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PROCEEDINGS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. ^ 



VOL, I. 



MDCCCXLI-MDCCCXLIV. 



PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY, 

BY RICHARD GRIFFIN AND CO. GLASGOW, 

AND THOMAS TEGG, LONDON. 

MDCCCXLIV. 



GLASGOW: 
Pbiktbd by Bell & Baih, St. Enoch Square. 



CONTENTS. 



PASS 

Origin of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, ^ 

Members of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, • ^ 

On the Oxides of Bismuth. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., Ac., Regius 

Professor of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, • * 

On the Determination of the Melting Points of Metals and various Metallurgic 

Products, and of the Temperature required for the formation of different 

Silicates. Bv Lewis D. B. Gordon, Esq., Regius Professor of Civil Engineer- 

ing and Mechanics, University of Glasgow, • |^ 

On the Means of Extinguishing Fires in Factories. By D. Mackain, M.I.C.E., jo 

On the Cultivation of Plants in Close Cases. By William Gourlie, Jun., Esq., . lo 

On Chlorimetry, and on a new mode of Testing weak Solutions of Bleaching 

Powder. By Walter Crum, Esq., • ^' 

On the Ventilation of the Glasgow Fever Hospital. By D. Mackain, Esq., CxvU 

Engineer, • ^ 

Description of an Improved Tilting Apparatus, for emptying Waggons at the 

Termini of Railways, Shipping Places, Ac, as used at the Magheramome 

Lime Works. By James Thomson, Esq., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Civil Engineer, ^ 

On the Physiology of Cells. By Andrew Anderson, M.D. Andersonian Professor 

of the Institutes of Medicine, • "^ 

Report of the Section on Physiology, On the best Means of Supplying the Poor 

with Cheap and Nutritious Food. Read by Dr. R. D. Thomson, . . ^» 

On Dynamometrical Apparatus; or, the Measurement of the Mechanical Effect 

of Moving Powers. By Professor Gordon, 

On the Fertilization of Plants. By Dr. Balfour, Regius Professor of Botany m 

the University of Glasgow, , • • *^ 

On an Improved Method of Preparing Oxygen Gas. By John Joseph Griffin, . 44 

Description of an Apparatus for Exhibiting the Formation of Water by the Com- 
bustion of Hydrogen Gas in Atmospheric Air. By John Joseph Griffin, . 4b 

Notice of Divi-divi. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D., j^ 

On Artificial Ultramarine. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D., ^ 

Comparative Experiments made with different Manures. By John Wilson, Esq., 51 

On tne Nature and Cure of Blindness produced by Oil of Vitriol. By Robert D. 

Thomson, M.D., 52 

On the Statical Relations of the Grases. By John Joseph Griffin, • ' ' tn 

Books added to the Society's Library in the years 1840-42, .... ^^ 

Notice of some New Minerals. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., 

M.R.I. A., Regius Professor of Chemistry, ^J 

List of Office-Bearers for 1842-43 ^8 

Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry, "° 

On the Melting Points of Alloys of Lead, Tin, Bismuth, and Zinc. By Thomas 

Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Chemistry, • • • * JJ 

Notices of some Recent Botanical Facts, °^ 

Practical Remarks on Blast Furnaces. By George Thomson, Esq., Mining 

Engineer, 84 

Experiments on various Manures. By Lord Blantyre,* ! . . . • ^^ 

Results of Experiments with Manures on Potatoes. By Mr. Dugald Dove, 

Nitshill, . . . • ^ 

Experiments with Manures on Oats and Tunlip8-^1842*. By Mr. William 

M'Lintock, Hurlet, ^7 

On the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. By Walter 

Crum, Esq., 98 



i? CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

On a Specimen of Artificial Asbestus. By F. Penny, Ph.D., Professor of Chem- 

btry in the Andersonian University, 104 

Notice of New Zealand Minerals, 105 

Notice of the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. By William 

Gourlie, Jun., Ksq., 105 

Section of I^narkshire Coal Field. Bv William Murray, Esq., . . . . 113 
On the Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland. By Alexander Watt, 

City Statist, Glasgow, 114 

Examination of the Cowdie l*ine Resin. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D., . . 123 
On the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids, the Mode in which it coagulates, 
and the Transformations which it undergoes. By Andrew Buchanan, M.D., 
Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, University of Glasgow, . . . 131 
New Mode of employing Creasote for the Preservation of Butchers'-Meat and 

Fish. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D., 145 

On the Existence of an Immense Deposit of Chalk in the Northern Provinces of 

Brazil. By George Gardner, Esq., F.L.S,, 146 

Report on the State of Disease in Scotland, 153 

Remarks on the Comet of March, 1843. By William Gourlie, Jun., Esq., . . 156 
On a New Kind of Charcoal Support for Blowpipe Experiments. By John 

Joseph Griffin, 158 

On the Nutritive Power of Bread and Flour of Different Countries. By Robert 

D. Thomson, M.D., 163 

On Coal Gas. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., M.R.I.A., Regius 

Professor of Chemistry, 165 

List of Office-Bearers for 1843-44, 176 

Hints for the Formation of a Friendly Society for the Professional and Mercan- 
tile Classes. By William Spens, Esq., 177 

On Parietin, a Yellow Colouring Matter, and on the Inorganic Food of Lichens. 

By Robert D. Thomson, M.D., 182 

Report of Botanical Section, 192 

On the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. By Alexander Watt, LL.D., City 

Statist, 193 

Table of the Specific Gravities of some Crystallized Salts. By Mr. John Adam, 199 
Note on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. By Andrew Anderson, 

M.D., Andersonian Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, .... 200 

Antarctic Minerals, 207 

Note on the Measure of Impact, by Pressure or Weight. By Professor L. Gordon, 208 
Short account of a Botanical Excursion to Galloway and Dumfriesshire, in 

August, IWS. By J. H. Balfour, M.D., Regius Professor of Botany, . . 209 
On the Minimum Rate of Annual Premiums for Insurance of Select Lives from 
Twenty to Sixty, and on the value of Annual Additions to Insurances at 

those Ages. By William Spens, Esq,, 217 

On the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. By Andrew Buchanan, M.D,, 

Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the University of Glasgow, . 226 

On the Impurity of some Drugs. By Mr. David Murdoch, .... 236 

On Printing for the Blind. By John Alston, Esq., 239 

On the supposed Influence of the Moon upon the Weather. By Walter Crum, 

F.R.S,, Vice President, 243 

On a Theoretical Rule for the Compression of Water. By Daniel Mackain, 

M. Inst. C.E., 249 

Report of Statistical Section, , 256 

Test of Formula for Discharge of Water through Pipes. By L. D. B. Gordon, 

Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, .... 258 

Interim Report by the Subscriber, Peter M'Quisten, Civil Engineer in Glasgow, 
relative to agreement between the Proprietors of Househill, and Messrs. 

John Wilson & Sons, 261 

Description of a Steam Boiler. By Mr. James Johnston, 262 

Notice of Excursions made from Glasgow with Botanical Pupils during the Sum- 
mer of 1843. By J. 11. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Botany, 263 

Books added to the Society's Library since 1842, 269 

List of the Members of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, .... 271 
Index, 273 



PROCEEDINGS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTIETH SESSION, 1841-42. 



CONTENTS. 

1. Professor Thomson on the Oxides of Bismuth, 4 

2. Professor Gordon on the Melting Points of Metals, 10 

3. Mr. Mackain on the Means of Extinguishing Fires in Factories, . . .13 

4. Mr. GouRLiE on the Cultivation of Plants in Close Cases, • . . .16 



The Philosophical Society of Glasgow was founded on the 9th 
of November, 1802. Three gentlemen of that city, Messrs. John 
Roberton, William Douglas, and Peter Nicholson, considering that 
general advantage would be derived from the establishment of a 
society for the discussion of subjects connected solely with the arts 
and sciences, issued a circular, dated 5th November, 1802, to their 
fellow-townsmen, requesting such as favoured the scheme, to attend a 
meeting on the 9th of the same month. Accordingly, on that day the 
following gentlemen convened at the Prince of Wales* Tavern : — Dr. 
William Meikleham, Messrs. James Monteith, John Roberton, Wil- 
liam Douglas, James Cook, William Mitchell, William Dunn, Robert 
Kibble, Robert Thom, David Hamilton, Peter Nicholson, James 
Hardie, James Scott, Andrew Brocket, John Buttery, John Smith, 
James Boaz, James Haldane, Alexander Galloway, Alexander Drum- 
mond, James Chrichton, William Reid. Such were the original mem- 
bers who constituted the first meeting. Their number, however, 
speedily increased to sixty, and comprehended many individuals who 
have since acquired prosperity and reputation. 

From that period to the present, the society has continued with 
varied success to hold meetings either weekly or every fortnight. 
The minutes of the society have been carefully preserved, and exhibit 
throughout, on the part of the office-bearers and secretaries, much care 
in conducting the business, and in recording the transactions of the 
society. The presidents were often chosen annually ; the secretaries 
have, however, been more permanent office-bearers. Mr. James Boaz 
continued in the office of secretary from 1804, till his death in March 
1830. His minutes are written with great neatness, and contain 
abstracts of papers, and drawings of models or plans which have 
accompanied descriptive communications. 

No. 1. 



2 Office-Bearers of tfie Society. 

Although the society does not appear, at any period of its history, 
to have published even abstracts of its proceedings, yet several of the 
communications read at the meetings have appeared in the scientific 
journals of the day, or in the transactions of other philosophical socie- 
ties. It has been suggested, during the present session, that an 
occasional publication of notices of the papers read at the society, 
might contribute to extend the usefulness of the institution, and 
perhaps to elicit contributions which have hitherto been withheld from 
the absence of a convenient medium for publication. In accordance 
with this view, the present sheet is now printed. 



MEMBERS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW, 

APRIL 20th, 1842. 



<©ffice=:13 eaters. 

President, Professor Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R. S., L. & E. 

Vice-President, Walter Crum. I Secretary, Alexander Hastie. 

Treasurer, Andrew Liddell. Librarian, John J. Griffin. 



Dr. a. Buchanan. 
Thomas Dawson. 
Dr. Findlay. 
Professor Gordon. 



Cotitteil. 

William Gourlie. 
Dr. Hannay. 
Alexander Harvey. 
John Leadbetter. 

HiiirarB Committee. 



Robert M'Gregor. 
Professor Penny. 
John Stenhouse. 
James Thomson. 



Messrs. W. Crum; A. Hastie ; T. Dawson; James Thomson; F. Penny. 
Dr. Findlay; Professor Gordon; J. J. Griffin, Convener. 

(ITonbeners of J^ections. 

Section A, — Agriculture, Statistics, and Domestic Economy. 

Convener, — Wm. Murray, of Monkland. 
Sub-Conveners,— James Smith, of Deanston; Alexander Watt. 

Section B, — Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology. 

Convener, — John Stenhouse. 
Sub-Conveners,— Alexander Harvey; Dr. R. D. Thomson. 

Section C, — Physics, including Mechanics and Engineering. 

Convener, — Professor Lewis Gordon. 
Sub- Conveners, — James Thomson, Civil Engineer; Thomas Dawson. 

Section D, — Physiology and Natural History. 

Convener, — Dr. John Findlay. 
Sub- Conveners, — Dr. A. Anderson, Professor J. H. Balfour, Dr. Hannay 



1802, Nov. 1, Professor Meikleham. 
1802, Nov. 9, John Geddes. 
1802, Nov. 9, Henry Houldsworth. 



1802, Nov. 9, Charles M'Intosh. 
1802, Nov. 9, James Sword, jun. 
1804, Dec. 19, John Thomson. 



Members of the Society. 



1810, Dec. 

1814, Dec. 

1815, Feb. 

1816, June 
1818. Jan. 

1818, Jan. 

1819, May 

1820, Feb. 
1820, Feb. 
1820, Feb. 
1820, May 
1820, May 
1820, May 
1820, June 
1820, Aug. 

1820, Nov. 

1821, Jan. 
1821, Feb. 
1821, July 
1821, Aug. 

1821, Dec. 

1822, Aug. 
1822, Oct. 
1826, June 

1826, Nov. 

1827, Jan. 
1827, March 
1827. April 

1827, July 

1828, Jan. 
1828, May, 
1831, Jan. 



24, William Freeland. 

19, Thomas Muir. 
27, James Lumsden. 

3, William Dixon. 
12, Archibald Geddes. 
12, William Waddell. 

24, Andrew Liddell. 
21, John Hart. 

21, Robert Hart. 

21, Alexander Watt 
1, James Edington. 
1, Gavin Inglis, Fife. 

22, Alex. Johnston, Dublin. 
12, Nichol Handyside. 

21, John Herbertson. 

20, John Steel, Greenock. 

22. Peter Aitken. 

25, Daniel Wilson. 

16, John Ure. 

6, George Watson. 

17, And. Smith. Mauchline. 
5. John Brash. 

14, John Stewart. 
5, Chas. Chalmers, Edin. 
20, Professor Wm. Couper. 

7, John Eadie. 

5, Alexander Hastie. 
30, William Ewing. 
30, James Eadie. 

7, James Davidson. 

5, John Gibson. 
17, George Smith. 



1834, 
1834, 



Feb. 
Feb. 



1834, Feb. 



1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 
1834, 

1834, 

1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1835, 
1836, 
1836, 
1836, 
1836, 
1836, 



Feb. 

Feb. 

March 

March 

March 

April 

April 

May 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

March 

March 

March 

March 

April 

April 

May 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Feb. 

Feb. 

March 

March 

March 



10, Dr. James Brown. 

10, Professor A. Buchanan, 

M.D. 
10, Professor Thos. Graham, 

London. 
10, Dr. A. J. Hannay. 
10, J. Scouller,M. D.Dublin. 
10, Richard Cunliffe. 
10, John Leadbetter. 
10, Daniel Mackain. 
7, John Joseph Griffin. 
7, Alexander Harvey. 
J 9, Walter Crura. 

12, Professor T. Thomson, 

M.D. 
26, Henry Inglis. 
7, John A. Fullarton. 
Jas. Davidson, Ruchill. 
James Buchanan, jun. 
John Campbell, Surgeon. 
Allan Fullarton. 
Robert M'Gregor. 

1, John White. 

5, John Houldsworth. 

13, John Baird. 

4, John Wilson, Thomlie. 

2, Henry Paul. 

10, Archibald M'CoU. 
10, James B. Neilson. 

9, Thomas Dawson. 

9, John Liddell. 
23, Professor J. P. Nicholl. 



1836, Nov. 16, Graham Hutchison. 

1836, Nov. 16, C. Randolph. 

1836, Nov. 16, John Thom. 

1836, Nov. 30, James Lumsden, jun. 

1836, Nov. 30, T. Thomson, jun., M.D. 

1836, Nov. 30, John Tennent, Campsie. 

1837, Nov. I, James Young. 

1837, Nov. 15, John Stenhouse, Ph. D. 
1837, Nov. 29, Dr. William Gregory. 
1837, Dec. 13, William M'Farlane. 
1887, Dec. 13, Dr. J. H. Robertson. 
1837, Dec. 27, William Murray. 

1 837, Dec. 27, Thomas Watson. 

1838, Dec. 5, Henry M'Donald. 
1838, Feb. 7, James Murray. 

1838, Feb. 7, James Smith, Deanston. 

1838, Feb. 21, John Smith. 

1838, March 21, John Black. 

1838, JVIarch 21, Alexander Graham. 

1838, April 18, Andrew M'Clure. 

1838, Dec. 5, George Lancaster. 

1839, Jan. 2, Patrick Adair Black. 
1839, March 13, James Thomson. 
1839, March 27, William Wilson. 
1839, Nov. 6, John M'Bride. 
1839, Nov. 6, William M' Bride. 
1839, Nov. 20, Frederick Penny. 

1839, Dec. 18, Alexander G. Edington. 

1840, Jan. 8, George Robb, Saltcoats. 
1840, Jan. 8, Alexander Wingate. 
1840, Jan. 22, William Gouriie, jun. 
1840, Feb. 5, James Dunlop. 

1840, Feb. 19, Dr. John Fiiidlay. 
1840, Feb. 29, Frederick Adamson, jun. 
1840, April 15, Matthew P. Bell. 
1840, April 29, W. M. Buchanan. 
1840, Dec. 2, William Cockey. 

1840, Dec. 2, ProfessorL.D.B.Gordon. 

1841, Jan. 27, J. Wilson, Auchineaden. 
1841, Nov. 17, Dr. Andrew Anderson. 
1841, Nov. 17, Matthew Adam. 

1841, Nov. 17, Professor J. H. Balfour, 

M.D. 
1841, Nov. 17, Walter G.Blackie, Ph.D. 
1841, Nov. 17, John Cochran. 
1841, Nov. 17, Charies Glassford. 
1841, Nov. 17, William King. 
1841, Nov. 17, Archibald Walker. 
1841, Nov. 17, Dr. And. Kerr Young. 
1841, Dec. 1, William More. 
184i, Dec. 1, William Ramsay. 
1841, Dec. 1, James F. Stewart 
1841, Dec. 1, T. Stenhouse, Crossmill. 
1 84 1 , Dec. 1 , Dr. Robert D. Thomson. 
1841, Dec. 1, James Thomson, jun. 
1841, Dec. 15, John Clugston. 
1841, Dec. 15, Dr. J. G. Fleming. 
1841, Dec. 15, Thomas Lindsay. 
1841, Dec. 15, William Low. 
1841, Dec. 15, George Rich. 

1841, Dec. 29, Gilbert Weir, 

1842, Jan. 12, John Alston. 

1842, Jan. 26, George Thorbum, jun. 
1842, March 8, Charles T. Dunlop. 
1842, March 24, John Campbell. 
1842, April 6, Wm. Hutcheson, M D- 



Professor Thomas Thomson <m the Oxides of Bismuth. 



3d November y 1841, — Dr. Thomas Thomson, President, in the Chair 

The Librarian reported the state of the Library funds, and pre- 
sented a list of the Scientific Periodicals, proposed to be ordered for, 
the ensuing year; consisting of 11 English and American, 8 Fren 
and 5 German works. 

The Vice-President having taken the Chair, the following com- 
munication was read: — 

L On the Oxides of Bismuth. Bj Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., 
&c., Regius Professor of Chemistry, University of Glasgow. 

Bismuth is rather a rare metal ; but in consequence of the lowness of 
its melting point, and the few purposes to which it is applied, it sells 
at a comparatively small price. It occurs in nature almost always 
in the metallic state ; and most of the bismuth of commerce comes 
from Saxony, where it is found mixed with the ores of cobalt. It is 
obtained by simply exposing these ores to heat in a crucible, — the 
bismuth melts at a low heat, and is collected at the bottom of the 
crucible. Bismuth as it occurs in commerce, is a somewhat brittle 
metal, having a reddish white colour, and is composed of broad plates 
adhering to each other. 

It is not quite pure, for it contains iron, arsenic, sulphur, copper, 
and nickel, and probably other foreign bodies, though not in any con- 
siderable quantity. But it is easy to obtain it pure by the following 
process : — 

Dissolve it in nitric acid, taking care that the excess of acid is not 
too great. Pour the solution into a large quantity of pure water. A 
fine white precipitate falls in scales, having a pearly or satiny lustre. 
This precipitate is a nitrate of bismuth. It must be collected on a 
filter, and washed with water ; but we must not persist in washing it 
too long, because it is slightly soluble in water. Allow it to dry, and 
then expose it to an incipient red heat, in a platinum or porcelain 
crucible. The nitric acid is expelled, and an oxide of bismuth 
remains, having a deep orange colour while hot, but assuming a fine 
yellow colour on cooling. It is a pure oxide of bismuth. To 
reduce this oxide to metallic bismuth, we have only to put it into a 
bulb, blown in a green glass tube, and to pass through it a current of 
dry hydrogen gas, while the bulb is kept hot by means of a spirit 
lamp. If the heat be properly regulated, the reduced bismuth 
remains in the state of powder, or rather of small grains about the 
size of gunpowder, and may be easily taken out of the bulb. It was 
bismuth purified in this manner, that I employed in the following 
experiments : — 

1. 13-5 grains of metallic bismuth, were put into a platinum 



Professor Thomas Thomson on the Oxides of Bismuth, 6 

crucible and cautiously dissolved in dilute but pure nitric acid; 
taking care that while the solution was going on, the crucible was 
covered with a lid. The liquid portion was now driven out of the 
crucible by a low heat, and the crucible was kept for some time in a 
state of incipient incandescence. By this process the 13-5 grains of 
metallic bismuth were converted into yellow oxide. The amount of 
yellow oxide in different trials was 14*9, 15* 1, 1505 grains. Hence it 
follows that yellow oxide of bismuth is composed of 

Bismuth, 13*5 

Oxygen, 1*5 or IJ atoms 

15 
and that its atomic weight is 15. 1 actually obtained 
Bismuth, 13'5 
Oxygen, 1-5016 
Now 0-0016 grains, being far within the limits of the errors to which 
such an experiment is liable, ought I conceive to be neglected. 

If 13*5 be the atomic weight of bismuth, then the yellow oxide is a 
compound of 1 atom bismuth, and l\ atom oxygen. 

The composition of yellow oxide of bismuth thus deduced, agrees 
with the results which I formerly obtained. I found it composed of 
Bismuth, 9 
Oxygen, 1 



10 
For that reason I considered the atom of bismuth to weigh 9, and the 
yellow oxide to be 10. But the result of the experiments of Dulong 
and Petit, of Neuman and of Regnault, to determine the specific heat 
of bismuth, do not accord with this atomic weight when we test it by 
the law of Dulong and Petit. We must adopt the number 13-5. 
And if this be the true number, then the yellow oxide of bismuth is 
a compound of 1 atom bismuth, and 1 J atom oxygen. 

2. When bismuth in the state of a fine powder is exposed for a long 
time to the air, or when it is kept melted in a heat under redness in 
an open vessel, it is converted into a dark brown powder, which con- 
stitutes an oxide containing less oxygen than the yellow oxide. When 
we attempt to dissolve it in nitric acid it effervesces and is converted 
into yellow oxide. I formed a quantity of this oxide by melting bis- 
muth in a porcelain crucible and stirring it with an iron rod, till the 
metallic particles nearly disappeared. I then reduced it to a fine 
powder, and passed it through a hair sieve in order to separate the 
metallic particles from the oxydized portion. 

20 grains of this oxide were dissolved in nitric acid, the solution 
was evaporated to dryness, and the residual salt exposed to incipient 
redness, till all the nitric acid was driven oflF. The weight of the 
yellow oxide thus obtained was 21*4 grains. 



6 Professor Thomas Thomson m the Oxides of Bismuth. 

Now 21*4 grains of yellow oxido arc composed of 
Bismuth, 19*26 
Oxygen, 2-14 

21-40 
Hence the suboxide must have been composed of 
Bismuth, 19-26 or 13-5 
Oxygen, 0*74 or 051 



20-00 
There seems no reason to doubt from this analysis, that the sub- 
oxide of bismuth is a compound of 

1 atom bismuth, 13*5 
i atom oxygen, 0-5 



14 
and that its atomic weight is 14. Like other suboxides it does not 
seem capable of combining with acids. No doubt it is a compound of 

2 atoms bismuth, 27 
1 atom oxygen, 1 



28 



3. There is another oxide of bismuth which was discovered by 
Bucholz and Brandes in the year 1818, while engaged in the analysis 
of a copper ore from Hungary * 

During the analysis they obtained a mixture of silver and oxide of 
bismuth, which they fused with caustic potash and digested in water. 
A yellow powder remained, which disengaged chlorine when treated 
with muriatic acid, and which by exposure to heat was converted (with 
a loss of weight) into yellow oxide. From these and other experi- 
ments, which it is needless to state, it is evident that the oxide of 
bismuth obtained by them, contained more oxygen than the yellow 
oxide of that metal ; but the conclusion which they drew, that it con- 
tained 50 per cent, of oxygen, was so inconsistent with every thing 
known of the constitution of the yellow oxide, that nobody for 
several years thought of examining into the existence of this new 
oxide of bismuth. 

Stromeyer repeated their experiment in 1832, and found that when 
the yellow oxide of bismuth is exposed to a moderate heat when mixed 
with potash, it becomes brown, and after being washed, a brown pow- 
der remains, which disengages chlorine when mixed with muriatic 
acid.t The greatest part of the yellow oxide, however, when thus 
treated remains unaltered. 

* Schweigger's Journal, Bd. 22, p. 27. 
t PoggendorfiTs Annalen, Bd. 26, p. 548, and Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., t. 51, p. 267. 



Professor Thomab Thomson on the Oxitles of BisrmUh, 7 

But he hit upon another and much easier method of preparing per- 
oxide of bismuth. When yellow oxide of bismuth is mixed with a 
solution of chlorite of soda, and boiled in a flask, it soon assumes a 
dark brown colour, like that of peroxide of lead. Chlorite of soda is 
obtained by dissolving bleaching powder in water, and precipitating 
the lime from the solution by carbonate of soda. The boiling must 
be continued for some time. And then the brown powder is collected 
on the filter, washed and dried. In this state it is almost black, but 
is still a mixture of yellow oxide and peroxide. Stromeyer purified it 
by washing it in cold nitric acid, diluted with nine times its weight of 
water. According to the analysis of Stromeyer, 12*12 of it when 
heated to about 660° become yellow oxide, and lose 0*59 of oxygen. 
Hence 15 grains of yellow oxide in order to become peroxide must 
combine with 0*767 of oxygen. Hence he concludes, that the oidde 
of bismuth is a compound of 

1 atom yellow oxide bismuth, 15 
I atom oxygen, 0*75 

15-75 

So that its atomic weight is 15*75, and it consists of 

1 atom bismuth, 13*5 
2^ atoms oxygen, 2*25 

15*75 

These atomic proportions appeared so unusual that I thought them 
not likely to be correct. It would indicate a compound of 4 atoms 
bismuth, and 9 atoms oxygen, as the constitution of peroxide of bis- 
muth, I therefore prepared a quantity of peroxide of bismuth, by boil- 
ing anhydrous yellow oxide in fine powder with liquid chlorite of 
soda in a flask. I allowed the boiling to continue for 24 hours. 

The product was a dark brown powder, very heavy ; but in colour 
similar to peroxide of lead. It was easy by the application of dilute 
nitric acid, to detect in it the presence of yellow oxide of bismuth. 
But I found some difficulty in separating this yellow oxide ; muriatic 
acid was out of the question, as chlorine was evolved and the whole 
oxide speedily reduced to common chloride of bismuth. I tried nitric 
acid, which Stromeyer employed, but it effervesced with the peroxide, 
evolving oxygen, and before I could succeed in removing the yellow 
oxide almost the whole of the peroxide disappeared. Sulphuric and 
phosphoric acids did not answer better. They caused an eflfervescence 
with the evolution of oxygen, and the peroxide was gradually reduced 
to yellow oxide. I did not try sulphurous acid, thinking it not at all 
likely to answer. But Stromeyer says that it slowly changes the per- 
oxide of bismuth into subsulphate. At last, after a great many fruit- 
less trials, I found that dilute acetic acid might be digested upon it 



« Professor Thomas Thomson an the Oxides of Bismuth. 

without any sensible action. It has the property of dissolving yellow 
oxide of bismuth. By repeated digestions in successive portions of 
distilled vinegar, I succeeded at last in separating the whole yellow 
oxide, and thus obtaining the peroxide in a state of purity. 

It was in very small scales having a silvery lustre, and had a brown 
or rather a buflf colour, not so dark as that of the original mixture of 
yellow and brown oxides. It was tasteless, heavy, insoluble in water, 
and acted on by acids in the way just stated. Neither the fixed 
alkalies nor ammonia have any sensible action on it. 

To prepare it for analysis, I washed it with water till that liquid 
came off perfectly pure. I then dried it in the open air, and finally 
kept it in a temperature of 300° till it ceased to lose any weight. I 
then put it into a platinum crucible, and gradually heated it by a 
spirit lamp till it was converted into yellow oxide. Two successive 
experiments yielded exactly the same result. 19-8 grains of it lost, 
when thus treated, 2*1 grains of weight, and were converted into yellow 
oxide. So that peroxide of bismuth according to this result is 
composed of 

Yellow oxide, 17*9 or 15 
Oxygen, 1-9 or 1*59 

This is very nearly one atom of yellow oxide and an atom and a 
half of oxygen. I have no doubt that the exact quantity of oxygen is 
1*5 or an atom and a half. Thus we have the atomic weights and 
composition of the suboxide, the yellow and brown oxides of bismuth 
as follows : — 

Bismuth. Oxygen. 

Suboxide, 2 atoms, -j- 1 atom. 

Yellow Oxide, 1 — + U — 
Peroxide, 1 — +3 — 

The atom of bismuth must weigh 13*5. 

I found the brown oxide of bismuth as originally prepared, by boil- 
ing yellow oxide in chlorite of soda, a compound of 

12*25 yellow oxide. 
2*75 brown oxide. 
Or nearly 5 atoms yellow oxide, and 1 atom brown oxide. 
It is obvious, from the results just stated, that Stromeyer had not 
succeeded in freeing his brown oxide from all admixture of yellow 
oxide. 

The constitution of the oxides of bismuth would be simplified were 
we to double its atomic weight, and make it 27. Then the suboxide 
would be a compound of 1 atom bismuth and 1 atom oxygen, the yellow 
oxide of 1 atom bismuth and 3 atoms oxygen, and the brown oxide, a 
compound of 1 atom bismuth and 6 atoms oxygen. But the experi- 
ments made to determine the specific heat of bismuth, will not admit 
of any such increase. This specific heat is — 



ProfeBsor Thomas Thomson on the Oxides of Bismuth. 

According to Neumann, 0*027 

According to Dulong and Petit, 00288 
According to Regnault, 003084 



Mean, 0*02888 

It was observed by Dulong and Petit that if the atomic weight of a 
body be multiplied bj its specific heat, the product is a constant 
quantity. This has been confirmed by the subsequent experiments of 
Avogadro, of Neumann, and of Regnault, made expressly to put the 
statement to the test of experiment. I infer from it that every atom 
is surrounded by the same quantity of heat. The constant quantity 
obtained by multiplying the specific heats and atomic weights together, 
is (if we make use of the late experiments of Regnault, which are 
probably the most accurate,) 4. If therefore, we divide 4 by the 
atomic weight of bismuth, the quotient must give us the specific heat. 
Now, dividing 4 by 13*5 we obtain for a quotient 0"0296. This differs 
from the mean above stated, by 0*008, or less than 1 per cent, and 
from the determination of Regnault by 0*0012, or only 1^ per cent. 
Now, if we attend to the difficulties which experiments to determine 
the specific heat of bodies are liable to, we must feel rather surprised 
that the agreement is so very near, than that it should amount to so 
much as 1 per cent. 

I conceive, therefore, that there can be no doubt that 13*5 is the 
true atomic weight of bismuth, and that yellow oxide of bismuth is a 
compound of two atoms bismuth, plus three atoms oxygen, and brown 
oxide of one atom bismuth and three atoms oxygen, or at least of 
some multiple of these numbers. It would be necessary to determine 
their specific heats in order to obtain absolute numbers. 



nth November, 1841, — The President in the Chair, 

The following gentlemen were admitted as members of the society: — 
John Hutton Balfour, M.D., Regius Professor of Botany, Andrew 
K. Young, M.D., Charles Glassford, Esq., John Cochrane, Esq., 
Walter G. Blackie, Ph. D., Andrew Anderson, M.D., Archibald 
Walker, Esq., Matthew Adam, Esq.., William King, Esq. 

The accounts which had been previously audited were presented by 
the Treasurer and Librarian, exhibiting an expenditure of £64 8s. lid. 
for books during two years, and a surplus in the hands of the Treas- 
urer amounting to £75 8s. 5d. 

The society then proceeded to the fortieth annual election of office- 
bearers.— (See page 2.) 



10 Professor Gordon on the Melting Points of Metals. 

1st December, 1841, — T%e President in the Chair. 

The following gentlemen were admitted members: — William Ram- 
say, Esq., James F. Stewart, Esq., R. D. Thomson, M.D., James Thom- 
son, Esq., Jan., Thomas Stenhouse, Esq., William More, Esq. 

The following communication was then read: — 

II. — On the Determination of the Melting Points of Metals and 
various Metallurgic Products, and of the Temperature required for 
the formation of different Silicates. By Lewis D. B. Gordon, Esq., 
Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, University of 
Glasgow. 

In reviewing the state of our knowledge of the melting points of 
bodies, seven different classes of pyrometers that have been employed 
or proposed by experimenters were briefly mentioned, and it appeared 
that the many researches undertaken by philosophers with those 
instruments afford us only a graduated scale of the fusibility of the 
substances tried, and do not give the absolute melting points, save for a 
certain number of metals in their simple state. 

Table No. I. gives the results of different experimenters, from which 
it appears how little, on the whole, had been done in this important 
subject until Plattner of Freyberg undertook a most elaborate series 
of experiments, of which, and of their results, it is the object of this 
paper to give some account 

Plattner was guided in his course of research by the methods of 
Prinsep and Daniell, but more especially by the method of de Saus- 
sure, for determiniijg the melting points. 

Saussure's method consisted in endeavouring to determine the 
fusing point of a substance in degrees of Wedgewood's pyrometer, 
according to the diameter of the greatest assay he could fuse before the 
blowpipe, by comparison with the diameter of the greatest globule of 
silver he could melt under circumstances in every respect the same, 
and the melting point of which he knew. 

[The instruments employed, and method of experimenting adopted 
by Plattner for perfecting this notion of de Saussure, were exhibited 
and explained.] 

For determining the melting points of the more easily fusible pro- 
ducts, alloys of gold and silver, and silver and lead, (see Table II,) 
were employed ; and for those of the more refractory products, alloys 
of gold and platinum were used. 

The determination of the melting point of platinum was a prelimi- 
nary step, and this was ascertained by two experiments, as follows : — 

1°. It was found that with a blowpipe supplied with air, under a 
gentle pressure, from a gasometer, a gold regulus weighing 2290 
milligrammes, can be fused and maintained in fusion on charcoal, and 



Professor Gordon <m iht Melting Points of Metals. 11 

in the same circumstances, an alloy of 1760 mill, gold -J- 230 milL 
platinum can bo maintained in fusion ; and if either more gold, or a 
very small quantity of platinum, be added, the fusion is imperfect 

2°. An alloy of gold and platinum was found having the same melt- 
ing point as cast iron, viz., 70 gold + 30 platinum fused in the same 
time as 100, by weight, of cast iron. 

The melting point of platinum is deduced from these experiments 

"" From 1* 25290 C.\ w.._. 05340 c 

and these experiments appeared satisfactorily to warrant the assump- 
tion that alloi/s of silver and gold, and gold and platinum, have melting 
points proportional to the melting points of each of these metals; an 
assumption made by Prinsep. 

Mitscherlich's determination of 1560" C. as the melting point of 
platinum was referred to, but as this involves all previous determina- 
tions of the melting points of other metals being erroneous, that is, 
much too high, Plattner was justified in assuming his own determina- 
tion as the basis of the temperatures given in Table II. and in his 
further researches. 
The melting points of Lead being taken at 334° C. 

Silver, — 1023° C. 

Gold, — 1102" C. 

Platinum, — 2534° C. 
it was easy, according to the method described, to determine the melt- 
ing points of the most refractory substances, so long as these were 
under that of platinum. The alloy being found having the same 
melting point as that of the body under research, its value was 
then 

A s + B s' 

100 

Where A and B are the weights, and s and s' the melting points of the 

metals contained in the alloys. And 100 parts by weight of alloy, and 

body under experiment, were taken respectively. 

Attention was called to the circumstance that Daniell had fixed the 

melting point of copper at 1091° C, or under that of gold. Prinsep 

found, from constant experience as an assayer, that this is not the 

case, and fixed the melting point to be the same as that of an alloy 

of 97 parts gold and 3 parts platinum. Plattner found 95 parts gold 

and 5 platinum to answer more exactly, and hence, applying the above 

formula, 

^ __ 95 X 1 102° 4- 5 X 2534" ,._^ 
X j^ =117^ 

the molting point of copper. 

The second part of Plattner 's researches on the Determination of the 



12 



Professor Gordon on the Melting Points of Metals. 



Temperature necessary for the Formation of different Silicates, was 
promised, should the society consider it of sufficient interest, as the 
subject of a future communication. 

TABLE I. 

TABULAR TIBW OF THE MELTING POINTS OF METALS, AS DETERMINED BY DIFFERENT 
EXPERIMENTERS. 

lln melts at 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 
Bismuth do. 
Do. do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Lead 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



do. . . . 

do., . . 

do. . . . 

do. . . . 

do. . . . 

do. . . . 
Quicksilver boils at 
Zinc hardens above 



228° Centigrade 

267° 

228° 

230° 

222-5° 

246° 
241° 
265° 
264° 

322i° 

322-2° 

325° 

334° 

350° Centigrad 

400° 



Do. melts at 

Antimony do 

Silver melts at 

Do. do 

Do. do 

9 parts silver 1 part gold do. 

3 do. 1 do. do. 

CJopper 1132° C. corrected to 

Do. melts at .... 

Do. do 

Gold, 1144° corrected to . 

Do. melts at 

Do. do 

Cast Iron, 1587° corrected to 
Platinum melts at . . . 



411° 

512° 

1023° 

1034° 
999'' 
1048° 
1121° 
1091° 
1207° 
1173° 
1102° 
1163° 
1380° 
1530° 
2534" 



according to Crichton. 

Guyton. 

Rudberg. 

Kupffer. 

Ehrmann. 

Crichton. 

Guyton. 

Rudberg. 

Ehrmann. 

Crichton. 

Guyton. 

Rudberg. 

Kupffer. 

e, according to Dulong and Petit. 
Rudberg. 

f Daniell, measured with an 

I Iron Rod. 

Guyton. 

J Daniell, measured with 

\ Iron Rod. 

Guyton. 

Prinsep. 

do. 
do. 

Danielljwith Platinum rod. 

Guyton. 

Plattner. 

Daniell. 

Do. with Iron Rod. 

Guyton. 

Daniell, with Platinum rod. 

Plattner. 



TABLE IL 

MELTING POINTS OF VARIOUS HETALLURGIC PRODUCTS. 

100 by weight of this substance 

Name of the substance, the melting point melt in the same temperature 

of which is determined. and in the same time to a 

globule as alloys of 

1. Sulphuretted metals, from process termed ) „„ ^ , , _„ „., 

RoharbeU, } 30 Gold, + 70 Silver 

2. Do. Lead process, 5 — +95 — 

3. Do. Copper do., 3 Lead, + 97 — 

4. Aseniuretted Metals,— Lead, 50 Gold, + 50 — 

5. Raw Copper, 5 — + 95 — 

6. Red Litharge, 90 Silver, + 10 Lead, 

7. Slags :— 

a. Greenish yellow colour, and slight glass ) ,c t>i *• itji 

vitreous lustre \^^o^^> + 16 Platmum, = 1331 



Melting 
point, 
deduced 
by cal- 
culation. 

= 1047°C. 

= 1027° 

= 1002° 

= 1062° 

= 1027° 

= 954° 



Mr. Mackain on Extinguishing Fires. 13 

Tablk II. — Melting Points of various Mktallu&oic Products, Continued, 

Melting 

100 by weight of this substance point 

Name of the substance, the melting point melt in the same temperature deduced 

of which ia determined. and in the same time to a by oal- 

globule as alloys of culation. 

b. Dark grey, slight vitreous lustre, . . 82 — +18 — = 1360" 

c. Light grey colour, sUght vitreous lu8- ) _ 

tre, (Hot blast,) i^ - + 1/ _ _ itf« 

d. Dark grey vitreous lustre, slight, (Hot) g2 _ . jg — = 1360» 
blast,) ) 

e. Dark grey, vitreous lustre, .... 83 — +17 — = 1346» 

f. Grey and blue striped, and vitreous) looio 
fracture, 3 

g. Dark grey, slight vitreous lustre, . . 83 — +17 — = 1345° 
h. Same, Hot blast, 83 — +17 — = 1345' 

Copper Slags, Raw Metal, 83 — +17 — = 1345° 

Tin Slags, Pure \ _ . -« 

Block, vitreous lustre, . . . ./^ - + ^^ " - ^^" 
Iron Slag, Blast furnace, going on No. 4 Iron, 

Slags, greenish coloured vitreous fracture, 80 — +20 — » 1388* 
Iron Slag, Puddling, 

Iron, black colour, metallic lustre, slight, . 77 — +23 -— = 1431' 



I5th December, 1841, — The President in the Chair. 

The following members were admitted: — Thomas Lindsay, Esq., 
William Lowe, Esq., J. G. Fleming, M.D., John Clugston, Esq., 
George Rich, Esq. 

The following communications were read; — 

III. On the Means of Extinguishing Fires in Factories, 
By J). Mackain, M.LC.E. 

The extensive fires that have lately occurred in two of the largest fac- 
tories in this city have had their origin in the upper floors of the build- 
ings. In one case, the fire began while the people were at work, and when 
the command of a very small quantity of water would have been sufli- 
cient to have extinguished it. In the other case, the fire began at night 

As the greater number of factories have cisterns of considerable 
capacity placed above the engine house, and at a height of about 
thirty feet from the ground, they could easily, and at a small cost 
provide themselves with the means of extinguishing fire in any part of 
their buildings, by adopting a modification of the apparatus most com- 
monly known by the name of the Chemnitz, or Hungarian Machine. 
A sketch of the proposed mode of applying this apparatus is here given. 

Below the cistern of the engine house, let there be placed an upper 
receiver, or, as it is termed in the sketch, a water vessel, formed of 
boiler plates. A pipe, a, i, having a curved end fitted with a valve, b, 
communicates between the cistern and the water vessel 



u 



Mr. Mackain on ExttTigvishing Fires. 






1 



m 



Enffine 
House. 




<W 



n mr 



<^ 



Codk.cJj8i 



From the bottom of the water vessel, conduit-pipes may be carried 
and connected with others leading into the second floors of the factory 
below, and above the water vessel, to a height nearly equal to the dis- 
tance between the water vessel and the air vessel yet to be described ; 
and from these pipes, others fitted with fire-cocks may ramify through 
the entire extent of the buildings. 

Nearly on a level with the ground is placed another receiver, marked 
in the sketch as the air vessel, and formed of the same materials as 
the water vessel, but of double its capacity. A pipe, I, g, fitted with a 
stop-cock, ky leads from the bottom of the cistern to nearly the bottom 
of the air vessel. 

Another pipe, h, also fitted with a stop-cock, i, is attached to the 
bottom of the air-vessel, for emptying it, after it has been filled with 
water. An air-pipe, /, e, is conducted from the top of the air-vessel, 
to the top of the water vessel, to which it descends with a curve, after 
having been carried to the height of the top of the cistern. 

The apparatus being thus arranged, the presence of water in the 
cistern will raise the valve, b, on the curved pipe of the water vessel, 
and flow into it ; and the lower cock, i, of the air vessel being opened, 
the air contained in the water vessel will be discharged by the air 
pipe, and the vessel will be entirely filled with water. If the cock, i, 
be shut, and the cock, k, be opened, the water wiU flow from the cis- 
tern into the air vessel, compressing the air in it, and in the air pipe, 
/ €y with the force due to the height of the column of water in the 
pipe. The compressed air will thus act, through the air pipe, on the 



Mr. Mackain on Eximgvishing Fvres. 15 

surface of the water in the water vessel, and the valve, h, being thereby 
shut, the water will be forced along the pipes, wi, n, to the same height 
above the water vessel, as the distance between the surfaces of water 
in the cistern and air vessel 

Thus, if the air vessel be at the level of the ground, — the surface of 
water in the cistern be 30 feet above it, — and the water in the water 
vessel, 26 feet above the ground, — water will flow from the conduit- 
pipes at the height of 55 feet above the ground ; and the pipes might 
be made to discharge any required volume, in a given time, below this 
point, by a proper adjustment of the diameters of the pipes, and of 
the diflference between the several water surfaces. The velocity of 
discharge helow the cistern, is that due to the extreme height to which 
the compressed air can raise the water in the upright pipe. 

When the upper vessel is exhausted, the stop-cock, A, on the pipes 
leading from the cistern, is to be shut ; the stop-cock, t, for discharg- 
ing water from the air vessel, is to be opened ; and the pressure being 
now taken off the water vessel, the valve, b, on the feeding pipe, will 
be opened by the water in the cistern ; the water vessel will be charged, 
and the apparatus be again ready for use. 

I understand that this machine is so arranged in Hungary that it is 
self-acting. It, therefore, would only require a stop-cock on the con- 
duit-pipes, to be opened or to draw water in the event of fire, to set it 
in motion, — an instantaneous aid that, in such cases, is invaluable. 

The greater size of the lower vessel is necessary to admit of the com- 
pression of the air to the requisite extent, and at the same time that 
there shall remain a bulk of compressed air equal to the contents of the 
water vessel, so as to expel the volume of watqi^ith which it was filled. 

As air compresses into one half of its bulk, with a weight equal 
to that of the atmosphere, or of a column of water 33 feet in height^ 
it follows, that by this apparatus only one half of the quantity of water 
which falls from the cistern into the lower air vessel, can be raised to the 
height of 33 feet above the water vessel, or 66 feet above the ground ; 
and following out the law of compression, only one fourth of the quantity 
could be raised to 99 feet above it, or to 130 feet above the ground. 

These are heights not usually coming within the scope of ordinary 
cases, in the circumstances now in view; but the pressures due to 
these heights can be produced by multiplying the number of cylinders 
on the same levels, and thus forces of great intensity, though of moderate 
ranges of extent, could be obtained by this apparatus, and rendered 
available for many purposes connected with manufactures and the arts. 

(Mr. Mackain exhibited a model of this apparatus, in which the 
receivers were 4^ feet apart, and a flow of water was produced from 
pipes connected with the water vessel, at the same height A second 
pair of receivers were connected; and tlie pressure, amounting to 
double of the first pair, was exhibited by a column of mercury.) 



10 Mr. GOURLIE on Grmving Plants in Close Cases. 

IV. — On the Cultivation of Plants in Close Cases. By William 
GouRLiE, Jun., Esq. 

An Account was given of the observations which led Mr. N. B. Ward 
to the discovery of his mode of growing delicate exotic plants in the 
centre of large towns, or during lengthened voyages ; but as these are 
fully detailed in a work on this subject lately published by him, they 
need not be repeated here. 

Mr. Ward's experiments were conducted in " closed cases " of all 
sizes and shapes, from small wide-mouthed bottles to a range of houses 
about twenty-five feet long and ten feet high. Some of them are 
quite closed at the bottom, and when once watered require no further 
waterings for a long period, while others have several openings, and 
are watered once in three or four weeks or months, as may be required. 
The glazed roofs and sides of these cases are made to fit as tight as 
putty and paint can effect, and the doors fit closely ; but in no instance 
has Mr. Ward endeavoured to seal his cases hermetically, believing 
that the success of the plan is partly owing to the very gradual change 
of air which takes place by the alternate expansion and contraction 
of the volume enclosed. 

[A small glazed case, constructed like Mr. Ward's, and containing 
twelve species of exotic plants, was exhibited ; it was nearly air tight, 
and the moisture which evaporated being condensed upon the glass, 
trickled back into the mould in the bottom of the case.] 

Plants enclosed in these cases can bear greater extremes of heat 
and cold than when unprotected, which Mr. Ward thinks is owing to 
the perfectly quiet sta^|B| the atmosphere surrounding them. They 
are thus admirably caiHImted for conveying living plants from foreign 
countries, and this has already been done to a great extent, many new 
and rare species having arrived in almost perfect health. 

Owing to the prevention of the escape of the moisture within the 
cases, plants will grow in them for many months, or even years, with- 
out requiring fresh supplies of water ; for the supply of water given to 
the soil in the first instance is successfully absorbed, exhaled, and con- 
densed within the case itself, and made to sustain, over and over 
again, the vegetation of the same plants. 

The plants are protected from the deleterious effects of poisonous 
gases and fuliginous matter, generated by the combustion of coal. 
We need not recount the experiments which have been made to prove 
the fatal effects of such gases as sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen ^ 
or muriatic acid, upon plants, as their action upon the vegetation 
around Glasgow must be obvious to every observant person, but merely 
state, that from such a vitiated atmosphere as exists in large cities, 
the plan of Mr. Ward provides effectual protection, which the success 
of his own establishment, situated in Wellclose Square, London, amply 
demonstrates. 

Printed by Bei.l & Bain, Glasgow. 



PROCEEDINGS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTIETH SESSION, 1841-42. 



CONTENTS. 

Me. Crum on Clilorimetry, and on a new Mode of Testing weak Solutions of 

Bleaching Powder, 17 

Mr. Mackain on the Ventilation of the Glasgow Fever Hospital, . . .24 

Mb. Thomson on an Improved Tilting Apparatus for Railway Waggons, . . 25 

Dr. Anderson on the Physiology of Cells, 28 

Report on the best Means of Supplying the Poor with Cheap and Nutritioufl 

Food, 29 



2dih December, 1841, — The President in the Chair, 

Mr. Gilbert Weir was admitted a member. 

At the request of Mr. Liddell, the Physiological section were 
instructed to collect information respecting the best means of prepar- 
ing cheap and nutritious food. Mr. Liddell stated that the managers 
of the Night Asylum for the Houseless, and of similar institutions 
would probably receive considerable benefit from a report embodying 
this information. 

The following communications were read:— 

V. — On Digestion, By Dr. John Fiudlay. 

[The absence of the Author, who is at present on the Continent, 
renders it impossible to give an abstract of this Memoir.] 

VI. — On Chlorimctry, and on a new mode of Testing weak Solutions of 
Bleaching Powder. By Walter Crum, Esq. 

Chloride of Lime is one of those substances whose value cannot bo 
judged of from its external appearance, and which is always mixed 
with a certain quantity of foreign matter. An experiment is there- 
fore necessary to test it, and an easy method of performing such an 
experiment has always been a desideratum with those who manu- 
facture or employ it. 

I propose to give an account of some of the methods which have 
been hitherto in use for ascertaining the strength of mixtures con- 
taining chlorine, and then to describe one I have myself employed 
for some time. 

No. 2. 



18 Mr. Ceum on Testing Solutions of Bkaching Powder, 

The oldest method is that of DecroiziUcs, where the amount of 
chlorine in a solution is measured by the quantity of indigo which 
that solution is capable of discolouring. Welter made use of it, in 
his researches on the nature of chloride of lime, in 1818, and con- 
sidered it susceptible of great accuracy, by attending to certain pre- 
cautions which he pointed out. In 1824, Gay Lussac published a 
set of experiments on this art, to which he gave the name of Chlori- 
metry. He also adopted the indigo test, and made every arrangement 
for accuracy which the method would permit. A volume of chlorine 
was taken for unity ; or, which is the same thing, a volume of liquid 
which had absorbed its bulk of chlorine. This is formed by filling a 
bottle with chlorine gas, inverting it in a vessel containing cream of 
lime, and withdrawing the stopper. The chlorine is gradually 
absorbed, and its place taken by the lime water, — which has then 
become a solution of bleaching powder containing its own volume of 
chlorine gas. 

To form the indigo solution, one part of the best indigo of com- 
merce is dissolved in nine of sulphuric acid, and diluted with water 
to such an extent, that one measure of the chlorine solution discolours 
ten measures of it. When the two solutions are mixed together, the 
chlorine is set free by the sulphuric acid in which the indigo is dis- 
solved, and the indigo is immediately destroyed. The solution of 
indigo is called " proof tincture," and the quantity of it, which an un- 
known solution of bleaching powder is capable of discolouring, indi- 
cates the bulk of chlorine gas which it contains. 

Much of the accuracy of this method depends upon the way in 
which the two solutions are mixed. Thus, by pouring the chlorine 
slowly upon the indigo, much more of it is destroyed than when the 
indigo solution is poured into that containing the chlorine. A great 
many trials satisfied M. Gay Lussac, that the best process is to mix 
the two solutions rapidly together. But then several preliminary 
trials are necessary to ascertain pretty nearly how much should be 
employed. 

Three years after, in 1827, M. Morin, of Geneva, published experi- 
ments on chloride of lime, and discussed the merits of the indigo test. 
He found it impossible to have the circumstances always so much 
alike as to produce any thing like uniform results with it. In 1831, 
M. Marozeau corroborated the view taken by Morin, and added, (what 
every one who has repeated the process must have noticed,) that it is 
very difficult to observe the exact point at which the indigo is wholly 
destroyed, from the want of a distinct line between the brown after 
complete discoloration, and the slightly greenish tint, which M. Gay 
Lussac indicates as the point most desirable to stop at. 

Each of these chemists proposes a substitute for the chlorimeter of 
Gay Lussac. M. Morin would employ muriate of manganese instead 
of indigo, but he gives no details of his process, and it would seem to 



Mb. Ceum on Testing SoltUions of Bleaching Powder, 19 

be both tedious and uncertain. The process of M. Marozeau is 
founded on the property which chlorine possesses of converting 
calomel, an insoluble substance, into corrosive sublimate, which is 
abundantly soluble, and which contains twice as much chlorine. 
Protonitrate of mercury is formed by boiling nitric acid and water 
with an excess of mercury. It is afterwards diluted and set aside, 
when subnitrate precipitates. The salt remaining in solution, after 
being made of a strength to correspond with a volume of dry chlorine 
gas, is the proof liquor. To ascertain by this means the strength of 
any solution containing chlorine, we take a measure of nitrate of mer- 
cury, add muriatic acid to convert it into calomel, and then the 
chloride slowly. The quantity necessary to make the precipitate 
entirely re-dissolve is inversely as the chlorine which it contains. 

At last, M. Gay Lussac himself, in the year 1835, announced that, 
after three years experience of a new process, he had abandoned the 
method with indigo. His objections to it are partly those already 
stated, and partly the change which readily takes place on the indigo 
solution when preserved for any length of time. By the new method, 
any one of three substances may be employed with the same appara- 
tus, and with nearly equal advantage — 

1. Arsenious acid. 

2. Ferrocyanide of potassium. 

3. Protonitrate of mercury. 

M. Gay Lussac prefers, however, the arsenious acid, from the preci- 
sion of its indications. He retains the same basis of measurement as 
for the test with indigo alone ; that is, he takes for unity the discolour- 
ing power of one volume of chlorine dissolved in an equal volume of 
water. That is divided into 100 equal parts. The arsenious solution 
is prepared of a strength just sufficient to destroy an equal volume of 
chlorine gas, or of the chlorine solution. If we take a constant 
quantity of the unknown solution of chlorine, say 10 cubic cen- 
timeters, and pour into it the arsenious solution till the chlorine is gone, 
the force of the chlorine solution will be in proportion to the quantity 
of arsenic employed. If the 100 measures of solution of chloride have 
taken 100 measures of the arsenious solution, then it has the strength 
of 100, and it contains its own volume of chlorine gas. If only 80, 
then it is called of the strength of 80 degrees, and it contains ^^ of 
its bulk of chlorine gas. But this mode of operating would not give 
good results, for the muriatic acid which is employed to dissolve the 
arsenic, and without which the action of the chlorine would be incom- 
plete, disengages the chlorine from its fixed combination with lime 
faster than it has arsenic to act upon, and thus a portion escapes into 
the air. The solution of bleaching powder must therefore be poured 
by degrees into the arsenious solution, and as the strength of the 
chlorine solution is then inversely as the quantity employed, a calcula- 
tion is necessary, or a table has previously to be prepared, by the 



20 Mr. Crum on Testing Solutions of Bleaching Powder. 

inspection of which, the result may at once bo observed. The point 
of saturation of tho arsenic is indicated by a blue tinge, which is 
given to the arsenious solution by indigo. Tliis substance is not 
affected by chlorine so long as any arsenious acid is left, after which 
a single drop of chlorine solution causes it to disappear. 

In employing the prussiate of potash, the instruments and manipula- 
tion are the same. Its solution is made of the same strength as the 
arsenious solution, that is, that it should saturate an equal volume of 
the normal solution of chlorine. Prussiate of potash has a very slight 
action upon chloride of lime, but if previously rendered acid, it is 
immediately changed by it, and becomes yellow. 

The prussic acid test has long been employed by my friend, Mr. 
John Mercer of Oakenshaw, near Manchester. His test, to mark the 
point at which the prussic acid becomes saturated, is the red oxide of 
iron. A bit of calico dyed buff with iron, is touched with the solution 
after each addition of the chlorine, and as soon as it ceases to become 
blue, enough of the chlorine has been added. 

Gay Lussac's third process is that of M. Marozeau with nitrate of 
mercury already described. It appears that Balland do Toul first recom- 
mended this method, two years before the publication of M. Marozeau. 

Mr. John Dalton pointed out a process in 1813, which gives very 
good results ; and, arranged as it has been by Mr. Graham, it seems to 
be the best and most easily executed of all the tests of bleaching 
powder. Mr. Graham directs that a few ounces of good crystals of 
protosulphate of iron should be pounded, and dried between folds of 
cloth. 78 grains of crystals so dried, are equivalent to 10 grains of 
chlorine. The 78 grains are to be dissolved in 2 ounces of water, and 
acidulated with a few drops of muriatic acid. 50 grains of the bleach- 
ing powder to be examined, are dissolved in about 2 ounces of tepid 
water, by rubbing them together in a mortar. The whole is then poured 
into a graduated tube, called an alkalimeter, divided into 100 parts, 
and filled up with water to on the scale. The solution of bleaching 
powder being thus made up to 100 measures, is poured into the solu- 
tion of iron until it is wholly saturated. The point of saturation is 
discovered by means of red prussiate of potash, which gives a blue pre- 
cipitate with protoxide of iron only, and not with salts of the peroxide. 
A white stoneware plate is spotted over with small drops of the red 
prussiate ; and, as soon as the iron solution ceases to produce a blue, 
when a drop of it is applied to one of these spots, no more protosulphate 
remains. Suppose 72 measures of the bleaching liquor to have satu- 
rated the 78 grains of green copperas, then these 72 measures con- 
tained 10 grains of chlorine, which is equal to 13-89 grains in the 50 
grains of chloride of lime, or 27*78 grains of chlorine in 100 grains. 
The calculation is simplified by at once dividing 2000 by the number 
of measures required, thus : — 

^ = 27*78. 



Mr. Ceum on Testing Solutions of Bleaching Powder. 21 

On repeating the experiment in the way prescribed by Mr. Graham, 
I find it of importance to mix the two solutions in a phial. It is 
corked up and well shaken after each addition of the bleaching liquid. 
By this means the cldorinc, a small quantity of which is set free after 
every addition, is prevented from escaping, and a much more perfect 
agitation and mixture is attained than by the use of the spatula. By 
the same means the employment of the mortar and alkalimeter may 
be dispensed with. If the 78 grains of the sulphate of iron bo put, 
along with some muriatic acid, into a wide-mouthed 4 oz. phial, half 
filled with water, the bleaching powder may be added dry, and the 
result obtained by weighing the residue. 



Chlorimotry requires to be practised b^ the bleacher for two purposes 
— First, he has to learn the commercial value of the bleaching powder 
whicli ho purchases ; and with that view ho can scarcely desire any 
thing better than the method either by arsenious acid, or green cop- 
peras. But the more important, because the hourly testing of liis 
bleaching liquor, and that on which the safety of his goods depends, is 
the ascertaining the strength of the weak solutions in which the goods 
have to be immersed. If the solution is too strong, the fabric is apt 
to bo injured. If too weak, parts of the goods remain brown, and the 
operation must bo repeated. The range within which cotton is safe in 
this process is not very wide. A solution standing V on Twaddell's 
hydi'ometer, (spec. grav. 1.005) is not more than safe for such goods, 
while that of half a degree is scarcely sufficient for the first operation 
of stout cloth, unless it is packed more loosely than usual. When the 
vessel is first set with fresh solution of bleaching powder, there is 
little difficulty, if the character of the powder be known ; but when 
the goods are retired from the steeping vessels, they leave a portion of 
bleaching liquor behind, unexhausted, which must be taken into 
account in restoring the liquor to the requisite strength for the next 
parcel. The chlorimeter must, therefore, be applied every time that 
fresh goods are put into the liquid. It must consequently be intrusted 
to persons who may not be expert either in figures or in chemical 
manipulation. Hence all the processes I have described are too deli- 
cate and tedious. 

I introduced another into our establishment some years ago, which 
lias been in regular use ever since, and by which the testing is per- 
formed in an instant It depends on the depth of colour of the per- 
acetate of iron. A solution is formed of proto-chloride of iron, by 
dissolving cast-iron turnings in muriatic acid, of half the usual 
strength. To ensure perfect saturation, a large excess of iron is kept 
for some time in contact with the solution at the heat of boiling water. 
One measure of this solution, at 40" Twaddell, (spec. grav. 1.200) is 
mixed with one of acetic acid, such as Tumbull and Co. of Glasgow 
sell at 8s. a gallon. That forms the proof solution. If mixed with 



Mr. Crum on Testing Soltttiona of Bleaching Powder, 



six or eight parts of water it is quite colourless, but cliloride of lime 
occasions with it the production of peracetate of iron, which has a 
peculiarly intense red colour. 

A set of phials is procured, 12 in number, all of the same diameter. 
A quantity of the proof solution, equal to ^th of their capacity, is 
put into each, and then they are filled up with bleaching liquor of 
various strengths, the first at y^gth of a degree of Twaddell, the second, 
-^jths, the third, /^ths, and so on up to f fths, or 1 degree. They are 
then well corked up, and ranged together, two and two, in a piece of 
wood, in holes drilled to suit them. We have thus a series of phials, 
showing the shades of colour which those various solutions are capable 
of producing. To ascertain the strength of an unknown and partially 
exhausted bleaching liquor, the proof solution of iron is put into a 
phial similar to those in the instrument, up to a certain mark, ^th 
of the whole. The phial is then filled up with the unknown bleach- 
ing liquor, shaken, and placed beside that one in the instrument, 
which most resembles it. The number of that phial is its strength in 
12ths of a degree of the hydrometer; and, by inspecting the annexed 
table, we find at once how much of a solution of bleaching powder, 
which is always kept in stock, at a uniform strength of 6 degrees, is 
necessary to raise the whole of the liquor in the steeping vessel to 
the desired strength. 

s es fis ss fis ss fi 




The instrument is formed of long 2 ounce phials cast in a mould ; 
those of blown glass not being of uniform diameter. The outside, 
which alone is rough, is polished by grinding, and in this state they 
can easily be procured at 4s. 6d. a dozen. They are placed two and 
two, so that the bottle containing the liquid to be examined may be 
set by the side of any one in the series, and the colour compared 
by looking through the liquid upon a broad piece of white paper 
stretched upon a board behind the instrument. 

To explain the table it is necessary to state tliat the steeping vessels 
we employ contain, at the proper height for receiving goods, 1440 
gallons, or 288 measures of 5 gallons each, — a measure being the 
quantity easily carried at a time. In the following table, represents 
water, and the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c., are the strength of the liquor 
already in the vessel in 12ths of a degree of Twaddell, as ascertained 
by the chlorimeter. If the vessel has to be set anew, we see by the 
first table that 32 measures of liquor at 6° must be added to (256 
measures of) water to produce 288 measures of liquor at ^2*^^ 



Mr. Crum o» Testing Solutions of Bleaching Powder. 



23 



of a degree. But if the liquor already in the vessel is found bj the 
chlorimeter to produce a colour equal to the 2d phial, then 24 mea- 
sures onlj are necessary, and so on. 



To stand -j^" 



requires 

1 -. 

2 — 

3 — 

4 — 

5 — 

6 — 

7 — 



32 
28 
24 
20 
16 
12 
8 
4 



measures. 



To stand ^^ 

requires 16 measures. 

1 — 12 — 

2 — 8 — 

3 — 4 — 



To stand /g° 



requires 

2 — 

3 — 

4 — 

5 — 



24 
20 
16 
12 
8 
4 



measures. 



To stand ^V 

requires 12 measures. 
1^8 — 
2 — 4 — 



Let us see what takes place on mixing chloride of lime with proto- 
muriate of iron. On the old view of the constitution of bleaching 
powder — that it is a combination of chlorine and lime, we have 

3 (CaO, Cl)> ^ . (I S^^l 
6 FeCl i becommg < 2 Fe^Cla 

the peroxide of iron forming peracetate with the acetic acid which is 
present Or, supposing with Balard that when two atoms of chlorine 
unite with two atoms of lime, the product is CaCl + CaO, CIO, we 
have this formula: 

3 CaCl ^ r 6 CaCl 

3 (CaO, CIO) V becoming \ 4 Fe^Cl, 
12 FeCl J 12 Fe^Oa 

Here one third only of the iron goes to form the deep coloured per- 
acetate, while the whole might be employed for that purpose, by using 
protoacetate instead of protochloride. The latter however is preferred, 
from the greater tendency of the acetate to attract oxygen from the 
air, and consequently the greater difficulty of preserving it Even 
with the chloride it is best to give out small quantities at a time, pre- 
serving the stock in weU closed bottles. 



[Mr. Crum exhibited Dr. Clark's patent process for purifying water 
from bicarbonate of lime.] 



24 Mr. Mackain on the Ventilation of tJie Glasgow Fever Hospital. 

I2th January^ 1842, — Tlie President in the Chair, 

John Alston, Esq. of Rosemount admitted a member. A communi- 
cation was read by Jas. TnoMSON, Esq. Jun., On an Lnprovement in 
the Motive Power of River Navigation, 



2Qth Januan/, 1842, — Mr. Griffin in the Chair, 

George Thorbum, Esq., Jun., admitted a Member. The following 
communications were then read. 

VII. — On the Ventilation of the Glasgow Fever Hospital, 
By D. Mackain, Esq., Civil Engineer, 

Mr. Mackain had visited the Glasgow Fever Hospital at the re- 
quest of the Medical Committee, with the view of examining the means 
of ventilation which had previously been in use, and which were con- 
sidered to be insufficient. On examination, he was of opinion that 
this insufficiency proceeded, in a great measure, from the relative 
positions of the apertures by which warm air was introduced into the 
wards, and those by which it was designed that the vitiated air should 
be withdrawn ; the former being in the corners of the wards, near to 
the floor ; the latter nearer to the centre of the room, at the ceiling, 
but in the same partition with the former. 

The result of this arrangement was, that the heated air, on entering 
the wards, rose towards the aperture of escape in a continuous stream, 
without mixing with the air in the ward, or communicating its heat. 

As there were no other arrangements for furnishing a supply of fresh 
air during cold weather, beyond the partial opening of the windows, it 
appeared probable that the change of position of the mass of air in 
some parts of the wards, was occasioned solely by the levity of such 
portions as had acquired heat from the lungs or bodies of the patients. 

From these observations, and from various facts of a medical nature, 
which the Committee communicated, it became apparent, that a duo 
ventilation of the Hospital could only be obtained by a thorough dif- 
fusion of fresh air through the several wards, not in large masses 
which do not blend with the general atmosphere, but in small jets, on 
the principle so successfully adopted by Dr. Reid, for ventilating the 
House of Commons. 

The limited pecuniary means under the control of the Medical Com- 
mittee required that any alteration to be made on the existing sys- 
tem of ventilation, should be done at the least expense ; and that tho 
apparatus then in use should, as far as possible, be made available for 
the purposes in view, notwithstanding of many serious objections to tho 
principles of their construction. 

Accordingly, a conduit was carried round two of tho wards, from 
the aperture heretofore used for introdu ing warm air, and perforated 



Mr. Mackain on VentUation of the Glasgow Fever Hospital. 26 

with holes in a certain ratio of number to the distance, so as to insure 
an equal diffusion of quantity at every place. This conduit was made 
of wood, from it being a non-conductor of heat, so that the air dis- 
charged at the further extremity of the conduit into the ward, should, 
as far as possible, have the same temperature as tliat at the beginning, 
— the instructions of the Medical Committee preventing the use of any 
woollen, or other fibrous substance, as a coating, to prevent the radia- 
tion of heat from a metallic conduit. 

As a further aid to the equable diffusion of air, another conduit 
was placed along the ceiling of the ward, perforated with holes, and 
communicating ^with a tube of considerable capacity, (also of wood,) 
which passes through the entire height of the hospital, and terminates 
above the roof. The column of heated air in this tube, by its levity, 
creates a continuous draught of air from the wards by the upper con- 
duit; consequently, from the exterior air through the warming appa- 
ratus into the wards, — and thus independent of the attention, and 
beyond the control of the nurses, a perpetual change of air is maintained. 

In regard to the ventilation of hospitals, there are circumstances 
hot sufficiently known, but essential to the formation of a design, which 
shall not merely embrace an ample supply of air, but the proper tem- 
perature at which this air should be transmitted. 

When the quantity of air required by a person in health, is esti- 
mated by weight, it appears that not less than 55 pounds per day is 
consumed or vitiated by each individual ; and there appears a strong 
probability that the weight vitiated or rendered poisonous by a person 
in the height of a fever is much greater. If the most important con- 
sequences in medical treatment be obtained by a slight alteration in 
the quantity or description of food, which, estimated in like manner 
by weight, is but a fraction of the quantity of air, there is ample 
room to imagine that any alteration in the circumstances of air, may 
have a proportionate influence on the patient. The extent of ventila- 
tion, the temperature, the degree of moisture or dryness of the air to 
be supplied to persons under treatment, should be placed as much 
under control of the medical officers, as any other article of nourish- 
ment; and it would be important had they the means of testing 
by experiment, the effects of what may be termed artificial climate^ 
in the treatment of various diseases under their care. 

VIII. — Description of an Improved Tilting Apparatus, for emptying 
Waggons at the Termini of Railways, Shipping Places, Sfc, as used 
at the Magheramorne Lime Works. By James Thomson, Esq, 
F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Civil Engineer. 

The apparatus may be generally described as consisting of three 
parts, viz. : — 

1st The cast-iron brackets or quadrants, for supporting the machine, 
a, a, a. 

b 



26 Mr. Thomson on an apparatus for Emptying Railway Waggons. 

2d. The tilting frame upon which the waggon is placed, b, b. 

3d. The malleable iron swings for suspending the frame to the 
brackets, c, c. 

The supporting brackets, «, a, are bolted to the wooden frame, «?, rf, 
of a moveable shipping platform, by means of which the apparatus is 
advanced at pleasure, and made to project beyond the wharf, so as to 
discharge the waggon immediately over the hold of a vessel. 

The tilting frame is formed of two cast-iron cheeks or sides, having 
in each two slots or grooves for attaching to the swings, and for adjust- 
ment of the apparatus. These sides of the frames are connected to- 
gether by two flat malleable iron slugs, e, e, as represented in fig. 2, 
with a bolt in each end, and a light round iron stay, f, at the 
curved ends. 

The swings are attached to the frames by means of snubs, g, g, 
which are bolted vertically to the lower ends of the swings, and hori- 
zontally to the sides of the frame, the bolts passing through the 
grooves or slots already mentioned, in which they are moveable. The 
upper ends of the swings work upon malleable iron journals, fastened 
in he top of the cast-iron brackets. 

' When the apparatus is properly adjusted, (which is done by moving 
the tilting-frame forward or backward upon the swings, by means of the 
adjusting slots,) the waggon, on taking its position, should be so placed 
that its centre of gravity may he slightly in advance of the point of sus- 
pension. 

The rails to the tilting frame are laid with a gentle declivity, so that 
the waggon may be brought upon it with a slight impetus, just suffi- 
cient to set the frame in motion ; the waggon will then immediately 
fall into a position ready for discharging, as shown in fig. 1, when, by 
a simple contrivance, which may be effected in various ways, the door 
of the waggon is opened from beMnd by a handle and connecting 
rod, communicating with the door latch, and the load is discharged. 

While loaded, the tilted position of the waggon will of itself remain 
the same, being in equilibrio ; but immediately it is discharged, and 
consequently the centre of gravity thrown behind the point of suspension ^ 
the tendency is then to resume the horizontal position, which it is, how- 
ever, prevented from doing, by means of the spur, A, until completely 
emptied ; the spur is then disengaged, and the waggon resumes its 
level position, ready to be removed. 

The whole operation of discharging a waggon, of whatever weight, 
is effected with perfect safety and facility in a few seconds ; and one 
very important desideratum is supplied by this apparatus, viz., the 
practicability of discharging waggons of different dimensions and differ- 
ent sized wheels upon the same tilting frame. 

The advantages of the apparatus have been fully tested at the 
Magheramorne Lime Works, in Ireland, where they were first applied ; 
and have since been in constant operation for the last three years, dis- 



Mr. Thomson on an Apparatus for Emptying Railway Waggwis. 27 

charging waggons of three tons, with 24 inch wheels, and waggons of 
only 20 cwt. and 20 inch wheels, with perfect facility and expedition 
The cost of each apparatus does not exceed from j£IO to £11 com- 
plete. 





Fig. 2. 




iia 6 



trrml 



lllllll ll ll 



28 Dr. Anderson on the Physiologr/ of Cells. 

9th February J 1842, — TJie President in the Chair. 

IX On the Physiology of Cells. By Andrew Anderson, M.D. 
Andersonian Professor of the Institutes of Medicine. 

A SKETCH was given of what has been called the " Theory of Cells," 
in physiology, based on the observations of Schwann, Schleiden, Barry, 
and others. 

It was shown that it has now been rendered probable, that not only 
every tissue of every plant and animal, but the secretions and other 
products of organized beings, are formed in one way, by the sponta- 
neous evolution of transparent vesicles, or cells full of fluid, and con- 
taining the germs of future cells, which are subsequently formed within 
them ; that these cells possess a power of absorption, by which they 
increase by the appropriation of matter from without ; of transforma- 
tion, both in respect of their own form, and of these absorbed materials ; 
and that it is by the living power of the cells that the nutrition and 
reproduction of the tissues goes on, and, in short, that all the changes 
are effected, by which we recognize the presence of life. 

That the beauty and simplicity of this theory are unsurpassed, and 
that while it seems to have marked a new era in physiology, the evi- 
dence in its favour is such as almost to make it rank among the estab- 
lished facts of the science. 

[Specimens, drawings, and diagrams were then exhibited, to explain 
and demonstrate the structure and growth of cells, and the formation 
of tissues from them.] 

The subject of reproduction was next alluded to, and it was shown, 
that while the lowest organized beings, as the yeast-plant, consist but 
of a single cell, by the multiplication of which they increase and are 
propagated, — so we conclude, that while in them the simplest expres- 
sion of a living being is a cell, the same holds true with respect to the 
higher ranks of plants and animals, and even man himself. That the 
embryo is formed ^by the union of two simple cells, which include 
within them, not actuaily, but potentially, the future being; that is, 
which have within themselves a living energy, capable of successively 
forming the parts of such a being, from the nutritive materials ab- 
sorbed from without ; and thus, that organized life — that which man 
possesses in common with plants, is identical with the powers of the 
microscopic elementary cells of which his body consists. 

Lastly, a few remarks were made to show the bearing of this theory 
on pathology ; how it is that many diseases may arise from a perverted 
state of the vital action of cells ; how others, as the porrigo, evidently 
depend on the formation of abnormal cells, putting on the aspect of 
organized beings of the lowest class; and the paper concluded by 
general remarks on the extreme interest and the practical impor- 
tance of the subject. 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food. 



\4th February, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

This Meeting was called for the purpose of receiving the followmg 
Report from the Section on Physiology. 

X. — Report of the Section on Physiology, On the best Means of 
Supplying the Poor with Cheap and Nutritious Food. Read by 
Dr. R. D. Thomson. 

Much diflference of opinion has at various times existed, respecting 
the proper origin of the food of man. Some have traced its legiti- 
mate source to the vegetable kingdom, while others have denounced 
any diet as bad, which did not contain a certain admixture of animal 
food. The former have been sustained by the fact, that numerous 
tribes of human beings subsist upon vegetable food alone ; while few 
if any, have been met with, whose sole means of subsistence are 
derived from the animal world. This objection, however, we believe 
to be obviated in the natural history of the Esquimaux. During at 
least the winter season of the year, these remarkable human anomalies 
appear to subsist almost entirely upon the carcases of marine animals, 
and contrary to the results which have been obtained by the French 
commission, in feeding dogs upon fat, the Esquimaux feast upon 
blubber and retain all their functions and faculties unimpaired. We 
have, therefore, presented to us, in striking contrast, the inhabitants 
of the torrid regions of India, existing upon vegetable food alone ; and 
the Esquimaux on the skirts of the frozen sea, thriving upon the 
grossest part of the animal kingdom. 

If the question were to bo raised, whether is vegetable or animal 
food most nutritive, and most capable of sustaining animal Hie per sef 
perhaps there would bo little hesitation in yielding the palm to the 
former, inasmuch as all animal matter is in reality a modified form 
of the produce of the vegetable kingdom. In the wheat plant for 
example: — ^by the influence of vegetable organism — carbonic acid, 
ammonia, water, are converted, in conjunction with sulphur and phos- 
phorus, into albumen or gluten. The latter substance when trans- 
ferred into the stomach is digested and deposited in the solid form, 
denominated albumen or fibrin, without undergoing any alteration in 
its chemical constitution. The vegetable organism is, therefore, the 
original source of muscular fibre. The constituents of the fibre have 
been produced by the plant from gaseous elements. Indeed, there 
appears no evidence to favour the idea, that any solid is produced from 
gases in the animal system. On the contrary, vegetables seem to be 
tlie creators, if we may so speak, of all solid organic matter. Without 
vegetable matter then, it is obvious no animal substance could exist 
For in the animal system all the actions which have been demonstrated. 



30 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food. 



are of a decomposing or modifying tendency, and we believe, never of 
a character calculated to produce solid matter from its primary 
elements. If these premises are correct, then it is evident, that we 
are to look for the source of all nutriment in" the vegetable kingdom, 
and we are to expect that these substances will be best calculated for 
the nourishment of animal life, which, in their composition, approxi- 
mate to the constitution of animal matter. The characteristic of this 
common character is azote. Unless vegetable matters contain this 
substance, they are inferior in the nutritive scale ; although they must 
by no means be considered as destitute of all nutritive power. 

But the quantity of animal food consumed in a cold country ought, 
undoubtedly, to be greater than in a warm climate ; because, as all 
animal heat is produced by respiration, the quantity of heat required 
under the former circumstances, is necessarily greater than in the 
latter. Animal heat is the result of the union of the oxygen of the 
air with the carbon of the food. To produce more heat, therefore, 
more carbon must be employed — a more condensed form of carbon 
must be used. This is animal food. 

Sugar is a substance which contains no azote, and yet appears to 
afford nourishment. In crop-time, according to Dr. Wright, every 
negro on the plantations, and every animal, even the dogs, grow fat ; 
and Humboldt (New Spain, II. 424) has frequently observed, that 
the mule drivers, who carried his luggage on the coast of Caraccas, 
gave the preference to unprepared sugar over fresh animal food. Gum, 
also, which possesses a composition identical with sugar, serves for 
nourishment to several African tribes in their passage through the 
desert. Who would venture to affirm that potatoes are not nutritive, 
upon which so many thousands of our fellow creatures are almost 
dependant for their subsistence ? They, however, contain no gluten, 
according to Proust, and very little azote, according to Boussingault. 

Relative Nutritive Power of Vegetables. — To Boussingault we are 
indebted for an elaborate series of experiments, on the quantity of 
azote in vegetables, which may be presented in a tabular form, so as 
to exhibit the equivalent nutritive power of each vegetable, as indi- 
cated by the quantity of azote. Unity represents the most nutritious 
substances, and is considered equal to the larger numbers, (^Annal, de 
Chim. Vol. 63.) 



White French Beans, .... 100 

Yellow Peas, 120 

Flour of Cabbage, 148 

Flour of Carrots, 170 

Flour of Wheat, 175 

Wheat, 191 

French Wheat, 193 

Rye, 200 

Oats, 210 



Flour of Barley Meal, .... 212 

Potato Flour, 225 

Barley, 232 

Indian Com 246 

Potatoes, 1096 

Carrots, 1351 

White Cabbage, 1446 

Turnips, 2383 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food, 



31 



This table is read thus: — 100 parts of white French beans are 
equal to 200 parts of jellow peas, or 2383 parts of turnips, in support- 
ing the strength and vigour of animals fed upon thenL The one may 
bo as nourishing as the other, if a sufficient quantity is taken. If a 
person were accustomed to use 1 1 lbs. of wheat flour, for his support 
during a certain period, and his diet were changed to potatoes, he 
would require 11 lbs. of the latter vegetable to sustain the same degree 
of vigour. This is a most important fact; because it proves that if 
the body though fed, is not sufficiently fed, starvation may ensue. 

These are what may be deemed the theoretical indications of nutri- 
tive power, but they agree in such a close manner with the practical 
numbers, deduced by agriculturists who have derived their facts from 
feeding cattle, that there can be little doubt, at least, of the practical 
value of the table. 

In the following table, the first column represents the nutritive 
power, determined by the quantity of azote. The second represents 
practical experience in feeding cattle. 



Theoretical Practical. 



Hay, . . . 
Yellow Peas, 
Wheat, . . 
Rye, . . . 
Oats, . . . 
Barley, . . 



Equivalent 


Equivalent 




. 100 . 


. 100 


Indian Corn, . 


. 31 . 


: 30 


Potatoes, . . 


. 49 . 


. 27 


Carrots, . . . 


. 61 . 


. 33 


Beetroots, . . 


. 64 . 


. 61 


Turnips, . . 


. 69 . 


. 64 





Theoretical 
Equivalent 
. 63 . 
. 281 . 
. 347 . 
. 400 . 
. 612 . 



PracticaL 
Equivalent 
. 69 
. 200 
. 319 
. 897 
. 607 



By a careful inspection of these tables, we infer that substances are 
nutritious in proportion to the amount of albumen, or gluten, as it is 
more commonly termed, which they contain. Peas contain a large 
quantity of this vegetable principle, and accordingly they are highly 
esteemed by feeders of stock, at least in France. Hence, we have 
suggested to us, the propriety of mixing peas with wheat flour when 
the latter is of bad quality, which is certainly the case with some met 
with in Glasgow, of last year's growth. In some chemical works we 
find the quantity of glutten in wheat flour, estimated as high as 24 per 
cent. A specimen analysed by Dr. R. D. Thomson, was found to 
afford only 6 per cent, of gluten, dried at the temperature of 212°. 

It it not easy to discover the object, which the introducers of fer- 
mented bread had in view, when they superseded unleavened bread in 
domestic economy. If any one were asked, what advantage fermented 
bread possesses over baked dough, the answer would probably be 
that it is lighter ; at least, this is the answer generally received, when 
the question is asked for information. Now what is meant by the 
term light— when applied to bread? Does it mean less specific gravity ; 
or has it reference to the greater facility of digestion ; the former 
signification alone, wo suspect, can bo attached to fermented bread ; 
we never hear any complaints from the working classes, that their 
oat-cakes or barley bread are more indigestible than loaves of wheat 



32 Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food. 

flour, or that potato bread is not light enough for digestion. The 
Jew does not labour under indigestion, when he has laid aside his 
leavened bread during the passover, and substituted in its stead 
unleavened cakes. The same observation applies to the scones 
of our own country, and to those of India ; for the natives of that 
country, from Delhi to Cabool, are scarcely acquainted with any other 
kind of bread. Biscuits are classed in the same category, and are 
even given to invalids, when no other variety'of bread can be swallowed 
by the patient. But it is believed, that all these forms of unfermented 
bread, may be improved by chemical means, so soon as scientific 
care shall be bestowed upon this important branch of man's comfort. 
In London, there is at present an excellent variety of bread baked 
without fermentation, but deprived of its doughy character, by being 
raised by the action of muriatic acid upon carbonate of soda. Its 
taste is perfectly sweet and good, and its digestive property unexcep- 
tionable. The common salt which is produced by the chemical action, 
will, undoubtedly, be advantageous.* Butter-milk scones are made on 
this principle. So far therefore as digestibility is concerned, the scale 
does not seem to preponderate in favour of fermented bread. Let us 
suppose them equal, although there may be arguments in favour, even 
of the unfermented bread. But let us view the question in another 
aspect, and consider in what panification consists, as it has been 
called, as if bread could not exist without fermentation. A certain 
quantity of water and yeast is mixed with flour, and the whole formed 
into a dough. The latter is exposed to heat. Carbonic acid is dis- 
engaged, by the action of the yeast upon the sugar of the flour, and 
alcohol is likewise extricated. In other words, a greater or less propor- 
tion of the sugar, an important element of the flour, is totally destroyed 
and dissipated in the air — in the form of fixed air and whiskey. With 
these considerations before him, Dr. R. D. Thomson had his attention 
directed to the subject. He was anxious to ascertain, what was the 
actual amount of loss sustained, in a given quantity of flour. This 
brings us, therefore, to the economical view of the question. An experi- 
ment was made, in the bakehouse of Mr. Dodson of Southwark, upon a 
large scale, with fermented and unfermented bread. The result was, 
that in a sack of flour, there was a difference of product in favour of 
the unfermented bread, to the amount of 30 lbs. 13 oz., or in round 
numbers, a sack of flour would produce 107 loaves of unfermented bread, 
and only 100 of fermented bread of the same weight. Thus it appears, 
that in the sack of flour, by the common process of baking, 7 loaves or 
6 J per cent, are blown to the winds. The question for consideration 
is, does the loss consist entirely of sugar, or is there any other element 
of the flour depreciated ? By a mean of 8 analyses of wheat flour from 

* Mr. Henry of Manchester first^ we believe, suggested the idea of this process, at 
the end of last century, and Dr. Hugh Colquhoun of Glasgow, in 1826, (Annals of 
Philosophy, xii. N.S.) carried the idea into practice. 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food, 33 

different parts of Europe, by Vauquelin, it appears that the quantity 
of sugar contained in flour, amounts to 5.61 per cent. But the quantity 
lost by baking exceeds this by one per cent, nearly. We must, there- 
fore, look to some other ingredient in accounting for this loss. It has 
been supposed by some, that the ferment possesses the power of con- 
verting a portion of the starch into sugar. We are not aware, liowcver, 
that any proof has been adduced of this position. It is well known, 
that a portion of the starch is converted into gum, or at least, that in 
fermented bread, a quantity of gummy matter can be detected, which 
did not exist in the flour. Now we believe it is by the viscous fer- 
mentation, a process quite distinct from the acetous fermentation, 
that this gum is converted into lactic acid, which may proceed to a 
great extent, if its progress is not checked by a baking temperature. 
We have been able to procure lactic acid in considerable quantity 
from the liquor of sowans ; and we believe the rationale of the process 
by which this acid is produced, is that now explained. We are not 
aware of any rationale which could be applied to the explanation of 
tho production of sugar from starch, by means of yeast; but with 
the appearance of gelatinous or gummy starch, most people are 
familiar. From these considerations, it would appear that we must 
look to some other source for the loss sustained during the baking of 
fermented bread. Liebig has well illustrated the fact, that when yeast 
is added to wort, ferment is formed from the gluten contained in it, 
at the same time that tho sugar is decomposed into alcohol and car- 
bonic acid. We may therefore expect, that in panary fermentation, 
which is precisely analogous to the fermentation of wort, the gluten of 
the flour will be attacked, to reproduce yeast. It is to this action, 
therefore, upon the gluten, that we are inclined to attribute the excess 
of loss, over the quantity of sugar contained in flour, which we have 
described as taking place during the baking of bread. 

