; F, septum of ovary bearing two ovules, x 10:8; G, anther, x 18.

BY LILIAN FRASER AND JOYCE VICKERY. 293

pubescent except at the base; ovary globose or very slightly 4-lobed; 1-2 mm. in
diam., 2-celled, with two ovules in each cell; fruit a pyxidium, sub-globose or
slightly conical in the upper part, with a short point left by the base of the style,
usually 4-seeded, 2-5-3 mm. diam.; seeds oval, flattened, 2 x 1 mm., light brown
in colour.

This species is only known from the margins of the swamps of the Barrington
Tops Plateau, to which it appears to be endemic. Superficially, it somewhat
resembles P. stellaris F.v.M., which occurs in the Australian Alps, but differs from
it in the less stellate habit, in the peduncle elongating very conspicuously after
pollination, the less conspicuously thick roots, the sparsely hairy and less fleshy
leaves, and the four seeds in the fruit. It differs from P. Brownii Rapin, which is
known from the Australian Alps and Tasmania, in the peduncles, which are
shorter than in P. Brownii before pollination and much longer afterwards, and
in the entire, hairy leaves and less stellate habit.

Family GoopDENIACEAE.

Velleia montana Hook. f. is present at about its most northern limit. It
occurs on the Blue Mountains in this State, and in Victoria and Tasmania.

Family CoMPOSITAE.

Cotula fiicula Hook. f. has only previously been recorded from southern New
South Wales. It occurs also in Victoria and Tasmania. On the Barrington Tops
it occurs in Eucalyptus paucifiora forest at an altitude of about 4,500 feet.

Hrigeron pappochromus Labill. is found at high altitudes in the southern
parts of the State, and in Tasmania and Victoria, and has not previously been
recorded so far north.

Summary.

The distribution of a number of species occurring in the Upper Williams River
and Barrington Tops districts is considered. Many species growing on the
Barrington Tops Plateau show interesting affinities with the floras of the
Kosciusko Plateau (N.S.W.) and Tasmania.

Two species, Pollinia nuda Trin. (exotic) and Panicum lachnophyllum R.Br.
are recorded as new for New South Wales.

Two new species, Lomatia arborescens and Plantago palustris, and two new
varieties, Hvodia micrococca var. pubescens and Epacris microphylla var. rhombi-
folia are described. Two new combinations, Lomandra montana (R.Br.) and
L. Hystrix (R.Br.) are cited.

In conclusion, the writers desire to express their thanks to Mr. R. H.
Anderson, Botanist and Curator, National Herbarium, Sydney, for his help and
interest during the progress of this work, and to other members of the staff
of the National Herbarium and of the Botany Department, University of Sydney,
for assistance in the determination of plants.

Literature Cited.
CHISHOLM, HE. C., 1937.—F inal Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ixii, Parts 1-2, pp. 65-72.
FraAsmR, L., and VicKERY, J. W., 1937.—The Ecology of the Upper Williams River and
Barrington Tops Districts. I. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Ixii, pp. 269-283.
Rupp, H. M. R., 1930.—Guide to the Orchids of New South Wales. Angus and Robertson

Ltd., Sydney.
, 1937.—Notes on the Distribution of Certain Orchids. Vict. Nat., liii, No. 11,
pp. 189-191.

GG

294

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE).
PART IV. THE GENUS THEOBALDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES.
By D. J. Ler, B.Sc.

(Nine Text-figures. )

[Read 29th September, 1937.]

Five members of the genus Theobaldia have been described from Australasia,
namely, 7. frenchi Theo. and T. hil Edw. from Victoria, T. littleri Tayl. and
T. weindorferi Edw. from Tasmania, and TJ. tonnoiri Edw. from New Zealand.
In this paper a new species is described from New South Wales. It is distinct
from T. hilli, T. frenchi and T. weindorferi on characters of the terminalia, from
T. littleri in having the upright scales of the head dark and the anterior pronotal
lobes bare of scales or hairs, and from TJ. tonnoiri in not having the wings
spotted. The presumed male of 7. littleri is also described.

The larva of the new species is described and it is considered that its signifi-
cant characters agree with those of the subgenus Culicella rather than with
Climacura. The previously-described species were provisionally placed in the
latter pending the discovery of their larvae.

THEOBALDIA INCONSPICUA, Nl. Sp.

Head dark brown, covered with narrow curved golden scales, flat whitish
ones laterally. Upright scales dark brown, paler at base, some yellowish ones in
front. Proboscis dark brown with pale reflections beneath, especially at middle.
Male palpi as long as proboscis, last two segments hairy. Female palpi one-
eighth the length of proboscis, dark brown. Antennae of male shorter than
proboscis, brown with blackish segmentation, plumes grey and creamy. Basal
segment dark brown. Mesonotum bright brown with two medial paler bare
lines and a pair of similar lateral spots. Scales narrow-curved and golden,
fairly sparse. A few similar scales on scutellum. Border bristles 5 or 6 on
each lobe. Postnotum creamy-yellow. Pleural chaetotaxy of female: Integument
generally yellowish-brown. Anterior and posterior pronotal lobes devoid of scales
or fine soft hairs. Four strong and several shorter bristles on anterior pronotum
and 3-5 strong bristles on posterior pronotum. Two short fine spiracular hairs.
No post-spiracular bristles. Sternopleura with a curved row of fine bristles and
one strong one below it; patch of hairs and creamy lanceolate scales on lower
part. Patch of pre-alar bristles. Two weak upper mesepimeral bristles, one
strong lower one with a weaker one above it. Mesepimeron also bearing soft
pale hairs, a few pale scales and a group of erect hairs on upper posterior part.
Male similar to female in above characters but generally weaker in their repre-
sentation. Wings: scales narrow curved, dark brown. Base of first fork cell
proximal to second; r-m distal to m-cu by twice the length of m-cu. <A group
of hairs on base of radius beneath; fewer similar hairs in same position above.
Length 38-40 mm. Abdomen unbanded, dark brown, violet reflections dorsally,

BY-D. J. LEE. 295

slightly paler beneath. Male terminalia: Coxite more than twice as long as
broad, tapering; style with short terminal spine. Basal lobes very small and
imperfectly separated from coxite, hairy at tip. Lobes of ninth tergite not
prominent, with 7-10 curved bristles.

Type series bred through from larvae collected at Mittagong, N.S.W., 20/9/36,
and on Tinderry Range at a height of 4,500 feet (10 miles east of Michelago,
N.S.W.), 10/10/36.

Holotype J, allotype and paratype ? from Tinderry; two ¢ and one 2 paratype
from Mittagong. An additional male, from Oxford Falls, Sydney, 3/11/22,
Mackerras, is in the Macleay Museum. Holotype and allotype in the museum
of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Canberra.

Presumed Male of THEOBALDIA LITTLERI Tayl.

grees with the description of the original female except in the following
points. Palpi almost as long as proboscis, dark scaled. Basal segment of antenna
light brown. Thorax: chaetae golden, except on scutellum where they are black.
Scutellum with four border bristles on the lateral lobes and six on the central
one. Wing: base of first fork cell about half the length of its cell, of second
almost as long as its cell. Cross-veins r-m and m-cu equal in length but separated
by only twice the length of m-cu.

Terminalia: Coxites elongated, almost three times as long as broad. Basal
lobes two-thirds the length of the coxite, very distinct and well separated, giving
the appearance of claspettes. A number of spines and hairs at tip. Aedeagus
distinctly chitinized. Lobes of ninth tergite not very pronounced, with about
10 spines (only their points of attachment showing in specimen).

Specimen from Barrington Tops, N.S.W., Sydney University Zoological
Expedition, January, 1925, in the Macleay Museum. Another specimen in the
same museum, collected by I. M. Mackerras at National Park, N.S.W., 1/1/26,
is identical, except that it has a darkened cloud on the wing membrane as in
TM imenent.

Notes on Other Species. P

The male of J. inconspicuda, n. sp., can readily be distinguished from the
other species for which males have been described, namely, 7. frenchi, T. hilli
and 7. weindorferi.. As the terminalia of these species have only been verbally
described, the opportunity is now taken to figure them. The terminalia of the
type of 7. weindorferi were remounted and drawn and the same was done with a
specimen of 7. frenchi determined by Edwards. The preparation of 7. hilli was
made from a specimen in the Macleay Museum from Beaconsfield, Victoria
(G. F. Hill, 8/12/23). 7. littleri is distinct from all the other species in having
its basal lobes more fully developed and with a group of stout spines at the tip.
In 7. hilli the basal lobes reach almost to the tip of the coxite. 7’. weindorferi and
T. frenchi have the basal lobes reaching slightly more than half-way, but they are
more pronounced in the former, being more separated and hairy. The aedeagus is
larger and more heavily chitinized in 7. frenchi and the lobes of the ninth tergite
bear a large number of hairs instead of a group of about 6 as in J. weindorferi.
T. inconspicua has its basal lobes very greatly reduced, the lobes of the ninth
tergite with 7-10 curved bristles and the aedeagus only chitinized at the tip.

The characters available for separating the females are not so satisfactory.
T. tonnoiri is apparently unique in having the wing scales variable in colour,
giving the wing a spotted appearance. TJ. frenchi has a darkened cloud on the

\

296 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES. IV,

wing membrane, but it is considered that this character is of little value in
distinguishing this species. The other species have clear wings with scales
uniformly coloured. T. tonneiri, T. littleri, T. frenchi and T. hilli all have either
scales or hairs on the anterior pronotal lobes, but in TY. weindorferi and

Text-figures 1-5.—1. Terminalia of presumed male of 7. littleri Tayl. 2. Terminalia of
T. hilli. Edw. 3. Terminalia of T. weindorferi Edw. 4. Terminalia of JT. frenchi Theo.
5. Terminalia of JT. inconspicua, n. sp. (All figures drawn to same magnification.)

T. imconspicua these lobes are bare of scales or hairs. 7. weindorferi and
T. inconspicua may be distinguished by the number of scutellar bristles (the
bristles taken into account are the border bristles arising from prominent dark
basal rings). In TJ. weindorferi the lateral lobes have 6-8 bristles and the central
lobe 8-10. TJ. inconspicua has 5-6 on each lobe. T. littleri, T. hilli and T. frenchi
are more difficult to separate, but the first has only pale upright scales on the head,
whereas in the other two species they are at least dark towards the neck. I have
no definite females of 7. hilli before me, so am unable to judge the usefulness of
the characters given by Edwards (1926) which mainly concern the colour of the
pleural integument.

On the basis of the above characters the following key would serve to
distinguish the females of the Australasian species of Theobaldia.

1. NO (scales lor airs Jon santeriors pronotalmlobesmmnmeee Cher tice a ciriehanc ent teen kele 2
Anterior pronotal lobes with Scaleswor fine! Nansen es eines ieee lonMnMsnels 3

bo
te)
~

BY D. J. LEE.

2 Scutellum with 6-8 border bristles on lateral lobes, 8-10 on central ................
3 CoE Oash Reh RENO. CL Dio tO CRGIONC! cit) DITA e CROC ACO CHENIER Ieee RPS ek Caio torriio ky eC IeVOKn CaCI T. weindorferi Edw.
Scutellum with 5-6 border bristles on each lobe ............... T. inconspicua, n. sp.

SRAVVALTI EHS PO CEC! vac ats veya eiel ouepeteve: fe cero siveller cele cus) eel events eutey ovenen el aeberenorehens (erane wy ci,< T. tonnoiri Edw.
Wing not spotted (may have darkened patch on membrane) .................... 4

AM ODI ShitmSCHleShOheneadualle pale perctaruchen cicecl amen eenctce omer eieeneie eer ea ciel re) ot T. littleri Tay).
Upright scales of head dark at least towards neck .... JT. hilli Edw.; T. frenchi Theo.

No satisfactory characters have been established to separate 7. hilli and TJ. frenchi.

The Larva of THEOBALDIA INCONSPICUA, Nl. SDP.

Head large, pale; antennae long, curved, spinose, with tuft of plumose hairs
at about two-thirds from the base, one long spine arising from the tip and a pair
of similar length arising sub-apically. Some of the frontal hairs spinose, ante-
antennal tuft plumose. Mouth brushes bushy, labial plate with 12 teeth on either
side of apical one. Thorax: Hairs well developed, except the propleural group.
Meso- and meta-pleural groups plumose. Highth abdominal segment: Comb teeth

w=

_ \N

Text-figures 6-9.—Larva of T. inconspicua. n. sp. 6, Head; 7, Posterior end;
8, Comb tooth; 9, Pecten spine.

298 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MOSQUITOES. Iv.

in a large patch, sub-siphonal and sub-anal tufts plumose. Siphon long (2 mm.),
devoid of hairs except for a single one near base of pecten. Pecten a row of 9
serrate teeth on basal fourth of siphon. Andl segment: Outer dorsal hair with
one long and two short branches. Anal papillae fairly long, pointed. Ventral
beard of about 12 tufts of simple hairs and also 1 or 2 arising anteriorly to the
barred area.

On the characters given by Edwards (1932) for the differentiation of the
subgenera of Theobaldia, the larva of 7. inconspicua, n. sp., belongs to the subgenus
Culicella. It is distinct from Climacura in having only a single pair of hairs
situated basally on the siphon, in the outer dorsal hair of the anal segment being
branched, the papillae long and pointed and in having 1 or 2 tufts of the ventral
beard before the barred area.

As the adult of 7. inconspicua, n. sp., is evidently closely related to those of
the previously-recorded species, it is considered probable that these will also be
found to belong to the subgenus Culicella when their larvae are discovered.

Acknowledgements.

My thanks are due to Dr. I. M. Mackerras for advice in the preparation of
this paper, and to Mr. K. E. W. Salter for the loan of specimens from the Macleay
Museum, Sydney.

References.

EDWARDS, F. W., 1924.—Bull. Hnt. Res., xiv, p. 363.

, 1925.— Bull. Ent. Res., xv, p. 258.

, 1926.—Bull. Hunt. Res., xvii, pp. 110-111.

, 1932.—Wytsman’s Genera Insectorum, fase. 194, pp. 101-106.
TAYLorR, FE. H., 1914.—Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1913, p. 702.
THEOBALD, F. V., 1901.—Monog. Culicid., ii, p. 66.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN ORCHIDS. III.
A REVIEW OF THE GENUS CYMBIDIUM IN AUSTRALIA. II.
By the Rey. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A.
(Three Text-figures. )
[Read 27th October, 19387.]

I am still unable to throw any light on two species mentioned three years ago
(these Proc., lix, 1934, 93) as having been published as Australian—Fitzgerald’s
C. gomphocarpum and Klinge’s C. queenianum. Fitzgerald described C. gompho-
carpum (Journ. Bot., xxi, p. 203), but gave no clue whatever to the locality, and
he did not—so far as is kKnown—figure the plant. His description of the inflores-
cence—“flowers in dense racemes of about twenty to thirty, green tinged with
olive’—suggests the North Queensland form of C. suave R.Br., which differs
considerably from southern forms, but does not agree with Fitzgerald’s description
in some essential particulars.

CYyMBIDIUM HILLit F.v.M.

Fragm., xi, 88. See also Bailey, “Queensland Flora”, v, p. 1547.

So far as I can ascertain, the only existing herbarium specimen of this species
is an imperfect one (a leaf and a small part of a flowering raceme) in my own
possession. Inquiries for C. Hillii, which was discovered many years ago by Walter
Hill in the Mulgrave Range, N. Queensland, met with no satisfactory response.
Mr. W. F. Tierney, of Cairns, was at one time under the impression that he had
secured a plant, but the specimens sent were irreconcilable with the descriptions.
In September, 1932, Mr. Charles Barrett sent me a specimen from a plant obtained
on the Daly River. After making a careful examination I came to the conclusion
that this plant must be C. Hillii. Affinity with C. canaliculatum R.Br. was obvious,
but the differences were quite striking. The perianth segments are longer and
narrower, and the mid-lobe of the labellum is much longer, than in C. canalicu-
latum. The mid-lobe in Mr. Barrett’s flowers agrees exactly with Mueller’s
words in Regel’s Gartenflora, 1879, p. 138: “lobo supero semilanceolato
acuminato fere ter longiore quam lato’. Mueller and Bailey are both silent
about capsules. Mr. Barrett sent me one. The dimensions are as follow:
Pedicel 23 cm. From base of capsule to base of withered flower at apex, 5% cm.
Diameter at base, 2 mm.; at middle, 14 mm.; at 2 cm. from apex, 15 mm.; at
apex, 5 mm. Sutures 3, closed under 3 flat-surfaced longitudinal bands, the inter-
vening sections prominently keeled. Thus the capsule is definitely distinct from

- that of C. canaliculatum. Dimensions of one dissected flower: Sepals 21 x 44 mm.;

- petals 19 x 4 mm.; labellum 16% x 5 mm. across lateral lobes; mid-lobe 10 x 4 mm.;

column 11 mm. from base to top of anther. The leaf of C. Hillii is prominently

.o-nerved,

300 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN ORCHIDS. III,

CYMBIDIUM IRIDIFOLIUM Cunn.

Bot. Reg., 1889, Misc. 34; C. albuciflorum F.v.M., Fragm., i, p. 188; CO. madidum
Lindl., Bot. Reg., xiii, 1840, Misc. 9.

This plant, which attains great bulk, and is often found on trees in close
association with epiphytic ferns, extends from the neighbourhood of the Macleay
River in New South Wales (it may possibly occur a little further south) north-
ward into the Queensland tropics. When not in flower it resembles many of the
large-flowering exotic species. The racemes, however, are small-flowered and rather
disappointing. In New South Wales and South Queensland I have found very little
departure from what is regarded as the type form. In view of the difficulties which
appear in North Queensland forms, I append a description of this southern form:
A large plant, on trees along the coastal belt. Stems usually more or less hidden
under the large pseudobulbous growth of the swollen imbricate bases of the leaves.
Leaves 4 to 8 together, from 30 to as much as 90 cm. long, membranous and some-
what flaccid (but firmer than in C@. suave), light green. Racemes from 20 to 60 cm.
long, number of flowers very variable. Flowers thick and rather rigid, brownish
outside, chiefly olive-green within, fragrant, about 24 cm. from tip to tip of
segments. Labellum with 2 very small lateral lobes and a large yellowish obtuse
midlobe. Lamina without ridges, but glandular-sticky and shining along the
median line. Column truncate, with an angle in front.

JUCOUUY

Text-figures 1-3.

1.—C. iridifolium Cunn. 2.—C. suave R.Br. 3.—Contours (enlarged) of
labella of C. suave, to show gradations of lobation. Drawn from actual
specimens.

Figs. 1 and 2 greatly reduced.

In 1932 I received from Mr. W. F. Tierney, of Cairns, several racemes of a
Cymbidium in his possession, which he thought might be C. Hillii. The flowers
were quite irreconcilable with descriptions of that species, but had affinities with
C. iridifolium. They were, however, uniformly brownish, with darker blotches on

BY H. M. R. RUPP. 301

the perianth. The labellum appeared to agree precisely with Rendle’s description
of C. Leai (Journ. Bot., xxxvi, p. 221), and since no other known Australian species
has the peculiar form of labellum described by Rendle, I concluded that Mr.
Tierney’s pliant must be C. Leai, which was absorbed by F. M. Bailey into
C. canaliculatum. Rendle considered C. Leai close to C. canaliculatum, while Mr.
Tierney’s plant was nearer to C. iridifolium. Further material was sent in 1933
and again in 1934, and was obtained from the same plant as that of 1932, but the
flowers were quite different! They were in every respect identical with those of
the southern type form of C. iridifolium; and none had the peculiar labellum asso-
ciated with C. Leai. The mystery of this remains unsolved, and I do not feel
justified in disturbing Bailey’s treatment of C. Leai at present.

What I have called the southern type form of C. iridifolium certainly extends
into North Queensland, and I possess a healthy plant from Proserpine. But it is
very different from the form commonly known about Cairns as C. iridifolium,
though the differences are not structural. The Cairns C. iridifolium has straighter
and more rigid racemes, with numerous flowers rather densely massed. The
individual flower has narrower segments, much more widely expanding and, except
for the yellowish apex of the labellum, it is of a uniform very pale green, inside
and out. Structurally the two forms are so nearly identical that it would be unwise
to separate them; but they are very distinct in appearance.

Mr. Kenneth MacPherson, of Proserpine, has contributed valuable observations
on the pollination of C. iridifolium (North Queensland Naturalist, April, 1935,
p. 26). A small native bee, identified by Mr. Tarleton Rayment as Trigona
kockingsi (C’kK’ll), visits the flowers and carries away the viscid exudation of the
labellum, apparently to be used as ‘‘bee glue” in closing small cracks, etc., in its
nests. In the course of the operation, which was watched by Mr. MacPherson
repeatedly, the labellum moved up and imprisoned the bees against the column.
The bees, struggling to free themselves, invariably burst the anther-sacs, and
escaped bearing a supply of pollen on their backs, to be deposited on the stigmatic
plates of other flowers.

CYMBIDIUM SUAVE R.Br.

Prodr., 331. (See also Benth., Fl. Austr., vi, 303; Bailey, Q. Fl., v, 1548; Rupp,
Guide to Orch. N.S.W., 47 [photograph].) References indicate that in one
important matter botanists have not adhered strictly to Robert Brown’s description.
Brown explicitly states of the labellum, “indiviso”. Bentham and Bailey include
within the species forms having the labellum “obscurely sinuate 3-lobed’”’. A careful
study of forms ranging in habitat from North Queensland to the South Coast of
New South Wales—a study embracing both living plants and dried specimens—
has convinced me that we must go even further than Bentham and Bailey, and
include forms with a labellum as definitely trilobate as that of any other Australian
species. In this respect C. suave is extremely variable, and the form of the
labellum is too inconstant to be relied upon as a guide to determination. The
process of lobation can be traced through all stages.. What we must call the
type form, with a labellum perfectly entire, is—except in North Queensland—much
less common than the variants. In some cases a very slight swelling on both
margins of the lamina is an indication of tendency to lobation; other flowers will
be found with these swellings quite prominent; in others they have become
Bentham’s “obscurely sinuate” lobes; and so on, till we reach a form of labellum
as well lobed as that of C. iridifolium. I do not think it would be wise even to
constitute a var. lobatum, because the intermediates are so many that confusion
would result.

HH

302 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN ORCHIDS. III.

Bentham describes the flowers of C. suave as “green, blotched with red’. Brown
says nothing of this; and it is certainly not typical. I have seen this form once.
A plant which I obtained many years ago at Lilyvale, in the Illawarra district
of New South Wales, had dull green flowers with reddish blotches. Though
C. suave is abundant in many districts, I have only been able to find three people
besides myself who have seen this form with blotched flowers. The commonest
colouring, in New South Wales and South Queensland, is a delicate golden-green,
the perianth sometimes brown on the outside, especially in bud. The flowers are
deliciously fragrant.

A large plant of C. suave may reach a diameter of 90 cm. or more, but,
generally speaking, it is not as bulky as other species. It lacks the bulbous
swelling at the base of the leaves which is so prominent in C. canaliculatum and
C. iridifolium, but has much longer stems, which are covered with ragged fibre—
the remnants of dead leaf-bases. The leaves are bright green, narrow, and very
flexible, from 16 to 50 cm. in length. The racemes are variable in length: in the
North Queensland form they are (at least in all specimens sent to me) only about
13 cm. long, with densely packed very pale green flowers. Southern racemes
attain 30 cm., but the average would be about 21.

Fitzgerald’s C. gomphocarpum, as far as one can judge from his description,
must be closely allied to forms of C. suave with a lobed labellum. It is distin-
guished by its “club-shaped or almost terete” capsule—that of C. suave being oval
or almost globular. There is an unpublished Fitzgerald plate in the Mitchell
Library at Sydney, depicting a Cymbidium from Cook’s River, near Botany Bay.
No name is attached, but it appears to be C. swave with a lobed labellum. It is
curious that Robert Brown never saw this form, for it is quite common—or was
a few years ago—in the central coastal area of New South Wales. The range
of C. suave from north to south is probably more than 2,000 miles. It is restricted
to the coast districts and the Dividing Range, and has only been found in Queens-
land and New South Wales.

In Part I of this review I alluded to the habit of Australian Cymbidiums of
rooting in the hollows of decayed branches of trees. This habit, as far as I can
ascertain, is invariable in the case of C. canaliculatum, but I find that it is by
no means so with C. iridifolium and C. suave. The former grows freely with its
roots embedded in masses of Platycerium (stag-horn and elk-horn ferns), while
C. suave sometimes occurs rooted in the paper-bark of Melaleuca lewcadendron
and other tea-trees, or on trunks of tree-ferns.

I have already acknowledged, in Part I, the kind assistance received from
many quarters during my investigations of C. canaliculatum, and I need only add
here that it has been continued during the past three years while I have been
endeavouring, with only partial success, to secure fuller information concerning
other Australian species.

303

THE OCCURRENCE OF GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, NEW SOUTH WALES.

By KaruLeen SHERRARD, M.Sc., and R. A. KEBLE, F.G.S., Palaeontologist to the
National Museum, Melbourne.

(Plate xv; twenty-five Text-figures. )
[Read 27th October, 1937.]

Graptolites of both Upper Ordovician and Silurian age have been found near
Yass. Upper Ordovician assemblages were discovered in slates at several localities
in the Parishes of Morumbateman, Mundoonen and Manton in the Yass River
District, all situated between 12 and 15 miles east of Yass and near the Yass—
Gundaroo road (Sherrard, 1936b). These graptolites of. Upper Ordovician age
were found in rocks hitherto mapped as Silurian, which age was probably assigned
to them on account of their comparative proximity to beds carrying Silurian
fossils near Yass. No other fossils were found with the graptolites.

Silurian graptolites occur at a locality known as Silverdale, seven miles to
the north-west of Yass (see Text-fig. A), where several species of Monograptus
have been obtained (Sherrard, 1934, 1936a). All were found in one small outcrop,
which also yielded brachiopods, crinoid stems and traces of trilobites.

Upper Ordovician Beds.

These beds are blue and grey shaly slates, all dipping at high angles, 50 degrees
and more, and striking between north-west and west-south-west. The slates cleave
easily, but have not the fissile cleavage of roofing slates. In some cases they are
puckered and contorted, while in others mineral solutions have penetrated freely
along the bedding planes, probably often obscuring graptolites. In some specimens
the material of which the graptolite impressions consists has been dissolved away,
leaving merely an unidentifiable negative impression, surrounded by a white film.

The graptolites found at the various localities are:

Loc. 1.—Portion 24, Parish of Morumbateman, on Yass—Gundaroo road, 100
yards west of 12th mile-post: Climacograptus bicornis Hall, C. missilis Keble and
Harris, Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapworth.

Loc. 2.—Portion 1, Parish of Mundoonen, 200 yards north of Morumbateman
road junction: Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapw. var. basilicus Lapw.,
D. cf. truncatus Lapworth, D. sp. indet., Climacograptus missilis Keble and Harris,
C. sp. indet., Cryptograptus tricornis Carruthers, Retiograptus yassensis, N. sp.,
Dicellograptus cf. complanatus Lapworth, D. cf. sextans Hall, D. sp. indet.

Loc. 3.—Portion 152, Parish of Manton; about centre of Portion, 50 yards
north of Yass River: Dicellograptus elegans Carruthers, D. cf. complanatus
Lapworth, D. cf. moffatensis Carruthers, D. cf. pumilus Lapworth, D. cf. sextans
Hall, D. cf. smithi Ruedemann, D. sp. indet.

Loc. 4.—Portion 61, Parish of Manton, eastern half: Dicellograptus divaricatus
Hall var. rigidus Lapworth, D. cf. complanatus Lapworth, D. elegans Carruthers,
D. sp. indet., Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapworth var. basilicus

304 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, N.S.W.,

Lapw., Climacograptus missilis Keble and Harris, C. tubuliferous Lapworth, C. sp.
indet.

Loc. 5.—Reserve, No. 43134, Parish of Morumbateman, at waterfall, about half
a mile west of junction between Portions 94 and 150, Parish of Morumbateman:
Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapworth var. basilicus Lapw.

Loc. 6.—Portion 31, Parish of Morumbateman, near NW. corner, 50 yards south
of Yass River: Graptolite fragments indeterminate.

eal
DERRIINGULLEN
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WARGEILA -®

Pe SINAL ONG

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BOWNING:
= are

BOWNING

Text-fig. A.—Topographical Map of Area between Yass and Bowning.
A. = Graptolite locality.

(See Sherrard, 1936a, Text-fig. 9, for Geological Sketch-Map of the Yass
and Bowning districts.)

The accompanying table attempts to correlate the graptolite species found in
other parts of New South Wales, in Victoria, in Great Britain and in North
America with those of Upper Ordovician age found in the Yass River district. On
the whole the correlation is satisfactory. The discordant species are D. cf. sextans,
since this species is never found higher than the Gisbornian in Victoria and in a
very similar association in Great Britain and America, and D. cf. complanatus,
which species, in Victoria, is never found outside the Bolindian. Possibly the
discordance is due to the fact that the Australian Dicellograptidae have not been
adequately described and figured. When a close examination of the forms referred
to these discordant species is made, they will probably exhibit those small
differences so often found in Australian species at first glance conspecific with the
British.

305

A. KEBLE.

AND R.

SHERRARD

KATHLEEN

BY

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306 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS,-N.S.W.,

A more precise correlation with the Victorian series, ignoring, for the time
being, the discordant element, is as follows:

Loc. 1.—Top of Eastonian or base of Bolindian.

Loc. 2.—Hastonian, probably high. Limiting species, Cryptograptus tricornis,
the extreme upward range of which is the top of the Hastonian, and a number of
Eastonian-Bolindian forms.

Loc. 3.—Eastonian, probably high.

Loc. 4.—Top of Eastonian or base of Bolindian.

Loc. 5.—Probably Hastonian.

Loc. 6.—Indefinite. :

Thomas and Keble state (1933) that the Hastonian embraces approximately
the lower two zones of the Caradocian, and the Bolindian corresponds to the zone
of Pleurograptus linearis and to the Ashgillian of Britain. It may be stated, there-
fore, that the Yass Upper Ordovician beds correspond to parts of the Caradocian of
Britain.

Silurian Beds.

Graptolites of Silurian age occur in ripple-marked, medium-grained, greenish-
brown, probably tuffaceous sandstone outcropping on the crest of a hill in Portion
34, Parish of Derringullen, County of King, included among the Lower
Trilobite Beds of Mitchell (1886, 1888). The outcrop is about 300 yards west
of a point on the Yass—Boorowa road, which point is three-quarters of a mile north
of the Sydney—Melbourne railway crossing. This locality is known as Silverdale
from a property of that name nearby. The graptolite bed dips at 25 degrees to
the south-west and overlies shales dipping 25 degrees west-south-west. These

1 GAZ Willy bo

Porphyry Limestone Shale Sandstone Shale Alluvium
SealeL—______i

(Bowspring) (Barrandella) (Graptolites) (0) 200 Yards
Uncertain Junction —————

SECTION ¥2 ALONG BOWNING-WARGEILA ROAD ACROSS INT °
- : TH YASS-EOOROWA ROAD © >> (N7ERSECTION

Text-fig. B.—Section along line Y-Z, Text-fig. A.

shales, which outciop in the bed of Limestone Creek, a quarter of a mile to the
east (see locality map, Text-fig. A), are richly fossiliferous, though without grapto-
lites. They contain numerous forms identical with those in the Barrandella shales
at Hatton’s Corner, 6 miles to the south-south-east. Shearsby (1911) and one of
the authors (Sherrard, 1936a) consider the Limestone Creek shales an extension
of the Barrandella shales at Hatton’s Corner, and Shearsby (1911) has given a list
of the Limestone Creek fauna. Cuttings in the road from Wargeila to Bowning,
which runs east and west and crosses the Yass—Boorowa road three-quarters of a
mile north of the graptolite outcrop, reveal gentle south-west to west-south-west
dips. As one travels along this road from a limestone outcrop (Bowspring) in
the east, over the Barrandella shales in the bed of Limestone Creek, to the sand-
stones on the horizon of the graptolite bed, these gentle dips persist (Section Y-Z,
Text-fig. B), leaving no doubt that the graptolite bed overlies the Limestone Creek
beds and incidentally the Barrandella shales. There is no indication or suggestion
of faulting or thrusting; the succession seems to be quite conformable and undis-

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD AND ’R. A. KEBLE. 307.

turbed. Hence the age of the Limestone Creek beds and the Barrandella shales,
if Shearsby and Sherrard are right in stating that they are the same bed, may be
fixed by the graptolite bed, that is, they are Silurian, probably high Wenlockian.

The brachiopods which frequently are found on the same slab as the grapto-
lites, are all small, suggesting an unfavourable environment. Stropheodonta davidi,
for instance, has a width of 4 mm. across the brachial valve and a length of
2-5 mm., while the type is recorded with a width of 6-0-6-3 mm. and a length of
4-8 mm. (Mitchell, 1923). While the form referred to as Atrypa sp. is somewhat
similar to A. pulchra Mitchell and Dun (1920), it is very much smaller than that
species, being only 3-5 mm. in width and 2-5 mm. in length in a typical specimen.

The following forms have been recognized from the graptolite bed at Silver-
dale: Monograptus ftemingii (Salter), M. cf. twmescens Wood, M. cf. nilssoni
(Barrande), M. cf. vomerinus (Nicholson), Dictyonema sp., Nucleospira australis
McCoy, Stropheodonta davidi (Mitchell), Atrypa fimbriata Chapman (?), A. sp.,
Merista sp., trilobite fragments, crinoid stems.

The graptolites indicate Zones 26 to 35-of the Silurian as divided by Elles
and Wood (1913), which makes the bed at Silverdale containing them equivalent
to the Wenlock—Ludlow junction beds of England, and to the Melbournian Series
of Victoria (Chapman and Thomas, 1935; Keble and Harris, 1934).

Specimens of Monograptus described by T. S. Hall (1903) as “allied to
M. dubius’ were obtained by Mitchell from Belle Vale, Yass, which is a property
situated between Silverdale and Hatton’s Corner (see locality map, Text-fig. A).

Shearsby (personal communication) obtained a specimen identified as Mono-
graptus cf. vomerinus, while quarrying operations were in progress about 1915 for
a new railway bridge over Bowning Creek near Bowning Station, 23 miles west
of Silverdale (see Text-fig. A). : ‘

Species of Monograptus obtained near Goulburn, about 60 miles east of
Silverdale (Naylor, 1935), are the only other forms of Monograptidae described
from New South Wales. At that locality all species but one are characteristic of
beds of Lower Silurian age.

Family DirpLoGrapTIpAE Lapworth.
CLIMACOGRAPTUS BICORNIS (Hall). Text-fig. 1.

A rhabdosome 1:2 cm. in length is exposed which is incomplete distally.- Its
width is 1 mm. at the proximal end and 2:2 mm. where it is broken distally. The
spines are very strong and conspicuous, 6 mm. in length and include an angle of
110 degrees. The sicula is inconspicuous. There are 10 thecae in 10 mm., about
1-5 mm. long and overlapping one-third of this length. Their apertural margins
are situated within horizontal pouches which occupy nearly one-third the width
of the rhabdosome. The ventral edges of the thecae are straight and vertical.. The
‘septum is preserved complete except at the extreme proximal end.

CLIMACOGRAPTUS TUBULIFEROUS Lapworth. PI. xv, fig. 3; Text-fig. 2.

Rhabdosome 1:2 cm. in length, increasing in width slowly from 0-8 mm. to just
over 2 cm. distally. The sicula is not seen. There are 12 thecae in 10 mm., the
free edge of the theca is straight or slightly concave and the apertural margin lies
within a semicircular excavation which occupies one-fifth the width of the rhabdo-
some. The virgula is very conspicuous, and about 0:5 mm. wide. It is prolonged
10 mm. beyond the distal extremity of the rhabdosome, within which it can be
detected for a short distance. Short spines are visible on the mesial angles of
some of the thecae.

308 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, N.S.W.,

CLIMACOGRAPTUS MISSILIS Keble and Harris. Text-fig. 3.

Rhabdosome not more than 1 cm. in length. Its width, less than 1 mm.
proximally, increases to nearly 2 mm. distally. A short virgella is visible. The
virgula can be seen in the body of the rhabdosome for one-third of its length, of
which 6 mm. projects at the distal end, and is somewhat expanded in places.
Thecae 10-11 in 10 mm., about 1-5 mm. long, of which one-third to one-half over-

laps. The apertural margin lies within an excavation occupying one-quarter the
width of the rhabdosome.

San Smm

—
Vos

SAWP ESE

ai”
pall

Text-fig.
No. 8.616.

Text-fig. 2.—Climacograptus tubuliferous Wapworth, Port. 61, Par.
No. 8.591.

Text-fig. 3.—Climacograptus missilis Keble and Harris, Port.
bateman. No. 8.602. ;

Text-fig. 4.—Diplograptus (Orthograptus) cf. truncatus Lapw., Port. 24, Par. of
Morumbateman. No. 8.605.

Text-fig. 5.—Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapworth, Port. 24, Par. of
Morumbateman. No. 8.602.

Text-fig. 6.—Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapworth,
Lapworth, Port 61, Par. of Manton, No. 8.576.

Text-fig. 7.—Cryptograptus tricornis (Carruthers), Port. 1, Par.
No. S.507. Ta, obverse aspect, obliquely compressed ;
pressed, on same slab as 7a.

1.—Climacograptus bicornis (Hall), Portion 24, Parish of Morumbateman.

of Manton.

24, Par. of Morum-

var. basilicus

of Mundoonen.
7b, Same aspect, normally com-

DIPLOGRAPTUS (ORTHOGRAPTUS) cf. TRUNCATUS Lapw. Text-fig. 4.

Rhabdosome incomplete, fragments of 2 cm. preserved, reaching a maximum
width of more than 3 mm., but becoming slightly narrower distally. Thecae
10 in 10 mm., and 2 mm. long, overlap, according to aspect of preservation, is
one-third or one-half of this length. The apertural margin is undulate and

everted, and the overlap of one theca upon the next is very plain.

Septum
discontinuous.

DIPLOGRAPTUS (ORTHOGRAPTUS) CALCARATUS Lapworth. Text-fig. 5.

The rhabdosome is 3-4 cm. in length and increases in width from 1:0 mm.
to 2:5 mm., which is attained about 1:5 cm. from the proximal extremity. The
virgella is very conspicuous and about 4 mm. long. Strong spines, only slightly
shorter, are developed on the first two thecae. The virgula is broad. It is

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD AND R. A. KEBLE. 309

observable within the body of the rhabdosome and is sometimes prolonged beyond
the distal extremity of the rhabdosome, though it is frequently broken off short
in the specimens observed. Thecae 8-10 in 10 mm., about 2 mm. long, overlap
about one-half this length. According to the aspect of preservation which is some-
times scalariform in the proximal portion and sub-scalariform distally, the thecae
vary in appearance. Their outlines may be rounded or have a parallel inclination.
The septum is discontinuous.

DIPLOGRAPTUS (ORTHOGRAPTUS) CALCARATUS Var. BASILICUS Lapworth. Text-fig. 6.

A variety of Diplograptus calcaratus occurs more abundantly than the type
form. It is without the prominent basal spines, and is rather narrow and compact,
its maximum width being 2 mm. The rhabdosome is 2:5 cm. in length, while the
virgula projects 0-5 em. beyond the distal extremity of the rhabdosome as well as
being visible within it. There are 10 thecae in 10 mm., each being about 2 mm.
long and overlapping more than half this length. There is a septum.

CRYPTOGRAPTUS TRICORNIS (Carruthers). Text-fig. 7a, 7b.

Rhabdosome a thin film, 1 cm. long, and up to 1:3 mm. wide. Thecae 12-11
in 10 mm., 1 mm. long and overlapping one-half of this length, with free edge
rounded off and apertural edges everted. Proximal end not seen. Figures 7a and
76 show obverse aspect, 7a, however, being obliquely compressed.

Family DIckANOGRAPTIDAE Lapw.
DICELLOGRAPTUS cf. COMPLANATUS Lapworth. Text-fig. 8.

Stipes 3-4 cm. in length diverging at angles of 270—295° from a conspicuous
sicula and with short and stout lateral spines. Thecae 11-10 in 10 mm. The
proximal thecae have their ventral walls inclined, but those developed after the
third or fourth theca have their ventral walls straight and in some cases parallel
to the dorsal margin of the rhabdosome. The thecae overlap for about one-third
their length, which is up to 2 mm. Apertures open within well-marked excavations
occupying nearly half the width of the stipe and one-fifth to one-third the ventral
wall. Proximally the stipes are 0-7 mm. wide, but this increases abruptly to
1:0 mm. They are straight. The axil is wide and square. The sicula is generally
broken in the specimens examined, but is distinct. The shape of the axil might
suggest a comparison with D. elegans, but this is precluded by the shape of the
thecae and the straightness of the stipes. When preserved in a scalariform aspect
the stipes are narrower and the angle of divergence is larger.

DICELLOGRAPTUS DIVARICATUS Hall var. ricgGiIpuS Lapworth. Text-fig. 9.

Stipes more than 3 cm. long, with slight convex, dorsal curvature. The stipes
are 1:0 mm. broad at the proximal extremity and become no broader distally. The
rhabdosome appears to be thickened in the axillary portion. The axil is pointed,
the angle of divergence being 320°. The sicula is blunt. The virgella and lateral
spines are conspicuous. The thecae are 10 in 10 mm. and about 1 mm. or more in
length, overlapping one-half to one-third of this length. They commonly open
within an excavation occupying one-half the width of the stipe.

DICELLOGRAPTUS Cf. SEXTANS Hall. Text-fig. 10.

Stipes straight or with slight curvature of ventral margin distally, 1 cm. long,
0-7 mm. wide distally and 0-5 mm. proximally, diverging at 295-305° from a blunt
node-like sicula, which is large in some cases. Axil pointed; strong, lateral spines
present in some specimens, though sometimes the sicular end is obscure. Thecae

310 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, N.S.W.,

12 in 10 mm., and -up to 1-5 mm. long, overlapping not more than a quarter of
their length, outer wall curved. Apertural excavations sometimes semi-circular,
sometimes pouch-like, one-third to one-half the width of the stipe.

Text-fig. 8.—Dicellograptus cf. complanatus Lapworth, Port. 1, Par. of Mundoonen.
No. 8.533. Le :

Text-fig. 9.—Dicellograptus divaricatus Hall var. rigidus Lapworth, Port. 61, Par. of
Manton, No. 8.581.

Text-fig. 10.—Dicellograptus cf. sextans Hall, Port. 152, Par. of Manton. No. 8.554.

Text-fig. 11.—Dicellograptus elegans Carruthers, Port. 61, Par. of Manton. No. 8.577.

Text-fig. 12.—Dicellograptus cf. moffatensis Carruthers, Port. 152, Par. of Manton.
No. 8.560.

Text-fig. 13.—Dicellograptus cf. pumilus Lapworth, Port. 152, Par. of Manton.
No. S.564. ,

Text-fig. 14.—Dicellograptus cf. smithi Ruedemann, Port. 152, Par. of Manton.
No. 8.565.

DICELLOGRAPTUS ELEGANS Carruthers. Text-fig. 11.

Stipes up to 3:5 em. in length, showing strong and graceful curvature,
diverging at large angles, 300-320°, from a faint sicula. The axil is square.
Stipes 0-6 mm. wide proximally, which increases gradually to 0-8. Lateral spines
observable conspicuously in some specimens. Thecae 11-9 in 10 mm. overlapping
about a quarter of their length, which is about 1-5 mm., having a curved ventral
wall and, in a profile view, an apertural excavation, which is about half the width
of the stipe.

From a square axil nearly 1-5 mm. across, the stipes diverge but slightly for
about 1 mm., then open with a graceful concave dorsal curvature until they are
approximately 1 em. apart, which distance is maintained for about 5 mm., when
the stipes gently curve towards one another again, just meeting in unbroken
specimens, at about 3-5 em. perpendicularly from the axil in a large specimen.
These specimens show the proximal double curvature ‘eminently characteristic of
the species” and, like it, are ultimately convexly curved, and strongly resemblé
the plate of Carruthers’ type specimen (Elles and Wood, 1904, Pl. xxiii, fig. 2a).

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD AND ’R. A. KEBLE. 311.

DICELLOGRAPTUS cf. MOFFATENSIS Carruthers. Text-fig. 12.

Stipes slender, 2 em. in length, slightly curved, sub-parallel for 3 mm.
proximally, then they diverge at 320°, converging slightly at the distal extremity.
There is only a slight increase in width of the stipes to a maximum of 0-7 mm.
Thecae 12 in 10 mm., overlapping one-quarter of their length of 1 mm. The free
ventral wall is parallel to the dorsal margin of the stipe. Wide, semi-circular
apertural excavations, occupying nearly half the width of the stipe. It is a small,
fine form.

DICELLOGRAPTUS cf. PUMILUS Lapworth. Text-fig. 13.

The stipes are a little more than 1 cm. in length, with a uniform width of
5 mm. and diverge at about 335° from a very conspicuous sicula. A somewhat
scalariform aspect of preservation probably makes the stipes appear narrower
than they are. The axil is wide and the stipes curve very gently, first with a
coneave dorsal curvature, which is later reversed. The thecae are 12 or more
in 10 mm., and overlap about half their length of 1 mm., with their outer walls
slightly curved. The sicula, though very distinct, is broken. Figure No. 3c in
Plate XXI of the Monograph of British Graptolites (Elles and Wood, 1904), where
the angle of divergence is 330°, is closely comparable with this form, which has,
however, finer stipes.

DICELLOGRAPTUS cf. SMITHI Ruedemann. Text-fig. 14.

Stipes up to 2 cm. long, of nearly uniform width, about 0-6 mm. wide. Thecae
10 in 10 mm. Stipes twisted near the sicula, which is noticeable, so that the
ventral side of one stipe faces the dorsal side of the other, after diverging at an
angle of 330° from a pointed axil. Subsequently the stipes converge and cross
one another. The thecae are 1 mm. long and overlap one-quarter of their length.
The forms compared with this species are precisely similar to specimens HIST
by Ruedemann (figs. 5 and 6, Pl. 19, Ruedemann, 1908).

Family GLossoGRAPTIDAE Lapworth.
RETIOGRAPTUS YASSENSIS, n. sp. Plate xv, fig. 1.

Rhabdosome with sub-parallel margins, widening rapidly to a maximum
breadth of 2 mm. without spines, 4 mm. with spines, which is maintained through-
out. The maximum length observed is 3 cm. Test continuous over all but distal
portion of rhabdosome, thickest in proximal portion, where it obscures the lists,
but becoming more attenuated towards the distal end and apparently extremely
attenuated or not present in the-most distal thecae. In these thecae it is
strengthened by lists into complete clathria with rhomboid meshes forming
conspicuous ventral lattices. Sicula scarcely visible. Thecae alternate, proximal
ones with their ventral and apertural lists produced into stout, arcuate spines
which, however, become less conspicuous and almost disappear distally. Thecae
1i-9 in 10 mm. The septal strand in the obverse aspect is well defined, straight
and produced for a short distance beyond the rhabdosome.

Remarks.—R. yassensis resembles R. pulcherrimus Keble and Harris (Plate xv,
fig. 2). Apart from any differences in the meshwork, however, it can be distin-
guished from Keble and Harris’s species by its rapid widening in ifs proximal
portion and its stouter arcuate spines. The septal strand in R. yassensis is also
more conspicuous. R. pulcherrimus is a much longer form than R. yassensis.

Associated graptolites: Diplograptus (Orthograptus) calcaratus Lapw. var.
basilicus Lapw., D. cf. truncatus Lapworth, Climacograptus missilis Keble and

312 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, N.S.W..

Harris, Cryptograptus tricornis Carruthers, Dicellograptus cf. complanatus
Lapworth, D. cf. sextans Hall.
Horizon.—Upper Ordovician, Hastonian, high in that series.
Locality—Portion 1, Parish of Mundoonen, 200 yards north of Morumbateman
road junction (loc. 2).

Family MonoGraPripAE Lapworth.
Genus Monocraptus Geinitz, restricted.
MonoGrApPtus cf. NILSSONI (Barrande). Text-figs. 15, 16.

Rhabdosome fragmentary, up to 2 cm. in length, slight convex dorsal curvature
in the distal fragments which are found preserved in relief, proximal end not
observed. Breadth 1 mm. Thecae 8 in 10 mm., show sigmoidal curvature, 2 mm.
long and 0-4 mm. wide. Overlap very slight, angle of inclination 20°, apertural
margin slightly concave, but generally at right angles to the direction of the
rhabdosome. The thecae appear almost isolated when preserved in high relief
(see Text-fig. 16), but this is probably due to the matrix not being completely
removed.

Associates: Nucleospira australis McCoy, Atrypa sp., Stropheodonta davidi
Mitchell.

MOoNOGRAPTUS cf. TUMESCENS Wood. Text-figs. 17, 18.

Rhabdosome fragmentary, up to 3:5 cm. long (proximal end not observed),
straight, maintaining a width of 1-7-2 cm. throughout. Sicula not seen. Thecae
uniform in shape, becoming rather longer distally. Thecae 10-8 in 10 mm., long in
proportion to their width, 2-3 mm. long, and 0:-4-0-5 mm. broad. Overlap slightly
more or slightly less than half. Thecae sometimes widening towards the apertural
margin, which is concave in section, produced into a more or less distinct denticle.
The angle of inclination is 20-25°, which is the angle seen in figures of
M. tumescens (figure 12a, Plate xxxvii, British Graptolites, Part VIII, Elles and

panes

S IMAL | a a
5 ‘ q ie a
16 © 72 ai

7 ie ie

Text-fig. 15.—Monograptus cf. nilssoni (Barrande), Port. 34, Par. of Derringullen.
No. $.134.

Text-fig. 16.—Monograptus cf. nilssoni. Reverse of Fig. 15.

Text-figs. 17, 18.—Monograptus cf. twmescens Wood, Port. 34, Par. of Derringullen.
Nos. 8.31, 8.133.

Text-fig. 19.—Monograptus cf. vomerinus (Nicholson), Vort. 34, Par. of Derringullen.
No. S.9.

Text-figs. 20-22 Bia test btks flemingii (Salter), Port. 34, Par. of Derringullen.
Nos. 8.333, S.73, S.3
Text-fig. 23. fie id in sp., Port. 34, Par. of Derringullen. No. S.312.

BY KATHLEEN SHERRARD AND R. A. KEBLE. 313

Wood, 1910). This angle of inclination prevents a comparison with M. vulgaris
whose angle of inclination is 35-40°, which angle is shown in all figures of the
species in the same Monograph (Elles and Wood, 1910).

Associate: Stropheodonta davidi Mitchell.

Monoaraptus cf. vomEertnus (Nicholson). Text-fig. 19.

Rhabdosome fragmentary, up to 3 cm. in length, fragments generally straight,
breadth 1 mm. when preserved in high relief, 1:55 mm. when seen in cast, sicula
not seen. Thecae 11 in 10 mm., slightly more than 1 mm. in length, about twice
as long as wide, overlapping seldom more than a quarter of this length. The
aspect of the thecae seen in relief differs from that seen in cast. In the latter
‘ease the thecal boundaries show an almost spiral curvature, and in the former a
less pronounced ogee curvature.