Dr. R. D. Thomson has attempted to produce a wholesome and palat- 
able bread, by the employment of ammoniacal alum and carbonate of 
soda, or ammonia, as a substitute for yeast. In this process the alum 
is destroyed; the bread is vesicular, and rises, according to the judg- 
ment of the baker, as well as fermented bread. It possesses the advan- 
tage of retaining the natural sugar of the flour undecomposed. It is 
white, which bread raised by carbonate of soda and an acid, seldom is. 
The experiments of Magendie show, that animals, when fed on 
sugar alone, speedily fall off. He took a dog of three years old, fat 
and healthy, gave it pure sugar to eat, and distilled water to drink, 
and with these the animal was liberally supplied. For eight days it 
appeared to tlirive. During the second week it began to get thin, 
although its appetite continued good. In tho third week it became 
still thinner and weaker, and an ulcer appeared on the cornea of each 
eye. On the thirty-second day it died, altliough it had eaten three or 
four ounces of sugar per day, till within a short period of its death. 



34 Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food. 

Sugar, we have stated, is one of the constituents of flour, and 
such was the effect of feeding animals upon it alone. Starchy another 
more important constituent of flour, was also given to animals, per se, 
with a remarkable result. In the pulverulent form dogs would not 
even look at it. When made into a paste with water, dogs, rather 
than taste it, preferred to die of starvation. Even when cooked with 
butter, lard, sugar, or bread, they refused, generally, to make use of 
it, and if some did take it for a certain time, they never failed to 
perish of starvation. 

The effects resulting from feeding animals upon gluten alone, are 
highly worthy of attention. The gluten was prepared from wheat 
and from Indian corn. It was taken by dogs without difficulty on 
the first day, and the animals continued to live on it for three months, 
without any interruption, — the amount swallowed by each daily being 
about four or five ounces. 

What is usually termed gluten, contains, mixed with it, other sub- 
stances, which are soluble in alcohol. The residual portion, after 
this treatment, is pure vegetable albumen, being identical in composi- 
tion with the curd of milk. The fact deserves attention, that foreign 
wheat contains a much greater amount of albumen than that of this 
country. Odessa wheat contains, according to Vauquelin, 14^ per 
cent. French wheat 11 per cent. Vogel found in German wheat 22 
per cent, and Zeimenck 15 per cent. We have already stated, that 
by experiment, only 6 per cent, existed in Glasgow flour of last year's 
growth. Vegetable albumen, of the same composition, and possessing 
the same properties as gluten of wheat, is found in large proportion 
in peas and beans. The common pea contains 181 per cent, of albu- 
men ; kidney beans 18i per cent. We have therefore suggested to 
us the importance of peas, in a nutritive point of view, and the pro- 
priety of their admixture with other articles of food. For example, 
in soups, a sprinkling of peas would produce a body in the soup ; and 
this observation applies to soup intended both for the rich and the 
poor. Care should be taken, however, that they should be well boiled, 
and if allowed to digest for a day previous to use, in water at the 
temperature of blood heat, as is done with seeds before sowing, they 
would be softened, and even partially dissolved. The water in which 
they are digested might be employed for the purpose of making the 
soup. Cabbage, according to Boussingault, is a very nutritive sub- 
stance, and, in the form of powder or flour, we can employ it in mix- 
ture with soup, in a less bulky state than under the usual form. 

Peas afford a means of increasing the nutritive property of differ- 
ent kinds of meal. Most persons are familiar with the mixture of 
peas and barley-meal, which affords a wholesome bread. Peas-meal 
might also be mixed with oat-meal, in the same manner, if considered 
expedient 

We have hitherto confined our attention to vegetable food. Ex- 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor vnih Food. 35 

perionce, however, shows, that the diet of man must be varied, and 
must not be restricted to the vegetable kingdom. It was at one time 
considered that scurvy could only be produced by the use of salt pro- 
visions. More careful inquiry .has, however, demonstrated, that 
scurvy may be engendered by restriction to one class of food,- — that 
even vegetable food possesses both a scorbutic and anti-scorbutic 
agency, under particular circumstances. Scurvy frequently attacks 
the Indians in S. America, who live on rice almost alone. It has reigned 
epidemically in the rice grounds of Lombardy and Piedmont. Scurvy 
prevailed in an epidemic form in Germany, in 1771 and 1772, yean 
of scarcity, when many of the inhabitants were obliged to live on 
legumes, roots, and even the bark of trees; and the same disease 
aflFocted numbers of the poor people of France, in 1812, 1816, and 
1817, when even wild plants were employed as food, in consequence 
of scarcity. In the winter of 1794-95, scurvy not only broke out in 
the channel fleet, but also appeared on shore ; and cases were admitted 
into the London hospitals. 

In the lunatic asylum at Moorshedabad, one-third of the inmates 
are annually affected with scurvy. Their diet consists of rice, split 
peas, curdled milk, oil, salt, pepper, water, all good of their kind. 

The deleterious effect of a bread and water diet upon the prisoners 
in the gaols of Bengal and Agra, is sufficiently evinced by the fact, 
that the mortality among the prisoners was QQ per thousand, in 1833, 
while among the native troops the mortality was only 10*6 per thou- 
sand, (Brit. Annals of Med., p. 491.) How far such treatment of 
men falling into error is congenial with the benevolent doctrines which 
" desire not the death of a sinner, but rather that he should turn from 
his wickedness and live," this is not the proper place to inquire. 

Scurvy, however, is a disease which denotes a bad state of the sys- 
tem, from want of nourishing food, and a proper admixture of the 
food which man was destined to exist upon. A want of succulent 
food appears to produce the same state of system. The famous dis- 
ease at the Milbank penitentiary, in 1823, — a mixture of scurvy and 
dysentery, — was attributed to a diet, of which succulent vegetables 
formed no part, and the quantity and quality of which were not ade- 
quate to the support of health. Scurvy, therefore, is one of the forms 
in which starvation, or bad nutriment, which amoimts to the same 
thing, exhibits itself; and it has been traced to its true cause, after 
its occurrence for hundreds of years, because it was detected in gaols 
and mad-houses, and was subjected to careful examination. How 
many other forms starvation assumes, no one knows. From the 
Registrar General's Report for England and Wales, in 1839, it 
appears that 130 persons died of starvation, that is, purely from want 
of food, or direct starvation, as it may be termed, for it now occupies 
a distinct head as a disease in the bills of mortality ; but how many 
persons died by piece-meal starvation, or disease engendered by bad 



36 Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor ivith Food. 

food, or want of it, has not yot been pointed out by statistical data. 
Numerous points for inquiry, however, present themselves to the 
medical statistician in considering this question. IIow far are typhus, 
scarlet fever, and other diseases of large towns, influenced by bad and 
imperfect nutriment? And how far does the restriction to meagre 
vegetable food operate upon mortality in Scotch towns? These aro 
important considerations in Glasgow, where the rate of mortality is 
higher than in the average of large towns ; indeed, greater in some 
years than that of the worst parts of London. The following table 
shows this: — 

PER CENT. 

Mortality of England and Wales, ...2-17 

Whitechapel, London, 3-86 1838. 

(3-23 1841. 

Glasgow, ft'J^ 1837. 



3-53 1836. 

3-26 Mean of last 10 years. 

Liverpool, '.3-18 1838. 

Manchester, 3-45 1838. 

Birmingham, 2*58 1838. 

Average Mortality of Towns, 2*62 1839. 

The mean duration of Life in Great Britain is about 46 ; in Glasgow, 
30*6, — mean duration in towns, 38 years. 

The burden of all this starvation and mortality, of course, falls upon 
the poor and helpless. It is only, therefore, the duty of those who 
are in better circumstances to be aware of the facts, that they may be 
remedied. 

Experience, the structure of the teeth, and of the digestive organs 
of the human body, as well as the appetite, demonstrate, that the 
flesh of animals should enter as an element into the food of man. 

Some kinds of animal food are digested with greater rapidity than 
vegetable food. — Bread and coffee take about 41 hours to digest; fresh 
beef, from 3 to 3i hours; salt beef, from 3 J to 51 hours; salt pork, 
from 4i to 6 hours; mutton, 3i to 4| hours; fowls, 4 hours; veal, 
from 4: to 51 hours; tripe, 1 hour; pig's feet, 1 hour. But these 
numbers depend considerably upon the circumstances under which the 
food is swallowed. If the quantity taken be in excess, slow digestion 
is the consequence ; and the same holds good with regard to passions 
of the mind. Exercise also promotes digestion. It is interesting to 
know, that those substances which are most nutritive, arc not those 
which are most rapidly digested. Gluten, which, according to Magendic, 
is exceedingly nutritious, has been found in the stomach unaltered 
five hours after being swallowed. Pig's feet, on the contrary, which are 
digested in an hour, contain a large proportion of gelatin, or jelly, 
which, according to the experiments of Magendic, possesses very in- 
ferior nutritive properties. 

To those who aro in good circumstances, any of these substances 
may be procured at pleasure. It is when looking at the poor, that wo 
must view them in an economical point of view ; and with them the 



Report on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food, 37 

point is not how to excite an appetite, but how to satiate it in the 
cheapest and most substantial manner. Papin was the first individual 
who introduced the method of preparing food from bones — by expos- 
ing them to the action of water and steam, under pressure, in his 
digester. By this means a greater quantity of gelatin, or animal 
matter of the bone was dissolved than could be procured by simply 
boiling bones in water, at tlie ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. 
This mode was afterwards applied to the supply of nourishment to 
the poor by the D*Arcets, who both engaged in the attempt with most 
laudible enthusiasm. According to the younger D'Arcet, when the 
bones of four oxen are properly exhausted, a fifth is in reality created. 
A metliod was introduced at some of the hospitals in Paris, for ex- 
tracting gelatin from bones, at the suggestion of D'Arcet. At the 
Hotel Dieu, bones which have been previously twice boiled — once in 
the morning to make common soup, and again in the evening to make 
bouillon maigre, are deprived of their cartilages and fibrous cartilages. 
They are broken, and placed in iron cylinders, and are exposed for 
four days to the action of steam, raised to the temperature of 219° to 
22P Fahr. 

This gelatinous liquid contains in 88 gallons, 
11*79 Troy lbs. of gelatin. 
This is then employed to form a broth, by adding a certain quantity 
of soup made with meat and vegetables. The evidence of those who 
have examined this compound soup, is highly unfavourable. The 
gelatinous liquid when taken out of the iron cylinders is highly dis- 
agreeable, and even excites nausea. The odour becomes less unpleasant 
after the liquid has stood for some time. This improvement in the smell 
appears to depend in some measure, upon the escape of ammonia, 
which has been generated by the strong heat and prolonged action of 
the steam. It likewise imparts its impairing properties to the soup 
made from the meat, and causes a truly disgusting odour, {une saveur 
un veritable degout.) 

We think that these facts are sufficiently condemnatory of the pro- 
cess of extracting gelatin under long continued pressure from bones, 
and may receive some degree of explanation from a specimem which 
we have examined of the tusk of an elephant; in which, probably, by 
the action of hot sand and pressure, the tusk is seen in tlie act of being 
gradually converted into a mass of glue, retaining the original figure 
of the tusk. So that, instead of being obscured under the title of 
solution of gelatin, perhaps, the true nature of the French soup for 
the poor, would be better expressed by the title of glue-soup. Indeed, 
this is put beyond mere surmise, by the fact stated by the French 
commission, that the solution of gelatin when evaporated left a 
hard extract presenting the characters of Flanders glue. 

We think it possible, however, that a gelatinous solution might bo 
obtained from bones, by high pressure steam, if desirable, without its 



38 Ii^!>ort on the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food, 

possessing an ammoniacal or other disagreeable odour. This, we pre- 
sume, from a carefully conducted experiment, in which a bone which 
weighed 1442*5 grains lost by exposure for an hour to a temperature 
of 230° in a Papin's digester, 208*6 grains or 14*5 per cent. 

The resulting liquid possessed a highly agreeable odour, nor was the 
slightest ammoniacal smell perceptible. 

The advantage of a considerable elevation of temperature wo have 
mentioned, is obvious, when the preceding experiment is contrasted 
with another trial made by boiling a bone at the common temperature 
of boiling water. A bone weighing 12 oz. 315 grains lost after 1| hours 
boiling in a common pot, covered by a lid, under which the steam had 
free space to escape, 358 grains or equivalent to 5*9 per cent. 

Both of the bones were beef-bones, and flat, resembling each other 
as nearly as possible. The extract left by the evaporation of the 
liquid, derived from boiling the bones at a common temperature, was 
a trembling jelly, and did not resemble glue. 

According to the French commission, the eff'ect of feeding dogs upon 
gelatin extracted by hot water, was similar to that produced upon 
the same animals when they were fed exclusively upon any elementary 
animal substance, as fibrin, and albumen, ho. Several dogs preferred 
to die rather than touch it, while others partook of it once or twice, 
and then obstinately refused to make further use of it. The result 
was different when the gelatin was derived from bones by the action 
of an acid. If the bones were digested in acid, and the residue dis- 
solved in water, dogs lived upon it for a month and were well nourished, 
especially when the bones were those of sheep's feet. But after this 
period they showed a dislike to their monotonous meal. We believe, 
therefore, that gelatin procured by the action of acids upon bone, 
might be employed as the basis of soups, which should however con- 
tain also meat and vegetables. The latter should always, to a certain 
amount, be of a succulent nature. It is desirable, however, that in our 
climate, animal food should always constitute a part of the diet of 
man; whether he be in the condition of a pauper or a prisoner. If a 
man is poor and is imperfectly nourished, he may die of starvation 
ultimately, as truly as the man who is totally destitute of the neces- 
saries of life. And if a man is deprived of his liberty for the benefit 
of his fellows, there is no reason, human or divine, why his health 
should be injured by inefficient food, so as to produce death by slow 
starvation. The consequence is more cruel than if he were at once 
capitally punished. 

From the observations which have been adduced in the course of 
this Report, it appears that — 

1. A considerable loss is sustained in the amount of flour employed 
in baking bread, when the flour is fermented. This loss exceeds a 
fifteenth, being 6^ per cent If we apply this correction to the ex- 



Report <m the Means of Supplying the Poor with Food. 39 

pense of the Night Asjlum for the Houseless, where several thousand 
dinner rations are distributed daily, we shall find the loss as follows: — 
On Soup and Loaf Bread to 1,500 persons. 



Quantity 


Quantity 








fori. 


for 1500, 








In Ounces. In Founds. 








1 


234 Ox heads, . 


. . @ Ud. 


per lb. 


1 9 3 


47 Bones, 


. ijd. 


do. 


5 lOA 


2 


187 Pot Barley, . . . 


ijd. 


do. 


1 3 Al 


k 


47 East India Rice, . . 


IJd. 


do. 


5 10} 


} 


47 p^M^, ; ; 






7 10 


I 


; ijd. 


do. 


6 lOi 




1 Black Pepper, Is., Salt, Is., 






2 


H 


609 Wheat Bread, (Second,) . 


: ijd. 


do. 


4 8 9f 
17 7| 




Add for Coals, Cooking, and 


I Serving, say 




13 


1219 






£9 7 6 




Deducting from the Bread a fifteenth. 




5 11 



£9 1 7 

Thus it appears, that the allowance to each person for dinner, is 
6i ounces. At this rate, there being a saving of 40 lbs. of bread by 
the unfermonted plan ; the saving would supply 98 additional persons 
with bread, or a larger allowance might be granted to the others. 

2. It is highly necessary, that in order to retain the human consti- 
tution in a healthy condition, variety of food should be properly at- 
tended to. (1.) Soups may be used, having as their basis the gelatin 
of bones, procured either by boiling bones carefully, or by abstract- 
ing the earthy matter by means of acids ; and pease meal with meat, 
as hearts, livers, &c., should contain succulent vegetables, as greens, 
carrots, and turnips. (2.) Soups consisting of potatoes with gelatin 
and other meat, may also be made very palatable by the addition of 
succulent vegetables. (3.) A good soup may be made with salt fish 
well steeped in water, and boiled up with potatoes. 

3. If salt fish can be procured cheap, an excellent substantial dish 
may be formed of fish and potatoes, in the form of a pudding, like a 
beat potato pudding. 

4. In the broths or soups, barley may be used, or rice ; but the most 
nutritious substance for making a body to the soup, is pease meal or 
split peas, and the least nutritive of farinacious substances is rice. 

5. A good soup may be made with salt fish or fresh fish, and split 
peas. 

An alternation somewhat in the following rotation, might be intro- 
duced in feeding the poor: — • 

Breakfast, Porridge and Milk. 

Dinner, Ist day, Pea Soup, with Meat and Bones. 

2d — Fish Soup, with Peas. 

3d — Potato Soup, with Bones and Meat. 

4th — Pish Pie, with Potatoes. 

We trust, that the day is fast approaching when the light of science 
will enable the guardians of the poor to manage our poverty-stricken 
fellow-men by precise and definite rules ; and will teach all classes 
of the community that the quantity of vital air supplied by the Creator 
to man, is based upon fixed laws which require the imbibition of a 
certain amount of food. An adult consumes every day 30 J ounces of 



40 Report on the Meatis of Supplying tlie Poor with Food. 

oxygen or vital air, from the atmosphere. To consume this and to 
convert it into carbonic acid, he requires, according to Liebig, about 
13 ounces of carbon, in the form of food. If the food is withheld, the 
carbon must be supplied from the muscles and substance of the body; 
the latter becomes thinner and weaker, and like an expiring taper, is 
extinguished by the influence of the most trivial causes. 



SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE, 

By Andrew Liddell, Esq., Treasurer to the Night Asylum for tlie Houseless, Glasgow. 

In the Asylum for the Houseless many of the recommendations in this Report have 
been adopted. The dinner meals are now varied two or three times every week. East 
India Rice, which can be had at a low rate when purchased as imported, after being 
thoroughly washed and cleared of its impurities, is used in the soups, and when boiled 
with Sweet or Skimmed Milk, in the proportion of 1 imperial pint with 4 oz. of Rice, 
and used with 4 oz. of Oat or Wheat bread, forms an excellent dinner at the cost of 
about one penny. Pot Barley is used in the same manner, and costs nearly the same. 
The dinner meal stated in page 39, being that which is generally given to the unem- 
ployed, has in it 3 oz. of animal food, and 10 oz. of other solids, is acknowledged by 
the unemployed themselves to be a solid substantial meal, and costs, including fire and 
cooking, three ludfpcnce each ration: a greater proportion of Pease Meal, for the nourish- 
ment it contains, would have been given, but for the tendency it has to make the broth 
black. The change in the dietary routine is much relished by the inmates of the Asylum, 
and may have had some effect in the greater degree of health which has been evident 
amongst them of late. Of all the varieties, however, none have been more relished in 
this house, nor by the boys in the House of Refuge, where similar changes have been 
made, than the following three, all of which are very savoury, and produced at a mo- 
derate rate. For the purpose of being more generally known, the quantities found suf- 
ficient to make a comfortable meal, and the average rates at which the materials can be 
purchased, are here given in a tabular form, calculated for ten individuals, showing the 
cost of each meal. But the same dishes could be had at about the same relative cost, 
though the number did not exceed five. 

Fish Pudding for Ten Persons. 
Quantity for 1. Quantity for 10. s. d. 
2 lbs. oz. 20 lbs. oz. Potatoes, . . . @ id. per lb. 5 
0—8— 5—0— Salt Ling, or other Fish, 2d. do. 10 
0_|— 0— 2i— Of Lard or Drippings, 8d. do. U 
'__ Pepper, .... o| 

2 lbs. 8|oz. 25 lbs. 2A oz. .1 5 

Cost, exclusive cf Fire and Cooking, under Ifd. for each person. 
Steep and boil the Fish as long as the saltness and size of the article to be used 
requires, take out the bones, boil the potatoes in a separate vessel, beat the whole to- 
gether. If a fire or oven can be had, brown the top of the dish. 

A Stewed Hash of Sheep^s Draught for Ten Persons. g ^ 

2 lbs. oz. 20 lbs. oz. Potatoes, . . . @ M. per lb. 5 

0— 5J— 3—8— Two Sheens' Draughts, . 5d. each. 10 

— — — 8 — Onions, Id., Pepper, Salt, and Flour, 2d. 3 

2 lbs. 5ioz. 24 lbs. 6 oz. 16 

Cost, exclusive of Fire and Cooking, full l^d. for each person. 

Boil the Lights for one hour (preserving the water); hash said Lights, Liver, and 

Heart together with Flour, Penjper, Salt, and Onions; then stew the whole for one hour, 

using the water in which the Lights were boiled. The boiling and stewing should be 

done over & very slow fire. 

A Mince of Chw's Heart for Ten Persons. ^ ^ 

2 Ibe. oz. 20 lbs. oz. Potatoes @ id. per lb. 6 5 

0— 4— 2— 8— Half a Heart, . . .Is. 6d. 9 

— 0— — 8— Onions, Id., Pepper, Salt, and Flour, Id., 2 

2 lbs. 4oz. 23 lbs. Ooz. 14 

Cost, exclusive of Fire and Cooking, full l^d. for each person. 
Cut up and wash the Heart well. Mince it very small, adding Onions, Flour, Pepper, 
and Salt. Stew the whole over a slow fire for two hours. 



Printed by Bbu. ard Bain, Glasgow. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OPTHB 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTIETH SESSION, 1841-42. 



CONTENTS. 

Professor Gordon on Dynamometrical Apparattis, 41 

Dr. Balfour on the Fertilization of Plants, 43 

Mr. Griffin on an Improved Method of Preparing Oxygen Gas, . . .44 
Mr. Griffin's Apparatus for the Formation of Water, . . . .46 

Dr. Stenhouse on Divi-divi, 47 

Dr. Stenhouse on Artificial Ultramarine, 49 

Mr, Wilson on Comparative Experiments made with different Manures, . 51 

Dr. Thomson on the Nature and Cure of Blindness produced by Oil of Vitriol, 62 

Mr. Griffin on the Statical Relations of the Gases, 53 

List of Books added to the Society's Library in the years 1840, 41, 42, . . 59 



2M February, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

Mr. Crum stated, that the Council had had under their consideration 
the propriety of publishing Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Society, 
and Dr. R. D. Thomson enumerated some of the advantages to be ex- 
pected from such a publication. A Committee was appointed to re- 
port on this subject. The following communication was then read: — 

XL — On Dynamometrical Apparatus; or, the Measurement of the 
Mechanical Effect of Moving Powers. By Professor Gordon. 

1*10! correct measurement of the mechanical effect developed by 
moving powers has long been a desideratum, and numerous Dynamo- 
meters have been invented and applied to this purpose ; but in Britain 
tliere is none known to have been used which can be depended upon, 
and of which the indications are not in a great measure subject to the 
discretion of the observer. 

During a visit to Metz, in 1839, the author saw the various Dynamo- 
metrical apparatus of M. Morin, of which this paper gave a detailed 
account. 

The fallacy of making the product of the effort and the duration 
the measure of the mechanical effect was first demonstrated, and it 
was shown that it is the product of the effort and the distance through 
which it is exertedy which should be obtained directly from a Dynamo- 
meter, and not the quantity of motion, as has been too frequently done. 

In order that a Dynamometer may be a convenient and accurate 

No. 3. 



42 Professor Gordon on Dynamometrkal Apparatus. 

instnimont, — 1st, Its sensibility should be proportioned to the intensity 
of the efforts to bo measured, and ought not to alter by usage. 2d, 
The indications of the efforts must be registered independent of the 
attention, the will, or the preconceived notions of the observer, and, 
consequently, should be furnished by the instrument itself, by means 
of lines traced, or other results available at the conclusion of 
the experiment. 3d, The effort exerted at each point of the space 
passed through by the point of application of the power should be 
ascertained, or, the effort at each instant of the duration of the observa- 
tions. And 4th, If, from the nature of an experiment, it must be of 
long continuance, the apparatus must admit of easily summing the 
amount of mechanical effect expended. 

The beautiful idea suggested by Poncelet of integrating mechani- 
cally the EFFORT as a function of the distance passed through^ was ex- 
plained in Morin's compteur; and it was shown that M. Morin's Dyna- 
mometrical apparatus completely fulfils all the conditions above laid 
down. 

Full size drawings of the Dynamometers as made for experiments 
on friction, — on the draught of wheel carriages and ploughs, — and on 
that of canal boats at great velocities, — as also, for application to 
measuring the mechanical effect expended in working machines, and 
tools having a rotary motion, — were exhibited and explained. Com- 
pared even with the friction brake of Prony, or its modification by 
Navier, and with a most ingenious Dynamometer for rotary motion, 
by Mr. Smith of Deanston, of which a model was exhibited, the ap- 
paratus of Morin was shown to be a great advancement, — measuring 
mechanical effect, or work done, with the same precision as bread is 
weighed. 

The application of the apparatus, somewhat modified, to measuring 
and registering the mechanical effect produced by a steam-engine at 
its piston, was illustrated by drawings. This application, in the hands 
of Professor Moseley, has undergone various modifications and im- 
provements; but the Indicator'* (for the construction of which the 
British Association granted £100,) has not yet been applied. When 
completed, it will afford a means of ascertaining the duly of steam- 
engines, infinitely more to be relied upon than those hitherto em- 
ployed ; and its applicability to marine engines and locomotives, as 
well as to fixed engines, greatly enhances its value. 

* Since this paper was read, I have seen Professor Moseley's Indicator applied. The 
improvements and new adaptations of the principle of Poncelet are admirable. A 
detailed description and theory of the new Indicator are given in the Reports of the 
British Association. — L. G. 



Dr. Balfour on the Fertilization of Plants. 48 

8M March, 1842,— 7%« Presidbnt in the Chair. 

Charles T. Dunlop, Esq. elected a member. 

The Committee on Publication, appointed at last meeting, gave in 
a report recommending the publication of the Proceedings. The 
report was ordered to lie on the table till next meeting. 

The following communications were then made. 

XII. — On the Fertilization of Plants, By Dr. Balfour, Regius 
Professor of Botany , in the University of Glasgow, 

Dr. Balfour, in the first place, described shortly the organs of 
plants which are concerned in fertilization, and alluded more particu- 
larly to the structure of the pollen. He showed the various provisions 
made for protecting the pollen, and for allowing it to bo applied to 
the stigma, and illustrated these in the case of Orchidea, Asclepiadece, 
Vallisneriaf StratioteSf Hottonia, Zostera, Aristolochia, Slylidiuniy Parie- 
tariuy Berberis, Urticay Cornus canadensis, Ficus, «fec. 

He next alluded to the boat developed at the time of fertilization, 
the absorption of oxygen, the formation of carbonic acid, and the con- 
version of starch into sugar. The experiments of Brongniart and 
of Vrolik and Do Vrieso on Colocasia odora were detailed. 

The structure of the anther, more especially its inenchyma or 
elastic fibro-cellular coat, and the discharge of the pollen were next 
considered, and observations were made on the fluid covering the 
stigma, which by Aldridge is said to be acid, and by Vaucher is 
looked upon as the nectariferous fluid secreted by glands on the petals. 

Dr. Balfour then explained the changes produced in the pollen 
grain when it came into contact with the stigma, the production of the 
pollen tube, and descent of the fovilla. 

Various theories, ho stated, have been brought forward relative to 
the fertilization of plants. 

Schleiden and Wydler conceive that the pollen tube enters the 
foramen of the ovule, and that its extremity becomes the embryo, a 
theory supported by Dr. Giraud, who thinks that the position of the 
embryo seems to indicate that it is a foreign body introduced into the 
ovule from the outside. 

Dr. Carpenter thinks that it is not the pollen tube, but one of the 
pollen granules which becomes the embryo, and he traces an analogy 
between this process and what takes place in the lowest algae as the 
Protococcus, &c. 

Mirbel and Spach oppose Schleiden's views, and think that he has 
mistaken what they call the primary utricle for the end of the pollen 
tube. They maintain that this primary utricle exists before impreg- 
nation, or before the pollen tube is protruded; and tliat after the 
influence of the pollen is conveyed to it, the embryo becomes devel- 
oped. Their experiments were made on the Zea Mays. 



44 Mr. Griffin on an Improved Method of Preparing Oxygen Gas. 

Meyer maintains that the pollen tube becomes united to the embryo 
sac, and that at the point of union a small protuberance originates, 
which becomes the germinal vesicle ; this vesicle being formed of two 
cohering membranes, viz., that of the end of the pollen tube, and that 
of the apex of the embryo sac. The germ vesicle gradually expands 
in length, and grows into the depth of the embryo sac, becoming a 
cylindrical tube from the end of which a simple round cell separates, 
constituting the young embryo. 

The opinions of Brongniart, Endlicher, linger, Gleichen, and Bern- 
hardi were then noticed; and the curious experiments of the latter, 
relative to the hemp plant were detailed, from which he was led to 
conclude that perfect seeds could be produced without the influence of 
the pollen. 

Dr. Balfour remarked, in conclusion, that ho was disposed to adopt 
the opinion that the formation of the embryo sac and of the primary 
utricle took place before the emission of the pollen ; that the primary 
utricle was not the extremity of the pollen tube, nor a mere involution 
of the embryo sac ; and that the act of impregnation consisted in the 
fovilla being brought into contact with the embryo sac, and by a cer- 
tain unknown influence determining the formation of the embryo-cell. 

XIII. — On an Improved Method of Preparing Oxygen Gas. 
By John Joseph Griffin. 

Equal parts by weight of Chlorate of Potash and Black Oxide 
of Copper, well dried and 
finely pounded, are inti- 
mately mingled. This mix- 
ture is well adapted for the 
extemporaneous preparation 
of oxygen gas. When exposed 
to a gentle heat, it becomes 
red-hot, and disengages a 
rapid current of pure oxygen 

gas. The best vessel to use for the experiment is a hard Ger- 
man glass tube, about an inch wide, and six inches long, con- 
nected by a long and sound cork with a gas-leading tube of 
not less than half-an-inch bore : a smaller tube will not carry 
off the gas with sufficient rapidity. 

The tube may be half filled with the mixture, and must be placed 
nearly in a horizontal position, over a small spirit-lamp. The incan- 
descence appears very soon after the flame is applied to the tube. It 
rapidly extends through the whole mixture, and the operation is then 
at once ended ; the discharge of gas ceases suddenly. What remains 
in the tube is a dry coarse black powder, resembling gunpowder, which 
does not adhere to the glass, but can be readily shaken out. It consists 




Mr. Grhtin on an Improved Method of Preparing Oxygen Cras. 46 

of black oxide of copper and chloride of potassium. The latter can 
be removed by washing, and the former recovered for a repetition of 
the process, for which it serves any number of times; so that the use of 
the oxide of copper does not increase the cost of the oxygen gas. 

According to the experiments of Berzelius, 1 grain of chlorate 
of potash gives -3915 grain of oxygen. Estimating the weight 
of 1 cubic inch of oxygen gas at '34 grain, this product is equal 
to M51 cubic inches. I find that 2 grains of the black mixture 
above described, containing 1 grain of chlorate of potash, give just 
this quantity of oxygon gas. Hence it appears, that, in this process, 
the chlorate of potash is completely decomposed, and its oxygen en- 
tirely discharged in the state of gas ; while, notwithstanding the incan- 
descence that occurs, the black oxide of copper remains unchanged in 
composition and properties. 

Cost of Oxygen Gas Prepared by this Process. — If grain (1*75 grain) of 
the black mixture produces 1 cubic inch of oxygen gas. This quantity 
of the mixture contains '875 grain, or the 8000th part of 1 lb. avoir- 
dupois, of chlorate of potash, the market price of which is at present 
4s. per lb. Hence the cost of the gas is as follows : — 

8000 cubic inches for 4s. 
1000 — for Gd. 

1 imperial gallon for lid. 

1 cubic foot for 10 J d. 

Advantages of this Process. — It is easy to obtain materials of such 
a quality as always to ensure the prompt production of pure gas. 
Excepting a trace of chlorine and a little sublimed salt, both of 
which arc absorbed by the water of the pneumatic trough, the oxygen 
gas produced by this process is free from all impurities, especially from 
carbonic acid ; one economical advantage of which is, that it can be 
used for many class experiments, largely diluted with common air. 
No apparatus is required except^ a small glass tube, which is not 
injured by the operation. There is no expense incurred for fuel, no 
dirt produced, and no danger to be apprehended. 

The process is not only of easy and rapid execution, but is one that 
can be always depended upon, so as to save loss of time and materials. 
When any quantity of oxygen gas is required, it is only necessary to 
guage the vessels that are to bo filled, and to weigh off 1*75 grain of 
the black mixture for every cubic inch of gas required. The cause 
of this certainty in the result is the remarkable incandescence which 
takes place when the mixture is heated. This ensures the prompt and 
total decomposition of every particle of the chlorate of potash submitted 
to experiment! 

It is convenient to mark upon the bottle in which the black mixture 
is kept, the weight of it necessary to be taken for the purpose of BUing 



46 Mr. Griffin's Apparahis for the Formatim of Water. 

with oxygen gas the principle gas-holders and receivers which may 
happen to bo in common use. The quantity of mixture in grains 
required for each vessel is found by multiplying the capacity of the 
vessel, expressed in cubic inches, by 1*75. Thus, if 100 cubic inches 
of gas are required, the quantity of black mixture to be taken is 
100 X 1*75 (or 100 + 50 + 25) = 175 grains. For a cubic foot of 
gas, the quantity of mixture required is 1728 X 1*75 (or 1728 + 864 
+ 432) = 3024 grains. In other terms, if x is the capacity of a gas- 
holder, expressed in cubic inches, then the arithmetical equivalents of 
X -{- Ix -\- Ix show the number of grains of the black mixture neces- 
sary to be taken to fill the gas-holder with oxygen. 

When a large quantity of gas is required, it is best to divide the 
mixture into several tubes, so as not to heat more than 500 grains 
of it at once ; otherwise the disengagement of gas is inconveniently 
rapid. 



XIV. — Description of an Apparatus for Exhibiting the Formation of 
Water by the Combustion of Hydrogen Gas in Atmospheric Air. 
By John Joseph Griffin. 

Convenient methods of demonstrating well-known facts are often of 
importance to teachers of chemistry. This principle has induced me 
to present the following little apparatus, which may sometimes bo found 
useful on the lecture-table. The figure represents a combination of 




glass tubes, of which the tube, o, e, g, is about 10 inches long and 
I inch wide, and the tube, c, o, about half-an-inch in the bore. 

A current of hydrogen gas, dried by chloride of calcium in the 
tube, a, issues from the blow-pipe jet, i, and is inflamed. The flame 
should be about \ inch long. The tube, c, must bo fixed vertically 
over the flame. The tube, o, Cy g, must be quite dry. The tube, f, 
must contain cold water. The diameter of this tube is a little less 
than that of tlie tube in which it is placed. It is fixed in its position 
by two small cork wedges, at/ g, which are cemented to the tube,/ 

The heat of the flame causes the atmospheric air to rush into the 
vertical tube, c. The oxygen of the air combines with the burning 
hydrogen, and forms water, which passes, in the state of steam, mixed 



Diu Stenhouse on Divi-divi, 4li 

with nitrogen and superabundant air, into the bent tube, o, g. The 
steam there comes into contact with the tube / containing cold water, 
and is condensed, while the excess of air and the nitrogen escape into 
the atmosphere by the spaces at / ^r. In half-an-hour a considerable 
quantity of water is collected at the knee, e. 

This apparatus is a modification of that contrived by MM. Danger 
and Flandin, for the detection of arsenic. When arseniuretted hydrogen 
gas is burnt with this apparatus, solid arsenious acid is deposited in the 
tube, c, 0, and a solution of arsenious acid collected at the knee, e, in 
the bent tube. 

The method of separating vapours from incondensible gases, by 
means of the cold water tube, / can often be advantageously employed 
by the practical chemist ; as, for example, when digesting substances 
in a flask with aqua regia, alcohol, and other volatile solvents. 



22rf Marchy 1842,— r^e President in the Chair, 

John Campbell, Esq. admitted a member. 

The report of the publishing committee was taken into considera- 
tion, tlieir recommendations adopted, and a committee appointed to 
carry them into effect. 

The following communications were made : — 

XV. — Notice ofDivi-divi. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D. 

Tms substance, by some called Divi-divi, by others Libi-divi, has 
of late years been imported into this country from Carthagena in con- 
siderable quantities. It is the pod of a leguminous shrub, which grows 
to the height of between twenty and thirty feet Professor Balfour 
informs mo that its botanical name is Caesalpinia Coriaria. It is a 
native of South America, and is noticed by Dr. M'Fadyen in his Flora 
of Jamaica, as occurring in that island. The pods of this shrub, which 
form the Divi-divi of commerce, are of a dark brown colour, nearly three 
inches long, and about half-an-inch broad. They are very much 
curled up as if they had been strongly dried; and contain a few 
small flatish seeds. The taste of Divi-divi is higlily astringent and 
bitter. The astringent matter of the Divi-divi is contained only in the 
outer rind of the pod; the inner skin enclosing the seeds is white and 
nearly tasteless. The pods are often perforated with small holes, 
evidently the work of some insect The aqueous solution of Divi-divi 
gives a copious precipitate with gelatine, and strikes a deep blue with 
per salts of iron. It contains a good deal of tannin, and also some 
gallic acid, accompanied by a great deal of mucilage. Crystals of gallic 
acid may easily be obtained from Divi-divi by precipitating the tannin 



48 Dr. Stenhouse cm, Divi-divi. 

it contains with solution of gelatine, evaporating to the consistence of 
an extract, and then treating it with alcohol After allowing it to 
subside, the alcoholic solution is to be drawn off, the greater portion 
of the spirit recovered bj distillation, and the residue is to bo evapor- 
ated to dryness on the water bath. It is then to be introduced into a 
stoppered bottle, and repeatedly agitated with ether; almost the whole 
of the ether is to be distilled off, and the residue left to spontaneous 
evaporation. Abundance of reddish coloured crystals soon appear. 
They are to be purified by being repeatedly crystallized out of alcohol 
and water, and by digestion with animal charcoal. Lastly, by uniting 
them to oxide of lead, and decomposing the insoluble precipitate with 
sulphuretted hydrogen, they are rendered beautifully white. The 
crystals then exhibit the silky lustre of gallic acid, with which acid 
their re-actions with salts of iron and other re-agents completely corres- 
pond. When distilled, they yield abundance of pyrogallic acid. 
When dried at 212''F. and subjected to analysis, 

I. 0.3034 gramme acid gave 0.550 carbonic acid and 0.1018 water. 

II. 0.3052 gave 0.5505 carbonic acid and 0.1012 water. 

I. II. Calculated per cent. 

C 50.12 49.87 7 C = 49.89 

H 3.72 3.71 3 H = 3.49 

O 46.16 46.42 5 = 46.62 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

These results approach very closely the calculated numbers of hydra- 
ted gallic acid given above. 

In order to determine the atomic weight of the acid, I formed the 
basic gallate of lead by adding a solution of the acid obtained from 
the Divi-divi to an excess of boiling acetate of lead. It precipitated 
as a yellow, slightly crystalline powder, and was also dried at 212"?. 

L 0.706 of this salt gave 0.3325 lead, and 0.1802 oxide = 76.25 per 
cent, oxide of lead. 

IL 0.887 salt gave 0.315 lead, and 0.340 oxide of lead = 76.58 per 
cent, oxide lead. 

Nowthebibasic gallate of lead C H 0' + 2Pb O contains 76.69 per 
cent, oxide of lead; there can therefore b(^ no doubt that it was the 
salt analysed, and that gallic acid therefore occurs to a considerable 
extent ready formed in Divi-divi. 

As the tannin of nut galls yields pyrogallic acid when distilled, I 
was induced to try if the tannin of Divi-divi had the same property. 
I therefore precipitatedja quantity of its tannin by slowly adding sul- 
phuric acid to a saturated solution of Divi-divi. A very scanty dark 
brown precipitate fell, it was collected on a cloth filter, strongly com- 
pressed and washed with a little cold water to free it as much as 
possible from adhering sulphuric acid. When dried and subjected to 
distillation, it did not yield any trace of pyrogallic acid. It gave off 
scarcely any empyreumatic products, and left a very bulky charcoal. 



Dr. Stenhouse on Artificial Ultramarine. 4Sr 

The tannin of Divi-divi appears therefore essentially diflferont from 
that of nut galls. 

Mr. Ilarvoj informs mo, that, a few^ years ago, some calico printers 
endeavoured to employ Divi-divi as a substitute for galls, but the large 
quantity of mucilage it contained rendered it unfit for this purpose. 
It is at present employed pretty extensively in the tanning of leather, 
as the presence of mucilage is not injurious to that process. The 
price for which Divi-divi sells is about £20 per ton. 

XVL — On Artificial Ultramarine. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D. 

Till within the last twelve or fifteen years the only source of this 
beautiful pigment was the rare mineral, lapis lazuli. The price of tho 
finest Ultramarine was then so high as five guineas tho ounce. Since 
the mode of making it artificially has been discovered, however, its 
price has fallen to a few shillings the ounce. Artificial Ultramarine 
is now manufactured to a very considerable extent on the continent, 
but as far as I can learn, none has as yet been made in Great Britain. 
The chief French manufactories of Ultramarine are situated in Paris; 
and the two largest ones in Germany are those of Meissen in Saxony, 
and of Nuremberg in Franconia. Three kinds of Ultramarine occur 
in commerce, the blue, the green, and the yellow. The two first only 
are true Ultramarines, that is, sulphur compounds ; the yellow is merely 
chromato of baryta. 

Both native and artificial Ultramarine have been examined very 
carefully by several eminent chemists, who, however, have been unable 
to throw much light upon their true nature. Chemists have undoubt- 
edly ascertained that Ultramarine always consists of silica, alumina, 
soda, sulphur, and a little oxide of iron, but no two specimens, either 
of the native or artificial Ultramarine, contain these ingredients in at 
all similar proportions. In fact the discrepances between tlie analyses 
are so great as to render it impossible to deduce from them any for- 
mula for the constitution of Ultramarine; if indeed it does possess any 
definite composition. The following are a few specimens of these 
analyses, and others equally discordant might easily be added. 

Lapii LaxuU. By Clement amo Desobmbs. Lapit Laruli. By VARRERraAP. 

Soda, 23.2 .. . 9.09 

Alumina, 24.8 .. . 31.67 

Silica, 35.8 .. . 45.50 

Sulphur 3.1 .. . 0.95 

Carbonate of Lime, . . . 3.1 . . . 3.52 Lime. 

U.86 Iron. 

0.42 Chlorine. 

5.89 Sulphuric Acid. 

0.12 Water. 



60 



Dr. Stenhouse on Artificial Ultramarine. 



Pariiian Artificial UUramarine. 




MeiuenArtificial UUramarine. 


ByC. 


G. Gmeun. 




By Varrektbap. 


Soda and Potash, 




12.863 . 


. 21.47 


Lime, 




1.546 . 


. . 1.75 Potash, 


Alumina, . . 




22.000 


. . 0.02 


Silica, . . 




47.306 


. . 23.30 


Sulphuric Acid, 




4.679 . 


. . 45.00 


Resin, Sulphur, and Loss, 


12218 . 


. . 3.83 








0.00 








1.063 Iron. 



The last chemist who has examined Ultramarine is Dr. Eisner, who 
has published a very elaborate paper upon it in the 23d number of 
Erdmann's Journal for 1841. The first part of Dr. Eisner's paper is 
historical, and contains an accounf of the accidental discovery of arti- 
ficial Ultramarine by Tassart and Kuhlman in 1814, and of the labours 
of subsequent chemists. He then gives a detailed account of his own 
experiments, which have been very numerous, and from these he de- 
duces the following conclusions: — 1st, That the presence of about one 
per cent, of iron is indispensable to the production of Ultramarine ; he 
supposes the iron to be in the state of sulphuret. 2d, That the green 
Ultramarine is first formed, and that as the heat is increased it passes 
by degrees into the blue. The cause of this change is, he affirms, that 
part of the sodium absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, as the opera- 
tion is conducted in only partially closed vessels, and combines with 
the silica, while the rest of the sodium passes into a higher degree of 
sulphurization. Green Ultramarine therefore, contains simple sul- 
phurets and blue, polysulphurets. 

Dr. Eisner's paper does not, however, furnish any details by which 
Ultramarine could be manufactured successfully on the great scale. 
Thus, for example, in regard to the necessary degree of heat, perhaps 
the most important circumstance in the process, he gives no directions 
whatever. We know, however, from other sources, that it should be a 
low red heat, as at much higher temperatures both native and artificial 
Ultramine soon become colourless. Dr. Eisner, indeed, does not affirm 
that he was able to procure Ultramarine in quantity of a uniformly good 
colour. In fact the process of Robiquet, published nearly ten years 
ago, is the best which scientific chemists possess, though undoubtedly, 
the manufacturers have greatly improved upon it. Robiquet's process 
consists in heating to low redness a mixture of one part porcelain clay, 
one and a half sulphur, and one and a half parts anhydrous carbonate 
of soda, cither in an earthenware retort or covered crucible, so long as 
vapours are given off. When opened the crucible usually contains a 
spongy mass of a deep blue colour, containing more or less Ultramarine 
mixed with the excess of sulphur employed, and some unaltered clay 
and soda. The soluble matter is removed by washing, and the ultra- 
marine separated from the other impurities by levigation. It is to be 



Mb. Wilson on Experiments with different Manures. 



51 



regretted, however, that the results of Robiquet's process are bj no 
means uniform; ono time it yields a good deal of Ultramarine of 
excellent quality, and perhaps, at the very next repetition of the process 
in circumstances apparently similar, very little Ultramarine is obtained, 
and that of an inferior quality. 

The fabrication of Ultramarine is a subject which well deserves the 
attention of English chemical manufacturers, as it could be carried on 
with peculiar advantage in this country. The chief expense of the 
process is the fuel required, which can be purchased in Great Britain 
for less than half the money it would cost either in France or Ger- 
many. 

Mr. More read a Notice on Galvanometers, as Measurers of Electric 
Currents. 



6th April, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

Dr. Hutcheson was admitted a Member. 

On the motion of Mr. Liddell, it was resolved, that the printed Pro- 
ceedings of the Society should, this session, be presented gratuitously 
to the members, and that in subsequent years the library subscrip- 
tion should be increased from 12s. 6d. to 15s. in order to meet the ex- 
pense of publication. It was farther agreed, that the original and 
non-resident members should contribute 5s. each, per annum ; and, in 
consideration of these increased contributions, each member should 
be entitled to a copy of the transactions when published. 

The following communication was read: — 

XVII. — Comparative Experiments made with different Manures. 
By John Wilson, Esq. 

A PIECE of three years' old pasture, of uniform quality, extending 
to two hundred falls, old Scotch measure, was divided into ten lots, of 
twenty falls each. These were treated as follows, and produced, res- 
pectively, the quantity of well-made hay placed opposite each of the 
lots in the table. 





of Lot in 
Ite. 


Rate of Pro- 
duce per 
Acre, itt lb.. 


InrrMMOf 
Produce 
per Acre. 


Lot 1. — Left untouched, 


420 
602 
651 
665 
693 
742 
784 
819 
874 

945 


3360 
4816 
5208 
5320 
6544 
5936 
6272 
6552 
6776 

7560 


1456 

i&ts 

1960 
2184 
2.576 
2912 
3192 
3416 

4200 


^ 2.— Added 2A barrels Irish Quick Lime, 


^ 3. — Added 20 cwt. Lime from Gas Works, 


^ 4.— Added 4^ cwt. Wood Charcoal Powder,. 

^ 5.— Added 2 bushels Bone Dust, 


^ 6.— Added 18 lbs. Nitrate of Potash, 


^ 7.— Added 20 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, 


^ 8.— Added 2.J bolls Soot,. 


^ 9. — Added 2!{ lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, 


^ 10.— Added 100 gallons Aramoniacal Liquor, from ) 
Gas Works, at 5° of Twaddel's Uydrom., \ 



62 Dr. Thomson o» the Nature and Cure of Blindness. 

The value of each of the applications was precisely the same, viz., 
five shillings for each lot ; or at the rate of £2 per acre. All the 
articles were applied at the same time — on the 15th April, 1841, and 
the grass cut and made into hay on tho following month of July. 



20th April, 1842,— 7%e President in the Chair, 

Dr. Stenhouse exhibited specimens of the Wood Coal of Germany, 
— Divi-divi, &c. 

The following communications were read: — 

XVIII. — On the Nature and Cure of Blindness produced by Oil of 
Vitriol. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D. 

At the meeting of the British Association which met at Glasgow in 
1840, the author proposed an operation, by which he considered that 
blindness, or opacity of the cornea, produced by the action of sulphuric 
acid, might be remedied. This view was grounded on the following 
considerations: — The basis of animal matter, according to the most 
recent researches of chemists, appears to be a substance termed pro- 
tein, consisting of C<o H31 N5 0,2, which can be readily prepared from 
albumen, fibrin, &c., by solution in caustic alkali, and precipitation 
by acetic acid. This substance appears to be a base, and combines 
with acids. When sulphuric acid is brought in contact with it, a fine 
white substance is formed, which may be obtained in the state of a 
white powder by careful washing and drying. It may be conveniently 
produced by triturating the crystalline lens of the eye in a mortar 
along with sulphuric acid. This acid is termed sulpho-proteic, and its 
formula is Pr + SO3. 

The conjunctiva, the membrane which covers the cornea, or tran- 
sparent part of the eye, contains as its basis protein. If we, therefore, 
bring sulphuric acid in contact with this membrane, sulpho-proteic 
acid is formed, and opacity of the transparent cornea takes place. 
This is the result when by accident, or intention, sulphuric acid falls 
or is thrown upon the person. It was a case where this corrosive 
liquid was thrown criminally at the head of a man that attracted the 
author's attention to the subject. He found, by making a series of 
experiments upon the eyes of dead animals, that when sulphuric acid 
is applied to the cornea, a layer of sulpho-proteic acid is produced, 
which may be removed by means of a sharp-edged knife ; and that, 
even after dissecting off the first layer, a second application of the 
acid will produce a new layer of sulpho-proteic, and which may be ex- 
cised or torn off in a similar manner ; and in this way that the whole 
of the cornea may be successively divided into a series of layers cor- 
responding in some degree with the natural structure of that mem- 
brane. This method presents, in short, an excellent mode of demon- 
strating anatomically the layers of the cornea. Having found that 



Mr. GniTPm <m the, Statical Relations of the Gases. 5d 

the opacity was completely removed, bj the excision of the layer of 
sulpho-proteic acid, on the dead animal, it was conceived that the idea 
of performing the operation upon a living animal was justifiable. Ac- 
cordingly, a dog was selected as the subject of experiment It was 
properly secured on a table, and a muzzle was applied, so as to pre- 
vent it from using its teeth. It was considered also that it should be 
kept as steady as possible, in order to give a fair chance to the experi- 
ment. The end of a glass rod dipped in oil of vitriol was rubbed over 
the transparent part of the eye. White opacity was produced in 
a few seconds. The action was allowed to continue for two minutes, 
the eyelids being carefully kept aside. In order to prevent the acid 
from extending to the mucous membrane of the eye-lids, a piece of 
lint dipped in a solution of carbonate of soda was then applied to the 
eye, and the animal left at rest for five minutes. On removing the 
lint, the cornea presented a white appearance, and was obviously quite 
opaque. Having secured the eyelids, the conjunctiva was removed by 
means of a pair of scissors, assisted by a scalpel and forceps, and the 
denuded cornea was then scraped by means of the scalpel, until it 
appeared to bo deprived of its white opacity. A slight degree of dull- 
ness remained, which appears to have proceeded from the exudation 
on the surface of the cornea, for in a day or two the perfect transpar- 
ency of that membrane was restored, and the animal lived for many 
weeks with complete vision of the eye. Dr. Krauss of London, who 
assisted the author in the experiment, and to whom the dog belonged, 
satisfied himself that the eye which had been operated on, retained as 
perfect vision as that of the other eye, until the death of the animal 
some weeks afterwards from an accidental cause. 

The author has been induced to give publicity to this successful 
experiment, because he considers that he has seen eyes which might 
have thus been restored to vision, if the operation had been performed 
immediately after the receipt of the injury. The anim^ did not 
appear to suffer pain, except when any fluid came in contact with the 
eye-lids. 

XIX. — On the Statical Relations of the Gases. 
By John Joseph Gritfin. 

The following Table is in part translated from a Table contained 
in the fourth edition of Rose's Handbuch der Analytiehen Chemie. 
Berlin, 1838. It is however modified in several particulars. The 
third, fourth, and fifth columns are new. 

The plan of the Table is as follows : — 

The first column contains the names of the gases, both elementary 
and compound, including, for facility of reference, the vaporisable 
elements, and also the non-volatile elements. Boron, Carbon, &c., with 
their assumed specific gravity, atomic measure, &c. 

The second column exhibits the composition of the different gases 



64 Mb. Grifpin on the Statical Relations of the Gases. 

in atoms, expressed in symbols. The value of the symbols is in all 
cases the same as is given bj Berzolius. 

The third column contains the atomic weights of the elements and 
compounds named in the two preceding columns. The atomic 
weights of the compounds are, of course, the sum of the atomic 
weights of their elements. The numbers used are those of Berzelius. 

The fourth column shows the Atomic Measure of the gases. The 
mode of expression made use of here is now. It consists in employ- 
ing a vulgar fraction, the denominator of which represents the sum of 
the atomic measures of the constituents of a gas, while the numerator 
shows the number of resulting volumes. — This method of expressing 
Atomic Measures seems to me to be much more exact and convenient 
than the method followed by many writers, of using small square dia- 
grams for that purpose. — The atomic measure of a gas represents its 
combining proportion. It contains the number of volumes, the weight 
of which make up its atomic weight, (of course, in reference to some 
fixed standard). The atomic measure of a compound gas is not the 
volume occupied by its constituents, but the volume produced after 
combination. 

The fifth column shows the specific gravity of the different gases, 
in reference to the specific gravity of oxygen gas taken as a standard ; 
or it denotes the weight in grains of as much in bulk of each gas as 
would fill a vessel capable of holding 90.695 grains of atmospheric air, 
or 100.000 grains of oxygen gas. 

The sixth column shows the specific gravity of many of these gases, 
in reference to another standard, namely, atmospheric air, taken equal 
to 1.0000. Such gases only are enumerated in this column as have 
actually been weighed, and the numbers quoted represent the result of 
the weighings. The blanks show what gases have never been weighed. 

An examination of these two methods of indicating the specific 
gravities of gases, and a comparison of the numbers with those that 
indicate the atomic weights and atomic measures of the gases, show 
that great advantages would result from a more general adoption, by 
chemists, of the series of numbers contained in the fifth column. In 
the early days of chemistry, when only a few gases were known, it 
was natural to compare their densities with that of atmospheric air ; 
but at present it would be much more convenient to take the density 
of oxygen gas as our standard, more especially when the density of 
this very gas forms, as it does in this Table, the basis of the system of 
atomic weights. 

The particulars contained in columns 3, 4, and 5, are brought into 
calculations with the help of the following proportions: — If, of the 
atomic weight, the atomic measure, and the specific gravity of a gas, 
we know two terms, it is easy to find the third : — 

Let a. m. = the atomic measure ; a. w. = the atomic weight ; and 
sp. gr. =. the specific gravity, Then, 



Mr. Griffin on the Statical Relations of ^ Gaeea. 66 

To find the Specific Gravity of a gas, — ^ — '- = sp. gr. 

To find the Atomic Weight of a gas, a,w» :=a,m. x f' gr. 

To find the Atomic Measure of a gas, = a, m, 

8p.gr. 

The seventh column of the Table shows the composition in volumes, 
of a single volume of every different gas. In respect to the elements, 
it shows also what relation a single volume of each bears to a single 
atom. Thus, one volume of Oxygen is seen to be equal to one atom ; 
one volume of Arsenic to be equal to two atoms; one volume of Mer- 
cury to be equal to half an atom ; and one volume of Sulphur to be 
equal to three atoms. In respect to the compound gases, it shows the 
proportions, both of their proximate and ultimate components. Thus, 
one volume of Hydrocyanic acid is seen to contain, as proximate con- 
stituents, half a volume of Cyanogen, and half a volume of Hydrogen, 
while, as ultimate constituents, it contains half a volume of Nitrogen, 
half a volume of Carbon, and half a volume of Hydrogen. It must 
be borne in mind, in examining the details of this colunm, that the 
symbols invariably signify volumes, and not atoms, and that the frac- 
tions are fractions of volumes and not of atoms. 



FORMULJS FOR DETERMINING THE WEIGHT OF A GIVEN MEASURE 

OF ANY Gas. 

1. In reference to English Cubic Inches. 

Thermometer 60° F. Barometer 30 inches. 

Multiply the specific gravity of the gas, as stated in column fifth of 
the Table, by its measure, expressed in cubic inches, and the product 
by 0.003418. The result is the weight of the gas expressed in imperial 
grains : 

Lot X be the number of cubic inches of gas, then. 

Examples: — 1. The weight of 100 cubic inches of oxygen gas is 
100.000 X 100 X .003418 = 34.18 grains. 

2. The weight of 50 cubic inches of atmospheric air is 90.695 X 
50 X .003418 = 15.4998 grains. 

2. In reference to Cubic Centimeters. 

Thennometer 0** Centigrade. Barometer 0.76 meter. 

Multiply the specific gravity of the gas, as given in column fifth of 
the Table by its measure, expressed in cubic centimeters, and the 
product by 0.0000143236. The result is the weight of the gas 
expressed in grammes. 

Absolute weight in grammes of >^ _ .0000143236. 

X cubic centimeters of gas. J i' & ^ ^ 



66 Mr. Griffin on the Statical Relations of the Gases. 

Examples: — 1. Tho weight of 1000 cubic centimeters (= 1 Litre) of 
oxygen gas is 100.000 x 1000 x .0000143236 = 1.4323G grammes. 

2. The weight of 500 cubic centimeters of nitrogen gas is 88.518 
X 500 X .0000143236 = .63395 gramme. 

3. Proposed New Unit for Gas Measures. 

This unit is the bulk of a grain of oxygen gas, taken when Fahren- 
heit's thermometer is at 60°, and the barometer at 30 inches. On 
the assumption that a cubic inch of oxygen gas weighs .3418 grain, the 
bulk of a grain of oxygen gas would be equal to 2.9257 — nearly 3 — 
cubic inches. 

A gas jar containing 10 of these units, = 10 grains of oxygen gas, 
would contain 29.257 — nearly 30 — cubic inches. 

A large receiver might contain 100 such units, r= 100 grains oxygen 
gas, or 292.57 — nearly 300 — cubic inches ; being a little more than an 
imperial gallon, which contains 277.274 cubic inches. 

All these measures should be divided into lOths and lOOths. 

If the decimal weights and measures were preferred, then we might 
take for tho xmit of measurement, the bulk of one decigramme of oxygen 
gas (= 100 milligrammes = 1.5438 grains); for the second measure, 
the bulk of a gramme of oxygen gas (= 15.438 grains = 100 centi- 
grammes); and for the third measure, the bulk of a decagramme of 
oxygen gas (=. 154.38 grains = 100 decigrammes). In this case, 
the temperature at which the gas is measured should be 0° Cent., and 
the barometer pressure 0.76 meter. 

These measures would be about | larger than the proposed English 
grain measures, the relation of the milligramme to the 100th of a 
grain being that of .15438 to 1.0000. 

All the gramme measures should, like the grain measures, bo divided 
into lOths and lOOths. 

Advantages peculiar to this Standard. 

The great advantage presented by this method of graduating Gas 
Measures, is, that it shows, distinctly and readily, the absolute weight 
(either in grains or grammes according to the standard adopted) of 
any quantity of any gas submitted to trial As all the vessels are 
graduated to 100 degrees, and as the atomic weight and the specific 
gravity of oxygen gas are both fixed at 100.000, it follows that, in 
order to estimate the absolute weight of a measured quantity of a gas, 
all we have to do is to multiply the degree which marks the measure 
by the number which indicates the specific gravity. There is, con- 
sequently, only a single multiplication to perform, whereas, in all 
the cases cited above, there are two multiplications required, neither 
of which can be avoided. The only precaution necessary to be taken 
in making the calculations, is to place the decimal point in the proper 
place. It is scarcely necessary to add, that the multiplications can 
be facilitated by the help of logarithms. 



Mr. Griffin on tJie Statical Relations of the Gases. 



57 







Atomic 1 • 


Specific 


Observed 


Composition 
in Volumes, of 




Composition 


Weight. Il 


Gravity. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Name op Gas. 


in 


— 


One Volume 




Atoms. 


"L^iro^ 


— 


of the 






Air= 1.0. 


Compound Gas. 


Air, 








90.696 


1.0000 




Alcohol, . . . 


C2H«+0 


290.315 


i 


^ 




S CH'iO 
lCiC2H'0i 
1+ iHOi 


Ether, Hydrate,/ 


C*Hioo \ 
+ H20 / 


580.030 


• 

1 


V 146.1576 


1.6133 


Ammonia, . . 
— 2 atomSf . . 


NH« . . 
N2H« . 


107.238 
214.476 


^ 


1 63.619 


0.5967 


iN4-!H 


Antimony, . . 
— (knwU atomt . 


Sb . . 


806.462 










Sb» . . 


1612.904 




1612.904 




Sb 


— Terchloride, . 


SbaCl« . 


2940.864 


f 


735.2135 


7.8 


iSb+fCl 


Arsenic, . . . 


As . . 


470.042 








— doitble atomy . 


As3 . . 


940.084 


1 


940.084 


10.65 


As 


— Terchloride,. 


A82C1« . 


2268.034 


f 


667.0085 


6.3006 


iAs+5Cl 


— Teriodide, . 


As'P . 


6078.584 


f 


1419.646 


16.1 


iAs+|I 
A8+30 


Arsenious Acid, . 


As»0» . 


1240.084 




1240.084 


13.85 


Boron, .... 


B . . . 


136.204 


1 


136.204 




B 


— Chloride, 


BC1« 




1464.154 


f 


366.0385 


3.942 


iB+fCl 


— Fluoride, 


BF« 




837.604 


^ 


209.401 


2.3124 


iB+|F 


Bromine, . . . 


Br. 




489.153 


1 


489.153 


5.54 


Br 


Carbon, . . . 


C . 




76.438 


1 


76.438 




C 


— Oxide, . . 


CO 




176.438 


§ 


88.219 


0.9409 


iC+iO 


— Sulphuret, . 

— — 3 atomSf 


CS2 
C3S« 




478.768 
1436.304 


4 


j 239.384 


2.6447 


is+|C 


Carbonic Acid, . 


C02 




276.438 


^ 


138.219 


1.524 


ic+o 


Chlorine, . . . 


CI. 




221.325 


2 


221.325 


2.47 


Cl 


Chromium, . . 


Cr. 




351.815 


1 


351.815 




Cr 


— Oxy chloride, 


Cr02C12 


994.465 


1 


) 






C hlorochromic Acid, 


CCrCl«+i 

I 2Cro» : 


'2983.395 

> 


A 


J. 497.2325 


6.9 


Cri OCl 


Cyanogen, . . 


C2N2. . 


329.912 


f 


164.956 


1.8064 


C+N 


Ether 


C*HioO T 


r 


T^ 


- 




C2H«0i 


Etherine, Hydrate, 


C4CH2H- 
i H20 


â–º 468.150< 


§ 


â–º 234.076 


2.586 \ 


2CH2+HOi 


Ethyl, Oxide, . 


CC*Hio 
I +0 . 


L 


f 




L 


C2H«+0i 


Etherine,01efiant gas. 


CH2 . . 


88.918 


i 


88.918 


0.9852 


CH2 


Fluorine, . . . 


F . . . 


116.900 


1 


116.900 




F 


Hydrogen, . . 


H . . . 


6.2398 


1 


6.2398 


0.0688 


H 


— Antimoniuretl 


H«Sb2 . 


1650.343 


t 


412.586 




iSb+JH 


— Arseniurotted, 


H«A82 . 


977.523 


\ 


244.381 


2.695 


iAs+fH 


— Carburetted,! 
Marsh Gas,/ 


H*C . . 


101.397 


I 


60.6986 


0.556 


iC+2H 


— Carburet, . 


H*C2 . 


177.835 


I 


177.836 


1.8 


2C+4H 


— Phosphuretted, 


H«P2 . 


429.725 


t 


107.4312 


1.151 


iP+JH 


— Sulphuretted, 

— — 3 atoms. 


H2S . . 
H«S» . 


213.645 
640.934 


I.h 


1 106.8223 


1.1912 


JS+H 


Hydrobromic Acid, 


H2Br2 . 


990.786 


1 


247.6965 




iBr+iH 


Hydrochloric Acid, 


H2C12 . 


466.130 


1 


113.7826 


1.2474 


iCl+iH 


Hydrocyanic Acid, 


H2 + NaCa 


342.392 


1 


86.698 


0.9476 


iCN+iH 


Hydrofluoric Acid, 


H2F2 . 


246.280 


1 


61.570 




iF+^H 


Hydriodic Acid, . 


H»I2. . 


1691.980 


1 


397.995 


4.44 


il+iH 


Iodine, . . . 


I . . . 


789.760 


1 


789.750 


8.716 


I 


Mercury, . . . 


Hg . . 


1266.822 


2 








— ^ atoniy . . 


Hgi . . 1 632.911 


1 


632.911 


7.03 


Hg 


— Protobromide, 


Hg«Br«. 3600.950 


1 


877.4876 


10.11 


Hg+iBr 
Hg+Br 


— Perbromido, 


HgBr« . '2244.128 


1 


1122.064 


12.16 








b 











68 



Mr. Griffin on the Statical Relations of tlie (xoses. 







Atomic 


. 


Specific 


Observed 


Composition 
in Volumes, of 




Composition 


Weight. 


2 2 


Gravity. 


Specific 


Namb of Gas. 


in 


— 


— 


Gravity. 


One Volume 




Atoms. 


Oxygen 
= 100.000. 




Oxygen Gas 
= 100.000. 


Air =1.0. 


of the 
Compound Gas. 


Mr. Protochloride, 


Hg2C12 . 


2974.294 


1 


743.5735 


8.35 


Hg+|Cl 


— Perchloride, 


HgC12 . 


1708.472 


2 


854.236 


9.8 


Hg+Cl 


— Periodide, . 


HgI2 . . 


2846.322 


f 


1422.661 


16.2 


Hg+I 


— Sulphuret, . 

— — 3 atoms, 


HgS . . 

Hg3S3 . 


1466.987 
4400.961 


f 


^488.9957 


6.95 


BHg+iS 


Nitrogen, . . . 


N . . . 


88.518 


1 


88.618 


0.976 


N 


Nitrous Oxide, . 


N20 . . 


277.036 


1 


138.618 


1.6204 


N+^O 


Nitric Oxide, . 


NO . . 


188.518 


1 


94.259 


1.0388 


^N+iO 


Oxygen, . . . 


. . . 


100.000 


1 


100.000 


1.1026 





Phosgen Gas, 


CO-fCP 


619.088 


1 


309.544 




CiOHCl 


Phosphorus, . . 


p . . . 


196.143 


i 








— doiible atom. 


P2. . . 


392.286 


1 


892.286 


4.58 


p 


— Protochloride, 


P2C16 . 


1720.236 


^ 


430.059 


4.876 


iP+fCl 


— Perchloride, 


P2C110 . 


2605.536 


I 


434.256 


4.85 


^P+VCi 


Selenium, . . . 


Se. . . 


494.583 


2 








— ^ atom, . . 


Sei . . 


247.2915 


1 


247.2915 




Se 


Selenious Acid, . 


Se02. . 


694.583 


1 


347.2916 


4.03 


Se4- 


Silicon, .... 


Si . . . 


277.312 


1 


277.312 




Si 


— Chloride, . 


SiCl« . 


1605.262 


f 


635.0873 


6.939 


^Si + 2C1 


— Fluoride, 


SiF« . . 


978.712 


f 


326.2373 


3.6 


iSi+2F 


Sulphur, . . . 


S . . . 


201.165 


i 








— 3 atoms, . . 


S3 . . . 


603.495 


1 


603.495 


6.9 


S 


— Chloride, 

— — 3 atoms, 


SCI . . 

S3C13 . 


422.490 
1267.470 


t 


1 422.490 


4.7 


iS+Cl 


Sulphurous Acid, 
— 3 atoms, . . 


S02 . . 

S30« . 


401.165 
1203.495 


f 


j 200.5825 2.247 


iS+0 


Sulphuric Acid, dri/, 
— 3 ato7ns, . . 


S03 . . 

S30» . 


601.165 
1503.495 




1 260.6825 3.01 


js+io 


Tin, 


Sn. . . 


735.296 


1 


735.296 




Sn 


— Chloride, . 


SnCl* . 


1620.696 


1 


810.298 


9.1997 


|Sn+2Cl 


Titanium, . . . 


Ti . . . 


803.662 


1 


303.662 




Ti 


— Chloride, . 


TiCl^ . 


1188.962 


1 


694.481 


6.836 


^Ti+2C1 


Water, . . . 


H20 . . 


112.480 


* 


66.240 


0.6235 


H+|0 



BOOKS 

ADDED TO 

THE SOCIETY'S LIBRARY IN THE YEARS 1840, 41, 42. 



PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Annales des Mines, tomes 17 to 20, for 1840, 41. Continued once in two months. 
Annales des Fonts et Chauss^s. 

1840, M^moires 2 torn. Ordonnances. 1 torn. 

1841, 2 torn. 1 torn. 

Continued once in two months. 
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tomes 73, 74, 75, for 1840. 
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, troi8i6me s6rie, tom. 1 — 6, for 1841, 42. Continued 

monthly. 
Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Continued monthly from January, 1843. 
Annals of Natural History. Continued mjonthly from January^ 1843. 
Berzelius^s Jahres-Bericht, 19te Jahrgang, 1839. 

20te 1840. 

Berzelius, Rapport Annuel sur les Progrds de la Chimie, 1" Ann6e, 1841, 2> Ann^, 1842. 

Continued annually. 
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Chemist, edited by C. & J. Watt, vols. 1, 2, 3, for 1840, 41, 42. Continued monthly. 
Civil Engineer and Architects' Journal, 4to, vols. 3, 4, 5, for 1840, 41, 42. Continued 

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Comptes Rendus des Stances de V Acad^mie des Sciences, tome 10 — 15, for 1840, 41, 42. 

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8. Birmingham 1839. 

9. Glasgow 1840. 



60 Bocks added to the Society^s Lihraryy in 1840, 41, 42. 

Repertory of Arts and Patent Inventions, vols. 13—18, for 1840, 41, 42. Continued monthly. 
Revue Scientifique et Industrielle, edit. Quesneville, tome 1—7, for 1840, 41, 42. Continued 

monthly. 
SilUman's American Journal of Science and Arts, vols. 38—43, for 1840, 41, 42. Continued 

quarterly. 
Sturgeon's Annals of Electricity, vols. 5, 6, 7, 1841. 

Transactions of the Botanical Society, vol. 1, part 2, {Presented by Mr. W. Gourlie,) 1841. 
Transactions of the Society of Arts, session 1839, 40. Continued annually. 
Transactions of the Scottish Society of Arts, 1842. Continued annually. 
Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, or Records of Foreign Science, parts 7—10, for 1840-42, 

Continued occasionally. 



MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS. 

Berthier, Trait6 des Essais par la voie seche, 2 tome, 1834. 

Bird's (Dr. G.) Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1839. 

Brando's (W. T.) Manual of Chemistry, 5th edition, 1841. 

Catalogue of British Plants, part 1, containing the Flowering Plants and Ferns, (Presented 
by Mr. W. Gourlie,) 1841. 

Cuvier's Animal Kingdom arranged according to its Organization, 8vo, 1840. 

Daniel's Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy, 1839. 

Daubeny's (Dr. C.) Agricultural Chemistry, 1841. 

Dove's Repertorium der Physik: — 

Band 1. AUgemeine Physik, Mathematische Physik, Galvanismus, Electromagne- 

tismus, Magneto-electricitak, Theremomagnetismus, 1837. 
Band 2. Electricitat, Magnetismus, Erdmagnetismus, Literatur der Optik, 18.38. 
Band 3. Akustik, Theoretische Optik, und Meteorologie, 1839. 
Band 4. Meteorologie, Specifische Warme, Strahlende Warme, 1840. 
Band 6. Akustik, Electricitatslehre, 1841. 

Faraday's (M.) Experimental Researches in Electricity, 1839. 

Gregory's (Dr. W.) Letter on the State of the Schools of Chemistry in the United King- 
dom, 1842. 

GriflSn's Catalogue of Chemical Apparatus, 1841. 

Johnston's (J. F. W.) Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, parts 1, 2, 
1841, 42. 

Kane's (Dr. R.) Elements of Chemistry, 1841. 

Liebig's Organic Chemistry applied to Agriculture, translated by Dr. L. Playfair, 1840. 

Liebig's Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology, translated by Dr. 
Gregory, 1842. 

Lyell's Elements of Geology, 2 vols. 1841. 

Lyell's Principles of Geology, 3 vols. 1840. 

Mantell's Wonders of Geology, 2 vols. 1840. 

Miller's Old Red Sandstone, 1841. 

Russell (J. S.) on the Steam Engine, 1841. 

on the Nature, <fec., of Steam, and on Steam Navigation, 1841. 

Smee's (Alfred) Elements of Electro-Metallurgy, 1841. 

Smith (Dr. Pye) on the Relation between the Holy Scriptures and Geology, 1839. 

Walker's (C. V.) Electrotype Manipulation, 1841. 

Whewell's (Rev. W.) History of the Inductive Sciences, 3 vols. 1837. 

Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2 vols. 1840. 



BELL A50 DAi:«, PRIXTBRS, GLAaOOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OP THE .< 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY-FIRST SESSION, 184243. 



CONTENTS. 

Dr. Thomson's Notice of some New Minerals, 61 

ListofOffico-Bearers of the Society for 1842-43, 68 

Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry, 68 



2d November, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

Dr. Balfour alluded to some experiments recently made, which 
showed the innocuous nature of liquid muriatic acid applied to the 
roots of plants. Ho exhibited specimens of cocoa nuts in various 
stages of vegetation, and a portion of pith used, when cut into thin 
slices, for making rice paper. 

The following paper was read : — 

XX. — Notice of some New Minerals. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., 
F.R.S., L. & E., M.R.I.A., Regius Professor of Chemistry. 

One of the most common and important minerals is felspar, which 
constitutes the principal constituent in granite and gneiss, and, 
together with hornblende, forms the rocks so prevalent in this part of 
Scotland, — I mean greenstone and basalt. Felspar is a double salt, 
being composed of three atoms of tersilicate of alumina, and one atom 
of tersilicate of potash. Sometimes the potash is replaced bj soda. 
The mineral, in that case, is distinguished by the name of albite, and 
differs in the shape of its crystals. 

Three of the minerals which I mean to notice at present, are con- 
nected with felspar, though they differ from it in their composition. 

1. Erythrite. — The first species which I shall mention, is erythrite. 
It occurs rather abundantly in the Kilpatrick hills, and also in the 
amygdaloid on the south side of the Clyde, near Bishoptown. I do 
not know who first noticed it, but it was brought to me some years 
ago, as a new mineral, by Mr. Clachers, a mineral dealer in Old Kil- 
patrick. I call it erythrite on account of the flesh-red colour which 
distinguishes all the specimens which I have seen. 
No. 4 



62 Dr, Thomson on some New Minerals. 

Its specific gravity is about 254:1, which agrees with that of com- 
mon felspar ; and its hardness is about the same as that of felspar. 
The texture is compact, or at least not sensibly foliated, and I have 



UIUIUU Ui It lU UIJSSUUS 

Silica, 


. xt i» uuuipuat; 

67-90 


Alumina, . 


18-00 


Peroxide of iron, 


2-70 


Lime, 


1-00 


Magnesia, 


3-25 


Potafih, . 


7-50 


Water, 


1-00 



101-35 



7 (A1S») + Mg. S'+ KS'. 



So that it differs from felspar by one half of the potash being replaced 
by magnesia. 

2. Perthite. — The next mineral 1 have to notice, I distinguish by 
the name of Perthite. It was sent me by Mr. Wilson, a surgeon in 
Perth, a township of Upper Canada. Hence the name by which I 
have distinguished it. It is very much connected with felspar in 
appearance, and was sent as a variety of that mineral. 

The colour of the specimen sent me is white. It consists of a mass 
of crystals so united together as to form a kind of tesselated pavement. 
The crystals are obviously four-sided prisms, apparently rectangular, 
but not susceptible of measurement, because they cannot be isolated. 

The lustre is vitreous ; the hardness is rather less than that of felspar ; 
but the specific gravity, which is 2*586, is identical with some of the 
varieties of that mineral. 

The constituents were found to bo 



Silica, 


76 


Alumina, . 


11-75 


Magnesia, . 


11-00 


Protoxide of iron. 


0-225 


Moisture, . 


0-65 



99-625 

From this analysis, it is evident that it differs essentially from 
felspar. The quantity of silica is much greater, and the potash is 
entirely replaced by magnesia. Its constitution may be represented 
by the formula 6 (AIS*) + 5 (Mg. S*). It is a quatersilicate, while 
felspar is a tersilicate. Could it be procured in sufficient quantity, it 
would be an excellent material for the manufacture of porcelain. 

3. PerisCerite.* — The next mineral which I have to mention, was 

* From Ti{«rT£5» a pigeon, the colours resembling a pigeon's neck. 



Dr. Thomson on some New MhieraHs. 68 

sent me also from Perth, in Upper Canada, by Mr. Wilson, and also 
by Dr. Holmes of Montreal, under the name of iridescent felspar ; but 
neither its characters, nor its composition correspond with that 
appellation. 

The specimens were amorphous masses, and had the appearance of 
having constituted part of a rock blasted by gunpowder. 

It is light brownish-rod, and exhibits a play of colours chiefly blue 
on the surface. It is translucent on the edges. The lustre is vitreous, 
and the texture imperfectly foliated. Its hardness is only 3*75, which 
is a good deal loss than that of felspar. 

Its specific gravity is 2-5 08. 

Before the blow-pipe it becomes white, but does not melt. With 
carbonate of soda it melts into a green coloured bead ; and, on adding 
nitre, the colour becomes red; with borax, it fuses into a colourless 
bead. 

Its constituents were found to be — • 



Silica, 

Alumina, 

Potash, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 



72-35 
7-60 

1506 
1.35 
1-00 



Oxides of iron and manganese, 1*25 
Moisture, .... 0*50 

99-11 

The silica is much greater than in felspar, and the alumina much 
less, while the proportion of potash is nearly the same. If we were to 
consider the lime and magnesia, and the oxides of iron and magnesia, 
as accidental bodies united to silica, in the same ratio as the alumina 
and the potash, the constitution of the mineral might be represented 
by 4 (AIS*) 4- 3 (KS^). If the lime and magnesia be essential con- 
stituents, the formula will be AIS'' + (g K + j^ cal. + J Mg.) S*. 

4. Silicite. — The fourth mineral which I shall notice, I have distin- 
guished by the name of silicite, from the great resemblance which it 
has to quartz, in its external aspect, though it differs entirely from 
that mineral in its constitution. It occurs in a basaltic rock in the 
county of Antrim, and was given me by Mr. Doran, an Irish mineral 
dealer. 

The colour is white, with a shade of yellow, the texture foliated, and 
the fracture small conchoidaL Its lustre is vitreous, its hardness 
nearly the same as that of quartz, and its specific gravity 2.666, or 
nearly the same as that of rock crystaL 

With carbonate of soda, it fuses into an opaque bead, and with borax, 
into a transparent colourless bead. Its constituents arc, 



64 Dr. Thomson m some New Minerals. 



Silica, 


548 


Alumina, . 


28-4 


Protoxide of iron, ; 


4-0 


Limo, 


12-4 


Water, 


0G4 



100-24 
If we suppose the oxide of iron to be combined with alumina, and 
to be only accidentally present, the constitution of silicite will be 
7 (AIS") + 2 (Cal. S). 

It is a double anhydrous aluminous silicate. It differs from fuller's 
earth by containing 2 (Cal. S) instead of 2 Aq. 

5. Gymnite. — To the fifth mineral species which I mean to notice 
at present, I have given the name of gymnite^ because its locality is 
the Bare hills west of Baltimore. I got the specimen in my collec- 
tion from Mr. Alger of Boston, well known for his and Mr. Jackson's 
excellent geological description of Nova Scotia. 

The mineral was in amorphous pieces, having a very pale and dirty 
orange colour. It is translucent on the edges; the lustre is resinous. 
It is very tough, and difficult to break. This makes it difficult to 
determine the hardness ; but it is softer than felspar. The specific 
gravity is 2-2165. 

When held in the flame of a spirit lamp, it becomes dark brown ; 
with soda it fuses into a white opaque bead ; with borax, into a colour- 
less bead ; with nitrate of cobalt it assumes a rose red colour. 
Being subjected to analysis, its constituents were found to be 
Silica, .... 40-16 
Magnesia, .... 36-00 
Water, .... 21-60 
Alumina, with trace of iron, 1*16 
Lime, .... 0-80 



99-72 
It is therefore composed of silica, magnesia, and water, and its con- 
stitution may be represented by the formula 2 (MgS) + MgS 
+ 4 Aq. 

6. Baltimorite. — For the next mineral species which I mean to 
notice, I am also indebted to Mr. Alger. The specimen was labelled 
ashestus with chrome, and the locality, Baltimore. On this account, I 
have given the species the name of Baltimorite. 

The colour is greyish green. The mineral is composed of longi- 
tudinal fibres, adhering to each other, and has a considerable resem- 
blance to asbestus. The lustre is silky. The mineral is opaque ; but 
when very thin, it is translucent on the edges. It is a very little softer 
than calcareous spar. It does not fuse before the blowpipe, but assumes 



Dr. Thomson on tome New Minerats. 66 



a brown colour; with soda, melts into an 


opaque, and with borax, into 


a transparent bead. Its constituents are 




Silica, ... 


40-95 


Magnesia, . 


34-70 


Protoxide of iron. 


1005 


Alumina, 


1-50 


Water, 


12-60 



99-8 
Its constitution may be represented by the formula, 14 (MgS) 
+ 3(1/4- iAl)S' +11 Aq. 

Asbostus contains more silica, and a good deal of lime, which is 
wanting in baltimorite. Asbestus, in fact, is merely a variety of 
pyroxene. 

7. For the next mineral, which, from its constitution, I call snhses- 
quisulphate ofaluminay I am also indebted to Mr. Alger. The locality 
is South Peru. 

It is a soft opaque mineral, composed of silky fibres adhering to 
each other. The colour is white, but there is a reddish-yellow tint 
which partially pervades the specimens, owing, obviously, to a little 
foreign matter with which they are stained. The taste is acid and 
sweet, like that of alum. The specific gravity is 1*584. It is soluble 
in water. The constituents are 

Sulphuric acid, . . 32-95 
Alumina, ' . . . 22-55 
Sulphate of soda, . . 6*50 

Water 3920 



101-2 



obviously 



1 atom sulphuric acid, . 5 

1 J atom alumina, . 3*375 

1 atom sulphate of soda, . 9*0 

5 atoms water, . . 5-625 



23 

The sulphate of soda exists in a greater proportion than sulphate of 
potash or of ammonia does in our alum. It is curious that in South 
America, soda almost universally replaces the potash which occurs in 
other parts of the world. Instead of saltpetre, so abundant in India, 
and even in Europe, we have nitrate of soda in Peru ; and, instead of 
potash alum, we find, in Buenos Ayres, and other districts of South 
America, soda alum, deposited in amygdaloidal cavities in a kind of 
shale. 

8. Messrs. Alger and Jackson gave the name of acadialite to a 
variety of chabasite which they found in Nova Scotia, and specimens 



Dr. Thomson on some New Minerals. 



of which Mr. Alger was kind enough to send to mo. The colour of 
the mineral is yellow, and it has the crystalline shape, and the char- 
acters of chabasito so completely, that it would be considered as a 
mere variety of that mineral, were it not that the constituents do not 
quite agree. The specific gravity of acadialite is 2'0202, and its con- 
stituents. 

Silica, .... 52-4 



Alumina, 


12-4 


Lime, 


11-6 


Peroxide of iron, 


2-4 


Water, 


21-6 



100-4 
The proportion of alumina in chabasite is greater than in acadi- 
alite. If this difference bo constant, acadialite must bo considered as 
a new species. Its constitution, and that of chabasite, may be repre- 
sented by the formulas, 

Acadialite, 2 (AIS^ + Cal. S' + 6 Aq. 
Chabasite, 3 (AIS^ + Cal. S^ + 6 Aq. 
9. Prasilite. — To the next mineral species which I shall mention, I 
have given the name of prasilite^ from the green colour by which the 
only specimen which I have seen is characterized. It is found in the 
Kilpatrick hills, and was brought to me some years ago by a gentle- 
man while attending my class. He had picked up the specimen, and 
brought it that I might tell him its name. On looking at and exam- 
ining its hardness and texture, I pronounced it to be sulphate of lime, 
tinged by an admixture of epidote ; but upon examining it chemically, 
I soon discovered that the opinion formed from its external characters, 
was erroneous. 

The colour is dark leek green, and the hardness not more than 1- ; 
for it does not scratch selenite. It is opaque, and has a specific 
gravity of 2*311 which comes near to that of selenite. It may be 
crumbled to powder between the fingers. It is composed of fibres 
very loosely adhering together. When heated to redness, it gives out 
18 per cent, of water, assumes a light yellow colour, and becomes much 
harder. Being subjected to analysis, its constituents were found, 
Water, .... 1800 



Silica, 
Magnesia, . 
Lime, 


38-55 

15-55 

2-55 


Peroxide of iron. 


14-90 


Oxide of magnesia. 
Alumina, . 


1-50 
5-65 



90-70 
The loss, amounting to 3 per cent., was probably an alkali. Prasilite 



Br. Thomson on some New MmeraXt, 67 

is obviously a triple sosquisilicato. Its constitution may be repre- 
sented by the formula, 8 (MgS'^) + 4 (/ S'^) + 3 (A1S'«) + 18 Aq. 
10. The next mineral which I shall notice is one which occurs in 
the beds of iron ore at Franklin in New Jersey, and was first noticed 
by Messrs. Keating and Vanuxen about the year 1822 under the 
name of Jeflfersonite. Keating made an analysis of it, the result of 
which induced me to place it among the magnesian minerals, and 
intimate in connection with pyroxene and amphibole. But having got 
a specimen of it througli the kindness of Dr. Torrey of New York, I 
subjected it to a new analysis. The result was so diflferent from Mr. 
Keating's, that it became evident that the position which I had 
assigned it was a wrong one, and that in reality it was a quadruple 
salt, consisting of silica united to the four bases — lime, alumina, iron, 
and magnesia. 

The colour of Joffersonite is dark olive green, passing into brown. 
It is foliated, and according to Keating may be cleaved in various 
directions. The specimen in my possession is an imperfect four sided 
prism ; but the faces are not smooth enough to admit of measurement 
The lustre is resinous and almost semi-metallic ; the streak is gray, 
and the powder light green. It is rather harder than fluor spar, 
though softer than apatite. The specific gravity is 3'51. Before the 
blowpipe it fuses readily into a dark coloured globule. Its consti- 
tuents are 

Silica, .... 44-50 
Lime, .... 22-15 

Alumina, .... 14*55 
Protoxide of iron, . . 12*30 
Magnesia,". . . . 4*00 

Moisture, .... 1*85 

99-35 
The constitution may be represented by the formula, 4 (Cal.S) + 
4 (AIS) + 2 (/S*) + Mg S' so that it differs essentially in its com- 
position from both pyroxene and amphibole. 



I6th Novemhevy 1842, — T?ie PiiEsroENT in the Chair, 

Mr. Liddell, the Treasurer, presented his account, exhibiting an 
expenditure of £33, and a balance of £60 in banker's hands. The 
Librarian also brought forward his account, which showed the receipt 
of £50 for the library fund, and a balance of £15 in hand. 

The following gentlemen were elected members of the society: — 
Dr. Hugh Colquhoun, Dr. Alexander Mitchell, Mr. Duncan Anderson, 
Mr. Georgo Thomson, Mining Engineer. 



68 Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 

The members of the Society then proceeded to ballot for Office- 
Bearers, when the following were elected for the session 1842-43: — 

<©tSce=1Searer9. 

Prbsidknt.— -Professor Tuomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E. 

Vice-President, "Walter Crum. | Secretary, Alexander Hastie. 

Treasurer, Andrew Liddell. | Librarian, Thomas Dawson. 



A. Anderson, M.D. 
J. H. Balfour, M.D. 
A. Buchanan, M.D. 
J. FiNDLAT, M.D. 



Professor Gordon. 
William Gourlie. 
J. J. Griffin. 
Alexander Harvey. 



F. Penny, Ph. D. 
John STENH0USE,Ph.D. 
James Thomson. 
R. D. Thomson, M.D. 



UifirarB (Committee. 

Messrs. W. Crum; A. Hastie; T. Dawson; James Thomson; F. Penny, Ph.D.; 

J. Findlay, M.D.; Professor Gordon; J. H. Balfour, M.D,; and 

R. D. Thomson, M.D.— Thomas Dawson, Convener. 

QTonbeners of Sections. 

Section A.— Agriculture, Statistics, and Domestic Economy. 

Convener,— William Murray. 
Sub-Conveners,— James Smith; Alexander Watt. 

Section B.—CIiemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology. 

Convener,— John Stenhouse, Ph. D. 

Sub-Conveners,— Alexander Harvey; R. D. Thomson, M.D. 

Section C— Physics, including Mechanics and Engineering, 

Convener,— Professor Gordon. 
Sub-Conveners,— F. Penny, Ph. D.; James Buchanan. 

Section D.— Physiology and Natural History. 

Convener,— J. H. Balfour, M.D. 
Sub-Conveners,— A. Anderson, M.D.; J. Findlay, M.D. 



30^A November, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. James Hill, William Spans, David Wharton, Robert B. 
Finlay, and James Couper, were admitted Members. 

Mr. James Thomson, C. E., presented two Numbers of the Transac- 
tions of the Society of Arts of Edinburgh, in exchange for the 
Proceedings of the Philosophical Society. 

Dr. Stenhouse read a communication On Astringent Substances, to 
be inserted in the Transactions of the Chemical Society of London. 

The following Report was then read : — 

XXI. — Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 

There is no object in nature to which the attention of all deserves 
to be more closely directed than the atmosphere, if we were only to 
reflect that its absence for a few minutes would destroy all animal 
existence. Yet, strange as it may appear, the composition of common 



Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 69 

air is not even yet satisfactorily determined, in the opinion of all 
chemists. According to Dumas, the atmosphere consists of (Ann. 
de Chim. iii. 267.) 

By Weight. 
Oxygen, . . . . . 23. 
Azote, 77. 

And dividing these numbers by what he has found to be the specific 
gravities of the gases, he deduces the composition in bulk to be 
23 77 

YYq^j = 20-80 Oxygen, + 972 = ^^'^^ ^^^*®' 

Calculation, however, shows that the specific gravity of oxygen, 
according to his data, ought to be M066 or M067; and we believe 
Dumas considers that the true specific gravity cannot be under 1-107. 
Dumas has lately published some experiments made at Copenhagen, 
on air taken from the surface of the ocean, where the ratios of the 
gases vary considerably from these data, as follows : — 

By Bulk. By Bulk. 

By Weight. Sp. Gr. Mill. Sp. Gr. M067. 

Oxygen, .... 22-58 20-3 2040 

Azote, .... 77-42 79-7 79-60 

It deserves remark, that the mean of six experiments out of ten, made 
by Dr. Thos. Thomson, (First Principles, I. 98.) gave for the composi- 
tion of air at Glasgow, by bulk — 

Oxygen, . . . 20*42 Azote, . . . 79-58 

This remarkable coincidence between the composition of the air at 
the sea, where vegetation is absent, and of that in the oxygen consum- 
ing city, perhaps deserves more attention than has yet been paid to it 
In connection with experiments upon pure air, the trials of Leblanc 
upon vitiated atmospheres are of high interest. The quantity of car- 
bonic acid in the atmosphere in the normal state has been shown by 
the Saussures to vary from 3 to 6 parts in 10000. Leblanc (Ann. de 
Chim. V. 223.) has examined the quantity in crowded rooms, theatres, 
cities, &c. In the hospital La Pitie, the air of one of the wards con- 
taining 54 patients, afiforded y^^^ of COjj, or 5 times more than that 
of normal air. Under similar circumstances, at the Salpetriere, the 
quantity was y^%^. In Dumas' class-room, after a lecture of an hour 
and a half, where 900 persons were present, the carbonic acid amounted 
to 1 per cent, and the same quantity of oxygen had disappeared. 
From other experiments, he considers this a maximum quantity for 
safety, and strongly recommends a better ventilation when so much 
carbonic acid is present. This result agrees with experiments made 
in this country. When the atmosphere is deteriorated by burning 
charcoal, he has seen deatli produced when 3 per cent, of carbonic 
acid was present in the atmosphere. In all such cases of death from 
stoves, he has found carbonic oxide in the air, and he attributes a 



70 Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 

deleterious effect to the agency of this gas. lie has observed 1 per 
cent of this gas to destroy an animal in two minutes, which is at 
variance with the statement of Nysten. This observation explains 
many of the inconsistencies which appeared some years ago in tho 
evidence of some London chemists respecting the influence of Joyce's 
stoves. It is quite obvious that their structure was dangerous. Le- 
blanc found that a candle was extinguished in air containing 4i or 6 
per cent of carbonic acid. In such an atmosphere life may be kept 
up for some time, but respiration is oppressive, and the animal is 
affected with very great uneasiness. Air expired from the lungs con- 
tains about 4 per cent, of carbonic acid, and hence this atmosphere is 
noxious. Even 3 per cent in the atmosphere killed birds, and yet we 
have seen statements which affirmed that upwards of 3 per cent had 
been detected in the London theatres. All these facts are pregnant 
with importance in reference to health. Our miners may not be 
suffocated by fire-damp explosions, but we should remember that their 
constitutions may be poisoned by the respiration of tainted atmos- 
pheres. 

No one can have failed to remark the immense loss of illuminating 
gases sustained in the iron works of this country. We are not aware 
of any experiments which have been made upon their composition. 
But in Germany and France, where fuel is more scarce than in this 
country, economy has induced chemists to examine the nature of tho 
loss in such circumstances. According to Ebelmen, (Ann. de Chim. 
V. 153.) in furnaces where charcoal is used, the gases at the mouth of 
the furnace consist of 13 per cent, carbonic acid, 23^ carbonic oxide, 
6 per cent hydrogen, and 58 azote. As we descend in the furnace, 
the carbonic acid and hydrogen diminish, tiU we arrive at the widest 
part, where there is no carbonic acid, and only 2 per cent hydrogen. 
The carbonic oxide and azote, however, increase in descending, and 
amount in the same part of the furnace to 35 per cent of tho former* 
and 63 of the latter. It would appear that when the air is blown into 
the furnace, it is first converted into carbonic acid, and then rapidly 
into carbonic oxide, thus rendering latent an immense quantity of 
heat, and that the heat of the hot blast furnace has its efficacy limited 
to the lower part of the furnace. Dr. Bunsen, who made some import- 
ant observations on this subject in 1839, (Poggendorflf, Ann. xxxvi. 198.) 
showed that 50 to 75 per cent of the combustible materials are lost 
in the form of carbonic oxide ; that it would be impossible to use tho 
waste gases with cold air for the smelting of iron ; but that they might 
be employed, if collected at the temperature at which they exist when 
evolved, in conjunction with the hot blast. 

The use of gases as illuminating agents is so important, that every 
method of obtaining them by economical means deserves attention. 
The employment of pure oxygen is daily becoming more extended. 
Mr. Balmain has lately applied (L' Institut 458.) the well-known 



Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 71 

method of obtaining oxygon by the action of sulphuric acid on bichro- 
mate of potash, in organic chemistry, to the preparation of oxygen 
in large quantities. We have made in this way a largo amount of 
gas, and have found it exceedingly pure. The proportions recom- 
mended are 3 parts salt to 4 of acid. We do not think, however, that 
this method will be much employed, as it is not so economical as that 
by means of chlorate of potash— a salt now sold in the market at 
threepence an ounce. 

Another gas, which is of more importance in theory than in prac- 
tice, is chlorous acid. When sulphuric acid and chlorate of potash 
made into a paste are distilled, a yellow gas comes over, the formula 
of which is Cl-04. Its existence may be proved by a simple experi- 
ment Place some chlorate of potash and phosphorus at the bottom 
of a test-glass filled with water, and then by means of a sucker add 
sulphuric acid. The gas is evolved and ignites the phosphorus. 

Millon (L' Institut. 456.) forms this gas by introducing into a large 
glass flask 1 part tartaric acid, 4 chlorate of potash, 6 nitric acid, and 
8 water; or, when it is desired to have it perfectly pure, the following 
mixture is to be used: — arsenious acid 15 parts, chlorate of potash 
20, nitric acid 60, water 20. The arsenious acid and chlorate of 
potash are first pulverized, and formed into a paste with a little water. 
The mixture of nitric acid and water is then poured on them, and 
gentle heat applied. The materials should be quite pure. 

The fact that calomel could be converted into corrosive sublimate, 
in the system, was known many years ago. But the exact circum- 
stances of this transformation were not sufficiently understood. 
Mialhe, in an elaborate set of experiments on the subject, (Ann. do 
Chimie, v. 160.) says, the action occurs when calomel is brought in 
contact with a solution of an alkaline chloride, that the quantity 
of sublimate formed is in proportion to the amount of alkaline chloride 
present, and the action increases in proportion to the concentration of 
the alkaline chloride. His experiments were made with common salt 
and sal-ammoniac. The action is much increased by the presence of 
air and dextrine, but is retarded by fat and gum. By simply boiling 
calomel in distilled water, sublimate is formed. Mialhe extended his 
observations to all the compounds of mercury, and obtained similar 
results. He concludes that it is corrosive sublimate which is the 
active agent in medicine. If this idea should be confirmed, it should 
lead to the substitution of this form of mercury for all the others. 
Thesame chemist recommends the hydrous proto-sulphurot of iron as 
a complete antidote to corrosive sublimate. To prepare it, copperas 
is to be precipitated with hydrosulphuret of sodium, the precipitate 
washed and preserved in an air-tight bottle. 

Fritsche of St. Petersburg has communicated to M. Chevreul 
(L'Institut 460,) a method — an improvement upon that of Licbig — 
of separating iudigotine, which he considers will serve for testing the 



72 Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 

value of commercial indigo. He takes 1 part of commercial indigo 
and 1 part of grape sugar, and places thorn in a flask capable of con- 
taining 40 parts of liquid. He fills half the flask with hot alcohol, 
and then adds Ih parts of strong liquid caustic soda to another equal 
portion of alcohol, and fills up the flask with them. The flask thus 
filled is allowed to remain at rest till it becomes clear. The fluid is 
then withdrawn, by means of a syphon, into another flask. This 
liquid is first yellow, but, by exposure to the air, it changes to red, 
violet, and blue, depositing microscopical crystals, which are larger in 
proportion to the gradual admission of the oxygen of the air, and con- 
sist of pure indigo. They are then thrown on a filter, and washed 
rapidly with hot water, in order to remove a substance produced by 
the action of the soda on the sugar, which is insoluble in alcohol, but 
soluble in hot water. From 4 ounces of inferior indigo of commerce, 
he obtained, by the first infusion, 2 ounces of pure indigo blue : a 
second infusion of the residue gave only a drachm of indigo. 

The subject of the digestion of food (Ann. de Chimie, v. 478,) is 
pregnant with much interest to man ; and it may be affirmed, without 
hesitation, that the only light hitherto thrown on this function, has 
been through the medium of chemistry. Bouchardat and Sardras 
have lately confirmed the plausibility of the theory which views the 
process as the result of the action of dilute muriatic acid. This acid, 
they consider, dissolves the aliment to be assimilated, which is 
absorbed by the veins, and leaves the chyme, which may lose a small 
portion of its bulk in the small intestines, but is, in reality, a mass of 
undigested materials, ultimately constituting the excrementitious 
matter. The chyle they consider to be an alkaline fluid, secreted by 
the abdominal glands, destined to saturate in the blood the acid 
secreted by the stomach, because they found that the chyle always 
possessed the same composition, whether the aliment consisted of pure 
starch or fibrin. Fatty substances, they affirm, are not dissolved in 
the stomach, but pass into the intestines, where they are absorbed by 
the lacteals. 

The observation by Liebig, that the fibrin of plants and animals is 
identical in its composition, led to the inevitable conclusion, that the 
animal organization merely modifies the state of the substances pre- 
sented to it by the vegetable kingdom, and does not form any solids, 
as plants do, from their gaseous constituents ; or, in other words, the 
fibrin or curd of milk exists ready formed in the vegetables which serve 
as the food of the cow, while the main constituents of the blood, in like 
manner, are derived directly from the vegetable matters which consti- 
tute the food primarily of all animals. No exception could be urged to 
this affirmation in reference to the formation of blood and muscle. 
The anomaly which presented itself was in the instance of fat, which, 
as far as experiment had carried us, did not appear to exist in sufficient 
abundance in vegetable food, to authorize us to ascribe its origin to 



Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 73 

such a source. Liebig quotes the instance of a lean goose, weighing 
4 lbs., which, in 36 days, gains 5 lbs. weight by consuming 24 lbs. of 
maize, and yields 3^ lbs. of pure fat. The latter could not be derived 
from the maize, said Liebig, because maize, according to such experi- 
ments as had been made upon it before Liebig wrote, did not contain 
the thousandth part of its weight of fat From whence came the fat? 
Liebig conceives it to be derived from the starch of the maize, by the 
simple abstraction of oxygen, and its evolution from the system by 
respiration, in the form, of carbonic acid. The relation of the carbon 
to the oxygen in starch is 120 to 100 ; and in fat, 120 to 10. Liebig 
perceives, in this abstraction of oxygen, a fertile source of animal 
heat. This idea was strikingly supported by the fact, that bees, when 
fed upon honey alone, (a substance identical in its composition with 
starcli,) form large quantities of wax. Now, wax approaches fat in 
composition, and both yield succinic acid when treated by nitric acid. 
These ingenious views of Liebig have led Dumas and Payen (L'lnsti- 
tut 461,) to make a series of experiments, for the purpose of deter- 
mining the quantity of fatty or oily matter in maize. They have 
found 9 per cent, of yellow oil to exist in this vegetable ; hence they 
conclude, when a lean goose eats 24 lbs. of maize, it takes up 2\ lbs. 
of fatty matter, which, with the fat previously existing in the animal, 
is sufficient to account for the source of the 3i lbs. of fat. Dumas 
adds the remarkable intelligence, that hay, such as it is met with in 
the trusses eaten by animals, contains 2 per cent of fatty or oily 
matter. He considers that the pasture ox and milk cow furnish 
always less fat in proportion to its deficiency in the food ; and that in 
the milk cow, the butter always represents nearly the fatty matter of 
the food. In the opinion of himself and Payen, the facts derived 
from farmers and from chemical analysis, agree in proving, that the 
milk cow constitutes the most exact and most economical method of 
extracting the azotized and fatty matter contained in pastures. 

It is obvious that these facts, should they enable us to dispense with 
the explanation afforded by Liebig, of the production of fat from 
starch, go to substantiate the idea which he was the first to propagate, 
that the constituents of the blood and of the solid parts of animals 
generally, before they have undergone transformation, exist ready 
formed in plants. 

Some years ago. Cap and Henry of Paris stated that urea exists in 
the urine, in union with lactic acid, under the form of lactate of urea 
without any water. As, however, Regnault had previously shown that 
all the salts of urea contained an atom of water, Pelouze was induced 
to ascertain if lactate of urea could be formed synthetically, by the 
addition of urea to lactic acid, and by double decomposition with 
lactate of lime and oxalate of urea. His attempts were unsuc- 
cessful, and his result in unison with the experiments of Liebig, who 
could never detect lactate of urea in urine. Pelouze coidd not succeed 



74 



Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 



in combining urea with hippuric and uric acids. When nitrate of 
urea is heated to 302® F., carbonic acid and protoxide of azote are 
evolved, while free urea and nitrate of ammonia remain. During the 
decomposition of the nitrate of urea, a new acid is formed (L'Institut. 
454) crystallizing in small whitish plates, which have not been accu- 
rately examined. 

Chemistry has become of such essential importance to the agricul- 
turist, that any experiments upon subjects connected with his art, must 
be viewed by him with gratification. In the choice of manures, 
chemistry has done much, and promises still more. Those who have 
examined the French journals, must be aware of the extensive experi- 
ments made on this subject by Boussingault. He has examined the 
question very extensively : — Is the proportion of azote present in a 
manure the test of its richness ? He answers the query in the affirm- 
ative, although he does not deny the importance which other matters 
may possess. The following table is a selection from an extended 
series of experiments where the figures represent the equivalent num- 
bers, farm manure being taken as unity. ( Annales de Chim.iii. 65, N.S.) 



Farm Manure, . . . 100 
Pease Straw, .... 22-3 

Wheat Straw, .... 166-6 

Old Wheat Straw, . . 81-6 
Lower part of W. Straw, 97*5 
Upper part of W. Straw, 30 

Oat Straw, 142-85 

Barley Straw 173-9 

Potato Tops, .... 72-72 

Carrot Tops, .... 47 

Pulp of Potatoes, . . 76 

Juice of Potatoes, . . 106*38 
Dung Water, .... 67*7 

Cow Dung 125-0 

Cow Urine, 90*9 

Horse Dung, .... 72-7 

Pig Dung, 63-4 

Sheep Dung, .... 36 



Flemish Manure, . . 21 0*5 

Dry Muscle, .... 3*06 

Dry Blood, 3-69 

Animal Charcoal, . . 36*69 

Dutch Manure, .... 29*4 

Oak Leaves, in Autumn, 34 
Poplar Leaves, in Autumn, 74*3 

Guano, 80-4 

Guano, 74*1 

Guano, 28'6 

Urine, 2*4 

Urine, 55*9 

Refinery Charcoal, ... 28 

English Charcoal, . . . 5*75 

Residue of Prussian Blue, 3062 

Sea Plants, 16-6 

Sea Plants, 16-7 

Mould, 33-3 



Great disparity exists between the different kinds of Guano accord- 
ing to the above table, which we have fully confirmed in our experience 
in Glasgow. We have met with Guano containing so small a per 
centage of ammonia as 4i and as high as 15, facts which should induce 
purchasers to cause samples to be chemically tested before concluding 
their agreements. In the above table, the substances are supposed to 
be in the moist state and not dried. The table is read thus : — 100 
parts of farm manure are equivalent to 22*3 parts pease sti-aw, or 36 
sheep dung, &c. 



Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 75 

M. Bizio of Venice has lately, in a communication to the French 
Academy, (L'Institut, 466,) given a description of the shells which 
supply the Tyrian purple, a dye of great celebrity among the ancients, 
and has sent specimens of these shells to the same society, along with 
a quantity of the fluid procured from the shells. The Tyrian purple 
is contained in the Murex Brandaris ; the Amethyst purple in the 
Murex Trunculus; two shells which are very abundant on the shores 
of the Mediterranean. The liquid is contained in a large bag which is 
situated at the upper part of the animal, and may be extracted with 
great facility. All that is necessary is to break the shell with a 
hammer, and express the liquid from the bag by means of a spatula. 
The Roman dyers break the shells in their oil mills. The liquid, which 
is white and milky in the bag, oxidizes in contact with the air and 
light, and passes through all the shades of green to a more or less deep 
red. M. Bizio suggests that the dye should be tried at the Gobelin 
establishment in Paris. The same remark might bo taken advantage 
of in Glasgow, where the communications with the Mediterranean are 
sufficiently frequent 



Lithofellic acid was obtained from a calculus by Gobel of Dorpat, 
and has since been examined by Will, Ettling, and Wohler. 
Houmann inferred that it was a constituent of bezoars or calculi 
obtained from animals probably of the deer tribe, although this fact 
has not been perfectly ascertained. Fourcroy and Vauquelin exam- 
ined bezoars, and describe them as being soluble in alcohol, and 
separating in crystals as the solution cools. They concluded that the 
crystals consisted partly of bile, and partly of resin. These chemists 
may be said, therefore, to have first noticed this new acid, for Goebel 
did not any more than they analyse it Ettling and Will first 
determined this essential point of distinction. While examining the 
calculi in the Hunterian museum of the University of Glasgow 
lately, four specimens of lithofellic calculi were detected. Half of 
ono of these containing a date stone as a nucleus, is about \^ inch 
long, r3^ inch broad, and weighs 71 grains. Half of another measures 
\f^ inch long, ly\y inch broad, weighs 169 grains, and contains a 
nucleus of hair and vegetable fibres. They are formed of alternate 
brown and yellow layers ; they dissolve in alcohol and pyroxylic spirit, 
leaving a yellow flocky matter. From a fragment of one of them we 
extracted lithofellic acid by the following process, in the University 
laboratory: the fragment was boiled with spirits, the solution evapor- 
ated, and digested with caustic soda, which dissolved the whole of it 
The alkaline solution was precipitated by muriatic acid, when a white 
resinous precipitate fell possessing great ductility and adhesiveness. 
The precipitate was well washed and dissolved in alcohol. By repeated 



76 Notice of some recent additions to Chemistry. 

solution in alcohol and slow crystallization, the acid was obtained in 
tolerable large crystals with a shade of green, but the crystalline form 
was not sufl&ciontly regular to admit of definition. Some portion was 
obtained in small crystals of such purity, it was thought, as to admit 
of analysis, but it was not perfectly pure, as it only gave 69 per cent 
of carbon and 10G3 water. We formed also the nitro-lithofellic acid, 
by the action of nitric acid on lithofellic acid, but not in sufficient 
quantity for analysis. 

The chemists of the Continent who have hitherto adopted the atomic 
weights determined in Sweden, without calling their accuracy in ques- 
tion, have lately had their attention drawn to this important subject 
by Dumas, since his visit to this country, who, followed by others, has 
established the accuracy of the following atomic weights, determined 
more than twenty years ago in the Glasgow University laboratory: — 



Chlorine, 4*5 

Hydrogen, -125 

Azote, 1-75 

Carbon, '75 



Potassium 5* 

Calcium, 2-5 

Silver, 13-75 

Lead, 13* 



It may not be an uninteresting fact in the history of atomic weights, 
to state, that in 1813, or twenty-nine years ago, (Annals of Phil., iv. 
42,) Dr. Thomson deduced -751 as the atomic weight of carbon, from 
the specific gravity of carbonic acid, confirmed by his analysis of 
defiant gas. The atomic weight of azote, in the same year, he also 
deduced from nitrous gas as -878, almost the half of the present 
number, for -878 X 2 := 1*756. It was from these numbers as a start- 
ing point, that Dr. Prout was first led to infer the theory of multiple 
atoms. R D T 

Since the preceding report was read, a communication has been 
made by Fremy to the academy of Paris, in which he shows, that 
besides iron and tin, many other metallic oxides act the part of 
acids, and, what is curious, that their capacity of saturation increases 
with the quantity of water united to them; their electro-negative 
properties are lost when they are anhydrous, (L'Institut. 468.) He 
has obtained a crystallized aluminato of potash, consisting of an atom 
of each and two of water. Bizincate of potash is obtained in long 
needles by treating oxide of zinc with potash, and a little alcoliol. 
Bismuthate of soda is obtained by heating oxide of bismuth with soda. 
Plumbites are the result of the action of protoxide of lead on alkalies, 
a,ud plumbates of the brown oxide. Minium Fremy considers a plum - 
bate of protoxide of lead, analogous, therefore, to the chromate of 
chromium described by Dr. Thomson in 1824. 



BELL AND BAIff, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY'FIRST SESSION, 1842-43. 



CONTENTS. 

Dr. Thomson on the Melting Points of Alloys of Lead, Tin, Bismuth, and Zinc, 77 

Notices of some recent Botanical Facts, 82 

Mr. George Thomson on Blast Furnaces, 84 



I4:th December, 1842, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. Andrew Stein and William Graham were admitted Mem- 
bers of the Society. Mr. Liddell suggested that, to avoid the Christ- 
mas week, the next meeting of the Society should be postponed till 
the 4th January. The Vice-President having taken the Chair, the 
following papers were read: — 

XXII. — On the Melting Points of Alloys of Lead, Tin, Bismuth, and 
Zinc. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., Begins Professor of 
Chemistry. 

As the first three of these metals melt at temperatures below the boil- 
ing point of mercury, the determination of the melting points of their 
alloys is attended with little difficulty. Zinc, according to the experi- 
ments of Daniel, melts at 773°, which is above the range of a mercurial 
thermometer; but when tin is alloyed with it the melting point is 
considerably under 662°, which is the degree of Fahrenheit's thermo- 
meter at which mercury boils. 

Though these experiments are of easy execution, I am not aware of 
any person having tried them, except Kupfer in 1829, and Rudberg 
in 1831. Rudboi'g made a careful examination of the melting point 
of alloys of tin and lead, tin and bismuth, zinc and tin. But he 
informs us that his thermometer was inaccurate, while he forgets to 
state tlio amount of the inaccuracy. So that we cannot consider the 
points which he has stated in his tables as the true melting points of 

No. 5 



78 Dr. TnOMSON on the Melting Points of Alloys of Lead, ^c. 

tliese alloys. The object which ho had in view was to determine the 
latent heat of melted lead and tin; and ho accomplished this by 
measuring the length of time that the melted metal took to cool a 
certain number of degrees. Hence the inaccuracy of his thermometer 
did not affect the result of his experiments. I shall notice Kupfer's 
experiments at the end of this paper. 

I may liere notice a curious mistake into which Rudbcrg has fallen. 
He says that Dr. Black reckoned the latent heat of tin 500°, and that 
of wax 175°. These latent heats were determined, not by Dr.'Black, 
but by Dr. Irvine, while professor of chemistry in the College of Glas- 
gow. Rudberg has mistaken the meaning of Irvine's conclusion. 
When he says that the latent heat of tin is 500°, he does not mean 
the number of degrees that tlio same weight of water would be raised ; 
but the increase of temperature which the latent heat of tin would 
produce in the tin if it were to be thrown into the solid metal without 
melting it. The heat which would raise tin 500° would only raiso 
water 33°. Hence the latent heat of tin, as referred to water, accord- 
ing to Dr. Irvine's experiments, is 33°, while by Rudberg it is 25°. 
The difference is not nearly so great as Rudberg supposed. It is 
probable, from the care taken by Rudberg in his experiments, that his 
determination is nearest the truth. 

I find that, when lead and tin are alloyed together, in all the pro- 
portions tried, the alloy expands, or is more bulky than the two metals 
when separate. Hence the specific gravity of the alloys is less than 
the mean. The specific gravities and atomic weights of the metals I 
used were — 

Specific Gravity. Atomic Weight. Kupfer. 



Lead, . . 11-357 
Tin . . 7-285 
Bismuth, . 9-833 
Antimony, . 6-436 
Zinc, . . 7-000 


13- 
7-25 
13-5 

8- 
4-125 


11-3303 
7-2926 


I first melted 


together lead and tin in the proportions of 


1. 
1 atom lead. 
1 atom tin. 


2. 

1 atom lead. 

2 atoms tin. 


3. 
1 atom lead. 
3 atoms tin. 


4. 

1 atom lead. 
4 atoms tin. 



All of these alloys are malleable, and they all have a specific gravity 
below the mean. Hence tin and lead expand in the act of uniting, 
and occupy a greater volume tlian when separate. The following table 
shows the specific gravity of these four alloys : — 





Sp. Gr. 


Mean Sp. Gr. 


1000 become 


Melting Points. 


1, 


9-2879 


9-899 


1066 


360° 


2, . 


8-688 


9-209 


1060 


361° 


3, . 


8-549 


9-002 


1048 


361° 


4, 


7-850 


8-545 


1088 


374« 



Db. Thomson on the Meltinq Points of Alloys of Leady ^c. 79 

I was surprised to find the melting points of all these alloys so near 
each other. Rudberg had observed the same thing, though from the 
error in his thermometer wo cannot deduce from his tables the true 
melting point. 

The molting point of lead, determined from the mean of a great 
number of trials, is 607°, and that of tin 442°. The mean of these 
two points is 524i°, which is 1G3J° above the actual melting point 
We may conclude from this that tin possesses the important property 
of lowering tlie melting point of other metals — a property which the 
facts about to bo stated fully confirm. 

Lead and bismuth were now melted in the following proportions: — 

1 atom lead. i 1 atom lead. 

1 atom bismuth. | 2 atoms bismuth. 

The melting points of these alloys were — 

1, . . . . 274° I 2 2630 

In this case the two alloys have each a melting point peculiar to itself. 
The melting point of bismuth is 497°, and that of lead 007°. The 
mean is 552°. So that the melting points of alloys of lead and bis- 
muth are respectively 278° and 289° below that mean. Bismuth has 
a still greater power to diminish the melting point of other metals, or 
at least of lead. The alloy is white and rather beautiful ; but quite 
brittle. This is the case with all the alloys of bismuth, at least so far 
as I have tried. 

When bismuth and lead unite, the bulk of the alloy diminishes, and 
consequently the specific gravity is above the mean. The following 
table shows the specific gravity, and the diminution of bulk in these 
allocs — 

Sp. Or. Mean Sp. Qr. 1000 becomt 

1, . . . 10-831 10-580 977 

2, . . . 10-509 10-328 983 

Seeing that both tin and bismuth sink the melting point of alloys, 
it became an object to observe what the melting point of alloys of these 
two metals would be. The two following were made: — 
1. 2. 

1 atom tin. 2 atoms tin. 

1 atom bismuth. 1 atom bismuth. 

The melting points of these two alloys were — 

1, . . . . 280» I 2, . . . . 274- 

These points are not lower than those of the corresponding alloys 
of lead and bismuth. 

The alloy of tin and bismuth is white, and more pleasing to the 
eye than pewter ; but, like all the alloys into which bismuth enters, it 
is brittle. 



80 Dr. Thomson on the Melting Points of Alloys of Lead, ^c. 

I maj mention here that pewter consists cliieflj of an alloy of zinc 
and tin, with tho addition of sorao bismuth and copper. Common 
pewter is an alloy of 1 part by weight of zinc and 17 of tin; while 
plate pewter is said to be 

100 zinc, 8 tin, 2 bismuth, and 2 copper : 

while another kind of pewter is mentioned composed of 4 zinc, and 1 
lead, called ley pewter. 

When tin and bismuth aro melted together they expand ; for the 
specific gravity is less than the mean. The amount of expansion will 
appear from the following table ; — 

Sp. gr. Mean sp. gr. 1000 become 

1, . . . 8-709 8-942 1027 

2, . . . 8-418 8-5135 1011 

Tin and zinc constituting common pewter, I thought it worth while 
to determine the melting point of these two metals. Tho melting 
point of zinc is above the range of a common theremometer, being, 
according to Danicll, 773°. But I thought it probable, as tin lowers 
the melting point of lead, that it might have the same effect on zinc. 
And I found it so. I made two alloys, the first composed of 1 atom 
tin, and 1 atom zinc ; and the second of two atoms tin, and 1 atom 
zinc. The melting points — 

1, . . . . 384« I 2, . . . . 386" 

obviously approaching very near each other, and probably identical. 
The mean melting point of an alloy of tin and zinc is 607^°, which 
is 212° higher than that at which the alloy really melts. 

The alloy of tin and zinc is malleable. It is much more beautiful 
than zinc, and in fact, has a close resemblance to pewter. When tin 
and zinc are melted together they expand, and the expansion for 1 
atom tin, and 1 zinc, is greater than in the case of lead and tin. 
This will appear by the following table : — 

Sp. gr. Mean sp. gr. 1000 become 

Jnt*^^!^";.) • • • 6-426 7-1815 1117 

1 atom zinc, J 

2 atoms tin, j 
1 atom zmc, / 

There was some diflSculty in uniting these two metals. The zinc does 
not melt till it becomes nearly red hot. The consequence was, that 
the tallow which I threw into the crucible to prevent oxydizement, 
caught fire. There was always a little dross floating on the top, which 
was probably zinc. This might occasion some error, and might be 
the cause why the melting points of the two alloys did not agree 
exactly. 

* To try whether antimony would have any effect in lowering the 
melting point of lead, I made an alloy of 1 atom lead, and 1 atom 



Dii. Thomson on the Melting Points of AUoya of Lead, ^c. 81 

antimony. But the melting point being above 650", I could not 
determine it by a common thermometer. According to Guyton de 
Morveau, the molting point of antimony is 953° ; but his points are 
all a great deal too high. Dr. Cromwell Mortimer had long ago 
determined it to be 810°, which I believe to be near the truth. Now, 
the mean melting point of an alloy of 1 atom lead, and 1 antimony, is 
708°, and I believe that the true melting point is very little inferior; 
it is above G50°. This alloy is a fine white; it is britUe, and expands 
when the two metals unite. 

Sp. gr. Mean sp. gr. 1000 become 

1 atom lead, \ , , , 9-222 9482 1028 

1 atom antimony, } 

As tin has the property of lowering the melting points of lead and 
zinc, I thought it worth while to try whether it had the same cfifect on 
antimony. Accordingly, 800 parts of antimony were melted with 725 
parts of tin, constituting the equivalent of an atom of each. The 
alloy was very brittle ; its fusing point was considerably above 600°, 
so that I was unable to determine it by a thermometer ; but I con- 
sider it as nearly the mean between that of antimony and tin. Its 
specific gravity was 6*927 ; it ought to be 6'839. It is therefore heavier 
than the mean ; 1000 parts when alloyed become 989, or diminish in 

bulk T(Wo Pai-ts. 

I shall terminate this paper with a remark, which I consider as of 
some interest. 

If you plunge a thermometer into melted lead, and observe it with 
attention, you will find that it will sink constantly till it reaches 607°, 
but here it will remain stationary for at least two minutes; (pro- 
vided the quantity of lead be considerable, half a pound for example ;) 
and when it begins to fall again, it will be found that the lead has 
become solid. Hence, the stationary temperature marks the melting 
point of the metal. 

If we try the same process with tin, the thermometer will sink to 
438°, and, after remaining for a little while there, it will start suddenly 
to 442°, at which point it remains stationary much longer than in the 
lead ; and when it begins to fall again, the tin will be found solid. 
Hence, 442° is the melting point of tin. 

When we dip a thermometer into a melted alloy of lead and tin, 
and observe the rate at which it sinks, we shall find that it wiU show 
two stationary points, — the first a good deal shorter than the second. 
I call these, by way of distinction, the short and the l(mg stationary 
points. The first stationary point continues for about a minute : the 
second is seldom shorter than three minutes, and sometimes much 
longer. The greater the proportion of lead, the higher is the first, or 
short stationary point, and the more tin the lower it is ; so that, in an 
alloy of 1 atom lead and 4 atoms tin, the two stationary points nearly 
coincide. 



82 Notices of some Recent Botanical Facts. 

The following table shows the degree that coincides with the short 
stationary point in various alloys of lead and tin : — 

Lead. Tin. Short. Long. 

1 atom + i atom .... 536° 

1 -- + i — .... 518 

1 — + 1 — .... 464 360" 

1 — + 2 — .... 392 361 

1 — + 3 — .... 361 361 

1 — + 4 — .... 374 374 

Now Kupfer gives the melting point of different alloys of lead and 
tin as follows : — 

1 atom load + 1 tin, . . 460*» I 1 atom lead + 3 tin, . . 367° 
1 -- +2 . . 385 I 4 — +1 . . 272 

It is obvious that he has taken it for granted, that the short sta- 
tionary point indicates the melting point of these alloys, while in 
reality it is the long stationary point which indicates the temperature 
at which they change their state from liquidity to solidity. 

XXIII. — Notices of some Recent Botanical Facts. 

Much has of late been written on the subject of the devlopement 
of parasitic plants upon man and animals in certain states of disease. 
Attention was early directed to the subject by Audouin and Bassi, 
who examined the disease in the silk-worm, call Muscardine, which 
they showed to be accompanied with the growth of a cryptogamic 
plant, afterwards designated Botrytis Bassiana. Since their observa- 
tions were made known, plants of a similar nature have been detected 
on various larvae and insects. Deslongschamps found a parasitic 
fungus or entophyte in the air cells of an eider duck, which died after 
suffering from dyspnoea for nearly a month. Vegetations have like- 
wise been noticed in pigeons, domestic fowls, flamingoes, paroquets, 
and owls, as well as on gold fishes. In most of these cases the fungi 
appeared in the form of transparent articulated filaments, some of 
which presented bodies analogous to sporules. 

Schoenlein and Langenbeck observed similar cryptogamic vege- 
tations in the disease called porrigo favosa, as it occurs in the human 
subject ; and of late years Gruby, of Vienna, has taken up the investi- 
gation, and has given a full detail of the mycodermata which are met 
with in that disease. These mycodermatous plants, or porrigophytes, 
have their seat in the cells of the epidermis, and consist of articu- 
lated filaments, of a diameter varying from the y^jLo to the 2 jo ^^ ^ 
millimetre. Dr. Bennet has confirmed Gruby 's researches. 

In the aphthw, or thrush affecting the mucous membrane of the 
mouth in children, as well as in the disease called mentagra, which has 
its seat in the hairs of the face and chin, vegetable productions have 



Notices of some Recent Botanical Facts. 88 

likewise been discovered. They diflfcr slightly from porrigophytes, and 
Iiave been called by Gruby, aphtJiaphyteSf or mentagraphytes. 

Dr. Bennett remarked cellular plants of the same kind in the 
mucous membrane of the lungs, and in the sputa of a patient labouring 
under pneumo-thorax with tubercles. They resembled in many 
respects the Penicillium glaucum of Link. 

All the cryptogamic vegetations to which we have referred, are con- 
sidered by most authors as the result, and not the cause of disease. 
They seem to make their appearance in cases where the constitution 
has been enfeebled. 

More recently Mr. John Goodsir observed in the fluid ejected from 
the stomach of a patient labouring under a particular form of dys- 
pepsia, accompanied with water-brash, a vegetable formation, allied to 
the Diatomacece, (a division of sea-weeds.) From its peculiar form 
and locality, he has given it the name of Sarcina ventriculi. It is 
microscopic, of a square form, its parts being arranged in a beautifully 
symmetrical manner. The number of cells of which the perfect plant 
consists, is 64. It propagates by the division of these 64 cells into 
four new ones, so as to consist of 256 cells, — and simultaneously with 
this increase in the number of parts, divides into four young plants. 
In the fluid ejected from the stomach, a largo quantity of free acetic 
acid was found. 

Similar bodies bavo been met with by other observers ; more 
especially by Mr. Busk, who considers them, however, as not of vegetable 
origin, but as ferments, and probably modified epithelial cells of the 
stomach. 



Mr. Hassall attributes the rapid decay of many fruits, especially 
apples and pears, to the formation of fungi in their interior. They 
are of the mucodinous group, and occur in the form of ramified fila- 
ments, which disturb the relation of the cells of the fruit, and stop the 
process of endosmose. The disease commences on the outside of tho 
fruit and quickly spreads. The fungi produce sporules which com- 
municate the disease rapidly. Hence, the importance of removing 
decayed fruit, and of keeping a fruit-room dry and airy. 



Another subject taken up by Mr. Hassall, is the different forms 
assumed by the pollen of plants. The grains of pollen are found to 
vary much in shape and in external aspect, as well as in the number 
of tubes protruded from them. Characters derived from the pollen 
may thus bo employed in classification. In endogenous plants the 
granule of pollen is spherical, oval or elliptical, and generally composed 
of two membranes, rarely possessing more than one pollen-tube. In 



84 Mr. George Thomson <m Blast Fu/maces. 

exogenous plants the granule is more complicated, has two, three, 
or four enveloping membranes, assumes various forms, such as 
threo-lobed, spherical, or triangular, and emits pollen-tubes varjing 
from three to upwards of fifty. Natural orders are characterised by 
having a pollen granule of one type, and the more natural an order 
the more frequently will this be the case. 

J. H. B. 



4:th Januaryy 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. Peter M'Intosh, George Sutherland, and Thomas Hill, were 
admitted as Members of the Society. The following communication 
was read: — 

XXIV. — Practical BemarTcs on Blast Furnaces. By George 
Thomson, Esq., Mining Engineer. 

There is a manifest absence of any thing like correct principle in 
iron smelting ; and although the reduction of ore by cementation may 
be an easily explained operation, yet, the peculiar combinations brought 
to bear in the blast furnace, seem to present a problem which chemical 
science is as yet unable to explain. 

In the attempted solutions of the problem, a too limited number of 
facts have been generally considered, and generalizations attempted, 
from facts bearing partially on unvaried conditions. Following the 
system of induction, if a true principle is only to be attained through 
the medium of facts in every variety and under every possible condition, 
the object may be assisted, in some measure, by my laying before the 
Society a few facts which have come under my own observation, and 
may be peculiar. The results given are divided into three principal 
conditions, viz: 1st, as respects the direct influence, coeteris paribus^ 
of different material. 2d, Influence of shape and size. 3d, Influence 
of blast, as to diffusion, pressure, or quantity. 

1st, Influence of material. — Although all the materials used in 
smelting have a certain influence ; it is the coal which gives the most 
extraordinary results as respects " yield." A few results of various 
coals are therefore collected into the following table from my own 
immediate observation. The word "yield" is used to denote the 
comparative quantity of coals used in the furnace, to produce, or to 
smelt a ton of iron. In the table, the weekly quantity of iron given, 
as produced by hot blast, is small in comparison with what is now 
made at most furnaces ; yet these are the more correct comparative 
results, having been attained with like conditions of size, shape, number 
of tweres, &c. Since that time, the shape and size of furnaces have 
been materially altered, as well as other conditions, and the make 
greatly increased. 



Mb. Qeoroe Thomson on Blast Fnmaces. 









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86 Mr. Geobge Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 

Referring to the Table, the three first coals are found in the same 
coal-field, and at no verj great depth from eacli other. The cold 
blast results of these came directly under my own observation, and 
are taken from several years work; the hot blast results are from a 
neighbouring work, and subject to similar conditions in almost every 
respect Here, then, in the same coal-field are three different coals, 
wliich, when under similar conditions with cold blast give very 
dififercnt results, so much so, as to have taken nearly twice as much of 
one kind of coal to make a ton of iron as of another, (yard coal 5 J tons, 
clod coal 3 tons); but when the hot blast is applied, we find they are 
very nearly assimilated, so that, upon the coal which works best with cold 
blast, that application has scarcely any effect, while on the inferior 
coal it has a most surprising one. 

The two next coals in the table from the Wolverhampton coal-field 
show a similar result. The sixth and seventh, or the two last coals 
of table No 1, belong to North Staffordshire — the district of the 
" Potteries." There my results are also given from a direct personal 
observation of several years; and I do not think I err in saying, 
that the materials of this district, taking coal and ironstone together, 
are the worst in the kingdom for iron smelting. The coals given are 
compared under precisely similar conditions both with cold and hot 
blast, and although obtained from the working of a very small furnace, 
(only 32 feet high,) the comparative results will not bo affected thereby. 
They lie very close to each other, being merely separated by a 
stratum of shale a few feet in thickness, often less, and, consequently, 
show how great a difference occurs, not only in different districts, but 
within a few yards, vertically, of the same field. 

With modifications of shape and increase of size, (to which we shall 
attend more particularly under that head,) we were ultimately able to 
work No. G, (ash coal,) in the furnace, without coking, and at a con- 
sumption of only 21 tons to the ton of iron, with a make of upwards of 
70 tons a week; but No. 7, (rider coal,) although these conditions 
altered the make considerably and the yield slightly, wo were never 
able to work without coking ; again and again we tried to do so by 
commencing with a small quantity and gradually increasing it, but in 
vain; every increase of this coal to the burden, without coking, was 
followed by a decrease of yield, make, and quality. 

As regards ironstone, the effects of different qualities are not so 
striking as those of coal, with respect to yield, but they have a great 
influence on the quality of the iron produced. For instance, that 
which is known as the Shropshire pennystone — a peculiar kind of 
argillaceous ironstone found in small nodules imbedded in a stratum 
of indurated clay — and containing about 30 to 35 per cent of iron, is 
supposed to give the peculiar strength and toughness to the Shropshire 
pig iron. When another ironstone, (siliceous,) locally termed " craw- 
stone," which is found partially stratified in a bed of sandstone rock, 



Mb. Geouqe Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 



87 



is mixed with the pennjstone, even in proportion of 1 to 10, the 
oflfoct is very observable in making tho iron much more fluid, although 
it retains its stoutness. Again : the efifect of the " red ore " of Cum- 
berland, or peroxide of iron, mixed with argillaceous, or other iron- 
stone, is well known ; it adds in every case very materially to the 
strength of the iron, and the effect is especially so with the hot blast. 
Forge cinder, which is a protoxide of iron, mixed with siliceous or 
other foreign matter, has a directly contrary effect both with cold and 
hot blast. So much so, indeed, that I have seen hot blast iron 
which had been made with a large proportion of " cinder " so weak as 
to break into several pieces when dropped on the ground from tho 
height of a couple of feet. I may hero remark, that it is not surprising 
that we should hear so many conflicting opinions on the strength of hot 
blast pigs, by those who only quote results without considering the 
conditions which affect them. 

These results on the quality of iron by the use of different kinds of 
ironstone, are very general, but such effects are well known and are 
constant ; and when we consider that there is only one kind of iron, in 
fact, surely it is worthy the attention of the scientific to inquire whence 
arise such differences, and how they should be produced by a simple 
mixture of " red ore," or of " forge cinder." 

2df Influence of shape and size. — We now come to a few results 
connected with the shape of furnaces ; and on this point there seems 
to be at different times a ruling fashion. At the time of making the 
experiment to which I shall first refer, which was before the hot blast 
had been brought into notice, the prevailing fashion in England was 
to make the furnaces as narrow as possible, both at the " neck,** (or 
filling place,) and at the *' hearth." The furnace on which the experi- 
ment was made was at Lightmoor, in Shropshire, the shape and 
size of which is represented fig. No. 1. It Fio. 1. 

worked worse than any of the others with the -VJ^J 

same coal, which was a mixture of those 
already referred to in Table I; and the only 
difference of its shape, compared with the 
others, was in being about 6 to 9 inches 
wider at the boshes, and 3 feet less in height 

This furnace consumed about 5 tons of 
coals in producing a ton of iron, and made 
only about 40 tons per week. The alteration 
made upon it was very simple to appearance, 
consisting only of widening the top from 3 feet, 
to 5i feet diameter, and carrying that width 
perpendicularly up 6 feet higher ; also placing 
two filling holes, one on eacli side, over tweres, 
instead of one in the middle, merely, as it 
were, placing a cylinder of 5J feet diameter 




Mr, George Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 




and 6 feet high upon the top, as represented in 

Simple as the alteration appears, however, 
it was followed bj very extraordinary results ; 
the moment the charge arrived at the bottom, 
the iron, from hard forge, became fine No. 1. 
The burden was accordingly increased from 
time to time, until this furnace, with the same 
material and same blast, made GO tons per 
week of good forgo pigs, with a consumption of 
only SI tons of coal to a ton of iron. The result is 
not attributable to the widening and double-fill- 
ing holes alone; for the effect was repeatedly tried 
by filling-holes at the original height directly 
under the upper ones, and in every case we had to 
^ / take burden off to make an equal quality, there- 

fr j—M 1^^ reducing both the quantity and the yield. 

Mr. Gibbons, of Corbyns Hall furnaces, 
near Dudley, has arrived at very striking 
results with cold blast, by alteration of shape and increase of size. 
He states in his publication on the subject, that he was led to the 
idea by observing the well-known fact, that furnaces, especially cold 
blast ones, scarcely ever come into full work until six months after 
they have been blown in ; and also, that every year, so long as the 
"boshing" of the furnace is not wholly gone, they improve their work 
both in yield and in quantity ; further, in observing that furnaces, when 
PiQ^ 3^ blown out, although they had not been working 

.4^.1 _^ for more than six or eight months, were ma- 
terially altered from their original shape. 
By studying the natural shape, as it might 
be termed, he has arrived at an improved 
form, as at fig. 4. 

This improved furnace (fig. 4,) has more 

than double the capacity of his original one, 

(fig. 3,) and the larger content is in the upper 

half — the top is 8 feet diameter, and there are 

four filling-holes. The greatest produce of his 

original furnace he states to have been 74 

^ tons per week, while that of the improved one 

5|i has reached 115 tons in one week. This is by 

^ cold blast, with a density of only 1 lb. 13 oz. 

per inch at the twere. 

Mr. Gibbons' opinion, like that of many 
others, is, that with the hot blast, the shape 
or the size has very little effect ; but that this 
is not the case is now well known. 




Me. George Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 




' 3d, Influence of Blast — In cold blast work- Fio. ■*• 

ing, some practical men hold that the density 
of the blast sliould not exceed 2 lbs. to the 
inch, while others work it as high as 3 lbs. to 
the inch, or even more. In re-smelting also 
in the cupola, many prefer the fanners, which 
give a mucli softer blast than the old method 
of the cylinder ; while others, after having tried 
the fanners, have returned to the original 
and stronger blast of the cylinder. We cannot 
suppose that this is altogether fancy or preju- 
dice ; I have no doubt that the differences of 
the material subjected to the blast, is the cause, 
in a great measure, of such opposite results. 

At Lightmoor, the various requirements of 
blast to make the best yield, with the different 
coals, were striking ; coal No. 1, (of Table I,) 
which is the best, required a considerably less 
dense blast than the inferior. No. 2, (yard 
coal.) Indeed, blast, either in volume or pres- 
sure, seemed to bo of little consequence to the 
working of the clod coal — from 1| lbs. to 21 
lbs. to the inch, the yield was not affected, 
the only difference being a slight increase of quantity. Nor did 
diffusing the blast by a number of tweres seem to make a material 
difference. It is a fact that, with this coal, and a furnace of ordinary 
dimensions, 60 tons of iron have been made in a week by one blast 
pipe onlyy the muzzle only 3 inches diameter, or 9 circular inches of 
blast. 

On the other hand, the inferior, or as they are called there, the " sul- 
phury " coals, required a highly compressed blast to bring them to 
their best yield — one under 2\ lbs. to the inch gave very inferior 
results ; compare this with Mr. Gibbons' result — his materials seem 
well adapted for cold blast working — and we find density of blast 
not a great object to them. 1 lb. 13 oz. only was his density at 
tweres, and this continued the same although he doubled the capacity 
of his furnace. 

These general facts seem to contradict the opinion, that the whole 
rationale of the effect of the hot blast is merely a decrease in the 
density of the blast, because, with the inferior material, which requires 
with cold blast the greatest density, the hot blast has the greatest and 
best effect. 

Those who are acquainted with cold blast working, know that most 
materials work best with what is technically called a " snuff " at the 
tweres ; and to form this it is usual to blow a few inches below the 
surface of the scoria, which floats on the iron in the hearth. The 



90 Mr. George Thomson <m Blast Furnaces. 

"snuff" is a kind of arched tube formed by the cinder at the end 
of twcro iu the inside of furnace, and through which the blast passes. 
Now it appears to me that this natural muzzle of cinder has a great 
deal to do in diffusing the blast in contact with the material ; and, 
mark that those materials which, from inferiority, required blast of 
the greatest density, gave the greatest trouble at the tweres, and 
presented practical difficulties in the " snuffing," which required 
a great pressure mechanically to overcome, and clear away for the 
passage of the blast upwards ; for such materials (from what cause I 
know not) always work with great uncertainty at the tweres — sometimes 
having a tendency to stop up entirely, at others not snuffing at all. 

If tliis practical difficulty could be avoided, perhaps the bad material 
might give a better result with a soft blast than we found it to do. 

As regards the blast's density, when used hot, it must of necessity 
be mucli less than cold ; for the quantity of air injected from the 
blowing apparatus is, generally speaking, no more with hot blast than 
with cold, while the area of the nose-pipes, taken together, is doubled 
or trebled. The diffusion of the blast by increasing the number of 
nose-pipes, and disposing them around the hearth, has produced great 
increase in make ; and in some cases by this, together with increased 
shape, coals have been brought to work raw, which, with the first hot 
blast trials, could only be used when coked. 

It seems agreed on all hands, the greater the number of the tweres 
around the hearth the better : and as I am aware that practical diffi- 
culties occur in doing so by the furnace " blowing forward," I will state 
a simple plan by which we overcame the difficulty. In building our 
furnace we had a round base, as is now common, but instead of the 
usual four openings, we made five — one for the opening of the hearth, 
and four for tweres. By this method the blast from one twere does 
not blow against the other, and neither of them blow directly to the 
fore part ; thus eight tweres may be used — two at each twere side. 

More pressure is required even with hot blast to work some ma- 
terials than others. For instance, we required but 2\ lbs. per inch 
in North Staffordshire when working coke, but with coal, 3 lbs. per 
inch, with much greater heating surface, was required. The quantity 
of blast required here was very great. Blowing at four sides, we 
injected into a furnace fully 3000 cubic feet of air per minute, and 
heated to a high temperature. If this pressure happened at any time 
to be reduced, the effect was immediately perceptible, or if one of 
the tweres was taken off, a falling off in quantity and yield was the 
immediate consequence. The materials were, as I have before noticed, 
the worst I ever saw ; both coals and ironstone being sulphury. 

I will give only one other fact, a very extraordinary one, showing a 
most peculiar effect produced by a simple increase of temperature^ at a 
work near Tipton, where the materials are of fair quality. The furnace 
upon which the experiment was made is only 11^ feet at "bosh," and 



Me. George Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 



91 



45 feet high, worked with raw coal and hot blast; it produced 100 tons 
a week, being blown with five twcres, of 3 inches diameter each. 

The cross pipes of the heating apparatus were four inches diameter, 
and one apparatus supplied all the twe'res. 

The alteration was this — the number of heating pipes were increased, 
the cross pipes increased in size from 4 inches diameter to 7 inches 
diameter, and the main pipes also enlarged ; the top of the furnace 
widened from 4 feet diameter to 7 feet diameter ; the number of 
tweres increased from five to six, (two on each side and two at back,) 
each of 3i inches diameter ; a new steam cylinder of greater power 
was put to the blast engine, but the blast one was kept at same size. 

The consequence is, that more than 150 tons of iron have been pro- 
duced at this furnace in one week, with an improvement of yield, and 
the engine goes no more strokeSf showing that actually no more air is 
forced into the furnace than when making only 100 tons a week, (two- 
thirds of present quantity,) although with a much greater area of nozles. 

TABLE No. II. 



COLD BLAST. 




Pressure 
in lbs. 


Total area 

of Nose pipes 

in Circular 

Inches. 


Capacity of 

Furnace, 
Cubic Feet 


Weekly make 
of Iron. 


Works near Glasgow, 

Lightmoor Works, with^ 
bdd material, J 


3 
3 

2i 
2J 

2 


12-5 

12-5 J 
12-5 

18-2 


2500 

2000 

1000 
4000 


45 Tons. 
45 — 
65 — 
25 — 

115 - 


Same, with good material, 
Fenton Park, with had\ 

material, / 

Corbyns HaU, Mr. Gib-i 

bons, good material,.... / 


HOT BLAST. 




1 Total are* 
Pressure of Nose pipes 
in lbs. in Circular 
Inches. 


Capacity of 

Furnace, 
Cubic Feet 


^??gor« 


Works near Glasgow, 

Fenton Park Works,... 


2i 

2i 

3 

2i 

2i 


18 
27 

36 

45 

72 


2500 
1000 

2500 
2200 

2600 


60 Tons. 
40 — 

70 — 

100 — 

150 — 


The same, with different 1 

shape of furnace, / 

Tipton, (a Work at) 


The same, with increased ^ 
heating surface, but no > 
greater 5'Ma?i<i<yofblast, J 



I give a short table of the pressure of blast, which shows that the 
qnantity of blast bears no constant proportion to the capacity of for- 



92 Mr. George Thomson on Blast Furnaces. 

nace nor to the make. The results given from the Glasgow furnaces 
are taken from data by M. Dufrenoy in 1833, — but since that period, 
the areas of nose pipes, and the number, and consequently make, 
have been increased as at other places. 

This table shows that the quantity of blast varies with different 
material to produce the same quantity of iron, especially with cold 
blast, — with hot blast the areas bear little relation to the actual quan- 
tity of air injected, which cannot be arrived at without the capacity 
of the blowing cylinder and speed of engines. 

The tables and statements are much more general than I could 
have wished; at the same time I think they sufficiently show that, 
1st, there is a remarkable difference in the material of different strata 
in the same coal fields ; 2d, that modification of shape and alteration 
of capacity have a very considerable effect ; and 3d, that the effect of 
blast is very various with different materials ; that an alteration of its 
temperature, with certain coals, produces a saving of in some cases 
one-half, in others two-thirds of the quantity, while with other coals 
the difference is scarcely perceptible, and the quantity of blast has 
little relation to the quantity or bulk of material acted upon. 

The improvements in iron smelting have been effected simply by 
the observation and consequent successive trials of practical men; 
they have been the result of no principle previously established, — no 
tlieory obtained from the laboratory of the chemist: — and further, I 
think it cannot be denied that the anomalies apparent under each 
condition into which I have divided my results, present a problem 
which, as far as chemical analysis has yet gone, it is difficult to solve. 
And it must surely be admitted that, had these conditions been pre- 
viously laid down to any one well acquainted, theoretically or prac- 
tically, or both, with the manufacture of iron, together with a careful 
analysis of the material here referred to, he would never have predi- 
cated such results as have in reality accrued. 

That the want of a guiding principle is greatly felt, and its attain- 
ment greatly to be desired, needs not to be set forth ; and as there is 
no effect without a cause, I do not see that the number of apparent 
contradictions in these ought to make us in the least despair of ulti- 
mately attaining, by the powerful aid of science, a satisfactory rationale 
of the whole case. This, however, will never be done by avoiding the 
question — by taking a partial view of facts. 



Mr. John Alston described Williams' apparatus for consuming 
smoke, and exhibited a model. 



BELL AND BAIN. FRIHTERS, OLASQOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OPTHB 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY-FIRST SESSION, 1842-43. 



CONTENTS. 



Lord Blantyre on Experiments on Various Manures, .... 93 

Mr. Dove on E.\periments with Manures on Potatoes, .... 94 

Mr. M*Lintock on Experiments with Manures on Oats and Turnips, . 97 

Mr. Crum on the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter, 98 

Dr. Penny on a Specimen of Artificial Asbestus, 104 

Notice of New Zealand Minerals, 105 

Mr. Gourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Gla.igow Geological Museum, . 105 



ISth January, 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

Drs. M'Neil, Quinlin, and Messrs. Thomas Johnston, Thos. Graham, 
W.S., Andrew Thomson, Alexander Mitchell, junr., Robert Graham, 
Andrew Oswald Mitchell, Henry Wardrop, Thomas Kyle, Robert Patti- 
son, John Tennant, and Charles James Tennant, were admitted as 
members. The three following papers were then communicated by 
Dr. R. D.Thomson :— 

XXV. — Experiments on various Manures. By Lord Blantyre. 



TABLE L 

Experiments with Oats at West Harlands, Benfrewshire, J Imperial Acre 

each plot. 



Application. 



No application. 

TurnbuU's Humus, 10 bushels, @ Is. 

Improved Bones. 56 lbs. 6s. per cwt. 

Sulph. of Soda, 56 lbs. 6s. per cwt. 

Foreign Guano, 28 lbs. 258. per cwt. 

Sul. Ammo. 28 lbs. 208. per cwt. 

British Guano, 56 lbs. 83. per cwt. 

Soot, 10 bushels, @ 3.Jd. 

Nit, of Soda, 28 lb<. @ 258. per cwt. 



v h o 



717 
644 
675 
762 
768 
770 
788 



bsh. lbs. 
12 10 



11 8^ 

11 2 

12 ... 
12 4 
12 22 

12 17^ 

13 30.3 
12 21 



lbs. 

41 

41 

41 

40 

4U 

40 

41^ 

41 

42J 



lbs. 



si 

r 



bsh. lbs. 



12 

n 

20 
11 



28.8 

26.6 

29.42 

32,75 

27.76 

28V6 



Remarks. — The Grain of No. 1 . passed through the hummeler, which seems to have 
increased the weight per bushel 2.^ lbs. 
The weight of the Light Corn was 29.J lbs. per bushel. 



No. G. 



91 



Mr. Dove on Experiments with Manures on Potatoes. 



Jfote. — Tho last column in this table was deduced from the experi- 
ments of Mr. Michelmore and Mr. Watson, made in the University 
Laboratory.— R. D. T. 

TABLE IL 
Es^perimenU on Potatoes with Manures over dung, each plot J Imperial 

Acre. 





Produce. 


Increase 


Value of 
Increase. 




tons cwt. qr. lb. 
2 19 7 


cwt. qr. lb. 




1. Nothing. costOsOd 





Os. Od. 


2. Soot, . . . 7ibsh. ... 28 6id 


2 15 3 21 





Os. Od. 


3. Gypsum, . . 


2 18 1 21 





Os. Od. 


, (Sulp.ofSoda,28 lbs.) . ^^ 
*-tSuirofAmm.;i4 lbs. f - *« "*^ 


2 19 24^ 


17^ 


Os. 3^d. 


5. Imp. Bones, (TurnbuU's)... 3s Od 


2 19 2 21 


2 14 


Is. 3d. 


6. Artifi. Guano, 56 lbs. ... 4s Od 


2 19 2 21 


2 14 


Is. 3d. 


7. For. Guano, 28 lbs. ... 6s 3d 


3 


3 21 


Is. lOid. 


Q fSulp.ofSoda,28 lbs. a^^ia 
^•i Nit. of Soda, 14 lbs.} ■■ ^^'^•^ 


3 1 24^ 


1 1 m 


2s. 9|d. 



The column on the right side is the value of the increased produce, 
calculated at 10s. a boll, Renfrewshire measure, or 40s. a ton — a Ren- 
frewshire boll of potatoes being exactly 5 cwt. 

TABLE in. 
Experiments on Wheat at Ershine, 1842, per \ Imperial Acre. 



Application. 


•si 
< 


straw. 


11 

goo 


Grain. 


•Sffl 


Grain 
Increase. 




s. d. 


lbs. lbs. 


bsh. lbs. 


lbs. 


bsh. lbs. 


1. Soot, .... lObsh. 


2 11 


1213 205 


13 33 


58 


2 32 


2. TurnbuU's Humus, lObsh. 


10 


1055! 47 


12 48 


60 


1 47 


3. Do. Imp. Bones, . 56 lbs. 


3 


973 


. . . 


11 58 


Q2 


... 57 


4. Do. British Guano, 56 lbs. 


4 


1193 


185 


14 43 


61 


3 42 


5. Foreign Guano, . 28 lbs. 


6 3 


1049 


41 


11 34i 


6U 


... 33i 


6. No appplication. 


... 


1008 


. . . 


11 1 


62 


... ... 


7. Sulph. of Soda, . 561bs. 


3 


1073 


65 


13 7 


62 


2 6 


8. Sulph. of Ammo., 28 lbs. 


5 


1138 


130 


13 38 


62 


2 37 


9. Nitrate of Soda, . 28 lbs. 


6 3 


1159 


151 


13 38 


62 


2 37 



XXVI. — Results of Experiments with Manures on Potatoes. 
By Mr. Dugald Dove, Nltshill.* 

The field in which the following experiments were made was furrow- 
drained about eight years ago ; had been cropped for a long series of 
years, and was in poor condition. The upper soil is a sandy loam, 

* This paper forms the result of a successful competition for a premium of £5, offered 
by John Wilson, Esq., of Aucheneadcn, to the Renfrewshire Agricultural Society. 



Mr. Dove <m Experiments with Marmrts on Potatoes. 



96 



with a close, retentive, cold, tillj bottom or subsoil ; the ground was 
wrought in the usual manner— the drills being twenty-eight inches 
from centre to centre. 

The soot was damped with water; the sulphate of ammonia wag 
reduced to a fine powder ; the farm-yard manure was spread in the 
drills, and the other manures on the top or along with it ; the lot with 
the soot had a sprinkling of earth between the manures and the setts. 
They were all covered up immediately with the plough. The length 
of the drills was 694 links, by 38 links for each lot, making 42J falls, 
all Scotch measure. The guano cost 155. per cwt. ; the sulphate of 
ammonia, 20s. per cwt. ; the soot. Is. Id. per boll ; the bone-dust, 3*. 
per bushel ; and the farm-yard manure, 7s. per ton, on the ground. 
The following table shows the lots, manures, weight of manures, cost, 
and produce, per old Scotch acre, the produce being estimated in 
Renfrewshire bolls, of 5 cwt to the boll : — 



Application. 



Cost per Acre. 



Produce. 



For every 

£lof 
Manure. 



Lots. 

1 r Guano, 
•\Dung, . . 

n /Sul.of Am., 
"^'XDung, . . 

o / Bone Dust, 

./Soot, . . 
^•\Dung, . . 



tons cwt. qr 

4 
8 10 

3 
8 10 

20 bushels. 
8 10 

554 boUs. 
8 10 



£ s. d. 

3 
2 19 6 



3 
2 19 6 



3 
2 19 6 



3 
2 19 6 



£ 8. d. 

5 19 6 

5 19 6 

5 16 6 

5 19 6 



Bis. Pks. 

33 1 
31 3 
33 1 
27 lOi 



Bis. Pks. 

5 ^ 
5 ^ 

5 8i 
4 10 



It will be observed that lots 1st and 3d produced the same quan- 
tities, viz., 5 bolls, 8^ pecks, for every £1 worth of manures made 
use of ; lot 2d, 5 bolls 3^ pecks ; and lot 4th, 4 bolls 10 pecks, for 
every £1 worth; £5:19:6 being the amount laid out per acre 
on all the lots. Lot 1st was ready for digging three weeks, and lot 
3d, two weeks, before lots 2d and 4th. There were few failures of the 
seed in lots 1st and 3d, while in lot 2d about two-fifths of the seed 
failed, and in lot 4th about three-fifths, or fully the one-half. All 
the lots were planted with smooth red potatoes, on the same day and 
under the same circumstances. I did not make up the deficiences 
where the seed foiled, conceiving that it was of as much importance to 
the grower to know the manure which had a tendency to destroy the 
seed, as the one producing the greatest quantity. I am satisfied that 
lots 1st and 8d were under -manured, and that lots 2nd and 4th 
were over-manured. These two last continued to grow, with a strong 



96 



Mr. Dove on Experiments with Manures on Potatoes. 



dark green leaf, till subsequently nipped by tlie frost The pota- 
toes from them were very large — some of them weighing upwards 
of 1 lb., and several of the shaws producing upwards of 4 lbs. of 
potatoes. All the lots wore of first rate quality. The potatoes grown 
with the guano were a peculiarly richly flavoured dry mealy potatoe ; 
the potatoes from the sulphate of ammonia a fine dry mealy potatoe ; 
the potatoes from the bone-dust similar; and those from the soot 
very good, but if any thing, inferior to the other two. 

In addition to the foregoing, I tried in the same field, and to the 
same extent of ground, that is, 42| falls, potatoes, with soot, guano, 
bone-dust, sulphate of ammonia, and farm-yard manure, separately. 
The following table shows the weight of manure, cost, and produce, 
per acre, Scots measure : — 



Lots. 


Manures. 


Weight. 


Cost. 


Produce. 


1. 

4. 
5. 


Guano, .... 
Sulphate of Ammon. 
Bone Dust, . . . 

Soot, 

Farm-yard Manure, 


tons cwt. qr. 

4 
3 

20 bushels. 

36 bolls. 
8 10 


£ s. d. 

3 
3 
3 

1 19 

2 19 6 


Bis. Pks. 

13 13 
11 1 
10 10 
13 3J 
31 8| 



The potatoes from the guano and bone-dust were small, and had a 
weak shaw ; those from the soot and sulphate of ammonia possessed 
a fresh, strong, healthy shaw, and were of ordinary size. The failures 
were in the same proportion as in the experiments with the mixture 
of dung ; but there were no failures when the potatoes were planted 
with farm-yard manure alone ; the quality of the potatoes from the 
guano and farm-yard manure was good ; the quality from the soot, 
ammonia, and bone-dust bad. The failures in the seed in these 
experiments were not made up. The subsoil where the last five lots 
were planted, was of an open sandy nature, and the upper soil deeper 
than where the first four lots were planted. 

I^ote. — In the experiments detailed in the two preceding, and in the 
following papers, the results are so varied, probably from the nature of 
the season, that the conclusions to be deduced are not important. They 
seem to favour the idea, however, that saline substances, as they have 
been applied in these experiments, are not capable of superseding 
farm manure or night soil altogether — inasmuch as the crop for the first 
year appears generally to be more prolific when the latter is also pre- 
sent. It remains, however, to be determined if the influence of these 
manures is of a more permanent nature than that of farm manure — 
and the promised continuation of experiments of Mr. John Wilson, by 
whose desire Mr. M'Lintock's trials were made, will undoubtedly throw 
light on this subject. — R. D. T. 



Mr. M'Lintock on Experiments with Manures on OaU and Turnips. 97 



XXVII. — Experiments with Manures on Oats and Turnips — 1842. 
By Mr. William M'Lintock, Hurlet. 



Experiments with Manures on Oats. 



i 

O 

i 


Materials Applied. 


i 


^1 

li 

-< 


Produce. 




1 


1 


1 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 


14 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, 

13 lbs. Muriate of Ammonia, 

12 lbs. Nitrate of Ammonia, . 

Nothing applied to this lot, 

50 galls. Ammo. Water from^ 

Gas Works, mixed with \ 

dry ashes, .... J 

70 lbs. British Guano, . . . 

35 lbs. Rape Cake in powder, 

1 of a bushel fine Bone Dust, 

li bolls Soot, 

20 lbs. Foreign Guano, . . . 

11 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, . . 

12 lbs. Nitrate of Potash, . . 
20 cwt. St. or Police Manure, 


< 

s 

I 
1 


H 

% 

.-gs. 

If 

l! 

13 o 
>- 


lbs. 
224 
252 
273 
179 

228 

202 
217 
200 
231 
212 
220 
301 
259 


lb8. 

336 
394 
454 
259 

337i 

315 

304 

274 

315 

292i 

360 

495 

391J 


lbs. 

30 
40 

38 

40 

42 
40 
37 
42 
39 
44 
40 
41 


lbs. 

590 
686 
783 
476 

605i 

559 

561 

511 

588 

5431 

624 

836 

691i 



Note. — The soil on which the above trials were made is a stiff clay, 
and has not been drained. The materials were all applied shortly 
after the oats had brairded, on 13th May, and the oats were reaped on 
15th August. Lot No. 5 failed, it is supposed, in consequence of the 
extreme dry and warm season. The oats on lots No. 4 and 10 were 
of inferior quality, and weighed only 36 lbs. per bushel, whereas the 
oats from the other lots weighed 40 lbs. per bushel. 

The ground on which these trials were made has been sown with 
grasses, which are looking well ; in particular, on the lots where Am- 
moniacal applications have been made. It is intended that the produce 
of hay from each lot shall be carefully weighed next season. 

Note hy Dr. B. D. Thomson. — The following is the result of an 
analysis of tlie soil upon which the preceding experiments were made 
— 500 grains were analysed, and the methods employed were similar 
to those I have elsewhere described. 

In 500 grs. 1000 grs. 

Silica, 265-90 53180 

Alumina, 7510 15020 

Water from decomposed soil, 7960 159*20 

Carryforward, 42060 841*20 



.08 Mb. Crum on the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. 

In 600 grs, 1000 grs. 

Brought forward, 42060 841*20 

Organic matter, containing about 8 grains Car- \ 

bon, and 2 of Azote, and C 39-00 78-00 

Water from undecomposed soil 3 

Peroxide of Iron CPf^°^;"l«°V'"°°' • 210^ 

and )P^osph.of ron. . 380 f g^.jg g^.gg 

Clilorides of Potassium and Sodium of decom-^ ^ ^„ , ^^ 

posed soil, ; ^'^^ 1'^^ 

Magnesia, 2-10 4-20 

Loss, 12-61 2522 

500-00 1000-00 

Experiments on Turnips. 



No. of 
Lots. 



Manures Applied. 



21 cwt. Mixtof Ashes and Night Soil, 
24 lbs. Foreign Guano, . . 
20 lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, 
\\ bushels of Bone Dust, . , 

11 bushels Soot 

98 lbs. British Guano, . . 

49 lbs. Rape Cake in powder, 

16 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, . . 

f 16 cwt. Ashes & Night Soil, 2s. 8d.>^ 

( 5 lbs. Sulphate Ammonia, lOd. j 



Size of 
Lots. 



10 falls, 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 



Value of 
Manure. 



3s. 6d. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 



Pboduce. 



cwt. qr. 

10 2 

8 

8 

8 

4 

7 

9 

3 



lb. 
14 


21 


21 


14 
14 



16 2 7 



Dr. Anderson, jun., gave an account of the recent researches on 
Secretion by Messrs. Goodsir and Bowman. 



\st February, 1843. — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. William Craig, Peter M'Onie, A. D. Anderson, Wm. Gale, 
William Strang, and George Gardner, F.L.S., were admitted as mem- 
bers. The following papers were read : — 

XXVIII. — On the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. 
By Walter Crum, Esq. 



The effect of porous bodies in producing combination and decom- 
position, independently of chemical affinity, has of late years occupied 
considerable attention. 



Mr. Chum on the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. 99 

If we examine, says Professor Mitscherlich, a piece of boxwood by 
the microscope, we find it composed of cells, which have a diameter 
of about j<t'^(yth of an inch. Heated to redness, the form of these 
colls suffers no change, for the particles of which it is composed have 
no tendency to run together in fusion. A cubic inch of boxwood char- 
coal, boiled for some time in water, absorbed phs of its volume of that 
liquid ; from which, and other data, it was computed that the surface 
of its pores was 73 square feet. 

Saussuro observed, that a cubic inch of boxwood charcoal absorbed 
35 cubic inches of carbonic acid ; and as the solid part of the charcoal 
formed Jths of its bulk, these 35 inches of gas must have been con- 
densed into Jths of an inch ; or 56 cubic inches into one, under the 
ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. But carbonic acid liquefies 
under a pressure of 3G-7 atmospheres ; and therefore, with a power of 
condensation equal to 56 atmospheres, which the charcoal exerted in 
Saussure's experiment, at least one-third of the gas must have assumed 
the liquid state within its pores. Every other porous body has the 
same property as charcoal. Raw silk, linen thread, the dried woods 
of hazel and mulberry, though they condense but a small quantity of 
carbonic acid, take up from 70 to 100 times their bulk of ammoniacal 
gas ; and Saxon hydrophane, which is nearly pure silica, absorbs 64 
times its bulk. The gases enter into no combination with the solid 
which absorbs them, for the air pump alone destroys their union. 

The manner in which gases are attracted to the surface of solid 
bodies is very much like that which these exert on substances dis- 
solved in water. The charcoal of bones has been long employed to 
remove colouring matter from the brown solution of tartaric acid; 
from syrup in the refining of sugar ; and from a variety of other liquids 
containing organic substances; and it is found that the colouring mat- 
ter so attracted remains attached to the surface of the charcoal without 
effecting any change upon it. In this animal charcoal the carbon is 
mixed with ten times its weight of phosphate of lime, and if that be 
washed away by an acid, the remaining charcoal has nearly twice tlie 
discolouring power of an equal weight of ivory black. Bussy, who has 
made the action of these charcoals the subject of particular investiga- 
tion, informs us, that if ivory black, after the extraction of its earth 
of bones by an acid, be calcined along with potash, and the potash be 
afterwards washed out ; or if blood be at once calcined with carbonate 
of potash, and washed, the remaining charcoal has the power of dis- 
colouring twenty times as much vsyrup as could be done by the original 
bone charcoal. Animal charcoal removes also lime from lime water ; 
iodine from a solution of iodide of potassium, and metallic oxides from 
their solution in ammonia and caustic potash. 

A satisfactory explanation of tliese remarkable facts has yet to be 
sought for. Mitscherlich calls the force which produces them an action 
of contact, or attraction of surface ; and he calculates, as we have seen, 



100 Mr. Crum on tJve Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. 

the extent of surface in proportion to the mass, as the measure of the 
force which it exerts. On the other hand, Saussure, in his valuable 
paper on the Absorption of Gases, informs us, that charcoal from box- 
wood, in the solid state, absorbs twice as much common air as when 
it is reduced to powder. Now, the effect of pulverization is certainly 
not to diminish the extent of surface. Saussure accounts for it in 
another way, and his explanation seems to connect many of the facts. 
The condensation of gases in solid charcoal goes on, he conceives, in 
the narrow cells of which it is composed, and is analogous to the rise 
of liquids in capillary tubes. In both, he says, the power appears to 
be in the inverse ratio of the size of the interior diameters of the pores 
or tubes of the absorbing bodies. When we pulverize a body containing 
such cells, we widen, open, and destroy them. Fir charcoal, whose 
cells are wide, absorbs 4| times its bulk of common air, and boxwood 
charcoal, with smaller pores, takes 7^. Charcoal from cork, with a 
specific gravity of only O'l, absorbs no appreciable quantity. 

It appears to me that many of the operations of dyeing depend upon 
this influence of the surface, or the capillary action described by Saus- 
sure. The microscopic examination of the fibres of cotton by Mr. 
Thomson of Clitheroe, and Mr. Bauer, shows them to consist of trans- 
parent glassy tubes, which, when unripe, are cylindrical ; and in the 
mature state, collapsed in the middle, from end to end ; giving the 
appearance of a separate tube on each side of the flattened fibre. As 
the sides of these tubes permit the passage of water, they also must be 
porous ; but the form, or even the existence of such lateral perfora- 
tions, cannot be detected by the most powerful microscope. 

In many of the operations of dyeing and calico-printing, the mineral 
basis of the colour is applied to the cotton in a state of solution in a 
volatile acid. This solution is allowed to dry upon the cloth, and in 
a short time the salt is decomposed, just as it would be, in similar cir- 
cumstances, without the intervention of cotton. During the decom- 
position of the salt its acid escapes, and the metallic oxide adheres to 
the fibre so firmly as to resist the action of water applied to it with 
some violence. In this way does acetate of alumina act ; and, nearly 
in the same manner, acetate of iron. The action here can only bo 
mechanical on the part of the cotton, and the adherence, as I shall 
endeavour to show, confined to the interior of the tubes of which wools 
consist, or of the invisible passages which lead to it. The metallic 
oxide permeates these tubes in a state of solution, and it is only when 
its salt is there decomposed, and the oxide precipitated and reduced 
to an insoluble powder, that it is prevented from returning through 
the fine filter in which it is then enclosed. 

When the piece of cotton, which, in this view, consists of bags lined 
inside with a metallic oxide, is subsequently dyed with madder or log- 
wood, and becomes thereby red or black, the action is purely one of 
chemical attraction between the mineral in the cloth, and the organic 



Mb. Crum on the Manner in which Cotton unites with Colouring Matter. 101 

matter in tho djo vessel, which, together, form the red or black com- 
pound that results ; and there is no peculiarity of a chemical nature 
from tho mineral constituent being previously connected with the 
cotton. The process of cleansing in boiling liquids, and in the wash 
wheel, to which cotton, printed with the various mordants, is subjected, 
previous to being maddered, is to remove those portions of metallic 
oxide which have been left outside the fibres, or got entangled between 
them, and fastened there more or less firmly by the mucilage employed 
to thicken the solution. 

The view I have now given is, in some respects, the old mechanical 
theory of dyeing held by Macquer, Hellot, and le Pileur d*Apligny, 
before the time of Bergman. Although unacquainted with the micros- 
copic appearance of cotton, d'Apligny argued, that as no vegetable 
substance in its growth can receive a juice without vessels proper for 
its circulation, so the fibres of cotton must be hollow within. And of 
wool, he says, the sides of the tubes must be sieves throughout their 
length, with an infinity of lateral pores. We may gather, also, that 
he conceived dyeing to consist, first, in removing a medullary substance 
contained in the pores of the wool, and afterwards depositing in them 
particles of a foreign colouring matter. 

But Bergman, in his Treatise on Indigo, in 1776, upset all this; 
and attributed to cotton a power of elective attraction, by which all 
the phenomena of dyeing were referred to purely chemical principles. 
Macquer soon adopted the chemical theory, and it was keenly advanced 
by Berthollet, who succeeded Dufay, Hellot, and Macquer, in the ad- 
ministration of the arts connected with chemistry. Berthollet has 
been followed by all, so far as I know, who have since that time written 
on the subject, but nothing like evidence has ever been produced; and, 
if we only consider that chemical attraction necessarily involves com- 
bination, atom to atom ; and, consequently, disorganization of all 
vegetable structure ; that cotton wool may be dyed without injury to 
its fibre, and that that fibre remains entire, when, by chemical means, 
its colour has again been removed, we shall find that the union of cotton 
with its colouring must be accounted for otherwise than by chemical 
affinity. In particular processes, as we shall afterwards see, attraction 
is no doubt exerted, but it is an attraction connected with structure, 
and therefore more mechanical than chemical. 

When we examine, with a powerful microscope, a fibre of cotton, 
dyed either with indigo, with oxide of iron, chromate of lead, or tho 
common madder red, the colour appears to be spread so uniformly 
over the whole fibre that we cannot decide whether the walls of the 
tube are dyed throughout, or that the colouring matter only lines their 
internal surface. But the microscope shows that the collapsing which 
occurs in raw and bleached cotton, is very considerably diminished in 
tho dyed. 

The greater number of specimens of Turkey red which I have 



102 Mb. Crum on ike Mcmner in which Cotton uniUs with Colouring Matttr. 

examined show tlie same uniformity of colour ; but in others of them 
little oblong balls appear all along the inside of the tube, of the fine 
pink shade of that dye, while the tube itself is colourless. But I 
shall resume these observations with a more perfect instrument, which 
I hope soon to possess. 

We have, moreover, the powerful analogy of the arrangement of 
colouring matter in plants, in support of this view of the case. " Cel- 
lular, tissue," says Dr. Lindley, in his Introduction to Botany, " gene- 
rally consists of little bladders or vesicles of various figures, adhering 
together in masses. It is transparent, and, in most cases, colourless ; 
when it appears otherwise, its colour is caused by matter contained 
within it." " The bladders of cellular tissue are destitute of all per- 
forations, so far as we can see, although, as they have the power of 
filtering liquids with rapidity, it is certain that they must abound 
in invisible pores." " The brilliant colours of vegetable matters, the 
white, blue, yellow, scarlet, and other hues of the corolla, and the green 
of the bark and leaves, is not owing to any difference in the colour of 
the cells, but to the colouring matter of different kinds which they 
contain. In the stem of the Garden Balsam, a single cell is frequently 
red in the midst of others which are colourless. Examine the red 
bladder, and you will find it filled with a colouring matter of which 
the rest are destitute. The bright satiny appearance of many richly 
coloured flowers depends upon the colourless quality of the tissue. 
Thus, in Thysanotus fascicularis, the flowers of which are of a deep 
brilliant violet, with a remarkably satiny lustre, that appearance will 
be found to arise from each particular cell containing a single drop of 
coloured fluid, which gleams through the white shining membrane of 
the tissue, and produces the flickering lustre that is perceived." Cot- 
ton is itself cellular tissue ; and the ligneous basis of all the forms of 
these vessels has the same chemical constitution. 