Associates: Atrypa sp., Stropheodonta davidi Mitchell.

MONOGRAPTUS FLEMINGII (Salter). Pl. xv, figs. 4, 5; Text-figs. 20, 21, 22.

Rhabdosome incomplete, 2.cm. in length, straight or with slight dorsal curva-
ture near the proximal end. Average width 1:7 mm. with a maximum of 2 mm.
A width of 1:7 mm. is shown by the specimens figured here, and at an equivalent
distance from the proximal extremity, viz., the fourteenth theca, in figures of
M. flemingu in the Monograph of British Graptolites (Fig. 5d, Pl. xlii, Elles and
Wood, 1912). A sicula is not often preserved, but, when seen, has a length of
1-6 mm. Thecae 12-9 in 10 mm. They show ogee curvature and become narrower
towards their apertural extremities. They are about 2 mm. long, and up to 7 times
as long as wide. Up to one-third of the theca itself may be involved in a hook,
'which occupies less than half the breadth of the rhabdosome, usually about two-
fifths, the thecal overlap is from one-quarter to two-thirds of the total length.
The hooks may be called beak-like rather than claw-like, but the mode of preserva-
tion and angle from which the specimen is examined cause a difference in the
appearance of the ventral margin, so that the hooks are not perceptible at all
from one angle. The inter-thecal line is strongly marked. The fragmentary
state in which the graptolites are found is characteristic of M. flemingii, while
their straightness and stiffness preclude their reference to M. riccartonensis or
M. uwncinatus var. orbatus, which are characterized by a “limp, broken-backed
appearance” (Elles and Wood, 1912).

Associates: Nucleospira australis McCoy, Stropheodonta davidi Mitchell,
Atrypa sp.

Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank Professor L. A. Cotton, M.A., D.Sc., of the University
of Sydney, for granting facilities for work at the Geological Department of the Uni-
versity. Mr. C. W. Brazenor, Mammalogist to the National Museum, Melbourne, has
rendered them great assistance in photography. The courtesy of Mr. F. W. Booker,
M.Sce., of the Geological Survey of New South Wales, and of Mr. H. O. Fletcher,
of the Australian Museum, Sydney, in making available type specimens of grapto-
lites and brachiopods, respectively, for comparison is also much appreciated. One
of the authors (K.M.S.) is also indebted to Miss Yeo, of Yass, for her suggestion
of the likelihood of the occurrence of graptolites at Silverdale.

References.

CHAPMAN, F., and THOMAS, D. E.,. 1935.—The Geology of Victoria, the Silurian. Hand-
book Aust. N.Z. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Melbourne, 1935, p. 107.

314 GRAPTOLITES NEAR YASS, N.S.W.

Dun, W. S., 1897.—Occurrence of Lower Silurian Graptolites in New South Wales. Ree.
Geol) SurnoyNes.Weeva Di. o, LSove ps 24:

ELLES. G. L., and Woop, EK. M. R., 1904-1913.—A Monograph of British Graptolites.
Part iV, Pal: Sock. ivi, 19045 Pt. Ve bids. ix, 906i Wile bids. xi 19 One tamale
ibid., |xii, 1908; Pt. VIII, ibid., lxiv, 1910; Pt. IX, ibid., Ixvi, 1912; Pt. X, ibid,
Ibaiant, IL ley

HA.u, T. S., 1902a.—Graptolites of New South Wales. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., vii, Pt. 2,
1902, p. 49.

, 1902b.—On the Occurrence of Monograptus in New South Wales. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S.W., xxvii, 1902 (1903), p. 654.

———_—, 1909.—Notes on a Collection of Graptolites from Tallong, New South Wales.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W.. viii, Pt. 4, 1909, p. 339.

, 1920.—On a further collection of Graptolites from Tolwong, New South Wales.
Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., ix, Pt. 2, 1920, p. 63.

Harris, W. J., and KEBLE, R. A., 1929.—Collection of Graptolites from the Federal
Territory. —Proc) Roy, Soc: Vict, ns xiii G), 119295 ps. 272

KEBLE, R. A., and Harris, W. J., 1925.—Graptolites from Mt. Easton. Rec. Geol. Surv.
WaGizg th¥ Tits Zl, WOAH, os HW.

, 1934.—Graptolites of Victoria, New Species. Mem. Nat. Mus. Vict., viii, 1934,
10 JULHO,

McCoy, F., 1877.—Palaeontology of Victoria. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. v, 1877, p. 19.

MITCHELL, J., 1886.—Geology of Bowning. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., i (2nd Series), 1886,
pp. 1059 and 1198.

, 1888.—Geological Sequence of the Bowning Beds. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,
Ty ISAs sto AOI.
—, 1923.—Strophomenidae from the fossiliferous Beds of Bowning, N.S.W. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xviii, 1923, p. 465.

and Dun, W. S., 1920.—The Atrypidae of New South Wales. Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., xlv, 1920, p. 266.

Nayior, G. F. K., 1935.—The Palaeozoic Sediments near Bungonia. Journ. Roy. Sac.
INESSWerpLXix. pte 2 FBO. pamlcos

RUEDEMANN, R., 1908.—Graptolites of New York, Pt. 2. N.Y. State Mus. Mem., 1908,
540 pp. ‘

SHEARSBY, A. J., 1911.—The Geology of the Yass District. Rept. Aust. Assoc. Adv. S¢éi.,
Xlii, 1911, p. 106.

SHERRARD, K., 1934.—Exhibit to Geological Section, Royal Society of New South Wales.
Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xviii, 1934, p. xlviii. ;

1936a.—Structural Geology and Petrology of . . . Yass, N.S.W. Proc. LINN.
Soc. N.S2W., Ixi, 1936, p. 131.

————., 1936b.—Exhibit to Linnean Society of New South Wales. Proc. LINN. Soc.
INES, Ib Maio, 105 Ie

THOMAS, D. E., and KEBLE, R. A., 1933.—Ordovician and Silurian Rocks. Proc. Roy. Soe.
WUGie, Wt, SIN, IRic, 45 UO ob Bek

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.

Fig. 1.—Retiograptus yassensis. n. sp. Complete rhabdosome obverse aspect. Port. 1,
Par. of Mundoonen. No. S.501.

Fig. 2.—Retiograptus pulcherrimus Keble and Harris. Proximal portion. Yarra
Track, Victoria. No. 26691, Nat. Mus. Melb.

Fig. 3.—Climacograptus tubuliferows Lapworth, Port. 61, Par. of Manton, No. 8.591.

Figs. 4, 5.—Monograptus flemingii (Salter), Port. 34, Par. of Derringullen. Nos.

S333 296
m.900900, 0.000.

(Where not otherwise stated, specimens are in the collection of one of the authors—
K.M.S.)

PLATM Xv.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937.

?

R. pulcherrimus.

Monograptus flemingii.

€
4,

1, Retiograptus yassensis, n. sp.

5,

4,

Climacograptus tubuliferous.

2)
vs

315

THE ECOLOGY OF THE CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH
WALES. I.

THE ENVIRONMENT AND GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VEGETATION.
By Iuma M. Pipcron, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany.
(Plates xvi-xvii; six Text-figures.)

[Read 24th November, 1937. ]

The area considered in this series of papers is the central coastal plateau
region east of the main divide extending to the edge of the Hunter Valley in the
north, to Cox’s River in the west and to the Lower Shoalhaven Valley in the south.
It includes the County of Cumberland, and the adjoining portions of the Counties
of Northumberland, Hunter, Cook and Camden (Long. 150-151:5, Lat. 33-35
approx.).

Two plant-formations occur in this area: Eucalyptus forest and sub-tropical
rain-forest. The endemic Australian and Indo-Malayan floristic elements corres-
pond respectively to these formations (Maiden, 1914). Eucalyptus forest is the
dominant formation not only of the central coast but of the whole coastal area
and adjacent highlands! of New South Wales. It shows several important phases
which are due to the variation in soils, climatic factors and physiographic habitats.

Rain-forest is limited to the coastal belt where there is a high rainfall; there
it occurs in scattered patches on good soil, usually in areas sheltered from winds
and extreme insolation.

In this series of papers a description is given of the structure and composition
of these coastal Eucalyptus forests, especially those typical of the two charac-
teristic geological formations of the area: Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta
Shale. An attempt is made to classify the Eucalyptus forests on the basis of
associations (Clements, 1916, 1936) within the formation. The successional phases
of the sandstone vegetation are also discussed.

The Mt. Wilson forests, which form part of the Eucalyptus forest formation
occurring in this area, have been described in detail by Petrie (1925), and
McLuckie and Petrie (1926); Davis (1936) has outlined the forest communities
occurring on a portion of the Illawarra (South Coast). No other detailed forest
ecology has been done in this area, but reference must be made to the general
accounts by Robertson (1926) and Osborn (1932). A number of general floristic
accounts of the sandstone flora, chiefly in the Sydney District, have also been
published. Reference will be made to these in later publications.

1QOn the western slopes of the Dividing Range, this formation gives place to a more
open type of vegetation known as savannah woodland.

316 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

THE ENVIRONMENT.
Geology.2. (See Text-fig. 1.)
With the exception of some volcanic rocks, chiefly basalts, and some deposits
of river alluvium and wind-blown sand, the geological formations occurring in the
area are sedimentary. The sequence of the sedimentary series is as follows:

(ae: Shales.
Triassic J) Hawkesbury Sandstones.
| Narrabeen Shales and Sandstones.

Upper Coal Measures
Permian (Newcastle—Bulli—Lithgow).
Upper Marine Series.

Centring about Sydney the Permian rocks are in the form of a great basin,
whose rim appears at the surface on the north, west. and south of the area, the
eastern rim being submerged by the ocean (Text-fig. 1). The individual formations
of the Triassic System lie conformably above the Permian Basin. These sedimen-
tary strata are generally horizontal. Most of the beds are thickest in the vicinity
of Sydney or along the adjacent coastline.

The lower beds of the Upper Marine Series consist chiefly of siliceous
conglomerates and coarse sandstones, with a small amount of shaly and fine-
grained sandstones. The upper beds of this series comprise calcareous shales,
sandstones and mudstones with tuffaceous material and lava flows which are
particularly prominent in the coastal districts in the south of the area (Illawarra).
The Upper Marine Series attains a thickness of several thousand feet in the south
but becomes thinner at its western rim.

The Upper Coal Measures include sandstones, conglomerates, shales and cherty
tuffs with coal seams. On the coastline (at Bulli) the coal-measures have a thick-
ness of about 1,000 feet, which decreases to 400 feet in the west (Mt. Victoria and
Lithgow).

Sandstones compose the greater part of the Narrabeen Series where it outcrops
on its western rim (Blue Mts.), but along the coast shales and sandy shales are
also important. The maximum thickness of the Narrabeen Beds on the coast is
1,740 feet, but this decreases to 300 feet in the west (Mt. Victoria). A very
constant feature is the occurrence of tuffaceous chocolate shales, which form two
conspicuous bands near the top of the series. They are often more than 100 feet

2In compiling these geological notes the following articles have been consulted:
Willan (1923), Woolnough (1927), Handbook A.N.Z.A.A.S. (1932).

5. Upper Coal Measures
6. Middle Coal Measures
7. Upper Marine Series
8. Lower Marine Series

| Permian.

9. Quartzites, sandstones, shales, lime- }

Sane, Ale ‘ Devonian.
Igneous.
10. Mainly basalts. Tertiary (principally).
11. Mainly granites. Permian to Pre-Cambrian.
Towns referred to are: A, Appin; B, Berry; Bo, Bowral; Bu, Bulli; GC, Camden;

Ca, Campbelltown; G, Gosford; H, Hornsby; K, Kurrajong; Ka, Katoomba; L, Liverpool ;
M, Mittagong; MV, Moss Vale; N, Newcastle; Ne, Newnes; No, Nowra; P, Parramatta;
Pe, Penrith; Pi, Picton; R, Richmond; W, Windsor.—Mt. W., Mt. Wilson; Mt. T., Mt.
Tomah; Mt. K.G., Mt. King George.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 3Ll7

150 ist 152°

¥
a

=

N a

o-)

JERVIS BAY

Text-fig. 1.—Geological map of the central coastal area, adapted from the Geological
_ Map of N.S.W., Dept. of Mines, 1914. Scale, 1” = 32 miles.

Sedimentary.
Alluvial deposits and wind-blown sand. Recent, Pleistocene and Tertiary.
Wianamatta Series

Hawkesbury Sandstones Triassic.
Narrabeen Series

mon re

Il

318 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

thick on the coast but diminish towards the west, although still conspicuous in the
cliffs of the Blue Mts.

The Hawkesbury Series, which is the most extensive, consists chiefly of
siliceous sandstone with a few small lenticular beds of shale. The sandstone occurs
in the form of massive jointed bands which weather into blocks. Bands of grit
and conglomerate which occur in the sandstone become increasingly more
important to the west. The Hawkesbury Sandstones attain a depth of 1,100 feet
at Sydney, but in the west at Mt. Victoria the thickness is only 100 feet. Here,
the thinning out of the beds has been accentuated by erosion.

The Wianamatta Series has been divided into two stages. The lower consists
almost entirely of laminated shale which is carbonaceous and ferruginous near
the base. Beds of a very calcareous sandstone form the upper stage. A maximum
thickness of 1,000 feet is attained in the Camden district. These shales are easily
weathered and have been eroded over a large area.

Some Pleistocene and recent river alluvials are found on the Sydney and coastal
plains. There are also some fairly large areas of blown sand, derived chiefly from
Hawkesbury Sandstones, which form dunes in the coastal areas.

In the vicinity of Sydney igneous rocks occur scattered as innumerable small
intrusions, usually in the form of dykes. Several volcanic necks also occur. Larger
intrusions occur at Prospect, Mt. Jellore (dolerite) and Mt. Gibraltar (syenite).
Remnants of basalt flows which were once very extensive cap several physio-
graphic residuals in the Blue Mts. and occur on the uplands in the vicinity of
Bowral, Moss Vale, etc. All these igneous rocks are relics of the Pliocene volcanic
epoch.

More extensive and important are the flows of trachy-andesites and trachy-
basalts which are interbedded with the shales and sandstones of the Upper Marine
Series. Other evidence of volcanic activity at this period is seen in the presence
of basic tuffs and tuffy mudstones in the same series.

Physiography (See Text-fig. 2.)
(1) General.

To the north, south and west of Sydney is a deeply dissected plateau region
composed chiefly of Hawkesbury Sandstones. This encircles a central gently
undulating low-lying area, the Sydney Plains, in which the underlying rocks are
Wianamatta Shales. These plains are connected to the coast by an E—W strip of
land which interrupts a precipitous coastline of sandstone headlands alternating
with narrow beaches. This type of coastline, broken in several places by drowned
river-valleys, characterizes the central part of the coast. To the north and south,
a narrow undulating coastal plain gradually widens as the sandstone scarp recedes
from the coastline.

The general physiographic features of the area are the result of a differential
uplift in the Kosciusko Epoch’ which converted a late Tertiary peneplain into a
plateau with a general upward slope on the west, but with two central depressions
or troughs, due to lagging during the uplift or subsequent sagging. The present
alignment of the coast is probably due to faulting and foundering of a coastal
strip at a period later than that of the main uplift. This subsidence of the coast
to the extent of 150-200 feet resulted in the drowning of several large river valleys.

2This brief account of the physiography of the area is drawn largely from the
A.N.Z.A.A.S. Handbook (1932).
4 About the close of the Pliocene Period.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 319

This was followed by a more recent emergence of 15 feet. Erosion by undercutting
of the sandstone was a further factor in determining the coastal physiography.

Some diversity in altitude occurs over the area (see Text-figs. 2, 3). The
Sydney Plains, which have an average elevation of 100-200 feet, are bounded to
the west by a steep monoclinal fold forming the edge of the Blue Mts. Plateau
which rises from this scarp more gradually to a level of 3,500 feet on its western
margin. On the west, the Blue Mts. Plateau is separated by the wide valley of
Cox’s River from the Jenolan Plateau which rises to over 4,000 feet.

On the north and south of Sydney, the land increases in elevation gradually.
To the north, the ‘‘Hornsby Plateau” rises to an average elevation of 600-700 feet
and is then interrupted by the steep foreshores of the drowned valley of the
Hawkesbury River. North of this it gradually attains an elevation of 1,700-1,900
feet, terminating as a scarp overlooking the southern edge of the Hunter Valley.
South of Sydney the coastal plateau, sometimes referred to as the Nepean Ramp,
rises more gradually and increases in elevation from 500 feet to a maximum of
2,000 feet at Robertson in the south and Mittagong and Moss Vale in the south-
west. The plateau in these districts is conveniently referred to as the Robertson
and Moss Vale—Mittagong Plateaux. The southern boundary of this sandstone
plateau is the northern edge of the Lower Shoalhaven Valley.

The areas to the north and south of the Blue Mts. attain an average elevation
of 2,500 feet, and may be referred to as the Colo and Wollondilly regions. These
plateau areas link up with the northern part of the Hornsby Plateau and the
southern section of the Nepean Ramp to form a continuous semicircular plateau
extending from the Hunter Valley west of the Sydney Plains to the Lower
Shoalhaven.

It is generally accepted that the rivers of the coastal area were either brought
into existence or rejuvenated from a mature or senile condition by the uplift. The
stream-patterns in the central coastal area indicate a complex history which
cannot be discussed here (see Handbook, 1932).

The Nepean is the largest river (see Text-fig. 2). It rises in the Nepean Ramp
and flows in a northerly direction, but changes its course abruptly to the east and
joins the sea as the Hawkesbury River. Several tributaries of the Nepean drain
the Nepean Ramp. These are the Cataract, Cordeaux and Avon Rivers, whose steep
gorges have been dammed. Other important tributaries of the Nepean are the
Wollondilly and Cox’s Rivers, which join the Nepean as the Warragamba River,
and the Grose, Colo and Macdonald Rivers.

There are no rivers of any magnitude on the coast between the Hawkesbury
and Shoalhaven. The most important of the smaller streams are the Port Hacking
and George’s Rivers. Tributaries of the Hawkesbury, such as the Berowra, Cowan,
Mangrove and Mooney Mooney Creeks are of local importance only.

(2) Physiographical Regions.
(a) The Sydney Plains.

The plains are gently undulating, with many hills up to 300 feet. They are
formed by two low-lying regions or depressions; one is a submeridional depression
extending from about Windsor to Picton, bounded on the west by the monocline
of the Blue Mts. (Pl. xvi, fig. 1), and on the east warping into the low coastal
plateau. The other is an east-west trough which connects the submeridional
depression to the coast between the drowned valleys of Port Jackson and Botany
Bay, thus dividing the coastal uplands into the Hornsby Plateau and Nepean
Ramp.

al Me wo Ay
2 2 “Ay
'
LIBR A
Ree AM
~ 2
yy ass
p a>

320 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 1,

ist ‘s2

33°

MACQUARIE

oe

TUGGERAH

V
BROKEN BAY

rt ny,
Peep Yl
SS ee

f PORT JACKSON
=, ,

BOTANY Bay 34
PORT HACKING

| Saal
<6 ILLAWARRA L.

R.

35

JERVIS BAY

150 ist 152

Text-fig. 2.—Relief map of the central coastal area, adapted from the 1: 1,000,000
map. 1, below 1,000 feet; 2, 1,000-2,300 feet; 3, above 2,300 feet.

Towns referred to are: B, Bowral; Be, Berry; Bu, Bulli; C, Camden; D, Dapto;
H, Hornsby; K, Kiama; Ka, Katoomba; K.C., Kuring-gai Chase; L, Lithgow, M, Mitta-
gong; M.V., Moss Vale; Mt. V., Mt. Victoria; N, Newcastle; Na, Narrabeen; Ne, Newnes;
No, Nowra; P, Parramatta; Pe, Penrith; Pi, Picton; R, Robertson; Ri,
S, Sydney; Si, Singleton; Sp, Springwood; SP, Stanwell Park;
Windsor.

Richmond ;
W, Wollongong; Wi,

Rivers referred to are C.R., Cox’s River; Co.R., Colo R.; G.R., George’s R.; M.R.,
Macdonald R.; N.R., Nepean R.; S.R., Shoalhaven R.: W.R., Wollondilly R.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 321

The Wianamatta Shales are co-extensive with the Sydney Plains, the
physiography of this area having enabled their preservation. Shallow shale
outliers occurring on parts of the sandstone uplands (see Text-fig. 1) indicate
that a more extensive distribution obtained before the uplift and that subsequent
restriction of these shales is due to erosion. The beds of the upper stage of the
Wianamatta Series are more resistant than the lower soft shales and persist as
hills and ridges, the most outstanding of which is Razorback Ridge, near Camden.

Alluvial deposits occur along the Nepean and Hawkesbury Rivers within the
Sydney Plains. These alluvials have probably been derived from the adjoining
sandstone uplands.

(v0) The Sandstone Plateaus.

The horizontal bedding and resistant nature of the Hawkesbury sandstones are
responsible for the typical physiographic and. scenic characteristics of the plateaux,
such as flat-topped hills and divides, and steep gullies and gorges.

There is evidence of an uplifted peneplain in the generally even skyline. This
is broken in the west by the pre-Pliocene peneplain residuals of the basalt-capped
Mt. Hay, Mt. King George, Mt. Tomah and Mt. Wilson in the Blue Mts., and in
the south by the igneous intrusions of Mts. Jellore and Gibraltar near Bowral,
which are also more resistant to erosion.

In the Blue Mts. deep gorges and canyens (PI. xvi, fig. 2) dissect the plateau,
the remnants of which form flat divides. Hawkesbury sandstone forms the surface
of the plateau and, in the eastern section, extends to the bottom of the gorges.
In the central and western sections, the rivers have cut through the sandstones of
the Hawkesbury and Narrabeen Series to the soft shales of the Coal Measures.
By erosion of the latter, and undercutting the upper sandstone layers, a type of
canyon has been formed which is characteristic of the Blue Mts. Notable canyons
are those of Cox’s River and its tributaries, and the Grose River. In these canyons,
whose walls are 3,000 feet high, the Hawkesbury and Narrabeen Beds constitute
sheer cliffs, whilst steep talus slopes and wide level floors are formed by coal
measures.

One peculiar physiographic feature in the Blue Mts. is that the streams not
uncommonly occupy valleys which are too large for them, and in which erosion
is now not active. This is satisfactorily explained only by an assumed lowering of
the rainfall since Pleistocene time.

The Colo and Wollondilly plateau regions are characterized by juvenile gorges.
Little is known of this uninhabited country, owing to its extremely rugged nature.

The northern upland area bordering the coast, the Hornsby Plateau (PI. xvi,
figs. 4, 3), is for the most part dissected by deep juvenile gorges separated by
narrow divides. Owing to erosion, the Wianamatta Shales in the Hornsby Plateau
are now restricted to the flat divide separating the deep valleys of Lane Cove
River and Middle Harbour, and to a similar divide to the west which links up with
the shales of the Sydney Plains. The Hawkesbury Sandstones are several hundred
feet thick in this plateau, so that the Narrabeen Shales are exposed only in the
deepest gorges.

The southern upland area, the Nepean Ramp, is not so dissected as the Hornsby

Plateau. Broad, shallow, and sometimes swampy upland valleys are typical of the

headwaters of the Cataract, Cordeaux and Avon rivers beyond the limits of
rejuvenation. The Robertson Plateau, which is the southern extension of the
Nepean Ramp, is a typical peneplain fringed by waterfalls and deep gullies. The
Shoalhaven and Kangaroo Valleys, at the southern limit of the area, are typical
canyons.

ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF

F/\\ os YG hoo! 6 eo hy

Bey

(ee iy

=
NN ay
LS h) ms |

SS
sili

Text-fig. 3.

The estuaries shown from north to south are:
and Port Hacking.

Broken Bay,

NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

HEIGHT IN FEET

Relief map of the Sydney Plains and surrounding plateaux, reproduced
by courtesy of Professor J. Macdonald Holmes of the Geography Dept.,

Sydney University.

Port Jackson, Botany Bay

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 323

Although most of this southern plateau area is composed of sandstone, there
is a fairly extensive capping of Wianamatta Shale in the vicinity of Moss Vale
and Mittagong. In the same locality there are a number of remnants of basalt
flows, particularly evident at Bowral, Moss Vale and Robertson.

(c) The Coastal Plains.

From Sydney, south to Stanwell Park and north almost to Broken Bay, the
Narrabeen Series is below sea-level, so that Hawkesbury Sandstone cliffs extend
to the sea. North and south of this area the Narrabeen Series outcrops, and at
a further distance north and south, the Coal Measures also appear above sea-level.
Where these softer strata outcrop, a coastal plain has been formed by erosion and
subsequent undercutting of the overlying more resistant Hawkesbury Sandstone
(Pl. xvi, fig. 6). This coastal plain widens and the sandstone scarp gradually
recedes inland to the north and south as the sandstone capping of the plateau
becomes thinner, and as progressively greater amounts of the underlying strata
rise to the surface. This has enabled the coastal streams to erode farther back
from the coast, and also to develop small flood-plains.

The central part of the coast-line, from Stanwell Park in the south to Broken
Bay in the north, consists of short sand beaches alternating with headlands
(Pl. xvi, fig. 5). The drowned river-valleys which interrupt this coastline are
Port Hacking, Botany Bay, Port Jackson and Broken Bay. Of these, only the
foreshores of Botany Bay and the southern shore of Port Jackson are low-lying.
The estuaries of Broken Bay and Port Jackson extend far into the plateau, but all
come under tidal influence for some distance up their estuaries.

South of Port Hacking the sandstone headlands are several hundred feet high
and the beaches are very narrow (PI. xvi, fig. 5). North of Port Jackson the sand
beaches are much larger and lagoons usually occur behind them. There is a local
development of a narrow coastal plain at Narrabeen and Newport, where the
Narrabeen shales are exposed above sea-level. The irregular sandstone scarp of the
Hornsby Plateau which skirts the coastline from Port Jackson to Broken Bay is
about 400 feet high.

The coastal plain south of Stanwell Park, which is known as the Illawarra
(Pl. xvi, fig. 7), and that north of Broken Bay gradually widen to approximately
10 miles in the vicinity of the Shoalhaven River in the south and to 15 miles
at Lake Macquarie in the north. At Kiama, in the Illawarra, the plain is inter-
rupted by the volcanic Saddleback Range which descends to the sea in very steep
hills. The coastline bordering these plains also consists of headlands alternating
here with long beaches, behind many of which are lagoons. Of these the most
important are Lake Illawarra and Lake Macquarie.

North of Broken Bay, the Narrabeen Beds are responsible for the coastal plain
and hill formations except in the vicinity of Lake Macquarie where the Coal
Measures appear (see Text-fig. 1). On the other hand, the Illawarra is composed
mainly of Coal Measures, Upper Marine Series including volcanic material, and
river alluvials. Narrabeen Shales form the lower slopes of the northern section of
the Illawarra scarp.

Soils.

Only a general survey of soil types is attempted here; later papers contain
detailed data. In the following, field observations have been supplemented by
tables of soil analyses, etc., from Jensen (1914).

In the central coastal area the soils are derived chiefly from the underlying
formation in situ, small areas only being composed of re-distributed alluvial or
wind-blown soil.

324 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

The three most extensive geological formations in this area weather to soils
of very different texture; the Hawkesbury Sandstones yield sandy soils, the
Wianamatta Shales heavy clay-loams, and the Narrabeen Shales rich loams. The
voleanic soils are rich but very restricted.

For convenience, the soils are discussed under the following headings: sand-
stone, shale, igneous, alluvial and lateritic soils.

(1) Sandstone Soils.

According to the nature of the cementing material of the sandstone, the soils
vary from poor sandy soils to fairly rich loams.

Siliceous sandstones, with aluminous or ferriferous clay as the cementing
material, yield light-coloured sandy loams, poor in mineral plant food (see Table 1,
lines 1 and 2). Such soils are derived from the Hawkesbury Sandstones, the
conglomerates and sandstones of the lower beds of the Upper Marine Series,
occurring in the vicinity of Nowra and Jervis Bay, and the sandstone and
conglomerate beds in the Newcastle Coal Measures, in the north of the area (see
Text-fig. 1). They are characterized by a low water-retaining capacity, and high
capillarity. Where the sub-drainage and run-off are good, they are fairly warm
soils, but where the ground-water level is high, the soils are cold and sour. Thése
siliceous sandstone soils are considerably improved by the addition of humus, the
percentage of which is frequently high on sheltered slopes and in gullies.

In contrast to the shallow soils derived from the sandstones and conglomerates
of the lower beds of the Upper Marine Series, the shaly and fine-grained sand-
stones in the same beds yield a deeper and more loamy soil, with a clayey subsoil.
In the Nowra district the latter soil type occurs in patches in the former poorer
sandstone soils (see Table 1, lines 1 and 3).

Where the cementing material is calcareous, the sandstone yields a much
better soil-type of moderately dark-coloured loam. Soil derived from tuffy sand-
stones in which lime-felspar partly takes the place of quartz, may be included in
this class. Shales and mudstones of a similar composition, which are typical
of the Permian series in the Illawarra (Bulli Coal Measures and upper beds of
Upper Marine Series) yield a similar soil. Jensen has shown that these loams
have a much better proportion of mineral plant-food than the siliceous sandstone
soils, and frequently contain quite a high percentage of lime (see Table 1,
lines 4-7).

Table No. 1 (compiled from Jensen) gives the averages of a number of
analyses of soils described above. In all the tables the figures represent percen-
tages, with the exception of capillarity, which is expressed in inches.

(2) Shale Soils.

The Wianamatta Shales weather to heavy loams or clays, about 8 or 9 inches
in depth, with a clayey sub-soil which varies in depth according to the chemical
nature of the underlying shales. The basic (ferriferous and calcareous) shales
frequently have a dark red-brown coloured friable clay subsoil, about 3 feet in
depth. Most of the shales are acid (70% silica) and weather very slowly, so that
the sub-soil, which is of stiff yellow clay, averages not much more than 10 inches.
These soils are hard and stiff and become saturated in wet weather owing to their
impervious nature and lack of sub-drainage. During dry weather they become
desiccated and cracked, so that the rise of water by capillarity is prevented. The
physiographic and climatic factors increase the physical disadvantages of these
soils; the low-lying nature of the country frequently accentuates the lack of

325

M. PIDGEON.

ILMA

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326 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

natural sub-drainage, while during drought periods, which are not infrequent, the
soil is badly cracked and dried.

The Wianamatta Shale soils are poor in mineral plant-food, as is indicated
in the following table, which gives their average analysis calculated from ten
soils:

TABLE 2.

Locality.

Phosphoric

Capillarity.
Acid.

Water
Capacity.
de
Volatile
Nitrogen.
Lime.
Potash.

Sydney Plains oo | | Be | Grey | ee oo | Ores | Os | O00

The calcareous ostracod sandstones and shales in the upper beds of the
Wianamatta Series yield rich red and chocolate friable clayey soils, containing
about 05% of lime. These soils occur on the eastern slopes of the Blue Mts.
in the vicinity of Kurrajong.

The Narrabeen Shales, which contain volcanic detritus, and the Upper Marine
tuffy shales in the Kiama-Nowra district, yield dark, rich, deep and fine-textured
loams.

(3) Igneous Soils.

Interbedded with the Illawarra Permian sandstones and mudstones are sills
of basalt and beds of tuff which yield very fertile loamy soils, as indicated by
Table 3.

The Tertiary trachytes and basalts at Bowral, Moss Vale, etc., yield fairly
rich loams. The basalt soils of Mts. Tomah, Hay, etc., are rich in potash, phosphoric
acid, magnesia, and lime.

The basalt soils of the Sydney district are of little importance from the

Stations plotted, showing mean annual rainfall (inches) of each, followed by number
of years record (in parenthesis): A, Ashfield, 35:4 (35); Ap, Appin, 35:7 (30); AB,
Albion Park, 41:1 (41); B, Blackheath, 42-2 (38); Be, Berry, 56:5 (more than 15);
Bo, Bowral, 36:7 (51); Bu, Bundanoon, 42:3 (35); B.H., Brownlow Hill, 27:7 (54);
BC, Brogers Creek, 76:9 (39); C, Camden, 29:8 (52); Ce, Cessnock, 27:7 (30); Co,
Cobbity, 29 (48); C.D., Cordeaux Dam, 59:3 (64); Ca, Campbelltown, 28-4 (54); Cr,
Cataract, 32-7 (53); D, Dapto, 39:6 (24); De, Denman, 22-1 (53); EF, Darkes Forest,
50-5 (39); Fa, Fairfield, 32 (6); G, Gerringong, 50:3 (41); Go, Gosford, 49:7 (53);
Gor., Gordon, 43 (28); H, Helensburgh, 57:3 (47); J, Jamberoo, 49-3 (more than 15);
J.P., Jerry’s Plains, 25-1 (49); J.B., Jervis Bay, 53:2 (69); K, Kurrajong, 48:7 (67);
Ki, Kiama, 48°3 (38); K.V., Kangaroo Valley, 42:6 (14); L, Leura, 52:4 (23); La,
Lawson, 48-6 (41); Li, Lithgow, 33:3 (46); M, Mittagong, 32:7 (34); Mi, Minto, 29:8
(47); M.V., Moss Vale, 38°8 (63); Ma, Maitland, 34:0 (68); MT. K., Mt. Kembla, 60-4
(21); MT. W., Mt. Wilson, 49-3 (more than 15); MT. V., Mt. Victoria, 37-5 (63); N,
Newcastle, 45-5 (71); No, Nowra, 39:7 (38); N.P., National Park, 43:3 (26); Pr,
Prospect, 32:9 (43); P, Penrith, 29-1 (39); Pa, Parramatta, 35:6 (69); Pi, Picton, 30-9
(56); R, Robertson, 60°5 (46); Ri, Richmond, 29:3 (55); Ry, Ryde, 35:1 (35); Ryd,
Rydal, 31:3 (21); R.T., Raymond Terrace, 41:2 (42); S, Springwood, 39:9 (48); Si,
Singleton, 28-1 (53); St. M., St. Marys, 27:6 (39); Sy, Sydney, 47-3 (77); S.F., Sutton
Forest, 35°5 (32 T.0., The Oaks, 30:3 (24); S.R., Sackville Reach, 32 (27); W,
Wollongong, 45-7 (61); Wo, Wollong, 36-7 (45); Wy, Wyong, 46:1 (45); Wi, Windsor,
27-4 (38); W.F., Wiseman’s Ferry, 30°6 (18).

~~ vi

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 327

150° 151° 152°

35)

150° 15 152

Text-fig. 4.—Isohyet map constructed from data supplied by Mr. Mares of the Sydney
Weather Bureau and Mr. W. S. Watt, Commonwealth Meteorologist. 30, 40, 50 and 460
inch isohyets shown. ¢

328 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

ecological viewpoint owing to their small extent. The numerous dykes and pipes
weather much more rapidly than the sandstone or shale, so that they form depres-
sions in the surface. These basalt soils are red in colour and much richer than
the shale or sandstone soils. The Prospect dolerite yields a deep chocolate-coloured
clayey soil of friable texture due to the high percentage of lime (1-1:5%).

TABLE 3.
| nee a
| & | | }
Be | ss | | ee ere na | |
Geological sot [ees = Heo ese | oun al 2
Locality. Type. Texture. | 6 | & Soe leceot) |) es onl ime anne 3 | ec
| “ea |) a 3 Gy Wee i as = iS ao
| etsy i Ss So ve ee 3 - EA
|
= | | | | |
| | | | | | |
Kiama hillside... | Bombo | Heavy | | | |
basalt. Oni s6 |) SH | Ge |) GSa0) 33 | 24-65 | 0-651 | 0-662 | 0-234 | 0-674
Kiama hillside. - | Jamberoo| Clay ..| 56 | 7 (5-7 | 5:3 | 12-85 | 0-238 | 0-384 | 0-157 | 0-137
| tuffs. | | | | |
i } | 1 | }

| |

(4) Alluvial Soils.

The alluvial soils in the Nepean-Hawkesbury area have probably been derived
from the adjacent Hawkesbury Sandstone country; they yield similar siliceous
sandy loams.

The alluvials of the southern Illawarra are much better soils, since they are
of very mixed origin. They vary from heavy to light loams.

(5) Lateritic Soils.

On the Hornsby Plateau, and parts of the Nepean Ramp and Blue Mts., shallow
patches of a somewhat lateritic soil-type not infrequently occur on the surface of
soils derived from Wianamatta Shales and from Hawkesbury Sandstones. The
lateritic nodules are thought to have been formed in the subsoil of the Tertiary
peneplain and, by erosion of the upper soil, masses of these “ironstone” nodules,
either non-coherent or cemented, have been left on the surface. However, most
of these Tertiary podsols are now largely eroded.

Climate.
(1) Rainfall.

From an average of 45 inches on the coastline, the rainfall diminishes to the
west, especially in the Sydney Plains, but gradually increases with altitude on the
tablelands (see Text-fig. 4).

Thus in the Sydney Plains, the rainfall diminishes to less than 30 inches, so
that a low rainfall basin approximately corresponds to this physiographic region.
Another interesting feature is that in this area, the Richmond-Windsor district
experienced seven dry*® years out of a 35-year period, and Picton, Camden, Penrith
and Parramatta experienced 5, 4, 3, and 1 dry years respectively, while the
surrounding coast and plateaux areas were wholly exempt from dry years. The
increase with altitude is shown in the Blue Mts., where at Katoomba the mean
annual figure is 55 inches, though west from here it again falls to 37 inches at
Mt. Victoria.

> Employing a modified classification of Koppen’s, Lawrence (1937) has plotted the
incidence of individual desert, dry and humid years in N.S.W. for the period 1900-35. |

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 329

Two important variations occur in the coastal average rainfall in the
Illawarra district. These are a dry area near Dapto, where the rainfall falls
below 40 inches, and a moist area in the vicinity of Kiama extending inland
to Robertson, where an average of 60 inches is obtained. These variations have a
marked effect on the vegetation.

The following mean monthly and annual figures® indicate the variation in the
amount and distribution of the rainfall received over the central coastal area. A
double maximum is characteristic (see Text-fig. 5).

TABLE 4.

He test eal) calla | yy ie lis
Hatioeea|| eter ea et il (irae eum esi lee| retell ia
aR }a2—7| Sa S eS ee Bande n Ee || css 5 = 8
Station. LESS oe ee | ete) ee | |) Be else |) Be |e | ee
| ®2o0]/ Of a a |) i= 3 3 = t=] te 5) ) cS) oO
StS y TED) POMS cary Sai) Pac Fea Se ea Cra) ze ale ries

| | |

ea a aie ie
Sydney ee ea 67 | 77 | 857 | 426 486 | 550 | 512 | 472| 486 | 287 | 291 | 286 | 284 | 295 | 4,732
Parramatta... er l| 50 69 342 356 | 402, 350 | 298 | 284 | 347 205 | 218 | 233 240 | 291 | 3,561
Penrith .. oe oe 89| 39 | 278] 286 294 | 274| 213 186 | 293 154 | 178 | 199 | 240 | 322] 2,917
Windsor. . | 51] 38 | 270 | 256 267 280 | 229 | 180 275 | 161 | 170| 178 | 217 | 266 | 2,749
Camden | 222] 52 | 335 | 253 | 322| 286 | 218 | 249/| 286 | 156 | 166| 192 229 | 291 | 2,983
Picton .. ee S| 552 56 | 328 | 292 | 337 | 306 227 | 240 | 261 | 155 | 192 | 230 228 | 300 | 3,096
Springwood... .. | 1,218) 48 | 420 | 452 | 500 | 382 | 276 | 264 | 296 | 193 | 260 | 252 | 325 | 372) 3,992
Katoomba i RealS'S36)50 | 593 | 649 | 633 | 520 | 392) 441 456 307 324 311 382 527 | 5,535
Mt. Victoria .. -. | 3,424 63 357) 418 | 377 | 329 287 | 310 324 219 | 249 250 292 | 343 3,755
Hornsby ie -- | 594 12 | 316 | 450 | 434 | 641 382 | 343 | 379 147) 277 270 343) 372) 4,354
Wollongong ae 20 || 56) 61 | 445 | 468 | 468 539 | 447 | 408 | 393 | 227 | 284 | 267 273 | 358 | 4,577
Robertson =e -. | 2,427) 46 | 581) 543) 670 | 549 517 582 | 649 | 376 | 394 362 | 328 504) 6,055
Bowral .. Bf .. | 2,210) 51 |371 | 306) 376 322 | 291 | 343 386 | 220 | 230 | 232 252 | 346 | 3,675
Nowra .. ae Le} 26 38 | 396 | 339 | 339) 392 | 424 | 355 | 420 | 238 | 245 | 250 | 223 | 349) 3,97

* The height given is that of the local railway station.

At Sydney, the evaporation rate exceeds precipitation during the late spring
and early summer months (October to January inclusive), which are thus relatively
dry. This is shown in the following table.

TABLE 5.
I | | Vingeee see
z 3 || 8S. || | eI } Bl Bt
es | et ee gal & |e | S
se |a| 3/4 Le eM esl oe Elle
Se EB Eel Sets | 2 Eee en) SS hal as
| £S a 2 | g sy Ss S | S | 5 ms 1 Sy e © o
raion ia) Fy = <4 a) 5 B | at] aw So | 2 A _
| | | | | | | |
eeainaal| | | | | | |
al | eae
| | | } | | }
Evaporation points .. -- 56 538 424 / 365 | 261) 183 144 153 194 271 390 | 462) 539) 3,930
a (nS eam | | [ake ece ea esan nee
Rainfall points 77 | 357| 426 | 486 | 550 1B) 72) a8) B87 Bb | Pay |e 295 | 4,732
| | | | | | | |

(2) Winds.
The south-east and north-east winds are responsible for most of the rainfall
over the area.

6T am indebted to Mr. Mares, of the Weather Bureau, Sydney, for meteorological
data.

330 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

The westerlies are prevailing winds during the autumn, winter and early
spring months, as is shown in Table 6. These are desiccating in summer, cold
in winter. Throughout the central coastal area, wherever the topography permits
the comparison of easterly and westerly facing slopes, the influence of westerly
winds on the vegetation becomes obvious. The effect is particularly marked in
the Blue Mts. and Hornsby Plateau where the forests are frequently replaced by
scrub or scrub-forests in habitats exposed to westerly winds. Onshore winds
exert a similar influence in that they stunt the vegetation of the coastal head-
lands (PI. xvi, fig. 5).

Table 6 shows the prevailing direction of winds for Sydney at 9 a.m. and 3 p.m.,
expressed as monthly averages over a period of 69 years.

TABLE 6.
| jeune : eat Sp a S ei 5 E ae | |
| | | a aee| | > | ;
: | = | Merle: -) is
Prevailing a =z 3 hal 8 2 2
Direction. = | 5 g a | 3 | os S | é | 3 3 | 5
of | Le S tom & | =} | =} = Do | o fo) | o
iar) | 4 a <4 A iar) irs x Mm | © Ziel
| | | | | | |
Ga | ae Tea cai | |
Qaim Le Sag ONSET eNom | Ww | wi|w w | W | ENE | ENE
| | | | |
Supsineeer .. | ENE | ENE | ENE | ENE| NE | W | W | NE | NE | ENE| ENE| ENE
\ | | |

(3) Temperature.
Extremes of temperature are infrequent on the coast, but on the Sydney Plains
and at high altitudes on the plateaux the range is considerable; the mean daily
range at Sydney is 14 F. degrees, compared with 25 F. degrees at Richmond, 26 F.

Text-fig. 5.—Graph showing the mean monthly rainfall at Robertson (broken line),
Sydney (unbroken line), and Windsor (dotted line).

Text-fig. 6.—Graph showing the mean maximum and minimum monthly temperature
at Richmond (dotted line), Sydney (unbroken line), and Mt. Victoria (broken line).
At each station the uppermost line represents the mean maximum reading.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 331

degrees at Picton and 23 F. degrees at Bowral. On the plateaux the winter tempera-
tures are much lower than on the coast, and snow frequently falls. The average
annual temperature for the whole area is approximately 63° F.

Table 7 gives the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures at
different localities (see also Text-fig. 6).

TABLE 7.
Se) 2 2 le Se |) ea |
Station. Bors RPS seine! lees Ietotiinno: Ice mes a ren, Siiaio, luce
Oe) & o | & = = = = = 5 3) S © 5
el) IS Ed eS ae se | re tose lp fe) A SG a
|
|
Hea
|
Sydney— | |
Mean max. °F. .. 73 | 78:4) 77-7 | 75-7 | 71-3 | 65-5 | 61-1 | 59-8 | 62-8 | 67-0 | 71-3 | 74:4 | 77-1 | 70-2
Mean min. °F. .. | 73 | 64-9 | 65-0 | 62-9 | 58-1 | 52-2 | 48-3 | 45-9 | 47-5 | 51-4 | 55-8 | 59-6 | 62-9 | 56-2
Parramatta— | | | | |
Mean max. °F. .. | 16 | 83-0 | 81:8 | 79-5 | 9 | 68-8 | 64-1 | 62-6 | 66-2 | 71-6 | 75-3 | 79-4 | 82-3 | 74-1
Mean min. °F. .. 16 | 62-0 | 61-9 58-2 | 53 47-2 | 42-8 | 41-2 | 41-7 | 46-8 | 51-3 | 56-4 | 60-4 | 51-9
Wollongong— | | | | | | |
Mean max. ae | OF | 79221) 78:7 | 76:8) 72:6) 67-1 | 6227 6168 | 64-4 | 68-6 | 72-4 | 65-1 | 77-6 |) 71-4
Mean min. a | 57 | 62-3 | 62-6 | 60:4 | 56°3 | 51-3. 47-8 | 46-0 | 47-0 | 50-4 | 53-7 | 57-1 | 60-4 | 54-6
Richmond— | | | | |
Mean max. 30 24 | 85:2 | 84-2 | 80-6 | 74-8 | 68-6 | 63-6 | 68-0 | 66-2 | 72-2 | 77-3 | 81-7 | 84-5 | 75-2
Mean min. .. | 24 | 61-6 | 62-0 | 57:9 | 51-8 | 44-9 | 40-1 | 38-0 | 39-5 | 44-4 | 50-4 | 55-3 | 59-6 | 50-5
Picton— | | | | | | | |
Mean max. .. | 24 | 85-4 | 84-1 | 80-5 | 75-0 | 68-1 | 62-9 | 61-9 | 65-1 | 71-0 75°8 | 80-1 | 83-6 | 74:5
Mean min. .. | 24 | 59-6 | 60-2 | 54-9 | 48-9 | 42-7 | 38-4 | 36-4 | 37-3 | 41-7 | 47-8 | 53-2 | 57-9 | 48-2
Bowral— | | | | | |
Mean max. .. | 21 | 79-4 | 79-2 | 74-2 | 67-1 | 59-9 | 53-9 | 53-1 | 56-8 | 63-5 | 70-0 | 75 78-9 | 67-7
Mean min. so || Bil | 54-3 | 55-1 | 51 44-9 40-0 | 36-1 | 34-6 386-1 | 40°8 | 44-7 | 48-9 | 52-3 | 44-9
Mt. Victoria— | | | | | | | | |
Mean max. | 19 | 72:8 | 72-9 | 67-8 | 60-7 | 53-1 | 48-5 | 47-0 | 50-6 | 57-2 | 63-6 | 69-6 | 72-7 | 61-4
Mean min. .. | 19 | 53-3 | 54-6 | 51-0 | 46-4 | 41-0 | 37-4 | 35-4 | 36-5 | 39-8 | 44-5 | 48-6 | 51-3 | 45-0

(4) Relative Humidity.

Table 8 shows the relative humidity values for several different localities in
the area. Figures are not available for local variations such as occur in different
topographical habitats, e.g., in moist gullies sheltered from wind and sun there is
a definite micro-climate characterized by high atmospheric humidity. Such
conditions are important in that they favour the development of rain-forest species.

TABLE 8.
E z | ,
wn ' | u a :
ee 3 } | so i o A
[linen ela ene | fe ee es
a \‘S 3s | H=| oi || | 3 4 a) re 5 =| :
Station. | 2s] =) a} Se es | SES We 2\ SS
Wee Ss fo) Ss a) s Ss = = Oui ° © oe
Zee] e]| eal] a | ret tes ro) SP ea | Sea Te) | i
| | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Sydney fy aa oS so. BN) Be | CA 2 | OMIM NCS On ace OOm Gon nGon Ot | 70
Wollongong.. .. «.. .. | 23/75 | 76| 76/76 | 75 | 76 | 75 | 71 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 73 | 73
Parramatta a5 ate ca | 16 | 63 | 69 | 70 | 73 | 76 hice NN eA) | 68 | 63 | 59 | 58 61 | 68
Richmond .. a o8 .. | 24 | 64 | 69 | 70 | 75 | 79 | 80 | 76 | 71 63 | 60 | 59 | 61 | 69
Mt. Victoria. . | cAY) |) 7k | web |) B® |) ie AD) 83 | 75 | 66 | 65 | 63 | 67 | 73
| | | | | | { |

332 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 1,

(5) Sunlight.

The intense sunlight is a feature of the climate, and is partly responsible for

the sclerophyllous nature of the plants. Table 9 gives the mean monthly hours of
sunshine over a period of 15 years at Sydney.

TABLE 9
1 | | | |
{ | oo all | o i AR
5 . 2 o Ps)
ss | re | | | 5 Ih od ty 2 &
ree xs : | ; a | eS eB) re =
a i & | | 2 ee ay | = = J
= =| > =|) | Me S | es | =) & I, || @ D a
= foe AM anite lie wink ey a) = | Sy S, || a () 3
oS poe | ie She eta le, eee i peer tll atte oy | 5 o> Oo
SS AH | A a ee = 4 m | © 4 A a
| | | |
| | | | |
| | |
| |

Mean hours of sunshine. . )229°2)206-2/201-3 184-4 174-3)158-2/186°3 221-4 218-3 240-3 230-6 225-3/2476-3

The amount of sunlight received in any area depends on the topography; open
undulating country and the tops of ridges and uplands receive the maximum
amount, while valley floors and slopes, especially south and south-east slopes, are
in shadow part of the day. Direct sunlight penetrates the canopy of Hucalyptus
forests, but reaches the ground in rain-forests only through occasional light
breaks.

Biotic Factors.

Much of the vegetation of the central coastal area has been disturbed or
entirely cleared since the advent of settlement. Most of the coastal rain-forests
have been partially cleared owing to the economic value of one of its trees,
Cedrela australis F.v.M., whilst other patches on volcanic soil have been cleared for
dairy farms. Since the best timber and soils in this area are found in the coastal
plains, especially in the Illawarra, partial clearing and selective cutting were
inevitable. However, patches of relatively undisturbed forests on the foothills of
the searp and elsewhere, and isolated trees occurring throughout the plains, are
sufficient indication of the original vegetation.

The Sydney Plains have been extensively cultivated and used for pastoral
purposes for nearly 150 years, so that it is not surprising that most of the
vegetation in this area has been disturbed (PI. xvi, fig. 1).

Except in areas of urban extension, the Hawkesbury Sandstone flora is
relatively undisturbed by man. As a result of settlement, however, bush fires are
of annual occurrence, and in some seasons very extensive areas of the flora are
damaged. There are several large reserves: Kuring-gai Chase in the Hornsby
Plateau and the Catchment Area in the Nepean Ramp.

THE VEGETATION.

As previously stated, the two plant-formations occurring in the area are
sub-tropical rain-forest and Hucalyptus forest. The forests, even before clearing, did
not form a continuous cover, patches of seral vegetation occupying a few areas,
such as coastal dunes and wind-blown sands, swampland, scrubland, etc.

Sub-tropical Rain-Forest.

These forests, locally known as “brush”, although now present only as
depauperate remnants, once covered the slopes and valleys of the Illawarra from
Bulli to Berry, growing on the loams derived from the Permian rocks, and on
the rich basaltic soils. Rain-forest also extended to the basalts at Robertson

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 333
(see p. 329). Throughout the whole of the Illawarra plain relics of rain-forest
are now practically restricted to creek banks and valleys in the foothills (Pl. xvi,
figs. 7, 8), but the widespread occurrence of the Cabbage-tree Palm, Livistona
australis Mart., which is a typical component of rain-forest in this area, indicates
a former extensive distribution (Pl. xvii, fig. 9). One of the largest remnants
occurs on the lower slopes of the Illawarra scarp at Bulli, chiefly on Narrabeen
Shales and Upper Coal Measures.

Remnants of sub-tropical rain-forest also occur on the chocolate shales in the
Gostord district, particularly in the shelter of valleys; and as a fringing forest
along Bola Creek, National Park, on the same formation.

' On the basalt residuals of Mt. Wilson (Brough, McLuckie and Petrie, 1924),
Mt. Tomah, etc., and in the valleys of the Blue Mts. (PI. xvii, fig. 10), a poorer
type of rain-forest occurs. It is not so rich floristically as the sub-tropical rain-
forest, and has an admixture of sclerophyll types. Fraser and Vickery (in MS.)
refer to this as impure sub-tropical rain-forest. The latter also occurs, to a minor
extent, in a few of the coastal gorges, usually where Narrabeen Shales outcrop.
These habitats have a definite micro-climate, in that they are sheltered from winds
and extreme insolation, and relative humidity and soil-moisture conditions are
favourable.

At Grose Vale, a sheltered habitat on the eastern scarp of the Blue Mts.,
remnants of rain-forest occur on the ostracod soils of the Wianamatta Series, but
are now so damaged that it is impossible to ascertain their original floristic
composition.

It is obvious that, in the central coastal area, rain-forest is typical of the
better class soils receiving a moderately high rainfall. Its absence from parts
of the basalt at Mt. Wilson is attributable only to exposure. In the development
of rain-forest, high soil-moisture content is more important than chemical
composition of the soil, as illustrated at Mt. Wilson, where rain-forest is absent
from exposed basalt-soils, but occurs in the shelter of the Hawkesbury Sandstone
valleys. The sandstone soils are here enriched by basalt wash, and have a fairly
high humus content. It is interesting to note, however, that on sandstone the
floristic composition of the impure sub-tropical rain-forest contains a stronger
admixture of sclerophyll types than that occurring on the better soils.

In favourable habitats on the sandstone, hardier marginal rain-forest species
are frequently admixed with sclerophyllous types to form a true ecotone.

Hucalyptus Forest.
(1) General Structure.

This is essentially a sclerophyll forest of tall-growing Hucalyptus trees, but
the average height varies from 30 feet to more than 200 feet, according to habitat
conditions. The canopy is usually continuous, but differs from that of rain-forests
in being much thinner. Thus a considerable amount of sunlight penetrates to the
ground; this feature is accentuated by the pendent nature of Hucalyptus leaves.
The undergrowth forms a continuous ground-cover except on sandstone formations,
where it is interrupted by extensive outcrops of rocks and boulders. In typical
EKucalyptus torests, the undergrowth may be said to consist of a continuous ground-
cover of herbs and grasses, with a scattered assemblage of shrubs. The shrubs
most frequently form two interrupted layers. The low shrubs may be considered
as those not exceeding 6 feet, and averaging about 3-4 feet; the tall shrubs are
usually under 12 feet. The shrub strata vary considerably in density from

JS

304 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 1,

abundant and continuous to scanty and discontinuous, and frequently form local
thickets. Generally speaking, smaller shrubs are more abundant.

The variations in the undergrowth are largely controlled by edaphic and
climatic factors; e.g., in the sandstone forests a shrubby undergrowth predominates,
whilst the forests typical of Wianamatta Shale are characterized by an herbaceous
ground-cover. Hlsewhere, more specific habitat factors, such as topography, degree
of shelter, and moisture, are chiefly responsible for variations in the undergrowth,
e.g., sclerophyll shrubs are most abundant in habitats exposed to greatest
insolation, such as plateau surfaces, whilst moisture- and shade-preferring shrubs
and herbs are abundant along creek banks and gully slopes, ete.

(2) The Associations.

Following Clements’ system of classification, many distinct associations are
recognized within the Hucalyptus forest formation. Those present in the central
coastal area are mentioned below. Two of these, the Mixed Hucalyptus Forest
Association and the EH. hemiphloia—E. tereticornis Association are typical of,
although not confined to, the central coastal region; the others are interpreted as
local expressions of associations more widely distributed elsewhere.

Mixed Eucalyptus Forest Association.

The Mixed Hucalyptus Forest Association is typical of sandy-loam soils derived
from the Hawkesbury Sandstones, Upper Marine sandstones and certain sand-
stones in the Newcastle Coal Measures. This association is almost limited to the
central coastal area, although local expressions of it occur further south.

It is a distinctive and unique association, differing from most of the coastal
forests in its extremely low integration. It is characterized by a large number
ot dominants in any one stand, and a well developed scrubby undergrowth. Several
of the dominant tree species range throughout the association whilst others are
limited by such factors as latitude and altitude. In the coastal districts, the most
important trees are Hucalyptus haemastoma, E. micrantha, E. piperita,
BE, Sieberiana, HE. eugenioides, BE. gunmifera, Angophora lanceolata, HE. pilularis
and #. punctata. At higher elevations (Blue Mts. and Moss Vale) the last four
species are absent or unimportant, whilst other species occurring in this associa-
tion are restricted to these areas, e.g., H. radiata, EH. maculosa, H. Blaxlandi,
E. oreades, ete.

This forest association frequently merges into a ‘‘scrub-forest” in which the
stand of timber averages only 30-40 feet and is rather more open than in typical
forests, whilst the growth of shrubs is correspondingly greater. Scrub-forest is of
frequent occurrence on the uplands of the Blue Mts. and Hornsby Plateau
(Pl. xvi, fig. 4), as a result of exposure to strong westerly winds and insufficient
soil-water reserve. In the most unfavourable of these areas the forest is entirely
replaced by a low-growing scrub or heath.

The tallest forest communities in this association attain a height of 80 feet
or more and occur on slopes and in gullies where conditions of soil moisture, soil
depth, shelter, temperature and humidity are most favourable.

Although this forest association occurs in areas receiving moderately high
rainfall, the soil conditions are unfavourable in that, as well as being poor in
mineral plant-foods, the sandy, shallow and porous soils are frequently excessively
drained. On the other hand, on level areas on the plateaux the drainage is often
deficient, and these habitats are characterized by a type of swamp vegetation,

7 Authorities for Hucalyptus spp. mentioned in this paper are recorded in the appendix.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 335

especially well-developed west of Bulli where the plateau is not dissected (Davis,
1936).

Following Clements’ system of naming the association after the two most
widely distributed and characteristic dominants, Petrie (1925) suggested the
tentative nomenclature of H. piperita—H. haemastoma var. micrantha for this
association as it occurs in the vicinity of Mt. Wilson. He also pointed out that
this term would be inadequate when the association was studied more widely.
This has proved to be so, and by reason of the large number of widely distributed
dominants, it has been found impossible and undesirable to attempt to name this
association by two species. It seems more desirable that the name used should
imply a variety of dominants, hence this unit is referred to as the Mixed Hucalyptus
Forest Association.

According to the system of classification adopted here, the #. Sieberiana.
E. piperita and H#. pilularis associations described by Davis (19386), rank only in
the nature of consociations within the more extensive and more widely distributed
Mixed Hucalyptus Forest Association. Davis is here using the term association in
a smaller sense of the word.

The Eucalyptus hemiphloia—E. tereticornis Association.

This association characterizes the Wianamatta Shale soils in the low-rainfall
basin of the Sydney Plains. Another fragment occurs in the Dapto district
(Illawarra) on Permian shales (see page 329).

The vegetation of the Sydney Plains has been converted by partial clearing into
a park Jand or open savannah woodland, with a ground cover of pasture grasses,
partly native and partly exotic. However, from remnants of the original vegetation,
and from natural secondary growths, it seems fairly certain that the area was
originally thinly forested. In the driest areas at least, the H. hemiphloia-—
E. tereticornis association probably approached a woodland tree-spacing. This
association may be interpreted as an ecotone community showing structural
features intermediate between the savannah woodland and Lucalyptus forest
formations. This interpretation is supported by a consideration of the climatic
conditions, since the average rainfall figures for the Sydney Plains approximate
more to those of the western slopes than the coastal area.

The original undergrowth in the H#. hemiphloia—E. tereticornis association
probably consisted of a large percentage of grasses and herbaceous types, and
possibly a number of geophytes with relatively few shrubs. In the regeneration
of the undergrowth after clearing, the dominance of native pasture grasses is most
marked. Bursaria spinosa Cav. is a shrub which is apparently well adapted to the
habitat conditions, as it is an almost constant species in regenerating areas.

In the Sydney Plains, the dominant trees of this association are Hucalyptus
hemiphloia, E. tereticornis, E. siderophloia, BE. sideroxylon, EH. crebra, Angophora
intermedia and A. subvelutina.

E. hemiphloia forms a consociation characteristic of the drier parts of the
association, this species being apparently especially tolerant of alternating soil
conditions of desiccation and water-logging.

The #. tereticornis consociation represents a slightly moister phase in this
association, and thus is more frequent than H#. hemiphloia in the Illawarra.

The E. maculata-E. paniculata Association.
Eucalyptus maculata occurs in this area as a consociation on shaly sandstone
soils, chiefly of the Upper Marine Series in the Nowra district. It is often pure
(Pl. xvii, fig. 11), but in the Nowra district is frequently associated with

336 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA,.OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

EZ. paniculata and EF. pilularis, and also with EH. micrantha and EL. gummifera in the
more sandy areas. Fragments of the #. maculata consociation occur on the light
alluvials in the Illawarra. This consociation is also found as an ecotone
community between the mixed Eucalyptus forest and the EH. hemiphloia—
EE}. tereticornis association, where the soil is a mixture of shale and sandstone. It
also reappears in the vicinity of Lake Macquarie on the sandy shales of the Coal
Measure and Narrabeen Sandstones. It is present on the latter formation on the
foreshores of Pittwater (Broken Bay).

When not occurring in almost pure stands, H. maculata is most frequently
associated with various species of Ironbark, such as H. paniculata in the Bateman’s
Bay district, south of the central coastal area, H. crebra in the Hunter River
Valley, and #. siderophloia in the Brisbane district, Queensland. Thus H. maculata
may be tentatively regarded as belonging to the Hucalyptus maculata—L. paniculata
Association.

The E. saligna—E. pilularis Association.

This association is typical of the well-watered loams on the coastal plains.
It is one of the most widespread coastal associations. In this area E. saligna is
best represented on the rich loams derived from the Narrabeen Shales, i.e., in the
northern Illawarra and north of the Hawkesbury River. On these loams in the
Illawarra, H#. saligna is associated with EH. quadrangulata, both of which extend
into the rain-forest. North of the Hawkesbury, H. Deanei (Pl. xvii, fig. 12) and
BH. acmenioides frequently occur with LH. saligna. H. pilularis occurs throughout
the coastal plains either as a dominant, or co-dominant with ZH. saligna. Another
fairly widespread species is Syncarpia laurifolia. E. paniculata (Pl. xvii, fig. 13)
also occurs, but is not abundant in this association.

On the valley slopes in the Blue Mts., merging into rain-forest, the association
is represented by a community of Syncarpia laurifolia, Casuarina torulosa,
Angophora intermedia and EF. Deanei.

In valleys in the coastal area and Blue Mts., the sub-dominants occurring in
this association are moisture-preferring and may include ferns, tree-ferns, and a
few of the hardier rain-forest species. This type of forest has been referred to as
wet sclerophyll forest. It frequently occurs around the margins of rain-forest.

Although #. pilularis occurs in wet sclerophyll forest, it is also present in drier
habitats and on lighter loams than those supporting H. saligna. In such habitats,
FE. pilularis is often associated with H. paniculata.

The EZ. saligna—E. pilularis Association is widespread in the northern parts
of the coast of New South Wales. Important species here are H#. grandis and
E. microcorys. The latter occurs at Lake Macquarie, in the central coastal area,
which is about its southernmost range.

The E. viminalis-E. obliqua Association.

The widely distributed H. viminalis-—H. obliqua Association, which is charac-
teristic of the cool tablelands throughout the coast of south-eastern Australia,
occurs in small patches at high elevations in the central coastal tablelands. The
EB. goniocalyr—-E. Blarlandi association described by Petrie (1925) and Petrie and
McLuckie (1926) at Mt. Wilson, is interpreted as a local expression of the larger
BE. viminalis—E. obliqua Association.

At Moss Vale and Robertson the chief species belonging to this association are
BE. obliqua, BE. fastigata and EF. Lindleyana. They occur on fairly good loams, partly
derived from basalts on the uplands, but this association also extends into the
valleys. At Bowral, H. viminalis is typical of the soils derived from trachytes.

w
m
=I

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON.

In the Blue Mts., #. viminalis occurs on the basalts and in the valleys, whilst
E. fastigata is also present in the valleys. JH. goniocalyx occurs on the basalt-
capped areas with ZH. viminalis, but is typical of light sandy loams in the upper
parts of the valleys. In the drier western section of the Blue Mts., #. rubida and
E. dives vepresent the association. H. Smithii is another species belonging to this
association and is typical of the warmer and moister tableland area bordering the
Illawarra.

The E. pauciflora—E. stellulata Association.

The £. pauciflora-E. stellulata Association, which characterizes the areas of
the tablelands approaching sub-alpine conditions, is represented in the locality west
of Moss Vale. Here, these two species are associated with H. radiata. These
forests are rather low-growing and open in structure, and approach more to the
woodland than forest formation.

Consociations, or, more strictly speaking, consocies, which are typical of the
coastal plains and occur throughout the whole of the Hucalyptus forest formation,
are E. amplifolia (Pl. xvii, fig. 14) and #. robusta. EH. amplifolia is typical of
freshwater swampy flats, frequently on heavy soils. WH. 1obusta forms a typical
hind-swamp or lagoon forest on the coastline. It is often associated with
E. botryoides.

Minor Vegetation Types.

These are chiefly in the nature of seral communities or relatively permanent
vegetation types induced by unfavourable habitat conditions. In the latter category
are serubs and swamps in upland areas.

Low-growing scrub or heath vegetation has already been mentioned in
connection with the Mixed Hucalyptus Forest Association, in which it occurs on
shallow porous sandy soil on ridges and uplands exposed to westerly winds. A
similar type of scrub occurs on the coastal headlands (PI. xvi, fig. 5) where the
stunting of the vegetation is caused by strong onshore winds.

On the uplands in badly-drained areas, due either to the nature of the under-
lying rock or to the configuration of the local topography, a swamp vegetation
persists as the climax of a deflected succession. The plants composing the swamp
are low-growing sedge-like plants, many of which are hemicryptophytes, and a few
shrubs. A particularly large swamp, known as the Wingecarribee, occurs in the
district west of Robertson. Relatively smaller swamps are typical of, and occur
scattered over, the sandstone uplands.

Of the seral communities, the most important are the successional phases
initiated on sand-dunes, in salt-water (Collins, 1921) and fresh or brackish water,
all of which culminate in Hucalyptus forest.

The seral phases of the psammosere are well known as the strand flora, the
sand-binding grasses, the hummock-building mat chamaephytes and the dune scrub
passing into Hucalyptus forest. The earliest stages of this succession are found on
almost every beach, but the hind-dune forests are generally very disturbed as a
result of settlement.

The hydrosere initiated on mud flats of the salt-water estuaries of Port Jackson,
the Hawkesbury River, ete., are characteristically zoned in the following sequence:
Mangroves, Salicornia salt meadow, grass meadow, rush meadow, Casuarina swamp
forest and Hucalyptus forest.

The zonation occurring on the margins of lagoons or other fresh or brackish
water consists of submerged and floating communities, amphibious and emerged

335 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I,

communities of rush and sedge meadows, and finally, as before, Casuarina glauca
forest which here passes into a swamp forest of #. robusta and H. botryoides.

CONCLUSIONS.

Sub-tropical rain-forest can be regarded as a post-climax formation (Clements,
1916, 1936) whilst the Hucalyptus forest formation is the climatic climax of the
coastal area.

In the delimitation of the Hucalyptus forest associations in the central coastal
area, it is evident that the edaphic factor is the most important. At the same time,
individual species have a fairly wide range of soil types and habitats. One such
species is #. pilularis which is an important member of the Mixed Eucalyptus
Forest, the #. saligna—E. pilularis and the #£. maculata—E. paniculata Associations.

Under nearly identical climatic conditions, soil type differentiates the following
associations: Mixed Hucalyptus Forest, EF. saligna—E. pilularis and HE. maculata—
BE. paniculata. Sub-climatie rather than edaphic factors control the distribution of
the #. pauciflora—E. stellulata and EH. viminalis—H. obliqua Associations, while a
combination of both factors controls the development of the ZF. hemiphloia—
LE. tereticornis Association.

Two of the most extensive associations in the area show features which are
peculiar when compared with the rest of the Hucalyptus Forest formation. The
BE. hemiphloia-b. tereticornis Association, by reason of its habitat conditions, is not
a true forest throughout its extent, but shows features intermediate between the
coastal forests and woodlands of the western slopes.

The Mixed Hucalyptus Forest Association, owing to its low integration and
general expression as a “scrub-forest’”, is also differentiated from the typical
coastal forests. Following Clements’ system of terminology, this vegetation type
would be classified as an associes. It is preferably interpreted in the nature of an
edaphic climax in the sense of Tansley (1935), since it is in an apparently
permanent condition and “in equilibrium with all the incident factors’, the most
important of which is the unfavourable edaphic factor.

Within this edaphic climax sandstone vegetation, there is a series of physio-
graphic climaxes which represent the successional development. This aspect will
be discussed in a subsequent paper.

SUMMARY.

As an introduction to a series of papers on the ecology of the central coastal
area, the general environmental features are discussed as geological, physiographic,
edaphic, climatic and biotic factors.

A general description of the vegetation is given. Two plant formations are
recognized: Sub-tropical rain-forest and Hucalyptus forest. The former is a post-
climax coastal vegetation type, while the latter is the climatic climax formation
of the coast and tablelands of New South Wales.

The conditions controlling the development of rain-forest are high soil-moisture,
a certain degree of shelter, and a moderately good soil, so its occurrence is neces-
sarily restricted.

The ecological features of the sub-tropical and impure sub-tropical rain-forests
occurring in this area are not included here, since Fraser and Vickery (1937 MS,
a, b) discuss their structural characteristics and general floristic composition.

The various types of Eucalyptus forest occurring in the central coastal area
are classified as associations according to Clements’ system, but with a slightly
modified nomenclature including Tansley’s conception of climax communities.

BY ILMA M. PIDGEON. 339

Ot the associations recognized, the Mixed Hucalyptus Forest and _ the
EH. hemiphloia—E. tereticornis Associations are typical of the central coastal area.
The others, namely, the EH. saligna—H. pilularis, E. maculata—E. paniculata,
BE. viminalis-E. obliqua and EH. pauciflora—E. stellulata Associations, are only local
expressions of much more widely distributed associations. WH. robusta and
EB. amplifolia are consociations occurring throughout the coastal belt and not
limited to any one association.

Fraser and Vickery (1937 MS, vb) discuss the #. saligna—Syncarpia laurifolia,
Li, hemiphloia-h. tereticornis, EH. viminalis—H. obliqua and EL. paucifilora—-L. stellulata
Associations in the Barrington Tops district.

Davis (1936) has also recorded a local expression of the HL. saligna—L. pilularis
Association, but he refers to the consociations as two separate associations.

At Mt. Wilson, Petrie and MclLuckie (1925-6) have also recorded the
Hucalyptus Forest Association and the local expression of the ZH. viminalis—
H. obliqua Association.

These records trom different localities indicate the fragmentary nature of the
coastal Hucalyptus Forest Associations.

The writer wishes to express her appreciation to Professor T. G. B. Osborn
and to Assistant Professor J. McLuckie for their interest in this work, and also to
Dr. Lilian Fraser and Miss J. Vickery for allowing her access to their manuscript.

Appendix.

Angophora intermedia DC. Eucalyptus grandis Maiden Eucalyptus pwictata DC.
lanceolata Cay. gummifera Gaertn. quadrangulata Deane and
subvelutina F.v.M. haemastoma Sm. Maiden

Casuarina torulosa Ait. var. micrantha DC. radiata Sieb.

Bucalyptus acmenioides hemiphloia F.v.M. robusta Sm,

Schau. Lindleyana DC. rubida Deane and Maiden
amplifolia Naudin. maculata Hook. saligna Sm.
Blawlandi Maiden and maculosa R. T. Baker siderophloia Benth.
Cambage micrantha DC. sideroxylon Benth.
botryoides Sm. microcorys FE.v.M. Sieberiana IW.v.M.
crebra E.v.M. obliqua L’Her. Smithii R. T. Baker
Deanei Maiden oreades R. T. Baker. stellulata Sieb.
dives Schauer paniculata Sm. tereticornis Sm.
eugenioides Sieb. pauciflora Sieb. (= coriacea viminalis Labill.
jastigata Deane and A. Cunn.) Synearpia laurifolia ‘Ven.
Maiden pilularis Sm.
goniocalyx F.v.M. piperita Sm.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVI-XVII.
Plate xvi.

1.—Sydney Plains, looking south from Grose Vale. The monocline of the Blue Mis
in the distance.

2—A tributary valley of the Kangaroo River showing canyon formation. Mixcd
Eucalyptus scrub-forest on top of sandstone cliffs at left.

3, 4.—Typical country in the Hornsby Plateau. Fig. 4 shows scrub-forest of mixed
Eucalyptus Forest Association in middle-ground, semi-swamp vegetation in foreground.

5.—Coastline of sandstone headlands alternating with short sandy beaches, between
Port Hacking and Stanwell Park.

6.—Narrow coastal plain, Stanwell Park, Illawarra.

7.—Illawarra scarp and foothills with plains in left distance, Berry District, looking
south. Chiefly rain-forest vegetation.

$8.—Remnants of sub-tropical rain-forest on foothills at Kiama, Illawarra.

Plate xvii.
9 —South Coastal plain, Milton. Cleared land with Livistona australis as remnant
of rain-forest. Secondary growth of Hucalyptus spp. in middle background

340 ECOLOGY OF CENTRAL COASTAL AREA OF NEW SOUTH WALES. I.

10.—Valley in the Blue Mts. showing a creek community of Todea barbara with
rain-forest in left background.

11.—TForest of H#. maculata, chiefly secondary growth. Nowra, Illawarra.

12.—High forest of HK. Deanei with an admixture of mesophytic sub-dominants,
Mooney Mooney Creek, Hawkesbury River.

13.—Stand of EH. paniculata with Macrozamia sp. and ground stratum of Imperata
cylindrica var. Woeiigii, north of Sydney.

14.—#H. amplijolia with shrub stratum of Welalewea sp., swampy flats, Nowra.

Literature Cited.

BroucGH, P., McLuckin, J., and Perrin, A. H. K., 1924.—An Ecological Study of the Flora
of Mt. Wilson. Part I. The Vegetation of the Basalt. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.,
xlix, pp. 470-498.

CLEMENTS, F. E., 1916.—Plant Succession. Carneg. Inst. Wash. Publ. 242.

——, 1936.—Nature and Structure of the Climax, Jowrn. Ecology, xxiv, I, pp.

252-283.

CoLLINs, Marsorie I., 1921.—On the Mangrove and Saltmarsh Vegetation near Sydney,
NES: W. Proc. Linn. Soc NoSoW., xlvi, pp 876-392

Davis, C., 1936.—Plant Mecology of the Bulli District. Part I. Stratigraphy, Physiography
and Climate; General Distribution of Plant Communities and Interpretation. Proc.
LINN. Soc. N-S)W., Ixi, pp: 285-297.

Fraser, LILIAN, and VickEry, Joyce W., 1937 (MS) (a).—The Wecology of the Upper
Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts. Part I]. The Rain Forest Formations.

, 1937 (MS) (b).—Id., Part III. The Eucalypt Forests and General Discussion.

JENSEN, H. I., 1914.—The Soils of New South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney.

LAWRENCE, ELIZABETH IF., 1937.—A. Climatic Analysis of New South Wales. Aust.
Geographer, iii (8), 19387.

MAIDEN, J. H., 1914.—Australian Vegetation. Federal Handbook on Australia, British
Assoc. for the Advancement of Science. Aust. Meeting, pp. 116-209.

McLuckiz, J., and Prrrir, A. H. K., 1926.—An Ecological Study of the Flora of Mt.
Wilson. Part III. The Vegetation of the Valleys. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W.., li.
OSBORN, T. G. B., 1932.—Plant Life in Sydney District. Handbook for N.S.W.

A.N.Z.A.A.S., Sydney, pp. 24-34.

Prtrign, A. H. K., 1925.—An Ecological Study of the Flora of Mt. Wilson. Part II. The
Eucalyptus Forests. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1, pp. 145-166.

RoprrTson, C. C., 1926.—The Trees of [ixtra-Tropical Australia. A Reconnaissance of
the Forest Trees of Australia from the point of view of their cultivation in South
Africa. Govt. Printers, Cape Town.

TANSLEYy, A. G., 1935.—The Use and Abuse of Vegetation Concepts. WMcology, xvi, pi.
284-307.

Wittan, T. L., 1923.—The Geology of the Sydney District. Guide Book to the Hxecursions
in the Sydney District. Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Australia, pp. 22-25.

WooLNouGH, W. G., 1927.—The Evolution of the Physical Features of Sydney and the
Blue Mts. Livingstone Lectures, Camden College, Sydney.

ANON.—Notes on the Geology and Physiography of the Sydney Region. Local Committee
of Section ©. Handbook for N.S.W., A.N.Z.A.A.S: Sydney, 1932, pp. 5i7=82)

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937. IPC Aaio) SQyit,

Vegetation of central coastal area of New South Wales.

ne

PLATE XVII.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1937.

Vegetation of central coastal area of New South Wales.

Sut eee ae

i

341

THE CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN.

By S. WARREN Carey, M.Sc.
With Palaeontological Notes by Ina A. Brown, D.Sc.

(Plate xviii; five Text-figures. )

[Read 24th November, 1937.]

Stratigraphical Sections of the Carboniferous Rocks: 1, Woodlands; 2, Turi Valley;
3, Landslide; 4, Royston; 5, Merlewood.

Palaeontological Notes. (1.A4.B.)

Summary of Fossil Plants.

Analysis of the Carboniferous Sequence: 1, Correlation of Sections; 2, Sequence of
Sedimentation; 3, Sequence of Climates; 4, Sequence of Vulcanism; 5, Sequence
of Physiographic Expression.

This paper is a sequel to papers already published on the geology of the Werrie

Basin or Syncline (Carey, 1934a, 19346, 1935; Walkom, 1935). The field work upon

which all the papers are based was carried out during the years 1932-4 while the

writer was Deas-Thomson Scholar and Science Research Scholar of the University
of Sydney. Professor W. R. Browne accompanied the writer in the field on several
occasions and has always been ready to discuss the problems that have arisen.

Removal of the author to New Guinea on field-service in the latter part of
1934 has delayed publication. The paper has been prepared in Papua, which has
entailed the handicap of great restriction of available literature, but in compen-
sation the writer has been able to profit by the wide experience of Mr. J. N.
Montgomery, his senior officer in the Oil Search Ltd. Geological Survey.

In the field area the writer met kindness on all sides, and reference has been
made in previous papers to many whose hospitality has been outstanding. The
stratigraphical work recorded in this paper was chiefly carried out with the
courtesy and hospitality of Mr. and Mrs. Hugene McCarthy of Currabubula, Mr.
and Mrs. Bruce Adams and family of ‘‘Woodlands”, Mr. and Mrs. H. J. Perfrement
and Mr. Tom Perfrement of ‘“Merlewood”, and Mr. and Mrs. Arnold Perfrement
and family of “Royston”. The fossil collecting work was much aided by various
residents of the district, who joined the writer in collecting expeditions. Among
these Mr. Eugene McCarthy, Mr. Tom Perfrement, Mr. Tom Creek, and Mr. Ray
Swain of ‘‘Melrose’’, Carrol, may be specially mentioned. Thanks are also due to
Mr. H. W. Ison of Currabubula, whose well-known willingness to help others has
on very many occasions facilitated transport in the carrying out of this work.

A departure from the usually accepted nomenclature for the divisions of the
Carboniferous strata is incorporated in the paper. For the present the name
Burindi is retained for the marine series forming the lower part of the sequence,
but the original Kuttung Series is divided into a Lower and an Upper Kuttung
Series. This change has been necessitated by the discovery of Viséan fossils
in the lower half of the Kuttung succession. The stratigraphical implications of
this discovery, which are of some importance, it is hoped to discuss shortly in
another paper.

KK

ES) esl ee

342 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

A. STRATIGRAPHICAL SECTIONS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE WERRIE BASIN.
1. THE WOODLANDS SECTION.

The Woodlands section is admirably situated for the examination of the
Kuttung series as developed on the eastern limb of the Werrie syncline.

From the Werrie basalts on Anstey’s Creek in the Parish of Currabubula, the
section-line follows the south boundary of portions 74, 275, 259, 258, and 159 (see
Text-fig. 1). The line was not followed further east through the Burindi Series,
owing to extensive cultivation and poorness of outcrops.

The highest outcrop of the Burindi beds is found in the second small gully
on the road between Woodlands and Glenarvon homesteads, which follows the
section-line east of the Currabubula Creek crossing. Here olive-green mudstones
are found with numerous dwarfed fossils.

Following the Burindi beds, the base of the Kuttung is concealed under a soil
cover. In portion 169, about a mile north of the section line, however, the abun-
dance of shed boulders in the cultivation paddocks indicates that a conglomerate
is probably developed there at the base of the series. Next are pebbly and sandy
tuffs with interbedded sandy shales. One band of the latter is packed with Rhodea-
like remains chiefly belonging to the Sphenopteris group, and among these are
suspected to be some new types. Lepidodendron Veltheimianum, Stigmaria ficoides
and Sphenopteridium(?) are present.

Between this plant-horizon and the main pyroxene-andesite at Woodlands
homestead are well-bedded sandy felspathic tuffs of buff, brown, and chocolate
colour. Scattered pebbles of granite, aplite and chert, and pebbly bands, are not
infrequent. The tuffs are typically barren, but odd plant-stems are met with, as
well as occasional zones packed with macerated carbonaceous material. As the
pyroxene-andesite is approached the conglomeratic phase becomes more abundant,
and close below the andesite there is a very coarse boulder-bed resting on finer
tufts.

A good exposure of this horizon is to be seen near “‘Woodlands” homestead
a little south of the section-line, where the andesite crosses Currabubula Creek
(Portion 44). Here the gritty tuff is followed by ten feet of fine tuff with pebbles,
then fifteen feet of conglomerate, becoming coarser upwards, then ten feet of
gritty tuff, overlain by about twenty feet of coarse conglomerate with boulders
up to two feet in diameter. This is followed by pebbly tuff, then a band of
conglomerate, overlain by about fifteen feet of dark chocolate gritty tuff which
forms the bed for the andesite flow. Even the coarsest of the conglomerate is
crudely bedded, and the boulders are well rounded and without recognizable glacial
striae. Granitic rocks are abundant among the boulders, but the largest are
porphyritic andesite, with a Devonian lithology (e.g., as in the Barraba Series in
the Babbinboon district) rather than the andesites indigenous to the Kuttung
Series.

The total thickness of Kuttung rocks below the pyroxene-andesite is nearly
200 feet. Where the section-line crosses it the andesite flow is 600 feet thick.
Following the lava are about 2,300 feet of pebbly and gritty felspathic tuffs with
occasional conglomeratic horizons. Among the colluvial debris from these beds
petrified fragments of Pitys are common.

At the top of the Lower Kuttung Series is a discontinuous horizon of pyroxene-
andesite flows, of which Duri Peak and Kingsmill Peak are prominent outcrops.
On the Woodlands section is a mass of andesite 800 feet thick on this horizon. As
with the lower flow, a bouldery conglomerate is developed immediately below the
extrusive rock.

343

PERMIAN

UPPER COAL MEASURES
WERRIE BASALTS
LOWER COAL MEASURES
GARBONIFEROUS

UPPER KUTTUNG SERIES
LOWER KUT TUNG SERIES
BURINOI SERIES
DEVONIAN

BABRABA SERIES
INTRUSIVE

WARRIGUNDI COMPLEX

Be WU Seu

a

4
LS
a

Text-fig. 1—Geological Map of part of the Werrie Basin showing Section-lines and
Localities referred to in the text.

The coarse boulder bed which follows the upper pyroxene-andesite zone is the
basal conglomerate of the Upper Kuttung Series. Three stages are recognizable:
the Lower Glacial, 2,500 feet thick; the Interglacial, 1,000 feet thick; and the
Upper Glacial, 1,500 feet thick, making a total thickness of 5,000 feet.

In the basal conglomerate of the Lower Glacial Stage the boulders, which
range up to three feet in diameter, are mainly igneous types, such as granites,

344 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

both acid and intermediate, pink porphyries with an aplitic appearance, and
porphyrites, but few of the types are such as are likely to have been derived from
the erosion of the volcanic rocks of the Lower Kuttung. There is no obvious
stratification or sorting, but no glacial striae were recognized. Upwards they
become less bouldery and have a deep purple matrix.

Overlying the coarse conglomerates is a thick series of gritty tuffs. Pebbly
and conglomeratic bands of a glacial facies become more numerous as the series
is ascended, finally grading into tillites about 900 feet above the base of the stage.
The pebbles present a wide variety of types, with a range of fresh igneous rocks,
both plutonic and effusive, as well as limestone, chert, quartz, phyllite and schist.

The ensuing glacial beds are at first mostly true tillite, with bands of glacial
grits and fluvio-glacial conglomerate. In the tillite the pebbles weather uniformly
with the matrix and cannot readily be detached, but striated pebbles were dug
out from the conglomerates.

The tillites pass up into varves. They are beautifully laminated, with frequent
contemporaneous contortions and abundant erratics. This zone is considered to be
the equivalent of the Glenoak varve horizon near Seaham (Osborne, 1922, p. 180).
Coloured laminated tuffs follow the varves, and these are associated with fine-
grained beds which have yielded some interesting carbonized petrifactions,
including the type specimen of Samaropsis ovalis (Walkom, 1935, p. 460).

Overlying the plant-bearing tuffs is a mass of fluvio-glacial conglomerate,
300 feet in thickness. The pebbles, which are similar to those in the earlier
conglomerates, but with a greater prevalence of acid lavas which may have
originated within the Kuttung, are well rounded, and vary up to a foot in major
diameter. Nearly every pebble shows glacial striae or deep grooves.

The deposition of this conglomerate mass was succeeded by a further advance
of the glacier and the deposition of varves. The latter are rather coarse, tending
towards varve-sandstones, especially near the top. This set of varves represents
the culmination of the lower glacial advance, for they are rapidly followed by
Rhacopteris-bearing grits which initiate the tuffs of the Interglacial Stage.

The Interglacial Stage is one of the most resistant physiographic units in
the Werrie region, and its cliffs and bluffs always tower above the strike-valleys
of the Lower Kuttung. Immediately above the Rhacopteris tuff at the base is
the pebbly phase of hard white felspathic grit which makes up the bulk of the
stage. Then comes about 100 feet of soda-rhyolite tuff. This bed shows consider-
able lithological variation from a fine-grained green cherty type to a coarse phase
with fragments of quartz, felspar, and green felsite, which grades further into
flow-breccia. Overlying the green alkaline tuffs is a bed of well-graded breccia.
It consists mainly of angular chips of quartz-felsite a little larger than peas.
Upwards, this becomes finer and more conglomeratic, and then grades up into
white Rhacopteris-bearing tuff at the top of the Interglacial Stage.

At the base of the Upper Glacial beds are a few feet of coarse conglomerate
with boulders up to a foot in diameter. This conglomerate has a distinctly glacial
aspect, and is followed by finer conglomerates which are clearly fluvio-glacial,
above which is a thin bed of soda-rhyolite tuff, then a very thin felsite flow. Next
are two plant-bearing horizons separated by tuffs and varves. Seeds of the
Cordaicarpus type have been collected from the upper of the two plant horizons.

The top 800 feet of the Kuttung are largely glacial. Varves are best developed
in the upper part of this section and are underlain by tillite. The remainder is
partly fluvio-glacial, partly tillitic, and partly tuffaceous.

BY S. W. CAREY. 345

Resting directly on the Kuttung beds are the Greta Coal-Measures. The
lowest bed is a strongly-cemented conglomerate with hard gritty bands. The latter
contain abundant plant-impressions measuring up to two feet in length and three
and a half inches across. Beneath the conglomerate are hard but fine-grained
acid tuffs which are well laminated. These are the highest beds of the Kuttung
or the lowest of the Greta Series, and they rest on a coarse fluvio-glacial
conglomerate made up chiefly of pebbles derived from Kuttung lavas. The lithology
of this formation is quite distinct from that of the Greta conglomerates.

2. TURI VALLEY SECTION.

The Turi Valley section is suitable for examining the Kuttung sequence from
the Interglacial Stage to the Burindi Series, especially the Lower Glacial beds.
The section commences on the Travelling Stock Route from Currabubula to Duri,
where the Mount Minarooba pyroxene-andesite sill crosses the road. From this
point the section-line runs west along the north boundary of portions 283 and 284
(Parish of Currabubula), then turns south along the west boundary of portion 284
to the north-east corner of portion 107. From this point the section follows a
bearing of S.63°W. for about two miles, crossing the broad valley of Turi Creek,
and ascending the scarp to the top of the cliffs which overhang the valley on the
south-west.

The Minarooba sill, which is about 530 feet thick, intrudes the Burindi Series
about 700 feet below the base of the Kuttung, and is on the same general horizon
as the silicified zone in the Woodlands section, which marks the position under-
ground of the lenticular intrusive sheet there.

The Burindi Series consists of the usual well-bedded, olive-green mudstones
which are richly fossiliferous.

At the base of the Lower Kuttung Series, resting directly on the fossiliferous
beds in portion 199 (Parish of Currabubula) adjacent to the section-line, are a
number of impure coal-seams. In a gully a little above Mr. Howlett’s house are
at least four seams, the highest of which is about six feet thick on the outcrop,
with a band twelve inches from the top. The unweathered seam is probably much
thicker. Both the coal-seams and the Burindi mudstones on which they rest are
much fractured and jointed by numerous minor dip-faults.

Benson (1920) included the coal-seams in the Burindi Series, but the present
writer regards them as marking the base of the Kuttung, for it is at this horizon
that the change in lithology from the typical Burindi mudstones to the gritty
felspathic and keratophyric tuffs, which persist throughout the Lower Kuttung,
takes place. The stratigraphical horizon relative to the main pyroxene-andesite
flow is closely comparable with the base of the Kuttung on the Woodlands section.
Lepidodendron Veltheimianum, Stigmaria ficoides and Calamites are frequent in
the lower tuffs in much the same state of preservation as in the remainder of the
Lower Kuttung.

Petrological descriptions of some of the tuffs have been given by Browne
(1920).

The main pyroxene-andesite flow, here 860 feet thick, is about 1,100 feet above
the base of the Kuttung. As in the Woodlands section, the lava is underlain by
a thick mass of heavy conglomerate which is separated from the andesite by a
bed of tuff. The boulders average about 10 inches in diameter, but frequently
exceed a foot. Pitys in silicified blocks occurs in the lower part of this con-
glomerate, where it crosses the stock-route a little to the east of the section-line,

346 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

and the underlying tuffs there yield Lepidodendron Veltheimianum and Stigmaria
jicoides.

The top of the andesite is rather weathered, and is followed by about 20 feet
of leached material containing white kaolinitic and carbonated material. This is
followed by coarse conglomerate with boulders averaging from eight to ten inches,
mostly granitic rocks and hornblende-porphyrite, with occasional pebbles of
pyroxene-andesite. The conglomerate is rudely bedded, with some finer bands.

Between the main pyroxene-andesite and the horizon of the Duri Peak
discontinuous zone are nearly four thousand feet of strata, mainly felspathic
gritty tuffs with pebbly bands and occasional horizons of coarse conglomerate.
About 700 feet above the andesite is a conglomerate with pebbles averaging four
inches in diameter. In portion 10, roughly on this horizon, a little to the east of
the section line, is a good collecting ground for Stigmaria ficoides and Lepido-
dendron Veltheimianum.

A thousand feet higher is another conglomerate, with pebbles about six inches
in diameter, among which are a good many of pyroxene-andesite. About 600 feet
of tuffs separate this from the next conglomerate horizon, where the pebbles are a
little smaller.

Near the top of the Lower Kuttung is a stratiform sheet of basalt 100 feet
thick. This may be a contemporaneous flow, but such a lava is not usual there.
It may be an intrusive, referable to either the Warrigundi or the Tertiary cycle
of volcanic activity.

Owing to the down-faulting of the south-eastern end of the Duri Peak andesite,
and to its rapid lenticular thinning, the Turi Valley section takes very little
account of this flow. Scattered along the strike, however, are numerous blocks
of vesicular and scoriaceous andesite. The outcrop is not of the best and it is
difficult to decide whether it is the thin tongue-end of the flow or the débris
distributed beyond the end of the flow by contemporaneous erosion.

The Lower Glacial beds, which follow the Duri Peak andesite, are more than
3,000 feet thick. The basal conglomerate, which is about 200 feet thick, contains
boulders up to two feet in diameter, chiefly of the characteristic granitic rocks
and pink porphyries. Silicified remains of Pitys are abundant in the lower portion
and in the immediately underlying tuff.

Above the conglomerate are about 800 feet of pebbly tuff and conglomerate
which makes poor outcrop, and which grades upwards into a thick sequence of
fluvio-glacial conglomerate, tillite, and varve, exactly as in the Woodlands section.
In these beds erratics of pyroxene-andesite of Kuttung lithology are not uncommon
and often exceed two feet in diameter. The more common granitic erratics are
often more than a foot across. As before, this zone is separated from the striated-
pebble horizon by bright green and red laminated tuffs. The 600-foot fluvio-glacial
conglomerate which follows is almost entirely made up of striated pebbles, the
hard argillites of the pebbles being particularly adapted to the preservation of the
glacial grooves. Erratics of weathered granite up to twenty inches in diameter
are also present. Interstratified with this conglomerate is a flow of hornblende-
andesite about ten feet thick.

The fluvio-glacial conglomerate is followed by 250 feet of tuffs, then nearly
400 feet of varves, which are the highest member of the Lower Glacial Stage.

The conglomerates which follow, forming the scarp rim, are the basal strata
of the Interglacial Stage. They are 100 feet thick, well-graded,, and with little
suggestion of glacial origin. Overlying them is a series of conglomerates, grits,
and tuffs with plant-bearing beds. The late R. H. Cambage collected Archaeo-

BY S. W. CAREY. 347

calamites here. These beds are followed by the basal conglomerate of the Upper
Glacial Beds, the sequence of which is described in the Landslide section.

3. LANDSLIDE SECTION.

The Landslide section which completes the Kuttung sequence through the
Upper Glacial Stage, is complementary to the Turi Valley section, which traverses
the beds below the Interglacial Stage.

The upper part of the Interglacial Stage, beneath the basal conglomerate of
the Upper Glacial beds, consists of plant-bearing grits and tuffs with conglomeratic
bands from which Rhacopteris and Cordaites have been collected. This sequence
is nearly 400 feet thick and is injected by several thin keratophyre sills.

The coarse basal conglomerate of the Upper Glacial Stage is 90 feet thick. The
boulders, which are well-rounded, average about six inches in diameter, with a
maximum of fifteen inches, and include such rock-types as biotite-granite, quartzite
and rhyolite. They have been derived for the most part from a pre-Carboniferous
terrain.

The varves which follow are 300 feet thick. Contemporaneous contortions
occur in the lower portions, and towards the top they become coarser and pass into
varve-sandstones.

In the next 400 feet there is evidence of a lull in the glaciation, as the
sediments are more normal in character, consisting mainly of conglomerates and
tuffs. The conglomerates are well-graded and well-bedded, the average pebble-size
being about two and a half inches. Lavas and felsites are most abundant among
the pebbles, but keratophyre, porphyrite, rhyolite, limestone, and vein-quartz are
also present. The interbedded sandy layers contain abundant carbonized and
fragmental plant-material. The upper 200 feet of this Stage are made up almost
entirely of creamy-white shales, probably largely tuffaceous in origin, which are
packed with Rhacopteris. The instability of these beds on a steep dip-slope led to
the landslide which gave the section its name.

Following these plant beds a glacial advance is recorded in 80 feet of fluviotill
which grades into true tillite. The boulders, up to two feet in diameter, include
hornblende-andesite, acid granite, biotite- and quartz-felsites, and rhyolite, as well
as quartzite and limestone. The quartzo-felspathic matrix here and there develops
a varvoidal structure in which the boulders are not infrequently big end up.

Above the fluviotill is a bold outcrop of soda-rhyolite tuff, 270 feet thick and
very uniform in grainsize and lithology. This is at a very much higher horizon
than the similar rock in the Interglacial Stage in the Woodlands section. It was
the erroneous correlation of these two beds, and of the plant-bearing beds and
glacial rocks of the Upper Glacial Stage of the Landslide section with the glacial
beds, etc., of the Lower Glacial Stage of the Woodlands section, which led Benson
(1920, pp. 307-8) to postulate a very heavy fault along Currabubula Creek (see
Carey, 1934a, p. 368). There is a thin bed of soda-rhyolite tuff in the Upper
Glacial Stage of the Woodlands section also, but it is not so prominent as in the
Landslide section.

The alkaline tuff is followed by 1,000 feet of tillite, conglomerate, varve and
tuff. This is exactly analogous to the sequence in the Woodlands section. The
tillite is best developed in the lower 300 feet, and the varves are prominent at
the top. The tillitic portion seems to have derived its boulders chiefly from a pre-
Carboniferous landscape, whereas in the conglomeratic portions, both above and
below the tillite, the pebbles are commonly felsites with other acid lavas which
appear to have been derived from the Lower Kuttung Series.

348 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

The top member of the Kuttung is a 270-foot bed of conglomerate, identical
with the rock occupying the same position in the Woodlands section. The pebbles
are almost entirely of acid lavas derived from the erosion of the Kuttung.
Toscanitic and dellenitic lavas with phenocrysts of quartz and biotite are the
most numerous, with hornblende- and pyroxene-andesites less common; the felsites
which dominate the conglomerates beneath them are still present but much rarer,
while the rocks belonging to the granitic terrain of the tillites are almost entirely
absent. The boulders average about six inches, with a maximum of about ten
inches.

The total thickness of the Upper Glacial Stage in the Landslide section is about
2,750 feet.

4. ROYSTON SECTION.

The Royston section provides the most complete study of the Upper Kuttung
rocks as they are developed in the western limb of the Werrie syncline. The
section-line runs from the north-west corner of portion 46, Parish of Babbinboon,
adjacent to ‘Royston’ homestead, and follows a bearing of N.79°H. to the point on
the northern boundary of portion 48 in the Parish of Piallaway, where that
boundary descends a cliff. From this point the section runs due east, following
the northern boundaries of portions 48 and 49, and continuing within portion 59
as far as Oakey Creek.

This section commences at the western end on a thin bed of limestone in the
fossiliferous mudstones of the Burindi Series. Five hundred feet above the lime-
stone is a sheet of pyroxene-andesite thirty feet thick, which is presumed to be a
sill. Between this andesite and the limestone, and also above the andesite, are
several smaller lenses of the same igneous rock. :

About 1,800 feet of strata intervene between the andesite sill (?) in the
Burindi Series and the main pyroxene-andesite flow of the Lower Kuttung. Imme-
diately underneath the flow are coarse conglomerates precisely as in the other
sections. They are about 320 feet thick, with boulders up to four feet in diameter.
The base of the Kuttung lies somewhere between the bottom of the conglomerates
and the andesite sill (?). Assuming the constancy of the sill-horizon the thick-
nesses of strata involved are comparable with those in preceding sections.

The main pyroxene-andesite flow is 370 feet thick. It is mainly composed
of the glassy phase (see p. 372), but spheroids of the lithoidal phase are very
abundant in it.

Overlying the main pyroxene-andesite flow are 1,400 feet of pebbly felspathic
tuffs which make up the rest of the Lower Kuttung. Many silicified fragments
of Pitys shed from these strata have been found.

The basal conglomerate of the Upper Kuttung makes good outcrops, with
boulders up to two feet in diameter. It is about 150 feet thick, and is followed
by 200 feet of bedded tuffs, which are overlain by a thick series of varves. The
varves have interbedded tuffaceous layers, and are followed by more tuffs which
are interstratified with conglomerates rich in ice-scratched pebbles. This is the
horizon which has yielded such fine glacial specimens elsewhere. Capping this
tuff-glacial series and forming the top of the Lower Glacial Stage is a twenty-foot
bed of hard tillite. The total thickness of the Lower Glacial Stage is about 1,000
feet.

The Interglacial Stage is about 1,200 feet thick. At the base are 220
feet of soda-rhyolite-tuff. The rest of the stage is made up of normal
conglomerates and tuffs, with many plant-bearing horizons. The conglomerate

BY S. W. CAREY. 349

at the base of the Upper Glacial Stage is not developed in the Royston section.
Resting on the Interglacial Stage are 220 feet of varves, which are followed
by 160 feet of hard, blue tuff which outcrops boldly as a line of cliffs. On
top of this is a thin bed of creamy Rhacopteris-tuff, which has yielded, among
other things, Rhacophyllum. Next come 370 feet of tuffs and fine conglomerates
with a tillitic horizon at the top.

The acid lava which follows is characteristic of the western side of the Werrie
syncline, though it is usually missing in the eastern limb. It contains phenocrysts
of quartz, felspar and biotite, and is about 300 feet thick, becoming thicker to the
east.