I have alluded to another class of processes in dyeing where the 
action much more resembles chemical affinity. I mean that in which 
pure cotton, by mere immersion in different liquids, withdraws a 
variety of substances from their solution. The indigo vat is a trans- 
parent solution of a brownish yellow colour, consisting of deoxidized 
indigo combined with lime, and containing seldom more than j^^y of its 
weight of colouring matter. By merely dipping cotton in this liquid, 
the indigo attaches itself to it in the yellow state, in quantity propor- 
tioned, within certain limits, to the length of the immersion ; and 
all that is necessary then to render it blue is to expose it to the air. 
Here an indifferent spongy substance exercises a power which over- 
comes chemical affinity ; but the mixture which is formed of cotton 
and indigo possesses none of the characters of a chemical compound. 
We can only recognise in this action the same force, whatever that 
may be, which enables animal charcoal to discolour similar liquids. 
Charcoal, as we have also seen, withdraws metallic oxides from their 



Mb. Crum an the Manner in whkh Cotton tmites with Colouring Matter. 103 

solution in alkalies. Cotton wool has the samo power, and it is exten- 
sively used, as a means of dyeing with the yellow and red chromates 
of lead. If lime in excess bo added to sugar of lead, dissolved in a 
considerable quantity of water, the lead which precipitates is redis- 
solved in the lime water, and forms a weak solution of plumbate of 
lime. If a piece of cotton be immersed in this solution, it appropriates 
the lead, and when afterwards washed and dipped in a solution of 
chrome, the lead becomes chromate of lead. 

The samo force enables cotton to imbibe basic salts of iron and tin by 
immersion in certain solutions of these metals ; and many other examples 
of what Berzelius calls a catalytic force, in decomposing weak com- 
binations, will occur to those who are familiar with the art of dyeing. 

It appeared to mo interesting to compare the amount of surface 
exposed by cotton wool, with that of the more minute divisions of 
charcoal. I am enabled to give the following calculations through 
the kindness of Professor Balfour, who has furnished me with the 
necessary microscopic observations. The fibre of New Orleans wool 
varies most commonly from y^^^ to 2(y\TU ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ diameter. 
About 40 of these fibres or tubes compose a thread of No. 38 yam, 
(38 hanks to the pound.) Ordinary printing cloth has, in the bleached 
state, 493 lineal feet of fibre, or 10*6 square inches of external surface 
of fibre in a square inch, which weighs nearly 1 grain. It is easy to 
compress 210 folds of this cloth into the thickness of one inch. It 
has then a specific gravity of 0*8. One cubic inch has 94163 lineal 
feet of tube, and 16-8 feet of external, surface; or, if we include the 
internal surface, there are upwards of 30 square feet of surface of fibre 
in one cubic inch of compressed calico. The charcoal of boxwood has, 
as we have seen, 73 square feet of surface to the inch, with a specific 
gravity of 06. 

Explanation of the Plate. 

It is copied from the paper of Mr. James Thomson on the Mummy 
Cloth of Egypt, Philosophical Magazine, June, 1834. The drawings 
were made, at Mr. Thomson's desire, by Mr. Bauer of Kew, the most 
accurate delineator of microscopic objects that has ever appeared. 
The figures represent y^^ of an inch in length, and are magnified 400 
times in diameter. 

A. Fibres of the unripe seed of cotton. In that state the fibres are 
perfect cylindrical tubes. At * is a fibre represented as seen under 
water, showing that the water had gradually entered, and enclosed 
several air bubbles ; proving the tube to be quite hollow and without 
joints. If separated from the plant in the unripe state, these fibres 
do not afterwards twist. 

B. Fibres of ripe cotton, both before and after the bursting of the pod 
or capsule. 

C. Various fibres of unravelled thread of manufactured cotton. 



104 Dr. Penny on a Specimen of Artificial Asbestus. 

In thickness these fibres vary from j^^^ to g^j^ part of an inch. 
The twists or turns in a fibre of cotton are from 300 to 800 in an inch. 
D. Fig. 1. Fibres of raw flax before spinning. 

Fig. 2. Fibres of unravelled thread of manufactured flax. 

The elementary fibres of flax are also transparent tubes, cylindrical, 
and articulated, or jointed like a cane. This latter structure is only 
observable by the aid of an excellent instrument. These fibres vary 
in thickness from jjuo ^^ Woo P^^^ ^^ ^^ i^^^- 

XXIX. — On a Specimen of Artificial Asbestus. 

By F. Penny, Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Andersonian 

University. 

For a specimen of this substance, I am indebted to Mr. William 
Murray of Monkland ; and, for a very accurate analysis of it, to his 
son, Mr. Francis Murray. 

It was found in a Blast Furnace, embedded in the mass of matter 
which had collected at the bottom of the furnace in the course of 2| 
years, and which is technically called the hearth ; it was in a cavity, 
about 8 inches below the level on which the liquid metal rested, and 
was interspersed with distinct and beautiful crystals of Titanium. 

In all its general characters, this substance corresponds with As- 
bestus. It is colourless, inodorous, and tasteless — and occurs in small 
masses, composed of extremely minute filaments or fibres, cohering 
longitudinally together. These fibres are very easily detached from 
each other — and are flexible, though not so much so as the common 
Asbestus. They have a silky lustre, and are unattacked by sulphuric, 
nitric, or muriatic acid. They remain unchanged in the flame of a 
spirit lamp, and are difficultly fusible even with the blowpipe. 

A preliminary examination having been made to ascertain the 
ingredients contained in the substance, 10 grains of the longest and 
cleanest of the fibres were selected for analysis. This was the largest 
quantity that could be obtained free from adventitious matter. The 
process adopted was the one usually recommended for the analysis of 
insoluble siliceous minerals. The following are the results per cent. : — 

Silica, 72-5 

Alumina, 9*0 

Protoxide Manganese, . . 13*2 

Magnesia, 2*0 

Lime, 1-58 

Iron, 2.65 



100-93 



On comparing the above with the analyses that have been given 
of the several varieties of Asbestus, we r emark, that the artificial 



Mr. Gourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Gtclogieal Museum. 106 

specimen contains about 10 per cent, more silica, and that magnesia, 
of which there is 25 per cent, in natural Asbestus, is replaced by the 
protoxide of manganese. Now, it is well known that the protoxide 
of manganese is isomorphous with magnesia, and hence this replace- 
ment of the one by the other is at once explained. I apprehend the 
substitution of manganese for magnesia will be found much more fre- 
quent in the mineral kingdom when minerals are submitted to improved 
methods of analysis. The occurrence of Asbestus in an iron furnace 
affords a beautiful proof of the igneous origin of tliis substance. 

XXX. — Notice of New Zealand Minerals. 

Dr. R. D. Thomson showed a specimen of Phosphate of Iron, or na- 
tive Prussian blue, from New Zealand, presented to him by Dr. Ernst 
Dieffonbach, Naturalist to the New Zealand Company, which had been 
analysed in the University Laboratory, at his request, by Mr. Robert 
Pattison. Its constituents were — 

Water, 284 

Organic matter, .... 2*8 

Silica, 5-2 

Phosphate of Iron, . . .62-8 

"99^ 
Dr. Thomson also exhibited a deposit from a hot spring in the interior 
of the same island, which Mr. Pattison found to have a specific gravity 
of 1-968, and to consist of — 

Silica, 77-35 

Alumina, 970 

Peroxide of Iron, . . . 3-72 

Lime 1'54 

Water, 766 

9*998 
From the statement of Dr. Dieffenbach, it appears that the greater 
part of the interior of New Zealand is of a volcanic nature, and 
abounds in hot springs. 



\6ih Fehruaryt 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. Andrew Craig, John Heugh, and George Wilson, were ad- 
mitted members. 

The following communication was read : — 

XXXL — Notice of the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 
By William Gourlie, Jun. Esq. 

Most of the members of this Society are aware, that previous to tho 
meeting of the British Association in Glasgow a Committee was 



106 Mr. Gourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 

appointed to make a collection of the minerals, rocks, and organic 
remains of the west of Scotland. Through their exertions, and with 
the kind and zealous co-operation of many noblemen and gentlemen 
connected with the mining districts, a collection was formed, which in 
point of geological interest has not been equalled at any meeting of 
the Association, and which was a source of much gratification to M. 
Agassiz, Mr. Murchison, Sir H. T. De la Beche, Mr. Lyell, and the other 
distinguished geologists who honoured this city with a visit on that 
occasion. Although a part of that temporary museum was merely 
lent by various local collectors, by far the greater part remains in the 
possession of the committee appointed to take charge of it, at a meeting 
held in April, 1841, for concluding the transactions connected with 
the meeting of the British Association. 

In the mean time, the collection is stored in rooms rented from the 
Andersonian Institution, and is only partially laid out, as the Com- 
mittee have not considered it expedient to attempt the formation of a 
Geological museum, on a scale worthy of the city of Glasgow, until the 
recurrence of more propitious times. Having had the pleasure of 
assisting Dr. Scouler in the arrangement of the museum of 1840, and 
been since associated with my friend Dr. Colquhoun in carefully pre- 
serving the specimens, I have drawn up a short notice of the vegetable 
remains in the collection, a department which is attractive not only to 
the scientific student of nature, but also to the popular enquirer, and 
which, I trust, will not be altogether uninteresting to the Society. 

These organic remains consist of plants, fishes, shells, and zoophytes. 
For obvious reasons, they are chiefly from the limestones, shales, and 
sandstones of the carboniferous group of rocks, which extend upwards 
from the old to the new red sandstone, and include the mountain lime- 
stone, abounding in shells and corals, — the millstone grit, which occurs 
principally in South Wales and Yorkshire, but which is often absent, — 
and the coal measures, which are absolutely packed with the remains 
of extinct genera o/ plants, molluscous animals and fishes. 

These coal measures, again, consist of a vast series of marine and 
fresh-water limestones, sandstones, beds of coal of various thickness 
and quality, indurated clay, ironstones, all the varieties of which arc 
carbonate of protoxide of iron, and soft argillaceous beds, which being 
of a slatcy structure, are generally called shales. The series above 
enumerated is frequently repeated, — in some coal fields reaching a 
thickness which has been estimated at nearly 6000 feet. Mr. Murray 
of Monkland has found the whole thickness in the Lanarkshire coal field 
to be at least 357 fathoms, or 2142 feet, as detailed in an interesting 
section, which he communicated to the Society at the conclusion of 
this paper. 

The following is a brief notice of some of the genera of fossil plants 
which were amply illustrated by specimens from the collection, a cata- 
logue of which is given at the end of this paper: — 



Mr.Gourlie <m the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 107 

Calamites. — Tho fossil plants referable to the genus Catamites of 
Brongniart, and other authors, occur profusely in our coal fields, as well 
as in those of the north of England. They are found in a state of 
compression, which renders it difficult to determine their species, or to 
form an idea of their probable affinity to plants of the present day. 
Judging from the remarkable compression of even the largest speci- 
mens, it is likely that the calamite had a hollow jointed stem, with 
transvere phragmata, resembling that of the bamboo cane, and, at 
least in some species, with verticillate branches, which again have ver- 
ticillate leaves. Brongniart thinks that the calamites must have had a 
close affinity to the recent genus Equisetuniy from their striated, or 
rather furrowed, jointed stems, and the presence in one of his speci- 
mens of what he takes to be a sheath ; but the objection to this view 
is, that they appear to have had both wood and bark, and consequently 
with the habit of a monocotyledonous plant, they come nearer the dico- 
tyledones in structure. A specimen from the Duke of Hamilton in 
this collection was found in the sandstone in an upright position, and 
shows the form of the stem without the usual compression ; but it is 
apprehended, that even were it possible to form a thin polished section, 
it would exhibit no trace of structure. 

Sigillaria. — A number of specimens in the museum belong to the 
genus Sigillaria, so named from sigillum, a seal, on account of the 
peculiar impressions on the stems. Less is known of this genus than 
even the calamites, and similar forms are quite unknown in the vege- 
tation of the present day. They are found inclined in all directions, 
sometimes passing vertically through beds of sandstone, but most fre- 
quently in a horizontal position, and then they are crushed so extremely 
thin, that they seem to have been hollow like the calamite, and to have 
possessed very little substance, although attaining a height of forty or 
fifty feet. The compressed stems have been found as much as five feet 
in breadth, and some fragments now produced, particularly a portion 
of 8. renifonnis, must have belonged to a very large individual. They 
are generally fluted longitudinally, and marked at regular intervals 
with single or double scars, evidently produced by leaves which have 
been articulated to the stem. These marks are different in the decor- 
ticated state of the fossil from those which appear on the surface of 
the coaly envelope representing the bark ; this is well seen in the SigiU 
laria reniformis. M. Brongniart considers these to be remains of tho 
stems of arborescent ferns ; but we incline to the view of Messrs. Lindley 
and Ilutton, who have established that the fluted Sigillarice have 
nothing analogous to tree ferns. On the contrary, they appear to have 
been plants with hollow cylindrical stems, consisting of wood and bark, 
and clothed with leaves— attaining a height of forty to sixty feet— but 
belonging to a family with no representative, or even relation, in the 
flora of our day. 

Lepidodendron. — This genus of fossil plants is one of great interest, 
not only on account of its abundance, and the elegance and beauty of 



108 Mr. Gourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 

its impressions and casts, but from the affinity between the fossil Le- 
pidodendron and two existing genera of plants. In the first volume of 
the " Fossil Flora," by Dr. Lindley and Mr. Hutton, the authors express 
their belief that the Lepidodendra would be found to be intermediate 
between the Conifer ce and Lycopodiacea3 of the present day. The first 
of these natural orders, the Goniferce, comprehends the pines, larch, 
cedar, &c. The Lycopodiacece-, on the other hand, are small in size 
compared with either the Lepidodendra or the ConiferWy and a few 
species are indigenous to this country, where they are familiarly known 
as Club-mosses. The opinion referred to has been confirmed by sub- 
sequent investigations. Some of the specimens of this genus contri- 
buted to the collection are of singular beauty, and the attention of 
the Society was particularly directed to specimens of L. elegans, from 
C. J. Baird, Esq., of Shotts Iron-work. A group of " restorations " 
was also represented in a drawing, for the purpose of conveying some 
idea of the probable appearance of this genus of plants. 

Lyginodendron Landshurgii, Gourlie. — A most remarkable cast of a 
plant was lately sent to me by the Rev. David Landsborough, which 
was found in a quarry of carboniferous sandstone at Stevenston, 
Ayrshire. The specimen when found had a coating of coal, which the 
quarryman unfortunately"picked off with his knife, but the exposed 
surface presents a very singular appearance, and is unlike any fossil 
plant which we have ever seen figured. Its peculiar feature, which is 
at once apparent on inspection, is its resemblance to part of a common 
osier basket. Hence Mr. Landsborough has for some time been in 
the habit of humorously distinguishing it as " Noah's Creel," for want 
of a better name. To supply this desideratum in nomenclature, and 
as no such fossil appears to have been described or figured, I have 
ventured to name it Lyginodendron Landshurgii, forming the generic 
name from xvytuos, wicker-work, and hul^ov, a tree, and dedicating it by 
the specific name to my friend Mr. Landsborough, a gentleman who is 
distinguished not only as a pious and conscientious parish minister, 
but as an enthusiastic and most successful cultivator of natural history, 
— one, too, whose warm-hearted and amiable disposition endears him 
to all who have the pleasure of his acquaintance. The fragments of 
the fossil were spread over a space of about two yards, the finest speci- 
men found being about eighteen inches in length, by three in breadth, 
and have not been observed except in that place. In the same quarry 
a great many fossil fruits occur, which are obviously those of a palm, 
and also specimens of Sternhergia approximata, a singular and rather 
rare coal plant. A fine specimen has been deposited in the museum 
of the Andersonian by Mr. J. Craig. The impressions of the fronds of 
ferns were also noticed as being extremely common in the shales and 
limestones of the coal formation, there being not fewer than 130 species 
known, nearly all of which belong to the tribe Polypodiacece. 



BKLL ARC BAiN, PRIRTBBS, 15 ST. ENOCH SQUARE. 



nn-pa^eioa 



Trans":* of tlui Gla^fcow Philogoplucal Society. 




M»cl<tr« k. lUcdoDuldLith. 



LYGINODENDRON LANDSBURGII. 



^uriif 



PROCEEDINGS 

OF TBI 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY-FIRST SESSION, 184243. 



CONTENTS. 

Mr. Qourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum, . 109 
Mr. Murray's Section of the Lanarkshire Coal Field, . . . .113 
Mr. Watt on the Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland, . .114 

Dr. R. D. Thomson on the Cowdie Pine Resin, 123 

Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the animal fluids, . * .131 



15th February y 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

XXXI. — Notice of the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 
By William Gourlie, Jun., Esq. (^Continued.) 

Coniferce, — It is only lately that the remains of Araucarias, or trees 
similar to the Norfolk Island pines, have been identified in the coal 
strata, having previously been supposed to exist only in the secondary 
and tertiary series. From the examination of their polished sections, 
for the preparation of which Mr. Sanderson of Edinburgh is so cele- 
brated, it is clearly ascertained that the Craigleith and Wardie fossil 
trees have been large Araucarias^ as the peculiar structure of the 
pines of Norfolk Island, New Holland, or Brazil, is distinctly visible. 
The Araucaria excelsa bears the winters of the south of England 
and Ireland. 

JStigmaria. — The last plant described in the paper, namely, the Stig- 
marta, was noticed as being the most extraordinary of all, and, in its 
form, mode of growth, and internal structure, quite sui generis. The 
Stigmaria ficoides is extremely abundant in the sandstones and shales, 
its almost semi-circular, grooved, and pitted arms extending them- 
selves in all directions through the strata in which they are found. 
From a large central dome, probably growing in shallow water, a 
number of arms have radiated with great regularity, branching dicho- 
tomously, and extending to a distance of twenty or thirty feet, floating 
under the surface, and covered with long leaves, which appear to have 
been fistulose. In a specimen belonging to Dr. Smith of Crutherland, 

No. 7. 1 



110 Mr. Goumje on (he Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 

this hollow structure of the leaves is beautifully seen. We possess a 
fine specimen of a branch, ten feet in length, and a good specimen of 
the central dome may be seen in the Andersonian Museum. After 
quoting a description of the structure of the Stigmaria from the " Fossil 
Flora," this part of the paper was concluded with the observation, that 
as no plants of tlie present day have such a structure, Stigmaria repre- 
sents a race now altogether extinct. 

An important point of interest is the climate and atmosphere of the 
carboniferous epoch. That the immense plants of the coal lived and 
flourished during the prevalence of a high temperature, equal to, or 
perhaps greater than that of our torrid zone, is now generally believed. 
Brongniart has suggested that during the same period the atmosphere 
contained a much larger proportion of carbonic acid gas than it does 
now, which supplying abundance of food to the leaves of these plants, 
would greatly favour their development, and cause a rapid growth. 

It has also been conjectured that the gigantic lizards, batrachian 
reptiles, and marsupial animals of former days may have been able to 
exist during this state of things, — that the horned iguanodon or long- 
necked plesiosaurus might inhale such an atmosphere with zest, and 
that the megalichthys, with its armorial covering of burnished enamel, 
may possibly have delighted to roam in aerated waters ! Instead of 
indulging in theories which, however ingenious, seem to be somewhat 
extravagant and improbable, we would rather refer the phenomena 
observable in the coal formation to causes even now in operation, and 
agree with our President, Dr. Thomson, that " it is very hazardous to 
draw such conclusions, from the number and appearance of these 
plants, which, for anything we know to the contrary, may have been 
adapted for a colder climate, although analogous in some respects to 
those at present inhabiting torrid regions."* 

The tropical flora of the present day, in many places, such as 
Southern India, Java, or Guiana, is probably more luxuriant than was 
that of the coal. Immense cities exist in Central America which have 
once been inhabited by races of people acquainted with the arts of 
civilized life, but which are now desolate, and buried in immense 
forests, often so thick and impervious that the light of day can hardly 
penetrate the mass of foliage. A rank and powerful vegetation has 
invaded the homes, altars, and palaces of this ancient people. Their 
immense and often beautifully sculptured idols or monuments are 
overturned by the expansion of roots, and bound down by enormous 
creeping and twining stems ; and Mr. Stephens, in his intensely 
interesting account of them, tells us that the vegetative force has 
sometimes been so great as to lift large masses of masonry out of the 
earth, and almost heave them up in the air. Luxuriant and vigorous 
vegetation like this does not arise from heat alone, but from the com- 

* Thomson** Outlines of Geology, vol. II. p. 260. 



Mil. GOURLDS on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum, 111 

bined influence of heat and a humid atmosphere, in which respect I 
need hardly remind you that the arid sands and sterile rocks of 
Africa are not to bo compared to the hills and dales of more tem- 
perate, but also more humid regions.* It has been suggested that in 
former ages the waters were more extensively distributed over tho 
surface of tho globe, and the moist atmosphere which would result, 
combined with a temperature much less than that of the torrid zone, 
would suffice to produce an abundant and rapid development of vege- 
table forms, without the aid of larger quantities of carbonic acid than 
we find in our present atmosphere. We do not know what kind of 
plants composed the great mass of the coal strata : equally ignorant 
are we of tho capability which such plants as the lopidodendra or 
sigillaria3 possessed of flourishing in a temperate climate. The occa- 
sional occurrence of an arborescent fern, or of a palm — for they are 
both extremely rare in the coal measures — does not furnish sufficient 
evidence of a hot climate, ^sinco such rivers as the Amazon or the 
Mississippi are probably at this moment depositing in their estuaries 
immense quantities of plants which may have been borne down in 
their waters for four or five thousand miles. The vast rivers of Siberia, 
two to three thousand miles in length, and the Mackenzie river of 
North America, carry down pines and other trees, with their roots 
attached, for many hundred miles, finally stratifying them in the Arctic 
Sea. Again, the larches and other pines of Norway or Great Britain 
are quite equal in size to any coniferse which we find in the coal ; and 
there are plenty of arborescent ferns in New Zealand in a latitude of 
nearly 46° south. It is well known that the great extent of ocean 
gives uniformity and mildness to the climate of the southern hemis- 
phere, rendering the summers more cool, and the winters warmer, than 
they are in the same parallel of northern latitude. " Captain King 
observed large shrubs of Fuchsia and Veronicay which in England are 
treated as tender plants, thriving and in full flower in Terra del Fuego, 
(lat. 55° S.) with a temperature of 36°. He states also that humming- 
birds were seen sipping the sweets of the flowers after two or three 
days of constant rain, snow, and sleet, during which time the thermo- 
meter had been at the freezing point Mr. Darwin also saw parrots 
feeding on the seeds of a tree called 'winter's bark,' south of latitude 
55°, near Cape Horn." 

* In a more recent work, viz., " Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," by J. L. Stephens, Esq. 
a sketch is given to show the manner in which the rankness of tropical vegetation is 
hurrying to destruction these interesting remains of an extinct race. ''*' The tree is called 
the alamo or elm, the leaves of which, with those of the ramon, form in that country the 
principal fodder for horses. Springing up beside the front wall, its fibres crept into cracks 
and crevices, and became shoots and branches, which, as the trunk rose, in struggling to 
rise with it, unsettled and overturned the wall, and still grew, carrying up large stones 
fast locked in their embraces, which they now hold aloft in the air. At the same time, 
its roots have girded the foundation wall, and form the only support of what is left ; and 
no sketch can convey a true idea of the ruthless gripe in which these gnarled and twisted 
roots encircle sculptured stones." — Vol. i. p. 394. 



112 Mr. Gourlie on the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Geological Museum. 

" So the orcliideous plants, wliicli are parasitical on trees, and are 
generally characteristic of the tropics, advance beyond the 45th degree, 
where they were found in New Zealand by Forster. In South 
America, also, arborescent grasses abound in the dense forests of the 
Chiloe Isles, in lat. 42° south, where, Darwin tells us, that *they 
entwine the trees into one entangled mass, to the height of 30 or 40 
feet above the ground. Palm trees, in the same quarter of the globe, 
grow in lat. 37°; an arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40°; and 
another closely allied kind, of great length, but not erect, even as far 
south as 450V'* 

In conclusion, is it necessary in urging the establishment of our 
geological museum on a firm basis and more extensive scale, to dilate 
on the advantages derivable from such an institution? The cui bono, 
which is so often addressed to cultivators of natural science by mere 
worshippers of mammon, is quite inapplicable here, for even in their 
eyes geological knowledge is valuable. 

The geological character of a country bears a most important rela- 
tion to the extent of its population, — to the means whereby that popu- 
lation is supported. If we think for a moment on the situation of our 
native city, and reflect that the means by which we carry on with 
advantage those manufactures which furnish employment to a teeming 
population, we may ask if it is likely that Glasgow would ever have 
reached its present extent and prosperity but for the valuable deposits 
of coal, ironstone, limestone, and sandstone, with which she is every- 
where surrounded ? This almost unlimited supply of coal and iron 
has enabled her to stretch a hundred arms to the most distant corners 
of the earth, and grasping the crude produce of the American shrub 
or Caribbean grass, the silk of India or the Australian fleece, she 
returns them to their native climes, variously and wonderfully fashioned 
to the use of man, by their passing visit to a coal field. The present 
may be truly said to be ** the age of iron." Our country is becoming 
intersected by railroads in every direction, — a vast network of iron, 
along which the panting locomotive darts with the speed of the wind. 
Had the rocks of Clydesdale no connection with the development of 
genius in James Watt, no influence in calling forth the energies of 
Henry Bell ? In our own day we have seen the dominions of Nep- 
tune invaded by Vulcan, and the "wooden walls of England" giving 
place to bulwarks of iron ! The classic Mediterranean, the stormy 
Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean, are now traversed by Clyde-built 
steamers, propelled by Glasgow engines ; whilst the towering Andes, 
and even the walls of the Celestial empire itself, reverberate with the 
sound of paddles and piston rods, which were probably extracted from 
the " black band " of Monkland or Gartsherrie ! 



* Lyell's Principles, vol. i. page 170. 



Mr. Murray's Section of the Lanarkshire Coal Field. 



113 



Catalogue of the Fossil Plants in the Olasgmo Geological Museumy so 
far as these have been determined* 



Asterophyllites foliosa, Lindley and 
Hutton. Fossil Flora. 
■ comosa, L. §* M. 

Calamites approximatus, Stemb. 
n arenaceus, Iceger. 

â–  Mougeottii, Ad. JBrong. 

" cannceformis, Scloth. This 

is evidently the base of a calamite 
stem ; probably of one of the pre- 
ceding species. 
Cyclopteris orbicularis, Ad. Br. 
Halonia regularis, L. §• H. 
Knorria taxina, L. Sf H. 
Lepidodendron elegans, L. 8f H. 
gracile, L. §• H. 
obovatum, Stemb. 
omati8simum,^c?.^r. 
selaginoides, Stemb. 
Sternbergii, Ad. Br. 
Lepidostrobus variabilis, L. Sf H. 
Lyginodendron Landsburgii, Gour. 



Neuropteria gigantea, Stemb. 

» heterophylla, Ad, Br. 

Pecopteris lonchitica. Ad. Br. 

IT chserophylloides, Ad.Br, 

» laciniata (i) L. ^ H. 

> adiantoides, L. if H. 

If muricata, Ad. Br. 

Sigillaria organum, L. Sf H. 

n reniformis. Ad. Br., and 
numerous undetermined species. 
Sphenophyllum erosum, L. §* M. 
Sphenopteris (?) bifida, L. §• JET. vel, 
n myriophyllum, Ad,lBr. 

Stembergia approximata, Ad. Br. 
Stigmaria ficoides, Ad. Br. In a 
late publication, Mons. Brongniart 
suggests the probability of Stig- 
maria being the branching roots of 
the Sigillaria. 
Trigonocarpum olivseforme, L. Sf H. 



Section of Lanarkshire Coal Field. By William Murray, Esq. 





Fa Ft In. 


New Red Sandstone, various thick- 




ness, .... 


. 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 15 





Upper Black Band Ironstone, 


. 1 


2 


Suidstone and Shale, . 


.24 





Upper Coal, 


. 2 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 8 





Ell Coal, .... 


. 3 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 6 3 





Pyot Suaw Coal, 


. 4 


6 


Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 2 4 





Main Coal, 


. 4 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 7 3 





Humph Coal, . 


. 2 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 4 3 





Spunt Coal, 


. 4 





Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 13 





Muscle Band Ironstone, 


. 


8 


Sandstone and Shale, . 


. 3 5 


4 


Black Band Ironstone, 


. 1 


4 


Sandstone and Shale, . » 


. 12 





ViaiuB Well Coal, . 


. 2 


6 


Sandstone and Shale, . 


.20 





KiLTONQUB Coal, 


. 3 






Forward, 121 4 6 



Fa. Ft. In. 

Brought up, 121 4 6 

Sandstone and Shale, . . .600 

Drumgrat Cqal, . . .023 

Sandstone and Shale, containing 
Ironstone Nodules, 

Slaty-band Ironstone, 

Sandstone and Shale, 

Limestone, . 

Sandstone and Shale, 

Coal 12, . 

Sandstone and Shale, 

Coal 13, . 

Sandstone and Shale, 

Coal 14, , 

Sandstone and Shale, 

Cannel Coal, 15, 

Under Coal, 

Sandstone and Shale, partly un- 
known, 25 

Sandstone and Shale, . . 18 2 

First Caumy Limestone, , .016 

Shale, Sandstone, thin Coal, and 
Limestone, . . . .400 

Kingshaw Second Limestone, . 2 10 



35 
1 1 

4 
3 
2 

2 






2 

6 
8 
2 6 



1 2 
10 



I 



Forward, 264 3 5 



114 Mr. Watt on tfte Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland, 



Fa. 

Brought up, 264 

Shale and Ironstone Nodules, . 4 

Second Caumy Limestone, . 

Shale, 1 

First Raks Gill Band Ironstone, 

Shale, 

Two-bands Ironstone, . . 

Shale, 

Ironstone, .... 

Shale, 

Ironstone, .... 

Shale, 

Ironstone, .... 

Shale, 

Ironstone, .... 

Shale, 

Ironstone, . . . . 

Hard Shale 



Ft In. 



o 


6 
6 
3 6 

10 

1 9 

2 

2 




6 

1^ 
3 
1.^ 
9 

3 10 
5 

4 8 
5 
2 



Forward, 275 



Fa. Ft In. 



Brought up, 
Ironstone, . . . , 

Sulphureous Shale, 
Ironstone, . . . , 

Shale and Ironstone balls. 
Ironstone, . . . , 

Shale with Shells, 
Foul-band Limestone, 
Shale and Sandstone, 
Third Caumy Limestone, . 
Shale, Sandstone, and Ironstone 

balls, 

Main Lime, . . . , 

Shale, Sandstone, and Limestone, 
Sandstone and Shale, 



275 



, 



1 7 
9 
4 11 
5 





8 

6 

4 

3 6 

18 

2 6 



3 

4 6 

26 

30 



Fathoms, 357 8 
Limestone of good quality, thick- 
ness not known. 
The Old Red Sandstone. 



Mr. Joliu Alston made some observations on the noxious eflfects of 
smoke in the atmosphere. 

Dr. Stenhouse stated that he had detected Thein in Paraguay tea, 
and that he had succeeded in obtaining this principle from tea and 
coffee by sublimation in Mohr's apparatus. 



1st Marchy 1843, — The President in the Chair. 
The following communication was read : — 



XXXII. — On the Vital Statistics of Jive large Towns of Scotland. 
By Alexander Watt, Esq., City Statist, Glasgow. 

It has long been matter of regret that the Registers of Marriages, 
Births, and Deaths, of Scotland, should have been allowed to remain 
in such a defective state, as to prevent the possibility of arriving at a 
correct knowledge of the Vital Statistics of the country ; — and that, 
though in certain towns considerable attention has been paid to 
recording the deaths, no uniform plan has been adopted for the whole ; 
— nor has any attempt been made, till lately, to arrange such facts as 
may be obtained from them, on an uniform systematic plan, so as to 
enable us to come to satisfactory conclusions, with regard to the com- 
parative value of human life, in different localities ; — or of the moral 
and physical causes, which operate in producing those various eflfects 
observable in the sanatory condition of different districts of town and 
country, in connection with atmospheric influence, which is found to 
exercise a powerful effect on the human frame. 



Mr. Watt on the Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland. 116 

I took an opportunity of bringing this subject under the considera- 
tion of the Statistical Section of the British Association, at their 
meeting in Glasgow (1840), in a paper which I read, giving a com- 
parison of the Vital Statistics of Edinburgh and Glasgow. A com- 
mittee of the Association was appointed, and funds voted for the 
further prosecution of this subject in Scotland. The magistrates and 
town council of Edinburgh having also placed funds at mj disposal, 
to cover the expenses of collecting materials, to enable me to draw up 
a paper on the Vital Statistics of that city, for a series of years, I 
took upon myself the labour of accumulating the facts, and construct- 
ing Tables of Marriages and Deaths, for five of the principal towns of 
Scotland, together with Abstracts of the Births recorded, (incomplete 
as the Registers of Births are,) and of exhibiting some of the most 
important deductions to bo drawn from them in the form of a report, 
which, with some curtailments that I regret were found necessary from 
want of space, is now published in the Transactions of the Association 
for 1842. 

The principal results which I have deduced may be acceptable to 
the members of this society, more especially to those of the Statistical 
Section, who may have an opportunity of extending these researches, 
and of advancing our knowledge of the social condition of the people ; 
and also of devising the best means of arresting, in its progress, that 
retrograde movement in the moral and physical condition of our town 
population, to which public attention has lately been so properly directed. 

MARRIAGES. 

From the facts which have been collected, (Report, pp. 135 — 141,) 
we find that there is a greater proportion of the male than of the 
female population married in all the towns, for which data have been 
obtained ; yet, it seems, tliat in Edinburgh and Leith, there is 2*41 
per cent more females than males married. In Perth, there is 5*66 
per cent more females than males married. Still it appears, that in 
Edinburgh and Leith there is 0-287 per cent more of the male than 
of the female population married; and in Perth, there is 0*113 per 
cent more of the male than of the female population married. This 
arises from there being a much larger proportion of females than 
males residing in these towns. According to the census of 1841, 
ihere resided in Edinburgh and Leith 123*40 females for every 100 
males, and in Perth by the same census, there were 115*59 females 
for every 100 males. In Glasgow and Dundee, however, there are 
more males than females married, both in the actual amount, and in 
the relative proportion they bear to the male and female population 
of these towns respectively. In Glasgow, while there is 0*167 per 
cent more of the male than of the female population married, there 
is 0*887 per cent more males than females married. And in Dundee, 
while there is 0*318 per cent more of the male than of the female 




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Mr. Watt on the Vital Statiatks of five large Towns of Scotland. 117 

population married, there is no less than 2-96 per cent, more males 
than females married. There being 110*41 females for every 100 
males residing in Glasgow, and 117*37 females to everj 100 males in 
Dundee, bj the census of 1841. In Aberdeen, there is 0*352 per cent 
more of the male than of tlie female population married, while the 
amount of females married is 0*30 per cent greater than that of the 
males ; there being 128*59 females in Aberdeen to every 100 males, 
bj the census of 1841. 

These results are all brought out on the average of those years 
stated in the foregoing Table, No. I. In comparing the proportions in 
this Table, it may be as well to keep in view, that the proportion of 
marriages for the whole of England and Wales, amounts to 0*785 per 
cent of the population.* 

BIRTHS. 

As the registers of births in Scotland are so very defective as to be 
of no use in enabling us to arrive at a knowledge of the Vital Statistics, 
either of town or country,! it seems unnecessary here to give any 
abstract of the returns obtained from them, farther than to state, that 
the mean annual proportion of births recorded in the Registers of 
births for Edinburgh and Leith is 0*992 per cent of the population ; 
for Glasgow 1*160 per cent; for Aberdeen 1*311 per cent. ; for Perth 
1*704 per cent; and for Dundee 1*497 per cent. ; while it appears from 
the Fourth Annual Report of the Registrar General, the mean annual 
proportion of births for England and Wales is 3*174 per cent 

DEATHS. 

As it is of the greatest importance that the returns from the 
Registers of deaths should be constructed on an uniform plan, the 
results obtained for the different towns in Scotland are based on the 
same principles as those for the Mortality Bills of Glasgow, which I 
have drawn up for the Lord Provost, Magistrates, and Council of that 
city. The classification of the diseases in the tables, the arrangement 

* See Fonrth Annual Report of the Registrar General. 

f The only register of births, deaths, and marriages in the country parishes of Scotland, 
is that kept by the Session Clerk of the Established Church, in -which few of the Dis- 
senters register. The following abstract, supplied by the Rev. Dr. James Thomson, 
exhibits the number of births registered for five years, in the parish of Eccles, Berwick- 
shire, possessing a population of 1930, and 480 church communicants, and where several 
families of dissenters reside, and shows that few of the latter register:— 

DISSRSTERS. CHURCHMEir. 

1838, 1 16 

1839, 4 21 

1840, 1 26 

1841, 2 28 

1842, 5 24 

Mean for 5 years, . . 26 • 23 



118 Mk. Watt oh the Vital Statistics of Jive large Towns of Scotland. 

of which is given in tlie appendix of these Bills, and in the Report in 
the volume of tJie Association, is far from being so perfect as would be 
attainable were the Registers of deaths in Scotland kept in a more 
perfect and systematic plan, yet it is believed, that the arrangement 
is about as complete as can be satisfactorily followed in the present 
state of these Registers ; and as the Registers of the towns reported on 
are kept in a manner similar to each other, comparisons of the causes 
of death at different ages, more especially of the more easily discrimi- 
nated diseases, such as croup, fever, hooping-cough, measles, scarlet 
fever, and small-pox, may be considered as satisfactory. One of the 
greatest advantages of the Registers in these towns of Scotland is, that 
tlie ages at which deaths take place are carefully recorded, which it 
will be found is of great importance in arriving at a knowledge of the 
comparative sanatory condition of towns. 

It is to be observed, that in the Mortality Tables for our Scotch 
towns, there is a distinction between the amount of burials and the 
amount of deaths ; this becomes necessary to enable the reader to make 
comparisons between the amount of mortality in the English towns 
and that of the Scotch, as the still-born children are not given in the 
Reports of the Registrar General. 

As the population for the different towns, with the exception of 
Edinburgh and Leith,are stated for each year in the foregoing Table of 
Marriages, they are not inserted in Table No. II. The population of 
Edinburgh and Leith amounts in 1837, to 164,676 ; in 1838, to 155,113 ; 
in 1839, to 165,602 ; in 1840, to 166,089 ; and in 1841, to 166,554. 

From the returns it appears (Report, p. 180,) that in Edinburgh, 
exclusive of Leith, although on an average of years the number of 
female deaths is greater than the number of male deaths by 3*194 
per cent, owing to there being a much greater proportion of females 
than males in that city, the female life is better than the male life 
by 0*500 per cent. ; while (page 182,) in Glasgow, though the number 
of male deaths is 5-30 per cent, greater than the number of female 
deaths, the female life is only 0*462 per cent, better than the male life. 
In Aberdeen, the female life is better than the male life by 0*483 
per cent., and the number of female deaths is greater than the 
number of male deaths by 0*819 per cent. In Perth, the female life 
is better than the male life, by 0*207 per cent., and the number of 
female deaths is 6-104 per cent, greater than the number of male 
deaths. And in Dundee, the female life is 0*332 per cent, better than 
the male life, though the number of female deaths is 2*551 per cent, 
greater than the number of male deaths. 

The following Table exhibits the average annual deaths, for three 
years, in Edinburgh and Dundee, and for five years, in Glasgow, Aber- 
deen, and Perth, with the proportion to the total average annual 
deaths of each of a series of diseases. 



Mil. Watt <m tlve Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland, 119 



TABLE III. 



DISEASES. 



Accidents,.... 

Aged, 

Asthma, , 

Bowel Complts., 

Catarrh, , 

ChUdbirth, 

Croup, 

Declme, 

Dropsy, 

Fever, 

Head, of, 

Heart, of, 

Hoopingcough, 
Inflammation, ... 

Measles, 

Nervous, 

Scarlet Fever,... 
Small Pox, .. 
Miscellaneous, ... 



Total Ascertd., 



Total Not Do. 



Total Deaths,... 



EoiNBURau. 
Mkan PoputA. 

137,986. 
FOB 1839^0-41 



Is 

P 

< 



82 
433i 

m 

23H 
12 
27i| 
49^ 

602^ 

128 

325 

302^ 
51 

118 

271i 

104 
21f 
72* 
77i 

215 



3186^ 



333* 



3520 



11 

5 5^ 



42-92 

8-12 

56-17 

15-21 

293-33 

128-78 

71-35 

5-84 

27-00 

10-83 

11-63 

69-02 

29-83 

12-97 

33-84 

162-46 

48-66 

45-51 

16-37 



1-10 



10-56 



1-00 



Glaboow. 
Mean Popdla. 

2<54,01O, 

FOB 1837-38-39- 

40-41. 






189^ 
744| 
203| 
977| 

98* 

84*1 

165* 

1383* 

263* 

1176* 

456* 

53 
436* 
489* 
523* 

55* 
254* 
381* 
283* 



8220* 



t^ 8 



1 toerery 

44-80 
11-39 
41-68 

8-68 
86-42 
00-79 
51-37 

6-13 
32-22 

7-21 
18-58 
160-13 
19-44 
17-33 
16-20 
153-74 
33-31 
22-26 
29-92 



1-03 



266* 31-88 



8486* 1-00 



Abbbdebn. 

POPCLA. 



FOB 1837-38-39- 
40-41. 



1. 

ii 

e « 



14* 

80* 

13* 

22* 

6* 



3*126-88 



3 

51* 
14* 
61* 

27* 
2* 
7* 



17 
13* 
11 
40 



431* 



842* 



1274* 



32 

n. 






29-98 
5-33 
31-72 
18-92 
67-40 



143-80 

8-32 

30-38 

7-02 

15-51 

196-10 

56-76 

14-19 

10*1 42-29 

25-37 

32-19 

39-21 

10-78 



1-00 



Pbbth. 
BlBAir PopcL. 

19,435. 
FOB 1837-38- 

39-40-41. 



i 

8* 

Is 



13 
105*1 
23* 
33* 
13* 
3 

11* 
63* 

17* 
38* 

41* 
4* 
18* 
27* 
18 
22* 
13* 

n 

22* 



11 

f-aS 

C fl > 

ll 



1 to tr*n 

39-47 
4-86 
21-56 
15-36 
38-29 

171-06 
45-82 
8-04 
28-83 
13-43 
12-39 

106-91 
28-19 
18-86 
28-51 
23-11 
37-73 
52-36 
23-11 



500* 1-02 



12* 40-09 



513* 1-00 



DOSDBB 
BiEAN POPOLA. 



FOB 1839-40-41. 



1^ 
1^ 



34 

132*1 

50 
157 



in 

ll 



42-42 

10-89 

28-83 

9-I8 

16*1 88-26 



11* 

22 
179 

61* 
121* 

89 

13* 

74 

85* 
106 

23 

72 

83*i 

72 



127-20 
65-53 
8-05 
23-50 
11-88 
16-19 

108-12 
19-48 
16-82 
13-60 
62-68 
20-02 
17-23 
20-02 



1403*1 



1-02 



38 



*|37 



60 



1441 



i 



1.00 



The proportions which tho Diseases, stated in the above Table, bear 
to the whole amount of Deaths, and also to the Populations of each of 
the towns respectively, are given in the Tables contained in the Report 
already referred to ; and, what is of still greater importance, the ages 
at which death takes place bj the various diseases are carefully 
exhibited. 

It had occurred to me, on drawing up papers on the Vital Statistics 
of Glasgow and of Edinburgh, that the uniformity of certain results 
was deserving of particular notice, and led me to the belief, that by a 
more extended field of observation, it would be found that this uni- 
formity was not accidental, but the result of certain specific laws of 
mortality operating at different ages. It will be perceived that this 
view of the case is very much strengthened by facts brought forward 
in the Report on the Vital Statistics of five large towns of Scotland ; 



120 Me. Watt on the Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland. 

and they are still further confirmed bj the results exhibited in the 
Mortality Bill of this city for 1842. 

The most striking uniformity in the amount of deaths, caused by 
any of the diseases at certain ages, is in the cases of fever in Edin- 
burgh and Glasgow. It will be found that in Edinburgh the average 
annual amoimt of fatal cases of fever, for the three years ending with 
1841, is 325, or 0*235 per cent of the mean population these years ; 
and, in Glasgow, the average annual amount of fatal cases of fever, 
for the five years ending with 1841, is 1156 J, or 0*445 per cent, of 
the mean population of these years. Notwithstanding the difference 
in the amount of deaths by fever, in these two cities, it is found that 
the amount of deaths which occur by that disease, under five, under 
twenty, and at twenty years of age, and upwards, bear an uniform pro- 
portion to the whole fatal cases of fever in these two towns respectively. 
The following figures show that the difference is very small indeed : — 

In Edinburgh. In Glasgow. 
Per cent. Per cent. 

Proportion of deaths, under 5 years, 'J 

caused by fever, to the whole > 12*41 12*07 

deaths by that disease, j 

Do. do.— under 20 years, . . 29*74 29*05 

Do. do.— 20 years and upwards, . 7025 70*94 

I have deduced similar results for eruptive and other diseases, 
for these towns, although some of them are not so very close to each 
other as the foregoing, arising from causes yet to be ascertained, 
yet it will be found that they are very nearly the same. Nor are these 
results confined to the operation of these diseases in the Scotch towns, 
as is obvious from the following abstract : — 

In Manchesteb. In Liverpool. 
Per cent. Per cent. 

Proportion of deaths, under 5 years, ^ 

caused by measles, to the whole > 92*49 91*27 

deaths by that disease,* J 

Do. do.— under 20 years, . . 99*35 99*75 

Do. do. — 20 years and upwards, . 0*64 024 

While there is such a great similarity in the proportions in the 
amount of deaths by measles, at the several ages, in these towns, it 
will be observed that the proportion of the whole of these cases to the 
population in Manchester is 0*275 per cent, and only 0*146 per cent 
in Liverpool, for the year for which the example is given. 

That there are specific laws which govern the amount of deaths, by 
the various diseases, is very strongly confirmed by the proportions 
exhibited in the Glasgow Mortality Bill for 1842, (not yet published,) 

• For the year 1839. 



Mb. Watt (m the Vital Statistics of five large Towns of Scotland. 121 



corresponding with those formerly brought forward, for an average of 
years. We may take small-pox, as an example : — 



Proportion of deaths, under 5 years') 
of age, caused by small-pox, to > 
the whole deaths by that disease, J 
Do. do. — under 20 years. 
Do. do. — 20 years and upwards. 



In Eoinburgd, 

During an 

average of years. 

Per cent. 

82-68 

95-23 
4-76 



In Glasgow, 

During 1842. 

Per cent. 

82-33 

96-70 
3-29 



So far as has yet been proved, the results for a series of former 
years, for Glasgow, and those for 1842 are also very nearly the same, 
more especially in the case of measles. 

It is not the least remarkable of the results exhibited in relation to 
the Vital Statistics of Scotch towns, that the proportions of deaths 
at various ages, caused by the diseases classed under the head of 
bowel complaint, are nearly the same, more especially in Edinburgh 
and Perth, notwithstanding the inaccuracies which may be expected 
to arise from the present mode of registering these complaints. 

The following is the annual average proportion which the deaths by 
bowel complaint, at different ages, bear to the whole annual average 
deaths by that complaint, in different towns, and also to the population. 



AOEa 


Edinburgh. 


Perth. 


Dundee. 


Glasgow. 


Ill 

1°^ 


I.I 

0.0 3 


Ill 




5 O.C 

Pk 


111 


Hi 
III 


n 


Under 2 years of age. 

Under 5 years, 

Under 20 years, 

20 years and upwards, 


Per Cent. 

79-106 
85-014 
'87-608 
12-391 


Per Cent. 

0-132 
0-142 
0-146 
0-020 


Per Cent. 

79-041 
82-634 
85-029 
14-970 


Per Cent. 

0-135 
0-142 
0-146 
0-025 


Per Cent. 

77-919 
84-288 
86-836 
13-163 


Per Cent. 

0-204 
0-221 
0-228 
0034 


Per Cent. 

84-066 

90-693 

93-475 

6-524 


Percent. 

0-311 
0-335 
0-346 
0-023 



It will be observed, from the above Table, that the proportions for 
Glasgow and Dundee are not quite so close to each other as those for 
Edinburgh and Perth. In the prosecution of this subject, as I have 
observed elsewhere, it may bo found that these differences arise from 
the peculiar habits or condition of the people, together with the local 
circumstances of towns. In the meantime, however, a considerable 
portion of the differences in these results may safely be attributed to 
inaccuracies in the registration of the disease. 

I am the more particular in directing attention to the operation of 
these laws, which appear to govern the amount of mortality at differ- 
ent ages by the several diseases, as they have hitherto escaped observa- 
tion ; and the examples thus brought forward seem to warrant the 



122 Mr. Watt on the Vital Statistics of Jive large Toums of Scotland. 

belief, that under more advantageous circumstances, in respect to the 
better registration of the causes of death, the precise effects of these 
laws may bo so clearly established, as to place the science of vital 
statistics upon a more certain basis, and lead to the adoption of such 
sanatory regulations as to secure — what may be esteemed one of the 
greatest blessings to a community — a healthy population. 

I would farther observe, that many of the results brought forward 
in the tables, and in the general remarks upon them, now published 
in the volume of the British Association, tend to prove that the excess 
of mortality in various localities, is as the condition of the people and 
the local circumstances of towns. This is exemplified to a considerable 
extent by a comparison of the mortality at different ages in London 
and Manchester, with that of Edinburgh and Glasgow at the same 
ages. It cannot escape observation, that with the exception of the 
difference in the amount of their populations, London and Edinburgh 
bear a great resemblance to each other, as to the general condition 
and occupations of their inhabitants ; and it is well known, that Man- 
chester and Glasgow bear a close resemblance to each other in these 
respects. The figures in the three tables given in the original report 
exhibiting the comparative mortality of five English towns, prove that 
the mortality of Manchester at different ages, bears the same proportion 
to that of London, as the mortality of Glasgow at the same ages bears 
to that of Edinburgh. Though the three tables for the English towns, 
substituted for those in the original report, for the very proper reasons 
stated by the chairman in his introduction to the report, do not give 
the figures which exhibit this fact in the most striking light, they 
may be obtained from them ; and although these figures do not turn 
out to be precisely the same as those contained in the original tables, 
they are not very different 

The facts recorded, (Report, Table No. 74, page 185,) show that 
the mortality under five years of age in Glasgow, is greater than it is 
in Edinburgh under the same age by 10*96 per cent.,* while (No. 
75, page 186,) it is found, that the mortality in Manchester under five 
years of age is 10*83 per cent, greater than it is in London under the 
same age. Again, (Table 76,) it will be seen that in Glasgow the 
mortality under 20 years of age is 12*07 per cent, greater than in 
Edinburgh under that age ; and (Table 77,) it will be found that the 
mortality in Manchester under 20 years of age is 11*76 per cent, 
greater than in London under the same age. It will also be observed, 
(Table 78,) that in Glasgow the mortality at 20 years and upwards, is 
12*07 per cent, less than it is in Edinburgh ; while (Table 79,) it will 
be found that the mortality at 20 years and upwards in Manchester 
is 11.76 per cent less than it is in London. 



* It will be observed, that these per centages are of the whole deaths in each town 
respectively. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examination of the Cowdie Pine Resin. 123 

As it is only the amount of parties buried, and not the amount of 
parties who die within the limits of these towns, that we obtain from 
our present Registers, we can therefore only come to a knowledge of 
the comparative sanatory conditions of these towns by attending to the 
ages at which death takes place. 

The important results obtained from a comparison of the mortality 
of these towns, are well wortliy of consideration, and in connection 
with the other facts brought forward, strongly prove that it is more 
from the prevention of disease than from the curing of it, that we are 
to expect the greatest advantage to the well-being of our town popula- 
tion. And it is to our municipal authorities, as well as to the legisla- 
ture, that we are to look for carrying out such sanatory improvements 
as may promote the health, and consequently, the general happiness of 
the people. 

Professor Gordon made some observations on the causes of acci- 
dents in coal mines, and on the proper means of ventilating the latter. 

A committee, consisting of Professor Andrew Buchanan, Mr. Watt, 
and R. D. Thomson, M.D., were appointed to report on the means of 
improving the state of Vital Statistics in Scotland, and the condition 
of the people in reference to disease. 



\6th March, 1843, — The Vice-President in the Chair. 

Messrs. William Keddie, John M* Andrew, and Andrew J. Duncan, 
were admitted as members. 

Mr. James Thomson, C.E., made a communication on the atmos- 
pherical railway. 

The following paper was read : — 

XXXIII. — Examination of the Cowdie Pine Besin, 
By Robert D. Thomson, M.D. 

The Cowdie Resin has been known for some years to those botanists 
who are familiar with the vegetation of New Zealand. Mr. Robert 
Brown informs me that he possesses a very large and elegant specimen 
of this substance ; but it does not appear to have hitherto attracted the 
attention of chemists. I have been acquainted with its external pro- 
perties for some years, from a specimen in our private chemical 
museum in the college, but it was only in the course of last spring 
that my attention was particularly called to its examination, in conse- 
quence of having large and beautiful specimens presented to me, by 
my friend. Dr. Ernst Dieflfenbach, formerly of Giessen, and lately 
naturalist to the New Zealand Company, who, by his laborious and 
indefatigable exertions, while resident in New Zealand, has contri- 



124 Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examination of the Cowdie Pine Resin. 

buted so extensively to our knowledge of the moral and physical con- 
dition of that interesting British colony. — {See Dieffenhaclis Travels 
in New Zealand, London, 8co, 2 ^o?s.) 

I am indebted to Mr. Robert Brown for the information that this 
rosin is derived from the Dammara Australis — a tree which belongs to 
the natural order Coniferw and division Abietince. — {See also Lam- 
herfs Pines.) The resin is, I believe, known by the native name of 
"Cotvdie,^^ and, in consequence, the tree from which it exudes is 
usually termed the " Cowdie Pine." There is an excellent specimen 
of this tree in the Glasgow Botanic Garden, on which I have been 
able to detect distinct traces of a resinous exudation. In the same 
garden, also, there is a specimen of the Dammara orientalis, from which 
the dammara resin, previously described by chemical writers, is pro- 
bably derived ; {Lecanu and Brandes. Tliomsons Veget. CJiem., p. 538 ;) 
and on the stem of this species, also, I have observed unequivocal 
proofs of the presence of a resin. The cowdie resin occurs in large 
masses, from the size of the fist to a much greater magnitude. It is 
transparent when freshly fractured ; but, as it comes from New Zealand, 
generally it is slightly opalescent — a character which is said to be 
produced by the action of water or moisture. The colour of the resin 
is light amber. It is easily fused, and then emits a resinous or tur- 
pentine odour. A small portion of the resin dissolves in weak alcohol, 
but the greater part remains insoluble. The solution in alcohol evolves 
the smell of turpentine. The resin, when agitated with hot absolute 
alcohol, forms a fine varnish, which might be found valuable in the 
arts. A similar result follows its treatment with oil of turpentine. 
Sulphuric acid dissolves it ; and water, added to the solution, precipi- 
tates the resin in flocks. 

Resins are usually divided into two classes, and are termed, accord- 
ing to their characters, acid and neutral resins. The cowdie resin 
appears to belong to both of these classes. When boiled with spirits, 
a portion of the resin dissolves, and there remains a white resin, which 
is insoluble in weaker spirits, but which forms, with absolute alcohol, 
a fine transparent varnish. That portion of the resin which dissolves 
in weak alcohol, possesses all the characters of an acid, forming salts 
with metallic oxides, and is not precipitated by ammonia ; while the 
precipitate, occasioned by adding water to the alcoholic solution, is 
quite soluble in ammonia. The alcoholic solution of the acid portion 
of the resin reddens vegetable blues. I propose to term it JDammaric 
acid ; while the residual white resin may be called Dammaran, to dis- 
tinguish it from the Dammarin of Lecanu and Brandes. 

ENTIRE RESIN. 

The entire resin, without the action of any chemical reagent, was 
pulverized and dried at 212** F., and afforded, in two analyses, the fol- 
lowing results, when burned with oxide of copper : — 



Dr. R. D. Thomson's ExaminaJtvon of the Cowdie Pine Besm. 126 

I. 9-435 grs. gave 25-71 grs. CO,, and 8-73 grs. HO. 
II. 5-G9 do. 15-565 grs. C0» 
Hence wo have — 

L II. Mean. 

Carbon 74-30 74-60 74-45 

Hydrogen, .... 10-28 10-28 

Oxjgen, 15-42 1527 



100-00 10000 

To determine whether the resin was sufficiently dried, a portion 
was fused and exposed to a temperature of 350° for some time. The 
following were the results of two analyses : — 

I. 6-97 grs. gave 19-30 grs. CO^, and 6-18 grs. HO. 
II. 7-96 do. 6-93 grs. HO. 
This is equivalent to — 

I. II. Mean. 

Carbon, 75-46 75-46 

Hydrogen, .... 9-85 9-67 9*76 

Oxygen, 14-69 14-78 



100-00 100-00 

From these data we may deduce the following composition : — I use 
-75 for carbon ; — that being the number employed by Dr. Thomson 
since 1813, as deduced by him from the specific gravity of carbonic 
acid and composition of defiant gas. The number of Professor Liebig 
(•758,) is so near this that the formula will scarcely be altered by the 
use of the latter number. 

Calculation. Experiment. 

Carbon, ... -75 x 40 = 30- = 75-23 75-46 

Hydrogen, . . -125 X 31 = 3-875 = 973 976 

Oxygen, ... 1- x 6 = 6- = 1504 14-78 



39-875 10000 100-00 

The close correspondence of the theoretical and practical results in 
reference to the hydrogen, may lead us with some degree of confidence 
to assume the following formula, as representing the composition of 
the Cowdie Resin 

C^o H31 Ofi 

and adopting an analogous view to that of Professor Liebig, in refer- 
ence to the composition of turpentine resins, we may consider the 
basis of the resin 

Cit Haa g 

becoming by the substitution of one atom of oxygen, and the addition 
of 5 atoms of oxygen, 

C« H^ 0+^» 

No. 7. 2 



126 Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examination of the Cotvdie Pine Resin. 

HYDROUS DAMMARIC ACID. 
The resin was boiled in successive portions of alcohol, until the 
latter ceased to dissolve any more of it The solution was then pre- 
cipitated by water. The precipitated rosin was washed and dried at 
the temperature of 212^ F. (100° C.) but not fused. 
6*9 grs. gave when burned with oxide of copper 

18-39 grs. CO2 and 5-78 grs. HO. 
The result is therefore for the hydrous acid :— • 

Experiment. Calculated. 

Carbon, . . . 72-69 . . 73-39 . . 40 atoms. 
Hydrogen, . . 931 . . 947 . . 31 
Oxygen, . . . 1800 . . 17-14 . . 7 



100-00 100-00 

This approaches the formula C40 H3, O7. 

If the alcoholic solution of the dammaric acid be allowed to evaporate 
spontaneously, the resin is deposited apparently in the form of crys- 
talline grains. 

ANHYDROUS DAMMARIC ACID. 
To determine the atomic weight, a solution of dammaric acid in 
alcohol was mixed with an alcoholic solution of nitrate of silver, to 
which some caustic ammonia had been added, at the boiling tempera- 
ture ; the silver salt after being washed and dried was analysed ; — 

4-26 grs. gave by ignition -58 Silver = '622 Oxide of Silver. 
From which we have — 

Oxide of Silver, .... 14-60 14-75 1 atom. 
Dammaric Acid, . . . 85-40 86*27 2 atoms. 
To determine the composition of the anhydrous acid, the silver sal 
was analysed. 

6*62 grs. gave when burned with oxide of copper, 15-73 CO2 
and 5-39 HO. 
The composition of the silver salt is, therefore. 
Carbon, . . . 64.78 65-45\ 



Hydrogen, . . 9*01 


911 


Atomic weight = 8627 


Oxygen, . . . 11-61 


11-72 




or 43-13 X 2 


Oxide of silver, 14-60 


14-75J 






10000 


10102 




that of the anhydrous acid 


is. 




Experiment. 




Calculation. 


Carbon, . . 75.85 = 


43 X -75 


= 32-25 75.43 


Hydrogen, . 10-56 = 


36 X -125 


= 4-5 10-52 


Oxygen, . . 1359 = 


6x 6- 




= 6 14-05 



10000 42-75 100-00 



Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examination of the C(ywdie Fine Resin. 127 

Hence the formula of the anhydrous acid corresponds with 

C4S Hm 0« 

and the silver salt is, 

Bidammarate of silver 2 (C43 H^ Oe) + A^ O 
Or if we view the analysis as giving an excess of hydrogen, the com- 
position of the anhydrous acid would be as follows : 

40 X -75 = 30- 75-47 

30 X -125 = 3-75 9-44 

6x6- =6- 1509* 

39.75 10000 
The formulae would then be 

Hydrous Acid Cm H^ OJ 

Anhydrous Acid, . . . C40 ^» O^ 

H 0=H0 
the difference being an atom of water. 

DAMMARAN. 
I give this name to the substance remaining after the separation 
of the dammaric acid. It is a fine white brittle resin, apparently 
insoluble in weaker spirit, but forming with absolute alcohol a beautiful 
colourless varnish, and also, a similar preparation with oil of turpentine. 
This substance appears to be identical in composition with the resin. 
When dried at 212°, (100 C.) its composition was found to be as fol- 
lows : — 

7'4 grs. gave wiien burned with oxide of copper, CO2 20*36, HO 6'4. 
This is equivalent to, 

Carbon 75*02 

Hydrogen, 9*60 

Oxygen, 1538* 

100-00 
If we compare this with the formula, €4^ H,, Og, we shall find that 
it corresponds very closely. 

By exposing this substance to a higher and longer continued heat, 
it was found to absorb oxygen pretty rapidly, and to alter, of course, 
in its composition, as appears by the two following analyses : — 
L 6-57 grs. gave 1675 CO, and 57 HO. 
II. 7*64 grs. gave 20*33 CO^ and 6*7 HO. 

Dried at 300* for 3 days. Dried at 350° for 4 days. 

Carbon, . . . 72*56 . 69*25 

Hydrogen, . . 9*74 10*32 

Oxygen, . . . 17*70 20*43 

100*00 100*00 

* By Mr. David Miller, Laboratory Assistant. 



128 Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examination of the Cowdie Fine Resin. 

The influence of heat may lience account in some degree for the 
more rapid formation of resins from oils of the turpentine type in 
warm countries, and also for the greater solidity which resins acquire 
than in more temperate latitudes. 

DAMMAROL. 

When the Cowdie resin is exposed to the heat of a spirit-lamp, it 
melts, and, by the continuation of not too high a temperature, heavy 
vapours arise which gradually and slowly pass over, and condense in 
the receiver in the form of a fine amber-coloured oil swimming on the 
surface of water. It is obvious, therefore, that by this treatment the 
resin has been resolved into dammarol and water. By evaporation 
at 300°, the water disappears and the oil remains. It boils at a high 
temperature. 5*98 grs. gave when burned with oxide of copper, 18*03 
grs. CO2 and 6.02 HO. 

The composition of dammarol is, therefore, — 

Carbon, 82'22 

Hydrogen, 11*14 

Oxygen, 6*64 

10000 
The following would be the composition if the formula were C40 
Has O3, supposing that three atoms of water were detached from the 
resin to form dammarol. 

Carbon, 82-19 .... 40 

Hydrogen, 9-56 . ... 28 

Oxygen, 8-25 .... 3 

100-00 

The analysis gives an excess of hydrogen, proceeding from the 
retention of water. 

The action of heat upon resins was known as early as 1688, 
(Memoires de V Academic Boyale des Sciences de Paris, 1688,*) and 
the relative proportions of water and oil obtained by the distillation of 
these bodies were accurately noted. Colophan or common rosin, for 
example, it is stated when distilled in the quantity of two pounds, 
afforded 26 ounces 4 drs. of oil, and 3 ounces 1 dr. of an acid liquor. 
Neumann, a most sagacious chemical writer, whose works may even 
yet be consulted with benefit by modem chemists, was well aware of 
the nature of the products of the distillation of resins, and of the 
derivation of resins from essential oils. ** Essential oils," he says, 
"by digestion or heat, (Neumann^s CfJiemistry, by Lewis, 4<o, 1758, p. 
269,) change into balsams, and at length into brittle resins. Distilled 
again in this state, they yield like most of the natural resins, a portion 
of fluid oil." 

* See also Collection de pieces Academiqws, Tome I. p. 141.— 1754. 



De. R. D. Thomson's ExamincaUm of the Cawdie Pine Resiru 129 

DAMMARONE. 
When dammara rosin is finclj pounded and mixed intimately with 
five or six times its weight of quick-lime, and the united powders are 
distilled by the low heat of a spirit-lamp, either in a tube retort, or in 
a larger vessel, if the quantity experimented on is more considerable, 
dense white fumes speedily make their appearance, which condense in 
the receiver first in the form of water, having an ethereal odor, and 
gradually as a thick amber coloured oil which floats on the surface of 
tho water. By the application of a heat of 300", tho water soon dis- 
appears, while a dark oil remains, which may be further purified by 
rectification. This oil is exceedingly liquid when hot, but on cooling 
and exposure to tho air, it becomes thicker. Its boiling point is above 
270° F. It burns with a dense smoke, and is soluble in alcohol 

43 grs. gave when bunied with oxide of copper, 13*59 COi 
and 4-4G5 grs. IIO. 
This is equivalent to. 

Carbon, 86-22 

Hydrogen, 11.53 

Oxygen, 225 



100- 
The result corresponds with the following calculation : — 
Carbon, ... 38 X '75 =28-5 85-39 

Hydrogen, . . 31 X '125 = 3875 11-61 
Oxygen, ... 1x1- =1* 300 



33-375 100-00 
There is an excess of carbon in the analysis, which I believe to be 
owing to the very great difficulty of separating the whole of the carbo- 
hydrogen oil which forms tho basis of tho resin, and is disengaged in 
the first stage of the distillation. All those who have made researches 
on resins, are familiar with this obstacle to precise formulae. If we 
compare this formula with that of dammaran, the action is pretty 
obvious. 

Dammaran, . C^o Hsi 0« 

Dammarone, . C« IIsi O 



C, 05 = 2C0, + 

By this it appears that two atoms of carbonic acid have been 
removed, and ono atom of oxygen ; that carbonic acid is fixed by the 
lime, is proved by the effervescence of the residue in the retort on the 
addition of an acid. The cause of the disappearance of the oxygen is 
not so clear ; and I therefore prefer the following formula, where the 
removal of the oxygen is accounted for :-^ 



130 Dr. R. D. Thomson's Examinatum of the Caufdie Pine Resin. 

Carbon, . . . 
Hjdrogen, . . 
Oxjgen, . , . 



38 


X 


•75 


-— 


28-5 


85-64 


30 


X 


•125 


= 


375 


11-27 


1 


X 


•1 


=â–  


!• 


3-09 



The comparative formula will then be — 
C40 H31 Ofl 
C« H35 



33-25 lOO-OO 



2 15 = 2CO2+HO 

The preceding experiments assist in carrying out certain generaKsa- 
tions which had been deduced from a more limited series of data, and 
serve to confirm the idea of the analogy of the resins, and of their 
derivation from an oil of the turpentine type. 

The resins, perhaps, are more interesting to the chemist than at 
first appears, from their analogy to other bodies of vegetable and 
animal origin. Whether their basic oils are derived from the deoxida- 
tion of other bodies in plants supplied with a larger amount of oxygen, 
or are formed directly from their gaseous constituents, is subject for 
inquiry. If it be true that plants evolve no heat, (although it is not 
easy to comprehend how gases can be condensed without such a dis- 
engagement,) then it would appear that no combination of carbon and 
oxygen — ^no proper combustion, such as occurs in the animal system, 
takes place in plants ; and hence it would follow that the essential oils 
are formed directly from their elementary constituents. But the state- 
ment (Brongniart,) which has been made, that plants evolve heat in 
fertilization, that oxygen is absorbed, and carbonic acid given out, 
would appear to favour the idea that combustion can occur in plants 
as well as in animals. The admission of the operation of this process 
in plants would throw much light on the following table, representing 
a descending series, with the exception of the first, into which some 
bodies of animal origin are introduced for the same of comparison : — 

Protein, C48 Hge O,* Ne 

Gum, .• C48 H44 0,4 

Starch, C48 H40 O40 

Base of Cane Sugar, . . C48 H36 O36 

Fat, ........ C44 H40 O4 

Bees- Wax, C40 H40 Oa 

Dammaran, C40 H3, Oe 

Cholesterin, C38 H32 

Base of the Resins, . . . C40 H32 

In reference to the preceding table, the analogies of starch and gum 
are sufficiently apparent in the analysis of flour, while the conversion 
of starch into sugar, by artificial methods, and in vegetation, is too 
well known to require more than a notice. The production of wax 



Dr. Buchanan <m the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 181 

from sugar was long ago shown by Huber, and has recently been hap- 
pily brought forward by Liebig, in evidence of the purposes which 
sugar and starch fulfil in the respiratory economy. The intermediate 
position which fat sustains between sugar and wax, renders the yiews 
of Liebig, with respect to the production of fat from starch, highly 
probable ; and I am strongly inclined to infer that cholesterin occupies 
a lower stage in the reducing process, from the fact of my having 
obtained from it different products, and one approaching naphtha in 
its odour and apparent composition, and from various other considera- 
tions, which I hope soon to be able to detail more fully. The pos- 
sibility of the derivation of turpentine oils and resins from starch and 
sugar scarcely requires to be pointed out 

Note. — Since writing the above, the observation by the French 
chemists of the existence of stearic acid in wax, confirms the plausi- 
bility of Liebig's view of the analogy of fat and wax, and strengthens 
the opinion which I have long entertained, that cholesterin is the wax 
of mammiferous animals.. 



29th Marchf 1843, — -The Vice-Pkesident in the Chair. 

The report on the present state of Vital Statistics in Scotland 
was read, and referred to a committee.. 

XXXIV. — On the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids, the Mode in 
which it coagulates^ and the Transformations which it undergoes. By 
Andrew Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine^ 
University of Glasgow, 

I. — characters of the fibrin in the antmal fluids. 

The substances named Fibrin by physiologists do not seem to be all 
identical in chemical composition. The buffy coat of the blood has been 
recently ascertained to comport itself quite differently with chemical 
reagents, from the substance which forms the basis of muscular fibre. 
The same is probably true of all the substances to be here spoken of, as 
they are more analogous to the former than to the latter modification 
of Fibrin. Still farther, they probably vary in chemical composition 
in the successive changes of condition which they are observed to 
undergo. 

The substances, to which I wish here to direct your attention, are 
distinguished by the following characters. They all form part of 
certain animal fluids, of the serous or albuminous class, from which, 
when withdrawn from the body, they separate spontaneously, concreting 



132 Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

into a soft tremulous mass. The circumstance of their existing in the 
liquid form distinguishes them from the solid fibrin of the muscles ; 
while their spontaneous coagulability distinguishes them from albu- 
men, which they closely resemble in all other respects, and which is 
the chief animal principle found in the liquids in which they occur. 

II. ANIMAL FLUIDS CONTAINING FIBRIN. 

The principal animal fluids, which contain fibrin, are the Blood ; 
the Lymph of the lymphatic vessels ; the Liquid of Blisters ; the 
Coagulable Lymph, as it is usually called, met with under circum- 
stances to be mentioned hereafter ; and lastly, the liquid of the pro- 
perties of which I had the honour to read to the Society an account 
in the year 1836, formed by the mixture of the scrum of the blood 
with serum from cavities lined by serous membranes. 

III. — OBJECTS OF THIS MEMOIR. 

1. The fibrin, existing in these liquids, is usually held to exist in 
them in a state of solution ; only passing to the solid state after they 
are withdrawn from the body, during coagulation. I believe that 
opinion to be erroneous : and the first object of this paper is to show, 
that the fibrin does not exist in those liquids in the state of solution, 
but exists while yet within the body, already solidified, and organized 
in the form of granules and vesicles ; and that the process of coagula- 
tion consists, simply, in the aggregation of these minute granules and 
vesicles into a mass visible by the naked eye. This can only be 
demonstrated by observing the coagulable liquids, under the micro- 
scope, before, during, and after coagulation. 

2. The second object of this paper is to show, that the fibrinous 
granules and vesicles contained in these coagulable liquids are 
probably identical with the cell-germs and cells out of which, accord- 
ing to the doctrine of Sclileiden and Schwann, all the tissues of the 
body are developed. 

3. My third object is to show in what way the fibrinous granules 
and vesicles are transformed into corpuscles of purulent matter ; and 
that most probably they are converted also by an analogous process 
into the red corpuscles of the blood. 

4. I shall last of all offer some conjectures as to the mode in which 
these granules and vesicles originate in the serous fluids. 

I do not intend to discuss these subjects in the order in which they 
are hero mentioned, but merely point them out as those, on which the 
following observations upon the serous fluids containing fibrin are 
chiefly intended to bear, and which I shall illustrate as opportunity 
occurs. I begin with the fluid of blisters, as being that which is most 
easily procured for observation, and which illustrates, in the most 
striking manner, several of the subjects just enumerated. 



De. Buchanan mi the Fibrin contained in tfi£ Animal Fluids. 133 



rV. — BLISTEB LIQUID. 

1. Mode in which Blisters are produced. — It is well-known that 
when a cantharides plaster, or other local irritant is applied to the 
skin, the epidermis is detached from the corium, and raised in a 
blister. This detachment implies, that the fluid contained in the 
blister has been poured out with so much force from the surface of 
the corium, as to rupture all the organic connections between the 
corium and epidermis. There are no vascular connections between 
these tissues, but the epidermis is bound down by the ducts of the 
sudoriparous glands and sebaceous follicles, which must of course be 
ruptured whenever a blister rises on the skin. The epidermis is also 
bound down by the hairs, which constitute a much firmer bond of 
connection, and accordingly, the irritation and other circumstances 
being the same, it is the number of hairs arising from the surface that 
determines the size of the blister produced. Hence it is, that bhsters 
upon the head are generally said not to rise, the minute vesications 
produced occupying only the interstices between the hairs, and not 
attaining the largo size which they often have upon the breast, sides, 
and other parts less provided with hairs. 

2. Sources of Liquid. — Whence does the liquid of blisters proceed ? 
As it is formed instantaneously in cases of scalding, it might be sup- 
posed to proceed from ruptured vessels, but there is no reason to 
think that any vessels are ruptured in the process of vesication. The 
liquid proceeds, in all likelihood, almost entirely from the capillary 
vessels which are ramified so plentifully on the surface of the skin, 
and which, when they are distended with blood in inflammation, pro- 
duce similar vesications. Nevertheless, as the liquid of blisters is not 
quite identical with the serum of the blood, it is not improbable that 
a small portion of it may proceed from the large lymphatic vessels on 
the surface, and from tho ruptured ducts of the sudoriparous and 
sebaceous glands. 

3. Qualities o/, and changes which it undergoes.— Hho phenomena 
exhibited by the blister liquid at different periods after effusion, has 
not, so far as I know, attracted the attention of physiologists. The 
liquid portion of it has been frequently subjected to chemical analysis, 
but of the more interesting coagulable portion no notice has been 
taken. When the blister liquid is drawn off, soon after being effused, 
it yields a coagulum so small, that it may readily escape observation ; 
when it is not drawn off till later, the coagulum becomes more 
abundant, and generally tho more advanced the period of drawing it 
off, the more abundant is the coagulum. I once drew off, in a case of 
burn, about 4 oz. of serum from some large vesications several days 
old. The serum was perfectly liquid as it flowed into the cup in 
which I received it ; and also some time afterwards, when I transferred 
it from the cup into a bottle : but on examining it soon thereafter, it 



134 Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids, 

had formed a firm coagulum, occupying at first the whole extent of 
the liquid, but gradually contracting in size. It may be affirmed, 
then, in general, that if the vesicated skin has not been so much 
injured as to interfere with its healthy actions, the blister-liquid 
always yields a coagulum of fibrin, which becomes more and more 
abundant, as the blister is the longer unbroken, up to the period when 
coagulation takes place within the blister itself. This period occurs 
sooner or later, according to the size of the blister, the vigor of the 
constitution, and probably other circumstances not yet ascertained. 
The coagulation is sometimes so complete after the application of a 
blister during twelve hours, that the liquid drawn off yields little or 
no fibrin; and sometimes, as iu the case just mentioned, the fibrin is 
not coagulated when the blister is several days old. 

4. Contains microscopic globules, which form coagulum. — We have 
thus the process of coagulation taking place in circumstances 
peculiarly favourable for determining its nature,, for we can examine 
the liquid before, during, and after coagulation, and thus witness all 
the steps of the process. 

"When we examine the liquid under the microscope immediately 
after being withdrawn from the blister, or shortly thereafter, we find 
it to contain transparent vesicles floating free in the liquid. These 
vesicles are pretty uniform in size, are nucleolated, and resemble very 
closely the corpuscles of the blood. (Fig. 1.) Their number varies 
in different cases. When they are very numerous they speedily attract 
each other, and run together into a mass of fibrin. This mass is at 
first distinctly seen to be made up of a congeries of the vesicular 
corpuscles, (Fig. 2.) but it continues, probably under the influence of 

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 




EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS. 

Fig. 1st, Appearance of Blister Liquid soon after being drawn off. Vesicles mostly 
isolated : a few of them coalescent, forming small masses of fibrin. 

Fig. 2dj A coagulum of Fibrin, in which the vesicular structure is still distinctly 
'visible. 



Dr. Buchanan on ther fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 135 

tho same attractive power, to dimiDish in size, and some of the con- 
stituent corpuscles contracting more than others, their appearance is 
variously altered and disguised. 

Tho process of coagulation, then, seems to be a very simple one, 
consisting in the aggregation of the fibrinous globules and granules 
diffused through the liquid, bj a force perhaps little different from 
cohesive attraction. The observations recorded below, lead to the 
same conclusion as to tlie nature of the process in other instances. 
In all probability, the reason why the fibrinous globules do not coagu- 
late within tho vessels and cavities of the body is, that they are kept 
in equilibrium by the attraction of the contiguous tissues, which being 
themselves made up of similar corpuscles, probably possess a similar 
attractive power; but when the coagulable liquids are withdrawn 
from the body, the antagonist power is destroyed, and the fibrinous 
globules, under the influence of mutual attraction, are aggregated 
into a mass. 

If the coagulum first perceived in the blister liquid be removed 
immediately, free globules will still be observed in the liquid, and by 
and by a fresh coagulum will form ; and thus several successive 
coagulations may take place, before the liquid is seen altogether 
deprived of its globules. 

5. Formation of Jilaments, and reticular tissue in substance of coagu- 
lum. — After complete coagulation, the primary vesicles are no longer 
observed, their cavities being obliterated, and the membranous 
parietes converted into short solid filaments, inextricably interwoven 
with each other. On the first concretion of the fibrinous mass, it is 
voluminous, extending over the whole space occupied by the consti- 
tuent vesicles and their interstices. It soon, however, contracts to 
a smaller size, and the rapidity of the contraction is much accelerated 
by mechanical agitation, as by drawing the coagulum out of the liquid. 
After contraction, it has lost its transparency, and has the form of an 
opaque white membrane or thicker mass. In a thin shred of this 
mass placed under tho microscope, the vesicles of which it at first 
consisted, are found to have disappeared, leaving a homogeneous 
structure, of which from its density the constituent filaments are with 
difficulty perceived. Sometimes again distinct vesicles are seen here 
and there imbedded in tho coagulated mass. 

Tho mode of formation of tho reticular tissues, or those which have a 
basis of cellular membrane, does not appear to me to be, as it has been 
described by Schwann, by the division of vesicles elongated into fila- 
ments. No such process of division is ever seen in the fibrinous 
vesicles, while every mass of fibrin, from the moment of its formation, 
seems to affect the reticular form. Instead of this reticular form 
depending upon the arrangement of the parts of single vesicles, it 
depends on the arrangement of the vesicles in relation to each other, 
which, whether they retain their vesicular shape, or what more gener- 



136 Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

ally happens, become filamentous, always affect a reticular arrange- 
ment. This arrangement is less easily seen under the microscope than 
with the naked eye. The coagulum of the blister liquid does ^ot show 
it so distinctly as a loose coagulum, such as that of blood diluted with 
water before coagulation, or the coagulum which forms in the mixture 
of the serum of the blood with that of the serous cavities. 

6. Identity of the fibrinous vesicles and granules, with cells and cell- 
germs. — The tendency which the fibrinous granules and vesicles have 
to transform themselves into cellular membrane, appears to mo to 
render it probable, that they are identical with the cell-germs and 
cells out of which the tissues of the body are developed. According 
to Dr. Barry, these cells are not distinguishable under the micro- 
scope from blood-corpuscles, a character which applies exactly to the 
vesicles of the blister-liquid. 

7. Conversion of the fibrinous vesicles into Pus globules. — When the 
actions going on upon the vesicated surface are of a healthy char- 
acter, as soon as the fibrinous corpuscles are sufficiently abundant, 
they concrete into a coagulum. This coagulum hardens into a crust 
or scab, under the protection of which the epidermis is reproduced, 
and then the crust falls off. When, on the other hand, the actions are 
of an unhealthy character, whether from the severity of the original 
injury, or from the rupturo of the blister, and the consequent irrita- 
tion by the atmospheric air of the raw surface, the fibrinous globules 
gradually change their colour, and are converted into pus globules. 
This change seems to be effected by the liquid contained within the 
membranous vesicles becoming more and more opaque, and as this 
change of colour takes place, the globules gradually lose their attrac- 
tive power over each other ; hence the globules of laudable pus when 
examined under the microscope appear perfectly distinct, and have 
no tendency to aggregation. There are, however, upon all inflamed 
surfaces globules and granules in every stage of transition, from the 
transparent fibrinous, to the opaque purulent state. Many of these 
are more or less adherent, and constitute the flakes and layers of 
coagulable lymph observed upon inflamed surfaces. When these 
are examined under the microscope, they are found to consist of 
corpuscles of various sizes irregularly aggregated, and hence seems to 
have sprung the notion entertained by some pathologists, that pus 
globules are formed by the disintegration of globules of fibrin, or of 
blood ; the former of which, from an erroneous theory (as appears to 
me), of the mode in which they are produced, have been named 
" exudation globules.^' This notion is best refuted by observing the 
steps of the process described above ; and also by the size of the great 
majority of the globules of laudable pus, thus originating, being equal 
or little inferior to that of the blood globules or of those of fibrin. 

With respect to the process by which the transparent liquid within 
the fibrinous capsules is converted into an opaque one, I believe it 



De. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 137 

to bo analogous to the process by which serum exposed to the air is 
converted into an opaque liquid, which collects at the bottom, and 
which resembles pus in all its sensible qualities, but consists of irre- 
gular flocks instead of globules ; and it is not improbable, that some 
of the less healthy forms of pus which are more flocculent than glo- 
bular, originate in a similar way within the body. 

I believe that pus is never formed, as many maintain, in inflamed 
vessels and secreted from them. The formation of pus is most dis- 
tinctly observed in blisters upon the skin, in which we can watch the 
whole steps of the process, by which effused serum is converted into pus. 
Tho same gradual conversion of effused scrum into pus is observed in 
inflamed serous cavities. It may also be observed in the clear liquid 
which exudes from ulcerated surfaces, and which speedily thickens 
into pus. 

V. — COAGULABLE LYMPH. 

The fluid named coagulable lymph, is, probably, in every respect 
similar to the blister liquid, except in this, that in the latter, one 
of tho two serous elements necessary for the development of the 
fibrinous corpuscles, is effused in a greatly disproportionate quantity, 
and hence the production of organized fibrin goes on comparatively 
slowly. In coagulable lymph, on the other hand, the two elements 
are effused in exactly the necessary proportions. Organized fibrin is 
formed therefore with great rapidity, and hence the utility of coagu- 
lable lymph in repairing solutions of continuity, and loss of substance 
of tlie body. The fibrinous globules developed in coagulable lymph, 
are either entirely converted into new tissues, as in wounds which heal 
by the first intention, or simple fractures of the bones ; or they are 
partly converted into granulations and partly into pus, as in healing 
ulcers and abscesses ; or they may bo entirely changed into pus of 
various character, by the process described above. The corpuscles 
observed in coagulable lymph, vary more in size, and are less regular 
in form than those of the blister liquid. 

VI. — LYldPn OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

All those who have observed the lymph drawn from the thoracic 
duct and lymphatic vessels, describe it as possessing the property of 
spontaneous coagulability. Gerber represents it as not being coagu- 
lable in the extreme lymphatic vessels, and only to acquire that pro- 
perty as it passes towards the heart 

The account given of its appearance under the microscope varies ; 
but most observers agree that it contains corpuscles more minute than 
the corpuscles of the blood. There is much reason to think, that the 
description which has been given of it, by one of the most eminent 
physiologists of the present day, (see Midler's Physiology : Translation, 
p. 259,) ought to bo applied to the coagulable lymph from a small 



138 Dr. Buchanan <m the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

sinus, rather than to the lymph from the lymphatic vessels. Such a 
sinus might readily form after a wound, and would secrete a fluid 
which, in its first stage, would have all the characters of coagulable 
lymph ascribed to it — while our knowledge of the pathological pro- 
cesses that take place in divided vessels, whether blood-vessels or 
lymph-vessels, is contrary to the supposition that these vessels should 
continue with patent orifices, after the rest of the wound had closed, 
pouring out their natural contents. Nothing short of the injection of 
the lymph-vessels after death, and the demonstration of their open 
mouths, could establish so improbable a supposition. 