On top of the acid lava are 280 feet of varves. These are followed by a veneer
of conglomerates and grits completing the section, which does not quite reach the
top of the Upper Kuttung.

5. MERLEWOOD SECTION.

The Merlewood area has been mapped in rather more detail than other parts
of the region, in order to determine clearly the relationship between the Lower
Kuttung Series and the horizons of the fossiliferous marine beds which occur
there.

The geological structure is shown in the map of the Babbinboon district
(Plate xviii). Parallel belts of Carboniferous and Upper Devonian rocks dip con-
formably eastwards as part of the western limb of the Werrie syncline. To the
east, the easterly dips continue beyond the limit of the map until the synclinal
axis is reached. Westwards the area is bordered by three powerful faults where
the imbricate Mooki thrusts emerge. The local trend of the strata is meridional,
parallel to the thrusts, and the angle of dip varies between 25° and 50°, with the
steeper dips to the west.

Two minor dip-faults have been found, but in either case the throw is less
than 100 feet. There are three circular patches of basalt, which probably betoken
necks, and a fourth outcrops a little beyond the northern limit of the map. A few
basic dykes occur, trending in the dip-direction.

Topographically, the rocks of the Upper Kuttung Series form the high ground
on the east and west, with an intermediate depressed belt, about two miles wide,
where the Burindi and Devonian rocks lie. The surface forms are mature, with
common development of cuestas and hog-back ridges.

Swain’s Gully, which rises in portion 34, Parish of Babbinboon, and flows
westwards through portions 14, 15, 62, 58, 16, 17, 36 and 25 of that parish,
provides the most informative stratigraphical exposure in the district. It extends
from the top of the main felspathic grit in the Upper Kuttung Series, across the
Lower Kuttung with its marine horizon, through the Burindi beds to the Barraba
Series.

Barraba Series.—The lowest beds exposed are well-jointed mudstones with the
ribbon-like banding which is typical of this series. Quartz veins, which have not
been encountered in the Carboniferous beds, are not uncommon here. As the
Burindi Series is approached, the series becomes more and more bouldery, with
rapidly increasing vulcanism, culminating in a very variable bed, about 800 feet
in thickness, of what is best described as an agglomerate. Some phases are true
conglomerates with well-worn boulders of andesitic lava, but elsewhere the matrix
is entirely tuffaceous, and passes into rocks resembling flow-breccias. Finer inter-
bedded tuff-partings near the upper part of this formation have yielded Lepido-
dendron australe. The series seems to reach its maximum coarseness at the top,

350 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

immediately beneath the basal conglomerates of the Carboniferous. These quasi-
volcanic conglomerates continue to the Tamworth—Gunnedah road which they cross
near Carrol Gap, whence they have been traced for some distance to the north-
west by A. C. Lloyd (1934).

Burindi Series—Commencing this series is a basal conglomerate with
boulders of granite, hornfels, and porphyrite measuring as much as ten inches
in diameter. These are overlain by buff-coloured gritty sandstones with current-
bedding and some conglomerate bands. The sandstones carry plant-stems, some
of which resemble Calamites. This basal series is 400 feet thick and shows a
progressive change in facies from the heavy conglomerates at the base to the
sands and silts at the top. Next in the sequence are well-bedded dark blue marly
mudstones and tuffs, which have yielded the fauna listed on page 352, including
numerous specimens of Cladochonus tenwicollis and Phillipsia sp.

Following the marls are laminated olive-green mudstones of typical Burindi
facies; about 200 feet above the base of these is a richly fossiliferous band, which
is packed with fossils, including some low Lower Carboniferous forms, notably
one closely resembling Protocanites lyoni M. & W. The forms are listed on
page 352.

The Burindi Series is on the whole a remarkably uniform series of mud-
stones, with only occasional tuff-bands. Oolitic limestone is developed as discon-
tinuous lenses on a horizon about 850 feet above the base, a horizon which has
been picked up at intervals over a considerable distance. A typical exposure is
to be seen in portion 64, Parish of Babbinboon. Crinoid ossicles, and occasional
brachiopods and other fossils are found in the oolite. Limestone bands recur also
about 2,000 feet above the base of the series, but these thin lenses are less
persistent, and non-oolitic, and contain a good deal of pyrites, which may partially
pseudomorph the fossils. The total thickness of the Burindi Series is more than
2,500 feet. Marine fossils and fragments of drift Lepidodendron Veltheimianum
are quite numerous in the upper 1,000 feet.

Lower Kuttung Series—The base of this series is exposed in the gully in the
north of portion 15, close to the point where it crosses into portion 62. The lowest
beds are tuffs and conglomerates 340 feet thick which contain Lepidodendron
Veltheimianum. These are followed by a flow of pyroxene-andesite 200 feet thick,
which thins out and disappears altogether in some places. Below the andesite,
and along its strike where it is missing, are tuffaceous conglomerates in which the
pebbles are pyroxene-andesite similar to the flow. Next follow 200 feet of coarse
conglomerates. The boulders, which average about ten inches in diameter but
reach as much as eighteen inches, are chiefly of pink granite and a hard porphyry
which is resistant to weathering, together with grey quartzite and some volcanic
rocks. Overlying these heavy conglomerates are 700 feet of pebbly and gritty
tuffs. They are salmon- to buff-coloured on exposed surfaces and are fairly well
bedded, with some pebbly layers and occasional plant-bearing horizons.

Above the gritty tuffs is another zone of coarse conglomerate 460 feet thick.
Here the pink porphyry and acid granite are still present, as boulders up to two
feet in diameter; there is, however, a greater proportion of volcanic rocks than
on the lower horizon, especially a purple felsite in boulders as much as 14 inches
in diameter.

Overlying this conglomerate are ten feet of reddish biotite-tuff, followed by
another flow of pyroxene-andesite, where the section-line crosses it (see Plate xviii
and Text-figure 2); this flow is only twenty feet thick but further south it
increases to 300 feet. Above the lava is another 300 feet of pebbly and gritty

BY S. W. CAREY. 351

tuffs, which is followed by 200 feet of rather more resistant grits bearing well-
preserved impressions of Lepidodendron Veltheimianum and Stigmaria ficoides.
Some of these plant-stems are very large, one piece of the former being ten
inches in diameter and four feet in length. This specimen, portion of which is
preserved in the Botany Museum at the University of Sydney, shows impressions
which appear to be the lower parts of the leaves still attached to the stem. The
plant-bearing bed is followed by another 650 feet of gritty tuffs, which continue

until the Amygdalophyllum-Lithostrotion marine horizon is reached.
2

<- -aarraas SERIES- ---> <- -------- SRO SERS a meme ><------ LOWER AUT TUNG SERIES - - --~—- ><-- UPPER KITTING SERIES

‘
‘
1

Vv

TUFF
RHACOPTERIS GRITS & TUFFS

MUDSTONES

PEBSLY & GAITTY
OOLITIC GRITS
& CONGLOMERATES
ACID LAVA
PY RONENE ANDESITE
RHACOPTERIS

BUFF TUFF
A PORPHYRY BOULDER HOR‘ZON

LEP/DODENDQON AUSTRALE

SEB BLY & GRITTY TUFFS

LEPIDODENDROW VELTHE/M/ANUM
TIOMARIA FI

LY BIOT/TE FELSITE

PYROXENE ANDE SITE

PROTOCANITES

PHILLIPSIA

OOLITE
NS WOESITE CONGLOMERATE & TUFF

Ty NOOK! THRUST

OLIVE-GREEN

SEA LEVEL

Text-fig. 2.—Merlewood Section.

On the line of section the marine horizon is very sparsely fossiliferous, and is
represented by 270 feet of oolitic grits and conglomerates. The latter are markedly
distinct from the other Lower Kuttung conglomerates. The pebbles are much
smaller and more evenly sorted, and their lithology and ovoidal form are distinc-
tive; grey quartzites and certain types of lava dominate. Northwards the oolitic
zone passes laterally by progressive stages into grits and conglomerates without
a perceptible oolitic matrix, but the types, size and system of sorting of the pebbles
remain unchanged. A mile further north, in portion 60, richly fossiliferous lime-
stones appear immediately overlying the grits and conglomerates, which here
regain in part their oolitic character. Amygdalophyllum and Lithostrotion are by
far the most abundant fossils, but by careful collecting a fairly extensive fauna of
Viséan aspect has been obtained.

In view of the fact that this is the first record of marine strata from such a
horizon in New South Wales, and that its implications are many and far-reaching,
every precaution has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the field-work in the
determination of their horizon. As a result it can confidently be stated that all
possibility of these strata being infaulted Burindi beds has been eliminated, and
it may be regarded as established that their horizon is high in the Lower Kuttung.

Following the oolitic and fossiliferous marine strata are buff-coloured gritty
and pebbly tuffs with occasional boulders of granite and pink porphyry, some of
which are as much as two feet in diameter. These beds are followed by a suite
of volcanic rocks. The first flow is an acid-intermediate lava 140 feet thick. Next
is a flow of pyroxene-andesite 90 feet thick, probably to be correlated with the
Duri Peak andesite; then come 40 feet of biotite-felsite, and finally 70 feet of
acid tuff. These lavas are regarded as the equivalents of Osborne’s Volcanic Stage
in the Lower Kuttung of the Lower Hunter Valley.

352 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

Upper Kuttung Series.——The lavas are followed by typical Lower Glacial Stage
rocks, which are succeeded in turn by the tuffs of the Interglacial Stage. Unfor-
tunately the coarse basal conglomerate of the Upper Kuttung is not present in this
part of the area. However, it is well-developed in the Royston section, and a close
correlation is possible between the rocks of the Interglacial Stage and the Lower
Glacial Stage in the two sections.

Overlying the volcanic rocks are 230 feet of conglomerates, grits, and shales,
with well preserved impressions of Rhacopteris and Calamites. These are followed
by 150 feet of varves with interbedded tillite layers which yield striated pebbles.

Next comes a beautiful tillite. Here granite boulders, which are usually
weathered, range in size up to three feet, and often rest big end uppermost. With
them are large boulders of pyroxene-andesite, pink porphyries and rhyolites, and
abundant pebbles of grey quartzite which bear well-preserved glacial striae, all of
which are interbedded without much sorting in a dark chocolate matrix.

This glacial horizon, which is the top of the lower glacials, is followed by a
varied series of soda-rhyolite tuffs, and other associated pyroclastics, with little
detrital admixture. These pass into tuffaceous conglomerates and tuffs, which are
in turn overlain by more acid tuffs and grits with Rhacopteris, which complete
the section. The thickness of strata belonging to the Interglacial Stage is 860
feet, but this does not include the highest beds: of that stage.

B. PALAEONTOLOGICAL NotEes. (1.A.B.)

Already a large number of forms (more than 80 species) have been recorded
from this area by W. N. Benson (1921). Some have been described in detail,
others are provisional determinations of Museum specimens.

At the time when Professor Benson’s work was carried out no faunal zoning
was possible, but he expressed the hope (1920, p. 370) that ‘‘as the detailed strati-
graphical study of the Burindi Beds proceeds, accompanied by refined palaeonto-
logical work, a regular succession of faunal zones may be shown to exist in this
State as elsewhere.’ The present work is an attempt at such zoning.

Exhaustive collections of the fauna were made by Mr. S. W. Carey from three
horizons in the ‘“Merlewood” section. Provisional determinations are given below;
detailed descriptions of new and uncommon forms will be given in a later paper.

The lowest horizon is 400 feet stratigraphically above the base of the Burindi
Beds, and consists of blue, marly mudstones and tuffs from which the following
forms are identified: Zaphrentis sp., Cladochonus tenwicollis McCoy, Crinoid
ossicles, Fenestella sp., (?) Chainodictyon gigantea Eth. ms., Brachiopod fragments,
Gastropod fragments, Phillipsia sp.

Cladochonus tenuwicollis McCoy is the most abundant fossil at this horizon.
Zaphrentis is rare; it is a small form with a deep calice, showing about 36 septa
in a section of 4 mm. diameter.

The second horizon, occurring about 200 feet stratigraphically above the first,
contains a variety of specimens preserved in shales and limestone nodules. The
following species are provisionally recognized:

Zaphrentis aff. cliffordana BH. & H. Productus sp. (cf. P. semireticulatus
Zaphrentis sp. Martin).

Crinoid ossicles Productus sp.

Fenestella sp. Camarophoria (?) sp.

Schizophoria resupinata Martin Dielasma sacculum var. hastata Sow.

Chonetes sp. (cf. hardrensis Phill.) Spirifer aff. mosquensis F. de W.

BY S. W. CAREY. 353

Spirifer cf. bisulcatus Sowerby Cardiomorpha sp.

Spirifer striatus Sowerby Ptychomphalus culleni Dun & Benson
Spirifer striatus var. attenuatus Mourlonia ornata Dun & Benson
Reticularia lineata Martin Straparollus davidis Dun & Benson
Reticularia sp. Phanerotrema burindia Dun & Benson
Spathella sp. Macrocheilus cf. filosus Sow.
Aviculopecten cf. knockonniensis McCoy Loxonema sp. (not babbindoonensis )
Aviculopecten (?) granosus de Kon. Protocanites cf. lyoni M. & W.
Cardiopsis cf. radiata M. & W. Glyphioceras (Beyrichoceras) (?)
Nuculana sp. Goniatite (?)

Grammysia (?) sp.

Most of the species have a relatively wide range within the Lower
Carboniferous, but three forms are closely comparable, if not identical with
Zaphrentis cliffordana Edwards and Haime, Cardiopsis radiata Meek and Worthen
and Protocanites lyoni Meek and Worthen respectively, all of which occur in the
Kinderhook Beds of the Lower Mississippian of North America (Grabau and Shimer,
1909; Worthen, 1866, p. 166). Protocanites lyoni also occurs in the basal beds
of the Lower Carboniferous of Europe (H. Schmidt, 1923).

The faunal assemblage thus indicates that beds equivalent to the Tournaisian
occur within the Burindi Series, but as yet there is insufficient evidence for more
exact correlation. A careful study of the Productids and Spirifers may throw some
light on the subject. Well preserved specimens of a Spirifer show some
resemblances to Spirifer (Choristites) mosquensis Fischer de Waldheim, although
direct comparison with available specimens of this Middle Carboniferous form
from Moscow shows minor differences in ornamentation.

A third fossiliferous horizon occurring high in the Lower Burindi Series,
near Currabubula, was described by W. IW. Benson, who recorded the following
forms (1920, p. 293):

Zaphrentis culleni Eth. fil. Productus longispinus Sow.
Zaphrentis sp. indet. Chonetes cf. hardrensis Phill.
Cactocrinus brownei Dun & Benson Dielasma sacculum var. hastata Sow.
Fenestella sp. indet. Spirifer bisulcatus Sowerby
Orthis (Rhipidomella) australis McCoy Spirifer sp. indet.
Orthis (Schizophoria) resupinata Spiriferina insculpta Phill.

Martin Pelecypods spp. indet.
Orthotetes (Schellwienella) crenistria Conularia sp.

Phill. Phillipsia sp.

Another fossiliferous horizon in the ‘“Merlewood” section is that of the lime-
stone near the top of the Lower Kuttung, from which Amygdalophyllum etheridgei
Dun and Benson was first obtained by Mrs. Scott (Benson, 1920, p. 341). It
outcrops in Portion 60, in the north-east of the Parish of Babbinboon. Tentative
determinations are as follow:

(?) Symplectophyllum mutatum Hill Syringopora syring Hth. fil.

Amygdalophyllum etheridgei D. & B. Michelinia sp. (cf. M. dendroides Hill)
Amygdalophyllum inopinatum Eth. fil. Stromatoporoid

Amygdalophyllum, sp. nov. Fenestella sp. fo cr@ BS A> f
Aphrophyllum foliaceum Hill Productus (?) semireticulatus ae
Aphrophyllum, sp. nov. Spirifer cf. mosquensis F. de W. cal GaN |
Lithostrotion columnare Eth. fil. Spirifer duplicicostatus Phill. : At I BRAR Y |
Lithostrotion stanvellense Eth. fil. Spiriferina (?) iN

354 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

Camarophoria (?) Capulid (?)
Reticularia lineata Martin Pleurotomarid (?)
Reticularia sp.

The corals are preserved much better than the other forms and also give more
definite indication of geological horizon. Lithostrotion columnare Eth. fil. is
present in greatest abundance, although Amygdalophyllum etheridgei Dun and
Benson is the only rugose coral previously recorded from this limestone horizon.
Elsewhere in New South Wales there are occurrences of Lower Carboniferous
corals within the Burindi Series. Lithostrotion columnare occurs at the Horton
River and at Taree; Lithostrotion stanvellense occurs at Taree and at Hall’s Creek,
16 miles south of Bingara, where the genotype of Aphrophyllum (A. hallense
Smith) was found. Other species of Aphrophyllum occur at Babbinboon.

Nearly all of the corals recorded by Etheridge (1900, pp. 5-24) from Lion
Creek, Stanwell, Queensland, as well as several additional forms described by Dr.
Dorothy Hill (1934) from the Riverleigh Limestone near Mundubberah, Queens-
land, are represented in the Babbinboon limestones: in addition, there are possibly
several new species.

This strongly suggests the direct correlation of the Babbinboon and Queens-
land horizons. Concerning the age of the Queensland occurrences Dr. Hill states
(p. 105): “The whole fauna is thus undoubtedly Upper Viséan or D in type, while
O. (Orionastraea) lonsdaleoides and A. (Aulina) simplex indicate that it may be
more minutely placed as homotaxial with D,.”

The corals therefore indicate that the Lower Kuttung beds of Babbinboon are
Viséan in age, belonging to the Upper part of the Lower Carboniferous.

C. SUMMARY OF FossiIL PLANTS.
Fossil plants are fairly common on certain horizons in the Werrie Basin.
The Upper Devonian Barraba Series contains only Lepidodendron australe
McCoy: this does not appear in the overlying Carboniferous beds.
The flora of the Carboniferous rocks is as follows:
(1) Lower Burindi Series: Lepidodendron Veltheimianum Sternberg,
Stigmaria ficoides.

(2) Lower Kuttung Series: Lepidodendron Veltheimianum Sternberg,
Stigmaria ficoides, Pitys sp., undescribed plants from below the main
andesite on the “Woodlands” section, including Rhodea (?), Sphenop-
teridium (?), Sphenopteris (?), ete.

Upper Kuttung Series.

(a) Lower Glacial Stage: Rhacopteris intermedia Feistmantel,
Aneimites ovata McCoy, (?) Calamites, Samaropsis (?) ovalis
Walkom 1935, Samaropsis cf. barcellosa White.

(b) Interglacial Stage: Rhacopteris, Cordaites, Archaeocalamnites,
Trigonocarpus (?) ovoideus Walkom 1935.

(c) Upper Glacial Stage: Rhacopteris spp., Samaropsis Milleri (Feist-
mantel), Carpolithus striatus Walkom 1935, Cordaicarpus prolatus
Walkom 1935, Trigonocarpus (?) ellipticus Walkom 1935,
Rhacophyllum, Rhacopteris intermedia Feistmantel, R. (7?)
Roemeri Feistmantel.

The Lepidodendron flora is thus confined to the Lower Carboniferous rocks,
while the Middle Carboniferous Upper Kuttung Series is characterized by the

Rhacopteris flora.

~~
ew
~

BY S. W. CAREY. 355

URI VALLEY

LANOSLIBDE

eres oe Lng an caval TEEPE odes Eun gdlow aa Serle

GENERALISED

WOODLANDS

Werrie Basalls

UPPER
MARINE

Lower coal Measures

PEKMIAN

| =
itt]

tra serial Conglomerare
Congl. Yarves, 77// & Ture
Acid Lava

Tite

Congl. tuff ac. wilh plants

Varve

ROYSTON

Congl Gris efe
Soda Rhyolite Tuff
“| Grils & Conglomerstes

MERLEWOOD __

:

UPPER

6LACIAL| GLACIAL

INTER

J Varves

dgsile
Hornblerde. le Horizon

5 Tie
Gry & pebbly Tuff
Basal Conglomerate

UPPER KUTTUNG

6 LAC/AL

MIDDLE CARBON/FEROUS

{

Pyroxene - Andesife
Pobbly Tu FFs

Pebbly Tusfs

Pyraxene - Andesite

Coarse Conglomerate

Se 5 Pebbly Taff

Se Basal Conglomerate

er) lophyllum — Lithostrofon Horizon |
9) Imygdalophyl!lurn — Lithostrofen Hor! |

Seen
|

VISEAN

LOWER KUTTUNG

eos Oo voee

fossiliterous Mudslones

BA a Oolificlimestone

Frotocanites Horizon
pisscistes| Basal Beds
Abglomerale & Ta FF

Banded Claystones

Text-fig. 3.—Correlation of Sections of the Werrie Syncline.

te

D. ANALYSIS OF THE CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE.
1. CORRELATION OF SECTIONS.

The correlation table (Text-fig. 3) shows the relationships of the five sections
which have been described. The essential common features of each have been
assimilated into the generalized section, which epitomizes the Carboniferous
sequence in the Werrie Basin.

The Burindi sequence has been studied in detail only in the Merlewood area,
so little can be added here. The most significant feature of this section is the
finding of a rich fauna including an index Tournaisian fossil on a horizon about
700 feet above the base of the series. The only marker horizons which have been
used in the field are the basal conglomerate (2)* and the oolitic limestone
horizon (3a). The former is persistent on the western side of the Werrie syncline,
but has not been looked for nor found on the eastern side. The oolite horizon has
been found in widely separated parts of this area and is an important local
horizon-marker, seeing that it occurs among a thick series of marine muds.

* Numbers refer to the correlation table (Text-fig. 3).

fassiliferous Mudsfones incliding

BURINO/
TOURNAISIAN |

BARRABA.

U. DEV.

|

356 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

General conceptions of the origin of oolites suggest that this horizon may possibly
have a wide application as an indicator.

The basal conglomerate (4) of the Lower Kuttung Series is not persistent.
It is prominent in the Merlewood area, and a conglomerate already referred to
north of the Woodlands section is probably also on this horizon. A pyroxene-
andesite flow is associated with these conglomerates in the Merlewood area, but it
has no great areal extent.

The Lower Kuttung is composed of three essential elements:

(a) Pyroxene-andesite flows, of which there are three—a very important
horizon (7), the discontinuous Duri Peak horizon (10), and a horizon of very
limited range (in 4).

(b) General thick masses of very coarse boulder-beds, particularly horizons
(4), (6), (8), and possibly (11), but also occurring in group (9).

(c) Considerable thicknesses of buff to salmon-coloured pebbly and gritty
felspathic tuff. These strata are represented by (5) and (9) in the section.

This combination is typical of the Lower Kuttung throughout the Werrie
Basin. It is also typical of the Lower Kuttung (Basal and Volcanic stages) of
the Hunter Valley, but there rapidly increasing thicknesses of lavas mask and
ultimately almost completely replace these units.

A fourth element of the utmost importance is introduced with the Merlewood
section, namely, the Amygdalophyllum-Lithostrotion marine horizon (9a), for this
occurrence places in our hands the solution of many difficulties.

Several problems of general application arise from the analysis of the Lower
Kuttung sequence. Of these, the question of the extent of the marine deposition
in the Lower Kuttung, and of the Lower Carboniferous climate, and the problem
of the origin and significance of the Lower Kuttung boulder beds, are all discussed
in later sections of this paper.

The basal conglomerate of the Upper Kuttung Series (11) is a horizon of
great interest, not only on account of the unusual size of the boulders which some-
times are found in it, but also on account of its great persistence. It has been
traced for more than 50 miles in the Werrie Basin, and it is only in the Merlewood
area, which is abnormal in other features, that it fails to outcrop. Moreover, it
appears to be identical in lithology and horizon with the coarse basal conglomerate
of the Glacial Stage described from the Hunter Valley by Osborne (1922, p. 180;
1927, p. 99; 1928, p. 575), and by Browne (1926, p. 226), and also referred to by
Sussmilch and David (1931, p. 490).

During the field-work this bed has been called the Porphyry Boulder Horizon,
on account of the persistent occurrence there of large rounded boulders of pink
porphyry. As a matter of fact, the largest boulders are quite often not porphyry
but granite; indeed, in portion 250 in the Parish of Coeypolly, boulders as large as
nine feet across are visible in situ, and one boulder which has been disrupted by
weathering appears to have been twenty feet across. It might easily be mistaken
for a “pop” of granite. The outcrop is about ten yards in diameter and consists
of granite blocks, some of which are about seven feet across. None of the blocks
is at all rounded and it can be seen how they originally fitted together before
having been disrupted along joint-planes. Another excellent exposure occurs on
Werrie’s Creek north of portion 176 and in portion 152 in the Parish of Werrie.
Here the conglomerate is very thick and boulders more than three feet in diameter
are quite numerous. The granite boulders attain the greatest dimensions, but they
are not so persistent as the porphyry which seldom fails to outcrop.

BY S. W. CAREY. 357

Although this important conglomerate has been described as the basal bed
of the Upper Kuttung, it has many features in common with the conglomerates
of the Lower Kuttung. Its boulder content is essentially similar, and it is usually
separated from the first obviously glacial beds in the form of varves or fluviotill
by a thickness of felspathic tuff not unlike the characteristic tuffs of the Lower
Kuttung. The frequent occurrence in it of silicified fragments of Pitys also links
it with the earlier rather than with the later sediments. However, the great
persistence of this formation, and the unusually large size of its boulders, justify
its being regarded as the basal bed of the Upper Kuttung.

The Upper Kuttung Series admits of classification into three stages, viz., the
Lower Glacial beds, the Interglacial beds and the Upper Glacial beds. The Lower
Glacials have a fairly well-defined sequence. Overlying the basal conglomerate is
a series of pebbly and gritty tuffs (12), which become more conglomeratic upwards.
About 200 feet above the base these merge into the glacial strata (13). In the
Merlewood and Royston sections only varves are developed, but in the eastern
limb this glacial stage is thicker, and both varves and tillite are present. These
are separated from the next glacial stage by tuffs (14). In the Woodlands and
Turi Valley sections these tuffs have rather a characteristic lithology. They are
well-bedded and brightly coloured in reds and greens and are probably rather acid.
The next glacial horizon is so distinctive that it can be recognized immediately
in any part of the area, for in all four sections this zone possesses a bed of
conglomerate (15) rich in pebbles of indurated argillite which are beautifully
striated and ice-scored. It is particularly thick in the Turi Valley section, but
in Woodlands section it is more cemented and forms a physiographic feature.

Associated with this striated pebble horizon it is not uncommon to find a thin
flow of hornblende-andesite (15a). It was encountered on the Turi Valley section,
and has been traced for a little more than a mile on either side of that section.
It is not developed in the Woodlands section, but was found in the hills about a
mile and a half south-west of ‘“‘Woodlands” homestead, and was traced for a mile
along its strike before it disappeared. The same hornblende-andesite horizon
yeappears in the extreme northern part of the Upper Kuttung outcrop, but here
again the flow only persists for about a mile and a half. It outcrops prominently
in portions 25, 35, 74 and 73 in the Parish of Piallaway, about two miles north-
east of Piallaway Station.* Here it is associated as usual with the striated pebble
beds, which lead up through a glacial zone to the cliffs of conglomerate and soda-
rhyolite tuff of the Interglacial Stage.

To return to the general section, the striated pebble zone is followed by
varves (16) which complete the Lower Glacial Stage. On the western limb of the
syncline, these varves are replaced by tillite.

The Interglacial Stage is essentially tuffaceous, without definite evidence of
glacial action. Rhacopteris-bearing strata are always included, and normal
conglomerates and grits are usually present. The most characteristic element is
the soda-rhyolite tuff (18), which has a quite distinctive lithology. It is missing
from the Turi Valley section, but may have been cut out by a fault, the field-
evidence being rather doubtful on this point. The upper part of the stage (19) is
similar in all the sections, consisting of pebbly grit, thin-bedded conglomerates
and white hard grits and fine sandstones which always yield Rhacopteris and its

*On the geological map of the Werrie Basin (Carey, 1934) the distinctive pattern
of the hornblende-andesite was accidentally omitted from this outcrop, which appears
as a line of blank lenses.

LL

358 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

associates. These beds are highly siliceous and felspathic, and probably represent
redistributed tuffs.

The Upper Glacial Stage usually commences with a thin bouldery bed of
conglomerate (20). The pebbles are hard and well-rounded and upwards of six
inches in diameter. This horizon is characteristic of the eastern limb of the
syncline but has not been found on the western limb.

The sequence within the Upper Glacial Stage is not so clear-cut as in the
Lower Glacial beds.

Complexity was introduced into the sedimentary record of this phase owing
to the simultaneous operation of several processes. Explosive volcanoes discharged
vast showers of volcanic débris on to the surfaces of glaciers and into the glacial
lakes, so that varve and till grade by insensible stages into tuffs and breccias.
Acid lavas, too, pass imperceptibly into flow-breccias and tuffs. Lavas were poured
over detrital débris, forming the matrix of volcanic conglomerates, the pebbles
of which were frequently a similar lava from an earlier flow. As these lava-
conglomerates are usually fairly tuffaceous, nomenclature becomes rather involved
and arbitrary. ;

Correlation of this part of the sequence is further complicated by the fact that
the western limb has thick flows of acid lava (quartz-biotite-felsite) which exceed
1,000 feet in thickness in the mountains west of Werris Creek. These are in the
middle of the Upper Glacial Stage. Northwards towards Piallaway and Spring
Gully, and in the central region occupied by the Quipolly dome, these lavas are
represented by thinner flows separated by sediments, while in the eastern limb of
the syncline they are almost entirely missing.

The upper part (25 and 26) of the Upper Glacial beds, however, is fairly
constant in character. For example, the topmost conglomerate (26) is very
charaeteristic in its occurrence throughout the area. It is not obviously glacial
in its genesis and, unlike the other fluvial conglomerates in the series, its pebbles
are almost entirely lavas, intraserial in origin.

A series of varves, tillites, tuffs and conglomerates always immediately
underlies the top conglomerate (26). The characters of these glacial beds as they
are exposed in the Woodlands and Landslide sections have already been described.
The excellent exposures of this stage which have been revealed as a result of the
recent constructional works at the Quipolly Dam, five miles east of Quipolly
railway platform, are, to say the least of it, a glaciologist’s paradise. The tillite,
which is 90 feet thick, is a hard, tough rock, blue on fresh surfaces, but weathering
to buff, very densely packed with chips of volcanic rocks, with a sporadic scattering
of larger angular or ovoidal lava-boulders measuring up to two feet in diameter.
They are frequently arranged with their longer axes upright, often dumped big
end up. The rock breaks across matrix and boulders alike, and the tough matrix
is more resistant to weathering than the enclosed boulders. Irregular layers and
lenses of varves, often much brecciated, are scattered through the tillite; they
may be masses which were torn off, incorporated in the ice-sheet, and deposited
when it melted away.

So predominantly is the material which has contributed to the formation of
this tillite of volcanic origin, that the first exposures were regarded as volcanic
tuffs and breccias. The volcanic rocks present include such types as hornblende-
andesite, pyroxene-andesite, dellenite, toscanite, felsite, albite-rhyolite, biotite-
porphyrite, ophitic basalt and occasional indurated sedimentary rocks, apparently
derived from a Devonian terrain forming the basement to the lava-field under-
going glaciation during this part of Kuttung time.

BY S. W. CAREY. 359

Above and below the tillite are varves, those beneath showing fine contortions,
and those above finely-paired annual laminations. McCarthy’s Creek, on the eastern
side of Quipolly Dome, provides an excellent exposure of the varve-horizon imme-
diately beneath the Quipolly Dam tillite, where the plastic material of the soft
rocks has been crumpled in an extraordinary fashion.

A short distance below the varves at Quipolly Dam is an important plant-
horizon which has been fruitful in its yield of fossil seeds. Several specimens of
Samaropsis Milleri (Walkom, 1935) have been obtained from this locality as well
as Oarpolithus striatus. The same horizon has been productive of seeds of varying
species at many localities in the Werrie Syncline.

2. SEQUENCE OF SEDIMENTATION.
Relation of Carboniferous to Devonian.

There has been considerable doubt concerning the identification of the basal
portion of the Carboniferous System in New South Wales. Benson (1921) discussed
the question at some length, and came to the conclusion that the Burindi fauna
was of Viséan age, and that, in view of the conformability of the Barraba and
Burindi Series, there must be an important diastem representing the Tournaisian
epoch at the junction of these two formations, or the true base of the Carboniferous
must be at some unrecognizable horizon in the Barraba Series. Benson favoured
the latter interpretation. Following up this statement, the present author held
that if part of the Barraba be included in the Carboniferous, the base of that
system should be extended down to the base of the Baldwin agglomerates, since
the Baldwin-Barraba Series were a natural unit in their flora, sequence of facies,
and genesis—a unit which has its base in the Baldwin agglomerates. The whole
question hinged round Benson’s determination of the Burindi fauna as a Viséan
assemblage, a verdict which had never been questioned.

However, as the present writer’s examination of the district progressed, it
soon became evident that there was much confusion concerning the precise
localities from which the Babbinboon faunas had been collected, and clarity was
only attained after a personal discussion with Professor Benson, and with Mrs.
Scott, whose collections were included in Benson’s descriptions. The writer also
consulted Mr. Mackay, of “Allanbank”, who as host had conducted Benson through
the Babbinboon district, and Messrs. A. H. and H. J. Perfrement, the owners of
the properties concerned, who were able to say precisely what localities were
visited.

The specimens of Amygdalophyllum described by Dun and Benson (1920) were
part of a collection made by Mrs. Scott from the Merlewood Lower Kuttung lime-
stone, but which also included some fossils from the Burindi Series near Royston.
Not suspecting any marine strata in the district other than the Burindi Series,
Benson recorded all these specimens as Burindi with the general locality of
“south-east of Babbinboon”’, although the Merlewood part of this collection is in
the extreme north-east of that Parish (portion 60). The issue is further compli-
cated by the fact that Benson made a rapid sulky reconnaissance up the valley
past Royston and Merlewood to near Somerton, as the guest of Mr. Mackay,
collecting on the way. The route traverses only Burindi strata and Benson
recorded having obtained Amygdalophyllum beside the road, his specimen being
figured with the description. Dr. Stanley Smith pointed out later, however, that
this figured specimen was not Amygdalophyllum at all, but Zaphrentis sumphuens
(Benson and Smith, 1923). The result is that there is now no authentic record of
Amygdalophyllum from the Burindi Series of New South Wales. It should also be

360 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

pointed out that the “low hill capped with a horizontal layer of fine-grained lime-
stone” described by Dun and Benson (loc. cit., p. 289) as occurring “adjacent to
portion 14 of the Parish” of Babbinboon is really in the Parish of Somerton
adjacent to Mr. Watt’s homestead.

A second pertinent discovery was the recent finding by the writer of
cephalopods in the lower part of the Burindi Series in the same section, which
have been identified by Dr. Ida Brown as Tournaisian types.

These discoveries have filled in the gaps in the stratigraphical record so that
now there is no important break in the sedimentary sequence between the Middle
Devonian and the Upper Carboniferous, and the base of the Carboniferous is
accurately fixed at the base of the Burindi Series.

In the field-exposures no suggestion of structural unconformity has been found
between the Barraba and Burindi Series. In Swain’s Gully in the Parish of
Babbinboon, the conformable contact of the two formations is exposed, and for
several miles there is a continuity of outcrop of the bouldery agglomerate of the
igneous zone at the top of the Barraba Series and the basal conglomerate of the
Burindi Series.

Lateral Variation and Overlap in the Carboniferous Sequence.

The Burindi and Kuitung Series are conformable throughout. Although in the
Lower Hunter Valley the Glacial Stage (~ Upper Kuttung Series) has been found
to overlap on to a granitic basement, no section has been found in the Werrie
Basin where any portion has been cut out by overlap. The question arises as to
the position of Osborne’s Basal Stage of the Kuttung Series (the Wallarobba
Conglomerates) in the Werrie Syncline section, and whether there is a diastem in
the latter sequence corresponding to them.

There is no evidence to suggest that this is so. The Wallarobba Conglomerates
are here interpreted as a local specially heavy development of the coarse
conglomerates which are characteristic of the Lower Kuttung. Several hundred
feet of the Lower Kuttung in the Werrie Basin are made up of such beds, which
answer closely to the description of the size, shape and lithology of the boulders
present in them at Wallarobba (see Sussmilch and David, 1919, p. 262). The facies
is well within the limits of a lateral variant of a boulder-deposit of the Wallarobba
type in a distance of nearly two hundred miles, even though the direction be
essentially concordant with the palaeogeographical facies lines.

The origin of the conglomerates is discussed at some length in the climatic
section which follows, and it is there suggested that they represent fluvio-glacial
material deposited a considerable distance from the glacial front, which was well
to the south-south-west. Under these circumstances it is natural to expect the
heaviest development of conglomerates in the most southerly exposures, as at
Wallarobba, and that two hundred miles further to the north-west there would be
finer strata intercalated among the boulder beds.

A diastem of the first order may perhaps occur at the base of the Upper
Kuttung. The extraordinarily large size of some of the boulders, and the remark-
able persistence of the basal conglomerates have already been mentioned, and it
is likely that such a feature may cover an important time-break.

The only other place within the Kuttung sequence where there is any reason
to suspect a hiatus is at the base of the Upper Glacial Stage.

Lateral variation in the Carboniferous sediments has arisen from the distribu-
tion of the igneous rocks, the palaeogeography of the ice-sheets, the regional supply
of materials, and differential subsidence causing thickness variation.

*.

BY S. W. CARDY. 361

The first of these factors is the most obvious. In the Lower Hunter Valley
there are great suites of effusives giving rise to a Volcanic Stage which is repre-
sented mainly by tuffs in the Werrie Syncline. The thick acid lavas of the western
side of the Werrie Syncline are practically missing from the eastern side. The
Duri Peak flow is more than 1,000 feet thick, but two miles along the strike it
has cut out altogether, and so on; the examples could be multiplied.

Glacial variation is not so marked. A tillite in some of the sections is
represented by varve in another and by fluvio-glacial conglomerate in a third.
The glacial conglomerates are more variable than are the varves; but these
variations are local, not regional. By making a large series of sections, it would
be possible to delimit the boundaries of the glacial lakes in which the varves
were deposited, but this has not been attempted.

Within the Werrie Basin the conglomerates seem to be coarser and thicker
towards the west, but the total thicknesses of the stages to be less. This suggests
that the source of the boulders lay in that direction, that the axis of geosynclinal
subsidence was somewhat to the east of the axis of the present Werrie syncline,
and that there was a progressive basinward thickening consistent with the
subsidence. The lavas, too, thicken westwards or south-westwards and were
probably extruded from that side. It is of interest to mention here that the
Lower Coal Measures, which overlie the Carboniferous strata in the Werrie Basin,
thicken and become coarser north-eastwards instead of south-westwards, and in the
north-north-west they are overlapped against the Kuttung rocks. So it is apparent
that there was a change in both the source of supply of material and in the axis
of subsidence in the intervening period.

Relation of Carboniferous to Kanvilarot.

At the top of the Kuttung Series in the Werrie Basin there is an important
non-sequence without angular divergence, which corresponds to the overlap of the
"Lower Marine Series, and in the north-west part of the region, of the Lower Coal
Measures as well. This break may correspond in part to Uralian time (see
Sussmilch, 1935, pp. 102-104), and in any case extends well into the Lower
Permian.

Hatent of Marine Sedimentation in the Lower Kuttung.

Prior to the discovery of the Lithostrotion-Amygdalophyllum beds among the
Lower Kuttung strata of the Werrie Basin, these latter were accepted without
question as a terrestrial series. Following on the discovery of the marine fossils
in the Babbinboon district, Sussmilch suggested that the upper portions of the
Carboniferous marine beds in the Gloucester district, which he had previously
referred to as the Burindi Series, might really be homotaxial with the Lower
Kuttung (Sussmilch, 1935, p. 100). The present writer had previously made a
similar suggestion with regard to the adjacent Myall Lakes area (Carey, 1934).
Furthermore, the correlation of the Amygdalophyllun limestone of the Werrie
Basin with the Lion Creek limestone of Queensland, makes it clear that some of
the Queensland time-equivalents of the Lower Kuttung are marine.

Thus, in personal conversations with the writer, the question has been rather
pointedly raised: Are the Lower Kuttung sediments of marine origin? It is true
that Lepidodendron Veltheimianum and Stigmaria ficoides, etc., have been obtained
from them; but these same fossils have been collected from the Burindi Series,
where they occur cheek by jowl with a rich marine fauna. So may they not
represent drift material into an estuarine sea?

362 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

This problem may be approached along more than one avenue. An analysis
of the internal evidence of the marine strata of the Babbinboon district is
interesting in this connexion.

The marine beds outcrop for about three miles, and in this distance there is a
progressive facies change indicative of increasing depth northwards from a
strand-line south-east of ‘“Merlewood” homestead (see Plate xviii). On the
Merlewood section line (the north boundary of portion 61 in the Parish of
Babbinboon) the horizon is represented by 270 feet of oolitic grits and
conglomerates. Oolites in general are characteristic of a very shallow-water facies
and often represent beach-deposits, and an oolitic conglomerate of this type is
clearly a near-strand bed. The lithology of the pebbles, consisting as they do of
well-worn ellipsoids, well graded in size, shape and mechanical resistance, is
obviously the result of prolonged winnowing and attrition by the waves in the
shingle zone. No marine life throve in this environment. In contrast to the
prolific collecting-ground northwards along the strike, several hours’ search up
and down the naked outcrops of this zone yielded only a single battered crinoid
ossicle, which was probably transported thither by the waves. Northwards from
this inshore-facies, across the north boundary of portion 3 into the western part
of portion 10, the oolite zone widens, and as it does so it fingers out, becoming
interdigitated with normal shallow-water marine conglomerate. This gradually
increases at the expense of the oolite, and in a short space the latter has wedged
out entirely. Towards the north-western sector of portion 10 the conglomerate
attains its maximum development, rising to form an elevated cuesta. This portion
of the deposit is best interpreted as an off-shore shingle-like conglomerate deposited
in a current-zone.

The conglomerate continues through portion 26 (locally known as the “Dight
40-Acre”) and through the western leg of portion 14, but it is dwindling rapidly
meanwhile, and by the time the windmill on the bank of Swain’s Gully in that
portion is reached, there are only a few feet of gravel left to represent the bed,
which could easily be passed over even by someone looking for that conglomerate
horizon. For, although this environment is beyond the off-shore conglomerate
zone, it has not yet reached the zone of abundant marine life. However, a short
distance north of the windmill, at a small shoulder which has been called ‘Hill 60”
after the number of the portion in which it stands, the reef-coral facies appears
with surprising suddenness, with a prolific development of Lithostrotion, with
Amygdalophyllum, Syringopora and other forms as accessories. The corals are
most prolific at the southern (near-shore) end and northwards the bed rapidly
tapers off, until in a couple of hundred yards it has dwindled to isolated “stringers”
of limestone, which are mostly barren. This passes into a marly zone packed with
thin-shelled Mourlonia, clearly representing a. slowly deepening habitat. Nearby
is a spot which has yielded a few brachiopods (Spirifer cf. mosquensis). Beyond
are mudstones with occasional thin lenses of barren limestone.

The Merlewood fossiliferous horizon, then, provides a fine study in a progres-
sive facies change in a single thin bed along three miles of strike, from an inshore
shingle through the current-zone, to the coral-reef, and into the deeper waters
beyond. It leaves little doubt which way the land lay. The shore was to the
south—between the Merlewood and Royston sections. The latter contains no
marine beds on this horizon; it is the normal section of the Lower Kuttung as
it is usually developed in the Werrie Basin—a terrestrial series.

A second approach to the question of the extent of marine deposition in the
Lower Kuttung is by way of the conglomerates. It does not seem feasible that the

BY S. W. CAREY. 363.

thick boulder beds recurrent through this series were transported and distributed
by the sea. They are not marginal conglomerates which change their facies in a
few miles of strike. They persist for long distances, and continue around large
structures, which thus introduce the second dimension of areal distribution into
the problem. Their field-relations leave no doubt that they are sheet-deposits.
It is admitted that sheet boulder beds of wide extent may be deposited by a
steadily retreating sea. But such deposits are usually obliterated during the
subsequent marine advance. (For a discussion of the environmental conditions
of such conglomerates see Twenhofel, 1936, pp. 681, 682.) The Lower Kuttung
examples have not. the characters of marine conglomerates of this type.

Terrestrial waters are able to attain flushing volumes and velocities and with
impulsive transporting power greatly in excess of the capabilities of the sea which,
except along the strand line, depends on smaller forces acting for longer times to
transport greater total quantities but in smaller individual masses. Although
surprisingly powerful sea-floor velocities have been recorded by some investigators
(Twenhofel, loc. cit., pp. 686-7), marine sets and currents are never strong enough
to distribute large boulder beds over wide areas.

It is interesting to compare the pebbles in the proven marine conglomerate
of the same age with the normal Lower Kuttung conglomerates. In Babbinboon,
as we have seen, a littoral shingle laterally separates the oolite facies from the
reef-coral facies. It occurs in an environment where the transporting power of
the currents might be expected to be a maximum. The pebbles seldom exceed
three inches in major diameter and have usually two nearly equal minor diameters,
a form produced by and amenable to wave and current transportation. The
finding of these foreign pebbles belonging to marine strata interbedded among
very coarse boulder beds radically different in source, size and lithology, suggests
immediately that the coarse boulders reached their destination by a terrestrial
route and that the marine gravel was transported thither by a different way and
by a different agency.

The fossil content of the Lower Kuttung, too, throws some light on the
problem. With the exception of the Amygdalophyllum-Lithostrotion horizon
itself, no marine fossils have been found anywhere in the series. Plant horizons
are fairly numerous. Some of these could be regarded as drift material buried
among marine sediment. But others, like the Rhodea(?) horizon in the Wood-
lands section, where the shale is packed with thin-pinnuled ferns, are almost
certainly freshwater beds.

Moreover, the pyroxene-andesite flows show no evidence, such as pillow
structure, or sub-marine zeolitization, of having been extruded on the sea-floor.

To sum up, there is much to suggest that the Lower Kuttung of the Werrie
Basin is essentially a terrestrial series, with but little contrary evidence. How-
ever, the fact that a temporary invasion of the sea took place in the north-west
corner of the Werrie Basin with no disturbance of the sedimentary record in
adjacent areas, shows that the terrestrial strata were deposited close to sea-level.

3. SEQUENCE OF CLIMATES.
Interpretation and Significance of Lower Kuttung Conglomerates.

One of the problems of the Lower Kuttung is that of the origin and significance
of the great thickness of coarse conglomerates which are characteristic of this
Series.

It has already been pointed out that they are widespread sheet deposits of
terrestrial origin, which recur again and again in the sequence. They are not

364 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

glacial conglomerates in the ordinary sense, for the boulders are well-rounded
and rudely graded and bedded, and signs of glacial markings are extremely rare.
In the wide region over which these beds have been examined, the only record
of Lower Kuttung glaciation is contained in varve-shales and fluvio-glacial
conglomerates in the Gosforth district, Lower Hunter Valley (Browne, 1926).

In considering the origin of these conglomerates it is necessary to conceive
of both a source for the boulders and an aqueous agent which could repeatedly
distribute such large boulders uniformly over so wide a field.

The most probable explanation seems to be that they represent sheet-apron
deposits transported well out beyond a piedmont glacial front. Their wide
distribution and general characters and lithology and the usual lack of any sign
of glacial faceting or striation on the boulders, indicate that they were laid down
beyond the zone of eskers and kames, even beyond the terrain of ordinary fluvio-
glacial deposits; the contribution of the glaciers was to provide large quantities
of bouldery material and the large impulsive volumes of water capable of
completing the ablation to the ultimate site of deposition.

The highlands which supplied the glaciers probably lay to the south-west.
The higher grade glacial deposits would be entirely removed from this region by
the subsequent erosion during the rest of the Carboniferous and Permian
periods. For at Gosforth and Pokolbin Upper Kuttung strata rest unconformably
on a stripped granitic terrain, and further west Upper Marine and Upper Coal
Measure strata are lying directly on an eroded basement of Middle Palaeozoic
rocks. Thus the record of this earlier glaciation is preserved only in boulder
beds which were deposited a long way from the scene, beds Which were least
fitted to tell the tale.

Sir Edgeworth David has compared this schotter gravel apron with the present
fluvio-glacial flood-plains of Alaska (1932, p. 57). Mr. J. N. Montgomery, who
spent a number of years in Persia (Iran) with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company,
has suggested* that another possible analogue to the Lower Kuttung conglomerates
is to be found in the boulder-beds of the Upper Bakhtiari Series in south-west
Persia. Nobody has ever suggested that these thick, coarse conglomerates are
fluvio-glacial, nor have any ice-scratched boulders been recorded from them. They
are probably Pleistocene in age, and may represent the ultimate terrestrial outwash
from a big glacial front in the Zagros Mountains and the Central Persian Plateau,
which would almost certainly be glaciated at this time in view of the fact that the
Lebanon Mountains adjacent to the Mediterranean were heavily glaciated, and that
the ice reached down to 4,500 feet in latitude 26 degrees in Bengal, and to 2,000
or 3,000 feet in the Western Himalayas (Coleman, 1908, p. 348). The extent and
thickness of the Bakhtiari conglomerates and their general characters seem to be
analogous to those of the Lower Kuttung conglomerates.

The significance of the interpretation of the Lower Kuttung boulder beds is
that the Carboniferous refrigeration of Australia first manifested itself in Viséan
time, for the faunas of the Werrie Basin have made it clear that the Burindi Series
there is essentially Tournaisian, and the Lower Kuttung is Viséan. It has already
been pointed out that the Lower Kuttung sedimentation took place close to sea-
level. The Viséan climates were not sufficiently cold to bring the glaciers down
to this sedimentary plain. Herein we have a qualitative climatic index for this
portion of the Carboniferous Period.

* Personal discussion with the writer.

ol

BY S. W. CAREY. 36

Significance of Lithostrotion Horizon.

The assumption of glacial connexion for the Lower Kuttung conglomerates
immediately raises the question of the climatic implication of the Lithostrotion-
Amygdalophyllum bed, which is in sufficiently close association with the
conglomerates to provoke comment.

Under the doctrine of the continuity of geological processes it has been
customary to assume that the presence of reef-building corals is indicative of
warm (essentially tropical) seas. In view of the repeated demonstration in many
parts of the geological record of the remarkable adaptability of organic life to
even wide environmental changes, this assumption is not wholly justified.
Palaeozoic reef-corals may have flourished in seas considerably colder than is the
rule to-day. Nevertheless, it is probably fairly safe to assume that the occurrence
of a reef-coral zone in a sub-glacial sequence indicates a temporary warming of
the seas during an interglacial phase.

If this interpretation is correct reef-corals would only be found in the restricted
zone of the temporary amelioration of climate.

Speaking of the Carboniferous faunas of Queensland, Whitehouse (1930)
wrote: “At no locality has more than one limestone bed yielded reef-corals. It
seems, therefore, that conditions for reef-corals in Hastern Australia during the
Carboniferous were limited to a very short period.” The coral horizon of White-
house is the Lion Creek Amygdalophyllum-Lithostrotion bed which is homotaxial
with the similar horizon in the Werrie Basin now under discussion.

It would seem, then, that the horizon represents a lull between the sub-glacial
conditions of the Lower Kuttung and the more intense refrigeration of the Upper
Kuttung.

Climatic Interpretation of the Upper Kuttung.

Little has been done as yet towards an analysis of the glacial record preserved
in the Upper Kuttung sediments, in order to reconstruct the sequence of glacial and
interglacial epochs. A detailed study of this question would present interesting
problems in the disentangling of the glacial from the pyroclastic suites.

It is clear from the outset that two main cold epochs are represented by the
Upper and Lower Glacial Stages, and that these were separated from each other
by the epoch of the Interglacial Stage, the conglomerates and grits of which are
distinctly free from ice-action.

Studies ef the details of the glacial rocks frequently yield clear accounts of
the climatic changes which have taken place during their deposition. For example,
at the Gap west of Werris Creek the gradual advance of the ice-sheet to its
maximum followed by its steady waning, is faithfully recorded through seventeen
hundred feet of strata, which overlie the lavas there. The lavas are followed
by volcanic conglomerates composed of felsitic boulders in a matrix of fragments
of the same material. The finer gritty phases are rather susceptible to chemical
destruction and show typical spheroidal weathering to a rotten, green rubble.
But the initial disintegration which produced these rocks in Kuttung times was
dominantly mechanical rather than chemical, and savours distinctly of freezing
and thawing action; this first suspicion of glacial conditions is immediately
confirmed by the appearance of varves. The varves are 250 feet in thickness and
towards the top there is a sudden disposition to contortions, yielding some
beautiful specimens, due to the impress of overriding glaciers of an advancing
ice-sheet. The varves in turn pass upwards into 300 feet of glacial grits and
tillite, which represent the culmination of the glacial advance. .The tillite passes

366 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

by gradual transition into another 830 feet of varves which are overlain by aqueo-
glacial grits denoting a considerable retreat of the ice-sheet. The final bed of the
suite is 260 feet of fluvio-glacial conglomerate, deposited a considerable distance
from the ice-front. The pebbles are ill-sorted with occasional large erratics, but
they are usually water-worn and no longer retain identifiable striations.

When these methods are applied to the systematic sections, it will be seen
that beds (12), (13) and (14) in the Lower Glacial Stage represent a complete
glacial cycle of advance, culmination and retreat. This is most clearly shown in
the Woodlands section. Beds (15) and (16) record the second advance, which
was not quite so severe as the first. The Interglacial Stage follows, and here the
conglomerates and grits which accompany the tuffs all have the normal lithology
of a water-transported sediment. This is a long interglacial break. In the Upper
Glacial Stage there are two short glacial epochs, represented by beds (21) and
(23), which are separated by an interglacial group of sediments, and a culminating
prolonged advance (25) recorded by the spectacular glacial deposits of Quipolly
Dam, McCarthy’s Creek, and the Gap near Werris Creek, the last of which has
just been described.

To recapitulate, the internal evidence of the Upper Kuttung of the Werrie
Basin indicates two successive glacial advances followed by an important inter-
glacial break, then two short glacial advances followed by a final prolonged
refrigeration, which completed the Kuttung cycle (see Text-fig. 4).

Climatic Hvidence of the Tuffs.

In the Werrie Basin Upper Kuttung can usually be distinguished immediately
from Lower Kuttung tuff on its lithology alone,* and there is at least a suspicion
that climatic conditions may have contributed to this as much as, or more than,
chemical or petrological differences.

The tuffs interbedded with the glacial stages are often as hard as the lavas
from which they are derived. Colours are bright in reds, greens, blues, greys
and browns, much like lithoidal lava groundmasses. This material often shows
evidence of magmatic weathering prior to ejection (with the generation of
haematite, albite, chlorite, etc.), but no pre-depositional subaérial weathering, or
weathering by connate waters. An excellent example is the Gap volcanic
conglomerate already quoted (p. 365). Such tuffs are not found in the Lower
Kuttung where depositional weathering is the rule.

In the Interglacial Stage there is a considerable quantity of pebbly water-
redistributed tuff, the manner of accumulation of which must have been very
similar to that of the pebbly tuffs of the Lower Kuttung. The grainsize, texture,
bedding, manner of sorting, and sedimentary admixture, are all very similar in
both groups, and both are acid and felspathic. But those in the Lower Kuttung
are invariably warm buff, brown, or salmon-pink in colour, whereas those in the
Interglacial Stage are white. The former are soft and friable from pre-depositional
weathering, the latter are fresh and hard. The differences are probably largely
climatic.

The most probable interpretation of these observations is that the tuffs of the
Lower and Upper Kuttung express an increasing grade of climatic severity.

This is a line of investigation which must not be pressed too far on the data
available at present, but which might well be pursued further by later workers.

* This may or may not also be applicable to the Lower Hunter Valley, because there
is greater complexity in the volcanic sequence in that region. (Vide p. 369.)

BY S. W. CAREY. 367

The Plants as Climatic Indicators.

As yet little has been done in the interpretation of the climatic significance of
the Carboniferous floras, although ultimately they may provide one of our most
valuable keys.

The silica-petrifactions of Clepsydropsis, and of Pitys with well-developed
annual rings, in the Lower Kuttung may be interpreted climatically after detailed
palaeobotanical work.

Leaf impressions of Cordaites—a gymnosperm tree—occur in the Interglacial
Stage in the Werrie Basin.

So far as the writer’s observations go, the Rhacopteris flora is associated with
the warmer theses (see Huntington, 1907, p. 362) between the periods of glacial
advance. Thus Rhacopteris is always well developed in the finer beds of the
Interglacial Stage, deposited during the most important interglacial epoch of the
whole glacial strophe; and, where Rhacopteris is present in the glacial stages, the
beds which actually carry the flora usually have a lithology similar to the plant-
beds of the Interglacial Stage, often with pebbly and gritty bands with a non-
glacial appearance, although they are interbedded with varves and tillite. Browne
has recorded Rhacopteris from varves in the Gosforth section (1926), but in the
writer’s experience such occurrences are very rare.

Much may result from a detailed investigation of the Pteridosperm group,
and the assigning of vegetative organs to the many fossil seeds which have been
found in the Upper Kuttung of the Werrie Basin, and an ultimate interpretation
of the life-cycle of those plants and the conditions governing the ripening of their
fruits. Petrifactions of this material are highly desirable.

Reconstruction of the Climatic Sequence.

The problem of the Carboniferous climate has now been approached along
various independent lines of inquiry. The results of these investigations have
been co-ordinated and expressed qualitatively as a graph of climate against time
(Text-fig. 4).

In this diagram the section between A and B expresses the environment of
the Burindi Series. The preceding Devonian Period had been warm and arid, as
indicated by the extensive coral-reefs of the Mid-Devonian, and the succeeding red
beds of the Lower Drummond and Dotswood formations of Queensland and else-

Wow=r INTE. UPPER

BURINO/ LOWER HUTTUNG GLACIAL |GLACIAY GLACIAL

| ie UPPER KYTTUNG
TROPICAL |
Parle .
SUB-TROPICA |

TEMPERATE

ISUB-GLACIAL

GLACIAL

TOUR NAISIALIV VY/SEAN

Text-fig. 4.—Climatic Sequence in the Carboniferous Rocks of the Werrie Basin.

368 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

where (Reid, 1930, p. 221; David, 1932, p. 48). The Burindi sediments contain
no suspicion of ice-action and the fauna is one which is typical of temperate rather
than tropical seas. Although the depth oscillated between a shallow oolitic facies
and a deeper mudstone facies beyond the brachiopod zone, there is no authentic
record of reet-coral. In the highest fossiliferous horizon of the Burindi Series in
the Woodlands section, the forms are conspicuously dwarfed, a fact which may
reflect the incipient refrigeration of the coming glacial epoch (David, 1932, p. 59).

The sub-glacial condition indicated between B and C is based on the inter-
pretation of the Lower. Kuttung conglomerates as outlined in the foregoing
remarks. This part of the curve should probably be more oscillatory than is
indicated. It may eventually be possible, by correlating the successive boulder
horizons with advances and retreats of the distant ice-sheet, to make the curve
more complete. It may also be possible to approach the problem by a careful
study of the facies of the faunas of the Upper Rockhampton Series in Queensland,
for there a complete marine faunal record is available for the section between
B and C.

The warm interglacial epoch marked by the curve CDE is recorded by the
restricted reef-coral zone of the Amygdalophyllum-Lithostrotion horizon. The
height of the apex of the curve at this point is rather arbitrary. It almost
certainly extended well into the temperate zone, and perhaps even into the sub-
tropical.

The succession of glacial advances and retreats between EK and O is exactly
in accord with the internal evidence of the glacial strata as outlined in the
preceding remarks. The curve GHI is steeper on the right hand side because the
retreat of the ice-sheet was apparently very rapid and left little to represent it,
whereas in the glacial advance recorded by MNO both advance and retreat
are outlined through a thick series of strata, so the curve is more symmetrical.
The most intense glaciations occurred at F and N, and the most prolonged inter-
glacial epoch at I in the Interglacial Stage.

Hach of the glacial advances contains considerable thicknesses of varves,
which should lend themselves to analysis according to the principles of the school
founded by Baron De Geer.

The graph which has been constructed is meant to be regarded as a qualitative
first approximation, and its shortcomings must not be overlooked. For example,
there are fundamental principles of stratigraphy which cannot be set aside. Whole
glacial cycles may be obliterated by subsequent advances, leaving scarcely a recog-
nizable diastem, and Barrell’s law, that the rate of sedimentation is a direct
function of the rate of subsidence, is partly applicable if it is stated in the more
generalized form, that sediments will not continue to accumulate in an environ-
ment where rate of removal equals or exceeds rate of supply.

However, in spite of these drawbacks, it is hoped that the graph may be of
value as a first attempt to depict the Carboniferous climatic sequence, and as a
foundation for further research.

It is of interest to compare this curve, which has been derived solely by
plotting the interna] evidence of the sediments, with general conceptions of the
behaviour of climatic cycles (see figure in Huntington, 1907, p. 362). If the
Carboniferous climatic curve be extended back to the warm conditions of the
Devonian red beds and reef-corals, and forward through the waning glacial
conditions of the Kamilaroi (Sussmilch and David, 1931, table facing p. 514), it
will be seen that the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous correspond to one of
Huntington’s interstrophes. The glacial strophe reaches its acme in the Upper

BY S. W. CAREY. 369

Glacial beds, diminishes again through the Lower Kamilaroi, and is completed
with the Bolwarra Conglomerate. An important thesial epoch equivalent to the
Interglacial Stage, but on the other side of the acme, is represented by the Lower
Coal Measures. To judge by the Upper Permian insect fauna (David, 1932, p. 68),
it was well into the Triassic before the climate fully recovered from the effects of
this great ice-age.

4. SEQUENCE OF VULCANISM.

The development of volcanic products in the Kuttung Series of the Hunter
Valley has received a good deal of attention, particularly in the writings of Osborne
(1922, 1925, 1926, 1929), Browne (1926, 1929), and Sussmilch (1928, 1935). So
impressive are the’ lavas there that Osborne designated the upper part of the
Lower Kuttung the Volcanic Stage, and successfully used indicator lavas as
markers (the Martin’s Creek andesite and the Paterson toscanite, etc.) for some
of his subdivisions of the Kuttung sequence.

In the Werrie Basin there is also an extensive development of lavas, but, apart
from the pyroxene-andesites, which seem to ave maintained a remarkable
persistence of horizon throughout, the incidence of the various lava-types in the
stratigraphical column is not the same as in the Hunter Valley.

Distribution in Time.

There are no proven lavas in the Burindi Series of the Werrie Basin, and
tuffs play a very minor part.

The flows of the Lower Kuttung are almost exclusively pyroxene-andesites,
which attain great thickness. They are developed on two principal horizons—the
main horizon nearly 2,000 feet above the base of the Lower Kuttung and about
3,000 feet from the top of that series, and the discontinuous horizon of Duri Peak
at the top of the Lower Kuttung. In the Merlewood area this horizon is underlain
by a locally important horizon of biotite-felsite, and followed by another thin felsite.
These are the only extrusive representatives of the thick suite of acid and inter-
mediate lavas of the Volcanic Stage of the Hunter Valley.

The Lower Glacial beds are frequently without lavas, and, so far as the Werrie
Basin is concerned, these are confined to hornblende-andesites, the flows of which
are developed in several places in association with the striated pebble horizon (15).

On the divide between Jacob and Joseph Creek and Coeypolly Creek there is a
thin local flow of hornblende-andesite at the base of the Upper Kuttung, which may
be on the horizon of the hornblende-andesite of the Mid-Hunter Valley.

The Interglacial Stage, too, is usually free from lavas, but the soda-rhyolite
tuffs (18) which are characteristic of this stage grade locally into a tuffaceous
flow, as for example in portion 25 in the Parish of Piallaway.

Apart from the hornblende-andesite at the Gap west of Werris Creek, the
Upper Glacial beds have only acid lavas—mainly felsitic types with large pheno-
erysts of quartz and biotite. These occur about in the middle of the Upper Glacial
Stage, where they attain great thicknesses on a horizon which appears to be
slightly higher than that of the Paterson toscanite of Osborne. Owing to the
complexity of the structure, caution is necessary in discussing the horizon of the
Gap hornblende-andesite, but it is probably to be placed between horizons (24)
and (25) of the generalized table (Text-fig. 3).

On a review of the sequence of lavas in the Werrie Basin it is seen that the
Lower Kuttung is characterized by thick pyroxene-andesites, the lower glacials by
thin hornblende-andesites, and the upper glacials by thick acid lavas with some

370 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

hornblende-andesite. So far as this restricted region is concerned, the order of
extrusion is simply one of increasing acidity.

Explosive activity was practically continuous throughout Kuttung time. The
tuffs are uniformly acid, but the acidity and alkalinity seem, so far as one can
judge by their lithology, more marked in the Upper than in the Lower Kuttung.

Distribution in Area.

The distribution of the pyroxene-andesites in the Werrie Basin is shown in
the map already published (Carey, 1934). There are three horizons—a restricted
zone of sills in the Burindi Series, the main flow horizon in the Lower Kuttung
Series and the Duri Peak horizon at the top of the Lower Kuttung Series.

The Duri Peak horizon is discontinuous in outcrop and its thickness is subject
to rapid variation. The main flow, on the other hand, is very persistent and is
usually several hundred feet thick.

From the point where it is cut off by the thrust near Piallaway the main
pyroxene-andesite is traceable in a northerly direction for six miles before it thins
out. It reappears on the eastern limb of the syncline, and southwards maintains
an unbroken outcrop and physiographic prominence for thirty miles until the
limit of the map is reached. It attains its greatest known development near
Gaspard Mountain, where it passes out of the mapped area, trending towards the
Liverpool Range.

On comparing the eastern and western limbs it is seen that on both sides
the andesites thin out towards the north, but that they extend further up the
west flank than the east. A study of the map suggests that the greatest thickness
is to be expected in a west-south-west direction. Unfortunately the outcrop of the
Lower Kuttung in this direction is cut off by the Mooki Thrust system, and by
the regional plunge westwards off the New England geanticline.

The widely scattered thin flows of hornblende-andesite contribute little informa-
tion, but the extensive acid lavas of the Upper Glacial beds confirm the suggestion
given by the pyroxene-andesites. These lavas attain their maximum development
in their most western exposure. In the Quirindi dome west of Werris Creek the
acid flows attain a thickness of considerably more than a thousand feet. Four
miles east from here in the Quipolly dome these thick extrusives have been
reduced to thin flows separated by sediments; the eastward thinning is apparent
on the two sides of the dome. A similar state of affairs is found in the Castle
Mountain Dome. Two miles further east, where the general horizon reappears in
the eastern limb, only rare thin stringers are left to represent them.

Thus the distribution of the lavas, both acid and andesitic, points to the
conclusion that they were extruded from the west, rather than from the east.

Extrusive Character of the Andesites. '

In 1920 Dr. W. N. Benson, discussing the geology of the Currabubula district,
reported the occurrence of three horizons of more or less glassy pyroxene-andesite.
These he considers to be intrusive sills, although he points out that ‘no indubitable
evidence of the intrusive nature of the main zone of pyroxene-andesite has yet
been found, and its classification rests chiefly on the lithological similarity with
the rock of the eastern zone” where definite evidence of intrusion is found.

This determination of the Currabubula andesites as sills, although tentative,
has led to many doubts in later literature. For example, Osborne (1922, p. 164),
referring to the pyroxene-andesites of the Paterson district, wrote: ‘Thus the only
horizons about which any doubt remains are the more basic and those which else-

BY S. W. CAREY. Sift

where in the State appear to be sometimes definitely intrusive and which, in the
area under consideration, are not accompanied by tuffs of similar composition.”
In a subsequent paper (1925, p. 113), Osborne describes the Clarencetown andesites
as flows.

Later, Professor Browne (1929, p. xxviii), in his review of the Palaeozoic
igneous activity of New South Wales, again refers to this matter: ‘We do not yet
know, for example, and only detailed field-work can tell us, why it is that in the
southern areas the andesitic magma made its way to the surface, whereas in the
more northern parts as at Currabubula, sill-intrusions and dykes appear to be the
rule, though further to the north-west andesite flows are interbedded with the
Kuttung conglomerates.”

Since these papers appeared the present author has examined the andesites
throughout the Werrie Basin, of which the Currabubula district forms a part, and
has found abundant evidence that, although those pyroxene-andesites which occur
within the Burindi Series are undeniably intrusive, as Benson has shown (1920,
p. 293), those which occur in the Kuttung Series are flows. The following field-
observations support this conclusion:

The main pyroxene-andesite has been examined along forty miles of outcrop,
and at no point in that distance has any evidence of contact-metamorphism or
transgression been observed at its upper surface. Typically the top of the flow
makes poor outcrop. This is due both to contemporaneous weathering of the
andesite and to the absence of any contact hardening in the overlying sediments.

In portion 180, Parish of Evan, near the head of Currabubula Creek, fine
tuffaceous shales may be seen overlying the eroded and deeply weathered surface
of the flow. A similar exposure occurs on the bank of Currabubula Creek near
“Woodlands” homestead. A leached kaolinitic zone was found above the andesite
in portion 104, Parish of Currabubula.

Tuff-breccias are developed at the upper surface in many places. Thus in a
small gully in portion 258 in the Parish of Currabubula angular blocks of coarse
andesite are embedded in a mixture of finer-grained lava and andesitic tuff. In
Gaspard Creek near Wallabadah, where the andesite is well developed, it seems
to be composed of one thick initial intrusion followed by a series of thin flows
which pass into flow-breccias. Similar evidence has been seen in all the masses
of the higher andesite horizon, e.g., in portion 247, Parish of Werrie, in the
Kingsmill’s Peak mass. Associated with the tuff-breccia there are occasional
amygdaloidal and scoriaceous phases; these features are most marked where the
flow is thin, as in the tongue where the Duri Peak mass is wedging out. In a
sill a thin extremity of this kind, instead of being scoriaceous and amygdaloidal
with abundant cavities, would be very fine-grained and compact. Also where
vesicular phases are developed, they are found at the upper surface, not in the
middle as they would be in the case of a sill.

Fluxional banding with development of spherulites is quite a common feature
on both horizons. Pebbles of pyroxene-andesite occur in some of the Lower
Kuttung conglomerates.

The important factor which led Professor Benson to regard the andesite as
intrusive was its lithological resemblance to the proved sills in the Burindi Series.
However, apart from the similarity of rock-type, there is considerable divergence
of characters in the field. Evidence of contact-metamorphism is quite common
above the sills, and where their outcrop wedges out the line is carried on for
long distances by zones of silicification and quartz reefs, indicating that the
intrusion persists at a shallow depth. Furthermore, when the sills are carefully

372 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

mapped, it is found that their horizon in the Burindi Series is not constant and
in places they are markedly transgressive. The flows in the Kuttung Series on
the other hand are persistent in their horizons, and never transgressive.

In view of all the field-facts, the extrusive character of the Kuttung andesites
of the Werrie Basin is placed beyond question, and this region is brought into
harmony with the other parts of the State.

Relation of Lithoidal and Glassy Andesites.

The relation of the stony and glassy phases of the Kuttung andesites has
been the subject of some discussion (see Osborne, 1925, pp. 116-119). Professor
Browne, in his survey of Palaeozoic igneous action in New South Wales (1929,
p. Xxvili) wrote: “Another matter that has yet to be cleared up is the relationship
of the glassy and stony types of andesite. Some lines of evidence tend to show
that they are separate and distinct phases, while on other grounds it would appear
that devitrification or some such process has been responsible for the conversion
of glassy into stony types.”

In this connection the field-relations of the two phases in the Werrie Basin
suggest that the glassy andesite merely represents the rapidly-cooled portion of
the flow. The base of the flow is usually glassy and prismatic; this passes up
into a banded zone, where there is an interlamination of the vitrophyric and
lithoidal phases. The bands vary in thickness from a fraction of an inch to
a foot or more. Such types may be seen at many places along the scarps of the
andesite cuesta-line north-east of Currabubula. The lamination may have been
caused by the mixing and streaking out of the hotter and cooler parts of the magma
during extrusion. Near the centre of the mass there would be sufficient time for
the equalization of the heat before solidification, but at the margins the rapid
congelation of the already cooled layers would form glass, while the hotter layers
would show rudimentary crystallization.

Similar banding is found also at the top of the flow, where fluxional contortions
are common in the banded rock.

A variant of this phase is found on the upper surface of the Duri Peak flow,
where selective bands are packed with small spherulites up to an inch in diameter.
On the Royston section the upper surface of the main andesite shows numerous
large spherulites of the lithoidal phase embedded in the glassy andesite. Similar
spherulitic structures are to be seen in the bed of Werrie’s Creek in portion 172,
Parish of Werrie. ;

On the interpretation outlined here, the stony phases were cryptocrystalline
ab initio and are not, as a general rule, a product of the devitrification of the glassy
phases. This view, based on field-evidence, is in agreement with the results of
Osborne’s microscopic analysis (1925, p. 118).

5. SEQUENCE OF PHYSIOGRAPHIC EXPRESSION.

The Werrie Basin is a region in which topography has been able to adjust
itself more or less completely to rock structure. Differential erosion has attained
equilibrium and there is searcely a hill whose form is not obviously due to its
local geological association. The Werrie basalts, the softest strata, have every-
where reached their base-level and form open plains between the mountains and
ridges of the Upper Kuttung and Warrigundi rocks. Other soft groups such as
the Burindi and Barraba beds and the Lower Kuttung tuffs approximate perfectly
to this peneplaned condition, and form long strike-valleys.

BY S. W. CAREY. 373

Each stratum then, has a physiographic index which depends partly on its
own resistance to chemical and mechanical disintegration and partly on its
association in the sequence with other weak or strong beds which will expose it
to or protect it from the agents of denudation.

A set of graphs (Text-fig. 5) has been constructed to illustrate the sequence
ot physiographic expression in the Werrie Basin. A profile-graph has been drawn
for each of the stratigraphical sections, using the average thickness of each bed
as abscissa and twice the elevation of the outcrop of that particular bed on the
section-line as ordinate. In each case the datum from which the elevation was
measured was the lowest point on the section. It was necessary to use the average
thickness of the bed in order that the profiles might be directly compared. The
resulting graph is equivalent to the profile which the beds would give if they were
dipping vertically.

The general similarity of all the curves is at once apparent. The plain of the
Werrie basalts, the lowlands of the Lower Kuttung and Burindi Series, and the
mountain range of the Upper Kuttung are common to all the graphs.

They are not precisely similar, however. They are similar only in so far as
their stratigraphical sequence is similar, for the differences between the curves are
directly related to lateral variations in the sequence.

Thus the differences on horizons (6) and (7) are due to variations in the
thickness of the pyroxene-andesite flow and the boulder beds beneath it. The
Turi Valley section is the nearest approach to the average for the Werrie Basin
for this horizon.

The crest on the Woodlands curve at horizon (10) is due to the development
there of the upper zone of pyroxene-andesite. Duri Peak or Kingsmill Peak
sections would show lofty cuestas at this point. The trough on the same section,
however, above horizon (14) is due merely to the way the section cut the local
drainage; a line a little to the south of the section would have avoided this
gully. Sufficient numbers of sections would eliminate all such local irregularities
from the general curve compounded from them.

LANDSLIDE

GENERAL CURVE : —— a © ts

TUR VALLEY Vi X
Vv
w
\

ROYSTON. SI NER

ca \
WOODLANDS s A~ ay \

; TOWER INTER UPPER =
BURINDI LOWER KUTTUNG GLACIAL GLACIAL GLACIAL PERMIAN

| UPPER KUTTUNG |

Text-fig. 5.—Sequence of Physiographical Expression in the Werrie Basin.

The high eminence developed on the Royston curve at horizon (24) is due
solely to the great thickness of acid lava which forms the Piallaway Trig. station
ridge, and which is absent from the other sections.

The Woodlands section is the only one which includes the Lower Coal
Measures, which accordingly express themselves on the graph. The gradients LL
and RR are normal where the Lower Coal Measures are overlapped.

MM

374 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN,

The general curve was constructed by averaging the individual profiles. The
ordinate for each horizon is an approximation of its physiographic index.

The conspicuous features of the general curve are the main range of the
Upper Kuttung, the downs of the Lower Kuttung and Burindi, the ridge-line of
the main pyroxene-andesite, and the Werrie basalt plains.

As was pointed out above, this curve represents the strata as dipping
vertically. With the usual dips in the Werrie region the main pyroxene-andesite
forms a beautiful line of cuestas. From the top of Kingsmill’s Peak it is a most
inspiring sight to look along this splendid row of cuesta-tops, extending for
twenty-five miles in an unbroken line, each dressed against its neighbour, with
their sweeping dip-slopes losing themselves one behind the other in the valley
beneath. From the same lookout one can view the rolling lowlands of the Lower
Kuttung, between the cuesta-line on the east and the bluff scarps of the Upper
Kuttung on the west. Several divides belonging to the transverse drainage cross
this valley, but never do they attain sufficient prominence to break its continuity.

With the prevailing moderate dips the Upper Kuttung forms a high double or
triple cuesta. The lower part of the Interglacial Stage usually overhangs the
Lower Glacial beds along a line of cliffs, but the upper part recedes some distance
down the dip-slope, forming a longitudinal col between the crest of the clastics
and the scarp of the Upper Glacials. The triple form to the range is usually due
to the presence of the hard conglomerates of the Lower Coal Measures, which rise
above the underlying varves.

The Werrie Basalt plain is responsible for all the lowland between Quirindi,
Currabubula and Piallaway, as well as the Breeza Plains. In the whole of the
Werrie basalt area there is not a hill which does not owe its presence either to an
intrusion of Warrigundi rock, or an outlier of the Upper Coal Measures.

There is a direct relation, too, between the physiographic curve and the agri-
cultural use to which the land has been put. For example, the mountain country
of the Upper Kuttung is invariably barren and carries a very miserable stunted
tree-growth, which is rarely cleared. In about forty square miles of Upper Kuttung
country in the Werrie Basin region there is not a single cultivation paddock.

The downs of the Lower Kuttung, on the other hand, are always cleared and
dotted with homesteads. They provide good pastures and scattered small wheat-
paddocks. Access is always easy along the strike, for even though the drainage is
usually transverse, with long subsequent tributaries, the lateral divides within the
Lower Kuttung are low. A fine example of this rolling grazing country with wheat-
farms on the flatter parts, follows the belt of Lower Kuttung rocks between Duri
Peak and Kingsmill Peak, and carries on beyond across the open headwater tracts
of Coeypolly and Jacob and Joseph Creeks to Wallabadah. A similar Lower
Kuttung belt of grazing downs with small areas suitable for cultivation extends
through “Royston” and ‘“Merlewood”, taking in ‘“Glenoak” and the Oakey Creek
paddock of Piallaway Station. Between Duri Peak and Somerton the. main
pyroxene-andesite cuts out, so the Lower Kuttung belt merges into the wheat-
fields of the Burindi Series, and is extensively cultivated.

This narrow Lower Kuttung belt then, from Piallaway via Somerton and Duri
Peak to Wallabadah, is an agricultural unit which contrasts strongly with the
barren Upper Kuttung ridge-country which overhangs it.

The Burindi and Barraba Series are very suitable, both physiographically and
in the soil they have yielded in this climatic environment, for agricultural purposes,
and they are extensively cultivated. A continuous wheat-belt follows these rocks
from Somerton to the boundaries of the Goonoo Goonoo estate.

BY S. W. CAREY. 375

References.

BENSON, W. N., 1920.—The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New
South Wales. Part IX. The Currabubula District. Proc. LInNn. Soc. N.S.W.,
Shy (AN, 105 PAB.

, 1921.—A Census and Index of the Lower Carboniferous Burindi Fauna. Ruzc.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., x (1), pp. 12-72.

BENSON, W. N., and SmitrH, S., 1923.—On Some Rugose Corals from the Burindi Series
(Lower Carboniferous) of New South Wales. Q.J.G.S., Ixxix, 1923, p. 161, footnote.

BROWNE, W. R., 1920.—The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of New
South Wales. Part IX, Section C, Petrology. Proc. LInNn. Soc. N.S.W., xlv (3),
pp. 405-423.

——_—__, 1926.—The Geology of the Gosforth District. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1x,
fo, Zils.

————., 1929.—An Outline of the History of Igneous Action in New South Wales till
the Close of the Palaeozoic Era. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., liv, 1929.

CAMBAGE, R. H., 1912.—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlvi, 1912, p. xxiv.

Carny, S. W., 1934a.—The Geological Structure of the Werrie Basin. Proc. LINN. Soc.
INESSWep lixs) Ds ool.

, 1934b.—Note on the Implications of the Irregular Strike-lines of the Mooki
Thrust System. TJbid., p. 375.

—, 1934c.—Report on the Geology of the Myall Lakes Region. Science Journal,
Sydney University, 13 (8), p. 42.

—, 1935.—Note on the Permian Sequence in the Werrie Basin. Proc. LINN. Soc.
N.S.W., Ix, (5-6), p. 447.

CoLeEMAN,. A. P., 1908.—Glacial Periods and their Bearing on Geological Theories. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., xix, pp. 347-366.

Davip. T. W. E., 1932.—Explanatory Notes to Accompany a New Geological Map of
the Commonwealth of Australia. Sydney.

Dun, W. S., and Benson. W. N., 1920.—The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpen-
tine Belt of New South Wales, Part IX, Section B, Palaeontology. Proc. LINN. Soc.
INAS Woy Shy (B))5 To BoD.

EXTHERIDGE, R., 1900.—Corals from the Coral Limestone of Lion Creek, Stanwell, Queens-
land. Bull. Geol. Surv. Queensland, No. 12, 1900.

GRABAU, A. W., 1924.—Principles of Stratigraphy. New York.

————-, and SHIMER, H. W., 1909.—North American Index Fossils. Vol. I, pp. 58, 386.
New York.

Hiuu, DorotHy, 1934.—The Lower Carboniferous Corals of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc.
Queensland, xlv (12), 1934, pp. 63-115.

HUNTINGTON, E., 1907.—Some Characteristics of the Glacial Period in Non-Glaciated
Regions. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., xviii, p. 351.

Luoyp, A. C., 19384.—Geology of the Gunnedah and Manilla Districts. Ain. Rept. Dept.
Mines N.S.W. for 1933, p. 89.

OSBORNE, G. D., 1922.—The Geology and Petrography of the Clarencetown-Paterson
Districts, N.S:W., Parts 1 and 2. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xlvii.

, 1925.—Idem, Parts 3 and 4. TIbid., Vol. 1.

—, 1926.—Geology of the Carboniferous Rocks in the Mt. Mirannie and Mt.

Dyrring Districts. Jbid., li. .

, 1927.—The Carboniferous Rocks in the Muswellbrook-Scone Area. JIbid.. lii.

, 1929.—Some Aspects of the Structural Geology of the Carboniferous Rocks in
the Hunter River District between Raymond Terrace and Scone. Ibid... liv (4), p. 436.

REID, J. H., 1930.—The Queensland Upper Palaeozoic Succession. Queensland Geol. Surv.
IZVN og tle

ScHmMipT, H., 1923.—Zwei Cephalopodenfaunen an der Devon-Carbongrenze im Sauerland.
Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt, Berlin, xliv, 1923, 153.

SussMILcH, C. A., 1935.—The Carboniferous Period in Eastern Australia. Presidential
Address, Sect. C, A.N.Z.A.A.S., Melbourne.

, CLARK, W. M., and Greic, W. A., 1928.—The Geology of Port Stephens. Jowri.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xii.

—— , and Davin, T. W. E., 1919.—Sequence, Glaciation and Correlation of the
Carboniferous of the Hunter River District. Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.., iii.

—_—_—__——_, ———_-—,, 1931.—The Upper Palaeozoic Glaciations of Australia. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Amer., xlii.

TWENHOFEL, W. H., 1936.—Marine Unconformities, Marine Conglomerates and Thickness
of Strata. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol., xx, p. 6.

376 CARBONIFEROUS SEQUENCE IN THE WERRIE BASIN.

VorsEy, A. H., 1934.—Geology of the Middle North Coast District, N.S.W. Proa LInn.
Soc. N.S.W., lix.

WaA.LKom, A. B., 1935.—Some Fossil Seeds from the Upper Palaeozoic Rocks of the Werrie
Basin, N.S.W. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., Ix (5-6), p. 459.

WHITEHOUSE, F. W., 1930.—The Geology of Queensland. Handbook of Queensland.
A.N.Z.A.A.S., Brisbane Meeting.

WoORTHEN, A. H., 1866.—Geological Survey of Illinois. Vol. ii, Palaeontology, p. 166.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.
Geological Sketch-Map of the Babbinboon District.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 19387.

PLATE XVIII.

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A NOTE ON THE ASCIGEROUS STAGE OF CLAVICEPS PASPALI S. & H. IN
AUSTRALIA.

By W. L. WatrerRHOUSE, The University of Sydney.
[Read 24th November, 1937. ]

In 1935 a serious outbreak of ergot in Paspalum dilatatum and other species
of Paspalum occurred in the south-eastern portion of Australia. The sphacelial
and sclerotial stages of the causal organism were found throughout this area.
The ascigerous stage is known in other countries, but so far has not been recorded
for Australia.

Mature sclerotia from Paspalum dilatatwm were collected in March, 1936, and
sown on the surface of soil in pots with a light covering of sand and plant debris.
These were subjected to an alternation of freezing and thawing until September.
The material in one set was alternately moistened and kept at a temperature of
—5° C. for 4 weeks and then dried and maintained at room temperature for 1 week.
In another set the material was alternately wetted and frozen at —5° C. for 5 days
of each week, and then kept at room temperature for the other 2 days. Following
upon this treatment, the pots were kept on the floor of a plant house and the soil
kept moist by occasional watering.

Concurrently with this experiment two parallel series of tests were made with
C. purpurea (Fr.) Tul. on rye. Normal germinations of the sclerotia of both these
sets were obtained in September, 1937.

About the middle of October, 1937, the first signs of germination of the
sclerotia of C. Paspali were noted and they have germinated abundantly since that
date.

Investigations are in progress to determine whether any departures from the
recorded ascigerous features occur. To date none have been found.

This production of the perfect stage of the fungus has been brought about by
artificial treatment of the sclerotia. But there appears to be no reason why natural
conditions of weathering should not have the same effect in the field. Ascospore
production in Nature may well be important in dissemination and possibly in
giving rise to new physiologic races of the fungus.

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To tM Se rey

LIST OF NEW GENERA AND SUBGENERA.

LIST OF GENERA AND SUBGENERA DESCRIBED AS NEW

VOLUME (1987).

Page
Arrhenella (Hesperiidae) Steps iate a yay
Ecdrepta (Oecophoridae ) Ce ae OS)
Fergusobia (Anguillulina) .. .. 158
Ischnomorpha (Oecophoridae) .. 85

379

IN THIS
Page.
Larinotus (Colydiidae, Synchitini) 186
Pabula (Colydiidae, Synchitini) 5 UBB
Phorminx (Colydiidae, Synchitini) 190
Synagathis (Colydiidae, Synchitini) 185

380 LIST OF PLATES.

LIST OF PLATES.

PROCEEDINGS, 1937.
A.—Views at Emmaville and Dalton, N.S.W., showing typical “Upland valleys”.
i-ii.—Galls on Fagus Moorei.
iii—Colonies of Sooty-mould Fungi.
iv.—Hucalyptus gummifera (Gaert.) Hochr. and H. camaldulensis Dehnh.
v.—Drimys purpurascens, nN. Sp.
vi—Galling of Hucalyptus species.
vii—Fly and nematodes causing galls on Hucalypts.
viii-ix.— Australian Colydiidae.
x.—Tabanus froggatti and T. neobasalis.
xi.—Sardinops neopilchardus and Potamalosa novae-hollandiae.
xiiimArthur Henry Shakespeare Lucas.
xiiiimLandscapes in the Tamworth district of New South Wales.
xiv.—Vegetation of Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops districts.
xv.—Graptolites from Yass district, N.S.W.
xvi-xvii.-Vegetation of the central coastal area of New South Wales.

xviii.imGeological sketch-map of part of the Babbinboon district, N.S.W.

XXXVii

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
31st Marcu, 1937.
Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., President, in the Chair.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(25th November, 1936), amounting to 49 Volumes, 554 Parts or Numbers, 17
Bulletins, 14 Reports and 42 Pamphlets, received from 177 Societies and Institu-
tions and 4 private donors, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. Notes on the Genus Calliphora (Diptera). By G. H. Hardy.

2. The Structure of Galls formed by Cyttaria septentrionalis on Fagus Moorei.
By Janet M. Wilson, B.A.

3. Entozoa from the Australian Hair Seal. By Professor T. Harvey Johnston,
M.A., D.Se., F.L.S.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEBRTING.
28th Apri, 1937.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Dr. G. A. Currie, Canberra; Mr. Camille Deuquet, Wollongong; Miss Valerie
M. B. May, Cremorne; Dr. B. L. Middleton, Murrurundi; and Mr. K. F. Plomley,
Darlinghurst, were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

The Chairman announced that the Council had elected Professor A. N. Burkitt,
Professor W. J. Dakin, Dr. W. L. Waterhouse and Mr. C. A. Sussmilch to be
Vice-Presidents for the Session 1937-38.

The Chairman announced that the Council had elected Dr. G. A. Waterhouse
to be Honorary Treasurer for the Session 1937-38.

The Chairman also announced that the Council had elected Mr. Frank H.
Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S., as a member of Council in place of the late Mr. W. W.
Froggatt.

The Chairman offered the congratulations of members to Professor T. G. B.
Osborn on his election to the Sherardian Professorship of Botany in the University
of Oxford.

The Secretary called attention to the proposal to secure the preservation of
Elizabeth Bay House, and it was unanimously resolved that members of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales are of opinion that Elizabeth Bay House,
on account of its historic and scientific associations, is worthy of preservation
as a national monument, and express the hope that the movement with that object
recently inaugurated in Sydney may be completely successful.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(31st March, 1937), amounting to 14 Volumes, 63 Parts or Numbers, 1 Bulletin,

NN

XXXViii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

1 Report and 7 Pamphlets, received from 52 Societies and Institutions and 1 private
donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to certain Aspects
of their Physiology. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the
Society in Botany.

2. Final Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. By EH. C. Chisholm,
M.B., Ch.M.

3. On the Histological Structure of some Australian Galls. By Dr. E. Kuster.
(Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.)

4. A Census of the Orchids of New South Wales, 1937. By Rev. H. M. R.
Rupp, B.A.

5. Australian Hesperiidae. vi. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

6. Some Notes on the Nomenclature of certain Common Species of Eucalyptus.
By Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited drawings illustrating variations in the venation of
leaves of the following species of Callistemon: C. salignus, C. paludosus, O. lineari-
folius, and C. acuminatus. The normal venation of all species of the genus
Callistemon shows a central prominent midrib and intramarginal nerves; and,
on the same twig, two additional prominent nerves running parallel between the
midrib and intramarginal nerves. Occasionally a leaf may be found with three
additional nerves, two on one side and one on the other side of the midrib as
shown in the illustration. Drawings were also exhibited showing the individual
flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves and not formed into a spike as is
usually seen in the normal forms of Callistemon.

Mr. T. H. Pincombe exhibited specimens of fossil insects from a newly-
discovered outcrop in the Belmont district.

Miss A. Melvaine exhibited specimens of a species of Stigmatomyces which
has been determined by Mrs. Lennox of Canberra, F.C.T., as S. Sarcophagae
Thaxter. From an examination of the available literature, this species has been
found to be a synonym of S. limnophorae Thaxter, and the latter name, being
earlier in use, has precedence. The fungus belongs to the peculiar order
Laboulbeniales, and was found by Dr. M. J. Mackerras on the fly Calliphora
augur in some of the field traps of the Division of Economic Entomology
of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, in Canberra. The plants of
this species grow in considerable numbers in a compact group on the integument
of the posterior part of the fly, attached only by a small basal foot which is
embedded in the chitinous integument. Through this the fungus derives its food
supplies. So far as can be ascertained, no species of Stigmatomyces have been
previously recorded for Australia.

Miss L. Fraser exhibited co-type specimens of the following species of fungi
collected by her in New South Wales and recently described as new by H. Sydow
(Ann. Myc., xxxv, 1, 1937); Puccinia orellana, Ustilago curta, U. serena, U.
valentula, Sphacelotheca mutabilis, Sorosporium Fraserianum, S. polycarpum,
Meliola Fraseriana, Dimerina Acronychiae, Leptosphaeria aliena, Phyllachora
bella, Ph. Lyonsiae, Diatrypella palmicola, Schiffnerula Rubi, Asterina
australiensis, A. decumana, A. Fraseriana, A. polyloba, A. puellaris, A. reécisa,
Lembosia ardua, L. micrasca, Clypeolella Alphitoniae, C. Doryphorae, Belonopsis

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1X

eriophila, Dermatea Fraseriana, Tryblidaria australiensis, Apomella Casuarinae.
A number of other specimens which had been identified by Sydow were also
exhibited.

Mrs. E. Coleman forwarded additional notes on the nest hygiene of birds
as follows:

Nest Hygiene of the British Song Thrush.—Further observations make neces-
sary some modification of my notes on nest hygiene of the British Song Thrush,
published in The Procrrepines, 1936, p. li. This season I have had three nests
under even closer observation than those of last year. In each instance excreta
were always removed directly from the cloaca of a nestling. In no instance, and I
witnessed the removal over a hundred times, were excreta carried from the nest,
but were swallowed by the adult bird as soon as taken. Often a parent bird fed
two nestlings at a visit, disposing of both excrement-capsules in the same way. As
both my camera and myself were fully screened, I think it must be assumed that
this is the usual procedure, and that the actions of last season’s birds were
influenced by a knowledge of my proximity. Dead nestlings are always removed,
but infertile eggs are allowed to remain in the nest.

Nest Hygiene of the Blackbird.—In the matter of nest hygiene, the habits of
the Blackbird follow closely those of the British Song Thrush. Fully screened,
and with my camera also hidden, although placed within eighteen inches of the
nest, I have watched both feeding and nest hygiene. In two instances the male
bird was not seen at the nest. Polygamy was suggested. I watched both
nests for a month, and photographed the brood in many stages. In one of them
there were four nestlings. Except excrement, I doubt if the hen-bird could have
taken much food herself. Many times I saw her remove and swallow two, and
even three, capsules at a visit.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
26th May, 1937.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

Miss D. M. Cumpston, Newtown; Mr. J. A. Dulhunty, Glebe Point, and Miss
E. A. Mercer, B.Sc.Agr., Lindfield, were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

The President offered congratulations to Dr. Lilian Fraser on obtaining her
Doctorate of Science of the University of Sydney.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(28th April, 1987), amounting to 27 Volumes, 184 Parts or Numbers, 19 Bulletins,
5 Reports and 11 Pamphlets, received from 86 Societies and Institutions and 2
private donors, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.
1. Two new Species and one new Variety of Drimys Forst., with Notes on
the Species of Drimys and Bubbia Van Tiegh. of South-eastern Australia and
Lord Howe Island. By Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc.
2. Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. vi. By A. Jefferis
Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited live plants of Oxalis acetosella found naturalized in the
Marrickville district, where it is regarded as a very bad weed-pest in gardens.
Samples of O. corniculata (see These Proc., 1917, 512, and 1919, 525, for a note

xl ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

on this species) were exhibited for comparison, as the foliage characters are very
similar in general appearance. Mr. Cheel also exhibited live plants of Pelargonium
radulum which has been found not to breed true when raised from seeds.

Mr. G. P. Whitley exhibited three post-larval specimens of a Snake Eel,
Malwoliophis pinguis (Gunther, 1872). These were seined in 26 fathoms off
Jervis Bay, New South Wales, and measured 41, 45, and 48 mm. They had passed
the Leptocephalus stage and were practically metamorphosed, although no fins had
developed. The myomeres numbered sixty-three, a very low number for an eel,
and one specimen was conspicuously encircled by five brown bands. These eels
were presented to the Australian Museum by Mr. Melbourne Ward, and an enlarged
diagram of one specimen was also exhibited.

The Secretary read a letter from Dr. R. Broom, a Corresponding Member,
giving some details of recent finds of fossil anthropoid remains in South Africa.

Mr. HE. C. Andrews gave a short talk on his recent visit to Iceland and Norway.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
30th JuNE, 1937.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(26th May, 1937), amounting to 9 Volumes, 159 Parts or Numbers, 5 Bulletins,
2 Reports and 7 Pamphlets, received from 78 Societies and Institutions and 1
private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. Australian Hesperiidae. vii. Notes on the Types and Type Localities.
By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

2. Revision of the Genus Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromyzidae). By
A. L. Tonnoir. (Communicated by Dr. G. A. Currie.)

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. H. L. Jensen exhibited photographs of cultures of a blue-green alga
(impure cultures, but free from nitrogen-fixing bacteria) capable of growth in an
inorganic, nitrogen-free medium in which a small but definite fixation of atmos-
pheric nitrogen takes place (1:2-1:-4 mgm. N. per 50 c.c. medium in 8 weeks).

Miss A. Melvaine exhibited specimens of roots of Hxocarpus cupressiformis
Labill. parasitizing roots of Casuarina suberosa Ott. & Dietr. and also its own
roots. The specimens were collected at Sussex Inlet, New South Wales, where the
root systems were exposed by shifting sand. The roots of Casuarina suberosa
showed the presence of coralloid rootlets which have previously been recorded
only for C. Cunninghamiana Mig., C. glauca Sieb. and C. torulosa Ait.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited a series of specimens of Kunzea as follows: Kunzea
opposita F.v.M., from near Timbarra, New England district, and Kunzea parvi-
folia Schauer, from Braidwood district. Also Kunzea sp., probably Kunzea calida
F.y.M., from Gilgandra, Torrington, Guyra, N.S.W., and from Stanthorpe and
Wallangarra, Queensland. The latter (K. calida?) has not previously been
recorded by Bentham, although originally described as distinct by Mueller in
Fragmenta, vi, 1867, 23. Specimens were also exhibited from Copmanhurst, very
closely resembling Kunzea opposita and erroneously determined as this species, but
further investigations are being made with a view to revising the whole series

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xii

variously determined as Melaleuca, Baeckea, Kunzea parvifolia, Kunzea pedun-
cularis and Kunzea capitata.

Dr. Lilian Fraser gave an account of the Ecology of Barrington Tops.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
28th Jury, 1937.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

Mr. W. L. du Boulay, Elizabeth Bay, was elected an Ordinary Member of the
Society.

The President announced that the operation of the Wild Flowers and Native
Plants Protection Act, 1927, has been extended for a further period of one year
from ist July, 1937.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(30th June, 1937), amounting to 20 Volumes, 143 Parts or Numbers, 5 Bulletins,
1 Report and 5 Pamphlets, received from 74 Societies and Institutions, were laid
upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. Galls on Eucalyptus Trees. A new Type of Association between Flies and
Nematodes. By G. A. Currie, D.Sc., B.Sc.Agr.

2. Notes on Fossil Diatoms from New South Wales. i. By B. V. Skvortzov.
(Communicated by Dr. A. B. Walkom.)

3. The Growth of Soil on Slopes. By Professor J. Macdonald Holmes, Ph.D.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
25th AucGusST, 1937.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

Mr. A. C. Simpson, Newtown, was elected an Ordinary Member of the Society.

The President announced that arrangements are being made by the David
Portrait Committee for the unveiling of the portrait of the late Sir Edgeworth
David in Science House to take place on Wednesday, 29th September, 1937, at
5 p.m.

The President referred to the death of the well-known naturalist, F. P. Dodd,
of Kuranda, which took place on 27th July, 1937.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(28th July, 1937), amounting to 16 Volumes, 170 Parts or Numbers, 13 Bulletins,
2 Reports and 14 Pamphlets, received from 75 Societies and Institutions and 1
private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. A Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae. By H. J. Carter, B.A., F.R.E.S.,
and EK. H. Zeck.

2. Notes on the Biology of Tabanus froggatti, T. gentilis and T. neobasalis
(Diptera). By Mary E. Fuller, B.Sc.

3. The Occurrence of the Australian Pilchard (Sardinops neéopilchardus) and
its Spawning Season in New South Wales Waters, together with brief Notes on
other New South Wales Clupeids. By Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S.

xlii ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited fresh specimens of Hucalyptus taken from ten trees
grown at Hill Top near Mittagong, and Ashfield, raised from seed collected at
Braidwood, Nerrigundah, Wyndham, Batlow, Laurel Hill and Tumbarumba. In
Bentham’s Flora Australiensis and Moore and Betche’s Handbook of the Flora of
New South Wales the species from which the seeds were taken is classified as
EH. amygdalina Labill., and commonly known as “Black Peppermint”, “Broad-leaf
Peppermint” and ‘‘River White Gum” respectively. This classification was adopted
by Mueller, Woolls, Deane, Maiden and others, but in more recent times the “Black
Peppermint” and “River White Gum” have been regarded as sufficiently distinct
from the Tasmanian plants described under the name #H. amygdalina by
Labillardiére, the names H. radiata of Sieber and H. numerosa of Maiden having
been taken up for the mainland forms. Bentham regarded EH. radiata Sieber as a
variety of H. amygdalina Labill., and included the “River White Gum” of Woolls
from Bent’s Basin under this variety. This has led to considerable confusion.
In June, 1916, a series of specimens was collected from the above-mentioned
localities by the exhibitor and handed to the late Mr. Maiden, with the result that
it has been fairly clearly shown that the species H. radiata Sieber (DC. Prod.,
iii, p. 218, 1828, a specimen of which is represented in the National Herbarium
of New South Wales), together with H. numerosa Maiden and E. dives Schauer,
may be regarded as distinct from H. amygdalina of Labillardiére originally
collected in Tasmania. More recently the names #H. australiana, EH. phellandra,
E. Robertsoni and E. Lindleyana var. stenophylla have been proposed as new
species and new variety, but the resultant plants raised from seeds of these
supposed new species show that they cannot be separated from £#. radiata and
EH. numerosa. Photographic illustrations of fully matured seed-capsules of the
different species were exhibited to support the evidence shown in the leaf
characters.