VII. — BLOOD. 

1. Contains transparent fibrin, and red globules. --^It is well known 
that blood soon after being drawn coagulates, and thereafter sepa- 
rates into two parts, the coagulum or solid part, and the serum or 
liquid part. The coagulum consists chiefly of the red blood cor- 
puscles, but it is universally acknowledged to contain also a portion 
of colourless fibrin to which the coagulated mass chiefly owes its 
tenacity. What are the grounds on which this opinion rests ? In the 
first place, as the lymph is continually pouring into the blood from 
the thoracic duct, the colourless fibrin which the lymph is known to 
contain must be introduced into the blood. In the second place, in 
cases of inflammatory disease, and certain other circumstances, the 
transparent fibrin coagulates separately from the red corpuscles, the 
latter constituting the lower portion of the coagulated mass, while the 
former constitutes the upper layer, commonly called the bufFy coat of 
the blood. It may, however, be objected that this is a phenomenon of 
disease, and that we must show the blood to be similarly constituted in 
the healthy state. The most conclusive argument then in behalf of the 
opinion in question is derived from the phenomena observed when 
liquid blood, as it flows from the arm, is mingled with about eight 
volumes of serum of blood, when the red corpuscles fall to the bottom, 
forming a dense layer, and the transparent portion, much more volu- 
minous, occupies the upper part. The same phenomena are seen in a 
still more beautiful and convincing form, when the transparent fibrin 
is separated by the filter in a state of perfect purity. I have repeatedly 
obtained it in this form, although I regret to be obliged to add, that 
the experiment much more frequently fails than succeeds, and that I 
have been quite unable to determine on what circumstances the suc- 
cess or failure depends. 

2. Transparent fibrin generally held to exist in solution in the 
serum of the blood. — In what state does the transparent fibrin exist 
in the circulating blood ? The generally received opinion is that it 
exists in a state of solution in the serum, the two together constituting 
what has been named of late years '*the liquor sanguinis;'" and that 
the fibrin only passes to the solid state after the blood is drawn, during 



Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin conicdned in the Animal Fluids. 139 

the process of coagulation. If this be true, it follows as a consequence, 
that the two parts into which the blood separates spontaneously after 
being drawn, are not the same as those of which the blood is seen to 
consist, by the microscope, when it is circulating in the blood-vessels : 
for the fibrin, which, in the latter circumstances is united to the solid 
portion, is, in the former circumstances, dissolved in the liquid portion. 
It appears to me that the whole of this doctrine is erroneous. I believe 
the solid and liquid portions, of which the circulating blood is seen to 
consist, under the microscope, to be the very same as the solid and 
liquid portions into which the blood, after being drawn, spontaneously 
separates : that the whole coagulum, or part which affects the solid 
form after being drawn, existed previously within the blood-vessels in 
the solid form : that during the coagulation of the blood there is no 
mysterious precipitation of a solid previously held in solution, but 
that the process of coagulation consists simply here as in the cases 
already mentioned, in the aggregation of granules and globules pre- 
viously existing diffused through the serous liquid, but not cohering : 
and that the only peculiarity in the coagulation of the blood consists 
in this, that some of the solid corpuscles, by the aggregation of which 
the coagulum is formed, are red, while others are transparent, and that 
the latter possess a much higher cohesive power than the former. It 
follows, if these opinions be correct, that the term " liquor sanguinis " 
should be banished from physiology, as conveying a whole series of 
erroneous ideas as to the constitution of the blood. 

3. Fibrin exists in the bloody not in solution, but in the form of 
transparent granules and vesicles. — In what way can the transparent 
fibrin which exists in coagulated blood, be shown to exist in the solid 
form in liquid blood ? It may be thought by many that this is a very 
simple matter to determine ; that we have only to put liquid blood 
under the microscope, when we shall at once be able to distinguish the 
red from the transparent corpuscles. But all who are in the habit of 
examining with the microscope the corpuscles in the animal fluids, 
know that it is only when they are congregated in masses that their 
colour is perceptible, so that we can determine whether they are red 
or transparent : but that, when single globules are observed, they are 
only distinguishable from the surrounding transparent liquid, by their 
refractive power, which gives to them all the same solar yellow colour, 
varying in tint according to the intensity of the light under which 
they are seen. Thus it is, that the transparent corpuscles of blister 
liquid are in no way distinguishable from red blood corpuscles intro- 
duced into it 

It is only by examining the portion of the blood yielding a colourless 
coagulum, separate from that yielding the red coagulum, that the 
question at issue can be decided. I have already mentioned the cir- 
cumstances in which the^eparation of these two portions of the blood 
takes place ; now in all of these cases, so far as has yet been observed, 



140 Dr, Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

the liquid yielding the colourless coagulum, is found to contain 
transparent globules and granules swimming through it previous to 
coagulation. 

This is the case with the milky liquid which collects on the sur- 
face of inflammatory blood before coagulating into the buffy coat. 
This liquid has been shown by several observers (Medical Gazette,) 
to contain innumerable globules before concretion. Still farther, we 
sec in tliis liquid the same phenomena of successive coagulations which 
have been described with respect to the blister liquid. 

The validity of the opinion here maintained, may be certainly 
ascertained by examining the liquid which passes through the filter, 
in the process for separating fibrin, already referred to. I have only 
once had an opportunity of making this observation, and it was upon 
a liquid which was not perfectly colourless, owing to a few of the red 
corpuscles having passed through the filter along with the transparent 
corpuscles. This liquid contained innumerable granules and globules 
floating through it, and these cohered together on coagulation taking 
place. 

In a case where the evidence of direct observation is required, it is 
scarcely admissible to argue from the analogies pointed out in this 
paper. These analogies, however, are not without weight, while the 
supposition on which the opposite doctrine is founded, of the sudden 
precipitation of the fibrin dissolved in the blood, without any change 
of temperature, or the addition of any chemical reagent, is without 
parallel in chemistry. It reminds us of the sudden precipitation of 
the sulphate of soda from its saturated solution, but is much less 
easily explained. 

4. Vessels in fibrinous coagulum.- — Professor Rainy, of this city, 
discovered some years ago the interesting fact that the fibrinous 
coagulum which separates from the blood in cases of aneurism, and 
occupies a large part of the aneurismal dilatations of the artery, is 
pervaded by numerous tubes or channels, having an arborescent 
appearance. These are of such a size, that Dr. Rainy succeeded in 
introducing a fine needle into one of the larger trunks, thus proving 
the existence of a cavity in their interior. 

( To he continued.) 



BELL AND BAIN, PBINTBBS, GLASGOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OFTHm 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY-FIRST SESSION, 1842-43. 



CONTENTS. 

Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the animal fluids, . * .141 
Dr. Stenhouse on a New Mode of employing Creasote for the Preserva- 
tion of Butcher8*-Meat and Fish, 145 

Mr. Gardner on the Existence of an Immense Deposit of Ohalk in the 

Northern Provinces of Brazil, 146 

Report of the State of Disease in Scotland, 153 

Mr. Gourlie's Remarks on the Comet of March, 1843, . . . .156 
Mr. Griffin, on a New Kind of Charcoal Support for Blowpipe Experi- 
ments, 158 

Dr. R. D. Thomson on the Nutritive power of Bread and Flour of differ- 
ent Countries, ....... ^ <« . 163 



29th March, 1843, — The Vice-President m the Chair. 

XXXIV. — On the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids, the Mode in 
which it coagulates, and the Transformations which it undergoes. By 
Andrew Buchanan, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, 
University of Glasgow, f Continued.) 

VIII. — MIXTURE OF SERUM OP BLOOD, AND SERUM FROM SEROUS CAVITIES. 

Several years ago, I read in this place an account of the singular 
property which mixtures of the serum of the blood, and serum 
from cavities lined by serous membranes, possess of undergoing 
spontaneous coagulation, while neither of the two liquids possesses 
that property in the separate state. {Med. Gazette, 1836. No. 28.) 
The development of the fibrin does not take place suddenly, like a 
chemical precipitation, but goes on gradually increasing during several 
days, like the development of yeast granules in a solution of gluten 
and sugar. The fibrinous mass is chiefly made up of filaments, but 
vesicles are also observed in it, although they never attain the full size 
of the vesicles in the blister liquid. It is in such mixtures that the 
particles of fibrin are best seen to arrange themselves in the reti- 
cular form of cellular tissue. (Med. Gazette, loc. cit.) 

IX. — ORIGIN OP THE CORPUSCLES CONTAINED IK THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. 

The origin of the granules and vesicles contained in the animal 
fluids is the only subject announced at the commencement of this 
paper, on which a few observations, are still required. 
No. 8. 1 



142 Db. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

1. Not from hlood vessels. — Some physiologists have supposed the 
fibrinous corpuscles found in effused serous fluids to proceed from the 
blood vessels, and have therefore named them " exudation corpuscles." 
The large size of the corpuscles found in the blister liquid, makes it as 
unlikely, that they sliould pass through pores in the parietes of the 
vessels, as the red blood corpuscles which are held incapable of so 
transuding: and it is not improbable, that there is an attractive power 
in the tissues which retains the fibrinous particles, even when of 
smaller size, and thus prevents transudation. 

2. Originate in situations where observed To me it appears much 

more probable that all the fibrinous corpuscles in the animal fluids, 
whether contained in cavities or in vessels, originate in the situations 
where they are observed. This seems to follow as a necessary con- 
sequence from the proofs which have been mentioned above, of the 
power which these corpuscles have of transforming themselves into 
tissues; for such transformations prove the identity of these cor- 
puscles with the cell-germs and cells, out of which all the tissues of 
the body are developed. I formerly mentioned the complete resem- 
blance which the vesicles of the blister liquid have to the blood 
globules ; now, according to the researches of Dr. Barry, all the tissues 
of the body originate in corpuscles not distinguishable under the 
microscope from blood globules. It can scarcely, therefore, be doubted 
that the fibrinous corpuscles observed in the animal fluids originate in 
the situations in which they are observed ; where they serve, in the 
first instance, for the development of the tissues, and subsequently for 
their redintegration after injury. 

3. Doctrines of Schleiden and Schwann. — According to Schleiden, 
the cell-germs of vegetables originate in the interior of the cells. The 
only instance in which they are observed to be generated on the 
exterior, is in the formation of the cambium, when they originate in 
the plastic liquid interposed between the bark and the wood. Now, 
according to Schwann, the cell-germs of animals always originate in 
a plastic liquid of this kind, which he names the "cyto-blastema." 
This plastic liquid he holds to exist both within the cells, and exterior 
to them, and that in whatever situation the cell-germs are produced, 
their origin is due to the same action of the plastic liquid. Accord- 
ing to this view, we must look for the origin of the fibrinous corpuscles 
we have been describing, to the liquids in which they swim. 

4. Nature of plastic liquid. — All organized bodies are developed 
out of a liquid which presents no visible traces of organization. The 
first step in this mysterious process appears to be the development in 
the liquid of granules ; next these granules pass into vesicles or cells ; 
and lastly, these cells are transformed into the tissues of the vegetable 
and animal body. I have described, both to-night and on a former 
occasion, a liquid derived from the human body possessing these 
characters. It presents at first no traces of organization, but fibrinous 



Dr. Buchanan cm the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids, 143 

granules, vesicles, and filaments are gradually developed in it. I shall 
now endeavour to show that a liquid similarly constituted probably 
exists in all parts of the body, and is therefore to be regarded as the 
cyto-blastema, or plastic liquid, which gives origin to the cell-germs 
and cells, out of which all the tissues of the body are developed. 

5. Origin of^ in cavities of body. — The liquid in which the fibrinous 
corpuscles have been observed to originate, is a mixture of the serum 
of the blood with the serum of the serous cavities. The latter differs 
from the former in chemical composition and qualities.* It consists, 
most probably, of the serum of the blood, effused from the capillary 
blood vessels into the interstitial cells of the serous tissue, and there 
modified by serving for the nutrition of the serous membranes. Now 
the serous membranes have a basis of gelatin, and are, therefore, 
similar in constitution to the great majority of the tissues of the body. 
In all the gelatinous tissues, therefore, the process of nutrition must 
produce a similar modification of tlie serum of the blood ; and we shall 
thus have all over the body a liquid produced analogous to the serum 
of the serous cavities. If, then, the serum of the blood is only effused 
in the quantity necessary for the purpose of nutrition, it will all 
undergo the same change, and the modified serous liquid will be 
absorbed by the blood vessels and lymphatics, to make way for the 
portion next to be effused. When, however, as in early life, the serum 
of the blood is poured out in greater abundance than is necessary for 
the nutritive actions, the excess of it will mingle with the modified 
liquid in the cavities ; and just as in the artificial mixture of these 
liquids, we shall have a development of cell-germs and cells. Hence 
the activity of development in early life, and why it keeps pace with 
the activity of digestion and sanguification ; and, as these functions 
become less active, declines in the same proportion. Hence also the 
reason why it continues constantly in an active state on the surface of 
the skin, forming the cells which flatten into the scales of the epidermis, 
because the effused serum is here always in excess, being only upon 
one side in contact with a tissue capable of acting upon it, and modi< 
fying its composition. Hence also the renewed activity of this func- 
tion on the occurrence of inflammation, when the increased afflux of 
blood causes a copious effusion of serum into the cells of the inflamed 
tissue. 

6. Origin of, in vessels : in healthy state, only in lymphatics. — The 
same actions which go on in the shut cavities of the body, go on also in 
the vessels. These having a basis of gelatin, modify the serum effused, 
for the purposes of nutrition, into the substance of their parietes, and 
have thence a supply of the modified liquid poured into their interior ; 
but a much more abundant supply is provided for them by the absorp- 

* Dr. R. D. Thomson. 



144 Dr. Buchanan on the Fibrin contained in the Animal Fluids. 

tion of the modified liquid from the cells of the adjacent tissues. In 
the blood-vessels, the blood moves with such inconceivable rapidity, (the 
whole mass of blood amounting, in man, to about 201bs., passing, as is at 
present believed, over the entire sanguiferous circuit in two minutes,) 
that there can be little opportunity for the completion of an action in 
which the mingled liquids require to remain in contact for a length 
of time. The liquid absorbed into the blood-vessels must be at once 
hurried onward to the lungs, and other organs of sanguification, by 
which it may be converted into the matter of the excretions ; or 
possibly by the action of air, and admixture with fresh nutritious 
matter, it may be reconverted into the serum of blood, which alone, 
except in rare circumstances, we meet with in the blood-vessels. 
There cannot, therefore, be any development of cell-germs, and cells 
in the sanguiferous vessels, in animals whose blood circulates thus 
rapidly ; that is, in any animals of the vertebrated class. But in all 
such animals, there is provided a supplementary vascular system — 
the system of lymphatic vessels, into which the serum of the blood 
passes from the capillary blood-vessels by transudation, while the 
modified serous liquid is supplied from the sources mentioned above — 
in which the movement of the fluids is so slow, as to permit the com- 
pletion of whatever reactions are required for the development of new 
cell-germs ; and which is farther provided with plexuses and glands, 
which seem still farther intended to facilitate those reactions. It is, 
therefore, most probably in this system that all the corpuscles of the 
blood originate : they enter the blood-vessels in a transparent form, 
and in that state they contribute to the coagulation of the blood, and 
to the development and renovation of the vascular tissues : while a 
portion of them is, in all probability, converted into red corpuscles, by 
a change in the colour and other qualities of the liquid contained 
in their interior, analogous to the change by which we have seen the 
same transparent vesicles converted into pus globules. 

7. In inflammation, also in blood-vessels. — In ordinary circum- 
stances it is probable that no fibrinous corpuscles originate in the 
sanguiferous system, on account of the rapidity of the motion of 
the blood : but when that motion is obstructed, as in inflammation, 
then the same reactions seem to go on in the capillary blood-vessels, 
as in the cells of the inflamed part, where the organization of the 
effused fluids is going on with vigour. Hence the production of the 
buffy coat of the blood. In evidence of this local origin of the buffy 
coat, I may mention the following observation which I have had 
twice an opportunity of making. A person labouring under severe 
whitlow was bled from one of the veins of the affected arm ; the blood, 
in both instances, exhibited the buffy coat in the highest possible de- 
gree. In one of the cases, the patient was simultaneously bled from 
the other arm, and the blood thus obtained showed no buffy coat : but 



Dr. StenhouSE's Mode of preserving Meat by means of Creosote. 146 

it must be remarked that the blood from the sound arm was onlj 
obtained in small quantity, and had trickled down the arm. 

Mr. William Gale explained and illustrated with models, an 
improved moveable jib crane, designed from the greater security of 
its construction to prevent those serious accidents which so frequently 
occur in buildings when the common crane is used. 



I2th April, — The President in the Chair. 

Mr. Grijfin reported the recommendation of the Council that the 
proceedings of the Society should, for the future, be sold at 3d. per 
sheet, instead of 6d., as formerly, which was agreed ta 

The following papers were read: — 

XXXV. — New Mode of employing Creasote for the Preservation of 
Butchers' -Meat and Fish. By John Stenhouse, Ph.D. 

Creasote, so named from its great antiseptic power, which 
exceeds, perhaps, that of any other substance, has been long employed 
to preserve animal matters from decay. The only two ways in which 
creasote is usually applied for this purpose, consist either in exposing 
the meat which we wish to preserve to the smoke of burning wood, of 
which creasote is the effective constituent, or else in immersing it for 
a short time in water containing a few drops of creasote. Articles of 
food prepared by either of these methods may, as is well known, be 
kept for a long time without spoiling ; but both these modes of using 
the creasote are attended with the inconvenience that the food neces- 
sarily acquires the taste and smell peculiar to smoked meat, which is 
by no means agreeable to every one. By the method now proposed, 
this inconvenience is entirely avoided. 

During the past summer, which was so unusually hot, in common 
with most persons, I experienced considerable difl&culty in preserving 
fresh meat even for a few days. It struck me at length, however, 
that perhaps the vapours of creasote might be found useful for this 
purpose, and the method adopted was the following very simple one. 
I placed a small plate containing a little creasote immediately under 
each piece of meat as it hung suspended in the larder, and covered 
both over with a cloth. The creasote soon gave off vapours which 
formed an antiseptic atmosphere around the meat, and kept it quite 
fresh three or four days longer than it would otherwise have been. 

If the plate is gently heated before the creasote is put into it, the 
vapours rise more quickly, and if the additonal precaution is also 
taken of suspending the meat in a wooden box or earthern jar which 
can be closed with a lid, the beneficial effect is still more discernible. 



146 Mr. Gardner on tfie Existence of Chalk in Brazil, 

1 have tried this process during the greater part of last summer with 
invariable success, and, a butcher, who also tried it on a larger scale 
in his stall, was equally convinced of its efficacy. The meat, when 
cooked, has not the slightest smell or taste of creasote. 

There is also another advantage attending the use of creasote. Its 
smell is so disagreeable to flies that it effectually frees a larder from 
the presence of these noxious insects. The same quantity of creasote 
may be used for several weeks, but on being long exposed to the air it 
loses most of its smell, and is partly changed into a species of resin. 

Creasote is not a simple proximate principle, as has been supposed, 
but consists of a mixture of empyreumatic oils, having different boiling 
points, and containing quantities of carbon, which, from some experi- 
ments which I have made, vary so much as from three to four per 
cent. 

XXXVI. — On the Existence of an Immense Deposit of Chalk in the 
Northern Provinces of Brazil. By George Gardner, Esq., F.L.S. 

It is well known that the greatest deposit of chalk we have hitherto 
been acquainted with, is that which is spread over the south-eastern 
and eastern counties of England, and a large extent of country in the 
northern parts of France. In Germany and the north of Europe 
deposits of this formation also occur. No chalk is found in Scotland 
or Wales, but in Ireland a large detached tract lies under the basalt 
of Antrim. We have no account, so far as I am aware, of chalk 
having been found in Africa, India, or Australia. The continent of 
North America has now been traversed in almost every direction, both 
by American and European naturalists. The geological structure of 
its northern parts has been carefully examined by our arctic voyagers 
and travellers. Humboldt devoted much attention to that of its 
southern extremity — Mexico ; and much of the intermediate portions 
have been examined by Dr. Morton and other geologists of the United 
States ; — but nothing like chalk with its accompanying flints have 
hitherto been discovered. The nearest approach to the chalk-forma- 
tion is that which has been described by Dr. Morton as existing in 
New Jersey, and which there is every reason to believe is equivalent 
to the lower or green sand beds af that deposit. Dr. Morton has 
named this " The Ferruginous Sand Formation'' of the United States, 
and describes it as occupying " a great part of the triangular peninsula 
of New Jersey, formed by the Atlantic and the Delaware and Raritan 
rivers, and extending across the state of Delaware from near Delaware 
City to the Chesapeak ; appearing again near Annapolis, in Maryland ; 
at Lynch's Creek, in South Carolina ; at Cockspur Island, in Georgia ; 
and several places in Alabama, Florida, <fec." As a whole, this deposit 
varies considerably in its mineralogical character ; most frequently 
presenting itself in minute friable grains, with a dull blueish or greenish 



Mr. Gardner on the Existence of Chalk in Braxil. 147 

colour, often with a grey tint The predominant constituent parts of 
this marl, as it is termed, are described as silica and iron. But the 
greatest resemblance which exists between this ferruginous sand forma- 
tion and the cretaceous rocks of Europe, is the similarity of their fossil 
remains. Dr. Morton has found it to contain the characteristic fossils 
of the chalk, particularly Bacculites and ScaphiteSy together with 
Ammonites, Belemnites, Echinites, the Mososauris, and Plesiosaunu, 
also univalve and bivalve shells of the same epoch. Among the latter 
is the well-known Pecten 5-costatus, one of the most widely-distributed 
cretaceous fossils. 

It is asserted by Humboldt that neither oolite nor chalk exist in 
South America, from the fact that no traveller who has hitherto written 
on the geology of that immense continent has met with either. The 
southern, like the northern continent, has now been pretty extensively 
explored. Humboldt himself made extensive journies on the western, 
and central parts of its northern extremity ; and the same has been 
done more recently on the eastern side by Schomburg. The chain 
of the Andes southward has been examined by Col. Hall, Pentland, 
my friend Mr. Miers, Caldcleugh, Gilles, Poepig, Darwin, and others. 
And if we turn to the eastern and central parts of the continent, we 
will find that they also have been extensively traversed. The southern 
portions have been well examined by Darwin, Miers, and Caldcleugh. 
The southern provinces of Brazil have been carefully explored by 
Spix and Martius, whose travels extended through the central parts 
of Brazil northward to the district of the Rio Negro, situated between 
the Amazon and the Oronoco. The mining districts have also been 
well explored by them, as well as by Von Eschwege, and our country- 
man Maw. Langsdorf, Burchel, and St. Hilaire, also made extensive 
journies in the interior of Brazil ; and my excellent friend, M. Riedel, 
the botanist who accompanied Baron Langsdorf, crossed the whole 
Brazilian empire in a north-west direction to the boundaries of Bolivia, 
and finally, like Poepig, descended the Amazon to Parlu But by none 
of these travellers were any traces of the chalk formation detected. 

My own excursions during upwards of five years of nearly incessant 
travel extended over a vast tract of the Brazilian empire. Although 
my principal object was to make botanical collections, zoology and 
geology were not neglected. My geological observations, I may men- 
tion, have extended along nearly the whole coast from the equator to 
the southern tropic ; and, inland, from two degrees of south latitude, in 
a south-west direction, nearly to the western extremity of Brazil, and 
from thence in a south-east direction through the diamond and gold 
districts to Rio de Janeiro. The northern provinces of Brazil had 
hitherto been the least visited by naturalists — indeed several of them 
of great extent had never been visited at all. These, therefore, I was 
the most anxious to explore ; and riclily have I been rewarded by the 
^umerous new plants which I found there, and by the discovery — for 



lis 



Me. Gardneb on the Existence of Chalk in Brazil. 



the first time on the American Continent — of the whole series of rocks 
which constitute the chalk formation — of which there are now on the 
table before us specimens of each, as well as of some of the fossil 
remains which they contain. 




The place where these specimens were obtained is situated in about 
80° of south latitude, and 40° of west longitude, or about 300 miles in 
a straight line from the east coast. The locality forms part of an 
elevated table land which stretches continuously from the sea coast 
southward, and forms a natural boundary between the two great pro- 
vinces of Ceara and Piauhy. It is generally elevated from 500 to 
1000 feet above the level of the country to the east of it, but not so 
much above that to the west ; and at the place from whence my speci- 
mens were taken is about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. To 
this range the name of Serra Vermelha is given by the Portuguese, 
and Ihiapaha by the Indians. Between the 10th and 11th degrees of 
latitude it takes a westerly direction, and in about 47° of longitude 
takes a northerly sweep, finally terminating at the mouth of the Ama- 
zon, under the Equator, the country which it surrounds forming a 
vast valley, including the provinces of Piauhy and Maranham. This 
elevated range varies very much in breadth, from the branches which 
run off from it both to the east and to the west At the place where 
I crossed it, on my journey westward, it is upwards of 30 miles broad. 



Mr. Gardner on the Existence of Chalk in Brazil. 149 

The top is perfectly level, forming what the Brazilians call Taboleiras. 
At Villa do Crato, a rather large town, situated at the base of an 
eastern branch of the range, called the Serra de Araripe, I remained 
several months in the latter end of 1838 and beginning of 1839, and 
consequently had ample opportunities for studying not only the Botany, 
but the Geology of that region. Shortly after I arrived there, I sent 
home part of the collection of fossil fishes which is now before us, to 
the care of my much lamented friend, the late J. E. Bowman, Esq., 
of Manchester. They were exhibited by him at the Meeting of the 
British Association at Glasgow ; and a short notice which accompanied 
them, giving some account of the circumstances under which they 
were found, was read by him, and afterwards published in the Edin- 
burgh New Philosophical Journal for Jan. 1841. My journeyings and 
observations after these had been despatched, enabled me to deter- 
mine much more accurately the nature of the formation to which they 
belong. 

• The great mass of this elevated table land consists of a very soft, 
whitish, yellowish, or reddish coloured sandstone, which in many places 
must be more than 600 feet thick ; and it is in this rock that the fossil 
fishes are contained. The first thing which led me to suspect that 
this rock belonged to the chalk formation, was an immense accumula- 
tion of flints and septaria, similar to those of the chalk of England, 
which I found on the acclivity of the range during a journey made 
along its base to the north of Crato. I now began to inquire if any 
thing like chalk was to be found in the neighbourhood, and was 
informed that several pits occurred on the Serra, from whence the 
inhabitants obtained it for the purpose of white-washing their houses. 
These pits I afterwards found to be situated in a deep layer of red 
coloured diluvial clay, which is found immediately over the sandstone 
of the Serra. In a ravine, near Crato, I endeavoured to ascertain on 
what rock the sandstone rested, and found it to consist of several 
layers of more or less compact limestones and marls, with a bed of 
lignite about two feet thick. What these rested on, I could not at 
that time ascertain, but some time afterwards when I crossed to the 
west side of the range, I found these limestones to rest upon a deposit 
of very dark-red coarse-grained sandstone, abounding in small nodules 
of ironstone. Thus, then, we find, that the structure of the rocks 
in this locality are very similar to those of the chalk formation in 
England. There is 




Ist. A ferruginous sandstone deposit, equivalent to the lower green 
sand or Shankland sand, a, in the cut, resting on clay slate s. 



150 Mr. Gardner on the Existence of Chalk in Brcutil. 

2d. A deposit of marls, soft and compfact limestones, and lignite, 
equivalent to the English gait, h. 

3d. A very thick deposit of fine grained, soft, variously coloured 
sandstone, equivalent to the upper green sand of England, 
containing Ichthyolites, c. 

4th. The white chalk itself, and flints, occuring in pits e, e, e, par- 
tially covered by red diluvial clay, d. 

In none of the chalk pits which I examined myself did I find any 
flints ; but I was informed, that at a considerable distance to the north 
of Crato, at a part of the Serra called the Serra de Botarite, both 
chalk and flints are much more abundant than they are near Crato, 
where they seem to have been nearly washed completely away previous 
to the deposition of the red clay in which it is now found. 

Since the time that the rocks were first deposited at the bottom of 
the sea, to the present time, both they and the surrounding country 
must have undergone various changes with respect to elevation ; but 
before making any observations on this subject, I may be allowed to 
point out the various places where I have seen traces of the chalk 
formation besides that which I have just describedv In 1838, while 
making a voyage up the Rio San Francisco, which empties itself into 
the Atlantic between the 10th and 11th degrees of south latitude, I 
obtained specimens of the sandstone rock on which the Villa de Penedo 
is built, and these, on comparison, are identical with those from the 
upper sandstone of Crato. In 1839, I found the ferruginous sandstone 
of Crato extending westward from thence about 500 miles ; and in the 
year 1841, I found, at Maranham, in 2° of south latitude and 44° of 
west longitude, a formation very similar to that at Crato. The whole 
island on which the city of Maranham is built consists of a very dark- 
red ferruginous sandstone. On the mainland, to the west of it, I found 
the same rock rising a little above the sea level, but placed immedi- 
ately upon it there is a deposit, more than 50 feet thick in some places, 
of a yellowish and greenish coloured sandstone, very soft, and in some 
places of a marly nature. At Maranham, I neither obtained flints 
nor fossil remains of any kind. 

From these data, then, I think there can be little doubt that the 
whole of that immense shoulder which forms the most eastern point 
of the American continent, has at one time been a great depositary 
for the chalk formation. The only other rocks which I have seen in 
places which are denuded of those belonging to the chalk are, first, 
gneiss and mica slate, both abounding in garnets, the layers of 
which crop out in nearly a vertical direction, as was frequently 
observed on my journey from the coast, and during my voyage up 
the Rio San Francisco ; and, secondly, beds of grey coloured primitive 
clay slate, having the same inclination. The latter, however, I did 
not observe till within about 18 leagues of the chalk table land. At 
the termination of these rocks a whitish coarse-grained sandstone 



Mr. Gardner on the Existence of Chalk in BrazU. 161 

makes its appearance, and is probably equivalent to the ferruginous 
sandstone found on the west side of the range. From this, it would 
appear, that between the cretaceous series and the primary stratified 
rocks, there are no traces either of the carboniferous or the oolitic 
formations, nor in any part of Brazil through which I passed, did I 
meet with any signs of them.* 

The country from the coast to the chalk district is very level, and 
large tracts of it all the way up consist of what are called Vargems by 
the Brazilians. These are large open spaces destitute of trees or 
shrubs for th« most part, and only covered with herbaceous vegetation, 
and that sparingly, during the season of the rains. They are either 
covered with a kind of coarse white sand, or gravel of various sizes, 
which gives them the appearance of the dried up bed of an immense 
river. Much of this gravel consists of flints. Intermingled with these 
are numerous boulders of various sizes, some of the largest being four 
feet in diameter. They are all more or less rounded, and consist of 
granite, gneiss, and quartz. Wherever these gravelly tracts do not 
exist, the surface of the country is covered with a deposit of the same 
kind of red clay which lies over the upper sandstone of the table land. 
To the west of the table land large tracts are covered with the vari- 
ously shaped ironstone nodules which are found in the ferruginous 
sandstone, and which have accumulated from the decay of that rock.t 

I have now to offer a few remarks on the changes of elevation which 
this part of the continent has undergone since the chalk rocks were 
first deposited. That this deposition took place at the bottom of a 
shallow ocean there can be no doubt. That at some subsequent period 
it has been gradually elevated above the level of the sea also admits of 
no doubt. That this elevation has been gradual is evident from the 
horizontal position of the strata of which the deposit is formed ; for 
had the elevating cause been sudden and violent, the original position 
of them would not have been so perfectly maintained. The long 
elevated table-land was probably the first part which emerged from 
the sea, and for a long period subsequently must have formed a neck 
of land separating the Atlantic Ocean on the east from the great bay, 
which the immense valley to the westward must then have formed. 

* My friend, Dr. J. Porigot, has, however, found coal abundantly in the island of 
Santa Catherina, in the south of Brazil. He was employed, about three years ago, to 
explore that country for coal, and, in a pamphlet which he published, in 1841, entitled 
*^Memoria Sobre a$ Minos de CarvaS de Pedra do Brazti" he mentions a bed, about three 
feet thick, of considerable extent. The coal which Spix and. Martins inform us exists 
near Bahia, Dr. Parigot found to be beds of lignite ; and the probability b that they are 
equivalent to that which I found at Crato. 

t Sandy nodules with a chalky aspect from this formation were found by Dr. R. D. 
Thomson to consist of, — 

Silica, 7608 

Alumina, 17-32 

Water, 628 

99-6« 



IfiSi Mr. Gardner on the Existence of Chalk in Brazil. 

We have already seen that the chalk formation at one time must have 
covered a very great tract of the surrounding country ; and we may 
very reasonably conclude that it was during the gradual elevation of 
the land that the action of the waves of the ocean as gradually destroyed 
the soft material of which it had been fabricated. But long after this 
had been accomplished, and at a comparatively recent geological 
period, the whole country seems again to have been covered with 
water, — not only the comparatively level country between the shores 
of the present sea, and the elevated table-land, but even the highest 
parts of the table-land itself. This is proved by the thick covering 
which exists on both of a deep red-coloured diluvial clay, similar to 
that which I have observed to cover nearly the whole surface of Brazil, 
from the sea shore to the summits nearly of the highest mountains, 
and which is often more than forty feet in thickness. When this is 
cut through it is found to consist of various layers of clay and gravel, 
in which are embedded rounded stones of various sizes. These have 
evidently been deposited from water ; and in that part of the country 
of which we are now speaking, this deposition of clay must have taken 
place at a period subsequent to the denudation of the country to the 
east and west of the table-land. This could only have been accom- 
plished by the sinking of the land again beneath the level of the sea ; 
and this will also account for the nearly total destruction of the white 
chalk, as well as for those small cones of it which remain embedded in 
the red clay — that deposit having been laid down before the whole of 
the chalk could be washed away. Since then, this part of the conti- 
nent must have gradually emerged a second time from the bosom of 
the ocean. 

No specimens of the rocks of this formation were sent home to 
Mr. Bowman along with the fossil fishes ; but no sooner did M. Agassiz 
see them, than from their zoological characters alone, he pronounced 
them to belong to the chalk series. It is well known that this learned 
naturalist divides all fishes into four great classes, from the nature of 
their scales. Two of these, the Ctenoids and Cycloids, never make their 
appearance in any of the rocks beneath the chalk, and it was from his 
knowledge of this fact that he immediately decided my specimens 
to be from that formation, they consisting principally of Ctenoids and 
Cycloids. The fishes, as may be seen from the specimens, are in the 
most perfect state of preservation, and are contained in an impure 
fawn-coloured limestone. The blocks, however, in which they are 
preserved, are only nodules contained in the yellowish coloured sand- 
stone. They have in general somewhat the form of the imbedded fish, 
and the carbonacious matter has apparently aggregated round it by 
chemical attraction from the sandstone while in a soft state. These 
nodules being harder than the sandstone, have by its gradual decay 
accumulated at various places along the acclivity of the range, and I 
possess specimens both from the east and the west side of it. The 



Rejxyrt on the State of Disease in Scotland. 163 

fishes wore found by M. Agassiz to be all new, and he has appended 
to mj paper, in the New Philosophical Journal^ a short description of 
them. Here I shall do little more than enumerate the species. 

I. — GANOIDS. 

1. Aspidorhynchus Comptoni, Agass. Near to A, Cinctus of the 
Kentish chalk. 

2. Lepidotus temnuriM, Agass. Also nearly allied to a species from 
the chalk of Kent 

II. — OTENOIDS. 

1. Bhacolepis. This is a new genus, and differs from all the others 
of the group to which it belongs, by the single dorsal fin having no 
spinous ray ; and by the ventral being placed on the middle of the 
abdomen. There are three species, — Eh. latuSf Agass.; Bh. hiuxalis, 
Agass. ; and Mh. Brama, Agass. 

III. — CYCLOIDS. 

1. Cladocyclus Gardneri, Agass. A scale, published by Agassiz, 
from the Kentish chalk, and supposed by him to belong to his genus 
Hypsodon, is the scale of a Cladocyclus. 

2. Calamopleurus cylindricus, Agass. 

I also possess, from the same rocks, specimens of two species of 
very minute bivalve shells, a single valve of a venus, and casts of a 
univalve shell, all apparently new. 

Dr. R. D. Thomson presented to the Society the Third and Fourth 
Annual Reports of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Mar- 
riages, for 1841 and 1842. 

He also read the following Report, which was adopted, and ordered 
to be inserted in the Proceedings of the Society. 

XXXV II. — Beport on the State of Disease in Scotland* 

The Committee appointed to consider the best moans of improving 
the state of Vital Statistics in Scotland, and the consequent sanatory 
condition of the inhabitants, beg to submit the following Report to 
the consideration of the Philosophical Society: — 

The Committee believe that it is scarcely necessary for them to 
offer an apology while directing the Society's attention to that most 
important of all scientific questions — the sanatory condition of the 
people. For, if the opinion of one of our soundest philosophers be 
correct, that the greatness of a country depends on its population — 
and if the object of practical science be the discovery of those truths 
which tend to the comfort and happiness of the people — then it is 
unquestionable that a legitimate application of science is the discovery 
and prevention of those causes which diminish the population, or which 
render it unhealthy and miserable. 



154 Report <m the State of Disease in Scotland, 

The admirable system of registration of deaths in England and 
Wales, by classifying the causes of mortality in every locality, has 
already enabled those who direct its machinery to point out methods 
of staying the hand of death. For example, in 1837, the first year 
in which the registration act came into operation, the mortality from 
Small-Pox, in London alone, amounted to about 1520 persons, equivalent 
to a loss of 4J human beings daily. The attention of the Legislature 
was drawn to this fact by the Registrar-General — and the result was 
the enactment of the Vaccination Act, extending to England and 
Wales, after which the mortality was reduced from 1520, in 1837, to 
360, in 1B42, in the metropolis— and from 16,268, in 1838, to 10,434, 
in 1840, over the whole of England and Wales. 

Such being the results of a registration act, it is important to 
compare them with Glasgow, where no such legislative enactment is 
in operation, as is shown in the following table: — (Reg. Gen. Rep- 
Glasg. Mort. Bill.) 

DEATHS FROM SMALL POX. 





Glasgow. 


London. 






Population. 


Population. 






282,134 


1,875,493 




1838, . 


388 . 


3,090 


Epidemic. 
r An epidemic diminishes 


1839, . 


406 . 


634^ 
1 


! the mortality in the fol- 
L lowing year. 


1840, , 


413 . 


1,233 




1841, . 


347 . 


1,053 




1842, . 


334 . 


360 





Mean, 377, or about one mhahitant daily, dies of small- 

pox in Glasgow. 

Thus, although the population of London is upwards of 6i times 
that of Glasgow, the mortality, in 1842, from small-pox, was nearly 
the same in the two cities. We believe there cannot be a doubt that 
the remarkable diminution in the mortality from small-pox in London 
is mainly attributable to the introduction of the vaccination act, and 
that the extension of a similar law to Scotland would be attended 
with the happiest benefits to the community. The total mortality in 
Glasgow from all diseases being about 24 persons daily, the universal 
adoption of vaccination would save from a hideously cruel death one 
twenty-fourth of all who die. 

Another result, from correct registration, has been the deduction, 
by vital statisticians, that in epidemic diseases, such as small-pox 
and cholera, the influence of medical treatment, even when conducted 
on the most judicious principles, is comparatively insignificant in 



Report on the State of Disease m Scotland. 155 

altering the average mortality ; and that it is, therefore, scarcely 
speaking too strongly to affirm, that out of a given number who are 
taken sick, a certain number are doomed to die. Hence the import- 
ance of adopting measures for the prevention of acute diseases, of 
which the New Drainage Bill (one of the results of the English 
Registration Bill,) is a happy example. In order to detect the causes 
of diseases, the mortality bills would require to be made up weekly — 
at least in large towns. By such a regulation, we might expect some 
light to be ultimately shed on the origin of Typhus fever in Glasgow — • 
a disease whose ravages are quite appalling, when we compare it with 
the mortality from the same disease in the metropolis, as appears from 
the following numbers : — 

DEATHS FROM TYPHUS. 

GLASGOW. LONDOX. 

1838 816 4078 

1839, 539 1819 

1840, 1229 1262 

1841, 1117 1157 

The mortality from this disease, in Glasgow, was, therefore, in 1841, 
3i per day — equivalent to above i of the whole mortality. 

In earnestly calling attention to the dreadful mortality from tlie 
two diseases mentioned, the Committee feel strongly the importance 
of introducing into Scotland a more correct system of registration 
than that at present in use. 

To draw the attention of those who have the power to take measures 
for saving human life, to such facts as the preceding, is, in the opinion 
of the Committee, the duty of a scientific society. 

The Committee, appreciating the many advantages which would 
result from the introduction of an uniform system of Registration of 
the Births, Marriages, and Deaths, in the three divisions of the 
United Kingdom, beg to suggest, as a prelude to a general legislative 
enactment, that hospital physicians and surgeons, and district surgeons, 
and all public medical officers, should make their return of Deaths in 
the form of the printed schedule now in use throughout England and 
Wales. 

The Committee would also suggest the importance of a more frequent 
publication of the results of registration. By a weekly, monthly, or 
quarterly bill of mortality, the registration reports would be suscep- 
tible of much greater accuracy ; — diseases might be traced with 
increased facility to their proper causes, the labour of drawing up tlie 
mortality bills would be rendered less irksome, and a series of docu- 
ments, of great practical value, would be continually submitted to the 
attention of men of science, and of the public. 



156 Mr. Gourue's Remarks on the Comet of March, 1843. 



2Qth April, — The President in the CJiair. 

XXXYUL—Bemarks on the Comet of March, 1843. 
By William Gourlie, Jun., Esq. 

Mr. Liddell, in his interesting account of the Philosophical Society, 
states, that since its formation, in 1802, almost every discovery and 
new or striking phenomenon in physical science has been brought 
under review at the meetings ; and since this has been the case, I do 
not think it would be right to allow the late most remarkable comet 
to fade from our remembrance as rapidly as it has done from our 
vision, without recording in the Minutes of the Society the fact of its 
short visit to the centre of our solar system. 

The faint luminous streak which attracted the attention of astrono- 
mers about the middle of last March, although by no means conspi- 
cuous, was at once inferred, by Sir John Herschell and others, to be 
the tail of an immense comet, the nucleus of which was below the 
horizon. The fact of its early discovery shows the close and perse- 
vering attention with which our astronomers continually scan the 
heavens, whilst their accurate conjecture as to its nature equally 
exhibits the great knowledge of astronomical phenomena, which has 
resulted from the labours of men who have devoted the most brilliant 
talents to this sublime science. 

There were not wanting those who laughed at the idea of such an 
enormous tail (70 degrees) as preposterous, and it was astonishing to 
find it referred to the zodiacal light by observers, who, if they really 
saw it, as they alleged, ought to have known better. Believing that 
very few in Glasgow had an opportunity of seeing it, I have taken the 
liberty of bringing it under the notice of the Society, for the purpose 
of describing the position of the tail, as I observed it on the evenings 
of Saturday the 25th and Sunday the 26th of March, about 8 o'clock, 
as much confusion seems to exist, amongst people generally, as to what 
was, and what was not the tail. It so happened that the zodiacal 
light was unusually well seen last month, and the corruscations of the 
aurora horealis were also of frequent occurrence. 

This comet, which seems to be quite a new one, was first observed 
in England by Mr. Short, of Christ Church, Hants, on the 16th, 
and by Sir John Herschell on the 17th of March, and the latter 
distinguished astronomer immediately communicated his observations 
to the " Times." It was simultaneously observed by Professor Arago 
and others in Paris, and at a much earlier date, in the south of Europe. 
The length of the luminous matter forming the tail has been estimated 
at about 70 degrees ; more than 45 degrees were measurable above our 
horizon, extending from the constellation Lepus through Fluvius 
Eridanos, and becoming lost in the haze above the horizon ; at Yale 



Mr. Gourue's Remarks an the Comet of March, 1843. 157 

"College it was traced to the star t Ceti. Before looking for it, I traced 
its position, as described by Sir John Herschell, on a celestial map, 
and having montallj fixed its locality, had little difficulty in finding 
it with the naked eye, in the south-west passing immediately under 
the stars y and /3 Orionis, between y and i Eridani, and losing itself 
in the haze. 

As the zodiacal light has a totally different position, " invariably 
appearing in the zodiac, or more correctly in the plane of the sun*s 
equator, I do not understand," says Sir John Herschell, " how it is 
possible for any one familiar with the zodiacal light, for an instant to 
confound them. It exliibits generally the appearance of a pretty 
broad pyramidal or lenticular body of light, which begins to be visible 
as soon as twilight decays, most luminous at the base, which, resting 
on the horizon, has an angular breadth of 10 or 12 degrees in ordinary 
clear weather ; whilst its axis at the vernal equinox is always inclined 
(to the northward of the equator,) at an angle of between 60 and 70 
degrees to the horizon ; and it is generally traceable as high as the 
Pleiades. The tail of the comet had on the contrary a breadth of not 
more than IJ degrees, was inclined at an angle of not more than 25 
deg. to the horizon, and that not to the north but to the south of the 
equator, did not increase in intensity towards the horizon, and made 
an angle of 33 deg. with the zodiac to the southward, instead of 7 deg. 
to the northward of that circle." 

The following is a graphic account of its appearance from Demerara, 
and is an extract of a letter from my friend William Hunter Camp- 
bell, Esq., LL.D., dated Georgetown, 18tli March, 1843 :— 

"P.S. — ISth March. — It maybe no news to you, but in order to 
compare notes I must tell you that we have at present in our horizon 
a most magnificent comet, the finest I ever saw or ever expect to see 
again. It was first noticed on the evening of the 3d instant. It is 
seen in the south-west, and seems gradually rising from the horizon. 
Its length is prodigious, appearing to extend over 30 or 40 degrees of 
the heavens, and the body and tail present an immense train, luminous 
and bright, varying from one and a half to twice the apparent diameter 
of the moon. The nucleus is very readily seen with an ordinary 
telescope, appearing of a ruddy hue, and like a second or third-rate 
star m magnitude. Remembering that about this season Orion is not 
seen or conspicuous in England, I am doubtful whether the comet 
may bo visible there either, for last night it was seen in all its glory, 
with tho tail close on Orion. It has been an object of great interest 
to us all here, but unfortunately we have no observatory nor scientific 
astronomers, aU of which I envy you if the wanderer has visited your 
regions. I do not think it has been announced by any astronomical 
almanac, for if it had it is too immense and wonderful not to have 
been long ere now the subject of conversation in the scientific world. 
At first, the people here were frightened at it, thinking it too large 

No. 8. 2 



168 Mr. Griffin on a Charcoal Support for Blowpipe Experiments. 

for a comet, and imagining it a lunar rainbow or some gigantic meteor 
before unheard of. It is no unapt representation of what one might 
imagine the pillar of fire to have been which guided the Israelites of 
old in the wilderness. As to its being a lunar rainbow, the idea was 
preposterous, for it bears not the most remote resemblance to one, nor 
forms the slightest segment of a circle ; besides, it happened to be 
situated, as regards the moon, in a totally different direction from 
that in which a rainbow would have been. Last night it was very 
bright, the heavens being beautifully clear and unclouded, and the 
moon not having risen at eight o'clock, her rays did not detract from 
its brightness.** 

XXXIX. — On a New Kind of CJiarcoal Support for Blowpipe Expe- 
riments, By John Joseph Griffin. 

Several of the most important experiments performed with the 
Blowpipe, require the assistance of charcoal, upon which the object 
submitted to examination, is supported in the flame. The charcoal 
employed for this purpose should be of soft wood, well burnt, compact, 
and free from crevices. Such charcoal is diflicult to obtain. I have 
several times examined a sackful of charcoal, without finding above 
half-a-dozen sticks adapted for these experiments. This circumstance 
induced me to seek for a substitute, and having found one which seems 
likely to prove serviceable, I think it possible that other persons accus- 
tomed to operate with the Blowpipe, and accustomed also to feel the 
want of suitable charcoal, may be willing to learn in what manner 
they can easily replace it by an efiicient substitute. For this reason 
I have drawn up the following notice. 

The Blowpipe experiments that require the assistance of charcoal, 
may be divided into two classes : — In the first class may be named, 
the formation of beads with microcosmic salt, the trial of fusibility 
per se, and the roasting of the metallic compounds that contain such 
volatile elements as sulphur and arsenic. The second class of experi- 
ments is restricted to the fusion of minerals or metallic compounds 
with carbonate of soda, or with soda and borax, for the purpose of 
effecting particular combinations or of procuring their metals in tho 
state of regulus. For these two classes of experiments, I make use of 

^^^ two different composi- 

. -^ _^=J^^^=^_ *^°^ supports the first 

\ y P'*=====4=======i====''^ Supports for Fusions^ 

L^^ J and the second Sup- 

• ports for Reductions. 

These are alike in appearance — the form and size of both being shown 
by fig. a. Each consists of two parts, an upper or combustible portion, 
and a base or incombustible portion. The former is the proper sub- 



Mr. Griffin <w a Charcoal Swpport for Blowpipe Experiments. 159 



stitute for the ordinary charcoal, the under portion onlj acting as a 
crucible in which the combustible portion is contained. I shall first 
describe the composition and formation of the supports, and afterwards 
show the way to use them. 

The incombustible portion of both supports is made of fine pipe- 
clay and charcoal powder, mixed in equal parts by weight, with as 
much water, slightly thickened by rice paste, as is sufficient to form a. 
stiff plastic mass. 

The combustible portion of the Support for Fusions consist of 

Charcoal in fine Powder, . . 12 Parts. 
Rice Flour, .... ^ — 

Water, .... about 8 — 
The rice is boiled in the water to form a paste, with which the char- 
coal is afterwards mixed into a mass of the consistence of dough. 

The upper part of the Support for Reductions consists of the follow- 
ing mixture : — 

Charcoal in fine Powder, . . 9 Parts. 
Carbonate of Soda, crystallized, 2 — 

Borax, crystallized, ... 1 — 
Rice Flour, . . . . J — 
Water, .... about 8 — 

The water is boiled, the soda and borax are dissolved in it, and the 
rice is then added to form a paste, with which the charcoal is finally 
incorporated, and the whole well kneaded into a stiff mass. 

The mould in which these compositions are pressed to form the 

supports, is made of box- 
wood, and consists of four 
pieces, represented by figs. 
A, B, C, D. 

D is a cylindrical block, 
having a conical hole through 
tlie centre ; A, B, C, are pestles or 
stampers fitted to this hole. The 
mould, D, when in use, is set upon 
a clean surface of iron, such as a 
Blowpipe anvil. A round ball of 
the clay composition, ^j^ inch in diameter, is put into it, and pressed to 
the bottom by means of the pestle A This forms a conical cup or 
crucible similar to the under portion of fig. E, which represents a 
vertical section of a support A round ball of the combustible com- 
position, of either kind, J inch in diameter, is next put into the mould, 
and pressed firmly down with the pestle B, and the pestle, before being 
withdrawn, is gently turned round to smooth the surface of the sup- 
port The mould is now lifted from the anvil, and the pestle C is 
applied below to push the support out of the hole. 




160 Mr. Griffin on a Charcoal Support for Blowpipe Experiments. 

The principal points which require attention, to ensure success in 
this process, are, to have the materials in the state of very fine powder, 
and the moist compositions of a proper degree of consistency. If they 
are too soft, the support will not quit the mould without losing its 
form. If too dry, the particles of the support will not cohere. The 
proper state is found after a few trials. It is most convenient to 
begin by making the mixture too soft, and then drying it slowly till 
found to be hard enough to work easily. The composition is rolled 
into little balls of the size before mentioned by means of the fingers. 
The moulds should be kept clean, and the forming parts of the pestle 
B and the ring D should be oiled. The best way to clean the hole in 
the mould D is by means of a long conical cork, rasped to a rough 
surface and oiled. The point of the pestle A must not be oiled, 
because grease prevents the adhesion of the combustible portion of the 
support to its clay base. 

When the support is taken from the mould it is put on a hot plate 
or a sand bath to dry, after which, the rough edges are taken off by a 
rasp. It is then ready for use. The bottoms of the supports for 
reductions are painted with red ochre mixed with rice paste, to dis- 
tinguish them from the other kind. The size I have fixed upon is as 
follows : — height ^ inch, diameter at the top -J inch, at the bottom f 
inch. The weight is about 16 grains, consisting of 10 grains of clay 
crucible, and 6 grains of combustible matter. I have tried several 
other sizes, but find this to be the most generally convenient. Never- 
theless, a higher temperature can be produced upon a smaller support, 
and I find that large masses of charcoal are not essential, since many 
blowpipe experiments can be finished during the combustion of only 
two grains of charcoal. 

Before I proceed to explain the mode of using these supports, I 
must describe the handle by means of which they are to be held in 
the blowpipe flame. This handle consists of an iron wire, 3J inches 
long and -^^ inch in diameter, one end of which is bent into a ring 
about f inch in diameter, while an inch of the other end is forced 
through a round cork 1 inch long and i inch in diameter, as repre- 
sented by figs, hy c. The operator fixes the support in the ring of this 
wire, and holds it by the cork handle, which is intended, not so much 
to protect the fingers from heat, as to provide the power of varying the 
position of the support in the flame, as the progress of an ignition may 
require. 

I shall now describe one or two experiments which show the method 
of using these supports. 

1). The surface of one of the Supports for Fusions is heated before 
the blowpipe till it is red hot. If then removed from the blowpipe 
flame, the support continues to burn, like an ordinary pastile, till it 
is consumed down to the clay. In this respect, the support has a 
superiority over ordinary charcoal, which soon ceases to burn when 



Mr. GRiTFm on a Ctuxrcocd Support for Blowpipe Experiments. 161 

removed from the fire. The ignited support is to be rested on a por- 
celain capsule in the manner represented by fig. d, and a quantity of 
microcosmic salt, sufficient to form a bead, is placed upon its red hot 
surface. The salt instantly smelts and sinks into the central cavity, so 
as to form a bead, fig. F, the heat, the form, and the smoothness of the 
surface of the support, facilitating this part of the process. The salt is 
then heated before the blowpipe till it is melted into a transparent 
colourless bead. The support is again placed on the porcelain capsule, 
and the metallic substance intended to be incorporated in the bead, is 
added to it The support continuing to be red hot, and the bead con- 
sequently continuing soft, the substance so added is immediately 
absorbed and its loss by dispersion prevented. Whereas, upon com- 
mon charcoal, the fused salt solidifies soon after it is removed from 
the flame, and the substance added for examination, not adhering to 
it, is often blown away by the first blast from the blowpipe jet. The 
bead is now again fused till the substance added to it is decomposed, 
and the resulting glass is observed to fuse quietly. It is then ready 
for examination, but it is sunk in the bottom of the hollow in the sup- 
port, (see fig. F,) and cannot be seen by transmitted light unless the 
projecting sides of the support be removed. This is effected as fol- 
lows: — The support is placed as before upon the procelain capsule, 
and the operator blows with his mouth, without using the blowpipe, 
strongly down upon its surface. The pastile then burns away rapidly, 
and the force of the blast of air disperses the ashes, until the whole 
rim of the support is consumed, down to the part 
marked, in fig. F, with dotted lines. The bead 
then appears situated on the summit of a cone, 
as shown in fig. G, and can be examined either 
by reflective or transmitted light. It is also in 
a position adapted for exposure to the different action of the oxidating 
and reducing flames, so as to have the character of the included metal 
fully developed. If, finally, the charcoal is allowed to burn wholly 
away, the coloured bead can be lifted from the ashes and preserved in 
a closed glass tube for subsequent examination and comparison. 

2). If the surface of one of the Supports for Reductions is heated 
before the blowpipe, it bums at fii-st like the simple charcoal support, 
but in proportion as the charcoal is consumed, the fluxes which were 
mixed with it, and which are not volatile, concentrate and fuse upon 
tlio surface of the residue. If, therefore, a reducible metallic com- 
pound is heated upon such a support, it becomes exposed at once to 
the reducing action of the high temperature, of the nascent oidde of 
carbon, and of the carbonate of soda, whilst any earthy matter that 
it may contain is vitrified by the attendant borax. It is easy there- 
fore to conceive tliat these supports should possess a powerful reduc- 
ing action, and so in fact they do. For example, a crystal of sulphate 
of copper, as large as the surface of a support, can be decomposed upon 




162 Mr. Griffin on a Charcoal Support for Blowpipe Experiments. 

it, and all its elements be driven off except the copper, which is 
finally obtained in a single metallic bead. A globule of metallic tin, 
an eighth of an inch in diameter, can be kept boiling upon a support 
without being converted into oxide. A crystal of quartz can be fused 
into soda glass. Flint glass can be melted with metallic oxides, in 
such quantities as to form beads of enamel or coloured glass the sixth 
of an inch in diameter. And these effects are producible upon a sup- 
port of th€J weight of only 16 grains, and during the combustion of 
perhaps not more than 3 or 4 grains of charcoal. Indeed, many 
striking results are produced by a combustion of only 2 grains of 
charcoal, but then this combustion is effected under very favourable 
circumstances, where very little more charcoal is heated than is 
intended to be burnt, and where no more is burnt than is required to 
produce the intended effect. 

This power of restricting the consumption of charcoal in such 
experiments, is a merit which will render these composition supports 
acceptable to travelling mineralogists. Berzelius laments the diffi- 
culty of procuring good charcoal when travelling, even in the well- 
wooded regions of the north, and this difficulty, and the consequent 
necessity of carrying about a quantity of charcoal, all travelling 
analysts must find an annoyance. But as the supports which I have 
described, require for each only a cube of \ of an inch of charcoal, it 
follows that a sufficiency of either mixture, for no less than 500 experi- 
ments, may be carried in a square tin box measuring only two inches 
on each side. Moreover, the incombustible portion of the supports 
can be pounded down and remoulded any number of times, so that 
only a very small quantity of clay is requisite. 

3). The last blowpipe experiment to which I shall now allude is 
cupellation, the performance of which before the blowpipe, is consi- 
derably facilitated by the apparatus described in this notice. When 
a cupellation is to be effected, a clay crucible is made in the mould D, 
by means of the pestle A, in the manner already described, and into 
this crucible a quantity of moistened bone ashes is pressed by the 
pestle B, so as to make a cupel similar in form to a charcoal support, 
fig. E, but consisting of bone ashes. This cupel being mounted upon 
the wire handle, shown by figs. &, c, is ready for use. A much higher 
temperature can be raised upon such a cupel than upon the same 
quantity of bone ashes placed, as usual, in a hole cut in a large piece 
of common charcoal. 

I have now only to state my reasons for choosing rice as an ingre- 
dient of these pastile supports. They are, that rice paste is a strong, 
cheap, and convenient agglutinant ; that when heated before the blow- 
pipe it melts and binds the charcoal powder well together; that when 
decomposed, its charcoal is very difficult of incineration ; and that its 
ashes are neither more abundant nor more troublesome than those of 
wood charcoal that forms the mass of the support. These properties 



Dh. Thomson on the Nutritive Power of Bread of different Countries. 1C3 

enable us to give to charcoal powder any desirable form, and to bind 
it firmly together, without the intermixture of any impurity. Other 
agglutinants do not possess the same combination of good properties. 
Thus, gum arabic is sixteen times as dear, it intumesces under igni- 
tion so much as often to disrupt the charcoal pastile, and its ashes 
shine at a high temperature with such intense brilliancy, as to dazzle 
the eyes of the operator, and make analytical observations impossible. 
It is probable that rice would form an excellent ingredient in the 
mixture for Charcoal Galvanic Batteries. 

XL. — On the Nutritive Power of Bread and Flour of different 
Countries. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D. 

It was observed as early as 1742, by Beccaria of Bologna, in Italy, 
that flour consisted of two parts differing essentially in their nature ; 
the starchy part affording, by distillation and digestion, principles 
similar to those of all vegetables, and the glutinous part, on the other 
hand, supplying substances similar to those derived from an animal 
origin.* This discovery constituted the basis of all subsequent 
researches into the nature and effects of flour as an article of nourish- 
ment. Indeed, until 1820, Beccaria's method of analysing flour was 
the only one practised by chemists. In that year, however, Taddey, 
another Italian chemist, showed that gluten might be separated into 
two parts by treatment with alcohol — he kneaded the gluten with 
successive portions of alcohol as long as the latter fluid became milky 
with water. The alcoholic solution gradually deposited by standing 
gliadine, while zumome remained unacted on by the alcohol. The 
gliadine of Taddey was examined also by Saussure and called Mucin, 
If this substance be separated by filtration and the liquor be evapo- 
rated, a body termed Kleber by Einhoff, and glutin by Saussure, 
remains ; while the substance which is untouched by the alcohol is 
denominated albumen, or at present fibrin. The present method of 
analysing flour, is to dissolve the gum, sugar, and albumen, by means 
of water, the flour being placed in a linen bag or towel and exposed to 
pressure, so as to force out the starch, and leave the glutinous portion 
on the cloth. The latter when treated with alcohol affords casein, 
glutin, oil, and fibrin which remains undissolved. According to the 
present views of chemists, those substances which contain azote are 
alone capable of forming blood, or in common language, of nourishing 
the body. It is obvious therefore, that as the azotized principles of 
flour, viz. albumen, fibrin, casein, and glutin, each contain the same 
quantity of azote, or 16 per cent., the determination of the amount 
of this element present in flour, affords us at once an index of the 
nutritive power of flour or bread ; on this principle the following table 

* Collection Academique, tome xiv., p. I. 



164 Dr. Thomson <m tTie Nutritive Power of Bread of different Countries. 

has been constructed. The azote was obtained by converting it into 
ammonia and precipitating by bichloride of platinum. 

The Naumburg bread — a town in the south of Prussia, situated in a 
fine corn country — the Dresden and Berlin bread, were obtained by 
myself in these cities in August 1842. The flour was probably, there- 
fore, grown in 1841. The other specimens were procured in the early 
part of the present year, and are probably of the growth of 1842. The 
second column gives the quantity of platinum obtained in the experi- 
ments from which the third column has been calculated. The fourth 
column gives the relative value ; 100 of Naumburg being equivalent 
to 115i of Dresden bread. 

Azotized 
Quantity Principles. 

Analysed. Platinum. Per Cent. Equivalents. 

Naumburg Bread, .... 10 grs. 1-81 grs. 16*49 100 00 

Dresden do — 1-57 14*30 115-31 

Berlin do — 156 14*21 11604 

Canada Flour, 9*9 1*50 13*81 117*23 

Essex do 91 1*30 13*59 121*33 

Glasgow unfermented Bread, 100 1-47 13*39 123*15 

Lothian Flour, — 1*35 12*30 134*06 

United States Flour, . . . _ 1-25 11*37 14503 

Ditto by mechanical analysis, 1099 150*00 

The low position of the American flour as indicated by the first 
experiment in the table, was so startling, that it was repeated by 
means of the mechanical process. The result of the analysis of three 
ounces was as follows : — 

Per Cent. 

Starch, 90200 68*73 

{Fibrin, .... 116*80 \ 

Casein, .... 5*27 ( ,«« .« ^ ^« 

Glutin and Oil, . 304^ 1^0*40 9*93 
Loss, (Water) . 5*29/ 

Albumen, 14*00 106 

Gum, 60*40 4*60 

Sugar 16*30 1*24 

Water, 189*40 14*44 

3 oz. = 1312*50 10000 

It is from this analysis that the second result is given in the table. 
It affords a striking confirmation of the accuracy of the first deter- 
mination. It is only necessary to add that all these specimens were 
dried at the temperature of 212° before being subjected to experiment. 



BELL AND BAIN, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 

OFTHB 

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



FORTY-SECOND SESSION, 1843-44. 



CONTENTS. 

Pbofessor Thomas Thomson on Coal Gas, 165 

Ma. Spens on the Formation of a Friendly Society for the Professional and Mer- 
cantile Classes, 177 

Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yellow Colouring Matter, .... 182 

Report of Botanical Section, 192 

Da. Watt on the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages, 193 



1st November, 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

Mr. John Watt was elected a Member of the Society. 

Mr. Gourlie, in the absence of Dr. Balfour, presented the Transac- 
tions, Laws, and Regulations of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 
on the part of that body. The Secretary was requested to return 
the thanks of the Society to the Edinburgh Botanical Society for 
their donation. The Vice-President having taken the Chair, Dr. 
Thomson read the following paper. 

XLI — On Goal Gas. By Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., 
M.R.LA., Begins Professor of Chemistry. 

It is well known that the word Gas was first introduced into 
chemistry by Van Helmont, in his Treatise de Flatihus. Junker, 
whose Conspectus Chemice Theoretico Practices was published in 1744, 
conjectures that Van Helmont's word gas was merely the German 
word Gdschty fermentation in a Latin dress, and this conjecture seems 
as probable as any. 

Boyle was the first chemist who attempted to make gas artificially, 
and who showed that thus prepared it possessed the mechanical pro- 
perties of common air. The gas which he examined was hydrogen, 
obtained by pouring dilute sulphuric acid on iron filings. 

Hales, in 1726, proved by experiment, that many animal and vege- 
table substances, when heated sufficiently, give out an air which 

No. 9. 1 



IGG Professor Thomas Thomson on Coal Gas. 

possesses the mechanical properties of common air, and which, there- 
fore, he considered as not differing in its properties from common air. 
That hydrogen gas was combustible, was known at least as early as 
the beginning of the last century ; and many remarkable stories are 
told by early chemists of the eighteenth century about its combusti- 
bility, and the violent explosions which a mixture of it and common 
air produced when brought in contact with a burning body. 

Dr. Black first showed, that carbonic acid, though a gas, differed 
essentially from common air, and he gave it the name of fixed air, 
because it existed in a solid state in the carbonates. Cavendish, in 
1766, showed that hydrogen differs from common air and from car- 
bonic acid. He examined its combustibility, its specific gravity, and 
its peculiarities. In 1772, Dr. Priestley began his experiments on 
air. First he examined carbonic acid and hydrogen ; then azotic gas, 
then deutoxide of azote, muriatic acid gas, and ammoniacal gas. In 
1774 he discovered sulphurous acid gas and oxygen gas, which was 
destined to make such an alteration in the chemical theories of the 
time. He discovered fluoric acid gas and carbonic oxide, though he 
was not aware of its peculiar nature, and, indeed, remained ignorant 
of it to the end of his life. 

It is curious that Dr. Priestley no where, so far as I know, mentions 
carburetted hydrogen, or heavy inflammable air, as it was then called. 
It constitutes the fire damp of coal mines. Its combustibility, and its 
property of exploding with great violence in certain circumstances, 
must have been known in coal countries at a pretty early period. In 
the Philosophical Transactions for 1667, there is an account of a 
blower of this gas passing through and taking fire from the flame of a 
candle and burning briskly ; and in the same work, there are many 
histories of explosions in coal mines, attended with the loss of many 
lives. 

Though carburetted hydrogen occurs so commonly in coal mines, 
and though it burns with a strong flame and gives out a good deal of 
light, and although it had been ascertained that when common coal 
was distilled at a red heat it gave out a great deal of inflammable gas 
— it does not seem to have occurred to any person to employ it as a 
substitute for candles, till the idea struck Mr. Murdoch, an Ayrshire 
gentleman in the employ of Watt & Boulton. In the year 1808, he 
published a paper in the Philosophical Transactions, pointing out the 
advantages that would result from employing coal gas instead of oil 
for illuminating the streets of towns and manufactories. 

In this paper he gives an account of the apparatus which he had 
fitted up for lighting the cotton manufactory of Messrs. Phillips & Lee 
at Manchester, which was at that time the greatest cotton mill in the 
kingdom. He shows that the expense was only about one-fourth of 
that of the candles or oil necessary to produce the same quantity of 
light that the gas did. The coal used was the best Wigan cannel, a 



Professoh Thomas Thomson on Coal Oas. 167 

ton of which, he says, yields 7160 cubic feet of gas, and produces 
about two-thirds of a ton of coke. 

In this interesting paper, Mr. Murdoch gives the history of the dis- 
covery of gas making. In the year 1792, while at Redruth in Corn- 
wall, he made a set of experiments on the quantity and qualities of the 
gases produced by distillation from diflferent mineral and vegetable 
substances. He was induced, by some observations which he had 
previously made on the burning of coal, to try the combustible pro- 
perties of the gases produced from it, as well as from peat, wood, and 
other inflammable substances ; and being struck with the great quan- 
tities of gas which they afforded, as well as with the brilliancy of the 
light, and the facility of its production, he instituted several experi- 
ments, with a view of ascertaining the cost at which it might be 
obtained, compared with that of an equal quantity of light yielded by 
oils or tallow. 

In the year 1798 he removed from Cornwall to Boulton & Watt's 
works at Soho, and there he constructed an apparatus upon a larger 
scale, which, during many successive nights, was applied to the 
lighting of their principal building, and various new modes were tried 
for washing and purifying the gas. These experiments were con- 
tinued, with some interruptions, till the peace of 1802, when a public 
display of the gas light was made by him in the illumination of the 
manufactory at Soho on that occasion. 

Since that period, or between it and 1808, he extended the appara- 
tus at Soho, so as to give light to all the principal shops, where it was 
in regular use, to the exclusion of other artificial light. In 1808 he 
fitted up the gas apparatus in Messrs. Phillips ife Lee's cotton mill ; 
since which time it has been extended to all the cotton mills in the 
kingdom. 

I have stated these details, though but imperfectly connected with 
the subject which I mean to discuss, because I believe the history of 
the introduction of gas, as a substitute for oil or candles, is not very 
generally known. It is generally ascribed to Mr. Windsor, who took 
out a patent in 1806, and who delivered lectures on the subject several 
years after, and who endeavoured to get up a joint-stock company, 
with what success I do not know. Several attempts were made here 
about the year 1808, and during the winter of that year the front of 
the Tontine buildings at the Cross of Glasgow was lighted with gas for 
several weeks. London was the first city illuminated with gas. Philip 
Taylor erected the gas works at Paris soon after the peace of 1815. 

In the preceding historical sketch, I have taken no notice of Lord 
Dundonald*s coal tai- works at Culross. The current of gas escaping 
from his ovens was frequently fired ; but it does not seem to have 
occurred to him to employ tlie gas thus extricated for economical 
purposes. Nor have I noticed M. Lebon, who is said, in 1786, to have 
attempted, but without success, to employ gas distilled from wood as 



168 



Professor Thomas Thomson on Cod Gas. 



a substitute for caudles. These attempts led to no results, and were 
speedily forgotten. 

There are four varieties of coal which have been tried in Great 
Britain in the manufacture of gas ; namely, caking coal, cherry coal, 
splint coal, and cannel coal. Of these, the cannel coal or parrot coal, 
as it is called here, yields the best gas ; the caking coal or Newcastle 
coal yields the worst ; and the cherry and splint, though very different 
in their appearance, yield an intermediate gas, the quality of which, 
whether from cherry or splint coal, is nearly the same. 

There are three varieties of cannel coal in the neighbourhood of 
Glasgow, named from the localities where they occur, Skaterig, Les- 
mahagow, and Monkland. 

The specific gravity of these varieties of coal is as follow : — 



Caking coal, 


1-280 


Mr. Richardson. 


Cherry coal. 


1-268 


do. 


Splint coal, 


1-307 


do. 


Skaterig, 


1-229 


Dr. R. D. Thomson 


Lesmahagow, 


1-175 


do. 


Monkland, 


1-189 


do. 



Besides ashes, these six varieties of coal consist of carbon, hydrogen, 
azote, and oxygen combined in various proportions according to the 
coal. I shall here give the composition of each. That of the three 
first was determined by Mr. Richardson of Newcastle, in the labora- 
tory of Giessen ; that of the three last in my laboratory, by my 
nephew, Dr. R. D. Thomson. The azote is small in quantity — so 
small, that Mr. Richardson did not succeed in determining its exact 
quantity ; but we found no difficulty in coming to pretty exact con- 
clusions by the process of Will and Varrentrap. As the quantity in 
all our varieties tried varied from 1-48 to 1*75 per cent. I have sup- 
posed that the azote in the three varieties determined by Richardson 
was the mean of these two quantities, or 1*61 per cent. The following 
table shows the composition of these coals ; — 



Carbon, . . . 
Hydrogen, . . 
Azote, . . . 
Oxygen, . . . 
Ashes, . . . 


Caking 
Coal. 


Cherry 
CoaL 


Splint 
Coal. 


Skaterig » 
Coal. 


Lesmahag. 
Coal. 


Monkland 
CoaL 


87-952 
5-239 
1-610 
3-806 
1-393 


83-025 
5-250 
1-610 
8-566 
1-549 


82-924 
5-491 
1-610 

8-847 
1-128 


76-20 
5-44 
1-75 

14-47 
2-14 


76-25 
6-07 
1-61 

12-26 
2-81 


70-02 
5-56 
1-48 

14-86 

8-08 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 



It will facilitate our conception of the composition of these different 
coals, if we exhibit their constitution by empyrical formulas, repre- 



The specimen was marked Knightswood. 



Pbofbssor Thomab Thomson on Coal Gas. 169 

senting the atoms of each constituent, the quantity of azote being 
reckoned 1 atom. We leave out the ashes, because they have nothing 
to do with the production of the gas, excepting that they materially 
influence its quantity. 



Newcastle, 


Qm H68 ^. 0* 


Cherry, 


C" H*« A* 0» 


Splint, . 


C'» H" A' 0'» 


Skaterig, 


Qm H4S ^r Q15 


Lesmahagow, . 


QUO JJ63 ^^ QH 


Monkland, 


C" H*» A' 0'" 



It appears from this table, that Newcastle coal contains the most 
carbon, and cannel coal the least ; while cannel coal contains the 
most oxygen, and Newcastle coal the least. Newcastle coal con- 
tains the least hydrogen, and cannel coal the most Now cannel 
coal yields the best, and Newcastle coal the worst gas. This need 
excite no surprise. Carbon not being volatile, it is obvious that if 
coal contained nothing but carbon, it would yield no gas at all. Coal 
gas is a mixture of four different gases, most of which are compounds. 
Two are compounds of carbon and hydrogen, one of carbon and oxy- 
gen, and the fourth is pure hydrogen. There is no difficulty in 
conceiving the formation of the gaseous compounds of carbon and 
hydrogen ; but it is not so easy to explain the formation of carbonic 
oxide and hydrogen. These two gases are never entirely wanting ; at 
least, I have analysed above forty specimens of coal gas from different 
kinds of coal, and from different gas works, without ever failing to 
find them. I think it probable that they make their appearance 
towards the end of the process of heating the coaL It is well known, 
that the longer the process of gas making is continued, and the higher 
the temperature at which the gas is produced, the worse is the gas, 
and, of course, the more hydrogen it contains. Is it not possible that 
coal may contain water — that this water can only be extricated at a 
high temperature — that its oxygen combines with carbon and forms 
carbonic oxide, while the liydrogen makes its escape in the gaseous 
state? If this supposition were true, there ought to be a constant 
ratio between the volume of carbonic oxide and hydrogen in the coal 
gas. But this not being the case, it is obvious that the supposition 
cannot be well founded. 

A ton of Lesmahagow coal, when distilled at the usual temperature, 
yields about 10080 cubic feet. One-fifth of the weiglit of coal is gas, 
two-fifths coke, and two-fifths tar, water, &c. 

The gas contains about one-fifth of the carbon in the raw coal, two- 
elevenths of the hydrogen, and two-ninths of the oxygen. About one- 
half of the carbon remains in the state of coke, so that about two-fifths 
go to the formation of the naphthalin, naphtha, naphthene, naphthol, 
&c., which are formed during the distillation. 



ITD Professor Thomas Thomson <m Coal Gas. 

Nine-elevenths of the hydrogen and seven- ninths of the oxygen 
go to the formation of water and various other compounds. The 
ammonia formed amounts to about one per cent, of the liquor obtained 
during the distillation of the coal. 

When gas works wore first established, the coal was distilled in iron 
retorts ; but it has been found more economical to substitute vessels 
of stoneware, or rather, indeed, ovens of fire brick made air-tight. 
These, I believe, have every where superseded the iron retorts. 

During the course of last winter, I made thirty-five analyses of gas 
from different gas works, but most commonly Glasgow gas. The gas 
which I used was taken from a pipe at some distance from the gas 
work, because the gas required to be washed and purified before it 
was examined. After turning the stop-cock, the gas was kindled and 
allowed to burn for several minutes before I began to collect it. In 
every case it contained a mixture of common air, which varied in dif- 
ferent specimens of gas from 4 per cent, to 28 per cent. The mean 
quantity was 12^ per cent. The specimen containing 28 per cent, of 
common air was brought up from Greenock, and though very great 
care was taken in packing it, it is possible that at least a portion of 
this air might have made its way into the bottles during the transit. 
If we omit this specimen, the average quantity of common air in the 
Greenock gas was \0\ per cent. : the average quantity in the Glasgow 
gas was 12i per cent. 

I think it most likely that the common air which forms a constant 
ingredient in all gas from gas works that I have examined, had made 
its way into the pipes, which it must be very difiicult to make air- 
tight ; and when the pressure is removed, common air will undoubtedly 
enter wherever it can find access. The Greenock gas was collected 
in an apartment very near the gas works : the Glasgow gas was col- 
lected in my laboratory, which may be about a furlong from the gas 
works. Now, the average quantity in the Greenock gas was 10|, and 
in the Glasgow 12 J. 

The highest specific gravity of the Glasgow gas was 0*582, and the 
lowest 0*463 : the average was 0*502. 

The quantity of olefiant gas in Glasgow gas varied from 11*77 per 
cent, to 17*83 per cent: the mean quantity was 13*52 per cent. 

I got gas made at Greenock with as much care as possible, from 
each of the three varieties of cannel coal found in the neighbourhood 
of Glasgow, namely, Skaterig, Lesmahagow, and Monkland. The 
specific gravity of these gases were, 



Skaterig, 


0-497 


Lesmahagow, . 


0-560 


Monkland, 


0-622 



These are the specific gravities after the air was extracted. 



Professor Thomas Thomson on Coal Gas. 171 

The olefiant gas, per cent, contained in each was as follows : — 



Glasgow, 


. 


13-5! 


Skaterig, 


. 


14-5 


Lesmahagow, 


. 


. 17-5 


Monkland, 


• 


20- 



Mr. Ritchie, the manager of the Greenock gas work, who prepared 
these gases, told me, that he thought rather too much heat had been 
applied to the Lesmahagow coal, which, in his opinion, would have 
somewhat deteriorated the Lesmahagow coal gas. 

The mean quantity of carburetted hydrogen gas in the Glasgow 
coal gas was 60-6 per cent : the smallest quantity was 47*33, and the 
largest 7977. The quantity of this gas in the gases from cannel coal 
were as follows : — 



Skaterig, 


66-49 


Lesmahagow, . 


59-94 


Monkland, 


48-77 



The goodness of these gases is in the order of naming them. It 
would appear from this, that the smaller the proportion of carburetted 
hydrogen the better is the gas. The reason is, that the olefiant gas 
increases as the carburetted hydrogen diminishes. 

The average quantity of carbonic oxide in Glasgow gas was 12 per 
cent. : the smallest quantity was 6*34 per cent, and the greatest quan- 
tity 15 per cent The quantity of this gas in the three gases from 
cannel coal was as follows : — 



Skaterig, 


. 


7-07 


Lesmahagow, 


. 


1200 


Monkland, 


. 


11-76 



The mean quantity of hydrogen gas in Glasgow gas was 12-44 per 
cent: the greatest quantity was 22-85 per cent, and the smallest 
quantity 2*21 per cent. The quantity in the three gases from cannel 
coal was as follows : — 



Skaterig, 


12-29 


Lesmahagow, . 


11-46 


Monkland, 


17-32 



The common method of determining the light emitted by gas during 
its combustion, is to set fire to a jet of a given height, and issuing 
from an orifice of a given diameter, and to compare it with the light 
given out by a wax candle of six in the pound, usually denominated 



172 Professor Thomas Thomson m Coal Gas. 

short sixes. An opaque body is placed on a sheet of paper horizon- 
tally between the two flames, and it is so placed that the two shadows 
formed by it are of equal intensity. The distance between this 
opaque body and the flames is measured, and the light emitted by 
each is as the square of that distance. Thus, if the distance between 
the gas flame and the opaque body be two feet, while its distance from 
the flame of the candle is only one foot, then the light given out by 
the gas is four times as great as that of the candle. 

The light given by the combustion of a jet of Glasgow gas issuing 
from an orifice of one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter and four inches 
in height was as follows : — 

1. On the north side of the river := 2*68 candles. 

2. On the south side of the river := 1*77 do. 

This method of measuring the quantity of light appears at first 
sight very simple ; but I found, on trial, that it was attended with so 
many sources of error, that I was afraid to depend upon it. Fortun- 
ately there is another method of much easier execution, which I found 
much more satisfactory. 

The quantity of light given out during the combustion of coal gas 
is very nearly proportional to its specific gravity. The heavier a gas 
is, the slower does it issue from an orifice of a given diameter when 
propelled by a given force. I measured the time which a cubic foot 
of each gas took to issue from an orifice of one-thirtieth of an inch, 
when propelled by a force such as to form a jet of flame, when lighted, 
of four inches in length, and I considered the goodness of the gas as 
proportional to this time. The result was as follows : — 



1. Glasgow gas. North, 

2. Ditto, South, 


70' 18' 
60' 9' 


3. Skaterig,. 

4. Lesmahagow, 

5. Monkland, 


75' 0' 
102' 40 
100' 0' 



Certainly, in a commercial point of view, the value of the gas (the 
price per cubic foot being the same in all) is exactly proportional to 
the time that it takes to burn ; because the consumption in a given 
time depends upon that time. 

If, therefore, a thousand cubic feet of gas be charged 8s. on both 
sides of the river, it is clear that the consumers on the south side pay 
at the rate of 9s. 4d. per thousand cubic feet, because they consume 
7000 cubic feet in the same time that those on the north side con- 
sume 6000. 

If Glasgow gas, Skaterig gas, and Lesmahagow gas are each charged 
at 8s. per thousand cubic feet, the price paid by the consumers will be. 



Fbovbssor Thomas Thomson on Coal Gas. 173 

1000 feet of Lesmahagow coal, . . 8s. 

— Skaterig coal, . . . 9s. 4i<L 

— Glasgow coal, . . .lis. Bid. 

— Ditto, south side river, . 13s. 5|d. 



After this paper was read, an interesting discussion took place, 
during which Mr. John Hart made the following observations : — 

Having heard that Lord Dundonald used gas from coal as a light 
long before Mr. Murdoch's discovery, and being in Culross Abbey 
while it was unroofed and in a state of ruin, I naturally began to 
examine the walls to see if I could discover any trace of the pipes, 
when Sir Robert Preston's gardener informed me, that he believed no 
pipes were used, as some of the old people of Culross who saw it, told 
him that the gas was carried in a vessel from the tar works and burnt 
in the Abbey. 

I afterwards discovered that an intelligent old man, a blacksmith in 
our neighbourhood, had been long in the employment of his Lordship, 
and that he had been his assistant in many of his experiments about 
that period ; from him I received the following account : — His Lord- 
ship having been in company with some scientific friends, on the fol- 
lowing morning he mentioned to his blacksmith that, on the previous 
night, he had been shown a work * which gave an account of a process 
for distilling pit coal, and from which a substance like tar might be 
obtained in considerable quantities. This he wished to try, as he 
thought it might be made to serve the purposes of common tar ; and 
he then told him to come along with him to the garden, where he 
pointed out a spot, and gave him instructions to set about the erection 
of an oven or kiln to try it : the experiment succeeding, nothing more 
was done until it was secured by a patent. Soon after, nine cylindrical 
ovens of brick were built in a row, along a bank of earth ; these were 
about 3 feet in width and about 7 feet deep, being hemispherical at top 
and bottom, each having a moveable cover at top for charging, and a 
well fitted door at bottom to regulate the combustion : a 7 inch cast 
iron pipe near the top conveyed the products to the condenser on the 
top of the bank. The condenser was a flat box of lead, having 
divisions partly crossing it to detain the vapours of the tar, and very 
much resembled the coolers used by brewers, from having a rim to 
retain cold water on its upper surface, with which it was plentifully 
supplied. The tar was conducted by a pipe into similar cylinders of 
brick-work on the opposite side of the bank; each of these had a 
small opening in the top for the escape of the incondensible part of 

♦ This might probably be Dr. Richard Watson's Chemical Essays, published in 1787, 
in which he details experiments he made on the distillation of pit coal, and also the 
quantities of coke and tar obtained from varioiis kinds of coal. 



174 Professor Thomas Thomson on Coed Gas. 

the products. To these openings the workmen were in the habit of 
attaching a cast-iron pipe by means of a lump of soft clay, and lighting 
the gas at the other end to give thom light during the darkness. His 
Lordship, also, was in the habit of burning the gas in the Abbey as a 
curiosity ; and for this purpose he had a vessel constructed resembling 
a large tea urn ; this he frequently caused to be filled and carried up 
to the Abbey to light the hall with, especially when he had company 
with him. On one occasion, after a fresh charge, the workman having 
applied his light too soon, an explosion took place, which nearly killed 
some of the men, and tore off the top of the condenser, and one of the 
workmen's wives passing near it at the time was blown off the bank ; 
fortunately she fell over into her husband's lap (who happened to be 
sitting below at his breakfast) without receiving any other injury 
than the fright. However, after this accident the men became very 
cautious in applying a light to the pipe until the whole of the atmos- 
pheric air was displaced. In giving this statement, I do not mean to 
detract in the smallest degree from the merits of Mr. Murdoch, as it 
appears this gentleman knew nothing of what was going on at Culross : 
all I wish to show, was the state of knowledge on this subject in Scot- 
land ten or twelve years prior to Mr. Murdoch's discoveries. As 
Lord Dundonald's object was the manufacture of tar, his researches 
would probably be confined to the quantity of tar, and not to the 
quality of the gas ; and as his gas from the tar kilns must have been 
very inferior, being from common coal and also partly mixed with the 
air after combustion in the kilns, the light must have been inferior to 
candles ; but even although he had observed the high illuminating 
power of gas from cannel coal, the high price of cast-iron pipes, and 
the little use they were put to, especially in Scotland, at that period, 
must have rendered such an idea, if it had ever occurred to him, or 
even to Dr. Clayton, as a thing perfectly impracticable. It required 
a more extensive knowledge and experience in engineering than any 
of these gentlemen were possessed of, to entertain for a moment the 
practicability of such a scheme ; even Mr. Murdoch and his friends 
at Soho seem to have had their doubts about the possibility of raising 
funds sufficient for such a gigantic undertaking as the lighting of a 
city, if we may judge from the little interest they took in it even after 
lighting up the cotton factory of Messrs. Lee & Co. of Manchester. 