Mr. Cheel also exhibited specimens, taken from plants in nature and in
cultivation, of Leptospermum pendulum Sieber, listed as a synonym under
L. attenuatum Sm., by Bentham and others. The two species are abundantly
distinct. Specimens of an undescribed species of Leptospermum closely related to
L. flavescens var. grandifiorum Benth. (which is probably L. virgatum Schauer and
L. Petersoni Bailey) were also exhibited, together with several forms and varieties
of L. flavescens Sm., for comparison.

Miss Joyce Allan exhibited, from the Australian Museum Collections, the
following shells commensal-parasitic on Starfish, Sea-urchins, Mantis Shrimps, and
Béche-de-mer: Cap Limpet, Thyca sp., external on arm of starfish, Linckia
laevigata, from the Mandated Territory of New Guinea.—Small univalves of the
genus Stylifer living internally within the arms of the starfish Ophidiaster
granifer from Masthead and North-West Islands, Great Barrier Reef. Two species
living together, one of which encloses its shell in a fleshy mantle covering. A
species of Stylifer from the inside of the arms of Ophidiaster robillardi from
Masthead Island.—Two species of shells commensal externally on Sea-urchins.
Stylifer brunnea on a Sea-urchin from Victoria, and Scalenostoma striata on
Phyllacanthus annulifera, Port Curtis, Queensland.—A small bivalve, Scintilla
ephippodonta, which lives in burrows of a South Australian mantis shrimp.—
A species of Hulima which lives in the interior of béche-de-mer (Holothuria),
Queensland. Zoologists have found foreign bodies inside béche-de-mer which they
consider degenerated forms of these shells—A small species, Caledoniella
montrouzieri, living amongst the legs and swimmerets of a mantis shrimp,

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xlili

Gonodactylus chiragra, Hook Reef, near Port Denison, Queensland. The finding
of this commensal-parasitic shell in Australia was most fortunate, as it led to the
re-classifying of a southern Australian deep-water shell, Mysticoncha wilsoni
(Smith), which had previously and erroneously been placed in the genus
Caledoniella by Basedow, 1905, and followed by Hedley, Thiele and other leading
conchologists.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MERTING.

29th SEPTEMBER, 1937.

Mr. HE. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

The President mentioned the death of Dr. F. G. Hardwick, who had been a
member of the Society since 1922.

The President announced that the Council had elected Mr. A. R. Woodhill
as a member of Council in place of Professor T. G. B. Osborn.

The President announced that the Council is prepared to receive applications
for four Linnean Macleay Fellowships tenable for one year from ist March, 1938,
from qualified candidates. Applications should be lodged with the Secretary,
who will afford all necessary information to intending candidates, not later than
Wednesday, 3rd November, 1937.

The President drew attention to the fact that the Seventh International
Congress for Entomology is to be held in Berlin from 15th to 20th August, 1938.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(25th August, 1937), amounting to 12 Volumes, 127 Parts or Numbers, 16 Bulletins,
2 Reports and 3 Pamphlets, received from 63 Societies and Institutions and 1
private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. On the Identity of the Butterfly known in Australia as Heteronympha
philerope Boisd., 1882. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

2. The Petrology of the Hartley District. iv. The Altered Dolerite Dykes.
By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D.

8. Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). iii. The Genus
Aedomyia Theobald. By I. M. Mackerras, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc.

4. Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). iv. The Genus
Theobaldia, with Description of a New Species. By D. J. Lee, B.Sc.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Professor W. J. Dakin gave a short account of the occurrence of the Australian
Pilchard and the life-history of the Australian Prawn.

The life-history of the Penaeidae has always aroused considerable scientific
interest by reason of two facts: (1) The difference from the general type of
development seen in the Decapoda—the expulsion of eggs which hatch as free-
swimming nauplii; and (2) the singular difficulty which has been experienced
all the world over in obtaining a complete series of larvae which could be definitely
associated with an authenticated species of Peneus.

A very complete study of Peneus plebejus Hesse, off the coast of New South
Wales and in the estuaries of the Clarence River, Port Stephens, Broken Bay,
Port Jackson, Port Hacking and Lake Illawarra, has shown that, whilst its post-
larval life and its growth to a moderate size take place in the river estuaries
and coastal lakes of New South Wales, its reproduction takes place in the ocean.

xliv ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The protozoeal stages are not unlike those of the Brazilian species observed by
Mulier in 1863. A surprising feature of the life-history is the sequence of post-
mysis stages during which the telson gradually changes in form until the adult
characters are acquired. Larvae of all stages have been taken between May and
August. The young King Prawns enter the estuaries during the pelagic stages.
An account of the chief differences between the larval stages was given by Professor
Dakin. The reproductive period in the sea extends at least from late summer up
to September.

Mr. A. R. Woodhill exhibited specimens of larvae of the mosquitoes Aédes
(Pseudosbusca) concolor, Culex fatigans, Aédes (Ochlerotatus) vigilax, and
Megarhinus speciosus and gave a short account of the habitat and salinity
tolerances of the various species of larvae.

Mr. A. N. Colefax sent for exhibition the results of two quarter-hour catches
taken at Lake Illawarra. They were taken with a very coarse net and an ordinary
coarse net. One haul revealed the presence of an enormous number of a new
genus of mysid crustacean, while the other contained a large quantity of a copepod,
also a new genus. The hauls both reveal the high productivity of the lake.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of a species of lichen, Parmeliopsis semi-
viridis (F.v.M.) Nyl., collected at Curlewis in February, 1933, by himself, and at
Copeton, near Inverell, by Mr. A. E. Watson recently. Previous records for this
interesting lichen, which rolls from place to place on the surface of the soil, are
given in the Procrepines of this Society (1909, p. 501; and 1913, p. 396), and a
note on its peculiar habit in the Australian Naturalist (Vol. 3, 1916, p. 1922).

Mr. A. H. Voisey exhibited specimens of Linoproductus springsurensis Booker
and other brachiopods from Kimbriki, 12 miles from Wingham, where they occur
on a horizon low down in the Kamilaroi rocks; also fossil plants (Thinnfeldia and
Cladophlebis) of Triassic age from near Laurieton, Camden Haven district.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
27th OctosBEr, 1937.
Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

The President reminded candidates for Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1938-39,
that Wednesday, 3rd November, 1937, is the last day for receiving applications.

The President informed members that the Council had decided that when the
author of a paper so desires the date of receipt of his manuscript by the Society
shall be printed at the head of the paper and that in such cases no material
alteration of the paper shall be allowed after the date indicated.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(29th September, 1937), amounting to 19 Volumes, 209 Parts or Numbers, 9
Bulletins, 2 Reports and 8 Pamphlets, received from 86 Societies and Institutions
and 1 private donor, were laid upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. Notes on Australian Orchids. iii. A Review of the Genus Cymbidium in
Australia. ii. By Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A.

2. The Ecology of the Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops Districts.
i. Introduction. By Lilian Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc.

3. Notes on some Species occurring in the Upper Williams River and Barring-
ton Tops Districts, with Descriptions of New Species and Varieties. By Lilian
Fraser, D.Sc., and Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xv:

4. The Occurrence of Graptolites near Yass, N.S.W. By Kathleen Sherrard,
M.Se., and R. A. Keble, F.G.S.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. D. Gilmour and Mr. M. Griffiths exhibited photographs and specimens
illustrating a survey of the animal ecology of a freshwater pond which is being
carried out at Narrabeen. A permanent pond of this type, with a complete covering
of aquatic vegetation, is rather unusual in Australia. An account was given of the
methods used in the investigation and attention was drawn to a food-chain illus-
trating the interrelations of the individuals of the animal community.

Mr. Consett Davis exhibited a series of aerial photographs of the Five Islands.

Rev. H. M. R. Rupp exhibited a flowering specimen of a new Australian
Dendrobium (D. Fleckeri White and Rupp) from the neighbourhood of Cairns.

Mrs. C. A. Messmer exhibited a flowering specimen of Boronia (? B. anemoni-
folia) from Mittagong.

ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING.
24th NoveMBER, 1937.

Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., President, in the Chair.

Mr. L. R. Clark, Cremorne; Dr. Edward Ford, Sydney University; Mr. G. L.
Kesteven, Strathfield; and Mr. R. D. Wilson, Department of Agriculture, Sydney,
were elected Ordinary Members of the Society.

The President announced that the Council had reappointed Miss Elizabeth C.
Pope, B.Se., Mr. H. F. Consett Davis, B.Se., Mr. A. H. Voisey, M.Sc., and Miss
Ilma M. Pidgeon, M.Sc., to Linnean Macleay Fellowships in Zoology, Zoology,
Geology and Botany respectively, for one year from ist March, 1938.

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting
(27th October, 1937), amounting to 3 Volumes, 74 Parts or Numbers, 1 Bulletin,
4 Reports and 1 Pamphlet, received from 56 Societies and Institutions, were laid
upon the table.

PAPERS READ.

1. The Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin (With Palaeontological
Notes by Ida A. Brown, D.Sc.). By S. W. Carey, M.Sc.

2. The Ecology of the Central Coastal Area of New South Wales. i. The
Environment and General Features of the Vegetation. By Ilma M. Pidgeon,
M.Se., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Botany.

3. A Note on the Ascigerous State of Claviceps Paspali S. & H. in Australia.
By W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of juvenile and adult foliage taken from an
original plant raised from seed received from Botanic Gardens, Berlin, in 1913,
under the name Callistemon amoenus, together with foliage and colour notes of
flowers raised from seeds of the Berlin plants. The flowers of C. amoenus are
creamy white (vide Lemaire’s Illust. Horticole). The flowers of the plants raised
from the Berlin seeds are reddish-purple to purple-garnet. The flowering spikes
of the plants raised from the original plant are almost identical, but the foliage
characters of the Australian raised seedlings are very variable, the leaves being
much larger and coarser than those of the parent plant.

xlvi

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.
Received during the period 29th October, 1936, to 27th October, 1937.
(From the respective Societies, etc., unless otherwise mentioned.)

ABERYSTWYTH.—Welsh Plant Breeding Station, University College of Wales. “The Welsh
Journal of Agriculture”, xiii (1937) ; Survey of the Work of the Agricultural Depart-
ments of the University College of Wales (1936).

AccrAa.—Geological Survey Department, Gold Coast Colony. Report for the Financial
Year 1935-36 (1936).

ADELAIDE.—Department of Mines: Geological Survey of South Australia. Annual Report
of the Director of Mines and Government Geologist for 1935 (1936); Bulletin No. 16
(1937) ; Mining Review for the Half-years ended 30th June, 1936 (No. 64) (1936)
and 31st December, 19386 (No. 65) (1937).—Field Naturalists’ Section of the Royal
Society of South Australia and South Australian Aquarium Society. “South
Australian Naturalist’, xvi, 4 (1937); xvii, 1-4 (being “National Park, South
Australia”) (1936).—Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia.
52nd Annual Report of the Board of Governors, 1935-36 (1936) ; Records of the South
Australian Museum, v, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936).—Royal Society of South Australia.
Transactions and Proceedings, Ix (1936).—South Australian Ornithological Associa-
tion. “The South Australian Ornithologist’’, xiii, 8 (1936); xiv, 1-3 (1937).—
University of Adelaide. “The Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and
Medical Science’, xiv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xv, 1-3 and Supplement (1937).—
Woods and Forests Department. Annual Report for the Year ended 30th June, 1936
(1936).

ALBANY.—New York State Library, University of the. State of New York. New York
State Museum Bulletin, Nos. 305, 307-309 (1936-1937); New York State Museum
Handbook 11, 16 (1935, 1936).

ALGER.—Institut Pasteur d’Algerie. Archives, xiv, 4 (Contents) (1936); xv, 1-2 (1937).—
Société d’Histoire Naturelle de VAfrique du Nord. Bulletin, xxvii, 6-9 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); xxviii, 1-3 (1937).

AMSTERDAM.—Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Proceedings of the Section of
Sciences, xxxviii, 6-10 (T.p. & c. and Index) (1935); xxxix, 1-10 (T.p. & c.) (1986);
Verhandelingen Afdeeling Natuurkunde, 2° Sectie, xxxiv, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (19384-1935) ;
xxxv, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936).—Nederlandseche Entomologische Vereeniging. Entomolo-
gische Berichten, ix, 210-215 (1936-1937); Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, Ixxix, 3-4
(Grbra, Ke (oe) (alai)) ? boo alee (Alb ei)

ANN ARBOR.—University of Michigan. Contributions from the Laboratory of Vertebrate
Genetics, Nos. 1-5 (1936-1937); Contributions from the Museum of Palaeontology,
T.p. & c. for Vol. iv (1935); v, 1-6 (1936); Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum
of Zoology, Nos. 31-34 (1936-1937); Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology,
Nos. 325-348 (1936-1937); Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and
Letters, xxi, 1935 (1936).

ATHENS.—Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Athens. Acta, i, 6-10 (1936-
USS)

AUCKLAND.—Auckland Institute and Musewm. Records, ii, 1 (1936).

BALTIMORE.—Johns Hopkins University. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, lix, 2-6
(T.p. & ce.) (1936); Ix, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1937); Ixi, 1-3 (1937).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xlvil

BANDOENG.—Dienst van den Mijnbouw in Nederlandsch-Indie. Bulletin of the Netherlands
Indies Volcanological Survey, Nos. 76-79 (1936-1937).

BARCELONA.—Academia de Ciencies i Arts. Butlleti, Tercera Epoca, vi, 7 (1936);
Memories, Tercera Epoca, xxv, 11-16 (1936) ; Nomina del Personal Academic, 1935-36
(1935).

BASEL.—N aturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, xlvii, 1935-36 (1936 ).—
Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, 117. Jahresversamm-
lung, 1936 (1936).

Baravia.—Departement van Economische Zaken. Bulletin du Jardin Botanique, Serie iii,
XD Cae Caen LO SON exlvan L—2pGLOSG =O Si), le lO S6) i) at reubiawes excve) 04:
(T.p. & c.) (1936); xvi, 1 (1937).—Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Neder-
landsch-Indie. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, xcvi, 4 (T.p. & c.)
(19386); xevii, 1-7 (1936-1937).—Natuurweten-schappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch-
Indie te Batavia (Netherlands India Science Council). Publication, Nos. 10 (Maart,
1937); 12 (Augustus, 1937).

BERGEN.—Bergens Musewm. Arbok, 1936, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1937); Arsberetning, 1935-36
(19386).

BERKELEY.—University of California. Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences,
xxiv, 1-7 (1936-1937); Publications, Botany, xix, 5 (1936); Entomology, vi, 13
(1937) ; Physiology, viii, 9-11 (1936); Public Health, ii, 2 (1936); Zoology, xli, 8-16
(1936-1937); Publications of the University,of California at Los Angeles in Bio-
logical Sciences, i, 7-8 (1937).

BERLIN.—Deutsch-Auslandischer Buchtausch. ‘Flora’, Neue Folge, xxx, 4 (T.p. & ec.)
(1936); xxxi, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (19386-1987); xxxii, 1 (1937).—Deutsche Entomolo-
gische Gesellschaft, EH.V. Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 1935, 3-4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936) ; 1936, 1-4 (1936-1937) ; Mitteilungen, vii, 1-10 (T.p. & c.) (19386-1937) ; viii,
1 (1937).—Zoologische Museum. Mitteilungen, xxi, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xxii, 1
(19387).

BERLIN- DAHLEM.—Botanisch Garten und Museum. Notizblatt, xiii, 118-119 (1936-1937).—
Deutsches Entomologisches Institut.—Arbeiten uber morphologische und taxonomische
Entomologie aus Berlin-Dahlem, iii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); iv, 1-2 (1937); Arbeiten
uber physiologische und angewandte Entomologie aus Berlin-Dahlem, iii, 3-4
(T.p. & ce.) (1986); iv, 1-2 (1937); Entomologische Beihefte aus Berlin-Dahlem,
iii-iv (1936-19387).

BErRN.—WNaturforschende Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen a.d. Jahre 1936, 1-2 (T.p. & c)
(1936-1937).

BLOEMFONTEIN.—Nasionale Musewm. Soologiese Navorsing, i, 3-6 (1936-1937).

Bo.LoGnas.—Istituto di Entomologia della R. Universita di Bologna (formerly Laboratorio
di Entomologia del R. Istituto Superiore Agrario di Bologna). Bollettino, vii (1934-
1935); viii (1935-1936).

BomBay.—Bombay Natural History Society. Journal, T.p. & c. for xxxviii, Nos. 3-4
(1937) ; xxxix, 1-2 (T-p. & c.) (19386-1937) ; xxxix, 3 (1937).

Bonn.—Naturhistorischer Verein der Rheinlande und Westfalens. ‘Decheniana”’, xciii-
xciv (1936-1937).

Boston.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings, 1xxi, 3-10 (T.p. & ec.)
(1936-1937).—Boston Society of Natural History. Proceedings, xli, 5 (1937); New
England Museum of Natural History, Annual Report, 1936-1937 (1937).

BRISBANE.—Department of Agriculture. Queensland Agricultural Journal, xlvi, 5-6
(T.p. & c.) (19386); xlvii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.); xIviii, 1-4 (1937).—Department of Mines:
Geological Survey of Queensland. “Queensland Government Mining Journal’, xxxvii,
Oct.-Dec., 1986 (T.p. & c.) (1986); xxxviii, Jan.-Sept., 1937 (1937).—Quweensland
Museum. Memoirs, xi, 2 (19387).—Quweensland Naturalists’ Club and Nature-Lovers’
League. ‘“‘The Queensland Naturalist’, x, 2-3 (1937).

xlvili DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

Brno.—Prirodovedecka Fakulta, Masarykovy University. “Reliquiae Formanekianae”
by C. Vandas (1909).

BrooKLyN.—Brooklyn Botanic Garden. ‘‘Genetics’’, xxi, 6 (T.p. & c.) (19386); xxii, 1-5
(19387).

BRUSSELS.—Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique,
103™e Annuaire, 1937 (19387); Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences, 5me
Série, xxii, 6-12 (T.p. & ec.) (1936); xxiii, 1-5 (1937).—Musée Royal d’Histoire
Naturelle de Belgique. Bulletin, xii, 1-33 (1936); Mémoires, Nos. 74-78 (1936);
Mémoires, 2™e Série, Fasc. 4-7 (1936); Mémoires, Hors Série (Résultats Scien-
tifiques du Voyage aux Indes Orientales Néerlandaises), T.p. & ec. for Vol. iv
(1935).—Société. Entomologique de Belgique. Bulletin and Annales, Ixxvi, 6-12
(T.p. & ec.) (1936); Ixxvii, 1-5 (1937).—Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
Bulletin, Ixviii, 2 (T.p. & c.) (19386); Ixix, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (19386-1937).—Société
Royale Zoologique de Belgique. Annales, Ixvi, 1935 (1936).

BupapPEest.—Huwungarian National Museum: Zoological Department. Annales Historico-
Naturales, xxx (1936).

BUENOS AIRES.—WMinisterio de Agricultura de la Nacion. Memoria de la Comision
Central de Investigaciones sobre la Langosta. Correspondiente al Ano 1934 (1936).—
Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales. Anales, xxxvili (1934-1936).—Sociedad
Argentina de Ciencias Naturales. Revista ‘‘Physis’, xii, 43 (1936).—Sociedad
Entomologica Argentina. Revista, viii (complete) (1936).

BUITENzORG.—WN ederlandsch-Indische Entomologische Vereeniging. Entomologische
Mededeelingen van Nederlandsch-Indie, T.p. & c. for i-ii (1935-1936); ii, 4 (1936) ;
Tiel Salone) rs

CAIRNS.—North Queensland Naturalists’ Club. ‘North Queensland Naturalist”, v, 49
and Supplement, 50 and Supplement, 51 and Supplement (1937).

CaLcuTra.—Geological Survey of India. Memoirs, Ixix, 1 (1937); Ixx, pt. 2, No. 1 (1936) ;
Ixxi (1937) ; Memoirs, Palaeontologia Indica, N.S. xx, 6 (T.p. & c.) (1937); xxii, ¢
(1936) ; xxiii, 1 (1936) ; xxiv, 1 (19387); Records, Ixxi, 2-3 (1936); Ixxii, 1 (1937).-—
Zoological Survey of India. Memoirs of the Indian Museum, xi, 4 (T.p. & c.) (19386-
1937); Records of the Indian Museum, xxxviii, 2-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1936-1937) ; xxxix,
I= 2) (LIST):

CAMBRIDGE.—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Biological Reviews, xi, 4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); xii, 1-3 (1937).—University of Cambridge. Abstracts of Dissertations
approved for the Ph.D., M.Se., and M.Litt. Degrees during the Academical Year
1935-36 (1936).

CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Annual Report
of the Director for 1935-36 (1936); Bulletin, Ixxix, 5-7 (1936); Ixxx, 2-8 (1936-
IMRT) 2 ibssSdi, 1-3} (abe, Ke @)) (IDB) 2 Iboechi, 1 CIOS).

CANBERRA.—Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book, No. 29,
1936 (1936).—Council for Scientific and Industrial Research: Divisions of Hconomic
Entomology and Plant Industry. Contributions (Economic Entomology), Nos. 1038-
109; (Plant Industry), Nos. 50-76 (1936-37).

CAPE TOWN. Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions, xxiv, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936-
1937).—South African Museum. Annals, xxiv, 4 (19386); xxxi, 3 (1986); xxxii, 2
(1937) ; Report for Year ended 31st December, 1936 (1937).

CuHicaco.—Field Museum of Natural History. Botany, Leaflet 18-20 (1936-1937);
Publications, Botanical Series, ix, 3 (1937); xi, 6 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xiii, pt. 1,
No. 3; pt. 2, No. 1; pt. 2, No. 2; pt. 6; xv; xvii, 1 (1936-1937) ; Geological Series,
vi, 15-17; vii, 1-2 (1936-1937); Report Series, xi, 1 (1937); Zoological Series, xiii,
9-10 (1936-1937); xx, 13-22 (1936); xxii, 1-2 (1936).—John Crerar Library. 38th
Report for the Years 1932-1936 (1937).

CHRISTCHURCH.—Canterbury Museum. Records, iv, 2-3 (1935, 1937).

CINCINNATI.—Lloyd Library. Bulletin, No. 35 (1936).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xlix

CLus.—Gradina Botanica. Buletinul, xvi, 1-4 and Appendix 1 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xvii,
1-2 (1987); Contributions botaniques de Cluj, ii, 5-11 (1936-1937).

Cormpra.—Universidade de Coimbra: Instituto Botanica. Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana,
Serie ii, xi (1936); ‘“‘Conspectus Florae Angolensis’’, edited by Dr. L. W. Carrisso,
Vol. i, Fase. 1 (1937); Mwsew Zoologico: Arquivos da Seccao de Biologia e Parasito-
logia, ii, 3 (1935) ; Memorias e Estudios, Serie i, No. 71, Fis. 8-9; 80-88 (1935-1936) ;
Serie iv, No. 2 (1935); Serie vi, 3 (1935).

CoLuMBuS.—Ohio State University and Ohio Academy of Science. “Ohio Journal of
Science”, xxxvi, 5-6 (T.p. & c.) (1986); xxxvii, 1-4 (1937).—Ohio State University:
Ohio Biological Survey. Bulletin 33 (1936).

CoPpENHAGEN.—Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Biologiske Meddelelser,
xiii, 6-10 (1936-1937) ; Mémoires, Section des Sciences, 9™° Série, vii, 1 (1987).—
Zoological Museum of the University. Publications, No. 77 (19386).

DuBLIN.—Royal Dublin Society. Economic Proceedings, iii, 2-4 (1986-1937); Scientific
Proceedings, N.S. xxi, 35-53 (1936-1937).—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings,
Section B, xliii, 5-13 (1936-1937).

DuRBAN.—Durban Musewm. Annual Report of the Durban Museum and Art Gallery for
Municipal Year, 1935-36 (no date); Jubilee of the Durban Museum, 1887-1937 (no
date).

East LANSING.—WMichigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science. Report of
the Division of Veterinary Science for the Year ending June 30, 1936 (no date).

EDINBURGH.—Royal Botanic Garden. Notes, xix, 938 (1936): Transactions and Pro-
ceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, xxxii, 1, Session 1935-36 (1936).—
Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, xxii, 5 (T.p. & c.) (19386).—Royal Society of
Edinburgh. Proceedings, lvi, 3 (T.p. & c.) (19386); lvii, 1-2 (1937); Transactions,
lviii, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1936). é

FRANKFURT a.M.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, Abh.
431-487 (1936-1937); ‘Natur und Volk’, Ixvi, 6-12 (T.p. & c.) (1936); Ixvii, 1-8
(1937); “Die Entwicklung unseres Kalenders’” by Dr. R. Blochmann (Kiel, 1935).

GENEVA.—Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle. Compte Rendu des Séances, liii, 3
(T.p. & ce.) (19386); liv, 1-2 (19387).

GENOvaA.—Societa Entomologica Italiana. SBollettino, Ixvii, 7-10 (Index) (1935); Ixviii,
1-10 (T.p. & ec.) (1936); Ixix, 1-6 (1937); Memorie, xiv, 1935, Fascicolo Unico
(1935) ; xv, 1936, 1 (1936).

GLEN OSMOND, South Australia.—Waite Agricultural Research Institute. Thirty-seven
Separates (1936-1937); Report, 1933-1936 (1937).

GRANVILLE.—Denison University. Journal of the Scientific Laboratories, xxxi, pp. 93-259
(T.p. & ce.) (19386-1937); xxxii, pp. 1-131 (1937).

Hauirax.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings, xix, 2, 1935-36 (1936).

HARLEM.—Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaises de Phonetique
expérimentale, xiii (1937); Archives Néerlandaises de Zoologie, ii, 2-4 (T.p. & ec.)
(1936-19387) ; Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences exactes et naturelles, Série IIIC
(Archives Néerlandaises de Physiologie de l’homme et des animaux), xxi, 3-4
(4diiob Ks @)) C1MBO) 8 sox, Wom ClLOB7)).

HELSINGFORS.—Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Acta, lviii (1935-1936) ; lix (1937);
Acta Botanica Fennica, xvi-xviili (1935-1936); Acta Zoologica Fennica, xvi-xix
(1934-1936) ; xx (1936); xxi (1936) ; Memoranda, xi, 1934-35 (1935-1936).—WSocietas
Scientiarum Fennica. Arsbok-Vuosikirja, xiv, 1935-36 (1936); Bidrag till Kannedom
af Finlands Natur och Folk, Ixxxv, 4 (1936); Commentationes Biologicae, v
(complete) (T.p. & c.) (1936); vi (complete) (T.p. & c.) (1936) ; Commentationes
Physico-mathematicae, ix, 1-10 (1937).—Societas Zoolog.-botanica Fennica Vanamo.
Animalia Fennica, iii (19386); Annales Botanici, vi-vii (1935-1936); Annales
Zoologici, iii (1935-1937); iv (1936).—Suwomen Hyonteistieteellinen Seura (Entomo-
logical Society of Finland). Suomen Hyonteistieteellinen Aikakauskirja (Annales
Entomologici Fennici), ii, 1-4 (T.p. & ec.) (19386) ; iii, 1-2 (1937).

I DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

HIROSHIMA.—Hiroshima University. Journal of Science, Series B, Div. 1, v, 1-6 (1936-
WOR) 8 IDNA 2, sel, <b (ales?/)).

Hopart.—Royal Society of Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings for the Year 1936 (1937).

HonoLuLvu.—Bernice Pauahi Bishop Musewm. Bulletins, 141, 143-145, 147, 149 (1936-
1937) ; Occasional Papers, xii, 4-24 (T.p. & c.) (19386-1937) ; xiii, 1-9, 11-14 (1937).

INDIANAPOLIS.—Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, xlv, 1935 (1936).

Iowa City.—University of Iowa. University of Towa Studies. Studies in Natural History,
xvii, 4-5 (1936-1987) ; Check List and Price List of University Studies (N.S. No. 922)
(L987) 5

IrHaca, N.Y.—Cornell University. 65 Theses and Abstracts of Theses (Nos. 1364, 1516-
1520, 1522-1525, 1528-1532, 1534-15385, 1541, 1544, 1546, 1548, 1550, 1552, 1555,
1557-1562, 1564-1567, 1569-1575, 1577-1584, 1586, 1587, 1589, 1590, 1592, 1594-1604
(1933-1937) ; The George Fisher Baker Non-Resident Lectureship in Chemistry, xiv

(1936).

JAMAICA PLAIN.—Arnold Arboretum. Journal, xvii, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xviii, 1-3
(UDB).

JOHANNESBURG.—South African Association for the Advancement of Science. “South

African Journal of Science’, xxxiii, 1936 (1937).
KURASHIKI.—Ohara Institute for Agricultural Research. Berichte, vii, 3-4 (1936-1937).

Kyiv.—Academie des Sciences @Ukraine, Institut Botanique. Journal, 8(16)-10(18)
(1936).

Kyoto.—Kyoto Imperial University. Memoirs of the College of Science, Series B,
T.p. & c. for xi (1935-1936) ; xii, 1-2 (1936-1937).—Takeuchi Entomological Labora-
tory. Tenthredo. Acta Entomologica, i, 1-3 (1936-1937).

Lacunsa.—University of the Philippines: College of Agriculture. “The Philippine Agri-
eulturist”, T.p. & c. for xxiv (1935-1936) ; xxv, 5-10 (1936-1937) ; xxvi, 1-4 (1937).

La JoLuaA.—Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California. Bulletin,
Technical Series, iv, 2 (1936).

La PuatTa.—Instituto del Museo de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Anales del
Museo de La Plata, Entrega Especial en homenaje a la Memoria de Florentino
Ameghino (1936); Notas del Museo de La Plata, Antropologia, i, 2-5 (19386-1937) ;
Botanica, i, 10-11 (1936-1937); Paleontologia, i, 8 (1937); Zoologia, i, 2-5 (1936-
1937); Obras completas y Correspondencia Cientifica de Florentino Ameghino, xxii-
xxiv (Indices generales) (1936); Revista, N.S. i, Seccion Zoologia, pp. 3-30 (1937) ;
“La Posicion sistematica del Orden Ammonoides’”’, by E. Fossa-Mancini (From Rev.
Mus. La Plata, (N.S.), i, Seccion Paleontologia, pp. 35-66) (1936); ‘“‘SSobre dos Instru-
mentos liticos notables de Patagonia’, by D. Frenguelli (From Rev. Mus. La Plata,
(N.S.), i, Seccion Antropologia, pp. 3-15) (1936).

Le CaAIRE (Cairo).—Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt. Technical and Scientific Service,
Fouad I Agricultural Museum, Bulletin No. 149 (1936).—Société Royale Entomo-
logique @Egypte. Bulletin, i, Année 1908-1909 (1908-1910)-xx, Année 1936 (1936);
Mémoires, i (1908-1918)-iv (1930-1937) ; Publication publié @ l’Occasion de la xiv™e
Exposition agricole et industrielle du Caire organisée par la Société Royal d’Agri-
culture, 15 Février, 1931; Statuts.

LENINGRAD.—<Académie des Sciences de VU.R.S.S. Bulletin, Classe des Sciences mathé-
matiques et naturelles, Série Biologique, 1936, Nos. 1-6 (19386); 1937, Nos. 1-2
(1937); Série Chimique, 1936, Nos. 4-6 (1936); 1937, Nos. 1-2 (19387); Comptes
Rendus (Doklady), Nouvelle Série, 1936, iii, 3-9 (1936); iv, 1-3, 6-9 (1936); 1937,
xiv, 1-2, 4, 6-9 (Index for xiv, Jan.-Mar., 1937) (1937); 1937, xv, 1-9 (19387); xvi,
1-4 (1937); Report delivered at a Special Meeting of the Academy on 9 December,
1936, by N. P. Kasterin entitled “Generalization of Aerodynamic and Electrodynamic
Fundamental Equations’ (1937).—Geological and Prospecting Service, U.S.S.R.
Problems of Soviet Geology, 1936, vi, 6-12 (1936); 1937, vii, 1-4 (1937).—Lenin
Academy of Agricultural Sciences in U.S.S.R.: Institute of Plant Industry. Bulletin
of Applied Botany, of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Series i, No. 2 (1937); Series ii,

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. li

Nos. 10-11 (1936-1937) ; Series iii, Nos. 14-15 (19386); Institute for Plant Protection:
Bulletin of Plant Protection, Series i, No. 19 (19386); Plant Protection, Fasc. 9-11
(1936).—Société Entomologique de VU.R.S.S. Revue d’Entomologie de 1’U.R.S.5,
xxvi, 1935, 1-4 (I.p. & c.) (1936) ; xxvii, 1937, 1-2 (1937).

Liken.—Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Bulletin, 5™* Année, 6-12 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); 6me Année, 1-5 (1937) ; Mémoires, 4m™e Série, i (1936).

Lima.—Sociedad Geologica del Peru. TBoletin, viii, 1-2 (1936).

Lisspoa.—Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciencias, Instituto Botanico. Trabalhos,
ii (1933-1934).

LIvVERPOOL.—Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Annals of Tropical Medicine and
Parasitology, xxx, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1986); xxxi, 1-2 (19387).

LIUBLJANA.—Prirodoslovno drustvo (Natural Science Society). Prirodoslovne Razprave,
Kujiga (Vol.) i (complete) (1931-1932); ii (complete) (1933-1935).

Lonpon.—British Museum (Natural History). Flora of Jamaica. By W. Fawcett and
A. B. Rendle, Vol. vii, by the late S. le M. Moore and A. B. Rendle (1936) ; Mosquitoes
of the Ethiopian Region. Part 1. By G. H. Hopkins (1936); Monograph of the
Genus Erebia. By B. C. S. Warren (1936).—Geological Society. Quarterly Journal,
xcil, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xciii, 1-2 (1937); Subject Index to the Literature added
to the Society’s Library during the Years 1920, 1921 and 1922 (1937).—Linnean
Society. Journal, Botany, 1, 335 (1937); Zoology, xxxix, 268 (T.p. & c.) (1936);
xl, 269 (1936); Proceedings, 148th Session, 1935-36, 4 (T.p. & c.) (19386); 149th
Session, 1936-37, 1-2 (1937).—WMinistry of Agriculture. Journal, xliii, 7-12 (T.p. & c.)
(1936-1937); xliv, 1-6 (1937).—Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin of Miscel-
laneous Information, 1936 (1937); Hooker’s Icones Plantarum, Fifth Series, iv, 1
(1936).—Royal Entomological Society. Proceedings, Series A, xi, 6-12 (T.p. & c.)
(1936) ; xii, 1-9 (1937); Series B, v, 10-12 (T.p. & c.) (19386); vi, 1-9 (1937) ; Trans-
actions, Ixxxiv (complete) (1936); Ixxxv, 13-20 (T.p. & ¢c.) (1936); Ixxxvi, 1-9
(1937).—Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, Series iii, lvi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936) ;
lvii, 1-2 (1937).—Royal Society. Philosophical Transactions, Series B, cexxvi, 536-
540 (T.p. & c.) (1936); cexxvii, 541, 543-545 (1937); Proceedings, Series B, cxxi,
822-825 (T.p. & ec.) (1936-1937) ; exxii, 826-829 (T.p. & c.) (1937); exxiii, 830-833
(T.p. & c.) (19387); exxiv, 834 (1937).—Zoological Society. Proceedings, 1936, 3-4
(T.p. & ec. for pp. 595-1190) (1936-1937) ; Proceedings, cvii, Series A, 1-2 (1937);
Series B, 1-2 (1937); Series C, 1-9 (1937); Transactions, xxiii, 1-3 (1936-1937).

Los ANGELES.—See under Berkeley, University of California..

LuND.—K. Universitets i Lund. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift (Acta Universitatis
Lundensis), Ny Foljd, Avd. 2, xxxi, 1935 (1934-1936) ; xxxii, 1936 (1936-1937).

Maprip.—Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural. SBoletin, xxxvi, 6-8 (1936); Revista
Espanola de Biologia, v, 3 (19386).

MANCHESTER.—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal of
Conchology, xx, 9-11 (1936-1937).—Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Memoirs and Proceedings, Ixxix, 1934-35 (1935); Ixxx, 1935-36 (1936); Ixxxi, 1-7
(1937).—Manchester Musewm. Museum Publication 112 (1936).

MANHATTAN.—American Microscopical Society. Transactions, lv, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936);
lvi, 1-3 (1937).

MANILA.—Bureau of Science. ‘Philippine Journal of Science’’, lvi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1935)-
Iba, alse! (anon cs 5) (Calb)BiG)) 8 Ibs aly oth (aba Ae @)) (GURY S Ibebht, al (GlS)\Bw)c

MARSEILLE.—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, 2™e Série, viii, 1-3 (T.p. & c.)
(1935); ix, 1-2 (1986).—Musée d’Histoire naturelle de Marseille. Annales, xxvii, 2
(1935).

MBELBOURNE.—‘‘Australasian Journal of Pharmacy”’, N.S., xvii, 202-204 (Index) (1936);
Xviii, 205-213 (1937) (From the Publisher).—Botanic Gardens. ‘“‘The Honey Flora
of Victoria” (Melbourne, 1935).—Couwncil for Scientific and Industrial Research.
Tenth Annual Report for Year ended 30th June, 1936 (1936); Bulletin, T.p. & c. for

lil DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

Nos. 81-90 (Vol. ix) (1934-1935) and for Nos. 91-100 (Vol. x) (1935-1936); Nos.
102-109 (1936-1937); Journal, ix, 4 (T.p. & ec.) (1936); x, 1 and Supplement, 2-3
(1987) ; Pamphlets, Nos. 66-73 (1936-1937) ; Catalogue of the Scientific and Technical
Periodicals in the Libraries of Australia. Supplement, 1934-1936 (19387); Ten Years
of Progress, 1926-1936 (1936).—Department of Agriculture of Victoria. Journal,
xxxiv, 11-12 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xxxv, 1-10 (1937).—Field Naturalists’ Club of
Victoria. ‘‘The Victorian Naturalist”, liii, 7-12 (T.p. & ec.) (1936-1937); liv, 1-6
(1937).—McCoy Society for Field Investigation and Research. Reports, No. 1
(1937).—National Museum. Memoirs, Nos. 9-10 (19386).—Puwblic Library, Museums
and National Gallery of Victoria. Report of the Trustees for 1936 (19387).—Royal
Society of Victoria. Proceedings, xlix (N.S.), 1-2 (T.p. & ec.) (1936-1937).—
University of Melbourne. Calendar for 1937 (1936).

MINNEAPOLIS.—University of Minnesota. ‘The American Geologist’, xxii, 6 (T.p. & c.)
(1898).

Monaco.—Institut Oceanographique de Monaco. Bulletin, Nos. 703-712 (T.p. & ec. for
Nos. 686-712) (1936); 713-723 (19387).

MONTEVIDEO.—Asociacion Sudamericana de Botanica. Revista Sudamericana de Botanica,
iii, 4-6 (Index and contents) (1936); Four separates by A. Blochwitz, R. Grooss,
F. C. Hoehne and J. Mattfeld (1933).

MOoNTREAL.—Laboratoire de Botanique de VUniversité de Montreal. Contributions, Nos.
27-28 (1936-1937).

MoRGANTOWN.—West Virginia University: College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Bulletin 278 (1936).

Moscow.—Limnologische Station zu Kossino der Hydrometeorologischen Administration
der U.S.S.R. Arbeiten, 21 (1937).—‘‘Microbiology” (a Journal of General, Agricul-
tural and Industrial Microbiology), v, 4-6 (T.p. & ce.) (1936); vi, 1-4 (1987).

MUNCHEN.—Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung, Neue Folge, 33-41 (1936-1937) ; Sitzungsberichte,
1936, 1-3 Cp. & ¢) (1936):

NANKING.—WNational Geological Survey of China. Geological Bulletin, Nos. 28-29
(1936-1937).—National Research Institute of Geology: Academia Sinica. A Geological
Atlas of the Mid-western Nanling (1937).—Science Society of China. Contributions
from the Biological Laboratory, Botanical Series, vi, 8 (1931); ix, 3 (T.p. & ¢c)
(1934); x, 1-2 (1935-19386); Zoological Series, vi, 1-3 (19380); vii, 4-10 (T.p. & c.)
(1931); x, 4-10 (T.p. & c.) (1984-1935); xi, 1-10 (19385-1936) ; xii, 1-4 (1936).

NAPLES.—Stazione Zoologica di Napoli. Pubblicazioni, xvi, 1 (1937).

New DELHI.—Imperial Agricultural Research Institute. Proceedings of the Mycological
Conference held at Pusa on 5th February, 1917, and following days (1917); Board
of Agriculture in India. Proceedings of the Second Meeting of Agricultural Chemists
and Bacteriologists held at Pusa on 7th February, 1921, and following days (1921);
Proceedings of the Third Meeting of Mycological Workers in India held at Pusa on
7th February, 1921, and following days (1921); Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry in India (formerly Review of Agricultural Operations in India), 1933-34
and 1934-35, pts. 1-2 (1936). Scientific Reports of the Imperial Institute of Agri-
cultural Research, Pusa, 1934-35 (1936); Scientific Reports for the Year ending
June 30, 1936 (1937); “The Indian Journal of Agricultural Science’, vi, pt. 1,
ft Axticles; pt: 2,8 Arts); pt. 3, 12) Arts): pt. 45 3) Arts); sot. 5, (6 “Amtsh- pty 65) 5) -Amtse
vii, pt. 1, 12 Arts.; pt. 2, 4 Arts. (1936-1937).

NEW HAvVEN.—Comnnecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Transactions, xxxii, pp. 351-
434 (1936-1937).—Yale University: Peabody Musewm of Natural History. Bulletin
of the Bingham Oceanographic Collection, T.p. & ec. for Vols. i and ii; iii, 7 (T.p. & c.)
(19387); T.p. & c. for Vol. iv; v, 4-5 (T.p. & c.) (1937); vi, 1-2 (1987); Occasional
Papers, T.p. & c. for Nos. 1-3 (all issued) (1927-1930)

New YorK.—American Geographical Society. ‘Geographical Review”, xxvi, 4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); xxvii, 1-3 (1937).—American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin, T.p. & ec.

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. liii

for Ixvi (1933-1934); lxix (1937); Ixx, 2 (19386); Ixxii, 1-7 (1936-1937) ; Ixxiii, 1-5
(CAMA) S SAINepieeyl Ishiewoa so-orainntl Baby (Uno, Ks @)) (GIOEIG)) B sos b aly (apie, he ))
(1937); xl, 1-2 (1937).—New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, xxxvi (complete)
(1936).—New York Botanical Garden. “Brittonia’’, ii, 3-4 (19386-1937).

NISHIGAHARA, Tokyo.—Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station in Japan. Journal, iii,
i (LOS Ne

Omsxk.—Kirov Institute of Agriculture (formerly Siberian Institute of Agriculture and
Forestry). Transactions of the Omsk Institute of Agriculture, i, 1, 2, 4-5 (1935);
i, 1-6 (bound in one) (1935); one publication entirely in Russian (1932).

Osto.—Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo. Arbok, 1935 (1936); 1936 (1937);
Avhandlinger, I. Mat.-Naturv. Klasse, 1935 (1936); 19386 (19387); Hvalradets
Skrifter (Scientific Results of Marine Biological Research), Nos. 13-14 (19386-1937) ;
Skrifter, I. Mat.-Naturv. Klasse, 1935 (2 vols.) (1986); 1936 (2 vols.) (1937).—
Université de Oslo. Archiv for Mathematik og NaturvidensKab, xli, 2 (1936).

OTTawa.—Department of Agriculture. Circular, Nos. 94, 109, 112, 114, 118, 119, 121, 123,
127 (1936-1937) ; Farmers’ Bulletin 14 (1936); 14 (May, 1937); Household Bulletin,
2, 6-10 (1936); Technical Bulletin, No. 8 (1987); Progress Report of the Dominion
Horticulturist for Years 1931, 1932 and 1933 (1936); Report of the Minister of
Agriculture for Year ended March 381, 1936 (1936); Dominion Experimental Station,
Summerland, B.C. Results of Experiments 1932-1936 (1937).—Department of Mines.
Bulletin, No. 82 (Nat. Mus. Ann. Rept. for 1935-36) (1936); Report for the Fiscal
Year ending March 31, 1936 (1936) ; Geological Survey of Canada. Memoirs, 189-192,
Addendum to Index to 192, 193, 195, 196, 202-205 (1936-1937); National Museum of
Canada. Bulletin, Nos. 80 (Geol. Series, No. 54) (1936); 85 (Biol. Series, No. 22)
(1937).—Royal Society of Canada. Transactions, Third Series, xxx, List of Officers
and Members, ete.; Sections 4-5 (1936).

Pato Auto.—Stanford University. Contributions from the Dudley Herbarium, i, 7
(T.p. & c.) (19386).

Paris.—‘Journal de Conchyliologie’’, lxxx, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936-1937); Ixxxi, 1-3 (19387)
(From the Publisher).—Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Bulletin, 2™® Série,
viii, 8-5 (1936).—Société Hntomologique de France. Annales, cv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936) ; evi, 1-2 (1937); Bulletin, xli, 15-20 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xlii, 1-12 (1937).

Pavia.—Istituto Botanico della R. Universita di Pavia. Atti, Serie iv, iv, 1933 (1933);
v, 1934 (19384); vi, 1935 (19385); vii-viii, 1936 (1936).

PEHIPING.—Fan Memorial Institute of Biology. Bulletin, vii (Botany), 1-2 (1936).—
Peking Society of Natural History and the Department of Biology, Yenching Univer-
sity. Peking Natural History Bulletin, xi, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936-1937).

PERM.—Institut des Recherches Biologiques a VUniversité de Perm. Bulletin, x, 6-10
(1936).

PERTH.—Department of Agriculture of Western Australia. Journal, Second Series, xiii,
3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936) ; xiv, 1-3 (1937).—Royal Society of Western Australia. Journal,
xxii, 1935-36 (19386).

PHILADELPHIA.—Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, Ixxxvii, 1935 (1936);
Ixxxviii, 1936 (1937); Review of 1935 (1986); “Discovery. Science at Work” and
Treasurer’s Report, 1936 (1937).—American Philosophical Society. Memoirs, v-viii,
pts. 1-2 (1936-1937) ; Proceedings, Ixxvi, 3-6 (T.p. & c.) (1936); Ixxvii, 1-4 (1937);
Transactions, N.S. xxix-xxx (1936-1937) ; Library: Annual Report for 1936 (1937).—
University of Pennsylvania. Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory for the
Year 1935, Vol. xxxiii (1936).—Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. ‘The
Journal of Experimental Zoology’’, Ixxiv, 2-3 (T.p. & c.) (1936) ; Ixxv, 1-3 (T.p. & c.)
(1937); Ixxvi, 1-3 (T.p. & c.) (1987).—Zoological Society of Philadelphia. 65th
Annual Report of the Board of Directors for the Twelve Months ending December 31,
L936 GLIS7)).

PIETERMARITZBURG.—Natal Museum. Annals, T.p. & c. for vii; viii, 2 (1937).
PirrsBuRG.—Carnegie Museum. Annals, xxii (1933-1934)-xxiii (1934).
0O
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liv DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

PLYMOUTH.—Marine Biolegical Association of the United Kingdom.. Journal, N.S.
Mie, Ke © ioe so<S Sox, We CIMSOG 1937).

PraG.—Deutsche Naturwissenschaftlich-medizinische Verein fur Bohmen “Lotos’ in Prag.
Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift ‘Lotos’’, Ixxxiv (1936).—Museuwm Nationale de
Prague: Section Entomologique. Bulletin (Sbornik Entomologickeho Oddeleni
Narodniho Musea vy. Praze), xiv (Nos. 122-138) (1936).—Societas Entomologica
Czechosloveniae. Acta, xxxiii, 1-4 (T.p. & c@.) (1936).

PRETORIA.—Department of Agriculture and Forestry of the Union of South Africa:
Division of Plant Industry. Bulletins, Nos. 105, 148, 168 (1931, 1935, 1937);
Botanical Survey Memoirs, Nos. 11, 14-16 (1931, 1931, 1936, 1937) ; Science Bulletins,
INOS 12350 Lai 28. 1325 Sa ase dao NAGS aS 4 OF ib 6. 62) Go s3s=19)36)E——
Transvaal Museum. Annals, xvii, 4 (1937).

RICHMOND.—Hawkesbury Agricultural College. H.A.C. Journal, xxxiii, 10-12 (Index)
(1936) ; xxxiv, 1-9 (19387).

Riga.—Latvijas Biologijas Biedriba (Societas Biologiae Latviae). Raksti (Acta), vi
(1936).

Rio DE JANEIRO.—Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Memorias, xxxi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xxxii,
1-2 (1937).—Jardim Botanico. Arquivos do Instituto de Biologia Vegetal, T.p. & ec.
for ii (1935); iii, 1 (1936); ‘“‘Rodriguesia’’, ii, 5-6 (1936).

RIVERSIDE.—University of California: Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture and Citrus
Experiment Station. Papers, Nos. 302, 304, 327, 328, 332, 3338, 338, 341-343, 350-352,
355, 357-365, 398, 399 (1936-1937).

St. GEORGE’S WEST.—Bermuda Biological Station for Research, Incorporated. Contribu-
tions, ii, 39-54 (1936-1937).

Str. Louis.—Academy of Science of St. Louis. Transactions, xxix, 2-3 (1936).—WMissouri
Botanical Garden. Annals, xxiii, 3-4 (T.p. & ce.) (19386); xxiv, 1-2 (1937).

San Di1EGo.—San Diego Society of Natural History. Occasional Papers, No. 1 (19386);
Transactions, viii, 16-22 (1936).

SAN FRANCISCO.—California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, Fourth Series, xxi, 22-29
(1935-1936) ; xxii, 1-2 (1936-1937) ; xxiii, 1-6 (1935-1936).

Sao PAuULO.—Museu Paulista. Revista, xx (1936).

Sapporo.—Hokkaido Imperial University. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Series v,
iv, 3 (1936); Series vi, v, 1-3 (1936-1937).

SEATTLE.—University of Washington Oceanographic Laboratories. Publications in
Oceanography, Supplementary Series, T.p. & ec. for Vol. i (Nos. 1-49) (1931-1935) ;
Nos. 51-60 (1936).

SENDAI.—Tohoku Imperial University. Science Reports, Second Series, Special Volume
No. 1 (1936); Fourth Series, xi, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936-1937) ; xii, 1 (1937).

SHANGHAI.—Department of Geology of the Shanghai Science Institute. Studies from the
Department of Geology of the Shanghai Science Institute, Separate Prints, 1935,
10-11 (From Journ. Shanghai Science Inst., Section ii, Vol. i, pp. 155-226) (1935);
Separate Prints, 1936, 2-4 (From Journ. Shanghai Science Inst., Section ii, Vol. ii,
pp. 11-146) (1936).