Shortly after fitting up the little gas apparatus described in Robert- 
son Buchanan's Treatise on Heat, as we could not procure cannel 
coal at that time in Glasgow, we were obliged to make our gas from 
common coal, the flame from which being very grey, I thought it 
might be possible to improve it, or to make the gas take up an addi- 
tional dose of carbon by making it pass over charcoal of wood at a 
strong red heat previous to its entering the condenser, and that I 
might also produce a greater quantity of gas by more effectually 
decomposing the tar. For this purpose I procured a one-and-a-half 



Professor Thomas Thomson <m Coal Gas. 175 

inch cast-irou pipe, and having charged it with charcoal, I passed it 
through the furnace below the retort, and joined one end with the 
pipe from the retort, and the other end to the pipe leading to the con- 
denser, the fire was then applied, and the retort cliarged as usual. 
After the gas-holder had risen about a foot, we observed the pipe 
leading to the condenser (which was of lead) becoming very hot ; it 
soon after gave way and fell to pieces, and the whole of the gas 
escaped into the air, but it bad no longer the yellow silky appearance 
of gas issuing from a retort, it had become a white vapour, and had 
also lost the smell. As we could not collect any more of the gas, we 
withdrew the fire, and allowed the whole to cool down. When I took 
out the charcoal to examine it, in place of its being acted upon by the 
gas as I supposed, I found it covered all over with a beautiful smooth 
shining black coat of carbon which had been deposited upon it. This 
was extremely brittle, and started off like scales of iodine when 
pressed upon by the nails. As the gas was mixed with part of a 
former charge, we could not ascertain its quality, but it certainly did 
not seem at all improved; indeed, the gas seemed rather to have 
parted with a portion of its carbon, (by passing through the red hot 
charcoal,) than to have acquired an additional dose. On this account 
I did not prosecute the experiment farther. However, this deposition 
of carbon in the solid form upon the charcoal led me to examine more 
minutely the appearances of similar shining depositions upon pieces 
of common coke, and also the deposits of carbon that were formed 
both within and below the retorts of the Glasgow gas work. The 
change, too, that was produced upon the flame of a piece of coal in an 
open fire arrested my attention also. I observed that when it passes 
up through a mass of glowing cinders, it loses its brightness, and 
becomes of a dusky yellowish red colour like common hydrogen, just 
as if the carbon had been abstracted from the hydrogen in its passage 
through the cinders ; and, therefore, when I saw the report drawn up 
by Dr. Henry, of the analysis of the gas obtained by him during dif- 
ferent periods of the charge from the same retort, this deterioration of 
the gas in the latter period of the charge appeared to me to proceed 
rather from the deposition of the carbon held in solution by the gas in 
coming into contact with the new formed coke in the exterior part of 
the charge, than from an inferior gas being given off from the coal in 
the centre of the retort, any more than from that part of the coal 
which was in contact with the retort itself. And, therefore, to obtain 
gas of nearly as uniform a quality as possible from the whole of the 
charge, a change ought to be made upon the present form of retorts, 
so as not only to apply the coal in a thin layer to the surface of the 
retort, (as had already been pointed out by Mr. Maben of Perth,) but 
also to protect the gas from the action of the incandescent carbon 
when formed. 



176 



Office-Bearers of the Society. 



I5th November^ 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. John Turnbull, Thomas Edington, John Fisher, Rev. Isaac 
Hitchin, Rev. Lewis Page Mercier, were admitted members of the 
Society. 

Dr. Balfour presented to the Society a paper by Dr. Maclagan, on 
the Beeberu bark, for which the thanks of the Society were voted. 

Mr. James Thomson called the attention of the Society to the pro- 
priety of memorialising Government to resume and prosecute with 
vigour the ordnance survey of Scotland. A committee was appointed 
to draw up a memorial. 

The treasurer exhibited his audited accounts for last year, showing 
at the credit of the Society £60 in bank, and £5 lis. 8id. in trea- 
surer's hands. The librarian also presented his accounts audited, 
exhibiting the receipt of £105 14s. 5d., and an expenditure of 
£70 3s. lOd., leaving a balance of £35 10s. 7d. in librarian's hands. 

The Society then proceeded to the forty-second annual election of 
Office-Bearers, when the following were chosen for the session 1843-44: 



©ffi'ceslSearers. 
Phesidbnt — ^Pkofessob Thomas Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., &c. 

Vice-Pbesident, . . .Walter Ckum. I Secretary, Alexander Hastie. 

Treasurer, Andrew Liddell. | LibrarlAlN, Thomas Dawson. 



A. Anderson, M.D. 
J. H. Balfour, M.D. 
A. Buchanan, M.D. 

J. FlNDLAY, M.D. 



Walter Crum. 
Alex. Hastie. 
James Thomson, C.E. 



Council 

Professor Gordon. 

WlLLLOI GOURLIE. 

J. J. Griffin. 
Alex. Harvey. 

HitrarB Committee. 

John Findlay, M.D. 
J. J. Griffin. 
R. D. Thomson, M.D. 
Chairman, Thomas Dawson 



John Stenhousb, Ph.D. 
James Thomson. 
R. D. Thomson, M.D. 
Alex. Watt, LL.D. 



J. H. Balfour, M.D. 
Professor Gordon. 
Alex. Watt, LL.D. 



^utltsi^ing Committee. 

The President and Vice-President — ^The Secretaries of the Sections. 
Chairman, R. D. Thomson, M.D. 



It was suggested by Dr. R. D. Thomson and agreed to, that a 
Botanical Section should be added to the other branches of the Society, 
— that the office-bearers of each section should in future be a chair- 
man and secretary, so as to enable each section optionally to hold 
separate meetings for the discussion of subjects connected with its own 
science, each secretary preparing the minutes of the proceedings of his 
section, and reading them at the next general meeting of the Society. 



Mr. Spens (m the Formation of a Friendly Society. 177 

Section A, — Agriculture, Statistics, and Domestic Economy. 
Chaibmav, William Muebay — Secretaby, Alex. Watt, LL.D. 

Section B. — Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology. 
Chaibman, John Stenhousb, Ph. D.— Secretary. R. D. Thomson, M.D. 

Section C— Physics, including Mechanics and Engineering. 
Chaibman, Professor Gobdon — Secbetaby, James Buchanan. 

Section D.— Physiology and Natural History. 
Chaibman, Pbofessob Andw. Buchanan, M.D. — Secbetaby, J. Findlay, M.D. 

Section E. — Botany. 

Chaibman, Professor J. H. Balfour, M.D. 

Vicb-Chairman, Walter G. Blackie, Ph.D.— Secretary, Willdlm Keddie. 

Curator of Herbabium, Robeet Balloch. 



29th November, 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

The following members were elected: — Messrs. Adam Patterson, 
George Jasper Lyon, Robert Balloch, James Johnston, James Bell, 
Andrew Bain, Professor Allan Maconochie. 

Mr. Crum read a report from the Committee on Arrears. Mr 
James Thomson read a draft of the Memorial to Government respect- 
ing the survey of Scotland, which was approved, and ordered to be 
transmitted forthwith. The following paper was then read : — 

XLII. — Hints for the Formation of a Friendly Society for the Pro- 
fessional and Mercantile Classes. By William Spens, Esq. 

The extent to which at present allowances are provided under 
Friendly Societies is not, so far as I am aware, so great as to afiford 
any considerable relief, generally speaking, to those who are drawing 
incomes from professional or mercantile pursuits — at least not in a 
degree corresponding to the immense benefits such societies, if pro- 
perly constituted, confer on the classes of the community for which, 
no doubt, they were originally intended. In the present communica- 
tion it is proposed to submit briefly the grounds which appear to 
exist for an extension of these advantages to a numerous class among 
professional and mercantile persons, and the mode in which this could 
be efficiently accomplished. 

One of tlie objects, but a subordinate one, among present Friendly 
Societies, is that of securing a sum on the death of the members, and 
this is certainly an object of great importance, but I am not likely to 
say that there is any deficiency of provision for all classes for this 
contingency. Another provision which is made by Friendly Societies 
is for old age, and this also may, to a larger extent, be secured from 
insurance offices, but it is not believed that their business in this 



178 Mb, Spens <m the FormaMon of a Friendly Society/. 

branch is of much consequence to themselves. For neither of these 
provisions, however, would I propose its institution, nor even if sick- 
ness were only of a temporary character. Such will not affect us 
materially ; but I think it must be a general feehng among persons 
whose income is derived from a salary, that permanent sickness would 
leave their families almost totally unprovided for. They can provide for 
them while healtli remains — they can provide for them in the event of 
death ; but supposing they were struck with palsy or permanent blind- 
ness, their families might be rendered destitute. No doubt it will be 
said, that the chance of such calamities is comparatively small, and 
this is fortunately true ; but it is no reason why we should not guard 
against the consequences of such a dire disaster — it is rather cause 
for thankfulness that the sacrifice for the purpose is small. If 
rarity were to determine us, we should cease to insure our dwelling- 
houses against fire, especially when, in consequence of the duty, we 
pay for three times what the risk is accounted. The calamity for 
which I wish provision to be made is much more serious ; and there 
would be no need of paying out of the society more than the risk 
requires — indeed, I wish to persuade you, that the object in view may 
be secured in combination with a deferred annuity, to commence at 
an advanced age, by payments not higher than some insurance offices 
would charge for the latter alone. The object may thus, in some 
sense, be secured for nothing. 

I might have preferred leaving the deferred annuity to be sought at 
life insurance offices, or at least to have made a separate table for it 
in the proposed society ; but it must be of great importance, as a set 
off for a provision which, if commenced much earlier, is not likely to 
continue beyond 70, to have one which is then only to commence : 
thus, with the other guards which may be interposed, placing a check 
upon parties seeking admission with any unfair views as regards the 
sickness claim. The provision, however, for an allowance at an 
advanced age, in whatever state of health, is obviously intimately in 
accordance with the object of the proposed society. It is thus intended 
certainly to provide for superannuation, and, no doubt, those who reach 
70 in good health, are not incapacitated from old age ; but still to 
many, if not to all, more rest is then better, and it is desirable, if 
possible, to prevent any from being deterred by pecuniary considera- 
tions from retiring from active business, if warned by the advancement 
of years of the propriety of such relief, totally or partially. 

In regard to the contributions, I will not pretend to offer very pre- 
cise calculations, but I will promise simplicity, and I think you will 
be satisfied as to adequacy. The following are the annual contribu- 
tions which would be required by the tables of the Higliland Society 
and those of Mr. Ansell, for an allowance of £2 a week, or £104 
a year in sickness, both temporary and permanent, up to 70, interest 
being accumulated at 4 per cent : — 



Mb. Spens on the Formatkm of a Friendly 8ocUty, 179 



Ag*. 


Highland Society. 


Ansell. 


20, 


. . 


£2 8 10 


26. 


. £2 2 10 


2 14 10 


30, 


2 9 6 


3 2 7 


35. 


2 18 4 


3 12 11 


40. 


3 10 8 


4 7 7 


48. 


. 4 7 8 


5 5 9 


60, 


. 


6 5 4 



According to the Highland Society's Report, three-tenths of sick- 
ness are estimated as permanent, and I conceive that one-third may be 
taken as the amount with every probability of being within the mark. 
It will be observed, however, that in the proposed rates an addition 
to this is made, and in the regulations of the society, other securities 
are proposed. 

Supposing, then, the permanent sickness to be one-third, of course 
the annual payments required for £2 a week or £104 per annum, up 
to 70, would be just one-third of the sums in the preceding table. 
These are subjoined with the annual contributions for a similar 
deferred annuity according to the same tables, to commence at 70, 
and the sum of the rates for the two provisions ; and along side are 
placed rates charged by two insurance offices for a deferred annuity 
of £100, commencing at 70, and the same rates according to the Car- 
lisle 3 per cent, table. Next are placed the rates I would consider 
adequate for £100 a year during permanent sickness to 70, and the 
like annuity from that age, payable in whatever state of health, 
assuming 4 per cent, interest and no expense ; and lastly are placed 
the rates I would propose for the intended society. 

These rates I would consider ample ; at the same time I do not think 
that the Society should commence until there were at least fifty sub- 
scribers, and that it should at first limit itself to allowances of £100 
a-year, extending the risks beyond that amount when fifty members 
were entered for such extended risk. A great security is obviously 
attained, by combining the provision for deferred annuity with that for 
sickness, and, as an additional one, I would suggest that no allowance 
should be made to a member until he had been enrolled five years. 
Of course there would also be medical examination of the candidate, 
and admission should be by ballot, after recommendation by directors ; 
but it may be noticed, that parties might, in reference to the pro- 
visions of the Society, be admitted, who would not be eligible for 
admission into an ordinary life insurance office. I would suggest that 
the allowances of the Society should be according to the rates below, 
for £100, £150, £200, £250, and £300 a-year. I may add, that I 
think there ought to be periodical investigations, when a diminution of 
the allowances may be made in the event of any possible shortcoming: 
and in the more probable event of a surplus, I would propose it should 
be applied to hastening the commencement of the deferred annuity. 



180 



Mr. Spens on the Formation of a Friendly Society. 



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Mr. Spens on tlie Formation of a Friendly Society. 101 

I am well aware that there is very great diflSculty in defining per- 
manent sickness, and that many will say that the scheme is imprac- 
ticable on this account. But if it cannot be otherwise satisfactorily 
ascertained, it may, by appointing a tribunal, whose decision upon a case 
is to be decisive, and upon the whole I think that this would be the 
best arrangement, and would eflfectually prevent any questions. The 
cases would be very rare, but perhaps when they did occur, the judges 
might consist of the directors for the time, with a medical gentleman 
appointed by each director, or there might be a permanent appoint- 
ment, besides an ordinary medical officer, of a number of medical 
gentlemen to be united with the directors in deliberating on such 
cases as might occur. Dependence on the honour and judgment of 
such a board would, I think, be preferable to an attempt at special 
definition, which might lead to litigation. 

The widows' scheme of the ministers and professors of Scotland, 
confers most important advantages on their families after their death. 
Its early formation, and on principles which have, I believe, been found 
practically most correct, is a great honour to the body, but I am sur- 
prised that no such scheme as is here suggested, has been brought 
within their reach. The service to the public, and the comfort to 
themselves of such an institution, would be indeed very great. At 
present, if a case of permanent sickness occurs, a usual proceeding 
is, that a helper be appointed, who receives a portion of the emolu- 
ments, and a similar arrangement is made where a party is disabled 
by infirmity of years. The sacrifice of income these arrangements 
make to both parties, often prevents them being entered into so early 
as they should be, narrows the field for choice of a successor, and, by 
materially affecting the status of the latter, tends to impair his use- 
fulness. These disadvantages are indeed felt and acknowledged, and 
can only be satisfactorily prevented, by making it compulsory for 
every one, on their appointment, to join such a society as is hero 
proposed. 

Many other instances of the applicability of a Professional and 
Mercantile Friendly Society, sucli as we have suggested, might be 
given. I am glad to see the benefits of insurance spreading usefully 
in diflferent directions, and I doubt not that, sooner or later, the 
extension — in some sense modification — of the principles of friendly 
societies here proposed, will be introduced witli advantage to the 
community. " Wherever," says the Report of the Committee of the 
House of Commons on Friendly Societies in 1827, " there is a con- 
tingency, the cheapest way of providing against it is by uniting with 
others, so that each man may subject himself to a small deprivation, 
in order that no man may be subjected to a great loss. He upon 
whom the contingency does not fall, does not get his money back 
again, nor does he get for it any visible or tangible benefit, but he 
obtains security against ruin, and consequent peace of mind. Ho 

No. 9. 2 



182 Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yellow Colouring Matter. 

upon whom the contingency does fall, gets all that those whom for- 
tune has exempted from it have lost in hard money, and is thus 
enabled to sustain an event which would otherwise overwhelm him.*' 
This well defines the principle of all insurance. I may be somewhat 
of an enthusiastic admirer of the system, but if one will only consider 
what the state of society would be without any such protection as it 
affords, he will, I think, feel how much we are indebted to the truth- 
investigating labours of the statist, for so great an ally of prudence, 
so useful a guardian of industry. 



13th December, 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

The following were elected Members of the Society: — Messrs. Jas. 
Church, David Thomson, B.A., Charles Griffin, "Walter Nielsen, Wm. 
Dunn, James Bogle, and Charles Maxwell Graham. 

According to previous arrangement, Mr. Crum moved that a Botani- 
cal Section should be added to the Society, and Mr. Gourlie was 
requested to convene the Members who intended to join it, for the 
purpose of choosing their office-bearers, and making other necessary 
arrangements. 

Mr. James Thomson, C.E., described two iron lattice bridges, illus- 
trated with models, which have been erected, one in Scotland, the 
other in Ireland. Mr. Stenhouse exhibited a Davy lamp, constructed 
with mica plates, which appeared well adapted for the purposes of the 
miner. 

The following paper was then read : — 

XLIII. — On Parietin, a Yellow Colouring Matter, and on the Inorganic 
Food of Lichens. By Robert D. Thomson, M.D. 

The objects of the present paper are, 1st, to endeavour to prove that, 
contrary to the usually received opinion, the class of plants termed 
lichens require inorganic matter as part of their food, which they 
must derive from the localities upon which they are fixed ; and 2d, to 
describe the yellow colouring matter obtained from the yellow wall 
lichen, and to detail its properties, composition, and application as a 
test for alkalies. 

Although chemists are acquainted with several yellow colouring 
matters, few of them have been separated in a pure state, and analysed. 
This arises from the difficulty of procuring such substances in the 
same state as that in which they existed in the plant from which they 
are extracted — depending principally on the facility with which they 
unite with oxygen, and on their consequent conversion into a body of 
inferior beauty, and of an uncrystallized structure. The yellow colour- 
ing matters which have hitherto been analysed, are derived from 



Dn. E. D. Thomson on Parietiriy a Yellow Colouring Matter, 183 

various parts of phenogamous plants, principally the roots and flowers. 
The subject of the present paper is procured from a totally different 
tribe — the lichens— but one to which we are indebted for some impor- 
tant djes. The Greeks gave the name â– Kux.r^v to a disease of the skin, 
and likewise to certain plants possessing the power of healing these 
cutaneous eruptions. Dioscorides * tells us that the lichen, which is 
familiarly known from its growing on stones, and attaching itself to 
tlie rough parts of rocks, like a moss, was called by some persons 
bryon, and was useful in the cure of sanguineous fluxes and inflam- 
mations. Pliny likewise uses the term lichen ; but from his describing 
it as growing on rocks, with one leaf from a broad root, and with one 
small stem, it is obvious he refers to a species of hepatica.t Galen 
likewise enumerates lichens among the instruments of cure, in the treat- 
ment of impetiginous or cutaneous diseases. Modern botanists, up to 
a comparatively recent period, appear to have overlooked this class of 
plants, if we may draw this conclusion from the catalogue of English 
plants, by John Ray, the second edition of which was published in 
1677. In this work, tlie celebrated author describes, under the title 
of lichen, eight species of plants, only three of which, however, can be 
reckoned true lichens, the remainder being hepaticsD and alga). In 
Hooker's Flora, published in 1833, there are enumerated and de- 
scribed thirty genera and 420 species of lichens. It is well known 
that many of these are capable of supplying powerful dyes. 

The lichen from which the colouring matter to be described is derived, 
is of very frequent occurrence on walls and trees. It is the Parmelia 
parietina (yellow wall parmelia), described by Hooker as possessing 
a rounded briglit yellow frond, with lobes radiating, marginal, 
appressed, rounded, crenate, crisped, and granulated in the centre. The 
repositorieSy or apothecia, are deep orange, concave, with an entire 
border. The bright yellow colour of the lichen is a sufficient indica- 
tion of the presence of a colouring matter, but the real intensity of 
the colour could scarcely be anticipated merely by an inspection of 
the plant 

POOD OF LICHENS. 

The most luxuriant samples of the parmelia, grow in the neigh- 
bourhood of the sea, from what cause, unless it be the moistness 
of the air, it is not easy to determine. Botanists consider that this 
race of plants derive no nourishment from the rocks upon which they 
grow, although the circumstance of many of them containing oxalate 
of lime would appear to aflford a demonstration of their being enabled 
to suck up inorganic substances in the same manner as other plants. 
Viewed in this light, the moistening and decomposing effect of a 
humid atmosphere on the rocks on the sea coast., may explain the 

• Mat. Med. B. IV., Cap. 48. f Nat. Hist., xxvii. c. 4. 



184 Dr. R. D. Tno^rsoN on Parietin, a Yellow Colmring Matter. 

almost herbaceous appearance of some of the lichens which may be 
observed in such situations. The subject, however, of the nutrition 
of lichens is in its infancy, and will require a searching investigation. 
It has been already stated that, according to the opinion of botanists 
(Hookers English Flora), lichens derive no nourishment from the 
rocks, stones, or trees on which they grow. The roots or fibres with 
which they are often supplied, it is conceived, are only useful in fixing 
the plant to its place of growth, its nutriment being derived from the 
air. One of the most common of our lichens, the Peltidea canina, 
possesses fibres on its under surface so closely resembling those of 
shrubs, that one would be inclined to attribute to them similar func- 
tions. The circumstance, as stated in chemical works, of the absence 
of any considerable quantity of inorganic matter in the composition 
of lichens, would appear to lend countenance to the view, that gases 
constitute the only food of lichens. But the fact of oxalate of lime 
having been obtained from many lichens, seemed to call in question 
the validity of the conclusion. The detection, also, of small por- 
tions of bitartrate of potash and phosphate of lime in some lichens, 
added still further evidence against the opinion of botanists. So far 
as I am aware, no other substance of an inorganic nature has been 
hitherto detected in lichens, except in such minute proportion that it 
might have been derived perhaps from extraneous sources. I was not 
therefore prepared to expect the remarkable results which the analysis 
of the yellow parmelia afforded. In one experiment, 50 grains, obtained 
from mica slate rocks at Dunoon, on the west coast of Scotland, when 
ignited, yielded 3*4 grains of inorganic matter ; and in another expe- 
riment, 40 grains, to which, as in the preceding trial, no earthy matter 
was attached, afforded, by burning, a residue of 2-7 grains. In a 
third experiment, 7 grains of the carefully selected upper parts of 
fronds, which had never been in contact with rock, and therefore were 
free from the suspicion of having extraneous particles mixed with 
them, after washing, as in the previous trials, yielded, by incin- 
eration, 0*47 grains of a skeleton, answering to the form of the 
lichen, and consisting of silica and phosphates, &c. These three 
experiments, therefore, give a per centage respectively of ashes, amount- 
ing to 6-8, 6*75, and 67 1.* In all these trials the colouring matter was 
volatilized before the lichen caught fire. Another specimen, very care- 
fully washed, and consisting of the upper parts of fronds, yielded 5 per 
cent, of ash, in which phosphate of alumina formed a prominent ingre- 
dient. In proof of the fact that the ash is in no degree connected 
with the rock, a specimen of Parmelia omphalodes, taken from the stem 
of an ash tree, ten feet from the ground, was ignited, and found to 
yield 7 per cent of ash, consisting of silica, phosphates of lime, iron, 
and alumina. The Cladonia pixidata, taken from a wall, and free 

* These determinations were made in conjunction with Mr. James Murdoch. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietm, a Yellow Colouring Matter, 185 

from all extraneous substances, yielded 6 per cent, of ashes, consisting 
of similar ingredients. Hence it would appear, that tliis species of 
plants contain no inconsiderable amount of substances calculated to 
serve as vegetable manure. The ash possessed the form of the lichen, 
and a slight iron tint; it eflforvesced slightly on the addition of an 
acid. In one instance, some carbonate of lime was present. On 
digesting the ash in water, a minute portion was dissolved. This 
solution, on the addition of chloride of barium, gave a white pre- 
cipitate, part of which was insoluble in nitric acid. On throwing the 
sulphate of barytos on a filter, and adding caustic ammonia to the 
filtered liquid, a flocky precipitate — phosphate of barytes—felL The 
addition of an alcoholic solution of bichloride of platinum, gave no in- 
dication of the presence of potash. Nitrate of silver gave a flocky 
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. The soluble salts, therefore, 
appear to be sulphate and phosphate of soda and common salt. Tho 
portion of the residue insoluble in water, became nearly white when 
boiled with dilute muriatic acid, and left a gritty powder, which, 
affording a nearly colourless glass with carbonate of soda before the 
blowpipe, was obviously siHca, with slight impurity. The muriatic 
acid solution gave a copious reddish precipitate, with caustic ammonia. 
This precipitate was partly soluble in caustic soda, and consisted 
of phosphates of iron, alumina, and lime. The latter precipitates 
being tested with lead, yielded a precipitate of phosphate of lead, 
soluble in nitric acid. The results of the analysis of two specimens 
of ashes were as follows; — 



Silica, 

Soluble salts, sulphate, phosphate, and 

muriate of soda, .... 
Peroxide of iron, and phosphates of iron 

and lime, 

Phosphate of alumina, .... 
Carbonate of lime, .... 

100- 100-00* 

From these facts it is evident that this lichen requires the same 
inorganic constituents for food as other plants, with this difference, 
that the amount of inorganic substances present in its composition is 
greater than in higher orders of plants, but in a proportion tenduig 
towards that existing in the sea weeds ; another character, therefore, 
in addition to the general external features, indicating an alliance be- 
tween the algto and lichens. 

* Mr. David Murdoch assisted mo in the first analysis, and Mr. James Murdoch in 
tho second. 



68-*46 


II. 
64-62 


0-75 


— 


2204 

8-75 


34-55 

0-83 



186 Db. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yellmv Colouring Matter, 

To ascertain if the great abundance of inorganic matter was pecu- 
liar to this species, the Parmelia omphalodes was incinerated, the spe- 
cimen being taken from a portion collected by a Highlander on the 
borders of Loch Venachar, where it is extensively used, as well as 
generally in the Highlands, with an alum mordant, to impart a fine 
purple to woollen cloths. Its habitat had been a rock, and portions 
were selected free from any appearance of suspended earthy particles 
among their roots ; 200 grains gave a residue of 7*8 grains, consisting 
of substances similar to those already enumerated in the analysis of 
the yellow parmelia. Part of these, however, may have been foreign. 
When we compare the amount of these inorganic constituents with 
those found in trees, the balance appears in favour of the lichens, as 
shown by the analyses of the ashes of genuine specimens of lima, 
sapan, and logwoods. The results are, in 1000 parts — 

Lima Wood. Sapan Wood. Logwood. 



Organic matter, 


971-255 


987-083 


971-400 


Silica and sand. 


1-800 


— 


7-800 


Common salt. 


— 


0-517 


0-129 


Alkaline phosphates and sul- 1 
phate, ... J 


2-000 


0-850 


1-371 


Phosphate of lime. 


0-725 


— 


1-021 


Carbonate of lime. 


24-140 


11-650 


18-279 



1000- 1000- 1000 000* 

Both of these classes of plants alluded to, however, appear but insig- 
nificantly supplied with inorganic matter, when contrasted with some 
of the gigantic sea-weeds from Cape Horn. 490 grains of one of these 
enormous inhabitants of the deep, supplied me by Dr. Joseph Hooker, 
yielded, by incineration, 116-7 of ashes, equivalent to a per centage of 
23-8. 

The introduction of inorganic matter into the substance of trees 
and lichens, can only be effected by the inferior extremity and surface 
of those portions which are in contact with the source of this peculiar 
pabulum of vegetable life ; while it would appear that the connexion 
which we always find to exist between sea-weeds and some fixed rocky 
position, even in the case of these immense inhabitants of the southern 
seas, according to some physiologists, only serves the purpose of retaining 
them stationary in one locality, their food being derived from the fluid 
in which they are immersed. But whether this be true or not, it is 
certain that the waters of the ocean are capable of affording nearly, 
if not all, the inorganic ingredients with which these plants are sup- 
plied. Trees and lichens have no such atmosphere, rich in salts, from 

* In these analjrscs I was assisted by Mr. John Aitken. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parktin, a Yellow Colouring Matter. 187 

which they can derive their food. They must be indebted for the 
inorganic matter which they contain to the soil upon which they grow. 
Hence, since lichens do certainly contain inorganic matter of various 
kinds, as appears by the facts detailed in this paper, the inevitable 
conclusion is forced upon us, that these species of plants are not only 
nourished by the atmosphere, to which botanists have hitherto appeared 
to restrict their sources of food, but that they are also capable of ex- 
tracting inorganic matter from the rocks and trees over whose surfaces 
they are so largely distributed as humble tenants. 

PREPARATION OF PARIETIN. 

When the yellow Parmelia is digested in cold alcohol, of -840, a 
yellow liquid is obtained, obviously from the solution of the yellow 
colouring matter of the lichen. When boiled gently the liquid be- 
comes deeper coloured, and when a sufficient quantity of alcohol is 
employed, and the liquor is allowed to evaporate spontaneously, the 
colouring matter is deposited on the sides of the vessel, in the form of 
fine needles, sometimes a quarter of an inch in length. The speci- 
mens of lichen from which the best crystals of this description were 
obtained, were from the neighbourhood of Glasgow, and were rather 
dry, as if they had grown upon a dry wall, little exposed to moisture. 

In order to procure the colouring matter of the P. parietina, it is 
proper to dry the plant at a moderate temperature. This is particularly 
to be attended to with the sea specimens, which are succulent when com- 
pared with the plants from other localities. By this precaution, the alco- 
hol will more effectually extract the colouring matter, without violent or 
long-continued boiling. We should probably succeed in obtaining the 
purest product, by removing as much as possible of the water from 
the lichen, by drying in a stove, and then digesting in cold alcohol. 
The quantity of the lichen at my disposal has not hitherto been suffi- 
cient to enable me to attempt to extract the colouring matter in this 
manner, but I intend to do so on the first opportunity. I have stated 
that I have succeeded in obtaining the colouring matter, or Farietint 
as I propose to term it, in the form of needles, but generally it falls 
in the shape of brilliant yellow scales, as the alcoholic solution cools. 
The mode in which I have extracted it was by gently boiling for a 
few minutes the lichen in contact with the alcohol, then filtering and 
adding fresh alcohol until the colour appeared to be extracted. The 
solution has scarcely passed through the filter, before it begins to 
deposit the shiny scales of parietin. If we attempt to purify these 
by re-dissolving them in alcohol, we shall find that only a portion is 
dissolved, and the deposit from the alcoholic solution, instead of pre- 
senting the lustre of the substance as at first obtained, assumes the 
aspect of a brownish yellow powder. 



188 Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yellmv Colounng Matter. 

COMrOSITION OF TARIETIN. 

The product of tho second solution in alcohol, when dried at 212°, 
and burned witli oxide of copper, afforded the following result: — 

3-16 grains gave 7*376 carbonic acid. 
1*410 water. 

This corresponds with 







Expt 


Atoms. 


Calcula. 


Atoms. 


Calcula. 


Carbon, . 


2*0116 


63*65 


40 


63.82 


40 


62-51 


Hydrogen, 


0-1566 


4-95 


16 


4-25 


16 


4-16 


Oxygen, . 


0-9918 


31*40 


15 


31-93 


16 


33*33 



31600 100- 100- 100- 

As it appeared from the preceding result that the parietin was 
altered in its character by attempting to re-dissolve it in alcohol ; the 
parietin, after being dissolved in alcohol from the lichen, was, after 
the filtration of the fluid, allowed to deposit by cooling. It was then 
thrown on a filter, and dried on a tile, and then digested in hot alcohol, 
to remove any fatty or resinous matter with which it might be 
contaminated. The same object may bo attained by digestion in 
ether. The parietin was then dried at 212°, and analysed. 

2*96 grains afiforded, when burned with black oxide of copper, 

7*15 grains carbonic acid. 
1-294 rr water. 

This is equivalent to 

Expt. 

Carbon, 1-9500 65-87 

Hydrogen, 01437 4-85 

Oxygen, ...... 0-8663 29-28 



2-9600 100* 
and agrees with the following calculation : — 







Calculation. 


Expt. 


Carbon, 


•75 X 9=6*75 


65-85 


65-87 


Hydrogen, . 


•125x4= 5 


4-87 


4-85 


Oxygen, . 


. 1- X 3=3-0 


29-28 


29-28 



10-25 100- 100- 

The formula, therefore, will be according to this view, 

Co H4 O3 

or we may, as in the preceding case, consider it as an oxide of an 
oil, and the composition when calculated would be. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yelhw Colouring Matter. 189 

Atoms. 

Carbon, 40 65-21 

Hydrogen, 16 434 

Oxygen, 14 3045 

and the formula 

C40 H|8 On 

exhibiting a stage in the oxidation of an oil similar to what we meet 
with in the gradual production of resins from oils of the turpentine 
type. In some respects the colouring matter under discussion 
resembles a resin, and especially in its appearance when precipitated 
from its solution in alkalies by an acid. If wo then consider parietin 
as a resin, deriving its origin from an oil of the turpentine type, the 
preceding analyses may be classed as follows: — 

Oil of parietin, C40 H,6 

Parietin, C40 H,6 Ou 

Oxide of parietin C^o H,o 0,6 

The effect of re-agents upon parietin is striking. A very minute 
portion of the substance will impart its yellow colour to a large quan- 
tity of alcohol, and this solution is sensibly acted on by re-agents. 
When to such a solution a drop or two of nitric, or muriatic or sulphuric 
acids are added, the yellow colour imparted to it by the parietin be- 
comes much heightened, and even a very small proportion (much more 
minute than that mentioned) will effect a sensible change. When the 
solution is strong, the addition of acid produces a yellow precipitate. 
When caustic ammonia, in the smallest quantity, is dropped into, or 
applied by means of a rod, to a solution of parietin, the yellow colour 
immediately becomes a rich red, inclining to purple. The same result 
is obtained with caustic potash, caustic barytes, carbonate of soda, 
caustic lime, &c. 

PARIETIN AS A TEST OF ALKALIES. 

The extreme delicacy of parietin in detecting alkalies, suggests its 
utility in the laboratory. An alcoholic solution may be kept for use, as 
the addition of a drop or two of the solution to a considerable quantity of 
an alkaline liquor, will be immediately followed by a change to red; or 
tlie process may be reversed, by placing a few drops of the alcoholic solu- 
tion in a test-glass, and adding to it a drop or two of the alkaline liquor. 
The alcoholic solution may be prepared simply by digesting the lichen 
in cold alcohol, of sp. gr. -840, as I have found that a small portion of 
lichen will impart a colour to a large quantity of alcohol, suflSciently in- 
tense to serve as a very delicate test for alkalies. Observing the strong 
colour that the alcoholic solution imparted to the filtering paper 
which was used to purify the solution when first prepared, I cut these 



190 Dii. R. D. Thomson on Panetin, a Yellow Colouring Matter. 

into test papers, and found that, when properly impregnated with the 
solution, they were little, if at all inferior to turmeric paper, in their 
delicate detection of ammonia. Test paper may be prepared extem- 
poraneously from the alcoholic solution, when it is wished to detect 
ammonia, by dipping a piece of paper into the alcoholic solution, and 
then applying it in its wet state to the ammoniacal vapour. The 
yellow colour is immediately transformed into a reddish purple, but 
more distinct than the colour that becomes apparent in turmeric paper 
of old preparation, under similar circumstances, which is a dirty brown. 
One of the principal recommendations of the liquid test already noticed, 
is the circumstance of its being capable of preservation without under- 
going deterioration, while the test papers which have been frequently 
recommended, although possessing most delicate testing powers when 
freshly prepared, gradually lose their value by preservation. I believe 
this to be the explanation of the failure in this country of some conti- 
nental test papers, which have been recently recommended. It would 
therefore appear, that the best test paper being that which is of fresh 
preparation, the most convenient source for its production is that from 
which it can be most rapidly procured in an efficient state. The ob- 
servations which have been made upon parietin, in reference to its 
colouring powers, tend to show that it may be employed with advan- 
tage for the most delicate purposes to which turmeric is applied. Pari- 
etin, however, is not acted on by acids ; the natural yellow colour 
merely becomes brighter, while turmeric, which contains a blue and 
yellowing colouring principle, has the former reddened by acids, and 
the latter converted to a brown by alkalies. Moistened yellow pari- 
etin paper, on the other hand, becomes red or purple when freshly pre- 
pared, and reddish brown, if long prepared, by coming in contact with 
ammonia and other alkalies. The other reactions of parietin are 
simple. The alcoholic solution is precipitated yellow by nitrate of 
silver and acetate of lead, and other metallic salts. A solution of 
permuriate of iron renders the colour much darker. The precipitates 
with silver and lead have not been analysed, from the minute quantity 
of parietin at my disposal. 

The yellow colour of the Parmelia parietina early attracted the 
attention of those persons interested in dyes. It was accurately de- 
scribed by Hoffmann, Amoreux, and Willemet, in 1786.* The latter 
informs us, that the Swedes in the province of Oeland obtained by 
means of this lichen and alum a yellow dye for woollen stuffs, and that 
a flesh tint was also procured from it, fitted for linen and paper ; that 
goats eat this lichen, and that Haller recommended it as a powerful 
tonic in diarrhosa. He adds, that he had himself used it in his prac- 
tice as a tisan, and had found it to prove beneficial in that form of the 

* Memoires couronnds en Tanned, 1786, par rAcademie des Sciences, Belles Lettres, 
et Arts, de Lyon, sur riitilit6 des lichens, dans la Medicine ct dans Ics Arts. 8vo, 1787. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson on Parietin, a Yellow CdUmring Matter, 191 

disease which occurs in autumn. Iloflfmann states, that in Norway, 
when boiled with milk, it is used as a remedy in jaundice. This idea 
may have perhaps originated from the correspondence in colour of the 
disease and cure, upon the principle so much in vogue at present, 
" similia similihm curantur.'* Hoffmann aflBrms that he never could 
obtain a yellow colour from this lichen, but that with wine vinegar he 
obtained an olive-green or fawn colour ; and with true wine vinegar 
(aceto vini vera) and copperas, a flesh or apricot shade. Of these 
colours he has appended to his essay specimens, together with forty- 
nine others, obtained from various species of lichens. Dr. John P. 
Westring of Nordkoping, in Sweden, who prosecuted an extensive 
inquiry into the colouring matter of lichens, describes the Lichen pari- 
etinus (Wagglaf) as affording, with wool, by infusion for fourteen days, 
and then boiling for half an hour, a fawn colour; by longer boiling a 
yellow was produced, and this mixture became, by simple infusion and 
extraction, similar to the red wool of Florence. With common salt 
and nitre boiled for an hour, a beautiful straw colour was elicited. 
Upon silk it gave similar colours, differing in their shade from red to 
yellow, according to the methods employed in dyeing the goods.* 

Subsequently to those observations, which are perhaps interesting 
in an economical point of view, the yellow parmelia was recommended 
by Dr Sande, probably misled by the colour, as a substitute for Peru- 
vian bark during the last French war. It has also been chemically 
examined by Herberger,but not apparently with the same results afford- 
ed by Scotch specimens, as he found no inorganic constituents which 
amount to from 6 to 7 per cent., according to my trials, and obtained 
a much larger quantity of colouring matter than existed in any plants 
examined by me. He also found a red colouring matter, which did 
not appear in the process of extraction as followed by me, and which 
may therefore be a product of the oxidation of parietin. More lately 
still. Dr. Gumprecht extracted yellow oil from the lichen, but in such 
minute quantity as not to be susceptible of examination. I obtained 
a quantity of sugar, by means of alcohol, in crystalline grains. 

Note. — Since the preceding paper was read, the yellow needles 
described above have been analysed in the laboratory at Giessen, and 
have been found to consist of C40 H,6 0,2, approaching one of the 
analyses already detailed. So that we have now the following oxides : — 

Oil of parietin, C^ H,. 

Parietic acid, C40 H.e 0„ 

Parietin, C« H,^ Ou 

Oxide of parietin, C40 H.e 0,6 

• Kongl. Vetenakap, Acad. xii. p. 300, Ann. 1791. 



102 Report of Botanical Section. 

20th December, 1843, — The President in the Chair. 

The following members were elected: — Messrs. Robert Stewart, 
John Geddes, James Connell, and Alex. Grant. 

Mr. Keddie reported that the Botanical Section had met for tho 
first time on the 18th, when the office-bearers were chosen. Ho also 
read tho following : — 

Report of Botanical Section, 18th Dec. — Dr. Balfour in the Chair. 

The Botanical Section met for the first time on Monday evening. 
Office-bearers were appointed — a list of whom has been given in to 
the General Secretary. 

Mr. Gourlie presented to the herbarium specimens of Cryptogamic 
plants, from British Guiana, gathered by Dr. W. H. Campbell. 

Dr. Balfour presented specimens of Juncus suhverticillatus, Sagina 
apetala, /3 glabra, and Impatiens fulva, from Sussex. 

Dr. Balfour read a letter from Professor Connell of St. Andrews, 
giving an analysis of the substance called vegetable ivory, the product 
of a palm named Phytelephas macrocarpa. Mr. Connell has determined 
the presence of an azotised substance, which seems to have all the 
properties of vegetable casein. He has also detected vegetable 
albumen and oily matter. Specimens of the fruit of the ivory palm, 
and of the horny seed of the Doom palm, were exhibited. 

Dr. Balfour also read extracts from a communication by Mr. J. 
Ralfs, of Penzance, on the natural order Desmidiacece. This order 
includes plants which are closely allied to the lowest classes of 
animals, and have been looked upon by Ehrenberg and others as of 
an animal nature. Mr. Ralfs considers them as distinct from the 
Diatomacece, under which tribe they have been usually included. Tho 
latter have a siliceous covering, and, after being gathered, quickly 
acquire an offensive odour ; while the desmidiacea3 have no siliceous 
covering, and are remarkable for the length of time during which 
they may be preserved in a moist state without material change. 

The desmidiacea) are minute plants, formed in fresh water, and 
often forming finger-like tufts at the bottom of pools. They consist 
entirely of cells, which divide in a remarkable manner, and thus give 
rise to peculiar motions, which have led some authors to consider them 
of an animal nature. Mr. Ralfs, however, shows that these motions 
by division take place in many true algre. He also shows that tho 
desmidiacea) exhibit distinct evidences of the presence of starch on 
addition of tincture of iodine ; and on tliis account, too, ho considers 
them as of a vegetable nature. 

The views of Meyen, Dalrymple, and Bailey were brought forward 
and discussed. Mr. Ralfs reconciled conflicting opinions, by showing 
that starch granules aro only to be detected at certain periods of 



Db. "Watt <m the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. 1 93 

growth. Specimens of Closterium Digitus, with the starch granules 
changed into blue by iodine, were exhibited under the microscope. 

Dr. Balfour also exhibited under the microscope specimens of 
Desmidiacooo and Diatomacesc, and illustrated the paper bj drawings 
of plants belonging to these orders. 

A communication was then read bj Professor Gordon on the 
Application of the Calculation of Probabilities in the Formation of 
Science. 









£135 


10 





£25 


3 10 








55 














30 














7 10 

















117 13 


10 











Sd January, 1844, — The President in the Chair, 

The following statement of the estimated revenue and expenditure 
for the current year was laid before the Society : — 
Annual Revenue, exclusive of Entrance Fees, . . £100 
Surplus of 1842-3, 35 10 



Estimated Expenditure:- 
By Publications ordered, 
Publishing Proceedings, 
Ordinary Expenses, including Rent, 
Estimated Rent at Martinmas, 



Leaving a Balance of £17 16 2 

The following paper was then read: — 

XLIV. — On the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. By Alexander 
Watt, LL.D., City Statist. 

In a paper which was published in the Proceedings of this Society 
last year, I showed, from the returns obtained from different towns 
in England and Scotland, that tlie amount of deaths by various 
diseases is nearly identical at the same ages ; and that whatever the 
total amount of deaths by each disease may be, the proportion which 
the deaths falling at certain periods of life bears to the whole deaths 
by these respective diseases, remains the same. The examples given 
in that paper related to fever, measles, small -pox, and bowel com- 
plaints. As the law which was deduced from these examples appeared 
to be of great interest, it became an important point to determine 
whether it was of more general application, since a knowledge of the 
specific laws of mortality by such diseases at different ages, by deter- 
mining more clearly the nature and operation of the disease, may be 
expected to lead both to improved modes of medical treatment, and 
to facilitate the introduction of such sanatory regulations, as would 



194 Dr. Watt on the Laws of Mm-tality at Different Ages. 

ensure to the inhabitants of our cities one of the most important of 
social blessings — a healthy population. Through the kindness of 
William Mills, Esq., formerly Lord Provost of Glasgow, I have been 
enabled to compare my former tables with data which I have calcu- 
lated from the mortality bills of New York and Philadelphia. From 
such comparative results we are enabled to distinguish at a glance the 
modifications which diseases undergo in different climates. One of 
the most interesting diseases is fever, on account of its frequent 
occurrence in this country, and more especially in Glasgow, where it 
seems to serve as a test of destitution. 

FEVER. 

In the bills of mortality for New York and Philadelphia, the mor- 
tality by the different species of fever being judiciously given 
separately, we are enabled to select the species corresponding with 
those registered under the head of fever in the Scottish towns. The 
following table exhibits the comparative mortality from fever in 
Edinburgh and Glasgow, and from fevers, exclusive of puerperal 
and scarlet fevers in New York and Philadelphia. For typhus fever, 
see Glasgow Mortality Bill, 1842. — 





Edin. 


Glas. 


N. York. 


Philad. 


Manch. 




per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


Deaths under 5 years ' 


\ 










to the whole deaths 


V12-41 


1207 


15-67 


17-34 


16-08 


by fever, 


) 










Do. under 20 years, 


29-74 


29-05 


30-22 


33-03 


38-48 



Do. 20 and upwards, 7025 70 94 69-77 66-96 61-51 

In the above table the per centage for New York was deduced from 
1416 cases, and that of Philadelphia from 663 cases. The greatest 
difference appears to be at the lowest ages, where the mortality in 
America is higher. Similar results frequently occur in this country, 
where the disease is less prevalent, as in 1842 in Glasgow, when the 
mortality under five years was 18-58. During that year it is well- 
kuown that there was a smaller proportion of deaths by typhus than 
usual. 

IfEASLES. 

The following table affords an extended illustration of the same 
law which was pointed out in the last paper published in the " Pro- 
ceedings," and shows that the number who die of measles is nearly the 
same at the same ages in different towns : — 

Glas. EdIn. N. York. Philad. 

Under two years, . . 52-76 60-25 47-48 4576 

Do. five years, . . 88-08 92-30 90-09 89-83 

Do. twenty years, . 99-35 99-67 98-27 99'43 

Above twenty years, . 064 0-32 1-72 0-56 



Olas. 


N. York 


Fbilad. 


35-40 


3012 


30-69 


70-95 


76-75 


75-49 


97-95 


91-39 


97-77 


204 


2-60 


2-22 



Dr. Watt en the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. 196 

The total amount of deaths in each of these towns was very differ- 
ent, and yet it will be observed that the proportions of deaths at the 
different ages to the whole deaths by measles, are very nearly the same 
in each of these towns ; the variation being chiefly at ages under two 
years. 

SCARLET FEVER. 

The following table exhibits the per centage proportionate amount 
of deaths by scarlet fever at different ages in various towns, to the 
whole deaths by that disease in each town respectively : — 



Under two years, . 

Do. five years, . 

Do. twenty years, 
Above twenty years, 

Similar examples to the above are given for other towns of Eng- 
land and Scotland in the Vol. of the British Association Transactions 
for 1842. The same law is applicable in all the localities examined. 
That the proportions of deaths by scarlet fever at the different ages 
to the whole deaths should be so nearly the same in New York and 
Philadelphia is remarkable ; and although the amount for the lower 
ages differs from Glasgow, there is no doubt suflGlcient reasons for this 
variation. 

SMALL-PCX. 

In this table we have compared the proportionate amount of deaths 
by small-pox per cent, at different ages in various towns, to the whole 
deaths by that disease in each town respectively : — 

GlM. Edln. N. York. Philad 

Under two years, . . 57-76 63-24 3411 34-39 

Do. five years, . . 8572 82 68 5866 57*14 

Do. twenty years, . 95-12 9523 7274 77-24 

Above twenty years, . 4-87 4-76 27*25 22-75 

From this table it appears that the proportion of deaths by small- 
pox to the whole amount of deaths by that disease in New York and 
Philadelphia, at the same ages, is very different from the proportion 
of deaths by the same disease in the towns of this country ; the propor- 
tions under two years of age being above twenty-three per cent, less in 
New York and Philadelphia than in Glasgow. There is, of course, a 
corresponding increase in the proportion of deaths at the higher ages ; 
yet it must be observed that the proportion of deaths by this disease 
at the early ages is the same in Philadelphia as it is at New York — 



19G Dr. Watt on the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. 

affording another strong proof that there are physical laws which 
regulate the amount of deaths at different ages by the various 
diseases, when unimpeded by local causes. It is highly probable that 
inattention to early vaccination may be the immediate cause of a 
greater mortality at the higher ages in America than in this country. 
A difference in this respect exists also between the towns of England 
and Scotland. The proportion of deaths above twenty years of ago 
by small-pox in Manchester amounts to 1-687 per cent, of the whole 
deaths by that disease, and to 2-316 per cent, in Liverpool, whereas 
the proportion above that age cut off by small-pox amounts to 4-479 
per cent of the whole deaths by that disease in Glasgow, and to 4*761 
per cent, in Edinburgh. However much this effect in Glasgow and 
Edinburgh is produced by inattention to vaccination, the evil is very 
much the same in both cities, so far as the proportion at the higher 
ages is taken into account. It appears also from the returns that the 
proportion of deaths by small-pox to the population in Edinburgh is 
not half so great as that in Glasgow ; and as small-pox is much more 
destructive in some years than in others, and as the comparison only 
extends over three years for Edinburgh, and over five years for Glas- 
gow, this comparison of the total amount of deaths by small-pox may 
be more favourable to Edinburgh than it ought to be. 

HOOPING-COUGH. 

This table shows the amount of deaths from hooping-cough under 
and above certain ages in different towns, and the proportions which 
the amount of deaths at these ages bear to the whole amount of deaths 
by that disease in each town respectively : — 





Glas. 


Edin. 


N. York. 


rhilad. 


Binti, 


Under two years, . 


66-37 


66-38 


67-52 






Do. five years, . 


91-52 


92-87 


95-51 


95-03 


9349 


Do. twenty years, 


99-77 


10000 


99-78 


10000 


10000 


Above twenty years, 


0-22 


0-00 


0-21 


0-00 


0-00 



Some of the cases above twenty years should possibly not be classed 
with hooping-cough. One case in Glasgow is stated as being between 
forty and fifty, and another between fifty and sixty. A case above 
twenty years, given in the New York tables, occurred in 1840, and is 
recorded as being between thirty and forty years of age. 

(7b he Continued.) 



BRI.L AND BAIN, PRINTERS, GLASGOW. 



PROCEEDINGS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW, 



FORTY-SECOND SESSION, 1843-44. 



Zd January, 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

XLIV. — On the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. By Alexander 
Watt, LL.D., City Statist. {Continued.) 

BemarJcs on the Tables. — The data which have been adduced seem 
to demonstrate that the proportions in the amount of deaths under 
any given age, by the diseases which have been selected for considera- 
tion, viz., fevers, measles, scarlet fever, small-pox, and hooping-cough, 
to the whole amount of deaths by each disease respectively, are almost 
identical, although the total amount of deaths by the same disease is 
very different in each city. In some instances where the circum- 
stances of the people vary much from each other, a corresponding 
variation takes place in the mortality at the same ages. This is 
peculiarly exemplified by the deductions, in reference to small-pox, 
from the New York and Philadelphia mortality bills ; but notwith- 
standing the great difference between the results in America and iu 
Scotland in the mortality from this disease, it is important to observe 
that the proportion of the deaths by this disease in New York exactly 
corresponds with those for the same age in Philadelphia — the circum- 
stances of these towns in relation to small-pox being much alike. The 
variations in the higher ages may probably depend on causes capable 
of detection on further inquiry ; and such interferences being allowed 
for, the intimate correspondence of the results pointed out, cannot be 
looked upon as accidental, but as the result of precise laws which 
regulate the amount of mortality at every age. 

Two causes must be especijJly considered as having a constant 
tendency to effect a certain variation in these results, viz., medical 
treatment, and a proper supply of wholesome and nutritive food 

No. 10. 1 



198 Dr. Watt on the Laws of Mortality at Different Ages. 

Though it appears from these results that the medical practitioner 
does not possess that indiscriminate command over the life of his 
patient that has sometimes been ascribed to him, yet it is very 
apparent that, by judicious treatment, the medical man has much in 
his power in the way of placing the system of his patient in the most 
favourable circumstances for resisting the effects of the disease. If 
the patient, however, has been previously reduced by a scanty or 
improper diet, it may become difficult, perhaps even impossible, to 
supply the remedy under such circumstances ; therefore it might be 
apprehended that even greater variations should occur in these pro- 
portions than are indicated by the details which have been discussed; 
but we must bear in mind that the practice of the medical man is not 
limited to individuals of a particular age, but is extended to whole 
families ; and in a similar manner, where destitution prevails, it very 
generally falls upon families at all ages as well as upon particular 
persons. 

An acquaintance with the laws of mortality which we have now 
considered, will not only aid us in arriving at a true knowledge of the 
sanatory condition of towns, and enable us to point out the remedies for 
excessive mortality, but they will assist us also in guiding the medical 
practitioner in the proper treatment of his patient. A knowledge of 
these laws is also necessary for the construction of proper annuity and 
life assurance tables. Any calculations that are wholly founded on 
the average of life in other countries must necessarily be more or less 
fallacious, as it is obvious that the average duration of human life 
must vary with the diseases which are most prevalent in the country ; 
and it is well known that many countries, and even many districts, 
have diseases more or less peculiar to themselves, and differing in 
their law of mortality. 



17 th January y 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

Mr. John Morgan was admitted a member. On the motion of Mr. 
Liddell, seconded by Dr. Watt, Mr. William Keddie was appointed 
Assistant- Secretary. 

A letter was read from the Lords of Her Majesty's Treasury acknow- 
ledging the receipt of the Society's memorial in favour of complet- 
ing the Trigonometrical Survey of Scotland, and stating that " the 
secondary triangulation for the survey of Scotland is in progress in 
the county of Wigton ; and that instructions have already been given 
to take the proper measures for ascertaining the legal boundaries, pre- 
paratory to the introduction of such a force of surveyors as the sum 
which it will be practicable to allot, in future years, for the operations 
of the survey in Scotland, out of the amount voted by parliament for 



Mr. Adam <m the Specific Gravities of some Crystallized Salts. 199 

completing the ordnance surveys in Great Britain and Ireland, may 
allow of." 

It was agreed that a conversational meeting of the Society should 
bo held on the 21st of February. 

The 6th Part of the Proceedings of the Chemical Society was re- 
ceived on the part of that society. Thanks were voted, and for the 
1st vol. of the Proceedings of the same society, previously presented. 

Mr. Liddell exhibited and described the Vesta lamp for burning 
camphino ; also, a new hydrostatic lamp, for burning oil. The liquid 
termed camphine possesses the odour of oil of turpentine. Its specific 
gravity is '864. It begins to throw up bubbles of vapour at 160°, 
and continues to boil up to 314°, when its point of ebullition remains 
stationary. It has, therefore, all the characters of oil of turpentine. 

The following communication was made : — 



XL V. — Table of the Specific Gravities of some Crystallized Salts. 
By Mr. John Adam. 

In the following table the specific gravities were determined by 
weighing tho finely crystallized salts, first in air and then in pyroxylic 
spirit, of the sp gr. '824, alcohol of the sp. gr. -8393, and turpentine 
sp. gr. -870. The spirit produced no acid reaction on litmus paper. 

The first column represents the specific gravities referred to pyroxylic 
spirit. The second, the same gravities reduced to water as the stand- 
ard ; the third column exhibits the specific gravities in alcohol ; and 
the fourth the same densities referred to water. The two last columns 
were made by Dr. R. D. Thomson, with a difiorent beam from that 
used in constructing the first columns, and generally with different 
specimens. 

JplrK'^gi? To water. To^^-Sfi^-d To water. 

Sulphate of potash . . . 2695 2*220 2 614 2-194 

Do. large crystal .... 2651 2-184 — — 

Anhydrous sulph. of soda 2-755 2-270 2-667 2-238 

Sulphate of soda (soluble) — 1-467 1*231 



Sulphate of zinc . 
Sulphate of magnesia 
Nitrate of potash . 
Nitrate of soda . , 
Nitrate of barytes 
Nitrate of lead . . 
Chloride of sodium 



— — *T1899 1-652 
1-629 1-342 1-656 1389 
2-016 1-661 1-962 1646 

— — Tl-973 1-716 

— — • T3-052 2-655 

— — T4-561 3-968 

— — T2-138 1-860 



Chloride of potassium . . — — T 1-848 1*607 

* T denotes oil of tarpentine. 



200 Dr. Anderson on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 





To Pyroxylic 
Spirit, sp. gr. 

'824. 


To wofpr To Alcohol and 
To Water. Turpentine. 


To Water. 


Chloride of lead . . . 








T4-918 


4-278 


Iodide of potassium . . 








T2-792 


2-489 


Chromate of potash . . 








T2-572 


2-237 


Bichromate of potash . 


. 2-599 


2-141 


2-563 


2-151 


Carbonate of soda . . 


. 1-477 


1-217 


1-462 


1-227 


Ammoniacal alum . . 


. 1-644 


1-354 


1-667 


1-399 


Manganese alum . . . 


— 


— 


1-729 


1-451 


Potash alum .... 


. 1-667 


1-373 


1-684 


1-414 


Yellow prussiate of potash 


1-859 


1-531 


1-868 


1-567 


Red prussiate of potash 


. 1-768 


1-456 


1-785 


1-498 



Mr. Stenhouse exhibited some salts of meconic acid which he had 
prepared and analysed. 



Slst Jantuiry, 1844, — The President m the Chair. 

Messrs. William Smith and William Wilson were admitted mem- 
bers of the Society. 

The following paper was read. 

XLVI. — Note on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. By 
Andrew AlNDErson, M.D., Andersonian Professor of the Institutes 
of Medicine, 

It has for some time been the general opinion among physiologists, 
that the fibrin of the blood is liquid during life, and becomes solid 
only when that fluid dies ; and this opinion is based on the well-known 
experiment, first performed by Miiller, of filtering frog's blood before 
its coagulation, and thus obtaining the clot separate from the globules, 
which remain behind on the paper. At the meeting of the British 
Association at Glasgow, Dr. A. Buchanan exhibited a method of show- 
ing the same thing in human blood, by receiving it from the vein into 
a vessel of serum, in which the globules subside before coagulation. 

The conamon notion of the change which takes place on coagulation 
has been well expressed as follows : — 



T5ioa«,o i Fluid Serum "i 

riasma ^ p.^^.^ ^ i j^^^^ ^j^^^ 



^^^^^^S^^^loiobules^^-'^iciot / 
From this opinion there have recently dissented M. Mandl* and 
* Anat. Microscopique, Art. Sang. 1842. 



Dr. Anderson <m the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 201 

Dr. A. Buchanan.* These gentlemen hold, that while of the cor- 
puscles of the blood the red take no part in the coagulation, and 
are merely engaged as it were by accident in the clot, from which, by 
the above mentioned means, they may be artificially excluded ; yet 
the white corpuscles and the molecules which exist in the fluid, really 
constitute the fibrin : and that the coagulation consists simply in the 
aggregation of these previously isolated bodies. Dr. Buchanan's 
opinion to this eflfect is based, not upon the direct examination of the 
process of coagulation in the blood, but upon what he conceives to occur 
in the case of the fluid of blisters and of serous cavities, and to furnish 
an analogical argument of considerable weight. 

Now, it is true that the fluid of blisters contains corpuscles like the 
white globules of the blood, and also that it coagulates on standing ; 
and it may be likewise true, that the number of the corpuscles is in 
the ratio of the size of the clot : but I have carefully watched the fluid 
of a recent blister coagulating under the microscope, and find that 
the delicate clot forms independently of the corpuscles, as it is seen to 
occupy the whole area of the field of view, while at most two or three 
corpuscles may be scattered over it. 

Again, it is true that in the very curious experiment which we owe 
to Dr. Buchanan, the mixture of the serum of blood and of that of 
hydrocele, exhibits after standing for some time a marked coagulum ; 
but I submit that neither is this a proof that that coagulum is derived 
from the corpuscles existing in the fluid in which it forms ; for I have 
divided such a mixture into two equal parts, and while leaving one 
untouched have separated by filtration all the corpuscles from the other, 
while still fluid, and tested their absence by the microscope, and yet the 
eye could detect no difference between the coagula subsequently formed 
in the two portions — nor, when aided by the microscope, any corpuscles 
newly formed. 

But the experitnentum crucis is the examination of the changes 
which occur in the plasma of the blood itself ; and this may be effected 
by removing with a spoon a portion of the incipient buffy coat, (the 
whitish fluid which floats before coagulation on the surface of inflam- 
matory blood,) and placing it under the microscope. This fluid is the 
blood minus the red corpuscles, which, as Mr. Wharton Jones has 
shown,t attract one another more strongly in inflammatory than 
in healthy blood, and sink rapidly in the fluid. Our view, then, 
of the changes which occur being no longer obscured by their pre- 
sence, we watch the plasma swarming with molecules and white cor- 
puscles, the latter always most abundant in inflammation, as may 
be seen even by placing a drop of the just abstracted blood 
under the microscope between two plates of glass, to which the 

* Proceedings of the Glasg. Philos. Soc. 1B43, p. 131. 
t Ed. Med. and Surg. Journal, 1842. 



202 Dr. Anderson an the state in which Fibnn exists in the Blood 

white corpuscles stick because of their greater size, while the red 
(known by their smooth outline, their central nuclei, elongated profile, 
and, even under the microscope, pale yellowish colour,) rush beauti- 
fully past them, like fragments of floating things carried against a 
buoy moored in a strong tideway. As we watch the plasma it has be- 
come partly solid, but no visible change appears ; the corpuscles re- 
main quite still, and it is only by drawing across the glass a needle, 
which carries the whole in a mass along with it, that we find that 
they are engaged in a thin coagulum. There is then no running 
together of the corpuscles ; but so far we are still in doubt whether 
the clot may not be formed by their cohesion : the doubt is resolved 
by simply continuing to look ; we have drawn aside the forming clot 
before its solidification was complete ; and have left a clear fluid per- 
fectly free of corpuscles of any kind, and yet in this again the coagu- 
lation takes place ; it must, therefore, be from a solidification of the 
previously fluid fibrin. 

So far my observations agree with those of Dr. Addison,* published 
after mine had been made ; but he states that the fibrin solidifies 
in the form of fibres, and figures these of a somewhat stellate or 
spiculate appearance. In the existence of this sort of crystallisa- 
tion I wholly disbelieve. I have repeatedly seen the whole field of 
view occupied uniformly by the extremely delicate clot, so fine and 
transparent as to be distinctly visible only when its edge was 
drawn across the glass with a needle, and thus contrasted with the 
remaining limpid fluid ; and of which the structure was so faintly 
fibrous, that with the greatest difficulty, in a carefully modified 
light, there could, with a power of 600 diameters, be just traced, 
distributed equally over the whole surface, a most delicate striated 
appearance. It is true that afterwards the coagulum becomes 
fibrous, but this is the consequence of a subsequent contraction, the 
nature of which has not been satisfactorily explained, but of which I 
can say only this, that save its lessened size, and a slight increase of 
the fibrous appearance, no change, by motion or otherwise, could be 
observed in a coagulum prepared as above, and allowed to remain for 
twenty-four hours in a covered glass cell under the microscope, till 
it had fully contracted, and squeezed out all the serum from its 
interstices. 

Moreover, I must differ in opinion from Dr. Addison, when he 
advances it as ascertained, that the fibrinous spontaneously coagulable 
liquid is formed within the white corpuscles, and appears on their rup- 
ture only : there is no doubt some inseparable connexion between the 
presence of these corpuscles and the existence of the fibrin of the 
blood, for in determination of blood, and in inflammation, the increase 
of the one keeps pace with that of the other : and it is possible that 

* Trans, of the Prov. Med. Assoc. 1843. 



Dr. Anderson an the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 203 

the corpuscles may have the function of converting tho "reduced 
albumen"* of the food, and of the effete elements of the tissues, 
into organizeable fibrin, which appears first in the chyle along with 
these corpuscles, after that fluid has passed the mesenteric glands ; 
and in all likelihood, first in the lymph after it has passed the lym- 
phatic glands. Yet we find that, in the mixed serums already spoken 
of, the solidification goes on for days gradually increasing, in the utter 
absence of corpuscles of any kind, and must, it hence appears probable, 
be owing to tho progressive formation of fibrin, and not to the mere 
coagulation of that already formed ; for that, as we see in the blood, is 
finished within a short time of the death of the fluid. Another proof 
of the essential difference between the white corpuscles of the blood, 
and its coagulable matter, is afforded by an elegant experiment, de- 
scribed by M. Donno.t This consists in agitating the blood during 
coagulation: tho fibrin is thus separated in stringy morsels, and 
on leaving the remaining part to stand for some time in a tall glass 
vessel, the white corpuscles are found forming a thin pale layer 
between the red globules below and tho clear fluid, to the bottom of 
which they have subsided. The mode in which the change in the 
mixed fluids takes place is yet unexplained. 

I believe with Dr. Buchanan, that the increased formation of fibrin 
in an inflamed part, takes place within the vessels, and therefore in 
the pure plasma of the blood itself ; but that it is in all likelihood 
effected by the agency of white corpuscles, which during inflammation 
become more numerous in tho capillary blood-vessels, and adhere to 
their walls even more firmly than, in the state of health, they are wont 
to do ; and thus throw an obstruction in the way of the red globules, 
which in health form a rapid current in the centre of the vessels.j: 
Mere stasis does not produce the change, for in simple congestion, 
however much the blood may be delayed, there is no increase of 
fibrin — and in determination there is more fibrin formed, though 
there may be no obstruction, but rather a more rapid flow of blood : 
in the latter case, however, the vital nutritive action of the part is 
increased, in the former diminished, and this I take to be the true 
explanation of the increase of fibrin ; holding it to be produced within 
the vessels by a greater activity of whatever organ (be it the white 
corpuscles or no) is in health charged to convert the " reduced albu- 
men " to organizeable fibrin ; an activity called into play by the in- 
creased demand for that material in the excited and over active part. 

Thus, then, I think we must still believe that the coagulation of the 
blood forms an exception to the generality, contended for by Dr. Barry 
and others,§ of the law that the living tissues are formed directly from 
cells, 

♦ Prout. + Cours de Microscopie, p. 84. 1843. 

X Williams ; Princ. of Medicine, p. 213. Travers ; Pathology of Inflammation, Ac. 1343. 
§ Various Papers, PhU. Trans. 1838, 1842, Ac. 



204 Dr. Anderson on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 

How the corpuscles of serous effusions are formed we cannot yet 
surely say : not, probably, as Dr. Addison * supposes, by the 
actual passage through the walls of the capillaries of the white cor- 
puscles of the blood. The simplest effusion which takes place from 
vessels is pure water, as from the Malpighian bodies of the kidneys.t 
When there is more pressure or excitement, serum is effused, being 
water with albumen in solution, as in dropsy, or renal congestion 4 if 
the local excitement still increase, fibrin is thrown out, and coagulates 
spontaneously when withdrawn from the body, as in the fluid of 
blisters ; § and a yet higher action of the part results in the tlirow- 
ing out of " lymph," or coagulable matter full of active cells, which, 
as in the inflammations of serous membranes, becomes rapidly 
organized. Dr. Addison would say that these cells are the white 
corpuscles of the blood, which have traversed the coats of the 
vessels, and go to form the plastic fibrin of the effusion ; but then 
its plasticity ought to be in the ratio of their number, which is noto- 
riously not the case : for pus, the most aplastic of all effusions, actually 
swarms with distinct corpuscles, very like those found in the blood, 
and yet contains no coagulating fibrin at all. 

The opinion of Gendrin,|| that the pus corpuscle is formed from 
the red blood globule, can scarcely now be held, except it be by Dr. 
M. Barry ; and it is extremely improbable that bodies such as the 
white corpuscles, which are larger than the red globules of the blood, 
as l-2600th to l-3500th of an inch, should traverse the unruptured 
capillary walls while the latter are retained. 

The nutrition of nonvascular tissue is effected^ by the transu- 
dation of nutritive matter through the coats of the looped capillaries 
which encroach upon its edges ; and we cannot suppose that white 
corpuscles, even if they too transuded, should make their way 
onwards to the centre of a solid mass of cartilage, for instance: we 
must suppose that it is the plasma alone which the tissue imbibes, 
and by which its living cells are nourished ; and so in the case of 
effusion it seems most probable that what really occurs is simply 
a transudation of that plasma, nourished by which the corpuscles 
grow, whether they be descended from "germinal granules," or *'cy- 
toblasts," or in whatever way they originate. 

The " molecules " and " granules," formed so abundantly in the 
buffy coat, exist also in healthy blood, in the serum of whicli they can 
be seen by the microscope ; and in " milky" serum, such as occurs in 
renal inflammation, they are very abundant. Simon has shown tt 
that it is in part to an albuminous, and not, as Prout and ChristisonH 
supposed, wholly to a fatty matter that such serum owes its opacity ; 
and by the microscope it can be seen to swarm with particles resem- 

* Loc. Cit. t Bowman, Phil. Trans. 1842. X Robinson, Med. Chir. Trans. 1843. 

§ Dr. Buchanan, loc. cit. p. 133. || Sur les Inflam. ii. 472. 

** Toynbee, Phil. Trans. 1842. ft Beitraege, <fee. Lief. 1. 

XX On Granular Degen. of the Kidney. 



De. Anderson on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 205 

bling the molecules of the blood, rather than with the chyle globules 
which Gulliver describes,* though no doubt these may in certain 
cases exist. Dr. Andrew Buchananf has discovered a method of 
separating this albuminous matter, and causing it to float on the sur- 
face of the fluid, when it puts on all the appearance of the amorphous 
substance found in what HodgkinJ calls the nonplastic serous effu- 
sion. Do such effusions depend on the superabundance of this 
matter in the blood, as the more plastic forms are owing to increase 
in the coagulable fibrin, and is the well known action of mercury in 
making the plastic become the aplastic eff'usion, owing to some ** re- 
ducing" action by which it tends to make the protein compounds of 
the blood less fibrinous, and more like common albumen ? 

It is evident that in the blood we have several forms of these com- 
pounds, deserving of much separate investigation, as : — 

1. Albumen — coagulable by heating the serum. 

2. " Serolin " remaining in the solution, mixed with urea, salts, &c. 
— and which Mulder, with what truth I know not, avers§ to be a trit- 
oxide of protein. 

3. Fibrin — procured by agitating fresh blood. 

4. White molecules — procurable by Dr. Buchanan's method from 
•' milky" serum. 

5. White corpuscles — probably procurable by a like method from 
the yet fluid buffy coat. 

6. Hematosin dissolved out by water from the red globules. 

7. " Globulin," or the coats and nuclei of these globules, which sub- 
side to the bottom when hematosin remains dissolved. 

All these substances must be separately analysed, if we would per- 
fect our knowledge of the blood : but it were an error to fancy that 
they must needs be exactly the same in all cases — even if in the same 
way procured. Mulderj tells us that the buffy coat is not pure 
fibrin, but a mixture of the deutoxide and tritoxide of protein : I 
cannot tell how this may be ; but I know that it is not in the globules 
alone that we find a varying attractive or cohesive power. In in- 
flammation, as Jones has shown,** the mutual attraction of the 
red corpuscles is increased, so that they withdraw from the floating 
plasma ; but the solidifying fibrin of that plasma contracts too with a 
varying power : in sthenic inflammation, when the system is otherwise 
in health, the coagulum shrinks during many hours, and the buffy 
coat forms a tough leathery covering to the clot. In asthenic or 
specify inflammation, as for example in the "ophthalmitis post- 
febrilis,"t+ occurring as a too frequent sequela of the fever lately 
epidemic in Glasgow, we have still the increased formation of fibrin 
and wliito corpuscles, still the greater mutual attraction of the red 
globules, and still the buffy coat ; but it does not contract much, but 

* Notes to Gerber's Anat. f See his Paper forming Article L. of this Vol. 

X On Serous Membranes. § Annalen der Ch. und Ph. 1843. || Loc. cit. 

*• See above. tt Mackenzie. 



206 Dr. Anderson on the state in which Fibrin exists in the Blood. 



maintains a gelatinous appearance, a state obviously owing to a vital 
power of the fibrin in some way diminished. 

It remains for chemistry to tell whether the ultimate analysis of 
such a buflfy crust differs from that of the more common kind ; but 
from the difficulty of procuring material, it is probable the question 
may remain long unsolved. 

But we have more : the red blood corpuscles have always a certain 
mutual attraction, clinging closely in death to one another ; inflamma- 
tion increases this, and likewise the quantity of fibrin and white cor. 
puscles, and so the buffy coat is formed. But this takes place within 
a very few minutes : the subsequent contractio^i of the clot, by which 
the serum is squeezed from its interstices, is the work, not of the globules 
hut of the fibrin ; hence we find in one case a clot much contracted, 
though without a buff; in another buffy blood, of which the clot and 
even the buff itself is loose and soft ; in still another the coagulum is 
soft and presents no buff ; while there are also cases where the clot is 
small and dense, as well as clothed with a firm leathery crust. 

The first occurs in sthenic states, where the fibrin is highly vitalised, 
but no inflammation is present — in plethora for instance : the second, 
where we have inflammation with an asthenic state of the system— as in 
the postfebrile ophthalmitis: the third, where much debility exists, with- 
out any local inflammation — as in fever: and the fourth, where, as in 
sthenic acute inflammation, there is a local disease, and an active state 
of the system besides. 

These differences point at some element of the doctrine of the pro- 
perties of blood, which it will go hard if chemistry alone can explain. 




d-i 



Explanation of the Figures. 

Fig. 1. — ^Three white corpuscles (a, a, a,) are seen sticking to the glass in the field of 
view, while the red corpuscles rush rapidly past. (Inflammatory blood before its death.) 

Fig. 2. — The coagulation of the bufly coat : a, the white corpuscles and molecules ; 
by a few red corpuscles ; c, the striated coagulum, formed after the removal of the cor- 
puscles ; (/, the clear space containing serum. 



Antarctic Minerals. 207 



ANTARCTIC MINEBAI 8. 



Dr. R. D. Thomson exhibited specimens of minerals presented to him 
bj Dr. Joseph Hooker, which he had collected at the Falkland Islands, 
Kerguelen's Land, New Zealand, and other places visited by Captain 
Ross' expedition. Captain Sibbald, late of H.M.S. Erebus, one of 
the vessels engaged in the expedition, was present, and assisted Dr. 
Thomson in pointing out the course of the voyage on a chart, and the 
points from which the specimens were derived. 

The following are the analyses of some of the specimens:— 

OBSIDIAN. 

This specimen was from Ascension, and was analysed by Mr. James 
Murdoch, in the College laboratory. 

Silica, 7097 

Alumina, .... 6*77 

Peroxide of iron, . . . .6-24 

Lime, .... 284 

Magnesia, . . . .1-77 

Soda and potash, . . . 11*41 



100- 



This analysis closely approximates to the result obtained by Berthier, 
from a specimen procured from Pasco in Columbia,* but differs con- 
siderably from the composition of obsidians from Iceland and Mexico, 
which contain 10 per cent, more silica. 

Mr. James Murdoch also analysed a zeolite, from Kerguelen's Land, 
which proved to be a white stilbite. The geological conformation of 
this island appears to be volcanic, both from this circumstance, and 
from a specimen of porphyry or volcanic slate, among the collection, 
which was also exhibited. 



NEW ZEALAND OCHRE. 

This substance, which is a fine yellow pulverulent ochre, is described 
by Dr. Dieflfenbach t as occuring near Mount Egmont, many hundred 
feet above the sea in the bed of a stream ; and as being used by the 
natives to paint their bodies in time of war, their houses and canoes. 
It was analysed by Mr. George Aitken in the College laboratory, and 
its composition found to be as follows by two analyses : — 

* Thomson's Mineralogy, I. 394. f Travels in N. Zealand. 



208 Professor Gordon an Measwe of Impact. 

Sp. gr. 2-24. I. 11. 

Peroxide of iron, . . . 59*56 64-36 

Silica, .... 14-56 13-92 

Water, 2020 

Vegetable matter, . . . 4*72 

Alumina, . . . .a trace. 

Lime, ... a trace. 

99-04 

When digested with muriatic acid, it partly gelatinizes. 



l^th February, 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

A letter was read from Mr. John Craig, stating his intention of pub- 
lishing a work by subscription, on the geology of the Western division 
of the Great Valley of the Scottish Lowlands. 

Mr. Keddie exhibited to the Society, in the absence of Dr. Penny, 
specimens of sulphur from Sicily. A specimen, analysed by Mr. 
Boyd, in his laboratory, was found to consist of 



Sulphur, 
Carb. of lime. 


48- 
. 46-5 


Carb. of magnesia. 
Alumina and oxide of iron, 


3-7 
•6 


Silica, 


1- 



99-8 

Dr. R. D. Thomson presented to the Society the Annual Report of 
the Registrar General for 1842; also Quarterly and Weekly Tables of 
Mortality for 1843 and 1844. 

The following communication was read. 

XLVII — Note on the Measure of Impact^ by pressure or weight. 
By Professor L. Gordon. 

The object of this note was to point out that some recent attempts 
to measure the force of impact absolutely by the registered indication 
of a spring dynamometer, would give only comparative results, vary- 
ing for each particular spring used. 

Supposing the spring's elasticity to be such, that equal pressure 
produced equal elongations, it was demonstrated that its registration 
under the influence of a weight suddenly brought upon the dynamo- 
meter, and its acquired velocity, would bo double the elongation due to 
the weight, supposing all acceleration of motion carefully prevented. 



Dr. Balfour's Botanical Exewtsimx. 209 

If tlio weight be let fall from a certain height, elongating the spring 
by impact^ it was shown that registered elongation, or maximum elon- 
gation would exceed that due to the weight W, by a quantity equal to 
a mean proportional between this elongation, and the same increased by 
double the height fallen through. This latter m^an is the direct mea* 
sure of the influence of the inertia of W, or its momentum, the 
mechanical effect accumulated in the dynamometer spring. 



28<A February y 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

Messrs. George Greig, Alex. M'Nab, and George Lish, were ad- 
mitted Members of the Society. 

A vote of thanks was given to Mr. William Murray, Convener, 
and the other members of the Committee who made the arrangements 
for the conversational meeting held on the 21st. 

A spirit lamp without a wick, belonging to Professor Maconochio, 
was exhibited, and explained by Dr. Balfour. It consisted of a me- 
tallic saucer, in which the spirit is deposited, and of a semi-globular 
cap, with a central perforation, which fits into the former. 

Mr. Keddie gave in a Report of the monthly meeting of the Bo- 
tanical section held on the 26th. 

The following paper was read. 

XLVIII. — Short account of a Botanical Excursion to Galloway and 
Dumfriesshire, in August, 1843. By J. H. Balfour, M.D., Regius 
Professor of Botany. 

Believing that an account of an excursion through some of the 
richest botanical counties in the Lowlands of Scotland, will not be 
uninteresting, more especially when accompanied with the exhibition 
of specimens, I have been induced to bring the following communi- 
cation before the members of the Philosophical Society. 

The pleasure which we derive from excursions like that I am now 
to notice, enhances in no small degree the interest of our botanical 
pursuits. The very sight of the specimens we collected recals many 
pleasing associations ; and tliese dried forms of vegetable existence tell 
more eloquently than words, many a tale of adventure by flood and field. 

The examination of the Flora of a country is an object of import- 
ance, as leading to the determination of interesting points connected 
with botanical geography. In the excursion through the counties of 
Wigton, Kircudbright, and Dumfries, our party bore this object 
steadily in view, and we have been able to make up a pretty full cata- 
logue of the plants of the district. The plants collected were in 
many cases rare, and one or two of them are not found in any other 
counties in Scotland. 



210 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 

The party left Glasgow by the train for Ayr, on Wednesday, 9th 
August, 1843, and after botanizing for a few hours in the neighbour- 
hood of that town, proceeded to Portpatrick. On visiting the Low- 
Green at Ayr, we picked Atriplex laciniata, in great abundance, 
along with Eryngium maritimum, Sinapis monensis, Senebiera Coro- 
nopus, and a few specimens of Iberis amara. We looked in vain for 
Trifolium ornithopodioides, which used to grow abundantly on the 
Green in some places. Our walk extended along tlie shore as far as 
the Heads of Ayr. Near Grinan Castle, we found Trifolium scab- 
rum, but no other plant of particular interest attracted our notice. 
On returning towards Ayr, we saw very large specimens of Equisetum 
Telmateia of Ehrhart, some of them nearly six feet high growing on 
a bank close to a ditch. 

From Portpatrick we proceeded along the shore by Port Kale and 
Blackhead, to Kilintringan, and Knock Bay. The rocks along the 
shore are bold and precipitous, and consist chiefly of greywacke 
schist and greywacke conglomerate, presenting in many instances a 
peculiar twisted appearance. Some of the rocks project in the form 
of narrow ledges, on which it is scarcely possible to balance oneself ; 
others rise in the form of conical peaks, which are quite inaccessible. 
The same kind of rocks prevails along the whole of the shores of Wig- 
tonshire and Kircudbrightshire, with occasional patches of old red 
sandstone, and some granitic rocks, as at Creetown and Criffel, and oc- 
casional masses of porphyry and trap. Among the plants noticed near 
Portpatrick, were Carlina vulgaris, Hypericum Androssemum, Scilla 
vema in fruit covering the rocks profusely, and no doubt presenting 
in the earlier months a beautiful appearance with its blue blossoms, 
Juncus maritimus, Ligusticum- scoticum, QjJnanthe Lachenalii which 
along with the plants mentioned, is abundant along the shores 
of Wigtonshire. Mr. H. C. Watson, in his Flora of Wigtonshire, al- 
ludes to (Enanthe peucedanifolia as being found here, but in this he 
is mistaken, and I fear he has been misled by myself and some other 
Edinburgh botanists, who previously visited this county, and who 
mistook the CE. Lachenalii for (E. peucedanifolia. The distinction 
between these two species seem, however, to be by no means well 
ascertained.* Sedum Rhodiola occurs on the rocks, along with Armeria 
vulgaris and Cochlearia officinalis. The three last mentioned plants 
are interesting, as being found both in elevated alpine situations, and 
in the immediate vicinity of the sea.f Solanum Dulcamara, and 

* A paper on the genus (Enanthe is about to be published by Mr. John Ball, in which 
he endeavours to point out the distinctions between (E. Lachenalii, pimpinelloides and 
peucedanifolia. The distinctions depend on the form of the roots, the disposition and 
proportion of the leaves, and the presence or absence of the thickened summit of the 
pedicel. The first mentioned species appears to be common in Britain. The paper 
will appear in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 

f Dr. Dickie of Aberdeen states, that he found by chemical examination of speci- 
mens of Armeria vulgaris from the sea-shore, and of others from the inland and higher 



Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 211 

Erythra3a linarifolia are also found on this shore. The latter plant 
is found in many situations on the west coast, such as the shores of the 
island of Arran. 

On leaving the shore, the party proceeded inland towards Galdenoch, 
and thenco to Lochnaw. At the latter place, through the kindness of 
Sir Andrew Agnow, and with the assistance of Dr. Greville, and the 
Rev. T. B. Bell, we were enabled to examine the loch in the neigh- 
bourhood of the castle. We were rewarded with specimens of Lyco- 
pus europseus, Sedum rupestre, Potamogeton praslongus, Sparganium 
natans, Callitriche autumnalis, Epilobium angustifolium, Eleocharis 
multicaulis, and Prunus insititia in fine fruit. 

On the 11th, after picking Ophioglossum vulgatum, Botrychium 
Lunaria, and Senebiera Corouopus, in stations near Portpatrick, 
pointed out by the Rev. Mr. Urquhart, we proceeded by the shore 
towards the Mull of Galloway, where we meant to take up our quarters 
for a day or two. We visited the ruins of Dunskey Castle, placed on 
remarkable rocks projecting into the sea, and thence walked to Port 
Spittal, and Port Float. The greywacke cliffs along the shore present 
characters similar to those exhibited by the rocks to the north of 
Portpatrick. 

Between Dunskey Castle and Portpatrick, Orobanche rubra was ob- 
served. This plant is usually associated with basaltic rocks, at least, 
if I may judge from the localities near Edinburgh, in the Hebrides, 
and in Ireland. In the present station, it appeared to grow on Grey- 
wacke, but I fear the observations made were not sufficiently accurate. 
Along with it we noticed Agrimonia Eupatorium. We also picked 
Isolepis Savii, an abundant plant in Wigtonshire, Euphorbia portlan- 
dica, Lamium intermedium not previously known I believe to exist here, 
Pyrethrum maritimum, which may possibly be a peculiar maritime 
variety of P. inodorum, Radiola millegrana, Daucus Carota in a re- 
markably dwarf and fleshy state, resembling D. maritimus, Euphrasia 
officinalis assuming also a thickened and diminished appearance, from 
its vicinity to the sea, Anagallis tenella in all wet spots, and Anagallis 
arvensis in the fields. 

From Port Float we walked to Chapel Rosan Bay, and thence, by 
Logan House, to Port Logan, or as it is sometimes called, Portnes- 
sock. After paying a visit to the famous fish pond, we proceeded 
to Kirkmaiden and Drumore. We gathered during this part of our walk 
several common species of Salix, Euonymus europjcus, Hieracium 
inuloides, Conium maculatum, Lepidium Smithii on every road-side, 
Helosciadium nodiflorum, or, as some may call it, H. repens, for it ap- 
pears to me that the distinctions between these species are by no 

districts of Aberdeenshire, that the former contained iodine, and that soda was more 
abundant in them, while potash prevailed in the latter. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 
vol. xi, p. 74. 



212 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 

means well made out, Ligustrum vulgare, Vaccininm Oxjcoccos, 
Carduus tenuiflorus, Stachys ambigua — a very doubtful species in- 
termediate between S. palustris and sjlvatica. In the neighbourhood 
of a garden we observed, Inula Ilelenium and Senecio saracenicus. 

On the 12th we proceeded to Killiness Bay and Point, and picked 
Orchis pyramidalis and Convolvulus Soldanella among tlie bent on 
the Bandy shores, and Polygonum Raii among the gravel on the 
beach. The first mentioned plant has been nearly extirpated from 
this locality by the rapacity of botanists. Our party only took one 
specimen each, leaving others in flower and seed. Near Maryport there 
is profusion of Raphanus maritimus, probably a variety of R. Raphan- 
istrum, marked by its torulose necklace-like siliqua, and its large lyrate 
lower leaves. Helosciadium nodiflorum was very vigorous and abund- 
ant here, and Verbascum Thapsus occurred frequently. 

We next directed our steps, by East Tarbet, to the Mull of Gallo- 
way, and visited the lighthouse near the point. The weather being 
very calm, and the sea smooth, we were enabled to descend the cliffs 
below the lighthouse, and to avail ourselves of a fishing boat in visiting 
some of the least accessible parts of the rocks. Here we got Crith- 
mum maritimum or the common samphire, Inula crithmoides or the 
golden samphire, Apium graveolens or wild celery, and Statice spa- 
thulata in profusion. We failed in getting Halimus portulacoides, 
which grows on inaccessible cliffs at the Mull. The same species of 
plants occur profusely on the opposite coast of Ireland. Landing at 
West Tarbet we found Crambe maritima or the native sea kale. We 
now proceeded along the shore to Cardrain, and saw excellent speci- 
mens of Euphorbia portlandica. Here, too, we picked Oxytropis ura- 
lensis in fruit on the edge of the cliffs, and in doing so no small exer- 
cise of caution was called for; all the accessible specimens were 
eaten in a greater or less degree by sheep. The station for Ononis 
reclinata was visited, but only four specimens were procured. This 
plant seems to be another of those rarities which have been unwittingly 
extirpated by botanists. Mr. M'Culloch, a farmer in the neighbour- 
hood, has preserved some specimens of the plant in his garden, and 
means to sow the seed on the cliffs with the view of preventing the 
plant from disappearing entirely. Geranium sangineum on the cliffs 
exhibits a peculiar viviparous appearance, in place of producing flowers. 
A glaucous variety of Festuca, probably F. ovina var. crosia, is com- 
mon in many places. Alisma ranunculoides and Hypericum elodes 
occur in marshy spots near the cliffs. 

Leaving Cardrain, we visited Kindraw Hill and Dunman, and re- 
turned by Portencorckchrie Bay to Drumore, but did not meet with 
any plants of peculiar interest. The sea shore and the rocks in its 
immediate vicinity seem to be the most productive parts of the 
county. 



Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion, 213 

On the 14th, we bent our steps bj the shores of Luce Bay, to Grenan 
Craigs, New England Bay, Chapel Rosan Bay, and the sandy shores 
near Stoneykirk, to Mid- Tors, and thence toGlenluce. Many species 
of Rubus such as R. leucostachys, corylifolius, and macrophyllus 
were observed, also Alsine marina, Atriplex laciniata, Carum 
verticiUatum, especially in marshy spots near Glenluce. At Mid- 
Tors, in a ditch, Utricularia minor, Hypericum elodes, and Ranun- 
culus hederaceus occur in profusion, and, on the moors in the neigh- 
bourhood, Drosera longifolia and Rhynchospora alba. On the shores of 
Luce Bay several varieties of Chenopodium album occur, one of them 
with undivided leaves resembling C. polyspermum, also Glaucium 
luteum, Triticum loliacoum, Humulus Lupulus, Vicia sylvatica. Ger- 
anium robertianum, var. purpureum, Sparganium simplex, Isatis tinc- 
toria (cultivated for dye), Isolepis fluitans, Mentha viridis, and Pe- 
troselinum sativum. In fields near Glenluce, Echium vulgare and 
Ornithopus perpusillus were found. On visiting the old Abbey of Luce 
we procured specimens of Lithospermum officinale. The evening of 
this day was the only occasion on which rain fell during our trip. 

August 15. — Directing our course towards Auchenmally Bay, we 
passed Synnyness castle, and on our way picked Chelidonium majus, 
Rubus suberectus, and some varieties of Chenopodium album. On the 
shore at Auchenmally Bay, near the inn called the Cock, we found pro- 
fusion of Blysmus rufus, Carex extensa, Juncus maritimus, Ery- 
thra3a linarifolia, Littorella lacustris, Scutellaria galericulata, Scirpus 
maritimus, Sedum Telephium, and a few specimens of Osmunda regalis. 

On the shore between Barr point and Port William, we observed 
many of the maritime plants already noticed, besides Ranunculus 
liirsutus, a creeping variety of Ranunculus Flammula, Malva moschata, 
Scutellaria minor, Bartsia viscosa, Jasione montana, a common plant 
in all this district "We in vain looked for Erodium maritimum, and 
Solanum nigrum, which I picked several years ago on this shore. 
Leaving Port William, our route lay by Monreith Bay to Carleton, 
and thence to Glasserton and Whithorn. Want of time prevented us 
from visiting Burrow Head, as we intended, and thus we failed to get 
Artemisia maritima, which is abundant on tlie shore in that quarter. 
At Glasserton we saw Aquilegia vulgaris, and near Whithorn, Carex 
filiformis, Epilobium parviflorum, Fragaria elatior. Genista tinctoria, 
Hypericum maculatum (a species in many respects like H. dubium, 
and differing chiefly in the form of its sepals). Ononis antiquorum 
or spinosa, Ulex nanus, Veronica Anagallis, and Verbascum Thapsus. 
We also gathered some enormous specimens of Agaricus campestris 
and Georgii, some being 12 inches in diameter. 

August 16th. — This day our walk was by the shore to Cnigleton, 
Rigg Bay, Galloway House and Garlieston. The shore here fur- 
nished us with specimens of Crithmum maritimum. Genista tinctoria, 
Glaucium luteum, Linaria Tulgaris, Aster Tripolium, Statice rariflora, 

No. 10. 2 



214 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 

often mistaken for S. Limouium, Hippophae rhamnoides in planta- 
tions ; in marshj places Hippuris vulgaris, Littorella lacustris, Cliara 
hispida and flexilis, Bidens cernua, Scirpus lacustris and Scutellaria 
galericulata grew. On the sides of ditches Scolopendrium vulgare was 
abundant, and Hypericum maculatum and Lepidium Smithii lined all 
the road-sides. 

The walk from Garlieston to Wigton, by Kirmadrine and Kir- 
kinna did not furnish many new specimens. Hieracium umbellatum, 
and Lamium album, were met with. On the road between Wigton 
and Newton- Stewart we found Mentha rotundifolia and Ornithopus 
perpusillus. 

August 17. — Crossing the bridge over the Cree at Newton- Stewart, 
we now entered Kircudbrightshire, and commenced to notice all 
the plants of the county with the view of completing its Flora. Fol- 
lowing the banks of the Cree we reached Creetown, where granitic 
rocks appear and are quarried, and then walked by the shore to Cars- 
looth castle, Cardonness, Gatehouse, Crumston castle and Kircud- 
bright. The shores presented many of the plants previously noticed 
in Wigtonshire, such as Crambe maritima, Crithmum maritimum, 
Erythraea linarifolia,Glaucium luteum, Genista tinctoria, &c. ; besides 
these, we noticed, Bromus mollis var. nanus, Juncus obtusiflorus, Ca- 
lamintha Clinopodium, Campanula latifolia, Cardamine sylvatica, 
Pulicaria dysenterica, Silybum marianum, Solanum Dulcamara, Car- 
duus acanthoides near the granite quarries where granite meets the 
greywacke, and Convolvulus sepium. The white and pink varieties of 
the last named plant, along with Epilobium hirsutum, Lathyrus syl- 
vestris, Vicia sylvatica, and Linaria vulgaris in full flower, lined the 
shores near Carslooth, and presented a display of colours, than which 
nothing could be more beautiful and striking. 

Near Carslooth, Lysimachia vulgaris grows in considerable quantity, 
and Ononis antiquorum is found on the shore near Ravenshaugh, 
along with gigantic specimens of Pimpinella Saxifraga. At Cardon- 
ness castle Lithosperraum officinale and Inula Helenium occur ; and 
Myrrhis odorata was picked near Kircudbright. 

August 18th. — This day the shores near Kircudbright and St. Mary's 
Isle were visited, and we were rewarded with specimens of Allium 
arenarium and vineale, Statice rariflora and Limonium, Geranium pra- 
tense, Dipsacus sylvestris, Salicornia herbacea, Chenopodium mariti- 
mum, Habenaria viridis, and Rubus suberectus. We then proceeded 
to Balmae, and were kindly entertained by General Irving, an enthu- 
siastic botanist, who accompanied us in our rambles, and pointed out 
many interesting plants. Under his guidance we gathered Ervum 
tetraspermum in small quantities on the shore, Acorus Calamus growing 
in a pond at Balmae, having been taken from a native station in Kir- 
cudbrightshire which has since been drained, Nymph?ea alba, Acer 
campestre, Anthemis arvensis, and Aquilegia vulgaris. 



Dr. Balfouk's Botanical Excursion. 216 

Most of the party being anxious to get to Dumfries, I had not an 
opportunity of examining the neighbourhood of Balmae and Kir- 
cudbright at the time so thoroughly as I could have wished. In 
the course of a week afterwards, however, I again paid a visit to 
General Irving, and added a number of rare plants to my collection ; 
among these I may notice, Pulicaria dysenterica, Carex paniculata, 
Thlaspi arvense, Potamogeton acutifolius, Artemisia maritima, Car- 
duus heterophyllus, Epipactis latifolia, Juncus obtusiflorus, Polygonum 
Bistorta, Stachys Betonica, Doronicum Pardalianches, Scrophularia 
vornalis, Hippophae rhamnoides, Euphorbia Cyparissias and Mentha 
rotundifolia (probably naturalized,) Botrychiura Lunaria, and Ophio- 
glossum vulgatum. At St. Mary's Isle there are numerous rare 
species, many of which, however, appear to have been introduced, 
such as Spiraea salicifolia, Lathyrus latifolius, Verbascum nigrum. 
Campanula Trachelium, Geranium phseum, Gnaphalium margarita- 
ceum, Althaea officinalis, and Staphylea pinnata. 

On the shores on the opposite side of Kircudbright Bay, and near 
Borgue and the Ross, I gathered Mentha rubra and viridis, Astrag- 
alus glycyphyllus, Lithospermum officinale, Triticum caninum. Arum 
maculatum, (Enanthe fistulosa, Artemisia maritima, Sanguisorba offi- 
cinalis, Cladium Mariscus in marshes at Culraven, Gymnadenia albida 
and Ulmus suberosa. 

Near Kirkudbright, and on the banks of the Dee at Tongueland, 
I found Ruppia maritima and Serratula tinctoria in profusion, Galium 
boreale, Calamintha Clinopodium, Origanum vulgare, Epilobum angus- 
tifolium, Thalictrum minus, Chelidonium majus, Polygonum Bistorta, 
Cotyledon Umbilicus, Geranium lucidum, sanguineum and pratense, 
Rubus saxatilis, TroUius europacus. To many of the stations on the 
Dee I was kindly conducted by the Rev. Mr. Williamson. 

Returning from this digression to our party. — We proceeded from 
Balmae to MuUoch Bay, and thence to Dandrennan Abbey, Auchen- 
cairn, and Dalbeaty. Sium angustifolium, Carlina vulgaris, and a 
few other common plants were all that we observed. 

August 19th. — From Dalbeaty we directed our course over a moor- 
land country to Southwick, and thence to Southerness or Sauter- 
ness Point, Arbigland, Kirkbean, Carse Bay, New Abbey and Dum- 
fries. The most productive part of our journey this day was in the 
neighbourhood of Southwick, and on the sandy shores and rocks near 
Sauterness. In fields near Southwick we picked with no small de- 
light Anagallis csorulea in profusion, displaying its beautiful blue 
blossoms fully expanded, and associated with specimens of Anagallis 
arvensis, having remarkably large flowers, also Trifolium arvense, and 
Medicago sativa. The latter plant is cultivated by Mr. Stewart of 
Southwick, and he imported the seeds from abroad. To this some 
may perhaps be disposed to attribute the appearance of the blue 
Anagallis in the neighbourhood. Mr. Stewart has evidently done 



216 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursion. 

much to improve the agriculture of the district, and we wore particu- 
larly struck with the excellent farm arrangements on his estate. 

On moors near Southwick, we found Vaccinium Oxycoccos, Carex 
pauciflora, Scutellaria minor, Utricularia minor, Carlina vulgaris six 
or seven miles from the sea, Hypericum elodes, Drosera longifolia, 
and Alsine rubra. Near Sauterness Point where grey sandstone, 
some shale, coal, and limestone occur, we met with Anchusa somper- 
virens. Convolvulus arvensis and sepium, Eryngium maritimum, Hier- 
acium umbellatum and inuloides, Atriplex rosea, Carex remota, 
Knautia arvensis (only seen in this place during the trip). Lychnis 
Githago, Lycopsis arvensis, Lysimachia vulgaris, Malva moschata. 
Ononis antiquorum, Ornithopus perpusillus. Ranunculus sceleratus, 
Rubus csesius and suberectus, and Vicia gracilis. 

Near Kirkbean and the Carse, Senecio viscosus was found, while 
Ononis antiquorum and Sanguisorba officinalis were observed on the 
banks of the Nith near Dumfries. 

At Dumfries our party broke up, after twelve days of most pleasant 
botanizing. I remained for several days in the neighbourhood of 
Dumfries, and examined more fully the Flora of the district. Among 
the plants which I added to my collection, I may notice, Potaraoge- 
ton pusillus, rufescens, heterophyllus, and perfoliatus, Lysimachia vul- 
garis, and Eriophorum pubescens or latifolium, near Maxwelltown 
Loch, Lobelia Dortmanna, Cerastium arvense, Pilularia globulifera and 
Typha latifolia atLincluden, and T. angustifolia at Lochmaben, Cicuta 
virosa. Polygonum minus, Andromeda polifolia, Drosera anglica, Carex 
sylvatica, irrigua and lasvigata, Symphytum officinale, Lepidium cam- 
pestre, a rare plant in Galloway, Callitriche platycarpa. Nastur- 
tium terrestre, Lolium temulentum or poisonous Darnel,* and Holcus 
lanatus, in a viviparous state. On Criffel, the highest hill near Dum- 
fries, I gathered a few subalpine species, as Polypodium Phegopteris, 
Lycopodium Selago, selaginoides and alpinum, Vaccinium Vitis-Idsea, 
Allosorus crispus and Empetrum nigrum. The hill consists of dry 
granite rocks which are not much disintegrated, and, as frequently 
happens in such cases, is comparatively unproductive. Moreover, it 
does not attain a sufficient elevation for alpine species. 

Such are a few hurried details of a botanical trip to a very inter- 
esting district of Scotland, which has not been as yet thoroughly ex- 
amined. I trust that the remarks I have made will have the effect of 
inducing other botanists to visit these counties ; and I am satisfied if 
they do so, that they will be amply rewarded. 



* This plant existed in considerable quantities in a barley-field. Of late a case of poi- 
soning caused by it has been recorded. The symptoms produced were somnolency, con- 
vulsive tremor, and coldness of the extremities. M. Ruspini says, that the adulterated 
flour may be detected by digesting in alcohol, which, when Lolium is present, assumes a 
characteristic green tint. 



Mr, Spens <m Life Insurance. 217 

Dr. Balfour then exhibited a dried specimen of the leaves and 
flowers of the Green Heart tree, which he had received from Dr. W. 
H. Campbell of Demerara. This tree has long been known to mer- 
chants as furnishing a valuable timber, which is used by carpenters and 
ship-builders. The plant itself, however, is not known to botanists, 
and the specimens sent by Dr. Campbell are not in such a state as to 
allow a perfect determination of the genus and species. The plant 
undoubtedly belongs to the natural order Lauracese. The Perianth 
appears to be eight-cleft, hairy inside, with an unequal limb ; the stamens 
sixteen, in two rows, with thick filaments, the anthers opening by four 
hinged valves ; the fruit one-celled and one-seeded. 

Professor Graham has named the plant Bebeeru febrifuga; but Sir 
W. J. Hooker does not think that we have sufficient materials for 
ascertaining whether the plant is a new genus or not. The bark of the 
plant is used as a febrifuge in Guiana under the name of Bebeeru 
bark ; and Dr. Douglas Maclagan has used it as a tonic and antipe- 
riodic in this country. He has procured two alkaline substances from 
it, called Bebeerine and Sipeerine, and has published his analysis in 
the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Specimens of 
the bark, wood, and fruit were also exhibited. 



I3th March, 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

The following were admitted members of the Society: — Mr. Wm. 
Crichton, Rev. John Graham, Mr. William Bankier, Mr. John Miller. 
The following papers were read. 

XLIX. — On the Minimum Bate of Annwd Premiums for Insurance of 
Select Lives from Twenty to Sixty, and on the value of Annual Addi- 
tions to Insurances at those Ages. By William Spens, Esq. 

1. The subject I have proposed for your consideration to-night 
cannot certainly be deemed of little importance ; on a matter on which 
it may bo safely affirmed that a great portion of the thinking com- 
munity is practically concerned, it is undoubtedly desirable for them 
to ascertain their real position, and if there be any truth in the alle- 
gation that the subject is mystified by the pamphlets and advertise- 
ments of the Insurance Offices in their endeavours to prove their 
superiority over one another, there can be no better cure for this than 
a satisfactory solution of the questions here proposed for discussion. 

2. In the course of the remarks which I shall offer you, I may be 
considered to pass too hurriedly over some points noticed, and to omit 
others which may have been expected to be alluded to, but I think it 
is desirable, in a paper like the present, to narrow the field for dis- 



218 Mr. Spens mi Life Insurance. 

cussion in one night as much as possible. These other points may be 
taken up at some other opportunity. In this way I shall bo more 
likely to attract your attention to each part of the subject. I have 
great confidence in the results I shall bring out ; but I shall also 
show the observations on which they are founded, and there are many 
in the Society, who, from their acquaintance with such subjects, will 
be able to pronounce with authority an opinion upon them, 

3. In discussing the question, much might be said in regard to the 
rate of interest to be assumed in the calculation ; but, at present, our 
more immediate object is with the rate of mortality. And in stating 
that four per cent, has been adopted as the probable rate of improve- 
ment of money, from interest and profits after deducting expenses, I 
have no doubt that some will think this too favourable a supposition, 
while others will be of opinion that, under some circumstances, a 
greater accumulation may be expected : of course, the former will con- 
sider I should have stated the minimum rate of premium greater, and 
the others that I should have made it less. 

In thus disposing of the question of interest, it is not intended to 
insinuate that it is one of minor importance, but only, I have more in 
view at present the consideration of the effect of the rate of mor- 
tality ; and as a certain rate of interest must be taken in deducing the 
values, four per cent, has been adopted as I should think, in the opinion 
of many, at least as favourable a supposition of increase from interest 
and profit, less expenses, as may be expected by the generality of offices. 

4. The observations published by the London Equitable Society are 
those best adapted for the deduction of our calculations. Much stress 
has been laid on the value of the tables, lately printed, of the experience 
of seventeen life offices, embracing 83,905 policies, and a rate of mor- 
tality has been presented with the printed tables, adjusted from the 
experience of 62,537 insurances. This adjusted table contains the 
experience of the London Equitable and London Amicable Societies ; 
and as their experience extends over a much longer period than the 
other offices, although the number of insurances in these two was pro- 
bably somewhat less than the half of the above 62,537, the deaths in 
them, which measure better the value of the experience, must have 
been much more than the half. The Equitable experience, again, is 
much more extensive than the Amicable, the former comprising up- 
wards of 5,000 deaths, the latter about 1,800. 

I have made a calculation of the values of the annuities (Table I. 
annexed) according to the probabilities of the duration of human life, 
deduced by Morgan from the experience of the Equitable, and find that 
these agree almost exactly with the values deduced from the table I 
have alluded to, founded on the 62,537 assurances.* The values brought 

♦ For these valaes I refer to a series of tables calculated therefrom, and published by 
Mr. Jenkin Jones, actuary to the National Mercantile Life Assurance Society. 



Mr. SPEifS on Life Insurance. 219 

out from the Equitable experience are a little more. The near agree- 
ment of the two maj be generally explained by the Amicable experi- 
ence being on the one hand considerably more unfavourable, partly 
no doubt from the longer duration of the policies, and that of the other 
offices being doubtless considerably more favourable from the shorter 
duration of the policies, and of course the greater benefit of selection. 
Upon tlio whole, the tables of the Equitable experience appear to offer 
as favourable a view of life as can be anticipated in the experience of 
any office, and from the number of the policies, and length of time 
over which they extend, are better adapted for the solution of such 
questions as the present, than the tables of experience of the seventeen 
offices. 

5. Referring then again to the Equitable experience, on the assump- 
tion that lives are better when they first enter into the society, that is, 
that persons, say of the age of 50, who have been thirty years in the 
society cannot be expected to be so good lives as those entering at 50, 
and of course then select lives, it will be obvious that the values of 
annuities deduced from their general experience will at young ages be 
stated too high, and, in a society of such long existence as the Equi- 
table, at old ages too low, while they will be correct somewhere about 
the middle ages. This will be readily seen when it is considered that 
in the calculation of the values of annuities on young lives, they will 
derive the benefit of a continued influx of select lives at older ages, 
while the values of the old lives will be deteriorated by their being 
mixed up in the calculation with lives which, from their long duration 
in the society, will have lost much or all the benefit of selection. 

6. With the view, no doubt, towards such calculations as I have 
made, most useful tables are given in the tables of experience of the 
seventeen offices, namely, tables II, showing the results of the Equitable 
experience for separate classes. These show the probabilities of living 
one year at all the older ages of the following number of lives admitted. 

Table H 1, on 7,259 lives admitted, from 26 to 34 inclusive. Deaths 1,203 

2, — 6,270 •— 35-44 — 1,597 

3, — 3,436 — 45-64 — 1,301 

4, — 1,317 — 65-64 — 685 



18,282 4,786 

The ages at which the above total admissions took place were as 
follows, and I have placed opposite different ages the numbers exposed 
to the risk of mortality at each age, so as to enable a better estimate 
to be formed of the value of the observations : — 



220 



Mr. Spens on Lift Insurance, 
Extracts from 



TABLE H 1. 


TABLE H 2. 


TABLE H 3. 


TABLE H 4. 


A„^ Ad- 
^8® mltted 


Exposed 


Age 


Ad- 


Exposed 




Ad- 


Exposed 


Age 


Ad- 


Exposed 


to risk. 


mitted 


to rislt. 


Age 


mitted. 


to rislj. 


mitted. 


to rislc 


26 


643 


642-5 


35 


743 


742-6 


45 


470 


469-5 


56 


204 


204 


26 


615 


1,230-5 


36 


728 


1,453 


46 


437 


895-6 


66 


210 


409 


27 


683 


1,823-5 


37 


735 


2,120 


47 


429 


1,278-5 


57 


161 


649 


28 


732 


2,401 


38 


659 


2,655 


48 


370 


1,669-5 


68 


140 


660-5 


29 


783 


3,002 


39 


668 


3,160 


49 


389 


1,868-5 


69 


164 


780 


30 


762 


3,546 


40 


615 


3,568 


50 


321 


2,079-6 


60 


118 


836 


31 


785 


4,077 


41 


561 


3,903 


61 


293 


2,219-6 


61 


91 


867-5 


32 


780 


4,580 


42 


541 


4,206-5 


52 


263 


2,315 


62 


91 


895 


33 


726 


4,976-5 


43 


625 


4,475 


53 


240 


2,379-5 


63 


88 


912 


34 


750 


5,386 


44 


495 


4,689 


55 


224 


2,453 


64 


60 


909 


7,259 


6,270 


3,436 


1,317 


35 




5,029 


45 


... 


4,413-6 


55 


... 


2,291-5 


65 


... 


849-5 


40 




3,464-5 


50 


... 


3,149-5 


60 


... 


1,687-6 


70 


... 


529 


45 




2,413-5 


55 




2,127 


65 


... 


1,030-6 


75 


... 


282-6 


50 




1,578 


60 


... 


1,380 


70 


... 


568 


80 


... 


102 


60 




513 


65 


... 


814 


75 




285-6 








70 




106 


70 


... 


405 


80 


... 


109 








80 




2 


80 ! ... 


46 















7. From the probabilities of living one year given in these tables H, 
without any adjustment, I have calculated the values of annuities at 
four per cent, as follows : — 



FROM 


FROM 


FROM 


FROM 


TABLE H 1. 


TABLE H 2. 


TABLE H 3. 


TABLE H 4. 


Ages. 


Values. 


Ages. 


Values. 


Ages. 

46 


Values. 


Ages 


Values. 


25 


17-75 


35 


16-22 


14-12 


65 


11.60 


26 


17-58 


36 


16-94 


46 


13-41 


56 


11-14 


27 


17-37 


37 


16-72 


47 


13-76 


67 


10-87 


28 


17-19 


38 


16-62 


48 


13-08 


68 


10-60 


29 


1701 


39 


16-31 


49 


12-80 


69 


1007 


30 


16-76 


40 


15-16 


60 


12-48 


60 


9-80 


31 


16-55 


41 


14-94 


51 


12-20 


61 


9-38 


32 


16-32 


42 


14-70 


62 


11-95 


62 


9-03 


83 


16-08 


43 


14-44 


53 


11-71 


63 


8-71 


34 


15-87 


44 


14-16 


54 


11-39 


64 


8-31 


85 


16-64 


45 


13-88 


55 


11-06 







It is quite clear that in each of these tables the values at the top 
should be too great, and the values at the bottom too low, and that 
somewhere between the two the values should be correct. I consider 
the mediums in the respective columns may be stated as the ages, 29, 
38, 48, and 57. 

It is also clear, that the value at age 35, should be between the 
values stated opposite that age in the two first columns ; in 45, be- 



Mr. Spens on Life Inmrance. 221 

tween the values stated opposite 45, in columns 2 and 3 ; and 55, in 
the same way, between the values in columns 3 and 4. It is also neces- 
sary that the difference between the values at one age, and the next 
age,'should be less than in the general table : this may be readily per- 
ceived must be the case, as where the annuities increase from the point 
of agreement towards the younger ages, less sums must be added to the 
separate class values, to make them lower than the others ; and where 
they decrease towards the advanced ages, less sums must be subtracted 
to make the values in the separate classes greater. 

Table II. has been made out, having all these points in view, but 
it was found impossible to make it harmonise entirely with them all. 
The chief difference appears to be in my being obliged to state the 
values from 39 to 45, almost in accordance with the values stated 
above, in column H 2. They ought of course, looking only to that, to 
be stated higher ; but had this been done, 45 in H 2, would have been 
made about equal to 45 in H 3 ; and the regulation of the lessening 
of the differences would have been interfered with. It may be that 
the values alluded to in H 2, are accidentally higher ; but the num- 
bers of observations on lives and deaths from which they are deduced, 
are rather considerable, and perhaps the observations are correct, in 
leading us to the conclusion that lives selected about these ages are 
little better than lives selected a few years earlier which have arrived 
at these ages. It will be observed that Table II. has been extended 
back to age 20, which I thought could be very safely done by observa- 
tion of the differences at the higher ages, and in Table I. 

8. From Table II, Table III. is deduced of the minimum annual 
Premiums for Life Insurance, on the assumption that by means of in- 
terest and profit, less expenses, money is accumulated at 4 per cent. 

9. In regard to the annual values of annual or periodical additions, I 
shall restrict myself to the values according to the systems stated below 
at ages 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60, and for reasons to be afterwards no- 
ticed, shall make the calculations according to the Carlisle Tables. 
The rate of interest assumed is as before, four per cent 

1st. Annual values of simple additions of One Pound, made every 
year, that is. One Pound if the party survive one year, and another 
Pound if he survive another year, and so on. 



Ages 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


Valubs 


•350 


•409 


•475 


•549 


•616 



2d. Annual values of additions of 1 per cent according to the sys- 
tem of the London Equitable, declared, say every seven years ; that is 
supposing additions at the rate of 1 per cent., 7 per cent at the end of 
seven years, other 14 per cent, at the end of the next seven years, at 
the end of the next seven, 21 per cent more, and so on. 



222 Me. Spens on Life Insurance. 

Ages 20 30 40 50 60 



Values 1-013 1-028 -998 -908 -756 

In this mode of division the values are much affected by the intervals 
at which the allocations are made ; thus, supposing them to be made 
quinqueuniallj, at age 40, the annual value will be 1-408; if sexen- 
eniallj, 1-169 ; and if decennially, -691. 

In the above two cases, greater or less rates of additions will be 
simple proportions of the above. 

3d. Annual values of additions accumulated, say septennially, and 
with a provision that no addition shall be paid if the party die within 
five years. In this case, the different rates of addition are not simple 
proportions of one another, and I have therefore stated the values of 
additions at the rates of 1, li and 2 per cent. 

AGES. VALUES OF ADDITIONS. 

1 ^ cent. Ji ^ cent. 2 ^ cent. 



20 . . 


. -413 


•677 


•992 


30 . . 


. -466 


•758 


1084 


40 . . 


. -523 


•832 


M80 


50 . . 


. -585 


•916 


1-277 


60 . . 


. -621 


•958 


1-316 



10. I have stated the above annual values of additions, according 
to the Carlisle Tables, partly because for the most part I had some 
time ago calculated them according to these tables, and further, be- 
cause I am satisfied that the values thus brought out must be very 
nearly the true ones. Indeed it will be seen from the small difference 
between the values at the ages ten years different, that any such cor- 
rection on the rate of mortality as might be made, could to a very 
small extent affect the results. 

1 1. Assuming that we have now made a near approximation to the 
true premium, and the true values of annual additions, these afford 
the best means for testing the fairness of modes of allocations of bonus 
additions. 

12. Under one system of assurance, a definite premium is fixed for 
a definite guaranteed sum, the rate of premium being stated at such 
sum as may be expected to yield a profit to the assurers in lieu of 
their guarantee. Under the other system, parties associate together 
to assure one another, and it has been generally thought desirable to 
provide against any extraordinary mortality, or unprofitableness of 
money, and to give the utmost confidence in such Society, that the 
rates should be, and should be considered by the public to be, such as 
will undoubtedly yield a surplus. Such are the two general systems 
on which assurance by proprietory offices and by mutual societies 



Mr. Spens <m Life Insurance. 223 

is founded. Modifications of the latter system have been now very 
generally introduced by the proprietory offices charging higher pre- 
miums, and allowing a share — I must in fairness say a large share — of 
profits combined with guarantee. 

13. It is thus seen generally how the surplus from which the bonus 
additions are allocated arises ; and there will not be much wonder 
at the contrariety of opinion in regard to its division, when the follow- 
ing modes of division, although diametrically opposed to each other 
will be found to be both perfect in theory. The first is the case of a 
party who wishes to lay out £25 a-year in assurance, receiving the 
largest possible amount. The ofiice approaching perfection, says. We 
will give you a policy of £1000 in the mean time, but in the course of 
a few years we shall have ascertained exactly what sum such a pre- 
mium at your age will yield, and your policy will be increased ac- 
cordingly. The second is the case of a party of the same age who 
goes to the same office, and states, I wish to secure a definite sum of 
£1000 to be paid at my death, I know I must pay more than is 
necessary just now, but I understand in a few years you expect to 
ascertain exactly what the proper premium should be, and you can 
then return me the difference paid, and reduce the premium for the 
future. 

It is ascertained after five premiums have been paid by each, that 
£20 is the proper premium for £1000; both die a short time after this 
and the heirs of one receive £1,200, corresponding to £25 of premium; 
the heirs of the other receive £1,025, being the £1000 with return 
of over paid premiums. Both these modes are evidently quite 
fair in theory, looking to the respective views of parties in the 
transactions. 

14. We must therefore look, in the first place, to the real or pre- 
sumed inteOftions of parties in the original contract; and assuming 
that the surplus is intended to be applied in making annual or periodi- 
cal additions, we may judge of the fairness of the rates and modes 
of addition, by adding their annual values to the true annual premiums 
as here approximated, and observing if the sums generally agree with 
the premiums charged. If the table of premiums here submitted do 
exhibit the minimum rate fairly apportioned at each age, giving effect 
to the rate of mortality which may be anticipated, and the proper rate 
of accumulation of money from interest and profits, less expenses, I think 
it will be readily conceded, that under ordinary circumstances, if the 
sums of these premiums and the annual values of the additions con- 
siderably exceed the premiums charged, then it must be fairly pre- 
sumed that the additions are too great, and if too great, must cause 
unfairness to the new members, or those of the old who remain longest 
in the office. If again, the sums are at some ages considerably less, 
and at others considerably more, then an unfair advantage must be 



224 Mr. Spens on Life Insurance, 

presumed to be given on the one side, and a corresponding injustice 
committed on the other. 

15. As an illustration of what I have been saying, I will cite the 
bonus additions of a Scottish office. It would be absurd to deny that 
their coincidence with the test of fairness proposed, is greatly owing 
to accident. We find that, adding the premiums in Table II. annexed, 
to the annual values of additions, at the rate of li per cent. (Article 
0, 3d mode,) as made by that Society, the sums are very nearly the 
same as the premiums charged by them, thus — 



Premiums per Tabled 
III, for £100. J 

Annual Value of ad-7 
ditionsof IJ^centJ 


AGE 20 

b383 
•677 


AGE 30 

1-753 

•758 


AGE 40 

2-368 

-832 


AGE 50 

3^474 
•916 


AGE 60 

5-320 

•958 


Sums. 


2-060 


2-511 


3-200 


4-390 


6-278 


Premiums charged by") 
Office alluded to. J 


2-075 


2-554 


3-275 


4-413 


6-266 


Differences. . . . 


+ •015 


+ •043 


+ -075 


+ -023 


— •012 



I have stated that I have myself great confidence in the table of 
premiums I have given, and the values of the annual additions ; and 
undoubtedly if the premiums and values I have stated be correct, ad- 
ditions of no considerably greater value than have been given by the 
above office can be expected to be maintained by any office, that does 
not charge higher premiums or make more than 4 per cent, from its 
interest and profits, less expenses. Certainly in the early stage of an 
office, the large number of recently selected lives will tend to make 
the proportion of surplus greater at first. And if some extraordinary 
profit has been acquired, and a large reserve of surplus be made, there 
may perhaps be little further objection to the declaration of the full 
addition resulting from the calculations, though not likely to be con- 
tinued, than the disappointment a reduction will cause. There is, 
however, great competition among offices ; and although probably there 
is very little danger now, in the improved information on the subject, 
that the security of an office will be endangered by charging too low 
premiums for definite sums, it is desirable that the public should not, 
by the expectation of unreasonable additions, tempt any office to force 
its surplus to maintain them. 

16. I will only add, that I trust no one will suppose I am prepared 
to advocate the minimum table of premium here given as a sufficient 
one for an office to adopt ; indeed, it is clear, that supposing it is cor- 
rect, an addition must be made by an office assuring to make profit ; 
and I have already stated, that it is generally considered proper that 
the premiums of a Mutual Society should be such as will undoubtedly 
yield a surplus. 



Mr. Spens on Life Insurance. 



225 



Table I. — Values of Annuities at Four per centy calculated from Mor- 
gan's Table of Probabilities deduced from the Equitable experience. 



Ages. 


Values. 1 


Ages. 


Values. 


Ages. 


Values. 


Ages. 
68 


Values. 


Ages. 


Values. 


20 


18-493 


36 


15-941 


52 


11-947 


7-008 


84 


2-697 


21 


18-375 


37 


15-738 


53 


11-644 


69 


6-711 


85 


2-547 


22 


18-248 


38 


15-531 


54 


11-342 


70 


6-425 


86 


2-401 


23 


18-116 


39 


15-323 


66 


11-034 


71 


6138 


87 


2-254 


24 


17-978 


40 


15-111 


56 


10-719 


72 


5-852 


88 


2-145 


25 


17-835 


41 


14-890 


57 


10-405 


73 


5-567 


99 


2-203 


26 


17-691 


42 


14-663 


58 


10-096 


74 


5-286 


90 


1-877 


27 


17-540 


43 


14-426 


59 


9-787 


75 


5-014 


91 


1-670 


28 


17-384 


44 


14-180 


60 


9-485 


76 


4-750 


92 


1-431 


29 


17-221 


45 


13-926 


61 


9144 


77 


4-477 


93 


1-171 


30 


17-051 


46 


13-669 


Q2 


8-881 


78 


4-201 


94 


-827 


31 


16-879 


47 


13-401 


63 


8-568 


79 


3-924 


95 


•530 


32 


16-699 


48 


13-125 


64 


8-252 


80 


3-641 


96 


-240 


33 


16-516 


49 


12-841 


65 


7-930 


81 


3-367 






34 


16-329 


50 


12-548 


66 


7-616 


82 


3-111 






35 


16-139 


51 


12-248 


67 


7-310 


1 83 


2-872 







Table II.* — Valibes of Annuities for Select Lives at Four per cent. 



Ages. 


Values. 


Ages. 

30 


Values. 


Ages. 
40 


Values. 


Ages. 


Values. 


20 


18-12 


16-86 


15-09 


50 


12-66 


21 


18-01 


31 


16-71 


41 


14-88 


51 


12-39 


22 


17-90 


32 


16-55 


42 


14-66 


52 


12-12 


23 


17-79 


33 


16-39 


43 


14-43 


53 


11-85 


24 


17-67 


34 


16-22 


44 


14-20 


54 


11-58 


25 


17-55 


35 


16-05 


45 


13-96 


66 


11-30 


26 


17-42 


36 


15-87 


46 


13-71 


56 


1102 


27 


17-29 


37 


15-69 


47 


13-45 


57 


10-74 


28 


17-15 


38 


15-49 


48 


13-19 


58 


10-46 


29 


17-01 


39 


15-29 


49 


12-93 


59 
60 


10-18 
9-91 



♦ The Insurances on female lives are comparatively so few that these values may 
be considered as for select male lives. 



226 Dr. Buchanan on the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 



Table III. — Annual Premiums for Assurance of £100 on Select Lives, 
Assuming Money to be improved at Four per cent, deduced from the 
preceding Table. 



{Ages. 


Premiums. 


Ages. 

30 


Premiums. 


Ages. 


Premiums. 


Ages 


Premiums. 


20 


1-383 


1-753 


40 


2-368 


50 


3-474 


21 


1-414 


31 


1-800 


41 


2-451 


51 


3-622 


22 


1-445 


32 


1-851 


42 


2-540 


52 


3-776 


23 


1-475 


33 


1-904 


43 


2-634 


53 


3-936 


24 


1-510 


34 


1-961 


; 44 


2-732 


54 


4-103 


25 


1-514 


35 


2-018 


i 45 


2-838 


65 


4-284 


26 


1-582 1 


36 


2-081 


46 


2-952 


6^ 


4-473 


27 


1-621 j 


37 


2-145 


47 


3-074 


57 


4-672 


28 


1-663 


38 


2-218 


48 


3-201 


58 


4-880 


29 


1-706 


39 


2-292 


49 


3-332 


59 
60 


5-098 
5.320 



L. — On the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. Bj Andrew 
Buchanan, M. D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the Uni- 
versity of Glasgow. 

It is well known to all who have been in the habit of examin- 
ing the characters of the blood, that the serum which separates from 
it, instead of being transparent and of a yellow colour as we usu- 
ally find it, is sometimes opaque and turbid, white as if milk had been 
diffused through it, or otherwise discoloured. Such serum is usually 
spoken of as white or milky serum. My present intention is to submit 
to the Society a few observations as to the causes in which this re- 
markable appearance of the serum of the blood originates. 

It has been affirmed, that the blood itself is sometimes of a milky 
colour as it issues from the veins, or exhibits white streaks diffused 
through its dark-red substance. That this latter appearance is some- 
times observable within the blood-vessels of live animals, more espe- 
cially in the vicinity of the heart, and that it is occasioned by the chyle 
mingling but not yet incorporated with the blood, we have the testi- 
mony of various physiologists, as of Pecquet, who by tracing the white 
fluid to its origin, was led to the discovery of the two great trunks by 
which the lymphatic vessels communicate with the blood-vessels. 
In human blood flowing from the veins, I have never seen either 
white streaks or diffuse whiteness. I have indeed heard of such 
appearances being observed, but I am satisfied that they must be 
of very rare occurrence from my having looked for them so often 
in vain in the circumstances in which, as is shown below, they were 
most likely to have presented themselves. It appears to me, there- 



Dr. Buchanan on the White or Opaque Strum of the Blood. 227 

fore, probable, that the indefinite expressions *' white" or "milky 
blood,*' employed by Haller, and by many other writers before and 
since, must refer chiefly to the white state of the serum. This is 
certainly the meaning of some of the authors quoted by Haller, as 
of Tulpius, who conceived the white matter in the serum to be ab- 
sorbed milk, and warns his patient against that beverage in time to 
come. Haller himself, however, takes no notice of this colour of the 
serum, and many of his expressions obviously imply a belief that the 
whiteness was an attribute of the whole mass of blood.* The only 
appearance, so far as I have ever seen, which could justify the appli- 
cation of such epithets to the blood, is that observed in inflammatory 
blood, which, when just about to coagulate, becomes whitish or bluish 
upon the surface. But this affords no solution of the difficulty as 
to the words of Haller, who expressly states that he omits all consi- 
deration of such blood.t We are therefore unwillingly compelled 
to recollect, that the same great physiologist, after a laborious exami- 
nation of the arguments on both sides, declares that there is little or 
no difference in appearance between arterial and venous blood ; and to 
conclude that the observations then made as to the colour of the blood 
were not worthy of implicit reliance. 

Hewson introduced a more accurate mode of speaking of these phe- 
nomena, by referring the whiteness to the serum, and not to the 
general mass of blood. Hewson, also, first minutely described this 
condition of the serum, and analysed the circumstances on which it 
appeared to him to depend. He rejects the opinion, which was preva- 
lent previous to his time, that the white colour was owing to unassimi- 
lated chyle circulating in the blood vessels. He ascribes it, on the 
contrary, to fat absorbed from the adipose tissue, which he supposes to 
be taken up more rapidly than the wants of the system require, and, 
therefore, to accumulate in the blood vessels. He further regards the 
phenomenon as generally connected with a state of disease ; as with 
plethora, or a stoppage of natural evacuations. Such has been the 
authority of the name of Hewson, that both these opinions have been 
taught in the schools of physic ever since his time, and are generally 
received by the most eminent physicians of the present day. John 
Hunter stands almost alone in rejecting Hewson 's doctrine, that the 
whiteness of the serum is owing to absorbed fat, " which," he says, "is 
certainly not the case ; for it is not the same in all cases :" by which I 
understand him to mean, that the characters of white serum are not 
sufficiently uniform to warrant the supposition, that the colour is always 
occasioned by the same substance. Hunter also rejects the opinion 
that the white colour is due to unassimilated chyle ; " because, it does 

* Nempe in vivis animalibus, chylum albo suo colore conspicuum, ssepe per vasa san- 
guinea oberrare, de vulnere fluere, ant in cor ipsum apertnm de auricula efiundi vidL Tom, 
ii. p. 14, Element. Phys. 

t Id. ibid. 



228 Du. Buchanan an the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 

not occur frequently enough " to be ascribed to that cause. lie ob- 
served it most " frequently in the blood of breeding women," and 
therefore conceived it might have some connection with the pregnant 
state ; but, as he observed it also in other females and in men, he 
seems to have been at a loss what to think of it, " for/' says he, *' so far 
as I have been able to observe, it can hardly be said to have any lead- 
ing cause."* Professor Trail of Edinburgh, has given an excellent ac- 
count of three cases of a "cream-yellow" state of the serum, apparently 
connected with inflammation of the kidneys or liver, and he proved the 
existence in this serum of a fixed oil, as Hewson had done before him. 
Dr. Trail also first directed attention to a kind of serum like water 
gruel, in which he could discover no oil. He rejects the idea of the 
whiteness of the serum proceeding from the food, for that, he says, 
would have been long since detected. He embraces Hewson's opinion, 
that it is a pathological phenomenon, and caused by the fat being ab- 
sorbed " by a diseased action of the vessels." | Dr. Christison seems to 
regard " lactescent serum'' as a symptom of incipient granular disease 
of the kidneys. Some eminent modern physicians look upon it as a 
part of the series of morbid changes in the fluids of the body which 
occur in diabetes. Dr. Williams, in his recently published *' Principles 
of Medicine," enumerates milky serum among the diseases of the blood. 
He thinks it most probably occasioned by an increased absorption of fat, 
occurring during any rapid diminution of the bulk of the body. Last 
of all, to conclude this sketch of the prevailing opinions upon this sub- 
ject, M. Lecanu, who is generally looked upon as the highest conti- 
nental authority as to the constitution of the blood, enumerates various 
diseases, of which ** milky blood" is an accompaniment ; he ascribes it, 
like his predecessors, to an increase of the fatty matter, while he gives 
as an additional cause, a disappearance of the red globules of the blood. 
My attention was particularly directed to this appearance of the 
serum in the year 1840, owing to the frequency with which it pre- 
sented itself during some experiments I was then engaged in making on 
the constitution of the blood. I observed with Hunter, that it was of 
very common occurrence in the blood of young women, who desired to be 
bled, either because they were, or supposed themselves to be pregnant ; 
and whom, if no circumstances forbade, it was the custom to gratify in 
their request. Now, as these young women were for the most part 
strong and lusty, and therefore likely to take their food well, I was in 
doubt whether to ascribe thewhitenessof the serum to their peculiar state 
of body, or to the food which they had probably taken not long before. 
To resolve these doubts, the most direct mode was to have a person in 
sound health bled at different periods after a full meal, so as to observe 
the effects of digestion upon the blood. Accordingly, a strong healthy 
young man, to whom a good dinner was an equivalent for the loss of a 

♦ On the Blood, 37—39. f Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, 1821 and 1823. 



Dr. Buchanan on the White <yr Opaque Serum of the Blood. 229 

few ounces of blood, was easilj prevailed upon to submit to the follow- 
ing rogimon and treatment. He had no breakfast, and at four o'clock 
had for dinner one pound of beef-steak, half-a-pound of bread, sixteen 
liquid ounces of brown soup, and half-a-bottle of porter. Three ounces 
of blood were then taken from a vein in the arm at three diflferent 
periods ; the first time, half-an-hour after the meal ; the second time, 
an hour and forty minutes after it ; and the last time, next morning 
at eight o'clock, or sixteen hours after the meal, no food having been 
taken in the interval. The blood as it issued from the vein had the 
usual appearance, and the serum which separated from it was about 
the same in quantity each time. The first time the serum was whitish 
and turbid ; the second time it was like whey ; while the third time it 
was perfectly limpid. The crassamentum on the two first occasions 
exhibited nothing peculiar, while on the last it was covered with a 
transparent fibrinous crust beautifully interspersed with white dots, 
which led the medical friend, who assisted me in these investigations 
to compare it to a precious stone. 

As it might be supposed that this young man's blood was white be- 
fore he took dinner, the two following trials were made to obviate that 
objection. 

A vigorous man of about 35 years of age, after fasting 19 hours, had 
for dinner, twenty ounces of beef-steak, sixteen liquid ounces of brown 
soup, and eight ounces of bread. He was bled immediately before his 
meal, and three times after it, two ounces of blood being taken away 
each time. The serum obtained from the first bleeding before the 
meal was perfectly limpid ; the serum from the second bleeding, three 
hours and fifteen minutes after the meal, was turbid ; the serum from 
the third bleeding, eight hours and fifteen minutes after the meal, was 
still thicker ; while that from the last bleeding eighteen hours after 
the meal, was again quite limpid, although some supper had been eaten 
in the interval. 

The young man first mentioned, after fasting eighteen hours, dined 
upon sixteen ounces of brown soup, four ounces of bread, eight ounces 
of potatoes, twenty ounces of beef-steak, and sixteen ounces of London 
porter, and fasted eighteen hours after the meaL He had blood taken 
from his arm four times to the extent of two ounces each time. The 
serum of the blood first taken, immediately before the meal, was of an 
amber yellow and quite transparent ; the serum from the second bleed- 
ing, two hours and ten minutes after the meal, was turbid ; the serum 
from the third bleeding, eight hours after the meal, was exactly of the 
colour of water gruel and quite opaque ; the serum of the blood last 
taken, eighteen hours after the meal, was still turbid, its limpidity not 
having been, as after his usual fare, restored by an eighteen-hours' fast. 

In neither of the two last cases did the blood, as it issued from the 
arm, present white streaks or any thing else unusual. The crassa- 
mentum of the blood drawn before the meal, was in both cases of the 

No. 10. 3 



230 Dr. Buchanan an the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 

usual red colour on the surface, as also that drawn first after the meal 
in the last case ; but in all the other instances it exhibited the same 
pellucid fibrinous crust already described, although not dotted in the 
same remarkable way. We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that this 
pellucid crust is connected with finished digestion, when we reflect that 
out of nine bleedings practised within eighteen hours after a very full 
meal, this crust was observed on every occasion, if we except those in 
which the blood was drawn within three hours and a quarter of the 
period of taking the meal. 

These observations, the accuracy of which I have since had opportu- 
nities of confirming, appear to me to leave no doubt as to the origin of 
the white colour of the serum of the blood. When a healthy man is bled 
fasting, his blood yields serum of a transparent yellow colour, like light 
Sherry wine, varying in the depth of the yellow tint, but always perfectly 
clear. In about half-an-hour after taking food, the serum becomes 
turbid, the discolouration increases during several hours till it attains 
its maximum, after which the serum becomes again gradually clearer, 
till its limpidity is perfectly restored. The period at which the dis- 
colouration is greatest, and the length of time during which it continues, 
must depend mainly on the quantity of food taken, but also in some 
degree on its quality, as some kinds of food are digested more readily 
than others. It may however be stated, so far as the observations I 
have made enable me to judge, that after a full meal of different kinds 
of food, the discolouration is greatest about six or eight hours after the 
repast, and that probably somewhat more than an equal period elapses 
before the serum regains its limpidity. The differences of colour, which 
are considerable, probably depend on the different substances digested : 
and it is interesting in this point of view to remark, that the colour 
varies in the successive bleedings after the same meal, as if the differ- 
ent alimentary principles produced different kinds of discolouration, 
and entered the blood-vessels at different periods. 

It may be inferred from the facts narrated above, that the food di- 
gested in the stomach and bowels is introduced into the system, and 
mingled with the blood in a crude or half assimilated state ; and that 
it requires to undergo a second digestion within the blood-vessels be- 
fore it is perfectly assimilated. It is a highly interesting inquiry by 
what means this second digestion in the blood-vessels is effected. The 
analogy of plants would indicate the lungs as being the principal agents, 
for we find the crude sap brought by the sap-vessels to the leaves or 
organs of respiration, converted by them into the succus proprius or 
true blood of the plant. The respiratory act in man is not confined 
to the lungs, but takes place in every part of the system to which the 
absorbed oxygen is carried by the arterial blood : but it is a confir- 
mation of the view just suggested, that at no time do we feel the want 
of free air more severely than soon after a full meal. In all proba- 
bility, however, the process of assimilation in the animal body is 



Dr. Buchanan on the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 231 

more complicated than in plants, and maj require the co-operation of 
various organs. 

It is at present a matter of doubt among physiologists whether the 
primary nutritious liquid prepared by the digestive organs, is intro- 
duced into the blood through the lacteals, or through the branches 
of the portal vein. It cannot, however, be doubted, that when the nu- 
tritious matter is first absorbed, it is in the liquid state. It is re- 
markable, therefore, that it should be found afterwards in the blood 
as a precipitate, or in the solid state. It may, however, be readily con- 
ceived how this effect will be produced, when we reflect, that the food 
is dissolved in the stomach by an acid liquid ; which, if absorbed by the 
veins of the stomach, will, on mingling with the blood, be at once ren- 
dered alkaline, and will therefore let fall whatever substances its 
acidity enabled it to dissolve. This reasoning, however, is no longer 
applicable, if we suppose the white matter of the blood to be derived 
from the admixture with it, of the alkaline chyle. A different ex- 
planation was suggested to me by Dr. R. D. Thomson. He supposed 
that the white matter of the serum might be soluble in it at blood- 
heat, just as the urate of ammonia and other sediments which often 
appear in the urine upon cooling, are held in solution at the natural 
heat of the body. On trying the effect of artificial heat, we found that 
the serum became considerably clearer, but it was still opaque. 

It may also be supposed, that the serum is capable of dissolving 
a certain quantity of white matter, but after being saturated, deposits 
any superfluous portion. In confirmation of this view, I may remark, 
that the relative quantity of serum and crassamentum lias an effect on 
the tint of the serum. Two individuals who had dined upon gelatin, 
had each the serum opaline, at the end of the third hour after the meal : 
after six hours the opaline tint was merely somewhat deeper in the 
one case, while in the other the serum was as opaque as I ever saw it ; 
but on comparing the quantity of serum obtained from the same 
measure of blood in these two cases, it was found to be more abundant 
by one half in the former case than in the latter. 

If any additional evidence be required of the origin of the white 
colour of the serum of the blood, it may be derived from an experiment 
of Hewson, from which so acute a reasoner could certainly never have 
drawn any other than the right conclusion, had it been one of his first 
experiments ; but it was not made till his mind was thoroughly blinded 
by his theory of re-ahsorbed fat, and he in consequence misinterpreted 
it Hewson had found that geese had very commonly white serum, 
though their chyle was always transparent ; and he therefore chose to 
make his experiment on them. " I therefore" says he, " took two of 
them that were very hungry, and feeding both of them with oats, one I 
killed four hours after, when I knew a part of the oats were undigested, 
and upon examining the blood, I found the serum whitish, and full of 
small globules ; on its being suffered to stand a little time, the white 



232 Dr. Buchanan on the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 

part ascended to the surface like cream. The other was killed forty- 
eight hours after eating, when its stomach was found empty, and the 
serum of its blood quite transparent, and without any cream rising to 
the surface, or any appearance of small globules, when examined by 
the microscope." The obvious conclusion from this experiment seems 
to be, that the one goose was killed while the digestion in the blood- 
vessels was in progress ; but the second not till long after it was com- 
pleted: whence the milkiness of the serum in the former case, and its 
transparency in the latter. But instead of drawing this inference, 
Hewson will have it, that " the whiteness of the serum was occasioned 
by the fat being re-absorbed faster that it was used, (from its place 
being supplied by the fresh chyle,) and thence was accumulated in the 
blood vessels, so as to give whiteness to the serum." 

If these views be correct, it is clear that a milky state of the serum 
of the blood is a phenomenon of the healthy body, and cannot in itself 
be regarded as a symptom of disease. There are, nevertheless, certain 
circumstances in which this appearance may serve to indicate the 
existence of disease, as when it continues during a longer period than 
according to the laws of health it ought to do. A case is mentioned 
above, in which, after eighteen- hours fasting, the serum of the blood 
was still loaded with white particles. The only inference that could 
be drawn from this fact, was, that the individual had taken a more 
than usually large quantity of food, and that the digestion in the 
blood-vessels was protracted in proportion. Perhaps it would Dot 
be warrantable to deduce any other inference, even were the milkiness 
to continue for twenty-four or thirty-six hours after a full meal. But 
when this milkiness continues for several days, although the appetite 
is gone and no fresh supply of food taken, it then becomes probable 
that the digestion in the blood-vessels is no longer going on, as in the 
healthy state ; being like all other functions of the body, subject to re- 
tardation and derangement from the condition of the organs by which 
it is performed. Thus Morgagni found the serum white in the blood 
of two patients labouring under fevers ; of which he describes the one 
as malignant and attended with much danger, and the other as 
verging to malignity. In the former, the whiteness was observed 
in blood taken by the three last of four venesections which were 
required ; and in the latter, in blood taken on the third, and again on 
the fifth day of the disease.* Hewson states on the authority of a 
contemporary, that ** a publican, of about thirty-five years of age, and 
corpulent, had been subject to a bleeding at the nose, to the piles, 
and to such profuse sweats in the night, as to be frequently obliged 
to change his shirt in the morning before he got out of bed, but 
that for some time past, his sweats had ceased. That on September 
the 23d, he was seized with a bleeding at his nose, which had been 

* Morg. Epist. 4.9, Art. 22. 



Dr. Buchanan an the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 233 

preceded by a pain in his head for two or three days; that his 
bleeding continued till he had lost about two pounds of blood, and 
then stopt ; and that the serum of his blood was as white as milk. 
That at ten o'clock the same night, the hemorrhage returned, and he 
lost a considerable quantity ; nevertheless, it was thought proper to 
take sixteen ounces of blood from his arm, during which evacuation 
he fainted, but his bleeding at the nose stopt. That the serum of this 
last blood was likewise very white. That on the 25th, in the morning, 
he again complained of a pain in his head, and about ten o'clock his 
nose began to bleed again ; but the serum now appeared no whiter 
than whey. That he continued to lose blood during most part of the 
night, so that it was supposed he could not lose less than two or 
three pounds, the serum all this time being a little whitish, but so 
little, that the bottom of the vessel in which it stood could now be seen 
through it That his bleeding returned repeatedly, till the third of 
October, when it entirely stopt, the serum having become more tran- 
sparent towards the last." 

Now, as it can scarcely be supposed that this man had gorged him- 
self with food to such an extent before his illness, that his blood con- 
tinued white for ten days afterwards, and as a spare diet would cer- 
tainly be enjoined for so severe a complaint, we must conclude that 
the process of digestion in the blood-vessels was, in this case, preter- 
naturally retarded, or in a state of disease. I have no doubt that 
hereafter, when the normal changes produced by digestion upon the 
blood are better understood, light may be thrown upon the nature 
of some diseases of nutrition, by administering certain articles of 
food, and examining the condition of the blood so many hours after- 
wards. 

It is a fact of great interest, which has been established by various 
observers, that in diabetes, the serum of the blood often presents the 
milky opacity in great intensity. This is no more than might have 
been anticipated from the very large quantity of food taken by those 
labouring under that disease, which is often three or four times 
greater than is consumed by persons in health : for if the stomach 
act upon the food in the usual way, it cannot but happen that the 
blood will be loaded with white particles. Many pathologists indeed 
suppose, that a deranged digestion in the stomach is the fundamental 
part of diabetes. But the fact here mentioned seems to me, in some 
measure, inconsistent with that theory ; for it shows that the food in 
diabetes undergoes the usual changes in the stomach, and is introduced 
into the blood in the usual form, so far as sensible characters enable 
us to judge. We may therefore be allowed to conjecture, that the 
essential derangement in diabetes is not a derangement of the primary 
digestion in the stomach, but of the secondary digestion in the blood- 
vessels, by which the unassimilated nutriment no longer undergoes 
the same series of changes as in the healthy state. 



234 Dk. BUCIIAN.VN on tlie White or Opcujue Serum of the JJlooif. 

I conclude with a few remarks upon the physical and chemical char- 
acters of this variety of serum. 

The colour of the serum is generally a milk-white ; sometimes a 
cream-yellow ; or a yellowish-brown, when the liquid bears a striking 
resemblance to thin oat-meal gruel. There is sometimes little dis- 
colouration, the serum merely losing its limpidity, and changing its 
hue so as to resemble a weak syrup made of coarse sugar. 

In all the instances in which I have examined the liquid with the 
microscope, it showed a great number of solid granules mechanically 
suspended in it. They are less in size than the corpuscles of the 
blood, generally of irregular shape ; but often spherical, and having 
the appearance of a nucleus in the centre, most probably from the 
refraction of light. These particles were as abundant in the syrup- 
like serum, as in the more opaque varieties; but they were less regular 
in shape, and seemed to be themselves translucent. 

It sometimes happens, as has been observed both by Hewson and 
Hunter, that after the liquid has stood for some time, the white particles 
separate from it, and rise to the surface like cream. Hewson attempted 
to effect this separation by churning the serum, but without success. I 
accidentally hit upon a process by which the object is readily effected. 
It consists in saturating the liquid with common salt, which so much 
augments its specific gravity, that the opaque particles becoming rela- 
tively lighter, rise to the surface, either immediately, or soon after. 
This process has the further advantage of preserving the liquid. I 
still possess some of the original specimens obtained in November, 
1840, on which the observations narrated above were made. One of 
them is the pure serum obtained before the meal. The other three 
contain white matter, which in two of them is still swimming in the 
liquid, nearly as when it first separated. In the third, again, the 
white matter, after swimming at the top for about two years, became 
denser, and fell to the bottom, where it has since remained. This 
precipitation was probably owing to the action of the air ; as I have 
twice known it happen in a single night, when the air was not excluded 
by filling the phial completely and then firmly corking it. On ex- 
amining with the microscope the concrete mass, after creaming, it is 
found to consist entirely of amorphous granules. It is obvious, indeed, 
that the white particles undergo a change in their mode of aggrega- 
tion by the action of the salt, as they are readily separable by the filter 
after it but not at all before it. 

The white matter separated by the filter is insoluble in water, and 
is thus easily purified from the salt with which it is mixed on the fil- 
tering paper, by steeping the latter in water, and then cautiously draw- 
ing off the water holding the salt in solution. Thus obtained it has 
the form of a fine white powder, which in two specimens in my posses- 
sion bears a very close resemblance to wheaten flour. On holding a little 
of it in the flame of a spirit lamp upon a platinum spatula, it was im- 



Dk. Buchanan an the White or Opaque Serum of the Blood. 235 

mediately charred, and burned away almost completely. Dr. R. D. Thorn- 
son was kind enough to examine a specimen of it for me, but it was too 
minute in quantity to admit of a satisfactory analysis. He found it 
quite insoluble in ether and alcohol, while it dissolved in caustic pot- 
ash. On boiling it in a solution of sugar of lead, it gave traces of 
black sulphuret. He concluded, tlierefore, that it contained no fixed 
oil, and consisted most probably of a protein compound^ like albumen 
or fibrin. 

A further opportunity was afforded of examining the chemical quali- 
ties of this kind of serum in some specimens obtained for illustration, 
with the prospect of submitting this subject to the consideration of the 
Society. 

A man about thirty years of age, after fasting eighteen hours, dined 
upon twenty -four oz. of a pudding, consisting of two parts wheaten flour, 
and one part suet, seasoned with salt. Two oz. of blood taken before the 
meal, yielded a perfectly limpid serum. Seven ounces were taken 
three hours after the meal, and the same quantity six hours after it. 
The serum from the former was like syrup, but a little white ; that 
from the latter was milk-white. The white matter in the latter was 
separated by Dr. Thomson, by means of salt and the filter, and ap- 
peared similar to the substance he had before examined. It contained 
no fixed oil. The other specimen of serum threw up its cream spon- 
taneously. It left upon the filter only a trace of white matter, but a 
notable proportion of a fixed oil, which was easily demonstrated, by 
merely drying the filtering paper, and holding it between the eye and 
the light. It can scarcely be doubted that this oil was derived from 
the suet of the pudding, while the white proteinaceous substance most 
probably represented the gluten of the flour. Thus two of the three 
elements of which the food consisted, were found in the blood, but the 
starch, the most abundant of all, was sought for in vain. 

Postcript. After the meeting of the Society on the evening of the 
13th inst , it occurred to me as possible, that the starch might be con- 
verted by the organs of digestion into sugar, and be absorbed in that 
form into the blood. I accordingly procured some yeast next day, 
and treated with it the serum of the blood, which had been taken three 
hours after the meal, proceeding in the same way in which I am in 
the habit of examining diabetic urine. Fermentation ensued, and con- 
tinued about forty-eight hours, the heat not having been regularly 
maintained. The serum from the blood of another individual who 
had used the same diet, but more sparingly, was treated in the same 
manner, when the same result ensued, only the gas was somewhat more 
abundant. But what struck me as more remarkable still, was, that 
the serum of the blood which had been taken from both these indi- 
viduals after fasting, likewise fermented ; although the quantity of 
gas obtained was much less than in the former instances. I found 
that the largest quantity of gas obtained in these experiments was 



236 Mr. Murdoch on the Impurity of some Drugs. 

about equal to that obtained bj means of the same apparatus, from a 
solution of sugar in water, containing five grains to the ounce. Should 
farther observations confirm tho idea here suggested of the existence 
of sugar in the blood as a normal product, it is obvious that a corre- 
sponding modification must be made of the prevailing theories of 
diabetes, according to which the production of sugar is regarded, as 
the essential derangement of action in which that disease consists. 



27th Marchy 1844, — The President in the Chair. 

A Report from the Botanical Section was read, stating that at their 
meeting on the 25th instant, Mr. Henrj Craig had presented seeds 
from Pernambuco ; and Mr. Balloch read a paper on two disputed 
species of fungi found on oak leaves — one of the species being known 
as oak spangles — which some authors consider to be caused bj insects, 
but which he maintained to be true fungi. Drawings were exhibited 
illustrative of their high organization. 

The following communication was then read. 

LI. — On the Impurity of some Drugs. By Mr. David Murdoch. 

1. CALAMINE, OR CARBONATE OF ZINC. 

As the calamine or impure carbonate of zinc sold in London, had 
been frequently examined by Dr. R. D. Thomson, and found always 
destitute of zinc, it became a matter of some interest to ascertain if 
the same remark applied to the calamine which occurs in commerce 
in Glasgow. Accordingly, at the request of Dr. Thomson, a specimen 
was subjected to analysis. The colour of this substance is well known 
to be a light red. When it is boiled with muriatic acid it effervesces 
slightly, and becomes perfectly white, the residue, consisting of a heavy 
white powder, which on being heated on charcoal before the blow-pipe, 
and then digested in acid, gives out the smell of sulphohydric acid ; or 
when fused with carbonate of soda and digested in water, sulphate of 
soda is dissolved and carbonate of barytes remains unacted on. The 
main constituent of the commercial calamine is thus obviously sulphate 
of barytes. To ascertain if any zinc was contained in the red powder, 
the acid solution which was boiled upon it was mixed with a quantity 
of caustic ammonia in excess, which precipitated the peroxide of iron 
and alumina. This precipitate was filtered, and the ammouiacal liquid 
which passed through the filter was precipitated by oxalate of am- 
monia. The oxalate of lime was thrown on a filter, and the washings 
evaporated to dryness and heated to low redness in a platinum capsule. 
No residue was left, showing the absence of zinc and magnesia. 144 
grains of calamine in one analysis gave of sulphate of barytes and some 



Mr. Murdoch on the Impurity of some JDrv^s. 237 

silica 12805 ; peroxide of iron and alumina 11-55 grains ; water 0*51 
grains. And the results of two analyses were as follow: — 





I. 


n. 


Sulphate of barjtes, 
Peroxide of iron and alumina, 
Carbonate of lime, 
Water, 


. 88-74 
801 

. 290 
0-35 


89-77 
5-74 
4-40 
0-35 



100- 100-26 

Dr. Thomson having suggested that the mode in which this adul- 
terated article was manufactured was by mixing together a portion of 
Armenian bole, chalk and sulphate of barytes, the next object was to 
examine Armenian bole for the purpose of comparison. 

The following are the results of several analyses of this substance 
which is used extensively for colouring tooth-powders, &c. by druggists. 
The fourth analysis was made by my brother, Mr. James Murdoch : — 

III. IV. 

— 49-38 





I. 


II. 


Silica, 


50-15 


47-31 


Peroxide of iron, 
Alumina, . 


22-69 ) 
11-46 j 


32-96 


Tiime, 


6-43 


__ 


Water, 


— 


— 


Sulphate of lime, 


— 


— 


Magnesia, 


— 


— 



31- 



/ 30-44 
t 690 

7-04 
8-30 
1-98 

To determine if any silica was contained in the sulphate of barytes 
of the adulterated calamine, the sulphate was fused with carbonate of 
soda, the fused mass washed with water until all the sulphate of soda 
was removed, and then the residue was digested in dilute muriatic 
acid — a portion of silica remained undissolved: the quantity was not 
determined. But it is obvious that the calamine contains all the sub- 
stances existing in Armenian bole, and the conclusion is scarcely 
avoidable that the colour is caused by the presence of this body 

2. PRECIPITATED SULPHUR. 

This substance — also termed milk of sulphur, and washed sulphur — 
is properly prepared by boiling sulphur with lime or potash, precipi- 
tating the solution with muriatic acid, throwing the precipitated sulphur 
on a filter and washing it. If this form of sulphur were always pre- 
pared in this manner, no impurity would exist in it. But it has been 
observed that this article, in London at least, contains always above 
one-half its wciglit of impurity. To ascertain if this substance in 
Glasgow was equally impure 58*85 grains were ignited in a platinum 
capsule, and were found to lose 29- grains. This would make the 



238 Mr. Murdoch o»* the Impurity of some Drugs. 

composition of the sulphur = sulphur 49*27, and sulphata of lime 50-73. 
But as the gypsum was in crystals, it obviously contained its water of 
crystallization, which must therefore be calculated. The constituents 
of hydrous gypsum are:— Ca =35, SO3 = 5,2 HO = 225 = 10-75. 
The quantity of water belonging to the sulphate of lime found in 
the analysis will therefore be 13'42 per cent. The true constituents 
then are : — 

Sulphate of lime, .... 50'73 
Water of crystallization, . . . 13"42 

Sulphur, 35-85 



100- 

3. OXIDE OF ZINC. 

This oxide generally effervesces on the addition of an acid, proving 
the presence of carbonate of zinc, or of the carbonate with which it 
has been precipitated. When to the solution of this oxide in muriatic 
acid an excess of caustic ammonia is added, some brownish red flocks 
of peroxide of iron remain undissolved, (containing perhaps a little 
alumina,) amounting to about li per cent. 

4. RED OXIDE OF IRON. 

This oxide, as sold in the shops, has been examined by my brother, 
Mr. James Murdoch, and found to contain a small per centage of 
alumina. 

5. TARTAR EMETIC 

This salt generally contains a small quantity of peroxide of iron. 

Note. — The first person who published an account of the extraordi- 
nary mixture called calamine in the shops, was Mr. Brett, in 1837, in 
the British Annals of Medicine, vol. i. p, 485. He found, however, 
traces of lead and zinc in the specimen which he analyzed — a circum- 
stance which has never occurred to me either before or since that period. 
It is possible, therefore, that the specimens may vary slightly. Sul- 
phate of lead is a probable ingredient in minute quantities, but there 
is much reason to doubt if the manufacturer of this article is honest 
enough to supply his customers with even a trace of zinc. It is not 
a little remarkable that this adulterated article should have for so 
long a period been infesting every drug shop, to the utter exclusion, 
apparently, of the genuine article in England and Scotland, without 
any complaint from those who purchase it. Does this fact not prove 
that as calamine is used in the form of ointment, it is the lard which 
is the efficient application? Mr. George Schweitzer, of Brighton, first 
published an account of the impure milk of sulphur, in the British 
Annals of Medicine, in 1837, vol. i., p. 618., and showed that the sul- 



Ma. Alston mi Printing /or th4i BUnd. 239 

pliate of limo was introduced by substituting sulphuric acid for muri- 
atic acid in the precipitation of the sulphur from its base. I may 
mention that this adulteration is easily detected by the microscope, 
the crystals of sulphate of lime being very apparent. It is not easy 
to discover any other method of excluding such adulterated articles 
from commerce, unless by the acquisition of a scientific knowledge of 
chemistry by the druggists of this country. — R. D. T. 



\Oth April, 1844. — The President in the Chair. 

It was agreed, on the recommendation of Council, that the office- 
bearers of sections shall in future be elected at the end instead of the 
beginning of the session. The Sectional Secretaries were therefore 
requested to summon their several sections for this purpose. It was 
also agreed that the next session should be opened with a conversa- 
tional meeting, and a Committee was appointed to make arrangements 
for the meeting — Mr. Wm. Murray being Convener. 

The following recommendation of Council was also agreed to : — viz., 
that a grant of money, not exceeding £5, be made from the funds of 
the Society, to a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Che- 
mistry and Physiology of Digestion — the Committee to consist of 
Dr. Andrew Buchanan, Dr. Andrew Anderson, Mr. Stenhouse, Dr. R. 
D. Thomson ; and Dr. John Findlay, Convener. The following 
minute of Council was submitted and approved of: — " That Mr. Liddell, 
Dr. Watt, and the Assistant Secretary, be appointed a Committee to 
prepare a Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of the Philo- 
sophical Society, to be prefixed to the first volume of the Proceedings 
of this Society." 

The following paper was read at a conversational meeting at the 
Blind Asylum, on the 9th inst. 

LI I. — On Printing for the Blind, By John Alston, Esq. 

Thb invention of printing in relief characters was among the 
earliest and most obvious methods employed for the instruction of the 
blind. By means of the sense of hearing alone, persons born blind, 
or who have been deprived of their sight, have frequently acquired a 
high degree of knowledge, and have distinguished themselves in 
literature and science. But in the education of the blind in early 
life, it was felt to be of the utmost importance to bring the sense of 
touch into play as an auxiliary to that of hearing ; for in this way 
alone could we place the blind in circumstances fitted for carrying on 
the work of self-education after their leaving our charge. A great 
deal of ingenuity has been displayed in the formation of characters. 



240 Mk. Alston on Printing for the Blind. 

which, in the estimation of their authors, were suitable for an alphabet 
for the blind. But, unfortunately for the attainment of the purposed 
end, it was found that the more arbitrary and complete the letters of 
the alphabet, the more impracticable did they become in the hands of 
the blind ; and as for any possible interest in the matter on the part 
of the seeing, or any aid which they might render in teaching the 
blind to read, this never seemed to be thought as at all necessary to 
the success of the plan. The consequence was, that out of a long list 
of competing alphabets, every one more perplexing than another, both 
to the blind and the seeing, the one at last chosen as the most practi- 
cable of the whole, was that of the plain Roman letter. 

It is not my intention to refer to the plans of teaching the blind to 
read which were in use before the invention of printing in raised 
letter. The merit of that invention belongs to M. Hauy of Paris, 
and dates as far back as 1784. His plans, or rather the plans 
of previous speculations on the subject of a general system of educa- 
tion for the blind, were matured by him into a practical form, and 
submitted to the Academy of Sciences, by which they were ap- 
proved. 

His desire was to see the sense of touch do for the blind, what 
the Abbe de E'pre had made manual signs do for the deaf and dumb ; 
and a happy union of patient and benevolent enthusiasm led him to 
invent printing for the blind, a discovery which will hand down the 
name of Valentine Hauy with honour to posterity. 

His plans were not, however, followed up in the large and benevo- 
lent spirit in which they were conceived. Institutions were erected 
for the reception of the blind, and efforts were made in all, to com- 
municate oral instructions, and more recently to teach by a system of 
notation, invented by two blind persons, namely, Milne and M'Beth, 
in the Edinburgh Asylum, which consisted of an ingenious but cum- 
brous mode of forming letters by knots and loops on twine. But no 
efforts were made till a recent period to carry out the plan of printing 
books for the blind. A step in advance was at last taken by Mr. Jas. 
Gall, of Edinburgh, who produced the Gospel of St. John, and several 
elementary works, in an angular Roman character, about 1828. Mr. 
Gall deserves great credit for this benevolent enterprise in behalf of 
the blind, but the expense of his books was such, even had the 
character in which they were printed answered, as to preclude 
the poorer classes, for whom they were intended, from being bene- 
fited by them. 

A little after this period, Mr. Lucas of Bristol brought out his 
Stenographic Alphabet, which involved too many difficulties both to 
the blind and the seeing, to be at all likely to serve the purpose in 
view. A somewhat similar plan was afterwards produced by Mr. J. 
H. Frier, which was equally objectionable amidst the variety of 
systems which were brought before the public. The Society of Arts 



Mb. Alston <m Printing for the Blind. 241 

for Scotland, Edinburgh, in 1832, oflfered their gold medal, value 
£20, for the best alphabet for the blind. Fifteen different competitors 
presented themselves. Of these fifteen plans, twelve were composed 
of arbitrary characters, or symbols, and three were modifications of 
the Roman character. These alphabets were submitted bj the 
Society to the diflferent Institutions for their consideration throughout 
the kingdom, in 1836 ; and it was at that period that my attention 
was first directed to the subject. We had adopted the alphabet of 
Mr. Gall, but did not realise the hopes we at first entertained of 
them. 

It then occurred to me, that the best method proposed, was that of 
Dr. Fry of London, who recommended a light modification of the 
capital letter of the Roman alphabet. By communicating with the 
Society of Arts, I ascertained that neither Dr. Fry (now deceased), 
nor any other person, had tested his plan by experiment. 

I now set about a series of experiments in Dr. Fry*s letter, which 
I had cut for the purpose, but found they would not do, being too 
obtuse ; but I had them modified successively, after putting them 
to tlie test of the children's fingers, till the whole underwent very 
material changes, which it is needless here to describe, but may be 
observed in the adaptation of the sharpness of the letters for hair 
strokes and other peculiarities suggested to me during a careful 
observation of the best method of meeting the wants and obviating 
the difficulties of my blind charges. 

With my experimental knowledge thus acquired, I thought I might 
venture to recommend Dr. Fry's plan with such changes as had been 
suggested by these observations, to the Society of Arts, which I 
accordingly did on the 5th October, 1836 ; and the Society in May, 
1837, reported in favour of Dr. Fry's alphabet, in preference to any 
arbitrary character, and most deservedly awarded the medal to his 
plan. 

On the 26th October, 1836, I brought before the public at the 
annual examination of the blind, in the Trades' Hall, my first speci- 
men of printing. By the exertions of the ladies who attended that 
meeting, and with the assistance from kindred institutions, and a 
grant from Her Majesty's Government, I was enabled to complete the 
great task of printing the whole Bible in December, 1840. 

In May, 1837, after I had brought out my elementary books, I 
resolved to pay a visit to the different institutions. In this I was 
greatly encouraged by the friendly co-operation of the Rev. William 
Taylor of York, who had paid great attention to the subject, to whom 
the Society of Arts had submitted the competing alphabets, and who also 
reported on this subject to the British Association. I was also under 
obligations to another gentleman, namely, Charles Baker, Esq., the 
talented head master of the Doncaster Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb, and the writer of the article " Blind," in the Penny Cycle- 



242 Mr. Alston on Printing for the Blind. 

pgedia. Being encouraged by such competent judges, I visited York 
Institution, Norwich, London, Bristol, Liverpool, and I had the 
satisfaction of finding, that all the gentlemen connected with those 
institutions, with the exception of Liverpool, entered warmly into my 
plans. 

At that time I only met with five persons who knew letters ; on my 
second visit, soon after the introduction of our books, a considerable 
improvement was perceptible. Subsequently I visited the English 
institutions a third time, and found great numbers reading with ease 
and intelligence. There are now, I have reason to know, hundreds 
reading the books both in schools and in private families, and many 
are in possession of the whole Bible, and I have printed upwards of 
14,000 vols, from 6d. up to 13s. 

The importance of furnishing this interesting class of our fellow- 
creatures with the means of moral and intellectual improvement, 
appears in a striking light, when we consider the proportion generally 
which they bear to the seeing population. 

We have, unfortunately, no statistics of their number in this 
country ; but, in the kingdom of Belgium, a government census of 
the blind was made in 1835 ; the result of which showed, that there 
were 4117 blind, in a population of 4,154,922, establishing the ratio 
of one to 1009 ; of this number, 960 were blind from the effbcts of 
ophthalmia. 

It is worthy of observation, that the same government, with a 
benevolent liberality deserving to be imitated by others, have enacted 
that every indigent blind or deaf and dumb person belonging to the 
country, shall be educated at the expense of the state. In the 
Prussian dominions in 1834, there were 9575 blind, for a population 
of 13,509,927, being one to 1410. 

From a careful investigation by Mr. Zeune of Berlin, it appears 
that the number of persons affected with blindness, is less in the 
temperate latitudes, and increases either as we advance to the line or 
to the pole. In the one case, the reflection of the rays of the burn- 
ing sun producing the same effects on the eyesight, as those from the 
snow covered plain on the other. 

According to the calculation of Mr. Zeune, from imperfect data, in 
reference to the numbers of blind in different latitudes. Great Britain 
ought to have a population of 18,000 blind. It is melancholy, there- 
fore, to reflect, that in this country there should only be accommoda- 
tion for 800 in institutions where any provision is made for their 
instruction in mechanical arts, and for their moral and intelligent 
training. 

Note. — The accompanying specimen exhibits the mode of printing 
and writing in use among the blind. By the latter method they are 
enabled to correspond with each other. 



Mr. Crum on the Influence of the Moon. 248 

The following paper was then road. 

LIII. — On the supposed Influence of the Moon upon the Weather. 
By Walter Crum, F.R.S., Vice President. 

There is no more common belief, even among those who make 
accurate observations on other subjects, than that changes of the 
weather are more decided, and occur more frequently at changes of 
the moon than at any other period of the month. A similar influence 
is very generally ascribed to the full moon ; and not a few look for 
changes at the commencement of every quarter. 

I had abundant opportunity of observing the firmness with which this 
opinion is held by a class of men who are placed in circumstances 
that may be thought the most favourable for testing its correctness. 
In December, 1820, I sailed in a Maltese vessel from Valletta to 
Marseilles, and took six weeks to perform what is usually done in 
ten days. I soon became desirous to gather opinions of the weather, 
and found them to be formed entirely on the phases of the moon. 
Every new quarter was to bring a favourable wind, and although we 
were repeatedly disappointed, the next quarter was still anxiously 
looked forward to for relief. During that voyage, my faith in the 
moon, if I ever had any, was thoroughly shaken, and I afterwards 
became desirous to procure facts which would enable me to form an 
accurate opinion on the subject. I was not a little pleased, there- 
fore, to meet, in the following year, with a paper by Professor Olbers, 
of Bremen, " On the Influence of the Moon upon the Seasons ;" con- 
firming most satisfactorily the views I had formed upon slighter 
examination. 

As on all subjects where uncertainty prevails, and where men are 
guided more by imagination than by fact, there is here the greatest 
variety of opinion. In some of our almanacks minute directions have 
long been given for predicting the weather for the succeeding half 
month, from the hour of the day or night at which the moon enters 
the first or the third quarter ; and I know that they obtain very general 
credit, their antiquity forming an important argument in their favour. 
For instance, if we have new or full moon at midday, we may expect 
much rain in summer, and rain and snow in winter. If at midnight, 
the weather will be fair in summer, and fair and frosty in winter; and 
so on, for every two hours in the twenty- four. These predictions, or 
rather rules for predicting, we are assured, have stood the test of half 
a century ; but if, as is said, they were drawn up by Dr. Samuel 
Clarke, from his own experience, they must have existed at least a 
hundred and twenty years. 

I trust that the great prevalence of such impressions will excuse me 
with the Society for calling their attention to it ; and if, to some of 
its members, the statements I have collected are already familiar, they 



244 Mr. Crum on the Influence of the Moon. 

may be reminded that it is through a Society like ours that error on such 
subjects may be expected to be removed from the public mind. There 
are, certainly, more dangerous errors, but it cannot be doubted that 
the habit of holding loose notions upon matters even of little import- 
ance, incapacitates for accurate thinking on those which arc of greater 
consequence. 

It may be desirable, in the first place, to take a glance at the early 
history of this belief. I have, therefore, selected a few of the more 
important of the facts brought together by the learning and industry 
of Bishop Horsley, and read by him to the Royal Society in 1774. 

Aratus, an astronomer and physician, who lived in the time of 
Euclid, appears to have been the first to collect, in his book of prog- 
nostics, the notions of this kind that were prevalent in his day. That 
work, owing more, it is said, to the quality of the verse in which it is 
written, than to the interest taken in its statements, procured com- 
mentators in abundance among the Greeks and Romans. Pliny 
relates at great length the celestial signs ; Germanicus translated 
them, and Virgil recommends them to the serious consideration of 
agriculturists. Aratus prognosticates the weather from a great 
variety of objects — from the heavenly bodies — from animals, planets, 
and terrestrial objects, but, from the moon's aspect in particular, he 
could predict the weather only from one quarter to another. These 
predictions were founded upon the indications which the moon gives 
of the existing state of the earth's atmosphere. Thus, he says, if the 
moon, on the 4th day, cast a shadow, the weather will be fine during 
the remainder of the first quarter — meaning, that the moon at that 
early stage, is a delicate test of the clearness of the atmosphere. 
Again, the bluntness of the liorns in the new moon is a sign of 
approaching rain, for if the air were clear, they would be of their 
natural pointed shape. And after the half moon, the horns being 
then always blunted, other indications are given for predicting the 
weather till the full moon. 