SHARON.—Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research. Contributions, xii, 3-4
(1936) ; xiii, 1-2 (1937).

StocKkKHOLM.—Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademien. Arkiv for Botanik, xxviii, 1-4
(T.p. & c.) (1936); Arkiv for Kemi, Mineralogi och Geologi, xii, 1-3 (1936-1937) ;
Arkiv for Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik, xxv, 2-3 (1936-1937); Arkiv for Zoologi,
xxviii A, No. 17 (Plates only) (1936); 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xxix, 1-2 (1937);
Arsbok, 1936 (1936); Handlingar, Tredje Serien, xv, 6 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xvi, 1-4
(1936-1937); Skrifter i Naturskyddsarenden, Nos. 32-33 (1936-1937).—Statens

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. lv

Vaxtskyddsanstalt. Flygblad, Nos. 18-34 (1935-1937); Meddelande, Nos. 13-19
(1936-1937) ; Vaxtskyddsnotiser, Nos. 1, 3 (19387).

SypngEy.—Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14. Scientific Reports, Series C
(Zoology and Botany), i, 1 (1937) (From the Government Printer, Sydney).—
Australian Institute of Agricultural Science. Journal, ii, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936) ; iii,
1-3 (1937).—Australian Musewm. Annual Report of the Trustees for the Year
1935-36 (1937); Australian Museum Magazine, vi, 4-7 (1936-1937); Records, xix,
7 (1936); xx, 1-2 (1937); ‘Destruction of Timber by Marine Organisms in the Port
of Sydney. Supplementary Report, No. 1”, by R. A. Johnson, F. A. McNeill and
Tom Iredale (published by the Maritime Services Board of N.S.W.) (Oct., 1936).—
Australian National Research Council. ‘‘Australian Science Abstracts’, xv, 4 (1936) ;
xvi, 1-3 (1937).—Australian Veterinary Association. “Australian Veterinary
Journal’, xii, 5-6 (Index) (1936); xiii, 1-4 (1987).—Department of Agriculture,
N.S.W. ‘Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W.’’, xlvii, 11-12 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xlviii,
1-10 (1937); Live Stock Diseases Report, No. 12 (1937); Science Bulletin, Nos.
54, 55, 57 (1987).—Drug Houses of Australia Ltd. ‘Australasian Pharmaceutical
Notes and News’, N.S. xv, 11-12 (1936); xvi, 1-10 (1937).—EHducation Department.
“Education Gazette’, xxx, 11-12 (Index) (19386); xxxi, 1-10 (1937).—IJmstitutes of
Surveyors in Australia. ‘The Australian Surveyor’, vi, 4-7 (1936-1937).—WMicrobio-
logical Laboratory: Department of Public Health. Report of the Principal Micro-
biologist for the Year ended 31st December, 1935 (1936).—Naturalists’ Society of
New South Wales. ‘“‘The Australian Naturalist’, x, 1 (1937).—Orchid Society of
New South Wales. ‘Australian Orchid Review”, i, 4 (19386).—Royal Society of New
South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Ixx, 1-2 (T.p. & ec.) (1937).—Royal
Zoological Society of New South Wales. Proceedings for the Year 1936-37 (19387) ;
“ne Australian Zoologist’’, viii, 4 (1937).—Sydney University Science Association.
Science Journal, xv, 2-3 (1936); xvi, 1-2 (19387).—Technological Musewm. One
reprint from Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xx, pp. 375-7, by A. R. Penfold and
F. R. Morrison (1937).—‘‘The Medical Journal of Australia’, 1936, ii, 18-26 (T.p. & c.)
(1936) ; 19387, i, 1-26 (T.p. & c.) (1987); ii, 1-17 (19387) (From the Editor).—
University of Sydney. Calendar, 1936 (1936); Journal of the Cancer Research
Committee, T.p. & c. for vii; viii, 1-2 (1937).—Wild Life Preservation Society of
Australia. ‘Australian Wild Life’, i, 3 (19387).

Toxyo.—Imperial Fisheries Institute. Journal, xxxii, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (1937).—Imperial
University of Tokyo. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Section iii, v, 2 (1987);
Section iv, iv, 2-3 (1936-1937).—National Research Council of Japan. Japanese
Journal of Botany, viii, 3-4 (T.p. & ec.) (1936-1937); Japanese Journal of Geology
and Geography, xiii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xiv, 1-2 (1937); Japanese Journal of
Zoology, T.p. & c. for vi; vii, 1-2 (19386-1937); Report, ii, 5, Apr. 1935-Mar. 1936
(1937).—Tokyo Bunrika Daigaku (Tokyo University of Literature and Science) :
Zoological Institute. Science Reports, Section B, iii, 46-49 (1936) and Supplement
No. 1 (1936).—Waseda University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Office of
First Scientific Hxpedition of Manchoukuo. Report of the First Scientific Expedition
to Manchoukuo, Section v: pt. 1 (1934); Div. 1, pt. 2 (1935); pt. 10, Arts. 38-52
(1936) ; Div. 1, pt. 12, Arts. 66-67 (1935) ; Div. 2, pts. 2-3 (1935).—Zoological Society
of Japan. Annotationes Zoologicae Japonenses, xv, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1936); xvi, 1-2
CGlQ37))c

TORONTO.—Royal Canadian Institute. Proceedings, Series iii, i (1936) ; Transactions, xxi,
1 (1986).

TRING.—Zoological Museum. Novitates Zoologicae, xl, 2 (1937).

TRONDHJEM.—Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab. Forhandlinger, ix, 1936
(1937) ; Skrifter, 1936 (1937) ; Museet: Arsberetning, 1935 (1936) ; Oldsaksamlingens
Tilvekst, 1935 (1936).

TUNIS.—Institut Pasteur de Tunis. Archives, xxv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (19386); xxvi, 1-2
(ADS) 5

UppPsALA.—Royal University of Uppsala. Bulletin of the Geological Institution, xxvii
(1937) ; ‘““Dendro-chronological Studies’ by Stellan Erlandsson (1936).

URBANA.—University of Illinois. Illinois Biological Monographs, xiv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.)
(1936); xv, 1 (19387).

lvi DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

UTRECHT.—Botanisch Museum. en Herbarium van de Rijksuniversiteit. Mededeelingen,
T.p. & ec. for Nos. 1-13 (19382-1934) and for Nos. 14-32 (1934-1936); Nos. 33-39
(1936).

VERSAILLES.—Centre National de Recherches agronomiques. ‘“‘Annales des Epiphyties et
de Phytogénétique’’, Nouvelle Série, ii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936).

VIENNA.—Naturhistorische Museum in Wien. Annalen, xlviii (1937); One separate
“Siegfried Stockmayer. Hin Nachruf”’ by Dr. K. Keissler (From Verh. Zool.-bot.
Gesell. in Wien, Ixxxv, 1935, pp. 149-157).—Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft in
Wien. Verhandlungen, Ilxxxv, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1936).

WarRSAW.—Panstwowe Muzeum Zoologiczne (Polish Museum of Zoology). Acta Ornitho-
logica, i, 16 (T.p. & c.) (1936); ii, 1-4 (1986-1937); Annales, T.p. & c. for x (1933-
1934); xi, 11-30 (1936-1937); Fragmenta Faunistica, ii, 31-36 (T.p. & ec.) (1936);
iii, 1-6 (19387).

WASHINGTON.—American Chemical Society. “Industrial and Engineering Chemistry”,
xxvili, 9-12 (T.p. & ec.) (19386); xxix, 1-9 (1937).—Bureau of American Ethnology.
Annual Report, 53rd, 1935-36 (19387); Bulletins, 112-114 (1936-1937).—Carnegie
Institution of Washington. Publications, Nos. 457, 461, 462, 466, 467, 470, 473
(1935-1936) ; Supplementary Publications, Nos. 19-22 (1936); 24 (Revised Edition)
(1937); 26 (1936); Year Book, No. 35 (1936); Exhibition representing Results of
Research Activities (1936).—National Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, xxii, 9-12
(T.p. & ec.) (1936); xxiii, 1-8 (19387).—Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of
the Board of Regents for the Year ending June 30, 1935 (1936).—U.S. Department
of Agriculture. Agricultural Statistics, 1936 (1936); 1937 (1937); Bulletin, No. 772
(Issued March, 1920, revised May, 1936) (1986); Miscellaneous Publication, No. 217
(1936) ; Technical Bulletin, Nos. 5380, 541, 542 (19386); Yearbook of Agriculture, 1936
(1936); 1987 (19387).—U.S. Department of Commerce: Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Special Publication, No. 207 (1936).—U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins, 847B, D,
852, 860B-C (T.p. & c.), 861, 8638, 864C (T.p. & c.), 867, 868C-D (T.p. & c.), 870, 871,
873, 874B, 876 (Text and Plates), 878, 880A-B, 881, 882, 886A (1935-19387) ;
Professional Papers, 182, 185I (T.p. & c.), 186A, C-E, G-I, K, L (1936-1937) ;
Water Supply Papers, 678, 756-758, 767, 770, 778A-D, 775-777, 784-791, 793,
794 (1936-1937).—U.S. National Museum. Bulletins, 1538, 167, 168 (1937); Pro-
ceedings, Ixxxiii, Nos. 2990-2997 (T.p. & c.) (1986); Ixxxiv, 2998-3016, 3020 (1936-
1937) ; Report on the Progress and Condition of the Museum for the Year ended
June 30, 1936 (1937).

WELLINGTON.—Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Bulletin 55 (1937);
Geological Survey Branch. 30th Annual Report (N.S.), 1935-36 (1936); Bulletin
(N.S.), No. 37 (1937); Palaeontological Bulletin, No. 15 (1937); One separate by
J. Marwick from Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. N.Z., \xv (1935).—Dominion Museum.
“New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology”, xviii, 3-12 (T.p. & c.) (1936-
1937); xix, 1-3 (1937).—Royal Society of New Zealand. Transactions and Pro-
ceedings, Ixvi, 3-4 (T.p, & c.) (1936-1937) ; Ixvii, 1 (19387).

Woops Houe.—Marine Biological Laboratory. Biological Bulletin, lxxi, 2-3 (T.p. & ec.)
(IDB) B Test, tek} (Ano, ks ©) (IDB) 2 Ibori, ab GIOSi)s

PRIVATE Donors (and Authors, unless otherwise stated).

CortTis-JONES, Mrs. H. F., Roseville, Sydney (donor).—‘“‘The Seaweeds of South Australia.
Part i. Introduction and the Green and Brown Seaweeds”, by A. H. S. Lucas, M.A.,
B.Sc. (Adelaide, June, 1936). :

Exit Litty and Company, Indianapolis, Ind., U.S.A. (donor).—"“Lilly Research Labora-
tories. Dedication.’”’ (1934).

HoumMeEs, Professor J. MACDONALD, Geography Department, University of Sydney (donor).—
“Land Utilization Regions of Tasmania’, by A. G. Lowndes, M.Sc., and W. H. Maze,
M.Se. (University of Sydney, Publications in Geography, No. 4) (1937).

Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough, Wilts, England.—‘Exotic Microlepidoptera’”’, v,
1-4 (1936-1937).

DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. lvii

O’DwveErR, Dr. MarGAaret H., Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough,
Aylesbury, Bucks, England.—‘‘The Hemicelluloses of the Wood of English Oak. iii.
The Fractionation of Hemicellulose A” (From Biochem. Journ. xxxi, 2, pp. 254-257,
ALB)

Ports, Geo., B.Se., Ph.D., Bloemfontein, South Africa (donor).—‘‘An Ecological Study of
a Piece of Karroo-like Vegetation near Bloemfontein’ by Geo. Potts and C. E.
Tidmarsh, M.Sc. (Reprinted from “The Journal of South African Botany’, April,
1937).

SuUSSMILCH, C. A., F.G.S., Sydney (donor).—‘Bibliography and Index of Geology exclusive
of North America’, Vol. iii, 1935, by J. M. Nickles, Marie Siegrist and Hleanor Tatge
(published by the Geological Society of America) (1936).

Taytor, F. H., F.R.E.S., F.Z.S., Sydney.—Five separates by F. H. Taylor (1926, 1929,
1934) and one by C. P. Alexander (1936).

WiLuEy, A.—‘‘Reductions and Reversions” (From Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Third Series,
xxx, Section 5) (Ottawa, 1936).

YamacutTl, Satyu, Kyoto, Japan.—‘Parasitic Copepods from Fishes of Japan’’, Pts. 1-3
(1986) ; “Studies on the Helminth Fauna of Japan”, Pts. 15, 17-19 (1936-1937).

lviil

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1937.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

1927 *Albert, Michel Francois, ‘‘Boomerang’’, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney.

1929 Allan, Miss Catherine Mabel Joyce, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

1905 Allen, Edmund, c/o Mulgrave Mill, Gordonvale, Queensland.

1906 Anderson, Charles, M.A., D.Se., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

1922 Anderson, Robert Henry, B.Sc.Agr., Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

1899 Andrews, Ernest Clayton, B.A., F.R.S.N.Z., No. 4, “‘Kuring-gai’’, 241 Old South
Head Road, Bondi.

1932 Andrews, John, B.A., Ph.D., Department of Geography, Sydney University.

1927 Armstrong, Jack Walter Trench, ‘“Callubri’, Nyngan, N.S.W.

1912 Aurousseau, Marcel, B.Sc.

1913 Badham, Charles, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Bureau of Microbiology, 93 Macquarie Street,
Sydney.

1888 Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

1919 Barnett, Marcus Stanley, 44 Fox Valley Road, Wahroonga.

1935 Beadle, Noel Charles William, B.Sc., 36 Anglo Street, Chatswood.

1907 Benson, Professor William Noel, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., University of Otago, Dunedin,
N.Z.

1920 Blakely, William Faris, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

1929 Boardman, William, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

1935 Bourne, Geoffrey, D.Sc., School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Sydney
University.

1923 Brough, Patrick, M.A., D.Se., B.Se.Agr., Botany School, Sydney University.

1921 Brown, Horace William, 871 Hay Street, Perth, W.A.

1924 Brown, Miss Ida Alison, D.Sc., ‘‘Caversham’’, 166 Brook Street, Coogee.

1911 Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney.

1932 Bryce, Ernest John, 47 Nelson Road, Killara.

1931 Burges, Norman Alan, M.Sc., Ph.D., 35 Wetherell Street, Croydon.

1920 Burkitt, Professor Arthur Neville St. George Handcock, M.B., B.Sc., Medical School,
The University, Sydney.

1901 Campbell, John Honeyford, I.8.0., M.B.E., Royal Canadian Mint, Ottawa, Canada.

1927 Campbell, Thomas Graham, Flat No. 4, 806 Military Road, Mosman.

1930 Carey, Miss Gladys, M.Sc., 32 Rawson Street, Epping.

1934 Carey, Samuel Warren, M.Sc., c/o Oil Search Ltd., 350 George Street, Sydney.

1905 Carne, Walter Mervyn, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

1903 Carter, Herbert James, B.A., F.R.E.S., “Garrawillah’’, Kintore Street, Wahroonga.

1936 *Chadwick, Clarence Earl, B.Se., Hurlstone Agricultural High School, Glenfield,
N.S.W.

1899 Cheel, Edwin, 40 Queen Street, Ashfield.

1924 Chisholm, Edwin Claud, M.B., Ch.M., Barellan, N.S.W.

1932 Churchward, John Gordon, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Faculty of Agriculture, Sydney
University.

1901 Cleland, Professor John Burton, M.D., Ch.M., The University, Adelaide, S.A.

1931 Colefax, Allen N., B.Sc., Department of Zoology, Sydney University.

1933 Coleman, Mrs. Edith, ‘‘Walsham’’, Blackburn Road, Blackburn, Victoria.

1908 Cotton, Professor Leo Arthur, M.A., D.Sc., Geology Department, The University,
Sydney.

1928 Craft, Frank Alfred, B.Sc., 8, “Wyalong’’, Melody Street and Allison Road, Coogee.

1937 Cumpston, Miss Dora Margaret, The Women’s College, Newtown.

1925 Cunningham, Gordon Herriot, Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Fields Division,
Plant Research Station, P.O. Box 442, Palmerston North, N.Z.

1937 Currie, George Alexander, D.Sc., B.Se.Agr., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Box 109, Canberra City, F.C.T.

* Life member.

1929

1934
1932
1936
1934
1929
1925
1937
1928

1927
1921
1937
1937
1926
1920

1932
1930
1914

1930
1911
1930

1935
1936
1936
1912
1911

1910
1936
1901

1925
1919
1897
1885
1928
1917

1932
1911

1930

1930

1932

1907
1892

1917
1930
1907

LIST OF MEMBERS. lix

Dakin, Professor William John, D.Sc., Department of Zoology, The University,
Sydney.

Davidson, Harold James, 14 Princess Avenue, North Strathfield.

Davis, Harrold Fosbery Consett, B.Sc., Department of Zoology, Sydney University.

Day, Maxwell Frank, 12 Arnold Street, Killara.

Day, William Eric, 23 Galling Avenue, Strathfield.

Deane, Cedric, A.M.I.E.Aust., ‘Cloyne’, 6 State Street, Malvern, S.E.4, Victoria.

de Beuzeville, Wilfred Alexander Watt, J.P., ‘‘Melamere,’’ Welham Street, Beecroft.

Deuquet, Camille, B.Com., 43 Church Street, Wollongong, N.S.W.

Dickson, Bertram Thomas, B.A., Ph.D., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Division of Plant Industry, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

*Dixson, William, ‘‘Merridong”’, Gordon Road, Killara.

Dodd, Alan Parkhurst, Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane, Q.

du Boulay, William Lawrance, la Elizabeth Bay Road, King’s Cross, Sydney.

Dulhunty, John Allan, 250 Glebe Road, Glebe Point.

Dumigan, Edward Jarrett, State School, Toowoomba Hast, Queensland.

Dwyer, Rt. Rev. Joseph Wilfrid, Bishop of Wagga, Wagga Wagga, N.S.W.

*Eillis, Ralph, 2420 Ridge Road, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
Iinglish, Miss Kathleen Mary Isabel, B.Sc., March Street, Yass, N.S.W.
Enright, Walter John, B.A., West Maitland, N.S.W.

Fraser, Miss Lilian Ross, D.Se., ‘Hopetoun’, Bellamy Street, Pennant Hills.

Froggatt, John Lewis, B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Rabaul, New Guinea.

Fuller, Miss Mary Ellen, B.Se., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Garretty, Michael Duhan, M.Sc., Chloride Street, Broken Hill, N.S.W.

Gilmour, Darcy, B.Se., 325 Livingstone Road, Marrickville.

Goerling, August, Marloo Station, Wurarga, Western Australia.

Goldfinch, Gilbert Macarthur, University Club, 70 Phillip Street, Sydney.

Greenwood, William Frederick Neville, F.L.S., F.R.E.S., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining
Co., Ltd., Lautoka, Fiji.

Griffiths, Edward, B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Farrer Place, Sydney.

Griffiths, Mervyn Edward, B.Sc., 99 Sailor’s Bay Road, Northbridge.

Gurney, William Butler, B.Sc., F.R.E.S., Department of Agriculture, Farrer Place,
Sydney.

Hale, Herbert Matthew, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, S.A.

Hall, Leslie Lionel, 24 Wellesley Road, Pymble.

Halligan, Gerald Harnett, F.G.S., ‘Coniston’, Marion Street, Killara

Hamilton, Alexander Greenlaw, ‘‘Tanandra’’, Hercules Street, Chatswood.

Hamilton, Edgar Alexander, 16 Hercules Street, Chatswood.

Hardy, George Huddleston Hurlstone, Station Road, Sunnybank, Brisbane,
Queensland.

Harris, Miss Thistle Yolette, B.Sc., 129 Hopetoun Avenue, Vaucluse, Sydney.

Haviland, The Venerable Archdeacon F. E., Moore Street, Austinmer, South Coast,
N.S.W.

Heydon, George Aloysius Makinson, M.B., Ch.M., School of Public Health and
Tropical Medicine, The University, Sydney.

Holmes, Professor James Macdonald, Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.G.S., Depart-
ment of Geography, Sydney University.

Hossfeld, Paul Samuel, M.Sc., c/o Deputy Administrator, Alice Springs, Central
Australia.

Hull, Arthur Francis Basset, M.B.H., Box 704, G.P.O., Sydney.

Hynes, Miss Sarah, B.A., M.B.E., “Isis’, Soudan Street, Randwick.

Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria’, 106 Bland Street, Ashfield.

Jensen, Hans Laurits, Department of Bacteriology, Sydney University.

Johnston, Professor Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., The University, Adelaide,
S.A.

* Life member.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Joplin, Miss Germaine Anne, B.Se., Ph:D., Geology Department, Sydney University.

Judge, Leslie Arthur, 36 Romsey Street, Hornsby.

Julius, Sir George Alfred, B.Sc., B.E., M.I.Mech.H., M.I.H.Aust., 67 Castlereagh
Street, Sydney.

Kaleski, Robert Lucian Stanislaus, ‘‘Thorn Hill’, Moorebank, via Liverpool, N.S.W,
Kendall, Mrs. W. M., M.Sc. (née Williams), 5 Queen Victoria Street, Drummoyne. ~
Kesteven, Geoffrey Leighton, B.Sc.,. ‘Allerton’, 89 Redmyre Road, Strathfield.

Lawson, Albert Augustus, 9 Wilmot Street, Sydney.

Lee, David Joseph, B.Sc., Cotton Experiment Station, Biloela, Queensland.

Lindergren, Gustaf Mauritz, Swedish Chamber of Commerce, 88 Carrington Street,
Sydney.

Lowndes, Arthur George, M.Sec., c/o Economic Department, Bank of New South
Wales, Box 2722C, G.P.O., Sydney.

Mackerras, Ian Murray, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Magee, Charles Joseph, B.Sc.Agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.), Department of Agriculture,
Karrer Place, Sydney.

*Mair, Herbert Knowles Charles, B.Sc., Botanic Gardens, Darwin, Northern
Territory.

Mann, John, Commonwealth Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane,
Queensland.

Martin, Donald, B.Se. c/o University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

Mawson, Sir Douglas, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S., The University, Adelaide, S.A.

May, Miss Valerie Margaret Beresford, 51 Murdoch Street, Cremorne.

Maze, Wilson Harold, M.Sc., 39 Lucas Road, Burwood.

McCulloch, Robert Nicholson, B.Sc.Agr. (Syd.), B.Se. (Oxon.), Department of
Agriculture, Farrer Place, Sydney.

McKeown, Keith Collingwood, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

McKie, Rev. Ernest Norman, B.A., The Manse, Guyra, N.S.W.

McLuckie, John, M.A., D.Sc., Botany Department, The University, Sydney.

Melvaine, Miss Alma Theodora, B.Sc., 101 Cook Road, Centennial Park, Sydney.

Mercer, Miss Evelyn Anne, 56 Tryon Road, Lindfield.

Messmer, Pearl Ray (Mrs. C. A.), Treatts Road, Lindfield.

Middleton, Bertram Lindsay, B.A., M.D., Bridge House, Murrurundi, N.S.W.

Morisset, Lieut.-Colonel Casimir Vaux, “Haldon Lodge”, 4 Sinclair Street, Crow's
Nest, N.S.W.

Munch-Petersen, Erik, Ph.B., M.Se. (Haunensis), M.I.F., Veterinary Research
Institute, Story Street, Parkville, Melbourne, N.2, Victoria.

Mungomery, Reginald William, c/o Meringa Sugar Experiment Station, Box 146,
Gordonvale, North Queensland.

Musgrave, Anthony, F.R.E.S., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.S8., Department of Biology,
Victoria University College, Wellington, New Zealand.

Newman, Leslie John William, F.R.E.S., ‘“‘Walthamstowe’’, 5 Bernard Street, Clare-
mont, W.A.

Nicholson, Alexander John, D.Sc., F.R.E.S., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T.

Noble, Norman Scott, M.S., B.Se.Agr., D.I.C., Department of Agriculture, Farrer
Place, Sydney.

Noble, Robert Jackson, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Farrer Place,
Sydney.

North, David Sutherland, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., Broadwater Mill,
Richmond River, N.S.W.

O’Dwyer, Margaret Helena, B.Sc., Ph.D., Forest Products Research Laboratory,
Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks., England.

Oke, Charles George, 34 Bourke Street, Melbourne, C.1, Victoria.

Oliver, Walter Reginald Brook, F.L.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., Dominion Museum,
Wellington; C.1, New Zealand.

Osborn, Professor Theodore George Bentley, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Oxford, Oxford, England.

Osborne, George Davenport, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney.
* Life member.

1922

1921

1936
1920
1937
1934
1935
1918

1929
1924

1936
1932
1925

1927

1932
1919
1928
1930

1937
1909

1928

1928
1916
1935
1926
1898
1935
1905
1911
1904

1930
1921

1902
1904

1917

1930
1934

1900

1909
1930
1911

LIST OF MEMBERS. lxi

Perkins, Frederick Athol, B.Sc.Agr., Biology Department, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Q.

Phillips, Montagu Austin, F.L.S., F.R.E.S., 57 St. George’s Square, London, S.W.,
England.

Pidgeon, Miss Ilma Mary, M.Sc., “Winslow”, 57 Amhurst Street, North Sydney.

Pincombe, Torrington Hawke, B.A., ‘‘Mulyan’’, Beta Street, Lane Cove, Sydney.

Plomley, Kenneth Francis, ‘“‘SSherbourne’’, Nelson Street, Woollahra.

Plomley, Norman James Brian, B.Sc., ‘Sherbourne’, 29 Nelson Street, Woollahra.

Pope, Miss Elizabeth Carington, B.Se., 36 Kameruka Road, Northbridge.

Priestley, Professor Henry, M.D., Ch.M., B.Sc., Medical School, The University,
Sydney.

Raggatt, Harold George, M.Sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Roberts, Frederick Hugh Sherston, M.Sc., Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Animal Health Station, Yeerongpilly, Brisbane, Q.

Roberts, Noel Lee, 24 Meredith Street, Homebush.

Robertson, Rutherford Ness, B.Se., 15 The Boulevarde, Lewisham.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, B.Se, F.R.Z.S., Technological Museum, Harris
Street, Sydney.

Rupp, Rev. Herman Montagu Rucker, B.A., St. John’s Rectory, Raymond Terrace,
N.S.W.

Salter, Keith Eric Wellesley, B.Sc., ‘‘Hawthorn’’, 48 Abbotsford Road, Homebush.

*Scammell, George Vance, B.Sc., 7 David Street, Clifton Gardens.

Selby, Miss Doris Adeline, M.Sc., M.B., ‘““Marley’’, Werona Avenue, Gordon.

Sherrard, Mrs. Kathleen Margaret, M.Sc., 43 Robertson Road, Centennial Park,
Sydney.

Simpson, Arthur Cecil, St. Paul’s College, Newtown.

Smith, George Percy Darnell, D.Se., F.I.C., F.C.S., c/o Lyon’s Boat Shed, The
Spit, Mosman, Sydney.

Smith, Jacob Harold, M.Sc, N.D.A., Department of Agriculture and Stock,
Nambour, Queensland.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Smith, Miss Vera Irwin, B.Sc., F.L.S., ‘“Loana’”’, Mt. Morris Street, Woolwich.

Spence, Kenneth Kinross, M.B., Ch.M., 51 Sophia Street, Bondi Beach.

Stanley, George Arthur Vickers, B.Sc., “Clelands”’, 33a Battery Street, Clovelly.

Stead, David G., ‘““Boongarre’’, Pacific Street, Watson’s Bay.

Still, Jack Leslie, B.Sc., 61 Alexandra Street, Drummoyne.

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, M.B., Ch.M., 15 Highfield Road, Lindfield.

*Sulman, Miss Florence, ‘“‘Burrangong’’, McMahon’s Point.

Sussmilch, Carl Adolph, F.G.S., 11 Appian Way, Burwood.

Taylor, Frank Henry, F.R.E.S., F.Z.8., School of Public Health and Tropical
Medicine, Sydney University.

*Troughton, Ellis Le Geyt, C.M.Z.S., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.
Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.R.E.S., Dauphin Terrace, Brisbane, Queensland.
Turner, Rowland E., F.Z.S., F.R.E.S., c/o Standard Bank of South Africa, Adderley

Street, Cape Town, South Africa.

Veitch, Robert, B.Sc, F.R.E.S., Department of Agriculture, William Street,
Brisbane, Queensland.

Vickery, Miss Joyce Winifred, M.Sc., 6 Coventry Road, Homebush.

Voisey, Alan Heywood, M.Sc., St. George’s Hostel, West Kempsey, N.S.W.

Walker, Commander John James, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.E.S., R.N., ““Aorangi”’, Lonsdale
Road, Summertown, Oxford, England.

Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.Sc., Science House, Gloucester and Hssex Streets, Sydney.

Ward, Melbourne, Pasadena Flats, Cross Street, Double Bay, Sydney.

Wardlaw, Henry Sloane Halcro, D.Sc., Physiology Department, The University,
Sydney.

* Life member.

1xii
1936
1897

1928
1927

1911
1936

1926
1934
1934
1932

1925
1936

1923

1923

1888
1902

1902

1934

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Waterhouse, Douglas Frew, 17 McIntosh Street, Gordon.

*Waterhouse, G. Athol, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S., Science House, Gloucester and Essex
Streets, Sydney.

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E., ‘Rarotonga’, 42 Archer Street, Chatswood.

Waterhouse, Walter Lawry, D.Sc.Agr., M.C., D.I.C. (Lond.), Faculty of Agriculture,
Sydney University.

Watt, Professor Robert Dickie, M.A., B.Sc., University of Sydney.

White, Neville H., c/o Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, University
of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania.

*Whitley, Gilbert Percy, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.

Wilson, Miss Janet Marion, B.A., 8 Lloyd Avenue, Hunter’s Hill.

Womersley, Herbert, F.R.E.S., A.L.S., South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South
Australia.

Woodhill, Anthony Reeve, B.Sc.Agr., Department of Zoology, Sydney University.

Wright, Fred, 35 Bligh Street, Sydney.

Zeck, Emil Herman, 268 Blaxland Road, Ryde.

HONORARY MEMBERS.
Hill, Professor J. P., Institute of Anatomy, University of London, University
College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England.
Wilson, Professor J. T., LL.D., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.S., Department of Anatomy, the
New Museums, Cambridge, England.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Bale, W. M., F.R.M.S., 63 Walpole Street, Kew, Melbourne, Victoria.

Broom, Robert, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, Transvaal, South
Africa.

Meyrick, Edward, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts., England.

ASSOCIATE.
Waterhouse, John Talbot, 39 Stanhope Road, Killara.

* Life Member.

1xiii

INDEX.

(1937.)

(a) GENERAL INDEX.

Address, Presidential, i.
Allan, Joyce K., see Exhibits.

Anderson, R. H., elected a member of
Council, v.
Andrews, E. C., Short Talk on his recent

Visit to Iceland and Norway, xl.

Australian, Colydiidae, A Monograph of the,
181—Galls, On the Histological Structure
of some, 57—Hair Seal, Entozoa from the,
9—Hesperiidae. vi. Descriptions of New
Subspecies, 32—-Hesperiidae. vii. Notes
on the Types and Type Localities, 107—
Lepidoptera, Revision of, Oecophoridae.
vi, 85—Mosquitoes, Notes on, Part iii,
259—Part iv, 294—Orchids, Notes on, iii.
A Review of the Genus Cymbidium in
Australia. ii, 299—Pilchard and Prawn,
xliii—Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus,
the Occurrence of the, and its Spawning
Season in New South Wales Waters,
together with brief Notes on other N.S.W.
Clupeids, 209.

Balance Sheets for Year ending 28th Feb-
ruary, 1937, xxxiv-xxxvi.

Banks, Sir Joseph, Memorial Fund, iv.

Barrington Tops and Upper Williams River
Districts, Notes on some Species occurring
in the, with Descriptions of two new
Species and two new Varieties, 284—the
Ecology of the, i. Introduction, 269.

Broom, Dr. R., Details of recent Finds of
Fossil Anthropoid Remains in South
Africa, in letter from, xl.

Brown, Ida A., Palaeontological
“The Carboniferous
Werrie Basin”, 341.

Burkitt, Prof. A. N., elected a Vice-President,
XXXVii.

Notes to
Sequence in the

Cainozoic Era in New South Wales, the Geo-
logical History of the, viii.

Calliphora (Diptera), Notes on Genus, 17.

Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin
(With Palaeontological Notes), 341.

Carey, S. W., The Carboniferous Sequence in
the Werrie Basin (With Palaeontological
Notes by Ida A. Brown), 341.

Carter, H. J.. and E. H. Zeck, A Monograph
of the Australian Colydiidae, 181.

Census of the Orchids of New South Wales.
UB, Als

Central Coastal Area of New South Wales,
Ecology of the, i. The Environment and
General Features of the Vegetation, 315.

Cheel, E., see Exhibits.

Chisholm, E. C., Final Additions to the Flora
of the Comboyne Plateau, 65.

Clark, L. R., elected a member, xlv.
Claviceps Paspali S. & H. in Australia, a
Note on the Ascigerous Stage of, 377.

Colefax, A. N., see Exhibits.

Coleman, Edith, Additional Notes on the
Nest Hygiene of the British Song Thrush
and the Blackbird, xxxix.

Colydiidae, Australian, A Monograph of the,
181.

Comboyne Plateau,
Flora of the, 65.

Final Additions to the

Cumpston, D. Margaret, elected a member,
SXOXGRGIEN
Currie, G. A., elected a member, xxxvii—

Galls on Hucalyptus Trees. A new Type
of Association between Flies and Nema-
todes, 147.

Dakin, Prof. W. J., elected a Vice-President,
xxxvii—Short Account of the Occurrence
of the Australian Pilchard and Life-history
of the Australian Prawn, xliii—The Occur-
rence of the Australian Pilchard, Sardinops
neopilchardus (Steind.), and its Spawning
Season in New South Wales Waters,
together with brief Notes on other New
South Wales Clupeids, 209.

David Memorial Fund, iv.

David, late Sir Edgeworth, portrait of, for
Science House, iv—unveiling of portrait of,
xii.

Davis, H. F. C., appointed Linnean Macleay
Fellow in Zoology, 1937-38, vii—reap-
pointed, 1938-39, xlv—see Exhibits.

Deuquet, C., elected a member, xxxix.

Diatoms, Notes on Fossil, from New South
Wales, Australia. i. Fossil Diatoms from
Diatomaceous Earth, Coonaa, N.S.W., 175.

Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its
Relation to certain Aspects of their
Physiology, 35.

Dodd, F. P., reference to death, xli.

Donations and Exchanges, xxxvii, xxxix-xli,
xliii-xlv.

Drimys Forst., Two new Species and one new
Variety of, with Notes on the Species of
Drimys and Bubbia van Tiegh. of South-
eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island,
78.

du Boulay, W. L., elected a member, xli.

Dulhunty, J. A., elected a member, xxxix.

lxiv

Ecology of the Central Coastal Area of New
South Wales. i. The Environment and
General Features of the Vegetation, 315.

and
Introduction,

Ecology of the Upper Williams River
Barrington Tops Districts. i.
269.

Elections, xxxiii, xxxvii, xxxix, xli, xliii, xlv.

Elizabeth Bay House, resolution re preserva-
tion of, xxxvii.

Entozoa from the Australian Hair Seal, 9.

Eucalyptus, Some Notes on the Nomen-
elature of certain Common Species of, 73.

Eucalyptus Trees, Galls on. A new Type of
Association between Flies and Nematodes,
147.

Exchange Relations, i.

Exhibits:

Allan, Joyce K., A series of shells com-
mensal-parasitic on Starfish, Sea-urchins,
Mantis Shrimps, and Béche-de-mer, xlii.

Cheel, E., Drawings illustrating variations
in the venation of leaves of species of
Callistemon, and also showing the indi-
vidual flowers solitary in the axils of the
leaves, xxxviii—Live plants of Ovwalis
acetosella found naturalized in the Mar-
rickville district, and of O. corniculata,
for comparison; also live plants of
Pelargonium radulum, xxxix—aA series of
specimens of Kunzea, xl—Fresh speci-
mens of Hucalyptus amygdalina from
Hill Top, near Mittagong, and Ashfieid,
xlii—Specimens taken from plants in
nature and in cultivation, of Leptosper-
mum pendulum Sieber, xlii—mSpecimens of
Parmeliopsis semiviridis (F.v.M.) Nyl.,
collected at Curlewis, xliv—Juvenile and
adult foliage taken from an _ original
plant raised from seed received from
Botanic Gardens, Berlin, in 19138, under
the name Callistemon amoenus, together
with foliage and colour notes of flowers
raised from seeds of the Berlin plants,
xiv.

Colefax, A. N., The results of two quarter-
hour catches taken at Lake Illawarra,
xliv.

Davis, H. F. C., Aerial photographs of the
Five Islands, xlv.

Fraser, Lilian R., Co-types of fungi col-
lected in New South Wales, xxxviii.
Gilmour, D., and M. E. Griffiths, Photo-
graphs and specimens illustrating a
survey of the animal ecology of a fresh-

water pond at Narrabeen, xlv.

Griffiths, M. E., see under Gilmour D., and
M. E. Griffiths.

Jensen, H. L., Photographs of cultures of a
blue-green alga capable of growth in an
inorganic, nitrogen-free medium, xl.

Melvaine, Alma T., A species of Stigma-

tomyces, xxxviii—Roots of Hxzocarpus

INDEX.

cupressiformis Labill., parasitizing roots
of Casuarina suberosa Ott. & Dietr., and
also its own roots, xl.

Messmer, Pearl R. (Mrs. C. A.), Boronia
(? B. anemonifolia) from Mittagong, xlv.

Pincombe, T. H., Fossil insects from a
newly-discovered outcrop in the Belmont
district, xxxviii.

Rupp, Rev. H. M. R., A flowering specimen
of a new Australian Dendrobium (D.
Fleckeri White and Rupp) from the
neighbourhood of Cairns, xlv.

Voisey, A. H., Linoproductus springsurensis
and other brachiopods from Kimbriki,
xliv—Fossil plants (Thinnfeldia and
Cladophlebis) of Triassic age from near
Laurieton, xliv.

Whitley, G. P., Three post-larval specimens
of a Snake Hel, Malvoliophis pingwis, x1.

Woodhill, A. R., Specimens of mosquito
larvae and notes on the habitat and
salinity tolerances of the various species
of larvae, xliv.

Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromyzidae),
Revision of the Genus, 126.

Final Additions to the Flora of the Com-
boyne Plateau, 65.

Ford, E., elected a member, xlv.

Fraser, Lilian R:, Summary of year’s work,
v—Congratulations to, xxxix—Account of
the Ecology of Barrington Tops, xli—The
Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its
Relation to certain Aspects of their
Physiology, 35—-see Exhibits...

Fraser, Lilian R., and Joyce W. Vickery,
Notes on some Species occurring in the
Upper Williams River and Barrington
Tops Districts, with Descriptions of two
new Species and two new Varieties, 284—
The Ecology of the Upper Williams River
and Barrington Tops Districts. i. MIntro-
duction, 269.

Froggatt, W. W., obituary notice of, iii.

Fuller, Mary E., Notes on the Biology of
Tabanus froggatti, T. gentilis and T. neo-
basalis (Diptera), 217.

Fungi, Sooty-mould, the Distribution of, and
its Relation to certain Aspects of their
Physiology, 35.

Galls, Australian, On the Histological Struc-
ture of some, 57—formed by Cyttaria
septentrionalis on Fagus Moorei, the
Structure of, 1—on Hucalyptus Trees. A
New Type of Association between Flies
and Nematodes, 147.

Geological History of the Cainozoic Era in
New South Wales, viii.

Gilmour, D., see Exhibits.

Graptolites near Yass, N.S.W.,
rence of, 303.

Griffiths, M. E., see Exhibits.

Growth of Soil on Slopes, 230.

the Occur-

INDEX. lxv

Hair Seal, Australian, Entozoa from the, 9.

Hardwick, F. G., reference to death, xliii.

Hardy, G. H., Notes on Genus Calliphora
(Diptera), 17.

Hartley District, the Petrology of the, iv.
The Altered Dolerite Dykes, 263.

Hesperiidae, Australian. vi. Descriptions of
New Subspecies, 32—vii. Notes on the
Types and Type Localities, 107.

Heteronympha philerope Boisd., On the Iden-
tity of the Butterfly known in Australia
as, 253.

Holmes, Prof. J. M., The Growth of Soil on
Slopes, 230.

International Congress for Entomology,
Seventh, to be held in Berlin, xliii.

Jensen, H. L., Summary of year’s work, v—
see Exhibits.

Johnston, Pref. T. H., Entozoa from the Aus-
tralian Hair Seal, 9.

Joplin, Germaine A., The Petrology of the
Hartley District. iv. The Altered Dolerite
Dykes, 263.

Keble, R. A., see under Sherrard, Kathleen
and R. A. Keble.

Kesteven, G. L., elected a member, xlv.

Kister, E., On the Histological Structure of
some Australian Galls, 57. ;

Lee, D. J., Notes on Australian Mosquitoes
(Diptera, Culicidae). iv. The Genus
Theobaldia, with Description of a new
Species, 294.

Lepidoptera, Australian, Revision of, Oeco-
phoridae. vi, 85.

Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1937-38, reap-
pointments and appointments, vii—1938-
39, applications invited, xliii, xliv—reap-
pointments, xlv.

Lucas, A. H. S., Memorial
243—obituary notice of, i.

Series, No. 7,

Mackerras, I. M., Notes on Australian Mos-
quitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). iii. The
Genus Aedomyia Theobald, 259.

Manuscript, printing of date of receipt of,
xliv.

May, Valerie M. B., elected a member, xxxvii.

Melvaine, Alma T., see Exhibits.

Memorial Series, No. 7 (A. H. S. Lucas),
243.

Mercer, Evelyn A., elected a member, xxxix.

Messmer, Pearl R. (Mrs. C. A.), see Exhibits.
Middleton, B. L., elected a member, xxxvii.
Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae, 181.

Mosquitoes, Australian, Notes on, Part iii,
259—Part iv, 294.

Newman, I. V., Summary of work, vi—reap-
pointed Linnean Macleay Fellow in Botany,
1937-38, vii—resignation, vii.

Note on the Ascigerous Stage of Claviceps
Paspali S. & H. in Australia, 377.

Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera,
Culicidae). ili. The Genus Aedomyia
Theobald, 259—iv. The Genus Theobaldia,
with Description of a new Species, 294.

Notes on Australian Orchids. iii. A Review
of the Genus Cymbidium in Australia, ii,
299.

Notes on Fossil Diatoms from New South
Wales, Australia. i. Fossil Diatoms from
Diatomaceous Earth, Cooma, N.S.W., 175.

Notes on Genus Calliphora (Diptera). Classi-
fication, Synonymy, Distribution and Phy-

logeny, 17.
Notes on some Species occurring in the
Upper Williams River and Barrington

Tops Districts, with Descriptions of two
new Species and two new Varieties, 284.
Notes on the Biology of Tabanus froggatti,
T. gentilis and T. neobasalis (Diptera),

PU

Occurrence of Graptolites near Yass, N.S.W.,
3038.

Occurrence of the Australian Pilchard,
Sardinops neopilchardus (Steind.), and its
Spawning Season in New South Wales
Waters, together with brief Notes on other
New South Wales Clupeids, 209.

On the Histological Structure of some Aus-
tralian Galls, 57.

On the Identity of the Butterfly known in
Australia as Heteronympha _ philerope
Boisd., 258.

Orchids, Australian, Notes on, iii. A Review
of the Genus Cymbidium in Australia. ii,
299.

Orchids of New South Wales, 1937, A Census
of the, 27.

Osborn, Prof. T. G. B., congratulations to,
xxxvii— Some Notes on the Nomenclature
of certain Common Species of Hucalyptus,

=
73.

“The Carbonifer-
341.

Palaeontological Notes to
ous Sequence in the Werrie Basin”,

Petrology of the Hartley District. iv. The
Altered Dolerite Dykes, 2638.

Pidgeon, Ilma M., appointed Linnean
Macleay Fellow in Botany, 1937-38, vii—

reappointed, 1938-39, xlv—The Ecology of
the Central Coastal Area of New South
Wales. i. The Environment and General
Features of the Vegetation, 315.

Pilchard, Australian, occurrence of the, xliii.

Pilchard, Australian, Sardinops neopilchardus
(Steind.), the Occurrence of the, and its
Spawning Season in New South Wales
Waters, together with brief Notes on other
New South. Wales Clupeids, 209.

Pinecombe, T. H., see Exhibits.

Plomley, K. F., elected a member, xxxvii.

lxvi

Pope, Elizabeth C., Summary of year’s work,
vi—reappointed, 1937-38, vii—reappointed,
1938-39, xlv.

Prawn, Australian, Life-history of, xlili.

Presidential Address, i.

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oececo-
phoridae. vi, 85.

Revision of the Genus Fergusonina Mall.
(Diptera, Agromyzidae), 126.

Robertson, R. N., Summary of work, vi.

Rupp, Rev. H. M. R., A Census of the Orchids
of New South Wales, 1937, 27—Notes on
Australian Orchids. iii. A Review of the
Genus Cymbidium in Australia. ii, 299—
see Exhibits.

Sherrard, Kathleen and R. A. Keble,
Occurrence of Graptolites near
N.S.W., 303.

Simpson, A. C., elected a member, xli.

Skvortzov, B. V., Notes on Fossil Diatoms
from New South Wales, Australia. i.
Fossil Diatoms from Diatomaceous Earth,
Cooma, N.S.W., 175.

Soil on Slopes, The Growth of, 230.

Some Notes on the Nomenclature of certain
Common Species of Hucalyptus, 73.

Structure of Galls formed by Cyttaria sep-
tentrionalis on Fagus Moorei, 1.

Sussmilch, C. A., elected a Vice-President,
xxxvii—The Geological History of the
Cainozoic Era in New South Wales, viii.

The
Yass,

Tabanus froggatti,
basalis (Diptera),
of, 217.

Taylor, F. H., elected a member of Council,
SXSKEXGVIIN =

Tillyard, R. J., obituary notice of, ii.

T. gentilis and T. neo-
Notes on the Biology

Tonnoir, A. L., Revision of the Genus
Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromy-
zidae), 126.

Turner, A. J., Revision of Australian Lepi-
doptera. Oecophoridae. vi, 85.

Two new Species and one new Variety of
Drimys Forst., with Notes on the Species

INDEX.

Type material of species from Australia and
Mandated Territory, and deposition of
same in an Australian Museum, iv.

Upper Williams River and Barrington Tops
Districts, Notes on some Species occurring
in the, with Descriptions of two new
Species and two new Varieties, 284—The
Ecology of the, i. Introduction, 269.

Vickery, Joyce W., Two new Species and one
new Variety of Drimys Forst., with Notes
on the Species of Drimys and Bubbia van
Tiegh. of South-eastern Australia and Lord
Howe Island, 78—see also under Fraser,
Lilian R., and Joyce W. Vickery.

Voisey, A. H., appointed Linnean Macleay
Fellow in Geology, 1937-38, vii—reap-
pointed, 1938-39, xlv—see Exhibits.

Waterhouse, G. A., elected Hon. Treasurer,
xxxvii—-Australian Hesperiidae. vi. Descrip-
tions of new Subspecies, 32—vii. Notes on
the Types and Type Localities, 107—On
the Identity of the Butterfly known in Aus-
tralia as Heteronympha philerope Bois.,
253.

Waterhouse, W. L., elected a Vice-President,
xxxvii—_A Note on the Ascigerous Stage
of Claviceps Paspali S. & H. in Australia,
Slates

Werrie Basin, the Carboniferous Sequence in
the (With Palaeontological Notes by Ida
A. Brown), 341.

Whitley, G. P., see Exhibits.

Wild Flowers, proclamation
renewed, iv.

Wild Flowers and Native Plants Protection
Act, 1927, extended for a further period of
one year from ist July, 1937, xlvi.

Wilson, Janet M., The Structure of Galls
formed by OCyttaria septentrionalis on
Fagus Moorei, 1.

Wilson, R. D., elected a member, xlv.

Woodhill, A. R., elected a member of
Council, xliiimsee Exhibits.

protecting,

of Drimys and Bubbia van Tiegh. of South- Zeck, E. H., see under Carter, H. J., and
east Australia and Lord Howe Island, 78. E. H. Zeck.
(b) BIOLOGICAL INDEX.
New names are printed in SMALL CAPITALS.

Ablabus blackburni . 196 Acacia Clunies-Rossiae 284, 289 Adichosia. See Calliphora.
INTEGRICOLLIS 196 elata 5 . 289 Aedes concolor .. xliv
MIMUS Je 196 Acianthus caudatus 30 vigilax . xliv
nivicola .. . 196 exsertus 30 Aedomyia africana .. 259
obscurus .. .. 196 fornicatus 30 catasticta 259, 261
pulcher As 196-7 reniformis 3 6 5 Bi) furfurea .. . 259
TUBERCULATUS .. 196-7 Adelopetalum bracteatum ». 21 squamipennis . 259
villosus si 196 Adenochilus Nortonii 30, 286 venustipes 259, 261

Abrophyllum ornans 66 Adiantum diaphanum 65 Agathis robusta . 186

Aithaloderma ferruginea 6
37-43, 46-7, 49, 52-3

Allantonema as an so. 1sil
Allora doleschalli simessa am alla
Alpina caerula do ae LO
Alsophila Cooperi . . ug Bo. a NCe4
Amygdalophyllum S06 co Stall
etheridgei 353-4
inopinatum 271353
sp. nov. y 9 3D oS)
Aneilema peeninatirn ata .. 66
Aneimites ovata .. ah oo Sty!
Angophora intermedia ‘ 335-6
lanceolata ae ae bo BK!
subvelutina a zi oa Be)
Anguillulina ae ae aia Ileal
TUMIFACIENS .. See 5S
Anisynta cynone cynone .. ao Jilét
gracilis 50 Sic oo dbl!
grisea .. f oo mip wale
dominula dom inera an oo lilt!
drachmophora are oo dle
monticolae ie a oo ililét
sphenosema ae 2 oo. alse!
tillyardi .. Se ae go ules
Anisyntoides argenteo - ornatus
argenteo-ornatus a oo alls}
Anticheirostylis apostasioides 27, 30
Antidica pilipes .. a0 oo fet)
PSEUDOMORPHA .. a uD
Aphelenchoides .. a po IKsHl
Aphelenchus Fe : .. 161
Aphrophyllum forneeumnl So Bie)
hallense .. ae ie .. 354
sp. nov. .. ue 56 o6 COS
Apocynophyllum .. a6 aay OX
Apomella Casuarinae aS XXXIX
Aralia cephalobotrys ae em OS:
Archaeocalamites .. 346, 354
Arctocephalus forsteri .. bys 9
Argophyllites on ae eee Ep. 0c
ARRHENELLA Be ae 59 1G,
collatus iris a eae me 22
marnas affinis .. Ere so 1
Arrhenes .. me so NOR
Arytera roveolata a .. 290
Aspidiotus rossi .. me emo
Asterina australiensis XXXViil
decumana XXX Vili
Fraseriana XXXxViii
polyloba .. XXXVili
puellaris .. XXXViili
Tecisa sot XXXViii
Atichia Cromieraiceat aN Sho WINE
Millardeti . 37-9
Asplenium flaccidum os =. 65
Astycus his no 1B}
Atherosperma TrORena turn . 289
Atractonema gibbosum .. .. 161
Atrypa fimbriata .. de 12 307
pulchra .. 2 as 307
sp. 00 i Ba 312- 3
Atrytonopsis verna se sq. LPO)
Attheya sp. or fu .. 180

INDEX.

Aulina simplex é 354
Aviculopecten ? granosus 353
ef. knockonniensis 353
Badamia atrox o Jul
Baeckea Gunniana var. latifolia. 290
Banksia XV, XX
Baoris mathias 119
Baracus vittatus 125
Belonopsis eriophila XXXVili
Billardiera longiflora . 289
Beyrichoceras a i083
Bitoma angustula .. . 183
costata - 183
CYLINDRICA 183-4
lineatocollis > Je}
maura 5 1%}
OCCIDENTALIS 183-4
parallela .. . 183
PUTEOLATA 183-4
rufina oo Jl}
serricollis ao ls}
siccana BK .- 183
Blechnum penna-marina .. . 284
Boronia anemonifolia xlv
Bothrideres aberrans . 203
anaglypticus 202-3
costatus .. so PIB}
equinus 202-3
illusus 202-3
intermedius 202-3
kreffti 202-3
lobatus 50 7408}
mastersi .. 202-3
merus 56 P4083
musivus .. 203)
opacus 202-3
pascoei 202-3
puteus 202-3
rectangularis 202-3
servus pe 7403
suturalis go PAB}
taeniatus 202-3
tibialis .. 203
ustulatus 203
variabilis 202-3
versutus .. 203
victoriensis 203
vittatus , 202-3
Brachyscelis conica 60
munita 59
Bradynema 161
Brefeldiella piles 36-9
Bubbia Howeana .. 84
Bulbophyllum maaan 28
bracteatum 28
crassulaefolium .. 27-8
Elisae 28
exiguum 28
minutissimum 28
Shepherdii 27-8
Weinthalii . 28
Bupala AUSTRALIS 191-2
bovilli 193

lxvii

Bupala dentata 7 92
elongata .. - 192
FASCIATA 191-2
perforata - 192
pullata - 192
VARIEGATA - 192

Burnettia cuneata . . 56 Gi)

Bursaria spinosa “37, 51, 335

Cactocrinus brownei SDS

Caladenia alba 31
alpina 31
angustata 31
arenaria .. 30
caerulea .. oe aul
carnea 31, 66

var. gigantea 31
clavigera .. 31
concolor .. 30
congesta 31
cucullata 31
deformis 31
dilatata 30

var. concinna . . 30
dimorpha. . 31
filamentosa 30
latifolia 31
Patersonii 30
tesselata .. 31
testacea 31
tutelata 2 601 Bul

Calamagrostis Dreminlurniee 2. 285

Calamites 345, 352, 354

Calanthe veratrifolia Bio dete}

Caldariomyces sp. 1 37-8, 44-5,

49, 52-3, 55
sp. 2 37-9

Caleana major 30
minor 30
Nublingii 30

Caledoniella montrouzieri xii

Calliphora 17-8
albifrontalis . as ; 21
augur XXXvViii, 17, 23, 25
auriventris 19-20
australis .. 19, 20-1, 25
bezzii 19, 25
canimicans 19, 25
centralis .. 5 XL
deflexa 19, 25
falciformis 53 oo Ai
fallax 17, 19), 22, 25
fulvicoxa 19-21, 25
fuscofemorata . 24
hilli 20-2
laemica 19, 21
MILLERI 19, 22
nigrithorax 19, 24
nociva ig, Bh, 2%)
Oochracea .. 19, 24
PERIDA 17, 195,-22525
Tufipes 17, 19-22, 25
sternalis .. 19, 20, 25
stygia 19-21, 25

Ixviii

Calliphora tibialis 17, 19-20, 22, 25

villosa .. aa toe Qi!
Callistemon Renata XXxviii
amoenus .. ae 5% .. Xlv
linearifolius XXXVili
paludosus XXXVili
saligna XXXvViii
Calochilus carne He Me29
cupreus .. 06 0 pat PAS)
grandiflorus aH be eet 29
paludosus Pe Li fee AZO
Robertsonii as ae eel 29
Camarophoria ie Ale no apy
sp.. EE 54 ao 50 Cby4
Capnodium anonae 37-41, 43, 46,
52-4, 56
var. obscurum 37-8, 40-1, 43
australe 37-8
elegans 35, 37-41, 48, 46, 54
fuliginodes 37-8, 40-5, 47,
49, 50, 52-4
var. grandisporum .. 50 Ott
moniliforme 35, 37-41, 48, 46, 54
mucronatum 35, 37-42, 46, 54
salicinum 35, 37-8, 40-3, 46-7,
49, 50, 54
var. uniseptatum 37-9, 42-3,
47, 52-3
Walteri 37-43, 46-7, 52-4
Cardiomorpha sp. .. 53 .. 353
Cardiopsis radiata .. ae 50 6h}
Carex appressa a «ts OD,
longifolia 5.0 OD
Carex cernua var. lopolenis oo PASS
Carpolithes .. ao Wi Ato EX
Carpolithus striatus 354, 359
Carystus vallio wis : -.. 116
Castanospermum ame: OO
Casuarina Cunninghamiana mae XL
glauca .. te a xl, 338
suberosa .. a0 Be Se eX
torulosa .. age sis xl, 336
Casyapa BO oe ae .. 109
Cayratia japonica .. is =5 (Hf
sp. Bp ie 67, 290
Cebia COMMUNIS 193-4
RUFONOTATA oc 193, 195
Tugosa2 .. a a0 .. 193
scabrosa .. 194-5
TUMULOSA 193-4
Cedrela australis 270, 332
Celaenorrhinus thrax ie ae aly)
Cephrenes augiades tt pee lB
palmarum oe she .. 124
phineus AG Ke .. 124
ulama .. Be ot .» 124
ismedoides ate ive 56 78!
trichopepla re ae .- 124
Ceratopetalum apetalum .. el Hil
Ceroplastes destructor 37, 48,
50-1, 54-5
Trubens .. oe at stay ON
Cerylon alienigenum 204-5
ferrugineum ae se «- 204

INDEX.

Cerylon humeridens 204, 206
LONGIPILIS 204-6
NIGRESCENS 204, 206
PARVICEPS 20456206
pusillum .. se sh: .. 204
setulosum ore AG .. 206
tibialis .. oy .. 204

Chaetocnema neaton ah .. 110
caristus .. sie ae .. 109
corvus .. .. 109
critomedia eorinteriicral .. 109
denitza .. ae ne alo)
porphyropis xe Ai 109

Chaetothyrium cinereum 39- 43,

46-7, 52-4
depressum at Ve Boueo!)
fuscum .. ae Bo yl OO
fusisporum 38-42, 46
griseolum. . 39, 49
roseosporum 39, 41, 43, 46
spp. bre sya a bo ore

Chainodictyon gigantea .. 50 SY

Cheilanthes tenuifolia Sa OD)

Cheirostylis grandiflora .. aatet29

Chiloglottis diphylla a jo. GD)
fornicifera Be dis 50 hl)
Gunnii 30, 286
reflexa .. aa ae oo Ghd)
trapeziformis nee sh 50 hd)
trilabra_ .. : We So BO)

Chonetes inemdbeernstig a SDS
sp. ae 5 a 50 ORY

Choristites mosquensis .. .. 353

Cinnamomum XV, XX

Cladochonus tenuicollis 350, 352

Cladophlebis . xliv

Cladosporium herbarum 37, 40-1, 438,

52-3

Claviceps Paspali .. Bie ao BUT
purpurea . : ae so GUY

Cleisostoma Beckleri ae fee 4s}
tridentatum a8 za eS

Clepsydropsis Ne si6 35 BB7

Climacograptus bicornis 303, 305, 307
missilis 303-5, 308, 311
tubuliferous 304-5, 307

Clupea neopilchardus Se e209

Clypeolella Alphitoniae XXXvili
Doryphorae XXXViil

Coelocyba eucalypti hs so! el

Coelospermum paniculatum jo PAL

Colobicus parilis 5 191, 196

Comesperma sylvestre Bs .. 290

Contracaecum osculatum .. a6. U8

Conularia sp. els 33 30 Gt

Cordaicarpus Be me .. 344
prolatus .. ms 354

Cordaites 347, 354, 367

Corynosoma ambispinigerzin Ave alls)
antarcticum as 55 Baie Ales
AUSTRALE 13-15
bullosum . . ae 4 ae alls)
constrictum He bd no. ali
hamanni .. ewe ci Sab

Corynosoma reductum .. oo. 1165
semerme .. a is 13-16
sipho at we ins attr
strumosum Bi 14-16

Corysanthes bicalcarata .. 33) ako)
diemenica as Le oo 310)
fimbriata By oe so. a4)
pruinosa .. ee a8 oo. BAU)
undulata .. 0 22 so. cht)
unguiculata we See so G40)

Coscinodiscus lineatus .. so ilps}
subconcavus 176, 179
Wittianus P so LAB, ere}

Cotula filicula Be ee .. 293

Croitana croites croites .. so sale

pindar .. fs ee ena ales

Cryptanthemis Sinton! ae Prep!)

Cryptocarya erythroxylon 289
Meissneri “ rae, 66, 68
obovata .. ee 28 .. 289

Cryptograptus tricornis 303, 305,

309, 312

Cryptostylis erecta ae wee 2D
leptochila me Pe, .. 29
longifolia ye SA 729
subulata .. ac a oa, 929

Ctenochiton eucalypti ae co! Oxf

Culex fatigans . xliv

Cyclopides argenteo-ornatus oo) 83
croites .. ae 356 so ilily/
cynone .. on 114

Cymbidium albuciflorum 28, 300

- canaliculatum 28, 301-2
forma aureolum ec oo 2S}
gomphocarpum 299, 302
Hillii 299, 300
iridifolium .. 28, 300-2
Leai 53 a6 we .. 301
madidum fe ae .. 300
queenianum a fe .. 299
suave Se .. 28, 301-2

Cyrtostylis Sirona a ne oh)

Cyttaria Gunnii.. aia tne 1
septentrionalis .. Se aa 1

Dactylopius sp... Ps sien ROT

Daphnandra fue de Se oe

Dastarcus confinis a .. 204
decorus .. sue ai .. 204
pusillus .. a 9 .. 204
rufosquameus .. ave .. 204
vetustus .. 6 oe .. 204

Delphinus delphis as oei9 6

Dematium pullulans 37, 42-5, 47,

49, 52-3

Dendrobium aemulum .. By 4s)
Beckleri .. a a Bi rs)
cucumerinum .. ie 28
cymbidioides 55 ni Ge PAR
elongatum ‘ 27-8
faleorostrum tee ve Go 4s}
Fleckeri .. site ae ta) xl:
gracilicaule 27-8

Dendrobium Kestevenii

Kingianum

var. Silcockii . .
linguiforme
monophyllum
Mortii
pugioniforme
Schneiderae
speciosum Bn

var. gracillimum

var, Hillii
striolatum
tenuissimum
teretifolium

var. Fairfaxii
tetragonum

Deretaphrus aequaliceps . .

ALVEOLATUS
analis
bakewelli
bucculentus
colydioides
cordicollis
cribriceps. .
erichsoni
fossus
gracilis
ignarus
INCULTUS
iridescens. .
parviceps
pascoei
piceus
popularis
puncticollis
sparsiceps
thoracicus
viduatus
xanthorrhoeae
Dermatea Fraseriana
Diatrypella palmicola

bo
ve
&
@ bo

2 o>

@

@ oO

phy ww b bv

(oe)

28
28
200-1
200-1

. 200
200-1

. 201
200-1
199-201
200-1
200-1
199-201
200-1
199-201
200-1
200-1

. 200
200-1
200-1
200-1
200-1
200-1
200-1
200-1

. 200
XXxix
XxxXvVili

Dicellograptus cf. complanatus
303, 305, 309, 312
divaricatus var. rigidus 303, 305, 309

elegans

cf. moffatensis
ef. pumilus

ef. smithi

cf. sextans

303, 305, 310
303, 305, 311
303, 305, 311
303, 305, 311

303, 305, 309, 312

Dielasma sacculum var. hastata

Dimerina acronychiae
Dioscorea transversa

Diospyros pentamera

Diphyllobothrium
CEPHALINUM

cordatum. .
decipiens
fuscum
houghtoni
latum
mansoni ..
ranarum
reptans

PP

352-3
XXXVili
66

68

ARCTO-
9,13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13

INDEX.

Diplazium japonicum

Diplograptus calcaratus

var. basilicus
ef. truncatus

OD
305, 308
303-5, 309, 311

. .3038, 305, 308, 311

Dipodium Hamiltonianum Bias bas)
punctatum 28
Diprotodon 5 DOI
Dispar compacta 115
Ditropinotella compressiventris .. 171
Diuris abbreviata .. 29
aequalis 29
alba 29
aurea 29
bracteata 29
brevifolia 29
cuneata HM 29
dendrobioides 27, 29
elongata .. 29
maculata 29
palachila . . 29
pallens 29
pedunculata 29
platichilus 29
punctata .. 29
secundiflora 29
Sheaffiana 29
spathulata 29
sulphurea 29
tricolor de een i29.
venosa ‘ 29, 284, 286
Doryphora sassafras 37, 270
Drakaea BG 30
Drimys aromatica . . 81-2
var. pedunculata . 80
dipetala 81-2
Howeana HiNBeé
insipida 82-3
insularis .. 84
intermedia SS
lanceolata 82-3, 288
var. PARVIFOLIA 83
Muelleri oes oo tos
PURPURASCENS 78, 83, 284, 288
STIPITATA 80, 83
xerophila 83
Dryandra .. 550 XV, XX
Dryopteris acuminata 65
Baileyi 65
decomposita 65
queenslandica Gd
Dysoxylum Fraseranum .. . 270
Eba cerylonoides . 194
Eccrita 85
ECDREPTA hes 85
Elaeodendron australe 37
Elascus crassicornis 198
Elatostemma reticulata 66
stipitata .. 2.4.) BO
Embelia australasica 68, 291
Endiandra Muelleri . 289
Sieberi 66
Epacris microphylla var.
RHOMBIFOLIA .. . 290

Epiceratodus denticulatus Xxiii
forsteri ae o'0 Xxili
Epimegastigmus quinquesetae 171
Epipogum nutans 29
Epistranus TIBIALIS 198
Erigeron pappochromus 293
Eriochilus autumnalis ove ESO
cucullatus 30
Eriococcus eucalypti 37
Erotylathris costatus 204
Etrumeus jacksoniensis 211
Eucalyptus 25 OX
acmenioides 68, 336
amplifolia ue 337, 339
amyegdalina xlii, 131, 140-2, 167
Andrewsi 68
australiana so abt
Blaxlandi 334, 336
botryoides ws 337-8
Blakelyi .. 146, 150, 156, 167-8
camaldulensis 73, 75-6, 147, 156,
167-8
campanulata LOS
coriacea 73, 76, 80
corymbosa ae 68, 73-4
crebra Ue US, 1i7/o TIES
167-8, 335-6
dealbata .. + WA
Deanei 330:
dives 5 Ba
eugenioides . 334
fastigata .. , 336-7
gomphocephala .. 141, 155, 167-8
goniocalyx 336-7
grandis 5 of . 336
gummifera 68, 73-4, 334, 336
haemastoma 334-5
hemiphloia 138, 147, 155, 167-8,
334-6, 338-9
Lindleyana > Bae)
var. stenophylla xii

macrorrhyncha

maculata. .

133,

145-7, 150, 153,
155, 160, 163-171
138, 147, 154-5,

166, 168, 335-6, 338-9

maculosa. .
melanophloia
melliodora
micrantha
microcorys
multiflora
numerosa. .
obliqua
odorata
oreades
paniculata
phellandra
pilularis
piperita
pauciflora

persicifolia
polyanthemos
punctata ..

151, 153, 167-8

137, 147, 155, 167-8

135, 153, 167
334, 336
5 Bet
73, 76-7
xlii
336, 338-9
155, 167-8
pod:
336, 338-9
AS xii
334-6, 338-9
334-5

ids COsmlioile
154, 167, 337-9
75
154, 167-8
e atyl

lkex

Eucalyptus quadrangulata No eke)
Tacemosa : 035 09
radiata xii, 334, 337
Robertsoni ty xlii
robusta 73, 76, 337-9
rostrata 73, 75-6
rubida th 5 BO
rudis 142, 156, 167-8
saligna 270, 336, 338-9
siderophloia 335-6
sideroxylon 153, 167, 335
Sieberiana 334-5
Smithii ood
spp. 5 we
stellulata 337-9

Stuartiana 131, 154-6, 158, 161,

tereticornis

triantha

umbellata

viminalis
Eucryphia

Eudamus guttatus

Eugenia sp.

Eulechria aceraea ..

acervata ..
aerodes
alpecistis . .
amphileuca
amphisema
AMYDRODES
anomophanes
antygota
archepeda
axierasta ..
BASICAPNA
bathrophaea
BLOSYRODES
BRACHY MITA
brachystoma
brontomorpha
calamaea
callimeris
callisceptra
calotropha
candida
CAPNOPLEURA
carbasea
cataplasta
cephalanthes
cephalochrysa
chlorella ..
cholerodes
chrysoloma

CHRYSOMOCHLA ..

cirrhocephala
cirrhopepla
CNECOPASTA
concolor ..
convictella
cosmocrates
COSMOSTICHA
cretacea

167, 170
68, 73, 76, 156,

167-8, 334-6, 338-9

OS
68, 73, 76
336-9
50, POX
. 120
37

89

94

95

90

96

106
105

102
102

eel OS
. 103

INDEX.

Eulechria curvilinea

cyclophragma
dedecorata
delochorda
DIASTICHA
diploclethra
droserodes
DYSCOLLETA
EGREGIA ..
elaeota
encratodes
EPIBOSCA
epicausta
EPICHRISTA
epipercna. .
epiphragma
EURYCNECA
eurygramma
exanimis . .
FERVESCENS
foedatella
frigescens. .
GYPSOCHROA
GYPSOMICTA
habrophanes
halmopeda
HAPLOSTOLA
heliocoma
heliodora
hemiphanes
HEPTASTICTA
HETAERICA
HEXASTIOTA
HOLOPSARA
homochalcha
HOMOPHANES
HOMOPHYLA
homoteles
homoxesta
hymenaea
hyperchlora
hypopolia
instructa . .
irenaea
ischnodes
ISCHNOPHANES
jugata
leptochorda
LEPTOCHROMA
leucopelta
leucophanes
leucostephana
machinosa
malacoptera
mathematica
MELICHYTA
MERACA
MESAMYDRA
metabapta
monoda
MONOSPILA
monozona

myrochrista

napaes

86, 98

103

102

106

102

101
106
104

86

90 -

87
86
101
98

Kulechria nebritis

NEPHOBOLA
niphogramma
ombrodes. .
ombrophora
OMOPASTA
ORTHOLOMA
OXYPTILA..
PACHYCHORDA
pallidella . .
PAROCRANA
PASTEOPTERA
PEISTERIA
PERIOECA
perixantha
phaeina
PHAEOCHORDA
PHAEKODELTA
phaeosceptra
PLACOPHABA
plagiosticha
PLATYRRHABDA
PLESIOSPERMA
poecilella
POLYMITA
PREPODES
psarophanes
PULVIFERA
pycnographa
RHABDORA
ruinosa
salsicola
schalidota
SCIOIDES ..
sciophanes
scitula
scythropa
semantica
semnostola
sericopa
siccella
SIMILIS
SPILOPHORA
stenoptila
STEPHANOTA
sthenopis
styracista
synchroa ..
syncolla
SYNNEPHES
TANYSTICHA
THIOBAPHES
thiocrossa
thrincotis. .
TRANQUILLA
transversella
triferella ..
TRIGONOSEMA
tropica
variegata
vicina
xanthocrossa

XANTHOPHYLLA ..
xanthostephana .

90
88
90

88-9

. 106
90
93
93

7102

90
Ni

. 100

89
100
oe
87
96

. 103

95
99
96
88
98
92

. 104

O”
93
95
96

. 104

94
90
88

.. 105
. 106

97
91
92
95
92
86
91

ee OD
. 105

92
99
95
90

.. 102
. 1038

94

. 101

97
95
98
97
88
98
88
96
102
97

86
86

Eulechria xipheres nfs seer OL:
xipholeuca 105
XUTHOCRANA iN ao U{oil
XUTHOPHYLLA .. xt St,
xylopterella Ag a see O4

Eunotia valida 176, 179

Eurytoma varirufipes 171

Euschemon alba 109
albo-ornatus 109
raffiesia 109

rafflesia 109

Evodia micrococca var. PUBESCENS 289

Exocarpus cupressiformis ft er
nana ; 288

Exometoeca ny sient Hk eo

Fagus Cunninghami bis My 1
Moorei .. hs ae Ny. 1

Fenestella sp. 352-3

FERGUSOBIA 158, 161
TUMIFACIENS 158

Fergusonina atricornis 130, 138, 166
biseta 131, 143, 166
BRIMBLECOMBI 130, 137, 155, 167-8
CARTERI 130-1, 154, 158,

162, 167
CURRIEI .. 131, 145, 1538, 156-7
DAVIDSONI 130, 135, 167
eucalypti. . 130, 132, 151,
154-5, 166
EVANSI .130, 184, 153, 167
flavicornis 130, 140, 166
FRENCHI .. 131, 142, 167
GREAVESI. . 154, 167
gurneyi 130, 138, 166
LOCKHARTI -131, 141, 156, 167
microcera 131, 143, 166
MORGANI .. 130, 137, 167
NEWMANI .130, 141, 155, 167
NICHOLSONI 131, 145, 150, 155,
159, 160, 167
PESCOTTI . . 130, 138, 167
scutellata. . 130, 135, 166
TILLYARDI 181, 146, 150-1,
156, 167-8

Ficonium .. =H ie LARD. o:¢

Ficus 3 aig te 5a Ox

Fieldia australis. . oS so HY)

Galeola cassythoides 28
Ledgeriana 28

Gastrodia sesamoides so | OR)

Gaultheria appressa doe .. 290
hispida : sp on PASO)

Gempylodes areneths By so Uh)

Gentiana diemensis 284, 291

Geodorum pictum . . ae Be eS

Ginkgo oe SOV 2OX

Glossodia major .. we re weil
minor es ra NA se Bul

Glyphioceras , 353

Gmelina Leichhardtii ahs so Be)

Gomphonema longiceps var.

subclavata 176, 179

INDEX.

Goniloba badra
Gonodactylus chiragra
Grammysia (?) sp.

Halmaturus
Harengula eetolnan
Hasora alexis contempta ..
lucescens
celaenus lugubris
discolor mastusia
hurama hurama
khoda haslia
Hedycarya ..

Henningsomyces affine

Hesperia augustula
caesina
maevius
mathias
ornata
papyria
peron
phigalia
rafflesia
Hesperilla anesone
atralba
atrax
atromacula
bitasciata. . :
chaostola chaostola
chares

chrysotricha chry satan)

eyclospila
plebeia
croceus a a
crypsargyra crypsargyra
hopsoni
dirphia
doclea
donnysa ..
albina ..
aurantia
diluta
donnysa
flavescens
galena
eaclis
halyzia,
humilis
idothea clara
idothea
ismene
leucospila
malindeva
mastersi . .
melissa
munionga oe
ornata monotherm
ornata . .
phigalia
picta
rietmanni
satulla
saxula E on
sexguttata cexenteata Ae

> alata
. xiii
. 353

D)

xi

211-2

111
Natit
124
111
111
111
XX
37-8
123
124
120
119

> alate

wo.

120
115
111
109
118

33
115
115

. 124

118

o dlilg}

118
118

.. 118
. 116

117
117
119
115

epealtes

118
118
118
118
118
118
125
116
116

> Wile

117
116
118
118
117
115
117
117

17

113

117

124
116
125
118

lxxi

Hesperilla tasmanicus 113
Heterodera .. 161
Heteronympha merope 253
duboulayi 255
PENELOPE 256
ALOPE .. 258
DIEMENI 258
PANOPE 258
PENELOPE ZDitl
STEROPE 257
philerope : 256-7
Hierochloa pedolene * sn et)
Hovea acutifolia .. Be Bit 967,
Howardula benigna, Me se JG
Hydrocotyle geraniifolia .. 20168
hirta BO ae aa (OS
Hyperlophus ariteatnie aN go Palla
Illestus id ate sg Ulshe/
ISCHNOMORPHA a 7s be tei)
Ischnophanes Aye 55. $35
Ismene doleschalli 111
Juncus falecatus 285
Kunzea calida ae Py te dl
corifolia .. Ne a 2 68
opposita .. a me eee xl
parvifolia. . rte $: sa Ul
sp. ate : Se sea ex
LARINOTUS .. 186
UMBILIGATUS 186
Lastra as Sc sane. ©. ¢
Latometus mrneecens 198
Laurus a ae wa EEED.o.<
Lembosia ardua XXXviii
micrasca Ss XXXViii
Lepidodendron australe 349, 354
Veltheimianum .. 342, 345-6,

350-1, 354, 361
Lepidosperma laterale ae sy, OS

Leptoglyphus foveifrons 204
Leptospermum attenuatum xiii
flavescens ay ae wo Be
var. grandiflorum xiii
lanigerum ae Bt po Gh
pendulum xiii
Petersoni ; ANG ae ext i
scoparium Ae tS sine 0
virgatum xii
Leptosphaeria aliena XXXViii
Leucopogon lanceolatus .. OS:
Libertia pulchella .. . 286
Limacinia concinna 35D, of-40, D2-o
Linckia laevigata xiii
Linoproductus springsurensis xliv
Liparis coelogynoides 28
habenarina BS 4 oe te)
reflexa .. we oes 28, 66
Simmondsii sae as seu) PAs}
Lithostrotion 351
columnare 353-4
stanvellense 353-4

1xxii

Litsea reticulata
Lomandra Hystrix
montana ..

Lomatia
ARBORESCENS
Fraseri
ilicifolia
longifolia

Loxonema. sp.

Lycopodium

fastigiatum

Lyperanthus Burnettii
ellipticus ..
nigricans ..
suaveolens

ecalvatum

Machlotes costatus

porcatus
Macrocheilus cf. filosus
Macropus ,
Malvoliophis pinguis
Megarhinus speciosus
Melaleuca leucadendron
Melia Azedarach var.
Meliola Fraseriana
Melosira granulata

var. angustissima

suleata : :

undulata var. SPIRALIS
Merista sp.
Mermeristis spodiaea
Meryx areolata

illota

rugosa :
Mesodina acing

halyzia cyanophracta

halyzia.. :

Metopiestes indicus

STRIGICOLLIS

tubulus
Metrosideros “pilin
Michelinia sp.
Micropius $E
Microtis magnadenia

oblonga

parviflora

porrifolia
Microxyphium sp. 1

sp. 2

Mitrasacme serpyllifolia

Mollenedia ..

Monograptus flemingii
cf. nilssoni
riccartonensis
ef. tumescens
uncinatus var.
cf. vomerinus

orbatus ..

Motasingha atralba
ANACES
ANAPUS
atralba
dactyliota
nila

37-41,

.. 204
. 204
2 1353

Xa

p xl
. xliv
roO2

pretralncica 48

XXXVili
so 7G
=a 7
oo es
ao U7KG
On
eS)
22 99
. 199
199
“116-7
a5 lbite/
3a HAIG
ree202
202
. 202
ae ne:
188

INDEX.

Motasingha dirphia dirphia 119
trimaculata 119
Mourlonia ornata 353
Musca. See Calliphora.
Myriophyllum pedunculatum 290
Myrtus Beckleri 290
Mysticoncha wilsoni xiii
Neohesperilla croceus 116
senta 116
xanthomera 116
xiphiphora ao 116
Neopollenia. See Calliphora.
Neotrichus ACANTHACOLLIS 195
Nephelites .. XxX
Netrocoryne beata 109
repanda repanda 110
Nothofagus BXoKs
Moorei : 286
Notholaena disiong o (815)
Notocrypta waigensis levecoaete 110
prosperina ae 1K)
tibbei .. 3° ila\(0)
Notogoneus parvus xxiii
Nucleospira australis 312-3
Nuculana sp. . 353
Oberonia iridifolia 28
Titania 28
Ochlerotatus itsiiese Sg adihy
Ocholissa humeralis 2205
var. 1 atra pe 205
var. 2 nigricollis a6 PAB)
leai -- 205
nigricollis. . .. 204
Ocybadistes ardea netercbarhna ao 12
flavovittata car alll
ceres Sopa
flavovittata 3 ey Lal
hypomeloma eoere lone 5 Ile
vaga so IPR
suffusus 56 MB)
walkeri 5. PAL
hypochlora 50 NE
olivia get Al
sonia jae Di
sothis mele,
Olea paniculata Me 69
Onesia. See Calliphora.
Ophidiaster granifer xiii
robillardi so sahil
Oreisplanus munionga ao Abit
perornatus parol bike;
Oriens augustula ; 5 le!
Orionastraea lonsdaleoides 354
Ornithochilus Hillii Sep, ee
Orthis australis .. te 55 35133
resupinata . 353
Orthoceras strictum aye art!)
Orthocerus australis . 198
Orthograptus calcaratus . . 305, 308
var. basilicus .. 303-5, 309, 311
ef. truncatus . 308
Orthotetes crenistria Xe Ope

Oscinella frit
Otaria jubata
Oxalis acetosella
corniculata
Oxylaemus leae

PABULA

bovilli

dentata

perforata :
Padraona suborbicularis
Palorus eutermiphilus

exilis

minor
Pamphila amalia

augiades

eurotas

lagon

lascivia

marnas

sigida
Panacites : ats
Panicum lnchionhelteen ie
Papilio alexis

augias

chromus ..

exclamationis

helirius

iacchus

japetus
Parmeliopsis cemiviidie
Parnara amalia

bada sida. .

colaca a
Parsonsia velutina

ventricosa
Pasma polysema

tasmanicus
Paspalum dilatatum
Passiflora aurantia. .
Patlasingha
Pathodermus Tatoediamene
Pelargonium radulum
Pelopidas agna

bevani

cinnara

contigualis

impart

lyelli

midas
Peneus plebejus
Penicillium expansum

Penthelispa blackburni
fuliginosa. .
obscura
picea
polita
robusticollis
secuta
sulcicollis

Percalates antiquus
colonomum

Phaius grandifolius

162-3

16
XXXixX
XXxix
. 202

7-2 193
B93
ao IGE
.. 193
a3 UA
.. 194
.. 194
.. 194
e120
5 11283
o5 | Bh
go 1025)
eli?
see?
5 JlPX0)
he RK
285)
ey LAT
on 1B
ao JUL
5 Wall
.. 109
so LILI
. 110
so Zobhy
so IX)
a t20
Pel20
. 291
i 169
se dlilét
.. 114
> OE
co WH
oo dali
. 204
ae ex
.. 119
no IPX0)
220)
seelZO
.. 120
ca ile)
5 tilts)

xliii

. 40-1, 44,

49, 52-3
no 1G)
.. 199
.. 199
.. 199
.. 199
.. 199
.. 199
. 199

Xxill
Xxill
28

Phalacrocorax capensis se AIG
Phanerotrema burindia > B03}
Phareodus queenslandicus xxiii
Phillipsia sp. 350, 352-3
Philothermus RTE . 205
sanguineus 205
Phoca richardii 16
Phoenicops . . 109
Phormesa carpentariae 189
CAUDATA .. 189
epitheca .. .. 189
grouvellei . 189
heros 189
hilaris 189, 190
imperialis . 189
lunaris 188-9
NOTATA . 189
opacus (?) 189
parva 189
prolata 188-90
thoracica . 188
torrida 188-90
varia ; 189
PHORMINX .. . 190
LYRATA : 190
Phycopsis camila 38-9
Phyllacanthus annulifera . . xiii
Phyllachora bella XXXViii
Lyonsiae . 5 XXXViii
Phyllanthus Deere 67
Phyllites Bs ah NANTON
Phyllocladus 6 Si XOV XOX
Physalis minima 69
peruviana ‘ Ee ee 169
Pinnularia viridis var. intermedia
176, 179
Piper hederaceum . . 66
Pittosporum Xx
undulatum gc) Oe
Pitys 342, 345+ 6, 354, 367
Plantago Brownii .. .. 293
PALUSTRIS 284, 291
stellaris a) FASB}
Pleiococca Wileoxiana 289
Plesioneura curvifascia a6 J0I@)
Pleurostauron PLAYFAIRIANA 176, 179
Poa caespitosa 80
Pollinia nuda 30 PAS)
Potamalosa novae- Jngillemating > lil
Prasophyllum acuminatum 30
ansatum 29
Archeri 29
australe 29
Baueri 29
brevilabre 29
Deaneanum 29
densum 29
elatum 29
eriochilum 30
filiforme .. a9
fimbriatum 30, 286
flavum 29
Frenchii .. 29
fuscum a 29
var. alpinum .. 29
var. grandiflorum 29

INDEX.

Prasophyllum gracile AN tee 29
Hopsonii . . F 29, 286
intricatum ae oe ae At)
laminatum Ee Bre eee 19)
longisepalum ae 3 i ee29
Morrisii .. = ie nae 29
nigricans .. es aa #21829
Nublingii ae a 5c BA)
odoratum ae ste ero 29
patens.. — ae oo vA)
reflexum .. 5 = eee)
Rogersii 29, 284, 286
Trufum 5a ae on Pater)
Ruppii_.. = ais 0)
striatum oe ae Sy tA)
Suttonii AB aa she AS)
transversum a Be my 29
viride zis 6 bie ane 29
Woollsii .. as ze 8) 329

Productus longispinus aie so 83
(2?) semireticulatus 2 BOS
sp. ae oye ye so. Bh

Proekon. See Calliphora.

Protocanites lyoni 350, 353

Pseudeba novica 194

Pseudosbusca concolor . Xliv

Pteris umbrosa TE 24 50 (ats)

Pterostylis acuminata a oo GAO)
alata 27, 30
alpina ar se ae oo 3X0)
Baptistii ap ah so | (SO)
barbata .. = : 30
coccinea 30, 286
concinna .. me ae ao GX)
clavigera .. 27, 30
cucullata .. ate af Sin SAR
curta Be eal oe co | 6OtO)
eyenocephala ap ok ne eX)
Daintreyana es ae “on a0
decurva 286
falcata 27, 30, 286
furcata : 30
furcillata . . Be an so ail)
grandiflora hes ce 50 Gx@)
longifolia ars 33 a5 80)
Mitchellii =f FG so GAO)
mutica .. ae zs co Gt)
nana ee a3 6 ca G0)
nutans .. Ae an ee 0)

var. hispidula. . oe ees)
obtusa .. ais as ao» 8x0)
ophioglossa a ee eS 0
var. collina .. Re ao BO)
parviflora as : tS 0)
var. aphylla ie SO
pedoglossa 2 ie ao 6630)
pedunculata ie eM ee ()
praecox .. a is 5a) BO)
pulchella . . AY ¥ S30
pusilla .. ae ia so
var. prominens Bs so 8X0)
reflexa .. ie sts 55 830)
revoluta .. a: as 50 Gil)

lxxili

Pterostylis rufa 30
var. Mitchellii 30
var. squamata 30

squamata 30
striata 27, 30
truncata 30
Woollsii 30

Ptychomphalus exillont 353

Puccinia orellana .. XXXvVili

Pultenaea fasciculata a PASH)

Pyrgus argina 124

Rapanea Howittiana 68

Reticularia lineata 353-4

sp. 353-4

Retiograptus ulohecrimte eeroilal:

YASSENSIS 3038, 305, 311
Rhacophyllum j 5 Boy!
Rhacopteris 347, 352, 367
intermedia sa GUE
Roemeri .. F oo Spy!

Rhipidomella aruda so GiB

Rhodea . 354

Rhodomyrtus peidioides 67

Sabera caesina aibifascia 124

dobboe autoleon 124
orida fuliginosa . . 124
Samaropsis barcellosa OO:
Milleri 354, 359
ovalis ; 344,354
Sarcochilus Ceciliae 28
dilatatus .. 28
divitiflorus 28
eriochilus 28
falcatus 5 28
var. montanus 28
Fitzgeraldii 28
Hartmannii 28
Hillii 28
olivaceus 28
parviflorus 28
spathulatus 28
Weinthalii 28
Sarcopetalum Harveyanum 66
Sardinia neopilchardus 209
pilchardus 209
Sardinops coerulea. . 209
melanosticta 209
neopilchardus 209-11
sagrax 209
Sarrotrium australis 198
Satyrus klugi 253-6
philerope 253-7
singa 254-6

Scalenostoma eiriata xii

Schellwienella crenistria 353

Schiffnerula Rubi .. XXXVIlil

Schizophoria resupinata 352-3

Scintilla ephippodonta xi

Scorias philippinensis Bila at!)

Senecio amygdalifolius 69

dryadeus ; 69

Siegesbeckia orientalis 69

xxiv

Signeta flammeata 115
tymbophora > Wil)
Sloanea austroqueenslandica on (7
Woollsii .. a a xa BZ
Sorosporium Fraserianum XXXVili
polycarpum XXXvVili
Sparactus costatus. . so MES
elongatus sa WS
grouvellei se) ISNA
interruptus no US
LEAI 5 Ir
productus 187
proximus >, Us}
pustulosus elisa
QUEENSLANDICUS 187-8
Spathella sp. o. eos
Sphacelotheca mutabilis XXXViii
Sphaerularia bombi 161
Spheniscus demersus a so LG
Sphenopteridium 342, 354
Sphenopteris , + 3b4
Spiculaea Huntiana we so Bid)
irritabilis ae - eS)
Spiranthes australis Fe Be przAay)
sinensis .. ae 29
Spirifer bisulcatus . . 5 BR}
duplicicostatus 5 GN
mosquensis 352-3, 002
sp. Lee Uh : OOS
striatus : . 393
var. attenuatus . 38538
Spiriferina ANY » B58
insculpta . . ae ee . 353
Stauroneis PLAYFAIRIANA 176, 179
Stephania hernandifolia .. so
Sterculia .. he ; OE XCX:
Steropes a ts a itt
Stigmaria ficoides .. 342, 345-6, 351,
354, 361
Stigmatomyces limnophorae XXXviii
sarcophagae XXxviii
Stolephorus robustus 5 PALL
Straparollus davidis > i533
Streptothamus Beckleri . 290
Stropheodonta davidi 307, 312-3
Stylifer brunnea so >abhi
Styphelia lanceolata 180'r68
Suniana lascivia lascivia re 22
LASUS .. ; 30, 122
neocles 222
sunias 122
nola : 5 bP
SAUDA .. 3 34, 122
Symplectophyllum mutatum 353
SYNAGATHIS 185
KAURICOLA . 185
Synecarpia lauritolia 336, 339
var. glabra 290
Synoum glandulosum eT:
Syringopora syrinx 1. 300
Tabanus froggatti 217-38, 224-5, 228
gentilis . , 224, 228
neobasalis 224-5, 228
Tachardia melaleucae 37
Taeniophyllum Muelleri 28

INDEX.

Tagiades japetus australiensis
gamelia
janetta
louisa
nestus curiosa
Taractrocera alix
anisomorpha
celaeno one
dolon diomedes . .
dolon
flavovittata
fumosa
ilia beta ..
ilia
ina ina
iola
iola
minimus .. :
papyria agraulia
papyria
Tasmannia aromatica
dipetala
insipida
monticola
Telesto
arsenia
comma
compacta. .
doubledayi
eclipsis
flammeata
kochi
scepticalis
Telicota ancilla.
anisodesma
augias argeus
brachydesma
eurotas
eurychlora
LACONIA
kreffti kreffti
melanion .. ;
mesoptis mesoptis
ohara ohara
olivescens 6
Thelymitra aristata
carnea
chasmogama,
circumsepta
Elizabethae
ixioides
longifolia
media
megealyptia
nuda
pauciflora
venosa ;
Theobaldia frenchi. .
hilli
INCONSPICUA
littleri
tonnoiri
weindorferi
Thyca sp.
Thinnfeldia,
Tieghemopanax clegans

> alo)
26 Lil®)
110
6 Hil@)
so ililG)

. 120
55 lil
.. 120
55 U0)

. 120
on RAO)
.. 120
5a zal
5 pal
.. 121

. 120
eel 21)
-. 120
-.- 120

+120

34, 123

34, 123

“IO ©

ie)

rpowhy Wh pw
oO

Ke)

29

294-5, 297
294-5, 297
294-5, 297
294-5, 297

294, 297
294-5, 297

xlii
. xliv
68

Timoconia thieli pe elalies
Todima fulvicincta - 199
fusca v3 l99
lateralis .. 199
tufula ys sa G8)
Toxidia bathrophora a. nls)
crypsigramma ciea wally
doubledayi a a6)
leachi fs me Aealatt)
leucostigma leucostigma ao Ue
parasema Penls'6)
melania ge) UG
parvulus . 116
peron Wits

| thyrrhus .. 115-6
Trapezites dispar . . -. Uil?
eliena eliena peeeelt2
monocycla pelle
heteromacula 113
jiacchoides Sel)
jacchus oo Wil
luteus glaucus con ALLS}
luteus .. aa JIB}
maheta maheta syblh2
petalia ae os peel eles
phigalia ae as no, a
PHILA .. B25 13s
phigalia a hie
phillyra 113
phlaea .. 25 1133
phigalioides » Wal,
sciron oi) WR
symmomus 111-2
soma 5 Wie,
sombra.. . s Ils
Trichopeltis reptans 38-41, 438, 46
Trichothallus hawaiiensis egos
Trigonocarpus ellipticus . 354
ovoideus . 354
Trionus opacus 188-9
Triposporium sp. 38, 41-38, 46-7, 52-4
Tristanites .. a ve sa BOK
Tryblidaria australiensis . . XXXIX
Tylenchenema 35) ileal
oscinellae Ag se WGP
Tylophora paniculata eS feeno9,
Uncinia riparia . 285
Ustilago curta XXXVIii
serena XXXViii
valentula XxXXvill
Velleia montana . 298
Veronica calycina .. Se .. 69
Viscum articulatum a 00
Vitis clematidea .. =, Gir:
Winterania lanceolata .. ye (Oe
Xenica klugi Bs Ne fo PAlafs)
Xerotes Hystrix 286
longifolia 285-6
montana . . a Ae 5a teh
“Zaphrentis cliffordana 353
aff. cliffordana 352
culleni'.. Me ao eet}
sp. a 352-3
sumphuens 359

Ussued 15th May, 1987.)

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Ni ea | t e ae ae eu z ’ 5 ( : Nos. 269-270.

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The Linnean Society of New South Wales

LIST ‘OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1937-38.

President:
EK. C. Andrews, B.A.

Vice-Presidents: ;
W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr. hoe
Cc. A. Sussmilch, F.G:S. -

Hon. Treasurer: G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

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W. R. Browne, \ D.Sc. ,
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E. Cheel.

Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc.

_A. G. Hamilton.

_ Professor J. Macdonald Holmes, B.Sc.,

Ph.D., F.R.GS.

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/ Council:
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BY T. G. B. OSBORN. 77

in the second volume of the Supplement to l’Encyclopédie Méthodique. The date
given by Blakely is that on the title page to this volume. But the volume appeared
in parts over a series of years, and page 594, that on which the description of
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EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.—Photograph of sheet in the Banksian Herbarium, British Museum of Natural

History. The label in Robert Brown’s handwriting reads:
“Hucalyptus corymbosa
Metrosideros gummifera
Gaert. Botany Bay. ~* J.B. & D.S.”

Note the single ripe fruit surviving on the old inflorescence in the left hand specimen:
The fruits to the right are immature.

Fig. 2.—Photograph of sheet in the Herbarium of the Museum of Natural History,
Vienna. Dehnhardt’s note is in the bottom right hand corner, and the name “rostrata”
‘in pencil in Maiden’s handwriting above it.

PROCEEDINGS, 1937, PARTS 1-2.

i CONTENTS. <. eae ee
wy et ee a ‘Pages. —
Presidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-second Annual General :
Meeting, 3ist March, 1987, by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch ..’.. ,. .. i-xxxiii
: Sas ey ens \
WileehtOmS ey eee ies Pee tase Bea or eh ee 0, hen cee PCa UE: a ete Xxxiii

)

c mx \ : 5 xu * { = : . J =
Balance-sheets for the year ending 28th February, LOS Tila . \XXXIV-XXxXvV1

The Structure of Galls_ formed by Cyttaria septentrionalis on Fagus
Moorei. By Janet M. Wilson, B.A. (Plates i-ii and twelve Text-
) ‘ :

figures. ) RAC ty emo na iS unany oUR ae sere ates ange: oii Abit fears ae
Entozoa from the Australian Hair Seal. By T. Harvey Johnston, M.A,, is j

‘DiSe., Pou.S., (iwelve Pext-feures:) (7 ea ead a . Di 9-16 (ee
Notes on Genus Calliphora (Diptera). Classification, Synonymy, Distribu- q Za

tion and Phylogeny. By\G. H. Hardy. “(One Text-figure.) SHO. 17-26
i
A Census of the Orchids of New South Wales, 1987. By the ‘Rev.

H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. .. 21-31
Australian Hesperiidae. vi. Descriptions of New Subspecies. By i
G.-. A. Waterhouse,°D.Se.;B.Ws; ;PSRBLS: 3h ON a Se puter dae 32-34

The Distribution of Sooty-mould Fungi and its Relation to certain Aspects é
of their Physiology. By Lilian Fraser, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay
Fellow of the Socjety in Botany. (Plate iii and twelve Text-figures.) 35-56

On the Histological Structure of some Australian Galls. By HE. Kiister. ~
(Communicated by Dr. A.B. Walkom.) _ (Fourteen Text-figures.) .. 57-64

Final Additions to the Flora of the Comboyne Plateau. By HE. C. Chisholm,
BEES, OI eis Ne Re ae ean NE bn A 65-72

Some Notes on the Nomenclature of certain Common Species of ;
Eucalyptus. By T. G. By Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Plate iv.) .. -.. HO 73-77

ee ee

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Two New Species and one New Variety of Drimys Forst., with Notes on
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Australia and Lord Howe Island. By Joyce W. Vickery, M.Sc.

——

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera., Oecophoridae. vi. By A. Jefferis- |
Marmer, OM Ds RRS. (ee re en eae ee _ 85-106

Australian Hesperiidae. vii. Notes on the Types ad Type | Localities. x

By Gian Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., B.R.ELS. pe Sap eee et Fp ieee 107-125
Revision of the Genus Fergusonina Mall. (Diptera, Agromyzidae). By es
AS Ta: Tonnoir. (Communicated by Dr. G. 0A. Currie.) (Sixteen ae
SOX tA SU TOSS) Sore see ih par chic Sina Seas. ee 126-146

- Galls on Eucalyptus Trees. A New Type of Association between Flies.
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Notes on Fossil Diatoms from New South Wales,. Australia. 4 Fossil re
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Skvortzov. COTTA Le oe De A. B. Walkom.) (Twenty-six

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A Monograph of the Australian Colydiidae. By H. 7 Carter, BAG
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The Occurrence of the Australian - Pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus.
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Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., C.M.Z.S. (Plate xi.) Dale ae ¢ 209-216

Notes on the Biology of Tabanus froggatti, T. gentilis and T. neobasalis -
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The Growth of Soil on Slopes. By Professor J. Macdonald Holmes, Ph.D.

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Arthur Henry Shakespeare Lucas. (Memorial Series, No. 7.) (With

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|| ~~ PROCEEDINGS

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Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Sc. 3
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CONTENTS.

ic ‘ i a
oR 4

On the Identity of the “Battexiy ‘known in Australia as Heteronympha
philerope Boisd., 1832. By G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.E.S.

Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part iii. The

Genus Aedomyia Theobald. By I. M. Mackerras, M.B., Ch.M., B.Se.
Se Shae see Ss 259- 262

(Five Text-figures.) aor Been ores ecg aon peace

The Petrology of the Hartley District. iv. The Altered Dolerite Dykes.
By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Se., Ph.D. i ;

The Ecology of the Upper Williams River and ene Tops: Districess

: — 1937, PARTS 56.

253-258

268-268

16 Introduction. By Lilian Fraser, D.S¢., and ‘Joyce W. FRobee ‘i aS 2

List of Members ;

_. Wwiii-lxii

Index 20 2 Sag? gs (Wie the aie teh ae a Tg aaa ie eee

M.Se. ‘(Plate xiv, two Maps and ten Text: figures.) — 269-283
ae Notes on some Species occurring in’ the ‘Upper Williams River and - yet

~ - Barrington Tops Districts, With- ‘Deseriptions of two new Species and : e
two new Varieties. By Lilian Fraser, D. Se., “and Joyee W: Vickery, ~~ a
M.Se. (Ege Text- -figures. ) : Be ee ee

Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part ‘iv. The Genus _ ae :
Theobaldia, with Description of a new = eales ee D. J: Lee, B. Se. e
(Nine Text-figures. De 204-208

Notes on Australian Orchids. - iii. A Review of the Genus Cymbidium in Fe 2
Australia. ii By as Reve H. M. R. Fe, B.A. (Three Text-~ a
figures.) SR eae Ee aN eae Sie FO Gate Sara eLN ENG: A negra “a99- 302

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The Occurrence of Graptolites near Yass, New. ‘South Wales. By Kathleen
Sherrard, M.Sc., and R. A. Keble, BGS. (Plate eV, and twenty-five Pons see A
Text-figures. ) BSAA? RON uae ee aE GOON une, Sacer REC Nie 303-314 ~ <4

The Ecology of the Central. Coastal Area_of New South Wales. ies ney Sao
Environment and General Features of the Vegetation. By Ilma M. ;

Pidgeon, M.Sc.,- Linnean Macleay Fellow. of the Society. in Botany.. ae
(Plate xvi-xvii and six Text- figures.) 315-340

The Carboniferous Sequence in the Werrie Basin. By Ss. Warren Cater: . at
M.Sc. (With Palaeontological Notes by Ida A. Brown, D.Se.).7 (Plate ~~ Ne
xviii and five Text-figures.) oe 1 Seat aie) ey jet

A Note on the Ascigerous Stage of Olaviceps Paspati § 8. & H. in Australia, oe
By W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr. : (38TT

ie: ~ \

List of New Genera and Subgenera .. 379 ik

List of Plates oS vies 880

Abstract of Proceedings v0 3 2) 3 he el > Hast eee uoxxvii-xly. j <i

Donations and Exchanges i; | xlvi-lvii wo

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