But the vulgar, says Dr. Horsley, soon began to consider those 
things as causes, which had been proposed to them only as signs. The 
manifest eff'ect of the moon on the ocean, while the mechanical cause 
of it was unknown, was interpreted as an argument for her influence 
over all terrestrial things ; and these notions were so consistent with 
the visionary philosophy of the times, that such men as Theophrastus 
and Varro, who should have been its opponents, ranged themselves on 
the side of the popular prejudice. Theophrastus says that the new 
moon is generally a time of bad weather ; the light of the moon being 
wanting, and that changes of the weather generally fall on the new and 
full moon, and on the quadratures. Pliny had his eight critical days 
for changes of the weather, which were the days of new and full moon, 
the quadratures, and the four octagonals, or rather the nearest odd 
numbers to these days, viz. the 3d, 7th, 1 1th, and so on ; for besides 



Mb. Orum on the Influence of the Moon. 246 

the influence of these periods, there was much of virtue in the odd 
numbers. And so great a man as Varro, as he is quoted by Pliny, 
was not ashamed to give this childish rule for predicting the weather 
for a month to come, from the appearance of the new moon. " If the 
upper part of it," ho says, " be obscure the decline of the moon will 
bring rain ; if the lower horn, the rain will happen before the full ; 
and if the blackness bo in the middle, we shall have rain at the time 
of the full moon." Theophrastus and Aratus taught their followers 
to remark the position of the horns at different times of the moon's 
age, whether they were erect, inclined or prone, and thence to take 
conjectures of approaching fair weather or tempest 

" On the whole," says Dr. Horsley, ** I do not deny that the observant 
husbandman will find useful prognostics in the appearances of the moon, 
and the heavenly bodies in general, but they will be prognostics of no 
other kind than the sputtering of the oil in the industrious maiden's 
lamp, and the excrescences which gather round the wick. They will 
show the present state of the air however, and may thereby furnish 
conjectures for two or three days to come." 

The subject has of late years occupied the attention of some of the 
most distinguished astronomers of Europe, and numerous observations 
have been made to ascertain the amount of influence exercised by the 
moon over our atmosphere. Every different position has been care- 
fully investigated, and years of observation have yielded results adverse 
to the popular impression. A few of these I shall relate, not in the 
order of their publication, but by taking up each question separately. 

1st. Does a change of weather occur at changes of the moon, or on the 
days on which the moon enters a new quarter, more frequently than on 
other days of the month ? 

Dr. Horsley registered, during two years, every considerable change 
of weather that took place, and arranged the results in tables, showing 
at the same time the day and hour at which the moon entered each of 
her quarters. During the first of these years sixty-nine decided 
changes were recorded, and twenty-two of them occurred on days cor- 
responding to the quarters, or octants, which is just four more than 
their even proportion. But rejecting the changes which were reversed 
within the twenty-four hours, there remain, out of forty-six changes in 
all, only ten on the days of lunar influence, which are two less than 
belong to them on the even chance, for the days of syzygy, quadrature 
and octant == 98, and 365 : 98 z= 46 : 12^. Of these ten changes, only 
two coincided with a new moon ; two also with a full moon, but they 
were reversed within twenty-four hours. 

During the succeeding year, 1774, Dr. Horsley continued his re- 
gister, omitting however September and November, these two months 
having been particularly changeable. Here thirty-nine changes occurred 
in ten months, of which fourteen were on the days specified, being four 
more than their equal share. Of these fourteen, only four fell on the 

No. 10. 4 



246 Mb, Crum <m the Influence of the Moon, 

day of a new moon, and none at all on the day of the full. If we 
take the latitude of three days before and three days after every quarter, 
which the popular idea allows, and thus increase the number of the 
influential days, more changes of the weather would of course occur 
on such days, but still only the proportion duo to that increase of 
number. 

I might here adduce the opposite results of Toaldo of Padua, 
obtained by computation from a course of fifty years' observations by 
the Marquis Poleni, and showing that many more changes occurred at 
the new and full moon, than at the first and last quarter ; but they 
seem to be of no value, for it turns out that, assuming the moon's 
influence to be greatest at the change and the full, Toaldo spread these 
periods over three days, including the day before and the day after, 
and then compared the changes of weather that occurred on all the 
three days with those of the single days on which the quarters fell. 
Toaldo uses an extraordinary argument to enforce his conclusions. 
" Every one," he says, *' is aware from his own experience, that the 
nails and hair grow much more quickly when cut during the increase 
of the moon than when cut during the wane." 

In opposition to Toaldo, there are twenty-five years of observations 
of the different phases of the moon, by Pilgram of Vienna, which give 
as their result : — 

58 Changes of weather on the days of New moon. 
63 — on those of the Full moon. 

63 — at the Quarters. 

The difference is no doubt occasioned by the difficulty of deciding what 
constitutes a change of weather in the sense understood by Pilgram. 
Were it otherwise these results would prove seven or eight per cent, 
fewer changes of the weather at the change of the moon than at any 
other period of the lunation — a conclusion at which no one has ever 
arrived and which is altogether improbable. 

Olbers, the celebrated discoverer of Pallas and Vesta, declares 
that the experience of many years has convinced him that at least in 
the climate of Bremen the rules of Toaldo are utterly false. " We 
shall be convinced," he adds, "of the smallness of the moon's influence, 
if we reflect that weather of the most opposite kind occurs in different 
parts of the world at the same moment, and consequently with the 
same lunar phase. This is most readily observed during an eclipse 
when accounts of the weather arrrive from many different quarters. 
The remarks, for example, that were made during the solar eclipse of 
the 18th November, 1816, have been collected in this way, and furnish 
a singular mixture of good and bad weather spread on that day over 
a great part of Europe." Olbers quotes also the observations of Pro- 
fessor Brandos as furnishing results to the same effect. ^ 



Mr. CnuM on tiu Infiumee of the Moon. 247 

2d. Does the Moon Influence Main ? 

This question has been investigated by Schubler in a course of 
twenty-eight years' observations in different parts of Germany. His 
results were published in 1830, and they seem to show that rather more 
rain falls during the waxing moon than when it is waning ; and also 
that a greater number of rainy days occur during the first half of the 
moon's course than during the last. But I do not trouble the Society 
with Schubler's tables. Being a mean result of mixed observations, 
they do not bear upon the question in hand ; for, whatever change of 
weather took place at one change of the moon might bo balanced by an 
opposite change at the next — the popular belief acknowledging equally 
a change from fair to foul and from foul to fair — I will only mention 
that ho found five per cent, more rain to fall during the seven days 
when the moon was nearest to the earth, than when at the most 
distant part of its orbit Schubler's results, as I have said, decide 
nothing as to changes of the moon producing changes of the weather ; 
but they seem to show that some relation does exist between the moon 
and our atmosphere. They are affected, however, by too many foreign 
influences ; and are summed up from observations too little capable of 
precision to entitle the deductions from them to rank among ascer- 
tained facts. 

3d. Does the moon influence the winds ? 

The meteorological tables published in our monthly scientific jour- 
nals, give the direction of the wind at a particular hour of each day. 
Sucli tables, indeed, differ materially when made up a few miles from 
each other ; and they mark the slightest local breeze equally witli the 
most generally prevailing wind. No very important conclusion can 
therefore be drawn from them; and yet we may expect, from the 
balancing of the various other causes of change, that if the phases of 
the moon influence at all the movements of the atmosphere, these 
movements will be perceptible in summing up the results of a series of 
years. If it cannot be perceived from such results that the winds 
change more decidedly at new moons than on the other days of the 
month, neither can it be noticed by an observer, whose only register 
is his memory ; and it may reasonably bo presumed, that changes in 
the other phenomena constituting weather, which are generally ac- 
companied, if not regulated, by changes of the wind, are ^o incapable 
of being traced to lunar periods. 

I have chosen, as most convenient for reduction, the register of the 
winds kept at Chiswick, near London, and published in the Philoso- 
phical Magazine. The state of the wind at one o'clock of each day is 
that which is noted. In order that the amount of change from one 
day to another may be stated in numbers, I Iiave marked as 1 a change 
equal to one-eighth of the circle ; as, from N.to N.E., or from S.W. 
to S. A change of two-eighths is marked 2 ; and the greatest change, 
viz. from N. to S., or from S.E. to N.W. marked 4 — thus. 



248 



Mr, Crum on the Influence of the Moon. 



1838, Feb. 8, 

9, 

10, 

11, 

12, 



S.W. 
S.W. 

N.E. 
N. 

N. 



Full moon 



An abstract is given below of tables drawn up in this manner from 
observations of six years. 



table showma the changes of wind in connection with the 
moon's age. 



















Sums of five 




1838 


1839 


1840 


1841 


1842 


1843 


Total 
in 73 


days connect- 
ed with each 




12 Moons 


12 Moons. 


13 Moons. 


12 Moons. 


12 Moons. 


12 Moons. 


Moons. 


quarter. 


!• 


12 


12 


19 


20 


8 


14 


85 


> 396 


2 


14 


11 


13 


13 


11 


10 


72 




3 


12 


15 


19 


17 


14 


14 


91 




4 


11 


8 


14 


16 


8 


14 


71 




7 


16 


13 


15 


16 


13 


11 


84 




8 


16 


16 


21 


13 


11 


7 


84 




9D 


16 


15 


16 


16 


14 


10 


87 


- 442 


10 


16 


14 


12 


23 


19 


12 


96 




11 


13 


12 


20 


12 


16 


18 


91 




12 


11 


6 


13 


12 


9 


14 


65 




15 


21 


14 


21 


23 


12 


16 


107 




16 


13 


15 


20 


16 


14 


17 


95 




170 


8 


15 


16 


14 


20 


21 


94 


447 


18 


13 


11 


13 


10 


10 


14 


71 




19 


8 


10 


13 


23 


12 


14 


80 




20 


11 


19 


16 


18 


11 


24 


99 




23 


16 


13 


9 


15 


14 


6 


73 




24 


6 


18 


16 


18 


8 


18 


84 




25 d 


9 


18 


8 


14 


13 


14 


76 


â–  379 


26 


7 


16 


13 


12 


13 


7 


68 




27 


13 


9 


15 


12 


11 


18 


78 




28 


10 


10 


13 


14 


10 


17 


74 




31 


11 


7 


18 


11 


8 


9 


64 




32 


10 


13 


22 


12 


14 


13 


84 








Average 

Do. of eac 


h year.. 




1973 
. 82 
.. 13i 



Thus in 1838, on the 12 days of new moon, the amount of change, 
as compared with the previous 12 days, was equal to 12. On the 
second day of the moon it was 14. On the 12 days on which the 
first quarter fell, the changes were equal to 16. It here appears that 
the average changes for one day of the moon's age in each of the 73 
moons is 82, and that 85 changes occurred on the 73 days of new 



Mr. Mackain <m the Compression of Water. 249 

moon, or 3 more than the average. But it also appears that on the 
dajs of full moon and of the first quarter, the changes are still more ; 
and that all of them are exceeded bj several of the intermediate dajs on 
wliich no lunar influence is supposed to be exerted. It will farther be 
remarked, that on the days of the new moon, the changes vary from 
from 8 in 1842, to 20 in 1841, and that in three of the years they are 
below the average of 13i. To account for the omission of certain days 
in the table, it is necessary to explain that as each quadrature had to 
be placed in the same line, and the number of days between the qua- 
dratures being unequal, blank days frequently occurred in the columns 
which had been marked the 5th and 6th, 13th and 14th, 21st and 
22d, 29th and 30th days of the moon, and that these have been 
omitted for the purpose of shortening and simplifying the table. 

4th. Have tides been observed in the atmosphere ? 

They must be assumed to exist by all who acknowledge the moon's 
influence upon the atmosphere, for scarcely in any other way can such 
influence be supposed to be exerted. An atmospheric tide, however, 
like that of the ocean, must twice every day have its ebb and 
flow — changes quite as great as those to which the effects in ques- 
tion are attributed ; and yet we never hear of changes of weather 
being expected in correspondence with each of these atmospheric 
waves. But even the existence of any double diurnal oscillation pro- 
duced in the atmosphere by the attraction of the sun and moon, has 
never yet been detected. It is altogether insensible to an ordinary 
barometer. Laplace reduced a great number of exact observations, 
and found the differences due to those attractions so minute and so 
variable as to leave him in doubt of their sensible existence. And 
Arago, to wliom we are indebted for much information on this sub- 
ject, after a minute detail of the observations of Flaugergues and 
Bouvard, arrives at essentially the same conclusion. 

We have no ground, therefore, either from theory, or direct obser- 
vation, for believing that the moon produces any change upon the 
weather; or, at least, it must be allowed, (to use the words of Dr. 
Olbers,) that its influence is so slight as to be lost among the infinite 
number of other causes and forces which destroy the equilibrium of 
our easily disturbed atmosphere, and therefore altogether insensible 
to ordinary observation. 

The following communications were then made : — 

LIV. — On a Theoretical Rule for the Compression of Water. By 
Daniel MacKain, M. Inst. C.E. 

The extreme elasticity of air, when considered with reference both 
to the amount of force which we can apply to it, capable of producing 
important changes in its volume, without any great effort, and to the 
strength of the materials of which the instruments used for ascertain- 



260 Mr. MacKain on the Compression of Water. 

ing its compressibility, are composed, have enabled philosophers to 
determine with considerable accuracy the ratio wliich obtains be- 
tween the force applied and the resulting condensation of volume. 

A considerable time ago it was believed that the compressibility of 
air was in proportion to the pressure applied ; this was subsequently 
proved nearly 200 years ago, by Boyle, and also by Mariotte about 50 
years afterwards ; and this law of compression has since been known by 
the name of the latter. More recently Messrs. Dulong and Arago have 
confirmed the accuracy of the law of Mariotte, by experiments con- 
ducted to the range of no less than 27 atmospheres beyond the common 
atmospheric pressure. 

By means of the barometer, the density of air is found to vary ac- 
cording to its mass superincumbent over any given point in the atmos- 
phere, and the numerous experiments made with this instrument, have 
brought to such a degree of accuracy the barometrical measurements 
of parts of the earth's surface protruding into the air, as to vie with 
measurements of their heights made by trigonometrical instruments. 
These degrees of density are measured by a column of mercury, and 
consequently, the height of the column indicates the force of compres- 
sion, and represents the height of the superincumbent mass of air. 

The extent of compression which water undergoes, when subjected 
to force, has engaged the attention of men of science for some time 
back. In 1762, Mr. Canton found that the addition to, or subtraction 
from water, of a weight equivalent to that of the atmosphere, produced 
at the temperature of 60° a contraction or extension of rain water of 
4 millionth parts of its bulk, and of sea water of 40 millionth parts, 
while in mercury it only amounted to 3 millionth parts : showing that 
the density of the fluid operated on materially affected the results. 
Thus, in the case of rain water, a force equal to a column of itself 33^ 
feet in height produced a contraction of 46 millionth parts : of sea water, 
a column 32 feet in height produced a contraction of 40 millionth 
parts : and in mercury, a corresponding column of 2i feet produced 
3 millionth parts of compression. Zimmerman, Professor at Bruns- 
wick, Professor (Ersted, of Copenhagen, the late Sir John Leslie, of 
Edinburgh, and Mr. Perkins, have made numerous experiments that 
establish the fact of compression ascertained by Mr. Canton, which, 
at the time his experiments were published, was at variance with the 
opinions universally entertained on this subject. With the usual 
haste which Sir John Leslie speculated on experimental results, he 
arrived at the conclusion " that the ocean may rest on a subaqueous 
bed of air," from the apparently greater degree of condensation 
which force can produce in air, in contrast with that which similar 
forces were supposed capable of producing on water. 

The degree of compression of water, is, however, extremely small ; 
and the force which it is necessary to apply to it, in order to produce 
any appreciable degree of diminution in volume, is so great in proper- 



Mr. MaoKain on the Compression of Water. 251 

tion to tho limit of rigidity of the materials used in experimental 
apparatus, that there is much room for doubt, as to whether or not the 
indications heretofore recorded, bo not compound measures of the 
elasticity of water, and of the materials of which the instruments have 
been formed. 

It has occurred to mo, that if the results of experiments were noted, 
in which great bulks of water were employed, but operated upon by 
slight forces, that a degree of compression might be ascertained, suf- 
ficient to remove much of tho doubt that may at present be entertained 
as to the rigid accuracy of the experiments on which our ideas of the 
elasticity of water are at present based — further, that, in these experi- 
ments, should any analogy be discovered between the ascertained laws 
which govern the compression of air, and the comparative indications 
of compression of water — we may take the laws which repeated ex- 
periments have proved to govern the compression of air, as analogous 
rules for the compression of water ; and, calculating from them, may 
compare the theoretical results which the laws would furnish, with 
similar conditions ascertained by experiment. 

Following out this idea, it appears probable that the transmission 
of water and gas through long ranges of pipes, may, by the compara- 
tive forces required to propel given quantities through them, give an 
approximate rule for estimating their compressibility — for, if water 
were totally incompressible, there would undoubtedly be some differ- 
ence between the quantities of air or gas transmitted through a pipe, 
and that of water by a corresponding force, through a similar pipe — 
the one would accumulate in density according to the force required 
for its propulsion ; while the movement of the other would be like a 
bar of iron, influenced only by friction. 

In the transmission of water through long ranges of pipes, it has 
been ascertained that the quantity discharged by a pipe of any given 
diameter and length, is inversely in proportion to the square root of 
the length — and directly proportional to the square root of the height 
of the column of water employed to propel it. 

The comparatively recent adaptation of carburetted hydrogen gas, 
for the purpose of lighting towns, has required attention to the laws 
by which it is conveyed through pipes. Gas is usually forced through 
pipes, by employing a slight column of water, of a height sufficient to 
propel the required volume with the velocity required. Now, as 
already mentioned, the laws of compression of gases and air have been 
exactly ascertained; and it is thence evident, that even the slight com- 
pressing force usually employed for the transmission of gas, must pro- 
duce an alteration in its bulk, at the place where the motion originates. 
The most exact observations made as to the laws by which gas is 
conveyed through pipes, show that in like manner as water, the 
quantity which a pipe can discharge, is inversely proportional to the 
square root of the length of the pipe, and directly proportional to the 



262 Mr. MacKain on the Compression of Water. 

square root of the force employed to propel it. As gas, after having 
been propelled through a range of pipe, and when escaping from its 
extremity into the air, will be only of the density due to the pressure 
of the atmosphere — the portion of it at the origin of the pipe, or, as is 
usual in practice, that in the gas-holder is not only of the density of 
the atmosphere, but is also of that further degree of compression due 
to the force applied for its propulsion through the pipes. In all 
experiments made with pressure-gages along various lengths of pipes, 
this extra degree of compression is found to diminish according to the 
square root of the length of the pipe, thus showing a gradual relaxation 
of compression, and a steady progression of current. 

The ascertained laws of impulsion and of retardation of gas and 
water being thus exactly alike, it only now remains to ascertain their 
measure ; and if these be found proportional to their density, there 
appears reason to believe, that water, under proportional forces, is as 
compressible as air. 

I shall endeavour to support these views by the following facts, and 
deductions from them: — 

As water is 825 times heavier than air, the velocity communicable 
to air contained in a pipe by the pressure of one vertical inch of water 
is equal to that of 825 vertical inches, or 68 feet of air ; and if gases 
be referred to, as their specific gravity is usually compared with air, 
as 1, the height of a corresponding column of any gas is equal to 68 
feet divided by the specific gravity of that gas ; thus, one inch of water 
is equal to /^^^=122 feet of gas, specific gravity 560. 

In the Hydrodynamie of Bossuet, he states as the result of experi- 
ment, that an aperture of one inch in diameter, under the pressure of 
a column of water 10 feet in height, discharged 8,574 cubic inches, or 
4*96 cubic feet of water per minute. 

By an experiment made at the Leith Gas Works, a hole, one inch 
in diameter, under the pressure of one vertical inch of water, dis- 
charged 17*7 cubic feet of gas, specific gravity 560, in the same time. 

Now, comparing these discharges by the square roots of their 
respective impelling columns, we have 

Water, Gas, 

^ 10 feet : 496 : : >/ 122 feet 17.33, 

instead of as above, the actual discharge 17-70. 

Again, Bossuet reports, that a hole 2 inches in diameter, with a 
pressure of 11 feet 8 inches and ten lines of water, discharged 13,021 
cubic inches of water in 21 seconds, or at the rate of 25*52 cubic feet 
per minute. 

It was also found at Leith, that a hole 2 inches in diameter, with a 
pressure of one inch of water discharged 69*5 cubic feet of gas, spe- 
cific gravity 560, per minute. 

Reducing the fractions of Bossuet's pressure to decimals of a foot, 



Mr. MacBL/on on the Compression of Water. 263 

and resolving the pressures into columns of the respective substances, 
we have the proportionate discharges due to these columns: — 

Water, Gas, 

as -v/ 11.736 feet : 2 : 2152 :: -/ 122 ; 6941 

cubic feet, which may be reckoned to be identical with the result 
brought out by experiment. 

The Abbe Bossuet found by experiment, conducted with great care, 
that a pipe, 2 inches in diameter, 150 feet long, with the pressure of 
a column of water 2 feet in height, discharged 5*232 cubic inches, or 
3*0278 cubic feet of water per minute. 

I have been favoured by the results of two experiments made with 
pipes of 2 inches in diameter, and 150 feet long, which, with a pres- 
sure of one vertical inch of water, discharged 22*66 cubic feet of gas, 
sp. gr. 560, and with 2 inches of water 35.16 cubic feet. 

In contrasting these experiments, it is to be remarked that the pipes 
are of the same diameter, and of the same length, consequently, the 
only correction necessary is that due to the variation in the height of 
their respective impelling columns — thus, as before, the experiment 
with one inch of water — 

Water, cubic feet. Gas, 

as -/ 2 feet, 30278, so is a/ 122 feet, 23*647, 

the actual discharge with one inch being 22*66 ; and that of 2 inches 
of water — 

Water, Gas, 

as V 2 : 30278, so is ^ 244 feet to 33*443 

cubic feet — the actual discharge as above having been 35*16. 

In 1819 M. Gerard made various experiments with gas apparatus con- 
structed for lighting the Hospital of St. Louis, at Paris, to ascertain 
the discharges of gas and air through pipes at the distances of 402^, 
1233, and 2043 feet respectively from the gasometer, — the discharges 
of AIR with a pressure of 0*858 of an inch of water were 30*205, 18150 
and 13*237 cubic feet per minute. 

Not having any direct experiments with water made under precisely 
the same conditions, I shall only apply the hydraulic formula of Dubuat, 
to show the similarity of discharges of that fluid xmder the same cir- 
cumstances. 

0*858 of an inch of water is equal to 58,334 feet of air — with this 
head the discharge of water by the same pipe, about the distances 
above stated, would be 36-206— 21,598, and 14015 cubic feet • 

The close approximation of all these results wiU, I hope, be a suffi- 
cient warrant to me for having brought the subject under notice of the 
Society, with a view to provoke further inquiry ; whether the calcu- 
lations I have entered on, or the deductions drawn from them, be correct 
or not 



264 



Mr. MacKain on the Compression of Water, 



I shall now proceed to compare the rates of compression under this 
theory, with those indicated by experiment. 

Air is found to be compressed into one half its bulk by the addi- 
tion of a weight equal to that of the atmosphere, or the addition of a 
force equal to 28*330 feet of air. In the same proportions between gas 
and water indicated by the impelling and retarding forces in a long 
train of pipes, water should also be compressed into one half its bulk, 
by the addition of a force equivalent to a column of itself, 28*330 feet 
or 5*36 miles. 

Professor Leslie estimates that it will be only compressed to this 
degree, at the depth of 93 miles. 

It has already been mentioned that Mr. Canton had indications 
which represented the contraction of pure water as 46 million parts, 
and sea water as 40 million parts, by the addition of a force equal to 
the weight of the atmosphere. By the rule of compression followed 
in this paper, pure water would compress 11-65 millionth parts — and sea 
water 11*55 parts in a million, with the pressure due to an atmosphere 
of air. 

Zimmerman arrived at the conclusion that sea water compresses 
■^\^ part, when under the pressure of 1000 feet of its own body,^ — the 
present theory indicates that it would contract very nearly ^-^ parts 
under the same pressure. 

Professor (Ersted's apparatus, judging from the engraving in the 
transactions of the British Association, seems to have been incapable 
of measuring with accuracy the forces stated to have been used. 

In 1826 Mr. Perkins laid before the Royal Society, a table of com- 
pression of water, derived from experiment, in which he states that of 
a column of 190 inches of water to have been for 



10 


atmospheres 


100 


do. 


200 


do. 


600 


do. 


700 


do. 


1000 


do. 



Parts. 

0176 
1*385 
2*395 
5*010 
6*961 
8-855 



while by the theory now advanced these compressions would have 
been 

Parts. 

2-1 
20*0 
36*2 
70*4 
89-1 
102*7 



10 


atmospheres 


100 


do- 


200 


do. 


500 


do. 


700 


do. 


000 


do. 



Mr. MacKain on the Compressum of Water. 265 

I cannot avoid calling tho attention of the Society to a slight 
though rude corroboration of the theory now advanced — the belief of 
seamen in the greater density of water at great depths, than is gener- 
ally admitted. They find a great difiiculty in sounding in deep 
water, but with very heavy leads. From the increased weight of the 
leads required, and from the diminished effect on the hand when 
sounding, seamen are almost universally impressed with the idea that 
the loss of effect is produced by the increased density of the water. 

An additional interest may be attached to the further investigation 
of this subject from the possible effect it may have on geological 
speculations. At the great depths of the ocean, and amid the pro- 
found stillness which reigns in these parts where the tides do not 
act, many substances of great specific gravity may float in the mass of 
waters, and thus be permitted to obey the slight but constant im- 
pulses of elective attraction — producing crystals, and leading to the for- 
mation of crystallized rocks. But I shall not enter into any specula- 
tions on this subject 

I shall only add, that if water be compressible to the degree I have 
now advanced, and the substances now stated were incompressible, 
bricks will float at a depth of 28,330 feet; granite at 56,600 feet, or 
10 miles ; and cast-iron at 200,000 feet, or 39 miles. 



Professor Gordon read a paper illustrating tho application of the 
method of least squares to the reduction of " Provis's* experiments 
on the flow of ivater through small pipes, and to a mathematical 
formula, of simple application, for calculating the diameter of pipes, 
the head, quantity of water, and length of pipe being given. After 
the reading of the paper, Mr. John Wilson stated, that he had 
been required to place a pipe of eight feet in length horizontally, so 
that under a constant head or pressure of ten feet of water it should 
discharge neither more nor less than 100 imperial gallons of water 
per minute, and not being able to derive any information from such 
engineers as lie had consulted, he had been under the necessity of 
arriving at the proper result by numerous experiments. He considered 
that it would be a fair test of tlie formula proposed if Professor 
Gordon would calculate the true diameter of the pipe, from the data 
given. It was accordingly agreed that Professor Gordon and Mr. 
Wilson should compare their theoretical and experimental results at 
next meeting. 

24<A April, 1844,— TAc President in the Chair, 

The secretaries of the different sections reported that meeiiiigs had 
been held for the election of sectional office-bearers for 1844-45; the 

• Trans. Inst, of Civ. Eng. Vol. II. 



256 Report of Statistical Section 

former Chairman and Secretaries (page 177) being again elected, with 
the exception of the Physical, in which Mr. MacKain was chosen 
secretarj. 

The following report from the Statistical section was presented and 
approved. 

Friday, I2th April, 1844, — Mr. Murray in the Chair. 

Mr. Murray of Monkland Iron Works was elected Chairman, and 
Dr. Watt Secretary for the following year. 

Dr. AVatt read the following paper on the defective state of the 
Registers of Births, Marriages, and Deaths in Scotland. The fol- 
lowing gentlemen were appointed a standing Committee to watch 
over any measure that may be brought into Parliament for the im- 
provement of these Registers, and to take such steps as may be found 
necessary to urge it forward. — Mr. John Wilson, Convener. 

Committee: — Mr. John Wilson of Auchineaden ; Mr. Smith of 
Deanston ; Mr. Murray of Monkland Iron Works ; Mr. Walter Crum 
of Thornliebank ; Dr. Andrew Buchanan, Glasgow College ; Dr. R. 
D. Thomson, Glasgow College ; Mr. Leadbetter of Ericht Bank ; Mr. 
William Bankier, of CuUibheag, Provost of Calton ; Mr. Keddie, 
Glasgow ; Dr. Watt, City Statist. 

As it is of great importance to the poorer classes of society in 
many matters connected with their welfare, and also to the more 
wealthy classes, in the settlement and conveying of property, as well as 
in some of their domestic arrangements, that the Registers of Mar- 
riages, Births, and Deaths should be accurately kept, it is surprising 
that these Registers for Scotland should still remain in the very im- 
perfect state they now are, and that no legislative measure should yet 
have been obtained for their improvement. 

A knowledge of the laws of mortality is intimately connected with, 
and illustrative of the social condition of the people. Hitherto this 
knowledge in Scotland has been based on imperfect data, owing to 
these Registers being very incomplete ; so much so, that in the solu- 
tion of some of the most important questions affecting the sanatory 
condition of towns, the philanthropist and the scientific inquirer, in 
their endeavours to ameliorate those evils which appear to be so fatal 
to life, in various towns and districts of this division of the Empire, 
have to depend more on the speculative views of men, than on the 
knowledge of incontrovertible facts. In the greater part of Scotland 
no Registers of deaths are kept at all ; and in those towns or districts 
in which they are kept, the mode of Registration is very imperfect : 
for although reliance may be placed on the accuracy with which the 
ages at death, and a few of the more easily discriminated diseases, 
such as eruptive fevers, hooping-cough, and some others, are recorded, 



Report of Statistical Section, 257 

yet the general mode of Registration is so incomplete, especiallj in 
regard to the localities in which the deaths take place, the trades and 
professions of the parties who die, as well as in the great majority of 
the diseases which cause death, that no satisfactory information can be 
obtained from them as to the eflfects produced on human life by the 
vicissitudes of the climate, in connection with the trades and profes- 
sions of the people, and the existing state of the different localities 
of large towns. 

The Registers of Births in this country are so very incomplete that 
they are of no value to the statist for any calculations relative to the 
duration of life, or for tracing in a satisfactory and decisive manner 
the propinquity of families. 

The law of Scotland, as it now stands, relative to the proclama- 
tions of marriages, when properly adhered to, is well adapted for 
enabling us to ascertain the amount of resident regular marriages in 
each parish, yet the system of recording these marriages is very 
defective. The ages at which the parties marry cannot be obtained 
from them, and many other particulars which would enable us to 
arrive at correct conclusions as to the proportionate amount of mar- 
riages which take place among the various classes of the community, 
and other important particulars, are altogether omitted in these records. 

As it is well known that the greatness of a country depends on the 
general well-being of its population, it must ever be one of the first 
objects of study on the part of an enlightened nation, to introduce 
such laws as may tend to improve the social condition of the people ; 
and as the science of vital statistics has for its object the discovery 
of those laws by which nature regulates the amount of disease and 
death, under every variety of circumstances, as well as " the discovery 
of those truths which tend to the comfort and happiness of the people," 
it is to be hoped that the energy with which this study has lately been 
followed out, especially in England, will soon cause it to hold a still 
higher place among the great branches of human knowledge than it 
has hitherto done, and that the benefits of a better system for the 
Registration of Births, Marriages, and Deaths, will speedily be 
extended to Scotland. 

Several attempts have been made to introduce a legislative measure 
for the improvement of these Registers in Scotland without success, 
owing, in the last instance, as we have been informed, to the opposi- 
tion offered to it by such as considered their own interests affected 
by the measure proposed, and to the apparent indifference of those 
who, it was understood, ought to have been more alive to the import- 
ance of the measure. "Within these few years a number of petitions 
have been presented to Government with the view of urging forward 
a legislative measure of this description for Scotland, similar to that 
now in force for England. It has been thought, however, that should 
a revisal of the Poor Law of this country take place, which is shortly 



268 Professor Gordon on the Discharge of Water through Pipes. 

expected, it will be the proper time to introduce a bill into Parliament 
for the improvement of these Registers. It would bo well, therefore, 
that the Statistical Section of this Society should appoint a Com- 
mittee to watch over the measure, and to take such steps as may be 
necessary to forward it 



Mr. Gourlio communicated some observations on the natural 
history of several species of British zoophytes, illustrated with speci- 
mens; and Mr. Stenhouse drew the attention of the Society to speci- 
mens of manna which he had obtained from different sea-weeds, in 
accordance with the observations of Vauquelin andGaultier de Claubry. 
Mr. Stenhouse stated that from the Laminaria saccharina he had 
extracted as much as twelve-and-a-half per cent, of manna by means 
of alcohol. 

The following communication was read. 

LV. — Test of Formula for Discharge of Water through Pipes. — 
By L. D. B. Gordon, Regius Professor of Civil Engineering and 
Mechanics. 

The formula which best represents the results of Provis's experi- 
ments, as well as those of Hagen,* and the experiments of Dubuat, 
that could be employed, as also of Couplet, is based upon the formula 
originally proposed by Woltmann,t in which the height due to the 
resistance in the pipes is made proportional to a certain power deduced 
from experiments. The exponent 1-75 was deduced by Woltmann, 
and is also the most probable exponent according to the experiments 
above mentioned. 

It was advisable, after assuming this exponent, first to determine the 
head due to the velocity of discharge, and as this is expressed by a 
member containing the second power of the velocity as factor, but quite 
independent of the length of the pipe, only those experiments could 
be used in which pipes of the same diameter were used but of several 
different lengths, as in the experiments of Provis and Hagen, and certain 
of those, for small pipes, of Dubuat ; and some of Couplet's for pipes of 
even twelve to eighteen inches diameter. 

The equation of condition chosen then, was : 



I / c \ 2 1 _ 



1-75 

9 
In which h = the head, due to the resistance in the pipes, c = the 

* Detailed in Poggendorff, vol. 36. 
t Beitrage zur Hydraulischcn Architectur. Bd. I. 151. 



Professor Gordon on Hie Discharge of Water through Pipes. 269 

velocity of discharge, p= a constant factor ^ and Z= the length of the pipe. 
0*82 is the co-efficient of contraction of water at entering the pipe, 
and g = 32*2 feet The experiments above named were employed to 
deduce p by the method of least squares. It is found that p is very 
nearly inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe, and therefore 
k=pr, is introduced. The formula may then be written: — 

A = 0-23c2 H- ib-c »-75 
r 

In Provis's experiments, r = 0*75 — -01 = '74 p = 0*0474 . • . * = -0035 
Hagen, . . r = 0-117 — -01= '107 /) = 0*0447 .*. it = -00478 

Dubuat, 3 . . r = 0-089 — -01 = '079 p = -0619 .'.k=i -00488 

Couplet, 3 . . r = 6-45 — '01 = 6*44 p = -00103 . • . ife = -00622 

•01 inch is taken from the radius to allow for the film of water adhering 
to the pipe. These are a selection from the fifteen sets of experiments 
used, and which prove that h is not constant, but varies with the cir- 
cumstances of the pipe as to the actual velocity through it and the amount 
of curvature or bending. Provis's experiments give the same co-efficient 
to the third or fourth decimal places with those of Dubuat and Bossut 
in analogous circumstances, of a small velocity of discharge and straight 
pipe. Hagen's agree excellently with one another. In these the velo- 
city was great and the diameter very small ; so that internal interfering 
motions in the water in the pipe were recognisable. Dubuat's experi- 
ments in analogous circumstances correspond well with those of 
Hagen. The co-efficient deduced from Couplet's experiments rises as 
the degree of sinuosity designated in the original tables. The pipe 
from which the result above given was found is designated as mwcA 
hentj but the velocity through it was small. Upon these grounds I 
proposed that for practice we might employ the co-efficient -00315 in 
very regular pipes ; for gentle curves this rises to -005 ; and for very 
sharp curves might even amount to -01, because in practice there not 
only occur the curves or hends^ but contractions from deposits and from 
collecting air in these bendings. 

The formula for straight pipes would then stand thus : — 

A = -023 02 -f 0-003 -c ^75 
r 

and as in ordinary practice the first member (on the right hand) is 
generally small whilst the sinuosities are numerous, though gentle or 
accidental interferences occur, it appeared that this might be reduced 
to— 

A = -005-0 »75 
r 

as a simple formula of approximation. 

Mr. Wilson at last meeting proposed that the above formula should 
be tested by application to the following question : What should be the 
diameter of a pipo of eight feet in length, laid horizontally, in order 



260 Professor Gordon on the Discharge of Water through Pipes, 

that under a constant head or pressure of ten feet of water it may 
discharge neither more nor less than 100 imperial gallons per minute? 
In the case proposed by Mr. Wilson to test the formula here arrived 
at, the velocity through the pipe must evidently be very considerable, 
and hence it was tliought best to choose the constant k = -006. 

Now, if Q = the quantity of water = -— — - c, by substituting this 

144 Q I /144 0\ ^^^ 

in the last we have c = „ and hence h = -006 - + ( — -r-^ ) 

. •. A = Yg Q^ ~ "T^Ts Q ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^s latter we have r ^ 

= — r— Q^ a formula very convenient for calculation by logarithms, 

as appears by the following actual working of the question proposed to 
test the formula : — 

Q = 100 gallons '2^^ cubic feQi per second. 
I = 8 feet 
A= 10 feet. 

Log. -2666 = 1'4259677 

7 

I power = 4 | 5.9817739 

Log. 98967 = —2-9954434 

Log. 4-84 X 8 =.38-72 = 1-5879353 

0-5833787 
Log. 10 = 1-0000000 

1-5833787 
4 



j% root =19 1 2-3335148 
Log. -81713 = 1-9122902 
Then -81713 + -01 = -827 = r, therefore 

-827 X 2 = 1-654 is the diameter of the pipe 
according to the formula. 

According to the subjoined report of the engineer who made the 
experiments for Mr. Wilson, the pipe found experimentally to fulfil 
the required conditions was one inch and |^ = 1-6875 
Formula gives, . . . 1'6544 



DiflPerence, . . . 00331 

In a second case, where all other data remain the same, save that 
the discharge is limited to 80 gallons per minute, the pipe fitted ex- 
perimentally was . . l'5Q25 inches diameter. 
By formula it should be . . 1-5315 



Difference, 0.0310 



M'Quisten's Interim Report. 201 

In both cases about ^^ of an inch less by the formula than was actu- 
ally found necessary. 

Now, to show how perfectly justifiable the adoption of the higher co- 
efficient -006, is in this case, if we determine the discharge using the 
complete formula, viz. — 

A— -023 0' = -003 -5^ Q'-« 

We can by the above deduction of the diameter d = 1*6544 deter- 
mine c ^ 16-5 nearly 

h — -023 c* = 3-74 

r ♦" = -1^ Q' " from which we have 

r = -86 + 01 = -87 = (i = 1*74 
Pipe 1-6875 

Difference, 00525 

Formula in excess of experiment. 

A mean between the two results of the formulas is 1.69, a result 
which would naturally have been chosen, had the case been to be put 
in practice at this moment. 



Interim Report hy the Subscriber, Peter M'Quisten, Civil Engineer 
in Glasgow, relative to agreement between the Proprietors of House- 
hill, and Messrs. John Wilson & Sons. 

Glasgow, Zd April, 1837. 

Gentlemen, — I have your letter of the 27th March, 1837, with ex- 
cerpt of agreement between Proprietors of Househill and Messrs. John 
Wilson & Sons, dated 16th March, 1837, and I beg leave to report, 
that a lead pipe eight feet long, laid horizontal, and having a pressure 
of water upon it of ten feet perpendicular, will vent a discharge ex- 
actly one hundred imperial gallons of water per minute, by making 
the pipe one inch and eleven sixteenth parts of an inch in diameter. 

I have also to report, that a lead pipe eight feet long, laid horizon- 
tal, and having a pressure of water upon it of ten feet perpendicular, 
will vent or discharge exactly eighty imperial gallons of water per 
minute, by making the pipe one inch and nine sixteenth parts of an 
inch in diameter. 

I am, Gentlemen, 

Your very obed. Servant, 
(Signed) PETER M'QUISTEN. 

To Robert Wylie, Es-q., Writer, Paislev, 

Agent for the Proprietors of Househill, 
and Alexander Gibson, Esq. Writer, 
Paislev, 

Agent for Messrs. John Wilson & Sons. 

No. 10. 5 



262 Mr. Johnston's Description of a Steam Boiler. 

Mr. Cockey oxliibited and described a model of Smart's steam-boat 
paddlo float. 



Mr. James Johnston then gave a description of a seven horse power 
boiler, constructed according to his patent plan, so as to prevent the 
formation of deposits on the interior of the boiler. 

The boiler, properly speaking, consists of two parts, viz.: — The 
furnace, and the body of tho boiler. 

The furnace is placed on the front and outside of the boiler; tho 
sides and roof of it are made of a double casing of sheet iron, the iron 
of each casing being one-eighth part of an inch thick ; the water space 
between the casings is a quarter of an inch wide, and the casings are 
bolted to one another every two-and-a-half inches. The sides of the 
furnace are perpendicular — the roof is sloped like the roof of a house, 
each half of the roof being set at an angle of forty-five degrees on 
the sides of the furnace. The water space of the furnace has three 
openings or communications with the body of the boiler ; of these 
communications there is one at the lower part of each side of the 
furnace, the other one is at the ridge of the roof of the furnace. In 
consequence of this arrangement, there is constantly a powerful 
current of water circulating up the sides, and over and along the roof 
of the furnace; it is this current of water which prevents the deposits 
of salt and other substances. 

The body of the boiler is divided into seven chambers or flues, 
which communicate at one end with the furnace ; at the other end 
they are each provided with a separate chimney, which communicates 
with the funnel. Each of those chambers measures from top to 
bottom two feet nine inches, from furnace to chimney two feet, width 
two inches. Between each chamber there is a water space of a 
quarter of an inch in width. The latter are the spaces in which the 
ascending current of water is created in consequence of the action of 
the heat which is supplied from the seven chambers. 

At each side, in the body of the boiler, there is a large water space 
through which the currents of water descend. The fire is not allowed 
to act on those descending water spaces, for, if the fire were allowed 
to do so, the velocity of the current would be checked, and the boiler 
injured. 

The entrances from the seven chambers into the chimneys, are at 
the bottom, or lower part of the chambers. In consequence of this 
a saving of fuel is effected, as the products of combustion are by this 
means retained in tho chambers until all the available heat has been 
absorbed by the water. 

Note. — This boiler is at present working on board the " Alert" 
steamer, at the West Quay, Greenock. 



Db. Balfour's Botanical Excursions. 203 

Tlie following paper was road at the mooting of the Botanical Sec- 
tion, 20th April. 

LVII. Notice of Excursions made from Glasgow with Botanical 
Pupils during the Summer Session of 1843. By J. II. Balfour, 
M.D. F.11.S.E. Regius Professor of Botany, 

You are all aware that I am in the habit of making excursions 
every week with my pupils during the months of May, June, and 
July; and by so doing I am satisfied that I tend to promote a taste for 
the science of botany. Nothing adds so much to the interest and 
plcasuro of a botanical course as practical demonstrations in the fields ; 
and it is pleasing at the end of each season to recal the adventures 
with which our various trips have been diversified, and to register the 
plants which have rewarded our labours. While we thus add to the 
knowledge of the Flora of our neighbourhood, we at the same time 
perpetuate the delightful associations connected with the scenes in 
which we met. 

" All my botanical excursions," says Rousseau, " the several im- 
pressions which local objects gave, the ideas which in consequence 
sprung up, the little incidents which blended into the scene, — all these 
have produced a delightful impression which the sight of my herbarium 
rekindles. * * * * It is this association which makes botany so charm- 
ing ; it recalls back to the imagination all those ideas which afford the 
purest pleasure. Meadows, water, woods, and the inward content- 
ment which dwells among such objects, are incessantly brought forward 
to the memory." 

To these excursions may be applied the following remarks of Dr. 
Johnston of Berwick: — " They afford tlie stated means of indulging a 
principle bound up with our frame and constitution ; for He who made 
nature all beauty to the eye, implanted at the same time in his rational 
creatures an instinctive perception of that beauty, and with it joined 
indissolubly a balm and virtue that operate through life. You have 
the proof of this in the gaiety of the infant swayed only by external 
influences; in the child's love of the daisy and the enamelled fields; in 
the girl's haunt by the primrose bank or rushy brook; in the school- 
boy's truant steps by briery brake or flowery shaw, by troutiug streams 
or nutting wood ; in the trysting tree and green lanes of love's age ; in 
the restless activity that sends us adrift in search of the picturesque; 
in the * London pride ' of the citizen ; in the garden of retired leisure ; 
in the prize-flower that lends its pride and interest to old ago. Yes, 
there is a pre-ordained and beneficial influence of external nature over 
the constitution and mind of man which these excursions foster and 
encourage, and therein lies, in no small degree, their usefulness. The 
landscape before and around us becomes our teacher, and from the 
lesson there is no escape. Every cultivated mind must be improved 
by feeling the impulse of that beauty which has wooed it to peace, of 



2(34 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursions. 

that gratification and pleasure that entered in through every sense, and 
through the air we breathed and walked in. We are all the better of 
these excursions; they soothe or soften or exhilarate the man, and 
raise him in his own estimation by keeping awake his best feelings, 
and laying asleep for a season those that are of earth, earthy." 

Glasgow possesses great facilities for the practical prosecution of 
botany. Besides having a rich and extensive botanic garden, it pre- 
sents, by its railways and steam boats, a means of visiting easily during 
a course of lectures, districts characterised by every diversity of floral 
production, whether inland or maritime, lowland or alpine. 

During the summer of 1843 I availed myself much of these advan- 
tages, and I now proceed shortly to notice the results of our excursions. 

Our first excursion took place on the 13th of May, on which occa- 
sion we visited Bowling and the trap rocks in the neighbourhood of Old 
Kilpatrick. The rocks here are interesting to the mineralogist in con- 
sequence of yielding several good minerals, such as Prehnite, Stilbite 
and Thomsonite. We picked many of the early summer flowers, but 
none of great rarity. Among the plants gathered may be noticed 
Symphytum officinale, Melica uniflora, and Saxifraga hypnoides. 
Near the inn at Bowling Turritis glabra and Geranium columbinum 
have been found, but they were not in flower at the time of our visit. 

On the 27th of May our party, amounting to twenty-four, proceeded 
by Kirkintilloch to Campsie, and examined the woods and hills in that 
quarter. In Campsie Glen, one of the most beautiful spots in the 
vicinity of Glasgow, we saw Stellaria nemorum. Geranium lucidum, 
Lathrcea squamaria, Prunus Padus, Cardamine amara, Chrysosple- 
nium alternifolium, and Equisetum Drummondii. On the hills above 
the glen, Viola lutea abounds ; and here also Mr. Gourlie picked Allo- 
sorus crispus.* On descending into Finglen we found abundance 
of Paris quadrifolia, t Equisetum Drummondii, of which a few speci- 
mens were in fruit, Rubus saxatilis, Hymenophyllum Wilsoni, and 
Polygonum Bistorta. Returning by Mugdock Castle, we gathered 
Epimedium alpinum on an old wall ; this plant has also been picked 
in woods at Garscube. 

June 3d. — Proceeded by railway to Beith, and thence went to Kil- 
birnie Glen, and Glengarnock Castle, under the guidance of Mr. 
Levack, an enthusiastic botanist. The vegetation in this quarter 
was much less advanced than is usual at this season of the year, and 
the weather was particularly unfavourable. We saw Peucedanum 
Ostruthium, and Epilobium angustifolium in leaf, and gathered Trol- 
lius europajus, Geum intermedium, Ilabenaria chlorantha, and a 
considerable number of common plants. On the wooded banks of the 
river, near Glengarnock Castle, there is profusion of ferns; Poly- 
podium vulgare, Phegopteris and Dryopteris, Athyrium Filix-foemina, 
Lastrsea Filix-mas, Oreopteris and multiflora, Aspleniura Trichomaues 

* This plant has also been found at Balvie, near Glasgow, and at Neilston Pad. 
t This plant has also been found by Mr. Keddie at Waukmill Dam, near Barrhead. 



Dr. Balfoue*s Botanical JExeursions. 266 

and Adiantum-nigrum, Polystichum aculeatum, Blechnum boreale, 
Pteris aquilina, Scolopendrium vulgare, Cistopteris fragilis, were 
all picked within the space of a few yards. The party also examined 
the woods in the neighbourhood of Ladyland, where they were kindly 
entertained by Mr. Patrick. 

Juno 10th. — On this day our route lay to the east of Glasgow. At 
ToUcross we found Ornithopus perpusillus, Teesdalia nudicaulis, and 
Erodium cicutarium. Proceeding to Hamilton, we visited the woods 
at Barncluith, and were rewarded with specimens of Doronicum 
Pardalianches, Ornithogalum umbellatum, Neottia Nidus avis, which 
was also found afterwards at Cadzow, Arum maculatum, Polemonium 
cseruleum, Anchusa sempervirens, Aquilegia vulgaris, and Veronica 
montana. Several of these plants appear to have escaped from the 
gardens in the vicinity, but they have now become naturalized. We 
looked in vain for Tulipa sylvestris, which is said to grow in this 
quarter. A little above Hamilton Typha latifolia used to be found, 
but it has now disappeared in consequence of drainage and other agri- 
cultural improvements. 

On crossing the river Avon, and going towards Cadzow, we saw 
specimens of Geum intermedium, Sanicula europaja, Carex remota, 
sylvatica, pendula, and acuta, Rubus saxatilis, and Scolopendrium 
vulgare. In the old oak forest of Cadzow, Ophioglossum vulgatum 
was picked; and at the ruins of Cadzow Castle, Euonymus europaeus, 
"Viburnum Opulus, Ribes alpinum, Hieraciura sylvaticum, and Gymna- 
denia albida. 

June 17tlL — The party this day went to Bothwell, and were enabled, 
under the guidance of Mr. Turnbull, (a well known and most success- 
ful cultivator,) to botanize in the grounds near the castle. Here 
Neottia Nidus-avis was again found, also Doronicum Pardalianches, 
Meconopsis cambrica, an escape from the garden, Epipactis latifolia, 
Allium vineale, Berberis vulgaris, Parietaria officinalis, Cheiranthus 
Cheiri, Sambucus Ebulus, Viburnum Opulus, Reseda Luteola, Poly- 
gonum Bistorta and Geranium sylvaticum. Near Blantyre priory 
Galium boreale, Viola odorata, Geranium phajum, Carex remota, 
Rumex alpinus, and Bromus arvensis were seen ; and on the roadside 
between Blantyre priory and Cambuslang, Polemonium cajruleum was 
observed. Thalictrum flavum occurs on the banks of the Clyde near 
Carmyle, Galium Mollugo on the roadside between Cathcart and 
Rutherglen, and Impatiens Noli-me-tangere in Castlemilk glen. 

June 23d. — On the afternoon of this day the party proceeded by 
railway and steam boat to Rothsay, and walked aJong the shore to- 
wards the south coast of Bute. Here we met with specimens of 
Saxifraga aizoides, Potamogeton oblongus. Cotyledon Umbilicas 
Habenaria bifolia and Osmunda regalis. On the morning of the 24th 
we left Rothsay, and proceeded by Etterick Bay along the shore to 
Scalpsie Bay. In the course of the walk the chief plants of interest 
which wo collected were, Hesperis matronalis, Stconhammera mari- 



266 Dr. Balfour's Botanical Excursions. 

tima, Hippuris vulgaris, Potamogeton oblongus, Schoenus nigricans. 
Cotyledon Umbilicus, Sedum anglicum and acre, Hypericum elodes, 
Sinapis monensis, Glaucium luteum, Eryngium maritimum, and Carex 
arenaria. A little to the north of Scalpsie Bay Convolvulus Soldan- 
clla grows. 

July 1st — Proceeded by steamboat to Dumbarton, and landed at 
the trap rocks on which the Castle stands. Here we found Malva 
sylvestris and moschata, Conium maculatum, Smyrnium olusatrum, 
Vicia sativa, Carex muricata, Carduus marianus, Poa maritima and 
Sedum Telephium ; several of these plants are by no means common 
in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. Leaving Dumbarton, wo walked 
by the banks of the Leven to Tillichewan Castle, whither we had been 
kindly invited by Mr. William Campbell, to whose hospitality we were 
much indebted. Among the plants noticed we may record Ranun- 
culus aquatilis and hederaceus, Solanum Dulcamara, Habenaria bifolia 
and chlorantha. In the woods near the Castle, Carex remota and 
lajvigata, Viburnum Opulus, Lastraca Oreopteris and Polypodium 
Phegopteris occur. 

July 7th. — The Railway Train took the party to Stirling road, 
whence they walked to Carluke and Lanark, and on the way picked 
Rumex aquations and Jasione montana. On the morning of the 
8th wo visited Cartland Crags, and after examining both sides of the 
glen proceeded to the Falls of Clyde at Stonebyres, and then returned 
to Lanark to breakfast. In this excursion many plants of interest 
were seen, such as, Arabis hirsuta, Melica nutans and uniflora. Spiraea 
salicifolia. Digitalis purpurea var. alba, Carduus heterophyllus. Ononis 
arvensis, Epilobium angustifolium. Origanum vulgare, Saxifraga 
hypnoides, Galium boreale, Helianthemum vulgare, Vicia sylvatica, 
and in some parts of the woods, apparently naturalised, Lilium Mar- 
tagon and Gnaphalium margaritaceum. At the Stonebyres Falls, 
Carex pendula, Festuca elatior, Solidago virgaurea, Apargia hispida 
and autumnalis. Campanula rotundifolia and Hypericum hirsutum. 
After breakfast, the party visited the banks of the Clyde at New 
Lanark, and found Carex intermedia, paniculata, remota and fulva. 
At Cora Linn, Saxifraga oppositifolia and Asplenium viride occur — 
the latter plant liaving been first picked in this locality by Mr. Gourlie. 
Both these plants occur here at a much lower elevation than usual, 
and they are not, so far as I know, met with on Tinto, or the other hills 
in the neighbourhood. Their appearance, therefore, in this locality, 
is by no means easily accounted for. Associated with them we found 
Lycopodium selaginoides, Aquilegia vulgaris and Rubus saxatilis. 
In the woods around, Equisetum Drummondii grows in profusion. 
Near Bennington Falls, we met with Vicia Orobus, Spiraea salicifolia, 
Campanula latifolia and Carex acuta. Mr. James Murray, who 
visited Tinto, picked Rubus Chamaimorus and Vaccininm Vitis-Idcca, 
on that mountain. Carum Carui was also found near Cormieston, 
and Thlaspi arvense near Skirling. 



Db. Balfoue*8 Botanical Exeurawns. 207 

July 1 1th. — On the afternoon of this day wo took a botanical walk 
along tho banks of tho Cljdo, as far as Scotstown, and examined also 
the banks of tho Kelvin, where it joins the Clyde. Among the plants 
which we observed, may be mentioned, Triticum repens, Convolvulus 
sepium, Rumex aquaticus, which was very abundant in many places, 
Festuca olatior, pratensis and loliacea near the mouth of the Kelvin, 
Sinapis alba, Galcopsis versicolor, Conium maculatum, Ly thrum Sali- 
caria, Epipactis latifolia, Sedum Telepliium, Carduus acanthoides, 
Callitriche platycarpa and vema, Geranium pratense, Senecio aqua- 
ticus, and Mimulus luteus. The last mentioned plant, which is 
originally from Chili, has become naturalised in many places in this 
neighbourhood. It occurs also in other parts of the country, as near 
Dunvegan, in Skye. 

July 13th. — Our party went by railway to Ardrossan, and thence to 
Arran, where we spent two days examining the Flora of the island. 
Near Brodick many interesting plants are found, which have been 
noticed in an account of a previous trip.* In addition to the plants 
enumerated there we may notice Cephalanthera ensifolia as having 
been picked in the woods between Brodick and Lamlash by Mr. 
Gourlie. On this occasion our route lay toward the northern part of 
the island. — From Brodick we walked to Corrie, and on the way picked 
(Enanthe Lachenalii, Erythrrea linarifolia, Juncus maritimus, and 
Scutellaria galericulata. On the morning of the 14th July we left 
Corrie, and proceeded along the shore to the Cock of Arran, and thence 
to Loch Ranza to breakfast. Tho geological formations presented 
objects of no ordinary interest. Our attention was particularly called 
to the junction between slate and granite, the anticlinal axis, and 
the fallen rocks, all of which are so well described by Mr. Andrew 
Ramsay in his excellent account of Arran. The slate and carboni- 
ferous series of rocks near the shore, we found to be, generally speak- 
ing, unproductive of rare plants, while the new and old red sand- 
stone and the trap furnished an excellent field for our botanical 
researches. Among the species remarked were Juncus maritimus, 
Scirpus pauciflorus, Blysmus rufus. Aster Tripolium, Osmunda rcgalis, 
Cotyledon Umbilicus, Solanum Dulcamara, Scutellaria galericulata, 
Ilabenaria chlorantha and bifolia, Sinapis monensis, Filago ger- 
manica and minima, Ammophila arenaria, Triticum junceum, Carex 
arenaria, Lythrum salicaria, Hypericum androsaemum, Galeopsis ver- 
sicolor, and Lamium intermedium. After breakfast we continued 
our route along the shore to Dugarry, where we took up our quarters 
in some small cottages, the only accommodation which we could pro- 
cure in this quarter of the island. In this part of our trip we gathered 
Salicomia herbacea, and Chenopodium maritimum, Stecnhammera 
maritima, Crambo maritima, Stachys arvensis, and Thlaspi arvense. 
On the 15th of July we left Dugarry, and proceeded to Black Water 

♦ See Phytologist for 1842. 



268 Dr. BALFOm's Botanical Excursions. 

Foot, and on our way observed Carex paniculata, Lithospermum offi- 
cinale, Agrimonia Eupatorium, Hypericum dubium, and AndrosaBmum 
Littorella lacustris, Blysmus rufus, Convolvulus Soldanella, Sinapis 
monensis, Carex arenaria, Eleocharis fluitans, and Scirpus maritimus. 
From Black Water Foot our road lay through an unproductive dis- 
ti'ict across the island to Brodick, whence we proceeded to Ardrossan. 

July 22d. — Visited Ayr, and examined the shores in the neighbour- 
hood. The chief species which we found were Atriplex laciniata and 
rosea, Salsola kali, Eryngium maritimum, Sinapis monensis, Iberis 
amara, Hyosciamus niger, Senebiera Coronopus, Malva moschata, 
Beta maritima. Crambo maritima, and Cakile maritima. Near Grinan 
Castle Trifolium scabrum and Tanacetum vulgare were picked, as 
well as Acinos vulgaris and Trifolium arvense. 

July 28th. — Proceeded by steamboat up Loch Long to Arrochar, 
where we took up our quarters for two days. On the afternoon of this 
day we visited the hills at the upper part of the Loch, but the state 
of the weather prevented us from making a thorough examination of 
them. We saw only a few alpine plants, such as Saxifraga aizoides, 
oppositifolia, stellaris and hypnoides, Epilobium alpinum, Thalictrum 
alpinum, Salix herbacea, Gnaphalium supinum, Juncus triglumis and 
trifidus, Hieracium alpinum, Oxyria reniformis, Asplenium viride, 
Rhodiola rosea, Vaccinium uliginosum, Aira alpina, and variety 
vivipara, Festuca vivipara, Lycopodium Selago, selaginoides and 
alpinum. On the 29th the weather was still very unpropitious, and 
the thick mist and rain interfered considerably with our botanical 
rambles. Nevertheless we went by the banks of Loch Lomond to 
Upper Inveruglas, and thence ascended Benima and the Cobbler. 
On the banks of the Loch we found Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, 
Osmunda regalis, and Hypericum Androsa3mum. On the ascent of 
Benima, Carex irrigua was first picked by Mr. Adamson, and on 
ascending the hills, various interesting alpine plants were procured, 
such as Carex saxatilis, and Juncus castaneus, discovered by Mr. 
Gourlie, Carex pauciflora and rigida, Silene acaulis, Gnaphalium 
supinum, Juncus trifidus and triglumis, Sibbaldia procumbens, Vero- 
nica humifusa, Epilobium alpinum, Rhodiola rosea, Luzula spicata, 
Saussurea alpina, Cerastium alpinum, Festuca vivipara, Vaccinium 
uliginosum, Salix herbacea, Saxifraga oppositifolia, aizoides, stellaris 
and hypnoides, AUosorus crispus, Asplenium viride, and Cetraria 
islandica. 

Names of Gentlemen who joined t/ie Excursions in 1843. — Robert Rainy, Nathaniel Steven- 
son, jun., J. Stevenson, jun., J. C. Stevenson, Edward Alexander, jun,, T. Alexander, 
John Alexander, Robert Balloch, Ebenezer Watson, David Miller, James Bain, David 
Nelson, Thomas Waugh, James M'Gregor, Donald G. M'Lellan, Robert White, David 
D. Service, William Ramsay, William Keddie, William M'Leod, John R. Peebles, 
Walter Bain, James Couper, Andrew Craig, William Henderson, jun., William Kid- 
ston, John Struthers, William Naismith, John Burns, G. Macculloch, Andrew Pater- 
son, John Thomson, sen., John Thomson, jun., James C. Murray, William Gourlie, 
Frederick Adamson, G. J. livon. 



BOOKS 

ADDED TO THE SOCIETY'S LIBRARY SINCE NOVEMBER 1842. 



CONTINUBD FBOM PjLOE 60. 



MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS. 

Carpenter's Principles of Human Physiology. 

Pritchard's History of Man. 

Pereira's Treatise on Food and Diet 

Dieffenbach's Travels in New Zealand, 2 vols. 

Beaumont on Digestion. 

M'William's Medical History of the Expedition to the Niger in 1841-42. 

Owen's Lectures on Comparative Anatomy. 

Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry, third edition. 

Hooker's Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage. 

Liebig's Familiar Letters on Chemistry. 

PERIODICALS. 

Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society of London, vol. I. (Pre- 
sented hy that Society.) 

Third Annual Report of the Registrar General, for 1841. 

Fourth do. do. 

Fifth do. do. do. for 1843. \ Presented. 

London Weekly Mortality Bills, 
Do. do. do. 

Hooker's Journal of Botany, Monthly, 

Paxton's Magazine of Botany, Monthly. 

Journal of Agriculture of the Highland Society, Q^oarterly, 

The Phytologist, Mmthly. 

Journal of the Statistical Society of London, Q^arterly, 

Annual Reports and Transactions of the Edinburgh Botanical Society. 

Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, for 1843. Presented by 
Dr. Balfour, 



do. 


for 1842. 


do. 


for 1843. 




for 1843. 




for 1844. 



LIST OF TUE MEMBERS 



PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW. 



Adamson, Fred., jun., W. George-Street. 
Aitken, Peter, Argyle-Street. 
Alston, John, of liosemount. 
Anderson, Andrew, M.D., Andersonian 

Professor of Institutes of Medicine. 
Anderson, Dun., Deaf and Dumb Inst. 
Anderson, Alex. D., Woodside Terrace. 

Bain, Andrew, St. Enoch Square. 
Baird, John, St. Vincent-Street. 
Balfour, John Button, M.D., F.R.S.E., 

Regius Professor of Botany, College. 
Balloch, Robert, West Regent-Street. 
Bankier, Wm., Bridgeton Cotton- Works. 
Bell, James, St. Enoch Square. 
Bell, Matt. Perston, St. Vincent-Street. 
Black, John, Surgeon, Charlotte -Street. 
Blackie, Walter G., Ph.D., Richmond-St. 
Bogle, James, Bath-Street. 
Brash, John. 

Brown, James, M.D., W. Regent-Street. 
Buchanan, Andrew, M.D., Professor of 

Institutes of Medicine, College. 
Buchanan, James, jun., Buchanan-St. 
Buchanan, W. M., George-Street. 

Campbell, John, Surgeon, R.N., John-St. 

Campbell, John, Glassford-Street. 

Chalmers, Charles, Edinburgh. 

Church, James, Woodside Terrace. 

Clugston, John, Portland-Street. 

Cockey, Wm.,ralkirk Iron Co., Argyle-St. 

Colquhoun, Hugh, M.D., W. Regent-St. 

Council, James, High School. 

Couper, James, Gamgad Hill. 

Couper, WUliam, M.D., F.R.S.E., Pro- 
fessor of Natural History, College. 

Craig, Andrew, St. James-Street. 

Craig, Wm., Engineer, Carlton Place. 

Crichton, Wm., Forth & Clyde Canal Co. 

Crum, Walter, F.R.S., ThomUebank, 
Vice-President. 

Cunliif, Richard S., Kinninghouse. 

Davidson, James, of RnchilL 

Dawson, Tlios., Carron Co., Buchanan-St. 

Dixon, William, Govanhill. 

Duncan, Andw. J., Phoenix Fire Office. 

Dunlop, James, St. Rollox. 

Dunlop, Charles T., St. Rollox. 

Dunn, WiUiam, of Dontocher. 

Eadie, John, United States. 
Eadie, James, Virginia Buildings. 



Edington, James, Bath-Street. 
Edington, Thomas, Buccleugh-Street. 
Edington, A. G., Phoenix House. 

Findlay, John, M.D., W. Regent-Street. 
Findlay, Robert B., Stirling Square. 
Fisher, John, Buchanan-Street. 
Fleming, J. G., M.D., W. Regent-Street. 
Freeland, William. 
Fullarton, J. A. 
Fullarton, Allan. 

Gale, Wm., Civil Engineer, Queen-St. 

Gardner, George, F. L. S. Ceylon, Honor- 
ary Member. 

Geddes, Archibald, Leith. 

Geddes, John, Clifton Grove Crescent. 

Geddes, John, Mining Engineer, Edinb. 

Gourlie, Wm., jun., S. Frederick-Street. 

Gordon, Lewis D. B., Professor of Civil 
Engineering, College. 

Graham, Alexander, Lancefield. 

Graham, Chas. Maxwell, St. Vincent-St. 

Graham, Rev. John, Ure Place. 

Graham, Robert, 105 St. Vincent-St. 

Graham, Thos., F.R.S., Prof, of Chemis. 
University Coll. — Honorary Member. 

Graham, Thomas, W. S., Villafield. 

Graham, William, Cloverbank. 

Griffin, John Joseph, Buchanan-Street. 

Griffin, Charles, Buchanan-Street. 

Grant, Alexander, BeUfield. 

Greig, George, Western Academy. 

Gregory, Wm., MJD.,F.R.S.E., Prof, of 
Chemistry, University of Edinburgh. 
— Honorary Member. 

Handyside, Nicol, Clarcmont Place. 

Hannay, A. J., M.D., Andersonian Pro- 
fessor of Medicine. 

Hart, John, Balgray. 

Hart, Robert, Balgray. 

Harvey, Alex., South Wellington Place 

Hastie, Alexander, Clarence Place. 

Herbertson, John, Bath-Street. 

Hengh, John, Montrose-Street. 

Hill, James H., Elmbank Place. 

Hill, Thomas, Langside Cottage. 

Hitchcn, Rev. I., M.A., Collegiate School. 

Houldsworth, Henry, of Coltness. 

Houldsworth, John, CranstonhilL 

Hutchison, Graham, Blytheswood Squa. 

Hutcheson, Wm., M.D., Royal Lunatic 
Asylum. 



272 



List of Members. 



Inglis, Gavin, Fife. 

Johnston, Jas., Willowpark, Greenock. 
Johnston, Thomas, Forth and Clyde 

Canal Co. 
Johnston, Alexander, Dublin. 

Keddie, "William, Monteith Row. 

King, William, Gorbals. 

Kyle, Thomas, St. Vincent Place. 

Lancaster, Geo., Clydebank, Finnieston. 

Leadbetter, John, Brandon Place. 

Liddell, And., A.I.C.E., West Regent- 
Street. 

Lindsay, Thomas, Canal Breweiy. 

Lish, Geo., Monldand and Kirkintilloch 
Railway. 

Low, William, South Portland-Street. 

Lumsden, Jas., sen., St. Vincent- Street, 
Lord Provost of Glasgoio. 

Lumsden, James, jun., Bath-Street. 

Lyon, George Jasper, Minto-Street. 

M'Andrew, John, St. Rollox Foundry. 

M'Bride, John, Nursery Mills. 

M'Bride, William, Nursery Mills. 

M'Coll, Archibald, Antigua Place. 

Maconochie, Allan, F.R.S.E., Professor 
of Civil Law, College. 

M'Donald, Henry, Buchanan-Street. 

M'Gregor, Robert, M.D., Lecturer on 
Chemistry, Portland-Street. 

M'Intosh, Peter, Abbotsford Place. 

M'Kain, Daniel, M.I.C.E., Glasgow Wa- 
ter Works. 

M'Lure, Andi-ew, Buchanan-Street. 

M*Nab, Alexander, Ingram-Street. 

M'Niel, Neil, M.D., Bath-Street. 

M'Onie, Peter, Scotland-Street. 

Meikleham, WUham, LL.D., Professor 
of Natural Philosophy, College. 

Mercier, Rev. Lewis Page, B.A., Colle- 
giate School. 

MUler, John, St. Vincent-Street. 

Mitchell, Alexander, jun., M.D., Glasgow 
Apothecary Co. 

Mitchell, Alexander, 36 Miller-Street. 

Mitchell, Andrew, jun., 36 Miller-Street. 

More, William, Montrose-Street. 

Morgan, John, Hanover-Street. 

Murray, William, of Monkland. 

Murray, James, Monkland Steel Co. 

Muir, Thomas, Merchant, Funchal, Ma- 
deira. 

Neilson, J.B., M.I.C.E.,Glasg. Gas Works. 
Neilson, Walter, Lancefield. 

Pattison, Robert, Crescent Place. 
Patterson, Adam, Buccleugh-Street. 
Penny, Frederick, Ph.D., Andersonian 
Professor of Chemistry. 



Quinlan, AndrcM', M.D., West Hurlet. Young, Andrew K., M.D., Bath-Strcct 



Ramsay, William, Montrose-Street. 
Randolph, Charles, Dundas-St., Kingston. 
Robb, George, London. 
Robertson, James H., M.D., Nile-Street. 

Scouler, J., M.D., Dublin, Honorary. 

Smith, Andrew, Mauchline. 

Smith, George. 

Smith, John, St. Vincent Place. 

Smith, James, of Deanston. 

Smith, WilUam, jun., Lancefield Spinning 

Co. 
Spens, William, Amicable Insurance Co. 
Steel, John, Greenock. 
Stein, Andrew, Buccleugh-Street. 
Stenhouse, John, Provan Place. 
Stenhouse, Thomas, Crossmill. 
Stewart, J. F., South Hanover-Street. 
Stewart, John, Argyle- Street. 
Stewart, Robert, Omoa Iron Works. 
Strang, William, 22 Argyle-Street. 
Sutherland, George, George-Street. 
Sword, James, jun., Easttield. 

Tennant, John, of St. Rollox. 

Tennant, Charles James, of St. Rollox. 

Tennent, John, Campsie Alum Works. 

Thomson, Andrew, 62 Buchanan-Street. 

Thomson, David, B.A., Lecturer on Na- 
tural Philosophy, College. 

Thomson, James, F.R.S.E., Ingram-St. 

Thomson, James, jun., Glasgow College. 

Thomson, John, United States. 

Thomson, Robert D., M.D., Lecturer on 
Practical Chemistry, College. 

Thomson, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry, College. Presi- 
dent of the Society. 

Tliomson, Thomas, jun., M.D., Bengal 
Medical Service, Honorary Member. 

Thomson, Francis H., Hope- Street. 

Thomson, George, Queen-Street. 

Thorbum, George, jun., Hutcheson-St. 

Tumbull, John, BonhiU. 

Ure, John, Montrose-Street. 

Walker, Archibald, Gorbals. 
Wardrop, Henry, Renfrew-Street. 
Watson, George, Surgeon, Nile- Street. 
Watson, Thomas, Surgeon, Nile-Street. 
Watt, Alexander, LL.D., St. Mungo-St. 
Watt, John, Govan Iron Works. 
Weir, Gilbert, Virginia Place. 
Wharton, David, George Square. 
White, John, Shawfield. 
Wilson, Daniel, London. 
Wilson, George, of Dalmamock. 
Wilson, John, of Aucheniden. 
Wilson, John, of Thomlie. 
Wilson, WilUam, Hurlet. 
Wilson, William, Queen-Street. 
Wingate, Alexander, Elmbank Crescent. 



INDEX. 



PAOB 

Aberdeen, Statistics of, 119 

Acadialite, a variety of Chabasite,... 65 

Acconnts of the Society, 9, 67, 176 

Adam, Mr., on Spec. Grav. of Salts, 199 
Alston, Mr. J., on Printing for the 

Blind, 239 

Alumina, Subsesquisulphate of, 65 

Analysis of a Soil, 97 

Anderson, Dr. Andrew, on Physio- 
logy of CeUs, 28 

on Fibrin in Blood, 200 

Annual Additions to Insurances,.... 226 
Annual Revenue and Expenditui'e 

of the Society, 193 

Annuities, Insurance of, 225 

Antarctic Minerals, 207 

Antimony, Melting Point of Alloys, 77 

Araucarias similar to Coal, 109 

Armenian Bole, Analysis of, 237 

Arran, Plants in, 267 

Asbestus, Analysis of Artificial, 104 

Atomic Weights of Bodies, 76 

Ayr, Plants near, 210 

Balfour, Dr., Botanical Excursion 
to Galloway and Dumfriesshire,... 209 

on Fertilization of Plants, ... 43 

Excursions in 1843, 263 

Baltimorite, a new Mineral, 64 

Births, Statistics of, 117 

Bismuth, Melting Point of Alloys of 77 

Bismuth, Oxides of, 4 

Blantyre, Lord, Experiments on 

Manures by, 93 

Blast Furnaces, Remarks on, 84 

Bleaching Powder, mode of Test- 
ing, 17 

Blin(^ess from Sulphuric Acid, Na- 
ture and Treatment of, 52 

Blind, Number of, in Belgium, 242 

Blind, on Printing for the, 239 

Blister Fluid, Fibrin in, 133 

Blood, Fibrin of, 138 

Blood, White Serum of, 226 

Blowpipe Experiments, on Charcoal 

as a Support in, , 158 

Botanical Facts, Notice of some re- 
cent, 82 



Botanical Section annexed to the 
Society, 176 

Botanical Section, Report of, 192 

Bossuet, L'Abb^, on Compression of 
Water, 253 

Boyd, Mr., Analysis of Sulphur by, 208 

Bread, Nutritious power of, in dif- 
ferent Countries, 163 

Bread Unfermented, mode of mak- 
ing, 33 

Buchanan, Dr. A., on Fibrin in the 
Animal Fluids, 131 

on the White 

Serum of the Blood, 226 

Calamine, Adulterated, Analysis of, 236 
Calomel, Conversion into Corrosive 

Sublimate, 71 

Camphine, Nature of, 199 

Cannel Coal, Composition of, 168 

Carbonic Acid in Apartments, 69 

Cells, Physiology of; 28 

Chalk, its Existence in Brazil, 146 

Charcoal as a Support in Blowpipe 

Experiments, 158 

Chemistry, Notice of some Addi- 
tions to, 68 

Chlorate of Potash, Preparation of 
Oxygen from, with Oxide of Cop- 
per, 44 

Chlorimetry, Mr. Crum on a New 

Method of, 17 

Coagulable Lymph, Fibrin in, 137 

Coal, Analysis of, 168 

Coal Field, Section of the Lanark- 
shire, 113 

Coal Gas, Analysis o^ 165 

Cold and Hot Blast, Comparison of^ 91 
Comet of March, 1843, Notice of,... 156 
Cotton, its mode of Union with col- 
ouring Matters, 98 

Cotton, the Nature of its Fibre, 100 

Cowdie Pine Resin, Analysis of, 123 

Creasote, Mode of Using, for Pre- 
serving Meat, 145 

Cnmi, Mr. W., on Chlorimetry,^.... 17 

on the Union of Cotton with 

Colouring Matter, 98 



274 



Index, 



PAGE 

Cnim, Mr. W., on the Influence of 

the Moon on the Weather, 243 

Cupellation before the BloAvpipe,.... 162 

Dammaran, Analysis of, 127 

Dammaric Acid, Analysis of, 126 

Dammarol, Analysis of, 128 

Dammarone, Analysis of, 129 

Deaths, Statistics of, 117 

Deposit from Hot Springs, Analysis of, 105 

Digestion, Committee on, 239 

Digestion, Theory of, by Bouchardat 

and Sardras, 72 

Disease in Scotland, State of, 153 

Divi-divi, on, 47 

Dove, Mr. Dugald, Experiments on 

Manures, 94 

Drugs, on the Impurity of some, .... 236 
Dumfriesshire, Botanical Excursion 

to, 209 

Dundee, Statistics of, 119 

Dimdonald, Lord, his Employment 

of Coal Gas, 173 

Dynamometrical Apparatus, on, 41 

Edinburgh, Statistics of, 119 

Equitable Society, Experience of,... 218 
Erythrite, a New Mineral, 61 

Fat direct from the Food, discovered 

in the Serum, 235 

Fertilization of Plants, on, 43 

Fever, Laws of Mortality in, 1 94 

Fibrin in the Animal Fluids, 131 

Fibrin, its State in the Blood, 200 

Fires, mode of Extinguishing, in 

Factories, 13 

Fishes, Fossil, of Brazil, 153 

Fish Pudding, Receipt for, 40 

Flints of Brazil in Chalk, 150 

Flour, Nutritive power of, 1 64 

Flour, on the Nutritive Power in 

diflferent Countries, 163 

Food, on the best Means of Supply- 
ing the Poor with, 29 

Friendly Society, Hints for the For- 
mation of one, 177 

Fry, Dr., his method of Printing for 

the Blmd, 241 

Furnaces, influence of Shape in Iron 

Smelting, 87 

Fusions before the Blowpipe, ;•. 1 60 

Galloway, Botanical Excursion to,.. 209 
Gardner, Mr., on the Chalk of Brazil, 146 

Gas Coal, Analysis of, 165 

Gases, Statical Relations of, 53 

Glasgow Gas, Analysis of, 172 

Glasgow, Laws of Mortality in, 194 

Glasgow, Statistics of, 119 

Glue Soup in France, 37 

Gordon, Professor, on MeltingPoints 

of Metals, 10 

on the Discharge of Water 

through Pipes, 158 



PAGE 

Gordon, Professor,on Dynamometers, 4 1 

on Provis's Experiments,... 255 

Gom-lie, Mr., on Cultivation of Plants 

in Close Cases, 16 

on the Plants in the Geo- 
logical Museum, 105 

on the Comet of 1843, 156 

Grass, Effect of Manures on, 51 

Griffin, Mr., Apparatus for Forma- 
tion of Water, 46 

on Charcocal as a Support in 

Blowpipe Experiments, 158 

on the Preparation of Oxygen, 44 

on the Statical Relations of 

the Gases, 53 

Gymnite, a New Mineral, 64 

Hart, Mr. J., on Coal Gas, 173 

Hewson, Mr., his Opinion of White 

Serum, 227 

Hooping Cough, Laws of Mortality in, 196 
Horsley, Bishop, on the Weather,... 244 
HouselesSj Night Asylum for the. 

Food used in, 39 

Hunter, John, his Opinion of White 

Serum, 227 

Hydrogen, Cause of its Occurrence 

in Coal Gas, 175 

Impact, Measure of, 208 

Indigo, Method of Testing, 71 

Iron, Acetate of. Mode of Testing 

Bleaching Powder with, 17 

Iron Ochre from New Zealand, 207 

Iron, Red Oxide of. Impurities in, .. 238 
Ivory, Vegetable, Notice of, 192 

Jeffersonite, Analysis of, 67 

Johnston, Mr. J., on a new Patent 
Boiler, .jfj ^ 262 

Lead, Melting Point of AUoys of,... 78 

Library of the Society, 59 

Lichens, Composition of, 183 

Liddell, Mr., on Food for the Poor, 40 

on the Vesta Lamp, 199 

Lima Wood, Composition of, 186 

Linen, Nature of its Fibre, 1 00 

Lithofellic Acid, on, 75 

Logwood, Composition of, 186 

Lyginodendron Landsburgii, Figure 

and Description of, 108 

Lymph, Fibrin in, 137 

M'Kain, Mr., on ExtinguishingFires, 1 3 
on Ventilating Fever Hos- 
pital, 24 

on the Compression of Water, 249 

Manna in Sea-weeds, 258 

Manures, Experiments on, 51, 93 

Manures Tested by their Azote, 74 

Marriages, Statistics of, 115 

Measles, Laws of Mortality in, 194 

Melting Points of Lead, Tin, &c., .. . 77 
Members of the Society, 271 



Index, 



276 



Mercantile Classei, a Friendly So- 
ciety for the, 177 

Mctttllic Acids, on, 76 

Metals, Melting Points of, 10 

Minerals, Notice of some New, 61 

Moon, its Influence on the Weather, 243 
Mortality, Cases of, at different Ages, 193 

Mortality of Towns, 36 

Murdoch, Mr. D., on the Impurity 

of some Drugs, 236 

Murdoch, Mr. J., Analysis of Obsi- 
dian, by, 207 

Murray, Mr., Analysis of Asbestus, 

by, 104 

Murray, Mr. W., Section of the 

Lanarkshire Coal Field, 113 

Museum, Fossils in the Glasgow 
Geological, 113 

New York, Laws of Mortality in, ... 194 

New Zealand Minerals, 105 

New Zealand Ochre, Analysb of, ... 207 

Oats, Experiments on, with Manures, 83 

Ochre from New Zealand, 207 

Office-bearers of the Society, 2, 68, 176 
Olbcrs, Dr., his Opinion of the 

Weather, 246 

Oxygen, improved mode of Prepar- 
ing, 44 

Parietic Acid, 191 

Parictin, a New Yellow Colouring 

Matter, 182 

Penny, Dr., on Asbestus, 104 

Peristerite, a New Mineral, 62 

Perkins, Mr., on Compression of 

Water, 254 

Perth, Statistics of, 119 

Perthite, i ''>w Mineral, 62 

Philadelpht^J^ Laws of Mortality in, 194 

Phosphate of Iron, Analysis of, 105 

Plants, Cultivation of, in Close Cases, 1 6 

Plants, on Fertilization of, 43 

Portpatrick, plants near, 210 

Potatoes, Experiments on, with 

Manures, 94, 95, 96 

Prasilite, a New Mineral, , 66 

Premium in Insurance, 225 

Rain, Influence of the Moon on, 247 

lialfs, Mr., on some Fresh Water 

Plants, 192 

Rates of Insurance, 180 

Reductions before the Blowpipe,.... 161 
Registration in Scotland, Want of,.. 256 
Ucsins and Wax, Analogy of, 130 

Salts, on Specific Gravity of, 199 

Sapan Wood, Composition of, 186 

Scarlet Fever, Laws of Mortality in, 195 
Schleiden and Schwann's Doctrine 

ofCeUs, 142 

Scones, a Wholesome Bread, 32 

Scurvy, Cause of, 35 



Sea-Woeds, Constitnonts of; 186 

Sea-WeedB, on Manna in, 258 

Serum, Mixtures of, Producing Fi- 
brin, 141 

Serum, White, of the Blood, 226 

Sickness, Society for Insurance in,.. 179 

Silicite, a New Mineral, 63 

Small Pox, Deaths from, in Glasgow, 1 54 
Small Pox, Laws of Mortality in,... 195 

Society, Formation of, 1 

Soils, how formed by Lichens, 185 

Soups, Mode of Forming, 37 

Specific Gravity of Oxygen, 69 

Spens, Mr., on a Friendly Society,.. 177 
on the Minimum Rate of 



Premiums, 217 

Spirit Lamp, without a Wick, 209 

Statistical Section, Report of, 556 

Stenhouse, Mr. J., on Artificial Ul- 
tramarine, 49 

on Divi-divi, 47 

on Manna in Sea-weeds, .... 258 

on Preserving Meat, 145 



Stilbite firom Kerguelen's Land, 207 

Sugar, Conversion of, into Wax,.... 73 

Sugar observed in Blood, 225 

Sulphate of Lime in Sulphur, 237 

Sulpho-protcic Acid, on, 52 

Sulphur, Analysis of, 208 

Sulphur, Precipitated, Analysis o^.. 237 

Tables of Insurance, 220 

Tartar Emetic, Impurity in, 238 

Thein exists in Paraguay Tea, 114 

Thomson, Dr. Thomas, on the Ox- 
ides of Bismuth, 4 

on some New Minerals, 61 

on Melting Points of Alloys 



of Lead, Tin, &c., 77 

on Coal Gas, 165 



Thomson, Dr. R D., on Parietin, a 

Yellow Colouring Matter, 182 

Report on Supplying the 



Poor with Food, 29 

on the Cure of Blindness 



produced by Oil of Vitriol, 62 

Analysis of Cowdie Pine 



Resin, 123 

on Nutritive Power of Bread 



and Flour of different Countries, 163 
on White Serum, 231 



Thomson, Mr. George, on Blast 

Furnaces, 84 

Thomson, Mr. James, on an Appa- 
ratus for Emptying Waggons, 25 

Thrush, Occurrence of Vegetation in, 82 

Tin, Melting Point of Alloys of, 78 

Treasury, Lords of the. Letter fi^jm, 198 

Trigonometrical Survey of Scotland, 198 
Turnips, Experiments on, with 

Manures, 97 

Tophus, Deaths from, in Glasgow,.. 154 

T)'rian Purple, on, 75 

Ultramarine, Artificial, on, 49 



xk 

^ 



^^ 



Index. 



Vegetables, Nutritious Power of, ... . 30 

Ventilation of Fever Hospital, 24 

Waggons, Railway, Apparatus for 

Emptying, 25 

Water, Apparatus for Forming, 46 

Water, on the Compression of, 249 

Water, its Discharge through Pipes, 258 
Watt, Dr. Alexander, on the Vital 

Statistics of Five Scotch Towns,.. 114 

on the Laws of Mortality 

at Different Ages, 193 



PAGE 

Wheat, Experiments on, with Man- 
ures, 94 

Wheat, Nutritive Power o^ 34 

Wilson, Mr. J., on Manures, 51 

on the Size of Water 

Pipes, 260 

Winds, Non-influence of Moon 
on, 247 

Zinc, Carbonate of. Analysis of, 236 

Zinc, Melting Point of Alloys of,.... 78 
Zinc, Oxide of, Impurity in, 238 




GLASGOW: 

BELL AUD BAIN, rRI»TER9, ST. ENOCH SQUARE.